,libraries47 ,transcriber's ,note ,obvious typographical errors have been corrected4 ,a list of corrections is found at the end of the text4 ,illustration3 ,,lilly',s ,,hieroglyphs 7,,published ,,in #afea7 ,,myths ,,and ,,marvels ,,of ,,astronomy ,,by ,,richard ,a4 ,,proctor ,,author ,,of ,,rough ,,ways ,,made ,,smooth1 ,,the ,,expanse ,,of ,,heaven1 ,,our ,,place ,,among ,,infinities1 ,,pleasant ,,ways ,,in ,,science1 ,,etc41 ,,etc4 ,,new ,,edition ,,longmans1 ,,green1 ,,and ,,co4 ,,london1 ,,new ,,york1 ,,and ,,bombay #ahif ,printed by ,,ballantyne1 ,,hanson ,,co ,at the ,ballantyne ,press ,,preface4 ,the chief charm of ,astronomy1 with many1 does not reside in the wonders revealed to us by the science1 but in the lore and legends connected with its history1 the strange fancies with which in old times it has been associated1 the half-forgotten myths to which it has given birth4 ,in our own times also1 ,astronomy has had its myths and fancies1 its wild inventions1 and startling paradoxes4 ,my object in the present series of papers has been to collect together the most interesting of these old and new ,astronomical myths1 associating with them1 in due proportion1 some of the chief marvels which recent ,astronomy has revealed to us4 ,to the former class belong the subjects of the first four and the last five essays of the present series1 while the remaining essays belong to the latter category4 ,throughout ,i have endeavoured to avoid technical expressions on the one hand1 and ambiguous phraseology 7sometimes resulting from the attempt to avoid technicality7 on the other4 ,i have1 in fact1 sought to present my subjects as ,i should wish to have matters outside the range of my special branch of study presented for my own reading4 ,,richard ,a4 ,,proctor4 ,,contents4 ,,page ,i4 ,,astrology #a ,,ii4 ,,the ,,religion ,,of ,,the ,,great ,,pyramid #ec ,,iii4 ,,the ,,mystery ,,of ,,the ,,pyramids #gh ,,iv4 ,,swedenborg',s ,,visions ,,of ,,other ,,worlds #ajf ,v4 ,,other ,,worlds ,,and ,,other ,,universes #ace ,,vi4 ,,suns ,,in ,,flames #afj ,,vii4 ,,the ,,rings ,,of ,,saturn #aia ,,viii4 ,,comets ,,as ,,portents #bab ,,ix4 ,,the ,,lunar ,,hoax #bdb ,x4 ,,on ,,some ,,astronomical ,,paradoxes #bfh ,,xi4 ,,on ,,some ,,astronomical ,,myths #bii ,,xii4 ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,the ,,constellation-,,figures #ccb ,,myths ,,and ,,marvels ,,of ,,astronomy ,i4 ,,astrology4 ,signs and planets1 in aspects sextile1 quartile1 trine1 conjoined1 or opposite2 houses of heaven1 with their cusps1 hours1 and minutes2 ,almuten1 ,almochoden1 ,anahibazon1 ,catahibazon2 a thousand terms of equal sound and significance4--,guy ,mannering4 444 ,come and see6 trust thine own eyes4 ,a fearful sign stands in the house of life1 ,an enemy3 a fiend lurks close behind ,the radiance of thy planet--oh6 be warned6--,,coleridge4 ,astrology possesses a real interest even in these days4 ,it is true that no importance attaches now even to the discussion of the considerations which led to the rejection of judicial astrology4 ,none but the most ignorant1 and therefore superstitious1 believe at present in divination of any sort or kind whatsoever4 ,divination by the stars holds no higher position than palmistry1 fortune-telling by cards1 or the indications of the future which foolish persons find in dreams1 tea-dregs1 salt-spilling1 and other absurdities4 ,but there are two reasons which render the history of astrology interesting4 ,in the first place1 faith in stellar influences was once so widespread that astrological terminology came to form a part of ordinary language1 insomuch that it is impossible rightly to understand many passages of ancient and mediaeval literature1 or rightly to apprehend the force of many allusions and expressions1 unless the significance of astrological teachings to the men of those times be recognised4 ,in the second place1 it is interesting to examine how the erroneous teachings of astrology were gradually abandoned1 to note the way in which various orders of mind rejected these false doctrines or struggled to retain them1 and to perceive how1 with a large proportion of even the most civilised races1 the superstitions of judicial astrology were long retained1 or are retained even to this very day4 ,the world has still to see some superstitions destroyed which are as widely received as astrology ever was1 and which will probably retain their influence over many minds long after the reasoning portion of the community have rejected them4 ,even so far back as the time of ,eudoxus the pretensions of astrologers were rejected1 as ,cicero informs us 7',de ,div4' ii4 #db74 ,and though the ,romans were strangely superstitious in such matters1 ,cicero reasons with excellent judgment against the belief in astrology4 ,gassendi quotes the argument drawn by ,cicero against astrology1 from the predictions of the ,chaldaeans that ,caesar1 ,crassus1 and ,pompey would die 'in a full old age1 in their own houses1 in peace and honour1' whose deaths1 nevertheless1 were 'violent1 immature1 and tragical4' ,cicero also used an argument whose full force has only been recognised in modern times4 ',what contagion1' he asked1 'can reach us from the planets1 whose distance is almost infinite8' ,it is singular that ,seneca1 who was well acquainted with the uniform character of the planetary motions1 seems to have entertained no doubt respecting their influence4 ,tacitus expresses some doubts1 but was on the whole inclined to believe in astrology4 ',certainly1' he says1 'the majority of mankind cannot be weaned from the opinion that at the birth of each man his future destiny is fixed2 though some things may fall out differently from the predictions1 by the ignorance of those who profess the art2 and thus the art is unjustly blamed1 confirmed as it is by noted examples in all ages4'#a ,probably1 the doubt suggested by the different fortunes and characters of men born at the same time must have occurred to many before ,cicero dwelt upon it4 ,pliny1 who followed ,cicero in this1 does not employ the argument quite correctly1 for he says that1 'in every hour1 in every part of the world1 are born lords and slaves1 kings and beggars4' ,but of course1 according to astrological principles1 it would be necessary that two persons1 whose fortunes were to be alike1 should be born1 not only in the same hour1 but in the same place4 ,the fortunes and character of ,jacob and ,esau1 however1 should manifestly have been similar1 which was certainly not the case1 if their history has been correctly handed down to us4 ,an astrologer of the time of ,julius ,caesar1 named ,publius ,nigidius ,figulus1 used a singular argument against such reasoning4 ,when an opponent urged the different fortunes of men born nearly at the same instant1 ,nigidius asked him to make two contiguous marks on a potter's wheel which was revolving rapidly4 ,when the wheel was stopped1 the two marks were found to be far apart4 ,nigidius is said to have received the name of ,figulus 7the potter71 in remembrance of the story2 but more probably he was a potter by trade1 and an astrologer only during those leisure hours which he could devote to charlatanry4 ,st4 ,augustine1 who relates the story 7which ,i borrow from ,whewell's ',history of the ,inductive ,sciences'71 says1 justly1 that the argument of ,nigidius was as fragile as the ware made on the potter's wheel4 ,the belief must have been all but universal in those days that at the birth of any person who was to hold an important place in the world's history the stars would either be ominously conjoined1 or else some blazing comet or new star would make its appearance4 ,for we know that some such object having appeared1 or some unusual conjunction of planets having occurred1 near enough to the time of ,christ's birth to be associated in men's minds with that event1 it came eventually to be regarded as belonging to his horoscope1 and as actually indicating to the ,wise ,men of the ,east 7,chaldaean astrologers1 doubtless7 the future greatness of the child then born4 ,it is certain that that is what the story of the ,star in the ,east means as it stands4 ,theologians differ as to its interpretation in points of detail4 ,some think the phenomenon was meteoric1 others that a comet then made its appearance1 others that a new star shone out1 and others that the account referred to a conjunction of ,jupiter1 ,saturn1 and ,mars1 which occurred at about that time4 ,as a matter of detail it may be mentioned1 that none of these explanations in the slightest degree corresponds with the account1 for neither meteor1 nor comet1 nor new star1 nor conjoined planets1 would go before travellers from the east1 to show them their way to any place4 ,yet the ancients sometimes regarded comets as guides4 ,whichever view we accept1 it is abundantly clear that an astrological significance was attached by the narrator to the event4 ,and not so very long ago1 when astrologers first began to see that their occupation was passing from them1 the ,wise ,men of the ,east were appealed to against the enemies of astrology1#b--very much as ,moses was appealed to against ,copernicus and ,galileo1 and more recently to protect us against certain relationships which ,darwin1 ,wallace1 and ,huxley unkindly indicate for the human race divine4 ,although astronomers now reject altogether the doctrines of judicial astrology1 it is impossible for the true lover of that science to regard astrology altogether with contempt4 ,astronomy1 indeed1 owes much more to the notions of believers in astrology than is commonly supposed4 ,astrology bears the same relation to modern astronomy that alchemy bears to modern chemistry4 ,as it is probable that nothing but the hope of gain1 literally in this case auri sacra fames1 would have led to those laborious researches of the alchemists which first taught men how to analyse matter into its elementary constituents1 and afterwards to combine these constituents afresh into new forms1 so the belief that1 by carefully studying the stars1 men might acquire the power of predicting future events1 first directed attention to the movements of the celestial bodies4 ,kepler's saying1 that astrology1 though a fool1 was the daughter of a wise mother1#c does not by any means present truly the relationship between astrology and astronomy4 ,rather we may say that astrology and alchemy1 though foolish mothers1 gave birth to those wise daughters1 astronomy and chemistry4 ,even this way of speaking scarcely does justice to the astrologers and alchemists of old times4 ,their views appear foolish in the light of modern scientific knowledge1 but they were not foolish in relation to what was known when they were entertained4 ,modern analysis goes far to demonstrate the immutability1 and1 consequently1 the non-transmutability of the metals1 though it is by no means so certain as many suppose that the present position of the metals in the list of elements is really correct4 ,certainly a chemist of our day would be thought very unwise who should undertake a series of researches with the object of discovering a mineral having such qualities as the alchemists attributed to the philosopher's stone4 ,but when as yet the facts on which the science of chemistry is based were unknown1 there was nothing unreasonable in supposing that such a mineral might exist1 or the means of compounding it be discovered4 ,nay1 many arguments from analogy might be urged to show that the supposition was altogether probable4 ,in like manner1 though the known facts of astronomy oppose themselves irresistibly to any belief in planetary influences upon the fates of men and nations1 yet before those facts were discovered it was not only not unreasonable1 but was in fact1 highly reasonable to believe in such influences1 or at least that the sun1 and moon1 and stars moved in the heavens in such sort as to indicate what would happen4 ,if the wise men of old times rejected the belief that 'the stars in their courses fought' for or against men1 they yet could not very readily abandon the belief that the stars were for signs in the heavens of what was to befall mankind4 ,if we consider the reasoning now commonly thought valid in favour of the doctrine that other orbs besides our earth are inhabited1 and compare it with the reasoning on which judicial astrology was based1 we shall not find much to choose between the two1 so far as logical weight is concerned4 ,because the only member of the solar system which we can examine closely is inhabited1 astronomers infer a certain degree of probability for the belief that the other planets of the system are also inhabited4 ,and because the only sun we know much about is the centre of a system of planets1 astronomers infer that probably the stars1 those other suns which people space1 are also the centres of systems2 although no telescope which man can make would show the members of a system like ours1 attending on even the nearest of all the stars4 ,the astrologer had a similar argument for his belief4 ,the moon1 as she circles around the earth1 exerts a manifest influence upon terrestrial matter--the tidal wave rising and sinking synchronously with the movements of the moon1 and other consequences depending directly or indirectly upon her revolution around the earth4 ,the sun's influence is still more manifest2 and1 though it may have required the genius of a ,herschel or of a ,stephenson to perceive that almost every form of terrestrial energy is derived from the sun1 yet it must have been manifest from the very earliest times that the greater light which rules the day rules the seasons also1 and1 in ruling them1 provides the annual supplies of vegetable food1 on which the very existence of men and animals depends4 ,if these two bodies1 the sun and moon1 are thus potent1 must it not be supposed1 reasoned the astronomers of old1 that the other celestial bodies exert corresponding influences8 ,we know1 but they did not know1 that the moon rules the tides effectually because she is near to us1 and that the sun is second only to the moon in tidal influence because of his enormous mass and attractive energy4 ,we know also that his position as fire1 light1 and life of the earth and its inhabitants1 is due directly to the tremendous heat with which the whole of his mighty frame is instinct4 ,not knowing this1 the astronomers of old times had no sufficient reason for distinguishing the sun and moon from the other celestial bodies1 so far at least as the general question of celestial influences was concerned4 ,so far as particulars were concerned1 it was not altogether so clear to them as it is to us1 that the influence of the sun must be paramount in all respects save tidal action1 and that of the moon second only to the sun's in other respects1 and superior to his in tidal sway alone4 ,many writers on the subject of life in other worlds are prepared to show 7as ,brewster attempts to do1 for example7 that ,jupiter and ,saturn are far nobler worlds than the earth1 because superior in this or that circumstance4 ,so the ancient astronomers1 in their ignorance of the actual conditions on which celestial influences depend1 found abundant reasons for regarding the feeble influences exerted by ,saturn1 ,jupiter1 and ,mars1 as really more potent than those exerted by the sun himself upon the earth4 ,they reasoned1 as ,milton afterwards made ,raphael reason1 that 'great or bright infers not excellence1' that ,saturn or ,jupiter1 though 'in comparison so small1 nor glist'ring' to like degree1 may yet 'of solid good contain more plenty than the sun4' ,supposing the influence of a celestial body to depend on the magnitude of its sphere1 in the sense of the old astronomy 7according to which each planet had its proper sphere1 around the earth as centre71 then the influence of the sun would be judged to be inferior to that of either ,saturn1 ,jupiter1 or ,mars2 while the influences of ,venus and ,mercury1 though inferior to the influence of the sun1 would still be held superior to that of the moon4 ,for the ancients measured the spheres of the seven planets of their system by the periods of the apparent revolution of those bodies around the celestial dome1 and so set the sphere of the moon innermost1 enclosed by the sphere of ,mercury1 around which in turn was the sphere of ,venus1 next the sun's1 then1 in order1 those of ,mars1 ,jupiter1 and ,saturn4 ,we can readily understand how they might come to regard the slow motions of the sphere of ,saturn and ,jupiter1 taking respectively some thirty and twelve years to complete a revolution1 as indicating power superior to the sun's1 whose sphere seemed to revolve once in a single year4 ,many other considerations might have been urged1 before the ,copernican theory was established1 to show that1 possibly1 some of the planets exert influences more effective than those of the sun and moon4 ,it is1 indeed1 clear that the first real shock sustained by astrology came from the arguments of ,copernicus4 ,so long as the earth was regarded as the centre round which all the celestial bodies move1 it was hopeless to attempt to shake men's faith in the influences of the stars4 ,so far as ,i know1 there is not a single instance of a believer in the old ,ptolemaic system who rejected astrology absolutely4 ,the views of ,bacon--the last of any note who opposed the system of ,copernicus#d--;indicate the extreme limits to which a ,ptolemaist could go in opposition to astrology4 ,it may be worth while to quote ,bacon's opinion in this place1 because it indicates at once very accurately the position held by believers in astrology in his day1 and the influence which the belief in a central fixed earth could not fail to exert on the minds of even the most philosophical reasoners4 ',astrology1' he begins1 'is so full of superstition that scarce anything sound can be discovered in it2 though we judge it should rather be purged than absolutely rejected4 ,yet if any one shall pretend that this science is founded not in reason and physical contemplations1 but in the direct experience and observation of past ages1 and therefore not to be examined by physical reasons1 as the ,chaldaeans boasted1 he may at the same time bring back divination1 auguries1 soothsaying1 and give in to all kinds of fables2 for these also were said to descend from long experience4 ,but we receive astrology as a part of physics1 without attributing more to it than reason and the evidence of things allow1 and strip it of its superstition and conceits4 ,thus we banish that empty notion about the horary reign of the planets1 as if each resumed the throne thrice in twenty-four hours1 so as to leave three hours supernumerary2 and yet this fiction produced the division of the week1#e a thing so ancient and so universally received4 ,thus likewise we reject as an idle figment the doctrine of horoscopes1 and the distribution of the houses1 though these are the darling inventions of astrology1 which have kept revel1 as it were1 in the heavens4 ,and lastly1 for the calculation of nativities1 fortunes1 good or bad hours of business1 and the like fatalities1 they are mere levities1 that have little in them of certainty and solidity1 and may be plainly confuted by physical reasons4 ,but here we judge it proper to lay down some rules for the examination of astrological matters1 in order to retain what is useful therein1 and reject what is insignificant4 ,thus1 #a4 ,let the greater revolutions be retained1 but the lesser1 of horoscopes and houses1 be rejected--the former being like ordnance which shoot to a great distance1 whilst the other are but like small bows1 that do no execution4 #b4 ,the celestial operations affect not all kinds of bodies1 but only the more sensible1 as humours1 air1 and spirits4 #c4 ,all the celestial operations rather extend to masses of things than to individuals1 though they may obliquely reach some individuals also which are more sensible than the rest1 as a pestilent constitution of the air affects those bodies which are least able to resist it4 #d4 ,all the celestial operations produce not their effects instantaneously1 and in a narrow compass1 but exert them in large portions of time and space4 ,thus predictions as to the temperature of a year may hold good1 but not with regard to single days4 #e4 ,there is no fatal necessity in the stars2 and this the more prudent astrologers have constantly allowed4 #f4 ,we will add one thing more1 which1 if amended and improved1 might make for astrology--viz4 that we are certain the celestial bodies have other influences besides heat and light1 but these influences act not otherwise than by the foregoing rules1 though they lie so deep in physics as to require a fuller explanation4 ,so that1 upon the whole1 we must register as needed1#f an astrology written in conformity with these principles1 under the name of ,astrologia ,sana4' ,he then proceeds to show what this just astrology should comprehend--as1 #a1 the doctrine of the commixture of rays2 #b1 the effect of nearest approaches and farthest removes of planets to and from the point overhead 7the planets1 like the sun1 having their summer and winter72 #c1 the effects of distance1 'with a proper enquiry into what the vigour of the planets may perform of itself1 and what through their nearness to us2 for1' he adds1 but unfortunately without assigning any reason for the statement1 'a planet is more brisk when most remote1 but more communicative when nearest2' #d1 the other accidents of the planet's motions as they pursue ,their wand'ring course1 now high1 now low1 then hid1 ,progressive1 retrograde1 or standing still2 #e1 all that can be discovered of the general nature of the planets and fixed stars1 considered in their own essence and activity2 #f1 lastly1 let this just astrology1 he says1 'contain1 from tradition1 the particular natures and alterations of the planets and fixed stars2 for' 7here is a reason indeed7 'as these are delivered with general consent1 they are not lightly to be rejected1 unless they directly contradict physical considerations4 ,of such observations let a just astrology be formed2 and according to these alone should schemes of the heavens be made and interpreted4' ,the astrology thus regarded by ,bacon as sane and just did not differ1 as to its primary object1 from the false systems which now seem to us so absurd4 ',let this astrology be used with greater confidence in prediction1' says ,bacon1 'but more cautiously in election1 and in both cases with due moderation4 ,thus predictions may be made of comets1 and all kinds of meteors1 inundations1 droughts1 heats1 frosts1 earthquakes1 fiery eruptions1 winds1 great rains1 the seasons of the year1 plagues1 epidemic diseases1 plenty1 famine1 wars1 seditions1 sects1 transmigrations of people1 and all commotions1 or great innovations of things1 natural and civil4 ,predictions may possibly be made more particular1 though with less certainty1 if1 when the general tendencies of the times are found1 a good philosophical or political judgment applies them to such things as are most liable to accidents of this kind4 ,for example1 from a foreknowledge of the seasons of any year1 they might be apprehended more destructive to olives than grapes1 more hurtful in distempers of the lungs than the liver1 more pernicious to the inhabitants of hills than valleys1 and1 for want of provisions1 to monks than courtiers1 etc4 ,or if any one1 from a knowledge of the influence which the celestial bodies have upon the spirits of mankind1 should find it would affect the people more than their rulers1 learned and inquisitive men more than the military1 etc4 ,for there are innumerable things of this kind that require not only a general knowledge gained from the stars which are the agents1 but also a particular one of the passive subjects4 ,nor are elections to be wholly rejected1 though not so much to be trusted as predictions2 for we find in planting1 sowing1 and grafting1 observations of the moon are not absolutely trifling1 and there are many particulars of this kind4 ,but elections are more to be curbed by our rules than predictions2 and this must always be remembered1 that election only holds in such cases where the virtue of the heavenly bodies1 and the action of the inferior bodies also1 is not transient1 as in the examples just mentioned2 for the increases of the moon and planets are not sudden things4 ,but punctuality of time should here be absolutely rejected4 ,and perhaps there are more of these instances to be found in civil matters than some would imagine4' ,the method of inquiry suggested by ,bacon as proper for determining the just rules of the astrology he advocated1 was1 as might be expected1 chiefly inductive4 ,there are1 said he1 'but four ways of arriving at this science1 viz4--#a1 by future experiments2 #b1 past experiments2 #c1 traditions2 #d1 physical reasons4' ,but he was not very hopeful as to the progress of the suggested researches4 ,it is vain1 he said1 to think at present of future experiments1 because many ages are required to procure a competent stock of them4 ,as for the past1 it is true that past experiments are within our reach1 'but it is a work of labour and much time to procure them4 ,thus astrologers may1 if they please1 draw from real history all greater accidents1 as inundations1 plagues1 wars1 seditions1 deaths of kings1 etc41 as also the positions of the celestial bodies1 not according to fictitious horoscopes1 but the above-mentioned rules of their revolutions1 or such as they really were at the time1 and1 when the event conspires1 erect a probable rule of prediction4' ,traditions would require to be carefully sifted1 and those thrown out which manifestly clashed with physical considerations1 leaving those in full force which complied with such considerations4 ,lastly1 the physical reasons worthiest of being enquired into are those1 said ,bacon1 'which search into the universal appetites and passions of matter1 and the simple genuine motions of the heavenly bodies4' ,it is evident there was much which1 in our time at least1 would be regarded as wild and fanciful in the 'sound and just astrology' advocated by ,bacon4 ,yet1 in passing1 it may be noticed that even in our own time we have seen similar ideas promulgated1 not by common astrologers and fortune-tellers 7who1 indeed1 know nothing about such matters71 but by persons supposed to be well-informed in matters scientific4 ,in a roundabout way1 a new astrology has been suggested1 which is not at all unlike ,bacon's 'astrologia sana1' though not based1 as he proposed that astrology should be1 on experiment1 or tradition1 or physical reasons4 ,it has been suggested1 first1 that the seasons of our earth are affected by the condition of the sun in the matter of spots1 and very striking evidence has been collected to show that this must be the case4 ,for instance1 it has been found that years when the sun has been free from spots have been warmer than the average2 and it has also been found that such years have been cooler than the average3 a double-shotted argument wholly irresistible1 especially when it is also found that when the sun has many spots the weather has sometimes been exceptionally warm and sometimes exceptionally cold4 ,if this be not considered sufficient1 then note that in one country or continent or hemisphere the weather1 when the sun is most spotted 7or least1 as the case may be71 may be singularly hot1 while in another country1 continent1 or hemisphere1 the weather may be as singularly cold4 ,so with wind and calm1 rain and drought1 and so forth4 ,always1 whether the sun is very much spotted or quite free from spots1 something unusual in the way of weather must be going on somewhere1 demonstrating in the most significant way the influence of sun-spots or the want of sun-spots on the weather4 ,it is true that captious minds might say that this method of reasoning proved too much in many ways1 as1 for example1 thus--always1 whether the sun is very much spotted or quite free from spots1 some remarkable event1 as a battle1 massacre1 domestic tragedy on a large scale1 or the like1 may be going on1 demonstrating in the most significant way the influence of sun-spots or the want of sun-spots on the passions of men--which sounds absurd4 ,but the answer is twofold4 ,first1 such reasoning is captious1 and secondly1 it is not certain that sun-spots1 or the want of them1 may not influence human passions2 it may be worth while to enquire into this possible solar influence as well as the other1 which can be done by crossing the hands of the new fortune-tellers with a sufficient amount of that precious metal which astrologers have in all ages dedicated to the sun4 ,that the new system of divination is not solely solar1 but partly planetary also1 is seen when we remember that the sun-spots wax and wane in periods of time which are manifestly referable to the planetary motions4 ,thus1 the great solar spot-period lasts about eleven years1 the successive spotless epochs being separated on the average by about that time2 and so nearly does this period agree with the period of the planet ,jupiter's revolution around the sun1 that during eight consecutive spot-periods the spots were most numerous when ,jupiter was farthest from the sun1 and it is only by going back to the periods preceding these eight that we find a time when the reverse happened1 the spots being most numerous when ,jupiter was nearest to the sun4 ,so with various other periods which the ingenuity of ,messrs4 ,de la ,rue and ,balfour ,stewart has detected1 and which1 under the closest scrutiny1 exhibit almost exact agreement for many successive periods1 preceded and followed by almost exact disagreement4 ,here1 again1 the captious may argue that such alternate agreements and disagreements may be noted in every case where two periods are not very unequal1 whether there be any connection between them or not2 but much more frequently when there is no connection3 and that the only evidence really proving a connection between planetary motions and the solar spots would be constant agreement between solar spot periods and particular planetary periods4 ,but the progress of science1 and especially the possible erection of a new observatory for finding out 7'for a consideration'7 how sun-spots affect the weather1 etc41 ought not to be interfered with by captious reasoners in this objectionable manner4 ,nor need any other answer be given them4 ,seeing1 then1 that sun-spots manifestly affect the weather and the seasons1 while the planets rule the sun-spots1 it is clear that the planets really rule the seasons4 ,and again1 seeing that the planets rule the seasons1 while the seasons largely affect the well-being of men and nations 7to say nothing of animals71 it follows that the planets influence the fates of men and nations 7and animals74 ,quod erat demonstrandum4 ,let us return1 however1 to the more reasonable astrology of the ancients1 and enquire into some of the traditions which ,bacon considered worthy of attention in framing the precepts of a sound and just astrology4 ,it was natural that the astrologers of old should regard the planetary influences as depending in the main on the position of the celestial bodies on the sky above the person or place whose fortunes were in question4 ,thus two men at the same moment in ,rome and in ,persia would by no means have the same horoscope cast for their nativities1 so that their fortunes1 according to the principles of judicial astrology1 would be quite different4 ,in fact it might happen that two men1 born at the same instant of time1 would have all the principal circumstances of their lives contrasted--planets riding high in the heavens of one being below the horizon of the other1 and vice versa4 ,the celestial sphere placed as at the moment of the native's birth was divided into twelve parts by great circles supposed to pass through the point overhead1 and its opposite1 the point vertically beneath the feet4 ,these twelve divisions were called 'houses4' ,their position is illustrated in the following figure1 taken from ,raphael's ,astrology4 ,illustration3 ,particular ,significations ,,of ,,the ,twelve ,celestial ,houses1 ,according to various ,astrological ,authors4 ,sun-rise4 ,cusp of the ,ascendant4 ,,life and ,,health ,cusp of the ,second ,house4 ,,riches ,cusp of the ,third ,house4 ,,kindred and ,,short ,,journeys ,cusp of the ,fourth ,house4 ,,inheritances ,mid-night4 ,cusp of the ,fifth ,house4 ,,children ,cusp of the ,sixth ,house4 ,,sickness ,cusp of the ,seventh ,house4 ,,marriage ,sun-set4 ,cusp of the ,eighth ,house4 ,,death ,cusp of the ,ninth ,house4 ,,long ,,journeys ,cusp of the ,mid-heaven4 ,,honor ,noon-day4 ,cusp of the ,eleventh ,house4 ,,friends ,cusp of the ,twelfth ,house4 ,,enemies ,the first1 called the ,ascendant ,house1 was the portion rising above the horizon at the east4 ,it was regarded as the ,house of ,life1 the planets located therein at the moment of birth having most potent influence on the life and destiny of the native4 ,such planets were said to rule the ascendant1 being in the ascending house2 and it is from this usage that our familiar expression that such and such an influence is 'in the ascendant' is derived4 ,the next house was the ,house of ,riches1 and was one-third of the way from the east below the horizon towards the place of the sun at midnight4 ,the third was the ,house of ,kindred1 short journeys1 letters1 messages1 etc4 ,it was two-thirds of the way towards the place of the midnight sun4 ,the fourth was the ,house of ,parents1 and was the house which the sun reached at midnight4 ,the fifth was the ,house of ,children and ,women1 also of all sorts of amusements1 theatres1 banquets1 and merry-making4 ,the sixth was the ,house of ,sickness4 ,the seventh was the ,house of ,love and ,marriage4 ,these three houses 7the fifth1 sixth1 and seventh7 followed in order from the fourth1 so as to correspond to the part of the sun's path below the horizon1 between his place at midnight and his place when descending in the west4 ,the seventh1 opposite to the first1 was the ,descendant4 ,the eighth house was the first house above the horizon1 lying to the west1 and was the ,house of ,death4 ,the ninth house1 next to the mid-heaven on the west1 was the ,house of ,religion1 science1 learning1 books1 and long voyages4 ,the tenth1 which was in the mid-heaven1 or region occupied by the sun at midday1 was the ,house of ,honour1 denoting credit1 renown1 profession or calling1 trade1 preferment1 etc4 ,the eleventh house1 next to the mid-heaven on the east1 was the ,house of ,friends4 ,lastly1 the twelfth house was the ,house of ,enemies4 ,the houses were not all of equal potency4 ,the angular houses1 which are the first1 the fourth1 the seventh1 and the tenth--lying east1 north1 west1 and south--were first in power1 whether for good or evil4 ,the second1 fifth1 eighth1 and eleventh houses were called succedents1 as following the angular houses1 and next to them in power4 ,the remaining four houses--viz4 the third1 sixth1 ninth1 and twelfth houses--were called cadents1 and were regarded as weakest in influence4 ,the houses were regarded as alternately masculine and feminine3 the first1 third1 fifth1 etc41 being masculine2 while the second1 fourth1 sixth1 etc41 were feminine4 ,the more particular significations of the various houses are shown in the accompanying figure from the same book4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,celestial ,,diagram representing at one view the various symbolical significations of the ,twelve ,heavenly ,houses2 according to ancient manuscript writers of the twelfth century2 and not to be found in ,authors4 ,brethren of friends1 fathers of kings1 sickness of public enemies1 wives of enemies1 death of servants1 long journeys of children1 friends of brethren1 thoughts of the asker4 ,the end of youth1 brethren of private enemies1 fathers and grandsires of friends1 king's sons1 enemies of wives1 magistery of children1 private enemies of brethren4 ,sects1 dreams1 churches1 fathers of private enemies1 sons of friends1 sickness of kings1 enemies of the religious1 trade of servants1 private enemies of fathers4 ,dead men's goods1 castles1 treasure hid1 the fate of the corpse in the grave1 money of brethren1 children of private enemies1 sickness of friends1 king's enemies1 friends of servants4 ,cards1 dice1 brethren's brethren1 father's money1 sickness of private enemies1 enemies of friends1 death of kings1 friends of enemies1 enemies of servants4 ,vassals1 children's money1 brethren's fathers1 father's brethren1 enemies' enemies1 death of friends1 journeys and religion of kings1 lay dignities1 enemies of wives4 ,fines1 pleas1 laws1 nuptials1 death of enemies1 friends of brethren1 sons of friends1 sisters of brethren1 death of enemies and of great beasts1 religion of friends4 ,labour1 sorrow1 inheritance of the dead1 money of enemies1 brethren of servants1 sickness of brethren1 dignity of friends1 king's friends1 enemies of religious persons4 ,prophets1 prayers1 visions1 omens1 divine worship1 wife's brethren1 fathers of servants1 children's children1 sickness of fathers1 enemies of brethren1 friends of friends1 enemies of kings4 ,judges1 brethren of enemies1 servants1 fathers of enemies1 children of servants1 sickness of sons1 death of brethren1 friends of enemies1 enemies of friends4 ,knights1 esquires1 children of enemies1 sickness of servants1 enemies and wives of offspring1 death of fathers1 journeys of brethren1 enemies of enemies4 ,envy1 sorrow1 guile1 long hidden wrath1 money of friends1 brethren of kings1 sickness of wives1 servants' enemies1 death of children1 trade of brethren1 a prison4 ,it will be easily understood how these houses were dealt with in erecting a scheme of nativity4 ,the position of the planets at the moment of the native's birth1 in the several houses1 determined his fortunes with regard to the various matters associated with these houses4 ,thus planets of good influence in the native's ascendant1 or first house1 signified generally a prosperous life2 but if at the same epoch a planet of malefic influence was in the seventh house1 then the native1 though on the whole prosperous1 would be unfortunate in marriage4 ,a good planet in the tenth house signified good fortune and honour in office or business1 and generally a prosperous career as distinguished from a happy life2 but evil planets in the ninth house would suggest to the native caution in undertaking long voyages1 or entering upon religious or scientific controversies4 ,similar considerations applied to questions relating to horary astronomy1 in which the position of the planets in the various houses at some epoch guided the astrologer's opinion as to the fortune of that hour1 either in the life of a man or the career of a ,state4 ,in such inquiries1 however1 not only the position of the planets1 etc41 at the time had to be considered1 but also the original horoscope of the person1 or the special planets and signs associated with particular ,states4 ,thus if ,jupiter1 the most fortunate of all the planets1 was in the ascendant1 or in the ,house of ,honour1 at the time of the native's birth1 and at some epoch this planet was ill-aspected or afflicted by other planets potent for evil in the native's horoscope1 then that epoch would be a threatening one in the native's career4 ,the sign ,gemini was regarded by astrologers as especially associated with the fortunes of ,london1 and accordingly they tell us that the great fire of ,london1 the plague1 the building of ,london ,bridge1 and other events interesting to ,london1 all occurred when this sign was in the ascendant1 or when special planets were in this sign4#g ,the signs of the zodiac in the various houses were in the first place to be noted1 because not only had these signs special powers in special houses1 but the effects of the planets in particular houses varied according to the signs in which the planets were situated4 ,if we were to follow the description given by the astrologers themselves1 not much insight would be thrown upon the meaning of the zodiacal signs4 ,for instance1 astrologers say that ,aries is a vernal1 dry1 fiery1 masculine1 cardinal1 equinoctial1 diurnal1 movable1 commanding1 eastern1 choleric1 violent1 and quadrupedalian sign4 ,we may1 however1 infer generally from their accounts the influences which they assigned to the zodiacal signs4 ,aries is the house and joy of ,mars1 signifies a dry constitution1 long face and neck1 thick shoulders1 swarthy complexion1 and a hasty1 passionate temper4 ,it governs the head and face1 and all diseases relating thereto4 ,it reigns over ,england1 ,france1 ,switzerland1 ,germany1 ,denmark1 ,lesser ,poland1 ,syria1 ,naples1 ,capua1 ,verona1 etc4 ,it is a masculine sign1 and is regarded as fortunate4 ,taurus gives to the native born under his auspices a stout athletic frame1 broad bull-like forehead1 dark curly hair1 short neck1 and so forth1 and a dull apathetic temper1 exceedingly cruel and malicious if once aroused4 ,it governs the neck and throat1 and reigns over ,ireland1 ,great ,poland1 part of ,russia1 ,holland1 ,persia1 ,asia ,minor1 the ,archipelago1 ,mantua1 ,leipsic1 etc4 ,it is a feminine sign1 and unfortunate4 ,gemini is the house of ,mercury4 ,the native of ,gemini will have a sanguine complexion and tall1 straight figure1 dark eyes quick and piercing1 brown hair1 active ways1 and will be of exceedingly ingenious intellect4 ,it governs the arms and shoulders1 and rules over the south-west parts of ,england1 ,america1 ,flanders1 ,lombardy1 ,sardinia1 ,armenia1 ,lower ,egypt1 ,london1 ,versailles1 ,brabant1 etc4 ,it is a masculine sign1 and fortunate4 ,cancer is the house of the ,moon and exaltation of ,jupiter1 and its native will be of fair but pale complexion1 round face1 grey or mild blue eyes1 weak voice1 the upper part of the body large1 slender arms1 small feet1 and an effeminate constitution4 ,it governs the breast and the stomach1 and reigns over ,scotland1 ,holland1 ,zealand1 ,burgundy1 ,africa1 ,algiers1 ,tunis1 ,tripoli1 ,constantinople1 ,new ,york1 etc4 ,it is a feminine sign1 and unfortunate4 ,the native born under ,leo will be of large body1 broad shoulders1 austere countenance1 with dark eyes and tawny hair1 strong voice1 and leonine character1 resolute and ambitious1 but generous1 free1 and courteous4 ,leo governs the heart and back1 and reigns over ,italy1 ,bohemia1 ,france1 ,sicily1 ,rome1 ,bristol1 ,bath1 ,taunton1 ,philadelphia1 etc4 ,it is a masculine sign1 and fortunate4 ,virgo is the joy of ,mercury4 ,its natives are of moderate stature1 seldom handsome1 slender but compact1 thrifty and ingenious4 ,it governs the abdomen1 and reigns over ,turkey both in ,europe and ,asia1 ,greece1 and ,mesopotamia1 ,crete1 ,jerusalem1 ,paris1 ,lyons1 etc4 ,it is a feminine sign1 and generally unfortunate4 ,libra is the house of ,venus4 ,the natives of ,libra are tall and well made1 elegant in person1 round-faced and ruddy1 but plain-featured and 'inclined to eruptions that disfigure the face when old2 they' 7the natives7 'are of sweet disposition1 just and upright in dealing4' ,it governs the lumbar regions1 and reigns over ,austria1 ,alsace1 ,savoy1 ,portugal1 ,livonia1 ,india1 ,ethiopia1 ,lisbon1 ,vienna1 ,frankfort1 ,antwerp1 ,charleston1 etc4 ,it is a masculine sign1 and fortunate4 ,scorpio is1 like ,aries1 the house of ,mars1 'and also his joy4' ,its natives are strong1 corpulent1 and robust1 with large bones1 'dark curly hair and eyes' 7presumably the eyes dark only1 not curly71 middle stature1 dusky complexion1 active bodies2 they are usually reserved in speech4 ,it governs the region of the groin1 and reigns over ,judaea1 ,mauritania1 ,catalonia1 ,norway1 ,west ,silesia1 ,upper ,batavia1 ,barbary1 ,morocco1 ,valentia1 ,messina1 etc4 ,it is feminine1 and unfortunate4 7,it would appear likely1 by the way1 that astrology was a purely masculine science47 ,sagittarius is the house and joy of ,jupiter4 ,its natives are well formed and tall1 ruddy1 handsome1 and jovial1 with fine clear eyes1 chestnut hair1 and oval fleshy face4 ,they are 'generally jolly fellows at either bin or board1' active1 intrepid1 generous1 and obliging4 ,it governs the legs and thighs1#h and reigns over ,arabia ,felix1 ,spain1 ,hungary1 ,moravia1 ,liguria1 ,narbonne1 ,cologne1 ,avignon1 etc4 ,it is masculine1 and of course fortunate4 ,capricorn is the house of ,saturn and exaltation of ,mars4 ,this sign gives to its natives a dry constitution and slender make1 with a long thin visage1 thin beard 7a generally goaty aspect1 in fact71 dark hair1 long neck1 narrow chin1 and weak knees4 ,it governs1 nevertheless1 the knees and hams1 and reigns over ,india1 ,macedonia1 ,thrace and ,greece1 ,mexico1 ,saxony1 ,wilna1 ,mecklenburgh1 ,brandenburg1 and ,oxford4 ,it is feminine1 and unfortunate4 ,aquarius also is the house of ,saturn4 ,its natives are robust1 steady1 strong1 healthy1 and of middle stature2 delicate complexion1 clear but not pale1 sandy hair1 hazel eyes1 and generally an honest disposition4 ,it governs the legs and ankles1 and reigns over ,arabia1 ,petraea1 ,tartary1 ,russia1 ,denmark1 ,lower ,sweden1 ,westphalia1 ,hamburg1 and ,bremen4 ,it is masculine1 and fortunate4 ,pisces is the house of ,jupiter and exaltation of ,venus4 ,its natives are short1 pale1 thick-set1 and round-shouldered 7like fish71 its character phlegmatic and effeminate4 ,it governs the feet and toes1 and reigns over ,portugal1 ,spain1 ,egypt1 ,normandy1 ,galicia1 ,ratisbon1 ,calabria1 etc4 ,it is feminine1 and therefore1 naturally1 unfortunate4 ,let us next consider the influences assigned to the various planets and constellations4 ,though we can understand that in old times the planets and stars were regarded as exercising very potent influences upon the fates of men and nations1#i it is by no means easy to understand how astrologers came to assign to each planet its special influence4 ,that is1 it is not easy to understand how they could have been led to such a result by actual reasoning1 still less by any process of observation4#aj ,there was a certain scientific basis for the belief in the possibility of determining the special influences of the stars2 and we should have expected to find some scientific process adopted for the purpose4 ,yet1 so far as can be judged1 the influences assigned to the planets depended on entirely fanciful considerations4 ,in some cases we seem almost to see the line along which the fancies of the old astrologers led them1 just as in some cases we can perceive how mythological superstitions 7which are closely related to astrological ideas7 had their origin2 though it is not quite clear whether the planets were first regarded as deities with special qualities1 and these qualities afterwards assigned to the planetary influences1 or whether the planetary influences were first assigned1 and came eventually to be regarded as the qualities of the deities associated with the several planets4 ,it is easy1 for instance1 to understand why astrologers should have regarded the sun as the emblem of kingly power and dignity1 and equally easy to understand why1 to the sun regarded as a deity1 corresponding qualities should have been ascribed2 but it is not easy to determine whether the astrological or the ,sabaistic superstitions were the earlier4 ,and in like manner of the moon and planets4 ,there seems to me no sufficient evidence in favour of ,whewell's opinion1 that 'in whatever manner the sun1 moon1 and planets came to be identified with gods and goddesses1 the characters ascribed to these gods and goddesses1 regulated the virtues and powers of the stars which bear their names4' ,as he himself very justly remarks1 ',we do not possess any of the speculations of the earlier astrologers2 and we cannot1 therefore1 be certain that the notions which operated in men's minds when the art had its birth1 agreed with the views on which it was afterwards defended4' ,he does not say why he infers that1 though at later periods supported by physical analogies1 it was originally suggested by mythological beliefs4 ,quite as probably mythological beliefs were suggested by astrological notions4 ,some of these beliefs1 indeed1 seem manifestly to have been so suggested2 as the character of the deity ,mercury1 from the rapid motions of the planet ,mercury1 and the difficulty of detecting it2 the character of ,mars from the blood-red hue of the planet when close to the horizon1 and so forth4 ,let us examine1 however1 the characteristics ascribed by astrologers to various planets4 ,it is unfortunate for astrology that1 despite the asserted careful comparison of events with the planetary positions preceding and indicating them1 nothing was ever observed which seemed to suggest the possibility that there may be an unknown planet ruling very strongly the affairs of men4 ,astrologers tell us now that ,uranus is a very potent planet2 yet the old astrologers seem to have got on very well without him4 ,by the way1 one of the moderns1 the grave ,raphael1 gives a very singular account of the discovery of ,uranus1 in a book published sixteen years before ,neptune was discovered by just such a process as ,raphael imagined in the case of ,uranus4 ,he says that ,drs4 ,halley1 ,bradley1 and others1 having frequently observed that ,saturn was disturbed in his motion by some force exerted from beyond his orbit1 and being unable to account for the disturbance on the known principles of gravitation1 pursued their enquiry into the matter1 'till at length the discovery of this hitherto unknown planet covered their labours with success1 and has enabled us to enlarge our present solar system to nearly double its bounds4' ,of course there is not a word of truth in this2 ,uranus having been discovered by accident long after ,halley and ,bradley were in the grave4 ,but the account suggests what might have been1 and curiously anticipates the actual manner in which ,neptune was discovered4 ,astrologers agree in attributing evil effects to ,uranus4 ,but the evil he does is always peculiarly strange1 unaccountable1 and totally unexpected4 ,he causes the native born under his influence to be of a very eccentric and original disposition1 romantic1 unsettled1 addicted to change1 a seeker after novelty2 though1 if the moon or ,mercury have a good aspect towards ,uranus1 the native will be profound in the secret sciences1 magnanimous1 and lofty of mind4 ,but let all beware of marriage when ,uranus is in the seventh house1 or afflicting the moon4 ,and in general1 let the fair sex remember that ,uranus is peculiarly hostile to them1 and very evil in love4 ,saturn is the ,greater ,infortune of the old system of astrology1 and is by universal experience acknowledged to be the most potent1 evil1 and malignant of all the planets4 ,those born under him are of dark and pale complexion1 with small1 black1 leering eyes1 thick lips and nostrils1 large ears1 thin face1 lowering looks1 cloudy aspect1 and seemingly melancholy and unhappy2 and though they have broad shoulders1 they have but short lips and a thin beard1 ,they are in character austere and reserved1 covetous1 laborious1 and revengeful2 constant in friendship1 and good haters4 ,the most remarkable and certain characteristic of the ,saturnine man is that1 as an old author observes 'he will never look thee in the face4' ',if they have to love any one1 these ,saturnines1' says another old author1 'they love most constantly2 and if they hate1 they hate to the death4' ,the persons signified symbolically by ,saturn are grandparents1 and other old persons1 day labourers1 paupers1 beggars1 clowns1 husbandmen of the meaner sort1 and especially undertakers1 sextons1 and gravediggers4 ,chaucer thus presents the chief effects which ,saturn produces in the fortunes of men and nations--,saturn himself being the speaker3-- 444 quod ,saturne ,my cours1 that hath so wide for to turne1 ,hath more power than wot any man4 ,min is the drenching in the sea so wan1 ,min is the prison in the derke cote1 ,min is the strangel and hanging by the throte1 ,the murmure and the cherles rebelling1 ,the groyning1 and the prive empoysoning1 ,i do vengaunce and pleine correction1 ,while ,i dwell in the signe of the leon2 ,min is the ruine of the high halles1 ,the falling of the toures and of the walles ,upon the minour or the carpenter3 ,i slew ,sampson in shaking the piler4 ,min ben also the maladies colde1 ,the derke tresons1 and the castes olde3 ,my loking is the fader of pestilence4 ,jupiter1 on the contrary1 though ,saturn's next neighbour in the solar system1 produces effects of an entirely contrary kind4 ,he is1 in fact1 the most propitious of all the planets1 and the native born under his influence has every reason to be jovial in fact as he is by nature4 ,such a native will be tall and fair1 handsome and erect1 robust1 ruddy1 and altogether a good-looking person1 whether male or female4 ,the native will also be religious1 or at least a good moral honest man1 unless ,jupiter be afflicted by the aspects of ,saturn1 ,mars1 or ,uranus2 in which case he may still be a jolly fellow1 no man's enemy but his own--only he will probably be his own enemy to a very considerable extent1 squandering his means and ruining his health by gluttony and intoxication4 ,the persons represented by ,jupiter 7when he is not afflicted7 are judges1 counsellors1 church dignitaries1 from cardinals to curates1 scholars1 chancellors1 barristers1 and the highest orders of lawyers1 woollendrapers 7possibly there may be some astral significance in the woolsack71 and clothiers4 ,when ,jupiter is afflicted1 however1 he denotes quacks and mountebanks1 knaves1 cheats1 and drunkards4 ,the influence of the planet on the fortunes is nearly always good4 ,astrologers1 who to a man reverence dignities1 consider ,great ,britain fortunate in that the lady whom1 with customary effusion1 they term ',our ,most ,gracious ,queen1' was born when ,jupiter was riding high in the heavens near his culmination1 this position promising a most fortunate and happy career4 ,the time has passed when the fortunes of this country were likely to be affected by such things2 but we may hope1 for the lady's own sake1 that this prediction has been fulfilled4 ,astrologers assert the same about the ,duke of ,wellington1 assigning midnight1 ,may #a1 #agfi1 as the hour of his birth4 ,there is some doubt both as to the date and place of the great soldier's birth2 but the astrologer finds in the facts of his life the means of removing all such doubts4#aa ,next in order comes ,mars1 inferior only in malefic influence to ,saturn1 and called by the old astrologers the ,lesser ,infortune4 ,the native born under the influence of ,mars is usually of fierce countenance1 his eyes sparkling1 or sharp and darting1 his complexion fiery or yellowish1 and his countenance scarred or furrowed4 ,his hair is reddish or sandy1 unless ,mars chances to be in a watery sign1 in which case the hair will be flaxen2 or in an earthly sign1 in which case the hair will be chestnut4 ,the ,martialist is broad-shouldered1 steady1 and strong1 but short1#ab and often bony and lean4 ,in character the ,martialist is fiery and choleric1 naturally delighting in war and contention1 but generous and magnanimous4 ,this when ,mars is well aspected2 should the planet be evil aspected1 then will the native be treacherous1 thievish1 treasonable1 cruel1 and wicked4 ,the persons signified by ,mars are generals1 soldiers1 sailors 7if he is in a watery sign71 surgeons1 chemists1 doctors1 armourers1 barbers1 curriers1 smiths1 carpenters1 bricklayers1 sculptors1 cooks1 and tailors4 ,when afflicted with ,mercury or the moon1 he denotes thieves1 hangmen1 and 'all cut throat people4' ,in fact1 except the ploughboy1 who belongs to ,saturn1 all the members of the old septet1 'tinker1 tailor1 soldier1 sailor1 apothecary1 ploughboy1 thief1' are favourites with ,mars4 ,the planet's influence is not quite so evil as ,saturn's1 nor are the effects produced by it so long-lasting4 ',the influence of ,saturn1' says an astrologer1 'may be compared to a lingering but fatal consumption2 that of ,mars to a burning fever4' ,he is the cause of anger1 quarrels1 violence1 war1 and slaughter4 ,the sun comes next2 for it must be remembered that1 according to the old system of astronomy1 the sun was a planet4 ,persons born under the sun as the planet ruling their ascendant1 would be more apt to be aware of the fact than ,saturnine1 ,jovial1 ,martial1 or any other folk1 because the hour of birth1 if remembered1 at once determines whether the native is a solar subject or not4 ,the solar native has generally a round face 7like pictures of the sun in old books of astronomy71 with a short chin2 his complexion somewhat sanguine2 curling sandy hair1 and a white tender skin4 ,as to character1 he is bold and resolute1 desirous of praise1 of slow speech and composed judgment2 outwardly decorous1 but privately not altogether virtuous4 ,the sun1 in fact1 according to astrologers1 is the natural significator of respectability2 for which ,i can discover no reason1 unless it be that the sun travelling always in the ecliptic has no latitude1 and so solar folk are allowed none4 ,when the sun is ill aspected1 the native is both proud and mean1 tyrannical and sycophantic1 exceedingly unamiable1 and generally disliked because of his arrogance and ignorant pomposity4 ,the persons signified by the sun are emperors1 kings1 and titled folk generally1 goldsmiths1 jewellers1 and coiners4 ,when 'afflicted1' the sun signifies pretenders either to power or knowledge4 ,the sun's influence is not in itself either good or evil1 but is most powerful for good when he is favourably aspected1 and for evil when he is afflicted by other planets4 ,venus1 the next in order1 bore the same relation to the ,greater ,fortune ,jupiter which ,mars bore to ,saturn the ,greater ,ill-fortune4 ,she was the ,lesser ,fortune1 and her influence was in nearly all respects benevolent4 ,the persons born under the influence of this planet are handsome1 with beautiful sparkling hazel or black eyes 7but another authority assigns the subject of ,venus1 'a full eye1 usually we say goggle-eyed1' by which we do not usually imply beauty71 ruddy lips1 the upper lip short1 soft smooth hair1 dimples in the cheek and chin1 an amorous look and a sweet voice4 ,one old astrologer puts the matter thus pleasantly3--',the native of ,venus hath1' quoth he1 'a love-dimple in the chin1 a lovely mouth1 cherry lips1 and a right merry countenance4' ,in character the native of ,venus is merry 'to a fault1' but of temper engaging1 sweet and cheerful1 unless she be ill aspected1 when her native is apt to be too fond of pleasure and amusement4 ,that her influence is good is shown 7in the opinion of ,raphael1 writing in #ahbh7 by the character of ,george ,,iv41 'our present beloved monarch and most gracious majesty1 who was born just as this benevolent star' was in the ascendant2 'for it is well known to all ,europe what a refined and polished genius1 and what exquisite taste1 the ,king of ,england possesses1 which therefore may be cited as a most illustrious proof of the celestial science2 a proof likewise which is palpably demonstrable1 even to the most casual observer1 since the time of his nativity is taken from the public journals of the period1 and cannot be gainsaid4' ',this illustrious and regal horoscope is replete with wonderful verifications of planetary influence1 and ,england cannot but prosper while she is blessed with the mild and beneficent sway of this potent monarch4' ,strengthened in faith by this convincing proof of the celestial science1 we proceed to notice that ,venus is the protectrice of musicians1 embroiderers1 perfumers1 classic modellers1 and all who work in elegant attire or administer to the luxuries of the great2 but when she is afflicted1 she represents 'the lower orders of the votaries of voluptuousness4' ,mercury is considered by astrologers 'a cold1 dry1 melancholy star4' ,the ,mercurial is neither dark nor fair1 but between both1 long-faced1 with high forehead and thin sharp nose1 'thin beard 7many times none at all71 slender of body1 and with small weak eyes2' long slender hands and fingers are 'especial marks of ,mercury1' says ,raphael4 ,in character the ,mercurial is busy and prattling4 ,but when well affected1 ,mercury gives his subjects a strong1 vigorous1 active mind1 searching and exhaustive1 a retentive memory1 a natural thirst for knowledge4#ac ,the persons signified by ,mercury are astrologers1 philosophers1 mathematicians1 politicians1 merchants1 travellers1 teachers1 poets1 artificers1 men of science1 and all ingenious1 clever men4 ,when he is ill affected1 however1 he represents pettifoggers1 cunning vile persons1 thieves1 messengers1 footmen1 and servants1 etc4 ,the moon comes last in planetary sequence1 as nearest to the earth4 ,she is regarded by astrologers as a cold1 moist1 watery1 phlegmatic planet1 variable to an extreme1 and1 like the sun1 partaking of good or evil according as she is aspected favourably or the reverse4 ,her natives are of good stature1 fair1 and pale1 moon-faced1 with grey eyes1 short arms1 thick hands and feet1 smooth1 corpulent and phlegmatic body4 ,when she is in watery signs1 the native has freckles on the face1 or1 says ,lilly1 'he or she is blub-cheeked1 not a handsome body1 but a muddling creature4' ,unless the moon is very well aspected1 she ever signifies an ordinary vulgar person4 ,she signifies sailors 7not as ,mars does1 the fighting-men of war-ships1 but nautical folk generally7 and all persons connected with water or any kind of fluid2 also all who are engaged in inferior and common offices4 ,we may note1 in passing1 that to each planet a special metal is assigned1 as also particular colours4 ,chaucer1 in the ,chanones ,yemannes' ,tale1 succinctly describes the distribution of the metals among the planets3-- ,sol gold is1 and ,luna silver we threpe2 ,mars iren1 ,mercurie silver we clepe3 ,saturnus led1 and ,jupiter is tin1 ,and ,venus coper1 by my the ,chanones ,yemannes' faderkin4 ,the colours are thus assigned3--to ,saturn1 black2 to ,jupiter1 mixed red and green2 to ,mars1 red2 to the sun1 yellow or yellow-purple2 to ,venus1 white or purple2 to ,mercury1 azure blue2 to the moon1 a colour spotted with white and other mixed colours4 ,again1 the planets were supposed to have special influence on the seven ages of human life4 ,the infant1 'mewling and puking in the nurse's arms1' was very appropriately dedicated to the moist moon2 the whining schoolboy 7did schoolboys whine in the days of good ,queen ,bess87 was less appropriately assigned to ,mercury1 the patron of those who eagerly seek after knowledge3 then very naturally1 the lover sighing like furnace was regarded as the special favourite of ,venus4 ,thus far the order has been that of the seven planets of the ancient astrology1 in supposed distance4 ,now1 however1 we have to pass over the sun1 finding ,mars the patron of mid life1 appropriately 7in this respect7 presiding over the soldier full of strange oaths1 and so forth2 the 'justice in fair round belly with good capon lined' is watched over by the respectable sun2 maturer age by ,jupiter2 and1 lastly1 old age by ,saturn4 ,colours were also assigned to the twelve zodiacal signs--to ,aries1 white and red2 to ,taurus1 white and lemon2 to ,gemini1 white and red 7the same as ,aries72 to ,cancer1 green or russet2 to ,leo1 red or green2 to ,virgo1 black speckled with blue2 to ,libra1 black1 or dark crimson1 or tawny colour2 to ,scorpio1 brown2 to ,sagittarius1 yellow1 or a green sanguine 7this is as strange a colour as the gris rouge of ,moliere's ,l',avare72 ,capricorn1 black or russet1 or a swarthy brown2 to ,aquarius1 a sky-coloured blue2 to ,pisces1 white glistening colour 7like a fish just taken out of the water74 ,the chief fixed stars had various influences assigned to them by astrologers4 ,these influences were mostly associated with the imaginary figures of the constellations4 ,thus the bright star in the head of ,aries1 called by some the ,ram's ,horn1 was regarded as dangerous and evil1 denoting bodily hurts4 ,the star ,menkar in the ,whale's jaw denoted sickness1 disgrace1 and ill-fortune1 with danger from great beasts4 ,betelgeux1 the bright star on ,orion's right shoulder1 denoted martial honours or wealth2 ,bellatrix1 the star on ,orion's left shoulder1 denoted military or civic honours2 ,rigel1 on ,orion's left foot1 denoted honours2 ,sirius and ,procyon1 the greater and lesser ,dog ,stars1 both implied wealth and renown4 ,star clusters seem to have portended loss of sight2 at least we learn that the ,pleiades were 'eminent stars1' but denoting accidents to the sight or blindness1 while the cluster ,praesepe or the ,beehive in like manner threatened blindness4 ,the cluster in ,perseus does not seem to have been noticed by astrologers4 ,the variable star ,algol or ,caput ,medusae1 which marks the head of ,gorgon1 was accounted 'the most unfortunate1 violent1 and dangerous star in the heavens4' ,it is tolerably clear that the variable character of this star had been detected long before ,montanari 7to whom the discovery is commonly attributed7 noticed the phenomenon4 ,the name ,algol is only a variation of ,al-ghul1 the monster or demon1 and it cannot be doubted that the demoniac1 ,gorgonian character assigned to this star was suggested by its ominous change1 as though it were the eye of some fierce monster slowly winking amid the gloom of space4 ,the two stars called the ,aselli1 which lie on either side of the cluster ,praesepe1 'are said' 7by astrologers7 'to be of a burning nature1 and to give great indications of a violent death1 or of violent and severe accidents by fire4' ,the star called ,cor ,hydrae1 or the serpent's heart1 denotes trouble through women 7said ,i not rightly that ,astrology was a masculine science872 the ,lion's heart1 ,regulus1 implied glory and riches2 ,deneb1 the ,lion's tail1 misfortune and disgrace4 ,the southern scale of ,libra meant bad fortune1 while the northern was eminently fortunate4 ,astrology was divided into three distinct branches--the doctrine of nativities1 horary astrology1 and state astrology4 ,the first assigned the rules for determining the general fortunes of the native1 by drawing up his scheme of nativity or casting his horoscope4 ,it took into account the positions of the various planets1 signs1 stars1 etc41 at the time of the native's birth2 and as the astrologer could calculate the movements of the planets thereafter1 he could find when those planets which were observed by the horoscope to be most closely associated with the native's fortunes would be well aspected or the reverse4 ,thus the auspicious and unlucky epochs of the native's life could be predetermined4 ,the astrologer also claimed some degree of power to rule the planets1 not by modifying their movements in any way1 but by indicating in what way the ill effects portended by their positions could be prevented4 ,the ,arabian and ,persian astrologers1 having less skill than the followers of ,ptolemy1 made use of a different method of determining the fortunes of men1 not calculating the positions of the planets for many years following the birth of the native1 but assigning to every day after his birth a whole year of his life and for every two hours' motion of the moon one month4 ,thus the positions of the stars and planets1 twenty-one days after the birth of the native1 would indicate the events corresponding to the time when he would have completed his twenty-first year4 ,there was another system called the ,placidian1 in which the effects of the positions of the planets were judged with sole reference to the motion of the earth upon her axis4 ,it is satisfactory to find astrologers in harmony amongst each other as to these various methods1 which one would have supposed likely to give entirely different results4 ',each of them1' says a modern astrologer1 'is not only correct and approved by long-tried practice1 but may be said to defy the least contradiction from those who will but take the pains to examine them 7and no one else should deliver an opinion upon the subject74 ,although each of the above methods are different1 yet they by no means contradict each other1 but each leads to true results1 and in many instances they each lead to the foreknowledge of the same event2 in which respect they may be compared to the ascent of a mountain by different paths1 where1 although some paths are longer and more difficult than others1 they notwithstanding all lead to the same object4' ,all which1 though plausible in tone labours under the disadvantage of being untrue4 ,ptolemy is careful to point out1 in his celebrated work the ',tetrabiblos1' that1 of all events whatsoever which take place after birth1 the most essential is the continuance of life4 ',it is useless1' he says1 'to consider what events might happen to the native in later years if his life does not extend1 for instance1 beyond one year4 ,so that the enquiry into the duration of life takes precedence of all others4' ,in order to deal properly with this question1 it is necessary to determine what planet shall be regarded as the ,hyleg1 ,apheta1 or ,lord of ,life1 for the native4 ,next the ,anareta1 or ,destroyer of ,life1 must be ascertained4 ,the ,anaretic planets are1 by nature1 ,saturn1 ,mars1 and ,uranus1 though the sun1 moon1 and ,mercury may be endowed with the same fatal influence1 if suitably afflicted4 ,the various ways in which the ,hyleg1 or ,giver of ,life1 may be afflicted by the ,anareta1 correspond to the various modes of death4 ,but astrologers have always been singularly careful1 in casting horoscopes1 to avoid definite reference to the native's death4 ,there are but few cases where the actual day of death is said to have been assigned4 ,one is related in ,clarendon's ',history of the ,rebellion4' ,he tells us that ,william ,earl of ,pembroke died at the age of fifty1 on the day upon which his tutor ,sandford had predicted his decease4 ,burton1 the author of the ',anatomy of ,melancholy1' having cast his own horoscope1 and ascertained that he was to die on ,january #bc1 #afci1 is said to have committed suicide in order that the accuracy of his calculations might not be called in question4 ,a similar story is related of ,cardan by ,dr4 ,young 7,sidrophel ,vapulans71 on the authority of ,gassendi1 who1 however1 says only that either ,cardan starved himself1 or1 being confident in his art1 took the predicted day for a fatal one1 and by his fears made it so4 ,gassendi adds that while ,cardan pretended to describe the fates of his children in his voluminous commentaries1 he all the while never suspected1 from the rules of his great art1 that his dearest son would be condemned in the flower of his youth to be beheaded on a scaffold1 by an executioner of justice1 for destroying his own wife by poison4 ,horary astrology relates to particular questions1 and is a comparatively easy branch of the science4 ,the art of casting nativities requires many years of study2 but horary astrology 'may be well understood1' says ,lilly1 'in less than a quarter of a year4' ',if a proposition of any nature1' he adds1 'be made to any individual1 about the result of which he is anxious1 and therefore uncertain whether to accede to it or not1 let him but note the hour and minute when it was first made1 and erect a figure of the heavens1 and his doubts will be instantly resolved4 ,he may thus in five minutes learn whether the affair will succeed or not3 and consequently whether it is prudent to accept the offer made or not4 ,if he examine the sign on the first house of the figure1 the planet therein1 or the planet ruling the sign1 will exactly describe the party making the offer1 both in person and character1 and this may at once convince the enquirer for truth of the reality of the principles of the science4 ,moreover1 the descending sign1 etc41 will describe his own person and character--a farther proof of the truth of the science4' ,there is one feature of horary astrology which is probably almost as ancient as any portion of the science1 yet which remains even to the present day1 and will probably remain for many years to come4 ,i refer to the influence which the planets were supposed to exert on the successive hours of every day--a belief from which the division of time into weeks of seven days unquestionably had its origin--though we may concede that the subdivision of the lunar month into four equal parts was also considered in selecting this convenient measure of time4 ,every hour had its planet4 ,now dividing twenty-four by seven1 we get three and three over2 whence1 each day containing twenty-four hours1 it follows that in each day the complete series of seven planets was run through three times1 and three planets of the next series were used4 ,the order of the planets was that of their distances1 as indicated above4 ,saturn came first1 then ,jupiter1 ,mars1 the ,sun1 ,venus1 ,mercury1 and the ,moon4 ,beginning with ,saturn1 as ruling the first hour of ,saturn's day 7,saturday71 we get through the above series three times1 and have for the last three hours of the day1 ,saturn1 ,jupiter1 and ,mars4 ,thus the next hour1 the first hour of the next day1 belongs to the sun--,sunday follows ,saturday4 ,we again run three times through the series1 and the three remaining hours are governed by the sun1 ,venus1 and ,mercury1--giving the moon as the first planet for the next day4 ,monday thus follows ,sunday4 ,the last three hours of ,monday are ruled by the moon1 ,saturn1 and ,jupiter2 leaving ,mars to govern the next day--,martis dies1 ,mardi1 ,tuesday or ,tuisco's day4 ,proceeding in the same way1 we get ,mercury for the next day1 ,mercurii dies1 ,mercredi1 ,wednesday or ,woden's day2 ,jupiter for the next day1 ,jovis dies1 ,jeudi1 ,thursday or ,thor's day2 ,venus for the next day1 ,veneris dies1 ,vendredi1 ,friday or ,freya's day2 and so we come to ,saturday again4#ad ,the period of seven days1 which had its origin in1 and derived its nomenclature from astrological ideas1 shows by its wide prevalence how widely astrological superstitions were once spread among the nations4 ,as ,whewell remarks 7though1 for reasons which will readily be understood he was by no means anxious to dwell upon the true origin of the ,sabbatical week71 'the usage is found over all the ,east2 it existed among the ,arabians1 ,assyrians1 and ,egyptians4 ,the same week is found in ,india1 among the ,brahmins2 it has there also its days marked by the names of the heavenly bodies2 and it has been ascertained that the same day has1 in that country1 the name corresponding with its designation in other nations4444 ,the period has gone on without interruption or irregularity from the earliest recorded times to our own days1 traversing the extent of ages and the revolutions of empires2 the names of ancient deities1 which were associated with the stars1 were replaced by those of the objects of the worship of our ,teutonic ancestors1 according to their views of the correspondence of the two mythologies2 and the ,quakers1 in rejecting these names of days1 have cast aside the most ancient existing relic of astrological as well as idolatrous superstition4 ,not only do the names remain1 but some of the observances connected with the old astrological systems remain even to this day4 ,as ceremonies derived from ,pagan worship are still continued1 though modified in form1 and with a different interpretation1 in ,christian and especially ,roman ,catholic observances1 so among the ,jews and among ,christians the rites and ceremonies of the old ,egyptian and ,chaldaean astrology are still continued1 though no longer interpreted as of yore4 ,the great ,jewish ,lawgiver and those who follow him seem1 for example1 to have recognised the value of regular periods of rest 7whether really required by man or become a necessity through long habit71 but to have been somewhat in doubt how best to continue the practice without sanctioning the superstitions with which it had been connected4 ,at any rate two different and inconsistent interpretations were given in the earlier and later codes of law4 ,but whether the ,jews accepted the ,sabbath because they believed that an ,all-powerful ,being1 having created the world in six days1 required and took rest 7'and was refreshed'7 on the seventh1 as stated in ,exodus 7xx4 #aa and xxxi4 #ag71 or whether they did so in remembrance of their departure from ,egypt1 as stated in ,deuteronomy 7v4 #ae71 there can be no question that among the ,egyptians the ,sabbath or ,saturn's day was a day of rest because of the malignant nature of the powerful planet-deity who presided over that day4 ,nor can it be seriously doubted that the ,jews descended from the old ,chaldaeans1 among whom 7as appears from stone inscriptions recently discovered7 the very word ,sabbath was in use for a seventh day of rest connected with astrological observances1 were familiar with the practice even before their sojourn in ,egypt4 ,they had then probably regarded it as a superstitious practice to be eschewed like those idolatrous observances which had caused ,terah to remove with ,abraham and ,lot from ,ur of the ,chaldees4 ,at any rate1 we find no mention of the seventh day of rest as a religious observance until after the ,exodus4#ae ,it was not their only religious observance having in reality an astrological origin4 ,indeed1 if we examine the ,jewish sacrificial system as described in ,numbers xxviii4 and elsewhere1 we shall find throughout a tacit reference to the motions or influences of the celestial bodies4 ,there was the morning and evening sacrifice guided by the movements of the sun2 the ,sabbath offering1 determined by the predominance of ,saturn2 the offering of the new moon1 depending on the motions of the moon2 and lastly1 the ,paschal sacrifice1 depending on the combined movements of the sun and moon--made1 in fact1 during the lunation following the sun's ascending passage of the equator at the sign of ,aries4 ,let us return1 however1 after this somewhat long digression1 to astrological matters4 ,horary astrology is manifestly much better fitted than the casting of nativities for filling the pocket of the astrologer himself2 because only one nativity can be cast1 but any number of horary questions can be asked4 ,it is on account of their skill in horary astrology that the ,zadkiels of our own time have occasionally found their way into the twelfth house1 or ,house of ,enemies4 ,even ,lilly himself1 not devoting1 it would seem1 five minutes to inquire into the probable success of the affair1 was indicted in #afee by a half-witted young woman1 because he had given judgment respecting stolen goods1 receiving two shillings and sixpence1 contrary to an ,act made under and provided by the wise and virtuous ,king ,james1 ,first of ,england and ,sixth of ,scotland4 ,state astrology relates to the destinies of kingdoms1 thrones1 empires1 and may be regarded as a branch of horary science relating to subjects 7and rulers7 of more than ordinary importance4 ,in former ages all persons likely to occupy an important position in the history of the world had their horoscopes erected2 but in these degenerate days neither the casting of nativities nor the art of ruling the planets flourishes as it should do4 ,our ,zadkiels and ,raphaels publish1 indeed1 the horoscopes of kings and emperors1 princes and princesses1 and so forth2 but their fate is as that of ,benedict 7according to ,beatrice7--men 'wonder they will still be talking1 for nobody marks them4' ,even those whose horoscopes have been erected show no proper respect for the predictions made in their behalf4 ,thus the ,prince of ,wales being born when ,sagittarius was in the ascendant should have been1 according to ,zadkiel1 a tall man1 with oval face1 ruddy complexion1 somewhat dusky1 and so forth2 but ,i understand he has by no means followed these directions as to his appearance4 ,the sun1 being well aspected1 prognosticated honours--a most remarkable and unlooked-for circumstance1 strangely fulfilled by the event2 but then being in ,cancer1 in sextile with ,mars1 the ,prince of ,wales was to be partial to maritime affairs and attain naval glory1 whereas as a field-marshal he can only win military glory4 7,i would not be understood to say that he is not quite as competent to lead our fleets as our battalions into action47 ,the ,house of ,wealth was occupied by ,jupiter1 aspected by ,saturn1 which betokened great wealth through inheritance--a prognostication1 says ,professor ,miller1 which is not unlikely to come true4 ,the ,house of ,marriage was unsettled by the conflicting influences of ,venus1 ,mars1 and ,saturn2 but the first predominating1 the ,prince1 after some trouble in his matrimonial speculations1 was to marry a ,princess of high birth1 and one not undeserving of his kindest and most affectionate attention1 probably in #ahfb4 ,as to the date1 an almanack informs me that the ,prince married a ,danish ,princess in ,march #ahfc1 which looks like a most culpable neglect of the predictions of our national astrologer4 ,again1 in ,may #ahgj1 when ,saturn was stationary in the ascending degree1 the ,prince ought to have been injured by a horse1 and also to have received a blow on the left side of the head1 near the ear2 but reprehensibly omitted both these ceremonies4 ,a predisposition to fever and epileptic attacks was indicated by the condition of the ,house of ,sickness4 ,the newspapers described1 a few years since1 a serious attack of fever2 but as most persons have some experience of the kind1 the fulfilment of the prediction can hardly be regarded as very wonderful4 ,epileptic attacks1 which1 as less common1 might have saved the credit of the astrologers1 have not visited 'this royal native4' ,the position of ,saturn in ,capricorn betokened loss or disaster in one or other of the places ruled over by ,capricorn--which1 as we have seen1 are ,india1 ,macedonia1 ,thrace1 ,greece1 ,mexico1 ,saxony1 ,wilna1 ,mecklenburgh1 ,brandenburgh1 and ,oxford4 ,professor ,miller expresses the hope that ,oxford was the place indicated1 and the disaster nothing more serious than some slight scrape with the authorities of ,christchurch4 ,but princes never get into scrapes with college dons4 ,probably some one or other of the 'hair-breadth 'scapes' chronicled by the reporters of his travels in ,india was the event indicated by the ominous position of ,saturn in ,capricorn4 ,a remarkable list of characteristics were derived by ,zadkiel from the positions of the various planets and signs in the twelve houses of the 'royal native4' ,some1 of course1 were indicated in more ways than one1 which will explain the parenthetical notes in the following alphabetical table which ,professor ,miller has been at the pains to draw up from ,zadkiel's predictions4 ,the prince was to be 'acute1 affectionate1 amiable1 amorous1 austere1 avaricious1 beneficent1 benevolent1 brave1 brilliant1 calculated for government' 7a quality which may be understood two ways71 'candid1 careful of his person1 careless1 compassionate1 courteous 7twice over71 delighting in eloquence1 discreet1 envious1 fond of glory1 fond of learning1 fond of music1 fond of poetry1 fond of sports1 fond of the arts and sciences1 frank1 full of expedients1 generous 7three times71 gracious1 honourable1 hostile to crime1 impervious1 ingenious1 inoffensive1 joyous1 just 7twice71 laborious1 liberal1 lofty1 magnanimous1 modest1 noble1 not easy to be understood 7671 parsimonious1 pious 7twice71 profound in opinion1 prone to regret his acts1 prudent1 rash1 religious1 reverent1 self-confident1 sincere1 singular in mode of thinking1 strong1 temperate1 unreserved1 unsteady1 valuable in friendship1 variable1 versatile1 violent1 volatile1 wily1 and worthy4' ,zadkiel concludes thus3--',the square of ,saturn to the moon will add to the gloomy side of the picture1 and give a tinge of melancholy at times to the native's character1 and also a disposition to look at the dark side of things1 and lead him to despondency2 nor will he be at all of a sanguine character1 but cool and calculating1 though occasionally rash4 ,yet1 all things considered1 though firm and sometimes positive in opinion1 this royal native1 if he live to mount the throne1 will sway the sceptre of these realms in moderation and justice1 and be a pious and benevolent man1 and a merciful sovereign4' ,fortunately1 the time has long since passed when swaying the sceptre of these realms had any but a figurative meaning1 or when ,englishmen who obeyed their country's laws depended on the mercy of any man1 or when even bad citizens were judged by princes4 ,but we still prefer that princes should be well-mannered gentlemen1 and therefore it is sincerely to be hoped that ,zadkiel's prediction1 so far as it relates to piety and benevolence1 may be fulfilled1 should this 'royal native' live to mount the throne4 ,as for mercy1 it is a goodly quality even in these days and in this country2 for if the law no longer tolerates cruelty to men1 even on the part of princes1 who once had prescribed rights in that direction1 there are still some cruel1 nay brutal sports in which 'royal natives' might sometimes be tempted to take part4 ,wherefore let us hope that1 even in regard to mercy1 the predictions of astrologers respecting this 'royal native' may be fulfilled4 ,passing however1 from trivialities1 let us consider the lessons which the history of astrology teaches us respecting the human mind1 its powers and weaknesses4 ,it has been well remarked by ,whewell that for many ages 'mysticism in its various forms was a leading character both of the common mind and the speculations of the most intelligent and profound reasoners4' ,thus mysticism was the opposite of that habit of thought which science requires1 'namely1 clear ideas1 distinctly employed to connect well-ascertained facts2 inasmuch as the ideas in which it dealt were vague and unstable1 and the temper in which they were contemplated was an urgent and aspiring enthusiasm1 which could not submit to a calm conference with experience upon even terms4' ,we have seen what has been the history of one particular form of the mysticism of ancient and mediaeval ages4 ,if we had followed the history of alchemy1 magic1 and other forms of mysticism1 we should have seen similar results4 ,true science has gradually dispossessed science falsely so called1 until now none but the weaker minds hold by the tenets formerly almost universally adopted4 ,in mere numbers1 believers in the ancient superstitions may be by no means insignificant2 but they no longer have any influence4 ,it has become a matter of shame to pay any attention to what those few say or do who not merely hold but proclaim the ancient faith in these matters4 ,we can also see why this has been4 ,in old times enthusiasm usurped the place of reason in these cases2 but opinions so formed and so retained could not maintain their ground in the presence of reasoning and experience4 ,so soon as intelligent and thoughtful men perceived that facts were against the supposed mysterious influences of the stars1 the asserted powers of magicians1 the pretended knowledge of alchemists1 the false teachings of magic1 alchemy1 and astrology1 were rejected4 ,the lesson thus learned respecting erroneous doctrines which were once widely prevalent has its application in our time1 when1 though the influence of those teachings