,a ,,sy/em ,,( ,,logic1 ,,ratioc9ative ,,& ,,inductive1 ,,be+ ,a ,,connect$ ,,view ,,( ,,! ,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,evid5ce1 ,,& ,,! ,,me?ods ,,( ,,sci5tific ,,inve/igation4 by ,,john ,,/u>t ,,mill4 ,9 ,two ,volumes4 ,vol4 ,i4 ,?ird ,edition4 ,london3 ,john ,p>k]1 ,we/ ,/r&4 ,m ,,dccc ,,li4 ,,cont5ts ,,preface ,,to ,,! ,,fir/ ,,edition4 ,,preface ,,to ,,! ,,?ird ,,edition4 ,,introduction4 ,,book ,i4 ,,( ,,names ,,& ,,propositions4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,( ,,! ,,necessity ,,( ,,comm5c+ ,,) ,,an ,,analysis ,,( ,,language4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,( ,,names4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,( ,,! ,,?+s ,,d5ot$ ,,by ,,names4 ,i4 ,feel+s1 or ,/ates ( ,consci\sness4 ,,ii4 ,sub/ances4 ,,iii4 ,attributes3 &1 fir/1 ,qualities4 ,,iv4 ,relations4 ,v4 ,quantity4 ,,vi4 ,attributes ,conclud$4 ,,vii4 ,g5]al ,results4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,( ,,propositions4 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,( ,,! ,,import ,,( ,,propositions4 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,( ,,propositions ,,m]ely ,,v]bal4 ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,( ,,! ,,nature ,,( ,,classification1 ,,& ,,! ,,five ,,pr$icables4 ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,( ,,def9ition4 ,,book ,,ii4 ,,( ,,reason+4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,( ,,inf]5ce1 ,,or ,,reason+1 ,,9 ,,g5]al4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,( ,,ratioc9ation1 ,,or ,,syllogism4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,( ,,! ,,functions1 ,,& ,,logical ,,value1 ,,( ,,! ,,syllogism4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,( ,,tra9s ,,( ,,reason+1 ,,& ,,d$uctive ,,sci5ces4 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,( ,,demon/ration1 ,,& ,,necess>y ,,tru?s4 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,! ,,same ,,subject ,,cont9u$4 ,,book ,,iii4 ,,( ,,induction4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,prelim9>y ,,obs]vations ,,on ,,induction ,,9 ,,g5]al4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,( ,,inductions ,,improp]ly ,,s ,,call$4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,( ,,! ,,gr\nd ,,( ,,induction4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,( ,,laws ,,( ,,nature4 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,( ,,! ,,law ,,( ,,univ]sal ,,causation4 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,( ,,! ,,composition ,,( ,,causes4 ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,( ,,obs]vation ,,& ,,exp]im5t4 ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,( ,,! ,,f\r ,,me?ods ,,( ,,exp]im5tal ,,inquiry4 ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,,miscellane\s ,,examples ,,( ,,! ,,f\r ,,me?ods4 ,,*apt] ,x4 ,,( ,,plurality ,,( ,,causes2 ,,& ,,( ,,! ,,int]mixture ,,( ,,effects4 ,,*apt] ,,xi4 ,,( ,,! ,,d$uctive ,,me?od4 ,,*apt] ,,xii4 ,,( ,,! ,,explanation ,,( ,,laws ,,( ,,nature4 ,,*apt] ,,xiii4 ,,miscellane\s ,,examples ,,( ,,! ,,explanation ,,( ,,laws ,,( ,,nature4 ,footnotes ,,preface ,,to ,,! ,,fir/ ,,edition4 ,?is book makes no pret5ce ( giv+ to ! _w a new !ory ( ! intellectual op]ations4 ,its claim to att5tion1 if x possess any1 is gr\nd$ on ! fact t x is an attempt n to sup]s$e1 b to embody & sy/ematize1 ! be/ ideas :i* h be5 ei!r promulgat$ on its subject by speculative writ]s1 or con=m$ to by accurate ?9k]s 9 _! sci5tific inquiries4 ,to cem5t toge!r ! deta*$ fragm5ts ( a subject1 nev] yet treat$ z a :ole2 to h>monize ! true portions ( discordant !ories1 by supply+ ! l9ks ( ?\ght necess>y to connect !m1 & by dis5tangl+ !m f ! errors ) :i* !y are always m or less int]wov52 mu/ necess>ily require a consid]able am\nt ( orig9al speculation4 ,to o!r orig9ality ?an ?is1 ! pres5t "w lays no claim4 ,9 ! exi/+ /ate ( ! cultivation ( ! sci5ces1 !re w\ld be a v /rong presumption aga9/ any "o :o %\ld imag9e t he _h effect$ a revolution 9 ! !ory ( ! inve/igation ( tru?1 or add$ any fundam5tally new process to ! practice ( x4 ,! improvem5t :i* rema9s to be effect$ 9 ! me?ods ( philosophiz+ 7& ! au?or believes t !y h mu* ne$ ( improvem5t7 c only consi/ 9 p]=m+1 m sy/ematically & accurately1 op]ations ) :i*1 at lea/ 9 _! elem5t>y =m1 ! human intellect 9 "s "o or o!r ( its employm5ts is already famili>4 ,9 ! portion ( ! "w :i* treats ( ,ratioc9ation1 ! au?or has n deem$ x necess>y to ent] into te*nical details :i* may be obta9$ 9 s p]fect a %ape f ! exi/+ treatises on :at is t]m$ ! ,logic ( ! ,s*ools4 ,9 ! contempt ent]ta9$ by _m mod]n philosoph]s = ! syllogi/ic art1 x w be se5 t he by no means p>ticipates2 al?\gh ! sci5tific !ory on :i* its def5ce is usually re/$ appe>s to him errone\s3 & ! view :i* he has sugge/$ ( ! nature & functions ( ! ,syllogism may1 p]haps1 af=d ! means ( conciliat+ ! pr9ciples ( ! art ) z mu* z is well gr\nd$ 9 ! doctr9es & objections ( its assailants4 ,! same ab/95ce f details c\ld n be obs]v$ 9 ! ,fir/ ,book1 on ,names & ,propositions2 because _m useful pr9ciples & di/9ctions :i* 7 conta9$ 9 ! old ,logic1 h be5 gradually omitt$ f ! writ+s ( its lat] tea*]s2 & x appe>$ desirable bo? to revive ^!1 & to re=m & rationalize ! philosophical f\ndation on :i* !y /ood4 ,! e>li] *apt]s ( ?is prelim9>y ,book w consequ5tly appe>1 to "s read]s1 ne$lessly elem5t>y & s*ola/ic4 ,b ^? :o "k 9 :at d>kness ! nature ( our k1 & ( ! processes by :i* x is obta9$1 is (t5 involv$ by a confus$ appreh5sion ( ! import ( ! diff]5t classes ( ,words & ,ass]tions1 w n reg>d ^! discussions z ei!r frivol\s1 or irrelevant to ! topics consid]$ 9 ! lat] ,books4 ,on ! subject ( ,induction1 ! task to be p]=m$ 0 t ( g5]aliz+ ! modes ( inve/igat+ tru? & e/imat+ evid5ce1 by :i* s _m important & recondite laws ( nature h1 9 ! v>i\s sci5ces1 be5 aggregat$ to ! /ock ( human k4 ,t ?is is n a task free f difficulty may be presum$ f ! fact1 t ev5 at a v rec5t p]iod1 em95t writ]s 7among :om x is suffici5t to "n ,ar*bi%op ,:ately1 & ! au?or ( a celebrat$ article on ,bacon 9 ! ,ed9burgh ,review7 h n scrupl$ to pron\nce x impossible47#a7 ,! au?or has endeav\r$ to combat _! !ory 9 ! mann] 9 :i* ,diog5es confut$ ! sceptical reason+s aga9/ ! possibility ( motion2 rememb]+ t ,diog5es' argum5t w\ld h be5 equally conclusive1 ?\gh 8 individual p]ambulations might n h ext5d$ beyond ! circuit ( 8 own tub4 ,:atev] may be ! value ( :at ! au?or has succe$$ 9 effect+ on ?is bran* ( 8 subject1 x is a duty to ackn[l$ge t = mu* ( x he has be5 indebt$ to sev]al important treatises1 p>tly hi/orical & p>tly philosophical1 on ! g5]alities & processes ( physical sci5ce1 :i* h be5 publi%$ )9 ! la/ few ye>s4 ,to ^! treatises1 & to _! au?ors1 he has endeav\r$ to d ju/ice 9 ! body ( ! "w4 ,b z ) "o ( ^! writ]s1 ,dr4 ,:ewell1 he has occasion frequ5tly to express diff]5ces ( op9ion1 x is m p>ticul>ly incumb5t on him 9 ?is place to decl>e1 t )\t ! aid d]iv$ f ! facts & ideas conta9$ 9 t g5tleman's ,hi/ory ( ! ,inductive ,sci5ces1 ! correspond+ portion ( ?is "w w\ld probably n h be5 writt54 ,! conclud+ ,book is an attempt to contribute t[>ds ! solution ( a "q1 :i* ! decay ( old op9ions1 & ! agitation t di/urbs ,european society to its inmo/ dep?s1 r5d] z important 9 ! pres5t day to ! practical int]e/s ( human life1 z x mu/ at all times be to ! complet5ess ( our speculative k3 viz4 ,:e!r moral & social ph5om5a are really exceptions to ! g5]al c]ta9ty & uni=mity ( ! c\rse ( nature2 & h[ f> ! me?ods1 by :i* s _m ( ! laws ( ! physical _w h be5 numb]$ among tru?s irrevocably acquir$ & univ]sally ass5t$ to1 c be made in/rum5tal to ! =mation ( a simil> body ( receiv$ doctr9e 9 moral & political sci5ce4 ,,preface ,,to ,,! ,,?ird ,,edition4 ,sev]al criticisms1 ( a m or less controv]sial "*1 on ?is "w1 h appe>$ s9ce ! publication ( ! second edition2 & ,dr4 ,:ewell has lately publi%$ a reply to ^? p>ts ( x 9 :i* "s ( 8 op9ions 7 controv]t$4 ,i h c>efully reconsid]$ all ! po9ts on :i* my conclusions h be5 assail$4 ,b ,i h n to ann\nce a *ange ( op9ion on any matt] ( importance4 ,su* m9or ov]sights z h be5 detect$1 ei!r by myself or by my critics1 ,i h1 9 g5]al sil5tly1 correct$3 b x is n to be inf]r$ t ,i agree ) ! objections :i* h be5 made to a passage1 9 e in/ance 9 :i* ,i h alt]$ or cancell$ x4 ,i h (t5 done s1 m]ely t x might n rema9 a /umbl+-block1 :5 ! am\nt ( discussion necess>y to place ! matt] 9 its true light w\ld h exce$$ :at 0 suitable to ! occasion4 ,to sev]al ( ! argum5ts :i* h be5 urg$ aga9/ me1 ,i h ?\ght x useful to reply ) "s degree ( m9ut5ess2 n f any ta/e = controv]sy1 b because ! opportunity 0 fav\rable = plac+ my own conclusions1 & ! gr\nds ( !m1 m cle>ly & completely be=e ! read]4 ,tru?1 on ^! subjects1 is militant1 & c only e/abli% itself by means ( conflict4 ,! mo/ opposite op9ions c make a plausible %[ ( evid5ce :ile ea* has ! /atem5t ( its own case2 & x is only possible to asc]ta9 :i* ( !m is 9 ! "r1 aft] he>+ & comp>+ :at ea* c say aga9/ ! o!r1 & :at ! o!r c urge 9 its def5ce4 ,ev5 ! criticisms f :i* ,i mo/ diss5t h be5 ( great s]vice to me1 by %[+ 9 :at places ! exposition mo/ ne$$ to be improv$1 or ! argum5ts /r5g!n$4 ,& ,i %\ld h be5 well pleas$ if ! book _h und]gone a mu* great] am\nt ( attack2 z 9 t case ,i %\ld probably h be5 enabl$ to improve x /ill m ?an ,i believe ,i h n[ done4 ,,introduction4 #a4 ,!re is z great div]sity among au?ors 9 ! modes :i* !y h adopt$ ( def9+ logic1 z 9 _! treatm5t ( ! details ( x4 ,?is is :at might naturally be expect$ on any subject on :i* writ]s h avail$ !mselves ( ! same language z a means ( deliv]+ diff]5t ideas4 ,e?ics & jurisprud5ce are liable to ! rem>k 9 common ) logic4 ,almo/ e writ] hav+ tak5 a diff]5t view ( "s ( ! p>ticul>s :i* ^! bran*es ( k are usually und]/ood to include2 ea* has s fram$ 8 def9ition z to indicate be=eh& 8 own peculi> t5ets1 & sometimes to beg ! "q 9 _! fav\r4 ,?is div]sity is n s mu* an evil to be compla9$ (1 z an inevitable & 9 "s degree a prop] result ( ! imp]fect /ate ( ^? sci5ces4 ,x is n to be expect$ t !re %\ld be agreem5t ab\t ! def9ition ( a ?+1 until !re is agreem5t ab\t ! ?+ itself4 ,to def9e a ?+1 is to select f among ! :ole ( its prop]ties ^? :i* %all be und]/ood to be designat$ & decl>$ by its "n2 & ! prop]ties mu/ be well kn[n to u be=e we c be compet5t to det]m9e :i* ( !m are fitte/ to be *os5 = ?is purpose4 ,accord+ly1 9 ! case ( s complex an aggregation ( p>ticul>s z are compreh5d$ 9 any?+ :i* c be call$ a sci5ce1 ! def9ition we set out ) is seldom t :i* a m ext5sive k ( ! subject %[s to be ! mo/ appropriate4 ,until we "k ! p>ticul>s !mselves1 we _c fix ^u ! mo/ correct & compact mode ( circumscrib+ !m by a g5]al description4 ,x 0 n till aft] an ext5sive & accurate acqua9tance ) ! details ( *emical ph5om5a1 t x 0 f\nd possible to frame a rational def9ition ( *emi/ry2 & ! def9ition ( ! sci5ce ( life & organization is /ill a matt] ( dispute4 ,s long z ! sci5ces are imp]fect1 ! def9itions mu/ p>take ( _! imp]fections2 & if ! =m] are progressive1 ! latt] ought to be s too4 ,z mu*1 !re=e1 z is to be expect$ f a def9ition plac$ at ! comm5cem5t ( a subject1 is t x %\ld def9e ! scope ( our inquiries3 & ! def9ition :i* ,i am ab\t to (f] ( ! sci5ce ( logic1 pret5ds to no?+ m1 ?an to be a /atem5t ( ! "q :i* ,i h put to myself1 & :i* ?is book is an attempt to resolve4 ,! read] is at lib]ty to object to x z a def9ition ( logic2 b x is at all ev5ts a correct def9ition ( ! subject ( ^! volumes4 #b4 ,logic has (t5 be5 call$ ! ,art ( ,reason+4 ,a writ]7#b7 :o has done m ?an any o!r liv+ p]son to re/ore ?is /udy to ! rank f :i* x _h fall5 9 ! e/imation ( ! cultivat$ class 9 our own c\ntry1 has adopt$ ! above def9ition ) an am5dm5t2 he has def9$ ,logic to be ! ,sci5ce1 z well z ! ,art1 ( reason+2 mean+ by ! =m] t]m1 ! analysis ( ! m5tal process :i* takes place :5ev] we reason1 & by ! latt]1 ! rules1 gr\nd$ on t analysis1 = conduct+ ! process correctly4 ,!re c be no d\bt z to ! propriety ( ! em5dation4 ,a "r und]/&+ ( ! m5tal process itself1 ( ! conditions x dep5ds on1 & ! /eps ( :i* x consi/s1 is ! only basis on :i* a sy/em ( rules1 fitt$ = ! direction ( ! process1 c possibly be f\nd$4 ,art necess>ily presupposes k2 art1 9 any b its infant /ate1 presupposes sci5tific k3 & if e art does n be> ! "n ( ! sci5ce on :i* x re/s1 x is only because sev]al sci5ces are (t5 necess>y to =m ! gr\ndwork ( a s+le art4 ,su* is ! complication ( human affairs1 t to enable "o ?+ to be done1 x is (t5 requisite to "k ! nature & prop]ties ( _m ?+s4 ,logic1 !n1 comprises ! sci5ce ( reason+1 z well z an art1 f\nd$ on t sci5ce4 ,b ! ^w ,reason+1 aga91 l mo/ o!r sci5tific t]ms 9 popul> use1 ab\nds 9 ambiguities4 ,9 "o ( its acceptations1 x means syllogiz+2 or ! mode ( inf]5ce :i* may be call$ 7) suffici5t accuracy = ! pres5t purpose7 conclud+ f g5]als to p>ticul>s4 ,9 ano!r ( its s5ses1 to reason1 is simply to inf] any ass]tion1 f ass]tions already admitt$3 & 9 ?is s5se induction is z mu* entitl$ to be call$ reason+ z ! demon/rations ( geometry4 ,writ]s on logic h g5]ally pref]r$ ! =m] acceptation ( ! t]m2 ! latt]1 & m ext5sive signification is t 9 :i* ,i mean to use x4 ,i d ?is by virtue ( ! "r ,i claim = e au?or1 to give :atev] provisional def9ition he pleases ( 8 own subject4 ,b suffici5t reasons w1 ,i believe1 unfold !mselves z we advance1 :y ?is %\ld be n only ! provisional b ! f9al def9ition4 ,x involves1 at all ev5ts1 no arbitr>y *ange 9 ! mean+ ( ! ^w2 =1 ) ! g5]al usage ( ! ,engli% language1 ! wid] signification1 ,i believe1 accords bett] ?an ! m re/rict$ "o4 #c4 ,b ,reason+1 ev5 9 ! wide/ s5se ( :i* ! ^w is susceptible1 does n seem to compreh5d all t is includ$1 ei!r 9 ! be/1 or ev5 9 ! mo/ curr5t1 conception ( ! scope & prov9ce ( our sci5ce4 ,! employm5t ( ! ^w ,logic to d5ote ! !ory ( argum5tation1 is d]iv$ f ! ,ari/otelian1 or1 z !y are commonly t]m$1 ! s*ola/ic logicians4 ,yet ev5 ) !m1 9 _! sy/ematic treatises1 argum5tation 0 ! subject only ( ! ?ird "p3 ! two =m] treat$ ( ,t]ms1 & ( ,propositions2 "u "o or o!r ( :i* heads 7 also includ$ ,def9ition & ,division4 ,pr(ess$ly1 inde$1 ^! previ\s topics 7 introduc$ only on acc\nt ( _! connexion ) reason+1 & z a prep>ation = ! doctr9e & rules ( ! syllogism4 ,yet !y 7 treat$ ) great] m9ut5ess1 & dwelt on at great] l5g?1 ?an 0 requir$ = t purpose alone4 ,m rec5t writ]s on logic h g5]ally und]/ood ! t]m z x 0 employ$ by ! able au?or ( ! ,port ,royal ,logic2 viz4 z equival5t to ! ,art ( ,?9k+4 ,nor is ?is acceptation conf9$ to books1 & sci5tific inquir]s4 ,ev5 9 ord9>y conv]sation1 ! ideas connect$ ) ! ^w ,logic1 include at lea/ precision ( language1 & accuracy ( classification3 & we p]haps (t5] he> p]sons speak ( a logical arrangem5t1 or ( expressions logically def9$1 ?an ( conclusions logically d$uc$ f premisses4 ,aga91 a man is (t5 call$ a great logician1 or a man ( p[]ful logic1 n = ! accuracy ( 8 d$uctions1 b = ! ext5t ( 8 comm& ov] premisses2 because ! g5]al propositions requir$ = expla9+ a difficulty or refut+ a sophism1 copi\sly & promptly occur to him3 because1 9 %ort1 8 k1 besides be+ ample1 is well "u 8 comm& = argum5tative use4 ,:e!r1 !re=e1 we con=m to ! practice ( ^? :o h made ! subject _! p>ticul> /udy1 or to t ( popul> writ]s & common disc\rse1 ! prov9ce ( logic w include sev]al op]ations ( ! intellect n usually consid]$ to fall )9 ! mean+ ( ! t]ms ,reason+ & ,argum5tation4 ,^! v>i\s op]ations might be br\ght )9 ! compass ( ! sci5ce1 & ! additional advantage be obta9$ ( a v simple def9ition1 if1 by an ext5sion ( ! t]m1 sanction$ by high au?orities1 we 7 to def9e logic z ! sci5ce :i* treats ( ! op]ations ( ! human und]/&+ 9 ! pursuit ( tru?4 ,= to ?is ultimate end1 nam+1 classification1 def9ition1 & all o!r op]ations ov] :i* logic has ev] claim$ jurisdiction1 are ess5tially subsidi>y4 ,!y may all be reg>d$ z contrivances = enabl+ a p]son to "k ! tru?s :i* are ne$ful to him1 & to "k !m at ! precise mom5t at :i* !y are ne$ful4 ,o!r purposes1 inde$1 are also s]v$ by ^! op]ations2 = in/ance1 t ( imp>t+ our k to o!rs4 ,b1 view$ ) reg>d to ?is purpose1 !y h nev] be5 consid]$ z )9 ! prov9ce ( ! logician4 ,! sole object ( ,logic is ! guidance ( "o's own ?\ghts2 ! communication ( ^? ?\ghts to o!rs falls "u ! consid]ation ( ,rhetoric1 9 ! l>ge s5se 9 :i* t art 0 conceiv$ by ! anci5ts2 or ( ! /ill m ext5sive art ( ,education4 ,logic takes cognizance ( our intellectual op]ations1 only z !y conduce to our own k1 & to our comm& ov] t k = our own uses4 ,if !re 7 b "o rational be+ 9 ! univ]se1 t be+ might be a p]fect logician2 & ! sci5ce & art ( logic w\ld be ! same = t "o p]son z = ! :ole human race4 #d4 ,b1 if ! def9ition :i* we =m]ly exam9$ includ$ too little1 t :i* is n[ sugge/$ has ! opposite fault ( includ+ too mu*4 ,tru?s are kn[n to u 9 two ways3 "s are kn[n directly1 & ( !mselves2 "s ?r\gh ! m$ium ( o!r tru?s4 ,! =m] are ! subject ( ,intuition1 or ,consci\sness2 ! latt]1 ( ,inf]5ce4 ,! tru?s kn[n by intuition are ! orig9al premisses f :i* all o!rs are inf]r$4 ,our ass5t to ! conclusion be+ gr\nd$ on ! tru? ( ! premisses1 we nev] c\ld arrive at any k by reason+1 unless some?+ c\ld be kn[n antec$5tly to all reason+4 ,examples ( tru?s kn[n to u by imm$iate consci\sness1 are our own bodily s5sations & m5tal feel+s4 ,i "k directly1 & ( my own k1 t ,i 0 vex$ ye/]day1 or t ,i am hungry to-day4 ,examples ( tru?s :i* we "k only by way ( inf]5ce1 are occurr5ces :i* took place :ile we 7 abs5t1 ! ev5ts record$ 9 hi/ory1 or ! !orems ( ma!matics4 ,! two =m] we inf] f ! te/imony adduc$1 or f ! traces ( ^? pa/ occurr5ces :i* /ill exi/2 ! latt]1 f ! premisses laid d[n 9 books ( geometry1 "u ! title ( def9itions & axioms4 ,:atev] we are capable ( kn[+ mu/ belong to ! "o class or to ! o!r2 mu/ be 9 ! numb] ( ! primitive data1 or ( ! conclusions :i* c be drawn f ^!4 ,) ! orig9al data1 or ultimate premisses ( our k2 ) _! numb] or nature1 ! mode 9 :i* !y are obta9$1 or ! te/s by :i* !y may be di/+ui%$2 logic1 9 a direct way at lea/1 has1 9 ! s5se 9 :i* ,i conceive ! sci5ce1 no?+ to d4 ,^! que/ions are p>tly n a subject ( sci5ce at all1 p>tly t ( a v diff]5t sci5ce4 ,:atev] is kn[n to u by consci\sness1 is kn[n beyond possibility ( "q4 ,:at "o sees or feels1 :e!r bodily or m5tally1 "o _c b be sure t "o sees or feels4 ,no sci5ce is requir$ = ! purpose ( e/abli%+ su* tru?s2 no rules ( art c r5d] our k ( !m m c]ta9 ?an x is 9 itself4 ,!re is no logic = ?is portion ( our k4 ,b we may fancy t we see or feel :at we 9 reality inf]4 ,newton saw ! tru? ( _m propositions ( geometry )\t read+ ! demon/rations1 b n1 we may be sure1 )\t _! fla%+ ?r\gh 8 m9d4 ,a tru?1 or suppos$ tru?1 :i* is really ! result ( a v rapid inf]5ce1 may seem to be appreh5d$ intuitively4 ,x has long be5 agre$ by ?9k]s ( ! mo/ opposite s*ools1 t ?is mi/ake is actually made 9 s famili> an in/ance z t ( ! eyesight4 ,!re is no?+ ( :i* we appe> to ourselves to be m directly consci\s1 ?an ! di/ance ( an object f u4 ,yet x has long be5 asc]ta9$1 t :at is p]ceiv$ by ! eye1 is at mo/ no?+ m ?an a v>i\sly col\r$ surface2 t :5 we fancy we see di/ance1 all we really see is c]ta9 v>iations ( app>5t size1 & degrees ( fa9tness ( col\r2 & t our e/imate ( ! object's di/ance f u is ! result ( a comp>ison 7made ) s mu* rapidity t we are unconsci\s ( mak+ x7 betwe5 ! size & col\r ( ! object z !y appe> at ! "t1 & ! size & col\r ( ! same or ( simil> objects z !y appe>$ :5 close at h&1 or :5 _! degree ( remot5ess 0 kn[n by o!r evid5ce4 ,! p]ception ( di/ance by ! eye1 :i* seems s l intuition1 is ?us1 9 reality1 an inf]5ce gr\nd$ on exp]i5ce2 an inf]5ce1 too1 :i* we le>n to make2 & :i* we make ) m & m correctness z our exp]i5ce increases2 ?\gh 9 famili> cases x takes place1 s rapidly z to appe> exactly on a p> ) ^? p]ceptions ( sight :i* are really intuitive1 our p]ceptions ( col\r47#c7 ,( ! sci5ce1 !re=e1 :i* exp\nds ! op]ations ( ! human und]/&+ 9 ! pursuit ( tru?1 "o ess5tial "p is ! inquiry3 ,:at are ! facts :i* are ! objects ( intuition or consci\sness1 & :at are ^? :i* we m]ely inf]8 ,b ?is inquiry has nev] be5 consid]$ a portion ( logic4 ,its place is 9 ano!r & a p]fectly di/9ct dep>tm5t ( sci5ce1 to :i* ! "n metaphysics m p>ticul>ly belongs3 t portion ( m5tal philosophy :i* attempts to det]m9e :at "p ( ! furniture ( ! m9d belongs to x orig9ally1 & :at "p is con/ruct$ out ( mat]ials furni%$ to x f )\t4 ,to ?is sci5ce app]ta9 ! great & mu* debat$ que/ions ( ! exi/5ce ( matt]2 ! exi/5ce ( _s1 & ( a di/9ction betwe5 x & matt]2 ! reality ( "t & space1 z ?+s )\t ! m9d1 & di/+ui%able f ! objects :i* are said to exi/ 9 !m4 ,= 9 ! pres5t /ate ( ! discussion on ^! topics1 x is almo/ univ]sally all[$ t ! exi/5ce ( matt] or ( _s1 ( space or ( "t1 is1 9 its nature1 unsusceptible ( be+ prov$2 & t if any?+ is kn[n ( !m1 x mu/ be by imm$iate intuition4 ,to ! same sci5ce belong ! inquiries into ! nature ( ,conception1 ,p]ception1 ,memory1 & ,belief2 all ( :i* are op]ations ( ! und]/&+ 9 ! pursuit ( tru?2 b ) :i*1 z ph5om5a ( ! m9d1 or ) ! possibility :i* may or may n exi/ ( analys+ any ( !m into simpl] ph5om5a1 ! logician z su* has no conc]n4 ,to ?is sci5ce mu/ also be ref]r$ ! foll[+1 & all analog\s que/ions3 ,to :at ext5t our intellectual faculties & our emotions are innate--to :at ext5t ! result ( association3 ,:e!r ,god1 & duty1 are realities1 ! exi/5ce ( :i* is manife/ to u priori by ! con/itution ( our rational faculty2 or :e!r our ideas ( !m are acquir$ notions1 ! orig9 ( :i* we are able to trace & expla92 & ! reality ( ! objects !mselves a "q n ( consci\sness or intuition1 b ( evid5ce & reason+4 ,! prov9ce ( logic mu/ be re/rict$ to t portion ( our k :i* consi/s ( inf]5ces f tru?s previ\sly kn[n2 :e!r ^? antec$5t data be g5]al propositions1 or p>ticul> obs]vations & p]ceptions4 ,logic is n ! sci5ce ( ,belief1 b ! sci5ce ( ,pro(1 or ,evid5ce4 ,9 s f> z belief pr(esses to be f\nd$ on pro(1 ! (fice ( logic is to supply a te/ = asc]ta9+ :e!r or n ! belief is well gr\nd$4 ,) ! claims :i* any proposition has to belief on ! evid5ce ( consci\sness1 t is1 )\t evid5ce 9 ! prop] s5se ( ! ^w1 logic has no?+ to d4 #e4 ,by f> ! greate/ portion ( our k1 :e!r ( g5]al tru?s or ( p>ticul> facts1 be+ av[$ly matt] ( inf]5ce1 ne>ly ! :ole1 n only ( sci5ce1 b ( human conduct1 is am5able to ! au?ority ( logic4 ,to draw inf]5ces has be5 said to be ! great bus9ess ( life4 ,e "o has daily1 h\rly1 & mom5t>y ne$ ( asc]ta9+ facts :i* he has n directly obs]v$2 n f any g5]al purpose ( add+ to 8 /ock ( k1 b because ! facts !mselves are ( importance to 8 int]e/s or to 8 occupations4 ,! bus9ess ( ! magi/rate1 ( ! milit>y comm&]1 ( ! navigator1 ( ! physician1 ( ! agriculturi/1 is m]ely to judge ( evid5ce1 & to act accord+ly4 ,!y all h to asc]ta9 c]ta9 facts1 9 ord] t !y may aft]w>ds apply c]ta9 rules1 ei!r devis$ by !mselves1 or prescrib$ = _! guidance by o!rs2 & z !y d ?is well or ill1 s !y dis*>ge well or ill ! duties ( _! sev]al call+s4 ,x is ! only occupation 9 :i* ! m9d nev] ceases to be engag$2 & is ! subject1 n ( logic1 b ( k 9 g5]al4 ,logic1 h[ev]1 is n ! same ?+ ) k1 ?\gh ! field ( logic is coext5sive ) ! field ( k4 ,logic is ! common judge & arbit] ( all p>ticul> inve/igations4 ,x does n und]take to f9d evid5ce1 b to det]m9e :e!r x has be5 f\nd4 ,logic nei!r obs]ves1 nor inv5ts1 nor discov]s2 b judges4 ,x is no "p ( ! bus9ess ( logic to in=m ! surgeon :at appe>ances are f\nd to accompany a viol5t dea?4 ,?is he mu/ le>n f 8 own exp]i5ce & obs]vation1 or f t ( o!rs1 8 pr$ecessors 9 8 peculi> pursuit4 ,b logic sits 9 judgm5t on ! suffici5cy ( t obs]vation & exp]i5ce to ju/ify 8 rules1 & on ! suffici5cy ( 8 rules to ju/ify 8 conduct4 ,x does n give him pro(s1 b tea*es him :at makes !m pro(s1 & h[ he is to judge ( !m4 ,x does n tea* t any p>ticul> fact proves any o!r1 b po9ts out to :at conditions all facts mu/ con=m1 9 ord] t !y may prove o!r facts4 ,to decide :e!r any giv5 fact fulfils ^! conditions1 or :e!r facts c be f\nd :i* fulfil !m 9 a giv5 case1 belongs exclusively to ! p>ticul> art or sci5ce1 or to our k ( ! p>ticul> subject4 ,x is 9 ?is s5se t logic is1 :at ,bacon s expressively call$ x1 ars artium2 ! sci5ce ( sci5ce itself4 ,all sci5ce consi/s ( data & conclusions f ^? data1 ( pro(s & :at !y prove3 n[ logic po9ts out :at relations mu/ subsi/ betwe5 data & :atev] c be conclud$ f !m1 betwe5 pro( & ev]y?+ :i* x c prove4 ,if !re be any su* indisp5sable relations1 & if ^! c be precisely det]m9$1 e p>ticul> bran* ( sci5ce1 z well z e individual 9 ! guidance ( 8 conduct1 is b\nd to con=m to ^? relations1 "u ! p5alty ( mak+ false inf]5ces1 ( draw+ conclusions :i* are n gr\nd$ 9 ! realities ( ?+s4 ,:atev] has at any "t be5 conclud$ ju/ly1 :atev] k has be5 acquir$ o!rwise ?an by imm$iate intuition1 dep5d$ on ! obs]vance ( ! laws :i* x is ! prov9ce ( logic to inve/igate4 ,if ! conclusions are j1 & ! k real1 ^? laws1 :e!r kn[n or n1 h be5 obs]v$4 #f4 ,we ne$ n1 !re=e1 seek any f>!r = a solution ( ! "q1 s (t5 agitat$1 respect+ ! utility ( logic4 ,if a sci5ce ( logic exi/s1 or is capable ( exi/+1 x mu/ be useful4 ,if !re be rules to :i* e m9d consci\sly or unconsci\sly con=ms 9 e in/ance 9 :i* x inf]s rightly1 !re seems little necessity = discuss+ :e!r a p]son is m likely to obs]ve ^? rules1 :5 he kn[s ! rules1 ?an :5 he is unacqua9t$ ) !m4 ,a sci5ce may und\bt$ly be br\ght to a c]ta91 n inconsid]able1 /age ( advancem5t1 )\t ! application ( any o!r logic to x ?an :at all p]sons1 :o are said to h a s\nd und]/&+1 acquire empirically 9 ! c\rse ( _! /udies4 ,mank9d judg$ ( evid5ce1 & (t5 correctly1 be=e logic 0 a sci5ce1 or !y nev] c\ld h made x "o4 ,& !y execut$ great me*anical works be=e !y und]/ood ! laws ( me*anics4 ,b !re are limits bo? to :at me*anicians c d )\t pr9ciples ( me*anics1 & to :at ?9k]s c d )\t pr9ciples ( logic4 ,a few individuals may1 by extraord9>y g5ius1 anticipate ! results ( sci5ce2 b ! bulk ( mank9d require ei!r to und]/& ! !ory ( :at !y are do+1 or to h rules laid d[n = !m by ^? :o h und]/ood ! !ory4 ,9 ! progress ( sci5ce f its easie/ to its m difficult problems1 ea* great /ep 9 advance has usually _h ei!r z its precursor1 or z its accompanim5t & necess>y condition1 a correspond+ improvem5t 9 ! notions & pr9ciples ( logic receiv$ among ! mo/ advanc$ ?9k]s4 ,& if sev]al ( ! m difficult sci5ces are /ill 9 s defective a /ate2 if n only s little is prov$1 b disputation has n t]m9at$ ev5 ab\t ! little :i* seem$ to be s2 ! reason p]haps is1 t m5's logical notions h n yet acquir$ ! degree ( ext5sion1 or ( accuracy1 requisite = ! e/imation ( ! evid5ce prop] to ^? p>ticul> dep>tm5ts ( k4 #g4 ,logic1 !n1 is ! sci5ce ( ! op]ations ( ! und]/&+ :i* are subs]vi5t to ! e/imation ( evid5ce3 bo? ! process itself ( proce$+ f kn[n tru?s to unkn[n1 & all o!r intellectual op]ations 9 s f> z auxili>y to ?is4 ,x includes1 !re=e1 ! op]ation ( ,nam+2 = language is an in/rum5t ( ?\ght1 z well z a means ( communicat+ our ?\ghts4 ,x includes1 also1 ,def9ition1 & ,classification4 ,=1 ! use ( ^! op]ations 7putt+ all o!r m9ds ?an "o's own out ( consid]ation7 is to s]ve n only = keep+ our evid5ces & ! conclusions f !m p]man5t & readily accessible 9 ! memory1 b = s m>%all+ ! facts :i* we may at any "t be engag$ 9 inve/igat+1 z to enable u to p]ceive m cle>ly :at evid5ce !re is1 & to judge ) few] *ances ( error :e!r x be suffici5t4 ,^!1 !re=e1 are op]ations specially in/rum5tal to ! e/imation ( evid5ce1 & z su* are )9 ! prov9ce ( ,logic4 ,!re are o!r m elem5t>y processes1 conc]n$ 9 all ?9k+1 su* z ,conception1 ,memory1 & ! l2 b ( ^! x is n necess>y t ,logic %\ld take any peculi> cognizance1 s9ce !y h no special connexion ) ! problem ( ,evid5ce1 fur!r ?an t1 l all o!r problems address$ to ! und]/&+1 x presupposes !m4 ,our object1 !n1 w be to attempt a correct analysis ( ! intellectual process call$ ,reason+ or ,inf]5ce1 & ( su* o!r m5tal op]ations z are int5d$ to facilitate ?is3 z well z1 on ! f\ndation ( ?is analysis1 & p>i passu ) x1 to br+ toge!r or frame a set ( rules or canons = te/+ ! suffici5cy ( any giv5 evid5ce to prove any giv5 proposition4 ,) respect to ! fir/ "p ( ?is und]tak+1 ,i d n attempt to decompose ! m5tal op]ations 9 "q into _! ultimate elem5ts4 ,x is en\gh if ! analysis z f> z x goes is correct1 & if x goes f> en\gh = ! practical purposes ( logic consid]$ z an art4 ,! sep>ation ( a complicat$ ph5om5on into its compon5t p>ts1 is n l a connect$ & int]dep5d5t *a9 ( pro(4 ,if "o l9k ( an argum5t breaks1 ! :ole drops to ! gr\nd2 b "o /ep t[>ds an analysis holds good & has an indep5d5t value1 ?\gh we %\ld nev] be able to make a second4 ,! results ( analytical *emi/ry are n ! less valuable1 ?\gh x %\ld be discov]$ t all :i* we n[ call simple sub/ances are really comp\nds4 ,all o!r ?+s are at any rate comp\nd$ ( ^? elem5ts3 :e!r ! elem5ts !mselves admit ( decomposition1 is an important inquiry1 b does n affect ! c]ta9ty ( ! sci5ce up to t po9t4 ,i %all1 accord+ly1 attempt to analyse ! process ( inf]5ce1 & ! processes subord9ate to inf]5ce1 s f> only z may be requisite = asc]ta9+ ! diff]5ce betwe5 a correct & an incorrect p]=mance ( ^? processes4 ,! reason = ?us limit+ our design1 is evid5t4 ,x has be5 said by objectors to logic1 t we d n le>n to use our muscles by /udy+ _! anatomy4 ,! fact is n q fairly /at$2 = if ! action ( any ( our muscles 7 vitiat$ by local weakness1 or o!r physical defect1 a k ( _! anatomy might be v necess>y = effect+ a cure4 ,b we %\ld be ju/ly liable to ! criticism involv$ 9 ?is objection1 7 we1 9 a treatise on logic1 to c>ry ! analysis ( ! reason+ process beyond ! po9t at :i* any inaccuracy :i* may h crept into x mu/ become visible4 ,9 le>n+ bodily ex]cises 7to c>ry on ! same illu/ration7 we d1 & mu/1 analyse ! bodily motions s f> z is necess>y = di/+ui%+ ^? :i* ought to be p]=m$ f ^? :i* ought n4 ,to a simil> ext5t1 & no fur!r1 x is necess>y t ! logician %\ld analyse ! m5tal processes ) :i* ,logic is conc]n$4 ,any ult]ior & m9ut] analysis mu/ be left to metaphysics2 :i* 9 ?is1 z 9 o!r p>ts ( our m5tal nature1 decides :at are ultimate facts1 & :at are resolvable into o!r facts4 ,& ,i believe x w be f\nd t ! conclusions arriv$ at 9 ?is "w h no necess>y connexion ) any p>ticul> views respect+ ! ult]ior analysis4 ,logic is common gr\nd on :i* ! p>tisans ( ,h>tley & ( ,reid1 ( ,locke & ( ,kant1 may meet & jo9 h&s4 ,p>ticul> & deta*$ op9ions ( all ^! ?9k]s w no d\bt occasionally be controv]t$1 s9ce all ( !m 7 logicians z well z metaphysicians2 b ! field on :i* _! pr9cipal battles h be5 f\ght1 lies beyond ! b\nd>ies ( our sci5ce4 ,x _c1 inde$1 be pret5d$ t logical pr9ciples c be altoge!r irrelevant to ^? m ab/ruse discussions2 nor is x possible b t ! view we are l$ to take ( ! problem :i* logic proposes1 mu/ h a t5d5cy fav\rable to ! adoption ( "s "o op9ion on ^! controv]t$ subjects r ?an ano!r4 ,= metaphysics1 9 endeav\r+ to solve its own peculi> problem1 mu/ employ means1 ! validity ( :i* falls "u ! cognizance ( logic4 ,x proce$s1 no d\bt1 z f> z possible1 m]ely by a clos] & m att5tive int]rogation ( our consci\sness1 or m prop]ly speak+1 ( our memory2 & s f> is n am5able to logic4 ,b :]ev] ?is me?od is insuffici5t to atta9 ! end ( its inquiries1 x mu/ proce$1 l o!r sci5ces1 by means ( evid5ce4 ,n[1 ! mom5t ?is sci5ce beg9s to draw inf]5ces f evid5ce1 logic becomes ! sov]eign judge :e!r its inf]5ces are well-gr\nd$1 or :at o!r inf]5ces w\ld be s4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 con/itutes no ne>] or o!r relation betwe5 logic & metaphysics ?an t :i* exi/s betwe5 logic & all ! o!r sci5ces4 ,& ,i c consci5ti\sly affirm1 t no "o proposition laid d[n 9 ?is "w has be5 adopt$ = ! sake ( e/abli%+1 or ) any ref]5ce to its fitness = be+ employ$ 9 e/abli%+1 preconceiv$ op9ions 9 any dep>tm5t ( k or ( inquiry on :i* ! speculative _w is /ill undecid$4 ,,book ,i4 ,,( ,,names ,,& ,,propositions4 8,la scola/ique1 qui produisit dans la logique1 comme dans la morale1 et dans une p>tie de la mtaphysique1 une subtilit1 une prcision d'ides1 dont l'habitude inconnue aux anci5s1 a contribu plus qu'on ne croit au progrs de la bonne philosophie40--,,condorcet1 ,vie de ,turgot4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,( ,,! ,,necessity ,,( ,,comm5c+ ,,) ,,an ,,analysis ,,( ,,language4 #a4 ,x is s mu* ! e/abli%$ practice ( writ]s on logic to comm5ce _! treatises by a few g5]al obs]vations 79 mo/ cases1 x is true1 r meagre7 on ,t]ms & _! v>ieties1 t x w1 p]haps1 sc>cely be requir$ f me1 9 m]ely foll[+ ! common usage1 to be z p>ticul> 9 assign+ my reasons1 z x is usually expect$ t ^? %\ld be :o deviate f x4 ,! practice1 inde$1 is recomm5d$ by consid]ations f> too obvi\s to require a =mal ju/ification4 ,logic is a portion ( ! ,art ( ,?9k+3 ,language is evid5tly1 & by ! admission ( all philosoph]s1 "o ( ! pr9cipal in/rum5ts or helps ( ?\ght2 & any imp]fection 9 ! in/rum5t1 or 9 ! mode ( employ+ x1 is confess$ly liable1 /ill m ?an 9 almo/ any o!r art1 to confuse & imp$e ! process1 & de/roy all gr\nd ( confid5ce 9 ! result4 ,= a m9d n previ\sly v]s$ 9 ! mean+ & "r use ( ! v>i\s k9ds ( words1 to attempt ! /udy ( me?ods ( philosophiz+1 w\ld be z if "s "o %\ld attempt to make himself an a/ronomical obs]v]1 hav+ nev] le>n$ to adju/ ! focal di/ance ( 8 optical in/rum5ts s z to see di/9ctly4 ,s9ce ,reason+1 or ,inf]5ce1 ! pr9cipal subject ( logic1 is an op]ation :i* usually takes place by means ( words1 & 9 complicat$ cases c take place 9 no o!r way2 ^? :o h n a ?or\gh insight into ! signification & purposes ( words1 w be "u *ances1 am\nt+ almo/ to c]ta9ty1 ( reason+ or inf]r+ incorrectly4 ,& logicians h g5]ally felt t unless1 9 ! v fir/ /age1 !y remov$ ?is f]tile s\rce ( error2 unless !y taught _! pupil to put away ! glasses :i* di/ort ! object1 & to use ^? :i* are adapt$ to 8 purpose 9 su* a mann] z to assi/1 n p]plex 8 vision2 he w\ld n be 9 a condition to practise ! rema9+ "p ( _! discipl9e ) any prospect ( advantage4 ,!re=e x is t an inquiry into language1 s f> z is ne$ful to gu>d aga9/ ! errors to :i* x gives rise1 has at all times be5 deem$ a necess>y prelim9>y to ! /udy ( logic4 ,b !re is ano!r reason1 ( a /ill m fundam5tal nature1 :y ! import ( words %\ld be ! e>lie/ subject ( ! logician's consid]ation3 because )\t x he _c exam9e into ! import ( ,propositions4 ,n[ ?is is a subject :i* /&s on ! v ?re%old ( ! sci5ce ( logic4 ,! object ( logic1 z def9$ 9 ! ,introductory ,*apt]1 is to asc]ta9 h[ we come by t portion ( our k 7mu* ! greate/ portion7 :i* is n intuitive3 & by :at crit]ion we c1 9 matt]s n self-evid5t1 di/+ui% betwe5 ?+s prov$ & ?+s n prov$1 betwe5 :at is wor?y & :at is unwor?y ( belief4 ,( ! v>i\s que/ions :i* pres5t !mselves to our inquir+ faculties1 "s receive an answ] f direct consci\sness1 o!rs1 if resolv$ at all1 c only be resolv$ by means ( evid5ce4 ,logic is conc]n$ ) ^! la/4 ,b be=e inquir+ into ! mode ( resolv+ que/ions1 x is necess>y to inquire1 :at are ^? :i* (f] !mselves8 :at que/ions are conceivable8 :at inquiries are !re1 to :i* mank9d h ei!r obta9$1 or be5 able to imag9e x possible t !y %\ld obta91 an answ]8 ,?is po9t is be/ asc]ta9$ by a survey & analysis ( ,propositions4 #b4 ,! answ] to e "q :i* x is possible to frame1 is conta9$ 9 a ,proposition1 or ,ass]tion4 ,:atev] c be an object ( belief1 or ev5 ( disbelief1 mu/1 :5 put into words1 assume ! =m ( a proposition4 ,all tru? & all error lie 9 propositions4 ,:at1 by a conv5i5t misapplication ( an ab/ract t]m1 we call a ,tru?1 means simply a ,true ,proposition2 & errors are false propositions4 ,to "k ! import ( all possible propositions1 w\ld be to "k all que/ions :i* c be rais$1 all matt]s :i* are susceptible ( be+ ei!r believ$ or disbeliev$4 ,h[ _m k9ds ( inquiries c be prop\nd$2 h[ _m k9ds ( judgm5ts c be made2 & h[ _m k9ds ( propositions x is possible to frame ) a mean+2 are b diff]5t =ms ( "o & ! same "q4 ,s9ce1 !n1 ! objects ( all ,belief & ( all ,inquiry express !mselves 9 propositions2 a suffici5t scrut9y ( ,propositions & ( _! v>ieties w apprize u :at que/ions mank9d h actually ask$ ( !mselves1 & :at1 9 ! nature ( answ]s to ^? que/ions1 !y h actually ?\ght !y _h gr\nds to believe4 ,n[ ! fir/ glance at a proposition %[s t x is =m$ by putt+ toge!r two names4 ,a proposition1 accord+ to ! common simple def9ition1 :i* is suffici5t = our purpose1 is1 disc\rse1 9 :i* some?+ is affirm$ or d5i$ ( some?+4 ,?us1 9 ! proposition1 ,gold is yell[1 ! quality yell[ is affirm$ ( ! sub/ance gold4 ,9 ! proposition1 ,frankl9 0 n born 9 ,engl&1 ! fact express$ by ! words born 9 ,engl& is d5i$ ( ! man ,frankl94 ,e proposition consi/s ( ?ree p>ts3 ! ,subject1 ! ,pr$icate1 & ! ,copula4 ,! pr$icate is ! "n d5ot+ t :i* is affirm$ or d5i$4 ,! subject is ! "n d5ot+ ! p]son or ?+ :i* some?+ is affirm$ or d5i$ (4 ,! copula is ! sign d5ot+ t !re is an affirmation or d5ial2 & !reby enabl+ ! he>] or read] to di/+ui% a proposition f any o!r k9d ( disc\rse4 ,?us1 9 ! proposition1 ,! e>? is r\nd1 ! ,pr$icate is ! ^w r\nd1 :i* d5otes ! quality affirm$1 or 7z ! phrase is7 pr$icat$3 ! e>?1 words d5ot+ ! object :i* t quality is affirm$ (1 compose ! ,subject2 ! ^w is1 :i* s]ves z ! connect+ m>k betwe5 ! subject & pr$icate1 to %[ t "o ( !m is affirm$ ( ! o!r1 is call$ ! ,copula4 ,dismiss+1 = ! pres5t1 ! copula1 ( :i* m w be said h]eaft]1 e proposition1 !n1 consi/s ( at lea/ two names2 br+s toge!r two names1 9 a p>ticul> mann]4 ,?is is already a fir/ /ep t[>ds :at we are 9 que/ (4 ,x appe>s f ?is1 t = an act ( belief1 "o object is n suffici5t2 ! simple/ act ( belief supposes1 & has some?+ to d )1 two objects3 two names1 to say ! lea/2 & 7s9ce ! names mu/ be names ( some?+7 two nameable ?+s4 ,a l>ge class ( ?9k]s w\ld cut ! matt] %ort by say+1 two ideas4 ,!y w\ld say1 t ! subject & pr$icate are bo? ( !m names ( ideas2 ! idea ( gold1 = in/ance1 & ! idea ( yell[2 & t :at takes place 7or a "p ( :at takes place7 9 ! act ( belief1 consi/s 9 br++ 7z x is (t5 express$7 "o ( ^! ideas "u ! o!r4 ,b ?is we are n yet 9 a condition to say3 :e!r su* be ! correct mode ( describ+ ! ph5om5on1 is an aft] consid]ation4 ,! result ) :i* = ! pres5t we mu/ be cont5t$1 is1 t 9 e act ( belief two objects are 9 "s mann] tak5 cognizance (2 t !re c be no belief claim$1 or "q prop\nd$1 :i* does n embrace two di/9ct 7ei!r mat]ial or intellectual7 subjects ( ?\ght2 ea* ( !m capable or n ( be+ conceiv$ by itself1 b incapable ( be+ believ$ by itself4 ,i may say1 = in/ance1 8! sun40 ,! ^w has a mean+1 & sugge/s t mean+ to ! m9d ( any "o :o is li/5+ to me4 ,b suppose ,i ask him1 ,:e!r x is true3 :e!r he believes x8 ,he c give no answ]4 ,!re is z yet no?+ to believe1 or to disbelieve4 ,n[1 h[ev]1 let me make1 ( all possible ass]tions respect+ ! sun1 ! "o :i* involves ! lea/ ( ref]5ce to any object besides itself2 let me say1 8! sun exi/s40 ,"h1 at once1 is some?+ :i* a p]son c say he believes4 ,b "h1 in/ead ( only "o1 we f9d two di/9ct objects ( conception3 ! sun is "o object2 exi/5ce is ano!r4 ,let x n be said1 t ?is second conception1 exi/5ce1 is involv$ 9 ! fir/2 = ! sun may be conceiv$ z no long] exi/+4 8,! sun0 does n convey all ! mean+ t is convey$ by 8! sun exi/s30 8my fa!r0 does n include all ! mean+ ( 8my fa!r exi/s10 = he may be dead2 8a r\nd squ>e0 does n include ! mean+ ( 8a r\nd squ>e exi/s10 = x does n & _c exi/4 ,:5 ,i say1 8! sun10 8my fa!r10 or a 8r\nd squ>e10 ,i call ^u ! he>] = no belief or disbelief1 nor c ei!r ! "o or ! o!r be af=d$ me2 b if ,i say1 8! sun exi/s10 8my fa!r exi/s10 or 8a r\nd squ>e exi/s10 ,i call = belief2 & %\ld1 9 ! fir/ ( ! ?ree in/ances1 meet ) x2 9 ! second1 ) belief or disbelief1 z ! case might be2 9 ! ?ird1 ) disbelief4 #c4 ,?is fir/ /ep 9 ! analysis ( ! object ( belief1 :i*1 ?\gh s obvi\s1 w be f\nd to be n unimportant1 is ! only "o :i* we %all f9d x practicable to make )\t a prelim9>y survey ( language4 ,if we attempt to proce$ fur!r 9 ! same pa?1 t is1 to analyse any fur!r ! import ( ,propositions2 we f9d =c$ ^u u1 z a subject ( previ\s consid]ation1 ! import ( ,names4 ,= e proposition consi/s ( two names2 & e proposition affirms or d5ies "o ( ^! names1 ( ! o!r4 ,n[ :at we d1 :at passes 9 our m9d1 :5 we affirm or d5y two names ( "o ano!r1 mu/ dep5d on :at !y are names (2 s9ce x is ) ref]5ce to t1 & n to ! m]e names !mselves1 t we make ! affirmation or d5ial4 ,"h1 !re=e1 we f9d a new reason :y ! signification ( names1 & ! relation g5]ally betwe5 names & ! ?+s signifi$ by !m1 mu/ occupy ! prelim9>y /age ( ! inquiry we are engag$ 94 ,x may be object$1 t ! mean+ ( names c guide u at mo/ only to ! op9ions1 possibly ! fooli% & gr\ndless op9ions1 :i* mank9d h =m$ conc]n+ ?+s1 & t z ! object ( philosophy is tru?1 n op9ion1 ! philosoph] %\ld dismiss words & look into ?+s !mselves1 to asc]ta9 :at que/ions c be ask$ & answ]$ 9 reg>d to !m4 ,?is advice 7:i* no "o has x 9 8 p[] to foll[7 is 9 reality an exhortation to disc>d ! :ole fruits ( ! lab\rs ( 8 pr$ecessors1 & conduct himself z if he 7 ! fir/ p]son :o _h ev] turn$ an inquir+ eye ^u nature4 ,:at does any "o's p]sonal k ( ,?+s am\nt to1 aft] subtract+ all :i* he has acquir$ by means ( ! words ( o!r p8 ,ev5 aft] he has le>n$ z mu* z p usually d le>n f o!rs1 w ! notions ( ?+s conta9$ 9 8 individual m9d af=d z suffici5t a basis = a catalogue raisonn z ! notions :i* are 9 ! m9ds ( all mank9d8 ,9 any enum]ation & classification ( ,?+s1 :i* does n set out f _! names1 no v>ieties ( ?+s w ( c\rse be compreh5d$ b ^? recognis$ by ! p>ticul> inquir]2 & x w /ill rema9 to be e/abli%$1 by a subsequ5t exam9ation ( names1 t ! enum]ation has omitt$ no?+ :i* ought to h be5 includ$4 ,b if we beg9 ) names1 & use !m z our clue to ! ?+s1 we br+ at once be=e u all ! di/9ctions :i* h be5 recognis$1 n by a s+le inquir]1 b by all inquir]s tak5 toge!r4 ,x d\btless may1 & ,i believe x w1 be f\nd1 t mank9d h multipli$ ! v>ieties unnecess>ily1 & h imag9$ di/9ctions among ?+s :]e !re 7 only di/9ctions 9 ! mann] ( nam+ !m4 ,b we are n entitl$ to assume ?is 9 ! comm5cem5t4 ,we mu/ beg9 by recognis+ ! di/9ctions made by ord9>y language4 ,if "s ( ^! appe>1 on a close exam9ation1 n to be fundam5tal1 ! enum]ation ( ! diff]5t k9ds ( realities may be abridg$ accord+ly4 ,b to impose ^u ! facts 9 ! fir/ in/ance ! yoke ( a !ory1 :ile ! gr\nds ( ! !ory are res]v$ = discussion 9 a subsequ5t /age1 is n a c\rse :i* a logician c reasonably adopt4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,( ,,names4 #a4 8,a "n10 says ,hobbes17#d7 8is a ^w tak5 at pleasure to s]ve = a m>k1 :i* may raise 9 our m9d a ?\ght l to "s ?\ght we _h be=e1 & :i* be+ pron\nc$ to o!rs1 may be to !m a sign ( :at ?\ght ! speak] _h7#e7 be=e 9 8 m9d40 ,?is simple def9ition ( a "n1 z a ^w 7or set ( words7 s]v+ ! d\ble purpose ( a m>k to recall to ourselves ! lik5ess ( a =m] ?\ght1 & a sign to make x kn[n to o!rs1 appe>s unexceptionable4 ,names1 inde$1 d mu* m ?an ?is2 b :atev] else !y d1 gr[s out (1 & is ! result ( ?is3 z w appe> 9 its prop] place4 ,are names m prop]ly said to be ! names ( ?+s1 or ( our ideas ( ?+s8 ,! fir/ is ! expression 9 common use2 ! la/ is t ( "s metaphysicians1 :o conceiv$ t 9 adopt+ x !y 7 introduc+ a highly important di/9ction4 ,! em95t ?9k]1 j quot$1 seems to c\nt5ance ! latt] op9ion4 8,b see+10 he cont9ues1 8names ord]$ 9 spee* 7z is def9$7 are signs ( our conceptions1 x is manife/ !y are n signs ( ! ?+s !mselves2 = t ! s\nd ( ?is ^w /one %\ld be ! sign ( a /one1 _c be und]/ood 9 any s5se b ?is1 t he t he>s x collects t he t pron\nces x ?9ks ( a /one40 ,if x be m]ely meant t ! conception alone1 & n ! ?+ itself1 is recall$ by ! "n1 or imp>t$ to ! he>]1 ?is ( c\rse _c be d5i$4 ,nev]!less1 !re seems good reason = adh]+ to ! common usage1 & call+ ! ^w sun ! "n ( ! sun1 & n ! "n ( our idea ( ! sun4 ,= names are n int5d$ only to make ! he>] conceive :at we conceive1 b also to in=m him :at we believe4 ,n[1 :5 ,i use a "n = ! purpose ( express+ a belief1 x is a belief conc]n+ ! ?+ itself1 n conc]n+ my idea ( x4 ,:5 ,i say1 8! sun is ! cause ( day10 ,i d n mean t my idea ( ! sun causes or excites 9 me ! idea ( day2 or 9 o!r words1 t ?9k+ ( ! sun makes me ?9k ( day4 ,i mean1 t a c]ta9 physical fact1 :i* is call$ ! sun's pres5ce 7& :i*1 9 ! ultimate analysis1 resolves itself into s5sations1 n ideas7 causes ano!r physical fact1 :i* is call$ day4 ,x seems prop] to consid] a ^w z ! "n ( t :i* we int5d to be und]/ood by x :5 we use x2 ( t :i* any fact t we ass]t ( x is to be und]/ood (2 t1 9 %ort1 conc]n+ :i*1 :5 we employ ! ^w1 we int5d to give in=mation4 ,names1 !re=e1 %all always be spok5 ( 9 ?is "w z ! names ( ?+s !mselves1 & n m]ely ( our ideas ( ?+s4 ,b ! "q n[ arises1 ( :at ?+s8 & to answ] ?is x is necess>y to take into consid]ation ! diff]5t k9ds ( names4 #b4 ,x is usual1 be=e exam9+ ! v>i\s classes into :i* names are commonly divid$1 to beg9 by di/+ui%+ f names ( e description1 ^? words :i* are n names1 b only p>ts ( names4 ,among su* are reckon$ p>ticles1 z (1 to1 truly1 (t52 ! inflect$ cases ( n\ns sub/antive1 z me1 him1 ,john's27#f7 & ev5 adjectives1 z l>ge1 heavy4 ,^! words d n express ?+s ( :i* any?+ c be affirm$ or d5i$4 ,we _c say1 ,heavy fell1 or ,a heavy fell2 ,truly1 or ,a truly1 0 ass]t$2 ,(1 or ,an (1 0 9 ! room4 ,unless1 inde$1 we are speak+ ( ! m]e words !mselves1 z :5 we say1 ,truly is an ,engli% ^w1 or1 ,heavy is an adjective4 ,9 t case !y are complete names1 viz4 names ( ^? p>ticul> s\nds1 or ( ^? p>ticul> collections ( writt5 *>act]s4 ,?is employm5t ( a ^w to d5ote ! m]e lett]s & syllables ( :i* x is compos$1 0 t]m$ by ! s*oolm5 ! suppositio mat]ialis ( ! ^w4 ,9 any o!r s5se we _c introduce "o ( ^! words into ! subject ( a proposition1 unless 9 comb9ation ) o!r words2 z1 ,a heavy body fell1 ,a truly important fact 0 ass]t$1 ,a memb] ( p>liam5t 0 9 ! room4 ,an adjective1 h[ev]1 is capable ( /&+ by itself z ! pr$icate ( a proposition2 z :5 we say1 ,sn[ is :ite2 & occasionally ev5 z ! subject1 = we may say1 ,:ite is an agreeable col\r4 ,! adjective is (t5 said to be s us$ by a grammatical ellipsis3 ,sn[ is :ite1 in/ead ( ,sn[ is a :ite object2 ,:ite is an agreeable col\r1 in/ead (1 ,a :ite col\r1 or1 ,! col\r :ite1 is agreeable4 ,! ,greeks & ,romans 7 all[$1 by ! rules ( _! language1 to employ ?is ellipsis univ]sally 9 ! subject z well z 9 ! pr$icate ( a proposition4 ,9 ,engli% ?is _c1 g5]ally speak+1 be done4 ,we may say1 ,! e>? is r\nd2 b we _c say1 ,r\nd is easily mov$2 we mu/ say1 ,a r\nd object4 ,?is di/9ction1 h[ev]1 is r grammatical ?an logical4 ,s9ce !re is no diff]5ce ( mean+ betwe5 r\nd1 & a r\nd object1 x is only cu/om :i* prescribes t on any giv5 occasion "o %all be us$1 & n ! o!r4 ,we %all !re=e1 )\t scruple1 speak ( adjectives z names1 :e!r 9 _! own "r1 or z repres5tative ( ! m circuit\s =ms ( expression above exemplifi$4 ,! o!r classes ( subsidi>y words h no title :atev] to be consid]$ z names4 ,an adv]b1 or an accusative case1 _c "u any circum/ances 7except :5 _! m]e lett]s & syllables are spok5 (7 figure z "o ( ! t]ms ( a proposition4 ,words :i* are n capable ( be+ us$ z names1 b only z p>ts ( names1 7 call$ by "s ( ! s*oolm5 ,syncategorematic t]ms3 f 1 )1 & 1 to pr$icate1 because x 0 only ) "s o!r ^w t !y c\ld be pr$icat$4 ,a ^w :i* c\ld be us$ ei!r z ! subject or pr$icate ( a proposition )\t be+ accompani$ by any o!r ^w1 0 t]m$ by ! same au?orities a ,categorematic t]m4 ,a comb9ation ( "o or m ,categorematic1 & "o or m ,syncategorematic words1 z1 ,a heavy body1 or ,a c\rt ( ju/ice1 !y sometimes call$ a mix$ t]m2 b ?is seems a ne$less multiplication ( te*nical expressions4 ,a mix$ t]m is1 9 ! only useful s5se ( ! ^w1 ,categorematic4 ,x belongs to ! class ( :at h be5 call$ _m-word$ names4 ,=1 z "o ^w is frequ5tly n a "n1 b only "p ( a "n1 s a numb] ( words (t5 compose "o s+le "n1 & no m4 ,^! words1 8! place :i* ! wisdom or policy ( antiquity _h de/9$ = ! resid5ce ( ! ,abyss9ian pr9ces10 =m 9 ! e/imation ( ! logician only "o "n2 "o ,categorematic t]m4 ,a mode ( det]m9+ :e!r any set ( words makes only "o "n1 or m ?an "o1 is by pr$icat+ some?+ ( x1 & obs]v+ :e!r1 by ?is pr$ication1 we make only "o ass]tion or sev]al4 ,?us1 :5 we say1 ,john ,nokes1 :o 0 ! mayor ( ! t[n1 di$ ye/]day1--by ?is pr$ication we make b "o ass]tion2 :5ce x appe>s t 8,john ,nokes1 :o 0 ! mayor ( ! t[n10 is no m ?an "o "n4 ,x is true t 9 ?is proposition1 besides ! ass]tion t ,john ,nokes di$ ye/]day1 !re is includ$ ano!r ass]tion1 namely1 t ,john ,nokes 0 mayor ( ! t[n4 ,b ?is la/ ass]tion 0 already made3 we did n make x by add+ ! pr$icate1 8di$ ye/]day40 ,suppose1 h[ev]1 t ! words _h be51 ,john ,nokes & ! mayor ( ! t[n1 !y w\ld h =m$ two names in/ead ( "o4 ,= :5 we say1 ,john ,nokes & ! mayor ( ! t[n di$ ye/]day1 we make two ass]tions2 "o1 t ,john ,nokes di$ ye/]day2 ! o!r1 t ! mayor ( ! t[n di$ ye/]day4 ,x be+ ne$less to illu/rate at any great] l5g? ! subject ( _m-word$ names1 we proce$ to ! di/9ctions :i* h be5 e/abli%$ among names1 n accord+ to ! words !y are compos$ (1 b accord+ to _! signification4 #c4 ,all names are names ( some?+1 real or imag9>y2 b all ?+s h n names appropriat$ to !m individually4 ,= "s individual objects we require1 & consequ5tly h1 sep>ate di/+ui%+ names2 !re is a "n = e p]son1 & = e rem>kable place4 ,o!r objects1 ( :i* we h n occasion to speak s frequ5tly1 we d n designate by a "n ( _! own2 b :5 ! necessity arises = nam+ !m1 we d s by putt+ toge!r sev]al words1 ea* ( :i*1 by itself1 might be & is us$ = an indef9ite numb] ( o!r objects2 z :5 ,i say1 ?is /one3 8?is0 & 8/one0 be+1 ea* ( !m1 names t may be us$ ( _m o!r objects besides ! p>ticul> "o meant1 al?\gh ! only object ( :i* !y c bo? be us$ at ! giv5 mom5t1 consi/5tly ) _! signification1 may be ! "o ( :i* ,i wi% to speak4 ,7 ?is ! sole purpose = :i* names1 t are common to m ?+s ?an "o1 c\ld be employ$2 if !y only s]v$1 by mutually limit+ ea* o!r1 to af=d a designation = su* individual objects z h no names ( _! own2 !y c\ld only be rank$ among contrivances = economiz+ ! use ( language4 ,b x is evid5t t ?is is n _! sole function4 ,x is by _! means t we are enabl$ to ass]t g5]al propositions2 to affirm or d5y any pr$icate ( an indef9ite numb] ( ?+s at once4 ,! di/9ction1 !re=e1 betwe5 g5]al names1 & individual or s+ul> names1 is fundam5tal2 & may be consid]$ z ! fir/ gr& division ( names4 ,a g5]al "n is famili>ly def9$1 a "n :i* is capable ( be+ truly affirm$1 9 ! same s5se1 ( ea* ( an indef9ite numb] ( ?+s4 ,an individual or s+ul> "n is a "n :i* is only capable ( be+ truly affirm$1 9 ! same s5se1 ( "o ?+4 ,?us1 man is capable ( be+ truly affirm$ ( ,john1 ,pet]1 ,george1 ,m>y1 & o!r p]sons )\t assignable limit3 & x is affirm$ ( all ( !m 9 ! same s5se2 = ! ^w man expresses c]ta9 qualities1 & :5 we pr$icate x ( ^? p]sons1 we ass]t t !y all possess ^? qualities4 ,b ,john is only capable ( be+ truly affirm$ ( "o s+le p]son1 at lea/ 9 ! same s5se4 ,= al?\gh !re are _m p]sons :o be> t "n1 x is n conf]r$ ^u !m to indicate any qualities1 or any?+ :i* belongs to !m 9 common2 & _c be said to be affirm$ ( !m 9 any s5se at all1 consequ5tly n 9 ! same s5se4 8,! pres5t que5 ( ,engl&0 is also an individual "n4 ,=1 t !re nev] c be m ?an "o p]son at a "t ( :om x c be truly affirm$1 is impli$ 9 ! mean+ ( ! words4 ,x is n unusual1 by way ( expla9+ :at is meant by a g5]al "n1 to say t x is ! "n ( a class4 ,b ?is1 ?\gh a conv5i5t mode ( expression = "s purposes1 is objectionable z a def9ition1 s9ce x expla9s ! cle>] ( two ?+s by ! m obscure4 ,x w\ld be m logical to rev]se ! proposition1 & turn x into a def9ition ( ! ^w class3 8,a class is ! indef9ite multitude ( individuals d5ot$ by a g5]al "n40 ,x is necess>y to di/+ui% g5]al f collective names4 ,a g5]al "n is "o :i* c be pr$icat$ ( ea* individual ( a multitude2 a collective "n _c be pr$icat$ ( ea* sep>ately1 b only ( all tak5 toge!r4 8,! #gf? regim5t ( foot10 :i* is a collective "n1 is n a g5]al b an individual "n2 = al?\gh x c be pr$icat$ ( a multitude ( individual soldi]s tak5 jo9tly1 x _c be pr$icat$ ( !m sev]ally4 ,we may say1 ,jones is a soldi]1 & ,?ompson is a soldi]1 & ,smi? is a soldi]1 b we _c say1 ,jones is ! #gf? regim5t1 & ,?ompson is ! #gf? regim5t1 & ,smi? is ! #gf? regim5t4 ,we c only say1 ,jones1 & ,?ompson1 & ,smi?1 & ,br[n1 & s =?1 7enum]at+ all ! soldi]s17 are ! #gf? regim5t4 8,! #gf? regim5t0 is a collective "n1 b n a g5]al "o3 8a regim5t0 is bo? a collective & a g5]al "n4 ,g5]al ) respect to all individual regim5ts1 ( ea* ( :i* sep>ately x c be affirm$2 collective ) respect to ! individual soldi]s1 ( :om any regim5t is compos$4 #d4 ,! second g5]al division ( names is into concrete & ab/ract4 ,a concrete "n is a "n :i* /&s = a ?+2 an ab/ract "n is a "n :i* /&s = an attribute ( a ?+4 ,?us1 ,john1 ! sea1 ?is table1 are names ( ?+s4 ,:ite1 also1 is a "n ( a ?+1 or r ( ?+s4 ,:it5ess1 aga91 is ! "n ( a quality or attribute ( ^? ?+s4 ,man is a "n ( _m ?+s2 humanity is a "n ( an attribute ( ^? ?+s4 ,old is a "n ( ?+s2 old age is a "n ( "o ( _! attributes4 ,i h us$ ! words concrete & ab/ract 9 ! s5se annex$ to !m by ! s*oolm51 :o1 not)/&+ ! imp]fections ( _! philosophy1 7 unrivall$ 9 ! con/ruction ( te*nical language1 & ^: def9itions1 9 logic at lea/1 ?\gh !y nev] w5t m ?an a little way into ! subject1 h seldom1 ,i ?9k1 be5 alt]$ b to be spoil$4 ,a practice1 h[ev]1 has gr[n up 9 m mod]n times1 :i*1 if n introduc$ by ,locke1 has ga9$ curr5cy *iefly f 8 example1 ( apply+ ! expression 8ab/ract "n0 to all names :i* are ! result ( ab/raction or g5]alization1 & consequ5tly to all g5]al names1 in/ead ( conf9+ x to ! names ( attributes4 ,! metaphysicians ( ! ,condillac s*ool1--^: admiration ( ,locke1 pass+ ov] ! pr(\nde/ speculations ( t truly orig9al g5ius1 usually fa/5s ) peculi> eag]ness ^u 8 weake/ po9ts1--h gone on imitat+ him 9 ?is abuse ( language1 until !re is n[ "s difficulty 9 re/or+ ! ^w to its orig9al signification4 ,a m wanton alt]ation 9 ! mean+ ( a ^w is r>ely to be met )2 = ! expression g5]al "n1 ! exact equival5t ( :i* exi/s 9 all languages ,i am acqua9t$ )1 0 already available = ! purpose to :i* ab/ract has be5 misappropriat$1 :ile ! misappropriation leaves t important class ( words1 ! names ( attributes1 )\t any compact di/9ctive appellation4 ,! old acceptation1 h[ev]1 has n gone s completely out ( use1 z to deprive ^? :o /ill adh]e to x ( all *ance ( be+ und]/ood4 ,by ab/ract1 !n1 ,i %all always mean ! opposite ( concrete3 by an ab/ract "n1 ! "n ( an attribute2 by a concrete "n1 ! "n ( an object4 ,d ab/ract names belong to ! class ( g5]al1 or to t ( s+ul> names8 ,"s ( !m are c]ta9ly g5]al4 ,i mean ^? :i* are names n ( "o s+le & def9ite attribute1 b ( a class ( attributes4 ,su* is ! ^w col\r1 :i* is a "n common to :it5ess1 r$ness1 c4 ,su* is ev5 ! ^w :it5ess1 9 respect ( ! diff]5t %ades ( :it5ess to :i* x is appli$ 9 common2 ! ^w magnitude1 9 respect ( ! v>i\s degrees ( magnitude & ! v>i\s dim5sions ( space2 ! ^w weight1 9 respect ( ! v>i\s degrees ( weight4 ,su* also is ! ^w attribute itself1 ! common "n ( all p>ticul> attributes4 ,b :5 only "o attribute1 nei!r v>iable 9 degree nor 9 k9d1 is designat$ by ! "n2 z visibl5ess2 tangibl5ess2 equality2 squ>5ess2 milk:it5ess2 !n ! "n c h>dly be consid]$ g5]al2 = ?\gh x d5otes an attribute ( _m diff]5t objects1 ! attribute itself is always conceiv$ z "o1 n _m4 ,! "q is1 h[ev]1 ( no mom5t1 & p]haps ! be/ way ( decid+ x w\ld be to consid] ^! names z nei!r g5]al nor individual1 b to place !m 9 a class ap>t4 ,x may be object$ to our def9ition ( an ab/ract "n1 t n only ! names :i* we h call$ ab/ract1 b adjectives1 :i* we h plac$ 9 ! concrete class1 are names ( attributes2 t :ite1 = example1 is z mu* ! "n ( ! col\r1 z :it5ess is4 ,b 7z be=e rem>k$7 a ^w ought to be consid]$ z ! "n ( t :i* we int5d to be und]/ood by x :5 we put x to its pr9cipal use1 t is1 :5 we employ x 9 pr$ication4 ,:5 we say sn[ is :ite1 milk is :ite1 l95 is :ite1 we d n mean x to be und]/ood t sn[1 or l951 or milk1 is a col\r4 ,we mean t !y are ?+s hav+ ! col\r4 ,! rev]se is ! case ) ! ^w :it5ess2 :at we affirm to be :it5ess is n sn[ b ! col\r ( sn[4 ,:it5ess1 !re=e1 is ! "n ( ! col\r exclusively3 :ite is a "n ( all ?+s :atev] hav+ ! col\r2 a "n1 n ( ! quality :it5ess1 b ( e :ite object4 ,x is true1 ?is "n 0 giv5 to all ^? v>i\s objects on acc\nt ( ! quality2 & we may !re=e say1 )\t impropriety1 t ! quality =ms "p ( its signification2 b a "n c only be said to /& =1 or to be a "n (1 ! ?+s ( :i* x c be pr$icat$4 ,we %all pres5tly see t all names :i* c be said to h any signification1 all names by apply+ :i* to an individual we give any in=mation respect+ t individual1 may be said to imply an attribute ( "s sort2 b !y are n names ( ! attribute2 x has its own prop] ab/ract "n4 #e4 ,?is leads to ! consid]ation ( a ?ird great division ( names1 into connotative & non-connotative1 ! latt] sometimes1 b improp]ly1 call$ absolute4 ,?is is "o ( ! mo/ important di/9ctions :i* we %all h occasion to po9t out1 & "o ( ^? :i* g deepe/ into ! nature ( language4 ,a non-connotative t]m is "o :i* signifies a subject only1 or an attribute only4 ,a connotative t]m is "o :i* d5otes a subject1 & implies an attribute4 ,by a subject is "h meant any?+ :i* possesses attributes4 ,?us ,john1 or ,london1 or ,engl&1 are names :i* signify a subject only4 ,:it5ess1 l5g?1 virtue1 signify an attribute only4 ,none ( ^! names1 !re=e1 are connotative4 ,b :ite1 long1 virtu\s1 are connotative4 ,! ^w :ite1 d5otes all :ite ?+s1 z sn[1 pap]1 ! foam ( ! sea1 c41 & implies1 or z x 0 t]m$ by ! s*oolm51 connotes17#g7 ! attribute :it5ess4 ,! ^w :ite is n pr$icat$ ( ! attribute1 b ( ! subjects1 sn[1 c42 b :5 we pr$icate x ( !m1 we imply1 or connote1 t ! attribute :it5ess belongs to !m4 ,! same may be said ( ! o!r words above cit$4 ,virtu\s1 = example1 is ! "n ( a class1 :i* includes ,socrates1 ,h[>d1 ! man ( ,ross1 & an undef9$ numb] ( o!r individuals1 pa/1 pres5t1 & to come4 ,^! individuals1 collectively & sev]ally1 c alone be said ) propriety to be d5ot$ by ! ^w3 ( !m alone c x prop]ly be said to be a "n4 ,b x is a "n appli$ to all ( !m 9 consequ5ce ( an attribute :i* !y are suppos$ to possess 9 common1 ! attribute :i* has receiv$ ! "n ( virtue4 ,x is appli$ to all be+s t are consid]$ to possess ?is attribute2 & to none :i* are n s consid]$4 ,all concrete g5]al names are connotative4 ,! ^w man1 = example1 d5otes ,pet]1 ,jane1 ,john1 & an indef9ite numb] ( o!r individuals1 ( :om1 tak5 z a class1 x is ! "n4 ,b x is appli$ to !m1 because !y possess1 & to signify t !y possess1 c]ta9 attributes4 ,^! seem to be1 corporeity1 animal life1 rationality1 & a c]ta9 ext]nal =m1 :i* = di/9ction we call ! human4 ,e exi/+ ?+1 :i* possess$ all ^! attributes1 w\ld be call$ a man2 & any?+ :i* possess$ none ( !m1 or only "o1 or two1 or ev5 ?ree ( !m )\t ! f\r?1 w\ld n be s call$4 ,= example1 if 9 ! int]ior ( ,africa !re 7 to be discov]$ a race ( animals possess+ reason equal to t ( human be+s1 b ) ! =m ( an elephant1 !y w\ld n be call$ m54 ,swift's ,h\yhnhms 7 n s call$4 ,or if su* newly-discov]$ be+s possess$ ! =m ( man )\t any ve/ige ( reason1 x is probable t "s o!r "n ?an t ( man w\ld be f\nd = !m4 ,h[ x happ5s t !re c be any d\bt ab\t ! matt]1 w appe> h]eaft]4 ,! ^w man1 !re=e1 signifies all ^! attributes1 & all subjects :i* possess ^! attributes4 ,b x c be pr$icat$ only ( ! subjects4 ,:at we call m51 are ! subjects1 ! individual ,/iles & ,nokes2 n ! qualities by :i* _! humanity is con/itut$4 ,! "n1 !re=e1 is said to signify ! subjects directly1 ! attributes indirectly2 x d5otes ! subjects1 & implies1 or involves1 or indicates1 or z we %all say h5ce=?1 connotes1 ! attributes4 ,x is a connotative "n4 ,connotative names h h5ce be5 also call$ d5om9ative1 because ! subject :i* !y d5ote is d5om9at$ by1 or receives a "n f1 ! attribute :i* !y connote4 ,sn[1 & o!r objects1 receive ! "n :ite1 because !y possess ! attribute :i* is call$ :it5ess2 ,james1 ,m>y1 & o!rs receive ! "n man1 because !y possess ! attributes :i* are consid]$ to con/itute humanity4 ,! attribute1 or attributes1 may !re=e be said to d5om9ate ^? objects1 or to give !m a common "n47#h7 ,x has be5 se5 t all concrete g5]al names are connotative4 ,ev5 ab/ract names1 ?\gh ! names only ( attributes1 may 9 "s in/ances be ju/ly consid]$ z connotative2 = attributes !mselves may h attributes ascrib$ to !m2 & a ^w :i* d5otes attributes may connote an attribute ( ^? attributes4 ,x is ?us1 = example1 ) su* a ^w z fault2 equival5t to bad or hurtful quality4 ,?is ^w is a "n common to _m attributes1 & connotes hurtfulness1 an attribute ( ^? v>i\s attributes4 ,:51 = example1 we say t sl[ness1 9 a horse1 is a fault1 we d n mean t ! sl[ movem5t1 ! actual *ange ( place ( ! sl[ horse1 is a ?+ to be avoid$1 b t ! prop]ty or peculi>ity ( ! horse1 f :i* x d]ives t "n1 ! quality ( be+ a sl[ mov]1 is an undesirable peculi>ity4 ,9 reg>d to ^? concrete names :i* are n g5]al b individual1 a di/9ction mu/ be made4 ,prop] names are n connotative3 !y d5ote ! individuals :o are call$ by !m2 b !y d n indicate or imply any attributes z belong+ to ^? individuals4 ,:5 we "n a *ild by ! "n ,paul1 or a dog by ! "n ,cs>1 ^! names are simply m>ks us$ to enable ^? individuals to be made subjects ( disc\rse4 ,x may be said1 inde$1 t we mu/ h _h "s reason = giv+ !m ^? names r ?an any o!rs3 & ?is is true2 b ! "n1 once giv51 becomes indep5d5t ( ! reason4 ,a man may h be5 nam$ ,john1 because t 0 ! "n ( 8 fa!r2 a t[n may h be5 nam$ ,d>tm\?1 because x is situat$ at ! m\? ( ! ,d>t4 ,b is no "p ( ! signification ( ! ^w ,john1 t ! fa!r ( ! p]son s call$ bore ! same "n2 nor ev5 ( ! ^w ,d>tm\?1 to be situat$ at ! m\? ( ! ,d>t4 ,if s& %\ld *oke up ! m\? ( ! riv]1 or an e>?quake *ange its c\rse1 & remove x to a di/ance f ! t[n1 ! "n ( ! t[n w\ld n necess>ily be *ang$4 ,t fact1 !re=e1 c =m no "p ( ! signification ( ! ^w2 = o!rwise1 :5 ! fact confess$ly ceas$ to be true1 no "o w\ld any long] ?9k ( apply+ ! "n4 ,prop] names are atta*$ to ! objects !mselves1 & are n dep5d5t on ! cont9uance ( any attribute ( ! object4 ,b !re is ano!r k9d ( names1 :i* al?\gh !y are individual names1 t is1 pr$icable only ( "o object1 are really connotative4 ,=1 al?\gh we may give to an individual a "n utt]ly unmean+1 :i* we call a prop] "n1--a ^w :i* answ]s ! purpose ( %[+ :at ?+ x is we are talk+ ab\t1 b n ( tell+ any?+ ab\t x2 yet a "n peculi> to an individual is n necess>ily ( ?is description4 ,x may be significant ( "s attribute1 or "s union ( attributes1 :i* be+ possess$ by no object b "o1 det]m9es ! "n exclusively to t individual4 8,! sun0 is a "n ( ?is description2 8,god10 :5 us$ by a mono!i/1 is ano!r4 ,^!1 h[ev]1 are sc>cely examples ( :at we are n[ attempt+ to illu/rate1 be+1 9 /rictness ( language1 g5]al1 & n individual names3 =1 h[ev] !y may be 9 fact pr$icable only ( "o object1 !re is no?+ 9 ! mean+ ( ! words !mselves :i* implies ?is3 &1 accord+ly1 :5 we are imag9+ & n affirm+1 we may speak ( _m suns2 & ! majority ( mank9d h believ$1 & /ill believe1 t !re are _m gods4 ,b x is easy to produce words :i* are real in/ances ( connotative individual names4 ,x may be "p ( ! mean+ ( ! connotative "n itself1 t !re exi/s b "o individual possess+ ! attribute :i* x connotes2 z1 = in/ance1 8! only son ( ,john ,/iles20 8! fir/ emp]or ( ,rome40 ,or ! attribute connot$ may be a connexion ) "s det]m9ate ev5t1 & ! connexion may be ( su* a k9d z only "o individual c\ld h2 or may at lea/ be su* z only "o individual actually _h2 & ?is may be impli$ 9 ! =m ( ! expression4 8,! fa!r ( ,socrates10 is an example ( ! "o k9d 7s9ce ,socrates c\ld n h _h two fa!rs72 8! au?or ( ! ,iliad10 8! murd]] ( ,h5ri ,quatre10 ( ! second4 ,=1 al?\gh x is conceivable t m p]sons ?an "o might h p>ticipat$ 9 ! au?or%ip ( ! ,iliad1 or 9 ! murd] ( ,h5ri ,quatre1 ! employm5t ( ! article ! implies t1 9 fact1 ?is 0 n ! case4 ,:at is "h done by ! ^w !1 is done 9 o!r cases by ! context3 ?us1 8,cs>'s army0 is an individual "n1 if x appe>s f ! context t ! army meant is t :i* ,cs> comm&$ 9 a p>ticul> battle4 ,! /ill m g5]al expressions1 8! ,roman army10 or 8! ,*ri/ian army10 may be individualiz$ 9 a simil> mann]4 ,ano!r case ( frequ5t occurr5ce has already be5 notic$2 x is ! foll[+4 ,! "n1 be+ a _m-word$ "o1 may consi/1 9 ! fir/ place1 ( a g5]al "n1 capable !re=e 9 itself ( be+ affirm$ ( m ?+s ?an "o1 b :i* is1 9 ! second place1 s limit$ by o!r words jo9$ ) x1 t ! entire expression c only be pr$icat$ ( "o object1 consi/5tly ) ! mean+ ( ! g5]al t]m4 ,?is is exemplifi$ 9 su* an in/ance z ! foll[+3 8! pres5t prime m9i/] ( ,engl&40 ,prime ,m9i/] ( ,engl& is a g5]al "n2 ! attributes :i* x connotes may be possess$ by an indef9ite numb] ( p]sons3 9 succession h[ev]1 n simultane\sly2 s9ce ! mean+ ( ! ^w itself imports 7among o!r ?+s7 t !re c be only "o su* p]son at a "t4 ,?is be+ ! case1 & ! application ( ! "n be+ aft]w>ds limit$ by ! ^w pres5t1 to su* individuals z possess ! attributes at "o indivisible po9t ( "t1 x becomes applicable only to "o individual4 ,& z ?is appe>s f ! mean+ ( ! "n1 )\t any extr9sic pro(1 x is /rictly an individual "n4 ,f ! prec$+ obs]vations x w easily be collect$1 t :5ev] ! names giv5 to objects convey any in=mation1 t is1 :5ev] !y h prop]ly any mean+1 ! mean+ resides n 9 :at !y d5ote1 b 9 :at !y connote4 ,! only names ( objects :i* connote no?+ are prop] names2 & ^! h1 /rictly speak+1 no signification4 ,if1 l ! robb] 9 ! ,arabian ,nights1 we make a m>k ) *alk on a h\se to enable u to "k x aga91 ! m>k has a purpose1 b x has n prop]ly any mean+4 ,! *alk does n decl>e any?+ ab\t ! h\se2 x does n mean1 ,?is is su* a p]son's h\se1 or ,?is is a h\se :i* conta9s booty4 ,! object ( mak+ ! m>k is m]ely di/9ction4 ,i say to myself1 ,all ^! h\ses are s ne>ly alike1 t if ,i lose sight ( !m ,i %all n aga9 be able to di/+ui% t :i* ,i am n[ look+ at1 f any ( ! o!rs2 ,i mu/ !re=e contrive to make ! appe>ance ( ?is "o h\se unlike t ( ! o!rs1 t ,i may h]eaft] "k1 :5 ,i see ! m>k--n inde$ any attribute ( ! h\se--b simply t x is ! same h\se :i* ,i am n[ look+ at4 ,morgiana *alk$ all ! o!r h\ses 9 a simil> mann]1 & defeat$ ! s*eme3 h[8 simply by oblit]at+ ! diff]5ce ( appe>ance betwe5 t h\se & ! o!rs4 ,! *alk 0 /ill !re1 b x no long] s]v$ ! purpose ( a di/9ctive m>k4 ,:5 we impose a prop] "n1 we p]=m an op]ation 9 "s degree analog\s to :at ! robb] int5d$ 9 *alk+ ! h\se4 ,we put a m>k1 n inde$ ^u ! object itself1 b1 s to speak1 ^u ! idea ( ! object4 ,a prop] "n is b an unmean+ m>k :i* we connect 9 our m9ds ) ! idea ( ! object1 9 ord] t :5ev] ! m>k meets our eyes or occurs to our ?\ghts1 we may ?9k ( t individual object4 ,n be+ atta*$ to ! ?+ itself1 x does n1 l ! *alk1 enable u to di/+ui% ! object :5 we see x2 b x enables u to di/+ui% x :5 x is spok5 (1 ei!r 9 ! records ( our own exp]i5ce1 or 9 ! disc\rse ( o!rs2 to "k t :at we f9d ass]t$ 9 any proposition ( :i* x is ! subject1 is ass]t$ ( ! individual ?+ ) :i* we 7 previ\sly acqua9t$4 ,:5 we pr$icate ( any?+ its prop] "n2 :5 we say1 po9t+ to a man1 ?is is ,br[n or ,smi?1 or po9t+ to a city1 t x is ,york1 we d n1 m]ely by s do+1 convey to ! he>] any in=mation ab\t !m1 except t ^? are _! names4 ,by enabl+ him to id5tify ! individuals1 we may connect !m ) in=mation previ\sly possess$ by him2 by say+1 ,?is is ,york1 we may tell him t x conta9s ! ,m9/]4 ,b ?is is 9 virtue ( :at he has previ\sly he>d conc]n+ ,york2 n by any?+ impli$ 9 ! "n4 ,x is o!rwise :5 objects are spok5 ( by connotative names4 ,:5 we say1 ,! t[n is built ( m>ble1 we give ! he>] :at may be entirely new in=mation1 & ?is m]ely by ! signification ( ! _m-word$ connotative "n1 8built ( m>ble40 ,su* names are n signs ( ! m]e objects1 inv5t$ because we h occasion to ?9k & speak ( ^? objects individually2 b signs :i* accompany an attribute3 a k9d ( liv]y 9 :i* ! attribute clo!s all objects :i* are recogniz$ z possess+ x4 ,!y are n m]e m>ks1 b m1 t is to say1 significant m>ks2 & ! connotation is :at con/itutes _! significance4 ,z a prop] "n is said to be ! "n ( ! "o individual :i* x is pr$icat$ (1 s 7z well f ! importance ( adh]+ to analogy1 z = ! o!r reasons =m]ly assign$7 a connotative "n ought to be consid]$ a "n ( all ! v>i\s individuals :i* x is pr$icable (1 or 9 o!r words d5otes1 & n ( :at x connotes4 ,b by le>n+ :at ?+s x is a "n (1 we d n le>n ! mean+ ( ! "n3 = to ! same ?+ we may1 ) equal propriety1 apply _m names1 n equival5t 9 mean+4 ,?us1 ,i call a c]ta9 man by ! "n ,sophroniscus3 ,i call him by ano!r "n1 ,! fa!r ( ,socrates4 ,bo? ^! are names ( ! same individual1 b _! mean+ is altoge!r diff]5t2 !y are appli$ to t individual = two diff]5t purposes2 ! "o1 m]ely to di/+ui% him f o!r p]sons :o are spok5 (2 ! o!r to indicate a fact relat+ to him1 ! fact t ,socrates 0 8 son4 ,i fur!r apply to him ^! o!r expressions3 a man1 a ,greek1 an ,a!nian1 a sculptor1 an old man1 an hone/ man1 a brave man4 ,all ^! are names ( ,sophroniscus1 n inde$ ( him alone1 b ( him & ea* ( an indef9ite numb] ( o!r human be+s4 ,ea* ( ^! names is appli$ to ,sophroniscus = a diff]5t reason1 & by ea* :oev] und]/&s its mean+ is appris$ ( a di/9ct fact or numb] ( facts conc]n+ him2 b ^? :o knew no?+ ab\t ! names except t !y 7 applicable to ,sophroniscus1 w\ld be altoge!r ignorant ( _! mean+4 ,x is ev5 conceivable t ,i might "k e s+le individual ( :om a giv5 "n c\ld be ) tru? affirm$1 & yet c\ld n be said to "k ! mean+ ( ! "n4 ,a *ild kn[s :o are its bro!rs & si/]s1 long be=e x has any def9ite conception ( ! nature ( ! facts :i* are involv$ 9 ! signification ( ^? words4 ,9 "s cases x is n easy to decide precisely h[ mu* a p>ticul> ^w does or does n connote2 t is1 we d n exactly "k 7! case n hav+ aris57 :at degree ( diff]5ce 9 ! object w\ld occasion a diff]5ce 9 ! "n4 ,?us1 x is cle> t ! ^w man1 besides animal life & rationality1 connotes also a c]ta9 ext]nal =m2 b x w\ld be impossible to say precisely :at =m2 t is1 to decide h[ great a deviation f ! =m ord9>ily f\nd 9 ! be+s :om we are accu/om$ to call m51 w\ld suffice 9 a newly-discov]$ race to make u refuse !m ! "n ( man4 ,rationality1 also1 be+ a quality :i* admits ( degrees1 x has nev] be5 settl$ :at is ! l[e/ degree ( t quality :i* w\ld entitle any creature to be consid]$ a human be+4 ,9 all su* cases1 ! mean+ ( ! g5]al "n is s f> unsettl$1 & vague2 mank9d h n come to any positive agreem5t ab\t ! matt]4 ,:5 we come to treat ( classification1 we %all h occasion to %[ "u :at conditions ?is vagu5ess may exi/ )\t practical inconv5i5ce2 & cases w appe>1 9 :i* ! ends ( language are bett] promot$ by x ?an by complete precision2 9 ord] t1 9 natural hi/ory = in/ance1 individuals or species ( no v m>k$ "* may be rang$ ) ^? m /rongly *>act]iz$ individuals or species to :i*1 9 all _! prop]ties tak5 toge!r1 !y be> ! ne>e/ resemblance4 ,b ?is p>tial unc]ta9ty 9 ! connotation ( names c only be free f mis*ief :5 gu>d$ by /rict precautions4 ,"o ( ! *ief s\rces1 inde$1 ( lax habits ( ?\ght1 is ! cu/om ( us+ connotative t]ms )\t a di/9ctly asc]ta9$ connotation1 & ) no m precise notion ( _! mean+ ?an c be loosely collect$ f obs]v+ :at objects !y are us$ to d5ote4 ,x is 9 ?is mann] t we all acquire1 & inevitably s1 our fir/ k ( our v]nacul> language4 ,a *ild le>ns ! mean+ ( ! words man1 or :ite1 by he>+ !m appli$ to a v>iety ( individual objects1 & f9d+ out1 by a process ( g5]alization & analysis ( :i* he is b imp]fectly consci\s1 :at ^? diff]5t objects h 9 common4 ,9 ! case ( ^! two words ! process is s easy z to require no assi/ance f culture2 ! objects call$ human be+s1 & ! objects call$ :ite1 diff]+ f all o!rs by qualities ( a peculi>ly def9ite & obvi\s "*4 ,b 9 _m o!r cases1 objects be> a g5]al resemblance to "o ano!r1 :i* leads to _! be+ famili>ly class$ toge!r "u a common "n1 :ile1 )\t m analytic habits ?an ! g5]ality ( mank9d possess1 x is n imm$iately app>5t :at are ! p>ticul> attributes1 ^u ! possession ( :i* 9 common by !m all1 _! g5]al resemblance dep5ds4 ,:5 ?is is ! case1 p use ! "n )\t any recogniz$ connotation1 t is1 )\t any precise mean+2 !y talk1 & consequ5tly ?9k1 vaguely1 & rema9 cont5t$ to atta* only ! same degree ( significance to _! own words1 :i* a *ild ?ree ye>s old atta*es to ! words bro!r & si/]4 ,! *ild at lea/ is seldom puzzl$ by ! />t+ up ( new individuals1 on :om he is ignorant :e!r or n to conf] ! title2 because !re is usually an au?ority close at h& compet5t to solve all d\bts4 ,b a simil> res\rce does n exi/ 9 ! g5]ality ( cases2 & new objects are cont9ually pres5t+ !mselves to m51 wom51 & *ildr51 :i* !y are call$ ^u to class proprio motu4 ,!y1 accord+ly1 d ?is on no o!r pr9ciple ?an t ( sup]ficial simil>ity1 giv+ to ea* new object ! "n ( t famili> object1 ! idea ( :i* x mo/ readily recalls1 or :i*1 on a cursory inspection1 x seems to !m mo/ to resemble3 z an unkn[n sub/ance f\nd 9 ! gr\nd w be call$1 accord+ to its texture1 e>?1 s&1 or a /one4 ,9 ?is mann]1 names creep on f subject to subject1 until all traces ( a common mean+ sometimes disappe>1 & ! ^w comes to d5ote a numb] ( ?+s n only indep5d5tly ( any common attribute1 b :i* h actually no attribute 9 common2 or none b :at is %>$ by o!r ?+s to :i* ! "n is caprici\sly refus$47#i7 ,ev5 sci5tific writ]s h aid$ 9 ?is p]v]sion ( g5]al language f its purpose2 sometimes because1 l ! vulg>1 !y knew no bett]2 & sometimes 9 def]5ce to t av]sion to admit new words1 :i* induces mank9d1 on all subjects n consid]$ te*nical1 to attempt to make ! orig9al small /ock ( names s]ve ) b little augm5tation to express a con/antly increas+ numb] ( objects & di/9ctions1 &1 consequ5tly1 to express !m 9 a mann] progressively m & m imp]fect4 ,to :at degree ?is loose mode ( class+ & d5om9at+ objects has r5d]$ ! vocabul>y ( m5tal & moral philosophy unfit = ! purposes ( accurate ?9k+1 is be/ kn[n to :oev] has mo/ reflect$ on ! pres5t condition ( ^? bran*es ( k4 ,s9ce1 h[ev]1 ! introduction ( a new te*nical language z ! vehicle ( speculations on subjects belong+ to ! doma9 ( daily discussion1 is extremely difficult to effect1 & w\ld n be free f inconv5i5ce ev5 if effect$1 ! problem = ! philosoph]1 & "o ( ! mo/ difficult :i* he has to resolve1 is1 9 reta9+ ! exi/+ phraseology1 h[ be/ to alleviate its imp]fections4 ,?is c only be accompli%$ by giv+ to e g5]al concrete "n :i* !re is frequ5t occasion to pr$icate1 a def9ite & fix$ connotation2 9 ord] t x may be kn[n :at attributes1 :5 we call an object by t "n1 we really mean to pr$icate ( ! object4 ,& ! "q ( mo/ nicety is1 h[ to give ?is fix$ connotation to a "n1 ) ! lea/ possible *ange 9 ! objects :i* ! "n is habitually employ$ to d5ote2 ) ! lea/ possible dis>rangem5t1 ei!r by add+ or subtraction1 ( ! gr\p ( objects :i*1 9 h[ev] imp]fect a mann]1 x s]ves to circumscribe & hold toge!r2 & ) ! lea/ vitiation ( ! tru? ( any propositions :i* are commonly receiv$ z true4 ,?is desirable purpose1 ( giv+ a fix$ connotation :]e x is want+1 is ! end aim$ at :5ev] any "o attempts to give a def9ition ( a g5]al "n already 9 use2 e def9ition ( a connotative "n be+ an attempt ei!r m]ely to decl>e1 or to decl>e & analyse1 ! connotation ( ! "n4 ,& ! fact1 t no que/ions :i* h aris5 9 ! moral sci5ces h be5 subjects ( ke5] controv]sy ?an ! def9itions ( almo/ all ! lead+ expressions1 is a pro( h[ great an ext5t ! evil to :i* we h adv]t$ has atta9$4 ,names ) indet]m9ate connotation are n to be conf\nd$ ) names :i* h m ?an "o connotation1 t is to say1 ambigu\s words4 ,a ^w may h sev]al mean+s1 b all ( !m fix$ & recognis$ ones2 z ! ^w po/1 = example1 or ! ^w box1 ! v>i\s s5ses ( :i* x w\ld be endless to enum]ate4 ,& ! paucity ( exi/+ names1 9 comp>ison ) ! dem& = !m1 may (t5 r5d] x advisable & ev5 necess>y to reta9 a "n 9 ?is multiplicity ( acceptations1 di/+ui%+ ^! s cle>ly z to prev5t _! be+ conf\nd$ ) "o ano!r4 ,su* a ^w may be consid]$ z two or m names1 accid5tally writt5 & spok5 alike47#aj7 #f4 ,! f\r? pr9cipal division ( names1 is into positive & negative4 ,positive1 z man1 tree1 good2 negative1 z n-_m1 n-tree1 n-good4 ,to e positive concrete "n1 a correspond+ negative "o might be fram$4 ,aft] giv+ a "n to any "o ?+1 or to any plurality ( ?+s1 we might create a second "n :i* %\ld be a "n ( all ?+s :atev] except t p>ticul> ?+ or ?+s4 ,^! negative names are employ$ :5ev] we h occasion to speak collectively ( all ?+s o!r ?an "s ?+ or class ( ?+s4 ,:5 ! positive "n is connotative1 ! correspond+ negative "n is connotative likewise2 b 9 a peculi> way1 connot+ n ! pres5ce b ! abs5ce ( an attribute4 ,?us1 n-:ite d5otes all ?+s :atev] except :ite ?+s2 & connotes ! attribute ( n possess+ :it5ess4 ,= ! non-possession ( any giv5 attribute is also an attribute1 & may receive a "n z su*2 & ?us negative concrete names may obta9 negative ab/ract names to correspond to !m4 ,names :i* are positive 9 =m are (t5 negative 9 reality1 & o!rs are really positive ?\gh _! =m is negative4 ,! ^w inconv5i5t1 = example1 does n express ! m]e abs5ce ( conv5i5ce2 x expresses a positive attribute1 t ( be+ ! cause ( discom=t or annoyance4 ,s ! ^w unpleasant1 not)/&+ its negative =m1 does n connote ! m]e abs5ce ( pleasantness1 b a less degree ( :at is signifi$ by ! ^w pa9ful1 :i*1 x is h>dly necess>y to say1 is positive4 ,idle1 on ! o!r h&1 is a ^w :i*1 ?\gh positive 9 =m1 expresses no?+ b :at w\ld be signifi$ ei!r by ! phrase n work+1 or by ! phrase n dispos$ to "w2 & sob]1 ei!r by n drunk or by n drunk54 ,!re is a class ( names call$ privative4 ,a privative "n is equival5t 9 its signification to a positive & a negative "n tak5 toge!r2 be+ ! "n ( some?+ :i* has once _h a p>ticul> attribute1 or = "s o!r reason might h be5 expect$ to h x1 b :i* has x n4 ,su* is ! ^w bl9d1 :i* is n equival5t to n see+1 or to n capable ( see+1 = x w\ld n1 except by a poetical or rhetorical figure1 be appli$ to /ocks & /ones4 ,a ?+ is n usually said to be bl9d1 unless ! class to :i* x is mo/ famili>ly ref]r$1 or to :i* x is ref]r$ on ! p>ticul> occasion1 be *iefly compos$ ( ?+s :i* c see1 z 9 ! case ( a bl9d man1 or a bl9d horse2 or unless x is suppos$ = any reason t x ought to see2 z 9 say+ ( a man1 t he ru%$ bl9dly into an abyss1 or ( philosoph]s or ! cl]gy t ! great] "p ( !m are bl9d guides4 ,! names call$ privative1 !re=e1 connote two ?+s3 ! abs5ce ( c]ta9 attributes1 & ! pres5ce ( o!rs1 f :i* ! pres5ce also ( ! =m] might naturally h be5 expect$4 #g4 ,! fif? lead+ division ( names is into relative & absolute1 or let u r say1 relative & non-relative2 = ! ^w absolute is put ^u mu* too h>d duty 9 metaphysics1 n to be will+ly sp>$ :5 its s]vices c be disp5s$ )4 ,x resembles ! ^w civil 9 ! language ( jurisprud5ce1 :i* /&s = ! opposite ( crim9al1 ! opposite ( ecclesia/ical1 ! opposite ( milit>y1 ! opposite ( political1 9 %ort1 ! opposite ( any positive ^w :i* wants a negative4 ,relative names are su* z fa!r1 son2 rul]1 subject2 l2 equal2 unlike2 unequal2 long]1 %ort]2 cause1 effect4 ,_! *>act]i/ic prop]ty is1 t !y are always giv5 9 pairs4 ,e relative "n :i* is pr$icat$ ( an object1 supposes ano!r object 7or objects71 ( :i* we may pr$icate ei!r t same "n or ano!r relative "n :i* is said to be ! correlative ( ! =m]4 ,?us1 :5 we call any p]son a son1 we suppose o!r p]sons :o mu/ be call$ p>5ts4 ,:5 we call any ev5t a cause1 we suppose ano!r ev5t :i* is an effect4 ,:5 we say ( any di/ance t x is long]1 we suppose ano!r di/ance :i* is %ort]4 ,:5 we say ( any object t x is l1 we mean t x is l "s o!r object1 :i* is also said to be l ! fir/4 ,9 ?is la/ case1 bo? objects receive ! same "n2 ! relative t]m is its own correlative4 ,x is evid5t t ^! words1 :5 concrete1 are1 l o!r concrete g5]al names1 connotative2 !y d5ote a subject1 & connote an attribute3 & ea* ( !m has or might h a correspond+ ab/ract "n1 to d5ote ! attribute connot$ by ! concrete4 ,?us ! concrete l has its ab/ract lik5ess2 ! concretes1 fa!r & son1 h1 or might h1 ! ab/racts1 pat]nity1 & filiety1 or filiation4 ,! concrete "n connotes an attribute1 & ! ab/ract "n :i* answ]s to x d5otes t attribute4 ,b ( :at nature is ! attribute8 ,:]e9 consi/s ! peculi>ity 9 ! connotation ( a relative "n8 ,! attribute signifi$ by a relative "n1 say "s1 is a relation2 & ?is !y give1 if n z a suffici5t explanation1 at lea/ z ! only "o atta9able4 ,if !y are ask$1 ,:at !n is a relation8 !y d n pr(ess to be able to tell4 ,x is g5]ally reg>d$ z some?+ peculi>ly recondite & my/]i\s4 ,i _c1 h[ev]1 p]ceive 9 :at respect x is m s ?an any o!r attribute2 inde$1 x appe>s to me to be s 9 a some:at less degree4 ,i conceive1 r1 t x is by exam9+ into ! signification ( relative names1 or 9 o!r words1 into ! nature ( ! attribute :i* !y connote1 t a cle> insight may be/ be obta9$ into ! nature ( all attributes2 ( all t is meant by an attribute4 ,x is obvi\s1 9 fact1 t if we take any two correlative names1 fa!r & son1 = in/ance1 al?\gh ! objects denot$ by ! names are diff]5t1 !y bo?1 9 a c]ta9 s5se1 connote ! same ?+4 ,!y _c1 inde$1 be said to connote ! same attribute2 to be a fa!r1 is n ! same ?+ z to be a son4 ,b :5 we call "o man a fa!r1 ano!r 8 son1 :at we mean to affirm is a set ( facts1 :i* are exactly ! same 9 bo? cases4 ,to pr$icate ( ,a t he is ! fa!r ( ,b1 & ( ,b t he is ! son ( ,a1 is to ass]t "o & ! same fact 9 diff]5t words4 ,! two propositions are exactly equival5t3 nei!r ( !m ass]ts m or ass]ts less ?an ! o!r4 ,! pat]nity ( ,a & ! filiety ( ,b are n two facts1 b two modes ( express+ ! same fact4 ,t fact1 :5 analys$1 consi/s ( a s]ies ( physical ev5ts or ph5om5a1 9 :i* bo? ,a & ,b are p>ties conc]n$1 & f :i* !y bo? d]ive names4 ,:at ^? names really connote1 is ?is s]ies ( ev5ts3 t is ! mean+1 & ! :ole mean+1 :i* ei!r ( !m is int5d$ to convey4 ,! s]ies ( ev5ts may be said to con/itute ! relation2 ! s*oolm5 call$ x ! f\ndation ( ! relation1 fundam5tum relationis4 ,9 ?is mann] any fact1 or s]ies ( facts1 9 :i* two diff]5t objects are implicat$1 & :i* is !re=e pr$icable ( bo? ( !m1 may be ei!r consid]$ z con/itut+ an attribute ( ! "o1 or an attribute ( ! o!r4 ,accord+ z we consid] x 9 ! =m]1 or 9 ! latt] aspect1 x is connot$ by ! "o or ! o!r ( ! two correlative names4 ,fa!r connotes ! fact1 reg>d$ z con/itut+ an attribute ( ,a3 son connotes ! same fact1 z con/itut+ an attribute ( ,b4 ,x may evid5tly be reg>d$ ) equal propriety 9 ei!r light4 ,& all t appe>s necess>y to acc\nt = ! exi/5ce ( relative names1 is1 t :5ev] !re is a fact 9 :i* two individuals are conc]n$1 an attribute gr\nd$ on t fact may be ascrib$ to ei!r ( ^! individuals4 ,a "n1 !re=e1 is said to be relative1 :51 ov] & above ! object :i* x d5otes1 x implies 9 its signification ! exi/5ce ( ano!r object1 also d]iv+ a d5om9ation f ! same fact :i* is ! gr\nd ( ! fir/ "n4 ,or 7to express ! same mean+ 9 o!r words7 a "n is relative1 :51 be+ ! "n ( "o ?+1 its signification _c be expla9$ b by m5tion+ ano!r4 ,or we may /ate x ?us--:5 ! "n _c be employ$ 9 disc\rse1 s z to h a mean+1 unless ! "n ( "s o!r ?+ ?an :at x is itself ! "n (1 be ei!r express$ or und]/ood4 ,^! def9itions are all1 at bottom1 equival5t1 be+ modes ( v>i\sly express+ ?is "o di/9ctive circum/ance--t e o!r attribute ( an object might1 )\t any contradiction1 be conceiv$ /ill to exi/ if all objects besides t "o 7 annihilat$27#aa7 b ^? ( its attributes :i* are express$ by relative names1 w\ld on t supposition be swept away4 #h4 ,names h be5 fur!r di/+ui%$ into univocal & quivocal3 ^!1 h[ev]1 are n two k9ds ( names1 b two diff]5t modes ( employ+ names4 ,a "n is univocal1 or appli$ univocally1 ) respect to all ?+s ( :i* x c be pr$icat$ 9 ! same s5se2 b x is quivocal1 or appli$ quivocally1 z respects ^? ?+s ( :i* x is pr$icat$ 9 diff]5t s5ses4 ,x is sc>cely necess>y to give in/ances ( a fact s famili> z ! d\ble mean+ ( a ^w4 ,9 reality1 z has be5 already obs]v$1 an quivocal or ambigu\s ^w is n "o "n1 b two names1 accid5tally co9cid+ 9 s\nd4 ,file /&+ = an iron in/rum5t1 & file /&+ = a l9e ( soldi]s1 h no m title to be consid]$ "o ^w1 because writt5 alike1 ?an grease & ,greece h1 because !y are pron\nc$ alike4 ,!y are "o s\nd1 appropriat$ to =m two diff]5t words4 ,an int]m$iate case is t ( a "n us$ analogically or metaphorically2 t is1 a "n :i* is pr$icat$ ( two ?+s1 n univocally1 or exactly 9 ! same signification1 b 9 significations some:at simil>1 & :i* be+ d]iv$ "o f ! o!r1 "o ( !m may be consid]$ ! prim>y1 & ! o!r a second>y signification4 ,z :5 we speak ( a brilliant light1 & a brilliant a*ievem5t4 ,! ^w is n appli$ 9 ! same s5se to ! light & to ! a*ievem5t2 b hav+ be5 appli$ to ! light 9 its orig9al s5se1 t ( brightness to ! eye1 x is transf]r$ to ! a*ievem5t 9 a d]ivative signification1 suppos$ to be some:at l ! primitive "o4 ,! ^w1 h[ev]1 is j z prop]ly two names in/ead ( "o1 9 ?is case1 z 9 t ( ! mo/ p]fect ambiguity4 ,& "o ( ! commone/ =ms ( fallaci\s reason+ aris+ f ambiguity1 is t ( argu+ f a metaphorical expression z if x 7 lit]al2 t is1 z if a ^w1 :5 appli$ metaphorically1 7 ! same "n z :5 tak5 9 its orig9al s5se3 :i* w be se5 m p>ticul>ly 9 its place4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,( ,,! ,,?+s ,,d5ot$ ,,by ,,names4 #a4 ,look+ back n[ to ! comm5cem5t ( our inquiry1 let u attempt to measure h[ f> x has advanc$4 ,logic1 we f\nd1 is ! ,!ory ( ,pro(4 ,b pro( supposes some?+ provable1 :i* mu/ be a ,proposition or ,ass]tion2 s9ce no?+ b a ,proposition c be an object ( belief1 or !re=e ( pro(4 ,a ,proposition is1 disc\rse :i* affirms or d5ies some?+ ( "s o!r ?+4 ,?is is "o /ep3 !re mu/1 x seems1 be two ?+s conc]n$ 9 e act ( belief4 ,b :at are ^! ,?+s8 ,!y c be no o!r ?an ^? signifi$ by ! two names1 :i* be+ jo9$ toge!r by a copula con/itute ! ,proposition4 ,if1 !re=e1 we knew :at all ,names signify1 we %\ld "k ev]y?+ :i* is capable ei!r ( be+ made a subject ( affirmation or d5ial1 or ( be+ itself affirm$ or d5i$ ( a subject4 ,we h accord+ly1 9 ! prec$+ *apt]1 review$ ! v>i\s k9ds ( ,names1 9 ord] to asc]ta9 :at is signifi$ by ea* ( !m4 ,& we h n[ c>ri$ ?is survey f> en\gh to be able to take an acc\nt ( its results1 & to exhibit an enum]ation ( all ! k9ds ( ,?+s :i* are capable ( be+ made pr$icates1 or ( hav+ any?+ pr$icat$ ( !m3 aft] :i* to det]m9e ! import ( ,pr$ication1 t is1 ( ,propositions1 c be no ardu\s task4 ,! necessity ( an enum]ation ( ,exi/5ces1 z ! basis ( ,logic1 did n escape ! att5tion ( ! s*oolm51 & ( _! ma/]1 ,ari/otle1 ! mo/ compreh5sive1 if n ! mo/ sagaci\s1 ( ! anci5t philosoph]s4 ,! ,categories1 or ,pr$icam5ts--! =m] a ,greek ^w1 ! latt] its lit]al translation 9 ! ,lat9 language--7 int5d$ by him & 8 foll[]s z an enum]ation ( all ?+s capable ( be+ nam$2 an enum]ation by ! summa g5]a1 i4e4 ! mo/ ext5sive classes into :i* ?+s c\ld be di/ribut$2 :i*1 !re=e1 7 s _m highe/ ,pr$icates1 "o or o!r ( :i* 0 suppos$ capable ( be+ affirm$ ) tru? ( e nameable ?+ :atsoev]4 ,! foll[+ are ! classes into :i*1 accord+ to ?is s*ool ( philosophy1 ,?+s 9 g5]al might be r$uc$3-- 1 ,sub/antia4 1 ,quantitas4 1 ,qualitas4 1 ,relatio4 1 ,actio4 1 ,passio4 1 ,ubi4 1 ,qu&o4 1 ,situs4 1 ,habitus4 ,! imp]fections ( ?is classification are too obvi\s to require1 & its m]its are n suffici5t to rew>d1 a m9ute exam9ation4 ,x is a m]e catalogue ( ! di/9ctions rudely m>k$ out by ! language ( famili> life1 ) little or no attempt to p5etrate1 by philosophic analysis1 to ! rationale ev5 ( ^? common di/9ctions4 ,su* an analysis1 h[ev] sup]ficially conduct$1 w\ld h %[n ! enum]ation to be bo? r$undant & defective4 ,"s objects are omitt$1 & o!rs repeat$ sev]al times "u diff]5t heads4 ,x is l a division ( animals into m51 quadrup$s1 horses1 asses1 & ponies4 ,t1 = in/ance1 c\ld n be a v compreh5sive view ( ! nature ( ,relation :i* c\ld exclude action1 passivity1 & local situation f t category4 ,! same obs]vation applies to ! categories ,qu&o 7or position 9 "t71 & ,ubi 7or position 9 space72 :ile ! di/9ction betwe5 ! latt] & ,situs is m]ely v]bal4 ,! incongruity ( erect+ into a summum g5us ! class :i* =ms ! t5? category is manife/4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! enum]ation takes no notice ( any?+ besides sub/ances & attributes4 ,9 :at category are we to place s5sations1 or any o!r feel+s1 & /ates ( m9d2 z hope1 joy1 fe>2 s\nd1 smell1 ta/e2 pa91 pleasure2 ?\ght1 judgm5t1 conception1 & ! l8 ,probably all ^! w\ld h be5 plac$ by ! ,ari/otelian s*ool 9 ! categories ( actio & passio2 & ! relation ( su* ( !m z are active1 to _! objects1 & ( su* ( !m z are passive1 to _! causes1 w\ld rightly be s plac$2 b ! ?+s !mselves1 ! feel+s or /ates ( m9d1 wrongly4 ,feel+s1 or /ates ( consci\sness1 are assur$ly to be c\nt$ among realities1 b !y _c be reckon$ ei!r among sub/ances or attributes4 #b4 ,be=e recomm5c+1 "u bett] auspices1 ! attempt made ) su* imp]fect success by ! great f\nd] ( ! sci5ce ( logic1 we mu/ take notice ( an un=tunate ambiguity 9 all ! concrete names :i* correspond to ! mo/ g5]al ( all ab/ract t]ms1 ! ^w ,exi/5ce4 ,:5 we h occasion = a "n :i* %all be capable ( d5ot+ :atev] exi/s1 z contradi/+ui%$ f non-entity or ,no?+1 !re is h>dly a ^w applicable to ! purpose :i* is n also1 & ev5 m famili>ly1 tak5 9 a s5se 9 :i* x d5otes only sub/ances4 ,b sub/ances are n all t exi/2 attributes1 if su* ?+s are to be spok5 (1 mu/ be said to exi/2 feel+s also exi/4 ,yet :5 we speak ( an object1 or ( a ?+1 we are almo/ always suppos$ to mean a sub/ance4 ,!re seems a k9d ( contradiction 9 us+ su* an expression z t "o ?+ is m]ely an attribute ( ano!r ?+4 ,& ! ann\ncem5t ( a ,classification ( ,?+s w\ld1 ,i believe1 prep>e mo/ read]s = an enum]ation l ^? 9 natural hi/ory1 beg9n+ ) ! great divisions ( animal1 vegetable1 & m9]al1 & subdivid+ !m into classes & ord]s4 ,if1 reject+ ! ^w ,?+1 we endeav\r to f9d ano!r ( a m g5]al import1 or at lea/ m exclusively conf9$ to t g5]al import1 a ^w d5ot+ all t exi/s1 & connot+ only simple exi/5ce2 no ^w might be presum$ fitt] = su* a purpose ?an be+3 orig9ally ! pres5t p>ticiple ( a v]b :i* 9 "o ( its mean+s is exactly equival5t to ! v]b exi/2 & !re=e suitable1 ev5 by its grammatical =mation1 to be ! concrete ( ! ab/ract exi/5ce4 ,b ?is ^w1 /range z ! fact may appe>1 is /ill m completely spoil$ = ! purpose :i* x seem$ expressly made =1 ?an ! ^w ,?+4 ,be+ is1 by cu/om1 exactly synonym\s ) sub/ance2 except t x is free f a slight ta9t ( a second ambiguity2 be+ appli$ imp>tially to matt] & to m9d1 :ile sub/ance1 ?\gh orig9ally & 9 /rictness applicable to bo?1 is apt to sugge/ 9 pref]5ce ! idea ( matt]4 ,attributes are nev] call$ ,be+s2 nor are ,feel+s4 ,a ,be+ is t :i* excites feel+s1 & :i* possesses attributes4 ,! s\l is call$ a ,be+2 ,god & angels are call$ ,be+s2 b if we 7 to say1 ext5sion1 col\r1 wisdom1 virtue are be+s1 we %\ld p]haps be suspect$ ( ?9k+ ) "s ( ! anci5ts1 t ! c>d9al virtues are animals2 or1 at ! lea/1 ( hold+ ) ! ,platonic s*ool ! doctr9e ( self-exi/5t ,ideas1 or ) ! foll[]s ( ,epicurus t ( ,s5sible ,=ms1 :i* deta* !mselves 9 e direction f bodies1 & by com+ 9 contact ) our organs1 cause our p]ceptions4 ,we %\ld be suppos$1 9 %ort1 to believe t ,attributes are ,sub/ances4 ,9 consequ5ce ( ?is p]v]sion ( ! ^w ,be+1 philosoph]s look+ ab\t = some?+ to supply its place1 laid _! h&s ^u ! ^w ,entity1 a piece ( b>b>\s ,lat91 inv5t$ by ! s*oolm5 to be us$ z an ab/ract "n1 9 :i* class its grammatical =m w\ld seem to place x2 b be+ seiz$ by logicians 9 di/ress to /op a leak 9 _! t]m9ology1 x has ev] s9ce be5 us$ z a concrete "n4 ,! k9dr$ ^w ess5ce1 born at ! same "t & ( ! same p>5ts1 sc>cely und]w5t a m complete trans=mation :51 f be+ ! ab/ract ( ! v]b to be1 x came to d5ote some?+ suffici5tly concrete to be enclos$ 9 a glass bottle4 ,! ^w ,entity1 s9ce x settl$ d[n into a concrete "n1 has reta9$ its univ]sality ( signification some:at less impair$ ?an any ( ! names be=e m5tion$4 ,yet ! same gradual decay to :i*1 aft] a c]ta9 age1 all ! language ( psy*ology seems liable1 has be5 at "w ev5 "h4 ,if y call virtue an entity1 y are inde$ some:at less /rongly suspect$ ( believ+ x to be a sub/ance ?an if y call$ x a be+2 b y are by no means free f ! suspicion4 ,e ^w :i* 0 orig9ally int5d$ to connote m]e exi/5ce1 seems1 aft] a "t1 to enl>ge its connotation to sep>ate exi/5ce1 or exi/5ce fre$ f ! condition ( belong+ to a sub/ance2 :i* condition be+ precisely :at con/itutes an attribute1 attributes are gradually %ut out2 & along ) !m feel+s1 :i* 9 n9ety-n9e cases out ( a hundr$ h no o!r "n ?an t ( ! attribute :i* is gr\nd$ on !m4 ,/range t :5 ! greate/ emb>rassm5t felt by all :o h any consid]able numb] ( ?\ghts to express1 is to f9d a suffici5t v>iety ( precise words fitt$ to express !m1 !re %\ld be no practice to :i* ev5 sci5tific ?9k]s are m addict$ ?an t ( tak+ valuable words to express ideas :i* are suffici5tly express$ by o!r words already appropriat$ to !m4 ,:5 x is impossible to obta9 good tools1 ! next be/ ?+ is to und]/& ?or\ghly ! defects ( ^? we h4 ,i h !re=e w>n$ ! read] ( ! ambiguity ( ! v names :i*1 = want ( bett]1 ,i am necessitat$ to employ4 ,x mu/ n[ be ! writ]'s endeav\r s to employ !m z 9 no case to leave ! mean+ d\btful or obscure4 ,no "o ( ! above t]ms be+ altoge!r unambigu\s1 ,i %all n conf9e myself to any "o1 b %all employ on ea* occasion ! ^w :i* seems lea/ likely 9 ! p>ticul> case to lead to misund]/&+2 nor d ,i pret5d to use ei!r ^! or any o!r words ) a rigor\s adh]5ce to "o s+le s5se4 ,to d s w\ld (t5 leave u )\t a ^w to express :at is signifi$ by a kn[n ^w 9 "s "o or o!r ( its s5ses3 unless au?ors _h an unlimit$ lic5ce to co9 new words1 toge!r ) 7:at x w\ld be m difficult to assume7 unlimit$ p[] ( mak+ _! read]s adopt !m4 ,nor w\ld x be wise 9 a writ]1 on a subject involv+ s mu* ( ab/raction1 to d5y himself ! advantage d]iv$ f ev5 an improp] use ( a t]m1 :51 by means ( x1 "s famili> association is call$ up :i* br+s ! mean+ home to ! m9d1 z x 7 by a fla%4 ,! difficulty bo? to ! writ] & read]1 ( ! attempt :i* mu/ be made to use vague words s z to convey a precise mean+1 is n :olly a matt] ( regret4 ,x is n unfitt+ t logical treatises %\ld af=d an example ( t1 to facilitate :i* is among ! mo/ important uses ( logic4 ,philosophical language w = a long "t1 & popul> language /ill long]1 reta9 s mu* ( vagu5ess & ambiguity1 t logic w\ld be ( little value if x did n1 among its o!r advantages1 ex]cise ! und]/&+ 9 do+ its "w neatly & correctly ) ^! imp]fect tools4 ,aft] ?is preamble x is "t to proce$ to our enum]ation4 ,we %all comm5ce ) ,feel+s1 ! simple/ class ( nameable ?+s2 ! t]m ,feel+ be+ ( c\rse und]/ood 9 its mo/ enl>g$ s5se4 ,i4 ,feel+s1 or ,/ates ( ,consci\sness4 #c4 ,a ,feel+ & a ,/ate ( ,consci\sness are1 9 ! language ( philosophy1 equival5t expressions3 ev]y?+ is a feel+ ( :i* ! m9d is consci\s2 ev]y?+ :i* x feels1 or1 9 o!r words1 :i* =ms a "p ( its own s5ti5t exi/5ce4 ,9 popul> language ,feel+ is n always synonym\s ) ,/ate ( ,consci\sness2 be+ (t5 tak5 m peculi>ly = ^? /ates :i* are conceiv$ z belong+ to ! s5sitive1 or to ! emotional1 phasis ( our nature1 & sometimes1 ) a /ill n>r[] re/riction1 to ! emotional alone3 z di/+ui%$ f :at are conceiv$ z belong+ to ! p]cipi5t or to ! intellectual phasis4 ,b ?is is an admitt$ dep>ture f correctness ( language2 j z1 by a popul> p]v]sion ! exact conv]se ( ?is1 ! ^w ,m9d is )drawn f its rightful g5]ality ( signification1 & re/rict$ to ! intellect4 ,! /ill great] p]v]sion by :i* ,feel+ is sometimes conf9$ n only to bodily s5sations1 b to ! s5sations ( a s+le s5se1 t ( t\*1 ne$s n be m p>ticul>ly adv]t$ to4 ,feel+1 9 ! prop] s5se ( ! t]m1 is a g5us1 ( :i* ,s5sation1 ,emotion1 & ,?\ght1 are subord9ate species4 ,"u ! ^w ,?\ght is "h to be includ$ :atev] we are int]nally consci\s ( :5 we are said to ?9k2 f ! consci\sness we h :5 we ?9k ( a r$ col\r )\t hav+ x be=e our eyes1 to ! mo/ recondite ?\ghts ( a philosoph] or poet4 ,be x rememb]$1 h[ev]1 t by a ?\ght is to be und]/ood :at passes 9 ! m9d itself1 & n any object ext]nal to ! m9d1 :i* ! p]son is commonly said to be ?9k+ (4 ,he may be ?9k+ ( ! sun1 or ( ,god1 b ! sun & ,god are n ?\ghts2 8 m5tal image1 h[ev]1 ( ! sun1 & 8 idea ( ,god1 are ?\ghts2 /ates ( 8 m9d1 n ( ! objects !mselves3 & s also is 8 belief ( ! exi/5ce ( ! sun1 or ( ,god2 or 8 disbelief1 if ! case be s4 ,ev5 imag9>y objects1 7:i* are said to exi/ only 9 our ideas17 are to be di/+ui%$ f our ideas ( !m4 ,i may ?9k ( a hobgobl91 z ,i may ?9k ( ! loaf :i* 0 eat5 ye/]day1 or ( ! fl[] :i* w bloom to-morr[4 ,b ! hobgobl9 :i* nev] exi/$ is n ! same ?+ ) my idea ( a hobgobl91 any m ?an ! loaf :i* once exi/$ is ! same ?+ ) my idea ( a loaf1 or ! fl[] :i* does n yet exi/1 b :i* w exi/1 is ! same ) my idea ( a fl[]4 ,!y are all1 n ?\ghts1 b objects ( ?\ght2 ?\gh at ! pres5t "t all ! objects are alike non-exi/5t4 ,9 l mann]1 a ,s5sation is to be c>efully di/+ui%$ f ! object :i* causes ! s5sation2 our s5sation ( :ite f a :ite object2 nor is x less to be di/+ui%$ f ! attribute :it5ess1 :i* we ascribe to ! object 9 consequ5ce ( its excit+ ! s5sation4 ,un=tunately = cle>ness & due discrim9ation 9 consid]+ ^! subjects1 our s5sations seldom receive sep>ate names4 ,we h a "n = ! objects :i* produce 9 u a c]ta9 s5sation2 ! ^w :ite4 ,we h a "n = ! quality 9 ^? objects1 to :i* we ascribe ! s5sation2 ! "n :it5ess4 ,b :5 we speak ( ! s5sation itself1 7z we h n occasion to d ?is (t5 except 9 our sci5tific speculations17 language1 :i* adapts itself = ! mo/ "p only to ! common uses ( life1 has provid$ u ) no s+le-word$ or imm$iate designation2 we mu/ employ a circumlocution1 & say1 ,! s5sation ( :ite1 or ,! s5sation ( :it5ess2 we mu/ d5om9ate ! s5sation ei!r f ! object1 or f ! attribute1 by :i* x is excit$4 ,yet ! s5sation1 ?\gh x nev] does1 might v well be conceiv$ to exi/1 )\t any?+ :atev] to excite x4 ,we c conceive x z aris+ spontane\sly 9 ! m9d4 ,b if x s arose1 we %\ld h no "n to d5ote x :i* w\ld n be a misnom]4 ,9 ! case ( our s5sations ( he>+ we are bett] provid$2 we h ! ^w ,s\nd1 & a :ole vocabul>y ( words to d5ote ! v>i\s k9ds ( s\nds4 ,= z we are (t5 consci\s ( ^! s5sations 9 ! abs5ce ( any p]ceptible object1 we c m easily conceive hav+ !m 9 ! abs5ce ( any object :atev]4 ,we ne$ only %ut our eyes & li/5 to music1 to h a conception ( an univ]se ) no?+ 9 x except s\nds1 & ourselves he>+ !m3 & :at is easily conceiv$ sep>ately1 easily obta9s a sep>ate "n4 ,b 9 g5]al our names ( s5sations d5ote indiscrim9ately ! s5sation & ! attribute4 ,?us1 col\r /&s = ! s5sations ( :ite1 r$1 c41 b also = ! quality 9 ! col\r$ object4 ,we talk ( ! col\rs ( ?+s z among _! prop]ties4 #d4 ,9 ! case ( s5sations1 ano!r di/9ction has also to be kept 9 view1 :i* is (t5 conf\nd$1 & nev] )\t mis*iev\s consequ5ces4 ,?is is1 ! di/9ction betwe5 ! s5sation itself1 & ! /ate ( ! bodily organs :i* prec$es ! s5sation1 & :i* con/itutes ! physical ag5cy by :i* x is produc$4 ,"o ( ! s\rces ( confusion on ?is subject is ! division commonly made ( feel+s into ,bodily & ,m5tal4 ,philosophically speak+1 !re is no f\ndation at all = ?is di/9ction3 ev5 s5sations are /ates ( ! s5ti5t m9d1 n /ates ( ! body1 z di/+ui%$ f x4 ,:at ,i am consci\s ( :5 ,i see ! col\r blue1 is a feel+ ( blue col\r1 :i* is "o ?+2 ! picture on my ret9a1 or ! ph5om5on ( hi!rto my/]i\s nature :i* takes place 9 my optic n]ve or 9 my bra91 is ano!r ?+1 ( :i* ,i am n at all consci\s1 & :i* sci5tific inve/igation alone c\ld h appris$ me (4 ,^! are /ates ( my body2 b ! s5sation ( blue1 :i* is ! consequ5ce ( ^! /ates ( body1 is n a /ate ( body3 t :i* p]ceives & is consci\s is call$ ,m9d4 ,:5 s5sations are call$ bodily feel+s1 x is only z be+ ! class ( feel+s :i* are imm$iately occasion$ by bodily /ates2 :]eas ! o!r k9ds ( feel+s1 ?\ghts1 = in/ance1 or emotions1 are imm$iately excit$ n by any?+ act+ ^u ! bodily organs1 b by s5sations1 or by previ\s ?\ghts4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is a di/9ction n 9 our feel+s1 b 9 ! ag5cy :i* produces our feel+s3 all ( !m :5 actually produc$ are /ates ( m9d4 ,besides ! affection ( our bodily organs f )\t1 & ! s5sation !reby produc$ 9 our m9ds1 _m writ]s admit a ?ird l9k 9 ! *a9 ( ph5om5a1 :i* !y call a ,p]ception1 & :i* consi/s 9 ! recognition ( an ext]nal object z ! excit+ cause ( ! s5sation4 ,?is p]ception1 !y say1 is an act ( ! m9d1 proce$+ f its own spontane\s activity2 :ile 9 s5sation ! m9d is passive1 be+ m]ely act$ ^u by ! outw>d object4 ,& accord+ to "s metaphysicians x is by an act ( ! m9d1 simil> to p]ception1 except 9 n be+ prec$$ by any s5sation1 t ! exi/5ce ( ,god1 ! s\l1 & o!r hyp]physical objects is recognis$4 ,^! acts ( :at is t]m$ p]ception1 :atev] be ! conclusion ultimately come to respect+ _! nature1 mu/1 ,i conceive1 take _! place among ! v>ieties ( feel+s or /ates ( m9d4 ,9 s class+ !m1 ,i h n ! smalle/ int5tion ( decl>+ or ins9uat+ any !ory z to ! law ( m9d 9 :i* ^! m5tal processes may be suppos$ to orig9ate1 or ! conditions "u :i* !y may be legitimate or ! rev]se4 ,f> less d ,i mean 7z ,dr4 ,:ewell seems to suppose mu/ be meant 9 an analog\s case7#ab77 to indicate t z !y are 8m]ely /ates ( m9d10 x is sup]flu\s to inquire into _! di/+ui%+ peculi>ities4 ,i ab/a9 f ! inquiry z irrelevant to ! sci5ce ( logic4 ,9 ^! s-call$ p]ceptions1 or direct recognitions by ! m9d1 ( objects1 :e!r physical or spiritual1 :i* are ext]nal to itself1 ,i c see only cases ( belief2 b ( belief :i* claims to be intuitive1 or indep5d5t ( ext]nal evid5ce4 ,:5 a /one lies be=e me1 ,i am consci\s ( c]ta9 s5sations :i* ,i receive f x2 b :5 ,i say t ^! s5sations come to me f an ext]nal object :i* ,i p]ceive1 ! mean+ ( ^! words is1 t receiv+ ! s5sations1 ,i intuitively believe t an ext]nal cause ( ^? s5sations exi/s4 ,! laws ( intuitive belief1 & ! conditions "u :i* x is legitimate1 are a subject :i*1 z we h already s (t5 rem>k$1 belongs n to logic1 b to ! sci5ce ( ! ultimate laws ( ! human m9d4 ,to ! same region ( speculation belongs all t c be said respect+ ! di/9ction :i* ! ,g]man metaphysicians & _! ,fr5* & ,engli% foll[]s s elaborately draw betwe5 ! acts ( ! m9d & its m]ely passive /ates2 betwe5 :at x receives f1 & :at x gives to1 ! crude mat]ials ( its exp]i5ce4 ,i am aw>e t ) ref]5ce to ! view :i* ^? writ]s take ( ! prim>y elem5ts ( ?\ght & k1 ?is di/9ction is fundam5tal4 ,b = ! pres5t purpose1 :i* is to exam9e1 n ! orig9al gr\ndwork ( our k1 b h[ we come by t portion ( x :i* is n orig9al2 ! diff]5ce betwe5 active & passive /ates ( m9d is ( second>y importance4 ,= u1 !y all are /ates ( m9d1 !y all are feel+s2 by :i*1 let x be said once m1 ,i mean to imply no?+ ( passivity1 b simply t !y are psy*ological facts1 facts :i* take place 9 ! m9d1 & are to be c>efully di/+ui%$ f ! ext]nal or physical facts ) :i* !y may be connect$1 ei!r z effects or z causes4 #e4 ,among active /ates ( m9d1 !re is h[ev] "o species :i* m]its p>ticul> att5tion1 because x =ms a pr9cipal "p ( ! connotation ( "s important classes ( names4 ,i mean volitions1 or acts ( ! w4 ,:5 we speak ( s5ti5t be+s by relative names1 a l>ge portion ( ! connotation ( ! "n usually consi/s ( ! actions ( ^? be+s2 actions pa/1 pres5t1 & possible or probable future4 ,take1 = in/ance1 ! words ,sov]eign & ,subject4 ,:at mean+ d ^! words convey1 b t ( innum]able actions1 done or to be done by ! sov]eign & ! subjects1 to or 9 reg>d to "o ano!r reciprocally8 ,s ) ! words physician & pati5t1 lead] & foll[]1 tutor & pupil4 ,9 _m cases ! words also connote actions :i* w\ld be done "u c]ta9 cont+5cies by p]sons o!r ?an ^? d5ot$3 z ! words mortgagor & mortgagee1 obligor & obligee1 & _m o!r words expressive ( legal relation1 :i* connote :at a c\rt ( ju/ice w\ld d to en=ce ! legal obligation if n fulfill$4 ,!re are also words :i* connote actions previ\sly done by p]sons o!r ?an ^? d5ot$ ei!r by ! "n itself or by its correlative2 z ! ^w bro!r4 ,f ^! in/ances1 x may be se5 h[ l>ge a portion ( ! connotation ( names consi/s ( actions4 ,n[ :at is an action8 ,n "o ?+1 b a s]ies ( two ?+s3 ! /ate ( m9d call$ a volition1 foll[$ by an effect4 ,! volition or int5tion to produce ! effect1 is "o ?+2 ! effect produc$ 9 consequ5ce ( ! int5tion1 is ano!r ?+2 ! two toge!r con/itute ! action4 ,i =m ! purpose ( in/antly mov+ my arm2 t is a /ate ( my m9d3 my arm 7n be+ ti$ or p>alytic7 moves 9 ob$i5ce to my purpose2 t is a physical fact1 consequ5t on a /ate ( m9d4 ,! int5tion1 foll[$ by ! fact1 or1 7if we pref] ! expression17 ! fact :5 prec$$ & caus$ by ! int5tion1 is call$ ! action ( mov+ my arm4 #f4 ,( ! fir/ lead+ division ( nameable ?+s1 viz4 ,feel+s or ,/ates ( ,consci\sness1 we began by recognis+ ?ree sub-divisions2 ,s5sations1 ,?\ghts1 & ,emotions4 ,! fir/ two ( ^! we h illu/rat$ at consid]able l5g?2 ! ?ird1 ,emotions1 n be+ p]plex$ by simil> ambiguities1 does n require simil> exemplification4 ,&1 f9ally1 we h f\nd x necess>y to add to ^! ?ree a f\r? species1 commonly kn[n by ! "n ,volitions4 ,)\t seek+ to prejudge ! metaphysical "q :e!r any m5tal /ate or ph5om5on c be f\nd :i* is n includ$ 9 "o or o!r ( ^! f\r species1 x appe>s to me t ! am\nt ( illu/ration be/[$ ^u ^! may1 s f> z we are conc]n$1 suffice = ! :ole g5us4 ,we %all1 !re=e1 proce$ to ! two rema9+ classes ( nameable ?+s2 all ?+s :i* are ext]nal to ! m9d be+ consid]$ z belong+ ei!r to ! class ( ,sub/ances or to t ( ,attributes4 ,,ii4 ,sub/ances4 ,logicians h endeav\r$ to def9e ,sub/ance & ,attribute2 b _! def9itions are n s mu* attempts to draw a di/9ction betwe5 ! ?+s !mselves1 z in/ructions :at diff]5ce x is cu/om>y to make 9 ! grammatical /ructure ( ! s5t5ce1 accord+ z we are speak+ ( sub/ances or ( attributes4 ,su* def9itions are r lessons ( ,engli%1 or ( ,greek1 ,lat91 or ,g]man1 ?an ( m5tal philosophy4 ,an attribute1 say ! s*ool logicians1 mu/ be ! attribute ( some?+3 col\r1 = example1 mu/ be ! col\r ( some?+2 goodness mu/ be ! goodness ( some?+3 & if ?is some?+ %\ld cease to exi/1 or %\ld cease to be connect$ ) ! attribute1 ! exi/5ce ( ! attribute w\ld be at an end4 ,a sub/ance1 on ! contr>y1 is self-exi/5t2 9 speak+ ab\t x1 we ne$ n put ( aft] its "n4 ,a /one is n ! /one ( any?+2 ! moon is n ! moon ( any?+1 b simply ! moon4 ,unless1 inde$1 ! "n :i* we *oose to give to ! sub/ance be a relative "n2 if s1 x mu/ be foll[$ ei!r by ( or by "s o!r p>ticle1 imply+1 z t preposition does1 a ref]5ce to some?+ else3 b !n ! o!r *>act]i/ic peculi>ity ( an attribute w\ld fail2 ! some?+ might be de/roy$1 & ! sub/ance might /ill subsi/4 ,?us1 a fa!r mu/ be ! fa!r ( some?+1 & s f> resembles an attribute1 9 be+ ref]r$ to some?+ besides himself3 if !re 7 no *ild1 !re w\ld be no fa!r3 b ?is1 :5 we look into ! matt]1 only means t we %\ld n call him fa!r4 ,! man call$ fa!r might /ill exi/ ?\gh !re 7 no *ild1 z he exi/$ be=e !re 0 a *ild3 & !re w\ld be no contradiction 9 suppos+ him to exi/1 al?\gh ! :ole univ]se except himself 7 de/roy$4 ,b de/roy all :ite sub/ances1 & :]e w\ld be ! attribute :it5ess8 ,:it5ess1 )\t any :ite ?+1 is a contradiction 9 t]ms4 ,?is is ! ne>e/ approa* to a solution ( ! difficulty1 t w be f\nd 9 ! common treatises on logic4 ,x w sc>cely be ?\ght to be a satisfactory "o4 ,if an attribute is di/+ui%$ f a sub/ance by be+ ! attribute ( some?+1 x seems highly necess>y to und]/& :at is meant by (3 a p>ticle :i* ne$s explanation too mu* itself to be plac$ 9 front ( ! explanation ( any?+ else4 ,& z = ! self-exi/5ce ( sub/ances1 x is v true t a sub/ance may be conceiv$ to exi/ )\t any o!r sub/ance1 b s also may an attribute )\t any o!r attribute3 & we c no m imag9e a sub/ance )\t attributes ?an we c imag9e attributes )\t a sub/ance4 ,metaphysicians1 h[ev]1 h prob$ ! "q deep]1 & giv5 an acc\nt ( ,sub/ance consid]ably m satisfactory ?an ?is4 ,sub/ances are usually di/+ui%$ z ,bodies or ,m9ds4 ,( ea* ( ^!1 philosoph]s h at l5g? provid$ u ) a def9ition :i* seems unexceptionable4 #g4 ,a ,body1 accord+ to ! receiv$ doctr9e ( mod]n metaphysicians1 may be def9$ ! ext]nal cause to :i* we ascribe our s5sations4 ,:5 ,i see & t\* a piece ( gold1 ,i am consci\s ( a s5sation ( yell[ col\r1 & s5sations ( h>dness & weight2 & by v>y+ ! mode ( h&l+1 ,i may add to ^! s5sations _m o!rs completely di/9ct f !m4 ,! s5sations are all ( :i* ,i am directly consci\s2 b ,i consid] !m z produc$ by some?+ n only exi/+ indep5d5tly ( my w1 b ext]nal to my bodily organs & to my m9d4 ,?is ext]nal some?+ ,i call a body4 ,x may be ask$1 h[ come we to ascribe our s5sations to any ext]nal cause8 ,& is !re suffici5t gr\nd = s ascrib+ !m8 ,x is kn[n1 t !re are metaphysicians :o h rais$ a controv]sy on ! po9t2 ma9ta9+ t we are n w>rant$ 9 ref]r+ our s5sations to a cause1 su* z we und]/& by ! ^w ,body1 or to any cause :atev]1 unless1 inde$1 a ,fir/ ,cause4 ,?\gh we h no conc]n "h ) ?is controv]sy1 nor ) ! metaphysical niceties on :i* x turns1 "o ( ! be/ ways ( %[+ :at is meant by ,sub/ance is1 to consid] :at position x is necess>y to take up1 9 ord] to ma9ta9 its exi/5ce aga9/ oppon5ts4 ,x is c]ta91 !n1 t a "p ( our notion ( a body consi/s ( ! notion ( a numb] ( s5sations ( our own1 or ( o!r s5ti5t be+s1 habitually occurr+ simultane\sly4 ,my conception ( ! table at :i* ,i am writ+ is comp\nd$ ( its visible =m & size1 :i* are complex s5sations ( sight2 its tangible =m & size1 :i* are complex s5sations ( our organs ( t\* & ( our muscles2 its weight1 :i* is also a s5sation ( t\* & ( ! muscles2 its col\r1 :i* is a s5sation ( sight2 its h>dness1 :i* is a s5sation ( ! muscles2 its composition1 :i* is ano!r ^w = all ! v>ieties ( s5sation :i* we receive "u v>i\s circum/ances f ! wood ( :i* x is made2 & s =?4 ,all or mo/ ( ^! v>i\s s5sations frequ5tly are1 &1 z we le>n by exp]i5ce1 always might be1 exp]i5c$ simultane\sly1 or 9 _m diff]5t ord]s ( succession1 at our own *oice3 & h5ce ! ?\ght ( any "o ( !m makes u ?9k ( ! o!rs1 & ! :ole becomes m5tally amalgamat$ into "o mix$ /ate ( consci\sness1 :i*1 9 ! language ( ! s*ool ( ,locke & ,h>tley1 is t]m$ a ,complex ,idea4 ,n[1 !re are philosoph]s :o h argu$ z foll[s4 ,if we take an orange1 & conceive x to be dive/$ ( its natural col\r )\t acquir+ any new "o2 to lose its s(tness )\t becom+ h>d1 its r\ndness )\t becom+ squ>e or p5tagonal1 or ( any o!r regul> or irregul> figure :atev]2 to be depriv$ ( size1 ( weight1 ( ta/e1 ( smell2 to lose all its me*anical & all its *emical prop]ties1 & acquire no new ones2 to become1 9 %ort1 invisible1 intangible1 imp]ceptible n only by all our s5ses1 b by ! s5ses ( all o!r s5ti5t be+s1 real or possible2 no?+1 say ^! ?9k]s1 w\ld rema94 ,= ( :at nature1 !y ask1 c\ld be ! residuum8 & by :at tok5 c\ld x manife/ its pres5ce8 ,to ! unreflect+ its exi/5ce seems to re/ on ! evid5ce ( ! s5ses4 ,b to ! s5ses no?+ is app>5t except ! s5sations4 ,we "k1 inde$1 t ^! s5sations are b\nd toge!r by "s law2 !y d n come toge!r at r&om1 b accord+ to a sy/ematic ord]1 :i* is "p ( ! ord] e/abli%$ 9 ! univ]se4 ,:5 we exp]i5ce "o ( ^! s5sations1 we usually exp]i5ce ! o!rs also1 or "k t we h x 9 our p[] to exp]i5ce !m4 ,b a fix$ law ( connexion1 mak+ ! s5sations occur toge!r1 does n1 say ^! philosoph]s1 necess>ily require :at is call$ a sub/ratum to support !m4 ,! conception ( a sub/ratum is b "o ( _m possible =ms 9 :i* t connexion pres5ts itself to our imag9ation2 a mode (1 z x 71 realiz+ ! idea4 ,if !re be su* a sub/ratum1 suppose x ?is in/ant miracul\sly annihilat$1 & let ! s5sations cont9ue to occur 9 ! same ord]1 & h[ w\ld ! sub/ratum be miss$8 ,by :at signs %\ld we be able to discov] t its exi/5ce _h t]m9at$8 %\ld we n h z mu* reason to believe t x /ill exi/$ z we n[ h8 & if we %\ld n !n be w>rant$ 9 believ+ x1 h[ c we be s n[8 ,a body1 !re=e1 accord+ to ^! metaphysicians1 is n any?+ intr9sically diff]5t f ! s5sations :i* ! body is said to produce 9 u2 x is1 9 %ort1 a set ( s5sations jo9$ toge!r accord+ to a fix$ law4 ,! controv]sies to :i* ^! speculations h giv5 rise1 & ! doctr9es :i* h be5 develop$ 9 ! attempt to f9d a conclusive answ] to !m1 h be5 fruitful ( important consequ5ces to ! ,sci5ce ( ,m9d4 ,! s5sations 7x 0 answ]$7 :i* we are consci\s (1 & :i* we receive n at r&om1 b jo9$ toge!r 9 a c]ta9 uni=m mann]1 imply n only a law or laws ( connexion1 b a cause ext]nal to our m9d1 :i* cause1 by its own laws1 det]m9es ! laws accord+ to :i* ! s5sations are connect$ & exp]i5c$4 ,! s*oolm5 us$ to call ?is ext]nal cause by ! "n we h already employ$1 a sub/ratum2 & its attributes 7z !y express$ !mselves7 inh]$1 lit]ally /uck1 9 x4 ,to ?is sub/ratum ! "n ,matt] is usually giv5 9 philosophical discussions4 ,x 0 soon1 h[ev]1 ackn[l$g$ by all :o reflect$ on ! subject1 t ! exi/5ce ( matt] c\ld n be prov$ by extr9sic evid5ce4 ,! answ]1 !re=e1 n[ usually made to ,b]keley & 8 foll[]s1 is1 t ! belief is intuitive2 t mank9d1 9 all ages1 h felt !mselves compell$1 by a necessity ( _! nature1 to ref] _! s5sations to an ext]nal cause3 t ev5 ^? :o d5y x 9 !ory1 yield to ! necessity 9 practice1 & bo? 9 spee*1 ?\ght1 & feel+1 d1 equally ) ! vulg>1 ackn[l$ge _! s5sations to be ! effects ( some?+ ext]nal to !m3 ?is k1 !re=e1 x is affirm$1 is z evid5tly intuitive z our k ( our s5sations !mselves is intuitive4 ,& "h ! "q m]ges 9 ! fundam5tal problem ( metaphysics prop]ly s call$2 to :i* sci5ce we leave x4 ,b al?\gh ! extreme doctr9e ( ! ,ideali/ metaphysicians1 t objects are no?