,transcriber's ,note3 ,the main text in 
this book is interspersed with numerous 
illustrations and accompanying text4 ,in
 this e-book1 the illustrations and     
accompanying text are set off from the  
main text by lines of asterisks4 ,for   
the reader's convenience1 where the     
original indicates that the main text is
 continued on another page 7e4g41       
,,continued ,,on ,,page ,,three71 the   
page on which it is continued is marked 
with a page number1 e4g41 ,,page #c4    
,,special ,,exhibition   ,,the ,,arts   
,,of ,,persia   ,,other ,,countries ,,of
 ,,islam   ,h4 ,,kevorkian ,,collection 
,illustration  ,,from ,,thursday1       
,,april ,,twenty-,,second ,,to          
,,saturday1 ,,may ,,fifteenth1          
,,inclusive ,,on ,,the ,,entire ,,third 
,,floor   ,,the ,,anderson ,,galleries  
#dhi ,,park ,,avenue ,,at               
,,fifty-,,ninth ,,street1 ,,new ,,york  
#aibf   ,,the ,,entire ,,third ,,floor  
,,galleries ,,from ,,thursday1 ,,april  
,,twenty-,,second ,,to ,,saturday1 ,,may

 ,,fifteenth1 ,,inclusive ,,open        
,,week-,,days1 #i-f2 ,,sundays1 #b-e    
,p4,m4         99       99       99     
99       99  ,illustration3 ,,stucco    
,,bas-,,relief1 ,,painted ,,in          
,,polychrome4 ,,excavated ,,at ,,ray    
7,,rhages7 ,,anterior ,,to ,,the ,,xiith
 ,,century  ,this exhibition has been   
arranged with a desire to meet the      
convenience of those who are interested 
in manifestations of the arts of        
different countries over which ,,islam  
held sway at one time or other in the   
past4 ,an effort has been made to show  
under one roof representative examples  
of works produced at different epochs   
and stages of the civilizations referred
 to1 so that they may be seen1 and      
perhaps studied1 with the minimum       
expenditure of time4  ,fine examples of 
many branches of the arts of these      
peoples are in permanent exhibitions at 
the ,metropolitan ,museum1 ,new ,york1  
and the museums of great cities         
throughout the country4 ,it is difficult

 to find adequate words to describe the 
enchanting atmosphere of the halls at   
the ,metropolitan ,museum where ,near   
,eastern art is installed2 and the same 
can truly be said of the ,museum of     
,fine ,arts1 ,boston1 and the           
,university of ,pennsylvania ,museum1   
,philadelphia4 ,these exhibitions must  
inevitably contribute to the enjoyment  
and education of countless visitors to  
these institutions1 and will continue to
 do so in increasing degree to the      
enjoyment of generations to come4  ,the 
present exhibition does not comprise a  
vast number of objects4 ,its claim to   
attention lies in the fact that it      
includes an important series of really  
first class works which are also of     
great historical importance4 ,there will
 be on view as well some comparatively  
new types of objects of aesthetic and   
archaeological interest1 obtained as the
 result of recent excavations4  ,the    
briefness of time available precluded   
the possibility of compiling a          

catalogue1 as was at first intended4    
,the present booklet is issued to       
explain the scope of the exhibition1 and
 extend a cordial invitation to visit   
it4  ,h4,k4         99       99       99
       99       99  ,illustration3      
,,muhammad 7,,the ,,prophet7 ,,witnesses
 ,,ali 7,,his ,,son-,,in-,,law ,,and    
,,successor7 ,,defeat ,,amr ,,ben       
,,abdwad  ,one of the eight             
illustrations for a ,x,i,i,ith ,century 
,persian ,manuscript entitled1 ,,history
 ,,of ,,tabari1 compiled ,a4,h4 #caj    
7,a4,d4 #ibb74 ,the present copy is a   
subsequent one of the ,persian version1 
translated by ,,al ,b',,ala',,mi1 ,a4,h4
 #ceb4  ,it is interesting to note that 
,,tabari records in the book here       
referred to1 that three messages were   
sent by ,,muhammad to ,,khusraw         
,,parniz1 imparting the divine warnings4
 ,one of the messages1 as recorded in an
 old ,manuscript entitled ,,nihayat     
,,ul-,,irab1 reads3  ,in the name of    
,god1 the merciful1 the compassionate4  

,from ,,muhammad the ,apostle of ,god to
 ,,khusraw son of ,,hurmazd4 ,but to    
proceed4 ,verily ,i extol unto thee     
,god1 beside whom there is no other     
,god4 ,he it is who guarded me when ,i  
was an orphan1 and made me rich when ,i 
was destitute1 and guided me when ,i was
 straying in error4 ,only he who is     
bereft of understanding1 and over whom  
calamity triumphs1 rejects the message  
which ,i am sent to announce4 ,o        
,,khusraw1 submit and thou shalt be     
safe1 or else prepare to wage with ,god 
and with his ,apostle a war which shall 
not find them helpless4 ,farewell4      
99       99       99       99       99  
,illustration  ,the rise of ,,islam and 
its rapid advent to power1 is perhaps   
the most surprising chapter of the      
history of mankind4 ,the great empires1 
,persian and ,byzantine1 which were     
subjected to the urgent onslaught of    
this rising power may have been in an   
enfeebled condition as a result of      
excess of despotism and internal        

dissensions1 as historians affirm2 but  
that the element of the power must have 
been in the rationality of the          
principles contained in the teaching1   
there can be no doubt4  ,it was         
undoubtedly to ,,islam1 that simple yet 
majestic creed of which no unprejudiced 
student can ignore the grandeur1 that   
,arabs owed the splendid part which they
 were destined to play in the history of
 civilization4 ,in judging of the       
,arabian ,prophet1 western critics are  
too often inclined to ignore the        
condition from which he raised his      
country1 and to forget that many        
institutions which they condemn were not
 introduced but only tolerated by       
,,islam4 ,the early ,muslims were very  
sensible of the immense amelioration in 
their life effected by ,,muhammad',s    
teachings4 ,what this same amelioration 
was is well shown in the following      
passage from the oldest extant biography
 of the ,prophet1 says ,professor ,g4   
,browne in his memorable work on        

