file was produced from images produced by ,core ,historical ,literature in ,agriculture 7,,chla71 ,cornell ,university7 ,illustration3 ,hon4 ,r4 ,w4 ,dunlap1 ,kingston1 ,ohio1 graduate of course in agriculture1 ,ohio ,state ,university1 #ahie1 noted football player1 state senator1 state dairy and food commissioner4 ,farmer and institute lecturer4 ,introduced alfalfa fourteen years ago into his farm and community4 ,introduced commercial fertilizers and raised thereby more wheat from #ej acres than his father did from #aej acres1 thus convincing his father and neighbors that when rightly used commercial fertilizers paid4 ,mr4 ,dunlap claimed that the agricultural college made him a farmer1 because when he left for college he had no intention of returning to the farm4 ,the ,young ,farmer ,some ,things ,he ,should ,know ,by ,,thomas ,f4 ,,hunt ,imperial man6 ,co-worker with the wind ,and rain and light and heat and cold1 and all ,the agencies of ,god to feed and clothe ,and render beautiful and glad the world6 --,stockard ,,new ,,york ,,orange ,,judd ,,company ,,london ,,kegan ,,paul1 ,,trench1 ,,trubner ,,co41 ,limited #aiac ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,,orange ,,judd ,,company ---------- ,entered at ,stationers' ,hall ,,london1 ,,england ,,printed ,,in ,u4 ,s4 ,a4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,,contents ,,chapter ,,page ,i ,,essentials ,,of ,,success #a ,,ii ,,means ,,of ,,acquiring ,,land #ad ,,iii ,,farm ,,organization #ca ,,iv ,,opportunities ,,in ,,agriculture #dd ,v ,,where ,,to ,,locate #eg ,,vi ,,size ,,of ,,farm #fd ,,vii ,,selection ,,of ,,farm #ga ,,viii ,,the ,,farm ,,scheme #hh ,,ix ,,the ,,rotation ,,of ,,crops #aja ,x ,,the ,,equipment #aji ,,xi ,,how ,,to ,,estimate ,,profits #aag ,,xii ,,grain ,,and ,,hay ,,farming #ace ,,xiii ,,the ,,cost ,,of ,,farming ,,operations #adh ,,xiv ,,the ,,place ,,of ,,intensive ,,farming #afb ,,xv ,,reasons ,,for ,,animal ,,husbandry #agb ,,xvi ,,returns ,,from ,,animals #ahe ,,xvii ,,farm ,,labor #aie ,,xviii ,,shipping #baj ,,xix ,,marketing #bbj ,,xx ,,laws ,,affecting ,,land ,,and ,,labor #bcc ,,xxi ,,rural ,,legislation #bdh ,,xxii ,,rural ,,forces #bfh ,,the ,,young ,,farmer3 ,,some ,,things ,,he ,,should ,,know ---------- ,,chapter ,i ,,essentials ,,of ,,success ,columella1 the much traveled ,spanish-,roman writer of the first century ,a4 ,d41 said that for successful farming three things are essential3 knowledge1 capital and love for the calling4 ,this statement is just as true today as it was when written #aijj years ago by this early writer on ,european agriculture4 ,every man who loves the calling and has an ambition to become a successful farmer should understand that no two of these essentials are sufficient1 but that all three are necessary4 ,although this is so simple as to be almost axiomatic1 it is indeed surprising how few people believe a knowledge of farming is really essential to success4 ,america is strewn with cases of failure1 in farming1 by men investing capital acquired in other business4 ,in nine cases out of ten failure has been due to lack of knowledge of farming4 ,there is known to the writer an expert mineralogist and metallurgist4 ,on the subject of coal and gold mining he can give the most valuable information4 ,his advice is constantly sought on all such matters4 ,instead of investing his money in mining1 on which he is a recognized authority1 he has invested it in a farm1 about which he knows next to nothing4 ,he has not even had the advantage of being raised on a farm1 since his father was a railroad man4 ,a mechanical engineer remarked that if he had #be1jjj he would invest it in a farm4 ,this man is supposed to be an expert in business methods as applied to manufacturing in general1 and he is especially conversant with the manufacture and trade in automobiles4 ,about all he has seen of farming he has observed from the window of a ,pullman car or from the steering wheel of an automobile4 ,instead of investing his earnings in some manufacturing business1 about which he has spent years of study and in which he has had some training1 he would invest it in farming1 of which he has only the most rudimentary knowledge1 if only he had sufficient capital4 ,as a matter of fact1 he is more in need of knowledge than of capital4 ,even farmers of experience do not always realize the training required to succeed in farming4 ,a letter was received by the dean of a certain agricultural college saying that a graduate of another agricultural college had taken one of the poorest farms in his neighborhood and was raising better potatoes than anyone else could raise4 ,the letter asked that information be sent by return mail as to how this young man could be beaten in raising potatoes4 ,of course the answer had to be sent that while information upon raising potatoes could easily be supplied1 although not in the limits of an ordinary letter1 the training in observation1 judgment and reasoning faculties essential to meet the daily problems as they arise could not be supplied4 ,there is no objection to men of other vocations adopting farming as an avocation if they can afford it4 ,it is a rational form of pleasure for wealthy people1 and one in which they can often be of great service4 ,this cannot be said of all forms of relaxation4 ,wealthy men have been of special service to the cause of agriculture by promoting the breeding of improved live stock4 ,men in other callings should clearly understand1 however1 that if they have a farm merely as a place to spend a week end1 that they may expect to find the financial returns unsatisfactory4 ,to no one is there more significance in the old school aphorism knowledge is power than to the young man who is to become a farmer4 ,while it is not necessary to be educated in schools in order to gain knowledge1 yet the schoolroom with all its limitations is usually the most economical and most efficient method of acquiring certain forms of knowledge essential to every successful man or woman4 ,a farm-to-farm canvass of a certain region of the state of ,new ,york discloses the fact that farmers with college training are obtaining a higher income from their farms than those whose school days ended with high school4 ,similarly1 those who have finished the high school are more prosperous financially than those who never advanced beyond the grades4 ,the investigation showed1 for example1 that with the farmers under observation the high school education was equivalent to #f1jjj worth of #e bonds4 ,farming is an occupation requiring keen observation1 sound judgment and accurate reasoning1 all attributes which are strengthened greatly by proper education4 ,this is so true that many men1 perhaps most men1 are forty before they have grasped the problems which the truly successful farmer must solve4 ,a considerable part of the knowledge essential to success in any pursuit is acquired by actually working at the occupation1 or1 as we say1 by practical experience4 ,some features of any occupation can be obtained in no other way4 ,a preliminary education may1 however1 greatly reduce the time necessary to acquire even this practical experience4 ,for example1 a course in shop work as taught in technical high schools and colleges1 requiring two hours a day for five months1 may shorten the time of apprenticeship by one or more years1 in acquiring the trade of carpenter or iron worker4 ,in the same manner a course in butter making1 cheese making or floriculture1 may shorten the time required to obtain the necessary practical details by ten months or even more4 ,eventually1 also1 the man thus trained will be the better man4 ,if the industrial activities of the world be divided into farming1 mining1 manufacturing1 trade and transportation1 it will be noted at once that farming is the only one which deals with living things4 ,in fact1 the definition of agriculture1 in its broadest sense1 is the economic production of living things4 ,the farmer is thus brought face to face with some of the most difficult and intricate problems with which the human race has to grapple4 ,it is this fact that makes farming1 in some ways1 the most uncertain as well as the most fascinating occupation known to man4 ,the fact that the farmer is dealing with living things puts his occupation in a class by itself for a number of reasons1 one of which is germane to the subject of this chapter4 ,in most occupations a larger part of the knowledge necessary to success can be acquired by doing than is the case in farming4 ,locomotive engineers are trained for their responsible duty while firing the engine4 ,the brakeman becomes a conductor by assisting the latter4 ,a bank cashier is usually a promoted bank clerk4 ,each obtained the knowledge essential to success largely by oft-repeated performance4 ,while1 of course1 there is much the farmer can learn only by experience1 there are many things essential to his success that the mere performance of the necessary farm operations will not teach him4 ,spreading manure will never teach him that stable manure should be supplemented with phosphoric acid in order to get the best results4 ,the growing of clover will not teach him that mineral fertilizer may keep up the fertility of the soil where clover grows luxuriantly and occurs in the rotation at definite intervals4 ,feeding cattle will not teach him that a good ration for milch cows is one containing one pound of digestible protein to seven pounds of digestible carbohydrates1 provided it is palatable and1 at least1 two-thirds of the total ration is digestible4 ,nor will the feeding of such a ration teach the farmer how to calculate the most economical ration from feeding stuffs at current prices4 ,the cause of potato blight and the methods of combating it cannot be learned from the operation of planting and cultivating potatoes4 ,these are only a few illustrations--they might be multiplied indefinitely--to show that farming is peculiar in that performance of the daily duties does not give the knowledge essential to success in the same measure that it does in such occupations as banking1 trade and transportation4 ,yet1 curiously enough1 while no man would undertake to run a locomotive engine or perform the duties of cashier of a bank without thorough training1 there are many who will undertake to farm without education or knowledge of the business4 ,the young man who intends to become a farmer should fully understand that if farming is not a business worthy of a thoroughly educated man1 it is not a business worthy of him2 because every young man is worthy of a thorough education1 provided he is a man of clean habits and good purposes4 ,do not allow yourself to be persuaded that you lack ability to acquire a good education4 ,all you require is opportunity1 determination and honesty of intention4 ,farming is worthy1 moreover1 of the most highly educated as well as the most capable4 ,if lack of means prevents a young man from taking a four-years' training in agriculture1 he will find a two years' course offered by many of the state agricultural schools4 ,while it is obviously impossible to give in two years as much training as in four years1 these two years' courses contain the more technical subjects and are usually very thorough and efficient4 ,no young man1 no matter how thorough his previous training1 need hesitate to pursue one of them4 ,there are1 however1 young men who cannot spare the time and expense of even two years' training4 ,for such many state agricultural colleges offer winter terms of eight to twelve weeks4 ,these courses are arranged to allow the student to specialize along some particular line4 ,the better prepared the man is who enters these winter courses the more he will benefit by them4 ,this leads to the caution that such courses should not be substituted for the education offered in the public schools1 but should only be sought after all the opportunities for education at home have been exhausted4 ,for the somewhat older young man who is now farming and cannot leave his farm or for the younger man as a preparation for the short courses1 one or more correspondence courses will be found useful4 ,not all colleges conduct correspondence courses1 but fortunately those who do will accept students from other states on equal terms4 ,there are many persons who will testify to their helpfulness4 ,every young farmer should have a carefully selected library of standard books on agriculture1 not only for reading but for reference4 ,an instance of the value of a standard book of reference came recently to the attention of the writer4 ,an educated young farmer in ,iowa paid #b4ej for a peck of crimson clover seed which he sowed in the spring in his oats4 ,a reference to any standard publication on forage crops costing less than the peck of seed would have disclosed to him the probable hopelessness of success under the conditions named4 ,the books to include as well as to exclude from a select list will depend upon the previous training of the man making the purchase1 the character of the farming to be pursued1 and1 to some extent1 to the section of the country where the farm is located4 ,any bookseller can secure catalogs issued by firms making a specialty of publishing agricultural books4 ,for the average reader these catalogs are sufficient to enable one to make intelligent purchases4 ,every farmer should take one or more agricultural journals4 ,at present journals are published on every phase of agriculture and many of them are of high character4 ,publishers are always glad to send sample copies free of charge4 ,by examining these copies intelligent selection may be made4 ,the writer of this book has had rather unusual opportunity during more than a quarter of a century of observing the influence of education upon the success1 financial and otherwise1 of those who engage in farming4 ,as the result of these observations he wishes to urge every young man to allow no one to persuade him that because he is to be a farmer1 he does not need a thorough education4 ,remember that you have but one life to live1 and if you let the golden opportunity pass1 the mistake can never be rectified4 ,no man ever regretted that he had too much education--thousands have regretted the lack of it4 ,every young man1 no matter what his occupation is to be1 should receive some school training1 however little it may be1 every year until he reaches the age of majority4 ,otherwise the age of majority should be changed4 ,in no occupation is this more important than in farming1 because the operations involved in farming fail to develop certain attributes necessary to the largest success4 ,a man cannot have a mind too well trained1 although it is possible that he may have too much undigested information4 ,the mental condition may not be unlike the physical condition of the man who is burdened with too many clothes4 ,when in action he may need to strip his mind of unnecessary information in order to make the most efficient mental effort4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,means ,,of ,,acquiring ,,land ,of the three essentials to successful farming--capital1 knowledge and love for the calling--only the first can be obtained on credit1 and this only in part4 ,usually when a man desires to buy a farm he must have1 at least1 one-third of his desired investment in cash4 ,the amount to be invested will include1 not only the cost of the land1 but the cost of the necessary equipment of the farm4 ,the percentage of the total capital which may be borrowed1 however1 will depend on many circumstances and is usually a matter of first importance4 ,no man should borrow more than a banker or other reputable business man considers a safe investment4 ,usually there is no better counselor as to a safe investment than the local banker4 ,the banker should1 and generally does1 stand in much the same relation to the financial welfare of the community as the physician to its physical1 the minister to its moral and spiritual welfare4 ,the inexperienced person1 even if he does not need to borrow money1 would do well to consult some responsible banker in the neighborhood before making an investment in farm lands4 ,the young man should1 as early as possible in life1 open an account with the local bank1 not merely for the sake of the habit of saving which this will encourage1 but in order to come into personal business relations with the banker4 ,instead of concealing from the bank his business operations1 he should seek the advice of his banker on all important financial matters4 ,on an average1 every farm changes hands at least three times in a century4 ,every farm1 therefore1 must be acquired by purchase1 inheritance or gift at more or less irregular intervals4 ,in the neighborhood in which the author was born1 there is not a farm but has changed hands since he can remember4 ,in many cases the farm is now in the possession of a son2 in some instances in that of a grandson of the owner as known by the writer in his boyhood days4 ,in this particular community the acquirement of a farm by a person not related to the former owner has occurred in relatively few instances4 ,as a rule1 when the farm has been acquired by a son1 the latter has operated the farm as tenant or partner for a period previous to his ownership and during lifetime of the father4 ,in some instances the son has boarded with the parents or the parents with the son and his wife2 or1 in the case of a daughter1 with the daughter and son-in-law4 ,where there are several heirs1 as is apt to be the case1 the son operating the farm is required to purchase or rent the interest of the other heirs1 unless the farm is large enough to be divided1 which is less seldom the case than is popularly supposed4 ,thus1 if there are #bjj acres of land worth #ej an acre1 and five heirs1 the young farmer may inherit #b1jjj1 and be required to assume the remaining #h1jjj as an obligation4 ,he may borrow this money at the bank1 placing a mortgage upon the farm1 thus settling with the other heirs at once4 ,or he may pay the other heirs rent on their share of the farm4 ,in any case he will1 if successful1 gradually cancel his obligation and become owner of the farm4 ,that no heir is willing to assume this responsibility is the most common reason for a farm changing from one family to another1 and the disruption of community interests4 ,the customary1 or normal1 method of acquiring land has been and still is a combination of tenancy1 inheritance and mortgage4 ,without some tenant system and without the farm mortgage1 it would be impossible for the average young man to acquire a farm4 ,that men are constantly advancing from farm tenant to landowner is shown by statistics giving the percentage of tenants by ages4 ,the majority of farmers under #cj are renters4 ,most farmers over #de are owners of farm land4 ,thus in ,illinois1 in #aijj1 approximately #ge of the farmers under #be years of age rented their farms1 while less than #bj of the farmers over #ee years of age were tenants4 ,the question for the young man to consider is not what effect the tenant system has upon the welfare of the nation or what political ills may be connected with farm mortgages1 but how to make use of these necessary and beneficent agencies for the acquirement of a farm4 ,a