material from the ,google ,print project47 ,illustration3 ,jas4 ,braidwood ,,fire ,,prevention ,,and ,,fire ,,extinction4 ,,by ,,james ,,braidwood1 ,,first ,,superintendent ,,of ,,the ,,london ,,fire-,,brigade1 ,,and ,,associate ,,of ,,the ,,institution ,,of ,,civil ,,engineers4 ,,including ,,fire-,,proof ,,structures1 ,,fire-,,proof ,,safes1 ,,public ,,fire ,,brigades1 ,,private ,,means ,,for ,,suppressing ,,fires1 ,,fire-,,engines1 ,,fire ,,annihilators1 ,,portable ,,fire-,,escapes1 ,,water ,,supply ,,with ,,illustrations1 ,,memoir1 ,,and ,,portrait ,,of ,,the ,,author4 ,,london3 ,,bell ,,and ,,daldy1 #ahf1 ,,fleet ,,street4 #ahff4 ,the right of ,translation is reserved4 ,,contents4 ,,memoir4 ,,page ,introductory1 ,early ,fires1 ,fire ,engines1 and ,fire ,brigades #e ,mr4 ,braidwood's birth and education #g ,great ,fire of ,edinburgh1 and appointment as head of ,brigade #h ,award of ,silver ,medal of ,society of ,arts1 ,london2 publication of work on ,fire ,engines #aa ,formation of ,london ,fire ,brigade2 appointment as ,superintendent #ac ,testimonials received upon leaving ,edinburgh #ad ,london residence and routine of duty #af ,valuable services of the ,royal ,society for the ,protection of ,life from ,fire #ag ,statistics of ,fires2 improvement of ,fire ,engines #ah ,introduction of ladders1 hose reel1 and hand pump #ai ,floating ,fire ,engines1 hand worked and steam2 ,land ,steam ,fire ,engine #bj ,inspection of ,government ,dockyards and ,public ,buildings2 establishment of a standard hose coupling #ba ,admitted an ,associate of the ,institution of ,civil ,engineers2 award of ,telford ,medal2 endeavours to restrain the erection of immoderate-sized warehouses #bb ,his opinion as to the inadequacy of ,london ,fire ,brigade2 ,great ,tooley ,street ,fire #bc ,death of ,mr4 ,braidwood #bd ,public funeral #be ,public and private character #bh ,world-wide esteem in which he was held #cj ,poem--,a ,true ,hero #cb ,,fire ,,prevention1 ,,including ,,fireproof ,,structures--,,causes ,,of ,,fires4 ,inattention in the use of fires and lights #cc ,advantages of a legal inquiry into the cause of ,fires #cg ,improper construction of buildings #cg ,acts of ,parliament for buildings in ,london #ci ,results of improper construction of warehouses in ,liverpool #da ,arrangements for the safety of the audience in theatres #db ,danger from furnaces and close fires #dc ,danger from pipes conveying products of combustion #dd ,spontaneous ignition2 use of gas #de ,incendiarism2 monomania #df ,,fireproof ,,structures4 ,what is fireproof construction #dg ,use of cast and wrought-iron #di ,mr4 ,fairbairn's experiments #ej ,danger to life from use of cast-iron columns #ed ,report on warehouses #ee ,covering timber with iron #ef ,fireproof dwelling-houses #eg ,fireproof safes #eh ,,fire ,,extinction1 ,,including ,,fire ,,brigades1 ,,fire ,,engines1 ,,and ,,water ,,supply--,,fire ,,brigades4 ,individual exertions for ,fire ,extinction #ei ,fire ,brigades on the ,continent of ,europe1 in ,england1 in ,america #ff ,necessity for the control of arrangements by one individual #fg ,proposal for a national system #fh ,fire ,engines at noblemen's and gentlemen's residences #gj ,training and discipline of ,firemen #ga ,general instructions for ,firemen1 and for the use of ,fire ,engines #gb ,necessity for the water striking the burning materials #gd ,inventions for elevating branch pipes considered #gf ,,london ,,fire ,,brigade4 ,general description of men and engines #gi ,division of ,london into districts #ha ,general regulations #hb ,conditions of entrance into the establishment #hc ,outline of general duty #he ,duties of ,superintendent #hh ,foremen #ij ,engineers #ic ,sub-,engineers and ,firemen #id ,,edinburgh ,,fire ,,brigade4 ,description of men selected #if ,mode of communicating with ,firemen at a ,fire #ig ,dress and drill of ,firemen #ii ,gymnastic exercises #ajd ,general regulations #ajf ,duties of ,police #ajg ,superintendent of ,brigade #aji ,head ,enginemen #aaj ,firemen1 and ,high ,constables #aaa ,magistrates1 and ,gas-,light ,companies #aac ,special regulations for ,firemen #aad ,means of escape from ,fire #aah ,,fire ,,engines4 ,the application of manual power #abc ,engines used by the ,british ,government #abd ,description of ,brigade ,fire ,engine #abf ,hand ,pump2 keeping ,fire ,engines in order #acj ,selection of ,engine ,house #acb ,apparatus provided with ,london ,brigade ,engine #acc ,leather hose #acd ,hose couplings #adj ,suction pipes #adc ,jet pipes1 proper shape #ade ,fire annihilator #adi ,,water ,,supply4 ,by pressure1 from surface of ground1 and by sunk tanks #aej ,experiments with jets under a constant pressure #aec ,fire plug used in ,london #aee ,canvas cistern and stand-cock used with fire plug #aef ,double fire-cock used in the ,government ,dockyards #aeh ,double hollow key fire-cock used in the ,british ,museum #aei ,supply by ,water ,companies in ,london #afb ,supplying ,fire ,engines from fire-cocks1 c4 #afc ,,appendix4 ,steam ,fire ,engines1 progress in construction #aff ,trials before the ,jury of the ,international ,exhibition1 #ahfb #afh ,trials at the ,international ,competition1 ,london1 #ahfc #agc ,steam ,fire ,engines in use by ,metropolitan ,brigade1 ,may1 #ahff #aha ,act of ,parliament for ,metropolitan ,fire ,brigade #ahb ,establishment of ,metropolitan ,fire ,brigade #aig ,,illustrations4 ,,page ,portrait of ,mr4 ,braidwood on steel by ,jeens1 from a photograph by ,williams ,frontispiece4 ,longitudinal section of ,brigade ,fire ,engine #abd ,transverse section of ditto #abe ,old coupling for hose #adj ,new ditto1 ditto #ada ,branch and jet pipe #ade ,opening in sunk tank for suction pipe #aea ,fire plug used in ,london #aee ,fire plug with canvas cistern #aef ,fire plug with stand-cock #aeg ,single fire-cock #aeh ,double fire-cock used at dockyards #aeh ,double fire-cock used at ,british ,museum #aei ,,editor',s ,,preface4 ,the appearance at the beginning of last year1 in the ,annual ,report of the ,institution of ,civil ,engineers for #ahfa and #ahfb1 of a short memoir of ,mr4 ,braidwood1 suggested the publication of a more extended account of the life of the late head of the ,london ,fire ,brigade1 combined with his opinions upon the subject of his profession4 ,these opinions are comprised in a work on ,fire ,engines1 and the ,training of ,firemen1 published in ,edinburgh in #ahcj2 two papers upon cognate subjects read before the ,institution of ,civil ,engineers1 two similar papers read before the ,society of ,arts1 and in a variety of reports upon public buildings1 warehouses1 c4 ,while regretting the great loss that the public has sustained1 in being deprived by ,mr4 ,braidwood's sudden death of a complete record of his long and varied ,london experience1 it has been considered advisable to republish the above materials arranged in a systematic form1 omitting only such parts as the ,author's more matured experience rendered desirable1 but confining the whole to his own words4 ,,london1 ,june1 #ahff4 ,,author',s ,,preface ,to his work ,on the ,construction of ,fire-,engines and ,apparatus2 the ,training of ,firemen2 and the ,method of ,proceeding in cases of ,fire1 published in ,edinburgh1 in #ahcj4 ,not having been able to find any work on ,fire-,engines in the ,english language1 ,i have been led to publish the following remarks1 in the hope of inducing others to give further information on the subject4 ,for the style of the work ,i make no apology2 and as ,i presume no one will read it except for the purpose of gaining information1 my aim will be obtained if ,i shall have succeeded in imparting it1 or in directing the public attention to the advantage which may be derived from the systematic training of ,firemen4 ,,memoir ,,of ,,james ,,braidwood4 ,the history of mankind1 from the earliest times1 has been one of alternate peace and war with fire4 ,the immeasurable value of its obedience1 and the fearful consequences of its insubordination1 have1 in all ages1 made its due subjection one of the most important conditions of even human existence itself4 ,as camps and trading stations grew into populous cities1 the dangers of fire were both multiplied and aggravated4 ,its ravages in the ancient capitals of the world are matters of history2 and it is established that something like organization was extended to the means then employed for suppressing conflagrations4 ,even the fire-engine itself1 in a practicable1 although imperfect form1 was described and illustrated by a sectional working drawing1 by ,hero of ,alexandria1 in a book written by him more than one hundred years before the ,christian era4 ,in its many translations1 from the original ,greek into ,latin and into modern tongues1 ,hero's book1 with its remarkable series of drawings1 still occupies a place in the mechanical literature of our own time4 ,but1 although the construction of the fire-engine was thus known two thousand years ago1 we have no actual evidence of its use until within the last two centuries2 and within the whole compass of ,english history1 at least1 we know that nothing like discipline and organization1 in the modern sense of the terms1 were introduced into the management of fire apparatus until a time quite within the recollection of the middle-aged men of our own day4 ,if there be anything apparently improbable in this fact1 we need only recollect that many of the grandest triumphs of human genius1 with which we are already so familiar1 are not yet forty years old4 ,the modern system of ,english fire brigades belongs wholly to the period of railways1 steam navigation1 and electric telegraphs1 and it owes nearly all to the genius and disciplined heroism of a single individual1 ,james ,braidwood1 who1 but little more than four years ago1 fell--as nobly for himself as sadly for others--at his chosen post of duty4 ,what1 when he first gave his energies--indeed1 his whole heart to it1 was but the rough and unskilful employment of the fireman1 became under ,mr4 ,braidwood's command and his infusing spirit of order and intelligence1 as distinguished from reckless daring1 a noble pursuit1 almost rising in dignity to a profession1 and indeed acknowledged as such by many1 and significantly1 although indirectly1 by ,royalty itself4 ,until the year #ahcc1 not only the parish engines of the metropolis1 numbering1 as they did1 about three hundred1 but the engines also of the ,fire ,insurance ,companies1 were comparatively inefficient and often out of order1 while they were also under the most diverse1 if not irresponsible management4 ,there were no really trained firemen1 and those who controlled and worked the engines were oftener in antagonism with each other than acting in concert4 ,the parish engines were in the care of the beadles1 and in one case a beadle's widow1 ,mrs4 ,smith1 for some years commanded one of the city engines4 ,the energies of each band of firemen were commonly reserved for the protection of property only in which their own insurance company or parish was immediately interested4 ,as a rule1 whatever water was thrown upon a burning building was dashed against the walls1 windows1 and roof from the outside only1 very little if any really reaching the actual seat of the fire within4 ,as a consequence1 fires1 which are now quickly got under1 were then left to burn themselves out1 the spreading of the fire being prevented either by deluging the contiguous buildings with water1 or by pulling them down altogether4 ,james ,braidwood was born in ,edinburgh in the year #ahjj4 ,his father was a well-known upholsterer and builder1 who appears to have chosen for his son the profession of a surveyor4 ,to this end he was entered at the ,high ,school1 then under the rectorship of ,mr4 7afterwards ,professor7 ,pillans1 and here1 and subsequently under private masters1 the youth received a sound education in the branches most appropriate to his intended pursuit in life4 ,he was for some time engaged in his father's business1 and thereby gained an amount of practical knowledge1 which was of1 perhaps1 as much service to him in his subsequent career as a fireman1 as it would have been had he adopted the profession originally chosen for him4 ,young ,braidwood was an apt student1 a fact1 perhaps1 sufficiently attested afterwards by his successful authorship1 at the age of thirty1 of the only ,english work then extant upon the fire-engine and its proper management4 ,he read much1 wrote well1 was a good draughtsman1 and had a sound knowledge of mechanics4 ,but whether his powers required wider scope than a surveyor's practice could offer1 or whether1 more than forty years ago1 and in ,edinburgh1 the chances of professional success were very much less than now1 ,james ,braidwood soon turned his mind to what became the great work of his life4 ,he was becoming known for activity and a high order of personal courage1 and there were those in place and power who saw in him the other elements of character which go to make a successful leader of men4 ,he was soon1 and when but twenty-three years of age1 made the superintendent of the ,edinburgh fire engines1 and he almost as soon began to reform their inefficient and vicious system of management4 ,he had held his post but three weeks1 however1 when the series of fires broke forth which still bear the name of the ,great ,fire of ,edinburgh4 ,many of the old and lofty houses in the ,high ,street were destroyed1 between four and five hundred families were made houseless1 ten persons were either killed outright or fatally injured1 and for several days nearly the whole of the ,high ,street1 if not the larger part of the old town1 was threatened with destruction4 ,never were the consequences of want of organization more conspicuous4 ,there was no real command1 for there were none to obey2 and while those who might have stopped the flames at the outset1 wasted their own energies in random efforts1 or1 perhaps1 fell to quarrelling among themselves1 the fearful devastation rolled on4 ,the occasion was sufficient to induce the authorities and insurance companies to listen to and profit by ,mr4 ,braidwood's recommendations4 ,they consented to bear in common the expenses necessary to organize and maintain an efficient brigade4 ,this was soon formed of picked men1 who1 although daily engaged in their former ordinary occupations1 were regularly inspected1 trained1 and exercised early in one morning of every week4 ,fires were becoming more and more numerous year by year2 but the influence of the improved system was soon felt4 ,the men were taught to improve to the utmost the first few minutes after an alarm was given1 and by constant emulation and discipline1 a spirit of wonderful readiness was cultivated in them4 ,they were trained to seek out and follow up the source of a fire before it had had time to spread1 and to throw the water from the engines directly upon it1 instead of wastefully1 if not injuriously about4 ,the result was1 that while out of forty-eight fires which happened in the first year of the history of the brigade1 eleven proved total losses1 and twelve considerable losses1 the number of total losses decreased rapidly1 year by year1 while the whole number of calls was almost as rapidly increasing4 ,thus in the second year of the brigade there were eighty calls1 of which seven were total1 and eighteen considerable losses4 ,in the next three years1 with from ninety-four to one hundred and ninety-four calls yearly1 there was but one total loss in each year1 and but from nine to eighteen considerable losses4 ,mr4 ,braidwood was meanwhile improving the fire-escapes1 and when new engines were added to the force1 he procured better workmanship4 ,by his personal influence1 also1 more than by the mere advantage of official position1 ,mr4 ,braidwood secured the constant co-operation of the police in giving the earliest alarms of fire1 and in facilitating the labours of the firemen when actually on duty4 ,as has just been shown1 the results of method1 applied skill1 and of a personal devotion cultivated under the high impulse of immediate public observation and approval1 were soon manifest4 ,to this vast improvement the ,edinburgh ,mercury1 as representing the opinion of the citizens of the ,scottish capital1 bore public testimony in its issue of ,august #ad1 #ahbh1 when the ,fire ,brigade of that city had been tested by nearly five years of constant trial1 and with conspicuous success4 ,referring to the excellent organization of the establishment1 it was remarked that there were then but few1 if any1 serious fires in ,edinburgh1 for when a fire broke out--and the alarms were as frequent as ever--it was speedily checked4 ,said the writer3-- ,not only is the apparatus constructed on the best possible principles1 but the whole system of operations has been changed4 ,the public1 however1 do not see the same bustle1 or hear the same noise as formerly2 and hence they seem erroneously to conclude that there is nothing done4 ,the fact is1 the spectator sees the preparation for action made1 but he sees no more4 ,where the strength of the men and the supply of water used to be wasted1 by being thrown against windows1 walls1 and roofs1 the firemen now seek out the spot where the danger lies1 and creeping on hands and feet into a chamber full of flame1 or smoke1 often at the hazard of suffocation1 discover the exact seat of danger2 and1 by bringing the water in contact with it1 obtain immediate mastery over the powerful element with which they have to contend4 ,in this daring and dangerous work men have occasionally fainted from heat1 or dropped down from want of respiration1 in which cases the next person at hand is always ready to assist his companion1 and to release him from his service of danger4 ,in a fire which happened while ,mr4 ,braidwood was at the head of the ,edinburgh ,brigade1 he won great admiration by bringing out from the burning building a quantity of gunpowder which was known to be stored there4 ,he would not ask any of his men to undertake this dangerous feat1 but1 amidst the breathless suspense of thousands of spectators1 he coolly searched for and safely carried out1 first one1 and then a second1 cask of this explosive material4 ,had the fire reached the powder1 it was known that the worst consequences of the conflagration would have been immensely increased4 ,the fame of the ,edinburgh ,brigade rapidly spread throughout the kingdom1 and it gradually became regarded as a model to which all other organizations for the suppression of fires would ultimately be made to conform4 ,as a response to constant inquiries from a distance1 ,mr4 ,braidwood1 in #ahbi1 forwarded to the ,society of ,arts1 ,london1 a description of his chain-ladder fire-escape4 ,for this invaluable apparatus1 which had already effected a considerable saving of life1 the ,society's ,silver ,medal was awarded1 and1 accompanying the award1 the ,council of the ,society extended an invitation to the author to give a complete account of his mode of drilling firemen1 and combining the use of fire-escapes with the ordinary fire-engine service4 ,responding to this invitation1 ,mr4 ,braidwood in the following year published his work ,on the ,construction of ,fire-,engines and ,apparatus1 the ,training of ,firemen1 and the ,method of ,proceeding in ,cases of ,fire4 ,from this work1 which may still be regarded as an authority1 extensive extracts have been made in the subsequent chapters of the present volume1 and it need not1 therefore1 be further referred to here than to say that it formed a thoroughly original account of an original system1 and that its illustrations1 which were especially clear1 were drawn by the author's own hand4 ,this work attracted much attention from municipal bodies and insurance companies throughout the kingdom1 and more than one official deputation visited ,edinburgh to learn from ,mr4 ,braidwood himself the details of a system which was already working such important results4 ,in ,london1 especially1 three ,west ,india warehouses had been burnt in the year #ahbi1 with a loss of #cjj1jjjl42 and with the extending use of gas1 the increasing frequency of fires1 and the conspicuous inefficiency of the parish engines1 and the want of unity of action among the insurance companies1 it was felt that what had answered so well in ,edinburgh would prove still more valuable in the metropolis4 ,the general estimation in which ,mr4 ,braidwood's services were then held may be considered as expressed in the following1 among other contemporary reviews of his book3-- ,the ,edinburgh ,fire-engine ,establishment is now all but perfect4 ,a unity of system has been accomplished1 and a corps of firemen mustered1 who1 in point of physical vigour and moral intrepidity1 are all entitled to be denominated chosen men4 ,at the head of this band stands ,mr4 ,braidwood1 an individual who has on several occasions given abundant evidence of promptitude in extremity1 and a noble contempt of personal danger1 and whose enthusiasm1 in what we may call his profession1 could not have been more strikingly exemplified than by his illustrating it in the manner we now see before us4 ,it is the only book we are acquainted with that treats of the systematic training of firemen2 and from the perspicuity of its details1 it must necessarily become the manual of all such institutions1 and ought to find a place in every insurance office in the ,united ,kingdom4 ,it had been from time to time attempted to bring the fire apparatus of the ,london ,insurance ,companies under a single management2 but it was nearly ten years after the establishment of the ,edinburgh ,fire ,brigade1 and only when ,mr4 ,braidwood himself had been invited to come to ,london1 that this was at last effected4 ,as for the parish engines1 they were wholly neglected under this arrangement1 and1 indeed1 a great number of them had been already allowed to fall into disuse1 as far as could be permitted without incurring the penalties of the ,statutes of #aggd4 ,on the #ast ,january1 #ahcc1 at the instance of ,mr4 ,ford1 of the ,sun ,fire-office1 eight of the insurance companies formed an association of fire-engines and firemen1 each company withholding its own distinctive name and badges from the united force4 ,this was known as the ,london ,fire-engine ,establishment4 ,it was supported by the companies in common1 each in proportion to the premiums received from its business in ,london1 a minimum rate being fixed4 ,each company contributing to the support of the establishment nominated one member of the committee of management4 ,this association existed for thirty-three years1 when on the #ast of ,january1 #ahff1 the ,metropolitan ,board of ,works took charge of the fire-engines and the general fire establishment of the metropolis4 ,mr4 ,braidwood took the command of the ,london ,brigade thus formed at the onset4 ,the ,edinburgh ,fire-engine ,committee1 on accepting his resignation1 presented him with a gold watch1 and a vote of thanks1 for the singularly indefatigable manner in which he had discharged the duties of his important office1 not merely by his extraordinary exertions on occasions of emergency1 but for the care and attention he had bestowed on the training of the firemen1 whereby the establishment had been brought to its present high state of efficiency4 ,he had previously received from the men under him a handsome silver cup1 bearing the following inscription3--,presented to ,mr4 ,james ,braidwood1 by the ,city of ,edinburgh ,firemen1 as a token of their admiration of him as their leader1 and of deep respect for him as a gentleman4 ,as in ,edinburgh1 the ,london ,fire ,brigade under ,mr4 ,braidwood's superintendence became a new force1 and in every respect a remarkable organization4 ,where the inefficiency of the old firemen could not at once be made to yield to discipline1 they were pensioned off2 and within a short time a select band of active1 hardy1 and thoroughly trained men was formed4 ,in #ahcd1 the second year of ,mr4 ,braidwood's superintendence1 the ,houses of ,parliament were burnt2 and a most destructive fire occurred also at ,mile-end4 ,the first-named fire created general consternation1 and there are many persons who can still recollect that also at ,mile-end4 ,these great fires stimulated ,mr4 ,braidwood to increased exertions1 and the result was soon visible in the lessened proportion of totally destroyed premises to the whole number of fires4 ,the brigade had1 of course1 no power of prevention1 and alarms of fire were becoming more numerous than ever4 ,the use of friction matches and of gas was increasing enormously2 manufactures1 and the steam-engines and machinery for conducting them1 were being rapidly multiplied2 and with the vast progress making in the production of cotton goods1 the use of cotton curtains and bed-furniture was becoming common in dwellings forming a large proportion of the metropolis1 but in which1 not long before1 such articles were either regarded as luxuries or were altogether unknown4 ,the total number of fires attended by the brigade in the year #ahcc1 exclusive of chimneys on fire1 was #deh1 while in #ahea the number had risen to #ibh2 and although ,london had been growing all this time1 it had not doubled in size to correspond with the increased number of fires4 ,but while the total yearly number of fires1 since the formation of the brigade1 has shown a large and hardly interrupted increase1 the number of cases of total destruction has almost as steadily diminished4 ,thus1 totally destroyed was reported of #ca fires in the year #ahcc1 whereas in #ahci there were but #ag cases1 and the average for twenty-one years1 from #ahcc to #ahec inclusive1 was but #be-a_/b yearly1 while at the present time1 with all the vast growth of ,london1 the average1 under the continuance of ,mr4 ,braidwood's system1 is hardly if at all greater4 ,mr4 ,braidwood from the first exhibited excellent judgment in his choice of men to serve under him4 ,he chose sailors1 as a rule1 as being accustomed to obedience1 and to irregular and prolonged duty1 while also they were especially hardy and active2 and where there was especial danger which must be met1 he was always ready to lead1 and his men had soon learned to confide in his quick and sound judgment in emergency1 knowing that he would never permit them to incur needless risk4 ,his own iron constitution1 and his habits of constant vigilance1 served as a high standard and incentive to those about him2 and thus it was1 by selection1 discipline1 and example1 resting upon a foundation of even paternal kindness1 that the men of the ,london ,fire ,brigade became conspicuous for their courage1 energy1 hardihood1 and unalterable devotion to duty4 ,the brigade1 too1 was most popular with the public1 and could always count upon any necessary assistance in their labours4 ,the system of rewards given to whoever was the first to bring a call of fire1 the liberal gratuity to the policeman who first reached the burning premises1 there preventing undue confusion1 and by keeping the street-door closed1 shutting off a strong draught of air from the flames1 and the handsome pay to the ready throng of strong-armed men who worked the engines1 secured every co-operation from the public1 beyond that naturally springing from a general admiration of so brave and well-trained a body of men4 ,mr4 ,braidwood's residence was at the principal station of the ,fire-engine ,establishment in ,watling-street4 ,to this station came all alarms of fire4 ,he attended in person all calls from leading thoroughfares1 public buildings1 or localities where a serious conflagration might be expected4 ,in the night a call was announced to him through a speaking-tube reaching to his bedside4 ,the gas in his room was always burning1 and he would quickly decide1 from the known locality of the fire1 and from the report given1 whether he need go himself4 ,in any case1 his men were awake and quickly away4 ,rapidity in dressing1 and in horseing and mounting the engines1 was but a detail of daily drill4 ,the moment the scene of action was reached1 nothing was allowed to stand in the way of access to the actual seat of the fire1 and nothing either in securing a supply of water4 ,the inmates of the premises1 if any1 were quickly got out1 and wherever an unhappy creature was cut off by the flames1 there were always one or more firemen ready1 if necessary1 to brave an apparently certain death in a heroic attempt at rescue--an attempt1 indeed1 which but seldom failed4 ,it is but just to say here that the firemen were always nobly seconded1 if not indeed anticipated1 in these attempts by the officers and men of the ,royal ,society for the ,protection of ,life from ,fire--a body which has long rendered priceless services to humanity under most appalling circumstances4 ,the men of the ,fire ,brigade were taught to prevent1 as much as possible1 the access of air to the burning materials4 ,what the open door of the ash pit is to the furnace of a steam-boiler the open street door is to the house on fire4 ,in both cases the door gives vital air to the flames4 ,the men of the ,brigade were trained to pursue a fire1 not yet under full headway1 up-stairs and down1 in at windows and out through the roof1 anywhere1 so it could be reached directly by the water from the engines4 ,they were made to regard it as worse than a waste to throw even a gallon of water upon a dead wall or upon a surface of slate or plaster1 so long as by any means the branch pipe could be got to bear upon the seat of the fire itself4 ,the statistics of the operations of the ,london ,fire-engine ,establishment from #ahcc to the present time1 show with what success the system originated and so admirably carried out by ,mr ,braidwood has been pursued4 ,of the whole number of fires not one in fifty now proceeds to the extent of total destruction of the premises4 ,previous to the organization of the ,fire-engine ,establishment there were no official annual reports of the fires in the metropolis4 ,no one person by himself was indeed in a position to know all of the fires that happened1 any more than1 but for ,lloyds'1 could we know of all the wrecks which take place around and upon our coasts4 ,it was impossible1 under such a state of things1 that either the value of insurance to the insured or its risk to the insurer could be rightly known4 ,the general public could only know that1 like fevers and certain other classes of disease1 fires were always breaking out1 but no one could know1 even approximately1 how great or how little was the real general risk4 ,when1 however1 a fire establishment was formed1 the engines were called to all fires1 whether of insured or uninsured property4 ,it was not now difficult to tabulate the number and localities of fires2 but ,mr4 ,braidwood went further1 and extended his yearly tables to include the various causes of fires1 and the classification of the premises1 whether residences1 shops1 warehouses1 manufactories1 c41 where they occurred1 the subdivision of these classes being extended to every variety of occupation and business4 ,even the hours at which the various fires broke out were carefully tabulated1 and thus the particulars of ,london fires soon became an important branch of statistics1 from which the operations of insurance have derived increased certainty1 with greater economy to the insured4 ,although regarding the training and discipline of firemen as of the first importance in the organization of a fire brigade1 ,mr4 ,braidwood gave a large share of attention to the improvement of fire-engines and their kindred appliances4 ,while in ,edinburgh1 where the steepness of many of the streets1 and the roughness of the pavements in the older parts of the town prevented the rapid and easy movement of heavy engines1 he recommended and adopted a lighter description1 but in ,london he recognised the necessity for greater power4 ,mr4 ,tilley1 then a fire-engine maker in the ,blackfriars'-road1 ably seconded his efforts1 and at length the distinctive type known as the ,london ,fire ,brigade ,engine was produced1 and which1 weighing about eighteen cwt4 when ready for service1 would throw eighty-eight gallons of water per minute1 and1 in short trials1 as much as #abj gallons in the same time4 ,this engine was mounted upon springs1 and in strength and ease of working presented a marked improvement upon those which had preceded it4 ,its ordinary working complement of men was twenty-eight1 and larger engines1 upon the same general design1 have since been made1 to be worked by from forty-five to sixty men4 ,the steam fire-engine has already1 to a certain extent1 superseded the brigade engine1 but the latter is still likely1 for some time at least1 to be preferred for a large class of fires1 both in ,london and in the provinces4 ,mr4 ,braidwood at an early date adopted the ordinary military scaling ladders to the purposes of his brigade1 two being placed on each engine1 and at his recommendation ladders were also placed on a two-wheeled carriage as a convenient fire-escape4 ,he also induced the ,admiralty1 in #ahda1 to adopt hose-reels in the various dockyards1 these implements having been previously in successful use in ,new ,york4 ,in #ahdh he was induced1 in consequence of the large number of small fires to which his engines were called out1 to adopt a small hand-pump as an auxiliary to the fire-engine4 ,this could be rapidly brought to bear1 and although worked by but one man1 the value of a small quantity of water thrown directly upon the seat of a small fire was found to be greater than that of perhaps twenty times as much when thrown about in the ordinary manner4 ,it was of great importance also in warehouses stored with valuable goods1 to throw the least necessary quantity of water upon a fire4 ,these hand-pumps still form an important part of the present apparatus of the brigade1 and they have been widely adopted elsewhere4 ,london1 unlike ,edinburgh1 has a vast water-side property1 always exposed to danger from fire4 ,almost immediately1 therefore1 after having taken the command of the ,london ,brigade1 ,mr4 ,braidwood directed his attention to the construction of improved floating fire-engines1 to be moored in the river1 where they would be always available for the protection of wharf property4 ,two were constructed1 one being a machine of great power1 with pumps made to be worked by #abj men4 ,these machines proved of great value4 ,in #aheb1 shortly after the memorable fire at ,humphrey's warehouses1 he persuaded the ,fire-engine ,committee to allow one of these engines to be altered so as to work by steam1 and in #ahee a large self-propelling floating steam fire-engine was made upon a novel construction1 and which1 having already rendered great service at fires on the river side1 still ranks as the most powerful machine in the service of the brigade4 ,with locomotive boilers and large double steam engines1 this float can steam nine miles an hour1 and when in place at a fire it can throw four streams of water1 each from a jet-pipe of #a-a_/b inch in diameter1 to a great distance4 ,in the great fire of #ahfa1 this floating engine was worked with but little intermission for upwards of a fortnight4 ,in #ahfj ,mr4 ,braidwood obtained the sanction of the ,fire-engine ,committee for the introduction of a land steam fire-engine1 and although he did not live to witness the present remarkable development of these machines1 he was enabled to employ the first one in the brigade with much advantage4 ,we may quote here from a brief but excellent memoir of ,mr4 ,braidwood1 which appeared in the annual report of the ,institution of ,civil ,engineers for #ahfa3 ,as early as #ahda1 the ,government began to profit by his experience1 the ,lords of the ,admiralty having in that year consulted him on the subject of floating fire-engines for the various dockyards4 ,these were eventually constructed from his designs and under his superintendence4 ,in the following year he inspected all the dockyards1 and reported fully on each1 with regard to both floating and land fire-engines1 the supply of water1 the alterations of buildings to prevent spread of fire1 and the proper care required in dangerous trades4 ,from this time1 although not holding any appointment1 he acted as ,government consulting engineer on all questions relating to fire prevention and extinction1 and he advised from time to time the precautions to be taken for the protection of the royal palaces and various other public buildings4 ,this position enabled him1 not without a great deal of opposition1 to induce the ,government to adopt in all its departments a uniform size of hose-coupling4 ,this is the one which he introduced in ,edinburgh1 and known as the ,london ,fire ,brigade coupling1 is now in almost universal use2 its application has been found comparatively of as much utility for fire-brigade purposes1 as the adoption of the ,whitworth gauges of screw-bolts for mechanical engineering4 ,although so fully occupied1 he never refused advice on professional matters to all who sought it4 ,the various dock companies1 public institutions1 country fire brigades1 private firms1 c41 benefited largely by his experience4 ,the numerous inquiries from foreign countries and the colonies with regard to the best means of extinguishing fires1 also made great inroads on his time4 ,in #ahcc he became an ,associate of the ,institution of ,civil ,engineers1 to which1 in #ahdd1 he contributed a valuable paper ',on the means of rendering large supplies of ,water available in case of ,fire1 c41' for which he was awarded a ,telford ,medal2 and in #ahdi a second paper ',on ,fire-,proof ,buildings4' ,in #ahef1 a paper on ',fires3 the best means of preventing and arresting them2 with a few words on ,fire-,proof ,structures1' was read by him before the ,society of ,arts4 ,he took great interest in the passing of ,acts of ,parliament for regulating buildings in the metropolis1 was consulted by the framers of these ,acts1 and used his utmost influence to prevent the endangering a whole neighbourhood by the erection of monster warehouses for private profit4 ,he strongly contended for the principle of dividing buildings by party-walls carried through the roof1 and restricting these divisions to a moderate cubic content4 ,writing to ,lord ,seymour1 ,commissioner of ,woods and ,forests1 on the #bhth ,june1 #ahea1 he said 'that no preparations for contending with such fires will give anything like the security that judicious arrangements in the size and construction of buildings will do4' ,the wise provisions introduced through his instrumentality into these ,acts of ,parliament were continually being evaded1 and clusters of warehouses quickly rose which he saw would1 if on fire1 defy all his means of extinction4 ,in a letter to ,sir ,w4 ,molesworth1 ,first ,commissioner of ,public ,works1 dated #ajth ,february1 #ahed1 on the subject of a proposed warehouse in ,tooley-street1 he wrote ',the whole building1 if once fairly on fire in one floor1 will become such a mass of fire that there is now no power in ,london capable of extinguishing it1 or even of restraining its ravages on every side1 and on three sides it will be surrounded by property of immense value4' ,how literally this was realized1 and at what cost1 was shown by the great warehouse fire in ,tooley-street1 on the #bbnd ,june1 #ahfa1 at which ,mr4 ,braidwood lost his life4 ,the great fire at ,cotton's ,wharf2 ,tooley-street1 broke out on ,saturday1 ,june #bbnd1 #ahfa1 and continued to burn for more than