has passed away1 other doctrines formerly associated with them still hold their ground4 ,men in old times1 influenced by erroneous teachings1 wasted their time and energies in idle questionings of the stars1 vain efforts to find ,arcana of mysterious power1 and to acquire magical authority over the elements4 ,is it altogether clear that in these our times men are not hampered1 prevented to some degree from doing all the good they might do in the short life-time allotted to them1 by doctrines of another kind8 ,is there in our day no undue sacrifice of present good in idle questionings8 is there no tendency to trust in a vain fetishism to prevent or remove evils which energy could avert or remedy8 ,the time will come1 in my belief1 when the waste of those energies which in these days are devoted 7not merely with the sanction1 but the high approval1 of some of the best among us7 to idle aims1 will be deplored as regretfully--but1 alas1 as idly--as the wasted speculations and labours of those whom ,whewell has justly called the most intelligent and profound reasoners of the 'stationary age' of science4 ,the words with which ,whewell closes his chapter on the ',mysticism of the ,middle ,ages' have their application to the mysticism of the nineteenth century3--',experience collects her stores in vain1 or ceases to collect them1 when she can only pour them into the flimsy folds of the lap of ,mysticism1 who is1 in truth1 so much absorbed in looking for the treasures which are to fall from the skies1 that she heeds little how scantily she obtains1 or how loosely she holds1 such riches as she might find beside her4' ,,ii4 ,,the ,,religion ,,of ,,the ,,great ,,pyramid4 ,during the last few years a new sect has appeared which1 though as yet small in numbers1 is full of zeal and fervour4 ,the faith professed by this sect may be called the religion of the ,great ,pyramid1 the chief article of their creed being the doctrine that that remarkable edifice was built for the purpose of revealing--in the fulness of time1 now nearly accomplished--certain noteworthy truths to the human race4 ,the founder of the pyramid religion is described by one of the present leaders of the sect as 'the late worthy ,john ,taylor1 of ,gower ,street1 ,london2' but hitherto the chief prophets of the new faith have been in this country ,professor ,smyth1 ,astronomer ,royal for ,scotland1 and in ,france the ,abbe ,moigno4 ,i propose to examine here some of the facts most confidently urged by pyramidalists in support of their views4 ,but it will be well first to indicate briefly the doctrines of the new faith4 ,they may be thus presented3 ,the great pyramid was erected1 it would seem1 under the instructions of a certain ,semitic king1 probably no other than ,melchizedek4 ,by supernatural means1 the architects were instructed to place the pyramid in latitude #cj deg4 north2 to select for its figure that of a square pyramid1 carefully oriented2 to employ for their unit of length the sacred cubit corresponding to the #bj1jjj1jjjth part of the earth's polar axis2 and to make the side of the square base equal to just so many of these sacred cubits as there are days and parts of a day in a year4 ,they were further1 by supernatural help1 enabled to square the circle1 and symbolised their victory over this problem by making the pyramid's height bear to the perimeter of the base the ratio which the radius of a circle bears to the circumference4 ,moreover1 the great precessional period1 in which the earth's axis gyrates like that of some mighty top around the perpendicular to the ecliptic1 was communicated to the builders with a degree of accuracy far exceeding that of the best modern determinations1 and they were instructed to symbolise that relation in the dimensions of the pyramid's base4 ,a value of the sun's distance more accurate by far than modern astronomers have obtained 7even since the recent transit7 was imparted to them1 and they embodied that dimension in the height of the pyramid4 ,other results which modern science has achieved1 but which by merely human means the architects of the pyramid could not have obtained1 were also supernaturally communicated to them2 so that the true mean density of the earth1 her true shape1 the configuration of land and water1 the mean temperature of the earth's surface1 and so forth1 were either symbolised in the great pyramid's position1 or in the shape and dimensions of its exterior and interior4 ,in the pyramid also were preserved the true1 because supernaturally communicated1 standards of length1 area1 capacity1 weight1 density1 heat1 time1 and money4 ,the pyramid also indicated1 by certain features of its interior structure1 that when it was built the holy influences of the ,pleiades were exerted from a most effective position--the meridian1 through the points where the ecliptic and equator intersect4 ,and as the pyramid thus significantly refers to the past1 so also it indicates the future history of the earth1 especially in showing when and where the millennium is to begin4 ,lastly1 the apex or crowning stone of the pyramid was no other than the antitype of that stone of stumbling and rock of offence1 rejected by builders who knew not its true use1 until it was finally placed as the chief stone of the corner4 ,whence naturally1 'whosoever shall fall upon it'--that is1 upon the pyramid religion--'shall be broken2 but on whomsoever it shall fall it will grind him to powder4' ,if we examine the relations actually presented by the great pyramid--its geographical position1 dimensions1 shape1 and internal structure--without hampering ourselves with the tenets of the new faith on the one hand1 or on the other with any serious anxiety to disprove them1 we shall find much to suggest that the builders of the pyramid were ingenious mathematicians1 who had made some progress in astronomy1 though not so much as they had made in the mastery of mechanical and scientific difficulties4 ,the first point to be noticed is the geographical position of the great pyramid1 so far1 at least1 as this position affects the aspect of the heavens1 viewed from the pyramid as from an observatory4 ,little importance1 ,i conceive1 can be attached to purely geographical relations in considering the pyramid's position4 ,professor ,smyth notes that the pyramid is peculiarly placed with respect to the mouth of the ,nile1 standing 'at the southern apex of the ,delta-land of ,egypt4' ,this region being shaped like a fan1 the pyramid1 set at the part corresponding to the handle1 was1 he considers1 'that monument pure and undefiled in its religion through an idolatrous land1 alluded to by ,isaiah2 the monument which was both an altar to the ,lord in the midst of the land of ,egypt1 and a pillar at the border thereof1 and destined withal to become a witness in the latter days1 and before the consummation of all things1 to the same ,lord1 and to what ,he hath purposed upon man kind4' ,still more fanciful are some other notes upon the pyramid's geographical position3 as 7i47 that there is more land along the meridian of the pyramid than on any other all the world round2 7ii47 that there is more land in the latitude of the pyramid than in any other2 and 7iii47 that the pyramid territory of ,lower ,egypt is at the centre of the dry land habitable by man all the world over4 ,it does not seem to be noticed by those who call our attention to these points that such coincidences prove too much4 ,it might be regarded as not a mere accident that the great pyramid stands at the centre of the arc of shore-line along which lie the outlets of the ,nile2 or it might be regarded as not a mere coincidence that the great pyramid stands at the central point of all the habitable land-surface of the globe2 or1 again1 any one of the other relations above mentioned might be regarded as something more than a mere coincidence4 ,but if1 instead of taking only one or other of these four relations1 we take all four of them1 or even any two of them1 together1 we must regard peculiarities of the earth's configuration as the result of special design which certainly have not hitherto been so regarded by geographers4 ,for instance1 if it was by a special design that the pyramid was placed at the centre of the ,nile delta1 and also by special design that the pyramid was placed at the centre of the land-surface of the earth1 if these two relations are each so exactly fulfilled as to render the idea of mere accidental coincidence inadmissible1 then it follows1 of necessity1 that it is through no merely accidental coincidence that the centre of the ,nile delta lies at the centre of the land-surface of the earth2 in other words1 the shore-line along which lie the mouths of the ,nile has been designedly curved so as to have its centre so placed4 ,and so of the other relations4 ,the very fact that the four conditions can be fulfilled simultaneously is evidence that a coincidence of the sort may result from mere accident4#af ,indeed1 the peculiarity of geographical position which really seems to have been in the thoughts of the pyramid architects1 introduces yet a fifth condition which by accident could be fulfilled along with the four others4 ,it would seem that the builders of the pyramid were anxious to place it in latitude #cj deg41 as closely as their means of observation permitted4 ,let us consider what result they achieved1 and the evidence thus afforded respecting their skill and scientific attainments4 ,in our own time1 of course1 the astronomer has no difficulty in determining with great exactness the position of any given latitude-parallel4 ,but at the time when the great pyramid was built it must have been a matter of very serious difficulty to determine the position of any required latitude-parallel with a great degree of exactitude4 ,the most obvious way of dealing with the difficulty would have been by observing the length of shadows thrown by upright posts at noon in spring and autumn4 ,in latitude #cj deg4 north1 the sun at noon in spring 7or1 to speak precisely1 on the day of the vernal equinox7 is just twice as far from the horizon as he is from the point vertically overhead2 and if a pointed post were set exactly upright at true noon 7supposed to occur at the moment of the vernal or autumnal equinox71 the shadow of the post would be exactly half as long as a line drawn from the top of the pole to the end of the shadow4 ,but observations based on this principle would have presented many difficulties to the architects of the pyramid4 ,the sun not being a point of light1 but a globe1 the shadow of a pointed rod does not end in a well-defined point4 ,the moment of true noon1 which is not the same as ordinary or civil noon1 never does agree exactly with the time of the vernal or autumnal equinox1 and may be removed from it by any interval of time not exceeding twelve hours4 ,and there are many other circumstances which would lead astronomers1 like those who doubtless presided over the scientific preparations for building the great pyramid1 to prefer a means of determining the latitude depending on another principle4 ,the stellar heavens would afford practically unchanging indications for their purpose4 ,the stars being all carried round the pole of the heavens1 as if they were fixed points in the interior of a hollow revolving sphere1 it becomes possible to determine the position of the pole of the star sphere1 even though no bright conspicuous star actually occupies that point4 ,any bright star close by the pole is seen to revolve in a very small circle1 whose centre is the pole itself4 ,such a star is our present so-called pole-star2 and1 though in the days when the great pyramid was built1 that star was not near the pole1 another1 and probably a brighter star lay near enough to the pole#ag to serve as a pole-star1 and to indicate by its circling motion the position of the actual pole of the heavens4 ,this was at that time1 and for many subsequent centuries1 the leading star of the great constellation called the ,dragon4 ,the pole of the heavens1 we know1 varies in position according to the latitude of the observer4 ,at the north pole it is exactly overhead2 at the equator the poles of the heavens are both on the horizon2 and1 as the observer travels from the equator towards the north or south pole of the earth1 the corresponding pole of the heavens rises higher and higher above the horizon4 ,in latitude #cj deg4 north1 or one-third of the way from the equator to the pole1 the pole of the heavens is raised one-third of the way from the horizon to the point vertically overhead2 and when this is the case the observer knows that he is in latitude #cj deg4 ,the builders of the great pyramid1 with the almost constantly clear skies of ,egypt1 may reasonably be supposed to have adopted this means of determining the true position of that thirtieth parallel on which they appear to have designed to place the great building they were about to erect4 ,it so happens that we have the means of forming an opinion on the question whether they used one method or the other2 whether they employed the sun or the stars to guide them to the geographical position they required4 ,in fact1 were it not for this circumstance1 ,i should not have thought it worth while to discuss the qualities of either method4 ,it will presently be seen that the discussion bears importantly on the opinion we are to form of the skill and attainments of the pyramid architects4 ,every celestial object is apparently raised somewhat above its true position by the refractive power of our atmosphere1 being most raised when nearest the horizon and least when nearest the point vertically overhead4 ,this effect is1 indeed1 so marked on bodies close to the horizon that if the astronomers of the pyramid times had observed the sun1 moon1 and stars attentively when so placed1 they could not have failed to discover the peculiarity4 ,probably1 however1 though they noted the time of rising and setting of the celestial bodies1 they only made instrumental observations upon them when these bodies were high in the heavens4 ,thus they remained ignorant of the refractive powers of the air4#ah ,now1 if they had determined the position of the thirtieth parallel of latitude by observations of the noonday sun 7in spring or autumn71 then since1 owing to refraction1 they would have judged the sun to be higher than he really was1 it follows that they would have supposed the latitude of any station from which they observed to be lower than it really was4 ,for the lower the latitude the higher is the noonday sun at any given season4 ,thus1 when really in latitude #cj deg4 they would have supposed themselves in a latitude lower than #cj deg41 and would have travelled a little further north to find the proper place1 as they would have supposed1 for erecting the great pyramid4 ,on the other hand1 if they determined the place from observations of the movements of stars near the pole of the heavens1 they would make an error of a precisely opposite nature4 ,for the higher the latitude the higher is the pole of the heavens2 and refraction1 therefore1 which apparently raises the pole of the heavens1 gives to a station the appearance of being in a higher latitude than it really is1 so that the observer would consider he was in latitude #cj north when in reality somewhat south of that latitude4 ,we have only then to inquire whether the great pyramid was set north or south of latitude #cj deg41 to ascertain whether the pyramid architects observed the noonday sun or circumpolar stars to determine their latitude2 always assuming 7as we reasonably may7 that those architects did propose to set the pyramid in that particular latitude1 and that they were able to make very accurate observations of the apparent positions of the celestial bodies1 but that they were not acquainted with the refractive effects of the atmosphere4 ,the answer comes in no doubtful terms4 ,the centre of the great pyramid's base lies about one mile and a third south of the thirtieth parallel of latitude2 and from this position the pole of the heavens1 as raised by refraction1 would appear to be very near indeed to the required position4 ,in fact1 if the pyramid had been set about half a mile still farther south the pole would have seemed just right4 ,of course1 such an explanation as ,i have here suggested appears altogether heretical to the pyramidalists4 ,according to them the pyramid architects knew perfectly well where the true thirtieth parallel lay1 and knew also all that modern science has discovered about refraction2 but set the pyramid south of the true parallel and north of the position where refraction would just have made the apparent elevation of the pole correct1 simply in order that the pyramid might correspond as nearly as possible to each of two conditions1 whereof both could not be fulfilled at once4 ,the pyramid would indeed1 they say1 have been set even more closely midway between the true and the apparent parallels of #cj deg4 north1 but that the ,jeezeh hill on which it is set does not afford a rock foundation any farther north4 ',so very close1' says ,professor ,smyth1 'was the great pyramid placed to the northern brink of its hill1 that the edges of the cliff might have broken off under the terrible pressure had not the builders banked up there most firmly the immense mounds of rubbish which came from their work1 and which ,strabo looked so particularly for #ahjj years ago1 but could not find4 ,here they were1 however1 and still are1 utilised in enabling the great pyramid to stand on the very utmost verge of its commanding hill1 within the limits of the two required latitudes1 as well as over the centre of the land's physical and radial formation1 and at the same time on the sure and proverbially wise foundation of rock4' ,the next circumstance to be noted in the position of the great pyramid 7as of all the pyramids7 is that the sides are carefully oriented4 ,this1 like the approximation to a particular latitude1 must be regarded as an astronomical rather than a geographical relation4 ,the accuracy with which the orientation has been effected will serve to show how far the builders had mastered the methods of astronomical observation by which orientation was to be secured4 ,the problem was not so simple as might be supposed by those who are not acquainted with the way in which the cardinal points are correctly determined4 ,by solar observations1 or rather by the observations of shadows cast by vertical shafts before and after noon1 the direction of the meridian1 or north and south line1 can theoretically be ascertained4 ,but probably in this case1 as in determining the latitude1 the builders took the stars for their guide4 ,the pole of the heavens would mark the true north2 and equally the pole-star1 when below or above the pole1 would give the true north1 but1 of course1 most conveniently when below the pole4 ,nor is it difficult to see how the builders would make use of the pole-star for this purpose4 ,from the middle of the northern side of the intended base they would bore a slant passage tending always from the position of the pole-star at its lower meridional passage1 that star at each successive return to that position serving to direct their progress2 while its small range1 east and west of the pole1 would enable them most accurately to determine the star's true mid-point below the pole2 that is1 the true north4 ,when they had thus obtained a slant tunnel pointing truly to the meridian1 and had carried it down to a point nearly below the middle of the proposed square base1 they could1 from the middle of the base1 bore vertically downwards1 until by rough calculation they were near the lower end of the slant tunnel2 or both tunnels could be made at the same time4 ,then a subterranean chamber would be opened out from the slant tunnel4 ,the vertical boring1 which need not be wider than necessary to allow a plumb-line to be suspended down it1 would enable the architects to determine the point vertically below the point of suspension4 ,the slant tunnel would give the direction of the true north1 either from that point or from a point at some known small distance east or west of that point4#ai ,thus1 a line from some ascertained point near the mouth of the vertical boring to the mouth of the slant tunnel would lie due north and south1 and serve as the required guide for the orientation of the pyramid's base4 ,if this base extended beyond the opening of the slant tunnel1 then1 by continuing this tunnelling through the base tiers of the pyramid1 the means would be obtained of correcting the orientation4 ,this1 ,i say1 would be the course naturally suggested to astronomical architects who had determined the latitude in the manner described above4 ,it may even be described as the only very accurate method available before the telescope had been invented4 ,so that if the accuracy of the orientation appears to be greater than could be obtained by the shadow method1 the natural inference1 even in the absence of corroborative evidence1 would be that the stellar method1 and no other1 had been employed4 ,now1 in #aggi1 ,nouet1 by refined observations1 found the error of orientation measured by less than #bj minutes of arc1 corresponding roughly to a displacement of the corners by about #cg-a_/b inches from their true position1 as supposed to be determined from the centre2 or to a displacement of a southern corner by #ec inches on an east and west line from a point due south of the corresponding northern corner4 ,this error1 for a base length of #iadj inches1 would not be serious1 being only one inch in about five yards 7when estimated in the second way74 ,yet the result is not quite worthy of the praise given to it by ,professor ,smyth4 ,he himself1 however1 by much more exact observations1 with an excellent altazimuth1 reduced the alleged error from #bj minutes to only #d-a_/b1 or to #i-djths of its formerly supposed value4 ,this made the total displacement of a southern corner from the true meridian through the corresponding northern corner1 almost exactly one foot1 or one inch in about twenty-one yards--a degree of accuracy rendering it practically certain that some stellar method was used in orienting the base4 ,now there is a slanting tunnel occupying precisely the position of the tunnel which should1 according to this view1 have been formed in order accurately to orient the pyramid's base1 assuming that the time of the building of the pyramid corresponded with one of the epochs when the star ,alpha ,draconis was distant #c deg4 #db' from the pole of the heavens4 ,in other words1 there is a slant tunnel directed northwards and upwards from a point deep down below the middle of the pyramid's base1 and inclined #bf deg4 #ag' to the horizon1 the elevation of ,alpha ,draconis at its lower culmination when #c deg4 #db' from the pole4 ,the last epoch when the star was thus placed was circiter #bafj ,b4,c42 the epoch next before that was #cddj ,b4,c4 ,between these two we should have to choose1 on the hypothesis that the slant tunnel was really directed to that star when the foundations of the pyramid were laid4 ,for the next epoch before the earlier of the two named was about #bh1jjj ,b4,c41 and the pyramid's date cannot have been more remote than #djjj ,b4,c4 ,the slant tunnel1 while admirably fulfilling the requirements suggested1 seems altogether unsuited for any other4 ,its transverse height 7that is1 its width in a direction perpendicular to its upper and lower faces7 did not amount to quite four feet2 its breadth was not quite three feet and a half4 ,it was1 therefore1 not well fitted for an entrance passage to the subterranean chamber immediately under the apex of the pyramid 7with which chamber it communicates in the manner suggested by the above theory74 ,it could not have been intended to be used for observing meridian transits of the stars in order to determine sidereal time2 for close circumpolar stars1 by reason of their slow motion1 are the least suited of all for such a purpose4 ,as ,professor ,smyth says1 in arguing against this suggested use of the star1 'no observer in his senses1 in any existing observatory1 when seeking to obtain the time1 would observe the transit of a circumpolar star for anything else than to get the direction of the meridian to adjust his instrument by4' 7,the italics are his47 ,it is precisely such a purpose 7the adjustment1 however1 not of an instrument1 but of the entire structure of the pyramid itself71 that ,i have suggested for this remarkable passage--this 'cream-white1 stone-lined1 long tube1' where it traverses the masonry of the pyramid1 and below that dug through the solid rock to a distance of more than #cej feet4 ,let us next consider the dimensions of the square base thus carefully placed in latitude #cj deg4 north to the best of the builders' power1 with sides carefully oriented4 ,it seems highly probable that1 whatever special purpose the pyramid was intended to fulfil1 a subordinate idea of the builders would have been to represent symbolically in the proportions of the building such mathematical and astronomical relations as they were acquainted with4 ,from what we know by tradition of the men of the remote time when the pyramid was built1 and what we can infer from the ideas of those who inherited1 however remotely1 the modes of thought of the earliest astronomers and mathematicians1 we can well believe that they would look with superstitious reverence on special figures1 proportions1 numbers1 and so forth4 ,apart from this1 they may have had a quasi-scientific desire to make a lasting record of their discoveries1 and of the collected knowledge of their time4 ,it seems altogether probable1 then1 that the smaller unit of measurement used by the builders of the great ,pyramid was intended1 as ,professor ,smyth thinks1 to be equal to the #ejj1jjj1jjjth part of the earth's diameter1 determined from their geodetical observations4 ,it was perfectly within the power of mechanicians and mathematicians so experienced as they undoubtedly were--the pyramid attests so much--to measure with considerable accuracy the length of a degree of latitude4 ,they could not possibly 7always setting aside the theory of divine inspiration7 have known anything about the compression of the earth's globe1 and therefore could not have intended1 as ,professor ,smyth supposes1 to have had the #ejj1jjj1jjjth part of the earth's polar axis1 as distinguished from any other1 for their unit of length4 ,but if they made observations in or near latitude #cj deg4 north on the supposition that the earth is a globe1 their probable error would exceed the difference even between the earth's polar and equatorial diameters4 ,both differences are largely exceeded by the range of difference among the estimates of the actual length of the sacred cubit1 supposed to have contained twenty-five of these smaller units4 ,and1 again1 the length of the pyramid base-side1 on which ,smyth bases his own estimate of the sacred cubit1 has been variously estimated1 the largest measure being #iafh inches1 and the lowest #iaaj inches4 ,the fundamental theory of the pyramidalists1 that the sacred cubit was exactly one #bj1jjj1jjjth part of the earth's polar diameter1 and that the side of the base contained as many cubits and parts of a cubit as there are days and parts of a day in the tropical year 7or year of seasons71 requires that the length of the side should be #iadj inches1 lying between the limits indicated1 but still so widely removed from either that it would appear very unsafe to base a theory on the supposition that the exact length is or was #iadj inches4 ,if the measures #iafh inches and #iaaj inches were inferior1 and several excellent measures made by practised observers ranged around the length #iadj inches1 the case would be different4 ,but the best recent measures gave respectively #iaaj and #iacj inches2 and ,smyth exclaims against the unfairness of ,sir ,h4 ,james in taking #iabj as 'therefore the probable true length of the side of the great pyramid when perfect1' calling this 'a dishonourable shelving of the honourable older observers with their larger results4' ,the only other measures1 besides these two1 are two by ,colonel ,howard ,vyse and by the ,french savants1 giving respectively #iafh and #iafc4dd inches4 ,the pyramidalists consider #iadj inches a fair mean value from these four4 ,the natural inference1 however1 is1 that the pyramid base is not now in a condition to be satisfactorily measured2 and assuredly no such reliance can be placed on the mean value #iadj inches that1 on the strength of it1 we should believe what otherwise would be utterly incredible1 viz4 that the builders of the great pyramid knew 'both the size and shape of the earth exactly4' ',humanly1 or by human science1 finding it out in that age was1 of course1 utterly impossible1' says ,professor ,smyth4 ,but he is so confident of the average value derived from widely conflicting base measures as to assume that this value1 not being humanly discoverable1 was of necessity 'attributable to ,god and to ,his ,divine inspiration4' ,we may agree1 in fine1 with ,smyth1 that the builders of the pyramid knew the earth to be a globe2 that they took for their measure of length the sacred cubit1 which1 by their earth measures1 they made very fairly approximate to the #bj1jjj1jjjth part of the earth's mean diameter2 but there seems no reason whatever for supposing 7even if the supposition were not antecedently of its very nature inadmissible7 that they knew anything about the compression of the earth1 or that they had measured a degree of latitude in their own place with very wonderful accuracy4#bj ,but here a very singular coincidence may be noticed1 or1 rather1 is forced upon our notice by the pyramidalists1 who strangely enough recognise in it fresh evidence of design1 while the unbeliever finds in it proof that coincidences are no sure evidence of design4 ,the side of the pyramid containing #cfe-a_/d times the sacred cubit of #be pyramid inches1 it follows that the diagonal of the base contains #ab1iab such inches1 and the two diagonals together contain #be1hbd pyramid inches1 or almost exactly as many inches as there are years in the great precessional period4 ',no one whatever amongst men1' says ,professor ,smyth after recording various estimates of the precessional period1 'from his own or school knowledge1 knew anything about such a phenomenon1 until ,hipparchus1 some #aijj years after the great pyramid's foundation1 had a glimpse of the fact2 and yet it had been ruling the heavens for ages1 and was recorded in ,jeezeh's ancient structure4' ,to minds not moved to most energetic forgetfulness by the spirit of faith1 it would appear that when a square base had been decided upon1 and its dimensions fixed1 with reference to the earth's diameter and the year1 the diagonals of the square base were determined also2 and1 if it so chanced that they corresponded with some other perfectly independent relation1 the fact was not to be credited to the architects4 ,moreover it is manifest that the closeness of such a coincidence suggests grave doubts how far other coincidences can be relied upon as evidence of design4 ,it seems1 for instance1 altogether likely that the architects of the pyramid took the sacred cubit equal to one #bj1jjj1jjjth part of the earth's diameter for their chief unit of length1 and intentionally assigned to the side of the pyramid's square base a length of just so many cubits as there are days in the year2 and the closeness of the coincidence between the measured length and that indicated by this theory strengthens the idea that this was the builder's purpose4 ,but when we find that an even closer coincidence immediately presents itself1 which manifestly is a coincidence only1 the force of the evidence before derived from mere coincidence is pro tanto shaken4 ,for consider what this new coincidence really means4 ,its nature may be thus indicated3 ,take the number of days in the year1 multiply that number by #ej1 and increase the result in the same degree that the diagonal of a square exceeds the side--then the resulting number represents very approximately the number of years in the great precessional period4 ,the error1 according to the best modern estimates1 is about one #egeth part of the true period4 ,this is1 of course1 a merely accidental coincidence1 for there is no connection whatever in nature between the earth's period of rotation1 the shape of a square1 and the earth's period of gyration4 ,yet this merely accidental coincidence is very much closer than the other supposed to be designed could be proved to be4 ,it is clear1 then1 that mere coincidence is a very unsafe evidence of design4 ,of course the pyramidalists find a ready reply to such reasoning4 ,they argue that1 in the first place1 it may have been by express design that the period of the earth's rotation was made to bear this particular relation to the period of gyration in the mighty precessional movement3 which is much as though one should say that by express design the height of ,monte ,rosa contains as many feet as there are miles in the #fjjjth part of the sun's distance4#ba ,then1 they urge1 the architects were not bound to have a square base for the pyramid2 they might have had an oblong or a triangular base1 and so forth--all which accords very ill with the enthusiastic language in which the selection of a square base had on other accounts been applauded4 ,next let us consider the height of the pyramid4 ,according to the best modern measurements1 it would seem that the height when 7if ever7 the pyramid terminated above in a pointed apex1 must have been about #dhf feet4 ,and from the comparison of the best estimates of the base side with the best estimates of the height1 it seems very likely indeed that the intention of the builders was to make the height bear to the perimeter of the base the same ratio which the radius of a circle bears to the circumference4 ,remembering the range of difference in the base measures it might be supposed that the exactness of the approximation to this ratio could not be determined very satisfactorily4 ,but as certain casing stones have been discovered which indicate with considerable exactness the slope of the original plane-surfaces of the pyramid1 the ratio of the height to the side of the base may be regarded as much more satisfactorily determined than the actual value of either dimension4 ,of course the pyramidalists claim a degree of precision indicating a most accurate knowledge of the ratio between the diameter and the circumference of a circle2 and the angle of the only casing stone measured being diversely estimated at #ea deg4 #ej' and #ea deg4 #eb-a_/d'1 they consider #ej deg4 #ea' #ad4c the true value1 and infer that the builders regarded the ratio as #c4adaei to #a4 ,the real fact is1 that the modern estimates of the dimensions of the casing stones 7which1 by the way1 ought to agree better if these stones are as well made as stated7 indicate the values #c4adcibbh and #c4acifgdj for the ratio2 and all we can say is1 that the ratio really used lay probably between these limits1 though it may have been outside either4 ,now the approximation of either is not remarkably close4 ,it requires no mathematical knowledge at all to determine the circumference of a circle much more exactly4 ',i thought it very strange1' wrote a circle-squarer once to ,de ,morgan 7,budget of ,paradoxes1 p4 #chi71 'that so many great scholars in all ages should have failed in finding the true ratio1 and have been determined to try myself4' ',i have been informed1' proceeds ,de ,morgan1 'that this trial makes the diameter to the circumference as #fd to #bja1 giving the ratio equal to #c4adajfbe exactly4 ,the result was obtained by the discoverer in three weeks after he first heard of the existence of the difficulty4 ,this quadrator has since published a little slip and entered it at ,stationers' ,hall4 ,he says he has done it by actual measurement2 and ,i hear from a private source that he uses a disc of twelve inches diameter which he rolls upon a straight rail4' ,the 'rolling is a very creditable one2 it is as much below the mark as ,archimedes was above it4 ,its performer is a joiner who evidently knows well what he is about when he measures2 he is not wrong by #a in #cjjj4' ,such skilful mechanicians as the builders of the pyramid could have obtained a closer approximation still by mere measurement4 ,besides1 as they were manifestly mathematicians1 such an approximation as was obtained by ,archimedes must have been well within their power2 and that approximation lies well within the limits above indicated4 ,professor ,smyth remarks that the ratio was 'a quantity which men in general1 and all human science too1 did not begin to trouble themselves about until long1 long ages1 languages1 and nations had passed away after the building of the great pyramid2 and after the sealing up1 too1 of that grand primeval and prehistoric monument of the patriarchal age of the earth according to ,scripture4' ,i do not know where the ,scripture records the sealing up of the great pyramid2 but it is all but certain that during the very time when the pyramid was being built astronomical observations were in progress which1 for their interpretation1 involved of necessity a continual reference to the ratio in question4 ,no one who considers the wonderful accuracy with which1 nearly two thousand years before the ,christian era1 the ,chaldaeans had determined the famous cycle of the ,saros1 can doubt that they must have observed the heavenly bodies for several centuries before they could have achieved such a success2 and the study of the motions of the celestial bodies compels 'men to trouble themselves' about the famous ratio of the circumference to the diameter4 ,we now come upon a new relation 7contained in the dimensions of the pyramid as thus determined7 which1 by a strange coincidence1 causes the height of the pyramid to appear to symbolise the distance of the sun4 ,there were #ehac pyramid inches1 or #ehai ,british inches1 in the height of the pyramid according to the relations already indicated4 ,now1 in the sun's distance1 according to an estimate recently adopted and freely used1#bb there are #ia1djj1jjj miles or #egia thousand millions of inches--that is1 there are approximately as many thousand millions of inches in the sun's distance as there are inches in the height of the pyramid4 ,if we take the relation as exact we should infer for the sun's distance #ehai thousand millions of inches1 or #ia1hdj1jjj miles--an immense improvement on the estimate which for so many years occupied a place of honour in our books of astronomy4 ,besides1 there is strong reason for believing that1 when the results of recent observations are worked out1 the estimated sun distance will be much nearer this pyramid value than even to the value #ia1djj1jjj recently adopted4 ,this result1 which one would have thought so damaging to faith in the evidence from coincidence--nay1 quite fatal after the other case in which a close coincidence had appeared by merest accident--is regarded by the pyramidalist as a perfect triumph for their faith4 ,they connect it with another coincidence1 viz4 that1 assuming the height determined in the way already indicated1 then it so happens that the height bears to half a diagonal of the base the ratio #i to #aj4 ,seeing that the perimeter of the base symbolises the annual motion of the earth round the sun1 while the height represents the radius of a circle with that perimeter1 it follows that the height should symbolise the sun's distance4 ',that line1 further1' says ,professor ,smyth 7speaking on behalf of ,mr4 ,w4 ,petrie1 the discoverer of this relation71 'must represent' this radius 'in the proportion of #a to #a1jjj1jjj1jjj' 7or ten raised to power nine71 'because amongst other reasons #aj to #i is practically the shape of the great pyramid4' ,for this building 'has such an angle at the corners1 that for every ten units its structure advances inwards on the diagonal of the base1 it practically rises upwards1 or points to sunshine' 7sic7 'by nine4 ,nine1 too1 out of the ten characteristic parts 7viz4 five angles and five sides7 being the number of those parts which the sun shines on in such a shaped pyramid1 in such a latitude near the equator1 out of a high sky1 or1 as the ,peruvians say1 when the sun sets on the pyramid with all its rays4' ,the coincidence itself on which this perverse reasoning rests is a singular one--singular1 that is1 as showing how close an accidental coincidence may run4 ,it amounts to this1 that if the number of days in the year be multiplied by #ajj1 and a circle be drawn with a circumference containing #ajj times as many inches as there are days in the year1 the radius of the circle will be very nearly one #a1jjj1jjj1jjjth part of the sun's distance4 ,remembering that the pyramid inch is assumed to be one #ejj1jjj1jjjth part of the earth's diameter1 we shall not be far from the truth in saying that1 as a matter of fact1 the earth by her orbital motion traverses each day a distance equal to two hundred times her own diameter4 ,but1 of course1 this relation is altogether accidental4 ,it has no real cause in nature4#bc ,such relations show that mere numerical coincidences1 however close1 have little weight as evidence1 except where they occur in series4 ,even then they require to be very cautiously regarded1 seeing that the history of science records many instances where the apparent law of a series has been found to be falsified when the theory has been extended4 ,of course this reason is not quoted in order to throw doubt on the supposition that the height of the pyramid was intended to symbolise the sun's distance4 ,that supposition is simply inadmissible if the hypothesis1 according to which the height was already independently determined in another way1 is admitted4 ,either hypothesis might be admitted were we not certain that the sun's distance could not possibly have been known to the builders of the pyramid2 or both hypotheses may be rejected3 but to admit both is out of the question4 ,considering the multitude of dimensions of length1 surface1 capacity1 and position1 the great number of shapes1 and the variety of material existing within the pyramid1 and considering1 further1 the enormous number of relations 7presented by modern science7 from among which to choose1 can it be wondered at if fresh coincidences are being continually recognised8 ,if a dimension will not serve in one way1 use can be found for it in another2 for instance1 if some measure of length does not correspond closely with any known dimension of the earth or of the solar system 7an unlikely supposition71 then it can be understood to typify an interval of time4 ,if1 even after trying all possible changes of that kind1 no coincidence shows itself 7which is all but impossible71 then all that is needed to secure a coincidence is that the dimensions should be manipulated a little4 ,let a single instance suffice to show how the pyramidalists 7with perfect honesty of purpose7 hunt down a coincidence4 ,the slant tunnel already described has a transverse height1 once no doubt uniform1 now giving various measures from #dg4ad pyramid inches to #dg4cb inches1 so that the vertical height from the known inclination of the tunnel would be estimated at somewhere between #eb4fd inches and #eb4he4 ,neither dimension corresponds very obviously with any measured distance in the earth or solar system4 ,nor when we try periods1 areas1 etc41 does any very satisfactory coincidence present itself4 ,but the difficulty is easily turned into a new proof of design4 ,putting all the observations together 7says ,professor ,smyth71 ',i deduced #dg4bd pyramid inches to be the transverse height of the entrance passage2 and computing from thence with the observed angle of inclination the vertical height1 that came out #eb4gf of the same inches4 ,but the sum of those two heights1 or the height taken up and down1 equals #ajj inches1 which length1 as elsewhere shown1 is the general pyramid linear representation of a day of twenty-four hours4 ,and the mean of the two heights1 or the height taken one way only1 and impartially to the middle point between them1 equals fifty inches2 which quantity is1 therefore1 the general pyramid linear representation of only half a day4 ,in which case1 let us ask what the entrance passage has to do with half rather than a whole day8' ,on relations such as these1 which1 if really intended by the architect1 would imply an utterly fatuous habit of concealing elaborately what he desired to symbolise1 the pyramidalists base their belief that 'a ,mighty ,intelligence did both think out the plans for it1 and compel unwilling and ignorant idolators1 in a primal age of the world1 to work mightily both for the future glory of the one true ,god of ,revelation1 and to establish lasting prophetic testimony touching a further development1 still to take place1 of the absolutely ,divine ,christian dispensation4' ,,iii4 ,,the ,,mystery ,,of ,,the ,,pyramids4 ,few subjects of inquiry have proved more perplexing than the question of the purpose for which the pyramids of ,egypt were built4 ,even in the remotest ages of which we have historical record1 nothing seems to have been known certainly on this point4 ,for some reason or other1 the builders of the pyramids concealed the object of these structures1 and this so successfully that not even a tradition has reached us which purports to have been handed down from the epoch of the pyramids' construction4 ,we find1 indeed1 some explanations given by the earliest historians2 but they were professedly only hypothetical1 like those advanced in more recent times4 ,including ancient and modern theories1 we find a wide range of choice4 ,some have thought that these buildings were associated with the religion of the early ,egyptians2 others have suggested that they were tombs2 others1 that they combined the purposes of tombs and temples1 that they were astronomical observatories1 defences against the sands of the ,great ,desert1 granaries like those made under ,joseph's direction1 places of resort during excessive overflows of the ,nile2 and many other uses have been suggested for them4 ,but none of these ideas are found on close examination to be tenable as representing the sole purpose of the pyramids1 and few of them have strong claims to be regarded as presenting even a chief object of these remarkable structures4 ,the significant and perplexing history of the three oldest pyramids--the ,great ,pyramid of ,cheops1 ,shofo1 or ,suphis1 the pyramid of ,chephren1 and the pyramid of ,mycerinus2 and the most remarkable of all the facts known respecting the pyramids generally1 viz41 the circumstance that one pyramid after another was built as though each had become useless soon after it was finished1 are left entirely unexplained by all the theories above mentioned1 save one only1 the tomb theory1 and that does not afford by any means a satisfactory explanation of the circumstances4 ,i propose to give here a brief account of some of the most suggestive facts known respecting the pyramids1 and1 after considering the difficulties which beset the theories heretofore advanced1 to indicate a theory 7new so far as ,i know7 which seems to me to correspond better with the facts than any heretofore advanced2 ,i suggest it1 however1 rather for consideration than because ,i regard it as very convincingly supported by the evidence4 ,in fact1 to advance any theory at present with confident assurance of its correctness1 would be simply to indicate a very limited acquaintance with the difficulties surrounding the subject4 ,let us first consider a few of the more striking facts recorded by history or tradition1 noting1 as we proceed1 whatever ideas they may suggest as to the intended character of these structures4 ,it is hardly necessary to say1 perhaps1 that the history of the ,great ,pyramid is of paramount importance in this inquiry4 ,whatever purpose pyramids were originally intended to subserve1 must have been conceived by the builders of that pyramid4 ,new ideas may have been superadded by the builders of later pyramids1 but it is unlikely that the original purpose can have been entirely abandoned4 ,some great purpose there was1 which the rulers of ancient ,egypt proposed to fulfil by building very massive pyramidal structures on a particular plan4 ,it is by inquiring into the history of the first and most massive of these structures1 and by examining its construction1 that we shall have the best chance of finding out what that great purpose was4 ,according to ,herodotus1 the kings who built the pyramids reigned not more than twenty-eight centuries ago2 but there can be little doubt that ,herodotus misunderstood the ,egyptian priests from whom he derived his information1 and that the real antiquity of the pyramid-kings was far greater4 ,he tells us that1 according to the ,egyptian priests1 ,cheops 'on ascending the throne plunged into all manner of wickedness4 ,he closed the temples1 and forbade the ,egyptians to offer sacrifice1 compelling them instead to labour one and all in his service1 viz41 in building the ,great ,pyramid4' ,still following his interpretation of the ,egyptian account1 we learn that one hundred thousand men were employed for twenty years in building the ,great ,pyramid1 and that ten years were occupied in constructing a causeway by which to convey the stones to the place and in conveying them there4 ',cheops reigned fifty years2 and was succeeded by his brother ,chephren1 who imitated the conduct of his predecessor1 built a pyramid--but smaller than his brother's--and reigned fifty-six years4 ,thus during one hundred and six years1 the temples were shut and never opened4' ,moreover1 ,herodotus tells us that 'the ,egyptians so detested the memory of these kings1 that they do not much like even to mention their names4 ,hence they commonly call the pyramids after ,philition1 a shepherd who at that time fed his flocks about the place4' ',after ,chephren1 ,mycerinus1 son of ,cheops1 ascended the throne1 he reopened the temples1 and allowed the people to resume the practice of sacrifice4 ,he1 too1 left a pyramid1 but much inferior in size to his father's4 ,it is built1 for half of its height1 of the stone of ,ethiopia1' or1 as ,professor ,smyth 7whose extracts from ,rawlinson's translation ,i have here followed7 adds 'expensive red granite4' ',after ,mycerinus1 ,asychis ascended the throne4 ,he built the eastern gateway of the ,temple of ,vulcan 7,phtha72 and1 being desirous of eclipsing all his predecessors on the throne1 left as a monument of his reign a pyramid of brick4' ,this account is so suggestive1 as will presently be shown1 that it may be well to inquire whether it can be relied on4 ,now1 although there can be no doubt that ,herodotus misunderstood the ,egyptians in some matters1 and in particular as to the chronological order of the dynasties1 placing the pyramid kings far too late1 yet in other respects he seems not only to have understood them correctly1 but also to have received a correct account from them4 ,the order of the kings above named corresponds with the sequence given by ,manetho1 and also found in monumental and hieroglyphic records4 ,manetho gives the names ,suphis ,i41 ,suphis ,,ii41 and ,mencheres1 instead of ,cheops1 ,chephren1 and ,mycerinus2 while1 according to the modern ,egyptologists1 ,herodotus's ,cheops was ,shofo1 ,shufu1 or ,koufou2 ,chephren was ,shafre1 while he was also called ,nou-,shofo or ,noum-,shufu as the brother of ,shofo2 and ,mycerinus was ,menhere or ,menkerre4 ,but the identity of these kings is not questioned4 ,as to the true dates there is much doubt1 and it is probable that the question will long continue open2 but the determination of the exact epochs when the several pyramids were built is not very important in connection with our present inquiry4 ,we may1 on the whole1 fairly take the points quoted above from ,herodotus1 and proceed to consider the significance of the narrative1 with sufficient confidence that in all essential respects it is trustworthy4 ,there are several very strange features in the account4 ,in the first place1 it is manifest that ,cheops 7to call the first king by the name most familiar to the general reader7 attached great importance to the building of his pyramid4 ,it has been said1 and perhaps justly1 that it would be more interesting to know the plan of the architect who devised the pyramid than the purpose of the king who built it4 ,but the two things are closely connected4 ,the architect must have satisfied the king that some highly important purpose in which the king himself was interested1 would be subserved by the structure4 ,whether the king was persuaded to undertake the work as a matter of duty1 or only to advance his own interests1 may not be so clear4 ,but that the king was most thoroughly in earnest about the work is certain4 ,a monarch in those times would assuredly not have devoted an enormous amount of labour and material to such a scheme unless he was thoroughly convinced of its great importance4 ,that the welfare of his people was not considered by ,cheops in building the ,great ,pyramid is almost equally certain4 ,he might1 indeed1 have had a scheme for their good which either he did not care to explain to them or which they could not understand4 ,but the most natural inference from the narrative is that his purpose had no reference whatever to their welfare4 ,for though one could understand his own subjects hating him while he was all the time working for their good1 it is obvious that his memory would not have been hated if some important good had eventually been gained from his scheme4 ,many a far-seeing ruler has been hated while living on account of the very work for which his memory has been revered4 ,but the memory of ,cheops and his successors was held in detestation4 ,may we1 however1 suppose that1 though ,cheops had not the welfare of his own people in his thoughts1 his purpose was nevertheless not selfish1 but intended in some way to promote the welfare of the human race8 ,i say his purpose1 because1 whoever originated the scheme1 ,cheops carried it out2 it was by means of his wealth and through his power that the pyramid was built4 ,this is the view adopted by ,professor ,piazzi ,smyth and others1 in our own time1 and first suggested by ,john ,taylor4 ',whereas other writers1' says ,smyth1 'have generally esteemed that the mysterious persons who directed the building of the ,great ,pyramid 7and to whom the ,egyptians1 in their traditions1 and for ages afterwards1 gave an immoral and even abominable character7 must therefore have been very bad indeed1 so that the world at large has always been fond of standing on1 kicking1 and insulting that dead lion1 whom they really knew not2 he1 ,mr4 ,john ,taylor1 seeing how religiously bad the ,egyptians themselves were1 was led to conclude1 on the contrary1 that those they hated 7and could never sufficiently abuse7 might1 perhaps1 have been pre-eminently good2 or were1 at all events1 of different religious faith from themselves4' ',combining this with certain unmistakable historical facts1' ,mr4 ,taylor deduced reasons for believing that the directors of the building designed to record in its proportions1 and in its interior features1 certain important religious and scientific truths1 not for the people then living1 but for men who were to come #djjj years or so after4 ,i have already considered at length 7see the preceding ,essay7 the evidence on which this strange theory rests4 ,but there are certain matters connecting it with the above narrative which must here be noticed4 ,the mention of the shepherd ,philition1 who fed his flocks about the place where the ,great ,pyramid was built1 is a singular feature of ,herodotus's narrative4 ,it reads like some strange misinterpretation of the story related to him by the ,egyptian priests4 ,it is obvious that if the word ,philition did not represent a people1 but a person1 this person must have been very eminent and distinguished--a shepherd-king1 not a mere shepherd4 ,rawlinson1 in a note on this portion of the narrative of ,herodotus1 suggests that ,philitis was probably a shepherd-prince from ,palestine1 perhaps of ,philistine descent1 'but so powerful and domineering1 that it may be traditions of his oppressions in that earlier age which1 mixed up afterwards in the minds of later ,egyptians with the evils inflicted on their country by the subsequent shepherds of better known dynasties1 lent so much fear to their religious hate of ,shepherd times and that name4' ,smyth1 somewhat modifying this view1 and considering certain remarks of ,manetho respecting an alleged invasion of ,egypt by shepherd-kings1 'men of an ignoble race 7from the ,egyptian point of view7 who had the confidence to invade our country1 and easily subdued it to their power without a battle1' comes to the conclusion that some ,shemite prince1 'a contemporary of1 but rather older than1 the ,patriarch ,abraham1' visited ,egypt at this time1 and obtained such influence over the mind of ,cheops as to persuade him to erect the pyramid4 ,according to ,smyth1 the prince was no other than ,melchizedek1 king of ,salem1 and the influence he exerted was supernatural4 ,with such developments of the theory we need not trouble ourselves4 ,it seems tolerably clear that certain shepherd-chiefs who came to ,egypt during ,cheops' reign were connected in some way with the designing of the ,great ,pyramid4 ,it is clear also that they were men of a different religion from the ,egyptians1 and persuaded ,cheops to abandon the religion of his people4 ,taylor1 ,smyth1 and the ,pyramidalists generally1 consider this sufficient to prove that the pyramid was erected for some purpose connected with religion4 ',the pyramid1' in fine1 says ,smyth1 'was charged by ,god's inspired shepherd-prince1 in the beginning of human time1 to keep a certain message secret and inviolable for #djjj years1 and it has done so2 and in the next thousand years it was to enunciate that message to all men1 with more than traditional force1 more than all the authenticity of copied manuscripts or reputed history2 and that part of the pyramid's usefulness is now beginning4' ,there are many very obvious difficulties surrounding this theory2 as1 for example 7i47 the absurd waste of power in setting supernatural machinery at work #djjj years ago with cumbrous devices to record its object1 when the same machinery1 much more simply employed now1 would effect the alleged purpose far more thoroughly2 7ii47 the enormous amount of human misery and its attendant hatreds brought about by this alleged divine scheme2 and 7iii47 the futility of an arrangement by which the pyramid was only to subserve its purpose when it had lost that perfection of shape on which its entire significance depended1 according to the theory itself4 ,but1 apart from these1 there is a difficulty1 nowhere noticed by ,smyth or his followers1 which is fatal1 ,i conceive1 to this theory of the pyramid's purpose4 ,the second pyramid1 though slightly inferior to the first in size1 and probably far inferior in quality of masonry1 is still a structure of enormous dimensions1 which must have required many years of labour from tens of thousands of workmen4 ,now1 it seems impossible to explain why ,chephren built this second pyramid1 if we adopt ,smyth's theory respecting the first pyramid4 ,for either ,chephren knew the purpose for which the ,great ,pyramid was built1 or he did not know it4 ,if he knew that purpose1 and it was that indicated by ,smyth1 then he also knew that no second pyramid was wanted4 ,on that hypothesis1 all the labour bestowed on the second pyramid was wittingly and wilfully wasted4 ,this1 of course is incredible4 ,but1 on the other hand1 if ,chephren did not know what was the purpose for which the ,great ,pyramid was built1 what reason could ,chephren have had for building a pyramid at all8 ,the only answer to this question seems to be that ,chephren built the second pyramid in hopes of finding out why his brother had built the first1 and this answer is simply absurd4 ,it is clear enough that whatever purpose ,cheops had in building the first pyramid1 ,chephren must have had a similar purpose in building the second2 and we require a theory which shall at least explain why the first pyramid did not subserve for ,chephren the purpose which it subserved or was meant to subserve for ,cheops4 ,the same reasoning may be extended to the third pyramid1 to the fourth1 and in fine to all the pyramids1 forty or so in number1 included under the general designation of the ,pyramids of ,ghizeh or ,jeezeh4 ,the extension of the principle to pyramids later than the second is especially important as showing that the difference of religion insisted on by ,smyth has no direct bearing on the question of the purpose for which the ,great ,pyramid itself was constructed4 ,for ,mycerinus either never left or else returned to the religion of the ,egyptians4 ,yet he also built a pyramid1 which1 though far inferior in size to the pyramids built by his father and uncle1 was still a massive structure1 and relatively more costly even than theirs1 because built of expensive granite4 ,the pyramid built by ,asychis1 though smaller still1 was remarkable as built of brick2 in fact1 we are expressly told that ,asychis desired to eclipse all his predecessors in such labours1 and accordingly left this brick pyramid as a monument of his reign4 ,we are forced1 in fact1 to believe that there was some special relation between the pyramid and its builder1 seeing that each one of these kings wanted a pyramid of his own4 ,this applies to the ,great ,pyramid quite as much as to the others1 despite the superior excellence of that structure4 ,or rather1 the argument derives its chief force from the superiority of the ,great ,pyramid4 ,if ,chephren1 no longer perhaps having the assistance of the shepherd-architects in planning and superintending the work1 was unable to construct a pyramid so perfect and so stately as his brother's1 the very fact that he nevertheless built a pyramid shows that the ,great ,pyramid did not fulfil for ,chephren the purpose which it fulfilled for ,cheops4 ,but1 if ,smyth's theory were true1 the ,great ,pyramid would have fulfilled finally and for all men the purpose for which it was built4 ,since this was manifestly not the case1 that theory is1 ,i submit1 demonstrably erroneous4 ,it was probably the consideration of this point1 viz4 that each king had a pyramid constructed for himself1 which led to the theory that the pyramids were intended to serve as tombs4 ,this theory was once very generally entertained4 ,thus we find ,humboldt1 in his remarks on ,american pyramids1 referring to the tomb theory of the ,egyptian pyramids as though it were open to no question4 ',when we consider1' he says1 'the pyramidical monuments of ,egypt1 of ,asia1 and of the ,new ,continent1 from the same point of view1 we see that1 though their form is alike1 their destination was altogether different4 ,the group of pyramids of ,ghizeh and at ,sakhara in ,egypt2 the triangular pyramid of the ,queen of the ,scythians1 ,zarina1 which was a stadium high and three in circumference1 and which was decorated with a colossal figure2 the fourteen ,etruscan pyramids1 which are said to have been enclosed in the labyrinth of the king ,porsenna1 at ,clusium--were reared to serve as the sepulchres of the illustrious dead4 ,nothing is more natural to men than to commemorate the spot where rest the ashes of those whose memory they cherish whether it be1 as in the infancy of the race1 by simple mounds of earth1 or1 in later periods1 by the towering height of the tumulus4 ,those of the ,chinese and of ,thibet have only a few metres of elevation4 ,farther to the west the dimensions increase2 the tumulus of the king ,alyattes1 father of ,croesus1 in ,lydia1 was six stadia1 and that of ,ninus was more than ten stadia in diameter4 ,in the north of ,europe the sepulchre of the ,scandinavian king ,gormus and the queen ,daneboda1 covered with mounds of earth1 are three hundred metres broad1 and more than thirty high4' ,but while we have abundant reason for believing that in ,egypt1 even in the days of ,cheops and ,chephren1 extreme importance was attached to the character of the place of burial for distinguished persons1 there is nothing in what is known respecting earlier ,egyptian ideas to suggest the probability that any monarch would have devoted many years of his subjects' labour1 and vast stores of material1 to erect a mass of masonry like the ,great ,pyramid1 solely to receive his own body after death4 ,far less have we any reason for supposing that many monarchs in succession would do this1 each having a separate tomb built for him4 ,it might have been conceivable1 had only the ,great ,pyramid been erected1 that the structure had been raised as a mausoleum for all the kings and princes of the dynasty4 ,but it seems utterly incredible that such a building as the ,great ,pyramid should have been erected for one king's body only--and that1 not in the way described by ,humboldt1 when he speaks of men commemorating the spot where rest the remains of those whose memory they cherish1 but at the expense of the king himself whose body was to be there deposited4 ,besides1 the first pyramid1 the one whose history must be regarded as most significant of the true purpose of these buildings1 was not built by an ,egyptian holding in great favour the special religious ideas of his people1 but by one who had adopted other views and those not belonging1 so far as can be seen1 to a people among whom sepulchral rites were held in exceptional regard4 ,a still stronger objection against the exclusively tombic theory resides in the fact that this theory gives no account whatever of the characteristic features of the pyramids themselves4 ,these buildings are all1 without exception1 built on special astronomical principles4 ,their square bases are so placed as to have two sides lying east and west1 and two lying north and south1 or1 in other words1 so that their four faces front the four cardinal points4 ,one can imagine no reason why a tomb should have such a position4 ,it is not1 indeed1 easy to understand why any building at all1 except an astronomical observatory1 should have such a position4 ,a temple perhaps devoted to sun-worship1 and generally to the worship of the heavenly bodies1 might be built in that way4 ,for it is to be noticed that the peculiar figure and position of the pyramids would bring about the following relations3--,when the sun rose and set south of the east and west points1 or 7speaking generally7 between the autumn and the spring equinoxes1 the rays of the rising and setting sun illuminated the southern face of the pyramid2 whereas during the rest of the year1 that is1 during the six months between the spring and autumn equinoxes1 the rays of the rising and setting sun illuminated the northern face4 ,again1 all the year round the sun's rays passed from the eastern to the western face at solar noon4 ,and lastly1 during seven months and a half of each year1 namely1 for three months and three quarters before and after midsummer1 the noon rays of the sun fell on all four faces of the pyramid1 or1 according to a ,peruvian expression 7so ,smyth avers71 the sun shone on the pyramid 'with all his rays4' ,such conditions as these might have been regarded as very suitable for a temple devoted to sun-worship4 ,yet the temple theory is as untenable as the tomb theory4 ,for1 in the first place1 the pyramid form--as the pyramids were originally built1 with perfectly smooth slant-faces1 not terraced into steps as now through the loss of the casing-stones--was entirely unsuited for all the ordinary requirements of a temple of worship4 ,and further1 this theory gives no explanation of the fact that each king built a pyramid1 and each king only one4 ,similar difficulties oppose the theory that the pyramids were intended to serve as astronomical observatories4 ,for while their original figure1 however manifestly astronomical in its relations1 was quite unsuited for observatory work1 it is manifest that if such had been the purpose of pyramid-building1 so soon as the ,great ,pyramid had once been built1 no other would be needed4 ,certainly none of the pyramids built afterwards could have subserved any astronomical purpose which the first did not subserve1 or have subserved nearly so well as the ,great ,pyramid those purposes 7and they are but few7 which that building may be supposed to have fulfilled as an astronomical observatory4 ,of the other theories mentioned at the beginning of this paper none seem to merit special notice1 except perhaps the theory that the pyramids were made to receive the royal treasures1 and this theory rather because of the attention it received from ,arabian literati1 during the ninth and tenth centuries1 than because of any strong reasons which can be suggested in its favour4 ',emulating1' says ,professor ,smyth1 'the enchanted tales of ,bagdad1' the court poets of ,al ,mamoun 7son of the far-famed ,haroun al ,raschid7 'drew gorgeous pictures of the contents of the pyramid's interior4444 ,all the treasures of ,sheddad ,ben ,ad the great ,antediluvian king of the earth1 with all his medicines and all his sciences1 they declared were there1 told over and over again4 ,others1 though1 were positive that the founder-king was no other than ,saurid ,ibn ,salhouk1 a far greater one than the other2 and these last gave many more minute particulars1 some of which are at least interesting to us in the present day1 as proving that1 amongst the ,egypto-,arabians of more than a thousand years ago1 the ,jeezeh pyramids1 headed by the grand one1 enjoyed a pre-eminence of fame vastly before all the other pyramids of ,egypt put together2 and that if any other is alluded to after the ,great ,pyramid 7which has always been the notable and favourite one1 and chiefly was known then as the ,east pyramid71 it is either the second one at ,jeezeh1 under the name of the ,west pyramid2 or the third one1 distinguished as the ,coloured pyramid1 in allusion to its red granite1 compared with the white limestone casings of the other two 7which1 moreover1 from their more near1 but by no means exact1 equality of size1 went frequently under the affectionate designation of the pair74' ,the report of ,ibn ,abd ,alkohm1 as to what was to be found in each of these three pyramids1 or rather of what1 according to him1 was put into them originally by ,king ,saurid1 runs as follows3 ',in the ,western pyramid1 thirty treasuries filled with store of riches and utensils1 and with signatures made of precious stones1 and with instruments of iron and vessels of earth1 and with arms which rust not1 and with glass which might be bended and yet not broken1 and with strange spells1 and with several kinds of alakakirs 7magical precious stones7 single and double1 and with deadly poisons1 and with other things besides4 ,he made also in the ,east' 7the ,great ,pyramid7 'divers celestial spheres and stars1 and what they severally operate in their aspects1 and the perfumes which are to be used to them1 and the books which treat of these matters4 ,he put also into the coloured pyramid the commentaries of the priests in chests of black marble1 and with every priest a book1 in which the wonders of his profession and of his actions and of his nature were written1 and what was done in his time1 and what is and what shall be from the beginning of time to the end of it4' ,the rest of this worthy's report relates to certain treasurers placed within these three pyramids to guard their contents1 and 7like all or most of what ,i have already quoted7 was a work of imagination4 ,ibn ,abd ,alkohm1 in fact1 was a romancist of the first water4 ,perhaps the strongest argument against the theory that the pyramids were intended as strongholds for the concealment of treasure1 resides in the fact that1 search being made1 no treasure has been discovered4 ,when the workmen employed by ,caliph ,al ,mamoun1 after encountering manifold difficulties1 at length broke their way into the great ascending passage leading to the so-called ,king's ,chamber1 they found 'a right noble apartment1 thirty-four feet long1 seventeen broad1 and nineteen high1 of polished red granite throughout1 walls1 floor1 and ceiling1 in blocks squared and true1 and put together with such exquisite skill that the joints are barely discernible to the closest inspection4 ,but where is the treasure--the silver and the gold1 the jewels1 medicines1 and arms8--,these fanatics look wildly around them1 but can see nothing1 not a single dirhem anywhere4 ,they trim their torches1 and carry them again and again to every part of that red-walled1 flinty hall1 but without any better success4 ,nought but pure polished red granite1 in mighty slabs1 looks upon them from every side4 ,the room is clean1 garnished too1 as it were1 and1 according to the ideas of its founders1 complete and perfectly ready for its visitors so long expected1 so long delayed4 ,but the gross minds who occupy it now1 find it all barren1 and declare that there is nothing whatever for them in the whole extent of the apartment from one end to another2 nothing except an empty stone chest without a lid4' ,it is1 however1 to be noted that we have no means of learning what had happened between the time when the pyramid was built and when ,caliph ,al ,mamoun's workmen broke their way into the ,king's ,chamber4 ,the place may1 after all1 have contained treasures of some kind2 nor1 indeed1 is it incompatible with other theories of the pyramid to suppose that it was used as a safe receptacle for treasures4 ,it is certain1 however1 that this cannot have been the special purpose for which the pyramids were designed4 ,we should find in such a purpose no explanation whatever of any of the most stringent difficulties encountered in dealing with other theories4 ,there could be no reason why strangers from the ,east should be at special pains to instruct an ,egyptian monarch how to hide and guard his treasures4 ,nor1 if the ,great ,pyramid had been intended to receive the treasures of ,cheops1 would ,chephren have built another for his own treasures1 which must have included those gathered by ,cheops4 ,but1 apart from this1 how inconceivably vast must a treasure-hoard be supposed to be1 the safe guarding of which would have repaid the enormous cost of the great ,pyramid in labour and material6 ,and then1 why should a mere treasure-house have the characteristics of an astronomical observatory8 ,manifestly1 if the pyramids were used at all to receive treasures1 it can only have been as an entirely subordinate though perhaps convenient means of utilising these gigantic structures4 ,having thus gone through all the suggested purposes of the pyramids save two or three which clearly do not possess any claim to serious consideration1 and having found none which appear to give any sufficient account of the history and principal features of these buildings1 we must either abandon the inquiry or seek for some explanation quite different from any yet suggested4 ,let us consider what are the principal points of which the true theory of the pyramids should give an account4 ,in the first place1 the history of the pyramids shows that the erection of the first great pyramid was in all probability either suggested to ,cheops by wise men who visited ,egypt from the ,east1 or else some important information conveyed to him by such visitors caused him to conceive the idea of building the pyramid4 ,in either case we may suppose1 as the history indeed suggests1 that these learned men1 whoever they may have been1 remained in ,egypt to superintend the erection of the structure4 ,it may be that the architectural work was not under their supervision2 in fact1 it seems altogether unlikely that shepherd-rulers would have much to teach the ,egyptians in the matter of architecture4 ,but the astronomical peculiarities which form so significant a feature of the ,great ,pyramid were probably provided for entirely under the instructions of the shepherd chiefs who had exerted so strange an influence upon the mind of ,king ,cheops4 ,next1 it seems clear that self-interest must have been the predominant reason in the mind of the ,egyptian king for undertaking this stupendous work4 ,it is true that his change of religion implies that some higher cause influenced him4 ,but a ruler who could inflict such grievous burdens on his people in carrying out his purpose that for ages afterwards his name was held in utter detestation1 cannot have been solely or even chiefly influenced by religious motives4 ,it affords an ample explanation of the behaviour of ,cheops1 in closing the temples and forsaking the religion of his country1 to suppose that the advantages which he hoped to secure by building the pyramid depended in some way on his adopting this course4 ,the visitors from the ,east may have refused to give their assistance on any other terms1 or may have assured him that the expected benefit could not be obtained if the pyramid were erected by idolaters4 ,it is certain1 in any case1 that they were opposed to idolatry2 and we have thus some means of inferring who they were and whence they came4 ,we know that one particular branch of one particular race in the ,east was characterised by a most marked hatred of idolatry in all its forms4 ,terah and his family1 or1 probably1 a sect or division of the ,chaldaean people1 went forth from ,ur of the ,chaldees1 to go into the land of ,canaan--and the reason why they went forth we learn from a book of considerable historical interest 7the book of ,judith7 to have been because 'they would not worship the gods of their fathers who were in the land of the ,chaldaeans4' ,the ,bible record shows that members of this branch of the ,chaldaean people visited ,egypt from time to time4 ,they were shepherds1 too1 which accords well with the account of ,herodotus above quoted4 ,we can well understand that persons of this family would have resisted all endeavours to secure their acquiescence in any scheme associated with idolatrous rites4 ,neither promises nor threats would have had much influence on them4 ,it was a distinguished member of the family1 the patriarch ,abraham1 who said3 ',i have lift up mine hand unto the ,lord1 the most high ,god1 the possessor of heaven and earth1 that ,i will not take from a thread even to a shoe-latchet1 and that ,i will not take anything that is thine1 lest thou shouldest say1 ,i have made ,abram rich4' ,vain would all the promises and all the threats of ,cheops have been to men of this spirit4 ,such men might help him in his plans1 suggested1 as the history shows1 by teachings of their own1 but it must be on their own conditions1 and those conditions would most certainly include the utter rejection of idolatrous worship by the king in whose behalf they worked1 as well as by all who shared in their labours4 ,it seems probable that they convinced both ,cheops and ,chephren1 that unless these kings gave up idolatry1 the purpose1 whatever it was1 which the pyramid was erected to promote1 would not be fulfilled4 ,the mere fact that the ,great ,pyramid was built either directly at the suggestion of these visitors1 or because they had persuaded ,cheops of the truth of some important doctrine1 shows that they must have gained great influence over his mind4 ,rather we may say that he must have been so convinced of their knowledge and power as to have accepted with unquestioning confidence all that they told him respecting the particular subject over which they seemed to possess so perfect a mastery4 ,but having formed the opinion1 on grounds sufficiently assured1 that the strangers who visited ,egypt and superintended the building of the ,great ,pyramid were kinsmen of the patriarch ,abraham1 it is not very difficult to decide what was the subject respecting which they had such exact information4 ,they or their parents had come from the land of the ,chaldaeans1 and they were doubtless learned in all the wisdom of their ,chaldaean kinsmen4 ,they were masters1 in fact1 of the astronomy of their day1 a science for which the ,chaldaeans had shown from the earliest ages the most remarkable aptitude4 ,what the actual extent of their astronomical knowledge may have been it would be difficult to say4 ,but it is certain1 from the exact knowledge which later ,chaldaeans possessed respecting long astronomical cycles1 that astronomical observations must have been carried on continuously by that people for many hundreds of years4 ,it is highly probable that the astronomical knowledge of the ,chaldaeans in the days of ,terah and ,abraham was much more accurate than that possessed by the ,greeks even after the time of ,hipparchus4#bd ,we see indeed1 in the accurate astronomical adjustment of the ,great ,pyramid1 that the architects must have been skilful astronomers and mathematicians2 and ,i may note here1 in passing1 how strongly this circumstance confirms the opinion that the visitors were kinsmen of ,terah and ,abraham4 ,all we know from ,herodotus and ,manetho1 all the evidence from the circumstances connected with the religion of the pyramid-kings1 and the astronomical evidence given by the pyramids themselves1 tends to assure us that members of that particular branch of the ,chaldaean family which went out from ,ur of the ,chaldees because they would not worship the gods of the ,chaldaeans1 extended their wanderings to ,egypt1 and eventually superintended the erection of the ,great ,pyramid so far as astronomical and mathematical relations were concerned4 ,but not only have we already decided that the pyramids were not intended solely or chiefly to sub serve the purpose of astronomical observatories1 but it is certain that ,cheops would not have been personally much interested in any astronomical information which these visitors might be able to communicate4 ,unless he saw clearly that something was to be gained from the lore of his visitors1 he would not have undertaken to erect any astronomical buildings at their suggestion1 even if he had cared enough for their knowledge to pay any attention to them whatever4 ,most probably the reply ,cheops would have made to any communications respecting mere astronomy1 would have run much in the style of the reply made by the ,turkish ,cadi1 ,imaum ,ali ,zade to a friend of ,layard's who had apparently bored him about double stars and comets3 ',oh my soul6 oh my lamb6' said ,ali ,zade1 'seek not after the things which concern thee not4 ,thou camest unto us1 and we welcomed thee3 go in peace4 ,of a truth thou hast spoken many words2 and there is no harm done1 for the speaker is one and the listener is another4 ,after the fashion of thy people thou hast wandered from one place to another until thou art happy and content in none4 ,listen1 oh my son6 ,there is no wisdom equal unto the belief in ,god6 ,he created the world1 and shall we liken ourselves unto ,him in seeking to penetrate into the mysteries of ,his creation8 ,shall we say1 ,behold this star spinneth round that star1 and this other star with a tail goeth and cometh in so many years6 ,let it go6 ,he from whose hand it came will guide and direct it4 ,but thou wilt say unto me1 ,stand aside1 oh man1 for ,i am more learned than thou art1 and have seen more things4 ,if thou thinkest that thou art in this respect better than ,i am1 thou art welcome4 ,i praise ,god that ,i seek not that which ,i require not4 ,thou art learned in the things ,i care not for2 and as for that which thou hast seen1 ,i defile it4 ,will much knowledge create thee a double belly1 or wilt thou seek paradise with thine eyes8' ,such1 omitting the references to the ,creator1 would probably have been the reply of ,cheops to his visitors1 had they only had astronomical facts to present him with4 ,or1 in the plenitude of his kingly power1 he might have more decisively rejected their teaching by removing their heads4 ,but the shepherd-astronomers had knowledge more attractive to offer than a mere series of astronomical discoveries4 ,their ancestors had ,watched from the centres of their sleeping flocks ,those radiant ,mercuries1 that seemed to move ,carrying through aether in perpetual round ,decrees and resolutions of the gods2 and though the visitors of ,king ,cheops had themselves rejected the ,sabaistic polytheism of their kinsmen1 they had not rejected the doctrine that the stars in their courses affect the fortunes of men4 ,we know that among the ,jews1 probably the direct descendants of the shepherd-chiefs who visited ,cheops1 and certainly close kinsmen of theirs1 and akin to them also in their monotheism1 the belief in astrology was never regarded as a superstition4 ,in fact1 we can trace very clearly in the books relating to this people that they believed confidently in the influences of the heavenly bodies4 ,doubtless the visitors of ,king ,cheops shared the belief of their ,chaldaean kinsmen that astrology is a true science1 'founded' indeed 7as ,bacon expresses their views7 'not in reason and physical contemplations1 but in the direct experience and observation of past ages4' ,josephus records the ,jewish tradition 7though not as a tradition but as a fact7 that 'our first father1 ,adam1 was instructed in astrology by divine inspiration1' and that ,seth so excelled in the science1 that1 'foreseeing the ,flood and the destruction of the world thereby1 he engraved the fundamental principles of his art 7astrology7 in hieroglyphical emblems1 for the benefit of after ages1 on two pillars of brick and stone4' ,he says farther on that the ,patriarch ,abraham1 'having learned the art in ,chaldaea1 when he journeyed into ,egypt taught the ,egyptians the sciences of arithmetic and astrology4' ,indeed1 the stranger called ,philitis by ,herodotus may1 for aught that appears1 have been ,abraham himself2 for it is generally agreed that the word ,philitis indicated the race and country of the visitors1 regarded by the ,egyptians as of ,philistine descent and arriving from ,palestine4 ,however1 ,i am in no way concerned to show that the shepherd-astronomers who induced ,cheops to build the ,great ,pyramid were even contemporaries of ,abraham and ,melchizedek4 ,what seems sufficiently obvious is all that ,i care to maintain1 namely1 that these shepherd-astronomers were of ,chaldaean birth and training1 and therefore astrologers1 though1 unlike their ,chaldaean kinsmen1 they rejected ,sabaism or star-worship1 and taught the belief in one only ,deity4 ,now1 if these visitors were astrologers1 who persuaded ,cheops1 and were honestly convinced themselves1 that they could predict the events of any man's life by the ,chaldaean method of casting nativities1 we can readily understand many circumstances connected with the pyramids which have hitherto seemed inexplicable4 ,the pyramid built by a king would no longer be regarded as having reference to his death and burial1 but to his birth and life1 though after his death it might receive his body4 ,each king would require to have his own nativity-pyramid1 built with due symbolical reference to the special celestial influences affecting his fortunes4 ,every portion of the work would have to be carried out under special conditions1 determined according to the mysterious