,persia1#a and quotes ,,ibn ,,hisham    
7,a4,h4 #bac3 ,a4,d4 #hbh7 in support4  
,footnote #a3 ,literary ,history of     
,persia1 by ,edward ,g4 ,browne1 ,m4,a41
 ,m4,b41 ,vol4 ,i1 page #ahf4  ,during  
the first half of the seventh century1  
says ,,dozy in  ,,continued ,,on ,,page 
,,three         99       99       99    
99       99  ,illustration3 ,,accession 
,,at ,,kufa1 ,a4,d4 #gdi1 ,,of          
,,abu',l-,,abbas ,,abdullah             
,,as-,,saffah ,,first ,,caliph ,,of     
,,the ,,house ,,of ,,abbas  ,one of     
eight illustrations for a ,x,i,i,ith    
,century ,manuscript entitled1 ,,history
 ,,of ,,tabari1 compiled ,a4,h4 #caj    
7,a4,d4 #ibb74 ,the present copy is a   
subsequent one of the ,persian version1 
translated by ,,al ,b',,ala',,mi1 ,a4,h4
 #ceb4  ,it was a dynasty abounding in  
good qualities1 richly endowed with     
generous attributes1 wherein the wares  
of science found a ready sale1 the      
merchandise of culture was in great     
demand1 the observances of religion were

 respected1 charitable bequests flowed  
freely 444 and the frontiers were       
bravely kept4--,,al-,,fakhri 7historian 
of fame of the ,x,i,i,ith ,century7 on  
the ,,abbasid ,dynasty4         99      
99       99       99       99  ,,page #c
  his excellent work on ,,islam1#b      
everything followed its accustomed      
course in the ,byzantine as in the      
,persian ,empire4 ,these two states     
continued always to dispute the         
possession of western ,asia2 they were1 
to all outward appearance1 flourishing2 
the taxes which poured into the         
treasuries of their ,kings reached      
considerable sums1 and the magnificence1
 as well as the luxury of their capitals
 had become proverbial4 ,but all this   
was but in appearance1 for secret       
disease consumed both empires2 they were
 burdened by a crushing despotism2 on   
either hand the history of the dynasties
 formed a concatenation of horrors1 that
 of the state a series of persecutions  
born of dissensions in religious        

matters4 ,at this juncture it was that1 
all of a sudden1 there emerged from     
deserts hardly known and appeared on the
 scene of the world a new people1       
hitherto divided into innumerable nomad 
tribes1 who1 for the most part1 had been
 at war with one another1 now for the   
first time united4 ,it was this people1 
passionately attached to liberty1 simple
 in their food and dress1 noble and     
hospitable1 gay and witty1 but at the   
same time proud1 irascible1 and1 once   
their passions were aroused1 vindictive1
 irreconcilable and cruel1 who overthrew
 in an instant the venerable but rotten 
empire of the ,persians1 snatched from  
the successors of ,constantine their    
fairest provinces1 trampled under their 
feet a ,germanic kingdom but lately     
founded1 and menaced the rest of        
,europe1 while at the same time1 at the 
other end of the world1 its victorious  
armies penetrated to the ,himalayas4    
,yet it was not like so many other      
conquering peoples1 for it preached at  

the same time a new religion4 ,in       
opposition to the dualism of the        
,persians and a degenerate              
,christianity1 it announced a pure      
monotheism which was accepted by        
millions of men1 and which1 even in our 
own time1 constitutes the religion of a 
tenth part of the human race4  ,footnote
 #b3 ,translated into ,french by ,victor
 ,chauvin under the title of ,essai sur 
l',histoire de l',islamisme 7,leyden and
 ,paris1 #ahgi74  ,the teachings of     
,,muhammad were not of a nature to      
arouse  ,,continued ,,on ,,page ,,five  
99       99       99       99       99  
,illustration3 ,,polychrome ,,enamelled 
,,glass ,,mosque ,,lamp ,,of ,,the      
,,xiiith ,,century  ,very few examples  
of this highly advanced art survive4    
,they represent an extremely            
aristocratic manifestation of art and   
were executed by order of ,,mameluke    
,,caliphs of ,egypt1 and dedicated by   
them to their great ,mosques1           
individually inscribed in magnificent   

calligraphy4         99       99        
99       99       99  ,,page #e         
intolerance4#c ,history does not record 
the practice of compulsory conversion in
 the scheme of conquest of early        
converts4 ,it is often supposed1 says   
,professor ,,browne1 that the choice    
offered by the warriors of ,,islam was  
between the ,,qur',,an and the ,,sword2 
this1 however1 is not the fact4 ,there  
are innumerable evidences to the        
contrary which history records4#d ,it   
appears that the exemplary behavior of  
the ,arabs1 under their newly acquired  
faith1 was the main factor not only in  
the success of their scheme of conquest1
 but also in the impression which it    
made on the defeated in determining them
 to adopt the faith which produced such 
upright warriors4  ,footnote #c3        
,righteousness is not that ye turn your 
faces to the ,east and to the ,west1 but
 righteousness is this3 ,whosoever      
believeth in ,god1 and the last day1 and
 the angels1 and the book1 and the      