system of tenancy which leads to absent landlordism and a permanent tenant class is thoroughly vicious1 while a practice which enables a man to become1 within a reasonable period1 a land-owning farmer is a thoroughly approvable and1 indeed1 necessary method of acquiring land4 ,as already indicated1 most young men will need in some form or other to employ more capital than they possess when they start farming4 ,they must1 therefore1 determine what is the best form of obtaining the necessary capital1 viz43 whether to borrow the money on a farm mortgage1 or whether to use the capital someone else has invested in a farm by paying him rent for it4 ,the conditions of tenancy in this country are often not the most fortunate1 yet the young man of character may well find1 for a time1 at least1 it would be best for him to rent a farm and invest his own capital in the necessary machinery and live stock to conduct it properly4 ,much will depend on the character of the arrangement which may be made4 ,usually more favorable terms can be secured from landlords owning large numbers of farms than from the owner of one or two farms4 ,the large landowner is content with a moderate income from each farm1 because in the aggregate his income is sufficient for his needs1 while the retired farmer who must live off the proceeds of a single farm is apt to drive a hard bargain and may not be over particular concerning the maintenance of said farm4 ,the writer knows a farmer who owns a good farm purchased from the proceeds of a rented farm4 ,he continues to live on the rented farm and rents his own1 because1 it is said1 his landlord is willing to make him more favorable terms than he makes to his tenant4 ,the more capable the tenant the more favorable the terms he may exact4 ,certain tenants are in demand and can have their choice of farms4 ,a prosperous-looking man was pointed out recently as an example of a tenant capable of buying a farm in one of the most highly developed counties in the ,united ,states4 ,it was stated that as a renter he could have his choice of any farm in the county1 but that he did not have a dollar invested in farm land4 ,possibly he invests his surplus earnings in stocks and bonds4 ,it is not the present purpose to determine the relative merits of the different systems of land tenure1 but to try to be helpful to the beginners by discussing the usual practices in order that he may know whether the arrangement he is considering is customary and whether it is likely to prove satisfactory4 ,every third farm in the ,united ,states is rented under one of three methods3 #a4 ,a definite money rent may be paid1 ranging from #b to #f an acre for land on which the ordinary1 staple crops are raised4 ,perhaps #c to #d is more commonly paid for such land4 #b4 ,in the ,south it is common for the landlord to require a definite number of pounds of cotton per acre or a certain number of bales of cotton for a one or two-mule farm1 as the case may be4 ,this is classified by the census authorities as cash rent1 but will here be called crop rent4 ,crop rent is less common than either cash or share rent in the northern and western states1 although perhaps the most common form in the ,south4 ,crop rent1 however1 is met with in some sections1 as in western ,new ,york where certain large landowners require a definite number of bushels of wheat1 oats or maize and make certain stipulations as to hay and straw4 ,they charge a cash rent for pasture4 #c4 ,much the most common form of tenancy1 however1 is that where a certain percentage or share of the product is given the landlord for the use of the land4 ,before entering into a discussion of the customary conditions under which land is rented on shares it may be helpful to point out the fundamental differences between cash rent1 crop rent and share rent4 ,in case of cash rent1 the landlord takes no risk1 either as to the price or the amount of product4 ,in the case of crop rent1 he shares the risk as to the variation in price1 but not as to the amount of crop raised4 ,the latter may depend upon the clemency of the weather or upon the industry and skill of the tenant4 ,in the case of share rent1 both landlord and tenant share equally as to variation in the price and the amount of product4 ,three forms of share rent may be recognized3 7a7 ,where landlord furnishes only real estate 7land and buildings71 the tenant supplying everything else1 including teams1 machinery1 labor1 seeds and fertilizers4 ,under these conditions it is customary for the landlord to receive one-third and the tenant two-thirds of the crop raised or the product produced4 7b7 ,the second form of share rent is where the landlord furnishes the real estate2 the tenant supplies teams1 tools and labor1 while the landlord and tenant own equally all live stock other than teams1 and bear equally all other expenses1 as for seeds1 fertilizers and cost of threshing4 ,under this system1 it is customary for landlord and tenant each to receive one-half of all sales4 ,as each owns one-half of all the live stock 7teams excepted71 each shares equally in all increase4 ,the landlord pays for the cost of permanent improvements such as new buildings1 fences1 repairs and drainage4 ,the tenant1 in making these improvements1 in some cases1 agrees to furnish two days' labor for one day's pay4 ,the theory is that1 while the increased value of the real estate is of advantage only to the landlord1 the improved facilities are of some benefit to the tenant4 ,since he can do this work at odd times when not otherwise employed1 he can afford to take a generous view of the matter4 ,it is obvious that if he remains on the farm long enough the tenant will come into his share of the benefit1 while if he intends to leave the farm soon he may not4 ,there is in the mind of the writer a prosperous tenant who1 after eighteen years on a single farm1 declared he had no desire to make a change1 and doubtless there are thousands of similar instances4 ,under the plan in which the tenant furnishes everything except the real estate1 the tendency of the farm is apt to be downward both as to the improvements and the crop-producing power of the soil4 ,the interests of the landlord and tenant are not mutual4 ,this condition of tenancy leads to growing only those crops which can be readily sold from the farm and to frequent changes of the tenant1 with its accompanying auction sales of property4 ,in one region1 where this system prevails1 it has been facetiously remarked that each tenant has a sale every year to determine how much he is worth4 ,it is less trouble than taking an inventory4 ,in the second form of share rent1 the interests of landlord and tenant are more nearly mutual4 ,under this system1 animal husbandry is possible1 which1 generally1 involves pasturing and feeding a considerable part of the crops upon the farm1 and even the purchase of nitrogenous by-products4 ,all this leads to permanency of tenant1 since the landlord and tenant are both interested in the live stock and other personal property1 which cannot be divided1 with economy1 each year4 ,it is interesting to note that the house is the least likely to be kept in repair4 ,the improvement of the barns and fences or the laying of tile drains increases the landlord's income1 but he has no financial interest in the house1 so long as the tenant is willing to live in it4 ,there are1 of course1 many variations in the arrangement of details between the landlord and tenant4 ,on many dairy farms in the northeastern states it is customary for the landlord to own the cows4 ,while the landlord and tenant share equally from the sale of milk1 butter or cheese1 in such cases the increase in the herd belongs to the owner of the land4 ,hence1 money from the sale of any animal1 old or young1 goes to him4 ,this is because the landlord must keep up the herd4 ,if a cow is sold1 he must furnish another to take her place4 7c7 ,the third type of tenant farming is where the tenant furnishes nothing but his labor and managerial ability1 and receives a share of the sales1 which may be one-third4 ,this is rather an unusual type of tenancy1 since1 where the landlord furnishes all the capital1 it is much more common to employ a farm manager at a monthly wage4 ,the wage varies greatly1 but is seldom below forty dollars or above seventy-five dollars per month without board1 especially to those who have not hitherto had much managerial experience4 ,various attempts at profit sharing have been made4 ,a recent instance is of a young married man taking #afj acres of tillable land where the landlord has a fairly well-stocked farm4 ,the young man is to have a house and everything in the way of living the farm can furnish4 ,he is to receive #bj a month and one-half the net proceeds1 or1 what is called in ,chapter ,,xi1 the farm income4 ,in considering a contract of this kind it is necessary to make a careful distinction between3 7#a7 ,gross sales1 7#b7 net proceeds1 viz43 the gross sales less the expenses of running the farm1 and 7#c7 profits1 which may be defined for the purpose of this discussion as the net proceeds less the interest on the investment4,a ,assuming #afj acres of land1 all tillable1 devoted to dairy farming in eastern ,united ,states1 gross sales may be estimated at #bj an acre1 or an annual gross income of #c1bjj1 and the net proceeds at #aj an acre1 or #a1fjj4 ,under these conditions the young man's income would be #bdj1 received as wages1 plus #hjj1 as his share of the net proceeds1 or a total of #a1jdj a year4 ,generally speaking1 probably a more satisfactory method1 both for landlord and the farm manager1 would be to pay the latter as nearly as may be what his services should be worth and give him in addition one-half the profits2 that is1 one-half of that which was left after deducting the expenses of running the farm and interest on the capital invested4 ,merely for illustrating the method of calculation1 let us assume this farm with its equipment to be worth #ajj an acre1 or #af1jjj4 ,let the farm manager be paid #hdj a year4 ,assume the same gross income1 #c1bjj1 and the same cost of operating1 #a1fjj1 to which add #fjj1 the additional salary of the manager4 ,the total expense is then #b1bjj1 and the net proceeds #a1jjj4 ,if #d1 or #fdj1 was charged on the investment1 there would be #cfj to be divided between landlord and manager1 making the salary of manager #a1jbj4 ,a simple calculation will show that if #e were charged1 the salary of the manager would be #idj a year1 and if #f1 #hfj a year4 ,the advantage of the latter method of employment is that the young man runs less risk1 while both receive equally any surplus beyond fair wages and fair interest on the investment4 ,in this connection it is important to consider how much may be reasonably paid for managerial ability4 ,a study of the figures on page #acc will show that the labor income from a considerable number of farms of the better class was about #g of the capital invested in the farms4 ,the inference is1 therefore1 that if a man has #aj1jjj wisely invested in a farm he may pay #gjj for a working manager2 or1 to put it in another form1 before the owner of a farm can afford to pay #a1bjj a year for a farm manager1 he should have about #ag1jjj invested4 ,moreover1 this investment must be in a form calculated to return an income4 ,if part of it consists of investments for pleasure or fancy1 such investment will not only not add to the income1 but will detract from it by increasing the cost of maintenance4 ,this is scarcely less important to the employee than it is to the employer1 since if the owner pays a higher salary than the manager can earn1 he quite surely will sooner or later discharge his manager4 ,this may result disastrously for the discharged young man1 not merely on account of the loss of employment1 but because his failure may militate against his securing satisfactory employment elsewhere4 ,when an employer is seeking a man1 he looks for one who has succeeded4 ,there is an old saying1 ,nothing succeeds like success1 and it is only too true that nothing fails like failure4 ----- ,a ,profit is sometimes defined as that part of the product which the producer can consume without reducing his means of production4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,farm ,,organization ,in the last chapter were discussed the most common methods by which a young man acquires an opportunity to engage in farming4 ,this chapter will discuss some less common arrangements by which may be bridged that period between the time the son is ready to go into the business and the time he may assume the complete control of the ancestral or other farm4 ,it will also suggest a method for the continuous business management of a farm enterprise4 ,as stated1 the most common reason for a farm changing from one family to another is the fact that no heir is willing to assume the obligation which is involved in paying for the interest of the other heirs4 ,connected with this problem is the further fact that the father is not usually ready to give up the management of the farm at the time one of his sons reaches the age to go into active business4 ,the reason for this state of affairs is made clear by the results of insurance statistics4 ,the period that a man may be expected to live can be obtained by taking the difference between his present age and #ij and dividing the remainder by two4 ,thus1 a young man who is #bj may reasonably expect to live #ce years1 or until he is #ee years old4 ,a man at #ej1 however1 still has an expectation of life of #bj years1 and the man of #gj of #aj years4 ,a farmer of #ej will usually have one or more sons ready to go to farming if they ever expect to engage in farming4 ,but1 as has been shown1 a man of #ej has a reasonable expectation of #bj more years of life and cannot turn over the farm to his son1 completely1 without destroying his own opportunity for earning a livelihood4 ,as things are usually arranged1 therefore1 there is no place on the average farm for the son1 except as a hired hand1 which is not desired permanently by either father or son4 ,frequently the father fails to appreciate the earning power of his son1 and1 what is more important1 that the boy has grown into a man4 ,one day a teacher called a student of agriculture to his office1 when the following conversation occurred3 ,illustration3 ,john ,armstrong1 ,austinburg1 ,ashtabula county1 ,ohio1 was a dairy tenant farmer for twenty years with nothing to show for his labor but a debt of #ejj4 ,he then bought the farm of #add acres on which he lives1 without cash payment1 assuming a debt of #g1jjj4 ,at the end of ten years he owned his farm and equipment valued at #bj1jjj4 ,he has two sons who have been important factors in his success4 ,a year ago one of them married and went to a farm of his own1 the father paying him #c1jjj for his former labor4 ,illustration3 ,john ,m4 ,hunt1 ,ackley1 ,iowa1 two years a student at ,iowa ,state ,college4 ,he returned to the home farm of #abj acres1 which1 without any capital1 he rented from his father4 ,at the age of #be his gross receipts from this farm were a little over #d1jjj4 ,after paying rent1 living1 keeping a family of four1 a few trips to fairs and corn shows1 he had net #a1ejj for his year's work4 ,picture shows home with father1 mother and sister in the foreground4 ,the ,bureau of ,soils at ,washington1 said the teacher1 has asked me to recommend several of our students to them for positions as field assistants4 ,if you desire to have me do so1 ,i would be glad to recommend you for one of these positions4 ,the compensation is #a1jjj a year and field expenses4 ,i do not believe that ,i can accept1 said ,mr4 ,manning1 my father is in poor health and needs my help on the farm4 ,does your father want you to take charge of the farm and manage it so that you can make your training count8 ,no2 my father expects to continue to manage the farm4 ,he wishes me to work for him4 ,how much does your father expect to pay you8 ,thirty dollars a month4 ,the teacher found it extremely difficult not to interfere1 but he merely said1 ,this is a case of filial duty which you must settle for yourself4 ,i must have nothing further to say4 ,the young man returned to the ancestral home and is probably still there4 ,it is1 of course1 impossible to determine the merits of an individual case1 but this incident represents a type of cases where the son makes two important sacrifices from the sense of duty4 ,first1 he sacrifices present1 and1 perhaps1 future opportunity to earn the wages of which he is capable and to which he is justly entitled4 ,and1 second1 and more important1 he sacrifices the opportunity to develop his own powers and make concrete his own abstract self4 ,there are two things that every young man should do4 ,one is to earn a living4 ,a man that cannot or does not earn a living is of no value to himself or to anyone else4 ,the other is to develop within himself his latent possibilities4 ,he must apply himself to some problem1 or problems1 and through them develop his own personality4 ,there is no place where more intricate and satisfying problems may be found than in the development of a successful farming enterprise4 ,in the instance cited1 the father may have been unable to pay his son the wage he might have obtained elsewhere1 but he did not need to dwarf his son's development by treating him merely as a hired hand4 ,his willingness to do so was probably due to his failure to appreciate that his son had become a man4 ,sometimes a father is astute enough to reorganize his business so as to retain a place for himself while giving to his sons that opportunity which every man must have who develops himself normally4 ,an ,ohio farmer once came to the ,dean's office4 ,he had a son in college who was just completing the first year of a two years' course in agriculture4 ,i should like to have you find a place for my son in a cheese factory during the coming summer1 said ,mr4 ,mc,kinley4 ,i own a farm of #acj acres on which ,i have a herd of ,jersey cattle1 continued the father4 ,i have two sons and one daughter4 ,i would like to have my sons about me1 but there is no place for them on my farm because ,i am there and cannot get away4 ,in fact1 ,i do not desire to give up the management of the farm and the development of the herd of cattle4 ,not every father sees the situation as clearly as you do1 interjected the ,dean4 ,this is my plan4 ,after my son has spent a summer in a cheese factory1 ,i want him to come back to your school for another year4 ,i want him to learn1 especially1 all you teach about dairying4 ,i will then build a cheese factory on my own farm and my son will make into cheese the milk of my own herd1 and also from the herds of our neighbors4 ,by the time he has completed his work with you1 my younger son will have finished the high school4 ,he has some liking for trading1 and he will sell the cheese at wholesale and deliver it to the surrounding towns where markets are unexcelled4 ,as for the daughter1 continued this practical man1 she will get married and that will take care of her4 ,what became of the daughter is not known to the writer1 but the rest of the program was carried out successfully and continued for many years4 ,a ,german came to this