+ b our s5sations & ! laws :i* connect !m1 has n be5 g5]ally adopt$ by subsequ5t ?9k]s2 ! po9t ( mo/ real importance is "o on :i* ^? metaphysicians are n[ v g5]ally consid]$ to h made out _! case3 viz41 t all we "k ( objects is ! s5sations :i* !y give u1 & ! ord] ( ! occurr5ce ( ^? s5sations4 ,kant himself1 on ?is po9t1 is z explicit z ,b]keley or ,locke4 ,h[ev] firmly conv9c$ t !re exi/s an univ]se ( 8,?+s 9 !mselves10 totally di/9ct f ! univ]se ( ph5om5a1 or ( ?+s z !y appe> to our s5ses2 & ev5 :5 br++ into use a te*nical expression 7,n\m5on7 to d5ote :at ! ?+ is 9 itself1 z contra/$ ) ! repres5tation ( x 9 our m9ds2 he all[s t ?is repres5tation 7! matt] ( :i*1 he says1 consi/s ( our s5sations1 ?\gh ! =m is giv5 by ! laws ( ! m9d itself7 is all we "k ( ! object3 & t ! real nature ( ! ,?+ is1 & by ! con/itution ( our faculties ev] mu/ rema91 at lea/ 9 ! pres5t /ate ( exi/5ce1 an imp5etrable my/]y to u47#ac7 ,!re is n ! slighte/ reason = believ+ t :at we call ! s5sible qualities ( ! object are a type ( any?+ inh]5t 9 itself1 or be> any aff9ity to its own nature4 ,a cause does n1 z su*1 resemble its effects2 an ea/ w9d is n l ! feel+ ( cold1 nor heat l ! /eam ( boil+ wat]3 :y !n %\ld matt] resemble our s5sations8 :y %\ld ! inmo/ nature ( fire or wat] resemble ! impressions made by ^! objects ^u our s5ses87#ad7 ,& if n on ! pr9ciple ( resemblance1 on :at o!r pr9ciple c ! mann] 9 :i* objects affect u ?r\gh our s5ses af=d u any insight into ! inh]5t nature ( ^? objects8 ,x may !re=e safely be laid d[n z a tru? bo? obvi\s 9 itself1 & admitt$ by all :om x is at pres5t necess>y to take into consid]ation1 t1 ( ! outw>d _w1 we "k & c "k absolutely no?+1 except ! s5sations :i* we exp]i5ce f x4 ,^?1 h[ev]1 :o /ill look ^u ,ontology z a possible sci5ce1 & ?9k1 n only t bodies h an ess5tial con/itution ( _! own1 ly+ deep] ?an our p]ceptions1 b t ?is ess5ce or nature is accessible to human inve/igation1 _c expect to f9d _! refutation "h4 ,! "q dep5ds on ! nature & laws ( ,intuitive ,k1 & is n )9 ! prov9ce ( logic4 #h4 ,body hav+ n[ be5 def9$ ! ext]nal cause1 & 7accord+ to ! m reasonable op9ion7 ! hidd5 ext]nal cause1 to :i* we ref] our s5sations2 x rema9s to frame a def9ition ( ,m9d4 ,nor1 aft] ! prec$+ obs]vations1 w ?is be difficult4 ,=1 z our conception ( a body is t ( an unkn[n excit+ cause ( s5sations1 s our conception ( a m9d is t ( an unkn[n recipi5t1 or p]cipi5t1 ( !m2 & n ( !m alone1 b ( all our o!r feel+s4 ,z body is ! my/]i\s some?+ :i* excites ! m9d to feel1 s m9d is ! my/]i\s some?+ :i* feels1 & ?9ks4 ,x is unnecess>y to give 9 ! case ( m9d1 z we gave 9 ! case ( matt]1 a p>ticul> /atem5t ( ! sceptical sy/em by :i* its exi/5ce z a ,?+ 9 itself1 di/9ct f ! s]ies ( :at are d5om9at$ its /ates1 is call$ 9 "q4 ,b x is necess>y to rem>k1 t on ! inmo/ nature ( ! ?9k+ pr9ciple1 z well z on ! inmo/ nature ( matt]1 we are1 & ) our faculties mu/ always rema91 entirely 9 ! d>k4 ,all :i* we are aw>e (1 ev5 9 our own m9ds1 is 79 ! words ( ,mr4 ,mill7 a c]ta9 8?read ( consci\sness20 a s]ies ( feel+s1 t is1 ( s5sations1 ?\ghts1 emotions1 & volitions1 m or less num]\s & complicat$4 ,!re is a some?+ ,i call ,myself1 or1 by ano!r =m ( expression1 my m9d1 :i* ,i consid] z di/9ct f ^! s5sations1 ?\ghts1 c42 a some?+ :i* ,i conceive to be n ! ?\ghts1 b ! be+ t has ! ?\ghts1 & :i* ,i c conceive z exi/+ = ev] 9 a /ate ( quiesc5ce1 )\t any ?\ghts at all4 ,b :at ?is be+ is1 al?\gh x is myself1 ,i h no k1 o!r ?an ! s]ies ( its /ates ( consci\sness4 ,z bodies manife/ !mselves to me only ?r\gh ! s5sations ( :i* ,i reg>d !m z ! causes1 s ! ?9k+ pr9ciple1 or m9d1 9 my own nature1 makes itself kn[n to me only by ! feel+s ( :i* x is consci\s4 ,i "k no?+ ab\t myself1 save my capacities ( feel+ or be+ consci\s 7includ+1 ( c\rse1 ?9k+ & will+73 & 7 ,i to le>n any?+ new conc]n+ my own nature1 ,i _c ) my pres5t faculties conceive ?is new in=mation to be any?+ else1 ?an t ,i h "s additional capacities1 z yet unkn[n to me1 ( feel+1 ?9k+1 or will+4 ,?us1 !n1 z body is ! uns5ti5t cause to :i* we are naturally prompt$ to ref] a c]ta9 portion ( our feel+s1 s m9d may be describ$ z ! s5ti5t subject 79 ! ,g]man s5se ( ! t]m7 ( all feel+s2 t :i* has or feels !m4 ,b ( ! nature ( ei!r body or m9d1 fur!r ?an ! feel+s :i* ! =m] excites1 & :i* ! latt] exp]i5ces1 we d n1 accord+ to ! be/ exi/+ doctr9e1 "k any?+2 & if any?+1 logic has no?+ to d ) x1 or ) ! mann] 9 :i* ! k is acquir$4 ,) ?is result we may conclude ?is portion ( our subject1 & pass to ! ?ird & only rema9+ class or division ( ,nameable ,?+s4 ,,iii4 ,attributes3 &1 fir/1 ,qualities4 #i4 ,f :at has already be5 said ( ,sub/ance1 :at is to be said ( ,attribute is easily d$ucible4 ,= if we "k n1 & _c "k1 any?+ ( bodies b ! s5sations :i* !y excite 9 u or o!rs1 ^? s5sations mu/ be all t we c1 at bottom1 mean by _! attributes2 & ! di/9ction :i* we v]bally make betwe5 ! prop]ties ( ?+s & ! s5sations we receive f !m1 mu/ orig9ate 9 ! conv5i5ce ( disc\rse r ?an 9 ! nature ( :at is d5ot$ by ! t]ms4 ,attributes are usually di/ribut$ "u ! ?ree heads ( ,quality1 ,quantity1 & ,relation4 ,we %all come to ! two latt] pres5tly3 9 ! fir/ place we %all conf9e ourselves to ! =m]4 ,let u take1 !n1 z our example1 "o ( :at are t]m$ ! s5sible qualities ( objects1 & let t example be :it5ess4 ,:5 we ascribe :it5ess to any sub/ance1 z1 = in/ance1 sn[2 :5 we say t sn[ has ! quality :it5ess1 :at d we really ass]t8 ,simply1 t :5 sn[ is pres5t to our organs1 we h a p>ticul> s5sation1 :i* we are accu/om$ to call ! s5sation ( :ite4 ,b h[ d ,i "k t sn[ is pres5t8 ,obvi\sly by ! s5sations :i* ,i d]ive f x1 & n o!rwise4 ,i inf] t ! object is pres5t1 because x gives me a c]ta9 assemblage or s]ies ( s5sations4 ,& :5 ,i ascribe to x ! attribute :it5ess1 my mean+ is only1 t1 ( ! s5sations compos+ ?is gr\p or s]ies1 t :i* ,i call ! s5sation ( :ite col\r is "o4 ,?is is "o view :i* may be tak5 ( ! subject4 ,b !re is also ano!r1 & a diff]5t view4 ,x may be said1 t x is true we "k no?+ ( s5sible objects1 except ! s5sations !y excite 9 u2 t ! fact ( our receiv+ f sn[ ! p>ticul> s5sation :i* is call$ a s5sation ( :ite1 is ! gr\nd on :i* we ascribe to t sub/ance ! quality :it5ess2 ! sole pro( ( its possess+ t quality4 ,b because "o ?+ may be ! sole evid5ce ( ! exi/5ce ( ano!r ?+1 x does n foll[ t ! two are "o & ! same4 ,! attribute :it5ess 7x may be said7 is n ! fact ( our receiv+ ! s5sation1 b some?+ 9 ! object itself2 a p[] inh]5t 9 x2 some?+ 9 virtue ( :i* ! object produces ! s5sation4 ,& :5 we affirm t sn[ possesses ! attribute :it5ess1 we d n m]ely ass]t t ! pres5ce ( sn[ produces 9 u t s5sation1 b t x does s ?r\gh1 & by reason (1 t p[] or quality4 ,= ! purposes ( logic x is n ( mat]ial importance :i* ( ^! op9ions we adopt4 ,! full discussion ( ! subject belongs to ! o!r dep>tm5t ( sci5tific inquiry1 s (t5 allud$ to "u ! "n ( metaphysics2 b x may be said "h1 t = ! doctr9e ( ! exi/5ce ( a peculi> species ( entities call$ qualities1 ,i c see no f\ndation except 9 a t5d5cy ( ! human m9d :i* is ! cause ( _m delusions4 ,i mean1 ! disposition1 :]ev] we meet ) two names :i* are n precisely synonym\s1 to suppose t !y mu/ be ! names ( two diff]5t ?+s2 :]eas 9 reality !y may be names ( ! same ?+ view$ 9 two diff]5t lights1 :i* is z mu* z to say "u diff]5t suppositions z to surr\nd+ circum/ances4 ,because quality & s5sation _c be put indiscrim9ately "o = ! o!r1 x is suppos$ t !y _c bo? signify ! same ?+1 namely1 ! impression or feel+ ) :i* we are affect$ ?r\gh our s5ses by ! pres5ce ( an object2 al?\gh !re is at lea/ no absurdity 9 suppos+ t ?is id5tical impression or feel+ may be call$ a s5sation :5 consid]$ m]ely 9 itself1 & a quality :5 reg>d$ z emanat+ f any "o ( ! num]\s objects1 ! pres5ce ( :i* to our organs excites 9 our m9ds t among v>i\s o!r s5sations or feel+s4 ,& if ?is be admissible z a supposition1 x re/s ) ^? :o cont5d = an entity p] se call$ a quality1 to %[ t _! op9ion is pref]able1 or is any?+ 9 fact b a l+]+ remnant ( ! s*ola/ic doctr9e ( occult causes2 ! v absurdity :i* ,molire s happily ridicul$ :5 he made "o ( 8 p$antic physicians acc\nt = ! fact t 8l'opium endormit10 by ! maxim 8p>cequ'il a une v]tu soporifique40 ,x is evid5t t :5 ! physician /at$ t opium _h 8une v]tu soporifique10 he did n acc\nt =1 b m]ely ass]t$ ov] aga91 ! fact t x endormit4 ,9 l mann]1 :5 we say t sn[ is :ite because x has ! quality ( :it5ess1 we are only re-ass]t+ 9 m te*nical language ! fact t x excites 9 u ! s5sation ( :ite4 ,if x be said t ! s5sation mu/ h "s cause1 ,i answ]1 its cause is ! pres5ce ( ! assemblage ( ph5om5a :i* is t]m$ ! object4 ,:5 we h ass]t$ t z (t5 z ! object is pres5t1 & our organs 9 _! normal /ate1 ! s5sation takes place1 we h /at$ all t we "k ab\t ! matt]4 ,!re is no ne$1 aft] assign+ a c]ta9 & intelligible cause1 to suppose an occult cause besides1 = ! purpose ( enabl+ ! real cause to produce its effect4 ,if ,i am ask$1 :y does ! pres5ce ( ! object cause ?is s5sation 9 me1 ,i _c tell3 ,i c only say t su* is my nature1 & ! nature ( ! object2 t ! fact =ms a "p ( ! con/itution ( ?+s4 ,& to ?is we mu/ at la/ come1 ev5 aft] int]polat+ ! imag9>y entity4 ,:atev] numb] ( l9ks ! *a9 ( causes & effects may consi/ (1 h[ any "o l9k produces ! "o :i* is next to x rema9s equally inexplicable to u4 ,x is z easy to compreh5d t ! object %\ld produce ! s5sation directly & at once1 z t x %\ld produce ! same s5sation by ! aid ( some?+ else call$ ! p[] ( produc+ x4 ,b z ! difficulties :i* may be felt 9 adopt+ ?is view ( ! subject _c be remov$ )\t discussions transc5d+ ! b\nds ( our sci5ce1 ,i cont5t myself ) a pass+ indication1 & %all1 = ! purposes ( logic1 adopt a language compatible ) ei!r view ( ! nature ( qualities4 ,i %all say1--:at at lea/ admits ( no dispute1--t ! quality ( :it5ess ascrib$ to ! object sn[1 is gr\nd$ on its excit+ 9 u ! s5sation ( :ite2 & adopt+ ! language already us$ by ! s*ool logicians 9 ! case ( ! k9d ( attributes call$ ,relations1 ,i %all t]m ! s5sation ( :ite ! f\ndation ( ! quality :it5ess4 ,= logical purposes ! s5sation is ! only ess5tial "p ( :at is meant by ! ^w2 ! only "p :i* we ev] c be conc]n$ 9 prov+4 ,:5 t is prov$1 ! quality is prov$2 if an object excites a s5sation x has1 ( c\rse1 ! p[] ( excit+ x4 ,,iv4 ,relations4 #aj4 ,! qualities ( a body1 we h said1 are ! attributes gr\nd$ on ! s5sations :i* ! pres5ce ( t p>ticul> body to our organs excites 9 our m9ds4 ,b :5 we ascribe to any object ! k9d ( attribute call$ a ,relation1 ! f\ndation ( ! attribute mu/ be some?+ 9 :i* o!r objects are conc]n$ besides itself & ! p]cipi5t4 ,z !re may ) propriety be said to be a relation betwe5 any two ?+s to :i* two correlative names are or may be giv52 we may expect to discov] :at con/itutes a relation 9 g5]al1 if we enum]ate ! pr9cipal cases 9 :i* mank9d h impos$ correlative names1 & obs]ve :at ^! cases h 9 common4 ,:at1 !n1 is ! "* :i* is possess$ 9 common by /ates ( circum/ances s het]og5e\s & discordant z ^!3 "o ?+ l ano!r2 "o ?+ unlike ano!r2 "o ?+ ne> ano!r2 "o ?+ f> f ano!r2 "o ?+ be=e1 aft]1 along ) ano!r2 "o ?+ great]1 equal1 less1 ?an ano!r2 "o ?+ ! cause ( ano!r1 ! effect ( ano!r2 "o p]son ! ma/]1 s]vant1 *ild1 p>5t1 debtor1 cr$itor1 sov]eign1 subject1 attorney1 cli5t1 ( ano!r1 & s on8 ,omitt+1 = ! pres5t1 ! case ( ,resemblance1 7a relation :i* requires to be consid]$ sep>ately17 !re seems to be "o ?+ common to all ^! cases1 & only "o2 t 9 ea* ( !m !re exi/s or occurs1 or has exi/$ or occurr$1 or may be expect$ to exi/ or occur1 "s fact or ph5om5on1 into :i* ! two ?+s :i* are said to be relat$ to ea* o!r1 bo? ent] z p>ties conc]n$4 ,?is fact1 or ph5om5on1 is :at ! ,ari/otelian logicians call$ ! fundam5tum relationis4 ,?us 9 ! relation ( great] & less betwe5 two magnitudes1 ! fundam5tum relationis is ! fact t "o ( ! two magnitudes c\ld1 "u c]ta9 conditions1 be includ$ 91 )\t entirely fill+1 ! space occupi$ by ! o!r magnitude4 ,9 ! relation ( ma/] & s]vant1 ! fundam5tum relationis is ! fact t ! "o has und]tak51 or is compell$1 to p]=m c]ta9 s]vices = ! b5efit1 & at ! bidd+ ( ! o!r4 ,examples might be indef9itely multipli$2 b x is already obvi\s t :5ev] two ?+s are said to be relat$1 !re is "s fact1 or s]ies ( facts1 into :i* !y bo? ent]2 & t :5ev] any two ?+s are involv$ 9 "s "o fact1 or s]ies ( facts1 we may ascribe to ^? two ?+s a mutual relation gr\nd$ on ! fact4 ,ev5 if !y h no?+ 9 common b :at is common to all ?+s1 t !y are memb]s ( ! univ]se1 we call t a relation1 & d5om9ate !m fell[-creatures1 fell[-be+s1 or fell[-d5iz5s ( ! univ]se4 ,b 9 proportion z ! fact into :i* ! two objects ent] z p>ts is ( a m special & peculi>1 or ( a m complicat$ nature1 s also is ! relation gr\nd$ ^u x4 ,& !re are z _m conceivable relations z !re are conceivable k9ds ( fact 9 :i* two ?+s c be jo9tly conc]n$4 ,9 ! same mann]1 !re=e1 z a quality is an attribute gr\nd$ on ! fact t a c]ta9 s5sation or s5sations are produc$ 9 u by ! object1 s an attribute gr\nd$ on "s fact into :i* ! object ent]s jo9tly ) ano!r object1 is a relation betwe5 x & t o!r object4 ,b ! fact 9 ! latt] case consi/s ( ! v same k9d ( elem5ts z ! fact 9 ! =m]3 namely1 /ates ( consci\sness4 ,9 ! case1 = example1 ( any legal relation1 z debtor & cr$itor1 pr9cipal & ag5t1 gu>dian & w>d1 ! fundam5tum relationis consi/s entirely ( ?\ghts1 feel+s1 & volitions 7actual or cont+5t71 ei!r ( ! p]sons !mselves or ( o!r p]sons conc]n$ 9 ! same s]ies ( transactions2 z1 = in/ance1 ! int5tions :i* w\ld be =m$ by a judge 9 case a compla9t 7 made to 8 tribunal ( ! infr+em5t ( any ( ! legal obligations impos$ by ! relation2 & ! acts :i* ! judge w\ld p]=m 9 consequ5ce2 acts be+ 7z we h already se57 ano!r ^w = int5tions foll[$ by an effect1 & t effect be+ b ano!r ^w = s5sations1 or "s o!r feel+s1 occasion$ ei!r to oneself or to somebody else4 ,!re is no "p ( :at ! names expressive ( ! relation imply1 t is n resolvable into /ates ( consci\sness2 outw>d objects be+1 no d\bt1 suppos$ ?r\gh\t z ! causes by :i* "s ( ^? /ates ( consci\sness are excit$1 & m9ds z ! subjects by :i* all ( !m are exp]i5c$1 b nei!r ! ext]nal objects nor ! m9ds mak+ _! exi/5ce kn[n o!rwise ?an by ! /ates ( consci\sness4 ,cases ( relation are n always s complicat$ z ^? to :i* we la/ allud$4 ,! simple/ ( all cases ( relation are ^? express$ by ! words antec$5t & consequ5t1 & by ! ^w simultane\s4 ,if we say1 = in/ance1 t dawn prec$$ sunrise1 ! fact 9 :i* ! two ?+s1 dawn & sunrise1 7 jo9tly conc]n$1 consi/$ only ( ! two ?+s !mselves2 no ?ird ?+ ent]$ into ! fact or ph5om5on at all2 unless1 inde$1 we *oose to call ! succession ( ! two objects a ?ird ?+2 b _! succession is n some?+ add$ to ! ?+s !mselves2 x is some?+ involv$ 9 !m4 ,dawn & sunrise ann\nce !mselves to our consci\sness by two successive s5sations2 our consci\sness ( ! succession ( ^! s5sations is n a ?ird s5sation or feel+ add$ to !m2 we h n fir/ ! two feel+s1 & !n a feel+ ( _! succession4 ,to h two feel+s at all1 implies hav+ !m ei!r successively1 or else simultane\sly4 ,s5sations1 or o!r feel+s1 be+ giv51 succession & simultane\sness are ! two conditions1 to ! alt]native ( :i* !y are subject$ by ! nature ( our faculties2 & no "o has be5 able1 or ne$s expect1 to analyse ! matt] any f>!r4 #aa4 ,9 a some:at simil> position are two o!r sorts ( relation1 ,lik5ess & ,unlik5ess4 ,i h two s5sations2 we w suppose !m to be simple ones2 two s5sations ( :ite1 or "o s5sation ( :ite & ano!r ( black4 ,i call ! fir/ two s5sations l2 ! la/ two unlike4 ,:at is ! fact or ph5om5on con/itut+ ! fundam5tum ( ?is relation8 ,! two s5sations fir/1 & !n :at we call a feel+ ( resemblance1 or ( want ( resemblance4 ,let u conf9e ourselves to ! =m] case4 ,resemblance is evid5tly a feel+2 a /ate ( ! consci\sness ( ! obs]v]4 ,:e!r ! feel+ ( ! resemblance ( ! two col\rs be a ?ird /ate ( consci\sness1 :i* ,i h aft] hav+ ! two s5sations ( col\r1 or :e!r 7l ! feel+ ( _! succession7 x is involv$ 9 ! s5sations !mselves1 may be a matt] ( discussion4 ,b 9 ei!r case1 ^! feel+s ( resemblance1 & ( its opposite1 dissimil>ity1 are p>ts ( our nature2 & p>ts s f> f be+ capable ( analysis1 t !y are presuppos$ 9 e attempt to analyse any ( our o!r feel+s4 ,lik5ess & unlik5ess1 !re=e1 z well z antec$5ce1 sequ5ce1 & simultane\sness1 mu/ /& ap>t among relations1 z ?+s sui g5]is4 ,!y are attributes gr\nd$ on facts1 t is1 on /ates ( consci\sness1 b on /ates :i* are peculi>1 unresolvable1 & inexplicable4 ,b1 al?\gh lik5ess or unlik5ess _c be resolv$ into any?+ else1 complex cases ( lik5ess or unlik5ess c be resolv$ into simpl] ones4 ,:5 we say ( two ?+s :i* consi/ ( p>ts1 t !y are l "o ano!r1 ! lik5ess ( ! :oles does admit ( analysis2 x is comp\nd$ ( lik5esses betwe5 ! v>i\s p>ts respectively4 ,( h[ va/ a v>iety ( resemblances ( p>ts mu/ t resemblance be compos$1 :i* induces u to say t a portrait1 or a l&scape1 is l its orig9al4 ,if "o p]son mimics ano!r ) any success1 ( h[ _m simple lik5esses mu/ ! g5]al or complex lik5ess be comp\nd$3 lik5ess 9 a succession ( bodily po/ures2 lik5ess 9 voice1 or 9 ! acc5ts & intonations ( ! voice2 lik5ess 9 ! *oice ( words1 & 9 ! ?\ghts or s5tim5ts express$1 :e!r by ^w1 c\nt5ance1 or ge/ure4 ,all lik5ess & unlik5ess ( :i* we h any cognizance1 resolve !mselves into lik5ess & unlik5ess betwe5 /ates ( our own1 or "s o!r1 m9d4 ,:5 we say t "o body is l ano!r1 7s9ce we "k no?+ ( bodies b ! s5sations :i* !y excite17 we mean really t !re is a resemblance betwe5 ! s5sations excit$ by ! two bodies1 or betwe5 "s portion at lea/ ( ^! s5sations4 ,if we say t two attributes are l "o ano!r1 7s9ce we "k no?+ ( attributes except ! s5sations or /ates ( feel+ on :i* !y are gr\nd$17 we mean really t ^? s5sations1 or /ates ( feel+1 resemble ea* o!r4 ,we may also say t two relations are alike4 ,! fact ( resemblance betwe5 relations is sometimes call$ analogy1 =m+ "o ( ! num]\s mean+s ( t ^w4 ,! relation 9 :i* ,priam /ood to ,hector1 namely1 t ( fa!r & son1 resembles ! relation 9 :i* ,philip /ood to ,alex&]2 resembles x s closely t !y are call$ ! same relation4 ,! relation 9 :i* ,cromwell /ood to ,engl& resembles ! relation 9 :i* ,napoleon /ood to ,france1 ?\gh n s closely z to be call$ ! same relation4 ,! mean+ 9 bo? ^! in/ances mu/ be1 t a resemblance exi/$ betwe5 ! facts :i* con/itut$ ! fundam5tum relationis4 ,?is resemblance may exi/ 9 all conceivable gradations1 f p]fect undi/+ui%abl5ess to some?+ extremely slight4 ,:5 we say1 t a ?\ght sugge/$ to ! m9d ( a p]son ( g5ius is l a se$ ca/ into ! gr\nd1 because ! =m] produces a multitude ( o!r ?\ghts1 & ! latt] a multitude ( o!r se$s1 ?is is say+ t betwe5 ! relation ( an inv5tive m9d to a ?\ght conta9$ 9 x1 & ! relation ( a f]tile soil to a se$ conta9$ 9 x1 !re exi/s a resemblance3 ! real resemblance be+ 9 ! two fundam5ta relationis1 9 ea* ( :i* !re occurs a g]m1 produc+ by its developm5t a multitude ( o!r ?+s simil> to itself4 ,& z1 :5ev] two objects are jo9tly conc]n$ 9 a ph5om5on1 ?is con/itutes a relation betwe5 ^? objects1 s1 if we suppose a second pair ( objects conc]n$ 9 a second ph5om5on1 ! slighte/ resemblance betwe5 ! two ph5om5a is suffici5t to admit ( its be+ said t ! two relations resemble2 provid$1 ( c\rse1 ! po9ts ( resemblance are f\nd 9 ^? portions ( ! two ph5om5a respectively :i* are connot$ by ! relative names4 ,:ile speak+ ( resemblance1 x is necess>y to take notice ( an ambiguity ( language1 aga9/ :i* sc>cely any "o is suffici5tly on 8 gu>d4 ,resemblance1 :5 x exi/s 9 ! highe/ degree ( all1 am\nt+ to undi/+ui%abl5ess1 is (t5 call$ id5tity1 & ! two simil> ?+s are said to be ! same4 ,i say (t51 n always2 = we d n say t two visible objects1 two p]sons = in/ance1 are ! same1 because !y are s mu* alike t "o might be mi/ak5 = ! o!r3 b we con/antly use ?is mode ( expression :5 speak+ ( feel+s2 z :5 ,i say t ! sight ( any object gives me ! same s5sation or emotion to-day t x did ye/]day1 or ! same :i* x gives to "s o!r p]son4 ,?is is evid5tly an incorrect application ( ! ^w same2 = ! feel+ :i* ,i _h ye/]day is gone1 nev] to return2 :at ,i h to-day is ano!r feel+1 exactly l ! =m] p]haps1 b di/9ct f x2 & x is evid5t t two diff]5t p]sons _c be exp]i5c+ ! same feel+1 9 ! s5se 9 :i* we say t !y are bo? sitt+ at ! same table4 ,by a simil> ambiguity we say1 t two p]sons are ill ( ! same disease2 t two p]sons hold ! same (fice2 n 9 ! s5se 9 :i* we say t !y are engag$ 9 ! same adv5ture1 or sail+ 9 ! same %ip1 b 9 ! s5se t !y fill (fices exactly simil>1 ?\gh1 p]haps1 9 di/ant places4 ,great confusion ( ideas is (t5 produc$1 & _m fallacies eng5d]$1 9 o!rwise enlight5$ und]/&+s1 by n be+ suffici5tly alive to ! fact 79 itself n always to be avoid$17 t !y use ! same "n to express ideas s diff]5t z ^? ( id5tity & undi/+ui%able resemblance4 ,among mod]n writ]s1 ,ar*bi%op ,:ately /&s almo/ alone 9 hav+ drawn att5tion to ?is di/9ction1 & to ! ambiguity connect$ ) x4 ,sev]al relations1 g5]ally call$ by o!r names1 are really cases ( resemblance4 ,z1 = example1 equality2 :i* is b ano!r ^w = ! exact resemblance commonly call$ id5tity1 consid]$ z subsi/+ betwe5 ?+s 9 respect ( _! quantity4 ,& ?is example =ms a suitable transition to ! ?ird & la/ ( ! ?ree heads1 "u :i*1 z already rem>k$1 ,attributes are commonly arrang$4 ,v4 ,quantity4 #ab4 ,let u imag9e two ?+s1 betwe5 :i* !re is no diff]5ce 7t is1 no dissimil>ity71 except 9 quantity alone3 = in/ance1 a gallon ( wat]1 & m ?an a gallon ( wat]4 ,a gallon ( wat]1 l any o!r ext]nal object1 makes its pres5ce kn[n to u by a set ( s5sations :i* x excites4 ,t5 gallons ( wat] are also an ext]nal object1 mak+ its pres5ce kn[n to u 9 a simil> mann]2 & z we d n mi/ake t5 gallons ( wat] = a gallon ( wat]1 x is pla9 t ! set ( s5sations is m or less diff]5t 9 ! two cases4 ,9 l mann]1 a gallon ( wat]1 & a gallon ( w9e1 are two ext]nal objects1 mak+ _! pres5ce kn[n by two sets ( s5sations1 :i* s5sations are diff]5t f ea* o!r4 ,9 ! fir/ case1 h[ev]1 we say t ! diff]5ce is 9 quantity2 9 ! la/ !re is a diff]5ce 9 quality1 :ile ! quantity ( ! wat] & ( ! w9e is ! same4 ,:at is ! real di/9ction betwe5 ! two cases8 ,x is n ! prov9ce ( ,logic to analyse x2 nor to decide :e!r x is susceptible ( analysis or n4 ,= u ! foll[+ consid]ations are suffici5t4 ,x is evid5t t ! s5sations ,i receive f ! gallon ( wat]1 & ^? ,i receive f ! gallon ( w9e1 are n ! same1 t is1 n precisely alike2 nei!r are !y altoge!r unlike3 !y are p>tly simil>1 p>tly dissimil>2 & t 9 :i* !y resemble is precisely t 9 :i* alone ! gallon ( wat] & ! t5 gallons d n resemble4 ,t 9 :i* ! gallon ( wat] & ! gallon ( w9e are l ea* o!r1 & 9 :i* ! gallon & ! t5 gallons ( wat] are unlike ea* o!r1 is call$ _! quantity4 ,?is lik5ess & unlik5ess ,i d n pret5d to expla91 no m ?an any o!r k9d ( lik5ess or unlik5ess4 ,b my object is to %[1 t :5 we say ( two ?+s t !y diff] 9 quantity1 j z :5 we say t !y diff] 9 quality1 ! ass]tion is always gr\nd$ on a diff]5ce 9 ! s5sations :i* !y excite4 ,nobody1 ,i presume1 w say1 t to see1 or to lift1 or to dr9k1 t5 gallons ( wat]1 does n include 9 itself a diff]5t set ( s5sations f ^? ( see+1 lift+1 or dr9k+ "o gallon2 or t to see or h&le a foot rule1 & to see or h&le a y>d-measure made exactly l x1 are ! same s5sations4 ,i d n und]take to say :at ! diff]5ce 9 ! s5sations is4 ,ev]ybody kn[s1 & nobody c tell2 no m ?an any "o c\ld tell :at :ite is1 to a p]son :o _h nev] _h ! s5sation4 ,b ! diff]5ce1 s f> z cognizable by our faculties1 lies 9 ! s5sations4 ,:atev] diff]5ce we say !re is 9 ! ?+s !mselves1 is1 9 ?is z 9 all o!r cases1 gr\nd$1 & gr\nd$ exclusively1 on a diff]5ce 9 ! s5sations excit$ by !m4 ,,vi4 ,attributes ,conclud$4 #ac4 ,?us1 !n1 all ! attributes ( bodies :i* are class$ "u ,quality or ,quantity1 are gr\nd$ on ! s5sations :i* we receive f ^? bodies1 & may be def9$1 ! p[]s :i* ! bodies h ( excit+ ^? s5sations4 ,& ! same g5]al explanation has be5 f\nd to apply to mo/ ( ! attributes usually class$ "u ! head ( ,relation4 ,!y1 too1 are gr\nd$ on "s fact or ph5om5on into :i* ! relat$ objects ent] z p>ts2 t fact or ph5om5on hav+ no mean+ & no exi/5ce to u1 except ! s]ies ( s5sations or o!r /ates ( consci\sness by :i* x makes itself kn[n3 & ! relation be+ simply ! p[] or capacity :i* ! object possesses1 ( tak+ "p along ) ! correlat$ object 9 ! production ( t s]ies ( s5sations or /ates ( consci\sness4 ,we h be5 oblig$1 inde$1 to recognise a some:at diff]5t "* 9 c]ta9 peculi> relations1 ^? ( succession & simultaneity1 ( lik5ess & unlik5ess4 ,^!1 n be+ gr\nd$ on any fact or ph5om5on di/9ct f ! relat$ objects !mselves1 d n admit ( ! same k9d ( analysis4 ,b ^! relations1 ?\gh n1 l o!r relations1 gr\nd$ on /ates ( consci\sness1 are !mselves /ates ( consci\sness3 resemblance is no?+ b our feel+ ( resemblance2 succession is no?+ b our feel+ ( succession4 ,or1 if ?is be disput$1 7& we _c1 )\t transgress+ ! b\nds ( our sci5ce1 discuss x "h17 at lea/ our k ( ^! relations1 & ev5 our possibility ( k1 is conf9$ to ^? :i* subsi/ betwe5 s5sations1 or o!r /ates ( consci\sness2 =1 ?\gh we ascribe resemblance1 or succession1 or simultaneity1 to objects & to attributes1 x is always 9 virtue ( resemblance or succession or simultaneity 9 ! s5sations or /ates ( consci\sness :i* ^? objects excite1 & on :i* ^? attributes are gr\nd$4 #ad4 ,9 ! prec$+ inve/igation we h1 = ! sake ( simplicity1 consid]$ bodies only1 & omitt$ m9ds4 ,b :at we h said1 is applicable1 mutatis mut&is1 to ! latt]4 ,! attributes ( m9ds1 z well z ^? ( bodies1 are gr\nd$ on /ates ( feel+ or consci\sness4 ,b 9 ! case ( a m9d1 we h to consid] its own /ates1 z well z ^? :i* x produces 9 o!r m9ds4 ,e attribute ( a m9d consi/s ei!r 9 be+ itself affect$ 9 a c]ta9 way1 or affect+ o!r m9ds 9 a c]ta9 way4 ,consid]$ 9 itself1 we c pr$icate no?+ ( x b ! s]ies ( its own feel+s4 ,:5 we say ( any m9d1 t x is dev\t1 or sup]/iti\s1 or m$itative1 or *e]ful1 we mean t ! ideas1 emotions1 or volitions impli$ 9 ^? words1 =m a frequ5tly recurr+ "p ( ! s]ies ( feel+s1 or /ates ( consci\sness1 :i* fill up ! s5ti5t exi/5ce ( t m9d4 ,9 addition1 h[ev]1 to ^? attributes ( a m9d :i* are gr\nd$ on its own /ates ( feel+1 attributes may also be ascrib$ to x1 9 ! same mann] z to a body1 gr\nd$ on ! feel+s :i* x excites 9 o!r m9ds4 ,a m9d does n1 inde$1 l a body1 excite s5sations1 b x may excite ?\ghts or emotions4 ,! mo/ important example ( attributes ascrib$ on ?is gr\nd1 is ! employm5t ( t]ms expressive ( approbation or blame4 ,:51 = example1 we say ( any "*1 or 79 o!r words7 ( any m9d1 t x is admirable1 we mean t ! contemplation ( x excites ! s5tim5t ( admiration2 & inde$ some:at m1 = ! ^w implies t we n only feel admiration1 b approve t s5tim5t 9 ourselves4 ,9 "s cases1 "u ! semblance ( a s+le attribute1 two are really pr$icat$3 "o ( !m1 a /ate ( ! m9d itself2 ! o!r1 a /ate ) :i* o!r m9ds are affect$ by ?9k+ ( x4 ,z :5 we say ( any "o t he is g5]\s4 ,! ^w g5]osity expresses a c]ta9 /ate ( m9d1 b be+ a t]m ( praise1 x also expresses t ?is /ate ( m9d excites 9 u ano!r m5tal /ate1 call$ approbation4 ,! ass]tion made1 !re=e1 is tw(old1 & ( ! foll[+ purport3 ,c]ta9 feel+s =m habitually a "p ( ?is p]son's s5ti5t exi/5ce2 & ! idea ( ^? feel+s ( 81 excites ! s5tim5t ( approbation 9 ourselves or o!rs4 ,z we ?us ascribe attributes to m9ds on ! gr\nd ( ideas & emotions1 s may we to bodies on simil> gr\nds1 & n solely on ! gr\nd ( s5sations3 z 9 speak+ ( ! beauty ( a /atue2 s9ce ?is attribute is gr\nd$ on ! peculi> feel+ ( pleasure :i* ! /atue produces 9 our m9ds2 :i* is n a s5sation1 b an emotion4 ,,vii4 ,g5]al ,results4 #ae4 ,our survey ( ! v>ieties ( ,?+s :i* h be51 or :i* are capable ( be+1 nam$--:i* h be51 or are capable ( be+1 ei!r pr$icat$ ( o!r ,?+s1 or made !mselves ! subject ( pr$ications--is n[ conclud$4 ,our enum]ation comm5c$ ) ,feel+s4 ,^! we scrupul\sly di/+ui%$ f ! objects :i* excite !m1 & f ! organs by :i* !y are1 or may be suppos$ to be1 convey$4 ,feel+s are ( f\r sorts3 ,s5sations1 ,?\ghts1 ,emotions1 & ,volitions4 ,:at are call$ p]ceptions are m]ely a p>ticul> case ( ,belief1 & belief is a k9d ( ?\ght4 ,actions are m]ely volitions foll[$ by an effect4 ,if !re be any o!r k9d ( m5tal /ate n includ$ "u ^! subdivisions1 we did n ?9k x necess>y or prop] 9 ?is place to discuss its exi/5ce1 or ! rank :i* ought to be assign$ to x4 ,aft] ,feel+s we proce$$ to ,sub/ances4 ,^! are ei!r ,bodies or ,m9ds4 ,)\t ent]+ into ! gr\nds ( ! metaphysical d\bts :i* h be5 rais$ conc]n+ ! exi/5ce ( ,matt] & ,m9d z objective realities1 we /at$ z suffici5t = u ! conclusion 9 :i* ! be/ ?9k]s are n[ v g5]ally agre$1 t all we c "k ( ,matt] is ! s5sations :i* x gives u1 & ! ord] ( occurr5ce ( ^? s5sations2 & t :ile ! sub/ance ,body is ! unkn[n cause ( our s5sations1 ! sub/ance ,m9d is ! unkn[n recipi5t4 ,! only rema9+ class ( ,nameable ,?+s is ,attributes2 & ^! are ( ?ree k9ds1 ,quality1 ,relation1 & ,quantity4 ,qualities1 l sub/ances1 are kn[n to u no o!rwise ?an by ! s5sations or o!r /ates ( consci\sness :i* !y excite3 & :ile1 9 compliance ) common usage1 we h cont9u$ to speak ( !m z a di/9ct class ( ,?+s1 we %[$ t 9 pr$icat+ !m no "o means to pr$icate any?+ b ^? s5sations or /ates ( consci\sness1 on :i* !y may be said to be gr\nd$1 & by :i* alone !y c be def9$ or describ$4 ,relations1 except ! simple cases ( lik5ess & unlik5ess1 succession & simultaneity1 are simil>ly gr\nd$ on "s fact or ph5om5on1 t is1 on "s s]ies ( s5sations or /ates ( consci\sness1 m or less complicat$4 ,! ?ird species ( attribute1 ,quantity1 is also manife/ly gr\nd$ on some?+ 9 our s5sations or /ates ( feel+1 s9ce !re is an indubitable diff]5ce 9 ! s5sations excit$ by a l>g] & a small] bulk1 or by a great] or a less degree ( int5sity1 9 any object ( s5se or ( consci\sness4 ,all attributes1 !re=e1 are to u no?+ b ei!r our s5sations & o!r /ates ( feel+1 or some?+ inextricably involv$ !re92 & to ?is ev5 ! peculi> & simple relations j adv]t$ to are n exceptions4 ,^? peculi> relations1 h[ev]1 are s important1 &1 ev5 if !y might 9 /rictness be class$ among /ates ( consci\sness1 are s fundam5tally di/9ct f any o!r ( ^? /ates1 t x w\ld be a va9 subtlety to conf\nd !m "u t common head1 & x is necess>y t !y %\ld be class$ ap>t4 ,z ! result1 !re=e1 ( our analysis1 we obta9 ! foll[+ z an enum]ation & classification ( all ,nameable ,?+s3-- #a/4 ,feel+s1 or ,/ates ( ,consci\sness4 #bnd4 ,! ,m9ds :i* exp]i5ce ^? feel+s4 #crd4 ,! ,bodies1 or ext]nal objects1 :i* excite c]ta9 ( ^? feel+s1 toge!r ) ! p[]s or prop]ties :]eby !y excite !m2 ^! be+ includ$ r 9 compliance ) common op9ion1 & because _! exi/5ce is tak5 = grant$ 9 ! common language f :i* ,i _c prud5tly deviate1 ?an because ! recognition ( su* p[]s or prop]ties z real exi/5ces appe>s to me w>rant$ by a s\nd philosophy4 #d?1 & la/4 ,! ,successions & ,co-exi/5ces1 ! ,lik5esses & ,unlik5esses1 betwe5 feel+s or /ates ( consci\sness4 ,^? relations1 :5 consid]$ z subsi/+ betwe5 o!r ?+s1 exi/ 9 reality only betwe5 ! /ates ( consci\sness :i* ^? ?+s1 if bodies1 excite1 if m9ds1 ei!r excite or exp]i5ce4 ,?is1 until a bett] c be sugge/$1 may s]ve z a sub/itute = ! abortive ,classification ( ,exi/5ces1 t]m$ ! ,categories ( ,ari/otle4 ,! practical application ( x w appe> :5 we comm5ce ! inquiry into ! ,import ( ,propositions2 9 o!r words1 :5 we inquire :at x is :i* ! m9d actually believes1 :5 x gives :at is call$ its ass5t to a proposition4 ,^! f\r classes compris+1 if ! classification be correct1 all ,nameable ,?+s1 ^! or "s ( !m mu/ ( c\rse compose ! signification ( all names2 & ( ^!1 or "s ( !m1 is made up :atev] we call a fact4 ,= di/9ction's sake1 e fact :i* is solely compos$ ( feel+s or /ates ( consci\sness consid]$ z su*1 is (t5 call$ a ,psy*ological or ,subjective fact2 :ile e fact :i* is compos$1 ei!r :olly or 9 "p1 ( some?+ diff]5t f ^!1 t is1 ( sub/ances & attributes1 is call$ an ,objective fact4 ,we may say1 !n1 t e objective fact is gr\nd$ on a correspond+ subjective "o2 & has no mean+ to u1 7ap>t f ! subjective fact :i* corresponds to x17 except z a "n = ! unkn[n & inscrutable process by :i* t subjective or psy*ological fact is br\ght to pass4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,( ,,propositions4 #a4 ,9 treat+ ( ,propositions1 z already 9 treat+ ( ,names1 "s consid]ations ( a comp>atively elem5t>y nature respect+ _! =m & v>ieties mu/ be premis$1 be=e ent]+ ^u t analysis ( ! import convey$ by !m1 :i* is ! real subject & purpose ( ?is prelim9>y book4 ,a proposition1 we h be=e said1 is a portion ( disc\rse 9 :i* a pr$icate is affirm$ or d5i$ ( a subject4 ,a pr$icate & a subject are all t is necess>ily requir$ to make up a proposition3 b z we _c conclude f m]ely see+ two names put toge!r1 t !y are a pr$icate & a subject1 t is1 t "o ( !m is int5d$ to be affirm$ or d5i$ ( ! o!r1 x is necess>y t !re %\ld be "s mode or =m ( indicat+ t su* is ! int5tion2 "s sign to di/+ui% a pr$ication f any o!r k9d ( disc\rse4 ,?is is sometimes done by a slight alt]ation ( "o ( ! words1 call$ an inflection2 z :5 we say1 ,fire burns2 ! *ange ( ! second ^w f burn to burns %[+ t we mean to affirm ! pr$icate burn ( ! subject fire4 ,b ?is function is m commonly fulfill$ by ! ^w is1 :5 an affirmation is int5d$1 is n1 :5 a negation2 or by "s o!r "p ( ! v]b to be4 ,! ^w :i* ?us s]ves ! purpose ( a sign ( pr$ication is call$1 z we =m]ly obs]v$1 ! copula4 ,x is important t !re %\ld be no indi/9ctness 9 our conception ( ! nature & (fice ( ! copula2 = confus$ notions respect+ x are among ! causes :i* h spread my/icism ov] ! field ( logic1 & p]v]t$ its speculations into logoma*ies4 ,x is apt to be suppos$ t ! copula is some?+ m ?an a m]e sign ( pr$ication2 t x also signifies exi/5ce4 ,9 ! proposition1 ,socrates is j1 x may seem to be impli$ n only t ! quality j c be affirm$ ( ,socrates1 b moreov] t ,socrates is1 t is to say1 exi/s4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 only %[s t !re is an ambiguity 9 ! ^w is2 a ^w :i* n only p]=ms ! function ( ! copula 9 affirmations1 b has also a mean+ ( its own1 9 virtue ( :i* x may itself be made ! pr$icate ( a proposition4 ,t ! employm5t ( x z a copula does n necess>ily include ! affirmation ( exi/5ce1 appe>s f su* a proposition z ?is1 ,a c5taur is a fiction ( ! poets2 :]e x _c possibly be impli$ t a c5taur exi/s1 s9ce ! proposition itself expressly ass]ts t ! ?+ has no real exi/5ce4 ,_m volumes might be fill$ ) ! frivol\s speculations conc]n+ ! nature ( ,be+1 7 1 1 ,ens1 ,entitas1 ,ess5tia1 & ! l17 :i* h aris5 f ov]look+ ?is d\ble mean+ ( ! words to be2 f suppos+ t :5 x signifies to exi/1 & :5 x signifies to be "s specifi$ ?+1 z to be a man1 to be ,socrates1 to be se5 or spok5 (1 to be a phantom1 ev5 to be a non-entity1 x mu/ /ill1 at bottom1 answ] to ! same idea2 & t a mean+ mu/ be f\nd = x :i* %all suit all ^! cases4 ,! fog :i* rose f ?is n>r[ spot diffus$ itself at an e>ly p]iod ov] ! :ole surface ( metaphysics4 ,yet x becomes u n to triumph ov] ! great intellects ( ,plato & ,ari/otle because we are n[ able to pres]ve ourselves f _m errors into :i* !y1 p]haps inevitably1 fell4 ,! fire-teaz] ( a mod]n /eam-eng9e produces by 8 ex]tions f> great] effects ?an ,milo ( ,crotona c\ld1 b he is n !re=e a /rong] man4 ,! ,greeks seldom knew any language b _! own4 ,?is r5d]$ x f> m difficult = !m ?an x is = u1 to acquire a read9ess 9 detect+ ambiguities4 ,"o ( ! advantages ( hav+ accurately /udi$ a plurality ( languages1 especially ( ^? languages :i* em95t ?9k]s h us$ z ! vehicle ( _! ?\ghts1 is ! practical lesson we le>n respect+ ! ambiguities ( words1 by f9d+ t ! same ^w 9 "o language corresponds1 on diff]5t occasions1 to diff]5t words 9 ano!r4 ,:5 n ?us ex]cis$1 ev5 ! /ronge/ und]/&+s f9d x difficult to believe t ?+s :i* h a common "n1 h n 9 "s respect or o!r a common nature2 & (t5 exp5d mu* lab\r n only unpr(itably b mis*iev\sly1 7z 0 frequ5tly done by ! two philosoph]s j m5tion$17 on va9 attempts to discov] 9 :at ?is common nature consi/s4 ,b1 ! habit once =m$1 intellects mu* inf]ior are capable ( detect+ ev5 ambiguities :i* are common to _m languages3 & x is surpris+ t ! "o n[ "u consid]ation1 ?\gh x exi/s 9 ! mod]n languages z well z 9 ! anci5t1 %\ld h be5 ov]look$ by almo/ all au?ors4 ,! quantity ( futile speculation :i* _h be5 caus$ by a misappreh5sion ( ! nature ( ! copula1 0 h9t$ at by ,hobbes2 b ,mr4 ,mill7#ae7 01 ,i believe1 ! fir/ :o di/9ctly *>act]iz$ ! ambiguity1 & po9t$ out h[ _m errors 9 ! receiv$ sy/ems ( philosophy x has _h to answ] =4 ,x has inde$ misl$ ! mod]ns sc>cely less ?an ! anci5ts1 ?\gh _! mi/akes1 because our und]/&+s are n yet s completely emancipat$ f _! influ5ce1 d n appe> equally irrational4 ,we %all n[ briefly review ! pr9cipal di/9ctions :i* exi/ among propositions1 & ! te*nical t]ms mo/ commonly 9 use to express ^? di/9ctions4 #b4 ,a proposition be+ a portion ( disc\rse 9 :i* some?+ is affirm$ or d5i$ ( some?+1 ! fir/ division ( propositions is into affirmative & negative4 ,an affirmative proposition is t 9 :i* ! pr$icate is affirm$ ( ! subject2 z1 ,cs> is dead4 ,a negative proposition is t 9 :i* ! pr$icate is d5i$ ( ! subject2 z1 ,cs> is n dead4 ,! copula1 9 ?is la/ species ( proposition1 consi/s ( ! words is n1 :i* are ! sign ( negation2 is be+ ! sign ( affirmation4 ,"s logicians1 among :om may be m5tion$ ,hobbes1 /ate ?is di/9ction diff]5tly2 !y recognise only "o =m ( copula1 is1 & atta* ! negative sign to ! pr$icate4 8,cs> is dead10 & 8,cs> is n dead10 accord+ to ^! writ]s1 are propositions agree+ n 9 ! subject & pr$icate1 b 9 ! subject only4 ,!y d n consid] 8dead10 b 8n dead10 to be ! pr$icate ( ! second proposition1 & !y accord+ly def9e a negative proposition to be "o 9 :i* ! pr$icate is a negative "n4 ,! po9t1 ?\gh n ( mu* practical mom5t1 des]ves notice z an example 7n unfrequ5t 9 logic7 :]e by means ( an app>5t simplification1 b :i* is m]ely v]bal1 matt]s are made m complex ?an be=e4 ,! notion ( ^! writ]s 01 t !y c\ld get rid ( ! di/9ction betwe5 affirm+ & d5y+1 by treat+ e case ( d5y+ z ! affirm+ ( a negative "n4 ,b :at is meant by a negative "n8 ,a "n expressive ( ! abs5ce ( an attribute4 ,s t :5 we affirm a negative "n1 :at we are really pr$icat+ is abs5ce & n pres5ce2 we are ass]t+ n t any?+ is1 b t some?+ is n2 to express :i* op]ation no ^w seems s prop] z ! ^w d5y+4 ,! fundam5tal di/9ction is betwe5 a fact & ! non-exi/5ce ( t fact2 betwe5 see+ some?+ & n see+ x1 betwe5 ,cs>'s be+ dead & 8 n be+ dead2 & if ?is 7 a m]ely v]bal di/9ction1 ! g5]alization :i* br+s bo? )9 ! same =m ( ass]tion w\ld be a real simplification3 ! di/9ction1 h[ev]1 be+ real1 & 9 ! facts1 x is ! g5]alization conf\nd+ ! di/9ction t is m]ely v]bal2 & t5ds to obscure ! subject1 by treat+ ! diff]5ce betwe5 two k9ds ( tru? z if x 7 only a diff]5ce betwe5 two k9ds ( words4 ,to put ?+s toge!r1 & to put !m or keep !m asund]1 w rema9 diff]5t op]ations1 :atev] tricks we may play ) language4 ,a rem>k ( a simil> nature may be appli$ to mo/ ( ^? di/9ctions among propositions :i* are said to h ref]5ce to _! modality2 z1 diff]5ce ( t5se or "t2 ! sun did rise1 ! sun is ris+1 ! sun w rise4 ,^! diff]5ces1 l t betwe5 affirmation & negation1 might be gloss$ ov] by consid]+ ! incid5t ( "t z a m]e modification ( ! pr$icate3 ?us1 ,! sun is an object hav+ ris51 ,! sun is an object n[ ris+1 ,! sun is an object to rise h]eaft]4 ,b ! simplification w\ld be m]ely v]bal4 ,pa/1 pres5t1 & future1 d n con/itute s _m diff]5t k9ds ( ris+2 !y are ! designations belong+ to ! ev5t ass]t$1 to ! sun's ris+ to-day4 ,!y affect1 n ! pr$icate1 b ! applicability ( ! pr$icate to ! p>ticul> subject4 ,t :i* we affirm to be pa/1 pres5t1 or future1 is n :at ! subject signifies1 nor :at ! pr$icate signifies1 b specifically & expressly :at ! pr$ication signifies2 :at is express$ only by ! proposition z su*1 & n by ei!r or bo? ( ! t]ms4 ,!re=e ! circum/ance ( "t is prop]ly consid]$ z atta*+ to ! copula1 :i* is ! sign ( pr$ication1 & n to ! pr$icate4 ,if ! same _c be said ( su* modifications z ^!1 ,cs> may be dead2 ,cs> is p]haps dead2 x is possible t ,cs> is dead2 x is only because ^! fall altoge!r "u ano!r head1 be+ prop]ly ass]tions n ( any?+ relat+ to ! fact itself1 b ( ! /ate ( our own m9d 9 reg>d to x2 namely1 our abs5ce ( disbelief ( x4 ,?us 8,cs> may be dead0 means 8,i am n sure t ,cs> is alive40 #c4 ,! next division ( propositions is into ,simple & ,complex4 ,a simple proposition is t 9 :i* "o pr$icate is affirm$ or d5i$ ( "o subject4 ,a complex proposition is t 9 :i* !re is m ?an "o pr$icate1 or m ?an "o subject1 or bo?4 ,at fir/ sight ?is division has ! air ( an absurdity2 a solemn di/9ction ( ?+s into "o & m ?an "o2 z if we 7 to divide horses into s+le horses & teams ( horses4 ,& x is true t :at is call$ a complex proposition is (t5 n a proposition at all1 b sev]al propositions1 held toge!r by a conjunction4 ,su*1 = example1 is ?is3 ,cs> is dead1 & ,brutus is alive3 or ev5 ?is1 ,cs> is dead1 b ,brutus is alive4 ,!re are "h two di/9ct ass]tions2 & we might z well call a /reet a complex h\se1 z ^! two propositions a complex proposition4 ,x is true t ! syncategorematic words & & b h a mean+2 b t mean+ is s f> f mak+ ! two propositions "o1 t x adds a ?ird proposition to !m4 ,all p>ticles are abbreviations1 & g5]ally abbreviations ( propositions2 a k9d ( %ort-h&1 :]eby t :i*1 to be express$ fully1 w\ld h requir$ a proposition or a s]ies ( propositions1 is sugge/$ to ! m9d at once4 ,?us ! words1 ,cs> is dead & ,brutus is alive1 are equival5t to ^!3 ,cs> is dead2 ,brutus is alive2 x is desir$ t ! two prec$+ propositions %\ld be ?\ght ( toge!r4 ,if ! words 71 ,cs> is dead b ,brutus is alive1 ! s5se w\ld be equival5t to ! same ?ree propositions toge!r ) a f\r?2 8betwe5 ! two prec$+ propositions !re exi/s a contra/30 viz41 ei!r betwe5 ! two facts !mselves1 or betwe5 ! feel+s ) :i* x is desir$ t !y %\ld be reg>d$4 ,9 ! in/ances cit$1 ! two propositions are kept visibly di/9ct1 ea* subject hav+ its sep>ate pr$icate1 & ea* pr$icate its sep>ate subject4 ,= brevity1 h[ev]1 & to avoid repetition1 ! propositions are (t5 bl5d$ toge!r3 z 9 ?is1 8,pet] & ,james prea*$ at ,j]usalem & 9 ,galilee10 :i* conta9s f\r propositions3 ,pet] prea*$ at ,j]usalem1 ,pet] prea*$ 9 ,galilee1 ,james prea*$ at ,j]usalem1 ,james prea*$ 9 ,galilee4 ,we h se5 t :5 ! two or m propositions compris$ 9 :at is call$ a complex proposition1 are /at$ absolutely1 & n "u any condition or proviso1 x is n a proposition at all1 b a plurality ( propositions2 s9ce :at x expresses is n a s+le ass]tion1 b sev]al ass]tions1 :i*1 if true :5 jo9$1 are true also :5 sep>at$4 ,b !re is a k9d ( proposition :i*1 ?\gh x conta9s a plurality ( subjects & ( pr$icates1 & may be said 9 "o s5se ( ! ^w to consi/ ( sev]al propositions1 conta9s b "o ass]tion2 & its tru? does n at all imply t ( ! simple propositions :i* compose x4 ,an example ( ?is is1 :5 ! simple propositions are connect$ by ! p>ticle or2 z1 ,ei!r ,a is ,b or ,c is ,d2 or by ! p>ticle if2 z1 ,a is ,b if ,c is ,d4 ,9 ! =m] case1 ! proposition is call$ disjunctive1 9 ! latt] conditional3 ! "n hypo!tical 0 orig9ally common to bo?4 ,z has be5 well rem>k$ by ,ar*bi%op ,:ately & o!rs1 ! disjunctive =m is resolvable into ! conditional2 e disjunctive proposition be+ equival5t to two or m conditional ones4 8,ei!r ,a is ,b or ,c is ,d10 means1 8if ,a is n ,b1 ,c is ,d2 & if ,c is n ,d1 ,a is ,b40 ,all hypo!tical propositions1 !re=e1 ?\gh disjunctive 9 =m1 are conditional 9 mean+2 & ! words hypo!tical & conditional may be1 z inde$ !y g5]ally are1 us$ synonym\sly4 ,propositions 9 :i* ! ass]tion is n dep5d5t on a condition1 are said1 9 ! language ( logicians1 to be categorical4 ,an hypo!tical proposition is n1 l ! pret5d$ complex propositions :i* we previ\sly consid]$1 a m]e aggregation ( simple propositions4 ,! simple propositions :i* =m "p ( ! words 9 :i* x is c\*$1 =m no "p ( ! ass]tion :i* x conveys4 ,:5 we say1 ,if ! ,koran comes f ,god1 ,mahomet is ! prophet ( ,god1 we d n int5d to affirm ei!r t ! ,koran does come f ,god1 or t ,mahomet is really 8 prophet4 ,nei!r ( ^! simple propositions may be true1 & yet ! tru? ( ! hypo!tical proposition may be indisputable4 ,:at is ass]t$ is n ! tru? ( ei!r ( ! propositions1 b ! inf]ribility ( ! "o f ! o!r4 ,:at1 !n1 is ! subject1 & :at ! pr$icate1 ( ! hypo!tical proposition8 8,! ,koran0 is n ! subject ( x1 nor is 8,mahomet30 = no?+ is affirm$ or d5i$ ei!r ( ! ,koran or ( ,mahomet4 ,! real subject ( ! pr$ication is ! entire proposition1 8,mahomet is ! prophet ( ,god20 & ! affirmation is1 t ?is is a legitimate inf]5ce f ! proposition1 8,! ,koran comes f ,god40 ,! subject & pr$icate1 !re=e1 ( an hypo!tical proposition are names ( propositions4 ,! subject is "s "o proposition4 ,! pr$icate is a g5]al relative "n applicable to propositions2 ( ?is =m--8an inf]5ce f s & s40 ,a fre% in/ance is "h af=d$ ( ! rem>k1 t all p>ticles are abbreviations2 s9ce 8,if ,a is ,b1 ,c is ,d10 is f\nd to be an abbreviation ( ! foll[+3 8,! proposition ,c is ,d1 is a legitimate inf]5ce f ! proposition ,a is ,b40 ,! di/9ction1 !re=e1 betwe5 hypo!tical & categorical propositions1 is n s great z x at fir/ appe>s4 ,9 ! conditional1 z well z 9 ! categorical =m1 "o pr$icate is affirm$ ( "o subject1 & no m3 b a conditional proposition is a proposition conc]n+ a proposition2 ! subject ( ! ass]tion is itself an ass]tion4 ,nor is ?is a prop]ty peculi> to hypo!tical propositions4 ,!re are o!r classes ( ass]tions conc]n+ propositions4 ,l o!r ?+s1 a proposition has attributes :i* may be pr$icat$ ( x4 ,! attribute pr$icat$ ( x 9 an hypo!tical proposition1 is t ( be+ an inf]5ce f a c]ta9 o!r proposition4 ,b ?is is only "o ( _m attributes t might be pr$icat$4 ,we may say1 ,t ! :ole is great] ?an its "p1 is an axiom 9 ma!matics3 ,t ! ,holy ,gho/ proce$s f ! ,fa!r alone1 is a t5et ( ! ,greek ,*ur*3 ,! doctr9e ( ! div9e "r ( k+s 0 r5\nc$ by ,p>liam5t at ! ,revolution3 ,! infallibility ( ! ,pope has no c\nt5ance f ,scripture4 ,9 all ^! cases ! subject ( ! pr$ication is an entire proposition4 ,t :i* ^! diff]5t pr$icates are affirm$ (1 is ! proposition1 8! :ole is great] ?an its "p20 ! proposition1 8! ,holy ,gho/ proce$s f ! ,fa!r alone20 ! proposition1 8k+s h a div9e "r20 ! proposition1 8! ,pope is infallible40 ,see+1 !n1 t !re is mu* less diff]5ce betwe5 hypo!tical propositions & any o!rs1 ?an "o might be l$ to imag9e f _! =m1 we %\ld be at a loss to acc\nt = ! conspicu\s position :i* !y h be5 select$ to fill 9 treatises on ,logic1 if we did n rememb] t :at !y pr$icate ( a proposition1 namely1 its be+ an inf]5ce f some?+ else1 is precisely t "o ( its attributes ) :i* mo/ ( all a logician is conc]n$4 #d4 ,! next ( ! common divisions ( ,propositions is into ,univ]sal1 ,p>ticul>1 ,indef9ite1 & ,s+ul>3 a di/9ction f\nd$ on ! degree ( g5]ality 9 :i* ! "n1 :i* is ! subject ( ! proposition1 is to be und]/ood4 ,! foll[+ are examples3 ,all m5 are mortal-- ,univ]sal4 ,"s m5 are mortal-- ,p>ticul>4 ,man is mortal-- ,indef9ite4 ,julius ,cs> is mortal-- ,s+ul>4 ,! proposition is ,s+ul>1 :5 ! subject is an individual "n4 ,! individual "n ne$s n be a prop] "n4 8,! ,f\nd] ( ,*ri/ianity 0 crucifi$10 is z mu* a s+ul> proposition z 8,*ri/ 0 crucifi$40 ,:5 ! "n :i* is ! subject ( ! proposition is a g5]al "n1 we may int5d to affirm or d5y ! pr$icate1 ei!r ( all ! ?+s t ! subject d5otes1 or only ( "s4 ,:5 ! pr$icate is affirm$ or d5i$ ( all & ea* ( ! ?+s d5ot$ by ! subject1 ! proposition is univ]sal2 :5 ( "s non-assignable portion ( !m only1 x is p>ticul>4 ,?us1 ,all m5 are mortal2 ,e man is mortal2 are univ]sal propositions4 ,no man is immortal1 is also an univ]sal proposition1 s9ce ! pr$icate1 immortal1 is d5i$ ( ea* & e individual d5ot$ by ! t]m man2 ! negative proposition be+ exactly equival5t to ! foll[+1 ,e man is n-immortal4 ,b 8"s m5 are wise10 8"s m5 are n wise10 are p>ticul> propositions2 ! pr$icate wise be+ 9 ! "o case affirm$ & 9 ! o!r d5i$ n ( ea* & e individual d5ot$ by ! t]m man1 b only ( ea* & e "o ( "s portion ( ^? individuals1 )\t specify+ :at portion2 = if ?is 7 specifi$1 ! proposition w\ld be *ang$ ei!r into a s+ul> proposition1 or into an univ]sal proposition ) a diff]5t subject2 z1 = in/ance1 8all prop]ly in/ruct$ m5 are wise40 ,!re are o!r =ms ( p>ticul> propositions3 z1 8,mo/ m5 are imp]fectly educat$30 x be+ immat]ial h[ l>ge a portion ( ! subject ! pr$icate is ass]t$ (1 z long z x is left unc]ta9 h[ t portion is to be di/+ui%$ f ! re/4 ,:5 ! =m ( ! expression does n cle>ly %[ :e!r ! g5]al "n :i* is ! subject ( ! proposition is meant to /& = all ! individuals d5ot$ by x1 or only = "s ( !m1 ! proposition is commonly call$ ,indef9ite2 b ?is1 z ,ar*bi%op ,:ately obs]ves1 is a solecism1 ( ! same nature z t committ$ by "s gramm>ians :5 9 _! li/ ( g5d]s !y enum]ate ! d\btful g5d]4 ,! speak] mu/ mean to ass]t ! proposition ei!r z an univ]sal or z a p>ticul> proposition1 ?\gh he has fail$ to decl>e :i*3 & x (t5 happ5s t ?\gh ! words d n %[ :i* ( ! two he int5ds1 ! context1 or ! cu/om ( spee*1 supplies ! defici5cy4 ,?us1 :5 x is affirm$ t 8,man is mortal10 nobody d\bts t ! ass]tion is int5d$ ( all human be+s1 & ! ^w indicative ( univ]sality is commonly omitt$1 only because ! mean+ is evid5t )\t x4 ,9 ! proposition1 8,w9e is good10 x is und]/ood ) equal read9ess1 ?\gh = some:at diff]5t reasons1 t ! ass]tion is n int5d$ to be univ]sal1 b p>ticul>4 ,:5 a g5]al "n /&s = ea* & e individual :i* x is a "n (1 or 9 o!r words1 :i* x d5otes1 x is said by logicians to be di/ribut$1 or tak5 di/ributively4 ,?us1 9 ! proposition1 ,all m5 are mortal1 ! subject1 ,man1 is di/ribut$1 because mortality is affirm$ ( ea* & e man4 ,! pr$icate1 ,mortal1 is n di/ribut$1 because ! only mortals :o are spok5 ( 9 ! proposition are ^? :o happ5 to be m52 :ile ! ^w may1 = aught t appe>s1 7& 9 fact does17 compreh5d )9 x an indef9ite numb] ( objects besides m54 ,9 ! proposition1 ,"s m5 are mortal1 bo? ! pr$icate & ! subject are undi/ribut$4 ,9 ! foll[+1 ,no m5 h w+s1 bo? ! pr$icate & ! subject are di/ribut$4 ,n only is ! attribute ( hav+ w+s d5i$ ( ! entire class ,man1 b t class is sev]$ & ca/ out f ! :ole ( ! class ,w+$1 & n m]ely f "s "p ( t class4 ,?is phraseology1 :i* is ( great s]vice 9 /at+ & demon/rat+ ! rules ( ! syllogism1 enables u to express v concisely ! def9itions ( an univ]sal & a p>ticul> proposition4 ,an univ]sal proposition is t ( :i* ! subject is di/ribut$2 a p>ticul> proposition is t ( :i* ! subject is undi/ribut$4 ,!re are _m m di/9ctions among propositions ?an ^? we h "h /at$1 "s ( !m ( consid]able importance4 ,b1 = expla9+ & illu/rat+ ^!1 m suitable opportunities w occur 9 ! sequel4 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,( ,,! ,,import ,,( ,,propositions4 #a4 ,an inquiry into ! nature ( propositions mu/ h "o ( two objects3 to analyse ! /ate ( m9d call$ ,belief1 or to analyse :at is believ$4 ,all language recognises a diff]5ce betwe5 a doctr9e or op9ion1 & ! act ( ent]ta9+ ! op9ion2 betwe5 ass5t1 & :at is ass5t$ to4 ,logic1 accord+ to ! conception "h =m$ ( x1 has no conc]n ) ! nature ( ! act ( judg+ or believ+2 ! consid]ation ( t act1 z a ph5om5on ( ! m9d1 belongs to ano!r sci5ce4 ,philosoph]s1 h[ev]1 f ,desc>tes d[nw>ds1 & especially f ! era ( ,leibnitz & ,locke1 h by no means obs]v$ ?is di/9ction2 & w\ld h treat$ ) great disrespect any attempt to analyse ! import ( ,propositions1 unless f\nd$ on an analysis ( ! act ( ,judgm5t4 ,a proposition1 !y w\ld h said1 is b ! expression 9 words ( a ,judgm5t4 ,! ?+ express$1 n ! m]e v]bal expression1 is ! important matt]4 ,:5 ! m9d ass5ts to a proposition1 x judges4 ,let u f9d out :at ! m9d does :5 x judges1 & we %all "k :at propositions mean1 & n o!rwise4 ,con=mably to ^! views1 almo/ all ! writ]s on ,logic 9 ! la/ two c5turies1 :e!r ,engli%1 ,g]man1 or ,fr5*1 h made _! !ory ( ,propositions1 f "o end to ! o!r1 a !ory ( ,judgm5ts4 ,!y consid]$ a ,proposition1 or a ,judgm5t1 = !y us$ ! two words indiscrim9ately1 to consi/ 9 affirm+ or d5y+ "o idea ( ano!r4 ,to judge1 0 to put two ideas toge!r1 or to br+ "o idea "u ano!r1 or to comp>e two ideas1 or to p]ceive ! agreem5t or disagreem5t betwe5 two ideas3 & ! :ole doctr9e ( ,propositions1 toge!r ) ! !ory ( ,reason+1 7always necess>ily f\nd$ on ! !ory ( ,propositions17 0 /at$ z if ,ideas1 or ,conceptions1 or :atev] o!r t]m ! writ] pref]r$ z a "n = m5tal repres5tations g5]ally1 con/itut$ ess5tially ! subject matt] & sub/ance ( ^? op]ations4 ,x is1 ( c\rse1 true1 t 9 any case ( judgm5t1 z = in/ance :5 we judge t gold is yell[1 a process takes place 9 our m9ds1 ( :i* "s "o or o!r ( ^! !ories is a p>tially correct acc\nt4 ,we mu/ h ! idea ( gold & ! idea ( yell[1 & ^! two ideas mu/ be br\ght toge!r 9 our m9d4 ,b 9 ! fir/ place1 x is evid5t t ?is is only a "p ( :at takes place2 = we may put two ideas toge!r )\t any act ( belief2 z :5 we m]ely imag9e some?+1 su* z a gold5 m\nta92 or :5 we actually disbelieve3 = 9 ord] ev5 to disbelieve t ,mahomet 0 an apo/le ( ,god1 we mu/ put ! idea ( ,mahomet & t ( an apo/le ( ,god toge!r4 ,to det]m9e :at x is t happ5s 9 ! case ( ass5t or diss5t besides putt+ two ideas toge!r1 is "o ( ! mo/ intricate ( metaphysical problems4 ,b :atev] ! solution may be1 we may v5ture to ass]t t x c h no?+ :atev] to d ) ! import ( propositions2 = ?is reason1 t propositions 7except :]e ! m9d itself is ! subject treat$ (7 are n ass]tions respect+ our ideas ( ?+s1 b ass]tions respect+ ! ?+s !mselves4 ,9 ord] to believe t gold is yell[1 ,i mu/1 inde$1 h ! idea ( gold1 & ! idea ( yell[1 & some?+ hav+ ref]5ce to ^? ideas mu/ take place 9 my m9d2 b my belief has n ref]5ce to ! ideas1 x has ref]5ce to ! ?+s4 ,:at ,i believe is a fact relat+ to ! outw>d ?+1 gold1 & to ! impression made by t outw>d ?+ ^u ! human organs2 n a fact relat+ to my conception ( gold1 :i* w\ld be a fact 9 my m5tal hi/ory1 n a fact ( ext]nal nature4 ,x is true1 t 9 ord] to believe ?is fact 9 ext]nal nature1 ano!r fact mu/ take place 9 my m9d1 a process mu/ be p]=m$ ^u my ideas2 b s x mu/ 9 ev]y?+ else t ,i d4 ,i _c dig ! gr\nd unless ,i h ! idea ( ! gr\nd1 & ( a spade1 & ( all ! o!r ?+s ,i am op]at+ ^u1 & unless ,i put ^? ideas toge!r47#af7 ,b x w\ld be a v ridicul\s description ( digg+ ! gr\nd to say t x is putt+ "o idea into ano!r4 ,digg+ is an op]ation :i* is p]=m$ ^u ! ?+s !mselves1 al?\gh x _c be p]=m$ unless ,i h 9 my m9d ! ideas ( !m4 ,& s1 9 l mann]1 believ+ is an act :i* has = its subject ! facts !mselves1 al?\gh a previ\s m5tal conception ( ! facts is an indisp5sable condition4 ,:5 ,i say t fire causes heat1 d ,i mean t my idea ( fire causes my idea ( heat8 ,no3 ,i mean t ! natural ph5om5on1 fire1 causes ! natural ph5om5on1 heat4 ,:5 ,i mean to ass]t any?+ respect+ ! ideas1 ,i give !m _! prop] "n1 ,i call !m ideas3 z :5 ,i say1 t a *ild's idea ( a battle is unlike ! reality1 or t ! ideas ent]ta9$ ( ! ,deity h a great effect on ! *>act]s ( mank9d4 ,! notion t :at is ( prim>y importance to ! logician 9 a proposition1 is ! relation betwe5 ! two ideas correspond+ to ! subject & pr$icate1 7in/ead ( ! relation betwe5 ! two ph5om5a :i* !y respectively express17 seems to me "o ( ! mo/ fatal errors ev] introduc$ into ! philosophy ( ,logic2 & ! pr9cipal cause :y ! !ory ( ! sci5ce has made su* inconsid]able progress dur+ ! la/ two c5turies4 ,! treatises on ,logic1 & on ! bran*es ( ,m5tal ,philosophy connect$ ) ,logic1 :i* h be5 produc$ s9ce ! intrusion ( ?is c>d9al error1 ?\gh sometimes writt5 by m5 ( extraord9>y abilities & atta9m5ts1 almo/ always tacitly imply a !ory t ! inve/igation ( tru? consi/s 9 contemplat+ & h&l+ our ideas1 or conceptions ( ?+s1 in/ead ( ! ?+s !mselves3 a doctr9e tantam\nt to ! ass]tion1 t ! only mode ( acquir+ k ( nature is to /udy x at second h&1 z repres5t$ 9 our own m9ds4 ,mean:ile1 inquiries into e k9d ( natural ph5om5a 7 incessantly e/abli%+ great & fruitful tru?s on ! mo/ important subjects1 by processes ^u :i* ^! views ( ! nature ( ,judgm5t & ,reason+ ?rew no light1 & 9 :i* !y af=d$ no assi/ance :atev]4 ,no wond] t ^? :o knew by practical exp]i5ce h[ tru?s are come at1 %\ld deem a sci5ce futile1 :i* consi/$ *iefly ( su* speculations4 ,:at has be5 done = ! advancem5t ( ,logic s9ce ^! doctr9es came into vogue1 has be5 done n by pr(ess$ logicians1 b by discov]]s 9 ! o!r sci5ces2 9 ^: me?ods ( inve/igation _m pr9ciples ( logic1 n previ\sly ?\ght (1 h successively come =? into light1 b :o h g5]ally committ$ ! error ( suppos+ t no?+ :atev] 0 kn[n ( ! art ( philosophiz+ by ! old logicians1 because _! mod]n int]pret]s h writt5 to s little purpose respect+ x4 ,we h to inquire1 !n1 on ! pres5t occasion1 n into ,judgm5t1 b judgm5ts2 n into ! act ( believ+1 b into ! ?+ believ$4 ,:at is ! imm$iate object ( belief 9 a ,proposition8 ,:at is ! matt] ( fact signifi$ by x8 ,:at is x to :i*1 :5 ,i ass]t ! proposition1 ,i give my ass5t1 & call ^u o!rs to give !irs8 ,:at is t :i* is express$ by ! =m ( disc\rse call$ a ,proposition1 & ! con=mity ( :i* to fact con/itutes ! tru? ( ! proposition8 #b4 ,"o ( ! cle>e/ & mo/ consecutive ?9k]s :om ?is c\ntry or ! _w has produc$1 ,i mean ,hobbes1 has giv5 ! foll[+ answ] to ?is "q4 ,9 e proposition 7says he7 :at is signifi$ is1 ! belief ( ! speak] t ! pr$icate is a "n ( ! same ?+ ( :i* ! subject is a "n2 & if x really is s1 ! proposition is true4 ,?us ! proposition1 ,all m5 are liv+ be+s 7he w\ld say7 is true1 because liv+ be+ is a "n ( ev]y?+ ( :i* man is a "n4 ,all m5 are six feet high1 is n true1 because six feet high is n a "n ( ev]y?+ 7?\gh x is ( "s ?+s7 ( :i* man is a "n4 ,:at is /at$ 9 ?is !ory z ! def9ition ( a true proposition1 mu/ be all[$ to be a prop]ty :i* all true propositions possess4 ,! subject & pr$icate be+ bo? ( !m names ( ?+s1 if !y 7 names ( q diff]5t ?+s ! "o "n c\ld n1 consi/5tly ) its signification1 be pr$icat$ ( ! o!r4 ,if x be true t "s m5 are copp]-col\r$1 x mu/ be true--& ! proposition does really ass]t--t among ! individuals d5ot$ by ! "n man1 !re are "s :o are also among ^? d5ot$ by ! "n copp]-col\r$4 ,if x be true t all ox5 rum9ate1 x mu/ be true t all ! individuals d5ot$ by ! "n ox are also among ^? d5ot$ by ! "n rum9at+2 & :oev] ass]ts t all ox5 rum9ate1 und\bt$ly does ass]t t ?is relation subsi/s betwe5 ! two names4 ,! ass]tion1 !re=e1 :i*1 accord+ to ,hobbes1 is ! only "o made 9 any proposition1 really is made 9 e proposition3 & 8 analysis has consequ5tly "o ( ! requisites = be+ ! true "o4 ,we may g a /ep f>!r2 x is ! only analysis t is rigor\sly true ( all propositions )\t exception4 ,:at he gives z ! mean+ ( propositions1 is "p ( ! mean+ ( all propositions1 & ! :ole mean+ ( "s4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 only %[s :at an extremely m9ute fragm5t ( mean+ x is q possible to include )9 ! logical =mula ( a proposition4 ,x does n %[ t no proposition means m4 ,to w>rant u 9 putt+ toge!r two words ) a copula betwe5 !m1 x is really en\gh t ! ?+ or ?+s d5ot$ by "o ( ! names %\ld be capable1 )\t violation ( usage1 ( be+ call$ by ! o!r "n also4 ,if1 !n1 ?is be all ! mean+ necess>ily impli$ 9 ! =m ( disc\rse call$ a ,proposition1 :y d ,i object to x z ! sci5tific def9ition ( :at a proposition means8 ,because1 ?\gh ! m]e collocation :i* makes ! proposition a proposition1 conveys no m ?an ?is scanty am\nt ( mean+1 t same collocation comb9$ ) o!r circum/ances1 t =m comb9$ ) o!r matt]1 does convey m1 & mu* m4 ,! only propositions ( :i* ,hobbes' pr9ciple is a suffici5t acc\nt1 are t limit$ & unimportant class 9 :i* bo? ! pr$icate & ! subject are prop] names4 ,=1 z has already be5 rem>k$1 prop] names h /rictly no mean+2 !y are m]e m>ks = individual objects3 & :5 a prop] "n is pr$icat$ ( ano!r prop] "n1 all ! signification convey$ is1 t bo? ! names are m>ks = ! same object4 ,b ?is is precisely :at ,hobbes produces z a !ory ( pr$ication 9 g5]al4 ,8 doctr9e is a full explanation ( su* pr$ications z ^!3 ,hyde 0 ,cl>5don1 or1 ,tully is ,cic]o4 ,x exhau/s ! mean+ ( ^? propositions4 ,b x is a sadly inadequate !ory ( any o!rs4 ,t x %\ld ev] h be5 ?\ght ( z su*1 c be acc\nt$ = only by ! fact1 t ,hobbes1 9 common ) ! o!r ,nom9ali/s1 be/[$ little or no att5tion ^u ! connotation ( words2 & s\ght = _! mean+ exclusively 9 :at !y d5ote3 z if all names _h be5 7:at none b prop] names really are7 m>ks put ^u individuals2 & z if !re 7 no diff]5ce betwe5 a prop] & a g5]al "n1 except t ! fir/ d5otes only "o individual1 & ! la/ a great] numb]4 ,x has be5 se51 h[ev]1 t ! mean+ ( all names1 except prop] names & t portion ( ! class ( ab/ract names :i* are n connotative1 resides 9 ! connotation4 ,:51 !re=e1 we are analys+ ! mean+ ( any proposition 9 :i* ! pr$icate & ! subject1 or ei!r ( !m1 are connotative names1 x is to ! connotation ( ^? t]ms t we mu/ exclusively look1 & n to :at !y d5ote1 or 9 ! language ( ,hobbes1 7language s f> correct17 are names (4 ,9 ass]t+ t ! tru? ( a proposition dep5ds on ! con=mity ( import betwe5 its t]ms1 z1 = in/ance1 t ! proposition1 ,socrates is wise1 is a true proposition1 because ,socrates & wise are names applicable to1 or1 z he expresses x1 names (1 ! same p]son2 x is v rem>kable t s p[]ful a ?9k] %\ld n h ask$ himself ! "q1 ,b h[ came !y to be names ( ! same p]son8 ,surely n because su* 0 ! int5tion ( ^? :o inv5t$ ! words4 ,:5 mank9d fix$ ! mean+ ( ! ^w wise1 !y 7 n ?9k+ ( ,socrates1 nor1 :5 8 p>5ts gave him ! "n ,socrates1 7 !y ?9k+ ( wisdom4 ,! names happ5 to fit ! same p]son because ( a c]ta9 fact1 :i* fact 0 n kn[n1 nor 9 be+1 :5 ! names 7 inv5t$4 ,if we want to "k :at ! fact is1 we %all f9d ! clue to x 9 ! connotation ( ! names4 ,a bird1 or a /one1 a man1 or a wise man1 means simply1 an object hav+ su* & su* attributes4 ,! real mean+ ( ! ^w man1 is ^? attributes1 & n ,john1 ,jane1 & ! rema9d] ( ! individuals4 ,! ^w mortal1 9 l mann] connotes a c]ta9 attribute or attributes2 & :5 we say1 ,all m5 are mortal1 ! mean+ ( ! proposition is1 t all be+s :i* possess ! "o set ( attributes1 possess also ! o!r4 ,if1 9 our exp]i5ce1 ! attributes connot$ by man are always accompani$ by ! attribute connot$ by mortal1 x w foll[ z a consequ5ce1 t ! class man w be :olly includ$ 9 ! class mortal1 & t mortal w be a "n ( all ?+s ( :i* man is a "n3 b :y8 ,^? objects are br\ght "u ! "n1 by possess+ ! attributes connot$ by x3 b _! possession ( ! attributes is ! real condition on :i* ! tru? ( ! proposition dep5ds2 n _! be+ call$ by ! "n4 ,connotative names d n prec$e1 b foll[1 ! attributes :i* !y connote4 ,if "o attribute happ5s to be always f\nd 9 conjunction ) ano!r attribute1 ! concrete names :i* answ] to ^? attributes w ( c\rse be pr$icable ( ! same subjects1 & may be said1 9 ,hobbes' language1 79 ! propriety ( :i* on ?is occasion ,i fully concur17 to be two names = ! same ?+s4 ,b ! possibility ( a concurr5t application ( ! two names1 is a m]e consequ5ce ( ! conjunction betwe5 ! two attributes1 & 01 9 mo/ cases1 nev] ?\ght ( :5 ! names 7 inv5t$ & _! signification fix$4 ,t ! diamond is combu/ible1 0 a proposition c]ta9ly n dreamt ( :5 ! words ,diamond & ,combu/ible fir/ receiv$ _! mean+2 & c\ld n h be5 discov]$ by ! mo/ +5i\s & ref9$ analysis ( ! signification ( ^? words4 ,x 0 f\nd out by a v diff]5t process1 namely1 by ex]t+ ! s5ses1 & le>n+ f !m1 t ! attribute ( combu/ibility exi/$ 9 all ^? diamonds ^u :i* ! exp]im5t 0 tri$2 ! numb] & "* ( ! exp]im5ts be+ su*1 t :at 0 true ( ^? individuals might be conclud$ to be true ( all sub/ances 8call$ by ! "n10 t is1 ( all sub/ances possess+ ! attributes :i* ! "n connotes4 ,! ass]tion1 !re=e1 :5 analys$1 is1 t :]ev] we f9d c]ta9 attributes1 !re w be f\nd a c]ta9 o!r attribute3 :i* is n a "q ( ! signification ( names1 b ( laws ( nature2 ! ord] exi/+ among ph5om5a4 #c4 ,al?\gh ,hobbes' !ory ( ,pr$ication has n1 9 ! t]ms 9 :i* he /at$ x1 met ) a v fav\rable reception f subsequ5t ?9k]s1 a !ory virtually id5tical ) x1 & n by any means s p]spicu\sly express$1 may almo/ be said to h tak5 ! rank ( an e/abli%$ op9ion4 ,! mo/ g5]ally receiv$ notion ( ,pr$ication decid$ly is t x consi/s 9 ref]r+ some?+ to a class1 i4e41 ei!r plac+ an individual "u a class1 or plac+ "o class "u ano!r class4 ,?us1 ! proposition1 ,man is mortal1 ass]ts1 accord+ to ?is view ( x1 t ! class man is includ$ 9 ! class mortal4 8,plato is a philosoph]10 ass]ts t ! individual ,plato is "o ( ^? :o compose ! class philosoph]4 ,if ! proposition is negative1 !n in/ead ( plac+ some?+ 9 a class1 x is said to exclude some?+ f a class4 ,?us1 if ! foll[+ be ! proposition1 ,! elephant is n c>nivor\s2 :at is ass]t$ 7accord+ to ?is !ory7 is1 t ! elephant is exclud$ f ! class c>nivor\s1 or is n numb]$ among ! ?+s compris+ t class4 ,!re is no real diff]5ce1 except 9 language1 betwe5 ?is !ory ( ,pr$ication & ! !ory ( ,hobbes4 ,= a class is absolutely no?+ b an indef9ite numb] ( individuals d5ot$ by a g5]al "n4 ,! "n giv5 to !m 9 common1 is :at makes !m a class4 ,to ref] any?+ to a class1 !re=e1 is to look ^u x z "o ( ! ?+s :i* are to be call$ by t common "n4 ,to exclude x f a class1 is to say t ! common "n is n applicable to x4 ,h[ widely ^! views ( pr$ication h prevail$1 is evid5t f ?is1 t !y are ! basis ( ! celebrat$ dictum de omni et nullo4 ,:5 ! syllogism is resolv$1 by all :o treat ( x1 into an inf]5ce t :at is true ( a class is true ( all ?+s :atev] t belong to ! class2 & :5 ?is is laid d[n by almo/ all pr(ess$ logicians z ! ultimate pr9ciple to :i* all reason+ owes its validity2 x is cle> t 9 ! g5]al e/imation ( logicians1 ! propositions ( :i* reason+s are compos$ c be ! expression ( no?+ b ! process ( divid+ ?+s into classes1 & ref]r+ ev]y?+ to its prop] class4 ,?is !ory appe>s to me a signal example ( a logical error v (t5 committ$ 9 logic1 t ( 1 or expla9+ a ?+ by some?+ :i* presupposes x4 ,:5 ,i say t sn[ is :ite1 ,i may & ought to be ?9k+ ( sn[ z a class1 because ,i am ass]t+ a proposition z true ( all sn[3 b ,i am c]ta9ly n ?9k+ ( :ite objects z a class2 ,i am ?9k+ ( no :ite object :atev] except sn[1 b only ( t1 & ( ! s5sation ( :ite :i* x gives me4 ,:51 inde$1 ,i h judg$1 or ass5t$ to ! propositions1 t sn[ is :ite1 & t sev]al o!r ?+s also are :ite1 ,i gradually beg9 to ?9k ( :ite objects z a class1 includ+ sn[ & ^? o!r ?+s4 ,b ?is is a conception :i* foll[$1 n prec$$1 ^? judgm5ts1 & !re=e _c be giv5 z an explanation ( !m4 ,in/ead ( expla9+ ! effect by ! cause1 ?is doctr9e expla9s ! cause by ! effect1 & is1 ,i conceive1 f\nd$ on a lat5t misconception ( ! nature ( classification4 ,!re is a sort ( language v g5]ally preval5t 9 ^! discussions1 :i* seems to suppose t classification is an arrangem5t & gr\p+ ( def9ite & kn[n individuals3 t :5 names 7 impos$1 mank9d took into consid]ation all ! individual objects 9 ! univ]se1 made !m up into p>cels or li/s1 & gave to ! objects ( ea* li/ a common "n1 repeat+ ?is op]ation toties quoties until !y _h inv5t$ all ! g5]al names ( :i* language consi/s2 :i* hav+ be5 once done1 if a "q subsequ5tly arises :e!r a c]ta9 g5]al "n c be truly pr$icat$ ( a c]ta9 p>ticul> object1 we h only 7z x 77 to read ! roll ( ! objects ^u :i* t "n 0 conf]r$1 & see :e!r ! object ab\t :i* ! "q arises1 is to be f\nd among !m4 ,! fram]s ( language 7x w\ld seem to be suppos$7 h pr$et]m9$ all ! objects t are to compose ea* class1 & we h only to ref] to ! record ( an antec$5t decision4 ,s absurd a doctr9e w be own$ by nobody :5 ?us nak$ly /at$2 b if ! commonly receiv$ explanations ( classification & nam+ d n imply ?is !ory1 x requires to be %[n h[ !y admit ( be+ reconcil$ ) any o!r4 ,g5]al names are n m>ks put ^u def9ite objects2 classes are n made by draw+ a l9e r\nd a giv5 numb] ( assignable individuals4 ,! objects :i* compose any giv5 class are p]petually fluctuat+4 ,we may frame a class )\t kn[+ ! individuals1 or ev5 any ( ! individuals1 ( :i* x w be compos$2 we may d s :ile believ+ t no su* individuals exi/4 ,if by ! mean+ ( a g5]al "n are to be und]/ood ! ?+s :i* x is ! "n (1 no g5]al "n1 except by accid5t1 has a fix$ mean+ at all1 or ev] long reta9s ! same mean+4 ,! only mode 9 :i* any g5]al "n has a def9ite mean+1 is by be+ a "n ( an indef9ite v>iety ( ?+s2 namely1 ( all ?+s1 kn[n or unkn[n1 pa/1 pres5t1 or future1 :i* possess c]ta9 def9ite attributes4 ,:51 by /udy+ n ! mean+ ( words1 b ! ph5om5a ( nature1 we discov] t ^! attributes are possess$ by "s object n previ\sly kn[n to possess !m1 7z :5 *emi/s f\nd t ! diamond 0 combu/ible17 we include ?is new object 9 ! class2 b x did n already belong to ! class4 ,we place ! individual 9 ! class because ! proposition is true2 ! proposition is n true because ! object is plac$ 9 ! class4 ,x w appe> h]eaft] 9 treat+ ( reason+1 h[ mu* ! !ory ( t intellectual process has be5 vitiat$ by ! influ5ce ( ^! errone\s notions1 & by ! habit :i* !y exemplify ( assimilat+ all ! op]ations ( ! human und]/&+ :i* h tru? = _! object1 to processes ( m]e classification & nam+4 ,un=tunately1 ! m9ds :i* h be5 entangl$ 9 ?is net are precisely ^? :i* h escap$ ! o!r c>d9al error comm5t$ ^u 9 ! beg9n+ ( ! pres5t *apt]4 ,s9ce ! revolution :i* dislodg$ ,ari/otle f ! s*ools1 logicians may almo/ be divid$ into ^? :o h look$ ^u reason+ z ess5tially an affair ( ,ideas1 & ^? :o h look$ ^u x z ess5tially an affair ( ,names4 ,al?\gh1 h[ev]1 ,hobbes' !ory ( ,pr$ication1 accord+ to ! well-kn[n rem>k ( ,leibnitz1 & ! av[al ( ,hobbes himself17#ag7 r5d]s tru? & falsity completely arbitr>y1 ) no /&>d b ! w ( m51 x mu/ n be conclud$ t ei!r ,hobbes1 or any ( ! o!r ?9k]s :o h 9 ! ma9 agre$ ) him1 did 9 fact consid] ! di/9ction betwe5 tru? & error z less real1 or atta*$ less importance to x1 ?an o!r p4 ,to suppose t !y did s w\ld argue total unacqua9tance ) _! o!r speculations4 ,b ?is %[s h[ little hold _! doctr9e possess$ ov] _! own m9ds4 ,no p]son at bottom ev] imag9$ t !re 0 no?+ m 9 tru? ?an propriety ( expression2 ?an us+ language 9 con=mity to a previ\s conv5tion4 ,:5 ! inquiry 0 br\ght d[n f g5]als to a p>ticul> case1 x has always be5 ackn[l$g$ t !re is a di/9ction betwe5 v]bal & real que/ions2 t "s false propositions are utt]$ f ignorance ( ! mean+ ( words1 b t 9 o!rs ! s\rce ( ! error is a misappreh5sion ( ?+s2 t a p]son :o has n ! use ( language at all may =m propositions m5tally1 & t !y may be untrue1 t is1 he may believe z matt]s ( fact :at are n really s4 ,?is la/ admission _c be made 9 /rong] t]ms ?an x is by ,hobbes himself27#ah7 ?\gh he w n all[ su* errone\s belief to be call$ falsity1 b only error4 ,& he has himself laid d[n1 9 o!r places1 doctr9es 9 :i* ! true !ory ( pr$ication is by implication conta9$4 ,he di/9ctly says t g5]al names are giv5 to ?+s on acc\nt ( _! attributes1 & t ab/ract names are ! names ( ^? attributes4 8,ab/ract is t :i* 9 any subject d5otes ! cause ( ! concrete "n4444 ,& ^! causes ( names are ! same ) ! causes ( our conceptions1 namely1 "s p[] ( action1 or affection1 ( ! ?+ conceiv$1 :i* "s call ! mann] by :i* any?+ works ^u our s5ses1 b by mo/ m5 !y are call$ accid5ts407#ai7 ,x is /range t hav+ gone s f>1 he %\ld n h gone "o /ep f>!r1 & se5 t :at he calls ! cause ( ! concrete "n1 is 9 reality ! mean+ ( x2 & t :5 we pr$icate ( any subject a "n :i* is giv5 because ( an attribute1 7or1 z he calls x1 an accid5t17 our object is n to affirm ! "n1 b1 by means ( ! "n1 to affirm ! attribute4 #d4 ,let ! pr$icate be1 z we h said1 a connotative t]m2 & to take ! simple/ case fir/1 let ! subject be a prop] "n3 8,! summit ( ,*imborazo is :ite40 ,! ^w :ite connotes an attribute :i* is possess$ by ! individual object designat$ by ! words1 8summit ( ,*imborazo10 :i* attribute consi/s 9 ! physical fact1 ( its excit+ 9 human be+s ! s5sation :i* we call a s5sation ( :ite4 ,x w be admitt$ t1 by ass]t+ ! proposition1 we wi% to communicate in=mation ( t physical fact1 & are n ?9k+ ( ! names1 except z ! necess>y means ( mak+ t communication4 ,! mean+ ( ! proposition1 !re=e1 is1 t ! individual ?+ d5ot$ by ! subject1 has ! attributes connot$ by ! pr$icate4 ,if we n[ suppose ! subject also to be a connotative "n1 ! mean+ express$ by ! proposition has advanc$ a /ep f>!r 9 complication4 ,let u fir/ suppose ! proposition to be univ]sal1 z well z affirmative3 8,all m5 are mortal40 ,9 ?is case1 z 9 ! la/1 :at ! proposition ass]ts1 7or expresses a belief (17 is1 ( c\rse1 t ! objects d5ot$ by ! subject 7man7 possess ! attributes connot$ by ! pr$icate 7mortal74 ,b ! *>act]i/ic ( ?is case is1 t ! objects are no long] individually designat$4 ,!y are po9t$ out only by "s ( _! attributes3 !y are ! objects call$ m51 t is1 possess+ ! attributes connot$ by ! "n man2 & ! only ?+ kn[n ( !m may be ^? attributes3 inde$1 z ! proposition is g5]al1 & ! objects d5ot$ by ! subject are !re=e indef9ite 9 numb]1 mo/ ( !m are n kn[n individually at all4 ,! ass]tion1 !re=e1 is n1 z be=e1 t ! attributes :i* ! pr$icate connotes are possess$ by any giv5 individual1 or by any numb] ( individuals previ\sly kn[n z ,john1 ,?omas1 c41 b t ^? attributes are possess$ by ea* & e individual possess+ c]ta9 o!r attributes2 t :atev] has ! attributes connot$ by ! subject1 has also ^? connot$ by ! pr$icate2 t ! latt] set ( attributes con/antly accompany ! =m] set4 ,:atev] has ! attributes ( man has ! attribute ( mortality2 mortality con/antly accompanies ! attributes ( man4 ,if x be rememb]$ t e attribute is gr\nd$ on "s fact or ph5om5on1 ei!r ( outw>d s5se or ( inw>d consci\sness1 & t to possess an attribute is ano!r phrase = be+ ! cause (1 or =m+ "p (1 ! fact or ph5om5on ^u :i* ! attribute is gr\nd$2 we may add "o m /ep to complete ! analysis4 ,! proposition :i* ass]ts t "o attribute always accompanies ano!r attribute1 really ass]ts !reby no o!r ?+ ?an ?is1 t "o ph5om5on always accompanies ano!r ph5om5on2 insomu* t :]e we f9d ! "o1 we h assurance ( ! exi/5ce ( ! o!r4 ,?us1 9 ! proposition1 ,all m5 are mortal1 ! ^w man connotes ! attributes :i* we ascribe to a c]ta9 k9d ( liv+ creatures1 on ! gr\nd ( c]ta9 ph5om5a :i* !y exhibit1 & :i* are p>tly physical ph5om5a1 namely ! impressions made on our s5ses by _! bodily =m & /ructure1 & p>tly m5tal ph5om5a1 namely ! s5ti5t & intellectual life :i* !y h ( _! own4 ,all ?is is und]/ood :5 we utt] ! ^w man1 by any "o to :om ! mean+ ( ! ^w is kn[n4 ,n[1 :5 we say1 ,man is mortal1 we mean t :]ev] ^! v>i\s physical & m5tal ph5om5a are all f\nd1 !re we h assurance t ! o!r physical & m5tal ph5om5on1 call$ dea?1 w n fail to take place4 ,! proposition does n affirm :52 = ! connotation ( ! ^w mortal goes no f>!r ?an to ! occurr5ce ( ! ph5om5on at "s "t or o!r1 leav+ ! precise "t undecid$4 #e4 ,we h already proce$$ f> en\gh n only to demon/rate ! error ( ,hobbes1 b to asc]ta9 ! real import ( by f> ! mo/ num]\s class ( propositions4 ,! object ( belief 9 a proposition1 :5 x ass]ts any?+ m ?an ! mean+ ( words1 is g5]ally1 z 9 ! cases :i* we h exam9$1 ei!r ! coexi/5ce or ! sequ5ce ( two ph5om5a4 ,at ! v comm5cem5t ( our inquiry1 we f\nd t e act ( belief impli$ two ,?+s2 we h n[ asc]ta9$ :at1 9 ! mo/ frequ5t case1 ^! two ?+s are1 namely two ,ph5om5a1 9 o!r words1 two /ates ( consci\sness2 & :at x is :i* ! proposition affirms 7or d5ies7 to subsi/ betwe5 !m1 namely ei!r succession1 or coexi/5ce4 ,& ?is case includes innum]able in/ances :i* no "o1 previ\s to reflection1 w\ld ?9k ( ref]r+ to x4 ,take ! foll[+ example3 ,a g5]\s p]son is wor?y ( hon\r4 ,:o w\ld expect to recognize "h a case ( coexi/5ce betwe5 ph5om5a8 ,b s x is4 ,! attribute :i* causes a p]son to be t]m$ g5]\s1 is ascrib$ to him on ! gr\nd ( /ates ( 8 m9d1 & p>ticul>s ( 8 conduct3 bo? are ph5om5a2 ! =m] are facts ( int]nal consci\sness1 ! latt]1 s f> z di/9ct f ! =m]1 are physical facts1 or p]ceptions ( ! s5ses4 ,wor?y ( hon\r1 admits ( a simil> analysis4 ,hon\r1 z "h us$1 means a /ate ( approv+ & admir+ emotion1 foll[$ on occasion by correspond+ outw>d acts4 8,wor?y ( hon\r0 connotes all ?is1 toge!r ) our approval ( ! act ( %[+ hon\r4 ,all ^! are ph5om5a2 /ates ( int]nal consci\sness1 accompani$ or foll[$ by physical facts4 ,:5 we say1 ,a g5]\s p]son is wor?y ( hon\r1 we affirm coexi/5ce betwe5 ! two complicat$ ph5om5a connot$ by ! two t]ms respectively4 ,we affirm1 t :]ev] & :5ev] ! inw>d feel+s & outw>d facts impli$ 9 ! ^w g5]osity1 h place1 !n & !re ! exi/5ce & manife/ation ( an inw>d feel+1 hon\r1 w\ld be foll[$ 9 our m9ds by ano!r inw>d feel+1 approval4 ,aft] ! analysis 9 a =m] *apt] ( ! import ( names1 _m examples are n ne$$ to illu/rate ! import ( propositions4 ,:5 !re is any obscurity or difficulty1 x does n lie 9 ! mean+ ( ! proposition1 b 9 ! mean+ ( ! names :i* compose x2 9 ! v complicat$ connotation ( _m words2 ! imm5se multitude & prolong$ s]ies ( facts :i* (t5 con/itute ! ph5om5on connot$ by a "n4 ,b :]e x is se5 :at ! ph5om5on is1 !re is seldom any difficulty 9 see+ t ! ass]tion convey$ by ! proposition is1 ! coexi/5ce ( "o su* ph5om5on ) ano!r2 or ! succession ( "o su* ph5om5on to ano!r3 _! conjunction1 9 %ort1 s t :]e ! "o is f\nd1 we may calculate on f9d+ bo?4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 ?\gh ! mo/ common1 is n ! only mean+ :i* propositions are ev] int5d$ to convey4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 sequ5ces & coexi/5ces are n only ass]t$ respect+ ,ph5om5a2 we make propositions also respect+ ^? hidd5 causes ( ph5om5a1 :i* are nam$ sub/ances & attributes4 ,a sub/ance1 h[ev]1 be+ to u no?+ b ei!r t :i* causes1 or t :i* is consci\s (1 ph5om5a2 & ! same be+ true1 mutatis mut&is1 ( attributes2 no ass]tion c be made1 at lea/ ) a mean+1 conc]n+ ^! unkn[n & unkn[able entities1 except 9 virtue ( ! ,ph5om5a by :i* alone !y manife/ !mselves to our faculties4 ,:5 we say1 ,socrates 0 cotempor>y ) ! ,peloponnesian w>1 ! f\ndation ( ?is ass]tion1 z ( all ass]tions conc]n+ sub/ances1 is an ass]tion conc]n+ ! ph5om5a :i* !y exhibit1--namely1 t ! s]ies ( facts by :i* ,socrates manife/$ himself to mank9d1 & ! s]ies ( m5tal /ates :i* con/itut$ 8 s5ti5t exi/5ce1 w5t on simultane\sly ) ! s]ies ( facts kn[n by ! "n ( ! ,peloponnesian w>4 ,/ill1 ! proposition does n ass]t t alone2 x ass]ts t ! ,?+ 9 itself1 ! n\m5on ,socrates1 0 exi/+1 & do+ or exp]i5c+ ^? v>i\s facts1 dur+ ! same "t4 ,coexi/5ce & sequ5ce1 !re=e1 may be affirm$ or d5i$ n only betwe5 ph5om5a1 b betwe5 n\m5a1 or betwe5 a n\m5on & ph5om5a4 ,& bo? ( n\m5a & ( ph5om5a we may affirm simple exi/5ce4 ,b :at is a n\m5on8 ,an unkn[n cause4 ,9 affirm+1 !re=e1 ! exi/5ce ( a n\m5on1 we affirm causation4 ,"h1 !re=e1 are two additional k9ds ( fact1 capable ( be+ ass]t$ 9 a proposition4 ,besides ! propositions :i* ass]t ,sequ5ce or ,coexi/5ce1 !re are "s :i* ass]t simple ,exi/5ce2 & o!rs ass]t ,causation1 :i*1 subject to ! explanations :i* w foll[ 9 ! ,?ird ,book1 mu/ be consid]$ provisionally z a di/9ct & peculi> k9d ( ass]tion4 #f4 ,to ^! f\r k9ds ( matt]-(-fact or ass]tion1 mu/ be add$ a fif?1 ,resemblance4 ,?is 0 a species ( attribute :i* we f\nd x impossible to analyse2 = :i* no fundam5tum1 di/9ct f ! objects !mselves1 c\ld be assign$4 ,besides propositions :i* ass]t a sequ5ce or coexi/5ce betwe5 two ph5om5a1 !re are !re=e also propositions :i* ass]t resemblance betwe5 !m3 z1 ,?is col\r is l t col\r2--,! heat ( to-day is equal to ! heat ( ye/]day4 ,x is true t su* an ass]tion might ) "s plausibility be br\ght )9 ! description ( an affirmation ( sequ5ce1 by consid]+ x z an ass]tion t ! simultane\s contemplation ( ! two col\rs is foll[$ by a specific feel+ t]m$ ! feel+ ( resemblance4 ,b !re w\ld be no?+ ga9$ by encumb]+ ourselves1 especially 9 ?is place1 ) a g5]alization :i* may be look$ ^u z /ra9$4 ,logic does n und]take to analyse m5tal facts into _! ultimate elem5ts4 ,resemblance betwe5 two ph5om5a is m intelligible 9 itself ?an any explanation c\ld make x1 & "u any classification mu/ rema9 specifically di/9ct f ! ord9>y cases ( sequ5ce & coexi/5ce4 ,x is sometimes said t all propositions :atev]1 ( :i* ! pr$icate is a g5]al "n1 d1 9 po9t ( fact1 affirm or d5y resemblance4 ,all su* propositions affirm t a ?+ belongs to a class2 b ?+s be+ class$ toge!r accord+ to _! resemblance1 ev]y?+ is ( c\rse class$ ) ! ?+s :i* x is suppos$ to resemble mo/2 & !nce1 x may be said1 :5 we affirm t ,gold is a metal1 or t ,socrates is a man1 ! affirmation int5d$ is1 t gold resembles o!r metals1 & ,socrates o!r m51 m ne>ly ?an !y resemble ! objects conta9$ 9 any o!r ( ! classes co-ord9ate ) ^!4 ,!re is "s slight degree ( f\ndation = ?is rem>k1 b no m ?an a slight degree4 ,! arrangem5t ( ?+s into classes1 su* z ! class metal1 or ! class man1 is gr\nd$ inde$ on a resemblance among ! ?+s :i* are plac$ 9 ! same class1 b n on a m]e g5]al resemblance3 ! resemblance x is gr\nd$ on consi/s 9 ! possession by all ^? ?+s1 ( c]ta9 common peculi>ities2 & ^? peculi>ities x is :i* ! t]ms connote1 & :i* ! propositions consequ5tly ass]t2 n ! resemblance3 = ?\gh :5 ,i say1 ,gold is a metal1 ,i say by implication t if !re be any o!r metals x mu/ resemble !m1 yet if !re 7 no o!r metals ,i might /ill ass]t ! proposition ) ! same mean+ z at pres5t1 namely1 t gold has ! v>i\s prop]ties impli$ 9 ! ^w metal2 j z x might be said1 ,*ri/ians are m51 ev5 if !re 7 no m5 :o 7 n ,*ri/ians4 ,propositions1 !re=e1 9 :i* objects are ref]r$ to a class because !y possess ! attributes con/itut+ ! class1 are s f> f ass]t+ no?+ b resemblance1 t !y d n1 prop]ly speak+1 ass]t resemblance at all4 ,b we rem>k$ "s "t ago1 7& ! reasons ( ! rem>k w be m fully ent]$ into 9 a subsequ5t ,book17#bj77 t !re is sometimes a conv5i5ce 9 ext5d+ ! b\nd>ies ( a class s z to include ?+s :i* possess 9 a v inf]ior degree1 if 9 any1 "s ( ! *>act]i/ic prop]ties ( ! class1--provid$ !y resemble t class m ?an any o!r1 insomu* t ! g5]al propositions :i* are true ( ! class w be ne>] to be+ true ( ^? ?+s ?an any o!r equally g5]al propositions4 ,z1 = in/ance1 !re are sub/ances call$ metals :i* h v few ( ! prop]ties by :i* metals are commonly recognis$2 & almo/ e great family ( plants or animals has a few anomal\s g5]a or species on its bord]s1 :i* are admitt$ into x by a sort ( c\rtesy1 & conc]n+ :i* x has be5 matt] ( discussion to :at family !y prop]ly belong$4 ,n[ :5 ! class-"n is pr$icat$ ( any object ( ?is description1 we d1 by s pr$icat+ x1 affirm resemblance & no?+ m4 ,& 9 ord] to be scrupul\sly correct x ought to be said1 t 9 e case 9 :i* we pr$icate a g5]al "n1 we affirm1 n absolutely t ! object possesses ! prop]ties designat$ by ! "n1 b t x ei!r possesses ^? prop]ties1 or if x does n1 at any rate resembles ! ?+s :i* d s1 m ?an x resembles any o!r ?+s4 ,9 mo/ cases1 h[ev]1 x is unnecess>y to suppose any su* alt]native1 ! latt] ( ! two gr\nds be+ v seldom t on :i* ! ass]tion is made3 & :5 x is1 !re is g5]ally "s slight diff]5ce 9 ! =m ( ! expression1 z1 ,?is species 7or g5us7 is consid]$1 or may be rank$1 z belong+ to su* & su* a family3 we %\ld h>dly say positively t x does belong to x1 unless x possess$ unequivocally ! prop]ties ( :i* ! class-"n is sci5tifically significant4 ,!re is /ill ano!r exceptional case1 9 :i*1 ?\gh ! pr$icate is a "n ( a class1 yet 9 pr$icat+ x we affirm no?+ b resemblance1 ! class be+ f\nd$ n on resemblance 9 any giv5 p>ticul>1 b on g5]al unanalysable resemblance4 ,! classes 9 "q are ^? into :i* our simple s5sations1 or o!r simple feel+s1 are divid$4 ,s5sations ( :ite1 = in/ance1 are class$ toge!r1 n because we c take !m to pieces1 & say !y are alike 9 ?is1 & n alike 9 t1 b because we feel !m to be alike altoge!r1 ?\gh 9 diff]5t degrees4 ,:51 !re=e1 ,i say1 ,! col\r ,i saw ye/]day 0 a :ite col\r1 or1 ,! s5sation ,i feel is "o ( tightness1 9 bo? cases ! attribute ,i affirm ( ! col\r or ( ! o!r s5sation is m]e resemblance1--simple lik5ess to s5sations :i* ,i h _h be=e1 & :i* h _h ^? names be/[$ ^u !m4 ,! names ( feel+s1 l o!r concrete g5]al names1 are connotative2 b !y connote a m]e resemblance4 ,:5 pr$icat$ ( any individual feel+1 ! in=mation !y convey is t ( its lik5ess to ! o!r feel+s :i* we h be5 accu/om$ to call by ! same "n4 ,?us mu* may suffice 9 illu/ration ( ! k9d ( ,propositions 9 :i* ! matt]-(-fact ass]t$ 7or d5i$7 is simple ,resemblance4 ,exi/5ce1 ,coexi/5ce1 ,sequ5ce1 ,causation1 ,resemblance3 "o or o!r ( ^! is ass]t$ 7or d5i$7 9 e proposition )\t exception4 ,?is five-fold division is an exhau/ive classification ( matt]s-(-fact2 ( all ?+s t c be believ$ or t5d]$ = belief2 ( all que/ions t c be prop\nd$1 & all answ]s t c be return$ to !m4 ,in/ead ( ,coexi/5ce & ,sequ5ce1 we %all sometimes say1 = great] p>ticul>ity1 ,ord] 9 ,place1 & ,ord] 9 ,"t3 ,ord] 9 ,place be+ "o ( ! modes ( coexi/5ce1 n necess>y to be m p>ticul>ly analys$ "h2 :ile ! m]e fact ( coexi/5ce1 or simultane\sness1 may be class$1 toge!r ) ,sequ5ce1 "u ! head ( ,ord] 9 ,"t4 #g4 ,9 ! =ego+ inquiry into ! import ( ,propositions1 we h ?\ght x necess>y to analyse directly ^? alone1 9 :i* ! t]ms ( ! proposition 7or ! pr$icate at lea/7 are concrete t]ms4 ,b1 9 do+ s1 we h indirectly analys$ ^? 9 :i* ! t]ms are ab/ract4 ,! di/9ction betwe5 an ab/ract t]m & its correspond+ concrete1 does n turn ^u any diff]5ce 9 :at !y are appo9t$ to signify2 = ! real signification ( a concrete g5]al "n is1 z we h s (t5 said1 its connotation2 & :at ! concrete t]m connotes1 =ms ! entire mean+ ( ! ab/ract "n4 ,s9ce !re is no?+ 9 ! import ( an ab/ract "n :i* is n 9 ! import ( ! correspond+ concrete1 x is natural to suppose t nei!r c !re be any?+ 9 ! import ( a proposition ( :i* ! t]ms are ab/ract1 b :at !re is 9 "s proposition :i* c be fram$ ( concrete t]ms4 ,& ?is presumption a clos] exam9ation w confirm4 ,an ab/ract "n is ! "n ( an attribute1 or comb9ation ( attributes4 ,! correspond+ concrete is a "n giv5 to ?+s1 because (1 & 9 ord] to express1 _! possess+ t attribute1 or t comb9ation ( attributes4 ,:51 !re=e1 we pr$icate ( any?+ a concrete "n1 ! attribute is :at we 9 reality pr$icate ( x4 ,b x has n[ be5 %[n t 9 all propositions ( :i* ! pr$icate is a concrete "n1 :at is really pr$icat$ is "o ( five ?+s3 ,exi/5ce1 ,coexi/5ce1 ,causation1 ,sequ5ce1 or ,resemblance4 ,an attribute1 !re=e1 is necess>ily ei!r an exi/5ce1 a coexi/5ce1 a causation1 a sequ5ce1 or a resemblance4 ,:5 a proposition consi/s ( a subject & pr$icate :i* are ab/ract t]ms1 x consi/s ( t]ms :i* mu/ necess>ily signify "o or o!r ( ^! ?+s4 ,:5 we pr$icate ( any?+ an ab/ract "n1 we affirm ( ! ?+ t x is "o or o!r ( ^! five ?+s2 t x is a case ( ,exi/5ce1 or ( ,coexi/5ce1 or ( ,causation1 or ( ,sequ5ce1 or ( ,resemblance4 ,x is impossible to imag9e any proposition express$ 9 ab/ract t]ms1 :i* _c be trans=m$ into a precisely equival5t proposition 9 :i* ! t]ms are concrete1 namely1 ei!r ! concrete names :i* connote ! attributes !mselves1 or ! names ( ! fundam5ta ( ^? attributes1 ! facts or ph5om5a on :i* !y are gr\nd$4 ,to illu/rate ! latt] case1 let u take ?is proposition1 ( :i* ! subject only is an ab/ract "n1--8,?\ghtlessness is dang]\s40 ,?\ghtlessness is an attribute gr\nd$ on ! facts :i* we call ?\ghtless actions2 & ! proposition is equival5t to ?is1 ,?\ghtless actions are dang]\s4 ,9 ! next example ! pr$icate z well z ! subject are ab/ract names3 8,:it5ess is a col\r20 or 8,! col\r ( sn[ is a :it5ess40 ,^! attributes be+ gr\nd$ on s5sations1 ! equival5t propositions 9 ! concrete w\ld be1 ,! s5sation ( :ite is "o ( ! s5sations call$ ^? ( col\r1--,! s5sation ( sight1 caus$ by look+ at sn[1 is "o ( ! s5sations call$ s5sations ( :ite4 ,9 ^! propositions1 z we h be=e se51 ! matt]-(-fact ass]t$ is a ,resemblance4 ,9 ! foll[+ examples1 ! concrete t]ms are ^? :i* directly correspond to ! ab/ract names2 connot+ ! attribute :i* ^! d5ote4 8,prud5ce is a virtue30 ?is may be r5d]$1 8,all prud5t p]sons1 9 s f> z prud5t1 are virtu\s30 8,c\rage is des]v+ ( hon\r10 ?us1 8,all c\rage\s p]sons are des]v+ ( hon\r 9 s f> z !y are c\rage\s20 :i* is equival5t to ?is--8,all c\rage\s p]sons des]ve an addition to ! hon\r1 or a dim9ution ( ! disgrace1 :i* w\ld atta* to !m on o!r gr\nds40 ,9 ord] to ?r[ /ill fur!r light ^u ! import ( propositions ( :i* ! t]ms are ab/ract1 we w subject "o ( ! examples giv5 above to a m9ut] analysis4 ,! proposition we %all select is ! foll[+3--8,prud5ce is a virtue40 ,let u sub/itute = ! ^w virtue an equival5t b m def9ite expression1 su* z 8a m5tal quality b5eficial to society10 or 8a m5tal quality pleas+ to ,god10 or :atev] else we adopt z ! def9ition ( virtue4 ,:at ! proposition ass]ts is a sequ5ce1 accompani$ ) causation1 namely1 t b5efit to society1 or t ! approval ( ,god1 is consequ5t on1 & caus$ by1 prud5ce4 ,"h is a sequ5ce2 b betwe5 :at8 ,we und]/& ! consequ5t ( ! sequ5ce1 b we h yet to analyse ! antec$5t4 ,prud5ce is an attribute2 &1 9 connexion ) x1 two ?+s besides itself are to be consid]$2 prud5t p]sons1 :o are ! subjects ( ! attribute1 & prud5tial conduct1 :i* may be call$ ! f\ndation ( x4 ,n[ is ei!r ( ^! ! antec$5t8 &1 fir/1 is x meant1 t ! approval ( ,god1 or b5efit to society1 is att5dant ^u all prud5t p]sons8 ,no2 except 9 s f> z !y are prud5t2 = prud5t p]sons :o are sc\ndrels c seldom on ! :ole be b5eficial to society1 nor acceptable to any good be+4 ,is x ^u prud5tial conduct1 !n1 t div9e approbation & b5efit to mank9d are suppos$ to be inv>iably consequ5t8 ,nei!r is ?is ! ass]tion meant :5 x is said t prud5ce is a virtue2 except ) ! same res]vation z be=e1 & = ! same reason1 namely1 t prud5tial conduct1 al?\gh 9 s f> z x is prud5tial x is b5eficial to society1 may yet1 by reason ( "s o!r ( its qualities1 be productive ( an injury outweigh+ ! b5efit1 & des]ve a displeasure exce$+ ! approbation :i* w\ld be due to ! prud5ce4 ,nei!r ! sub/ance1 !re=e1 7viz41 ! p]son17 nor ! ph5om5on1 7! conduct17 is an antec$5t on :i* ! o!r t]m ( ! sequ5ce is univ]sally consequ5t4 ,b ! proposition1 8,prud5ce is a virtue10 is an univ]sal proposition4 ,:at is x1 !n1 ^u :i* ! proposition affirms ! effects 9 "q to be univ]sally consequ5t8 ,^u t 9 ! p]son1 & 9 ! conduct1 :i* causes !m to be call$ prud5t1 & :i* is equally 9 !m :5 ! action1 ?\gh prud5t1 is wick$2 namely1 a correct =esight ( consequ5ces1 a j e/imation ( _! importance to ! object 9 view1 & repression ( any unreflect+ impulse at v>iance ) ! delib]ate purpose4 ,^!1 :i* are /ates ( ! p]son's m9d1 are ! real antec$5t 9 ! sequ5ce1 ! real cause 9 ! causation1 ass]t$ by ! proposition4 ,b ^! are also ! real gr\nd1 or f\ndation1 ( ! attribute ,prud5ce2 s9ce :]ev] ^! /ates ( m9d exi/ we may pr$icate prud5ce1 ev5 be=e we "k :e!r any conduct has foll[$4 ,& 9 ?is mann] e ass]tion respect+ an attribute may be trans=m$ into an ass]tion exactly equival5t respect+ ! fact or ph5om5on :i* is ! gr\nd ( ! attribute4 ,& no case c be assign$1 :]e t :i* is pr$icat$ ( ! fact or ph5om5on1 does n belong to "o or o!r ( ! five species =m]ly enum]at$3 x is ei!r simple ,exi/5ce1 or x is "s ,sequ5ce1 ,coexi/5ce1 ,causation1 or ,resemblance4 ,& z ^! five are ! only ?+s :i* c be affirm$1 s are !y ! only ?+s :i* c be d5i$4 8,no horses are web-foot$0 d5ies t ! attributes ( a horse ev] coexi/ ) web-feet4 ,x is sc>cely necess>y to apply ! same analysis to ,p>ticul> affirmations & negations4 8,"s birds are web-foot$10 affirms t1 ) ! attributes connot$ by bird1 ! ph5om5on web-feet is sometimes coexi/5t3 8,"s birds are n web-foot$10 ass]ts t !re are o!r in/ances 9 :i* ?is coexi/5ce does n h place4 ,any fur!r explanation ( a ?+ :i*1 if ! previ\s exposition has be5 ass5t$ to1 is s obvi\s1 may "h be sp>$4 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,( ,,propositions ,,m]ely ,,v]bal4 #a4 ,z a prep>ation = ! inquiry :i* is ! prop] object ( ,logic1 namely1 9 :at mann] propositions are to be prov$1 we h f\nd x necess>y to inquire :at !y conta9 :i* requires1 or is susceptible (1 pro(2 or 7:i* is ! same ?+7 :at !y ass]t4 ,9 ! c\rse ( ?is prelim9>y inve/igation into ! import ( ,propositions1 we exam9$ ! op9ion ( ! ,conceptuali/s1 t a proposition is ! expression ( a relation betwe5 two ideas2 & ! doctr9e ( ! ,nom9ali/s1 t x is ! expression ( an agreem5t or disagreem5t betwe5 ! mean+s ( two names4 ,we decid$ t1 z g5]al !ories1 bo? ( ^! are errone\s2 & t1 al?\gh propositions may be made bo? respect+ names & respect+ ideas1 nei!r ! "o nor ! o!r are ! subject-matt] ( ,propositions consid]$ g5]ally4 ,we !n exam9$ ! diff]5t k9ds ( ,propositions1 & f\nd t1 ) ! exception ( ^? :i* are m]ely v]bal1 !y ass]t five diff]5t k9ds ( matt]s ( fact1 namely1 ,exi/5ce1 ,ord] 9 ,place1 ,ord] 9 ,"t1 ,causation1 & ,resemblance2 t 9 e proposition "o ( ^! five is ei!r affirm$1 or d5i$1 ( "s fact or ph5om5on1 or ( "s object ! unkn[n s\rce ( a fact or ph5om5on4 ,9 di/+ui%+1 h[ev]1 ! diff]5t k9ds ( matt]s ( fact ass]t$ 9 propositions1 we res]v$ "o class ( propositions1 :i* d n relate to any matt] ( fact1 9 ! prop] s5se ( ! t]m1 at all1 b to ! mean+ ( names4 ,s9ce names & _! signification are entirely arbitr>y1 su* propositions are n1 /rictly speak+1 susceptible ( tru? or falsity1 b only ( con=mity or discon=mity to usage or conv5tion2 & all ! pro( !y are capable (1 is pro( ( usage2 pro( t ! words h be5 employ$ by o!rs 9 ! acceptation 9 :i* ! speak] or writ] desires to use !m4 ,^! propositions occupy1 h[ev]1 a conspicu\s place 9 philosophy2 & _! nature & *>act]i/ics are ( z mu* importance 9 logic1 z ^? ( any ( ! o!r classes ( propositions previ\sly adv]t$ to4 ,if all propositions respect+ ! signification ( words 7 z simple & unimportant z ^? :i* s]v$ u = examples :5 exam9+ ,hobbes' !ory ( pr$ication1 viz4 ^? ( :i* ! subject & pr$icate are prop] names1 & :i* ass]t only t ^? names h1 or t !y h n1 be5 conv5tionally assign$ to ! same individual2 !re w\ld be little to attract to su* propositions ! att5tion ( philosoph]s4 ,b ! class ( m]ely v]bal propositions embraces n only mu* m ?an ^!1 b mu* m ?an any propositions :i* at fir/ sight pres5t !mselves z v]bal2 compreh5d+ a k9d ( ass]tions :i* h be5 reg>d$ n only z relat+ to ?+s1 b z hav+ actually a m intimate relation ) !m ?an any o!r propositions :atev]4 ,! /ud5t 9 philosophy w p]ceive t ,i allude to ! di/9ction on :i* s mu* /ress 0 laid by ! s*oolm51 & :i* has be5 reta9$ ei!r "u ! same or "u o!r names by mo/ metaphysicians to ! pres5t day1 viz4 betwe5 :at 7 call$ ess5tial1 & :at 7 call$ accid5tal1 propositions1 & betwe5 ess5tial & accid5tal prop]ties or attributes4 #b4 ,almo/ all metaphysicians prior to ,locke1 z well z _m s9ce 8 "t1 h made a great my/]y ( ,ess5tial ,pr$ication1 & ( pr$icates :i* 7 said to be ( ! ess5ce ( ! subject4 ,! ess5ce ( a ?+1 !y said1 0 t )\t :i* ! ?+ c\ld nei!r be1 nor be conceiv$ to be4 ,?us1 rationality 0 ( ! ess5ce ( man1 because )\t rationality1 man c\ld n be conceiv$ to exi/4 ,! diff]5t attributes :i* made up ! ess5ce ( ! ?+1 7 call$ its ess5tial prop]ties2 & a proposition 9 :i* any ( ^! 7 pr$icat$ ( x1 0 call$ an ,ess5tial ,proposition1 & 0 consid]$ to g deep] into ! nature ( ! ?+1 & to convey m important in=mation respect+ x1 ?an any o!r proposition c\ld d4 ,all prop]ties1 n ( ! ess5ce ( ! ?+1 7 call$ its accid5ts2 7 suppos$ to h no?+ at all1 or no?+ comp>atively1 to d ) its inmo/ nature2 & ! propositions 9 :i* any ( ^! 7 pr$icat$ ( x 7 call$ ,accid5tal ,propositions4 ,a connexion may be trac$ betwe5 ?is di/9ction1 :i* orig9at$ ) ! s*oolm51 & ! well kn[n dogmas ( sub/anti secund or g5]al sub/ances1 & sub/antial =ms1 doctr9es :i* "u v>ieties ( language p]vad$ alike ! ,ari/otelian & ! ,platonic s*ools1 & ( :i* m ( ! _s has come d[n to mod]n times ?an might be conjectur$ f ! disuse ( ! phraseology4 ,! false views ( ! nature ( classification & g5]alization :i* prevail$ among ! s*oolm51 & ( :i* ^! dogmas 7 ! te*nical expression1 af=d ! only explanation :i* c be giv5 ( _! hav+ misund]/ood ! real nature ( ^? ,ess5ces :i* held s conspicu\s a place 9 _! philosophy4 ,!y said1 truly1 t man _c be conceiv$ )\t rationality4 ,b ?\gh man _c1 a be+ may be conceiv$ exactly l a man 9 all po9ts except t "o quality1 & ^? o!rs :i* are ! conditions or consequ5ces ( x4 ,all !re=e :i* is really true 9 ! ass]tion t man _c be conceiv$ )\t rationality1 is only1 t if he _h n rationality1 he w\ld n be reput$ a man4 ,!re is no impossibility 9 conceiv+ ! ?+1 nor1 = aught we "k1 9 its exi/+3 ! impossibility is 9 ! conv5tions ( language1 :i* w n all[ ! ?+1 ev5 if x exi/1 to be call$ by ! "n :i* is res]v$ = rational be+s4 ,rationality1 9 %ort1 is involv$ 9 ! mean+ ( ! ^w man2 is "o ( ! attributes connot$ by ! "n4 ,! ess5ce ( man1 simply means ! :ole ( ! attributes connot$ by ! ^w2 & any "o ( ^? attributes tak5 s+ly1 is an ess5tial prop]ty ( man4 ,! doctr9es :i* prev5t$ ! real mean+ ( ,ess5ces f be+ und]/ood1 n hav+ assum$ s settl$ a %ape 9 ! "t ( ,ari/otle & 8 imm$iate foll[]s z 0 aft]w>ds giv5 to !m by ! ,reali/s ( ! middle ages1 we f9d a ne>] approa* to a rational view ( ! subject 9 ! writ+s ( ! anci5t ,ari/otelians ?an 9 _! m mod]n foll[]s4 ,porphyry1 9 8 ,isagoge1 approa*$ s ne> to ! true conception ( ess5ces1 t only "o /ep rema9$ to be tak51 b ?is /ep1 s easy 9 appe>ance1 0 res]v$ = ! ,nom9ali/s ( mod]n times4 ,by alt]+ any prop]ty1 n ( ! ess5ce ( ! ?+1 y m]ely1 accord+ to ,porphyry1 made a diff]5ce 9 x2 y made x 3 b by alt]+ any prop]ty :i* 0 ( its ess5ce1 y made x ano!r ?+1 47#ba7 ,to a mod]n x is obvi\s t betwe5 ! *ange :i* only makes a ?+ diff]5t1 & ! *ange :i* makes x ano!r ?+1 ! only di/9ction is t 9 ! "o case1 ?\gh *ang$1 x is /ill call$ by ! same "n4 ,?us1 p\nd ice 9 a mort>1 & be+ /ill call$ ice1 x is only made 3 melt x1 & x becomes 1 ano!r ?+1 namely1 wat]4 ,n[ x is really ! same ?+1 i4e4 ! same p>ticles ( matt]1 9 bo? cases2 & y _c s *ange any?+ t x %all cease to be ! same ?+ 9 ?is s5se4 ,! id5tity :i* x c be depriv$ ( is m]ely t ( ! "n3 :5 ! ?+ ceases to be call$ ice1 x becomes ano!r ?+2 its ess5ce1 :at con/itut$ x ice1 is gone2 :ile1 z long z x cont9ues to be s call$1 no?+ is gone except "s ( its accid5ts4 ,b ^! reflections1 s easy to u1 w\ld h be5 difficult to p]sons :o ?\ght1 z mo/ ( ! ,ari/otelians did1 t objects 7 made :at !y 7 call$1 t ice 7= in/ance7 0 made ice1 n by ! possession ( c]ta9 prop]ties to :i* mank9d h *os5 to atta* t "n1 b by p>ticipation 9 ! nature ( a c]ta9 g5]al sub/ance1 call$ ,ice 9 g5]al1 :i* sub/ance1 toge!r ) all ! prop]ties t belong$ to x1 inh]$ 9 e individual piece ( ice4 ,z !y did n consid] ^! univ]sal sub/ances to be atta*$ to all g5]al names1 b only to "s1 !y ?\ght t an object borr[$ only a "p ( its prop]ties f an univ]sal sub/ance1 & t ! re/ belong$ to x individually3 ! =m] !y call$ its ess5ce1 & ! latt] its accid5ts4 ,! s*ola/ic doctr9e ( ess5ces long surviv$ ! !ory on :i* x re/$1 t ( ! exi/5ce ( real entities correspond+ to g5]al t]ms2 & x 0 res]v$ = ,locke1 at ! end ( ! sev5te5? c5tury1 to conv9ce philosoph]s t ! suppos$ ess5ces ( classes 7 m]ely ! signification ( _! names2 nor1 among ! signal s]vices :i* 8 writ+s r5d]$ to philosophy1 0 !re "o m ne$ful or m valuable47#bb7 ,n[1 z ! mo/ famili> ( ! g5]al names by :i* an object is designat$ usually connotes n "o only1 b sev]al attributes ( ! object1 ea* ( :i* attributes sep>ately =ms also ! bond ( union ( "s class1 & ! mean+ ( "s g5]al "n2 we may pr$icate ( a "n :i* connotes a v>iety ( attributes1 ano!r "n :i* connotes only "o ( ^! attributes1 or "s small] numb] ( !m ?an all4 ,9 su* cases1 ! univ]sal affirmative proposition w be true2 s9ce :atev] possesses ! :ole ( any set ( attributes1 mu/ possess any "p ( t same set4 ,a proposition ( ?is sort1 h[ev]1 conveys no in=mation to any "o :o previ\sly und]/ood ! :ole mean+ ( ! t]ms4 ,! propositions1 ,e man is a corporeal be+1 ,e man is a liv+ creature1 ,e man is rational1 convey no k to any "o :o 0 already aw>e ( ! entire mean+ ( ! ^w man1 = ! mean+ ( ! ^w includes all ?is3 &1 t e man has ! attributes connot$ by all ^! pr$icates1 is already ass]t$ :5 he is call$ a man4 ,n[1 ( ?is nature are all ! propositions :i* h be5 call$ ess5tial2 !y are1 9 fact1 id5tical propositions4 ,x is true t a proposition :i* pr$icates any attribute1 ev5 ?\gh x be "o impli$ 9 ! "n1 is 9 mo/ cases und]/ood to involve a tacit ass]tion t !re exi/s a ?+ correspond+ to ! "n1 & possess+ ! attributes connot$ by x2 & ?is impli$ ass]tion may convey in=mation1 ev5 to ^? :o und]/ood ! mean+ ( ! "n4 ,b all in=mation ( ?is sort1 convey$ by all ! ess5tial propositions ( :i* man c be made ! subject1 is includ$ 9 ! ass]tion1 ,m5 exi/4 ,& ?is assumption ( real exi/5ce is aft] all only ! result ( an imp]fection ( language4 ,x arises f ! ambiguity ( ! copula1 :i*1 9 addition to its prop] (fice ( a m>k to %[ t an ass]tion is made1 is also1 z we h =m]ly rem>k$1 a concrete ^w connot+ exi/5ce4 ,! actual exi/5ce ( ! subject ( ! proposition is !re=e only app>5tly1 n really1 impli$ 9 ! pr$ication1 if an ess5tial "o3 we may say1 ,a gho/ is a disembodi$ _s1 )\t believ+ 9 gho/s4 ,b an accid5tal1 or non-ess5tial1 affirmation1 does imply ! real exi/5ce ( ! subject1 because 9 ! case ( a non-exi/5t subject !re is no?+ = ! proposition to ass]t4 ,su* a proposition z1 ,! gho/ ( a murd]$ p]son haunts ! c\* ( ! murd]]1 c only h a mean+ if und]/ood z imply+ a belief 9 gho/s2 = s9ce ! signification ( ! ^w gho/ implies no?+ ( ! k9d1 ! speak] ei!r means no?+1 or means to ass]t a ?+ :i* he wi%es to be believ$ to h really tak5 place4 ,x w be h]eaft] se5 t :5 any important consequ5ces seem to foll[1 z 9 ma!matics1 f an ess5tial proposition1 or1 9 o!r words1 f a proposition involv$ 9 ! mean+ ( a "n1 :at !y really fl[ f is ! tacit assumption ( ! real exi/5ce ( ! object s nam$4 ,ap>t f ?is assumption ( real exi/5ce1 ! class ( propositions 9 :i* ! pr$icate is ( ! ess5ce ( ! subject 7t is1 9 :i* ! pr$icate connotes ! :ole or "p ( :at ! subject connotes1 b no?+ besides7 answ] no purpose b t ( unfold+ ! :ole or "s "p ( ! mean+ ( ! "n1 to ^? :o did n previ\sly "k x4 ,accord+ly1 ! mo/ useful1 & 9 /rictness ! only useful k9d ( ess5tial propositions1 are ,def9itions3 :i*1 to be complete1 %\ld unfold ! :ole ( :at is involv$ 9 ! mean+ ( ! ^w def9$2 t is1 7:5 x is a connotative ^w17 ! :ole ( :at x connotes4 ,9 def9+ a "n1 h[ev]1 x is n usual to specify its entire connotation1 b s mu* only z is suffici5t to m>k out ! objects usually d5ot$ by x f all o!r kn[n objects4 ,& sometimes a m]ely accid5tal prop]ty1 n involv$ 9 ! mean+ ( ! "n1 answ]s ?is purpose equally well4 ,! v>i\s k9ds ( def9ition :i* ^! di/9ctions give rise to1 & ! purposes to :i* !y are respectively subs]vi5t1 w be m9utely consid]$ 9 ! prop] place4 #c4 ,accord+ to ! above view ( ess5tial propositions1 no proposition c be reckon$ su* :i* relates to an individual by "n1 t is1 9 :i* ! subject is a prop] "n4 ,individuals h no ess5ces4 ,:5 ! s*oolm5 talk$ ( ! ess5ce ( an individual1 !y did n mean ! prop]ties impli$ 9 its "n1 = ! names ( individuals imply no prop]ties4 ,!y reg>d$ z ( ! ess5ce ( an individual :atev] 0 ( ! ess5ce ( ! species 9 :i* !y 7 accu/om$ to place t individual2 i4e4 ( ! class to :i* x 0 mo/ famili>ly ref]r$1 & to :i*1 !re=e1 !y conceiv$ t x by nature belong$4 ,?us1 because ! proposition1 ,man is a rational be+1 0 an ess5tial proposition1 !y affirm$ ! same ?+ ( ! proposition1 ,julius ,cs> is a rational be+4 ,?is foll[$ v naturally if g5]a & species 7 to be consid]$ z entities1 di/9ct f1 b inh]+ 91 ! individuals compos+ !m4 ,if man 0 a sub/ance inh]+ 9 ea* individual man1 ! ess5ce ( man 7:atev] t might mean7 0 naturally suppos$ to accompany x2 to inh]e 9 ,john ,?ompson1 & to =m ! common ess5ce ( ,?ompson & ,julius ,cs>4 ,x might !n be fairly said1 t rationality1 be+ ( ! ess5ce ( ,man1 0 ( ! ess5ce also ( ,?ompson4 ,b if ,man altoge!r be only ! individual m5 & a "n be/[$ ^u !m 9 consequ5ce ( c]ta9 common prop]ties1 :at becomes ( ,john ,?ompson's ess5ce8 ,a fundam5tal error is seldom expell$ f philosophy by a s+le victory4 ,x retreats sl[ly1 def5ds e in* ( gr\nd1 & (t5 reta9s a foot+ 9 "s remote fa/ness aft] x has be5 driv5 f ! op5 c\ntry4 ,! ess5ces ( individuals 7 an unmean+ figm5t aris+ f a misappreh5sion ( ! ess5ces ( classes1 yet ev5 ,locke1 :5 he extirpat$ ! p>5t error1 c\ld n %ake himself free f t :i* 0 its fruit4 ,he di/+ui%$ two sorts ( ess5ces1 ,real & ,nom9al4 ,8 nom9al ess5ces 7 ! ess5ces ( classes1 expla9$ ne>ly z we h n[ expla9$ !m4 ,nor is any?+ want+ to r5d] ! ?ird book ( ,locke's ,essay a ne>ly unexceptionable treatise on ! connotation ( names1 except to free its language f ! assumption ( :at are call$ ,ab/ract ,ideas1 :i* un=tunately is involv$ 9 ! phraseology1 al?\gh n necess>ily connect$ ) ! ?\ghts1 conta9$ 9 t immortal ,?ird ,book47#bc7 ,b1 besides nom9al ess5ces1 he admitt$ real ess5ces1 or ess5ces ( individual objects1 :i* he suppos$ to be ! causes ( ! s5sible prop]ties ( ^? objects4 ,we "k n 7said he7 :at ^! are2 7& ?is ackn[l$gm5t r5d]$ ! fiction comp>atively innocu\s27 b if we did1 we c\ld1 f !m alone1 demon/rate ! s5sible prop]ties ( ! object1 z ! prop]ties ( ! triangle are demon/rat$ f ! def9ition ( ! triangle4 ,i %all h occasion to rev]t to ?is !ory 9 treat+ ( ,demon/ration1 & ( ! conditions "u :i* "o prop]ty ( a ?+ admits ( be+ demon/rat$ f ano!r prop]ty4 ,x is en\gh "h to rem>k t accord+ to ?is def9ition1 ! real ess5ce ( an object has1 9 ! progress ( physics1 come to be conceiv$ z ne>ly equival5t1 9 ! case ( bodies1 to _! corpuscul> /ructure3 :at x is n[ suppos$ to mean 9 ! case ( any o!r entities1 ,i w\ld n take ^u myself to def9e4 #d4 ,an ess5tial proposition1 !n1 is "o :i* is purely v]bal2 :i* ass]ts ( a ?+ "u a p>ticul> "n1 only :at is ass]t$ ( x 9 ! fact ( call+ x by t "n2 & :i* !re=e ei!r gives no in=mation1 or gives x respect+ ! "n1 n ! ?+4 ,non-ess5tial1 or accid5tal propositions1 on ! contr>y1 may be call$ ,real ,propositions1 9 opposition to ,v]bal4 ,!y pr$icate ( a ?+1 "s fact n involv$ 9 ! signification ( ! "n by :i* ! proposition speaks ( x2 "s attribute n connot$ by t "n4 ,su* are all propositions conc]n+ ?+s individually designat$1 & all g5]al or p>ticul> propositions 9 :i* ! pr$icate connotes any attribute n connot$ by ! subject4 ,all ^!1 if true1 add to our k3 !y convey in=mation1 n already involv$ 9 ! names employ$4 ,:5 ,i am told t all1 or ev5 t "s objects1 :i* h c]ta9 qualities1 or :i* /& 9 c]ta9 relations1 h also c]ta9 o!r qualities1 or /& 9 c]ta9 o!r relations1 ,i le>n f ?is proposition a new fact2 a fact n includ$ 9 my k ( ! mean+ ( ! words1 nor ev5 ( ! exi/5ce ( ,?+s answ]+ to ! signification ( ^? words4 ,x is ?is class ( propositions only :i* are 9 !mselves in/ructive1 or f :i* any in/ructive propositions c be inf]r$4 ,no?+ has probably contribut$ m to ! op9ion s commonly preval5t ( ! futility ( ! s*ool logic1 ?an ! circum/ance t almo/ all ! examples us$ 9 ! common s*ool books to illu/rate ! doctr9e ( pr$ication & ( ! syllogism1 consi/ ( ess5tial propositions4 ,!y 7 usually tak5 ei!r f ! bran*es or f ! ma9 trunk ( ! ,pr$icam5tal ,tree1 :i* includ$ no?+ b :at 0 ( ! ess5ce ( ! species3 ,omne corpus e/ sub/antia1 ,omne animal e/ corpus1 ,omnis homo e/ corpus1 ,omnis homo e/ animal1 ,omnis homo e/ rationalis1 & s =?4 ,x is f> f wond]ful t ! syllogi/ic art %\ld h be5 ?\ght to be ( no use 9 assi/+ correct reason+1 :5 almo/ ! only propositions :i*1 9 ! h&s ( its pr(ess$ tea*]s1 x 0 employ$ to prove1 7 su* z e "o ass5t$ to )\t pro( ! mom5t he compreh5d$ ! mean+ ( ! words2 & /ood exactly on a level1 9 po9t ( evid5ce1 ) ! premisses f :i* !y 7 drawn4 ,i h1 !re=e1 ?r\gh\t ?is "w1 avoid$ ! employm5t ( ess5tial propositions z examples1 except :]e ! nature ( ! pr9ciple to be illu/rat$ specifically requir$ !m4 #e4 ,) respect to propositions :i* d convey in=mation--:i* ass]t some?+ ( a ,?+1 "u a "n t does n already presuppose :at is ab\t to be ass]t$2 !re are two diff]5t aspects 9 :i* ^!1 or r su* ( !m z are g5]al propositions1 may be consid]$3 we may ei!r look at !m z portions ( speculative tru?1 or z memor&a = practical use4 ,accord+ z we consid] propositions 9 "o or ! o!r ( ^! lights1 _! import may be conv5i5tly express$ 9 "o or 9 ! o!r ( two =mulas4 ,accord+ to ! =mula :i* we h hi!rto employ$1 & :i* is be/ adapt$ to express ! import ( ! proposition z a portion ( our !oretical k1 ,all m5 are mortal1 means t ! attributes ( man are always accompani$ by ! attribute mortality3 ,no m5 are gods1 means t ! attributes ( man are nev] accompani$ by ! attributes1 or at lea/ nev] by all ! attributes1 signifi$ by ! ^w god4 ,b :5 ! proposition is consid]$ z a memor&um = practical use1 we %all f9d a diff]5t mode ( express+ ! same mean+ bett] adapt$ to indicate ! (fice :i* ! proposition p]=ms4 ,! practical use ( a proposition is1 to apprise or rem9d u :at we h to expect1 9 any individual case :i* comes )9 ! ass]tion conta9$ 9 ! proposition4 ,9 ref]5ce to ?is purpose1 ! proposition1 ,all m5 are mortal1 means t ! attributes ( man are evid5ce (1 are a m>k (1 mortality2 an indication by :i* ! pres5ce ( t attribute is made manife/4 ,no m5 are gods1 means t ! attributes ( man are a m>k or evid5ce t "s or all ( ! attributes suppos$ to belong to a god are n !re2 t :]e ! =m] are1 we ne$ n expect to f9d ! latt]4 ,^! two =ms ( expression are at bottom equival5t2 b ! "o po9ts ! att5tion m directly to :at a proposition means1 ! latt] to ! mann] 9 :i* x is to be us$4 ,n[ x is to be obs]v$ t ,reason+ 7! subject to :i* we are next to proce$7 is a process into :i* propositions ent] n z ultimate results1 b z means to ! e/abli%m5t ( o!r propositions4 ,we may expect1 !re=e1 t ! mode ( exhibit+ ! import ( a g5]al proposition :i* %[s x 9 its application to practical use1 w be/ express ! function :i* propositions p]=m 9 ,reason+4 ,& accord+ly1 9 ! !ory ( ,reason+1 ! mode ( view+ ! subject :i* consid]s a ,proposition z ass]t+ t "o fact or ph5om5on is a m>k or evid5ce ( ano!r fact or ph5om5on1 w be f\nd almo/ indisp5sable4 ,= ! purposes ( t ,!ory1 ! be/ mode ( def9+ ! import ( a proposition is n ! mode :i* %[s mo/ cle>ly :at x is 9 itself1 b t :i* mo/ di/9ctly sugge/s ! mann] 9 :i* x may be made available = advanc+ f x to o!r propositions4 ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,( ,,! ,,nature ,,( ,,classification1 ,,& ,,! ,,five ,,pr$icables4 #a4 ,9 exam9+ into ! nature ( g5]al propositions1 we h adv]t$ mu* less ?an is usual ) ,logicians1 to ! ideas ( a ,class1 & ,classification2 ideas :i*1 s9ce ! ,reali/ doctr9e ( ,g5]al ,sub/ances w5t out ( vogue1 h =m$ ! basis ( almo/ e attempt at a philosophical !ory ( g5]al t]ms & g5]al propositions4 ,we h consid]$ g5]al names z hav+ a mean+1 q indep5d5tly ( _! be+ ! names ( classes4 ,t circum/ance is 9 tru? accid5tal1 x be+ :olly immat]ial to ! signification ( ! "n :e!r !re are _m objects or only "o to :i* x happ5s to be applicable1 or :e!r !re be any at all4 ,god is z mu* a g5]al t]m to ! ,*ri/ian or ! ,jew z to ! ,poly!i/2 & dragon1 hippogriff1 *im]a1 m]maid1 gho/1 are z mu* s z if real objects exi/$1 correspond+ to ^? names4 ,e "n ! signification ( :i* is con/itut$ by attributes1 is pot5tially a "n ( an indef9ite numb] ( objects2 b x ne$s n be actually ! "n ( any2 & if ( any1 x may be ! "n ( only "o4 ,z soon z we employ a "n to connote attributes1 ! ?+s1 be !y m or few]1 :i* happ5 to possess ^? attributes1 are con/itut$1 ipso facto1 a class4 ,b 9 pr$icat+ ! "n we pr$icate only ! attributes2 & ! fact ( belong+ to a class does n1 9 ord9>y cases1 come into view at all4 ,al?\gh1 h[ev]1 ,pr$ication does n presuppose ,classification1 & al?\gh ! !ory ( ,names & ( ,propositions is n cle>$ up1 b only encumb]$1 by intrud+ ! idea ( classification into x1 !re is nev]!less a close connexion betwe5 ,classification & ! employm5t ( ,g5]al ,names4 ,by e g5]al "n :i* we introduce1 we create a class1 if !re be any ?+s1 real or imag9>y1 to compose x2 t is1 any ,?+s correspond+ to ! signification ( ! "n4 ,classes1 !re=e1 mo/ly owe _! exi/5ce to g5]al language4 ,b g5]al language1 also1 ?\gh t is n ! mo/ common case1 sometimes owes its exi/5ce to classes4 ,a g5]al1 :i* is z mu* z to say a significant1 "n1 is inde$ mo/ly introduc$ because we h a signification to express by x2 because we ne$ a ^w by means ( :i* to pr$icate ! attributes :i* x connotes4 ,b x is also true t a "n is sometimes introduc$ because we h f\nd x conv5i5t to create a class2 because we h ?\ght x useful = ! regulation ( our m5tal op]ations1 t a c]ta9 gr\p ( objects %\ld be ?\ght ( toge!r4 ,a naturali/1 = purposes connect$ ) 8 p>ticul> sci5ce1 sees reason to di/ribute ! animal or vegetable creation into c]ta9 gr\ps r ?an into any o!rs1 & he requires a "n to b9d1 z x 71 ea* ( 8 gr\ps toge!r4 ,x mu/ n h[ev] be suppos$ t su* names1 :5 introduc$1 diff] 9 any respect1 z to _! mode ( signification1 f o!r connotative names4 ,! classes :i* !y d5ote are1 z mu* z any o!r classes1 con/itut$ by c]ta9 common attributes1 & _! names are significant ( ^? attributes1 & ( no?+ else4 ,! names ( ,cuvi]'s classes & ord]s1 ,plantigrades1 ,digitigrades1 c41 are z mu* ! expression ( attributes z if ^? names _h prec$$1 in/ead ( gr[+ out (1 8 classification ( animals4 ,! only peculi>ity ( ! case is1 t ! conv5i5ce ( classification 0 "h ! prim>y motive = introduc+ ! names2 :ile 9 o!r cases ! "n is introduc$ z a means ( pr$ication1 & ! =mation ( a class d5ot$ by x is only an indirect consequ5ce4 ,! pr9ciples :i* ought to regulate ,classification z a logical process subs]vi5t to ! inve/igation ( tru?1 _c be discuss$ to any purpose until a mu* lat] /age ( our inquiry4 ,b1 ( classification z result+ f1 & impli$ 91 ! fact ( employ+ g5]al language1 we _c =be> to treat "h1 )\t leav+ ! !ory ( g5]al names1 & ( _! employm5t 9 pr$ication1 mutilat$ & =mless4 #b4 ,?is portion ( ! !ory ( g5]al language is ! subject ( :at is t]m$ ! doctr9e ( ! ,pr$icables2 a set ( di/9ctions h&$ d[n f ,ari/otle1 & 8 foll[] ,porphyry1 _m ( :i* h tak5 a firm root 9 sci5tific1 & "s ( !m ev5 9 popul>1 phraseology4 ,! pr$icables are a five-fold division ( ,g5]al ,names1 n gr\nd$ z usual on a diff]5ce 9 _! mean+1 t is1 9 ! attribute :i* !y connote1 b on a diff]5ce 9 ! k9d ( class :i* !y d5ote4 ,we may pr$icate ( a ?