prophets2 and whoso1 for the love of    
,god1 giveth of his wealth unto his     
kindred1 and unto orphans1 and the poor1
 and the traveller1 and to those who    
crave alms1 and for the release of the  
captives2 and whoso observeth prayer and
 giveth in charity2 and those who1 when 
they have covenanted1 fulfil their      
covenant2 and who are patient in        
adversity and hardship1 and in times of 
violence3 these are the righteous and   
they that fear the ,lord4--,,qur',,an1  
,,sura ,,ii4  ,footnote #d3 ,the treaty 
concluded by ,,habib ,b4 ,,maslama with 
the people of ,,dabil in ,armenia ran as
 follows3 ,in the name of ,god the      
merciful1 the clement4 ,this is a letter
 from ,,habib ,b4 ,,maslama to the      
people of ,,dabil1 ,christians1         
,magians1 and ,jews1 such of them as are
 present and such of them as are absent4
 ,verily ,i guarantee the safety of your
 lives1 properties1 churches1 temples   
and city walls2 ye are secure1 and it is
 incumbent upon us faithfully to observe

 this treaty so long as you observe it  
and pay the poll-tax and the land-tax4  
,god is witness1 and he sufficeth as a  
witness4--,,qur',,an1 ,v4 #ajd4         
,concerning the acceptance of the       
,poll-,tax from ,,zoroastrians1 as well 
as from ,jews and ,christians4 ,a4 ,,von
 ,,kremer',s ,kulturgeschichte d4       
,orients1 ,vol4 ,i1 page #ei4  ,the     
tremendous political upheaval that the  
evolution of ,,islam brought in its     
train to the affairs of the world does  
not fall within the scope of this paper4
 ,a highly important fact1 however1 must
 not be lost sight of1 that by          
consolidating and unifying the tottering
 states a new civilization was founded  
which knew how to turn to account the   
culture of the ancient states conquered4
 ,in this overwhelming transformation   
,persia came in1 from the outset1 to    
play the most conspicuous and important 
part4 ,the  ,,continued ,,on ,,page     
,,nine         99       99       99     
99       99  ,illustration3 ,,royal     

,,ivory ,,box1 ,,with ,,metal           
,,mounting4 ,,hispano-,,arabian ,,art1  
,,xiith-,,xiiith ,,century ,,decorated  
,,in ,,enamel ,,and ,,gold1 ,,depicting 
,,insignia ,,of ,,successors ,,of       
,,umayyad ,,caliphs ,,of ,,spain1 ,,and 
,,qur',,anic ,,rosettes ,,and ,,kufic   
,,calligraphy ,,of ,,the ,,highest      
,,distinction  ,illustration3 ,,faience 
,,cylindrical ,,vase1 ,,with ,,relief   
,,and ,,lustre ,,decoration4 ,,from     
,,fostat 7,,ancient ,,cairo71 ,,dynasty 
,,of ,,fatimid ,,anti-,,caliphs 7,a4,d4 
#igd-aaga7  ,illustration3 ,,an ,,early 
,,safawid ,,painting 7,,circa ,a4,d4    
#aebe7 ,,of ,,exquisite ,,rhythm1       
,,depth ,,and ,,dignity         99      
99       99       99       99  ,,page #i
  artistic productions of the           
,,muhammadan world that have come down  
to us as living monuments1 substantiate 
this statement without a shadow of      
doubt1 which makes it unnecessary to    
resort to recorded history1 although its
 pages abound with incontestable        

evidences4#e  ,footnote #e3 ,thus it is 
by no means correct to imply that the   
two or three centuries immediately      
following the ,,muhammadan conquest of  
,persia were a blank page in the        
intellectual life of its people4 ,it is1
 on the contrary1 a period of immense   
and unique interest1 of fusion between  
the old and the new1 of transformation  
of forms and transmigration of ideas1   
but in no wise of stagnation or death4  
,politically1 it is true1 ,persia ceased
 for a while to enjoy a separate        
national existence1 being merged in that
 great ,,muhammadan ,,empire which      
stretched from ,,gibraltar to the       
,,jaxartes2 but in the intellectual     
domain she soon began to assert the     
supremacy to which the ability and      
subtlety of her people entitled her4    
,even the forms of ,state organization  
were largely adapted from ,persian      
models4--,,al-,,fakhri 7ed4 ,,ahlwardt1 
page #aja71 on the organization of the  
,,diwans or ,government offices4  ,in   

the finance department not only was the 
,persian system adopted1 but the        
,persian language and notation continued
 to be used till the time of            
,,al-,,hajjaj ,b4 ,,yusuf 7about ,a4,d4 
#gjj74--;,,edward ,g4 ,,browne1         
,literary ,history of ,persia1 ,vol4 ,i1
 page #bjd4  ,it would be difficult to  
offer an explanation for the underlying 
unity and integrity of character        
manifest in the artistic expression of  
the ,,muhammadan countries1 of vast     
geographical range1 without a clear     
understanding of the vital force        
contained in the teachings of the       
,arabian ,apostle1 and the              
characteristics of his people1 destined 
to carry those teachings from one end of
 the earth to the other4 ,for this      
reason the foregoing brief survey has   
been ventured4  ,there can be no doubt  
that the pivot around which the artistic
 activities of ,,muhammadan countries   
revolved1 was ,persia4#f ,she was to    
attain the function of the ,,sun1       