influences ascribed to the different planets and their varying positions-- now high1 now low1 then hid4 ,progressive1 retrograde1 or standing still4 ,if the work had been intended only to afford the means of predicting the king's future1 the labour would have been regarded by the monarch as well bestowed4 ,but astrology involved much more than the mere prediction of future events4 ,astrologers claimed the power of ruling the planets--that is1 of course1 not of ruling the motions of those bodies1 but of providing against evil influences or strengthening good influences which they supposed the celestial orbs to exert in particular aspects4 ,thus we can understand that while the mere basement layers of the pyramid would have served for the process of casting the royal nativity1 with due mystic observances1 the further progress of building the pyramid would supply the necessary means and indications for ruling the planets most potent in their influence upon the royal career4 ,remembering the mysterious influence which astrologers ascribed to special numbers1 figures1 positions1 and so forth1 the care with which the ,great ,pyramid was so proportioned as to indicate particular astronomical and mathematical relations is at once explained4 ,the four sides of the square base were carefully placed with reference to the cardinal points1 precisely like the four sides of the ordinary square scheme of nativity4#be ,the eastern side faced the ,ascendant1 the southern faced the ,mid-heaven1 the western faced the ,descendant1 and the northern faced the ,imum ,coeli4 ,again1 we can understand that the architects would have made a circuit of the base correspond in length with the number of days in the year--a relation which1 according to ,prof4 ,p4 ,smyth1 is fulfilled in this manner1 that the four sides contain one hundred times as many pyramid inches as there are days in the year4 ,the pyramid inch1 again1 is itself mystically connected with astronomical relations1 for its length is equal to the five hundred millionth part of the earth's diameter1 to a degree of exactness corresponding well with what we might expect ,chaldaean astronomers to attain4 ,prof4 ,smyth1 indeed1 believes that it was exactly equal to that proportion of the earth's polar diameter--a view which would correspond with his theory that the architects of the ,great ,pyramid were assisted by divine inspiration2 but what is certainly known about the sacred cubit1 which contained twenty-five of these inches1 corresponds better with the diameter which the ,chaldaean astronomers1 if they worked very carefully1 would have deduced from observations made in their own country1 on the supposition which they would naturally have made that the earth is a perfect globe1 not compressed at the poles4 ,it is not indeed at all certain that the sacred cubit bore any reference to the earth's dimensions2 but this seems tolerably well made out--that the sacred cubit was about #be inches in length1 and that the circuit of the pyramid's base contained a hundred inches for every day of the year4 ,relations such as these are precisely what we might expect to find in buildings having an astrological significance4 ,similarly1 it would correspond well with the mysticism of astrology that the pyramid should be so proportioned as to make the height be the radius of a circle whose circumference would equal the circuit of the pyramid's base4 ,again1 that long slant tunnel1 leading downwards from the pyramid's northern face1 would at once find a meaning in this astrological theory4 ,the slant tunnel pointed to the pole-star of ,cheops' time1 when due north below the true pole of the heavens4 ,this circumstance had no observational utility4 ,it could afford no indication of time1 because a pole-star moves very slowly1 and the pole-star of ,cheops' day must have been in view through that tunnel for more than an hour at a time4 ,but1 apart from the mystical significance which an astrologer would attribute to such a relation1 it may be shown that this slant tunnel is precisely what the astrologer would require in order to get the horoscope correctly4 ,another consideration remains to be mentioned which1 while strengthening the astrological theory of the pyramids1 may bring us even nearer to the true aim of those who planned and built these structures4 ,it is known also that the ,chaldaeans from the earliest times pursued the study of alchemy in connection with astrology1 not hoping to discover the philosopher's stone by chemical investigations alone1 but by carrying out such investigations under special celestial influence4 ,the hope of achieving this discovery1 by which he would at once have had the means of acquiring illimitable wealth1 would of itself account for the fact that ,cheops expended so much labour and material in the erection of the ,great ,pyramid1 seeing that1 of necessity1 success in the search for the philosopher's stone would be a main feature of his fortunes1 and would therefore be astrologically indicated in his nativity-pyramid1 or perhaps even be secured by following mystical observances proper for ruling his planets4 ,the elixir of life may also have been among the objects which the builders of the pyramids hoped to discover4 ,it may be noticed1 as a somewhat significant circumstance1 that1 in the account given by ,ibn ,abd ,alkohm of the contents of the various pyramids1 those assigned to the ,great ,pyramid relate entirely to astrology and associated mysteries4 ,it is1 of course1 clear that ,abd ,alkohm drew largely on his imagination4 ,yet it seems probable that there was also some basis of tradition for his ideas4 ,and certainly one would suppose that1 as he assigned a treasurer to the ,east pyramid 7'a statue of black agate1 his eyes open and shining1 sitting on a throne with a lance'71 he would have credited the building with treasure also1 had not some tradition taught otherwise4 ,but he says that ,king ,saurid placed in the ,east pyramid1 not treasures1 but 'divers celestial spheres and stars1 and what they severally operate in their aspects1 and the perfumes which are to be used to them1 and the books which treat of these matters4'#bf ,but1 after all1 it must be admitted that the strongest evidence in favour of the astrological 7and alchemical7 theory of the pyramids is to be found in the circumstance that all other theories seem untenable4 ,the pyramids were undoubtedly erected for some purpose which was regarded by their builders as most important4 ,this purpose certainly related to the personal fortunes of the kingly builders4 ,it was worth an enormous outlay of money1 labour1 and material4 ,this purpose was such1 furthermore1 that each king required to have his own pyramid4 ,it was in some way associated with astronomy1 for the pyramids are built with most accurate reference to celestial aspects4 ,it also had its mathematical and mystical bearings1 seeing that the pyramids exhibit mathematical and symbolical peculiarities not belonging to their essentially structural requirements4 ,and lastly1 the erection of the pyramids was in some way connected with the arrival of certain learned persons from ,palestine1 and presumably of ,chaldaean origin4 ,all these circumstances accord well with the theory ,i have advanced2 while only some of them1 and these not the most characteristic1 accord with any of the other theories4 ,moreover1 no fact known respecting the pyramids or their builders is inconsistent with the astrological 7and alchemical7 theory4 ,on the whole1 then1 if it cannot be regarded as demonstrated 7in its general bearing1 of course1 for we cannot expect any theory about the pyramids to be established in minute details71 the astrological theory may fairly be described as having a greater degree of probability in its favour than any hitherto advanced4 ,,iv4 ,,swedenborg',s ,,visions ,,of ,,other ,,worlds4 ,if it were permitted to men to select a sign whereby they should know that a message came from the ,supreme ,being1 probably the man of science would select for the sign the communication of some scientific fact beyond the knowledge of the day1 but admitting of being readily put to the test4 ,the evidence thus obtained in favour of a revelation would correspond in some sense to that depending on prophecies2 but it would be more satisfactory to men having that particular mental bent which is called the scientific4 ,whether this turn of mind is inherent or the result of training1 it certainly leads men of science to be more exacting in considering the value of evidence than any men1 except perhaps lawyers4 ,in the case of the student of science1 ,st4 ,paul's statement that 'prophecies' 'shall fail' has been fulfilled1 whereas it may be doubted whether evidence from 'knowledge' would in like manner 'vanish away4' ,on the contrary1 it would grow stronger and stronger1 as knowledge from observation1 from experiment1 and from calculation continually increased4 ,it can scarcely be said that this has happened with such quasi-scientific statements as have actually been associated with revelation4 ,if we regard ,st4 ,paul's reference to knowledge as relating to such statements as these1 then nothing could be more complete than the fulfilment of his own prediction1 ',whether there be prophecies1 they shall fail2 whether there be tongues1 they shall cease2 whether there be knowledge1 it shall vanish away4' ,the evidence from prophecies fails for the exact inquirer1 who perceives the doubts which exist 7among the most earnest believers7 as to the exact meaning of the prophetic words1 and even in some cases as to whether prophecies have been long since fulfilled or relate to events still to come4 ,the evidence from 'tongues' has ceased1 and those are dust who are said to have spoken in strange tongues4 ,the knowledge which was once thought supernatural has utterly vanished away4 ,but if1 in the ages of faith1 some of the results of modern scientific research had been revealed1 as the laws of the solar system1 the great principle of the conservation of energy1 or the wave theory of light1 or if some of the questions which still remain for men of science to solve had been answered in those times1 the evidence for the student of science would have been irresistible4 ,of course he will be told that even then he would have hardened his heart2 that the inquiry after truth tending naturally to depravity of mind1 he would reject even evidence based on his beloved laws of probability2 that his 'wicked and adulterous generation seeketh in vain after a sign1' and that if he will not accept ,moses and the prophets1 neither would he believe though one rose from the dead4 ,still the desire of the student of science to base his faith on convincing evidence 7in a matter as important to him as to those who abuse him7 does seem to have something reasonable in it after all4 ,the mental qualities which cause him to be less easily satisfied than others1 came to him in the same way as his bodily qualities2 and even if the result to which his mental training leads him is as unfortunate as some suppose1 that training is not strictly speaking so heinously sinful that nothing short of the eternal reprobation meted out to him by earthly judges can satisfy divine justice4 ,so that it may be thought not a wholly unpardonable sin to speak of a sign which1 had it been accorded1 would have satisfied even the most exacting student of science4 ,apart1 too1 from all question of faith1 the mere scientific interest of divinely inspired communications respecting natural laws and processes would justify a student of science in regarding them as most desirable messages from a being of superior wisdom and benevolence4 ,if prophecies and tongues1 why not knowledge1 as evidence of a divine mission8 ,such thoughts are suggested by the claim of some religious teachers to the possession of knowledge other than that which they could have gained by natural means4 ,the claim has usually been quite honest4 ,the teacher of religion tests the reality of his mission in simple a priori confidence that he has such a mission1 and that therefore some one or other of the tests he applies will afford the required evidence4 ,to one1 says ,st4 ,paul1 is given the word of wisdom2 to another1 the word of knowledge2 to another1 faith2 to another1 the gift of healing2 to another1 the working of miracles2 to another1 prophecy2 to another1 the discerning of spirits2 to another1 divers kinds of tongues3 and so forth4 ,if a man like ,mahomet1 who believes in his mission to teach1 finds that he cannot satisfactorily work miracles--that mountains will not be removed at his bidding--then some other evidence satisfies him of the reality of his mission4 ,swedenborg1 than whom1 perhaps1 no more honest man ever lived1 said and believed that to him had been granted the discerning of spirits4 ',it is to be observed1' he said1 'that a man may be instructed by spirits and angels if his interiors be so open as to enable him to speak and be in company with them1 for man in his essence is a spirit1 and is with spirits as to his interiors2 so that he whose interiors are opened by the ,lord may converse with them1 as man with man4 ,this privilege ,i have enjoyed daily now for twelve years4' ,it indicates the fulness of ,swedenborg's belief in this privilege that he did not hesitate to describe what the spirits taught him respecting matters which belong rather to science than to faith2 though it must be admitted that probably he supposed there was small reason for believing that his statements could ever be tested by the results of scientific research4 ,the objects to which his spiritual communications related were conveniently remote4 ,i do not say this as desiring for one moment to suggest that he purposely selected those objects1 and not others which might be more readily examined4 ,he certainly believed in the reality of the communications he described4 ,but possibly there is some law in things visionary1 corresponding to the law of mental operation with regard to scientific theories2 and as the mind theorises freely about a subject little understood1 but cautiously where many facts have been ascertained1 so probably exact knowledge of a subject prevents the operation of those illusions which are regarded as supernatural communications4 ,it is in a dim light only that the active imagination pictures objects which do not really exist2 in the clear light of day they can no longer be imagined4 ,so it is with mental processes4 ,probably there is no subject more suitable in this sense for the visionary than that of life in other worlds4 ,it has always had an attraction for imaginative minds1 simply because it is enwrapped in so profound a mystery2 and there has been little to restrain the fancy1 because so little is certainly known of the physical condition of other worlds4 ,recently1 indeed1 a somewhat sudden and severe check has been placed on the liveliness of imagination which had enabled men formerly to picture to themselves the inhabitants of other orbs in space4 ,spectroscopic analysis and exact telescopic scrutiny will not permit some speculations to be entertained which formerly met with favour4 ,yet even now there has been but a slight change of scene and time4 ,if men can no longer imagine inhabitants of one planet because it is too hot1 or of another because it is too cold1 of one body because it is too deeply immersed in vaporous masses1 or of another because it has neither atmosphere nor water1 we have only to speculate about the unseen worlds which circle round those other suns1 the stars2 or1 instead of changing the region of space where we imagine worlds1 we can look backward to the time when planets now cold and dead were warm with life1 or forward to the distant future when planets now glowing with fiery heat shall have cooled down to a habitable condition4 ,swedenborg's imaginative mind seems to have fully felt the charm of this interesting subject4 ,it was1 indeed1 because of the charm which he found in it1 that he was readily persuaded into the belief that knowledge had been supernaturally communicated to him respecting it4 ',because ,i had a desire1' he says1 'to know if there are other earths1 and to learn their nature and the character of their inhabitants1 it was granted me by the ,lord to converse and have intercourse with spirits and angels who had come from other earths1 with some for a day1 with some for a week1 and with some for months4 ,from them ,i have received information respecting the earths from and near which they are1 the modes of life1 customs and worship of their inhabitants1 besides various other particulars of interest1 all which1 having come to my knowledge in this way1 ,i can describe as things which ,i have seen and heard4' ,it is interesting 7psychologically7 to notice how the reasoning which had convinced ,swedenborg of the existence of other inhabited worlds is attributed by him to the spirits4 ',it is well known in the other life1' he says1 'that there are many earths with men upon them2 for there 7that is1 in the spiritual life7 every one who1 from a love of truth and consequent use1 desires it1 is allowed to converse with the spirits of other earths1 so as to be assured that there is a plurality of worlds1 and be informed that the human race is not confined to one earth only1 but extends to numberless earths4444 ,i have occasionally conversed on this subject with the spirits of our earth1 and the result of our conversation was that a man of enlarged understanding may conclude from various considerations that there are many earths with human inhabitants upon them4 ,for it is an inference of reason that masses so great as the planets are1 some of which exceed this earth in magnitude1 are not empty bodies1 created only to be carried in their motion round the sun1 and to shine with their scanty light for the benefit of one earth only2 but that they must have a nobler use4 ,he who believes1 as every one ought to believe1 that the ,deity created the universe for no other end than the existence of the human race1 and of heaven from it 7for the human race is the seminary of heaven71 must also believe that wherever there is an earth there are human inhabitants4 ,that the planets which are visible to us1 being within the boundary of our solar system1 are earths1 may appear from various considerations4 ,they are bodies of earthy matter1 because they reflect the sun's light1 and when seen through the telescope appear1 not as stars shining with a flaming lustre1 but as earths1 variegated with obscure spots4 ,like our earth1 they are carried round the sun by a progressive motion1 through the path of the ,zodiac1 whence they have years and seasons of the year1 which are spring1 summer1 autumn1 and winter2 and they rotate upon their axes1 which makes days1 and times of the day1 as morning1 midday1 evening1 and night4 ,some of them also have satellites1 which perform their revolutions about their globes1 as the moon does about ours4 ,the planet ,saturn1 as being farthest from the sun1 has besides an immense luminous ring1 which supplies that earth with much1 though reflected1 light4 ,how is it possible for anyone acquainted with these facts1 and who thinks from reason1 to assert that such bodies are uninhabited8' ,remembering that this reasoning was urged by the spirits1 and that during twelve years ,swedenborg's interiors had been opened in such sort that he could converse with spirits from other worlds1 it is surprising that he should have heard nothing about ,uranus or ,neptune1 to say nothing of the zone of asteroids1 or again1 of planets as yet unknown which may exist outside the path of ,neptune4 ,he definitely commits himself1 it will be observed1 to the statement that ,saturn is the planet farthest from the sun4 ,and elsewhere1 in stating where in these spiritual communications the 'idea' of each planet was conceived to be situated1 he leaves no room whatever for ,uranus and ,neptune1 and makes no mention of other bodies in the solar system than those known in his day4 ,this cannot have been because the spirits from then unknown planets did not feel themselves called upon to communicate with the spirit of one who knew nothing of their home1 for he received visitors from worlds in the starry heavens far beyond human ken4 ,it would almost seem1 though to the faithful ,swedenborgian the thought will doubtless appear very wicked1 that the system of ,swedenborg gave no place to ,uranus and ,neptune1 simply because he knew nothing about those planets4 ,otherwise1 what a noble opportunity there would have been for establishing the truth of ,swedenborgian doctrines by revealing to the world the existence of planets hitherto unknown4 ,before the reader pronounces this a task beneath the dignity of the spirits and angels who taught ,swedenborg it will be well for him to examine the news which they actually imparted4 ,i may as well premise1 however1 that it does not seem to me worth while to enter here at any length into ,swedenborg's descriptions of the inhabitants of other worlds1 because what he has to say on this subject is entirely imaginative4 ,there is a real interest for us in his ideas respecting the condition of the planets1 because those ideas were based 7though unconsciously7 upon the science of his day1 in which he was no mean proficient4 ,and even where his mysticism went beyond what his scientific attainments suggested1 a psychological interest attaches to the workings of his imagination4 ,it is as curious a problem to trace his ideas to their origin as it sometimes is to account for the various phases of a fantastic dream1 such a dream1 for instance1 as that which ,armadale1 the doctor1 and ,midwinter1 in ',armadale1' endeavour to connect with preceding events4 ,but ,swedenborg's visions of the behaviour and appearance of the inhabitants of other earths have little interest1 because it is hopeless to attempt to account for even their leading features4 ,for instance1 what can we make of such a passage as the following1 relating to the spirits who came from ,mercury8--',some of them are desirous to appear1 not like the spirits of other earths as men1 but as crystalline globes4 ,their desire to appear so1 although they do not1 arises from the circumstance that the knowledges of things immaterial are in the other life represented by crystals4' ,yet some even of these more fanciful visions significantly indicate the nature of ,swedenborg's philosophy4 ,one can recognise his disciples and his opponents among the inhabitants of various favoured and unhappy worlds1 and one perceives how the wiser and more dignified of his spiritual visitors are made to advocate his own views1 and to deride those of his adversaries4 ,some of the teachings thus circuitously advanced are excellent4 ,for instance1 ,swedenborg's description of the inhabitants of ,mercury and their love of abstract knowledge contains an instructive lesson4 ',the spirits of ,mercury imagine1' he says1 'that they know so much1 that it is almost impossible to know more4 ,but it has been told them by the spirits of our earth1 that they do not know many things1 but few1 and that the things which they know not are comparatively infinite1 and in relation to those they do know are as the waters of the largest ocean to those of the smallest fountain2 and further1 that the first advance to wisdom is to know1 acknowledge1 and perceive that what we do know1 compared with what we do not know1 is so little as hardly to amount to anything4'#bg ,so far we may suppose that ,swedenborg presents his own ideas1 seeing that he is describing what has been told the ,mercurial spirits by the spirits of our earth1 of whom 7during these spiritual conversations7 he was one4 ,but he proceeds to describe how angels were allowed to converse with the ,mercurial spirits in order to convince them of their error4 ',i saw another angel1' says he1 after describing one such conversation1 'conversing with them2 he appeared at some altitude to the right2 he was from our earth1 and he enumerated very many things of which they were ignorant4444 ,as they had been proud on account of their knowledges1 on hearing this they began to humble themselves4 ,their humiliation was represented by the sinking of the company which they formed1 for that company then appeared as a volume or roll1 444 as if hollowed in the middle and raised at the sides4444 ,they were told what that signified1 that is1 what they thought in their humiliation1 and that those who appeared elevated at the sides were not as yet in any humiliation4 ,then ,i saw that the volume was separated1 and that those who were not in humiliation were remanded back towards their earth1 the rest remaining4' ,little being known to ,swedenborg1 as indeed little is known to the astronomers of our own time1 about ,mercury1 we find little in the visions relating to that planet which possesses any scientific interest4 ,he asked the inhabitants who were brought to him in visions about the sun of the system1 and they replied that it looks larger from ,mercury than as seen from other worlds4 ,this of course was no news to ,swedenborg4 ,they explained further1 that the inhabitants enjoy a moderate temperature1 without extremes of heat or cold4 ',it was given to me1' proceeds ,swedenborg1 'to tell them that it was so provided by the ,lord1 that they might not be exposed to excessive heat from their greater proximity to the sun1 since heat does not arise from the sun's nearness1 but from the height and density of the atmosphere1 as appears from the cold on high mountains even in hot climates2 also that heat is varied according to the direct or oblique incidence of the sun's rays1 as is plain from the seasons of winter and summer in every region4' ,it is curious to find thus advanced1 in a sort of lecture addressed to visionary ,mercurials1 a theory which crops up repeatedly in the present day1 because the difficulty which suggests it is dealt with so unsatisfactorily for the most part in our text-books of science4 ,continually we hear of some new paradoxist who propounds as a novel doctrine the teaching that the atmosphere1 and not the sun1 is the cause of heat4 ,the mistake was excusable in ,swedenborg's time4 ,in fact it so chanced that1 apart from the obvious fact on which the mistake is usually based--the continued presence1 namely1 of snow on the summits of high mountains even in the torrid zone--it had been shown shortly before by ,newton1 that the light fleecy clouds seen sometimes even in the hottest weather above the wool-pack or cumulus clouds are composed of minute crystals of ice4 ,seeing that these tiny crystals can exist under the direct rays of the sun in hot summer weather1 many find it difficult to understand how those rays can of themselves have any heating power4 ,yet in reality the reasoning addressed by ,swedenborg to his ,mercurial friends was entirely erroneous4 ,if he could have adventured as far forth into time as he did into space1 and could have attended in the spirit the lectures of one ,john ,tyndall1 a spirit of our earth1 he would have had this matter rightly explained to him4 ,in reality the sun's heat is as effective directly at the summit of the highest mountain as at the sea-level4 ,a thermometer exposed to the sun in the former position indicates indeed a slightly higher temperature than one similarly exposed to the sun 7when at the same altitude7 at the sea-level4 ,but the air does not get warmed to the same degree1 simply because1 owing to its rarity and relative dryness1 it fails to retain any portion of the heat which passes through it4 ,it is interesting to notice how ,swedenborg's scientific conceptions of the result of the 7relatively7 airless condition of our moon suggested peculiar fancies respecting the lunar inhabitants4 ,interesting1 ,i mean1 psychologically3 for it is curious to see scientific and fanciful conceptions thus unconsciously intermingled4 ,of the conscious intermingling of such conceptions instances are common enough4 ,the effects of the moon's airless condition have been often made the subject of fanciful speculations4 ,the reader will remember how ,scheherazade1 in ',the ,poet at the ,breakfast ,table1' runs on about the moon4 ',her delight was unbounded1 and her curiosity insatiable4 ,if there were any living creatures there1 what odd things they must be4 ,they couldn't have any lungs nor any hearts4 ,what a pity6 ,did they ever die8 ,how could they expire if they didn't breathe8 ,burn up8 ,no air to burn in4 ,tumble into some of those horrid pits1 perhaps1 and break all to bits4 ,she wondered how the young people there liked it1 or whether there were any young people there4 ,perhaps nobody was young and nobody was old1 but they were like mummies all of them--what an idea6--two mummies making love to each other6 ,so she went on in a rattling1 giddy kind of way1 for she was excited by the strange scene in which she found herself1 and quite astonished the young astronomer with her vivacity4' ,but ,swedenborg's firm belief that the fancies engendered in his mind were scientific realities is very different from the conscious play of fancy in the passage just quoted4 ,it must be remembered that ,swedenborg regarded his visions with as much confidence as though they were revelations made by means of scientific instruments2 nay1 with even more confidence1 for he knew that scientific observations may be misunderstood1 whereas he was fully persuaded that his visions were miraculously provided for his enlightenment1 and that therefore he would not be allowed to misunderstand aught that was thus revealed to him4 ',it is well known to spirits and angels1' he says1 'that there are inhabitants in the moon1 and in the moons or satellites which revolve about ,jupiter and ,saturn4 ,even those who have not seen and conversed with spirits who are from them entertain no doubt of their being inhabited1 for they1 too1 are earths1 and where there is an earth there is man2 man being the end for which every earth exists1 and without an end nothing was made by the ,great ,creator4 ,every one who thinks from reason in any degree enlightened1 must see that the human race is the final cause of creation4' ,the moon being inhabited then by human beings1 but being very insufficiently supplied with air1 it necessarily follows that these human beings must be provided in some way with the means of existing in that rare and tenuous atmosphere4 ,tremendous powers of inspiration and expiration would be required to make that air support the life of the human body4 ,although ,swedenborg could have had no knowledge of the exact way in which breathing supports life 7for ,priestley was his junior by nearly half a century71 yet he must clearly have perceived that the quantity of air inspired has much to do with the vitalising power of the indraught4 ,no ordinary human lungs could draw in an adequate supply of air from such an atmosphere as the moon's2 but by some great increase of breathing power it might be possible to live there3 at least1 in ,swedenborg's time there was no reason for supposing otherwise4 ,reason1 then1 having convinced him that the lunar inhabitants must possess extraordinary breathing apparatus1 and presumably most powerful voices1 imagination presented them to him accordingly4 ',some spirits appeared overhead1' he says1 'and thence were heard voices like thunder2 for their voices sounded precisely like thunder from the clouds after lightning4 ,i supposed it was a great multitude of spirits who had the art of giving voices with such a sound4 ,the more simple spirits who were with me derided them1 which greatly surprised me4 ,but the cause of their derision was soon discovered1 which was1 that the spirits who thundered were not many1 but few1 and were as little as children1 and that on former occasions they 7the thunderers7 had terrified them by such sounds1 and yet were unable to do them the least harm4 ,that ,i might know their character1 some of them descended from on high1 where they thundered2 and1 what surprised me1 one carried another on his back1 and the two thus approached me4 ,their faces appeared not unhandsome1 but longer than those of other spirits4 ,in stature they were like children of seven years old1 but the frame was more robust1 so that they were like men4 ,it was told me by the angels that they were from the moon4 ,he who was carried by the other came to me1 applying himself to my left side under the elbow1 and thence spoke4 ,he said1 that when they utter their voices they thunder in this way1'--and it seems likely enough that if there are any living speaking beings in the moon1 their voice1 could they visit the earth1 would be found to differ very markedly from the ordinary human voice4 ',in the spiritual world their thunderous voices have their use4 ,for by their thundering the spirits from the moon terrify spirits who are inclined to injure them1 so that the lunar spirits go in safety where they will4 ,to convince me the sound they make was of this kind1 he 7the spirit who was carried by the other7 retired1 but not out of sight1 and thundered in like manner4 ,they showed1 moreover1 that the voice was thundered by being uttered from the abdomen like an eructation4 ,it was perceived that this arose from the circumstance that the inhabitants of the moon do not1 like the inhabitants of other earths1 speak from the lungs1 but from the abdomen1 and thus from air collected there1 the reason of which is that the atmosphere with which the moon is surrounded is not like that of other earths4' ,in his intercourse with spirits from ,jupiter1 ,swedenborg heard of animals larger than those that live on the earth4 ,it has been a favourite idea of many believers in other worlds than ours1 that though in each world the same races of animals exist1 they would be differently proportioned2 and there has been much speculation as to the probable size of men and other animals in worlds much larger or much smaller than the earth4 ,when as yet ideas about other worlds were crude1 the idea prevailed that giants exist in the larger orbs1 and pygmies in the smaller4 ,whether this idea had its origin in conceptions as to the eternal fitness of things or not1 does not clearly appear4 ,it seems certainly at first view natural enough to suppose that the larger beings would want more room and so inhabit the larger dwelling-places4 ,it was a pleasing thought that1 if we could visit ,jupiter or ,saturn1 we should find the human inhabitants there ,in bigness to surpass earth's giant sons2 but that if we could visit our moon or ,mercury1 or whatever smaller worlds there are1 we should find men ,now less than smallest dwarfs1 in narrow room ,throng numberless1 like that pygmaean race ,beyond the ,indian mount2 or fairy elves1 ,whose midnight revels1 by a forest side ,or fountain1 some belated peasant sees1 ,or dreams he sees4 ,later the theory was started that the size of beings in various worlds depends on the amount of light received from the central sun4 ,thus ,wolfius asserted that the inhabitants of ,jupiter are nearly fourteen feet high1 which he proved by comparing the quantity of sunlight which reaches the ,jovians with that which we ,terrenes receive4 ,recently1 however1 it has been noted that the larger the planet1 the smaller in all probability must be the inhabitants1 if any4 ,for if there are two planets of the same density but unequal size1 gravity must be greater at the surface of the larger planet1 and where gravity is great large animals are cumbered by their weight4 ,it is easy to see this by comparing the muscular strength of two men similarly proportioned1 but unequal in height4 ,suppose one man five feet in height1 the other six2 then the cross section of any given muscle will be less for the former than for the latter in the proportion of twenty-five 7five times five7 to thirty-six 7six times six74 ,roughly1 the muscular strength of the bigger man will be half as great again as that of the smaller4 ,but the weights of the men will be proportioned as #abe 7five times five times five7 to #baf 7six times six times six71 so that the weight of the bigger man exceeds that of the smaller nearly as seven exceeds four1 or by three-fourths4 ,the taller man exceeds the smaller1 then1 much more in weight than he does in strength2 he is accordingly less active in proportion to his size4 ,within certain limits1 of course1 size increases a man's effective as well as his real strength4 ,for instance1 our tall man in the preceding illustration cannot lift his own weight as readily as the small man can lift his2 but he can lift a weight of three hundred pounds as easily as the small man can lift a weight of two hundred pounds4 ,when we get beyond certain limits of height1 however1 we get absolute weakness as the result of the increase of weight4 ,swift's ,brobdingnags1 for instance1 would have been unable to stand upright2 for they were six times as tall as men1 and therefore each ,brobdingnag would have weighed #baf times as much as a man1 but would have possessed only thirty-six times the muscular power4 ,their weight would have been greater1 then1 in a sixfold greater degree than their strength1 and1 so far as their mere weight was concerned1 their condition would have resembled that of an ordinary man under a load five times exceeding his own weight4 ,as no man could walk or stand upright under such a load1 so the ,brobdingnags would have been powerless to move1 despite1 or rather because of1 their enormous stature4 ,applying the general considerations here enunciated to the question of the probable size of creatures like ourselves in other planets1 we see that men in ,jupiter should be much smaller1 men in ,mercury much larger1 than men on the earth4 ,so also with other animals4 ,but ,swedenborg's spirit visitors from these planets taught differently4 ',the horses of our earth1' he says1 'when seen by the spirits of ,jupiter1 appeared to me smaller than usual1 though rather robust2 which arose from the idea those spirits had respecting them4 ,they informed me that among them there are animals similar1 though much larger2 but that they are wild1 and in the woods1 and that when they come in sight they cause terror though they are harmless2 they added that their terror of them is natural or innate4'#bh ,on the other hand the inhabitants of ,mercury1 who might be thirteen feet high yet as active as our men1 appeared slenderer than ,terrene men4 ',i was desirous to know1' says ,swedenborg1 'what kind of face and person the people in ,mercury have1 compared with those of the people on our earth4 ,there therefore stood before me a female exactly resembling the women on that earth4 ,her face was beautiful1 but it was smaller than that of a woman of our earth2 she was more slender1 but of equal height2 she wore a linen head-dress1 not artfully yet gracefully disposed4 ,a man also was presented4 ,he1 too1 was more slender than the men of our earth2 he wore a garment of deep blue1 closely fitted to his body without folds or flowing skirts4 ,such1 ,i learn1 were the personal form and costume of the humans of that earth4 ,afterwards there was shown me a species of the oxen and cows1 which did not indeed differ much from those on our earth1 except that they were smaller1 and made some approach to the stag and hind species4' ,we have seen1 too1 that the lunar spirits were no larger than children seven years old4 ,one passage of ,swedenborg's description of ,jupiter is curious4 ',although on that earth1' he says1 'spirits speak with men' 7i4e4 with ,jovian men7 'man in his turn does not speak with spirits1 except to say1 when instructed1 that he will do so no more1'--which we should regard as a bull if it were not news from the ,jovian spirit world4 ',nor is man allowed to tell anyone that a spirit has spoken to him2 if he does so1 he is punished4 ,those spirits of ,jupiter when they were with me1 at first supposed they were with a man of their own earth2 but when in my turn ,i spoke with them1 and thought of publishing what passed between us and so relating it to others1 then1 because they were not allowed to chastise me1 they discovered they were with a stranger4' ,it has been a favourite idea with those who delight in the argument from design1 that the moons of the remoter planets have been provided for the express purpose of making up for the small amount of sunlight which reaches those planets4 ,jupiter receives only about one twenty-seventh part of the light which we receive from the sun2 but then1 has he not four moons to make his nights glorious8 ,saturn is yet farther away from the sun1 and receives only the ninetieth part of the light we get from the sun2 but then he has eight moons and his rings1 and the nocturnal glory of his skies must go far to compensate the ,saturnians for the small quantity of sunlight they receive4 ,the ,saturnian spirits who visited ,swedenborg were manifestly indoctrinated with these ideas4 ,for they informed him that the nocturnal light of ,saturn is so great that some ,saturnians worship it1 calling it the ,lord4 ,these wicked spirits are separated from the rest1 and are not tolerated by them4 ',the nocturnal light1' say the spirits1 'comes from the immense ring which at a distance encircles that earth1 and from the moons which are called the satellites of ,saturn4' ,and again1 being questioned further 'concerning the great ring which appears from our earth to rise above the horizon of that planet1 and to vary its situations1 they said that it does not appear to them as a ring1 but only as a snow-white substance in heaven in various directions4' ,unfortunately for our faith in the veracity of these spirits1 it is certain that the moons of ,saturn cannot give nearly so much light as ours1 while the rings are much more effective as darkeners than as illuminators4 ,one can readily calculate the apparent size of each of the moons as seen from ,saturn1 and thence show that the eight discs of the moons together are larger than our moon's disc in about the proportion of forty-five to eight4 ,so that if they were all shining as brightly as our full moon and all full at the same time1 their combined light would exceed hers in that degree4 ,but they are not illuminated as our moon is4 ,they are illuminated by the same remote sun which illuminates ,saturn1 while our moon is illuminated by a sun giving her as much light as we ourselves receive4 ,our moon then is illuminated ninety times more brightly than the moons of ,saturn1 and as her disc is less than all theirs together1 not as one to ninety1 but as sixteen to ninety1 it follows that all the ,saturnian moons1 if full at the same time1 would reflect to ,saturn one-sixteenth part of the light which we receive from the full moon4#bi ,as regards the rings of ,saturn1 nothing can be more certain than that they tend much more to deprive ,saturn of light then to make up by reflection for the small amount of light which ,saturn receives directly from the sun4 ,the part of the ring which lies between the planet and the sun casts a black shadow upon ,saturn1 this shadow sometimes covering an extent of surface many times exceeding the entire surface of our earth4 ,the shadow thus thrown upon the planet creeps slowly1 first one way1 then another1 northwards and southwards over the illuminated hemisphere of the planet 7as pictured in the #acth plate of my treatise on ,saturn71 requiring for its passage from the arctic to the antarctic regions and back again to the arctic regions of the planet1 a period nearly equal to that of a generation of terrestrial men4 ,nearly thirty of our years the process lasts1 during half of which time the northern hemisphere suffers1 and during the other half the southern4 ,the shadow band1 which be it remembered stretches right athwart the planet from the extreme eastern to the extreme western side of the illuminated hemisphere1 is so broad during the greater part of the time that in some regions 7those corresponding to our temperate zones7 the shadow takes two years in passing1 during which time the sun cannot be seen at all1 unless for a few moments through some chinks in the rings1 which are known to be not solid bodies1 but made up of closely crowded small moons4 ,and the slow passage of this fearful shadow1 which advances at the average rate of some twenty miles a day1 but yet hangs for years over the regions athwart which it sweeps1 occurs in the very season when the sun's small direct supply of heat would require to be most freely compensated by nocturnal light--in the winter season1 namely1 of the planet4 ,moreover1 not only during the time of the shadow's passage1 but during the entire winter half of the ,saturnian year1 the ring reflects no light during the night time1 the sun being on the other or summer side of the ring's plane4#cj ,the only nocturnal effect which would be observable would be the obliteration of the stars covered by the ring system4 ,it is strange that1 this being so1 the spirits from ,saturn should have made no mention of the circumstance2 and even more strange that these spirits and others should have asserted that the moons and rings of ,saturn compensate for the small amount of light directly received from the sun4 ,most certainly a ,swedenborg of our own time would find the spirits from ,saturn more veracious and more communicative about these matters1 though even what he would hear from the spirits would doubtless appear to sceptics of the twenty-first century to be no more than he could have inferred from the known facts of the science of his day4 ,but ,swedenborg was not content merely to receive visits from the inhabitants of other planets in the solar system4 ,he was visited also by the spirits of earths in the starry heaven2 nay1 he was enabled to visit those earths himself4 ,for man1 even while living in the world1 'is a spirit as to his interiors1 the body which he carries about in the world only serving him for performing functions in this natural or terrestrial sphere1 which is the lowest4' ,and to certain men it is granted not only to converse as a spirit with angels and spirits1 but to traverse in a spiritual way the vast distances which separate world from world and system from system1 all the while remaining in the body4 ,swedenborg was one of these4 ',the interiors of my spirit1' he says1 'are opened by the ,lord1 so that while ,i am in the body ,i can at the same time be with angels in heaven1 and not only converse with them1 but behold the wonderful things which are there and describe them1 that henceforth it may no more be said1 ,who ever came from heaven to assure us it exists and tell us what is there8 ,he who is unacquainted with the arcana of heaven cannot believe that man can see earths so remote1 and give any account of them from sensible experience4 ,but let him know that spaces and distances1 and consequently progressions1 existing in the natural world1 in their origin and first causes are changes of the state of the interiors2 that with angels and spirits progressions appear according to changes of state2 and that by changes of state they may be apparently translated from one place to another1 and from one earth to another1 even to earths at the boundaries of the universe2 so likewise may man as to his spirit1 his body still remaining in its place4 ,this has been the case with me4' ,before describing his visits to earths in the starry heavens1 ,swedenborg is careful to indicate the probability that such earths exist4 ',it is well known to the learned world1' he says1 'that every star is a sun in its place1 remaining fixed like the sun of our earth4' ,the proper motions of the stars had1 alas6 not been discovered in ,swedenborg's day1 nor does he seem to have been aware what a wild chase he was really entering upon in his spiritual progressions4 ,conceive the pursuit of ,sirius or ,vega as either sun rushed through space with a velocity of thirty or forty miles in every second of time6 ,to resume1 however1 the account which ,swedenborg gives of the ideas of the learned world of his day4 ',it is the distance which makes a star appear in a small form2 consequently' 7the logical necessity is not manifest1 however7 'each star1 like the sun of our system1 has around it planets which are earths2 and the reason these are not visible to us is because of their immense distance and their having no light but from their own star1 which light cannot be reflected so far as to reach us4' ',to what other end1' proceeds this most convincing reasoning1 'can be so immense a heaven with such a multitude of stars8 ,for man is the end for which the universe was created4 ,it has been ascertained by calculation that supposing there were in the universe a million earths1 and on every earth three hundred millions of men and two hundred generations within six thousand years1 and that to every man or spirit was allotted a space of three cubic ells1 the collective number of men or spirits could not occupy a space equal to a thousandth part of this earth1 thus not more than that occupied by one of the satellites of ,jupiter or ,saturn2 a space on the universe almost undiscernible1 for a satellite is hardly visible to the naked eye4 ,what would this be for the ,creator of the universe1 to whom the whole universe filled with earths could not be enough' 7for what871 'seeing that he is infinite4' ,however1 it is not on this reasoning alone that ,swedenborg relies4 ,he tells us1 honestly beyond all doubt1 that he knows the truth of what he relates4 ',the information ,i am about to give1' he says1 'respecting the earths in the starry heaven is from experimental testimony2 from which it will likewise appear how ,i was translated thither as to my spirit1 the body remaining in its place4' ,his progress in his first star-hunt was to the right1 and continued for about two hours4 ,he found the boundary of our solar system marked first by a white but thick cloud1 next by a fiery smoke ascending from a great chasm4 ,here some guards appeared1 who stopped some of the company1 because these had not1 like ,swedenborg and the rest1 received permission to pass4 ,they not only stopped those unfortunates1 but tortured them1 conduct for which terrestrial analogues might possibly be discovered4 ,having reached another system1 he asked the spirits of one of the earths there how large their sun was and how it appeared4 ,they said it was less than the sun of our earth1 and has a flaming appearance4 ,our sun1 in fact1 is larger than other suns in space1 for from that earth starry heavens are seen1 and a star larger than the rest appears1 which1 say those spirits1 'was declared from heaven' to be the sun of ,swedenborg's earthly home4 ,what ,swedenborg saw upon that earth has no special interest4 ,the men there1 though haughty1 are loved by their respective wives because they1 the men1 are good4 ,but their goodness does not appear very manifest from anything in the narrative4 ,the only man seen by ,swedenborg took from his wife 'the garment which she wore1 and threw it over his own shoulders2 loosening the lower part1 which flowed down to his feet like a robe 7much as a man of our earth might be expected to loosen the tie-back of the period1 if he borrowed it in like manner7 he thus walked about clad4' ,he next visited an earth circling round a star1 which he learned was one of the smaller sort1 not far from the equator4 ,its greater distance was plain from the circumstance that ,swedenborg was two days in reaching it4 ,in this earth he very nearly fell into a quarrel with the spirits4 ,for hearing that they possess remarkable keenness of vision1 he 'compared them with eagles which fly aloft1 and enjoy a clear and extensive view of objects beneath4' ,at this they were indignant1 supposing1 poor spirits1 'that he compared them to eagles as to their rapacity1 and consequently thought them wicked4' ,he hastened to explain1 however1 that he 'did not liken them to eagles as to their rapacity1 but as to sharpsightedness4' ,swedenborg's account of a third earth in the star-depths contains a very pretty idea for temples and churches4 ,the temples in that earth 'are constructed1' he says1 of trees1 not cut down1 but growing in the place where they were first planted4 ,on that earth1 it seems1 there are trees of an extraordinary size and height2 these they set in rows when young1 and arrange in such an order that they may serve when they grow up to form porticoes and colonnades4 ,in the meanwhile1 by cutting and pruning1 they fit and prepare the tender shoots to entwine one with another1 and join together so as to form the groundwork and floor of the temple to be constructed1 and to rise at the sides as walls1 and above to bend into arches to form the roof4 ,in this manner they construct the temple with admirable art1 elevating it high above the ground4 ,they prepare also an ascent into it1 by continuous branches of the trees1 extended from the trunk and firmly connected together4 ,moreover1 they adorn the temple without and within in various ways1 by disposing the foliage into particular forms2 thus they build entire groves4 ,but it was not permitted me to see the nature of these temples1 only ,i was informed that the light of their sun is let in by apertures amongst the branches1 and is everywhere transmitted through crystals2 whereby the light falling on the walls is refracted in colours like those of the rainbow1 particularly blue and orange1 of which they are fondest4 ,such is their architecture1 which they prefer to the most magnificent palaces of our earth4' ,other earths in the starry heavens were visited by ,swedenborg1 but the above will serve sufficiently to illustrate the nature of his observations4 ,one statement1 by the way1 was made to him which must have seemed unlikely ever to be contravened1 but which has been shown in our time to be altogether erroneous4 ,in the fourth star-world he visited1 he was told that that earth1 which travels round its sun in #bjj days of fifteen hours each1 is one of the least in the universe1 being scarcely #ejj ,german miles1 say #bjjj ,english miles1 in circumference4 ,this would make its diameter about #fdj ,english miles4 ,but there is not one of the whole family of planetoids which has a diameter so great as this1 and many of these earths must be less than fifty miles in diameter4 ,now ,swedenborg remarks that he had his information from the angels1 'who made a comparison in all these particulars with things of a like nature on our earth1 according to what they saw in me or in my memory4 ,their conclusions were formed by angelic ideas1 whereby are instantly known the measure of space and time in a just proportion with respect to space and time elsewhere4 ,angelic ideas1 which are spiritual1 in such calculations infinitely excel human ideas1 which are natural4' ,he must therefore have met1 unfortunately1 with untruthful angels4 ,the real source of ,swedenborg's inspirations will be tolerably obvious--to all1 at least1 who are not ,swedenborgians4 ,but our account of his visions would not be complete in a psychological sense without a brief reference to the personal allusions which the spirits and angels made during their visits or his wanderings4 ,his distinguished rival1 ,christian ,wolf1 was encountered as a spirit by spirits from ,mercury1 who 'perceived that what he said did not rise above the sensual things of the natural man1 because in speaking he thought of honour1 and was desirous1 as in the world 7for in the other world every one is like his former self71 to connect various things into series1 and from these again continually to deduce others1 and so form several chains of such1 which they did not see or acknowledge to be true1 and which1 therefore1 they declared to be chains which neither cohered in themselves nor with the conclusions1 calling them the obscurity of authority2' so they ceased to question him further1 and presently left him4 ,similarly1 a spirit who in this world had been a 'prelate and a preacher1' and 'very pathetic1 so that he could deeply move his hearers1' got no hearing among the spirits of a certain earth in the starry heavens2 for they said they could tell 'from the tone of the voice whether a discourse came from the heart or not2' and as his discourse came not from the heart1 'he was unable to teach them1 whereupon he was silent4' ,convenient thus to have spirits and angels to confirm our impressions of other men1 living or dead4 ,apart from the psychological interest attaching to ,swedenborg's strange vision1 one cannot but be strongly impressed by the idea pervading them1 that to beings suitably constituted all that takes place in other worlds might be known4 ,modern science recognises a truth here2 for in that mysterious ether which occupies all space1 messages are at all times travelling by which the history of every orb is constantly recorded4 ,no world1 however remote or insignificant2 no period1 however distant--but has its history thus continually proclaimed in ever widening waves4 ,nay1 by these waves also 7to beings who could read their teachings aright7 the future is constantly indicated4 ,for1 as the waves which permeate the ether could only be situated as they actually are1 at any moment1 through past processes1 each one of which is consequently indicated by those ethereal waves1 so also there can be but one series of events in the future1 as the sequel of the relations actually indicated by the ethereal undulations4 ,these1 therefore1 speak as definitely and distinctly of the future as of the past4 ,could we but rid us of the gross habiliments of flesh1 and by some new senses be enabled to feel each order of ethereal undulations1 even of those only which reach our earth1 all knowledge of the past and future would be within our power4 ,the consciousness of this underlies the fancies of ,swedenborg1 just as it underlies the thought of him who sang-- ,there's not an orb which thou behold'st ,but in his motion like an angel sings1 ,still quiring to the young-eyed cherubim4 ,but while this muddy vesture of decay ,doth grossly close us in1 we cannot hear it4 ,v4 ,,other ,,worlds ,,and ,,other ,,universes4 ,if any one shall gravely tell me that ,i have spent my time idly in a vain and fruitless inquiry after what ,i can never become sure of1 the answer is that at this rate he would put down all natural philosophy1 as far as it concerns itself in searching into the nature of such things4 ,in such noble and sublime studies as these1 'tis a glory to arrive at probability1 and the search itself rewards the pains4 ,but there are many degrees of probable1 some nearer to the truth than others1 in the determining of which lies the chief exercise of our judgment4 ,and besides the nobleness and pleasure of the studies1 may we not be so bold as to say that they are no small help to the advancement of wisdom and morality8--,,huyghens1 ,conjectures concerning the ,planetary ,worlds4 ,the interest with which astronomy is studied by many who care little or nothing for other sciences is due chiefly to the thoughts which the celestial bodies suggest respecting life in other worlds than ours4 ,there is no feeling more deeply seated in the human heart--not the belief in higher than human powers1 not the hope of immortality1 not even the fear of death--than the faith in realms of life where other conditions are experienced than those we are acquainted with here4 ,it is not vulgar curiosity or idle fancy that suggests the possibilities of life in other worlds4 ,it has been the conviction of the profoundest thinkers1 of men of highest imagination4 ,the mystery of the star-depths has had its charm for the mathematician as well as for the poet2 for the exact observer as for the most fruitful theoriser2 nay1 for the man of business as for him whose life is passed in communing with nature4 ,if we analyse the interest with which the generality of men inquire into astronomical matters apparently not connected with the question of life in other worlds1 we find in every case that it has been out of this question alone or chiefly that that interest has sprung4 ,the great discoveries made during the last few years respecting the sun for example1 might seem remote from the subject of life in other worlds4 ,it is true that ,sir ,william ,herschel thought the sun might be the abode of living creatures2 and ,sir ,john ,herschel even suggested the possibility that the vast streaks of light called the solar willow-leaves1 objects varying from two hundred to a thousand miles in length1 might be living creatures whose intense lustre was the measure of their intense vitality4 ,but modern discoveries had rendered all such theories untenable4 ,the sun is presented to us as a mighty furnace1 in whose fires the most stubborn elements are not merely melted but vaporised4 ,the material of the sun has been analysed1 the motions and changes taking place on his surface examined1 the laws of his being determined4 ,how1 it might be asked1 is the question of life in other worlds involved in these researches8 ,the faith of ,sir ,david ,brewster in the sun as the abode of life being dispelled1 how could discoveries respecting the sun interest those who care about the subject of the plurality of worlds8 ,the answer to these questions is easily found4 ,the real interest which solar researches have possessed for those who are not astronomers has resided in the evidence afforded respecting the sun's position as the fire1 light1 and life of the system of worlds whereof our world is one4 ,the mere facts discovered respecting the sun would be regarded as so much dry detail were they not brought directly into relation with our earth and its wants1 and therefore with the wants of the other earths which circle round the sun2 but when thus dealt with they immediately excite attention and interest4 ,i do not speak at random in asserting this1 but describe the result of widely ranging observation4 ,i have addressed hundreds of audiences in ,great ,britain and ,america on the subject of recent solar discoveries1 and ,i have conversed with many hundreds of persons of various capacity and education1 from men almost uncultured to men of the highest intellectual power2 and my invariable experience has been that solar research derives its chief interest when viewed in relation to the sun's position as the mighty ruler1 the steadfast sustainer1 the beneficent almoner of the system of worlds to which our earth belongs4 ,it is the same with other astronomical subjects4 ,few care for the record of lunar observations1 save in relation to the question whether the moon is or has been the abode of living creatures4 ,the movements of comets and meteors1 and the discoveries recently made respecting their condition1 have no interest except in relation to the position of these bodies in the economy of solar systems1 or to the possible part which they may at one time have performed in building up worlds and suns4 ,none save astronomers1 and few only of these1 care for researches into the star-depths1 except in connection with the thought that every star is a sun and therefore probably the light and fire of a system of worlds like those which circle around our own sun4 ,it is singular how variously this question of life in other worlds has been viewed at various stages of astronomical progress4 ,from the time of ,pythagoras1 who first1 so far as is known1 propounded the general theory of the plurality of worlds1 down to our own time1 when ,brewster and ,chalmers on the one hand1 and ,whewell on the other1 have advocated rival theories probably to be both set aside for a theory at once intermediate to and more widely ranging in time and space than either1 the aspect of the subject has constantly varied1 as new lights have been thrown upon it from different directions4 ,it may be interesting briefly to consider what has been thought in the past on this strangely attractive question1 and then to indicate the view towards which modern discoveries seem manifestly to point--a view not likely to undergo other change than that resulting from clearer vision and closer approach4 ,in other words1 ,i shall endeavour to show that the theory to which we are now led by all the known facts is correct in general1 though1 as fresh knowledge is obtained1 it may undergo modification in details4 ,we now see the subject from the right point of view1 though as science progresses we may come to see it more clearly and definedly4 ,when men believed the earth to be a flat surface above which the heavens were arched as a tent or canopy1 they were not likely to entertain the belief in other worlds than ours4 ,during the earlier ages of mankind ideas such as these prevailed4 ,the earth had been fashioned into its present form and condition1 the heavens had been spread over it1 the sun1 and moon1 and stars had been set in the heavens for its use and adornment1 and there was no thought of any other world4 ,but while this was the general belief1 there was already a school of philosophy where another doctrine had been taught4 ,pythagoras had adopted the belief of ,apollonius ,pergaeus that the sun is the centre of the planetary paths1 the earth one among the planets--a belief inseparable from the doctrine of the plurality of worlds4 ,much argument has been advanced to show that this belief never was adopted before the time of ,copernicus1 and unquestionably it must be admitted that the theory was not presented in the clear and simple form to which we have become accustomed4 ,but it is not necessary to weigh the conflicting arguments for and against the opinion that ,pythagoras and others regarded the earth as not the fixed centre of the universe4 ,the certain fact that the doctrine of the plurality of worlds was entertained 7,i do not say adopted7 by them1 proves sufficiently that they cannot have believed the earth to be fixed and central4 ,the idea of other worlds like our earth is manifestly inconsistent with the belief that the earth is the central body around which the whole universe revolves4 ,that this is so is well illustrated by the fate of the unfortunate ,giordano ,bruno4 ,he was one of the first disciples of ,copernicus1 and1 having accepted the doctrine that the earth travels round the sun as one among his family of planets1 was led very naturally to the belief that the other planets are inhabited4 ,he went farther1 and maintained that as the earth is not the only inhabited world in the solar system1 so the sun is not the only centre of a system of inhabited worlds1 but each star a sun like him1 about which many planets revolve4 ,this was one of the many heresies for which ,bruno was burned at the stake4 ,it is easy1 also1 to recognise in the doctrine of many worlds as the natural sequel of the ,copernican theory1 rather than in the features of this theory itself1 the cause of the hostility with which theologians regarded it1 until1 finding it proved1 they discovered that it is directly taught in the books which they interpret for us so variously4 ,the ,copernican theory was not rejected--nay1 it was even countenanced--until this particular consequence of the theory was recognised4 ,but within a few years from the persecution of ,bruno1 ,galileo was imprisoned1 and the last years of his life made miserable1 because it had become clear that in setting the earth adrift from its position as centre of the universe1 he and his brother ,copernicans were sanctioning the belief in other worlds than ours4 ,again and again1 in the attacks made by clericals and theologians upon the ,copernican theory1 this lamentable consequence was insisted upon4 ,unconscious that they were advancing the most damaging argument which could be conceived for the cause they had at heart1 they maintained1 honestly but unfortunately1 that with the new theory came the manifest inference that our earth is not the only and by no means the most important world in the universe--a doctrine manifestly inconsistent 7so they said7 with the teachings of the ,scriptures4 ,it was naturally only by a slow progression that men were able to advance into the domain spread before them by the ,copernican theory1 and to recognise the real minuteness of the earth both in space and time4 ,they more quickly recognised the earth's insignificance in space1 because the new theory absolutely forced this fact upon them4 ,if the earth1 whose globe they knew to be minute compared with her distance from the sun1 is really circling around the sun in a mighty orbit many millions of miles in diameter1 it follows of necessity that the fixed stars must lie so far away that even the span of the earth's orbit is reduced to nothing by comparison with the vast depths beyond which lie even the nearest of those suns4 ,this was ,tycho ,brahe's famous and perfectly sound argument against the ,copernican theory4 ',the stars remain fixed in apparent position all the time1 yet the ,copernicans tell us that the earth from which we view the stars is circling once a year in an orbit many millions of miles in diameter2 how is it that from so widely ranging a point of view we do not see widely different celestial scenery8 ,who can believe that the stars are so remote that by comparison the span of the earth's path is a mere point8' ,tycho's argument was of course valid4#ca ,of two things one4 ,either the earth does not travel round the sun1 or the stars are much farther away than men had conceived possible in ,tycho's time4 ,his mistake lay in rejecting the correct conclusion because simply it made the visible universe seem many millions of times vaster than he had supposed4 ,yet the universe1 even as thus enlarged1 was but a point to the universe visible in our day1 which in turn will dwindle to a point compared with the universe as men will see it a few centuries hence2 while that or the utmost range of space over which men can ever extend their survey is doubtless as nothing to the real universe of occupied space4 ,such has been the progression of our ideas as to the position of the earth in space4 ,forced by the discoveries of ,copernicus to regard our earth as a mere point compared with the distances of the nearest fixed stars1 men gradually learned to recognise those distances which at first had seemed infinite as in their turn evanescent even by comparison with that mere point of space over which man is able by instrumental means to extend his survey4 ,though there has been a similar progression in men's ideas as to the earth's position in time1 that progression has not been carried to a corresponding extent4 ,men have not been so bold in widening their conceptions of time as in widening their conceptions of space4 ,it is here and thus that1 in my judgment1 the subject of life in other worlds has been hitherto incorrectly dealt with4 ,men have given up as utterly idle the idea that the existence of worlds is to be limited to the special domain of space to which our earth belongs2 but they are content to retain the conception that the domain of time to which our earth's history belongs1 'this bank and shoal of time' on which the life of the earth is cast1 is the period to which the existence of other worlds than ours should be referred4 ,this1 which is to be noticed in nearly all our ordinary treatises on astronomy1 appears as a characteristic peculiarity of works advocating the theory of the plurality of worlds4 ,brewster and ,dick and ,chalmers1 all in fact who have taken that doctrine under their special protection1 reason respecting other worlds as though1 if they failed to prove that other orbs are inhabited now1 or are at least now supporting life in some way or other1 they failed of their purpose altogether4 ,the idea does not seem to have occurred to them that there is room and verge enough in eternity of time not only for activity but for rest4 ,they must have all the orbs of space busy at once in the one work which they seem able to conceive as the possible purpose of those bodies--the support of life4 ,the argument from analogy1 which they had found effective in establishing the general theory of the plurality of worlds1 is forgotten when its application to details would suggest that not all orbs are at all times either the abode of life or in some way subserving the purposes of life4 ,we find1 in all the forms of life with which we are acquainted1 three characteristic periods--first the time of preparation for the purposes of life2 next1 the time of fitness for those purposes2 and thirdly1 the time of decadence tending gradually to death4 ,we see among all objects which exist in numbers1 examples of all these stages existing at the same time4 ,in every race of living creatures there are the young as yet unfit for work1 the workers1 and those past work2 in every forest there are saplings1 seed-bearing trees1 and trees long past the seed-bearing period4 ,we know that planets1 or rather1 speaking more generally1 the orbs which people space1 pass through various stages of development1 during some only of which they can reasonably be regarded as the abode of life or supporting life2 yet the eager champion of the theory of many worlds will have them all in these life-bearing or life-supporting stages1 none in any of the stages of preparation1 none in any of the stages of decrepitude or death4 ,this has probably had its origin in no small degree from the disfavour with which in former years the theory of the growth and development of planets and systems of planets was regarded4 ,until the evidence became too strong to be resisted1 the doctrine that our earth was once a baby world1 with many millions of years to pass through before it could be the abode of life1 was one which only the professed atheist 7so said too many divines7 could for a moment entertain2 while the doctrine that not the earth alone1 but the whole of the solar system1 had developed from a condition utterly unlike that through which it is now passing1 could have had its origin only in the suggestions of the ,evil ,one4 ,both doctrines were pronounced to be so manifestly opposed to the teachings of ,moses1 and not only so1 but so manifestly inconsistent with the belief in a ,supreme ,being1 that--that further argument was unnecessary1 and denunciation only was required4 ,so confident were divines on these points1 that it would not have been very wonderful if some few students of science had mistaken assertion for proof1 and so concluded that the doctrines towards which science was unmistakably leading them really were inconsistent with what they had been taught to regard as the ,word of ,god4 ,whether multiplied experiences taught men of science to wait before thus deciding1 or however matters fell out1 it certainly befell before very long that the terrible doctrine of cosmical development was supported by such powerful evidence1 astronomical and terrestrial1 as to appear wholly irresistible4 ,then1 not only was the doctrine accepted by divines1 but shown to be manifestly implied in the sacred narrative of the formation of the earth and heavens1 sun1 and moon1 and stars2 while upon those unfortunate students of science who had not changed front in good time1 and were found still arguing on the mistaken assumption that the development of our system was not accordant with that ancient narrative1 freshly forged bolts were flung from the ,olympus of orthodoxy4 ,so far as the other argument--from the inconsistency of the development theory with belief in a ,supreme ,being--was concerned1 the student of science was independent of the interpretations which divines claim the sole right of assigning to the ancient books4 ,science has done so much more than divinity 7which in fact has done nothing7 to widen our conceptions of space and time1 that she may justly claim full right to deal with any difficulties arising from such enlargement of our ideas4 ,with the theological difficulty science would not care to deal at all1 were she not urged to do so by the denunciations of divines2 and when1 so urged1 she touches that difficulty1 she is quickly told that the difficulty is insuperable1 and not long after that it has no existence1 and 7on both accounts7 that it should have been left alone4 ,but with the difficulty arising from the widening of our ideas respecting space and time1 science may claim good1 almost sole1 right to deal4 ,the path to a solution of the problem is not difficult to find4 ,at a first view1 it does seem to those whose vision had been limited to a contracted field1 that the wide domain of time and space in which processes of development are found to take place is the universe itself1 that to deny the formation of our earth by a special creative act is to deny the existence of a ,creator1 that to regard the beginning of our earth as a process of development is to assert that development has been in operation from the beginning of all things4 ,but when we recognise clearly that vastness and minuteness1 prolonged and brief duration1 are merely relative1 we perceive that in considering our earth's history we have to deal only with small parts of space and brief periods of time1 by comparison with all space and all time4 ,our earth is very large compared with a tree or an animal1 but very small compared with the solar system1 a mere point compared with the system of stars to which the sun belongs1 and absolutely as nothing compared with the universe of space2 and in like manner1 while the periods of her growth and development occupy periods very long-lasting compared with those required for the growth and development of a tree or an animal1 they are doubtless but brief compared with the eras of the development of our solar system1 a mere instant compared with the eras of the development of star-systems1 and absolutely evanescent compared with eternity4 ,we have no more reason for rejecting the belief in a ,creator because our earth or the solar system is found to have developed to its present condition from an embryonic primordial state1 than we have had ever since men first found that animals and trees are developed from the germ4 ,the region of development is larger1 the period of development lasts longer1 but neither the one nor the other is infinite2 and being finite1 both one and the other are simply nothing by comparison with infinity4 ,it is a startling thought1 doubtless1 that periods of time compared with which the life of a man1 the existence of a nation1 nay1 the duration of the human race itself1 sink into insignificance1 should themselves in turn be dwarfed into nothingness by comparison with periods of a still higher order4 ,but the thought is not more startling than that other thought which we have been compelled to admit--the thought that the earth on which we live1 and the solar system to which it belongs1 though each so vast that all known material objects are as nothing by comparison1 are in turn as nothing compared with the depths of space separating us from even the nearest among the fixed stars4 ,one thought1 as ,i have said1 we have been compelled to admit1 the other has not as yet been absolutely forced upon us4 ,though men have long since given up the idea that the earth and heavens have endured but a few thousand years1 it is still possible to believe that the birth of our solar system1 whether by creative act or by the beginning of processes of development1 belongs to the beginning of all time4 ,but this view cannot be regarded as even probable4 ,although it has never been proved that any definite relation must subsist between time 7occupied by events7 and space 7occupied by matter71 the mind naturally accepts the belief that such a relation exists4 ,as we find the universe enlarging under the survey of science1 our conceptions of the duration of the universe enlarge also4 ,when the earth was supposed to be the most important object in creation1 men might reasonably assign to time itself 7regarded as the interval between the beginning of the earth and the consummation of all things when the earth should perish7 a moderate duration2 but it is equally reasonable that1 as the insignificance of the earth's domain in space is recognised1 men should recognise also the presumable insignificance of the earth's existence in time4 ,in this respect1 although we have nothing like the direct evidence afforded by the measurement of space1 we yet have evidence which can scarcely be called in question4 ,we find in the structure of our earth the signs of its former condition4 ,we see clearly that it was once intensely hot6 and we know from experimental researches on the cooling of various earths that many millions of years must have been required by the earth in cooling down from its former igneous condition4 ,we may doubt whether ,bischoff's researches can be relied upon in details1 and so be unwilling to assign with him a period of #cej millions of years to a single stage of the process of cooling4 ,but that the entire process lasted tens of millions and probably hundreds of millions of years cannot be doubted4 ,recognising such enormous periods as these in the development of one of the smallest fruits of the great solar tree of life1 we cannot but admit at least the reasonableness of believing that the larger fruits 7,jupiter1 for instance1 with #cdj times as much matter1 and ,saturn with #ajj times7 must require periods still vaster1 probably many times larger4 ,indeed1 science shows not only that this view is reasonable1 but that no other view is possible4 ,for the mighty root of the tree of life1 the great orb of the sun1 containing #cdj thousand times as much matter as the earth1 yet mightier periods would be needed4 ,the growth and development of these1 the parts of the great system1 must of necessity require much shorter time-intervals than the growth and development of the system regarded as a whole4 ,the enormous period when the germs only of the sun and planets existed as yet1 when the chaotic substance of the system had not yet blossomed into worlds1 the mighty period which is to follow the death of the last surviving member of the system1 when the whole scheme will remain as the dead trunk of a tree remains after the last leaf has fallen1 after the last movement of sap within the trunk--these periods must be infinite compared with those which measure the duration of even the mightiest separate members of the system4 ,but all this has been left unnoticed by those who have argued in support of the ,brewsterian doctrine of a plurality of worlds4 ,they argue as if it had never been shown that every member of the solar system1 as of all other such systems in space1 has to pass through an enormously long period of preparation before becoming fit to be the abode of life1 and that after being fit for life 7for a period very long to our conceptions1 but by comparison with the other exceedingly short7 it must for countless ages remain as an extinct world4 ,or else they reason as though it had been proved that the relatively short life-bearing periods in the existence of the several planets must of necessity synchronise1 instead of all the probabilities lying overwhelmingly the other way4 ,while this has been 7in my judgment7 a defect in what may be called the ,brewsterian theory of other worlds1 a defect not altogether dissimilar has characterised the opposite or ,whewellite theory4 ,very useful service was rendered to astronomy by ,whewell's treatise upon1 or rather against1 the plurality of worlds1 calling attention as it did to the utter feebleness of the arguments on which men had been content to accept the belief that other planets and other systems are inhabited4 ,but some among the most powerfully urged arguments against that belief tacitly relied on the assumption of a similarity of general condition among the members of the solar system4 ,for instance1 the small mean density of ,jupiter and ,saturn had1 on the ,brewsterian theory1 been explained as probably due to vast hollow spaces in those planets' interiors--an explanation which 7if it could be admitted7 would leave us free to believe that ,jupiter and ,saturn may be made of the same materials as our own earth4 ,with this was pleasantly intermixed the conception that the inhabitant of these planets may have his 'home in subterranean cities warmed by central fires1 or in crystal caves cooled by ocean tides1 or may float with the ,nereids upon the deep1 or mount upon wings as eagles1 or rise upon the pinions of the dove1 that he may flee away and be at rest1' with much more in the same fanciful vein4 ,we now know that there can be no cavities more than a few miles below the crust of a planet1 simply because1 under the enormous pressures which would exist1 the most solid matter would be perfectly plastic4 ,but while ,whewell's general objection to the theory that ,jupiter or ,saturn is in the same condition as our earth thus acquires new force1 the particular explanation which he gave of the planet's small density is open to precisely the same general objection4 ,for he assumes that1 because the planet's mean density is little greater than that of water1 the planet is probably a world of water and ice with a cindery nucleus1 or in fact just such a world as would be formed if a sufficient quantity of water in the same condition as the water of our seas were placed at ,jupiter's greater distance from the sun1 around a nucleus of earthy or cindery matter large enough to make the density of the entire planet thus formed equal to that of ,jupiter1 or about one-third greater than the density of water4 ,in this argument there are in reality two assumptions1 of precisely the same nature as those which ,whewell set himself to combat4 ,it is first assumed that some material existing on a large scale in our earth1 and nearly of the same density as ,jupiter1 must constitute the chief bulk of that planet1 and secondly that the temperature of ,jupiter's globe must be that which a globe of such material would have if placed where ,jupiter is4 ,the possibility that ,jupiter may be in an entirely different stage of planetary life--or1 in other words1 that the youth1 middle life1 and old age of that planet may belong to quite different eras from the corresponding periods of our earth's life--is entirely overlooked4 ,rather1 indeed1 it may be said that the extreme probability of this1 on any hypothesis respecting the origin of the solar system1 and its absolute certainty on the hypothesis of the development of that system1 are entirely overlooked4 ,a fair illustration of the erroneous nature of the arguments which have been used1 not only in advocating rival theories respecting the plurality of worlds1 but also in dealing with subordinate points1 may be presented as follows3 ,imagine a wide extent of country covered with scattered trees of various size1 and with plants and shrubs1 flowers and herbs1 down to the minutest known4 ,let us suppose a race of tiny creatures to subsist on one of the fruits of a tree of moderate size1 their existence as a race depending entirely on the existence of the fruit on which they subsist1 while the existence of the individuals of their race lasts but for a few minutes4 ,furthermore1 let there be no regular fruit season either on their tree or in their region of vegetable life1 but fruits forming1 growing1 and decaying all the time4 ,let us next conceive these creatures to be possessed of a power of reasoning respecting themselves1 their fruit world1 the tree on which it hangs1 and to some degree even respecting such other trees1 plants1 flowers1 and so forth1 as the limited range of their vision might be supposed to include4 ,it would