country and settled in ,new ,jersey1 where he established a large orchard4 ,in course of time his two sons grew into manhood4 ,while1 of course1 requiring plenty of laborers1 the orchardist did not need the sons in the management of his farm4 ,he1 therefore1 established one of these sons in the commission business in ,philadelphia1 thus1 at least1 keeping the profits on the sale of the products of his orchard in the family4 ,he also needed cold storage for his fruit4 ,the other son started a cold storage plant1 which plays an important part in the profitable management of the orchard4 ,thus both sons have independent employment requiring managerial ability and the orchard is much more profitable than it otherwise would be4 ,our land laws1 our traditions and our practices are based upon the idea that a farm is to provide activity and support for but one family4 ,in order1 therefore1 that the son may marry and begin to develop his life in his own way1 it is essential to reorganize in some manner the method of managing the farm or to enlarge or1 perhaps1 specialize its activities4 ,this may be accomplished on a simple partnership basis1 or it may be in some such line as outlined in the illustrations which have been given4 ,in other occupations such co-operative effort is the rule rather than the exception4 ,that it is more difficult to effect satisfactory arrangements in farming must be conceded1 else they would be more common4 ,doubtless it will often tax the ingenuity of father and son to devise the plans best suited to meet their particular problem4 ,there still remains to consider another form of business relation as applied to farming which has become almost universal in trade and transportation4 ,the following incident may illustrate and emphasize the problem better than abstract discussion3 ,one day a man walked into an office and stated that a friend had a half million dollars to invest in farming1 provided that he could be convinced that the money would be invested profitably4 ,does your friend desire to buy land in any particular locality8 ,yes1 replied the promoter1 he wishes to buy land near ----4 ,he has some sentiment about it4 ,he was born in that neighborhood4 ,well1 that is a rather bad beginning4 ,farming on sentiment is dangerous1 especially when the sentiment is in no way related to the business4 ,the facts were that the region indicated was recognized to be one of the most unpromising sections of the state4 ,if you undertake to invest a half million dollars in one neighborhood1 continued the adviser1 you will pretty certainly fail to earn interest on your investment4 ,why8 inquired the promoter4 ,before you could possibly buy any considerable part of the land the owners of the farms you desire to buy would have doubled or perhaps trebled the price asked for their holdings4 ,it is one thing to earn interest on an investment of #cj an acre and quite another to earn an equal per cent on #fj or #ij an acre4 ,in the second place1 farmers are content to accept less per cent on their capital than they would if it was loaned at interest1 because the farm furnishes a home as well as a business4 ,when you buy up all these farms and convert them into a single enterprise you will destroy their home value4 ,you cannot hope to compete with the man1 who1 because his farm furnishes him a home1 is content with an otherwise small return on his investment4 ,there were other reasons1 of course1 why such an enterprise would fail1 which the speaker did not stop to explain4 ,you are mistaken1 challenged the promoter4 ,i intend to meet both your objections4 ,my plan is to form a corporation and issue both preferred and common stock4 ,the preferred stock shall bear #e and that will belong to my friend who furnishes the money4 ,i will retain the common stock4 ,five per cent is all the owner of the money is entitled to1 while if the business returns more than that amount1 it will be due to my management4 ,i1 and those associated with me1 are entitled to all that is made above five per cent4 ,by retaining the common stock the surplus income will come to us4 ,neither will ,i destroy the home value1 because ,i shall associate the former owners with me in the conduct of the estate and may give them some of the common stock1 so that they will be interested with me in making a profitable return4 ,if they wish to keep their money invested in the farm1 they will be given preferred stock in place of cash for their farms4 ,it is needless to say that the promoter never convinced his friend that he could successfully invest for him a half million dollars along the lines indicated4 ,nevertheless the corporate plan is not without merit4 ,for example1 if a father should incorporate his farm1 he could provide for the inheritance of the preferred stock1 among the heirs1 as he desires4 ,he could give to the son who operates the farm all the common stock1 together with what preferred stock he is entitled or the father may desire him to have4 ,the common stock would provide the means by which the income from the farm1 which was due to the sons skill and management1 might go to him4 ,as time went on the son could acquire additional preferred stock from the father or other heirs1 or he could invest his earnings elsewhere1 as might seem most expedient4 ,on the death of the parents1 the preferred stock would be distributed as inheritance or the will provided without in any way interfering with the continuity of the farm enterprise4 ,if at any time the son desired to discontinue the management of the farm1 all he would need to do would be to dispose of his interest in the common stock at whatever he might be able to secure from the man who succeeded to its management4 ,he could sell or retain his preferred stock4 ,farming is the one remaining great industry that has not been organized so that a single enterprise may have a continuous existence4 ,a corporation never dies1 but at least three generations of men occupy the farms of the ,united ,states each century4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,opportunities ,,in ,,agriculture ,some years ago1 a prominent magazine contained an article entitled ,the ,american ,farmer's ,balance ,sheet1 in which a descendant of the second and sixth ,presidents of the ,united ,states was shown to have made in one year a profit of over #ai1jjj from a #f1jjj-;acre wheat farm in ,north ,dakota1 and over #ej1jjj from a #f1jjj-;acre corn farm in ,iowa4 ,a few months later there appeared in the same magazine another article1 the purport of which was that great wealth1 whether it be obtained from farming1 the mining of coal1 the manufacture of steel or the selling of merchandise1 is the exception1 while the man1 in whatever calling1 who rears and educates a family and at the same time lays by a small competence is the normal ,american product4 ,the moral is that a #ejj-;a-year-income farm is a more important factor to the national welfare than a #ej1jjj-;a-year-income farm4 ,in the latter article the writer tells of two brothers who had been reared on a ,michigan farm4 ,reuben was tired of the country4 ,he went to the city and apprenticed himself to a harnessmaker4 ,against the advice of young friends1 ,lucien bought sixty acres of land and ran in debt for it4 ,in a year ,reuben was earning a dollar a day4 ,he wore a white shirt and pointed shoes1 not because they were more comfortable1 but because other people did4 ,he had no debts4 ,lucien had fair crops1 but they yielded no more than enough to pay interest on the mortgage4 ,he wore a ragged shirt1 patched breeches and cowhide boots4 ,people said that ,reuben was making a gentleman of himself and learning a trade in the bargain4 ,in two years1 ,reuben had completed his apprenticeship4 ,he was now earning #aj a week4 ,he lived in a house that had a fancy veranda and green blinds4 ,his clothing improved4 ,lucien was still ragged1 but he paid his interest and #cjj each year upon the principal4 ,people said that ,reuben1 the harnessmaker1 was bound to come to the front4 ,in ten years more1 ,reuben was still foreman of the shop at #ej a month4 ,he lived in the same house1 and smoked ,havana cigars4 ,lucien built a new house and a barn4 ,he smoked a pipe4 ,the neighbors saw that every year he made some improvement on the farm4 ,he wore a white shirt when he went to town1 and he had a pair of button shoes4 ,people said that ,lucien was becoming a prominent man4 ,his word was good at the bank4 ,reuben began to complain that harnessmaking was too confining4 ,his health was breaking down4 ,the proprietor was selfish4 ,he would not die and leave the business to him4 ,harnessmaking was not what it used to be4 ,lucien bought more land4 ,he went fishing when he wanted to4 ,reuben came out now and then to spend ,sunday4 ,the birds seemed to sing more sweetly than ever before and the grass was greener4 ,lucien endorsed ,reuben's note4 ,lucien has pigs1 and cows1 and sheep1 and chickens1 and turkeys1 and horses4 ,he raises potatoes and beans1 and corn1 and wheat1 and garden stuff1 and fruit4 ,he buys his groceries and clothing and tobacco4 ,reuben buys everything4 ,at the close of the year ,lucien puts from #ajj to #cjj in the bank or takes a trip to ,washington4 ,reuben does well if he come out even4 ,lucien does not fret2 ,reuben grumbles4 ,the picture is true to life4 ,it has been enacted and re-enacted in every one of the older communities of the ,united ,states4 ,it has always seemed to the writer1 however1 that the author of this suggestive story left out two important personages4 ,they were ,sarah1 the wife of ,reuben1 and ,mary1 the wife of ,lucien4 ,sarah liked to make tatting and to go to pink teas4 ,mary preferred to raise flowers and fluffy little chickens4 ,nothing is to be said for or against the taste of either4 ,each has a right to her preference1 but their point of view cannot be left out of the problem when a young man is considering his future occupation4 ,it has been said1 and probably with considerable truth1 that most congressmen would not hang around ,washington if it were not for their wives4 ,no one must mistake this story as an attempt to compare harness making with farming1 much less to compare living in the city with life in the open country4 ,what it does is to compare the struggle and the development of the man who goes into business for himself with the man who accepts employment at wages4 ,because of less responsibility and less sacrifices at the beginning1 the tendency is for young men to work for wages rather than to engage in business for themselves4 ,this is becoming more and more true as industrial methods make it more and more difficult for the young man to command the requisite capital4 ,the man who works for wages usually has the larger income and appears the most prosperous during the earlier years as compared with his brother who enters business4 ,the business man1 however1 who1 while young1 economizes and invests his savings in his business gradually outstrips his wage-earning brother4 ,during later life he is able to enjoy the fruits of his earlier economy and investments1 while failing powers and keen competition of younger and better trained men restrict the opportunities of the wage earner1 who has generally spent his wages in better living1 or at least in more outward show4 ,this is well shown by the fact that it is customary to make provision by means of pensions for wage earners of all sorts1 while no such arrangement is made for men who engage in business1 be that farming1 trade or transportation4 ,for many reasons1 however1 young men will continue to seek employment at wages1 even if only for a few years1 or until some capital has been acquired which may be invested in business4 ,the question arises1 therefore1 what opportunities there may be for the young man who desires to engage1 eventually1 in the business of farming to work for wages along lines that will not be too far removed from the business in which he is subsequently to engage4 ,it will be assumed that the young man has prepared himself in that same painstaking way that he would if he were preparing to become an engineer1 a lawyer or a physician4 ,there is a constant demand for men with proper training as managers of farms4 ,as stated elsewhere1 the wages are seldom less than #dj nor more than #ge a month to beginners1 although for men of experience #e1jjj a year has been paid in exceptional cases for the management of large enterprises4 ,these positions often constitute ideal opportunities for capable young men4 ,they require1 however1 not only an intimate knowledge of farming1 but the ability1 also1 to manage men4 ,the ability to manage men requires the combination of decision and tact1 not possessed by all1 and not easily acquired by education or practice4 ,not only must the farm manager be able to manage workmen1 but oftentimes he must manage his employer1 who may have little knowledge of farming but still insists upon having his own ideas executed1 as he1 of course1 has a perfect right to do4 ,another danger is the fact that where the farm is owned by a man engaged in other business1 many circumstances may arise to cause the owner to change his plans or sell his property4 ,there is often1 therefore1 a lack of permanency in these positions4 ,the ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture employs upward of #e1jjj people4 ,there is a constant demand for young men to recruit this service1 including experts in soils1 plant production1 animal husbandry1 dairying1 chemistry and forestry4 ,beginners receive from #hjj to #a1jjj a year4 ,when they are sent out of ,washington into field service1 as many of them are1 they receive their expenses1 including subsistence in addition4 ,young men may rise rather rapidly by promotion to #a1fjj a year1 then more slowly to #b1jjj1 while an occasional man is promoted to the more responsible position paying #c1jjj to #d1jjj a year4 ,the positions are all filled through the competitive civil service examinations4 ,examinations are held at more or less irregular intervals1 usually several times a year1 in various sections of the country4 ,a letter addressed to the ,united ,states ,civil ,service ,commission will secure the necessary information concerning openings and the general requirements for the examinations4 ,employment in the ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture often affords opportunity for varied experience and wide observation of farming methods throughout the country4 ,such employment is generally to be considered desirable if not continued for too long a period4 ,as a matter of fact1 men are constantly leaving the service to engage in practical or other work1 a fact which makes the demand for young men greater than would otherwise be the case4 ,the various agricultural colleges and experiment stations are constantly seeking men4 ,it would seem that the demand would eventually be satisfied4 ,as a matter of fact1 however1 it grows greater year by year1 both because these institutions continue to grow and because young men are attracted more and more to practical work4 ,it is stated that in one institution there were #df graduates in the course in animal husbandry and that #dd went into practical work and only two sought employment in college or station4 ,the salaries are about the same as in government positions4 ,agricultural newspaper work offers an attractive field for young men who are properly trained and have a taste for this kind of work4 ,there is also beginning to be quite a demand for teachers of agriculture in the high schools4 ,as a rule a man is wanted who can teach1 in addition1 the sciences usually taught in secondary school4 ,the customary salary is from #gj to #ajj a month on an eight to ten months' basis4 ,an experience of one or two years as a teacher in a high school1 or even the lower grades of the public school1 should be invaluable to the young man who expects subsequently to engage in farming4 ,this is particularly true if he has not had the opportunity of a college training4 ,it is1 perhaps1 unnecessary to state that the salaries mentioned in this chapter are obtained only by young men who possess certain qualifications4 ,to secure them1 they must be men of ability1 integrity1 virtue and industry4 ,no man who is not willing to make the preparation necessary to master his subject can expect to succeed4 ,he must1 also1 be a man of absolute honesty1 and he must lead a clean life4 ,it was ,bismarck who said1 of ,german university students1 ,one-third die out2 one-third rot out2 the other third rule ,germany4 ,every man who will may choose whether he will belong to ,bismarck's second or third class4 ,the question for the young man of #bj is not merely as to the morrow1 but what is likely to be the trend of events during the next #ce to #ej years4 ,in #ahjj the ,united ,states nowhere crossed the ,mississippi and nowhere touched the ,gulf of ,mexico4 ,in #ahej the country west of the ,mississippi ,river was agriculturally largely an undiscovered region4 ,since #ahgj we have much more than doubled our population and our agriculture4 ,since that time we have subdued more of the open country to the uses of man than we had been able to do in #bej years of our previous history4 ,during the past #cjj years we have prided ourselves upon being an agricultural people4 ,we have been an agricultural people1 but our problems have not been chiefly those of the agriculturist1 but those of the engineer4 ,our problem1 in the past1 has not been to make two blades of grass to grow where but one grew before4 ,our problem has been to harvest and transport two bushels of wheat or two bales of cotton with the labor previously required to harvest one4 ,our crops have been so abundant that the agricultural problems connected with the growing of them has been secondary to the engineering problems of their harvesting and transportation4 ,the self-binder and the steam locomotive have been our achievements4 ,if the writer mistakes not1 the future problem will not be so much the harvesting and transporting1 as the growth of the crops4 ,in the future1 young men will be needed who have studied the science of living things in order that they may make1 literally1 two blades of grass to grow where but one grew4 ,to men who will be able to do so1 will come success and honor4 ,,chapter ,v ,,where ,,to ,,locate ,unless the young farmer expects to return to the ancestral home1 the first question he must settle is where he is going to locate4 ,indeed1 one of the most common questions asked is1 ,what do you think of this state or that state or this region or that as a place to farm8 ,there are few questions harder to answer4 ,this is due1 among other reasons1 to the fact that every place has its advantages and disadvantages4 ,the sum of the advantages may be greater in one place than in another1 but if these advantages are known they must generally be paid for4 ,new adaptations1 however1 may change materially the value of the land in a given locality as1 for example1 the discovery that a region is especially adapted to raising alfalfa1 onions1 cabbages1 apples or peaches4 ,changing conditions1 as the growth of population or better transportation facilities1 may materially affect the attractiveness of a region from the