element of  ,,continued ,,on ,,page     
,,seventeen         99       99       99
       99       99  ,,illustrations     
,,for ,,title-,,pages ,,of ,a ,,shahnama
 7,,epic ,,of ,,kings7 of the ,x,vth    
,century4  ,representing                
,,timur-,i-,,lang 7,a4,h4 #gcf-hjg7     
attending a festival4 ,the name and the 
full titles of ,,timur appear in        
excellent ,thuluth lettering round the  
border of the rug upon which the monarch
 sits4  ,this important ,manuscript was 
presented by the ,emperor of ,russia to 
the ,ambassador of ,persia at ,st4      
,petersburg1 ,a4,d4 #ahbi4 ,the         
,ambassador's autograph inscription     
reads3  ,the ,,shahnama graciously      
presented by ,h4,m4 the ,emperor at my  
third visit--may it be omen of good     
fortune4 ,,muhammad ,,ali ,,ibni        
,,ghafouri ,ambassador1 #bbnd of        
,,rajab1 ,a4,h4 #abde4  ,,timur ,,beg   
was seated in a portal1 in front of the 
entrance of a beautiful ,palace2 and he 
was sitting on the ground4444 ,the lord 

was seated cross-legged1 on silken      
embroidered carpets1 amongst round      
pillows4 ,he was dressed in a robe of   
silk1 with white headdress on his head1 
on the top of which there was a spinel  
ruby1 with pearls and precious stones   
round it4 ,as soon as the ambassadors   
saw the lord1 they made a reverential   
bow1 placing the knee on the ground1 and
 crossing the arms on the breast2 then  
they went forward and made another and  
then a third1 remaining with their knees
 on the ground4 ,the lord ordered them  
to rise and come forward4444 ,three     
,,mirzas1 or secretaries1 444 came and  
took the ambassadors by the arms1 and   
led them forward until they stood before
 the lord4444 ,he asked after the ,king1
 saying1 ',how is my son the ,king8 is  
he in good health8' ,when the           
ambassadors had answered1 ,,timur ,,beg 
turned to the knights who were seated   
around him1 amongst whom were one of the
 sons of ,,toktamish1 the former        
,emperor of ,,tartary1 several chiefs of

 the blood of the late ,emperor of      
,,samarquand1 and others of the family  
of the lord himself1 and said1 ',behold1
 here are the ambassadors sent by my    
son1 the ,king of ,spain1 who is the    
greatest ,king of ,franks1 and lives at 
the end of the world4 ,these ,franks are
 truly great people1 and ,i will give my
 benediction to the ,king of ,spain1 my 
son4--,from the ,diary of ,,ruy         
,,gonzalez ,,di ,,clavijo1 principal of 
the embassy despatched ,a4,d4 #adjd to  
the ,court of ,,samarquand by ,henry    
,,iii of ,castile1 ,spain4  ,,clavijo   
describes the beautiful gardens with    
their tiled palaces where banquets were 
given4 ,the ambassador1 who was invited1
 marvelled at the gorgeous tents1 one of
 which was so large and high that from a
 distance it looked like a castle1 and  
it was a very wonderful thing to see1   
and possessed more beauty than it is    
possible to describe4 ,it is interesting
 to notice that ,,sharaf-,u-,,din       
mentions the presence of the            

,ambassadors1 for1 he writes1 even the  
smallest of fish have their place in the
 sea4 ,truly a delightful               
touch6--,history of ,persia1 by ,,sir   
,,percy ,,sykes1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 page #acc4 
,illustration3 ,,illustrations ,,for    
,,title-,,pages ,,of ,a ,,shahnama      
7,,epic ,,of ,,kings7 ,,of ,,the ,,xvth 
,,century  ,on the extreme of the       
western side of the royal precincts     
opening on to the ,,chahar ,,bagh are a 
garden and building4 ,the ,garden was   
previously called ,,bagh ,i ,,bulbul    
7,garden of ,nightingales74--,,lord     
,,curzon1 ,history of ,persia4  ,night  
drawing on1 all the pride of ,,spahaun  
was met in the ,,chaur ,,baug and       
grandees were airing themselves1        
prancing about with their numerous      
trains1 striving to outdo each other in 
pomp and generosity4--,,dr4 ,,fryer1    
recorded ,a4,d4 #afgg4  ,,chardin1 who  
was at ,ispahan at the time of ,,shah   
,,suleiman',s reign 7#affg-afid71       
records in his ,,voyages1 ,vol4 ,,viii1 

page #dc3  ,when one walks in these     
places expressly made for the delights  
of love and when one passes through all 
these cabinets and niches1 one's heart  
is melted to such an extent that to     
speak candidly1 one always leaves with a
 very ill grace4 ,the climate without   
doubt contributes much towards exciting 
this amorous disposition1 but assuredly 
these places1 although in some respects 
little more than cardboard castles1 are 
nevertheless more smiling and agreeable 
than our most sumptuous palaces4  ,,lord
 ,,curzon says 7,history of ,persia1    
,vol4 ,,ii1 page #cg7 that ,even        
,,chardin1 enthusiastic but seldom      
sentimental1 was inspired to an unwonted
 outburst by the charms of ,,hasht      
,,bahisht4  ,illustration3 ,,view ,,of  
,,chahar ,,bagh 7,,four ,,gardens7 ,,and
 ,,hasht ,,bahisht 7,,pavilion ,,of     
,,eight ,,paradises7 ,,at ,,ispahan4    
,,constructed ,,by ,,shah ,,suleiman    
,,safawi ,,about ,a4,d4 #afgj4          
,,reproduction ,,from ,,la ,,perse1 ,,la