+ five diff]5t v>ieties ( class-"n3-- ,a g5us ( ! ?+ 774 ,a species 774 ,a diff]5tia 774 ,a proprium 774 ,an accid5s 774 ,x is to be rem>k$ ( ^! di/9ctions1 t !y express1 n :at ! pr$icate is 9 its own mean+1 b :at relation x be>s to ! subject ( :i* x happ5s on ! p>ticul> occasion to be pr$icat$4 ,!re are n "s names :i* are exclusively g5]a1 & o!rs :i* are exclusively species1 or diff]5ti2 b ! same "n is ref]r$ to "o or ano!r ,pr$icable1 accord+ to ! subject ( :i* x is pr$icat$ on ! p>ticul> occasion4 ,animal1 = in/ance1 is a g5us ) respect to man1 or ,john2 a species ) respect to ,sub/ance1 or ,be+4 ,rectangul> is "o ( ! ,diff]5ti ( a geometrical squ>e2 x is m]ely "o ( ! ,accid5tia ( ! table at :i* ,i am writ+4 ,! words g5us1 species1 c41 are !re=e relative t]ms2 !y are names appli$ to c]ta9 pr$icates1 to express ! relation betwe5 !m & "s giv5 subject3 a relation gr\nd$1 z we %all see1 n on :at ! pr$icate connotes1 b on ! class :i* x denotes1 & on ! place :i*1 9 "s giv5 classification1 t class occupies relatively to ! p>ticul> subject4 #c4 ,( ^! five names1 two1 ,g5us & ,species1 are n only us$ by naturali/s 9 a te*nical acceptation n precisely agree+ ) _! philosophical mean+1 b h also acquir$ a popul> acceptation1 mu* m g5]al ?an ei!r4 ,9 ?is popul> s5se any two classes1 "o ( :i* includes ! :ole ( ! o!r & m1 may be call$ a ,g5us & a ,species4 ,su*1 = in/ance1 are ,animal & ,man2 ,man & ,ma!matician4 ,animal is a g5us2 ,man & ,brute are its two species2 or we may divide x into a great] numb] ( species1 z man1 horse1 dog1 c4 ,bip$1 or two-foot$ animal1 may also be consid]$ a g5us1 ( :i* man & bird are two species4 ,ta/e is a g5us1 ( :i* sweet ta/e1 s\r ta/e1 salt ta/e1 c4 are species4 ,virtue is a g5us2 ju/ice1 prud5ce1 c\rage1 =titude1 g5]osity1 c4 are its species4 ,! same class :i* is a g5us ) ref]5ce to ! sub-classes or species includ$ 9 x1 may be itself a species ) ref]5ce to a m compreh5sive1 or1 z x is (t5 call$1 a sup]ior1 g5us4 ,man is a species ) ref]5ce to animal1 b a g5us ) ref]5ce to ! species ma!matician4 ,animal is a g5us1 divid$ into two species1 man & brute2 b animal is also a species1 :i*1 ) ano!r species1 vegetable1 makes up ! g5us1 organiz$ be+4 ,bip$ is a g5us ) ref]5ce to man & bird1 b a species ) respect to ! sup]ior g5us1 animal4 ,ta/e is a g5us divid$ into species1 b also a species ( ! g5us s5sation4 ,virtue1 a g5us ) ref]5ce to ju/ice1 temp]ance1 c41 is "o ( ! species ( ! g5us1 m5tal quality4 ,9 ?is popul> s5se ! words ,g5us & ,species h pass$ into common disc\rse4 ,& x %\ld be obs]v$ t1 9 ord9>y p>lance1 n ! "n ( ! class1 b ! class itself1 is said to be ! g5us or species2 n1 ( c\rse1 ! class 9 ! s5se ( ea* individual ( t class1 b ! individuals collectively1 consid]$ z an aggregate :ole2 ! "n by :i* ! class is designat$ be+ !n call$ n ! g5us or species1 b ! g5]ic or specific "n4 ,& ?is is an admissible =m ( expression2 nor is x ( any importance :i* ( ! two modes ( speak+ we adopt1 provid$ ! re/ ( our language is consi/5t ) x2 b if we call ! class itself ! g5us1 we mu/ n talk ( pr$icat+ ! g5us4 ,we pr$icate ( man ! "n mortal2 & by pr$icat+ ! "n1 we may be said1 9 an intelligible s5se1 to pr$icate :at ! "n expresses1 ! attribute mortality2 b 9 no all[able s5se ( ! ^w pr$ication d we pr$icate ( man ! class mortal4 ,we pr$icate ( him ! fact ( belong+ to ! class4 ,by ! ,ari/otelian logicians1 ! t]ms g5us & species 7 us$ 9 a m re/rict$ s5se4 ,!y did n admit e class :i* c\ld be divid$ into o!r classes to be a g5us1 or e class :i* c\ld be includ$ 9 a l>g] class to be a species4 ,animal 0 by !m consid]$ a g5us2 & man & brute co-ord9ate species "u t g5us3 bip$ w\ld n h be5 admitt$ to be a g5us ) ref]5ce to man1 b a proprium or accid5s only4 ,x 0 requisite1 accord+ to _! !ory1 t g5us & species %\ld be ( ! ess5ce ( ! subject4 ,animal 0 ( ! ess5ce ( man2 bip$ 0 n4 ,& 9 e classification !y consid]$ "s "o class z ! l[e/ or infima species4 ,man1 = in/ance1 0 a l[e/ species4 ,any fur!r divisions into :i* ! class might be capable ( be+ brok5 d[n1 z man into :ite1 black1 & r$ man1 or into prie/ & layman1 !y did n admit to be species4 ,x has be5 se51 h[ev]1 9 ! prec$+ *apt]1 t ! di/9ction betwe5 ! ess5ce ( a class1 & ! attributes or prop]ties :i* are n ( its ess5ce--a di/9ction :i* has giv5 occasion to s mu* ab/ruse speculation1 & to :i* s my/]i\s a "* 0 =m]ly1 & by _m writ]s is /ill1 atta*$1--am\nts to no?+ m ?an ! diff]5ce betwe5 ^? attributes ( ! class :i* are1 & ^? :i* are n1 involv$ 9 ! signification ( ! class-"n4 ,z appli$ to individuals1 ! ^w ,ess5ce1 we f\nd1 has no mean+1 except 9 connexion ) ! explod$ t5ets ( ! ,reali/s2 & :at ! s*oolm5 *ose to call ! ess5ce ( an individual1 0 simply ! ess5ce ( ! class to :i* t individual 0 mo/ famili>ly ref]r$4 ,is !re no diff]5ce1 !n1 save ?is m]ely v]bal "o1 betwe5 ! classes :i* ! s*oolm5 admitt$ to be g5]a or species1 & ^? to :i* !y refus$ ! title8 ,is x an error to reg>d "s ( ! diff]5ces :i* exi/ among objects z diff]5ces 9 k9d 7g5]e or specie71 & o!rs only z diff]5ces 9 ! accid5ts8 ,7 ! s*oolm5 "r or wrong 9 giv+ to "s ( ! classes into :i* ?+s may be divid$1 ! "n ( k9ds1 & consid]+ o!rs z second>y divisions1 gr\nd$ on diff]5ces ( a comp>atively sup]ficial nature8 ,exam9ation w %[ t ! ,ari/otelians did mean some?+ by ?is di/9ction1 & some?+ important2 b :i*1 be+ b indi/9ctly conceiv$1 0 inadequately express$ by ! phraseology ( ess5ces1 & by ! v>i\s o!r modes ( spee* to :i* !y _h rec\rse4 #d4 ,x is a fundam5tal pr9ciple 9 logic1 t ! p[] ( fram+ classes is unlimit$1 z long z !re is any 7ev5 ! smalle/7 diff]5ce to f\nd a di/9ction ^u4 ,take any attribute :atev]1 & if "s ?+s h x1 & o!rs h n1 we may gr\nd on ! attribute a division ( all ?+s into two classes2 & we actually d s1 ! mom5t we create a "n :i* connotes ! attribute4 ,! numb] ( possible classes1 !re=e1 is b\ndless2 & !re are z _m actual classes 7ei!r ( real or ( imag9>y ?+s7 z !re are ( g5]al names1 positive & negative toge!r4 ,b if we contemplate any "o ( ! classes s =m$1 su* z ! class animal or plant1 or ! class sulphur or phosphorus1 or ! class :ite or r$1 & consid] 9 :at p>ticul>s ! individuals includ$ 9 ! class diff] f ^? :i* d n come )9 x1 we f9d a v rem>kable div]sity 9 ?is respect betwe5 "s classes & o!rs4 ,!re are "s classes1 ! ?+s conta9$ 9 :i* diff] f o!r ?+s only 9 c]ta9 p>ticul>s :i* may be numb]$2 :ile o!rs diff] 9 m ?an c be numb]$1 m ev5 ?an we ne$ ev] expect to "k4 ,"s classes h little or no?+ 9 common to *>act]ise !m by1 except precisely :at is connot$ by ! "n3 :ite ?+s1 = example1 are n di/+ui%$ by any common prop]ties1 except :it5ess2 or if !y are1 x is only by su* z are 9 "s way dep5d5t on1 or connect$ )1 :it5ess4 ,b a hundr$ g5]ations h n exhau/$ ! common prop]ties ( animals or ( plants1 ( sulphur or ( phosphorus2 nor d we suppose !m to be exhau/ible1 b proce$ to new obs]vations & exp]im5ts1 9 ! full confid5ce ( discov]+ new prop]ties :i* 7 by no means impli$ 9 ^? we previ\sly knew4 ,:ile1 if any "o 7 to propose = inve/igation ! common prop]ties ( all ?+s :i* are ( ! same col\r1 ! same %ape1 or ! same specific gravity1 ! absurdity w\ld be palpable4 ,we h no gr\nd to believe t any su* common prop]ties exi/1 except su* z may be %[n to be involv$ 9 ! supposition itself1 or to be d]ivable f x by "s law ( causation4 ,x appe>s1 !re=e1 t ! prop]ties1 on :i* we gr\nd our classes1 sometimes exhau/ all t ! class has 9 common1 or conta9 x all by "s mode ( implication2 b 9 o!r in/ances we make a selection ( a few prop]ties f among n only a great] numb]1 b a numb] inexhau/ible by u1 & to :i* z we "k no b\nds1 !y may1 s f> z we are conc]n$1 be reg>d$ z inf9ite4 ,!re is no impropriety 9 say+ t ( ^! two classifications1 ! "o answ]s to a mu* m radical di/9ction 9 ! ?+s !mselves1 ?an ! o!r does4 ,& if any "o ev5 *ooses to say t ! "o classification is made by nature1 ! o!r by u = our conv5i5ce1 he w be "r2 provid$ he means no m ?an ?is3 ,:]e a c]ta9 app>5t diff]5ce betwe5 ?+s 7al?\gh p]haps 9 itself ( little mom5t7 answ]s to we "k n :at numb] ( o!r diff]5ces1 p]vad+ n only _! kn[n prop]ties b prop]ties yet undiscov]$1 x is n optional b imp]ative to recognise ?is diff]5ce z ! f\ndation ( a specific di/9ction3 :ile1 on ! contr>y1 diff]5ces t are m]ely f9ite & det]m9ate1 l ^? designat$ by ! words :ite1 black1 or r$1 may be disreg>d$ if ! purpose = :i* ! classification is made does n require att5tion to ^? p>ticul> prop]ties4 ,! diff]5ces1 h[ev]1 are made by nature1 9 bo? cases2 :ile ! recognition ( ^? diff]5ces z gr\nds ( classification & ( nam+1 is1 equally 9 bo? cases1 ! act ( man3 only 9 ! "o case1 ! ends ( language & ( classification w\ld be subv]t$ if no notice 7 tak5 ( ! diff]5ce1 :ile 9 ! o!r case1 ! necessity ( tak+ notice ( x dep5ds on ! importance or unimportance ( ! p>ticul> qualities 9 :i* ! diff]5ce happ5s to consi/4 ,n[1 ^! classes1 di/+ui%$ by unkn[n multitudes ( prop]ties1 & n solely by a few det]m9ate ones1 are ! only classes :i*1 by ! ,ari/otelian logicians1 7 consid]$ z g5]a or species4 ,diff]5ces :i* ext5d$ only to a c]ta9 prop]ty or prop]ties1 & !re t]m9at$1 !y consid]$ z diff]5ces only 9 ! accid5ts ( ?+s2 b :]e any class diff]$ f o!r ?+s by an inf9ite s]ies ( diff]5ces1 kn[n & unkn[n1 !y consid]$ ! di/9ction z "o ( k9d1 & spoke ( x z be+ an ess5tial diff]5ce1 :i* is also "o ( ! usual mean+s ( t vague expression at ! pres5t day4 ,conceiv+ ! s*oolm5 to h be5 ju/ifi$ 9 draw+ a broad l9e ( sep>ation betwe5 ^! two k9ds ( classes & ( class-di/9ctions1 ,i %all n only reta9 ! division itself1 b cont9ue to express x 9 _! language4 ,accord+ to t language1 ! proximate 7or l[e/7 ,k9d to :i* any individual is ref]rible1 is call$ its species4 ,con=mably to ?is1 ,sir ,isaac ,newton w\ld be said to be ( ! species man4 ,!re are inde$ num]\s sub-classes includ$ 9 ! class man1 to :i* ,newton also belongs2 z1 = example1 ,*ri/ian1 & ,engli%man1 & ,ma!matician4 ,b ^!1 ?\gh di/9ct classes1 are n1 9 our s5se ( ! t]m1 di/9ct ,k9ds ( m54 ,a ,*ri/ian1 = example1 diff]s f o!r human be+s2 b he diff]s only 9 ! attribute :i* ! ^w expresses1 namely1 belief 9 ,*ri/ianity1 & :atev] else t implies1 ei!r z involv$ 9 ! fact itself1 or connect$ ) x ?r\gh "s law ( cause & effect4 ,we %\ld nev] ?9k ( inquir+ :at prop]ties1 unconnect$ ) ,*ri/ianity ei!r z cause or effect1 are common to all ,*ri/ians & peculi> to !m2 :ile 9 reg>d to all ,m51 physiologi/s are p]petually c>ry+ on su* an inquiry2 nor is ! answ] ev] likely to be complet$4 ,man1 !re=e1 we may call a species2 ,*ri/ian1 or ,ma!matician1 we _c4 ,note "h1 t x is by no means int5d$ to imply t !re may n be diff]5t ,k9ds1 or logical species1 ( man4 ,! v>i\s races & temp]am5ts1 ! two sexes1 & ev5 ! v>i\s ages1 maybe diff]5ces ( k9d1 )9 our mean+ ( ! t]m4 ,i d n say t !y are s4 ,= 9 ! progress ( physiology x may almo/ be said to be made out1 t ! diff]5ces :i* really exi/ betwe5 diff]5t races1 sexes1 c41 foll[ z consequ5ces1 "u laws ( nature1 f a small numb] ( prim>y diff]5ces :i* c be precisely det]m9$1 & :i*1 z ! phrase is1 acc\nt = all ! re/4 ,if ?is be s1 ^! are n di/9ctions 9 k9d2 no m ?an ,*ri/ian1 ,jew1 ,mussulman1 & ,pagan1 a diff]5ce :i* also c>ries _m consequ5ces along ) x4 ,& 9 ?is way classes are (t5 mi/ak5 = real k9ds1 :i* are aft]w>ds prov$ n to be s4 ,b if x turn$ out1 t ! diff]5ces 7 n capable ( be+ ?us acc\nt$ =1 !n ,caucasian1 ,mongolian1 ,negro1 c41 w\ld be really diff]5t ,k9ds ( human be+s1 & entitl$ to be rank$ z species by ! logician2 ?\gh n by ! naturali/4 ,= 7z already notic$7 ! ^w species is us$ 9 a v diff]5t signification 9 logic & 9 natural hi/ory4 ,by ! naturali/1 organiz$ be+s are nev] said to be ( diff]5t species1 if x is suppos$ t !y c\ld possibly h desc5d$ f ! same /ock4 ,t1 h[ev]1 is a s5se artificially giv5 to ! ^w1 = ! te*nical purposes ( a p>ticul> sci5ce4 ,to ! logician1 if a negro & a :ite man diff] 9 ! same mann] 7h[ev] less 9 degree7 z a horse & a camel d1 t is1 if _! diff]5ces are inexhau/ible1 & n ref]rible to any common cause1 !y are diff]5t species1 :e!r !y are desc5d$ f common ance/ors or n4 ,b if _! diff]5ces c all be trac$ to climate & habits1 or to "s "o special diff]5ce 9 /ructure1 !y are n1 9 ! logician's view1 specifically di/9ct4 ,:5 ! infima species1 or proximate ,k9d1 to :i* an individual belongs1 has be5 asc]ta9$1 ! prop]ties common to t ,k9d include necess>ily ! :ole ( ! common prop]ties ( e o!r real ,k9d to :i* ! individual c be ref]rible4 ,let ! individual1 = example1 be ,socrates1 & ! proximate ,k9d1 man4 ,animal1 or liv+ creature1 is also a real ,k9d1 & includes ,socrates2 b s9ce x likewise includes man1 or 9 o!r words1 s9ce all m5 are animals1 ! prop]ties common to animals =m a portion ( ! common prop]ties ( ! sub-class1 man3 & if !re be any class :i* includes ,socrates )\t includ+ man1 t class is n a real ,k9d4 ,let ! class1 = example1 be flat-nos$2 t be+ a class :i* includes ,socrates1 )\t includ+ all m54 ,to det]m9e :e!r x is a real ,k9d1 we mu/ ask ourselves ?is "q3 ,h all flat-nos$ animals1 9 addition to :atev] is impli$ 9 _! flat noses1 any common prop]ties1 o!r ?an ^? :i* are common to all animals :atev]8 ,if !y _h2 if a flat nose 7 a m>k or index to an indef9ite numb] ( o!r peculi>ities1 n d$ucible f ! =m] by any asc]ta9able law2 !n out ( ! class man we might cut ano!r class1 flat-nos$ man1 :i*1 accord+ to our def9ition1 w\ld be a ,k9d4 ,b if we c\ld d ?is1 man w\ld n be1 z x 0 assum$ to be1 ! proximate ,k9d4 ,!re=e1 ! prop]ties ( ! proximate ,k9d d compreh5d ^? 7:e!r kn[n or unkn[n7 ( all o!r ,k9ds to :i* ! individual belongs2 :i* 0 ! po9t we und]took to prove4 ,& h5ce1 e o!r ,k9d :i* is pr$icable ( ! individual1 w be to ! proximate ,k9d 9 ! relation ( a g5us1 accord+ to ev5 ! popul> acceptation ( ! t]ms g5us & species2 t is1 x w be a l>g] class1 includ+ x & m4 ,we are n[ able to fix ! logical mean+ ( ^! t]ms4 ,e class :i* is a real ,k9d1 t is1 :i* is di/+ui%$ f all o!r classes by an indet]m9ate multitude ( prop]ties n d]ivable f "o ano!r1 is ei!r a g5us or a species4 ,a ,k9d :i* is n divisible into o!r ,k9ds1 _c be a g5us1 because x has no species "u x2 b x is itself a species1 bo? ) ref]5ce to ! individuals bel[ & to ! g5]a above1 7,species ,prdicabilis & ,species ,subjicibilis47 ,b e ,k9d :i* admits ( division into real ,k9ds 7z animal into quadrup$1 bird1 c41 or quadrup$ into v>i\s species ( quadrup$s7 is a g5us to all bel[ x1 a species to all g5]a 9 :i* x is itself includ$4 ,& "h we may close ?is "p ( ! discussion1 & pass to ! ?ree rema9+ pr$icables1 ,diff]5tia1 ,proprium1 & ,accid5s4 #e4 ,to beg9 ) ,diff]5tia4 ,?is ^w is correlative ) ! words g5us & species1 & z all admit1 x signifies ! attribute :i* di/+ui%es a giv5 species f e o!r species ( ! same g5us4 ,?is is s f> cle>3 b we may /ill ask1 :i* ( ! di/+ui%+ attributes x signifies4 ,= we h se5 t e ,k9d 7& a species mu/ be a ,k9d7 is di/+ui%$ f o!r ,k9ds n by any "o attribute1 b by an indef9ite numb]4 ,man1 = in/ance1 is a species ( ! g5us animal2 ,rational 7or rationality1 = x is ( no consequ5ce :e!r we use ! concrete or ! ab/ract =m7 is g5]ally assign$ by logicians z ! ,diff]5tia2 & d\btless ?is attribute s]ves ! purpose ( di/9ction3 b x has also be5 rem>k$ ( man1 t he is a cook+ animal2 ! only animal t dresses its food4 ,?is1 !re=e1 is ano!r ( ! attributes by :i* ! species man is di/+ui%$ f o!r species ( ! same g5us3 w\ld ?is attribute s]ve equally well = a diff]5tia8 ,! ,ari/otelians say ,no2 hav+ laid x d[n t ! diff]5tia mu/1 l ! g5us & species1 be ( ! ess5ce ( ! subject4 ,& "h we lose ev5 t ve/ige ( a mean+ gr\nd$ 9 ! nature ( ! ?+s !mselves1 :i* may be suppos$ to be atta*$ to ! ^w ess5ce :5 x is said t g5us & species mu/ be ( ! ess5ce ( ! ?+4 ,!re c be no d\bt t :5 ! s*oolm5 talk$ ( ! ess5ces ( ?+s z oppos$ to _! accid5ts1 !y _h confus$ly 9 view ! di/9ction betwe5 diff]5ces ( k9d1 & ! diff]5ces :i* are n ( k9d2 !y meant to intimate t g5]a & species mu/ be ,k9ds4 ,_! notion ( ! ess5ce ( a ?+ 0 a vague notion ( a some?+ :i* makes x :at x is1 i4e41 :i* makes x ! ,k9d ( ?+ t x is--:i* causes x to h all t v>iety ( prop]ties :i* di/+ui% its ,k9d4 ,b :5 ! matt] came to be look$ at m closely1 nobody c\ld discov] :at caus$ ! ?+ to h all ^? prop]ties1 nor ev5 t !re 0 any?+ :i* caus$ x to h !m4 ,logicians1 h[ev]1 n lik+ to admit ?is1 & be+ unable to detect :at made ! ?+ to be :at x 01 satisfi$ !mselves ) :at made x to be :at x 0 call$4 ,( ! innum]able prop]ties1 kn[n & unkn[n1 t are common to ! class man1 a portion only1 & ( c\rse a v small portion1 are connot$ by its "n2 ^! few1 h[ev]1 w naturally h be5 ?us di/+ui%$ f ! re/ ei!r = _! great] obvi\sness1 or = great] suppos$ importance4 ,^! prop]ties1 !n1 :i* 7 connot$ by ! "n1 logicians seiz$ ^u1 & call$ !m ! ess5ce ( ! species2 & n /opp+ !re1 !y affirm$ !m1 9 ! case ( ! infima species1 to be ! ess5ce ( ! individual too2 = x 0 _! maxim1 t ! species conta9$ ! 8:ole ess5ce0 ( ! ?+4 ,metaphysics1 t f]tile field ( delusion propagat$ by language1 does n af=d a m signal in/ance ( su* delusion4 ,on ?is acc\nt x 0 t rationality1 be+ connot$ by ! "n man1 0 all[$ to be a diff]5tia ( ! class2 b ! peculi>ity ( cook+ _! food1 n be+ connot$1 0 relegat$ to ! class ( accid5tal prop]ties4 ,! di/9ction1 !re=e1 betwe5 ,diff]5tia1 ,proprium1 & ,accid5s1 is n f\nd$ 9 ! nature ( ?+s1 b 9 ! connotation ( names2 & we mu/ seek x !re1 if we wi% to f9d :at x is4 ,f ! fact t ! g5us includes ! species1 9 o!r words denotes m ?an ! species1 or is pr$icable ( a great] numb] ( individuals1 x foll[s t ! species mu/ connote m ?an ! g5us4 ,x mu/ connote all ! attributes :i* ! g5us connotes1 or !re w\ld be no?+ to prev5t x f d5ot+ individuals n includ$ 9 ! g5us4 ,& x mu/ connote some?+ besides1 o!rwise x w\ld include ! :ole g5us4 ,animal d5otes all ! individuals d5ot$ by man1 & _m m4 ,man1 !re=e1 mu/ connote all t animal connotes1 o!rwise !re might be m5 :o are n animals2 & x mu/ connote some?+ m ?an animal connotes1 o!rwise all animals w\ld be m54 ,?is surplus ( connotation--?is :i* ! species connotes ov] & above ! connotation ( ! g5us--is ! ,diff]5tia1 or specific diff]5ce2 or1 to /ate ! same proposition 9 o!r words1 ! ,diff]5tia is t :i* mu/ be add$ to ! connotation ( ! g5us1 to complete ! connotation ( ! species4 ,! ^w man1 = in/ance1 exclusively ( :at x connotes 9 common ) animal1 also connotes rationality1 & at lea/ "s approximation to t ext]nal =m1 :i* we all "k1 b :i*1 z we h no "n = x consid]$ 9 itself1 we are cont5t to call ! human4 ,! diff]5tia1 or specific diff]5ce1 !re=e1 ( man1 z ref]r$ to ! g5us animal1 is t outw>d =m & ! possession ( reason4 ,! ,ari/otelians said1 ! possession ( reason1 )\t ! outw>d =m4 ,b if !y adh]$ to ?is1 !y w\ld h be5 oblig$ to call ! ,h\yhnhms m54 ,! "q nev] arose1 & !y 7 nev] call$ ^u to decide h[ su* a case w\ld h affect$ _! notion ( ess5tiality4 ,h[ev] ?is may be1 !y 7 satisfi$ ) tak+ su* a portion ( ! diff]5tia z suffic$ to di/+ui% ! species f all o!r exi/+ ?+s1 al?\gh by s do+ !y might n exhau/ ! connotation ( ! "n4 #f4 ,& "h1 to prev5t ! notion ( diff]5tia f be+ re/rict$ )9 too n>r[ limits1 x is necess>y to rem>k1 t a species1 ev5 z ref]r$ to ! same g5us1 w n always h ! same diff]5tia1 b a diff]5t "o1 accord+ to ! pr9ciple & purpose :i* preside ov] ! p>ticul> classification4 ,= example1 a naturali/ surveys ! v>i\s k9ds ( animals1 & looks out = ! classification ( !m mo/ 9 accordance ) ! ord] 9 :i*1 = zoological purposes1 he ?9ks x desirable t our ideas %\ld arrange !mselves4 ,) ?is view he f9ds x advisable t "o ( 8 fundam5tal divisions %\ld be into w>m-blood$ & cold-blood$ animals2 or into animals :i* brea! ) lungs & ^? :i* brea! ) gills2 or into c>nivor\s1 & frugivor\s or gram9ivor\s2 or into ^? :i* walk on ! flat "p & ^? :i* walk on ! extremity ( ! foot1 a di/9ction on :i* "s ( ,cuvi]'s families are f\nd$4 ,9 do+ ?is1 ! naturali/ creates s _m new classes1 :i* are by no means ^? to :i* ! individual animal is famili>ly & spontane\sly ref]r$2 nor %\ld we ev] ?9k ( assign+ to !m s prom95t a position 9 our arrangem5t ( ! animal k+dom1 unless = a preconceiv$ purpose ( sci5tific conv5i5ce4 ,& to ! lib]ty ( do+ ?is !re is no limit4 ,9 ! examples we h giv51 mo/ ( ! classes are real ,k9ds1 s9ce ea* ( ! peculi>ities is an index to a multitude ( prop]ties1 belong+ to ! class :i* x *>act]izes3 b ev5 if ! case 7 o!rwise--if ! o!r prop]ties ( ^? classes c\ld all be d]iv$1 by any process kn[n to u1 f ! "o peculi>ity on :i* ! class is f\nd$--ev5 !n1 if ^? d]ivative prop]ties 7 ( prim>y importance = ! purposes ( ! naturali/1 he w\ld be w>rant$ 9 f\nd+ 8 prim>y divisions on !m4 ,if1 h[ev]1 practical conv5i5ce is a suffici5t w>rant = mak+ ! ma9 dem>cations 9 our arrangem5t ( objects run 9 l9es n co9cid+ ) any di/9ction ( ,k9d1 & s creat+ g5]a & species 9 ! popul> s5se :i* are n g5]a or species 9 ! rigor\s s5se at all2 =tiori mu/ we be w>rant$1 :5 our g5]a & species are real g5]a & species1 9 m>k+ ! di/9ction betwe5 !m by ^? ( _! prop]ties :i* consid]ations ( practical conv5i5ce mo/ /rongly recomm5d4 ,if we cut a species out ( a giv5 g5us--! species man1 = in/ance1 out ( ! g5us animal--) an int5tion on our "p t ! peculi>ity by :i* we are to be guid$ 9 ! application ( ! "n man %\ld be rationality1 !n rationality is ! diff]5tia ( ! species man4 ,suppose1 h[ev]1 t1 be+ naturali/s1 we1 = ! purposes ( our p>ticul> /udy1 cut out ( ! g5us animal ! same species man1 b ) an int5tion t ! di/9ction betwe5 man & all o!r species ( animal %\ld be1 n rationality1 b ! possession ( 8f\r incisors 9 ea* jaw1 tusks solit>y1 & erect po/ure40 ,x is evid5t t ! ^w man1 :5 us$ by u z naturali/s1 no long] connotes rationality1 b connotes ! ?ree o!r prop]ties specifi$2 = t :i* we h expressly 9 view :5 we impose a "n1 assur$ly =ms "p ( ! mean+ ( t "n4 ,we may1 !re=e1 lay x d[n z a maxim1 t :]ev] !re is a ,g5us1 & a ,species m>k$ out f t g5us by an assignable diff]5tia1 ! "n ( ! species mu/ be connotative1 & mu/ connote ! diff]5tia2 b ! connotation may be special--n involv$ 9 ! signification ( ! t]m z ord9>ily us$1 b giv5 to x :5 employ$ z a t]m ( art or sci5ce4 ,! ^w ,man1 9 common use1 connotes rationality & a c]ta9 =m1 b does n connote ! numb] or "* ( ! tee?3 9 ! ,l9nan sy/em x connotes ! numb] ( incisor & can9e tee?1 b does n connote rationality nor any p>ticul> =m4 ,! ^w man has1 !re=e1 two diff]5t mean+s2 al?\gh n commonly consid]$ z ambigu\s1 because x happ5s 9 bo? cases to denote ! same individual objects4 ,b a case is conceivable 9 :i* ! ambiguity w\ld become evid5t3 we h only to imag9e t "s new k9d ( animal 7 discov]$1 hav+ ,l9nu's ?ree *>act]i/ics ( humanity1 b n rational1 or n ( ! human =m4 ,9 ord9>y p>lance ^! animals w\ld n be call$ m52 b 9 natural hi/ory !y mu/ /ill be call$ s by ^?1 if any !re be1 :o adh]e to ! ,l9nan classification2 & ! "q w\ld arise1 :e!r ! ^w %\ld cont9ue to be us$ 9 two s5ses1 or ! classification be giv5 up1 & ! te*nical s5se ( ! t]m be ab&on$ along ) x4 ,words n o!rwise connotative may1 9 ! mode j adv]t$ to1 acquire a special or te*nical connotation4 ,?us ! ^w :it5ess1 z we h s (t5 rem>k$1 connotes no?+2 x m]ely d5otes ! attribute correspond+ to a c]ta9 s5sation3 b if we are mak+ a classification ( col\rs1 & desire to ju/ify1 or ev5 m]ely to po9t out1 ! p>ticul> place assign$ to :it5ess 9 our arrangem5t1 we may def9e x 8! col\r produc$ by ! mixture ( all ! simple rays20 & ?is fact1 ?\gh by no means impli$ 9 ! mean+ ( ! ^w :it5ess z ord9>ily us$1 b only kn[n by subsequ5t sci5tific inve/igation1 is "p ( its mean+ 9 ! p>ticul> essay or treatise1 & becomes ! diff]5tia ( ! species47#bd7 ,! diff]5tia1 !re=e1 ( a species1 may be def9$ to be1 t "p ( ! connotation ( ! specific "n1 :e!r ord9>y1 or special & te*nical1 :i* di/+ui%es ! species 9 "q f all o!r species ( ! g5us to :i* on ! p>ticul> occasion we are ref]r+ x4 #g4 ,hav+ dispos$ ( ,g5us1 ,species1 & ,diff]5tia1 we %all n f9d mu* difficulty 9 atta9+ a cle> conception ( ! di/9ction betwe5 ! o!r two pr$icables1 z well z betwe5 !m & ! fir/ ?ree4 ,9 ! ,ari/otelian phraseology1 ,g5us & ,diff]5tia are ( ! ess5ce ( ! subject2 by :i*1 z we h se51 is really meant t ! prop]ties signifi$ by ! g5us & ^? signifi$ by ! diff]5tia1 =m "p ( ! connotation ( ! "n d5ot+ ! species4 ,proprium & ,accid5s1 on ! o!r h&1 =m no "p ( ! ess5ce1 b are pr$icat$ ( ! species only accid5tally4 ,bo? are ,accid5ts1 9 ! wid] s5se 9 :i* ! accid5ts ( a ?+ are oppos$ to its ess5ce2 ?\gh1 9 ! doctr9e ( ! ,pr$icables1 ,accid5s is us$ = "o sort ( accid5t only1 ,proprium be+ ano!r sort4 ,proprium1 cont9ue ! s*oolm51 is pr$icat$ accid5tally1 inde$1 b necess>ily2 or1 z !y fur!r expla9 x1 signifies an attribute :i* is n inde$ "p ( ! ess5ce1 b :i* fl[s f1 or is a consequ5ce (1 ! ess5ce1 & is1 !re=e1 insep>ably atta*$ to ! species2 e4g4 ! v>i\s prop]ties ( a triangle1 :i*1 ?\gh no "p ( its def9ition1 mu/ necess>ily be possess$ by :atev] comes "u t def9ition4 ,accid5s1 on ! contr>y1 has no connexion :atev] ) ! ess5ce1 b may come & g1 & ! species /ill rema9 :at x 0 be=e4 ,if a species c\ld exi/ )\t its ,propria1 x mu/ be capable ( exi/+ )\t t on :i* its ,propria are necess>ily consequ5t1 & !re=e )\t its ess5ce1 )\t t :i* con/itutes x a species4 ,b an ,accid5s1 :e!r sep>able or insep>able f ! species 9 actual exp]i5ce1 may be suppos$ sep>at$1 )\t ! necessity ( suppos+ any o!r alt]ation2 or at lea/1 )\t suppos+ any ( ! ess5tial prop]ties ( ! species to be alt]$1 s9ce ) !m an ,accid5s has no connexion4 ,a ,proprium1 !re=e1 ( ! species1 may be def9$1 any attribute :i* belongs to all ! individuals includ$ 9 ! species1 & :i*1 al?\gh n connot$ by ! specific "n1 7ei!r ord9>ily if ! classification we are consid]+ be = ord9>y purposes1 or specially if x be = a special purpose17 yet foll[s f "s attribute :i* ! "n ei!r ord9>ily or specially connotes4 ,"o attribute may foll[ f ano!r 9 two ways2 & !re are consequ5tly two k9ds ( ,proprium4 ,x may foll[ z a conclusion foll[s premisses1 or x may foll[ z an effect foll[s a cause4 ,?us1 ! attribute ( hav+ ! opposite sides equal1 :i* is n "o ( ^? connot$ by ! ^w ,p>allelogram1 nev]!less foll[s f ^? connot$ by x1 namely1 f hav+ ! opposite sides /raight l9es & p>allel1 & ! numb] ( sides f\r4 ,! attribute1 !re=e1 ( hav+ ! opposite sides equal1 is a ,proprium ( ! class p>allelogram2 & a ,proprium ( ! fir/ k9d1 :i* foll[s f ! connot$ attributes by way ( demon/ration4 ,! attribute ( be+ capable ( und]/&+ language1 is a ,proprium ( ! species man1 s9ce1 )\t be+ connot$ by ! ^w1 x foll[s f an attribute :i* ! ^w does connote1 viz4 f ! attribute ( rationality4 ,b ?is is a ,proprium ( ! second k9d1 :i* foll[s by way ( causation4 ,h[ x is t "o prop]ty ( a ?+ foll[s1 or c be inf]r$1 f ano!r2 "u :at conditions ?is is possible1 & :at is ! exact mean+ ( ! phrase2 are among ! que/ions :i* w occupy u 9 ! two succe$+ ,books4 ,at pres5t x ne$s only be said1 t :e!r a ,proprium foll[s by demon/ration or by causation1 x foll[s necess>ily2 t is to say1 x _c b foll[1 consi/5tly ) "s law :i* we reg>d z a "p ( ! con/itution ei!r ( our ?9k+ faculty or ( ! univ]se4 #h4 ,"u ! rema9+ pr$icable1 ,accid5s1 are includ$ all attributes ( a ?+ :i* are nei!r involv$ 9 ! signification ( ! "n1 7:e!r ord9>ily or z a t]m ( art17 nor h1 s f> z we "k1 any necess>y connexion ) attributes :i* are s involv$4 ,!y are commonly divid$ into ,sep>able & ,insep>able ,accid5ts4 ,insep>able accid5ts are ^? :i*--al?\gh we "k ( no connexion betwe5 !m & ! attributes con/itutive ( ! species1 & al?\gh1 !re=e1 s f> z we are aw>e1 !y might be abs5t )\t mak+ ! "n inapplicable & ! species a diff]5t species--are yet nev] 9 fact kn[n to be abs5t4 ,a concise mode ( express+ ! same mean+ is1 t insep>able accid5ts are prop]ties :i* are univ]sal to ! species1 b n necess>y to x4 ,?us1 blackness is an attribute ( a cr[1 &1 z f> z we "k1 a univ]sal "o4 ,b if we 7 to discov] a race ( :ite birds1 9 o!r respects resembl+ cr[s1 we %\ld n say1 ,^! are n cr[s2 we %\ld say1 ,^! are :ite cr[s4 ,cr[1 !re=e1 does n connote blackness2 nor1 f any ( ! attributes :i* x does connote1 :e!r z a ^w 9 popul> use or z a t]m ( art1 c\ld blackness be inf]r$4 ,n only1 !re=e1 c we conceive a :ite cr[1 b we "k ( no reason :y su* an animal %\ld n exi/4 ,s9ce1 h[ev]1 none b black cr[s are kn[n to exi/1 blackness1 9 ! pres5t /ate ( our k1 ranks z an accid5t1 b an insep>able accid5t1 ( ! species cr[4 ,sep>able ,accid5ts are ^? :i* are f\nd1 9 po9t ( fact1 to be sometimes abs5t f ! species2 :i* are n only n necess>y1 b n ev5 univ]sal4 ,!y are su* z d n belong to e individual ( ! species1 b only to "s individuals2 or if to all1 n at all times4 ,?us ! col\r ( an ,european is "o ( ! sep>able accid5ts ( ! species man1 because x is n an attribute ( all human creatures4 ,be+ born1 is also 7speak+ 9 ! logical s5se7 a sep>able accid5t ( ! species man1 because1 al?\gh an attribute ( all human be+s1 x is s only at "o p>ticul> "t4 ,a =tiori ^? attributes :i* are n con/ant ev5 9 ! same individual1 z1 to be 9 "o or 9 ano!r place1 to be hot or cold1 sitt+ or walk+1 mu/ be rank$ z sep>able accid5ts4 ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,( ,,def9ition4 #a4 ,"o necess>y "p ( ! !ory ( ,names & ( ,propositions rema9s to be treat$ ( 9 ?is place3 ! !ory ( ,def9itions4 ,z be+ ! mo/ important ( ! class ( propositions :i* we h *>act]iz$ z purely v]bal1 !y h already receiv$ "s notice 9 ! *apt] prec$+ ! la/4 ,b _! full] treatm5t 0 at t "t po/pon$1 because def9ition is s closely connect$ ) classification1 t1 until ! nature ( ! latt] process is 9 "s measure und]/ood1 ! =m] _c be discuss$ to mu* purpose4 ,! simple/ & mo/ correct notion ( a ,def9ition is1 a proposition decl>atory ( ! mean+ ( a ^w2 namely1 ei!r ! mean+ :i* x be>s 9 common acceptation1 or t :i* ! speak] or writ]1 = ! p>ticul> purposes ( 8 disc\rse1 int5ds to annex to x4 ,! def9ition ( a ^w be+ ! proposition :i* enunciates its mean+1 words :i* h no mean+ are unsusceptible ( def9ition4 ,prop] names1 !re=e1 _c be def9$4 ,a prop] "n be+ a m]e m>k put ^u an individual1 & ( :i* x is ! *>act]i/ic prop]ty to be de/itute ( mean+1 its mean+ _c ( c\rse be decl>$2 ?\gh we may indicate by language1 z we might indicate /ill m conv5i5tly by po9t+ ) ! f+]1 ^u :at individual t p>ticul> m>k has be51 or is int5d$ to be1 put4 ,x is no def9ition ( 8,john ,?omson0 to say he is 8! son ( ,g5]al ,?omson20 = ! "n ,john ,?omson does n express ?is4 ,nei!r is x any def9ition ( 8,john ,?omson0 to say he is 8! man n[ cross+ ! /reet40 ,^! propositions may s]ve to make kn[n :o is ! p>ticul> man to :om ! "n belongs2 b t may be done /ill m unambigu\sly by po9t+ to him1 :i*1 h[ev]1 has n usually be5 e/eem$ "o ( ! modes ( def9ition4 ,9 ! case ( connotative names1 ! mean+1 z has be5 s (t5 obs]v$1 is ! connotation2 & ! def9ition ( a connotative "n1 is ! proposition :i* decl>es its connotation4 ,?is may be done ei!r directly or indirectly4 ,! direct mode w\ld be by a proposition 9 ?is =m3 8,man0 7or :atsov] ! ^w may be7 8is a "n connot+ su* & su* attributes10 or 8is a "n :i*1 :5 pr$icat$ ( any?+1 signifies ! possession ( su* & su* attributes by t ?+40 ,or ?us3 ,man is ev]y?+ :i* possesses su* & su* attributes3 ,man is ev]y?+ :i* possesses corporeity1 organization1 life1 rationality1 & c]ta9 peculi>ities ( ext]nal =m4 ,?is =m ( def9ition is ! mo/ precise & lea/ equivocal ( any2 b x is n brief en\gh1 & is besides too te*nical & p$antic = common disc\rse4 ,! m usual mode ( decl>+ ! connotation ( a "n1 is to pr$icate ( x ano!r "n or names ( kn[n signification1 :i* connote ! same aggregation ( attributes4 ,?is may be done ei!r by pr$icat+ ( ! "n int5d$ to be def9$1 ano!r connotative "n exactly synonym\s1 z1 8,man is a human be+10 :i* is n commonly acc\nt$ a def9ition at all2 or by pr$icat+ two or m connotative names1 :i* make up among !m ! :ole connotation ( ! "n to be def9$4 ,9 ?is la/ case1 aga91 we may ei!r compose our def9ition ( z _m connotative names z !re are attributes1 ea* attribute be+ connot$ by "o2 z1 ,man is a corporeal1 organiz$1 animat$1 rational be+1 %ap$ s & s2 or we may employ names :i* connote sev]al ( ! attributes at once1 z1 ,man is a rational animal1 %ap$ s & s4 ,! def9ition ( a "n1 accord+ to ?is view ( x1 is ! sum total ( all ! ess5tial propositions :i* c be fram$ ) t "n = _! subject4 ,all propositions ! tru? ( :i* is impli$ 9 ! "n1 all ^? :i* we are made aw>e ( by m]ely he>+ ! "n1 are includ$ 9 ! def9ition1 if complete1 & may be evolv$ f x )\t ! aid ( any o!r premisses2 :e!r ! def9ition expresses !m 9 two or ?ree words1 or 9 a l>g] numb]4 ,x is1 !re=e1 n )\t reason t ,condillac & o!r writ]s h affirm$ a def9ition to be an analysis4 ,to resolve any complex :ole into ! elem5ts ( :i* x is comp\nd$1 is ! mean+ ( analysis2 & ?is we d :5 we replace "o ^w :i* connotes a set ( attributes collectively1 by two or m :i* connote ! same attributes s+ly1 or 9 small] gr\ps4 #b4 ,f ?is1 h[ev]1 ! "q naturally arises1 9 :at mann] are we to def9e a "n :i* connotes only a s+le attribute8 = in/ance1 8:ite10 :i* connotes no?+ b :it5ess2 8rational10 :i* connotes no?+ b ! possession ( reason4 ,x might seem t ! mean+ ( su* names c\ld only be decl>$ 9 two ways2 by a synonym\s t]m1 if any su* c be f\nd2 or 9 ! direct way already allud$ to3 8,:ite is a "n connot+ ! attribute :it5ess40 ,let u see1 h[ev]1 :e!r ! analysis ( ! mean+ ( ! "n1 t is1 ! break+ d[n ( t mean+ into sev]al p>ts1 admits ( be+ c>ri$ f>!r4 ,)\t at pres5t decid+ ?is "q z to ! ^w :ite1 x is obvi\s t 9 ! case ( rational "s fur!r explanation may be giv5 ( its mean+ ?an is conta9$ 9 ! proposition1 8,rational is t :i* possesses ! attribute ( reason20 s9ce ! attribute reason itself admits ( be+ def9$4 ,& "h we mu/ turn our att5tion to ! def9itions ( attributes1 or r ( ! names ( attributes1 t is1 ( ab/ract names4 ,9 reg>d to su* names ( attributes z are connotative1 & express attributes ( ^? attributes1 !re is no difficulty3 l o!r connotative names1 !y are def9$ by decl>+ _! connotation4 ,?us1 ! ^w fault may be def9$1 8a quality productive ( evil or inconv5i5ce40 ,sometimes1 aga91 ! attribute to be def9$ is n "o attribute1 b an union ( sev]al3 we h only1 !re=e1 to put toge!r ! names ( all ! attributes tak5 sep>ately1 & we obta9 ! def9ition ( ! "n :i* belongs to !m all tak5 toge!r2 a def9ition :i* w correspond exactly to t ( ! correspond+ concrete "n4 ,=1 z we def9e a concrete "n by enum]at+ ! attributes :i* x connotes1 & z ! attributes connot$ by a concrete "n =m ! entire signification ( ! correspond+ ab/ract "o1 ! same enum]ation w s]ve = ! def9ition ( bo?4 ,?us1 if ! def9ition ( a human be+ be ?is1 8a be+1 corporeal1 animat$1 rational1 & %ap$ s & s10 ! def9ition ( humanity w be1 corporeity & animal life1 comb9$ ) rationality1 & ) su* & su* a %ape4 ,:51 on ! o!r h&1 ! ab/ract "n does n express a complication ( attributes1 b a s+le attribute1 we mu/ rememb] t e attribute is gr\nd$ on "s fact or ph5om5on1 f :i*1 & :i* alone1 x d]ives its mean+4 ,to t fact or ph5om5on1 call$ 9 a =m] *apt] ! f\ndation ( ! attribute1 we mu/1 !re=e1 h rec\rse = its def9ition4 ,n[1 ! f\ndation ( ! attribute may be a ph5om5on ( any degree ( complexity1 consi/+ ( _m diff]5t p>ts1 ei!r coexi/5t or 9 succession4 ,to obta9 a def9ition ( ! attribute1 we mu/ analyse ! ph5om5on into ^! p>ts4 ,eloqu5ce1 = example1 is ! "n ( "o attribute only2 b ?is attribute is gr\nd$ on ext]nal effects ( a complicat$ nature1 fl[+ f acts ( ! p]son to :om we ascribe ! attribute2 & by resolv+ ?is ph5om5on ( causation into its two p>ts1 ! cause & ! effect1 we obta9 a def9ition ( eloqu5ce1 viz41 ! p[] ( influ5c+ ! feel+s by spee* or writ+4 ,a "n1 !re=e1 :e!r concrete or ab/ract1 admits ( def9ition1 provid$ we are able to analyse1 t is1 to di/+ui% into p>ts1 ! attribute or set ( attributes :i* con/itute ! mean+ bo? ( ! concrete "n & ( ! correspond+ ab/ract3 if a set ( attributes1 by enum]at+ !m2 if a s+le attribute1 by dissect+ ! fact or ph5om5on 7:e!r ( p]ception or ( int]nal consci\sness7 :i* is ! f\ndation ( ! attribute4 ,b1 fur!r1 ev5 :5 ! fact is "o ( our simple feel+s or /ates ( consci\sness1 & !re=e unsusceptible ( analysis1 ! names bo? ( ! object & ( ! attribute /ill admit ( def9ition2 or1 r1 w\ld d s if all our simple feel+s _h names4 ,:it5ess may be def9$1 ! prop]ty or p[] ( excit+ ! s5sation ( :ite4 ,a :ite object may be def9$ an object :i* excites ! s5sation ( :ite4 ,! only names :i* are unsusceptible ( def9ition1 because _! mean+ is unsusceptible ( analysis1 are ! names ( ! simple feel+s !mselves4 ,^! are 9 ! same condition z prop] names4 ,!y are n inde$1 l prop] names1 unmean+2 = ! words s5sation ( :ite signify1 t ! s5sation :i* ,i s d5om9ate resembles o!r s5sations :i* ,i rememb] to h _h be=e1 & to h call$ by t "n4 ,b z we h no words by :i* to recall ^? =m] s5sations1 except ! v ^w :i* we seek to def9e1 or "s o!r :i*1 be+ exactly synonym\s ) x1 requires def9ition z mu*1 words _c unfold ! signification ( ?is class ( names2 & we are oblig$ to make a direct appeal to ! p]sonal exp]i5ce ( ! individual :om we address4 #c4 ,hav+ /at$ :at seems to be ! true idea ( a ,def9ition1 we proce$ to exam9e "s op9ions ( philosoph]s1 & "s popul> conceptions on ! subject1 :i* conflict m or less ) t idea4 ,! only adequate def9ition ( a "n is1 z already rem>k$1 "o :i* decl>es ! facts1 & ! :ole ( ! facts1 :i* ! "n involves 9 its signification4 ,b ) mo/ p]sons ! object ( a def9ition does n embrace s mu*2 !y look = no?+ m1 9 a def9ition1 ?an a guide to ! correct use ( ! t]m--a protection aga9/ apply+ x 9 a mann] inconsi/5t ) cu/om & conv5tion4 ,any?+1 !re=e1 is to !m a suffici5t def9ition ( a t]m1 :i* w s]ve z a correct index to :at ! t]m denotes2 al?\gh n embrac+ ! :ole1 & sometimes1 p]haps1 n ev5 any "p1 ( :at x connotes4 ,?is gives rise to two sorts ( imp]fect1 or unsci5tific def9ition2 namely1 ,ess5tial b incomplete ,def9itions1 & ,accid5tal ,def9itions1 or ,descriptions4 ,9 ! =m]1 a connotative "n is def9$ by a "p only ( its connotation2 9 ! latt]1 by some?+ :i* =ms no "p ( ! connotation at all4 ,an example ( ! fir/ k9d ( imp]fect def9itions is ! foll[+3--,man is a rational animal4 ,x is impossible to consid] ?is z a complete def9ition ( ! ^w ,man1 s9ce 7z be=e rem>k$7 if we adh]$ to x we %\ld be oblig$ to call ! ,h\yhnhms m52 b z !re happ5 to be no ,h\yhnhms1 ?is imp]fect def9ition is suffici5t to m>k out & di/+ui% f all o!r ?+s1 ! objects at pres5t d5ot$ by 8man20 all ! be+s actually kn[n to exi/1 ( :om ! "n is pr$icable4 ,?\gh ! ^w is def9$ by "s only among ! attributes :i* x connotes1 n by all1 x happ5s t all kn[n objects :i* possess ! enum]at$ attributes1 possess also ^? :i* are omitt$2 s t ! field ( pr$ication :i* ! ^w cov]s1 & ! employm5t ( x :i* is con=mable to usage1 are z well indicat$ by ! inadequate def9ition z by an adequate "o4 ,su* def9itions1 h[ev]1 are always liable to be ov]?r[n by ! discov]y ( new objects 9 nature4 ,def9itions ( ?is k9d are :at logicians h _h 9 view1 :5 !y laid d[n ! rule1 t ! def9ition ( a species %\ld be p] g5us et diff]5tiam4 ,diff]5tia be+ seldom tak5 to mean ! :ole ( ! peculi>ities con/itutive ( ! species1 b "s "o ( ^? peculi>ities only1 a complete def9ition w\ld be p] g5us et diff]5tias1 r ?an diff]5tiam4 ,x w\ld include1 ) ! "n ( ! sup]ior g5us1 n m]ely "s attribute :i* di/+ui%es ! species int5d$ to be def9$ f all o!r species ( ! same g5us1 b all ! attributes impli$ 9 ! "n ( ! species1 :i* ! "n ( ! sup]ior g5us has n already impli$4 ,! ass]tion1 h[ev]1 t a def9ition mu/ ( necessity consi/ ( a g5us & diff]5ti1 is n t5able4 ,x 0 e>ly rem>k$ by logicians1 t ! summum g5us 9 any classification1 hav+ no g5us sup]ior to itself1 c\ld n be def9$ 9 ?is mann]4 ,yet we h se5 t all names1 except ^? ( our elem5t>y feel+s1 are susceptible ( def9ition 9 ! /ricte/ s5se2 by sett+ =? 9 words ! con/itu5t p>ts ( ! fact or ph5om5on1 ( :i* ! connotation ( e ^w is ultimately compos$4 #d4 ,al?\gh ! fir/ k9d ( imp]fect def9ition1 7:i* def9es a connotative t]m by a "p only ( :at x connotes1 b a "p suffici5t to m>k out correctly ! b\nd>ies ( its d5otation17 has be5 consid]$ by ! anci5ts1 & by logicians 9 g5]al1 z a complete def9ition2 x has always be5 deem$ necess>y t ! attributes employ$ %\ld really =m "p ( ! connotation2 = ! rule 0 t ! def9ition mu/ be drawn f ! ess5ce ( ! class2 & ?is w\ld n h be5 ! case if x _h be5 9 any degree made up ( attributes n connot$ by ! "n4 ,! second k9d ( imp]fect def9ition1 !re=e1 9 :i* ! "n ( a class is def9$ by any ( its accid5ts1--t is1 by attributes :i* are n includ$ 9 its connotation1--has be5 reject$ f ! rank ( g5u9e ,def9ition by all logicians1 & has be5 t]m$ ,description4 ,?is k9d ( imp]fect def9ition1 h[ev]1 takes its rise f ! same cause z ! o!r1 namely1 ! will+ness to accept z a def9ition any?+ :i*1 :e!r x exp\nds ! mean+ ( ! "n or n1 enables u to discrim9ate ! ?+s d5ot$ by ! "n f all o!r ?+s1 & consequ5tly to employ ! t]m 9 pr$ication )\t deviat+ f e/abli%$ usage4 ,?is purpose is duly answ]$ by /at+ any 7no matt] :at7 ( ! attributes :i* are common to ! :ole ( ! class1 & peculi> to x2 or any comb9ation ( attributes :i* may happ5 to be peculi> to x1 ?\gh sep>ately ea* ( ^? attributes may be common to x ) "s o!r ?+s4 ,x is only necess>y t ! def9ition 7or description7 ?us =m$1 %\ld be conv]tible ) ! "n :i* x pr(esses to def9e2 t is1 %\ld be exactly co-ext5sive ) x1 be+ pr$icable ( ev]y?+ ( :i* x is pr$icable1 & ( no?+ ( :i* x is n pr$icable2 al?\gh ! attributes specifi$ may h no connexion ) ^? :i* mank9d _h 9 view :5 !y =m$ or recognis$ ! class1 & gave x a "n4 ,! foll[+ are correct def9itions ( ,man1 accord+ to ?is te/3 ,man is a mammif]\s animal1 hav+ 7by nature7 two h&s 7= ! human species answ]s to ?is description1 & no o!r animal does73 ,man is an animal :o cooks 8 food3 ,man is a fea!rless bip$4 ,:at w\ld o!rwise be a m]e description1 may be rais$ to ! rank ( a real def9ition by ! peculi> purpose :i* ! speak] or writ] has 9 view4 ,z 0 se5 9 ! prec$+ *apt]1 x may1 = ! ends ( a p>ticul> art or sci5ce1 or = ! m conv5i5t /atem5t ( an au?or's p>ticul> doctr9es1 be advisable to give to "s g5]al "n1 )\t alt]+ its d5otation1 a special connotation1 diff]5t f its ord9>y "o4 ,:5 ?is is done1 a def9ition ( ! "n by means ( ! attributes :i* make up ! special connotation1 ?\gh 9 g5]al a m]e accid5tal def9ition or description1 becomes on ! p>ticul> occasion & = ! p>ticul> purpose a complete & g5u9e def9ition4 ,?is actually occurs ) respect to "o ( ! prec$+ examples1 8,man is a mammif]\s animal hav+ two h&s10 :i* is ! sci5tific def9ition ( man consid]$ z "o ( ! species 9 ,cuvi]'s di/ribution ( ! animal k+dom4 ,9 cases ( ?is sort1 al?\gh ! def9ition is /ill a decl>ation ( ! mean+ :i* 9 ! p>ticul> in/ance ! "n is appo9t$ to convey1 x _c be said t to /ate ! mean+ ( ! ^w is ! purpose ( ! def9ition4 ,! purpose is n to exp\nd a "n1 b to help to exp\nd a classification4 ,! special mean+ :i* ,cuvi] assign$ to ! ^w ,man1 7q =eign to its ord9>y mean+1 ?\gh involv+ no *ange 9 ! d5otation ( ! ^w17 0 incid5tal to a plan ( arrang+ animals into classes on a c]ta9 pr9ciple1 t is1 accord+ to a c]ta9 set ( di/9ctions4 ,& s9ce ! def9ition ( ,man accord+ to ! ord9>y connotation ( ! ^w1 ?\gh x w\ld h answ]$ e o!r purpose ( a def9ition1 w\ld n h po9t$ out ! place :i* ! species ought to occupy 9 t p>ticul> classification2 he gave ! ^w a special connotation1 t he might be able to def9e x by ! k9d ( attributes on :i*1 = reasons ( sci5tific conv5i5ce1 he _h resolv$ to f\nd 8 division ( animat$ nature4 ,sci5tific def9itions1 :e!r !y are def9itions ( sci5tific t]ms or ( common t]ms us$ 9 a sci5tific s5se1 are almo/ always ( ! k9d la/ spok5 (3 _! ma9 purpose is to s]ve z ! l&m>ks ( sci5tific classification4 ,& s9ce ! classifications 9 any sci5ce are cont9ually modifi$ z sci5tific k advances1 ! def9itions 9 ! sci5ces are also con/antly v>y+4 ,a /rik+ in/ance is af=d$ by ! words ,acid & ,alkali1 especially ! =m]4 ,z exp]im5tal discov]y advanc$1 ! sub/ances class$ ) acids h be5 con/antly multiply+1 & by a natural consequ5ce ! attributes connot$ by ! ^w h rec$$ & become few]4 ,at fir/ x connot$ ! attributes1 ( comb9+ ) an alkali to =m a neutral sub/ance 7call$ a salt72 be+ comp\nd$ ( a base & oxyg52 cau/icity to ! ta/e & t\*2 fluidity1 c4 ,! true analysis ( muriatic acid1 into *lor9e & hydrog51 caus$ ! second prop]ty1 composition f a base & oxyg51 to be exclud$ f ! connotation4 ,! same discov]y fix$ ! att5tion ( *emi/s ^u hydrog5 z an important elem5t 9 acids2 & m rec5t discov]ies hav+ l$ to ! recognition ( its pres5ce 9 sulphuric1 nitric1 & _m o!r acids1 :]e its exi/5ce 0 n previ\sly suspect$1 !re is n[ a t5d5cy to include ! pres5ce ( ?is elem5t 9 ! connotation ( ! ^w4 ,b c>bonic acid1 silica1 sulphur\s acid1 h no hydrog5 9 _! composition2 t prop]ty _c !re=e be connot$ by ! t]m1 unless ^? sub/ances are no long] to be consid]$ acids4 ,cau/icity1 & fluidity1 h long s9ce be5 exclud$ f ! *>act]i/ics ( ! class1 by ! inclusion ( silica & _m o!r sub/ances 9 x2 & ! =mation ( neutral bodies by comb9ation ) alkalis1 toge!r ) su* electro-*emical peculi>ities z ?is is suppos$ to imply1 are n[ ! only diff]5ti :i* =m ! fix$ connotation ( ! ^w ,acid1 z a t]m ( *emical sci5ce4 ,sci5tific m5 are /ill seek+1 & may be long ere !y f9d1 a suitable def9ition ( "o ( ! e>lie/ words 9 ! vocabul>y ( ! human race1 & "o ( ^? ( :i* ! popul> s5se is pla9e/ & be/ und]/ood4 ,! ^w ,i mean is ,heat2 & ! s\rce ( ! difficulty is ! imp]fect /ate ( our sci5tific k1 :i* has %[n to u multitudes ( ph5om5a c]ta9ly connect$ ) ! same p[] :i* causes :at our s5ses recognise z heat1 b has n yet taught u ! laws ( ^? ph5om5a ) suffici5t accuracy to admit ( our det]m9+ "u :at *>act]i/ics ! :ole ( ^? ph5om5a %all ultimately be embodi$ z a class3 :i* *>act]i/ics w\ld ( c\rse be s _m diff]5ti = ! def9ition ( ! p[] itself4 ,we h advanc$ f> en\gh to "k t "o ( ! attributes connot$ mu/ be t ( op]at+ z a repulsive =ce2 b ?is is c]ta9ly n all :i* mu/ ultimately be includ$ 9 ! sci5tific def9ition ( heat4 ,:at is true ( ! def9ition ( any t]m ( sci5ce1 is ( c\rse true ( ! def9ition ( a sci5ce itself3 & accord+ly1 7z obs]v$ 9 ! ,introductory ,*apt] ( ?is "w17 ! def9ition ( a sci5ce mu/ necess>ily be progressive & provisional4 ,any ext5sion ( k or alt]ation 9 ! curr5t op9ions respect+ ! subject matt]1 may lead to a *ange m or less ext5sive 9 ! p>ticul>s includ$ 9 ! sci5ce2 & its composition be+ ?us alt]$1 x may easily happ5 t a diff]5t set ( *>act]i/ics w be f\nd bett] adapt$ z diff]5ti = def9+ its "n4 ,9 ! same mann] 9 :i* a special or te*nical def9ition has = its object to exp\nd ! artificial classification out ( :i* x gr[s2 ! ,ari/otelian logicians seem to h imag9$ t x 0 also ! bus9ess ( ord9>y def9ition to exp\nd ! ord9>y1 & :at !y deem$ ! natural1 classification ( ?+s1 namely1 ! division ( !m into ,k9ds2 & to %[ ! place :i* ea* ,k9d occupies1 z sup]ior1 collat]al1 or subord9ate among o!r ,k9ds4 ,?is notion w\ld acc\nt = ! rule t all def9ition mu/ necess>ily be p] g5us et diff]5tiam1 & w\ld also expla9 :y any "o diff]5tia 0 deem$ suffici5t4 ,b to exp\nd1 or express 9 words1 a di/9ction ( ,k9d1 has already be5 %[n to be an impossibility3 ! v mean+ ( a ,k9d is1 t ! prop]ties :i* di/+ui% x d n gr[ out ( "o ano!r1 & _c !re=e be set =? 9 words1 ev5 by implication1 o!rwise ?an by enum]at+ !m all3 & all are n kn[n1 nor ev] w be s4 ,x is idle1 !re=e1 to look to ?is z "o ( ! purposes ( a def9ition3 :ile1 if x be only requir$ t ! def9ition ( a ,k9d %\ld indicate :at ,k9ds include x or are includ$ by x1 any def9itions :i* exp\nd ! connotation ( ! names w d ?is3 = ! "n ( ea* class mu/ necess>ily connote en\gh ( its prop]ties to fix ! b\nd>ies ( ! class4 ,if ! def9ition1 !re=e1 be a full /atem5t ( ! connotation1 x is all t a def9ition c be requir$ to be4 #e4 ,( ! two incomplete or unsci5tific modes ( def9ition1 & 9 :at !y diff] f ! complete or sci5tific mode1 en\gh has n[ be5 said4 ,we %all next exam9e an anci5t doctr9e1 once g5]ally preval5t & /ill by no means explod$1 :i* ,i reg>d z ! s\rce ( a great "p ( ! obscurity hang+ ov] "s ( ! mo/ important processes ( ! und]/&+ 9 ! pursuit ( tru?4 ,accord+ to ?is1 ! def9itions ( :i* we h n[ treat$ are only "o ( two sorts into :i* def9itions may be divid$1 viz4 def9itions ( names1 & def9itions ( ?+s4 ,! =m] are int5d$ to expla9 ! mean+ ( a t]m2 ! latt]1 ! nature ( a ?+2 ! la/ be+ incomp>ably ! mo/ important4 ,?is op9ion 0 held by ! anci5t philosoph]s1 & by _! foll[]s1 ) ! exception ( ! ,nom9ali/s2 b z ! _s ( mod]n metaphysics1 until a rec5t p]iod1 has be5 on ! :ole a ,nom9ali/ _s1 ! notion ( def9itions ( ?+s has be5 to a c]ta9 ext5t 9 abeyance1 /ill cont9u+1 h[ev]1 to bre$ confusion 9 logic1 by its consequ5ces inde$ r ?an by itself4 ,yet ! doctr9e 9 its own prop] =m n[ & !n breaks out1 & has appe>$ 7among o!r places7 :]e x 0 sc>cely to be expect$1 9 a des]v$ly popul> "w1 ,ar*bi%op ,:ately's ,logic47#be7 ,9 a review ( t "w publi%$ by me 9 ! ,we/m9/] ,review = ,janu>y #ahbh1 & conta9+ "s op9ions :i* ,i no long] ent]ta91 ,i f9d ! foll[+ obs]vations on ! "q n[ be=e u2 obs]vations ) :i* my pres5t view ( t "q is /ill suffici5tly 9 accordance4 8,! di/9ction betwe5 nom9al & real def9itions1 betwe5 def9itions ( words & :at are call$ def9itions ( ?+s1 ?\gh con=mable to ! ideas ( mo/ ( ! ,ari/otelian logicians1 _c1 z x appe>s to u1 be ma9ta9$4 ,we appreh5d t no def9ition is ev] int5d$ to #8expla9 & unfold ! nature ( ! ?+4' ,x is "s confirmation ( our op9ion1 t none ( ^? writ]s :o h ?\ght t !re 7 def9itions ( ?+s1 h ev] succe$$ 9 discov]+ any crit]ion by :i* ! def9ition ( a ?+ c be di/+ui%$ f any o!r proposition relat+ to ! ?+4 ,! def9ition1 !y say1 unfolds ! nature ( ! ?+3 b no def9ition c unfold its :ole nature2 & e proposition 9 :i* any quality :atev] is pr$icat$ ( ! ?+1 unfolds "s "p ( its nature4 ,! true /ate ( ! case we take to be ?is4 ,all def9itions are ( names1 & ( names only2 b1 9 "s def9itions1 x is cle>ly app>5t1 t no?+ is int5d$ except to expla9 ! mean+ ( ! ^w2 :ile 9 o!rs1 besides expla9+ ! mean+ ( ! ^w1 x is int5d$ to be impli$ t !re exi/s a ?+1 correspond+ to ! ^w4 ,:e!r ?is be or be n impli$ 9 any giv5 case1 _c be collect$ f ! m]e =m ( ! expression4 #8,a c5taur is an animal ) ! upp] p>ts ( a man & ! l[] p>ts ( a horse1' & #8,a triangle is a rectil9eal figure ) ?ree sides1' are1 9 =m1 expressions precisely simil>2 al?\gh 9 ! =m] x is n impli$ t any ?+1 con=mable to ! t]m1 really exi/s1 :ile 9 ! latt] x is2 z may be se5 by sub/itut+1 9 bo? def9itions1 ! ^w means = is4 ,9 ! fir/ expression1 #8,a c5taur means an animal1' c41 ! s5se w\ld rema9 un*ang$3 9 ! second #8,a triangle means1' c41 ! mean+ w\ld be alt]$1 s9ce x w\ld be obvi\sly impossible to d$uce any ( ! tru?s ( geometry f a proposition expressive only ( ! mann] 9 :i* we int5d to employ a p>ticul> sign4 8,!re are1 !re=e1 expressions1 commonly pass+ = def9itions1 :i* include 9 !mselves m ?an ! m]e explanation ( ! mean+ ( a t]m4 ,b x is n correct to call an expression ( ?is sort a peculi> k9d ( def9ition4 ,its diff]5ce f ! o!r k9d consi/s 9 ?is1 t x is n a def9ition1 b a def9ition & some?+ m4 ,! def9ition above giv5 ( a triangle1 obvi\sly comprises n "o1 b two propositions1 p]fectly di/+ui%able4 ,! "o is1 #8,!re may exi/ a figure1 b\nd$ by ?ree /raight l9es3' ! o!r1 #8,& ?is figure may be t]m$ a triangle4' ,! =m] ( ^! propositions is n a def9ition at all3 ! latt] is a m]e nom9al def9ition1 or explanation ( ! use & application ( a t]m4 ,! fir/ is susceptible ( tru? or falsehood1 & may !re=e be made ! f\ndation ( a tra9 ( reason+4 ,! latt] c nei!r be true nor false2 ! only "* x is susceptible ( is t ( con=mity or discon=mity to ! ord9>y usage ( language40 ,!re is a real di/9ction1 !n1 betwe5 def9itions ( names1 & :at are errone\sly call$ def9itions ( ?+s2 b x is1 t ! latt]1 along ) ! mean+ ( a "n1 cov]tly ass]ts a matt] ( fact4 ,?is cov]t ass]tion is n a def9ition1 b a po/ulate4 ,! def9ition is a m]e id5tical proposition1 :i* gives in=mation only ab\t ! use ( language1 & f :i* no conclusions affect+ matt]s ( fact c possibly be drawn4 ,! accompany+ po/ulate1 on ! o!r h&1 affirms a fact1 :i* may lead to consequ5ces ( e degree ( importance4 ,x affirms ! real exi/5ce ( ,?+s possess+ ! comb9ation ( attributes set =? 9 ! def9ition2 & ?is1 if true1 may be f\ndation suffici5t on :i* to build a :ole fabric ( sci5tific tru?4 ,we h already made1 & %all (t5 h to repeat1 ! rem>k1 t ! philosoph]s :o ov]?rew ,realism by no means got rid ( ! consequ5ces ( ,realism1 b reta9$ long aft]w>ds1 9 _! own philosophy1 num]\s propositions :i* c\ld only h a rational mean+ z "p ( a ,reali/ic sy/em4 ,x _h be5 h&$ d[n f ,ari/otle1 & probably f e>li] times1 z an obvi\s tru?1 t ! sci5ce ( ,geometry is d$uc$ f def9itions4 ,?is1 s long z a def9ition 0 consid]$ to be a proposition 8unfold+ ! nature ( ! ?+10 did well en\gh4 ,b ,hobbes foll[$1 & reject$ utt]ly ! notion t a def9ition decl>es ! nature ( ! ?+1 or does any?+ b /ate ! mean+ ( a "n2 yet he cont9u$ to affirm z broadly z any ( 8 pr$ecessors1 t ! 1 pr9cipia1 or orig9al premisses ( ma!matics1 & ev5 ( all sci5ce1 are def9itions2 produc+ ! s+ul> p>adox1 t sy/ems ( sci5tific tru?1 nay1 all tru?s :atev] at :i* we arrive by reason+1 are d$uc$ f ! arbitr>y conv5tions ( mank9d conc]n+ ! signification ( words4 ,to save ! cr$it ( ! doctr9e t def9itions are ! premisses ( sci5tific k1 ! proviso is sometimes add$1 t !y are s only "u a c]ta9 condition1 namely1 t !y be fram$ con=mably to ! ph5om5a ( nature2 t is1 t !y ascribe su* mean+s to t]ms z %all suit objects actually exi/+4 ,b ?is is only an in/ance ( ! attempt s (t5 made1 to escape f ! necessity ( ab&on+ old language aft] ! ideas :i* x expresses h be5 ex*ang$ = contr>y ones4 ,f ! mean+ ( a "n 7we are told7 x is possible to inf] physical facts1 provid$ ! "n has correspond+ to x an exi/+ ?+4 ,b if ?is proviso be necess>y1 f :i* ( ! two is ! inf]5ce really drawn8 f ! exi/5ce ( a ?+ hav+ ! prop]ties8 or f ! exi/5ce ( a "n mean+ !m8 ,take1 = in/ance1 any ( ! def9itions laid d[n z premisses 9 ,euclid's ,elem5ts2 ! def9ition1 let u say1 ( a circle4 ,?is1 be+ analys$1 consi/s ( two propositions2 ! "o an assumption ) respect to a matt] ( fact1 ! o!r a g5u9e def9ition4 8,a figure may exi/1 hav+ all ! po9ts 9 ! l9e :i* b\nds x equally di/ant f a s+le po9t )9 x30 8,any figure possess+ ?is prop]ty is call$ a circle40 ,let u look at "o ( ! demon/rations :i* are said to dep5d on ?is def9ition1 & obs]ve to :i* ( ! two propositions conta9$ 9 x ! demon/ration really appeals4 8,ab\t ! c5tre ,a1 describe ! circle ,,bcd40 ,"h is an assumption1 t a figure1 su* z ! def9ition expresses1 may be describ$2 :i* is no o!r ?an ! po/ulate1 or cov]t assumption1 involv$ 9 ! s-call$ def9ition4 ,b :e!r t figure be call$ a circle or n is q immat]ial4 ,! purpose w\ld be z well answ]$1 9 all respects except brevity1 7 we to say1 8,?r\gh ! po9t ,b1 draw a l9e return+ into itself1 ( :i* e po9t %all be at an equal di/ance f ! po9t ,a40 ,by ?is ! def9ition ( a circle w\ld be got rid (1 & r5d]$ ne$less2 b n ! po/ulate impli$ 9 x2 )\t t ! demon/ration c\ld n /&4 ,! circle be+ n[ describ$1 let u proce$ to ! consequ5ce4 8,s9ce ,b ,c ,d is a circle1 ! radius ,b ,a is equal to ! radius ,c ,a40 ,b ,a is equal to ,c ,a1 n because ,b ,c ,d is a circle1 b because ,b ,c ,d is a figure ) ! radii equal4 ,our w>rant = assum+ t su* a figure ab\t ! c5tre ,a1 ) ! radius ,b ,a1 may be made to exi/1 is ! po/ulate4 ,:e!r ! admissibility ( ^! po/ulates re/s on intuition1 or on pro(1 may be a matt] ( dispute2 b 9 ei!r case !y are ! premisses on :i* ! !orems dep5d2 & :ile ^! are reta9$ x w\ld make no diff]5ce 9 ! c]ta9ty ( geometrical tru?s1 ?\gh e def9ition 9 ,euclid1 & e te*nical t]m !re9 def9$1 7 laid aside4 ,x is1 p]haps1 sup]flu\s to dwell at s mu* l5g? on :at is s ne>ly self-evid5t2 b :5 a di/9ction1 obvi\s z x may appe>1 has be5 conf\nd$1 & by p[]ful intellects1 x is bett] to say too mu* ?an too little = ! purpose ( r5d]+ su* mi/akes impossible 9 future4 ,i w1 !re=e1 deta9 ! read] :ile ,i po9t out "o ( ! absurd consequ5ces fl[+ f ! supposition t def9itions1 z su*1 are ! premisses 9 any ( our reason+s1 except su* z relate to words only4 ,if ?is supposition 7 true1 we might argue correctly f true premisses1 & arrive at a false conclusion4 ,we %\ld only h to assume z a premiss ! def9ition ( a non5tity2 or r ( a "n :i* has no entity correspond+ to x4 ,let ?is1 = in/ance1 be our def9ition3 ,a dragon is a s]p5t brea?+ flame4 ,?is proposition1 consid]$ only z a def9ition1 is indisputably correct4 ,a dragon is a s]p5t brea?+ flame3 ! ^w means t4 ,! tacit assumption1 inde$1 7if !re 7 any su* und]/ood ass]tion17 ( ! exi/5ce ( an object ) prop]ties correspond+ to ! def9ition1 w\ld1 9 ! pres5t in/ance1 be false4 ,out ( ?is def9ition we may c>ve ! premisses ( ! foll[+ syllogism3 ,a dragon is a ?+ :i* brea!s flame3 ,a dragon is a s]p5t3 ,f :i* ! conclusion is1 ,!re=e "s s]p5t or s]p5ts brea! flame3-- an unexceptionable syllogism 9 ! fir/ mode ( ! ?ird figure1 9 :i* bo? premisses are true & yet ! conclusion false2 :i* e logician kn[s to be an absurdity4 ,! conclusion be+ false & ! syllogism correct1 ! premisses _c be true4 ,b ! premisses1 consid]$ z p>ts ( a def9ition1 are true4 ,!re=e1 ! premisses consid]$ z p>ts ( a def9ition _c be ! real ones4 ,! real premisses mu/ be-- ,a dragon is a really exi/+ ?+ :i* brea!s flame3 ,a dragon is a really exi/+ s]p5t3 :i* impli$ premisses be+ false1 ! falsity ( ! conclusion pres5ts no absurdity4 ,if we w\ld det]m9e :at conclusion foll[s f ! same o/5sible premisses :5 ! tacit assumption ( real exi/5ce is left out1 let u1 accord+ to ! recomm5dation 9 ! ,we/m9/] ,review1 sub/itute means = is4 ,we !n h-- ,dragon is a ^w mean+ a ?+ :i* brea!s flame3 ,dragon is a ^w mean+ a s]p5t3 ,f :i* ! conclusion is1 ,"s ^w or words :i* mean a s]p5t1 also mean a ?+ :i* brea!s flame3 :]e ! conclusion 7z well z ! premisses7 is true1 & is ! only k9d ( conclusion :i* c ev] foll[ f a def9ition1 namely1 a proposition relat+ to ! mean+ ( words4 ,!re is /ill ano!r %ape into :i* we may trans=m ?is syllogism4 ,we may suppose ! middle t]m to be ! designation nei!r ( a ?+ nor ( a "n1 b ( an idea4 ,we !n h-- ,! idea ( a dragon is an idea ( a ?+ :i* brea!s flame3 ,! idea ( a dragon is an idea ( a s]p5t3 ,!re=e1 !re is an idea ( a s]p5t1 :i* is an idea ( a ?+ brea?+ flame4 ,"h ! conclusion is true1 & also ! premisses2 b ! premisses are n def9itions4 ,!y are propositions affirm+ t an idea exi/+ 9 ! m9d1 includes c]ta9 ideal elem5ts4 ,! tru? ( ! conclusion foll[s f ! exi/5ce ( ! psy*ological ph5om5on call$ ! idea ( a dragon2 & !re=e /ill f ! tacit assumption ( a matt] ( fact47#bf7 ,:51 z 9 ?is la/ syllogism1 ! conclusion is a proposition respect+ an idea1 ! assumption on :i* x dep5ds may be m]ely t ( ! exi/5ce ( an idea4 ,b :5 ! conclusion is a proposition conc]n+ a ,?+1 ! po/ulate involv$ 9 ! def9ition :i* /&s z ! app>5t premiss1 is ! exi/5ce ( a ,?+ con=mable to ! def9ition1 & n m]ely ( an idea con=mable to x4 ,?is assumption ( real exi/5ce we always convey ! impression t we int5d to make1 :5 we pr(ess to def9e any "n :i* is already kn[n to be a "n ( really exi/+ objects4 ,on ?is acc\nt x is1 t ! assumption 0 n necess>ily impli$ 9 ! def9ition ( a dragon1 :ile !re 0 no d\bt ( its be+ includ$ 9 ! def9ition ( a circle4 #f4 ,"o ( ! circum/ances :i* h contribut$ to keep up ! notion1 t demon/rative tru?s foll[ f def9itions r ?an f ! po/ulates impli$ 9 ^? def9itions1 is1 t ! po/ulates1 ev5 9 ^? sci5ces :i* are consid]$ to surpass all o!rs 9 demon/rative c]ta9ty1 are n always exactly true4 ,x is n true t a circle exi/s1 or c be describ$1 :i* has all its radii exactly equal4 ,su* accuracy is ideal only2 x is n f\nd 9 nature1 /ill less c x be realis$ by art4 ,p _h a difficulty1 !re=e1 9 conceiv+ t ! mo/ c]ta9 ( all conclusions c\ld re/ on premisses :i*1 in/ead ( be+ c]ta9ly true1 are c]ta9ly n true to ! full ext5t ass]t$4 ,?is app>5t p>adox w be exam9$ :5 we come to treat ( ,demon/ration2 :]e we %all be able to %[ t z mu* ( ! po/ulate is true1 z is requir$ to support z mu* z is true ( ! conclusion4 ,philosoph]s h[ev] to :om ?is view _h n occurr$1 or :om x did n satisfy1 h ?\ght x indisp5sable t !re %\ld be f\nd 9 def9itions some?+ m c]ta91 or at lea/ m accurately true1 ?an ! impli$ po/ulate ( ! real exi/5ce ( a correspond+ object4 ,& ?is some?+ !y flatt]$ !mselves !y _h f\nd1 :5 !y laid x d[n t a def9ition is a /atem5t & analysis n ( ! m]e mean+ ( a ^w1 nor yet ( ! nature ( a ?+1 b ( an idea4 ,?us1 ! proposition1 8,a circle is a plane figure b\nd$ by a l9e all ! po9ts ( :i* are at an equal di/ance f a giv5 po9t )9 x10 0 consid]$ by !m1 n z an ass]tion t any real circle has t prop]ty1 7:i* w\ld n be exactly true17 b t we conceive a circle z hav+ x2 t our ab/ract idea ( a circle is an idea ( a figure ) its radii exactly equal4 ,con=mably to ?is x is said1 t ! subject matt] ( ma!matics1 & ( e o!r demon/rative sci5ce1 is n ?+s z !y really exi/1 b ab/ractions ( ! m9d4 ,a geometrical l9e is a l9e )\t bread?2 b no su* l9e exi/s 9 nature2 x is a notion made up by ! m9d1 out ( ! mat]ials 9 nature4 ,! def9ition 7x is said7 is a def9ition ( ?is m5tal l9e1 n ( any actual l9e3 & x is only ( ! m5tal l9e1 n ( any l9e exi/+ 9 nature1 t ! !orems ( geometry are accurately true4 ,all[+ ?is doctr9e respect+ ! nature ( demon/rative tru? to be correct1 7:i*1 9 a subsequ5t place1 ,i %all endeav\r to prove t x is n27 ev5 on t supposition1 ! conclusions :i* seem to foll[ f a def9ition1 d n foll[ f ! def9ition z su*1 b f an impli$ po/ulate4 ,ev5 if x be true t !re is no object 9 nature answ]+ to ! def9ition ( a l9e1 & t ! geometrical prop]ties ( l9es are n true ( any l9es 9 nature1 b only ( ! idea ( a l9e2 ! def9ition1 at all ev5ts1 po/ulates ! real exi/5ce ( su* an idea3 x assumes t ! m9d c frame1 or r has fram$1 ! notion ( l5g? )\t bread?1 & )\t any o!r s5sible prop]ty :atev]4 ,to me1 inde$1 x appe>s t ! m9d _c =m any su* notion2 x _c conceive l5g? )\t bread?2 x c only1 9 contemplat+ objects1 att5d to _! l5g?1 exclusively ( _! o!r s5sible qualities1 & s det]m9e :at prop]ties may be pr$icat$ ( !m 9 virtue ( _! l5g? alone4 ,if ?is be true1 ! po/ulate involv$ 9 ! geometrical def9ition ( a l9e1 is ! real exi/5ce1 n ( l5g? )\t bread?1 b m]ely ( l5g?1 t is1 ( long objects4 ,?is is q en\gh to support all ! tru?s ( geometry1 s9ce e prop]ty ( a geometrical l9e is really a prop]ty ( all physical objects possess+ l5g?4 ,b ev5 :at ,i hold to be ! false doctr9e on ! subject1 leaves ! conclusion t our reason+s are gr\nd$ on ! matt]s ( fact po/ulat$ 9 def9itions1 & n on ! def9itions !mselves1 entirely unaffect$2 & accord+ly ?is conclusion is "o :i* ,i h 9 common ) ,dr4 ,:ewell1 9 8 ,philosophy ( ! ,inductive ,sci5ces3 al?\gh1 on ! nature ( demon/rative tru?1 ,dr4 ,:ewell's op9ions are greatly at v>iance ) m9e4 ,& "h1 z 9 _m o!r in/ances1 ,i gladly ackn[l$ge t 8 writ+s are em95tly s]viceable 9 cle>+ f confusion ! initial /eps 9 ! analysis ( ! m5tal processes1 ev5 :]e 8 views respect+ ! ultimate analysis are su* z 7?\gh ) unfeign$ respect7 ,i _c b reg>d z fundam5tally errone\s4 #g4 ,al?\gh1 accord+ to ! op9ion "h pres5t$1 ,def9itions are prop]ly ( names only1 & n ( ?+s1 x does n foll[ f ?is t def9itions are arbitr>y4 ,h[ to def9e a "n1 may n only be an inquiry ( consid]able difficulty & intricacy1 b may involve consid]ations go+ deep into ! nature ( ! ?+s :i* are d5ot$ by ! "n4 ,su*1 = in/ance1 are ! inquiries :i* =m ! subjects ( ! mo/ important ( ,plato's ,dialogues2 z1 8,:at is rhetoric80 ! topic ( ! ,gorgias1 or 8,:at is ju/ice80 t ( ! ,republic4 ,su*1 also1 is ! "q scornfully ask$ by ,pilate1 8,:at is tru?80 & ! fundam5tal "q ) speculative morali/s 9 all ages1 8,:at is virtue80 ,x w\ld be a mi/ake to repres5t ^! difficult & noble inquiries z hav+ no?+ 9 view beyond asc]ta9+ ! conv5tional mean+ ( a "n4 ,!y are inquiries n s mu* to det]m9e :at is1 z :at %\ld be1 ! mean+ ( a "n2 :i*1 l o!r practical que/ions ( t]m9ology1 requires = its solution t we %\ld ent]1 & sometimes ent] v deeply1 into ! prop]ties n m]ely ( names b ( ! ?+s nam$4 ,al?\gh ! mean+ ( e concrete g5]al "n resides 9 ! attributes :i* x connotes1 ! objects 7 nam$ be=e ! attributes2 z appe>s f ! fact t 9 all languages1 ab/ract names are mo/ly comp\nds or o!r d]ivatives ( ! concrete names :i* correspond to !m4 ,connotative names1 !re=e1 71 aft] prop] names1 ! fir/ :i* 7 us$3 & 9 ! simpl] cases1 no d\bt1 a di/9ct connotation 0 pres5t to ! m9ds ( ^? :o fir/ us$ ! "n1 & 0 di/9ctly int5d$ by !m to be convey$ by x4 ,! fir/ p]son :o us$ ! ^w :ite1 z appli$ to sn[ or to any o!r object1 knew1 no d\bt1 v well :at quality he int5d$ to pr$icate1 & _h a p]fectly di/9ct conception 9 8 m9d ( ! attribute signifi$ by ! "n4 ,b :]e ! resemblances & diff]5ces on :i* our classifications are f\nd$ are n ( ?is palpable & easily det]m9able k9d2 especially :]e !y consi/ n 9 any "o quality b 9 a numb] ( qualities1 ! effects ( :i* be+ bl5d$ toge!r are n v easily discrim9at$1 & ref]r$ ea* to its true s\rce2 x (t5 happ5s t names are appli$ to nameable objects1 ) no di/9ct connotation pres5t to ! m9ds ( ^? :o apply !m4 ,!y are only influ5c$ by a g5]al resemblance betwe5 ! new object & all or "s ( ! old famili> objects :i* !y h be5 accu/om$ to call by t "n4 ,?is1 z we h se51 is ! law :i* ev5 ! m9d ( ! philosoph] mu/ foll[1 9 giv+ names to ! simple elem5t>y feel+s ( our nature3 b1 :]e ! ?+s to be nam$ are complex :oles1 a philosoph] is n cont5t ) notic+ a g5]al resemblance2 he exam9es :at ! resemblance consi/s 93 & he only gives ! same "n to ?+s :i* resemble "o ano!r 9 ! same def9ite p>ticul>s4 ,! philosoph]1 !re=e1 habitually employs 8 g5]al names ) a def9ite connotation4 ,b language 0 n made1 & c only 9 "s small degree be m5d$1 by philosoph]s4 ,9 ! m9ds ( ! real arbit]s ( language1 g5]al names1 especially :]e ! classes !y d5ote _c be br\ght be=e ! tribunal ( ! outw>d s5ses to be id5tifi$ & discrim9at$1 connote little m ?an a vague gross resemblance to ! ?+s :i* !y 7 e>lie/1 or h be5 mo/1 accu/om$ to call by ^? names4 ,:51 = in/ance1 ord9>y p]sons pr$icate ! words j or unju/ ( any action1 noble or mean ( any s5tim5t1 expression1 or demean\r1 /atesman or *>latan ( any p]sonage figur+ 9 politics1 d !y mean to affirm ( ^? v>i\s subjects any det]m9ate attributes1 ( :atev] k9d8 ,no3 !y m]ely recognise1 z !y ?9k1 "s lik5ess1 m or less vague & loose1 betwe5 ^! & "s o!r ?+s :i* !y h be5 accu/om$ to d5om9ate or to he> d5om9at$ by ^? appellations4 ,language1 z ,sir ,james ,mack9to% us$ to say ( gov]nm5ts1 8is n made1 b gr[s40 ,a "n is n impos$ at once & by previ\s purpose ^u a class ( objects1 b is fir/ appli$ to "o ?+1 & !n ext5d$ by a s]ies ( transitions to ano!r & ano!r4 ,by ?is process 7z has be5 rem>k$ by sev]al writ]s1 & illu/rat$ ) great =ce & cle>ness by ,dugald ,/ew>t1 9 8 ,philosophical ,essays17 a "n n unfrequ5tly passes by successive l9ks ( resemblance f "o object to ano!r1 until x becomes appli$ to ?+s hav+ no?+ 9 common ) ! fir/ ?+s to :i* ! "n 0 giv52 :i*1 h[ev]1 d n1 = t reason1 drop ! "n2 s t x at la/ d5otes a confus$ huddle ( objects1 hav+ no?+ :atev] 9 common2 & connotes no?+1 n ev5 a vague & g5]al resemblance4 ,:5 a "n has fall5 into ?is /ate1 9 :i* by pr$icat+ x ( any object we ass]t lit]ally no?+ ab\t ! object1 x has become unfit = ! purposes ei!r ( ?\ght or ( ! communication ( ?\ght2 & c only be made s]viceable by /ripp+ x ( "s "p ( its multif>i\s d5otation1 & conf9+ x to objects possess$ ( "s attributes 9 common1 :i* x may be made to connote4 ,su* are ! inconv5i5ces ( a language :i* 8is n made1 b gr[s40 ,l ! gov]nm5ts :i* are 9 a simil> case1 x may be comp>$ to a road :i* is n made b has made itself3 x requires cont9ual m5d+ 9 ord] to be passable4 ,f ?is x is already evid5t1 :y ! "q respect+ ! def9ition ( an ab/ract "n is (t5 "o ( s mu* difficulty4 ,! "q1 ,:at is ju/ice8 is1 9 o!r words1 ,:at is ! attribute :i* mank9d mean to pr$icate :5 !y call an action j8 ,to :i* ! fir/ answ] is1 t hav+ come to no precise agreem5t on ! po9t1 !y d n mean to pr$icate di/9ctly any attribute at all4 ,nev]!less1 all believe t !re is "s common attribute belong+ to all ! actions :i* !y are 9 ! habit ( call+ j4 ,! "q !n mu/ be1 :e!r !re is any su* common attribute8 &1 9 ! fir/ place1 :e!r mank9d agree suffici5tly ) "o ano!r z to ! p>ticul> actions :i* !y d or d n call j1 to r5d] ! inquiry1 :at quality ^? actions h 9 common1 a possible "o3 if s1 :e!r ! actions really h any quality 9 common2 & if !y h1 :at x is4 ,( ^! ?ree1 ! fir/ alone is an inquiry into usage & conv5tion2 ! o!r two are inquiries into matt]s ( fact4 ,& if ! second "q 7:e!r ! actions =m a class at all7 has be5 answ]$ negatively1 !re rema9s a f\r?1 (t5 m ardu\s ?an all ! re/1 namely1 h[ be/ to =m a class artificially1 :i* ! "n may d5ote4 ,& "h x is fitt+ to rem>k1 t ! /udy ( ! spontane\s gr[? ( languages is ( ! utmo/ importance to ^? :o w\ld logically remodel !m4 ,! classifications rudely made by e/abli%$ language1 :5 ret\*$1 z !y almo/ always require to be1 by ! h&s ( ! logician1 are (t5 9 !mselves excell5tly suit$ to 8 purposes4 ,:5 comp>$ ) ! classifications ( a philosoph]1 !y are l ! cu/om>y law ( a c\ntry1 :i* has gr[n up z x 7 spontane\sly1 comp>$ ) laws me?odiz$ & dige/$ into a code3 ! =m] are a f> less p]fect in/rum5t ?an ! latt]2 b be+ ! result ( a long1 ?\gh unsci5tific1 c\rse ( exp]i5ce1 !y conta9 a mass ( mat]ials :i* may be made v usefully available 9 ! =mation ( ! sy/ematic body ( writt5 law4 ,9 l mann]1 ! e/abli%$ gr\p+ ( objects "u a common "n1 ?\gh x may be f\nd$ only on a gross & g5]al resemblance1 is evid5ce1 9 ! fir/ place1 t ! resemblance is obvi\s1 & !re=e consid]able2 &1 9 ! next place1 t x is a resemblance :i* has /ruck great numb]s ( p]sons dur+ a s]ies ( ye>s & ages4 ,ev5 :5 a "n1 by successive ext5sions1 has come to be appli$ to ?+s among :i* !re does n exi/ ?is gross resemblance common to !m all1 /ill at e /ep 9 its progress we %all f9d su* a resemblance4 ,& ^! transitions ( ! mean+ ( words are (t5 an index to real connexions betwe5 ! ?+s d5ot$ by !m1 :i* might o!rwise escape ! notice ( ?9k]s2 ( ^? at lea/ :o1 f us+ a diff]5t language1 or f any diff]5ce 9 _! habitual associations1 h fix$ _! att5tion 9 pref]5ce on "s o!r aspect ( ! ?+s4 ,! hi/ory ( philosophy ab\nds 9 examples ( su* ov]sights1 committ$ = want ( p]ceiv+ ! hidd5 l9k t connect$ toge!r ! seem+ly disp>ate mean+s ( "s ambigu\s ^w47#bg7 ,:5ev] ! inquiry into ! def9ition ( ! "n ( any real object consi/s ( any?+ else ?an a m]e comp>ison ( au?orities1 we tacitly assume t a mean+ mu/ be f\nd = ! "n1 compatible ) its cont9u+ to d5ote1 if possible all1 b at any rate ! great] or ! m important "p1 ( ! ?+s ( :i* x is commonly pr$icat$4 ,! inquiry1 !re=e1 into ! def9ition1 is an inquiry into ! resemblances & diff]5ces among ^? ?+s3 :e!r !re be any resemblance runn+ ?r\gh !m all2 if n1 ?r\gh :at portion ( !m su* a g5]al resemblance c be trac$3 & f9ally1 :at are ! common attributes1 ! possession ( :i* gives to !m all1 or to t portion ( !m1 ! "* ( resemblance :i* has l$ to _! be+ class$ toge!r4 ,:5 ^! common attributes h be5 asc]ta9$ & specifi$1 ! "n :i* belongs 9 common to ! resembl+ objects acquires a di/9ct in/ead ( a vague connotation2 & by possess+ ?is di/9ct connotation1 becomes susceptible ( def9ition4 ,9 giv+ a di/9ct connotation to ! g5]al "n1 ! philosoph] w endeav\r to fix ^u su* attributes z1 :ile !y are common to all ! ?+s usually d5ot$ by ! "n1 are also ( greate/ importance 9 !mselves2 ei!r directly1 or f ! numb]1 ! conspicu\sness1 or ! int]e/+ "*1 ( ! consequ5ces to :i* !y lead4 ,he w select1 z f> z possible1 su* diff]5ti z lead to ! greate/ numb] ( int]e/+ propria4 ,= ^!1 r ?an ! m obscure & recondite qualities on :i* !y (t5 dep5d1 give t g5]al "* & aspect to a set ( objects1 :i* det]m9e ! gr\ps into :i* !y naturally fall4 ,b to p5etrate to ! m hidd5 agreem5t on :i* ^! obvi\s & sup]ficial agreem5ts dep5d1 is (t5 "o ( ! mo/ difficult ( sci5tific problems4 ,z x is among ! mo/ difficult1 s x seldom fails to be among ! mo/ important4 ,& s9ce ^u ! result ( ?is inquiry respect+ ! causes ( ! prop]ties ( a class ( ?+s1 !re incid5tally dep5ds ! "q :at %all be ! mean+ ( a ^w2 "s ( ! mo/ pr(\nd & mo/ valuable inve/igations :i* philosophy pres5ts to u1 h be5 introduc$ by1 & h (f]$ !mselves "u ! guise (1 inquiries into ! def9ition ( a "n4 ,,book ,,ii4 ,,( ,,reason+4 1 1 1 1 2 4 1 1 4 1 2 1 4 ,,ari/4 ,analyt4 ,prior4 #a4 i4 cap4 #d4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,( ,,inf]5ce1 ,,or ,,reason+1 ,,9 ,,g5]al4 #a4 ,9 ! prec$+ ,book1 we h be5 occupi$ n ) ! nature ( ,pro(1 b ) ! nature ( ,ass]tion3 ! import convey$ by a ,proposition1 :e!r t ,proposition be true or false2 n ! means by :i* to discrim9ate true f false ,propositions4 ,! prop] subject1 h[ev]1 ( ,logic is ,pro(4 ,be=e we c\ld und]/& :at ,pro( is1 x 0 necess>y to und]/& :at t is to :i* pro( is applicable2 :at t is :i* c be a subject ( belief or disbelief1 ( affirmation or d5ial2 :at1 9 %ort1 ! diff]5t k9ds ( ,propositions ass]t4 ,?is prelim9>y inquiry we h prosecut$ to a def9ite result4 ,ass]tion1 9 ! fir/ place1 relates ei!r to ! mean+ ( words1 or to "s prop]ty ( ! ?+s :i* words signify4 ,ass]tions respect+ ! mean+ ( words1 among :i* def9itions are ! mo/ important1 hold a place1 & an indisp5sable "o1 9 philosophy2 b z ! mean+ ( words is ess5tially arbitr>y1 ?is class ( ass]tions are n susceptible ( tru? or falsity1 nor !re=e ( pro( or dispro(4 ,ass]tions respect+ ,?+s1 or :at may be call$ ,real ,propositions 9 contradi/9ction to v]bal ones1 are ( v>i\s sorts4 ,we h analys$ ! import ( ea* sort1 & h asc]ta9$ ! nature ( ! ?+s !y relate to1 & ! nature ( :at !y sev]ally ass]t respect+ ^? ?+s4 ,we f\nd t :atev] be ! =m ( ! proposition1 & :atev] its nom9al subject or pr$icate1 ! real subject ( e proposition is "s "o or m facts or ph5om5a ( consci\sness1 or "s "o or m ( ! hidd5 causes or p[]s to :i* we ascribe ^? facts2 & t :at is pr$icat$ or ass]t$1 ei!r 9 ! affirmative or negative1 ( ^? ph5om5a or ^? p[]s1 is always ei!r ,exi/5ce1 ,ord] 9 ,place1 ,ord] 9 ,"t1 ,causation1 or ,resemblance4 ,?is1 !n1 is ! !ory ( ! ,import ( ,propositions1 r$uc$ to its ultimate elem5ts3 b !re is ano!r & a less ab/ruse expression = x1 :i*1 ?\gh /opp+ %ort 9 an e>li] /age ( ! analysis1 is suffici5tly sci5tific = _m ( ! purposes = :i* su* a g5]al expression is requir$4 ,?is expression recognises ! commonly receiv$ di/9ction betwe5 ,subject & ,attribute1 & gives ! foll[+ z ! analysis ( ! mean+ ( propositions3--,e ,proposition ass]ts1 t "s giv5 subject does or does n possess "s attribute2 or t "s attribute is or is n 7ei!r 9 all or 9 "s portion ( ! subjects 9 :i* x is met )7 conjo9$ ) "s o!r attribute4 ,we %all n[ = ! pres5t take our leave ( ?is portion ( our inquiry1 & proce$ to ! peculi> problem ( ! ,sci5ce ( ,logic1 namely1 h[ ! ass]tions1 ( :i* we h analys$ ! import1 are prov$1 or disprov$3 su* ( !m1 at lea/1 z1 n be+ am5able to direct consci\sness or intuition1 are appropriate subjects ( pro(4 ,we say ( a fact or /atem5t1 t x is prov$1 :5 we believe its tru? by reason ( "s o!r fact or /atem5t f :i* x is said to foll[4 ,mo/ ( ! propositions1 :e!r affirmative or negative1 univ]sal1 p>ticul>1 or s+ul>1 :i* we believe1 are n believ$ on _! own evid5ce1 b on ! gr\nd ( some?+ previ\sly ass5t$ to1 & f :i* !y are said to be inf]r$4 ,to inf] a proposition f a previ\s proposition or propositions2 to give cr$5ce to x1 or claim cr$5ce = x1 z a conclusion f some?+ else2 is to reason1 9 ! mo/ ext5sive s5se ( ! t]m4 ,!re is a n>r[] s5se1 9 :i* ! "n reason+ is conf9$ to ! =m ( inf]5ce :i* is t]m$ ratioc9ation1 & ( :i* ! syllogism is ! g5]al type4 ,! reasons = n con=m+ to ?is re/rict$ use ( ! t]m 7 /at$ 9 an e>ly /age ( our inquiry1 & additional motives w be sugge/$ by ! consid]ations on :i* we are n[ ab\t to ent]4 #b4 ,9 proce$+ to take into consid]ation ! cases 9 :i* inf]5ces c legitimately be drawn1 we %all fir/ m5tion "s cases 9 :i* ! inf]5ce is app>5t1 n real2 & :i* require notice *iefly t !y may n be conf\nd$ ) cases ( inf]5ce prop]ly s call$4 ,?is occurs :5 ! proposition o/5sibly inf]r$ f ano!r1 appe>s on analysis to be m]ely a repetition ( ! same1 or "p ( ! same1 ass]tion1 :i* 0 conta9$ 9 ! fir/4 ,all ! cases m5tion$ 9 books ( ,logic z examples ( quipoll5cy or equival5ce ( propositions1 are ( ?is nature4 ,?us1 if we 7 to argue1 ,no man is incapable ( reason1 = e man is rational2 or1 ,all m5 are mortal1 = no man is exempt f dea?2 x w\ld be pla9 t we 7 n prov+ ! proposition1 b only appeal+ to ano!r mode ( word+ x1 :i* may or may n be m readily compreh5sible by ! he>]1 or bett] adapt$ to sugge/ ! real pro(1 b :i* conta9s 9 itself no %ad[ ( pro(4 ,ano!r case is :]e1 f an univ]sal proposition1 we affect to inf] ano!r :i* diff]s f x only 9 be+ p>ticul>3 z1 ,all ,a is ,b1 !re=e ,"s ,a is ,b3 ,no ,a is ,b1 !re=e ,"s ,a is n ,b4 ,?is1 too1 is n to conclude "o proposition f ano!r1 b to repeat a second "t some?+ :i* _h be5 ass]t$ at fir/2 ) ! diff]5ce1 t we d n "h repeat ! :ole ( ! previ\s ass]tion1 b only an indef9ite "p ( x4 ,a ?ird case is :]e1 ! antec$5t hav+ affirm$ a pr$icate ( a giv5 subject1 ! consequ5t affirms ( ! same subject some?+ already connot$ by ! =m] pr$icate3 z1 ,socrates is a man1 !re=e ,socrates is a liv+ creature2 :]e all t is connot$ by liv+ creature 0 affirm$ ( ,socrates :5 he 0 ass]t$ to be a man4 ,if ! propositions are negative1 we mu/ inv]t _! ord]1 ?us3 ,socrates is n a liv+ creature1 !re=e he is n a man2 = if we d5y ! less1 ! great]1 :i* includes x1 is already d5i$ by implication4 ,^!1 !re=e1 are n really cases ( inf]5ce2 & yet ! trivial examples by :i*1 9 manuals ( ,logic1 ! rules ( ! syllogism are illu/rat$1 are (t5 ( ?is ill-*os5 k9d2 demon/rations 9 =m1 ( conclusions to :i* :oev] und]/&s ! t]ms us$ 9 ! /atem5t ( ! data1 has already1 & consci\sly1 ass5t$4 ,! mo/ complex case ( ?is sort ( app>5t inf]5ce is :at is call$ ! ,conv]sion ( ,propositions2 :i* consi/s 9 turn+ ! pr$icate into a subject1 & ! subject into a pr$icate1 & fram+ out ( ! same t]ms ?us rev]s$1 ano!r proposition1 :i* mu/ be true if ! =m] is true4 ,?us1 f ! p>ticul> affirmative proposition1 ,"s ,a is ,b1 we may inf] t ,"s ,b is ,a4 ,f ! univ]sal negative1 ,no ,a is ,b1 we may conclude t ,no ,b is ,a4 ,f ! univ]sal affirmative proposition1 ,all ,a is ,b1 x _c be inf]r$ t ,all ,b is ,a2 ?\gh all wat] is liquid1 x is n impli$ t all liquid is wat]2 b x is impli$ t "s liquid is s2 & h5ce ! proposition1 ,all ,a is ,b1 is legitimately conv]tible into ,"s ,b is ,a4 ,?is process1 :i* conv]ts an univ]sal proposition into a p>ticul>1 is t]m$ conv]sion p] accid5s4 ,f ! proposition1 ,"s ,a is n ,b1 we _c ev5 inf] t "s ,b is n ,a2 ?\gh "s m5 are n ,engli%m51 x does n foll[ t "s ,engli%m5 are n m54 ,! only legitimate conv]sion1 if su* x c be call$1 ( a p>ticul> negative proposition1 is 9 ! =m1 ,"s ,a is n ,b1 !re=e1 some?+ :i* is n ,b is ,a2 & ?is is t]m$ conv]sion by contraposition4 ,9 ?is case1 h[ev]1 ! pr$icate & subject are n m]ely rev]s$1 b "o ( !m is alt]$4 ,in/ead ( ,a & ,b1 ! t]ms ( ! new proposition are a ?+ :i* is n ,b1 & ,a4 ,! orig9al proposition1 ,"s ,a is n ,b1 is fir/ *ang$ into a proposition quipoll5t ) x1 ,"s ,a is 8a ?+ :i* is n ,b02 & ! proposition1 be+ n[ no long] a p>ticul> negative1 b a p>ticul> affirmative1 admits ( conv]sion 9 ! fir/ mode1 or1 z x is call$1 simple conv]sion4 ,9 all ^! cases !re is n really any inf]5ce2 !re is 9 ! conclusion no new tru?1 no?+ b :at 0 already ass]t$ 9 ! premisses1 & obvi\s to :oev] appreh5ds !m4 ,! fact ass]t$ 9 ! conclusion is ei!r ! v same fact1 or "p ( ! fact1 ass]t$ 9 ! orig9al proposition4 ,?is foll[s f our previ\s analysis ( ! ,import ( ,propositions4 ,:5 we say1 = example1 t "s lawful sov]eigns are tyrants1 :at is ! mean+ ( ! ass]tion8 ,t ! attributes connot$ by ! t]m 8lawful sov]eign10 & ! attributes connot$ by ! t]m 8tyrant10 sometimes coexi/ 9 ! same individual4 ,n[ ?is is also precisely :at we mean1 :5 we say t "s tyrants are lawful sov]eigns2 :i*1 !re=e1 is n a second proposition inf]r$ f ! fir/1 any m ?an ! ,engli% translation ( ,euclid's ,elem5ts is a collection ( !orems diff]5t f1 & consequ5ces (1 ^? conta9$ 9 ! ,greek orig9al4 ,aga91 if we ass]t t no great g5]al is a ra% man1 we mean t ! attributes connot$ by 8great g5]al10 & ^? connot$ by 8ra%10 nev] coexi/ 9 ! same subject2 :i* is also ! exact mean+ :i* w\ld be express$ by say+1 t no ra% man is a great g5]al4 ,:5 we say1 t all quadrup$s are w>m-blood$1 we ass]t1 n only t ! attributes connot$ by 8quadrup$0 & ^? connot$ by 8w>m-blood$0 sometimes coexi/1 b t ! =m] nev] exi/ )\t ! latt]3 n[ ! proposition1 ,"s w>m-blood$ creatures are quadrup$s1 expresses ! fir/ half ( ?is mean+1 dropp+ ! latt] half2 &1 !re=e1 has be5 already affirm$ 9 ! antec$5t proposition1 ,all quadrup$s are w>m-blood$4 ,b t all w>m-blood$ creatures are quadrup$s1 or1 9 o!r words1 t ! attributes connot$ by 8w>m-blood$0 nev] exi/ )\t ^? connot$ by 8quadrup$10 has n be5 ass]t$1 & _c be inf]r$4 ,9 ord] to reass]t1 9 an inv]t$ =m1 ! :ole ( :at 0 affirm$ 9 ! proposition1 ,all quadrup$s are w>m-blood$1 we mu/ conv]t x by contraposition1 ?us1 ,no?+ :i* is n w>m-blood$ is a quadrup$4 ,?is proposition1 & ! "o f :i* x is d]iv$1 are exactly equival5t1 & ei!r ( !m may be sub/itut$ = ! o!r2 =1 to say t :5 ! attributes ( a quadrup$ are pres5t1 ^? ( a w>m-blood$ creature are pres5t1 is to say t :5 ! latt] are abs5t ! =m] are abs5t4 ,9 a manual = "y /ud5ts1 x w\ld be prop] to dwell at great] l5g? on ! conv]sion & quipoll5cy ( propositions4 ,=1 al?\gh t _c be call$ reason+ or inf]5ce :i* is a m]e reass]tion 9 diff]5t words ( :at _h be5 ass]t$ be=e1 !re is no m important intellectual habit1 nor any ! cultivation ( :i* falls m /rictly )9 ! prov9ce ( ! art ( logic1 ?an t ( disc]n+ rapidly & surely ! id5tity ( an ass]tion :5 disguis$ "u div]sity ( language4 ,t important *apt] 9 logical treatises :i* relates to ! ,opposition ( ,propositions1 & ! excell5t te*nical language :i* logic provides = di/+ui%+ ! diff]5t k9ds or modes ( opposition1 are ( use *iefly = ?is purpose4 ,su* consid]ations z ^!1 t contr>y propositions may bo? be false1 b _c bo? be true2 t sub-contr>y propositions may bo? be true1 b _c bo? be false2 t ( two contradictory propositions "o mu/ be true & ! o!r false2 t ( two subalt]nate propositions ! tru? ( ! univ]sal proves ! tru? ( ! p>ticul>1 & ! falsity ( ! p>ticul> proves ! falsity ( ! univ]sal1 b n vice v]s7#bh72 are apt to appe>1 at fir/ sight1 v te*nical & my/]i\s1 b :5 expla9$1 seem almo/ too obvi\s to require s =mal a /atem5t1 s9ce ! same am\nt ( explanation :i* is necess>y to make ! pr9ciples intelligible1 w\ld enable ! tru?s :i* !y convey to be appreh5d$ 9 any p>ticul> case :i* c occur4 ,9 ?is respect1 h[ev]1 ^! axioms ( logic are on a level ) ^? ( ma!matics4 ,t ?+s :i* are equal to ! same ?+ are equal to "o ano!r1 is z obvi\s 9 any p>ticul> case z x is 9 ! g5]al /atem5t3 & if no su* g5]al maxim _h ev] be5 laid d[n1 ! demon/rations 9 ,euclid w\ld nev] h halt$ = any difficulty 9 /epp+ across ! gap :i* ?is axiom at pres5t s]ves to bridge ov]4 ,yet no "o has ev] c5sur$ writ]s on geometry1 = plac+ a li/ ( ^! elem5t>y g5]alizations at ! head ( _! treatises1 z a fir/ ex]cise to ! le>n] ( ! faculty :i* w be requir$ 9 him at e /ep1 t ( appreh5d+ a g5]al tru?4 ,& ! /ud5t ( logic1 9 ! discussion ev5 ( su* tru?s z we h cit$ above1 acquires habits ( circumspect int]pretation ( words1 & ( exactly measur+ ! l5g? & bread? ( 8 ass]tions1 :i* are among ! mo/ indisp5sable conditions ( any consid]able m5tal atta9m5t1 & :i* x is "o ( ! prim>y objects ( logical discipl9e to cultivate4 #c4 ,hav+ notic$1 9 ord] to exclude f ! prov9ce ( ,reason+ or ,inf]5ce prop]ly s call$1 ! cases 9 :i* ! progression f "o tru? to ano!r is only app>5t1 ! logical consequ5t be+ a m]e repetition ( ! logical antec$5t2 we n[ pass to ^? :i* are cases ( inf]5ce 9 ! prop] acceptation ( ! t]m1 ^? 9 :i* we set out f kn[n tru?s1 to arrive at o!rs really di/9ct f !m4 ,reason+1 9 ! ext5d$ s5se 9 :i* ,i use ! t]m1 & 9 :i* x is synonym\s ) ,inf]5ce1 is popul>ly said to be ( two k9ds3 reason+ f p>ticul>s to g5]als1 & reason+ f g5]als to p>ticul>s2 ! =m] be+ call$ ,induction1 ! latt] ,ratioc9ation or ,syllogism4 ,x w pres5tly be %[n t !re is a ?ird species ( reason+1 :i* falls "u nei!r ( ^! descriptions1 & :i*1 nev]!less1 is n only valid1 b is ! f\ndation ( bo? ! o!rs4 ,x is necess>y to obs]ve1 t ! expressions1 reason+ f p>ticul>s to g5]als1 & reason+ f g5]als to p>ticul>s1 are recomm5d$ by brevity r ?an by precision1 & d n adequately m>k1 )\t ! aid ( a comm5t>y1 ! di/9ction betwe5 ,induction 79 ! s5se n[ adv]t$ to7 & ,ratioc9ation4 ,! mean+ int5d$ by ^! expressions is1 t ,induction is inf]r+ a proposition f propositions less g5]al ?an itself1 & ,ratioc9ation is inf]r+ a proposition f propositions equally or m g5]al4 ,:51 f ! obs]vation ( a numb] ( individual in/ances1 we asc5d to a g5]al proposition1 or :51 by comb9+ a numb] ( g5]al propositions1 we conclude f !m ano!r proposition /ill m g5]al1 ! process1 :i* is sub/antially ! same 9 bo? in/ances1 is call$ ,induction4 ,:5 f a g5]al proposition1 n alone 7= f a s+le proposition no?+ c be conclud$ :i* is n involv$ 9 ! t]ms17 b by comb9+ x ) o!r propositions1 we inf] a proposition ( ! same degree ( g5]ality ) itself1 or a less g5]al proposition1 or a proposition m]ely individual1 ! process is ,ratioc9ation4 ,:51 9 %ort1 ! conclusion is m g5]al ?an ! l>ge/ ( ! premisses1 ! argum5t is commonly call$ ,induction2 :5 less g5]al1 or equally g5]al1 x is ,ratioc9ation4 ,z all exp]i5ce beg9s ) individual cases1 & proce$s f !m to g5]als1 x might seem mo/ con=mable to ! natural ord] ( ?\ght t ,induction %\ld be treat$ ( be=e we t\* ^u ,ratioc9ation4 ,x w1 h[ev]1 be advantage\s1 9 a sci5ce :i* aims at trac+ our acquir$ k to its s\rces1 t ! inquir] %\ld comm5ce ) ! latt] r ?an ) ! e>li] /ages ( ! process ( con/ruct+ our k2 & %\ld trace d]ivative tru?s backw>d to ! tru?s f :i* !y are d$uc$1 & on :i* !y dep5d = _! evid5ce1 be=e attempt+ to po9t out ! orig9al spr+ f :i* bo? ultimately take _! rise4 ,! advantages ( ?is ord] ( proce$+ 9 ! pres5t in/ance w manife/ !mselves z we advance1 9 a mann] sup]s$+ ! necessity ( any fur!r ju/ification or explanation4 ,( ,induction1 !re=e1 we %all say no m at pres5t1 ?an t x at lea/ is1 )\t d\bt1 a process ( real inf]5ce4 ,! conclusion 9 an induction embraces m ?an is conta9$ 9 ! premisses4 ,! pr9ciple or law collect$ f p>ticul> in/ances1 ! g5]al proposition 9 :i* we embody ! result ( our exp]i5ce1 cov]s a mu* l>g] ext5t ( gr\nd ?an ! individual exp]im5ts :i* are said to =m its basis4 ,a pr9ciple asc]ta9$ by exp]i5ce1 is m ?an a m]e summ+ up ( :at has be5 specifically obs]v$ 9 ! individual cases :i* h be5 exam9$2 x is a g5]alization gr\nd$ on ^? cases1 & expressive ( our belief1 t :at we !re f\nd true is true 9 an indef9ite numb] ( cases :i* we h n exam9$1 & are nev] likely to exam9e4 ,! nature & gr\nds ( ?is inf]5ce1 & ! conditions necess>y to make x legitimate1 w be ! subject ( discussion 9 ! ,?ird ,book3 b t su* inf]5ce really takes place is n susceptible ( "q4 ,9 e induction we proce$ f tru?s :i* we knew1 to tru?s :i* we did n "k2 f facts c]tifi$ by obs]vation1 to facts :i* we h n obs]v$1 & ev5 to facts n capable ( be+ n[ obs]v$2 future facts1 = example2 b :i* we d n hesitate to believe on ! sole evid5ce ( ! induction itself4 ,induction1 !n1 is a real process ( ,reason+ or ,inf]5ce4 ,:e!r1 & 9 :at s5se1 s mu* c be said ( ! ,syllogism1 rema9s to be det]m9$ by ! exam9ation into :i* we are ab\t to ent]4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,( ,,ratioc9ation1 ,,or ,,syllogism4 #a4 ,! analysis ( ! ,syllogism has be5 s accurately & fully p]=m$ 9 ! common manuals ( ,logic1 t 9 ! pres5t "w1 :i* is n design$ z a manual1 x is suffici5t to recapitulate1 memori caus1 ! lead+ results ( t analysis1 z a f\ndation = ! rem>ks to be aft]w>ds made on ! functions ( ! syllogism1 & ! place :i* x holds 9 sci5ce4 ,to a legitimate syllogism x is ess5tial t !re %\ld be ?ree1 & no m ?an ?ree1 propositions1 namely1 ! conclusion1 or proposition to be prov$1 & two o!r propositions :i* toge!r prove x1 & :i* are call$ ! premisses4 ,x is ess5tial t !re %\ld be ?ree1 & no m ?an ?ree1 t]ms1 namely1 ! subject & pr$icate ( ! conclusion1 & ano!r call$ ! middlet]m1 :i* mu/ be f\nd 9 bo? premisses1 s9ce x is by means ( x t ! o!r two t]ms are to be connect$ toge!r4 ,! pr$icate ( ! conclusion is call$ ! major t]m ( ! syllogism2 ! subject ( ! conclusion is call$ ! m9or t]m4 ,z !re c be b ?ree t]ms1 ! major & m9or t]ms mu/ ea* be f\nd 9 "o1 & only "o1 ( ! premisses1 toge!r ) ! middlet]m :i* is 9 !m bo?4 ,! premiss :i* conta9s ! middlet]m & ! major t]m is call$ ! major premiss2 t :i* conta9s ! middle t]m & ! m9or t]m is call$ ! m9or premiss4 ,syllogisms are divid$ by "s logicians into ?ree figures1 by o!rs into f\r1 accord+ to ! position ( ! middlet]m1 :i* may ei!r be ! subject 9 bo? premisses1 ! pr$icate 9 bo?1 or ! subject 9 "o & ! pr$icate 9 ! o!r4 ,! mo/ common case is t 9 :i* ! middlet]m is ! subject ( ! major premiss & ! pr$icate ( ! m9or4 ,?is is reckon$ z ! fir/ figure4 ,:5 ! middlet]m is ! pr$icate 9 bo? premisses1 ! syllogism belongs to ! second figure2 :5 x is ! subject 9 bo?1 to ! ?ird4 ,9 ! f\r? figure ! middlet]m is ! subject ( ! m9or premiss & ! pr$icate ( ! major4 ,^? writ]s :o reckon no m ?an ?ree figures1 include ?is case 9 ! fir/4 ,ea* figure is divid$ into modes1 accord+ to :at are call$ ! quantity & quality ( ! propositions1 t is1 accord+ z !y are univ]sal or p>ticul>1 affirmative or negative4 ,! foll[+ are examples ( all ! legitimate modes1 t is1 all ^? 9 :i* ! conclusion correctly foll[s f ! premisses4 ,a is ! m9or t]m1 ,c ! major1 ,b ! middlet]m4 ,,fir/ ,,figure4 ,all ,b is ,c ,no ,b is ,c ,all ,b is ,c ,no ,b is ,c ,all ,a is ,b ,all ,a is ,b ,"s ,a is ,b ,"s ,a is ,b !re=e !re=e !re=e !re=e ,all ,a is ,c ,no ,a is ,c ,"s ,a is ,c ,"s ,a is n ,c ,,second ,,figure4 ,no ,c is ,b ,all ,c is ,b ,no ,c is ,b ,all ,c is ,b ,all ,a is ,b ,no ,a is ,b ,"s ,a is ,b ,"s ,a is n ,b !re=e !re=e !re=e !re=e ,no ,a is ,c ,no ,a is ,c ,"s ,a is n ,c ,"s ,a is n ,c ,,?ird ,,figure4 ,all ,b is ,c ,no ,b is ,c ,"s ,b is ,c ,all ,b is ,c ,"s ,b is ,no ,b is ,c n ,c ,all ,b is ,a ,all ,b is ,a ,all ,b is ,a ,"s ,b is ,a ,all ,b is ,a ,"s ,b is ,a !re=e !re=e !re=e !re=e !re=e !re=e ,"s ,a is ,c ,"s ,a is ,"s ,a is ,c ,"s ,a is ,c ,"s ,a is ,"s ,a is n ,c n ,c n ,c ,,f\r? ,,figure4 ,all ,c is ,b ,all ,c is ,b ,"s ,c is ,b ,no ,c is ,b ,no ,c is ,b ,all ,b is ,a ,no ,b is ,a ,all ,b is ,a ,all ,b is ,a ,"s ,b is ,a !re=e !re=e !re=e !re=e !re=e ,"s ,a is ,c ,"s ,a is ,"s ,a is ,c ,"s ,a is ,"s ,a is n ,c n ,c n ,c ,9 ^! exempl>s1 or blank =ms ( mak+ syllogisms1 no place is assign$ to s+ul> propositions2 n1 ( c\rse1 because su* propositions are n us$ 9 ratioc9ation1 b because1 _! pr$icate be+ affirm$ or d5i$ ( ! :ole ( ! subject1 !y are rank$1 = ! purposes ( ! syllogism1 ) univ]sal propositions4 ,?us1 ^! two syllogisms-- ,all m5 are mortal1 ,all m5 are mortal1 ,all k+s are m51 ,socrates is a man1 !re=e !re=e ,all k+s are mortal1 ,socrates is mortal1 are argum5ts precisely simil>1 & are bo? rank$ 9 ! fir/ mode ( ! fir/ figure4 ,! reasons :y syllogisms 9 any ( ! above =ms are legitimate1 t is1 :y1 if ! premisses be true1 ! conclusion mu/ necess>ily be s1 & :y ?is is n ! case 9 any o!r possible mode1 7t is1 9 any o!r comb9ation ( univ]sal & p>ticul>1 affirmative & negative propositions17 any p]son tak+ int]e/ 9 ^! inquiries may be presum$ to h ei!r le>nt f ! common s*ool books ( ! syllogi/ic logic1 or to be capable ( div9+ = himself4 ,! read] may1 h[ev]1 be ref]r$1 = e ne$ful explanation1 to ,ar*bi%op ,:ately's ,elem5ts ( ,logic1 :]e he w f9d /at$ ) philosophical precision1 & expla9$ ) rem>kable p]spicuity1 ! :ole ( ! common doctr9e ( ! syllogism4 ,all valid ratioc9ation2 all reason+ by :i*1 f g5]al propositions previ\sly admitt$1 o!r propositions equally or less g5]al are inf]r$2 may be exhibit$ 9 "s ( ! above =ms4 ,! :ole ( ,euclid1 = example1 might be ?r[n )\t difficulty into a s]ies ( syllogisms1 regul> 9 mode & figure4 ,al?\gh a syllogism fram$ accord+ to any ( ^! =mul is a valid argum5t1 all correct ratioc9ation admits ( be+ /at$ 9 syllogisms ( ! fir/ figure alone4 ,! rules = ?r[+ an argum5t 9 any ( ! o!r figures into ! fir/ figure1 are call$ rules = ! r$uction ( syllogisms4 ,x is done by ! conv]sion ( "o or o!r1 or bo?1 ( ! premisses4 ,?us an argum5t 9 ! fir/ mode ( ! second figure1 z-- ,no ,c is ,b ,all ,a is ,b !re=e ,no ,a is ,c1 may be r$uc$ z foll[s4 ,! proposition1 ,no ,c is ,b1 be+ an univ]sal negative1 admits ( simple conv]sion1 & may be *ang$ into ,no ,b is ,c1 :i*1 z we %[$1 is ! v same ass]tion 9 o!r words--! same fact diff]5tly express$4 ,?is trans=mation hav+ be5 effect$1 ! argum5t assumes ! foll[+ =m3-- ,no ,b is ,c ,all ,a is ,b !re=e ,no ,a is ,c1 :i* is a good syllogism 9 ! second mode ( ! fir/ figure4 ,aga91 an argum5t 9 ! fir/ mode ( ! ?ird figure mu/ resemble ! foll[+3-- ,all ,b is ,c ,all ,b is ,a !re=e ,"s ,a is ,c1 :]e ! m9or premiss1 ,all ,b is ,a1 con=mably to :at 0 laid d[n 9 ! la/ *apt] respect+ univ]sal affirmatives1 does n admit ( simple conv]sion1 b may be conv]t$ p] accid5s1 ?us1 ,"s ,a is ,b2 :i*1 ?\gh x does n express ! :ole ( :at is ass]t$ 9 ! proposition ,all ,b is ,a1 expresses1 z 0 =m]ly %[n1 "p ( x1 & mu/ !re=e be true if ! :ole is true4 ,we h1 !n1 z ! result ( ! r$uction1 ! foll[+ syllogism 9 ! ?ird mode ( ! fir/ figure3-- ,all ,b is ,c ,"s ,a is ,b1 f :i* x obvi\sly foll[s1 t ,"s ,a is ,c4 ,9 ! same mann]1 or 9 a mann] on :i* aft] ^! examples x is n necess>y to enl>ge1 e mode ( ! second1 ?ird1 & f\r? figures may be r$uc$ to "s "o ( ! f\r modes ( ! fir/4 ,9 o!r words1 e conclusion :i* c be prov$ 9 any ( ! la/ ?ree figures1 may be prov$ 9 ! fir/ figure f ! same premisses1 ) a slight alt]ation 9 ! m]e mann] ( express+ !m4 ,e valid ratioc9ation1 !re=e1 may be /at$ 9 ! fir/ figure1 t is1 9 "o ( ! foll[+ =ms3-- ,e ,b is ,c ,no ,b is ,c ,all ,a is ,b1 ,all ,a is ,b1 ,"s ,a is ,b1 ,"s ,a is ,b1 !re=e !re=e ,all ,a is ,c4 ,no ,a is ,c4 ,"s ,a is ,c4 ,"s ,a is n ,c4 ,or if m significant symbols are pref]r$3-- ,to prove an affirmative1 ! argum5t mu/ admit ( be+ /at$ 9 ?is =m3-- ,all animals are mortal2 ,all m5_/,"s m5_/,socrates are animals2 !re=e ,all m5_/,"s m5_/,socrates are mortal4 ,to prove a negative1 ! argum5t mu/ be capable ( be+ express$ 9 ?is =m3-- ,no "o :o is capable ( self-control is necess>ily vici\s2 ,all negroes_/,"s negroes_/,mr4 ,a's negro are capable ( self-control2 !re=e ,no negroes are_/,"s negroes are n_/,mr4 ,a's negro is n necess>ily vici\s4 ,al?\gh all ratioc9ation admits ( be+ ?r[n into "o or ! o!r ( ^! =ms1 & sometimes ga9s consid]ably by ! trans=mation1 bo? 9 cle>ness & 9 ! obvi\sness ( its consequ5ce2 !re are1 no d\bt1 cases 9 :i* ! argum5t falls m naturally into "o ( ! o!r ?ree figures1 & 9 :i* its conclusiv5ess is m app>5t at ! fir/ glance 9 ^? figures1 ?an :5 r$uc$ to ! fir/4 ,?us1 if ! proposition 7 t pagans may be virtu\s1 & ! evid5ce to prove x 7 ! example ( ,ari/ides2 a syllogism 9 ! ?ird figure1 ,ari/ides 0 virtu\s1 ,ari/ides 0 a pagan1 !re=e ,"s pagan 0 virtu\s1 w\ld be a m natural mode ( /at+ ! argum5t1 & w\ld c>ry conviction m in/antly home1 ?an ! same ratioc9ation /ra9$ into ! fir/ figure1 ?us-- ,ari/ides 0 virtu\s1 ,"s pagan 0 ,ari/ides1 !re=e ,"s pagan 0 virtu\s4 ,a ,g]man philosoph]1 ,lamb]t1 ^: ,neues ,organon 7publi%$ 9 ! ye> #agfd7 conta9s among o!r ?+s "o ( ! mo/ elaborate & complete expositions ev] yet made ( ! syllogi/ic doctr9e1 has expressly exam9$ :at sorts ( argum5ts fall mo/ naturally & suitably into ea* ( ! f\r figures2 & 8 solution is *>act]iz$ by great +5uity & cle>ness ( ?\ght47#bi7 ,! argum5t1 h[ev]1 is "o & ! same1 9 :i*ev] figure x is express$2 s9ce1 z we h already se51 ! premisses ( a syllogism 9 ! second1 ?ird1 or f\r? figure1 & ^? ( ! syllogism 9 ! fir/ figure to :i* x may be r$uc$1 are ! same premisses 9 ev]y?+ except language1 or1 at lea/1 z mu* ( !m z contributes to ! pro( ( ! conclusion is ! same4 ,we are !re=e at lib]ty1 9 con=mity ) ! g5]al op9ion ( logicians1 to consid] ! two elem5t>y =ms ( ! fir/ figure z ! univ]sal types ( all correct ratioc9ation2 ! "o1 :5 ! conclusion to be prov$ is affirmative1 ! o!r1 :5 x is negative2 ev5 ?\gh c]ta9 argum5ts may h a t5d5cy to clo! !mselves 9 ! =ms ( ! second1 ?ird1 & f\r? figures2 :i*1 h[ev]1 _c possibly happ5 ) ! only class ( argum5ts :i* are ( fir/-rate sci5tific importance1 ^? 9 :i* ! conclusion is an univ]sal affirmative1 su* conclusions be+ susceptible ( pro( 9 ! fir/ figure alone4 #b4 ,on exam9+1 !n1 ^! two g5]al =mul1 we f9d t 9 bo? ( !m1 "o premiss1 ! major1 is an univ]sal proposition2 & accord+ z ?is is affirmative or negative1 ! conclusion is s too4 ,all ratioc9ation1 !re=e1 />ts f a g5]al proposition1 pr9ciple1 or assumption3 a proposition 9 :i* a pr$icate is affirm$ or d5i$ ( an entire class2 t is1 9 :i* "s attribute1 or ! negation ( "s attribute1 is ass]t$ ( an indef9ite numb] ( objects di/+ui%$ by a common *>act]i/ic1 & designat$1 9 consequ5ce1 by a common "n4 ,! o!r premiss is always affirmative1 & ass]ts t some?+ 7:i* may be ei!r an individual1 a class1 or "p ( a class7 belongs to1 or is includ$ 91 ! class respect+ :i* some?+ 0 affirm$ or d5i$ 9 ! major premiss4 ,x foll[s t ! attribute affirm$ or d5i$ ( ! entire class may 7if !re 0 tru? 9 t affirmation or d5ial7 be affirm$ or d5i$ ( ! object or objects alleg$ to be includ$ 9 ! class3 & ?is is precisely ! ass]tion made 9 ! conclusion4 ,:e!r or n ! =ego+ is an adequate acc\nt ( ! con/itu5t p>ts ( ! syllogism1 w be pres5tly consid]$2 b z f> z x goes x is a true acc\nt4 ,x has accord+ly be5 g5]aliz$1 & erect$ into a logical maxim1 on :i* all ratioc9ation is said to be f\nd$1 insomu* t to reason1 & to apply ! maxim1 are suppos$ to be "o & ! same ?+4 ,! maxim is1 ,t :atev] c be affirm$ 7or d5i$7 ( a class1 may be affirm$ 7or d5i$7 ( ev]y?+ includ$ 9 ! class4 ,?is axiom1 suppos$ to be ! basis ( ! syllogi/ic !ory1 is t]m$ by logicians ! dictum de omni et nullo4 ,?is maxim1 h[ev]1 :5 consid]$ z a pr9ciple ( reason+1 appe>s suit$ to a sy/em ( metaphysics once inde$ g5]ally receiv$1 b :i* = ! la/ two c5turies has be5 consid]$ z f9ally ab&on$1 ?\gh !re h n be5 want+1 9 our own day1 attempts at its revival4 ,s long z :at 7 t]m$ ,univ]sals 7 reg>d$ z a peculi> k9d ( sub/ances1 hav+ an objective exi/5ce di/9ct f ! individual objects class$ "u !m1 ! dictum de omni convey$ an important mean+2 because x express$ ! int]community ( nature1 :i* x 0 necess>y on t !ory t we %\ld suppose to exi/ betwe5 ^? g5]al sub/ances & ! p>ticul> sub/ances :i* 7 subord9at$ to !m4 ,t ev]y?+ pr$icable ( ! univ]sal 0 pr$icable ( ! v>i\s individuals conta9$ "u x1 0 !n no id5tical proposition1 b a /atem5t ( :at 0 conceiv$ z a fundam5tal law ( ! univ]se4 ,! ass]tion t ! entire nature & prop]ties ( ! sub/antia secunda =m$ "p ( ! prop]ties ( ea* ( ! individual sub/ances call$ by ! same "n2 t ! prop]ties ( ,man1 = example1 7 prop]ties ( all m52 0 a proposition ( real significance :5 man did n mean all m51 b some?+ inh]5t 9 m51 & va/ly sup]ior to !m 9 dignity4 ,n[1 h[ev]1 :5 x is kn[n t a class1 an univ]sal1 a g5us or species1 is n an entity p] se1 b nei!r m nor less ?an ! individual sub/ances !mselves :i* are plac$ 9 ! class1 & t !re is no?+ real 9 ! matt] except ^? objects1 a common "n giv5 to !m1 & common attributes indicat$ by ! "n2 :at1 ,i %\ld be glad to "k1 d we le>n by be+ told1 t :atev] c be affirm$ ( a class1 may be affirm$ ( e object conta9$ 9 ! class8 ,! class is no?+ b ! objects conta9$ 9 x3 & ! dictum de omni m]ely am\nts to ! id5tical proposition1 t :atev] is true ( c]ta9 objects1 is true ( ea* ( ^? objects4 ,if all ratioc9ation 7 no m ?an ! application ( ?is maxim to p>ticul> cases1 ! syllogism w\ld inde$ be1 :at x has s (t5 be5 decl>$ to be1 solemn trifl+4 ,! dictum de omni is on a p> ) ano!r tru?1 :i* 9 its "t 0 also reckon$ ( great importance1 8,:atev] is1 is20 & n to be comp>$ 9 po9t ( significance to ! cognate aphorism1 8,x is impossible = ! same ?+ to be & n to be20 s9ce ?is is1 at ! l[e/1 equival5t to ! logical axiom t contradictory propositions _c bo? be true4 ,to give any real mean+ to ! dictum de omni1 we mu/ consid] x n z an axiom1 b z a def9ition2 we mu/ look ^u x z int5d$ to expla91 9 a circuit\s & p>aphra/ic mann]1 ! mean+ ( ! ^w class4 ,an error :i* seem$ f9ally refut$ & dislodg$ f ?\ght1 (t5 ne$s only put on a new suit ( phrases1 to be welcom$ back to its old qu>t]s1 & all[$ to repose unque/ion$ = ano!r cycle ( ages4 ,mod]n philosoph]s h n be5 sp>+ 9 _! contempt = ! s*ola/ic dogma t g5]a & species are a peculi> k9d ( sub/ances1 :i* g5]al sub/ances be+ ! only p]man5t ?+s1 :ile ! individual sub/ances compreh5d$ "u !m are 9 a p]petual flux1 k1 :i* necess>ily imports /ability1 c only h relation to ^? g5]al sub/ances or univ]sals1 & n to ! facts or p>ticul>s includ$ "u !m4 ,yet1 ?\gh nom9ally reject$1 ?is v doctr9e1 :e!r disguis$ "u ! ,ab/ract ,ideas ( ,locke 7^: speculations1 h[ev]1 x has less vitiat$ ?an ^? ( p]haps any o!r writ] :o has be5 infect$ ) x71 "u ! ultra-nom9alism ( ,hobbes & ,condillac1 or ! ontology ( ! lat] ,kantians1 has nev] ceas$ to poison philosophy4 ,once accu/om$ to consid] sci5tific inve/igation z ess5tially consi/+ 9 ! /udy ( univ]sals1 m5 did n drop ?is habit ( ?\ght :5 !y ceas$ to reg>d univ]sals z possess+ an indep5d5t exi/5ce3 & ev5 ^? :o w5t ! l5g? ( consid]+ !m z m]e names1 c\ld n free !mselves f ! notion t ! inve/igation ( tru? consi/$ entirely or p>tly 9 "s k9d ( conjuration or juggle ) ^? names4 ,:5 a philosoph] adopt$ fully ! ,nom9ali/ view ( ! signification ( g5]al language1 reta9+ along ) x ! dictum de omni z ! f\ndation ( all reason+1 two su* premisses fairly put toge!r 7 likely1 if he 0 a consi/5t ?9k]1 to l& him 9 r />tl+ conclusions4 ,accord+ly x has be5 s]i\sly held1 by writ]s ( des]v$ celebrity1 t ! process ( arriv+ at new tru?s by reason+ consi/s 9 ! m]e sub/itution ( "o set ( arbitr>y signs = ano!r2 a doctr9e :i* !y suppos$ to d]ive irresi/ible confirmation f ! example ( algebra4 ,if !re 7 any process 9 sorc]y or necromancy m pret]natural ?an ?is1 ,i %\ld be mu* surpris$4 ,! culm9at+ po9t ( ?is philosophy is ! not$ aphorism ( ,condillac1 t a sci5ce is no?+1 or sc>cely any?+1 b une langue bi5 faite3 9 o!r words1 t ! "o suffici5t rule = discov]+ ! nature & prop]ties ( objects is to "n !m prop]ly3 z if ! rev]se 7 n ! tru?1 t x is impossible to "n !m prop]ly except 9 proportion z we are already acqua9t$ ) _! nature & prop]ties4 ,c x be necess>y to say1 t none1 n ev5 ! mo/ trivial k ) respect to ,?+s1 ev] 0 or c\ld be orig9ally got at by any conceivable manipulation ( m]e names1 z su*2 & t :at c be le>nt f names1 is only :at somebody :o us$ ! names1 knew be=e8 ,philosophical analysis confirms ! indication ( common s5se1 t ! function ( names is b t ( enabl+ u to rememb] & to communicate our ?\ghts4 ,t !y also /r5g!n1 ev5 to an incalculable ext5t1 ! p[] ( ?\ght itself1 is mo/ true3 b !y d ?is by no intr9sic & peculi> virtue2 !y d x by ! p[] inh]5t 9 an artificial memory1 an in/rum5t ( :i* few h adequately consid]$ ! imm5se pot5cy4 ,z an artificial memory1 language truly is1 :at x has s (t5 be5 call$1 an in/rum5t ( ?\ght3 b x is "o ?+ to be ! in/rum5t1 & ano!r to be ! exclusive subject ^u :i* ! in/rum5t is ex]cis$4 ,we ?9k1 inde$1 to a consid]able ext5t1 by means ( names1 b :at we ?9k (1 are ! ?+s call$ by ^? names2 & !re _c be a great] error ?an to imag9e t ?\ght c be c>ri$ on ) no?+ 9 our m9d b names1 or t we c make ! names ?9k = u4 #c4 ,^? :o consid]$ ! dictum de omni z ! f\ndation ( ! syllogism1 look$ ^u argum5ts 9 a mann] correspond+ to ! errone\s view :i* ,hobbes took ( propositions4 ,because !re are "s propositions :i* are m]ely v]bal1 ,hobbes1 9 ord] app>5tly t 8 def9ition might be rigor\sly univ]sal1 def9$ a proposition z if no propositions decl>$ any?+ except ! mean+ ( words4 ,if ,hobbes 0 "r2 if no fur!r acc\nt ?an ?is c\ld be giv5 ( ! import ( propositions2 no !ory c\ld be giv5 b ! commonly receiv$ "o1 ( ! comb9ation ( propositions 9 a syllogism4 ,if ! m9or premiss ass]t$ no?+ m ?an t some?+ belongs to a class1 & if ! major premiss ass]t$ no?+ ( t class except t x is includ$ 9 ano!r class1 ! conclusion w\ld only be1 t :at 0 includ$ 9 ! l[] class is includ$ 9 ! high]1 & ! result1 !re=e1 no?+ except t ! classification is consi/5t ) itself4 ,b we h se5 t x is no suffici5t acc\nt ( ! mean+ ( a proposition1 to say t x ref]s some?+ to1 or excludes some?+ f1 a class4 ,e proposition :i* conveys real in=mation ass]ts a matt] ( fact1 dep5d5t on ! laws ( nature1 & n on artificial classification4 ,x ass]ts t a giv5 object does or does n possess a giv5 attribute2 or x ass]ts t two attributes1 or sets ( attributes1 d or d n 7con/antly or occasionally7 coexi/4 ,s9ce su* is ! purport ( all propositions :i* convey any real k1 & s9ce ratioc9ation is a mode ( acquir+ real k1 any !ory ( ratioc9ation :i* does n recognise ?is import ( propositions1 _c1 we may be sure1 be ! true "o4 ,apply+ ?is view ( propositions to ! two premisses ( a syllogism1 we obta9 ! foll[+ results4 ,! major premiss1 :i*1 z already rem>k$1 is always univ]sal1 ass]ts1 t all ?+s :i* h a c]ta9 attribute 7or attributes7 h or h n along ) x1 a c]ta9 o!r attribute 7or attributes74 ,! m9or premiss ass]ts t ! ?+ or set ( ?+s :i* are ! subject ( t premiss1 h ! fir/-m5tion$ attribute2 & ! conclusion is1 t !y h 7or t !y h n7 ! second4 ,?us 9 our =m] example1 ,all m5 are mortal1 ,socrates is a man1 !re=e ,socrates is mortal1 ! subject & pr$icate ( ! major premiss are connotative t]ms1 d5ot+ objects & connot+ attributes4 ,! ass]tion 9 ! major premiss is1 t along ) "o ( ! two sets ( attributes1 we always f9d ! o!r3 t ! attributes connot$ by 8man0 nev] exi/ unless conjo9$ ) ! attribute call$ mortality4 ,! ass]tion 9 ! m9or premiss is t ! individual nam$ ,socrates possesses ! =m] attributes2 & x is conclud$ t he possesses also ! attribute mortality4 ,or if bo? ! premisses are g5]al propositions1 z ,all m5 are mortal1 ,all k+s are m51 !re=e ,all k+s are mortal1 ! m9or premiss ass]ts t ! attributes d5ot$ by k+%ip only exi/ 9 conjunction ) ^? signifi$ by ! ^w man4 ,! major ass]ts z be=e1 t ! la/ m5tion$ attributes are nev] f\nd )\t ! attribute ( mortality4 ,! conclusion is1 t :]ev] ! attributes ( k+%ip are f\nd1 t ( mortality is f\nd also4 ,if ! major premiss 7 negative1 z1 ,no m5 are omnipot5t1 x w\ld ass]t1 n t ! attributes connot$ by 8man0 nev] exi/ )\t1 b t !y nev] exi/ )1 ^? connot$ by 8omnipot5t30 f :i*1 toge!r ) ! m9or premiss1 x is conclud$1 t ! same incompatibility exi/s betwe5 ! attribute omnipot5ce & ^? con/itut+ a k+4 ,9 a simil> mann] we might analyse any o!r example ( ! syllogism4 ,if we g5]alize ?is process1 & look out = ! pr9ciple or law involv$ 9 e su* inf]5ce1 & presuppos$ 9 e syllogism ! propositions ( :i* are any?+ m ?an m]ely v]bal2 we f9d1 n ! unmean+ dictum de omni et nullo1 b a fundam5tal pr9ciple1 or r two pr9ciples1 /rik+ly resembl+ ! axioms ( ma!matics4 ,! fir/1 :i* is ! pr9ciple ( affirmative syllogisms1 is1 t ?+s :i* coexi/ ) ! same ?+1 coexi/ ) "o ano!r4 ,! second is ! pr9ciple ( negative syllogisms1 & is to ?is effect3 t a ?+ :i* coexi/s ) ano!r ?+1 ) :i* o!r a ?ird ?+ does n coexi/1 is n coexi/5t ) t ?ird ?+4 ,^! axioms manife/ly relate to facts1 & n to conv5tions2 & "o or o!r ( !m is ! gr\nd ( ! legitimacy ( e argum5t 9 :i* facts & n conv5tions are ! matt] treat$ (4 #d4 ,x rema9s to translate ?is exposition ( ! syllogism f ! "o into ! o!r ( ! two languages 9 :i* we =m]ly rem>k$7#cj7 t all propositions1 & ( c\rse !re=e all comb9ations ( propositions1 might be express$4 ,we obs]v$ t a proposition might be consid]$ 9 two diff]5t lights2 z a portion ( our k ( nature1 or z a memor&um = our guidance4 ,"u ! =m]1 or speculative aspect1 an affirmative g5]al proposition is an ass]tion ( a speculative tru?1 viz4 t :atev] has a c]ta9 attribute has a c]ta9 o!r attribute4 ,"u ! o!r aspect1 x is to be reg>d$ n z a "p ( our k1 b z an aid = our practical exig5cies1 by enabl+ u1 :5 we see or le>n t an object possesses "o ( ! two attributes1 to inf] t x possesses ! o!r2 ?us employ+ ! fir/ attribute z a m>k or evid5ce ( ! second4 ,?us reg>d$1 e syllogism comes )9 ! foll[+ g5]al =mula3-- ,attribute ,a is a m>k ( attribute ,b1 ,a giv5 object has ! m>k ,a1 !re=e ,! giv5 object has ! attribute ,b4 ,ref]r$ to ?is type1 ! argum5ts :i* we h lately cit$ z specim5s ( ! syllogism1 w express !mselves 9 ! foll[+ mann]3-- ,! attributes ( man are a m>k ( ! attribute mortality1 ,socrates has ! attributes ( man1 !re=e ,socrates has ! attribute mortality4 ,& aga91 ,! attributes ( man are a m>k ( ! attribute mortality1 ,! attributes ( a k+ are a m>k ( ! attributes ( man1 !re=e ,! attributes ( a k+ are a m>k ( ! attribute mortality4 ,& la/ly1 ,! attributes ( man are a m>k ( ! abs5ce ( ! attribute omnipot5ce1 ,! attributes ( a k+ are a m>k ( ! attributes ( man1 !re=e ,! attributes ( a k+ are a m>k ( ! abs5ce ( ! attribute signifi$ by ! ^w omnipot5t1 7or1 are evid5ce ( ! abs5ce ( t attribute47 ,to correspond ) ?is alt]ation 9 ! =m ( ! syllogisms1 ! axioms on :i* ! syllogi/ic process is f\nd$ mu/ und]go a correspond+ trans=mation4 ,9 ?is alt]$ phraseology1 bo? ^? axioms may be br\ght "u "o g5]al expression2 namely1 t :atev] possesses any m>k1 possesses t :i* x is a m>k (4 ,or1 :5 ! m9or premiss z well z ! major is univ]sal1 we may /ate x ?us3 ,:atev] is a m>k ( any m>k1 is a m>k ( t :i* ?is la/ is a m>k (4 ,to trace ! id5tity ( ^! axioms ) ^? previ\sly laid d[n1 may be left to ! intellig5t read]4 ,we %all f9d1 z we proce$1 ! great conv5i5ce ( ! phraseology into :i* we h la/ ?r[n !m1 & :i* is bett] adapt$ ?an any ,i am acqua9t$ )1 to express ) precision & =ce :at is aim$ at1 & actually accompli%$1 9 e case ( ! asc]ta9m5t ( a tru? by ratioc9ation4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,( ,,! ,,functions1 ,,& ,,logical ,,value1 ,,( ,,! ,,syllogism4 #a4 ,we h %[n :at is ! real nature ( ! tru?s ) :i* ! ,syllogism is conv]sant1 9 contradi/9ction to ! m sup]ficial mann] 9 :i* _! import is conceiv$ 9 ! common !ory2 & :at are ! fundam5tal axioms on :i* its probative =ce or conclusiv5ess dep5ds4 ,we h n[ to inquire1 :e!r ! syllogi/ic process1 t ( reason+ f g5]als to p>ticul>s1 is1 or is n1 a process ( inf]5ce2 a progress f ! kn[n to ! unkn[n2 a means ( com+ to a k ( some?+ :i* we did n "k be=e4 ,logicians h be5 rem>kably unanim\s 9 _! mode ( answ]+ ?is "q4 ,x is univ]sally all[$ t a syllogism is vici\s if !re be any?+ m 9 ! conclusion ?an 0 assum$ 9 ! premisses4 ,b ?is is1 9 fact1 to say1 t no?+ ev] 01 or c be1 prov$ by syllogism1 :i* 0 n kn[n1 or assum$ to be kn[n1 be=e4 ,is ratioc9ation1 !n1 n a process ( inf]5ce8 ,& is ! syllogism1 to :i* ! ^w reason+ has s (t5 be5 repres5t$ to be exclusively appropriate1 n really entitl$ to be call$ reason+ at all8 ,?is seems an inevitable consequ5ce ( ! doctr9e1 admitt$ by all writ]s on ! subject1 t a syllogism c prove no m ?an is involv$ 9 ! premisses4 ,yet ! ackn[l$gm5t s explicitly made1 has n prev5t$ "o set ( writ]s f cont9u+ to repres5t ! syllogism z ! correct analysis ( :at ! m9d actually p]=ms 9 discov]+ & prov+ ! l>g] half ( ! tru?s1 :e!r ( sci5ce or ( daily life1 :i* we believe2 :ile ^? :o h avoid$ ?is inconsi/5cy1 & foll[$ out ! g5]al !orem respect+ ! logical value ( ! syllogism to its legitimate coroll>y1 h be5 l$ to impute uselessness & frivolity to ! syllogi/ic !ory itself1 on ! gr\nd ( ! petitio pr9cipii :i* !y allege to be inh]5t 9 e syllogism4 ,z ,i believe bo? ^! op9ions to be fundam5tally errone\s1 ,i mu/ reque/ ! att5tion ( ! read] to c]ta9 consid]ations1 )\t :i* any j appreciation ( ! true "* ( ! syllogism1 & ! functions x p]=ms 9 philosophy1 appe>s to me impossible2 b :i* seem to h be5 ei!r ov]look$1 or insuffici5tly adv]t$ to1 bo? by ! def5d]s ( ! syllogi/ic !ory & by its assailants4 #b4 ,x mu/ be grant$ t 9 e syllogism1 consid]$ z an argum5t to prove ! conclusion1 !re is a petitio pr9cipii4 ,:5 we say1 ,all m5 are mortal ,socrates is a man !re=e ,socrates is mortal2 x is unansw]ably urg$ by ! adv]s>ies ( ! syllogi/ic !ory1 t ! proposition1 ,socrates is mortal1 is presuppos$ 9 ! m g5]al assumption1 ,all m5 are mortal3 t we _c be assur$ ( ! mortality ( all m51 unless we are already c]ta9 ( ! mortality ( e individual man3 t if x be /ill d\btful :e!r ,socrates1 or any o!r individual y *oose to "n1 be mortal or n1 ! same degree ( unc]ta9ty mu/ hang ov] ! ass]tion1 ,all m5 are mortal3 t ! g5]al pr9ciple1 in/ead ( be+ giv5 z evid5ce ( ! p>ticul> case1 _c itself be tak5 = true )\t exception1 until e %ad[ ( d\bt :i* c\ld affect any case compris$ ) x1 is dispell$ by evid5ce aliund2 & !n :at rema9s = ! syllogism to prove8 ,t1 9 %ort1 no reason+ f g5]als to p>ticul>s c1 z su*1 prove any?