a fortnight1 consuming ,scovell's1 and other large warehouses1 and1 in all1 upwards of two millions' worth of property4 ,the fire is believed to have originated in the spontaneous combustion of hemp1 of which upwards of #ajjj tons were consumed1 together with #cjjj tons of sugar1 #ejj tons of saltpetre1 nearly #ejjj tons of rice1 #ah1jjj bales of cotton1 #aj1jjj casks of tallow1 #aajj tons of jute1 and an immense quantity of tea1 spices1 c41 besides many other descriptions of goods4 ,although discovered in broad daylight1 and before the flames had made any considerable headway1 the want of a ready supply of water1 and the fact that the iron doors in the division walls between the several warehouses had been left open1 taken in connexion with the extremely combustible nature of the materials1 soon rendered hopeless all chance of saving the buildings and property4 ,mr4 ,braidwood was upon the spot very soon after the alarm had been given1 and nearly the whole available force of the ,fire-engine ,establishment was summoned at his command4 ,he appears to have at once foreseen that the fire would be one of no ordinary magnitude1 and that the utmost that could be done would be to prevent its extending widely over adjoining property4 ,the floating fire-engines had been got to bear upon the flames1 and the men in charge of the branch pipes were1 after two hours' work1 already suffering greatly from the intense heat1 when their chief went to them to give them a word of encouragement4 ,several minor explosions1 as of casks of tallow or of oil1 had been heard1 but as it was understood that the saltpetre stored at the wharf was in buildings not yet alight1 no alarm was then felt as to the walls falling in4 ,at the moment1 however1 while ,mr4 ,braidwood was discharging this his last act of kindness to his men1 a loud report was heard1 and the lofty wall behind him toppled and fell1 burying him in the ruins4 ,those of his men who were near him had barely time to escape1 and one person at his side1 not a fireman1 was overwhelmed with him4 ,from the moment when the wall was seen to fall1 it was known that whoever was beneath it had been instantly crushed to death4 ,it is needless1 and it would1 indeed1 be out of place1 to describe here the further progress of the fire1 which had then but fairly begun1 and which was still burning more than a fortnight afterwards4 ,great as was the general consternation at so terrible a conflagration1 it is doubtful if the public were not still more impressed by the dreadful death of ,mr4 ,braidwood1 and by a feeling that his loss was a public misfortune4 ,her ,majesty the ,queen1 with that ready sympathy which she has ever shown for crushed or suffering heroism1 commanded the ,earl of ,stamford to inquire on the spot1 on ,monday1 whether the body had yet been recovered by the firemen1 and ,her ,majesty's sympathies were also conveyed to ,mrs4 ,braidwood4 ,it was not1 however1 until the following morning1 that after almost constant exertions1 under the greatest difficulties1 the crushed remains were rescued4 ,an inquest was necessary1 not merely to ascertain what was already well known1 that death had been instantly caused by accident1 but to know whether culpable carelessness of any kind had indirectly led to the sorrowful event4 ,none1 however1 appeared4 ,the remains of the fallen chief were afterwards borne to his late residence in ,watling-street4 ,the members of the committee of the ,london ,fire-engine ,establishment1 formed of representatives from all of the twenty-five insurance companies of ,london1 had already met to express1 by a formal resolution1 their sincere condolence with ,mrs4 ,braidwood and her family4 ,it was known that the funeral would take place on ,saturday1 ,june #bith1 and it was widely felt that a general expression of sorrow and respect should be made1 in view of the common loss of so valued a public servant1 as well as for the noble qualities for which he had been so long and so well known4 ,on the occasion of the funeral this was shown not more by the great length and marked character of the cortege itself than by the general suspension of business in the leading thoroughfares of the city through which it passed1 and by the hushed demeanour of the countless multitude who pressed closely upon the procession throughout its entire course4 ,among the thousands who sadly led the way to the grave were the ,london ,rifle ,brigade1 about #gjj strong 7and of which ,mr4 ,braidwood's three sons were members71 the ,seventh ,tower-,hamlets1 and other rifle corps1 upwards of #ajjj constables of the metropolitan police force1 besides nearly #djj members of the city police1 the superintendents and men of the various water companies1 the secretary and conductors and the band of the ,royal ,society for the ,protection of ,life from ,fire1 a large number of private and local fire-brigades1 and the members of the ,london ,fire-engine ,establishment4 ,the pall-bearers were six of ,mr4 ,braidwood's engineers and foremen1 some of whom were at his side when he fell1 and who had barely escaped with their own lives4 ,following the chief mourners were the ,duke of ,sutherland1 the ,earl of ,caithness1 the ,rev4 ,dr4 ,cumming1 and a large number of relatives and friends of the deceased1 and the committee of the ,london ,fire-engine establishment4 ,the procession was nearly one mile and a-half in length1 and was about three hours in its progress from ,watling-street to ,abney ,park ,cemetery1 where the solemn service of the dead was conducted by the ,rev4 ,dr4 ,cumming1 of whose congregation the deceased had long been a member4 ,with the exception of the great bell of ,st4 ,paul's1 which tolls only on the occasion of the death of a member of the royal family or of a lord-mayor in office1 the bells of all the churches in the city were booming slowly through the day1 and so evident was the general sorrow that it could be truly said that the heart of the nation mourned4 ,on ,thursday1 ,july #dth1 a public meeting was held at the ,mansion ,house1 when resolutions were passed for the collection of subscriptions towards a memorial to ,mr4 ,braidwood's long and arduous public services4 ,this memorial1 it was felt1 should take the form of a permanent provision for his family1 for the post of ,fire ,brigade ,superintendent had never been a lucrative one4 ,before1 however1 the collection of subscriptions had extended beyond a few hundred pounds1 it was made known that the insurance companies had promptly settled upon ,mrs4 ,braidwood the full value--speaking in an insurable sense--of her husband's life4 ,mr4 ,braidwood had for many years supported two maiden sisters1 and the public subscription was applied1 therefore1 to the purchase of small annuities for each of them4 ,it will be remembered that the ,london ,fire-engine ,establishment was from the first controlled only by the insurance companies1 upon whom of course1 fell the whole cost of its maintenance4 ,their interest in the suppression of fires1 although direct and unmistakeable1 was not the same as that of the public4 ,thus1 it would be to the public advantage that no fires should happen1 whereas such a result would be fatal to the insurance companies1 since no one in that case would insure4 ,although the protection of the ,establishment was in practice extended alike to both insured and uninsured property1 the real object for which it was formed and maintained was undoubtedly that of protecting insured property only4 ,it was the interest of the companies to incur as little expense as would1 on the whole1 fairly effect this purpose1 and it was not their interest to effectually protect the whole of the metropolis from fire4 ,thus it was that1 with all the excellence of the organization and discipline of the ,fire-engine ,establishment1 it was greatly inferior in extent to what was requisite for the proper security of the first city in the world4 ,mr4 ,braidwood had long felt this truth1 but1 acting for a private association1 he could only go to the extent of the limited resources at his disposal4 ,it was1 more than anything else1 the great fire at ,cotton's ,wharf that first directed public attention to the necessary insufficiency of any private establishment for the general suppression of fires1 and that has led to the legislation under which the ,fire-engine ,establishment was1 on the #ast of ,january last1 taken over and extended by the ,metropolitan ,board of ,works4 ,london will now1 it is hoped1 be better protected from fire1 because of the increased extent of the means of protection2 but it can hardly be expected that the discipline of the brigade will be improved4 ,apart from the public value of ,mr4 ,braidwood's career in increasing the common security against a common foe1 there was much in his personal1 intellectual1 and moral qualities worthy of admiration4 ,he was a man of strong and commanding frame1 of inexhaustible energy1 and of enduring vitality4 ,the constitutions of but few men could have withstood such long continued wear and tear as fell to his4 ,he braved all weathers1 all extremes of heat and cold1 could sleep or wake at will1 and could work on long after others would have given way4 ,he was always at his post1 and in no moment of difficulty or danger did his cool judgment or his steady courage forsake him4 ,it was this1 together with his considerate bearing1 and on occasions of special trial his almost womanly kindness to his men1 that inspired them with unlimited confidence in him and in his plans4 ,beyond this1 he was a man of superior mind1 with strong comprehensive and generalising faculties4 ,his various published papers1 and a correspondence of which but few could know the extent and importance1 as well as his ready1 clear1 and exact manner in stating his views before committees and before those in authority1 who so often consulted him1 all attest an order of mind which1 in a different sphere1 would alone have won distinction for its possessor4 ,his profession was one in which it happens that almost every person thinks himself competent to give advice2 yet1 without any assumption of authority1 ,mr4 ,braidwood could make it felt wherever he pleased that he was a master in the art of extinguishing fire4 ,but he was not on this account the less ready to listen to suggestions1 and there are numbers who can bear testimony to the patient1 honest1 and appreciative manner in which he considered the many and diverse propositions submitted to him as the head of the ,fire ,brigade of the first city in the world4 ,the soundness of his views and opinions is sufficiently attested by the success of his practice--a success which1 but for the ,government tax upon fire policies1 would have long since made fire insurance in ,london almost the cheapest of all the forms of protection of property from danger4 ,the ,london ,brigade was insignificant in numbers and tame in display when compared with the eight hundred sapeurs pompiers of ,paris1 with their parade and all their accessories of effect--insignificant and tame1 too1 after the glittering apparatus1 imposing paraphernalia1 and deafening clatter of the ,fire ,department of ,new ,york2 but ,mr4 ,braidwood's chosen men knew how to do their duty1 and considering the differences in the mode of building and of heating1 and in the extent of lighting in the three great metropoli just named1 it is an easy matter1 on reference to statistics1 to prove that none others have done better4 ,above all1 ,mr4 ,braidwood was a gentleman of deep ,christian feeling2 and those who knew him best had never doubted that1 had it been his lot to linger long in pain1 knowing the end that was to come1 his calm but unwavering faith in a better future would have sustained him through all4 ,brought up from childhood in the faith of the ,scotch church1 he was a regular attendant upon the ministrations of the ,rev4 ,dr4 ,cumming4 ,in his own quiet way he did much good in the poorer districts of ,london1 and he took a special interest in the ragged schools of the metropolis4 ,what he was in his own home may be best inferred from the crushing force with which his dreadful yet noble fate fell upon those who were dearest to him4 ,his family had already too much reason to know the dangers which had always attended his career4 ,a step-son had fallen1 five years before1 in nearly the same manner1 and now lies buried in the same grave4 ,eleven members1 in all1 of the brigade1 had perished in the discharge of their duty during the time ,mr4 ,braidwood had commanded it3 a fact which1 taken with daily experience1 pointed to other victims to follow4 ,such consolation1 then1 as a stricken widow and a mourning family could have1 next to an abiding faith in the goodness of ,god1 was in the recollection of the virtues and noble qualities of the husband and father1 and in the spontaneous sorrow with which a great people testified their sense of his worth and of their common loss4 ,to show the universal as well as national esteem in which ,mr4 ,braidwood was held1 two extracts are here given from the numerous letters of condolence addressed to his bereaved family1 from all parts of the world4 ,mr4 ,g4 ,h4 ,allen1 ,secretary to the ,boston 7,america7 ,fire ,department1 writes3 ,it gives me pleasure to unite with the ,board in testimony to the extreme kindness of ,mr4 ,braidwood in the conduct of our correspondence1 whereby we have been greatly benefited and received extensive information4 ,allow me also to extend our sympathy to those who have lost one who will ever be remembered as standing at the head of the most valued arm of the ,government1 and one that you can hardly expect to be replaced1 except by years of experience and great natural ability4 ,mr4 ,t4 ,j4 ,bown1 ,superintendent of the ,sydney 7,australia7 ,fire ,brigade1 in a letter dated #bbnd ,august #ahfa1 says1 ,on receipt of the sad news1 our large fire-bell was tolled1 the ,british ensign hoisted half-mast high1 and crape attached to the firemen's uniform1 as a token of respect for one of the noblest and most self-denying men that ever lived1 who spent and lost his life in the service of his fellow-creatures4 ,a ,,true ,,hero4 ,,james ,,braidwood4--,died1 ,june #bbnd1 #ahfa4 ,by the ,author of ,,john ,,halifax1 ,,gentleman4 ,not at the battle front1-- ,writ of in story2 ,not on the blazing wreck1 ,steering to glory2 ,not while in martyr pangs ,soul and flesh sever1 ,died he--this ,hero new-- ,hero for ever4 ,no pomp poetic crown'd1 ,no forms enchained him1 ,no friends applauding watched1 ,no foes arraigned him3 ,death found him there1 without ,grandeur or beauty1 ,only an honest man ,doing his duty3 ,just a ,god-fearing man1 ,simple and lowly1 ,constant at kirk and hearth1 ,kindly and holy3 ,death found--and touched him with ,finger in flying3-- ,so he rose up complete-- ,hero undying4 ,now1 all mourn for him1 ,lovingly raise him ,up from his life obscure1 ,chronicle1 praise him2 ,tell his last act1 done midst ,peril appalling1 ,and the last word of cheer ,from his lips falling2 ,follow in multitudes ,to his grave's portal2 ,leave him there1 buried ,in honour immortal4 ,so many a ,hero walks ,daily beside us1 ,till comes the supreme stroke ,sent to divide us4 ,then the ,lord calls ,his own1-- ,like this man1 even1 ,carried1 ,elijah-like1 ,fire-winged1 to heaven4 ,macmillan's ,magazine1 ,vol4 ,,iv41 page #bid4 ,,fire ,,prevention ,,including ,,fire-,,proof ,,structures4 ,to prevent fires it is necessary to consider what are the principal causes of such calamities4 ,these may be classed under several heads3-- #a4 ,inattention in the use of fires and lights4 #b4 ,improper construction of buildings1 c4 #c4 ,furnaces or close fires for heating buildings1 or for mechanical purposes4 #d4 ,spontaneous ignition4 #e4 ,incendiarism4 ,as almost all fires arise from inattention in one shape or another1 it is of the utmost importance that every master of a house or other establishment should persevere in rigidly enjoining and enforcing on those under him1 the necessity of observing the utmost possible care in preventing such calamities1 which1 in nineteen cases out of twenty1 are the result of remissness or inattention4 ,indeed1 if any one will for a moment consider the fearful risk of life and property1 which is often incurred from a very slight inattention1 the necessity of vigilance and care will at once be apparent4 ,immense hazard is frequently incurred for the most trifling indulgences1 and much property is annually destroyed1 and valuable lives often lost1 because a few thoughtless individuals cannot deny themselves the gratification of reading in bed with a candle beside them4 ,some years ago1 upwards of #ajj1jjjl4 were lost1 through the partner of a large establishment lighting gas with a piece of paper1 which he threw away1 and thus set fire to the premises1 although it was a strict rule in the place that gas should only be lighted with tapers1 which were provided for that purpose4 ,in one department of a great public institution1 it was1 and is still1 a rule that only covered lights should be carried about1 and for that purpose four lanterns were provided2 yet1 on inquiry some time back1 it was found that only one was entire1 the other three being broken--one having lost two sides and the top2 still they were all used as covered lights4 ,the opportunities for inattention to fires and lights are so various1 that it is impossible to notice the whole4 ,one of the prevailing causes of fire is to be traced to persons locking their doors1 and leaving their houses to the care of children4 ,i believe one-half of the children whose deaths are occasioned by accident suffer from this cause alone3 indeed1 almost every week the newspapers contain some melancholy confirmation of what ,i have here stated4 ,intoxication is also a disgraceful and frequent cause of fire4 ,the number of persons burned to death in this way is really incredible4 ,it is true that it does not always happen that a fire takes place in the house1 in either of the above cases1 although the unfortunate beings whose clothes take fire1 rarely escape with their lives2 but the danger to the neighbourhood is at all times considerable1 if persons in a state of inebriety are left in a house alone4 ,when there is reason to apprehend that any member of a family will come home at night in that state1 some one should always be appointed to receive him1 and on no account to leave him till he is put to bed1 and the light extinguished4 ,i do not mean to say that people must be actually drunk before danger is to be apprehended from them4 ,indeed1 a very slight degree of inebriety is dangerous1 as it always tends to blunt the perception1 and to make a person careless and indifferent4 ,i may also add1 that no inconsiderable number of fires are occasioned by the thoughtless practice of throwing spirits into the fire4 ,the dresses of females taking fire adds very much to the list of lives lost by fire1 if it does not exceed all the other causes put together4 ,another very general cause of fire is that of approaching with lighted candles too near bed or window curtains2 these1 being generally quite dry1 are1 from the way in which they are hung1 easily set on fire1 and1 as the flames ascend rapidly1 when once touched1 they are in a blaze in a moment4 ,it is really astonishing to find that1 with daily examples before their eyes1 people should persist 7whether insured or not seems to make little difference7 in practices which1 there is a hundred chances to one1 may involve both themselves and the neighbourhood in one common ruin4 ,of this sort are the practices of looking under a bed with a lighted candle1 and placing a screen full of clothes too near the fire4 ,houses not unfrequently take fire from cinders falling between the joints of the outer and inner hearths4 ,when smoke is observed to arise from the floor1 the cause should be immediately ascertained1 and the inmates ought on no account to retire to rest while there is the slightest smell of fire1 or any grounds to suspect danger from that cause4 ,occasional fires are caused by a very absurd method of extinguishing at night the fires kept in grates during the day4 ,instead of arranging the embers in the grate in such a way as to prevent their falling off1 and thus allowing the fire to die out in its proper place1 they are frequently taken off and laid on the hearth1 where1 should there be wood-work underneath1 it becomes scorched1 and the slightest spark falling through a joint in the stones sets it on fire4 ,a very frequent cause of fire in shops and warehouses arises from the carelessness of the person intrusted to lock them up4 ,it is no uncommon practice with those to whom this duty is intrusted1 to light themselves out1 or to search for any little article which may have been mislaid1 with a lighted paper1 and then to throw it carelessly on the floor1 imagining they have taken every necessary precaution1 merely by setting their foot upon it1 forgetting that the current of air occasioned by shutting the door frequently rekindles it1 and produces the most serious consequences4 ,in warehouses and manufactories1 fires are not unfrequently caused by the workmen being occasionally kept late at work4 ,by the time their task is finished1 the men are so tired and sleepy1 that the extinguishing of fires and lights is done in a very careless manner4 ,i recollect an instance of this sort1 in which the flames were issuing from three upper windows1 and observed by the neighbours1 while the workmen engaged at their employment in the lower floors knew nothing of the destruction that was going on above4 ,a very serious annual loss is also caused by want of due care in handing up or removing the goods in linen-drapers' shop windows when the gas is burning4 ,flues taking fire often result in mischief and it is believed that many serious fires have arisen from this cause1 which can hardly be called accidental1 as1 if flues are properly constructed1 kept moderately clean1 and fairly used1 they cannot take fire4 ,from what has been said1 it will be seen that care and attention may do a very great deal towards the prevention of fire1 and consequent loss of life4 ,it is very easy to make good rules1 and keep them for a time1 after having been alarmed by some serious loss of property or life1 but the difficulty is to maintain constant attention to the subject4 ,the most evident plan for effecting this seems to be1 for the masters thoroughly to examine and consider the subject at certain stated periods1 not too far apart1 and to constantly warn their domestics1 workmen1 or others1 of the danger of the improper use of fires and lights4 ,one of the greatest preventives of carelessness in the use of fires and lights would be a legal inquiry in every case1 as it would not only show the faults that had been committed1 and thus warn others1 but the idea of being exposed in the newspapers would be another motive for increased care4 ,this plan has been adopted in ,new ,york1 and the reports of the proceedings of ,mr4 ,baker1 the ,fire ,marshal1 show that the inquiries there made have led to most useful results4 ,mr4 ,payne1 the coroner1 held inquests on fires in the ,city of ,london some years ago1 but the authorities would not allow his expenses1 and therefore they were given up1 although believed to be highly advantageous in explaining accidental and others causes of fire4 ,the improper construction of buildings more generally assists the spread than is the original cause of fires1 although laying hearths on timber1 and placing timber too near flues1 are constant causes of fire1 and it is believed that many melancholy occurrences have arisen from these and similar sources4 ,one cause of danger from chimneys arises from the communication which they often have with each other in one gable4 ,the divisions or partitions1 being very often found in an imperfect state1 the fire communicates to the adjoining chimney1 and in this way sometimes wraps a whole tenement in flames4 ,i know a division of a principal street in ,edinburgh1 in which there is scarcely a single chimney-head that is not more or less in this condition2 and ,i have no doubt that this is not an uncommon case4 ,there is also great danger from the ends of joists1 safe-lintels1 or other pieces of timber1 being allowed to protrude into chimneys4 ,in one instance which came under my notice1 a flue passing under the recess of a window had on the upper side no other covering than the wood of the floor2 of course1 when the chimney took fire the floor was immediately in a blaze3 but there are many instances of such carelessness4 ,it is a common practice amongst carpenters to drive small pieces of wood into walls for the purpose of fixing their work1 not paying the least attention as to whether the points run into the flues or not4 ,in the repairs and alterations of old buildings1 house-carpenters are1 if possible1 even more careless in this particular1 than in the construction of new4 ,i know of two different buildings which underwent some alterations4 ,in both of these1 safe-lintels had been run into flues1 and both of them1 after the alterations1 took fire2 the one in consequence of a foul chimney1 which set fire to the lintel2 and although the other did not take fire from the same cause1 the lintel was nevertheless very much scorched1 and obliged to be removed4 ,great carelessness is frequently exhibited by builders1 when erecting at one time two or three houses connected by mutual gables1 by not carrying up the gables1 or party-walls1 so as to divide the roofs4 ,i have seen more than one instance where the adjoining house would have been quite safe1 but for this culpable neglect4 ,it is no uncommon thing1 too1 to find houses divided only by lath and standard partitions1 without a single brick in them4 ,when a fire occurs in houses divided in this manner1 the vacuities in the middle of the partitions act like so many funnels to conduct the flame1 thereby greatly adding to the danger from the fire1 and infinitely increasing the difficulty of extinguishing it4 ,in ,london the ,building ,act forbids all such proceedings1 but the ,district ,surveyors do not seem to have sufficient power1 or be able to pay sufficient attention to such matters1 as they are constantly met with at fires4 ,a very flagrant case of laying a hearth on timber was lately exposed by a fire in the ,city4 ,due notice was given of the circumstance1 but no farther attention was paid to the matter than to make the proprietor construct the floor properly1 although the ,act gave power to fine for such neglect4 ,the omission is to be regretted1 as there could not have been a better case for warning others2 it occurred in a very large establishment1 and the work was done by one of the first builders in the ,city4 ,had this fire taken place in the night and gained some head1 it would have been very difficult to have ascertained the cause4 ,as the premises were situated1 a serious loss of life might have occurred1 the apartment in which the fire originated being the only means of retreat which ten or twelve female servants had from their bedrooms4 ,the ,metropolitan ,building ,acts1 up to about the year #ahbe1 by insisting upon party-walls and other precautions1 were invaluable for the prevention of the spread of fires4 ,by them no warehouse was permitted to exceed a certain area4 ,from the year #ahdb1 the area has been exchanged for a specified number of cubic feet4 ,but since #ahbe1 a class of buildings has arisen of which there are now considerable numbers in the ,city1 called ,manchester or piece goods warehouses1 which somehow have been exempted from the law restricting the extent of warehouses1 on the plea that they are not warehouses1 because bulk is broken in them1 although it is thoroughly understood that the legislature intended by the ,act to restrict the amassing such a quantity of goods under one roof as would be dangerous to the neighbourhood4 ,manchester and piece goods warehouses have for some time past been built in ,london of unlimited size1 sometimes equal to twenty average houses4 ,this is pretty nearly the same as if that number of houses were built without party-walls1 only that it is much worse1 for the whole mass generally communicates by well holes and open staircases1 and thus takes fire with great rapidity1 and1 from the quantity of fresh air within the building1 the fire makes much greater progress before it is discovered4 ,by this means the risk of fire in the ,city has been greatly increased1 not only to such warehouses themselves1 but to the surrounding neighbourhood1 for it is impossible to say how far fires of such magnitude may extend their ravages under untoward circumstances1 there being at present no preventive power in ,london capable of controlling them4 ,to provide such a power would be a very costly business4 ,such buildings are also against the generally received rule1 that a man may burn himself and his own property1 but he shall not unduly risk the lives and property of his neighbours4 ,the new ,building ,act is likely to repress1 to a certain extent1 this great evil1 unless its meaning be subverted by some such subterfuge as destroyed the efficiency of the last one4 ,but what is to be done with those which are already built8 ,it may seem tedious to dwell so much on this subject1 but it appears to be a risk which is not generally much thought of1 though it is of the most vital importance to the safety of ,london4 ,it is very desirable that the metropolis should take warning by the experience of ,liverpool1 without going through the fiery ordeal which the latter city did4 ,from #ahch to #ahdc1 #ggf1gfbl4 were lost in ,liverpool by fire1 almost entirely in the warehouse risks4 ,the consequence was1 that the mercantile rates of insurance gradually rose from about #hs4 per cent4 to #cjs41 #djs41 and1 it is said1 in some cases1 to #des4 per cent4 ,such premiums could not be paid on wholesale transactions1 therefore the ,liverpool people themselves obtained an ,act of ,parliament1 #f and #g ,vic41 cap4 #aji1 by which the size and height of warehouses were restricted1 party walls were made imperative1 and warehouses were not allowed to be erected within thirty-six feet of any other warehouse1 unless the whole of the doors and window-shutters were made of wrought iron1 with many similar restrictions4 ,this ,act applied to warehouses already built as well as to those to be built1 and any tenant was at liberty1 after notice to his landlord1 to alter his warehouse according to the ,act1 and to stop his rent till the expense was paid4 ,another ,act1 #f and #g ,vic41 cap4 #ge1 was also obtained1 for bringing water into ,liverpool for the purpose of extinguishing fires and watering the streets only4 ,it is supposed that the works directed1 or permitted1 by these two ,acts1 cost the people of ,liverpool from #bjj1jjjl4 to #cjj1jjjl4 ,shortly after these alterations had been made1 the mercantile premiums again fell to about #hs4 per cent4 ,there is another very common cause of fire1 which seems to come under the head of construction--viz41 covering up a fireplace when not in use with wood or paper and canvas1 c4 ,the soot falls into the fireplace1 either from the flue itself1 or from an adjoining one which communicates with it4 ,a neighbouring chimney takes fire2 a spark falls down the blocked-up flue1 sets fire to the soot in the fireplace1 which smoulders till the covering is burned through1 and thus sets fire to the premises4 ,in theatres1 that part of the house which includes the stage and scenery should be carefully divided from that where the spectators assemble by a solid wall carried up to1 and through the roof4 ,the opening in this wall for the stage should be arched over1 and the other communications secured with iron doors1 which would be kept shut while the audience was in the house4 ,by this plan1 there would be abundance of time for the spectators to retire1 before fire could reach that part of the theatre which they occupy4 ,the danger from furnaces or close fires1 whether for heating1 cooking1 or manufacturing purposes1 is very great1 and no flue should be permitted to be so used1 unless it is prepared for the purpose4 ,the reason is1 that in a close fire the whole of the draught must pass through the fire4 ,it thus becomes so heated that1 unless the flue is properly built1 it is dangerous throughout its whole course4 ,in one instance of a heating furnace1 the heat in the flue was found to be #cjj deg41 at a distance of from forty to fifty feet from the fire4 ,in open fireplaces1 the quantity of cold air carried up with the draught keeps the flue at a moderate heat1 from the fire upwards1 and1 unless the flue is allowed to become foul1 and take fire1 this is the safest possible mode of heating4 ,heating by hot air1 steam1 and hot water are objectionable4 ,first1 because there must be a furnace and furnace flue1 and the flue used is generally that built for an open fire only2 and second1 the pipes are carried in every direction1 to be as much out of sight as possible4 ,by this means they are constantly liable to produce spontaneous ignition1 for there appears to be some chemical action between heated iron and timber1 by which fire is generated at a much lower temperature than is necessary to ignite timber under ordinary circumstances4 ,no satisfactory explanation of this fact has yet been given1 but there is abundant proof that such is the case4 ,in heating by hot-water pipes1 those hermetically sealed are by far the most dangerous1 as the strength of the pipes to resist the pressure is the only limit of the heat to which the water1 and of course the pipes1 may be raised4 ,in some cases a plug of metal which fuses at #djj deg4 is put into the pipes1 but the heat to which the plug is exposed will depend very much on where it is placed1 as1 however great may be the heat of the exit pipe1 the return pipe is comparatively cool4 ,but even where the pipes are left open1 the heat of the water at the furnace is not necessarily #bab deg44 ,it is almost needless to say that #bab deg4 is the heat of boiling water under the pressure of one atmosphere only2 but if the pipes are carried sixty or seventy feet high1 the water in the furnace must be under the pressure of nearer three atmospheres than one1 and therefore the heat will be proportionately increased4 ,fires from pipes for heating by hot water have been known to take place within twenty-four hours after first heating1 and some after ten years of apparent safety4 ,the ,new ,metropolitan ,building ,act prescribes rules for the placing steam1 hot-air1 and hot-water pipes at a certain distance from timber2 but as it must be extremely difficult for the ,district ,surveyors to watch such minute proceedings1 it becomes every one who is anxious for safety to see that the ,district ,surveyors have due notice of any operation of this kind4 ,another cause of fire which may come under this head is the use of pipes for conveying away the products of combustion4 ,every one is acquainted with the danger of stove pipes1 but all are not perhaps aware that pipes for conveying away the heat and effluvia from gas-burners are also very dangerous when placed near timber4 ,it is not an uncommon practice to convey such pipes between the ceiling and the flooring of the floor above4 ,this is highly dangerous4 ,gas-burners are also dangerous when placed near a ceiling4 ,a remarkable instance of this took place lately1 where a gas-burner set fire to a ceiling #bh-a_/b inches from it4 ,another evil of furnaces is1 that the original fireplace is sometimes not large enough to contain the apparatus1 and the party wall is cut into4 ,perhaps it may be necessary to notice at this point the use of gas1 as it is becoming so very general4 ,gas1 if carefully laid on1 and properly used1 is safer than any other light1 so far as actually setting fire to anything goes1 but the greater heat given out so dries up any combustibles within its reach1 that it prepares them for burning1 and when a fire does take place1 the destruction is much more rapid than in a building lighted by other means4 ,gas-stoves1 also1 from the great heat given out1 sometimes cause serious accidents2 in one instance1 a gas-stove set fire to a beam through a two-and-half inch ,york landing1 well bedded in mortar1 although the lights were five or six inches above the stone4 ,this is mentioned to show that gas-stoves require quite as much care as common fires4 ,spontaneous ignition is believed to be a very fruitful cause of fires2 but1 unless the fire is discovered almost at the commencement1 it is difficult to ascertain positively that this has been the cause4 ,spontaneous ignition is generally accelerated by natural or artificial heat4 ,for instance1 where substances liable to spontaneous ignition are exposed to the heat of the sun1 to furnace flues1 heated pipes1 or are placed over apartments lighted by gas1 the process of ignition proceeds much more rapidly than when in a cooler atmosphere4 ,sawdust in contact with vegetable oil is very likely to take fire4 ,cotton1 cotton waste1 hemp1 and most other vegetable substances are alike dangerous4 ,in one case oil and sawdust took fire within sixteen hours2 in others1 the same materials have lain for years1 until some external heat has been applied to them4 ,the greater number of the serious fires which have taken place in railroad stations in and near ,london have commenced in the paint stores4 ,in a very large fire in an oil warehouse1 a quantity of oil was spilt the day before and wiped up1 the wipings being thrown aside4 ,this was believed to have been the cause of the fire1 but direct proof could not be obtained4 ,dust-bins also very often cause serious accidents4 ,in one instance1 #cj1jjjl4 to #dj1jjjl4 were lost1 apparently from hot ashes being thrown into a dust-bin4 ,these accidents may in a great measure be avoided by constant care and attention to cleanliness1 and where paints and oils are necessary1 by keeping them in some place outside the principal buildings4 ,dust-bins should1 as much as possible1 be placed in the open air1 and where that cannot be done1 they should be emptied once a day4 ,no collection of rubbish or lumber of any sort should be allowed to be made in any building of value4 ,mr4 ,wyatt ,papworth1 architect1 has published some very interesting notes on spontaneous ignition1 giving several well-authenticated instances4 ,incendiarism may be divided into three sorts--malicious1 fraudulent1 and monomaniac4 ,of the former there has been very little in ,london for many years4 ,the second1 however1 is rather prevalent4 ,the insurance offices1 which are the victims1 protect themselves as well as they can1 but an inquest on each fire is the true mode of lessening the evil4 ,this is much more the interest of the public than at first seems to be the case4 ,in several instances where the criminals were brought to punishment by ,mr4 ,payne's inquests1 people were asleep in the upper parts of the houses set fire to1 and in one case there were as many as twelve or fifteen persons4 ,this1 however1 is seldom stated in the indictment1 as1 if it is1 the punishment is still death by the law1 and it is supposed that a conviction is more easily obtained1 by the capital charge being waived4 ,monomania is a rare cause of incendiarism1 but still several well-certified cases have occurred in which no possible motive could be given4 ,in one instance a youth of fifteen set fire to his father's premises seven times within a few hours4 ,in