 ,,chaldee ,,et ,,la ,,susiane 7#ahhg7  
,,by ,,dieulafoy  ,,pair ,,of ,,doors   
,,from ,,the ,,pavilion ,,of ,,chahal   
,,situn 7,hall of ,forty ,pillars7 built
 by ,,shah ,,abbas the ,great 7,a4,d4   
#aehh-afbi74  ,these are decorated with 
representations of scenes from the      
,royal ,court of the great ,shah1       
painted minutely by ,court artists4     
,they transport us straight to the      
,court of the lordly ,,abbas and his    
predecessors or successors on the       
throne4444 ,we see the ,king engaged at 
some royal festivity enjoying the       
pleasure of the ,bowl4--,,lord ,,curzon1
 ,history of ,persia1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 page  
#cd4  ,,ker ,,porter1 who saw the       
,palace of ,chahal ,situn in its perfect
 condition1 records3 ,the exhaustless   
profusion of its splendid materials     
reflected not merely their own golden   
lights on each other1 but all the       
variegated colours of the ,garden1 so   
that the whole surface seemed formed of 
polished silver and mother of pearl set 

with precious stones4  ,,lord ,,curzon1 
who visited it soon after its last      
repair in #ahia1 quotes ,,ker ,,porter  
and by way of contrast says3 ,the bulk  
of this superb decoration which still   
remains in the ,,throne ,,room behind1  
to point bitter contrast1 had on the    
walls of the ,,loggia been ruthlessly   
obliterated by the brush of the painter1
 who had left in its place pink wash2   
had ,i caught the ,pagan1 ,i would      
gladly have suffocated him in a barrel  
of his own paint4--,history of ,persia1 
,vol4 ,,ii1 page #cc4  ,illustration3   
,,pair ,,of ,,doors ,,from ,,the        
,,pavilion ,,of ,,chahal ,,situn 7,,hall
 ,,of ,,forty ,,pillars7 ,,built ,,by   
,,shah ,,abbas ,,the ,,great 7,a4,d4    
#aehh-afbi7  ,illustration3 ,,riza      
,,abbasi1 ,,favored ,,court ,,artist1   
,,portrays ,,europeans ,,at ,,the       
,,court ,,of ,,shah ,,abbas ,,the       
,,great 7,a4,d4 #aehh-afbi7  ,detail of 
exquisitely painted woodwork from the   
,pavilion of ,,chahal ,,situn 7,hall of 

,forty ,pillars71 the ,palace at        
,ispahan built by ,,shah ,,abbas4  ,the 
young ,shah1 who was pleased with the   
leader of the party 7,europeans71 gave  
him royal gifts1 ,sir ,anthony ,sherley 
records 7#aeih71 including forty horses 
all furnished1 two with exceeding rich  
saddles1 plated with gold1 and set with 
rubies and turquoises4 ,to these he     
added camels1 tents1 and a sum of money4
         99       99       99       99  
99  ,,page #ag  her old faith1 source of
 sustaining energy2 and continued to    
radiate into these planets of countries 
and races of the ,system1 her           
all-stimulating cultural beams1 the     
reflection of which is discernible in   
all artistic manifestations of those    
countries4 ,in the field of literature1 
which is so little known in the western 
world1 the influence is even greater    
than in the visual art with which we are
 concerned4 ,,muhammadan literature1 be 
it ,arabic1 ,turkish1 or ,persian1 is   
,,persian in spirit and feeling4#g      

,footnote #f3 ,the ascendancy of the    
,persians over the ,arabs1 that is to   
say of the conquered over the victors1  
had already for a long while been in    
course of preparation2 it became        
complete when the ,,abbasids1 who owed  
their elevation to the ,persians1       
ascended the throne 7,a4,d4 #gdi74 ,the 
most distinguished personages at court  
were consequently ,persians4 ,the famous
 ,,barmecides were descended from a     
,persian noble who had been             
superintendent of the ,fire ,temple at  
,,balkh4 ,,afshin1 the all-powerful     
favorite of the ,caliph ,,al-,,mutasim1 
was a scion of the ,princes of          
,,usrushna in ,transoxiana4--,,dozy1    
,histoire de l',islamisme4  ,footnote   
#g3 ,with the rise of ,,persian         
influence1 there opened an era of       
culture1 toleration1 and scientific     
research4 ,the practice of oral         
tradition was also giving place to      
recorded statement and historical       
narrative1--a change hastened by the    

scholarly tendencies introduced from the
 ,east4--,,sir ,,william ,,muir1 on the 
rise of the ,abbasid ,dynasty4  ,the    
fusion of ,,muhammadan doctrine with    
this ,aryan 7,persian7 culture of old1#h
 is an important event in the history of
 ,art4 ,for out of this fusion came     
forth into being a new phase of artistic
 expression completely different1 in    
form and spirit1 from its predecessors4 
,probably of equal importance is the    
fact that1 although practised by divers 
races and subjected to many             
developments1 fluctuations and          
variations1 it has retained throughout  
the centuries its identical             
characteristics4 ,what was the vital    
force that brought about this cultural  
evolution and unification8 ,the answer  
appears to be ,,religion1 as we shall   
see4  ,footnote #h3 ,,persian influence 
increased at the court of the ,,caliphs1
 and reached its zenith under           
,,al-,,hadi1 ,,harunu',r-,,rashid1 and  
,,al-,,mamun4 ,most of the ministers of 