standpoint of the farmer4 ,the competition of other regions which grow similar crops is a potent factor in determining the desirability of a region4 ,for example1 the farmers east of the ,allegheny mountains during the nineteenth century competed with the farmers of the central ,west who had free1 fertile1 easily tilled land on which to grow maize1 wheat and oats4 ,cattle and sheep were pastured on the open range4 ,the twentieth century has found the land of this region settled and capitalized in some instances beyond that of the eastern states2 thus one factor at least of competition has been eliminated4 ,while farm values readjust themselves in time1 it often happens1 especially in the older settled regions1 that farm values are slow in reflecting these changes in economic conditions4 ,changed conditions often call for a change in farm methods which the habits and traditions of even one generation prevent4 ,to the man who is able to apply the proper methods the region may be a desirable one1 although under existing conditions the results may be unsatisfactory4 ,the young man1 however1 is cautioned at this point not to be overconfident of his own ability4 ,under such circumstances it is well to study the problem with great care1 because the methods which seem unwise to the casual observer may1 after all1 be found to be based upon sound economic principles4 ,a man of #be who is looking for a location should not only study the present conditions of the locality1 but try to predict what is likely to be the future of the region during the next third of a century1 since this is the period in which he may reasonably expect to be personally interested1 although later in life he will find himself quite as much interested in the more distant future on account of his children4 ,nothing is more self-evident than that one should choose a region1 especially as regards soil and climate1 which is adapted to the crop or crops to be raised1 yet there are probably more failures due to a lack of crop adaptation than to any other cause that is not personal to the man himself4 ,not only do apples1 for their best success1 require certain soil types1 but different varieties of apples require for their best development1 distinctly different types of soil as1 for example1 ,rhode ,island ,greening1 ,baldwin1 ,york ,imperial and ,grime's ,golden4 ,each reaches its best development on different types of soil and some require different climatic conditions4 ,in like manner apples and peaches require distinctly different types of soil for the best success of each and for this reason peaches are not desirable as fillers in apple orchards4 ,if at the proper season of the year one goes from ,pittsburg to ,chicago via ,columbus and ,indianapolis1 he will see great fields of winter wheat and a considerable number of permanent pastures4 ,from ,chicago to ,omaha he will see only occasionally a field of wheat and scarcely any permanent pasture4 ,oats have taken the place of wheat4 ,in parts of ,eastern ,kansas and ,oklahoma the predominant crop is winter wheat4 ,throughout the whole region from ,pittsburg to ,topeka1 ,kansas1 the characteristic crop is maize or ,indian corn4 ,between ,st4 ,paul and ,fargo1 the main crops are spring wheat and oats4 ,one may travel from ,winnipeg1 ,manitoba1 to ,calgary1 ,alberta1 a distance of over one thousand miles without seeing a field of maize4 ,in some portions the main crop is wheat1 in others it is oats4 ,these are illustrations of the crop adaptation over large areas1 which has come about unconsciously1 as has most crop adaptation4 ,in other parts of the ,united ,states are to be found even more striking examples of crop adaptation1 although the areas are much smaller1 as in the case of tobacco1 potatoes1 celery1 onions1 apples1 peaches and other fruits4 ,regions containing residual soils are more variable in crop adaptation than drift soils and require more careful watchfulness on the part of those who may wish to buy land4 ,as previously stated1 advantages1 if known1 must usually be paid for4 ,it comes about1 therefore1 that if a region or a farm is adapted to the raising of a certain crop which is more profitable than the average1 such as maize1 tobacco1 alfalfa1 celery1 apples or peaches1 this land will1 other things being equal1 command a higher price than land which does not possess this characteristic4 ,there is an underlying economic principle which the man who goes out to choose a farm should clearly understand4 ,the principle has been stated by ,fairchild as follows3 ,the normal value of products capable of indefinite multiplication tends always toward the value of least costly4 ,on the other hand1 if any production cannot be largely extended1 so that the supply barely meets the requirements of the purchasers1 the tendency of normal values is toward the cost of the most costly part of the product required to meet wants4 ,this principle explains why land especially adapted to raising maize is higher priced than land primarily adapted to raising wheat4 ,maize which enters into commerce is raised almost exclusively in ten states of the ,united ,states4 ,wheat is harvested practically every month of every year in different parts of the world4 ,the young farmer should consider1 therefore1 whether he is undertaking to raise crops in which there is unlimited competition1 or whether soil or other conditions cause the output to be relatively limited4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,size ,,of ,,farm ,the size of the farm is another of those questions on which there is endless debate and to which no general answer can be given4 ,there are1 however1 certain rather definite principles which may help in settling an individual problem4 ,the size of the farm is related to the income per acre4 ,if one's ideal or purpose is a gross income of #a1jjj or #c1jjj or #e1jjj a year1 he must consider how large a farm will be necessary to bring this return4 ,assume1 for the sake of discussion1 it is desired to obtain a gross income of #d1jjj4 ,in the eastern ,united ,states #bjj acres of tillable land devoted to general farming may bring this amount4 ,if the land is especially adapted to potatoes1 and this crop takes a prominent place in the rotation1 #ajj acres might be sufficient to return the income named4 ,likewise a #ajj-;acre retail milk dairy farm may produce a similar result4 ,forty acres devoted to truck farming or market gardening may be sufficient4 ,there is another way that the size of the farm needed may be estimated4 ,there is a general relation between the gross income and the amount invested4 ,in #aijj the gross income of the farms of the ,united ,states was #ah per cent of the total investment1 which includes land1 buildings1 tools1 and live stock4 ,the average gross income varied for the different types of farming common to the northern ,united ,states from #af to #ai per cent4 ,this represents1 of course1 a great deal of very poor farming4 ,the income of prosperous farmers must be somewhat better than this4 ,if we assume that by careful methods the gross income is #be of the total investment1 then an investment of #af1jjj will be required to bring a gross income of #d1jjj4 ,while it is true that the gross income has no necessary relation to net income or profit1 yet it is well to remember that a gross income is a necessary antecedent of a net income4 ,the net profit from the production of a bushel of wheat1 a dozen of eggs1 or a pound of butter is of comparatively small consequence unless a sufficient quantity is produced4 ,a recent investigation by the ,cornell station appears to show that with the type of farming now existing in ,tompkins and ,livingston counties1 ,new ,york1 where the investigation chanced to be made1 the larger farms yielded the most profitable returns and that while present conditions exist1 the size of farms is likely to increase rather than decrease4 ,the fundamental reason seems to be the substitution of horse-drawn machinery for hand labor4 ,the following table shows the labor income on #ehf farms operated by the owners1 classified according to size3 ,number ,average of size ,labor ,acres farms 7acres7 income #cj or less #cj #ba #afh #ca to #fj #ajh #di #bed #fa to #ajj #bad #hc #cgc #aja to #aej #adc #abd #dcf #aea to #bjj #eg #agg #fce over #bjj #cd #bfa #idf ---- ---- ,average #ajc #dae ,while the larger the farm1 the more prosperous was the operating owner or tenant1 the size of the farm did not seem to affect the profit of the landlord4 ,the amount of land one individual may own is unlimited2 the size of the farm unit is limited4 ,after a farm unit has reached a certain size1 depending upon the type of farming1 the general arrangement of the farm and the skill in management1 any further increase will increase the cost of operation1 and as the increase continues eventually cause a decrease in profits4 ,assuming this to be true1 it follows as a mathematical necessity that as the farm increases in size the total profits will increase as the farm increases up to a given point and then the profits will decrease4 ,the following table illustrates this law3 ,size of ,a ,b farm ,net profit ,net profit ,net ,profit ,net ,profit acres per acre per farm per acre per farm #afj #e4jj #hjj #e4jj #hjj #bjj #d4ej #ijj #d4ge #iej #bdj #d4jj #ifj #d4ej #a1jhj #bhj #c4ej #ihj #d4be #a1aij #cbj #c4jj #ifj #d4jj #a1bhj #cfj #b4ej #ijj #c4ge #a1cej #djj #b4jj #hjj #c4ej #a1djj #ddj #a4ej #ffj #c4be #a1dcj #dhj #a4jj #dhj #c4jj #a1ddj #ebj 4#ej #bfj #b4ge #a1dcj #efj -- -- #b4ej #a1djj ,in both case ,a and case ,b it is assumed that the greatest net profit per acre is to be obtained with #afj acres1 and that the net profit per acre when the farm is of that size is #e4 ,in case ,a it is assumed that the net profit would decrease #a for each #hj acres added1 while in case ,b the decrease is assumed to be only one-half as rapid4 ,in the first instance the net profit per farm increases until #bhj acres are reached1 when the net profit per farm decreases1 until at #efj acres no profit would be obtained4 ,in case ,b the net profit per farm increases until #dhj acres are reached4 ,everyone is cautioned not to accept these figures as representing what would actually happen4 ,all that can be said is that as the farm unit increases in size there will come a point at which the net profit per acre will decrease because of the physical difficulty of managing a large area1 and1 therefore1 there is a limit to the size of a single farm4 ,fifteen thousand acres may lay in one tract and be owned by one individual1 firm or corporation1 but its economic management requires for purely physical reasons1 not to mention others1 that it be managed in several units more or less distinct from one another4 ,just what the size of this unit will be no one knows and it will vary with the type of farming1 the type of farmer and many other circumstances4 ,for example1 a very common unit for a tenant cotton farm is between #bj and #ej acres1 both the product and the farmer being a limiting factor4 ,perhaps the most important lesson to be learned from a study of this table is that it is wise for some men to operate a farm of #cbj acres1 others of #afj acres and still others of #hj acres1 because each size of farm presents a task suited to different abilities4 ,it would be as futile for one fitted to operate only an #hj-;acre farm to attempt to manage #cbj acres as it would be unwise for the man capable of conducting #cbj acres to confine his attention to #hj acres4 ,unfortunately while this principle is not difficult to perceive and is easily stated1 it is practically impossible to make any application of it to an individual case4 ,only time and the inexorable laws of competition will adjust men to their several tasks4 ,it will be of interest to note what influence in actual practice the type of farming has upon the size of the farm4 ,the census reports the average size of all farms in the ,united ,states as #adg acres1 with the different types as follows3 ,vegetables1 #fe acres2 fruits1 #ge acres2 dairy products1 #abj acres2 hay and grain1 #aei acres2 and live stock1 #bbg acres4 ,speaking in a very general way1 only about one-half the land on these farms is in cultivated crops1 while only #dj of the income may be from the products which cause the farm to be thus classified4 ,the young farmer will do well to have these figures in mind when he starts out in life1 for while they are not to be followed literally1 they give him a measuring stick with which to compare his operations4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,selection ,,of ,,farm ,having some of these preliminary questions settled1 or at least well in mind1 the young farmer is ready to inspect individual farms with a view to purchasing or renting4 ,he should examine each farm from four general aspects1 namely3 7#a7 ,the character and topography of the soil1 7#b7 the climatic conditions1 including healthfulness and water supply1 7#c7 the location1 and 7#d7 the improvements4 ,it may be well at the outset to emphasize the advantage which even a small difference in fertility may bring4 ,suppose one farm is capable of raising fifteen bushels of wheat per acre and another twenty bushels4 ,if wheat is #hj cents a bushel1 then the gross income is #ab and #af respectively4 ,if it is assumed that it costs in either case for seed1 labor and interest on investment #h an acre to raise and harvest the crop1 then it will be seen that an increase of five bushels an acre doubles the profit4 ,the comparison is perhaps not quite fair1 since it costs slightly more to harvest the larger crop1 but it serves to illustrate the point4 ,neither the crop adaptation nor the crop-producing power of the soil can be determined by taking a sample and submitting it to a chemist for analysis4 ,these factors can best be determined by the character of the vegetation1 both domestic and wild1 and by a knowledge obtained through observation or reading as to what this particular soil type usually does4 ,every type of soil has certain characteristics which under like conditions it may be expected to reproduce1 much in the same manner as each species of animal reproduces its characteristics4 ,the first essential is to be able to recognize the different soil types4 ,this can only be done by close observation and study4 ,the second essential is to determine what the crop-producing characteristics of these types of soil are4 ,this knowledge may be obtained by personal observation2 but as most persons' opportunities are limited in this direction1 it should be supplemented wherever possible by a study of the soil surveys of the ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture wherever these are available4 ,when this is not possible samples of soil may be submitted to the ,bureau of ,soils of the ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture or to the soil division of the state experiment station1 together with a suitable description and such knowledge of the history of the land as is obtainable4 ,in this way you may obtain information as to the natural adaptation of the particular type of soil4 ,illustration3 ,walter ,s4 ,tomlinson1 ,bryan1 ,ohio1 began thirteen years ago with #bbe acres1 partly rented1 to determine whether a farm could be made a satisfying enterprise4 ,as tenant he has paid to himself as landlord #a1jjj each year for rental and #ejj each year as salary4 ,the rest of the profits have been invested in #bdj acres of additional land and in improvements4 ,mr4 ,tomlinson's specialty has been hogs1 but he says it does not matter so much about the lines one adopts as the attention that is given them4 ,illustration3 ,dr4 ,w4 ,i4 ,chamberlain1 ,hudson1 ,ohio1 graduate of ,western ,reserve ,university1 former state secretary of agriculture1 later college president4 ,farmer and institute lecturer and widely known for his editorial work on farm journals2 has been able1 amid his other activities1 to manage his farm of #aaf acres4 ,the net cash income above all expenses from the farm for #ahij to #aijg was #aac1iff or #a1cgj per year4 ,of this income #h1hgg were obtained from a ten-acre apple orchard4 ,there will still remain the question of the present condition of the land4 ,for example1 the ,pennsylvania station obtained in a certain season #db loads of hay from nine acres of land4 ,the same season1 from exactly the same soil type1 the station obtained eight loads of hay from #bj acres4 ,the condition of the soil was different1 which the previous history of the two tracts of land fully explains4 ,it is of the utmost importance1 therefore1 to distinguish between the natural fertility of the soil and the condition of the soil4 ,a further example will help to illustrate this point4 ,at the ,rothamsted ,station a certain type of soil has for over #fj years produced annually about #ab bushels of wheat an acre without fertilizer1 while with a complete fertilizer the same type has produced #cj or more bushels4 ,the #ab bushels may be said to represent the natural fertility of the soil1 while the additional #ah bushels may be said to represent the condition of the soil due to fertilizers or to other conditions4 ,on the other hand1 the natural condition of some other soil type might be only eight bushels1 or still another type might be #af bushels4 ,this principle is of considerable practical importance1 especially in the eastern third of the ,united ,states4 ,generally speaking1 clay and silt soils have a greater natural fertility than sandy soils2 limestone soils than those that are deficient in lime4 ,thus soils that naturally grow chestnut trees1 indicating a low lime content1 have a tendency to deteriorate under exhaustive cropping much more rapidly than limestone soils4 ,more fertilizers and other methods of soil improvement are necessary in the case of chestnut soils than in the case of limestone valley soils4 ,one of the first questions to ask1 therefore1 concerning an unknown farm in ,pennsylvania is whether or not chestnut trees grow naturally4 ,it does not follow1 however1 that chestnut soils are undesirable4 ,much will depend upon the crop or crops it is desired to raise4 ,for example1 in some regions they are well adapted to potatoes and peaches4 ,in these cases the cost of the fertilizers necessary to keep the soil in proper condition is small compared with the total return from the crop4 ,the pioneer's best guide as to the value of new land was and is the vegetation growing upon it1 and1 especially in a wooded country1 the native trees4 ,basswood1 crab apple1 wild plum1 black walnut1 ash1 hickory and hard maple generally indicate a fertile soil4 ,white oak indicates only a moderate soil2 bur oak1 a somewhat warmer and better drained soil4 ,beech indicates a rather poor soil2 a heavy clay1 lacking in organic matter4 ,certain species of elms1 maples and oaks1 as red maple and the ,spanish swamp oak1 indicate wet soils4 ,the occurrence and vigor of certain herbaceous plants are especially indicative of fertility of the soil1 as1 for example1 ragweed1 bindweed1 certain plants of the sunflower family1 such as goldenrod1 asters and wild sunflowers4 ,soils adapted to red clover and alfalfa are usually well drained and contain plenty of lime4 ,alsike clover will grow on a soil too