another1 a young female on a visit set fire to her friend's furniture1 c41 ten or eleven times in the course of one or two days4 ,in neither case could anything like disagreement or harshness be elicited1 but the reverse4 ,in other instances1 it has been strongly suspected that this disease was the cause of repeated fires1 but there was no positive proof4 ,in all these cases1 known or suspected1 the parties were generally from fourteen to twenty years of age4 ,,fire-,,proof ,,structures4 ,what is ,fire-proof ,construction8 is a question which has given rise to a great deal of discussion1 simply1 as it appears to me1 because the size of the buildings1 and the quantity and description of the contents1 have not always been taken into account4 ,that which may be perfectly fireproof in a dwelling house1 may be the weakest in a large warehouse4 ,suppose an average-sized dwelling-house #bj x #dj x #ej #dj1jjj cubic feet1 built with brick partitions1 stone or slate stairs1 wrought-iron joists filled in with concrete1 and the whole well plastered4 ,such a house will be practically fire-proof1 because there is no probability that the furniture and flooring in any one room1 would make fire enough to communicate to another4 ,but suppose a warehouse equal to twenty such houses1 with floors completely open1 supported by cast-iron pillars1 and each floor communicating with the others by open staircases and wells2 suppose1 further1 that it is half filled with combustible goods1 and perhaps the walls and ceilings lined with timber4 ,now1 if a fire takes place below1 the moment it bursts through the upper windows or skylights1 the whole place becomes an immense blast furnace2 the iron is melted1 and in a comparatively short time the building is in ruins1 and1 it may be1 the half of the neighbourhood destroyed4 ,the real fire-proof construction for such buildings is groined brick arches1 supported on brick pillars only4 ,this mode of building1 however1 involves so much expense1 and occupies so much space1 that it cannot be used with advantage4 ,the next best plan is to build the warehouses in compartments of moderate size1 divided by party-walls and double wrought-iron doors1 so that if one of these compartments takes fire1 there may be a reasonable prospect of confining the fire to that compartment only4 ,again1 cast iron gives way from so many different causes1 that it is impossible to calculate when it will give way4 ,the castings may have flaws in them2 or they may be too weak for the weight they have to support1 being sometimes within #aj per cent41 or less1 of the breaking weight4 ,the expansion of the girders may thrust out the side walls4 ,for instance1 in a warehouse #abj feet x #ge feet x #hj feet1 there are three continuous rows of girders on each floor1 with butt joints2 the expansion in this case may be twelve inches4 ,the tie rods to take the strain of the flat arches must expand and become useless1 and the whole of the lateral strain be thrown on the girders and side walls1 perhaps weak enough already4 ,again1 throwing cold water on the heated iron may cause an immediate fracture4 ,for these and similar reasons1 the firemen are not permitted to go into warehouses supported by iron1 when once fairly on fire4 ,cast and wrought-iron have been frequently fused at fires in large buildings such as warehouses1 sugar houses1 c41 but according to ,mr4 ,fairbairn's experiments on cast iron in a heated state1 it is not necessary that the fusing point should be attained to cause it to give way4,a ,he also states1 that the loss of strength in cold-blast cast iron1 in a variation of temperature from #bf deg4 to #aij deg4 #afd deg4 ,fahr41 is #aj per cent41 and in hot-blast at a variation of from #ba deg4 to #aij deg4 #afi deg4 ,fahr41 is #ae per cent42 now if the loss of strength advances in anything like this ratio1 the iron will be totally useless as a support1 long before the fusing point is attained4 ,much confidence has been placed in wrought-iron tie or tension rods1 to take the lateral strain of the arches1 and also in trusses to support the beams2 but it must be evident that the expansion of the iron from the heat1 would render them useless1 and under a high temperature1 it would be so great as to unsettle the brickwork1 and accelerate its fall1 on any part of the iron-work giving way3 again1 the application of cold water to the heated iron1 in an endeavour to extinguish the fire1 is almost certain to cause one or more fractures4 ,the brick-arching is also very liable to fall1 especially if only four and a half inches thick1 independently of the weight which may be placed upon it1 for it is not uncommon after a fire in a large building1 to find the mortar almost completely pulverized to the depth of three inches1 or four inches1 from the face of the wall4 ,when a fire occurred under one of the arches of the ,blackwall ,railway1 on the #aeth ,july1 #ahdc1 a portion of the lower ring fell down1 and also a few bricks from the next ring4 ,another very serious objection to buildings of this description1 is that1 unless scientifically constructed1 they are very unlikely to be safe1 even for the common purposes intended1 independent of the risk of fire4 ,in the ,report of ,sir ,henry ,de la ,beche and ,mr4 ,thomas ,cubitt on the fall of the mill at ,oldham1 in ,october1 #ahdd1;,b it is stated that the strength of the iron-beams was within ten per cent4 of the breaking weight4 ,now according to ,mr4 ,fairbairn's experiments on heated iron1 already referred to1 an increase of temperature of only #agj deg4 would have destroyed the whole building4 ,it is quite clear1 therefore1 that so long as mill-owners and others continue to construct such buildings without proper advice1 they must be liable to these accidents4 ,in timber-floors there can be no such risk1 as the strains are all direct1 and any journeyman carpenter1 by following good examples1 can ascertain the size required2 and even if he makes a mistake1 the evil is comparatively trivial1 as the timber will give notice before yielding1 and may be propped up for the time1 until it can be properly secured4 ,in the case of fire-proof buildings1 an ignorant person may make many mistakes without being aware that he has done so1 and the slightest failure is probably fatal to every one within the walls4 ,this also increases the difficulty and danger of extinguishing fires in a large building1 as the only method of doing so is for the firemen to enter it with their branches1 and in case of the floors falling1 there is no chance of escape4 ,on the other hand1 timber-floors have repeatedly fallen while the firemen were inside the building1 and they have made their escape uninjured4 ,in a pamphlet published by ,mr4 ,s4 ,holme1 of ,liverpool1 in #ahdd1;,c and which contains a report from ,mr4 ,fairbairn on fire-proof buildings1 it is stated1 that many people1 especially in the manufacturing districts1 are their own architects2 that the warehouses in ,liverpool may be loaded to one ton per yard of flooring2 and that unless great care and knowledge are used in the construction of fire-proof buildings1 they are of all others the most dangerous4,d ,the following are the principles on which ,mr4 ,fairbairn proposes to build fire-proof warehouses3-- ,the whole of the building to be composed of non-combustible materials1 such as iron1 stone1 or bricks4 ,in order to prevent fire1 whether arising from accident or spontaneous combustion1 every opening1 or crevice1 communicating with the external atmosphere to be closed4 ,an isolated staircase1 of stone1 or iron1 well protected on every side by brick1 or stone walls1 to be attached to every story1 and be furnished with a line of water-pipes1 communicating with the mains in the street1 and ascending to the top of the building4 ,in a range of stores1 the different warehouses to be divided by strong partition-walls1 in no case less than eighteen inches thick1 and no more openings to be made than are absolutely necessary for the admission of goods and light4 ,that the iron columns1 beams1 and brick arches be of strength sufficient1 not only to support a continuous dead pressure1 but to resist the force of impact to which they are subject by the falling of heavy goods upon the floors4 ,that in order to prevent accident from the columns being melted by intense heat in the event of fire in any of the rooms1 a current of cold air should be introduced into the hollow of the columns1 from an arched tunnel under the floors4 ,there is no doubt that if the second principle could be carried out1 namely1 the total exclusion of air1 the fire would go out of itself2 but it seems1 to say the least of it1 very doubtful indeed if this can be accomplished1 and if it could1 the carelessness of a porter leaving open one of the doors or windows1 would make the whole useless4 ,the fifth principle shows that ,mr4 ,fairbairn has omitted to allow for the loss of strength the iron may sustain from the increase of temperature4 ,the last principle would not be likely to answer its purpose1 even if it was possible to keep these tunnels and hollow columns clear for a number of years1 which is scarcely to be expected4 ,a piece of cast-iron pipe1 one-and-a-half inch in diameter1 was heated for four minutes in a common forge1 both ends being carefully kept open to the atmosphere1 when1 on one end being fixed in a vice1 and the other pulled aside by the hand1 it gave way4 ,one of the principal objections to the kind of fire-proof buildings above described1 is1 that absolute perfection in their construction is indispensable to their safety2 whereas buildings of a more common description are comparatively safe1 although there may be some errors or omissions in their construction4 ,indeed1 ,mr4 ,fairbairn states in the same ,report1 that it is true that negligence of construction on the one hand1 and want of care in management on the other1 might entail risk and loss to an enormous extent4 ,the following is a very clear proof of the inability of cast iron to resist the effects of fire3-- ,a chapel in ,liverpool-road1 ,islington1 seventy feet in length and fifty-two feet in breadth1 took fire in the cellar1 on the #bnd ,october1 #ahdh1 and was completely burned down4 ,after the fire1 it was ascertained that of thirteen cast-iron pillars used to support the galleries1 only two remained perfect2 the greater part of the others were broken into small pieces1 the metal appearing to have lost all power of cohesion1 and some parts were melted4 ,it should be observed1 that these pillars were of ample strength to support the galleries when filled by the congregation1 but when the fire reached them1 they crumbled under the weight of the timber only1 lightened as it must have been by the progress of the fire4 ,in this case it mattered little whether the pillars stood or fell1 but it would be very different with some of the large wholesale warehouses in the ,city1 where numbers of young men sleep in the upper floors2 in several of those warehouses the cast-iron pillars are much less in proportion to the weight to be carried than those referred to1 and would be completely in the draught of a fire4 ,if a fire should unfortunately take place under such circumstances1 the loss of human life might be very great1 as the chance of fifty1 eighty1 or one hundred people escaping in the confusion of a sudden night alarm1 by one or two ladders1 to the roof1 could scarcely be calculated on1 and the time such escape must necessarily occupy1 independent of all chance of accidents1 would be considerable4 ,for the reasons here stated1 ,i submit that large buildings1 containing considerable quantities of combustible goods1 with floors of brick-arches1 supported by cast-iron beams and columns1 are not1 practically speaking1 fire-proof2 and that the only construction which would render large buildings fire-proof2 where considerable quantities of combustible goods are deposited1 would be groined brick-arches1 supported by pillars of the same material1 laid in proper cement4 ,i am fully convinced1 from a lengthened experience1 that the intensity of a fire1--the risk of its ravages extending to adjoining premises1 and also the difficulty of extinguishing it1 depend1 caeteris paribus1 on the cubic contents of the building which takes fire1 and it appears to me that the amount of loss would be very much reduced1 if1 instead of building immense warehouses1 which give the fire a fortified position1 warehouses were made of a moderate size1 with access on two sides at least1 completely separated from each other by party-walls1 and protected by iron-doors and window-shutters4 ,in the latter case1 the probability is1 that not more than one warehouse would be lost at a time1 and perhaps that one would be only partially injured4 ,it is sincerely to be hoped that the clause in the last ,metropolitan ,building ,act1 restricting the size of warehouses1 may be more successful than its predecessor1 for it is not only property that is at stake1 but human life4 ,in many of these ,manchester warehouses1 there are fifty or one hundred and upwards of warehousemen and servants sleeping in the upper floors1 whose escape1 in case of fire1 would be very doubtful1 to say the least of it4,e ,covering timber with sheet-iron is very often resorted to as a protection against fire4 ,i have never found it succeed2 but ,dr4 ,faraday1 ,professor ,brande1 ,dr4 ,d4 ,b4 ,reid1 and ,mr4 ,w4 ,tite1 ,m4,p41 are of opinion that it may be useful against a sudden burst of flame1 but that it is worse than useless against a continued heat4 ,in wadding manufactories the drying-rooms were frequently lined with iron-plates1 and when a fire arose there1 the part covered with iron was generally found more damaged than the rest2 the heat got through the sheet-iron1 and burnt the materials behind it1 and there was no means of touching them with water until the iron was torn down2 sheet iron should not1 therefore1 be used for protecting wood4 ,even cast iron1 one inch thick1 laid on tiles and cement three inches thick1 has allowed fire to pass through both1 to the boarding and joisting below1 merely from the fire in an open fire-place being taken off and laid on the hearth4 ,this arises from iron being so good a conductor that1 when heat is applied to it1 it becomes in a very short time nearly as hot on the one side as the other4 ,if the smoke escapes up a chimney1 or in any other way1 there may be a serious amount of fire before it is noticed4 ,in a fire at the ,bank of ,england1 the hearth on which the stove was placed was cast iron an inch thick1 with two-and-a-half inches of concrete underneath it2 but the timber below that was fired4 ,with regard to the subject of fire-proof dwelling-houses of average size1 ,i consider that such houses when built of brick or stone1 with party-walls carried through the roof2 the partitions of brick1 the stairs of slate or stone1 the joists of wrought iron filled in with concrete1 and the whole well plastered1 are practically fire-proof because1 as stated at the opening of this chapter1 there is no probability that the furniture and flooring in any one room would make fire enough to communicate to another4 ,the safest manner of heating such houses is with open fire-places1 the hearths not being laid upon timber4 ,stone staircases1 when much heated1 will fracture from cold water coming suddenly in contact with them2 but in a dwelling-house built as described above1 there is very little chance of such a circumstance endangering human life1 even with wooden steps carried upon brick walls1 and rendered incombustible by a ceiling of an inch and a quarter of good hair mortar and well pugged1 all the purposes of safety to human life would be attained4 ,there is a particular description of floor1 which1 although not altogether fire-proof1 is certainly 7at least so far as ,i can judge71 almost practically so for dwelling-houses4 ,it is composed simply of plank two and a-half or three inches thick1 so closely joined1 and so nicely fitted to the walls1 as to be completely air-tight4 ,its thickness and its property of being air-tight1 will be easily observed to be its only causes of safety4 ,although the apartment be on fire1 yet the time required to burn through the floor above or below1 will be so great1 that the property may be removed from the other floors1 or1 more probably1 if the means of extinguishing fire be at hand1 it may be subdued before it can spread to any other apartment4 ,the doors must of course be made in proportion1 and the partitions of brick or stone4 ,before closing the subject of fire-proof structures1 ,i will add a few words upon fire-proof safes4 ,these are all constructed with double casings of wrought iron1 the interstices being in some filled with non-combustible substances1 such as pumice stone and ,stourbridge clay1 and in others with metal tubes1 that melt at a low temperature1 and allow a liquid contained in them to escape1 and form steam round the box1 with the intention of preventing the heat from injuring the contents4 ,such safes ,i have never found destroyed2 and in some cases1 after large fires1 the whole of the contents have been found uninjured1 while the papers in common safes1 merely made strong enough to prevent their being broken into1 were generally found consumed4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote ,a3 ,vide ,seventh ,report of the ,british ,association1 #ahcg1 vol4 vi4 page #dji4 ,footnote ,b3 ,vide ,report on the ,fall of the ,cotton ,mill1 at ,oldham1 and part of the ,prison at ,northleach1 page #d4 ,folio4 ,london3 ,clowes and ,sons1 #ahde4 ,footnote ,c3 ,vide ,report of ,w4 ,fairbairn1 ,esq41 on the ,construction of ,fire-proof ,buildings4 ,with introductory ,remarks by ,samuel ,holme1 page #aa1 et seq4 ,tract1 #hvo4 ,liverpool3 ,t4 ,baines1 #ahdd4 ,footnote ,d3 ,the ,author has been informed by ,mr4 ,farey1 ,m4 ,inst4 ,c4,e41 that a fire took place1 in #ahbg1 in a mill belonging to ,mr4 ,marshall1 of ,leeds1 the whole of which1 with the exception of the roof1 was fire-proof4 ,the upper floor was filled with flax1 which took fire2 the roof fell in1 and the heat so affected the iron beams of the floor1 as to cause them to give way4 ,footnote ,e3 ,in the year #aheh1 when reporting to the ,insurance ,offices upon the ,warehouses in the ,metropolitan ,docks1 ,mr4 ,braidwood made the following suggestions which are applicable to all large buildings4 ,that all the party-walls where the roofs do not rise above the wall1 should be #c feet #f inches above such roof4 ,that all the party-walls in the valleys of the roofs should be raised to the level of the highest ridge on either side1 all openings in such walls being closed by wrought-iron doors on each side of the walls1 at least a quarter of an inch thick in the panels1 and such openings not to exceed #db superficial feet in the clear4 ,that all windows which look upon other windows1 or loop-hole doors in other warehouses or compartments1 within #ajj feet1 should be bricked up1 or have wrought-iron shutters at least #c_/afth of an inch thick in the panels4 ,that all loop-hole doors similarly situated should be made entirely of wrought iron1 frames included1 or bricked up4 ,that all shafts for lifts or other purposes1 should be of brick1 with wrought-iron doors where necessary to receive or deliver goods1 and that all openings whatever for machinery should be included in such shaft4 ,that every hatchway or opening in the floors for shooting goods from floor to floor should have a strong flap hinged on to the floor1 to be closed when not in use1 especially at night4 ,that there should be direct access to every room1 of every compartment1 of every warehouse1 from a fire-proof staircase1 by iron doors1 and that all such staircases should enter from the open air1 as well as from under any warehouse on the quay2 in the latter case the doors must be of iron only4 ,all the windows in the entresol and ground floors to be bricked up1 or have iron shutters1 and the doors and frames to be of iron4 ,wherever the warehouses face each other within #ajj feet1 the front parapet walls to be carried up to the level of the ridge of the roof4 ,when it is stated in this report that the windows or loop-hole doors should be bricked up1 it is not meant to exclude the use of thick glass1 three or four pieces being built into each door or window space1 not exceeding #f inches in diameter or square1 in the clear1 and set in the mortar or cement at least #c_/d of an inch all round1 the glass to be not less than #a-a_/b inches thick1 flat on both sides1 and so placed that no goods can be stored within #ah inches of the inner surface4 ,there should be a tank on the top of each staircase1 with a tap from it on each landing1 with six fire buckets hung near it1 and three small hand pumps in every staircase2 the officers and workpeople seeing these every day would be certain to run to them in case of fire1 and by having a constant supply of water on every floor small accidents might be extinguished at once1 and the iron doors and roofs kept cool in case of one room taking fire4 ,,fire ,,extinction1 ,,including ,,fire ,,brigades1 ,,fire ,,engines1 ,,and ,,water ,,supply4 ,before entering upon the subject of ,public ,fire ,brigades1 ,i will call attention to the course to be pursued by inmates of the house on fire1 and their neighbours4 ,when all available means of fire prevention have been adopted1 the next thing to be considered is a supply of water4 ,in the country1 or where there are no water-pipes or engines1 this ought to be particularly attended to1 and a hand-pump should be provided4 ,where no water is kept solely for the purpose of extinguishing fire1 such vessels as can be spared should be regularly filled every night1 and placed in such situations as may be most convenient in case of danger2 and no master of a family ought to retire to rest1 without being satisfied that this has been attended to4 ,if it had no other advantage than merely that of directing the inmates of a house to the possibility of such an occurrence as fire1 it would be worth much more than the trouble such an arrangement would cost2 but1 in addition to that1 a supply of water would be at hand1 in most cases more than sufficient to extinguish the fire immediately on its being discovered1 and before it had become either alarming or dangerous4 ,but when no such precaution has been adopted1 when even the bare possibility of fire has not been considered1 when no attention has even been paid to the subject1 and no provision made for it2 the inhabitants are generally so alarmed and confused1 that the danger is probably over1 by their property being burned to the ground1 before they can sufficiently recollect themselves to lend any effective assistance4 ,in most cases of fire1 the people in whose premises it occurs are thrown into what may be called a state of temporary derangement1 and seem to be actuated only by a desire of muscular movement1 no matter to what purpose their exertions are directed4 ,persons may often be seen toiling like galley-slaves1 at operations which a moment's reflection would show were utterly useless4 ,i have seen tables1 chairs1 and every article of furniture that would pass through a window1 three or four stories high1 dashed into the street1 even when the fire had hardly touched the tenement4 ,on one occasion ,i saw crockery-ware thrown from a window on the third floor4,f ,most of these extravagances take place on the first alarm4 ,when the engines have got fairly into play1 people begin to recollect themselves1 and it is at this time that most of those who go to see a fire arrive4 ,by the exertions of the police there is then generally a considerable degree of order restored1 and the most interesting part of the scene is over4 ,what remains1 however1 may1 from its novelty or grandeur1 if the fire is extensive1 be still worth looking at for a little1 but much of the excitement is banished with the confusion2 and if the fire and firemen seem to be well matched1 the chief interest which is excited in the spectators is to ascertain which of the parties is likely to be victorious4 ,few people1 comparatively1 have thus an opportunity of witnessing the terror and distraction occasioned by the first alarm of fire1 and this may probably account for the apathy and indifference with which people who have not seen this regard it4 ,when a fire actually takes place1 every one should endeavour to be as cool and collected as possible2 screams1 cries1 and other exhibitions of terror1 while utterly useless in themselves1 have generally the effect of alarming those whose services might otherwise be of the utmost advantage1 and of rendering them unfit for useful exertion4 ,it is unhappily1 too1 at the commencement of fires1 that this tendency to confusion and terror is the strongest1 when a bucket of water1 properly applied1 is generally of more value than a hundred will be half an hour afterwards4 ,it is the feeling of total surprise1 on the breaking out of a fire1 which thus unhinges the faculties of many individuals4 ,they have never made the case their own1 nay1 one would almost imagine they had scarcely thought such an occurrence possible1 till1 coming on them almost like a thunderbolt1 they are lost in perplexity and terror4 ,the only preventive against this is to think the matter over frequently and carefully before it occurs4 ,the moment it is ascertained that fire has actually taken place1 notice should be sent to the nearest station where there is a fire-engine4 ,no matter whether the inmates are likely to be able to extinguish the fire themselves--this should never be trusted to if more efficient help can be had4 ,it is much better that an engine should be turned out twenty times when it is not wanted1 than be once too late4 ,this may cause a trifling expense2 but even that expense is not altogether lost1 as it teaches the firemen steadiness and coolness4 ,the person in the house best qualified for such duty should endeavour to ascertain1 with as much precision as possible1 the extent and position of the fire1 while the others collect as much water as they can4 ,if the fire be in an upper floor1 the inmates should be got out immediately1 although the lower part of the house may generally be entered with safety for some time4 ,if in the lower part of the house1 after the inmates have been removed1 great care should be observed in going into any of the upper floors1 as the flames very often reach the stair before being observed by those above4 ,the upper floors are1 besides1 generally filled with smoke1 and1 in that case1 there is great danger of suffocation to those who may enter4 ,this1 indeed1 is the principal danger attending fires1 and should be particularly guarded against1 as a person1 when being suffocated1 is unable to call for assistance4 ,in a case of this kind the fire took place in the third floor from the street1 and all the inmates immediately left the premises except one old woman4 ,in about fifteen minutes after the arrival of the engines1 the firemen made their way upstairs1 and the poor woman was found dead beside a basket partly filled with clothes1 which it was supposed she had been packing up for removal2 had she made any noise1 or even broke a pane of glass1 she would1 in all probability1 have been saved2 as the fire never touched the floor in which she was found1 she must have died entirely from suffocation1 which a little fresh air would have prevented4 ,had the slightest suspicion existed that any one was in the upper floors1 they would have been entered by the windows or the roof2 but as the fire took place in daylight1 and none of the neighbours spoke of any one being in the house1 it was thought unnecessary to damage the property1 or risk the lives of the firemen1 without some adequate cause4 ,this1 however1 shows how little dependence can be placed on information received from the inmates of the premises on fire4 ,some of the people who lived on the same floor with this poor woman1 and who had seen her immediately before they left the house1 never mentioned her4 ,i do not suppose that this negligence arose from apathy1 or any feeling of that sort2 but the people were in such a state of utter confusion1 that they were unable to think of anything4 ,but to return4 ,on the first discovery of a fire1 it is of the utmost consequence to shut1 and keep shut1 all doors1 windows1 or other openings4 ,it may often be observed1 after a house has been on fire1 that one floor is comparatively untouched1 while those above and below are nearly burned out4 ,this arises from the door on that particular floor having been shut1 and the draught directed elsewhere4 ,if the person who has examined the fire finds a risk of its gaining ground upon him1 he should1 if within reach of fire-engines1 keep everything close1 and await their arrival1 instead of admitting air to the fire by ineffectual efforts to oppose it with inadequate means4 ,in the meantime1 however1 he should examine where a supply of water is most likely to be obtained1 and communicate that1 and any other local information1 to the firemen on their coming forward4 ,if there be no fire-engine within reach1 the person who has examined the fire should keep the place where it is situated as close as possible1 till as many buckets of water as can be easily collected are placed within his reach4 ,taking care always that there is some one ready to assist him1 he should then open the door1 and creep forward on his hands and knees till he gets as near the fire as possible2 holding his breath1 and standing up for a moment to give the water a proper direction1 he should throw it with force1 using a hand pump if available1 and instantly get down to his former position1 where he will be again able to breathe4 ,the people behind handing forward another bucket of water1 he repeats the operation till the fire is quenched1 or until he feels exhausted2 in which case some one should take his place4 ,if there be enough of water1 however1 two1 three1 or any convenient number of people may be employed in throwing it2 on the contrary1 if the supply of water be insufficient to employ even one person1 the door should be kept shut while the water is being brought1 and the air excluded as much as possible1 as the fire burns exactly in proportion to the quantity of air which it receives4 ,one great evil1 and which ought to be strictly guarded against by people not accustomed to fire1 is1 that on the first alarm they exert themselves to the very utmost of their strength4 ,this1 of course1 can last but a short time2 and when they feel tired1 which in that case soon happens1 they very often give up altogether4 ,now this is the reverse of what it ought to be4 ,in extinguishing fires1 like most other things1 a cool judgment and steady perseverance are far more effective than any desultory exertions which can be made4 ,the heat generally increases in a considerable degree when water is first thrown upon a fire1 from the conversion of a portion of it into steam4 ,this is sometimes very annoying2 so much so1 that the persons engaged in throwing the water1 frequently feel themselves obliged to give back a little4 ,they should on no account1 however1 abate or discontinue their exertions in throwing the water with as much force as possible in the direction of the fire2 it will in a short time cool the air and materials1 and the steam will1 in consequence1 be generated more slowly1 while a steady perseverance on the part of those employed can alone effect the object in view4 ,when water is scarce1 mud1 cow or horse dung1 damp earth1 c41 may be used as substitutes2 but if there seems no chance of succeeding by any of these1 and the fire is likely to extend to other buildings1 the communication should be immediately cut off by pulling down the building next to that on fire4 ,any operation of this sort1 however1 should be begun at a sufficient distance from the fire to allow the communication to be completely cut off1 before it gains upon the workmen4 ,if this operation be attempted so near the fire as to be interrupted by it1 it must be begun again at a greater distance2 and1 in that case1 there is a greater destruction of property than might have been necessary4 ,if a fire occur in a stable or cow-house1 surrounded with other buildings of the same description1 or with the produce of a farm1 there is much danger4 ,the cattle and horses should be immediately removed2 and1 in doing so1 if any of them become restive1 they should be blindfolded1 taking care that it is done thoroughly1 as any attempt to blindfold them partially1 only increases the evil4 ,they should be handled as much as possible in the ordinary manner1 and with great coolness2 the violent gestures and excited appearance of the persons removing them tending greatly to startle the animals1 and render them unmanageable4 ,,public ,,fire ,,brigades ,,and ,,the ,,duties ,,of ,,firemen4 ,the best public means of arresting fires is a very wide question1 as the only limit to the means is the expense4 ,different nations have different ways of doing the same thing4 ,on the ,continent generally1 the whole is managed by ,government1 and the firemen are placed under martial law1 the inhabitants being compelled to work the engines4 ,in ,london1 the principal means of arresting fires is a voluntary association of the insurance companies1 without legal authority of any sort1 the legal protection by parish engines being1 with a few praiseworthy exceptions1 a dead letter4 ,in ,liverpool1 ,manchester1 and other towns1 the extinction of fires by the pressure of water only1 without the use of fire-engines1 is very much practised4 ,the advantages of this system are very great2 but1 to enable us to follow this system in ,london1 the whole water supply would require to be remodelled4 ,in ,america1 the firemen are generally volunteers1 enrolled by the local ,governments4 ,they are exempt from other duties1 or are entitled to privileges1 which appear to satisfy them1 as the situation of fireman is eagerly sought in most of the ,american cities4 ,which is the best of these different modes it is difficult to say2 perhaps each is best suited for the place where it exists4 ,it is now generally admitted1 that the whole force brought together to extinguish a fire ought to be under the direction and control of one individual4 ,by this means1 all quarrelling among the firemen about the supply of water1 the interest of particular insurance companies1 and other matters of detail1 is avoided4 ,by having the whole force under the command of one person1 he is enabled to form one general plan of operations1 to which the whole body is subservient2 and although he may not1 in the hurry of the moment1 at all times adopt what will afterwards appear to be the best plan1 yet it is better to have some general arrangement1 than to allow the firemen of each engine to work according to their own fancy1 and that1 too1 very often in utter disregard as to whether their exertions may aid or retard those of their neighbours4 ,the individual appointed to such a situation ought not to be interfered with1 or have his attention distracted1 except by the chief authority on the spot1 or the owner of the premises on fire4 ,much valuable information is frequently obtained from the latter1 as to the division of the premises1 the party-walls1 and other matters connected with its locality4 ,but1 generally speaking1 the less interference and advice the better1 as it occupies time which may generally be better employed4 ,i need scarcely add1 that on no account whatever should directions be given to the firemen by any other individual while the superintendent of brigade is present2 and that there may be no quarrelling about superiority1 the men should be aware on whom the command is to devolve in his absence4 ,it has often been to me a matter of surprise1 that so small a portion of the public attention should be directed to the matter of extinguishing fires4 ,it is only when roused by some great calamity that people bestir themselves2 and then there is such a variety of plans proposed to avert similar cases of distress1 that to attempt to concoct a rational plan out of such a crude1 ill-digested1 and contradictory mass of opinion1 requires more labour and attention than most people are inclined to give it1 unless a regular business was made of it4 ,in ,paris the corps of military firemen are so well trained1 that although their apparatus is not so good as it should be1 the amount of the losses by fire is comparatively trifling4 ,if the head-quarters of such an establishment were to be in ,london1 a store of apparatus1 constructed on one uniform plan1 could be kept there1 to be forwarded to any other part of the kingdom where it might be required4 ,this uniformity of the structure and design of the apparatus could extend to the most minute particulars2 a screw or a nut of any one engine would fit every other engine in the kingdom4 ,a depot could also be kept at head-quarters1 where recruits would be regularly drilled and instructed in the business1 and a regular system of communication kept up with all the provincial corps4 ,any particular circumstances occurring at a fire would thus be immediately reported1 and the advantages of any knowledge or experience thus gained1 would be disseminated over the whole kingdom4 ,as the matter at present stands one town may have an excellent fire-engine establishment1 and another within a few miles a very indifferent one1 and when the one is called to assist the other1 they can neither act in concert1 nor can the apparatus of the one in case of accident be of the smallest service in replacing that of the other4 ,the best might 7if a proper communication were kept up7 be under frequent obligations to the worst1 and here1 as in other matters1 it is chiefly by communication that knowledge is increased4 ,if the whole experience of the country were brought together1 and maturely considered and digested by persons competent to judge1 ,i have no doubt that a system might be introduced suitable to the nation and to the age in which we live4 ,instead of hearing of the dreadful losses by fire1 and the great exertions made to extinguish it1 all the notice would be1 such a place took fire1 the engines arrived1 and it was extinguished4 ,it would be useless for me to enter into the details of a plan which ,i have little hope of ever seeing realized4 ,i may state1 however1 that a premium might be offered for the best engine of a size previously agreed upon1 which1 when finished1 should be kept as a model4 ,specifications could then be made out1 and estimates advertised for1 for all the different parts1 such as wheels1 axles1 levers1 cisterns1 barrels1 air-vessels1 c41 separately4 ,when any particular part of an engine was damaged1 it could be immediately replaced1 and the engine again rendered fit for service2 and upon emergency any number of engines could be set up1 merely by putting the different parts together4 ,the work would also be better done2 at least it would be much more easy to detect faults in the materials or workmanship than if the engines were bought ready for use4 ,these remarks apply to all the rest of the apparatus4 ,it could be provided that firemen might be enlisted for a term of years4 ,when enlisted1 they would be sent to the depot at head-quarters1 drilled to the use of the engines1 and carefully instructed in separating and cleaning the different parts4 ,here also they could be practised in gymnastic exercises1 and generally