the last were ,,persians or of ,,persian
 extraction4 ,in ,,baghdad1 ,,persian   
fashions continued to enjoy an          
increasing ascendancy4 ,the old         
,,persian festivals of the ,,nawruz1    
,,mihrgan1 and ,,ram were celebrated4   
,,persian raiment was the official court
 dress1 and the tall1 black1 conical    
,,persian hats were already prescribed  
as official by the second ,,abbasid     
,caliph 7in ,a4,h4 #aec3 ,a4,d4 #ggj74  
,at the court the customs of the        
,,sassanian ,kings were imitated1 and   
garments decorated with golden          
inscriptions were introduced1 which it  
was the exclusive privilege of the ruler
 to bestow4 ,a coin of the ,caliph      
,,al-,,mutawakkil shows us this ,prince 
actually clothed in true ,,persian      
fashions4--,,von ,,kremer1 ,streitzuge1 
page #cb4  ,the foundation of the       
,,muhammadan ,,empire was ,,religion4   
,it was to the ,holy ,standard that the 
nations bent  ,,continued ,,on ,,page   
,,twenty-,,three         99       99    

99       99       99       ,lips sweet  
as sugar on my pen bestow1      ,and    
from my book let streams of odour flow4 
--,j',,ami4  ,,illustrated ,,and        
,,illuminated ,,manuscript  ,the        
complete volume of                      
,,yusuf-,,ou-,,zalikha1 the popular poem
 by the famous mystic poet ,j',,ami1    
based on the ,biblical story of ,,joseph
 and ,,potiphar',s ,,wife4 ,the scribe1 
,,mir ,,ali ,,sultani4  ,the colophon   
reads3  ,terminated by the sinner1      
humble ,,mir ,,ali ,,sultani the penman1
 may ,god forgive his sins and shelter  
his faults4 ,terminated in the month of 
,,moharram ,,al ,,haram in the year     
,a4,h4 #idd 7in letters7 7,a4,d4 #aecg7 
in the glorious city of ,,bukhara4  ,the
 ,dedication in the handwriting of the  
scribe1 in ornate gold lettering1 reads3
  ,for his majesty1 the ,,august1 the   
just1 the possessor of virtues1 the     
great ,,khagan ,,ghazi ,,abd-,,ul-,,aziz
 ,,bahadur ,,khan1 may his domain last  
forever4  ,the autograph of the ,emperor

 ,,shah ,,jahan1 the ,,great ,,mogul1 on
 the magnificently decorated mount      
reads3  ,in the name of ,god            
compassionate and merciful this         
,,yusuf-,,ou-,,zalikha treasured on the 
occasion of ,,blessed ,,accession4      
7,a4,d4 #afbg7  ,in confirmation of the 
foregoing1 it is of great interest that 
,,jahangir makes special reference in   
his memoirs 7,tuzuk-i-,jahangiri7 to an 
incident1 as of highest importance1 that
 he was presented by ,,abd-,,al-,,rahim 
,,khan1 ,,khan-,i-,,khanan1 with a      
superb copy of ,j',,ami',s poem         
,,yusuf-,,ou-,,zalikha1 transcribed by  
,,mir ,,ali ,,sultani1 ,prince of       
,penmen1 and that the gift was appraised
 at a thousand ,muhr4  ,illustration3   
,,complete ,,illustrated ,,and          
,,illuminated ,,manuscript ,,of         
,,yusuf-,,ou-,,zalikha1 ,,by ,,the      
,,famous ,,mystic ,,poet ,j',,ami  ,,one
 ,,of ,,the ,,illustrations ,,to ,,the  
,,manuscript ,,yusuf-,,ou-,,zalikha     
,,zalikha in old age1 broken and in     

poverty1 meets ,,yusuf in the market    
place in ,egypt4       ,where is thy    
youth1 and thy beauty1 and pride8       
,gone1 since ,i parted from thee1 she   
replied4      ,where is the light of    
thine eye8 said he4      ,drowned in    
blood-tears for the loss of thee4       
,why is that cypress tree bowed and     
bent8      ,by absence from thee and my 
long lament4      ,where is thy pearl1  
and thy silver and gold1      ,and the  
diadem bright on thy head of old8444    
--,quotation from ,,yusuf-,,ou-,,zalikha
 7,j',,ami74      ,translation of ,r4,t4
 ,,griffith4  ,illustration             
,illustration3 ,,chiselled ,,silver     
,,bowl1 ,,decorated ,,in ,,filigree     
,,and ,,polychrome ,,enamel4 ,,persian  
,,work ,,of ,,the ,,xvith ,,century1    
,,probably ,,executed ,,in ,,asia       
,,minor ,,for ,a ,,princely ,,ottoman   
,,patron         99       99       99   
99       99  ,,page #bc  and professed  
unqualified allegiance4 ,a powerful     
political unity came into existence and 

continued for a period of ,,six         
centuries uninterrupted4 ,the nations of
 this united kingdom of ,,islam were    
thus merged into one unit1 under the    
stimulus of one formal religion1 freely 
transmigrating local ideas4 ,arts and   
culture were transformed1 but the       
evolution thus caused by the ,religion  
was essentially political in nature4    
,there is no ,god but ,,god1 said the   
,,apostle ,,of ,,arabia1 but the poet   
reflected awhile1 and his rejoinder was3
 ,the ,ways of ,god are as the number of
 ,,souls ,,of ,,men4  ,the ,prophet's   
religion was rational1 its principles   
attainable2 it secured for the poet     
social amelioration and physical        
comfort1 but there was a voice from the 
depth of his soul that he could not     
silence4 ,it was the voice of mystery2  
he was concerned with the problems of   
the ,wherefore1 the ,whence1 and the    
,whither4444 ,was he not a ,son of the  
land which ,,plotinus visited to learn  
mystery of the ,orient of ,old8#i       