+3 s9ce f a g5]al pr9ciple y _c inf] any p>ticul>s1 b ^? :i* ! pr9ciple itself assumes z kn[n4 ,?is doctr9e appe>s to me irrefragable2 & if logicians1 ?\gh unable to dispute x1 h usually exhibit$ a /rong disposition to expla9 x away1 ?is 0 n because !y c\ld discov] any flaw 9 ! argum5t itself1 b because ! contr>y op9ion seem$ to re/ on argum5ts equally indisputable4 ,9 ! syllogism la/ ref]r$ to1 = example1 or 9 any ( ^? :i* we previ\sly con/ruct$1 is x n evid5t t ! conclusion may1 to ! p]son to :om ! syllogism is pres5t$1 be actually & bon fide a new tru?8 ,is x n matt] ( daily exp]i5ce t tru?s previ\sly undreamt (1 facts :i* h n be51 & _c be1 directly obs]v$1 are arriv$ at by way ( g5]al reason+8 ,we believe t ! ,duke ( ,well+ton is mortal4 ,we d n "k ?is by direct obs]vation1 s9ce he is n dead4 ,if we 7 ask$ h[1 ?is be+ ! case1 we "k ! duke to be mortal1 we %\ld probably answ]1 ,because all m5 are s4 ,"h1 !re=e1 we arrive at ! k ( a tru? n 7z yet7 susceptible ( obs]vation1 by a reason+ :i* admits ( be+ exhibit$ 9 ! foll[+ syllogism3-- ,all m5 are mortal ,! ,duke ( ,well+ton is a man !re=e ,! ,duke ( ,well+ton is mortal4 ,& s9ce a l>ge portion ( our k is ?us acquir$1 logicians h p]si/$ 9 repres5t+ ! syllogism z a process ( inf]5ce or pro(2 al?\gh none ( !m has cle>$ up ! difficulty :i* arises f ! inconsi/5cy betwe5 t ass]tion1 & ! pr9ciple1 t if !re be any?+ 9 ! conclusion :i* 0 n already ass]t$ 9 ! premisses1 ! argum5t is vici\s4 ,= x is impossible to atta* any s]i\s sci5tific value to su* a m]e salvo1 z ! di/9ction drawn betwe5 be+ involv$ by implication 9 ! premisses1 & be+ directly ass]t$ 9 !m4 ,:5 ,ar*bi%op ,:ately1 = example1 says17#ca7 t ! object ( reason+ is 8m]ely to exp& & unfold ! ass]tions wrapt up1 z x 71 & impli$ 9 ^? ) :i* we set out1 & to br+ a p]son to p]ceive & ackn[l$ge ! full =ce ( t :i* he has admitt$10 he does n1 ,i ?9k1 meet ! real difficulty requir+ to be expla9$1 namely1 h[ x happ5s t a sci5ce1 l geometry1 c be all 8wrapt up0 9 a few def9itions & axioms4 ,nor does ?is def5ce ( ! syllogism diff] mu* f :at its assailants urge aga9/ x z an accusation1 :5 !y *>ge x ) be+ ( no use except to ^? :o seek to press ! consequ5ces ( an admission into :i* a p]son has be5 entrapp$ )\t hav+ consid]$ & und]/ood its full =ce4 ,:5 y admitt$ ! major premiss1 y ass]t$ ! conclusion2 b1 says ,ar*bi%op ,:ately1 y ass]t$ x by implication m]ely3 ?is1 h[ev]1 c "h only mean t y ass]t$ x unconsci\sly2 t y did n "k y 7 ass]t+ x2 b1 if s1 ! difficulty revives 9 ?is %ape--,ought y n to h kn[n8 ,7 y w>rant$ 9 ass]t+ ! g5]al proposition )\t hav+ satisfi$ y\rself ( ! tru? ( ev]y?+ :i* x fairly includes8 ,& if n1 :at !n is ! syllogi/ic art b a contrivance = cat*+ y 9 a trap1 & hold+ y fa/ 9 x87#cb7 #c4 ,f ?is difficulty !re appe>s to be b "o issue4 ,! proposition t ! ,duke ( ,well+ton is mortal1 is evid5tly an inf]5ce2 x is got at z a conclusion f some?+ else2 b d we1 9 reality1 conclude x f ! proposition1 ,all m5 are mortal8 ,i answ]1 no4 ,! error committ$ is1 ,i conceive1 t ( ov]look+ ! di/9ction betwe5 ! two p>ts ( ! process ( philosophiz+1 ! inf]r+ "p1 & ! regi/]+ "p2 & ascrib+ to ! latt] ! functions ( ! =m]4 ,! mi/ake is t ( ref]r+ a p]son to 8 own notes = ! orig9 ( 8 k4 ,if a p]son is ask$ a "q1 & is at ! mom5t unable to answ] x1 he may refre% 8 memory by turn+ to a memor&um :i* he c>ries ab\t ) him4 ,b if he 7 ask$1 h[ ! fact came to 8 k1 he w\ld sc>cely answ]1 because x 0 set d[n 9 8 note-book3 unless ! book 0 writt51 l ! ,koran1 ) a quill f ! w+ ( ! angel ,gabriel4 ,assum+ t ! proposition1 ,! ,duke ( ,well+ton is mortal1 is imm$iately an inf]5ce f ! proposition1 ,all m5 are mortal2 :5ce d we d]ive our k ( t g5]al tru?8 ,( c\rse f obs]vation4 ,n[1 all :i* man c obs]ve are individual cases4 ,f ^! all g5]al tru?s mu/ be drawn1 & into ^! !y may be aga9 resolv$3 = a g5]al tru? is b an aggregate ( p>ticul> tru?s2 a compreh5sive expression1 by :i* an indef9ite numb] ( individual facts are affirm$ or d5i$ at once4 ,b a g5]al proposition is n m]ely a comp5di\s =m = record+ & pres]v+ 9 ! memory a numb] ( p>ticul> facts1 all ( :i* h be5 obs]v$4 ,g5]alization is n a process ( m]e nam+1 x is also a process ( inf]5ce4 ,f in/ances :i* we h obs]v$1 we feel w>rant$ 9 conclud+1 t :at we f\nd true 9 ^? in/ances1 holds 9 all simil> ones1 pa/1 pres5t1 & future1 h[ev] num]\s !y may be4 ,we !n1 by t valuable contrivance ( language :i* enables u to speak ( _m z if !y 7 "o1 record all t we h obs]v$1 toge!r ) all t we inf] f our obs]vations1 9 "o concise expression2 & h ?us only "o proposition1 in/ead ( an endless numb]1 to rememb] or to communicate4 ,! results ( _m obs]vations & inf]5ces1 & in/ructions = mak+ innum]able inf]5ces 9 un=ese5 cases1 are compress$ into "o %ort s5t5ce4 ,:51 !re=e1 we conclude f ! dea? ( ,john & ,?omas1 & e o!r p]son we ev] he>d ( 9 ^: case ! exp]im5t _h be5 fairly tri$1 t ! ,duke ( ,well+ton is mortal l ! re/2 we may1 inde$1 pass ?r\gh ! g5]alization1 ,all m5 are mortal1 z an int]m$iate /age2 b x is n 9 ! latt] half ( ! process1 ! desc5t f all m5 to ! ,duke ( ,well+ton1 t ! inf]5ce resides4 ,! inf]5ce is f9i%$ :5 we h ass]t$ t all m5 are mortal4 ,:at rema9s to be p]=m$ aft]w>ds is m]ely decyph]+ our own notes4 ,ar*bi%op ,:ately has cont5d$ t syllogis+1 or reason+ f g5]als to p>ticul>s1 is n1 agreeably to ! vulg> idea1 a peculi> mode ( reason+1 b ! philosophical analysis ( ! mode 9 :i* all m5 reason1 & mu/ d s if !y reason at all4 ,) ! def]5ce due to s high an au?ority1 ,i _c help ?9k+ t ! vulg> notion is1 9 ?is case1 ! m correct4 ,if1 f our exp]i5ce ( ,john1 ,?omas1 c41 :o once 7 liv+1 b are n[ dead1 we are entitl$ to conclude t all human be+s are mortal1 we might surely )\t any logical inconsequ5ce h conclud$ at once f ^? in/ances1 t ! ,duke ( ,well+ton is mortal4 ,! mortality ( ,john1 ,?omas1 & company is1 aft] all1 ! :ole evid5ce we h = ! mortality ( ! ,duke ( ,well+ton4 ,n "o iota is add$ to ! pro( by int]polat+ a g5]al proposition4 ,s9ce ! individual cases are all ! evid5ce we c possess1 evid5ce :i* no logical =m into :i* we *oose to ?r[ x c make great] ?an x is2 & s9ce t evid5ce is ei!r suffici5t 9 itself1 or1 if insuffici5t = ! "o purpose1 _c be suffici5t = ! o!r2 ,i am unable to see :y we %\ld be =bidd5 to take ! %orte/ cut f ^! suffici5t premisses to ! conclusion1 & con/ra9$ to travel ! 8high priori road10 by ! arbitr>y fiat ( logicians4 ,i _c p]ceive :y x %\ld be impossible to j\rney f "o place to ano!r unless we 8m>* up a hill1 & !n m>* d[n aga940 ,x may be ! safe/ road1 & !re may be a re/+ place at ! top ( ! hill1 af=d+ a comm&+ view ( ! surr\nd+ c\ntry2 b = ! m]e purpose ( arriv+ at our j\rney's end1 our tak+ t road is p]fectly optional2 x is a "q ( "t1 tr\ble1 & dang]4 ,n only may we reason f p>ticul>s to p>ticul>s )\t pass+ ?r\gh g5]als1 b we p]petually d s reason4 ,all our e>lie/ inf]5ces are ( ?is nature4 ,f ! fir/ dawn ( intellig5ce we draw inf]5ces1 b ye>s elapse be=e we le>n ! use ( g5]al language4 ,! *ild1 :o1 hav+ burnt 8 f+]s1 avoids to ?ru/ !m aga9 into ! fire1 has reason$ or inf]r$1 ?\gh he has nev] ?\ght ( ! g5]al maxim1 ,fire burns4 ,he kn[s f memory t he has be5 burnt1 & on ?is evid5ce believes1 :5 he sees a c&le1 t if he puts 8 f+] into ! flame ( x1 he w be burnt aga94 ,he believes ?is 9 e case :i* happ5s to arise2 b )\t look+1 9 ea* in/ance1 beyond ! pres5t case4 ,he is n g5]aliz+2 he is inf]r+ a p>ticul> f p>ticul>s4 ,9 ! same way1 also1 brutes reason4 ,!re is no gr\nd = attribut+ to any ( ! l[] animals ! use ( signs1 ( su* a nature z to r5d] g5]al propositions possible4 ,b ^? animals pr(it by exp]i5ce1 & avoid :at !y h f\nd to cause !m pa91 9 ! same mann]1 ?\gh n always ) ! same skill1 z a human creature4 ,n only ! burnt *ild1 b ! burnt dog1 dreads ! fire4 ,i believe t1 9 po9t ( fact1 :5 draw+ inf]5ces f our p]sonal exp]i5ce1 & n f maxims h&$ d[n to u by books or tradition1 we mu* (t5] conclude f p>ticul>s to p>ticul>s directly1 ?an ?r\gh ! int]m$iate ag5cy ( any g5]al proposition4 ,we are con/antly reason+ f ourselves to o!r p1 or f "o p]son to ano!r1 )\t giv+ ourselves ! tr\ble to erect our obs]vations into g5]al maxims ( human or ext]nal nature4 ,:5 we conclude t "s p]son w1 on "s giv5 occasion1 feel or act s & s1 we sometimes judge f an enl>g$ consid]ation ( ! mann] 9 :i* human be+s 9 g5]al1 or p]sons ( "s p>ticul> "*1 are accu/om$ to feel & act2 b mu* (t5] f hav+ kn[n ! feel+s & conduct ( ! same p]son 9 "s previ\s in/ance1 or f consid]+ h[ we %\ld feel or act ourselves4 ,x is n only ! village matron :o1 :5 call$ to a consultation ^u ! case ( a neighb\r's *ild1 pron\nces on ! evil & its rem$y simply on ! recollection & au?ority ( :at %e acc\nts ! simil> case ( h] ,lucy4 ,we all1 :]e we h no def9ite maxims to /e] by1 guide ourselves 9 ! same way2 & if we h an ext5sive exp]i5ce1 & reta9 its impressions /rongly1 we may acquire 9 ?is mann] a v consid]able p[] ( accurate judgm5t1 :i* we may be utt]ly incapable ( ju/ify+ or ( communicat+ to o!rs4 ,among ! high] ord] ( practical intellects1 !re h be5 _m ( :om x 0 rem>k$ h[ admirably !y suit$ _! means to _! ends1 )\t be+ able to give any suffici5t reasons = :at !y did2 & appli$1 or seem$ to apply1 recondite pr9ciples :i* !y 7 :olly unable to /ate4 ,?is is a natural consequ5ce ( hav+ a m9d /or$ ) appropriate p>ticul>s1 & hav+ be5 long accu/om$ to reason at once f ^! to fre% p>ticul>s1 )\t practis+ ! habit ( /at+ to oneself or to o!rs ! correspond+ g5]al propositions4 ,an old w>rior1 on a rapid glance at ! outl9es ( ! gr\nd1 is able at once to give ! necess>y ord]s = a skilful arrangem5t ( 8 troops2 ?\gh if he has receiv$ little !oretical in/ruction1 & has seldom be5 call$ ^u to answ] to o!r p = 8 conduct1 he may nev] h _h 9 8 m9d a s+le g5]al !orem respect+ ! relation betwe5 gr\nd & array4 ,b 8 exp]i5ce ( encampm5ts1 9 circum/ances m or less simil>1 has left a numb] ( vivid1 unexpress$1 ung5]aliz$ analogies 9 8 m9d1 ! mo/ appropriate ( :i*1 in/antly sugge/+ itself1 det]m9es him to a judici\s arrangem5t4 ,! skill ( an un$ucat$ p]son 9 ! use ( weapons1 or ( tools1 is ( a precisely simil> nature4 ,! savage :o executes un]r+ly ! exact ?r[ :i* br+s d[n 8 game1 or 8 enemy1 9 ! mann] mo/ suit$ to 8 purpose1 "u ! op]ation ( all ! conditions necess>ily involv$1 ! weight & =m ( ! weapon1 ! direction & di/ance ( ! object1 ! action ( ! w9d1 c41 owes ?is p[] to a long s]ies ( previ\s exp]im5ts1 ! results ( :i* he c]ta9ly nev] fram$ into any v]bal !orems or rules4 ,! same ?+ may g5]ally be said ( any o!r extraord9>y manual dext]ity4 ,n long ago a ,scot* manufactur] procur$ f ,engl&1 at a high rate ( wages1 a work+ dy]1 fam\s = produc+ v f9e col\rs1 ) ! view ( tea*+ to 8 o!r workm5 ! same skill4 ,! workman came2 b 8 mode ( proportion+ ! +r$i5ts1 9 :i* lay ! secret ( ! effects he produc$1 0 by tak+ !m up 9 h&fuls1 :ile ! common me?od 0 to weigh !m4 ,! manufactur] s\ght to make him turn 8 h&l+ sy/em into an equival5t weigh+ sy/em1 t ! g5]al pr9ciple ( 8 peculi> mode ( proce$+ might be asc]ta9$4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 ! man f\nd himself q unable to d1 & !re=e c\ld imp>t 8 skill to nobody4 ,he _h1 f ! individual cases ( 8 own exp]i5ce1 e/abli%$ a connexion 9 8 m9d betwe5 f9e effects ( col\r1 & tactual p]ceptions 9 h&l+ 8 dye+ mat]ials2 & f ^! p]ceptions he c\ld1 9 any p>ticul> case1 inf] ! means to be employ$1 & ! effects :i* w\ld be produc$1 b c\ld n put o!rs 9 possession ( ! gr\nds on :i* he proce$$1 f hav+ nev] g5]aliz$ !m 9 8 own m9d1 or express$ !m 9 language4 ,almo/ e "o kn[s ,"l ,mansfield's advice to a man ( practical good s5se1 :o1 be+ appo9t$ gov]nor ( a colony1 _h to preside 9 its c\rt ( ju/ice1 )\t previ\s judicial practice or legal education4 ,! advice 0 to give 8 decision boldly1 = x w\ld probably be "r2 b nev] to v5ture on assign+ reasons1 = !y w\ld almo/ infallibly be wrong4 ,9 cases l ?is1 :i* are ( no uncommon occurr5ce1 x w\ld be absurd to suppose t ! bad reason 0 ! s\rce ( ! good decision4 ,"l ,mansfield knew t if any reason 7 assign$ x w\ld be necess>ily an aft]?\ght1 ! judge be+ 9 fact guid$ by impressions f pa/ exp]i5ce1 )\t ! circuit\s process ( fram+ g5]al pr9ciples f !m1 & t if he attempt$ to frame any su* he w\ld assur$ly fail4 ,"l ,mansfield1 h[ev]1 w\ld n h d\bt$ t a man ( equal exp]i5ce1 :o _h also a m9d /or$ ) g5]al propositions d]iv$ by legitimate induction f t exp]i5ce1 w\ld h be5 greatly pref]able z a judge1 to "o1 h[ev] sagaci\s1 :o c\ld n be tru/$ ) ! explanation & ju/ification ( 8 own judgm5ts4 ,! cases ( m5 ( tal5t p]=m+ wond]ful ?+s !y "k n h[1 are examples ( ! rude/ & mo/ spontane\s =m ( ! op]ations ( sup]ior m9ds2 x is a defect 9 !m1 & (t5 a s\rce ( errors1 n to h g5]aliz$ z !y w5t on2 b g5]alization1 ?\gh a help1 ! mo/ important inde$ ( all helps1 is n an ess5tial4 ,ev5 ! sci5tifically in/ruct$1 :o possess1 9 ! =m ( g5]al propositions1 a sy/ematic record ( ! results ( ! exp]i5ce ( mank9d1 ne$ n always rev]t to ^? g5]al propositions 9 ord] to apply t exp]i5ce to a new case4 ,x is ju/ly rem>k$ by ,dugald ,/ew>t1 t ?\gh our reason+s 9 ma!matics dep5d entirely on ! axioms1 x is by no means necess>y to our see+ ! conclusiv5ess ( ! pro(1 t ! axioms %\ld be expressly adv]t$ to4 ,:5 x is inf]r$ t ,a ,b is equal to ,c ,d because ea* ( !m is equal to ,e ,f1 ! mo/ uncultivat$ und]/&+1 z soon z ! propositions 7 und]/ood1 w\ld ass5t to ! inf]5ce1 )\t hav+ ev] he>d ( ! g5]al tru? t 8?+s :i* are equal to ! same ?+ are equal to "o ano!r40 ,?is rem>k ( ,/ew>t1 consi/5tly foll[$ out1 goes to ! root1 z ,i conceive1 ( ! philosophy ( ratioc9ation2 & x is to be regrett$ t he himself /opt %ort at a mu* m limit$ application ( x4 ,he saw t ! g5]al propositions on :i* a reason+ is said to dep5d1 may1 9 c]ta9 cases1 be altoge!r omitt$1 )\t impair+ its probative =ce4 ,b he imag9$ ?is to be a peculi>ity belong+ to axioms2 & argu$ f x1 t axioms are n ! f\ndations or fir/ pr9ciples ( geometry1 f :i* all ! o!r tru?s ( ! sci5ce are syn!tically d$uc$ 7z ! laws ( motion & ( ! composition ( =ces 9 dynamics1 ! equal mobility ( fluids 9 hydro/atics1 ! laws ( reflection & refraction 9 optics1 are ! fir/ pr9ciples ( ^? sci5ces72 b are m]ely necess>y assumptions1 self-evid5t inde$1 & ! d5ial ( :i* w\ld annihilate all demon/ration1 b f :i*1 z premisses1 no?+ c be demon/rat$4 ,9 ! pres5t1 z 9 _m o!r in/ances1 ?is ?\ghtful & elegant writ] has p]ceiv$ an important tru?1 b only by halves4 ,f9d+1 9 ! case ( geometrical axioms1 t g5]al names h n any talismanic virtue = conjur+ new tru?s out ( ! pit ( d>kness1 & n see+ t ?is is equally true 9 e o!r case ( g5]alization1 he cont5d$ t axioms are 9 _! nature b>r5 ( consequ5ces1 & t ! really fruitful tru?s1 ! real fir/ pr9ciples ( geometry1 are ! def9itions2 t ! def9ition1 = example1 ( ! circle is to ! prop]ties ( ! circle1 :at ! laws ( equilibrium & ( ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e are to ! rise ( ! m]cury 9 ! ,torricellian tube4 ,yet all t he _h ass]t$ respect+ ! function to :i* ! axioms are conf9$ 9 ! demon/rations ( geometry1 holds equally true ( ! def9itions4 ,e demon/ration 9 ,euclid might be c>ri$ on )\t !m4 ,?is is app>5t f ! ord9>y process ( prov+ a proposition ( geometry by means ( a diagram4 ,:at assumption1 9 fact1 d we set out f1 to demon/rate by a diagram any ( ! prop]ties ( ! circle8 ,n t 9 all circles ! radii are equal1 b only t !y are s 9 ! circle ,,abc4 ,z our w>rant = assum+ ?is1 we appeal1 x is true1 to ! def9ition ( a circle 9 g5]al2 b x is only necess>y t ! assumption be grant$ 9 ! case ( ! p>ticul> circle suppos$4 ,f ?is1 :i* is n a g5]al b a s+ul> proposition1 comb9$ ) o!r propositions ( a simil> k9d1 "s ( :i* :5 g5]aliz$ are call$ def9itions1 & o!rs axioms1 we prove t a c]ta9 conclusion is true1 n ( all circles1 b ( ! p>ticul> circle ,,abc2 or at lea/ w\ld be s1 if ! facts precisely accord$ ) our assumptions4 ,! enunciation1 z x is call$1 t is1 ! g5]al !orem :i* /&s at ! head ( ! demon/ration1 is n ! proposition actually demon/rat$4 ,"o in/ance only is demon/rat$3 b ! process by :i* ?is is done1 is a process :i*1 :5 we consid] its nature1 we p]ceive might be exactly copi$ 9 an indef9ite numb] ( o!r in/ances2 9 e in/ance :i* con=ms to c]ta9 conditions4 ,! contrivance ( g5]al language furni%+ u ) t]ms :i* connote ^! conditions1 we are able to ass]t ?is indef9ite multitude ( tru?s 9 a s+le expression1 & ?is expression is ! g5]al !orem4 ,by dropp+ ! use ( diagrams1 & sub/itut+1 9 ! demon/rations1 g5]al phrases = ! lett]s ( ! alphabet1 we might prove ! g5]al !orem directly1 t is1 we might demon/rate all ! cases at once2 & to d ?is we mu/1 ( c\rse1 employ z our premisses1 ! axioms & def9itions 9 _! g5]al =m4 ,b ?is only means1 t if we c prove an individual conclusion by assum+ an individual fact1 !n 9 :atev] case we are w>rant$ 9 mak+ an exactly simil> assumption1 we may draw an exactly simil> conclusion4 ,! def9ition is a sort ( notice to ourselves & o!rs1 :at assumptions we ?9k ourselves entitl$ to make4 ,& s 9 all cases1 ! g5]al propositions1 :e!r call$ def9itions1 axioms1 or laws ( nature1 :i* we lay d[n at ! beg9n+ ( our reason+s1 are m]ely abridg$ /atem5ts1 9 a k9d ( %ort-h&1 ( ! p>ticul> facts1 :i*1 z occasion arises1 we ei!r ?9k we may proce$ on z prov$1 or int5d to assume4 ,9 any "o demon/ration x is en\gh if we assume = a p>ticul> case suitably select$1 :at by ! /atem5t ( ! def9ition or pr9ciple we ann\nce t we int5d to assume 9 all cases :i* may arise4 ,! def9ition ( ! circle1 !re=e1 is to "o ( ,euclid's demon/rations1 exactly :at1 accord+ to ,/ew>t1 ! axioms are2 t is1 ! demon/ration does n dep5d on x1 b yet if we d5y x ! demon/ration fails4 ,! pro( does n re/ on ! g5]al assumption1 b on a simil> assumption conf9$ to ! p>ticul> case3 t case1 h[ev]1 be+ *os5 z a specim5 or p>adigm ( ! :ole class ( cases includ$ 9 ! !orem1 !re c be no gr\nd = mak+ ! assumption 9 t case :i* does n exi/ 9 e o!r2 & if y d5y ! assumption z a g5]al tru?1 y d5y ! "r to make x 9 ! p>ticul> in/ance4 ,!re are1 und\bt$ly1 ! mo/ ample reasons = /at+ bo? ! pr9ciples & ! !orems 9 _! g5]al =m1 & ^! w be expla9$ pres5tly1 s f> z explanation is requisite4 ,b1 t unpractis$ le>n]s1 ev5 9 mak+ use ( "o !orem to demon/rate ano!r1 reason r f p>ticul> to p>ticul> ?an f ! g5]al proposition1 is manife/ f ! difficulty !y f9d 9 apply+ a !orem to a case 9 :i* ! configuration ( ! diagram is extremely unlike t ( ! diagram by :i* ! orig9al !orem 0 demon/rat$4 ,a difficulty :i*1 except 9 cases ( unusual m5tal p[]1 long practice c alone remove1 & removes *iefly by r5d]+ u famili> ) all ! configurations consi/5t ) ! g5]al conditions ( ! !orem4 #d4 ,f ! consid]ations n[ adduc$1 ! foll[+ conclusions seem to be e/abli%$4 ,all inf]5ce is f p>ticul>s to p>ticul>s3 ,g5]al propositions are m]ely regi/]s ( su* inf]5ces already made1 & %ort =mul = mak+ m3 ,! major premiss ( a syllogism1 consequ5tly1 is a =mula ( ?is description3 & ! conclusion is n an inf]5ce drawn f ! =mula1 b an inf]5ce drawn accord+ to ! =mula3 ! real logical antec$5t1 or premisses1 be+ ! p>ticul> facts f :i* ! g5]al proposition 0 collect$ by induction4 ,^? facts1 & ! individual in/ances :i* suppli$ !m1 may h be5 =gott52 b a record rema9s1 n inde$ descriptive ( ! facts !mselves1 b %[+ h[ ^? cases may be di/+ui%$ respect+ :i* ! facts1 :5 kn[n1 7 consid]$ to w>rant a giv5 inf]5ce4 ,accord+ to ! indications ( ?is record we draw our conclusion2 :i* is1 to all int5ts & purposes1 a conclusion f ! =gott5 facts4 ,= ?is x is ess5tial t we %\ld read ! record correctly3 & ! rules ( ! syllogism are a set ( precautions to ensure our do+ s4 ,?is view ( ! functions ( ! syllogism is confirm$ by ! consid]ation ( precisely ^? cases :i* might be expect$ to be lea/ fav\rable to x1 namely1 ^? 9 :i* ratioc9ation is indep5d5t ( any previ\s induction4 ,we h already obs]v$ t ! syllogism1 9 ! ord9>y c\rse ( our reason+1 is only ! latt] half ( ! process ( travell+ f premisses to a conclusion4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 "s peculi> cases 9 :i* x is ! :ole process4 ,p>ticul>s alone are capable ( be+ subject$ to obs]vation2 & all k :i* is d]iv$ f obs]vation1 beg9s1 !re=e1 ( necessity1 9 p>ticul>s2 b our k may1 9 cases ( a c]ta9 description1 be conceiv$ z com+ to u f o!r s\rces ?an obs]vation4 ,x may pres5t itself z com+ f te/imony1 :i*1 on ! occasion & = ! purpose 9 h&1 is accept$ z ( an au?oritative "*3 & ! in=mation ?us communicat$1 may be conceiv$ to comprise n only p>ticul> facts b g5]al propositions1 z :5 a sci5tific doctr9e is accept$ )\t exam9ation on ! au?ority ( writ]s4 ,or ! g5]alization may n be1 9 ! ord9>y s5se1 an ass]tion at all1 b a comm&2 a law1 n 9 ! philosophical1 b 9 ! moral & political s5se ( ! t]m3 an expression ( ! desire ( a sup]ior1 t we1 or any numb] ( o!r p]sons1 %all con=m our conduct to c]ta9 g5]al in/ructions4 ,s f> z ?is ass]ts a fact1 namely1 a volition ( ! legislator1 t fact is an individual fact1 & ! proposition1 !re=e1 is n a g5]al proposition4 ,b ! description !re9 conta9$ ( ! conduct :i* x is ! w ( ! legislator t 8 subjects %\ld obs]ve1 is g5]al4 ,! proposition ass]ts1 n t all m5 are any?+1 b t all m5 %all d some?+4 ,9 bo? ^! cases ! g5]alities are ! orig9al data1 & ! p>ticul>s are elicit$ f !m by a process :i* correctly resolves itself into a s]ies ( syllogisms4 ,! real nature1 h[ev]1 ( ! suppos$ d$uctive process1 is evid5t en\gh4 ,! only po9t to be det]m9$ is1 :e!r ! au?ority :i* decl>$ ! g5]al proposition1 int5d$ to include ?is case 9 x2 & :e!r ! legislator int5d$ 8 comm& to apply to ! pres5t case among o!rs1 or n4 ,?is is asc]ta9$ by exam9+ :e!r ! case possesses ! m>ks by :i*1 z ^? au?orities h signifi$1 ! cases :i* !y meant to c]tify or to influ5ce may be kn[n4 ,! object ( ! inquiry is to make out ! witness's or ! legislator's int5tion1 ?r\gh ! indication giv5 by _! words4 ,?is is a "q1 z ! ,g]mans express x1 ( h]m5eutics4 ,! op]ation is n a process ( inf]5ce1 b a process ( int]pretation4 ,9 ?is la/ phrase we h obta9$ an expression :i* appe>s to me to *>act]ize1 m aptly ?an any o!r1 ! functions ( ! syllogism 9 all cases4 ,:5 ! premisses are giv5 by au?ority1 ! function ( ,reason+ is to asc]ta9 ! te/imony ( a witness1 or ! w ( a legislator1 by int]pret+ ! signs 9 :i* ! "o has intimat$ 8 ass]tion & ! o!r 8 comm&4 ,9 l mann]1 :5 ! premisses are d]iv$ f obs]vation1 ! function ( ,reason+ is to asc]ta9 :at we 7or our pr$ecessors7 =m]ly ?\ght might be inf]r$ f ! obs]v$ facts1 & to d ?is by int]pret+ a memor&um ( ours1 or ( !irs4 ,! memor&um rem9ds u1 t f evid5ce1 m or less c>efully weigh$1 x =m]ly appe>$ t a c]ta9 attribute might be inf]r$ :]ev] we p]ceive a c]ta9 m>k4 ,! proposition1 ,all m5 are mortal1 7= in/ance7 %[s t we h _h exp]i5ce f :i* we ?\ght x foll[$ t ! attributes connot$ by ! t]m man1 are a m>k ( mortality4 ,b :5 we conclude t ! ,duke ( ,well+ton is mortal1 we d n inf] ?is f ! memor&um1 b f ! =m] exp]i5ce4 ,all t we inf] f ! memor&um1 is our own previ\s belief1 7or t ( ^? :o transmitt$ to u ! proposition17 conc]n+ ! inf]5ces :i* t =m] exp]i5ce w\ld w>rant4 ,?is view ( ! nature ( ! syllogism r5d]s consi/5t & intelligible :at o!rwise rema9s obscure & confus$ 9 ! !ory ( ,ar*bi%op ,:ately & o!r enlight5$ def5d]s ( ! syllogi/ic doctr9e1 respect+ ! limits to :i* its functions are conf9$4 ,!y affirm 9 z explicit t]ms z c be us$1 t ! sole (fice ( g5]al reason+ is to prev5t inconsi/5cy 9 our op9ions2 to prev5t u f ass5t+ to any?+1 ! tru? ( :i* w\ld contradict some?+ to :i* we _h previ\sly on good gr\nds giv5 our ass5t4 ,& !y tell u1 t ! sole gr\nd :i* a syllogism af=ds = ass5t+ to ! conclusion1 is t ! supposition ( its be+ false1 comb9$ ) ! supposition t ! premisses are true1 w\ld lead to a contradiction 9 t]ms4 ,n[ ?is w\ld be b a lame acc\nt ( ! real gr\nds :i* we h = believ+ ! facts :i* we le>n f reason+1 9 contradi/9ction to obs]vation4 ,! true reason :y we believe t ! ,duke ( ,well+ton w die1 is t 8 fa!rs1 & our fa!rs1 & all o!r p]sons :o 7 cotempor>y ) !m1 h di$4 ,^? facts are ! real premisses ( ! reason+4 ,b we are n l$ to inf] ! conclusion f ^? premisses1 by ! necessity ( avoid+ any v]bal inconsi/5cy4 ,!re is no contradiction 9 suppos+ t all ^? p]sons h di$1 & t ! ,duke ( ,well+ton may1 not)/&+1 live = ev]4 ,b !re w\ld be a contradiction if we fir/1 on ! gr\nd ( ^? same premisses1 made a g5]al ass]tion includ+ & cov]+ ! case ( ! ,duke ( ,well+ton1 & !n refus$ to /& to x 9 ! individual case4 ,!re is an inconsi/5cy to be avoid$ betwe5 ! memor&um we make ( ! inf]5ces :i* may be ju/ly drawn 9 future cases1 & ! inf]5ces we actually draw 9 ^? cases :5 !y arise4 ,) ?is view we int]pret our own =mula1 precisely z a judge int]prets a law3 9 ord] t we may avoid draw+ any inf]5ces n con=mable to our =m] int5tion1 z a judge avoids giv+ any decision n con=mable to ! legislator's int5tion4 ,! rules = ?is int]pretation are ! rules ( ! syllogism3 & its sole purpose is to ma9ta9 consi/5cy betwe5 ! conclusions we draw 9 e p>ticul> case1 & ! previ\s g5]al directions = draw+ !m2 :e!r ^? g5]al directions 7 fram$ by ourselves z ! result ( induction1 or 7 receiv$ by u f an au?ority compet5t to give !m4 #e4 ,9 ! above obs]vations x has1 ,i ?9k1 be5 cle>ly %[n1 t1 al?\gh !re is always a process ( reason+ or inf]5ce :]e a syllogism is us$1 ! syllogism is n a correct analysis ( t process ( reason+ or inf]5ce2 :i* is1 on ! contr>y1 7:5 n a m]e inf]5ce f te/imony17 an inf]5ce f p>ticul>s to p>ticul>s2 au?oriz$ by a previ\s inf]5ce f p>ticul>s to g5]als1 & sub/antially ! same ) x2 ( ! nature1 !re=e1 ( ,induction4 ,b1 :ile ^! conclusions appe> to me und5iable1 ,i mu/ yet ent] a prote/1 z /rong z t ( ,ar*bi%op ,:ately himself2 aga9/ ! doctr9e t ! syllogi/ic art is useless = ! purposes ( reason+4 ,! reason+ lies 9 ! act ( g5]alization1 n 9 int]pret+ ! record ( t act2 b ! syllogi/ic =m is an indisp5sable collat]al security = ! correctness ( ! g5]alization itself4 ,x has already be5 se51 t if we h a collection ( p>ticul>s suffici5t = gr\nd+ an induction1 we ne$ n frame a g5]al proposition2 we may reason at once f ^? p>ticul>s to o!r p>ticul>s4 ,b x is to be rem>k$ )al1 t :5ev]1 f a set ( p>ticul> cases1 we c legitimately draw any inf]5ce1 we may legitimately make our inf]5ce a g5]al "o4 ,if1 f obs]vation & exp]im5t1 we c conclude to "o new case1 s may we to an indef9ite numb]4 ,if t :i* has held true 9 our pa/ exp]i5ce w !re=e hold 9 "t to come1 x w hold n m]ely 9 "s individual case1 b 9 all cases ( a giv5 description4 ,e induction1 !re=e1 :i* suffices to prove "o fact1 proves an indef9ite multitude ( facts3 ! exp]i5ce :i* ju/ifies a s+le pr$iction mu/ be su* z w suffice to be> out a g5]al !orem4 ,?is !orem x is extremely important to asc]ta9 & decl>e1 9 its broade/ =m ( g5]ality2 & ?us to place be=e our m9ds1 9 its full ext5t1 ! :ole ( :at our evid5ce mu/ prove if x proves any?+4 ,?is ?r[+ ( ! :ole body ( possible inf]5ces f a giv5 set ( p>ticul>s1 into "o g5]al expression1 op]ates z a security = _! be+ j inf]5ces1 9 m ways ?an "o4 ,fir/1 ! g5]al pr9ciple pres5ts a l>g] object to ! imag9ation ?an any ( ! s+ul> propositions :i* x conta9s4 ,a process ( ?\ght :i* leads to a compreh5sive g5]ality1 is felt z ( great] importance ?an "o :i* t]m9ates 9 an insulat$ fact2 & ! m9d is1 ev5 unconsci\sly1 l$ to be/[ great] att5tion ^u ! process1 & to weigh m c>efully ! suffici5cy ( ! exp]i5ce appeal$ to1 = support+ ! inf]5ce gr\nd$ ^u x4 ,!re is ano!r1 & a m important1 advantage4 ,9 reason+ f a c\rse ( individual obs]vations to "s new & unobs]v$ case1 :i* we are b imp]fectly acqua9t$ ) 7or we %\ld n be inquir+ into x71 & 9 :i*1 s9ce we are inquir+ into x1 we probably feel a peculi> int]e/2 !re is v little to prev5t u f giv+ way to neglig5ce1 or to any bias :i* may affect our wi%es or our imag9ation1 &1 "u t influ5ce1 accept+ insuffici5t evid5ce z suffici5t4 ,b if1 in/ead ( conclud+ /raight to ! p>ticul> case1 we place be=e ourselves an entire class ( facts--! :ole cont5ts ( a g5]al proposition1 e tittle ( :i* is legitimately inf]rible f our premisses1 if t "o p>ticul> conclusion is s2 !re is !n a consid]able likelihood t if ! premisses are insuffici5t1 & ! g5]al inf]5ce1 !re=e1 gr\ndless1 x w comprise )9 x "s fact or facts ! rev]se ( :i* we already "k to be true2 & we %all ?us discov] ! error 9 our g5]alization by :at ! s*oolm5 t]m$ a r$uctio ad impossibile4 ,?us if1 dur+ ! reign ( ,m>cus ,aurelius1 a subject ( ! ,roman empire1 "u ! bias naturally giv5 to ! imag9ation & expectations by ! lives & *>act]s ( ! ,anton9es1 _h be5 dispos$ to conclude t ,commodus w\ld be a j rul]2 suppos+ him to /op !re1 he might only h be5 undeceiv$ by sad exp]i5ce4 ,b if he reflect$ t ?is conclusion c\ld n be ju/ifiable unless f ! same evid5ce he 0 also w>rant$ 9 conclud+ "s g5]al proposition1 z1 = in/ance1 t all ,roman emp]ors are j rul]s2 he w\ld imm$iately h ?\ght ( ,n]o1 ,domitian1 & o!r in/ances1 :i*1 %[+ ! falsity ( ! g5]al conclusion1 & !re=e ! insuffici5cy ( ! premisses1 w\ld h w>n$ him t ^? premisses c\ld n prove 9 ! in/ance ( ,commodus1 :at !y 7 inadequate to prove 9 any collection ( cases 9 :i* 8 0 includ$4 ,! advantage1 9 judg+ :e!r any controv]t$ inf]5ce is legitimate1 ( ref]r+ to a p>allel case1 is univ]sally ackn[l$g$4 ,b by asc5d+ to ! g5]al proposition1 we br+ "u our view n "o p>allel case only1 b all possible p>allel cases at once2 all cases to :i* ! same set ( evid5ti>y consid]ations are applicable4 ,:51 !re=e1 we argue f a numb] ( kn[n cases to ano!r case suppos$ to be analog\s1 x is always possible1 & g5]ally advantage\s1 to div]t our argum5t into ! circuit\s *annel ( an induction f ^? kn[n cases to a g5]al proposition1 & a subsequ5t application ( t g5]al proposition to ! unkn[n case4 ,?is second "p ( ! op]ation1 :i*1 z be=e obs]v$1 is ess5tially a process ( int]pretation1 w be resolvable into a syllogism or a s]ies ( syllogisms1 ! majors ( :i* w be g5]al propositions embrac+ :ole classes ( cases2 e "o ( :i* propositions mu/ be true 9 all its ext5t1 if ! argum5t is ma9ta9able4 ,if1 !re=e1 any fact fairly com+ )9 ! range ( "o ( ^! g5]al propositions1 & consequ5tly ass]t$ by x1 is kn[n or suspect$ to be o!r ?an ! proposition ass]ts x to be1 ?is mode ( /at+ ! argum5t causes u to "k or to suspect t ! orig9al obs]vations1 :i* are ! real gr\nds ( our conclusion1 are n suffici5t to support x4 ,& 9 proportion to ! great] *ance ( our detect+ ! inconclusiv5ess ( our evid5ce1 w be ! increas$ reliance we are entitl$ to place 9 x if no su* evid5ce ( defect %all appe>4 ,! value1 !re=e1 ( ! syllogi/ic =m1 & ( ! rules = us+ x correctly1 does n consi/ 9 _! be+ ! =m & ! rules accord+ to :i* our reason+s are necess>ily1 or ev5 usually1 made2 b 9 _! furni%+ u ) a mode 9 :i* ^? reason+s may always be repres5t$1 & :i* is admirably calculat$1 if !y are inconclusive1 to br+ _! inconclusiv5ess to light4 ,an induction f p>ticul>s to g5]als1 foll[$ by a syllogi/ic process f ^? g5]als to o!r p>ticul>s1 is a =m 9 :i* we may always /ate our reason+s if we please4 ,x is n a =m 9 :i* we mu/ reason1 b x is a =m 9 :i* we may reason1 & into :i* x is indisp5sable to ?r[ our reason+1 :5 !re is any d\bt ( its validity3 ?\gh :5 ! case is famili> & little complicat$1 & !re is no suspicion ( error1 we may1 & d1 reason at once f ! kn[n p>ticul> cases to unkn[n ones4 ,^! are ! uses ( syllogism1 z a mode ( v]ify+ any giv5 argum5t4 ,its ult]ior uses1 z respects ! g5]al c\rse ( our intellectual op]ations1 h>dly require illu/ration1 be+ 9 fact ! ackn[l$g$ uses ( g5]al language4 ,!y am\nt sub/antially to ?is1 t ! inductions may be made once = all3 a s+le c>eful int]rogation ( exp]i5ce may suffice1 & ! result may be regi/]$ 9 ! =m ( a g5]al proposition1 :i* is committ$ to memory or to writ+1 & f :i* aft]w>ds we h only to syllogize4 ,! p>ticul>s ( our exp]im5ts may !n be dismiss$ f ! memory1 9 :i* x w\ld be impossible to reta9 s great a multitude ( details2 :ile ! k :i* ^? details af=d$ = future use1 & :i* w\ld o!rwise be lo/ z soon z ! obs]vations 7 =gott51 or z _! record became too bulky = ref]5ce1 is reta9$ 9 a commodi\s & imm$iately available %ape by means ( g5]al language4 ,aga9/ ?is advantage is to be set ! c\nt]vail+ inconv5i5ce1 t inf]5ces orig9ally made on insuffici5t evid5ce1 become consecrat$1 &1 z x 71 h>d5$ into g5]al maxims2 & ! m9d cleaves to !m f habit1 aft] x has outgr[n any liability to be misl$ by simil> fallaci\s appe>ances if !y 7 n[ = ! fir/ "t pres5t$2 b hav+ =gott5 ! p>ticul>s1 x does n ?9k ( revis+ its own =m] decision4 ,an inevitable drawback1 :i*1 h[ev] consid]able 9 itself1 =ms evid5tly b a small d$uction f ! imm5se advantages ( g5]al language4 ,! use ( ! syllogism is 9 tru? no o!r ?an ! use ( g5]al propositions 9 reason+4 ,we c reason )\t !m2 9 simple & obvi\s cases we habitually d s2 m9ds ( great sagacity c d x 9 cases n simple & obvi\s1 provid$ _! exp]i5ce supplies !m ) in/ances ess5tially simil> to e comb9ation ( circum/ances likely to arise4 ,b o!r m9ds1 or ! same m9ds )\t ! same pre-em95t advantages ( p]sonal exp]i5ce1 are q helpless )\t ! aid ( g5]al propositions1 :]ev] ! case pres5ts ! smalle/ complication2 & if we made no g5]al propositions1 few p]sons w\ld get mu* beyond ^? simple inf]5ces :i* are drawn by ! m intellig5t ( ! brutes4 ,?\gh n necess>y to reason+1 g5]al propositions are necess>y to any consid]able progress 9 reason+4 ,x is1 !re=e1 natural & indisp5sable to sep>ate ! process ( inve/igation into two p>ts2 & obta9 g5]al =mul = det]m9+ :at inf]5ces may be drawn1 be=e ! occasion arises = draw+ ! inf]5ces4 ,! "w ( draw+ !m is !n t ( apply+ ! =mul2 & ! rules ( syllogism are a sy/em ( securities = ! correctness ( ! application4 #f4 ,to complete ! s]ies ( consid]ations connect$ ) ! philosophical "* ( ! syllogism1 x is requisite to consid]1 s9ce ! syllogism is n ! univ]sal type ( ! reason+ process1 :at is ! real type4 ,?is resolves itself into ! "q1 :at is ! nature ( ! m9or premiss1 & 9 :at mann] x contributes to e/abli% ! conclusion3 = z to ! major1 we n[ fully und]/&1 t ! place :i* x nom9ally occupies 9 our reason+s1 prop]ly belongs to ! individual facts or obs]vations ( :i* x expresses ! g5]al result2 ! major itself be+ no real "p ( ! argum5t1 b an int]m$iate halt+ place = ! m9d1 int]pos$ by an artifice ( language betwe5 ! real premisses & ! conclusion1 by way ( a security1 :i* x is 9 a mo/ mat]ial degree1 = ! correctness ( ! process4 ,! m9or1 h[ev]1 be+ an indisp5sable "p ( ! syllogi/ic expression ( an argum5t1 )\t d\bt ei!r is1 or corresponds to1 an equally indisp5sable "p ( ! argum5t itself1 & we h only to inquire :at "p4 ,x is p]haps wor? :ile to notice "h a speculation ( "o ( ! philosoph]s to :om m5tal sci5ce is mo/ indebt$1 b :o1 ?\gh a v p5etrat+1 0 a v ha/y ?9k]1 & ^: want ( due circumspection r5d]$ him fully z rem>kable = :at he did n see1 z = :at he saw4 ,i allude to ,dr4 ,?omas ,br[n1 ^: !ory ( ratioc9ation is peculi>4 ,he saw ! petitio pr9cipii :i* is inh]5t 9 e syllogism1 if we consid] ! major to be itself ! evid5ce by :i* ! conclusion is prov$1 in/ead ( be+1 :at 9 fact x is1 an ass]tion ( ! exi/5ce ( evid5ce suffici5t to prove any conclusion ( a giv5 description4 ,see+ ?is1 ,dr4 ,br[n n only fail$ to see ! imm5se advantage1 9 po9t ( security = correctness1 :i* is ga9$ by int]pos+ ?is /ep betwe5 ! real evid5ce & ! conclusion2 b he ?\ght x incumb5t on him to /rike out ! major altoge!r f ! reason+ process1 )\t sub/itut+ any?+ else1 & ma9ta9$ t our reason+s consi/ only ( ! m9or premiss & ! conclusion1 ,socrates is a man1 !re=e ,socrates is mortal3 ?us actually suppress+1 z an unnecess>y /ep 9 ! argum5t1 ! appeal to =m] exp]i5ce4 ,! absurdity ( ?is 0 disguis$ f him by ! op9ion he adopt$1 t reason+ is m]ely analys+ our own g5]al notions1 or ab/ract ideas2 & t ! proposition1 ,socrates is mortal1 is evolv$ f ! proposition1 ,socrates is a man1 simply by recognis+ ! notion ( mortality z already conta9$ 9 ! notion we =m ( a man4 ,aft] ! explanations s fully ent]$ into on ! subject ( propositions1 mu* fur!r discussion _c be necess>y to make ! radical error ( ?is view ( ratioc9ation app>5t4 ,if ! ^w man connot$ mortality2 if ! mean+ ( 8mortal0 7 involv$ 9 ! mean+ ( 8man20 we might1 und\bt$ly1 evolve ! conclusion f ! m9or alone1 because ! m9or w\ld h di/9ctly ass]t$ x4 ,b if1 z is 9 fact ! case1 ! ^w man does n connote mortality1 h[ does x appe> t 9 ! m9d ( e p]son :o admits ,socrates to be a man1 ! idea ( man mu/ include ! idea ( mortality8 ,dr4 ,br[n c\ld n help see+ ?is difficulty1 & 9 ord] to avoid x1 0 l$1 contr>y to 8 int5tion1 to re-e/abli%1 "u ano!r "n1 t /ep 9 ! argum5t :i* corresponds to ! major1 by affirm+ ! necessity ( previ\sly p]ceiv+ ! relation betwe5 ! idea ( man & ! idea ( mortal4 ,if ! reason] has n previ\sly p]ceiv$ ?is relation1 he w n1 says ,dr4 ,br[n1 inf] because ,socrates is a man1 t ,socrates is mortal4 ,b ev5 ?is admission1 ?\gh am\nt+ to a surr5d] ( ! doctr9e t an argum5t consi/s ( ! m9or & ! conclusion alone1 w n save ! rema9d] ( ,dr4 ,br[n's !ory4 ,! failure ( ass5t to ! argum5t does n take place m]ely because ! reason]1 = want ( due analysis1 does n p]ceive t 8 idea ( man includes ! idea ( mortality2 x takes place1 mu* m commonly1 because 9 8 m9d t relation betwe5 ! two ideas has nev] exi/$4 ,& 9 tru? x nev] does exi/1 except z ! result ( exp]i5ce4 ,cons5t+1 = ! sake ( ! argum5t1 to discuss ! "q on a supposition ( :i* we h recognis$ ! radical incorrectness1 namely1 t ! mean+ ( a proposition relates to ! ideas ( ! ?+s spok5 (1 & n to ! ?+s !mselves2 ,i mu/ yet obs]ve1 t ! idea ( man1 z an univ]sal idea1 ! common prop]ty ( all rational creatures1 _c involve any?+ b :at is /rictly impli$ 9 ! "n4 ,if any "o includes 9 8 own private idea ( man1 z no d\bt is almo/ always ! case1 "s o!r attributes1 su* = in/ance z mortality1 he does s only z ! consequ5ce ( exp]i5ce1 aft] hav+ satisfi$ himself t all m5 possess t attribute3 s t :atev] ! idea conta9s1 9 any p]son's m9d1 beyond :at is includ$ 9 ! conv5tional signification ( ! ^w1 has be5 add$ to x z ! result ( ass5t to a proposition2 :ile ,dr4 ,br[n's !ory requires u to suppose1 on ! contr>y1 t ass5t to ! proposition is produc$ by evolv+1 ?r\gh an analytic process1 ?is v elem5t out ( ! idea4 ,?is !ory1 !re=e1 may be consid]$ z suffici5tly refut$2 & ! m9or premiss mu/ be reg>d$ z totally insuffici5t to prove ! conclusion1 except ) ! assi/ance ( ! major1 or ( t :i* ! major repres5ts1 namely1 ! v>i\s s+ul> propositions expressive ( ! s]ies ( obs]vations1 ( :i* ! g5]alization call$ ! major premiss is ! result4 ,9 ! argum5t1 !n1 :i* proves t ,socrates is mortal1 "o indisp5sable "p ( ! premisses w be z foll[s3 8,my fa!r1 & my fa!r's fa!r1 ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 & an indef9ite numb] ( o!r p]sons1 7 mortal20 :i* is only an expression 9 diff]5t words ( ! obs]v$ fact t !y h di$4 ,?is is ! major premiss1 dive/$ ( ! petitio pr9cipii1 & cut d[n to z mu* z is really kn[n by direct evid5ce4 ,9 ord] to connect ?is proposition ) ! conclusion1 ,socrates is mortal1 ! additional l9k necess>y is su* a proposition z ! foll[+3 8,socrates resembles my fa!r1 & my fa!r's fa!r1 & ! o!r individuals specifi$40 ,?is proposition we ass]t :5 we say t ,socrates is a man4 ,by say+ s we likewise ass]t 9 :at respect he resembles !m1 namely1 9 ! attributes connot$ by ! ^w man4 ,& f ?is we conclude t he fur!r resembles !m 9 ! attribute mortality4 #g4 ,we h ?us obta9$ :at we 7 seek+1 an univ]sal type ( ! reason+ process4 ,we f9d x resolvable 9 all cases into ! foll[+ elem5ts3 ,c]ta9 individuals h a giv5 attribute2 an individual or individuals resemble ! =m] 9 c]ta9 o!r attributes2 !re=e !y resemble !m also 9 ! giv5 attribute4 ,?is type ( ratioc9ation does n claim1 l ! syllogism1 to be conclusive f ! m]e =m ( ! expression2 nor c x possibly be s4 ,t "o proposition does or does n ass]t ! v fact :i* 0 already ass]t$ 9 ano!r1 may appe> f ! =m ( ! expression1 t is1 f a comp>ison ( ! language2 b :5 ! two propositions ass]t facts :i* are bon fide diff]5t1 :e!r ! "o fact proves ! o!r or n c nev] appe> f ! language1 b mu/ dep5d on o!r consid]ations4 ,:e!r1 f ! attributes 9 :i* ,socrates resembles ^? m5 :o h h]et(ore di$1 x is all[able to inf] t he resembles !m also 9 be+ mortal1 is a "q ( ,induction2 & is to be decid$ by ! pr9ciples or canons :i* we %all h]eaft] recognise z te/s ( ! correct p]=mance ( t great m5tal op]ation4 ,mean:ile1 h[ev]1 x is c]ta91 z be=e rem>k$1 t if ?is inf]5ce c be drawn z to ,socrates1 x c be drawn z to all o!rs :o resemble ! obs]v$ individuals 9 ! same attributes 9 :i* he resembles !m2 t is 7to express ! ?+ concisely71 ( all mank9d4 ,if1 !re=e1 ! argum5t be conclusive 9 ! case ( ,socrates1 we are at lib]ty1 once = all1 to treat ! possession ( ! attributes ( man z a m>k1 or satisfactory evid5ce1 ( ! attribute ( mortality4 ,?is we d by lay+ d[n ! univ]sal proposition1 ,all m5 are mortal1 & int]pret+ ?is1 z occasion arises1 9 its application to ,socrates & o!rs4 ,by ?is means we e/abli% a v conv5i5t division ( ! entire logical op]ation into two /eps2 fir/1 t ( asc]ta9+ :at attributes are m>ks ( mortality2 &1 secondly1 :e!r any giv5 individuals possess ^? m>ks4 ,& x w g5]ally be advisable1 9 our speculations on ! reason+ process1 to consid] ?is d\ble op]ation z 9 fact tak+ place1 & all reason+ z c>ri$ on 9 ! =m into :i* x mu/ necess>ily be ?r[n to enable u to apply to x any te/ ( its correct p]=mance4 ,al?\gh1 !re=e1 all processes ( ?\ght 9 :i* ! ultimate premisses are p>ticul>s1 :e!r we conclude f p>ticul>s to a g5]al =mula1 or f p>ticul>s to o!r p>ticul>s accord+ to t =mula1 are equally ,induction2 we %all yet1 con=mably to usage1 consid] ! "n ,induction z m peculi>ly belong+ to ! process ( e/abli%+ ! g5]al proposition1 & ! rema9+ op]ation1 :i* is sub/antially t ( int]pret+ ! g5]al proposition1 we %all call by its usual "n1 ,d$uction4 ,& we %all consid] e process by :i* any?+ is inf]r$ respect+ an unobs]v$ case1 z consi/+ ( an ,induction foll[$ by a ,d$uction2 because1 al?\gh ! process ne$s n necess>ily be c>ri$ on 9 ?is =m1 x is always susceptible ( ! =m1 & mu/ be ?r[n into x :5 assurance ( sci5tific accuracy is ne$$ & desir$4 ,,note ,,supplem5t>y ,,to ,,! ,,prec$+ ,,*apt]4 ,?is !ory ( ! syllogism1 7:i* has receiv$ ! important adhesion ( ,dr4 ,:ewell17#cc77 has be5 controv]t$ by a writ] 9 ! 8,briti% ,qu>t]ly ,review407#cd7 ,! doctr9e be+ new1 discussion respect+ x is extremely desirable1 to ensure t no?+ ess5tial to ! "q escapes obs]vation2 & ,i %all1 !re=e1 reply to ?is writ]'s objections ) some:at m m9ut5ess ?an _! /r5g? may seem to require4 ,! review] d5ies t !re is a petitio pr9cipii 9 ! syllogism1 or t ! proposition1 ,all m5 are mortal1 ass]ts or assumes t ,socrates is mortal4 ,9 support ( ?is d5ial1 he argues t we may1 & 9 fact d1 admit ! g5]al proposition t all m5 are mortal1 )\t hav+ p>ticul>ly exam9$ ! case ( ,socrates1 & ev5 )\t kn[+ :e!r ! individual s nam$ is a man or n4 ,b ?is ( c\rse 0 nev] d5i$4 ,t we c & d draw conclusions conc]n+ cases specifically unkn[n to u1 is ! datum f :i* all :o discuss ?is subject mu/ set out4 ,! "q is1 9 :at t]ms ! evid5ce1 or gr\nd1 on :i* we draw ^! conclusions1 may be/ be designat$--:e!r x is mo/ correct to say1 t ! unkn[n case is prov$ by kn[n cases1 or t x is prov$ by a g5]al proposition1 includ+ bo? sets ( cases1 ! unkn[n & ! kn[n8 ,i cont5d = ! =m] mode ( expression4 ,i hold x an abuse ( language to say1 t ! pro( t ,socrates is mortal1 is t all m5 are mortal4 ,turn x 9 :at way we w1 ?is seems to me to be ass]t+ t a ?+ is ! pro( ( itself4 ,:oev] pron\nces ! words1 ,all m5 are mortal1 has affirm$ t ,socrates is mortal1 ?\gh he may nev] h he>d ( ,socrates2 = s9ce ,socrates1 :e!r kn[n to be s or n1 really is a man1 he is includ$ 9 ! words1 ,all m51 & 9 e ass]tion ( :i* !y are ! subject4 ,if ! review] does n see t !re is a difficulty "h1 ,i c only advise him to reconsid] ! subject until he does3 aft] :i* he w be a m compet5t judge ( ! success or failure ( an attempt to remove ! difficulty47#ce7 ,t he _h reflect$ v little on ! po9t :5 he wrote 8 rem>ks1 is %[n by 8 ov]sight respect+ ! dictum de omni et nullo4 ,he ackn[l$ges t ?is maxim z commonly express$1--8,:atev] is true ( a class1 is true ( ev]y?+ includ$ 9 ! class10 is a m]e id5tical proposition1 s9ce ! class is no?+ b ! ?+s includ$ 9 x4 ,b he ?9ks ?is defect w\ld be cur$ by word+ ! maxim ?us1--8,:atev] is true ( a class1 is true ( ev]y?+ :i* c be %[n to be a memb] ( ! class30 z if a ?+ c\ld 8be %[n0 to be a memb] ( ! class )\t be+ "o4 ,if a class means ! sum ( all ! ?+s includ$ 9 ! class1 ! ?+s :i* 8c be %[n0 to be includ$ 9 x are a "p ( ^!2 x is ! sum ( !m too1 & ! dictum is z mu* an id5tical proposition ) respect to !m z to ! re/4 ,"o w\ld almo/ imag9e t1 9 ! review]'s op9ion1 ?+s are n memb]s ( a class until !y are call$ up publicly to take _! place 9 x--t s long1 9 fact1 z ,socrates is n kn[n to be a man1 he is n a man1 & any ass]tion :i* c be made conc]n+ m5 does n at all reg>d him1 nor is affect$ z to its tru? or falsity by any?+ 9 :i* he is conc]n$4 ,! review] says t if ! major premiss includ$ ! conclusion1 8we %\ld be able to affirm ! conclusion )\t ! int]v5tion ( ! m9or premiss2 b e "o sees t t is impossible40 ,x does n foll[1 because ! major premiss conta9s ! conclusion1 t ! words !mselves mu/ %[ all ! conclusions :i* x conta9s1 & :i*1 or evid5ce ( :i*1 x presupposes4 ,! m9or is equally requir$ on bo? !ories4 ,x is respect+ ! functions ( ! major premiss t ! !ories diff]2 :e!r t premiss m]ely affirms ! exi/5ce ( pro(1 or is itself "p ( ! pro(--:e!r ! conclusion foll[s f ! m9or & major1 or f ! m9or & ! p>ticul> in/ances :i* are ! f\ndation ( ! major4 ,on ei!r supposition1 x is necess>y t ! new case %\ld be p]ceiv$ to be "o com+ )9 ! description ( ^? to :i* ! previ\s exp]i5ce is applicable2 :i* is ! purport ( ! m9or premiss4 ,:5 we say t all m5 are mortal1 we make an ass]tion rea*+ beyond ! sph]e ( our k ( individual cases2 & :5 a new individual1 ,socrates1 is br\ght )9 ! field ( our k by means ( ! m9or premiss1 we le>n t we h already made an ass]tion respect+ ,socrates )\t kn[+ x3 our own g5]al =mula is1 to t ext5t1 = ! fir/ "t int]pret$ to u4 ,b accord+ to ! review]'s !ory1 x is our hav+ made ! ass]tion :i* proves ! ass]tion3 :ile ,i cont5d t ! pro( is n ! ass]tion1 b ! gr\nds 7( exp]i5ce7 on :i* ! ass]tion 0 made1 & by :i* x mu/ be ju/ifi$4 ,! review] comes mu* ne>] to ! gi/ ( ! "q1 :5 he objects t ! =mula 9 :i* ! major is left out--8,a1 ,b1 ,c1 c41 7 mortal1 !re=e ! ,duke ( ,well+ton is mortal10 does n express all ! /eps ( ! m5tal process1 b omits "o ( ! mo/ ess5tial1 t :i* consi/s 9 recognis+ ! cases ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 z suffici5t evid5ce ( :at is true ( ! ,duke ( ,well+ton4 ,?is recognition ( ! suffici5cy ( ! induction he calls an 8inf]5ce10 & says1 t its result mu/ be int]polat$ betwe5 ! cases ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 & ! case ( ! ,duke ( ,well+ton2 & t 8our f9al conclusion is f :at is ?us int]polat$1 & n directly f ! individual facts t ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 c4 7 mortal40 ,on ?is x may fir/ be obs]v$1 t ! =mula does express all t takes place 9 ord9>y unsci5tific reason+4 ,mank9d 9 g5]al conclude at once f exp]i5ce ( dea? 9 pa/ cases1 to ! expectation ( x 9 future1 )\t te/+ ! exp]i5ce by any pr9ciples ( induction1 or pass+ ?r\gh any g5]al proposition4 ,?is is n safe reason+1 b x is reason+2 & ! syllogism1 !re=e1 is n ! univ]sal type ( reason+1 b only a =m 9 :i* x is desirable t we %\ld reason4 ,b1 9 ! second place1 suppose t ! enquir] does logically satisfy himself t ! conditions ( legitimate induction are realiz$ 9 ! cases ,a1 ,b1 ,c4 ,x is /ill obvi\s1 t if he kn[s ! ,duke ( ,well+ton to be a man1 he is z mu* ju/ifi$ 9 conclud+ at once t ! ,duke ( ,well+ton is mortal1 z 9 conclud+ t all m5 are mortal4 ,! g5]al conclusion is n legitimate1 unless ! p>ticul> "o w\ld be s too2 & 9 no s5se1 intelligible to me1 c ! p>ticul> conclusion be said to be drawn f ! g5]al "o47#cf7 ,t ! process ( te/+ ! suffici5cy ( an inductive inf]5ce is an op]ation ( a g5]al "*1 ,i readily conc$e to ! review]2 ,i _h myself said z mu*1 by lay+ d[n z a fundam5tal law1 t :5ev] !re is gr\nd = draw+ any conclusion at all f p>ticul> in/ances1 !re is gr\nd = a g5]al conclusion4 ,b t ?is g5]al conclusion %\ld be actually drawn1 h[ev] useful1 _c be an indisp5sable condition ( ! validity ( ! inf]5ce 9 ! p>ticul> case4 ,a man gives away sixp5ce by ! same p[] by :i* he disposes ( 8 :ole =tune2 b x is n necess>y to ! lawfulness ( 8 do+ ! "o1 t he %\ld =mally ass]t1 ev5 to himself1 8 "r to d ! o!r4 ,! review] has rec\rse = an example1 to syllogisms 9 ! second figure 7?\gh all are1 by a m]e v]bal trans=mation1 r$ucible to ! fir/71 & asks1 :]e is ! petitio pr9cipii 9 ?is syllogism1 8,e poet is a man ( g5ius1 ,a ,b is n a man ( g5ius1 !re=e ,a ,b is n a poet40 ,x is true t 9 a syllogism ( ?is p>ticul> type1 ! petitio pr9cipii is disguis$4 ,a ,b is n includ$ 9 ! t]ms1 e poet4 ,b ! proposition1 8e poet is a man ( g5ius0 7a v que/ionable proposition1 by ! way71 _c h be5 inductively prov$1 unless ! negative bran* ( ! enquiry has be5 att5d$ to z well z ! positive2 unless x has be5 fully consid]$ :e!r among p]sons :o are n 8m5 ( g5ius10 !re are n "s :o ought to be t]m$ poets1 & unless ?is has be5 det]m9$ 9 ! negative4 ,!re=e1 ! case ( ,a ,b has be5 decid$ by implication1 z mu* z ! case ( ,socrates 9 ! fir/ example4 ,! proposition1 ,e poet is a man ( g5ius1 is confess$ly quipoll5t ) 8,no "o :o is n a man ( g5ius is a poet10 & 9 ?is ! petitio pr9cipii1 z reg>ds ,a ,b1 is no long] impli$1 b express1 z 9 an ord9>y syllogism ( ! fir/ figure4 ,ano!r critic has endeav\r$ to get rid ( ! petitio pr9cipii 9 ! syllogism by sub/itut+ = ! common =m ( expression1 ! foll[+ =m--,all kn[n m5 7 mortal1 ,socrates is a man1 !re=e ,socrates is mortal4 ,to ?is1 h[ev]1 !re is ! fatal objection1 t ! syllogism1 ?us trans=m$1 does n prove ! conclusion2 x wants n ! =m only1 b ! sub/ance ( pro(4 ,x is n m]ely because a ?+ is true 9 all kn[n in/ances t x c be inf]r$ to be true 9 any new in/ance3 _m ?+s may be true ( all kn[n m5 :i* w\ld n be true ( all m52 :ile1 on ! o!r h&1 a ?+ may be sup]abundantly prov$ true ( all m51 )\t hav+ be5 asc]ta9$ by actual exp]i5ce to be true ( all kn[n m51 or ev5 ( ! hundr$? "p ( !m4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,( ,,tra9s ,,( ,,reason+1 ,,& ,,d$uctive ,,sci5ces4 #a4 ,9 our analysis ( ! syllogism x appe>$ t ! m9or premiss always affirms a resemblance betwe5 a new case1 & "s cases previ\sly kn[n2 :ile ! major premiss ass]ts some?+ :i*1 hav+ be5 f\nd true ( ^? kn[n cases1 we consid] ourselves w>rant$ 9 hold+ true ( any o!r case resembl+ ! =m] 9 c]ta9 giv5 p>ticul>s4 ,if all ratioc9ations resembl$1 z to ! m9or premiss1 ! examples :i* 7 exclusively employ$ 9 ! prec$+ *apt]2 if ! resemblance1 :i* t premiss ass]ts1 7 obvi\s to ! s5ses1 z 9 ! proposition 8,socrates is a man10 or 7 at once asc]ta9able by direct obs]vation2 !re w\ld be no necessity = tra9s ( reason+1 & ,d$uctive or ,ratioc9ative ,sci5ces w\ld n exi/4 ,tra9s ( reason+ exi/ only = ! sake ( ext5d+ an induction1 f\nd$1 z all inductions mu/ be1 on obs]v$ cases1 to o!r cases 9 :i* we n only _c directly obs]ve :at is to be prov$1 b _c directly obs]ve ev5 ! m>k :i* is to prove x4 #b4 ,suppose ! syllogism to be1 ,all c[s rum9ate1 ! animal :i* is be=e me is a c[1 !re=e x rum9ates4 ,! m9or1 if true at all1 is obvi\sly s3 ! only premiss ! e/abli%m5t ( :i* requires any ant]ior process ( inquiry1 is ! major2 & provid$ ! induction ( :i* t premiss is ! expression 0 correctly p]=m$1 ! conclusion respect+ ! animal n[ pres5t w be in/antly drawn2 because1 z soon z %e is comp>$ ) ! =mula1 %e w be id5tifi$ z be+ includ$ 9 x4 ,b suppose ! syllogism to be ! foll[+3--,all ars5ic is poison\s1 ! sub/ance :i* is be=e me is ars5ic1 !re=e x is poison\s4 ,! tru? ( ! m9or may n "h be obvi\s at fir/ sight2 x may n be intuitively evid5t1 b may itself be kn[n only by inf]5ce4 ,x may be ! conclusion ( ano!r argum5t1 :i*1 ?r[n into ! syllogi/ic =m1 w\ld /& ?us3--,:atev] =ms a comp\nd ) hydrog51 :i* yields a black precipitate ) nitrate ( silv]1 is ars5ic2 ! sub/ance be=e me con=ms to ?is condition2 !re=e x is ars5ic4 ,to e/abli%1 !re=e1 ! ultimate conclusion1 ,! sub/ance be=e me is poison\s1 requires a process1 :i*1 9 ord] to be syllogi/ically express$1 /&s 9 ne$ ( two syllogisms2 & we h a ,tra9 ( ,reason+4 ,:51 h[ev]1 we ?us add syllogism to syllogism1 we are really add+ induction to induction4 ,two sep>ate inductions mu/ h tak5 place to r5d] ?is *a9 ( inf]5ce possible2 inductions f\nd$1 probably1 on diff]5t sets ( individual in/ances1 b :i* conv]ge 9 _! results1 s t ! in/ance :i* is ! subject ( inquiry comes )9 ! range ( !m bo?4 ,! record ( ^! inductions is conta9$ 9 ! majors ( ! two syllogisms4 ,fir/1 we1 or o!rs = u1 h exam9$ v>i\s objects :i* yield$ "u ! giv5 circum/ances ! giv5 precipitate1 & f\nd t !y possess$ ! prop]ties connot$ by ! ^w ars5ic2 !y 7 metallic1 volatile1 _! vap\r _h a smell ( g>lic1 & s =?4 ,next1 we1 or o!rs = u1 h exam9$ v>i\s specim5s :i* possess$ ?is metallic & volatile "*1 ^: vap\r _h ?is smell1 c41 & h inv>iably f\nd t !y 7 poison\s4 ,! fir/ obs]vation we judge t we may ext5d to all sub/ances :atev] :i* yield ! precipitate3 ! second1 to all metallic & volatile sub/ances resembl+ ^? we exam9$2 & consequ5tly1 n to ^? only :i* are se5 to be su*1 b to ^? :i* are conclud$ to be su* by ! prior induction4 ,! sub/ance be=e u is only se5 to come )9 "o ( ^! inductions2 b by means ( ?is "o1 x is br\ght )9 ! o!r4 ,we are /ill1 z be=e1 conclud+ f p>ticul>s to p>ticul>s2 b we are n[ conclud+ f p>ticul>s obs]v$1 to o!r p>ticul>s :i* are n1 z 9 ! simple case1 se5 to resemble !m 9 ! mat]ial po9ts1 b inf]r$ to d s1 because resembl+ !m 9 some?+ else1 :i* we h be5 l$ by q a diff]5t set ( in/ances to consid] z a m>k ( ! =m] resemblance4 ,?is fir/ example ( a tra9 ( reason+ is /ill extremely simple1 ! s]ies consi/+ ( only two syllogisms4 ,! foll[+ is some:at m complicat$3--,no gov]nm5t1 :i* e>ne/ly seeks ! good ( its subjects1 is likely to be ov]?r[n2 "s p>ticul> gov]nm5t e>ne/ly seeks ! good ( its subjects1 !re=e x is n likely to be ov]?r[n4 ,! major premiss 9 ?is argum5t we %all suppose n to be d]iv$ f consid]ations priori1 b to be a g5]alization f hi/ory1 :i*1 :e!r correct or errone\s1 mu/ h be5 f\nd$ on obs]vation ( gov]nm5ts conc]n+ ^: desire ( ! good ( _! subjects !re 0 no d\bt4 ,x has be5 f\nd1 or ?\ght to be f\nd1 t ^! 7 n likely to be ov]?r[n1 & x has be5 deem$ t ^? in/ances w>rant$ an ext5sion ( ! same pr$icate to any & e gov]nm5t :i* resembles !m 9 ! attribute ( desir+ e>ne/ly ! good ( its subjects4 ,b does ! gov]nm5t 9 "q ?us resemble !m8 ,?is may be debat$ pro & con by _m argum5ts1 & mu/1 9 any case1 be prov$ by ano!r induction2 = we _c directly obs]ve ! s5tim5ts & desires ( ! p]sons :o c>ry on ! gov]nm5t4 ,to prove ! m9or1 !re=e1 we require an argum5t 9 ?is =m3 ,e gov]nm5t :i* acts 9 a c]ta9 mann]1 desires ! good ( its subjects2 ! suppos$ gov]nm5t acts 9 t p>ticul> mann]1 !re=e x desires ! good ( its subjects4 ,b is x true t ! gov]nm5t acts 9 ! mann] suppos$8 ,?is m9or also may require pro(2 /ill ano!r induction1 z ?us3--,:at is ass]t$ by intellig5t & dis9t]e/$ witnesses1 may be believ$ to be true2 t ! gov]nm5t acts 9 ?is mann]1 is ass]t$ by su* witnesses1 !re=e x may be believ$ to be true4 ,! argum5t h5ce consi/s ( ?ree /eps4 ,hav+ ! evid5ce ( our s5ses t ! case ( ! gov]nm5t "u consid]ation resembles a numb] ( =m] cases1 9 ! circum/ance ( hav+ some?+ ass]t$ respect+ x by intellig5t & dis9t]e/$ witnesses1 we inf]1 fir/1 t1 z 9 ^? =m] in/ances1 s 9 ?is in/ance1 ! ass]tion is true4 ,secondly1 :at 0 ass]t$ ( ! gov]nm5t be+ t x acts 9 a p>ticul> mann]1 & o!r gov]nm5ts or p]sons hav+ be5 obs]v$ to act 9 ! same mann]1 ! gov]nm5t 9 "q is br\ght into kn[n resemblance ) ^? o!r gov]nm5ts or p]sons2 & s9ce !y 7 kn[n to desire ! good ( ! p1 x is !reupon1 by a second induction1 inf]r$ t ! p>ticul> gov]nm5t spok5 (1 desires ! good ( ! p4 ,?is br+s t gov]nm5t into kn[n resemblance ) ! o!r gov]nm5ts :i* 7 ?\ght likely to escape revolution1 & !nce1 by a ?ird induction1 x is pr$ict$ t ?is p>ticul> gov]nm5t is also likely to escape4 ,?is is /ill reason+ f p>ticul>s to p>ticul>s1 b we n[ reason to ! new in/ance f ?ree di/9ct sets ( =m] in/ances3 to "o only ( ^? sets ( in/ances d we directly p]ceive ! new "o to be simil>2 b f t simil>ity we inductively inf] t x has ! attribute by :i* x is assimilat$ to ! next set1 & br\ght )9 ! correspond+ induction2 aft] :i* by a repetition ( ! same op]ation we inf] x to be simil> to ! ?ird set1 & h5ce a ?ird induction conducts u to ! ultimate conclusion4 #c4 ,not)/&+ ! sup]ior complication ( ^! examples1 comp>$ ) ^? by :i* 9 ! prec$+ *apt] we illu/rat$ ! g5]al !ory ( reason+1 e doctr9e :i* we !n laid d[n holds equally true 9 ^! m intricate cases4 ,! successive g5]al propositions are n /eps 9 ! reason+1 are n int]m$iate l9ks 9 ! *a9 ( inf]5ce1 betwe5 ! p>ticul>s obs]v$ & ^? to :i* we apply ! obs]vation4 ,if we _h suffici5tly capaci\s memories1 & a suffici5t p[] ( ma9ta9+ ord] among a huge mass ( details1 ! reason+ c\ld g on )\t any g5]al propositions2 !y are m]e =mul = inf]r+ p>ticul>s f p>ticul>s4 ,! pr9ciple ( g5]al reason+ is1 7z be=e expla9$17 t if f obs]vation ( c]ta9 kn[n p>ticul>s1 :at 0 se5 to be true ( !m c be inf]r$ to be true ( any o!rs1 x may be inf]r$ ( all o!rs :i* are ( a c]ta9 description4 ,& 9 ord] t we may nev] fail to draw ?is conclusion 9 a new case :5 x c be drawn correctly1 & may avoid draw+ x :5 x _c1 we det]m9e once = all :at are ! di/+ui%+ m>ks by :i* su* cases may be recognis$4 ,! subsequ5t process is m]ely t ( id5tify+ an object1 & asc]ta9+ x to h ^? m>ks2 :e!r we id5tify x by ! v m>ks !mselves1 or by o!rs :i* we h asc]ta9$ 7?r\gh ano!r & a simil> process7 to be m>ks ( ^? m>ks4 ,! real inf]5ce is always f p>ticul>s to p>ticul>s1 f ! obs]v$ in/ances to an unobs]v$ "o3 b 9 draw+ ?is inf]5ce1 we con=m to a =mula :i* we h adopt$ = our guidance 9 su* op]ations1 & :i* is a record ( ! crit]ia by :i* we ?\ght we _h asc]ta9$ t we might di/+ui% :5 ! inf]5ce c\ld1 & :5 x c\ld n1 be drawn4 ,! real premisses are ! individual obs]vations1 ev5 ?\gh !y may h be5 =gott51 or1 be+ ! obs]vations ( o!rs & n ( ourselves1 may1 to u1 nev] h be5 kn[n3 b we h be=e u pro( t we or o!rs once ?\ght !m suffici5t = an induction1 & we h m>ks to %[ :e!r any new case is "o ( ^? to :i*1 if !n kn[n1 ! induction w\ld h be5 deem$ to ext5d4 ,^! m>ks we ei!r recognise at once1 or by ! aid ( o!r m>ks1 :i* by ano!r previ\s induction we collect$ to be m>ks ( !m4 ,ev5 ^! m>ks ( m>ks may only be recognis$ ?r\gh a ?ird set ( m>ks2 & we may h a tra9 ( reason+1 ( any l5g?1 to br+ a new case )9 ! scope ( an induction gr\nd$ on p>ticul>s its simil>ity to :i* is only asc]ta9$ 9 ?is indirect mann]4 ,?us1 9 ! prec$+ example1 ! ultimate inductive inf]5ce 01 t a c]ta9 gov]nm5t 0 n likely to be ov]?r[n3 ?is inf]5ce 0 drawn accord+ to a =mula 9 :i* desire ( ! public good 0 set d[n z a m>k ( n be+ likely to be ov]?r[n2 a m>k ( ?is m>k 01 act+ 9 a p>ticul> mann]2 & a m>k ( act+ 9 t mann] 01 be+ ass]t$ to d s by intellig5t & dis9t]e/$ witnesses3 ?is m>k1 ! gov]nm5t "u discussion 0 recognis$ by ! s5ses z possess+4 ,h5ce t gov]nm5t fell )9 ! la/ induction1 & by x 0 br\ght )9 all ! o!rs4 ,! p]ceiv$ resemblance ( ! case to "o set ( obs]v$ p>ticul> cases1 br\ght x into kn[n resemblance ) ano!r set1 & t ) a ?ird4 ,9 ! m complex bran*es ( k1 ! d$uctions seldom consi/1 z 9 ! examples hi!rto exhibit$1 ( a s+le *a91 a a m>k ( b1 b ( c1 c ( d1 !re=e a a m>k ( d4 ,!y consi/ 7to c>ry on ! same metaphor7 ( sev]al *a9s unit$ at ! extremity1 z ?us3 a a m>k ( d1 b ( e1 c ( f1 d e f ( n1 !re=e a b c a m>k ( n4 ,suppose1 = example1 ! foll[+ comb9ation ( circum/ances3 #a/1 rays ( light imp++ on a reflect+ surface2 #bnd1 t surface p>abolic2 #crd1 ^? rays p>allel to ea* o!r & to ! axis ( ! surface4 ,x is to be prov$ t ! conc\rse ( ^! ?ree circum/ances is a m>k t ! reflect$ rays w pass ?r\gh ! focus ( ! p>abolic surface4 ,n[1 ea* ( ! ?ree circum/ances is s+ly a m>k ( some?+ mat]ial to ! case4 ,rays ( light imp++ on a reflect+ surface1 are a m>k t ^? rays w be reflect$ at an angle equal to ! angle ( incid5ce4 ,! p>abolic =m ( ! surface is a m>k t1 f any po9t ( x1 a l9e drawn to ! focus & a l9e p>allel to ! axis w make equal angles ) ! surface4 ,& f9ally1 ! p>allelism ( ! rays to ! axis is a m>k t _! angle ( incid5ce co9cides ) "o ( ^! equal angles4 ,! ?ree m>ks tak5 toge!r are !re=e a m>k ( all ^! ?ree ?+s unit$4 ,b ! ?ree unit$ are evid5tly a m>k t ! angle ( reflexion mu/ co9cide ) ! o!r ( ! two equal angles1 t =m$ by a l9e drawn to ! focus2 & ?is aga91 by ! fundam5tal axiom conc]n+ /raight l9es1 is a m>k t ! reflect$ rays pass ?r\gh ! focus4 ,mo/ *a9s ( physical d$uction are ( ?is m complicat$ type2 & ev5 9 ma!matics su* are abundant1 z 9 all propositions :]e ! hypo!sis includes num]\s conditions3 8,if a circle be tak51 & if )9 t circle a po9t be tak51 n ! c5tre1 & if /raight l9es be drawn f t po9t to ! circumf]5ce1 !n10 c4 #d4 ,! consid]ations n[ /at$ remove a s]i\s difficulty f ! view we h tak5 ( reason+2 :i* view might o!rwise h seem$ n easily reconcilable ) ! fact t !re are ,d$uctive or ,ratioc9ative ,sci5ces4 ,x might seem to foll[1 if all reason+ be induction1 t ! difficulties ( philosophical inve/igation mu/ lie 9 ! inductions exclusively1 & t :5 ^! 7 easy1 & susceptible ( no d\bt or hesitation1 !re c\ld be no sci5ce1 or1 at lea/1 no difficulties 9 sci5ce4 ,! exi/5ce1 = example1 ( an ext5sive ,sci5ce ( ,ma!matics1 requir+ ! highe/ sci5tific g5ius 9 ^? :o contribut$ to its creation1 & call+ = a mo/ cont9u$ & vigor\s ex]tion ( intellect 9 ord] to appropriate x :5 creat$1 may seem h>d to be acc\nt$ = on ! =ego+ !ory4 ,b ! consid]ations m rec5tly adduc$ remove ! my/]y1 by %[+1 t ev5 :5 ! inductions !mselves are obvi\s1 !re may be mu* difficulty 9 f9d+ :e!r ! p>ticul> case :i* is ! subject ( inquiry comes )9 !m2 & ample room = sci5tific +5uity 9 s comb9+ v>i\s inductions1 z1 by means ( "o )9 :i* ! case evid5tly falls1 to br+ x )9 o!rs 9 :i* x _c be directly se5 to be includ$4 ,:5 ! m obvi\s ( ! inductions :i* c be made 9 any sci5ce f direct obs]vations1 h be5 made1 & g5]al =mulas h be5 fram$1 det]m9+ ! limits )9 :i* ^! inductions are applicable2 z (t5 z a new case c be at once se5 to come )9 "o ( ! =mulas1 ! induction is appli$ to ! new case1 & ! bus9ess is end$4 ,b new cases are cont9ually aris+1 :i* d n obvi\sly come )9 any =mula :]eby ! "q we want solv$ 9 respect ( !m c\ld be answ]$4 ,let u take an in/ance f geometry2 & z x is tak5 only = illu/ration1 let ! read] conc$e to u = ! pres5t1 :at we %all endeav\r to prove 9 ! next *apt]1 t ! fir/ pr9ciples ( geometry are results ( induction4 ,our example %all be ! fif? proposition ( ! fir/ book ( ,euclid4 ,! inquiry is1 ,are ! angles at ! base ( an isosceles triangle equal or unequal8 ,! fir/ ?+ to be consid]$ is1 :at inductions we h1 f :i* we c inf] equality or inequality4 ,= inf]r+ equality we h ! foll[+ =mul3--,?+s :i* be+ appli$ to ea* o!r co9cide1 are equals4 ,?+s :i* are equal to ! same ?+ are equals4 ,a :ole & ! sum ( its p>ts are equals4 ,! sums ( equal ?+s are equals4 ,! diff]5ces ( equal ?+s are equals4 ,!re are no o!r =mul to prove equality4 ,= inf]r+ inequality we h ! foll[+3--,a :ole & its p>ts are unequals4 ,! sums ( equal ?+s & unequal ?+s are unequals4 ,! diff]5ces ( equal ?+s & unequal ?+s are unequals4 ,9 all1 eight =mul4 ,! angles at ! base ( an isosceles triangle d n obvi\sly come )9 any ( ^!4 ,! =mul specify c]ta9 m>ks ( equality & ( inequality1 b ! angles _c be p]ceiv$ intuitively to h any ( ^? m>ks4 ,we c1 h[ev]1 exam9e :e!r !y h prop]ties :i*1 9 any o!r =mul1 are set d[n z m>ks ( ^? m>ks4 ,on exam9ation x appe>s t !y h2 & we ultimately succe$ 9 br++ !m )9 ?is =mula1 8,! diff]5ces ( equal ?+s are equal40 ,:5ce comes ! difficulty 9 recognis+ ^! angles z ! diff]5ces ( equal ?+s8 ,because ea* ( !m is ! diff]5ce n ( "o pair only1 b ( innum]able pairs ( angles2 & out ( ^! we _h to imag9e & select two1 :i* c\ld ei!r be intuitively p]ceiv$ to be equals1 or possess$ "s ( ! m>ks ( equality set d[n 9 ! v>i\s =mul4 ,by an ex]cise ( +5uity1 :i*1 on ! "p ( ! fir/ inv5tor1 des]ves to be reg>d$ z consid]able1 two pairs ( angles 7 hit ^u1 :i* unit$ ^! requisites4 ,fir/1 x c\ld be p]ceiv$ intuitively t _! diff]5ces 7 ! angles at ! base2 &1 secondly2 !y possess$ "o ( ! m>ks ( equality1 namely1 co9cid5ce :5 appli$ to "o ano!r4 ,?is co9cid5ce1 h[ev]1 0 n p]ceiv$ intuitively1 b inf]r$1 9 con=mity to ano!r =mula4 ,= great] cle>ness1 ,i subjo9 an analysis ( ! demon/ration4 ,euclid1 x w be rememb]$1 demon/rates 8 fif? proposition by means ( ! f\r?4 ,?is x is n all[able = u to d1 because we are und]tak+ to trace d$uctive tru?s n to prior d$uctions1 b to _! orig9al inductive f\ndation4 ,we mu/ !re=e use ! premisses ( ! f\r? proposition in/ead ( its conclusion1 & prove ! fif? directly f fir/ pr9ciples4 ,to d s requires six =mulas4 7,we presuppose an equilat]al triangle1 ^: v]tices are ,a1 ,d1 ,e1 ) po9t ,b on ! side ,,ad1 & po9t ,c on ! side ,,ae1 su* t ,,bc is p>allel to ,,de4 ,we mu/ beg9 z 9 ,euclid1 by prolong+ ! equal sides ,,ab1 ,,ac1 to equal di/ances1 & jo9+ ! extremities ,,be1 ,,dc47 ,,fir/ ,,=mula4 ,! sums ( equals are equal4 ,a ,d & ,a ,e are sums ( equals by ! supposition4 ,hav+ t m>k ( equality1 !y are conclud$ by ?is =mula to be equal4 ,,second ,,=mula4 ,equal /raight l9es be+ appli$ to "o ano!r co9cide4 ,a ,c1 ,a ,b1 are )9 ?is =mula by supposition2 ,a ,d1 ,a ,e1 h be5 br\ght )9 x by ! prec$+ /ep4 ,bo? ^! pairs ( /raight l9es h ! prop]ty ( equality2 :i*1 accord+ to ! second =mula1 is a m>k t1 if appli$ to ea* o!r1 !y w co9cide4 ,co9cid+ altoge!r means co9cid+ 9 e "p1 & ( c\rse at _! extremities1 ,d1 ,e1 & ,b1 ,c4 ,,?ird ,,=mula4 ,/raight l9es1 hav+ _! extremities co9cid5t1 co9cide4 ,b ,e & ,c ,d h be5 br\ght )9 ?is =mula by ! prec$+ induction2 !y w1 !re=e1 co9cide4 ,,f\r? ,,=mula4 ,angles1 hav+ _! sides co9cid5t1 co9cide4 ,! ?ird induction hav+ %[n t ,b ,e & ,c ,d co9cide1 & ! second t ,a ,b1 ,a ,c1 co9cide1 ! angles ,a ,b ,e & ,a ,c ,d are !reby br\ght )9 ! f\r? =mula1 & accord+ly co9cide4 ,,fif? ,,=mula4 ,?+s :i* co9cide are equal4 ,! angles ,a ,b ,e & ,a ,c ,d are br\ght )9 ?is =mula by ! induction imm$iately prec$+4 ,?is tra9 ( reason+ be+ also applicable1 mutatis mut&is1 to ! angles ,e ,b ,c1 ,d ,c ,b1 ^! also are br\ght )9 ! fif? =mula4 ,&1 f9ally1 ,,six? ,,=mula4 ,! diff]5ces ( equals are equal4 ,! angle ,a ,b ,c be+ ! diff]5ce ( ,a ,b ,e1 ,c ,b ,e1 & ! angle ,a ,c ,b be+ ! diff]5ce ( ,a ,c ,d1 ,d ,c ,b2 :i* h be5 prov$ to be equals2 ,a ,b ,c & ,a ,c ,b are br\ght )9 ! la/ =mula by ! :ole ( ! previ\s process4 ,! difficulty "h enc\nt]$ is *iefly t ( figur+ to ourselves ! two angles at ! base ( ! triangle ,a ,b ,c1 z rema9d]s made by cutt+ "o pair ( angles out ( ano!r1 :ile ea* pair %all be correspond+ angles ( triangles :i* h two sides & ! int]v5+ angle equal4 ,x is by ?is happy contrivance t s _m diff]5t inductions are br\ght to be> ^u ! same p>ticul> case4 ,& ?is n be+ at all an obvi\s idea1 x may be se5 f an example s ne> ! ?re%old ( ma!matics1 h[ mu* scope !re may well be = sci5tific dext]ity 9 ! high] bran*es ( t & o!r sci5ces1 9 ord] s to comb9e a few simple inductions1 z to br+ )9 ea* ( !m innum]able cases :i* are n obvi\sly includ$ 9 x2 & h[ long1 & num]\s1 & complicat$ may be ! processes necess>y = br++ ! inductions toge!r1 ev5 :5 ea* induction may itself be v easy & simple4 ,all ! inductions involv$ 9 all geometry are compris$ 9 ^? simple ones1 ! =mul ( :i* are ! ,axioms1 & a few ( ! s-call$ ,def9itions4 ,! rema9d] ( ! sci5ce is made up ( ! processes employ$ = br++ un=ese5 cases )9 ^! inductions2 or 79 syllogi/ic language7 = prov+ ! m9ors necess>y to complete ! syllogisms2 ! majors be+ ! def9itions & axioms4 ,9 ^? def9itions & axioms are laid d[n ! :ole ( ! m>ks1 by an artful comb9ation ( :i* x has be5 f\nd possible to discov] & prove all t is prov$ 9 geometry4 ,! m>ks be+ s few1 & ! inductions :i* furni% !m be+ s obvi\s & famili>2 ! connect+ ( sev]al ( !m toge!r1 :i* con/itutes ,d$uctions1 or ,tra9s ( ,reason+1 =ms ! :ole difficulty ( ! sci5ce1 &1 ) a trifl+ exception1 its :ole bulk2 & h5ce ,geometry is a ,d$uctive ,sci5ce4 #e4 ,x w be se5 h]eaft] t !re are weighty sci5tific reasons = giv+ to e sci5ce z mu* ( ! "* ( a ,d$uctive ,sci5ce z possible2 = endeav\r+ to con/ruct ! sci5ce f ! fewe/ & ! simple/ possible inductions1 & to make ^!1 by any comb9ations h[ev] complicat$1 suffice = prov+ ev5 su* tru?s1 relat+ to complex cases1 z c\ld be prov$1 if we *ose1 by inductions f specific exp]i5ce4 ,e bran* ( natural philosophy 0 orig9ally exp]im5tal2 ea* g5]alization re/$ on a special induction1 & 0 d]iv$ f its own di/9ct set ( obs]vations & exp]im5ts4 ,f be+ sci5ces ( pure exp]im5t1 z ! phrase is1 or1 to speak m correctly1 sci5ces 9 :i* ! reason+s mo/ly consi/ ( no m ?an "o /ep1 & are express$ by s+le syllogisms1 all ^! sci5ces h become to "s ext5t1 & "s ( !m 9 ne>ly ! :ole ( _! ext5t1 sci5ces ( pure reason+2 :]eby multitudes ( tru?s1 already kn[n by induction f z _m diff]5t sets ( exp]im5ts1 h come to be exhibit$ z d$uctions or coroll>ies f inductive propositions ( a simpl] & m univ]sal "*4 ,?us me*anics1 hydro/atics1 optics1 ac\/ics1 & !rmology1 h successively be5 r5d]$ ma!matical2 & a/ronomy 0 br\ght by ,newton )9 ! laws ( g5]al me*anics4 ,:y x is t ! sub/itution ( ?is circuit\s mode ( proce$+ = a process app>5tly mu* easi] & m natural1 is held1 & ju/ly1 to be ! greate/ triumph ( ! inve/igation ( nature1 we are n1 9 ?is /age ( our inquiry1 prep>$ to exam9e4 ,b x is necess>y to rem>k1 t al?\gh1 by ?is progressive trans=mation1 all sci5ces t5d to become m & m ,d$uctive1 !y are n !re=e ! less ,inductive2 e /ep 9 ! ,d$uction is /ill an ,induction4 ,! opposition is n betwe5 ! t]ms ,d$uctive & ,inductive1 b betwe5 ,d$uctive & ,exp]im5tal4 ,a sci5ce is exp]im5tal1 9 proportion z e new case1 :i* pres5ts any peculi> features1 /&s 9 ne$ ( a new set ( obs]vations & exp]im5ts1 a fre% induction4 ,x is ,d$uctive1 9 proportion z x c draw conclusions1 respect+ cases ( a new k9d1 by processes :i* br+ ^? cases "u old inductions2 by asc]ta9+ t cases :i* _c be obs]v$ to h ! requisite m>ks1 h1 h[ev]1 m>ks ( ^? m>ks4 ,we c n[1 !re=e1 p]ceive :at is ! g5]ic di/9ction betwe5 sci5ces :i* c be made ,d$uctive1 & ^? :i* mu/ z yet rema9 ,exp]im5tal4 ,! diff]5ce consi/s 9 our hav+ be5 able1 or n yet able1 to discov] m>ks ( m>ks4 ,if by our v>i\s inductions we h be5 able to proce$ no fur!r ?an to su* propositions z ^!1 a a m>k ( b1 or a & b m>ks ( "o ano!r1 c a m>k ( d1 or c & d m>ks ( "o ano!r1 )\t any?+ to connect a or b ) c or d2 we h a sci5ce ( deta*$ & mutually indep5d5t g5]alizations1 su* z ^!1 t acids r$d5 vegetable blues1 & t alkalies col\r !m gre52 f nei!r ( :i* propositions c\ld we1 directly or indirectly1 inf] ! o!r3 & a sci5ce1 s f> z x is compos$ ( su* propositions1 is purely exp]im5tal4 ,*emi/ry1 9 ! pres5t /ate ( our k1 has n yet ?r[n (f ?is "*4 ,!re are o!r sci5ces1 h[ev]1 ( :i* ! propositions are ( ?is k9d3 a a m>k ( b1 b a m>k ( c1 c ( d1 d ( e1 c4 ,9 ^! sci5ces we c m\nt ! ladd] f a to e by a process ( ratioc9ation2 we c conclude t a is a m>k ( e1 & t e object :i* has ! m>k a has ! prop]ty e1 al?\gh1 p]haps1 we nev] 7 able to obs]ve a & e toge!r1 & al?\gh ev5 d1 our only direct m>k ( e1 may be n p]ceptible 9 ^? objects1 b only inf]rible4 ,or v>y+ ! fir/ metaphor1 we may be said to get f a to e und]gr\nd3 ! m>ks b1 c1 d1 :i* indicate ! r\te1 mu/ all be possess$ some:]e by ! objects conc]n+ :i* we are inquir+2 b !y are bel[ ! surface3 a is ! only m>k t is visible1 & by x we are able to trace 9 succession all ! re/4 #f4 ,we c n[ und]/& h[ an exp]im5tal may trans=m itself into a d$uctive sci5ce by ! m]e progress ( exp]im5t4 ,9 an exp]im5tal sci5ce1 ! inductions1 z we h said1 lie deta*$1 z1 a a m>k ( b1 c a m>k ( d1 e a m>k ( f1 & s on3 n[1 a new set ( in/ances1 & a consequ5t new induction1 may at any "t bridge ov] ! int]val betwe5 two ( ^! unconnect$ ar*es2 b1 = example1 may be asc]ta9$ to be a m>k ( c1 :i* enables u !nce=? to prove d$uctively t a is a m>k ( c4 ,or1 z sometimes happ5s1 "s compreh5sive induction may raise an ar* high 9 ! air1 :i* bridges ov] ho/s ( !m at once3 b1 d1 f1 & all ! re/1 turn+ out to be m>ks ( "s "o ?+1 or ( ?+s betwe5 :i* a connexion has already be5 trac$4 ,z :5 ,newton discov]$ t ! motions1 :e!r regul> or app>5tly anomal\s1 ( all ! bodies ( ! sol> sy/em1 7ea* ( :i* motions _h be5 inf]r$ by a sep>ate logical op]ation1 f sep>ate m>ks17 7 all m>ks ( mov+ r\nd a common c5tre1 ) a c5tripetal =ce v>y+ directly z ! mass1 & inv]sely z ! squ>e ( ! di/ance f t c5tre4 ,?is is ! greate/ example :i* has yet occurr$ ( ! trans=mation1 at "o /roke1 ( a sci5ce :i* 0 /ill to a great degree m]ely exp]im5tal1 into a d$uctive sci5ce4 ,trans=mations ( ! same nature1 b on a small] scale1 cont9ually take place 9 ! less advanc$ bran*es ( physical k1 )\t enabl+ !m to ?r[ (f ! "* ( exp]im5tal sci5ces4 ,?us ) reg>d to ! two unconnect$ propositions be=e cit$1 namely1 ,acids r$d5 vegetable blues1 ,alkalies make !m gre52 x is rem>k$ by ,liebig1 t all blue col\r+ matt]s :i* are r$d5$ by acids 7z well z1 reciprocally1 all r$ col\r+ matt]s :i* are r5d]$ blue by alkalies7 conta9 nitrog53 & x is q possible t ?is circum/ance may "o day furni% a bond ( connexion betwe5 ! two propositions 9 "q1 by %[+ t ! antagoni/ action ( acids & alkalies 9 produc+ or de/roy+ ! col\r blue1 is ! result ( "s "o1 m g5]al1 law4 ,al?\gh ?is connect+ ( deta*$ g5]alizations is s mu* ga91 x t5ds b little to give a d$uctive "* to any sci5ce z a :ole2 because ! new c\rses ( obs]vation & exp]im5t1 :i* ?us enable u to connect toge!r a few g5]al tru?s1 usually make kn[n to u a /ill great] numb] ( unconnect$ new ones4 ,h5ce *emi/ry1 ?\gh simil> ext5sions & simplifications ( its g5]alizations are cont9ually tak+ place1 is /ill 9 ! ma9 an exp]im5tal sci5ce2 & is likely s to cont9ue1 unless "s compreh5sive induction %\ld be h]eaft] arriv$ at1 :i*1 l ,newton's1 %all connect a va/ numb] ( ! small] kn[n inductions toge!r1 & *ange ! :ole me?od ( ! sci5ce at once4 ,*emi/ry has already "o great g5]alization1 :i*1 ?\gh relat+ to "o ( ! subord9ate aspects ( *emical ph5om5a1 possesses )9 its limit$ sph]e ?is compreh5sive "*2 ! pr9ciple ( ,dalton1 call$ ! atomic !ory1 or ! doctr9e ( *emical equival5ts3 :i* by enabl+ u to a c]ta9 ext5t to =esee ! proportions 9 :i* two sub/ances w comb9e1 be=e ! exp]im5t has be5 tri$1 con/itutes und\bt$ly a s\rce ( new *emical tru?s obta9able by d$uction1 z well z a connect+ pr9ciple = all tru?s ( ! same description previ\sly obta9$ by exp]im5t4 #g4 ,! discov]ies :i* *ange ! me?od ( a sci5ce f exp]im5tal to d$uctive1 mo/ly consi/ 9 e/abli%+1 ei!r by d$uction or by direct exp]im5t1 t ! v>ieties ( a p>ticul> ph5om5on uni=mly accompany ! v>ieties ( "s o!r ph5om5on bett] kn[n4 ,?us ! sci5ce ( s\nd1 :i* previ\sly /ood 9 ! l[e/ rank ( m]ely exp]im5tal sci5ce1 became d$uctive :5 x 0 prov$ by exp]im5t t e v>iety ( s\nd 0 consequ5t on1 & !re=e a m>k (1 a di/9ct & def9able v>iety ( oscillatory motion among ! p>ticles ( ! transmitt+ m$ium4 ,:5 ?is 0 asc]ta9$1 x foll[$ t e relation ( succession or coexi/5ce :i* obta9$ betwe5 ph5om5a ( ! m kn[n class1 obta9$ also betwe5 ! ph5om5a :i* correspond$ to !m 9 ! o!r class4 ,e s\nd1 be+ a m>k ( a p>ticul> oscillatory motion1 became a m>k ( ev]y?+ :i*1 by ! laws ( dynamics1 0 kn[n to be inf]rible f t motion2 & ev]y?+ :i* by ^? same laws 0 a m>k ( any oscillatory motion among ! p>ticles ( an ela/ic m$ium1 became a m>k ( ! correspond+ s\nd4 ,& ?us _m tru?s1 n be=e suspect$1 conc]n+ s\nd1 become d$ucible f ! kn[n laws ( ! propagation ( motion ?r\gh an ela/ic m$ium2 :ile facts already empirically kn[n respect+ s\nd1 become an indication ( correspond+ prop]ties ( vibrat+ bodies1 previ\sly undiscov]$4 ,b ! gr& ag5t = trans=m+ exp]im5tal into d$uctive sci5ces1 is ! sci5ce ( numb]4 ,! prop]ties ( numb]s1 alone among all kn[n ph5om5a1 are1 9 ! mo/ rigor\s s5se1 prop]ties ( all ?+s :atev]4 ,all ?+s are n col\r$1 or pond]able1 or ev5 ext5d$2 b all ?+s are num]able4 ,& if we consid] ?is sci5ce 9 its :ole ext5t1 f common ari?metic up to ! calculus ( v>iations1 ! tru?s already asc]ta9$ seem all b inf9ite1 & admit ( indef9ite ext5sion4 ,^! tru?s1 ?\gh affirmable ( all ?+s :atev]1 ( c\rse apply to !m only 9 respect ( _! quantity4 ,b if x comes to be discov]$ t v>iations ( quality 9 any class ( ph5om5a1 correspond regul>ly to v>iations ( quantity ei!r 9 ^? same or 9 "s o!r ph5om5a2 e =mula ( ma!matics applicable to quantities :i* v>y 9 t p>ticul> mann]1 becomes a m>k ( a correspond+ g5]al tru? respect+ ! v>iations 9 quality :i* accompany !m3 & ! sci5ce ( quantity be+ 7z f> z any sci5ce c be7 altoge!r d$uctive1 ! !ory ( t p>ticul> k9d ( qualities becomes1 to ?is ext5t1 d$uctive likewise4 ,! mo/ /rik+ in/ance 9 po9t :i* hi/ory af=ds 7?\gh n an example ( an exp]im5tal sci5ce r5d]$ d$uctive1 b ( an unp>allel$ ext5sion giv5 to ! d$uctive process 9 a sci5ce :i* 0 d$uctive already17 is ! revolution 9 geometry :i* orig9at$ ) ,desc>tes1 & 0 complet$ by ,clairaut4 ,^! great ma!maticians po9t$ out ! importance ( ! fact1 t to e v>iety ( position 9 po9ts1 direction 9 l9es1 or =m 9 curves or surfaces1 7all ( :i* are ,qualities17 !re corresponds a peculi> relation ( quantity betwe5 ei!r two or ?ree rectil9eal co-ord9ates2 insomu* t if ! law 7 kn[n accord+ to :i* ^? co-ord9ates v>y relatively to "o ano!r1 e o!r geometrical prop]ty ( ! l9e or surface 9 "q1 :e!r relat+ to quantity or quality1 w\ld be capable ( be+ inf]r$4 ,h5ce x foll[$ t e geometrical "q c\ld be solv$1 if ! correspond+ algebraical "o c\ld2 & geometry receiv$ an accession 7actual or pot5tial7 ( new tru?s1 correspond+ to e prop]ty ( numb]s :i* ! progress ( ! calculus _h br\ght1 or might 9 future br+1 to light4 ,9 ! same g5]al mann]1 me*anics1 a/ronomy1 & 9 a less degree1 e bran* ( natural philosophy commonly s call$1 h be5 made algebraical4 ,! v>ieties ( physical ph5om5a ) :i* ^? sci5ces are conv]sant1 h be5 f\nd to answ] to det]m9able v>ieties 9 ! quantity ( "s circum/ance or o!r2 or at lea/ to v>ieties ( =m or position1 = :i* correspond+ equations ( quantity _h already be51 or 7 susceptible ( be+1 discov]$ by geomet]s4 ,9 ^! v>i\s trans=mations1 ! propositions ( ! sci5ce ( numb] d b fulfil ! function prop] to all propositions =m+ a tra9 ( reason+1 viz4 t ( enabl+ u to arrive 9 an indirect me?od1 by m>ks ( m>ks1 at su* ( ! prop]ties ( objects z we _c directly asc]ta9 7or n s conv5i5tly7 by exp]im5t4 ,we travel f a giv5 visible or tangible fact1 ?r\gh ! tru?s ( numb]s1 to ! fact s\ght4 ,! giv5 fact is a m>k t a c]ta9 relation subsi/s betwe5 ! quantities ( "s ( ! elem5ts conc]n$2 :ile ! fact s\ght presupposes a c]ta9 relation betwe5 ! quantities ( "s o!r elem5ts3 n[1 if ^! la/ quantities are dep5d5t 9 "s kn[n mann] ^u ! =m]1 or vice v]sa1 we c argue f ! num]ical relation betwe5 ! "o set ( quantities1 to det]m9e t :i* subsi/s betwe5 ! o!r set2 ! !orems ( ! calculus af=d+ ! int]m$iate l9ks4 ,& ?us "o ( ! two physical facts becomes a m>k ( ! o!r1 by be+ a m>k ( a m>k ( a m>k ( x4 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,( ,,demon/ration1 ,,& ,,necess>y ,,tru?s4 #a4 ,if1 z laid d[n 9 ! two prec$+ *apt]s1 ! f\ndation ( all sci5ces1 ev5 d$uctive or demon/rative sci5ces1 is ,induction2 if e /ep 9 ! ratioc9ations ev5 ( geometry is an act ( induction2 & if a tra9 ( reason+ is b br++ _m inductions to be> ^u ! same subject ( inquiry1 & draw+ a case )9 "o induction by means ( ano!r2 :]e9 lies ! peculi> c]ta9ty always ascrib$ to ! sci5ces :i* are entirely1 or almo/ entirely1 d$uctive8 ,:y are !y call$ ! ,exact ,sci5ces8 ,:y are ma!matical c]ta9ty1 & ! evid5ce ( demon/ration1 common phrases to express ! v highe/ degree ( assurance atta9able by reason8 ,:y are ma!matics by almo/ all philosoph]s1 & 7by _m7 ev5 ^? bran*es ( natural philosophy :i*1 ?r\gh ! m$ium ( ma!matics1 h be5 conv]t$ into d$uctive sci5ces1 consid]$ to be indep5d5t ( ! evid5ce ( exp]i5ce & obs]vation1 & *>act]iz$ z sy/ems ( ,necess>y ,tru?8 ,! answ] ,i conceive to be1 t ?is "* ( necessity1 ascrib$ to ! tru?s ( ma!matics1 & ev5 7) "s res]vations to be h]eaft] made7 ! peculi> c]ta9ty attribut$ to !m1 is an illusion2 9 ord] to su/a9 :i*1 x is necess>y to suppose t ^? tru?s relate to1 & express ! prop]ties (1 purely imag9>y objects4 ,x is ackn[l$g$ t ! conclusions ( geometry are d$uc$1 p>tly at lea/1 f ! s-call$ ,def9itions1 & t ^? def9itions are assum$ to be correct descriptions1 z f> z !y g1 ( ! objects ) :i* geometry is conv]sant4 ,n[ we h po9t$ out t1 f a def9ition z su*1 no proposition1 unless x be "o conc]n+ ! mean+ ( a ^w1 c ev] foll[2 & t :at app>5tly foll[s f a def9ition1 foll[s 9 reality f an impli$ assumption t !re exi/s a real ?+ con=mable !reto4 ,?is assumption1 9 ! case ( ! def9itions ( geometry1 is false3 !re exi/ no real ?+s exactly con=mable to ! def9itions4 ,!re exi/ no po9ts )\t magnitude2 no l9es )\t bread?1 nor p]fectly /raight2 no circles ) all _! radii exactly equal1 nor squ>es ) all _! angles p]fectly "r4 ,x w p]haps be said t ! assumption does n ext5d to ! actual1 b only to ! possible1 exi/5ce ( su* ?+s4 ,i answ] t1 accord+ to any te/ we h ( possibility1 !y are n ev5 possible4 ,_! exi/5ce1 s f> z we c =m any judgm5t1 w\ld seem to be inconsi/5t ) ! physical con/itution ( our planet at lea/1 if n ( ! univ]se4 ,to get rid ( ?is difficulty1 & at ! same "t to save ! cr$it ( ! suppos$ sy/em ( necess>y tru?1 x is cu/om>y to say t ! po9ts1 l9es1 circles1 & squ>es :i* are ! subject ( geometry1 exi/ 9 our conceptions m]ely1 & are "p ( our m9ds2 :i* m9ds1 by work+ on _! own mat]ials1 con/ruct an priori sci5ce1 ! evid5ce ( :i* is purely m5tal1 & has no?+ :atev] to d ) outw>d exp]i5ce4 ,by h[soev] high au?orities ?is doctr9e may h be5 sanction$1 x appe>s to me psy*ologically incorrect4 ,! po9ts1 l9es1 circles1 & squ>es1 :i* any "o has 9 8 m9d1 are 7,i appreh5d7 simply copies ( ! po9ts1 l9es1 circles1 & squ>es :i* he has kn[n 9 8 exp]i5ce4 ,our idea ( a po9t1 ,i appreh5d to be simply our idea ( ! m9imum visibile1 ! smalle/ portion ( surface :i* we c see4 ,a l9e1 z def9$ by geomet]s1 is :olly inconceivable4 ,we c reason ab\t a l9e z if x _h no bread?2 because we h a p[]1 :i* is ! f\ndation ( all ! control we c ex]cise ov] ! op]ations ( our m9ds2 ! p[]1 :5 a p]ception is pres5t to our s5ses1 or a conception to our intellects1 ( att5d+ to a "p only ( t p]ception or conception1 in/ead ( ! :ole4 ,b we _c conceive a l9e )\t bread?2 we c =m no m5tal picture ( su* a l9e3 all ! l9es :i* we h 9 our m9ds are l9es possess+ bread?4 ,if any "o d\bts ?is1 we may ref] him to 8 own exp]i5ce4 ,i mu* "q if any "o :o fancies t he c conceive :at is call$ a ma!matical l9e1 ?9ks s f ! evid5ce ( 8 consci\sness3 ,i suspect x is r because he supposes t unless su* a conception 7 possible1 ma!matics c\ld n exi/ z a sci5ce3 a supposition :i* !re w be no difficulty 9 %[+ to be entirely gr\ndless4 ,s9ce1 !n1 nei!r 9 nature1 nor 9 ! human m9d1 d !re exi/ any objects exactly correspond+ to ! def9itions ( geometry1 :ile yet t sci5ce _c be suppos$ to be conv]sant ab\t non-entities2 no?+ rema9s b to consid] geometry z conv]sant ) su* l9es1 angles1 & figures1 z really exi/2 & ! def9itions1 z !y are call$1 mu/ be reg>d$ z "s ( our fir/ & mo/ obvi\s g5]alizations conc]n+ ^? natural objects4 ,! correctness ( ^? g5]alizations1 z g5]alizations1 is )\t a flaw3 ! equality ( all ! radii ( a circle is true ( all circles1 s f> z x is true ( any "o3 b x is n exactly true ( any circle3 x is only ne>ly true2 s ne>ly t no error ( any importance 9 practice w be incurr$ by feign+ x to be exactly true4 ,:5 we h occasion to ext5d ^! inductions1 or _! consequ5ces1 to cases 9 :i* ! error w\ld be appreciable--to l9es ( p]ceptible bread? or ?ickness1 p>allels :i* deviate s5sibly f equidi/ance1 & ! l--we correct our conclusions1 by comb9+ ) !m a fre% set ( propositions relat+ to ! ab]ration2 j z we also take 9 propositions relat+ to ! physical or *emical prop]ties ( ! mat]ial1 if ^? prop]ties happ5 to introduce any modification into ! result2 :i* !y easily may1 ev5 ) respect to figure & magnitude1 z 9 ! case1 = in/ance1 ( expansion by heat4 ,s long1 h[ev]1 z !re exi/s no practical necessity = att5d+ to any ( ! prop]ties ( ! object except its geometrical prop]ties1 or to any ( ! natural irregul>ities 9 ^?1 x is conv5i5t to neglect ! consid]ation ( ! o!r prop]ties & ( ! irregul>ities1 & to reason z if ^! did n exi/3 accord+ly1 we =mally ann\nce1 9 ! def9itions1 t we int5d to proce$ on ?is plan4 ,b x is an error to suppose1 because we resolve to conf9e our att5tion to a c]ta9 numb] ( ! prop]ties ( an object1 t we !re=e conceive1 or h an idea ( ! object1 d5ud$ ( its o!r prop]ties4 ,we are ?9k+1 all ! "t1 ( precisely su* objects z we h se5 & t\*$1 & ) all ! prop]ties :i* naturally belong to !m2 b = sci5tific conv5i5ce1 we feign !m to be dive/$ ( all prop]ties1 except ^? :i* are mat]ial to our purpose1 & 9 reg>d to :i* we design to consid] !m4 ,! peculi> accuracy1 suppos$ to be *>act]i/ic ( ! fir/ pr9ciples ( geometry1 ?us appe>s to be fictiti\s4 ,! ass]tions on :i* ! reason+s ( ! sci5ce are f\nd$1 d n1 any m ?an 9 o!r sci5ces1 exactly correspond ) ! fact2 b we suppose t !y d s1 = ! sake ( trac+ ! consequ5ces :i* foll[ f ! supposition4 ,! op9ion ( ,dugald ,/ew>t respect+ ! f\ndations ( geometry1 is1 ,i conceive1 sub/antially correct2 t x is built on hypo!ses2 t x owes to ?is alone ! peculi> c]ta9ty suppos$ to di/+ui% x2 & t 9 any sci5ce :atev]1 by reason+ f a set ( hypo!ses1 we may obta9 a body ( conclusions z c]ta9 z ^? ( geometry1 t is1 z /rictly 9 accordance ) ! hypo!ses1 & z irresi/ibly compell+ ass5t1 on condition t ^? hypo!ses are true4 ,:51 !re=e1 x is affirm$ t ! conclusions ( geometry are necess>y tru?s1 ! necessity consi/s 9 reality only 9 ?is1 t !y necess>ily foll[ f ! suppositions f :i* !y are d$uc$4 ,^? suppositions are s f> f be+ necess>y1 t !y are n ev5 true2 !y purposely dep>t1 m or less widely1 f ! tru?4 ,! only s5se 9 :i* necessity c be ascrib$ to ! conclusions ( any sci5tific inve/igation1 is t ( necess>ily foll[+ f "s assumption1 :i*1 by ! conditions ( ! inquiry1 is n to be que/ion$4 ,9 ?is relation1 ( c\rse1 ! d]ivative tru?s ( e d$uctive sci5ce mu/ /& to ! inductions1 or assumptions1 on :i* ! sci5ce is f\nd$1 & :i*1 :e!r true or untrue1 c]ta9 or d\btful 9 !mselves1 are always suppos$ c]ta9 = ! purposes ( ! p>ticul> sci5ce4 ,& !re=e ! conclusions ( all d$uctive sci5ces 7 said by ! anci5ts to be necess>y propositions4 ,we h obs]v$ already t to be pr$icat$ necess>ily 0 *>act]i/ic ( ! pr$icable ,proprium1 & t a proprium 0 any prop]ty ( a ?+ :i* c\ld be d$uc$ f its ess5ce1 t is1 f ! prop]ties includ$ 9 its def9ition4 #b4 ,! important doctr9e ( ,dugald ,/ew>t1 :i* ,i h endeav\r$ to en=ce1 has be5 conte/$ by ,dr4 ,:ewell1 bo? 9 ! diss]tation app5d$ to 8 excell5t ,me*anical ,euclid1 & 9 8 m rec5t elaborate "w on ! ,philosophy ( ! ,inductive ,sci5ces2 9 :i* la/ he also replies to an article 9 ! ,ed9burgh ,review1 7ascrib$ to a writ] ( great sci5tific em95ce17 9 :i* ,/ew>t's op9ion 0 def5d$ aga9/ 8 =m] /rictures4 ,! suppos$ refutation ( ,/ew>t consi/s 9 prov+ aga9/ him 7z has also be5 done 9 ?is "w7 t ! premisses ( geometry are n def9itions1 b assumptions ( ! real exi/5ce ( ?+s correspond+ to ^? def9itions4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is do+ little = ,dr4 ,:ewell's purpose2 = x is ^! v assumptions :i* are ass]t$ to be hypo!ses1 & :i* he1 if he d5ies t geometry is f\nd$ on hypo!ses1 mu/ %[ to be absolute tru?s4 ,all he does1 h[ev]1 is to obs]ve1 t !y at any rate are n arbitr>y hypo!ses2 t we %\ld n be at lib]ty to sub/itute o!r hypo!ses = !m2 t n only 8a def9ition1 to be admissible1 mu/ necess>ily ref] to & agree ) "s conception :i* we c di/9ctly frame 9 our ?\ghts10 b t ! /raight l9es1 = in/ance1 :i* we def9e1 mu/ be 8^? by :i* angles are conta9$1 ^? by :i* triangles are b\nd$1 ^? ( :i* p>allelism may be pr$icat$1 & ! l407#cg7 ,& ?is is true2 b ?is has nev] be5 contradict$4 ,^? :o say t ! premisses ( geometry are hypo!ses1 are n b\nd to ma9ta9 !m to be hypo!ses :i* h no relation :atev] to fact4 ,s9ce an hypo!sis fram$ = ! purpose ( sci5tific inquiry mu/ relate to some?+ :i* has real exi/5ce1 7= !re c be no sci5ce respect+ non-entities17 x foll[s t any hypo!sis we make respect+ an object1 to facilitate our /udy ( x1 mu/ n involve any?+ :i* is di/9ctly false1 & repugnant to its real nature3 we mu/ n ascribe to ! ?+ any prop]ty :i* x has n2 our lib]ty ext5ds only to suppress+ "s ( ^? :i* x has1 "u ! indisp5sable obligation ( re/or+ !m :5ev]1 & 9 z f> z1 _! pres5ce or abs5ce w\ld make any mat]ial diff]5ce 9 ! tru? ( our conclusions4 ,( ?is nature1 accord+ly1 are ! fir/ pr9ciples involv$ 9 ! def9itions ( geometry4 ,9 _! positive "p !y are obs]v$ facts2 x is only 9 _! negative "p t !y are hypo!tical4 ,t ! hypo!ses %\ld be ( ?is p>ticul> "*1 is h[ev] no fur!r necess>y1 ?an inasmu* z no o!rs c\ld enable u to d$uce conclusions :i*1 ) due corrections1 w\ld be true ( real objects3 & 9 fact1 :5 our aim is only to illu/rate tru?s1 & n to inve/igate !m1 we are n "u any su* re/riction4 ,we might suppose an imag9>y animal1 & "w out by d$uction1 f ! kn[n laws ( physiology1 its natural hi/ory2 or an imag9>y commonweal?1 & f ! elem5ts compos+ x1 might argue :at w\ld be its fate4 ,& ! conclusions :i* we might ?us draw f purely arbitr>y hypo!ses1 might =m a highly useful intellectual ex]cise3 b z !y c\ld only tea* u :at w\ld be ! prop]ties ( objects :i* d n really exi/1 !y w\ld n con/itute any addition to our k ( nature3 :ile on ! contr>y1 if ! hypo!sis m]ely dive/s a real object ( "s portion ( its prop]ties1 )\t clo?+ x 9 false ones1 ! conclusions w always express1 "u kn[n liability to correction1 actual tru?4 #c4 ,b al?\gh ,dr4 ,:ewell has n %ak5 ,/ew>t's doctr9e z to ! hypo!tical "* ( t portion ( ! fir/ pr9ciples ( geometry :i* are involv$ 9 ! s-call$ def9itions1 he has1 ,i conceive1 greatly ! advantage ( ,/ew>t on ano!r important po9t 9 ! !ory ( geometrical reason+2 ! necessity ( admitt+1 among ^? fir/ pr9ciples1 axioms z well z def9itions4 ,"s ( ! axioms ( ,euclid might1 no d\bt1 be exhibit$ 9 ! =m ( def9itions1 or might be d$uc$1 by reason+1 f propositions simil> to :at are s call$4 ,?us1 if in/ead ( ! axiom1 ,magnitudes :i* c be made to co9cide are equal1 we introduce a def9ition1 8,equal magnitudes are ^? :i* may be s appli$ to "o ano!r z to co9cide20 ! ?ree axioms :i* foll[1 7,magnitudes :i* are equal to ! same are equal to "o ano!r--,if equals are add$ to equals ! sums are equal--,if equals are tak5 f equals ! rema9d]s are equal17 may be prov$ by an imag9>y sup]position1 resembl+ t by :i* ! f\r? proposition ( ! fir/ book ( ,euclid is demon/rat$4 ,b al?\gh ^! & sev]al o!rs may be /ruck out ( ! li/ ( fir/ pr9ciples1 because1 ?\gh n requir+ demon/ration1 !y are susceptible ( x2 !re w be f\nd 9 ! li/ ( axioms two or ?ree fundam5tal tru?s1 n capable ( be+ demon/rat$3 among :i* mu/ be reckon$ ! proposition t two /raight l9es _c inclose a space1 7or its equival5t1 ,/raight l9es :i* co9cide 9 two po9ts co9cide altoge!r17 & "s prop]ty ( p>allel l9es1 o!r ?an t :i* con/itutes _! def9ition3 ! mo/ suitable1 p]haps1 be+ t select$ by ,pr(essor ,playfair3 8,two /raight l9es :i* int]sect ea* o!r _c bo? ( !m be p>allel to a ?ird /raight l9e407#ch7 ,! axioms1 z well ^? :i* are indemon/rable z ^? :i* admit ( be+ demon/rat$1 diff] f t o!r class ( fundam5tal pr9ciples :i* are involv$ 9 ! def9itions1 9 ?is1 t !y are true )\t any mixture ( hypo!sis4 ,t ?+s :i* are equal to ! same ?+ are equal to "o ano!r1 is z true ( ! l9es & figures 9 nature1 z x w\ld be ( ! imag9>y ones assum$ 9 ! def9itions4 ,9 ?is respect1 h[ev]1 ma!matics are only on a p> ) mo/ o!r sci5ces4 ,9 almo/ all sci5ces !re are "s g5]al propositions :i* are exactly true1 :ile ! great] "p are only m or less di/ant approximations to ! tru?4 ,?us 9 me*anics1 ! fir/ law ( motion 7! cont9uance ( a movem5t once impress$1 until /opp$ or slack5$ by "s resi/+ =ce7 is true )\t qualification or error4 ,! rotation ( ! e>? 9 tw5ty-f\r h\rs1 ( ! same l5g? z 9 our "t1 has gone on s9ce ! fir/ accurate obs]vations1 )\t ! increase or dim9ution ( "o second 9 all t p]iod4 ,^! are inductions :i* require no fiction to make !m be receiv$ z accurately true3 b along ) !m !re are o!rs1 z = in/ance ! propositions respect+ ! figure ( ! e>?1 :i* are b approximations to ! tru?2 & 9 ord] to use !m = ! fur!r advancem5t ( our k1 we mu/ feign t !y are exactly true1 ?\gh !y really want some?+ ( be+ s4 #d4 ,x rema9s to inquire1 :at is ! gr\nd ( our belief 9 axioms--:at is ! evid5ce on :i* !y re/8 ,i answ]1 !y are exp]im5tal tru?s2 g5]alizations f obs]vation4 ,! proposition1 ,two /raight l9es _c inclose a space--or 9 o!r words1 ,two /raight l9es :i* h once met1 d n meet aga91 b cont9ue to div]ge--is an induction f ! evid5ce ( our s5ses4 ,?is op9ion runs c\nt] to a sci5tific prejudice ( long /&+ & great /r5g?1 & !re is probably no "o proposition enunciat$ 9 ?is "w = :i* a m unfav\rable reception is to be expect$4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 no new op9ion2 & ev5 if x 7 s1 w\ld be entitl$ to be judg$1 n by its novelty1 b by ! /r5g? ( ! argum5ts by :i* x c be support$4 ,i consid] x v =tunate t s em95t a *ampion ( ! contr>y op9ion z ,dr4 ,:ewell1 has rec5tly f\nd occasion = a mo/ elaborate treatm5t ( ! :ole !ory ( axioms1 9 attempt+ to con/ruct ! philosophy ( ! ma!matical & physical sci5ces on ! basis ( ! doctr9e aga9/ :i* ,i n[ cont5d4 ,:oev] is anxi\s t a discussion %\ld g to ! bottom ( ! subject1 mu/ rejoice to see ! opposite side ( ! "q wor?ily repres5t$4 ,if :at is said by ,dr4 ,:ewell1 9 support ( an op9ion :i* he has made ! f\ndation ( a sy/ematic "w1 c be %[n n to be conclusive1 en\gh w h be5 done )\t go+ fur!r to seek /rong] argum5ts & a m p[]ful adv]s>y4 ,x is n necess>y to %[ t ! tru?s :i* we call axioms are orig9ally sugge/$ by obs]vation1 & t we %\ld nev] h kn[n t two /raight l9es _c inclose a space if we _h nev] se5 a /raight l9e3 ?us mu* be+ admitt$ by ,dr4 ,:ewell1 & by all1 9 rec5t times1 :o h tak5 8 view ( ! subject4 ,b !y cont5d1 t x is n exp]i5ce :i* proves ! axiom2 b t its tru? is p]ceiv$ priori1 by ! con/itution ( ! m9d itself1 f ! fir/ mom5t :5 ! mean+ ( ! proposition is appreh5d$2 & )\t any necessity = v]ify+ x by repeat$ trials1 z is requisite 9 ! case ( tru?s really asc]ta9$ by obs]vation4 ,!y _c1 h[ev]1 b all[ t ! tru? ( ! axiom1 ,two /raight l9es _c inclose a space1 ev5 if evid5t indep5d5tly ( exp]i5ce1 is also evid5t f exp]i5ce4 ,:e!r ! axiom ne$s confirmation or n1 x receives confirmation 9 almo/ e in/ant ( our lives2 s9ce we _c look at any two /raight l9es :i* int]sect "o ano!r1 )\t see+ t f t po9t !y cont9ue to div]ge m & m4 ,exp]im5tal pro( cr[ds 9 ^u u 9 su* endless pr(usion1 & )\t "o in/ance 9 :i* !re c be ev5 a suspicion ( an exception to ! rule1 t we %\ld soon h a /rong] gr\nd = believ+ ! axiom1 ev5 z an exp]im5tal tru?1 ?an we h = almo/ any ( ! g5]al tru?s :i* we confess$ly le>n f ! evid5ce ( our s5ses4 ,indep5d5tly ( priori evid5ce1 we %\ld c]ta9ly believe x ) an int5sity ( conviction f> great] ?an we accord to any ord9>y physical tru?3 & ?is too at a "t ( life mu* e>li] ?an t f :i* we date almo/ any "p ( our acquir$ k1 & mu* too e>ly to admit ( our reta9+ any recollection ( ! hi/ory ( our intellectual op]ations at t p]iod4 ,:]e !n is ! necessity = assum+ t our recognition ( ^! tru?s has a diff]5t orig9 f ! re/ ( our k1 :5 its exi/5ce is p]fectly acc\nt$ = by suppos+ its orig9 to be ! same8 :5 ! causes :i* produce belief 9 all o!r in/ances1 exi/ 9 ?is in/ance1 & 9 a degree ( /r5g? z mu* sup]ior to :at exi/s 9 o!r cases1 z ! int5sity ( ! belief itself is sup]ior8 ,! burd5 ( pro( lies on ! advocates ( ! contr>y op9ion3 x is = !m to po9t out "s fact1 inconsi/5t ) ! supposition t ?is "p ( our k ( nature is d]iv$ f ! same s\rces z e o!r "p4 ,?is1 = in/ance1 !y w\ld be able to d1 if !y c\ld prove *ronologically t we _h ! conviction 7at lea/ practically7 s e>ly 9 infancy z to be ant]ior to ^? impressions on ! s5ses1 ^u :i*1 on ! o!r !ory1 ! conviction is f\nd$4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 _c be prov$3 ! po9t be+ too f> back to be )9 ! rea* ( memory1 & too obscure = ext]nal obs]vation4 ,! advocates ( ! priori !ory are oblig$ to h rec\rse to o!r argum5ts4 ,^! are r$ucible to two1 :i* ,i %all endeav\r to /ate z cle>ly & z =cibly z possible4 #e4 ,9 ! fir/ place x is said1 t if our ass5t to ! proposition t two /raight l9es _c inclose a space1 7 d]iv$ f ! s5ses1 we c\ld only be conv9c$ ( its tru? by actual trial1 t is1 by see+ or feel+ ! /raight l9es2 :]eas 9 fact x is se5 to be true by m]ely ?9k+ ( !m4 ,t a /one ?r[n into wat] goes to ! bottom1 may be p]ceiv$ by our s5ses1 b m]e ?9k+ ( a /one ?r[n into ! wat] w\ld nev] h l$ u to t conclusion3 n s1 h[ev]1 ) ! axioms relat+ to /raight l9es3 if ,i c\ld be made to conceive :at a /raight l9e is1 )\t hav+ se5 "o1 ,i %\ld at once recognise t two su* l9es _c inclose a space4 ,intuition is 8imag9>y look+207#ci7 b exp]i5ce mu/ be real look+3 if we see a prop]ty ( /raight l9es to be true by m]ely fancy+ ourselves to be look+ at !m1 ! gr\nd ( our belief _c be ! s5ses1 or exp]i5ce2 x mu/ be some?+ m5tal4 ,to ?is argum5t x might be add$ 9 ! case ( ?is p>ticul> axiom1 7= ! ass]tion w\ld n be true ( all axioms17 t ! evid5ce ( x f actual ocul> inspection1 is n only unnecess>y1 b unatta9able4 ,:at says ! axiom8 ,t two /raight l9es _c inclose a space2 t aft] hav+ once int]sect$1 if !y are prolong$ to inf9ity !y d n meet1 b cont9ue to div]ge f "o ano!r4 ,h[ c ?is1 9 any s+le case1 be prov$ by actual obs]vation8 ,we may foll[ ! l9es to any di/ance we please2 b we _c foll[ !m to inf9ity3 = aught our s5ses c te/ify1 !y may1 imm$iately beyond ! f>!/ po9t to :i* we h trac$ !m1 beg9 to approa*1 & at la/ meet4 ,unless1 !re=e1 we _h "s o!r pro( ( ! impossibility ?an obs]vation af=ds u1 we %\ld h no gr\nd = believ+ ! axiom at all4 ,to ^! argum5ts1 :i* ,i tru/ ,i _c be accus$ ( und]/at+1 a satisfactory answ] w1 ,i conceive1 be f\nd1 if we adv]t to "o ( ! *>act]i/ic prop]ties ( geometrical =ms--_! capacity ( be+ pa9t$ 9 ! imag9ation ) a di/9ctness equal to reality3 9 o!r words1 ! exact resemblance ( our ideas ( =m to ! s5sations :i* sugge/ !m4 ,?is1 9 ! fir/ place1 enables u to make 7at lea/ ) a little practice7 m5tal pictures ( all possible comb9ations ( l9es & angles1 :i* resemble ! realities q z well z any :i* we c\ld make on pap]2 & 9 ! next place1 makes ^? pictures j z fit subjects ( geometrical exp]im5tation z ! realities !mselves2 inasmu* z pictures1 if suffici5tly accurate1 exhibit ( c\rse all ! prop]ties :i* w\ld be manife/$ by ! realities at "o giv5 in/ant1 & on simple inspection3 & 9 geometry we are conc]n$ only ) su* prop]ties1 & n ) t :i* pictures c\ld n exhibit1 ! mutual action ( bodies "o ^u ano!r4 ,! f\ndations ( geometry w\ld !re=e be laid 9 direct exp]i5ce1 ev5 if ! exp]im5ts 7:i* 9 ?is case consi/ m]ely 9 att5tive contemplation7 7 practis$ solely ^u :at we call our ideas1 t is1 ^u ! diagrams 9 our m9ds1 & n ^u outw>d objects4 ,= 9 all sy/ems ( exp]im5tation we take "s objects to s]ve z repres5tatives ( all :i* resemble !m2 & 9 ! pres5t case ! conditions :i* qualify a real object to be ! repres5tative ( its class1 are completely fulfill$ by an object exi/+ only 9 our fancy4 ,)\t d5y+1 !re=e1 ! possibility ( satisfy+ ourselves t two /raight l9es _c inclose a space1 by m]ely ?9k+ ( /raight l9es )\t actually look+ at !m2 ,i cont5d1 t we d n believe ?is tru? on ! gr\nd ( ! imag9>y intuition simply1 b because we "k t ! imag9>y l9es exactly resemble real ones1 & t we may conclude f !m to real ones ) q z mu* c]ta9ty z we c\ld conclude f "o real l9e to ano!r4 ,! conclusion1 !re=e1 is /ill an induction f obs]vation4 ,& we %\ld n be au?oriz$ to sub/itute obs]vation ( ! image 9 our m9d1 = obs]vation ( ! reality1 if we _h n le>nt by long-cont9u$ exp]i5ce t ! prop]ties ( ! reality are fai?fully repres5t$ 9 ! image2 j z we %\ld be sci5tifically w>rant$ 9 describ+ an animal :i* we _h nev] se51 f a picture made ( x ) a dagu]reotype2 b n until we _h le>nt by ample exp]i5ce1 t obs]vation ( su* a picture is precisely equival5t to obs]vation ( ! orig9al4 ,^! consid]ations also remove ! objection aris+ f ! impossibility ( ocul>ly foll[+ ! l9es 9 _! prolongation to inf9ity1 = ?\gh1 9 ord] actually to see t two giv5 l9es nev] meet1 x w\ld be necess>y to foll[ !m to inf9ity2 yet )\t do+ s we may "k t if !y ev] d meet1 or if1 aft] div]g+ f "o ano!r1 !y beg9 aga9 to approa*1 ?is mu/ take place n at an inf9ite1 b at a f9ite di/ance4 ,suppos+1 !re=e1 su* to be ! case1 we c transport ourselves ?i!r 9 imag9ation1 & c frame a m5tal image ( ! appe>ance :i* "o or bo? ( ! l9es mu/ pres5t at t po9t1 :i* we may rely on z be+ precisely simil> to ! reality4 ,n[1 :e!r we fix our contemplation ^u ?is imag9>y picture1 or call to m9d ! g5]alizations we h _h occasion to make f =m] ocul> obs]vation1 we le>n by ! evid5ce ( exp]i5ce1 t a l9e :i*1 aft] div]g+ f ano!r /raight l9e1 beg9s to approa* to x1 produces ! impression on our s5ses :i* we describe by ! expression1 8a b5t l9e10 n by ! expression1 8a /raight l9e407#dj7 #f4 ,! fir/ ( ! two argum5ts 9 support ( ! !ory t axioms are priori tru?s1 hav+1 ,i ?9k1 be5 suffici5tly answ]$2 ,i proce$ to ! second1 :i* is usually ! mo/ reli$ on4 ,axioms 7x is ass]t$7 are conceiv$ by u n only z true1 b z univ]sally & necess>ily true4 ,n[1 exp]i5ce _c possibly give to any proposition ?is "*4 ,i may h se5 sn[ a hundr$ times1 & may h se5 t x 0 :ite1 b ?is _c give me entire assurance ev5 t all sn[ is :ite2 mu* less t sn[ mu/ be :ite4 8,h[ev] _m in/ances we may h obs]v$ ( ! tru? ( a proposition1 !re is no?+ to assure u t ! next case %all n be an exception to ! rule4 ,if x be /rictly true t e rum9ant animal yet kn[n has clov5 ho(s1 we /ill _c be sure t "s creature w n h]eaft] be discov]$ :i* has ! fir/ ( ^! attributes1 )\t hav+ ! o!r4444 ,exp]i5ce mu/ always consi/ ( a limit$ numb] ( obs]vations2 &1 h[ev] num]\s ^! may be1 !y c %[ no?+ ) reg>d to ! inf9ite numb] ( cases 9 :i* ! exp]im5t has n be5 made40 ,besides1 axioms are n only univ]sal1 !y are also necess>y4 ,n[ 8exp]i5ce _c (f] ! smalle/ gr\nd = ! necessity ( a proposition4 ,%e c obs]ve & record :at has happ5$2 b %e _c f9d1 9 any case1 or 9 any accumulation ( cases1 any reason = :at mu/ happ54 ,%e may see objects side by side2 b %e _c see a reason :y !y mu/ ev] be side by side4 ,%e f9ds c]ta9 ev5ts to occur 9 succession2 b ! succession supplies1 9 its occurr5ce1 no reason = its recurr5ce4 ,%e contemplates ext]nal objects2 b %e _c detect any int]nal bond1 :i* indissolubly connects ! future ) ! pa/1 ! possible ) ! real4 ,to le>n a proposition by exp]i5ce1 & to see x to be necess>ily true1 are two altoge!r diff]5t processes ( ?\ght407#da7 ,& ,dr4 ,:ewell adds1 8,if any "o does n cle>ly compreh5d ?is di/9ction ( necess>y & cont+5t tru?s1 he w n be able to g along ) u 9 our rese>*es into ! f\ndations ( human k2 nor1 inde$1 to pursue ) success any speculation on ! subject407#db7 ,9 ! foll[+ passage1 we are told :at ! di/9ction is1 ! non-recognition ( :i* incurs ?is d5unciation4 8,necess>y tru?s are ^? 9 :i* we n only le>n t ! proposition is true1 b see t x mu/ be true2 9 :i* ! negation ( ! tru? is n only false1 b impossible2 9 :i* we _c1 ev5 by an ef=t ( imag9ation1 or 9 a supposition1 conceive ! rev]se ( t :i* is ass]t$4 ,t !re are su* tru?s _c be d\bt$4 ,we may take1 = example1 all relations ( numb]4 ,?ree & ,two1 add$ toge!r1 make ,five4 ,we _c conceive x to be o!rwise4 ,we _c1 by any freak ( ?\ght1 imag9e ,?ree & ,two to make ,sev5407#dc7 ,al?\gh ,dr4 ,:ewell has naturally & prop]ly employ$ a v>iety ( phrases to br+ 8 mean+ m =cibly home1 he w1 ,i presume1 all[ t !y are all equival5t2 & t :at he means by a necess>y tru?1 w\ld be suffici5tly def9$1 a proposition ! negation ( :i* is n only false b inconceivable4 ,i am unable to f9d 9 any ( 8 expressions1 turn !m :at way y w1 a mean+ beyond ?is1 & ,i d n believe he w\ld cont5d t !y mean any?+ m4 ,?is1 !re=e1 is ! pr9ciple ass]t$3 t propositions1 ! negation ( :i* is inconceivable1 or 9 o!r words1 :i* we _c figure to ourselves z be+ false1 mu/ re/ on evid5ce ( a high] & m cog5t description ?an any :i* exp]i5ce c af=d4 ,& we h next to consid] :e!r !re is any gr\nd = ?is ass]tion4 ,n[ ,i _c b wond] t s mu* /ress %\ld be laid on ! circum/ance ( inconceivabl5ess1 :5 !re is su* ample exp]i5ce to %[1 t our capacity or incapacity ( conceiv+ a ?+ has v little to d ) ! possibility ( ! ?+ 9 itself2 b is 9 tru? v mu* an affair ( accid5t1 & dep5ds on ! pa/ hi/ory & habits ( our own m9ds4 ,!re is no m g5]ally ackn[l$g$ fact 9 human nature1 ?an ! extreme difficulty at fir/ felt 9 conceiv+ any?+ z possible1 :i* is 9 contradiction to long e/abli%$ & famili> exp]i5ce2 or ev5 to old famili> habits ( ?\ght4 ,& ?is difficulty is a necess>y result ( ! fundam5tal laws ( ! human m9d4 ,:5 we h (t5 se5 & ?\ght ( two ?+s toge!r1 & h nev] 9 any "o in/ance ei!r se5 or ?\ght ( !m sep>ately1 !re is by ! prim>y law ( association an increas+ difficulty1 :i* may 9 ! end become insup]able1 ( conceiv+ ! two ?+s ap>t4 ,?is is mo/ ( all conspicu\s 9 un$ucat$ p]sons1 :o are 9 g5]al utt]ly unable to sep>ate any two ideas :i* h once become firmly associat$ 9 _! m9ds2 & if p]sons ( cultivat$ intellect h any advantage on ! po9t1 x is only because1 hav+ se5 & he>d & read m1 & be+ m accu/om$ to ex]cise _! imag9ation1 !y h exp]i5c$ _! s5sations & ?\ghts 9 m v>i$ comb9ations1 & h be5 prev5t$ f =m+ _m ( ^! insep>able associations4 ,b ?is advantage has necess>ily its limits4 ,! mo/ practis$ intellect is n exempt f ! univ]sal laws ( our conceptive faculty4 ,if daily habit pres5ts to any "o = a long p]iod two facts 9 comb9ation1 & if he is n l$ dur+ t p]iod ei!r by accid5t or by 8 volunt>y m5tal op]ations to ?9k ( !m ap>t1 he w probably 9 "t become incapable ( do+ s ev5 by ! /ronge/ ef=t2 & ! supposition t ! two facts c be sep>at$ 9 nature1 w at la/ pres5t itself to 8 m9d ) all ! *>act]s ( an inconceivable ph5om5on47#dd7 ,!re are rem>kable in/ances ( ?is 9 ! hi/ory ( sci5ce3 in/ances 9 :i* ! mo/ in/ruct$ m5 reject$ z impossible1 because inconceivable1 ?+s :i* _! po/]ity1 by e>li] practice & long] p]sev]ance 9 ! attempt1 f\nd x q easy to conceive1 & :i* ev]ybody n[ kn[s to be true4 ,!re 0 a "t :5 m5 ( ! mo/ cultivat$ intellects1 & ! mo/ emancipat$ f ! dom9ion ( e>ly prejudice1 c\ld n cr$it ! exi/5ce ( antipodes2 7 unable to conceive1 9 opposition to old association1 ! =ce ( gravity act+ upw>ds in/ead ( d[nw>ds4 ,! ,c>tesians long reject$ ! ,newtonian doctr9e ( ! gravitation ( all bodies t[>ds "o ano!r1 on ! fai? ( a g5]al proposition1 ! rev]se ( :i* seem$ to !m to be inconceivable--! proposition t a body _c act :]e x is n4 ,all ! cumbr\s ma*9]y ( imag9>y vortices1 assum$ )\t ! smalle/ p>ticle ( evid5ce1 appe>$ to ^! philosoph]s a m rational mode ( expla9+ ! heav5ly motions1 ?an "o :i* involv$ :at seem$ to !m s great an absurdity47#de7 ,& !y no d\bt f\nd x z impossible to conceive t a body %\ld act ^u ! e>?1 at ! di/ance ( ! sun or moon1 z we f9d x to conceive an end to space or "t1 or two /raight l9es inclos+ a space4 ,newton himself _h n be5 able to realize ! conception1 or we %\ld n h _h 8 hypo!sis ( a subtle e!r1 ! occult cause ( gravitation2 & 8 writ+s prove1 t al?\gh he deem$ ! p>ticul> nature ( ! int]m$iate ag5cy a matt] ( conjecture1 ! necessity ( "s su* ag5cy appe>$ to him indubitable4 ,x w\ld seem t ev5 n[ ! majority ( sci5tific m5 h n completely got ov] ?is v difficulty2 = ?\gh !y h at la/ le>nt to conceive ! sun attract+ ! e>? )\t any int]v5+ fluid1 !y _c yet conceive ! sun illum9at+ ! e>? )\t "s su* m$ium4 ,if1 !n1 x be s natural to ! human m9d1 ev5 9 a high /ate ( culture1 to be incapable ( conceiv+1 & on t gr\nd to believe impossible1 :at is aft]w>ds n only f\nd to be conceivable b prov$ to be true2 :at wond] if 9 cases :]e ! association is /ill old]1 m confirm$1 & m famili>1 & 9 :i* no?+ ev] occurs to %ake our conviction1 or ev5 sugge/ to u any conception at v>iance ) ! association1 ! acquir$ incapacity %\ld cont9ue1 & be mi/ak5 = a natural incapacity8 ,x is true1 our exp]i5ce ( ! v>ieties 9 nature enables u1 )9 c]ta9 limits1 to conceive o!r v>ieties analog\s to !m4 ,we c conceive ! sun or moon fall+2 = al?\gh we nev] saw !m fall1 nor ev] p]haps imag9$ !m fall+1 we h se5 s _m o!r ?+s fall1 t we h innum]able famili> analogies to assi/ ! conception2 :i*1 aft] all1 we %\ld probably h "s difficulty 9 fram+1 7 we n well accu/om$ to see ! sun & moon move1 7or appe> to move17 s t we are only call$ ^u to conceive a slight *ange 9 ! direction ( motion1 a circum/ance famili> to our exp]i5ce4 ,b :5 exp]i5ce af=ds no model on :i* to %ape ! new conception1 h[ is x possible = u to =m x8 ,h[1 = example1 c we imag9e an end to space or "t8 ,we nev] saw any object )\t some?+ beyond x1 nor exp]i5c$ any feel+ )\t some?+ foll[+ x4 ,:51 !re=e1 we attempt to conceive ! la/ po9t ( space1 we h ! idea irresi/ibly rais$ ( o!r po9ts beyond x4 ,:5 we try to imag9e ! la/ in/ant ( "t1 we _c help conceiv+ ano!r in/ant aft] x4 ,nor is !re any necessity to assume1 z is done by a mod]n s*ool ( metaphysicians1 a peculi> fundam5tal law ( ! m9d to acc\nt = ! feel+ ( inf9ity inh]5t 9 our conceptions ( space & "t2 t app>5t inf9ity is suffici5tly acc\nt$ = by simpl] & univ]sally ackn[l$g$ laws4 ,n[1 9 ! case ( a geometrical axiom1 su*1 = example1 z t two /raight l9es _c inclose a space1--a tru? :i* is te/ifi$ to u by our v e>lie/ impressions ( ! ext]nal _w1--h[ is x possible 7:e!r ^? ext]nal impressions be or be n ! gr\nd ( our belief7 t ! rev]se ( ! proposition c\ld be o!rwise ?an inconceivable to u8 ,:at analogy h we1 :at simil> ord] ( facts 9 any o!r bran* ( our exp]i5ce1 to facilitate to u ! conception ( two /raight l9es inclos+ a space8 ,nor is ev5 ?is all4 ,i h already call$ att5tion to ! peculi> prop]ty ( our impressions ( =m1 t ! ideas or m5tal images exactly resemble _! prototypes1 & adequately repres5t !m = ! purposes ( sci5tific obs]vation4 ,f ?is1 & f ! intuitive "* ( ! obs]vation1 :i* 9 ?is case r$uces itself to simple inspection1 we _c s mu* z call up 9 our imag9ation two /raight l9es1 9 ord] to attempt to conceive !m inclos+ a space1 )\t by t v act repeat+ ! sci5tific exp]im5t :i* e/abli%es ! contr>y4 ,w x really be cont5d$ t ! inconceivabl5ess ( ! ?+1 9 su* circum/ances1 proves any?+ aga9/ ! exp]im5tal orig9 ( ! conviction8 ,is x n cle> t 9 :i*ev] mode our belief 9 ! proposition may h orig9at$1 ! impossibility ( our conceiv+ ! negative ( x mu/1 on ei!r hypo!sis1 be ! same8 ,z1 !n1 ,dr4 ,:ewell exhorts ^? :o h any difficulty 9 recognis+ ! di/9ction held by him betwe5 necess>y & cont+5t tru?s1 to /udy geometry1--a condition :i* ,i c assure him ,i h consci5ti\sly fulfill$1--,i1 9 return1 ) equal confid5ce1 exhort ^? :o agree ) him1 to /udy ! elem5t>y laws ( association2 be+ conv9c$ t no?+ m is requisite ?an a mod]ate famili>ity ) ^? laws1 to dispel ! illusion :i* ascribes a peculi> necessity to our e>lie/ inductions f exp]i5ce1 & measures ! possibility ( ?+s 9 !mselves1 by ! human capacity ( conceiv+ !m4 ,i hope to be p>don$ = add+1 t ,dr4 ,:ewell himself has bo? confirm$ by 8 te/imony ! effect ( habitual association 9 giv+ to an exp]im5tal tru? ! appe>ance ( a necess>y "o1 & af=d$ a /rik+ in/ance ( t rem>kable law 9 8 own p]son4 ,9 8 ,philosophy ( ! ,inductive ,sci5ces he cont9ually ass]ts1 t propositions :i* n only are n self-evid5t1 b :i* we "k to h be5 discov]$ gradually1 & by great ef=ts ( g5ius & pati5ce1 h1 :5 once e/abli%$1 appe>$ s self-evid5t t1 b = hi/orical pro(1 x w\ld h be5 impossible to conceive t !y _h n be5 recognis$ f ! fir/ by all p]sons 9 a s\nd /ate ( _! faculties4 8,we n[ despise ^? :o1 9 ! ,cop]nican controv]sy1 c\ld n conceive ! app>5t motion ( ! sun on ! helioc5tric hypo!sis2 or ^? :o1 9 opposition to ,galileo1 ?\ght t a uni=m =ce might be t :i* g5]at$ a velocity proportional to ! space2 or ^? :o held !re 0 some?