instructed in everything tending to promote their usefulness as firemen4 ,they could then be sent off to some large towns1 and1 after having seen a little active service1 distributed over the country in such parties as might be deemed necessary for the places they were intended to protect4 ,the practice of keeping fire-engines at noblemen's and gentlemen's residences1 and at large manufactories in the country1 is by no means uncommon1 and ,i have no doubt that many more would supply themselves in this way if they knew where to apply for information in such matters2 but the great fault lies in the want of persons of skill and experience to work them when fire occurs4 ,in the way ,i have mentioned1 proprietors and others could have one or more of their workmen instructed in this necessary piece of duty2 and ,i have no doubt that many gentlemen would avail themselves of the means of instructing some of their servants4 ,it will be observed1 ,i do not propose that the firemen who are enlisted1 drilled1 and instructed in the business1 should be sent to the different stations in sufficient numbers to work the engines2 this part of the work can be performed by any man accustomed to hard labour1 as well as by the most expert fireman1 and the local authorities could easily provide men for this purpose4 ,in small towns1 where fires are rare1 the novelty would draw together plenty of hands2 and in large towns1 where the inhabitants are not sufficiently disinterested to work for nothing1 there are always plenty who could be bound to assist in cases of fire at a certain rate per hour1 to be paid upon a certificate from the fireman who has charge of the engine at which they worked4 ,the trained firemen would thus be required only for the direction of the engine1 attaching the hose1 c4 ,i am quite aware that many people object to the training of firemen2 but it would be just as reasonable to give to a mob all the materiel of war1 and next day expect it to act like a regular army1 as to expect engines to be managed with any general prospect of success1 unless the men are properly trained and prepared for the duty which is expected from them4 ,fire is both a powerful and an insidious enemy1 and those whose business it is to attack it will best succeed when they have become skilful and experienced in the use of their arms4 ,it is quite obvious that a fire brigade1 however complete in its apparatus and equipments1 must depend for its efficiency on the state of training and discipline of the firemen4 ,wherever there is inexperience1 want of co-operation1 or confusion amongst them1 the utmost danger is to be apprehended in the event of fire4 ,it is amidst the raging of this destructive element1 the terror and bustle of the inhabitants1 that organization and discipline triumph1 and it is there1 too1 that coolness and promptitude1 steadiness and activity1 fearlessness and caution1 are peculiarly required2 but1 unfortunately1 it is then also that they are most rarely exhibited4 ,there should not be less than five or six men attached to each engine1 who should be properly instructed and drilled1 to take charge of it1 and to guide the people who work at the levers4 ,the person having the principal charge of the engines should frequently turn over in his mind what might be the best plan1 in such and such circumstances1 supposing a fire to take place4 ,by frequently ruminating on the subject1 he will find himself1 when suddenly turned out of bed at night1 much more fit for his task than if he had never considered the matter at all4 ,indeed he will frequently be surprised1 when examining the premises afterwards 7which he ought always to do1 and mark any mistakes he may have committed71 that he should have adopted the very best mode of extinguishing the fire1 amid the noise1 confusion1 and the innumerable advices showered down on him1 by all those who consider themselves qualified or entitled to give advice in such matters2 a number1 by the way1 which sometimes includes no inconsiderable portion of the spectators4 ,he should also make himself well acquainted with the different parts of the town in which he may be appointed to act1 and notice the declivities of the different streets1 c4 ,he will find this knowledge of great advantage4 ,any buildings1 supposed to be particularly dangerous1 should be carefully examined1 and all the different places where supplies of water can be obtained for them noticed4 ,a knowledge of the locality thus obtained will be found of great advantage in case of a fire breaking out4 ,indeed all firemen1 especially those having the charge of engines1 should be instructed carefully to examine and make themselves acquainted with the localities of their neighbourhood or district4 ,such knowledge will often prove valuable in emergencies2 the proprietors or tenants of the property on fire being sometimes in such a state of alarm1 that no distinct intelligence can be got from them4 ,when an engine is brought to a fire1 it ought to be placed as nearly as possible in a straight line between the supply of water and the premises on fire2 taking care1 however1 to keep at such a distance from the latter that the men who work the pumps may be in no danger from being scorched by the heat1 or of being annoyed by the falling of water or burning materials4 ,running the engine close upon the fire serves no good purpose1 except to shorten the quantity of hose that would otherwise be required4 ,the addition of twenty or thirty feet of hose makes very little difference in the working of the engine1 and1 when compared with the disadvantage of the men becoming unsteady from the idea of personal danger1 is not even to be named4 ,indeed1 if the engine be brought too near the fire1 there is danger of the men quitting the levers altogether4 ,i may also add that1 both for the safety of the hose and the convenience of the inhabitants1 the engine should be kept out of the way of people removing furniture4 ,when the hose is attached and the engine filled with water1 the man who holds the branch-pipe1 accompanied by another1 should get so near the fire1 inside the house1 that the water from the branch may strike the burning materials4 ,if he cannot accomplish this standing1 he must get down on his hands and knees and creep forward1 those behind handing up the hose4 ,a stratum of fresh air is almost always to be depended on from six to twelve inches from the floor1 so that if the air be not respirable to a person standing upright1 he should instantly get down4 ,i have often observed this fact1 which indeed is well known2 but ,i once saw an example of it which appeared to me to be so striking1 that ,i shall here relate it4 ,a fire had broken out in the third floor of a house1 and when ,i reached the top of the stair1 the smoke was rolling in thick heavy masses1 which prevented me from seeing six inches before me4 ,i immediately got down on the floor2 above which1 for a space of about eight inches the air seemed to be remarkably clear and bright4 ,i could distinctly see the feet of the tables and other furniture in the apartment2 the flames in this space burning as vivid and distinct as the flame of a candle1 while all above the smoke was so thick that the eye could not penetrate it4 ,the fire had already burst through three out of five windows in the apartment1 yet1 when lying flat on the floor1 no inconvenience was felt except from the heat4 ,when the fire has broken through a floor1 the supply of air along that floor is not to be depended on--the fire drawing the principal supply of air from the apartments below4 ,when the two first firemen have gained a favourable position1 they should keep it as long as they are able2 and when they feel exhausted1 the men behind them should take their place4 ,the great point to which everything ought to be made subservient is1 that the water on its discharge from the branch-pipe should actually strike the burning materials4 ,this cannot be too often or too anxiously inculcated on every one connected with a fire-engine establishment4 ,every other method not having this for its grand object1 will1 in nine cases out of ten1 utterly fail2 and upon the degree of attention paid to this point1 depends almost entirely the question as to the amount of damage the fire will occasion4 ,when approaching a fire1 it should always be done by the door1 if possible4 ,when this is attended to1 it is much easier to shift the hose from one apartment to another2 and the current of fresh air1 entering by the door and proceeding along the passages1 makes respiration easier and safer than elsewhere4 ,when entrance by the door is impracticable1 and access is to be gained by a window1 the flames frequently burst through in such a manner as to render advance in the first instance impossible4 ,in that case1 the branch should be pointed against the window1 nearly in a perpendicular direction2 the water striking the lintel1 and falling all round inside the window1 will soon extinguish the fire at that point sufficiently to render an entrance practicable4 ,the old plan of standing with the branch pipe in the street1 and throwing the water into the windows is a very random way of going to work2 and for my own part1 although ,i have seen it repeatedly tried1 ,i never saw it attended with success4 ,indeed it is hardly to be expected that water1 thrown from the street into a room three or four storeys high1 can have any impression on closets1 presses1 or passages1 divided probably with brick partitions in the centre of the house4 ,the circumstance of having engines at work on both sides of the house does not alter the case4 ,the fire very often burns up through the centre1 and frequently1 when the space between the windows is large1 along the front or back wall1 till it arrives at the roof1 which the water cannot touch on account of the slates or tiles4 ,on the other hand1 when the firemen enter the house1 the fire is almost wholly under their command4 ,and when it happens that there is any corner which the water cannot directly strike1 the fire in it may often be extinguished by throwing the water against an opposite wall or partition1 and trusting to the recoil to throw it to the point required4 ,when the water is thrown from the street1 it is impossible to say whether it touches the parts on fire or not4 ,no one can tell anything about it1 except when the flame appears at the windows4 ,on going with the branch inside the house1 besides the advantage of the water rushing directly from the hose upon the fire1 there is a great saving in the article of water itself4 ,the whole that is thrown by the engine is applied to the right purpose4 ,no part of it is lost2 that which does not strike the burning materials falls within the house2 and1 by soaking those parts on which it falls1 prevents their burning so rapidly when the flames approach them4 ,if1 on entering an apartment1 it be found that the flames cover a considerable space1 it is of advantage1 in some instances1 to place the point of the thumb in contact with the water at the nozzle of the branch4 ,by this means the water may be spread to cover any space under twenty or thirty feet1 according to the pressure applied4 ,while speaking of the mode of entering houses on fire1 ,i may mention that ,i have tried several inventions for the purpose of elevating the branch pipe and hose to the level of a second or third story window4 ,but these1 although exceedingly ingenious1 appear to me to rest on a principle entirely wrong2 ,i mean that of throwing water on the fire from the outside of the building4 ,independent altogether of a mistaken principle of usefulness1 one insuperable objection to all these machines1 is the difficulty of conveying them with the necessary celerity1 and the impossibility of packing them on the engine in such a manner that it may be worked without their being taken off1 as it seems to me that every description of apparatus which cannot be conveyed along with the engine1 is likely to be left behind when most wanted4 ,it is notorious that parish fire-ladders are1 for this reason1 seldom or never made use of4 ,many people object to going inside a building on fire on account of the danger4 ,it ought never to be forgotten1 however1 that the danger increases with the delay2 and that although at first there may be no danger1 if the opportunity is not promptly seized1 it may become very considerable4 ,several of the firemen have at different times fainted1 or become stupefied1 from the want of fresh air2 but as no one is ever allowed to enter singly1 they have been1 in all cases1 immediately observed by their comrades1 and relieved4 ,another objection has been raised in the alleged difficulty of persuading men to risk their lives in this manner for the small consideration which is allowed them4 ,the truth is1 that any persuasions ,i have had occasion to use1 have been generally on the other side4 ,to hold the branch is considered the post of honour2 and when two engines are working together1 ,i have sometimes difficulty in preventing the men from pressing forward farther than is absolutely necessary4 ,this forwardness is not the result of pecuniary reward for the increase of risk1 but a spirit of emulation is at work1 and the man entrusted with this duty1 if found drawing back1 would be completely disgraced4 ,a retreat should in all cases be kept open1 to provide against any accident that may occur2 and as this may be done in almost all cases by means so easy and simple1 there can be no excuse for its omission4 ,at the same time no one but an expert fireman should be permitted to enter where there is personal danger4 ,the danger to which firemen are most exposed is catching cold1 from their being so frequently drenched with water1 and from their exposure to the sudden alternations of heat and cold4 ,a man is turned out of bed at midnight1 and in a few minutes after quitting it he is exposed to the sharp air1 perhaps1 of a frosty winter night2 running to the fire as fast as he can1 he is1 from the exercise1 joined to the oppressive heat inside the place on fire1 in a few minutes in a state of the most profuse perspiration2 and1 while in this state1 he is almost certain to be soaked with cold water4 ,the smoke is sometimes so thick1 that he comes under the range of the branch of the engine without being aware of it till the water strikes him4 ,if he escape this chance1 the water rushing on some other object1 recoils on him1 and produces the same effect2 and if the fire be in the roof of the apartment1 he must lie down on his back on the floor1 and in this manner gets completely steeped4 ,a bath of this sort is neither very safe nor pleasant2 and the only preventive of injury to the health is to keep the men in constant motion4 ,when they are allowed to stand still or sit down1 the danger is considerable4 ,when the fire is extinguished1 or in two or three hours after its commencement1 ,i make it a rule to give every man a dram of spirits4 ,if it be necessary to leave an engine on the spot1 those of the men who are to remain are sent home to change their clothes4 ,,the ,,london ,,fire ,,brigade4 ,the ,london ,fire ,brigade now 7,january1 #ahfa7 consists of one superintendent1 four foremen1 each being appointed to a district consisting of a fourth part of ,london1 which he never leaves except on some very pressing emergency1 and who1 in the absence of the superintendent1 has the sole command of all engines1 or firemen1 within1 or who may come within1 his district2 twelve engineers1 ten sub-engineers1 forty-seven senior firemen1 and forty-three junior firemen3 in all1 one hundred and seventeen individuals4 ,in addition1 there are fifteen drivers and thirty-seven horses1 all living at the several stations1 and ready when required4 ,there is also a supplementary force of four extra firemen1 four drivers1 and eight horses living at the stations1 pursuing their usual avocations1 and only paid by the ,committee when required4 ,the mechanical appliances consist of twenty-seven large engines drawn by horses1 eight small engines drawn by hand1 two floating-engines worked by steam1 one of forty-horse power1 and the other of eighty-horse power1 one land steam fire-engine1 and twenty-eight hand-pumps1 one of the latter being carried on each engine4 ,when an engine is sent to a fire1 only four firemen and one driver accompany it4 ,the levers are worked by the by-standers1 who are paid one shilling for the first hour1 and sixpence for each succeeding hour1 besides refreshments4 ,upwards of six hundred assistants have been thus employed at one time4 ,the principal protection of ,london against fire is entirely voluntary on the part of the insurance companies1 to whom the above establishment belongs2 there being no law in any shape whatever to control or sustain the brigade2 and with the exception of some fifteen or twenty1 the parish-engines are comparatively useless at a serious fire4 ,it must not be omitted1 that the greatest possible assistance is given to the firemen by the police1 of whom there are about #gjjj1 in keeping back the crowd1 c4 ,the fire-offices look upon the whole as a matter of private business1 so that the brigade is proportioned quite as must to the amount which the offices think it prudent to spend as to the size of the place4 ,paris1 which is not half the size of ,london1 and the buildings of which are much more substantial1 has upwards of #hjj firemen4 ,it appears to me that any success which the brigade may have attained depends1 in a great measure1 on the liberal pay given1 by which the best men for the purpose can be obtained1 the favourable view in which the brigade is regarded by the public1 and the willing and able assistance given by a numerous and perhaps the best police in existence4 ,the firemen in ,london being constantly employed on weekly wages1 give their whole time to their employers1 and are much more under command than where men are only occasionally employed4 ,the wages and treatment being liberal1 although the discipline is severe1 there are generally a considerable number of candidates for each vacancy4 ,thus good men are obtained1 seamen being preferred1 as they are taught to obey orders1 and the night and day watches and the uncertainty of the occupation are more similar to their former habits1 than to those of other men of the same rank in life4 ,the large number of fires is1 however1 the principal cause of any advantage the ,london firemen may possess over those of smaller places2 and it is hardly fair to compare firemen who have only an opportunity of attending one or two fires in a week1 to those who attend nearly three fires a day4 ,the firemen are drilled first daily1 and then two or three times a week1 for some months2 and this1 with an average of three calls a day1 soon makes them acquainted with the routine of their business2 but it takes years of constant work to make a thoroughly good fireman4 ,the management of the ,london ,fire ,brigade is confided to a ,committee1 consisting of one of the directors or secretaries from each of the fire-offices in ,london4 ,the superintendent has the command of the whole force4 ,the town is divided into four districts1 in each of which there are stationed a sufficient number of engines1 under the charge of a foreman1 with engines and firemen under him4 ,the districts are as follows3-- ,,north ,,side ,,of ,,river4 ,district ,a4 ,from the eastward to ,paul's ,chain1 ,st4 ,paul's ,churchyard1 ,aldersgate-street1 and ,goswell-street-road4 ,b4 ,from ,st4 ,paul's1 c41 to ,tottenham-court-road1 ,crown-street1 and ,st4 ,martin's-lane4 ,c4 ,from ,tottenham-court-road1 c41 westward4 ,d4 ,south side of ,river4 ,the men are clothed uniformly2 are distinguished by numbers corresponding with their names in the books2 and regularly exercised in the use of their engines1 and in such other duties as the ,committee or ,superintendent may direct4 ,the following general regulations do not contain rules of conduct applicable to every variety of circumstance that may occur to individuals in the performance of their duty1 as something must always be left for the exercise of intelligence and discretion2 and1 according to the degree in which these qualities in members of the ,establishment are combined with zeal and activity1 they become entitled to future promotion and reward4 ,it is strongly impressed upon the minds of all persons serving in the ,establishment1 that one of the greatest advantages which the present system possesses above that which it superseded1 is derived from the embodying the whole force under one responsible officer4 ,it is1 therefore1 incumbent upon the men to render prompt and cheerful obedience to the commands of their superiors2 to execute their duties as steadily and quietly as possible2 to be careful not to annoy the inhabitants of houses they may be called upon to enter1 and to treat all persons with civility2 to take care to preserve presence of mind and good temper1 and not to allow themselves to be distracted from their duty by the advice or directions of any persons but their own officers1 and to observe the strictest sobriety and general regularity of behaviour4 ,as every man wears the uniform of the ,establishment1 which is marked with a number corresponding with his name in the books1 he must constantly bear in mind that misconduct will not only reflect discredit upon the ,establishment1 but be easily brought home to himself and subject him to proportional punishment4 ,the men are particularly cautioned not to take spirituous liquors from any individual without special permission of the superintendent1 or1 in his absence1 of the foreman of the district2 and as intoxication upon the alarming occasion of fires is not only disreputable to the ,establishment1 but in the highest degree dangerous1 by rendering the men unfit for duty1 every appearance of it is most rigidly marked1 and the foremen1 engineers1 and sub-engineers report immediately1 for the purpose of being laid before the ,committee1 every instance of insubordination or intoxication1 and the men are accordingly apprised that the regulations regarding the above-mentioned faults will be most strictly enforced4 ,all the men in the ,establishment are liable to be punished by fine1 suspension1 reduction1 or dismissal1 for disobeying or neglecting any of these regulations1 or for any other misconduct2 and the disposal of the fines so collected is at the discretion of the ,committee4 ,the following are the conditions upon which each man is admitted into the ,establishment3-- ,he devotes his whole time to the service4 ,he serves and resides wherever he is appointed4 ,he must promptly obey all orders which he may receive from those placed in authority over him4 ,the age of admission does not exceed twenty-five1 nor is under eighteen4 ,he conforms himself to all regulations which may be made from time to time4 ,he does not upon any occasion1 or under any pretence whatever1 take money from any person1 without the express permission of the ,committee4 ,he appears at all times in the dress of the ,establishment4 ,if lodgings be found for him1 a deduction of one shilling per week is made from his pay1 if unmarried2 if married1 and if lodgings be found for him1 an agreement in each particular case will be made4 ,he receives his pay weekly on such day as shall be appointed4 ,the pay of a ,junior ,fireman is #cs4 per day1 or #bas4 a week4 ,the pay of a ,senior ,fireman1 #cs4 #f;d4 a day1 or #bds4 #f;d4 a week4 ,the pay of a ,sub-,engineer is #bfs4 a week4 ,the pay of an ,engineer1 #ds4 a day1 or #bhs4 a week4 ,the ,foremen are paid by annual salaries4 ,each man contributes towards a ,superannuation ,fund1 according to a scale determined by the ,committee4 ,each man receives annually-- ,one short frock coat1 marked with a number answering to his name in the books4 ,a black neckcloth4 ,two pairs of cloth trousers4 ,one cloth cap4 ,four pairs of boots in three years1 and ,once in three years he receives-- ,one great coat4 ,he does not quit the service without giving fourteen days' previous notice2 if he quits without such notice1 or is dismissed1 the whole of his pay then due is forfeited4 ,every man who is dismissed from the ,establishment1 or who resigns his situation1 delivers up1 before he quits the service1 every article of dress and appointment which may have been supplied to him2 if any of such articles have been1 in the opinion of the superintendent1 improperly used or damaged1 the man makes good the damage or supplies a new article4 ,every man in the service is liable to immediate dismissal for unfitness1 negligence1 or misconduct4 ,the ,committee1 if they see fit1 may dismiss a man without assigning any reason4 ,no fireman must allow to be used by any other person1 nor use himself1 except while he belongs to the ,establishment1 the button and badge given with his clothes4 ,in the event of sickness rendering any man incapable of performing his duties1 the ,committee reserves to itself the power of making a deduction from his weekly pay4 ,each man1 on his admission1 gives to the ,committee1 if required1 a letter of guarantee from some respectable person1 to an amount not exceeding #ejl41 as security4 ,,outline ,,of ,,general ,,duty4 ,one-third of the men are constantly on duty at the different engine-houses1 night and day2 and the whole are liable to be called up for attendance at fires1 or for any other duty4 ,in general1 it is arranged as follows1 viz43-- ,if a fire happen in ,district ,a1 the whole of the men and engines of that district immediately repair to the spot2 two-thirds of the men1 and one of the engines1 from each of the districts ,b and ,d1 also go to the fire2 and one-third of the men from the district ,c4 ,if the fire happen in ,b1 the whole of the men and engines in that district immediately repair to the fire2 one engine from ,a1 another from ,c1 two-thirds of the men from ,a and ,c1 and one-third of the men from ,d4 ,if the fire happen in ,c1 the whole of the men and engines in that district1 one engine and two-thirds of the men from the district ,b1 and one-third of the men from ,a and ,d1 go to the fire4 ,if the fire happen in ,d1 the whole of the men and engines in that district1 with one engine and two-thirds of the men from the district ,a1 and one-third of the men from ,b and ,c1 shall go to the fire4 ,if a fire happen on the boundary of a district1 and it is doubtful in which district it has occurred1 the whole of the engines and men of the two adjoining districts instantly proceed to the spot1 and one-third of the men of the two remaining districts4 ,in case of emergency1 the superintendent calls in such additional force as he may require4 ,the engines are not taken to alarms of chimneys on fire1 unless the circumstances of the case should1 in the opinion of the superintendent1 foreman1 or engineer1 require a deviation from this regulation4 ,when any of the men from another district come to assist at a fire1 if the engine to which they are attached is not in attendance1 they instantly go to the foreman's engine of the district to which they come4 ,the engines are conveyed to fires at not less than seven miles per hour1 and the men who do not accompany the engines go at not less than four miles per hour4 ,any engineer or fireman who1 when at a fire1 is absent from an engine or a branch pipe1 without orders from the superintendent or foreman1 is liable to a fine4 ,if any of the men are sick1 or absent from any other cause1 their duties are performed by other men attached to their engine-station4 ,with a view to the men being always at hand1 they are lodged as near as possible to their respective engine-houses4 ,the roll is called at each station every morning and evening4 ,no man leaves his own residence or the engine-station to which he belongs from #aj ,p4,m4 to #f ,a4,m4 except to go to a fire1 or by an order from a superior1 or with written leave from the superintendent1 and the senior man on duty is answerable if he does not report any departure from this rule4 ,men on duty not at the engine-stations are allowed one hour for breakfast and one for dinner1 as follows3--,one-half of the men on duty go to breakfast from #h to #i1 and the other half from #i to #aj2 also one-half go to dinner from #a to #b1 and the other half from #b to #c4 ,the second half in no case leave until the whole of the first half have returned1 neither do the men on duty leave morning or evening until the relief has arrived4 ,the engineer or senior man on duty is answerable for this regulation being carried into effect4 ,and any man being absent from the premises he is watching or working in1 except at the regular hours1 is punished4 ,the men for duty individually assemble at the principal engine-house in the district before1 or precisely at1 the hour fixed for that purpose4 ,their names are called1 and an inspection made by the foreman of the district1 to ascertain that they are sober and correctly dressed and appointed4 ,the foreman then reads and explains the orders of the day4 ,at the hour for relieving the men1 no one leaves his engine-house until the relief has actually arrived there2 when the men are relieved1 their names are called over1 and they are inspected by the engineer1 that he may ascertain whether they are sober1 and as correctly dressed and appointed as when they went on duty4 ,the engineer enters these inspections in a book4 ,the engineers deliver a written report1 according to a printed form1 twice each day1 to the foreman of the district1 who in his turn reports twice a day to the superintendent4 ,the whole of the men are1 at all times1 ready to appear at any place required1 for exercise or any other purpose1 and are ready 7whether on duty or not7 to execute whatever orders they may receive1 in relation to the ,establishment1 from the engineers1 foremen1 or superintendent4 ,,duties ,,of ,,superintendent4 ,the ,superintendent resides at the principal engine-station in ,watling-street4 ,the moment an alarm of fire is given1 wherever it may be1 he repairs to the spot with all possible expedition1 and takes the command of the whole force4 ,he endeavours to ascertain the cause of the fire1 and reports the same to the committee4 ,he is responsible for the general conduct of the foremen1 engineers1 and firemen under his charge4 ,he makes himself well acquainted with the character and conduct of every man under his orders4 ,he must be firm and just1 and1 at the same time1 kind and conciliating in his behaviour on all occasions4 ,he takes care that the printed regulations and all others given out from time to time1 are promptly and strictly obeyed2 and he gives clear and precise instructions to the men under him1 and reports every instance of neglect of a serious nature to the ,committee4 ,he must feel the importance of visiting some of the engine-houses1 at uncertain hours1 every day and night4 ,he suspends and reports to the ,committee persons who are guilty of serious misconduct2 and at once punishes by fines1 according to a scale sanctioned by the ,committee1 irregularities of a lighter character1 reporting such fines to them4 ,he must be at all times prepared to furnish the ,committee with particulars respecting the state of the ,establishment4 ,when a fire is extinguished1 the superintendent retains only such a number of men and engines as he may think necessary for watching the premises4 ,he communicates with the surveyors of stock of the offices interested in a fire1 and arranges with them1 in the event of its being necessary1 to work out salvage from the ruins4 ,when a fire happens1 he causes a report to be made immediately1 if in office hours 7or1 if after office hours1 before ten o'clock next morning71 to those offices interested in the fire1 and also to their surveyors of buildings and stock1 as soon as possible after the fire is extinguished1 and causes a daily report to be transmitted to each office of all fires which have happened1 according to a printed form given to him for that purpose1 as follows3-- ,date and hour4 ,situation of premises4 ,name and occupation of tenant4 ,name and residence of landlord4 ,supposed cause of fire4 ,in what offices insured4 ,no4 of ,policy4 ,if there is gas on the premises4 ,by whom called4 ,by whom extinguished4 ,supply of water1 with name of company4 ,no4 of engines attending and of what district1 and the order in which they arrive4 ,no4 of men ditto ditto4 ,engines not of the ,establishment1 and the order in which they arrive4 ,description of damage4 ,,duties ,,of ,,foreman4 ,the ,foreman resides at the place appointed for him4 ,he receives his orders and instructions from1 and makes his reports to1 the superintendent4 ,he must set an example to the men of alacrity and skill in the discharge of his duty1 and of regularity in his general behaviour4 ,in the absence of the superintendent1 the foreman of the district will take the command of the whole force1 both those of his own district and of all other engines and men which may come to his assistance in cases of fire4 ,he does not attend fires that happen out of his own district unless he receives orders from the superintendent to that effect4 ,he endeavours to ascertain the cause of the fire1 and reports the same to the superintendent4 ,on the alarm of fire being given in his own district1 he instantly repairs to the spot1 and uses his utmost endeavours to get the engines into play and supply them with water4 ,the first engine and firemen which arrive at a fire are not interfered with1 nor their supplies of water diverted from them1 by those coming afterwards1 unless by a distinct order from the superintendent1 or1 in his absence1 from the foreman of the district4 ,the same rule applies to each succeeding engine which takes up a position4 ,he is careful to place the engines in such a manner that the men who work at the levers may be in no danger from the falling of the premises on fire2 and also that the engines may not be in the way of people carrying out furniture1 c42 but1 above all things1 he endeavours to place the engineers with their branch pipes in such positions that the water from the branches may directly strike the burning materials4 ,this he cannot too often inculcate on the men placed under him1 as upon this point1 on being properly attended to1 depends entirely the effect of the engines4 ,to attain this most desirable end1 it is frequently necessary to enter the premises on fire1 and the foreman takes care so to place his men that they can easily escape4 ,if he has reason to suspect that the building is not sufficiently secure1 he stations one or two competent men to observe the state of the building1 and to give the alarm when they see any danger4 ,he never allows any man unaccompanied by another to enter a building on fire4 ,he does not throw more water on the premises than is absolutely necessary to extinguish the fire1 as all the water thrown after the fire is extinguished1 only tends to increase the damage4 ,when the inmates of the premises on fire are removed1 the foreman endeavours to exclude air from the parts on fire1 by shutting all doors and windows as far as may be practicable4 ,he is responsible for the conduct of the men placed under him1 and for the state of the engines1 which must at all times be kept in first-rate order2 he also makes himself well acquainted with the talent and general character of each individual under him4 ,he visits every engine-house in his district at least once in the twenty-four hours2 he sees that the men are on duty1 the engines ready for service1 and everything in proper order1 and enters his visit in a book kept for that purpose1 with the date and hour of his visit4 ,if he finds anything wrong1 he enters it in the book1 and immediately sends off a report to the superintendent by one of the men not on duty4 ,he sends a written report twice in every twenty-four hours to the superintendent1 which contains a particular statement of all fires and everything else connected with the ,establishment which has occurred in his district within the preceding twelve hours4 ,he returns in his report of a fire the names of such men1 if any1 as were not ready to start with the engine to which they are attached4 ,it is expected that he is able and ready to give instructions to the engineers and men on all points relating to their duty4 ,he receives and enters1 in a book kept for that purpose1 all complaints which may be made against any person under his command1 causing the complaining party to sign the same and insert his address1 and he reports the whole matter without delay to the superintendent4 ,he is responsible for the engines in his district being each provided with the articles contained in the following list3-- #b lengths of scaling ladder4 #a canvas sheet1 with #aj or #ab handles of rope round the edge of it1 used as a portable fire-escape4 #b pieces of #b-a_/b-;inch rope1 one #aj fathoms and one #ad fathoms long4 #g lengths of hose1 each #dj feet long4 #b branch pipes1 one #d and the other #a foot long4 #c nozzles1 or jet pipes4 #d lengths of suction-pipe1 each about #f feet long4 #a flat rose4 #a standcock4 #a goose-neck4 #b balls of strips of sheep-skin4 #b balls of small cord4 #d hose wrenches4 #a fire hook4 #a mattock4 #a shovel4 #a saw4 #a screw-wrench4 #a portable cistern4 #a hatchet or pole-axe4 #a iron crow-bar4 ,,duties ,,of ,,the ,,engineer4 ,he resides in the engine-house to which he is appointed4 ,he obeys all orders given to him by the superintendent or the foreman of the district4 ,he must set an example to the men of alacrity and skill in the discharge of his duty1 and of regularity in his general behaviour4 ,he is held responsible for the conduct of the men under him1 and for the state of his engine1 and takes care that it is provided with the articles contained in the foregoing list4 ,he reports to his foreman1 every morning and evening1 in writing1 whether any of his men have been absent with or without leave4 ,he enters in his book the time when the men go to the foreman's station before taking duty1 and also when they return4 ,on receiving notice of a fire happening within the prescribed limits1 he instantly takes his engine and men to the spot1 and places himself and them at the disposal of the superintendent1 foreman1 or senior engineer of the district in which the fire happens4 ,he must make himself acquainted with the character and abilities of each man under him4 ,he is subject to fines at the discretion of the ,committee1 for neglect of duty or misbehaviour4 ,,duties ,,of ,,sub-,,engineers4 ,the sub-engineers being attached to foremen's and double stations only1 in the absence of the foremen or engineer1 or when in charge of an engine1 the duties of the sub-engineer are the same as those described for an engineer2 when the foreman or engineer is absent1 the sub-engineer must set an example to the firemen at the station of constant attention1 implicit obedience and activity1 and in so far as he exhibits these and similar qualifications he expects to rise in the service4 ,,duties ,,of ,,the ,,fireman4 ,every fireman in the establishment may expect to rise to the superior stations1 by activity1 intelligence1 sobriety1 and general good conduct4 ,he must make it his study to recommend himself to notice by a diligent discharge of his duties1 and strict obedience to the commands of his superiors1 recollecting that he who has been accustomed to obey will be considered best qualified to command4 ,he resides near the engine-house to which he is attached1 in a situation to be