wet or containing too little lime for either of the former4 ,soils that produce sorrel and redtop when red clover and timothy are sown need drainage or liming or both4 ,sedges usually indicate a wet soil1 although certain species grow on dry1 sandy soils4 ,the point of this paragraph1 however1 is not to give comprehensive advice but to cause the young farmer to observe the conditions and make his own applications1 which will vary in different regions and under different circumstances4 ,perhaps the one feature that the young farmer is most likely to overlook in the selection of a farm is the relative proportion of tillable land4 ,one farm of #bjj acres1 may1 on account of stony land1 wet land1 comparatively unproductive woodland1 or because of the arrangement of fences and roadways1 contain only eighty acres of tillable land1 while another may contain #afj acres4 ,this is one reason why a #afj-;acre farm in the central ,west may be more valuable than a farm of the same size in the northeastern ,united ,states4 ,columella says with regard to the selection of land that there are two things chiefly to be considered1 the wholesomeness of the air and the fruitfulness of the place1 of which if either the one or the other should be wanting1 and notwithstanding anyone should have a mind to dwell there1 he must have lost his senses and ought to be conveyed to his kinfolk to take care of him4 ,in selecting a farm do not fail to inquire whether there has been any recent illness1 and if so the nature of it1 either among the persons living there or the domestic animals kept4 ,aside from healthfulness1 climate is a fundamental and controlling factor1 both in productiveness and economic farm management4 ,temperature and rainfall affect the number of days that work can be performed upon the land and hence affect materially the economy of labor4 ,it is this fact that prevents the systematic organization of labor so common in manufacturing and transportation4 ,the climate also affects the cost of producing live stock by modifying the food and shelter required4 ,the climate of a region is best studied from the reports of the ,united ,states ,weather ,bureau rather than from the statements published by interested parties4 ,so far as the production of crops is concerned the distribution of rainfall is more important than the annual amount1 as may be shown by comparing the rainfall in such places as ,columbus1 ,ohio1 and ,lincoln1 ,nebraska4 ,the average temperature during the growing season is1 of course1 of more importance from the standpoint of crop production than the average annual temperature4 ,maximum and minimum temperatures or the range of temperature must be considered as well as the average temperature4 ,one of the most practical questions to determine is the average date of the last killing frost in the spring and the date of the first killing frost in the autumn2 in other words1 the length of the growing season4 ,both altitude and topography enter into this problem4 ,in a given locality killing frosts will occur on a still night in the valley before they do on the elevations1 because the air as it cools becomes heavier and flows down into the lowest places just as water would do4 ,on the other hand1 as the altitude increases the growing season shortens4 ,whenever ,i am asked a question involving the production of farm crops by a ,pennsylvania farmer before answering1 ,i ask three questions3 7#a7 ,where are you located8 7#b7 ,do chestnut trees grow naturally upon your land8 7#c7 ,what is your altitude8 ,one factor that is often overlooked by the young farmer needs only to be mentioned to be thoroughly appreciated4 ,it is the amount and character of the water supply4 ,not only is this of the utmost importance from the standpoint of the household1 but it is fundamental to the best farm management4 ,thus1 if the water supply is limited the amount of live stock kept will be curtailed1 and thus the proper utilization of farm products prevented and maintenance of the fertility of the soil made more difficult4 ,the young farmer should recognize that some kinds of farming are more dependent upon the climatic conditions than others and should1 therefore1 select the location best suited to the type of farming desired or else modify his type of farming to suit the climatic conditions4 ,if one studies critically the types of farming in various parts of the ,united ,states1 it will be seen that they have already been adjusted in large degree1 either consciously or unconsciously1 to the climatic conditions4 ,the young farmer should be careful that he does not undertake to butt his head against a stone wall4 ,having found a farm that suits our ideal as to the natural conditions1 such as the crop adaptation1 fertility1 topography and climate1 what may be called the artificial conditions must be studied4 ,the location may be studied1 both as to local and distant markets and the means of reaching each1 which includes roadways and shipping facilities4 ,here again much will depend upon the products which are to be sold4 ,the man who raises tobacco1 hogs or beef cattle does not suffer any great economic disadvantage by living ten miles from a shipping station1 but a man does who produces milk1 peaches1 potatoes or hay4 ,in these days there is not much danger that the character of the roadway will be overlooked by the intending purchaser of the farm1 although sufficient importance may not be given to the advantage of really good roads1 both as to grade and surface4 ,perhaps the one most important question to consider in connection with the transportation facilities is whether products may be shipped without change from the shipping station to the market it is desired to reach4 ,although at first glance we may not like the thought1 it must be conceded that neighbors are not only important morally and socially1 but they also may have economic advantages and disadvantages4 ,while it may sometimes happen that it will be wise to raise in a given neighborhood some product that no one else has undertaken to supply1 yet as a rule1 if a given neighborhood is raising ,jersey1 or ,guernsey or ,holstein cattle or ,chester ,white1 ,berkshire or ,poland ,china hogs1 or ,southdown or ,shropshire or ,cotswold sheep1 it will be wise to raise the breed commonly raised instead of the least commonly raised breed1 as it is sometimes supposed4 ,the more potato growers or cabbage growers or celery raisers or orchardists in a locality the better for all concerned1 for a number of reasons1 among which may be mentioned 7#a7 the more and the better the products raised the more buyers will seek the region and hence the higher will be the price obtained for the product2 7#b7 the more of a given product there is to ship the better the shipping facilities for that product are likely to be2 7#c7 all the necessary supplies for the type of farming can be more readily and cheaply obtained2 7#d7 there will be a better knowledge of the business when more men have had experience in raising the particular crop4 ,these principles apply in all classes of business2 thus we find woolen factories in ,philadelphia1 silk factories at ,paterson1 ,n4 ,j41 cotton factories at ,lowell1 ,mass41 plow factories at ,moline1 ,ill41 and steel mills at ,pittsburg4 ,many of these centers possessed originally some natural advantages which caused the location of the first factory1 but others have been drawn there on account of the principles enunciated4 ,the farmers of a given region have a community of interest as well as railroads4 ,the young farmer should recognize this fact and if necessary should exert himself to develop such interest in his community1 both for his own benefit and that of his neighbors4 ,there are two classes of farms for which the purchaser is in danger of paying too much1 one on which there are extensive improvements and one on which there are none at all4 ,a farm with just barely enough improvements for the conduct of the type of farming it is proposed to develop can usually be purchased most advantageously4 ,the purchaser should understand clearly that the previous cost of the improvements has no necessary relation to their present value1 any more than the value of a second-hand suit of clothes is dependent upon its original cost4 ,all depends on how badly they are worn and how well they are adapted to present conditions4 ,the value of farm improvements is not unlike those in other business enterprises in this respect4 ,their value depends upon present and prospective earning capacity and not on former cost4 ,no rule can be laid down as to the relation which should exist between the value of land itself and the value of the improvements4 ,in practice it varies greatly4 ,in the ,united ,states the farm improvements constitute on an average #ba of the total value of land1 being as high as #de in ,massachusetts and as low as #ae in ,texas4 ,the young farmer may well consider1 therefore1 whether he can earn interest on his investment when the improvements cost more than #be of the total value of the real estate4 ,certainly when it becomes one-half it is excessive4 ,the man who runs a farm as an avocation usually errs in putting too much money into permanent improvements for the farm to be a paying investment4 ,if it is admitted that the farm unit is limited because of the physical difficulties of managing large areas1 then it must at once be seen how important the arrangement of the farmsteading must be to the successful conduct of the farm4 ,in the older farming communities where the present farm holdings are the result of several purchases or sales the shape of the farm1 the arrangement of the fields and the place of the farm buildings become an extremely important matter4 ,sometimes satisfactory rearrangements are easily made1 at other times they are quite impossible4 ,no attempt will be made to discuss this subject in detail here1 but the young farmer should bring to this question all the experience and study possible4 ,when the young farmer goes to inspect a farm it is to be assumed that he will be conducted over the farm by the owner or his authorized agent4 ,it is proper to give respectful attention to everything that is told him1 provided he follows carefully the ,california adage to believe nothing you hear and only one-half what you see4 ,if a farm consists of #bjj or #cjj acres of land1 it is possible for the agent to convey the purchaser over the farm in such a way as to prevent the least desirable portions being seen4 ,if the farm has attracted the seeker of land1 he should not purchase until he has made another visit1 preferably some days or weeks after the first one4 ,he may then very properly visit the farm alone1 passing over quite a different course from that pursued hitherto4 ,sketches and notes will be found very helpful1 and if the use of the soil auger is understood it may be well employed to study the character of both soil and subsoil4 ,during the interval between visits some casual inquiries may be made among those who know the history of the farm in question1 because the past history of the farm obtained from unprejudiced witnesses is of prime importance in arriving at a conclusion concerning its value4 ,a farm is much more attractive when a crop is growing upon it than when it is without active vegetation4 ,poor land looks relatively better than good land during or just after a rain4 ,many matters concerning the selection of a farm can only be learned by some years of practical experience4 ,the young farmer will do well1 therefore1 to secure the help of some more experienced person4 ,if he has among his acquaintances a successful farmer of mature years he will be fortunate if he can secure his advice4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,the ,,farm ,,scheme ,farming is no pink tea4 ,it is a serious business4 ,after the young farmer has selected the farm he must develop his farm scheme4 ,he must contemplate well and seriously the philosophy which underlies his plans4 ,unless he sees clearly what he is striving to attain and unless he understands the effect of his methods1 he must fail in great measure to obtain his goal4 ,satisfactory results in farming cannot be obtained as a general practice if the man is only interested in the results of a single year4 ,for this reason the itinerant tenant system will not be satisfactory unless the landlord has worked out a satisfactory scheme which he requires his tenant to follow4 ,it is not enough that a man shall grow a single large crop1 but it is necessary that he should continue to grow a satisfactory crop at least at regular intervals4 ,for example1 a piece of land may be adapted to cabbage1 celery1 potatoes or hay4 ,assume for the moment it is adapted to cabbage and that by one or more seasons of preparation an enormous crop of cabbages may be secured4 ,this fact is of little value unless sufficient quantity is raised and the process can be repeated annually4 ,cabbages cannot be grown again on this particular piece of land for from four to six years on account of club root4 ,if the farmer does not have other areas which he can bring into cabbages year after year1 for from three to five years1 then he becomes a failure as a cabbage raiser4 ,even a perennial1 like alfalfa or asparagus1 should form a part of the general scheme of crop production if the most satisfactory results are to be obtained4 ,there are two general questions at the basis of all farm schemes3 7#a7 ,how to obtain a fairly uniform succession of cash products year after year1 and 7#b7 how to keep up or improve the fertility of the soil economically while doing so4 ,in other words1 how to keep the investment from decreasing while it is earning a satisfactory and fairly uniform income4 ,it is necessary1 therefore1 to consider what products are to be sold and what are simply subsidiary to the cash products4 ,the cash products may1 of course1 be soil products or animal products1 but more likely they will be both4 ,when animals form a large part of the enterprise the cropping system must be carefully adjusted to meet the needs of these animals4 ,many apparently trivial details must be considered1 as for example1 whether the cropping system furnishes too little or too much bedding for the live stock4 ,in considering profits the enterprise as a whole must be kept in view4 ,for example1 if a man is producing milk1 it may be cheaper1 so far as the production of milk is concerned1 to allow the liquid excrement to run to waste rather than to arrange for sufficient bedding4 ,if1 however1 by using an abundance of bedding and saving all the high-priced nitrogen and the larger part of the potash in the manure1 he is able to raise twelve tons of silage in place of eight tons1 or three tons of hay in place of two tons1 his enterprise as a whole will be more profitable when he uses the extra amount of bedding1 although so far as the production of a quart of milk is concerned the cost is increased4 ,it may be that by feeding corn to cattle or sheep one will obtain only #ej cents a bushel for his maize1 while his neighbor is selling it to the elevator at #fj cents4 ,if1 however1 the man who feeds his maize year after year thereby raises #fj bushels instead of #dj bushels1 his enterprise1 as a whole1 may be more profitable than that of his neighbor4 ,as a matter of fact1 the ,pennsylvania experiment station has substantially these two conditions in certain of its fertilizer plats4 ,when for #be years the conditions have been similar to those where crops are sold from the farm1 the yields have been3 ,maize1 #db bushels2 oats1 #cb bushels2 wheat1 #ad bushels2 and hay1 #b1ghc pounds per acre4 ,but when conditions exist which represent the feeding of corn1 oats and hay and the return of manure to the soil1 the yields have been3 ,maize1 #eh bushels2 oats1 #da bushels2 wheat1 #bc bushels2 and hay #d1aij pounds per acre4 ,in the first instance the value of the products has been #ae4ge an acre1 while in the other case it has been #bb4ij an acre4 ,having worked out a cropping system that gives the proper yearly production of several crops desired1 the next question to decide is how this cropping system and the disposition of the crops is going to affect the fertility of the soil4 ,from a financial or economic point of view the most important soil element is nitrogen4 ,first1 because it costs from #ah to #bj cents a pound1 while phosphoric acid can be purchased at five cents1 potash at four cents2 and1 second1 because of the readiness with which nitrogen may disappear from the soil under improper management1 either through nitrification and leaching or by denitrification and passing back into the air4 ,assuming a given type of management1 the question is1 ,how much of the required nitrogen will be obtained from the legumes in the cropping system1 how much from the manure1 and how much must be purchased in commercial fertilizers8 ,no satisfactory cropping system can be devised at the present prices of farm products and cost of fertilizers for the production of the ordinary cereals and hay that does not include the production of some legume4 ,assuming a legume in the cropping scheme1 the fertility of the soil may be maintained by yard manure alone or by commercial fertilizers alone4 ,illustrations of both methods are to be found in actual practice4 ,generally speaking1 however1 the use of yard manure supplemented with commercial fertilizers will be found more scientific and in the end the most economical4 ,a factor entering into this problem will be the amount of purchased feed4 ,if considerable amounts of purchased feeds are used and the resulting manure carefully preserved and judiciously applied1 the commercial fertilizers required will be reduced to the minimum4 ,a concrete illustration may bring out the philosophy underlying farm schemes better than abstract problems4 ,the following outline shows a five-course rotation with the method of fertilization which the results of the ,pennsylvania ,station indicated would be advisable1 at least on limestone soils in eastern ,united ,states4 #a4 ,maize yard manure1 #h tons per acre4 #b4 ,oats nothing4 #c4 ,wheat acid phosphate1 #cej lbs4 muriate of potash1 #ajj lbs4 #d4 ,clover and timothy nothing4 #e4 ,timothy nitrate of soda1 #aej lbs4 acid phosphate1 #aej lbs4 muriate of potash1 #ej lbs4 ,this rotation is suggested for the purpose of maintaining a farm that is already in a fairly fertile condition and one on which there is no considerable amount of purchased feed4 ,where concentrates are purchased liberally1 yard manure should be available to use on the timothy and meadow in place of the commercial fertilizers4 ,where there is plenty of manure and it is desired to increase the amount of maize and hay and reduce the amount of oats and wheat1 the following rotation and method of fertilization would be indicated3 #a4 ,maize acid phosphate1 #bjj lbs4 #b4 ,maize yard manure1 #h tons4 #c4 ,oats nothing4 #d4 ,wheat acid phosphate1 #cej lbs4 muriate of potash1 #ajj lbs4 #e4 ,clover and timothy nothing4 #f4 ,timothy nitrate of soda1 #aej lbs4 acid phosphate1 #aej lbs4 muriate of potash1 #ej lbs4 #g4 ,timothy yard manure1 #h tons4 ,where there is plenty of yard manure1 it would be also applied to maize under ,no4 #a1 or the yard manure could