+ absurd 9 ,newton's doctr9e ( ! diff]5t refrangibility ( diff]5tly col\r$ rays2 or ^? :o imag9$ t :5 elem5ts comb9e1 _! s5sible qualities mu/ be manife/ 9 ! comp\nd2 or ^? :o 7 reluctant to give up ! di/9ction ( vegetables into h]bs1 %rubs1 & trees4 ,we _c help ?9k+ t m5 mu/ h be5 s+ul>ly dull ( compreh5sion to f9d a difficulty 9 admitt+ :at is to u s pla9 & simple4 ,we h a lat5t p]suasion t we 9 _! place %\ld h be5 wis] & m cle>sight$2 t we %\ld h tak5 ! "r side1 & giv5 our ass5t at once to ! tru?4 ,yet 9 reality su* a p]suasion is a m]e delusion4 ,! p]sons :o1 9 su* in/ances z ! above1 7 on ! los+ side1 7 v f> 9 mo/ cases f be+ p]sons m prejudic$1 or /upid1 or n>r[-m9d$1 ?an ! great] "p ( mank9d n[ are2 & ! cause = :i* !y f\ght 0 f> f be+ a manife/ly bad "o1 till x _h be5 s decid$ by ! result ( ! w>4444 ,s complete has be5 ! victory ( tru? 9 mo/ ( ^! in/ances1 t at pres5t we c h>dly imag9e ! /ruggle to h be5 necess>y4 ,! v ess5ce ( ^! triumphs is1 t !y lead u to reg>d ! views we reject z n only false b inconceivable407#df7 ,?is la/ proposition is precisely :at ,i cont5d =2 & ,i ask no m1 9 ord] to ov]?r[ ! :ole !ory ( its au?or on ! nature ( ! evid5ce ( axioms4 ,= :at is t !ory8 ,t ! tru? ( axioms _c h be5 le>nt f exp]i5ce1 because _! falsity is inconceivable4 ,b ,dr4 ,:ewell himself says1 t we are cont9ually l$ by ! natural progress ( ?\ght1 to reg>d z inconceivable :at our =efa!rs n only conceiv$ b believ$1 nay ev5 7he might h add$7 7 unable to conceive ! contr>y (4 ,he _c int5d to ju/ify ?is mode ( ?\ght3 he _c mean to say1 t we c be "r 9 reg>d+ z inconceivable :at o!rs h conceiv$1 & z self-evid5t :at to o!rs did n appe> evid5t at all4 ,aft] s complete an admission t inconceivabl5ess is an accid5tal ?+1 n inh]5t 9 ! ph5om5on itself1 b dep5d5t on ! m5tal hi/ory ( ! p]son :o tries to conceive x1 h[ c he ev] call ^u u to reject a proposition z impossible on no o!r gr\nd ?an its inconceivabl5ess8 ,yet he n only does s1 b has un9t5tionally af=d$ "s ( ! mo/ rem>kable examples :i* c be cit$ ( ! v illusion :i* he has himself s cle>ly po9t$ out4 ,i select z specim5s1 8 rem>ks on ! evid5ce ( ! ?ree laws ( motion1 & ( ! atomic !ory4 ,) respect to ! laws ( motion1 ,dr4 ,:ewell says3 8,no "o c d\bt t1 9 hi/orical fact1 ^! laws 7 collect$ f exp]i5ce4 ,t su* is ! case1 is no matt] ( conjecture4 ,we "k ! "t1 ! p]sons1 ! circum/ances1 belong+ to ea* /ep ( ea* discov]y407#dg7 ,aft] ?is te/imony1 to adduce evid5ce ( ! fact w\ld be sup]flu\s4 ,& n only 7 ^! laws by no means intuitively evid5t1 b "s ( !m 7 orig9ally p>adoxes4 ,! fir/ law 0 especially s4 ,t a body1 once 9 motion1 w\ld cont9ue = ev] to move 9 ! same direction ) undim9i%$ velocity unless act$ ^u by "s new =ce1 0 a proposition :i* mank9d f\nd = a long "t ! greate/ difficulty 9 cr$it+4 ,x /ood oppos$ to app>5t exp]i5ce ( ! mo/ famili> k9d1 :i* taught t x 0 ! nature ( motion to abate gradually1 & at la/ t]m9ate ( itself4 ,yet :5 once ! contr>y doctr9e 0 firmly e/abli%$1 ma!maticians1 z ,dr4 ,:ewell obs]ves1 spe$ily began to believe t laws1 ?us contradictory to fir/ appe>ances1 & :i*1 ev5 aft] full pro( _h be5 obta9$1 x _h requir$ g5]ations to r5d] famili> to ! m9ds ( ! sci5tific _w1 7 "u 8a demon/rable necessity1 compell+ !m to be su* z !y are & no o!r20 & he himself1 ?\gh n v5tur+ 8absolutely to pron\nce0 t all ^! laws 8c be rigor\sly trac$ to an absolute necessity 9 ! nature ( ?+s107#dh7 does actually ?9k 9 t mann] ( ! law j m5tion$2 ( :i* he says3 8,?\gh ! discov]y ( ! fir/ law ( motion 0 made1 hi/orically speak+1 by means ( exp]im5t1 we h n[ atta9$ a po9t ( view 9 :i* we see t x might h be5 c]ta9ly kn[n to be true1 indep5d5tly ( exp]i5ce407#di7 ,c !re be a m /rik+ exemplification ?an is "h af=d$1 ( ! effect ( association :i* we h describ$8 ,philosoph]s1 = g5]ations1 h ! mo/ extraord9>y difficulty 9 putt+ c]ta9 ideas toge!r2 !y at la/ succe$ 9 do+ s2 & aft] a suffici5t repetition ( ! process1 !y fir/ fancy a natural bond betwe5 ! ideas1 !n exp]i5ce a gr[+ difficulty1 :i* at la/1 by ! cont9uation ( ! same progress1 becomes an impossibility1 ( sev]+ !m f "o ano!r4 ,if su* be ! progress ( an exp]im5tal conviction ( :i* ! date is ( ye/]day1 & :i* is 9 opposition to fir/ appe>ances1 h[ mu/ x f>e ) ^? :i* are con=mable to appe>ances famili> f ! fir/ dawn ( intellig5ce1 & ( ! conclusiv5ess ( :i*1 f ! e>lie/ records ( human ?\ght1 no sceptic has sugge/$ ev5 a mom5t>y d\bt8 ,! o!r in/ance :i* ,i %all quote is a truly a/oni%+ "o1 & may be call$ ! r$uctio ad absurdum ( ! !ory ( inconceivabl5ess4 ,speak+ ( ! laws ( *emical composition1 ,dr4 ,:ewell says37#ej7 8,t !y c\ld nev] h be5 cle>ly und]/ood1 & !re=e nev] firmly e/abli%$1 )\t labori\s & exact exp]im5ts1 is c]ta92 b yet we may v5ture to say1 t be+ once kn[n1 !y possess an evid5ce beyond t ( m]e exp]im5t4 ,= h[1 9 fact1 c we conceive comb9ations1 o!rwise ?an z def9ite 9 k9d & quality8 ,if we 7 to suppose ea* elem5t ready to comb9e ) any o!r indiff]5tly1 & indiff]5tly 9 any quantity1 we %\ld h a _w 9 :i* all w\ld be confusion & indef9it5ess4 ,!re w\ld be no fix$ k9ds ( bodies2 salts1 & /ones1 & ores1 w\ld approa* to & graduate into ea* o!r by ins5sible degrees4 ,in/ead ( ?is1 we "k t ! _w consi/s ( bodies di/+ui%able f ea* o!r by def9ite diff]5ces1 capable ( be+ classifi$ & nam$1 & ( hav+ g5]al propositions ass]t$ conc]n+ !m4 ,& z we _c conceive a _w 9 :i* ?is %\ld n be ! case1 x w\ld appe> t we _c conceive a /ate ( ?+s 9 :i* ! laws ( ! comb9ation ( elem5ts %\ld n be ( t def9ite & measur$ k9d :i* we h above ass]t$407#ea7 ,t a philosoph] ( ,dr4 ,:ewell's em95ce %\ld gravely ass]t t we _c conceive a _w 9 :i* ! simple elem5ts w\ld comb9e 9 o!r ?an def9ite proportions2 t by d9t ( m$itat+ on a sci5tific tru?1 ! orig9al discov]] ( :i* 0 /ill liv+1 he %\ld h r5d]$ ! association 9 8 own m9d betwe5 ! idea ( comb9ation & t ( con/ant proportions s famili> & intimate z to be unable to conceive ! "o fact )\t ! o!r2 is s signal an in/ance ( ! m5tal law = :i* ,i am cont5d+1 t "o ^w m 9 illu/ration mu/ be sup]flu\s47#eb7 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,! ,,same ,,subject ,,cont9u$4 #a4 ,9 ! exam9ation :i* =m$ ! subject ( ! la/ *apt]1 into ! nature ( ! evid5ce ( ^? d$uctive sci5ces :i* are commonly repres5t$ to be sy/ems ( necess>y tru?1 we h be5 l$ to ! foll[+ conclusions4 ,! results ( ^? sci5ces are inde$ necess>y1 9 ! s5se ( necess>ily foll[+ f c]ta9 fir/ pr9ciples1 commonly call$ axioms & def9itions2 ( be+ c]ta9ly true if ^? axioms & def9itions are s4 ,b _! claim to ! "* ( necessity 9 any s5se beyond ?is1 z imply+ an evid5ce indep5d5t ( & sup]ior to obs]vation & exp]i5ce1 mu/ dep5d on ! previ\s e/abli%m5t ( su* a claim 9 fav\r ( ! def9itions & axioms !mselves4 ,) reg>d to axioms1 we f\nd t1 consid]$ z exp]im5tal tru?s1 !y re/ on sup]abundant & obvi\s evid5ce4 ,we inquir$1 :e!r1 s9ce ?is is ! case1 x be necess>y to suppose any o!r evid5ce ( ^? tru?s ?an exp]im5tal evid5ce1 any o!r orig9 = our belief ( !m ?an an exp]im5tal orig94 ,we decid$1 t ! burd5 ( pro( lies ) ^? :o ma9ta9 ! affirmative1 & we exam9$1 at consid]able l5g?1 su* argum5ts z !y h produc$4 ,! exam9ation hav+ l$ to ! rejection ( ^? argum5ts1 we h ?\ght ourselves w>rant$ 9 conclud+ t axioms are b a class1 ! highe/ class1 ( inductions f exp]i5ce2 ! simple/ & easie/ cases ( g5]alization f ! facts furni%$ to u by our s5ses or by our int]nal consci\sness4 ,:ile ! axioms ( demon/rative sci5ces ?us appe>$ to be exp]im5tal tru?s1 ! def9itions1 z !y are incorrectly call$1 9 ^? sci5ces1 7 f\nd by u to be g5]alizations f exp]i5ce :i* are n ev51 accurately speak+1 tru?s2 be+ propositions 9 :i*1 :ile we ass]t ( "s k9d ( object1 "s prop]ty or prop]ties :i* obs]vation %[s to belong to x1 we at ! same "t d5y t x possesses any o!r prop]ties1 al?\gh 9 tru? o!r prop]ties d 9 e individual in/ance accompany1 & 9 almo/ all in/ances modify1 ! prop]ty ?us exclusively pr$icat$4 ,! d5ial1 !re=e1 is a m]e fiction1 or supposition1 made = ! purpose ( exclud+ ! consid]ation ( ^? modify+ circum/ances1 :5 _! influ5ce is ( too trifl+ am\nt to be wor? consid]+1 or adj\rn+ x1 :5 important1 to a m conv5i5t mom5t4 ,f ^! consid]ations x w\ld appe> t ,d$uctive or ,demon/rative ,sci5ces are all1 )\t exception1 ,inductive ,sci5ces2 t _! evid5ce is t ( exp]i5ce2 b t !y are also1 9 virtue ( ! peculi> "* ( "o indisp5sable portion ( ! g5]al =mulas accord+ to :i* _! inductions are made1 ,hypo!tical ,sci5ces4 ,_! conclusions are only true on c]ta9 suppositions1 :i* are1 or ought to be1 approximations to ! tru?1 b are seldom1 if ev]1 exactly true2 & to ?is hypo!tical "* is to be ascrib$ ! peculi> c]ta9ty1 :i* is suppos$ to be inh]5t 9 demon/ration4 ,:at we h n[ ass]t$1 h[ev]1 _c be receiv$ z univ]sally true ( ,d$uctive or ,demon/rative ,sci5ces1 until v]ifi$ by be+ appli$ to ! mo/ rem>kable ( all ^? sci5ces1 t ( ,numb]s2 ! !ory ( ! ,calculus2 ,ari?metic & ,algebra4 ,x is h>d] to believe ( ! doctr9es ( ?is sci5ce ?an ( any o!r1 ei!r t !y are n tru?s priori1 b exp]im5tal tru?s1 or t _! peculi> c]ta9ty is ow+ to _! be+ n absolute b only conditional tru?s4 ,?is1 !re=e1 is a case :i* m]its exam9ation ap>t2 & ! m s1 because on ?is subject we h a d\ble set ( doctr9es to cont5d )2 t ( ! priori philosoph]s on "o side2 & on ! o!r1 a !ory ! mo/ opposite to !irs1 :i* 0 at "o "t v g5]ally receiv$1 & is /ill f> f be+ altoge!r explod$ among metaphysicians4 #b4 ,?is !ory attempts to solve ! difficulty app>5tly inh]5t 9 ! case1 by repres5t+ ! propositions ( ! sci5ce ( numb]s z m]ely v]bal1 & its processes z simple trans=mations ( language1 sub/itutions ( "o expression = ano!r4 ,! proposition1 ,two & "o are equal to ?ree1 accord+ to ^! writ]s1 is n a tru?1 is n ! ass]tion ( a really exi/+ fact1 b a def9ition ( ! ^w ?ree2 a /atem5t t mank9d h agre$ to use ! "n ?ree z a sign exactly equival5t to two & "o2 to call by ! =m] "n :atev] is call$ by ! o!r m clumsy phrase4 ,accord+ to ?is doctr9e1 ! longe/ process 9 algebra is b a succession ( *anges 9 t]m9ology1 by :i* equival5t expressions are sub/itut$ "o = ano!r2 a s]ies ( translations ( ! same fact1 f "o into ano!r language2 ?\gh h[1 aft] su* a s]ies ( translations1 ! fact itself comes out *ang$1 7z :5 we demon/rate a new geometrical !orem by algebra17 !y h n expla9$2 & x is a difficulty :i* is fatal to _! !ory4 ,x mu/ be ackn[l$g$ t !re are peculi>ities 9 ! processes ( ari?metic & algebra :i* r5d] ! !ory 9 "q v plausible1 & h n unnaturally made ^? sci5ces ! /ronghold ( ,nom9alism4 ,! doctr9e t we c discov] facts1 detect ! hidd5 processes ( nature1 by an artful manipulation ( language1 is s contr>y to common s5se1 t a p]son mu/ h made "s advances 9 philosophy to believe x2 m5 fly to s p>adoxical a belief to avoid1 z !y ?9k1 "s ev5 great] difficulty1 :i* ! vulg> d n see4 ,:at has l$ _m to believe t reason+ is a m]e v]bal process1 is1 t no o!r !ory seem$ reconcileable ) ! nature ( ! ,sci5ce ( ,numb]s4 ,= we d n c>ry any ideas along ) u :5 we use ! symbols ( ari?metic or ( algebra4 ,9 a geometrical demon/ration we h a m5tal diagram1 if n "o on pap]2 ,,ab1 ,,ac1 are pres5t to our imag9ation z l9es1 int]sect+ o!r l9es1 =m+ an angle ) "o ano!r1 & ! l2 b n s a & b4 ,^! may repres5t l9es or any o!r magnitudes1 b ^? magnitudes are nev] ?\ght (2 no?+ is realiz$ 9 our imag9ation b a & b4 ,! ideas :i*1 on ! p>ticul> occasion1 !y happ5 to repres5t1 are bani%$ f ! m9d dur+ e int]m$iate "p ( ! process1 betwe5 ! beg9n+1 :5 ! premisses are translat$ f ?+s into signs1 & ! end1 :5 ! conclusion is translat$ back f signs into ?+s4 ,no?+1 !n1 be+ 9 ! reason]'s m9d b ! symbols1 :at c seem m inadmissible ?an to cont5d t ! reason+ process has to d ) any?+ m8 ,we seem to h come to "o ( ,bacon's ,pr]ogative ,in/ances2 an exp]im5tum crucis on ! nature ( reason+ itself4 ,nev]!less1 x w appe> on consid]ation1 t ?is app>5tly s decisive in/ance is no in/ance at all2 t !re is 9 e /ep ( an ari?metical or algebraical calculation a real induction1 a real inf]5ce ( facts f facts2 & t :at disguises ! induction is simply its compreh5sive nature1 & ! consequ5t extreme g5]ality ( ! language4 ,all numb]s mu/ be numb]s ( some?+3 !re are no su* ?+s z numb]s 9 ! ab/ract4 ,t5 mu/ mean t5 bodies1 or t5 s\nds1 or t5 beat+s ( ! pulse4 ,b ?\gh numb]s mu/ be numb]s ( some?+1 !y may be numb]s ( any?+4 ,propositions1 !re=e1 conc]n+ numb]s1 h ! rem>kable peculi>ity t !y are propositions conc]n+ all ?+s :atev]2 all objects1 all exi/5ces ( e k9d1 kn[n to our exp]i5ce4 ,all ?+s possess quantity2 consi/ ( p>ts :i* c be numb]$2 & 9 t "* possess all ! prop]ties :i* are call$ prop]ties ( numb]s4 ,t half ( f\r is two1 mu/ be true :atev] ! ^w f\r repres5ts1 :e!r f\r m51 f\r miles1 or f\r p\nds weight4 ,we ne$ only conceive a ?+ divid$ into f\r equal p>ts1 7& all ?+s may be conceiv$ z s divid$17 to be able to pr$icate ( x e prop]ty ( ! numb] f\r1 t is1 e ari?metical proposition 9 :i* ! numb] f\r /&s on "o side ( ! equation4 ,algebra ext5ds ! g5]alization /ill f>!r3 e numb] repres5ts t p>ticul> numb] ( all ?+s )\t di/9ction1 b e algebraical symbol does m1 x repres5ts all numb]s )\t di/9ction4 ,z soon z we conceive a ?+ divid$ into equal p>ts1 )\t kn[+ into :at numb] ( p>ts1 we may call x a or x1 & apply to x1 )\t dang] ( error1 e algebraical =mula 9 ! books4 ,! proposition1 #b7;a b7 #b;a #b;b1 is a tru? coext5sive ) all nature4 ,s9ce !n algebraical tru?s are true ( all ?+s :atev]1 & n1 l ^? ( geometry1 true ( l9es only or angles only1 x is no wond] t ! symbols %\ld n excite 9 our m9ds ideas ( any ?+s 9 p>ticul>4 ,:5 we demon/rate ! =ty-sev5? proposition ( ,euclid1 x is n necess>y t ! words %\ld raise 9 u an image ( all "r-angl$ triangles1 b only ( "s "o "r-angl$ triangle3 s 9 algebra we ne$ n1 "u ! symbol a1 picture to ourselves all ?+s :atev]1 b only "s "o ?+2 :y n1 !n1 ! lett] itself8 ,! m]e writt5 *>act]s1 a1 b1 x1 y1 z1 s]ve z well = repres5tatives ( ,?+s 9 g5]al1 z any m complex & app>5tly m concrete conception4 ,t we are consci\s ( !m h[ev] 9 _! "* ( ?+s1 & n ( m]e signs1 is evid5t f ! fact t our :ole process ( reason+ is c>ri$ on by pr$icat+ ( !m ! prop]ties ( ?+s4 ,9 resolv+ an algebraic equation1 by :at rules d we proce$8 ,by apply+ at ea* /ep to a1 b1 & x ! proposition t equals add$ to equals make equals2 t equals tak5 f equals leave equals2 & o!r propositions f\nd$ on ^! two4 ,^! are n prop]ties ( language1 or ( signs z su*1 b ( magnitudes1 :i* is z mu* z to say1 ( all ?+s4 ,! inf]5ces1 !re=e1 :i* are successively drawn1 are inf]5ces conc]n+ ?+s1 n symbols2 al?\gh z any ,?+s :atev] w s]ve ! turn1 !re is no necessity = keep+ ! idea ( ! ,?+ at all di/9ct1 & consequ5tly ! process ( ?\ght may1 9 ?is case1 be all[$ )\t dang] to d :at all processes ( ?\ght1 :5 !y h be5 p]=m$ (t51 w d if p]mitt$1 namely1 to become entirely me*anical4 ,h5ce ! g5]al language ( algebra comes to be us$ famili>ly )\t excit+ ideas1 z all o!r g5]al language is prone to d f m]e habit1 ?\gh 9 no o!r case ?an ?is c x be done ) complete safety4 ,b :5 we look back to see f :5ce ! probative =ce ( ! process is d]iv$1 we f9d t at e s+le /ep1 unless we suppose ourselves to be ?9k+ & talk+ ( ! ?+s1 & n ! m]e symbols1 ! evid5ce fails4 ,!re is ano!r circum/ance1 :i*1 /ill m ?an t :i* we h n[ m5tion$1 gives plausibility to ! notion t ! propositions ( ari?metic & algebra are m]ely v]bal4 ,?is is1 t :5 consid]$ z propositions respect+ ,?+s1 !y all h ! appe>ance ( be+ id5tical propositions4 ,! ass]tion1 ,two & "o are equal to ?ree1 consid]$ z an ass]tion respect+ objects1 z = in/ance 8,two pebbles & "o pebble are equal to ?ree pebbles10 does n affirm equality betwe5 two collections ( pebbles1 b absolute id5tity4 ,x affirms t if we put "o pebble to two pebbles1 ^? v pebbles are ?ree4 ,! objects1 !re=e1 be+ ! v same1 & ! m]e ass]tion t 8objects are !mselves0 be+ insignificant1 x seems b natural to consid] ! proposition1 ,two & "o are equal to ?ree1 z ass]t+ m]e id5tity ( signification betwe5 ! two names4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 ?\gh x looks s plausible1 w n be> exam9ation4 ,! expression 8two pebbles & "o pebble10 & ! expression1 8?ree pebbles10 /& inde$ = ! same aggregation ( objects1 b !y by no means /& = ! same physical fact4 ,!y are names ( ! same objects1 b ( ^? objects 9 two diff]5t /ates3 ?\gh !y denote ! same ?+s1 _! connotation is diff]5t4 ,?ree pebbles 9 two sep>ate p>cels1 & ?ree pebbles 9 "o p>cel1 d n make ! same impression on our s5ses2 & ! ass]tion t ! v same pebbles may by an alt]ation ( place & arrangem5t be made to produce ei!r ! "o set ( s5sations or ! o!r1 ?\gh a v famili> proposition1 is n an id5tical "o4 ,x is a tru? kn[n to u by e>ly & con/ant exp]i5ce3 an inductive tru?2 & su* tru?s are ! f\ndation ( ! sci5ce ( ,numb]4 ,! fundam5tal tru?s ( t sci5ce all re/ on ! evid5ce ( s5se2 !y are prov$ by %[+ to our eyes & our f+]s t any giv5 numb] ( objects1 t5 balls = example1 may by sep>ation & re-arrangem5t exhibit to our s5ses all ! diff]5t sets ( numb]s ! sum ( :i* is equal to t54 ,all ! improv$ me?ods ( tea*+ ari?metic to *ildr5 proce$ on a k ( ?is fact4 ,all :o wi% to c>ry ! *ild's m9d along ) !m 9 le>n+ ari?metic2 all :o wi% to tea* numb]s1 & n m]e ciph]s--n[ tea* x ?r\gh ! evid5ce ( ! s5ses1 9 ! mann] we h describ$4 ,we may1 if we please1 call ! proposition 8,?ree is two & "o10 a def9ition ( ! numb] ?ree1 & ass]t t ari?metic1 z x has be5 ass]t$ t geometry1 is a sci5ce f\nd$ on def9itions4 ,b !y are def9itions 9 ! geometrical s5se1 n ! logical2 ass]t+ n ! mean+ ( a t]m only1 b along ) x an obs]v$ matt] ( fact4 ,! proposition1 8,a circle is a figure b\nd$ by a l9e :i* has all its po9ts equally di/ant f a po9t )9 x10 is call$ ! def9ition ( a circle2 b ! proposition f :i* s _m consequ5ces foll[1 & :i* is really a fir/ pr9ciple 9 geometry1 is1 t figures answ]+ to ?is description exi/4 ,& ?us we may call1 8,?ree is two & "o10 a def9ition ( ?ree2 b ! calculations :i* dep5d on t proposition d n foll[ f ! def9ition itself1 b f an ari?metical !orem presuppos$ 9 x1 namely1 t collections ( objects exi/1 :i* :ile !y impress ! s5ses ?us1 ,symbol3 ?ree circles1 two above "o1 may be sep>at$ into two p>ts1 ?us1 ,symbol3 two circles1 a space1 & a ?ird circle4 ,?is proposition be+ grant$1 we t]m all su* p>cels ,?rees1 aft] :i* ! enunciation ( ! above-m5tion$ physical fact w s]ve also = a def9ition ( ! ^w ,?ree4 ,! ,sci5ce ( ,numb] is ?us no exception to ! conclusion we previ\sly arriv$ at1 t ! processes ev5 ( d$uctive sci5ces are altoge!r inductive1 & t _! fir/ pr9ciples are g5]alizations f exp]i5ce4 ,x rema9s to be exam9$ :e!r ?is sci5ce resembles geometry 9 ! fur!r circum/ance1 t "s ( its inductions are n exactly true2 & t ! peculi> c]ta9ty ascrib$ to x1 on acc\nt ( :i* its propositions are call$ ,necess>y ,tru?s1 is fictiti\s & hypo!tical1 be+ true 9 no o!r s5se ?an t ^? propositions necess>ily foll[ f ! hypo!sis ( ! tru? ( premisses :i* are av[$ly m]e approximations to tru?4 #c4 ,! inductions ( ari?metic are ( two sorts3 fir/1 ^? :i* we h j exp\nd$1 su* z ,"o & "o are two1 ,two & "o are ?ree1 c41 :i* may be call$ ! def9itions ( ! v>i\s numb]s1 9 ! improp] or geometrical s5se ( ! ^w ,def9ition2 & secondly1 ! two foll[+ axioms3 ,! sums ( equals are equal1 ,! diff]5ces ( equals are equal4 ,^! two are suffici5t2 = ! correspond+ propositions respect+ unequals may be prov$ f ^!1 by a r$uctio ad absurdum4 ,^! axioms1 & likewise ! s-call$ def9itions1 are1 z already %[n1 results ( induction2 true ( all objects :atev]1 &1 z x may seem1 exactly true1 )\t ! hypo!tical assumption ( unqualifi$ tru? :]e an approximation to x is all t exi/s4 ,! conclusions1 !re=e1 x w naturally be inf]r$1 are exactly true1 & ! sci5ce ( numb] is an exception to o!r demon/rative sci5ces 9 ?is1 t ! absolute c]ta9ty :i* is pr$icable ( its demon/rations is indep5d5t ( all hypo!sis4 ,on m accurate inve/igation1 h[ev]1 x w be f\nd t1 ev5 9 ?is case1 !re is "o hypo!tical elem5t 9 ! ratioc9ation4 ,9 all propositions conc]n+ numb]s1 a condition is impli$1 )\t :i* none ( !m w\ld be true2 & t condition is an assumption :i* may be false4 ,! condition is1 t #a #a2 t all ! numb]s are numb]s ( ! same or ( equal units4 ,let ?is be d\btful1 & n "o ( ! propositions ( ari?metic w hold true4 ,h[ c we "k t "o p\nd & "o p\nd make two p\nds1 if "o ( ! p\nds may be troy1 & ! o!r avoirdupois8 ,!y may n make two p\nds ( ei!r1 or ( any weight4 ,h[ c we "k t a =ty-horse p[] is always equal to itself1 unless we assume t all horses are ( equal /r5g?8 ,x is c]ta9 t #a is always equal 9 numb] to #a2 & :]e ! m]e numb] ( objects1 or ( ! p>ts ( an object1 )\t suppos+ !m to be equival5t 9 any o!r respect1 is all t is mat]ial1 ! conclusions ( ari?metic1 s f> z !y g to t alone1 are true )\t mixture ( hypo!sis4 ,!re are a few su* cases2 z1 = in/ance1 an inquiry into ! am\nt ( ! population ( any c\ntry4 ,x is indiff]5t to t inquiry :e!r !y are gr[n p or *ildr51 /rong or weak1 tall or %ort2 ! only ?+ we want to asc]ta9 is _! numb]4 ,b :5ev]1 f equality or inequality ( numb]1 equality or inequality 9 any o!r respect is to be inf]r$1 ari?metic c>ri$ into su* inquiries becomes z hypo!tical a sci5ce z geometry4 ,all units mu/ be assum$ to be equal 9 t o!r respect2 & ?is is nev] practically true1 = "o actual p\nd weight is n exactly equal to ano!r1 nor "o mile's l5g? to ano!r2 a nic] balance1 or m accurate measur+ in/rum5ts1 w\ld always detect "s diff]5ce4 ,:at is commonly call$ ma!matical c]ta9ty1 !re=e1 :i* comprises ! tw(old conception ( unconditional tru? & p]fect accuracy1 is n an attribute ( all ma!matical tru?s1 b ( ^? only :i* relate to pure ,numb]1 z di/+ui%$ f ,quantity 9 ! m enl>g$ s5se2 & only s long z we ab/a9 f suppos+ t ! numb]s are a precise index to actual quantities4 ,! c]ta9ty usually ascrib$ to ! conclusions ( geometry1 & ev5 to ^? ( me*anics1 is no?+ :atev] b c]ta9ty ( inf]5ce4 ,we c h full assurance ( p>ticul> results "u p>ticul> suppositions1 b we _c h ! same assurance t ^! suppositions are accurately true1 nor t !y include all ! data :i* may ex]cise an influ5ce ov] ! result 9 any giv5 in/ance4 #d4 ,x appe>s1 !re=e1 t ! me?od ( all ,d$uctive ,sci5ces is hypo!tical4 ,!y proce$ by trac+ ! consequ5ces ( c]ta9 assumptions2 leav+ = sep>ate consid]ation :e!r ! assumptions are true or n1 & if n exactly true1 :e!r !y are a suffici5tly ne> approximation to ! tru?4 ,! reason is obvi\s4 ,s9ce x is only 9 que/ions ( pure numb] t ! assumptions are exactly true1 & ev5 !re1 only s long z no conclusions except purely num]ical ones are to be f\nd$ on !m2 x mu/1 9 all o!r cases ( d$uctive inve/igation1 =m a "p ( ! inquiry1 to det]m9e h[ mu* ! assumptions want ( be+ exactly true 9 ! case 9 h&4 ,?is is g5]ally a matt] ( obs]vation1 to be repeat$ 9 e fre% case2 or if x has to be settl$ by argum5t in/ead ( obs]vation1 may require 9 e diff]5t case diff]5t evid5ce1 & pres5t e degree ( difficulty f ! l[e/ to ! highe/4 ,b ! o!r "p ( ! process--namely1 to det]m9e :at else may be conclud$ if we f9d1 & 9 proportion z we f9d1 ! assumptions to be true--may be p]=m$ once = all1 & ! results held ready to be employ$ z ! occasions turn up = use4 ,we ?us d all be=eh& t c be s done1 & leave ! lea/ possible "w to be p]=m$ :5 cases arise & press = a decision4 ,?is inquiry into ! inf]5ces :i* c be drawn f assumptions1 is :at prop]ly con/itutes ,demon/rative ,sci5ce4 ,x is ( c\rse q z practicable to arrive at new conclusions f facts assum$1 z f facts obs]v$2 f fictiti\s1 z f real1 inductions4 ,d$uction1 z we h se51 consi/s ( a s]ies ( inf]5ces 9 ?is =m--a is a m>k ( b1 b ( c1 c ( d1 !re=e a is a m>k ( d1 :i* la/ may be a tru? inaccessible to direct obs]vation4 ,9 l mann] x is all[able to say1 ,suppose t a 7 a m>k ( b1 b ( c1 & c ( d1 a w\ld be a m>k ( d1 :i* la/ conclusion 0 n ?\ght ( by ^? :o laid d[n ! premisses4 ,a sy/em ( propositions z complicat$ z geometry might be d$uc$ f assumptions :i* are false2 z 0 done by ,ptolemy1 ,desc>tes1 & o!rs1 9 _! attempts to expla9 syn!tically ! ph5om5a ( ! sol> sy/em on ! supposition t ! app>5t motions ( ! heav5ly bodies 7 ! real motions1 or 7 produc$ 9 "s way m or less diff]5t f ! true "o4 ,sometimes ! same ?+ is kn[+ly done1 = ! purpose ( %[+ ! falsity ( ! assumption2 :i* is call$ a r$uctio ad absurdum4 ,9 su* cases1 ! reason+ is z foll[s3 a is a m>k ( b1 & b ( c2 n[ if c 7 also a m>k ( d1 a w\ld be a m>k ( d2 b d is kn[n to be a m>k ( ! abs5ce ( a2 consequ5tly a w\ld be a m>k ( its own abs5ce1 :i* is a contradiction2 !re=e c is n a m>k ( d4 #e4 ,x has ev5 be5 held by "s writ]s1 t all ratioc9ation re/s 9 ! la/ resort on a r$uctio ad absurdum2 s9ce ! way to en=ce ass5t to x1 9 case ( obscurity1 w\ld be to %[ t if ! conclusion be d5i$ we mu/ d5y "s "o at lea/ ( ! premisses1 :i*1 z !y are all suppos$ true1 w\ld be a contradiction4 ,& 9 accordance ) ?is1 _m h ?\ght t ! peculi> nature ( ! evid5ce ( ratioc9ation consi/$ 9 ! impossibility ( admitt+ ! premisses & reject+ ! conclusion )\t a contradiction 9 t]ms4 ,?is !ory1 h[ev] is inadmissible z an explanation ( ! gr\nds on :i* ratioc9ation itself re/s4 ,if any "o d5ies ! conclusion not)/&+ 8 admission ( ! premisses1 he is n involv$ 9 any direct & express contradiction until he is compell$ to d5y "s premiss2 & he c only be =c$ to d ?is by a r$uctio ad absurdum1 t is1 by ano!r ratioc9ation3 n[1 if he d5ies ! validity ( ! reason+ process itself1 he c no m be =c$ to ass5t to ! second syllogism ?an to ! fir/4 ,9 tru?1 !re=e1 no "o is ev] =c$ to a contradiction 9 t]ms3 he c only be =c$ to a contradiction 7or r an infr+em5t7 ( ! fundam5tal maxim ( ratioc9ation1 namely1 t :atev] has a m>k1 has :at x is a m>k (2 or1 79 ! case ( univ]sal propositions17 t :atev] is a m>k ( any?+1 is a m>k ( :atev] else t ?+ is a m>k (4 ,= 9 ! case ( e correct argum5t1 z soon z ?r[n into ! syllogi/ic =m1 x is evid5t )\t ! aid ( any o!r syllogism1 t he :o1 admitt+ ! premisses1 fails to draw ! conclusion1 does n con=m to ! above axiom4 ,)\t atta*+ exagg]at$ importance to ! di/9ction n[ drawn1 ,i ?9k x enables u to *>act]ize 9 a m accurate mann] ?an is usually done1 ! nature ( demon/rative evid5ce & ( logical necessity4 ,t is necess>y1 f :i* to )hold ass5t w\ld be to violate ! above axiom4 ,& s9ce ! axiom c only be violat$ by ass5t+ to premisses & reject+ a legitimate conclusion f !m1 no?+ is necess>y1 except ! connexion betwe5 a conclusion & premisses2 ( :i* doctr9e1 ! :ole ( ?is & ! prec$+ *apt] are submitt$ z ! pro(4 ,we h n[ proce$$ z f> 9 ! !ory ( ,d$uction z we c advance 9 ! pres5t /age ( our inquiry4 ,any fur!r insight into ! subject requires t ! f\ndation %all h be5 laid ( ! philosophic !ory ( ,induction itself2 9 :i* !ory t ( d$uction1 z a mode ( induction1 :i* we h n[ %[n x to be1 w assume spontane\sly ! place :i* belongs to x1 & w receive its %>e ( :atev] light may be ?r[n ^u ! great intellectual op]ation ( :i* x =ms s important a "p4 ,we "h1 !re=e1 close ! ,second ,book4 ,! !ory ( ,induction1 9 ! mo/ compreh5sive s5se ( ! t]m1 w =m ! subject ( ! ,?ird4 ,,book ,,iii4 ,,( ,,induction4 8,accord+ to ! doctr9e n[ /at$1 ! highe/1 or r ! only prop] object ( physics1 is to asc]ta9 ^? e/abli%$ conjunctions ( successive ev5ts1 :i* con/itute ! ord] ( ! univ]se2 to record ! ph5om5a :i* x exhibits to our obs]vations1 or :i* x discloses to our exp]im5ts2 & to ref] ^! ph5om5a to _! g5]al laws40--,d4 ,,/ew>t1 ,elem5ts ( ! ,philosophy ( ! ,human ,m9d1 vol4 ii4 *ap4 iv4 sect4 #a4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,prelim9>y ,,obs]vations ,,on ,,induction ,,9 ,,g5]al4 #a4 ,! portion ( ! pres5t inquiry ^u :i* we are n[ ab\t to ent]1 may be consid]$ z ! pr9cipal1 bo? f its surpass+ 9 intricacy all ! o!r bran*es1 & because x relates to a process :i* has be5 %[n 9 ! prec$+ ,book to be t 9 :i* ! inve/igation ( nature ess5tially consi/s4 ,we h f\nd t all ,inf]5ce1 consequ5tly all ,pro(1 & all discov]y ( tru?s n self-evid5t1 consi/s ( inductions1 & ! int]pretation ( inductions3 t all our k1 n intuitive1 comes to u exclusively f t s\rce4 ,:at ,induction is1 !re=e1 & :at conditions r5d] x legitimate1 _c b be deem$ ! ma9 "q ( ! sci5ce ( logic--! "q :i* includes all o!rs4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 "o :i* pr(ess$ writ]s on logic h almo/ entirely pass$ ov]4 ,! g5]alities ( ! subject h n be5 altoge!r neglect$ by metaphysicians2 b1 = want ( suffici5t acqua9tance ) ! processes by :i* sci5ce has actually succe$$ 9 e/abli%+ g5]al tru?s1 _! analysis ( ! inductive op]ation1 ev5 :5 unexceptionable z to correctness1 has n be5 specific en\gh to be made ! f\ndation ( practical rules1 :i* might be = induction itself :at ! rules ( ! syllogism are = ! int]pretation ( induction3 :ile ^? by :om physical sci5ce has be5 c>ri$ to its pres5t /ate ( improvem5t--& :o1 to arrive at a complete !ory ( ! process1 ne$$ only to g5]alize1 & adapt to all v>ieties ( problems1 ! me?ods :i* !y !mselves employ$ 9 _! habitual pursuits--nev] until v lately made any s]i\s attempt to philosophize on ! subject1 nor reg>d$ ! mode 9 :i* !y arriv$ at _! conclusions z des]v+ ( /udy1 indep5d5tly ( ! conclusions !mselves4 #b4 ,= ! purposes ( ! pres5t inquiry1 ,induction may be def9$1 ! op]ation ( discov]+ & prov+ g5]al propositions4 ,x is true t 7z already %[n7 ! process ( indirectly asc]ta9+ individual facts1 is z truly inductive z t by :i* we e/abli% g5]al tru?s4 ,b x is n a diff]5t k9d ( induction2 x is ano!r =m ( ! v same process3 s9ce1 on ! "o h&1 g5]als are b collections ( p>ticul>s1 def9ite 9 k9d b indef9ite 9 numb]2 & on ! o!r h&1 :5ev] ! evid5ce :i* we d]ive f obs]vation ( kn[n cases ju/ifies u 9 draw+ an inf]5ce respect+ ev5 "o unkn[n case1 we %\ld on ! same evid5ce be ju/ifi$ 9 draw+ a simil> inf]5ce ) respect to a :ole class ( cases4 ,! inf]5ce ei!r does n hold at all1 or x holds 9 all cases ( a c]ta9 description2 9 all cases :i*1 9 c]ta9 def9able respects1 resemble ^? we h obs]v$4 ,if ^! rem>ks are j2 if ! pr9ciples & rules ( inf]5ce are ! same :e!r we inf] g5]al propositions or individual facts2 x foll[s t a complete logic ( ! sci5ces w\ld be also a complete logic ( practical bus9ess & common life4 ,s9ce !re is no case ( legitimate inf]5ce f exp]i5ce1 9 :i* ! conclusion may n legitimately be a g5]al proposition2 an analysis ( ! process by :i* g5]al tru?s are arriv$ at1 is virtually an analysis ( all induction :atev]4 ,:e!r we are inquir+ into a sci5tific pr9ciple or into an individual fact1 & :e!r we proce$ by exp]im5t or by ratioc9ation1 e /ep 9 ! tra9 ( inf]5ces is ess5tially inductive1 & ! legitimacy ( ! induction dep5ds 9 bo? cases on ! same conditions4 ,true x is t 9 ! case ( ! practical inquir]1 :o is endeav\r+ to asc]ta9 facts n = ! purposes ( sci5ce b = ^? ( bus9ess1 su* = in/ance z ! advocate or ! judge1 ! *ief difficulty is "o 9 :i* ! pr9ciples ( induction w af=d him no assi/ance4 ,x lies n 9 mak+ 8 inductions b 9 ! selection ( !m2 9 *oos+ f among all g5]al propositions asc]ta9$ to be true1 ^? :i* furni% m>ks by :i* he may trace :e!r ! giv5 subject possesses or n ! pr$icate 9 "q4 ,9 argu+ a d\btful "q ( fact be=e a jury1 ! g5]al propositions or pr9ciples to :i* ! advocate appeals are mo/ly1 9 !mselves1 suffici5tly trite1 & ass5t$ to z soon z /at$3 8 skill lies 9 br++ 8 case "u ^? propositions or pr9ciples2 9 call+ to m9d su* ( ! kn[n or receiv$ maxims ( probability z admit ( application to ! case 9 h&1 & select+ f among !m ^? be/ adapt$ to 8 object4 ,success is "h dep5d5t on natural or acquir$ sagacity1 aid$ by k ( ! p>ticul> subject1 & ( subjects alli$ ) x4 ,inv5tion1 ?\gh x c be cultivat$1 _c be r$uc$ to rule2 !re is no sci5ce :i* w enable a man to be?9k himself ( t :i* w suit 8 purpose4 ,b :5 he has ?\ght ( some?+1 sci5ce c tell him :e!r t :i* he has ?\ght ( w suit 8 purpose or n4 ,! inquir] or argu] mu/ be guid$ by 8 own k & sagacity 9 ! *oice ( ! inductions out ( :i* he w con/ruct 8 argum5t4 ,b ! validity ( ! argum5t :5 con/ruct$1 dep5ds on pr9ciples & mu/ be tri$ by te/s :i* are ! same = all descriptions ( inquiries1 :e!r ! result be to give ,a an e/ate1 or to enri* sci5ce ) a new g5]al tru?4 ,9 ! "o case & 9 ! o!r1 ! s5ses1 or te/imony1 mu/ decide on ! individual facts2 ! rules ( ! syllogism w det]m9e :e!r1 ^? facts be+ suppos$ correct1 ! case really falls )9 ! =mul ( ! diff]5t inductions "u :i* x has be5 successively br\ght2 & f9ally1 ! legitimacy ( ! inductions !mselves mu/ be decid$ by o!r rules1 & ^! x is n[ our purpose to inve/igate4 ,if ?is ?ird "p ( ! op]ation be1 9 _m ( ! que/ions ( practical life1 n ! mo/1 b ! lea/ ardu\s portion ( x1 we h se5 t ?is is also ! case 9 "s great dep>tm5ts ( ! field ( sci5ce2 9 all ^? :i* are pr9cipally d$uctive1 & mo/ ( all 9 ma!matics2 :]e ! inductions !mselves are few 9 numb]1 & s obvi\s & elem5t>y t !y seem to /& 9 no ne$ ( ! evid5ce ( exp]i5ce1 :ile to comb9e !m s z to prove a giv5 !orem or solve a problem1 may call = ! utmo/ p[]s ( inv5tion & contrivance ) :i* our species is gift$4 ,if ! id5tity ( ! logical processes :i* prove p>ticul> facts & ^? :i* e/abli% g5]al sci5tific tru?s1 requir$ any additional confirmation1 x w\ld be suffici5t to consid] t 9 _m bran*es ( sci5ce1 s+le facts h to be prov$1 z well z pr9ciples2 facts z completely individual z any t are debat$ 9 a c\rt ( ju/ice2 b :i* are prov$ 9 ! same mann] z ! o!r tru?s ( ! sci5ce1 & )\t di/urb+ 9 any degree ! homog5eity ( its me?od4 ,a rem>kable example ( ?is is af=d$ by a/ronomy4 ,! individual facts on :i* t sci5ce gr\nds its mo/ important d$uctions1 su* facts z ! magnitudes ( ! bodies ( ! sol> sy/em1 _! di/ances f "o ano!r1 ! figure ( ! e>?1 & its rotation1 are sc>cely any ( !m accessible to our means ( direct obs]vation3 !y are prov$ indirectly1 by ! aid ( inductions f\nd$ on o!r facts :i* we c m easily rea*4 ,= example1 ! di/ance ( ! moon f ! e>? 0 det]m9$ by a v circuit\s process4 ,! %>e :i* direct obs]vation _h 9 ! "w consi/$ 9 asc]ta9+1 at "o & ! same in/ant1 ! z5i? di/ances ( ! moon1 z se5 f two po9ts v remote f "o ano!r on ! e>?'s surface4 ,! asc]ta9m5t ( ^! angul> di/ances asc]ta9$ _! supplem5ts2 & s9ce ! angle at ! e>?'s c5tre subt5d$ by ! di/ance betwe5 ! two places ( obs]vation 0 d$ucible by sph]ical trigonometry f ! latitude & longitude ( ^? places1 ! angle at ! moon subt5d$ by ! same l9e became ! f\r? angle ( a quadrilat]al ( :i* ! o!r ?ree angles 7 kn[n4 ,! f\r angles be+ ?us asc]ta9$1 & two sides ( ! quadrilat]al be+ radii ( ! e>?2 ! two rema9+ sides & ! diagonal1 or 9 o!r words1 ! moon's di/ance f ! two places ( obs]vation & f ! c5tre ( ! e>?1 c\ld be asc]ta9$1 at lea/ 9 t]ms ( ! e>?'s radius1 f elem5t>y !orems ( geometry4 ,at ea* /ep 9 ?is demon/ration we take 9 a new induction1 repres5t$1 9 ! aggregate ( its results1 by a g5]al proposition4 ,n only is ! process by :i* an individual a/ronomical fact 0 ?us asc]ta9$1 exactly simil> to ^? by :i* ! same sci5ce e/abli%es its g5]al tru?s1 b also 7z we h %[n to be ! case 9 all legitimate reason+7 a g5]al proposition might h be5 conclud$ in/ead ( a s+le fact4 ,9 /rictness1 inde$1 ! result ( ! reason+ is a g5]al proposition2 a !orem respect+ ! di/ance1 n ( ! moon 9 p>ticul>1 b ( any inaccessible object2 %[+ 9 :at relation t di/ance /&s to c]ta9 o!r quantities4 ,& al?\gh ! moon is almo/ ! only heav5ly body ! di/ance ( :i* f ! e>? c really be ?us asc]ta9$1 ?is is m]ely ow+ to ! accid5tal circum/ances ( ! o!r heav5ly bodies1 :i* r5d] !m incapable ( af=d+ su* data z ! application ( ! !orem requires2 = ! !orem itself is z true ( !m z x is ( ! moon47#ec7 ,we %all fall into no error1 !n1 if 9 treat+ ( ,induction1 we limit our att5tion to ! e/abli%m5t ( g5]al propositions4 ,! pr9ciples & rules ( ,induction1 z direct$ to ?is end1 are ! pr9ciples & rules ( all ,induction2 & ! logic ( ,sci5ce is ! univ]sal ,logic1 applicable to all inquiries 9 :i* man c engage4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,( ,,inductions ,,improp]ly ,,s ,,call$4 #a4 ,induction1 !n1 is t op]ation ( ! m9d1 by :i* we inf] t :at we "k to be true 9 a p>ticul> case or cases1 w be true 9 all cases :i* resemble ! =m] 9 c]ta9 assignable respects4 ,9 o!r words1 ,induction is ! process by :i* we conclude t :at is true ( c]ta9 individuals ( a class is true ( ! :ole class1 or t :at is true at c]ta9 times w be true 9 simil> circum/ances at all times4 ,?is def9ition excludes f ! mean+ ( ! t]m ,induction1 v>i\s logical op]ations1 to :i* x is n unusual to apply t "n4 ,induction1 z above def9$1 is a process ( inf]5ce2 x proce$s f ! kn[n to ! unkn[n2 & any op]ation involv+ no inf]5ce1 any process 9 :i* :at seems ! conclusion is no wid] ?an ! premisses f :i* x is drawn1 does n fall )9 ! mean+ ( ! t]m4 ,yet 9 ! common books ( ,logic we f9d ?is laid d[n z ! mo/ p]fect1 inde$ ! only q p]fect1 =m ( induction4 ,9 ^? books1 e process :i* sets out f a less g5]al & t]m9ates 9 a m g5]al expression1--:i* admits ( be+ /at$ 9 ! =m1 8,?is & t ,a are ,b1 !re=e e ,a is ,b10--is call$ an induction1 :e!r any?+ be really conclud$ or n2 & ! induction is ass]t$ to be n p]fect1 unless e s+le individual ( ! class ,a is includ$ 9 ! antec$5t1 or premiss3 t is1 unless :at we affirm ( ! class has already be5 asc]ta9$ to be true ( e individual 9 x1 s t ! nom9al conclusion is n really a conclusion1 b a m]e reass]tion ( ! premisses4 ,if we 7 to say1 ,all ! planets %9e by ! sun's light1 f obs]vation ( ea* sep>ate planet1 or ,all ! ,apo/les 7 ,jews1 because ?is is true ( ,pet]1 ,paul1 ,john1 & e o!r apo/le1--^!1 & su* z ^!1 w\ld1 9 ! phraseology 9 "q1 be call$ p]fect1 & ! only p]fect1 ,inductions4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is a totally diff]5t k9d ( induction f ours2 x is no inf]5ce f facts kn[n to facts unkn[n1 b a m]e %ort-h& regi/ration ( facts kn[n4 ,! two simulat$ argum5ts :i* we h quot$1 are n g5]alizations2 ! propositions purport+ to be conclusions f !m1 are n really g5]al propositions4 ,a g5]al proposition is "o 9 :i* ! pr$icate is affirm$ or d5i$ ( an unlimit$ numb] ( individuals2 namely1 all1 :e!r few or _m1 exi/+ or capable ( exi/+1 :i* possess ! prop]ties connot$ by ! subject ( ! proposition4 8,all m5 are mortal0 does n mean all n[ liv+1 b all m5 pa/1 pres5t1 & to come4 ,:5 ! signification ( ! t]m is limit$ s z to r5d] x a "n n = any & e individual fall+ "u a c]ta9 g5]al description1 b only = ea* ( a numb] ( individuals designat$ z su*1 & z x 7 c\nt$ (f individually1 ! proposition1 ?\gh x may be g5]al 9 its language1 is no g5]al proposition1 b m]ely t numb] ( s+ul> propositions1 writt5 9 an abridg$ "*4 ,! op]ation may be v useful1 z mo/ =ms ( abridg$ notation are2 b x is no "p ( ! inve/igation ( tru?1 ?\gh (t5 be>+ an important "p 9 ! prep>ation ( ! mat]ials = t inve/igation4 #b4 ,a second process :i* requires to be di/+ui%$ f ,induction1 is "o to :i* ma!maticians sometimes give t "n3 & :i* s f> resembles ,induction prop]ly s call$1 t ! propositions x leads to are really g5]al propositions4 ,= example1 :5 we h prov$ ) respect to ! circle1 t a /raight l9e _c meet x 9 m ?an two po9ts1 & :5 ! same ?+ has be5 successively prov$ ( ! ellipse1 ! p>abola1 & ! hyp]bola1 x may be laid d[n z an univ]sal prop]ty ( ! sections ( ! cone4 ,9 ?is example !re is no induction1 because !re is no inf]5ce3 ! conclusion is a m]e summ+ up ( :at 0 ass]t$ 9 ! v>i\s propositions f :i* x is drawn4 ,a case some:at1 ?\gh n altoge!r1 simil>1 is ! pro( ( a geometrical !orem by means ( a diagram4 ,:e!r ! diagram be on pap] or only 9 ! imag9ation1 ! demon/ration 7z =m]ly obs]v$7#ed77 does n prove directly ! g5]al !orem2 x proves only t ! conclusion1 :i* ! !orem ass]ts g5]ally1 is true ( ! p>ticul> triangle or circle exhibit$ 9 ! diagram2 b s9ce we p]ceive t 9 ! same way 9 :i* we h prov$ x ( t circle1 x might also be prov$ ( any o!r circle1 we ga!r up into "o g5]al expression all ! s+ul> propositions susceptible ( be+ ?us prov$1 & embody !m 9 an univ]sal proposition4 ,hav+ %[n t ! ?ree angles ( ! triangle ,,abc are toge!r equal to two "r angles1 we conclude t ?is is true ( e o!r triangle1 n because x is true ( ,,abc1 b = ! same reason :i* prov$ x to be true ( ,,abc4 ,if ?is 7 to be call$ ,induction1 an appropriate "n = x w\ld be1 induction by p>ity ( reason+4 ,b ! t]m _c prop]ly belong to x2 ! *>act]i/ic quality ( ,induction is want+1 s9ce ! tru? obta9$1 ?\gh really g5]al1 is n believ$ on ! evid5ce ( p>ticul> in/ances4 ,we d n conclude t all triangles h ! prop]ty because "s triangles h1 b f ! ult]ior demon/rative evid5ce :i* 0 ! gr\nd ( our conviction 9 ! p>ticul> in/ances4 ,!re are nev]!less1 9 ma!matics1 "s examples ( s-call$ induction1 9 :i* ! conclusion does be> ! appe>ance ( a g5]alization gr\nd$ on "s ( ! p>ticul> cases includ$ 9 x4 ,a ma!matician1 :5 he has calculat$ a suffici5t numb] ( ! t]ms ( an algebraical or ari?metical s]ies to h asc]ta9$ :at is call$ ! law ( ! s]ies1 does n hesitate to fill up any numb] ( ! succe$+ t]ms )\t repeat+ ! calculations4 ,b ,i appreh5d he only does s :5 x is app>5t f priori consid]ations 7:i* might be exhibit$ 9 ! =m ( demon/ration7 t ! mode ( =mation ( ! subsequ5t t]ms1 ea* f t :i* prec$$ x1 mu/ be simil> to ! =mation ( ! t]ms :i* h be5 already calculat$4 ,& :5 ! attempt has be5 haz>d$ )\t ! sanction ( su* g5]al consid]ations1 !re are in/ances on record 9 :i* x has l$ to false results4 ,x is said t ,newton discov]$ ! b9omial !orem by induction2 by rais+ a b9omial successively to a c]ta9 numb] ( p[]s1 & comp>+ ^? p[]s ) "o ano!r until he detect$ ! relation 9 :i* ! algebraic =mula ( ea* p[] /&s to ! expon5t ( t p[]1 & to ! two t]ms ( ! b9omial4 ,! fact is n improbable3 b a ma!matician l ,newton1 :o seem$ to arrive p] saltum at pr9ciples & conclusions t ord9>y ma!maticians only rea*$ by a succession ( /eps1 c]ta9ly c\ld n h p]=m$ ! comp>ison 9 "q )\t be+ l$ by x to ! priori gr\nd ( ! law2 s9ce any "o :o und]/&s suffici5tly ! nature ( multiplication to v5ture ^u multiply+ sev]al l9es ( symbols at "o op]ation1 _c b p]ceive t 9 rais+ a b9omial to a p[]1 ! coeffici5ts mu/ dep5d on ! laws ( p]mutation & comb9ation3 & z soon z ?is is recognis$1 ! !orem is demon/rat$4 ,inde$1 :5 once x 0 se5 t ! law prevail$ 9 a few ( ! l[] p[]s1 its id5tity ) ! law ( p]mutation w\ld at once sugge/ ! consid]ations :i* prove x to obta9 univ]sally4 ,ev51 !re=e1 su* cases z ^!1 are b examples ( :at ,i h call$ induction by p>ity ( reason+1 t is1 n really induction1 because n involv+ inf]5ce ( a g5]al proposition f p>ticul> in/ances4 #c4 ,!re rema9s a ?ird improp] use ( ! t]m ,induction1 :i* x is ( real importance to cle> up1 because ! !ory ( induction has be51 9 no ord9>y degree1 confus$ by x1 & because ! confusion is exemplifi$ 9 ! mo/ rec5t & mo/ elaborate treatise on ! inductive philosophy :i* exi/s 9 our language4 ,! error 9 "q is t ( conf\nd+ a m]e description ( a set ( obs]v$ ph5om5a1 ) an induction f !m4 ,suppose t a ph5om5on consi/s ( p>ts1 & t ^! p>ts are only capable ( be+ obs]v$ sep>ately1 & z x 7 piecemeal4 ,:5 ! obs]vations h be5 made1 !re is a conv5i5ce 7am\nt+ = _m purposes to a necessity7 9 obta9+ a repres5tation ( ! ph5om5on z a :ole1 by comb9+1 or z we may say1 piec+ ^! deta*$ fragm5ts toge!r4 ,a navigator sail+ 9 ! mid/ ( ! ocean discov]s l&3 he _c at fir/1 or by any "o obs]vation1 det]m9e :e!r x is a cont95t or an isl&2 b he coa/s along x1 & aft] a few days f9ds himself to h sail$ completely r\nd x3 he !n pron\nces x an isl&4 ,n[ !re 0 no p>ticul> "t or place ( obs]vation at :i* he c\ld p]ceive t ?is l& 0 entirely surr\nd$ by wat]3 he asc]ta9$ ! fact by a succession ( p>tial obs]vations1 & !n select$ a g5]al expression :i* summ$ up 9 two or ?ree words ! :ole ( :at he s obs]v$4 ,b is !re any?+ ( ! nature ( an induction 9 ?is process8 ,did he inf] any?+ t _h n be5 obs]v$1 f some?+ else :i* _h8 ,c]ta9ly n4 ,he _h obs]v$ ! :ole ( :at ! proposition ass]ts4 ,t ! l& 9 "q is an isl&1 is n an inf]5ce f ! p>tial facts :i* ! navigator saw 9 ! c\rse ( 8 circumnavigation2 x is ! facts !mselves2 x is a summ>y ( ^? facts2 ! description ( a complex fact1 to :i* ^? simpl] ones are z ! p>ts ( a :ole4 ,n[ !re is1 ,i conceive1 no diff]5ce 9 k9d betwe5 ?is simple op]ation1 & t by :i* ,kepl] asc]ta9$ ! nature ( ! planet>y orbits3 & ,kepl]'s op]ation1 all at lea/ t 0 *>act]i/ic 9 x1 0 n m an inductive act ?an t ( our suppos$ navigator4 ,! object ( ,kepl] 0 to det]m9e ! real pa? describ$ by ea* ( ! planets1 or let u say by ! planet ,m>s1 7= x 0 ( t body t he fir/ e/abli%$ two ( ! ?ree great a/ronomical tru?s :i* be> 8 "n47 ,to d ?is !re 0 no o!r mode ?an t ( direct obs]vation3 & all :i* obs]vation c\ld d 0 to asc]ta9 a great numb] ( ! successive places ( ! planet2 or r1 ( its app>5t places4 ,t ! planet occupi$ successively all ^! positions1 or at all ev5ts1 positions :i* produc$ ! same impressions on ! eye1 & t x pass$ f "o ( ^! to ano!r ins5sibly1 & )\t any app>5t brea* ( cont9uity2 ?us mu* ! s5ses1 ) ! aid ( ! prop] in/rum5ts1 c\ld asc]ta94 ,:at ,kepl] did m ?an ?is1 0 to f9d :at sort ( a curve ^! diff]5t po9ts w\ld make1 suppos+ !m to be all jo9$ toge!r4 ,he express$ ! :ole s]ies ( ! obs]v$ places ( ,m>s by :at ,dr4 ,:ewell calls ! g5]al conception ( an ellipse4 ,?is op]ation 0 f> f be+ z easy z t ( ! navigator :o express$ ! s]ies ( 8 obs]vations on successive po9ts ( ! coa/ by ! g5]al conception ( an isl&4 ,b x is ! v same sort ( op]ation2 & if ! "o is n an induction b a description1 ?is mu/ also be true ( ! o!r4 ,to avoid misappreh5sion1 we mu/ rem>k t ,kepl]1 9 "o respect1 p]=m$ a real act ( induction2 namely1 9 conclud+ t because ! obs]v$ places ( ,m>s 7 correctly repres5t$ by po9ts 9 an imag9>y ellipse1 !re=e ,m>s w\ld cont9ue to revolve 9 t same ellipse2 & ev5 9 conclud+ t ! position ( ! planet dur+ ! "t :i* int]v5$ betwe5 two obs]vations1 mu/ h co9cid$ ) ! int]m$iate po9ts ( ! curve4 ,b ?is really inductive op]ation requires to be c>efully di/+ui%$ f ! m]e act ( br++ ! facts actually obs]v$ "u a g5]al description4 ,s di/9ct are ^! two op]ations1 t ! "o might h be5 p]=m$ )\t ! o!r4 ,m5 might & did make correct inductions conc]n+ ! heav5ly motions1 be=e !y _h obta9$ correct g5]al descriptions ( !m4 ,x 0 kn[n t ! planets always mov$ 9 ! same pa?s1 long be=e x _h be5 asc]ta9$ t ^? pa?s 7 ellipses4 ,a/ronom]s e>ly rem>k$ t ! same set ( app>5t positions return$ p]iodically4 ,:5 !y obta9$ a new description ( ! ph5om5on1 !y did n necess>ily make any fur!r induction1 nor 7:i* is ! true te/ ( a new g5]al tru?7 add any?+ to ! p[] ( pr$iction :i* !y already possess$4 #d4 ,! descriptive op]ation :i* enables a numb] ( details to be summ$ up 9 a s+le proposition1 ,dr4 ,:ewell1 by an aptly *os5 expression1 has t]m$ ! ,colligation ( ,facts47#ee7 ,9 mo/ ( 8 obs]vations conc]n+ t m5tal process ,i fully agree1 & w\ld gladly transf] all t portion ( 8 book into my own pages4 ,i only ?9k him mi/ak5 9 sett+ up ?is k9d ( op]ation1 :i* accord+ to ! old & receiv$ mean+ ( ! t]m1 is n induction at all1 z ! type ( induction g5]ally2 & lay+ d[n1 ?r\gh\t 8 "w1 z pr9ciples ( induction1 ! pr9ciples ( m]e colligation4 ,dr4 ,:ewell ma9ta9s t ! g5]al proposition :i* b9ds toge!r ! p>ticul> facts1 & makes !m1 z x 71 "o fact1 is n ! m]e sum ( ^? facts1 b some?+ m1 s9ce !re is introduc$ a conception ( ! m9d1 :i* did n exi/ 9 ! facts !mselves4 8,! p>ticul> facts10 says he17#ef7 8are n m]ely br\ght toge!r1 b !re is a new elem5t add$ to ! comb9ation by ! v act ( ?\ght by :i* !y are comb9$4444 ,:5 ! ,greeks1 aft] long obs]v+ ! motions ( ! planets1 saw t ^! motions might be rightly consid]$ z produc$ by ! motion ( "o :eel revolv+ 9 ! inside ( ano!r :eel1 ^! :eels 7 creations ( _! m9ds1 add$ to ! facts :i* !y p]ceiv$ by s5se4 ,& ev5 if ! :eels 7 no long] suppos$ to be mat]ial1 b 7 r$uc$ to m]e geometrical sph]es or circles1 !y 7 n ! less products ( ! m9d alone1--some?+ additional to ! facts obs]v$4 ,! same is ! case 9 all o!r discov]ies4 ,! facts are kn[n1 b !y are insulat$ & unconnect$1 till ! discov]] supplies f 8 own /ore a pr9ciple ( connexion4 ,! pe>ls are !re1 b !y w n hang toge!r till "s "o provides ! /r+40 ,t a conception ( ! m9d is introduc$ is inde$ und5iable1 & ,i will+ly conc$e1 t to hit ^u ! "r conception is (t5 a f> m difficult & m m]itori\s a*ievem5t1 ?an to prove its applicability :5 obta9$4 ,b a conception implies1 & corresponds to1 some?+ conceiv$3 & ?\gh ! conception itself is n 9 ! facts1 b 9 our m9d1 x mu/ be a conception ( some?+ :i* really is 9 ! facts1 "s prop]ty :i* !y actually possess1 & :i* !y w\ld manife/ to our s5ses1 if our s5ses 7 able to take cognizance ( !m4 ,if1 = in/ance1 ! planet left beh9d x 9 space a visible track1 & if ! obs]v] 7 9 a fix$ position at su* a di/ance above ! plane ( ! orbit z w\ld enable him to see ! :ole ( x at once1 he w\ld see x to be an ellipse2 & if gift$ ) appropriate in/rum5ts1 & p[]s ( locomotion1 he c\ld prove x to be su* by measur+ its diff]5t dim5sions4 ,^! ?+s are inde$ impossible to u1 b n impossible 9 !mselves2 if !y 7 s1 ,kepl]'s law c\ld n be true4 ,subject to ! indisp5sable condition :i* has j be5 /at$1 ,i _c p]ceive t ! "p :i* conceptions h 9 ! op]ation ( /udy+ facts1 has ev] be5 ov]look$ or und]valu$4 ,no "o ev] disput$ t 9 ord] to reason ab\t any?+ we mu/ h a conception ( x2 or t :5 we include a multitude ( ?+s "u a g5]al expression1 !re is impli$ 9 ! expression a conception ( some?+ common to ^? ?+s4 ,b x by no means foll[s t ! conception is necess>ily pre-exi/5t1 or con/ruct$ by ! m9d out ( its own mat]ials4 ,if ! facts are rightly class$ "u ! conception1 x is because !re is 9 ! facts !mselves some?+ ( :i* ! conception is itself a copy2 & :i* if we _c directly p]ceive1 x is because ( ! limit$ p[] ( our organs1 & n because ! ?+ itself is n !re4 ,! conception itself is (t5 obta9$ by ab/raction f ! v facts :i*1 9 ,dr4 ,:ewell's language1 x is aft]w>ds call$ 9 to connect4 ,?is he himself admits1 :5 he obs]ves1 7:i* he does on sev]al occasions17 h[ great a s]vice w\ld be r5d]$ to ! sci5ce ( physiology by ! philosoph] 8:o %\ld e/abli% a precise1 t5able1 & consi/5t conception ( life407#eg7 ,su* a conception c only be ab/ract$ f ! ph5om5a ( life itself2 f ! v facts :i* x is put 9 requisition to connect4 ,9 o!r cases 7no d\bt7 in/ead ( collect+ ! conception f ! v ph5om5a :i* we are attempt+ to colligate1 we select x f among ^? :i* h be5 previ\sly collect$ by ab/raction f o!r facts4 ,9 ! in/ance ( ,kepl]'s laws1 ! latt] 0 ! case4 ,! facts be+ out ( ! rea* ( be+ obs]v$1 9 any su* mann] z w\ld h enabl$ ! s5ses to id5tify directly ! pa? ( ! planet1 ! conception requisite = fram+ a g5]al description ( t pa? c\ld n be collect$ by ab/raction f ! obs]vations !mselves2 ! m9d _h to supply hypo!tically1 f among ! conceptions x _h obta9$ f o!r portions ( its exp]i5ce1 "s "o :i* w\ld correctly repres5t ! s]ies ( ! obs]v$ facts4 ,x _h to frame a supposition respect+ ! g5]al c\rse ( ! ph5om5on1 & ask itself1 ,if ?is be ! g5]al description1 :at w ! details be8 & !n comp>e ^! ) ! details actually obs]v$4 ,if !y agre$1 ! hypo!sis w\ld s]ve = a description ( ! ph5om5on3 if n1 x 0 necess>ily ab&on$1 & ano!r tri$4 ,x is su* a case z ?is :i* gives rise to ! doctr9e t ! m9d1 9 fram+ ! descriptions1 adds some?+ ( its own :i* x does n f9d 9 ! facts4 ,yet x is a fact surely1 t ! planet does describe an ellipse2 & a fact :i* we c\ld see1 if we _h adequate visual organs & a suitable position4 ,n hav+ ^! advantages1 b possess+ ! conception ( an ellipse1 or 7to express ! mean+ 9 less te*nical language7 kn[+ :at an ellipse 01 ,kepl] tri$ :e!r ! obs]v$ places ( ! planet 7 consi/5t ) su* a pa?4 ,he f\nd !y 7 s2 & he1 consequ5tly1 ass]t$ z a fact t ! planet mov$ 9 an ellipse4 ,b ?is fact1 :i* ,kepl] did n add to1 b f\nd 91 ! motions ( ! planet1 namely1 t x occupi$ 9 succession ! v>i\s po9ts 9 ! circumf]5ce ( a giv5 ellipse1 0 ! v fact1 ! sep>ate p>ts ( :i* _h be5 sep>ately obs]v$2 x 0 ! sum ( ! diff]5t obs]vations4 ,hav+ /at$ ?is fundam5tal diff]5ce betwe5 my op9ion & t ( ,dr4 ,:ewell1 ,i mu/ add1 t 8 acc\nt ( ! mann] 9 :i* a conception is select$1 suitable to express ! facts1 appe>s to me p]fectly j4 ,! exp]i5ce ( all ?9k]s w1 ,i believe1 te/ify t ! process is t5tative2 t x consi/s ( a succession ( guesses2 _m be+ reject$1 until "o at la/ occurs fit to be *os54 ,we "k f ,kepl] himself t be=e hitt+ ^u ! 8conception0 ( an ellipse1 he tri$ n9ete5 o!r imag9>y pa?s1 :i*1 f9d+ !m inconsi/5t ) ! obs]vations1 he 0 oblig$ to reject4 ,b z ,dr4 ,:ewell truly says1 ! successful hypo!sis1 ?\gh a guess1 ought g5]ally to be call$1 n a lucky1 b a skilful guess4 ,! guesses :i* s]ve to give m5tal unity & :ol5ess to a *aos ( scatt]$ p>ticul>s1 are accid5ts :i* r>ely occur to any m9ds b ^? ab\nd+ 9 k & discipl9$ 9 intellectual comb9ations4 ,h[ f> ?is t5tative me?od1 s indisp5sable z a means to ! colligation ( facts = purposes ( description1 admits ( application to ,induction itself1 & :at functions belong to x 9 t dep>tm5t1 w be consid]$ 9 ! *apt] ( ! pres5t ,book :i* relates to ,hypo!ses4 ,on ! pres5t occasion we h *iefly to di/+ui% ?is process ( ,colligation f ,induction prop]ly s call$3 & t ! di/9ction may be made cle>]1 x is well to adv]t to a curi\s & int]e/+ rem>k1 :i* is z /rik+ly true ( ! =m] op]ation1 z x appe>s to me unequivocally false ( ! latt]4 ,9 diff]5t /ages ( ! progress ( k1 philosoph]s h employ$1 = ! colligation ( ! same ord] ( facts1 diff]5t conceptions4 ,! e>ly rude obs]vations ( ! heav5ly bodies1 9 :i* m9ute precision 0 nei!r atta9$ nor s\ght1 pres5t$ no?+ inconsi/5t ) ! repres5tation ( ! pa? ( a planet z an exact circle1 hav+ ! e>? = its c5tre4 ,z obs]vations increas$ 9 accuracy1 & facts 7 disclos$ :i* 7 n reconcileable ) ?is simple supposition2 = ! colligation ( ^? additional facts1 ! supposition 0 v>i$2 & v>i$ aga9 & aga9 z facts became m num]\s & precise4 ,! e>? 0 remov$ f ! c5tre to "s o!r po9t )9 ! circle2 ! planet 0 suppos$ to revolve 9 a small] circle call$ an epicycle1 r\nd an imag9>y po9t :i* revolv$ 9 a circle r\nd ! e>?3 9 proportion z obs]vation elicit$ fre% facts contradictory to ^! repres5tations1 o!r epicycles & o!r exc5trics 7 add$1 produc+ additional complication2 until at la/ ,kepl] swept all ^! circles away1 & sub/itut$ ! conception ( an exact ellipse4 ,ev5 ?is is f\nd n to repres5t ) complete correctness ! accurate obs]vations ( ! pres5t day1 :i* disclose _m slight deviations f an orbit exactly elliptical4 ,n[ ,dr4 ,:ewell has rem>k$ t ^! successive g5]al expressions1 ?\gh app>5tly s conflict+1 7 all correct3 !y all answ]$ ! purpose ( colligation3 !y all enabl$ ! m9d to repres5t to itself ) facility1 & by a simultane\s glance1 ! :ole body ( facts at t "t asc]ta9$2 ea* 9 its turn s]v$ z a correct description ( ! ph5om5a1 s f> z ! s5ses _h up to t "t tak5 cognizance ( !m4 ,if a necessity aft]w>ds arose = disc>d+ "o ( ^! g5]al descriptions ( ! planet's orbit1 & fram+ a diff]5t imag9>y l9e1 by :i* to express ! s]ies ( obs]v$ positions1 x 0 because a numb] ( new facts _h n[ be5 add$1 :i* x 0 necess>y to comb9e ) ! old facts into "o g5]al description4 ,b ?is did n affect ! correctness ( ! =m] expression1 consid]$ z a g5]al /atem5t ( ! only facts :i* x 0 int5d$ to repres5t4 ,& s true is ?is1 t1 z is well rem>k$ by ,m4 ,comte1 ^! anci5t g5]alizations1 ev5 ! rude/ & mo/ imp]fect ( !m1 t ( uni=m movem5t 9 a circle1 are s f> f be+ entirely false1 t !y are ev5 n[ habitually employ$ by a/ronom]s :5 only a r\gh approximation to correctness is requir$4 8,l'a/ronomie mod]ne1 en dtruisant sans ret\r les hypo?ses primitives1 envisages comme lois relles du monde1 a soigneusem5t ma9t5u leur valeur positive et p]man5te1 la proprit de reprs5t] commodm5t les phnomnes qu& il s'agit d'une premire bau*e4 ,nos ress\rces cet g>d sont mme bi5 plus t5dues1 precism5t cause que n\s ne n\s faisons aucune illusion sur la ralit des hypo?ses2 ce qui n\s p]met d'employ] sans scrupule1 en *aque cas1 celle que n\s jugeons la plus avantageuse407#eh7 ,dr4 ,:ewell's rem>k1 !re=e1 is philosophically correct4 ,successive expressions = ! colligation ( obs]v$ facts1 or1 9 o!r words1 successive descriptions ( a ph5om5on z a :ole1 :i* has be5 obs]v$ only 9 p>ts1 may1 ?\gh conflict+1 be all correct z f> z !y g4 ,b x w\ld surely be absurd to ass]t ?is ( conflict+ inductions4 ,! sci5tific /udy ( facts may be und]tak5 = ?ree diff]5t purposes3 ! simple description ( ! facts2 _! explanation2 or _! pr$iction3 mean+ by pr$iction1 ! det]m9ation ( ! conditions "u :i* simil> facts may be expect$ aga9 to occur4 ,to ! fir/ ( ^! ?ree op]ations ! "n ( ,induction does n prop]ly belong3 to ! o!r two x does4 ,n[1 ,dr4 ,:ewell's obs]vation is true ( ! fir/ alone4 ,consid]$ z a m]e description1 ! circul> !ory ( ! heav5ly motions repres5ts p]fectly well _! g5]al features3 & by add+ epicycles )\t limit1 ^? motions1 ev5 z n[ kn[n to u1 might be express$ ) any degree ( accuracy t might be requir$4 ,! elliptical !ory1 z a m]e description1 w\ld h a great advantage 9 po9t ( simplicity1 & 9 ! consequ5t facility ( conceiv+ x & reason+ ab\t x2 b x w\ld n really be m true ?an ! o!r4 ,diff]5t descriptions1 !re=e1 may be all true3 b n1 surely1 diff]5t explanations4 ,! doctr9e t ! heav5ly bodies mov$ by a virtue inh]5t 9 _! cele/ial nature2 ! doctr9e t !y 7 mov$ by impact1 7:i* l$ to ! hypo!sis ( vortices z ! only impell+ =ce capable ( :irl+ bodies 9 circles17 & ! ,newtonian doctr9e1 t !y are mov$ by ! composition ( a c5tripetal ) an orig9al projectile =ce2 all ^! are explanations1 collect$ by real induction f suppos$ p>allel cases2 & !y 7 all successively receiv$ by philosoph]s1 z sci5tific tru?s on ! subject ( ! heav5ly bodies4 ,c x be said ( ^!1 z 0 said ( ! diff]5t descriptions1 t !y are all true z f> z !y g8 ,is x n cle> t "o only c be true 9 any degree1 & ! o!r two mu/ be altoge!r false8 ,s mu* = explanations3 let u n[ comp>e diff]5t pr$ictions3 ! fir/1 t eclipses w occur :5ev] "o planet or satellite is s situat$ z to ca/ its %ad[ ^u ano!r2 ! second1 t !y w occur :5ev] "s great calamity is imp5d+ ov] mank9d4 ,d ^! two doctr9es only diff] 9 ! degree ( _! tru?1 z express+ real facts ) unequal degrees ( accuracy8 ,assur$ly ! "o is true1 & ! o!r absolutely false47#ei7 ,9 e way1 !re=e1 x is evid5t t to expla9 induction z ! colligation ( facts by means ( appropriate conceptions1 t is1 conceptions :i* w really express !m1 is to conf\nd m]e description ( ! obs]v$ facts ) inf]5ce f ^? facts1 & ascribe to ! latt] :at is a *>act]i/ic prop]ty ( ! =m]4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 betwe5 ,colligation & ,induction1 a real correlation1 :i* x is important to conceive correctly4 ,colligation is n always induction2 b induction is always colligation4 ,! ass]tion t ! planets move 9 ellipses1 0 b a mode ( repres5t+ obs]v$ facts2 x 0 b a colligation2 :ile ! ass]tion t !y are drawn1 or t5d1 t[>ds ! sun1 0 ! /atem5t ( a new fact1 inf]r$ by induction4 ,b ! induction1 once made1 accompli%es ! purposes ( colligation likewise4 ,x br+s ! same facts1 :i* ,kepl] _h connect$ by 8 conception ( an ellipse1 "u ! additional conception ( bodies act$ ^u by a c5tral =ce1 & s]ves !re=e z a new bond ( connexion = ^? facts2 a new pr9ciple = _! classification4 ,fur!r1 t g5]al description1 :i* is improp]ly conf\nd$ ) induction1 is nev]!less a necess>y prep>ation = induction2 no less necess>y ?an correct obs]vation ( ! facts !mselves4 ,)\t ! previ\s colligation ( deta*$ obs]vations by means ( "o g5]al conception1 we c\ld nev] h obta9$ any basis = an induction1 except 9 ! case ( ph5om5a ( v limit$ compass4 ,we %\ld n be able to affirm any pr$icates at all1 ( a subject incapable ( be+ obs]v$ o!rwise ?an piecemeal3 mu* less c\ld we ext5d ^? pr$icates by induction to o!r simil> subjects4 ,induction1 !re=e1 always presupposes1 n only t ! necess>y obs]vations are made ) ! necess>y accuracy1 b also t ! results ( ^! obs]vations are1 s f> z practicable1 connect$ toge!r by g5]al descriptions1 enabl+ ! m9d to repres5t to itself z :oles :atev] ph5om5a are capable ( be+ s repres5t$4 #e4 ,dr4 ,:ewell has repli$ at "s l5g? to ! prec$+ obs]vations1 re-/at+ 8 op9ions1 b )\t 7z f> z ,i c p]ceive7 add+ any?+ to 8 =m] argum5ts4 ,s9ce1 h[ev]1 m9e h n _h ! good =tune to make any impression ^u him1 ,i w subjo9 a few rem>ks1 t5d+ to %ew m cle>ly 9 :at our diff]5ce ( op9ion consi/s1 z well z1 9 "s measure1 to acc\nt = x4 ,all ! def9itions ( induction1 by writ]s ( au?ority1 make x consi/ 9 draw+ inf]5ces f kn[n cases to unkn[n2 affirm+ ( a class1 a pr$icate :i* has be5 f\nd true ( "s cases belong+ to ! class2 conclud+1 because "s ?+s h a c]ta9 prop]ty1 t o!r ?+s :i* resemble !m h ! same prop]ty--or because a ?+ has manife/$ a prop]ty at a c]ta9 "t1 t x has & w h t prop]ty at o!r times4 ,x w sc>cely be cont5d$ t ,kepl]'s op]ation 0 an ,induction 9 ?is s5se ( ! t]m4 ,! /atem5t1 t ,m>s moves 9 an elliptical orbit1 0 no g5]alization f individual cases to a class ( cases4 ,nei!r 0 x an ext5sion to all "t1 ( :at _h be5 f\nd true at "s p>ticul> "t4 ,! :ole am\nt ( g5]alization :i* ! case admitt$ (1 0 already complet$1 or might h be5 s4 ,long be=e ! elliptic !ory 0 ?\ght (1 x _h be5 asc]ta9$ t ! planets return$ p]iodically to ! same app>5t places2 ! s]ies ( ^! places 01 or might h be51 completely det]m9$1 & ! app>5t c\rse ( ea* planet m>k$ out on ! cele/ial globe 9 an un9t]rupt$ l9e4 ,kepl] did n ext5d an obs]v$ tru? to o!r cases ?an ^? 9 :i* x _h be5 obs]v$3 he did n wid5 ! subject ( ! proposition :i* express$ ! obs]v$ facts4 ,he left ! subject z x 02 ! alt]ation he made 0 9 ! pr$icate4 ,in/ead ( say+1 ! successive places ( ,m>s are s & s1 he summ$ !m up 9 ! /atem5t1 t ! successive places ( ,m>s are po9ts 9 an ellipse4 ,x is true1 ?is /atem5t1 z ,dr4 ,:ewell says1 0 n ! sum ( ! obs]vations m]ely2 x 0 ! sum ( ! obs]vations se5 "u a new po9t ( view47#fj7 ,b x 0 n ! sum ( m ?an ! obs]vations1 z a real induction is4 ,x took 9 no cases b ^? :i* _h be5 actually obs]v$1 or :i* c\ld h be5 inf]r$ f ! obs]vations be=e ! new po9t ( view pres5t$ itself4 ,!re 0 n t transition f kn[n cases to unkn[n1 :i* con/itutes ,induction 9 ! orig9al & ackn[l$g$ mean+ ( ! t]m4 ,old def9itions1 x is true1 _c prevail aga9/ new k3 & if ! ,kepl]ian op]ation1 z a logical process1 7 really id5tical ) :at takes place 9 ackn[l$g$ induction1 ! def9ition ( induction ought to be s wid5$ z to take x 92 s9ce sci5tific language ought to adapt itself to ! true relations :i* subsi/ betwe5 ! ?+s x is employ$ to designate4 ,"h !n x is t ,i jo9 issue ) ,dr4 ,:ewell4 ,he does ?9k ! op]ations id5tical4 ,he all[s ( no logical process 9 any case ( induction1 o!r ?an :at !re 0 9 ,kepl]'s case1 namely1 guess+ until a guess is f\nd :i* tallies ) ! facts3 & accord+ly1 z we %all see h]eaft]1 he rejects all canons ( induction1 because x is n by means ( !m t we guess4 ,dr4 ,:ewell's !ory ( ! logic ( sci5ce w\ld be v p]fect1 if x did n pass ov] altoge!r ! "q ( ,pro(4 ,b 9 my appreh5sion !re is su* a ?+ z pro(1 & inductions diff] altoge!r f descriptions 9 _! relation to t elem5t4 ,induction is pro(2 x is inf]r+ some?+ unobs]v$ f some?+ obs]v$3 x requires1 !re=e1 an appropriate te/ ( pro(2 & to provide t te/1 is ! special purpose ( inductive logic4 ,:51 on ! contr>y1 we m]ely collate kn[n obs]vations1 &1 9 ,dr4 ,:ewell's phraseology1 connect !m by means ( a new conception2 if ! conception does b s]ve to connect ! obs]vations1 we h all we want4 ,z ! proposition 9 :i* x is embodi$ pret5ds to no o!r tru? ?an :at x may %>e ) _m o!r modes ( repres5t+ ! same facts1 to be consi/5t ) ! facts is all x requires3 x nei!r ne$s nor admits ( pro(2 ?\gh x may s]ve to prove o!r ?+s1 inasmu* z1 by plac+ ! facts 9 m5tal connexion ) o!r facts1 n previ\sly se5 to resemble !m1 x assimilates ! case to ano!r class ( ph5om5a1 conc]n+ :i* real ,inductions h already be5 made4 ,?us ,kepl]'s s-call$ law br\ght ! orbit ( ,m>s into ! class ellipse1 & by do+ s1 prov$ all ! prop]ties ( an ellipse to be true ( ! orbit3 b 9 ?is pro( ,kepl]'s law suppli$ ! m9or premiss1 & n 7z is ! case ) real ,inductions7 ! major4 ,! m5tal op]ation :i* extracts f a numb] ( deta*$ obs]vations c]ta9 g5]al *>act]s 9 :i* ! obs]v$ ph5om5a resemble "o ano!r1 or resemble o!r kn[n facts1 is :at ,bacon1 ,locke1 & mo/ subsequ5t metaphysicians1 h und]/ood by ! ^w ,ab/raction4 ,a g5]al expression obta9$ by ab/raction1 connect+ kn[n facts by means ( common *>act]s1 b )\t conclud+ f !m to unkn[n1 may1 ,i ?9k1 ) /rict logical correctness1 be t]m$ a ,description2 nor d ,i "k 9 :at o!r way ?+s c ev] be describ$4 ,my position1 h[ev]1 does n dep5d on ! employm5t ( t p>ticul> ^w2 ,i am q cont5t to use ,dr4 ,:ewell's t]m ,colligation1 provid$ x be cle>ly se5 t ! process is n ,induction1 b some?+ radically diff]5t4 ,:at m may usefully be said on ! subject ( ,colligation1 or ( ! correlative expression inv5t$ by ,dr4 ,:ewell1 ! ,explication ( ,conceptions1 & g5]ally on ! subject ( ideas & m5tal repres5tations z connect$ ) ! /udy ( facts1 w f9d a m appropriate place 9 ! ,f\r? ,book1 on ! ,op]ations ,subsidi>y to ,induction3 to :i* ! read] mu/ ref] = ! removal ( any difficulty :i* ! pres5t discussion may h left4 ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,( ,,! ,,gr\nd ,,( ,,induction4 #a4 ,induction prop]ly s call$1 z di/+ui%$ f ^? m5tal op]ations1 sometimes ?\gh improp]ly designat$ by ! "n1 :i* ,i h attempt$ 9 ! prec$+ *apt] to *>act]ize1 may1 !n1 be summ>ily def9$ z ,g5]alization f ,exp]i5ce4 ,x consi/s 9 inf]r+ f "s individual in/ances 9 :i* a ph5om5on is obs]v$ to occur1 t x occurs 9 all in/ances ( a c]ta9 class2 namely1 9 all :i* resemble ! =m]1 9 :at are reg>d$ z ! mat]ial circum/ances4 ,9 :at way ! mat]ial circum/ances are to be di/+ui%$ f ^? :i* are immat]ial1 or :y "s ( ! circum/ances are mat]ial & o!rs n s1 we are n yet ready to po9t out4 ,we mu/ fir/ obs]ve1 t !re is a pr9ciple impli$ 9 ! v /atem5t ( :at ,induction is2 an assumption ) reg>d to ! c\rse ( nature & ! ord] ( ! univ]se3 namely1 t !re are su* ?+s 9 nature z p>allel cases2 t :at happ5s once1 w1 "u a suffici5t degree ( simil>ity ( circum/ances1 happ5 aga91 & n only aga91 b z (t5 z ! same circum/ances recur4 ,?is1 ,i say1 is an assumption1 involv$ 9 e case ( induction4 ,&1 if we consult ! actual c\rse ( nature1 we f9d t ! assumption is w>rant$4 ,! univ]se1 we f9d1 is s con/itut$1 t :atev] is true 9 any "o case1 is true 9 all cases ( a c]ta9 description2 ! only difficulty is1 to f9d :at description4 ,?is univ]sal fact1 :i* is our w>rant = all inf]5ces f exp]i5ce1 has be5 describ$ by diff]5t philosoph]s 9 diff]5t =ms ( language3 t ! c\rse ( nature is uni=m2 t ! univ]se is gov]n$ by g5]al laws2 & ! l4 ,"o ( ! mo/ usual ( ^! modes ( expression1 b also "o ( ! mo/ inadequate1 is t :i* has be5 br\ght into famili> use by ! metaphysicians ( ! s*ool ( ,reid & ,/ew>t4 ,! disposition ( ! human m9d to g5]alize f exp]i5ce1--a prop5sity consid]$ by ^! philosoph]s z an in/9ct ( our nature1--!y usually describe "u "s su* "n z 8our intuitive conviction t ! future w resemble ! pa/40 ,n[ x has be5 well po9t$ out1 t 7:e!r ! t5d5cy be or n an orig9al & ultimate elem5t ( our nature71 ,"t1 9 its modifications ( pa/1 pres5t1 & future1 has no conc]n ei!r ) ! belief itself1 or ) ! gr\nds ( x4 ,we believe t fire w burn to-morr[1 because x burn$ to-day & ye/]day2 b we believe1 on precisely ! same gr\nds1 t x burn$ be=e we 7 born1 & t x burns ?is v day 9 ,co*9-,*9a4 ,x is n f ! pa/ to ! future1 z pa/ & future1 t we inf]1 b f ! kn[n to ! unkn[n2 f facts obs]v$ to facts unobs]v$2 f :at we h p]ceiv$1 or be5 directly consci\s (1 to :at has n come )9 our exp]i5ce4 ,9 ?is la/ pr$icam5t is ! :ole region ( ! future2 b also ! va/ly great] portion ( ! pres5t & ( ! pa/4 ,:atev] be ! mo/ prop] mode ( express+ x1 ! proposition t ! c\rse ( nature is uni=m1 is ! fundam5tal pr9ciple1 or g5]al axiom1 ( ,induction4 ,x w\ld yet be a great error to (f] ?is l>ge g5]alization z any explanation ( ! inductive process4 ,on ! contr>y1 ,i hold x to be itself an in/ance ( induction1 & induction by no means ( ! mo/ obvi\s k9d4 ,f> f be+ ! fir/ induction we make1 x is "o ( ! la/1 or at all ev5ts "o ( ^? :i* are late/ 9 atta9+ /rict philosophical accuracy4 ,z a g5]al maxim1 inde$1 x has sc>cely ent]$ into ! m9ds ( any b philosoph]s2 nor ev5 by !m1 z we %all h _m opportunities ( rem>k+1 h its ext5t & limits be5 always v ju/ly conceiv$4 ,! tru? is1 t ?is great g5]alization is itself f\nd$ on prior g5]alizations4 ,! obscur] laws ( nature 7 discov]$ by means ( x1 b ! m obvi\s ones mu/ h be5 und]/ood & ass5t$ to z g5]al tru?s be=e x 0 ev] he>d (4 ,we %\ld nev] h ?\ght ( affirm+ t all ph5om5a take place accord+ to g5]al laws1 if we _h n fir/ arriv$1 9 ! case ( a great multitude ( ph5om5a1 at "s k ( ! laws !mselves2 :i* c\ld be done no o!rwise ?an by induction4 ,9 :at s5se1 !n1 c a pr9ciple1 :i* is s f> f be+ our e>lie/ induction1 be reg>d$ z our w>rant = all ! o!rs8 ,9 ! only s5se1 9 :i* 7z we h already se57 ! g5]al propositions :i* we place at ! head ( our reason+s :5 we ?r[ !m into syllogisms1 ev] really contribute to _! validity4 ,z ,ar*bi%op ,:ately rem>ks1 e induction is a syllogism ) ! major premiss suppress$2 or 7z ,i pref] express+ x7 e induction may be ?r[n into ! =m ( a syllogism1 by supply+ a major premiss4 ,if ?is be actually done1 ! pr9ciple :i* we are n[ consid]+1 t ( ! uni=mity ( ! c\rse ( nature1 w appe> z ! ultimate major premiss ( all inductions1 & w1 !re=e1 /& to all inductions 9 ! relation 9 :i*1 z has be5 %[n at s mu* l5g?1 ! major proposition ( a syllogism always /&s to ! conclusion2 n contribut+ at all to prove x1 b be+ a necess>y condition ( its be+ prov$2 s9ce no conclusion is prov$ = :i* !re _c be f\nd a true major premiss4 ,! /atem5t1 t ! uni=mity ( ! c\rse ( nature is ! ultimate major premiss 9 all cases ( induction1 may be ?\ght to require "s explanation4 ,! imm$iate major premiss 9 e inductive argum5t1 x c]ta9ly is n4 ,( t1 ,ar*bi%op ,:ately's mu/ be held to be ! correct acc\nt4 ,! induction1 8,john1 ,pet]1 c41 are mortal1 !re=e all mank9d are mortal10 may1 z he ju/ly says1 be ?r[n into a syllogism by prefix+ z a major premiss 7:at is at any rate a necess>y condition ( ! validity ( ! argum5t7 namely1 t :at is true ( ,john1 ,pet]1 c1 is true ( all mank9d4 ,b h[ come we by ?is major premiss8 ,x is n self-evid5t2 nay1 9 all cases ( unw>rant$ g5]alization1 x is n true4 ,h[1 !n1 is x arriv$ at8 ,necess>ily ei!r by induction or ratioc9ation2 & if by induction1 ! process1 l all o!r inductive argum5ts1 may be ?r[n into ! =m ( a syllogism4 ,?is previ\s syllogism x is1 !re=e1 necess>y to con/ruct4 ,!re is1 9 ! long run1 only "o possible con/ruction4 ,! real pro( t :at is true ( ,john1 ,pet]1 c41 is true ( all mank9d1 c only be1 t a diff]5t supposition w\ld be inconsi/5t ) ! uni=mity :i* we "k to exi/ 9 ! c\rse ( nature4 ,:e!r !re w\ld be ?is inconsi/5cy or n1 may be a matt] ( long & delicate inquiry2 b unless !re w\ld1 we h no suffici5t gr\nd = ! major ( ! inductive syllogism4 ,x h5ce appe>s1 t if we ?r[ ! :ole c\rse ( any inductive argum5t into a s]ies ( syllogisms1 we %all arrive by m or few] /eps at an ultimate syllogism1 :i* w h = its major premiss ! pr9ciple1 or axiom1 ( ! uni=mity ( ! c\rse ( nature47#fa7 ,x 0 n to be expect$ t 9 ! case ( ?is axiom1 any m ?an ( o!r axioms1 !re %\ld be unanimity among ?9k]s ) respect to ! gr\nds on :i* x is to be receiv$ z true4 ,i h already /at$ t ,i reg>d x z itself a g5]alization f exp]i5ce4 ,o!rs hold x to be a pr9ciple :i*1 antec$5tly to any v]ification by exp]i5ce1 we are compell$ by ! con/itution ( our ?9k+ faculty to assume z true4 ,hav+ s rec5tly1 & at s mu* l5g?1 combat$ a simil> doctr9e z appli$ to ! axioms ( ma!matics1 by argum5ts :i* are 9 a great measure applicable to ! pres5t case1 ,i %all def] ! m p>ticul> discussion ( ?is controv]t$ po9t 9 reg>d to ! fundam5tal axiom ( induction1 until a m advanc$ p]iod ( our inquiry47#fb7 ,at pres5t x is ( m importance to und]/& ?or\ghly ! import ( ! axiom itself4 ,= ! proposition1 t ! c\rse ( nature is uni=m1 possesses r ! brevity suitable to popul>1 ?an ! precision requisite 9 philosophical1 language3 its t]ms require to be expla9$1 & a /rict] ?an _! ord9>y signification giv5 to !m1 be=e ! tru? ( ! ass]tion c be admitt$4 #b4 ,e p]son's consci\sness assures him t he does n always expect uni=mity 9 ! c\rse ( ev5ts2 he does n always believe t ! unkn[n w be simil> to ! kn[n1 t ! future w resemble ! pa/4 ,nobody believes t ! succession ( ra9 & f9e wea!r w be ! same 9 e future ye> z 9 ! pres5t4 ,nobody expects to h ! same dreams repeat$ e night4 ,on ! contr>y1 ev]ybody m5tions x z some?+ extraord9>y1 if ! c\rse ( nature is con/ant1 & resembles itself1 9 ^! p>ticul>s4 ,to look = con/ancy :]e con/ancy is n to be expect$1 z = in/ance1 t a day :i* has once br\ght good =tune w always be a =tunate day1 is ju/ly acc\nt$ sup]/ition4 ,! c\rse ( nature1 9 tru?1 is n only uni=m1 x is also inf9itely v>i\s4 ,"s ph5om5a are always se5 to recur 9 ! v same comb9ations 9 :i* we met ) !m at fir/2 o!rs seem altoge!r caprici\s2 :ile "s1 :i* we _h be5 accu/om$ to reg>d z b\nd d[n exclusively to a p>ticul> set ( comb9ations1 we unexpect$ly f9d deta*$ f "s ( ! elem5ts ) :i* we _h hi!rto f\nd !m conjo9$1 & unit$ to o!rs ( q a contr>y description4 ,to an inhabitant ( ,c5tral ,africa1 fifty ye>s ago1 no fact probably appe>$ to re/ on m uni=m exp]i5ce ?an ?is1 t all human be+s are black4 ,to ,europeans1 n _m ye>s ago1 ! proposition1 ,all swans are :ite1 appe>$ an equally unequivocal in/ance ( uni=mity 9 ! c\rse ( nature4 ,fur!r exp]i5ce has prov$ to bo? t !y 7 mi/ak52 b !y _h to wait fifty c5turies = ?is exp]i5ce4 ,dur+ t long "t1 mank9d believ$ 9 an uni=mity ( ! c\rse ( nature :]e no su* uni=mity really exi/$4 ,accord+ to ! notion :i* ! anci5ts ent]ta9$ ( induction1 ! =ego+ 7 cases ( z legitimate inf]5ce z any inductions :atev]4 ,9 ^! two in/ances1 9 :i*1 ! conclusion be+ false1 ! gr\nd ( inf]5ce mu/ h be5 insuffici5t1 !re 01 nev]!less1 z mu* gr\nd = x z ?is conception ( induction admitt$ (4 ,! induction ( ! anci5ts has be5 well describ$ by ,bacon1 "u ! "n ( 8,inductio p] enum]ationem simplicem1 ubi non rep]itur in/antia contradictoria40 ,x consi/s 9 ascrib+ ! "* ( g5]al tru?s to all propositions :i* are true 9 e in/ance t we happ5 to "k (4 ,?is is ! k9d ( induction :i* is natural to ! m9d :5 unaccu/om$ to sci5tific me?ods4 ,! t5d5cy1 :i* "s call an in/9ct1 & :i* o!rs acc\nt = by association1 to inf] ! future f ! pa/1 ! kn[n f ! unkn[n1 is simply a habit ( expect+ t :at has be5 f\nd true once or sev]al times1 & nev] yet f\nd false1 w be f\nd true aga94 ,:e!r ! in/ances are few or _m1 conclusive or inconclusive1 does n mu* affect ! matt]3 ^! are consid]ations :i* occur only on reflection3 ! unprompt$ t5d5cy ( ! m9d is to g5]alize its exp]i5ce1 provid$ ?is po9ts all 9 "o direction2 provid$ no o!r exp]i5ce ( a conflict+ "* comes uns\ght4 ,! notion ( seek+ x1 ( exp]im5t+ = x1 ( int]rogat+ nature 7to use ,bacon's expression7 is ( mu* lat] gr[?4 ,! obs]vation ( nature1 by uncultivat$ intellects1 is purely passive3 !y accept ! facts :i* pres5t !mselves1 )\t tak+ ! tr\ble ( se>*+ = m3 x is a sup]ior m9d only :i* asks itself :at facts are ne$$ to enable x to come to a sure conclusion1 & !n looks out = ^!4 ,b ?\gh we h always a prop5sity to g5]alize f unv>y+ exp]i5ce1 we are n always w>rant$ 9 do+ s4 ,be=e we c be at lib]ty to conclude t some?+ is univ]sally true because we h nev] kn[n an in/ance to ! contr>y1 we mu/ h reason to believe t if !re 7 9 nature any in/ances to ! contr>y1 we %\ld h kn[n ( !m4 ,?is assurance1 9 ! great majority ( cases1 we _c h1 or c h only 9 a v mod]ate degree4 ,! possibility ( hav+ x1 is ! f\ndation on :i* we %all see h]eaft] t induction by simple enum]ation may 9 "s rem>kable cases am\nt practically to pro(47#fc7 ,no su* assurance1 h[ev]1 c be _h1 on any ( ! ord9>y subjects ( sci5tific inquiry4 ,popul> notions are usually f\nd$ on induction by simple enum]ation2 9 sci5ce x c>ries u b a little way4 ,we are =c$ to beg9 ) x2 we mu/ (t5 rely on x provisionally1 9 ! abs5ce ( means ( m se>*+ inve/igation4 ,b1 = ! accurate /udy ( nature1 we require a sur] & a m pot5t in/rum5t4 ,x 01 above all1 by po9t+ out ! insuffici5cy ( ?is rude & loose conception ( ,induction1 t ,bacon m]it$ ! title s g5]ally aw>d$ to him1 ( ,f\nd] ( ! ,inductive ,philosophy4 ,! value ( 8 own contributions to a m philosophical !ory ( ! subject has c]ta9ly be5 exagg]at$4 ,al?\gh 7along ) "s fundam5tal errors7 8 writ+s conta91 m or less fully develop$1 sev]al ( ! mo/ important pr9ciples ( ! ,inductive ,me?od1 physical inve/igation has n[ f> outgr[n ! ,baconian conception ( ,induction4 ,moral & political inquiry1 inde$1 are z yet f> beh9d t conception4 ,! curr5t & approv$ modes ( reason+ on ^! subjects are /ill ( ! same vici\s description aga9/ :i* ,bacon prote/$2 ! me?od almo/ exclusively employ$ by ^? pr(ess+ to treat su* matt]s inductively1 is ! v inductio p] enum]ationem simplicem :i* he condemns2 & ! exp]i5ce :i* we he> s confid5tly appeal$ to by all sects1 p>ties1 & int]e/s1 is /ill1 9 8 own emphatic words1 m]a palpatio4 #c4 ,9 ord] to a bett] und]/&+ ( ! problem :i* ! logician mu/ solve if he w\ld e/abli% a sci5tific !ory ( ,induction1 let u comp>e a few cases ( incorrect inductions ) o!rs :i* are ackn[l$g$ to be legitimate4 ,"s1 we "k1 :i* 7 believ$ = c5turies to be correct1 7 nev]!less incorrect4 ,t all swans are :ite1 _c h be5 a good induction1 s9ce ! conclusion has turn$ out errone\s4 ,! exp]i5ce1 h[ev]1 on :i* ! conclusion re/$ 0 g5u9e4 ,f ! e>lie/ records1 ! te/imony ( ! inhabitants ( ! kn[n _w 0 unanim\s on ! po9t4 ,! uni=m exp]i5ce1 !re=e1 ( ! inhabitants ( ! kn[n _w1 agree+ 9 a common result1 )\t "o kn[n in/ance ( deviation f t result1 is n always suffici5t to e/abli% a g5]al conclusion4 ,b let u n[ turn to an in/ance app>5tly n v dissimil> to ?is4 ,mank9d 7 wrong1 x seems1 9 conclud+ t all swans 7 :ite3 are we also wrong1 :5 we conclude t all m5's heads gr[ above _! %\ld]s1 & nev] bel[1 9 spite ( ! conflict+ te/imony ( ! naturali/ ,pl9y8 ,z !re 7 black swans1 ?\gh civiliz$ p _h exi/$ = ?ree ?\s& ye>s on ! e>? )\t meet+ ) !m1 may !re n also be 8m5 ^: heads d gr[ b5ea? _! %\ld]s10 not)/&+ a r less p]fect unanimity ( negative te/imony f obs]v]s8 ,mo/ p]sons w\ld answ] ,no2 x 0 m cr$ible t a bird %\ld v>y 9 its col\r1 ?an t m5 %\ld v>y 9 ! relative position ( _! pr9cipal organs4 ,& !re is no d\bt t 9 s say+ !y w\ld be "r3 b to say :y !y are "r1 w\ld be impossible1 )\t ent]+ m deeply ?an is usually done1 into ! true !ory ( ,induction4 ,aga91 !re are cases 9 :i* we reckon ) ! mo/ unfail+ confid5ce ^u uni=mity1 & o!r cases 9 :i* we d n c\nt ^u x at all4 ,9 "s we feel complete assurance t ! future w resemble ! pa/1 ! unkn[n be precisely simil> to ! kn[n4 ,9 o!rs1 h[ev] inv>iable may be ! result obta9$ f ! in/ances :i* h be5 obs]v$1 we draw f !m no m ?an a v feeble presumption t ! l result w hold 9 all o!r cases4 ,t a /raight l9e is ! %orte/ di/ance betwe5 two po9ts1 we d n d\bt to be true ev5 9 ! region ( ! fix$ />s4 ,:5 a *emi/ ann\nces ! exi/5ce & prop]ties ( a newly-discov]$ sub/ance1 if we confide 9 8 accuracy1 we feel assur$ t ! conclusions he has arriv$ at w hold univ]sally1 al?\gh ! induction be f\nd$ b on a s+le in/ance4 ,we d n )hold our ass5t1 wait+ = a repetition ( ! exp]im5t2 or if we d1 x is f a d\bt :e!r ! "o exp]im5t 0 prop]ly made1 n :e!r if prop]ly made x w\ld be conclusive4 ,"h1 !n1 is a g5]al law ( nature1 inf]r$ )\t hesitation f a s+le in/ance2 an univ]sal proposition f a s+ul> "o4 ,n[ m>k ano!r case1 & contra/ x ) ?is4 ,n all ! in/ances :i* h be5 obs]v$ s9ce ! beg9n+ ( ! _w1 9 support ( ! g5]al proposition t all cr[s are black1 w\ld be deem$ a suffici5t presumption ( ! tru? ( ! proposition1 to outweigh ! te/imony ( "o unexceptionable witness :o %\ld affirm t 9 "s region ( ! e>? n fully explor$1 he _h caught & exam9$ a cr[1 & _h f\nd x to be grey4 ,:y is a s+le in/ance1 9 "s cases1 suffici5t = a complete induction1 :ile 9 o!rs1 myriads ( concurr+ in/ances1 )\t a s+le exception kn[n or presum$1 g su* a v little way t[>ds e/abli%+ an univ]sal proposition8 ,:oev] c answ] ?is "q kn[s m ( ! philosophy ( logic ?an ! wise/ ( ! anci5ts1 & has solv$ ! problem ( induction4 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,( ,,laws ,,( ,,nature4 #a4 ,9 ! contemplation ( t uni=mity 9 ! c\rse ( nature1 :i* is assum$ 9 e inf]5ce f exp]i5ce1 "o ( ! fir/ obs]vations t pres5t !mselves is1 t ! uni=mity 9 "q is n prop]ly uni=mity1 b uni=mities4 ,! g5]al regul>ity results f ! co-exi/5ce ( p>tial regul>ities4 ,! c\rse ( nature 9 g5]al is con/ant1 because ! c\rse ( ea* ( ! v>i\s ph5om5a t compose x is s4 ,a c]ta9 fact inv>iably occurs :5ev] c]ta9 circum/ances are pres5t1 & does n occur :5 !y are abs5t2 ! l is true ( ano!r fact2 & s on4 ,f ^! sep>ate ?reads ( connexion betwe5 p>ts ( ! great :ole :i* we t]m nature1 a g5]al tissue ( connexion unavoidably weaves itself1 by :i* ! :ole is held toge!r4 ,if ,a is always accompani$ by ,d1 ,b by ,e1 & ,c by ,f1 x foll[s t ,a ,b is accompani$ by ,d ,e1 ,a ,c by ,d ,f1 ,b ,c by ,e ,f1 & f9ally ,a ,b ,c by ,d ,e ,f2 & ?us ! g5]al "* ( regul>ity is produc$1 :i*1 along ) & 9 ! mid/ ( inf9ite div]sity1 p]vades all nature4 ,! fir/ po9t1 !re=e1 to be not$ 9 reg>d to :at is call$ ! uni=mity ( ! c\rse ( nature1 is1 t x is itself a complex fact1 comp\nd$ ( all ! sep>ate uni=mities :i* exi/ 9 respect to s+le ph5om5a4 ,^! v>i\s uni=mities1 :5 asc]ta9$ by :at is reg>d$ z a suffici5t induction1 we call 9 common p>lance1 ,laws ( ,nature4 ,sci5tifically speak+1 t title is employ$ 9 a m re/rict$ s5se1 to designate ! uni=mities :5 r$uc$ to _! mo/ simple expression4 ,?us 9 ! illu/ration already employ$1 !re 7 sev5 uni=mities2 all ( :i*1 if consid]$ suffici5tly c]ta91 w\ld 9 ! m lax application ( ! t]m1 be call$ laws ( nature4 ,b ( ! sev51 ?ree alone are prop]ly di/9ct & indep5d5t2 ^! be+ pre-suppos$1 ! o!rs foll[ ( c\rse3 ! ?ree fir/1 !re=e1 accord+ to ! /rict] acceptation1 are call$ laws ( nature1 ! rema9d] n2 because !y are 9 tru? m]e cases ( ! ?ree fir/2 virtually includ$ 9 !m2 said1 !re=e1 to result f !m3 :oev] affirms ^? ?ree has already affirm$ all ! re/4 ,to sub/itute real examples = symbolical ones1 ! foll[+ are ?ree uni=mities1 or call !m laws ( nature3 ! law t air has weight1 ! law t pressure on a fluid is propagat$ equally 9 all directions1 & ! law t pressure 9 "o direction1 n oppos$ by equal pressure 9 ! contr>y direction1 produces motion1 :i* does n cease until equilibrium is re/or$4 ,f ^! ?ree uni=mities we %\ld be able to pr$ict ano!r uni=mity1 namely1 ! rise ( ! m]cury 9 ! ,torricellian tube4 ,?is1 9 ! /rict] use ( ! phrase1 is n a law ( nature4 ,x is a result ( laws ( nature4 ,x is a case ( ea* & e "o ( ! ?ree laws3 & is ! only occurr5ce by :i* !y c\ld all be fulfill$4 ,if ! m]cury 7 n su/a9$ 9 ! b>omet]1 & su/a9$ at su* a height t ! column ( m]cury 7 equal 9 weight to a column ( ! atmosph]e ( ! same diamet]2 "h w\ld be a case1 ei!r ( ! air n press+ ^u ! surface ( ! m]cury ) ! =ce :i* is call$ its weight1 or ( ! d[nw>d pressure on ! m]cury n be+ propagat$ equally 9 an upw>d direction1 or ( a body press$ 9 "o direction & n 9 ! direction opposite1 ei!r n mov+ 9 ! direction 9 :i* x is press$1 or /opp+ be=e x _h atta9$ equilibrium4 ,if we knew1 !re=e1 ! ?ree simple laws1 b _h nev] tri$ ! ,torricellian exp]im5t1 we might d$uce its result f ^? laws4 ,! kn[n weight ( ! air1 comb9$ ) ! position ( ! app>atus1 w\ld br+ ! m]cury )9 ! fir/ ( ! ?ree inductions2 ! fir/ induction w\ld br+ x )9 ! second1 & ! second )9 ! ?ird1 9 ! mann] :i* we *>act]iz$ 9 treat+ ( ,ratioc9ation4 ,we %\ld ?us come to "k ! m complex uni=mity1 indep5d5tly ( specific exp]i5ce1 ?r\gh our k ( ! simpl] ones f :i* x results2 al?\gh1 = reasons :i* w appe> h]eaft]1 v]ification by specific exp]i5ce w\ld /ill be desirable1 & might possibly be indisp5sable4 ,complex uni=mities :i*1 l ?is1 are m]e cases ( simpl] ones1 & h1 !re=e1 be5 virtually affirm$ 9 affirm+ ^?1 may ) propriety be call$ laws1 b c sc>cely1 9 ! /rictness ( sci5tific spee*1 be t]m$ ,laws ( ,nature4 ,x is ! cu/om 9 sci5ce1 :]ev] regul>ity ( any k9d c be trac$1 to call ! g5]al proposition :i* expresses ! nature ( t regul>ity1 a law2 z :51 9 ma!matics1 we speak ( ! law ( decrease ( ! successive t]ms ( a conv]g+ s]ies4 ,b ! expression1 law ( nature1 has g5]ally be5 employ$ ) a sort ( tacit ref]5ce to ! orig9al s5se ( ! ^w law1 namely1 ! expression ( ! w ( a sup]ior4 ,:51 !re=e1 x appe>$ t any ( ! uni=mities :i* 7 obs]v$ 9 nature1 w\ld result spontane\sly f c]ta9 o!r uni=mities1 no sep>ate act ( creative w be+ suppos$ necess>y = ! production ( ! d]ivative uni=mities1 ^! h n usually be5 spok5 ( z laws ( nature4 ,accord+ to ano!r mode ( expression1 ! "q1 ,:at are ! laws ( nature8 may be /at$ ?us3--,:at are ! fewe/ & simple/ assumptions1 :i* be+ grant$1 ! :ole exi/+ ord] ( nature w\ld result8 ,ano!r mode ( /at+ x w\ld be ?us3 ,:at are ! fewe/ g5]al propositions f :i* all ! uni=mities :i* exi/ 9 ! univ]se might be d$uctively inf]r$8 ,e great advance :i* m>ks an epo* 9 ! progress ( sci5ce1 has consi/$ 9 a /ep made t[>ds ! solution ( ?is problem4 ,ev5 a simple colligation ( inductions already made1 )\t any fre% ext5sion ( ! inductive inf]5ce1 is already an advance 9 t direction4 ,:5 ,kepl] express$ ! regul>ity :i* exi/s 9 ! obs]v$ motions ( ! heav5ly bodies1 by ! ?ree g5]al propositions call$ 8 laws1 he1 9 s do+1 po9t$ out ?ree simple suppositions :i*1 in/ead ( a mu* great] numb]1 w\ld suffice to con/ruct ! :ole s*eme ( ! heav5ly motions1 s f> z x 0 kn[n up to t "t4 ,a simil> & /ill great] /ep 0 made :5 ^! laws1 :i* at fir/ did n seem to be includ$ 9 any m g5]al tru?s1 7 discov]$ to be cases ( ! ?ree laws ( motion1 z obta9+ among bodies :i* mutually t5d t[>ds "o ano!r ) a c]ta9 =ce1 & h _h a c]ta9 in/antane\s impulse orig9ally impress$ ^u !m4 ,aft] ?is great discov]y1 ,kepl]'s ?ree propositions1 ?\gh /ill call$ laws1 w\ld h>dly1 by any p]son accu/om$ to use language ) precision1 be t]m$ laws ( nature3 t phrase w\ld be res]v$ = ! simpl] laws into :i* ,newton is said to h resolv$ !m4 ,accord+ to ?is language1 e well-gr\nd$ inductive g5]alization is ei!r a law ( nature1 or a result ( laws ( nature1 capable1 if ^? laws are kn[n1 ( be+ pr$ict$ f !m4 ,& ! problem ( ,inductive ,logic may be summ$ up 9 two que/ions3 h[ to asc]ta9 ! laws ( nature2 & h[1 aft] hav+ asc]ta9$ !m1 to foll[ !m into _! results4 ,on ! o!r h&1 we mu/ n suff] ourselves to imag9e t ?is mode ( /atem5t am\nts to a real analysis1 or to any?+ b a m]e v]bal trans=mation ( ! problem2 = ! expression1 ,laws ( ,nature1 means no?+ b ! uni=mities :i* exi/ among natural ph5om5a 7or1 9 o!r words1 ! results ( induction71 :5 r$uc$ to _! simple/ expression4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 some?+1 to h advanc$ s f>1 z to see t ! /udy ( nature is ! /udy ( laws1 n a law2 ( uni=mities1 9 ! plural numb]3 t ! diff]5t natural ph5om5a h _! sep>ate rules or modes ( tak+ place1 :i*1 ?\gh mu* int]mix$ & entangl$ ) "o ano!r1 may1 to a c]ta9 ext5t1 be /udi$ ap>t3 t 7to resume our =m] metaphor7 ! regul>ity :i* exi/s 9 nature is a web compos$ ( di/9ct ?reads1 & only to be und]/ood by trac+ ea* ( ! ?reads sep>ately2 = :i* purpose x is (t5 necess>y to unravel "s portion ( ! web1 & exhibit ! fibres ap>t4 ,! rules ( exp]im5tal inquiry are ! contrivances = unravell+ ! web4 #b4 ,9 ?us attempt+ to asc]ta9 ! g5]al ord] ( nature by asc]ta9+ ! p>ticul> ord] ( ! occurr5ce ( ea* "o ( ! ph5om5a ( nature1 ! mo/ sci5tific proce$+ c be no m ?an an improv$ =m ( t :i* 0 primitively pursu$ by ! human und]/&+1 :ile undirect$ by sci5ce4 ,:5 mank9d fir/ =m$ ! idea ( /udy+ ph5om5a accord+ to a /rict] & sur] me?od ?an t :i* !y _h 9 ! fir/ in/ance spontane\sly adopt$1 !y did n1 con=mably to ! well meant b impracticable precept ( ,desc>tes1 set out f ! supposition t no?+ _h be5 already asc]ta9$4 ,_m ( ! uni=mities exi/+ among ph5om5a are s con/ant1 & s op5 to obs]vation1 z to =ce !mselves ^u involunt>y recognition4 ,"s facts are s p]petually & famili>ly accompani$ by c]ta9 o!rs1 t mank9d le>nt1 z *ildr5 le>n1 to expect ! "o :]e !y f\nd ! o!r1 long be=e !y knew h[ to put _! expectation into words by ass]t+1 9 a proposition1 ! exi/5ce ( a connexion betwe5 ^? ph5om5a4 ,no sci5ce 0 ne$$ to tea* t food n\ri%es1 t wat] dr[ns1 or qu5*es ?ir/1 t ! sun gives light & heat1 t bodies fall to ! gr\nd4 ,! fir/ sci5tific inquir]s assum$ ^! & ! l z kn[n tru?s1 & set out f !m to discov] o!rs :i* 7 unkn[n3 nor 7 !y wrong 9 s do+1 subject1 h[ev]1 z !y aft]w>ds began to see1 to an ult]ior revision ( ^! spontane\s g5]alizations !mselves1 :5 ! progress ( k po9t$ out limits to !m1 or %[$ _! tru? to be cont+5t on "s o!r circum/ance n orig9ally att5d$ to4 ,x w appe>1 ,i ?9k1 f ! subsequ5t "p ( our inquiry1 t !re is no logical fallacy 9 ?is mode ( proce$+2 b we may see already t any o!r mode is rigor\sly impracticable3 s9ce x is impossible to frame any sci5tific me?od ( induction1 or te/ ( ! correctness ( inductions1 unless on ! hypo!sis t "s inductions des]v+ ( reliance h be5 already made4 ,let u rev]t1 = in/ance1 to "o ( our =m] illu/rations1 & consid] :y x is t1 ) exactly ! same am\nt ( evid5ce1 bo? negative & positive1 we did n reject ! ass]tion t !re are black swans1 :ile we %\ld refuse cr$5ce to any te/imony :i* ass]t$ t !re 7 m5 we>+ _! heads und]nea? _! %\ld]s4 ,! fir/ ass]tion 0 m cr$ible ?an ! latt]4 ,b :y m cr$ible8 ,s long z nei!r ph5om5on _h be5 actually witness$1 :at reason 0 !re = f9d+ ! "o h>d] to be believ$ ?an ! o!r8 ,app>5tly1 because !re is less con/ancy 9 ! col\rs ( animals1 ?an 9 ! g5]al /ructure ( _! int]nal anatomy4 ,b h[ d we "k ?is8 ,d\btless1 f exp]i5ce4 ,x appe>s1 !n1 t we ne$ exp]i5ce to in=m u1 9 :at degree1 & 9 :at cases1 or sorts ( cases1 exp]i5ce is to be reli$ on4 ,exp]i5ce mu/ be consult$ 9 ord] to le>n f x "u :at circum/ances argum5ts f x w be valid4 ,we h no ult]ior te/ to :i* we subject exp]i5ce 9 g5]al2 b we make exp]i5ce its own te/4 ,exp]i5ce te/ifies1 t among ! uni=mities :i* x exhibits or seems to exhibit1 "s are m to be reli$ on ?an o!rs2 & uni=mity1 !re=e1 may be presum$1 f any giv5 numb] ( in/ances1 ) a great] degree ( assurance1 9 proportion z ! case belongs to a class 9 :i* ! uni=mities h hi!rto be5 f\nd m uni=m4 ,?is mode ( correct+ "o g5]alization by means ( ano!r1 a n>r[] g5]alization by a wid]1 :i* common s5se sugge/s & adopts 9 practice1 is ! real type ( sci5tific ,induction4 ,all t art c d is b to give accuracy & precision to ?is process1 & adapt x to all v>ieties ( cases1 )\t any ess5tial alt]ation 9 its pr9ciple4 ,!re are ( c\rse no means ( apply+ su* a te/ z t above describ$1 unless we already possess a g5]al k ( ! preval5t "* ( ! uni=mities exi/+ ?r\gh\t nature4 ,! indisp5sable f\ndation1 !re=e1 ( a sci5tific =mula ( induction1 mu/ be a survey ( ! inductions to :i* mank9d h be5 conduct$ 9 unsci5tific practice2 ) ! special purpose ( asc]ta9+ :at k9ds ( uni=mities h be5 f\nd p]fectly inv>iable1 p]vad+ all nature1 & :at are ^? :i* h be5 f\nd to v>y ) diff]5ce ( "t1 place1 or o!r *angeable circum/ances4 #c4 ,! necessity ( su* a survey is confirm$ by ! consid]ation1 t ! /rong] inductions are ! t\*/one to :i* we always endeav\r to br+ ! weak]4 ,if we f9d any means ( d$uc+ "o ( ! less /rong inductions f /rong] ones1 x acquires1 at once1 all ! /r5g? ( ^? f :i* x is d$uc$2 & ev5 adds to t /r5g?2 s9ce ! indep5d5t exp]i5ce on :i* ! weak] induction previ\sly re/$1 becomes additional evid5ce ( ! tru? ( ! bett] e/abli%$ law 9 :i* x is n[ f\nd to be includ$4 ,we may h inf]r$1 f hi/orical evid5ce1 t ! uncontroll$ p[] ( a mon>*1 ( an ari/ocracy1 or ( ! majority1 w (t5 be abus$3 b we are entitl$ to rely on ?is g5]alization ) mu* great] assurance :5 x is %[n to be a coroll>y f /ill bett] e/abli%$ facts2 ! v l[ degree ( elevation ( "* ev] yet atta9$ by ! av]age ( mank9d1 & ! little efficacy1 = ! mo/ "p1 ( ! modes ( education hi!rto practis$1 9 ma9ta9+ ! pr$om9ance ( reason & consci5ce ov] ! selfi% prop5sities4 ,x is at ! same "t obvi\s t ev5 ^! m g5]al facts d]ive an accession ( evid5ce f ! te/imony :i* hi/ory be>s to ! effects ( despotism4 ,! /rong induction becomes /ill /rong] :5 a weak] "o has be5 b\nd up ) x4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if an induction conflicts ) /rong] inductions1 or ) conclusions capable ( be+ correctly d$uc$ f !m1 !n1 unless on re-consid]ation x %\ld appe> t "s ( ! /rong] inductions h be5 express$ ) great] univ]sality ?an _! evid5ce w>rants1 ! weak] "o mu/ give way4 ,! op9ion s long preval5t t a comet1 or any o!r unusual appe>ance 9 ! heav5ly regions1 0 ! precursor ( calamities to mank9d1 or to ^? at lea/ :o witness$ x2 ! belief 9 ! v]acity ( ! oracles ( ,delphi or ,dodona2 ! reliance on a/rology1 or on ! wea!r-prophecies 9 almanacs2 7 d\btless inductions suppos$ to be gr\nd$ on exp]i5ce37#fd7 & fai? 9 su* delusions seems q capable ( hold+ out aga9/ a great multitude ( failures1 provid$ x be n\ri%$ by a reasonable numb] ( casual co9cid5ces betwe5 ! pr$iction & ! ev5t4 ,:at has really put an end to ^! insuffici5t inductions1 is _! inconsi/5cy ) ! /rong] inductions subsequ5tly obta9$ by sci5tific inquiry1 respect+ ! causes on :i* t]re/rial ev5ts really dep5d2 & :]e ^? sci5tific tru?s h n yet p5etrat$1 ! same or simil> delusions /ill prevail4 ,x may be affirm$ z a g5]al pr9ciple1 t all inductions1 :e!r /rong or weak1 :i* c be connect$ by a ratioc9ation1 are confirmatory ( "o ano!r3 :ile any :i* lead d$uctively to consequ5ces t are incompatible1 become mutually ea* o!r's te/1 %[+ t "o or o!r mu/ be giv5 up1 or at lea/1 m gu>d$ly express$4 ,9 ! case ( inductions :i* confirm ea* o!r1 ! "o :i* becomes a conclusion f ratioc9ation rises to at lea/ ! level ( c]ta9ty ( ! weake/ ( ^? f :i* x is d$uc$2 :ile 9 g5]al all are m or less increas$ 9 c]ta9ty4 ,?us ! ,torricellian exp]im5t1 ?\gh a m]e case ( ?ree m g5]al laws1 n only /r5g!n$ greatly ! evid5ce on :i* ^? laws re/$1 b conv]t$ "o ( !m 7! weight ( ! atmosph]e7 f a d\btful g5]alization into "o ( ! be/-e/abli%$ doctr9es 9 ! range ( physical sci5ce4 ,if1 !n1 a survey ( ! uni=mities :i* h be5 asc]ta9$ to exi/ 9 nature1 %\ld po9t out "s :i*1 z f> z any human purpose requires c]ta9ty1 may be consid]$ z q c]ta9 & q univ]sal2 !n by means ( ^! uni=mities1 we may be able to raise multitudes ( o!r inductions to ! same po9t 9 ! scale4 ,= if we c %[1 ) respect to any induction1 t ei!r x mu/ be true1 or "o ( ^! c]ta9 & univ]sal inductions mu/ admit ( an exception2 ! =m] g5]alization w atta9 ! same c]ta9ty1 & indefeasibl5ess )9 ! b\nds assign$ to x1 :i* are ! attributes ( ! latt]4 ,x w be prov$ to be a law2 & if n a result ( o!r & simpl] laws1 x w be a law ( nature4 ,!re are su* c]ta9 & univ]sal inductions2 & x is because !re are su*1 t a ,logic ( ,induction is possible4 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,( ,,! ,,law ,,( ,,univ]sal ,,causation4 #a4 ,! ph5om5a ( nature exi/ 9 two di/9ct relations to "o ano!r2 t ( simultaneity1 & t ( succession4 ,e ph5om5on is relat$1 9 an uni=m mann]1 to "s ph5om5a t coexi/ ) x1 & to "s t h prec$$ or w foll[ x4 ,( ! uni=mities :i* exi/ among syn*ron\s ph5om5a1 ! mo/ important1 on e acc\nt1 are ! laws ( numb]2 & next to !m ^? ( space1 or 9 o!r words1 ( ext5sion & figure4 ,! laws ( numb] are common to syn*ron\s & successive ph5om5a4 ,t two & two make f\r1 is equally true :e!r ! second two foll[ ! fir/ two or accompany !m4 ,x is z true ( days & ye>s z ( feet & in*es4 ,! laws ( ext5sion & figure1 79 o!r words1 ! !orems ( geometry1 f its l[e/ to its highe/ bran*es17 are1 on ! contr>y1 laws ( simultane\s ph5om5a only4 ,! v>i\s p>ts ( space1 & ( ! objects :i* are said to fill space1 coexi/2 & ! unv>y+ laws :i* are ! subject ( ! sci5ce ( geometry1 are an expression ( ! mode ( _! coexi/5ce4 ,?is is a class ( laws1 or 9 o!r words1 ( uni=mities1 = ! compreh5sion & pro( ( :i* x is n necess>y to suppose any lapse ( "t1 any v>iety ( facts or ev5ts succe$+ "o ano!r4 ,if all ! objects 9 ! univ]se 7 un*angeably fix$1 & _h rema9$ 9 t condition f et]nity1 ! propositions ( geometry w\ld /ill be true ( ^? objects4 ,all ?+s :i* possess ext5sion1 or 9 o!r words1 :i* fill space1 are subject to geometrical laws4 ,possess+ ext5sion1 !y possess figure2 possess+ figure1 !y mu/ possess "s figure 9 p>ticul>1 & h all ! prop]ties :i* geometry assigns to t figure4 ,if "o body be a sph]e & ano!r a cyl9d]1 ( equal height & diamet]1 ! "o w be exactly two-?irds ( ! o!r1 let ! nature & quality ( ! mat]ial be :at x w4 ,aga91 ea* body1 & ea* po9t ( a body1 mu/ occupy "s place or position among o!r bodies2 & ! position ( two bodies relatively to ea* o!r1 ( :atev] nature ! bodies be1 may be un]r+ly inf]r$ f ! position ( ea* ( !m relatively to any ?ird body4 ,9 ! laws ( numb]1 !n1 & 9 ^? ( space1 we recognise1 9 ! mo/ unqualifi$ mann]1 ! rigor\s univ]sality ( :i* we are 9 que/4 ,^? laws h be5 9 all ages ! type ( c]ta9ty1 ! /&>d ( comp>ison = all inf]ior degrees ( evid5ce4 ,_! inv>iability is s p]fect1 t we are unable ev5 to conceive any exception to !m2 & philosoph]s h be5 l$1 al?\gh 7z ,i h endeav\r$ to %[7 errone\sly1 to consid] _! evid5ce z ly+ n 9 exp]i5ce1 b 9 ! orig9al con/itution ( ! intellect4 ,if1 !re=e1 f ! laws ( space & numb]1 we 7 able to d$uce uni=mities ( any o!r description1 ?is w\ld be conclusive evid5ce to u t ^? o!r uni=mities possess$ ! same degree ( rigor\s c]ta9ty4 ,b ?is we _c d4 ,f laws ( space & numb] alone1 no?+ c be d$uc$ b laws ( space & numb]4 ,( all tru?s relat+ to ph5om5a1 ! mo/ valuable to u are ^? :i* relate to ! ord] ( _! succession4 ,on a k ( ^! is f\nd$ e reasonable anticipation ( future facts1 & :atev] p[] we possess ( influ5c+ ^? facts to our advantage4 ,ev5 ! laws ( geometry are *iefly ( practical importance to u z be+ a portion ( ! premisses f :i* ! ord] ( ! succession ( ph5om5a may be inf]r$4 ,inasmu* z ! motion ( bodies1 ! action ( =ces1 & ! propagation ( influ5ces ( all sorts1 take place 9 c]ta9 l9es & ov] def9ite spaces1 ! prop]ties ( ^? l9es & spaces are an important "p ( ! laws to :i* ^? ph5om5a are !mselves subject4 ,aga91 motions1 =ces or o!r influ5ces1 & times1 are num]able quantities2 & ! prop]ties ( numb] are applicable to !m z to all o!r ?+s4 ,b ?\gh ! laws ( numb] & space are important elem5ts 9 ! asc]ta9m5t ( uni=mities ( succession1 !y c d no?+ t[>ds x :5 tak5 by !mselves4 ,!y c only be made in/rum5tal to t purpose :5 we comb9e ) !m additional premisses1 expressive ( uni=mities ( succession already kn[n4 ,by tak+1 = in/ance1 z premisses ^! propositions1 t bodies act$ ^u by an in/antane\s =ce move ) uni=m velocity 9 /raight l9es2 t bodies act$ ^u by a cont9u\s =ce move ) accel]at$ velocity 9 /raight l9es2 & t bodies act$ ^u by two =ces 9 diff]5t directions move 9 ! diagonal ( a p>allelogram1 ^: sides repres5t ! direction & quantity ( ^? =ces2 we may by comb9+ ^! tru?s ) propositions relat+ to ! prop]ties ( /raight l9es & ( p>allelograms1 7z t a triangle is half ( a p>allelogram ( ! same base & altitude17 d$uce ano!r important uni=mity ( succession1 viz4 t a body mov+ r\nd a c5tre ( =ce describes areas proportional to ! times4 ,b unless !re _h be5 laws ( succession 9 our premisses1 !re c\ld h be5 no tru?s ( succession 9 our conclusions4 ,a simil> rem>k might be ext5d$ to e o!r class ( ph5om5a really peculi>2 &1 _h x be5 att5d$ to1 w\ld h prev5t$ _m *im]ical attempts at demon/rations ( ! indemon/rable1 & explanations :i* d n expla94 ,x is n1 !re=e1 en\gh = u t ! laws ( space1 :i* are only laws ( simultane\s ph5om5a1 & ! laws ( numb]1 :i* ?\gh true ( successive ph5om5a d n relate to _! succession1 possess ! rigor\s c]ta9ty & univ]sality ( :i* we are 9 se>*4 ,we mu/ endeav\r to f9d "s law ( succession :i* has ^? same attributes1 & is !re=e fit to be made ! f\ndation ( processes = discov]+1 & ( a te/ = v]ify+1 all o!r uni=mities ( succession4 ,?is fundam5tal law mu/ resemble ! tru?s ( geometry 9 _! mo/ rem>kable peculi>ity1 t ( nev] be+1 9 any in/ance :atev]1 defeat$ or susp5d$ by any *ange ( circum/ances4 ,n[ among all ^? uni=mities 9 ! succession ( ph5om5a1 :i* common obs]vation is suffici5t to br+ to light1 !re are v few :i* h any1 ev5 app>5t1 pret5sion to ?is rigor\s indefeasibility3 & ( ^? few1 "o only has be5 f\nd capable ( completely su/a9+ x4 ,9 t "o1 h[ev]1 we recognise a law :i* is univ]sal also 9 ano!r s5se2 x is coext5sive ) ! entire field ( successive ph5om5a1 all in/ances :atev] ( succession be+ examples ( x4 ,?is law is ! ,law ( ,causation4 ,! tru?1 t e fact :i* has a beg9n+ has a cause1 is coext5sive ) human exp]i5ce4 ,?is g5]alization may appe> to "s m9ds n to am\nt to mu*1 s9ce aft] all x ass]ts only ?is3 8x is a law1 t e ev5t dep5ds on "s law40 ,we mu/ n1 h[ev]1 conclude t ! g5]ality ( ! pr9ciple is m]ely v]bal2 x w be f\nd on inspection to be no vague or unmean+ ass]tion1 b a mo/ important & really fundam5tal tru?4 #b4 ,! notion ( ,cause be+ ! root ( ! :ole !ory ( ,induction1 x is indisp5sable t ?is idea %\ld1 at ! v outset ( our inquiry1 be1 ) ! utmo/ practicable degree ( precision1 fix$ & det]m9$4 ,if1 inde$1 x 7 necess>y = ! purpose ( inductive logic t ! /rife %\ld be quell$1 :i* has s long rag$ among ! diff]5t s*ools ( metaphysicians1 respect+ ! orig9 & analysis ( our idea ( causation2 ! promulgation1 or at lea/ ! g5]al reception1 ( a true !ory ( induction1 might be consid]$ desp]ate1 = a long "t to come4 ,b ! sci5ce ( ! ,inve/igation ( ,tru? by means ( ,evid5ce1 is happily indep5d5t ( _m ( ! controv]sies :i* p]plex ! sci5ce ( ! ultimate con/itution ( ! human m9d1 & is "u no necessity ( pu%+ ! analysis ( m5tal ph5om5a to t extreme limit :i* alone ought to satisfy a metaphysician4 ,i premise1 !n1 t :5 9 ! c\rse ( ?is inquiry ,i speak ( ! cause ( any ph5om5on1 ,i d n mean a cause :i* is n itself a ph5om5on2 ,i make no rese>* into ! ultimate1 or ontological cause ( any?+4 ,to adopt a di/9ction famili> 9 ! writ+s ( ! ,scot* metaphysicians1 & especially ( ,reid1 ! causes ) :i* ,i conc]n myself are n effici5t1 b physical causes4 ,!y are causes 9 t s5se alone1 9 :i* "o physical fact is said to be ! cause ( ano!r4 ,( ! effici5t causes ( ph5om5a1 or :e!r any su* causes exi/ at all1 ,i am n call$ ^u to give an op9ion4 ,! notion ( causation is deem$1 by ! s*ools ( metaphysics mo/ 9 vogue at ! pres5t mom5t1 to imply a my/]i\s & mo/ p[]ful tie1 su* z _c1 or at lea/ does n1 exi/ betwe5 any physical fact & t o!r physical fact on :i* x is inv>iably consequ5t1 & :i* is popul>ly t]m$ its cause3 & !nce is d$uc$ ! suppos$ necessity ( asc5d+ high]1 into ! ess5ces & inh]5t con/itution ( ?+s1 to f9d ! true cause1 ! cause :i* is n only foll[$ by1 b actually produces1 ! effect4 ,no su* necessity exi/s = ! purposes ( ! pres5t inquiry1 nor w any su* doctr9e be f\nd 9 ! foll[+ pages4 ,b nei!r w !re be f\nd any?+ incompatible ) x4 ,we are 9 no way conc]n$ 9 ! "q4 ,! only notion ( a cause1 :i* ! !ory ( induction requires1 is su* a notion z c be ga9$ f exp]i5ce4 ,! ,law ( ,causation1 ! recognition ( :i* is ! ma9 pill> ( inductive sci5ce1 is b ! famili> tru?1 t inv>iability ( succession is f\nd by obs]vation to obta9 betwe5 e fact 9 nature & "s o!r fact :i* has prec$$ x2 indep5d5tly ( all consid]ation respect+ ! ultimate mode ( production ( ph5om5a1 & ( e o!r "q reg>d+ ! nature ( 8,?+s 9 !mselves40 ,betwe5 ! ph5om5a1 !n1 :i* exi/ at any in/ant1 & ! ph5om5a :i* exi/ at ! succe$+ in/ant1 !re is an inv>iable ord] ( succession2 &1 z we said 9 speak+ ( ! g5]al uni=mity ( ! c\rse ( nature1 ?is web is compos$ ( sep>ate fibres2 ?is collective ord] is made up ( p>ticul> sequ5ces1 obta9+ inv>iably among ! sep>ate p>ts4 ,to c]ta9 facts1 c]ta9 facts always d1 &1 z we believe1 w cont9ue to1 succe$4 ,! inv>iable antec$5t is t]m$ ! cause2 ! inv>iable consequ5t1 ! effect4 ,& ! univ]sality ( ! law ( causation consi/s 9 ?is1 t e consequ5t is connect$ 9 ?is mann] ) "s p>ticul> antec$5t1 or set ( antec$5ts4 ,let ! fact be :at x may1 if x has begun to exi/1 x 0 prec$$ by "s fact or facts1 ) :i* x is inv>iably connect$4 ,= e ev5t !re exi/s "s comb9ation ( objects or ev5ts1 "s giv5 concurr5ce ( circum/ances1 positive & negative1 ! occurr5ce ( :i* is always foll[$ by t ph5om5on4 ,we may n h f\nd out :at ?is concurr5ce ( circum/ances may be2 b we nev] d\bt t !re is su* a "o1 & t x nev] occurs )\t hav+ ! ph5om5on 9 "q z its effect or consequ5ce4 ,on ! univ]sality ( ?is tru? dep5ds ! possibility ( r$uc+ ! inductive process to rules4 ,! und\bt$ assurance we h t !re is a law to be f\nd if we only knew h[ to f9d x1 w be se5 pres5tly to be ! s\rce f :i* ! canons ( ! ,inductive ,logic d]ive _! validity4 #c4 ,x is seldom1 if ev]1 betwe5 a consequ5t & a s+le antec$5t1 t ?is inv>iable sequ5ce subsi/s4 ,x is usually betwe5 a consequ5t & ! sum ( sev]al antec$5ts2 ! concurr5ce ( all ( !m be+ requisite to produce1 t is1 to be c]ta9 ( be+ foll[$ by1 ! consequ5t4 ,9 su* cases x is v common to s+le out "o only ( ! antec$5ts "u ! d5om9ation ( ,cause1 call+ ! o!rs m]ely ,conditions4 ,?us1 if a p]son eats ( a p>ticul> di%1 & dies 9 consequ5ce1 t is1 w\ld n h di$ if he _h n eat5 ( x1 p w\ld be apt to say t eat+ ( t di% 0 ! cause ( 8 dea?4 ,!re ne$s n1 h[ev]1 be any inv>iable connexion betwe5 eat+ ( ! di% & dea?2 b !re c]ta9ly is1 among ! circum/ances :i* took place1 "s comb9ation or o!r on :i* dea? is inv>iably consequ5t3 z1 = in/ance1 ! act ( eat+ ( ! di%1 comb9$ ) a p>ticul> bodily con/itution1 a p>ticul> /ate ( pres5t heal?1 & p]haps ev5 a c]ta9 /ate ( ! atmosph]e2 ! :ole ( :i* circum/ances p]haps con/itut$ 9 ?is p>ticul> case ! conditions ( ! ph5om5on1 or 9 o!r words1 ! set ( antec$5ts :i* det]m9$ x1 & b = :i* x w\ld n h happ5$4 ,! real ,cause1 is ! :ole ( ^! antec$5ts2 & we h1 philosophically speak+1 no "r to give ! "n ( cause to "o ( !m1 exclusively ( ! o!rs4 ,:at1 9 ! case we h suppos$1 disguises ! incorrectness ( ! expression1 is ?is3 t ! v>i\s conditions1 except ! s+le "o ( eat+ ! food1 7 n ev5ts 7t is1 in/antane\s *anges1 or successions ( in/antane\s *anges7 b /ates1 possess+ m or less ( p]man5cy2 & might !re=e h prec$$ ! effect by an indef9ite l5g? ( duration1 = want ( ! ev5t :i* 0 requisite to complete ! requir$ concurr5ce ( conditions3 :ile z soon z t ev5t1 eat+ ! food1 occurs1 no o!r cause is wait$ =1 b ! effect beg9s imm$iately to take place3 & h5ce ! appe>ance is pres5t$ ( a m imm$iate & close connexion betwe5 ! effect & t "o antec$5t1 ?an betwe5 ! effect & ! rema9+ conditions4 ,b ?\gh we may ?9k prop] to give ! "n ( cause to t "o condition1 ! fulfilm5t ( :i* completes ! tale1 & br+s ab\t ! effect )\t fur!r delay2 ?is condition has really no clos] relation to ! effect ?an any ( ! o!r conditions has4 ,! production ( ! consequ5t requir$ t !y %\ld all exi/ imm$iately previ\s1 ?\gh n t !y %\ld all beg9 to exi/ imm$iately previ\s4 ,! /atem5t ( ! cause is incomplete1 unless 9 "s %ape or o!r we introduce all ! conditions4 ,a man takes m]cury1 goes out ( doors1 & cat*es cold4 ,we say1 p]haps1 t ! cause ( 8 tak+ cold 0 exposure to ! air4 ,x is cle>1 h[ev]1 t 8 hav+ tak5 m]cury may h be5 a necess>y condition ( 8 cat*+ cold2 & ?\gh x might consi/ ) usage to say t ! cause ( 8 attack 0 exposure to ! air1 to be accurate we ought to say t ! cause 0 exposure to ! air :ile "u ! effect ( m]cury4 ,if we d n1 :5 aim+ at accuracy1 enum]ate all ! conditions1 x is only because "s ( !m w 9 mo/ cases be und]/ood )\t be+ express$1 or because = ! purpose 9 view !y may )\t detrim5t be ov]look$4 ,= example1 :5 we say1 ! cause ( a man's dea? 0 t 8 foot slipp$ 9 climb+ a ladd]1 we omit z a ?+ unnecess>y to be /at$ ! circum/ance ( 8 weight1 ?\gh q z indisp5sable a condition ( ! effect :i* took place4 ,:5 we say t ! ass5t ( ! cr[n to a bill makes x law1 we mean t ! ass5t1 be+ nev] giv5 until all ! o!r conditions are fulfill$1 makes up ! sum ( ! conditions1 ?\gh no "o n[ reg>ds x z ! pr9cipal "o4 ,:5 ! decision ( a legislative assembly has be5 det]m9$ by ! ca/+ vote ( ! *airman1 we sometimes say t ?is "o p]son 0 ! cause ( all ! effects :i* result$ f ! enactm5t4 ,yet we d n really suppose t 8 s+le vote contribut$ m to ! result ?an t ( any o!r p]son :o vot$ 9 ! affirmative2 b1 = ! purpose we h 9 view1 :i* is to insi/ on 8 %>e ( ! responsibility1 ! "p :i* any o!r p]son _h 9 ! transaction is n mat]ial4 ,9 all ^! in/ances ! fact :i* 0 dignifi$ by ! "n ( cause1 0 ! "o condition :i* came la/ into exi/5ce4 ,b x mu/ n be suppos$ t 9 ! employm5t ( ! t]m ?is or any o!r rule is always adh]$ to4 ,no?+ c bett] %ew ! abs5ce ( any sci5tific gr\nd = ! di/9ction betwe5 ! cause ( a ph5om5on & its conditions1 ?an ! caprici\s mann] 9 :i* we select f among ! conditions t :i* we *oose to d5om9ate ! cause4 ,h[ev] num]\s ! conditions may be1 !re is h>dly any ( !m :i* may n1 accord+ to ! purpose ( our imm$iate disc\rse1 obta9 t nom9al pre-em95ce4 ,?is w be se5 by analys+ ! conditions ( "s "o famili> ph5om5on4 ,= example1 a /one ?r[n into wat] falls to ! bottom4 ,:at are ! conditions ( ?is ev5t8 ,9 ! fir/ place !re mu/ be a /one1 & wat]1 & ! /one mu/ be ?r[n into ! wat]2 b1 ^! suppositions =m+ "p ( ! enunciation ( ! ph5om5on itself1 to include !m also among ! conditions w\ld be a vici\s tautology1 & ?is class ( conditions1 !re=e1 h nev] receiv$ ! "n ( cause f any b ! s*oolm51 by :om !y 7 call$ ! mat]ial cause1 causa mat]ialis4 ,! next condition is1 !re mu/ be an e>?3 & accord+ly x is (t5 said1 t ! fall ( a /one is caus$ by ! e>?2 or by a p[] or prop]ty ( ! e>?1 or a =ce ex]t$ by ! e>?1 all ( :i* are m]ely r\ndab\t ways ( say+ t x is caus$ by ! e>?2 or1 la/ly1 ! e>?'s attraction2 :i* also is only a te*nical mode ( say+ t ! e>? causes ! motion1 ) ! additional p>ticul>ity t ! motion is t[>ds ! e>?1 :i* is n a "* ( ! cause1 b ( ! effect4 ,let u n[ pass to ano!r condition4 ,x is n en\gh t ! e>? %\ld exi/2 ! body mu/ be )9 t di/ance f x1 9 :i* ! e>?'s attraction prepond]ates ov] t ( any o!r body4 ,accord+ly we may say1 & ! expression w\ld be confess$ly correct1 t ! cause ( ! /one's fall+ is its be+ )9 ! sph]e ( ! e>?'s attraction4 ,we proce$ to a fur!r condition4 ,! /one is imm]s$ 9 wat]3 x is !re=e a condition ( its rea*+ ! gr\nd1 t its specific gravity exce$ t ( ! surr\nd+ fluid1 or 9 o!r words t x surpass 9 weight an equal volume ( wat]4 ,accord+ly any "o w\ld be ackn[l$g$ to speak correctly :o said1 t ! cause ( ! /one's go+ to ! bottom is its exce$+ 9 specific gravity ! fluid 9 :i* x is imm]s$4 ,?us we see t ea* & e condition ( ! ph5om5on may be tak5 9 its turn1 &1 ) equal propriety 9 common p>lance1 b ) equal impropriety 9 sci5tific disc\rse1 may be spok5 ( z if x 7 ! entire cause4 ,& 9 practice t p>ticul> condition is usually /yl$ ! cause1 ^: %>e 9 ! matt] is sup]ficially ! mo/ conspicu\s or ^: requisit5ess to ! production ( ! effect we happ5 to be insi/+ on at ! mom5t4 ,s great is ! =ce ( ?is la/ consid]ation1 t x sometimes induces u to give ! "n ( cause ev5 to "o ( ! negative conditions4 ,we say1 = example1 ,! army 0 surpris$ because ! s5t9el 0 (f 8 po/4 ,b s9ce ! s5t9el's abs5ce 0 n :at creat$ ! enemy1 or put ! soldi]s asleep1 h[ did x cause !m to be surpris$8 ,all t is really meant is1 t ! ev5t w\ld n h happ5$ if he _h be5 at 8 duty4 ,8 be+ (f 8 po/ 0 no produc+ cause1 b ! m]e abs5ce ( a prev5t+ cause3 x 0 simply equival5t to 8 non-exi/5ce4 ,f no?+1 f a m]e negation1 no consequ5ces c proce$4 ,all effects are connect$1 by ! law ( causation1 ) "s set ( positive conditions2 negative ones1 x is true1 be+ almo/ always requir$ 9 addition4 ,9 o!r words1 e fact or ph5om5on :i* has a beg9n+1 inv>iably arises :5 "s c]ta9 comb9ation ( positive facts exi/s1 provid$ c]ta9 o!r positive facts d n exi/4 ,!re is1 no d\bt1 a t5d5cy 7:i* our fir/ example1 t ( dea? f tak+ a p>ticul> food1 suffici5tly illu/rates7 to associate ! idea ( causation ) ! proximate antec$5t ev5t1 r ?an ) any ( ! antec$5t /ates1 or p]man5t facts1 :i* may happ5 also to be conditions ( ! ph5om5on2 ! reason be+ t ! ev5t n only exi/s1 b beg9s to exi/1 imm$iately previ\s2 :ile ! o!r conditions may h preexi/$ = an indef9ite "t4 ,& ?is t5d5cy %[s itself v visibly 9 ! diff]5t logical fictions :i* are resort$ to1 ev5 by m5 ( sci5ce1 to avoid ! necessity ( giv+ ! "n ( cause to any?