be a natural thought with them1 when first they began to exercise this power of reasoning1 that their fruit home was the most important object in existence1 and themselves the chief and noblest of living beings4 ,it would also be very natural that they should suppose the formation of their world to correspond with the beginning of time1 and the formation of their race to have followed the formation of their world by but a few seconds4 ,they would conclude that a ,supreme ,being had fashioned their world and themselves by special creative acts1 and that what they saw outside their fruit world had been also specially created1 doubtless to subserve their wants4 ,let us now imagine that gradually1 by becoming more closely observant than they had been1 by combining together to make more complete observations1 and above all by preserving the records of observations made by successive generations1 these creatures began to obtain clearer ideas respecting their world and the surrounding regions of space4 ,they would find evidence that the fruit on which they lived had not been formed precisely as they knew it1 but had undergone processes of development4 ,the distressing discovery would be made that this development could not possibly have taken place in a few seconds1 but must have required many hours1 nay1 even several of those enormous periods called by us days4 ,this1 however1 would only be the beginning of their troubles4 ,gradually the more advanced thinkers and the closest observers would perceive that not only had their world undergone processes of development1 but that its entire mass had been formed by such processes--that in fact it had not been created at all1 in the sense in which they had understood the word1 but had grown4 ,this would be very dreadful to these creatures1 because they would not readily be able to dispossess their minds of the notion that they were the most important beings in the universe1 their domain of space coextensive with the universe1 the duration of their world coextensive with time4 ,but passing over the difficulties thus arising1 and the persecution and abuse to which those would be subjected who maintained the dangerous doctrine that their fruit home had been developed1 not created1 let us consider how these creatures would regard the question of other worlds than their own4 ,at first they would naturally be unwilling to admit the possibility that other worlds as important as their own could exist4 ,but if after a time they found reason to believe that their world was only one of several belonging to a certain tree system1 the idea would occur to them1 and would gradually come to be regarded as something more than probable1 that those other fruit worlds1 like their own1 might be the abode of living creatures4 ,and probably at first1 while as yet the development of their own world was little understood1 they would conceive the notion that all the fruits1 large or small1 upon their tree system were in the same condition as their own1 and either inhabited by similar races or at least in the same full vigour of life-bearing existence4 ,but so soon as they recognised the law of development of their own world1 and the relation between such development and their own requirements1 they would form a different opinion1 if they found that only during certain stages of their world's existence life could exist upon it4 ,if1 for instance1 they perceived that their fruit world must once have been so bitter and harsh in texture that no creatures in the least degree like themselves could have lived upon it1 and that it was passing slowly but surely through processes by which it would become one day dry and shrivelled and unable to support living creatures1 they would be apt1 if their reasoning powers were fairly developed1 to inquire whether other fruits which they saw around them on their tree system were either in the former or in the latter condition4 ,if they found reason to believe certain fruits were in one or other of these stages1 they would regard such fruits as not yet the abode of life or as past the life-supporting era4 ,it seems probable even that another idea would suggest itself to some among their bolder thinkers4 ,recognising in their own world in several instances what to their ideas resembled absolute waste of material or of force1 it might appear to them quite possible that some1 perhaps even a large proportion1 of the fruits upon their tree were not only not supporting life at the particular epoch of observation1 but never had supported life and never would--that1 through some cause or other1 life would never appear upon such fruits even when they were excellently fitted for the support of life4 ,they might even conceive that some among the fruits of their tree had failed or would fail to come to the full perfection of fruit life4 ,looking beyond their own tree--that is1 the tree to which their own fruit world belonged--they would perceive other trees1 though their visual powers might not enable them to know whether such trees bore fruit1 whether they were in other respects like their own1 whether those which seemed larger or smaller were really so1 or owed their apparent largeness to nearness1 or their apparent smallness to great distance4 ,they would be apt perhaps to generalise a little too daringly respecting these remote tree systems1 concluding too confidently that a shrub or a flower was a tree system like their own1 or that a great tree1 every branch of which was far larger than their entire tree system1 belonged to the same order and bore similar fruit4 ,they might mistake1 also1 in forgetting the probable fact that as every fruit in their own tree system had its own period of life1 very brief compared with the entire existence of the fruit1 so every tree might have its own fruit-bearing season4 ,thus1 contemplating a tree which they supposed to be like their own in its nature1 they might say1 ',yonder is a tree system crowded with fruits1 each the abode of many myriads of creatures like ourselves3' whereas in reality the tree might be utterly unlike their own1 might not yet have reached or might long since have passed the fruit-bearing stage1 might when in that stage bear fruit utterly unlike any they could even imagine1 and each such fruit during its brief life-bearing condition might be inhabited by living beings utterly unlike any creatures they could conceive4 ,yet again1 we can very well imagine that the inhabitants of our fruit world1 though they might daringly overleap the narrow limits of space and time within which their actual life or the life of their race was cast1 though they might learn to recognise the development of their own world and of others like it1 even from the very blossom1 would be utterly unable to conceive the possibility that the tree itself to which their world belonged had developed by slow processes of growth from a time when it was less even than their own relatively minute home4 ,still less would it seem credible to them1 or even conceivable1 that the whole forest region to which they belonged1 containing many orders of trees differing altogether from their own tree system1 besides plants and shrubs1 and flowers and herbs 7forms of vegetation of whose use they could form no just conception whatever71 had itself grown2 that once the entire forest domain had been under vast masses of water--the substance which occasionally visited their world in the form of small drops2 that such changes were but minute local phenomena of a world infinitely higher in order than their own2 that that world in turn was but one of the least of the worlds forming a yet higher system2 and so on ad infinitum4 ,such ideas would seem to them not merely inconceivable1 but many degrees beyond the widest conceptions of space and time which they could regard as admissible4 ,our position differs only in degree1 not in kind1 from that of these imagined creatures1 and the reasoning which we perceive 7though they could not7 to be just for such creatures is just for us also4 ,it was perfectly natural that before men recognised the evidences of development in the structure of our earth they should regard the earth and all things upon the earth and visible from the earth as formed by special creative acts precisely as we see them now4 ,but so soon as they perceived that the earth is undergoing processes of development and has undergone such processes in the past1 it was reasonable1 though at first painful1 to conclude that on this point they had been mistaken4 ,yet as we recognise the absurdity of the supposition that1 because fruits and trees grow1 and were not made in a single instant as we know them1 therefore there is no ,supreme ,being1 so may we justly reject as absurd the same argument1 enlarged in scale1 employed to induce the conclusion that because planets and solar systems have been developed to their present condition1 and were not created in their present form1 therefore there is no ,creator1 no ,god4 ,i do not know that the argument ever has been used in this form2 but it has been used to show that those who believe in the development of worlds and systems must of necessity be atheists1 an even more mischievous conclusion than the other2 for none who had not examined the subject would be likely to adopt the former conclusion1 but many might be willing to believe that a number of their fellow-men hold obnoxious tenets1 without inquiring closely or at all into the reasoning on which the assertion had been based4 ,but it is more important to notice how our views respecting other worlds should be affected by those circumstances in the evidence we have1 which correspond with the features of the evidence on which the imagined inhabitants of the fruit world would form their opinion4 ,it was natural that when men first began to reason about themselves and their home they should reject the idea of other worlds like ours1 and perhaps it was equally natural that when first the idea was entertained that the planets may be worlds like ours1 men should conceive that all those worlds are in the same condition as ours4 ,but it would be1 or rather it is1 as unreasonable for men to maintain such an opinion now1 when the laws of planetary development are understood1 when the various dimensions of the planets are known1 and when the shortness of the life-supporting period of a planet's existence compared with the entire duration of the planet has been clearly recognised1 as it would be for the imagined inhabitants of a small fruit on a tree to suppose that all the other fruits on the tree1 though some manifestly far less advanced in development and others far more advanced than their own1 were the abode of the same forms of life1 though these forms were seen to require those conditions1 and no other1 corresponding to the stage of development through which their own world was passing4 ,viewing the universe of suns and worlds in the manner here suggested1 we should adopt a theory of other worlds which would hold a position intermediate between the ,brewsterian and the ,whewellite theories4 7,it is not on this account that ,i advocate it1 let me remark in passing1 but simply because it accords with the evidence1 which is not the case with the others47 ,rejecting on the one hand the theory of the plurality of worlds in the sense implying that all existing worlds are inhabited1 and on the other hand the theory of but one world1 we should accept a theory which might be entitled the ,paucity of ,worlds1 only that relative not absolute paucity must be understood4 ,it is absolutely certain that this theory is the correct one1 if we admit two postulates1 neither of which can be reasonably questioned--viz41 first1 that the life-bearing era of any world is short compared with the entire duration of that world2 and secondly1 that there can have been no cause which set all the worlds in existence1 not simultaneously1 which would be amazing enough1 but 7which would be infinitely more surprising7 in such a way that after passing each through its time of preparation1 longer for the large worlds and shorter for the small worlds1 they all reached at the same time the life-bearing era4 ,but quite apart from this antecedent probability1 amounting as it does to absolute certainty if these two highly probably postulates are admitted1 we have the actual evidence of the planets we can examine--that evidence proving incontestably1 as ,i have shown elsewhere1 that such planets as ,jupiter and ,saturn are still in the state of preparation1 still so intensely hot that no form of life could possibly exist upon them1 and that such bodies as our moon have long since passed the life-bearing stage1 and are to all intents and purposes defunct4 ,but may we not go farther8 ,recognising in our own world1 in many instances1 what to our ideas resembles waste--waste seeds1 waste lives1 waste races1 waste regions1 waste forces--recognising superfluity and superabundance in all the processes and in all the works of nature1 should it not appear at least possible that some1 perhaps even a large proportion1 of the worlds in the multitudinous systems peopling space1 are not only not now supporting life1 but never have supported life and never will8 ,does this idea differ in kind1 however largely to our feeble conceptions it may seem to differ in degree1 from the idea of the imagined creatures on a fruit1 that some or even many fruits excellently fitted for the support of life might not subserve that purpose8 ,and as those creatures might conceive 7as we know7 that some fruits1 even many1 fail to come to the full perfection of fruit life1 may not we without irreverence conceive 7as higher beings than ourselves may know7 that a planet or a sun may fail in the making8 ,we cannot say that in such a case there would be a waste or loss of material1 though we may be unable to conceive how the lost sun or planet could be utilised4 ,our imagined insect reasoners would be unable to imagine that fruits plucked from their tree system were otherwise than wasted1 for they would conceive that their idea of the purpose of fruits was the only true one2 yet they would be altogether mistaken1 as we may be in supposing the main purpose of planetary existence is the support of life4 ,in like manner1 when we pass in imagination beyond the limits of our own system1 we may learn a useful lesson from the imagined creatures' reasoning about other tree systems than that to which their world belonged4 ,astronomers have been apt to generalise too daringly respecting remote stars and star systems1 as though our solar system were a true picture of all solar systems1 the system of stars to which our sun belongs a true picture of all star systems4 ,they have been apt to forget that1 as every world in our own system has its period of life1 short by comparison with the entire duration of the world1 so each solar system1 each system of such systems1 may have its own life-bearing season1 infinitely long according to our conceptions1 but very short indeed compared with the entire duration of which the life-bearing season would be only a single era4 ,lastly1 though men may daringly overleap the limits of time and space within which their lives are cast1 though they may learn to recognise the development of their own world and of others like it even from the blossom of nebulosity1 they seem unable to rise to the conception that the mighty tree which during remote aeons bore those nebulous blossoms sprang itself from cosmical germs4 ,we are unable to conceive the nature of such germs2 the processes of development affecting them belong to other orders than any processes we know of1 and required periods compared with which the inconceivable1 nay1 the inexpressible periods required for the development of the parts of our universe1 are as mere instants4 ,yet have we every reason which analogy can afford to believe that even the development of a whole universe such as ours should be regarded as but a minute local phenomenon of a universe infinitely higher in order1 that universe in turn but a single member of a system of such universes1 and so on1 even ad infinitum4 ,to reject the belief that this is possible is to share the folly of beings such as we have conceived regarding their tiny world as a fit centre whence to measure the universe1 while yet1 from such a stand-point1 this little earth on which we live would be many degrees beyond the limits where for them the inconceivable would begin4 ,to reject the belief that this is not only possible1 but real1 is to regard the few short steps by which man has advanced towards the unknown as a measurable approach towards limits of space1 towards the beginning and the end of all things4 ,until it can be shown that space is bounded by limits beyond which neither matter nor void exists1 that time had a beginning before which it was not and tends to an end after which it will exist no more1 we may confidently accept the belief that the history of our earth is as evanescent in time as the earth itself is evanescent in space1 and that nothing we can possibly learn about our earth1 or about the system it belongs to1 or about systems of such systems1 can either prove or disprove aught respecting the scheme and mode of government of the universe itself4 ,it is true now as it was in days of yore1 and it will remain true as long as the earth and those who dwell on it endure1 that what men know is nothing1 the unknown infinite4 ,,vi4 ,,suns ,,in ,,flames4 ,in ,november #ahgf news arrived of a catastrophe the effects of which must in all probability have been disastrous1 not to a district1 or a country1 or a continent1 or even a world1 but to a whole system of worlds4 ,the catastrophe happened many years ago--probably at least a hundred--yet the messenger who brought the news has not been idle on his way1 but has sped along at a rate which would suffice to circle this earth eight times in the course of a second4 ,that messenger has had1 however1 to traverse millions of millions of miles1 and only reached our earth ,november #ahgf4 ,the news he brought was that a sun like our own was in conflagration2 and on a closer study of his message something was learned as to the nature of the conflagration1 and a few facts tending to throw light on the question 7somewhat interesting to ourselves7 whether our own sun is likely to undergo a similar mishap at any time4 ,what would happen if he did1 we know already4 ,the sun which has just met with this disaster--that is1 which so suffered a few generations ago--blazed out for a time with several hundred times its former lustre4 ,if our sun were to increase as greatly in light and heat1 the creatures on the side of our earth turned towards him at the time would be destroyed in an instant4 ,those on the dark or night hemisphere would not have to wait for their turn till the earth1 by rotating1 carried them into view of the destroying sun4 ,in much briefer space the effect of his new fires would be felt all over the earth's surface4 ,the heavens would be dissolved and the elements would melt with fervent heat4 ,in fact no description of such a catastrophe1 as affecting the night half of the earth1 could possibly be more effective and poetical than ,st4 ,peter's account of the day of the ,lord1 coming 'as a thief in the night2 in the which the heavens shall pass away with a great noise1 and the elements shall melt with fervent heat1 the earth also and the works that are therein being burned up2' though ,i imagine the apostle would have been scarce prepared to admit that the earth was in danger from a solar conflagration4 ,indeed1 according to another account1 the sun was to be turned into darkness and the moon into blood1 before that great and notable day of the ,lord came--a description corresponding well with solar and lunar eclipses1 the most noteworthy 'signs in the heavens1' but agreeing very ill with the outburst of a great solar conflagration4 ,before proceeding to inquire into the singular and significant circumstances of the recent outburst1 it may be found interesting to examine briefly the records which astronomy has preserved of similar catastrophes in former years4 ,these may be compared to the records of accidents on the various railway lines in a country or continent4 ,those other suns which we can stars are engines working the mighty mechanism of planetary systems1 as our sun maintains the energies of our own system2 and it is a matter of some interest to us to inquire in how many cases1 among the many suns within the range of vision1 destructive explosions occur4 ,we may take the opportunity1 later1 to inquire into the number of cases in which the machinery of solar systems appears to have broken down4 ,the first case of a solar conflagration on record is that of the new star observed by ,hipparchus some #bjjj years ago4 ,in his time1 and indeed until quite recently1 an object of this kind was called a new star1 or a temporary star4 ,but we now know that when a star makes its appearance where none had before been visible1 what has really happened has been that a star too remote to be seen has become visible through some rapid increase of splendour4 ,when the new splendour dies out again1 it is not that a star has ceased to exist2 but simply that a faint star which had increased greatly in lustre has resumed its original condition4 ,hipparchus's star must have been a remarkable object1 for it was visible in full daylight1 whence we may infer that it was many times brighter than the blazing ,dog-star4 ,it is interesting in the history of science1 as having led ,hipparchus to draw up a catalogue of stars1 the first on record4 ,some moderns1 being sceptical1 rejected this story as a fiction2 but ,biot examining ,chinese ,chronicles#cb relating to the times of ,hipparchus1 finds that in #acd ,b4,c4 7about nine years before the date of ,hipparchus's catalogue7 a new star was recorded as having appeared in the constellation ,scorpio4 ,the next new star 7that is1 stellar conflagration7 on record is still more interesting1 as there appears some reason for believing that before long we may see another outburst of the same star4 ,in the years #ide1 #abfd1 and #aegb1 brilliant stars appeared in the region of the heavens between ,cepheus and ,cassiopeia4 ,sir ,j4 ,herschel remarks1 that1 'from the imperfect account we have of the places of the two earlier1 as compared with that of the last1 which was well determined1 as well as from the tolerably near coincidence of the intervals of their appearance1 we may suspect them1 with ,goodricke1 to be one and the same star1 with a period of #cab or perhaps of #aef years4' ,the latter period may very reasonably be rejected1 as one can perceive no reason why the intermediate returns of the star to visibility should have been overlooked1 the star having appeared in a region which never sets4 ,it is to be noted that1 the period from #ide to #abfd being #cai years1 and that from #abfd to #aegb only #cjh years1 the period of this star 7if ,goodricke is correct in supposing the three outbursts to have occurred in the same star7 would seem to be diminishing4 ,at any time1 then1 this star might now blaze out in the region between ,cassiopeia and ,cepheus1 for more than #cjd years have already passed since its last outburst4 ,as the appearance of a new star led ,hipparchus to undertake the formation of his famous catalogue1 so did the appearance of the star in ,cassiopeia1 in #aegb1 lead the ,danish astronomer ,tycho ,brahe to construct a new and enlarged catalogue4 7,this1 be it remembered1 was before the invention of the telescope47 ,returning one evening 7,november #aa1 #aegb1 old style7 from his laboratory to his dwelling-house1 he found1 says ,sir ,j4 ,herschel1 'a group of country people gazing at a star1 which he was sure did not exist an hour before4 ,this was the star in question4' ,the description of the star and its various changes is more interesting at the present time1 when the true nature of these phenomena is understood1 than it was even in the time when the star was blazing in the firmament4 ,it will be gathered from that description and from what ,i shall have to say farther on about the results of recent observations on less splendid new stars1 that1 if this star should reappear in the next few years1 our observers will probably be able to obtain very important information from it4 ,the message from it will be much fuller and more distinct than any we have yet received from such stars1 though we have learned quite enough to remain in no sort of doubt as to their general nature4 ,the star remained visible1 we learn1 about sixteen months1 during which time it kept its place in the heavens without the least variation4 ',it had all the radiance of the fixed stars1 and twinkled like them2 and was in all respects like ,sirius1 except that it surpassed ,sirius in brightness and magnitude4' ,it appeared larger than ,jupiter1 which was at that time at his brightest1 and was scarcely inferior to ,venus4 ,it did not acquire this lustre gradually1 but shone forth at once of its full size and brightness1 'as if1' said the chroniclers of the time1 'it had been of instantaneous creation4' ,for three weeks it shone with full splendour1 during which time it could be seen at noonday 'by those who had good eyes1 and knew where to look for it4' ,but before it had been seen a month1 it became visibly smaller1 and from the middle of ,december #aegb till ,march #aegd1 when it entirely disappeared1 it continually diminished in magnitude4 ',as it decreased in size1 it varied in colour3 at first its light was white and extremely bright2 it then became yellowish2 afterwards of a ruddy colour like ,mars2 and finished with a pale livid white resembling the colour of ,saturn4' ,all the details of this account should be very carefully noted4 ,it will presently be seen that they are highly characteristic4 ,those who care to look occasionally at the heavens to know whether this star has returned to view may be interested to learn whereabouts it should be looked for4 ,the place may be described as close to the back of the star-gemmed chair in which ,cassiopeia is supposed to sit--a little to the left of the seat of the chair1 supposing the chair to be looked at in its normal position4 ,but as ,cassiopeia's chair is always inverted when the constellation is most conveniently placed for observation1 and indeed as nine-tenths of those who know the constellation suppose the chair's legs to be the back1 and vice versa1 it may be useful to mention that the star was placed somewhat thus with respect to the straggling ,w formed by the five chief stars of ,cassiopeia4 ,there is a star not very far from the place here indicated1 but rather nearer to the middle angle of the ,w4 ,this1 however1 is not a bright star2 and cannot possibly be mistaken for the expected visitant4 7,the place of ,tycho's star is indicated in my ,school ,star-,atlas and also in my larger ,library ,atlas4 ,the same remark applies to both the new stars in the ,serpent-,bearer1 presently to be described47 ,illustration ,in ,august #aeif the astronomer ,fabricius observed a new star in the neck of the ,whale1 which also after a time disappeared4 ,it was not noticed again till the year #afcg1 when an observer rejoicing in the name of ,phocyllides ,holwarda observed it1 and1 keeping a watch1 after it had vanished1 upon the place where it had appeared1 saw it again come into view nine months after its disappearance4 ,since then it has been known as a variable star with a period of about #cca days #h hours4 ,when brightest this star is of the second magnitude4 ,it indicates a somewhat singular remissness on the part of the astronomers of former days1 that a star shining so conspicuously for a fortnight1 once in each period of #cca-a_/c days1 should for so many years have remained undetected4 ,it may1 perhaps1 be thought that1 noting this1 ,i should withdraw the objection raised above against ,sir ,j4 ,herschel's idea that the star in ,cassiopeia may return to view once in #aef years1 instead of once in #cab years4 ,but there is a great difference between a star which at its brightest shines only as a second-magnitude star1 so that it has twenty or thirty companions of equal or greater lustre above the horizon along with it1 and a star which surpasses three-fold the splendid ,sirius4 ,we have seen that even in ,tycho ,brahe's day1 when probably the stars were not nearly so well known by the community at large1 the new star in ,cassiopeia had not shone an hour before the country people were gazing at it with wonder4 ,besides1 ,cassiopeia and the ,whale are constellations very different in position4 ,the familiar stars of ,cassiopeia are visible on every clear night1 for they never set4 ,the stars of the ,whale1 at least of the part to which the wonderful variable star belongs1 are below the horizon during rather more than half the twenty-four hours2 and a new star there would only be noticed1 probably 7unless of exceeding splendour71 if it chanced to appear during that part of the year when the ,whale is high above the horizon between eventide and midnight1 or in the autumn and early winter4 ,it is a noteworthy circumstance about the variable star in the ,whale1 deservedly called ,mira1 or ,the ,wonderful1 that it does not always return to the same degree of brightness4 ,sometimes it has been a very bright second-magnitude star when at its brightest1 at others it has barely exceeded the third magnitude4 ,hevelius relates that during the four years between ,october #afgb and ,december #afgf1 ,mira did not show herself at all6 ,as this star fades out1 it changes in colour from white to red4 ,towards the end of ,september #afjd1 a new star made its appearance in the constellation ,ophiuchus1 or the ,serpent-,bearer4 ,its place was near the heel of the right foot of ',ophiuchus huge4' ,kepler tells us that it had no hair or tail1 and was certainly not a comet4 ,moreover1 like the other fixed stars1 it kept its place unchanged1 showing unmistakably that it belonged to the star-depths1 not to nearer regions4 ',it was exactly like one of the stars1 except that in the vividness of its lustre1 and the quickness of its sparkling1 it exceeded anything that he had ever seen before4 ,it was every moment changing into some of the colours of the rainbow1 as yellow1 orange1 purple1 and red2 though it was generally white when it was at some distance from the vapours of the horizon4' ,in fact1 these changes of colour must not be regarded as indicating aught but the star's superior brightness4 ,every very bright star1 when close to the horizon1 shows these colours1 and so much the more distinctly as the star is the brighter4 ,sirius1 which surpasses the brightest stars of the northern hemisphere full four times in lustre1 shows these changes of colour so conspicuously that they were regarded as specially characteristic of this star1 insomuch that ,homer speaks of ,sirius 7not by name1 but as the 'star of autumn'7 shining most beautifully 'when laved of ocean's wave'--that is1 when close to the horizon4 ,and our own poet1 ,tennyson1 following the older poet1 sings how the fiery ,sirius alters hue1 ,and bickers into red and emerald4 ,the new star was brighter than ,sirius1 and was about five degrees lower down1 when at its highest above the horizon1 than ,sirius when he culminates4 ,five degrees being equal to nearly ten times the apparent diameter of the moon1 it will be seen how much more favourable the conditions were in the case of ,kepler's star for those coloured scintillations which characterised that orb4 ,sirius never rises very high above the horizon4 ,in fact1 at his highest 7near midnight in winter1 and1 of course1 near midday in summer7 he is about as high above the horizon as the sun at midday in the first week in ,february4 ,kepler's star's greatest height above the horizon was little more than three-fourths of this1 or equal to about the sun's elevation at midday on ,january #ac or #ad in any year4 ,like ,tycho ,brahe's star1 ,kepler's was brighter even than ,jupiter1 and only fell short of ,venus in splendour4 ,it preserved its lustre for about three weeks1 after which time it gradually grew fainter and fainter until some time between ,october #afje and ,february #afjf1 when it disappeared4 ,the exact day is unknown1 as during that interval the constellation of the ,serpent-,bearer is above the horizon in the day-time only4 ,but in ,february #afjf1 when it again became possible to look for the new star in the night-time1 it had vanished4 ,it probably continued to glow with sufficient lustre to have remained visible1 but for the veil of light under which the sun concealed it1 for about sixteen months altogether4 ,in fact1 it seems very closely to have resembled ,tycho's star1 not only in appearance and in the degree of its greatest brightness1 but in the duration of its visibility4 ,in the year #afgj a new star appeared in the constellation ,cygnus1 attaining the third magnitude4 ,it remained visible1 but not with this lustre1 for nearly two years4 ,after it had faded almost out of view1 it flickered up again for awhile1 but soon after it died out1 so as to be entirely invisible4 ,whether a powerful telescope would still have shown it is uncertain1 but it seems extremely probable4 ,it may be1 indeed1 that this new star in the ,swan is the same which has made its appearance within the last few weeks2 but on this point the evidence is uncertain4 ,on ,april #bj1 #ahdh1 ,mr4 ,hind 7,superintendent of the ,nautical ,almanac1 and discoverer of ten new members of the solar system7 noticed a new star of the fifth magnitude in the ,serpent-,bearer1 but in quite another part of that large constellation than had been occupied by ,kepler's star4 ,a few weeks later1 it rose to the fourth magnitude4 ,but afterwards its light diminished until it became invisible to ordinary eyesight4 ,it did not vanish utterly1 however4 ,it is still visible with telescopic power1 shining as a star of the eleventh magnitude1 that is five magnitudes below the faintest star discernible with the unaided eye4 ,this is the first new star which has been kept in view since its apparent creation4 ,but we are now approaching the time when it was found that as so-called new stars continue in existence long after they have disappeared from view1 so also they are not in reality new1 but were in existence long before they became visible to the naked eye4 ,on ,may #ab1 #ahff1 shortly before midnight1 ,mr4 ,birmingham1 of ,tuam1 noticed a star of the second magnitude in the ,northern ,crown1 where hitherto no star visible to the naked eye had been known4 ,dr4 ,schmidt1 of ,athens1 who had been observing that region of the heavens the same night1 was certain that up to #aa ,p4,m41 ,athens local time1 there was no star above the fourth magnitude in the place occupied by the new star4 ,so that1 if this negative evidence can be implicitly relied on1 the new star must have sprung at least from the fourth1 and probably from a much lower magnitude1 to the second1 in less than three hours--eleven o'clock at ,athens corresponding to about nine o'clock by ,irish railway time4 ,a ,mr4 ,barker1 of ,london1 ,canada1 put forward a claim to having seen the new star as early as ,may #d--;a claim not in the least worth investigating1 so far as the credit of first seeing the new star is concerned1 but exceedingly important in its bearing on the nature of the outburst affecting the star in ,corona4 ,it is unpleasant to have to throw discredit on any definite assertion of facts2 unfortunately1 however1 ,mr4 ,barker1 when his claim was challenged1 laid before ,mr4 ,stone1 of the ,greenwich ,observatory1 such very definite records of observations made on ,may #d1 #h1 #i1 and #aj1 that we have no choice but either to admit these observations1 or to infer that he experienced the delusive effects of a very singular trick of memory4 ,he mentions in his letter to ,mr4 ,stone that he had sent full particulars of his observations on those early dates to ,professor ,watson1 of ,ann ,arbor ,university1 on ,may #ag2 but 7again unfortunately7 instead of leaving that letter to tell its own story in ,professor ,watson's hands1 he asked ,professor ,watson to return it to him3 so that when ,mr4 ,stone very naturally asked ,professor ,watson to furnish a copy of this important letter1 ,professor ,watson had to reply1 ',about a month ago1 ,mr4 ,barker applied to me for this letter1 and ,i returned it to him1 as requested1 without preserving a copy4 ,i can1 however1' he proceeded1 'state positively that he did not mention any actual observation earlier than ,may #ad4 ,he said he thought he had noticed a strange star in the ,crown about two weeks before the date of his first observation--,may #ad--;but not particularly1 and that he did not recognise it until the #adth4 ,he did not give any date1 and did not even seem positive as to identity4444 ,when ,i returned the letter of ,may #ag1 ,i made an endorsement across the first page1 in regard to its genuineness1 and attached my signature4 ,i regret that ,i did not preserve a copy of the letter in question2 but if the original is produced1 it will appear that my recollection of its contents is correct4' ,i think no one can blame ,mr4 ,stone1 if1 on the receipt of this letter1 he stated that he had not the 'slightest hesitation' in regarding ,mr4 ,barker's earlier observations as 'not entitled to the slightest credit4'#cc ,it may be fairly taken for granted that the new star leapt very quickly1 if not quite suddenly1 to its full splendour4 ,birmingham1 as we have seen1 was the first to notice it1 on ,may #ab4 ,on the evening of ,may #ac1 ,schmidt of ,athens discovered it independently1 and a few hours later it was noticed by a ,french engineer named ,courbebaisse4 ,afterwards1 ,baxendell of ,manchester1 and others independently saw the star4 ,schmidt1 examining ,argelander's charts of #cbd1jjj stars 7charts which ,i have had the pleasure of mapping in a single sheet71 found that the star was not a new one1 but had been set down by ,argelander as between the ninth and tenth magnitudes4 ,referring to ,argelander's list1 we find that the star had been twice observed--viz41 on ,may #ah1 #ahee1 and on ,march #ca1 #ahef4 ,birmingham wrote at once to ,mr4 ,huggins1 who1 in conjunction with the late ,dr4 ,miller1 had been for some time engaged in observing stars and other celestial objects with the spectroscope4 ,these two observers at once directed their telescope armed with spectroscopic adjuncts--the telespectroscope is the pleasing name of the compound instrument--to the new-comer4 ,the result was rather startling4 ,it may be well1 however1 before describing it1 to indicate in a few words the meaning of various kinds of spectroscopic evidence4 ,the light of the sun1 sifted out by the spectroscope1 shows all the colours but not all the tints of the rainbow4 ,it is spread out into a large rainbow-tinted streak1 but at various places 7a few thousand7 along the streak there are missing tints2 so that in fact the streak is crossed by a multitude of dark lines4 ,we know that these lines are due to the absorptive action of vapours existing in the atmosphere of the sun1 and from the position of the lines we can tell what the vapours are4 ,thus1 hydrogen by its absorptive action produces four of the bright lines4 ,the vapour of iron is there1 the vapour of sodium1 magnesium1 and so on4 ,again1 we know that these same vapours1 which1 by their absorptive action1 cut off rays of certain tints1 emit light of just those tints4 ,in fact1 if the glowing mass of the sun could be suddenly extinguished1 leaving his atmosphere in its present intensely heated condition1 the light of the faint sun which would thus be left us would give 7under spectroscopic scrutiny7 those very rays which now seem wanting4 ,there would be a spectrum of multitudinous bright lines1 instead of a rainbow-tinted spectrum crossed by multitudinous dark lines4 ,it is1 indeed1 only by contrast that the dark lines appear dark1 just as it is only by contrast that the solar spots seem dark4 ,not only the penumbra but the umbra of a sun-spot1 not only the umbra but the nucleus1 not only the nucleus but the deeper black which seems to lie at the core of the nucleus1 shine really with a lustre far exceeding that of the electric light1 though by contrast with the rest of the sun's surface the penumbra looks dark1 the umbra darker still1 the nucleus deep black1 and the core of the nucleus jet black4 ,so the dark lines across the solar spectrum mark where certain rays are relatively faint1 though in reality intensely lustrous4 ,conceive another change than that just imagined4 ,conceive the sun's globe to remain as at present1 but the atmosphere to be excited to many times its present degree of light and splendour3 then would all these dark lines become bright1 and the rainbow-tinted background would be dull or even quite dark by contrast4 ,this is not a mere fancy4 ,at times1 local disturbances take place in the sun which produce just such a change in certain constituents of the sun's atmosphere1 causing the hydrogen1 for example1 to glow with so intense a heat that1 instead of its lines appearing dark1 they stand out as bright lines4 ,occasionally1 too1 the magnesium in the solar atmosphere 7over certain limited regions only1 be it remembered7 has been known to behave in this manner4 ,it was so during the intensely hot summer of #ahgb1 insomuch that the ,italian observer ,tacchini1 who noticed the phenomenon1 attributed to such local overheating of the sun's magnesium vapour the remarkable heat from which we then for a time suffered4 ,now1 the stars are suns1 and the spectrum of a star is simply a miniature of the solar spectrum4 ,of course1 there are characteristic differences4 ,one star has more hydrogen1 at least more hydrogen at work absorbing its rays1 and thus has the hydrogen lines more strongly marked than they are in the solar spectrum4 ,another star shows the lines of various metals more conspicuously1 indicating that the glowing vapours of such elements1 iron1 copper1 mercury1 tin1 and so forth1 either hang more densely in the star's atmosphere than in our sun's1 or1 being cooler1 absorb their special tints more effectively4 ,but speaking generally1 a stellar spectrum is like the solar spectrum4 ,there is the rainbow-tinted streak1 which implies that the source of light is glowing solid1 liquid1 or highly compressed vaporous matter1 and athwart the streak there are the multitudinous dark lines which imply that around the glowing heart of the star there are envelopes of relatively cool vapours4 ,we can understand1 then1 the meaning of the evidence obtained from the new star in the ,northern ,crown4 ,in the first place1 the new star showed the rainbow-tinted streak crossed by dark lines1 which indicated its sun-like nature4 ,but1 standing out on that rainbow-tinted streak as on a dark background1 were four exceedingly bright lines--lines so bright1 though fine1 that clearly most of the star's light came from the glowing vapours to which these lines belonged4 ,three of the lines belonged to hydrogen1 the fourth was not identified with any known line4 ,let us distinguish between what can certainly be concluded from this remarkable observation1 and what can only be inferred with a greater or less degree of probability4 ,it is absolutely certain that when ,messrs4 ,huggins and ,miller made their observation 7by which time the new star had faded from the second to the third magnitude71 enormous masses of hydrogen around the star were glowing with a heat far more intense than that of the star itself within the hydrogen envelope4 ,it is certain that the increase in the star's light1 rendering the star visible which before had been far beyond the range of ordinary eyesight1 was due to the abnormal heat of the hydrogen surrounding that remote sun4 ,but it is not so clear whether the intense glow of the hydrogen was caused by combustion or by intense heat without combustion4 ,the difference between the two causes of increased light is important2 because on the opinion we form on this point must depend our opinion as to the probability that our sun may one day experience a similar catastrophe1 and also our opinion as to the state of the sun in the ,northern ,crown after the outburst4 ,to illustrate the distinction in question1 let us take two familiar cases of the emission of light4 ,a burning coal glows with red light1 and so does a piece of iron placed in a coal fire4 ,but the coal and the iron are undergoing very different processes4 ,the coal is burning1 and will presently be consumed2 the iron is not burning 7except in the sense that it is burning hot1 which means only that it will make any combustible substance burn which is brought into contact with it71 and it will not be consumed though the coal fire be maintained around it for days and weeks and months4 ,so with the hydrogen flames which play at all times over the surface of our own sun4 ,they are not burning like the hydrogen flames which are used for the oxy-hydrogen lantern4 ,were the solar hydrogen so burning1 the sun would quickly be extinguished4 ,they are simply aglow with intensity of heat1 as a mass of red-hot iron is aglow2 and1 so long as the sun's energies are maintained1 the hydrogen around him will glow in this way without being consumed4 ,as the new fires of the star in the ,crown died out rapidly1 it is possible that in their case there was actual combustion4 ,on the other hand1 it is also possible1 and perhaps on the whole more probable1 that the hydrogen surrounding the star was simply set glowing with increased lustre owing to some cause not as yet ascertained4 ,let us see how these two theories have been actually worded by the students of science themselves who have maintained them4 ',the sudden blazing forth of this star1' says ,mr4 ,huggins1 'and then the rapid fading away of its light1 suggest the rather bold speculation that in consequence of some great internal convulsion1 a large volume of hydrogen and other gases was evolved from it1 the hydrogen1 by its combination with some other element1' in other words1 by burning1 'giving out the light represented by the bright lines1 and at the same time heating to the point of vivid incandescence the solid matter of the star's surface4' ',as the liberated hydrogen gas became exhausted' 7,i now quote not ,huggins's own words1 but words describing his theory in a book which he has edited7 'the flame gradually abated1 and1 with the consequent cooling1 the star's surface became less vivid1 and the star returned to its original condition4' ,on the other hand1 the ,german physicists1 ,meyer and ,klein1 consider the sudden development of hydrogen1 in quantities sufficient to explain such an outburst1 exceedingly unlikely4 ,they have therefore adopted the opinion1 that the sudden blazing out of the star was occasioned by the violent precipitation of some mighty mass1 perhaps a planet1 upon the globe of that remote sun1 'by which the momentum of the falling mass would be changed into molecular motion1 or in other words into heat and light4' ,it might even be supposed1 they urge1 that the star in the ,crown1 by its swift motion1 may have come in contact with one of the star clouds which exist in large numbers in the realms of space4 ',such a collision would necessarily set the star in a blaze and occasion the most vehement ignition of its hydrogen4' ,fortunately1 our sun is safe for many millions of years to come from contact from any one of its planets4 ,the reader must not1 however1 run away with the idea that the danger consists only in the gradual contraction of planetary orbits sometimes spoken of4 ,that contraction1 if it is taking place at all1 of which we have not a particle of evidence1 would not draw ,mercury to the sun's surface for at least ten million millions of years4 ,the real danger would be in the effects which the perturbing action of the larger planets might produce on the orbit of ,mercury4 ,that orbit is even now very eccentric1 and must at times become still more so4 ,it might1 but for the actual adjustment of the planetary system1 become so eccentric that ,mercury could not keep clear of the sun2 and a blow from even small ,mercury 7only weighing1 in fact1 #cij millions of millions of millions of tons71 with a velocity of some #cjj miles per second1 would warm our sun considerably4 ,but there is no risk of this happening in ,mercury's case--though the unseen and much more shifty ,vulcan 7in which planet ,i beg to express here my utter disbelief7 might1 perchance1 work mischief if he really existed4 ,as for star clouds lying in the sun's course1 we may feel equally confident4 ,the telescope assures us that there are none immediately on the track1 and we know1 also1 that1 swiftly though the sun is carrying us onwards through space1#cd many millions of years must pass before he is among the star families towards which he is rushing4 ,of the danger from combustion1 or from other causes of ignition than those considered by ,meyer and ,klein1 it still remains to speak4 ,but first1 let us consider what new evidence has been thrown upon the subject by the observations made on the star which flamed out last ,november4 ,the new star was first seen by ,professor ,schmidt1 who has had the good fortune of announcing to astronomers more than one remarkable phenomenon4 ,it was he who discovered in ,november #ahff that a lunar crater had disappeared1 an announcement quite in accordance with the facts of the case4 ,we have seen that he was one of the independent discoverers of the outburst in the ,northern ,crown4 ,on ,november #bd1 at the early hour of #e4da in the evening 7showing that ,schmidt takes time by the forelock at his observatory71 he noticed a star of the third magnitude in the constellation of the ,swan1 not far from the tail of that southward-flying celestial bird4 ,he is quite sure that on ,november #bj1 the last preceding clear evening1 the star was not there4 ,at midnight its light was very yellow1 and it was somewhat brighter than the neighbouring star ,eta ,pegasi1 on the ,flying ,horse's southernmost knee 7if anatomists will excuse my following the ordinary usage which calls the wrist of the horse's fore-arm the knee74 ,he sent news of the discovery forthwith to ,leverrier1 the chief of the ,paris observatory2 and the observers there set to work to analyse the light of the stranger4 ,unfortunately the star's suddenly acquired brilliancy rapidly faded4 ,m4 ,paul ,henry estimated the star's brightness on ,december #b as equal only to that of a fifth-magnitude star4 ,moreover1 the colour1 which had been very yellow on ,november #bd1 was by this time 'greenish1 almost blue4' ,on ,december #b1 ,m4 ,cornu1 observing during a short time when the star was visible through a break between clouds1 found that the star's spectrum consisted almost entirely of bright lines4 ,on ,december #e1 he was able to determine the position of these lines1 though still much interrupted by clouds4 ,he found three bright lines of hydrogen1 the strong 7really double7 line of sodium1 the 7really triple7 line of magnesium1 and two other lines4 ,one of these last seemed to agree exactly in position with a bright line belonging to the corona seen around the sun during total eclipse4#ce ,the star has since faded gradually in lustre until1 at present1 it is quite invisible to the naked eye4 ,we cannot doubt that the catastrophe which befell this star is of the same general nature as is that which befell the star in the ,northern ,crown4 ,it is extremely significant that all the elements which manifested signs of intense heat in the case of the star in the ,swan1 are characteristic of our sun's outer appendages4 ,we know that the coloured flames seen around the sun during total solar eclipse consist of glowing hydrogen1 and of glowing matter giving a line so near the sodium line that in the case of a stellar spectrum it would1 probably1 not be possible to distinguish one from the other4 ,into the prominences there are thrown from time to time masses of glowing sodium1 magnesium1 and 7in less degree7 iron and other metallic vapours4 ,lastly1 in that glorious appendage1 the solar corona1 which extends for hundreds of thousands of miles from the sun's surface1 there are enormous quantities of some element1 whose nature is as yet unknown1 showing under spectroscopic analysis the bright line which seems to have appeared in the spectrum of the flaming sun in the ,swan4 ,this evidence seems to me to suggest that the intense heat which suddenly affected this star had its origin from without4 ,at the same time1 ,i cannot agree with ,meyer and ,klein in considering that the cause of the heat was either the downfall of a planetary mass on the star1 or the collision of the star with a star-cloudlet1 or nebula1 traversing space in one direction while the star swept onwards in another4 ,a planet could not very well come into final conflict with its sun at one fell swoop4 ,it would gradually draw nearer and nearer1 not by the narrowing of its path1 but by the change of the path's shape4 ,the path would1 in fact1 become more and more eccentric2 until1 at length1 at its point of nearest approach1 the planet would graze its primary1 exciting an intense heat where it struck1 but escaping actual destruction that time4 ,the planet would make another circuit1 and again graze its sun1 at or near the same part of the planet's path4 ,for several circuits this would continue1 the grazes not becoming more effective each time1 but rather less4 ,the interval between them1 however1 would grow continually less and less4 ,at last the time would come when the planet's path would be reduced to the circular form1 its globe touching its sun's all the way round1 and then the planet would very quickly be reduced to vapour1 and partly burned up1 its substance being absorbed by its sun4 ,but all the successive grazes would be indicated to us by accessions in the star's lustre1 the period between each seeming outburst being only a few months at first1 and becoming gradually less and less 7during a long course of years1 perhaps even of centuries71 until the planet was finally destroyed4 ,nothing of this sort has happened in the case of any so-called new star4 ,as for the rush of a star through a nebulous mass1 that is a theory which would scarcely be entertained by any one acquainted with the enormous distances separating the gaseous star-clouds properly called nebulae4 ,there may be small clouds of the same sort scattered much more densely through space2 but we have not a particle of evidence that this actually is the case4 ,all we certainly know about star-cloudlets suggest that the distances separating them from each other are comparable with those which separate star from star1 in which case the idea of a star coming into collision with a star-cloudlet1 and still more the idea of this occurring several times in a century1 is wild in the extreme4 ,on the whole1 the theory seems more probable than any of these1 that enormous flights of large meteoric masses travel around those stars which thus occasionally break forth in conflagration1 such flights travelling on exceedingly eccentric paths1 and requiring enormously long periods to complete each circuit of their vast orbits4 ,in conceiving this1 we are not imagining anything new4 ,such a meteoric flight would differ only in degree not kind from meteoric flights which are known to circle around our own sun4 ,i am not sure1 indeed1 that it can be definitely asserted that our sun has no meteoric appendages of the same nature as those which1 if this theory be true1 excite to intense periodic activity the sun round which they circle4 ,we know that comets and meteors are closely connected1 every comet being probably 7many certainly7 attended by flights of meteoric masses4 ,the meteors which produce the celebrated ,november showers of falling stars follow in the track of a comet invisible to the naked eye4 ,may we not reasonably suppose1 then1 that those glorious comets which have not only been visible but conspicuous1 shining even in the day-time1 and brandishing round tails which1 like that of the 'wonder in heaven1 the great dragon1' seemed to 'draw the third part of the stars of heaven1' are followed by much denser flights of much more massive meteors8 ,now some among these giant comets have paths which carry them very close to our sun4 ,newton's comet1 with its tail a hundred millions of miles in length1 all but grazed the sun's globe4 ,the comet of #ahdc1 whose tail1 says ,sir ,j4 ,herschel1 'stretched half-way across the sky1' must actually have grazed the sun1 though but lightly1 for its nucleus was within #hj1jjj miles of his surface1 and its head was more than #afj1jjj miles in diameter4 ,and these are only two among the few comets whose paths are known4 ,at any time we might be visited by a comet mightier than either1 travelling on an orbit intersecting the sun's surface1 followed by flights of meteoric masses enormous in size and many in number1 which1 falling on the sun's globe with the enormous velocity corresponding to their vast orbital range and their near approach to the sun--a velocity of some #cfj miles per second--would1 beyond all doubt1 excite his whole frame1 and especially his surface regions1 to a degree of heat far exceeding what he now emits4 ,we have had evidence of the tremendous heat to which the sun's surface would be excited by the downfall of a shower of large meteoric masses4 ,carrington and ,hodgson1 on ,september #a1 #ahei1 observed 7independently7 the passage of two intensely bright bodies across a small part of the sun's surface--the bodies first increasing in brightness1 then diminishing1 then fading away4 ,it is generally believed that these were meteoric masses raised to fierce heat by frictional resistance4 ,now so much brighter did they appear1 or rather did that part of the sun's surface appear through which they had rushed1 that ,carrington supposed the dark glass screen used to protect the eye had broken1 and ,hodgson described the brightness of this part of the sun as such that the part shone like a brilliant star on the background of the glowing solar surface4 ,mark1 also1 the consequences of the downfall of those two bodies only4 ,a magnetic disturbance affected the whole frame of the earth at the very time when the sun had been thus disturbed4 ,vivid auroras were seen not only in both hemispheres1 but in latitudes where auroras are very seldom witnessed4 ',by degrees1' says ,sir ,j4 ,herschel1 'accounts began to pour in of great auroras seen not only in these latitudes1 but at ,rome1 in the ,west ,indies1 in the tropics within eighteen degrees of the equator 7where they hardly ever appear72 nay1 what is still more striking1 in ,south ,america and in ,australia--where1 at ,melbourne1 on the night of ,september #b1 the greatest aurora ever seen there made its appearance4 ,these auroras were accompanied with unusually great electro-magnetic disturbances in every part of the world4 ,in many places the telegraph wires struck work4 ,they had too many private messages of their own to convey4 ,at ,washington and ,philadelphia1 in ,america1 the electric signal-men received severe electric shocks4 ,at a station in ,norway the telegraphic apparatus was set fire to2 and at ,boston1 in ,north ,america1 a flame of fire followed the pen of ,bain's electric telegraph1 which writes down the message upon chemically prepared paper4' ,seeing that where the two meteors fell the sun's surface glowed thus intensely1 and that the effect of this accession of energy upon our earth was thus well marked1 can it be doubted that a comet1 bearing in its train a flight of many millions of meteoric masses1 and falling directly upon the sun1 would produce an accession of light and heat whose consequences would be disastrous8 ,when the earth has passed through the richer portions 7not the actual nuclei1 be it remembered7 of meteor systems1 the meteors visible from even a single station have been counted by tens of thousands1 and it has been computed that millions must have fallen upon the whole earth4 ,these were meteors following in the train of very small comets4 ,if a very large comet followed by no denser a flight of meteors1 but each meteoric mass much larger1 fell directly upon the sun1 it would not be the outskirts but the nucleus of the meteoric train which would impinge upon him4 ,they would number thousands of millions4 ,the velocity of downfall of each mass would be more than #cfj miles per second4 ,and they would continue to pour in upon him for several days in succession1 millions falling every hour4 ,it seems not improbable that1 under this tremendous and long-continued meteoric hail1 his whole surface would be caused to glow as intensely as that small part whose brilliancy was so surprising in the observation made by ,carrington and ,hodgson4 ,in that case1 our sun1 seen from some remote star whence ordinarily he is invisible1 would shine out as a new sun1 for a few days1 while all things living on our earth1 and whatever other members of the solar system are the abode of life1 would inevitably be destroyed4 ,the reader must not suppose that this idea has been suggested merely in the attempt to explain outbursts of stars4 ,the following passage from a paper of considerable scientific interest by ,professor ,kirkwood1 of ,bloomington1 ,indiana1 a well-known ,american astronomer1 shows that the idea had occurred to him for a very different reason4 ,he speaks here of a probable connection between the comet of #ahdc and the great sun-spot which appeared in ,june #ahdc4 ,i am not sure1 however1 but that we may regard the very meteors which seem to have fallen on the sun on ,september #a1 #ahei1 as bodies travelling in the track of the comet of #ahdc--;just as the ,november meteors seen in #ahfg-h1 #i1 etc41 until #ahgb1 were bodies certainly following in the track of the telescopic comet of #ahff4 ',the opinion has been expressed by more than one astronomer1' he says1 speaking of ,carrington's observation1 'that this phenomenon was produced by the fall of meteoric matter upon the sun's surface4 ,now1 the fact may be worthy of note that the comet of #ahdc actually grazed the sun's atmosphere about three months before the appearance of the great sun-spot of the same year4 ,had it approached but little nearer1 the resistance of the atmosphere would probably have brought its entire mass to the solar surface4 ,even at its actual distance it must have produced considerable atmospheric disturbance4 ,but the recent discovery that a number of comets are associated with meteoric matter1 travelling in nearly the same orbits1 suggests the inquiry whether an enormous meteorite following in the comet's train1 and having a somewhat less perihelion distance1 may not have been precipitated upon the sun1 thus producing the great disturbance observed so shortly after the comet's perihelion passage4' ,there are those1 myself among the number1 who consider the periodicity of the solar spots1 that tide of spots which flows to its maximum and then ebbs to its minimum in a little more than eleven years1 as only explicable on the theory that a small comet having this period1 and followed by a meteor train1 has a path intersecting the sun's surface4 ,in an article entitled ',the ,sun a ,bubble1' which appeared in the ',cornhill ,magazine' for ,october #ahgd1 ,i remarked that from the observed phenomena of sun-spots we might be led to suspect the existence of some as yet undetected comet with a train of exceptionally large meteoric masses1 travelling in a period of about eleven years round the sun1 and having its place of nearest approach to that orb so close to the solar surface that1 when the main flight is passing1 the stragglers fall upon the sun's surface4 ,in this case1 we could readily understand that1 as this small comet unquestionably causes our sun to be variable to some slight degree in brilliancy1 in a period of about eleven years1 so some much larger comet circling around ,mira1 in a period of about #cca days1 may occasion those alternations of brightness which have been described above4 ,it may be noticed in passing1 that it is by no means certain that the time when the sun is most spotted is the time when he gives out least light4 ,though at such times his surface is dark where the spots are1 yet elsewhere it is probably brighter than usual2 at any rate1 all the evidence we have tends to show that when the sun is most spotted1 his energies are most active4 ,it is then that the coloured flames leap to their greatest height and show their greatest brilliancy1 then also that they show the most rapid and remarkable changes of shape4 ,supposing there really is1 ,i will not say danger1 but a possibility1 that our sun may one day1 through the arrival of some very large comet travelling directly towards him1 share the fate of the suns whose outbursts ,i have described above1 we might be destroyed unawares1 or we might be aware for several weeks of the approach of the destroying comet4 ,suppose1 for example1 the comet1 which might arrive from any part of the heavens1 came from out that part of the star-depths which is occupied by the constellation ,taurus--then1 if the arrival were so timed that the comet1 which might reach the sun at any time1 fell upon him in ,may or ,june1 we should know nothing of that comet's approach3 for it would approach in that part of the heavens which was occupied by the sun1 and his splendour would hide as with a veil the destroying enemy4 ,on the other hand1 if the comet1 arriving from the same region of the heavens1 so approached as to fall upon the sun in ,november or ,december1 we should see it for several weeks4 ,for it would then approach from the part of the heavens high above the southern horizon at midnight4 ,astronomers would be able in a few days after it was discovered to determine its path and predict its downfall upon the sun1 precisely as ,newton calculated the path of his comet and predicted its near approach to the sun4 ,it would be known for weeks then that the event which ,newton contemplated as likely to cause a tremendous outburst of solar heat1 competent to destroy all life upon the surface of our earth1 was about to take place2 and1 doubtless1 the minds of many students of science would be exercised during that interval in determining whether ,newton was right or wrong4 ,for my own part1 ,i have very little doubt that1 though the change in the sun's condition in consequence of the direct downfall upon his surface of a very large comet would be but temporary1 and in that sense slight--for what are a few weeks in the history of an orb which has already existed during thousands of millions of years8--yet the effect upon the inhabitants of the earth would be by no means slight4 ,i do not think1 however1 that any students of science would remain1 after the catastrophe1 to estimate or to record its effects4 ,fortunately1 all that we have learned hitherto from the stars favours the belief that1 while a catastrophe of this sort may be possible1 it is exceedingly unlikely4 ,we may estimate the probabilities precisely in the same way that an insurance company estimates the chance of a railway accident4 ,such a company considers the number of accidents which occur among a given number of railway journeys1 and from the smallness of the number of accidents compared with the largeness of the number of journeys estimates the safety of railway travelling4 ,our sun is one among many millions of suns1 any one of which 7though all but a few thousands are actually invisible7 would become visible to the naked eye1 if exposed to the same conditions as have affected the suns in flames described in the preceding pages4 ,seeing1 then1 that during the last two thousand years or thereabouts1 only a few instances of the kind1 certainly not so many as twenty1 have been recorded1 while there is reason to believe that some of these relate to the same star which has blazed out more than once1 we may fairly consider the chance exceedingly small that during the next two thousand1 or even the next twenty thousand years1 our sun will be exposed to a catastrophe of the kind4 ,we might arrive at this conclusion independently of any considerations tending to show that our sun belongs to a safe class of system-rulers1 and that all1 or nearly all1 the great solar catastrophes have occurred among suns of a particular class4 ,there are1 however1 several considerations of the kind which are worth noting4 ,in the first place1 we may dismiss as altogether unlikely the visit of a comet from the star-depths to our sun1 on a course carrying the comet directly upon the sun's surface4 ,but if1 among the comets travelling in regular attendance upon the sun1 there be one whose orbit intersects the sun's globe1 then that comet must several times ere this have struck the sun1 raising him temporarily to a destructive degree of heat4 ,now1 such a comet must have a period of enormous length1 for the races of animals now existing upon the earth must all have been formed since that comet's last visit--on the assumption1 be it remembered1 that the fall of a large comet upon the sun1 or rather the direct passage of the sun through the meteoric nucleus of a large comet1 would excite the sun to destructive heat4 ,if all living creatures on the earth are to be destroyed when some comet belonging to the solar system makes its next return to the sun1 that same comet at its last visit must have raised the sun to an equal1 or even greater intensity of heat1 so that either no such races as at present exist had then come into being1 or1 if any such existed1 they must at that time have been utterly destroyed4 ,we may fairly believe that all comets of the destructive sort have been eliminated4 ,judging from the evidence we have on the subject1 the process of the formation of the solar system was one which involved the utilisation of cometic and meteoric matter2 and it fortunately so chanced that the comets likely otherwise to have been most mischievous--those1 namely1 which crossed the track of planets1 and still more those whose paths intersected the globe of the sun--were precisely those which would be earliest and most thoroughly used up in this way4 ,secondly1 it is noteworthy that all the stars which have blazed out suddenly1 except one1 have appeared in a particular region of the heavens--the zone of the ,milky ,way 7all1 too1 on one half of that zone74 ,the single exception is the star in the ,northern ,crown1 and that star appeared in a region which ,i have found to be connected with the ,milky ,way by a well-marked stream of stars1 not a stream of a few stars scattered here and there1 but a stream where thousands of stars are closely aggregated together1 though not quite so closely as to form a visible extension of the ,milky ,way4 ,in my map of #cbd1jjj stars this stream can be quite clearly recognised2 but1 indeed1 the brighter stars scattered along it form a stream recognisable with the naked eye1 and have long since been regarded by astronomers as such1 forming the stars of the ,serpent and the ,crown1 or a serpentine streak followed by a loop of stars shaped like a coronet4 ,now the ,milky ,way1 and the outlying streams of stars connected with it1 seem to form a region of the stellar universe where fashioning processes are still at work4 ,as ,sir ,w4 ,herschel long since pointed out1 we can recognise in various parts of the heavens various stages of development1 and chief among the regions where as yet ,nature's work seems incomplete1 is the ,galactic zone--especially that half of it where the ,milky ,way consists of irregular streams and clouds of stellar light4 ,as there is no reason for believing that our sun belongs to this part of the galaxy1 but on the contrary good ground for considering that he belongs to the class of insulated stars1 few of which have shown signs of irregular variation1 while none have ever blazed suddenly out with many hundred times their former lustre1 we may fairly infer a very high degree of probability in favour of the belief that1 for many ages still to come1 the sun will continue steadily to discharge his duties as fire1 light1 and life of the solar system4 ,,vii4 ,,the ,,rings ,,of ,,saturn4 ,the rings of ,saturn1 always among the most interesting objects of astronomical research1 have recently been subjected to close scrutiny under high telescopic powers by ,mr4 ,trouvelot1 of the ,harvard ,observatory1 ,cambridge1 ,u4,s4 ,the results which he has obtained afford very significant evidence respecting these strange appendages1 and even throw some degree of light on the subject of cosmical evolution4 ,the present time1 when ,saturn is the ruling planet of the night1 seems favourable for giving a brief account of recent speculations respecting the ,saturnian ring-system1 especially as the observations of ,mr4 ,trouvelot appear to remove all doubt as to the true nature of the rings1 if indeed any doubt could reasonably be entertained after the investigations made by ,european and ,american astronomers when the dark inner ring had but recently been recognised4 ,it may be well to give a brief account of the progress of observation from the time when the rings were first discovered4 ,in passing1 ,i may remark that the failure of ,galileo to ascertain the real shape of these appendages has always seemed to me to afford striking evidence of the importance of careful reasoning upon all observations whose actual significance is not at once apparent4 ,if ,galileo had been thus careful to analyse his observations of ,saturn1 he could not have failed to ascertain their real meaning4 ,he had seen the planet apparently attended by two large satellites1 one on either side1 'as though supporting the aged ,saturn upon his slow course around the sun4' ,night after night he had seen these attendants1 always similarly placed1 one on either side of the planet1 and at equal distances from it4 ,then in #afab he had again examined the planet1 and lo1 the attendants had vanished1 'as though ,saturn had been at his old tricks1 and had devoured his children4' ,but after a while the attendant orbs had reappeared in their former positions1 had seemed slowly to grow larger1 until at length they had presented the appearance of two pairs of mighty arms encompassing the planet4 ,if ,galileo had reasoned upon these changes of appearance1 he could not have failed1 as it seems to me1 to interpret their true meaning4 ,the three forms under which the rings had been seen by him sufficed to indicate the true shape of the appendage4 ,because ,saturn was seen with two attendants of apparently equal size and always equi-distant from him1 it was certain that there must be some appendage surrounding him1 and extending to that distance from his globe4 ,because this appendage disappeared1 it was certain that it must be thin and flat4 ,because it appeared at another time with a dark space between the arms and the planet1 it was certain that the appendage is separated by a wide gap from the body of the planet4 ,so that ,galileo might have concluded--not doubtfully1 but with assured confidence--that the appendage is a thin flat ring nowhere attached to the planet1 or1 as ,huyghens said some forty years later1 ,saturn 'annulo cingitur tenui1 plano1 nusquam cohaerente4' ,whether such reasoning would have been accepted by the contemporaries of ,galileo may be doubtful4 ,the generality of men are not content with reasoning which is logically sound1 but require evidence which they can easily understand4 ,very likely ,huyghens' proof from direct observation1 though in reality not a whit more complete and far rougher1 would have been regarded as the first true proof of the existence of ,saturn's ring1 just as ,sir ,w4 ,herschel's observation of one star actually moving round another was regarded as the first true proof of the physical association of certain stars1 a fact which ,michell had proved as completely and far more neatly half a century earlier1 by a method1 however1 which was 'caviare to the general4' ,however1 as matters chanced1 the scientific world was not called upon to decide between the merits of a discovery made by direct observation and one effected by means of abstract reasoning4 ,it was not until ,saturn had been examined with much higher telescopic power than ,galileo could employ1 that the appendage which had so perplexed the ,florentine astronomer was seen to be a thin flat ring1 nowhere touching the planet1 and considerably inclined to the plane in which ,saturn travels4 ,we cannot wonder that the discovery was regarded as a most interesting one4 ,astronomers had heretofore had to deal with solid masses1 either known to be spheroidal1 like the earth1 the sun1 the moon1 ,jupiter1 and ,venus1 or presumed to be so1 like the stars4 ,the comets might be judged to be vaporous masses of various forms2 but even these were supposed to surround or to attend upon globe-shaped nuclear masses4 ,here1 however1 in the case of ,saturn's ring1 was a quoit-shaped body travelling around the sun in continual attendance upon ,saturn1 whose motions1 no matter how they varied in velocity or direction1 were so closely followed by this strange attendant that the planet remained always centrally poised within the span of its ring-girdle4 ,to appreciate the interest with which this strange phenomenon was regarded1 we must remember that as yet the law of gravity had not been recognised4 ,huyghens discovered the ring 7or rather perceived its nature7 in #afei1 but it was not till #afff that ,newton first entertained the idea that the moon is retained in its orbit about the earth by the attractive energy which causes unsupported bodies to fall earthwards2 and he was unable to demonstrate the law of gravity before #afhd4 ,now1 in a general sense1 we can readily understand in these days how a ring around a planet continues to travel along with the planet despite all changes of velocity or direction of motion4 ,for the law of gravity teaches that the same causes which tend to change the direction and velocity of the planet's motion tend in precisely the same degree to change the direction and velocity of the ring's motion4 ,but when ,huyghens made his discovery it must have appeared a most mysterious circumstance that a ring and planet should be thus constantly associated--that during thousands of years no collision should have occurred whereby the relatively delicate structure of the ring had been destroyed4 ,only six years later a discovery was made by two ,english observers1 ,william and ,thomas ,ball1 which enhanced the mystery4 ,observing the northern face of the ring1 which was at that time turned earthwards1 they perceived a black stripe of considerable breadth dividing the ring into two concentric portions4 ,the discovery did not attract so much attention as it deserved1 insomuch that when ,cassini1 ten years later1 announced the discovery of a corresponding dark division on the southern surface1 none recalled the observation made by the brothers ,ball4 ,cassini expressed the opinion that the ring is really divided into two1 not merely marked by a dark stripe on its southern face4 ,this conclusion would1 of course1 have been an assured one1 had the previous observation of a dark division on the northern face been remembered4 ,with the knowledge which we now possess1 indeed1 the darkness of the seeming stripe would be sufficient evidence that there must be a real division there between the rings2 for we know that no mere darkness of the ring's substance could account for the apparent darkness of the stripe4 ,it has been well remarked by ,professor ,tyndall1 that if the moon's whole surface could be covered with black velvet1 she would yet appear white when seen on the dark background of the sky4 ,and it may be doubted whether a circular strip of black velvet #bjjj miles wide1 placed where we see the dark division between the rings1 would appear nearly as dark as that division4 ,since we could only admit the possibility of some substance resembling our darker rocks occupying this position 7for we know of nothing to justify the supposition that a substance as dark as lampblack or black velvet could be there71 we are manifestly precluded from supposing that the dark space is other than a division between two distinct rings4 ,yet ,sir ,w4 ,herschel1 in examining the rings of ,saturn with his powerful telescopes1 for a long time favoured the theory that there is no real division4 ,he called it the 'broad black mark1' and argued that it can neither indicate the existence of a zone of hills upon the ring1 nor of a vast cavernous groove1 for in either case it would present changes of appearance 7according to the ring's changes of position7 such as he was unable to detect4 ,it was not until the year #agij1 eleven years after his observations had commenced1 that1 perceiving a corresponding broad black mark upon the ring's southern face1 ,herschel expressed a 'suspicion' that the ring is divided into two concentric portions by a circular gap nearly #bjjj miles in width4 ,he expressed at the same time1 very strongly1 his belief that this division was the only one in ,saturn's ring-system4 ,a special interest attached at that time to the question whether the ring is divided or not1 for ,laplace had then recently published the results of his mathematical inquiry into the movements of such a ring as ,saturn's1 and1 having proved that a single solid ring of such enormous width could not continue to move around the planet1 had expressed the opinion that ,saturn's ring consists in reality of many concentric rings1 each turning1 with its own proper rotation rate1 around the central planet4 ,it is singular that ,herschel1 who1 though not versed in the methods of the higher mathematics1 had considerable native power as a mathematician1 was unable to perceive the force of ,laplace's reasoning4 ,indeed1 this is one of those cases where clearness of perception rather than profundity of mathematical insight was required4 ,laplace's equations of motion did not express all the relations involved1 nor was it possible to judge1 from the results he deduced1 how far the stability of the ,saturnian rings depended on the real structure of these appendages4 ,one who was well acquainted with mechanical matters1 and sufficiently versed in mathematics to understand how to estimate generally the forces acting upon the ring-system1 could have perceived as readily the general conditions of the problem as the most profound mathematician4 ,one may compare the case to the problem of determining whether the action of the moon in causing the tidal wave modifies in any manner the earth's motion of rotation4 ,we know that as a mathematical question this is a very difficult one4 ,the ,astronomer ,royal1 for example1 not long ago dealt with it analytically1 and deduced the conclusion that there is no effect on the earth's rotation1 presently however1 discovering by a lucky chance a term in the result which indicates an effect of that kind4 ,but if we look at the matter in its mechanical aspect1 we perceive at once1 without any profound mathematical research1 that the retardation so hard to detect mathematically must necessarily take place4 ,as ,sir ,e4 ,beckett says in his masterly work1 ,astronomy without ,mathematics1 'the conclusion is as evident without mathematics as with them1 when once it has been suggested4' ,so when we consider the case of a wide flat ring surrounding a mighty planet like ,saturn1 we perceive that nothing could possibly save such a ring from destruction if it were really one solid structure4 ,to recognise this the more clearly1 let us first notice the dimensions of the planet and rings4 ,we have in ,saturn a globe about #gj1jjj miles in mean diameter1 an equatorial diameter being about #gc1jjj miles1 the polar diameter #ff1jjj miles4 ,the attractive force of this mighty mass upon bodies placed on its surface is equal to about one-fifth more than terrestrial gravity if the body is near the pole of ,saturn1 and is almost exactly the same as terrestrial gravity if the body is at the planet's equator4 ,its action on the matter of the ring is1 of course1 very much less1 because of the increased distance1 but still a force is exerted on every part of the ring which is comparable with the familiar force of terrestrial gravity4 ,the outer edge of the outer ring lies about #hc1ejj miles from the planet's centre1 the inner edge of the inner ring 7,i speak throughout of the ring-system as known to ,sir ,w4 ,herschel and ,laplace7 about #ed1ejj miles from the centre1 the breadth of the system of bright rings being about #bi1jjj miles4 ,between the planet's equator and the inner edge of the innermost bright ring there intervenes a space of about #bj1jjj miles4 ,roughly speaking1 it may be said that the attraction of the planet on the substance of the ring's inner edge is less than gravity at ,saturn's equator 7or1 which is almost exactly the same thing1 is less than terrestrial gravity7 in about the proportion of #i to #bj2 or1 still more roughly1 the inner edge of ,saturn's inner bright ring is drawn inwards by about half the force of gravity at the earth's surface4 ,the outer edge is drawn towards ,saturn by a force less than terrestrial gravity in the proportion of about #c to #af--say roughly that the force thus exerted by ,saturn on the matter of the outer edge of the ring-system is equivalent to about one-fifth of the force of gravity at the earth's surface4 ,it is clear1 first1 that if the ring-system did not rotate1 the forces thus acting on the material of the rings would immediately break them into fragments1 and1 dragging these down to the planet's equator1 would leave them scattered in heaps upon that portion of ,saturn's surface4 ,the ring would in fact be in that case like a mighty arch1 each portion of which would be drawn towards ,saturn's centre by its own weight4 ,this weight would be enormous if ,bessel's estimate of the mass of the ring-system is correct4 ,he made the mass of the ring rather greater than the mass of the earth--an estimate which ,i believe to be greatly in excess of the truth4 ,probably the rings do not amount in mass to more than a fourth part of the earth's mass4 ,but even that is enormous1 and subjected as is the material of the rings to forces varying from one-half to a fifth of terrestrial gravity1 the strains and pressures upon the various parts of the system would exceed thousands of times those which even the strongest material built up into their shape could resist4 ,the system would no more be able to resist such strains and pressures than an arch of iron spanning the ,atlantic would be able to sustain its own weight against the earth's attraction4 ,it would be necessary then that the ring-system should rotate around the planet4 ,but it is clear that the proper rate of rotation for the outer portion would be very different from the rate suited for the inner portion4 ,in order that the inner portion should travel around ,saturn entirely relieved of its weight1 it should complete a revolution in about seven hours twenty-three minutes4 ,the outer portion1 however1 should revolve in about thirteen hours fifty-eight minutes1 or nearly fourteen hours4 ,thus the inner part should rotate in little more than half the time required by the outer part4 ,the result would necessarily be that the ring-system