approved of1 and devotes the whole of his time and abilities to the service4 ,on the alarm of fire1 he proceeds with all possible speed to the engine-house to which he is attached4 ,he must at all times appear neat in his person1 and correctly dressed in the establishment uniform1 and be respectful in his demeanour towards his superiors4 ,he must readily and punctually obey the orders of the engineers1 foremen1 and superintendent4 ,he must not quit his engine-house while on duty1 except to go to a fire1 unless by special order from a superior4 ,he is subject to fines for neglect of duty or misbehaviour1 according to the regulations4 ,,books ,,kept ,,at ,,the ,,stations4 ,there is a book kept in each engine-house1 in which are entered all fires or alarms of fires2 the time the men come on duty2 the visits made by the foremen1 superintendent1 or any of the ,committee1 and all complaints against the men4 ,this book is in charge of the superior on duty at the time2 and the foreman and engineers are answerable for its being correctly kept4 ,every entry made in this book is signed by the person making it4 ,the superintendent enters1 in a book kept for that purpose1 the particulars of every fire1 the attendance of engines1 supply of water1 c41 and lays it before the ,committee weekly1 or oftener1 if required4 ,any false entry1 for the purpose of concealing absence1 is punished--for the first offence1 by the reduction of one step1 and for the second by dismissal4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote ,f3 ,at a fire which took place in one of the best streets in ,edinburgh1 and which began in the roof1 the persons who rushed into the house on the first alarm being given1 threw the greater part of the contents of the drawing-room and library1 with several basketsful of china and glass1 out of the windows2 the fire injured nothing below the uppermost story4 ,,the ,,edinburgh ,,fire ,,brigade4 ,in forming the brigade in ,edinburgh1 where the firemen are only occasionally employed1 the description of men1 from which ,i made a selection1 were slaters1 house-carpenters1 masons1 plumbers1 and smiths4 ,slaters make good firemen1 not so much from their superiority in climbing1 going along roofs1 c41 although these are great advantages1 but from their being in general possessed of a handiness and readiness which ,i have not been able to discover in the same degree amongst other classes of workmen4 ,it is1 perhaps1 not necessary that ,i should account for this1 but it appears to me to arise from their being more dependent on their wits1 and more frequently put to their shifts in the execution of their ordinary avocations4 ,house-carpenters and masons being well acquainted with the construction of buildings1 and understanding readily from whence danger is to be apprehended1 can judge with tolerable accuracy1 from the appearance of a house1 where the stair is situated1 and how the house is divided inside4 ,plumbers are also well accustomed to climbing and going along the roofs of houses2 they are useful in working fire-cocks1 covering the gratings of drains with lead1 and generally in the management of water4 ,smiths and plumbers can also better endure heat and smoke than most other workmen4 ,men selected from these five trades are also more robust in body1 and better able to endure the extremes of heat1 cold1 wet1 and fatigue1 to which firemen are so frequently exposed1 than men engaged in more sedentary employments4 ,i have generally made it a point to select for firemen1 young men from seventeen or eighteen to twenty-five years of age4 ,at that age they enter more readily into the spirit of the business1 and are much more easily trained1 than when farther advanced in life4 ,men are frequently found who1 although they excel in the mechanical parts of their own professions1 are yet so devoid of judgment and resources1 that when anything occurs which they have not been taught1 or have not been able to foresee1 they are completely at a loss4 ,now it happens not unfrequently that the man who arrives first at a fire1 notwithstanding any training or instructions he may have received1 is still1 from the circumstances of the case1 left almost entirely to the direction of his own judgment4 ,it is1 therefore1 of immense importance to procure men on whose coolness and judgment you can depend4 ,if they are expert tradesmen1 so much the better1 as there is generally a degree of respect shown to first-rate tradesmen by their fellows1 which inferior hands can seldom obtain2 and this respect tends greatly to keep up the character of the corps to which they belong1 which ought never to be lost sight of4 ,amidst the noise and confusion which more or less attend all fires1 ,i have found considerable difficulty in being able to convey the necessary orders to the firemen in such a manner as not to be liable to misapprehension4 ,i tried a speaking-trumpet2 but1 finding it of no advantage1 it was speedily abandoned4 ,it appeared to me indeed1 that while it increased the sound of the voice1 by the deep tone which it gave1 it brought it into greater accordance with the surrounding noise4 ,i tried a boatswain's call1 which ,i have found to answer much better4 ,its shrill piercing note is so unlike any other sound usually heard at a fire1 that it immediately attracts the attention of the firemen4 ,by varying the calls1 ,i have now established a mode of communication not easily misunderstood1 and sufficiently precise for the circumstances to which it is adapted1 and which ,i now find to be a very great convenience4 ,the calls are as follows3-- #a for red1 #b for blue1 #c for yellow1 #d for grey4,g #e to work the engine4 #f to stop working4 #g to attach one length of hose more than the engine has at the time the call is given4 #h to coil up the hose attached to the engine4 #i to coil up the hose attached to the fire-cock4 #aj to turn to the left4 #aa to turn to the right4 #ab the call to work the engine answers also to move forward when the engine is prepared for travelling4 #ac the call to stop working answers to stop the engine when moving forward4 ,in all there are thirty-six calls when compounded with the first four4 ,in speaking of the drilling of firemen1 ,i shall give a short account of the plan followed here1 which has been tolerably successful4 ,the present number of firemen in ,edinburgh is fifty1 divided into four companies2 three of which consist of twelve and one of fourteen men4 ,the bounds of the city are divided into four districts2 in each of which there is an engine-house1 containing one or more engines1 one of the companies being attached to each engine-house4 ,in each company there is one captain1 one sergeant1 four pioneers1 and six or eight firemen4 ,the whole are dressed in blue jackets1 canvas trousers1 and hardened leather helmets1 having hollow leather crests over the crown to ward off falling materials4 ,the form of this helmet was taken from the war-helmet of the ,new ,zealanders1 with the addition of the hind flap of leather to prevent burning matter1 melted lead1 water1 or rubbish getting into the neck of the wearer4 ,the captains' helmets have three small ornaments1 those of the sergeants one--those of the pioneers and firemen being plain4 ,the jackets of the captains have two small cloth wings on the shoulder1 similar to those worn by light infantry4 ,those of the sergeants have three stripes on the left arm1 and1 on the left arms of the pioneers and firemen1 are their respective numbers in the company4 ,each company has a particular colour--red1 blue1 yellow1 and grey4 ,each engine is painted of one or other of these colours1 and the accoutrements of the men belonging to it correspond4 ,there is thus no difficulty in distinguishing the engines or men from each other by their colours and numbers4 ,each man also wears a broad leather waist-belt1 with a brass buckle in front4 ,to the waist-belts of the captains1 sergeants1 and pioneers is attached eighty feet of cord2 the captains having also a small mason's hammer1 with a crow-head at the end of the handle3 the sergeants have a clawed hammer1 such as is used by house-carpenters1 with an iron handle1 and two openings at the end for unscrewing nuts from bolts2 the pioneers a small hatchet1 with a crow-head at the end of the handle2 and the firemen each carry a canvas water-bucket folded up4 ,the captains assemble every ,tuesday night1 to give in a report of such fires as may have occurred in their respective districts1 with a list of the men who have turned out1 and a corresponding list from the sergeant of police of the respective districts4 ,they then receive any orders which may be necessary2 and any vacancies which have occurred in the establishment are filled up at these meetings4 ,for some months after this fire establishment was organized1 the men were regularly drilled once a week1 at four o'clock in the morning2 but now only once a month at the same hour4 ,among many other good reasons for preferring this early hour1 ,i may mention1 that it does not interfere with the daily occupation of the firemen4 ,the chance of collecting a crowd is also avoided1 as there are then comparatively few people on the streets2 this is a matter of some importance1 as a crowd of people not only impedes the movements of the firemen1 but1 from small quantities of water spilt on the by-standers1 quarrels are generated1 and a prejudice excited against the corps1 to avoid which every exertion should be used to keep the firemen on good terms with the populace4 ,the mornings1 too1 at this early hour1 are dark for more than half the year1 and the firemen are thus accustomed to work by torch-light1 and sometimes without any light whatever1 except the few public lamps which are then burning4 ,and1 as most fires happen in the night1 the advantage of drilling in the dark must be sufficiently obvious4 ,the inhabitants have sometimes complained of being disturbed with the noise of the engines at so early an hour2 but when the object has been explained1 they have generally submitted1 with a good grace1 to this slight evil4 ,a different part of the city being always chosen for each successive drill1 the annoyance occasioned to any one district is very trifling1 and of very unfrequent occurrence4 ,on the ,tuesday evening preceding the drill1 the captains are informed when and where the men are to assemble4 ,these orders they communicate to the individual firemen4 ,a point of rendezvous being thus given to the whole body1 every man1 who is not on the spot at the hour appointed1 fully equipped1 with his clothes and accoutrements in good order1 is subjected to a fine4 ,arrived on the ground1 the men are divided into two parties1 each party consisting of two companies1 that being the number required to work each large engine without any assistance from the populace4 ,the whole are then examined as to the condition of their clothing and equipments4 ,the captains1 sergeants1 and pioneers of each company alternately take the duty of directing the engine1 attaching the hose1 c41 while the whole of each party not engaged in these duties take the levers as firemen4 ,the call is then given to move forward1 the men setting off at a quick walking pace1 and1 on the same call being repeated1 they get into a smart trot4 ,when the call to stop is given1 with orders to attach one or more lengths of hose to the engine and fire-cock1 it is done in the following manner3--,no4 #a takes out the branch pipe1 and runs out as far as he thinks the hose ordered to be attached will reach1 and there remains2 ,no4 #b takes a length of hose out of the engine1 and uncoils it towards ,no4 #a2 and ,no4 #c attaches the hose to the engine4 ,if more than one length is required1 ,no4 #d takes out another1 couples it to the former length1 and then uncoils it4 ,if a third length is wanted1 ,no4 #c comes up with it1 after having attached the first length to the engine4 ,if more lengths are still wanted1 ,no3 #b goes back to the engine for another2 ,nos4 #c and #d follow1 and so on till the requisite length is obtained2 ,no4 #a then screws on the branch-pipe at the farther extremity of the last length4,h ,while ,nos4 #a1 #b1 #c1 and #d are attaching the hose to the engine1 ,no4 #e opens the fire-cock door1 screws on the distributor1 and attaches the length of hose1 which ,no4 #f uncoils2 ,nos4 #g and #h assist1 if more than one length of hose be required4 ,immediately on the call being given to attach the hose1 the sergeant locks the fore-carriage of the engine1 and unlocks the levers4 ,the fire-cock being opened by ,no4 #e 7who remains by it as long as it is being used71 the sergeant holds the end of the hose which supplies the engine1 and at the same time superintends the men who work the levers4 ,the call being given to work the engine1 the whole of the men1 ,nos4 #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 and #e1 the captain and sergeant excepted1 work at the levers along with the men of the other company4 ,although these operations may appear complicated1 they are all completed1 and the engine in full play1 with three lengths1 or #abj feet of hose1 in one minute and ten seconds1 including the time required for the water to fill the engine so far as to allow it to work4 ,in order to excite a spirit of emulation1 as well as to teach the men dexterity in working the engines1 ,i frequently cause a competition amongst them4 ,they are ordered to attach one or more lengths of hose to each of two engines1 and to work them as quickly as possible1 the first engine which throws water being considered the winner4 ,they are sometimes also placed at an equal distance from each of two separate fire-cocks2 on the call being given to move forward1 each party starts for the fire-cock to which it is ordered1 and the first which gets into play is of course held to have beat the other4 ,the call to stop is then given1 and both parties return to their former station1 with their hose coiled up1 and everything in proper travelling order2 the first which arrives being understood to have the advantage4 ,the men are also carefully and regularly practised in taking their hose up common-stairs1 drawing them up by ropes on the outside1 and generally in accustoming themselves to1 and providing against1 every circumstance which may be anticipated in the case of fire4 ,when a fire occurs in a common-stair1 the advantages arising from this branch of training are incalculable4 ,the occupants1 in some cases amounting to twenty or thirty families1 hurrying out with their children and furniture1 regardless of everything except the preservation of their lives and property1 and the rush of the crowd to the scene of alarm1 form altogether1 notwithstanding the exertions of an excellent police1 such a scene of confusion as those only who have witnessed it can imagine2 and here it is that discipline and unity of purpose are indispensable2 for1 unless each man has already been taught and accustomed to the particular duty expected from him1 he only partakes of the general alarm1 and adds to the confusion4 ,but even when a hose has been carried up the interior of a common-stair1 the risk of damage from the people carrying out their furniture is so great1 that the hose is not unfrequently burst1 almost as soon as the engine has begun to play4 ,if the hose be carried up to the floor on fire by the outside1 the risk of damage is comparatively small1 the hose in that case being only exposed for a short distance in crossing the stair4 ,during a period of four years the only two firemen who lost their lives were run down by their own engines2 and1 in order to avoid danger from this cause1 they are frequently accustomed suddenly to stop the engines when running down the steep streets with which this city abounds4 ,it is a highly necessary exercise1 and is done by wheeling the engine smartly round to the right or left1 which has the effect of immediately stopping its course4 ,there is a branch of training which ,i introduced amongst the ,edinburgh firemen some time ago1 which has been attended with more important advantages than was at first anticipated4 ,i mean the gymnastic exercises4 ,the men are practised in these exercises 7in a small gymnasium fitted up for them in the head engine-house7 regularly once a-week1 and in winter sometimes twice3 attendance on their part is entirely voluntary2 the best gymnasts 7if otherwise equally qualified7 are always promoted in cases of vacancy4 ,so sensible were the ,insurance ,companies doing business here1 of the advantages likely to arise from the practice of these exercises1 that on one occasion they subscribed upwards of #ajl41 which was distributed in medals and money among the most expert and attentive gymnasts of the corps1 at a competition in presence of the magistrates1 commissioners of police1 and managers of insurance companies4 ,amongst the many advantages arising from these exercises ,i shall notice only one or two4 ,the firemen1 when at their ordinary employments1 as masons1 house-carpenters1 c41 being accustomed to a particular exercise of certain muscles only1 there is very often a degree of stiffness in their general movements1 which prevents them from performing their duty as firemen with that ease and celerity which are so necessary and desirable2 but the gymnastic exercises1 by bringing all the muscles of the body into action1 and by aiding the more general development of the frame1 tend greatly to remove or overcome this awkwardness4 ,but its greatest advantage is the confidence it gives to the men when placed in certain situations of danger4 ,a man1 for example1 in the third or fourth floor of a house on fire1 who is uncertain as to his means of escape1 in the event of his return by the stair being cut off1 will not render any very efficient service in extinguishing the fire2 his own safety will be the principal object of his attention1 and till that is to a certain extent secured1 his exertions are not much to be relied upon4 ,an experienced gymnast1 on the other hand1 placed in these circumstances1 finds himself in comparative security4 ,with a hatchet and eighty feet of cord at his command1 and a window near him1 he knows there is not much difficulty in getting to the street2 and this confidence not only enables him to go on with his duty with more spirit1 but his attention not being abstracted by thoughts of personal danger1 he is able to direct it wholly to the circumstances of the fire4 ,he can raise himself on a window sill1 or the top of a wall1 if he can only reach it with his hands2 and by his hands alone he may sustain himself in situations where other means of support are unattainable1 till the arrival of assistance4 ,these are great advantages2 but1 as ,i said before1 the greatest of all is that feeling of safety with which it enables a fireman to proceed with his operations1 uncertainty or distraction being the greatest of possible evils4 ,the cord carried at the waist-belt of the captains1 sergeants1 and pioneers1 being fully sufficient to sustain a man's weight1 and with the assistance of their small hatchets easily made fast1 and the pioneers always being two together1 there is thus no difficulty in descending even from a height of eighty feet3 the cords should be doubled by way of security4 ,i4--,,general ,,regulations ,,of ,,the ,,edinburgh ,,fire ,,brigade4 ,a list of the engine-houses1 and the residences of the superintendent and head enginemen in each district shall be publicly advertised1 that no one may be ignorant where to apply in cases of fire2 and1 in the event of fire breaking out in any house1 the possessor shall be bound to give instant notice of it at the nearest station2 and shall take particular care to keep all doors and windows shut in the premises where the fire happens to be4 ,fire-engine house shall be painted in large characters on one or more prominent places of each engine-house2 and the residences of the master of engines1 head enginemen1 inspectors of gas companies1 and water-officers of the district1 shall likewise be marked there4 ,the head enginemen and firemen shall reside as near the engine-house as possible4 ,as1 in the case of a fire breaking out1 it may be necessary to break open the doors of houses and shops in the neighbourhood1 in order to prevent the fire from spreading1 it is ordered1 that no possessors of houses or shops in the neighbourhood shall go away1 after the fire has broken out1 without leaving the key of their house or shop1 as otherwise the door will be broken open1 if necessary2 and it is recommended that all possessors of shops shall have the place of their residence painted upon their shop-doors1 that notice may be sent them when necessary4 ,,ii4--,,police4 ,upon any watchman discovering fire1 he shall call the neighbouring watchmen to his assistance--shall take the best means in his power to put all concerned upon their guard--and shall immediately send off notice to the nearest office and engine-house4 ,the watchman1 who is despatched to give these intimations1 shall run as far as he can1 and shall then send forward any other watchman whom he may meet1 he himself following at a walk to communicate his information1 in case of any mistake on the part of the second messenger4 ,upon intimation of a fire being received at the main office1 or a district office1 the head officer on duty shall instantly give notice thereof to the head engineman of the district1 to the master of engines1 to the water-officers of the district1 and to the inspectors of the different gas-light companies1 and shall have power1 if his force at the office at the time be deficient1 to employ the nearest watchmen for these purposes2 and1 on intimation being first received at a district-office1 the officer on duty in the office shall immediately send notice to the main office4 ,upon intimation being received at the main office1 the officer on duty shall also instantly send notice to the superintendent of police1 and the lieutenants not at the office at the time--to the master of engines2 to the head enginemen of the various districts2 to the superintendent of the water company2 to the lord provost or chief magistrate for the time2 to the sheriff of the county2 to the bailie residing nearest the place2 to the dean of guild2 to the members of fire-engine committee of commissioners of police2 to the moderator of the high constables2 and also to the managers of the different gaslight companies4 ,the officer on duty at the main office shall1 with the least possible delay1 send off to the fire a party of his men1 under the command of a lieutenant or other officer4 ,this party1 on arriving at the spot1 shall clear off the crowd1 and keep open space and passages for the firemen and others employed4 ,the officer commanding this party of the police shall attend to no instructions except such as he shall receive from the acting chief magistrate attending2 or1 in absence of a magistrate1 from any member of the committee on fire-engines2 and the men shall attend to the instructions of their own officer alone4 ,three or more policemen shall be in attendance upon the acting chief magistrate and fire-engine committee2 two policemen shall constantly attend the master of the engines1 to be at his disposal entirely2 and one policeman shall attend with the water-officer at each fire-cock that may be opened4 ,the superintendent of police shall always have a list of extra policemen hung up in the police-office1 who1 upon occasions of fire1 may be called out1 if necessary1 and twenty of these extra men shall always be called out upon notice of fire being received at the main office1 for the purpose of attending at the police-office1 and rendering assistance where it may be required4 ,the superintendent shall likewise have a supply of fire-buckets1 flambeaux1 and lanterns1 at the office1 to be ready when wanted4 ,there shall be no ringing of alarm-bells1 beating of drums1 or springing of rattles1 except by written order from the chief magistrate for the time2 but the alarm may be given by despatching messengers1 with proper badges1 through different parts of the town1 when considered necessary4 ,,iii4 ,,superintendent ,,of ,,fire ,,brigade4 ,on receiving notice of a fire1 the superintendent shall instantly equip himself in his uniform1 and repair to the spot where the fire is4 ,the necessary operations to be adopted shall be under his absolute control1 and he will issue his instructions to the head enginemen and firemen4 ,the superintendent shall report from time to time to the chief magistrate in attendance 7through such medium as may be at his command1 but without his leaving the spot71 the state of the fire1 and whether a greater number of policemen1 or a party of the military1 be required1 and anything else which may occur to him2 and the master shall observe the directions of the chief magistrate attending1 and those of no other person whatever4 ,the superintendent shall frequently inspect the engines1 and all the apparatus connected therewith2 he shall be responsible for the whole being at all times in good order and condition2 and he shall have a general muster and inspection at least once every three months1 when the engines and all the apparatus shall be tried4 ,he shall also instruct the enginemen1 firemen1 and the watchmen1 to unlock the plates1 and screw on the distributors of the fire-cocks1 or open the fire-plugs4 ,whenever any repairs or new apparatus shall appear to be necessary1 the superintendent shall give notice to the clerk of the police1 whose duty it shall be instantly to convene the committee on fire-engines4 ,upon a fire breaking out1 the superintendent shall lose as little time as possible in stationing chimney-sweepers on the roofs of the adjoining houses1 to keep them clear of flying embers2 and also persons in each flat of the adjoining houses1 to observe their state1 and report if any appearances of danger should arise2 such persons taking as much care as possible to keep all doors and windows of said flats shut1 and the doors and windows of the premises where the fire happens to be shall1 so far as practicable1 be carefully kept shut4 ,the superintendent shall forthwith prepare regulations for the firemen1 c41 under his charge1 and report the same to the committee on fire-engines for their approval4 ,every fireman shall be furnished with a copy of such regulations1 and shall be bound to make himself master of its contents2 and it shall be the duty of the superintendent to see that the instructions are duly attended to in training and exercising the men4 ,,iv4--,,head ,,enginemen4 ,each head engineman shall attend to the engines placed in his district1 and all the apparatus connected therewith1 and report to the superintendent when any repairs or new apparatus seem requisite1 and shall be responsible for the engines being in proper working condition at all times4 ,upon receiving notice of a fire1 the head enginemen shall call out the firemen in their respective districts2 and they shall all repair1 perfectly equipped1 with the utmost expedition1 to the spot where the fire happens to be1 carrying along with them the engines and apparatus4 ,the head enginemen shall have the carts and barrels attached to their several districts always in readiness1 in good order1 and the barrels filled with water1 which shall accompany the engines to the fire4 ,on arriving at the spot1 the head enginemen shall take their instructions from the superintendent1 or1 in his absence1 from the chief magistrate in attendance on the spot2 or1 in their absence1 from a member of the fire-engine committee1 and from no other person whatever4 ,v4--,,firemen4 ,the firemen shall attend at all times when required by the head enginemen or superintendent1 as well as upon the days of general inspection4 ,they shall keep their engines in good order and condition1 and shall be equipped in their uniform at all times when called out4 ,they shall observe the instructions of no person whatever1 except those of the superintendent or head enginemen4 ,,vi4--,,high ,,constables ,,and ,,commissioners ,,of ,,police4 ,upon occasions of fire1 the moderator of the high constables shall call out the high constables1 and1 if necessary1 he shall also call out the extra constables1 and give notice to call out the constables of their districts2 and it shall be the duty of the constables to preserve order and to protect property1 to keep the crowd away from the engines1 and those employed about them2 and1 when authorized by the chief magistrate1 superintendent of engines1 or1 in the absence of a magistrate1 by a member of the committee on fire-engines1 to provide men for working the engines4 ,neither the constables nor the commissioners of police shall assume any management1 or give any directions whatsoever1 except in absence of a magistrate and the superintendent of engines1 in which case any member of the committee on fire-engines may give orders to the head enginemen4 ,in cases of protracted fire1 when extra men may be required to relieve the regular establishment1 it shall be the duty of the high constables to collect those wanted1 from amongst the persons on the street who may be willing to lend their assistance1 mustering them in such parties as may be required1 taking a note of their names1 and furnishing each individual with a certificate or ticket1 with which the moderator of the high constables1 or chief constable at the time1 will be supplied2 and no person shall receive any remuneration for alleged assistance given at a fire who may not produce such certificate or ticket4 ,the party or parties so mustered shall be placed and continue under the care of two high constables1 until required for service1 when they shall be moved forward to the engine4 ,the men relieved by the party so moved forward1 shall be taken charge of by two high constables1 who shall see them properly refreshed and brought back within a reasonable time1 so that the men employed may thus occasionally relieve each other without confusion1 and without being too much exhausted4 ,,vii4--,,magistrates1 c4 ,upon occasion of fires1 the magistrates1 sheriff1 moderator of the high constables1 the superintendent of the water company1 the managers of the different gas-light companies1 and the fire-engine committee1 will give their attendance4 ,they will assemble in such house nearest to the place of the fire as can be procured1 of which notice shall be immediately given to the officer commanding the police on the spot4 ,the orders of the chief magistrate in attendance shall be immediately obeyed2 and no order1 except those issued by such magistrate1 and the particular directions given as to the fire and engine department by the master of engines1 or1 in their absence1 by a member of the fire-engine committee on the spot1 shall be at all attended to4 ,the magistrates and sheriff further declare1 that all porters holding badges shall be bound to give their attendance at fires when called upon for that purpose4 ,,viii4--,,gas-,,light ,,companies4 ,the managers of the different gas-light companies1 on receiving notice of a fire1 shall instantly take measures for turning off the gas from all shops and houses in the immediate neighbourhood of the fire4 ,,ix4--,,special ,,regulations ,,for ,,the ,,firemen4 ,captains4--,on the alarm of fire being given1 an engine must be immediately despatched from the main office to whatever district the fire may be in2 and the captain in whose district the fire happens shall bring his engine to the spot as quickly as possible1 taking care that none of the apparatus is awanting4 ,on arriving at the spot1 he must take every means in his power to supply his engine with water1 but especially by a service-pipe from a fire-cock1 if that be found practicable4 ,great care must be taken to place the engine so that it may be in the direction of the water1 with sufficient room on all sides to work it1 but as little in the way of persons employed in carrying out furniture1 c41 as possible4 ,he must also examine the fire while the men are fixing the hose1 c41 that the water may be directed with the best effect4 ,the captains shall be responsible for any misconduct of their men1 when they fail to report such misconduct to the superintendent4 ,the engines must be at all times in good working order1 and the captain shall report to the superintendent when any part of the apparatus is in need of repair4 ,when the fire is in another district1 the captain of each engine shall get his men and engine ready to proceed at a moment's notice1 but must not move from his engine-house till a special order arrives from a lieutenant of police or the superintendent of brigade4 ,sergeants4--,the sergeant of each engine will take the command in absence of the captain4 ,when the captain is present1 the sergeant will give him all possible assistance in conducting the engine to the fire2 and it will there be more particularly the sergeant's duty to see that the engine is supplied with water1 and that every man is at his proper station1 and to remain with his engine while on duty1 whether it is working or not1 unless he receives special orders to the contrary4 ,pioneers4--,nos4 #a1 #b1 #c1 and #d of each engine will be considered pioneers4 ,nos4 #a and #b will proceed to the fire immediately1 without going to their engine-house1 in order to prepare for the arrival of the first engine1 by ascertaining and clearing a proper station for it1 and by making ready the most available supplies of water1 as also to examine the state of the premises on fire and the neighbouring ones1 so as to be able to give such information to the captain on his arrival as may enable him to apply his force with the greatest effect4 ,the pioneers will attend particularly to the excluding of air from the parts on fire by every means in their power1 and they will ascertain whether there are any communications with the adjoining house by the roof1 gable1 or otherwise4 ,when the several engines arrive1 the pioneers will fall in with their own company1 and take their farther orders from the captain or sergeant4 ,firemen4--,on the alarm of fire being given1 the whole company belonging to each engine 7,nos4 #a and #b excepted7 shall assemble as speedily as possible at their engine-house1 and act with spirit under the orders of their officers in getting everything ready for service4 ,each man will get a ticket with his own number and the colour of his engine marked upon it2 and on all occasions when he comes on duty he will give this ticket into the hands of a policeman1 who will be appointed by the officer of police on duty to collect them at each engine-house1 and who will accompany the engine if it is ordered to the fire4 ,if the ticket be not given in1 as before provided1 within half an hour after the alarm is given at their engine-house1 or at all events1 within half an hour after the arrival of the engine at the fire1 the defaulter will forfeit the allowance for turning out1 and also the first hour's pay4 ,if not given in within the first hour1 he will forfeit all claim to pay4 ,the superintendent1 however1 may do away the forfeiture in any of these cases1 on cause being shown to his satisfaction4 ,on quarter-days and days of exercise1 every man must be ready equipped at the appointed hour1 otherwise he will forfeit that day's pay1 or such part of it as the superintendent may determine4 ,any man destroying his equipments1 or wearing them when off duty1 will be punished by fine or dismissal from the service1 as the superintendent may determine4 ,careless conduct1 irregular attendance at exercise1 or disobedience of superior officers1 to be punished as above-mentioned4 ,the man who arrives first at the engine-house to which he belongs1 properly equipped1 will receive three shillings over and above the pay for turning out4 ,the first of the ,nos4 #a and #b who arrives at the fire1 properly equipped1 in whatever district it may be1 will receive three shillings over and above the pay for turning out4 ,no pay will be allowed for a false alarm1 unless the same is given by a policeman4 ,as nothing is so hurtful to the efficiency of an establishment for extinguishing fires as unnecessary noise1 irregularity1 or insubordination1 it is enjoined on all to observe quietness and regularity1 to execute readily whatever orders they may receive from their officers1 and to do nothing without orders4 ,the first engine and company which arrive at the fire are not to be interfered with1 nor their supplies of water diverted from them by those coming afterwards1 unless by a distinct order from the superintendent1 or1 in his absence1 from the chief magistrate on the spot4 ,the same rule will apply to each succeeding engine which takes up a station4 ,the men must be careful not to allow their attention to be distracted from their duty by listening to directions from any persons except their own officers2 and they will refer every one who applies to them for aid to the superintendent1 or to the chief magistrate present at the time4 ,all the firemen must be particularly careful to let the policemen on their respective stations know where they live1 and take notice when the policeman is changed1 that they may give the new one the requisite information4 ,the men are particularly cautioned not to take spirituous liquors from any individual without the special permission of the captain of their engine1 who will see that every proper and necessary refreshment be afforded to them2 and as intoxication upon such alarming occasions is not merely disreputable to the corps1 but in the highest degree dangerous1 by rendering the men unfit for their duty1 every appearance of it will be most rigidly marked2 and any man who may be discovered in that state shall not only forfeit his whole allowances for the turn-out and duty performed1 but will be forthwith dismissed from the corps4 ,all concerned are strictly enjoined to preserve their presence of mind1 not to lose temper1 and upon no occasion whatsoever to give offence to the inhabitants by making use of uncivil language or behaving rudely4 999999 ,every one belonging to the establishment will be furnished with a printed copy of these ,regulations1 which they are enjoined carefully to preserve and read over at least once every week4 ,,means ,,of ,,escape ,,from ,,fire4 ,the following was written in the year #ahcj1 and does not refer to ,public ,fire-,escapes other than those that can be carried with a ,fire-,engine4--,,editor4 ,when the lower floors of a house are on fire1 and the stairs or other ordinary means of retreat destroyed1 the simplest and easiest mode of removing the inhabitants from the upper floors1 is by a ladder placed against the wall4 ,in order to be able at all times to carry this plan into effect1 the person having charge of the engines should 7as far as possible7 inform himself where long ladders are to be had1 and how they can most easily be removed4 ,but if a ladder of sufficient length is not to be procured1 or is at too great a distance to render it safe to wait for it1 recourse must immediately be had to other means4 ,if it happens that the windows above are all inaccessible1 on account of the flames bursting through those below1 the firemen should immediately get on the roof 7by means of the adjoining houses17 and descend by the hatch4 ,the hatch1 however1 being sometimes directly above the stair1 is in that case very soon affected by the fire and smoke4 ,if1 on approaching1 it is found to be so much so as to render an entrance in that way impracticable1 the firemen