+ :i* _h exi/$ = an indet]m9ate l5g? ( "t be=e ! effect4 ,?us1 r ?an say t ! e>? causes ! fall ( bodies1 !y ascribe x to a =ce ex]t$ by ! e>?1 or an attraction by ! e>?1 ab/ractions :i* !y c repres5t to !mselves z exhau/$ by ea* ef=t1 & !re=e con/itut+ at ea* successive in/ant a fre% fact1 simultane\s )1 or only imm$iately prec$+1 ! effect4 ,inasmu* z ! com+ ( ! circum/ance :i* completes ! assemblage ( conditions1 is a *ange or ev5t1 x !nce happ5s t an ev5t is always ! antec$5t 9 close/ app>5t proximity to ! consequ5t3 & ?is may acc\nt = ! illusion :i* disposes u to look ^u ! proximate ev5t z /&+ m peculi>ly 9 ! position ( a cause ?an any ( ! antec$5t /ates4 ,b ev5 ?is peculi>ity1 ( be+ 9 clos] proximity to ! effect ?an any o!r ( its conditions1 is1 z we h already se51 f> f be+ necess>y to ! common notion ( a cause2 ) :i* notion1 on ! contr>y1 any "o ( ! conditions1 ei!r positive or negative1 is f\nd1 on occasion1 completely to accord47#fe7 ,! cause1 !n1 philosophically speak+1 is ! sum total ( ! conditions1 positive & negative tak5 toge!r2 ! :ole ( ! cont+5cies ( e description1 :i* be+ realiz$1 ! consequ5t inv>iably foll[s4 ,! negative conditions1 h[ev]1 ( any ph5om5on1 a special enum]ation ( :i* w\ld g5]ally be v prolix1 may be all summ$ up "u "o head1 namely1 ! abs5ce ( prev5t+ or c\nt]act+ causes4 ,! conv5i5ce ( ?is mode ( expression is ma9ly gr\nd$ on ! fact1 t ! effects ( any cause 9 c\nt]act+ ano!r cause may 9 mo/ cases be1 ) /rict sci5tific exactness1 reg>d$ z a m]e ext5sion ( its own prop] & sep>ate effects4 ,if gravity ret>ds ! upw>d motion ( a projectile1 & deflects x into a p>abolic trajectory1 x produces1 9 s do+1 ! v same k9d ( effect1 & ev5 7z ma!maticians "k7 ! same quantity ( effect1 z x does 9 its ord9>y op]ation ( caus+ ! fall ( bodies :5 simply depriv$ ( _! support4 ,if an alkal9e solution mix$ ) an acid de/roys its s\rness1 & prev5ts x f r$d5+ vegetable blues1 x is because ! specific effect ( ! alkali is to comb9e ) ! acid1 & =m a comp\nd ) totally diff]5t qualities4 ,?is prop]ty1 :i* causes ( all descriptions possess1 ( prev5t+ ! effects ( o!r causes by virtue 7= ! mo/ "p7 ( ! same laws accord+ to :i* !y produce _! own17#ff7 enables u1 by e/abli%+ ! g5]al axiom t all causes are liable to be c\nt]act$ 9 _! effects by "o ano!r1 to disp5se ) ! consid]ation ( negative conditions entirely1 & limit ! notion ( cause to ! assemblage ( ! positive conditions ( ! ph5om5on3 "o negative condition inv>iably und]/ood1 & ! same 9 all in/ances 7namely1 ! abs5ce ( all c\nt]act+ causes7 be+ suffici5t1 along ) ! sum ( ! positive conditions1 to make up ! :ole set ( circum/ances on :i* ! ph5om5on is dep5d5t4 #d4 ,among ! positive conditions1 z we h se5 t !re are "s to :i*1 9 common p>lance1 ! t]m cause is m readily & frequ5tly aw>d$1 s !re are o!rs to :i* x is1 9 ord9>y circum/ances1 refus$4 ,9 mo/ cases ( causation a di/9ction is commonly drawn betwe5 some?+ :i* acts1 & "s o!r ?+ :i* is act$ ^u2 betwe5 an ag5t & a pati5t4 ,bo? ( ^!1 x w\ld be univ]sally all[$1 are conditions ( ! ph5om5on2 b x w\ld be ?\ght absurd to call ! latt] ! cause1 t title be+ res]v$ = ! =m]4 ,! di/9ction1 h[ev]1 vani%es on exam9ation1 or r is f\nd to be only v]bal2 aris+ f an incid5t ( m]e expression1 namely1 t ! object said to be act$ ^u1 & :i* is consid]$ z ! sc5e 9 :i* ! effect takes place1 is commonly includ$ 9 ! phrase by :i* ! effect is spok5 (1 s t if x 7 also reckon$ z "p ( ! cause1 ! seem+ incongruity w\ld arise ( its be+ suppos$ to cause itself4 ,9 ! in/ance :i* we h already _h1 ( fall+ bodies1 ! "q 0 ?us put3--,:at is ! cause :i* makes a /one fall8 & if ! answ] _h be5 8! /one itself10 ! expression w\ld h be5 9 app>5t contradiction to ! mean+ ( ! ^w cause4 ,! /one1 !re=e1 is conceiv$ z ! pati5t1 & ! e>? 7or1 accord+ to ! common & mo/ unphilosophical practice1 "s occult quality ( ! e>?7 is repres5t$ z ! ag5t1 or cause4 ,b t !re is no?+ fundam5tal 9 ! di/9ction may be se5 f ?is1 t x is q possible to conceive ! /one z caus+ its own fall1 provid$ ! language employ$ be su* z to save ! m]e v]bal incongruity4 ,we might say t ! /one moves t[>ds ! e>? by ! prop]ties ( ! matt] compos+ x2 & accord+ to ?is mode ( pres5t+ ! ph5om5on1 ! /one itself might )\t impropriety be call$ ! ag5t2 al?\gh1 to save ! e/abli%$ doctr9e ( ! inactivity ( matt]1 m5 usually pref] "h also to ascribe ! effect to an occult quality1 & say t ! cause is n ! /one itself1 b ! weight or gravitation ( ! /one4 ,^? :o h cont5d$ = a radical di/9ction betwe5 ag5t & pati5t1 h g5]ally conceiv$ ! ag5t z t :i* causes "s /ate (1 or "s *ange 9 ! /ate (1 ano!r object :i* is call$ ! pati5t4 ,b a little reflection w %[ t ! lic5ce we assume ( speak+ ( ph5om5a z /ates ( ! v>i\s objects :i* take "p 9 !m1 7an artifice ( :i* s mu* use has be5 made by "s philosoph]s1 ,br[n 9 p>ticul>1 = ! app>5t explanation ( ph5om5a17 is simply a sort ( logical fiction1 useful sometimes z "o among sev]al modes ( expression1 b :i* %\ld nev] be suppos$ to be ! /atem5t ( a sci5tific tru?4 ,ev5 ^? attributes ( an object :i* might seem ) greate/ propriety to be call$ /ates ( ! object itself1 its s5sible qualities1 its col\r1 h>dness1 %ape1 & ! l1 are1 9 reality1 7z no "o has po9t$ out m cle>ly ?an ,br[n himself17 ph5om5a ( causation1 9 :i* ! sub/ance is di/9ctly ! ag5t1 or produc+ cause1 ! pati5t be+ our own organs1 & ^? ( o!r s5ti5t be+s4 ,:at we call /ates ( objects1 are always sequ5ces into :i* ^? ! objects ent]1 g5]ally z antec$5ts or causes2 & ?+s are nev] m active ?an 9 ! production ( ^? ph5om5a 9 :i* !y are said to be act$ ^u4 ,?us1 9 ! example ( a /one fall+ to ! e>?1 accord+ to ! !ory ( gravitation ! /one is z mu* an ag5t z ! e>?1 :i* n only attracts1 b is itself attract$ by1 ! /one4 ,9 ! case ( a s5sation produc$ 9 our organs1 ! laws ( our organization1 & ev5 ^? ( our m9ds1 are z directly op]ative 9 det]m9+ ! effect produc$1 z ! laws ( ! outw>d object4 ,?\gh we call prussic acid ! ag5t ( a p]son's dea?1 ! :ole ( ! vital & organic prop]ties ( ! pati5t are z actively in/rum5tal z ! poison1 9 ! *a9 ( effects :i* s rapidly t]m9ates 8 s5ti5t exi/5ce4 ,9 ! process ( education1 we may call ! tea*] ! ag5t1 & ! s*ol> only ! mat]ial act$ ^u2 yet 9 tru? all ! facts :i* pre-exi/$ 9 ! s*ol>'s m9d ex]t ei!r co-op]at+ or c\nt]act+ ag5cies 9 relation to ! tea*]'s ef=ts4 ,x is n light alone :i* is ! ag5t 9 vision1 b light c\pl$ ) ! active prop]ties ( ! eye & bra91 & ) ^? ( ! visible object4 ,! di/9ction betwe5 ag5t & pati5t is m]ely v]bal3 pati5ts are always ag5ts2 9 a great proportion1 inde$1 ( all natural ph5om5a1 !y are s to su* a degree z to react =cibly ^u ! causes :i* act$ ^u !m3 & ev5 :5 ?is is n ! case1 !y contribute1 9 ! same mann] z any ( ! o!r conditions1 to ! production ( ! effect ( :i* !y are vulg>ly treat$ z ! m]e !atre4 ,all ! positive conditions ( a ph5om5on are alike ag5ts1 alike active2 & 9 any expression ( ! cause :i* pr(esses to be a complete "o1 none ( !m c ) reason be exclud$1 except su* z h already be5 impli$ 9 ! words us$ = describ+ ! effect2 nor by includ+ ev5 ^! w\ld !re be incurr$ any b a m]ely v]bal inconsi/5cy4 #e4 ,x n[ rema9s to adv]t to a di/9ction :i* is ( fir/-rate importance bo? = cle>+ up ! notion ( cause1 & = obviat+ a v speci\s objection (t5 made aga9/ ! view :i* we h tak5 ( ! subject4 ,:5 we def9e ! cause ( any?+ 79 ! only s5se 9 :i* ! pres5t inquiry has any conc]n ) causes7 to be 8! antec$5t :i* x inv>iably foll[s10 we d n use ?is phrase z exactly synonym\s ) 8! antec$5t :i* x inv>iably has foll[$ 9 our pa/ exp]i5ce40 ,su* a mode ( conceiv+ causation w\ld be liable to ! objection v plausibly urg$ by ,dr4 ,reid1 namely1 t accord+ to ?is doctr9e night mu/ be ! cause ( day1 & day ! cause ( night2 s9ce ^! ph5om5a h inv>iably succe$$ "o ano!r f ! beg9n+ ( ! _w4 ,b x is necess>y to our us+ ! ^w cause1 t we %\ld believe n only t ! antec$5t always has be5 foll[$ by ! consequ5t1 b t1 z long z ! pres5t con/itution ( ?+s endures1 x always w be s4 ,& ?is w\ld n be true ( day & night4 ,we d n believe t night w be foll[$ by day "u all imag9able circum/ances1 b only t x w be s provid$ ! sun rises above ! horizon4 ,if ! sun ceas$ to rise1 :i*1 = aught we "k1 may be p]fectly compatible ) ! g5]al laws ( matt]1 night w\ld be1 or might be1 et]nal4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if ! sun is above ! horizon1 8 light n ext9ct1 & no opaque body betwe5 u & him1 we believe firmly t unless a *ange takes place 9 ! prop]ties ( matt]1 ?is comb9ation ( antec$5ts w be foll[$ by ! consequ5t1 day2 t if ! comb9ation ( antec$5ts c\ld be indef9itely prolong$1 x w\ld be always day2 & t if ! same comb9ation _h always exi/$1 x w\ld always h be5 day1 q indep5d5tly ( night z a previ\s condition4 ,!re=e is x t we d n call night ! cause1 nor ev5 a condition1 ( day4 ,! exi/5ce ( ! sun 7or "s su* lum9\s body71 & !re be+ no opaque m$ium 9 a /raight l9e7#fg7 betwe5 t body & ! "p ( ! e>? :]e we are situat$1 are ! sole conditions2 & ! union ( ^!1 )\t ! addition ( any sup]flu\s circum/ance1 con/itutes ! cause4 ,?is is :at writ]s mean :5 !y say t ! notion ( cause involves ! idea ( necessity4 ,if !re be any mean+ :i* confess$ly belongs to ! t]m necessity1 x is unconditionalness4 ,t :i* is necess>y1 t :i* mu/ be1 means t :i* w be1 :atev] supposition we may make 9 reg>d to all o!r ?+s4 ,! succession ( day & night evid5tly is n necess>y 9 ?is s5se4 ,x is conditional on ! occurr5ce ( o!r antec$5ts4 ,t :i* w be foll[$ by a giv5 consequ5t :51 & only :51 "s ?ird circum/ance also exi/s1 is n ! cause1 ev5 ?\gh no case %\ld h ev] occurr$ 9 :i* ! ph5om5on took place )\t x4 ,inv>iable sequ5ce1 !re=e1 is n synonym\s ) causation1 unless ! sequ5ce1 besides be+ inv>iable1 is unconditional4 ,!re are sequ5ces1 z uni=m 9 pa/ exp]i5ce z any o!rs :atev]1 :i* yet we d n reg>d z cases ( causation1 b z conjunctions 9 "s sort accid5tal4 ,su*1 to an accurate ?9k]1 is t ( day & night4 ,! "o might h exi/$ = any l5g? ( "t1 & ! o!r n h foll[$ ! soon] = its exi/5ce2 x foll[s only if c]ta9 o!r antec$5ts exi/2 & :]e ^? antec$5ts exi/$1 x w\ld foll[ 9 any case4 ,no "o1 probably1 ev] call$ night ! cause ( day2 mank9d mu/ s soon h arriv$ at ! v obvi\s g5]alization1 t ! /ate ( g5]al illum9ation :i* we call day w\ld foll[ ! pres5ce ( a suffici5tly lum9\s body1 :e!r d>kness _h prec$$ or n4 ,we may def9e1 !re=e1 ! cause ( a ph5om5on1 to be ! antec$5t1 or ! concurr5ce ( antec$5ts1 on :i* x is inv>iably & unconditionally consequ5t4 ,or if we adopt ! conv5i5t modification ( ! mean+ ( ! ^w cause1 :i* conf9es x to ! assemblage ( positive conditions )\t ! negative1 !n in/ead ( 8unconditionally10 we mu/ say1 8subject to no o!r ?an negative conditions40 ,x is evid5t1 t f a limit$ numb] ( unconditional sequ5ces1 !re w result a mu* great] numb] ( conditional ones4 ,c]ta9 causes be+ giv51 t is1 c]ta9 antec$5ts :i* are unconditionally foll[$ by c]ta9 consequ5ts2 ! m]e coexi/5ce ( ^! causes w give rise to an unlimit$ numb] ( additional uni=mities4 ,if two causes exi/ toge!r1 ! effects ( bo? w exi/ toge!r2 & if _m causes coexi/1 ^! causes 7by :at we %all t]m h]eaft] ! int]mixture ( _! laws7 w give rise to new effects1 accompany+ or succe$+ "o ano!r 9 "s p>ticul> ord]1 :i* ord] w be inv>iable :ile ! causes cont9ue to coexi/1 b no long]4 ,! motion ( ! e>? 9 a giv5 orbit r\nd ! sun1 is a s]ies ( *anges :i* foll[ "o ano!r z antec$5ts & consequ5ts1 & w cont9ue to d s :ile ! sun's attraction1 & ! =ce ) :i* ! e>? t5ds to advance 9 a direct l9e ?r\gh space1 cont9ue to coexi/ 9 ! same quantities z at pres5t4 ,b v>y ei!r ( ^! causes1 & ! unv>y+ succession ( motions w\ld cease to take place4 ,! s]ies ( ! e>?'s motions1 !re=e1 ?\gh a case ( sequ5ce inv>iable )9 ! limits ( human exp]i5ce1 is n a case ( causation4 ,x is n unconditional4 ,?is di/9ction betwe5 ! relations ( succession :i* s f> z we "k are unconditional1 & ^? relations1 :e!r ( succession or ( coexi/5ce1 :i*1 l ! e>?'s motions1 or ! succession ( day & night1 dep5d on ! exi/5ce or on ! coexi/5ce ( o!r antec$5t facts--corresponds to ! great division :i* ,dr4 ,:ewell & o!r writ]s h made ( ! field ( sci5ce1 into ! inve/igation ( :at !y t]m ! ,laws ( ,ph5om5a1 & ! inve/igation ( causes2 a phraseology1 z ,i conceive1 n philosophically su/a9able1 inasmu* z ! asc]ta9m5t ( causes1 su* causes z ! human faculties c asc]ta91 namely1 causes :i* are !mselves ph5om5a1 is1 !re=e1 m]ely ! asc]ta9m5t ( o!r & m univ]sal ,laws ( ,ph5om5a4 ,yet ! di/9ction1 h[ev] incorrectly express$1 is n only real1 b is "o ( ! fundam5tal di/9ctions 9 sci5ce2 inde$ x is on ?is alone1 z we %all h]eaft] f9d1 t ! possibility re/s ( fram+ a rigor\s ,canon ( ,induction4 #f4 ,does a cause always /& ) its effect 9 ! relation ( antec$5t & consequ5t8 ,d we n (t5 say ( two simultane\s facts t !y are cause & effect--z :5 we say t fire is ! cause ( w>m?1 ! sun & moi/ure ! cause ( vegetation1 & ! l8 ,s9ce a cause does n necess>ily p]i% because its effect has be5 produc$1 ! two ?+s d v g5]ally coexi/2 & !re are "s appe>ances1 & "s common expressions1 seem+ to imply n only t causes may1 b t !y mu/1 be contemporane\s ) _! effects4 ,cessante caus cessat et effectus1 has be5 a dogma ( ! s*ools3 ! necessity = ! cont9u$ exi/5ce ( ! cause 9 ord] to ! cont9uance ( ! effect1 seems to h be5 once a g5]ally receiv$ doctr9e4 ,kepl]'s num]\s attempts to acc\nt = ! motions ( ! heav5ly bodies on me*anical pr9ciples1 7 r5d]$ abortive by 8 always suppos+ t ! =ce :i* set ^? bodies 9 motion mu/ cont9ue to op]ate 9 ord] to keep up ! motion :i* x at fir/ produc$4 ,yet !re 7 at all times _m famili> in/ances ( ! cont9uance ( effects1 long aft] _! causes _h ceas$4 ,a c\p de soleil gives a p]son a bra9 fev]3 w ! fev] g (f z soon z he is mov$ out ( ! sun%9e8 ,a sword is run ?r\gh 8 body3 mu/ ! sword rema9 9 8 body 9 ord] t he may cont9ue dead8 ,a pl\gh%>e once made1 rema9s a pl\gh%>e1 )\t any cont9uance ( heat+ & hamm]+1 & ev5 aft] ! man :o heat$ & hamm]$ x has be5 ga!r$ to 8 fa!rs4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! pressure :i* =ces up ! m]cury 9 an exhau/$ tube mu/ be cont9u$ 9 ord] to su/a9 x 9 ! tube4 ,?is 7x may be repli$7 is because ano!r =ce is act+ )\t int]mission1 ! =ce ( gravity1 :i* w\ld re/ore x to its level1 unless c\nt]pois$ by a =ce equally con/ant4 ,b aga92 a tight b&age causes pa91 :i* pa9 w sometimes g (f z soon z ! b&age is remov$4 ,! illum9ation :i* ! sun diffuses ov] ! e>? ceases :5 ! sun goes d[n4 ,!re is1 !re=e1 a di/9ction to be drawn4 ,! conditions :i* are necess>y = ! fir/ production ( a ph5om5on1 are occasionally also necess>y = its cont9uance2 b m commonly its cont9uance requires no condition except negative ones4 ,mo/ ?+s1 once produc$1 cont9ue z !y are1 until some?+ *anges or de/roys !m2 b "s require ! p]man5t pres5ce ( ! ag5cies :i* produc$ !m at fir/4 ,^! may1 if we please1 be consid]$ z in/antane\s ph5om5a1 requir+ to be r5ew$ at ea* in/ant by ! cause by :i* !y 7 at fir/ g5]at$4 ,accord+ly1 ! illum9ation ( any giv5 po9t ( space has always be5 look$ ^u z an in/antane\s fact1 :i* p]i%es & is p]petually r5ew$ z long z ! necess>y conditions subsi/4 ,if we adopt ?is language we avoid ! necessity ( admitt+ t ! cont9uance ( ! cause is ev] requir$ to ma9ta9 ! effect4 ,we may say1 x is n requir$ to ma9ta91 b to reproduce ! effect1 or else to c\nt]act "s =ce t5d+ to de/roy x4 ,& ?is may be a conv5i5t phraseology4 ,b x is only a phraseology4 ,! fact rema9s1 t 9 "s cases 7?\gh ^! are a m9ority7 ! cont9uance ( ! conditions :i* produc$ an effect is necess>y to ! cont9uance ( ! effect4 ,z to ! ult]ior "q1 :e!r x is /rictly necess>y t ! cause1 or assemblage ( conditions1 %\ld prec$e1 by ev] s %ort an in/ant1 ! production ( ! effect1 7a "q rais$ & argu$ ) mu* +5uity by a writ] f :om ,i h quot$17#fh77 ,i ?9k ! inquiry an unimportant "o4 ,!re c]ta9ly are cases 9 :i* ! effect foll[s )\t any int]val p]ceptible by our faculties2 & :5 !re is an int]val1 we _c tell by h[ _m int]m$iate l9ks imp]ceptible to u t int]val may really be fill$ up4 ,b ev5 grant+ t an effect may comm5ce simultane\sly ) its cause1 ! view ,i h tak5 ( causation is 9 no way practically affect$4 ,:e!r ! cause & its effect be necess>ily successive or n1 causation is /ill ! law ( ! succession ( ph5om5a4 ,ev]y?+ :i* beg9s to exi/ mu/ h a cause2 :at does n beg9 to exi/ does n ne$ a cause2 :at causation has to acc\nt = is ! orig9 ( ph5om5a1 & all ! successions ( ph5om5a mu/ be resolvable into causation4 ,^! are ! axioms ( our doctr9e4 ,if ^! be grant$1 we c af=d1 ?\gh ,i see no necessity = do+ s1 to drop ! words antec$5t & consequ5t z appli$ to cause & effect4 ,i h no objection to def9e a cause1 ! assemblage ( ph5om5a1 :i* occurr+1 "s o!r ph5om5on inv>iably comm5ces1 or has its orig94 ,:e!r ! effect co9cides 9 po9t ( "t )1 or imm$iately foll[s1 ! h9dmo/ ( its conditions1 is immat]ial4 ,at all ev5ts x does n prec$e x2 & :5 we are 9 d\bt1 betwe5 two coexi/5t ph5om5a1 :i* is cause & :i* effect1 we rightly deem ! "q solv$ if we c asc]ta9 :i* ( !m prec$$ ! o!r4 #g4 ,x cont9ually happ5s t sev]al diff]5t ph5om5a1 :i* are n 9 ! slighte/ degree dep5d5t or conditional on "o ano!r1 are f\nd all to dep5d1 z ! phrase is1 on "o & ! same ag5t2 9 o!r words1 "o & ! same ph5om5on is se5 to be foll[$ by sev]al sorts ( effects q het]og5e\s1 b :i* g on simultane\sly "o ) ano!r2 provid$1 ( c\rse1 t all o!r conditions requisite = ea* ( !m also exi/4 ,?us1 ! sun produces ! cele/ial motions1 x produces daylight1 & x produces heat4 ,! e>? causes ! fall ( heavy bodies1 & x also1 9 its capacity ( an imm5se magnet1 causes ! ph5om5a ( ! magnetic ne$le4 ,a cry/al ( gal5a causes ! s5sations ( h>dness1 ( weight1 ( cubical =m1 ( grey col\r1 & _m o!rs betwe5 :i* we c trace no int]dep5d5ce4 ,! purpose to :i* ! phraseology ( ,prop]ties & ,p[]s is specially adapt$1 is ! expression ( ?is sort ( cases4 ,:5 ! same ph5om5on is foll[$ 7ei!r subject or n to ! pres5ce ( o!r conditions7 by effects ( diff]5t & dissimil> ord]s1 x is usual to say t ea* diff]5t sort ( effect is produc$ by a diff]5t prop]ty ( ! cause4 ,?us we di/+ui% ! attractive or gravitative prop]ty ( ! e>?1 & its magnetic prop]ty3 ! gravitative1 lum9if]\s1 & calorific prop]ties ( ! sun3 ! col\r1 %ape1 weight1 & h>dness ( a cry/al4 ,^! are m]e phrases1 :i* expla9 no?+1 & add no?+ to our k ( ! subject2 b1 consid]$ z ab/ract names d5ot+ ! connexion betwe5 ! diff]5t effects produc$ & ! object :i* produces !m1 !y are a v p[]ful in/rum5t ( abridgm5t1 & ( t accel]ation ( ! process ( ?\ght :i* abridgm5t accompli%es4 ,?is class ( consid]ations leads to a conception :i* we %all f9d to be ( great importance1 t ( a ,p]man5t ,cause1 or orig9al natural ag5t4 ,!re exi/ 9 nature a numb] ( p]man5t causes1 :i* h subsi/$ ev] s9ce ! human race has be5 9 exi/5ce1 & = an indef9ite & probably an enorm\s l5g? ( "t previ\s4 ,! sun1 ! e>?1 & planets1 ) _! v>i\s con/itu5ts1 air1 wat]1 & ! o!r di/+ui%able sub/ances1 :e!r simple or comp\nd1 ( :i* nature is made up1 are su* ,p]man5t ,causes4 ,^! h exi/$1 & ! effects or consequ5ces :i* !y 7 fitt$ to produce h tak5 place1 7z (t5 z ! o!r conditions ( ! production met17 f ! v beg9n+ ( our exp]i5ce4 ,b we c give no acc\nt ( ! orig9 ( ! ,p]man5t ,causes !mselves4 ,:y ^! p>ticul> natural ag5ts exi/$ orig9ally & no o!rs1 or :y !y are comm+l$ 9 su* & su* proportions1 & di/ribut$ 9 su* & su* a mann] ?r\gh\t space1 is a "q we _c answ]4 ,m ?an ?is3 we c discov] no?+ regul> 9 ! di/ribution itself2 we c r$uce x to no uni=mity1 to no law4 ,!re are no means by :i*1 f ! di/ribution ( ^! causes or ag5ts 9 "o "p ( space1 we c\ld conjecture :e!r a simil> di/ribution prevails 9 ano!r4 ,! coexi/5ce1 !re=e1 ( ,primeval ,causes1 ranks1 to u1 among m]ely casual concurr5ces3 & all ^? sequ5ces or coexi/5ces among ! effects ( sev]al su* causes1 :i*1 ?\gh inv>iable :ile ^? causes coexi/1 w\ld1 if ! coexi/5ce t]m9at$1 t]m9ate along ) x1 we d n class z cases ( causation1 or laws ( nature3 we c only calculate on f9d+ ^! sequ5ces or coexi/5ces :]e we "k by direct evid5ce1 t ! natural ag5ts on ! prop]ties ( :i* !y ultimately dep5d1 are di/ribut$ 9 ! requisite mann]4 ,^! ,p]man5t ,causes are n always objects2 !y are sometimes ev5ts1 t is to say1 p]iodical cycles ( ev5ts1 t be+ ! only mode 9 :i* ev5ts c possess ! prop]ty ( p]man5ce4 ,n only1 = in/ance1 is ! e>? itself a p]man5t cause1 or primitive natural ag5t1 b ! e>?'s rotation is s too3 x is a cause :i* has produc$1 f ! e>lie/ p]iod1 7by ! aid ( o!r necess>y conditions17 ! succession ( day & night1 ! ebb & fl[ ( ! sea1 & _m o!r effects1 :ile1 z we c assign no cause 7except conjecturally7 = ! rotation itself1 x is entitl$ to be rank$ z a primeval cause4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 only ! orig9 ( ! rotation :i* is my/]i\s to u3 once begun1 its cont9uance is acc\nt$ = by ! fir/ law ( motion 7t ( ! p]man5ce ( rectil9e> motion once impress$7 comb9$ ) ! gravitation ( ! p>ts ( ! e>? t[>ds "o ano!r4 ,all ph5om5a )\t exception :i* beg9 to exi/1 t is1 all except ! primeval causes1 are effects ei!r imm$iate or remote ( ^? primitive facts1 or ( "s comb9ation ( !m4 ,!re is no ,?+ produc$1 no ev5t happ5+1 9 ! kn[n univ]se1 :i* is n connect$ by an uni=mity1 or inv>iable sequ5ce1 ) "s "o or m ( ! ph5om5a :i* prec$$ x2 insomu* t x w happ5 aga9 z (t5 z ^? ph5om5a occur aga91 & z no o!r ph5om5on hav+ ! "* ( a c\nt]act+ cause %all coexi/4 ,^! antec$5t ph5om5a1 aga91 7 connect$ 9 a simil> mann] ) "s t prec$$ !m2 & s on1 until we rea*1 z ! ultimate /ep atta9able by u1 ei!r ! prop]ties ( "s "o primeval cause1 or ! conjunction ( sev]al4 ,! :ole ( ! ph5om5a ( nature 7 !re=e ! necess>y1 or 9 o!r words1 ! unconditional1 consequ5ces ( "s =m] collocation ( ! ,p]man5t ,causes4 ,! /ate ( ! :ole univ]se at any in/ant1 we believe to be ! consequ5ce ( its /ate at ! previ\s in/ant2 insomu* t "o :o knew all ! ag5ts :i* exi/ at ! pres5t mom5t1 _! collocation 9 space1 & _! prop]ties1 9 o!r words ! laws ( _! ag5cy1 c\ld pr$ict ! :ole subsequ5t hi/ory ( ! univ]se1 at lea/ unless "s new volition ( a p[] capable ( controll+ ! univ]se %\ld sup]v5e47#fi7 ,& if any p>ticul> /ate ( ! entire univ]se c\ld ev] recur a second "t1 all subsequ5t /ates w\ld return too1 & hi/ory w\ld1 l a circulat+ decimal ( _m figures1 p]iodically repeat itself3-- ,jam r$it et virgo1 r$eunt ,saturnia regna4444 ,alt] erit tum ,tiphys1 et alt]a qu vehat ,argo ,delectos h]oas2 erunt quoque alt]a bella1 ,atque it]um ad ,troiam magnus mittetur ,a*illes4 ,& ?\gh ?+s d n really revolve 9 ?is et]nal r\nd1 ! :ole s]ies ( ev5ts 9 ! hi/ory ( ! univ]se1 pa/ & future1 is n ! less capable1 9 its own nature1 ( be+ con/ruct$ priori by any "o :om we c suppose acqua9t$ ) ! orig9al di/ribution ( all natural ag5ts1 & ) ! :ole ( _! prop]ties1 t is1 ! laws ( succession exi/+ betwe5 !m & _! effects3 sav+ ! m ?an human p[]s ( comb9ation & calculation :i* w\ld be requir$1 ev5 9 "o possess+ ! data1 = ! actual p]=mance ( ! task4 #h4 ,s9ce ev]y?+ :i* occurs is det]m9$ by laws ( causation & collocations ( ! orig9al causes1 x foll[s t ! coexi/5ces :i* are obs]vable among effects _c be !mselves ! subject ( any simil> set ( laws1 di/9ct f laws ( causation4 ,uni=mities !re are1 z well ( coexi/5ce z ( succession1 among effects2 b ^! mu/ 9 all cases be a m]e result ei!r ( ! id5tity or ( ! coexi/5ce ( _! causes3 if ! causes did n coexi/1 nei!r c\ld ! effects4 ,& ^! causes be+ also effects ( prior causes1 & ^! ( o!rs1 until we rea* ! primeval causes1 x foll[s t 7except 9 ! case ( effects :i* c be trac$ imm$iately or remotely to "o & ! same cause7 ! coexi/5ces ( ph5om5a c 9 no case be univ]sal1 unless ! coexi/5ces ( ! primeval causes to :i* ! effects are ultimately traceable1 c be r$uc$ to an univ]sal law3 b we h se5 t !y _c4 ,!re are1 accord+ly1 no orig9al & indep5d5t1 9 o!r words no unconditional1 uni=mities ( coexi/5ce betwe5 effects ( diff]5t causes2 if !y coexi/1 x is only because ! causes h casually coexi/$4 ,! only indep5d5t & unconditional coexi/5ces :i* are suffici5tly inv>iable to h any claim to ! "* ( laws1 are betwe5 diff]5t & mutually indep5d5t effects ( ! same cause2 9 o!r words1 betwe5 diff]5t prop]ties ( ! same natural ag5t4 ,?is portion ( ! ,laws ( ,nature w be treat$ ( 9 ! latt] "p ( ! pres5t ,book1 "u ! "n ( ! ,specific ,prop]ties ( ,k9ds4 #i4 ,x is prop] 9 ?is place to adv]t to a doctr9e at lea/ z old z ,dr4 ,reid1 ?\gh prop\nd$ by him n z c]ta9 b z probable2 :i* has be5 reviv$ dur+ ! la/ few ye>s 9 sev]al qu>t]s1 & at pres5t gives m signs ( life ?an any o!r !ory ( causation at v>iance ) t set =? 9 ! prec$+ pages4 ,accord+ to ! !ory 9 "q1 ,m9d1 or1 to speak m precisely1 ,w1 is ! only cause ( ph5om5a4 ,! type ( ,causation1 z well z ! exclusive s\rce f :i* we d]ive ! idea1 is our own volunt>y ag5cy4 ,"h1 & "h only 7x is said7 we h direct evid5ce ( causation4 ,we "k t we c move our bodies4 ,respect+ ! ph5om5a ( inanimate nature1 we h no o!r direct k ?an t ( antec$5ce & sequ5ce4 ,b 9 ! case ( our volunt>y actions1 x is affirm$ t we are consci\s ( p[]1 be=e we h exp]i5ce ( results4 ,an act ( volition1 :e!r foll[$ by an effect or n1 is accompani$ by a consci\sness ( ef=t1 8( =ce ex]t$1 ( p[] 9 action1 :i* is necess>ily causal1 or causative40 ,?is feel+ ( en]gy or =ce1 inh]5t 9 an act ( w1 is k priori2 assurance1 prior to exp]i5ce1 t we h ! p[] ( caus+ effects4 ,volition1 !re=e1 x is ass]t$1 is some?+ m ?an an unconditional antec$5t2 x is a cause1 9 a diff]5t s5se f t 9 :i* physical ph5om5a are said to cause "o ano!r3 x is an ,effici5t ,cause4 ,f ?is ! transition is easy to ! fur!r doctr9e1 t ,volition is ! sole ,effici5t ,cause ( all ph5om5a4 8,x is inconceivable t dead =ce c\ld cont9ue unsupport$ = a mom5t beyond its creation4 ,we _c ev5 conceive ( *ange or ph5om5a )\t ! en]gy ( a m9d40 8,! ^w action itself10 says ano!r writ] ( ! same s*ool1 8has no real significance except :5 appli$ to ! do+s ( an intellig5t ag5t4 ,let any "o conceive1 if he c1 ( any p[]1 en]gy1 or =ce1 inh]5t 9 a lump ( matt]40 ,ph5om5a may h ! semblance ( be+ produc$ by physical causes1 b !y are 9 reality produc$1 say ^! writ]s1 by ! imm$iate ag5cy ( m9d4 ,all ?+s :i* d n proce$ f a human 7or1 ,i suppose1 an animal7 w1 proce$1 !y say1 directly f div9e w4 ,! e>? is n mov$ by ! comb9ation ( a c5tripetal & a projectile =ce2 ?is is b a mode ( speak+ :i* s]ves to facilitate our conceptions4 ,x is mov$ by ! direct volition ( an omnipot5t be+1 9 a pa? co9cid+ ) t :i* we d$uce f ! hypo!sis ( ^! two =ces4 ,z ,i h s (t5 obs]v$1 ! g5]al "q ( ! exi/5ce ( ,effici5t ,causes does n fall )9 ! limits ( our subject3 b a !ory :i* repres5ts !m z capable ( be+ subjects ( human k1 & :i* passes (f z effici5t causes :at are only physical or ph5om5al causes1 belongs z mu* to ,logic z to ,metaphysics1 & is a fit subject = discussion "h4 ,to my appreh5sion1 a volition is n an effici5t1 b simply a physical1 cause4 ,our w causes our bodily actions 9 ! same s5se1 & 9 no o!r1 9 :i* cold causes ice1 or a sp>k causes an explosion ( gunp[d]4 ,! volition1 a /ate ( our m9d1 is ! antec$5t2 ! motion ( our limbs 9 con=mity to ! volition1 is ! consequ5t4 ,?is sequ5ce ,i conceive to be n a subject ( direct consci\sness1 9 ! s5se int5d$ by ! !ory4 ,! antec$5t1 inde$1 & ! consequ5t1 are subjects ( consci\sness4 ,b ! connexion betwe5 !m is a subject ( exp]i5ce4 ,i _c admit t our consci\sness ( ! volition conta9s 9 itself any priori k t ! muscul> motion w foll[4 ,if our n]ves ( motion 7 p>alyz$1 or our muscles /iff & inflexible1 & _h be5 s all our lives1 ,i d n see ! slighte/ gr\nd = suppos+ t we %\ld ev] 7unless by in=mation f o!r p7 h kn[n any?+ ( volition z a physical p[]1 or be5 consci\s ( any t5d5cy 9 feel+s ( our m9d to produce motions ( our body1 or ( o!r bodies4 ,i w n und]take to say :e!r we %\ld 9 t case h _h ! physical feel+ :i* ,i suppose is meant :5 ^! writ]s speak ( 8consci\sness ( ef=t30 ,i see no reason :y we %\ld n2 s9ce t physical feel+ is probably a /ate ( n]v\s s5sation beg9n+ & end+ 9 ! bra91 )\t involv+ ! motory app>atus2 b we c]ta9ly %\ld n h designat$ x by any t]m equival5t to ef=t1 s9ce ef=t implies consci\sly aim+ at an end1 :i* we %\ld n only 9 t case h _h no reason to d1 b c\ld n ev5 h _h ! idea ( do+4 ,if consci\s at all ( ?is peculi> s5sation1 we %\ld h be5 consci\s ( x1 ,i conceive1 only z a k9d ( uneas9ess1 accompany+ our feel+s ( desire4 ,^? aga9/ :om ,i am cont5d+ h nev] produc$1 & d n pret5d to produce1 any positive evid5ce7#gj7 t ! p[] ( our w to move our bodies w\ld be kn[n to u indep5d5tly ( exp]i5ce4 ,:at !y h to say on ! subject is1 t ! production ( physical ev5ts by a w1 seems to c>ry its own explanation ) x1 :ile ! action ( matt] ^u matt] seems to require some?+ else to expla9 x2 & is ev51 accord+ to !m1 8inconceivable0 on any o!r supposition ?an t "s w int]v5es betwe5 ! app>5t cause & its app>5t effect4 ,!y ?us re/ _! case on an appeal to ! inh]5t laws ( our conceptive faculty2 mi/ak+1 z ,i appreh5d1 = ! laws ( t faculty its acquir$ habits1 gr\nd$ on ! spontane\s t5d5cies ( its uncultur$ /ate4 ,! succession betwe5 ! w to move a limb & ! actual motion1 is "o ( ! mo/ direct & in/antane\s ( all sequ5ces :i* come "u our obs]vation1 & is famili> to e mom5t's exp]i5ce f our e>lie/ infancy2 m famili> ?an any succession ( ev5ts ext]ior to our bodies1 & especially m s ?an any o!r case ( ! app>5t orig9ation 7z di/+ui%$ f ! m]e communication7 ( motion4 ,n[1 x is ! natural t5d5cy ( ! m9d to be always attempt+ to facilitate its conception ( unfamili> facts by assimilat+ !m to o!rs :i* are famili>4 ,accord+ly1 our volunt>y acts1 be+ ! mo/ famili> to u ( all cases ( causation1 are1 9 ! infancy & e>ly y\? ( ! human race1 spontane\sly tak5 z ! type ( causation 9 g5]al1 & all ph5om5a are suppos$ to be directly produc$ by ! w ( "s s5ti5t be+4 ,?is orig9al ,feti*ism ,i %all n *>act]ize 9 ! words ( ,hume1 or ( any foll[] ( ,hume1 b 9 ^? ( a religi\s metaphysician1 ,dr4 ,reid1 9 ord] m effectually to %ew ! unanimity :i* exi/s on ! subject among all compet5t ?9k]s4 8,:5 we turn our att5tion to ext]nal objects1 & beg9 to ex]cise our rational faculties ab\t !m1 we f9d1 t !re are "s motions & *anges 9 !m :i* we h p[] to produce1 & t !re are _m :i* mu/ h "s o!r cause4 ,ei!r ! objects mu/ h life & active p[]1 z we h1 or !y mu/ be mov$ or *ang$ by some?+ t has life & active p[]1 z ext]nal objects are mov$ by u4 8,our fir/ ?\ghts seem to be1 t ! objects 9 :i* we p]ceive su* motion h und]/&+ & active p[] z we h4 #8,savages1' says ! ,abb ,raynal1 #8:]ev] !y see motion :i* !y _c acc\nt =1 !re !y suppose a s\l4' ,all m5 may be consid]$ z savages 9 ?is respect1 until !y are capable ( in/ruction1 & ( us+ _! faculties 9 a m p]fect mann] ?an savages d40 8,! ,abb ,raynal's obs]vation is suffici5tly confirm$1 bo? f fact1 & f ! /ructure ( all languages4 8,rude nations d really believe sun1 moon1 & />s1 e>?1 sea1 & air1 f\nta9s1 & lakes1 to h und]/&+ & active p[]4 ,to pay homage to !m1 & implore _! fav\r1 is a k9d ( idolatry natural to savages4 8,all languages c>ry 9 _! /ructure ! m>ks ( _! be+ =m$ :5 ?is belief prevail$4 ,! di/9ction ( v]bs & p>ticiples into active & passive1 :i* is f\nd 9 all languages1 mu/ h be5 orig9ally int5d$ to di/+ui% :at is really active f :at is m]ely passive2 & 9 all languages1 we f9d active v]bs appli$ to ^? objects1 9 :i*1 accord+ to ! ,abb ,raynal's obs]vation1 savages suppose a s\l4 8,?us we say ! sun rises & sets1 & comes to ! m]idian1 ! moon *anges1 ! sea ebbs & fl[s1 ! w9ds bl[4 ,languages 7 =m$ by m5 :o believ$ ^! objects to h life & active p[] 9 !mselves4 ,x 0 !re=e prop] & natural to express _! motions & *anges by active v]bs4 8,!re is no sur] way ( trac+ ! s5tim5ts ( nations be=e !y h records1 ?an by ! /ructure ( _! language1 :i*1 not)/&+ ! *anges produc$ 9 x by "t1 w always reta9 "s signatures ( ! ?\ghts ( ^? by :om x 0 inv5t$4 ,:5 we f9d ! same s5tim5ts indicat$ 9 ! /ructure ( all languages1 ^? s5tim5ts mu/ h be5 common to ! human species :5 languages 7 inv5t$4 8,:5 a few1 ( sup]ior intellectual abilities1 f9d leisure = speculation1 !y beg9 to philosophize1 & soon discov]1 t _m ( ^? objects :i* at fir/ !y believ$ to be intellig5t & active are really lifeless & passive4 ,?is is a v important discov]y4 ,x elevates ! m9d1 emancipates f _m vulg> sup]/itions1 & invites to fur!r discov]ies ( ! same k9d4 8,z philosophy advances1 life & activity 9 natural objects retires1 & leaves !m dead & inactive4 ,in/ead ( mov+ volunt>ily we f9d !m to be mov$ necess>ily2 in/ead ( act+1 we f9d !m to be act$ ^u2 & ,nature appe>s z "o great ma*9e1 :]e "o :eel is turn$ by ano!r1 t by a ?ird2 & h[ f> ?is necess>y succession may rea*1 ! philosoph] does n "k407#ga7 ,!re is1 !n1 a spontane\s t5d5cy ( ! intellect to acc\nt to itself = all cases ( causation by assimilat+ !m to ! int5tional acts ( volunt>y ag5ts l itself4 ,?is is ! in/9ctive philosophy ( ! human m9d 9 its e>lie/ /age1 be=e x has become famili> ) any o!r inv>iable sequ5ces ?an ^? betwe5 its own volitions & its volunt>y acts4 ,z ! notion ( fix$ laws ( succession among ext]nal ph5om5a gradually e/abli%es itself1 ! prop5sity to ref] all ph5om5a to volunt>y ag5cy sl[ly gives way be=e x4 ,! sugge/ions1 h[ev]1 ( daily life cont9u+ to be m p[]ful ?an ^? ( sci5tific ?\ght1 ! orig9al in/9ctive philosophy ma9ta9s its gr\nd 9 ! m9d1 und]nea? ! gr[?s obta9$ by cultivation1 & keeps up a con/ant resi/ance to _! ?r[+ _! roots deep into ! soil4 ,! !ory aga9/ :i* ,i am cont5d+ d]ives its n\ri%m5t f t sub/ratum4 ,its /r5g? does n lie 9 argum5t1 b 9 its aff9ity to an ob/9ate t5d5cy ( ! infancy ( ! human m9d4 ,t ?is t5d5cy1 h[ev]1 is n ! result ( an inh]5t m5tal law1 is prov$ by sup]abundant evid5ce4 ,! hi/ory ( sci5ce1 f its e>lie/ dawn1 %[s t mank9d h n be5 unanim\s 9 ?9k+ ei!r t ! action ( matt] ^u matt] 0 n conceivable1 or t ! action ( m9d ^u matt] 04 ,to "s ?9k]s1 & "s s*ools ( ?9k]s1 bo? 9 anci5t & 9 mod]n times1 ?is la/ has appe>$ mu* m inconceivable ?an ! =m]4 ,sequ5ces entirely physical & mat]ial1 z soon z !y _h become suffici5tly famili> to ! human m9d1 came to be ?\ght p]fectly natural1 & 7 reg>d$ n only z ne$+ no explanation !mselves1 b z be+ capable ( af=d+ x to o!rs1 & ev5 ( s]v+ z ! ultimate explanation ( ?+s 9 g5]al4 ,"o ( ! mo/ rec5t support]s ( ! ,volitional !ory has furni%$ an explanation1 at once hi/orically true & philosophically acute1 ( ! failure ( ! ,greek philosoph]s 9 physical inquiry1 9 :i*1 z ,i conceive1 he unconsci\sly depicts 8 own /ate ( m9d4 8,_! /umbl+-block 0 "o z to ! nature ( ! evid5ce !y _h to expect = _! conviction4444 ,!y _h n seiz$ ! idea t !y mu/ n expect to und]/& ! processes ( outw>d causes1 b only _! results3 & consequ5tly1 ! :ole physical philosophy ( ! ,greeks 0 an attempt to id5tify m5tally ! effect ) its cause1 to feel aft] "s n only necess>y b natural connexion1 :]e !y meant by natural t :i* w\ld p] se c>ry "s presumption to _! own m9d4444 ,!y want$ to see "s reason :y ! physical antec$5t %\ld produce ?is p>ticul> consequ5t1 & _! only attempts 7 9 directions :]e !y c\ld f9d su* reasons407#gb7 ,9 o!r words1 !y 7 n cont5t m]ely to "k t "o ph5om5on 0 always foll[$ by ano!r2 !y ?\ght t !y _h n atta9$ ! true aim ( sci5ce1 unless !y c\ld p]ceive some?+ 9 ! nature ( ! "o ph5om5on1 f :i* x might h be5 kn[n or presum$ previ\s to trial t x w\ld be foll[$ by ! o!r3 j :at ! writ]1 :o has s cle>ly po9t$ out _! error1 ?9ks t he p]ceives 9 ! nature ( ! ph5om5on ,volition4 ,& to complete ! /atem5t ( ! case1 he %\ld h add$ t ^! e>ly speculators n only made ?is _! aim1 b 7 q satisfi$ ) _! success 9 x2 n only s\ght = causes :i* %\ld c>ry 9 _! m]e /atem5t evid5ce ( _! effici5cy1 b fully believ$ t !y _h f\nd su* causes4 ,! review] c see pla9ly t ?is 0 an error1 because he does n believe t !re exi/ any relations betwe5 mat]ial ph5om5a :i* c acc\nt = _! produc+ "o ano!r3 b ! v fact ( ! p]si/5cy ( ! ,greeks 9 ?is error1 %[s t _! m9ds 7 9 a v diff]5t /ate3 !y 7 able to d]ive f ! assimilation ( physical facts to o!r physical facts1 ! k9d ( m5tal satisfaction :i* we connect ) ! ^w explanation1 & :i* ! review] w\ld h u ?9k c only be f\nd 9 ref]r+ ph5om5a to a w4 ,:5 ,?ales & ,hippo held t moi/ure 0 ! univ]sal cause1 & et]nal elem5t1 ( :i* all o!r ?+s 7 b ! inf9itely v>i\s s5sible manife/ations2 :5 ,anaxim5es pr$icat$ ! same ?+ ( air1 ,py?agoras ( numb]s1 & ! l1 !y all ?\ght t !y _h f\nd a real explanation2 & 7 cont5t to re/ 9 ?is explanation z ultimate4 ,! ord9>y sequ5ces ( ! ext]nal univ]se appe>$ to !m1 no less ?an to _! critic1 to be inconceivable )\t ! supposition ( "s univ]sal ag5cy to connect ! antec$5ts ) ! consequ5ts2 b !y did n ?9k t ,volition1 ex]t$ by m9ds1 0 ! only ag5cy :i* fulfill$ ?is requirem5t4 ,moi/ure1 or air1 or numb]s1 c>ri$ to _! m9ds a precisely simil> impression ( mak+ t intelligible :i* 0 o!rwise inconceivable1 & gave ! same full satisfaction to ! dem&s ( _! conceptive faculty4 ,x 0 n ! ,greeks alone1 :o 8want$ to see "s reason :y ! physical antec$5t %\ld produce ?is p>ticul> consequ5t10 "s connexion 8:i* w\ld p] se c>ry "s presumption to _! own m9d40 ,among mod]n philosoph]s1 ,leibnitz laid x d[n z a self-evid5t pr9ciple t all physical causes )\t exception mu/ conta9 9 _! own nature some?+ :i* makes x intelligible t !y %\ld be able to produce ! effects :i* !y d produce4 ,f> f admitt+ ,volition z ! only k9d ( cause :i* c>ri$ int]nal evid5ce ( its own p[]1 & z ! real bond ( connexion betwe5 physical antec$5ts & _! consequ5ts1 he dem&$ "s naturally & p] se effici5t physical antec$5t z ! bond ( connexion betwe5 ,volition itself & its effects4 ,he di/9ctly refus$ to admit ! w ( a ,god z a suffici5t explanation ( any?+ except miracles2 & insi/$ ^u f9d+ some?+ t w\ld acc\nt bett] = ! ph5om5a ( nature ?an a m]e ref]5ce to div9e volition47#gc7 ,aga91 & conv]sely1 ! action ( m9d ^u matt] 7:i*1 we are n[ told1 n only ne$s no explanation itself1 b is ! explanation ( all o!r effects71 has appe>$ to "s ?9k]s to be itself ! gr& inconceivability4 ,x 0 to get ov] ?is v difficulty t ! ,c>tesians inv5t$ ! sy/em ( ,occasional ,causes4 ,!y c\ld n conceive t ?\ghts 9 a m9d c\ld produce movem5ts 9 a body1 or t bodily movem5ts c\ld produce ?\ghts4 ,!y c\ld see no necess>y connexion1 no relation priori1 betwe5 a motion & a ?\ght4 ,& z ! ,c>tesians1 m ?an any o!r s*ool ( philosophical speculation be=e or s9ce1 made _! own m9ds ! measure ( all ?+s1 & refus$1 on pr9ciple1 to believe t ,nature _h done :at !y 7 unable to see any reason :y %e mu/ d1 !y affirm$ x to be impossible t a mat]ial & a m5tal fact c\ld be causes "o ( ano!r4 ,!y reg>d$ !m z m]e ,occasions on :i* ! real ag5t1 ,god1 ?\ght fit to ex]t 8 p[] z a ,cause4 ,:5 a man wills to move 8 foot1 x is n 8 w t moves x1 b ,god 7!y said7 moves x on ! occasion ( 8 w4 ,god1 accord+ to ?is sy/em1 is ! only effici5t cause1 n qu m9d1 or qu end[$ ) volition1 b qu omnipot5t4 ,?is hypo!sis 01 z ,i said1 orig9ally sugge/$ by ! suppos$ inconceivability ( any real mutual action betwe5 ,m9d & ,matt]3 b x 0 aft]w>ds ext5d$ to ! action ( ,matt] ^u ,matt]1 =1 on a nic] exam9ation !y f\nd ?is inconceivable too1 & !re=e1 accord+ to _! logic1 impossible4 ,! deus ex ma*9 0 ultimately call$ 9 to produce a sp>k on ! occasion ( a fl9t & /eel com+ toge!r1 or to break an egg on ! occasion ( its fall+ on ! gr\nd4 ,all ?is1 und\bt$ly1 %[s t x is ! disposition ( mank9d 9 g5]al1 n to be satisfi$ ) kn[+ t "o fact is inv>iably antec$5t & ano!r consequ5t1 b to look out = some?+ :i* may seem to expla9 _! be+ s--some?+ 4 ,b we also see t ?is dem& may be completely satisfi$ by an ag5cy purely physical1 provid$ x be mu* m famili> ?an t :i* x is invok$ to expla94 ,to ,?ales & ,anaxim5es1 x appe>$ inconceivable t ! antec$5ts :i* we see 9 nature1 %\ld produce ! consequ5ts2 b p]fectly natural t wat]1 or air1 %\ld produce !m4 ,! writ]s :om ,i oppose decl>e ?is inconceivable1 b c conceive t m9d1 or volition1 is p] se an effici5t cause3 :ile ! ,c>tesians c\ld n conceive ev5 t1 b p]emptorily decl>$ t no mode ( production ( any fact :atev] 0 conceivable1 except ! direct ag5cy ( an omnipot5t be+4 ,?us giv+ additional pro( ( :at f9ds new confirmation 9 e /age ( ! hi/ory ( sci5ce3 t bo? :at p]sons c1 & :at !y _c1 conceive1 is v mu* an affair ( accid5t1 & dep5ds altoge!r on _! exp]i5ce1 & _! habits ( ?\ght2 t by cultivat+ ! requisite associations ( ideas1 p may make !mselves unable to conceive any giv5 ?+2 & may make !mselves able to conceive mo/ ?+s1 h[ev] inconceivable ^! may at fir/ appe>3 & ! same facts 9 ea* p]son's m5tal hi/ory :i* det]m9e :at is or is n conceivable to him1 det]m9e also :i* among ! v>i\s sequ5ces 9 nature w appe> to him s natural & plausible1 z to ne$ no o!r pro( ( _! exi/5ce2 to be evid5t by _! own light1 indep5d5t equally ( exp]i5ce & ( explanation4 ,by :at rule is any "o to decide betwe5 "o !ory ( ?is description & ano!r8 ,! !ori/s d n direct u to any ext]nal evid5ce2 !y appeal1 ea* to 8 own subjective feel+s4 ,"o says1 ! succession ,c1 ,b1 appe>s to me m natural1 conceivable1 & cr$ible p] se ?an ! succession ,a1 ,b2 y are !re=e mi/ak5 9 ?9k+ t ,b dep5ds ^u ,a2 ,i am c]ta91 ?\gh ,i c give no o!r evid5ce ( x1 t ,c comes 9 betwe5 ,a & ,b1 & is ! real & only cause ( ,b4 ,! o!r answ]s--! successions ,c1 ,b1 & ,a1 ,b1 appe> to me equally natural & conceivable1 or ! latt] m s ?an ! =m]3 ,a is q capable ( produc+ ,b )\t any o!r int]v5tion4 ,a ?ird agrees ) ! fir/ 9 be+ unable to conceive t ,a c produce ,b1 b f9ds ! sequ5ce ,d1 ,b1 /ill m natural ?an ,c1 ,b1 or ( ne>] k9 to ! subject matt]1 & pref]s 8 ,d !ory to ! ,c !ory4 ,x is pla9 t !re is no univ]sal law op]at+ "h1 except ! law t ea* p]son's conceptions are gov]n$ & limit$ by 8 individual exp]i5ce & habits ( ?\ght4 ,we are w>rant$ 9 say+ ( all ?ree1 :at ea* ( !m already believes ( ! o!r two1 namely1 t !y exalt into an orig9al law ( ! human intellect & ( outw>d nature1 "o p>ticul> sequ5ce ( ph5om5a1 :i* appe>s to !m m natural & m conceivable ?an o!r sequ5ces1 only because x is m famili>4 ,& f ?is judgm5t ,i am unable to except ! !ory1 t ,volition is an ,effici5t ,cause4 ,i am unwill+ to leave ! subject )\t adv]t+ to ! additional fallacy conta9$ 9 ! coroll>y f ?is !ory2 9 ! inf]5ce t because ,volition is an effici5t cause !re=e x is ! only cause1 & ! direct ag5t 9 produc+ ev5 :at is app>5tly produc$ by some?+ else4 ,volitions are n kn[n to produce any?+ directly except n]v\s action1 = ! w influ5ces ev5 ! muscles only ?r\gh ! n]ves4 ,?\gh x 7 grant$1 !n1 t e ph5om5on has an effici5t1 & n m]ely a ph5om5al cause1 & t volition1 9 ! case ( ! peculi> ph5om5a :i* are kn[n to be produc$ by x1 is t effici5t cause3 are we !re=e to say1 ) ^! writ]s1 t s9ce we "k ( no o!r effici5t cause1 & ought n to assume "o )\t evid5ce1 !re is no o!r1 & volition is ! direct cause ( all ph5om5a8 ,a m outrage\s /ret* ( inf]5ce c\ld h>dly be made4 ,because among ! inf9ite v>iety ( ! ph5om5a ( nature !re is "o1 namely1 a p>ticul> mode ( action ( c]ta9 n]ves1 :i* has = its cause1 & z we are n[ suppos+ = its effici5t cause1 a /ate ( our m9d2 & because ?is is ! only effici5t cause ( :i* we are consci\s1 be+ ! only "o ( :i* 9 ! nature ( ! case we c be consci\s1 s9ce x is ! only "o :i* exi/s )9 ourselves2 does ?is ju/ify u 9 conclud+ t all o!r ph5om5a mu/ h ! same k9d ( effici5t cause ) t "o em95tly special1 n>r[1 & peculi>ly human or animal1 ph5om5on8 ,x is true !re are cases 9 :i*1 ) ackn[l$g$ propriety1 we g5]alize f a s+le in/ance to a multitude ( in/ances4 ,b !y mu/ be in/ances :i* resemble ! "o kn[n in/ance1 & n su* z h no circum/ance 9 common ) x except t ( be+ in/ances4 ,i h1 = example1 no direct evid5ce t any creature is alive except myself3 yet ,i attribute1 ) full assurance1 life & s5sation to o!r human be+s & animals4 ,b ,i d n conclude t all o!r ?+s are alive m]ely because ,i am4 ,i ascribe to c]ta9 o!r creatures a life l my own1 because !y manife/ x by ! same sort ( indications by :i* m9e is manife/$4 ,i f9d t _! ph5om5a & m9e con=m to ! same laws1 & x is = ?is reason t ,i believe bo? to arise f a simil> cause4 ,accord+ly ,i d n ext5d ! conclusion beyond ! gr\nds = x4 ,e>?1 fire1 m\nta9s1 trees1 are rem>kable ag5cies1 b _! ph5om5a d n con=m to ! same laws z my actions d1 & ,i !re=e d n believe e>? or fire1 m\nta9s or trees1 to possess animal life4 ,b ! support]s ( ! ,volition ,!ory ask u to inf] t volition causes ev]y?+1 = no reason except t x causes "o p>ticul> ?+2 al?\gh t "o ph5om5on1 f> f be+ a type ( all natural ph5om5a1 is em95tly peculi>2 its laws be>+ sc>cely any resemblance to ^? ( any o!r ph5om5on1 :e!r ( inorganic or ( organic nature47#gd7 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,( ,,! ,,composition ,,( ,,causes4 #a4 ,to complete ! g5]al notion ( causation on :i* ! rules ( exp]im5tal inquiry into ! laws ( nature mu/ be f\nd$1 "o di/9ction /ill rema9s to be po9t$ out3 a di/9ction s radical1 & ( s mu* importance1 z to require a *apt] to itself4 ,! prec$+ discussions h r5d]$ u famili> ) ! case 9 :i* sev]al ag5ts1 or causes1 concur z conditions to ! production ( an effect2 a case1 9 tru?1 almo/ univ]sal1 !re be+ v few effects to ! production ( :i* no m ?an "o ag5t contributes4 ,suppose1 !n1 t two diff]5t ag5ts1 op]at+ jo9tly1 are foll[$1 "u a c]ta9 set ( collat]al conditions1 by a giv5 effect4 ,if ei!r ( ^! ag5ts1 in/ead ( be+ jo9$ ) ! o!r1 _h op]at$ alone1 "u ! same set ( conditions 9 all o!r respects1 "s effect w\ld probably h foll[$2 :i* w\ld h be5 diff]5t f ! jo9t effect ( ! two1 & m or less dissimil> to x4 ,n[1 if we happ5 to "k :at w\ld be ! effects ( ea* cause :5 act+ sep>ately f ! o!r1 we are (t5 able to arrive d$uctively1 or priori1 at a correct pr$iction ( :at w arise f _! conjunct ag5cy4 ,to enable u to d ?is1 x is only necess>y t ! same law :i* expresses ! effect ( ea* cause act+ by itself1 %all also correctly express ! "p due to t cause1 ( ! effect :i* foll[s f ! two toge!r4 ,?is condition is realis$ 9 ! ext5sive & important class ( ph5om5a commonly call$ me*anical1 namely ! ph5om5a ( ! communication ( motion 7or ( pressure1 :i* is t5d5cy to motion7 f "o body to ano!r4 ,9 ?is important class ( cases ( causation1 "o cause nev]1 prop]ly speak+1 defeats or fru/rates ano!r2 bo? h _! full effect4 ,if a body is propell$ 9 two directions by two =ces1 "o t5d+ to drive x to ! nor?1 & ! o!r to ! ea/1 x is caus$ to move 9 a giv5 "t exactly z f> 9 bo? directions z ! two =ces w\ld sep>ately h c>ri$ x2 & is left precisely :]e x w\ld h arriv$ if x _h be5 act$ ^u fir/ by "o ( ! two =ces1 & aft]w>ds by ! o!r4 ,?is law ( nature is call$1 9 dynamics1 ! pr9ciple ( ! ,composition ( ,=ces3 & 9 imitation ( t well-*os5 expression1 ,i %all give ! "n ( ! ,composition ( ,causes to ! pr9ciple :i* is exemplifi$ 9 all cases 9 :i* ! jo9t effect ( sev]al causes is id5tical ) ! sum ( _! sep>ate effects4 ,?is pr9ciple1 h[ev]1 by no means prevails 9 all dep>tm5ts ( ! field ( nature4 ,! *emical comb9ation ( two sub/ances produces1 z is well kn[n1 a ?ird sub/ance ) prop]ties entirely diff]5t f ^? ( ei!r ( ! two sub/ances sep>ately1 or bo? ( !m tak5 toge!r4 ,n a trace ( ! prop]ties ( hydrog5 or ( oxyg5 is obs]vable 9 ^? ( _! comp\nd1 wat]4 ,! ta/e ( sug> ( lead is n ! sum ( ! ta/es ( its compon5t elem5ts1 acetic acid & lead or its oxide2 nor is ! col\r ( gre5 vitriol a mixture ( ! col\rs ( sulphuric acid & copp]4 ,?is expla9s :y me*anics is a d$uctive or demon/rative sci5ce1 & *emi/ry n4 ,9 ! "o1 we c compute ! effects ( all comb9ations ( causes1 :e!r real or hypo!tical1 f ! laws :i* we "k to gov]n ^? causes :5 act+ sep>ately2 because !y cont9ue to obs]ve ! same laws :5 9 comb9ation :i* !y obs]v$ :5 sep>ate3 :atev] w\ld h happ5$ 9 consequ5ce ( ea* cause tak5 by itself1 happ5s :5 !y are toge!r1 & we h only to ca/ up ! results4 ,n s 9 ! ph5om5a :i* are ! peculi> subject ( ! sci5ce ( *emi/ry4 ,!re1 mo/ ( ! uni=mities to :i* ! causes con=m$ :5 sep>ate1 cease altoge!r :5 !y are conjo9$2 & we are n1 at lea/ 9 ! pres5t /ate ( our k1 able to =esee :at result w foll[ f any new comb9ation1 until we h tri$ ! specific exp]im5t4 ,if ?is be true ( *emical comb9ations1 x is /ill m true ( ^? f> m complex comb9ations ( elem5ts :i* con/itute organis$ bodies2 & 9 :i* ^? extraord9>y new uni=mities arise1 :i* are call$ ! laws ( life4 ,all organis$ bodies are compos$ ( p>ts simil> to ^? compos+ inorganic nature1 & :i* h ev5 !mselves exi/$ 9 an inorganic /ate2 b ! ph5om5a ( life1 :i* result f ! juxtaposition ( ^? p>ts 9 a c]ta9 mann]1 be> no analogy to any ( ! effects :i* w\ld be produc$ by ! action ( ! compon5t sub/ances consid]$ z m]e physical ag5ts4 ,to :atev] degree we might imag9e our k ( ! prop]ties ( ! sev]al +r$i5ts ( a liv+ body to be ext5d$ & p]fect$1 x is c]ta9 t no m]e summ+ up ( ! sep>ate actions ( ^? elem5ts w ev] am\nt to ! action ( ! liv+ body itself4 ,! tongue1 = in/ance1 is1 l all o!r p>ts ( ! animal frame1 compos$ ( gelat9e1 fibr91 & o!r products ( ! *emi/ry ( dige/ion1 b f no k ( ! prop]ties ( ^? sub/ances c\ld we ev] pr$ict t x c\ld ta/e1 unless gelat9e or fibr9 c\ld !mselves ta/e2 = no elem5t>y fact c be 9 ! conclusion1 :i* 0 n fir/ 9 ! premisses4 ,!re are ?us two diff]5t modes ( ! conjunct action ( causes2 f :i* arise two modes ( conflict1 or mutual int]f]5ce1 betwe5 laws ( nature4 ,suppose1 at a giv5 po9t ( "t & space1 two or m causes1 :i*1 if !y act$ sep>ately1 w\ld produce effects contr>y1 or at lea/ conflict+ ) ea* o!r2 "o ( !m t5d+ to undo1 :olly or p>tially1 :at ! o!r t5ds to d4 ,?us1 ! expansive =ce ( ! gases g5]at$ by ! ignition ( gunp[d] t5ds to project a bullet t[>ds ! sky1 :ile its gravity t5ds to make x fall to ! gr\nd4 ,a /ream runn+ into a res]voir at "o end t5ds to fill x high] & high]1 :ile a dra9 at ! o!r extremity t5ds to empty x4 ,n[1 9 su* cases z ^!1 ev5 if ! two causes :i* are 9 jo9t action exactly annul "o ano!r1 /ill ! laws ( bo? are fulfill$2 ! effect is ! same z if ! dra9 _h be5 op5 = half an h\r fir/17#ge7 & ! /ream _h fl[$ 9 = z long aft]w>ds4 ,ea* ag5t produc$ ! same am\nt ( effect z if x _h act$ sep>ately1 ?\gh ! contr>y effect :i* 0 tak+ place dur+ ! same "t oblit]at$ x z fa/ z x 0 produc$4 ,"h !n1 are two causes1 produc+ by _! jo9t op]ation an effect :i* at fir/ seems q dissimil> to ^? :i* !y produce sep>ately1 b :i* on exam9ation proves to be really ! sum ( ^? sep>ate effects4 ,x w be notic$ t we "h enl>ge ! idea ( ! sum ( two effects1 s z to include :at is commonly call$ _! diff]5ce1 b :i* is 9 reality ! result ( ! addition ( opposites2 a conception to :i* mank9d are indebt$ = t admirable ext5sion ( ! algebraical calculus1 :i* has s va/ly increas$ its p[]s z an in/rum5t ( discov]y1 by introduc+ into its reason+s 7) ! sign ( subtraction prefix$1 & "u ! "n ( ,negative ,quantities7 e description :atev] ( positive ph5om5a1 provid$ !y are ( su* a quality 9 ref]5ce to ^? previ\sly introduc$1 t to add ! "o is equival5t to subtract+ an equal quantity ( ! o!r4 ,!re is1 !n1 "o mode ( ! mutual int]f]5ce ( laws ( nature1 9 :i*1 ev5 :5 ! concurr5t causes annihilate ea* o!r's effects1 ea* ex]ts its full efficacy accord+ to its own law1 its law z a sep>ate ag5t4 ,b 9 ! o!r description ( cases1 ! ag5cies :i* are br\ght toge!r cease entirely1 & a totally diff]5t set ( ph5om5a arise3 z 9 ! exp]im5t ( two liquids :i*1 :5 mix$ 9 c]ta9 proportions1 in/antly become a solid mass1 in/ead ( m]ely a l>g] am\nt ( liquid4 #b4 ,?is diff]5ce betwe5 ! case 9 :i* ! jo9t effect ( causes is ! sum ( _! sep>ate effects1 & ! case 9 :i* x is het]og5e\s to !m2 betwe5 laws :i* "w toge!r )\t alt]ation1 & laws :i*1 :5 call$ ^u to "w toge!r1 cease & give place to o!rs2 is "o ( ! fundam5tal di/9ctions 9 nature4 ,! =m] case1 t ( ! ,composition ( ,causes1 is ! g5]al "o2 ! o!r is always special & exceptional4 ,!re are no objects :i* d n1 z to "s ( _! ph5om5a1 obey ! pr9ciple ( ! ,composition ( ,causes2 none t h n "s laws :i* are rigidly fulfill$ 9 e comb9ation into :i* ! objects ent]4 ,! weight ( a body1 = in/ance1 is a prop]ty :i* x reta9s 9 all ! comb9ations 9 :i* x is plac$4 ,! weight ( a *emical comp\nd1 or ( an organiz$ body1 is equal to ! sum ( ! weights ( ! elem5ts :i* compose x4 ,! weight ei!r ( ! elem5ts or ( ! comp\nd w v>y1 if !y be c>ri$ f>!r f _! c5tre ( attraction1 or br\ght ne>] to x2 b :atev] affects ! "o affects ! o!r4 ,!y always rema9 precisely equal4 ,s aga91 ! compon5t p>ts ( a vegetable or animal sub/ance d n lose _! me*anical & *emical prop]ties z sep>ate ag5ts1 :51 by a peculi> mode ( juxta-position1 !y1 z an aggregate :ole1 acquire physiological or vital prop]ties 9 addition4 ,^? bodies cont9ue1 z be=e1 to obey me*anical & *emical laws1 9 s f> z ! op]ation ( ^? laws is n c\nt]act$ by ! new laws :i* gov]n !m z organis$ be+s4 ,:51 9 %ort1 a concurr5ce ( causes takes place :i* calls into action new laws be>+ no analogy to any t we c trace 9 ! sep>ate op]ation ( ! causes1 ! new laws1 :ile !y sup]s$e "o portion ( ! previ\s laws1 may co-exi/ ) ano!r portion1 & may ev5 comp\nd ! effect ( ^? previ\s laws ) _! own4 ,aga91 laws :i* 7 !mselves g5]at$ 9 ! second mode1 may g5]ate o!rs 9 ! fir/4 ,?\gh !re be laws :i*1 l ^? ( *emi/ry & physiology1 owe _! exi/5ce to a brea* ( ! pr9ciple ( ,composition ( ,causes1 x does n foll[ t ^! peculi>1 or z !y might be t]m$1 het]opa?ic laws1 are n capable ( composition ) "o ano!r4 ,! causes :i* by "o comb9ation h _h _! laws alt]$1 may c>ry _! new laws ) !m unalt]$ into _! ult]ior comb9ations4 ,& h5ce !re is no reason to despair ( ultimately rais+ *emi/ry & physiology to ! condition ( d$uctive sci5ces2 = ?\gh x is impossible to d$uce all *emical & physiological tru?s f ! laws or prop]ties ( simple sub/ances or elem5t>y ag5ts1 !y may possibly be d$ucible f laws :i* comm5ce :5 ^! elem5t>y ag5ts are br\ght toge!r into "s mod]ate numb] ( n v complex comb9ations4 ,! ,laws ( ,life w nev] be d$ucible f ! m]e laws ( ! +r$i5ts1 b ! prodigi\sly complex ,facts ( ,life may all be d$ucible f comp>atively simple laws ( life2 :i* laws1 7dep5d+ inde$ on comb9ations1 b on comp>atively simple comb9ations1 ( antec$5ts7 may1 9 m complex circum/ances1 be /rictly comp\nd$ ) "o ano!r1 & ) ! physical & *emical laws ( ! +r$i5ts4 ,! details ( ! vital ph5om5a ev5 n[ af=d innum]able exemplifications ( ! ,composition ( ,causes2 & 9 proportion z ^! ph5om5a are m accurately /udi$1 !re appe>s m reason to believe t ! same laws :i* op]ate 9 ! simpl] comb9ations ( circum/ances d1 9 fact1 cont9ue to be obs]v$ 9 ! m complex4 ,?is w be f\nd equally true 9 ! ph5om5a ( m9d2 & ev5 9 social & political ph5om5a1 ! result ( ! laws ( m9d4 ,x is 9 ! case ( *emical ph5om5a t ! lea/ progress has yet be5 made 9 br++ ! special laws "u g5]al ones f :i* !y may be d$uc$2 b !re are ev5 9 *emi/ry _m circum/ances to enc\rage ! hope t su* g5]al laws w h]eaft] be discov]$4 ,! diff]5t actions ( a *emical comp\nd w nev]1 und\bt$ly1 be f\nd to be ! sums ( ! actions ( its sep>ate elem5ts2 b !re may exi/1 betwe5 ! prop]ties ( ! comp\nd & ^? ( its elem5ts1 "s con/ant relation1 :i*1 if discov]able by a suffici5t induction1 w\ld enable u to =esee ! sort ( comp\nd :i* w result f a new comb9ation be=e we h actually tri$ x1 & to judge ( :at sort ( elem5ts "s new sub/ance is comp\nd$ be=e we h analys$ x4 ,! law ( def9ite proportions1 fir/ discov]$ 9 its full g5]ality by ,dalton1 is a complete solution ( ?is problem 9 "o1 ?\gh b a second>y aspect1 t ( quantity3 & 9 respect to quality1 we h already "s p>tial g5]alizations suffici5t to indicate ! possibility ( ultimately proce$+ f>!r4 ,we c pr$icate "s common prop]ties ( ! k9d ( comp\nds :i* result f ! comb9ation1 9 ea* ( ! small numb] ( possible proportions1 ( any acid :atev] ) any base4 ,we h also ! curi\s law1 discov]$ by ,b]?ollet1 t two soluble salts mutually decompose "o ano!r :5ev] ! new comb9ations :i* result produce an insoluble comp\nd1 or "o less soluble ?an ! two =m]4 ,ano!r uni=mity is t call$ ! law ( isomorphism2 ! id5tity ( ! cry/all9e =ms ( sub/ances :i* possess 9 common c]ta9 peculi>ities ( *emical composition4 ,?us x appe>s t ev5 het]opa?ic laws1 su* laws ( comb9$ ag5cy z are n comp\nd$ ( ! laws ( ! sep>ate ag5cies1 are yet1 at lea/ 9 "s cases1 d]iv$ f !m accord+ to a fix$ pr9ciple4 ,!re may1 !re=e1 be laws ( ! g5]ation ( laws f o!rs dissimil> to !m2 & 9 *emi/ry1 ^! undiscov]$ laws ( ! dep5d5ce ( ! prop]ties ( ! comp\nd on ! prop]ties ( its elem5ts1 may1 toge!r ) ! laws ( ! elem5ts !mselves1 furni% ! premisses by :i* ! sci5ce is p]haps de/9$ "o day to be r5d]$ d$uctive4 ,x w\ld seem1 !re=e1 t !re is no class ( ph5om5a 9 :i* ! ,composition ( ,causes does n obta93 t z a g5]al rule1 causes 9 comb9ation produce exactly ! same effects z :5 act+ s+ly3 b t ?is rule1 ?\gh g5]al1 is n univ]sal3 t 9 "s in/ances1 at "s p>ticul> po9ts 9 ! transition f sep>ate to unit$ action1 ! laws *ange1 & an entirely new set ( effects are ei!r add$ to1 or take ! place (1 ^? :i* arise f ! sep>ate ag5cy ( ! same causes3 ! laws ( ^! new effects be+ aga9 susceptible ( composition1 to an indef9ite ext5t1 l ! laws :i* !y sup]s$$4 #c4 ,t effects are proportional to _! causes is laid d[n by "s writ]s z an axiom 9 ! !ory ( causation2 & great use is sometimes made ( ?is pr9ciple 9 reason+s respect+ ! laws ( nature1 ?\gh x is incumb]$ ) _m difficulties & app>5t exceptions1 :i* mu* +5uity has be5 exp5d$ 9 %[+ n to be real ones4 ,?is proposition1 9 s f> z x is true1 ent]s z a p>ticul> case into ! g5]al pr9ciple ( ! ,composition ( ,causes3 ! causes comp\nd$ be+1 9 ?is in/ance1 homog5e\s2 9 :i* case1 if 9 any1 _! jo9t effect might be expect$ to be id5tical ) ! sum ( _! sep>ate effects4 ,if a =ce equal to "o hundr$ weight w raise a c]ta9 body along an incl9$ plane1 a =ce equal to two hundr$ weight w raise two bodies exactly simil>1 & ?us ! effect is proportional to ! cause4 ,b does n a =ce equal to two hundr$ weight1 actually conta9 9 itself two =ces ea* equal to "o hundr$ weight1 :i*1 if employ$ ap>t1 w\ld sep>ately raise ! two bodies 9 "q8 ,! fact1 !re=e1 t :5 ex]t$ jo9tly !y raise bo? bodies at once1 results f ! ,composition ( ,causes1 & is a m]e in/ance ( ! g5]al fact t me*anical =ces are subject to ! law ( ,composition4 ,& s 9 e o!r case :i* c be suppos$4 ,= ! doctr9e ( ! proportionality ( effects to _! causes _c ( c\rse be applicable to cases 9 :i* ! augm5tation ( ! cause alt]s ! k9d ( effect2 t is1 9 :i* ! surplus quantity sup]-add$ to ! cause does n become comp\nd$ ) x1 b ! two toge!r g5]ate an altoge!r new ph5om5on4 ,suppose t ! application ( a c]ta9 quantity ( heat to a body m]ely increases its bulk1 t a d\ble quantity melts x1 & a triple quantity decomposes x3 ^! ?ree effects be+ het]og5e\s1 no ratio1 :e!r correspond+ or n to t ( ! quantities ( heat appli$1 c be e/abli%$ betwe5 !m4 ,?us ! suppos$ axiom ( ! proportionality ( effects to _! causes fails at ! precise po9t :]e ! pr9ciple ( ! ,composition ( ,causes also fails2 viz4 :]e ! concurr5ce ( causes is su* z to det]m9e a *ange 9 ! prop]ties ( ! body g5]ally1 & r5d] x subject to new laws1 m or less dissimil> to ^? to :i* x con=m$ 9 its previ\s /ate4 ,! recognition1 !re=e1 ( any su* law ( proportionality1 is sup]s$$ by ! m compreh5sive pr9ciple1 9 :i* z mu* ( x z is true is implicitly ass]t$4 ,! g5]al rem>ks on causation1 :i* seem$ necess>y z an introduction to ! !ory ( ! inductive process1 may "h t]m9ate4 ,t process is ess5tially an inquiry into cases ( causation4 ,all ! uni=mities :i* exi/ 9 ! succession ( ph5om5a1 & mo/ ( ! uni=mities 9 _! coexi/5ce1 are ei!r1 z we h se51 !mselves laws ( causation1 or consequ5ces result+ f1 & coroll>ies capable ( be+ d$uc$ f1 su* laws4 ,if we c\ld det]m9e :at causes are correctly assign$ to :at effects1 & :at effects to :at causes1 we %\ld be virtually acqua9t$ ) ! :ole c\rse ( nature4 ,all ^? uni=mities :i* are m]e results ( causation1 might !n be expla9$ & acc\nt$ =2 & e individual fact or ev5t might be pr$ict$1 provid$ we _h ! requisite data1 t is1 ! requisite k ( ! circum/ances :i*1 9 ! p>ticul> in/ance1 prec$$ x4 ,to asc]ta91 !re=e1 :at are ! laws ( causation :i* exi/ 9 nature2 to det]m9e ! effects ( e cause1 & ! causes ( all effects1--is ! ma9 bus9ess ( ,induction2 & to po9t out h[ ?is is done is ! *ief object ( ,inductive ,logic4 ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,( ,,obs]vation ,,& ,,exp]im5t4 #a4 ,x results f ! prec$+ exposition1 t ! process ( asc]ta9+ :at consequ5ts1 9 nature1 are inv>iably connect$ ) :at antec$5ts1 or 9 o!r words :at ph5om5a are relat$ to ea* o!r z causes & effects1 is 9 "s sort a process ( analysis4 ,t e fact :i* beg9s to exi/ has a cause1 & t ?is cause mu/ be f\nd some:]e among ! facts :i* imm$iately prec$$ ! occurr5ce1 may be tak5 = c]ta94 ,! :ole ( ! pres5t facts are ! infallible result ( all pa/ facts1 & m imm$iately ( all ! facts :i* exi/$ at ! mom5t previ\s4 ,"h1 !n1 is a great sequ5ce1 :i* we "k to be uni=m4 ,if ! :ole prior /ate ( ! entire univ]se c\ld aga9 recur1 x w\ld aga9 be foll[$ by ! pres5t /ate4 ,! "q is1 h[ to resolve ?is complex uni=mity into ! simpl] uni=mities :i* compose x1 & assign to ea* portion ( ! va/ antec$5t ! portion ( ! consequ5t :i* is att5dant on x4 ,?is op]ation1 :i* we h call$ analytical1 inasmu* z x is ! resolution ( a complex :ole into ! compon5t elem5ts1 is m ?an a m]ely m5tal analysis4 ,no m]e contemplation ( ! ph5om5a1 & p>tition ( !m by ! intellect alone1 w ( itself accompli% ! end we h n[ 9 view4 ,nev]!less1 su* a m5tal p>tition is an indisp5sable fir/ /ep4 ,! ord] ( nature1 z p]ceiv$ at a fir/ glance1 pres5ts at e in/ant a *aos foll[$ by ano!r *aos4 ,we mu/ decompose ea* *aos into s+le facts4 ,we mu/ le>n to see 9 ! *aotic antec$5t a multitude ( di/9ct antec$5ts1 9 ! *aotic consequ5t a multitude ( di/9ct consequ5ts4 ,?is1 suppos+ x done1 w n ( itself tell u on :i* ( ! antec$5ts ea* consequ5t is inv>iably att5dant4 ,to det]m9e t po9t1 we mu/ endeav\r to effect a sep>ation ( ! facts f "o ano!r1 n 9 our m9ds only1 b 9 nature4 ,! m5tal analysis1 h[ev]1 mu/ take place fir/4 ,& e "o kn[s t 9 ! mode ( p]=m+ x1 "o intellect diff]s imm5sely f ano!r4 ,x is ! ess5ce ( ! act ( obs]v+2 = ! obs]v] is n he :o m]ely sees ! ?+ :i* is be=e 8 eyes1 b he :o sees :at p>ts t ?+ is compos$ (4 ,to d ?is well is a r>e tal5t4 ,"o p]son1 f inatt5tion1 or att5d+ only 9 ! wrong place1 ov]looks half ( :at he sees2 ano!r sets d[n mu* m ?an he sees1 conf\nd+ x ) :at he imag9es1 or ) :at he inf]s2 ano!r takes note ( ! k9d ( all ! circum/ances1 b be+ inexp]t 9 e/imat+ _! degree1 leaves ! quantity ( ea* vague & unc]ta92 ano!r sees inde$ ! :ole1 b makes su* an awkw>d division ( x into p>ts1 ?r[+ ?+s into "o mass :i* require to be sep>at$1 & sep>at+ o!rs :i* might m conv5i5tly be consid]$ z "o1 t ! result is mu* ! same1 sometimes ev5 worse1 ?an if no analysis _h be5 attempt$ at all4 ,x w\ld be possible to po9t out :at qualities ( m9d1 & modes ( m5tal culture1 fit a p]son = be+ a good obs]v]2 t1 h[ev]1 is a "q n ( ,logic1 b ( ! !ory ( ,education1 9 ! mo/ enl>g$ s5se ( ! t]m4 ,!re is n prop]ly an ,art ( ,obs]v+4 ,!re may be rules = obs]v+4 ,b ^!1 l rules = inv5t+1 are prop]ly in/ructions = ! prep>ation ( "o's own m9d2 = putt+ x into ! /ate 9 :i* x w be mo/ fitt$ to obs]ve1 or mo/ likely to inv5t4 ,!y are1 !re=e1 ess5tially rules ( self-education1 :i* is a diff]5t ?+ f ,logic4 ,!y d n tea* h[ to d ! ?+1 b h[ to make ourselves capable ( do+ x4 ,!y are an art ( /r5g!n+ ! limbs1 n an art ( us+ !m4 ,! ext5t & m9ut5ess ( obs]vation :i* may be requisite1 & ! degree ( decomposition to :i* x may be necess>y to c>ry ! m5tal analysis1 dep5d on ! p>ticul> purpose 9 view4 ,to asc]ta9 ! /ate ( ! :ole univ]se at any p>ticul> mom5t is impossible1 b w\ld also be useless4 ,9 mak+ *emical exp]im5ts1 we d n ?9k x necess>y to note ! position ( ! planets2 because exp]i5ce has %[n1 z a v sup]ficial exp]i5ce is suffici5t to %[1 t 9 su* cases t circum/ance is n mat]ial to ! result3 &1 accord+ly1 9 ! ages :5 m5 believ$ 9 ! occult influ5ces ( ! heav5ly bodies1 x might h be5 unphilosophical to omit asc]ta9+ ! precise condition ( ^? bodies at ! mom5t ( ! exp]im5t4 ,z to ! degree ( m9ut5ess ( ! m5tal subdivision2 if we 7 oblig$ to break d[n :at we obs]ve into its v simple/ elem5ts1 t is1 lit]ally into s+le facts1 x w\ld be difficult to say :]e we %\ld f9d !m3 we c h>dly ev] affirm t our divisions ( any k9d h rea*$ ! ultimate unit4 ,b ?is1 too1 is =tunately unnecess>y4 ,! only object ( ! m5tal sep>ation is to sugge/ ! requisite physical sep>ation1 s t we may ei!r accompli% x ourselves1 or seek = x 9 nature2 & we h done en\gh :5 we h c>ri$ ! subdivision z f> z ! po9t at :i* we are able to see :at obs]vations or exp]im5ts we require4 ,x is only ess5tial1 at :atev] po9t our m5tal decomposition ( facts may = ! pres5t h /opp$1 t we %\ld hold ourselves ready & able to c>ry x f>!r z occasion requires1 & %\ld n all[ ! fre$om ( our discrim9at+ faculty to be imprison$ by ! swa!s & b&s ( ord9>y classification2 z 0 ! case ) all e>ly speculative inquir]s1 n except+ ! ,greeks1 to :om x h>dly ev] occurr$ t :at 0 call$ by "o ab/ract "n might1 9 reality1 be sev]al ph5om5a1 or t !re 0 a possibility ( decompos+ ! facts ( ! univ]se into any elem5ts b ^? :i* ord9>y language already recognis$4 #b4 ,! diff]5t antec$5ts & consequ5ts be+1 !n1 suppos$ to be1 s f> z ! case requires1 asc]ta9$ & discrim9at$ f "o ano!r2 we are to inquire :i* is connect$ ) :i*4 ,9 e in/ance :i* comes "u our obs]vation1 !re are _m antec$5ts & _m consequ5ts4 ,if ^? antec$5ts c\ld n be sev]$ f "o ano!r except 9 ?\ght1 or if ^? consequ5ts nev] 7 f\nd ap>t1 x w\ld be impossible = u to di/+ui% 7 po/]iori at lea/7 ! real laws1 or to assign to any cause its effect1 or to any effect its cause4 ,to d s1 we mu/ be able to meet ) "s ( ! antec$5ts ap>t f ! re/1 & obs]ve :at foll[s f !m2 or "s ( ! consequ5ts1 & obs]ve by :at !y are prec$$4 ,we mu/1 9 %ort1 foll[ ! ,baconian rule ( v>y+ ! circum/ances4 ,?is is1 inde$1 only ! fir/ rule ( physical inquiry1 & n1 z "s h ?\ght1 ! sole rule2 b x is ! f\ndation ( all ! re/4 ,= ! purpose ( v>y+ ! circum/ances1 we may h rec\rse 7accord+ to a di/9ction commonly made7 ei!r to obs]vation or to exp]im5t2 we may ei!r f9d an in/ance 9 nature1 suit$ to our purposes1 or1 by an artificial arrangem5t ( circum/ances1 make "o4 ,! value ( ! in/ance dep5ds on :at x is 9 itself1 n on ! mode 9 :i* x is obta9$3 its employm5t = ! purposes ( induction dep5ds on ! same pr9ciples 9 ! "o case & 9 ! o!r2 z ! uses ( money are ! same :e!r x is inh]it$ or acquir$4 ,!re is1 9 %ort1 no diff]5ce 9 k9d1 no real logical di/9ction1 betwe5 ! two processes ( inve/igation4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 practical di/9ctions to :i* x is ( consid]able importance to adv]t4 #c4 ,! fir/ & mo/ obvi\s di/9ction betwe5 ,obs]vation & ,exp]im5t is1 t ! latt] is an imm5se ext5sion ( ! =m]4 ,x n only enables u to produce a mu* great] numb] ( v>iations 9 ! circum/ances ?an nature spontane\sly (f]s1 b also1 9 ?\s&s ( cases1 to produce ! precise sort ( v>iation :i* we are 9 want ( = discov]+ ! law ( ! ph5om5on2 a s]vice :i* nature1 be+ con/ruct$ on a q diff]5t s*eme f t ( facilitat+ our /udies1 is seldom s fri5dly z to be/[ ^u u4 ,= example1 9 ord] to asc]ta9 :at pr9ciple 9 ! atmosph]e enables x to su/a9 life1 ! v>iation we require is t a liv+ animal %\ld be imm]s$ 9 ea* compon5t elem5t ( ! atmosph]e sep>ately4 ,b nature does n supply ei!r oxyg5 or azote 9 a sep>ate /ate4 ,we are indebt$ to artificial exp]im5t = our k t x is ! =m]1 & n ! latt]1 :i* supports respiration2 & = our k ( ! v exi/5ce ( ! two +r$i5ts4 ,?us f> ! advantage ( exp]im5tation ov] simple obs]vation is univ]sally recognis$3 all are aw>e t x enables u to obta9 innum]able comb9ations ( circum/ances :i* are n to be f\nd 9 nature1 & s add to nature's exp]im5ts a multitude ( exp]im5ts ( our own4 ,b !re is ano!r sup]iority 7or1 z ,bacon w\ld h express$ x1 ano!r pr]ogative7 ( in/ances artificially obta9$ ov] spontane\s in/ances1--( our own exp]im5ts ov] ev5 ! same exp]im5ts :5 made by nature1--:i* is n ( less importance1 & :i* is f> f be+ felt & ackn[l$g$ 9 ! same degree4 ,:5 we c produce a ph5om5on artificially1 we c take x1 z x 71 home ) u1 & obs]ve x 9 ! mid/ ( circum/ances ) :i* 9 all o!r respects we are accurately acqua9t$4 ,if we desire to "k :at are ! effects ( ! cause ,a1 & are able to produce ,a by means at our disposal1 we c g5]ally det]m9e at our own discretion1 s f> z is compatible ) ! nature ( ! ph5om5on ,a1 ! :ole ( ! circum/ances :i* %all be pres5t along ) x3 & ?us1 kn[+ exactly ! simultane\s /ate ( ev]y?+ else :i* is )9 ! rea* ( ,a's influ5ce1 we h only to obs]ve :at alt]ation is made 9 t /ate by ! pres5ce ( ,a4 ,= example1 by ! electric ma*9e we c produce 9 ! mid/ ( kn[n circum/ances1 ! ph5om5a :i* nature exhibits on a gr&] scale 9 ! =m ( lightn+ & ?und]4 ,n[ let any "o consid] :at am\nt ( k ( ! effects & laws ( electric ag5cy mank9d c\ld h obta9$ f ! m]e obs]vation ( ?und]-/orms1 & comp>e x ) t :i* !y h ga9$1 & may expect to ga91 f electrical & galvanic exp]im5ts4 ,?is example is ! m /rik+1 n[ t we h reason to believe t electric action is ( all natural ph5om5a 7except heat7 ! mo/ p]vad+ & univ]sal1 :i*1 !re=e1 x might antec$5tly h be5 suppos$ c\ld /& lea/ 9 ne$ ( artificial means ( production to enable x to be /udi$2 :ile ! fact is s mu* ! contr>y1 t )\t ! electric ma*9e1 ! voltaic batt]y1 & ! ,leyd5 j>1 we probably %\ld nev] h suspect$ ! exi/5ce ( electricity z "o ( ! great ag5ts 9 nature2 ! few electric ph5om5a we %\ld h kn[n ( w\ld h cont9u$ to be reg>d$ ei!r z sup]natural1 or z a sort ( anomalies & ecc5tricities 9 ! ord] ( ! univ]se4 ,:5 we h succe$$ 9 insulat+ ! ph5om5on :i* is ! subject ( inquiry1 by plac+ x among kn[n circum/ances1 we may produce fur!r v>iations ( circum/ances to any ext5t1 & ( su* k9ds z we ?9k be/ calculat$ to br+ ! laws ( ! ph5om5on into a cle> light4 ,by introduc+ "o well def9$ circum/ance aft] ano!r into ! exp]im5t1 we obta9 assurance ( ! mann] 9 :i* ! ph5om5on behaves "u an indef9ite v>iety ( possible circum/ances4 ,?us1 *emi/s1 aft] hav+ obta9$ "s newly-discov]$ sub/ance 9 a pure /ate1 7t is1 hav+ made sure t !re is no?+ pres5t :i* c int]f]e ) & modify its ag5cy17 introduce v>i\s o!r sub/ances1 "o by "o1 to asc]ta9 :e!r x w comb9e ) !m1 or decompose !m1 & ) :at result2 & also apply heat1 or electricity1 or pressure1 to discov] :at w happ5 to ! sub/ance "u ea* ( ^! circum/ances4 ,b if1 on ! o!r h&1 x is out ( our p[] to produce ! ph5om5on1 & we h to seek = in/ances 9 :i* nature produces x1 ! task be=e u is v diff]5t4 ,in/ead ( be+ able to *oose :at ! concomitant circum/ances %all be1 we n[ h to discov] :at !y are2 :i*1 :5 we g beyond ! simple/ & mo/ accessible cases1 x is next to impossible to d1 ) any precision & complet5ess4 ,let u take1 z an exemplification ( a ph5om5on :i* we h no means ( fabricat+ artificially1 a human m9d4 ,nature produces _m2 b ! consequ5ce ( our n be+ able to produce x by art is1 t 9 e in/ance 9 :i* we see a human m9d develop+ itself1 or act+ ^u o!r ?+s1 we see x surr\nd$ & obscur$ by an indef9ite multitude ( unasc]ta9able circum/ances1 r5d]+ ! use ( ! common exp]im5tal me?ods almo/ delusive4 ,we may conceive to :at ext5t ?is is true1 if we consid]1 among o!r ?+s1 t :5ev] nature produces a human m9d1 %e produces1 9 close connexion ) x1 also a body2 t is1 a va/ complication ( physical facts1 9 no two cases p]haps exactly simil>1 & mo/ ( :i* 7except ! m]e /ructure1 :i* we c exam9e 9 a sort ( co>se way aft] x has ceas$ to act71 are radically out ( ! rea* ( our means ( exploration4 ,if1 in/ead ( a human m9d1 we suppose ! subject ( inve/igation to be a human society or ,/ate1 all ! same difficulties recur 9 a greatly augm5t$ degree4 ,we h ?us already come )9 sight ( a conclusion1 :i* ! progress ( ! inquiry w1 ,i ?9k1 br+ be=e u ) ! cle>e/ evid5ce3 namely1 t 9 ! sci5ces :i* deal ) ph5om5a 9 :i* artificial exp]im5ts are impossible 7z 9 ! case ( a/ronomy17 or 9 :i* !y h a v limit$ range 7z 9 physiology1 m5tal philosophy1 & ! social sci5ce17 induction f direct exp]i5ce is practis$ at a disadvantage g5]ally equival5t to impracticability3 f :i* x foll[s t ! me?ods ( ^? sci5ces1 9 ord] to accompli% any?+ wor?y ( atta9m5t1 mu/ be to a great ext5t1 if n pr9cipally1 d$uctive4 ,?is is already kn[n to be ! case ) ! fir/ ( ! sci5ces we h m5tion$1 a/ronomy2 t x is n g5]ally recognis$ z true ( ! o!rs1 is probably "o ( ! reasons :y !y are /ill 9 _! infancy4 #d4 ,if :at is call$ pure obs]vation is at s great a disadvantage1 comp>$ ) artificial exp]im5tation1 9 "o dep>tm5t ( ! direct exploration ( ph5om5a1 !re is ano!r bran* 9 :i* ! advantage is all on ! side ( ! =m]4 ,inductive inquiry hav+ = its object to asc]ta9 :at causes are connect$ ) :at effects1 we may beg9 ?is se>* at ei!r end ( ! road :i* leads f ! "o po9t to ! o!r3 we may ei!r inquire into ! effects ( a giv5 cause1 or into ! causes ( a giv5 effect4 ,! fact t light black5s *loride ( silv] might h be5 discov]$ ei!r by exp]im5ts on light1 try+ :at effect x w\ld produce on v>i\s sub/ances1 or by obs]v+ t portions ( ! *loride _h repeat$ly become black1 & inquir+ into ! circum/ances4 ,! effect ( ! urali poison might h become kn[n ei!r by adm9i/]+ x to animals1 or by exam9+ h[ x happ5$ t ! w\nds :i* ! ,indians ( ,guiana inflict ) _! arr[s prove s uni=mly mortal4 ,n[ x is manife/ f ! m]e /atem5t ( ! examples1 )\t any !oretical discussion1 t artificial exp]im5tation is applicable only to ! =m] ( ^! modes ( inve/igation4 ,we c take a cause1 & try :at x w produce3 b we _c take an effect1 & try :at x w be produc$ by4 ,we c only wat* till we see x produc$1 or are enabl$ to produce x by accid5t4 ,?is w\ld be ( little importance1 if x always dep5d$ on our *oice f :i* ( ! two ends ( ! sequ5ce we w\ld und]take our inquiries4 ,b we h seldom any option4 ,z we c only travel f ! kn[n to ! unkn[n1 we are oblig$ to comm5ce at :i*ev] end we are be/ acqua9t$ )4 ,if ! ag5t is m famili> to u ?an its effects1 we wat* =1 or contrive1 in/ances ( ! ag5t1 "u su* v>ieties ( circum/ances z are op5 to u1 & obs]ve ! result4 ,if1 on ! contr>y1 ! conditions on :i* a ph5om5on dep5ds are obscure1 b ! ph5om5on itself famili>1 we mu/ comm5ce our inquiry f ! effect4 ,if we are /ruck ) ! fact t *loride ( silv] has be5 black5$1 & h no suspicion ( ! cause1 we h no res\rce b to comp>e in/ances 9 :i* ! fact has *anc$ to occur1 until by t comp>ison we discov] t 9 all ^? in/ances ! sub/ance _h be5 expos$ to light4 ,if we knew no?+ ( ! ,indian arr[s b _! fatal effect1 accid5t alone c\ld turn our att5tion to exp]im5ts on ! urali3 9 ! regul> c\rse ( inve/igation1 we c\ld only inquire1 or try to obs]ve1 :at _h be5 done to ! arr[s 9 p>ticul> in/ances4 ,:]ev]1 hav+ no?+ to guide u to ! cause1 we are oblig$ to set out f ! effect1 & to apply ! rule ( v>y+ ! circum/ances to ! consequ5ts1 n ! antec$5ts1 we are necess>ily de/itute ( ! res\rce ( artificial exp]im5tation4 ,we _c1 at our *oice1 obta9 consequ5ts1 z we c antec$5ts1 "u any set ( circum/ances compatible ) _! nature4 ,!re are no means ( produc+ effects b ?r\gh _! causes1 & by ! supposition ! causes ( ! effect 9 "q are n kn[n to u4 ,we h !re=e no exp$i5t b to /udy x :]e x (f]s itself spontane\sly4 ,if nature happ5s to pres5t u ) in/ances suffici5tly v>i$ 9 _! circum/ances1 & if we are able to discov]1 ei!r among ! proximate antec$5ts or among "s o!r ord] ( antec$5ts1 some?+ :i* is always f\nd :5 ! effect is f\nd1 h[ev] v>i\s ! circum/ances1 & nev] f\nd :5 x is n2 we may discov]1 by m]e obs]vation )\t exp]im5t1 a real uni=mity 9 nature4 ,b ?\gh ?is is c]ta9ly ! mo/ fav\rable case = sci5ces ( pure obs]vation1 z contra/$ ) ^? 9 :i* artificial exp]im5ts are possible1 !re is 9 reality no case :i* m /rik+ly illu/rates ! inh]5t imp]fection ( direct induction :5 n f\nd$ on exp]im5tation4 ,suppose t1 by a comp>ison ( cases ( ! effect1 we h f\nd an antec$5t :i* appe>s to be1 & p]haps is1 inv>iably connect$ ) x3 we h n yet prov$ t antec$5t to be ! cause1 until we h rev]s$ ! process1 & produc$ ! effect by means ( t antec$5t4 ,if we c produce ! antec$5t artificially1 & if1 :5 we d s1 ! effect foll[s1 ! induction is complete2 t antec$5t is ! cause ( t consequ5t47#gf7 ,b we h !n add$ ! evid5ce ( exp]im5t to t ( simple obs]vation4 ,until we _h done s1 we _h only prov$ inv>iable antec$5ce1 b n unconditional antec$5ce1 or causation4 ,until x _h be5 %[n by ! actual production ( ! antec$5t "u kn[n circum/ances1 & ! occurr5ce !reupon ( ! consequ5t1 t ! antec$5t 0 really ! condition on :i* x dep5d$2 ! uni=mity ( succession :i* 0 prov$ to exi/ betwe5 !m might1 = aught we knew1 be 7l ! succession ( day & night7 no case ( causation at all2 bo? antec$5t & consequ5t might be successive /ages ( ! effect ( an ult]ior cause4 ,obs]vation1 9 %ort1 )\t exp]im5t 7suppos+ no aid f d$uction7 c asc]ta9 sequ5ces & coexi/5ces1 b _c prove causation4 ,9 ord] to see ^! rem>ks v]ifi$ by ! actual /ate ( ! sci5ces1 we h only to ?9k ( ! condition ( natural hi/ory4 ,9 zoology1 = example1 !re is an imm5se numb] ( uni=mities asc]ta9$1 "s ( coexi/5ce1 o!rs ( succession1 to _m ( :i*1 not)/&+ consid]able v>iations ( ! att5dant circum/ances1 we "k n any exception3 b ! antec$5ts1 = ! mo/ "p1 are su* z we _c artificially produce2 or if we c1 x is only by sett+ 9 motion ! exact process by :i* nature produces !m2 & ?is be+ to u a my/]i\s process1 ( :i* ! ma9 circum/ances are n only unkn[n b unobs]vable1 ! "n ( exp]im5tation w\ld "h be completely misappli$4 ,su* are ! facts3 & :at is ! result8 ,t on ?is va/ subject1 :i* af=ds s mu* & su* v>i$ scope = obs]vation1 we h n1 prop]ly speak+1 asc]ta9$ a s+le cause1 a s+le unconditional uni=mity4 ,we "k n1 9 ! case ( mo/ ( ! ph5om5a t we f9d conjo9$1 :i* is ! condition ( ! o!r2 :i* is cause1 & :i* effect1 or :e!r ei!r ( !m is s1 or !y are n r conjunct effects ( causes yet to be discov]$1 complex results ( laws hi!rto unkn[n4 ,al?\gh "s ( ! =ego+ obs]vations may be1 9 te*nical /rictness ( arrangem5t1 premature 9 ?is place1 x seem$ t a few g5]al rem>ks on ! diff]5ce betwe5 sci5ces ( m]e obs]vation & sci5ces ( exp]im5tation1 & ! extreme disadvantage "u :i* directly inductive inquiry is necess>ily c>ri$ on 9 ! =m]1 7 ! be/ prep>ation = discuss+ ! me?ods ( direct induction2 a prep>ation r5d]+ sup]flu\s mu* t mu/ o!rwise h be5 introduc$1 ) "s inconv5i5ce1 into ! he>t ( t discussion4 ,to ! consid]ation ( ^! me?ods we n[ proce$4 ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,( ,,! ,,f\r ,,me?ods ,,( ,,exp]im5tal ,,inquiry4 #a4 ,! simple/ & mo/ obvi\s modes ( s+l+ out f among ! circum/ances :i* prec$e or foll[ a ph5om5on1 ^? ) :i* x is really connect$ by an inv>iable law1 are two 9 numb]4 ,"o is1 by comp>+ toge!r diff]5t in/ances 9 :i* ! ph5om5on occurs4 ,! o!r is1 by comp>+ in/ances 9 :i* ! ph5om5on does occur1 ) in/ances 9 o!r respects simil> 9 :i* x does n4 ,^! two me?ods may be respectively d5om9at$1 ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t1 & ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce4 ,9 illu/rat+ ^! me?ods x w be necess>y to be> 9 m9d ! two-fold "* ( inquiries into ! laws ( ph5om5a2 :i* may be ei!r inquiries into ! cause ( a giv5 effect1 or into ! effects or prop]ties ( a giv5 cause4 ,we %all consid] ! me?ods 9 _! application to ei!r ord] ( inve/igation1 & %all draw our examples equally f bo?4 ,we %all d5ote antec$5ts by ! l>ge lett]s ( ! alphabet1 & ! consequ5ts correspond+ to !m by ! small4 ,let ,a1 !n1 be an ag5t or cause1 & let ! object ( our inquiry be to asc]ta9 :at are ! effects ( ?is cause4 ,if we c ei!r f9d1 or produce1 ! ag5t ,a 9 su* v>ieties ( circum/ances1 t ! diff]5t cases h no circum/ance 9 common except ,a2 !n :atev] effect we f9d to be produc$ 9 all our trials1 is indicat$ z ! effect ( ,a4 ,suppose1 = example1 t ,a is tri$ along ) ,b & ,c1 & t ! effect is a b c2 & suppose t ,a is next tri$ ) ,d & ,e1 b )\t ,b & ,c1 & t ! effect is a d e4 ,!n we may reason ?us3 b & c are n effects ( ,a1 = !y 7 n produc$ by x 9 ! second exp]im5t2 nor are d & e1 = !y 7 n produc$ 9 ! fir/4 ,:atev] is really ! effect ( ,a mu/ h be5 produc$ 9 bo? in/ances2 n[ ?is condition is fulfill$ by no circum/ance except a4 ,! ph5om5on a _c h be5 ! effect ( ,b or ,c1 s9ce x 0 produc$ :]e !y 7 n2 nor ( ,d or ,e1 s9ce x 0 produc$ :]e !y 7 n4 ,!re=e x is ! effect ( ,a4 ,= example1 let ! antec$5t ,a be ! contact ( an alkal9e sub/ance & an oil4 ,?is comb9ation be+ tri$ "u sev]al v>ieties ( circum/ance1 resembl+ ea* o!r 9 no?+ else1 ! results agree 9 ! production ( a greasy & det]sive or saponace\s sub/ance3 x is !re=e conclud$ t ! comb9ation ( an oil & an alkali causes ! production ( a soap4 ,x is ?us we inquire1 by ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t1 into ! effect ( a giv5 cause4 ,9 a simil> mann] we may inquire into ! cause ( a giv5 effect4 ,let a be ! effect4 ,"h1 z %[n 9 ! la/ *apt]1 we h only ! res\rce ( obs]vation )\t exp]im5t3 we _c take a ph5om5on ( :i* we "k n ! orig91 & try to f9d its mode ( production by produc+ x3 if we succe$$ 9 su* a r&om trial x c\ld only be by accid5t4 ,b if we c obs]ve a 9 two diff]5t comb9ations1 a b c1 & a d e2 & if we "k1 or c discov]1 t ! antec$5t circum/ances 9 ^! cases respectively 7 ,a ,b ,c & ,a ,d ,e2 we may conclude by a reason+ simil> to t 9 ! prec$+ example1 t ,a is ! antec$5t connect$ ) ! consequ5t a by a law ( causation4 ,b & ,c1 we may say1 _c be causes ( a1 s9ce on its second occurr5ce !y 7 n pres5t2 nor are ,d & ,e1 = !y 7 n pres5t on its fir/ occurr5ce4 ,a1 alone ( ! five circum/ances1 0 f\nd among ! antec$5ts ( a 9 bo? in/ances4 ,= example1 let ! effect a be cry/allization4 ,we comp>e in/ances 9 :i* bodies are kn[n to assume cry/all9e /ructure1 b :i* h no o!r po9t ( agreem5t2 & we f9d !m to h "o1 & z f> z we c obs]ve1 only "o1 antec$5t 9 common3 ! deposition ( a solid matt] f a liquid /ate1 ei!r a /ate ( fusion or ( solution4 ,we conclude1 !re=e1 t ! solidification ( a sub/ance f a liquid /ate is an inv>iable antec$5t ( its cry/allization4 ,9 ?is example we may g f>!r1 & say1 x is n only ! inv>iable antec$5t b ! cause2 or at lea/ ! proximate ev5t :i* completes ! cause4 ,= 9 ?is case we are able1 aft] detect+ ! antec$5t ,a1 to produce x artificially1 & by f9d+ t a foll[s x1 v]ify ! result ( our induction4 ,! importance ( ?us rev]s+ ! pro( 0 /rik+ly manife/$ :5 by keep+ a phial ( wat] *>g$ ) silice\s p>ticles undi/urb$ = ye>s1 a *emi/ 7,i believe ,dr4 ,wolla/on7 succe$$ 9 obta9+ cry/als ( qu>tz2 & 9 ! equally int]e/+ exp]im5t 9 :i* ,sir ,james ,hall produc$ artificial m>ble1 by ! cool+ ( its mat]ials f fusion "u imm5se pressure3 two admirable examples ( ! light :i* may be ?r[n ^u ! mo/ secret processes ( nature by well-contriv$ int]rogation ( h]4 ,b if we _c artificially produce ! ph5om5on ,a1 ! conclusion t x is ! cause ( a rema9s subject to v consid]able d\bt4 ,?\gh an inv>iable1 x may n be ! unconditional antec$5t ( a1 b may prec$e x z day prec$es night or night day4 ,?is unc]ta9ty arises f ! impossibility ( assur+ ourselves t ,a is ! only imm$iate antec$5t common to bo? ! in/ances4 ,if we c\ld be c]ta9 ( hav+ asc]ta9$ all ! inv>iable antec$5ts1 we might be sure t ! unconditional inv>iable antec$5t1 or cause1 mu/ be f\nd some:]e among !m4 ,un=tunately x is h>dly ev] possible to asc]ta9 all ! antec$5ts1 unless ! ph5om5on is "o :i* we c produce artificially4 ,ev5 !n1 ! difficulty is m]ely light5$1 n remov$3 m5 knew h[ to raise wat] 9 pumps long be=e !y adv]t$ to :at 0 really ! op]at+ circum/ance 9 ! means !y employ$1 namely1 ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e on ! op5 surface ( ! wat]4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 mu* easi] to analyse completely a set ( arrangem5ts made by ourselves1 ?an ! :ole complex mass ( ! ag5cies :i* nature happ5s to be ex]t+ at ! mom5t ( ! production ( a giv5 ph5om5on4 ,we may ov]look "s ( ! mat]ial circum/ances 9 an exp]im5t ) an electrical ma*9e2 b we %all1 at ! wor/1 be bett] acqua9t$ ) !m ?an ) ^? ( a ?und]-/orm4 ,! mode ( discov]+ & prov+ laws ( nature1 :i* we h n[ exam9$1 proce$s on ! foll[+ axiom3 ,:atev] circum/ance c be exclud$1 )\t prejudice to ! ph5om5on1 or c be abs5t not)/&+ its pres5ce1 is n connect$ ) x 9 ! way ( causation4 ,! casual circum/ances be+ ?us elim9at$1 if only "o rema9s1 t "o is ! cause :i* we are 9 se>* (3 if m ?an "o1 !y ei!r are1 or conta9 among !m1 ! cause3 & s1 mutatis mut&is1 ( ! effect4 ,z ?is me?od proce$s by comp>+ diff]5t in/ances to asc]ta9 9 :at !y agree1 ,i h t]m$ x ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t3 & we may adopt z its regulat+ pr9ciple ! foll[+ canon3-- ,,fir/ ,,canon4 ,if two or m in/ances ( ! ph5om5on "u inve/igation h only "o circum/ance 9 common1 ! circum/ance 9 :i* alone all ! in/ances agree1 is ! cause 7or effect7 ( ! giv5 ph5om5on4 ,quitt+ = ! pres5t ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t1 to :i* we %all almo/ imm$iately return1 we proce$ to a /ill m pot5t in/rum5t ( ! inve/igation ( nature1 ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce4 #b4 ,9 ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t1 we endeav\r$ to obta9 in/ances :i* agre$ 9 ! giv5 circum/ance b diff]$ 9 e o!r3 9 ! pres5t me?od we require1 on ! contr>y1 two in/ances resembl+ "o ano!r 9 e o!r respect1 b diff]+ 9 ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( ! ph5om5on we wi% to /udy4 ,if our object be to discov] ! effects ( an ag5t ,a1 we mu/ procure ,a 9 "s set ( asc]ta9$ circum/ances1 z ,a ,b ,c1 & hav+ not$ ! effects produc$1 comp>e !m ) ! effect ( ! rema9+ circum/ances ,b ,c1 :5 ,a is abs5t4 ,if ! effect ( ,a ,b ,c is a b c1 & ! effect ( ,b ,c1 b c1 x is evid5t t ! effect ( ,a is a4 ,s aga91 if we beg9 at ! o!r end1 & desire to inve/igate ! cause ( an effect a1 we mu/ select an in/ance1 z a b c1 9 :i* ! effect occurs1 & 9 :i* ! antec$5ts 7 ,a ,b ,c1 & we mu/ look out = ano!r in/ance 9 :i* ! rema9+ circum/ances1 b c1 occur )\t a4 ,if ! antec$5ts1 9 t in/ance1 are ,b ,c1 we "k t ! cause ( a mu/ be ,a3 ei!r ,a alone1 or ,a 9 conjunction ) "s ( ! o!r circum/ances pres5t4 ,x is sc>cely necess>y to give examples ( a logical process to :i* we owe almo/ all ! inductive conclusions we draw 9 daily life4 ,:5 a man is %ot ?r\gh ! he>t1 x is by ?is me?od we "k t x 0 ! gun-%ot :i* kill$ him3 = he 0 9 ! fulness ( life imm$iately be=e1 all circum/ances be+ ! same1 except ! w\nd4 ,! axioms impli$ 9 ?is me?od are evid5tly ! foll[+4 ,:atev] antec$5t _c be exclud$ )\t prev5t+ ! ph5om5on1 is ! cause1 or a condition1 ( t ph5om5on3 ,:atev] consequ5t c be exclud$1 ) no o!r diff]5ce 9 ! antec$5ts ?an ! abs5ce ( a p>ticul> "o1 is ! effect ( t "o4 ,in/ead ( comp>+ diff]5t in/ances ( a ph5om5on1 to discov] 9 :at !y agree1 ?is me?od comp>es an in/ance ( its occurr5ce ) an in/ance ( its non-occurr5ce1 to discov] 9 :at !y diff]4 ,! canon :i* is ! regulat+ pr9ciple ( ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce may be express$ z foll[s3-- ,,second ,,canon4 ,if an in/ance 9 :i* ! ph5om5on "u inve/igation occurs1 & an in/ance 9 :i* x does n occur1 h e circum/ance 9 common save "o1 t "o occurr+ only 9 ! =m]2 ! circum/ance 9 :i* alone ! two in/ances diff]1 is ! effect1 or cause1 or a necess>y "p ( ! cause1 ( ! ph5om5on4 #c4 ,! two me?ods :i* we h n[ /at$ h _m features ( resemblance1 b !re are also _m di/9ctions betwe5 !m4 ,bo? are me?ods ( elim9ation4 ,?is t]m 7employ$ 9 ! !ory ( equations to d5ote ! process by :i* "o aft] ano!r ( ! elem5ts ( a "q is exclud$1 & ! solution made to dep5d on ! relation betwe5 ! rema9+ elem5ts only7 is well suit$ to express ! op]ation1 analog\s to ?is1 :i* has be5 und]/ood s9ce ! "t ( ,bacon to be ! f\ndation ( exp]im5tal inquiry3 namely1 ! successive exclusion ( ! v>i\s circum/ances :i* are f\nd to accompany a ph5om5on 9 a giv5 in/ance1 9 ord] to asc]ta9 :at are ^? among !m :i* c be abs5t consi/5tly ) ! exi/5ce ( ! ph5om5on4 ,! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t /&s on ! gr\nd t :atev] c be elim9at$1 is n connect$ ) ! ph5om5on by any law4 ,! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce has = its f\ndation1 t :atev] c n be elim9at$1 is connect$ ) ! ph5om5on by a law4 ,( ^! me?ods1 t ( ,diff]5ce is m p>ticul>ly a me?od ( artificial exp]im5t2 :ile t ( ,agreem5t is m especially ! res\rce employ$ :]e exp]im5tation is impossible4 ,a few reflections w prove ! fact1 & po9t out ! reason ( x4 ,x is inh]5t 9 ! peculi> "* ( ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce1 t ! nature ( ! comb9ations :i* x requires is mu* m /rictly def9$ ?an 9 ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t4 ,! two in/ances :i* are to be comp>$ ) "o ano!r mu/ be exactly simil>1 9 all circum/ances except ! "o :i* we are attempt+ to inve/igate3 !y mu/ be 9 ! relation ( ,a ,b ,c & ,b ,c1 or ( a b c & b c4 ,x is true t ?is simil>ity ( circum/ances ne$s n ext5d to su* z are already kn[n to be immat]ial to ! result4 ,& 9 ! case ( mo/ ph5om5a we le>n at once1 f ! commone/ exp]i5ce1 t mo/ ( ! coexi/5t ph5om5a ( ! univ]se may be ei!r pres5t or abs5t )\t affect+ ! giv5 ph5om5on2 or1 if pres5t1 are pres5t indiff]5tly :5 ! ph5om5on does n happ51 & :5 x does4 ,/ill1 ev5 limit+ ! id5tity :i* is requir$ betwe5 ! two in/ances1 ,a ,b ,c & ,b ,c1 to su* circum/ances z are n already kn[n to be indiff]5t2 x is v seldom t nature af=ds two in/ances1 ( :i* we c be assur$ t !y /& 9 ?is precise relation to "o ano!r4 ,9 ! spontane\s op]ations ( nature !re is g5]ally su* complication & su* obscurity1 !y are mo/ly ei!r on s ov]:elm+ly l>ge or on s inaccessibly m9ute a scale1 we are s ignorant ( a great "p ( ! facts :i* really take place1 & ev5 ^? ( :i* we are n ignorant are s multitud9\s1 & !re=e s seldom exactly alike 9 any two cases1 t a spontane\s exp]im5t1 ( ! k9d requir$ by ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce1 is commonly n to be f\nd4 ,:51 on ! contr>y1 we obta9 a ph5om5on by an artificial exp]im5t1 a pair ( in/ances su* z ! me?od requires is obta9$ almo/ z a matt] ( c\rse1 provid$ ! process does n la/ a long "t4 ,a c]ta9 /ate ( surr\nd+ circum/ances exi/$ be=e we comm5c$ ! exp]im5t2 ?is is ,b ,c4 ,we !n introduce ,a2 say1 = in/ance1 by m]ely br++ an object f ano!r "p ( ! room1 be=e !re has be5 "t = any *ange 9 ! o!r elem5ts4 ,x is1 9 %ort1 7z ,m4 ,comte obs]ves17 ! v nature ( an exp]im5t1 to introduce into ! pre-exi/+ /ate ( circum/ances a *ange p]fectly def9ite4 ,we *oose a previ\s /ate ( ?+s ) :i* we are well acqua9t$1 s t no un=ese5 alt]ation 9 t /ate is likely to pass unobs]v$2 & into ?is we introduce1 z rapidly z possible1 ! ph5om5on :i* we wi% to /udy2 s t 9 g5]al we are entitl$ to feel complete assurance1 t ! pre-exi/+ /ate1 & ! /ate :i* we h produc$1 diff] 9 no?+ except ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( t ph5om5on4 ,if a bird is tak5 f a cage1 & in/antly plung$ into c>bonic acid gas1 ! exp]im5tali/ may be fully assur$ 7at all ev5ts aft] "o or two repetitions7 t no circum/ance capable ( caus+ suffocation _h sup]v5$ 9 ! int]im1 except ! *ange f imm]sion 9 ! atmosph]e to imm]sion 9 c>bonic acid gas4 ,!re is "o d\bt1 inde$1 :i* may rema9 9 "s cases ( ?is description2 ! effect may h be5 produc$ n by ! *ange1 b by ! means employ$ to produce ! *ange4 ,! possibility1 h[ev]1 ( ?is la/ supposition g5]ally admits ( be+ conclusively te/$ by o!r exp]im5ts4 ,x ?us appe>s t 9 ! /udy ( ! v>i\s k9ds ( ph5om5a :i* we c1 by our volunt>y ag5cy1 modify or control1 we c 9 g5]al satisfy ! requisitions ( ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce2 b t by ! spontane\s op]ations ( nature ^? requisitions are seldom fulfill$4 ,! rev]se ( ?is is ! case ) ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t4 ,we d n "h require in/ances ( s special & det]m9ate a k9d4 ,any in/ances :atev]1 9 :i* nature pres5ts u ) a ph5om5on1 may be exam9$ = ! purposes ( ?is me?od2 & if all su* in/ances agree 9 any?+1 a conclusion ( consid]able value is already atta9$4 ,we c seldom1 inde$1 be sure t ! "o po9t ( agreem5t is ! only "o2 b ?is ignorance does n1 z 9 ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce1 vitiate ! conclusion2 ! c]ta9ty ( ! result1 z f> z x goes1 is n affect$4 ,we h asc]ta9$ "o inv>iable antec$5t or consequ5t1 h[ev] _m o!r inv>iable antec$5ts or consequ5ts may /ill rema9 unasc]ta9$4 ,if ,a ,b ,c1 ,a ,d ,e1 ,a ,f ,g1 are all equally foll[$ by a1 !n a is an inv>iable consequ5t ( ,a4 ,if a b c1 a d e1 a f g1 all numb] ,a among _! antec$5ts1 !n ,a is connect$ z an antec$5t1 by "s inv>iable law1 ) a4 ,b to det]m9e :e!r ?is inv>iable antec$5t is a cause1 or ?is inv>iable consequ5t an effect1 we mu/ be able1 9 addition1 to produce ! "o by means ( ! o!r2 or1 at lea/1 to obta9 t :i* alone con/itutes our assurance ( hav+ produc$ any?+1 namely1 an in/ance 9 :i* ! effect1 a1 has come into exi/5ce1 ) no o!r *ange 9 ! pre-exi/+ circum/ances ?an ! addition ( ,a4 ,& ?is1 if we c d x1 is an application ( ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce1 n ( ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t4 ,x ?us appe>s to be by ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce alone t we c ev]1 9 ! way ( direct exp]i5ce1 arrive ) c]ta9ty at causes4 ,! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t leads only to laws ( ph5om5a1 7z "s writ]s call !m1 b improp]ly1 s9ce laws ( causation are also laws ( ph5om5a73 t is1 to uni=mities :i* ei!r are n laws ( causation1 or 9 :i* ! "q ( causation mu/ = ! pres5t rema9 undecid$4 ,! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t is *iefly to be resort$ to1 z a means ( sugge/+ applications ( ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce 7z 9 ! la/ example ! comp>ison ( ,a ,b ,c1 ,a ,d ,e1 ,a ,f ,g1 sugge/$ t ,a 0 ! antec$5t on :i* to try ! exp]im5t :e!r x c\ld produce a72 or z an inf]ior res\rce1 9 case ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce is impracticable2 :i*1 z we be=e %[$1 g5]ally arises f ! impossibility ( artificially produc+ ! ph5om5a4 ,& h5ce x is t ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t1 ?\gh applicable 9 pr9ciple to ei!r case1 is m emphatically ! me?od ( inve/igation on ^? subjects :]e artificial exp]im5tation is impossible2 because on ^? x is1 g5]ally1 our only res\rce ( a directly inductive nature2 :ile1 9 ! ph5om5a :i* we c produce at pleasure1 ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce g5]ally af=ds a m efficaci\s process1 :i* w asc]ta9 causes z well z m]e laws4 #d4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 _m cases 9 :i*1 ?\gh our p[] ( produc+ ! ph5om5on is complete1 ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce ei!r _c be made available at all1 or n )\t a previ\s employm5t ( ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t4 ,?is occurs :5 ! ag5cy by :i* we c produce ! ph5om5on is n t ( "o s+le antec$5t1 b ( a comb9ation ( antec$5ts1 :i* we h no p[] ( sep>at+ f ea* o!r & exhibit+ ap>t4 ,= in/ance1 suppose ! subject ( inquiry to be ! cause ( ! d\ble refraction ( light4 ,we c produce ?is ph5om5on at pleasure1 by employ+ any "o ( ! _m sub/ances :i* are kn[n to refract light 9 t peculi> mann]4 ,b if1 tak+ "o ( ^? sub/ances1 z ,icel& sp> = example1 we wi% to det]m9e on :i* ( ! prop]ties ( ,icel& sp> ?is rem>kable ph5om5on dep5ds1 we c make no use1 = t purpose1 ( ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce2 = we _c f9d ano!r sub/ance precisely resembl+ ,icel& sp> except 9 "s "o prop]ty4 ,! only mode1 !re=e1 ( prosecut+ ?is inquiry is t af=d$ by ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t2 by :i*1 9 fact1 ?r\gh a comp>ison ( all ! kn[n sub/ances :i* h ! prop]ty ( d\bly refract+ light1 x 0 asc]ta9$ t !y agree 9 ! circum/ance ( be+ cry/all9e sub/ances2 & ?\gh ! conv]se does n hold1 ?\gh all cry/all9e sub/ances h n ! prop]ty ( d\ble refraction1 x 0 conclud$1 ) reason1 t !re is a real connexion betwe5 ^! two prop]ties2 t ei!r cry/all9e /ructure1 or ! cause :i* gives rise to t /ructure1 is "o ( ! conditions ( d\ble refraction4 ,out ( ?is employm5t ( ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t arises a peculi> modification ( t me?od1 :i* is sometimes ( great avail 9 ! inve/igation ( nature4 ,9 cases simil> to ! above1 9 :i* x is n possible to obta9 ! precise pair ( in/ances :i* our second canon requires--in/ances agree+ 9 e antec$5t except ,a1 or 9 e consequ5t except a2 we may yet be able1 by a d\ble employm5t ( ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t1 to discov] 9 :at ! in/ances :i* conta9 ,a or a1 diff] f ^? :i* d n4 ,if we comp>e v>i\s in/ances 9 :i* a occurs1 & f9d t !y all h 9 common ! circum/ance ,a1 & 7z f> z c be obs]v$7 no o!r circum/ance1 ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t1 s f>1 be>s te/imony to a connexion betwe5 ,a & a4 ,9 ord] to conv]t ?is evid5ce ( connexion into pro( ( causation by ! direct ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce1 we ought to be able 9 "s "o ( ^! in/ances1 z = example ,a ,b ,c1 to leave out ,a1 & obs]ve :e!r by do+ s1 a is prev5t$4 ,n[ suppos+ 7:at is (t5 ! case7 t we are n able to try ?is decisive exp]im5t2 yet1 provid$ we c by any means discov] :at w\ld be its result if we c\ld try x1 ! advantage w be ! same4 ,suppose1 !n1 t z we previ\sly exam9$ a v>iety ( in/ances 9 :i* a occurr$1 & f\nd !m to agree 9 conta9+ ,a1 s we n[ obs]ve a v>iety ( in/ances 9 :i* a does n occur1 & f9d !m agree 9 n conta9+ ,a2 :i* e/abli%es1 by ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t1 ! same connexion betwe5 ! abs5ce ( ,a & ! abs5ce ( a1 :i* 0 be=e e/abli%$ betwe5 _! pres5ce4 ,z1 !n1 x _h be5 %[n t :5ev] ,a is pres5t a is pres5t1 s x be+ n[ %[n t :5 ,a is tak5 away a is remov$ along ) x1 we h by ! "o proposition ,a ,b ,c1 a b c1 by ! o!r ,b ,c1 b c1 ! positive & negative in/ances :i* ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce requires4 ,?is me?od may be call$ ! ,indirect ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce1 or ! ,jo9t ,me?od ( ,agreem5t & ,diff]5ce2 & consi/s 9 a d\ble employm5t ( ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t1 ea* pro( be+ indep5d5t ( ! o!r1 & corroborat+ x4 ,b x is n equival5t to a pro( by ! direct ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce4 ,= ! requisitions ( ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce are n satisfi$1 unless we c be q sure ei!r t ! in/ances affirmative ( a agree 9 no antec$5t :atev] b ,a1 or t ! in/ances negative ( a agree 9 no?+ b ! negation ( ,a4 ,n[ if x 7 possible1 :i* x nev] is1 to h ?is assurance1 we %\ld n ne$ ! jo9t me?od2 = ei!r ( ! two sets ( in/ances sep>ately w\ld !n be suffici5t to prove causation4 ,?is indirect me?od1 !re=e1 c only be reg>d$ z a great ext5sion & improvem5t ( ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t1 b n z p>ticipat+ 9 ! m cog5t nature ( ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce4 ,! foll[+ may be /at$ z its canon3-- ,,?ird ,,canon4 ,if two or m in/ances 9 :i* ! ph5om5on occurs h only "o circum/ance 9 common1 :ile two or m in/ances 9 :i* x does n occur h no?+ 9 common save ! abs5ce ( t circum/ance2 ! circum/ance 9 :i* alone ! two sets ( in/ances diff]1 is ! effect1 or cause1 or a necess>y "p ( ! cause1 ( ! ph5om5on4 ,we %all pres5tly see t ! ,jo9t ,me?od ( ,agreem5t & ,diff]5ce con/itutes1 9 ano!r respect n yet adv]t$ to1 an improvem5t ^u ! common ,me?od ( ,agreem5t1 namely1 9 be+ unaffect$ by a *>act]i/ic imp]fection ( t me?od1 ! nature ( :i* /ill rema9s to be po9t$ out4 ,b z we _c ent] into ?is exposition )\t introduc+ a new elem5t ( complexity into ?is long & intricate discussion1 ,i %all po/pone x to a subsequ5t *apt]1 & %all at once proce$ to ! /atem5t ( two o!r me?ods1 :i* w complete ! enum]ation ( ! means :i* mank9d possess = explor+ ! laws ( nature by specific obs]vation & exp]i5ce4 #e4 ,! fir/ ( ^! has be5 aptly d5om9at$ ! ,me?od ( ,residues4 ,its pr9ciple is v simple4 ,subduct+ f any giv5 ph5om5on all ! portions :i*1 by virtue ( prec$+ inductions1 c be assign$ to kn[n causes1 ! rema9d] w be ! effect ( ! antec$5ts :i* _h be5 ov]look$1 or ( :i* ! effect 0 z yet an unkn[n quantity4 ,suppose1 z be=e1 t we h ! antec$5ts ,a ,b ,c1 foll[$ by ! consequ5ts a b c1 & t by previ\s inductions1 7f\nd$1 we w suppose1 on ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce17 we h asc]ta9$ ! causes ( "s ( ^! effects1 or ! effects ( "s ( ^! causes2 & are by ?is means appris$ t ! effect ( ,a is a1 & t ! effect ( ,b is b4 ,subtract+ ! sum ( ^! effects f ! total ph5om5on1 !re rema9s c1 :i* n[1 )\t any fre% exp]im5t1 we may "k to be ! effect ( ,c4 ,?is ,me?od ( ,residues is 9 tru? a peculi> modification ( ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce4 ,if ! in/ance ,a ,b ,c1 a b c1 c\ld h be5 comp>$ ) a s+le in/ance ,a ,b1 a b1 we %\ld h prov$ ,c to be ! cause ( c1 by ! common process ( ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce4 ,9 ! pres5t case1 h[ev]1 in/ead ( a s+le in/ance ,a ,b1 we h _h to /udy sep>ately ! causes ,a & ,b1 & to inf] f ! effects :i* !y produce sep>ately1 :at effect !y mu/ produce 9 ! case ,a ,b ,c :]e !y act toge!r4 ,( ! two in/ances1 !re=e1 :i* ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce requires1--! "o positive1 ! o!r negative1--! negative "o1 or t 9 :i* ! giv5 ph5om5on is abs5t1 is n ! direct result ( obs]vation & exp]im5t1 b has be5 arriv$ at by d$uction4 ,z "o ( ! =ms ( ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce1 ! ,me?od ( ,residues p>takes ( its rigor\s c]ta9ty1 provid$ ! previ\s inductions1 ^? :i* gave ! effects ( ,a & ,b1 7 obta9$ by ! same infallible me?od1 & provid$ we are c]ta9 t ,c is ! only antec$5t to :i* ! residual ph5om5on c c be ref]r$2 ! only ag5t ( :i* we _h n already calculat$ & subduct$ ! effect4 ,b z we c nev] be q c]ta9 ( ?is1 ! evid5ce d]iv$ f ! ,me?od ( ,residues is n complete unless we c obta9 ,c artificially & try x sep>ately1 or unless its ag5cy1 :5 once sugge/$1 c be acc\nt$ =1 & prov$ d$uctively1 f kn[n laws4 ,ev5 ) ^! res]vations1 ! ,me?od ( ,residues is "o ( ! mo/ important among our in/rum5ts ( discov]y4 ,( all ! me?ods ( inve/igat+ laws ( nature1 ?is is ! mo/ f]tile 9 unexpect$ results2 (t5 in=m+ u ( sequ5ces 9 :i* nei!r ! cause nor ! effect 7 suffici5tly conspicu\s to attract ( !mselves ! att5tion ( obs]v]s4 ,! ag5t ,c may be an obscure circum/ance1 n likely to h be5 p]ceiv$ unless s\ght =1 nor likely to h be5 s\ght = until att5tion _h be5 awak5$ by ! insuffici5cy ( ! obvi\s causes to acc\nt = ! :ole ( ! effect4 ,& c may be s disguis$ by its int]mixture ) a & b1 t x w\ld sc>cely h pres5t$ itself spontane\sly z a subject ( sep>ate /udy4 ,( ^! uses ( ! me?od1 we %all pres5tly cite "s rem>kable examples4 ,! canon ( ! ,me?od ( ,residues is z foll[s3-- ,,f\r? ,,canon4 ,subduct f any ph5om5on su* "p z is kn[n by previ\s inductions to be ! effect ( c]ta9 antec$5ts1 & ! residue ( ! ph5om5on is ! effect ( ! rema9+ antec$5ts4 #f4 ,!re rema9s a class ( laws :i* x is impracticable to asc]ta9 by any ( ! ?ree me?ods :i* ,i h attempt$ to *>act]ize2 namely1 ! laws ( ^? ,p]man5t ,causes1 or inde/ructible natural ag5ts1 :i* x is impossible ei!r to exclude or to isolate2 :i* we c nei!r h9d] f be+ pres5t1 nor contrive t !y %all be pres5t alone4 ,x w\ld appe> at fir/ sight t we c\ld by no means sep>ate ! effects ( ^! ag5ts f ! effects ( ^? o!r ph5om5a ) :i* !y _c be prev5t$ f coexi/+4 ,9 respect1 inde$1 to mo/ ( ! p]man5t causes1 no su* difficulty exi/s2 s9ce ?\gh we _c elim9ate !m z coexi/+ facts1 we c elim9ate !m z influ5c+ ag5ts1 by simply try+ our exp]im5t 9 a local situation beyond ! limits ( _! influ5ce4 ,! p5dulum1 = example1 has its oscillations di/urb$ by ! vic9ity ( a m\nta93 we remove ! p5dulum to a suffici5t di/ance f ! m\nta91 & ! di/urbance ceases3 f ^! data we c det]m9e by ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce1 ! am\nt ( effect due to ! m\nta92 & beyond a c]ta9 di/ance ev]y?+ goes on precisely z x w\ld d if ! m\nta9 ex]cis$ no influ5ce :atev]1 :i*1 accord+ly1 we1 ) suffici5t reason1 conclude to be ! fact1 ,! difficulty1 !re=e1 9 apply+ ! me?ods already treat$ ( to det]m9e ! effects ( ,p]man5t ,causes1 is conf9$ to ! cases 9 :i* x is impossible = u to get out ( ! local limits ( _! influ5ce4 ,! p5dulum c be remov$ f ! influ5ce ( ! m\nta91 b x _c be remov$ f ! influ5ce ( ! e>?3 we _c take away ! e>? f ! p5dulum1 nor ! p5dulum f ! e>?1 to asc]ta9 :e!r x w\ld cont9ue to vibrate if ! action :i* ! e>? ex]ts ^u x 7 )drawn4 ,on :at evid5ce1 !n1 d we ascribe its vibrations to ! e>?'s influ5ce8 ,n on any sanction$ by ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce2 = "o ( ! two in/ances1 ! negative in/ance1 is want+4 ,nor by ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t2 = ?\gh all p5dulums agree 9 ?is1 t dur+ _! oscillations ! e>? is always pres5t1 :y may we n z well ascribe ! ph5om5on to ! sun1 :i* is equally a coexi/5t fact 9 all ! exp]im5ts8 ,x is evid5t t to e/abli% ev5 s simple a fact ( causation z ?is1 !re 0 requir$ "s me?od ov] & above ^? :i* we h yet exam9$4 ,z ano!r example1 let u take ! ph5om5on ,heat4 ,indep5d5tly ( all hypo!sis z to ! real nature ( ! ag5cy s call$1 ?is fact is c]ta91 t we are unable to exhau/ any body ( ! :ole ( its heat4 ,x is equally c]ta91 t no "o ev] p]ceiv$ heat n emanat+ f a body4 ,be+ unable1 !n1 to sep>ate ,body & ,heat1 we _c effect su* a v>iation ( circum/ances z ! =ego+ ?ree me?ods require2 we _c asc]ta91 by ^? me?ods1 :at portion ( ! ph5om5a exhibit$ by any body are due to ! heat conta9$ 9 x4 ,if we c\ld obs]ve a body ) its heat1 & ! same body entirely dive/$ ( heat1 ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce w\ld %[ ! effect due to ! heat1 ap>t f t due to ! body4 ,if we c\ld obs]ve heat "u circum/ances agree+ 9 no?+ b heat1 & !re=e n *>act]iz$ also by ! pres5ce ( a body1 we c\ld asc]ta9 ! effects ( heat1 f an in/ance ( heat ) a body & an in/ance ( heat )\t a body1 by ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t2 or we c\ld det]m9e by ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce :at effect 0 due to ! body1 :5 ! rema9d] :i* 0 due to ! heat w\ld be giv5 by ! ,me?od ( ,residues4 ,b we c d none ( ^! ?+s2 & )\t !m ! application ( any ( ! ?ree me?ods to ! solution ( ?is problem w\ld be illusory4 ,x w\ld be idle1 = in/ance1 to attempt to asc]ta9 ! effect ( heat by subtract+ f ! ph5om5a exhibit$ by a body1 all t is due to its o!r prop]ties2 = z we h nev] be5 able to obs]ve any bodies )\t a portion ( heat 9 !m1 ! effects due to t heat might =m a "p ( ! v results1 :i* we 7 affect+ to subtract 9 ord] t ! effect ( heat might be %[n by ! residue4 ,if1 !re=e1 !re 7 no o!r me?ods ( exp]im5tal inve/igation ?an ^! ?ree1 we %\ld be unable to det]m9e ! effects due to heat z a cause4 ,b we h /ill a res\rce4 ,?\gh we _c exclude an antec$5t altoge!r1 we may be able to produce1 or nature may produce = u1 "s modification 9 x4 ,by a modification is "h meant1 a *ange 9 x1 n am\nt+ to its total removal4 ,if "s modification 9 ! antec$5t ,a is always foll[$ by a *ange 9 ! consequ5t a1 ! o!r consequ5ts b & c rema9+ ! same2 or1 vice v]s1 if e *ange 9 a is f\nd to h be5 prec$$ by "s modification 9 ,a1 none be+ obs]vable 9 any ( ! o!r antec$5ts2 we may safely conclude t a is1 :olly or 9 "p1 an effect traceable to ,a1 or at lea/ 9 "s way connect$ ) x ?r\gh causation4 ,= example1 9 ! case ( heat1 ?\gh we _c expel x altoge!r f any body1 we c modify x 9 quantity1 we c increase or dim9i% x2 & do+ s1 we f9d by ! v>i\s me?ods ( exp]im5tation or obs]vation already treat$ (1 t su* increase or dim9ution ( heat is foll[$ by expansion or contraction ( ! body4 ,9 ?is mann] we arrive at ! conclusion1 o!rwise unatta9able by u1 t "o ( ! effects ( heat is to enl>ge ! dim5sions ( bodies2 or :at is ! same ?+ 9 o!r words1 to wid5 ! di/ances betwe5 _! p>ticles4 ,a *ange 9 a ?+1 n am\nt+ to its total removal1 t is1 a *ange :i* leaves x /ill ! same ?+ x 01 mu/ be a *ange ei!r 9 its quantity1 or 9 "s ( its relations to o!r ?+s1 ( :i* relations ! pr9cipal is its position 9 space4 ,9 ! previ\s example1 ! modification :i* 0 produc$ 9 ! antec$5t 0 an alt]ation 9 its quantity4 ,let u n[ suppose ! "q to be1 :at influ5ce ! moon ex]ts on ! surface ( ! e>?4 ,we _c try an exp]im5t 9 ! abs5ce ( ! moon1 s z to obs]ve :at t]re/rial ph5om5a h] annihilation w\ld put an end to2 b :5 we f9d t all ! v>iations 9 ! position ( ! moon are foll[$ by correspond+ v>iations 9 ! "t & place ( high wat]1 ! place be+ always ei!r ! "p ( ! e>? :i* is ne>e/ to1 or t :i* is mo/ remote f1 ! moon1 we h ample evid5ce t ! moon is1 :olly or p>tially1 ! cause :i* det]m9es ! tides4 ,x v commonly happ5s1 z x does 9 ?is in/ance1 t ! v>iations ( an effect are correspond5t1 or analog\s1 to ^? ( its cause2 z ! moon moves fur!r t[>ds ! ea/1 ! high wat] po9t does ! same3 b ?is is n an indisp5sable condition2 z may be se5 9 ! same example1 = along ) t high wat] po9t1 !re is at ! same in/ant ano!r high wat] po9t diametrically opposite to x1 & :i*1 !re=e1 ( necessity1 moves t[>ds ! we/ z ! moon foll[$ by ! ne>] ( ! tide waves advances t[>ds ! ea/3 & yet bo? ^! motions are equally effects ( ! moon's motion4 ,t ! oscillations ( ! p5dulum are caus$ by ! e>?1 is prov$ by simil> evid5ce4 ,^? oscillations take place betwe5 equidi/ant po9ts on ! two sides ( a l9e1 :i*1 be+ p]p5dicul> to ! e>?1 v>ies ) e v>iation 9 ! e>?'s position1 ei!r 9 space or relatively to ! object4 ,speak+ accurately1 we only "k by ! me?od n[ *>act]iz$1 t all t]re/rial bodies t5d to ! e>?1 & n to "s unkn[n fix$ po9t ly+ 9 ! same direction4 ,9 e tw5ty-f\r h\rs1 by ! e>?'s rotation1 ! l9e drawn f ! body at "r angles to ! e>? co9cides successively ) all ! radii ( a circle1 & 9 ! c\rse ( six mon?s ! place ( t circle v>ies by ne>ly two hundr$ millions ( miles2 yet 9 all ^! *anges ( ! e>?'s position1 ! l9e 9 :i* bodies t5d to fall cont9ues to be direct$ t[>ds x3 :i* proves t t]re/rial gravity is direct$ to ! e>?1 & n1 z 0 once fanci$ by "s1 to a fix$ po9t ( space4 ,! me?od by :i* ^! results 7 obta9$1 may be t]m$ ! ,me?od ( ,concomitant ,v>iations3 x is regulat$ by ! foll[+ canon3-- ,,fif? ,,canon4 ,:atev] ph5om5on v>ies 9 any mann] :5ev] ano!r ph5om5on v>ies 9 "s p>ticul> mann]1 is ei!r a cause or an effect ( t ph5om5on1 or is connect$ ) x ?r\gh "s fact ( causation4 ,! la/ clause is subjo9$1 because x by no means foll[s :5 two ph5om5a accompany ea* o!r 9 _! v>iations1 t ! "o is cause & ! o!r effect4 ,! same ?+ may1 & inde$ mu/ happ51 suppos+ !m to be two diff]5t effects ( a common cause3 & by ?is me?od alone x w\ld nev] be possible to asc]ta9 :i* ( ! suppositions is ! true "o4 ,! only way to solve ! d\bt w\ld be t :i* we h s (t5 adv]t$ to1 viz4 by endeav\r+ to asc]ta9 :e!r we c produce ! "o set ( v>iations by means ( ! o!r4 ,9 ! case ( heat1 = example1 by increas+ ! temp]ature ( a body we increase its bulk1 b by increas+ its bulk we d n increase its temp]ature2 on ! contr>y1 7z 9 ! r>efaction ( air "u ! receiv] ( an air-pump17 we g5]ally dim9i% x3 !re=e heat is n an effect1 b a cause1 ( increase ( bulk4 ,if we _c ourselves produce ! v>iations1 we mu/ endeav\r1 ?\gh x is an attempt :i* is seldom successful1 to f9d !m produc$ by nature 9 "s case 9 :i* ! pre-exi/+ circum/ances are p]fectly kn[n to u4 ,x is sc>cely necess>y to say1 t 9 ord] to asc]ta9 ! uni=m concomitance ( v>iations 9 ! effect ) v>iations 9 ! cause1 ! same precautions mu/ be us$ z 9 any o!r case ( ! det]m9ation ( an inv>iable sequ5ce4 ,we mu/ endeav\r to reta9 all ! o!r antec$5ts un*ang$1 :ile t p>ticul> "o is subject$ to ! requisite s]ies ( v>iations2 or 9 o!r words1 t we may be w>rant$ 9 inf]r+ causation f concomitance ( v>iations1 ! concomitance itself mu/ be prov$ by ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce4 ,x might at fir/ appe> t ! ,me?od ( ,concomitant ,v>iations assumes a new axiom1 or law ( causation 9 g5]al1 namely1 t e modification ( ! cause is foll[$ by a *ange 9 ! effect4 ,& x does usually happ5 t :5 a ph5om5on ,a causes a ph5om5on a1 any v>iation 9 ! quantity or 9 ! v>i\s relations ( ,a1 is uni=mly foll[$ by a v>iation 9 ! quantity or relations ( a4 ,to take a famili> in/ance1 t ( gravitation4 ,! sun causes a c]ta9 t5d5cy to motion 9 ! e>?2 "h we h cause & effect2 b t t5d5cy is t[>ds ! sun1 & !re=e v>ies 9 direction z ! sun v>ies 9 ! relation ( position2 & moreov] ! t5d5cy v>ies 9 int5sity1 9 a c]ta9 num]ical ratio to ! sun's di/ance f ! e>?1 t is1 accord+ to ano!r relation ( ! sun4 ,?us we see t !re is n only an inv>iable connexion betwe5 ! sun & ! e>?'s gravitation1 b t two ( ! relations ( ! sun1 its position ) respect to ! e>? & its di/ance f ! e>?1 are inv>iably connect$ z antec$5ts ) ! quantity & direction ( ! e>?'s gravitation4 ,! cause ( ! e>?'s gravitat+ at all1 is simply ! sun2 b ! cause ( its gravitat+ ) a giv5 int5sity & 9 a giv5 direction1 is ! exi/5ce ( ! sun 9 a giv5 direction & at a giv5 di/ance4 ,x is n /range t a modifi$ cause1 :i* is 9 tru? a diff]5t cause1 %\ld produce a diff]5t effect4 ,al?\gh x is = ! mo/ "p true t a modification ( ! cause is foll[$ by a modification ( ! effect1 ! ,me?od ( ,concomitant ,v>iations does n1 h[ev]1 presuppose ?is z an axiom4 ,x only requires ! conv]se proposition2 t any?+ on ^: modifications1 modifications ( an effect are inv>iably consequ5t1 mu/ be ! cause 7or connect$ ) ! cause7 ( t effect2 a proposition1 ! tru? ( :i* is evid5t2 = if ! ?+ itself _h no influ5ce on ! effect1 nei!r c\ld ! modifications ( ! ?+ h any influ5ce4 ,if ! />s h no p[] ov] ! =tunes ( mank9d1 x is impli$ 9 ! v t]ms1 t ! conjunctions or oppositions ( diff]5t />s c h no su* p[]4 ,al?\gh ! mo/ /rik+ applications ( ! ,me?od ( ,concomitant ,v>iations take place 9 ! cases 9 :i* ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce1 /rictly s call$1 is impossible1 its use is n conf9$ to ^? cases2 x may (t5 usefully foll[ aft] ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce1 to give additional precision to a solution :i* t has f\nd4 ,:5 by ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce x has fir/ be5 asc]ta9$ t a c]ta9 object produces a c]ta9 effect1 ! ,me?od ( ,concomitant ,v>iations may be usefully call$ 9 to det]m9e accord+ to :at law ! quantity or ! diff]5t relations ( ! effect foll[ ^? ( ! cause4 #g4 ,! case 9 :i* ?is me?od admits ( ! mo/ ext5sive employm5t1 is t 9 :i* ! v>iations ( ! cause are v>iations ( quantity4 ,( su* v>iations we may 9 g5]al affirm ) safety1 t !y w be att5d$ n only ) v>iations1 b ) simil> v>iations1 ( ! effect3 ! proposition1 t m ( ! cause is foll[$ by m ( ! effect1 be+ a coroll>y f ! pr9ciple ( ! ,composition ( ,causes1 :i*1 z we h se51 is ! g5]al rule ( causation2 cases ( ! opposite description1 9 :i* causes *ange _! prop]ties on be+ conjo9$ ) "o ano!r1 be+1 on ! contr>y1 special & exceptional4 ,suppose1 !n1 t :5 ,a *anges 9 quantity1 a also *anges 9 quantity1 & 9 su* a mann] t we c trace ! num]ical relation :i* ! *anges ( ! "o be> to su* *anges ( ! o!r z take place )9 our limits ( obs]vation4 ,we may !n1 ) c]ta9 precautions1 safely conclude t ! same num]ical relation w hold beyond ^? limits4 ,if1 = in/ance1 we f9d t :5 ,a is d\ble1 a is d\ble2 t :5 ,a is treble or quadruple1 a is treble or quadruple2 we may conclude t if ,a 7 a half or a ?ird1 a w\ld be a half or a ?ird1 & f9ally1 t if ,a 7 annihilat$1 a w\ld be annihilat$1 & t a is :olly ! effect ( ,a1 or :olly ! effect ( ! same cause ) ,a4 ,& s ) any o!r num]ical relation accord+ to :i* ,a & a w\ld vani% simultane\sly2 z = in/ance if a 7 proportional to ! squ>e ( ,a4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 a is n :olly ! effect ( ,a1 b yet v>ies :5 ,a v>ies1 x is probably a ma!matical function n ( ,a alone b ( ,a & some?