would be affected by tremendous strains1 which it would be quite unable to resist4 ,the existence of the great division would manifestly go far to diminish the strains4 ,it is easily shown that the rate of turning where the division is1 would be once in about eleven hours and twenty-five minutes1 not differing greatly from the mean between the rotation-periods for the outside and for the inside edges of the system4 ,even then1 however1 the strains would be hundreds of times greater than the material of the ring could resist4 ,a mass comparable in weight to our earth1 compelled to rotate in 7say7 nine hours when it ought to rotate in eleven or in seven1 would be subjected to strains exceeding many times the resistances which the cohesive power of its substance could afford4 ,that would be the condition of the inner ring4 ,and in like manner the outer ring1 if it rotated in about twelve hours and three-quarters1 would have its outer portions rotating too fast and its inner portions too slowly1 because their proper periods would be fourteen hours and eleven hours and a half respectively4 ,nothing but the division of the ring into a number of narrow hoops could possibly save it from destruction through the internal strains and pressures to which its material would be subjected4 ,even this complicated arrangement1 however1 would not save the ring-system4 ,if we suppose a fine hoop to turn around a central attracting body as the rings of ,saturn rotate around the planet1 it may be shown that unless the hoop is so weighted that its centre of gravity is far from the planet1 there will be no stability in the resulting motions2 the hoop will before long be made to rotate eccentrically1 and eventually be brought into destructive collision with the central planet4 ,it was here that ,laplace left the problem4 ,nothing could have been more unsatisfactory than his result1 though it was accepted for nearly half a century unquestioned4 ,he had shown that a weighted fine hoop may possibly turn around a central attracting mass without destructive changes of position1 but he had not proved more than the bare possibility of this1 while nothing in the appearance of ,saturn's rings suggests that any such arrangement exists4 ,again1 manifestly a multitude of narrow hoops1 so combined as to form a broad flat system of rings1 would be constantly in collision inter se4 ,besides1 each one of them would be subjected to destructive strains4 ,for though a fine uniform hoop set rotating at a proper rate around an attracting mass at its centre would be freed from all strains1 the case is very different with a hoop so weighted as to have its centre of gravity greatly displaced4 ,laplace had saved the theoretical stability of the motions of a fine ring at the expense of the ring's power of resisting the strains to which it would be exposed4 ,it seems incredible that such a result 7expressed1 too1 very doubtingly by the distinguished mathematician who had obtained it7 should have been accepted so long almost without question4 ,there is nothing in nature in the remotest degree resembling the arrangement imagined by ,laplace1 which indeed appears on a priori grounds impossible4 ,it was not claimed for it that it removed the original difficulties of the problem2 and it introduced others fully as serious4 ,so strong1 however1 is authority in the scientific world that none ventured to express any doubts except ,sir ,w4 ,herschel1 who simply denied that the two rings were divided into many1 as ,laplace's theory required4 ,as time went on and the signs of many divisions were at times recognised1 it was supposed that ,laplace's reasoning had been justified2 and despite the utter impossibility of the arrangement he had suggested1 that arrangement was ordinarily described as probably existing4 ,at length1 however1 a discovery was made which caused the whole question to be reopened4 ,on ,november #aj1 #ahej1 ,w4 ,bond1 observing the planet with the telescope of the ,harvard ,observatory1 perceived within the inner bright ring a feeble illumination which he was at a loss to understand4 ,on the next night the faint light was better seen4 ,on the #aeth1 ,tuttle1 who was observing with ,bond1 suggested the idea that the light within the inner bright ring was due to a dusky ring inside the system of bright rings4 ,on ,november #be1 ,mr4 ,dawes in ,england perceived this dusky ring1 and announced the discovery before the news had reached ,england that ,bond had already seen the dark ring4 ,the credit of the discovery is usually shared between ,bond and ,dawes1 though the usual rule in such matters would assign the discovery to ,bond alone4 ,it was found that the dark ring had already been seen at ,rome so far back as #ahbh1 and again by ,galle at ,berlin in ,may #ahch4 ,the ,roman observations were not satisfactory4 ,those by ,galle1 however1 were sufficient to have established the fact of the ring's existence2 indeed1 in #ahci ,galle measured the dark ring4 ,but very little attention was attracted to this interesting discovery1 insomuch that when ,bond and ,dawes announced their observation of the dark ring in #ahej1 the news was received by astronomers with all the interest attaching to the detection of before unnoted phenomena4 ,it may be well to notice under what conditions the dark ring was detected in #ahej4 ,in ,september #ahdh the ring had been turned edgewise towards the sun1 and as rather more than seven years are occupied in the apparent gradual opening out of the ring from that edge view to its most open appearance 7when the outline of the ring-system is an eclipse whose lesser axis is nearly equal to half the greater71 it will be seen that in ,november #ahej the rings were but slightly opened4 ,thus the recognition of the dark ring within the bright system was made under unfavourable conditions4 ,for four preceding years--that is1 from the year #ahdf--the rings had been as little or less opened2 and again for several years preceding #ahdf1 though the rings had been more open1 the planet had been unfavourably placed for observation in northern latitudes1 crossing the meridian at low altitudes4 ,still1 in #ahch and #ahci1 when the rings were most open1 although the planet was never seen under favourable conditions1 the opening of the rings1 then nearly at its greatest1 made the recognition of the dark ring possible2 and we have seen that ,galle then made the discovery4 ,when ,bond rediscovered the dark ring1 everything promised that before long the appendage would be visible with telescopes far inferior in power to the great ,harvard refractor4 ,year after year the planet was becoming more favourably placed for observation1 while all the time the rings were opening out4 ,accordingly it need not surprise us to learn that in #ahec the dark ring was seen with a telescope less than three inches and a half in aperture4 ,even so early as #ahea1 ,mr4 ,hartnup1 observing the planet with a telescope eight inches and a half in aperture1 found that 'the dark ring could not be overlooked for an instant4' ,but while this increase in the distinctness of the dark ring was to be expected1 from the mere fact that the ring was discovered under relatively unfavourable conditions1 yet the fact that ,saturn was thus found to have an appendage of a remarkable character1 perfectly obvious even with moderate telescopic power1 was manifestly most surprising4 ,the planet had been studied for nearly two centuries with telescopes exceeding in power those with which the dark ring was now perceived4 ,some among these telescopes were not only of great power1 but employed by observers of the utmost skill4 ,the elder ,herschel had for a quarter of a century studied ,saturn with his great reflectors eighteen inches in aperture1 and had at times turned on the planet his monstrous 7though not mighty7 four-feet mirror4 ,schroeter had examined the dark space within the inner bright ring for the special purpose of determining whether the ring-system is really disconnected from the globe4 ,he had used a mirror nineteen inches in aperture1 and he had observed that the dark space seen on either side of ,saturn inside the ring-system not only appeared dark1 but actually darker than the surrounding sky4 ,this was presumably 7though not quite certainly7 an effect of contrast only1 the dark space being bounded all round by bright surfaces4 ,if real1 the phenomenon signified that whereas the space outside the ring1 where the satellites of the planet travel1 was occupied by some sort of cosmical dust1 the space within the ring-system was1 as it were1 swept and garnished1 as though all the scattered matter which might otherwise have occupied that region had been either attracted to the body of the planet or to the rings4#cf ,but manifestly the observation was entirely inconsistent with the supposition that there existed in ,schroeter's time a dark or dusky ring within the bright system4 ,again1 the elder ,struve made the most careful measurement of the whole of the ring-system in #ahbf1 when the system was as well placed for observation as in #ahef 7or1 in other words1 as well placed as it can possibly be72 but though he used a telescope nine inches and a half in aperture1 and though his attention was specially attracted to the inner edge of the inner bright ring 7which seemed to him indistinct71 he did not detect the dark ring4 ,yet we have seen that in #ahea1 under much less favourable conditions1 a less practised observer1 using a telescope of less aperture1 found that the dark ring could not be overlooked for an instant4 ,it is manifest that all these considerations point to the conclusion that the dark ring is a new formation1 or1 at the least1 that it has changed notably in condition during the present century4 ,i have hitherto only considered the appearance of the dusky ring as seen on either side of the planet's globe within the bright rings4 ,the most remarkable feature of the appendage remains still to be mentioned--the fact1 namely1 that the bright body of the planet can be seen through this dusky ring4 ,where the dark ring crosses the planet1 it appears as a rather dark belt1 which might readily be mistaken for a belt upon the planet's surface2 for the outline of the planet can be seen through the ring as through a film of smoke or a crape veil4 ,now it is worthy of notice that whereas the dark ring was not detected outside the planet's body until #ahch1 nor generally recognised by astronomers until #ahej1 the dark belt across the planet1 really caused by the dusky ring1 was observed more than a century earlier4 ,in #agae the younger ,cassini saw it1 and perceived that it was not curved enough for a belt really belonging to the planet4 ,hadley again observed that the belt attended the ring as this opened out and closed1 or1 in other words1 that the dark belt belonged to the ring1 not to the body of the planet4 ,and in many pictures of ,saturn's system a dark band is shown along the inner edge of the inner bright ring where it crosses the body of the planet4 ,it seems to me that we have here a most important piece of evidence respecting the rings4 ,it is clear that the inner part of the inner bright ring has for more than a century and a half 7how much more we do not know7 been partially transparent1 and it is probable that within its inner edge there has been all the time a ring of matter2 but this ring has only within the last half-century gathered consistency enough to be discernible4 ,it is manifest that the existence of the dark belt shown in the older pictures would have led directly to the detection of the dark ring1 had not this appendage been exceedingly faint4 ,thus1 while the observation of the dark belt across the planet's face proves the dusky ring to have existed in some form long before it was perceived1 the same fact only helps to render us certain that the dark ring has changed notably in condition during the present century4 ,the discovery of this singular appendage1 an object unique in the solar system1 naturally attracted fresh attention to the question of the stability of the rings4 ,the idea was thrown out by the elder ,bond that the new ring may be fluid1 or even that the whole ring-system may be fluid1 and the dark ring simply thinner than the rest4 ,it was thought possible that the ring-system is of the nature of a vast ocean1 whose waves are steadily advancing upon the planet's globe4 ,the mathematical investigation of the subject was also resumed by ,professor ,benjamin ,pierce1 of ,harvard1 and it was satisfactorily demonstrated that the stability of a system of actual rings of solid matter required so nice an adjustment of so many narrow rings as to render the system far more complex than even ,laplace had supposed4 ',a stable formation can1' he said1 'be nothing other than a very great number of separate narrow rigid rings1 each revolving with its proper relative velocity4' ,as was well remarked by the late ,professor ,nichol1 ',if this arrangement or anything like it were real1 how many new conditions of instability do we introduce4 ,observation tells us that the division between such rings must be extremely narrow1 so that the slightest disturbance by external or internal causes would cause one ring to impinge upon another2 and we should thus have the seed of perpetual catastrophes4' ,nor would such a constitution protect the system against dissolution4 ',there is no escape from the difficulties1 therefore1 but through the final rejection of the idea that ,saturn's rings are rigid or in any sense a solid formation4' ,the idea that the ring-system may be fluid came naturally next under mathematical scrutiny4 ,strangely enough1 the physical objections to the theory of fluidity appear to have been entirely overlooked4 ,before we could accept such a theory1 we must admit the existence of elements differing entirely from those with which we are familiar4 ,no fluid known to us could retain the form of the rings of ,saturn under the conditions to which they are exposed4 ,but the mathematical examination of the subject disposed so thoroughly of the theory that the rings can consist of continuous fluid masses1 that we need not now discuss the physical objections to the theory4 ,there remains only the theory that the ,saturnian ring-system consists of discrete masses analogous to the streams of meteors known to exist in great numbers within the solar system4 ,the masses may be solid or fluid1 may be strewn in relatively vacant space1 or may be surrounded by vaporous envelopes2 but that they are discrete1 each free to travel on its own course1 seemed as completely demonstrated by ,pierce's calculations as anything not actually admitting of direct observation could possibly be4 ,the matter was placed beyond dispute by the independent analysis to which ,clerk ,maxwell subjected the mathematical problem4 ,it had been selected in #ahee as the subject for the ,adams ,prize ,essay at ,cambridge1 and ,clerk ,maxwell's essay1 which obtained the prize1 showed conclusively that only a system of many small bodies1 each free to travel upon its course under the varying attractions to which it was subjected by ,saturn itself1 and by the ,saturnian satellites1 could possibly continue to girdle a planet as the rings of ,saturn girdle him4 ,it is clear that all the peculiarities hitherto observed in the ,saturnian ring-system are explicable so soon as we regard that system as made up of multitudes of small bodies4 ,varieties of brightness simply indicate various degrees of condensation of these small satellites4 ,thus the outer ring had long been observed to be less bright than the inner4 ,of course it did not seem impossible that the outer ring might be made of different materials2 yet there was something bizarre in the supposition that two rings forming the same system were thus different in substance4 ,it would not have been at all noteworthy if different parts of the same ring differed in luminosity--in fact1 it was much more remarkable that each zone of the system seemed uniformly bright all round4 ,but that one zone should be of one tint1 another of an entirely different tint1 was a strange circumstance so long as the only available interpretation seemed to be that one zone was made 7throughout7 of one substance1 the other of another4 ,if this was strange when the difference between the inner and outer bright rings was alone considered1 how much stranger did it seem when the multitudinous divisions in the rings were taken into account6 ,why should the ring-system1 #cj1jjj miles in width1 be thus divided into zones of different material8 ,an arrangement so artificial is quite unlike all that is elsewhere seen among the subjects of the astronomer's researches4 ,but when the rings are regarded as made up of multitudes of small bodies1 we can quite readily understand how the nearly circular movements of all of these1 at different rates1 should result in the formation of rings of aggregation and rings of segregation1 appearing at the earth's distance as bright rings and faint rings4 ,the dark ring clearly corresponds in appearance with a ring of thinly scattered satellites4 ,indeed1 it seems impossible otherwise to account for the appearance of a dusky belt across the globe of the planet where the dark ring crosses the disc4 ,if the material of the dark ring were some partly transparent solid or fluid substance1 the light of the planet received through the dark ring added to the light reflected by the dark ring itself1 would be so nearly equivalent to the light received from the rest of the planet's disc1 that either no dark belt would be seen1 or the darkening would be barely discernible4 ,in some positions a bright belt would be seen1 not a dark one4 ,but a ring of scattered satellites would cast as its shadow a multitude of black spots1 which would give to the belt in shadow a dark grey aspect4 ,a considerable proportion of these spots would be hidden by the satellites forming the dark ring1 and in every case where a spot was wholly or partially hidden by a satellite1 the effect 7at our distant station where the separate satellites of the dark ring are not discernible7 would simply be to reduce pro tanto the darkness of the grey belt of shadow4 ,but certainly more than half the shadows of the satellites would remain in sight2 for the darkness of the ring at the time of its discovery showed that the satellites were very sparsely strewn4 ,and these shadows would be sufficient to give to the belt a dusky hue1 such as it presented when first discovered4#cg ,the observations which have recently been made by ,mr4 ,trouvelot indicate changes in the ring-system1 and especially in the dark ring1 which place every other theory save that to which we have thus been led entirely out of the question4 ,it should be noted that ,mr4 ,trouvelot has employed telescopes of unquestionable excellence and varying in aperture from six inches to twenty-six inches1 the latter aperture being that of the great telescope of the ,washington ,observatory 7the largest refractor in the world74 ,he has noted in the first place that the interior edge of the outer bright ring1 which marks the outer limit of the great division1 is irregular1 but whether the irregularity is permanent or not he does not know4 ,the great division itself is found not to be actually black1 but1 as was long since noted by ,captain ,jacob1 of the ,madras ,observatory1 a very dark brown1 as though a few scattered satellites travelled along this relatively vacant zone of the system4 ,mr4 ,trouvelot has further noticed that the shadow of the planet upon the rings1 and especially upon the outer ring1 changes continually in shape1 a circumstance which he attributes to irregularities in the surface of the rings4 ,for my own part1 ,i should be disposed to attribute these changes in the shape of the planet's shadow 7noted by other observers also7 to rapid changes in the deep cloud-laden atmosphere of the planet4 ,passing on1 however1 to less doubtful observations1 we find that the whole system of rings has presented a clouded and spotted aspect during the last four years4 ,mr4 ,trouvelot specially describes this appearance as observed on the parts of the ring outside the disc1 called by astronomers the ansae 7because of their resemblance to handles71 and it would seem1 therefore1 that the spotted and cloudy portions are seen only where the background on which the rings are projected is black4 ,this circumstance clearly suggests that the darkness of these parts is due to the background1 or1 in other words1 that the sky is in reality seen through those parts of the ring-system1 just as the darkness of the slate-coloured interior ring is attributed1 on the satellite theory1 to the background of sky visible through the scattered flight of satellites forming the dark ring4 ,the matter composing the dark ring has been observed by ,mr4 ,trouvelot to be gathered in places into compact masses1 which prevent the light of the planet from being seen through those portions of the dark ring where the matter is thus massed together4 ,it is clear that such peculiarities could not possibly present themselves in the case of a continuous solid or fluid ring-system1 whereas they would naturally occur in a ring formed of multitudes of minute bodies travelling freely around the planet4 ,the point next to be mentioned is still more decisive4 ,when the dark ring was carefully examined with powerful telescopes during the ten years following its discovery by ,bond1 at which time it was most favourably placed for observation1 it was observed that the outline of the planet could be seen across the entire breadth of the dark ring4 ,all the observations agreed in this respect4 ,it was1 indeed1 noticed by ,dawes that outside the planet's disc the dark ring showed varieties of tint1 its inner half being darker than its outer portion4 ,lassell1 observing the planet under most favourable conditions with his two-feet mirror at ,malta1 could not perceive these varieties of tint1 which therefore we may judge to have been either not permanent or very slightly marked4 ,but1 as ,i have said1 all observers agreed that the outline of the planet could be seen athwart the entire width of the dark ring4 ,mr4 ,trouvelot1 however1 has found that during the last four years the planet has not been visible through the whole width of the dark ring1 but only through the inner half of the ring's breadth4 ,it appears1 then1 that either the inner portion is getting continually thinner and thinner--that is1 the satellites composing it are becoming continually more sparsely strewn--or that the outer portion is becoming more compact1 doubtless by receiving stray satellites from the interior of the inner bright ring4 ,it is clear that in ,saturn's ring-system1 if not in the planet itself1 mighty changes are still taking place4 ,it may be that the rings are being so fashioned under the forces to which they are subjected as to be on their way to becoming changed into separate satellites1 inner members of that system which at present consists of eight secondary planets4 ,but1 whatever may be the end towards which these changes are tending1 we see processes of evolution taking place which may be regarded as typifying the more extensive and probably more energetic processes whereby the solar system itself reached its present condition4 ,i ventured more than ten years ago1 in the preface to my treatise upon the planet ,saturn1 to suggest the possibility 'that in the variations perceptibly proceeding in the ,saturnian ring-system a key may one day be found to the law of development under which the solar system has reached its present condition4' ,this suggestion seems to me strikingly confirmed by the recent discoveries4 ,the planet ,saturn and its appendages1 always interesting to astronomers1 are found more than ever worthy of close investigation and scrutiny4 ,we may here1 as it were1 seize nature in the act1 and trace out the actual progress of developments which at present are matters rather of theory than of observation4 ,,viii4 ,,comets ,,as ,,portents ,the blazing star1 ,threat'ning the world with famine1 plague1 and war2 ,to princes death2 to kingdoms many curses2 ,to all estates inevitable losses2 ,to herdsmen rot2 to ploughmen hapless seasons2 ,to sailors storms2 to cities civil treasons4 ,although comets are no longer regarded with superstitious awe as in old times1 mystery still clings to them4 ,astronomers can tell what path a comet is travelling upon1 and say whence it has come and whither it will go1 can even in many cases predict the periodic returns of a comet1 can analyse the substance of these strange wanderers1 and have recently discovered a singular bond of relationship between comets and those other strange visitants from the celestial depths1 the shooting stars4 ,but astronomy has hitherto proved unable to determine the origin of comets1 the part they perform in the economy of the universe1 their real structure1 the causes of the marvellous changes of shape which they undergo as they approach the sun1 rush round him1 and then retreat4 ,as ,sir ,john ,herschel has remarked3 ',no one1 hitherto1 has been able to assign any single point in which we should be a bit better or worse off1 materially speaking1 if there were no such thing as a comet4 ,persons1 even thinking persons1 have busied themselves with conjectures2 such as that they may serve for fuel for the sun 7into which1 however1 they never fall71 or that they may cause warm summers1 which is a mere fancy1 or that they may give rise to epidemics1 or potato-blights1 and so forth4' ,and though1 as he justly says1 'this is all wild talking1' yet it will probably continue until astronomers have been able to master the problems respecting comets which hitherto have foiled their best efforts4 ,the unexplained has ever been and will ever be marvellous to the general mind4 ,just as unexplored regions of the earth have been tenanted in imagination by anthropophagi and men whose heads ,do grow beneath their shoulders1 so do wondrous possibilities exist in the unknown and the ill-understood phenomena of nature4 ,in old times1 when the appearance and movements of comets were supposed to be altogether uncontrolled by physical laws1 it was natural that comets should be regarded as signs from heaven1 tokens of ,divine wrath towards some1 and of the interposition of ,divine providence in favour of others4 ,as ,seneca well remarked3 ',there is no man so dull1 so obtuse1 so turned to earthly things1 who does not direct all the powers of his mind towards things ,divine when some novel phenomenon appears in the heavens4 ,while all follows its usual course up yonder1 familiarity robs the spectacle of its grandeur4 ,for so is man made4 ,however wonderful may be what he sees day after day1 he looks on it with indifference2 while matters of very little importance attract and interest him if they depart from the accustomed order4 ,the host of heavenly constellations beneath the vault of heaven1 whose beauty they adorn1 attract no attention2 but if any unusual appearance be noticed among them1 at once all eyes are turned heavenwards4 ,the sun is only looked on with interest when he is undergoing eclipse4 ,men observe the moon only under like conditions4444 ,so thoroughly is it a part of our nature to admire the new rather than the great4 ,the same is true of comets4 ,when one of these fiery bodies of unusual form appears1 every one is eager to know what it means2 men forget other objects to inquire about the new arrival2 they know not whether to wonder or to tremble2 for many spread fear on all sides1 drawing from the phenomenon most grave prognostics4' ,there is no direct reference to comets in the ,bible1 either in the ,old ,testament or the ,new4 ,it is possible that some of the signs from heaven recorded in the ,bible pages were either comets or meteors1 and that even where in some places an angel or messenger from ,god is said to have appeared and delivered a message1 what really happened was that some remarkable phenomenon in the heavens was interpreted in a particular manner by the priests1 and the interpretation afterwards described as the message of an angel4 ,the image of the 'flaming sword which turned every way' may have been derived from a comet2 but we can form no safe conclusion about this1 any more than we can upon the question whether the 'horror of great darkness' which fell upon ,abraham 7,genesis xv4 #ab7 when the sun was going down1 was caused by an eclipse2#ch or whether the going back of the shadow upon the dial of ,ahaz was caused by a mock sun4 ,the star seen by the wise men from the east may have been a comet1 since the word translated 'star' signifies any bright object seen in the heavens1 and is in fact the same word which ,homer1 in a passage frequently referred to1 uses to signify either a comet or a meteor4 ,the way in which it appeared to go before them1 when 7directed by ,herod1 be it noticed7 they went to ,bethlehem1 almost due south of ,jerusalem1 would correspond to a meridian culmination low down--for the star had manifestly not been visible in the earlier evening1 since we are told that they rejoiced when they saw the star again4 ,it was probably a comet travelling southwards2 and1 as the wise men had travelled from the east1 it had very likely been first seen in the west as an evening star1 wherefore its course was retrograde--that is1 supposing it was a comet4#ci ,it may possibly have been an apparition of ,halley's comet1 following a course somewhat similar to that which it followed in the year #ahce1 when the perihelion passage was made on ,november #ae1 and the comet running southwards disappeared from northern astronomers1 though in ,january it was 'received' by ,sir ,j4 ,herschel1 to use his own expression1 'in the southern hemisphere4' ,there was an apparition of ,halley's comet in the year #ff1 or seventy years after the ,nativity2 and the period of the comet varies1 according to the perturbing influences affecting the comet's motion1 from sixty-nine to eighty years4 ,homer does not1 to the best of my recollection1 refer anywhere directly to comets4 ,pope1 indeed1 who made very free with ,homer's references to the heavenly bodies1#dj introduces a comet--and a red one1 too6--into the simile of the heavenly portent in ,book ,,iv43-- ,as the red comet from ,saturnius sent ,to fright the nations with a dire portent 7,a fatal sign to armies in the plain1 ,or trembling sailors on the wintry main71 ,with sweeping glories glides along in air1 ,and shakes the sparkles from its blazing hair3 ,between two armies thus1 in open sight1 ,shot the bright goddess in a trail of light4 ,but ,homer says nothing of this comet4 ,if ,homer had introduced a comet1 we may be sure it would not have shaken sparkles from its blazing tail4 ,homer said simply that ',pallas rushed from the peaks of heaven1 like the bright star sent by the son of crafty-counselled ,kronus 7as a sign either to sailors1 or the broad array of the nations71 from which many sparks proceed4' ,strangely enough1 ,pingre and ,lalande1 the former noted for his researches into ancient comets1 the latter a skilful astronomer1 agree in considering that ,homer really referred to a comet1 and they even regard this comet as an apparition of the comet of #afhj4 ,they cite in support of this opinion the portent which followed the prayer of ,anchises1 ',a,eneid1' ,book ,,ii4 #fib1 etc43 ',scarce had the old man ceased from praying1 when a peal of thunder was heard on the left1 and a star1 gliding from the heavens amid the darkness1 rushed through space followed by a long train of light2 we saw the star1' says ,a,eneas1 'suspended for a moment above the roof1 brighten our home with its fires1 then1 tracing out a brilliant course1 disappear in the forests of ,ida2 then a long train of flame illuminated us1 and the place around reeked with the smell of sulphur4 ,overcome by these startling portents1 my father arose1 invoked the gods1 and worshipped the holy star4' ,it is impossible to recognise here the description of a comet4 ,the noise1 the trail of light1 the visible motion1 the smell of sulphur1 all correspond with the fall of a meteorite close by2 and doubtless ,virgil simply introduced into the narrative the circumstances of some such phenomenon which had been witnessed in his own time4 ,to base on such a point the theory that the comet of #afhj was visible at the time of the fall of ,troy1 the date of which is unknown1 is venturesome in the extreme4 ,true1 the period calculated for the comet of #afhj1 when ,pingre and ,lalande agreed in this unhappy guess1 was #ege years2 and if we multiply this period by five we obtain #bhge years1 taking #afhj from which leaves #aaie years ,b4,c41 near enough to the supposed date of the capture of ,troy4 ,unfortunately1 ,encke 7the eminent astronomer to whom we owe that determination of the sun's distance which for nearly half a century held its place in our books1 but has within the last twenty years been replaced by a distance three millions of miles less7 went over afresh the calculations of the motions of that famous comet1 and found that1 instead of #ege years1 the most probable period is about #hhad years4 ,the difference amounts only to #hbci years2 but even this small difference rather impairs the theory of ,lalande and ,pingre4#da ,three hundred and seventy-one years before the ,christian era1 a comet appeared which ,aristotle 7who was a boy at the time7 has described4 ,diodorus ,siculus writes thus respecting it3 ',in the first year of the #ajb;d ,olympiad1 ,alcisthenes being ,archon of ,athens1 several prodigies announced the approaching humiliation of the ,lacedaemonians2 a blazing torch of extraordinary size1 which was compared to a flaming beam1 was seen during several nights4' ,guillemin1 from whose interesting work on ,comets ,i have translated the above passage1 remarks that this same comet was regarded by the ancients as having not merely presaged but produced the earthquakes which caused the towns of ,helice and ,bura to be submerged4 ,this was clearly in the thoughts of ,seneca when he said of this comet that as soon as it appeared it brought about the submergence of ,bura and ,helice4 ,in those times1 however1 comets were not regarded solely as signs of disaster4 ,as the misfortunes of one nation were commonly held to be of advantage to other nations1 so the same comet might be regarded very differently by different nations or different rulers4 ,thus the comet of the year #cdd ,b4,c4 was regarded by ,timoleon of ,corinth as presaging the success of his expedition against ,corinth4 ',the gods announced1' said ,diodorus ,siculus1 'by a remarkable portent1 his success and future greatness2 a blazing torch appeared in the heavens at night1 and went before the fleet of ,timoleon until he arrived in ,sicily4' ,the comets of the years #acd ,b4,c4 and #aah ,b4,c4 were not regarded as portents of death1 but as signalising1 the former the birth1 the latter the accession1 of ,mithridates4 ,the comet of #dc ,b4,c4 was held by some to be the soul of ,julius ,caesar on its way to the abode of the gods4 ,bodin1 a ,french lawyer of the sixteenth century1 regarded this as the usual significance of comets4 ,he was1 indeed1 sufficiently modest to attribute the opinion to ,democritus1 but the whole credit of the discovery belonged to himself4 ,he maintained that comets only indicate approaching misfortunes because they are the spirits or souls of illustrious men1 who for many years have acted the part of guardian angels1 and1 being at last ready to die1 celebrate their last triumph by voyaging to the firmament as flaming stars4 ',naturally1' he says1 'the appearance of a comet is followed by plague1 pestilence1 and civil war2 for the nations are deprived of the guidance of their worthy rulers1 who1 while they were alive1 gave all their efforts to prevent intestine disorders4' ,pingre comments justly on this1 saying that 'it must be classed among base and shameful flatteries1 not among philosophic opinions4' ,usually1 however1 it must be admitted that the ancients1 like the men of the ,middle ,ages1 regarded comets as harbingers of evil4 ',a fearful star is the comet1' says ,pliny1 'and not easily appeased1 as appeared in the late civil troubles when ,octavius was consul2 a second time by the intestine war of ,pompey and ,caesar2 and1 in our own time1 when1 ,claudius ,caesar having been poisoned1 the empire was left to ,domitian1 in whose reign there appeared a blazing comet4' ,lucan tells us of the second event here referred to1 that during the war 'the darkest nights were lit up by unknown stars' 7a rather singular way of saying that there were no dark nights72 'the heavens appeared on fire1 flaming torches traversed in all directions the depths of space2 a comet1 that fearful star which overthrows the powers of the earth1 showed its horrid hair4' ,seneca also expressed the opinion that some comets portend mischief3 ',some comets1' he said1 'are very cruel and portend the worst misfortunes2 they bring with them and leave behind them the seeds of blood and slaughter4' ,it was held1 indeed1 by many in those times a subject for reproach that some were too hard of heart to believe when these signs were sent4 ,it was a point of religious faith that ',god worketh' these 'signs and wonders in heaven4' ,when troubles were about to befall men1 'nation rising against nation1 and kingdom against kingdom1 with great earthquakes in divers places1 and famines1 and pestilences1 and fearful sights1' then 'great signs shall there be from heaven4' ,says ,josephus1 commenting on the obstinacy of the ,jews in such matters1 'when they were at any time premonished from the lips of truth itself1 by prodigies and other premonitory signs of their approaching ruin1 they had neither eyes nor ears nor understanding to make a right use of them1 but passed them over without heeding or so much as thinking of them2 as1 for example1 what shall we say of the comet in the form of a sword that hung over ,jerusalem for a whole year together8' ,this was probably the comet described by ,dion ,cassius 7,hist4 ,roman4 lxv4 #h7 as having been visible between the months of ,april and ,december in the year #fi ,a4,d4 ,this or the comet of #ff ,a4,d4 might have been ,halley's comet4 ,the account of ,josephus as to the time during which it was visible would not apply to ,halley's1 or1 indeed1 to any known comet whatever2 doubtless he exaggerated4 ,he says3 ',the comet was of the kind called ,xiphias1 because their tail resembles the blade of a sword1' and this would apply fairly well to ,halley's comet as seen in #afhb1 #agei1 and #ahce2 though it is to be remembered that comets vary very much even at successive apparitions1 and it would be quite unsafe to judge from the appearance of a comet seen eighteen centuries ago that it either was or was not the same as some comet now known to be periodic4 ,the comet of #gi ,a4,d4 is interesting as having given rise to a happy retort from ,vespasian1 whose death the comet was held to portend4 ,seeing some of his courtiers whispering about the comet1 ',that hairy star1' he said1 'does not portend evil to me4 ,it menaces rather the king of the ,parthians4 ,he is a hairy man1 but ,i am bald4' ,anna ,comnena goes even beyond ,josephus4 ,he only rebuked other men for not believing so strongly as he did himself in the significance of comets--a rebuke little needed1 indeed1 if we can judge from what history tells us of the terrors excited by comets4 ,but the judicious daughter of ,alexius was good enough to approve of the wisdom which provided these portents4 ,speaking of a remarkable comet which appeared before the irruption of the ,gauls into the ,roman empire1 she says3 ',this happened by the usual administration of ,providence in such cases2 for it is not fit that so great and strange an alteration of things as was brought to pass by that irruption of theirs should be without some previous denunciation and admonishment from heaven4' ,socrates1 the historian 7b4 #f1 c4 #f71 says that when ,gainas besieged ,constantinople1 'so great was the danger which hung over the city1 that it was presignified and portended by a huge blazing comet which reached from heaven to the earth1 the like whereof no man had ever seen before4' ,and ,cedrenus1 in his ',compendium of ,history1' states that a comet appeared before the death of ,johannes ,tzimicas1 the emperor of the ,east1 which foreshadowed not alone his death1 but the great calamities which were to befall the ,roman empire by reason of their civil wars4 ,in like manner1 the comet of #dea announced the death of ,attila1 that of #dee the death of ,valentinian4 ,the death of ,merovingius was announced by the comet of #egg1 of ,chilperic by that of #ehd1 of the ,emperor ,maurice by that of #fjb1 of ,mahomet by that of #fcb1 of ,louis the ,debonair by that of #hcg1 and of the ,emperor ,louis ,,ii4 by that of #hge4 ,nay1 so confidently did men believe that comets indicated the approaching death of great men1 that they did not believe a very great man could die without a comet4 ,so they inferred that the death of a very great man indicated the arrival of a comet2 and if the comet chanced not to be visible1 so much the worse--not for the theory1 but--for the comet4 ',a comet of this kind1' says ,pingre1 'was that of the year #had1 presaging the death of ,charlemagne4' ,so ,guillemin quotes ,pingre2 but he should rather have said1 such was the comet whose arrival was announced by ,charlemagne's death--and in no other way1 for it was not seen by mortal man4 ,the reader who chances to be strong as to his dates may have observed that some of the dates above mentioned for comets do not accord exactly with the dates of the events associated with those comets4 ,thus ,louis the ,debonair did not die in #hcg1 but in #hdj4 ,this1 however1 is a matter of very little importance4 ,if some men1 after their comet has called for them1 are 'an unconscionable time in dying1' as ,charles ,,ii4 said of himself1 it surely must not be considered the fault of the comet4 ,louis himself regarded the comet of #hcg as his death-warrant2 the astrologers admitted as much3 what more could be desired8 ,the account of the matter given in a chronicle of the time1 by a writer who called himself ',the ,astronomer1' is curious enough3 ',during the holy season of ,easter1 a phenomenon1 ever fatal and of gloomy foreboding1 appeared in the heavens4 ,as soon as the emperor1 who paid attention to such phenomena1 received the first announcement of it1 he gave himself no rest until he had called a certain learned man and myself before him4 ,as soon as ,i arrived1 he anxiously asked me what ,i thought of such a sign4 ,i asked time of him1 in order to consider the aspect of the stars1 and to discover the truth by their means1 promising to acquaint him on the morrow2 but the emperor1 persuaded that ,i wished to gain time1 which was true1 in order not to be obliged to announce anything fatal to him1 said to me3 ,go on the terrace of the palace1 and return at once to tell me what you have seen1 for ,i did not see this star last evening1 and you did not point it out to me2 but ,i know that it is a comet2 tell me what you think it announces to me4 ,then1 scarcely allowing me time to say a word1 he added3 ,there is still another thing you keep back3 it is that a change of reign and the death of a prince are announced by this sign4 ,and as ,i advanced the testimony of the prophet1 who said3 ,fear not the signs of the heavens as the nations fear them1 the prince1 with his grand nature and the wisdom which never forsook him1 said3 ,we must only fear ,him who has created both us and this star4 ,but1 as this phenomenon may refer to us1 let us acknowledge it as a warning from heaven4' ,accordingly1 ,louis himself and all his court fasted and prayed1 and he built churches and monasteries4 ,but all was of no avail4 ,in little more than three years he died2 showing1 as the historian ,raoul ,glaber remarked1 that 'these phenomena of the universe are never presented to man without surely announcing some wonderful and terrible event4' ,with a range of three years in advance1 and so many kings and princes as there were about in those days1 and are still1 it would be rather difficult for a comet to appear without announcing some such wonderful and terrible event as a royal death4 ,the year #ajjj ,a4,d4 was by all but common consent regarded as the date assigned for the end of the world4 ,for a thousand years ,satan had been chained1 and now he was to be loosened for a while4 ,so that when a comet made its appearance1 and1 terrible to relate1 continued visible for nine days1 the phenomenon was regarded as something more than a nine days' wonder4 ,besides the comet1 a very wonderful meteor was seen4 ',the heavens opened1 and a kind of flaming torch fell upon the earth1 leaving behind a long track of light like the path of a flash of lightning4 ,its brightness was so great that it frightened not only those who were in the fields1 but even those who were in their houses4 ,as this opening in the sky slowly closed men saw with horror the figure of a dragon1 whose feet were blue1 and whose head' like that of ,dickens's dwarf 'seemed to grow larger and larger4' ,a picture of this dreadful meteor accompanies the account given by the old chronicler4 ,for fear the exact likeness of the dragon might not be recognised 7and1 indeed1 to see it one must 'make believe a good deal'71 there is placed beside it a picture of a dragon to correspond1 which picture is in turn labelled ',serpens cum ceruleis pedibus4' ,it was considered very wicked in the year #ajjj to doubt that the end of all things was at hand4 ,but somehow the world escaped that time4 ,in the year #ajff ,halley's comet appeared to announce to the ,saxons the approaching conquest of ,england by ,william the ,norman4 ,a contemporary poet made a singular remark1 which may have some profound poetical meaning1 but certainly seems a little indistinct on the surface4 ,he said that 'the comet had been more favourable to ,william than nature had been to ,caesar2 the latter had no hair1 but ,william had received some from the comet4' ,this is the only instance1 so far as ,i know1 in which a comet has been regarded as a perruquier4 ,a monk of ,malmesbury spoke more to the purpose1 according to then received ideas1 in thus apostrophising the comet3 ',here art thou again1 cause of tears to many mothers6 ,it is long since ,i saw thee last1 but ,i see thee now more terrible than ever2 thou threatenest my country with complete ruin4' ,halley's comet1 with its inconveniently short period of about seventy-seven years1 has repeatedly troubled the nations and been regarded as a sign sent from ,heaven3 ,ten million cubic miles of head1 ,ten billion leagues of tail1 all provided for the sole purpose of warning one petty race of earth-folks against the evils likely to be brought against them by another4 ,this comet has appeared twenty-four times since the date of its first recorded appearance1 which some consider to have been #ab ,b4,c41 and others refer to a few years later4 ,it may be interesting to quote here ,babinet's description of the effects ascribed in #adee to this comet1 often the terror of nations1 but the triumph of mathematicians1 as the first whose motions were brought into recognisable obedience to the laws of gravity4#db ',the ,mussulmans1 with ,mahomet ,,ii4 at their head1 were besieging ,belgrade1 which was defended by ,huniade1 surnamed the ,exterminator of the ,turks4 ,halley's comet appeared and the two armies were seized with equal fear4 ,pope ,calixtus ,,iii41 himself seized by the general terror1 ordered public prayers and timidly anathematised the comet and the enemies of ,christianity4 ,he established the prayer called the noon ,angelus1 the use of which is continued in all ,catholic churches4 ,the ,franciscans 7,freres ,mineurs7 brought #dj1jjj defenders to ,belgrade1 besieged by the conqueror of ,constantinople1 the destroyer of the ,eastern ,empire4 ,at last the battle began2 it continued two days without ceasing4 ,a contest of two days caused #dj1jjj combatants to bite the dust4 ,the ,franciscans1 unarmed1 crucifix in hand1 were in the front rank1 invoking the papal exorcism against the comet1 and turning upon the enemy that heavenly wrath of which none in those times dared doubt4' ,the great comet of #aeef has been regarded as the occasion of the ,emperor ,charles ,v4's abdication of the imperial throne2 a circumstance which seems rendered a little doubtful by the fact that he had already abdicated when the comet appeared--a mere detail1 perhaps1 but suggesting the possibility that cause and effect may have been interchanged by mistake1 and that it was ,charles's abdication which occasioned the appearance of the comet4 ,according to ,gemma's account the comet was conspicuous rather from its great light than from the length of its tail or the strangeness of its appearance4 ',its head equalled ,jupiter in brightness1 and was equal in diameter to nearly half the apparent diameter of the moon4' ,it appeared about the end of ,february1 and in ,march presented a terrible appearance1 according to ,ripamonte4 ',terrific indeed1' says ,sir ,j4 ,herschel1 'it might well have been to the mind of a prince prepared by the most abject superstition to receive its appearance as a warning of approaching death1 and as specially sent1 whether in anger or in mercy1 to detach his thoughts from earthly things1 and fix them on his eternal interests4 ,such was its effect on the ,emperor ,charles ,v41 whose abdication is distinctly ascribed by many historians to this cause1 and whose words on the occasion of his first beholding it have even been recorded-- ,his ergo indiciis me mea fata vocant-- the language and the metrical form of which exclamation afford no ground for disputing its authenticity1 when the habits and education of those times are fairly considered4' ,it is quite likely that1 having already abdicated the throne1 ,charles regarded the comet as signalling his retirement from power--an event which he doubtless considered a great deal too important to be left without some celestial record4 ,but the words attributed to him are in all probability apocryphal4 ,the comet of #aegg was remarkable for the strangeness of its aspect1 which in some respects resembled that of the comet of #aheh1 called ,donati's4 ,it required only the terror with which such portentous objects were witnessed in the ,middle ,ages to transform the various streamers1 curved and straight1 extending from such an object1 into swords and spears1 and other signs of war and trouble4 ,doubtless1 we owe to the fears of the ,middle ,ages the strange pictures claiming to present the actual aspect of some of the larger comets4 ,halley's comet did not escape4 ,it was compared to a straight sword at one visit1 to a curved scimitar in #adef1 and even at its last return in #ahce there were some who recognised in the comet a resemblance to a misty head4 ,other comets have been compared to swords of fire1 bloody crosses1 flaming daggers1 spears1 serpents1 fiery dragons1 fish1 and so forth4 ,but in this respect no comet would seem to have been comparable with that of #aebh1 of which ,andrew ,pare writes as follows3 ',this comet was so horrible and dreadful1 and engendered such terror in the minds of men1 that they died1 some from fear alone1 others from illness engendered by fear4 ,it was of immense length and blood-red colour2 at its head was seen the figure of a curved arm1 holding a large sword in the hand as if preparing to strike4 ,at the point of this sword were three stars2 and on either side a number of axes1 knives1 and swords covered with blood1 amongst which were many hideous human faces with bristling beards and hair4' ,such peculiarities of shape1 and also those affecting the position and movements of comets1 were held to be full of meaning4 ,as ,bayle pointed out in his ',thoughts about the ,comet of #afhj1' these fancies are of great antiquity4 ,pliny tells us that in his time astrologers claimed to interpret the meaning of a comet's position and appearance1 and that also of the direction towards which its rays pointed4 ,they could1 moreover1 explain the effects produced by the fixed stars whose rays were conjoined with the comet's4 ,if a comet resembles a flute1 then musicians are aimed at2 when comets are in the less dignified parts of the constellations1 they presage evil to immodest persons2 if the head of a comet forms an equilateral triangle or a square with fixed stars1 then it is time for mathematicians and men of science to tremble4 ,when they are in the sign of the ,ram1 they portend great wars and widespread mortality1 the abasement of the great and the elevation of the small1 besides fearful droughts in regions over which that sign predominates2 in the ,virgin1 they imply many grievous ills to the female portion of the population2 in the ,scorpion1 they portend a plague of reptiles1 especially locusts2 in the ,fishes1 they indicate great troubles from religious differences1 besides war and pestilence4 ,when1 like the one described by ,milton1 they 'fire the length of ,ophiuchus huge1' they show that there will be much mortality caused by poisoning4 ,the comet of #afhj1 which led ,bayle to write the treatise to which reference has just been made1 was one well calculated to inspire terror4 ,indeed1 if the truth were known1 that comet probably brought greater danger to the inhabitants of the earth than any other except the comet of #ahdc--the danger not1 however1 being that derived from possible collision between the earth and a comet1 but that arising from the possible downfall of a large comet upon the sun1 and the consequent enormous increase of the sun's heat4 ,that1 according to ,newton1 is the great danger men have to fear from comets2 and the comet of #afhj was one which in that sense was a very dangerous one4 ,there is no reason why a comet from outer space should not fall straight towards the sun1 as at one time the comet of #afhj was supposed to be doing4 ,all the comfort that science can give the world on that point is that such a course for a comet is only one out of many millions of possible courses1 all fully as likely2 and that1 therefore1 the chance of a comet falling upon the sun is only as one in many millions4 ,still1 the comet of #afhj made a very fair shot at the sun1 and a very slight modification of its course by ,jupiter or ,saturn might have brought about the catastrophe which ,newton feared4 ,whether1 if a comet actually fell upon the sun1 anything very dreadful would happen1 is not so clear4 ,newton's ideas respecting comets were formed in ignorance of many physical facts and laws which in our day render reasoning upon the subject comparatively easy4 ,yet1 even in our time1 it is not possible to assert confidently that such fears are idle4 ,during the solar outburst witnessed by ,carrington and ,hodgson in ,september #ahei1 it is supposed that the sun swallowed a large meteoric mass2 and1 as great cornets are probably followed by many such masses1 it seems reasonable to infer that if such a comet fell upon the sun1 his surface being pelted with such exceptionally large masses1 stoned with these mighty meteoric balls1 would glow all over 7or nearly so7 as brightly as a small spot of that surface glowed upon that occasion4 ,now that portion was so bright that ,carrington thought 'that by some chance a ray of light had penetrated a hole in the screen attached to the object-glass by which the general image is thrown in shade1 for the brilliancy was fully equal to that of direct sunlight4' ,manifestly1 if the whole surface of the sun1 or any large portion of the surface1 were caused to glow with that exceeding brilliancy1 surpassing ordinary sunlight in the same degree that ordinary sunlight surpassed the shaded solar image in ,carrington's observations1 the result would be disastrous in the extreme for the inhabitants of that half of the earth which chanced to be in sunlight at the time2 and if 7as could scarcely fail to happen7 the duration of that abnormal splendour were more than half a day1 then the whole earth would probably be depopulated by the intense heat4 ,the danger1 as ,i have said1 is slight--partly because there is small chance of a collision between the sun and a comet1 partly because we have no certain reasons for assuming that a collision would be followed by the heating of the sun for a while to a very high temperature4 ,looking around at the suns which people space1 and considering their history1 so far as it has been made known to us1 for the last two thousand years1 we find small occasion for fear4 ,those suns seem to have been for the most part safe from any sudden or rapid accessions of heat2 and if they travel thus safely in their mighty journeys through space1 we may well believe that our sun also is safe4 ,nevertheless1 there have been catastrophes here and there4 ,now one sun and now another has blazed out with a hundred times its usual lustre1 gradually losing its new fires and returning to its customary brightness2 but after what destruction among those peopling its system of worlds who shall say8 ,spectroscopic analysis1 that powerful help to the modern astronomical inquirer1 has shown in one of these cases that just such changes had taken place as we might fairly expect would follow if a mighty comet fell into the sun4 ,if this interpretation be correct1 then we are not wholly safe4 ,any day might bring us news of a comet sailing full upon our sun from out the depths of space4 ,then astronomers would perhaps have the opportunity of ascertaining the harmlessness of a collision between the ruler of our system and one of the long-tailed visitors from the celestial spaces4 ,or possibly1 astronomers and the earth's inhabitants generally might find out the reverse1 though the knowledge would not avail them much1 seeing that the messenger who would bring it would be the ,king of ,terrors himself4 ,it was well1 perhaps1 that ,newton's discovery of the law of gravitation1 and the application of this law to the comets of #afhj and #afhb 7the latter our old friend ,halley's comet1 then properly so called as studied by him71 came in time to aid in removing to some slight degree the old superstitions respecting comets4 ,for in ,england many remembered the comets of the ,great ,plague and of the ,great ,fire of ,london4 ,these comets came so closely upon the time of the ,plague and the ,fire respectively1 that it was not wonderful if even the wiser sort were struck by the coincidence and could scarcely regard it as accidental4 ,it is not easy for the student of science in our own times1 when the movements of comets are as well understood as those of the most orderly planets1 to place himself in the position of men in the times when no one knew on what paths comets came1 or whither they retreated after they had visited our sun4 ,taught as men were1 on the one hand1 that it was wicked to question what seemed to be the teaching of the ,scriptures1 that changes or new appearances in the heavens were sent to warn mankind of approaching troubles1 and perplexed as they were1 on the other1 by the absence of any real knowledge respecting comets and meteors1 it was not so easy as we might imagine from our own way of viewing these matters1 to shake off a superstition which had ruled over men's minds for thousands of years4 ,no sect had been free from this superstition4 ,popes and priests had taught their followers to pray against the evil influences of comets and other celestial portents2 ,luther and ,melanchthon had condemned in no measured terms the rashness and impiety of those who had striven to show that the heavenly bodies and the earth move in concordance with law--those 'fools who wish to reverse the entire science of astronomy4' ,a long interval had elapsed between the time when the ,copernican theory was struggling for existence--when1 but that more serious heresies engaged men's attention and kept religious folk by the ears1 that astronomical heresy would probably have been quenched in blood--and the forging by ,newton of the final link of the chain of reasoning on which modern astronomy is based2 but in those times the minds of men moved more slowly than in ours4 ,the masses still held to the old beliefs about the heavenly bodies4 ,defoe1 indeed1 speaking of the terror of men at the time of the ,great ,plague1 says that they 'were more addicted to prophecies and astrological conjurations1 dreams1 and old wives' tales1 than ever they were before or since4' ,but in reality1 it was only because of the great misery then prevailing that men seemed more superstitious than usual2 for misery brings out the superstitions--the fetishisms1 if we may so speak--which are inherent in many minds1 but concealed from others in prosperous times1 out of shame1 or perhaps a worthier feeling4 ,even in our own times great national calamities would show that many superstitions exist which had been thought extinct1 and we should see excited among the ill-educated that particular form of persecution which arises1 not from zeal for religion and not from intolerance1 but from the belief that the troubles have been sent because of unbelief and the fear that unless some expiation be made the evil will not pass away from the midst of the people4 ,it is at such times of general affliction that minds of the meaner sort have proved 'zealous even to slaying4' ,the influence of strange appearances in the heavens on even thoughtful and reasoning minds1 at such times of universal calamity1 is well shown by ,defoe's remarks on the comets of the years #affd and #afff4 ',the old women1' he says1 'and the phlegmatic1 hypochondriacal part of the other sex1 whom ,i could almost call old women too1 remarked that those two comets passed directly over the city' though that appearance must have depended on the position whence these old women1 male and female1 observed the comet1 'and that so very near the houses1 that it was plain they imported something peculiar to the city alone2 and that the comet before the ,pestilence was of a faint1 dull1 languid colour1 and its motion very heavy1 solemn1 and slow2 but that the comet before the ,fire was bright and sparkling1 or1 as others said1 flaming1 and its motion swift and furious3 and that accordingly one foretold a heavy judgment1 slow but severe1 terrible and frightful1 as was the ,plague2 but the other foretold a stroke1 sudden1 swift1 and fiery1 as was the ,conflagration4 ,nay1 so particular some people were1 that1 as they looked upon that comet preceding the ,fire1 they fancied that they not only saw it pass swiftly and fiercely1 and could perceive the motion with their eye1 but even that they heard it2 that it made a mighty rushing noise1 fierce and terrible1 though at a distance and but just perceivable4 ,i saw both these stars1 and must confess had ,i had so much the common notion of such things in my head1 that ,i was apt to look upon them as the forerunners and warnings of ,god's judgments1 and especially when1 the ,plague having followed the first1 ,i yet saw another of the same kind1 ,i could not but say1 ,god had not yet sufficiently scourged the city' ,london4 ,the comets of #afhj and #afhb1 though they did not bring plagues or conflagrations immediately1 yet were not supposed to have been altogether without influence4 ,the convenient fiction1 indeed1 that some comets operate quickly and others slowly1 made it very difficult for a comet to appear to which some evil effects could not be ascribed4 ,if any one can find a single date1 since the records of history have been carefully kept1 which was so fortunately placed that1 during no time following it within five years1 no prince1 king1 emperor1 or pope died1 no war was begun1 or ended disastrously for one side or the other engaged in it1 no revolution was effected1 neither plague nor pestilence occurred1 neither droughts nor floods afflicted any nation1 no great hurricanes1 earthquakes1 volcanic outbursts1 or other trouble was recorded1 he will then have shown the bare possibility that a comet might have appeared which seemed to presage neither abrupt nor slow-moving calamities4 ,but it is not possible to name such a date1 nor even a date which was not followed within two years at the utmost by a calamity such as superstition might assign to a comet4 ,and so closely have such calamities usually followed1 that scarce a comet could appear which might not be regarded as the precursor of very quickly approaching calamity4 ,even if a comet had come which seemed to bring no trouble1 nay1 if many such comets had come1 men would still have overlooked the absence of any apparent fulfilment of the predicted troubles4 ,henry ,,iv4 well remarked1 when he was told that astrologers predicted his death because a certain comet had been observed3 ',one of these days they will predict it truly1 and people will remember better the single occasion when the prediction will be fulfilled than the many other occasions when it has been falsified by the event4' ,the troubles connected with the comets of #afhj and #afhb were removed farther from the dates of the events themselves than usual1 at least so far as the ,english interpretation of the comets was concerned4 ',the great comet in #afhj1' says one1 'followed by a lesser comet in #afhb1 was evidently the forerunner of all those remarkable and disastrous events that ended in the revolution of #afhh4 ,it also evidently presaged the revocation of the edict of ,nantes1 and the cruel persecution of the ,protestants1 by the ,french king ,louis ,,xiv41 afterwards followed by those terrible wars which1 with little intermission1 continued to ravage the finest parts of ,europe for nearly twenty-four years4' ,if in some respects the fears inspired by comets have been reduced by modern scientific discoveries respecting these bodies1 yet in other respects the very confidence engendered by the exactness of modern astronomical computations has proved a source of terror4 ,there is nothing more remarkable1 for instance1 in the whole history of cometary superstition1 than the panic which spread over ,france in the year #aggc1 in consequence of a rumour that the mathematician ,lalande had predicted the occurrence of a collision between a comet and the earth1 and that disastrous effects would inevitably follow4 ,the foundation of the rumour was slight enough in all conscience4 ,it had simply been announced that ,lalande would read before the ,academy of ,sciences a paper entitled ',reflections on those ,comets which can approach the ,earth4' ,that was absolutely all2 yet1 from that one fact1 not only were vague rumours of approaching cometic troubles spread abroad1 but the statement was definitely made that on ,may #bj or #ba1 #aggc1 'a comet would encounter the earth4'#dc ,so great was the fear thus excited1 that1 in order to calm it1 ,lalande inserted in the ',gazette de ,france' of ,may #g1 #aggc1 the following advertisement3--',m4 ,lalande had not time to read his memoir upon comets which may approach the earth and cause changes in her motions2 but he would observe that it is impossible to assign the epochs of such events4 ,the next comet whose return is expected is the one which should return in eighteen years2 but it is not one of those which can hurt the earth4' ,this note had not the slightest effect in restoring peace to the minds of unscientific ,frenchmen4 ,m4 ,lalande's study was crowded with anxious persons who came to inquire about his memoir4 ,certain devout folk1 'as ignorant as they were imbecile1' says a contemporary journal1 begged the ,archbishop of ,paris to appoint forty hours' prayer to avert the danger and prevent the terrible deluge4 ,for this was the particular form most men agreed that the danger would take4 ,that prelate was on the point1 indeed1 of complying with their request1 and would have done so1 but that some members of the ,academy explained to him that by so doing he would excite ridicule4 ,far more effective1 and1 to say truth1 far better judged1 was the irony of ,voltaire1 in his deservedly celebrated ',letter on the ,pretended ,comet4' ,it ran as follows3-- ',grenoble1 ,may #ag1 #aggc4 ',certain ,parisians who are not philosophers1 and who1 if we are to believe them1 will not have time to become such1 have informed me that the end of the world approaches1 and will occur without fail on the #bjth of this present month of ,may4 ,they expect1 that day1 a comet1 which is to take our little globe from behind and reduce it to impalpable powder1 according to a certain prediction of the ,academy of ,sciences which has not yet been made4 ',nothing is more likely than this event2 for ,james ,bernouilli1 in his ,treatise upon the ,comet of #afhj1 predicted expressly that the famous comet of #afhj would return with terrible uproar 7fracas7 on ,may #ai1 #agai2 he assured us that in truth its perruque would signify nothing mischievous1 but that its tail would be an infallible sign of the wrath of heaven4 ,if ,james ,bernouilli mistook1 it is1 after all1 but a matter of fifty-four years and three days4 ',now1 so small an error as this being regarded by all geometricians as of little moment in the immensity of ages1 it is manifest that nothing can be more reasonable than to hope 7sic1 esperer7 for the end of the world on the #bjth of this present month of ,may #aggc1 or in some other year4 ,if the thing should not come to pass1 omittance is no quittance 7ce qui est differe1 n'est pas perdu74 ',there is certainly no reason for laughing at ,m4 ,trissotin1 triple idiot though he is 7tout ,trissotin qu'il est71 when he says to ,madame ,philaminte 7,moliere's ,femmes ,savantes1 acte iv4 scene #c71 ',nous l'avons en dormant1 madame1 echappe belle2 ,un monde pres de nous a passe tout du long1 ,est chu tout au travers de notre tourbillon2 ,et1 s'il eut en chemin rencontre notre terre1 ,elle eut ete brisee en morceaux comme verre4 ',a comet coursing along its parabolic orbit may come full tilt against our earth4 ,but then1 what will happen8 ,either that comet will have a force equal to that of our earth1 or greater1 or less4 ,if equal1 we shall do the comet as much harm as it will do us1 action and reaction being equal2 if greater1 the comet will bear us away with it2 if less1 we shall bear away the comet4 ',this great event may occur in a thousand ways1 and no one can affirm that our earth and the other planets have not experienced more than one revolution1 through the mischance of encountering a comet on their path4 ',the ,parisians will not desert their city on the #bjth inst42 they will sing songs1 and the play of ,the ,comet and the ,world's ,end will be performed at the ,opera ,comique4' ,the last touch is as fine in its way as ,sydney ,smith's remark that1 if ,london were destroyed by an earthquake1 the surviving citizens would celebrate the event by a public dinner among the ruins4 ,voltaire's prediction was not fulfilled exactly to the letter1 but what actually happened was even funnier than what his lively imagination had suggested4 ,it was stated by a ,parisian ,professor in #ahcb 7as a reason why the ,academy of ,sciences should refute an assertion then rife to the effect that ,biela's comet would encounter the earth that year7 that during the cometic panic of #aggc 'there were not wanting people who knew too well the art of turning to their advantage the alarm inspired by the approaching comet1 and places in ,paradise were sold at a very high rate4#dd ,the announcement of the comet of #ahcb may produce similar effects1' he said1 'unless the authority of the ,academy apply a prompt remedy2 and this salutary intervention is at this moment implored by many benevolent persons4' ,in recent years the effects produced on the minds of men by comets have been less marked than of yore1 and appear to have depended a good deal on circumstances4 ,the comet of the year #aheh 7called ,donati's71 for example1 occasioned no special fears1 at least until ,napoleon ,,iii4 made his famous ,new-,year's day speech1 after which many began to think the comet had meant mischief4 ,but the comet of #ahfa1 though less conspicuous1 occasioned more serious fears4 ,it was held by many in ,italy to presage a very great misfortune indeed1 viz4 the restoration of ,francis ,,ii4 to the throne of the ,two ,sicilies4 ,others thought that the downfall of the temporal power of the ,papacy and the death of ,pope ,pius ,,ix4 were signified4 ,i have not heard that any very serious consequences were expected to follow the appearance of ,coggia's comet in #ahgd4 ,the great heat which prevailed during parts of the summer of #ahgf was held by many to be connected in some way with a comet which some very unskilful telescopist constructed in his imagination out of the glare of ,jupiter in the object-glass of his telescope4 ,another benighted person1 seeing the ,pleiades low down through a fog1 turned them into a comet1 about the same time4 ,possibly the idea was1 that since comets are supposed to cause great heats1 great heats may be supposed to indicate a comet somewhere2 and with minds thus prepared1 it was not wonderful1 perhaps1 that telescopic glare1 or an imperfect view of our old friends the ,pleiades1 should have been mistaken for a vision of the heat-producing comet4 ,it should be a noteworthy circumstance to those who still continue to look on comets as signs of great catastrophes1 that a war more remarkable in many respects than any which has ever yet been waged between two great nations--a war swift in its operations and decisive in its effects--a war in which three armies1 each larger than all the forces commanded by ,napoleon ,i4 during the campaign of #ahac1 were captured bodily--should have been begun and carried on to its termination without the appearance of any great comet4 ,the civil war in ,america1 a still more terrible calamity to that great nation than the success of ,moltke's operations to the ,french1 may be regarded by believers as presignified by the great comet of #ahfa4 ,but it so chances that the war between ,france and ,germany occurred near the middle of one of the longest intervals recorded in astronomical annals as unmarked by a single conspicuous comet--the interval between the years #ahfb and #ahgd4 ,if the progress of just ideas respecting comets has been slow1 it must nevertheless be regarded as on the whole satisfactory4 ,when we remember that it was not a mere idle fancy which had to be opposed1 not mere terrors which had to be calmed1 but that the idea of the significance of changes in the heavens had come to be regarded by mankind as a part of their religion1 it cannot but be thought a hopeful sign that all reasoning men in our time have abandoned the idea that comets are sent to warn the inhabitants of this small earth4 ,obeying in their movements the same law of gravitation which guides the planets in their courses1 the comets are tracked by the skilful mathematician along those remote parts of their course where even the telescope fails to keep them in view4 ,not only are they no longer regarded as presaging the fortunes of men on this earth1 but men on this earth are able to predict the fortunes of comets4 ,not only is it seen that they cannot influence the fates of the earth or other planets1 but we perceive that the earth and planets by their attractive energies influence1 and in no unimportant degree1 the fates of these visitants from outer space4 ,encouraging1 truly1 is the lesson taught us by the success of earnest study and careful inquiry in determining some at least among the laws which govern bodies once thought the wildest and most erratic creatures in the whole of ,god's universe4 ,,ix4 ,,the ,,lunar ,,hoax4 ,then he gave them an account of the famous moon hoax1 which came out in #ahce4 ,it was full of the most barefaced absurdities1 yet people swallowed it all2 and even ,arago is said to have treated it seriously as a thing that could not well be true1 for ,mr4 ,herschel would have certainly notified him of these marvellous discoveries4 ,the writer of it had not troubled himself to invent probabilities1 but had borrowed his scenery from the ',arabian ,nights' and his lunar inhabitants from ',peter ,wilkins4'--,,oliver ,,wendell ,,holmes 7in ,the ,poet at the ,breakfast-,table74 ,in one of the earliest numbers of ',macmillan's ,magazine1 the late ,professor ,de ,morgan1 in an article on ,scientific ,hoaxing1 gave a brief account of the so-called 'lunar hoax'--an instance of scientific trickery frequently mentioned1 though probably few are familiar with the real facts4 ,de ,morgan himself possessed a copy of the second ,english edition of the pamphlet1 published in ,london in #ahcf4 ,but the original pamphlet edition1 published in ,america in ,september #ahce1 is not easily to be obtained4 ,the proprietors of the ,new ,york ',sun1' in which the fictitious narrative first appeared1 published an edition of #fj1jjj copies1 and every copy was sold in less than a month4 ,lately a single copy of that edition was sold for three dollars seventy-five cents4#de ,the pamphlet is interesting in many respects1 and ,i propose to give here a brief account of it4 ,but first it may be well to describe briefly the origin of the hoax4 ,it is said that after the ,french revolution of #ahcj ,nicollet1 a ,french astronomer of some repute1 especially for certain lunar observations of a very delicate and difficult kind1 left ,france in debt and also in bad odour with the republican party4 ,according to this story1 ,arago the astronomer was especially obnoxious to ,nicollet1 and it was as much with the view of revenging himself on his foe as from a wish to raise a little money that ,nicollet wrote the moon-fable4 ,it is said further that ,arago was entrapped1 as ,nicollet desired1 and circulated all over ,paris the wonders related in the pamphlet1 until ,nicollet wrote to his friend ,bouvard explaining the trick4 ,so runs the story1 but the story cannot be altogether true4 ,nicollet may have prepared the narrative and partly written it1 but there are passages in the pamphlet as published in ,america which no astronomer could have written4 ,possibly there is some truth in ,de ,morgan's supposition that the original work was ,french4 ,this may have been ,nicollet's3 and the ,american edition was probably enlarged by the translator1 who1 according to this account1 was ,richard ,alton ,locke1#df to whom in ,america the whole credit1 or discredit1 of the hoax is commonly attributed4 ,there can be no doubt that either the ,french version was much more carefully designed than the ,american1 or there was no truth in the story that ,arago was deceived by the narrative2 for in its present form the story1 though clever1 could not for an instant have deceived any one acquainted with the most elementary laws of optics4 ,the whole story turns on optical rather than on astronomical considerations2 but every astronomer of the least skill is acquainted with the principles on which the construction of optical instruments depends4 ,though the success of the deception recently practised on ,m4 ,chasles by the forger of the ,pascal papers has been regarded as showing how easily mathematicians may be entrapped1 yet even ,m4 ,chasles would not have been deceived by bad mathematics2 and ,arago1 a master of the science of optics1 could not but have detected optical blunders which would be glaring to the average ,cambridge undergraduate4 ,but let us turn to the story itself4 ,the account opens with a passage unmistakably from an ,american hand1 though purporting1 be it remembered1 to be quoted from the ',supplement to the ,edinburgh ,journal of ,science4' ',in this unusual addition to our journal1 we have the happiness of making known to the ,british public1 and thence to the whole civilised world1 recent discoveries in astronomy which will build an imperishable monument to the age in which we live1 and confer upon the present generation of the human race a proud distinction through all future time4 ,it has been poetically said' where and by whom8 'that the stars of heaven are the hereditary regalia of man1 as the intellectual sovereign of the animal creation4 ,he may now fold the zodiac around him with a loftier consciousness of his mental supremacy4' ,to the ,american mind enwrapment in the star-jewelled zodiac may appear as natural as their ordinary oratorical references to the star-spangled banner2 but the idea is essentially transatlantic1 and not even the most poetical ,european astronomer could have risen to such a height of imagery4 ,passing over several pages of introductory matter1 we come to the description of the method by which a telescope of sufficient magnifying power to show living creatures in the moon was constructed by ,sir ,john ,herschel4 ,it had occurred1 it would seem1 to the elder ,herschel to construct an improved series of parabolic and spherical reflectors 'uniting all the meritorious points in the ,gregorian and ,newtonian instruments1 with the highly interesting achromatic discovery of ,dolland'7sic74 ,this is much as though one should say that a clever engineer had conceived the idea of constructing an improved series of railway engines1 combining all the meritorious points in stationary and locomotive engines1 with ,isaac ,watts' highly ingenious discovery of screw propulsion4 ,for the ,gregorian and ,newtonian instruments simply differ in sending the rays received from the great mirror in different directions1 and ,dolland's discovery relates to the ordinary forms of telescopes with large lens1 not with large mirror4 ,however1 accumulating infirmities and eventually death prevented ,sir ,william ,herschel from applying his plan1 which 'evinced the most profound research in optical science1 and the most dexterous ingenuity in mechanical contrivance4 ,but his son1 ,sir ,john ,herschel1 nursed and cradled in the observatory1 and a practical astronomer from his boyhood1 determined upon testing it at whatever cost4 ,within two years of his father's death he completed his new apparatus1 and adapted it to the old telescope with nearly perfect success4' ,a short account of the observations made with this instrument1 now magnifying six thousand times1 follows1 in which most of the astronomical statements are very correctly and justly worded1 being1 in fact1 borrowed from a paper by ,sir ,w4 ,herschel on observation of the moon with precisely that power4 ,but this great improvement upon all former telescopes still left the observer at a distance of forty miles from the moon2 and at that distance no object less than about twenty yards in diameter could be distinguished1 and even objects of that size 'would appear only as feeble1 shapeless points4' ,sir ,john 'had the satisfaction to know that if he could leap astride a cannon-ball1 and travel upon its wings of fury for the respectable period of several millions of years1 he would not obtain a more enlarged view of the more distant stars than he could now possess in a few minutes of time2 and that it would require an ultra-railroad speed of fifty miles an hour for nearly the livelong year1 to secure him a more favourable inspection of the gentle luminary of the night2' but 'the exciting question whether this observed of all the sons of men1 from the days of ,eden to those of ,edinburgh1 be inhabited by beings1 like ourselves1 of consciousness and curiosity1 was left to the benevolent index of natural analogy1 or to the severe tradition that the moon is tenanted only by the hoary solitaire1 whom the criminal code of the nursery had banished thither for collecting fuel on the ,sabbath-day4'#dg ,but the time had arrived when the great discovery was to be made1 by which at length the moon could be brought near enough1 by telescopic power1 for living creatures on her surface to be seen if any exist4 ,the account of the sudden discovery of the new method1 during a conversation between ,sir ,john ,herschel and ,sir ,david ,brewster1 is one of the most cleverly conceived 7though also one of the absurdest7 passages in the pamphlet4 ',about three years ago1 in the course of a conversational discussion with ,sir ,david ,brewster upon the merits of some ingenious suggestions by the latter1 in his article on ,optics in the ,edinburgh ,encyclopaedia1 p4 #fdd1 for improvements in ,newtonian reflectors1 ,sir ,john ,herschel adverted to the convenient simplicity of the old astronomical telescopes that were without tubes1 and the object-glass of which1 placed upon a high pole1 threw the focal image to a distance of #aej and even #bjj feet4 ,dr4 ,brewster readily admitted that a tube was not necessary1 provided the focal image were conveyed into a dark apartment and there properly received by reflectors4444 ,the conversation then became directed to that all-invincible enemy1 the paucity of light in powerful magnifiers4 ,after a few moments' silent thought1 ,sir ,john diffidently enquired whether it would not be possible to effect a transfusion of artificial light through the focal object of vision6 ,sir ,david1 somewhat startled at the originality of the idea1 paused awhile1 and then hesitatingly referred to the refrangibility of rays1 and the angle of incidence4 ,sir ,john1 grown more confident1 adduced the example of the ,newtonian reflector1 in which the refrangibility was corrected by the second speculum1 and the angle of incidence restored by the third4' ,all this part of the narrative is simply splendid in absurdity4 ,hesitating references to refrangibility and the angle of incidence would have been sheerly idiotic under the supposed circumstances2 and in the ,newtonian reflector 7which has only two specula or mirrors7 there is no refrangibility to be corrected2 apart from which1 'correcting refrangibility' has no more meaning than 'restoring the angle of incidence4' ',and1 continued ,sir ,john1 why cannot the illuminating microscope1 say the hydro-oxygen1 be applied to render distinct1 and1 if necessary1 even to magnify1 the focal object8 ,sir ,david sprung from his chair' and well he might1 though not 'in an ecstasy of conviction1 and1 leaping half-way to the ceiling1 exclaimed1 ,thou art the man6 ,each philosopher anticipated the other in presenting the prompt illustration that if the rays of the hydro-oxygen microscope1 passed through a drop of water containing the larvae of a gnat and other objects invisible to the naked eye1 rendered them not only keenly but firmly magnified to dimensions of many feet2 so could the same artificial light1 passed through the faintest focal object of a telescope1 both distinctify 7to coin a new word for an extraordinary occasion7 and magnify its feeblest component members4 ,the only apparent desideratum was a recipient for the focal image which should transfer it1 without refranging it1 to the surface on which it was to be viewed under the revivifying light of the microscopic reflectors4' ,singularly enough1 the idea here mentioned does not appear to many so absurd as it is in reality4 ,it is known that the image formed by the large lens of an ordinary telescope or the large mirror of a reflecting telescope is a real image2 not a merely virtual image like that which is seen in a looking-glass4 ,it can be received on a sheet of paper or other white surface just as the image of surrounding objects can be thrown upon the white table of the camera obscura4 ,it is this real image1 in fact1 which we look at in using a telescope