should instantly break through the roof1 and1 descending into the upper floors1 extricate those within4 ,if it should happen1 however1 that the persons in danger are not in the upper floor1 and cannot reach it in consequence of the stair being on fire1 the firemen should continue breaking through floor after floor till they reach them4 ,in so desperate a case as this the shorter process may probably be to break through the party-wall between the house on fire and that adjoining1 when there is one2 and when there is no house immediately contiguous1 through the gable1 taking care in either case to break through at the back of a closet1 press1 chimney1 or other recess1 where the wall is thinnest4 ,if an opening has been made from the adjoining house1 it should immediately 7after having served the purpose for which it was made7 be built up with brick or stone1 to prevent the fire spreading4 ,all these operations should be performed by slaters1 masons1 or house-carpenters1 who1 being better acquainted with such work1 are likely to execute it in a shorter time than others--time1 in such a case1 being everything1 as a few minutes lost may cost the lives of the whole party4 ,it is not impossible1 however1 that circumstances may occur to render all or either of these plans impracticable2 in that case1 one or two of the lower windows must be darkened1 and by this means access gained to the upper ones4 ,the plan recommended by the ,parisian firemen is1 for a man to wrap himself up in a wet blanket1 and thus pass swiftly through the flames4 ,but this effort is only to be attempted when the flames from a single door are to be passed2 in any other case the stair will most likely be in flames1 and impassable4 ,a simple means of escape from fire is to have an iron ring fastened to the window sill1 and inside of the room a cradle1 with a coil of rope attached to it4 ,the rope is put through the ring1 and the person wishing to escape gets into the cradle1 and lowers himself down by passing the rope through his hands4 ,the great objection to this plan1 which is certainly very simple1 is the difficulty1 or rather impossibility1 of persuading people to provide themselves with the necessary materials4 ,many men1 too1 are incapable of the exertion upon which the whole plan depends2 and if men in a state of terror are unfit for such a task1 what is to become of women and children8 ,any fire-escape1 to be generally useful1 must1 in the first place1 be capable of being carried about without encumbering the fire-engine2 and1 in the next place1 must be of instant and simple application4 ,the means which appear to me to possess these qualifications in the highest degree1 is a combination of the cradle plan1 with ,captain ,manby's admirable invention for saving shipwrecked seamen4 ,the apparatus necessary for this fire-escape is a chain-ladder eighty feet long1 a single chain or rope of the same length as the ladder1 a canvas bag1 a strong steel cross-bow1 and a fine cord of the very best workmanship and materials1 #acj feet long1 with a lead bullet of three-ounce weight attached to one end1 and carefully wound upon a wooden cone seven inches high and seven inches broad at the base1 turned with a spiral groove1 to prevent the cord slipping when wound upon it1 also a small pulley with a claw attached to it1 and a cord reeved through it of sufficient strength to bear the weight of the ladder4 ,in order to prevent the sides of the ladder from collapsing1 the steps are made of copper or iron tube1 fastened by a piece of cord passed through the tube and into the links of the chain1 till the tube is filled4 ,the steps thus fastened are tied to the chain with copper-wire1 so that1 in the event of the cord being destroyed1 the steps will be retained in their places by the wire4 ,the ladder is provided with two large hooks at one end1 for the purpose of fixing it to a roof1 window-sill1 c4 ,the bag is of canvas1 three feet wide and four feet deep1 with cords sewed round the bottom1 and meeting at the top1 where they are turned over an iron thimble at each side of the mouth of the bag4 ,the steel cross-bow is of the ordinary description1 of sufficient strength to throw the lead bullet with the cord attached1 #abj feet high4 ,when the house from which the persons in danger are to be extricated is so situated that the firemen can get to the roof by passing along the tops of the adjoining houses1 they will carry up the chain-ladder with them1 and drop it over the window where the inmates show themselves1 fastening the hooks at the same time securely in the roof4 ,the firemen will descend by the ladder into the window1 and putting the persons to be removed into the bag1 lower them down into the street by the single chain4 ,if the flames are issuing from the windows below1 the bag1 when filled1 is easily drawn aside into the window of the adjoining house1 by means of a guy or guide-rope4 ,if the house on fire stands by itself1 or if access cannot be had to the roof by means of the adjoining houses1 the lead bullet1 with the cord attached1 is thrown over the house by means of the cross-bow2 to this cord a stronger one is attached1 and drawn over the house by means of the former2 a single chain is then attached1 and drawn over in like manner2 and to this last is attached the chain-ladder1 which1 on being raised to the roof1 the firemen ascend1 and proceed as before directed4 ,if the house be so high that the cord cannot be thrown over far enough to be taken hold of by those on the opposite side1 then the persons to be extricated must take hold of the cord1 as it hangs past the window at which they may have placed themselves4 ,by means of it they draw up the small pulley1 and hook it on the window-sill4 ,the chain-ladder is then made fast to the end of the cord1 and drawn up by those below4 ,when the end of the chain-ladder comes in front of the window1 the persons inside fasten the hooks of the ladder on its sill1 or to the post of a bed1 the bars of a grate1 or anything likely to afford a sufficient hold4 ,after having ascertained that the ladder is properly fixed1 the firemen will ascend and proceed as in the former cases4 ,i must here remark1 that before this plan can be properly put in execution1 the firemen must be regularly trained to the exercise4 ,when the firemen here are practised with the fire-escape1 the man ascending or descending has a strong belt round his middle1 to which another chain is fastened1 and held by a man stationed at the window for that purpose2 if any accident1 therefore1 were to occur with the chain-ladder1 the man cannot fall to the ground1 but would be swung by the chain attached to the belt round his body4 ,the men are also frequently practised in ascending and descending by single chains4 ,the firemen here are very fond of the above exercise2 the bagging each other seems to amuse them exceedingly4,i ,the last resort1 in desperate cases1 is to leap from the window4 ,when this is to be attempted1 mattresses1 beds1 straw1 or other soft substances1 should be collected under the window2 a piece of carpet or other strong cloth should be held up by ten or twelve stout men4 ,the person in the window may then leap1 as nearly as possible1 into the centre of the cloth1 and if he has sufficient resolution to take a fair leap1 he may escape with comparatively little injury4,j ,,fire-,,engines4 ,in the application of manual power to the working of fire-engines1 the principal object is1 to apply the greatest aggregate power to the lightest and smallest machine2 that is1 suppose two engines of the same size and weight1 the one with space for #bj men to work throws #fj gallons per minute2 and the other1 with space for #cj men1 throws #hj gallons in the same time2 the latter will be the most useful engine1 although each man is not able to do so much work as at the former4 ,the reciprocating motion is generally preferred to the rotary for fire-engines4 ,independent of its being the most advantageous movement1 a greater number of men can be employed at an engine of the same size and weight2 there is less liability to accident with people unacquainted with the work1 and such as are quite ignorant of either mode of working1 work more freely at the reciprocating than the rotary motion4 ,to these reasons may be added1 the greater simplicity of the machinery4 ,various sizes of engines1 of different degrees of strength and weight1 have been tried1 and it is found that a fire-engine with two cylinders of #g inches diameter1 and a stroke of #h inches1 can be made sufficiently strong at #ag-a_/b cwt4 ,if #d cwt4 be added for the hose and tools1 it will be found quite as heavy as two fast horses can manage1 for a distance under six miles1 with five firemen and a driver4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,fire-,engine used by the ,london ,fire ,brigade4 ,longitudinal section1--with the ,levers turned up for travelling4 ,this size of engine has been adopted by the ,board of ,admiralty and the ,board of ,ordnance1 and its use is becoming very general4 ,when engines are made larger1 it is seldom that the proper proportions are preserved1 and they are generally worked with difficulty1 and soon fatigue the men at the levers4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,transverse section4 ,when an engine is large1 it not only requires a considerable number of men to work it1 but it is not easily supplied with water2 and1 above all1 it cannot be moved about with that celerity on which1 in a fire-engine establishment1 everything depends4 ,when the engine is brought into actual operation1 the effect to be produced depends less on the quantity of water thrown than upon its being made actually to strike the burning materials1 the force with which it does so1 and the steadiness with which the engine is worked4 ,if the water be steadily directed upon the burning materials1 the effect even of a small quantity is astonishing4 ,when a large engine is required in ,london1 two with #g-;inches cylinders are worked together by means of a connecting screw1 thus making a jet very nearly equal 7as #ih to #ajj7 to that of an engine with cylinders #aj inches diameter4 ,it is also an advantage not unworthy of consideration1 that two #g-;inch engines may be had nearly for the price of one #aj-;inch one2 so that if one happens to be rendered unserviceable the other may still be available4 ,the usual rate of working an engine of the size described is #dj strokes of each cylinder per minute2 this gives #hh gallons4 ,the number of men required to keep steadily at work for three or four hours is #bf2 upwards of #cj men are sometimes put on when a great length of hose is necessary4 ,the lever is in the proportion of #d-a_/d to #a4 ,with #dj feet of leather hose and a #g_/h inch jet1 the pressure is #cj lb4 on the square inch2 this gives #aj4d lbs4 to each man to move a distance of #bbf feet in one minute4 ,the friction increases the labour #b-a_/b per cent4 for every additional #dj feet of hose1 which shows the necessity of having the engine1 and of course the supply of water1 as close to the fire as is consistent with the safety of the men at the levers4 ,in order that the reader may have a distinct idea of such a fire-engine1 ,i shall here endeavour to give a description1 chiefly taken from those made by ,w4 ,j4 ,tilley1,k fire-engine maker1 ,london4 ,the engravings 7figs4 #a and #b7 represent a fire-engine of #g-;inch barrels and #h-;inch stroke4,l ,the cistern marked ,a is made of mahogany or oak4 ,the upper work1 ,b1 and side-boxes or pockets1 ,c1 are of ,baltic fir4 ,the sole1 ,d1 upon which the barrels stand1 and which also contains the valves1 is of cast-iron1 with covers of the same material1 which are screwed down1 and the joints made good with leather or india-rubber4 ,the pieces ,e1 at each end of the cast-iron sole ,d1 are of cast brass1 and screwed to the cast-iron sole ,d1 with a joint the same as above4 ,in one of these pieces is the screwed suction-cap ,f1 and to the other is attached the air-vessel ,g1 made of sheet-copper1 and attached to the piece ,e by a screw4 ,the exit-pipe ,h is attached to the under side of the casting ,e by a swivel4 ,the valves at ,i are of brass1 ground so as to be completely water-tight4 ,the barrels ,k are of cast brass4 ,the engine is set on four grasshopper springs ,m4 ,the shafts or handles ,o1 of the levers ,p1 are of lancewood4 ,the box ,s1 under the driving seat1 is used for keeping wrenches1 cord1 c42 in the fore part of the cistern ,a1 and the box ,b above the cistern1 the hose is kept2 the branch and suction-pipes are carried in the side-boxes or pockets ,c2 the rest of the tools and materials are kept along with the above-mentioned articles1 in such situations as not to interfere with the working of the engine4 ,the cistern is made of oak or mahogany1 for strength and durability2 but1 for the sake of lightness1 the upper work and side-boxes are made of ,baltic fir1 strength in them being of less importance4 ,as the valve cannot be made without a rise for the lid to strike against1 there is a small step at each of the valves1 and the sole is carried through as high as this step1 to admit of the water running off when the engine is done working4 ,if constructed in a different manner1 the water will lodge in the bottom1 and produce much inconvenience in situations where the engine is exposed to frost4 ,the valve-covers are of cast-iron1 fastened down with copper screws1 a piece of leather or india-rubber being placed between them and the upper edges of the sole4 ,the pieces at each end of the sole are of cast-brass1 instead of sheet-copper1 with soft-solder joints1 which are very apt to give way4 ,the screwed suction cap with iron handle admits the water in two different directions1 according as it is open or closed3 the one to supply the engine when water is drawn from the cistern1 the other for drawing water through the suction-pipe4 ,the valves are brass plates1 truly ground to fit the circular brass orifice on which they fall4 ,the brass being well ground1 no leather is used for the purpose of making them tight4 ,the longer they are used the better they fit1 and by having no leather about them they are less liable to the adhesion of small stones or gravel4 ,the whole valve is put together and then keyed into a groove in the sides and bottom of the sole1 left for that purpose4 ,the barrels are of cast-brass1 with a piston made of two circular pieces of the same metal1 each put into a strong leather cup1 and bolted to the other4 ,the bottoms of the cups being together1 when the piston becomes loose in the barrels1 and there is not sufficient time to replace the cups by new ones1 they are easily tightened by putting a layer of hemp round the piston between the leather and the brass4 ,this operation1 however1 requires to be carefully performed2 for if more hemp is put into one part than another it is apt to injure the barrels4 ,the barrels are fixed to the cast-iron sole by copper screws1 a little red lead being placed between the bottom flange of the barrel and the sole4 ,when the engine is likely to be dragged over rough roads or causeways1 it is of importance to have it set on springs1 to prevent the jolting from affecting the working part of the engine1 everything depending on that being right4 ,the engines used in ,paris are mounted on two wheels1 the carriage and the engine being separate1 the latter being dismounted from the former before it can be used4 ,in ,paris1 where the engines are managed by a corps of regularly-trained firemen1 this may answer well enough2 but if hastily or carelessly dismounted by unskilful persons1 the engine may be seriously damaged4 ,it is also worthy of remark1 that the proper quantity of hose1 tools1 c41 can be more easily attached to and carried on a four-wheeled engine4 ,in order that the men may work more easily at the handles1 and suffer less fatigue1 the engine is not higher than to enable them to have the levers easily under their command4 ,the shafts of the levers are of lancewood1 being best calculated to bear the strain to which they are exposed when the engine is at work1 and they are made to fold up at each end for convenience in travelling4 ,the air-vessel should be placed clear of any other part of the engine1 excepting only the point where it is attached4 ,the fore-carriage of the engine is fitted with a pole1 and is made to suit the harness of coach-horses1 these being1 in large towns1 more easily procured than other draught cattle2 this can be altered1 however1 to suit such harness as can most readily be obtained4 ,where horses are seldom used to move the engines1 a drag-handle is attached1 by which one or two men are able easily to direct the progress of the engine4 ,two drag-ropes1 each twenty-five feet long1 of three-inch rope1 with ten loops to each1 are attached1 one to each end of the splinter-bar1 by means of which the engines are dragged2 and to prevent the loops collapsing on the hand1 they are partly lined with sheet-copper4 ,the whole of the brass work of an engine should be of the best gun-metal1 composed of copper and tin only4 ,yellow brass should never be used2 even at first it is far inferior to gun-metal1 and after being used for some time it gets brittle4 ,the whole of the materials used in the construction of a fire-engine should be of the best description4 ,in ,london for some years past a hand-pump has been carried with each engine4 ,they have been found of the greatest service in keeping doors1 windows1 c41 cool4 ,they throw from six to eight gallons per minute1 to a height of from thirty to forty feet1 and can be used in any position4 ,the idea of the hand-pumps ,i took from the old-fashioned squirt1 or hand-engine4 ,when fire-engines are unserviceable it arises more frequently from want of care in keeping in order than from any damage they may have received in actual service or by the wearing out of the materials2 so it is quite plain that this important part of the duty has not generally had that degree of attention paid to it which it deserves4 ,although an engine were to be absolutely perfect in its construction1 if carelessly thrown aside after being brought home from a fire1 and allowed to remain in that state till the next occasion1 it would be in vain 7especially in small towns1 where alarms are rare7 to expect to find it in a serviceable condition2 some of the parts must have grown stiff1 and if brought into action in this state something is likely to give way4 ,when an engine is brought back from a fire1 it ought to be immediately washed1 the cistern cleaned out1 the barrels and journals cleaned and fresh oil put on them1 the wheels greased1 and every part of the engine carefully cleaned and examined1 and if any repairs are needed they should be executed immediately4 ,when all this has been attended to clean hose should be put in1 and the engine is again fit for immediate service4 ,besides this cleaning and examination after use1 the engine ought to be examined and the brass part cleaned once a week1 and worked with water once a month whether it has been used or not4 ,in addition to the keeping of the engine always in an effective state1 this attention has the advantage of reminding the men of their duty1 and making them familiar with every part of the mechanism of the engine2 thus teaching them effectually how the engines ought to be protected when at work1 by enabling them to discover those parts most liable to be damaged1 and to which part damage is the most dangerous4 ,it is more troublesome generally to get the engines well kept when there are no fires1 than when there are many4 ,but the only effectual method of inducing the men to keep them in good order1 in addition to the moral stimulants of censure and applause1 is to fine those who have the charge of them for the slightest neglect4 ,when the engine has been properly placed1 before beginning to work the fore-carriage should be locked4 ,this is done by putting an iron pin through a piece of wood attached to the cistern1 into the fore-carriage4 ,this prevents the wheels from turning round1 and coming under the shafts1 by which the latter might be damaged1 and the hands of the men at work injured4 ,small stones1 gravel1 and other obstructions1 sometimes find their way into the nozzle of the branch-pipe1 from having dropped into the hose before being attached1 or having been drawn through the suction-pipe or from the cistern4 ,whenever the engine is found to work stiffly1 it should be stopped and examined1 otherwise the pressure may burst the hose1 or damage some part of the engine4 ,if anything impedes the action of the valves the pistons must be drawn1 and if a person's hand be then introduced they may easily be cleared--constant care and attention to all the minutiae of the engine and apparatus being absolutely indispensable1 if effective service be expected from them4 ,considerable attention ought to be paid to the selecting a proper situation for an engine-house4 ,generally speaking1 it ought to be central1 and on the highest ground of the district it is meant to protect1 and care should be taken to observe when any of the streets leading from it are impassable4 ,if1 in addition to these advantages1 the engine-house can be had adjoining to a police watch-house1 it may be considered nearly perfect1 in so far as regards situation4 ,these advantages being all attained1 the engine can be conveyed to any particular spot by a comparatively small number of men1 while the vicinity of a police watch-house affords a facility of communicating the alarm of fire to the firemen not to be obtained otherwise4 ,when the engine-house is placed in a low situation the men who first arrive must wait till the others come forward to assist them to drag the engine up the ascent1 and many minutes must thus be lost at a time when moments are important4 ,after choosing a proper situation for the engine-house1 the next care should be directed towards having it properly ventilated1 as nothing contributes more to the proper keeping of the engines and hose than fresh and dry air4 ,for this purpose a stove should be fitted up1 by which the temperature may be kept equal4 ,when engines are exposed to violent alternations of heat and cold1 they will be found to operate very considerably on the account for repairs1 besides occasioning the danger of the engine being frozen and unserviceable when wanted4 ,there ought to be at least half a dozen keys for each engine-house1 which should be kept by the firemen1 watchmen1 and those connected with the establishment1 that the necessity of breaking open the door may not occur4 ,,description ,,of ,,tools ,,with ,,which ,,each ,,engine ,,is ,,provided4 ,having considered the sort of fire-engine which is best adapted for general purposes1 ,i shall now notice the different articles which1 in ,london1 are always attached to1 and accompany1 each engine of this kind3-- #g coils of hose1 #dj feet each4 #d bundles of sheepskin and lay-cord4 #d lengths of suction-pipe1 each between #f and #g feet long4 #b branch pipes4 #c jet pipes or nozzles and an elbow for jet4 #c wrenches for coupling-joints4 #b lamps4 #b lengths of scaling ladder4 #a fire-hook4 #fj feet of patent line1 and #bj feet of trace line4 #a mattock4 #a shovel4 #a hatchet or pole-axe4 #a saw4 #a iron crow-bar4 #a portable cistern4 #a flat suction strainer4 #a standcock1 and hook for street plugs4 #a screw wrench4 #a canvas sheet with #aj or #ab rope handles round its edges4 #i canvas buckets4 #a hand-pump with #aj feet of hose and jet pipe4 ,of these articles ,i shall endeavour to give a description as they stand in the above list4 ,the article of hose being first in order1 as well as importance1 merits particular attention4 ,the sort used is leather1 made with copper rivets1 and is by far the most serviceable and durable hose that ,i have yet seen4 ,manufacturers of this article1 however1 for a very obvious reason1 are not always careful to select that part of the hide which1 being firmest1 is best adapted for the purpose4 ,indeed1 ,i have known several instances wherein nearly the whole hide has been cut up and made into hose1 without any selection whatever4 ,the effect of this is very prejudicial4 ,the loose parts of the hide soon stretch and weaken1 and while1 by stretching1 the diameter of the pipe is increased1 the pressure of the water1 in consequence1 becomes greater on that than on any other part of the hose1 which is thereby rendered more liable to give way at such places4 ,hose are frequently made narrow in the middle1 and1 in order to fit the coupling-joints1 wide at the extremities--a practice which lessens their capability of conveying a given quantity of water1 in proportion to the difference of the area of the section of the diameters at the extremity and the middle part4 ,in order to make them fit the coupling-joints1 when carelessly widened too much1 ,i have frequently seen them stuffed up with brown paper1 and in that case they almost invariably give way1 the folds of the paper destroying the hold which the leather would otherwise have of the ridges made on the ends of the coupling-joints4 ,in order to avoid all these faults and defects1 the riveted hose used are made in the following manner3-- ,the leather is nine and five-eighths inches broad 7that being the breadth required for coupling-joints of two and a half inches diameter of clear water-way71 and levelled to the proper uniform thickness4 ,the leather used is taken from hides of the very best description1 perfectly free from flesh-cuts1 warble-holes1 or any other blemish1 and stuffed as high as possible4,m ,not more than four breadths are taken from each hide1 and none of the soft parts about the neck1 shoulders1 or belly are used4 ,no piece of leather is less than four feet long4 ,the leather is gauged to the exact breadth1 and holes punched in it for the rivets4 ,in the operation of punching1 great care must be taken to make the holes on each side of the leather exactly opposite to each other4 ,if this precaution be not attended to1 the seam when riveted takes a spiral direction on the hose1 which the heads of the rivets are very apt to cut at the folds4 ,care must also be taken that the leather is equally stretched on both sides1 otherwise the number of holes on the opposite sides may be unequal4 ,the ends are then cut at an angle of thirty-seven degrees2 if cut at a greater angle1 the cross-joint will be too short1 and if at a smaller1 the leather will be wasted4 ,this must1 however1 be regulated in some degree by the number of holes in the cross-joint1 as the angle must be altered a little if the holes at that part do not fit exactly with the holes along the side4 ,the different pieces of leather necessary to form one length1 or forty feet of hose1 are riveted together by the ends4 ,straps of leather1 three inches broad1 are then riveted across the pipe1 ten feet apart1 to form loops for the purpose of handing or making fast the hose when full of water4 ,the leather is then laid along a bench1 and a bar of iron1 from eight to ten feet long1 three inches broad1 and one inch thick1 with the corners rounded off1 is laid above it4 ,the rivets are next put into the holes on one side of the leather1 along the whole length of the iron bar4 ,the holes on the other side are then brought over them1 and the washers put on the points of the rivets1 and struck down with a hollow punch4 ,the points of the rivets are then riveted down over the washers1 and finished with a setting punch4 ,the bar of iron is drawn along1 and the same operation repeated till the length of the hose be finished4 ,the rivets and washers should be made of the best wrought copper1 and must be well tinned before being used4 ,some objections have been made to riveted hose on account of the alleged difficulty of repairing them2 but this is not so serious a matter as may at first view appear4 ,indeed1 they very seldom require any repairs1 and when they do1 the process is not difficult4 ,if any of the rivets be damaged1 as many must be taken out as will make room for the free admission of the hand4 ,a small flat mandrel being introduced into the hose1 the new rivets are put into the leather1 and riveted up the same as new pipe2 the mandrel is then shaken out at the end4 ,if the leather be damaged1 it may be repaired either by cutting out the piece1 and making a new joint1 or by riveting a piece of leather upon the hole4 ,the manner of attaching the hose to the coupling-joint is also a matter of very considerable importance4 ,if a joint come off when the engine is in operation1 a whole length of hose is rendered useless for the time1 and a considerable delay incurred in getting it detached1 and another substituted4 ,to prevent this1 the hose ought to fit as tightly as possible to the coupling-joint1 without any packing4 ,in riveted hose1 a piece of leather1 thinned down to the proper size1 should be put on to make up the void which the thick edge of the leather next the rivet necessarily leaves2 the hose should then be tied to the coupling-joint as firmly as possible with the best annealed copper wire1 ,no4 #af gauge4 ,when the hose are completely finished in this manner they are proved by a proving-pump1 and if they stand a pressure of two hundred feet of water they are considered fit for service4 ,i may also add1 that when any piece of hose has been under repair it is proved in the same manner before it is deemed trustworthy4 ,the proving of the hose is of very considerable importance1 and the method of doing so which ,i have mentioned is greatly superior to the old plan of proving them on an engine or fire-cock4 ,by the latter method1 no certain measure can be obtained by which the pressure can be calculated4 ,in the first place it must depend on the relative height of the reservoir from whence the water is obtained and that of the fire-cock where the experiment is made2 and as the supply of water drawn from the pipes by the inhabitants may be different on different days of the week and even in different hours of the day1 it is quite evident that by this method no certain rule can be formed for the purpose required1 the pressure being affected by the quantity of water drawn at the time4 ,the method of proving by an engine is considerably better than this2 but when a proving-pump can be obtained it is infinitely better than either4 ,one disadvantage of an engine is1 that it requires a considerable number of men2 but even the proof1 that of throwing the water to a given height on the gable of a house or other height1 is not always a test of the sufficiency of the hose4 ,as the temperature is low or high1 the wind fresh or light1 the degree of pressure on the hose in throwing the water to the required height will be greater or less4 ,indeed1 in high winds it is a matter of extreme difficulty to throw the water to any considerable height4 ,with an engine of #g-;inch barrels and #g-;inch stroke1 fitted with eighty feet of #b-c_/h-;inch hose1 ,i have found from several experiments that when the water is thrown seventy-five feet high1 the pressure on the hose is equal to one hundred feet4 ,the same engine1 with #afj feet of hose1 and the branch-pipe raised fifty feet above the level of the engine1 when the water was thrown fifty-six feet from the branch1 occasioned a pressure equal to #acj feet on the hose4 ,from these experiments1 ,i am convinced that the pressure will not be equal to #bjj feet1 except in very extreme cases1 or when some obstacle gets into the jet pipe4 ,i tried the extreme strength of a piece of riveted hose #d feet long and #b-c_/h inches diameter1 and found that it did not burst till the pressure increased to #ejj feet2 and when it gave way the leather was fairly torn along the rivet-holes4 ,every possible care should be taken to keep the hose soft and pliable1 and to prevent its being affected by mildew4 ,after being used1 in order to dry them equally they should be hung up by the centre1 with the two ends hanging down1 until half dry4 ,they should then be taken down and rubbed over with a composition of bees'-wax1 tallow1 and neats-foot oil1,n and again hung up to allow the grease to sink into the leather4 ,when the hose appear to be dry they should be a second time rubbed with the composition1 and then coiled up for use4 ,in order that the hose undergoing the operation of greasing may not be disturbed or used till in a fit state1 it is better to have a double set1 and in this way1 while one set is in grease the other is in the engine ready and fit for service4 ,more time can also be taken for any repairs which may be necessary1 and they will in consequence be more carefully done1 and at fires where a great length of hose is required the spare set will always be available4 ,when the weather is damp1 and the hose cannot be dried so as to be fit for greasing in two or three days1 a stove should be put into the room in order to facilitate the process4 ,the greatest care1 however1 must be taken in the use of artificial heat4 ,the whole apartment should be kept of one equal temperature1 which ought never to be higher than is requisite to dry the hose for greasing in about forty hours4 ,coupling-joints4,o--,so much of the efficiency and duration of the hose depend on the proper form given to the brass coupling-joints1 that ,i deem it useful to give a detailed description1 both of those generally made use of and of those adopted by the ,edinburgh fire-establishment1 and also to point out their various defects and advantages4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,old ,coupling ,fig4 #c is the construction commonly made by engine-makers4 ,its defects are as follows3--,from the form of the furrows and ridges where the leather is tied it does not hold on well against a force tending to pull the hose off end-ways2 screw-nails are therefore often employed1 as at ,a1 to secure the hose on the brass4 ,the points of these nails always protrude more or less into the inside of the joint1 and materially impede the current of water4 ,the mouths of the joints are also turned outwards1 and form a shoulder1 as at ,b4 ,the intention of this is probably to assist in securing the leather in its place1 and to prevent the lapping from slipping4 ,the effects of it are as follows3--,first1 from the leather being strained over this projection1 it becomes liable to be cut by every accidental injury1 and very soon cracks and gives way1 when a portion must be cut off and a fresh fixing made2 second1 the leather being stretched over the projection1 does not fit the other part of the joint1 and must be loose or filled up with pieces of leather1 or1 as is sometimes done1 with brown paper2 third1 the irregularity of the calibre of the conduit which this shoulder occasions diminishes the performance of the engine4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,new ,coupling ,fig4 #d is the coupling-joint adopted in ,edinburgh4 ,the furrows at the tying place are shallow1 but their edges present a powerful obstacle to the slipping of the leather4 ,no screw-nails are employed1 nor is there any shoulder1 as at ,b2 there is therefore no impediment to or variation in the velocity of the current1 as the calibres of the coupling joints and of the hose are so nearly uniform4 ,it will be seen also that as the lapping projects above the leather this latter can never be injured by falls or rubbing on the ground4 ,another great advantage attending the joints used here is the manner in which their screws are finished4 ,on examining the figure minutely1 it will be observed that the male-screw ends in a cylinder of the diameter of the bottom of its thread1 consequently of the diameter of the top of the thread of the female-screw4 ,the effect of this is1 that1 when the screws are brought together1 the cylindric portion serves as a guide to the threads1 and the most inexperienced person cannot fail to make them catch fair at the first trial4 ,the advantage of this in the circumstances attending fires is obvious4 ,these joints1 although requiring three or four turns to close them up1 yet as it is only the ring ,d which requires to be turned1 it can easily be done with the hand alone without the use of wrenches4 ,although1 when the whole length of hose has been jointed1 it may be as well to send a man with a pair of wrenches to set the joints firm2 this1 however1 is by no means absolutely necessary2 if the joints are kept in proper order a man can secure them sufficiently with the hand4 ,there is also a facility in taking turns out of the hose1 which no other but a swivel joint affords4 ,by slackening a single turn any twist may be taken out1 without undoing the joint or stopping the engine1 while1 from the number of turns required to close the joints1 there is no chance of the screw being by any accident undone4 ,in order to prevent the threads from being easily damaged1 they should be of a pretty large size1 not more than five or six to the inch4 ,for the same reason also the thread should be a little rounded4 ,as it sometimes happens that the screws are damaged by falling on the street1 or by heavy bodies striking them1 whenever the hose have been used the joints should be tried by a steel gauge-screw1 to be kept for that purpose4 ,this ought to be particularly attended to1 as1 on arriving at a fire1 it is rather an awkward time to discover that a joint has been damaged1 while the delay thus occasioned may be attended with very serious consequences4 ,four ,bundles of ,sheepskin and ,lay-cord4--,these are simply four or five stripes of sheepskin1 each about three or four inches broad4 ,when a leak occurs in a length of hose which cannot be easily replaced at the time1 one or more pieces of sheepskin are wrapt tightly over the leak and tied firmly with a piece of cord4 ,this is but an indifferent method of mending1 but ,i do not know of any other which can be so readily applied with the same effect4 ,if another length of hose can be substituted for the leaky one it is better to do so2 but that is not always at hand1 nor does it always happen that time can be spared for the purpose4 ,four ,lengths of ,suction-pipe4--,these are generally made of leather1 riveted tightly over a spiral worm of hoop-iron1 about three-quarters of an inch broad1 a piece of tarred canvas being placed between the worm and the leather4 ,they are usually made from six to eight feet long1 with a copper strainer screwed on the farther end1 to prevent as much as possible any mud or dirt from getting into the engine with the water4 ,it is of advantage to carry four lengths of suction-pipe1 as they can be joined to reach the water2 if one is damaged the others will still be serviceable4 ,the suction-pipes are more troublesome to rivet than the common hose1 and are done in the following manner3--,after the joints are fixed on the spiral worm1 and it is covered with the tarred canvas1 an iron mandrel longer than the worm is put through it1 the edge being rounded to the circle of the inside of the worm4 ,the projecting ends of the mandrel are supported to allow the worm to lie quite clear4 ,one end of the mandrel has a check1 that the brass joint may not prevent the worm from lying flat on the mandrel4 ,the leather is then put over the worm1 and the rivets being put into one side1 a small thin mandrel is laid over the canvas and the rivets struck down upon it4 ,if the small mandrel be not used the heads of the rivets are apt to lie unequally on the worm4 ,three ,wrenches for ,coupling-joints4--,these are for tightening the