be applied to maize under ,no4 #a1 and commercial fertilizer applied to timothy under ,no4 #f could be repeated under ,no4 #g4 ,if the land is more or less depleted1 an application of #bjj pounds of acid phosphate to the oats would be advisable4 ,however1 the purpose is not to prescribe exact methods1 but to point out underlying principles and their possible application4 ,as further illustration1 it seems probable that the practice of a market gardener in using excessive amounts of stable manure might1 in some instances at least1 be modified to good advantage by reducing the amount of manure and increasing the amount of commercial fertilizer used4 ,unfortunately there is no experimental evidence bearing upon this question4 ,potash required to maintain fertility is largely to be found in the coarse fodder1 such as hay1 maize stover and silage1 and in the straw used for bedding2 hence where these substances are used in abundance and returned to the soil the amount of potash required to be supplied in fertilizers is reduced to a minimum4 ,where1 however1 the amount of live stock is limited and the products sold contain large quantities of potash1 such as hay and straw1 the supply furnished in fertilizers must be liberal4 ,phosphoric acid is always being slowly depleted from the soil either from the sale of farm crops or animal products4 ,there is no way of returning this loss completely1 except from the addition of a commercial fertilizer4 ,the above fertilizer suggestions are based on the experiments covering a period of more than #be years on a limestone soil4 ,soils may modify materially the amount and application of the fertilizers1 but not the principles enunciated4 ,for example1 a soil on which common red clover grows luxuriantly and has a prominent place in the farm scheme will require less nitrogen in commercial fertilizers in order to maintain the fertility than where legumes are raised with difficulty or do not form a part of the farm scheme4 ,one of the most important points to be emphasized is the fact that haphazard fertilization is not effective in maintaining soil fertility4 ,if one starts out to establish a five-course rotation and build up his soil through a rational system of fertilization1 he will obviously not obtain the full benefit of the rotation until he begins to get crops from the second round1 which will be the sixth year from the beginning4 ,it may happen1 and unfortunately it has perhaps usually happened in the past1 that during the first rotation the increase in crops has not paid for the cost of the fertilizers applied4 ,in many instances a rational system of fertilization has not been introduced because the owner of the land could not afford to wait six years for his return4 ,profit in farming1 therefore1 does not consist in raising one big crop or even in obtaining a large balance on the right side of the ledger in a single year4 ,it is both interesting and valuable to know that five tons of timothy hay1 #de bushels of wheat1 #ajj bushels of maize and #dj tons of cabbage may be raised on an acre1 but the real profit in farming only comes through a lifetime of effort4 ,to the man of capacity who prepares for his work the results will surely come1 but they will not come all at once and1 as in every other business1 he must pay the price in hard work and close application to details4 ,in this connection it may be emphasized that one of the difficulties in successful farming is to find one man both interested and capable along the various lines essential to a successful farm enterprise4 ,the danger is that a man will ride his hobby to the detriment of the other activities of the farm4 ,a farmer friend of the writer1 who keeps a horse and buggy1 cares so little for a horse that for several years he has walked two miles each morning and each evening rather than to take the trouble to hitch up his horse4 ,if one visits a high-grade breeder of dairy cattle1 he is very apt to find his pigs of ordinary character4 ,on the other hand1 a specialist in hogs is likely to keep scrub cows4 ,a man may be an excellent wheat raiser and a poor potato grower1 and the reverse4 ,the breeder of live stock is likely to be lacking in his methods of producing farm crops1 while the up-to-date1 so-called general farmer is not likely to be a special lover of live stock4 ,in like manner1 the man may be a successful farmer1 dairyman or horticulturist from the producing side1 but be a poor salesman4 ,in fact1 those qualities of mind and heart which make for the best success from the standpoint of production1 whether soil products or animal products1 is not that which makes the best trader4 ,it is not expected that the young farmer will be materially different from his hundreds of thousands of predecessors1 but the better a man is trained and the more fully he studies his own adaptabilities and deficiencies1 the more likely he is to succeed in the open country4 ,for this reason1 the young man should be careful to get as broad a training as possible4 ,it is1 therefore1 often more important for him to study those things which he dislikes than to study the things for which he has a natural taste4 ,there was a man in our town ,and he was wondrous wise4 ,he knew that if he wanted crops ,he'd have to fertilize4 ,its nitrogen that makes things green1 ,said this man of active brain2 ,and potash makes the good strong straw1 ,and phosphate plumps the grain4 ,but it's clearly wrong to waste plant food ,on a wet and soggy field2 ,i'll surely have to put in drains ,if ,i'd increase the yield4 ,and after ,i have drained the land ,i must plow it deep all over2 ,and even then ,i'll not succeed ,unless it will grow clover4 ,now1 acid soils will not produce ,a clover sod that's prime2 ,so if ,i have a sour soil1 ,i'll have to put on lime4 ,and after doing all these things1 ,to make success more sure1 ,i'll try my very best to keep ,from wasting the manure4 ,so ,i'll drain1 and lime1 and cultivate1 ,with all that that implies2 ,and when ,i've done that thoroughly ,i'll manure and fertilize4 ,vivian ,,chapter ,,ix ,,the ,,rotation ,,of ,,crops ,the two essential reasons for a rotation of crops are3 7#a7 ,the possibility of obtaining for the soil a supply of nitrogen from the air by introducing a legume at regular intervals1 and 7#b7 the prevention of injury to the crops from fungous diseases1 insect enemies1 weeds or other causes4 ,other reasons are often advanced1 some of which are entirely erroneous1 while others are of quite secondary importance4 ,the rotation should be carefully studied with reference to the farm scheme as previously outlined4 ,reasons for modifying the rotations are3 7#a7 ,to change the kind or proportion of crops grown1 7#b7 to change the amount of labor required1 or 7#c7 to increase the crop-producing power of the soil4 ,during #be years the four crops of maize1 oats1 wheat1 timothy and clover hay have been taken in rotation from the four tiers of plats at the ,pennsylvania ,state ,college1 so that the influence of the soil has been entirely eliminated4 ,at the ,december farm prices for the decade ending ,december #a1 #aijf1 the value of these four crops per acre have been3 ,maize1 #bi4fg2 oats1 #ad4di2 wheat1 #ah4di2 and hay1 #ah4je4 ,it will be noted that during #be years the average income from an acre of maize has been almost exactly twice that from an acre of oats4 ,the region where these results were obtained is relatively unfavorable to a large yield of maize4 ,it is obvious1 therefore1 that a modification in the rotation may modify the average income from the farm materially1 provided such modification does not reduce the fertility of the soil4 ,thus1 while the average income per acre during #be years for the four-course rotation above mentioned was #bj4ag1 if the rotation were increased to a five-course rotation by the addition of another year of maize1 the average income would be #bb4de an acre4 ,it may be desirable to modify the rotation in order to increase or decrease a certain crop usually fed upon the farm4 ,thus1 with a four-course rotation of maize1 oats1 wheat1 clover and timothy1 one-fourth the area would produce hay2 while with a six-course rotation1 composed of maize1 oats1 wheat1 each one year1 and hay three years1 one-half the area would produce hay4 ,if it is desired to still further reduce the area in oats and wheat1 a seven-course rotation could be arranged with maize1 two years in succession4 ,this is the rotation that would be desirable for a dairy farm where it is planned to keep as many cows as practicable and to buy the concentrates largely4 ,either the wheat or the oats could be taken out of this rotation if either the one or the other were thought undesirable and a still greater amount of roughage desired4 ,on the other hand1 there are places where the minimum amount of roughage is wanted4 ,there are certain sections of the central ,west where it is possible to sow oats on corn stubble without plowing and where occasionally a rotation is practiced of maize1 oats and mammoth clover4 ,the clover is plowed for maize1 the oats are disked in upon the corn stubble and the next year the clover is pastured until about ,june #a1 when it is allowed to go to seed4 ,in this rotation the only roughage obtained is the corn stover and the oat straw4 ,another result reached by this rotation is that only one-third the land is plowed annually4 ,in the four-course rotation mentioned above three-fourths of the land must be plowed1 while in the six-course rotation one-half is plowed each year4 ,in other ways the character of the rotation modifies the labor4 ,for example1 the labor and cost of harvesting an acre of hay is much less than that of producing1 harvesting and threshing an acre of wheat4 ,rotations may often be planned with reference to the main or cash crop4 ,thus in the ,aroostook 7,maine7 potato district the rotation is potatoes1 oats and clover4 ,the chief purpose of the oats and clover is to keep down the blight in potatoes and add through the clover nitrogen and organic matter to the soil4 ,a system of cropping that is best when the owner operates the farm may not be desirable when the farmer is a tenant4 ,when a farm is rented1 the lease should provide that clover or other legumes occur with sufficient frequency to keep up the supply of nitrogen without the purchase of a considerable quantity in chemical fertilizers4 ,the lease should be so drawn as to make it necessary for the tenant to keep live stock in order to realize the largest profit4 ,the landlord should provide an equitable proportion of the mineral fertilizers when such are required4 ,the provisions of the lease and the character of the rotation will necessarily vary with circumstances1 but the following system of tenant farming which has been employed for many years in ,maryland will illustrate the principles just stated3 ,the lease provides for a five-course rotation consisting of maize1 wheat1 clover1 wheat1 clover4 ,the landlord and the tenant share the maize and wheat equally1 but the clover for hay or pasture goes entirely to the tenant1 unless hay is sold1 when it is divided equally4 ,they each provide one-half the commercial fertilizer and one-half the seed1 except clover seed1 which the tenant is required to furnish4 ,this lease provides for two clover crops out of every five crops raised1 thus supplying nitrogen abundantly1 and the terms of the lease are such that it is necessary for the tenant to keep live stock to consume these clover crops in order to secure the most profitable returns4 ,the feeding of the clover makes it necessary to feed some or all the maize and may lead to buying additional concentrates4 ,stable manure is thereby supplied for the field which is to raise maize1 while mineral fertilizers may be applied to the fields sown to wheat4 ,on the limestone soils of the eastern states #ej pounds each of phosphoric acid and potash per acre applied to the wheat1 and #aj loads of stable manure per acre to the maize will probably be found sufficient to maintain the crop producing power of the soil4 ,in laying out a farm for a rotation it is desirable to plan the number of fields or tracts that will go in a rotation and try to get these as nearly equal size as possible4 ,having decided upon the number of years the rotation is to run and having adjusted the fields or tracts accordingly1 it is quite possible to modify the proportion of crops by adding one crop and dropping another at the same time4 ,thus1 if there are six #bj-;acre fields1 any one of the following rotations might be used and the change from one to another easily made3 #a4 ,maize ,maize ,maize ,maize ,maize #b4 ,oats ,maize ,maize ,maize ,barley #c4 ,wheat ,oats ,oats ,wheat ,alfalfa #d4 ,clover and ,wheat ,clover and ,clover and ,alfalfa timothy timothy timothy #e4 ,timothy ,clover and ,timothy ,timothy ,alfalfa timothy #f4 ,timothy ,timothy ,timothy ,timothy ,alfalfa ,during the first year the #bj-;acre field could be divided into four tracts of five acres each1 containing potatoes1 cabbage1 tomatoes and sweet corn1 and then followed for four or five years by any succession of crops above outlined4 ,the point is that a definite adjustment of the farm to some general method of rotation and a definite system of fertilization and soil renovation do not prevent a considerable latitude in the crops raised4 ,it will be obvious that the longer the rotation the more flexible it becomes in this particular1 which is a point to be considered in laying out the farm and in adjusting fields and fences4 ,in some cases it may be desirable on account of the arrangement of the farm or the character of the crops to be raised to have two distinct rotations of crops4 ,for example1 if the farm lends itself to be divided into eight tracts1 a five-course rotation of maize1 oats1 wheat1 each one year1 and clover and timothy two years1 and a three-course rotation of potatoes1 oats or wheat and clover may be arranged4 ,,chapter ,x ,,the ,,equipment ,the workman is known by his tools4 ,the problem of obtaining the most efficient machinery for the conduct of the farm without having an excessive amount is not easy of solution4 ,it is probable that the cost of maintaining machinery and tools is not less than #ae1 #aj for upkeep and #e for interest1 even under the most careful management4 ,doubtless in practice it is as much as #be4 ,if this is conceded there must be a limit to the amount which may be economically invested in equipment4 ,this is a place where the lead pencil may be used profitably4 ,for example1 if #abe is invested in a self-binder1 the annual cost of the machine at #ae will be #ah4ge4 ,if one has but #ae acres of grain to harvest1 it may be better to hire a self-binder at #a an acre4 ,on the other hand1 it may be necessary to own a self-binder in order to get the grain harvested at the proper time4 ,among the machines requiring a considerable investment for the number of days used may be mentioned hay loaders1 hay tedders1 corn-binding harvesters and lime spreaders4 ,there is a certain class of labor-saving devices1 however1 for which there is more or less constant need1 as1 for example1 means of pumping water1 methods of handling manure1 both from the stable to the manure shed1 and from the manure shed to the field4 ,this leads to the remark that there is at present great need of modifying our traditional ideas concerning farm barns4 ,why do persons usually sleep on the second floor1 while horses and cattle are placed in the basement8 ,three things have brought about the need of a radical revision of our practices concerning the planning of barns3 7#a7 ,our present knowledge of the difference in the function of food in keeping the animal warm1 and that of producing work1 flesh or milk2 7#b7 the discovery of the bacillus of tuberculosis2 and 7#c7 the invention of the hay carrier4 ,it is not the purpose here to discuss barn buildings1 but merely to call attention to the fact that the traditional barn has long since outlived its usefulness1 and that the young farmer should plan his farm buildings to serve the purposes required in the light of modern knowledge4 ,various attempts have been made to manufacture combined machines2 that is1 a machine which1 by an interchange of parts or other modification1 may be used for two or more purposes1 as1 for example1 harvesting small grain and cutting grass4 ,such attempts have usually been unsuccessful4 ,on the other hand1 the young farmer should consider the range of usefulness of any given type of machine or tool2 thus1 a disk harrow is more efficient for some purposes than a spring-tooth harrow4 ,for other purposes the spike-tooth harrow is better than the spring tooth4 ,the spring-tooth harrow1 however1 will do fairly well wherever the disk harrow or the spike-tooth harrow is needed4 ,when1 therefore1 only one of these tools can be afforded1 the spring tooth may be a better tool to buy than either the disk or the spike-tooth1 although it is not for certain purposes as efficient as either of the others4 ,the kind of machine should obviously be adjusted to the conditions1 as1 for example1 the size of the farm1 and the character of the farming4 ,riding plows may be desirable on level land1 but where it is necessary to plow up and down hill1 walking plows should be used4 ,the extra weight of the wheel plow is not a serious matter on level land1 because the sliding friction has been transferred to rolling friction1 but no mechanical device has been or can be invented which will decrease the power necessary to raise a given weight a given height4 ,the various machines requiring horse power should be adjusted1 as far as possible1 to require the same number of horses4 ,if the main unit is three horses1 then1 as far as possible1 all machines should require three horses1 such as plows1 harrows1 manure spreaders1 harvesters1 etc4 ,if the activities of the farm are sufficient to require six horses then some of the tools may require three horses each1 while others require a pair4 ,illustration3 ,mr4 ,r4 ,h4 ,garrahan1 ,kingston1 ,pa41 is one of the most successful growers of celery in the ,united ,states4 ,after graduating from the ,wyoming ,seminary he spent one year studying horticulture at the ,pennsylvania ,state ,college4 ,for several years he was assistant in horticulture at the ,university of ,tennessee4 ,he now has at ,kingston #fj acres under intensive cultivation4 ,his principal crops are celery1 asparagus1 cabbage1 tomatoes and onions4 ,illustration3 ,h4 ,h4 ,richardson1 ,brooklyn ,heights1 ,ohio1 agricultural graduate1 ,ohio ,state ,university1 #ahib4 ,fourteen years ago inherited #ce acres of land and an indebtedness of #a1gej4 ,he has raised a family of four children1 has what is seen in the picture plus the land and #f1jjj invested elsewhere4 ,mr4 ,richardson has held some local public office continuously during the past ten years1 being at present member of school and water boards1 member of advisory board of bank1 secretary of ,cleveland ,fruit and ,vegetable ,growers' ,association and ,ohio vice-president of the ,national ,vegetable ,growers' ,association4 ,a farm with six work horses is rather a desirable one from several aspects4 ,among other things1 it enables the farm owner to employ two men who can perform most of the team