,footnote #i3 ,il prit un si grand gout 
pour la philosophie qu'il se proposa    
d'etudier celle qui etait enseignee chez
 les ,perses et celle qui prevalait chez
 les ,indiens4 ,lorsque l'empereur      
,gordien se prepara a faire son         
expedition contre les ,perses1 ,plotin1 
alors age de trente-neuf ans1 se mit a  
la suite de l'armee4 ,il avait passe dix
 annees entieres pres d',ammonius4      
,gordien ayant ete tue en ,mesopotamie1 
,plotin eut assez de peine a se sauver a
 ,antioche4--,,porphyry ,,on ,,plotinus3
 ,translation of the ,enneads of        
,plotinus 7,bouillet2 ,paris1 #aheg74   
,we have to look therefore to the       
,,religion1 ,the ,ways of whose ,god are
 as the number of ,souls of ,men1 to    
perceive the true nature of the         
evolution of the artistic expression of 
these people4  ,souls with irresistible 
cravings for ,mysticism1 poets1 artists1
 philosophers and the like1 discovered  
for the first time from ,,muhammad',s   
formal teachings1 which contained       

certain esoteric elements1 that the     
senses1 unreal and phenomenal1 have yet 
an important mission to fulfill in the  
task which aims to escape from ,,self   
7which is an illusion and the root of   
,,sin1 ,,pain1 and ,,sorrow7 and to     
attain the height where the eternal     
beauty1  ,,continued ,,on ,,page        
,,twenty-,,seven         99       99    
99       99       99  ,,portrait ,,of   
,,mehdi ,,ali ,,guli ,,khan1 ,,commander
 ,,of ,,fortress1 ,,by ,,ramdas--,a4,d4 
#afcj4  ,a leaf from the ,national      
,portrait ,album conceived by the       
,emperor ,,akbar1 and amplified and     
executed by ,,jahangir and ,,shah       
,,jahan4 ,the volume consists of        
portraits of the ,royal ,family of the  
,,great ,,moguls and their principal    
supporters4 ,these historic personages  
are represented in the centre as single 
individuals1 with their chief officials 
and retainers in the border around them4
  ,,ramdas1 a ,hindu artist1 was one of 
,,akbar',s artists who worked under     

,,jahangir and ,,shah ,,jahan4 ,his     
signed works include the following3     
,,baburnama in the ,british ,museum and 
,south ,kensington ,museum4 ,,akbarnama 
in ,south ,kensington ,museum4          
,,razmnama in the ,state ,library1      
,jaipur1 ,india4 ,,timurnama in the     
,oriental ,public ,library1 ,bankipur1  
,india4  ,illustration3 ,,portrait ,,of 
,,mehdi ,,ali ,,guli ,,khan1 ,,commander
 ,,of ,,fortress1 ,,by ,,ramdas--,a4,d4 
#afcj  ,illustration3 ,,silk            
,,fabric--,a ,,rare ,,example ,,of ,,the
 ,,kind ,,produced ,,by ,,the ,,royal   
,,looms ,,at ,,ispahan1 ,,which         
,,flourished ,,under ,,the ,,direct     
,,patronage ,,of ,,shah ,,abbas ,,the   
,,great 7,a4,d4 #aehh-afbi7  ,oct4      
#ahth1 #afff4--,to ,court4 ,it being ye 
first time his ,ma'ty 7,,charles ,,ii of
 ,england7 put himself solemnly into    
,eastern fashion of vest1 changeing     
doublet1 stiff collar1 bands and cloake1
 into a comley dress1 after ye ,persian 
mode4 ,i had sometime before presented  

an invective against our so much        
affecting the ,french fashion1 to his   
,majesty1 in which ,i took occasion to  
describe the comelinesse and usefulness 
of the ,persian clothing1 in ye very    
same manner his ,ma'ty now clad         
himself4--,,john ,,evelyn 7,a4,d4       
#afff71 celebrated historian and        
diarist4         99       99       99   
99       99  ,,page #bg  which is but   
,,one1 reveals itself through countless 
phenomena which are but reflections of  
,,one4 ,the ,,phantasmal is the ,,bridge
 to the ,,real1 says the mystic1 and the
 immortal lines of ,j',,ami read3       
,though in this world a hundred tasks   
thou tryest1      ',tis ,love alone     
which from thyself will save thee4      
,even from earthly love thy face avert  
not1      ,since to the real it may     
serve to raise thee4      ,ere ,a1 ,b1  
,c1 are rightly apprehended1      ,how  
canst thou con the pages of the         
,,qur',,an8      ,a sage 7so heard ,i7  
unto whom a scholar      ,came craving  

counsel on the course before him1       
,said1 ',if thy steps be strangers to   
love's pathways1      ,depart1 learn    
,love1 and then return before me1       
,for1 shouldst thou fear to drink wine  
from form's ,flagon1      ,thou canst   
not drain the draughts of the ,ideal4   
,but yet beware1 ,be not by form        
belated1      ,strive rather with all   
speed the bridge to traverse4      ,if  
to the bourn thou fain wouldst bear thy 
baggage1      ,upon the bridge let not  
thy footsteps linger4#aj  ,footnote #aj3
 ,religious ,systems of the ,world      
7,swan ,sonnenschein1 #ahib74  ,the     
unreality of things material1 the       
illusion of ,self and desires1 the      
perception that all living things and   
apparent phenomena reflected but one    
all-embracing ,,good and ,,beauty1 was  
the philosophy of ,hindu and all        
,oriental mystics of old2 but they      
attempted to destroy the self and       
desires 7,source of ,sin7               
uncompromisingly and unreasonably4 ,it  