of any sort1 the portion of such a telescope nearest to the eye being in reality a microscope for viewing the image formed by the great lens or mirror1 as the case may be4 ,and it does not seem to some altogether absurd to speak of illuminating this image by transfused light1 or of casting by means of an illuminating microscope a vastly enlarged picture of this image upon a screen4 ,but of course the image being simply formed by the passage of rays 7which originally came from the object whose image they form7 through a certain small space1 to send other rays 7coming from some other luminous object7 through the same small space1 is not to improve1 but1 so far as any effect is produced at all1 to impair1 the distinctness of the image4 ,in fact1 if these illuminating rays reached the eye1 they would seriously impair the distinctness of the image4 ,their effect may be compared exactly with the effect of rays of light cast upon the image in a camera obscura2 and1 to see what the effect of such rays would be1 we need only consider why it is that the camera is made 'obscura1' or dark4 ,the effect of the transfusion of light through a telescopic image may be easily tried by any one who cares to make the experiment4 ,he has only to do away with the tube of his telescope 7substituting two or three straight rods to hold the glass in its place71 and then in the blaze of a strong sun to direct the telescope on some object lying nearly towards the sun4 ,or if he prefer artificial light for the experiment1 then at night let him direct the telescope so prepared upon the moon1 while a strong electric light is directed upon the place where the focal image is formed 7close in front of the eye74 ,the experiment will not suggest very sanguine hopes of good result from the transfusion of artificial light4 ,yet1 to my own knowledge1 not a few who were perfectly well aware that the lunar hoax was not based on facts1 have gravely reasoned that the principle suggested might be sound1 and1 in fact1 that they could see no reason why astronomers should not try it1 even though it had been first suggested as a joke4 ,to return1 however1 to the narrative4 ',the co-operative philosophers1 having hit upon their method1 determined to test it practically4 ,they decided that a medium of the purest plate-glass 7which it is said they obtained1 by consent1 be it observed1 from the shop-window of ,m4 ,desanges1 the jeweller to his ex-majesty ,charles ,x41 in ,high ,street7 was the most eligible they could discover4 ,it answered perfectly with a telescope which magnified a hundred times1 and a microscope of about thrice that power4' ,thus fortified by experiment1 and 'fully sanctioned by the high optical authority of ,sir ,david ,brewster1 ,sir ,john laid his plan before the ,royal ,society1 and particularly directed to it the attention of his ,royal ,highness the ,duke of ,sussex1 the ever munificent patron of science and the arts4 ,it was immediately and enthusiastically approved by the committee chosen to investigate it1 and the chairman1 who was the ,royal ,president' 7this continual reference to royalty is manifestly intended to give a ,british tone to the narrative71 'subscribed his name for a contribution of ,l#aj1jjj1 with a promise that he would zealously submit the proposed instrument as a fit object for the patronage of the privy purse4 ,he did so without delay2 and his ,majesty1 on being informed that the estimated expense was ,l#gj1jjj1 naively enquired if the costly instrument would conduce to any improvement in navigation4 ,on being informed that it undoubtly would1 the sailor king promised a carte blanche for any amount which might be required4' ,all this is very clever4 ,the 'sailor king' comes in as effectively to give vraisemblance to the narrative as ',crabtree's little bronze ,shakspeare that stood over the fireplace1' and the 'postman just come to the door with a double letter from ,northamptonshire4' ,then comes a description of the construction of the object-glass1 twenty-four feet in diameter1 'just six times the size of the elder ,herschel's2' who1 by the way1 never made a telescope with an object-glass4 ,the account of ,sir ,john ,herschel's journey from ,england1 and even some details of the construction of the observatory1 were based on facts1 indeed1 so many persons in ,america as well as in ,england were acquainted with some of these circumstances1 that it was essential to follow the facts as closely as possible4 ,of course1 also1 some explanation had to be given of the circumstance that nothing had before been heard respecting the gigantic instrument taken out by ,sir ,john ,herschel4 ',whether1' says the story1 'the ,british ,government were sceptical concerning the promised splendour of the discoveries1 or wished them to be scrupulously veiled until they had accumulated a full-orbed glory for the nation and reign in which they originated1 is a question which we can only conjecturally solve4 ,but certain it is that the astronomer's royal patrons enjoined a masonic taciturnity upon him and his friends until he should have officially communicated the results of his great experiment4' ,it was not till the night of ,january #aj1 #ahce1 that the mighty telescope was at length directed towards our satellite4 ,the part of the moon selected was on the eastern part of her disc4 ',the whole immense power of the telescope was applied1 and to its focal image about one half of the power of the microscope4 ,on removing the screen of the latter1 the field of view was covered throughout its entire area with a beautifully distinct and even vivid representation of basaltic rock4 ,its colour was a greenish brown2 and the width of the columns1 as defined by their interstices on the canvas1 was invariably twenty-eight inches4 ,no fracture whatever appeared in the mass first presented2 but in a few seconds a shelving pile appeared1 of five or six columns' width1 which showed their figure to be hexagonal1 and their articulations similar to those of the basaltic formation at ,staffa4 ,this precipitous cliff was profusely covered with a dark red flower1 precisely similar1 says ,dr4 ,grant1 to the ,papaver ,rhoeus1 or ,rose ,poppy1 of our sublunary cornfields2 and this was the first organic production of nature in a foreign world ever revealed to the eyes of men4' ,it would be wearisome to go through the whole series of observations thus fabled1 and only a few of the more striking features need be indicated4 ,the discoveries are carefully graduated in interest4 ,thus we have seen how1 after recognising basaltic formations1 the observers discovered flowers3 they next see a lunar forest1 whose 'trees were of one unvaried kind1 and unlike any on earth except the largest kind of yews in the ,english churchyards4' 7,there is an ,american ring in this sentence1 by the way1 as there is in one1 a few lines farther on1 where the narrator having stated that by mistake the observers had the ,sea of ,clouds instead of a more easterly spot in the field of view1 proceeds to say3 ',however1 the moon was a free country1 and we not as yet attached to any particular province4'7 ,next a lunar ocean is described1 'the water nearly as blue as that of the deep sea1 and breaking in large white billows upon the strand1 while the action of very high tides was quite manifest upon the face of the cliffs for more than a hundred miles4' ,after a description of several valleys1 hills1 mountains and forests1 we come to the discovery of animal life4 ,an oval valley surrounded by hills1 red as the purest vermilion1 is selected as the scene4 ',small collections of trees1 of every imaginable kind1 were scattered about the whole of this luxuriant area2 and here our magnifiers blessed our panting hopes with specimens of conscious existence4 ,in the shade of the woods we beheld brown quadrupeds having all the external characteristics of the bison1 but more diminutive than any species of the bos genus in our natural history4' ,then herds of agile creatures like antelopes are described1 'abounding on the acclivitous glades of the woods4' ,in the contemplation of these sprightly animals the narrator becomes quite lively4 ',this beautiful creature1' says he1 'afforded us the most exquisite amusement4 ,the mimicry of its movements upon our white painted canvas was as faithful and luminous as that of animals within a few yards of the camera obscura4 ,frequently1 when attempting to put our fingers upon its beard1 it would suddenly bound away as if conscious of our earthly impertinence2 but then others would appear1 whom we could not prevent nibbling the herbage1 say or do to them what we would4' ,a strange amphibious creature1 of a spherical form1 rolling with great velocity along a pebbly beach1 is the next object of interest1 but is presently lost sight of in a strong current setting off from the angle of an island4 ,after this there are three or four pages descriptive of various lunar scenes and animals1 the latter showing a tendency1 singular considering the circumstances1 though very convenient for the narrator1 to become higher and higher in type as the discoveries proceed1 until an animal somewhat of the nature of the missing link is discovered4 ,it is found in the ,endymion 7a circular walled plain7 in company with a small kind of reindeer1 the elk1 the moose1 and the horned bear1 and is described as the biped beaver4 ,it 'resembles the beaver of the earth in every other respect than in its destitution of a tail1 and its invariable habit of walking upon only two feet4 ,it carries its young in its arms like a human being1 and moves with an easy gliding motion4 ,its huts are constructed better and higher than those of many tribes of human savages1 and1 from the appearance of smoke in nearly all of them1 there is no doubt of its being acquainted with the use of fire4 ,still1 its head and body differ only in the points stated from that of the beaver2 and it was never seen except on the borders of lakes and rivers1 in which it has been observed to immerse for a period of several seconds4' ,the next step towards the climax brings us to domestic animals1 'good large sheep1 which would not have disgraced the farms of ,leicestershire or the shambles of ,leadenhall ,market2 we fairly laughed at the recognition of so familiar an acquaintance in so distant a land4 ,presently they appeared in great numbers1 and1 on reducing the lenses1 we found them in flocks over a great part of the valley4 ,i need not say how desirous we were of finding shepherds to these flocks1 and even a man with blue apron and rolled-up sleeves would have been a welcome sight to us1 if not to the sheep2 but they fed in peace1 lords of their own pastures1 without either protector or destroyer in human shape4' ,in the meantime1 discussion had arisen as to the lunar locality where men1 or creatures resembling them1 would most likely be found4 ,herschel had a theory on the subject--viz41 that just where the balancing or libratory swing of the moon brings into view the greatest extent beyond the eastern or western parts of that hemisphere which is turned earthwards in the moon's mean or average position1 lunar inhabitants would probably be found1 and nowhere else4 ,this1 by the way 7speaking seriously71 is a rather curious anticipation of a view long subsequently advanced by ,hansen1 and for a time adopted by ,sir ,j4 ,herschel1 that possibly the remote hemisphere of the moon may be a fit abode for living creatures1 the oceans and atmosphere which are wanting on the nearer hemisphere having been 7on this hypothesis7 drawn over to the remoter because of a displacement of the moon's centre of gravity4 ,i ventured in one of my first books on astronomy to indicate objections to this theory1 the force of which ,sir ,j4 ,herschel admitted in a letter addressed to me on the subject4 ,taking1 then1 an opportunity when the moon had just swung to the extreme limit of her balancing1 or1 to use technical terms1 when she had attained her maximum libration in longitude1 the observers approached the level opening to ,lake ,langrenus1 as the narrator calls this fine walled plain1 which1 by the way1 is fully thirty degrees of lunar longitude within the average western limit of the moon's visible hemisphere4 ',here the valley narrows to a mile in width1 and displays scenery on both sides picturesque and romantic beyond the powers of a prose description4 ,imagination1 borne on the wings of poetry1 could alone gather similes to portray the wild sublimity of this landscape1 where dark behemoth crags stood over the brows of lofty precipices1 as if a rampart in the sky2 and forests seemed suspended in mid-air4 ,on the eastern side there was one soaring crag1 crested with trees1 which hung over in a curve like three-fourths of a ,gothic arch1 and being of a rich crimson colour1 its effect was most strange upon minds unaccustomed to the association of such grandeur with such beauty4 ,but1 whilst gazing upon them in a perspective of about half a mile1 we were thrilled with astonishment to perceive four successive flocks of large winged creatures1 wholly unlike any kind of birds1 descend with a slow even motion from the cliffs on the western side and alight upon the plain4 ,they were first noticed by ,dr4 ,herschel1 who exclaimed3 ,now1 gentlemen1 my theories against your proofs1 which you have often found a pretty even bet1 we have here something worth looking at4 ,i was confident that if ever we found beings in human shape it would be in this longitude1 and that they would be provided by their ,creator with some extraordinary powers of locomotion4 444 ,we counted three parties of these creatures1 of twelve1 nine1 and fifteen in each1 walking erect towards a small wood near the base of the eastern precipices4 ,certainly they were like human beings1 for their wings had now disappeared1 and their attitude in walking was both erect and dignified4444 ,they averaged four feet in height1 were covered1 except on the face1 with short and glossy copper-coloured hair1 lying snugly upon their backs1 from the top of the shoulders to the calves of the legs4 ,the face1 which was of a yellowish flesh colour1 was a slight improvement upon that of the large orang outang1 being more open and intelligent in its expression1 and having a much greater expansion of forehead4 ,the mouth1 however1 was very prominent1 though somewhat relieved by a thick beard upon the lower jaw1 and by lips far more human than those of any species of the simia genus4 ,in general symmetry of body and limbs they were infinitely superior to the orang outang2 so much so1 that1 but for their long wings1 ,lieutenant ,drummond said they would look as well on a parade ground as some of the old ,cockney militia4444 ,these creatures were evidently engaged in conversation2 their gesticulation1 more particularly the varied action of their hands and arms1 appeared impassioned and emphatic4 ,we hence inferred that they were rational beings1 and1 although not perhaps of so high an order as others which we discovered the next month on the shores of the ,bay of ,rainbows1 that they were capable of producing works of art and contrivance4444 ,they possessed wings of great expansion1 similar in construction to those of the bat1 being a semi-transparent membrane united in curvilinear divisions by means of straight radii1 united at the back by the dorsal integuments4 ,but what astonished us very much was the circumstance of this membrane being continued from the shoulders to the legs1 united all the way down1 though gradually decreasing in width' 7very much as ,fuseli depicted the wings of his ,satanic ,majesty1 though ,h4,s4,m4 would seem to have the advantage of the lunar ,bat-men in not being influenced by gravity#dh74 ',the wings seemed completely under the command of volition1 for those of the creatures whom we saw bathing in the water spread them instantly to their full width1 waved them as ducks do theirs to shake off the water1 and then as instantly closed them again in a compact form4 ,our further observation of the habits of these creatures1 who were of both sexes1 led to results so very remarkable1 that ,i prefer they should be first laid before the public in ,dr4 ,herschel's own work1 where ,i have reason to know they are fully and faithfully stated1 however incredulously they may be received4444 ,we scientifically denominated them the ,vespertilio-homo or ,bat-man2 and they are doubtless innocent and happy creatures1 notwithstanding that some of their amusements would but ill comport with our terrestrial notions of decorum4' ,the omitted passages were suppressed in obedience to ,dr4 ,grant's private injunction4 ',these1 however1 and other prohibited passages1' were to be presently 'published by ,dr4 ,herschel1 with the certificates of the civil and military authorities of the colony1 and of several ,episcopal1 ,wesleyan1 and other ministers1 who in the month of ,march last were permitted1 under stipulation of temporary secrecy1 to visit the observatory1 and become eye-witnesses of the wonders which they were requested to attest4 ,we are confident that his forthcoming volumes will be at once the most sublime in science1 and the most intense in general interest1 that ever issued from the press4' ,the actual climax of the narrative1 however1 is not yet reached4 ,the inhabitants of ,langrenus1 though rational1 do not belong to the highest orders of intelligent ,lunarians4 ,herschel1 ever ready with theories1 had pointed out that probably the most cultivated races would be found residing on the slopes of some active volcano1 and1 in particular1 that the proximity of the flaming mountain ,bullialdus 7about twenty degrees south and ten east of the vast crater ,tycho1 the centre whence extend those great radiations which give to the moon something of the appearance of a peeled orange7 'must be so great a local convenience to dwellers in this valley during the long periodical absence of solar light1 as to render it a place of popular resort for the inhabitants of all the adjacent regions1 more especially as its bulwark of hills afforded an infallible security against any volcanic eruption that could occur4' ,our observers therefore applied their full power to explore it4 ',rich1 indeed1 was our reward4 ,the very first object in this valley that appeared upon our canvas was a magnificent work of art4 ,it was a temple--a fane of devotion or of science1 which1 when consecrated to the ,creator1 is devotion of the loftiest order1 for it exhibits ,his attributes purely1 free from the masquerade attire and blasphemous caricature of controversial creeds1 and has the seal and signature of ,his own hand to sanction its aspirations4 ,it was an equi-angular temple1 built of polished sapphire1 or of some resplendent blue stone1 which1 like it1 displayed a myriad point of golden light twinkling and scintillating in the sunbeams4444 ,the roof was composed of yellow metal1 and divided into three compartments1 which were not triangular planes inclining to the centre1 but subdivided1 curved1 and separated so as to present a mass of violently agitated flames rising from a common source of conflagration1 and terminating in wildly waving points4 ,this design was too manifest and too skilfully executed to be mistaken for a single moment4 ,through a few openings in these metallic flames we perceived a large sphere of a darker kind of metal nearly of a clouded copper colour1 which they enclosed and seemingly raged around1 as if hieroglyphically consuming it4444 ,what did the ingenious builders mean by the globe surrounded by flames8 ,did they1 by this1 record any past calamity of their world1 or predict any future one of ours8' 7,why1 by the way1 should the past theory be assigned to the moon and the future one to our earth87 ',i by no means despair of ultimately solving not only these but a thousand other questions which present themselves respecting the objects in this planet2 for not the millionth part of her surface has yet been explored1 and we have been more desirous of collecting the greatest possible number of new facts than of indulging in speculative theories1 however seductive to the imagination4' ,after this we have an account of the behaviour of the ,vespertilio-homo at meals4 ',they seemed eminently happy1 and even polite2 for individuals would select large and bright specimens of fruit1 and throw them archwise across to some friend who had extracted the nutriment from those scattered around him4' ,however1 the lunar men are not on the whole particularly interesting beings according to this account4 ',so far as we could judge1 they spent their happy hours in collecting various fruits in the woods1 in eating1 flying1 bathing1 and loitering about the summits of precipices4' ,one may say of them what ,huxley is reported to have said of the spirits as described by spiritualists1 that no student of science would care to waste his time inquiring about such a stupid set of people4 ,such are the more interesting and characteristic portions of a narrative1 running in the original to forty or fifty large octavo pages4 ,in its day the story attracted a good deal of notice1 and1 even when every one had learned the trick1 many were still interested in a brochure which was so cleverly conceived and had deceived so many4 ,to this day the lunar hoax is talked of in ,america1 where originally it had its chief--or1 one may rather say1 its only real--success as a hoax4 ,it reached ,england too late to deceive any but those who were unacquainted with ,herschel's real doings1 and no editors of public journals1 ,i believe1 gave countenance to it at all4 ,in ,america1 on the contrary1 many editors gave the narrative a distinguished place in their columns4 ,some indeed expressed doubts1 and others followed the safe course of the ',philadelphia ,inquirer1' which informed its readers that 'after an attentive perusal of the whole story they could decide for themselves2' adding that1 'whether true or false1 the narrative is written with consummate ability and possesses intense interest4' ,but others were more credulous4 ,according to the ',mercantile ,advertiser' the story carried 'intrinsic evidence of being an authentic document4' ,the ',albany ,daily ,advertiser' had read the article 'with unspeakable emotions of pleasure and astonishment4' ,the ',new ,york ,times' announced that 'the writer 7,dr4 ,andrew ,grant7 displays the most extensive and accurate knowledge of astronomy2 and the description of ,sir ,john's recently improved instruments1 the principle on which the inestimable improvements were founded1 the account of the wonderful discoveries in the moon1 etc41 all are probable and plausible1 and have an air of intense verisimilitude4' ,the ',new ,yorker' considered the discoveries 'of astounding interest1 creating a new era in astronomy and science generally4'#di ,in our time a trick of the kind could hardly be expected to succeed so well1 even if as cleverly devised and as well executed4 ,the facts of popular astronomy and of general popular science have been more widely disseminated4 ,america1 too1 more than any other great nation1 has advanced in the interval4 ,it was about two years after this pamphlet had appeared1 that ,j4 ,quincy ,adams used the following significant language in advocating the erection of an astronomical observatory at ,washington3 ',it is with no feeling of pride as an ,american that the remark may be made1 that on the comparatively small territorial surface of ,europe there are existing more than #acj of these lighthouses of the skies2 while throughout the whole ,american hemisphere there is but one4' ,at present1 some of the finest observatories in the world belong to ,american cities1 or are attached to ,american colleges2 and much of the most interesting astronomical work of this country has been achieved by ,american observers4 ,yet we still hear from time to time of the attempted publication of hoaxes of greater or less ingenuity4 ,it is singular 7and ,i think significant7 how often these relate to the moon4 ,there would seem to be some charm about our satellite for the minds of paradoxists and hoaxers generally4 ,nor are these tricks invariably detected at once by the general public1 or even by persons of some culture4 ,i remember being gravely asked 7in ,january #ahgd7 whether an account given in the ',new ,york ,world1' purporting to describe how the moon's frame was gradually cracking1 threatening eventually to fall into several separate fragments1 was in reality based on fact4 ,in the far ,west1 at ,lincoln1 ,nebraska1 a lawyer asked me1 not long since1 why ,i had not described the great discoveries recently made by means of a powerful reflector erected near ,paris4 ,according to the ',chicago ,times1' this powerful instrument had shown buildings in the moon1 and bands of workers could be seen with it who manifestly were undergoing some kind of penal servitude1 for they were chained together4 ,it was clear1 from the presence of these and the absence of other inhabitants1 that the side of the moon turned earthwards is a dreary and unpleasant place of abode1 the real 'happy hunting grounds' of the moon lying on her remote and unseen hemisphere4 ,as gauges of general knowledge1 scientific hoaxes have their uses1 just as paradoxical works have4 ,no one1 certainly no student of science1 can thoroughly understand how little some persons know about science1 until he has observed how much will be believed1 if only published with the apparent authority of a few known names1 and announced with a sufficient parade of technical verbiage2 nor is it so easy as might be thought1 even for those who are acquainted with the facts1 to disprove either a hoax or a paradox4 ,nothing1 indeed1 can much more thoroughly perplex and confound a student of science than to be asked to prove1 for example1 that the earth is not flat1 or the moon not inhabited by creatures like ourselves2 for the circumstance that such a question is asked implies ignorance so thorough of the very facts on which the proof must be based1 as to render argument all but hopeless from the outset4 ,i have had a somewhat wide experience of paradoxists1 and have noted the experience of ,de ,morgan and others who1 like him1 have tried to convince them of their folly4 ,the conclusion at which ,i have arrived is1 that to make a rope of sand were an easy task compared with the attempt to instil the simpler facts of science into paradoxical heads4 ,i would make some remarks1 in conclusion1 upon scientific or quasi-scientific papers not intended to deceive1 but yet presenting imaginary scenes1 events1 and so forth1 described more or less in accordance with scientific facts4 ,imaginary journeys to the sun1 moon1 planets1 and stars2 travels over regions on the earth as yet unexplored2 voyages under the sea1 through the bowels of the earth1 and other such narratives1 may1 perhaps1 be sometimes usefully written and read1 so long as certain conditions are fulfilled by the narrator4 ,in the first place1 while adopting1 to preserve the unities1 the tone of one relating facts which actually occurred1 he should not suffer even the simplest among his readers to lie under the least misapprehension as to the true nature of the narrative4 ,again1 since of necessity established facts must in such a narrative appear in company with the results of more or less probable surmise1 the reader should have some means of distinguishing where fact ends and surmise begins4 ,for example1 in a paper ,i once wrote1 entitled ',a ,journey to ,saturn1' ,i was not sufficiently careful to note that while the appearances described in the approach towards the planet were in reality based on the observed appearances as higher and higher telescopic powers are applied to the planet1 others supposed to have been seen by the visitors to ,saturn when actually within his system1 were only such as might possibly or probably be seen1 but for which we have no real evidence4 ,in consequence of this omission1 ,i received several inquiries about these matters4 ',is it true1' some wrote1 'that the small satellite ,hyperion' 7scarce discernible in powerful telescopes1 while ,titan and ,japetus on either side are large7 'is only one of a ring of small satellites travelling between the orbits of the larger moons8'--as the same planets travel between the paths of ,mars and ,jupiter4 ,others asked on what grounds it was said that the voyagers found small moons circling about ,titan1 the giant moon of the ,saturnian system1 as the moons of ,jupiter and ,saturn circle around those giant members of the solar system4 ,in each case1 ,i was reduced to the abject necessity of explaining that there was no evidence for the alleged state of things1 which1 however1 might nevertheless exist4 ,scientific fiction which has to be interpreted in that way is as bad as a joke that has to be explained4 ,in my ',journey to the ,sun' ,i was more successful 7it was the earlier essay1 however72 insomuch that ,professor ,young1 of ,dartmouth ,college 7,hanover1 ,n4,h471 one of the most skilful solar observers living1 assured me that1 with scarcely a single exception1 the various phenomena described corresponded exactly with the ideas he had formed respecting the probable condition of our luminary4#ej ,but ,i must confess that my own experience has not been1 on the whole1 favourable to that kind of popular science writing4 ,it appears to me that the more thoroughly the writer of such an essay has studied any particular scientific subject1 the less able must he be to write a fictitious narrative respecting it4 ,just as those ignorant of any subject are often the readiest to theorise about it1 because least hampered by exact knowledge1 so ,i think that the careful avoidance of any exact study of the details of a scientific subject must greatly facilitate the writing of a fictitious narrative respecting it4 ,but unfortunately a narrative written under such conditions1 however interesting to the general reader1 can scarcely forward the propagation of scientific knowledge1 one of the qualities claimed for fables of the kind4 ,as an instance in point1 ,i may cite ,jules ,verne's ',voyage to the ,moon1' where 7apart1 of course1 from the inherent and intentional absurdity of the scheme itself71 the circumstances which are described are calculated to give entirely erroneous ideas about the laws of motion4 ,nothing could be more amusing1 but at the same time nothing more scientifically absurd1 than the story of the dead dog ,satellite1 which1 flung out of the travelling projectile1 becomes a veritable satellite1 moving always beside the voyagers2 for1 with whatever velocity the dog had been expelled by them1 with that same velocity would he have retreated continually from their projectile abode1 whose own attraction on the dog would have had no appreciable effect in checking his departure4 ,again1 the scene when the projectile reaches the neutral point between the earth and moon1 so that there is no longer any gravity to keep the travellers on the floor of their travelling car1 is well conceived 7though1 in part1 somewhat profane72 but in reality the state of things described as occurring there would have prevailed throughout the journey4 ,the travellers would no more be drawn earthwards 7as compared with the projectile itself7 than we travellers on the earth are drawn sunwards with reference to the earth4 ,the earth's attracting force on the projectile and on the travellers would be equal all through the journey1 not solely when the projectile reached the neutral point2 and being equal on both1 would not draw them together4 ,it may be argued that the attractions were equal before the projectile set out on its journey1 and therefore1 if the reasoning just given were correct1 the travellers ought not to have had any weight keeping them on the floor of the projectile before it started1 'which is absurd4' ,but the pressure upon the floor of the projectile at rest is caused by the floor being kept from moving2 let it be free to obey gravity1 and there will no longer be any pressure3 and throughout the journey to the moon1 the projectile1 like the travellers it contains1 is obeying the action of gravity4 ,unfortunately1 those who are able to follow the correct reasoning in such matters are not those to whom ,jules ,verne's account would suggest wrong ideas about matters dynamical2 the young learner who is misled by such narratives is neither able to reason out the matter for himself1 nor to understand the true reasoning respecting it4 ,he is1 therefore1 apt to be set quite at sea by stories of the kind1 and especially by the specious reasoning introduced to explain the events described4 ,in fine1 it would seem that such narratives must be valued for their intrinsic interest1 just like other novels or romances1 not for the quality sometimes claimed for them of combining instruction with amusement4 ,x4 ,,on ,,some ,,astronomical ,,paradoxes4 ,for many years the late ,professor ,de ,morgan contributed to the columns of the ',athenaeum' a series of papers in which he dealt with the strange treatises in which the earth is flattened1 the circle squared1 the angle divided into three1 the cube doubled 7the famous problem which the ,delphic oracle set astronomers71 and the whole of modern astronomy shown to be a delusion and a snare4 ,he treated these works in a quaint fashion3 not unkindly1 for his was a kindly nature2 not even earnestly1 though he was thoroughly in earnest2 yet in such sort as to rouse the indignation of the unfortunate paradoxists4 ,he was abused roundly for what he said1 but much more roundly when he declined further controversy4 ,paradoxists of the ignorant sort 7for it must be remembered that not all are ignorant7 are1 indeed1 well practised in abuse1 and have long learned to call mathematicians and astronomers cheats and charlatans4 ,they freely used their vocabulary for the benefit of ,de ,morgan1 whom they denounced as a scurrilous scribbler1 a defamatory1 dishonest1 abusive1 ungentlemanly1 and libellous trickster4 ,he bore this shower of abuse with exceeding patience and good nature4 ,he had not been wholly unprepared for it1 in fact2 and1 as he had a purpose in dealing with the paradoxists1 he was satisfied to continue that quiet analysis of their work which so roused their indignation4 ,he found in them a curious subject of study2 and he found an equally curious subject of study in their disciples4 ,the simpler--not to say more foolish--paradoxists1 whose wonderful discoveries are merely amazing misapprehensions1 were even more interesting to ,de ,morgan than the craftier sort who make a living1 or try to make a living1 out of their pretended theories4 ,indeed1 these last he treated1 as they deserved1 with a scathing satire quite different from his humorous and not ungenial comments on the wonderful theories of the honest paradoxists4 ,there is one special use to which the study of paradox-literature may be applied1 which--so far as ,i know--has not hitherto been much attended to4 ,it may be questioned whether half the strange notions into which paradoxists fall must not be ascribed to the vagueness of too many of our scientific treatises4 ,a half-understood explanation1 or a carelessly worded account of some natural phenomenon1 leads the paradoxist1 whose nature is compounded of conceit and simplicity1 to originate a theory of his own on the subject4 ,once such a theory has been devised1 it takes complete possession of the paradoxist's mind4 ,all the facts of which he thenceforward hears1 which bear in the least on his favourite craze1 appear to give evidence in its favour1 even though in reality they are most obviously opposed to it4 ,he learns to look upon himself as an unappreciated ,newton1 and to see the bitterest malevolence in those who venture to question his preposterous notions4 ,he is fortunate if he do not suffer his theories to withdraw him from his means of earning a livelihood1 or if he do not waste his substance in propounding and defending them4 ,one of the favourite subjects for paradox-forming is the accepted theory of the solar system4 ,our books on astronomy too often present this theory in such sort that it seems only a successor of ,ptolemy's2 and the impression is conveyed that1 like ,ptolemy's1 it may be one day superseded by some other theory4 ,this is quite enough for the paradoxist4 ,if a new theory is to replace the one now accepted1 why should not he be the new ,copernicus8 ,he starts upon the road without a tithe of the knowledge that old ,ptolemy possessed1 unaware of the difficulties which ,ptolemy met and dealt with--free1 therefore1 because of his perfect ignorance1 to form theories at which ,ptolemy would have smiled4 ,he has probably heard of the centrics and eccentrics scribbled o'er ,cycle and epicycle1 orb in orb1 which disfigured the theories of the ancients2 but he is quite unconscious that every one of those scribblings had a real meaning1 each being intended to account for some observed peculiarity of planetary motion1 which must be accounted for by any theory which is to claim acceptance4 ,in this happy unconsciousness that there are any peculiarities requiring explanation1 knowing nothing of the strange paths which the planets are seen to follow on the heavenly vault1 ,their wand'ring course now high1 now low1 then hid1 ,progressive1 retrograde1 or standing still1 he placidly puts forward--and presently very vehemently urges--a theory which accounts for none of these things4 ,it has often seemed to me that a large part of the mischief--for let it be remembered that the published errors of the paradoxist are indicative of much unpublished misapprehension--arises from the undeserved contempt with which our books of astronomy too often treat the labours of ,ptolemy1 ,tycho ,brahe1 and others who advocated erroneous theories4 ,if the simple truth were told1 that the theory of ,ptolemy was a masterpiece of ingenuity and that it was worked out by his followers in a way which merits the highest possible praise1 while the theory of ,tycho ,brahe was placed in reality on a sounder basis than that of ,copernicus1 and accounted as well and as simply for observed appearances1 the student would begin to realise the noble nature of the problem which those great astronomers dealt with4 ,and again1 if stress were laid upon the fact that ,tycho ,brahe devoted years upon years of his life to secure such observations of the planets as might settle the questions at issue1 the student would learn something of the spirit in which the true lover of science proceeds4 ,it seems to me1 also1 that far too little is said about the kind of work by which ,kepler and ,newton finally established the accepted theories4 ,there is a strange charm in the history of those twenty years of ,kepler's life during which he was analysing the observations made by ,tycho ,brahe4 ,surrounded with domestic trials and anxieties1 which might well have claimed his whole attention1 tried grievously by ill-health and bodily anguish1 he laboured all those years upon erroneous theories4 ,the very worst of these had infinitely more evidence in its favour than the best which the paradoxists have brought forth4 ,there was not one of those theories which nine out of ten of his scientific contemporaries would not have accepted ungrudgingly4 ,yet he wrought these theories one after another to their own disproof4 ,nineteen of them he tried and rejected--the twentieth was the true theory of the solar system4 ,perhaps nothing in the whole history of astronomy affords a nobler lesson to the student of science--unless1 indeed1 it be the calm philosophy with which ,newton for eighteen years suffered the theory of the universe to remain in abeyance1 because faulty measurements of the earth prevented his calculations from agreeing with observed facts4 ,but1 as ,professor ,tyndall has well remarked--and the paradoxist should lay the lesson well to heart--',newton's action in this matter was the normal action of the scientific mind4 ,if it were otherwise--if scientific men were not accustomed to demand verification1 if they were satisfied with the imperfect while the perfect is attainable--their science1 instead of being1 as it is1 a fortress of adamant1 would be a house of clay1 ill fitted to bear the buffetings of the theologic storms to which it has been from time to time1 and is at present1 exposed4' ,the fame of ,newton has proved to many paradoxists an irresistible attraction2 it has been to these unfortunates as the candle to the fluttering moth4 ,circle-squaring1 as we shall presently see1 has had its attractions1 nor have earth-fixing and earth-flattening been neglected2 but attacking the law of gravitation has been the favourite work of paradoxists4 ,newton has been praised as surpassing the whole human race in genius2 mathematicians and astronomers have agreed to laud him as unequalled2 why should not ,paradoxus displace him and be praised in like manner8 ,it would be unfair1 perhaps1 to say that the paradoxist consciously argues thus4 ,he doubtless in most instances convinces himself that he has really detected some flaw in the theory of gravitation4 ,yet it is impossible not to recognise1 as the real motive of every paradox-monger1 the desire to have that said of him which has been said of ,newton3 ',genus humanum ingenio superavit4' ,i remember a curious instance of this which occurred soon after the appearance of the comet of #aheh4 ,it chanced that1 while that object was under discussion1 reference was made to the action of a repulsive force exerted by the sun upon the matter of the comet's tail4 ,on this1 some one addressed a long letter to a ,glasgow newspaper1 announcing that he had long ago proved that the sun's attraction alone is insufficient to account for the planetary motions4 ,his reasoning was amazingly simple4 ,if the sun's attraction is powerful enough to keep the outer planets in their course1 it must be too powerful for ,venus and ,mercury close by the sun2 if it only just suffices to keep these in their course1 it cannot possibly be powerful enough to restrain the outer planets4 ,the writer of this letter said that he had been very badly treated by scientific bodies4 ,he had announced his discovery to the ,royal ,astronomical ,society1 the ,royal ,society1 the ,imperial ,academy at ,paris1 and other scientific bodies2 but they had one and all refused to listen to him4 ,he had forsaken or neglected his trade for several years in order to give attention to the new and 7as he thought7 the true theory of the universe4 ,he complained in a specially bitter manner of the unfavourable comments which men of science had made upon his views in private letters addressed to him in reply to his communications4 ,there is something melancholy even in what is most ridiculous in cases of this sort4 ,the simplicity which supposes that considerations so obvious as those adduced could escape the scrutiny1 not of ,newton only1 but of all who have followed in the same track during two centuries1 is certainly stupendous2 nor can one fail to smile at seeing a difficulty1 such as might naturally suggest itself to a beginner1 and such as half-a-dozen words from an expert would clear up1 regarded gravely as a discovery calculated to make its author famous for all time4 ,yet1 when one considers the probable consequences of the blunder to the unhappy enthusiast1 and perchance to his family1 it is difficult not to feel a sense of pity1 quite apart from that pity allied to contempt which is excited by his mistake4 ,a few words added to the account of ,newton's theory1 which the paradoxist had probably read in some astronomical treatise1 would have prevented all this mischief4 ,indeed1 this difficulty1 which1 as we have said1 is a natural one1 should be dealt with and removed in any account of the planetary system intended for beginners4 ,the simple statement that the outer planets move more slowly than the inner1 and so require a smaller force to keep them in their course1 would have sufficed1 not1 perhaps1 altogether to remove the difficulty1 but to show the beginner where the explanation was to be looked for4 ,it was in connection with this subject of gravitation that one of the most well-meaning of the paradoxists--the late ,mr4 ,james ,reddie--came under ,professor ,de ,morgan's criticism4 ,mr4 ,reddie was something more than well-meaning4 ,he was earnestly desirous of advancing the interests of science1 as well as of defending religion from what he mistakenly supposed to be the dangerous teachings of the ,newtonians4 ,he founded for these purposes the ,victoria ,institute1 of which society he was the secretary from the time of its institution until his decease1 some years since2 and1 probably1 many who declined to join that society because of the ,anti-,newtonian proclivities of its secretary1 were unaware that to that secretary the institute owed its existence4 ,it so chanced that ,i had myself a good deal of correspondence with ,mr4 ,reddie 7who was1 however1 personally unknown to me74 ,this correspondence served to throw quite a new light on the mental habitudes and ways of thinking of the honest paradoxist4 ,i believe that ,professor ,de ,morgan hardly gave ,mr4 ,reddie credit for the perfect honesty which he really possessed4 ,it may have been that a clear reasoner like ,de ,morgan could hardly 7despite his wide experience7 appreciate the confusion of mind which is the normal characteristic of the paradoxist4 ,but certainly the very candid way in which ,mr4 ,reddie admitted1 in the correspondence above named1 that he had not known some facts and had misunderstood others1 afforded to my mind the most satisfactory proofs of his straightforwardness4 ,it may be instructive to consider a few of those paradoxes of ,mr4 ,reddie's which ,professor ,de ,morgan found chief occasion to pulverise4 ,in a letter to the ,astronomer-,royal ,mr4 ,reddie announced that he was about to write 'a paper intended to be hereafter published1 elaborating more minutely and discussing more rigidly than before the glaring fallacies1 dating from the time of ,newton1 relating to the motion of the moon4' ,he proceeded to 'indicate the nature of the issues he intended to raise4' ,he had discovered that the moon does not1 as a matter of fact1 go round the earth at the rate of #bbhh miles an hour1 as astronomers say1 but follows an undulatory path round the sun at a rate varying between #fe1jjj and #gj1jjj miles an hour2 because1 while the moon seems to go round the earth1 the latter is travelling onwards at the rate of #fg1ejj miles an hour round the sun4 ,of course he was quite right in his facts1 and quite wrong in his inferences2 as the ,astronomer-,royal pointed out in a brief letter1 closing with the remark that1 'as a very closely occupied man1' ,mr4 ,airy could 'not enter further into the matter4' ,but further ,mr4 ,reddie persisted in going1 though he received no more letters from ,greenwich4 ,his reply to ,sir ,g4 ,airy contained1 in fact1 matter enough for a small pamphlet4 ,now here was certainly an amazing fact4 ,a well-known astronomical relation1 which astronomers have over and over again described and explained1 is treated as though it were something which had throughout all ages escaped attention4 ,it is not here the failure to comprehend the rationale of a simple explanation which is startling1 but the notion that an obvious fact had been wholly overlooked4 ,of like nature was the mistake which brought ,mr4 ,reddie more especially under ,professor ,de ,morgan's notice4 ,it is known that the sun1 carrying with him his family of planets1 is speeding swiftly through space--his velocity being estimated as probably not falling short of #bj1jjj miles per hour4 ,it follows1 of course1 that the real paths of the planets in space are not closed curves1 but spirals of different orders4 ,how1 then1 can the theory of ,copernicus be right1 according to which the planets circle in closed orbits round the sun8 ,here was ,mr4 ,reddie's difficulty2 and like the other1 it appeared to his mind as a great discovery4 ,he was no whit concerned by the thought that astronomers ought surely to have noticed the difficulty before4 ,it did not seem in the least wonderful that he1 lightly reading a book or two of popular astronomy1 should discover that which ,laplace1 the ,herschels1 ,leverrier1 ,airy1 ,adams1 and a host of others1 who have given their whole lives to astronomy1 had failed to notice4 ,accordingly1 ,mr4 ,reddie forwarded to the ,british ,association 7in session at ,newcastle7 a paper controverting the theory of the sun's motion4 ,the paper was declined with thanks by that bigoted body 'as opposed to ,newtonian astronomy4' ',that paper ,i published1' says ,mr4 ,reddie1 'in ,september #ahfc1 with an appendix1 in both thoroughly exhibiting the illogical reasoning and absurdities involved in the theory2 and with what result8 ,the members of ,section ,a of the ,british ,association1 and ,fellows of the ,royal ,society and of the ,royal ,astronomical ,society1 to whom ,i sent copies of my paper1 were1 without exception1 dumb4' ,professor ,de ,morgan1 however1 having occasion to examine ,mr4 ,reddie's publications some time after1 was in no sort dumb1 but in very plain and definite terms exhibited their absurdity4 ,after all1 however1 the real absurdity consisted1 not in the statements which ,mr4 ,reddie made1 nor even in the conclusions which he drew from them1 but in the astounding simplicity which could suppose that astronomers were unaware of the facts which their own labours had revealed4 ,in my correspondence with ,mr4 ,reddie ,i recognised the real source of the amazing self-complacency displayed by the true paradoxist4 ,the very insufficiency of the knowledge which a paradoxist possesses of his subject1 affords the measure of his estimate of the care with which other men have studied that subject4 ,because the paradoxist is ready to pronounce an opinion about matters he has not studied1 it does not seem strange to him that ,newton and his followers should be equally ready to discuss subjects they had not inquired into4 ,another very remarkable instance was afforded by ,mr4 ,reddie's treatment of the subject of comets4 ,and here1 by the way1 ,i shall quote a remark made by ,sir ,john ,herschel soon after the appearance of the comet of #ahfa4 ',i have received letters1' he said1 'about the comets of the last few years1 enough to make one's hair stand on end at the absurdity of the theories they propose1 and at the ignorance of the commonest laws of optics1 of motion1 of heat1 and of general physics1 they betray in their writers4' ,in the present instance1 the correspondence showed that the paradoxist supposed the parabolic paths of some comets to be regarded by astronomers as analogous to the parabolic paths traversed by projectiles4 ,he expressed considerable astonishment when ,i informed him that1 in the first place1 projectiles do not travel on truly parabolic paths2 and secondly1 that in all respects their motion differs essentially from that which astronomers ascribe to comets4 ,these last move more and more quickly until they reach what is called the vertex of the parabola 7the point of such a path which lies nearest to the sun73 projectiles1 on the contrary1 move more and more slowly as they approach the corresponding point of their path2 and further1 the comet first approaches and then recedes from the centre of attraction--the projectile first recedes from and then approaches the attracting centre4 ,the earth-flatteners form a considerable section of the paradoxical family4 ,they experienced a practical rebuff1 a few years since1 which should to some degree have shaken their faith in the present chief of their order4 ,to do this chief justice1 he is probably far less confident about the flatness of the earth than any of his disciples4 ,under the assumed name of ,parallax he visited most of the chief towns of ,england1 propounding what he calls his system of zetetic astronomy4 ,why he should call himself ,parallax it would be hard to say2 unless it be that the verb from which the word is derived signifies primarily to shift about or dodge1 and secondarily to alter a little1 especially for the worse4 ,his employment of the word zetetic is less doubtful1 as he claims for his system that it alone is founded on the true seeking out of ,nature's secrets4 ,the experimental basis of the theory of ,parallax is mainly this3 ,having betaken himself to a part of the ,bedford ,canal1 where there is an uninterrupted water-line of about six miles1 he tested the water surface for signs of curvature1 and 7as he said7 found none4 ,it chanced1 unfortunately1 that a disciple--,mr4 ,john ,hampden1 of ,swindon--accepted the narrative of this observation in an unquestioning spirit2 and was so confident that the ,bedford ,canal has a truly plane surface1 that he wagered five hundred pounds on his opinion1 challenging the believers in the earth's rotundity to repeat the experiment4 ,the challenge was accepted by ,mr4 ,wallace1 the eminent naturalist2 and the result may be anticipated4 ,three boats were to be moored in a line1 three miles or so between each4 ,each carried a mast of given length4 ,if1 when the summits of the first and last masts were seen in a line through a telescope1 the summit of the middle mast was not found to be above the line1 then ,mr4 ,hampden was to receive five hundred pounds from ,mr4 ,wallace4 ,if1 on the contrary1 the top of the middle mast was found1 as the accepted theory said it should be1 to be several feet above the line joining the tops of the two outer masts1 then ,mr4 ,hampden was to lose the five hundred pounds he had so rashly ventured4 ,everything was conducted in accordance with the arrangements agreed upon4 ,the editor of a well-known sporting paper acted as stakeholder1 and unprejudiced umpires were to decide as to what actually was seen through the telescope4 ,it need scarcely be said that the accepted theory held its own1 and that ,mr4 ,hampden lost his money4 ,he scarcely bore the loss with so good a grace as was to have been expected from a philosopher merely desirous of ascertaining the truth4 ,his wrath was not expended on ,parallax1 whom he might have suspected of having led him astray2 nor does he seem to have been angry with himself1 as would have seemed natural4 ,all his anger was reserved for those who still continued to believe in the earth's rotundity4 ,whether he believed that the ,bedford water had risen under the middle boat to oblige ,mr4 ,wallace1 or how it came to pass that his own chosen experiment had failed him1 does not appear4 ,the subsequent history of this matter has been unpleasant4 ,it illustrates1 unfortunately but too well1 the mischief which may ensue from the tricks of those who make a trade of paradox--tricks which would be scarce possible1 however1 if text-books of science were more carefully written1 and by those only who are really acquainted with the subject of which they treat4 ,the book which originally led to ,mr4 ,hampden's misfortunes1 and has misled not a few1 ought to have deceived none4 ,i have already mentioned the statement on which ,parallax 7whose true name is ,rowbotham7 rested his theory4 ,of course1 if that statement had been true--if he had1 with his eye a few inches from the surface of the water of the ,bedford ,canal1 seen an object close to the surface six miles from him--there manifestly would have been something wrong in the accepted theory about the earth's rotundity4 ,so1 also1 if a writer were to announce a new theory of gravity1 stating as the basis of his theory that a heavy missile which he had thrown into the air had gone upwards on a serpentine course to the moon1 any one who accepted the statement would be logically bound to admit at least that the fact described was inconsistent with the accepted theory4 ,but no one would accept such a statement2 and no one should have accepted ,mr4 ,rowbotham's statement4 ,his statement was believed1 however1 and perhaps is still believed by many4 ,twenty years ago ,de ,morgan wrote that 'the founder of the zetetic astronomy gained great praise from provincial newspapers for his ingenuity in proving that the earth is a flat1 surrounded by ice1' with the north polar ice in the middle4 ',some of the journals rather incline to this view2 but the ,leicester ,advertiser thinks that the statement would seem to invalidate some of the most important conclusions of modern astronomy2 while the ,norfolk ,herald is clear that there must be great error on one side or the other4 444 ,the fact is worth noting that from #ahdi-aheg arguments on the roundness or flatness of the earth did itinerate4 ,i have no doubt they did much good1 for very few persons have any distinct idea of the evidence for the rotundity of the earth4 ,the ,blackburn ,standard and ,preston ,guardian 7,december #ab and #af1 #ahdi7 unite in stating that the lecturer ran away from his second lecture at ,burnley1 having been rather too hard pressed1 at the end of his first lecture1 to explain why the large hull of a ship disappeared before the masts4 ,the persons present and waiting for the second lecture assuaged their disappointment by concluding that the lecturer had slipped off the ice edge of his flat disc1 and that he would not be seen again till he peeped up on the opposite side4' 444 ',the zetetic system1' proceeds ,de ,morgan1 'still lives in lectures and books2 as it ought to do1 for there is no way of teaching a truth comparable to opposition4 ,the last ,i heard of it was in lectures at ,plymouth1 in ,october #ahfd4 ,since this time a prospectus has been issued of a work entitled ,the ,earth not a ,globe2 but whether it has been published ,i do not know4' ,the book was published soon after the above was written1 and ,de ,morgan gives the following quaint account of it3 ',august #bh1 #ahfe4 ,the zetetic astronomy has come into my hands4 ,when in #ahea ,i went to see the ,great ,exhibition ,i heard an organ played by a performer who seemed very desirous of exhibiting one particular stop4 ,what do you think of that stop8 ,i was asked4 ,that depends on the name of it1 said ,i ,oh6 what can the name of it have to do with the sound8 'that which we call a rose1' etc4 ,the name has everything to do with it3 if it be a flute stop ,i think it very harsh2 but if it be a railway-whistle stop1 ,i think it very sweet4 ,so as to this book3 if it be childish1 it is clever2 if it be mannish1 it is unusually foolish4 ,the flat earth floating tremulously on the sea2 the sun moving always over the flat1 giving day when near enough1 and night when too far off2 the self-luminous moon1 with a semi-transparent invisible moon created to give her an eclipse now and then2 the new law of perspective1 by which the vanishing of the hull before the masts1 usually thought to prove the earth globular1 really proves it flat2--all these and other things are well fitted to form exercises for a person who is learning the elements of astronomy4 ,the manner in which the sun dips into the sea1 especially in tropical climates1 upsets the whole4 ,mungo ,park1 ,i think1 gives an ,african hypothesis which explains phenomena better than this4 ,the sun dips into the ,western ocean1 and the people there cut him in pieces1 fry him in a pan1 and then join him together again2 take him round the under way1 and set him up in the ,east4 ,i hope this book will be read1 and that many will be puzzled by it2 for there are many whose notions of astronomy deserve no better fate4 ,there is no subject on which there is so little accurate conception as on that of the motions of the heavenly bodies4#ea ,the author1 though confident in the extreme1 neither impeaches the honesty of those whose opinion he assails1 nor allots them any future inconvenience3 in these points he is worthy to live on a globe and to rotate in twenty-four hours4' ,i chanced to reside near ,plymouth when ,mr4 ,rowbotham lectured there in ,october #ahfd4 ,it will readily be understood that1 in a town where there are so many naval men1 his lectures were not altogether so successful as they have sometimes been in small inland towns4 ,numbers of naval officers1 however1 who were thoroughly well assured of the fact that the earth is a globe1 were not able to demolish the crafty arguments of ,parallax publicly1 during the discussions which he challenged at the close of each lecture4 ,he was too skilled in that sort of evasion which his assumed name 7as interpreted by ,liddell and ,scott7 suggests1 to be readily cornered4 ,when an argument was used which he could not easily meet1 or seem to meet1 he would say simply3 ',well1 sir1 you have now had your fair share of the discussion2 let some one else have his turn4' ,it was stated in the newspapers that one of his audience was so wrathful with the lecturer on account of these evasions1 that he endeavoured to strike ,parallax with a knobbed stick at the close of the second lecture2 but probably there was no real foundation for the story4 ,mr4 ,rowbotham did a very bold thing1 however1 at ,plymouth4 ,he undertook to prove1 by observations made with a telescope upon the ,eddystone ,lighthouse from the ,hoe and from the beach1 that the surface of the water is flat4 ,from the beach usually only the lantern can be seen4 ,from the ,hoe the whole of the lighthouse is visible under favourable conditions4 ,duly on the morning appointed1 ,mr4 ,rowbotham appeared4 ,from the ,hoe a telescope was directed towards the lighthouse1 which was well seen1 the morning being calm and still1 and tolerably clear4 ,on descending to the beach it was found that1 instead of the whole lantern being visible as usual1 only half could be seen--a circumstance doubtless due to the fact that the air's refractive power1 which usually diminishes the dip due to the earth's curvature by about one-sixth part1 was less efficient that morning than usual4 ,the effect of the peculiarity was manifestly unfavourable to ,mr4 ,rowbotham's theory4 ,the curvature of the earth produced a greater difference than usual between the appearance of a distant object as seen from a certain high station and from a certain low station 7though still the difference fell short of that which would be shown if there were no air74 ,but ,parallax claimed the peculiarity observable that morning as an argument in favour of his flat earth4 ,it is manifest1 he said1 that there is something wrong about the accepted theory2 for it tells us that so much less of the lighthouse should be seen from the beach than from the ,hoe1 whereas less still was seen4 ,and many of the ,plymouth folk went away from the ,hoe that morning1 and from the second lecture1 in which ,parallax triumphantly quoted the results of the observation1 with the feeling which had been expressed seven years before in the ',leicester ,advertiser1' that 'some of the most important conclusions of modern astronomy had been seriously invalidated4' ,if our books of astronomy1 in referring to the effects of the earth's curvature1 had only been careful to point out how surveyors and sailors and those who build lighthouses take into account the modifying effects of atmospheric refraction1 and how these effects have long been known to vary with the temperature and pressure of the air1 this mischief would have been avoided4 ,it would not be fair to say of the persons misled on that occasion by ,parallax that they deserved no better2 since the fault is not theirs as readers1 but that of careless or ill-informed writers4 ,another experiment conducted by ,parallax the same morning was creditable to his ingenuity4 ,nothing better1 perhaps1 was ever devised to deceive people1 apparently by ocular evidence1 into the belief that the earth is flat--nor is there any clearer evidence of the largeness of the earth's globe compared with our ordinary measures4 ,on the ,hoe1 some ninety or a hundred feet above the sea-level1 he had a mirror suspended in a vertical position facing the sea1 and invited the bystanders to look in that mirror at the sea-horizon4 ,to all appearance the line of the horizon corresponded exactly with the level of the eye-pupils of the observer4 ,now1 of course1 when we look into a mirror whose surface is exactly vertical1 the line of sight to the eye-pupils of our image in the mirror is exactly horizontal2 whereas the line of sight from the eyes to the image of the sea-horizon is depressed exactly as much as the line from the eyes to the real sea-horizon4 ,here1 then1 seemed to be proof positive that there is no depression of the sea-horizon2 for the horizontal line to the image of the eye-pupil seemed to coincide exactly with the line to the image of the sea-horizon4 ,it is not necessary to suppose here that the mirror was wrongly adjusted1 though the slightest error of adjustment would affect the result either favourably or unfavourably for ,parallax's flat-earth theory4 ,it is a matter of fact that1 if the mirror were perfectly vertical1 only very acute vision could detect the depression of the image of the sea-horizon below the image of the eye-pupil4 ,the depression can easily be calculated for any given circumstances4 ,parallax encouraged observers to note very closely the position of the eye-pupil in the image1 so that most of them approached the image within about ten inches1 or the glass within about five4 ,now1 in such a case1 for a height of one hundred feet above the sea-level the image of the sea-horizon would be depressed below the image of the eye-pupil by less than three hundredths of an inch--an amount which could not be detected by one eye in a hundred4 ,the average diameter of the pupil itself is one-fifth of an inch1 or about seven times as great as the depression of the sea-horizon in the case supposed4 ,it would require very close observation and a good eye to determine whether a horizontal line seen on either side of the head were on the level of the centres of the eye-pupils1 or lower by about one-seventh of the breadth of either pupil4 ,the experiment is a pretty one1 however1 and well worth trying by any one who lives near to the sea-shore and sea-cliffs4 ,but there is a much more effective experiment which can be much more easily tried--only it is open to the disadvantage that it at once demolishes the argument of our friend ,parallax4 ,it occurred to me while ,i was writing the above paragraph4 ,let a very small mirror 7it need not be larger than a sixpence7 be so suspended to a small support and so weighted that when left to itself it hangs with its face perfectly vertical--an arrangement which any competent optician will easily secure--and let a fine horizontal line or several horizontal lines be marked on the mirror2 which1 by the way1 should be a metallic one1 as its indications will then be altogether more trustworthy4 ,this mirror can be put into the waistcoat pocket and conveniently carried to much greater height than the mirror used by ,parallax4 ,now1 at some considerable height--say five or six hundred feet above the sea-level1 but a hundred or even fifty will suffice--look into this small mirror while facing the sea4 ,the true horizon will then be seen to be visibly below the centre of the eye-pupil--visibly in this case because the horizontal line traced on the mirror can be made to coincide with the sea-horizon exactly1 and will then be found not to coincide with the centre of the eye-pupil4 ,such an instrument could be readily made to show the distance of the sea-horizon1 which at once determines the height of the observer above the sea-level4 ,for this purpose all that would be necessary would be a means of placing the eye at some definite distance from the small mirror1 and a fine vertical scale on the mirror to show the exact depression of the sea-horizon4 ,for balloonists such an instrument would sometimes be useful1 as showing the elevation independently of the barometer1 whenever any portion of the sea-horizon was in view4 ,the mention of balloon experiences leads me to another delusive argument of the earth-flatteners4#eb ,it has been the experience of all aeronauts that1 as the balloon rises1 the appearance of the earth is by no means what would be expected from the familiar teachings in our books of astronomy4 ,there is a picture in most of these books representing the effect of ascent above the sea-level in depressing the line of sight to the horizon1 and bringing more and more into view the convexity of the earth's globe4 ,one would suppose1 from the picture1 that when an observer is at a great height the earth would appear to rise under him1 like some great round and well-curved shield whose convexity was towards him4 ,instead of this1 the aeronaut finds the earth presenting the appearance of a great hollow basin1 or of the concave side of a well-curved shield4 ,the horizon seems to rise as he rises1 while the earth beneath him sinks lower and lower4 ,a somewhat similar phenomenon may be noted when1 after ascending the landward side of a high cliff1 we come suddenly upon a view of the sea--invariably the sea-horizon is higher than we expected to find it4 ,only1 in this case1 the surface of the sea seems to rise from the beach below towards the distant horizon convexly not concavely2 the reason of which ,i take to be this1 that the waves1 and especially long rollers or uniform large ripples1 teach the eye to form true conceptions of the shape of the sea-surface even when the eye is deceived as to the position of the sea-horizon4 ,indeed1 ,i should much like to know what would be the appearance of the sea from a balloon when no land was in sight 7though ,i do not particularly wish to make the observation myself73 the convexity discernible1 for the reason just named1 would contend strangely with the concavity imagined1 for the reason now to be indicated4 ,the deception arises from the circumstance that the scene displayed below and around the balloon is judged by the eye from the experience of more familiar scenes4 ,the horizon is depressed1 but so little that the eye cannot detect the depression1 especially where the boundary of the horizon is irregular4 ,it is here that the text-book pictures mislead2 for they show the depression as far too great to be overlooked1 setting the observer sometimes about two thousand miles above the sea-level4 ,the eye1 then1 judges the horizon to be where it usually is--on the same level as the observer2 but looking downwards1 the eye perceives1 and at once appreciates if it does not even exaggerate1 the great depth at which the earth lies below the balloon4 ,the appearance1 then1 as judged by the eye1 is that of a mighty basin whose edge rises up all round to the level of the balloon1 while its bottom lies two or three miles or more below the balloon4 ,the zetetic faithful reason about this matter as though the impressions of the senses were trustworthy under all conditions1 familiar or otherwise2 whereas1 in point of fact1 we know that the senses often deceive1 even under familiar conditions1 and almost always deceive under conditions1 which are not familiar4 ,a person1 for example1 accustomed to the mist and haze of our ,british air1 is told by the sense of sight1 when he is travelling where a clearer atmosphere prevails1 that a mountain forty miles from him is a hill a few miles away4 ,on the other hand1 an ,italian travelling through the ,highlands is impressed with the belief that all the features of the scenery are much larger 7because he supposes them much more remote7 than they really are4 ,a hundred such instances of deception might easily be cited4 ,the conditions under which the aeronaut observes the earth are certainly less familiar than those under which the ,briton views the ,alps and ,apennines1 or the ,italian views ,ben ,lomond or ,ben ,lawers4 ,it would be rash1 therefore1 even if no other evidence were available1 to reject the faith that the earth is a globe because1 as seen from a balloon1 it looks like a basin4 ,indeed1 to be strictly logical1 the followers of ,parallax ought on this account to adopt the faith that the earth is not flat1 but basin-shaped1 which hitherto they have not been ready to do4 ,we have seen that ,parallax describes a certain experiment on the ,bedford ,level1 which1 if made as he states1 would have shown certainly that something was wrong in the accepted system--for a six-mile straight-edge along water would be as severe a blow to the belief in a round earth1 as a straight line on the sea-surface from ,queenstown to ,new ,york4 ,another curious experiment adorns his little book1 which1 if it could be repeated successfully before a dozen trustworthy witnesses1 would rather astonish men of science4 ,having1 he says1 by certain reasoning--altogether erroneous1 but that is a detail--convinced himself that1 on the accepted theory1 a bullet fired vertically upwards ought to fall far to the west of the place whence it was fired1 he carefully fixed an air-gun in a vertical position1 and fired forty bullets vertically upwards4 ,all these fell close to the gun--which is not surprising1 though it must have made such an experiment rather dangerous2 but two fell back into the barrel itself--which certainly was very surprising indeed4 ,one might fairly challenge the most experienced gunner in the world to achieve one such vertical shot in a thousand trials2 two in forty bordered on the miraculous4 ,the earth-flatteners ,i have been speaking of claim1 as one of their objects1 the defence of ,scripture4 ,but some of the earth-flatteners of the last generation 7or a little farther back7 took quite another view of the matter4 ,for instance1 ,sir ,richard ,phillips1 a more vehement earth-flattener than ,parallax1 was so little interested in defending the ,scriptures1 that in #agic he was sentenced to a year's imprisonment for selling a book regarded as atheistic4 ,in #ahcf he attempted the conversion of ,professor ,de ,morgan1 opening the correspondence with the remark that he had 'an inveterate abhorrence of all the pretended wisdom of philosophy derived from the monks and doctors of the ,middle ,ages1 and not less those of higher name who merely sought to make the monkish philosophy more plausible1 or so to disguise it as to mystify the mob of small thinkers4' ,he seems himself to have succeeded in mystifying many of those whom he intended to convert4 ,admiral ,smyth gives the following account of an interview he had with ,phillips3 ',this pseudo-mathematical knight once called upon me at ,bedford1 without any previous acquaintance1 to discuss those errors of ,newton1 which he almost blushed to name1 and which were inserted in the ,principia to puzzle the vulgar4 ,he sneered with sovereign contempt at the ,trinity of ,gravitating ,force1 ,projectile ,force1 and ,void ,space1 and proved that all change of place is accounted for by motion4' ,startling hypothesis6 ',he then exemplified the conditions by placing some pieces of paper on a table1 and slapping his hand down close to them1 thus making them fly off1 which he termed applying the momentum4 ,all motion1 he said1 is in the direction of the forces2 and atoms seek the centre by terrestrial centripetation--a property which causes universal pressure2 but in what these attributes of pushing and pulling differ from gravitation and attraction was not expounded4 ,many of his truths were as mystified as the conundrums of ,rabelais2 so nothing was made of the motion4' ,a favourite subject of paradoxical ideas has been the moon's motion of rotation4 ,strangely enough1 ,de ,morgan1 who knew more about past paradoxists than any man of his time1 seems not to have heard of the dispute between ,keill and ,bentley over this matter in #afij4 ,he says1 'there was a dispute on the subject1 in #agdh1 between ,james ,ferguson and an anonymous opponent2 and ,i think there have been others2' but the older and more interesting dispute he does not mention4 ,bentley1 who was no mathematician1 pointed out in a lecture certain reasons for believing that the moon does not turn on her axis1 or has no axis on which she turns4 ,keill1 then only nineteen years old1 pointed out that the arguments used by ,bentley proved that the moon does rotate instead of showing that she does not4 7,twenty years later ,keill was appointed ,savilian ,professor of ,astronomy at ,oxford4 ,he was the first holder of that office to teach the ,newtonian astronomy47 ,in recent times1 as most of my readers know1 the paradox that the moon does not rotate has been revived more than once4 ,in #ahee it was sustained by ,mr4 ,jellinger ,symons1 one of whose staunchest supporters1 ,mr4 ,h4 ,perigal1 had commenced the attack a few years earlier4 ,of course1 the gist of the argument against the moon's rotation lies in the fact that the moon always keeps the same face turned towards the earth1 or very nearly so4 ,if she did so exactly1 and if her distance from the earth were constantly the same1 then her motion would be exactly the same as though she were rigidly connected with the earth1 and turned round an axis at the earth4 ,the case may be thus illustrated3 ,through the middle of a large orange thrust one short rod vertically1 and another long rod horizontally2 thrust the further end of the latter through a small apple1 and now turn the whole affair round the short vertical rod as an axis4 ,then the apple will move with respect to the orange as the moon would move with respect to the earth on the suppositions just made4 ,no one in this case would say that the apple was turning round on its axis1 since its motion would be one of rotation round the upright axis through the orange4 ,therefore1 say the opponents of the moon's rotation1 no one should say that the moon turns round on her axis4 ,of course1 the answer would be obvious even if the moon's motions were as supposed4 ,the moon is not connected with the earth as the apple is with the orange in the illustrative case4 ,if the apple1 without rigid connection with the orange1 were carried round the orange so as to move precisely as if it were so connected1 it would unquestionably have to rotate on its axis1 as any one will find who may try the experiment4 ,thus for the straight rod thrust through the apple substitute a straight horizontal bar carrying a small basin of water in which the apple floats4 ,sway the bar steadily and slowly round1 and it will be found 7if a mark is placed on the apple7 that the apple no longer keeps the same face towards the centre of motion2 but that1 to cause it to do so1 a slow motion of rotation must be communicated to the apple in the same direction and at the same rate 7neglecting the effects of the friction of the water against the sides of the basin7 as the bar is rotating4 ,in my ',treatise on the ,moon' ,i have described and pictured a simple apparatus by which this experiment may easily be made4 ,but1 of course1 such experiments are not essential to the argument by which the paradox is overthrown4 ,this argument simply is1 that the moon as she travels on her orbit round the sun--the real centre of her motion--turns every part of her equator in succession towards him once in a lunar month4 ,at the time of new moon the sun illuminates the face of the moon turned from us2 at the time of full moon he illuminates the face which has been gradually brought round to him as the moon has passed through her first two quarters4 ,as she passes onwards to new moon again1 the face we see is gradually turned from him until he shines full upon the other face4 ,and so on during successive lunations4 ,this could not happen unless the moon rotated4 ,again1 if we lived on the moon we should find the heaven of the fixed stars turning round from east to west once in rather more than twenty-seven days2 and unless we supposed1 as we should probably do for a long time1 that our small world was the centre of the universe1 and that the stars turned round it1 we should be compelled to admit that it was turning on its own axis from west to east once in the time just named4 ,there would be no escape4 ,the mere fact that all the time the stars thus seemed to be turning round the moon1 the earth would not so seem to move1 but would lie always in the same direction1 would in no sort help to remove the difficulty4 ,lunarian paradoxists would probably argue that she was in some way rigidly connected with the moon2 but even they would never think of arguing that their world did not turn on its axis1 unless they maintained that it was the centre of the universe4 ,this1 ,i think1 they would very probably do2 but as yet terrestrial paradoxists have not1 ,i believe1 maintained this hypothesis4 ,i once asked ,mr4 ,perigal whether that was the true theory of the universe--the moon central1 the earth1 sun1 and heavens carried round her4 ,he admitted that his objections to accepted views were by no means limited to the moon's rotation2 and1 if ,i remember rightly1 he said that the idea ,i had thrown out in jest was nearer the truth than ,i thought1 or used words to that effect4 ,but as yet the theory has not been definitely enunciated that the moon is the boss of the universe4 ,comets1 as already mentioned1 have been the subjects of paradoxes innumerable2 but as yet comets have been so little understood1 even by astronomers1 that paradoxes respecting them cannot be so readily dealt with as those relating to well-established facts4 ,among thoroughly paradoxical ideas respecting comets1 however1 may be mentioned one whose author is a mathematician of well-deserved repute--,professor ,tait's ',sea-,bird ,theory' of ,comets' ,tails4 ,according to this theory1 the rapid formation of long tails and the rapid changes of their position may be explained on the same principle that we explain the rapid change of appearance of a flight of sea-birds1 when1 from having been in a position where the eye looks athwart it1 the flight assumes a position where the eye looks at it edgewise4 ,in the former position it is scarcely visible 7when at a distance71 in the latter it is seen as a well-defined streak2 and as a very slight change of position of each bird may often suffice to render an extensive flight thus visible throughout its entire length1 which but a few moments before had been invisible1 so the entire length of a comet's tail may be brought into view1 and apparently be formed in a few hours1 through some comparatively slight displacement of the individual meteorites composing it4 ,this paradox--for paradox it unquestionably is--affords a curious illustration of the influence which mathematical power has on the minds of men4 ,every one knows that ,professor ,tait has potential mathematical energy competent to dispose1 in a very short time1 of all the difficulties involved in his theory2 therefore few seem to inquire whether this potential energy has ever been called into action4 ,it is singular1 too1 that other mathematicians of great eminence have been content to take the theory on trust4 ,thus ,sir ,w4 ,thomson1 at the meeting of the ,british ,association at ,edinburgh1 described the theory as disposing easily of the difficulties presented by ,newton's comet in #afhj4 ,glashier1 in his translation of ,guillemin's ',les ,cometes1' speaks of the theory as one not improbably correct1 though only to be established by rigid investigation of the mathematical problems involved4 ,in reality1 not five minutes' inquiry is needed to show any one acquainted with the history of long-tailed comets that ,tait's theory is quite untenable4 ,take ,newton's comet4 ,it had a tail ninety millions of miles long1 extending directly from the sun as the comet approached him1 and seen1 four days later1 extending to the same distance1 and still directly from the sun1 as the comet receded from him in an entirely different direction4 ,according to ,tait's sea-bird theory1 the earth was at both these epochs in the plane of a sheet of meteorites forming the tail2 but on each occasion the sun also was in the same plane1 for the edge of the sheet of meteorites was seen to be directly in a line with the sun4 ,the comet's head1 of course1 was in the same plane2 but three points1 not in a straight line1 determine a plane4 ,hence we have1 as the definite result of the sea-bird theory1 that the layer or stratum of meteorites1 forming the tail of ,newton's comet1 lay in the same plane which contained the sun1 the earth1 and the comet4 ,but the comet crossed the ecliptic 7the plane in which the earth travels round the sun7 between the epochs named1 crossing it at a great angle4 ,when crossing it1 then1 the great layer of meteorites was in the plane of the ecliptic2 before crossing it the layer was greatly inclined to that plane one way1 and after crossing it the layer was greatly inclined to that plane another way4 ,so that we have in no way escaped the difficulty which the sea-bird theory was intended to remove4 ,if it was a startling and1 indeed1 incredible thing that the particles along a comet's tail should have got round in four days from the first to the second position of the tail considered above1 it is as startling and incredible that a mighty layer of meteorites should have shifted bodily in the way required by the sea-bird theory4 ,nay1 there is an element in our result which is still more startling than any of the difficulties yet mentioned2 and that is1 the singular care which the great layer of meteorites would seem to have shown to keep its plane always passing through the earth1 with which it was in no way connected4 ,why should this preference have been shown by the meteor flock for our earth above all the other members of the solar system8--seeing that the sea-bird theory requires that this comet1 and not ,newton's comet alone but all others having tails1 should not only be thus complaisant with respect to our little earth1 but should behave in a totally different way with respect to every other member of the sun's family4 ,we can understand that1 while several have been found who have applauded the sea-bird paradox for what it might do in explaining comets' tails1 its advocates have as yet not done much to reconcile it with cometic observation4 ,the latest astronomical paradox published is perhaps still more startling4 ,it relates to the planet ,venus1 and is intended to explain the appearance presented by this planet when crossing the sun's face1 or1 technically1 when in transit4 ,at this time she is surrounded by a ring of light1 which appears somewhat brighter than the disc of the sun itself4 ,before fully entering on the sun's face1 also1 the part of ,venus's globe as yet outside the sun's disc is seen to be girt round by a ring of exceedingly bright light--so bright1 indeed1 that it has left its record in photographs where the exposure was only for the small fraction of a second allowable in the case of so intensely brilliant a body as the sun4 ,astronomers have not found it difficult to explain either peculiarity4 ,it has been proved clearly in other ways that ,venus has an atmosphere like our own1 but probably denser4 ,as the sun is raised into view above the horizon 7after he has really passed below the horizon plane7 by the bending power of our air upon his rays1 so the bending power of ,venus's air brings the sun into our view round the dark body of the planet4 ,but the new paradox advances a much bolder theory4 ,instead of an atmosphere such as ours1 ,venus has a glass envelope2 and instead of a surface of earth and water1 in some cases covered with clouds1 ,venus has a surface shining with metallic lustre4#ec ,the author of this theory1 ,mr4 ,jos4 ,brett1 startled