work with two three-horse teams1 while at other times three pairs of horses may be arranged when the owner needs to use a team4 ,this leaves the farmer time to attend to many activities not requiring horses1 and time to plan the work and to look with more care after the purchases and sales4 ,the size of such a farm will depend entirely on the nature of the activities4 ,if it is a so-called general farm with a minimum of live stock1 it would1 perhaps1 consist of from #aej to #ahj acres of tillable land with some additional pasture and woodland4 ,ideally1 every farm should have sufficient activity to make it something of a center4 ,it should be an organism4 ,it is difficult to organize one man4 ,it will be useful1 when we come to discuss how profits may be estimated1 to divide the capital into three general groups3 7#a7 ,the plant1 which in addition to the real estate1 will include the machines and tools1 horses used for labor1 and other animals used for breeding purposes or for the production of animal products1 such as butter1 wool or eggs2 7#b7 materials1 which will include animals which are to be fattened for sale1 and all seeds1 fertilizers and foods intended to be turned into products to be sold2 7#c7 supplies1 which may include foods for teams1 and money with which to pay labor1 be this labor that of the farmer or his employees4 ,the purpose of this classification is to bring sharply into view the fact that the nature of different kinds of equipment varies4 ,all the things named under the plant are in the nature of an annual charge against income4 ,the charge under materials may or may not be an annual charge4 ,if a man invests #b1jjj in #ej head of cattle1 which he intends to feed and sell for #c1bej at the end of one hundred days1 he does not have to calculate interest on #b1jjj for a year1 but only for #ajj days4 ,cattle paper is held in large quantities by banks in the cattle feeding districts of the ,united ,states4 ,the farmer would1 in fact1 be unwise to keep #b1jjj in the bank nine months in the year in order to use it three months4 ,like any other business man1 if he has the money1 he invests it and borrows the money to buy his cattle4 ,the same thing applies to food and fertilizers4 ,if the food is fed to cattle1 some of the money invested in the food must pay interest during the fattening period4 ,food fed to dairy cattle and chickens may be paid for out of each day's income4 ,in practice1 the amount of money invested in food for dairy cattle and chickens is dependent only upon the most economical unit of purchase4 ,one may apply fertilizers to buckwheat1 give a three months' note for the fertilizer1 and pay the note out of the proceeds of the crop4 ,if the fertilizer is applied to one-year-old apple trees1 this investment may be required to pay interest for fifteen years4 ,the same principle applies to supplies4 ,if one starts into raising horses for sale1 he needs to have some money or other income on which his laborers and his own family can live1 say for five years1 this being the age at which a horse is supposed to become salable4 ,more people would raise apples and horses if they could afford to wait for the return on the investment4 ,while this is a serious handicap1 it is an advantage to the man who arranges his farming methods so that he can secure an income from some other source in the interim4 ,the young farmer will do wisely to so arrange his farm methods that a portion1 perhaps the major portion of his farm1 will give him quick returns while making some long-time investments1 which later in life will give him a greater return because so few people are sufficiently forehanded to make them4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,how ,,to ,,estimate ,,profits ,no man who engages in manufacturing or merchandising knows how much he is going to make annually during life4 ,much less does he know how much he will be worth when he dies4 ,neither does the man who works for a salary or practices some profession for fees know what his annual income will be even during the following decade4 ,neither one nor the other knows whether he will die a millionaire or a pauper4 ,it is a problem too complex for any human mind to analyze4 ,it is less certain than what the weather will be on this day next year1 because it is the resultant of more variable factors4 ,in some respects there is more hazard in farming than in manufacturing or in merchandising1 while in other respects there is much less4 ,the profit which may be obtained from farming is neither easier nor more difficult to estimate than is that of other commercial enterprises4 ,however1 there is no business in which more foolish estimates are made as to the probable profits1 except1 perhaps1 in mining4 ,the purpose of this chapter is not to give advice as to possible or probable profits1 but rather to point out the general character of the data required for any individual problem1 where the data may be obtained and how it may be applied4 ,there are two forms or methods of stating the financial gain that has been obtained from farming or other business ventures during a year or other specific period4 ,the first may be called the interest on the investment method1 and the second the labor income method4 ,with the interest on the investment method1 all expenses may be subtracted from all the sales4 ,from the cash balance thus obtained the increase or decrease in inventory may be added or subtracted4 ,this balance may then be divided by the capital invested1 to determine the rate of interest received4 ,the rate of interest method is the usual method in the commercial world4 ,the prosperity of the railroad or industrial concern is judged by the rate of interest it pays its stockholders on the par value of the stock4 ,the stock itself takes on the capitalization in accordance with the present and prospective dividends4 ,the fact that this method is generally used in the commercial world is evidence that it is well suited to its needs4 ,the young farmer who wishes to know whether the operation of a given tract of land in a certain manner offers him a worthy opportunity will not find the interest on the investment method the best suited for his purpose4 ,this is especially true when applied to a single product4 ,for example1 it may be shown that #ej hens will1 when properly managed1 in connection with other farm enterprises1 return a remarkable interest on the capital employed4 ,it does not follow1 however1 that a man can make a living with fifty hens or even #ejj hens4 ,if a man has an investment of #e1jjj1 on which he obtains #aj per cent1 his income would be #ejj4 ,if1 on the other hand1 he has an investment of #be1jjj and obtains a return of only #f1 his income is #a1ejj1 or three times the former amount4 ,in neither case1 however1 does this form of statement tell a man how much of his income is due to his brain and brawn and how much to the capital invested4 ,what the young farmer wishes to know is how much will he receive for his own time1 energy and skill1 after deducting all expenses and a reasonable interest charge on his investment--such a rate of interest as he could get by placing his money in good securities or what he would be required to pay for his capital if he borrowed it4 ,this is best obtained by the labor income method4 ,with this method all expenses are subtracted from all sales and to the cash balance thus obtained is added or subtracted the increase or decrease in the inventory4 ,this balance may be called the farm income4 ,thus far the procedure is just the same as the interest on the investment method4 ,from the farm income is now subtracted a reasonable interest on the investment1 the balance remaining is called the labor income4 ,this is the return which the farmer has obtained by and for his own efforts4 ,if this balance is zero1 then he should change his methods or get into some other business4 ,this statement of his income1 whatever it may be1 enables him to compare his prosperity with that of the man who is employed upon a salary4 ,here1 again1 however1 it is difficult to make comparisons because of the differences in expenses of living4 ,the chief difference1 however1 in the expense of the wage earner in the city and the farmer is in the matter of house rent4 ,for example1 if the wage earner pays #cjj a year house rent that must be deducted from his income in comparing it with the labor income of the farmer4 ,it is often stated that the farmer also has his living from the farm4 ,this was much more true formerly than it is at present4 ,under present methods of distributing food products and with modern types of farming1 the amount of food supplied the table from the farm is comparatively small4 ,the rancher in ,montana eats foods canned in ,maine or ,delaware1 while the ,new ,hampshire farmer buys his vegetables from ,boston commission merchants4 ,the ,minnesota farmer cannot supply his breakfast table with oranges1 grapefruit or oatmeal4 ,many of them buy1 if not their bread1 at least their flour1 and also their butter4 ,the fact that the city man indulges in high living is no argument in favor of the country man expecting less wages4 ,some of those things which are necessary to make the country an ideal place to live are expensive4 ,some of them are more expensive to obtain in the country than in the city1 as1 for example1 educational facilities4 ,in justifying his purchase of an automobile1 a young farmer recently stated that his wife had certain cares1 responsibilities and even privations which her city friends did not have4 ,he thought that the automobile would help to offset them4 ,to my mind there is no more ideal place to live and rear a family than in the open country when the conditions are what they should be and may be4 ,i believe1 however1 it is well to insist that it costs something to live in the country as well as in the city if one lives as well as every farmer has a right to expect to live4 ,let us now consider the steps necessary in order to arrive at a fair estimate of the labor income4 ,to make the matter concrete1 we will assume a farm of #bjj acres worth #fj an acre located in central ,pennsylvania on a limestone clay loam soil over #a1jjj feet above sea level4 ,this farm is to contain #bj acres of timber1 a #cj-;acre apple orchard two years old1 #dj acres of pasture1 #if acres of cultivated land divided into six #af-;acre fields4 ,the rest of the #bjj acres consists of small yards1 roadways and waste land4 ,one-half of each of the six #af-;acre fields is to consist of a rotation of maize1 oats and wheat1 each one year1 and hay three years1 the latter clover and timothy followed by timothy4 ,the other half is to consist of maize1 barley1 followed by alfalfa four years4 ,in the young orchard there will be grown for a few years potatoes1 tomatoes1 cabbages and garden peas4 ,after the orchard attains a size which forbids these intertilled crops1 a portion of the pasture may be broken up so that these market garden crops may be raised4 ,there will be kept six horses1 #bj milch cows1 #bj ewes of some mutton breed of sheep1 five brood sows and #ej hens4 ,first of all1 let attention be called to the broad knowledge of farming required to operate this moderate-sized and comparatively simple farm4 ,the crops to be raised are maize1 oats1 wheat1 clover1 alfalfa1 timothy1 potatoes1 tomatoes1 cabbages1 garden peas and apples4 ,the animal products sold will be chiefly butter fat1 wool1 mutton1 veal1 pork and eggs4 ,this is neither a long nor complex list of products4 ,they are all adapted to the farm which the writer has in mind4 ,yet the man who operates this farm to the highest success will need to have a knowledge of agronomy1 or the raising of field crops1 of horticulture1 animal husbandry1 including poultry husbandry and dairying4 ,he needs to have a good understanding of the principles of agricultural chemistry1 to have a knowledge of how to prevent and combat fungous diseases and insect enemies4 ,to get the most out of his timber land he should know at least some of the first principles of forestry1 and if he has gained some instruction in the study of landscape gardening1 his home will be more attractive1 and his farm a source of greater pleasure to him4 ,to proceed with the estimate1 the first thing to be done is to make a record of the cropping system1 giving the areas and the estimated production of each crop4 ,how is the yield per acre to be determined8 ,clearly1 one cannot afford to estimate his profits on the basis of some unusual yields4 ,if one could be assured of #dj bushels of wheat1 #fj bushels of oats1 five tons of hay1 #cjj bushels of potatoes1 or #bjj bushels of apples per acre1 or #ejj pounds of butter fat per cow1 or #aej eggs per hen per year1 there would be no difficulty about obtaining a snug labor income4 ,such results are possible and are appropriate ideals for which to strive1 but are not safe as estimates on which to do business4 ,the year books of the ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture contain the annual estimate of the yields1 and the average ,december farm price of staple crops by states4 ,these figures may serve as a basis for making estimates4 ,if the natural conditions are about the average stated1 one may properly assume that he can obtain an increase of #ej4 ,he may even hope to double the yield1 although it is not safe to assume such an increase in making an estimate of profits4 ,if the natural conditions are more favorable or less favorable than the average1 he must take the fact into consideration in his estimates4 ,in the same way he may consider whether the average ,december farm price represents fairly his expectation of the price1 or whether because of favorable location or superior quality of the article purchased he can expect higher remuneration4 ,it is here assumed that the young farmer is himself going to be more than an average farmer4 ,if he is not he will only get average results1 in which case his labor income will be only that of the ordinary day laborer4 ,to repeat the idea in concrete terms4 ,if the young farmer is located in central ,pennsylvania and finds that the average yield of wheat for the state is #ag bushels an acre1 he may safely estimate that his improved methods will bring him #be bushels of wheat to the acre4 ,he may even hope for #cd bushels per acre4 ,at the ,pennsylvania station several varieties of wheat have1 during the past #ah years1 averaged over #cj bushels per acre4 ,one year one variety produced #dc bushels4 ,it would not be safe1 however1 to use such figures in estimating profits4 ,having outlined the cropping system and made a careful estimate of the total annual production of each crop1 the next step is to determine the amount of food and bedding required for the live stock4 ,from this data it may be determined what products will be available for sale1 and what foodstuffs must be bought4 ,thus1 it may be found1 for example1 that the amount of oats raised just meets the requirement1 while more maize must be purchased1 together with nitrogenous concentrates1 and that a portion of the hay is available for sale4 ,in the farm under consideration there will1 of course1 be wheat1 potatoes1 tomatoes1 cabbages1 garden peas and the animal products previously mentioned for sale1 and later there will be apples and some lumber from the wood lot4 ,the data are now at hand by which to estimate the total receipts4 ,having made the estimates of receipts1 the expenses are estimated1 and the difference gives the cash balance1 if there is any4 ,the most important items of expense will be labor1 feed1 seeds1 fertilizers1 harvesting and threshing expenses1 spraying material1 shipping packages1 blacksmithing and repairs4 ,after all expenses that can be thought of are included not less than #aj should be added for incidental expenses4 ,the amount of commercial or natural fertilizers to be purchased is1 of course1 related to the yard manure which will be produced on the farm2 therefore some estimate of the probable amount is desirable4 ,in a roughly empirical way the amount of manure produced may be estimated at twice the amount of dry food and bedding used1 provided it is hauled daily to the field4 ,where stored and drawn to the field at stated periods1 the shrinkage in weight1 although not necessarily in plant food1 may be as much as one-half4 ,the estimate of what the inventory should be at the beginning and end of the year is not so simple a matter as it may at first seem to be4 ,the purpose of taking the inventory is twofold3 ,first1 to determine whether the inventory has increased or decreased1 and second1 to determine on what amount of capital interest is to be calculated4 ,for example1 one must carry forward each year seed for the next year's crop4 ,feed must be carried over to feed live stock until other food becomes available1 and there must be money on hand with which to pay for labor unless there is a cash income from the sale of products sufficient to care for the labor bills4 ,in the case of the farm under consideration there is a young orchard of about one thousand trees4 ,this orchard is not bringing in any income1 but there is a constant expenditure of money on it1 and a constant increase in its value4 ,while1 therefore1 it decreases the cash income it increases the farm income and the labor income4 ,on the other hand1 it increases the interest charges because the plant or farm is increasing in value4 ,how much will it increase in value8 ,in some sections it is customary to consider that an orchard increases in value #a per tree per year4 ,if this is a correct estimate1 this #a1jjj-tree orchard will increase the value of the farm #a1jjj a year until it comes into full bearing4 ,the farm under consideration was purchased two years ago for #i1ejj4 ,on the assumption just stated1 at the end of #ae years from date of purchase this farm should be worth #be1jjj1 at least #ae1jjj of which will be due to a #cj-;acre orchard4 ,this is at the rate of #ejj an acre for the orchard itself4 ,in order to bring out some of the phases of the inventory more clearly the following classification of items is given below3 ,,inventory ,a4 ,,plant4 ,the real estate1 #bjj acres at #fj per acre4 ,the live stock4 ,work horses and breeding stock4 ,machinery4 ,b4 ,,materials4 ,seeds1 potatoes1 oats1 maize1 wheat4 ,feed1 hay for cattle and sheep1 silage for cows1 maize for pigs4 ,growing wheat1 #h acres at #f per acre4 ,live stock1 calves1 lambs and pigs4 ,c4 ,,supplies4 ,hay and oats for horses4 ,money for current expenses4 ,in estimating the inventory at the end of the year1 a deduction should be made for the decrease in the value of the live stock under the plant and also for the machinery4 ,perhaps #e for the live stock and #aj for the machinery and tools will be a fair deduction4 ,under materials and supplies those items have been inventoried which are to be carried over each year from the preceding year4 ,in the case of seeds the amount required must be deducted from the amount sold1 or they must appear as a charge in the expense account4 ,ordinarily they are carried over from year to year and thus become a part of the permanent investment4 ,since on the farm under consideration there is a considerable monthly income from the sale of butter