was a philosophy cold and bloodless1 as 
,professor ,,browne points out1 in      
trenchant terms4 ,the ,,muhammadan      
mystic became conscious that the stream 
cannot be crossed without the aid of the
 ,,bridge constructed for this purpose4 
,here 7as it seems to us7 lies the      
,,keynote1 the mainspring of inspiration
 of artistic expression1 which 7for the 
lack of better designation7 might be    
termed ,,muhammadan ,,art3 ,a merging of
 physical and spiritual1 of worldly     
magnificence and eternal bliss4         
,,continued ,,on ,,page ,,thirty-,,one  
99       99       99       99       99  
,,the ,,princes ,,of ,,the ,,house ,,of 
,,timur  ,,emir ,,timur                 
7,,timur-,i-,,lang7 on the throne       
7,a4,d4 #acce-adje7  ,on the right of   
the throne3  ,,babur ,a4,d4 #aebf-aecj  
,,humayun ,a4,d4 #aecj-aeef ,,akbar     
,a4,d4 #aeef-afje ,,jahangir ,a4,d4     
#afje-afbg ,,shah ,,jahan ,a4,d4        
#afbg-afeh  ,on the left are three sons 
of ,,shah ,,jahan3  ,,dara ,,shikoh     

,,shah ,,shuja ,,aurengzib 7who         
succeeded ,shah ,jahan7  ,,mughal       
,painting from the ,imperial ,library of
 ,,delhi1 ,a4,d4 #afdj  ,illustration3  
,,the ,,princes ,,of ,,the ,,house ,,of 
,,timur  ,,mughal ,,painting ,,from     
,,the ,,imperial ,,library ,,of ,,delhi1
 ,a4,d4 #afdj  ,,talar 7,,hall ,,of     
,,audience7 ,,rug  ,from the looms of   
,,ispahan or the adjoining city of      
,,joshagan4 ,made during the reign of   
,,shah ,,suleiman 7,a4,d4 #affg-afid71  
upon the model of ,,chahar ,,bagh ,royal
 ,garden at ,,ispahan1 on the grounds of
 which the ,royal ,pavilion of ,,hasht  
,,bahisht 7,eight ,paradises7 stands4   
,the ,rug measures #bi feet by #i feet  
#e inches4  ,,lord ,,curzon in his      
,history of ,persia1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 page   
#ch1 gives the following description of 
the ,garden of ,,chahar ,,bagh3  ,at the
 upper extremity a two storeyed         
,,pavilion connected by a corridor with 
the ,,seraglio of the palace1 so as to  
enable the ladies of the harem to gaze  

unobserved upon the merry scene below1  
looked out upon the centre of the       
avenue4 ,water conducted in stone       
channels ran down the centre1 falling in
 cascades from terrace to terrace1 and  
was occasionally collected in great     
square or octagonal basins where cross  
roads cut the avenues4 ,on either side  
of the central channel was a row of     
chenars and a paved pathway for         
pedestrians1 then occurred a succession 
of open parterres1 usually planted or   
sown4 ,next on either side was a second 
row of chenars1 between which and       
flanking walls was a raised causeway for
 horsemen4 ,at intervals corresponding  
with the successive terraces and basins1
 arched doorways with recessed open     
chambers overhead conducted through     
these walls into the various royal or   
noble gardens that stretched on either  
side and were known as the gardens of   
the throne2 nightingale1 vines1         
mulberries1 ,dervishes1 etc4 ,some of   
these pavilions were places of public   

resort and were used as coffee houses1  
where when the business of the day was  
over the good burghers of ,ispahan      
assembled to sip that beverage and      
inhale their ,kalians the while4 ,at the
 bottom quays lined the banks of the    
river and were bordered with the        
mansions of the nobility4  ,illustration
         99       99       99       99  
99  ,,page #ca  ,a desire to reach to   
our higher instincts through the vehicle
 of our senses is apparent in all forms 
in which these masters sought to express
 themselves2 we feel that1 in their     
entrancing rhythmical compositions1 in  
their incomparable poetry of flowing    
melodious words1 in all their           
literature1 in the inimitable colors and
 lyrical lines of all branches of       
representation of visual art4 ,we feel  
the presence of an element prevailing   
throughout1 and underlying every form of
 expression1 an element which may be    
described in a word1 ,,human4  ,it is   
stated that the ,,persian spirit and    

feeling were reflected in all forms of  
artistic expression of the ,,muhammadan 
world4 ,it is not1 however1 intended    
that other nations and countries over   
which ,,islam held sway1 contributed    
nothing in the building of the          
influences of each were felt in varying 
degrees in the transmigration of ideas  
continued to take place between the     
nations1 and the influences of each were
 felt in varying degrees in the         
transformation that resulted4 ,in the   
fusion referred to1 the influence of the
 ,,persian culture was predominant1 a   
fact so transparent1 as to require 7we  
may assume7 no emphasis4  ,it is not    
intended to deal here with particular   
aspects or divers branches of arts in   
which the genius of these artists found 
expression4 ,in offering briefly these  
lines as to the general aspect of the   
,art of the ,,muhammadan world1 the     
intention is to offer an explanation to 
those who may not be familiar with its  
history4  ,h4 ,,kevorkian  ,illustration