coupling-joints1 when that cannot be sufficiently done by hand4 ,when the hose are all put together a man is sent along the whole line with a pair of wrenches to tighten such of the coupling-joints as require it4 ,the wrenches are generally made with a hole to fit the knob on the coupling-joint1 and1 when used1 are placed1 one on the nob of the male and another on the nob of the female-screw1 so as to pull them in opposite directions4 ,two ,branch ,pipes4--,these are taper copper tubes1 having a female-screw at one end to fit the coupling-joints of the hose1 and a male-screw at the other to receive the jet pipes1 one is #d feet long to use from the outside of a house on fire1 the other #ab inches for inside work4 ,three ,jet-pipes or nozzles of various sizes made to screw on the end of the branch pipe4 ,a great many different shapes of jet have been tried1 and that shown in ,fig4 #e1 ,i found to answer best when tried with other forms4 ,the old jet was a continuation in a straight line of the taper of the branch1 from the size of the hose-screw1 to the end of the jet-pipe2 this had many inconveniences2 the size of the jet could not be increased without making the jet-pipe nearly parallel4 ,as the branches were sometimes #g feet or #h feet long1 in some instances the orifice at the end of the jet-pipe was larger than that at the end of the branch4 ,the present form of the jet completely obviates this difficulty1 as the end of the branch is always #a-a_/b inches diameter4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4 ,the curve of the nozzle of the present jet is determined by its own size2 five times one-half of the difference between the jet to be made and the end of the branch1 is set up on each side of the diameter of the upper end of the branch1 a straight line is then drawn across1 and an arc of a circle described on this line1 from the extremity of each end of the diameter of the jet1 until it meets the top of the branch2 the jet is then continued parallel1 the length of its own diameter2 the metal is continued one-eighth of an inch above this1 to allow of a hollow being turned out to protect the edge3 ,the rule for determining the size of the jet for inside work is1 to make the diameter of the jet one-eighth of an inch for every inch in the diameter of the cylinder1 for each #h inches of stroke4 ,the branch used in this case is the same size as shown in ,fig4 #e4 ,when it is necessary to throw the water to a greater height1 or distance1 a jet one-seventh less in area is used1 with a branch from #d feet to #e feet long4 ,two ,lengths of ,scaling ,ladders4--,these are #f-a_/b feet long1 and are fitted with sockets so that any number up to #g or #h may be joined together to form one ladder varying in length according to circumstances from #f-a_/b to upwards of #dj feet4 ,one ,fire-hook4--,this is similar to a common boat-hook1 of such length as may be most convenient to strap on the handles of the engine4 ,it is used for pulling down ceilings1 and taking out deafening-boards when the fire happens to be between the ceiling and the floor above4 ,it is also used when a strong door is to be broken open4 ,it is placed with the point upon the door1 one or two men bearing upon it1 while another striking the door1 the whole force of the blows is made to fall upon the lock or other fastening1 which generally yields without much difficulty4 ,sixty ,feet of ,patent ,line and ,twenty ,feet of ,trace ,line4--,these are generally used for hoisting the hose into the windows of the house1 in which there is a fire1 the stairs being sometimes so crowded with people and furniture1 that it is difficult to force a passage1 and when the pipe is laid in the stair1 it is liable to be damaged by people treading on it4 ,one ,mattock and ,shovel4--,these are useful in damming any running water or gutter1 uncovering drains1 c41 from which the engine may be supplied with water4 ,the mattock should be short and strong1 and the shovel of the sort called diamond-pointed4 ,one ,hatchet4--,the most serviceable hatchet for a fire-engine1 is similar to that used as a felling axe by wood-cutters4 ,the back part is made large that it may be conveniently used as a hammer4 ,one ,saw4--,this should be a stout cross-cut saw1 very widely set4 ,it is useful in cutting off the communication between one house and another1 which1 when water is scarce1 is sometimes necessary4 ,one ,iron ,crow-bar4--,this should be about two feet long4 ,it is used in opening doors1 breaking through walls1 c4 ,one ,portable ,cistern4,p--,this is made of canvas on a folding iron frame1 and is used in ,london placed over the street-fire plugs1 a hole is left in the bottom through which the water enters and fills the cistern1 the escape between the canvas and the plug box being trifling4 ,two and sometimes three engines are worked by suction-pipe from one plug in this manner4 ,the portable cistern is also used when the engine is supplied by suction1 from water conveyed in carts or buckets1 and is greatly preferable to any plan of emptying the water directly into the engine4 ,by this latter method there is always a considerable waste of water1 arising both from the height of the engine1 and the working of the handles2 and1 in addition to these objections only one person can pour in water at a time4 ,when the water is poured into the engine from carts1 it must stop working till the cart is emptied4 ,all these objections1 are in a great measure removed by placing the portable cistern clear of the engine2 when used in this manner there must of course be no hole in the bottom4 ,one ,flat ,suction ,strainer1 made to screw on to the suction pipe1 to prevent anything being drawn in that would not pass through the jet-pipe1 and made flat1 with no holes in the upper surface1 for use in the portable cistern4 ,one ,standcock1 with stem to insert direct in the fire-plug1 and used principally with hose to throw a jet for cooling ruins4 ,one ,canvas ,sheet4--,this1 when stretched out and held securely by several men1 may be jumped into from the window of a house on fire with comparative safety4 ,one ,hand-pump1 as described at page #acj1 and used with the canvas buckets4 ,,footnotes3 ,footnote ,g3 ,the engines and their crews are distinguished by these colours4 ,footnote ,h3 ,the hose are made up in flat coils1 with the male coupling-screw in the centre1 and the female on the outside4 ,when a length is to be laid out in any direction1 it is set on its edge1 and then run out in the required direction1--in this way no turns or twists can ever occur4 ,when the hose is to be taken up1 it is uncoupled1 and then wound up1 beginning at the end farthest from the engine or from the fire-cock 7as the case may be73 by this method all the water is pressed out4 ,footnote ,i3 ,in practising this exercise the men are in the habit of descending by the chains from the parapet of the ,north ,bridge1 ,edinburgh1 to the ground below3 a height of #ge feet4 ,footnote ,j3 ,mr4 ,braidwood used canvas jumping sheets on this principle with hand holes for a dozen men1 in the ordinary service of the ,london ,fire ,brigade4 ,footnote ,k3 ,now ,shand1 ,mason1 and ,co4 ,footnote ,l3 ,this description applies to the most recently constructed fire-engines belonging to the ,metropolitan ,fire ,brigade4 ,footnote ,m3 ,stuffing1 a technical term need by leather-dressers or curriers4 ,footnote ,n3 ,the proportions are1 #a gallon neats-foot oil1 #b lbs4 tallow1 #a_/d lb4 bees-wax1 melted together1 and laid while warm on the leather4 ,footnote ,o3 ,this description of the ,edinburgh coupling-joints was written in #ahcj1 and is inserted here to show how the present form of the well-known ,london ,brigade hose-coupling was arrived at4 ,the internal diameter was originally #b-c_/h inches1 but ,mr4 ,braidwood1 when in ,london1 found that he could increase it to #b-a_/b inches4 ,footnote ,p3 ,see engraving of portable cistern1 page #aef4 ,,fire ,,annihilator ,with regard to the ,fire ,annihilator1 ,i have seen several experiments with this machine1 and heard of more which were not successful2 and if an invention fails when experiments are tried1 it is open to the impression that it might fail when brought into active operation4 ,there have also been many cases where these machines have met with accidents1 one at ,drury ,lane ,theatre amongst the number4 ,water1 properly applied1 will do whatever the ,annihilator can accomplish1 and also many things which the latter cannot do4 ,as it is1 there are some forty or fifty different articles to carry with each fire-engine1 and to add to them such unwieldy things as ,fire ,annihilators1 would be to encumber the men more than they are at present1 with a very doubtful prospect of advantage4 ,,water ,,supply4 ,the supply of water is the most vital part of any exertions towards extinguishing fire4 ,where the pressure is sufficient1 and the mains large enough1 by far the most efficient and economical mode of using the water is to attach the hose directly to the mains4 ,in ,london1 however1 this can rarely be done1 for several reasons4 ,the greatest number of plugs are on the service pipes1 that is1 the pipes for supplying water for domestic and other purposes1 which are only open a short time every day4 ,if the cisterns are nearly empty1 the pressure cannot be obtained till they are filled4 ,then1 again1 the plugs being some distance apart1 it is difficult to obtain a sufficient number of jets4 ,but when the plugs are full open #a-c_/d diameter1 a sufficient quantity of water is obtained from each to supply three engines1 each of which will give a jet equal to the plug if confined to one jet4 ,the pressure also in the mains in ,london seldom exceeds #abj feet at the utmost4 ,for these reasons the pressure from the mains is seldom used till the fire is checked1 when the ruins are cooled by the dummies1 as the jets from the mains are named by the firemen4 ,if water can be obtained at an elevation1 pipes with plugs or firecocks on them1 are preferable to any other mode at present in use for the supply of fire-engines4 ,the size of the pipes will depend on the distance and elevation of the head1 and also on the size of the buildings to be protected4 ,it may be assumed as a general rule1 that the intensity of a fire depends1 in a great measure1 on the cubic content of the building2 distinction being made as to the nature and contents of such building4 ,if no natural elevation of water can be made available1 and the premises are of much value1 it may be found advisable to erect elevated tanks2 where this is done1 the quantity of water to be kept ready1 and the rate at which it is delivered1 must depend on the means possessed of making use of the water4 ,the average size of fire-engines may be taken at two cylinders of #g inches diameter1 with a length of stroke of #h inches1 making forty strokes each per minute4 ,this sized engine will throw #ada tons of water in six hours1 and allowing one-fourth for waste1 #agf tons would be a fair provision in the tanks for six hours' work2 this quantity multiplied by the number of engines within reach1 will give an idea of what is likely to be required at a large fire4 ,if1 however1 there are steam-engines to keep up the supply through the mains1 the quantity of water kept in readiness may be reduced to two hours' consumption1 as it is likely that the steam-engines would be at work before that quantity was exhausted4 ,this is what may be supposed to be required1 in cases of serious fires in dockyards1 in large stacks of warehouses1 or in large manufactories4 ,illustration3 ,,fig #f4 ,opening for ,suction-pipe4 ,where water can be had at nearly the level of the premises1 such as from rivers1 canals1 c41 if it is not thought prudent to erect elevated tanks1 the water may be conducted under the surface by large cast-iron pipes1 with openings at such distances as may seem advisable for introducing the suction-pipes 7,fig4 #f74 ,this plan should not be adopted where the level of the water is more than #ab feet below the surface of the ground1 as although a fire-engine will1 if perfectly tight1 draw from a much greater depth than #ad feet 7#b feet being allowed for the height of the engine71 still a very trifling leakage will render it useless for the time1 at such a depth4 ,the worst mode of supplying engines with water is by covered sunk tanks2 they are generally too small1 and unless very numerous1 confine the engines to one or two particular spots1 obliging the firemen to increase the length of the hose which materially diminishes the effect of the fire-engine4 ,if the tank is supplied by mains from a reservoir1 it would be much better to save the expense of the tank1 and to place plugs or firecocks on the water-pipe4 ,another evil in sunk tanks is1 that the firemen can seldom guess what quantity of water they may depend upon1 and they may thus be induced to attempt to stop a fire1 at a point they would not have thought of if they had known correctly the quantity of water in store4 ,where sunk tanks are already constructed1 they may be rendered more available by a partial use of the method shown in ,fig4 #f4 ,memoranda of ,experiments tried on the mains and service pipes of the ,southwark ,water ,company1 between #d and #i ,a4,m4 of the #cast ,january1 #ahdd4 ,the wind blowing fresh from ,n4,n4,w4 ,the pressure at the water-works at ,battersea was kept at #abj feet during the experiments1 and every service pipe or other outlet was kept shut4 #ast ,experiment4--,six standcocks1 with one length of #b-a_/b inches riveted leather hose #dj feet long1 and one copper branch #d feet to #e feet long1 with a jet #g_/h inch in diameter on each1 were placed in six plugs on a main #g inches diameter1 in ,union-street1 between ,high-,street1 ,borough1 and ,gravel-lane1 ,southwark1 at distances of about #abj yards apart4 ,the water was brought from the head at ,battersea1 by #dbej yards of iron pipes #bj inches diameter1 #eej yards of #ae inches diameter1 and #ejj yards of #i inches diameter4 #ast4 ,one standcock was opened1 which gave a jet of #ej feet in height1 and delivered #ajj gallons per minute4 ,with four lengths of hose the jet was #dj feet high1 and the delivery #ib gallons per minute4 ,when the branch and jet were taken off with one length of hose the delivery was #bfj gallons per minute4 #bnd4 ,the second standcock was then opened1 and the jet from the first was #de feet high4 #crd4 ,the third standcock was opened1 and the jet from the first #dj feet high4 #dth4 ,the fourth standcock being opened1 the first gave a jet of #ce feet high4 #eth4 ,the fifth being opened1 the first gave a jet of #cj feet high4 #fth4 ,all the six being opened1 the first gave a jet of #bg feet in height4 #bnd ,experiment4--,six standcocks were then put into plugs1 on a main #i inches diameter in ,tooley-,street1 the extreme distance being #dej yards1 with hose and jets as in the first experiment4 ,the water was brought from the head at ,battersea by #dbej yards of iron pipes of #bj inches diameter1 #ajjj yards of #ae inches diameter1 #adjj yards of #i inches diameter4 ,the weather was nearly the same1 but the place of experiment was more protected from the wind than in ,union-street4 #ast4 ,with one standcock open1 a jet #fj feet in height was produced1 and #ajg gallons per minute were delivered4 #bnd4 ,the second standcock was then opened1 and the difference in the first jet was barely perceptible4 #crd4 ,other two standcocks being opened1 the first jet was reduced to #de feet in height1 and the delivery to #ib gallons per minute4 #dth4 ,all the six standcocks being opened1 the first jet was further reduced to #dj feet high1 and the delivery to #gf gallons per minute4 #crd ,experiment4--,two standcocks1 with hose1 c41 as in the first experiment1 were then put into a service-pipe1 #d inches diameter and #bjj yards long1 in ,tooley-street1 the service-pipe was connected with #bjj yards of main #e inches diameter1 branching from the main of #i inches diameter4 ,the weather was still the same as at first1 but the wind did not appear to affect the jets1 owing to the buildings all round being so much higher than the jet4 #ast4 ,the standcock nearest the larger main was opened1 and a jet of #dj feet high was produced1 delivering #hb gallons per minute4 #bnd4 ,both standcocks being opened1 the first gave a jet of #ca feet1 and delivered #fh gallons per minute4 #crd4 ,the standcock farthest from the large main only being opened1 gave a jet of #cd feet1 and delivered #gd gallons per minute4 #dth4 ,both standcocks being opened1 the farthest one gave a jet of #bc feet1 and delivered #eh gallons per minute4 ,when both these plugs were allowed to flow freely without hose1 the water from that nearest the large main1 rose about #ah inches1 and the farther one about #a inch above the plug-box4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4 ,common ,fire-plug4 ,these and other experiments prove the necessity of placing the plugs on the mains1 and not on the service pipes1 where there are mains in the street4 ,the different modes of obtaining water from the mains or pipes are shown in the accompanying drawings4 7,fig4 #g7 is a section of a common plug when not in use4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4 ,fire-plug with canvas cistern4 7,fig4 #h7 is a section of the common plug1 with a canvas dam or cistern over it1 as used in ,london4 ,the cistern is made of ,no4 #a canvas1 #ae inches deep1 extended at top and bottom by #e_/h-;inch round iron frames1 a double stay is hinged on the top frame at each end4 ,when the cistern is used the top frame is lifted up1 and the stays put into the notches1 in two pieces of hoop iron1 fixed to the bottom frame4 ,there is a circular opening #i inches diameter in the canvas bottom1 two circular rings of wash-leather1 about #b inches broad1 are attached to the edges of the opening in the canvas1 so as to contract it to #d inches or #e inches diameter2 the plug being opened1 the cistern is placed over it2 the wash-leather is pressed down to the surface of the road by the water1 and a tolerably water-tight cistern1 with about #ab inches or #ad inches of water in it1 is immediately obtained4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4 ,plug1 with ,standcock4 7,fig4 #i7 is a plug with a standcock in it1 to which hose may be attached4 7,fig4 #aj7 is a common single firecock with a round water-way #b-a_/b inches diameter4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4 ,single ,firecock4 7,fig4 #aa7 is a double firecock1 as laid down in ,her ,majesty's ,dockyards4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4 ,double ,firecock1 used at the ,royal ,dockyards4 ,it will be observed1 that the short piece of pipe between the main and this firecock is not curved to the current of the water1 but merely opened a little2 this is done with a view of increasing the supply by steam power1 and as the steam engines are1 in most cases1 situated in a different direction from the tanks or reservoirs1 therefore the curve that would have assisted the current in one direction would have retarded it in the other4 ,it has been objected to these firecocks1 that the opening does not run through the centre of the key1 therefore only one side of the key covers the opening in the barrel1 while in the common firecock both sides are covered4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4 ,double ,firecock1 used at the ,british ,museum4 7,fig4 #ab7 is a double firecock1 as laid down at the ,british ,museum4 ,this has a very good delivery1 and is certain to be always tight1 if well made1 as the pressure of the water forces the key into the barrel2 this also renders the cock somewhat difficult to be opened and shut1 if the pressure be great2 but as a lever of any length may be used1 and the key1 from its perpendicular position1 may be loosened by a blow1 this objection is in a great measure obviated4 ,in ,figs4 #aj and #aa the openings in the street are large enough to admit of the levers for opening the cock to be fixed1 that no mistake may occur from the lever being mislaid2 but with those at the ,british ,museum1 it was not thought necessary to have fixed levers1 as a crow-bar1 or anything that could be introduced into the eye of the spanner1 would open them4 ,the plug and firecock have both certain advantages and disadvantages1 which are now described4 ,the plug1 with a canvas cistern1 is the easiest mode of obtaining water2 the plug-box being only the size of a paving-stone1 is no annoyance in the street1 and the water has only one angle to turn before it is delivered4 ,on the other hand1 where the supply of water is limited1 the plugs give but little command of it2 there is1 however1 comparatively very small loss at a large fire in ,london from this cause1 as it is very seldom that all the fire-engines can be supplied direct from the plugs1 and those that arrive late must pick up the waste water as they best can1 by using another description of canvas dam1 or opening the street2 but in enclosed premises1 especially where the water is kept for the purpose of extinguishing fires1 firecocks are much to be preferred4 ,it is very difficult to insert the standcock into a plug if there is a considerable force of water1 and if the paving has moved1 it cannot be done without raising the plug-box2 but this is1 however1 the easiest mode of using firecocks1 and where there is a considerable pressure of water1 if the watchmen or the police are supplied with a hose-reel and branch-pipe1 they can1 in enclosed premises1 direct a jet on the fire while the engines are being prepared1 and if they cannot reach the fire1 they will have water ready for the engine when it arrives4 ,inclosed premises are particularly mentioned1 because the principal duty of the watchmen1 in these cases1 is to guard against fire1 and their other duties being comparatively few1 the men are not often changed1 and they can be instructed thoroughly in the matter4 ,with the general police of the metropolis it is quite different1 their duties are so numerous and varied1 that to add that of firemen to them would only be to confuse them4 ,firecocks1 if kept at #i inches to #ab inches below the surface1 are easily protected from frost1 by stuffing the opening with straw4 ,the advantage which the double firecocks have over the single ones1 is merely the increased water-way1 as a firecock #c-a_/b inches diameter could not be so easily opened or shut1 as two cocks of #b-a_/b inches diameter4 ,one of the greatest objections to firecocks1 is the very large openings required in the streets1 the first cost and the repair of which are both considerable1 besides their liability to accident4 ,to take them to the footpath1 increases the expenses and diminishes the supply of water1 as it is generally done with a small pipe1 and the number of angles is increased4 ,in some instances1 where firecocks have been put down on one side of the street1 no less than four right angles have been made in the course of the water2 and if the fire happens to be on the opposite side of the street from the firecock1 the thoroughfare must be stopped4 ,the expense also is no slight consideration1 for if laid along with the water-pipes1 each firecock1 if properly laid1 and the pit built round with cement1 will cost eight or ten times as much as a plug4 ,london is1 upon the whole 7except in the warehouse districts71 fairly supplied with water for the average description of fires1 that is1 where not more than five or six engines are required4 ,when1 however1 it is necessary to work ten or twelve engines1 there is very often a deficiency4 ,in many of the warehouse districts the supply is very limited indeed1 although it is there that the largest fires take place4 ,the water companies are generally willing to give any quantity of water1 but they object to lay down large mains without any prospect of remuneration4 ,the warehouse keepers decline to be at the expense of laying the pipes1 and there the matter seems to rest4 ,in most other places of importance1 the water is under the management of the civic authorities1 and they1 of course1 endeavour to obtain a good supply of water at fires in warehouse as well as in other districts4 ,in supplying fire-engines with water from firecocks1 one or more lengths of hose are screwed on the firecock2 the extreme end being put into the engine1 the firecock is then opened and the water rushes in4 ,when the water-pipes are large and the pressure considerable1 two or even three engines may be supplied from the same firecock4 ,if the firecocks are all at too great a distance from the place on fire1 to be reached by the supply of hose brought with the engine1 the next resource is1 to open the nearest firecock above the level of the place where the water is required4 ,by covering the eyes of drains1 and stopping up any cross-water channels1 the water may in this manner be conveyed along the street1 from a very considerable distance4 ,from the nature of the ground it does not always happen that the water will run directly from the nearest firecock1 to the spot where it is required2 acclivities1 buildings1 and many other causes1 may prevent this2 but in some of these cases a few lengths of the hose1 attached to the firecock1 may convey the water to a channel which will conduct it to the required point4 ,upon the arrival of the water1 it ought to be dammed up1 and the engine will lift it by suction out of the pool so formed4 ,if1 however1 from the nature of the ground1 from the want of hose1 or from other causes1 it is found impracticable to convey the water by either of the above methods1 the next best is1 to conduct the water in hose as far as can be accomplished1 and carry it the remainder of the distance in carts1 buckets1 or whatever else may be most convenient4 ,when carried in buckets it is of advantage to form a line of men from the water to the engine1 each man covering five or six feet of ground4 ,the buckets are then handed from one man to another1 till they reach the two or three men who are stationed round the suction-tub or fire-engine to receive them4 ,the buckets when emptied are returned by a different line of men 7women or boys7 stationed in the same manner as the former4 ,if a sufficient number of hands cannot be had to return the buckets in this manner1 any convenient number may be employed to carry them to the firecock1 that they may be again filled4 ,when a fire occurs where the water-pipes are unprovided with firecocks or plugs1 the ground should be immediately opened1 and the water-pipe cut4 ,if it be of cast-iron1 a large hammer may effect the purpose3 on the water-pipe being broken1 the suction-pipe of the engine is placed in the opening so made4 ,if the pipe be of lead1 the opening in the street should be made of sufficient length to admit of one end of it1 when cut1 being turned into the engine4 ,if the supply of water by this means be so great as to occasion waste1 it may be regulated by the nearest stopcock on the water-pipe1 by driving a wooden plug into the end of a cast-iron pipe1 or compressing the end of a leaden one4 ,the next plan ,i shall notice of supplying fire-engines is from drains1 gutters1 c4 ,in particular situations and wet weather considerable supplies of water from these and similar sources may be obtained4 ,in the gutters all that is required is to dam them up2 and1 if there be no materials at hand for this purpose1 the causeway must be dug up1 till there is a sufficient depth of water for the suction-pipe of the engine4 ,when the water is to be drawn from drains or common sewers1 great care should be taken not to damage them farther than is absolutely necessary4 ,if enough of cover be taken off to allow one man to enter easily1 it will be quite sufficient for all necessary purposes4 ,when the man inside the drain or common sewer has collected a proper supply of water by damming up the channel1 the suction-pipe should be handed down to him1 and the engine set to work4 ,although it be true that foul water quenches fire1 ,i will here observe1 that the water from a common sewer should never be used1 except when it is impossible to procure it from a purer source4 ,for the purpose of procuring water to extinguish a fire1 ,i had at one time occasion to open a common sewer1 in which1 with the usual impurities1 the waste from a gas manufactory was intermixed1 and the stench in the premises where the fire had been extinguished by this water1 was for some time after very disagreeable4 ,if the water be obtained from a pond or river at a little distance1 one engine may be stationed close to it1 and that engine made to pump the water into another at work4 ,if the water be conveyed in carts1 an engine may be kept at the pond or river for the purpose of filling them4 ,of course this can only be done where there is a proper supply of engines4 ,in working from an open water1 such as a gutter1 drain1 river1 or pond1 it is proper1 in order to prevent sand or gravel being drawn into the engine1 to sink an iron or wooden bucket1 into which the suction-pipe of the engine should be placed4 ,if nothing better can be had1 a good wicker basket will be found useful4 ,it is of great advantage to have a number of carts1 with butts upon them full of water1 as it ensures a small supply to the engines the moment they arrive at the fire4 ,this plan1 however1 entails a very considerable expense1 as carters must be paid for taking them out on every alarm1 besides giving prizes to the owners of the first and second horses1 to ensure their coming in time4 ,,appendix4 ,the following1 on ,steam ,fire-engines and the ,metropolitan ,fire ,brigade1 is added as a supplement to ,mr4 ,braidwood's account of the ,london ,fire ,brigade1 and brings the information upon these subjects up to the present date 7,may1 #ahff73-- ,the steam fire-engine was first constructed in ,london1 in #ahcj1 before the formation of the ,london ,fire ,brigade1 by ,braithwaite1 who made several engines1 and exhibited them at various public trials1 also at several fires1 but without being able to bring them into general use4 ,the matter remained in abeyance till #aheb1 when the ,london ,fire ,brigade caused their large hand-worked floating fire-engine to be altered so as to be worked by steam4 ,this engine having been originally made by ,tilley1 of ,london1 the alterations were entrusted to ,shand and ,mason1 his successors4 ,in the same year the first ,american steam fire-engine was constructed in ,new ,york4 ,in #ahee the ,london ,fire ,brigade1 stimulated by their first experiment1 caused an entirely new self-propelling1 floating steam fire-engine to be constructed4 ,the experience gained by their first attempt at steam fire-engine making1 enabled ,shand and ,mason to compete successfully in this matter1 as their design was adopted after receiving the approval of the late ,mr4 ,walker1 ,engineer1 of ,great ,george ,street1 ,london4 ,the re-introduction of land steam fire-engines into ,london was accomplished by ,shand and ,mason1 who1 in #aheh1 constructed their first2 this engine1 after several public trials1 was in the same year sent to ,st4 ,petersburgh4 ,in #ahei the same firm constructed two land steam fire-engines1 which they offered to the ,london ,fire ,brigade for hire or purchase1 and in the following year 7#ahfj7 the ,fire ,brigade took one on hire for one year4 ,this experiment proved so successful1 that in #ahfa the committee purchased1 from ,shand and ,mason1 the fourth steam engine of their construction4 ,this1 with one of the two made in #ahei1 were the only land steam engines that were at work at the ,great ,tooley ,street ,fire of #ahfa4 ,in the beginning of #ahfb1 ,mr4 ,lee1 of the firm of ,lee and ,larned1 of ,new ,york1 brought over a land steam fire-engine to be placed in the ,international ,exhibition4 ,this was worked in public at ,hodges' ,distillery on the #bdth of ,march previous to the opening of the ,exhibition4 ,shand and ,mason supplied the ,london ,fire ,brigade in ,april1 #ahfb1 with the eighth land steam fire-engine of their construction4 ,messrs4 ,merryweather and ,sons1 of ,london1 placed their first land steam fire-engine in the ,international ,exhibition of #ahfb1 but this1 like the ninth by ,shand and ,mason1 was not in time for the opening1 and consequently could not compete for a prize medal1 which was awarded to ,lee and ,larned1 of ,new ,york4 ,a public trial1 however1 took place before the jury of the ,exhibition1 of which the following is an account extracted verbatim from the jurors' published reports3-- ,,international ,,exhibition1 #ahfb4 ,,special ,,jury ,,for ,,fire-,,engines4 ,j4 ,f4 ,,bateman1 ,f4,r4,s41 ,london2 ,civil ,engineer4 ,,capt4 ,,bent1 ,london2 ,superintendent of ,fire ,arrangements in the ,exhibition4 ,w4 ,m4 ,,brown1 ,london2 ,superintendent of ,westminster ,fire ,brigade4 ,,earl ,,of ,,caithness1 ,london4 ,j4 ,,hawkshaw1 ,london2 ,civil ,engineer4 ,c4 ,,jenny1 ,austria2 ,councillor of ,mines in the ,imperial ,royal ,academy of ,mines at ,schemnitz4 ,p4 ,,luuyt1 ,france2 ,engineer to the ,imperial ,commissioners of ,mines4 ,j4 ,e4 ,mc,c,o,n,n,e,l,l1 ,wolverton2 late ,locomotive ,superintendent of the ,london and ,north ,western ,railway4 ,o4 ,,pihl1 ,norway2 ,civil ,engineer4 ,w4 ,m4 ,,rankine1 ,glasgow2 ,professor of ,mechanics in the ,university of ,glasgow4 ,,capt4 ,,shaw1 ,london2 ,superintendent of the ,london ,fire ,brigade4 ,,duke ,,of ,,sutherland1 ,london4 ,f4 ,b4 ,,taylor1 ,united ,states2 ,mechanical ,engineer4 ,h4 ,,thomas1 ,zollverein2 ,manufacturer4 ,h4 ,,tresca1 ,france2 ,professor of ,mechanics1 ,president of the ,french ,institute of ,civil ,engineers4 ,,report ,,of ,,the ,,special ,,committee ,,of ,,class ,,viii4 ,,on ,,fire-,,engines4 ,after detailing the ,trials of ,hand-worked ,fire-,engines1 the ,report states that1-- ,the ,committee next proceeded to take the necessary steps for trying the steam fire-engines on the #ast of ,july1 and1 as before1 invited the engine builders to a preliminary meeting1 that they might receive full information as to the rules and regulations to be observed4 ,in compliance with this invitation1 the following engine-makers attended a meeting on the #bhth of ,june1 viz3-- ,mr4 ,lee1 of the firm of ,lee and ,larned1 ,novelty ,iron-works1 ,new ,york4 ,messrs4 ,merryweather and ,son4 ,messrs4 ,shand and ,mason4 ,mr4 ,lee declined to produce his steam fire-engine for trial1 alleging various reasons for so doing1 and though strongly urged1 persisted in his resolution1 and declined the contest4 ,messrs4 ,merryweather and ,son expressed themselves ready to produce their steam fire-engine on the appointed day4 ,messrs4 ,shand and ,mason informed the ,committee that the engine which they had intended to work would not be ready owing to an accident1 but requested permission to produce for trial two steam-engines made by them for the ,london ,fire-,engine ,establishment1 although they were not in the ,exhibition4 ,all the arrangements having been made for trying several engines together1 the ,committee granted this request1 as otherwise only one engine would have been present1 and a complete table of results could therefore not have been obtained4 ,the ,committee assembled in the appointed place at eight o'clock on the morning of the #ast of ,july1 and found three engines present1 viz41 one of ,messrs4 ,merryweather and ,son and two of ,messrs4 ,shand and ,mason4 ,after the ,committee had examined the boilers and machinery generally1 the engine-makers filled their respective boilers with cold water from the river1 and fires having been laid1 the three were lighted at the same moment1 and the makers were ordered to commence working into a tank at sixty feet distance as soon as they had attained a steam pressure of #ajj lbs4 to the square inch4 ,messrs4 ,merryweather's engine attained the pressure named in #ab minutes #aj seconds1 ,messrs4 ,shand and ,mason's large engine in #ah minutes #cj seconds1 the small engine in about #cj minutes1 some mismanagement having occurred which compelled them to draw the fire in the latter and light it a second time4 ,messrs4 ,merryweather's engine commenced working as arranged when the steam-gauge indicated a pressure of #ajj lbs41 and was #b minutes and #ej seconds at work before water passed through the nose-pipe4 ,notwithstanding this very serious defect1 this engine had poured #ejj gallons of water into a tank #fj feet distant in #ag minutes and #ae seconds from the time at which the fire was lighted4 ,after the difficulty of drawing the water had been surmounted1 this engine worked well1 and threw an admirable jet1 losing #ae lbs4 steam-pressure during the first trial4 ,after three trials this engine became disabled2 it was1 however1 repaired on the ground in about an hour and a half1 and resumed work at the ninth trial1 continuing to work well until the thirteenth1 when it became again disabled1 and was withdrawn by the maker1 to the great regret of the ,committee1 who were thus left to continue the experiments with only two engines1 both made by one firm4 ,messrs4 ,shand and ,mason's large engine was #ah minutes #cj seconds getting up steam to #ajj lbs41 and when started drew water instantly1 losing during the first trial #e lbs4 of steam-pressure4 ,this engine was severely tested1 and worked without accident throughout the day1 the seventeenth trial lasting no less than #fc minutes1 during which the steam and water were both kept to a pressure of #ij lbs4 on the square inch throughout1 working through a #a-c_/h inch nose-pipe4 ,at the eighteenth and last trial this engine threw a good vertical jet4 ,messrs4 ,shand and ,mason's small engine did not raise the steam to #ajj lbs4 in less than #cj minutes1 owing1 of course1 partly to the mismanagement already mentioned1 and partly to the nature of the boiler and fire-box1 which1 according to the makers' account1 are not adapted for raising steam in the shortest possible time4 ,after the engine got to work the steam-pressure was well sustained1 and the engine continued working the entire day without accident1 concluding in the evening by throwing a good vertical jet4 ,during the time occupied by the trials the direction of the wind was ,w4,n4,w4 to ,w4 by ,n41 pressure #b-a_/b to #d-a_/b lbs4 on the square foot4 ,the barometer stood at #bi4ig inches4 ,summary4 ,on the whole the ,committee find as follows3-- ,messrs4 ,merryweather and ,son have produced1 at a price of #gjjl41 a steam fire-engine1 weighing1 according to the makers' account1 #fe cwt41 with jets and lamps1 but without water1 coal1 suction-pipes1 hose1 or other gear1 and capable1 if no accidents occur1 of throwing in an available stream the following average quantities of water per minute3-- ,distance4 ,angle4 ,quantity4 #fa feet4 #aj deg4 #bcj gallons4 #he #ba deg4 #abd ,messrs4 ,shand and ,mason have produced an engine1 at a cost of #fejl41 weighing1 according to their statement1 #ee cwt41 with jets and lamps1 but without water1 coals1 suction-pipes1 hose1 or other gear1 and capable of throwing in an available stream the following average quantities of water per minute3-- ,distance4 ,angle4 ,quantity4 #fa feet4 #aj deg4 #bej gallons4 #fc #ah deg4 #afe #hb #ad deg4 #agb #he #ba deg4 #acg #ajb #aa deg4 #id #ajd #ag deg4 #ai ,messrs4 ,shand and ,mason have also produced1 at a price of #cgjl41 an engine which1 under the same conditions1 weighs #ce cwt41 and is capable of throwing in an available stream the following average quantities per minute3-- ,distance4 ,angle4 ,quantity4 #fa feet4 #aj