+ else3 its *anges1 = example1 may be su* z w\ld occur if "p ( x rema9$ con/ant1 or v>i$ on "s o!r pr9ciple1 & ! rema9d] v>i$ 9 "s num]ical relation to ! v>iations ( ,a4 ,9 t case1 :5 ,a dim9i%es1 a w seem to approa* n t[>ds z]o1 b t[>ds "s o!r limit3 & :5 ! s]ies ( v>iations is su* z to indicate :at t limit is1 if con/ant1 or ! law ( its v>iation if v>iable1 ! limit w exactly measure h[ mu* ( a is ! effect ( "s o!r & indep5d5t cause1 & ! rema9d] w be ! effect ( ,a 7or ( ! cause ( ,a74 ,^! conclusions1 h[ev]1 mu/ n be drawn )\t c]ta9 precautions4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ! possibility ( draw+ !m at all1 manife/ly supposes t we are acqua9t$ n only ) ! v>iations1 b ) ! absolute quantities1 bo? ( ,a & a4 ,if we d n "k ! total quantities1 we _c1 ( c\rse1 det]m9e ! real num]ical relation accord+ to :i* ^? quantities v>y4 ,x is !re=e an error to conclude1 z "s h conclud$1 t because increase ( heat exp&s bodies1 t is1 increases ! di/ance betwe5 _! p>ticles1 !re=e ! di/ance is :olly ! effect ( heat1 & t if we c\ld entirely exhau/ ! body ( its heat1 ! p>ticles w\ld be 9 complete contact4 ,?is is no m ?an a guess1 & ( ! mo/ haz>d\s sort1 n a legitimate induction3 = s9ce we nei!r "k h[ mu* heat !re is 9 any body1 nor :at is ! real di/ance betwe5 any two ( its p>ticles1 we _c judge :e!r ! contraction ( ! di/ance does or does n foll[ ! dim9ution ( ! quantity ( heat accord+ to su* a num]ical relation t ! two quantities w\ld vani% simultane\sly4 ,9 contra/ ) ?is1 let u consid] a case 9 :i* ! absolute quantities are kn[n2 ! case contemplat$ 9 ! fir/ law ( motion2 viz4 t all bodies 9 motion cont9ue to move 9 a /raight l9e ) uni=m velocity until act$ ^u by "s new =ce4 ,?is ass]tion is 9 op5 opposition to fir/ appe>ances2 all t]re/rial objects1 :5 9 motion1 gradually abate _! velocity & at la/ /op2 :i* accord+ly ! anci5ts1 ) _! inductio p] enum]ationem simplicem1 imag9$ to be ! law4 ,e mov+ body1 h[ev]1 enc\nt]s v>i\s ob/acles1 z friction1 ! resi/ance ( ! atmosph]e1 c41 :i* we "k by daily exp]i5ce to be causes capable ( de/roy+ motion4 ,x 0 sugge/$ t ! :ole ( ! ret>dation might be ow+ to ^! causes4 ,h[ 0 ?is inquir$ into8 ,if ! ob/acles c\ld h be5 entirely remov$1 ! case w\ld h be5 am5able to ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce4 ,!y c\ld n be remov$1 !y c\ld only be dim9i%$1 & ! case1 !re=e1 admitt$ only ( ! ,me?od ( ,concomitant ,v>iations4 ,?is accord+ly be+ employ$1 x 0 f\nd t e dim9ution ( ! ob/acles dim9i%$ ! ret>dation ( ! motion3 & inasmu* z 9 ?is case 7unlike ! case ( heat7 ! total quantities bo? ( ! antec$5t & ( ! consequ5t 7 kn[n2 x 0 practicable to e/imate1 ) an approa* to accuracy1 bo? ! am\nt ( ! ret>dation & ! am\nt ( ! ret>d+ causes1 or resi/ances1 & to judge h[ ne> !y bo? 7 to be+ exhau/$2 & x appe>$ t ! effect dw9dl$ z rapidly1 & at ea* /ep 0 z f> on ! road t[>ds annihilation1 z ! cause 04 ,! simple oscillation ( a weight susp5d$ f a fix$ po9t1 & mov$ a little out ( ! p]p5dicul>1 :i* 9 ord9>y circum/ances la/s b a few m9utes1 0 prolong$ 9 ,borda's exp]im5ts to m ?an ?irty h\rs1 by dim9i%+ z mu* z possible ! friction at ! po9t ( susp5sion1 & by mak+ ! body oscillate 9 a space exhau/$ z ne>ly z possible ( its air4 ,!re c\ld !re=e be no hesitation 9 assign+ ! :ole ( ! ret>dation ( motion to ! influ5ce ( ! ob/acles3 & s9ce1 aft] subduct+ ?is ret>dation f ! total ph5om5on1 ! rema9d] 0 an uni=m velocity1 ! result 0 ! proposition kn[n z ! fir/ law ( motion4 ,!re is also ano!r *>act]i/ic unc]ta9ty affect+ ! inf]5ce t ! law ( v>iation :i* ! quantities obs]ve )9 our limits ( obs]vation1 w hold beyond ^? limits4 ,!re is ( c\rse1 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 ! possibility t beyond ! limits1 & 9 circum/ances !re=e ( :i* we h no direct exp]i5ce1 "s c\nt]act+ cause might develop itself2 ei!r a new ag5t1 or a new prop]ty ( ! ag5ts conc]n$1 :i* lies dormant 9 ! circum/ances we are able to obs]ve4 ,?is is an elem5t ( unc]ta9ty :i* ent]s l>gely into all our pr$ictions ( effects2 b x is n peculi>ly applicable to ! ,me?od ( ,concomitant ,v>iations4 ,! unc]ta9ty1 h[ev]1 ( :i* ,i am ab\t to speak1 is *>act]i/ic ( t me?od2 especially 9 ! cases 9 :i* ! extreme limits ( our obs]vation are v n>r[1 9 comp>ison ) ! possible v>iations 9 ! quantities ( ! ph5om5a4 ,any "o :o has ! slighte/ acqua9tance ) ma!matics1 is aw>e t v diff]5t laws ( v>iation may produce num]ical results :i* diff] b slightly f "o ano!r )9 n>r[ limits2 & x is (t5 only :5 ! absolute am\nts ( v>iation are consid]able1 t ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! results giv5 by "o law & by ano!r becomes appreciable4 ,:51 !re=e1 su* v>iations 9 ! quantity ( ! antec$5ts z we h ! means ( obs]v+1 are small 9 comp>ison ) ! total quantities1 !re is mu* dang] le/ we %\ld mi/ake ! num]ical law1 & be l$ to miscalculate ! v>iations :i* w\ld take place beyond ! limits2 a miscalculation :i* w\ld vitiate any conclusion respect+ ! dep5d5ce ( ! effect ^u ! cause1 t c\ld be f\nd$ on ^? v>iations4 ,examples are n want+ ( su* mi/akes4 8,! =mul10 says ,sir ,john ,h]s*el17#gg7 8:i* h be5 empirically d$uc$ = ! ela/icity ( /eam1 7till v rec5tly17 & ^? = ! resi/ance ( fluids1 & o!r simil> subjects10 :5 reli$ on beyond ! limits ( ! obs]vations f :i* !y 7 d$uc$1 8h almo/ inv>iably fail$ to support ! !oretical /ructures :i* h be5 erect$ on !m40 ,9 ?is unc]ta9ty1 ! conclusion we may draw f ! concomitant v>iations ( a & ,a1 to ! exi/5ce ( an inv>iable & exclusive connexion betwe5 !m1 or to ! p]man5cy ( ! same num]ical relation betwe5 _! v>iations :5 ! quantities are mu* great] or small] ?an ^? :i* we h _h ! means ( obs]v+1 _c be consid]$ to re/ on a complete induction4 ,all t 9 su* a case c be reg>d$ z prov$ on ! subject ( causation is1 t !re is "s connexion betwe5 ! two ph5om5a2 t ,a1 or some?+ :i* c influ5ce ,a1 mu/ be "o ( ! causes :i* collectively det]m9e a4 ,we may1 h[ev]1 feel assur$ t ! relation :i* we h obs]v$ to exi/ betwe5 ! v>iations ( ,a & a1 w hold true 9 all cases :i* fall betwe5 ! same extreme limits2 t is1 :]ev] ! utmo/ increase or dim9ution 9 :i* ! result has be5 f\nd by obs]vation to co9cide ) ! law1 is n exce$$4 ,! f\r me?ods :i* x has n[ be5 attempt$ to describe1 are ! only possible modes ( exp]im5tal inquiry1 ( direct induction po/]iori1 z di/+ui%$ f d$uction3 at lea/1 ,i "k n1 nor am able to imag9e1 any o!rs4 ,& ev5 ( ^!1 ! ,me?od ( ,residues1 z we h se51 is n indep5d5t ( d$uction2 ?\gh1 z x also requires specific exp]i5ce1 x may1 )\t impropriety1 be includ$ among me?ods ( direct obs]vation & exp]im5t4 ,^!1 !n1 ) su* assi/ance z c be obta9$ f ,d$uction1 compose ! available res\rces ( ! human m9d = asc]ta9+ ! laws ( ! succession ( ph5om5a4 ,be=e proce$+ to po9t out c]ta9 circum/ances1 by :i* ! employm5t ( ^! me?ods is subject$ to an imm5se increase ( complication & ( difficulty1 x is exp$i5t to illu/rate ! use ( ! me?ods by suitable examples drawn f actual physical inve/igations4 ,^!1 accord+ly1 w =m ! subject ( ! succe$+ *apt]4 ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,,miscellane\s ,,examples ,,( ,,! ,,f\r ,,me?ods4 #a4 ,i %all select1 z a fir/ example1 an int]e/+ speculation ( "o ( ! mo/ em95t ( !oretical *emi/s1 ,pr(essor ,liebig4 ,! object 9 view1 is to asc]ta9 ! imm$iate cause ( ! dea? produc$ by metallic poisons4 ,ars5i\s acid1 & ! salts ( lead1 bismu?1 copp]1 & m]cury1 if introduc$ into ! animal organism1 except 9 ! smalle/ doses1 de/roy life4 ,^! facts h long be5 kn[n1 z insulat$ tru?s ( ! l[e/ ord] ( g5]alization2 b x 0 res]v$ = ,liebig1 by an apt employm5t ( ! fir/ two ( our me?ods ( exp]im5tal inquiry1 to connect ^! tru?s toge!r by a high] induction1 po9t+ out :at prop]ty1 common to all ^! delet]i\s sub/ances1 is ! really op]at+ cause ( _! fatal effect4 ,:5 solutions ( ^! sub/ances are plac$ 9 suffici5tly close contact ) _m animal products1 album51 milk1 muscul> fibre1 & animal membranes1 ! acid or salt leaves ! wat] 9 :i* x 0 dissolv$1 & ent]s into comb9ation ) ! animal sub/ance3 :i* sub/ance1 aft] be+ ?us act$ ^u1 is f\nd to h lo/ its t5d5cy to spontane\s decomposition1 or putrefaction4 ,obs]vation also %[s1 9 cases :]e dea? has be5 produc$ by ^! poisons1 t ! p>ts ( ! body ) :i* ! poison\s sub/ances h be5 br\ght into contact1 d n aft]w>ds putrefy4 ,&1 f9ally1 :5 ! poison has be5 suppli$ 9 too small a quantity to de/roy life1 es*>s are produc$1 t is1 c]ta9 sup]ficial portions ( ! tissues are de/roy$1 :i* are aft]w>ds ?r[n (f by ! rep>ative process tak+ place 9 ! heal?y p>ts4 ,^! ?ree sets ( in/ances admit ( be+ treat$ accord+ to ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t4 ,9 all ( !m ! metallic comp\nds are br\ght into contact ) ! sub/ances :i* compose ! human or animal body2 & ! in/ances d n seem to agree 9 any o!r circum/ance4 ,! rema9+ antec$5ts are z diff]5t1 & ev5 opposite1 z !y c\ld possibly be made2 = 9 "s ! animal sub/ances expos$ to ! action ( ! poisons are 9 a /ate ( life1 9 o!rs only 9 a /ate ( organization1 9 o!rs n ev5 9 t4 ,& :at is ! result :i* foll[s 9 all ! cases8 ,! conv]sion ( ! animal sub/ance 7by comb9ation ) ! poison7 into a *emical comp\nd1 held toge!r by s p[]ful a =ce z to resi/ ! subsequ5t action ( ! ord9>y causes ( decomposition4 ,n[1 organic life 7! necess>y condition ( s5sitive life7 consi/+ 9 a cont9ual /ate ( decomposition & recomposition ( ! diff]5t organs & tissues2 :atev] incapacitates !m = ?is decomposition de/roys life4 ,& ?us ! proximate cause ( ! dea? produc$ by ?is description ( poisons1 is asc]ta9$1 z f> z ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t c asc]ta9 x4 ,let u n[ br+ our conclusion to ! te/ ( ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce4 ,sett+ out f ! cases already m5tion$1 9 :i* ! antec$5t is ! pres5ce ( sub/ances =m+ ) ! tissues a comp\nd incapable ( putrefaction1 7& =tiori incapable ( ! *emical actions :i* con/itute life17 & ! consequ5t is dea?1 ei!r ( ! :ole organism1 or ( "s portion ( x2 let u comp>e ) ^! cases o!r cases1 z mu* resembl+ !m z possible1 b 9 :i* t effect is n produc$4 ,&1 fir/1 8_m insoluble basic salts ( ars5i\s acid are kn[n n to be poison\s4 ,! sub/ance call$ alk>g51 discov]$ by ,buns51 :i* conta9s a v l>ge quantity ( ars5ic1 & approa*es v closely 9 composition to ! organic ars5i\s comp\nds f\nd 9 ! body1 has n ! slighte/ injuri\s action ^u ! organism40 ,n[ :5 ^! sub/ances are br\ght into contact ) ! tissues 9 any way1 !y d n comb9e ) !m2 !y d n arre/ _! progress to decomposition4 ,z f>1 !re=e1 z ^! in/ances g1 x appe>s t :5 ! effect is abs5t1 x is by reason ( ! abs5ce ( t antec$5t :i* we _h already good gr\nd = consid]+ z ! proximate cause4 ,b ! rigor\s conditions ( ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce are n yet satisfi$2 = we _c be sure t ^! unpoison\s bodies agree ) ! poison\s sub/ances 9 e prop]ty1 except ! p>ticul> "o1 ( ent]+ into a difficultly decomposable comp\nd ) ! animal tissues4 ,to r5d] ! me?od /rictly applicable1 we ne$ an in/ance1 n ( a diff]5t sub/ance1 b ( "o ( ! v same sub/ances1 9 circum/ances :i* w\ld prev5t x f =m+1 ) ! tissues1 ! sort ( comp\nd 9 "q2 & !n1 if dea? does n foll[1 our case is made out4 ,n[ su* in/ances are af=d$ by ! antidotes to ^! poisons4 ,= example1 9 case ( poison+ by ars5i\s acid1 if hydrat$ p]oxide ( iron is adm9i/]$1 ! de/ructive ag5cy is in/antly *eck$4 ,n[ ?is p]oxide is kn[n to comb9e ) ! acid1 & =m a comp\nd1 :i*1 be+ insoluble1 _c act at all on animal tissues4 ,s1 aga91 sug> is a well-kn[n antidote to poison+ by salts ( copp]2 & sug> r$uces ^? salts ei!r into metallic copp]1 or into ! r$ suboxide1 nei!r ( :i* ent]s into comb9ation ) animal matt]4 ,! disease call$ pa9t]'s colic1 s common 9 manufactories ( :ite lead1 is unkn[n :]e ! workm5 are accu/om$ to take1 z a pres]vative1 sulphuric-acid-lemonade 7a solution ( sug> r5d]$ acid by sulphuric acid74 ,n[ dilut$ sulphuric acid has ! prop]ty ( decompos+ all comp\nds ( lead ) organic matt]1 or ( prev5t+ !m f be+ =m$4 ,!re is ano!r class ( in/ances1 ( ! nature requir$ by ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce1 :i* seem at fir/ sight to conflict ) ! !ory4 ,soluble salts ( silv]1 su* = in/ance z ! nitrate1 h ! same /iff5+ antiseptic effect on decompos+ animal sub/ances z corrosive sublimate & ! mo/ deadly metallic poisons2 & :5 appli$ to ! ext]nal p>ts ( ! body1 ! nitrate is a p[]ful cau/ic1 depriv+ ^? p>ts ( all active vitality1 & caus+ !m to be ?r[n (f by ! neighb\r+ liv+ /ructures1 9 ! =m ( an es*>4 ,! nitrate & ! o!r salts ( silv] ought1 !n1 x w\ld seem1 if ! !ory be correct1 to be poison\s2 yet !y may be adm9i/]$ int]nally ) p]fect impunity4 ,f ?is app>5t exception arises ! /ronge/ confirmation :i* ! !ory has yet receiv$4 ,nitrate ( silv]1 9 spite ( its *emical prop]ties1 does n poison :5 introduc$ into ! /oma*2 b 9 ! /oma*1 z 9 all animal liquids1 !re is common salt2 & 9 ! /oma* !re is also free muriatic acid4 ,^! sub/ances op]ate z natural antidotes1 comb9+ ) ! nitrate1 & if its quantity is n too great1 imm$iately conv]t+ x into *loride ( silv]2 a sub/ance v slightly soluble1 & !re=e incapable ( comb9+ ) ! tissues1 al?\gh to ! ext5t ( its solubility x has a m$ic9al influ5ce1 ?r\gh an entirely diff]5t class ( organic actions4 ,! prec$+ in/ances h af=d$ an induction ( a high ord] ( conclusiv5ess1 illu/rative ( ! two simple/ ( our f\r me?ods2 al?\gh n ris+ to ! maximum ( c]ta9ty :i* ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce1 9 its mo/ p]fect exemplification1 is capable ( af=d+4 ,= 7let u n =get7 ! positive in/ance & ! negative "o :i* ! rig\r ( t me?od requires1 ought to diff] only 9 ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( "o s+le circum/ance4 ,n[1 9 ! prec$+ argum5t1 !y diff] 9 ! pres5ce or abs5ce n ( a s+le circum/ance1 b ( a s+le sub/ance3 & z e sub/ance has innum]able prop]ties1 !re is no kn[+ :at numb] ( real diff]5ces are involv$ 9 :at is nom9ally & app>5tly only "o diff]5ce4 ,x is conceivable t ! antidote1 ! p]oxide ( iron = example1 may c\nt]act ! poison ?r\gh "s o!r ( its prop]ties ?an t ( =m+ an insoluble comp\nd ) x2 & if s1 ! !ory w\ld fall to ! gr\nd1 s f> z x is support$ by t in/ance4 ,?is s\rce ( unc]ta9ty1 :i* is a s]i\s h9drance to all ext5sive g5]alizations 9 *emi/ry1 is h[ev] r$uc$ 9 ! pres5t case to almo/ ! l[e/ degree possible1 :5 we f9d t n only "o sub/ance1 b _m sub/ances1 possess ! capacity ( act+ z antidotes to metallic poisons1 & t all ^! agree 9 ! prop]ty ( =m+ insoluble comp\nds ) ! poisons1 :ile !y _c be asc]ta9$ to agree 9 any o!r prop]ty :atsoev]4 ,we h ?us1 9 fav\r ( ! !ory1 all ! evid5ce :i* c be obta9$ by :at we t]m$ ! ,indirect ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce1 or ! ,jo9t ,me?od ( ,agreem5t & ,diff]5ce2 ! evid5ce ( :i*1 ?\gh x nev] c am\nt to t ( ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce prop]ly s call$1 may approa* indef9itely ne> to x4 #b4 ,let ! object be7#gh7 to asc]ta9 ! law ( :at is t]m$ induc$ electricity2 to f9d "u :at conditions any electrifi$ body1 :e!r positively or negatively electrifi$1 gives rise to a contr>y electric /ate 9 "s o!r body adjac5t to x4 ,! mo/ famili> exemplification ( ! ph5om5on to be inve/igat$1 is ! foll[+4 ,ar\nd ! prime conductors ( an electrical ma*9e1 ! atmosph]e to "s di/ance1 or any conduct+ surface susp5d$ 9 t atmosph]e1 is f\nd to be 9 an electric condition opposite to t ( ! prime conductor itself4 ,ne> & ar\nd ! positive prime conductor !re is negative electricity1 & ne> & ar\nd ! negative prime conductor !re is positive electricity4 ,:5 pi? balls are br\ght ne> to ei!r ( ! conductors1 !y become electrifi$ ) ! opposite electricity to x2 ei!r receiv+ a %>e f ! already electrifi$ atmosph]e by conduction1 or act$ ^u by ! direct inductive influ5ce ( ! conductor itself3 !y are !n attract$ by ! conductor to :i* !y are 9 opposition2 or1 if )drawn 9 _! electrifi$ /ate1 !y w be attract$ by any o!r oppositely *>g$ body4 ,9 l mann] ! h&1 if br\ght ne> en\gh to ! conductor1 receives or gives an electric dis*>ge2 n[ we h no evid5ce t a *>g$ conductor c be sudd5ly dis*>g$ unless by ! approa* ( a body oppositely electrifi$4 ,9 ! case1 !re=e1 ( ! electrical ma*9e1 x appe>s t ! accumulation ( electricity 9 an insulat$ conductor is always accompani$ by ! excitem5t ( ! contr>y electricity 9 ! surr\nd+ atmosph]e1 & 9 e conductor plac$ ne> ! =m] conductor4 ,x does n seem possible1 9 ?is case1 to produce "o electricity by itself4 ,let u n[ exam9e all ! o!r in/ances :i* we c obta91 resembl+ ?is in/ance 9 ! giv5 consequ5t1 namely1 ! evolution ( an opposite electricity 9 ! neighb\rhood ( an electrifi$ body4 ,z "o rem>kable in/ance we h ! ,leyd5 j>2 & aft] ! spl5did exp]im5ts ( ,f>aday 9 complete & f9al e/abli%m5t ( ! sub/antial id5tity ( magnetism & electricity1 we may cite ! magnet1 bo? ! natural & ! electro-magnet1 9 nei!r ( :i* is x possible to produce "o k9d ( electricity by itself1 or to *>ge "o pole )\t *>g+ an opposite pole ) ! contr>y electricity at ! same "t4 ,we _c h a magnet ) "o pole3 if we break a natural load/one into a ?\s& pieces1 ea* piece w h its two oppositely electrifi$ poles complete )9 itself4 ,9 ! voltaic circuit1 aga91 we _c h "o curr5t )\t its opposite4 ,9 ! ord9>y electric ma*9e1 ! glass cyl9d] or plate1 & ! rubb]1 acquire opposite electricities4 ,f all ^! in/ances1 treat$ by ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t1 a g5]al law appe>s to result4 ,! in/ances embrace all ! kn[n modes 9 :i* a body c become *>g$ ) electricity2 & 9 all ( !m !re is f\nd1 z a concomitant or consequ5t1 ! excitem5t ( ! opposite electric /ate 9 "s o!r body or bodies4 ,x seems to foll[ t ! two facts are inv>iably connect$1 & t ! excitem5t ( electricity 9 any body has = "o ( its necess>y conditions ! possibility ( a simultane\s excitem5t ( ! opposite electricity 9 "s neighb\r+ body4 ,z ! two contr>y electricities c only be produc$ toge!r1 s !y c only cease toge!r4 ,?is may be %[n by an application ( ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce to ! example ( ! ,leyd5 j>4 ,x ne$s sc>cely be "h rem>k$ t 9 ! ,leyd5 j>1 electricity c be accumulat$ & reta9$ 9 consid]able quantity1 by ! contrivance ( hav+ two conduct+ surfaces ( equal ext5t1 & p>allel to ea* o!r ?r\gh ! :ole ( t ext5t1 ) a non-conduct+ sub/ance su* z glass betwe5 !m4 ,:5 "o side ( ! j> is *>g$ positively1 ! o!r is *>g$ negatively1 & x 0 by virtue ( ?is fact t ! ,leyd5 j> s]v$ j n[ z an in/ance 9 our employm5t ( ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t4 ,n[ x is impossible to dis*>ge "o ( ! coat+s unless ! o!r c be dis*>g$ at ! same "t4 ,a conductor held to ! positive side _c convey away any electricity unless an equal quantity be all[$ to pass f ! negative side3 if "o coat+ be p]fectly insulat$1 ! *>ge is safe4 ,! dissipation ( "o mu/ proce$ p>i passu ) t ( ! o!r4 ,! law ?us /rongly indicat$ admits ( corroboration by ! ,me?od ( ,concomitant ,v>iations4 ,! ,leyd5 j> is capable ( receiv+ a mu* high] *>ge ?an c ord9>ily be giv5 to ! conductor ( an electrical ma*9e4 ,n[ 9 ! case ( ! ,leyd5 j>1 ! metallic surface :i* receives ! induc$ electricity is a conductor exactly simil> to t :i* receives ! prim>y *>ge1 & is !re=e z susceptible ( receiv+ & reta9+ ! "o electricity1 z ! opposite surface ( receiv+ & reta9+ ! o!r2 b 9 ! ma*9e1 ! neighb\r+ body :i* is to be oppositely electrifi$ is ! surr\nd+ atmosph]e1 or any body casually br\ght ne> to ! conductor2 & z ^! are g5]ally mu* inf]ior 9 _! capacity ( becom+ electrifi$1 to ! conductor itself1 _! limit$ p[] imposes a correspond+ limit to ! capacity ( ! conductor = be+ *>g$4 ,z ! capacity ( ! neighb\r+ body = support+ ! opposition increases1 a high] *>ge becomes possible3 & to ?is appe>s to be ow+ ! great sup]iority ( ! ,leyd5 j>4 ,a fur!r & mo/ decisive confirmation by ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce1 is to be f\nd 9 "o ( ,f>aday's exp]im5ts 9 ! c\rse ( 8 rese>*es on ! subject ( induc$ electricity4 ,s9ce common or ma*9e electricity1 & voltaic electricity1 may be consid]$ = ! pres5t purpose to be id5tical1 ,f>aday wi%$ to "k :e!r1 z ! prime conductor develops opposite electricity ^u a conductor 9 its vic9ity1 s a voltaic curr5t runn+ along a wire w\ld induce an opposite curr5t ^u ano!r wire laid p>allel to x at a %ort di/ance4 ,n[ ?is case is simil> to ! cases previ\sly exam9$1 9 e circum/ance except ! "o to :i* we h ascrib$ ! effect4 ,we f\nd 9 ! =m] in/ances t :5ev] electricity ( "o k9d 0 excit$ 9 "o body1 electricity ( ! opposite k9d mu/ be excit$ 9 a neighb\r+ body4 ,b 9 ,f>aday's exp]im5t ?is indisp5sable opposition exi/s )9 ! wire itself4 ,f ! nature ( a voltaic *>ge1 ! two opposite curr5ts necess>y to ! exi/5ce ( ea* o!r are bo? accommodat$ 9 "o wire2 & !re is no ne$ ( ano!r wire plac$ beside x to conta9 "o ( !m1 9 ! same way z ! ,leyd5 j> mu/ h a positive & a negative surface4 ,! excit+ cause c & does produce all ! effect :i* its laws require1 indep5d5tly ( any electric excitem5t ( a neighb\r+ body4 ,n[ ! result ( ! exp]im5t ) ! second wire 01 t no opposite curr5t 0 produc$4 ,!re 0 an in/antane\s effect at ! clos+ & break+ ( ! voltaic circuit2 electric inductions appe>$ :5 ! two wires 7 mov$ to & f "o ano!r2 b ^! are ph5om5a ( a diff]5t class4 ,!re 0 no induc$ electricity 9 ! s5se 9 :i* ?is is pr$icat$ ( ! ,leyd5 j>2 !re 0 no su/a9$ curr5t runn+ up ! "o wire :ile an opposite curr5t ran d[n ! neighb\r+ wire2 & ?is alone w\ld h be5 a true p>allel case to ! o!r4 ,x ?us appe>s by ! comb9$ evid5ce ( ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t1 ! ,me?od ( ,concomitant ,v>iations1 & ! mo/ rigor\s =m ( ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce1 t nei!r ( ! two k9ds ( electricity c be excit$ )\t an equal excitem5t ( ! o!r & opposite k9d3 t bo? are effects ( ! same cause2 t ! possibility ( ! "o is a condition ( ! possibility ( ! o!r1 & ! quantity ( ! "o an impassable limit to ! quantity ( ! o!r4 ,a sci5tific result ( consid]able int]e/ 9 itself1 & illu/rat+ ^? ?ree me?ods 9 a mann] bo? *>act]i/ic & easily intelligible47#gi7 #c4 ,our ?ird example %all be extract$ f ,sir ,john ,h]s*el's ,disc\rse on ! ,/udy ( ,natural ,philosophy1 a "w replete ) happily-select$ exemplifications ( inductive processes f almo/ e dep>tm5t ( physical sci5ce1 & 9 :i* alone1 ( all books :i* ,i h met )1 ! f\r me?ods ( induction are di/9ctly recognis$1 ?\gh n s cle>ly *>act]iz$ & def9$1 nor _! correlation s fully %[n1 z has appe>$ to me desirable4 ,! pres5t example is describ$ by ,sir ,john ,h]s*el z 8"o ( ! mo/ beautiful specim5s0 :i* c be cit$ 8( inductive exp]im5tal inquiry ly+ )9 a mod]ate compass20 ! !ory ( dew1 fir/ promulgat$ by ! late ,dr4 ,wells1 & n[ univ]sally adopt$ by sci5tific au?orities4 ,! passages 9 inv]t$ commas are extract$ v]batim f ! 8,disc\rse407#hj7 8,suppose dew 7 ! ph5om5on propos$1 ^: cause we w\ld "k4 ,9 ! fir/ place0 we mu/ det]m9e precisely :at we mean by dew3 :at ! fact really is1 ^: cause we desire to inve/igate4 8,we mu/ sep>ate dew f ra91 & ! moi/ure ( fogs1 & limit ! application ( ! t]m to :at is really meant1 :i* is1 ! spontane\s appe>ance ( moi/ure on sub/ances expos$ 9 ! op5 air :5 no ra9 or visible wet is fall+40 ,?is answ]s to a prelim9>y op]ation :i* w be *>act]iz$ 9 ! ensu+ book1 treat+ ( op]ations subsidi>y to induction47#ha7 ,! /ate ( ! "q be+ fix$1 we come to ! solution4 8,n[1 "h we h analog\s ph5om5a 9 ! moi/ure :i* b$ews a cold metal or /one :5 we brea! ^u x2 t :i* appe>s on a glass ( wat] fre% f ! well 9 hot wea!r2 t :i* appe>s on ! inside ( w9d[s :5 sudd5 ra9 or hail *ills ! ext]nal air2 t :i* runs d[n our walls :51 aft] a long fro/1 a w>m moi/ ?aw comes on40 ,comp>+ ^! cases1 we f9d t !y all conta9 ! ph5om5on :i* 0 propos$ z ! subject ( inve/igation4 ,n[ 8all ^! in/ances agree 9 "o po9t1 ! coldness ( ! object dew$1 9 comp>ison ) ! air 9 contact ) x40 ,b !re /ill rema9s ! mo/ important case ( all1 t ( nocturnal dew3 does ! same circum/ance exi/ 9 ?is case8 8,is x a fact t ! object dew$ is cold] ?an ! air8 ,c]ta9ly n1 "o w\ld at fir/ be incl9$ to say2 = :at is to make x s8 ,b 444 ! exp]im5t is easy3 we h only to lay a !rmomet] 9 contact ) ! dew$ sub/ance1 & hang "o at a little di/ance above x1 out ( rea* ( its influ5ce4 ,! exp]im5t has be5 !re=e made2 ! "q has be5 ask$1 & ! answ] has be5 inv>iably 9 ! affirmative4 ,:5ev] an object contracts dew1 x is cold] ?an ! air40 ,"h !n is a complete application ( ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t1 e/abli%+ ! fact ( an inv>iable connexion betwe5 ! deposition ( dew on a surface1 & ! coldness ( t surface comp>$ ) ! ext]nal air4 ,b :i* ( ^! is cause1 & :i* effect8 or are !y bo? effects ( some?+ else8 ,on ?is subject ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t c af=d u no light3 we mu/ call 9 a m pot5t me?od4 8,we mu/ collect m facts1 or1 :i* comes to ! same ?+1 v>y ! circum/ances2 s9ce e in/ance 9 :i* ! circum/ances diff] is a fre% fact3 & especially1 we mu/ note ! contr>y or negative cases1 i4e41 :]e no dew is produc$30 = a comp>ison betwe5 in/ances ( dew & in/ances ( no dew1 is ! condition necess>y to br+ ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce into play4 8,n[1 fir/1 no dew is produc$ on ! surface ( poli%$ metals1 b x is v copi\sly on glass1 bo? expos$ ) _! faces upw>ds1 & 9 "s cases ! "u side ( a horizontal plate ( glass is also dew$40 ,"h is an in/ance 9 :i* ! effect is produc$1 & ano!r in/ance 9 :i* x is n produc$2 b we _c yet pron\nce1 z ! canon ( ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce requires1 t ! latt] in/ance agrees ) ! =m] 9 all its circum/ances except "o2 = ! diff]5ces betwe5 glass & poli%$ metals are manifold1 & ! only ?+ we c z yet be sure ( is1 t ! cause ( dew w be f\nd among ! circum/ances by :i* ! =m] sub/ance is di/+ui%$ f ! latt]4 ,b if we c\ld be sure t glass1 & ! v>i\s o!r sub/ances on :i* dew is deposit$1 h only "o quality 9 common1 & t poli%$ metals & ! o!r sub/ances on :i* dew is n deposit$ h also no?+ 9 common b ! "o circum/ance1 ( n hav+ ! "o quality :i* ! o!rs h2 ! requisitions ( ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce w\ld be completely satisfi$1 & we %\ld recognise1 9 t quality ( ! sub/ances1 ! cause ( dew4 ,?is1 accord+ly1 is ! pa? ( inquiry :i* is next to be pursu$4 8,9 ! cases ( poli%$ metal & poli%$ glass1 ! contra/ %[s evid5tly t ! sub/ance has mu* to d ) ! ph5om5on2 !re=e let ! sub/ance alone be div]sifi$ z mu* z possible1 by expos+ poli%$ surfaces ( v>i\s k9ds4 ,?is done1 a scale ( int5sity becomes obvi\s4 ,^? poli%$ sub/ances are f\nd to be mo/ /rongly dew$ :i* conduct heat wor/2 :ile ^? :i* conduct well1 resi/ dew mo/ effectually40 ,! complication increases2 "h is ! ,me?od ( ,concomitant ,v>iations call$ to our assi/ance2 & no o!r me?od 0 practicable on ?is occasion2 = ! quality ( conduct+ heat c\ld n be exclud$1 s9ce all sub/ances conduct heat 9 "s degree4 ,! conclusion obta9$ is1 t ct]is p>ibus ! deposition ( dew is 9 "s proportion to ! p[] :i* ! body possesses ( resi/+ ! passage ( heat2 & t ?is1 !re=e1 7or some?+ connect$ ) ?is17 mu/ be at lea/ "o ( ! causes :i* assi/ 9 produc+ ! deposition ( dew on ! surface4 8,b if we expose r\gh surfaces in/ead ( poli%$1 we sometimes f9d ?is law int]f]$ )4 ,?us1 r\gh5$ iron1 especially if pa9t$ ov] or black5$1 becomes dew$ soon] ?an v>ni%$ pap]3 ! k9d ( surface1 !re=e1 has a great influ5ce4 ,expose1 !n1 ! same mat]ial 9 v div]sifi$ /ates z to surface10 7t is1 employ ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce to asc]ta9 concomitance ( v>iations17 8& ano!r scale ( int5sity becomes at once app>5t2 ^? surfaces :i* "p ) _! heat mo/ readily by radiation1 are f\nd to contract dew mo/ copi\sly40 ,"h1 !re=e1 are ! requisites = a second employm5t ( ! ,me?od ( ,concomitant ,v>iations2 :i* 9 ?is case also is ! only me?od available1 s9ce all sub/ances radiate heat 9 "s degree or o!r4 ,! conclusion obta9$ by ?is new application ( ! me?od is1 t ct]is p>ibus ! deposition ( dew is also 9 "s proportion to ! p[] ( radiat+ heat2 & t ! quality ( do+ ?is abundantly 7or "s cause on :i* t quality dep5ds7 is ano!r ( ! causes :i* promote ! deposition ( dew on ! sub/ance4 8,aga91 ! influ5ce asc]ta9$ to exi/ ( sub/ance & surface leads u to consid] t ( texture3 & "h1 aga91 we are pres5t$ on trial ) rem>kable diff]5ces1 & ) a ?ird scale ( int5sity1 po9t+ out sub/ances ( a close firm texture1 su* z /ones1 metals1 c41 z unfav\rable1 b ^? ( a loose "o1 z clo?1 velvet1 wool1 eid]d[n1 cotton1 c41 z em95tly fav\rable to ! contraction ( dew40 ,! ,me?od ( ,concomitant ,v>iations is "h1 = ! ?ird "t1 _h rec\rse to2 &1 z be=e1 f necessity1 s9ce ! texture ( no sub/ance is absolutely firm or absolutely loose4 ,loos5ess ( texture1 !re=e1 or some?+ :i* is ! cause ( t quality1 is ano!r circum/ance :i* promotes ! deposition ( dew2 b ?is ?ird cause resolves itself into ! fir/1 viz4 ! quality ( resi/+ ! passage ( heat3 = sub/ances ( loose texture 8are precisely ^? :i* are be/ adapt$ = clo?+1 or = imp$+ ! free passage ( heat f ! sk9 into ! air1 s z to all[ _! out] surfaces to be v cold1 :ile !y rema9 w>m )920 & ?is la/ is1 !re=e1 an induction 7f fre% in/ances7 simply corroborative ( a =m] induction4 ,x ?us appe>s t ! in/ances 9 :i* mu* dew is deposit$1 :i* are v v>i\s1 agree 9 ?is1 &1 s f> z we are able to obs]ve1 9 ?is only1 t !y ei!r radiate heat rapidly or conduct x sl[ly3 qualities betwe5 :i* !re is no o!r circum/ance ( agreem5t1 ?an t by virtue ( ei!r1 ! body t5ds to lose heat f ! surface m rapidly ?an x c be re/or$ f )94 ,! in/ances1 on ! contr>y1 9 :i* no dew1 or b a small quantity ( x1 is =m$1 & :i* are also extremely v>i\s1 agree 7s f> z we c obs]ve7 9 no?+ except 9 n hav+ ?is same prop]ty4 ,we seem1 !re=e1 to h detect$ ! *>act]i/ic diff]5ce betwe5 ! sub/ances on :i* dew is produc$1 & ^? on :i* x is n produc$4 ,& ?us h be5 realiz$ ! requisitions ( :at we h t]m$ ! ,indirect ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce1 or ! ,jo9t ,me?od ( ,agreem5t & ,diff]5ce4 ,! example af=d$ ( ?is indirect me?od1 & ( ! mann] 9 :i* ! data are prep>$ = x by ! ,me?ods ( ,agreem5t & ( ,concomitant ,v>iations1 is ! mo/ important ( all ! illu/rations ( induction af=d$ by ?is int]e/+ speculation4 ,we might n[ consid] ! "q1 on :at ! deposition ( dew dep5ds1 to be completely solv$1 if we c\ld be q sure t ! sub/ances on :i* dew is produc$ diff] f ^? on :i* x is n1 9 no?+ b 9 ! prop]ty ( los+ heat f ! surface fa/] ?an ! loss c be repair$ f )94 ,& ?\gh we nev] c h t complete c]ta9ty1 ?is is n ( s mu* importance z might at fir/ be suppos$2 = we h1 at all ev5ts1 asc]ta9$ t ev5 if !re be any o!r quality hi!rto unobs]v$ :i* is pres5t 9 all ! sub/ances :i* contract dew1 & abs5t 9 ^? :i* d n1 ?is o!r prop]ty mu/ be "o :i*1 9 all t great numb] ( sub/ances1 is pres5t or abs5t exactly :]e ! prop]ty ( be+ a bett] radiator ?an conductor is pres5t or abs5t2 an ext5t ( co9cid5ce :i* af=ds a /rong presumption ( a community ( cause1 & a consequ5t inv>iable coexi/5ce betwe5 ! two prop]ties2 s t ! prop]ty ( be+ a bett] radiator ?an conductor1 if n itself ! cause1 almo/ c]ta9ly always accompanies ! cause1 & = purposes ( pr$iction1 no error is likely to be committ$ by treat+ x z if x 7 really su*4 ,rev]t+ n[ to an e>li] /age ( ! inquiry1 let u rememb] t we _h asc]ta9$ t1 9 e in/ance :]e dew is =m$1 !re is actual coldness ( ! surface bel[ ! temp]ature ( ! surr\nd+ air2 b we 7 n sure :e!r ?is coldness 0 ! cause ( dew1 or its effect4 ,?is d\bt we are n[ able to resolve4 ,we h f\nd t1 9 e su* in/ance1 ! sub/ance mu/ be "o :i*1 by its own prop]ties or laws1 w\ld1 if expos$ 9 ! night1 become cold] ?an ! surr\nd+ air4 ,! coldness !re=e1 be+ acc\nt$ = indep5d5tly ( ! dew1 :ile x is prov$ t !re is a connexion betwe5 ! two1 x mu/ be ! dew :i* dep5ds on ! coldness2 or 9 o!r words1 ! coldness is ! cause ( ! dew4 ,?is law ( causation1 already s amply e/abli%$1 admits1 h[ev]1 ( effici5t additional corroboration 9 no less ?an ?ree ways4 ,fir/1 by d$uction f ! kn[n laws ( aque\s vap\r :5 diffus$ ?r\gh air or any o!r gas2 & ?\gh we h n yet come to ! ,d$uctive ,me?od1 we w n omit :at is necess>y to r5d] ?is speculation complete4 ,x is kn[n by direct exp]im5t t only a limit$ quantity ( wat] c rema9 susp5d$ 9 ! /ate ( vap\r at ea* degree ( temp]ature1 & t ?is maximum gr[s less & less z ! temp]ature dim9i%es4 ,f ?is x foll[s1 d$uctively1 t if !re is already z mu* vap\r susp5d$ z ! air w conta9 at its exi/+ temp]ature1 any l[]+ ( t temp]ature w cause a portion ( ! vap\r to be cond5s$1 & become wat]4 ,b1 aga91 we "k d$uctively1 f ! laws ( heat1 t ! contact ( ! air ) a body cold] ?an itself1 w necess>ily l[] ! temp]ature ( ! /ratum ( air imm$iately appli$ to its surface2 & w !re=e cause x to "p ) a portion ( its wat]1 :i* accord+ly w1 by ! ord9>y laws ( gravitation or cohesion1 atta* itself to ! surface ( ! body1 !reby con/itut+ dew4 ,?is d$uctive pro(1 x w h be5 se51 has ! advantage ( prov+ at once1 causation z well z coexi/5ce2 & x has ! additional advantage t x also acc\nts = ! exceptions to ! occurr5ce ( ! ph5om5on1 ! cases 9 :i*1 al?\gh ! body is cold] ?an ! air1 yet no dew is deposit$2 by %[+ t ?is w necess>ily be ! case :5 ! air is s "u-suppli$ ) aque\s vap\r1 comp>atively to its temp]ature1 t ev5 :5 some:at cool$ by ! contact ( ! cold] body1 x c /ill cont9ue to hold 9 susp5sion all ! vap\r :i* 0 previ\sly susp5d$ 9 x3 ?us 9 a v dry summ] !re are no dews1 9 a v dry w9t] no ho> fro/4 ,"h1 !re=e1 is an additional condition ( ! production ( dew1 :i* ! me?ods we previ\sly made use ( fail$ to detect1 & :i* might h rema9$ /ill undetect$1 if rec\rse _h n be5 _h to ! plan ( d$uc+ ! effect f ! asc]ta9$ prop]ties ( ! ag5ts kn[n to be pres5t4 ,! second corroboration ( ! !ory is by direct exp]im5t1 accord+ to ! canon ( ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce4 ,we c1 by cool+ ! surface ( any body1 f9d 9 all cases "s temp]ature1 7m or less inf]ior to t ( ! surr\nd+ air1 accord+ to its hygrometric condition71 at :i* dew w beg9 to be deposit$4 ,"h1 too1 !re=e1 ! causation is directly prov$4 ,we c1 x is true1 accompli% ?is only on a small scale2 b we h ample reason to conclude t ! same op]ation1 if conduct$ 9 ,nature's great laboratory1 w\ld equally produce ! effect4 ,&1 f9ally1 ev5 on t great scale we are able to v]ify ! result4 ,! case is "o ( ^? r>e cases1 z we h %[n !m to be1 9 :i* nature works ! exp]im5t = u 9 ! same mann] 9 :i* we ourselves p]=m x2 introduc+ into ! previ\s /ate ( ?+s a s+le & p]fectly def9ite new circum/ance1 & manife/+ ! effect s rapidly t !re is n "t = any o!r mat]ial *ange 9 ! pre-exi/+ circum/ances4 8,x is obs]v$ t dew is nev] copi\sly deposit$ 9 situations mu* scre5$ f ! op5 sky1 & n at all 9 a cl\dy night2 b if ! cl\ds )draw ev5 = a few m9utes1 & leave a cle> op5+1 a deposition ( dew pres5tly beg9s1 & goes on increas+4444 ,dew =m$ 9 cle> int]vals w (t5 ev5 evaporate aga9 :5 ! sky becomes ?ickly ov]ca/40 ,! pro(1 !re=e1 is complete1 t ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( an un9t]rupt$ communication ) ! sky causes ! deposition or non-deposition ( dew4 ,n[1 s9ce a cle> sky is no?+ b ! abs5ce ( cl\ds1 & x is a kn[n prop]ty ( cl\ds1 z ( all o!r bodies betwe5 :i* & any giv5 object no?+ int]v5es b an ela/ic fluid1 t !y t5d to raise or keep up ! sup]ficial temp]ature ( ! object by radiat+ heat to x1 we see at once t ! disappe>ance ( cl\ds w cause ! surface to cool2 s t ,nature1 9 ?is case1 produces a *ange 9 ! antec$5t by def9ite & kn[n means1 & ! consequ5t foll[s accord+ly3 a natural exp]im5t :i* satisfies ! requisitions ( ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce47#hb7 ,! accumulat$ pro( ( :i* ! ,!ory ( ,dew has be5 f\nd susceptible1 is a /rik+ in/ance ( ! fulness ( assurance :i* ! inductive evid5ce ( laws ( causation may atta91 9 cases 9 :i* ! inv>iable sequ5ce is by no means obvi\s to a sup]ficial view4 #d4 ,! la/ example w h convey$ to any "o by :om x has be5 duly foll[$1 s cle> a conception ( ! use & practical managem5t ( ?ree ( ! f\r me?ods ( exp]im5tal inquiry1 z to sup]s$e ! necessity ( any fur!r exemplification ( !m4 ,! rema9+ me?od1 t ( ,residues1 n hav+ f\nd any place ei!r 9 ?is or 9 ! two prec$+ inve/igations1 ,i %all extract f ,sir ,john ,h]s*el "s examples ( t me?od1 ) ! rem>ks by :i* !y are introduc$4 8,x is by ?is process1 9 fact1 t sci5ce1 9 its pres5t advanc$ /ate1 is *iefly promot$4 ,mo/ ( ! ph5om5a :i* ,nature pres5ts are v complicat$2 & :5 ! effects ( all kn[n causes are e/imat$ ) exactness1 & subduct$1 ! residual facts are con/antly appe>+ 9 ! =m ( ph5om5a altoge!r new1 & lead+ to ! mo/ important conclusions4 8,= example3 ! return ( ! comet pr$ict$ by ,pr(essor ,encke1 a great _m times 9 succession1 & ! g5]al good agreem5t ( its calculat$ ) its obs]v$ place dur+ any "o ( its p]iods ( visibility1 w\ld lead u to say t its gravitation t[>ds ! sun & planets is ! sole & suffici5t cause ( all ! ph5om5a ( its orbitual motion3 b :5 ! effect ( ?is cause is /rictly calculat$ & subduct$ f ! obs]v$ motion1 !re is f\nd to rema9 beh9d a residual ph5om5on1 :i* w\ld nev] h be5 o!rwise asc]ta9$ to exi/1 :i* is a small anticipation ( ! "t ( its reappe>ance1 or a dim9ution ( its p]iodic "t1 :i* _c be acc\nt$ = by gravity1 & ^: cause is !re=e to be inquir$ into4 ,su* an anticipation w\ld be caus$ by ! resi/ance ( a m$ium dissem9at$ ?r\gh ! cele/ial regions2 & z !re are o!r good reasons = believ+ ?is to be a v]a causa10 7an actually exi/+ antec$5t17 8x has !re=e be5 ascrib$ to su* a resi/ance4 8,m4 ,arago1 hav+ susp5d$ a magnetic ne$le by a silk ?read1 & set x 9 vibration1 obs]v$1 t x came mu* soon] to a /ate ( re/ :5 susp5d$ ov] a plate ( copp]1 ?an :5 no su* plate 0 b5ea? x4 ,n[1 9 bo? cases !re 7 two v] caus 7antec$5ts kn[n to exi/7 8:y x %\ld come at l5g? to re/1 viz4 ! resi/ance ( ! air1 :i* opposes1 & at l5g? de/roys1 all motions p]=m$ 9 x2 & ! want ( p]fect mobility 9 ! silk ?read4 ,b ! effect ( ^! causes be+ exactly kn[n by ! obs]vation made 9 ! abs5ce ( ! copp]1 & be+ ?us all[$ = & subduct$1 a residual ph5om5on appe>$1 9 ! fact t a ret>d+ influ5ce 0 ex]t$ by ! copp] itself2 & ?is fact1 once asc]ta9$1 spe$ily l$ to ! k ( an entirely new & unexpect$ class ( relations4 ,?is example belongs1 h[ev]1 n to ! ,me?od ( ,residues b to ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce1 ! law be+ asc]ta9$ by a direct comp>ison ( ! results ( two exp]im5ts1 :i* diff]$ 9 no?+ b ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( ! plate ( copp]4 ,to h made x exemplify ! ,me?od ( ,residues1 ! effect ( ! resi/ance ( ! air & t ( ! rigidity ( ! silk %\ld h be5 calculat$ priori1 f ! laws obta9$ by sep>ate & =egone exp]im5ts40 8,unexpect$ & peculi>ly /rik+ confirmations ( inductive laws frequ5tly occur 9 ! =m ( residual ph5om5a1 9 ! c\rse ( inve/igations ( a widely diff]5t nature f ^? :i* gave rise to ! inductions !mselves4 ,a v elegant example may be cit$ 9 ! unexpect$ confirmation ( ! law ( ! developm5t ( heat 9 ela/ic fluids by compression1 :i* is af=d$ by ! ph5om5a ( s\nd4 ,! inquiry into ! cause ( s\nd _h l$ to conclusions respect+ its mode ( propagation1 f :i* its velocity 9 ! air c\ld be precisely calculat$4 ,! calculations 7 p]=m$2 b1 :5 comp>$ ) fact1 ?\gh ! agreem5t 0 q suffici5t to %[ ! g5]al correctness ( ! cause & mode ( propagation assign$1 yet ! :ole velocity c\ld n be %[n to arise f ?is !ory4 ,!re 0 /ill a residual velocity to be acc\nt$ =1 :i* plac$ dynamical philosoph]s = a long "t 9 a great dilemma4 ,at l5g? ,laplace /ruck on ! happy idea1 t ?is might arise f ! heat develop$ 9 ! act ( t cond5sation :i* necess>ily takes place at e vibration by :i* s\nd is convey$4 ,! matt] 0 subject$ to exact calculation1 & ! result 0 at once ! complete explanation ( ! residual ph5om5on1 & a /rik+ confirmation ( ! g5]al law ( ! developm5t ( heat by compression1 "u circum/ances beyond artificial imitation40 8,_m ( ! new elem5ts ( *emi/ry h be5 detect$ 9 ! inve/igation ( residual ph5om5a4 ,?us ,arfw$son discov]$ li?ia by p]ceiv+ an excess ( weight 9 ! sulphate produc$ f a small portion ( :at he consid]$ z magnesia pres5t 9 a m9]al he _h analys$4 ,x is on ?is pr9ciple1 too1 t ! small conc5trat$ residues ( great op]ations 9 ! arts are almo/ sure to be ! lurk+ places ( new *emical +r$i5ts3 witness iod9e1 brome1 sel5ium1 & ! new metals accompany+ plat9a 9 ! exp]im5ts ( ,wolla/on & ,t5nant4 ,x 0 a happy ?\ght ( ,glaub] to exam9e :at ev]ybody else ?rew away407#hc7 8,almo/ all ! greate/ discov]ies 9 ,a/ronomy10 says ! same au?or17#hd7 8h result$ f ! consid]ation ( residual ph5om5a ( a quantitative or num]ical k9d4444 ,x 0 ?us t ! gr& discov]y ( ! precession ( ! equ9oxes result$ z a residual ph5om5on1 f ! imp]fect explanation ( ! return ( ! seasons by ! return ( ! sun to ! same app>5t place among ! fix$ />s4 ,?us1 also1 ab]ration & nutation result$ z residual ph5om5a f t portion ( ! *anges ( ! app>5t places ( ! fix$ />s :i* 0 left unacc\nt$ = by precession4 ,& ?us aga9 ! app>5t prop] motions ( ! />s are ! obs]v$ residues ( _! app>5t movem5ts out/&+ & unacc\nt$ = by /rict calculation ( ! effects ( precession1 nutation1 & ab]ration4 ,! ne>e/ approa* :i* human !ories c make to p]fection is to dim9i% ?is residue1 ?is caput mortuum ( obs]vation1 z x may be consid]$1 z mu* z practicable1 &1 if possible1 to r$uce x to no?+1 ei!r by %[+ t some?+ has be5 neglect$ 9 our e/imation ( kn[n causes1 or by reason+ ^u x z a new fact1 & on ! pr9ciple ( ! inductive philosophy asc5d+ f ! effect to its cause or causes40 ,! di/urb+ effects mutually produc$ by ! e>? & planets ^u ea* o!r's motions 7 fir/ br\ght to light z residual ph5om5a1 by ! diff]5ce :i* appe>$ betwe5 ! obs]v$ places ( ^? bodies1 & ! places calculat$ on a consid]ation solely ( _! gravitation t[>ds ! sun4 ,x 0 ?is :i* det]m9$ a/ronom]s to consid] ! law ( gravitation z obta9+ betwe5 all bodies :atev]1 & !re=e betwe5 all p>ticles ( matt]2 _! fir/ t5d5cy hav+ be5 to reg>d x z a =ce act+ only betwe5 ea* planet or satellite & ! c5tral body to ^: sy/em x belong$4 ,aga91 ! cata/rophi/s1 9 geology1 be _! op9ion "r or wrong1 support x on ! plea1 t aft] ! effect ( all causes n[ 9 op]ation has be5 all[$ =1 !re rema9s 9 ! exi/+ con/itution ( ! e>? a l>ge residue ( facts1 prov+ ! exi/5ce at =m] p]iods ei!r ( o!r =ces1 or ( ! same =ces 9 a mu* great] degree ( int5sity4 ,to add "o m example3 ^? :o ass]t1 :at no "o has ev] %ewn any real gr\nd = believ+1 t !re is 9 "o human individual1 "o sex1 or "o race ( mank9d ov] ano!r1 an inh]5t & inexplicable sup]iority 9 m5tal faculties1 c\ld only sub/antiate _! proposition by subtract+ f ! diff]5ces ( intellect :i* we 9 fact see1 all t c be trac$ by kn[n laws ei!r to ! asc]ta9$ diff]5ces ( physical organization1 or to ! diff]5ces :i* h exi/$ 9 ! outw>d circum/ances 9 :i* ! subjects ( ! comp>ison h hi!rto be5 plac$4 ,:at ^! causes might fail to acc\nt =1 w\ld con/itute a residual ph5om5on1 :i* & :i* alone w\ld be evid5ce ( an ult]ior orig9al di/9ction1 & ! measure ( its am\nt4 ,b ! ass]tors ( su* suppos$ diff]5ces h n provid$ !mselves ) ^! necess>y logical conditions ( ! e/abli%m5t ( _! doctr9e4 ,! _s ( ! ,me?od ( ,residues be+1 x is hop$1 suffici5tly intelligible f ^! examples1 & ! o!r ?ree me?ods hav+ be5 s aptly exemplifi$ 9 ! inductive processes :i* produc$ ! ,!ory ( ,dew1 we may "h close our exposition ( ! f\r me?ods1 consid]$ z employ$ 9 ! inve/igation ( ! simpl] & m elem5t>y ord] ( ! comb9ations ( ph5om5a47#he7 ,,*apt] ,x4 ,,( ,,plurality ,,( ,,causes2 ,,& ,,( ,,! ,,int]mixture ,,( ,,effects4 #a4 ,9 ! prec$+ exposition ( ! f\r me?ods ( obs]vation & exp]im5t1 by :i* we contrive to di/+ui% among a mass ( coexi/5t ph5om5a ! p>ticul> effect due to a giv5 cause1 or ! p>ticul> cause :i* gave bir? to a giv5 effect2 x has be5 necess>y to suppose1 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 = ! sake ( simplification1 t ?is analytical op]ation is encumb]$ by no o!r difficulties ?an :at are ess5tially inh]5t 9 its nature2 & to repres5t to ourselves1 !re=e1 e effect1 on ! "o h& z connect$ exclusively ) a s+le cause1 & on ! o!r h& z incapable ( be+ mix$ & conf\nd$ ) any o!r coexi/5t effect4 ,we h reg>d$ a b c d e1 ! aggregate ( ! ph5om5a exi/+ at any mom5t1 z consi/+ ( dissimil> facts1 a1 b1 c1 d1 & e1 = ea* ( :i* "o1 & only "o1 cause ne$s be s\ght2 ! difficulty be+ only t ( s+l+ out ?is "o cause f ! multitude ( antec$5t circum/ances1 ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 & ,e4 ,if su* 7 ! fact1 x w\ld be comp>atively an easy task to inve/igate ! laws ( nature4 ,b ! supposition does n hold1 9 ei!r ( its p>ts4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 x is n true t ! same ph5om5on is always produc$ by ! same cause3 ! effect a may sometimes arise f ,a1 sometimes f ,b4 ,&1 secondly1 ! effects ( diff]5t causes are (t5 n dissimil>1 b homog5e\s1 & m>k$ out by no assignable b\nd>ies f "o ano!r3 ,a & ,b may produce n a & b1 b diff]5t portions ( an effect a4 ,! obscurity & difficulty ( ! inve/igation ( ! laws ( ph5om5a is s+ul>ly increas$ by ! necessity ( adv]t+ to ^! two circum/ances2 ,int]mixture ( ,effects1 & ,plurality ( ,causes4 ,to ! latt]1 be+ ! simpl] ( ! two consid]ations1 we %all fir/ direct our att5tion4 ,x is n true1 !n1 t "o effect mu/ be connect$ ) only "o cause1 or assemblage ( conditions2 t ea* ph5om5on c be produc$ only 9 "o way4 ,!re are (t5 sev]al indep5d5t modes 9 :i* ! same ph5om5on c\ld h orig9at$4 ,"o fact may be ! consequ5t 9 sev]al inv>iable sequ5ces2 x may foll[1 ) equal uni=mity1 any "o ( sev]al antec$5ts1 or collections ( antec$5ts4 ,_m causes may produce motion3 _m causes may produce "s k9ds ( s5sation3 _m causes may produce dea?4 ,a giv5 effect may really be produc$ by a c]ta9 cause1 & yet be p]fectly capable ( be+ produc$ )\t x4 #b4 ,"o ( ! pr9cipal consequ5ces ( ?is fact ( ,plurality ( ,causes is1 to r5d] ! fir/ ( ! inductive me?ods1 t ( ,agreem5t1 unc]ta94 ,to illu/rate t me?od1 we suppos$ two in/ances1 ,a ,b ,c foll[$ by a b c1 & ,a ,d ,e foll[$ by a d e4 ,f ^! in/ances x might be conclud$ t ,a is an inv>iable antec$5t ( a1 & ev5 t x is ! unconditional inv>iable antec$5t1 or cause1 if we c\ld be sure t !re is no o!r antec$5t common to ! two cases4 ,t ?is difficulty may n /& 9 ! way1 let u suppose ! two cases positively asc]ta9$ to h no antec$5t 9 common except ,a4 ,! mom5t1 h[ev]1 t we let 9 ! possibility ( a plurality ( causes1 ! conclusion fails4 ,= x involves a tacit supposition1 t a mu/ h be5 produc$ 9 bo? in/ances by ! same cause4 ,if !re c possibly h be5 two causes1 ^? two may1 = example1 be ,c & ,e3 ! "o may h be5 ! cause ( a 9 ! =m] ( ! in/ances1 ! o!r 9 ! latt]1 ,a hav+ no influ5ce 9 ei!r case4 ,suppose1 = example1 t two great arti/s1 or great philosoph]s1 t two extremely selfi%1 or extremely g5]\s *>act]s1 7 comp>$ toge!r z to ! circum/ances ( _! education & hi/ory1 & ! two cases 7 f\nd to agree only 9 "o circum/ance3 w\ld x foll[ t ?is "o circum/ance 0 ! cause ( ! quality :i* *>act]iz$ bo? ^? individuals8 ,n at all2 = ! causes :i* may produce any type ( "* are innum]able2 & ! two p]sons might equally h agre$ 9 _! "*1 ?\gh !re _h be5 no mann] ( resemblance 9 _! previ\s hi/ory4 ,?is1 !re=e1 is a *>act]i/ic imp]fection ( ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t2 f :i* imp]fection ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce is free4 ,= if we h two in/ances1 ,a ,b ,c & ,b ,c1 ( :i* ,b ,c gives b c1 & ,a be+ add$ conv]ts x into a b c1 x is c]ta9 t 9 ?is in/ance at lea/1 ,a 0 ei!r ! cause ( a1 or an indisp5sable portion ( its cause1 ev5 ?\gh ! cause :i* produces x 9 o!r in/ances may be altoge!r diff]5t4 ,plurality ( ,causes1 !re=e1 n only does n dim9i% ! reliance due to ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce1 b does n ev5 r5d] a great] numb] ( obs]vations or exp]im5ts necess>y3 two in/ances1 ! "o positive & ! o!r negative1 are /ill suffici5t = ! mo/ complete & rigor\s induction4 ,n s1 h[ev]1 ) ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t4 ,! conclusions :i* t yields1 :5 ! numb] ( in/ances comp>$ is small1 are ( no real value1 except z1 9 ! "* ( sugge/ions1 !y may lead ei!r to exp]im5ts br++ !m to ! te/ ( ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce1 or to reason+s :i* may expla9 & v]ify !m d$uctively4 ,x is only :5 ! in/ances1 be+ indef9itely multipli$ & v>i$1 cont9ue to sugge/ ! same result1 t ?is result acquires any high degree ( indep5d5t value4 ,if !re are b two in/ances1 ,a ,b ,c & ,a ,d ,e1 al?\gh ^! in/ances h no antec$5t 9 common except ,a1 yet z ! effect may possibly h be5 produc$ 9 ! two cases by diff]5t causes1 ! result is at mo/ only a slight probability 9 fav\r ( ,a2 !re may be causation1 b x is almo/ equally probable t !re 0 only a co9cid5ce4 ,b ! (t5] we repeat ! obs]vation1 v>y+ ! circum/ances1 ! m we advance t[>ds a solution ( ?is d\bt4 ,= if we try ,a ,f ,g1 ,a ,h ,k1 c41 all unlike "o ano!r except 9 conta9+ ! circum/ance ,a1 & if we f9d ! effect a ent]+ into ! result 9 all ^! cases1 we mu/ suppose "o ( two ?+s1 ei!r t x is caus$ by ,a1 or t x has z _m diff]5t causes z !re are in/ances4 ,) ea* addition1 !re=e1 to ! numb] ( in/ances1 ! presumption is /r5g!n$ 9 fav\r ( ,a4 ,! inquir]1 ( c\rse1 w n neglect1 if an opportunity pres5t itself1 to exclude ,a f "s "o ( ^! comb9ations1 f ,a ,h ,k = in/ance1 & by try+ ,h ,k sep>ately1 appeal to ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce 9 aid ( ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t4 ,by ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce alone c x be asc]ta9$ t ,a is ! cause ( a2 b t x is ei!r ! cause or ano!r effect ( ! same cause1 may be plac$ beyond any reasonable d\bt by ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t1 provid$ ! in/ances are v num]\s1 z well z suffici5tly v>i\s4 ,aft] h[ great a multiplication1 !n1 ( v>i$ in/ances1 all agree+ 9 no o!r antec$5t except ,a1 is ! supposition ( a plurality ( causes suffici5tly rebutt$1 & ! conclusion t a is ! effect ( ,a dive/$ ( ! *>act]i/ic imp]fection & r$uc$ to a virtual c]ta9ty8 ,?is is a "q :i* we _c be exempt$ f answ]+2 b ! consid]ation ( x belongs to :at is call$ ! ,!ory ( ,probability1 :i* w =m ! subject ( a *apt] h]eaft]4 ,x is se51 h[ev]1 at once1 t ! conclusion does am\nt to a practical c]ta9ty aft] a suffici5t numb] ( in/ances1 & t ! me?od1 !re=e1 is n radically vitiat$ by ! *>act]i/ic imp]fection4 ,! result ( ^! consid]ations is only1 9 ! fir/ place1 to po9t out a new s\rce ( inf]iority 9 ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t z comp>$ ) o!r modes ( inve/igation1 & new reasons = nev] re/+ cont5t$ ) ! results obta9$ by x1 )\t attempt+ to confirm !m ei!r by ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce1 or by connect+ !m d$uctively ) "s law or laws already asc]ta9$ by t sup]ior me?od4 ,&1 9 ! second place1 we le>n f ?is ! true !ory ( ! value ( m]e numb] ( in/ances 9 inductive inquiry4 ,! ,plurality ( ,causes is ! only reason :y m]e numb] is ( any importance4 ,! t5d5cy ( unsci5tific inquir]s is to rely too mu* on numb]1 )\t analys+ ! in/ances2 )\t look+ closely en\gh into _! nature1 to asc]ta9 :at circum/ances are or are n elim9at$ by means ( !m4 ,mo/ p hold _! conclusions ) a degree ( assurance proportion$ to ! m]e mass ( ! exp]i5ce on :i* !y appe> to re/2 n consid]+ t by ! addition ( in/ances to in/ances1 all ( ! same k9d1 t is1 diff]+ f "o ano!r only 9 po9ts already recognis$ z immat]ial1 no?+ :atev] is add$ to ! evid5ce ( ! conclusion4 ,a s+le in/ance elim9at+ "s antec$5t :i* exi/$ 9 all ! o!r cases1 is ( m value ?an ! greate/ multitude ( in/ances :i* are reckon$ by _! numb] alone4 ,x is necess>y1 no d\bt1 to assure ourselves1 by a repetition ( ! obs]vation or exp]im5t1 t no error has be5 committ$ conc]n+ ! individual facts obs]v$2 & until we h assur$ ourselves ( ?is1 in/ead ( v>y+ ! circum/ances1 we _c too scrupul\sly repeat ! same exp]im5t or obs]vation )\t any *ange4 ,b :5 once ?is assurance has be5 obta9$1 ! multiplication ( in/ances :i* d n exclude any m circum/ances w\ld be entirely useless1 7 x n = ! ,plurality ( ,causes4 ,x is ( importance to rem>k1 t ! peculi> modification ( ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t :i*1 z p>tak+ 9 "s degree ( ! nature ( ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce1 ,i h call$ ! ,jo9t ,me?od ( ,agreem5t & ,diff]5ce1 is n affect$ by ! *>act]i/ic imp]fection n[ po9t$ out4 ,=1 9 ! jo9t me?od1 x is suppos$ n only t ! in/ances 9 :i* a is1 agree only 9 conta9+ ,a1 b also t ! in/ances 9 :i* a is n1 agree only 9 n conta9+ ,a4 ,n[1 if ?is be s1 ,a mu/ be n only ! cause ( a1 b ! only possible cause3 = if !re 7 ano!r1 z = example ,b1 !n 9 ! in/ances 9 :i* a is n1 ,b mu/ h be5 abs5t z well z ,a1 & x w\ld n be true t ^! in/ances agree only 9 n conta9+ ,a4 ,?is1 !re=e1 con/itutes an imm5se advantage ( ! jo9t me?od ov] ! simple ,me?od ( ,agreem5t4 ,x may seem1 inde$1 t ! advantage does n belong s mu* to ! jo9t me?od1 z to "o ( its two premisses1 7if !y may be s call$17 ! negative premiss4 ,! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t1 :5 appli$ to negative in/ances1 or ^? 9 :i* a ph5om5on does n take place1 is c]ta9ly free f ! *>act]i/ic imp]fection :i* affects x 9 ! affirmative case4 ,! negative premiss1 x might !re=e be suppos$1 c\ld be work$ z a simple case ( ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t1 )\t requir+ an affirmative premiss to be jo9$ ) x4 ,b al?\gh ?is is true 9 pr9ciple1 x is g5]ally altoge!r impossible to "w ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t by negative in/ances )\t positive ones3 x is s mu* m difficult to exhau/ ! field ( negation ?an t ( affirmation4 ,= in/ance1 let ! "q be1 :at is ! cause ( ! transp>5cy ( bodies2 ) :at prospect ( success c\ld we set ourselves to inquire directly 9 :at ! multif>i\s sub/ances :i* are n transp>5t1 agree8 ,b we might hope mu* soon] to seize "s po9t ( resemblance among ! comp>atively few & def9ite species ( objects :i* are transp>5t2 & ?is be+ atta9$1 we %\ld q naturally be put ^u exam9+ :e!r ! abs5ce ( ?is "o circum/ance be n precisely ! po9t 9 :i* all opaque sub/ances w be f\nd to resemble4 ,! ,jo9t ,me?od ( ,agreem5t & ,diff]5ce1 !re=e1 or1 z ,i h o!rwise call$ x1 ! ,indirect ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce 7because1 l ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce prop]ly s call$1 x proce$s by asc]ta9+ h[ & 9 :at ! cases :]e ! ph5om5on is pres5t1 diff] f ^? 9 :i* x is abs5t7 is1 aft] ! direct ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce1 ! mo/ p[]ful ( ! rema9+ in/rum5ts ( inductive inve/igation2 & 9 ! sci5ces :i* dep5d on pure obs]vation1 ) little or no aid f exp]im5t1 ?is me?od1 s well exemplifi$ 9 ! speculation on ! cause ( dew1 is ! prim>y res\rce1 s f> z direct appeals to exp]i5ce are conc]n$4 #c4 ,we h ?us f> treat$ ,plurality ( ,causes only z a possible supposition1 :i*1 until remov$1 r5d]s our inductions unc]ta91 & h only consid]$ by :at means1 :]e ! plurality does n really exi/1 we may be enabl$ to disprove x4 ,b we mu/ also consid] x z a case actually occurr+ 9 nature1 & :i*1 z (t5 z x does occur1 our me?ods ( induction ought to be capable ( asc]ta9+ & e/abli%+4 ,= ?is1 h[ev]1 !re is requir$ no peculi> me?od4 ,:5 an effect is really producible by two or m causes1 ! process = detect+ !m is 9 no way diff]5t f t by :i* we discov] s+le causes4 ,!y may 7fir/7 be discov]$ z sep>ate sequ5ces1 by sep>ate sets ( in/ances4 ,"o set ( obs]vations or exp]im5ts %[s t ! sun is a cause ( heat1 ano!r t friction is a s\rce ( x1 ano!r t p]cussion1 ano!r t electricity1 ano!r t *emical action is su* a s\rce4 ,or 7secondly7 ! plurality may come to light 9 ! c\rse ( collat+ a numb] ( in/ances1 :5 we attempt to f9d "s circum/ance 9 :i* !y all agree1 & fail 9 do+ s4 ,we f9d x impossible to trace1 9 all ! cases 9 :i* ! effect is met )1 any common circum/ance4 ,we f9d t we c elim9ate all ! antec$5ts2 t no "o ( !m is pres5t 9 all ! in/ances1 no "o ( !m indisp5sable to ! effect4 ,on clos] scrut9y1 h[ev]1 x appe>s t ?\gh no "o is always pres5t1 "o or o!r ( sev]al always is4 ,if1 on fur!r analysis1 we c detect 9 ^! any common elem5t1 we may be able to asc5d f !m to "s "o cause :i* is ! really op]ative circum/ance 9 !m all4 ,?us x might1 & p]haps w1 be discov]$1 t 9 ! production ( heat by friction1 p]cussion1 *emical action1 c41 ! ultimate s\rce is "o & ! same4 ,b if 7z cont9ually happ5s7 we _c take ?is ult]ior /ep1 ! diff]5t antec$5ts mu/ be set d[n provisionally z di/9ct causes1 ea* suffici5t ( itself to produce ! effect4 ,we "h close our rem>ks on ! ,plurality ( ,causes1 & proce$ to ! /ill m peculi> & m complex case ( ! ,int]mixture ( ,effects1 & ! int]f]5ce ( causes ) "o ano!r3 a case con/itut+ ! pr9cipal "p ( ! complication & difficulty ( ! /udy ( nature2 & ) :i* ! f\r only possible me?ods ( directly inductive inve/igation by obs]vation & exp]im5t1 are = ! mo/ "p1 z w appe> pres5tly1 q unequal to cope4 ,! in/rum5t ( ,d$uction alone is adequate to unravel ! complexities proce$+ f ?is s\rce2 & ! f\r me?ods h little m 9 _! p[] ?an to supply premisses =1 & a v]ification (1 our d$uctions4 #d4 ,a concurr5ce ( two or m causes1 n sep>ately produc+ ea* its own effect1 b int]f]+ ) or modify+ ! effects ( "o ano!r1 takes place1 z has already be5 expla9$1 9 two diff]5t ways4 ,9 ! "o1 :i* is exemplifi$ by ! jo9t op]ation ( diff]5t =ces 9 me*anics1 ! sep>ate effects ( all ! causes cont9ue to be produc$1 b are comp\nd$ ) "o ano!r1 & disappe> 9 "o total4 ,9 ! o!r1 illu/rat$ by ! case ( *emical action1 ! sep>ate effects cease entirely1 & are succe$$ by ph5om5a altoge!r diff]5t1 & gov]n$ by diff]5t laws4 ,( ^! cases ! =m] is by f> ! m frequ5t1 & ?is case x is :i*1 = ! mo/ "p1 eludes ! grasp ( our exp]im5tal me?ods4 ,! o!r & exceptional case is ess5tially am5able to !m4 ,:5 ! laws ( ! orig9al ag5ts cease entirely1 & a ph5om5on makes its appe>ance1 :i*1 ) ref]5ce to ^? laws1 is q het]og5e\s2 :51 = example1 two gase\s sub/ances1 hydrog5 & oxyg51 on be+ br\ght toge!r1 ?r[ (f _! peculi> prop]ties1 & produce ! sub/ance call$ wat]2 9 su* cases ! new fact may be subject$ to exp]im5tal inquiry1 l any o!r ph5om5on2 & ! elem5ts :i* are said to compose x may be consid]$ z ! m]e ag5ts ( its production2 ! conditions on :i* x dep5ds1 ! facts :i* make up its cause4 ,! effects ( ! new ph5om5on1 ! prop]ties ( wat]1 = in/ance1 are z easily f\nd by exp]im5t z ! effects ( any o!r cause4 ,b to discov] ! cause ( x1 t is1 ! p>ticul> conjunction ( ag5ts f :i* x results1 is (t5 difficult en\gh4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ! orig9 & actual production ( ! ph5om5on are mo/ frequ5tly inaccessible to our obs]vation4 ,if we c\ld n h le>n$ ! composition ( wat] until we f\nd in/ances 9 :i* x 0 actually produc$ f oxyg5 & hydrog51 we %\ld h be5 =c$ to wait until ! casual ?\ght /ruck "s "o ( pass+ an electric sp>k ?r\gh a mixture ( ! two gases1 or ins]t+ a light$ tap] into x1 m]ely to try :at w\ld happ54 ,fur!r1 ev5 if we c\ld h asc]ta9$1 by ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t1 t oxyg5 & hydrog5 7 bo? pres5t :5 wat] is produc$1 no exp]im5tation on oxyg5 & hydrog5 sep>ately1 no k ( _! laws1 c\ld h enabl$ u d$uctively to inf] t !y w\ld produce wat]4 ,we require a specific exp]im5t on ! two comb9$4 ,"u ^! difficulties1 we %\ld g5]ally h be5 indebt$ = our k ( ! causes ( ?is class ( effects1 n to any inquiry direct$ specifically t[>ds t end1 b ei!r to accid5t1 or to ! gradual progress ( exp]im5tation on ! diff]5t comb9ations ( :i* ! produc+ ag5ts are susceptible2 if x 7 n = a peculi>ity belong+ to effects ( ?is description1 t !y (t51 "u "s p>ticul> comb9ation ( circum/ances1 reproduce _! causes4 ,if wat] results f ! juxtaposition ( hydrog5 & oxyg5 :5ev] ?is c be made suffici5tly close & intimate1 s1 on ! o!r h&1 if wat] itself be plac$ 9 c]ta9 situations1 hydrog5 & oxyg5 are reproduc$ f x3 an abrupt t]m9ation is put to ! new laws1 & ! ag5ts reappe> sep>ately ) _! own prop]ties z at fir/4 ,:at is call$ *emical analysis is ! process ( se>*+ = ! causes ( a ph5om5on among its effects1 or r among ! effects produc$ by ! action ( "s o!r causes ^u x4 ,lavoisi]1 by heat+ m]cury to a high temp]ature 9 a close vessel conta9+ air1 f\nd t ! m]cury increas$ 9 weight & became :at 0 !n call$ r$ precipitate1 :ile ! air1 on be+ exam9$ aft] ! exp]im5t1 prov$ to h lo/ weight1 & to h become incapable ( support+ life or combu/ion4 ,:5 r$ precipitate 0 expos$ to a /ill great] heat1 x became m]cury aga91 & gave (f a gas :i* did support life & flame4 ,?us ! ag5ts :i* by _! comb9ation produc$ r$ precipitate1 namely ! m]cury & ! gas1 reappe> z effects result+ f t precipitate :5 act$ ^u by heat4 ,s1 if we decompose wat] by means ( iron fil+s1 we produce two effects1 ru/ & hydrog53 n[ ru/ is already kn[n by exp]im5ts ^u ! compon5t sub/ances1 to be an effect ( ! union ( iron & oxyg53 ! iron we ourselves suppli$1 b ! oxyg5 mu/ h be5 produc$ f ! wat]4 ,! result !re=e is t wat] has disappe>$1 & hydrog5 & oxyg5 h appe>$ 9 its /ead3 or 9 o!r words1 ! orig9al laws ( ^! gase\s ag5ts1 :i* _h be5 susp5d$ by ! sup]9duction ( ! new laws call$ ! prop]ties ( wat]1 h aga9 />t$ into exi/5ce1 & ! causes ( wat] are f\nd among its effects4 ,:]e two ph5om5a1 betwe5 ! laws or prop]ties ( :i* consid]$ 9 !mselves no connexion c be trac$1 are ?us reciprocally cause & effect1 ea* capable 9 its turn ( be+ produc$ f ! o!r1 & ea*1 :5 x produces ! o!r1 ceas+ itself to exi/ 7z wat] is produc$ f oxyg5 & hydrog51 & oxyg5 & hydrog5 are reproduc$ f wat]72 ?is causation ( ! two ph5om5a by "o ano!r1 ea* be+ g5]at$ by ! o!r's de/ruction1 is prop]ly trans=mation4 ,! idea ( *emical composition is an idea ( trans=mation1 b ( a trans=mation :i* is incomplete2 s9ce we consid] ! oxyg5 & hydrog5 to be pres5t 9 ! wat] z oxyg5 & hydrog51 & capable ( be+ discov]$ 9 x if our s5ses 7 suffici5tly ke53 a supposition 7= x is no m7 gr\nd$ solely on ! fact1 t ! weight ( ! wat] is ! sum ( ! sep>ate weights ( ! two +r$i5ts4 ,if !re _h n be5 ?is exception to ! entire disappe>ance1 9 ! comp\nd1 ( ! laws ( ! sep>ate +r$i5ts2 if ! comb9$ ag5ts _h n1 9 ?is "o p>ticul> ( weight1 pres]v$ _! own laws1 & produc$ a jo9t result equal to ! sum ( _! sep>ate results2 we %\ld nev]1 probably1 h _h ! notion n[ impli$ by ! words *emical composition3 &1 9 ! fact ( wat] produc$ f hydrog5 & oxyg5 & hydrog5 & oxyg5 produc$ f wat]1 z ! trans=mation w\ld h be5 complete1 we %\ld h se5 only a trans=mation4 ,9 ^! cases1 !n1 :5 ! het]opa?ic effect 7z we call$ x 9 a =m] *apt]77#hf7 is b a trans=mation ( its cause1 or 9 o!r words1 :5 ! effect & its cause are reciprocally su*1 & mutually conv]tible into ea* o!r2 ! problem ( f9d+ ! cause resolves itself into ! f> easi] "o ( f9d+ an effect1 :i* is ! k9d ( inquiry t admits ( be+ prosecut$ by direct exp]im5t4 ,b !re are o!r cases ( het]opa?ic effects to :i* ?is mode ( inve/igation is n applicable4 ,take1 = in/ance1 ! het]opa?ic laws ( m9d2 t portion ( ! ph5om5a ( our m5tal nature :i* are analog\s to *emical r ?an to dynamical ph5om5a2 z :5 a complex passion is =m$ by ! coalition ( sev]al elem5t>y impulses1 or a complex emotion by sev]al simple pleasures or pa9s1 ( :i* x is ! result )\t be+ ! aggregate1 or 9 any respect homog5e\s ) !m4 ,! product1 9 ^! cases1 is g5]at$ by its v>i\s factors2 b ! factors _c be reproduc$ f ! product3 j z a y\? c gr[ into an old man1 b an old man _c gr[ into a y\?4 ,we _c asc]ta9 f :at simple feel+s any ( our complex /ates ( m9d are g5]at$1 z we asc]ta9 ! +r$i5ts ( a *emical comp\nd1 by mak+ x1 9 its turn1 g5]ate !m4 ,we c only1 !re=e1 discov] ^! laws by ! sl[ process ( /udy+ ! simple feel+s !mselves1 & asc]ta9+ syn!tically1 by exp]im5t+ on ! v>i\s comb9ations ( :i* !y are susceptible1 :at !y1 by _! mutual action ^u "o ano!r1 are capable ( g5]at+4 #e4 ,x might h be5 suppos$ t ! o!r1 & app>5tly simpl] v>iety ( ! mutual int]f]5ce ( causes1 :]e ea* cause cont9ues to produce its own prop] effect accord+ to ! same laws to :i* x con=ms 9 its sep>ate /ate1 w\ld h pres5t$ few] difficulties to ! inductive inquir] ?an t ( :i* we h j f9i%$ ! consid]ation4 ,x1 pres5ts1 h[ev]1 s f> z direct induction ap>t f d$uction is conc]n$1 inf9itely great] difficulties4 ,:5 a concurr5ce ( causes gives rise to a new effect1 be>+ no relation to ! sep>ate effects ( ^? causes1 ! result+ ph5om5on /&s =? undisguis$1 invit+ att5tion to its peculi>ity1 & pres5t+ no ob/acle to our recognis+ its pres5ce or abs5ce among any numb] ( surr\nd+ ph5om5a4 ,x admits !re=e ( be+ easily br\ght "u ! canons ( induction1 provid$ in/ances c be obta9$ su* z ^? canons require3 & ! non-occurr5ce ( su* in/ances1 or ! want ( means to produce !m artificially1 is ! real & only difficulty 9 su* inve/igations2 a difficulty n logical1 b 9 "s sort physical4 ,x is o!rwise ) cases ( :at1 9 a prec$+ *apt]1 has be5 d5om9at$ ! ,composition ( ,causes4 ,!re1 ! effects ( ! sep>ate causes d n t]m9ate & give place to o!rs1 !reby ceas+ to =m any "p ( ! ph5om5on to be inve/igat$2 on ! contr>y1 !y /ill take place1 b are int]m+l$ )1 & disguis$ by1 ! homog5e\s & closely alli$ effects ( o!r causes4 ,!y are no long] a1 b1 c1 d1 e1 exi/+ side by side1 & cont9u+ to be sep>ately disc]nible2 !y are a1 - a1 #a_/b b1 - b1 #b b1 c41 "s ( :i* cancel "o ano!r1 :ile _m o!rs d n appe> di/+ui%ably1 b m]ge 9 "o sum3 =m+ altoge!r a result1 betwe5 :i* & ! causes :]eby x 0 produc$ !re is (t5 an insurm\ntable difficulty 9 trac+ by obs]vation any fix$ relation :atev]4 ,! g5]al idea ( ! ,composition ( ,causes has be5 se5 to be1 t al?\gh two or m laws int]f]e ) "o ano!r1 & app>5tly fru/rate or modify "o ano!r's op]ation1 yet 9 reality all are fulfill$1 ! collective effect be+ ! exact sum ( ! effects ( ! causes tak5 sep>ately4 ,a famili> in/ance is t ( a body kept 9 equilibrium by two equal & contr>y =ces4 ,"o ( ! =ces if act+ alone w\ld c>ry x 9 a giv5 "t a c]ta9 di/ance to ! we/1 ! o!r if act+ alone w\ld c>ry x exactly z f> t[>ds ! ea/2 & ! result is ! same z if x _h be5 fir/ c>ri$ to ! we/ z f> z ! "o =ce w\ld c>ry x1 & !n back t[>ds ! ea/ z f> z ! o!r w\ld c>ry x1 t is1 precisely ! same di/ance2 be+ ultimately left :]e x 0 f\nd at fir/4 ,all laws ( causation are liable to be 9 ?is mann] c\nt]act$1 & seem+ly fru/rat$1 by com+ into conflict ) o!r laws1 ! sep>ate result ( :i* is opposite to !irs1 or m or less inconsi/5t ) x4 ,& h5ce1 ) almo/ e law1 _m in/ances 9 :i* x really is entirely fulfill$1 d n1 at fir/ sight1 appe> to be cases ( its op]ation at all4 ,x is s 9 ! example j adduc$3 a =ce1 9 me*anics1 means nei!r m nor less ?an a cause ( motion1 yet ! sum ( ! effects ( two causes ( motion may be re/4 ,aga91 a body solicit$ by two =ces 9 directions mak+ an angle ) "o ano!r1 moves 9 ! diagonal2 & x seems a p>adox to say t motion 9 ! diagonal is ! sum ( two motions 9 two o!r l9es4 ,motion1 h[ev]1 is b *ange ( place1 & at e in/ant ! body is 9 ! exact place x w\ld h be5 9 if ! =ces _h act$ dur+ alt]nate in/ants in/ead ( act+ 9 ! same in/ant2 7sav+ t if we suppose two =ces to act successively :i* are 9 tru? simultane\s1 we mu/ ( c\rse all[ !m d\ble ! "t47 ,x is evid5t1 !re=e1 t ea* =ce has _h1 dur+ ea* in/ant1 all ! effect :i* belong$ to x2 & t ! modify+ influ5ce :i* "o ( two concurr5t causes is said to ex]cise ) respect to ! o!r1 may be consid]$ z ex]t$ n ov] ! action ( ! cause itself1 b ov] ! effect aft] x is complet$4 ,= all purposes ( pr$ict+1 calculat+1 or expla9+ _! jo9t result1 causes :i* comp\nd _! effects may be treat$ z if !y produc$ simultane\sly ea* ( !m its own effect1 & all ^! effects coexi/$ visibly4 ,s9ce ! laws ( causes are z really fulfill$ :5 ! causes are said to be c\nt]act$ by oppos+ causes1 z :5 !y are left to _! own undi/urb$ action1 we mu/ be cauti\s n to express ! laws 9 su* t]ms z w\ld r5d] ! ass]tion ( _! be+ fulfill$ 9 ^? cases a contradiction4 ,if1 = in/ance1 x 7 /at$ z a law ( nature t a body to :i* a =ce is appli$ moves 9 ! direction ( ! =ce1 ) a velocity proportion$ to ! =ce directly1 & to its own mass inv]sely2 :5 9 po9t ( fact "s bodies to :i* a =ce is appli$ d n move at all1 & ^? :i* d move are1 f ! v fir/1 ret>d$ by ! action ( gravity & o!r resi/+ =ces1 & at la/ /opp$ altoge!r2 x is cle> t ! g5]al proposition1 ?\gh x w\ld be true "u a c]ta9 hypo!sis1 w\ld n express ! facts z !y actually occur4 ,to accommodate ! expression ( ! law to ! real ph5om5a1 we mu/ say1 n t ! object moves1 b t x t5ds to move1 9 ! direction & ) ! velocity specifi$4 ,we might1 inde$1 gu>d our expression 9 a diff]5t mode1 by say+ t ! body moves 9 t mann] unless prev5t$1 or except 9 s f> z prev5t$1 by "s c\nt]act+ cause4 ,b ! body does n only move 9 t mann] unless c\nt]act$2 x t5ds to move 9 t mann] ev5 :5 c\nt]act$2 x /ill ex]ts1 9 ! orig9al direction1 ! same en]gy ( movem5t z if its fir/ impulse _h be5 undi/urb$1 & produces1 by t en]gy1 an exactly equival5t quantity ( effect4 ,?is is true ev5 :5 ! =ce leaves ! body z x f\nd x1 9 a /ate ( absolute re/2 z :5 we attempt to raise a body ( ?ree tons weight ) a =ce equal to "o ton4 ,= if1 :ile we are apply+ ?is =ce1 w9d or wat] or any o!r ag5t supplies an additional =ce j exce$+ two tons1 ! body w be rais$2 ?us prov+ t ! =ce we appli$ ex]t$ its full effect1 by neutraliz+ an equival5t portion ( ! weight :i* x 0 insuffici5t altoge!r to ov]come4 ,& if1 :ile we are ex]t+ ?is =ce ( "o ton ^u ! object 9 a direction contr>y to t ( gravity1 x be put into a scale & weigh$1 x w be f\nd to h lo/ a ton ( its weight1 or 9 o!r words1 to press d[nw>ds ) a =ce only equal to ! diff]5ce ( ! two =ces4 ,^! facts are correctly indicat$ by ! expression t5d5cy4 ,all laws ( causation1 9 consequ5ce ( _! liability to be c\nt]act$1 require to be /at$ 9 words affirmative ( t5d5cies only1 & n ( actual results4 ,9 ^? sci5ces ( causation :i* h an accurate nom5clature1 !re are special words :i* signify a t5d5cy to ! p>ticul> effect ) :i* ! sci5ce is conv]sant2 ?us pressure1 9 me*anics1 is synonym\s ) t5d5cy to motion1 & =ces are n reason$ on z caus+ actual motion1 b z ex]t+ pressure4 ,a simil> improvem5t 9 t]m9ology w\ld be v salut>y 9 _m o!r bran*es ( sci5ce4 ,! habit ( neglect+ ?is necess>y elem5t 9 ! precise expression ( ! laws ( nature1 has giv5 bir? to ! popul> prejudice t all g5]al tru?s h exceptions2 & mu* unm]it$ di/ru/ has !nce accru$ to ! conclusions ( sci5ce1 :5 !y h be5 submitt$ to ! judgm5t ( m9ds insuffici5tly discipl9$ & cultivat$4 ,! r\gh g5]alizations sugge/$ by common obs]vation usually h exceptions2 b pr9ciples ( sci5ce1 or 9 o!r words1 laws ( causation1 h n4 8,:at is ?\ght to be an exception to a pr9ciple10 7to quote words us$ on a diff]5t occasion17 8is always "s o!r & di/9ct pr9ciple cutt+ into ! =m]2 "s o!r =ce :i* imp+es7#hg7 aga9/ ! fir/ =ce1 & deflects x f its direction4 ,!re are n a law & an exception to t law1 ! law act+ 9 n9ety-n9e cases & ! exception 9 "o4 ,!re are two laws1 ea* possibly act+ 9 ! :ole hundr$ cases1 & br++ ab\t a common effect by _! conjunct op]ation4 ,if ! =ce :i*1 be+ ! less conspicu\s ( ! two1 is call$ ! di/urb+ =ce1 prevails suffici5tly ov] ! o!r =ce 9 "s "o case1 to con/itute t case :at is commonly call$ an exception1 ! same di/urb+ =ce probably acts z a modify+ cause 9 _m o!r cases :i* no "o w call exceptions4 8,?us if x 7 /at$ to be a law ( nature t all heavy bodies fall to ! gr\nd1 x w\ld probably be said t ! resi/ance ( ! atmosph]e1 :i* prev5ts a balloon f fall+1 con/itutes ! balloon an exception to t pret5d$ law ( nature4 ,b ! real law is1 t all heavy bodies t5d to fall2 & to ?is !re is no exception1 n ev5 ! sun & moon2 = ev5 !y1 z e a/ronom] kn[s1 t5d t[>ds ! e>?1 ) a =ce exactly equal to t ) :i* ! e>? t5ds t[>ds !m4 ,! resi/ance ( ! atmosph]e might1 9 ! p>ticul> case ( ! balloon1 f a misappreh5sion ( :at ! law ( gravitation is1 be said to prevail ov] ! law2 b its di/urb+ effect is q z real 9 e o!r case1 s9ce ?\gh x does n prev5t1 x ret>ds ! fall ( all bodies :atev]4 ,! rule1 & ! s-call$ exception1 d n divide ! cases betwe5 !m2 ea* ( !m is a compreh5sive rule ext5d+ to all cases4 ,to call "o ( ^! concurr5t pr9ciples an exception to ! o!r1 is sup]ficial1 & contr>y to ! correct pr9ciples ( nom5clature & arrangem5t4 ,an effect ( precisely ! same k9d1 & aris+ f ! same cause1 ought n to be plac$ 9 two diff]5t categories1 m]ely z !re does or does n exi/ ano!r cause prepond]at+ ov] x407#hh7 #f4 ,we h n[ to consid] accord+ to :at me?od ^! complex effects1 comp\nd$ ( ! effects ( _m causes1 are to be /udi$2 h[ we are enabl$ to trace ea* effect to ! concurr5ce ( causes 9 :i* x orig9at$1 & asc]ta9 ! conditions ( its recurr5ce1 ! circum/ances 9 :i* x maybe expect$ aga9 to occur4 ,! conditions ( a ph5om5on :i* arises f a composition ( causes1 may be inve/igat$ ei!r d$uctively or exp]im5tally4 ,! case1 x is evid5t1 is naturally susceptible ( ! d$uctive mode ( inve/igation4 ,! law ( an effect ( ?is description is a result ( ! laws ( ! sep>ate causes on ! comb9ation ( :i* x dep5ds1 & is !re=e 9 itself capable ( be+ d$uc$ f ^! laws4 ,?is is call$ ! me?od priori4 ,! o!r1 or po/]iori me?od1 pr(esses to proce$ accord+ to ! canons ( exp]im5tal inquiry4 ,consid]+ ! :ole assemblage ( concurr5t causes :i* produc$ ! ph5om5on1 z "o s+le cause1 x attempts to asc]ta9 t cause 9 ! ord9>y mann]1 by a comp>ison ( in/ances4 ,?is second me?od subdivides itself into two diff]5t v>ieties4 ,if x m]ely collates in/ances ( ! effect1 x is a me?od ( pure obs]vation4 ,if x op]ates ^u ! causes1 & tries diff]5t comb9ations ( !m1 9 hopes ( ultimately hitt+ ! precise comb9ation :i* w produce ! giv5 total effect1 x is a me?od ( exp]im5t4 ,9 ord] m completely to cle> up ! nature ( ea* ( ^! ?ree me?ods1 & det]m9e :i* ( !m des]ves ! pref]5ce1 x w be exp$i5t 7con=mably to a fav\rite maxim ( ,"l ,*ancellor ,eldon1 to :i*1 ?\gh x has (t5 incurr$ philosophical ridicule1 a deep] philosophy w n refuse its sanction7 to 8clo! !m 9 circum/ances40 ,we %all select = ?is purpose a case :i* z yet furni%es no v brilliant example ( ! success ( any ( ! ?ree me?ods1 b :i* is all ! m suit$ to illu/rate ! difficulties inh]5t 9 !m4 ,let ! subject ( inquiry be1 ! conditions ( heal? & disease 9 ! human body2 or 7= great] simplicity7 ! conditions ( recov]y f a giv5 disease2 & 9 ord] to n>r[ ! "q /ill m1 let x be limit$1 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 to ?is "o inquiry3 ,is1 or is n "s p>ticul> m$icam5t 7m]cury1 = in/ance7 a rem$y = t disease4 ,n[1 ! d$uctive me?od w\ld set out f kn[n prop]ties ( m]cury1 & kn[n laws ( ! human body1 & by reason+ f ^!1 w\ld attempt to discov] :e!r m]cury w act ^u ! body :5 9 ! morbid condition suppos$1 9 su* a mann] z to re/ore heal?4 ,! exp]im5tal me?od w\ld simply adm9i/] m]cury 9 z _m cases z possible1 not+ ! age1 sex1 temp]am5t1 & o!r peculi>ities ( bodily con/itution1 ! p>ticul> =m or v>iety ( ! disease1 ! p>ticul> /age ( its progress1 c41 rem>k+ 9 :i* ( ^! cases x produc$ a salut>y effect1 & ) :at circum/ances x 0 on ^? occasions comb9$4 ,! me?od ( simple obs]vation w\ld comp>e in/ances ( recov]y1 to f9d :e!r !y agre$ 9 hav+ be5 prec$$ by ! adm9i/ration ( m]cury2 or w\ld comp>e in/ances ( recov]y ) in/ances ( failure1 to f9d cases :i*1 agree+ 9 all o!r respects1 diff]$ only 9 ! fact t m]cury _h be5 adm9i/]$1 or t x _h n4 #g4 ,t ! la/ ( ^! ?ree modes ( inve/igation is applicable to ! case1 no "o has ev] s]i\sly cont5d$4 ,no conclusions ( value1 on a subject ( su* intricacy1 ev] 7 obta9$ 9 t way4 ,! utmo/ t c\ld result w\ld be a vague g5]al impression = or aga9/ ! efficacy ( m]cury1 ( no avail = guidance unless confirm$ by "o ( ! o!r two me?ods4 ,n t ! results1 :i* ?is me?od /rives to obta91 w\ld n be ( ! utmo/ possible value if !y c\ld be obta9$4 ,if all ! cases ( recov]y :i* pres5t$ !mselves1 9 an exam9ation ext5d+ to a great numb] ( in/ances1 7 cases 9 :i* m]cury _h be5 adm9i/]$1 we might g5]alize ) confid5ce f ?is exp]i5ce1 & %\ld h obta9$ a conclusion ( real value4 ,b no su* basis = g5]alization c we1 9 a case ( ?is description1 hope to obta94 ,! reason is t :i* we h s (t5 spok5 ( z con/itut+ ! *>act]i/ic imp]fection ( ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t2 ,plurality ( ,causes4 ,suppos+ ev5 t m]cury does t5d to cure ! disease1 s _m o!r causes1 bo? natural & artificial1 also t5d to cure x1 t !re are sure to be abundant in/ances ( recov]y1 9 :i* m]cury has n be5 adm9i/]$3 unless1 inde$1 ! practice be to adm9i/] x 9 all cases2 on :i* supposition x w equally be f\nd 9 ! cases ( failure4 ,:5 an effect results f ! union ( _m causes1 ! %>e :i* ea* has 9 ! det]m9ation ( ! effect _c 9 g5]al be great3 & ! effect is n likely1 ev5 9 its pres5ce or abs5ce1 /ill less 9 its v>iations1 to foll[1 ev5 approximatively1 any "o ( ! causes4 ,recov]y f a disease is an ev5t to :i*1 9 e case1 _m influ5ces mu/ concur4 ,m]cury may be "o su* influ5ce2 b f ! v fact t !re are _m o!r su*1 x w necess>ily happ5 t al?\gh m]cury is adm9i/]$1 ! pati5t1 = want ( o!r concurr+ influ5ces1 w (t5 n recov]1 & t he (t5 w recov] :5 x is n adm9i/]$1 ! o!r fav\rable influ5ces be+ suffici5tly p[]ful )\t x4 ,nei!r1 !re=e1 w ! in/ances ( recov]y agree 9 ! adm9i/ration ( m]cury1 nor w ! in/ances ( failure agree 9 its non-adm9i/ration4 ,x is mu* if1 by multipli$ & accurate returns f hospitals & ! l1 we c collect t !re are r m recov]ies & r few] failures :5 m]cury is adm9i/]$ ?an :5 x is n2 a result ( v second>y value ev5 z a guide to practice1 & almo/ wor?less z a contribution to ! !ory ( ! subject4 #h4 ,! inapplicability ( ! me?od ( simple obs]vation to asc]ta9 ! conditions ( effects dep5d5t on _m concurr+ causes1 be+ ?us recognis$2 we %all next inquire :e!r any great] b5efit c be expect$ f ! o!r bran* ( ! po/]iori me?od1 t :i* proce$s by directly try+ diff]5t comb9ations ( causes1 ei!r artificially produc$ or f\nd 9 nature1 & tak+ notice :at is _! effect3 z1 = example1 by actually try+ ! effect ( m]cury1 9 z _m diff]5t circum/ances z possible4 ,?is me?od diff]s f ! "o :i* we h j exam9$1 9 turn+ our att5tion directly to ! causes or ag5ts1 in/ead ( turn+ x to ! effect1 recov]y f ! disease4 ,& s9ce1 z a g5]al rule1 ! effects ( causes are f> m accessible to our /udy ?an ! causes ( effects1 x is natural to ?9k t ?is me?od has a mu* bett] *ance ( prov+ successful ?an ! =m]4 ,! me?od n[ "u consid]ation is call$ ! ,empirical ,me?od2 & 9 ord] to e/imate x fairly1 we mu/ suppose x to be completely1 n incompletely1 empirical4 ,we mu/ exclude f x ev]y?+ :i* p>takes ( ! nature n ( an exp]im5tal b ( a d$uctive op]ation4 ,if = in/ance we try exp]im5ts ) m]cury ^u a p]son 9 heal?1 9 ord] to asc]ta9 ! g5]al laws ( its action ^u ! human body1 & !n reason f ^! laws to det]m9e h[ x w act ^u p]sons affect$ ) a p>ticul> disease1 ?is may be a really effectual me?od1 b ?is is d$uction4 ,! exp]im5tal me?od does n d]ive ! law ( a complex case f ! simpl] laws :i* conspire to produce x1 b makes its exp]im5ts directly ^u ! complex case4 ,we mu/ make entire ab/raction ( all k ( ! simpl] t5d5cies1 ! modi op]&i ( m]cury 9 detail4 ,our exp]im5tation mu/ aim at obta9+ a direct answ] to ! specific "q1 ,does or does n m]cury t5d to cure ! p>ticul> disease8 ,let u see1 !re=e1 h[ f> ! case admits ( ! obs]vance ( ^? rules ( exp]im5tation1 :i* x is f\nd necess>y to obs]ve 9 o!r cases4 ,:5 we devise an exp]im5t to asc]ta9 ! effect ( a giv5 ag5t1 !re are c]ta9 precautions :i* we nev]1 if we c help x1 omit4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 we introduce ! ag5t into ! mid/ ( a set ( circum/ances :i* we h exactly asc]ta9$4 ,x ne$s h>dly be rem>k$ h[ f> ?is condition is f be+ realiz$ 9 any case connect$ ) ! ph5om5a ( life2 h[ f> we are f kn[+ :at are all ! circum/ances :i* pre-exi/ 9 any in/ance 9 :i* m]cury is adm9i/]$ to a liv+ be+4 ,?is difficulty1 h[ev]1 ?\gh insup]able 9 mo/ cases1 may n be s 9 all2 !re are sometimes 7?\gh ,i %\ld ?9k nev] 9 physiology7 concurr5ces ( _m causes1 9 :i* we yet "k accurately :at ! causes are4 ,b :5 we h got cle> ( ?is ob/acle we enc\nt] ano!r /ill m s]i\s4 ,9 o!r cases1 :5 we int5d to try an exp]im5t1 we d n reckon x en\gh t !re be no circum/ance 9 ! case1 ! pres5ce ( :i* is unkn[n to u4 ,we require also t none ( ! circum/ances :i* we d "k1 %all h effects susceptible ( be+ conf\nd$ ) ^? ( ! ag5t ^: prop]ties we wi% to /udy4 ,we take ! utmo/ pa9s to exclude all causes capable ( composition ) ! giv5 cause2 or if =c$ to let 9 any su* causes1 we take c>e to make !m su*1 t we c compute & all[ = _! influ5ce1 s t ! effect ( ! giv5 cause may1 aft] ! subduction ( ^? o!r effects1 be app>5t z a residual ph5om5on4 ,^! precautions are inapplicable to su* cases z we are n[ consid]+4 ,! m]cury ( our exp]im5t be+ tri$ ) an unkn[n multitude 7or ev5 let x be a kn[n multitude7 ( o!r influ5c+ circum/ances1 ! m]e fact ( _! be+ influ5c+ circum/ances implies t !y disguise ! effect ( ! m]cury1 & preclude u f kn[+ :e!r x has any effect or no4 ,unless we already knew :at & h[ mu* is ow+ to e o!r circum/ance1 7t is1 unless we suppose ! v problem solv$ :i* we are consid]+ ! means ( solv+17 we _c tell t ^? o!r circum/ances may n h produc$ ! :ole ( ! effect1 indep5d5tly or ev5 9 spite ( ! m]cury4 ,! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce1 9 ! ord9>y mode ( its use1 namely by comp>+ ! /ate ( ?+s foll[+ ! exp]im5t ) ! /ate :i* prec$$ x1 is ?us1 9 ! case ( int]mixture ( effects1 entirely unavail+2 because o!r causes ?an t ^: effect we are seek+ to det]m9e1 h be5 op]at+ dur+ ! transition4 ,z = ! o!r mode ( employ+ ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce1 namely by comp>+1 n ! same case at two diff]5t p]iods1 b diff]5t cases1 ?is 9 ! pres5t in/ance is q *im]ical4 ,9 ph5om5a s complicat$ x is que/ionable if two cases simil> 9 all respects b "o ev] occurr$2 & 7 !y to occur1 we c\ld n possibly "k t !y 7 s exactly simil>4 ,any?+ l a sci5tific use ( ! me?od ( exp]im5t1 9 ^! complicat$ cases1 is !re=e out ( ! "q4 ,we c 9 ! mo/ fav\rable cases only discov]1 by a succession ( trials1 t a c]ta9 cause is v (t5 foll[$ by a c]ta9 effect4 ,=1 9 "o ( ^! conjunct effects1 ! portion :i* is det]m9$ by any "o ( ! influ5c+ ag5ts1 is g5]ally1 z we be=e rem>k$1 b small2 & x mu/ be a m pot5t cause ?an mo/1 if ev5 ! t5d5cy :i* x really ex]ts is n ?w>t$ by o!r t5d5cies 9 ne>ly z _m cases z x is fulfill$4 ,if s little c be done by ! exp]im5tal me?od to det]m9e ! conditions ( an effect ( _m comb9$ causes1 9 ! case ( m$ical sci5ce1 /ill less is ?is me?od applicable to a class ( ph5om5a1 m complicat$ ?an ev5 ^? ( physiology1 ! ph5om5a ( politics & hi/ory4 ,!re1 ,plurality ( ,causes exi/s 9 almo/ b\ndless excess1 & ! effects are1 = ! mo/ "p1 inextricably int]wov5 ) "o ano!r4 ,to add to ! emb>rassm5t1 mo/ ( ! inquiries 9 political sci5ce relate to ! production ( effects ( a mo/ compreh5sive description1 su* z ! public weal?1 public security1 public morality1 & ! l3 results liable to be affect$ directly or indirectly ei!r 9 plus or 9 m9us by ne>ly e fact :i* exi/s1 or ev5t :i* occurs1 9 human society4 ,! vulg> notion1 t ! safe me?ods on political subjects are ^? ( ,baconian induction1 t ! true guide is n g5]al reason+1 b specific exp]i5ce1 w "o day be quot$ z among ! mo/ unequivocal m>ks ( a l[ /ate ( ! speculative faculties 9 any age 9 :i* x is accr$it$4 ,no?+ c be m ludicr\s ?an ! sort ( p>odies on exp]im5tal reason+ :i* "o is accu/om$ to meet )1 n 9 popul> discussion only1 b 9 grave treatises1 :5 ! affairs ( nations are ! !me4 8,h[10 x is ask$1 8c an in/itution be bad1 :5 ! c\ntry has prosp]$ "u x80 8,h[ c su* or su* causes h contribut$ to ! prosp]ity ( "o c\ntry1 :5 ano!r has prosp]$ )\t !m80 ,:oev] makes use ( an argum5t ( ?is k9d1 n int5d+ to deceive1 %\ld be s5t back to le>n ! elem5ts ( "s "o ( ! m easy physical sci5ces4 ,su* reason]s ignore ! fact ( ,plurality ( ,causes 9 ! v case :i* af=ds ! mo/ signal example ( x4 ,s little c\ld be conclud$1 9 su* a case1 f any possible collation ( individual in/ances1 t ev5 ! impossibility1 9 social ph5om5a1 ( mak+ artificial exp]im5ts1 a circum/ance o!rwise s prejudicial to directly inductive inquiry1 h>dly af=ds1 9 ?is case1 additional reason ( regret4 ,= ev5 if we c\ld try exp]im5ts ^u a nation or ^u ! human race1 ) z little scruple z ,m4 ,maj5die tries !m ^u dogs or rabbits1 we %\ld nev] succe$ 9 mak+ two in/ances id5tical 9 e respect except ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( "s "o indef9ite circum/ance4 ,! ne>e/ approa* to an exp]im5t 9 ! philosophical s5se1 :i* takes place 9 politics1 is ! introduction ( a new op]ative elem5t into national affairs by "s special & assignable measure ( gov]nm5t1 su* z ! enactm5t or repeal ( a p>ticul> law4 ,b :]e !re are s _m influ5ces at "w1 x requires "s "t = ! influ5ce ( any new cause ^u national ph5om5a to become app>5t2 & z ! causes op]at+ 9 s ext5sive a sph]e are n only inf9itely num]\s1 b 9 a /ate ( p]petual alt]ation1 x is always c]ta9 t be=e ! effect ( ! new cause becomes conspicu\s en\gh to be a subject ( induction1 s _m ( ! o!r influ5c+ circum/ances w h *ang$ z to vitiate ! exp]im5t4 ,two1 !re=e1 ( ! ?ree possible me?ods = ! /udy ( ph5om5a result+ f ! composition ( _m causes1 be+1 f ! v nature ( ! case1 ineffici5t & illusory2 !re rema9s only ! ?ird1--t :i* consid]s ! causes sep>ately1 & computes ! effect f ! balance ( ! diff]5t t5d5cies :i* produce x3 9 %ort1 ! d$uctive1 or priori me?od4 ,! m p>ticul> consid]ation ( ?is intellectual process requires a *apt] to itself4 ,,*apt] ,,xi4 ,,( ,,! ,,d$uctive ,,me?od4 #a4 ,! mode ( inve/igation :i*1 f ! prov$ inapplicability ( direct me?ods ( obs]vation & exp]im5t1 rema9s to u z ! ma9 s\rce ( ! k we possess or c acquire respect+ ! conditions1 & laws ( recurr5ce1 ( ! m complex ph5om5a1 is call$1 9 its mo/ g5]al expression1 ! ,d$uctive ,me?od2 & consi/s ( ?ree op]ations3 ! fir/1 "o ( direct induction2 ! second1 ( ratioc9ation2 & ! ?ird1 ( v]ification4 ,i call ! fir/ /ep 9 ! process an inductive op]ation1 because !re mu/ be a direct induction z ! basis ( ! :ole2 al?\gh 9 _m p>ticul> inve/igations ! place ( ! induction may be suppli$ by a prior d$uction2 b ! premisses ( ?is prior d$uction mu/ h be5 d]iv$ f induction4 ,! problem ( ! ,d$uctive ,me?od is1 to f9d ! law ( an effect1 f ! laws ( ! diff]5t t5d5cies ( :i* x is ! jo9t result4 ,! fir/ requisite1 !re=e1 is to "k ! laws ( ^? t5d5cies2 ! law ( ea* ( ! concurr5t causes3 & ?is supposes a previ\s process ( obs]vation or exp]im5t ^u ea* cause sep>ately2 or else a previ\s d$uction1 :i* also mu/ dep5d = its ultimate premisses on obs]vation or exp]im5t4 ,?us1 if ! subject be social or hi/orical ph5om5a1 ! premisses ( ! ,d$uctive ,me?od mu/ be ! laws ( ! causes :i* det]m9e t class ( ph5om5a2 & ^? causes are human actions1 toge!r ) ! g5]al outw>d circum/ances "u ! influ5ce ( :i* mank9d are plac$1 & :i* con/itute man's position on ! e>?4 ,! ,d$uctive ,me?od1 appli$ to social ph5om5a1 mu/ beg91 !re=e1 by inve/igat+1 or mu/ suppose to h be5 already inve/igat$1 ! laws ( human action1 & ^? prop]ties ( outw>d ?+s by :i* ! actions ( human be+s 9 society are det]m9$4 ,"s ( ^! g5]al tru?s w naturally be obta9$ by obs]vation & exp]im5t1 o!rs by d$uction3 ! m complex laws ( human action1 = example1 may be d$uc$ f ! simpl] ones2 b ! simple or elem5t>y laws w always1 & necess>ily1 h be5 obta9$ by a directly inductive process4 ,to asc]ta91 !n1 ! laws ( ea* sep>ate cause :i* takes a %>e 9 produc+ ! effect1 is ! fir/ desid]atum ( ! ,d$uctive ,me?od4 ,to "k :at ! causes are1 :i* mu/ be subject$ to ?is process ( /udy1 may or may n be difficult4 ,9 ! case la/ m5tion$1 ?is fir/ condition is ( easy fulfilm5t4 ,t social ph5om5a dep5d on ! acts & m5tal impressions ( human be+s1 nev] c\ld h be5 a matt] ( any d\bt1 h[ev] imp]fectly x may h be5 kn[n ei!r by :at laws ^? impressions & actions are gov]n$1 or to :at social consequ5ces _! laws naturally lead4 ,nei!r1 aga91 aft] physical sci5ce _h atta9$ a c]ta9 developm5t1 c\ld !re be any real d\bt :]e to look = ! laws on :i* ! ph5om5a ( life dep5d1 s9ce !y mu/ be ! me*anical & *emical laws ( ! solid & fluid sub/ances compos+ ! organis$ body & ! m$ium 9 :i* x subsi/s1 toge!r ) ! peculi> vital laws ( ! diff]5t tissues con/itut+ ! organic /ructure4 ,9 o!r cases1 really f> m simple ?an ^!1 x 0 mu* less obvi\s 9 :at qu>t] ! causes 7 to be look$ =3 z 9 ! case ( ! cele/ial ph5om5a4 ,until1 by comb9+ ! laws ( c]ta9 causes1 x 0 f\nd t ^? laws expla9$ all ! facts :i* exp]i5ce _h prov$ conc]n+ ! heav5ly motions1 & l$ to pr$ictions :i* x always v]ifi$1 mank9d nev] knew t ^? 7 ! causes4 ,b :e!r we are able to put ! "q be=e1 or n until aft]1 we h become capable ( answ]+ x1 9 ei!r case x mu/ be answ]$2 ! laws ( ! diff]5t causes mu/ be asc]ta9$1 be=e we c proce$ to d$uce f !m ! conditions ( ! effect4 ,! mode ( asc]ta9+ ^? laws nei!r is1 nor c be1 any o!r ?an ! f\rfold me?od ( exp]im5tal inquiry1 already discuss$4 ,a few rem>ks on ! application ( t me?od to cases ( ! ,composition ( ,causes1 are all t is requisite4 ,x is obvi\s t we _c expect to f9d ! law ( a t5d5cy1 by an induction f cases 9 :i* ! t5d5cy is c\nt]act$4 ,! laws ( motion c\ld nev] h be5 br\ght to light f ! obs]vation ( bodies kept at re/ by ! equilibrium ( oppos+ =ces4 ,ev5 :]e ! t5d5cy is n1 9 ! ord9>y s5se ( ! ^w1 c\nt]act$1 b only modifi$1 by hav+ its effects comp\nd$ ) ! effects aris+ f "s o!r t5d5cy or t5d5cies1 we are /ill 9 an unfav\rable position = trac+1 by means ( su* cases1 ! law ( ! t5d5cy itself4 ,x w\ld h be5 difficult to discov] ! law t e body 9 motion t5ds to cont9ue mov+ 9 a /raight l9e1 by an induction f in/ances 9 :i* ! motion is deflect$ into a curve1 by be+ comp\nd$ ) ! effect ( an accel]at+ =ce4 ,not)/&+ ! res\rces af=d$ 9 ?is description ( cases by ! ,me?od ( ,concomitant ,v>iations1 ! pr9ciples ( a judici\s exp]im5tation prescribe t ! law ( ea* ( ! t5d5cies %\ld be /udi$1 if possible1 9 cases 9 :i* t t5d5cy op]ates alone1 or 9 comb9ation ) no ag5cies b ^? ( :i* ! effect c1 f previ\s k1 be calculat$ & all[$ =4 ,accord+ly1 9 ! cases1 un=tunately v num]\s & important1 9 :i* ! causes d n suff] !mselves to be sep>at$ & obs]v$ ap>t1 !re is mu* difficulty 9 lay+ d[n ) due c]ta9ty ! inductive f\ndation necess>y to support ! d$uctive me?od4 ,?is difficulty is mo/ ( all conspicu\s 9 ! case ( physiological ph5om5a2 x be+ impossible to sep>ate ! diff]5t ag5cies :i* collectively compose an organis$ body1 )\t de/roy+ ! v ph5om5a :i* x is our object to inve/igate3 foll[+ life1 9 creatures we dissect1 ,we lose x1 9 ! mom5t we detect4 ,& = ?is reason ,i am incl9$ to ! op9ion1 t physiology is emb>rass$ by great] natural difficulties1 & is probably susceptible ( a less degree ( ultimate p]fection1 ?an ev5 ! social sci5ce2 inasmu* z x is possible to /udy ! laws & op]ations ( "o human m9d ap>t f o!r m9ds1 mu* less imp]fectly ?an we c /udy ! laws ( "o organ or tissue ( ! human body ap>t f ! o!r organs or tissues4 ,x has be5 judici\sly rem>k$ t pa?ological facts1 or1 to speak 9 common language1 diseases 9 _! diff]5t =ms & degrees1 af=d 9 ! case ( physiological inve/igation ! mo/ available equival5t to exp]im5tation prop]ly s call$2 inasmu* z !y (t5 exhibit to u a def9ite di/urbance 9 "s "o organ or organic function1 ! rema9+ organs & functions be+1 9 ! fir/ in/ance at lea/1 unaffect$4 ,x is true t f ! p]petual actions & reactions :i* are go+ on among all p>ts ( ! organic economy1 !re c be no prolong$ di/urbance 9 any "o function )\t ultimately involv+ _m ( ! o!rs2 & :5 once x has done s1 ! exp]im5t = ! mo/ "p loses its sci5tific value4 ,all dep5ds on obs]v+ ! e>ly /ages ( ! d]angem5t2 :i*1 un=tunately1 are ( necessity ! lea/ m>k$4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! organs & functions n di/urb$ 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 become affect$ 9 a fix$ ord] ( succession1 "s light is !reby ?r[n ^u ! action :i* "o organ ex]cises ov] ano!r2 & we occasionally obta9 a s]ies ( effects :i* we c ref] ) "s confid5ce to ! orig9al local d]angem5t2 b = ?is x is necess>y t we %\ld "k t ! orig9al d]angem5t 0 local4 ,if x 0 :at is t]m$ con/itutional1 t is1 if we d n "k 9 :at "p ( ! animal economy x took its rise1 or ! precise nature ( ! di/urbance :i* took place 9 t "p1 we are unable to det]m9e :i* ( ! v>i\s d]angem5ts 0 cause & :i* effect2 :i* ( !m 7 produc$ by "o ano!r1 & :i* by ! direct1 ?\gh p]haps t>dy1 action ( ! orig9al cause4 ,besides natural pa?ological facts1 we c produce pa?ological facts artificially2 we c try exp]im5ts1 ev5 9 ! popul> s5se ( ! t]m1 by subject+ ! liv+ be+ to "s ext]nal ag5t1 su* z ! m]cury ( our =m] example4 ,z ?is exp]im5tation is n int5d$ to obta9 a direct solution ( any practical "q1 b to discov] g5]al laws1 f :i* aft]w>ds ! conditions ( any p>ticul> effect may be obta9$ by d$uction2 ! be/ cases to select are ^? ( :i* ! circum/ances c be be/ asc]ta9$3 & su* are g5]ally n ^? 9 :i* !re is any practical object 9 view4 ,! exp]im5ts are be/ tri$1 n 9 a /ate ( disease1 :i* is ess5tially a *angeable /ate1 b 9 ! condition ( heal?1 comp>atively a fix$ /ate4 ,9 ! "o1 unusual ag5cies are at "w1 ! results ( :i* we h no means ( pr$ict+2 9 ! o!r1 ! c\rse ( ! accu/om$ physiological ph5om5a w\ld1 x may g5]ally be presum$1 rema9 undi/urb$1 7 x n = ! di/urb+ cause :i* we introduce4 ,su*1 ) ! occasional aid ( ! me?od ( ,concomitant ,v>iations1 7! latt] n less encumb]$ ?an ! m elem5t>y me?ods by ! peculi> difficulties ( ! subject17 are our inductive res\rces = asc]ta9+ ! laws ( ! causes consid]$ sep>ately1 :5 we h x n 9 our p[] to make trial ( !m 9 a /ate ( actual sep>ation4 ,! insuffici5cy ( ^! res\rces is s gl>+1 t no "o c be surpris$ at ! backw>d /ate ( ! sci5ce ( physiology2 9 :i* inde$ our k ( causes is s imp]fect1 t we c nei!r expla91 nor c\ld )\t specific exp]i5ce h pr$ict$1 _m ( ! facts :i* are c]tifi$ to u by ! mo/ ord9>y obs]vation4 ,=tunately1 we are mu* bett] in=m$ z to ! empirical laws ( ! ph5om5a1 t is1 ! uni=mities respect+ :i* we _c yet decide :e!r !y are cases ( causation or m]e results ( x4 ,n only has ! ord] 9 :i* ! facts ( organization & life successively manife/ !mselves1 f ! fir/ g]m ( exi/5ce to dea?1 be5 f\nd to be uni=m1 & v accurately asc]ta9able2 b1 by a great application ( ! ,me?od ( ,concomitant ,v>iations to ! entire facts ( comp>ative anatomy & physiology1 ! conditions ( organic /ructure correspond+ to ea* class ( functions h be5 det]m9$ ) consid]able precision4 ,:e!r ^! organic conditions are ! :ole ( ! conditions1 & inde$ :e!r !y are conditions at all1 or m]e collat]al effects ( "s common cause1 we are q ignorant3 nor are we ev] likely to "k1 unless we c\ld con/ruct an organiz$ body1 & try :e!r x w\ld live4 ,"u su* disadvantages d we1 9 cases ( ?is description1 attempt ! initial1 or inductive /ep1 9 ! application ( ! ,d$uctive ,me?od to complex ph5om5a4 ,b su*1 =tunately1 is n ! common case4 ,9 g5]al1 ! laws ( ! causes on :i* ! effect dep5ds may be obta9$ by an induction f comp>atively simple in/ances1 or1 at ! wor/1 by d$uction f ! laws ( simpl] causes s obta9$4 ,by simple in/ances are meant1 ( c\rse1 ^? 9 :i* ! action ( ea* cause 0 n int]mix$ or int]f]$ )1 or n to any great ext5t1 by o!r causes ^: laws 7 unkn[n4 ,& only :5 ! induction :i* furni%$ ! premisses to ! ,d$uctive ,me?od re/$ on su* in/ances1 has ! application ( su* a me?od to ! asc]ta9m5t ( ! laws ( a complex effect1 be5 att5d$ ) brilliant results4 #b4 ,:5 ! laws ( ! causes h be5 asc]ta9$1 & ! fir/ /age ( ! great logical op]ation n[ "u discussion satisfactorily accompli%$1 ! second "p foll[s2 t ( det]m9+1 f ! laws ( ! causes1 :at effect any giv5 comb9ation ( ^? causes w produce4 ,?is is a process ( calculation1 9 ! wid] s5se ( ! t]m2 & v (t5 involves processes ( calculation 9 ! n>r[e/ s5se4 ,x is a ratioc9ation2 & :5 our k ( ! causes is s p]fect1 z to ext5d to ! exact num]ical laws :i* !y obs]ve 9 produc+ _! effects1 ! ratioc9ation may reckon among its premisses ! !orems ( ! sci5ce ( numb]1 9 ! :ole imm5se ext5t ( t sci5ce4 ,n only are ! highe/ tru?s ( ma!matics (t5 requir$ to enable u to compute an effect1 ! num]ical law ( :i* we already "k2 b1 ev5 by ! aid ( ^? highe/ tru?s1 we c g b a little way4 ,9 s simple a case z ! common problem ( ?ree bodies gravitat+ t[>ds "o ano!r1 ) a =ce directly z _! mass & inv]sely z ! squ>e ( ! di/ance1 all ! res\rces ( ! calculus h n hi!rto suffic$ to obta9 any g5]al solution b an approximate "o4 ,9 a case a little m complex1 b /ill "o ( ! simple/ :i* arise 9 practice1 t ( ! motion ( a projectile1 ! causes :i* affect ! velocity & range 7= example7 ( a cannon-ball may be all kn[n & e/imat$2 ! =ce ( ! gunp[d]1 ! angle ( elevation1 ! d5sity ( ! air1 ! /r5g? & direction ( ! w9d2 b x is "o ( ! mo/ difficult ( ma!matical problems to comb9e all ^!1 s z to det]m9e ! effect result+ f _! collective action4 ,besides ! !orems ( numb]1 ^? ( geometry also come 9 z premisses1 :]e ! effects take place 9 space1 & involve motion & ext5sion1 z 9 me*anics1 optics1 ac\/ics1 a/ronomy4 ,b :5 ! complication increases1 & ! effects are "u ! influ5ce ( s _m & su* %ift+ causes z to give no room ei!r = fix$ numb]s1 or = /raight l9es & regul> curves1 7z 9 ! case ( physiological1 to say no?+ ( m5tal & social ph5om5a17 ! laws ( numb] & ext5sion are applicable1 if at all1 only on t l>ge scale on :i* precision ( details becomes unimportant2 & al?\gh ^! laws play a conspicu\s "p 9 ! mo/ /rik+ examples ( ! inve/igation ( nature by ! ,d$uctive ,me?od1 z = example 9 ! ,newtonian !ory ( ! cele/ial motions1 !y are by no means an indisp5sable "p ( e su* process4 ,all t is ess5tial 9 x is1 reason+ f a g5]al law to a p>ticul> case1 t is1 det]m9+ by means ( ! p>ticul> circum/ances ( t case1 :at result is requir$ 9 t in/ance to fulfil ! law4 ,?us 9 ! ,torricellian exp]im5t1 if ! fact t air has weight _h be5 previ\sly kn[n1 x w\ld h be5 easy1 )\t any num]ical data1 to d$uce f ! g5]al law ( equilibrium1 t ! m]cury w\ld /& 9 ! tube at su* a height t ! column ( m]cury w\ld exactly balance a column ( ! atmosph]e ( equal diamet]2 because1 o!rwise1 equilibrium w\ld n exi/4 ,by su* ratioc9ations f ! sep>ate laws ( ! causes1 we may1 to a c]ta9 ext5t1 succe$ 9 answ]+ ei!r ( ! foll[+ que/ions3 ,giv5 a c]ta9 comb9ation ( causes1 :at effect w foll[8 &1 ,:at comb9ation ( causes1 if x exi/$1 w\ld produce a giv5 effect8 ,9 ! "o case1 we det]m9e ! effect to be expect$ 9 any complex circum/ances ( :i* ! diff]5t elem5ts are kn[n3 9 ! o!r case we le>n1 accord+ to :at law--"u :at antec$5t conditions--a giv5 complex effect w occur4 #c4 ,b 7x may "h be ask$7 are n ! same argum5ts by :i* ! me?ods ( direct obs]vation & exp]im5t 7 set aside z illusory :5 appli$ to ! laws ( complex ph5om5a1 applicable ) equal =ce aga9/ ! ,me?od ( ,d$uction8 ,:5 9 e s+le in/ance a multitude1 (t5 an unkn[n multitude ( ag5cies1 are cla%+ & comb9+1 :at security h we t 9 our computation priori h tak5 all ^! into our reckon+8 ,h[ _m mu/ we n g5]ally be ignorant (8 ,among ^? :i* we "k1 h[ probable t "s h be5 ov]look$2 & ev5 7 all includ$1 h[ va9 ! pret5ce ( summ+ up ! effects ( _m causes1 unless we "k accurately ! num]ical law ( ea*1--a condition 9 mo/ cases n to be fulfill$2 & ev5 :5 fulfill$1 to make ! calculation transc5ds1 9 any b v simple cases1 ! utmo/ p[] ( ma!matical sci5ce ) its mo/ mod]n improvem5ts4 ,^! objections h real weight1 & w\ld be altoge!r unansw]able1 if !re 7 no te/ by :i*1 :5 we employ ! ,d$uctive ,me?od1 we might judge :e!r an error ( any ( ! above descriptions _h be5 committ$ or n4 ,su* a te/ h[ev] !re is3 & its application =ms1 "u ! "n ( ,v]ification1 ! ?ird ess5tial compon5t "p ( ! ,d$uctive ,me?od2 )\t :i* all ! results x c give h little o!r value ?an t ( guess-"w4 ,to w>rant reliance on ! g5]al conclusions arriv$ at by d$uction1 ^! conclusions mu/ be f\nd1 on c>eful comp>ison1 to accord ) ! results ( direct obs]vation :]ev] x c be _h4 ,if1 :5 we h exp]i5ce to comp>e ) !m1 ?is exp]i5ce confirms !m1 we may safely tru/ to !m 9 o!r cases ( :i* our specific exp]i5ce is yet to come4 ,b if our d$uctions h l$ to ! conclusion t f a p>ticul> comb9ation ( causes a giv5 effect w\ld result1 !n 9 all kn[n cases :]e t comb9ation c be %[n to h exi/$1 & :]e ! effect has n foll[$1 we mu/ be able to %[ 7or at lea/ to make a probable surmise7 :at fru/rat$ x3 if we _c1 ! !ory is imp]fect1 & n yet to be reli$ ^u4 ,nor is ! v]ification complete1 unless "s ( ! cases 9 :i* ! !ory is borne out by ! obs]v$ result1 are ( at lea/ equal complexity ) any o!r cases 9 :i* its application c\ld be call$ =4 ,x ne$s sc>cely be obs]v$1 t1--if direct obs]vation & collation ( in/ances h furni%$ u ) any empirical laws ( ! effect1 :e!r true 9 all obs]v$ cases or only true = ! mo/ "p1--! mo/ effectual v]ification ( :i* ! !ory c\ld be susceptible w\ld be1 t x l$ d$uctively to ^? empirical laws2 t ! uni=mities1 :e!r complete or incomplete1 :i* 7 obs]v$ to exi/ among ! ph5om5a1 7 acc\nt$ = by ! laws ( ! causes--7 su* z c\ld n b exi/ if ^? be really ! causes by :i* ! ph5om5a are produc$4 ,?us x 0 v reasonably deem$ an ess5tial requisite ( any true !ory ( ! causes ( ! cele/ial motions1 t x %\ld lead by d$uction to ,kepl]'s laws3 :i*1 accord+ly1 ! ,newtonian !ory did4 ,9 ord]1 !re=e1 to facilitate ! v]ification ( !ories obta9$ by d$uction1 x is important t z _m z possible ( ! empirical laws ( ! ph5om5a %\ld be asc]ta9$1 by a comp>ison ( in/ances1 con=mably to ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t3 z well z 7x mu/ be add$7 t ! ph5om5a !mselves %\ld be describ$1 9 ! mo/ compreh5sive z well z accurate mann] possible2 by collect+ f ! obs]vation ( p>ts1 ! simple/ possible correct expressions = ! correspond+ :oles3 z :5 ! s]ies ( ! obs]v$ places ( a planet 0 fir/ express$ by a circle1 !n by a sy/em ( epicycles1 & subsequ5tly by an ellipse4 ,x is wor? rem>k+1 t complex in/ances :i* w\ld h be5 ( no use = ! discov]y ( ! simple laws into :i* we ultimately analyse _! ph5om5a1 nev]!less1 :5 !y h s]v$ to v]ify ! analysis1 become additional evid5ce ( ! laws !mselves4 ,al?\gh we c\ld n h got at ! law f complex cases1 /ill :5 ! law1 got at o!rwise1 is f\nd to be 9 accordance ) ! result ( a complex case1 t case becomes a new exp]im5t on ! law1 & helps to confirm :at x did n assi/ to discov]4 ,x is a new trial ( ! pr9ciple 9 a diff]5t set ( circum/ances2 & occasionally s]ves to elim9ate "s circum/ance n previ\sly exclud$1 & ! exclusion ( :i* might require an exp]im5t impossible to be execut$4 ,?is 0 /rik+ly conspicu\s 9 ! example =m]ly quot$1 9 :i* ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! obs]v$ & ! calculat$ velocity ( s\nd 0 asc]ta9$ to result f ! heat extricat$ by ! cond5sation :i* takes place 9 ea* sonor\s vibration4 ,?is 0 a trial1 9 new circum/ances1 ( ! law ( ! developm5t ( heat by compression2 & x add$ mat]ially to ! pro( ( ! univ]sality ( t law4 ,accord+ly any law ( nature is deem$ to h ga9$ 9 po9t ( c]ta9ty1 by be+ f\nd to expla9 "s complex case :i* _h n previ\sly be5 ?\ght ( 9 connexion ) x2 & ?is inde$ is a consid]ation to :i* x is ! habit ( sci5tific inquir]s to atta* r too mu* value ?an too little4 ,to ! ,d$uctive ,me?od1 ?us *>act]is$ 9 its ?ree con/itu5t p>ts1 ,induction1 ,ratioc9ation1 & ,v]ification1 ! human m9d is indebt$ = its mo/ conspicu\s triumphs 9 ! inve/igation ( nature4 ,to x we owe all ! !ories by :i* va/ & complicat$ ph5om5a are embrac$ "u a few simple laws1 :i*1 consid]$ z ! laws ( ^? great ph5om5a1 c\ld nev] h be5 detect$ by _! direct /udy4 ,we may =m "s conception ( :at ! me?od has done = u1 f ! case ( ! cele/ial motions2 "o ( ! simple/ among ! great] in/ances ( ! ,composition ( ,causes1 s9ce 7except 9 a few cases n ( prim>y importance7 ea* ( ! heav5ly bodies may be consid]$1 )\t mat]ial inaccuracy1 to be nev] at "o "t influ5c$ by ! attraction ( m ?an two bodies1 ! sun & "o o!r planet or satellite1 mak+ ) ! reaction ( ! body itself1 & ! tang5tial =ce 7z ,i see no objection to call+ ! =ce g5]at$ by ! body's own motion1 & act+ 9 ! direction ( ! tang5t7#hi77 only f\r diff]5t ag5ts on ! concurr5ce ( :i* ! motions ( t body dep5d2 a mu* small] numb]1 no d\bt1 ?an t by :i* any o!r ( ! great ph5om5a ( nature is det]m9$ or modifi$4 ,yet h[ c\ld we ev] h asc]ta9$ ! comb9ation ( =ces on :i* ! motions ( ! e>? & planets are dep5d5t1 by m]ely comp>+ ! orbits1 or velocities1 ( diff]5t planets1 or ! diff]5t velocities or positions ( ! same planet8 ,not)/&+ ! regul>ity :i* manife/s itself 9 ^? motions1 9 a degree s r>e among ! effects ( a concurr5ce ( causes2 al?\gh ! p]iodical recurr5ce ( exactly ! same effect1 af=ds positive pro( t all ! comb9ations ( causes :i* occur at all1 recur p]iodically2 we %\ld n h kn[n :at ! causes 71 if ! exi/5ce ( ag5cies precisely simil> on our own e>? _h n1 =tunately1 br\ght ! causes !mselves )9 ! rea* ( exp]im5tation "u simple circum/ances4 ,z we %all h occasion to analyse1 fur!r on1 ?is great example ( ! ,me?od ( ,d$uction1 we %all n occupy any "t ) x "h1 b %all proce$ to t second>y application ( ! ,d$uctive ,me?od1 ! result ( :i* is n to prove laws ( ph5om5a1 b to expla9 !m4 ,,*apt] ,,xii4 ,,( ,,! ,,explanation ,,( ,,laws ,,( ,,nature4 #a4 ,! d$uctive op]ation by :i* we d]ive ! law ( an effect f ! laws ( ! causes1 ( :i* ! concurr5ce gives rise to x1 may be und]tak5 ei!r = ! purpose ( discov]+ ! law1 or ( expla9+ a law already discov]$4 ,! ^w explanation occurs s cont9ually & holds s important a place 9 philosophy1 t a little "t sp5t 9 fix+ ! mean+ ( x w be pr(itably employ$4 ,an individual fact is said to be expla9$1 by po9t+ out its cause1 t is1 by /at+ ! law or laws ( causation1 ( :i* its production is an in/ance4 ,?us1 a conflagration is expla9$1 :5 x is prov$ to h aris5 f a sp>k fall+ into ! mid/ ( a heap ( combu/ibles4 ,& 9 a simil> mann]1 a law or uni=mity 9 nature is said to be expla9$1 :5 ano!r law or laws are po9t$ out1 ( :i* t law itself is b a case1 & f :i* x c\ld be d$uc$4 #b4 ,!re are ?ree di/+ui%able sets ( circum/ances 9 :i* a law ( causation may be expla9$ f1 or1 z x also is (t5 express$1 resolv$ into1 o!r laws4 ,! fir/ is ! case already s fully consid]$2 an int]mixture ( laws1 produc+ a jo9t effect equal to ! sum ( ! effects ( ! causes tak5 sep>ately4 ,! law ( ! complex effects is expla9$1 by be+ resolv$ into ! sep>ate laws ( ! causes :i* contribute to x4 ,?us1 ! law ( ! motion ( a planet is resolv$ into ! law ( ! tang5tial =ce1 :i* t5ds to produce an uni=m motion 9 ! tang5t1 & ! law ( ! c5tripetal =ce1 :i* t5ds to produce an accel]at+ motion t[>ds ! sun2 ! real motion be+ a comp\nd ( ! two4 ,x is necess>y "h to rem>k1 t 9 ?is resolution ( ! law ( a complex effect1 ! laws ( :i* x is comp\nd$ are n ! only elem5ts4 ,x is resolv$ into ! laws ( ! sep>ate causes1 toge!r ) ! fact ( _! co-exi/5ce4 ,! "o is z ess5tial an +r$i5t z ! o!r2 :e!r ! object be to discov] ! law ( ! effect1 or only to expla9 x4 ,to d$uce ! laws ( ! heav5ly motions1 we require n only to "k ! law ( a rectil9eal & t ( a gravitative =ce1 b ! exi/5ce ( bo? ^! =ces 9 ! cele/ial regions1 & ev5 _! relative am\nt4 ,! complex laws ( causation are ?us resolv$ into two di/9ct k9ds ( elem5ts3 ! "o1 simpl] laws ( causation1 ! o!r 79 ! aptly select$ language ( ,dr4 ,*alm]s7 collocations2 ! collocations consi/+ 9 ! exi/5ce ( c]ta9 ag5ts or p[]s1 9 c]ta9 circum/ances ( place & "t4 ,we %all h]eaft] h occasion to return to ?is di/9ction1 & to dwell on x at su* a l5g? z disp5ses ) ! necessity ( fur!r insi/+ on x "h4 ,! fir/ mode1 !n1 ( ! explanation ( ,laws ( ,causation1 is :5 ! law ( an effect is resolv$ into ! v>i\s t5d5cies ( :i* x is ! result1 & into ! laws ( ^? t5d5cies4 #c4 ,a second case is :51 betwe5 :at seem$ ! cause & :at 0 suppos$ to be its effect1 fur!r obs]vation detects an imm$iate l9k2 a fact caus$ by ! antec$5t1 & 9 its turn caus+ ! consequ5t2 s t ! cause at fir/ assign$ is b ! remote cause1 op]at+ ?r\gh ! int]m$iate ph5om5on4 ,a seem$ ! cause ( ,c1 b x subsequ5tly appe>$ t ,a 0 only ! cause ( ,b1 & t x is ,b :i* 0 ! cause ( ,c4 ,= example3 mank9d 7 aw>e t ! act ( t\*+ an outw>d object caus$ a s5sation4 ,x 01 h[ev]1 at la/ discov]$1 t aft] we h t\*$ ! object1 & be=e we exp]i5ce ! s5sation1 "s *ange takes place 9 a k9d ( ?read call$ a n]ve1 :i* ext5ds f our outw>d organs to ! bra94 ,t\*+ ! object1 !re=e1 is only ! remote cause ( our s5sation2 t is1 n ! cause1 prop]ly speak+1 b ! cause ( ! cause2--! real cause ( ! s5sation is ! *ange 9 ! /ate ( ! n]ve4 ,future exp]i5ce may n only give u m k ?an we n[ h ( ! p>ticul> nature ( ?is *ange1 b may also int]polate ano!r l9k3 betwe5 ! contact 7= example7 ( ! object ) our outw>d organs1 & ! production ( ! *ange ( /ate 9 ! n]ve1 !re may take place "s electric ph5om5on2 or "s ph5om5on ( a nature n resembl+ ! effects ( any kn[n ag5cy4 ,hi!rto1 h[ev]1 no su* int]m$iate l9k has be5 discov]$2 & ! t\* ( ! object mu/ be consid]$1 provisionally at lea/1 z ! proximate cause ( ! affection ( ! n]ve4 ,! sequ5ce1 !re=e1 ( a s5sation ( t\* on contact ) an object1 is asc]ta9$ n to be an ultimate law2 x is resolv$1 z ! phrase is1 into two o!r laws1--! law1 t contact ) an object produces an affection ( ! n]ve2 & ! law1 t an affection ( ! n]ve produces s5sation4 ,to take ano!r example3 ! m p[]ful acids corrode or black5 organic comp\nds4 ,?is is a case ( causation1 b ( remote causation2 & is said to be expla9$ :5 x is %[n t !re is an int]m$iate l9k1 namely1 ! sep>ation ( "s ( ! *emical elem5ts ( ! organic /ructure f ! re/1 & _! ent]+ into comb9ation ) ! acid4 ,! acid causes ?is sep>ation ( ! elem5ts1 & ! sep>ation ( ! elem5ts causes ! disorganization1 & (t5 ! *>r+ ( ! /ructure4 ,s1 aga91 *lor9e extracts col\r+ matt]s1 7:5ce its efficacy 9 blea*+17 & purifies ! air f infection4 ,?is law is resolv$ into ! two foll[+ laws4 ,*lor9e has a p[]ful aff9ity = bases ( all k9ds1 p>ticul>ly metallic bases & hydrog54 ,su* bases are ess5tial elem5ts ( col\r+ matt]s & contagi\s comp\nds3 :i* sub/ances1 !re=e1 are decompos$ & de/roy$ by *lor9e4 #d4 ,x is ( importance to rem>k1 t :5 a sequ5ce ( ph5om5a is ?us resolv$ into o!r laws1 !y are always laws m g5]al ?an itself4 ,! law t ,a is foll[$ by ,c1 is less g5]al ?an ei!r ( ! laws :i* connect ,b ) ,c & ,a ) ,b4 ,?is w appe> f v simple consid]ations4 ,all laws ( causation are liable to be c\nt]act$ or fru/rat$1 by ! non-fulfilm5t ( "s negative condition3 ! t5d5cy1 !re=e1 ( ,b to produce ,c may be defeat$4 ,n[ ! law t ,a produces ,b1 is equally fulfill$ :e!r ,b is foll[$ by ,c or n2 b ! law t ,a produces ,c by means ( ,b1 is ( c\rse only fulfill$ :5 ,b is really foll[$ by ,c1 & is !re=e less g5]al ?an ! law t ,a produces ,b4 ,x is also less g5]al ?an ! law t ,b produces ,c4 ,= ,b may h o!r causes besides ,a2 & z ,a produces ,c only by means ( ,b1 :ile ,b produces ,c :e!r x has itself be5 produc$ by ,a or by any?