astronomers by announcing1 a few years ago1 that with an ordinary telescope he could see the light of the sun's corona without the aid of an eclipse1 though astronomers had observed that the delicate light of the corona fades out of view with the first returning rays of the sun after total eclipse4 ,the latest paradoxist1 misled by the incorrect term 'centrifugal force1' proposes to 'modify1 if not banish1' the old-fashioned astronomy4 ,what is called centrifugal force is in truth only inertia4 ,in the familiar instance of a body whirled round by a string1 the breaking of the string no more implies that an active force has pulled away the body1 than the breaking of a rope by which a weight is pulled implies that the weight has exerted an active resistance4 ,of course1 here again the text-books are chiefly in fault4 ,such are a few among the paradoxes of various orders by which astronomers1 like the students of other sciences1 have been from time to time amused4 ,it is not altogether1 as it may seem at first sight1 'a sin against the twenty-four hours' to consider such matters2 for much may be learned not only from the study of the right road in science1 but from observing where and how men may go astray4 ,i know1 indeed1 few more useful exercises for the learner than to examine a few paradoxes1 when leisure serves1 and to consider how1 if left to his own guidance1 he would confute them4 ,,xi4 ,,on ,,some ,,astronomical ,,myths4 ,the expression 'astronomical myth' has recently been used1 on the title-page of a translation from the ,french1 as synonymous with false systems of astronomy4 ,it is not1 however1 in that sense that ,i here use it4 ,the history of astronomy presents the records of some rather perplexing observations1 not confirmed by later researches1 but yet not easily to be explained away or accounted for4 ,such observations ,humboldt described as belonging to the myths of an uncritical period2 and it is in that sense that ,i employ the term 'astronomical myth' in this essay4 ,i propose briefly to describe and comment on some of the more interesting of these observations1 which1 in whatever sense they are to be interpreted1 will be found to afford a useful lesson4 ,it is hardly necessary1 perhaps1 to point out that the cases which ,i include here ,i regard as really cases in which astronomers have been deceived by illusory observations4 ,other students of astronomy may differ from me as respects some of these instances4 ,i do not wish to dogmatise1 but simply to describe the facts as ,i see them1 and the impressions which ,i draw from them4 ,those who view the facts differently will not1 ,i think1 have to complain that ,i have incorrectly described them4 ,at the outset1 let me point out that some observations which were for a long time regarded as mythical have proved to be exact4 ,for instance1 when as yet very few telescopes existed1 and those very feeble1 ,galileo's discovery of moons travelling round ,jupiter was rejected as an illusion for which ,satan received the chief share of credit4 ,there is an amusing and yet in one aspect almost pathetic reference to this in his account of his earlier observations of ,saturn4 ,he had seen the planet apparently attended on either side by two smaller planets1 as if helping old ,saturn along4 ,but on ,december #d1 #afab1ed turning his telescope on the planet1 he found to his infinite amazement not a trace of the companion planets could be seen2 there in the field of view of his telescope was the golden-tinted disc of the planet as smoothly rounded as the disc of ,mars or ,jupiter4 ',what1' he wrote1 'is to be said concerning so strange a metamorphosis8 ,are the two lesser stars consumed after the manner of the solar spots8 ,have they vanished or suddenly fled8 ,has ,saturn1 perhaps1 devoured his children8 ,or were the appearances1 indeed1 illusion or fraud with which the glasses have so long deceived me as well as many others to whom ,i have shown them8 ,now1 perhaps1 is the time come to revive the well-nigh withered hopes of those who1 guided by more profound contemplations1 have discovered the fallacy of the new observations1 and demonstrated the utter impossibility of the existence of those things which the telescope appears to show4 ,i do not know what to say in a case so surprising1 so unlooked for1 and so novel4 ,the shortness of the time1 the unexpected nature of the event1 the weakness of my understanding1 and the fear of being mistaken1 have greatly confounded me4' ,we now know that these observations1 as well as those made soon after by ,hevelius1 though wrongly interpreted1 were correct enough4 ,nay1 we know that if either ,galileo or ,hevelius had been at the pains to reason out the meaning of the alternate visibility and disappearance of objects looking like attendant planets1 they must have anticipated the discovery made in #afef by ,huyghens1 that ,saturn's globe is girdled about by a thin flat ring so vast that1 if a score of globes like our earth were set side by side1 the range of that row of worlds would be less than the span of the ,saturnian ring system4 ,there is a reference in ,galileo's letter to the solar spots2 ',are the two lesser stars1' he says1 'consumed after the manner of the solar spots8' ,when he thus wrote the spots were among the myths or fables of astronomy1 and an explanation was offered1 by those who did not reject them utterly1 which has taken its place among forsaken doctrines1 those broken toys of astronomers4 ,it is said that when ,scheiner1 himself a ,jesuit1 communicated to the ,provincial of the ,jesuits his discovery of the spots on the sun1 the latter1 a staunch ,aristotelian1 cautioned him not to see these things4 ',i have read ,aristotle's writings from beginning to end many times1' he said1 'and ,i can assure you ,i have nowhere found in them anything similar to what you mention' amazing circumstances6 ',go1 therefore1 my son1 tranquillise yourself2 be assured that what you take for spots on the sun are the faults of your glasses or your eyes4' ,as the idea was obviously inadmissible that a celestial body could be marked by spots1 the theory was started that the dark objects apparently seen on the sun's body were in reality small planets revolving round the sun1 and a contest arose for the possession of these mythical planets4 ,tarde maintained that they should be called ,astra ,borbonia1 in honour of the royal family of ,france2 but ,c4 ,malapert insisted that they should be called ,sidera ,austriaca4 ,meantime the outside world laughed at the spots1 and their names1 and the astronomers who were thought to have invented both4 ',fabritius puts only three spots1' wrote ,burton in his ',anatomy of ,melancholy1' 'and those in the sun2 ,apelles #ae1 and those without the sun1 floating like the ,cyanean ,isles in the ,euxine ,sea4 ,tarde the ,frenchman hath observed #cc1 and those neither spots nor clouds as ,galileus supposed1 but planets concentric with the sun1 and not far from him1 with regular motions4 ,christopher ,schemer' a significant way of spelling ,scheiner's name1 'a ,german ,suisser ,jesuit1 divides them in maculas et faculas1 and will have them to be fixed in solis superficie and to absolve their periodical and regular motions in #bg or #bh dayes2 holding withall the rotation of the sun upon his centre1 and are all so confident that they have made schemes and tables of their motions4 ,the ,hollander censures all2 and thus they disagree among themselves1 old and new1 irreconcilable in their opinions2 thus ,aristarchus1 thus ,hipparchus1 thus ,ptolomaeus1 thus ,albategnius1 etc41 with their followers1 vary and determine of these celestial orbs and bodies2 and so whilst these men contend about the sun and moon1 like the philosophers in ,lucian1 it is to be feared the sun and moon will hide themselves1 and be as much offended as she was with those1 and send another message to ,jupiter1 by some new-fangled ,icaromenippus1 to make an end of all these curious controversies1 and scatter them abroad4' ,it is well to notice how in this1 as in many other instances1 the very circumstance which makes scientific research trustworthy caused the unscientific to entertain doubt4 ,if men of science were to arrange beforehand with each other what observations they should publish1 how their accounts should be ended1 what theories they would endeavour to establish1 their results would seem far more trustworthy1 their theories far more probable1 than according to the method actually adopted4 ,science1 which should be exact1 seems altogether inexact1 because one observer seems to obtain one result1 another a different result4 ,scientific theories seem unworthy of reliance because scientific men entertain for a long time rival doctrines4 ,but in another and a worthier sense than as the words are used in the ',critic1' when men of science do agree their agreement is wonderful4 ,it is wonderful1 worthy of all admiration1 because before it has been attained errors long entertained have had to be honestly admitted2 because the taunt of inconsistency is not more pleasant to the student of science than to others1 and the man who having a long time held one doctrine adopts and enforces another 7one perhaps which he had long resisted71 is sure to be accused by the many of inconsistency1 the truly scientific nature of his procedure being only recognised by the few4 ,the agreement of men of science ought to be regarded also as most significant in another sense4 ,so long as there is room for refusing to admit an important theory advanced by a student of science1 it is natural that other students of science should refuse to do so2 for in admitting the new theory they are awarding the palm to a rival4 ,in strict principle1 of course1 this consideration ought to have no influence whatever2 as a matter of fact1 however1 men of science1 being always men and not necessarily strengthened by scientific labours against the faults of humanity1 the consideration has and must always have influence4 ,therefore1 when the fellow-writers and rivals of ,newton or of his followers gave in their adhesion to the ,newtonian theory2 when in our own time--but let us leave our own time alone1 in this respect--when1 speaking generally1 a novel doctrine1 or some new generalisation1 or some great and startling discovery1 is admitted by rival students of the branch of astronomy to which it belongs1 the probability is great that the weight of evidence has been found altogether overwhelming4 ,let us now1 however1 turn to cases in which1 while many observations seem to point to some result1 it has appeared that1 after all1 those observations must have been illusory4 ,a striking instance in point is found in the perplexing history of the supposed satellite of ,venus4 ,on ,january #be1 #afgb1 the celebrated astronomer1 ,j4,d4 ,cassini saw a crescent shaped and posited like ,venus1 but smaller1 on the western side of the planet4 ,more than fourteen years later1 he saw a crescent east of the planet4 ,the object continued visible in the latter case for half an hour1 when the approach of daylight obliterated the planet and this phantom moon from view4 ,the apparent distance of the moon from ,venus was in both cases small1 viz41 only one diameter of the planet in the former case1 and only three-fifths of that diameter in the latter4 ,next1 on ,october #bc1 #agdj1 old style1 the optician ,short1 who had had considerable experience in observation1 saw a small star perfectly defined but less luminous than ,venus1 at a distance from the planet equal to about one-third of the apparent diameter of our moon4 ,this is a long distance1 and would correspond to a distance from ,venus certainly not less than the moon's distance from the earth4 ,short was aware of the risk of optical illusion in such matters1 and therefore observed ,venus with a second telescope2 he also used four eye-pieces of different magnifying power4 ,he says that ,venus was very distinct1 the air very pure1 insomuch that he was able to use a power of #bdj4 ,the seeming moon had a diameter less than a third of ,venus's1 and showed the same phase as the planet4 ,its disc was exceedingly well defined4 ,he observed it several times during a period of about one hour4 ,still more convincing1 to all appearance1 is the account of the observations made by ,m4 ,montaigne1 as presented to the ,academy of ,sciences at ,paris by ,m4 ,baudouin in #agfa4 ,the transit of ,venus which was to take place on ,june #f in that year led to some inquiry as to the satellite supposed to have been seen by ,cassini and ,short1 for of course a transit would be a favourable occasion for observing the satellite4 ,m4 ,montaigne1 who had no faith in the existence of such an attendant1 was persuaded to look for it early in #agfa4 ,on ,may #c he saw a little crescent moon about twenty minutes of arc 7nearly two-thirds the apparent diameter of our moon7 from the planet4 ,he repeated his observation several times that night1 always seeing the small body1 but not quite certain1 despite its crescent shape1 whether it might not be a small star4 ,on the next evening1 and again on ,may #g and #aj1 he saw the small companion apparently somewhat farther from ,venus and in a different position4 ,he found that it could be seen when ,venus was not in the field of view4 ,the following remarks were made respecting these observations in a ,french work1 ',dictionnaire de ,physique1' published in #aghi3--',the year #agfa will be celebrated in astronomy in consequence of the discovery that was made on ,may #c of a satellite circulating round ,venus4 ,we owe it to ,m4 ,montaigne1 member of the ,society of ,limoges4 ,m4 ,baudouin read before the ,academy of ,sciences at ,paris a very interesting memoir1 in which he gave a determination of the revolution and distance of the satellite4 ,from the calculations of this expert astronomer we learn that the new star has a diameter about one-fourth that of ,venus1 is distant from ,venus almost as far as the moon from our earth1 has a period of nine days seven hours' much too short1 by the way1 to be true1 expert though ,m4 ,baudouin is said to have been1 'and its ascending node'--but we need not trouble ourselves about its ascending node4 ,three years later ,roedkier1 at ,copenhagen1 ,march #c and #d1 #agfd1 saw the satellite of ,venus with a refracting telescope #ch feet long1 which should have been effective if longitude has any virtue4 ,he could not see the satellite with another telescope which he tried4 ,but several of his friends saw it with the long telescope4 ,amongst others1 ,horrebow1 ,professor of ,astronomy1 saw the satellite on ,march #aj and #aa1 after taking several precautions to prevent optical illusion4 ,a few days later ,montbaron1 at ,auxerre1 who had heard nothing of these observations1 saw a satellite1 and again on ,march #bh and #bi it appeared1 always in a different position4 ,it should be added that ,scheuten asserted that during the transit of #agfa ,venus was accompanied by a small satellite in her motion across the sun's face4 ,so confidently did many believe in this satellite of ,venus that ,frederick the ,great1 who for some reason imagined that he was entitled to dispose as he pleased of the newly discovered body1 proposed to assign it away to the mathematician ,d',alembert1 who excused himself from accepting the questionable honour in the following terms3-- ',your ,majesty does me too much honour in wishing to baptize this new planet with my name4 ,i am neither great enough to become the satellite of ,venus in the heavens1 nor well enough 7assez bien portant7 to be so on the earth1 and ,i am too well content with the small place ,i occupy in this lower world to be ambitious of a place in the firmament4' ,it is not at all easy to explain how this phantom satellite came to be seen4 ,father ,hell1 of ,vienna--the same astronomer whom ,sir ,g4 ,airy suspects of falling asleep during the progress of the transit of ,venus in #agfi--made some experiments showing how a false image of the planet might be seen beside the true one1 the false image being smaller and fainter1 like the moons seen by ,schort 7as ,hell called ,short71 ,cassini1 and the rest4 ,and more recently ,sir ,david ,brewster stated that ,wargentin 'had in his possession a good achromatic telescope1 which always showed ,venus with such a satellite4' ,but ,hell admitted that the falsehood of the unreal ,venus was easily detected1 and ,brewster adds to his account of ,wargentin's phantom moon1 that 'the deception was discovered by turning the telescope about its axis4' ,as ,admiral ,smyth well remarks1 to endeavour to explain away in this manner the observations made by ,cassini and ,short 'must be a mere pleasantry1 for it is impossible such accurate observers could have been deceived by so gross a neglect4' ,smyth1 by the way1 was a believer in the moon of ,venus4 ',the contested satellite is perhaps extremely minute1' he says1 'while some parts of its body may be less capable of reflecting light than others2 and when the splendour of its primary and our inconvenient station for watching it are considered1 it must be conceded that1 however slight the hope may be1 search ought not to be relinquished4' ,setting aside ,scheuten's asserted recognition of a dark body near ,venus during the transit of #agfa1 ,venus has always appeared without any attendant when in transit4 ,as no one else claimed to have seen what ,scheuten saw in #agfa1 though the transit was observed by hundreds1 of whom many used far finer telescopes than he1 we must consider that he allowed his imagination to deceive him4 ,during the transit of #agfi1 and again on ,december #h-i1 #ahgd1 ,venus certainly had no companion during her transit4 ,what1 then1 was it that ,cassini1 ,short1 ,montaigne1 and the rest supposed they saw8 ,the idea has been thrown out by ,mr4 ,webb that mirage caused the illusion4 ,but he appears to have overlooked the fact that though an image of ,venus formed by mirage would be fainter than the planet1 it would not be smaller4 ,it might1 according to the circumstances1 be above ,venus or below1 or even somewhat towards either side1 and it might be either a direct or an inverted image1 but it could not possibly be a diminished image4 ,single observations like ,cassini's or ,short's might be explained as subjective phenomena1 but this explanation will not avail in the case of the ,copenhagen observations4 ,i reject1 as every student of astronomy will reject1 the idea of wilful deception4 ,occasionally an observer may pretend to see what he has not seen1 though ,i believe this very seldom happens4 ,but even if ,cassini and the rest had been notoriously untrustworthy persons instead of being some of them distinguished for the care and accuracy with which their observations were made and recorded1 these occasional views of a phantom satellite are by no means such observations as they would have invented4 ,no distinction was to be gained by observations which could not be confirmed by astronomers possessing more powerful telescopes4 ,cassini1 for example1 knew well that nothing but his well-earned reputation could have saved him from suspicion or ridicule when he announced that he had seen ,venus attended by a satellite4 ,it seems to me probable that the false satellite was an optical illusion brought about in a different way from those referred to by ,hell and ,brewster1 though among the various circumstances which in an imperfect instrument might cause such a result ,i do not undertake to make a selection4 ,it is certain that ,venus's satellite has vanished with the improvement of telescopes1 while it is equally certain that even with the best modern instruments illusions occasionally appear which deceive even the scientific elect4 ,three years have passed since ,i heard the eminent observer ,otto ,struve1 of ,pulkowa1 give an elaborate account of a companion to the star ,procyon1 describing the apparent brightness1 distance1 and motions of this companion body1 for the edification of the ,astronomer-,royal and many other observers4 ,i had visited but a few months before the ,observatory at ,washington1 where1 with a much more powerful telescope1 that companion to ,procyon had been systematically but fruitlessly sought for1 and ,i entertained a very strong opinion1 notwithstanding the circumstantial nature of ,struve's account and his confidence 7shared in unquestioningly by the observers present71 that he had been in some way deceived4 ,but ,i could not then see1 nor has any one yet explained1 how this could be4 ,the fact1 however1 that he had been deceived is now undoubted4 ,subsequent research has shown that the ,pulkowa telescope1 though a very fine instrument1 possesses the undesirable quality of making a companion orb for all first-class stars in the position where ,o4 ,struve and his assistant ,lindenau saw the supposed companion of ,procyon4 ,i may as well point out1 however1 that theories so wild have recently been broached respecting ,venus1 that far more interesting explanations of the enigma than this optical one may be looked for presently4 ,it has been gravely suggested by ,mr4 ,jos4 ,brett1 the artist1 that ,venus has a surface of metallic brilliancy1 with a vitreous atmosphere1--which can only be understood to signify a glass case4 ,this stupendous theory has had its origin in an observation of considerable interest which astronomers 7it is perhaps hardly necessary to say7 explain somewhat differently4 ,when ,venus has made her entry in part upon the sun's face at the beginning of transit1 there is seen all round the portion of her disc which still remains outside the sun an arc of light so brilliant that it records its photographic trace during the instantaneous exposure required in solar photography4 ,it is mathematically demonstrable that this arc of light is precisely what should be seen if ,venus has an atmosphere like our earth's4 ,but mathematical demonstration is not sufficient 7or perhaps we may say it is too much7 for some minds4 ,therefore1 to simplify matters1 ,venus has been provided with a mirror surface and a glass case4 7,see preceding essay1 on ,astronomical ,paradoxes1 for further details47 ,the enigma next to be considered is of a more doubtful character than the myth relating to the satellite of ,venus4 ,astronomers are pretty well agreed that ,venus has no moon1 but many1 including some deservedly eminent1 retain full belief in the story of the planet ,vulcan4 ,more than seventeen years ago the astronomical world was startled by the announcement that a new planet had been discovered1 under circumstances unlike any which had heretofore attended the discovery of fresh members of the solar system4 ,at that time astronomers had already become accustomed to the discovery1 year after year1 of several asteroids1 which are in reality planets1 though small ones4 ,in fact1 no less than fifty-six of these bodies were then known1 whereof fifty-one had been discovered during the years #ahdg-aheh inclusive1 not one of these years having passed without the detection of an asteroid4 ,but all these planets belonged to one family1 and as there was every reason to believe that thousands more travel in the same region of the solar system1 the detection of a few more among the number had no longer any special interest for astronomers4 ,the discovery of the first known member of the family had indeed been full of interest1 and had worthily inaugurated the present century1 on the first day of which it was made4 ,for it had been effected in pursuance of a set scheme1 and astronomers had almost given up all hopes of success in that scheme when ,piazzi announced his detection of little ,ceres4 ,again the discovery of the next few members of the family had been interesting as revealing the existence of a new order of bodies in the solar system4 ,no one had suspected the possibility that besides the large bodies which travel round the sun1 either singly or attended by subordinate families of moons1 there might be a ring of many planets4 ,this was what the discovery of ,ceres1 ,pallas1 ,juno1 and ,vesta seemed to suggest1 unless--still stranger thought--these were but fragments of a mighty planet which had been shattered in long-past ages by some tremendous explosion4 ,since then1 however1 this startling theory has been 7itself7 exploded4 ,year after year new members of the ring of multitudinous planets are discovered1 and that1 not as was recently predicted1 in numbers gradually decreasing1 but so rapidly that more have been discovered during the last ten years than during the preceding twenty4 ,the discovery of the giant planet ,uranus1 an orb exceeding our earth twelve and a half times in mass and seventy-four times in volume1 was a matter of much greater importance1 so far as the dignity of the planetary system was concerned1 for it is known that the whole ring of asteroids together does not equal one-tenth part of the earth in mass1 while ,uranus exceeds many times in volume the entire family of terrestrial planets--,mercury1 ,venus1 the ,earth1 and ,mars4 ,the detection of ,uranus1 unlike that of ,ceres1 was effected by accident4 ,sir ,w4 ,herschel was looking for double stars of a particular kind in the constellation ,gemini when by good fortune the stranger was observed4 ,the interest with which astronomers received the announcement of the discovery of ,uranus1 though great1 was not to be compared with that with which they deservedly welcomed the discovery of ,neptune1 a larger and more massive planet1 revolving at a distance one-half greater even than the mighty space which separates ,uranus from the sun1 a space so great that by comparison with it the range of #ahd1jjj1jjj of miles1 which forms the diameter of our earth's orbit1 seems quite insignificant4 ,it was not1 however1 the vastness of ,neptune's mass or volume1 or the awful remoteness of the path along which he pursues his gloomy course1 which attracted the interest of astronomers1 but the strangeness of the circumstances under which the planet had been detected4 ,his influence had been felt for many years before astronomers thought of looking for him1 and even when the idea had occurred to one or two1 it was considered1 and that1 too1 by an astronomer as deservedly eminent as ,sir ,g4 ,airy1 too chimerical to be reasonably entertained4 ,all the world now knows how ,leverrier1 the greatest living master of physical astronomy1 and ,adams1 then scarce known outside ,cambridge1 both conceived the idea of finding the planet1 not by the simple method of looking for it with a telescope1 but by the mathematical analysis of the planet's disturbing influence upon known members of the solar system4 ,all know1 too1 that these mathematicians succeeded in their calculations1 and that the planet was found in the very region and close to the very point indicated first by ,adams1 and later1 but independently1 and 7fortunately for him more publicly7 by ,leverrier4 ,none of these instances of the discovery of members of the solar system resembled in method or details the discovery announced early in the year #ahei4 ,it was not amid the star-depths and in the darkness of night that the new planet was looked for1 but in broad day1 and on the face of the sun himself4 ,it was not on the outskirts of the solar system that the planet was supposed to be travelling1 but within the orbit of ,mercury1 hitherto regarded as of all planets the nearest to the sun4 ,it was not hoped that any calculation of the perturbations of other planets would show the place of the stranger1 though certain changes in the orbit of ,mercury seemed clearly enough to indicate the stranger's existence4 ,early in #ahfj ,leverrier had announced that the position of ,mercury's path was not precisely in agreement with calculations based on the adopted estimates of the masses of those planets which chiefly disturb the motions of ,mercury4 ,the part of the path where ,mercury is nearest to the sun1 and where1 therefore1 he travels fastest1 had slightly shifted from its calculated place4 ,this part of the path was expected to move1 but it had moved more than was expected2 and of course ,mercury having his region of swiftest motion somewhat differently placed than was anticipated1 himself moved somewhat differently4 ,leverrier found that to explain this feature of ,mercury's motion either the mass of ,venus must be regarded as one-tenth greater than had been supposed1 or some unknown cause must be regarded as affecting the motion of ,mercury4 ,a planet as large as ,mercury1 about midway between ,mercury and the sun1 would account for the observed disturbance2 but ,leverrier rejected the belief that such a planet exists1 simply because he could not 'believe that it would be invisible during total eclipses of the sun4' ',all difficulties disappear1' he added1 'if we admit1 in place of a single planet1 small bodies circulating between ,mercury and the sun4' ,considering their existence as not at all improbable1 he advised astronomers to watch for them4 ,it was on ,january #b1 #ahfj1 that ,leverrier thus wrote4 ,on ,december #bb1 #ahei1 a letter had been addressed by a ,m4 ,lescarbault of ,orgeres to ,leverrier1 through ,m4 ,vallee1 hon4 inspector-general of roads and bridges1 announcing that on ,march #bf1 #ahei1 about four in the afternoon1 ,lescarbault had seen a round black spot on the face of the sun1 and had watched it as it passed across like a planet in transit--not with the slow motion of an ordinary sun-spot4 ,the actual time during which the round spot was visible was one hour1 seventeen minutes1 nine seconds1 the rate of motion being such that1 had the spot crossed the middle of the sun's disc1 at the same rate1 the transit would have lasted more than four hours4 ,the spot thus merely skirted the sun's disc1 being at no time more than about one forty-sixth part of the sun's apparent diameter from the edge of the sun4 ,lescarbault expressed his conviction that on a future day1 a black spot1 perfectly round and very small1 will be seen passing over the sun1 and 'this point will very probably be the planet whose path ,i observed on ,march #bf1 #ahei4' ',i am persuaded1' he added1 'that this body is the planet1 or one of the planets1 whose existence in the vicinity of the sun ,m4 ,leverrier had made known a few months ago' 7referring to the preliminary announcement of results which ,leverrier published afterwards more definitely74 ,leverrier1 when the news of ,lescarbault's observation first reached him1 was surprised that the observation should not have been announced earlier4 ,he did not consider the delay sufficiently justified by ,lescarbault's statement that he wished to see the spot again4 ,he therefore set out for ,orgeres1 accompanied by ,m4 ,vallee4 ',the predominant feeling in ,leverrier's mind1' says ,abbe ,moigno1 'was the wish to unmask an attempt to impose upon him1 as the person more likely than any other astronomer to listen to the allegation that his prophecy had been fulfilled4' ',one should have seen ,m4 ,lescarbault1' says ,moigno1 'so small1 so simple1 so modest1 and so timid1 in order to understand the emotion with which he was seized1 when ,leverrier1 from his great height1 and with that blunt intonation which he can command1 thus addressed him3 ,it is then you1 sir1 who pretend to have observed the intra-mercurial planet1 and who have committed the grave offence of keeping your observation secret for nine months4 ,i warn you that ,i have come here with the intention of doing justice to your pretensions1 and of demonstrating either that you have been dishonest or deceived4 ,tell me1 then1 unequivocally1 what you have seen4' ,this singular address did not bring the interview1 as one might have expected1 to an abrupt end4 ,the lamb1 as the ,abbe calls the doctor1 trembling1 stammered out an account of what he had seen4 ,he explained how he had timed the passage of the black spot4 ',where is your chronometer8' asked ,leverrier4 ',it is this watch1 the faithful companion of my professional journeys4' ',what6 with that old watch1 showing only minutes1 dare you talk of estimating seconds4 ,my suspicions are already too well confirmed4' ',pardon me1 ,i have a pendulum which beats seconds4' ',show it me4' ,the doctor brings down a silk thread to which an ivory ball is attached4 ,fixing the upper end to a nail1 he draws the ball a little from the vertical1 counts the number of oscillations1 and shows that his pendulum beats seconds2 he explains also how his profession1 requiring him to feel pulses and count pulsations1 he has no difficulty in mentally keeping record of successive seconds4 ,having been shown the telescope with which the observation was made1 the record of the observation 7on a piece of paper covered with grease and laudanum1 and doing service as a marker in the ',connaissance des ,temps1' or ,french ,nautical ,almanac71 ,leverrier presently inquired if ,lescarbault had attempted to deduce the planet's distance from the sun from the period of its transit4 ,the doctor admitted that he had attempted this1 but1 being no mathematician1 had failed to achieve success with the problem4 ,he showed the rough draughts of his futile attempts at calculation on a board in his workshop1 'for1' said he naively1 ',i am a joiner as well as an astronomer4' ,the interview satisfied ,leverrier that a new planet1 travelling within the orbit of ,mercury1 had really been discovered4 ',with a grace and dignity full of kindness1' says a contemporary narrative of these events1#ee 'he congratulated ,lescarbault on the important discovery which he had made4' ,anxious to obtain some mark of respect for the discoverer of ,vulcan1 ,leverrier made inquiry concerning his private character1 and learned from the village cure1 the juge de paix1 and other functionaries1 that he was a skilful physician and a worthy man4 ,with such high recommendations1 ,m4 ,leverrier requested from ,m4 ,rouland1 the ,minister of ,public ,instruction1 the decoration of the ,legion of ,honour for ,m4 ,lescarbault4 ,the ,minister1 in a brief but interesting statement of his claim1 communicated this request to the ,emperor1 who1 by a decree dated ,january #be1 conferred upon the village astronomer the honours so justly due to him4 ,his professional brethren in ,paris were equally solicitous to testify their regard2 and ,,mm4 ,felix ,roubaud1 ,legrande1 and ,caffe1 as delegates of the scientific press1 proposed to the medical body1 and to the scientific world in ,paris1 to invite ,lescarbault to a banquet in the ,hotel du ,louvre on ,january #ah4 ,the announcement of the supposed discovery caused astronomers to re-examine records of former observations of black spots moving across the sun4 ,several such records existed1 but they had gradually come to be regarded as of no real importance4 ,wolff of ,zurich published a list of no fewer than twenty such observations made since #agfb4 ,carrington added many other cases4 ,comparing together three of these observations1 ,wolff found that they would be satisfied by a planet having a period of revolution of #ai days1 agreeing fairly with the period of rather more than #ai-a_/c days inferred by ,leverrier for ,lescarbault's planet4 ,but the entire set of observations of black spots require that there should be at least three new planets travelling between ,mercury and the sun4 ,many observers also set themselves the task of searching for ,vulcan1 as the supposed new planet was called4 ,they have continued fruitlessly to observe the sun for this purpose until the present time4 ,while the excitement over ,lescarbault's discovery was at its height1 another observer impugned not only the discovery but the honesty of the discoverer4 ,m4 ,liais1 a ,french astronomer of considerable skill1 formerly of the ,paris ,observatory1 but at the time of ,lescarbault's achievement in the service of the ,brazilian ,government1 published a paper1 ',sur la ,nouvelle ,planete annoncee par ,m4 ,lescarbault1' in which he endeavoured to establish the four following points3-- ,first1 the observation of ,lescarbault was never made4 ,secondly1 ,leverrier was mistaken in considering that a planet such as ,vulcan might have escaped detection when off the sun's face4 ,thirdly1 that ,vulcan would certainly have been seen during total solar eclipses1 if the planet had a real objective existence4 ,fourthly1 ,m4 ,leverrier's reasons for believing that the planet exists are based on the supposition that astronomical observations are more precise than they really are4 ,probably1 ,liais's objections would have had more weight with ,leverrier had the fourth point been omitted4 ,it was rash in a former subordinate to impugn the verdict of the chief of the ,paris ,observatory on a matter belonging to that special department of astronomy which an observatory chief might be expected to understand thoroughly4 ,it is thought daring in the extreme for one outside the circles of official astronomy 7as ,newton in ,flamstead's time1 ,sir ,w4 ,herschel in ,maskelyne's1 and ,sir ,j4 ,herschel in the present century71 to advance or maintain an opinion adverse to that of some official chief1 but for a subordinate 7even though no longer so71 to be guilty of such rash procedure 'is most tolerable and not to be endured1' as a typical official has said4 ,accordingly1 very little attention was paid by ,leverrier to ,liais's objections4 ,yet1 in some respects1 what ,m4 ,liais had to say was very much to the point4 ,at the very time when ,lescarbault was watching the black spot on the sun's face1 ,liais was examining the sun with a telescope of much greater magnifying power1 and saw no such spot4 ,his attention was specially directed to the edge of the sun 7where ,lescarbault saw the spot7 because he was engaged in determining the decrease of the sun's brightness near the edge4 ,moreover1 he was examining the very part of the sun's edge where ,lescarbault saw the planet enter1 at a time when it must have been twelve minutes in time upon the face of the sun1 and well within the margin of the solar disc4 ,the negative evidence here is strong2 though it must always be remembered that negative evidence requires to be overwhelmingly strong before it can be admitted as effective against positive evidence4 ,it seems at a first view utterly impossible that ,liais1 examining with a more powerful telescope the region where ,lescarbault saw the spot1 could have failed to see it had it been there2 but experience shows that it is not impossible for an observer engaged in examining phenomena of one class to overlook a phenomenon of another class1 even when glaringly obvious4 ,all we can say is that ,liais was not likely to have overlooked ,lescarbault's planet had it been there2 and we must combine this probability against ,vulcan's existence with arguments derived from other considerations4 ,there is also the possibility of an error in time4 ,as the writer in the ',north ,british ,review' remarks1 'twelve minutes is so short a time that it is just possible that the planet may not have entered upon the sun during the time that ,liais observed it4' ,the second and third arguments are stronger4 ,in fact1 ,i do not see how they can be resisted4 ,it is1 in the first place1 clear from ,lescarbault's account that ,vulcan must have a considerable diameter--certainly if ,vulcan's diameter in miles were only half the diameter of ,mercury1 it would have been all but impossible for ,lescarbault with his small telescope to see ,vulcan at all1 whereas he saw the black spot very distinctly4 ,say ,vulcan has half the diameter of ,mercury1 and let us compare the brightness of these two planets when at their greatest apparent distances from the sun1 that is1 when each looks like a half-moon4 ,the distance of ,mercury exceeds the estimated distance of ,vulcan from the sun as #bg exceeds #aj1 so that ,vulcan is more strongly illuminated in the proportion of #bg times #bg to #aj times #aj1 or #gbi to #ajj--say at least #g to #a4 ,but having a diameter but half as large the disc of ,vulcan could be but about a fourth of ,mercury's at the same distance from us 7and they would be at about the same distance from us when seen as half-moons74 ,hence ,vulcan would be brighter than ,mercury in the proportion of #g to #d4 ,of course being so near the sun he would not be so easily seen2 and we could never expect to see him at all1 perhaps1 with the naked eye--though even this is not certain4 ,but ,mercury1 when at the same apparent distance from the sun1 and giving less light than at his greatest seeming distance1 is quite easily seen in the telescope4 ,much more easily1 then1 should ,vulcan be seen1 if a telescope were rightly directed at such a time1 or when ,vulcan was anywhere near his greatest seeming distance from the sun4 ,now it is true astronomers do not know precisely when or where to look for him4 ,but he passes from his greatest distance on one side of the sun to his greatest distance on the other in less than ten days1 according to the computed period1 and certainly 7that is1 if the planet exists7 in a very short time4 ,the astronomer has then only to examine day after day a region of small extent on either side of the sun1 for ten or twelve days in succession 7an hour's observation each day would suffice71 to be sure of seeing ,vulcan4 ,yet many astronomers have made such search many times over1 without seeing any trace of the planet4 ,during total solar eclipses1 again1 the planet has been repeatedly looked for unsuccessfully--though it should at such a time be a very conspicuous object1 when favourably placed1 and could scarcely fail of being very distinctly seen wherever placed4 ,the fourth argument of ,lescarbault's is not so effective1 and in fact he gets beyond his depth in dealing with it4 ,but it is to be noticed that a considerable portion of the discrepancy between ,mercury's observed and calculated motions has long since been accounted for by the changed estimate of the earth's mass as compared with the sun's1 resulting from the new determination of the sun's distance4 ,however1 the arguments depending on this consideration would not be suited to these pages4 ,there was one feature in ,liais's paper which was a little unfortunate4 ,he questioned ,lescarbault's honesty4 ,he said ',lescarbault contradicts himself in having first asserted that he saw the planet enter upon the sun's disc1 and having afterwards admitted to ,leverrier that it had been on the disc some seconds before he saw it1 and that he had merely inferred the time of its entry from the rate of its motion afterwards4 ,if this one assertion be fabricated1 the whole may be so4' ',he considers these arguments to be strengthened1' says the ',north ,british ,review1' 'by the assertion which1 as we have seen1 perplexed ,leverrier himself1 that if ,m4 ,lescarbault had actually seen a planet on the sun1 he could not have kept it secret for nine months4' ,this charge of dishonesty1 unfortunate in itself1 had the unfortunate effect of preventing ,lescarbault or the ,abbe ,moigno from replying4 ,the latter simply remarked that the accusation was of such a nature as to dispense him from any obligation to refute it4 ,this was an error of judgment1 ,i cannot but think1 if an effective reply was really available4 ,the ,remarks with which the ,north ,british ,reviewer closes his account may be repeated now1 so far as they relate to the force of the negative evidence1 with tenfold effect4 ',since the first notice of the discovery in the beginning of ,january #ahfj the sun has been anxiously observed by astronomers2 and the limited area around him in which the planet must be1 if he is not upon the sun1 has doubtless been explored with equal care by telescopes of high power1 and processes by which the sun's direct light has been excluded from the tube of the telescope as well as the eye of the observer1 and yet no planet has been found4 ,this fact would entitle us to conclude that no such planet exists if its existence had been merely conjectured1 or if it had been deduced from any of the laws of planetary distance1 or even if ,leverrier or ,adams had announced it as the probable result of planetary perturbations4 ,if the finest telescopes cannot rediscover a planet which with the small power used by ,lescarbault has a visible disc1 within so limited an area of which the sun is the centre1 or rather within a narrow belt of that circle1 we should unhesitatingly declare that no such planet exists4 ,but the question assumes a very different aspect when it involves moral considerations4 ,if1' proceeds the ,reviewer1 writing in ,august #ahfj1 'after the severe scrutiny which the sun and its vicinity will undergo before and after and during his total eclipse in ,july1 no planet shall be seen2 and if no round black spot distinctly separable from the usual solar spots shall be seen on the solar spots' 7sic1 presumably solar disc was intended71 'we will not dare to say that it does not exist4 ,we cannot doubt the honesty of ,m4 ,lescarbault1 and we can hardly believe that he was mistaken4 ,no solar spot1 no floating scoria1 could maintain in its passage over the sun a circular and uniform shape1 and we are confident that no other hypothesis but that of an intra-mercurial planet can explain the phenomena seen and measured by ,m4 ,lescarbault1 a man of high character1 possessing excellent instruments1 and in every way competent to use them well1 and to describe clearly and correctly the results of his observations4 ,time1 however1 tries facts as well as speculations4 ,the phenomena observed by the ,french astronomer may never be again seen1 and the disturbance of ,mercury which rendered it probable may be otherwise explained4 ,should this be the case1 we must refer the round spot on the sun to some of those illusions of the eye or of the brain which have sometimes disturbed the tranquillity of science4' ,the evidence which has accumulated against ,vulcan in the interval since this was written is not negative only1 but partly positive1 as the following instance1 which ,i take from my own narrative at the time in a weekly journal1 serves to show3--,after more than sixteen years of fruitless watching1 astronomers learned last ,august 7#ahgf7 that in the month of ,april ,vulcan had been seen on the sun's disc in ,china4 ,on ,april #d1 it appeared1 ,herr ,weber1 an observer of considerable skill1 stationed at ,pecheli1 had seen a small round spot on the sun1 looking very much as a small planet might be expected to look4 ,a few hours later he turned his telescope upon the sun1 and lo6 the spot had vanished1 precisely as though the planet had passed away after the manner of planets in transit4 ,he forwarded the news of his observation to ,europe4 ,the astronomer ,wolff1 well known for his sun-spot studies1 carefully calculated the interval which had passed since ,lescarbault saw ,vulcan on ,march #bf1 #ahei1 and to his intense satisfaction was enabled to announce that this interval contained the calculated period of the planet an exact number of times4 ,leverrier at ,paris received the announcement still more joyfully2 while the ,abbe ,moigno1 who gave ,vulcan its name1 and has always staunchly believed in the planet's existence1 congratulated ,lescarbault warmly upon this new view of the shamefaced ,vulcan4 ,not one of those who already believed in the planet had the least doubt as to the reality of ,weber's observations1 and of these only ,lescarbault himself received the news without pleasure4 ,he1 it seems1 has never forgiven the ,germans for destroying his observatory and library during the invasion of ,france in #ahgj1 and apparently would prefer that his planet should never be seen again rather than that a ,german astronomer should have seen it4 ,but the joy of the rest and ,lescarbault's sorrow were alike premature4 ,it was found that the spot seen by ,weber had not only been observed at the ,madrid observatory1 where careful watch is kept upon the sun1 but had been photographed at ,greenwich2 and when the description of its appearance1 as seen in a powerful telescope at one station1 and its picture as photographed by a fine telescope at the other1 came to be examined1 it was proved unmistakably that the spot was an ordinary sun-spot 7not even quite round71 which had after a few hours disappeared1 as even larger sun-spots have been known to do in even a shorter time4 ,it is clear that had not ,weber's spot been fortunately seen at ,madrid and photographed at ,greenwich1 his observation would have been added to the list of recorded apparitions of ,vulcan in transit1 for it fitted in perfectly with the theory of ,vulcan's real existence4 ,i think1 indeed1 for my own part1 that the good fortune was ,weber's4 ,had it so chanced that thick weather in ,madrid and at ,greenwich had destroyed the evidence actually obtained to show that what ,weber described he really saw1 although it was not what he thought1 some of the more suspicious would have questioned whether1 in the euphonious language of the ,north ,british ,reviewer1 'the round spot on the sun' was not due 'to one of those illusions of the eye or of the brain which have sometimes disturbed the tranquillity of science4' ,of course no one acquainted with ,m4 ,weber's antecedents would imagine for a moment that he had invented the observation1 even though the objective reality of his spot had not been established4 ,but if a person who is entirely unknown1 states that he has seen ,vulcan1 there is antecedently some degree of probability in favour of the belief that the observation is as much a myth as the planet itself4 ,some observations of ,vulcan have certainly been invented4 ,i have received several letters purporting to describe observations of bodies in transit over the sun's face1 either the rate of transit1 the size of the body1 or the path along which it was said to move1 being utterly inconsistent with the theory that it was an intra-mercurial planet1 while yet 7herein is the suspicious circumstance of such narratives7 the epoch of transit accorded in the most remarkable manner with the period assigned to ,vulcan4 ,a paradoxist in ,america 7of ,louisville1 ,kentucky7 who had invented a theory of the weather1 in which the planets1 by their influence on the sun1 were supposed to produce all weather-changes1 the nearer planets being the most effective1 found his theory wanted ,vulcan very much4 ,accordingly1 he saw ,vulcan crossing the sun's face in ,september1 which1 being half a year from ,march1 is a month wherein1 according to ,lescarbault's observation1 ,vulcan may be seen in transit1 and by a strange coincidence the interval between our paradoxist's observation and ,lescarbault's exactly contained a certain number of times the period calculated by ,leverrier for ,vulcan4 ,this was a noble achievement on the part of our paradoxist4 ,at one stroke it established his theory of the weather1 and promised to ensure him text-book immortality as one of the observers of ,vulcan4 ,but1 unfortunately1 a student of science residing in ,st4 ,louis1 after leaving the ,louisville paradoxist full time to parade his discovery1 heartlessly pointed out that an exact number of revolutions of ,vulcan after ,lescarbault's ,march observation1 must of necessity have brought the planet on that side of the sun on which the earth lies in ,march1 so that to see ,vulcan so placed on the sun's face in ,september was to see ,vulcan through the sun1 a very remarkable achievement indeed4 ,the paradoxist was abashed1 the reader perhaps imagines4 ,not in the least4 ,the planet's period must have been wrongly calculated by ,leverrier--that was all3 the real period was less than half as long as ,leverrier had supposed2 and instead of having gone a certain number of times round since ,lescarbault had seen it1 ,vulcan had gone twice as many times round and half once round again4 ,the circumstance that if ,vulcan's period had been thus short1 the time of crossing the sun's face would have been much less than1 according to ,lescarbault's account1 it actually was1 had not occurred to the ,louisville weather-prophet4#ef ,leverrier's faith in ,vulcan1 however1 has remained unshaken4 ,he has used all the observations of spots which1 like ,weber's1 have been seen only for a short time4 ,at least he has used all which have not1 like ,weber's1 been proved to be only transient sun-spots4 ,selecting those which fit in well with ,lescarbault's observation1 he has pointed out how remarkable it is that they show this accord4 ,the possibility that some of them might be explicable as ,weber's proved to be1 and that some even may have been explicable as completely1 but less satisfactorily1 in another way1 seems to have been thought scarcely worth considering4 ,using the imperfect materials available1 but with exquisite skill--as a ,phidias might model an exquisite figure of materials that would presently crumble into dust--,leverrier came to the conclusion that ,vulcan would cross the sun's disc on or about ,march #bb1 #ahgf4 ',he1 therefore1' said ,sir ,g4 ,airy1 addressing the ,astronomical ,society1 'circulated a despatch among his friends1 asking them carefully to observe the sun on ,march #bb4' ,sir ,g4 ,airy1 humouring his honoured friend1 sent telegrams to ,india1 ,australia1 and ,new ,zealand1 requesting that observations might be made every two hours or oftener4 ,leverrier himself wrote to ,santiago de ,chili and other places1 so that1 including ,american and ,european observations1 the sun could be watched all through the twenty-four hours on ,march #ba1 #bb1 and #bc4 ',without saying positively that he believed or disbelieved in the existence of the planet1' proceeds the report1 ',sir ,g4 ,airy thought1 since ,m4 ,leverrier was so confident1 that the opportunity ought not to be neglected by anybody who professed to take an interest in the progress of planetary astronomy4' ,it is perhaps unnecessary to add that observations were made as requested4 ,many photographs of the sun also were taken during the hours when ,vulcan1 if he exists at all1 might be expected to cross the sun's face4 ,but the 'planet of romance1' as ,abbe ,moigno has called ,vulcan1 failed to appear1 and the opinion ,i had expressed last ,october 7',english ,mechanic and ,world of ,science1' for ,october #bg1 #ahgf1 p4 #afj71 that ,vulcan might perhaps better be called the 'planet of fiction' was pro tanto confirmed4 ,nevertheless1 ,i would not be understood to mean by the word 'fiction' aught savouring of fraud so far as ,lescarbault is concerned--,i prefer the ,north ,briton's view of ,lescarbault's spot1 that so to speak1 it was 444 the blot upon his brain1 ,that would show itself without4 ,i have left small space to treat of other fancied discoveries among the orbs of heaven4 ,yet there are some which are not only interesting but instructive1 as showing how even the most careful observers may be led astray4 ,in this respect the mistakes into which observers of great and well deserved eminence have fallen are specially worthy of attention4 ,with the description of three such mistakes1 made by no less an astronomer than ,sir ,w4 ,herschel1 ,i shall bring this paper to a close4 ,when ,sir ,w4 ,herschel examined the planet ,uranus with his most powerful telescope he saw the planet to all appearance girt about by two rings at right angles to one another4 ,the illusion was so complete that ,herschel for several years remained in the belief that the rings were real4 ,they were1 however1 mere optical illusions1 due to the imperfect defining qualities of the telescope with which he observed the planet4 ,later he wrote that 'the observations which tend to ascertain' 7indicate87 'the existence of rings not being satisfactorily supported1 it will be proper that surmises of them should either be given up1 as ill-founded1 or at least reserved till superior instruments can be provided4' ,sir ,w4 ,herschel was more completely misled by the false ,uranian satellites4 ,he had seen1 as he supposed1 no less than six of these bodies4 ,as only two of these had been seen again1 while two more were discovered by ,lassell1 the inference was that ,uranus has eight satellites in all4 ,these for a long time flourished in our text-books of astronomy2 and many writers1 confident in the care and skill of ,sir ,w4 ,herschel1 were unable for a long time to believe that he had been deceived4 ,thus ,admiral ,smyth1 in his ',celestial ,cycle1' wrote of those who doubted the extra satellites3--',they must have but a meagre notion of ,sir ,w4 ,herschel's powerful means1 his skill in their application1 and his method of deliberate procedure4 ,so far from doubting there being six satellites' 7this was before ,lassell had discovered the other two7 'it is highly probable that there are still more4' ,whewell1 also1 in his ',bridgewater ,treatise1' says1 'that though it no longer appears probable that ,uranus has a ring like ,saturn1 he has at least five satellites which are visible to us1 and we believe that the astronomer will hardly deny that he' 7,uranus1 not the astronomer71 'may possibly have thousands of smaller ones circulating about him4' ,but in this case ,sir ,w4 ,herschel1 anxiously though he endeavoured to guard against the possibility of error1 was certainly mistaken4 ,uranus may1 for anything that is known to the contrary1 have many small satellites circulating about him1 but he certainly has not four satellites 7besides those known7 which could have been seen by ,sir ,w4 ,herschel with the telescope he employed4 ,for the neighbourhood of the planet has been carefully examined with telescopes of much greater power by observers who with those telescopes have seen objects far fainter than the satellites supposed to have been seen by the elder ,herschel4 ,the third of the ,herschelian myths was the lunar volcano in eruption1 which he supposed he had seen in progress in that part of the moon which was not at the time illuminated by the sun's rays4 ,he saw a bright star-like point of light1 which corresponded in position with the crater of the lunar mountain ,aristarchus4 ,he inferred that a volcano was in active eruption because the brightness of the point of light varied from time to time1 and also because he did not remember to have seen it before under the same conditions4 ,there is no doubt something very remarkable in the way in which this part of the moon's surface shines when not illumined by the sun4 ,if it were always bright we should conclude at once that the earth-light shining upon it rendered it visible4 ,for it must be remembered that the part of the moon which looks dark 7or seems wanting to the full disc7 is illuminated by our earth1 shining in the sky of the moon as a disc thirteen times as large as that of the moon we see1 and with the same proportion of its disc sunlit as is dark in the moon's disc4 ,thus when the moon is nearly new our earth is shining in the lunar skies as a nearly full moon thirteen times as large as ours4 ,the light of this noble moon must illumine the moon's surface much more brightly than a terrestrial landscape is illumined by the full moon1 and if any parts of her surface are very white they will shine out from the surface around1 just as the snow-covered peak of a mountain shines out upon a moonlit night from among the darker hills and dales and rocks and forests of the landscape4 ,but ,herschel considered that the occasional brightness of the crater ,aristarchus could not be thus explained4 ,the spot had been seen before the time of ,herschel's observations by ,cassini and others4 ,it has been seen since by ,captain ,kater1 ,francis ,baily1 and many others4 ,dr4 ,maskelyne tells us that in ,march #agid it was seen by the naked eye by two persons4 ,baily thus describes the appearance presented by this lunar crater on ,december #bb1 #ahce3 ',directed telescope to the moon1 and pointing it to the dark part in the vicinity of ,aristarchus1 soon saw the outline of that mountain very distinctly1 formed like an irregular nebula4 ,nearly in the centre was a light resembling that of a star of the ninth or tenth magnitude4 ,it appeared by glimpses1 but at times was brilliant1 and visible for several seconds together4' ,there can be little doubt1 however1 that the apparent brightness of this lunar crater1 or rather of its summit1 is due to some peculiar quality in the surface1 which may perhaps be covered by some crystalline or vitreous matter poured out in the far distant time when the crater was an active one4 ,prof4 ,shaler1 who examined the crater when it was illuminated only by earthshine1 with the fine #ae-;inch telescope of the ,harvard ,observatory 7,cambridge ,u4,s471 says that he has been able to recognise nearly all the craters over #ae miles in diameter in the dark part4 ',there are several degrees of brightness1' he says1 'observable in the different objects which shine out by the earth-light4 ,this fact probably explains the greater part of the perplexing statements concerning the illumination of certain craters4 ,it certainly accounts for the volcanic activity which has so often been supposed to be manifested by ,aristarchus4 ,under the illumination by the earth-light this is by far the brightest object on the dark part of the moon's face1 and is visible much longer and with poorer glasses than any other object there4' ,here my record of astronomical myths must be brought to a close4 ,it will be noticed that in every instance either the illusion has affected the actual observations of eminent and skilful astronomers1 or has caused such astronomers to put faith for a while in illusory observations4 ,had ,i cared to include the mistakes which have been made by or have misled observers of less experience1 ,i could have filled many sheets for each page of the present article4 ,but it has seemed to me more instructive to show how error may affect the observations even of the most careful and deservedly eminent astronomers1 how even the most cautious may be for a time misled by the mistakes of inferior observers1 especially when the fact supposed to have been observed accords with preconceived opinions4 ,,xii4 ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,the ,,constellation-,,figures4 ,although the strange figures which astronomers still allow to straggle over their star maps no longer have any real scientific interest1 they still possess a certain charm1 not only for the student of astronomy1 but for many who care little or nothing about astronomy as a science4 ,when ,i was giving a course of twelve lectures in ,boston1 ,america1 a person of considerable culture said to me1 ',i wish you would lecture about the constellations2 ,i care little about the sun and moon and the planets1 and not much more about comets2 but ,i have always felt great interest in the ,bears and ,lions1 the ,chained and ,chaired ,ladies1 ,king ,cepheus and the ,rescuer ,perseus1 ,orion1 ,ophiuchus1 ,hercules1 and the rest of the mythical and fanciful beings with which the old astronomers peopled the heavens4 ,i say with ,carlyle1 ,why does not some one teach me the constellations1 and make me at home in the starry heavens1 which are always overhead1 and which ,i don't half know to this day4' ,we may notice1 too1 that the poets by almost unanimous consent have recognised the poetical aspect of the constellations1 while they have found little to say about subjects which belong especially to astronomy as a science4 ,milton has indeed made an ,archangel reason 7not unskilfully for ,milton's day7 about the ,ptolemaic and ,copernican systems1 while ,tennyson makes frequent reference to astronomical theories4 ',there sinks the nebulous star we call the ,sun1 if that hypothesis of theirs be sound1' said ,ida2 but she said no more1 save 'let us down and rest1' as though the subject were wearisome to her4 ,again1 in the ,palace of ,art the soul of the poet having built herself that 'great house so royal1 rich1 and wide1' thither-- 444 when all the deep unsounded skies ,shuddered with silent stars1 she clomb1 ,and as with optic glasses her keen eyes ,pierced through the mystic dome1 ,regions of lucid matter taking forms1 ,brushes of fire1 hazy gleams1 ,clusters and beds of worlds and beelike swarms ,of suns1 and starry streams3 ,she saw the snowy poles of moonless ,mars1 ,that marvellous round of milky light ,below ,orion1 and those double stars ,whereof the one more bright ,is circled by the other4 ,but the poet's soul so wearied of these astronomical researches that the beautiful lines ,i have quoted disappeared 7more's the pity7 from the second and all later editions4 ,such exceptions1 indeed1 prove the rule4 ,poets have been chary in referring to astronomical researches and results1 full though these have been of unspeakable poetry2 while from the days of ,homer to those of ,tennyson1 the constellations which 'garland the heavens' have always been favourite subjects of poetic imagery4 ,it is not my present purpose1 however1 to discuss the poetic aspect of the constellations4 ,i propose to inquire how these singular figures first found their way to the heavens1 and1 so far as facts are available for the purpose1 to determine the history and antiquity of some of the more celebrated constellations4 ,long before astronomy had any existence as a science men watched the stars with wonder and reverence4 ,those orbs1 seemingly countless--which bespangle the dark robe of night--have a charm and beauty of their own apart from the significance with which the science of astronomy has invested them4 ,the least fanciful mind is led to recognise on the celestial concave the emblems of terrestrial objects1 pictured with more or less distinctness among the mysterious star-groupings4 ,we can imagine that long before the importance of the study of the stars was recognised1 men had begun to associate with certain star-groups the names of familiar objects animate or inanimate4 ,the flocks and herds which the earliest observers of the heavens tended would suggest names for certain sets of stars1 and thus the ,bull1 the ,ram1 the ,kids1 would appear in the heavens4 ,other groups would remind those early observers of the animals from whom they had to guard their flocks1 or of the animals to whose vigilance they trusted for protection1 and thus the ,bear1 the ,lion1 and the ,dogs would find their place among the stars4 ,the figures of men and horses1 and of birds and fishes1 would naturally enough be recognised1 nor would either the implements of husbandry1 or the weapons by which the huntsman secured his prey1 remain unrepresented among the star-groupings4 ,and lastly1 the altar on which the first-fruits of harvest and vintage were presented1 or the flesh of lambs and goats consumed1 would be figured among the innumerable combinations which a fanciful eye can recognise among the orbs of heaven4 ,in thus suggesting that the first observers of the heavens were shepherds1 huntsmen1 and husbandmen1 ,i am not advancing a theory on the difficult questions connected with the origin of exact astronomy4 ,the first observations of the heavens were of necessity made by men who depended for their subsistence on a familiarity with the progress and vicissitudes of the seasons1 and doubtless preceded by many ages the study of astronomy as a science4 ,and yet the observations made by those early shepherds and hunters1 unscientific though they must have been in themselves1 are full of interest to the student of modern exact astronomy4 ,the assertion may seem strange at first sight1 but is nevertheless strictly true1 that if we could but learn with certainty the names assigned to certain star-groups1 before astronomy had any real existence1 we could deduce lessons of extreme importance from the rough observations which suggested those old names4 ,in these days1 when observations of such marvellous exactness are daily and nightly made1 when instruments capable of revealing the actual constitution of the stars are employed1 and observers are so numerous1 it may seem strange to attach any interest to the question whether half-savage races recognised in such and such a star-group the likeness of a bear1 or in another group the semblance of a ship4 ,but though we could learn more1 of course1 from exacter observations1 yet even such rough and imperfect records would have their value4 ,if we could be certain that in long-past ages a star-group really resembled some known object1 we should have in the present resemblance of that group to the same object evidence of the general constancy of stellar lustre1 or if no resemblance could be recognised we should have reason to doubt whether other suns 7and therefore our own sun7 may not be liable to great changes4 ,the subject of the constellation-figures as first known is interesting in other ways4 ,for instance1 it is full of interest to the antiquarian 7and most of us are to some degree antiquarians7 as relating to the most ancient of all human sciences4 ,the same mental quality which causes us to look with interest on the buildings raised in long-past ages1 or on the implements and weapons of antiquity1 renders the thought impressive that the stars which we see were gazed on perhaps not less wonderingly in the very infancy of the human race4 ,it is1 again1 a subject full of interest to the chronologist to inquire in what era of the world's history exact astronomy began1 the moon was assigned her twenty-eight zodiacal mansions1 the sun his twelve zodiacal signs4 ,it is well known1 indeed1 that ,newton himself did not disdain to study the questions thus suggested2 and the speculations of the ingenious ,dupuis found favour with the great mathematician ,laplace4 ,unfortunately1 the evidence is not sufficiently exact to be very trustworthy4 ,in considering1 for instance1 the chronological inquiries of ,newton1 one cannot but feel that the reliance placed by him on the statements made by different writers is not justified by the nature of those statements1 which were for the most part vague in the extreme4 ,we owe many of them to poets who1 knowing little of astronomy1 mixed up the phenomena of their own time with those which they found recorded in the writings of astronomers4 ,some of the statements left by ancient writers are indeed ludicrously incongruous2 insomuch that ,grotius not unjustly said of the account of the constellations given by the poet ,aratus1 that it could be assigned to no fixed epoch and to no fixed place4 ,however1 this would not be the place to discuss details such as are involved in exact inquiries4 ,i have indicated some of these in an appendix to my treatise on ',saturn1' and others in the preface to my ',gnomonic ,star ,atlas'2 but for the most part they do not admit very readily of familiar description4 ,let us turn to less technical considerations1 which fortunately are in this case fully as much to the point as exact inquiries1 seeing that there is no real foundation for such inquiries in any of the available evidence4 ,the first obvious feature of the old constellations is one which somehow has not received the attention it deserves4 ,it is as instructive as any of those which have been made the subject of profound research4 ,there is a great space in the heavens over which none of the old constellations extend1 except the ,river ,eridanus as now pictured1 but we do not know where this winding stream of stars was supposed by the old observers to come to an end4 ,this great space surrounds the southern pole of the heavens1 and thus shows that the first observers of the stars were not acquainted with the constellations which can be seen only from places far south of ,chaldaea1 ,persia1 ,egypt1 ,india1 ,china1 and indeed of all the regions to which the invention of astronomy has been assigned4 ,whatever the first astronomers were1 however profound their knowledge of astronomy may have been 7as some imagine71 they had certainly not travelled far enough towards the south to know the constellations around the southern pole4 ,if they had been as well acquainted with geography as some assert1 if even any astronomer had travelled as far south as the equator1 we should certainly have had pictured in the old star charts some constellations in that region of the heavens wherein modern astronomers have placed the ,octant1 the ,bird of ,paradise1 the ,sword-fish1 the ,flying-fish1 ,toucan1 the ,net1 and other uncelestial objects4 ,in passing ,i may note that this fact disposes most completely of a theory lately advanced that the constellations were invented in the southern hemisphere1 and that thus is to be explained the ancient tradition that the sun and stars have changed their courses4 ,for though all the northern constellations would have been more or less visible from parts of the southern hemisphere near the equator1 it is absurd to suppose that a southern observer would leave untenanted a full fourth of the heavens round the southern or visible pole1 while carefully filling up the space around the northern or unseen pole with incomplete constellations whose northern unknown portions would include that pole4 ,supposing it for a moment to be true1 as a modern advocate of the southern theory remarks1 that 'one of the race migrating from one side to the other of the equator would take his position from the sun1 and fancy he was facing the same way when he looked at it at noon1 and so would think the motion of the stars to have altered instead of his having turned round1' the theory that astronomy was brought to us from south of the equator cannot possibly be admitted in presence of that enormous vacant region around the southern pole4 ,i think1 however1 that1 apart from this1 a race so profoundly ignorant as to suppose any such thing1 to imagine they were looking north when in reality they were looking south1 can hardly be regarded as the first founders of the science of astronomy4 ,the great gap ,i have spoken of has long been recognised4 ,but one remarkable feature in its position has not1 to the best of my remembrance1 been considered--the vacant space is eccentric with regard to the southern pole of the heavens4 ,the old constellations1 the ,altar1 the ,centaur1 and the ship ,argo1 extend within twenty degrees of the pole1 while the ,southern ,fish and the great sea-monster ,cetus1 which are the southernmost constellations on the other side1 do not reach within some sixty degrees of the pole4 ,of course1 in saying that this peculiarity has not been considered1 ,i am not suggesting that it has not been noticed1 or that its cause is in any way doubtful or unknown4 ,we know that the earth1 besides whirling once a day on its axis1 and rushing on its mighty orbit around the sun 7spanning some #ahd1jjj1jjj of miles7 reels like a gigantic top1 with a motion so slow that #be1hfh years are required for a single circuit of the swaying axis around an imaginary line upright to the plane in which the earth travels4 ,and we know that in consequence of this reeling motion the points of the heavens opposite the earth's poles necessarily change4 ,so that the southern pole1 now eccentrically placed amid the region where there were no constellations in old times1 was once differently situated4 ,but the circumstance which seems to have been overlooked is this1 that by calculating backwards to the time when the southern pole was in the centre of that vacant region1 we have a much better chance of finding the date 7let us rather say the century7 when the older constellations were formed1 than by any other process4 ,we may be sure not to be led very far astray2 for we are not guided by one constellation but by several1 whereas all the other indications which have been followed depend on the supposed ancient position of single constellations4 ,and then most of the other indications are such as might very well have belonged to periods following long after the invention of the constellations themselves4 ,an astronomer might have ascertained1 for instance1 that the sun in spring was in some particular part of the ,ram or of the ,fishes1 and later a poet like ,aratus might describe that relation 7erroneously for his own epoch7 as characteristic of one or other constellation2 but who is to assure us that the astronomer who noted the relation correctly may not have made his observation many hundreds of years after those constellations were invented8 ,whereas1 there was one period1 and only one period1 when the most southernmost of the old constellations could have marked the limits of the region of sky visible from some northern region4 ,thus1 too1 may we form some idea of the latitude in which the first observers lived4 ,for in high latitudes the southernmost of the old constellations would not have been visible at all1 and in latitudes much lower than a certain latitude1 presently to be noted1 these constellations would have ridden high above the southern horizon1 other star-groups showing below them which were not included among the old constellations4 ,i have before me as ,i write a picture of the southern heavens1 drawn by myself1 in which this vacant space--eccentric in position but circular in shape--is shown4 ,the centre lies close by the ,lesser ,magellanic cloud--between the stars ,kappa ,toucani and ,eta ,hydri of our modern maps1 but much nearer to the last named4 ,near this spot1 then1 we may be sure1 lay the southern pole of the star-sphere when the old constellations1 or at least the southern ones1 were invented4 7,if there had been astronomers in the southern hemisphere ,eta ,hydri would certainly have been their pole-star47 ,now it is a matter of no difficulty whatever to determine the epoch when the southern pole of the heavens was thus placed4#eg ,between #bajj and #bbjj years before the ,christian era the southern constellations had the position described1 the invisible southern pole lying at the centre of the vacant space of the star-sphere--or rather of the space free from constellations4 ,it is noteworthy that for other reasons this period1 or rather a definite epoch within it1 is indicated as that to which must be referred the beginning of exact astronomy4 ,amongst others must be mentioned this--that in the year #bagj ,b4,c4 quam proxime1 the ,pleiades rose to their highest above the horizon at noon 7or technically made their noon culmination71 at the spring equinox4 ,we can readily understand that to minds possessed with full faith in the influence of the stars on the earth1 this fact would have great significance4 ,the changes which are brought about at that season of the year1 in reality1 of course1 because of the gradual increase in the effect of the sun's rays as he rises higher and higher above the celestial equator1 would be attributed1 in part at least1 to the remarkable star-cluster coming then close by the sun on the heavens1 though unseen4 ,thus we can readily understand the reference in ,job to the 'sweet influences of the ,pleiades4' ,again at that same time1 #bagj ,b4,c4 when the sun and the ,pleiades opened the year 7with commencing spring7 together1 the star ,alpha of the ,dragon1 which was the pole-star of the period1 had that precise position with respect to the true pole of the heavens which is indicated by the slope of the long passage extending downwards aslant from the northern face of the ,great ,pyramid2 that is to say1 when due north below the pole 7or at what is technically called its sub-polar meridional passage7 the pole-star of the period shone directly down that long passage1 and ,i doubt not could be seen not only when it came to that position during the night1 but also when it came there during the day-time4 ,but some other singular relations are to be noted in connection with the particular epoch ,i have indicated4 ,it is tolerably clear that in imagining figures of certain objects in the heavens1 the early observers would not be apt to picture these objects in unusual positions4 ,a group of stars may form a figure so closely resembling that of a familiar object that even a wrong position would not prevent the resemblance from being noticed1 as for instance the ',chair1' the ',plough1' and so forth4 ,but such cases are not numerous2 indeed1 to say the truth1 one must 'make believe a good deal' to see resemblance between the star-groups and most of the constellation-figures1 even under the most favourable conditions4 ,when there is no very close resemblance1 as is the case with all the large constellations1 position must have counted for something in determining the association between a star-group and a known object4 ,now the constellations north of the equator assume so many and such various positions that this special consideration does not apply very forcibly to them4 ,but those south of the equator are only seen above the southern horizon1 and change little in position during their progress from east to west of the south point4 ,the lower down they are the less they change in position4 ,and the very lowest--such as those were1 for instance1 which ,i have been considering in determining the position of the southern pole--are only fully visible when due south4 ,they must1 then1 in all probability1 have stood upright or in their natural position when so placed1 for if they were not rightly placed then they only were so when below the horizon and consequently invisible4 ,let us1 then1 inquire what was the position of the southernmost constellations when fully seen above the southern horizon at midnight4 ,the ,centaur stood then as he does now1 upright2 only--whereas now in ,egypt1 ,chaldaea1 ,india1 ,persia1 and ,china1 only the upper portions of his figure rise above the horizon1 he then stood1 the noblest save ,orion of all the constellations1 with his feet 7marked by the bright ,alpha and ,beta still belonging to the constellation1 and by the stars of the ,southern ,cross which have been taken from it7 upon the horizon itself4 ,in latitude twenty degrees or so north he may still be seen thus placed when due south4 ,the ,centaur was represented in old times as placing an offering upon the altar1 which was pictured1 says ,manilius1 as bearing a fire of incense represented by stars4 ,this to a student of our modern charts seems altogether perplexing4 ,the ,centaur carries the wolf on the end of his spear2 but instead of placing the wolf 7not a very acceptable meat offering1 one would suppose7 upon the altar1 he is directing this animal towards the base of the altar1 whose top is downwards1 the flames represented there tending 7naturally7 downwards also4 ,it is quite certain the ancient observers did not imagine anything of this sort4 ,as ,i have said1 ,aratus tells us the celestial ,centaur was placing an offering upon the altar1 which was therefore upright1 and ,manilius describes the altar as ,ferens thuris1 stellis imitantibus1 ignem1 so that the fire was where it should be1 on the top of an upright altar1 where also on the sky itself were stars looking like the smoke from incense fires4 ,now that was precisely the appearance presented by the stars forming the constellation at the time ,i have indicated1 some #bagj years ,b4,c4 ,setting the altar upright above the southern horizon 7that is1 inverting the absurd picture at present given of it7 we see it just where it should be placed to receive the ,centaur's offering4 ,a most remarkable portion of the ,milky ,way is then seen to be directly above the altar in such a way as to form a very good imitation of smoke ascending from it4 ,this part of the ,milky ,way is described by ,sir ,j4 ,herschel1 who studied it carefully during his stay at the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 as forming a complicated system of interlaced streaks and masses which covers the tail of ,scorpio 7extending from the altar which lies immediately south of the ,scorpion's ,tail74 ,the ,milky ,way divides1 in fact1 just above the altar as the constellation was seen #djjj years ago above the southern horizon1 one branch being that just described1 the other 7like another stream of smoke7 'passing1' says ,herschel1 'over the stars ,iota of the ,altar1 ,theta and ,iota of the ,scorpion1 etc41 to ,gamma of the ,archer1 where it suddenly collects into a vivid oval mass1 so very rich in stars that a very moderate calculation makes their number exceed #ajj1jjj4' ,nothing could accord better with the descriptions of ,aratus and ,manilius4 ,but there is another constellation which shows in a more marked way than either the ,centaur or the ,altar that the date when the constellations were invented must have been near that which ,i have named4 ,both ,ara and ,centaurus look now in suitable latitudes 7about twenty degrees north7 as they looked in higher latitudes 7about forty degrees north7 #djjj years ago4 ,for1 the reeling motion of our earth has changed the place of the celestial pole in such a way as only to depress these constellations southwards without much changing their position2 they are nearly upright when due south now as they were #djjj years ago1 only lower down4 ,but the great ship ,argo has suffered a much more serious displacement4 ,one cannot now see this ship like a ship at any time or from any place on the earth's surface4 ,if we travel south till the whole constellation comes into visibility above the southern horizon at the proper season 7,january and ,february for the midnight hours7 the keel of the ship is aslant1 the stern being high above the waist 7the fore part is wanting74 ,if we travel still further south1 we can indeed reach places where the course of the ship is so widened1 and the changes of position so increased1 that she appears along part of her journey on an even keel1 but then she is high above the horizon4 ,now #djjj years ago she stood on the horizon itself at her southern culmination1 with level keel and upright mast4 ,in passing ,i may note that for my own part ,i imagine that this great ship represented the ,ark1 its fore part being originally the portion of the ,centaur now forming the horse1 so that the ,centaur was represented as a man 7not as a man-horse7 offering a gift on the ,altar4 ,thus in this group of constellations ,i recognise the ,ark1 and ,noah going up from the ,ark towards the altar 'which he builded unto the ,lord2 and took of every clean beast1 and of every clean fowl1 and offered burnt offerings on the altar4' ,i consider further that the constellation-figures of the ,ship1 the ,man with an offering1 and the ,altar1 painted or sculptured in some ancient astrological temple1 came at a later time to be understood as picturing a certain series of events1 interpreted and expanded by a poetical writer into a complete narrative4 ,without venturing to insist on so heterodox a notion1 ,i may remark as an odd coincidence that probably such a picture or sculpture would have shown the smoke ascending from the ,altar which ,i have already described1 and in this smoke there would be shown the bow of ,sagittarius2 which1 interpreted and expanded in the way ,i have mentioned1 might have accounted for the 'bow set in the clouds1 for a token of a covenant4' ,it is noteworthy that all the remaining constellations forming the southern limit of the old star-domes or charts1 were watery ones--the ,southern ,fish1 over which ,aquarius is pouring a quite unnecessary stream of water1 the ,great ,sea ,monster towards which in turn flow the streams of the ,river ,eridanus4 ,the equator1 too1 was then occupied along a great part of its length by the great sea serpent ,hydra1 which reared its head above the equator1 very probably indicated then by a water horizon1 for nearly all the signs below it were then watery4 ,at any rate1 as the