deg4 #adb gallons4 #fc #ah deg4 #acc #hb #ad deg4 #ef #he #ba deg4 #bg ,the best performance during the five trials from which this last average was taken being forty-six gallons1 and the lowest five gallons per minute4 ,at greater distances1 in consequence of the wind1 this engine could not deliver a stream1 but continued working without accident throughout the day1 and concluded in the evening by throwing a good vertical jet4 ,,sutherland1 ,,chairman4 ,e4 ,m4 ,,shaw1 ,,hon4 ,,sec4 99 99 99 99 99 ,shand and ,mason's tenth land steam fire-engine was supplied to the ,london ,brigade in ,june1 #ahfb1 and their twelfth1 in ,february1 #ahfc1 upon orders given on the #dth ,january1 #ahfb4 ,but as the ,committee of the ,london ,fire ,brigade were now negotiating with ,government to take the duty of extinguishing fires off their hands1 no orders for steam-engines were given out by them after the above date4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,steam ,,fire-,,engine ,,competition1 ,,crystal ,,palace1 ,,london1 #ahfc4 ,towards the close of #ahfb1 several engineers and other gentlemen interested in the improvement of steam fire-engines1 offered prizes to be awarded at competitive trials to take place in ,london4 ,the following is the ,committee's published account of these trials which were held in the grounds of the ,crystal ,palace ,company on the #ast1 #bnd1 and #crd ,july1 #ahfc4 ,the ,committee consisted of the following gentlemen1 viz43-- ,chairman4 ,,his ,,grace ,,the ,,duke ,,of ,,sutherland4 ,members4 ,,the ,,right ,,hon4 ,,the ,,earl ,,of ,,caithness4 ,,lord ,,richard ,,grosvenor1 ,m4,p4 ,j4 ,g4 ,,appold1 ,,esq4 ,j4 ,t4 ,,bateman1 ,,esq4 ,w4 ,m',,browne1 ,,esq4 ,t4 ,r4 ,,crampton1 ,,esq4 ,w4 ,m4 ,,crossland1 ,,esq4 ,w4 ,,fairbairn1 ,,esq4 ,t4 ,,hawksley1 ,,esq4 ,j4 ,e4 ,mc,c,o,n,n,e,l,l1 ,,esq4 ,,henry ,,maudslay1 ,,esq4 ,j4 ,,mathews1 ,,esq4 ,j4 ,,nasmyth1 ,,esq4 ,j4 ,,penn1 ,,esq4 ,,william ,,smith1 ,,esq4 ,hon4 ,sec4 ,,captain ,e4 ,m4 ,,shaw4 ,the engines were divided into two classes1 the large class consisting of those weighing over #cj cwts41 and not exceeding #fj cwts4 and the small class of those not exceeding #cj cwts4 ,the prizes offered were #bejl4 for the best engine1 and #ajjl4 for the second best1 in each class4 ,the chief points to which the ,committee directed their attention1 in addition to the consideration of cost and weight1 were those relating to the general efficiency of the machines as fire-engines1 combining among other points of excellence-- ,rapidity in raising and generating steam4 ,facility of drawing water4 ,volume thrown4 ,distance to which it can be projected with the least amount of loss4 ,simplicity1 accessibility1 and durability of parts4 ,,large ,,class4 ,,first ,,trial4 ,delivering #ajjj gallons into a tank at a true distance of #fg feet1 and #bg deg4 from the horizon4 ,depth from which water was drawn1 #d feet #f inches4 ,the water in the boiler being cold when the signal was given to commence1 each engine commencing to work on attaining steam pressure of #ajjlb4 to the square inch4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,time of ,time of ,no4 ,,maker4 ,weight4 raising filling ,total ,steam to ,tank4 ,time4 #ajjlbs4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,t4 c4 q4 lbs4 ' ' ' #a ,easton ,amos1 #b #ah #c #ab #ac #ad #f #af #ai #cj ,london #b ,merryweather #b #ah #j #h #aj #be #i #db #bj #g ,son1 ,london #c ,shand ,mason1 #b #ag #a #j #aj #ea #ab #ai #bc #aj ,london #d ,butt and ,co41 #b #ad #j #d #af #cj #f #dh #bc #ah ,united ,states #e ,roberts1 ,london #a #ai #a #d #aa #dj #bj #bd #cb #d ,nichols #b #aj #a #d ,did not work4 7,manhattan7 ,united ,states ,gray ,son1 #a #ah #a #d ,did not work4 ,london ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,,merryweather ,,and ,,son began to work at #ajj lbs41 fell directly to #dj lbs41 and continued so throughout2 stopped and steam rose to #acj lbs4 ,,shand ,,and ,,mason--,suction-pipe choked2 left off working about #b minutes4 ,,second ,,trial4 ,delivering #ajjj gallons into tank at same distance commencing with full steam4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,steam at ,steam ,time of ,no4 ,,name4 ,beginning4 during filling ,work4 ,tank4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ' #a ,shand ,mason #ajj #c #j #b ,butt ,co4 #ajj #c #c #c ,merryweather ,son #ade #c #g #d ,roberts #hj #ab #cj ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,roberts did not fill the tank4 ,,third ,,trial4 ,delivering into large tank at a horizontal distance of #dj feet1 a vertical height of #dj feet1 a true distance of #ef feet1 and at an angle of #de degrees from the horizon1 the depth from which water was drawn being #af feet #d inches4 ,key3 ,a--,no4 of ,deliveries ,open4 ,b--,length of ,hose4 ,c--,average ,steam ,pressure4 ,d--,average ,water ,pressure4 ,e--,no4 of ,gallons ,delivered4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,size of ,time of ,no4 ,name4 ,time4 ,a ,b ,nozzle4 ,c ,d ,e ,raising ,steam4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- hr4 m4 s4 #a ,merryweather #a #bd #ee #b #ddj #a-a_/b #ia #hi #af1jhf #aj' #cb ,son to #hjlbs4 #b ,shand #b #j #j #b #ddj #a-a_/b #if #fb #ab1iag #aa' #ba ,mason #a-c_/h to #abjlbs4 #c ,roberts #b #j #j #a #dbj #a-a_/d #ge #ge #i1icf #aa' #bj to #hjlbs4 #d ,butt ,co4 #j #df #ej #b #ddj #a-a_/b #gh #gh #h1bhj #ad' #aj to #delbs4 #e ,easton #a #cb #ce #b #ddj #a-c_/h #ih #da #c1jcf #ab' #cj ,amos to #ijlbs4 #f ,nichols #j #d #ee #b #dbj #a-a_/b -- -- ,none4 #ac' #ji 7,manhattan7 to #delbs4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,,merryweather ,,and ,,son--,fire lighted at #d;h4 #am4 #ees42 gauge moved at #d;h4 #hm4 #bjs42 engine started at #d;h4 #abm4 #bgs42 water drawn in about #aj revolutions2 pumps not primed1 valve box leaked slightly1 and engine worked satisfactorily in every respect4 ,,shand ,,and ,,mason--,fire lighted at #aa;h4 #bem4 #dfs42 gauge moved at #aa;h4 #cbm4 #ecs42 engine started at #aa;h4 #cgm4 #gs42 pump primed at #aa;h4 #dem4 #dhs42 drew water at #aa;h4 #dgm42 water first through the nozzle at #aa;h4 #dhm4 #eis42 in hood at #aa;h4 #dim4 #ais42 shifted nozzle 7#c-a_/dm4 delay72 high wind4 ,,roberts--,fire lighted at #aa;h4 #agm42 engine1 started at #aa;h4 #bhm4 #bjs4 ,,butt ,,and ,,co4--,fire lighted at #e;h4 #eem4 #ajs42 started engine at #f;h4 #im4 #bjs42 repeatedly stopped from slide valves not acting1 and stopped entirely at #f;h4 #dfm41 from cylinder cover breaking4 ,,easton ,,and ,,amos--,fire lighted at #b;h4 #bm4 #ces42 gauge moved #b;h4 #ajm42 started engine at #b;h4 #aem4 #es42 pumps primed1 worked till #b;h4 #edm4 #es42 stopped to shift plungers2 went to work again1 and stopped entirely at #c;h4 #cem4 #ajs41 from two fire bars falling out4 ,,nichols 7,manhattan7--,fire lighted at #aj;h4 #eam4 #ads42 gauge moved at #aj;h4 #eim4 #bjs42 drew water directly2 steam up to #adjlbs4 at #aa;h4 #hm4 #des42 stopped two minutes2 started again2 made a few revolutions1 and fly-wheel broke4 ,,fourth ,,trial ,vertical ,jet against ,tower4 ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,no4 ,name4 ,size ,greatest ,height of ,jet4 ,thrown4 ---------------------------------------- ----------- #a ,shand ,mason #bb_/af #ahj ft4 #b ,merryweather ,son #bf_/af #ahj ft4 #c ,roberts #ad_/af #aej ft4 #d ,lee ,co #ba_/af #ee ft4 ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,,gray',s engine lighted fire at #g;h4 #gm4 #djs42 steam #ilbs4 at #g;h4 #agm4 #js42 got to work at #g;h4 #bcm4 #djs4 to blow fires2 at #g;h4 #bgm4 #js4 water through hose4 ,owing to some of the pipe connected with the steam gauge breaking1 no further experiments could be made4 ,,small ,,class4 ,,first ,,trial4 ,delivering #ajjj gallons into a tank at a true distance of #ej;ft4 and #cg deg4 from the horizon4 ,depth from which water was drawn1 #d;ft4 #f;in4 ,the water in the boilers being cold when the signal was given to commence1 each engine commencing to work on attaining steam pressure of #ajjlbs4 to the square inch4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,time of ,time of ,no4 ,name4 ,weight4 raising filling ,total ,steam ,tank4 ,time4 to #ajjlbs4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,t4 c4 q4 lbs4 ' ' ' #a ,shand ,mason #a #i #b #j #aa #cf #e #bd #ag #j #b ,lee ,co #a #aj #j #j #aa #ee #f #c #ag #eh #c ,merryweather #a #aj #a #ab #ab #ae #i #ad #ba #bi ,son ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,owing to a broken bolt1 there was great leakage in water cylinder of ,lee and ,co's4 engine4 ,,second ,,trial4 ,delivering #ajjj gallons into tank at same distance1 commencing with full steam4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,steam ,steam ,time ,no4 ,name4 at during filling ,beginning4 ,work4 ,tank4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ' #a ,shand ,mason #he -- #e #di #b ,lee ,co4 #abe -- #e #ej #c ,merryweather ,son #ajj -- #f #ag ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,the leakage in ,lee and ,co's4 engine was remedied4 ,,third ,,trial4 ,delivering into large tank1 commencing with ,full ,steam4 ,at a horizontal distance of #dj;ft41 a vertical height of #dj;ft41 a true distance of #ef;ft41 and at an angle of #de deg4 from the horizon2 the depth from which water was drawn being #af;ft4 #d;in4 ,key ,a--,number of ,deliveries open4 ,b--,average ,steam ,pressure4 ,c--,average ,water ,pressure4 ,d--,no4 of ,gallons ,delivered4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,length ,size of ,name4 ,no4 ,time4 ,a of ,nozzle4 ,b ,c ,d ,hose4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- h4 m4 s4 in4 ,shand #a #a #j #j #a #dbj #a #adf #hj #hadb ,mason #a-a_/d ,merryweather #b #a #j #j #a #dbj #g_/h #hf #de #dhhe ,son ,lee ,co4 #c #a #j #j #a #dbj #c_/d #hj #fj #dbgh ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,,shand ,,and ,,mason--,steam ready at #aej lbs42 started at #g;h4 #cm4 #cbs42 stopped at #g;h4 #abm4 #es4 to put on an additional length of hose2 worked well throughout4 ,,merryweather ,,and ,,son--,steam ready at #aaj lbs42 commenced work at #c;h4 #dcm4 #cjs42 pumps primed4 ,,lee ,,and ,,co4--,steam ready1 started at #b;h4 #am4 #js42 worked well1 without any stoppage4 ,,awards4 ,at a meeting of the ,committee held on the #hth ,july1 #ahfc1 his ,grace the ,duke of ,sutherland in the ,chair1 the following prizes were awarded3-- ,,large ,,class4 ,messrs4 ,merryweather ,sons1 #ast ,prize1 #bejl4 ,messrs4 ,shand ,mason #bnd ,prize1 #ajjl4 ,mr4 ,w4 ,roberts1 highly commended4 ,,small ,,class4 ,messrs4 ,shand ,mason #ast ,prize1 #bejl4 ,messrs4 ,w4 ,lee ,co4 #bnd ,prize1 #ajjl4 7,signed7 ,on behalf of the ,committee1 ,,sutherland1 ,,chairman4 ,e4 ,m4 ,,shaw1 ,,hon4 ,,sec4 ,from the above trials it was found that the first prize large-class engine weighed #fejd lbs41 and delivered in one hour #aa1cff gallons1 being at the rate of #aif gallons for each hundred-weight of the engine2 while the first prize small-class engine delivered in the same time #hadb gallons1 or #bgf for each hundred-weight of the engine1 showing that the latter engine delivered nearly one-half more water in proportion to its weight1 than was delivered by the large one1 the conditions of the two trials being the same4 ,as the greatest amount of power in the smallest possible bulk and weight1 was considered most available for use at ,london fires1 the ,committee of the ,london ,fire ,brigade1 although not in a position1 for the reasons already stated1 to purchase additional steam fire-engines1 commenced hiring ,shand1 ,mason1 and ,co4's prize engines1 and at the close of #ahfe had four such in use in this manner4 ,the ,metropolitan ,fire ,brigade1 an extension of the late ,london ,fire ,brigade1 has now 7,may1 #ahff7 the following steam fire-engines in use3--,the ,floating ,steam ,fire-engine1 by ,shand and ,mason1 in #ahee2 a ,land ,steam ,fire-engine by ,easton and ,amos1 which was worked at the ,crystal ,palace trials1 and is now used in a barge as a floating engine2 one by ,roberts1 which was also worked at the ,crystal ,palace2 three by ,merryweather and ,sons2 and fifteen of ,shand1 ,mason1 and ,co4's ,land ,steam ,fire-engines4 ,,metropolitan ,,fire ,,brigade4 ,the disastrous results of the great fire at ,tooley-street1 in #ahfa1 at which ,mr4 ,braidwood lost his life1 fully demonstrated the inadequacy 7in men and appliances7 of the fire brigade supported by the insurance offices1 and as these bodies declined extending their establishment so as to meet the wants of the whole of the metropolis1 a ,parliamentary inquiry was instituted1 which resulted in the passing of the following ,act3-- ,,anno ,,vicesimo ,,octavo ,,vicesimo ,,nono ,,victoriae ,,reginae4 ,,cap4 ,,xc4 ,an ,act for the ,establishment of a ,fire ,brigade within the ,metropolis4 #eth ,july1 #ahfe4 ,,whereas it is expedient to make further provision for the protection of life and property from fire within the metropolis3 ,be it enacted by the ,queen's most ,excellent ,majesty1 by and with the advice and consent of the ,lords ,spiritual and ,temporal1 and ,commons1 in this present ,parliament assembled1 and by the authority of the same1 as follows3 ,preliminary4 #a4 ,this ,act may be cited for all purposes as the ,metropolitan ,fire ,brigade ,act1 #ahfe4 #b4 ,for the purposes of this ,act the ,metropolis shall mean the ,city of ,london and all other parishes and places for the time being within the jurisdiction of the ,metropolitan ,board of ,works3 ,insurance ,company shall include any persons corporate or unincorporate1 or any person carrying on the business of fire insurance4 #c4 ,the expression ,metropolis ,local ,management ,acts shall mean the ,acts following2 that is to say1 ,the ,metropolis ,management ,act1 #ahee1 ,the ,metropolis ,management ,amendment ,act1 #ahef1 and ,the ,metropolis ,management ,amendment ,act1 #ahfb4 ,establishment and ,duties of ,fire ,brigade4 #d4 ,on and after the first day of ,january one thousand eight hundred and sixty-six the duty of extinguishing fires and protecting life and property in case of fire shall within the metropolis be deemed for the purposes of this ,act to be entrusted to the ,metropolitan ,board of ,works2 and with a view to the performance of that duty it shall be lawful for them to provide and maintain an efficient force of firemen1 and to furnish them with all such fire engines1 horses1 accoutrements1 tools1 and implements as may be necessary for the complete equipment of the force1 or conducive to the efficient performance of their duties4 #e4 ,the said ,board1 hereinafter referred to as the ,board1 may take on lease1 purchase1 or otherwise acquire stations for engines1 stables1 houses for firemen1 and such other houses1 buildings1 or land as they may think requisite for carrying into effect the purposes of this ,act1 and may from time to time sell any property acquired by or vested in them for the purposes of this ,act3 ,the ,board may also contract with any company or persons authorized to establish the same for the establishment of telegraphic communication between the several stations in which their fire engines or firemen are placed1 and between any of such stations and other parts of the metropolis4 #f4 ,on and after the said first day of ,january one thousand eight hundred and sixty-six1 all stations1 fire-engines1 fire escapes1 plant1 and other property belonging to or used by the fire engine establishment of the insurance companies in the metropolis shall vest in or be conveyed or assigned to the ,board for all the estate and interest of the said companies therein1 upon trust to be applied by the ,board to the purposes of this ,act1 but subject to all legal liabilities and obligations attaching thereto1 including the payment of all pensions that have been granted to the members of the said ,fire ,engine ,establishment1 according to a list that has been furnished to the chairman of the said ,board by the chief officer of the said fire-engine establishment1 and all trustees for the same shall be indemnified against such liabilities and obligations4 ,the ,board may also1 if they think fit1 purchase the stations1 fire-engines1 and plant belonging to any parish1 place1 or body of persons within their jurisdiction4 #g4 ,the force of firemen established under this ,act1 hereinafter called the ,metropolitan ,fire ,brigade1 shall be under the command of an officer1 to be called the chief officer of the ,metropolitan ,fire ,brigade4 ,the chief officer and men composing the said fire brigade shall be appointed and removed at the pleasure of the ,board4 #h4 ,the ,board shall pay such salaries as they think expedient to the said fire brigade4 ,they may also make such regulations as they think fit with respect to the compensation to be made to them in case of accident1 or to their wives or families in case of their death2 also with respect to the pensions or allowances to be paid to them in case of retirement2 also with respect to the gratuities to be paid to persons giving notices of fires2 also with respect to gratuities by way of a gross sum or annual payment to be from time to time awarded to any member of the said force1 or to any other person1 for extraordinary services performed in cases of fire2 also with respect to gratuities to turncocks belonging to waterworks from which a supply of water is quickly derived4 #i4 ,the ,board may by byelaws make regulations for the training1 discipline1 and good conduct of the men belonging to the said fire brigade1 for their speedy attendance with engines1 fire escapes1 and all necessary implements on the occasion of any alarm of fire1 and generally for the maintenance in a due state of efficiency of the said brigade1 and may annex to any breach of such regulations penalties not exceeding in amount forty shillings1 but no byelaw under this section shall be of any validity unless it is made and confirmed in manner directed by the ,metropolis ,local ,management ,acts2 and all the provisions of the said ,acts relating to byelaws shall1 with the necessary variations1 apply to any byelaws made in pursuance of this ,act4 #aj4 ,the vestry of any parish or place in the metropolis may allow such compensation as they think just to any engine keeper or other person employed in the service of fire engines who has hitherto been paid out of any rate raiseable in such parish or place1 and who is deprived of his employment by or in consequence of the passing of this ,act1 and any compensation so allowed shall be paid out of the rate out of which the salary of the officer so compensated was payable4 #aa4 ,the ,board may make such arrangements as they think fit as to establishing fire escapes throughout the metropolis4 ,they may for that purpose contribute to the funds of the ,royal ,society for the ,protection of ,life from ,fire1 or of any existing society that provides fire escapes1 or may purchase or take by agreement the property of any existing society in their stations and fire escapes1 and generally may maintain such fire escapes and do such things as they think expedient towards aiding persons to escape from fire2 and any expenses incurred by them in pursuance of this section shall be deemed to be expenses incurred in carrying into effect this ,act4 #ab4 ,on the occasion of a fire1 the chief or other officer in charge of the fire brigade may1 in his discretion1 take the command of any volunteer fire brigade or other persons who voluntarily place their services at his disposal1 and may remove1 or order any fireman to remove1 any persons who interfere by their presence with the operations of the fire brigade1 and generally he may take any measures that appear expedient for the protection of life and property1 with power by himself or his men to break into or through1 or take possession of1 or pull down any premises for the purpose of putting an end to a fire1 doing as little damage as possible2 he may also on any such occasion cause the water to be shut off from the mains and pipes of any district1 in order to give a greater supply and pressure of water in the district in which the fire has occurred2 and no water company shall be liable to any penalty or claim by reason of any interruption of the supply of water occasioned only by compliance with the provisions of this section4 ,all police constables shall be authorized to aid the fire brigade in the execution of their duties4 ,they may close any street in or near which a fire is burning1 and they may of their own motion1 or on the request of the chief or other officer of the fire brigade1 remove any persons who interfere by their presence with the operations of the fire brigade4 ,any damage occasioned by the fire brigade in the due execution of their duties shall be deemed to be damage by fire within the meaning of any policy of insurance against fire4 ,expenses4 #ac4 ,every insurance company that insures from fire any property in the metropolis shall pay annually to the ,metropolitan ,board of ,works1 by way of contribution toward the expenses of carrying this ,act into effect1 a sum after the rate of thirty-five pounds in the one million pounds on the gross amounts insured by it1 except by way of reassurance1 in respect of property in the metropolis for a year1 and at a like rate for any fractional part of a million1 and for any fractional part of a year as well as for any number of years for which the insurance may be made1 renewed1 or continued4 ,the said payments by insurance companies shall be made quarterly in advance1 on the #ast of ,january1 #ast of ,april1 #ast of ,july1 and #ast of ,october in every year2 the first of such payments to be made on the #ast of ,january one thousand eight hundred and sixty-six1 and such first payment and the other payments for the year one thousand eight hundred and sixty-six to be based upon the amounts insured by the several companies in respect of property in the metropolis in the year ending the twenty-fourth of ,december one thousand eight hundred and sixty-four3 provided that any insurance company which at the time of the passing of this ,act contributes to the expenses of the said fire engine establishment may1 in respect of all payments to be made by it in the years one thousand eight hundred and sixty-six and one thousand eight hundred and sixty-seven1 but not afterwards1 contribute after the yearly rate of thirty-five pounds in one million pounds of the business in respect of which it contributes to the said fire engine establishment for the present year1 according to a return which has been furnished to the chairman of the said ,metropolitan ,board1 instead of in the manner in this ,act provided4 #ad4 ,all contributions due from an insurance company to the ,board in pursuance of this ,act shall be deemed to be specialty debts due from the company to the ,board1 and be recovered accordingly4 #ae4 ,for the purpose of ascertaining the amount to be contributed by every such insurance company as aforesaid1 every insurance company insuring property from fire in the metropolis shall1 on the thirtieth day of ,december one thousand eight hundred and sixty-five1 with respect to the amounts insured in the year one thousand eight hundred and sixty-four1 and on the #ast of ,june one thousand eight hundred and sixty-six1 and on every succeeding #ast of ,june1 or on such other days as the ,metropolitan ,board of ,works may appoint1 make a return to the said ,board1 in such form as they may require1 of the gross amount insured by it in respect of property in the metropolis4 ,there shall be annexed to the return so made a declaration made by the secretary or other officer performing the duties of secretary of the company by whom it is made1 stating that he has examined the return with the books of the company1 and that to the best of his knowledge1 information1 and belief1 it contains a true and faithful account of the gross amount of the sums insured by the company to which he belongs in respect of property in the metropolis4 ,the return made in the ,june of one year shall not come into effect till the #ast of ,january of the succeeding year1 and shall be the basis of the contributions for that year4 #af4 ,if any insurance company makes default in making such returns to the ,board as are required by this ,act1 it shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding five pounds for every day during which it is so in default4 #ag4 ,the secretary or other officer having the custody of the books and papers of any insurance company that is required to pay a contribution to the ,board in pursuance of this ,act shall allow any officer appointed by the ,board to inspect1 during the hours of business1 any books and papers that will enable him to ascertain the amount of property insured by such company in the metropolis1 and the amount for which it is insured1 and to make extracts from such books or papers2 and any secretary or other such officer as aforesaid of a company failing to comply with the requisitions of this section in respect of such inspections and extracts shall be liable on summary conviction to a penalty not exceeding five pounds for each offence4 #ah4 ,the ,commissioners of ,her ,majesty's ,treasury shall pay or cause to be paid to the ,board by way of contribution to the expenses of maintaining the fire brigade such sums as ,parliament may from time to time grant for that purpose1 not exceeding in any one year the sum of ten thousand pounds4 #ai4 ,for the purpose of defraying all expenses that may be incurred by the ,board in carrying into effect this ,act which are not otherwise provided for1 the ,board may from time to time issue their precepts to the overseers of the poor of every parish or place within the metropolis1 requiring the overseers to pay over the amount mentioned in the precepts to the ,treasurer of the ,board1 or into a bank to be named in the precepts1 within forty days from the delivery of the precept4 ,the overseers shall comply with the requisitions of any such precept by paying the sums mentioned out of any monies in their hands applicable to the relief of the poor1 or by levying the amount required as part of the rate for the relief of the poor1 but no contribution required to be paid by any parish or place under this section shall exceed in the whole in any one year the rate of one halfpenny in the pound on the full and fair annual value of property rateable to the relief of the poor within the said parish or place1 such full and fair annual value to be computed in all parts of the metropolis1 exclusive of the city of ,london1 according to the last valuation for the time being acted on in assessing the county rate1 or1 where there is no county rate1 according to a like estimate or basis2 and no liberty1 precinct1 or place1 shall be exempt from the rate leviable for the purposes of this ,act by reason of its being extra-parochial or otherwise2 and in default of proper officers in any liberty1 precinct1 or place1 to assess or levy the said rate1 the ,board may appoint such officers1 and add the amount of any expenses so incurred to the amount to be raised by the next succeeding rate in such liberty1 precinct1 or place4 ,overseers shall1 for the purposes of levying any amount required to be levied by them under this ,act1 have the same powers and be subject to the same obligations as in levying a rate for the relief of the poor4 ,the word ,overseers shall include any persons or bodies of persons authorized or required to make and collect or cause to be collected rates applicable to the relief of the poor2 and such persons or bodies shall pay to the ,board the amount so mentioned in the precept out of the said rates4 #bj4 ,in case the amount ordered by any such precept as aforesaid to be paid by the overseers of any parish or place be not paid in manner directed by such precept and within the time therein specified for that purpose1 it shall be lawful for any justice of the peace1 upon the complaint by the ,board or by any person authorized by the ,board1 to issue his warrant for levying the amount or so much thereof as may be in arrear by distress and sale of the goods of all or any of the said overseers1 and in case the goods of all the overseers be not sufficient to pay the same1 the arrears thereof shall be added to the amount of the next levy which is directed to be made in such parish or place for the purposes of this ,act1 and shall be collected by the like methods4 #ba4 ,the ,board may1 with the consent of the ,commissioners of ,her ,majesty's ,treasury1 borrow any sum not exceeding forty thousand pounds1 and apply the same for the purposes of this ,act2 and all powers contained in the ,metropolis ,local ,management ,acts authorizing the ,board to borrow money1 or any commissioners or persons to lend money to the ,board1 and all other provisions as to the mode of borrowing1 the repayment of principal or interest1 or in anywise relating to borrowing by the ,board1 shall be deemed to apply and to extend to this ,act in the same manner as if the monies borrowed in pursuance of this ,act were monies borrowed for the purpose of defraying the expenses of the ,metropolis ,local ,management ,acts1 or one or more of those acts4 ,the ,board shall apply the monies received by them under this ,act in liquidation of the principal and interest of the monies so borrowed1 but no creditor shall be concerned to see to such application1 or be liable for any misapplication of the monies received or borrowed by the ,board in pursuance of this ,act4 ,,miscellaneous4 #bb4 ,where any chief officer1 or other person who has been employed by the ,board in any capacity under this ,act1 and has been discharged therefrom1 continues to occupy any house or building that may be provided for his use1 or any part thereof1 after one week's notice in writing from the ,board to deliver up possession thereof1 it shall be lawful for any police magistrate1 on the oath of one witness1 stating such notice to have been given1 by warrant under his hand to order any constable to enter into the house or building occupied by such discharged chief officer or other person as aforesaid1 and to remove him and his family and servants therefrom1 and afterwards to deliver the possession thereof to the ,board1 as effectually1 to all intents and purposes1 as the sheriff having jurisdiction within the place where such house or building is situate might lawfully do by virtue of a writ of possession or a judgment at law4 #bc4 ,if the chimney of any house or other building within the metropolis is on fire1 the occupier of such house or building shall be liable to a penalty not exceeding twenty shillings2 but if such occupier proves that he has incurred such penalty by reason of the neglect or wilful default of any other person1 he may recover summarily from such person the whole or any part of the penalty he may have incurred as occupier4 #bd4 ,all penalties imposed by this ,act1 or by any byelaw made in pursuance thereof1 and all expenses and other sums due to the ,board in pursuance of this ,act1 in respect of which no mode of recovery is prescribed1 may be recovered summarily before two justices in manner directed by the ,act of the session holden in the eleventh and twelfth years of the reign of her present ,majesty1 chapter forty-three1 or any ,act amending the same1 and when so recovered shall be paid to the treasurer of the ,board1 notwithstanding any police act or other act of parliament directing a different appropriation of such monies4 #be4 ,any dispute or other matter which is by this ,act directed to be determined summarily by two justices shall be deemed to be a matter in respect of which a complaint is made upon which they have authority by law to make an order for payment of money within the meaning of the said ,act of the session holden in the eleventh and twelfth years of the reign of her present ,majesty1 chapter forty-three1 or any ,act amending the same4 #bf4 ,any act1 power1 or jurisdiction hereby authorized to be done or exercised by two justices may be done or exercised by the following magistrates within their respective jurisdictions2 that is to say1 by any metropolitan police magistrate sitting alone at a police court or other appointed place1 or by the ,lord ,mayor of the ,city of ,london1 or any alderman of the said ,city1 sitting alone or with others at the ,mansion ,house or ,guildhall4 #bg4 ,the accounts of the ,board in respect of expenses incurred by them under this ,act shall be audited in the same manner as if they were expenses incurred under the said ,metropolis ,local ,management ,acts1 and the ,board shall in each year make a report to one of her ,majesty's principal ,secretaries of ,state of all acts done and expenditure incurred by them in pursuance of this ,act1 and that report shall be laid before ,parliament within one month after the commencement of the session4 #bh4 ,the ,board may delegate any powers conferred on them by this ,act to a committee of their body2 and such committee shall1 to the extent to which such powers are delegated1 be deemed to be the ,board within the meaning of this ,act4 #bi4 ,if the companies insuring property within the metropolis1 or any such number of them as may in the opinion of the said ,board be sufficient1 establish a force of men charged with the duty of attending at fires and saving insured property1 it shall be the duty of the ,fire ,brigade1 with the sanction of the ,board1 and subject to any regulations that may be made by the ,board1 to afford the necessary assistance to that force in the performance of their duties1 and1 upon the application of any officer of that force1 to hand over to their custody property that may be saved from fire2 and no charge shall be made by the said ,board for the services thus rendered by the fire brigade4 #cj4 ,it shall be lawful for the ,board1 when occasion requires1 to permit any part of the fire brigade establishment1 with their engines1 escapes1 and other implements1 to proceed beyond the limits of the metropolis for the purpose of extinguishing fires4 ,in such case the owner and occupier of the property where the fire has occurred shall be jointly and severally liable to defray all the expenses that may be incurred by the ,fire ,brigade in attending the fire1 and shall pay to the ,board a reasonable charge for the attendance of the ,fire ,brigade1 and the use of their engines1 escapes1 and other implements4 ,in case of difference between the ,board and the owner and occupier of such property1 or either of them1 the amount of the expenses1 as well as the propriety of the ,fire ,brigade attending such fire 7if the propriety thereof be disputed71 shall be summarily determined by two justices4 ,in default of payment1 any expenses under this section may be recovered by the ,board in a summary manner4 ,the ,board may also permit any part of the ,fire ,brigade ,establishment to be employed on special services upon such terms of remuneration as the said ,board may think just4 #ca4 ,the ,metropolitan ,fire ,brigade shall in the morning of each day1 with the exception of ,sundays1 send information1 by post or otherwise1 to all the insurance offices contributing for the purposes of this ,act1 of all fires which have taken place within the metropolis since the preceding return1 in such form as may be agreed upon between the ,board and the said companies4 #cb4 ,all the powers now exercised by any local body or officer within the metropolis as respects fireplugs shall henceforth be exercised by the ,board1 and the ,board shall be entitled to receive copies or extracts of all plans kept by any water company under the provision of the ,act of the session of the fifteenth and sixteenth years of her ,majesty1 chapter eighty-four2 and every such water company shall provide at the expense of the ,board in any mains or pipes within the metropolis plugs for the supply of water in case of fire at such places1 of such dimensions1 and in such form as the ,board may require1 and the ,fire ,brigade shall be at liberty to make such use thereof as they may deem necessary for the purpose of extinguishing any fire2 and every such company shall deposit keys of all their fireplugs at such places as may be appointed by the ,board1 and the ,board may put up on any house or building a public notice in some conspicuous place in each street in which a fireplug is situated1 showing its situation4 #cc4 ,owner in this ,act shall mean the person for the time being receiving the rackrent of the premises in connexion with which the word is used1 either on his own account or as agent or trustee for some other person1 or who would receive the same if the premises were let at rackrent4 ,repeal4 #cd4 ,on and after the first day of ,january1 one thousand eight hundred and sixty-six1 there shall be repealed so much as is unrepealed of an ,act passed in the fourteenth year of his late ,majesty ,king ,george the ,third1 chapter seventy-eight1 and intituled an ,act for the further and better regulation of buildings and party walls1 and for the more effectually preventing mischief by fire1 within the ,cities of ,london and ,westminster and the liberties thereof1 and other the parishes1 precincts1 and places within the weekly bills of mortality1 the parishes of ,st4 ,marylebone1 ,paddington1 ,st4 ,pancras1 and ,st4 ,luke1 at ,chelsea1 in the ,county of ,middlesex1 and for indemnifying1 under certain conditions1 builders and other persons against the penalties to which they are or may be liable for erecting buildings within the limits aforesaid contrary to law1 with the exception of sections eighty-three and eighty-six which shall remain in full force1 but such repeal shall not affect any penalty or liability incurred under the repealed sections4 #ce4 ,on and after the first day of ,january1 one thousand eight hundred and sixty-six1 section forty-four of an ,act passed in the session holden in the third and fourth years of the reign of ,king ,william the ,fourth1 chapter ninety1 shall be repealed so far as respects any parish or place within the limits of the metropolis as defined by this ,act2 provided that the repeal of the said section shall not affect the power of the churchwardens and overseers of any parish or place to contribute to the funds of any society that at the time of the passing of this ,act maintains fire escapes in such parish or place1 unless and until the ,board purchase the property of such society1 or otherwise provide fire escapes in such parish or place4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in accordance with the provisions of the above recited ,act of ,parliament1 the ,london ,fire ,brigade of the ,insurance ,offices is now being extended to meet the requirements of the whole of ,london1 under the title of the ,metropolitan ,fire ,brigade1 with ,captain ,e4 ,m4 ,shaw1 ,mr4 ,braidwood's successor1 as chief officer4 ,,london3 ,,savill ,,and ,,edwards1 ,,printers1 ,,chandos ,,street1 ,,covent ,,garden4 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcriber's ,notes ,variations in spelling1 hyphenation1 capitalization1 and punctuation have been retained from the original book4 ,the ,table of ,contents and ,list of ,illustrations do not exactly match the chapter1 section1 and illustration titles in the text4 ,the following changes have been made3 ,page #gj3 ,missing word of added 7avail themselves of the means74 ,page #ahc3 ,typo estalishment changed to establishment 7establishment of telegraphic communication74 ,tables in the ,appendix have been modified in format1 but not in content1 to fit the plain-text spacing constraints4