+ else1 ! second law embraces a great] numb] ( in/ances1 cov]s z x 7 a great] space ( gr\nd1 ?an ! fir/4 ,?us1 9 our =m] example1 ! law t ! contact ( an object causes a *ange 9 ! /ate ( ! n]ve1 is m g5]al ?an ! law t contact ) an object causes s5sation1 s9ce1 = aught we "k1 ! *ange 9 ! n]ve may equally take place :51 f a c\nt]act+ cause1 z = in/ance1 /rong m5tal excitem5t1 ! s5sation does n foll[2 z 9 a battle1 :]e w\nds are (t5 receiv$ )\t any consci\sness ( receiv+ !m4 ,& aga91 ! law t *ange 9 ! /ate ( a n]ve produces s5sation1 is m g5]al ?an ! law t contact ) an object produces s5sation2 s9ce ! s5sation equally foll[s ! *ange 9 ! n]ve :5 n produc$ by contact ) an object1 b by "s o!r cause2 z 9 ! well-kn[n case1 :5 a p]son :o has lo/ a limb feels ! same s5sation :i* he has be5 accu/om$ to call a pa9 9 ! limb4 ,n only are ! laws ( m imm$iate sequ5ce into :i* ! law ( a remote sequ5ce is resolv$1 laws ( great] g5]ality ?an t law is1 b 7z a consequ5ce (1 or r z impli$ 91 _! great] g5]ality7 !y are m to be reli$ on2 !re are few] *ances ( _! be+ ultimately f\nd n to be univ]sally true4 ,f ! mom5t :5 ! sequ5ce ( ,a & ,c is %[n n to be imm$iate1 b to dep5d on an int]v5+ ph5om5on1 !n1 h[ev] con/ant & inv>iable ! sequ5ce ( ,a & ,c has hi!rto be5 f\nd1 possibilities arise ( its failure1 exce$+ ^? :i* c affect ei!r ( ! m imm$iate sequ5ces1 ,a1 ,b1 & ,b1 ,c4 ,! t5d5cy ( ,a to produce ,c may be defeat$ by :atev] is capable ( defeat+ ei!r ! t5d5cy ( ,a to produce ,b1 or ! t5d5cy ( ,b to produce ,c2 x is !re=e twice z liable to failure z ei!r ( ^? m elem5t>y t5d5cies2 & ! g5]alization t ,a is always foll[$ by ,c1 is twice z likely to be f\nd errone\s4 ,& s ( ! conv]se g5]alization1 t ,c is always prec$$ & caus$ by ,a2 :i* w be errone\s n only if !re %\ld happ5 to be a second imm$iate mode ( production ( ,c itself1 b moreov] if !re be a second mode ( production ( ,b1 ! imm$iate antec$5t ( ,c 9 ! sequ5ce4 ,! resolution ( ! "o g5]alization into ! o!r two1 n only %[s t !re are possible limitations ( ! =m]1 f :i* its two elem5ts are exempt1 b %[s also :]e ^! are to be look$ =4 ,z soon z we "k t ,b int]v5es betwe5 ,a & ,c1 we also "k t if !re be cases 9 :i* ! sequ5ce ( ,a & ,c does n hold1 ^! are mo/ likely to be f\nd by /udy+ ! effects or ! conditions ( ! ph5om5on ,b4 ,x appe>s1 !n1 t 9 ! second ( ! ?ree modes 9 :i* a law may be resolv$ into o!r laws1 ! latt] are m g5]al1 t is1 ext5d to m cases1 & are also less likely to require limitation f subsequ5t exp]i5ce1 ?an ! law :i* !y s]ve to expla94 ,!y are m ne>ly unconditional2 !y are defeat$ by few] cont+5cies2 !y are a ne>] approa* to ! univ]sal tru? ( nature4 ,! same obs]vations are /ill m evid5tly true ) reg>d to ! fir/ ( ! ?ree modes ( resolution4 ,:5 ! law ( an effect ( comb9$ causes is resolv$ into ! sep>ate laws ( ! causes1 ! nature ( ! case implies t ! law ( ! effect is less g5]al ?an ! law ( any ( ! causes1 s9ce x only holds :5 !y are comb9$2 :ile ! law ( any "o ( ! causes holds good bo? !n1 & also :5 t cause acts ap>t f ! re/4 ,x is also manife/ t ! complex law is liable to be (t5] unfulfill$ ?an any "o ( ! simpl] laws ( :i* x is ! result1 s9ce e cont+5cy :i* defeats any ( ! laws prev5ts s mu* ( ! effect z dep5ds on x1 & !reby defeats ! complex law4 ,! m]e ru/+1 = example1 ( "s small "p ( a great ma*9e1 (t5 suffices entirely to prev5t ! effect :i* ought to result f ! jo9t action ( all ! p>ts4 ,! law ( ! effect ( a comb9ation ( causes is always subject to ! :ole ( ! negative conditions :i* atta* to ! action ( all ! causes sev]ally4 ,!re is ano!r & a /ill /rong] reason :y ! law ( a complex effect mu/ be less g5]al ?an ! laws ( ! causes :i* conspire to produce x4 ,! same causes1 act+ accord+ to ! same laws1 & diff]+ only 9 ! proportions 9 :i* !y are comb9$1 (t5 produce effects :i* diff] n m]ely 9 quantity1 b 9 k9d4 ,! comb9ation ( a c5tripetal ) a projectile =ce1 9 ! proportions :i* obta9 9 all ! planets & satellites ( our sol> sy/em1 gives rise to an elliptical motion2 b if ! ratio ( ! two =ces to ea* o!r 7 slightly alt]$1 x is demon/rable t ! motion produc$ w\ld be 9 a circle1 or a p>abola1 or an hyp]bola3 & x has be5 surmis$ t 9 ! case ( "s comets "o ( ^! is really ! fact4 ,yet ! law ( ! p>abolic motion w\ld be resolvable into ! v same simple laws into :i* t ( ! elliptical motion is revolv$1 namely1 ! law ( ! p]man5ce ( rectil9eal motion1 & ! law ( gravitation4 ,if1 !re=e1 9 ! c\rse ( ages1 "s circum/ance 7 to manife/ itself :i*1 )\t defeat+ ! law ( ei!r ( ^? =ces1 %\ld m]ely alt] _! proportion to "o ano!r1 7su* z ! %ock ( a comet1 or ev5 ! accumulat+ effect ( ! resi/ance ( ! m$ium 9 :i* a/ronom]s h be5 l$ to surmise t ! motions ( ! heav5ly bodies take place27 ! elliptical motion might be *ang$ into a motion 9 "s o!r conic section2 & ! complex law1 t ! heav5ly motions take place 9 ellipses1 w\ld be depriv$ ( its univ]sality1 ?\gh ! discov]y w\ld n at all detract f ! univ]sality ( ! simpl] laws into :i* t complex law is resolv$4 ,! law1 9 %ort1 ( ea* ( ! concurr5t causes rema9s ! same1 h[ev] _! collocations may v>y2 b ! law ( _! jo9t effect v>ies ) e diff]5ce 9 ! collocations4 ,!re ne$s no m to %[ h[ mu* m g5]al ! elem5t>y laws mu/ be1 ?an any ( ! complex laws :i* are d]iv$ f !m4 #e4 ,besides ! two modes :i* h be5 treat$ (1 !re is a ?ird mode 9 :i* laws are resolv$ into "o ano!r2 & 9 ?is x is self-evid5t t !y are resolv$ into laws m g5]al ?an !mselves4 ,?is ?ird mode is ! subsumption 7z x has be5 call$7 ( "o law "u ano!r3 or 7:at comes to ! same ?+7 ! ga!r+ up ( sev]al laws into "o m g5]al law :i* includes !m all4 ,! mo/ spl5did example ( ?is op]ation 0 :5 t]re/rial gravity & ! c5tral =ce ( ! sol> sy/em 7 br\ght toge!r "u ! g5]al law ( gravitation4 ,x _h be5 prov$ antec$5tly t ! e>? & ! o!r planets t5d to ! sun2 & x _h be5 kn[n f ! e>lie/ times t t]re/rial bodies t5d t[>ds ! e>?4 ,^! 7 simil> ph5om5a2 & to enable !m bo? to be subsum$ "u "o law1 x 0 only necess>y to prove t1 z ! effects 7 simil> 9 quality1 s also !y1 z to quantity1 con=m to ! same rules4 ,?is 0 fir/ %[n to be true ( ! moon1 :i* agre$ ) t]re/rial objects n only 9 t5d+ to a c5tre1 b 9 ! fact t ?is c5tre 0 ! e>?4 ,! t5d5cy ( ! moon t[>ds ! e>? be+ asc]ta9$ to v>y z ! inv]se squ>e ( ! di/ance1 x 0 d$uc$ f ?is1 by direct calculation1 t if ! moon 7 z ne> to ! e>? z t]re/rial objects are1 & ! tang5tial =ce 7 susp5d$1 ! moon w\ld fall t[>ds ! e>? ?r\gh exactly z _m feet 9 a second z ^? objects d by virtue ( _! weight4 ,h5ce ! inf]5ce 0 irresi/ible1 t ! moon also t5ds to ! e>? by virtue ( its weight3 & t ! two ph5om5a1 ! t5d5cy ( ! moon to ! e>? & ! t5d5cy ( t]re/rial objects to ! e>?1 be+ n only simil> 9 quality1 b1 :5 9 ! same circum/ances1 id5tical 9 quantity1 are cases ( "o & ! same law ( causation4 ,b ! t5d5cy ( ! moon to ! e>? & ! t5d5cy ( ! e>? & planets to ! sun1 7 already kn[n to be cases ( ! same law ( causation3 & ?us ! law ( all ^! t5d5cies1 & ! law ( t]re/rial gravity1 7 recogniz$ z id5tical1 or 9 o!r words1 7 subsum$ "u "o g5]al law1 t ( gravitation4 ,9 a simil> mann]1 ! laws ( magnetic ph5om5a h rec5tly be5 subsum$ "u kn[n laws ( electricity4 ,x is ?us t ! mo/ g5]al laws ( nature are usually arriv$ at3 we m\nt to !m by successive /eps4 ,=1 to arrive by correct induction at laws :i* hold "u su* an imm5se v>iety ( circum/ances1 laws s g5]al z to be indep5d5t ( any v>ieties ( space or "t :i* we are able to obs]ve1 requires = ! mo/ "p _m di/9ct sets ( exp]im5ts or obs]vations1 conduct$ at diff]5t times & by diff]5t p4 ,"o "p ( ! law is fir/ asc]ta9$1 aft]w>ds ano!r "p3 "o set ( obs]vations tea*es u t ! law holds good "u "s conditions1 ano!r t x holds good "u o!r conditions1 by comb9+ :i* obs]vations we f9d t x holds good "u conditions mu* m g5]al1 or ev5 univ]sally4 ,! g5]al law1 9 ?is case1 is lit]ally ! sum ( all ! p>tial ones2 x is ! recognition ( ! same sequ5ce 9 diff]5t sets ( in/ances2 & may1 9 fact1 be reg>d$ z m]ely "o /ep 9 ! process ( elim9ation4 ,t t5d5cy ( bodies t[>ds "o ano!r1 :i* we n[ call gravity1 _h at fir/ be5 obs]v$ only on ! e>?'s surface1 :]e x manife/$ itself only z a t5d5cy ( all bodies t[>ds ! e>?1 & might1 !re=e1 be ascrib$ to a peculi> prop]ty ( ! e>? itself3 "o ( ! circum/ances1 namely1 ! proximity ( ! e>?1 _h n be5 elim9at$4 ,to elim9ate ?is circum/ance requir$ a fre% set ( in/ances 9 o!r p>ts ( ! univ]se3 ^! we c\ld n ourselves create2 & ?\gh nature _h creat$ !m = u1 we 7 plac$ 9 v unfav\rable circum/ances = obs]v+ !m4 ,to make ^! obs]vations1 fell naturally to ! lot ( a diff]5t set ( p]sons f ^? :o /udi$ t]re/rial ph5om5a1 & _h1 inde$1 be5 a matt] ( great int]e/ at a "t :5 ! idea ( expla9+ cele/ial facts by t]re/rial laws 0 look$ ^u z ! conf\nd+ ( an indefeasible di/9ction4 ,:51 h[ev]1 ! cele/ial motions 7 accurately asc]ta9$1 & ! d$uctive processes p]=m$ f :i* x appe>$ t _! laws & ^? ( t]re/rial gravity correspond$1 ^? cele/ial obs]vations became a set ( in/ances :i* exactly elim9at$ ! circum/ance ( proximity to ! e>?2 & prov$ t 9 ! orig9al case1 t ( t]re/rial objects1 x 0 n ! e>?1 z su*1 t caus$ ! motion or ! pressure1 b ! circum/ance common to t case ) ! cele/ial in/ances1 namely1 ! pres5ce ( "s great body )9 c]ta9 limits ( di/ance4 #f4 ,!re are1 !n1 ?ree modes ( expla9+ laws ( causation1 or1 :i* is ! same ?+1 resolv+ !m into o!r laws4 ,fir/1 :5 ! law ( an effect ( comb9$ causes is resolv$ into ! sep>ate laws ( ! causes1 toge!r ) ! fact ( _! comb9ation4 ,secondly1 :5 ! law :i* connects any two l9ks1 n proximate1 9 a *a9 ( causation1 is resolv$ into ! laws :i* connect ea* ) ! int]m$iate l9ks4 ,bo? ( ^! are cases ( resolv+ "o law into two or m2 9 ! ?ird1 two or m are resolv$ into "o3 :51 aft] ! law has be5 %[n to hold good 9 sev]al diff]5t classes ( cases1 we decide t :at is true 9 ea* ( ^! classes ( cases1 is true "u "s m g5]al supposition1 consi/+ ( :at all ^? classes ( cases h 9 common4 ,we may "h rem>k t ?is la/ op]ation involves none ( ! unc]ta9ties att5dant on induction by ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t1 s9ce we ne$ n suppose ! result to be ext5d$ by way ( inf]5ce to any new class ( cases1 diff]5t f ^? by ! comp>ison ( :i* x 0 eng5d]$4 ,9 all ^! ?ree processes1 laws are1 z we h se51 resolv$ into laws m g5]al ?an !mselves2 laws ext5d+ to all ! cases :i* ! =m] ext5d to1 & o!rs besides4 ,9 ! fir/ two modes !y are also resolv$ into laws m c]ta91 9 o!r words1 m univ]sally true ?an !mselves2 !y are1 9 fact1 prov$ n to be !mselves laws ( nature1 ! "* ( :i* is to be univ]sally true1 b results ( laws ( nature1 :i* may be only true conditionally1 & = ! mo/ "p4 ,no diff]5ce ( ?is sort exi/s 9 ! ?ird case2 s9ce "h ! p>tial laws are1 9 fact1 ! v same law z ! g5]al "o1 & any exception to !m w\ld be an exception to x too4 ,by all ! ?ree processes1 ! range ( d$uctive sci5ce is ext5d$2 s9ce ! laws1 ?us resolv$1 may be !nce=? d$uc$ demon/ratively f ! laws into :i* !y are resolv$4 ,z already rem>k$1 ! same d$uctive process :i* proves a law or fact ( causation if unkn[n1 s]ves to expla9 x :5 kn[n4 ,! ^w explanation is "h us$ 9 its philosophical s5se4 ,:at is call$ expla9+ "o law ( nature by ano!r1 is b sub/itut+ "o my/]y = ano!r2 & does no?+ to r5d] ! g5]al c\rse ( nature o!r ?an my/]i\s3 we c no m assign a :y = ! m ext5sive laws ?an = ! p>tial ones4 ,! explanation may sub/itute a my/]y :i* has become famili>1 & has gr[n to seem n my/]i\s1 = "o :i* is /ill /range4 ,& ?is is ! mean+ ( explanation1 9 common p>lance4 ,b ! process ) :i* we are "h conc]n$ (t5 does ! v contr>y3 x resolves a ph5om5on ) :i* we are famili>1 into "o ( :i* we previ\sly knew little or no?+2 z :5 ! common fact ( ! fall ( heavy bodies is resolv$ into a t5d5cy ( all p>ticles ( matt] t[>ds "o ano!r4 ,x mu/ be kept con/antly 9 view1 !re=e1 t 9 sci5ce1 ^? :o speak ( expla9+ any ph5om5on mean 7or %\ld mean7 po9t+ out n "s m famili>1 b m]ely "s m g5]al1 ph5om5on1 ( :i* x is a p>tial exemplification2 or "s laws ( causation :i* produce x by _! jo9t or successive action1 & f :i*1 !re=e1 its conditions may be det]m9$ d$uctively4 ,e su* op]ation br+s u a /ep ne>] t[>ds answ]+ ! "q :i* 0 /at$ 9 a previ\s *apt] z compreh5d+ ! :ole problem ( ! inve/igation ( nature1 viz4 ,:at are ! fewe/ assumptions1 :i* be+ grant$1 ! ord] ( nature z x exi/s w\ld be ! result8 ,:at are ! fewe/ g5]al propositions f :i* all ! uni=mities exi/+ 9 nature c\ld be d$uc$8 ,! laws1 ?us expla9$ or resolv$1 are sometimes said to be acc\nt$ =2 b ! expression is incorrect1 if tak5 to mean any?+ m ?an :at has be5 already /at$4 ,9 m9ds n habituat$ to accurate ?9k+1 !re is (t5 a confus$ notion t ! g5]al laws are ! causes ( ! p>tial ones2 t ! law ( g5]al gravitation1 = example1 causes ! ph5om5on ( ! fall ( bodies to ! e>?4 ,b to ass]t ?is1 w\ld be a misuse ( ! ^w cause3 t]re/rial gravity is n an effect ( g5]al gravitation1 b a case ( x2 t is1 "o k9d ( ! p>ticul> in/ances 9 :i* t g5]al law obta9s4 ,to acc\nt = a law ( nature means1 & c mean1 no?+ m ?an to assign o!r laws m g5]al1 toge!r ) collocations1 :i* laws & collocations be+ suppos$1 ! p>tial law foll[s )\t any additional supposition4 ,,*apt] ,,xiii4 ,,miscellane\s ,,examples ,,( ,,! ,,explanation ,,( ,,laws ,,( ,,nature4 #a4 ,"s ( ! mo/ rem>kable in/ances :i* h occurr$ s9ce ! great ,newtonian g5]alization1 ( ! explanation ( laws ( causation subsi/+ among complex ph5om5a1 by resolv+ !m into simpl] & m g5]al laws1 are to be f\nd among ! speculations ( ,liebig 9 organic *emi/ry4 ,^! speculations1 ?\gh !y h n yet be5 suffici5tly long be=e ! _w to entitle u positively to assume t no well-gr\nd$ objection c be made to any "p ( !m1 af=d1 h[ev]1 s admirable an example ( ! _s ( ! ,d$uctive ,me?od1 t ,i may be p]mitt$ to pres5t "s specim5s ( !m "h4 ,x _h be5 obs]v$ 9 c]ta9 cases1 t *emical action is1 z x 71 contagi\s2 t is to say1 a sub/ance :i* w\ld n ( itself yield to a p>ticul> *emical attraction1 7! =ce ( ! attraction n be+ suffici5t to ov]come cohesion1 or to de/roy "s *emical comb9ation 9 :i* ! sub/ance 0 already held71 w nev]!less d s if plac$ 9 contact ) "s o!r body :i* is 9 ! act ( yield+ to ! same =ce4 ,nitric acid1 = example1 does n dissolve pure plat9um1 :i* may 8be boil$ ) ?is acid )\t be+ oxidiz$ by x1 ev5 :5 9 a /ate ( su* f9e division t x no long] reflects light40 ,b ! same acid easily dissolves silv]4 ,n[ if an alloy ( silv] & plat9um be treat$ ) nitric acid1 ! acid does n1 z might naturally be expect$1 sep>ate ! two metals1 dissolv+ ! silv]1 & leav+ ! plat9um2 x dissolves bo?3 ! plat9um z well z ! silv] becomes oxidiz$1 & 9 t /ate comb9es ) ! undecompos$ portion ( ! acid4 ,9 l mann]1 8copp] does n decompose wat]1 ev5 :5 boil$ 9 dilute sulphuric acid2 b an alloy ( copp]1 z9c1 & nickel1 dissolves easily 9 ?is acid ) evolution ( hydrog5 gas40 ,^! ph5om5a _c be expla9$ by ! laws ( :at is t]m$ *emical aff9ity4 ,!y po9t to a peculi> law1 by :i* ! oxidation :i* "o body suff]s1 causes ano!r1 9 contact ) x1 to submit to ! same *ange4 ,& n only *emical composition1 b *emical decomposition1 is capable ( be+ simil>ly propagat$4 ,! p]oxide ( hydrog51 a comp\nd =m$ by hydrog5 ) a great] am\nt ( oxyg5 ?an ! quantity necess>y to =m wat]1 is held toge!r by a *emical attraction ( s weak a nature1 t ! slighte/ circum/ance is suffici5t to decompose x2 & x ev51 ?\gh v sl[ly1 gives (f oxyg5 & is r$uc$ to wat] spontane\sly 7be+1 ,i presume1 decompos$ by ! t5d5cy ( its oxyg5 to absorb heat & assume ! gase\s /ate74 ,n[ x has be5 obs]v$1 t if ?is decomposition ( ! p]oxide ( hydrog5 takes place 9 contact ) "s metallic oxides1 z ^? ( silv]1 & ! p]oxides ( lead & manganese1 x sup]9duces a correspond+ *emical action ^u ^? sub/ances2 !y also give =? ! :ole or a portion ( _! oxyg51 & are r$uc$ to ! metal or to ! protoxide2 al?\gh !y d n und]go ?is *ange spontane\sly1 & !re is no *emical aff9ity at "w to make !m d s4 ,o!r simil> ph5om5a are m5tion$ by ,liebig4 8,n[ no o!r explanation10 he obs]ves1 8( ^! ph5om5a c be giv51 ?an t a body 9 ! act ( comb9ation or decomposition enables ano!r body1 ) :i* x is 9 contact1 to ent] into ! same /ate40 ,"h1 !re=e1 is a law ( nature ( great simplicity1 b :i*1 ow+ to ! extremely special & limit$ "* ( ! ph5om5a 9 :i* alone x c be detect$ exp]im5tally1 7because 9 !m alone its results are n int]mix$ & bl5d$ ) ^? ( o!r laws17 _h be5 v little recognis$ by *emi/s1 & no "o c\ld h v5tur$1 on exp]im5tal evid5ce1 to affirm x z a law common to all *emical action2 ow+ to ! impossibility ( a rigor\s employm5t ( ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce :]e ! prop]ties ( diff]5t k9ds ( sub/ance are involv$1 an impossibility :i* we notic$ & *>act]iz$ 9 a previ\s *apt]47#ij7 ,n[ ?is extremely special & app>5tly prec>i\s g5]alization has1 9 ! h&s ( ,liebig1 be5 conv]t$1 by a ma/]ly employm5t ( ! ,d$uctive ,me?od1 into a law p]vad+ all nature1 9 ! same way z gravitation assum$ t "* 9 ! h&s ( ,newton2 & has be5 f\nd to expla91 9 ! mo/ unexpect$ mann]1 num]\s deta*$ g5]alizations ( a m limit$ k9d1 r$uc+ ! ph5om5a conc]n$ 9 ^? g5]alizations into m]e cases ( itself4 ,! contagi\s influ5ce ( *emical action is n a p[]ful =ce1 & is only capable ( ov]com+ weak aff9ities3 we1 may1 !re=e1 expect to f9d x pr9cipally exemplifi$ 9 ! decomposition ( sub/ances :i* are held toge!r by weak *emical =ces4 ,n[ ! =ce :i* holds a comp\nd sub/ance toge!r is g5]ally weak]1 ! m comp\nd ! sub/ance is2 & organic products are ! mo/ comp\nd sub/ances kn[n1 ^? :i* h ! mo/ complex atomic con/itution4 ,x is1 !re=e1 ^u su* sub/ances t ! self-propagat+ p[] ( *emical action is likely to ex]t itself 9 ! mo/ m>k$ mann]4 ,accord+ly1 fir/1 x expla9s ! rem>kable laws ( f]m5tation1 & "s ( ^? ( putrefaction4 8,a little leav510 t is1 d\gh 9 a c]ta9 /ate ( *emical action1 impresses a simil> *emical action ^u 8! :ole lump40 ,! contact ( any decay+ sub/ance1 occasions ! decay ( matt] previ\sly s\nd4 ,aga91 yea/ is a sub/ance actually 9 a process ( decomposition f ! action ( air & wat]1 evolv+ c>bonic acid gas4 ,sug> is a sub/ance :i*1 f ! complexity ( its composition1 has no great en]gy ( coh]5ce 9 its exi/+ =m1 & is capable ( be+ easily conv]t$ 7by comb9ation ) ! elem5ts ( wat]7 into c>bonic acid & alcohol4 ,n[ ! m]e pres5ce ( yea/1 ! m]e proximity ( a sub/ance ( :i* ! elem5ts are sep>at+ f ea* o!r1 & comb9+ ) ! elem5ts ( wat]1 causes sug> to und]go ! same *ange1 giv+ out c>bonic acid gas1 & becom+ alcohol4 ,x is n ! elem5ts conta9$ 9 ! yea/ :i* d ?is4 8,an aque\s infusion ( yea/ may be mix$ ) a solution ( sug>1 & pres]v$ 9 vessels f :i* ! air is exclud$1 )\t ei!r exp]i5c+ ! slighte/ *ange40 ,nei!r does ! insoluble residue ( ! yea/1 aft] be+ treat$ ) wat]1 possess ! p[] ( excit+ f]m5tation4 7,"h we h ! me?od ( ,diff]5ce74 ,x is n ! yea/ itself1 !re=e2 x is ! yea/ 9 a /ate ( decomposition4 ,! sug>1 :i* w\ld n decompose & oxidize by ! m]e pres5ce ( oxyg5 & wat]1 is induc$ to d s :5 ano!r oxidation is at "w 9 ! mid/ ( x4 ,by ! same pr9ciple ,liebig is enabl$ to expla9 _m cases ( mal>ia2 ! p]nici\s influ5ce ( putrid sub/ances2 a v>iety ( poisons2 contagi\s diseases2 & o!r ph5om5a4 ,( all sub/ances1 ^? compos+ ! animal body are ! mo/ complex 9 _! composition1 & are 9 ! lea/ /able condition ( union4 ,! blood1 9 p>ticul>1 is ! mo/ un/able comp\nd kn[n4 ,x is1 !re=e1 n surpris+ t gase\s or o!r sub/ances1 9 ! act ( und]go+ ! *emical *anges :i* con/itute1 = in/ance1 putrefaction1 %\ld1 :5 br\ght into contact ) ! tissues by respiration or o!rwise1 & /ill m :5 introduc$ by inoculation into ! blood itself1 impress ^u "s ( ! p>ticles a *emical action simil> to its own2 :i* is propagat$ 9 l mann] to o!r p>ticles1 until ! :ole sy/em is plac$ 9 a /ate ( *emical action m or less inconsi/5t ) ! *emical conditions ( vitality4 ,( ! ?ree modes 9 :i* we obs]v$ 9 ! la/ *apt] t ! resolution ( a special law into m g5]al ones may take place1 ?is speculation exemplifies ! second4 ,! laws expla9$ are su* z ?is1 t yea/ puts sug> into a /ate ( f]m5tation4 ,betwe5 ! remote cause1 ! pres5ce ( yea/1 & ! consequ5t f]m5tation ( ! sug>1 !re has be5 int]polat$ a proximate cause1 ! *emical action betwe5 ! p>ticles ( ! yea/ & ! elem5ts ( air & wat]4 ,! special law is ?us resolv$ into two o!rs1 m g5]al ?an itself3 ! fir/1 t yea/ is decompos$ by ! pres5ce ( air & wat]2 ! second1 t matt] und]go+ *emical action has a t5d5cy to produce simil> *emical action 9 o!r matt] 9 contact ) x4 ,b :ile ! inve/igation ?us aptly exhibits ! second mode ( ! resolution ( a complex law1 x no less happily exemplifies ! ?ird2 ! subsumption ( special laws "u a m g5]al law1 by ga!r+ !m up into "o m compreh5sive expression :i* includes !m all4 ,= ! curi\s fact ( ! contagi\s nature ( *emical action is only rais$ into a law ( all *emical action by ^! v inve/igations2 j z ! ,newtonian attraction 0 only recognis$ z a law ( all matt] :5 x 0 f\nd to expla9 ! ph5om5a ( t]re/rial gravity4 ,previ\sly to ,liebig's inve/igations1 ! prop]ty 9 "q _h only be5 obs]v$ 9 a few special cases ( *emical action2 b :5 8 d$uctive reason+s h e/abli%$ t innum]able effects produc$ ^u weak comp\nds1 by sub/ances none ( ^: kn[n peculi>ities w\ld acc\nt = _! hav+ su* a p[]1 might be expla9$ by consid]+ ! suppos$ special prop]ty to exi/ 9 all ^? cases1 ^! num]\s g5]alizations on sep>ate sub/ances are br\ght toge!r into "o law ( *emical action 9 g5]al3 ! peculi>ities ( ! v>i\s sub/ances be+1 9 fact1 elim9at$1 j z ! ,newtonian d$uction elim9at$ f ! in/ances ( t]re/rial gravity ! circum/ance ( proximity to ! e>?4 #b4 ,ano!r speculation ( ! same *emi/1 :i*1 if x %\ld ultimately be f\nd to agree ) all ! facts ( ! extremely complicat$ ph5om5on to :i* x relates1 w con/itute "o ( ! f9e/ examples ( ! ,d$uctive ,me?od on record1 is 8 !ory ( respiration4 ,! facts ( respiration1 or 9 o!r words ! special laws :i* x is attempt$ to expla9 f1 & resolve into1 m g5]al ones1 are1 t ! blood 9 pass+ ?r\gh ! lungs absorbs oxyg5 & gives out c>bonic acid gas1 *ang+ !reby its col\r f a blacki% purple to a brilliant r$4 ,! absorption & exhalation are evid5tly *emical ph5om5a2 & ! c>bon ( ! c>bonic acid mu/ h be5 d]iv$ f ! body1 t is1 mu/ h be5 absorb$ by ! blood f ! sub/ances ) :i* x came into contact 9 its passage ?r\gh ! organism4 ,requir$ to f9d ! int]m$iate l9ks--! precise nature ( ! two *emical actions :i* take place2 fir/1 ! absorption ( ! c>bon or ( ! c>bonic acid by ! blood1 9 its circulation ?r\gh ! body2 next1 ! excretion ( ! c>bon1 or ! ex*ange ( ! c>bonic acid = oxyg51 9 its passage ?r\gh ! lungs4 ,dr4 ,liebig believes himself to h f\nd ! solution ( ?is vexata qu/io 9 a class ( *emical actions 9 :i* sc>cely any less acute & p5etrat+ inquir] w\ld h ?\ght ( look+ = x4 ,blood is compos$ ( two p>ts1 ! s]um & ! globules4 ,! s]um absorbs & holds 9 solution c>bonic acid 9 great quantity1 b has no t5d5cy ei!r to "p ) x or to absorb oxyg54 ,! globules1 !re=e1 are conclud$ to be ! portion ( ! blood :i* is op]ative 9 respiration4 ,^! globules conta9 a c]ta9 quantity ( iron1 :i* f *emical te/s is inf]r$ to be 9 ! /ate ( oxide4 ,dr4 ,liebig recognis$1 9 ! kn[n *emical prop]ties ( ! oxides ( iron1 laws :i*1 if foll[$ out d$uctively1 w\ld lead to ! pr$iction ( ! precise s]ies ( ph5om5a :i* respiration exhibits4 ,!re are two oxides ( iron1 a protoxide & a p]oxide4 ,9 ! art]ial blood ! iron is 9 ! =m ( p]oxide3 9 ! v5\s blood we h no direct evid5ce :i* ( ! oxides is pres5t1 b ! consid]ations to be pres5tly /at$ lead to ! conclusion t x is ! protoxide4 ,z art]ial & v5\s blood are 9 a p]petual /ate ( alt]nate conv]sion into "o ano!r1 ! "q arises1 9 :at circum/ances ! protoxide ( iron is capable ( be+ conv]t$ into ! p]oxide1 & vice v]s4 ,n[ ! protoxide readily comb9es ) oxyg5 9 ! pres5ce ( wat]1 =m+ ! hydrat$ p]oxide3 ^! conditions x f9ds 9 pass+ ?r\gh ! lungs2 x d]ives oxyg5 f ! air1 & f9ds wat] 9 ! blood itself4 ,?is w\ld already expla9 "o portion ( ! ph5om5a ( respiration4 ,b ! art]ial blood1 9 quitt+ ! lungs1 is *>g$ ) hydrat$ p]oxide3 9 :at mann] is ! p]oxide br\ght back to its =m] /ate8 ,! *emical conditions = ! r$uction ( ! hydrat$ p]oxide into ! /ate ( protoxide1 are precisely ^? :i* ! blood meets ) 9 circulat+ ?r\gh ! body2 namely1 contact ) organic comp\nds4 ,hydrat$ p]oxide ( iron1 :5 treat$ ) organic comp\nds 7:]e no sulphur is pres5t7 gives =? oxyg5 & wat]1 :i* oxyg51 attract+ ! c>bon f ! organic sub/ance1 becomes c>bonic acid2 :ile ! p]oxide1 be+ r$uc$ to ! /ate ( protoxide1 comb9es ) ! c>bonic acid1 & becomes a c>bonate4 ,n[ ?is c>bonate ne$s only come aga9 into contact ) oxyg5 & wat] to be decompos$2 ! c>bonic acid be+ giv5 (f1 & ! protoxide1 by ! absorption ( oxyg5 & wat]1 becom+ aga9 ! hydrat$ p]oxide4 ,! my/]i\s *emical ph5om5a connect$ ) respiration c n[1 by a beautiful d$uctive process1 be completely expla9$4 ,! art]ial blood1 conta9+ iron 9 ! =m ( hydrat$ p]oxide1 passes into ! capill>ies1 :]e x meets ) ! decay+ tissues1 receiv+ also 9 its c\rse c]ta9 non-azotis$ b highly c>bonis$ animal products1 9 p>ticul> ! bile4 ,9 ^! x f9ds ! precise conditions requir$ = decompos+ ! p]oxide into oxyg5 & ! protoxide4 ,! oxyg5 comb9es ) ! c>bon ( ! decay+ tissues1 & =ms c>bonic acid1 :i*1 ?\gh insuffici5t 9 am\nt to neutralize ! :ole ( ! protoxide1 comb9es ) a portion 7"o-f\r?7 ( x1 & returns 9 ! =m ( a c>bonate1 along ) ! o!r ?ree-f\r?s ( ! protoxide1 ?r\gh ! v5\s sy/em into ! lungs4 ,!re x aga9 meets ) oxyg5 & wat]3 ! free protoxide becomes hydrat$ p]oxide3 ! c>bonate ( protoxide p>ts ) its c>bonic acid1 & by absorb+ oxyg5 & wat]1 ent]s also into ! /ate ( hydrat$ p]oxide4 ,! heat evolv$ 9 ! transition f protoxide to p]oxide1 z well z 9 ! previ\s oxidation ( ! c>bon conta9$ 9 ! tissues1 is consid]$ by ,liebig z ! cause :i* su/a9s ! temp]ature ( ! body4 ,b into ?is portion ( ! speculation we ne$ n ent]47#ia7 ,?is example displays ! second mode ( resolv+ complex laws1 by ! int]polation ( int]m$iate l9ks 9 ! *a9 ( causation2 & "s ( ! /eps ( ! d$uction exhibit cases ( ! fir/ mode1 t :i* inf]s ! jo9t effect ( two or m causes f _! sep>ate effects2 b to trace out 9 detail ^! exemplifications may be left to ! intellig5ce ( ! read]4 ,! ?ird mode is n employ$ 9 ?is example1 s9ce ! simpl] laws into :i* ^? ( respiration are resolv$ 7! laws ( ! *emical action ( ! oxides ( iron7 7 laws already kn[n1 & d n acquire any additional g5]ality f _! employm5t 9 ! pres5t case4 #c4 ,! prop]ty :i* salt possesses ( pres]v+ animal sub/ances f putrefaction is resolv$ by ,liebig into two m g5]al laws1 ! /rong attraction ( salt = wat]1 & ! necessity ( ! pres5ce ( wat] z a condition ( putrefaction4 ,! int]m$iate ph5om5on :i* is int]polat$ betwe5 ! remote cause & ! effect1 c "h be n m]ely inf]r$ b se52 = x is a famili> fact1 t fle% ^u :i* salt has be5 ?r[n is spe$ily f\nd swimm+ 9 br9e4 ,! second ( ! two factors 7z !y may be t]m$7 into :i* ! prec$+ law has be5 resolv$1 ! necessity ( wat] to putrefaction1 itself af=ds an additional example ( ! ,resolution ( ,laws4 ,! law itself is prov$ by ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce1 s9ce fle% completely dri$ & kept 9 a dry atmosph]e does n putrefy1 z we see 9 ! case ( dri$ provisions1 & human bodies 9 v dry climates4 ,a d$uctive explanation ( ?is same law results f ,liebig's speculations4 ,! putrefaction ( animal & o!r azotis$ bodies is a *emical process1 by :i* !y are gradually dissipat$ 9 a gase\s =m1 *iefly 9 t ( c>bonic acid & ammonia2 n[ to conv]t ! c>bon ( ! animal sub/ance into c>bonic acid requires oxyg51 & to conv]t ! azote into ammonia requires hydrog51 :i* are ! elem5ts ( wat]4 ,! extreme rapidity ( ! putrefaction ( azotis$ sub/ances1 comp>$ ) ! gradual decay ( non-azotis$ bodies 7su* z wood & ! l7 by ! action ( oxyg5 alone1 he expla9s f ! g5]al law t sub/ances are mu* m easily decompos$ by ! action ( two diff]5t aff9ities ^u two ( _! elem5ts1 ?an by ! action ( only "o4 ,! purgative effect ( salts ) alkal9e bases1 :5 adm9i/]$ 9 conc5trat$ solutions1 is expla9$ f ! two foll[+ pr9ciples3 ,animal tissues 7su* z ! /oma*7 d n absorb conc5trat$ solutions ( alkal9e salts2 & su* solutions d dissolve ! solids conta9$ 9 ! inte/9es4 ,! simpl] laws into :i* ! complex law is "h resolv$1 are ! second ( ! two =ego+ pr9ciples comb9$ ) a ?ird1 namely t ! p]i/altic contraction acts easily ^u sub/ances 9 a /ate ( solution4 ,! negative g5]al proposition1 t animal sub/ances d n absorb ^! salts1 contributes to ! explanation by acc\nt+ = ! abs5ce ( a c\nt]act+ cause1 namely1 absorption by ! /oma*1 :i* 9 ! case ( o!r sub/ances possess$ ( ! requisite *emical prop]ties1 int]f]es to prev5t !m f rea*+ ! sub/ances :i* !y are de/9$ to dissolve4 #d4 ,f ! =ego+ & simil> in/ances1 we may see ! importance1 :5 a law ( nature previ\sly unkn[n has be5 br\ght to light1 or :5 new light has be5 ?r[n ^u a kn[n law by exp]im5t1 ( exam9+ all cases :i* pres5t ! conditions necess>y = br++ t law into action2 a process f]tile 9 demon/rations ( special laws previ\sly unsuspect$1 & explanations ( o!rs already empirically kn[n4 ,= in/ance1 ,f>aday discov]$ by exp]im5t1 t voltaic electricity c\ld be evolv$ f a natural magnet1 provid$ a conduct+ body 7 set 9 motion at "r angles to ! direction ( ! magnet3 &1 ?is he f\nd to hold n only ( small magnets1 b ( t great magnet1 ! e>?4 ,! law be+ ?us e/abli%$ exp]im5tally1 t electricity is evolv$1 by a magnet1 & a conductor mov+ at "r angles to ! direction ( its poles1 we may n[ look out = fre% in/ances 9 :i* ^! conditions meet4 ,:]ev] a conductor moves or revolves at "r angles to ! direction ( ! e>?'s magnetic poles1 !re we may expect an evolution ( electricity4 ,9 ! nor!rn regions1 :]e ! pol> direction is ne>ly p]p5dicul> to ! horizon1 all horizontal motions ( conductors w produce electricity2 horizontal :eels1 = example1 made ( metal2 likewise all runn+ /reams w evolve a curr5t ( electricity :i* w circulate r\nd !m2 & ! air ?us *>g$ ) electricity may be "o ( ! causes ( ! ,aurora ,borealis4 ,9 ! equatorial regions1 on ! contr>y1 upright :eels plac$ p>allel to ! equator w orig9ate a voltaic circuit1 & wat]falls w naturally become electric4 ,= a second example2 x has rec5tly be5 f\nd1 *iefly by ! rese>*es ( ,pr(essor ,graham1 t gases h a /rong t5d5cy to p]meate animal membranes1 & diffuse !mselves ?r\gh ! spaces :i* su* membranes inclose1 not)/&+ ! pres5ce ( o!r gases 9 ^? spaces4 ,proce$+ f ?is g5]al law1 & review+ a v>iety ( cases 9 :i* gases lie contigu\s to membranes1 we are enabl$ to demon/rate or to expla9 ! foll[+ m special laws3 #a/4 ,! human or animal body1 :5 surr\nd$ ) any gas n already conta9$ )9 ! body1 absorbs x rapidly2 su*1 = in/ance1 z ! gases ( putrefy+ matt]s3 :i* helps to expla9 mal>ia4 #bnd4 ,! c>bonic acid gas ( eff]vesc+ dr9ks1 evolv$ 9 ! /oma*1 p]meates its membranes1 & rapidly spreads ?r\gh ! sy/em1 :]e1 z sugge/$ 9 a =m] note1 x probably comb9es ) ! iron conta9$ 9 ! blood4 #crd4 ,alcohol tak5 into ! /oma* passes into vap\r & spreads ?r\gh ! sy/em ) great rapidity2 7:i*1 comb9$ ) ! high combu/ibility ( alcohol1 or 9 o!r words its ready comb9ation ) oxyg51 may p]haps help to expla9 ! bodily w>m? imm$iately consequ5t on dr9k+ spiritu\s liquors47 #d?4 ,9 any /ate ( ! body 9 :i* peculi> gases are =m$ )9 x1 ^! w rapidly exhale ?r\gh all p>ts ( ! body2 & h5ce ! rapidity ) :i*1 9 c]ta9 /ates ( disease1 ! surr\nd+ atmosph]e becomes ta9t$4 #e?4 ,! putrefaction ( ! int]ior p>ts ( a c>case w proce$ z rapidly z t ( ! ext]ior1 f ! ready passage outw>ds ( ! gase\s products4 #f?4 ,! ex*ange ( oxyg5 & c>bonic acid 9 ! lungs is n prev5t$1 b r promot$1 by ! int]v5tion ( ! membrane ( ! lungs & ! coats ( ! blood vessels betwe5 ! blood & ! air4 ,x is necess>y1 h[ev]1 t !re %\ld be a sub/ance 9 ! blood ) :i* ! oxyg5 ( ! air may imm$iately comb9e2 o!rwise in/ead ( pass+ into ! blood1 x w\ld p]meate ! :ole organism3 & x is necess>y t ! c>bonic acid1 z x is =m$ 9 ! capill>ies1 %\ld also f9d a sub/ance 9 ! blood ) :i* x c comb9e2 o!rwise x w\ld leave ! body at all po9ts1 in/ead ( be+ dis*>g$ ?r\gh ! lungs4 #e4 ,! foll[+ is a d$uction :i* confirms1 by expla9+1 ! old b n undisput$ empirical g5]alization1 t soda p[d]s weak5 ! human sy/em4 ,^! p[d]s1 consi/+ ( a mixture ( t>t>ic acid ) bic>bonate ( soda1 f :i* ! c>bonic acid is set free1 mu/ pass into ! /oma* z t>trate ( soda4 ,n[1 neutral t>trates1 citrates1 & acetates ( ! alkalis are f\nd1 9 _! passage ?r\gh ! sy/em1 to be *ang$ into c>bonates2 & to conv]t a t>trate into a c>bonate requires an additional quantity ( oxyg51 ! ab/raction ( :i* mu/ less5 ! oxyg5 de/9$ = assimilation ) ! blood1 on ! quantity ( :i* ! vigor\s action ( ! human sy/em p>tly dep5ds4 ,! in/ances ( new !ories agree+ ) & expla9+ old empiricisms1 are innum]able4 ,all ! j rem>ks made by exp]i5c$ p]sons on human "* & conduct1 are s _m special laws1 :i* ! g5]al laws ( ! human m9d expla9 & resolve4 ,! empirical g5]alizations on :i* ! op]ations ( ! arts h usually be5 f\nd$1 are cont9ually ju/ifi$ & confirm$ on ! "o h&1 or correct$ & improv$ on ! o!r1 by ! discov]y ( ! simpl] sci5tific laws on :i* ! efficacy ( ^? op]ations dep5ds4 ,! effects ( ! rotation ( crops1 ( ! v>i\s manures1 & o!r processes ( improv$ agriculture1 h be5 = ! fir/ "t resolv$ 9 our own day into kn[n laws ( *emical & organic action1 by ,davy & ,liebig4 ,! processes ( ! m$ical art are ev5 n[ mo/ly empirical3 _! efficacy is conclud$1 9 ea* in/ance1 f a special & mo/ prec>i\s exp]im5tal g5]alization3 b z sci5ce advances 9 discov]+ ! simple laws ( *emi/ry & physiology1 progress is made 9 asc]ta9+ ! int]m$iate l9ks 9 ! s]ies ( ph5om5a1 & ! m g5]al laws on :i* !y dep5d2 & ?us1 :ile ! old processes are ei!r explod$1 or _! efficacy1 9 s f> z real1 expla9$1 bett] processes1 f\nd$ on ! k ( proximate causes1 are cont9ually sugge/$ & br\ght into use47#ib7 ,_m ev5 ( ! tru?s ( geometry 7 g5]alizations f exp]i5ce be=e !y 7 d$uc$ f fir/ pr9ciples4 ,! quadrature ( ! cycloid is said to h be5 fir/ effect$ by measurem5t1 or r by weigh+ a cycloidal c>d1 & comp>+ its weight ) t ( a piece ( simil> c>d ( kn[n dim5sions4 #f4 ,to ! =ego+ examples f physical sci5ce1 let u add ano!r f m5tal4 ,! foll[+ is "o ( ! simple laws ( m9d3 ,ideas ( a pleasurable or pa9ful "* =m associations m easily & /rongly ?an o!r ideas1 t is1 !y become associat$ aft] few] repetitions1 & ! association is m durable4 ,?is is an exp]im5tal law1 gr\nd$ on ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce4 ,by d$uction f ?is law1 _m ( ! m special laws :i* exp]i5ce %[s to exi/ among p>ticul> m5tal ph5om5a may be demon/rat$ & expla9$3--! ease & rapidity1 = in/ance1 ) :i* ?\ghts connect$ ) our passions or our m *]i%$ int]e/s are excit$1 & ! firm hold :i* ! facts relat+ to !m h on our memory2 ! vivid recollection we reta9 ( m9ute circum/ances :i* accompani$ any object or ev5t t deeply int]e/$ u1 & ( ! times & places 9 :i* we h be5 v happy or v mis]able2 ! horror ) :i* we view ! accid5tal in/rum5t ( any occurr5ce :i* %ock$ u1 or ! locality :]e x took place1 & ! pleasure we d]ive f any memorial ( pa/ enjoym5t2 all ^! effects be+ proportional to ! s5sibility ( ! individual m9d1 & to ! consequ5t int5sity ( ! pa9 or pleasure f :i* ! association orig9at$4 ,x has be5 sugge/$ by ! able writ] ( a biographical sket* ( ,dr4 ,prie/ley 9 a mon?ly p]iodical1 t ! same elem5t>y law ( our m5tal con/itution1 suitably foll[$ out1 w\ld expla9 a v>iety ( m5tal ph5om5a hi!rto inexplicable1 & 9 p>ticul> "s ( ! fundam5tal div]sities ( human "* & g5ius4 ,associations be+ ( two sorts1 ei!r betwe5 syn*ron\s1 or betwe5 successive impressions2 & ! influ5ce ( ! law :i* r5d]s associations /rong] 9 proportion to ! pleasurable or pa9ful "* ( ! impressions1 be+ felt ) peculi> =ce 9 ! syn*ron\s class ( associations2 x is rem>k$ by ! writ] ref]r$ to1 t 9 m9ds ( /rong organic s5sibility syn*ron\s associations w be likely to pr$om9ate1 produc+ a t5d5cy to conceive ?+s 9 pictures & 9 ! concrete1 ri*ly clo!d 9 attributes & circum/ances1 a m5tal habit :i* is commonly call$ ,imag9ation1 & is "o ( ! peculi>ities ( ! pa9t] & ! poet2 :ile p]sons ( m mod]ate susceptibility to pleasure & pa9 w h a t5d5cy to associate facts *iefly 9 ! ord] ( _! succession1 & su* p]sons1 if !y possess m5tal sup]iority1 w addict !mselves to hi/ory or sci5ce r ?an to creative art4 ,?is int]e/+ speculation ! au?or ( ! pres5t "w has endeav\r$1 on ano!r occasion1 to pursue f>!r1 & to exam9e h[ f> x w avail t[>ds expla9+ ! peculi>ities ( ! poetical temp]am5t4 ,x is at lea/ an example :i* may s]ve1 in/ead ( _m o!rs1 to %[ ! ext5sive scope :i* exi/s = d$uctive inve/igation 9 ! important & hi!rto s imp]fect ,sci5ce ( ,m9d4 #g4 ,! copi\sness ) :i* ,i h exemplifi$ ! discov]y & explanation ( special laws ( ph5om5a by d$uction f simpl] & m g5]al ones1 0 prompt$ by a desire to *>act]ize cle>ly1 & place 9 its due position ( importance1 ! ,d$uctive ,me?od2 :i* 9 ! pres5t /ate ( k is de/9$ h5ce=? irrevocably to pr$om9ate 9 ! c\rse ( sci5tific inve/igation4 ,a revolution is peaceably & progressively effect+ itself 9 philosophy1 ! rev]se ( t to :i* ,bacon has atta*$ 8 "n4 ,t great man *ang$ ! me?od ( ! sci5ces f d$uctive to exp]im5tal1 & x is n[ rapidly rev]t+ f exp]im5tal to d$uctive4 ,b ! d$uctions :i* ,bacon aboli%$ 7 f premisses ha/ily snat*$ up1 or arbitr>ily assum$4 ,! pr9ciples 7 nei!r e/abli%$ by legitimate canons ( exp]im5tal inquiry1 nor ! results te/$ by t indisp5sable elem5t ( a rational ,d$uctive ,me?od1 v]ification by specific exp]i5ce4 ,betwe5 ! primitive me?od ( ,d$uction & t :i* ,i h attempt$ to *>act]ize1 !re is all ! diff]5ce :i* exi/s betwe5 ! ,ari/otelian physics & ! ,newtonian !ory ( ! heav5s4 ,x w\ld1 h[ev]1 be a mi/ake to expect t ^? great g5]alizations1 f :i* ! subord9ate tru?s ( ! m backw>d sci5ces w probably at "s future p]iod be d$uc$ by reason+ 7z ! tru?s ( a/ronomy are d$uc$ f ! g5]alities ( ! ,newtonian !ory17 w be f\nd1 9 all1 or ev5 9 mo/ cases1 among tru?s n[ kn[n & admitt$4 ,we may re/ assur$1 t _m ( ! mo/ g5]al laws ( nature are z yet entirely un?\ght (2 & t _m o!rs1 de/9$ h]eaft] to assume ! same "*1 are kn[n1 if at all1 only z laws or prop]ties ( "s limit$ class ( ph5om5a2 j z electricity1 n[ recognis$ z "o ( ! mo/ univ]sal ( natural ag5cies1 0 once kn[n only z a curi\s prop]ty :i* c]ta9 sub/ances acquir$ by friction1 ( fir/ attract+ & !n repell+ light bodies4 ,if ! !ories ( heat1 cohesion1 cry/allization1 & *emical action1 are de/9$1 z !re c be little d\bt t !y are1 to become d$uctive1 ! tru?s :i* w !n be reg>d$ z ! pr9cipia ( ^? sci5ces w\ld probably1 if n[ ann\nc$1 appe> q z novel z ! law ( gravitation appe>$ to ! cotempor>ies ( ,newton2 possibly ev5 m s1 s9ce ,newton's law1 aft] all1 0 b an ext5sion ( ! law ( weight--t is1 ( a g5]alization famili> f ( old1 & :i* already compreh5d$ a n inconsid]able body ( natural ph5om5a4 ,! g5]al laws1 ( a simil>ly comm&+ "*1 :i* we /ill look =w>d to ! discov]y (1 may n always f9d s mu* ( _! f\ndations already laid4 ,^! g5]al tru?s w d\btless make _! fir/ appe>ance 9 ! "* ( hypo!ses2 n prov$1 nor ev5 admitt+ ( pro(1 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 b assum$ z premisses = ! purpose ( d$uc+ f !m ! kn[n laws ( concrete ph5om5a4 ,b ?is1 ?\gh _! initial1 _c be _! f9al /ate4 ,to entitle an hypo!sis to be receiv$ z "o ( ! tru?s ( nature1 & n z a m]e te*nical help to ! human faculties1 x mu/ be capable ( be+ te/$ by ! canons ( legitimate induction1 & mu/ actually h be5 submitt$ to t te/4 ,:5 ?is %all h be5 done1 & done successfully1 premisses w h be5 obta9$ f :i* all ! o!r propositions ( ! sci5ce w !nce=? be pres5t$ z conclusions1 & ! sci5ce w1 by means ( a new & unexpect$ ,induction1 be r5d]$ ,d$uctive4 ,,end ,,( ,,vol4 ,i4 ,,books ,,publi%$ ,,by ,john ,w4 ,p>k]1 ,we/ ,/r&1 ,london4 ,mr4 ,j4 ,s4 ,mill's ,pr9ciples ( ,political ,economy4 ,second ,edition4 #b vols4 ,octavo4 #cjs4 ,mr4 ,j4 ,s4 ,mill's ,essays on "s ,unsettl$ ,que/ions ( ,political ,economy4 ,octavo4 #fs4 #f;d4 ,ar*bi%op ,:ately's ,introductory ,lectures on ,political ,economy4 ,?ird ,edition4 ,octavo1 #hs4 ,mr4 ,cornewall ,lewis on ! ,influ5ce ( ,au?ority 9 ,matt]s ( ,op9ion4 ,octavo1 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,mr4 ,e4 ,g4 ,wakefield's ,view ( ! ,art ( ,colonization4 ,octavo1 #abs4 ,! ,evils ( ,engl&1 ,social & ,economical4 ,by a ,london ,physician4 #bs4 #f;d4 ,dr4 ,wayl&'s ,elem5ts ( ,political ,economy4 #bs4 ,easy ,lessons on ,money ,matt]s4 ,t5? ,edition4 #as4 ,dr4 ,:ewell's ,hi/ory ( ! ,inductive ,sci5ces4 ,second ,edition1 revis$ & cont9u$4 ,?ree vols4 #bl4 #bs4 ,dr4 ,:ewell's ,philosophy ( ! ,inductive ,sci5ces4 ,second ,edition1 revis$4 ,two ,vols4 ,octavo4 #cjs4 ,dr4 ,:ewell's ,indications ( ! ,creator4 ,!ological ,extracts f 8,! ,hi/ory & ! ,philosophy ( ! ,inductive ,sci5ces40 ,new ,edition1 ) ,preface1 #es4 #f;d4 ,dr4 ,:ewell on ,induction1 ) especial ref]5ce to ,mr4 ,mill's ,sy/em ( ,logic4 #bs4 ,ar*bi%op ,:ately's ,elem5ts ( ,logic4 ,) all ! ,au?or's ,additions & ,em5dations4 ,*eap ,edition2 ,cr[n ,octavo1 #ds4 #f;d4 ,libr>y ,edition2 ,demy ,octavo1 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,ar*bi%op ,:ately's ,elem5ts ( ,rhetoric4 ,) all ! ,au?or's ,additions & ,em5dations4 ,*eap ,edition2 ,cr[n ,octavo1 #ds4 #f;d4 ,libr>y ,edition2 ,demy ,octavo1 #ajs4 #f;d4 ,easy ,lessons on ,reason+4 ,fif? ,edition4 #as4 #f;d4 ,dr4 ,:ewell's ,elem5ts ( ,morality1 includ+ ,polity4 ,second ,edition1 r$uc$ 9 size & price4 ,two ,vols4 #aes4 ,dr4 ,:ewell's ,lectures on ,sy/ematic ,morality4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,butl]'s ,six ,s]mons on ,moral ,subjects4 ,edit$ by ,dr4 ,,:ewell4 ,) a ,preface & ,syllabus4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,butl]'s ,?ree ,s]mons on ,human ,nature4 ,edit$ by ,dr4 ,,:ewell4 ,) ,preface & ,syllabus4 ,second ,edition4 #cs4 #f;d4 ,pr(essor ,br&e's ,manual ( ,*emi/ry4 ,six? ,edition1 almo/ :olly re-writt51 consid]ably enl>g$1 & embody+ all ! rec5t discov]ies 9 ! sci5ce up to ! pres5t "t4 #b vols4 ,octavo4 #bl4 #es4 ,mr4 ,t4 ,griffi?s's ,recreations 9 ,*emi/ry4 ,second ,edition1 mu* enl>g$4 #es4 ,mr4 ,trimm]'s ,practical ,*emi/ry = ,f>m]s & ,l&-own]s4 #es4 ,dr4 ,todd's & ,mr4 ,b[man's ,physiological ,anatomy & ,physiology ( ,man4 ,vol4 ,i4 #aes4 ,"p ,,iii4 #gs4 ,mr4 ,tomes's ,lectures on ,d5tal ,physiology & ,surg]y4 ,octavo4 ,) upw>ds ( #ajj ,illu/rations4 #abs4 ,dr4 ,"l's ,popul> ,physiology4 ,second ,edition4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,h\se ,i ,live ,92 or ,popul> ,illu/rations ( ! ,/ructure & ,functions ( ! ,human ,body4 ,fif? ,edition4 #bs4 #f;d4 ,mr4 ,trimm]'s ,practical ,geology & ,m9]alogy4 ,) ,two ,hundr$ ,illu/rations4 ,octavo1 #abs4 ,miss ,zornl9's ,recreations 9 ,geology4 ,second ,edition4 #ds4 #f;d4 ,colonel ,jackson's ,m9]als & _! ,uses4 ,) ,col\r$ ,frontispiece4 #gs4 #f;d4 ,miss ,zornl9's ,recreations 9 ,physical ,geography2 or ! ,e>? z ,x ,is4 ,?ird ,edition1 #fs4 ,capta9 ,smy?'s ,cycle ( ,cele/ial ,objects4 ,two ,vols4 ,octavo4 ,) num]\s ,illu/rations4 #bl4 #bs4 ,rev4 ,h4 ,moseley's ,lectures on ,a/ronomy4 ,?ird ,edition4 #es4 #f;d4 ,rev4 ,l4 ,toml9son's ,recreations 9 ,a/ronomy4 ,) ,illu/rations4 ,?ird ,edition4 #ds4 #f;d4 ,,footnotes #a ,9 ! lat] editions ( ,ar*bi%op ,:ately's ,logic & ,rhetoric !re are "s expressions1 :i*1 ?\gh indef9ite1 resemble a disclaim] ( ! op9ion "h ascrib$ to him4 ,if ,i h imput$ t op9ion to him errone\sly1 ,i am glad to f9d myself mi/ak52 b he has n alt]$ ! passages 9 :i* ! op9ion appe>$ to me to be convey$1 & :i* ,i /ill ?9k inconsi/5t ) ! belief t ,induction c be r$uc$ to /rict rules4 #b ,ar*bi%op ,:ately4 #c ,?is important !ory has rec5tly be5 call$ 9 "q by a writ] ( des]v$ reputation1 ,mr4 ,samuel ,bailey2 b ,i d n conceive t ! gr\nds on :i* x has be5 admitt$ z an e/abli%$ doctr9e = a c5tury pa/1 h be5 at all %ak5 by t g5tleman's objections4 ,i h else:]e said :at appe>$ to me necess>y 9 reply to 8 argum5ts 7,we/m9/] ,review1 = ,octob] #ahdb47 ,x may be necess>y to add1 t "s o!r processes ( comp>ison ?an ^? describ$ 9 ! text 7b equally ! result ( exp]i5ce71 appe> occasionally to ent] into our judgm5t ( di/ances by ! eye4 #d ,computation or ,logic1 *ap4 ii4 #e ,9 ! orig9al1 8_h1 or _h n40 ,^! la/ words1 z involv+ a subtlety =eign to our pres5t purpose1 ,i h =borne to quote4 #f ,x w\ld1 p]haps1 be m correct to say t inflect$ cases are names & some?+ m2 & t ?is addition prev5ts !m f be+ us$ z ! subjects ( propositions4 ,b ! purposes ( our inquiry d n dem& t we %\ld ent] ) scrupul\s accuracy into simil> m9uti4 #g ,not>e to m>k2 connot>e1 to m>k along )2 to m>k "o ?+ ) or 9 addition to ano!r4 #h ,ar*bi%op ,:ately1 :o 9 ! m rec5t editions ( 8 ,elem5ts ( ,logic has aid$ 9 reviv+ ! important di/9ction treat$ ( 9 ! text1 proposes ! t]m 8,attributive0 z a sub/itute = 8,connotative10 7p4 #abb1 #i? ed47 ,! expression is1 9 itself1 appropriate2 b1 z x has n ! advantage ( be+ connect$ ) any v]b1 ( s m>k$ly di/9ctive a "* z 8to connote10 x is n1 ,i ?9k1 fitt$ to supply ! place ( ! ^w ,connotative 9 sci5tific use4 #i ,x w\ld be well if ?is deg5]acy ( language took place only 9 ! h&s ( ! untaught vulg>2 b "s ( ! mo/ rem>kable in/ances are to be f\nd 9 t]ms ( art1 & among te*nically educat$ p]sons1 su* z ,engli% lawy]s4 ,felony1 = example1 is a law t]m1 ) ! s\nd ( :i* all are famili>2 b !re is no lawy] :o w\ld und]take to tell :at a felony is1 o!rwise ?an by enum]at+ ! v>i\s (f5ces :i* are s call$4 ,orig9ally ! ^w felony _h a mean+2 x d5ot$ all (f5ces1 ! p5alty ( :i* includ$ =feiture ( l&s or goods2 b subsequ5t acts ( p>liam5t h decl>$ v>i\s (f5ces to be felonies )\t enjo9+ t p5alty1 & h tak5 away ! p5alty f o!rs :i* cont9ue nev]!less to be call$ felonies1 insomu* t ! acts s call$ h n[ no prop]ty :atev] 9 common1 save t ( be+ unlawful & puni%able4 #aj ,be=e quitt+ ! subject ( connotative names1 x is prop] to obs]ve1 t ! fir/ writ] :o1 9 our own times1 has adopt$ f ! s*oolm5 ! ^w to connote1 ,mr4 ,mill1 9 8 ,analysis ( ! ,ph5om5a ( ! ,human ,m9d1 employs x 9 a signification diff]5t f t 9 :i* x is "h us$4 ,he uses ! ^w 9 a s5se coext5sive ) its etymology1 apply+ x to e case 9 :i* a "n1 :ile po9t+ directly to "o ?+1 7:i* is consequ5tly t]m$ its signification17 includes also a tacit ref]5ce to "s o!r ?+4 ,9 ! case consid]$ 9 ! text1 t ( concrete g5]al names1 8 language & m9e are ! conv]se ( "o ano!r4 ,consid]+ 7v ju/ly7 ! signification ( ! "n to lie 9 ! attribute1 he speaks ( ! ^w z not+ ! attribute1 & connot+ ! ?+s possess+ ! attribute4 ,& he describes ab/ract names z be+ prop]ly concrete names ) _! connotation dropp$3 :]eas1 9 my view1 x is ! denotation :i* w\ld be said to be dropp$1 :at 0 previ\sly connot$ becom+ ! :ole signification4 ,9 adopt+ a phraseology at v>iance ) t :i* s high an au?ority1 & "o :i* ,i am less likely ?an any o!r p]son to und]value1 has delib]ately sanction$1 ,i h be5 influ5c$ by ! urg5t necessity = a t]m exclusively appropriat$ to express ! mann] 9 :i* a concrete g5]al "n s]ves to m>k ! attributes :i* are involv$ 9 its signification4 ,?is necessity c sc>cely be felt 9 its full =ce by any "o :o has n f\nd by exp]i5ce1 h[ va9 is ! attempt to communicate cle> ideas on ! philosophy ( language )\t su* a ^w4 ,x is h>dly an exagg]ation to say1 t "s ( ! mo/ preval5t ( ! errors ) :i* logic has be5 infect$1 & a l>ge "p ( ! cl\d9ess & confusion ( ideas :i* h envelop$ x1 w\ld1 9 all probability1 h be5 avoid$1 if a t]m _h be5 9 common use to express exactly :at ,i h signifi$ by ! t]m to connote4 ,& ! s*oolm51 to :om we are indebt$ = ! great] "p ( our logical language1 gave u ?is also1 & 9 ?is v s5se4 ,= al?\gh "s ( _! g5]al expressions c\nt5ance ! use ( ! ^w 9 ! m ext5sive & vague acceptation 9 :i* x is tak5 by ,mr4 ,mill1 yet :5 !y _h to def9e x specifically z a te*nical t]m1 & to fix its mean+ z su*1 ) t admirable precision :i* always *>act]izes _! def9itions1 !y cle>ly expla9$ t no?+ 0 said to be connot$ except =ms1 :i* ^w may g5]ally1 9 _! writ+s1 be und]/ood z synonym\s ) attributes4 ,n[1 if ! ^w to connote1 s well suit$ to ! purpose to :i* !y appli$ x1 be div]t$ f t purpose by be+ tak5 to fulfil ano!r1 = :i* x does n seem to me to be at all requir$2 ,i am unable to f9d any expression to replace x1 b su* z are commonly employ$ 9 a s5se s mu* m g5]al1 t x w\ld be useless attempt+ to associate !m peculi>ly ) ?is precise idea4 ,su* are ! words1 to involve1 to imply1 c4 ,by employ+ ^!1 ,i %\ld fail ( atta9+ ! object = :i* alone ! "n is ne$$1 namely1 to di/+ui% ?is p>ticul> k9d ( involv+ & imply+ f all o!r k9ds1 & to assure to x ! degree ( habitual att5tion :i* its importance dem&s4 #aa ,or r1 all objects except itself & ! p]cipi5t m9d2 =1 z we %all see h]eaft]1 to ascribe any attribute to an object necess>ily implies a m9d to p]ceive x4 #ab ,philosophy ( ! ,inductive ,sci5ces1 vol4 i4 p4 #dj4 #ac ,?is doctr9e is laid d[n 9 ! cle>e/ & /ronge/ t]ms by ,m4 ,c\s91 ^: obs]vations on ! subject are ! m wor?y ( att5tion1 z1 9 consequ5ce ( ! ultra-,g]man & ontological "* ( 8 philosophy consid]$ g5]ally1 !y may be reg>d$ z ! admissions ( an oppon5t4 8,n\s savons qu'il exi/e quelque *ose hors de n\s1 p>ceque n\s ne p\vons expliqu] nos p]ceptions sans les ratta*] des causes di/9ctes de n\s-mmes2 n\s savons de plus que ces causes1 dont n\s ne connaissons pas d'ailleurs l'ess5ce1 produis5t les effets les plus v>iables1 les plus div]s1 et mme les plus contraires1 selon qu'elles r5contr5t telle nature ou telle disposition du sujet4 ,mais savons-n\s quelque *ose de plus8 et mme1 vu le c>actre indt]m9 des causes que n\s concevons dans les corps1 y a-t-il quelque *ose de plus savoir8 ,y a-t-il lieu de n\s enqurir si n\s p]cevons les *oses telles qu'elles sont8 ,non videmm5t4444 ,je ne dis pas que le problme e/ insoluble1 je dis qu'il e/ absurde et enf]me une contradiction4 ,n\s ne savons pas ce que ces causes sont en elles-mmes1 et la raison n\s df5d de *]*] le connatre3 mais il e/ bi5 vid5t priori1 qu'elles ne sont pas en elles-mmes ce quelles sont p> rapport n\s1 puisque la prs5ce du sujet modifie ncessairem5t leur action4 ,supprimez t\t sujet s5tant1 il e/ c]ta9 que ces causes agirai5t encore puisqu'elles cont9u]ai5t d'exi/]2 mais elles agirai5t autrem5t2 elles s]ai5t encore des qualits et des proprits1 mais qui ne resembl]ai5t ri5 de ce que n\s connaissons4 ,le feu ne manife/]ait plus aucune des proprits que n\s lui connaissons3 que s]ait-il8 ,c'e/ ce que n\s ne saurons jamais4 ,c'e/ d'ailleurs peut-tre un problme qui ne rpugne pas seulem5t la nature de notre esprit1 mais l'ess5ce mme des *oses4 ,qu& mme en effet on supprim]ait p> la p5se t\s les sujets s5tants1 il faudrait encore admettre que nul corps ne manife/]ait ses proprits autrem5t qu'en relation avec un sujet quelconque1 et dans ce cas ses proprits ne s]ai5t encore que relatives3 en sorte qu'il me p>at =t raisonnable d'admettre que les proprits dt]m9es des corps n'exi/5t pas indep5damm5t d'un sujet quelconque1 et que qu& on dem&e si les proprits de la matire sont telles que n\s les p]cevons1 il faudrait voir aup>avant si elles sont en tant que dt]m9es1 et dans quel s5s il e/ vrai de dire qu'elles sont40--,c\rs d',hi/oire de la ,philosophie ,morale au #ahme sicle1 #hme leon4 #ad ,an attempt1 inde$1 has be5 made by ,reid & o!rs1 to e/abli% t al?\gh "s ( ! prop]ties we ascribe to objects exi/ only 9 our s5sations1 o!rs exi/ 9 ! ?+s !mselves1 be+ su* z _c possibly be copies ( any impression ^u ! s5ses2 & !y ask1 f :at s5sations our notions ( ext5sion & figure h be5 d]iv$8 ,! gauntlet ?r[n d[n by ,reid 0 tak5 up by ,br[n1 :o1 apply+ great] p[]s ( analysis ?an _h previ\sly be5 appli$ to ! notions ( ext5sion & figure1 %[$ cle>ly :at are ! s5sations f :i* ^? notions are d]iv$1 viz4 s5sations ( t\*1 comb9$ ) s5sations ( a class previ\sly too little adv]t$ to by metaphysicians1 ^? :i* h _! seat 9 our muscul> frame4 ,:oev] wi%es to be m p>ticul>ly acqua9t$ ) ?is excell5t specim5 ( metaphysical analysis1 may consult ! fir/ volume ( ,br[n's ,lectures1 or ,mill's ,analysis ( ! ,m9d4 ,on ?is subject also1 ,m4 ,c\s9 may be quot$ 9 fav\r ( conclusions reject$ by "s ( ! mo/ em95t ?9k]s ( ! s*ool to :i* he belongs4 ,m4 ,c\s9 recognises1 9 opposition to ,reid1 ! ess5tial subjectivity ( our conceptions ( ! prim>y qualities ( matt]1 z ext5sion1 solidity1 c41 equally ) ^? ( col\r1 heat1 & ! rema9d] ( :at are call$ second>y qualities4--,c\rs1 ut supra1 #ime leon4 #ae ,analysis ( ! ,human ,m9d1 i4 #abf et seqq4 #af ,dr4 ,:ewell 7,( ,induction1 p4 #aj7 que/ions ?is /atem5t1 & asks1 8,are we to say t a mole _c dig ! gr\nd1 except he has an idea ( ! gr\nd1 & ( ! sn\t & paws ) :i* he digs x80 ,i ?\ght x _h be5 evid5t t ,i 0 "h speak+ ( rational digg+1 & n ( digg+ by in/9ct4 #ag 8,f h5ce also ?is may be d$uc$1 t ! fir/ tru?s 7 arbitr>ily made by ^? t fir/ ( all impos$ names ^u ?+s1 or receiv$ !m f ! imposition ( o!rs4 ,= x is true 7= example7 t man is a liv+ creature1 b x is = ?is reason1 t x pleas$ m5 to impose bo? ^! names on ! same ?+40--,computation or ,logic1 *4 iii4 sect4 #h4 #ah 8,m5 are subject to err n only 9 affirm+ & d5y+1 b also 9 p]ception1 & 9 sil5t cogitation4444 ,tacit errors1 or ! errors ( s5se & cogitation1 are made by pass+ f "o imag9ation to ! imag9ation ( ano!r diff]5t ?+2 or by feign+ t to be pa/1 or future1 :i* nev] 01 nor ev] %all be2 z :51 by see+ ! image ( ! sun 9 wat]1 we imag9e ! sun itself to be !re2 or by see+ swords1 t !re has be5 or %all be1 fight+1 because x uses to be s = ! mo/ "p2 or :5 f promises we feign ! m9d ( ! promis] to be su* & su*2 or1 la/ly1 :5 f any sign we va9ly imag9e some?+ to be signifi$ :i* is n4 ,& errors ( ?is sort are common to all ?+s t h s5se40--,computation or ,logic1 *4 v41 sect4 #a4 #ai ,*4 iii4 sect4 #c4 #bj ,book iv4 *4 vii4 #ba 2 7diff]5ces 9 ! accid5tal prop]ties7 2 7diff]5ces 9 ! ess5tial prop]ties7 --,isag4 cap4 iii4 #bb ,few among ! great names 9 m5tal sci5ce h met ) a h>d] measure ( ju/ice f ! pres5t g5]ation ?an ,locke2 ! unque/ion$ f\nd] ( ! analytic philosophy ( m9d1 b ^: doctr9es 7 fir/ c>icatur$1 !n1 :5 ! reaction arriv$1 ca/ (f by ! prevail+ s*ool ev5 ) contumely1 & :o is n[ reg>d$ by "o ( ! conflict+ p>ties 9 philosophy z an apo/le ( h]esy & sophi/ry1 :ile among ^? :o /ill adh]e to ! /&>d :i* he rais$1 !re has be5 a disposition 9 lat] times to sacrifice 8 reputation 9 fav\r ( ,hobbes2 a great writ]1 & a great ?9k] = 8 "t1 b inf]ior to ,locke n only 9 sob] judgm5t b ev5 9 pr(undity & orig9al g5ius4 ,locke1 ! mo/ c&id ( philosoph]s1 & "o ^: speculations be> on e subject ! /ronge/ m>ks ( hav+ be5 wr\ght out f ! mat]ials ( 8 own m9d1 has be5 mi/ak5 = an unwor?y plagi>i/1 :ile ,hobbes has be5 extoll$ z hav+ anticipat$ _m ( 8 lead+ doctr9es4 ,he did anticipate _m ( !m1 & ! pres5t is an in/ance 9 :at mann] x 0 g5]ally done4 ,!y bo? reject$ ! s*ola/ic doctr9e ( ess5ces2 b ,locke und]/ood & expla9$ :at ^! suppos$ ess5ces really 72 ,hobbes1 in/ead ( expla9+ ! di/9ction betwe5 ess5tial & accid5tal prop]ties1 & betwe5 ess5tial & accid5tal propositions1 jump$ ov] x1 & gave a def9ition :i* suits at mo/ only ess5tial propositions1 & sc>cely ^?1 z ! def9ition ( ,proposition 9 g5]al4 #bc ,! always acute & (t5 pr(\nd au?or ( ,an ,outl9e ( ,sematology 7,mr4 ,b4 ,h4 ,sm>t7 ju/ly says1 8,locke w be mu* m intelligible if1 9 ! majority ( places1 we sub/itute #8! k (' = :at he calls #8! idea (' 0 7p4 #aj74 ,among ! _m criticisms on ,locke's use ( ! ^w ,idea1 ?is is ! only "o :i*1 z x appe>s to me1 precisely hits ! m>k2 & ,i quote x = ! additional reason t x precisely expresses ! po9t ( diff]5ce respect+ ! import ( ,propositions1 betwe5 my view & :at ,i h spok5 ( z ! ,conceptuali/ view ( !m4 ,:]e a ,conceptuali/ says t a "n or a proposition expresses our ,idea ( a ?+1 ,i %\ld g5]ally say 7in/ead ( our ,idea7 our ,k1 or ,belief1 conc]n+ ! ?+ itself4 #bd ,if we all[ a diff]5tia to :at is n really a species4 ,= ! di/9ction ( ,k9ds1 9 ! s5se expla9$ by u1 n be+ 9 any way applicable to attributes1 x ( c\rse foll[s t al?\gh attributes may be put into classes1 ^? classes c be admitt$ to be g5]a or species only by c\rtesy4 #be ,9 ! full] discussion :i* ,ar*bi%op ,:ately has giv5 to ?is subject 9 8 lat] editions1 he almo/ ceases to reg>d ! def9itions ( names & ^? ( ?+s z1 9 any important s5se1 di/9ct4 ,he seems 7#i? ed4 p4 #ade7 to limit ! notion ( a ,real ,def9ition to "o :i* 8expla9s any?+ m ( ! nature ( ! ?+ ?an is impli$ 9 ! "n20 7includ+ "u ! ^w 8impli$10 n only :at ! "n connotes1 b ev]y?+ :i* c be d$uc$ by reason+ f ! attributes connot$74 ,ev5 ?is1 z he adds1 is usually call$1 n a ,def9ition1 b a ,description2 & 7z x seems to me7 rightly s call$4 ,a ,description1 ,i conceive1 c only be rank$ among ,def9itions1 :5 tak5 7z 9 ! case ( ! zoological def9ition ( man7 to fulfil ! true (fice ( a ,def9ition1 by decl>+ ! connotation giv5 to a ^w 9 "s special use1 z a t]m ( sci5ce or art2 :i* special connotation ( c\rse w\ld n be express$ by ! prop] def9ition ( ! ^w 9 its ord9>y employm5t4 ,mr4 ,de ,morgan1 exactly rev]s+ ! doctr9e ( ,ar*bi%op ,:ately1 und]/&s by a ,real ,def9ition "o :i* conta9s less ?an ! ,nom9al ,def9ition1 provid$ only t :at x conta9s is suffici5t = di/9ction4 8,by real def9ition ,i mean su* an explanation ( ! ^w1 be x ! :ole ( ! mean+ or only "p1 z w be suffici5t to sep>ate ! ?+s conta9$ "u t ^w f all o!rs4 ,?us ! foll[+1 ,i believe1 is a complete def9ition ( an elephant3 ,an animal :i* naturally dr9ks by draw+ ! wat] into its nose1 & !n spirt+ x into its m\?40--,=mal ,logic1 p4 #cf4 ,mr4 ,de ,morgan's g5]al proposition & 8 example are at v>iance2 = ! peculi> mode ( dr9k+ ( ! elephant c]ta9ly =ms no "p ( ! mean+ ( ! ^w elephant4 ,x c\ld n be said1 because a p]son happ5$ to be ignorant ( ?is prop]ty1 t he did n "k :at an elephant means4 #bf ,9 ! only attempt :i*1 s f> z ,i "k1 has be5 made to refute ! prec$+ argum5tation1 x is ma9ta9$ t 9 ! fir/ =m ( ! syllogism1 ,a dragon is a ?+ :i* brea!s flame1 ,a dragon is a s]p5t1 ,!re=e "s s]p5t or s]p5ts brea! flame1 8!re is j z mu* tru? 9 ! conclusion z !re is 9 ! premisses1 or r1 no m 9 ! latt] ?an 9 ! =m]4 ,if ! g5]al "n s]p5t includes bo? real & imag9>y s]p5ts1 !re is no falsity 9 ! conclusion2 if n1 !re is falsity 9 ! m9or premiss40 ,let u1 !n1 try to set out ! syllogism on ! hypo!sis t ! "n s]p5t includes imag9>y s]p5ts4 ,we %all f9d t x is n[ necess>y to alt] ! pr$icates2 = x _c be ass]t$ t an imag9>y creature brea!s flame3 9 pr$icat+ ( x su* a fact1 we ass]t by ! mo/ positive implication t x is real & n imag9>y4 ,! conclusion mu/ run ?us1 8,"s s]p5t or s]p5ts ei!r d or are imag9$ to brea! flame40 ,& to prove ?is conclusion by ! in/ance ( dragons1 ! premisses mu/ be1 ,a dragon is imag9$ z brea?+ flame1 ,a dragon is a 7real or imag9>y7 s]p5t3 f :i* x und\bt$ly foll[s1 t !re are s]p5ts :i* are imag9$ to brea! flame2 b ! major premiss is n a def9ition1 nor "p ( a def9ition2 :i* is all t ,i am conc]n$ to prove4 ,let u n[ exam9e ! o!r ass]tion--t if ! ^w s]p5t /&s = none b real s]p5ts1 ! m9or premiss 7,a dragon is a s]p5t7 is false4 ,?is is exactly :at ,i h myself said ( ! premiss1 consid]$ z a /atem5t ( fact3 b x is n false z "p ( ! def9ition ( a dragon2 & s9ce ! premisses1 or "o ( !m1 mu/ be false1 7! conclusion be+ s17 ! real premiss _c be ! def9ition1 :i* is true1 b ! /atem5t ( fact1 :i* is false4 #bg 8,few p0 7,i h said 9 ano!r place7 8h reflect$ h[ great a k ( ,?+s is requir$ to enable a man to affirm t any giv5 argum5t turns :olly ^u words4 ,!re is1 p]haps1 n "o ( ! lead+ t]ms ( philosophy :i* is n us$ 9 almo/ innum]able %ades ( mean+1 to express ideas m or less widely diff]5t f "o ano!r4 ,betwe5 two ( ^! ideas a sagaci\s & p5etrat+ m9d w disc]n1 z x 7 intuitively1 an unobvi\s l9k ( connexion1 ^u :i*1 ?\gh p]haps unable to give a logical acc\nt ( x1 he w f\nd a p]fectly valid argum5t1 :i* 8 critic1 n hav+ s ke5 an insight into ! ,?+s1 w mi/ake = a fallacy turn+ on ! d\ble mean+ ( a t]m4 ,& ! great] ! g5ius ( him :o ?us safely leaps ov] ! *asm1 ! great] w probably be ! cr[+ & va9-glory ( ! m]e logician1 :o1 hobbl+ aft] him1 ev9ces 8 own sup]ior wisdom by paus+ on its br9k1 & giv+ up z desp]ate 8 prop] bus9ess ( bridg+ x ov]40 #bh ,contr>ies3 ,all ,a is ,b ,no ,a is ,b ,subtr>ies3 ,"s ,a is ,b ,"s ,a is n ,b ,contradictories3 ,all ,a is ,b ,"s ,a is n ,b ,also contradictories3 ,no ,a is ,b ,"s ,a is ,b ,respectively subalt]nate3 ,all ,a is ,b2 ,no ,a is ,b ,"s ,a is ,b2 & ,"s ,a is n ,b #bi ,8 conclusions are1 8,! fir/ figure is suit$ to ! discov]y or pro( ( ! prop]ties ( a ?+2 ! second to ! discov]y or pro( ( ! di/9ctions betwe5 ?+s2 ! ?ird to ! discov]y or pro( ( in/ances & exceptions2 ! f\r? to ! discov]y1 or exclusion1 ( ! diff]5t species ( a g5us40 ,! ref]5ce ( syllogisms 9 ! la/ ?ree figures to ! dictum de omni et nullo is1 9 ,lamb]t's op9ion1 /ra9$ & unnatural3 to ea* ( ! ?ree belongs1 accord+ to him1 a sep>ate axiom1 co-ord9ate & ( equal au?ority ) t dictum1 & to :i* he gives ! names ( dictum de div]so = ! second figure1 dictum de exemplo = ! ?ird1 & dictum de reciproco = ! f\r?4 ,see "p i4 or ,dianoiologie1 *ap4 iv4 #bbi et seqq4 ,mr4 ,de ,morgan's 8,=mal ,logic1 or ! ,calculus ( ,inf]5ce1 ,necess>y & ,probable10 7a "w publi%$ s9ce ! /atem5t 9 ! text 0 made17 f> exce$s 9 elaborate m9ut5ess ,lamb]t's treatise on ! syllogism4 ,mr4 ,de ,morgan's pr9cipal object is to br+ )9 /rict te*nical rules ! cases 9 :i* a conclusion c be drawn f premisses ( a =m usually class$ z p>ticul>4 ,he obs]ves1 v ju/ly1 t f ! premisses ,mo/ ,bs are ,cs1 mo/ ,bs are ,z1 x may be conclud$ ) c]ta9ty t "s ,z are ,cs1 s9ce two portions ( ! class ,b1 ea* ( !m compris+ m ?an half1 mu/ necess>ily 9 "p consi/ ( ! same individuals4 ,foll[+ out ?is l9e ( ?\ght1 x is equally evid5t t if we knew exactly :at proportion ! 8mo/0 9 ea* ( ! premisses be> to ! entire class ,b1 we c\ld increase 9 a correspond+ degree ! def9it5ess ( ! conclusion4 ,?us if #fj p] c5t ( ,b are includ$ 9 ,c1 & #gj p] c5t 9 ,a1 #cj p] c5t at lea/ mu/ be common to bo?2 9 o!r words1 ! numb] ( ,z :i* are ,cs1 & ( ,cs :i* are ,z1 mu/ be at lea/ equal to #cj p] c5t ( ! class ,b4 ,proce$+ on ?is conception ( 8num]ically def9ite propositions10 & ext5d+ x to su* =ms z ^!3--8#de ,xs 7or m7 are ea* ( !m "o ( #gj ,ys10 or 8#de ,xs 7or m71 are no "o ( !m to be f\nd among #gj ,ys10 & exam9+ :at inf]5ces admit ( be+ drawn f ! v>i\s comb9ations :i* may be made ( premisses ( ?is description1 ,mr4 ,de ,morgan e/abli%es univ]sal =mul = su* inf]5ces2 creat+ = t purpose n only a new te*nical language1 b a =midable array ( symbols analog\s to ^? ( algebra4 ,s9ce x is und5iable t inf]5ces1 9 ! cases exam9$ by ,mr4 ,de ,morgan1 c legitimately be drawn1 & t ! ord9>y !ory takes no acc\nt ( !m1 ,i w n say t x 0 n wor? :ile to %[ 9 detail h[ ^! also c\ld be r$uc$ to =mulae z rigor\s z ^? ( ,ari/otle4 ,:at ,mr4 ,de ,morgan has done 0 wor? do+ once 7p]haps m ?an once1 z a s*ool ex]cise72 b ,i "q if its results are wor? /udy+ & ma/]+ = any practical purpose4 ,! practical use ( te*nical =ms ( reason+ is to b> out fallacies3 b ! fallacies :i* require to be gu>d$ aga9/ 9 ratioc9ation prop]ly s call$1 arise f ! incauti\s use ( ! common =ms ( language2 & ! logician mu/ track ! fallacy into t t]ritory1 in/ead ( wait+ = x on a t]ritory ( 8 own4 ,:ile he rema9s among propositions :i* h acquir$ ! num]ical precision ( ! ,calculus ( ,probabilities1 ! enemy is left 9 possession ( ! only gr\nd on :i* he c be =midable4 ,! 8quantification ( ! pr$icate10 an inv5tion to :i* ,sir ,william ,hamilton atta*es s mu* importance z to h rais$ an angry dispute ) ,mr4 ,de ,morgan respect+ its au?or%ip1 appe>s to me1 ,i confess1 z an accession to ! art ( ,logic1 ( s+ul>ly small value4 ,x is ( c\rse true1 t 8,all m5 are mortal0 is equival5t to 8,e man is "s mortal40 ,b z mank9d c]ta9ly w n be p]suad$ to 8quantify0 _! pr$icates 9 common disc\rse1 !y want a logic :i* w tea* !m to reason correctly ) propositions 9 ! usual =m1 by furni%+ !m ) a type ( ratioc9ation to :i* propositions c be ref]r$1 reta9+ t =m4 ,n to m5tion t ! quantification ( ! pr$icate1 in/ead ( be+ a means ( br++ out m cle>ly ! mean+ ( ! proposition1 actually leads ! m9d out ( ! proposition1 into ano!r ord] ( ideas4 ,= :5 we say1 ,all m5 are mortal1 we simply mean to affirm ! attribute mortality ( all m52 )\t ?9k+ at all ( ! class mortal 9 ! concrete1 or tr\bl+ ourselves ab\t :e!r x conta9s any o!r be+s or n4 ,x is only = "s artificial purpose t we ev] look at ! proposition 9 ! aspect 9 :i* ! pr$icate also is ?\ght ( z a class-"n1 ei!r includ+ ! subject only1 or ! subject & some?+ m4 #cj ,supr1 p4 #abi4 #ca ,logic1 p4 #bci 7#i? ed47 #cb ,x is h>dly necess>y to say1 t ,i am n cont5d+ = any su* absurdity z t we actually 8ought to h kn[n0 & consid]$ ! case ( e individual man1 pa/1 pres5t1 & future1 be=e affirm+ t all m5 are mortal3 al?\gh ?is int]pretation has be51 /rangely en\gh1 put ^u ! prec$+ obs]vations4 ,!re is no diff]5ce betwe5 me & ,ar*bi%op ,:ately1 or any o!r def5d] ( ! syllogism1 on ! practical "p ( ! matt]2 ,i am only po9t+ out an inconsi/5cy 9 ! logical !ory ( x1 z conceiv$ by almo/ all writ]s4 ,i d n say t a p]son :o affirm$1 be=e ! ,duke ( ,well+ton 0 born1 t all m5 are mortal1 knew t ! ,duke ( ,well+ton 0 mortal2 b ,i d say1 t he ass]t$ x2 & ,i ask = an explanation ( ! app>5t logical fallacy1 ( adduc+ 9 pro( ( ! ,duke ( ,well+ton's mortality1 a g5]al /atem5t :i* presupposes x4 ,f9d+ no suffici5t resolution ( ?is difficulty 9 any ( ! writ]s on ,logic1 ,i h attempt$ to supply "o4 #cc ,( ,induction1 p4 #he4 #cd ,= ,augu/ #ahdf4 #ce ,!re is a /rik+ passage 9 ! ,metaphysics ( ,ari/otle 7comm5cem5t ( *ap4 iii47 on ! necessity ( beg9n+ ! /udy ( a subject by a cle> p]ception ( its difficulties4 4 4 3 444 1 1 3 1 1 4 1 4 #cf ,! review] misund]/&s me :5 he supposes me to say t 8! conclusion mu/ be admitt$ be=e we c admit ! major premiss40 ,:at ,i say is1 t !re mu/ be gr\nd = admitt+ x simultane\sly1 or else ! major premise is n prov$4 #cg ,me*anical ,euclid1 pp4 #adi et seqq4 #ch ,we might1 x is true1 ins]t ?is prop]ty into ! def9ition ( p>allel l9es1 fram+ ! def9ition s z to require1 bo? t :5 produc$ indef9itely !y %all nev] meet1 & also t any /raight l9e :i* int]sects "o ( !m %all1 if prolong$1 meet ! o!r4 ,b by do+ ?is we by no means get rid ( ! assumption2 we are /ill oblig$ to take = grant$ ! geometrical tru?1 t all /raight l9es 9 ! same plane1 :i* h ! =m] ( ^! prop]ties1 h also ! latt]4 ,= if x 7 possible t !y %\ld n1 t is1 if any /raight l9es o!r ?an ^? :i* are p>allel accord+ to ! def9ition1 _h ! prop]ty ( nev] meet+ al?\gh indef9itely produc$1 ! demon/rations ( ! subsequ5t portions ( ! !ory ( p>allels c\ld n be ma9ta9$4 #ci ,:ewell's ,philosophy ( ! ,inductive ,sci5ces1 i4 #acj4 #dj ,dr4 ,:ewell 7,( ,induction p4 #hd7 ?9ks x unreasonable to cont5d t we "k by exp]i5ce1 t our idea ( a l9e exactly resembles a real l9e4 8,x does n appe>10 he says1 8h[ we c comp>e our ideas ) ! realities1 s9ce we "k ! realities only by our ideas40 ,we "k ! realities 7,i conceive7 by our eyes4 ,dr4 ,:ewell surely does n hold ! 8doctr9e ( p]ception by means ( ideas10 :i* ,reid gave himself s mu* tr\ble to refute4 ,dr4 ,:ewell also says1 t x does n appe> :y ?is resemblance ( ideas to ! s5sations ( :i* !y are copies1 %\ld be spok5 ( z if x 7 a peculi>ity ( "o class ( ideas1 ^? ( space4 ,my reply is1 t ,i d n s speak ( x4 ,! peculi>ity ,i cont5d = is only "o ( degree4 ,all our ideas ( s5sation ( c\rse resemble ! correspond+ s5sations1 b !y d s ) v diff]5t degrees ( exactness & ( reliability4 ,no "o1 ,i presume1 c recall 9 imag9ation a col\r or an od\r ) ! same di/9ctness & accuracy ) :i* almo/ e "o c m5tally reproduce an image ( a /raight l9e or a triangle4 ,to ! ext5t1 h[ev]1 ( _! capabilities ( accuracy1 our recollections ( col\rs or ( od\rs may s]ve z subjects ( exp]im5tation1 z well z ^? ( l9es & spaces1 & may yield conclusions :i* w be true ( _! ext]nal prototypes4 ,a p]son 9 :om1 ei!r f natural gift or f cultivation1 ! impressions ( col\r 7 peculi>ly vivid & di/9ct1 if ask$ :i* ( two blue fl[]s 0 ( ! d>ke/ t+e1 ?\gh he might nev] h comp>$ ! two1 or ev5 look$ at !m toge!r1 might be able to give a confid5t answ] on ! fai? ( 8 di/9ct recollection ( ! col\rs2 t is1 he might exam9e 8 m5tal pictures1 & f9d !re a prop]ty ( ! outw>d objects4 ,b 9 h>dly any case except t ( simple geometrical =ms1 c\ld ?is be done by mank9d g5]ally1 ) a degree ( assurance equal to t :i* is giv5 by a contemplation ( ! objects !mselves4 ,p]sons diff] mo/ widely 9 ! precision ( _! recollection1 ev5 ( =ms3 "o p]son1 :5 he has look$ any "o 9 ! face = half a m9ute1 c draw an accurate lik5ess ( him f memory2 ano!r may h se5 him e day = six mon?s1 & h>dly "k :e!r 8 nose is long or %ort4 ,b ev]ybody has a p]fectly di/9ct m5tal image ( a /raight l9e1 a circle1 or a rectangle4 ,& e "o concludes confid5tly f ^! m5tal images to ! correspond+ outw>d ?+s4 #da ,phil4 ,ind4 ,sc4 i4 #ei-fa4 #db ,ibid4 #eg4 #dc ,ibid4 #ed1 #ee4 #dd 8,if all mank9d _h spok5 "o language1 we _c d\bt t !re w\ld h be5 a p[]ful1 p]haps a univ]sal1 s*ool ( philosoph]s1 :o w\ld h believ$ 9 ! inh]5t connexion betwe5 names & ?+s1 :o w\ld h tak5 ! s\nd man to be ! mode ( agitat+ ! air :i* is ess5tially communicative ( ! ideas ( reason1 cook]y1 bip$ality1 c40 ,de ,morgan1 ,=mal ,logic1 p4 #bdf4 #de ,x w\ld be difficult to "n a man m rem>kable at once = ! greatness & ! wide range ( 8 m5tal accompli%m5ts1 ?an ,leibnitz4 ,yet ?is em95t man gave z a reason = reject+ ,newton's s*eme ( ! sol> sy/em1 t ,god c\ld n make a body revolve r\nd a di/ant c5tre1 unless ei!r by "s impell+ me*anism1 or by miracle3--8,t\t ce qui n'e/ pas explicable10 says he 9 a lett] to ! ,abb ,conti1 8p> la nature des cratures1 e/ miraculeux4 ,il ne suffit pas de dire3 ,dieu a fait une telle loi de nature2 donc la *ose e/ naturelle4 ,il faut que la loi soit excutable p> les natures des cratures4 ,si ,dieu donnait cette loi1 p> exemple1 un corps libre1 de t\rn] l'ent\r d'un c]ta9 c5tre1 il faudrait ou qu'il y joignt d'autres corps qui p> leur impulsion l'obligeass5t de re/] t\j\rs dans son orbite circulaire1 ou quil mt un ange ses tr\sses1 ou enf9 il faudrait qu'il y conc\rt extraord9airem5t2 c> naturellem5t il s'c>t]a p> la tang5te40--,works ( ,leibnitz1 ed4 ,dut5s1 iii4 #ddf4 #df ,phil4 ,ind4 ,sc4 ii4 #agd4 #dg ,phil4 ,ind4 ,sc4 i41 #bch4 #dh ,phil4 ,ind4 ,sc4 i4 #bcg4 #di ,ibid4 #bac4 #ej ,ibid4 #chd1 #che4 #ea ,9 8 rec5t pamphlet 7p4 #ha71 ,dr4 ,:ewell greatly att5uates ! op9ion "h quot$1 r$uc+ x to a surmise 8t if we c\ld conceive ! composition ( bodies di/9ctly1 we might be able to see t x is necess>y t ! modes ( _! composition %\ld be def9ite40 ,! passage 9 ! text ass]ts t we already see1 or may & ought to see1 ?is necessity2 giv+ z ! reason1 t no o!r mode ( comb9ation is conceivable4 ,t ,dr4 ,:ewell %\ld ev] h made ?is /atem5t1 is en\gh = ! purposes ( my illu/ration4 ,to :at he n[ says ,i h no?+ to object4 ,und\bt$ly1 if we und]/ood ! ultimate molecul> composition ( bodies1 we might f9d t _! comb9+ ) "o ano!r 9 def9ite proportions is1 9 ! pres5t ord] ( nature1 a necess>y consequ5ce ( t molecul> composition2 & has ?us ! only k9d ( necessity ( :i*1 9 my view ( ! subject1 any law ( nature is susceptible4 ,b 9 t case1 ! doctr9e w\ld be tak5 out ( ! class ( axioms altoge!r4 ,x w\ld be no long] an ultimate pr9ciple1 b a m]e d]ivative law2 reg>d$ z necess>y1 n because self-evid5t1 b because demon/rable4 #eb ,! ,qu>t]ly ,review = ,june #ahda1 conta9s an article ( great ability on ,dr4 ,:ewell's two great works1 ! writ] ( :i* ma9ta9s1 on ! subject ( axioms1 ! doctr9e advanc$ 9 ! text1 t !y are g5]alizations f exp]i5ce1 & supports t op9ion by a l9e ( argum5t /rik+ly co9cid+ ) m9e4 ,:5 ,i /ate t ! :ole ( ! pres5t *apt] 0 writt5 be=e ,i _h se5 ! article1 7! great] "p1 inde$1 be=e x 0 publi%$17 x is n my object to occupy ! read]'s att5tion ) a matt] s unimportant z ! degree ( orig9ality :i* may or may n belong to any portion ( my own speculations1 b to obta9 = an op9ion :i* is oppos$ to reign+ doctr9es1 ! recomm5dation d]iv$ f a /rik+ concurr5ce ( s5tim5t betwe5 two inquir]s entirely indep5d5t ( "o ano!r4 ,i embrace ! opportunity ( cit+ f a writ] ( ! ext5sive acquirem5ts 9 physical & metaphysical k & ! capacity ( sy/ematic ?\ght :i* ! article ev9ces1 passages s rem>kably 9 unison ) my own views z ! foll[+3-- 8,! tru?s ( geometry are summ$ up & embodi$ 9 its def9itions & axioms4444 ,let u turn to ! axioms1 & :at d we f9d8 ,a /r+ ( propositions conc]n+ magnitude 9 ! ab/ract1 :i* are equally true ( space1 "t1 =ce1 numb]1 & e o!r magnitude susceptible ( aggregation & subdivision4 ,su* propositions1 :]e !y are n m]e def9itions1 z "s ( !m are1 c>ry _! inductive orig9 on ! face ( _! enunciation4444 ,^? :i* decl>e t two /raight l9es _c inclose a space1 & t two /raight l9es :i* cut "o ano!r _c bo? be p>allel to a ?ird1 are 9 reality ! only ones :i* express *>act]i/ic prop]ties ( space1 & ^! x w be wor? :ile to consid] m ne>ly4 ,n[ ! only cle> notion we c =m ( /raightness is uni=mity ( direction1 = space 9 its ultimate analysis is no?+ b an assemblage ( di/ances & directions4 ,& 7n to dwell on ! notion ( cont9u$ contemplation1 i4e41 m5tal exp]i5ce1 z includ$ 9 ! v idea ( uni=mity2 nor on t ( transf] ( ! contemplat+ be+ f po9t to po9t1 & ( exp]i5ce1 dur+ su* transf]1 ( ! homog5eity ( ! int]val pass$ ov]7 we _c ev5 propose ! proposition 9 an intelligible =m1 to any "o ^: exp]i5ce ev] s9ce he 0 born has n assur$ him ( ! fact4 ,! unity ( direction1 or t we _c m>* f a giv5 po9t by m ?an "o pa? direct to ! same object1 is matt] ( practical exp]i5ce long be=e x c by possibility become matt] ( ab/ract ?\ght4 ,we _c attempt m5tally to exemplify ! conditions ( ! ass]tion 9 an imag9>y case oppos$ to x1 )\t violat+ our habitual recollection ( ?is exp]i5ce1 & defac+ our m5tal picture ( space z gr\nd$ on x4 ,:at b exp]i5ce1 we may ask1 c possibly assure u ( ! homog5eity ( ! p>ts ( di/ance1 "t1 =ce1 & measurable aggregates 9 g5]al1 on :i* ! tru? ( ! o!r axioms dep5ds8 ,z reg>ds ! latt] axiom1 aft] :at has be5 said x mu/ be cle> t ! v same c\rse ( rem>ks equally applies to its case1 & t its tru? is q z mu* =c$ on ! m9d z t ( ! =m] by daily & h\rly exp]i5ce 444 includ+ always1 be x obs]v$1 9 our notion ( exp]i5ce1 t :i* is ga9$ by contemplation ( ! inw>d picture :i* ! m9d =ms to itself 9 any propos$ case1 or :i* x arbitr>ily selects z an example--su* picture1 9 virtue ( ! extreme simplicity ( ^! prim>y relations1 be+ call$ up by ! imag9ation ) z mu* vividness & cle>ness z c\ld be done by any ext]nal impression1 :i* is ! only mean+ we c atta* to ! ^w intuition1 z appli$ to su* relations40 ,& aga91 ( ! axioms ( me*anics3--8,z we admit no su* propositions1 o!r ?an z tru?s inductively collect$ f obs]vation1 ev5 9 geometry itself1 x c h>dly be expect$ t1 9 a sci5ce ( obvi\sly cont+5t relations1 we %\ld acquiesce 9 a contr>y view4 ,let u take "o ( ^! axioms & exam9e its evid5ce3 = in/ance1 t equal =ces p]p5dicul>ly appli$ at ! opposite ends ( equal arms ( a /raight lev] w balance ea* o!r4 ,:at b exp]i5ce1 we may ask1 9 ! fir/ place1 c possibly in=m u t a =ce s appli$ w h any t5d5cy to turn ! lev] on its c5tre at all8 or t =ce c be s transmitt$ along a rigid l9e p]p5dicul> to its direction1 z to act else:]e 9 space ?an along its own l9e ( action8 ,surely ?is is s f> f be+ self-evid5t t x has ev5 a p>adoxical appe>ance1 :i* is only to be remov$ by giv+ our lev] ?ickness1 mat]ial composition1 & molecul> p[]s4 ,aga9 we conclude1 t ! two =ces1 be+ equal & appli$ "u precisely simil> circum/ances1 mu/1 if !y ex]t any ef=t at all to turn ! lev]1 ex]t equal & opposite ef=ts3 b :at priori reason+ c possibly assure u t !y d act "u precisely simil> circum/ances8 t po9ts :i* diff] 9 place are simil>ly circum/anc$ z reg>ds ! ex]tion ( =ce8 t univ]sal space may n h relations to univ]sal =ce--or1 at all ev5ts1 t ! organization ( ! mat]ial univ]se may n be su* z to place t portion ( space occupi$ by x 9 su* relations to ! =ces ex]t$ 9 x1 z may invalidate ! absolute simil>ity ( circum/ances assum$8 ,or we may argue1 :at h we to d ) ! notion ( angul> movem5t 9 ! lev] at all8 ,! case is "o ( re/1 & ( quiesc5t de/ruction ( =ce by =ce4 ,n[ h[ is ?is de/ruction effect$8 ,assur$ly by ! c\nt]-pressure :i* supports ! fulcrum4 ,b w\ld n ?is de/ruction equally arise1 & by ! same am\nt ( c\nt]act+ =ce1 if ea* =ce simply press$ its own half ( ! lev] aga9/ ! fulcrum8 ,& :at c assure u t x is n s1 except removal ( "o or o!r =ce1 & consequ5t tilt+ ( ! lev]8 ,! o!r fundam5tal axiom ( /atics1 t ! pressure on ! po9t ( support is ! sum ( ! weights 444 is m]ely a sci5tific trans=mation & m ref9$ mode ( /at+ a co>se & obvi\s result ( univ]sal exp]i5ce1 viz4 t ! weight ( a rigid body is ! same1 h&le x or susp5d x 9 :at position or by :at po9t we w1 & t :atev] su/a9s x su/a9s its total weight4 ,assur$ly1 z ,mr4 ,:ewell ju/ly rem>ks1 #8,no "o probably ev] made a trial = ! purpose ( %[+ t ! pressure on ! support is equal to ! sum ( ! weights' 444 ,b x is precisely because 9 e action ( 8 life f e>lie/ infancy he has be5 cont9ually mak+ ! trial1 & see+ x made by e o!r liv+ be+ ab\t him1 t he nev] dreams ( /ak+ its result on "o additional attempt made ) sci5tific accuracy4 ,?is w\ld be z if a man %\ld resolve to decide by exp]im5t :e!r 8 eyes 7 useful = ! purpose ( see+1 by h]metically seal+ himself up = half an h\r 9 a metal case40 ,on ! 8p>adox ( univ]sal propositions obta9$ by exp]i5ce10 ! same writ] says3 8,if !re be necess>y & univ]sal tru?s expressible 9 propositions ( axiomatic simplicity & obvi\sness1 & hav+ = _! subject-matt] ! elem5ts ( all our exp]i5ce & all our k1 surely ^! are ! tru?s :i*1 if exp]i5ce sugge/ to u any tru?s at all1 x ought to sugge/ mo/ readily1 cle>ly1 & unceas+ly4 ,if x 7 a tru?1 univ]sal & necess>y1 t a net is spread ov] ! :ole surface ( e planet>y globe1 we %\ld n travel f> on our own )\t gett+ entangl$ 9 its me%es1 & mak+ ! necessity ( "s means ( extrication an axiom ( locomotion4444 ,!re is1 !re=e1 no?+ p>adoxical1 b ! rev]se1 9 our be+ l$ by obs]vation to a recognition ( su* tru?s1 z g5]al propositions1 coext5sive at lea/ ) all human exp]i5ce4 ,t !y p]vade all ! objects ( exp]i5ce1 mu/ ensure _! cont9ual sugge/ion by exp]i5ce2 t !y are true1 mu/ ensure t consi/5cy ( sugge/ion1 t it]ation ( uncontradict$ ass]tion1 :i* comm&s implicit ass5t1 & removes all occasion ( exception2 t !y are simple1 & admit ( no misund]/&+1 mu/ secure _! admission by e m9d40 8,a tru?1 necess>y & univ]sal1 relative to any object ( our k1 mu/ v]ify itself 9 e in/ance :]e t object is be=e our contemplation1 & if at ! same "t x be simple & intelligible1 its v]ification mu/ be obvi\s4 ,! s5tim5t ( su* a tru? _c1 !re=e1 b be pres5t to our m9ds :5ev] t object is contemplat$1 & mu/ !re=e make a "p ( ! m5tal picture or idea ( t object :i* we may on any occasion summon be=e our imag9ation4444 ,all propositions1 !re=e1 become n only untrue b inconceivable1 if 444 axioms be violat$ 9 _! enunciation40 ,ano!r high au?ority 7if inde$ x be ano!r au?ority7 may be cit$ 9 fav\r ( ! doctr9e t axioms re/ on ! evid5ce ( induction4 8,! axioms ( geometry !mselves may be reg>d$ z 9 "s sort an appeal to exp]i5ce1 n corporeal1 b m5tal4 ,:5 we say1 ! :ole is great] ?an its "p1 we ann\nce a g5]al fact1 :i* re/s1 x is true1 on our ideas ( :ole & "p2 b1 9 ab/ract+ ^! notions1 we beg9 by consid]+ !m z subsi/+ 9 space1 & "t1 & body1 & aga91 9 l9e>1 & sup]ficial1 & solid space4 ,aga91 :5 we say1 ! equals ( equals are equal1 we m5tally make comp>isons1 9 equal spaces1 equal times1 c41 s t ^! axioms1 h[ev] self-evid5t1 are /ill g5]al propositions s f> ( ! inductive k9d1 t1 indep5d5tly ( exp]i5ce1 !y w\ld n pres5t !mselves to ! m9d4 ,! only diff]5ce betwe5 ^! & axioms obta9$ f ext5sive induction is ?is1 t1 9 rais+ ! axioms ( geometry1 ! in/ances (f] !mselves spontane\sly1 & )\t ! tr\ble ( se>*1 & are few & simple2 9 rais+ ^? ( nature1 !y are inf9itely num]\s1 complicat$1 & remote1 s t ! mo/ dilig5t rese>* & ! utmo/ acut5ess are requir$ to unravel _! web & place _! mean+ 9 evid5ce40--,,sir ,j4 ,,h]s*el's ,disc\rse on ! ,/udy ( ,natural ,philosophy1 pp4 #ie1 #if4 #ec ,dr4 ,:ewell ?9ks x improp] to apply ! t]m ,induction to any op]ation n t]m9at+ 9 ! e/abli%m5t ( a g5]al tru?4 ,induction1 he says 79 p4 #ae ( 8 pamphlet7 8is n ! same ?+ z exp]i5ce & obs]vation4 ,induction is exp]i5ce or obs]vation consci\sly look$ at 9 a g5]al =m4 ,?is consci\sness & g5]ality are necess>y p>ts ( t k :i* is sci5ce40 ,& he objects 7p4 #h7 to ! mode 9 :i* ! ^w ,induction is employ$ 9 ?is "w1 z an undue ext5sion ( t t]m 8n only to ! cases 9 :i* ! g5]al induction is consci\sly appli$ to a p>ticul> in/ance1 b to ! cases 9 :i* ! p>ticul> in/ance is dealt ) by means ( exp]i5ce 9 t rude s5se 9 :i* exp]i5ce c be ass]t$ ( brutes1 & 9 :i* ( c\rse we c 9 no way imag9e t ! law is possess$ or und]/ood z a g5]al proposition40 ,?is use ( ! t]m he deems a 8confusion ( k ) practical t5d5cies40 ,i disclaim1 z /rongly z ,dr4 ,:ewell c d1 ! application ( su* t]ms z induction1 inf]5ce1 or reason+1 to op]ations p]=m$ by m]e in/9ct1 t is1 f an animal impulse1 )\t ! ex]tion ( any intellig5ce4 ,b ,i p]ceive no gr\nd = conf9+ ! use ( ^? t]ms to cases 9 :i* ! inf]5ce is drawn 9 ! =ms & ) ! precautions requir$ by sci5tific propriety4 ,to ! idea ( ,sci5ce1 an express recognition & di/9ct appreh5sion ( g5]al laws z su*1 is ess5tial3 b n9e-t5?s ( ! conclusions drawn f exp]i5ce 9 ! c\rse ( practical life1 are drawn )\t any su* recognition3 !y are direct inf]5ces f kn[n cases1 to a case suppos$ to be simil>4 ,i h endeav\r$ to %ew t ?is is n only z legitimate an op]ation1 b sub/antially ! same op]ation1 z t ( asc5d+ f kn[n cases to a g5]al proposition2 7except t ! latt] process has "o great security = correctness :i* ! =m] does n possess74 ,9 ,sci5ce1 ! inf]5ce mu/ necess>ily pass ?r\gh ! int]m$iate /age ( a g5]al proposition1 because ,sci5ce wants its conclusions = record1 & n = in/antane\s use4 ,b ! inf]5ces drawn = ! guidance ( practical affairs1 by p]sons :o w\ld (t5 be q incapable ( express+ 9 unexceptionable t]ms ! correspond+ g5]alizations1 may & frequ5tly d exhibit intellectual p[]s q equal to any :i* h ev] be5 display$ 9 ,sci5ce3 & if ^! inf]5ces are n inductive1 :at are !y8 ,! limitation impos$ on ! t]m by ,dr4 ,:ewell seems p]fectly arbitr>y2 nei!r ju/ifi$ by any fundam5tal di/9ction betwe5 :at he includes & :at he desires to exclude1 nor sanction$ by usage1 at lea/ f ! "t ( ,reid & ,/ew>t1 ! pr9cipal legislators 7z f> z ! ,engli% language is conc]n$7 ( mod]n metaphysical t]m9ology4 #ed ,supr1 p4 #bad4 #ee ,phil4 ,ind4 ,sc4 ii4 #bac1 #bad4 #ef ,ibid4 #eg ,phil4 ,ind4 ,sc4 ii4 p4 #agc4 #eh ,c\rs de ,philosophie ,positive1 vol4 ii1 p4 #bjb4 #ei ,dr4 ,:ewell1 9 8 reply1 conte/s ! di/9ction "h drawn1 & ma9ta9s1 t n only diff]5t descriptions1 b diff]5t explanations ( a ph5om5on1 may all be true4 ,( ! ?ree !ories respect+ ! motions ( ! heav5ly bodies1 he says 7p4 #be73 8,und\bt$ly all ^! explanations may be true & consi/5t ) ea* o!r1 & w\ld be s if ea* _h be5 foll[$ out s z to %ew 9 :at mann] x c\ld be made consi/5t ) ! facts4 ,& ?is 01 9 reality1 9 a great measure done4 ,! doctr9e t ! heav5ly bodies 7 mov$ by vortices 0 successively modifi$1 s t x came to co9cide 9 its results ) ! doctr9e ( an inv]se-quadratic c5tripetal =ce4444 ,:5 ?is po9t 0 rea*$1 ! vortex 0 m]ely a ma*9]y1 well or ill devis$1 = produc+ su* a c5tripetal =ce1 & !re=e did n contradict ! doctr9e ( a c5tripetal =ce4 ,newton himself does n appe> to h be5 av]se to expla9+ gravity by impulse4 ,s little is x true t if "o !ory be true ! o!r mu/ be false4 ,! attempt to expla9 gravity by ! impulse ( /reams ( p>ticles fl[+ ?r\gh ! univ]se 9 all directions1 :i* ,i h m5tion$ 9 ! ,philosophy1 is s f> f be+ inconsi/5t ) ! ,newtonian !ory1 t x is f\nd$ entirely ^u x4 ,& ev5 ) reg>d to ! doctr9e1 t ! heav5ly bodies move by an inh]5t virtue2 if ?is doctr9e _h be5 ma9ta9$ 9 any su* way t x 0 br\ght to agree ) ! facts1 ! inh]5t virtue mu/ h _h its laws det]m9$2 & !n x w\ld h be5 f\nd t ! virtue _h a ref]5ce to ! c5tral body2 & s1 ! #8inh]5t virtue' mu/ h co9cid$ 9 its effect ) ! ,newtonian =ce2 & !n1 ! two explanations w\ld agree1 except s f> z ! ^w #8inh]5t' 0 conc]n$4 ,& if su* a "p ( an e>li] !ory z ?is ^w inh]5t indicates1 is f\nd to be unt5able1 x is ( c\rse reject$ 9 ! transition to lat] & m exact !ories1 9 ,inductions ( ?is k9d1 z well z 9 :at ,mr4 ,mill calls ,descriptions4 ,!re is1 !re=e1 /ill no validity discov]able 9 ! di/9ction :i* ,mr4 ,mill attempts to draw betwe5 descriptions l ,kepl]'s law ( elliptical orbits1 & o!r examples ( induction40 ,if ! doctr9e ( vortices _h meant1 n t vortices exi/$1 b only t ! planets mov$ 9 ! same mann] z if !y _h be5 :irl$ by vortices2 if ! hypo!sis _h be5 m]ely a mode ( repres5t+ ! facts1 n an attempt to acc\nt = !m2 if1 9 %ort1 x _h be5 only a ,description2 x w\ld1 no d\bt1 h be5 reconcileable ) ! ,newtonian !ory4 ,! vortices1 h[ev]1 7 n a m]e aid to conceiv+ ! motions ( ! planets1 b a suppos$ physical ag5t1 actively impell+ !m2 a mat]ial fact1 :i* might be true or n true1 b c\ld n be bo? true & n true4 ,accord+ to ,desc>tes' !ory x 0 true1 accord+ to ,newton's x 0 n true4 ,dr4 ,:ewell probably means t s9ce ! phrases1 c5tripetal & projectile =ce1 d n decl>e ! nature b only ! direction ( ! =ces1 ! ,newtonian !ory does n absolutely contradict any hypo!sis :i* may be fram$ respect+ ! mode ( _! production4 ,! ,newtonian !ory1 reg>d$ z a m]e description ( ! planet>y motions1 does n2 b ! ,newtonian !ory z an explanation ( !m does4 ,= 9 :at does ! explanation consi/8 ,9 ascrib+ ^? motions to a g5]al law :i* obta9s betwe5 all p>ticles ( matt]1 & 9 id5tify+ ?is ) ! law by :i* bodies fall to ! gr\nd2 a k9d ( motion :i* ! vortices did n1 & z x 0 rectil9eal1 c\ld n1 expla94 ,! "o explanation1 !re=e1 absolutely excludes ! o!r4 ,ei!r ! planets are n mov$ by vortices1 or !y d n move by ! law by :i* heavy bodies fall4 ,x is impossible t bo? op9ions c be true4 ,z well might x be said t !re is no contradiction betwe5 ! ass]tions1 t a man di$ because somebody kill$ him1 & t he di$ a natural dea?4 ,s1 aga91 ! !ory t ! planets move by a virtue inh]5t 9 _! cele/ial nature1 is incompatible ) ei!r ( ! two o!rs2 ei!r t ( _! be+ mov$ by vortices1 or t :i* reg>ds !m z mov+ by a prop]ty :i* !y h 9 common ) ! e>? & all t]re/rial bodies4 ,dr4 ,:ewell says1 t ! !ory ( an inh]5t virtue agrees ) ,newton's :5 ! ^w inh]5t is left out1 :i* ( c\rse x w\ld be 7he says7 if 8f\nd to be unt5able40 ,b leave t out1 & :]e is ! !ory8 ,! ^w inh]5t is ! !ory4 ,:5 t is omitt$1 !re rema9s no?+ except t ! heav5ly bodies move by 8a virtue10 i4e4 by a p[] ( "s sort4 ,if ,dr4 ,:ewell is n yet satisfi$1 any o!r subject w s]ve equally well to te/ 8 doctr9e4 ,he w h>dly say t !re is no contradiction betwe5 ! emission !ory & ! undulatory !ory ( light2 or t !re c be bo? "o & two electricities2 or t ! hypo!sis ( ! production ( ! high] organic =ms by developm5t f ! l[]1 & ! supposition ( sep>ate & successive acts ( creation1 are q reconcileable2 or t ! !ory t volcanoes are f$ f a c5tral fire1 & ! doctr9es :i* ascribe !m to *emical action at a comp>atively small dep? bel[ ! e>?'s surface1 are consi/5t ) "o ano!r1 & all true z f> z !y g4 ,if diff]5t explanations ( ! same fact _c bo? be true1 /ill less1 surely1 c diff]5t pr$ictions4 ,dr4 ,:ewell qu>rels 7on :at gr\nd x is n necess>y to consid]7 ) ! example ,i _h *os5 on ?is po9t1 & ?9ks an objection to an illu/ration a suffici5t answ] to a !ory4 ,examples n liable to 8 objection are easily f\nd1 if ! proposition t conflict+ pr$ictions _c bo? be true1 c be made cle>] by any examples4 ,suppose ! ph5om5on to be a newly-discov]$ comet1 & t "o a/ronom] pr$icts its return once 9 e #cjj ye>s--ano!r1 once 9 e #djj3 c !y bo? be "r8 ,:5 ,columbus pr$ict$ t by sail+ con/antly we/w>d he %\ld 9 "t return to ! po9t f :i* he set out1 :ile o!rs ass]t$ t he c\ld nev] d s except by turn+ back1 7 bo? he & 8 oppon5ts true prophets8 ,7 ! pr$ictions :i* =etold ! wond]s ( railways & /eam%ips1 & ^? :i* av]r$ t ! ,atlantic c\ld nev] be cross$ by /eam navigation1 nor a railway tra9 propell$ t5 miles an h\r1 bo? 79 ,dr4 ,:ewell's words7 8true1 & consi/5t ) "o ano!r08 ,dr4 ,:ewell sees no di/9ction betwe5 hold+ contradictory op9ions on a "q ( fact1 & m]ely employ+ diff]5t analogies to facilitate ! conception ( ! same fact4 ,! case ( diff]5t ,inductions belongs to ! =m] class1 t ( diff]5t ,descriptions to ! latt]4 #fj ,( ,induction1 p4 #cc4 #fa ,b ?\gh x is a condition ( ! validity ( e induction t !re be uni=mity 9 ! c\rse ( nature1 x is n a necess>y condition t ! uni=mity %\ld p]vade all nature4 ,x is en\gh t x p]vades ! p>ticul> class ( ph5om5a to :i* ! induction relates4 ,an induction conc]n+ ! motions ( ! planets1 or ! prop]ties ( ! magnet1 w\ld n be vitiat$ ?\gh we 7 to suppose t w9d & wea!r are ! sport ( *ance1 provid$ x be assum$ t a/ronomical & magnetic ph5om5a are "u ! dom9ion ( g5]al laws4 ,o!rwise ! e>ly exp]i5ce ( mank9d w\ld h re/$ on a v weak f\ndation2 = 9 ! infancy ( sci5ce x c\ld n be said to be kn[n t all ph5om5a are regul> 9 _! c\rse4 ,nei!r w\ld x be correct to say t e induction by :i* we inf] any tru?1 implies ! g5]al fact ( uni=mity z =ekn[n1 ev5 9 ref]5ce to ! k9d ( ph5om5a conc]n$4 ,x implies1 ei!r t ?is g5]al fact is already kn[n1 or t we may n[ "k x3 z ! conclusion1 ,! ,duke ( ,well+ton is mortal1 drawn f ! in/ances ,a1 ,b1 & ,c1 implies ei!r t we h already conclud$ all m5 to be mortal1 or t we are n[ entitl$ to d s f ! same evid5ce4 ,a va/ am\nt ( confusion & p>alogism respect+ ! gr\nds ( ,induction w\ld be dispell$ by keep+ 9 view ^! simple consid]ations4 #fb ,infra1 *ap4 xxi4 #fc ,infra1 *ap4 xxi1 xxii4 #fd ,dr4 ,:ewell 7,( ,induction1 p4 #af7 w n all[ ^! & simil> errone\s op9ions to be call$ inductions2 inasmu* z su* sup]/iti\s fancies 87 n collect$ f ! facts by seek+ a law ( _! occurr5ce1 b 7 sugge/$ by an imag9ation ( ! ang] ( sup]ior p[]s1 %[n by su* deviations f ! ord9>y c\rse ( nature40 ,i conceive ! "q to be1 n 9 :at mann] ^! notions 7 at fir/ sugge/$1 b by :at evid5ce !y h1 f "t to "t1 be5 suppos$ to be sub/antiat$4 ,if ! believ]s 9 ^! errone\s op9ions _h be5 put on _! def5ce1 !y w\ld h ref]r$ to exp]i5ce2 to ! comet :i* prec$$ ! assass9ation ( ,julius ,cs>1 or to oracles & o!r prophecies kn[n to h be5 fulfill$4 ,x is by su* appeals to facts t all analog\s sup]/itions1 ev5 9 our day1 attempt to ju/ify !mselves2 ! suppos$ evid5ce ( exp]i5ce is :at really gives !m _! hold on ! m9d4 ,i q admit t ! influ5ce ( su* co9cid5ces w\ld n be :at x is1 if /r5g? 7 n l5t to x by an antec$5t presumption2 b ?is is n peculi> to su* cases2 preconceiv$ notions ( probability =m "p ( ! explanation ( _m o!r cases ( belief on insuffici5t evid5ce4 ,! priori prejudice does n prev5t ! errone\s op9ion f be+ s9c]ely reg>d$ z a legitimate conclusion f exp]i5ce2 b is1 on ! contr>y1 ! v ?+ :i* pr$isposes ! m9d to t int]pretation ( exp]i5ce4 ,?us mu* 9 def5ce ( ! sort ( examples object$ to4 ,b x w\ld be easy to produce in/ances1 equally adapt$ to ! purpose1 & 9 :i* no antec$5t prejudice is at all conc]n$4 8,= _m ages10 says ,ar*bi%op ,:ately1 8all f>m]s & g>d5]s 7 firmly conv9c$--& conv9c$ ( _! kn[+ x by exp]i5ce--t ! crops w\ld nev] turn out good unless ! se$ 7 s[n dur+ ! increase ( ! moon40 ,?is 0 induction1 b bad induction3 j z a vici\s syllogism is reason+1 b bad reason+4 #fe ,! ass]tion1 t any & e "o ( ! conditions ( a ph5om5on may be & is1 on "s occasions & = "s purposes1 spok5 ( z ! cause1 has be5 disput$ by an intellig5t review] ( ?is "w1 7,prospective ,review = ,febru>y #ahej17 :o ma9ta9s t 8we always apply ! ^w cause r to t elem5t 9 ! antec$5ts :i* ex]cises =ce1 & :i* w\ld t5d at all times to produce ! same or a simil> effect to t :i*1 "u c]ta9 conditions1 x w\ld actually produce40 ,& he says1 t 8e "o w\ld feel0 ! expression1 t ! cause ( a surprise 0 ! s5t9el's be+ (f 8 po/1 to be incorrect2 b t 8! allurem5t or =ce :i* drew him (f 8 po/1 might be s call$1 because 9 do+ s x remov$ a resi/+ p[] :i* w\ld h prev5t$ ! surprise40 ,i _c ?9k t x w\ld be wrong to say1 t ! ev5t took place because ! s5t9el 0 abs5t1 & yet "r to say t x took place because he 0 brib$ to be abs5t4 ,s9ce ! only direct effect ( ! bribe 0 8 abs5ce1 ! bribe c\ld be call$ ! remote cause ( ! surprise1 only on ! supposition t ! abs5ce 0 ! proximate cause2 nor does x seem to me t any "o1 :o _h n a !ory to support1 w\ld use ! "o expression & reject ! o!r4 ,! review] obs]ves1 t :5 a p]son dies ( poison1 8 possession ( bodily organs is a necess>y condition1 b t no "o w\ld ev] speak ( x z ! cause4 ,i admit ! fact2 b ,i believe ! reason to be1 t ! occasion c\ld nev] arise = s speak+ ( x2 = :5 9 ! inaccuracy ( common disc\rse we are l$ to speak ( "s "o condition ( a ph5om5on z its cause1 ! condition s spok5 ( is always "o :i* x is at lea/ possible t ! he>] may require to be in=m$ (4 ,! possession ( bodily organs is a kn[n condition1 & to give t z ! answ]1 :5 ask$ ! cause ( a p]son's dea?1 w\ld n supply ! in=mation s\ght4 ,once conceive t a d\bt c\ld exi/ z to 8 hav+ bodily organs1 or t he 7 to be comp>$ ) "s be+ :o _h !m n1 & cases may be imag9$ 9 :i* x might be said t 8 possession ( !m 0 ! cause ( 8 dea?4 ,if ,fau/ & ,mephi/opheles toge!r took poison1 x might be said t ,fau/ di$ because he 0 a human be+1 & _h a body1 :ile ,mephi/opheles surviv$ because he 0 a _s4 ,x is = ! same reason1 t no "o 7z ! review] rem>ks7 8calls ! cause ( a leap1 ! muscles or s9ews ( ! body1 ?\gh !y are necess>y conditions2 nor ! cause ( a self-sacrifice1 ! k :i* 0 necess>y = x2 nor ! cause ( writ+ a book1 t a man has "t = x1 :i* is a necess>y condition40 ,^! conditions 7besides t !y are antec$5t /ates1 & n proximate antec$5t ev5ts1 & are !re=e nev] ! conditions 9 close/ app>5t proximity to ! effect7 are all ( !m s obvi\sly impli$1 t x is h>dly possible !re %\ld exi/ t necessity = insi/+ on !m1 :i* alone gives occasion = speak+ ( a s+le condition z if x 7 ! cause4 ,:]ev] ?is necessity exi/s 9 reg>d to "s "o condition1 & does n exi/ 9 reg>d to any o!r1 ,i conceive t x is consi/5t ) usage1 :5 sci5tific accuracy is n aim$ at1 to apply ! "n cause to t "o condition4 ,if ! only condition :i* c be suppos$ to be unkn[n is a negative condition1 ! negative condition may be spok5 ( z ! cause4 ,x might be said t a p]son di$ = want ( m$ical advice3 ?\gh ?is w\ld n be likely to be said1 unless ! p]son 0 already und]/ood to be ill2 & 9 ord] to indicate t ?is negative circum/ance 0 :at made ! illness fatal1 & n ! weakness ( 8 con/itution1 or ! orig9al virul5ce ( ! disease4 ,x might be said t a p]son 0 dr[n$ because he c\ld n swim2 ! positive condition1 namely t he fell into ! wat]1 be+ already impli$ 9 ! ^w dr[n$4 ,& "h let me rem>k1 t 8 fall+ into ! wat] is 9 ?is case ! only positive condition3 all ! conditions n expressly or virtually includ$ 9 ?is 7z t he c\ld n swim1 t nobody help$ him1 & s =?7 are negative4 ,yet1 if x 7 simply said t ! cause ( a man's dea? 0 fall+ into ! wat]1 !re w\ld be q z great a s5se ( impropriety 9 ! expression1 z !re w\ld be if x 7 said t ! cause 0 8 inability to swim2 because1 ?\gh ! "o condition is positive & ! o!r negative1 x w\ld be felt t nei!r ( !m 0 suffici5t1 )\t ! o!r1 to produce dea?4 ,) reg>d to ! ass]tion t no?+ is t]m$ ! cause1 except ! elem5t :i* ex]ts active =ce2 ,i waive ! "q z to ! mean+ ( active =ce1 & accept+ ! phrase 9 its popul> s5se1 ,i rev]t to a =m] example1 & ,i ask1 w\ld x be m agreeable to cu/om to say t a man fell because 8 foot slipp$ 9 climb+ a ladd]1 or t he fell because ( 8 weight--= 8 weight1 & n ! motion ( 8 foot1 0 ! active =ce :i* det]m9$ 8 fall4 ,if a p]son walk+ out 9 a fro/y day1 /umbl$ & fell1 x might be said t he /umbl$ because ! gr\nd 0 slipp]y1 or because he 0 n suffici5tly c>eful2 b few p1 ,i suppose1 w\ld say t he /umbl$ because he walk$4 ,yet ! only active =ce conc]n$ 0 t :i* he ex]t$ 9 walk+3 ! o!rs 7 m]e negative conditions2 b !y happ5$ to be ! only ones :i* !re c\ld be any necessity to /ate2 = he walk$1 mo/ likely1 9 exactly 8 usual mann]1 & ! negative conditions made all ! diff]5ce4 ,aga91 if a p]son 7 ask$ :y ! army ( ,x]xes defeat$ t ( ,leonidas1 he w\ld probably say1 because !y 7 a ?\s& times ! numb]2 b ,i d n ?9k he w\ld say1 x 0 because !y f\ght2 al?\gh t 0 ! elem5t ( active =ce4 ,! review] adds1 8!re are "s conditions absolutely passive1 & yet absolutely necess>y to physical ph5om5a1 viz41 ! relations ( space & "t2 & to ^! no "o ev] applies ! ^w cause )\t be+ imm$iately arre/$ by ^? :o he> him40 ,ev5 f ?is /atem5t ,i am compell$ to diss5t4 ,few p]sons w\ld feel x incongru\s to say 7= example7 t a secret became kn[n because x 0 spok5 ( :5 ,a4 ,b4 0 )9 he>+2 :i* is a condition ( space2 or t ! cause :y "o ( two p>ticul> trees is tall] ?an ! o!r1 is t x has be5 long] plant$2 :i* is a condition ( "t4 #ff ,!re are a few exceptions2 = !re are "s prop]ties ( objects :i* seem to be purely prev5tive2 z ! prop]ty ( opaque bodies1 by :i* !y int]cept ! passage ( light4 ,?is1 z f> z we are able to und]/& x1 appe>s an in/ance n ( "o cause c\nt]act+ ano!r by ! same law :]eby x produces its own effects1 b ( an ag5cy :i* manife/s itself 9 no o!r way ?an 9 defeat+ ! effects ( ano!r ag5cy4 ,if we knew on :at o!r relations to light1 or on :at peculi>ities ( /ructure1 opacity dep5ds1 we might f9d t ?is is only an app>5t1 n a real1 exception to ! g5]al proposition 9 ! text4 ,9 any case x ne$s n affect ! practical application4 ,! =mula :i* includes all ! negative conditions ( an effect 9 ! s+le "o ( ! abs5ce ( c\nt]act+ causes1 is n violat$ by su* cases z ?is2 ?\gh1 if all c\nt]act+ ag5cies 7 ( ?is description1 !re w\ld be no purpose s]v$ by employ+ ! =mula1 s9ce we %\ld /ill h to enum]ate specially ! negative conditions ( ea* ph5om5on1 in/ead ( reg>d+ !m z implicitly conta9$ 9 ! positive laws ( ! v>i\s o!r ag5cies 9 nature4 #fg ,i use ! words 8/raight l9e0 = brevity & simplicity4 ,9 reality ! l9e 9 "q is n exactly /raight1 =1 f ! effect ( refraction1 we actually see ! sun = a %ort int]val dur+ :i* ! opaque mass ( ! e>? is int]pos$ 9 a direct l9e betwe5 ! sun & our eyes2 ?us realiz+1 ?\gh b to a limit$ ext5t1 ! covet$ desid]atum ( see+ r\nd a corn]4 #fh ,! review] ( ,dr4 ,:ewell 9 ! ,qu>t]ly ,review4 #fi ,to ! univ]sality :i* mank9d are agre$ 9 ascrib+ to ! ,law ( ,causation1 !re is "o claim ( exception1 "o disput$ case1 t ( ! ,human ,w2 ! det]m9ations ( :i*1 a l>ge class ( metaphysicians are n will+ to reg>d z foll[+ ! causes call$ motives1 accord+ to z /rict laws z ^? :i* !y suppose to exi/ 9 ! _w ( m]e matt]4 ,?is controv]t$ po9t w und]go a special exam9ation :5 we come to treat p>ticul>ly ( ! ,logic ( ! ,moral ,sci5ces1 7,book vi4 *4 #b74 ,9 ! meantime ,i may rem>k t ^! metaphysicians1 :o1 x mu/ be obs]v$1 gr\nd ! ma9 "p ( _! objection on ! suppos$ repugnance ( ! doctr9e 9 "q to our consci\sness1 seem to me to mi/ake ! fact :i* consci\sness te/ifies aga9/4 ,:at is really 9 contradiction to consci\sness1 !y w\ld1 ,i ?9k1 on /rict self-exam9ation1 f9d to be1 ! application to human actions & volitions ( ! ideas involv$ 9 ! common use ( ! t]m ,necessity2 :i* ,i agree ) !m 9 object+ to4 ,b if !y w\ld consid] t by say+ t a p]son's actions necess>ily foll[ f 8 "*1 all t is really meant 7= no m is meant 9 any case :atev] ( causation7 is t he inv>iably does act 9 con=mity to 8 "*1 & t any "o :o ?or\ghly knew 8 "* c\ld c]ta9ly pr$ict h[ he w\ld act 9 any supposable case2 !y probably w\ld n f9d ?is doctr9e ei!r contr>y to _! exp]i5ce or revolt+ to _! feel+s4 ,& no m ?an ?is is cont5d$ = by any "o b an ,asiatic fatali/4 #gj ,unless we are to consid] z su* ! foll[+ /atem5t1 by "o ( ! writ]s quot$ 9 ! text3 8,9 ! case ( m5tal ex]tion1 ! result to be accompli%$ is preconsid]$ or m$itat$1 & is !re=e kn[n priori1 or be=e exp]i5ce40--7,b[5's ,l[ell ,lectures on ! ,application ( ,metaphysical & ,e?ical ,sci5ce to ! ,evid5ce ( ,religion1 ,bo/on1 #ahdi47 ,?is is m]ely say+ t :5 we w a ?+ we h an idea ( x4 ,b to h an idea ( :at we wi% to happ51 does n imply a prophetic k t x w happ54 ,p]haps x w be said t ! fir/ "t we ex]t$ our w1 :5 we _h ( c\rse no exp]i5ce ( any ( ! p[]s resid+ 9 u1 we nev]!less mu/ already h kn[n t we possess$ !m1 s9ce we _c w t :i* we d n believe to be 9 our p[]4 ,b ! impossibility is p]haps 9 ! words only1 & n 9 ! facts2 = we may desire :at we d n "k to be 9 our p[]2 & f9d+ by exp]i5ce t our bodies move accord+ to our desire1 we may !n1 & only !n1 pass into ! m complicat$ m5tal /ate :i* is t]m$ w4 ,aft] all1 ev5 if we _h an in/9ctive k t our actions w\ld foll[ our w1 ?is1 z ,br[n rem>ks1 w\ld prove no?+ z to ! nature ( ,causation4 ,our kn[+1 previ\s to exp]i5ce1 t an antec$5t w be foll[$ by a c]ta9 consequ5t1 w\ld n prove ! relation betwe5 !m to be any?+ m ?an antec$5ce & consequ5ce4 #ga ,reid's ,essays on ! ,active ,p[]s1 ,essay iv4 *4 #c4 #gb ,prospective ,review = ,febru>y #ahej4 #gc ,vide supra1 p4 #bfg1 note4 #gd ,9 combat+ ! !ory1 t ,volition is ! univ]sal cause1 ,i h purposely ab/a9$ f "o ( ! /ronge/ positive argum5ts aga9/ x--t volitions !mselves obey causes1 & ev5 ext]nal causes1 namely1 ! inducem5ts1 or motives1 :i* det]m9e ! w to act2 because an objector might say t to employ ?is argum5t w\ld be begg+ ! "q aga9/ ! fre$om ( ! w4 ,?\gh x is n begg+ ! "q to affirm a doctr9e1 ref]r+ else:]e = ! pro( ( x1 ,i am unwill+ )\t necessity to build any "p ( my reason+ on a proposition :i* ,i am aw>e t ^? oppos$ to me 9 ! pres5t discussion d n admit4 #ge ,i omit1 = simplicity1 to take into acc\nt ! effect1 9 ?is latt] case1 ( ! dim9ution ( pressure1 9 dim9i%+ ! fl[ ( wat] ?r\gh ! dra92 :i* evid5tly 9 no way affects ! tru? or applicability ( ! pr9ciple4 #gf ,unless1 inde$1 ! consequ5t 0 g5]at$ n by ! antec$5t1 b by ! means we employ$ to produce ! antec$5t4 ,z1 h[ev]1 ^! means are "u our p[]1 !re is s f> a probability t !y are also suffici5tly )9 our k1 to enable u to judge :e!r t c\ld be ! case or n4 #gg ,disc\rse on ! ,/udy ( ,natural ,philosophy1 p4 #agi4 #gh ,= ?is speculation ,i am indebt$ to ,mr4 ,alex&] ,ba94 #gi ,?is view ( ! necess>y coexi/5ce ( opposite excitem5ts involves a great ext5sion ( ! orig9al doctr9e ( two electricities4 ,! e>ly !ori/s assum$ t1 :5 amb] 0 rubb$1 ! amb] 0 made positive & ! rubb] negative to ! same degree2 b x nev] occurr$ to !m to suppose t ! exi/5ce ( ! amb] *>ge 0 dep5d5t on an opposite *>ge 9 ! bodies ) :i* ! amb] 0 contigu\s1 :ile ! exi/5ce ( ! negative *>ge on ! rubb] 0 equally dep5d5t on a contr>y /ate ( ! surfaces t might accid5tally be confront$ ) x2 t1 9 fact1 9 a case ( electrical excitem5t by friction1 f\r *>ges 7 ! m9imum t c\ld exi/4 ,b ?is d\ble electrical action is ess5tially impli$ 9 ! explanation n[ univ]sally adopt$ 9 reg>d to ! ph5om5a ( ! common electric ma*9e4 #hj ,pp4 #aei-afb4 #ha ,infra1 book iv41 *ap4 ii4 ,on ,ab/raction4 #hb ,i mu/1 h[ev]1 rem>k1 t ?is example1 :i* seems to militate aga9/ ! ass]tion we made ( ! comp>ative inapplicability ( ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce to cases ( pure obs]vation1 is really "o ( ^? exceptions :i*1 accord+ to a prov]bial expression1 prove ! g5]al rule4 ,= ?is case1 9 :i* ,nature1 9 h] exp]im5t1 seems to h imitat$ ! type ( ! exp]im5ts made by man1 %e has only succe$$ 9 produc+ ! lik5ess ( man's mo/ imp]fect exp]im5ts2 namely1 ^? 9 :i*1 ?\gh he succe$s 9 produc+ ! ph5om5on1 he does s by employ+ complex means1 :i* he is unable p]fectly to analyse1 & c =m !re=e no suffici5t judgm5t :at portion ( ! effects may be due1 n to ! suppos$ cause1 b to "s unkn[n ag5cy ( ! means by :i* t cause 0 produc$4 ,9 ! natural exp]im5t :i* we are speak+ (1 ! means us$ 0 ! cle>+ (f a canopy ( cl\ds2 & we c]ta9ly d n "k suffici5tly 9 :at ?is process consi/s1 or on :at x dep5ds1 to be c]ta9 priori t x might n op]ate ^u ! deposition ( dew indep5d5tly ( any !rmometric effect at ! e>?'s surface4 ,ev51 !re=e1 9 a case s fav\rable z ?is to ,nature's exp]im5tal tal5ts1 h] exp]im5t is ( little value except 9 corroboration ( a conclusion already atta9$ ?r\gh o!r means4 #hc ,disc\rse1 pp4 #aef-h1 & #aga4 #hd ,outl9es ( ,a/ronomy1 p4 #ehd4 #he ,dr4 ,:ewell1 9 8 reply1 expresses a v unfav\rable op9ion ( ! utility ( ! ,f\r ,me?ods1 z well z ( ! aptness ( ! examples by :i* ,i h attempt$ to illu/rate !m4 ,8 words are ^! 7pp4 #dd-f73 8,^u ^! me?ods1 ! obvi\s ?+ to rem>k is1 t !y take = grant$ ! v ?+ :i* is mo/ difficult to discov]1 ! r$uction ( ! ph5om5a to =mul su* z are "h pres5t$ to u4 ,:5 we h any set ( complex facts (f]$ to u2 = in/ance1 ^? :i* 7 (f]$ 9 ! cases ( discov]y :i* ,i h m5tion$1--! facts ( ! planet>y pa?s1 ( fall+ bodies1 ( refract$ rays1 ( cosmical motions1 ( *emical analysis2 & :51 9 any ( ^! cases1 we w\ld discov] ! law ( nature :i* gov]ns !m1 or1 if any "o *ooses s to t]m x1 ! feature 9 :i* all ! cases agree1 :]e are we to look = our ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 & a1 b1 c8 ,nature does n pres5t to u ! cases 9 ?is =m2 & h[ are we to r$uce !m to ?is =m8 ,y say1 :5 we f9d ! comb9ation ( ,a ,b ,c ) a b c & ,a ,b ,d ) a b d1 !n we may draw our inf]5ce4 ,grant$2 b :5 & :]e are we to f9d su* comb9ations8 ,ev5 n[ t ! discov]ies are made1 :o w po9t out to u :at are ! ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 & a1 b1 c elem5ts ( ! cases :i* h j be5 enum]at$8 ,:o w tell u :i* ( ! me?ods ( inquiry ^? hi/orically real & successful inquiries exemplify8 ,:o w c>ry ^! =mul ?r\gh ! hi/ory ( ! sci5ces1 z !y h really gr[n up2 & %ew u t ^! f\r me?ods h be5 op]ative 9 _! =mation2 or t any light is ?r[n ^u ! /eps ( _! progress by ref]5ce to ^! =mul80 ,he adds t1 9 ?is "w1 ! me?ods h n be5 appli$ 8to a l>ge body ( conspicu\s & und\bt$ examples ( discov]y1 ext5d+ along ! :ole hi/ory ( sci5ce10 :i* ought to h be5 done 9 ord] t ! me?ods might be %[n to possess ! 8advantage0 7:i* he claims z belong+ to 8 own7 ( be+ ^? 8by :i* all great discov]ies 9 sci5ce h really be5 made40--7p4 #ff47 ,!re is a /rik+ simil>ity betwe5 ! objections "h made aga9/ ,canons ( ,induction1 & :at 0 alleg$1 9 ! la/ c5tury1 by z able m5 z ,dr4 ,:ewell1 aga9/ ! ackn[l$g$ ,canon ( ,ratioc9ation4 ,^? :o prote/$ aga9/ ! ,ari/otelian ,logic said ( ! ,syllogism1 :at ,dr4 ,:ewell says ( ! ,inductive ,me?ods1 t x 8takes = grant$ ! v ?+ :i* is mo/ difficult to discov]1 ! r$uction ( ! argum5t to =mul su* z are "h pres5t$ to u40 ,! gr& difficulty1 !y said1 is to obta9 y\r syllogism1 n to judge ( its correctness :5 obta9$4 ,on ! matt] ( fact1 bo? !y & ,dr4 ,:ewell are "r4 ,! greate/ difficulty 9 bo? cases is fir/ t ( obta9+ ! evid5ce1 & next1 ( r$uc+ x to ! =m :i* te/s its conclusiv5ess4 ,b if we try s to r$uce x )\t kn[+ to :at1 we are n likely to make mu* progress4 ,x is a m difficult ?+ to solve a geometrical problem1 ?an to judge :e!r a propos$ solution is correct3 b if p 7 n able to judge ( ! solution :5 f\nd1 !y w\ld h little *ance ( f9d+ x4 ,& x _c be pret5d$ t to judge ( an induction :5 f\nd1 is p]fectly easy1 is a ?+ = :i* aids & in/rum5ts are sup]flu\s2 = errone\s inductions1 false inf]5ces f exp]i5ce1 are q z common1 on "s subjects mu* common]1 ?an true ones4 ,! bus9ess ( ,inductive ,logic is to provide rules & models 7su* z ! ,syllogism & its rules are = ratioc9ation7 to :i* if inductive argum5ts con=m1 ^? argum5ts are conclusive1 & n o!rwise4 ,?is is :at ! ,f\r ,me?ods pr(ess to be1 & :at ,i believe !y are univ]sally consid]$ to be by exp]im5tal philosoph]s1 :o _h practis$ all ( !m long be=e any "o s\ght to r$uce ! practice to !ory4 ,! assailants ( ! ,syllogism _h also anticipat$ ,dr4 ,:ewell 9 ! o!r bran* ( 8 argum5t4 ,!y said t no discov]ies 7 ev] made by syllogism2 & ,dr4 ,:ewell says1 or seems to say1 t none 7 ev] made by ! f\r ,me?ods ( ,induction4 ,to ! =m] objectors1 ,ar*bi%op ,:ately v p]t95tly answ]$1 t _! argum5t1 if good at all1 0 good aga9/ ! reason+ process altoge!r2 = :atev] _c be r$uc$ to syllogism1 is n reason+4 ,& ,dr4 ,:ewell's argum5t1 if good at all1 is good aga9/ all inf]5ces f exp]i5ce4 ,9 say+ t no discov]ies 7 ev] made by ! f\r ,me?ods1 he affirms t none 7 ev] made by obs]vation & exp]im5t2 = assur$ly if any 71 x 0 by "o or o!r ( ^? me?ods4 ,?is diff]5ce betwe5 u acc\nts = ! dissatisfaction :i* my examples give him2 = ,i did n select !m ) a view to satisfy any "o :o requir$ to be conv9c$ t obs]vation & exp]im5t are modes ( acquir+ k3 ,i confess t 9 ! *oice ( !m ,i ?\ght only ( illu/ration1 & ( facilitat+ ! conception ( ! ,me?ods by concrete in/ances4 ,if x _h be5 my object to ju/ify ! processes !mselves z means ( inve/igation1 !re w\ld h be5 no ne$ to look f> (f1 or make use ( recondite or complicat$ in/ances4 ,z a specim5 ( a tru? asc]ta9$ by ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t1 ,i might h *os5 ! proposition1 8,dogs b>k40 ,?is dog1 & t dog1 & ! o!r dog1 answ] to ,a ,b ,c1 ,a ,d ,e1 ,a ,f ,g4 ,! circum/ance ( be+ a dog1 answ]s to ,a4 ,b>k+ answ]s to a4 ,z a tru? made kn[n by ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce1 8,fire burns0 might h suffic$4 ,be=e ,i t\* ! fire ,i am n burnt2 ?is is ,b ,c2 ,i t\* x1 & am burnt2 ?is is ,a ,b ,c1 a ,b ,c4 ,su* famili> exp]im5tal processes are n reg>d$ z inductions by ,dr4 ,:ewell2 b !y are p]fectly homog5e\s ) ^? by :i*1 ev5 on 8 own %ew+1 ! pyramid ( sci5ce is suppli$ ) its base4 ,9 va9 he attempts to escape f ?is tru? by lay+ ! mo/ arbitr>y re/rictions on ! *oice ( examples admissible z in/ances ( ,induction3 !y mu/ nei!r be su* z are /ill matt] ( discussion 7p4 #dg71 nor mu/ any ( !m be drawn f m5tal & social subjects 7p4 #ec71 nor f ord9>y obs]vation & practical life 7pp4 #aa-ae74 ,!y mu/ be tak5 exclusively f ! g5]alizations by :i* sci5tific ?9k]s h asc5d$ to great & compreh5sive laws ( natural ph5om5a4 ,n[ x is seldom possible1 9 ^! complicat$ inquiries1 to g mu* beyond ! initial /eps1 )\t call+ 9 ! in/rum5t ( ,d$uction1 & ! tempor>y aid ( hypo!ses2 z ,i myself1 9 common ) ,dr4 ,:ewell1 h ma9ta9$ aga9/ ! purely empirical s*ool4 ,s9ce !re=e su* cases c\ld n conv5i5tly be select$ to illu/rate ! pr9ciples ( m]e obs]vation & exp]im5t1 ,dr4 ,:ewell takes advantage ( _! abs5ce to repres5t ! ,exp]im5tal ,me?ods z s]v+ no purpose 9 sci5tific inve/igation2 =gett+ t if ^? me?ods _h n suppli$ ! fir/ g5]alizations1 !re w\ld h be5 no mat]ials = 8 own conception ( ,induction to "w ^u4 ,8 *all5ge1 h[ev]1 to po9t out :i* ( ! f\r me?ods are exemplifi$ 9 c]ta9 important cases ( sci5tific inquiry1 is easily answ]$4 8,! planet>y pa?s10 z f> z !y are a case ( induction at all1 7see1 on ?is po9t1 ! second *apt] ( ! pres5t ,book7 fall "u ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t4 ,! law ( 8fall+ bodies10 namely t !y describe spaces proportional to ! squ>es ( ! times1 0 hi/orically a d$uction f ! fir/ law ( motion2 b ! exp]im5ts by :i* x 0 v]ifi$1 & by :i* x might h be5 discov]$1 7 examples ( ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t2 & ! app>5t v>iation f ! true law1 caus$ by ! resi/ance ( ! air1 0 cle>$ up by exp]im5ts 9 vacuo1 con/itut+ an application ( ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce4 ,! law ( 8refract$ rays10 7! con/ancy ( ! ratio betwe5 ! s9es ( incid5ce & ( refraction = ea* refract+ sub/ance7 0 asc]ta9$ by direct measurem5t1 & !re=e by ! ,me?od ( ,agreem5t4 ,! 8cosmical motions0 7 det]m9$ by highly complex processes ( ?\ght1 9 :i* ,d$uction 0 pr$om9ant1 b ! ,me?ods ( ,agreem5t & ( ,concomitant ,v>iations _h a l>ge "p 9 e/abli%+ ! empirical laws4 ,e case )\t exception ( 8*emical analysis0 con/itutes a well m>k$ example ( ! ,me?od ( ,diff]5ce4 ,to any "o acqua9t$ ) ! subjects--to ,dr4 ,:ewell himself1 !re w\ld n be ! smalle/ difficulty 9 sett+ out 8! ,a ,b ,c & a b c elem5ts0 ( ^! cases4 ,if discov]ies are ev] made by obs]vation & exp]im5t )\t ,d$uction1 ! f\r me?ods are me?ods ( discov]y3 b ev5 if !y 7 n me?ods ( discov]y1 x w\ld n be ! less true t !y are ! sole me?ods ( ,pro(2 & 9 t "*1 ev5 ! results ( ,d$uction are am5able to !m4 ,! great g5]alizations :i* beg9 z ,hypo!ses mu/ end by be+ prov$1 & are 9 reality 7z w be %[n h]eaft]7 prov$ by ! ,f\r ,me?ods4 ,n[ x is ) ,pro(1 z su*1 t ,logic is pr9cipally conc]n$4 ,?is di/9ction has inde$ no *ance ( f9d+ fav\r ) ,dr4 ,:ewell2 = x is ! peculi>ity ( 8 sy/em n to recognise1 9 cases ( ,induction1 any necessity = pro(4 ,if1 aft] assum+ an hypo!sis & c>efully collat+ x ) facts1 no?+ is br\ght to light inconsi/5t ) x1 t is1 if exp]i5ce does n disprove x1 he is cont5t3 at lea/ until a simpl] hypo!sis1 equally consi/5t ) exp]i5ce1 pres5ts itself4 ,if ?is be ,induction1 d\btless !re is no necessity = ! f\r me?ods4 ,b to suppose t x is s1 appe>s to me a radical misconception ( ! nature ( ! evid5ce ( physical tru?s4 #hf ,ante1 p4 #cgh4 #hg ,x seems h>dly necess>y to say t ! ^w imp+es1 z a g5]al t]m to express collision ( =ces1 0 "h us$ by a figure ( spee*1 & n z expressive ( any !ory respect+ ! nature ( =ce4 #hh ,essays on "s ,unsettl$ ,que/ions ( ,political ,economy1 ,essay ,v4 #hi ,!re is no dang] ( conf\nd+ ?is acceptation ( ! t]m ) ! peculi> employm5t ( ! phrase 8tang5tial =ce0 9 ! !ory ( ! planet>y p]turbations4 #ij ,supr1 p4 #dbj4 #ia ,z corroborat+ ! op9ion t ! protoxide ( iron 9 ! v5\s blood is only p>tially c>bonat$1 ! fact has be5 sugge/$1 t ! sy/em %[s great read9ess to absorb an extra quantity ( c>bonic acid1 z furni%$ 9 eff]vesc+ dr9ks4 ,9 su* cases ! acid mu/ comb9e ) some?+1 & t some?+ is n improbably ! free protoxide4 ,x w\ld be wor? asc]ta9+ :e!r ! protoxide itself or its c>bonate has ! greate/ facility 9 absorb+ oxyg5 & turn+ itself into hydrat$ p]oxide 9 ! lungs4 ,if ! c>bonate1 !n ! b5eficial effect1 on ! animal economy1 ( dr9ks :i* give an artificial supply ( c>bonic acid to ! sy/em1 w\ld be1 to t ext5t1 d$uctively e/abli%$4 #ib ,x 0 an old g5]alization 9 surg]y1 t tight b&ag+ _h a t5d5cy to prev5t or dissipate local inflammation4 ,?is sequ5ce1 be+1 9 ! progress ( physiological k1 resolv$ into m g5]al laws1 l$ to ! important surgical inv5tion made by ,dr4 ,arnott1 ! treatm5t ( local inflammation & tum\rs by means ( an equable pressure1 produc$ by a bladd] p>tially fill$ ) air4 ,! pressure1 by keep+ back ! blood f ! "p1 prev5ts ! inflammation1 or ! tum\r1 f be+ n\ri%$2 9 ! case ( inflammation1 x removes ! /imulus1 :i* ! organ is unfit to receive3 9 ! case ( tum\rs1 by keep+ back ! nutritive fluid x causes ! absorption ( matt] to exce$ ! supply1 & ! diseas$ mass is gradually absorb$ & disappe>s4