length of ,hydra then lay horizontally above the ,ship1 whose masts reached it1 we may well believe that this part of the picture of the heavens showed a sea-horizon and a ship1 the great sea serpent lying along the horizon4 ,on the back of ,hydra is the ,raven1 which again may be supposed by those who accept the theory mentioned above to have suggested the raven which went forth to and fro from the ark4 ,he is close enough to the rigging of ,argo to make an easy journey of it4 ,the dove1 however1 must not be confounded with the modern constellation ,columba1 though this is placed 7suitably enough7 near the ,ark4 ,we must suppose the idea of the dove was suggested by a bird pictured in the rigging of the celestial ship4 ,the sequence in which the constellations came above the horizon as the year went round corresponded very satisfactorily with the theory1 fanciful though this seem to some4 ,first ,aquarius pouring streams of water1 the three fishes 7,pisces and ,piscis australis71 and the great sea monster ,cetus1 showing how the waters prevailed over the highest hills1 then the ,ark sailing on the waters1 a little later the ,raven 7,corvus71 the man descending from the ark and offering a gift on the ,altar1 and last the ,bow set amid the clouds4 ,the theory just described may not meet with much favour4 ,but wilder theories of the story of the deluge have been adopted and advocated with considerable confidence4 ,one of the wildest1 ,i fear1 is the ,astronomer-,royal's1 that the deluge was simply a great rising of the ,nile2 and ,sir ,g4 ,airy is so confident respecting this that he says1 ',i cannot entertain the smallest doubt that the flood of ,noah was a flood of the ,nile2' precisely as he might say1 ',i cannot entertain the smallest doubt that the earth moves round the sun4' ,on one point we can entertain very little doubt indeed4 ,if it ever rained before the flood1 which seems probable1 and if the sun ever shone on falling rain1 which again seems likely1 nothing short of a miracle could have prevented the rainbow from making its appearance before the flood4 ,the wildest theory that can be invented to explain the story of the deluge cannot be wilder than the supposition that the rays of sunlight shining on falling raindrops could have ever failed to show the prismatic colours4 ,the theory ,i have suggested above1 without going so far as strongly to advocate it1 far less insist upon it1 is free at any rate from objection on this particular score1 which cannot be said of the ordinary theory4 ,i am not yet able1 however1 to say that ',i cannot entertain the smallest doubt' about my theory4 ,we may feel tolerably sure that the period when the old southern constellations were formed must have been between #bdjj and #bjjj years before the present era1 a period1 by the way1 including the date usually assigned to the deluge1--which1 however1 must really occupy our attention no further4 ,in fact1 let us leave the watery constellations lying below the equator of those remote times and seek at once the highest heavens above them4 ,here1 at the northern pole of these days1 we find the great ,dragon1 which in any astrological temple of the time must have formed the highest or crowning constellation1 surrounding the very key-stone of the dome4 ,he has fallen away from that proud position since4 ,in fact1 even #djjj years ago he only held to the pole1 so to speak1 by his tail1 and we have to travel back #bjjj years or so to find the pole situate in a portion of the length of the ,dragon which can be regarded as central4 ,one might almost1 if fancifully disposed1 recognise the gradual displacement of the ,dragon from his old place of honour1 in certain traditions of the downfall of the great ,dragon whose 'tail drew the third part of the stars of heaven4' ,the central position of the ,dragon1 for even when the pole-star had drawn near to the ,dragon's tail the constellation was still central1 will remind the classical reader of ,homer's description of the ,shield of ,hercules-- ,the scaly horror of a dragon1 coil'd ,full in the central field1 unspeakable1 ,with eyes oblique retorted1 that ascant ,shot gleaming fire4 7,elton's translation47 ,i say ,homer's description1 for ,i cannot understand how any one who compares together the description of the ,shield of ,achilles in the ,iliad and that of the ,shield of ,hercules in the fragmentary form in which we have it1 can doubt for a moment that both descriptions came from the same hand4 7,the theory that ,hesiod composed the latter poem can scarcely be entertained by any scholar47 ,as ,i long since pointed out in my essay ',a ,new ,theory of ,achilles' ,shield' 7',light ,science1' first series71 no poet so inferior as actually to borrow ,homer's words in part of the description of the ,shield of ,hercules could have written the other parts not found in the ,shield of ,achilles4 ',i cannot for my own part entertain the slightest doubt'--that is to say1 ,i think it altogether probable--that ,homer composed the lines supposed to describe the ,shield of ,hercules long before he introduced the description1 pruned and strengthened1 into that particular part of the ,iliad where it served his purpose best4 ,and ,i have as little doubt that the original description1 of which we only get fragments in either poem1 related to something far more important than a shield4 ,the constellations are not suitable adornments for the shield of fighting man1 even though he was under the special care of a celestial mother and had armour made for him by a celestial smith4 ,yet we learn that ,achilles' shield displayed-- ,the starry lights that heav'n's high convex crown'd ,the ,pleiads1 ,hyads1 and the northern beam1 ,and great ,orion's more refulgent beam1-- ,to which1 around the cycle of the sky1 ,the bear revolving1 points his golden eye1-- ,still shines exalted4 ,and so forth4 ,the ,shield of ,hercules displayed at its centre the polar constellation the ,dragon4 ,we read also that-- ,there was the knight of fair-hair'd ,danae born1 ,perseus4 ,orion is not specially mentioned1 but ,orion1 ,lepus1 and the ,dogs seem referred to3-- ,men of chase ,were taking the fleet hares2 two keen-toothed dogs ,bounded beside4 ,homer would find no difficulty in pluralising the mighty ,hunter and the hare into huntsmen and hares when utilising a description originally referring to the constellation4 ,i conceive that the original description related to one of those zodiac temples whose remains are still found in ,egypt1 though the ,egyptian temples of this kind were probably only copies of more ancient ,chaldaean temples4 ,we know from ,assyrian sculptures that representations of the constellations 7and especially the zodiacal constellations7 were common among the ,babylonians2 and1 as ,i point out in the essay above referred to1 'it seems probable that in a country where ,sabaeanism or star-worship was the prevailing form of religion1 yet more imposing proportions would be given to zodiac temples than in ,egypt4' ,my theory1 then1 respecting the two famous ',shields' is that ,homer in his eastern travels visited imposing temples devoted to astronomical observation and star-worship1 and that nearly every line in both descriptions is borrowed from a poem in which he described a temple of this sort1 its domed zodiac1 and those illustrations of the labours of different seasons and of military or judicial procedures which the astrological proclivities of star-worshippers led them to associate with the different constellations4 ,for the arguments on which this theory is based ,i have not here space4 ,they are dealt with in the essay from which ,i have quoted4 ,one point only ,i need touch upon here1 besides those ,i have mentioned already4 ,it may be objected that the description of a zodiac temple has nothing to connect it with the subject of the ,iliad4 ,this is certainly true2 but no one who is familiar with ,homer's manner can doubt that he would work in1 if he saw the opportunity1 a poem on some subject outside that of the ,iliad1 so modifying the language that the description would correspond with the subject in hand4 ,there are many passages1 though none of such length1 in both the ,iliad and the ,odyssey1 which seem thus to have been brought into the poem2 and other passages not exactly of this kind yet show that ,homer was not insensible to the advantage of occasionally using memory instead of invention4 ,any one who considers attentively the aspect of the constellation ,draco in the heavens1 will perceive that the drawing of the head in the maps is not correct2 the head is no longer pictured as it must have been conceived by those who first formed the constellation4 ,the two bright stars ,beta and ,gamma are now placed on a head in profile4 ,formerly they marked the two eyes4 ,i would not lay stress on the description of the ,dragon in the ,shield of ,hercules1 'with eyes oblique retorted1 that askant shot gleaming fire2' for all readers may not be prepared to accept my opinion that that description related to the constellation ,draco4 ,but the description of the constellation itself by ,aratus suffices to show that the two bright stars ,i have named marked the eyes of the imagined monster--in fact1 ,aratus's account singularly resembles that given in the ,shield of ,hercules4 ',swol'n is his neck1' says ,aratus of the ,dragon-- 444 ,eyes charg'd with sparkling fire ,his crested head illume4 ,as if in ire1 ,to ,helice he turns his foaming jaw1 ,and darts his tongue1 barb'd with a blazing star4 ,and the dragon's head with sparkling eyes can be recognised to this day1 so soon as this change is made in its configuration1 whereas no one can recognise the remotest resemblance to a dragon's head in profile4 ,the star barbing the ,dragon's tongue would be ,xi of the ,dragon according to ,aratus's account1 for so only would the eyes be turned towards ,helice the ,bear4 ,but when ,aratus wrote1 the practice of separating the constellations from each other had been adopted2 in fact1 he derived his knowledge of them chiefly from ,eudoxus1 the astronomer and mathematician1 who certainly would not have allowed the constellations to be intermixed4 ,in the beginning1 there are reasons for believing it was different1 and if a group of stars resembled any known object it would be called after that object1 even though some of the stars necessary to make up the figure belonged already to some other figure4 ,this being remembered1 we can have no difficulty in retorting the ,dragon's head more naturally--not to the star ,xi of the ,dragon1 but to the star ,iota of ,hercules4 ,the four stars are situated thus1 ,illustration the larger ones representing the eyes2 and so far as the head is concerned it is a matter of indifference whether the lower or the upper small star be taken to represent the tongue4 ,but1 as any one will see who looks at these stars when the ,dragon is best placed for ordinary 7non-telescopic7 observation1 the attitude of the animal is far more natural when the star ,iota of ,hercules marks the tongue1 for then the creature is situated like a winged serpent hovering above the horizon and looking downwards1 whereas when the star ,xi marks the tongue1 the hovering ,dragon is looking upwards and is in an unnaturally constrained position4 7,i would not1 indeed1 claim to understand perfectly all the ways of dragons2 still it may be assumed that a dragon hovering above the horizon would rather look downwards in a natural position than upwards in an awkward one47 ,the star ,iota of ,hercules marks the heel of this giant1 called the ,kneeler 7,engonasin7 from time immemorial4 ,he must have been an important figure on the old zodiac temples1 and not improbably his presence there as one of the largest and highest of the human figures may have caused a zodiac-dome to be named after ,hercules4 ,the ,dome of ,hercules would come near enough to the title1 ',the ,shield of ,hercules1' borne by the fragmentary poem dealt with above4 ,the foot of the kneeling man was represented on the head of the dragon1 the dragon having hold of the heel4 ,and here1 again1 some imagine that a sculptured representation of these imagined figures in the heavens may have been interpreted and expanded into the narrative of a contest between the man and the old serpent the dragon1 ,ophiuchus the serpent-bearer being supposed to typify the eventual defeat of the dragon4 ,this fancy might be followed out like that relating to the deluge2 but the present place would be unsuitable for further inquiries in that particular direction4 ,some interest attaches to the constellation ,ophiuchus1 to my mind1 in the evidence it affords respecting the way in which the constellations were at first intermixed4 ,i have mentioned one instance in which1 as ,i think1 the later astronomers separated two constellations which had once been conjoined4 ,many others can be recognised when we compare the actual star-groups with the constellation-figures as at present depicted4 ,no one can recognise the poop of a ship in the group of stars now assigned to the stern of ,argo1 but if we include the stars of the ,greater ,dog1 and others close by1 a well-shaped poop can be clearly seen4 ,the head of the ,lion of our maps is as the head of a dog1 so far as stars are concerned2 but if stars from the ,crab on one side and from ,virgo on the other be included in the figure1 and especially ,berenice's hair to form the tuft of the lion's tail1 a very fine lion with waving mane can be discerned1 with a slight effort of the imagination4 ,so with ,bootes the herdsman4 ,he was of old 'a fine figure of a man1' waving aloft his arms1 and1 as his name implies1 shouting lustily at the retreating bear4 ,now1 and from some time certainly preceding that of ,eudoxus1 one arm has been lopped off to fashion the northern crown1 and the herdsman holds his club as close to his side as a soldier holds his shouldered musket4 ,the constellation of the ,great ,bear1 once ,i conceive the only bear 7though the lesser bear is a very old constellation71 has suffered wofully4 ,originally it must have been a much larger bear1 the stars now forming the tail marking part of the outline of the back2 but first some folks who were unacquainted with the nature of bears turned the three stars 7the horses of the plough7 into a long tail1 abstracting from the animal all the corresponding portion of his body1 and then modern astronomers finding a great vacant space where formerly the bear's large frame extended1 incontinently formed the stars of this space into a new constellation1 the ,hunting ,dogs4 ,no one can recognise a bear in the constellation as at present shaped1 but any one who looks attentively at the part of the skies occupied by the constellation will recognise 7always 'making believe a good deal'7 a monstrous bear1 with the proper small head of creatures of the bear family1 and with exceedingly well-developed plantigrade feet4 ,of course this figure cannot at all times be recognised with equal facility2 but before midnight during the last four or five months in the year1 the bear occupies positions favouring his recognition1 being either upright on his feet1 or as if descending a slope1 or squatting on his great haunches4 ,as a long-tailed animal the creature is more like one of those wooden toy-monkeys which used to be made for children1 and may be now1 in which the sliding motion of a ringed rod carried the monkey over the top of a stick4 ,the little bear has ,i think been borrowed from the dragon1 which was certainly a winged monster originally4 ,now the astronomers who separated from each other1 and in so doing spoiled the old constellation-figures1 seem to have despaired of freeing ,ophiuchus from his entanglements4 ,the ,serpent is twined around his body1 the ,scorpion is clawing at one leg4 ,the constellation makers have per fas et nefas separated ,scorpio from the ,serpent ,holder1 spoiling both figures4 ,but the ,serpent has been too much for them1 insomuch that they have been reduced to the abject necessity of leaving one part of the ,serpent on one side of the region they allow to ,ophiuchus1 and the other part of the ,serpent to the other4 ,a group of constellations whose origin and meaning are little understood remains to be mentioned4 ,close by the ,dragon is ,king ,cepheus1 beside him his wife ,cassiopeia 7the ,seated ,lady71 near whom is ,andromeda the ,chained ,lady4 ,the ,sea ,monster ,cetus is not far away1 though not near enough to threaten her safety1 the ,ram and ,triangle being between the monster's head and her feet1 the ,fishes intervening between the body of the monster and her fair form4 ,close at hand is ,perseus1 the ,rescuer1 with a sword 7looking very much like a reaping-hook in all the old pictures7 in his right hand1 and bearing in his left the head of ,medusa4 ,the general way of accounting for the figures thus associated has been by supposing that1 having a certain tradition about ,cepheus and his family1 men imagined in the heavens the pictorial representation of the events of the tradition4 ,i have long believed that the actual order in this and other cases was the reverse of this1 that men imagined certain figures in the heavens1 pictured these figures in their astronomical temples or observatories1 and made stories to fit the pictures afterwards1 probably many generations afterwards4 ,be this as it may1 we can at present give no satisfactory explanation of the group of constellations4 ,wilford gives an account1 in his ',asiatic ,researches1' of a conversation with a pundit or astronomer respecting the names of the ,indian constellations4 ',asking him1' he says1 'to show me in the heavens the constellation ,antarmada1 he immediately pointed to ,andromeda1 though ,i had not given him any information about it beforehand4 ,he afterwards brought me a very rare and curious work in ,sanscrit1 which contained a chapter devoted to ,upanachatras1 or extra-zodiacal constellations1 with drawings of ,capuja 7,cepheus7 and of ,casyapi 7,cassiopeia7 seated and holding a lotus-flower in her hand1 of ,antarmada charmed with the ,fish beside her1 and last of ,paraseia 7,perseus71 who1 according to the explanation of the book1 held the head of a monster which he had slain in combat2 blood was dropping from it1 and for hair it had snakes4' ,some have inferred from the circumstance that the ,indian charts thus showed the ,cassiopeian set of constellations1 that the origin of these figures is to be sought in ,india4 ,but probably both the ,indian and the ,greek constellation-figures were derived from a much older source4 ,the zodiacal twelve are in some respects the most important and interesting of all the ancient constellations4 ,if we could determine the origin of these figures1 their exact configuration as at first devised1 and the precise influences assigned to them in the old astrological systems1 we should have obtained important evidence as to the origin of astronomy itself4 ,not indeed that the twelve signs of the zodiac were formed at the beginning or even in the early infancy of astronomy4 ,it seems abundantly clear that the division of the zodiac 7which includes the moon's track as well as the sun's7 had reference originally to the moon's motions4 ,she circuits the star-sphere in about twenty-seven days and a third1 while the lunation or interval from new moon to new moon is1 as we all know1 about twenty-nine days and a half in length4 ,it would appear that the earliest astronomers1 who were of course astrologers also1 of all nations--the ,indian1 ,egyptian1 ,chinese1 ,persian1 and ,chaldaean astronomers--adopted twenty-eight days 7probably as a rough mean between the two periods just named7 for their chief lunar period1 and divided the moon's track round the ecliptic into twenty-eight portions or mansions4 ,how they managed about the fractions of days outstanding--whether the common lunation was considered or the moon's motion round the star-sphere--is not known4 ,the very circumstance1 however1 that they were for a long time content with their twenty-eight lunar mansions shows that they did not seek great precision at first4 ,doubtless they employed some rough system of 'leap-months' by which1 as occasion required1 the progress of the month was reconciled with the progress of the moon1 just as by our leap-years the progress of the year is reconciled with the progress of the sun or seasons4 ,the use of the twenty-eight-day period naturally suggested the division of time into weeks of seven days each4 ,the ordinary lunar month is divided in a very obvious manner into four equal parts by the lunar aspects4 ,every one can recognise roughly the time of full moon and the times of half moon before and after full1 while the time of new moon is recognised from these two last epochs4 ,thus the four quarters of the month1 or roughly the four weeks of the month1 would be the first time-measure thought of2--after the day1 which is the necessary foundation of all time measures4 ,the nearest approach which can be made to a quarter-month in days is the week of seven days2 and although some little awkwardness arose from the fact that four weeks differ appreciably from a lunar month1 this would not long prevent the adoption of the week as a measure of time4 ,in fact1 just as our years begin on different days of the week without causing any inconvenience1 so the ancient months might be made to begin with different week-days4 ,all that would be necessary to make the week measure fairly well the quarters of the month1 would be to start each month on the proper or nearest week-day4 ,to inform people about this1 some ceremony could be appointed for the day of the new moon1 and some signal employed to indicate the time when this ceremony was to take place4 ,this--the natural and obvious course--we find was the means actually adopted1 the festival of the new moon and the blowing of trumpets in the new moon being an essential part of the arrangements adopted by nations who used the week as a chief measure of time4 ,the seven days were not affected by the new moons so far as the nomenclature of these days1 or special duties connected with any one of them1 might be concerned4 ,originally the idea may have been to have festivals and sacrifices at the time of new moon1 first quarter1 full moon1 and third quarter2 but this arrangement would naturally 7and did1 as we know1 actually7 give way before long to a new moon festival regulating the month and seventh-day festivals1 each class of festival having its appropriate sacrifices and duties4 ,this1 ,i say1 was the natural course4 ,its adoption may have been aided by the recognition of the fact that the seven planets of the old system of astronomy might conveniently be taken to rule the days and the hours in the way described in the essay on astrology4 ,that that nomenclature and that system of association between the planets and the hours1 days1 and weeks of time-measurement was eventually adopted1 is certain2 but whether the convenience and apparent mystical fitness of this arrangement led to the use of weekly festivals in conjunction with monthly ones1 or whether those weekly festivals were first adopted in the way described above1 or whether 7which seems altogether more likely7 both sets of considerations led to the arrangement1 we cannot certainly tell4 ,the arrangement was in every way a natural one2 and one may say1 considering all the circumstances1 that it was almost an inevitable one4 ,there was1 however1 another possible arrangement1 viz41 the division of time into ten-day periods1 three to each month1 with corresponding new moon festivals4 ,but as the arrival of the moon at the thirds of her progress are not at all so well marked as her arrival at the quarters1 and as there is no connection between the number ten and the planets1 this arrangement was far less likely to be adopted than the other4 ,accordingly we find that only one or two nations adopted it4 ,six sets of five days would be practically the same arrangement2 five sets of six for each month would scarcely be thought of1 as with that division the use of simple direct observations of the moon for time measurement1 which was the real aim of all such divisions1 would not be convenient or indeed even possible for the generality of persons4 ,few could tell easily when the moon is two-fifths or four-fifths full1 whereas every one can tell when she is half-full or quite full 7the requisite for weekly measurement72 and it would be possible to guess pretty nearly when she is one-third or two-thirds full1 the requisite for the tridecennial division4 ,my object in the above discussion of the origin of the week 7as distinguished from the origin of the ,sabbath1 which ,i considered in the essay on astrology71 has been to show that the use of the twelve zodiacal signs was in every case preceded by the use of the twenty-eight lunar mansions4 ,it has been supposed that those nations in whose astronomy the twenty-eight mansions still appear1 adopted one system1 while the use of the twelve signs implies that another system had been adopted4 ,thus the following passage occurs in ,mr4 ,blake's version of ,flammarion's ',history of the ,heavens3'--'the ,chinese have twenty-eight constellations1 though the word sion does not mean a group of stars1 but simply a mansion or hotel4 ,in the ,coptic and ancient ,egyptian the word for constellations has the same meaning4 ,they also have twenty-eight1 and the same number is found among the ,arabians1 ,persians1 and ,indians4 ,among the ,chaldaeans or ,accadians we find no sign of the number twenty-eight4 ,the ecliptic1 or yoke of the sky1 with them1 as we see in the newly-discovered tablet1 was divided into twelve divisions1 as now1 and the only connection that can be imagined between this and the twenty-eight is the opinion of ,m4 ,biot1 who thinks that the ,chinese had originally only twenty-four mansions1 four more being added by ,chenkung1 #aajj ,b4,c41 and that they corresponded with the twenty-four stars1 twelve to the north and twelve to the south1 that marked the twelve signs of the zodiac amongst the ,chaldaeans4 ,but under this supposition the twenty-eight has no reference to the moon1 whereas we have every reason to believe it has4' ,the last observation is undoubtedly correct--the twenty-eight mansions have been mansions of the moon from the beginning4 ,but in this very circumstance1 as also in the very tablets referred to in the preceding passage1 we find all the evidence needed to show that originally the ,chaldaeans divided the zodiac into twenty-eight parts4 ,for we find from the tablets that1 like the other nations who had twenty-eight zodiacal mansions1 the ,chaldaeans used a seven-day period1 derived from the moon's motions1 every seventh day being called sabbatu1 and held as a day of rest4 ,we may safely infer that the ,chaldaean astronomers1 advancing beyond those of other nations1 recognised the necessity of dividing the zodiac with reference to the sun's motions instead of the moon's4 ,they therefore discarded the twenty-eight lunar mansions1 and adopted instead twelve solar signs2 this number twelve1 like the number twenty-eight itself1 being selected merely as the most convenient approximation to the number of parts into which the zodiac was naturally divided by another period4 ,thus the twenty-eighth part of the zodiac corresponds roughly with the moon's daily motion1 and the twelfth part of the zodiac corresponds roughly with the moon's monthly motion2 and both the numbers twenty-eight and twelve admit of being subdivided1 while twenty-nine 7a nearer approach than twenty-eight to the number of days in a lunation7 and thirteen 7almost as near an approach as twelve to the number of months in a year7 do not4 ,it seems to me highly probable that the date to which all inquiries into the origin of the constellations and the zodiacal signs seems to point--viz4 #bagj ,b4,c4--was the date at which the ,chaldaean astronomers definitely adopted the new system1 the lunisolar instead of lunar division of the zodiac and of time4 ,one of the objects which the architects of the ,great ,pyramid 7not the king who built it7 may have had was not improbably this--the erection of a building indicating the epoch when the new system was entered upon1 and defining in its proportions1 its interior passages1 and other features1 fundamental elements of the new system4 ,the great difficulty1 an overwhelming difficulty it has always seemed to me1 in accepting the belief that the year #bagj ,b4,c4 defined the beginning of exact astronomy1 has been this1 that several of the circumstances insisted upon as determining that date imply a considerable knowledge of astronomy4 ,thus astronomers must have made great progress in their science before they could select as a day for counting from1 the epoch when the slow reeling motion of the earth 7the so-called precessional motion7 brought the ,pleiades centrally south1 at noon1 at the time of the vernal equinox4 ,the construction of the ,great ,pyramid1 again1 in all its astronomical features1 implies considerable proficiency in astronomical observation4 ,thus the year #bagj ,b4,c4 may very well be regarded as defining the introduction of a new system of astronomy1 but certainly not the beginning of astronomy itself4 ,of course we may cut the knot of this difficulty1 as ,prof4 ,smyth and ,abbe ,moigno do1 by saying that astronomy began #bagj ,b4,c41 the first astronomers being instructed supernaturally1 so that the astronomical ,minerva came into full-grown being4 ,but ,i apprehend that argument against such a belief is as unnecessary as it would certainly be useless4 ,and now let us consider how this theory accords with the result to which we were led by the position of the great vacant space around the southern pole4 ,so far as the date is concerned1 we have already seen that the epoch #bagj ,b4,c4 accords excellently with the evidence of the vacant space4 ,but this evidence1 as ,i mentioned at the outset1 establishes more than the date2 it indicates the latitude of the place where the most ancient of ,ptolemy's forty-eight constellations were first definitely adopted by astronomers4 ,if we assume that at this place the southernmost constellations were just fully seen when due south1 we find for the latitude about thirty-eight degrees north4 7,the student of astronomy who may care to test my results may be reminded here that it is not enough to show that every star of a constellation would when due south be above the horizon of the place--what is wanted is1 that the whole constellation when towards the south should be visible at a single view4 ,however1 the whole constellation may not have included all the stars now belonging to it47 ,the station of the astronomers who founded the new system can scarcely have been more than a degree or two north of this latitude4 ,on the other side1 we may go a little further1 for by so doing we only raise the constellations somewhat higher above the southern horizon1 to which there is less objection than to a change thrusting part of the constellations below the horizon4 ,still it may be doubted whether the place where the constellations were first formed was less than #cb or #cc degrees north of the equator4 ,the ,great ,pyramid1 as we know1 is about #cj degrees north of the equator2 but we also know that its architects travelled southwards to find a suitable place for it4 ,one of their objects may well have been to obtain a fuller view of the star-sphere south of their constellations4 ,i think from #ce to #ci degrees north would be about the most probable limits1 and from #cb to #da degrees north the certain limits of the station of the first founders of solar zodiacal astronomy4 ,what their actual station may have been is not so easily established4 ,some think the region lay between the sources of the ,oxus 7,amoor7 and ,indus1 others that the station of these astronomers was not very far from ,mount ,ararat--a view to which ,i was led long ago by other considerations discussed in the first appendix to my treatise on ',saturn and its ,system4' ,at the epoch indicated1 the first constellation of the zodiac was not1 as now1 the ,fishes1 nor1 as when a fresh departure was made by ,hipparchus1 the ,ram1 but the ,bull1 a trace of which is found in ,virgil's words-- ,candidus auratis aperit cum cornibus annum ,taurus4 ,the ,bull then was the spring sign1 the ,pleiades and ruddy ,aldebaran joining their rays with the sun's at the time of the vernal equinox4 ,the midsummer sign was the ,lion 7the bright ,cor ,leonis nearly marking the sun's highest place74 ,the autumn sign was the ,scorpion1 the ruddy ,antares and the stars clustering in the head of the ,scorpion joining their rays with the sun's at the time of the autumnal equinox4 ,and lastly the winter sign was the ,water ,bearer1 the bright ,fomalhaut conjoining his rays with the sun's at midwinter4 ,it is noteworthy that all these four constellations really present some resemblance to the objects after which they are named4 ,the ,scorpion is in the best drawing1 but the ,bull's head is well marked1 and1 as already mentioned1 a leaping lion can be recognised4 ,the streams of stars from the ,urn of ,aquarius and the ,urn itself are much better defined than the ,urn ,bearer4 ,i have not left myself much space to speak of the finest of all the constellations1 the glorious ,orion--the ,giant in his might1 as he was called of old4 ,in this noble asterism the figure of a giant ascending a slope can be readily discerned when the constellation is due south4 ,at the time to which ,i have referred the constellation ,orion was considerably below the equator1 and instead of standing nearly upright when due south high above the horizon1 as now in our northern latitudes1 he rose upright above the south-eastern horizon4 ,the resemblance to a giant figure must then have been even more striking than it is at present 7except in high northern latitudes1 where ,orion1 when due south1 is just fully above the horizon74 ,the giant ,orion has long been identified with ,nimrod2 and those who recognise the antitypes of the ,ark in ,argo1 of the old dragon in ,draco1 and of the first and second ,adams in the kneeling ,hercules defeated by the serpent and the upright ,ophiuchus triumphant over the serpent1 may1 if they so please1 find in the giant ,orion1 the ,two ,dogs1 the ,hare1 and the ,bull 7whom ,orion is more directly dealing with71 the representations of ,nimrod1 that mighty hunter before the ,lord1 his hunting dogs1 and the animals he hunted4 ,pegasus1 formerly called the ,horse1 was regarded in very ancient times as the ,steed of ,nimrod4 ,in modern astronomy the constellations no longer have the importance which once attached to them4 ,they afford convenient means for naming the stars1 though ,i think many observers would prefer the less attractive but more business-like methods adopted by ,piazzi and others1 according to which a star rejoices in no more striking title than ',piazzi ,x,i,i,ih4 #bgc1' or ',struve1 #bhai4' ,they still serve1 however1 to teach beginners the stars1 and probably many years will pass before even exact astronomy dismisses them altogether to the limbo of discarded symbolisms4 ,it is1 indeed1 somewhat singular that astronomers find it easier to introduce new absurdities among the constellations than to get rid of these old ones4 ,the new and utterly absurd figures introduced by ,bode still remain in many charts despite such inconvenient names as ,honores ,frederici1 ,globum ,a,erostaticum and ,machina ,pneumatica2 and ,i have very little doubt that a new constellation1 if it only had a specially inconvenient title1 would be accepted4 ,but when ,francis ,baily tried to simplify the heavens by removing many of ,bode's absurd constellations1 he was abused by many as violently as though he had proposed the rejection of the ,newtonian system4 ,i myself tried a small measure of reform in the three first editions of my ',library ,atlas1' but have found it desirable to return to the old nomenclature in the fourth4 ,,the ,,end4 ,printed by ,,ballantyne1 ,,hanson ,,co4 ,edinburgh and ,london ,,footnotes3 #a ,these reflections were suggested to ,tacitus by the conduct of ,thrasyllus 7chief astrologer of the ,emperor ,tiberius71 when his skill was tested by his imperial employer after a manner characteristic of that agreeable monarch4 ,the story runs thus 7,i follow ,whewell's version73 ',those who were brought to ,tiberius on any important matter1 were admitted to an interview in an apartment situated on a lofty cliff in the island of ,capreae4 ,they reached this place by a narrow path1 accompanied by a single freedman of great bodily strength2 and on their return1 if the emperor had conceived any doubts of their trustworthiness1 a single blow buried the secret and its victim in the ocean below4 ,after ,thrasyllus had1 in this retreat1 stated the results of his art as they concerned the emperor1 ,tiberius asked him whether he had calculated how long he himself had to live4 ,the astrologer examined the aspect of the stars1 and while he did this showed hesitation1 alarm1 increasing terror1 and at last declared that ,the present hour was for him critical1 perhaps fatal4 ,tiberius embraced him1 and told him he was right in supposing he had been in danger1 but that he should escape it1 and made him henceforward his confidential counsellor4' ,it is evident1 assuming the story to be true 7as seems sufficiently probable71 that the emperor was no match for the charlatan in craft4 ,it was a natural thought on the former's part to test the skill of his astrologer by laying for him a trap such as the story indicates--a thought so natural1 indeed1 that it probably occurred to ,thrasyllus himself long before ,tiberius put the plan into practice4 ,even if ,thrasyllus had not been already on the watch for such a trick1 he would have been but a poor trickster himself if he had not detected it the moment it was attempted1 or failed to see the sole safe course which was left open to him4 ,probably1 with a man of the temper of ,tiberius1 such a counter-trick as ,galeotti's in ,quentin ,durward would have been unsafe4 #b ,the belief in the influence of the stars and the planets on the fortunes of the new-born child was still rife when ,shakespeare made ,glendower boast3 ,at my nativity ,the front of heaven was full of fiery shapes ,of burning cressets2 know1 that at my birth ,the frame and huge foundation of the earth ,shook like a coward4 ,and ,shakespeare showed himself dangerously tainted with freethought in assigning 7even to the fiery ,hotspur7 the reply3 ,so it would have done ,at the same season1 if your mother's cat ,had kittened1 though yourself had ne'er been born4 ,in a similar vein ,butler1 in ,hudibras ridiculed the folly of those who believe in horoscopes and nativities3 ,as if the planet's first aspect ,the tender infant did infect ,in soul and body1 and instil ,all future good and future ill2 ,which in their dark fatalities lurking1 ,at destined periods fall a-working1 ,and break out1 like the hidden seeds ,of long diseases1 into deeds1 ,in friendships1 enmities1 and strife4 ,and all th' emergencies of life4 #c ,preface to the ,rudolphine ,tables4 #d ,it is commonly stated that ,bacon opposed the ,copernican theory because he disliked ,gilbert1 who had advocated it4 ',bacon1' says one of his editors1 'was too jealous of ,gilbert to entertain one moment any doctrine that he advanced4' ,but1 apart from the incredible littleness of mind which this explanation imputes to ,bacon1 it would also have been an incredible piece of folly on ,bacon's part to advocate an inferior theory while a rival was left to support a better theory4 ,bacon saw clearly enough that men were on their way to the discovery of the true theory1 and1 so far as in him lay1 he indicated how they should proceed in order most readily to reach the truth4 ,it must1 then1 have been from conviction1 not out of mere contradiction1 that ,bacon declared himself in favour of the ,ptolemaic system4 ,in fact1 he speaks of the diurnal motion of the earth as 'an opinion which we can demonstrate to be most false2' doubtless having in his thoughts some such arguments as misled ,tycho ,brahe4 #e ,to ,bacon's theological contemporaries this must have seemed a dreadful heresy1 and possibly in our own days the assertion would be judged scarcely less harshly1 seeing that the observance of the 7so-called7 ,sabbath depends directly upon the belief in quite another origin of the week4 ,yet there can be little question that the week really had its origin in astrological formulae4 #f ,in ,bohn's edition the word 'defective' is here used1 entirely changing the meaning of the sentence4 ,bacon registers an ,astrologia ,sana amongst the things needed for the advancement of learning1 whereas he is made to say that such an astrology must be registered as defective4 #g ,the astrologers were exceedingly ingenious in showing that their art had given warning of the great plague and fire of ,london4 ,thus1 the star which marks the ,bull's northern horn--and which is described by ,ptolemy as like ,mars--was1 they say1 exactly in that part of the sign ,gemini which is the ascendant of ,london1 in #afff4 ,lilly1 however1 for whom they claim the credit of predicting the year of this calamity1 laid no claim himself to that achievement2 nay1 specially denied that he knew when the fire was to happen4 ,the story is rather curious4 ,in #afea ,lilly had published his ,monarchy or no ,monarchy1 which contained a number of curious hieroglyphics4 ,amongst these were two 7see frontispiece7 which appeared to portend plague and fire respectively4 ,the hieroglyphic of the plague represents three dead bodies wrapped in death-clothes1 and for these bodies two coffins lie ready and two graves are being dug2 whence it was to be inferred that the number of deaths would exceed the supply of coffins and graves4 ,the hieroglyphic of the fire represents several persons1 gentlefolk on one side and commonfolk on the other1 emptying water vessels on a furious fire into which two children are falling headlong4 ,the occurrence of the plague in #affe attracted no special notice to ,lilly's supposed prediction of that event1 though probably many talked of the coincidence as remarkable4 ,but when in #afff the great fire occurred1 the ,house of ,commons summoned ,lilly to attend the committee appointed to enquire into the cause of the fire4 ',at two of the clock on ,friday1 the #beth of ,october #afff1' he attended in the ,speaker's chamber1 'to answer such questions as should then and there be asked him4' ,sir ,robert ,brooke spoke to this effect3 ',mr4 ,lilly1 this committee thought fit to summon you to appear before them this day1 to know if you can say anything as to the cause of the late fire1 or whether there might be any design therein4 ,you are called the rather hither1 because in a book of yours long since printed1 you hinted some such thing by one of your hieroglyphics4' ,unto which he replied3 ',may it please your honours1 after the beheading of the late king1 considering that in the three subsequent years the ,parliament acted nothing which concerned the settlement of the nation's peace1 and seeing the generality of the people dissatisfied1 the citizens of ,london discontented1 and the soldiery prone to mutiny1 ,i was desirous1 according to the best knowledge ,god had given me1 to make enquiry by the art ,i studied1 what might1 from that time1 happen unto the ,parliament and nation in general4 ,at last1 having satisfied myself as well as ,i could1 and perfected my judgment therein1 ,i thought it most convenient to signify my intentions and conceptions thereof in forms1 shapes1 types1 hieroglyphics1 etc41 without any commentary1 that so my judgment might be concealed from the vulgar1 and made manifest only unto the wise2 ,i herein imitating the examples of many wise philosophers who had done the like4 ,having found1 sir1 that the great city of ,london should be sadly afflicted with a great plague1 and not long after with an exorbitant fire1 ,i framed these two hieroglyphics1 as represented in the book1 which in effect have proved very true4' ',did you foresee the year8' said one4 ',i did not1' said ,lilly2 'nor was desirous2 of that ,i made no scrutiny4 ,now1 sir1 whether there was any design of burning the city1 or any employed to that purpose1 ,i must deal ingenuously with you1 that since the fire ,i have taken much pains in the search thereof1 but cannot or could not give myself the least satisfaction therein4 ,i conclude that it was the finger of ,god only2 but what instruments ,he used thereunto ,i am ignorant4' #h ,sir ,toby ,belch and ,sir ,andrew ,aguecheek were evidently not well taught in astrology4 ',shall we set about some revels8' says the latter4 ',what shall we do else8' says ,toby2 'were we not born under ,taurus8' ',taurus1 that's sides and heart1' says sapient ,andrew4 ',no1 sir1' responds ,toby1 'it's legs and thighs4 ,let me see thee caper4' #i ',this is the excellent foppery of the world1 that1 when we are sick in fortune 7often the surfeit of our own behaviour71 we make guilty of our disasters the sun1 moon1 and stars3 as if we were villains on necessity2 fools by heavenly compulsion2 knaves1 thieves1 and treacherous by spherical predominance2 drunkards1 liars1 and adulterers1 by inforced obedience of planetary influence2 and all that we are1 evil1 by a divine thrusting on4'--,,shakespeare 7,king ,lear74 #aj ,there are few things more remarkable1 or to reasoning minds more inexplicable1 than the readiness with which men undertook in old times1 and even now undertake1 to interpret omens and assign prophetic significance to casual events4 ,one can understand that foolish persons should believe in omens1 and act upon the ideas suggested by their superstitions4 ,the difficulty is to comprehend how these superstitions came into existence4 ,for instance1 who first conceived the idea that a particular line in the palm of the hand is the line of life2 and what can possibly have suggested so absurd a notion8 ,to whom did the thought first present itself that the pips on playing-cards are significant of future events2 and why did he think so8 ,how did the 'grounds' of a teacup come to acquire that deep significance which they now possess for ,mrs4 ,gamp and ,betsy ,prig8 ,if the believers in these absurdities be asked why they believe1 they answer readily enough either that they themselves or their friends have known remarkable fulfilments of the ominous indications of cards or tea-dregs1 which must of necessity be the case where millions of forecasts are daily made by these instructive methods4 ,but the persons who first invented those means of divination can have had no such reasons4 ,they must have possessed imaginations of singular liveliness and not wanting in ingenuity4 ,it is a pity that we know so little of them4 #aa ,wellington lived too long for the astrologers1 his death within the year having unfortunately been predicted by them many times during the last fifteen years of his life4 ,some astrologers were more cautious1 however4 ,i have before me his horoscope1 carefully calculated1 secundum artem1 by ,raphael in #ahbh1 with results 'sufficiently evincing the surprising verity and singular accuracy of astrological calculations1 when founded on the correct time of birth1 and mathematically calculated4 ,i have chosen1' he proceeds1 'the nativity of this illustrious native1 in preference to others1 as the subject is now living1 and1 consequently1 all possibility of making up any fictitious horoscope is at once set aside2 thus affording me a most powerful shield against the insidious representations of the envious and ignorant traducer of my sublime science4' ,by some strange oversight1 however1 ,raphael omits to mention anything respecting the future fortunes of ,wellington1 showing only how wonderfully ,wellington's past career had corresponded with his horoscope4 #ab ',i have still observed1' says an old author1 'that your right ,martialist doth seldom exceed in height1 or be at the most above a yard or a yard and a half in height' 7which is surely stint measure74 ',it hath been always thus1' said that right ,martialist ,sir ,geoffrey ,hudson to ,julian ,peveril2 'and in the history of all ages1 the clean tight dapper little fellow hath proved an overmatch for his burly antagonist4 ,i need only instance1 out of ,holy ,writ1 the celebrated downfall of ,goliath and of another lubbard1 who had more fingers in his hand1 and more inches to his stature1 than ought to belong to an honest man1 and who was slain by a nephew of good ,king ,david2 and of many others whom ,i do not remember2 nevertheless1 they were all ,philistines of gigantic stature4 ,in the classics1 also1 you have ,tydeus1 and other tight compact heroes1 whose diminutive bodies were the abode of large minds4' #ac ,it is likely that ,swedenborg in his youth studied astrology1 for in his visions the ,mercurial folk have this desire of knowledge as their distinguishing characteristic4 #ad ,it is singular that1 when there is this perfectly simple explanation of the origin of the nomenclature of the days of the week1 an explanation given by ancient historians and generally received1 ,whewell should have stated that 'various accounts are given1 all the methods proceeding upon certain arbitrary arithmetical processes connected in some way with astrological views4' ,speaking of the arrangement of the planets in the order of their supposed distances1 and of the order in which the planets appear in the days of the week1 he says1 ',it would be difficult to determine with certainty why the former order was adopted1 and how and why the latter was derived from it4' ,but1 in reality1 there is no difficulty about either point4 ,the former arrangement corresponded precisely with the periodic times of the seven planets of the old ,egyptian system 7unquestionably far more ancient than the system adopted by the ,greeks71 while the latter springs directly from the former4 ,assign to the hours of the day1 successively1 the seven planets in the former order1 continuing the sequence without interruption day after day1 and in the course of seven days each one of the planets will have ruled the first hour of a day1 in the order1--,saturn1 the sun1 the moon1 ,mars1 ,mercury1 ,jupiter1 and ,venus4 ,what arbitrary arithmetical process there is in this it would be difficult to conceive4 ,arithmetic does not rule the method at all4 ,nor has any other method ever been suggested2 though this method has been presented in several ways1 some arithmetical and some geometrical4 ,we need then have no difficulty in understanding what seems so perplexing to ,whewell1 the universality1 namely1 of the notions 'which have produced this result1' for the notions were not fantastic1 but such as naturally sprang from the ideas on which astrology itself depends4 #ae ,the following remarks by the ,astronomer-,royal on this subject seem to me just1 in the main4 ,they accord with what ,i had said earlier in my essay on ,saturn and the ,sabbath of the ,jews 7',our ,place among ,infinities1' #aath essay74 ',the importance which ,moses attached to it the hebdomadal rest is evident2 and1 with all reverence1 ,i recognise to the utmost degree the justice of his views4 ,no direction was given for religious ceremonial' 7he seems to have overlooked ,numbers xxviii4 #i1 and cognate passages71 'but it was probably seen that the health given to the mind by a rest from ordinary cares1 and by the opportunity of meditation1 could not fail to have a most beneficial religious effect4 ,but1 to give sanction to this precept1 the authority of at least a myth was requisite4 ,i believe it was simply for this reason that the myth of the six days of creation was preserved4 ,it is expressly cited in the first delivery of the commandments1 as the solemn authority 7,exodus xxxi4 #ag7 for the command4 ,it is remarkable that at the second mention of the commandment 7,deuteronomy v47 no reference is made to the creation2 perhaps1 after the complete establishment of ,jehovistic ideas in the minds of the ,israelites1 they had nearly lost the recollection of the ,elohistic account1 and it was not thought desirable to refer to it' 7,airy1 ',on the ,early ,hebrew ,scriptures1' p4 #ag74 ,it must be regarded as a singular instance of the persistency of myths1 if this view be correct1 that a myth which had become obsolete for the ,jews between the time of ,moses and that of the writer 7whoever he may have been7 who produced the so-called ,mosaic book of ,deuteronomy1 should thereafter have been revived1 and have come to be regarded by the ,jews themselves and by ,christians as the ,word of ,god4 #af ,of course it may be argued that nothing in the world is the result of mere accident1 and some may assert that even matters which are commonly regarded as entirely casual have been specially designed4 ,it would not be easy to draw the precise line dividing events which all men would regard as to all intents and purposes accidental from those which some men would regard as results of special providence4 ,but common sense draws a sufficient distinction1 at least for our present purpose4 #ag ,this star1 called ,thuban from the ,arabian al-,thuban1 the ,dragon1 is now not very bright1 being rated at barely above the fourth magnitude1 but it was formerly the brightest star of the constellation1 as its name indicates4 ,bayer also assigned to it the first letter of the ,greek alphabet2 though this is not absolutely decisive evidence that so late as his day it retained its superiority over the second magnitude stars to which ,bayer assigned the second and third ,greek letters4 ,in the year #bgij ,b4,c41 or thereabouts1 the star was at its nearest to the true north pole of the heavens1 the diameter of the little circle in which it then moved being considerably less than one-fourth the apparent diameter of the moon4 ,at that time the star must have seemed to all ordinary observation an absolutely fixed centre1 round which all the other stars revolved4 ,at the time when the pyramid was built this star was about sixty times farther removed from the true pole1 revolving in a circle whose apparent diameter was about seven times as great as the moon's4 ,yet it would still be regarded as a very useful pole-star1 especially as there are very few conspicuous stars in the neighbourhood4 #ah ,even that skilful astronomer ,hipparchus1 who may be justly called the father of observational astronomy1 overlooked this peculiarity1 which ,ptolemy would seem to have been the first to recognise4 #ai ,it would only be by a lucky accident1 of course1 that the direction of the slant tunnel's axis and that of the vertical from the selected central point would lie in the same vertical plane4 ,the object of the tunnelling would1 in fact1 be to determine how far apart the vertical planes through these points lay1 and the odds would be great against the result proving to be zero4 #bj ,it may1 perhaps1 occur to the reader to inquire what diameter of the earth1 supposed to be a perfect sphere1 would be derived from a degree of latitude measured with absolute accuracy near latitude #cj deg4 ,a degree of latitude measured in polar regions would indicate a diameter greater even than the equatorial2 one measured in equatorial regions would indicate a diameter less even than the polar4 ,near latitude #cj deg4 the measurement of a degree of latitude would indicate a diameter very nearly equal to the true polar diameter of the earth4 ,in fact1 if it could be proved that the builders of the pyramid used for their unit of length an exact subdivision of the polar diameter1 the inference would be that1 while the coincidence itself was merely accidental1 their measurement of a degree of latitude in their own country had been singularly accurate4 ,by an approximate calculation ,i find that1 taking the earth's compression at #a-cjj1 the diameter of the earth1 estimated from the accurate measurement of a degree of latitude in the neighbourhood of the great pyramid1 would have made the sacred cubit--taken at one #bj1jjj1jjjth of the diameter--equal to #bd4ih ,british inches2 a closer approximation than ,professor ,smyth's to the estimated mean probable value of the sacred cubit4 #ba ,it is1 however1 almost impossible to mark any limits to what may be regarded as evidence of design by a coincidence-hunter4 ,i quote the following from the late ,professor ,de ,morgan's ,budget of ,paradoxes4 ,having mentioned that #g occurs less frequently than any other digit in the number expressing the ratio of circumference to diameter of a circle1 he proceeds3 ',a correspondent of my friend ,piazzi ,smyth notices that #c is the number of most frequency1 and that #c-a_/g is the nearest approximation to it in simple digits4 ,professor ,smyth1 whose work on ,egypt is paradox of a very high order1 backed by a great quantity of useful labour1 the results of which will be made available by those who do not receive the paradoxes1 is inclined to see confirmation for some of his theory in these phenomena4' ,in passing1 ,i may mention as the most singular of these accidental digit relations which ,i have yet noticed1 that in the first #aaj digits of the square root of #b1 the number #g occurs more than twice as often as either #e or #i1 which each occur eight times1 #a and #b occurring each nine times1 and #g occurring no less than eighteen times4 #bb ,i have substituted this value in the article ',astronomy1' of the ,british ,encyclopaedia1 for the estimate formerly used1 viz4 #ie1bcc1jee miles4 ,but there is good reason for believing that the actual distance is nearly #ib1jjj1jjj miles4 #bc ,it may be matched by other coincidences as remarkable and as little the result of the operation of any natural law4 ,for instance1 the following strange relation1 introducing the dimensions of the sun himself1 nowhere1 so far as ,i have yet seen1 introduced among pyramid relations1 even by pyramidalists3 ',if the plane of the ecliptic were a true surface1 and the sun were to commence rolling along that surface towards the part of the earth's orbit where she is at her mean distance1 while the earth commenced rolling upon the sun 7round one of his great circles71 each globe turning round in the same time1--then1 by the time the earth had rolled its way once round the sun1 the sun would have almost exactly reached the earth's orbit4 ,this is only another way of saying that the sun's diameter exceeds the earth's in almost exactly the same degree that the sun's distance exceeds the sun's diameter4' #bd ,it has been remarked that1 though ,hipparchus had the enormous advantage of being able to compare his own observations with those recorded by the ,chaldaeans1 he estimated the length of the year less correctly than the ,chaldaeans4 ,it has been thought by some that the ,chaldaeans were acquainted with the true system of the universe1 but ,i do not know that there are sufficient grounds for this supposition4 ,diodorus ,siculus and ,apollonius ,myndius mention1 however1 that they were able to predict the return of comets1 and this implies that their observations had been continued for many centuries with great care and exactness4 #be ,the language of the modern ,zadkiels and ,raphaels1 though meaningless and absurd in itself1 yet1 as assuredly derived from the astrology of the oldest times1 may here be quoted4 7,it certainly was not invented to give support to the theory ,i am at present advocating47 ,thus runs the jargon of the tribe3 ',in order to illustrate plainly to the reader what astrologers mean by the houses of heaven1 it is proper for him to bear in mind the four cardinal points4 ,the eastern1 facing the rising sun1 has at its centre the first grand angle or first house1 termed the ,horoscope or ascendant4 ,the northern1 opposite the region where the sun is at midnight1 or the cusp of the lower heaven or nadir1 is the ,imum ,coeli1 and has at its centre the fourth house4 ,the western1 facing the setting sun1 has at its centre the third grand angle or seventh house or descendant4 ,and lastly1 the southern1 facing the noonday sun1 has at its centre the astrologer's tenth house1 or ,mid-heaven1 the most powerful angle or house of honour4' ',and although1' proceeds the modern astrologer1 'we cannot in the ethereal blue discern these lines or terminating divisions1 both reason and experience assure us that they certainly exist2 therefore the astrologer has certain grounds for the choice of his four angular houses' 7out of twelve in all7 'which1 resembling the palpable demonstration they afford1 are in the astral science esteemed the most powerful of the whole4 '--,raphael's ,manual of ,astrology4 #bf ,arabian writers give the following account of ,egyptian progress in astrology and the mystical arts3 ,nacrawasch1 the progenitor of ,misraim1 was the first ,egyptian prince1 and the first of the magicians who excelled in astrology and enchantment4 ,retiring into ,egypt with his family of eighty persons1 he built ,essous1 the most ancient city of ,egypt1 and commenced the first dynasty of ,misraimitish princes1 who excelled as cabalists1 diviners1 and in the mystic arts generally4 ,the most celebrated of the race were ,naerasch1 who first represented by images the twelve signs of the zodiac2 ,gharnak1 who openly described the arts before kept secret2 ,hersall1 who first worshipped idols2 ,sehlouk1 who worshipped the sun2 ,saurid 7,king ,saurid of ,ibn ,abd ,alkohm's account71 who erected the first pyramids and invented the magic mirror2 and ,pharaoh1 the last king of the dynasty1 whose name was afterwards taken as a kingly title1 as ,caesar later became a general imperial title4 #bg ,it is noteworthy how ,swedenborg here anticipates a saying of ,laplace1 the greatest mathematician the world has known1 save ,newton alone4 ,newton's remark that he seemed but as a child who had gathered a few shells on the shores of ocean1 is well known4 ,laplace's words1 ',ce que nous connaissons est peu de chose2 ce que nous ignorons est immense1' were not1 as is commonly stated1 his last4 ,de ,morgan gives the following account of ,laplace's last moments1 on the authority of ,laplace's friend and pupil1 the well-known mathematician ,poisson3 ',after the publication 7in #ahbe7 of the fifth volume of the ,mecanique ,celeste1 ,laplace became gradually weaker1 and with it musing and abstracted4 ,he thought much on the great problems of existence1 and often muttered to himself1 ,qu'est-ce que c'est que tout cela6 ,after many alternations he appeared at last so permanently prostrated that his family applied to his favourite pupil1 ,m4 ,poisson1 to try to get a word from him4 ,poisson paid a visit1 and after a few words of salutation1 said1 ,j'ai une bonne nouvelle a vous annoncer3 on a recu au ,bureau des ,longitudes une lettre d',allemagne annoncant que ,m4 ,bessel a verifie par l'observation vos decouvertes theoriques sur les satellites de ,jupiter4 ,laplace opened his eyes and answered with deep gravity4 ,l'homme ne poursuit que des chimeres4 ,he never spoke again4 ,his death took place ,march #e1 #ahbg4' #bh ,the reason assigned by ,swedenborg is fanciful enough4 ',in the spiritual sense1' he says1 'a horse signifies the intellectual principle formed from scientifics1 and as they are afraid of cultivating the intellectual faculties by worldly sciences1 from this comes an influx of fear4 ,they care nothing for scientifics which are of human erudition4' #bi ,similar reasoning applies to the moons of ,jupiter1 and it so chances that the result in their case comes out exactly the same as in the case of ,saturn2 all the ,jovian moons1 if full together1 would reflect only the sixteenth part of the light which we receive from the full moon4 ,it is strange that scientific men of considerable mathematical power have used the argument from design apparently supplied by the satellites1 without being at the pains to test its validity by the simple mathematical calculations necessary to determine the quantity of light which these bodies can reflect to the planets round which they travel4 ,brewster and ,whewell1 though they took opposite sides in the controversy about other inhabited worlds1 agreed in this4 ,brewster1 of course1 holding the theory that all the planets are inhabited1 very naturally accepted the argument from design in this case4 ,whewell1 in opposing that theory1 did not dwell at all upon the subjects of the satellites4 ,but in his ',bridgewater ,treatise on ,astronomy and ,general ,physics1' he says1 ',taking only the ascertained cases of ,venus1 the ,earth1 ,jupiter1 and ,saturn1 we conceive that a person of common understanding will be strongly impressed with the persuasion that the satellites are placed in the system with a view to compensate for the diminished light of the sun at greater distances4 ,mars is an exception2 some persons might conjecture from this case that the arrangement itself1 like other useful arrangements1 has been brought about by some wider law which we have not yet detected4 ,but whether or not we entertain such a guess 7it can be nothing more71 we see in other parts of creation so many examples of apparent exceptions to rules1 which are afterwards found to be capable of explanation1 or to be provided for by particular contrivances1 that no one familiar with such contemplations will1 by one anomaly1 be driven from the persuasion that the end which the arrangements of the satellites seem suited to answer is really one of the ends of their creation4' #cj ,the reader who cares enough about such subjects to take the necessary trouble1 can easily make a little model of ,saturn and his ring system1 which will very prettily illustrate the effect of the rings both in reflecting light to the planet's darkened hemisphere and in cutting off light from the planet's illuminated hemisphere4 ,take a ball1 say an ordinary hand-ball1 and pierce it through the centre with a fine knitting-needle4 ,cut out a flat ring of card1 proportioned to the ball as the ring system of ,saturn to his ball4 7,if the ball is two inches in diameter1 strike out on a sheet of cardboard two concentric circles1 one of them with a radius of a little more than an inch and a half1 the other with a radius of about two inches and three-eights1 and cut out the ring between these two circles47 ,thrust the knitting-needle through this ring in such a way that the ball shall lie in the middle of the ring1 as the globe of ,saturn hangs 7without knitting-needle connections7 in the middle of his ring system4 ,thrust another knitting-needle centrally through the ball square to the plane of the ring1 and use this second needle1 which we may call the polar one1 as a handle4 ,now take the ball and ring into sunlight1 or the light of a lamp or candle1 holding them so that the shadow of the ring is as thin as possible4 ,this represents the position of the shadow at the time of ,saturnian spring or autumn4 ,cause the shadow slowly to shift until it surrounds the part of the ball through which the polar needle passes on one side4 ,this will represent the position of the shadow at the time of midwinter for the hemisphere corresponding to that side of the ball4 ,notice that while the shadow is traversing this half of the ball1 the side of the ring which lies towards that half is in shadow1 so that a fly or other small insect on that half of the ball would see the darkened side of the ring4 ,a ,saturnian correspondingly placed would get no reflected sunlight from the ring system4 ,move the ball and ring so that the shadow slowly returns to its first position4 ,you will then have illustrated the changes taking place during one half of a ,saturnian year4 ,continue the motion so that the shadow passes to the other half of the ball1 and finally surrounds the other point through which the polar needle passes4 ,the polar point which the shadow before surrounded will now be seen to be in the light1 and this half of the ball will illustrate the hemisphere of ,saturn where it is midsummer4 ,it will also be seen that the side of the ring towards this half of the ball is now in the light1 so that a small insect on this half of the ball would see the bright side of the ring4 ,a ,saturnian correspondingly placed would get reflected sunlight from the ring system both by day and by night4 ,moving the ball and ring so that the shadow returns to its first position1 an entire ,saturnian year will have been illustrated4 ,these changes can be still better shown with a ,saturnian orrery 7see plate viii4 of my ,saturn71 which can be very easily constructed4 #ca ,not 'of course' because ,tycho used it1 for1 like other able students of science1 he made mistakes from time to time4 ,thus he argued that the earth cannot rotate on her axis1 because if she did bodies raised above her surface would be left behind--an argument which even the mechanical knowledge of his own time should have sufficed to invalidate1 though it is still used from time to time by paradoxers of our own day4 #cb ,chinese chronicles contain other references to new stars4 ,the annals of ,ma-touan-lin1 which contain the official records of remarkable appearances in the heavens1 include some phenomena which manifestly belong to this class4 ,thus they record that in the year #agc a star appeared between the stars which mark the hind feet of the ,centaur4 ,this star remained visible from ,december in that year until ,july in the next 7about the same time as ,tycho ,brahe's and ,kepler's new stars1 presently to be described74 ,another star1 assigned by these annals to the year #ajaa1 seems to be the same as a star referred to by ,hepidannus as appearing ,a4,d4 #ajab4 ,it was of extraordinary brilliancy1 and remained visible in the southern part of the heavens during three months4 ,the annals of ,ma-touan-lin assign to it a position low down in ,sagittarius4 #cc ,still a circumstance must be mentioned which tends to show that the star may have been visible a few hours earlier than ,dr4 ,schmidt supposed4 ,mr4 ,m4 ,walter1 surgeon of the #dth regiment1 then stationed in ,north ,india1 wrote 7oddly enough1 on ,may #ab1 #ahfg1 the first anniversary of ,mr4 ,birmingham's discovery7 as follows to ,mr4 ,stone3--',i am certain that this same conflagration was distinctly perceptible here at least six hours earlier4 ,my knowledge of the fact came about in this wise4 ,the night of the #abth of ,may last year was exceedingly sultry1 and about eight o'clock on that evening ,i got up from the tea-table and rushed into my garden to seek a cooler atmosphere4 ,as my door opens towards the east1 the first object that met my view was the ,northern ,crown4 ,my attention was at once arrested by the sight of a strange star outside the crown' 7that is1 outside the circlet of stars forming the diadem1 not outside the constellation itself74 ,the new star 'was then certainly quite as bright--,i rather thought more so--as its neighbour ,alphecca1' the chief gem of the crown4 ',i was so much struck with its appearance1 that ,i exclaimed to those indoors1 ,why1 here is a new comet6' ,he made a diagram of the constellation1 showing the place of the new star correctly4 ,unfortunately1 ,mr4 ,walter does not state why he is so confident1 a year after the event1 that it was on the #abth of ,may1 and not on the #acth1 that he noticed the new star4 ,if he fixed the date only by the star's appearance as a second-magnitude star1 his letter proves nothing2 for we know that on the #acth it was still shining as brightly as ,alphecca1 though on the #adth it was perceptibly fainter4 #cd ,the velocity of three or four miles per second inferred by the elder ,struve must now be regarded 7as ,i long since pointed out would prove to be the case7 as very far short of the real velocity of our system's motion through stellar space4 #ce ,m4 ,cornu's observations are full of interest1 and he deserves considerable credit for his energy in availing himself of the few favourable opportunities he had for making them4 ,but he goes beyond his province in adding to his account of them some remarks1 intended apparently as a reflection on ,mr4 ,huggins's speculations respecting the star in the ,northern ,crown4 ',i1' says ,m4 ,cornu1 'will not try to form any hypothesis about the cause of the outburst4 ,to do so would be unscientific1 and such speculations1 though interesting1 cumber science wofully4' ,this is sheer nonsense1 and comes very ill from an observer whose successes in science have been due entirely to the employment of methods of observation which would have had no existence had others been as unready to think out the meaning of observed facts as he appears to be himself4 #cf ,the same peculiarity has been noticed since the discovery of the dark ring1 the space within that ring being observed by ,coolidge and ,g4 ,bond at ,harvard in #ahef to be apparently darker than the surrounding sky4 #cg ,i cannot understand why ,mr4 ,webb1 in his interesting little work1 ,celestial ,objects for ,common ,telescopes1 says that the satellite theory of the rings certainly seems insufficient to account for the phenomena of the dark ring4 ,it seems1 on the contrary1 manifest that the dark ring can scarcely be explained in any other way4 ,the observations recently made are altogether inexplicable on any other theory4 #ch ,a gentleman1 whose acquaintance ,i made in returning from ,america last spring1 assured me that he had found demonstrative evidence showing that a total eclipse of the moon then occurred2 for he could prove that ,abraham's vision occurred at the time of full moon1 so that it could not otherwise have been dark when the sun went down 7v4 #ag74 ,but the horror of great darkness occurred when the sun was going down1 and total eclipses of the moon do not behave that way--at least1 in our time4 #ci ,it is not easy to understand what else it could have been4 ,the notion that a conjunction of three planets1 which took place shortly before the time of ,christ's birth1 gave rise to the tradition of the star in the east1 though propounded by a former president of the ,astronomical ,society1 could hardly be entertained by an astronomer1 unless he entirely rejected ,matthew's account1 which the author of this theory1 being a clergyman1 can scarcely have done4 #dj ,as1 for instance1 when he makes ,homer say of the moon that ,around her throne the vivid planets roll1 ,and stars unnumbered gild the glowing pole4 ,it is difficult1 indeed1 to understand how so thorough an astronomer as the late ,admiral ,smyth could have called the passage in which these lines occur one of the finest bursts of poetry in our language1 except on the principle cleverly cited by ,waller when ,charles ,,ii4 upbraided him for the warmth of his panegyric on ,cromwell1 that 'poets succeed better with fiction than with truth4' ,macaulay1 though not an astronomer1 speaks more justly of the passage in saying that this single passage contains more inaccuracies than can be found in all ,wordsworth's ',excursion4' #da ,it may be necessary to throw in here a few words of explanation1 lest the non-astronomical reader should run away with the idea that the so-called exact science is a very inexact science indeed1 so far as comets are concerned4 ,the comet of #afhj was one of those which travel on a very eccentric orbit4 ,coming1 indeed1 from out depths many times more remote than the path even of the remotest planet1 ,neptune1 this comet approached nearer to the sun than any which astronomers have ever seen1 except only the comet of #ahdc4 ,when at its nearest its nucleus was only a sixth part of the sun's diameter from his surface4 ,thus the part of the comet's orbit along which astronomers traced its motion was only a small part at one end of an enormously long oval1 and very slight errors of observation were sufficient to produce very large errors in the determination of the nature of the comet's orbit4 ,encke admitted that the period might1 so far as the comparatively imperfect observations made in #afhj were concerned1 be any whatever1 from #hje years to many millions of years1 or even to infinity--that is1 the comet might have a path not re-entering into itself1 but carrying the comet for ever away from the sun after its one visit to our system4 #db ,for a portion of the passages which ,i have quoted in this essay ,i am indebted to ,guillemin's ',treatise on ,comets1' a useful contribution to the literature of the subject1 though somewhat inadequate so far as exposition is concerned4 #dc ,something very similar happened only a few years ago1 so that we cannot afford to laugh too freely at the terrors of ,france in #aggc4 ,it was reported during the winter of #ahga-ahgb1 that ,plantamour1 the ,swiss astronomer1 had predicted the earth's destruction by a comet on ,august #ab1 #ahgb4 ,yet there was no other foundation for this rumour than the fact that ,plantamour1 in a lecture upon comets and meteors1 had stated that the meteors seen on ,august #aj1 #aa1 and #ab are bodies following in the track of a comet whose orbit passes very near to the earth's4 ,it was very certainly known to astronomers that there could be no present danger of a collision with this comet1 for the comet has a period of at least #aej years1 and had last passed close to the earth's orbit 7not to the earth herself1 be it understood7 in #ahfb4 ,but it was useless to point this out4 ,many people insisted on believing that on ,august #ab1 #ahgb1 the earth would come into collision1 possibly disastrous1 with a mighty comet1 which ,plantamour was said to have detected and to have shown by a profound calculation to be rushing directly upon our unfortunate earth4 #dd ,a rather amusing mistake was made by the stenographers of a ,new ,york paper in reporting the above sentence1 which ,i happened to quote in a lecture upon ,comets and ,meteors4 ,instead of ,paradise they wrote ,paris4 ,those acquainted with ,pitman's system of short-hand1 the one most commonly employed by reporters1 will easily understand how the mistake was made1 the marks made to represent the consonants p1 r1 d1 and s differing little from those made to represent the consonants p1 r1 and s 7the 'd' or 't' sound is represented1 or may be represented1 by simply shortening the length of the sign for the preceding consonant74 ,the mistake led naturally to my remarking in my next lecture that ,i had not before known how thoroughly synonymous the words are in ,america1 though ,i had heard it said that ',good ,americans1 when they die1 go to ,paris4' #de ,on the occasion of my first visit to ,america1 in #ahgc1 ,i for the first time succeeded in obtaining a copy of this curious pamphlet4 ,it had been mentioned to me 7by ,emerson1 ,i think7 as an amusing piece of trickery played off by a scientific man on his brethren2 and ,dr4 ,wendell ,holmes1 who was present1 remarked that he had a copy in his possession4 ,this he was good enough to lend me4 ,soon after1 a valued friend in ,new ,york presented me with a copy4 #df ,this ,locke must not be confounded with ,richard ,lock1 the circle-squarer and general paradoxist1 who flourished a century earlier4 #dg ,the nurses' tale is1 that the man was sent to the moon by ,moses for gathering sticks on the ,sabbath1 and they refer to the cheerful story in ,numbers xv4 #cb-cf4 ,according to ,german nurses the day was not the ,sabbath1 but ,sunday4 ,their tale runs as follows3 ',ages ago there went one ,sunday an old man into the woods to hew sticks4 ,he cut a faggot and slung it on a stout staff1 cast it over his shoulder1 and began to trudge home with his burthen4 ,on his way he met a handsome man in ,sunday suit1 walking towards the church4 ,the man stopped1 and asked the faggot-bearer2 ,do you know that this is ,sunday on earth1 when all must rest from their labours8 ,sunday on earth or ,monday in heaven1 it's all one to me8 laughed the wood-cutter4 ,then bear your bundle for ever6 answered the stranger4 ,and as you value not ,sunday on earth1 yours shall be a perpetual ,moon-day in heaven2 you shall stand for eternity in the moon1 a warning to all ,sabbath-breakers4 ,thereupon the stranger vanished2 and the man was caught up with his staff and faggot into the moon1 where he stands yet4' ,according to some narrators the stranger was ,christ2 but whether from ,german laxity in such matters or for some other reason1 no text is quoted in evidence1 as by the more orthodox ,british nurses4 ,luke vi4 #a-e might serve4 #dh ,milton's opinion may be quoted against me here2 and as received ideas respecting angels1 good and bad1 the fall of man1 and many other such matters1 are due quite as much to ,milton as to any other authority1 his opinion must not be lightly disregarded4 ,but though1 when ,milton's ,satan 'meets a vast vacuity' where his wings are of no further service to him1 ',all unawares ,flutt'ring his pennons vain1 plumb down he drops ,ten thousand fathoms deep1 and to this hour ,down had been falling1 had not by ill chance ,the strong rebuff of some tumultuous cloud1 ,instinct with fire and nitre1 hurried him ,as many miles aloft1' yet this was written nearly a quarter of a century before ,newton had established the law of gravity4 ,moreover1 there is no evidence to show in what direction ,satan fell2 'above is below and below above1' says ,richter1 'to one stripped of gravitating body2' and whether ,satan was under the influence of gravity or not1 he would be practically exempt from its action when in the midst of that 'dark1 illimitable ocean' of space1 ',without bound1 ,without dimensions1 where length1 breadth1 and height1 ,and time and place are lost4' ,his lighting 'on ,niphates' top1' and overleaping the gate of ,paradise1 may be used as arguments either way4 ,on the whole1 ,i must 7according to my present lights7 claim for ,satan a freedom from all scientific restraints4 ,this freedom is exemplified by his showing all the kingdoms of the world from an exceeding high mountain1 thus affording the first practical demonstration of the flat-earth theory1 the maintenance of which led to poor ,mr4 ,hampden's incarceration4 #di ,the ,sun itself claimed to have established the veracity of the account in a manner strongly recalling a well-known argument used by orthodox believers in the ,bible account of the cosmogony4 ,either1 say these1 ,moses discovered how the world was made1 or the facts were revealed to him by some one who had made the discovery3 but ,moses could not have made the discovery1 knowing nothing of the higher departments of science2 therefore1 the account came from the only ,being who could rationally be supposed to know anything about the beginning of the world4 ',either1' said the ,new ,york ,sun1 speaking of a mathematical problem discussed in the article1 'that problem was predicated by us or some other person1 who has thereby made the greatest of all modern discoveries in mathematical astronomy4 ,we did not make it1 for we know nothing of mathematics whatever2 therefore1 it was made by the only person to whom it can rationally be ascribed1 namely ,herschel the astronomer1 its only avowed and undeniable author4' ,in reality1 notwithstanding this convincing argument1 the problem was stolen by ,locke from a paper by ,olbers1 shortly before published1 and gave the method followed by ,beer and ,maedler throughout their selenographical researches in #ahcc-cg4 #ej ,i had at the same time the good fortune to satisfy in equal degree1 though quite unexpectedly1 an ,english student of the sun1 who at that time bore me no great good-will4 ,something in the article chanced to suggest that it came from another1 presumably a rival1 hand2 while an essay which appeared about the same time 7the spring of #ahgb7 was commonly but erroneously attributed to me4 ,accordingly1 a leading article in ,nature was devoted to the annihilation of the writer supposed to be myself1 and to the lavish and quite undeserved laudation of the article ,i had written1 which was selected as typifying all the good qualities which an article of the kind should possess4 ,those acquainted with the facts were not a little amused by the mistake4 #ea ,the ,astronomer-,royal once told me that he had found that few persons have a clear conception of the fact that the stars rise and set4 ,still fewer know how the stars move1 which stars rise and set1 which are always above the horizon1 which move on large circles1 which on small ones2 though a few hours' observation on half-a-dozen nights in the year 7such observations being continuous1 but made only at hourly intervals7 would show dearly how the stars move4 ,it is odd to find even some who write about astronomy making mistakes on matters so elementary4 ,for instance1 in a primer of astronomy recently published1 it is stated that the stars which pass overhead in ,london rise and set on a slant--the real fact being that those stars never rise or set at all1 never coming within some two dozen moon-breadths of the horizon4 #eb ,in passing let me note that1 of course1 ,i am not discussing the arguments of paradoxists with the remotest idea of disproving them4 ,they are not1 in reality1 worth the trouble4 ,but they show where the general reader of astronomical text-books1 and other such works1 is likely to go astray1 and thus conveniently indicate matters whose explanation may be useful or interesting4 #ec ,sterne anticipated this paradoxist in 7jestingly7 attributing glassiness to an inferior planet4 ,he made the inhabitants1 however1 not the air1 glassy4 ',the intense heat of the country1' he says1 speaking of the planet ,mercury1 'must1 ,i think1 long ago have vitrified the bodies of the inhabitants to suit them for the climate2 so that all the tenements of their souls may be nothing else1 for aught the soundest philosophy can show to the contrary1 but one fine transparent body of clear glass2 so that till the inhabitant grows old and tolerably wrinkled1 whereby the rays of light become monstrously refracted1 or return reflected from the surface1 etc41 his soul might as well play the fool out o' doors as in her own house4' #ed ,it will be seen from ,table ,x4 of my treatise on ,saturn that the ring disappeared on ,december #ab1 remaining invisible 7because turning its dark side earthwards7 till the spring of #afac4 ,but on ,december #d1 the ring must have been quite invisible in a telescope so feeble as ,galileo's4 ,the ring then would have been little more than a fine line of light as seen with one of our powerful modern telescopes4 #ee ,north ,british ,review for ,august #ahfj4 #ef ,he had1 indeed1 at an earlier stage1 shown a marvellous ignorance of astronomy by the remark1 which doubtless appeared to him a safe one1 that when he saw a planet on the sun in ,september he supposed it was ,mercury2 a ,september transit of ,mercury being as impossible as an eclipse of the sun during the moon's third quarter4 #eg ,it is1 by the way1 somewhat amusing to find ,baron ,humboldt referring a question of this sort to the great mathematician ,gauss1 and describing the problem as though it involved the most profound calculations4 ,ten minutes should suffice to deal with any problem of the kind4 ,transcriber's ,note ,the following typographical errors were corrected4 ,page ,error ,correction #d ,julias ,julius #ce genuis genius #cf artficers artificers #cg signfies signifies footnote #ad preplexing perplexing #de ,chaldean ,chaldaean #df ,chaldeans ,chaldaeans #bbe peruquier perruquier #bcg peruque perruque #bha ,northfolk ,norfolk #cej ascant askant