fat and eggs1 it may be possible that no allowance will be needed in the inventory for current expenses1 although it is always desirable to carry a bank account in order to be able to make favorable purchases when opportunity offers4 ,as a part of the work in a course in farm management1 the writer asked each student to secure the financial history of an actual farm covering a period of three years4 ,the financial history of #cj farms during the years #aija to #aijc1 inclusive1 and #bh farms during the years #aijb-aijd1 inclusive1 was thus obtained and is given herewith4 ,,summary ,,of ,,financial ,,history ,,of ,,farms ,average size of farm1 acres #adc4ba #acc ,average area in crops 7includes pasture71 acres #aba4a #aab ,capital at end of three-year period #ad1jji #h1hic ,capital at beginning three-year period #ab1ifb #g1gjd ------- ------ ,difference #a1jdg #a1ahi ,interest on capital1 #ac1dhe1 at #e per cent,b #fgd #dae ,increase in capital per annum #cdi #cif ,average yearly receipts #c1fac #b1bjh ,average yearly disbursements #a1ijg #a1bba ,average yearly cash balance #a1gjf #ihg ,average yearly farm income #b1jee #a1chc ,average yearly labor income #a1cha #ifh ,these figures show the application of principles enunciated in this chapter4 ,a careful reader will have no difficulty in recognizing how the different items have been obtained4 ,for example1 the difference between the receipts and disbursements in the first column gives the cash balance of #a1gjf4 ,the farm income1 #b1jee1 is obtained by adding to the cash balance #cdi1 which is the annual increase in the capital4 ,the labor income is obtained by subtracting from the farm income the interest on the capital at five per cent4 ,the amount of capital is determined by dividing by two the sum of the inventories at the beginning and end of the period4,c ,it will be noted that the gross receipts1 the expenses1 the farm income and the labor income on these actual farms are all more closely related to the capital invested than the size of the farm4 ,thus1 on the #cj farms with a capitalization of about #ac1ejj1 the average yearly receipts were about #be an acre1 while on the #bh farms with a capitalization of about #h1cjj1 the average yearly receipts were about #af an acre4 ,likewise on the high-priced farms the labor income was approximately #aj an acre1 while on the lower priced ones it was about #g4 ----- ,b ,obtained by dividing by two the sum of capital at beginning and end of three-year period4 ,c ,for further details see ,hunt1 ,how to ,choose a ,farm1 ,chaps4 ,x and ,,xi4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,grain ,,and ,,hay ,,farming ,an important and primary factor in the production of all wealth is labor4 ,aside from the professional and domestic classes1 the people of the world devote themselves to three forms of work3 7#a7 ,changes in substance1 or natural products2 7#b7 changes in form1 or mechanical products2 7#c7 changes in place1 or exchange of products4 ,the second of these forms of work gives rise to manufacturing2 the third1 to trade and commerce4 ,under the first sub-division two classes of natural products may be recognized2 first1 what1 for want of a better name1 may be called chemical products1 such as ores1 coal and salt1 from which are derived mining and the metallurgical arts2 and second1 vital products1 or1 in other words1 vegetation and animals4 ,it is work applied to the production of vegetation and animals that gives rise to agriculture4 ,agriculture is labor applied to the production of living things4 ,,kinds ,,of ,,agriculture ,the industries which deal with the production of living things may be divided1 theoretically1 largely on the basis of the character of the results1 but to some extent upon the nature of the activities involved4 ,grain ,farming--,cereals and grasses4 ,agriculture ,plantations--,cotton1 sugar1 tobacco1 coffee4 ,plant ,production 7,soil ,culture7 ,truck ,farming1 ,market ,gardening--,vegetables4 ,horticulture ,fruit ,growing--,fruits4 ,forestry--,trees1 shrubs4 ,stock ,raising--,work1 meat1 fats1 hides4 ,stock ,feeding--,meat1 fats4 ,stock ,breeding--,animals4 ,animal ,production ,dairy ,farming--,milk1 butter and cheese4 7,an4 ,husbandry7 ,sheep ,husbandry--,wool raising4 ,poultry ,raising--,eggs4 ,beekeeping--,honey4 ,mixed ,husbandry ,the manner in which this theoretical classification has worked out in actual practice will be indicated in some measure by the inquiries of the ,united ,states ,census ,bureau4 ,the twelfth census has classified farms on the basis of their principal income4 ,if #dj or more of the gross income of the farm was from dairy products1 it was called a dairy farm2 if from live stock1 a live stock farm2 if from cotton1 a cotton farm4 ,if no product constituted #dj of the gross receipts1 the farm was classified as a miscellaneous or general farm4 ,in #aijj there were #e1gdj1jjj farms in the ,united ,states1 which were1 according to the rule just stated1 classified as follows3 ,,farms ,,classified ,,according ,,to ,,principal ,,source ,,of ,,income ,gross ,average income ,total area1 size per ,kind of farm4 acres4 ,number4 acres4 farm4 ,hay and grain #baj1bdc1jjj #a1cbj1jjj #aei #gfj ,vegetables #aj1aeg1jjj #aef1jjj #fe #ffe ,fruits #f1aej1jjj #hb1jjj #ge #iae ,live stock #cce1jji1jjj #a1efe1jjj #bbg #ghh ,dairy produce #dc1bhd1jjj #ceh1jjj #abj #ghg ,tobacco #i1egd1jjj #ajf1jjj #ij #fae ,cotton #hi1ehg1jjj #a1jgb1jjj #hd #dcj ,rice #a1jhh1jjj #f1jjj #aij #a1cce ,sugar #b1fhi1jjj #g1jjj #cfc #e1cag ,flowers and plants #dc1jjj #f1jjj #g #b1iia ,nursery products #aff1jjj #b1jjj #hb #d1iga ,miscellaneous #aac1add1jjj #a1jei1jjj #ajg #ddj ----------- --------- --- ----- ,total #hdd1jjj1jjj #e1gdj1jjj #adg #fef ,including miscellaneous or general farms1 there are just a dozen kinds of farms mentioned4 ,of this number1 nine kinds obtained at least #dj of their products1 and probably much more1 from vegetable rather than from animal forms4 ,however1 live stock and dairy farms constitute about one-third of the total number of farms1 and almost one-half the farm acreage4 ,there are four kinds of farms on which the production of grain and hay forms an important part of their activities2 namely1 the hay and grain farm1 the live stock farm1 the dairy farm1 and general farm4 ,these constitute1 in the aggregate1 #ge of the farms of the ,united ,states1 and by virtue of their larger area1 they occupy #he of the total farm area4 ,,grain ,,and ,,hay ,,statistics ,at the close of the nineteenth century less than one-half the area of the ,united ,states was owned in farms4 ,only one-half of this farm area was considered to be under cultivation4 ,the total area in cereals was one-tenth the total land area1 while #c was devoted to hay and #b to all other crops except pasture4 ,without going into details1 it may be stated with reasonable assurance that3 7#a7 ,during the last half of the last century1 the production of cereals has increased much faster than the population4 ,for example1 in #ahej1 there were raised in the ,united ,states one ton of cereal grains per capita2 by #aijj this amount had increased to one and one-half tons for each inhabitant4 7#b7 ,since the number of persons engaged in agriculture has decreased in proportion to population1 the quantity of cereals produced in proportion to persons engaged in agriculture has increased in still greater ratio4 ,so far1 therefore1 as the amount of cereals is concerned1 the farmer has been getting an increasingly larger return for his labor4 7#c7 ,the quantity of cereals has increased in proportion to the arable land4 ,this may be due to one or more of three causes3 7a7 greater average yield per acre2 7b7 greater proportion of cereals to other crops2 or 7c7 to a change in the ratio of the different cereal crops4 ,the following table1 giving the average yield of grain1 reduced to pounds per acre1 shows not only how the substitution of one cereal for another might affect the total production of cereal grains1 but also suggests to the young farmer how he may modify the total product of his farm3 ,yield ,lb4 ,lb4 in bu4 per bu4 per acre ,maize #bd4b #ef #acee ,barley #bc4g #dh #aach ,rye #ae4j #ef #hdj ,oats #bf4b #cb #hch ,wheat #ac4b #fj #gib ,rice ,paddy #gdf ,buckwheat #ad4j #dh #fgb ,yields will vary relatively in different regions and with different types of soil1 and should be studied with reference to one's conditions4 7#d7 ,the wheat and oat crops have increased about six and one-half times in #ej years1 the hay crop five and one-half times1 while maize has increased four and one-half times4 ,cotton1 the only other great staple crop1 has increased four times in the same period4 ,the oat crop has increased the most rapidly of any since #ahhj4 ,it is interesting1 and may be significant1 to note that1 while the production of wheat and barley in ,great ,britain has decreased about one-half in thirty years1 the production of oats has increased somewhat4 7#e7 ,the greatest rate of increase in the production of cereals in the ,united ,states during the last half century has taken place since #ahgj4 ,this increase is coincident with three other facts of the utmost importance3 7a7 ,the development of the central ,west1 a treeless plain--prior to this period much of the farm land in the ,united ,states had been hewn out of the forest1 tree by tree2 7b7 the consolidation of the steam railways into transcontinental lines2 and 7c7 the introduction of the self-binding harvester4 ,formerly it took at least five men to do what is done today by one man in the harvesting of cereals4 ,,advantages ,,of ,,grain ,,farming 7#a7 ,the cost of land excepted1 the production of hay and grain requires a small outlay of money4 ,during the past fifty years1 many thousands of persons have been able to obtain farms of #afj acres at almost no cost4 ,with a few hundred dollars invested in horses and tools with which to plow the prairie and sow the seed1 these fortunate persons have oftentimes been able to pay the whole of their expenses1 capital included1 from the first crop4 ,the renter who operates a hay and grain farm usually has but a small capital invested in his business4 7#b7 ,the cereals bring a quick return4 ,wheat may be sown in ,september and sold in ,july2 maize may be planted in ,may and sold in ,november2 oats may be planted in ,april and sold in ,august4 ,the short period between seed time and harvest makes the oat crop a favorite one among renters4 ,on the other hand1 it takes from three to seven years to produce a marketable horse4 ,it may take ten to fifteen years to begin to realize on an apple orchard4 7#c7 ,the products are not easily perishable1 and hence can be held almost indefinitely4 ,the development of the magnificent elevator system1 based upon the principle that the cereals can be handled like water1 greatly simplifies the holding and preservation of these staple products4 7#d7 ,the products are in constant demand1 and hence they always find a market4 ,agricultural commodities may be divided into three classes1 depending upon the area which controls the price of the commodity1 as follows3 7a7 price units world-wide1 as wheat1 cotton1 pork2 7b7 price units local to large districts--products too bulky to ship long distances--such as hay1 potatoes and apples2 7c7 price units local to relatively small areas1 such as strawberries and green vegetables4 ,it is obvious that the larger the area which controls the price1 the more constant will be the demand4 ,,objections ,,to ,,grain ,,farming 7#a7 ,it exhausts the soil4 ,about two-thirds of the wheat of the ,united ,states is consumed outside the county in which it is raised4 7#b7 ,it requires a large quantity of land to produce a competence4 ,land must be low in price1 or the interest on the money invested in the land will consume the profits4 ,the relation of crop to income is suggested by comparing the gross returns from an acre of potatoes or tobacco with an acre of maize4 ,the average gross income during a decade was1 from an acre of maize1 #i4ej2 an acre of potatoes1 #ch2 and from an acre of tobacco1 #fa4ej4 7#c7 ,only such part of the land as is suited to tillage can be used4 7#d7 ,the marketing of cereals requires the transportation of bulky products4 ,hay is handicapped much more seriously4 ,the distance a product can be shipped depends somewhat on the price per pound received for it4 ,if it costs one cent a pound to ship maize to a grain market1 obviously it cannot be transported without loss when it brings only #ej cents a bushel4 ,on the other hand1 two cents a pound may easily be paid for shipping butter which is worth #be cents a pound4 ,the transportation of #b1jjj worth of maize to a railway station ten miles distant is a laborious and expensive operation1 but when this same maize is turned into beef or pork1 it will transport itself to the station with comparatively little trouble4 ,notwithstanding the excellent transportation facilities which the farmers of the ,united ,states enjoy1 #hj of the maize is consumed in the county in which it is raised4 ,cereal production demands better transportation facilities than cotton farming1 tobacco growing or the rearing of domestic animals4 7#e7 ,capital must lie idle much of the time4 ,the self-binding harvester or the hay rake is only used a few weeks1 or perhaps more often only a few days1 each year4 ,a cream separator or a churn may be used every day in the year4 ,in the first instance1 there is not only interest on unemployed capital1 but the capital is actually deteriorating through nonuse4 7#f7 ,the production of hay and grain does not give continuous employment4 ,the slightest consideration of the following table must show that unless live stock is kept1 there are considerable periods of the year in which very little labor is required1 while at other times considerable work is necessary to prevent loss4 ,,table ,,showing ,,the ,,average ,,acreage ,,per ,,farm ,,of ,,principal ,,crops4 ,new ,york ,ohio ,wisconsin ,virginia ,maize #c #ac #i #aa ,wheat #b #ab #c #f ,oats #e #d #ad #a ,barley1 rye or buckwheat #b -- #e #j ,hay and forage #bc #aa #ad #d ,potatoes1 beans or other vegetables #c #a #b #a ,fruits #b #b #j #a ,miscellaneous crops #b #a #j #b ,pasture1 wood or unimproved land #eh #de #gj #ic --- -- --- --- ,total size of farm #ajj #hi #aag #aai 7#g7 ,much depends upon natural forces4 ,while there is opportunity for the use of knowledge and judgment in the production of high-grade seeds and even of large yields1 there is not the same scope for skill that there is in some other lines of agricultural enterprise4 ,skill means the capacity to do something difficult1 and the more effort required to produce an object the more value it has1 provided its utility is unlimited4 ,the farming which requires the most skill pays the best if one has the skill to apply to it4 ,this is because those who do not have the requisite skill are usually unsuccessful4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,the ,,cost ,,of ,,farming ,,operations ,several millions of the inhabitants of the ,united ,states1 not to mention those of other countries1 are engaged each year in the preparation of the soil for the cereal and forage crops and on the work of seeding and harvesting them4 ,the welfare of one-third the population is directly and that of the other two-thirds1 although less directly1 is quite as surely dependent upon the effectiveness of this effort4 ,if1 for example1 as sometimes happens1 one-third the population receives on account of untoward seasonal conditions but four-fifths of the usual product1 everyone must suffer on account of this unrewarded labor4 ,many1 perhaps most1 financial panics have their origin in crop failures aided1 doubtless1 by an improper financial system4 ,although widely and sometimes bitterly discussed1 little is really known concerning the relation between the effort expended and the returns obtained in producing the great staple farm products2 yet one of the most important and vital considerations in the organization of a farm enterprise is the income1 both gross and net1 which may be expected from the different crops contemplated4 ,obviously the yield and price of the several crops will vary with the locality and with the season4 ,it is1 therefore1 impossible to predict for any year either what yield may be obtained or what price will be secured4 ,if1 however1 a sufficient number of years are selected1 an average may be found which will form a basis for calculating the probable result for another series of years4 ,the following table gives the yield and the average farm values per acre for five staple crops for five years1 #aije-aiji inclusive1 for the ,united ,states and for four widely separated states1 viz41 ,pennsylvania1 ,iowa1 ,texas and ,oregon4 ,,average ,,yield ,,per ,,acre1 #aije-aiji4 ,pennsylvania ,iowa ,texas ,oregon ,maize1 bu4 #cf4f #cc4d #ba4a #bg4c ,wheat1 bu4 #ag4h #ae4e #i4f #bj4f ,oats1 bu4 #bh4i #bh4i #bf4f #cb4h ,potatoes1 bu4 #hd4d #he4h #fg4j #aai4j ,hay1 tons #a4ci #a4ef #a4cb #b4aa ,,average ,,farm ,,value ,,per ,,acre1 #aije-aiji ,pennsylvania ,iowa ,texas ,oregon ,maize #bb4ei #ac4hj #ab4ag #ai4eh ,wheat #af4fa #ab4db #i4aa #af4aj ,oats #ac4cc #i4bh #ab4ig #ae4bj ,potatoes #ee4hg #dd4ge #fe4ae #ga4ah ,hay #ah4gd #aj4ac #ac4ib #ai4fj ,such figures as the above may be compiled by anyone at any time for any year or series of years from the yearbooks of the ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture4 ,they form a fairly sound basis for calculating the gross income which may be expected from the staple farm crops1 particularly for the cereals1 potatoes1 hay1 cotton and tobacco4 ,five questions1 however1 present themselves1 which should1 as far as possible1 be settled before applying them to an individual problem4 7#a7 ,how nearly do the conditions1 especially those of soil and climate1 of the given location correspond to the averages of the state8 ,the question can be settled only by a thorough study of soils and their crop adaptation4 ,it is a matter requiring study1 experience and judgment4 7#b7 ,how much larger yields may be expected on account of better methods employed8 ,it is here that most mistakes are made in estimating possible farm profits4 ,necessarily1 all statistical averages of production are much below those which an enterprising farmer considers an average crop and habitually produces4 ,not more than #ej increase upon these figures1 however1 should be anticipated by reason of the improved methods which one is going to employ4 ,while the average yield of maize1 even in the so-called corn states1 is not far from #cj bushels an acre1 and while it is quite common for good farmers to produce #fj to #ge bushels of maize per acre1 it would not be safe to assume a yield of more than #de bushels unless the conditions are more than ordinarily favorable4 ,the application of the averages given on pages #adi-aej to an individual farm enterprise may be illustrated by calculating the possible results which might be obtained on #hj acres of arable land in ,iowa and ,pennsylvania with the four great soil products of northern ,united ,states4 ,iowa ,pennsylvania ,acres ,income ,acres ,income ,maize #dj #eeb4jj #ae #cdj4he ,oats #bj #ahe4fj #ae #bjj4be ,wheat #e #fb4aj #ae #bdi4be ,hay #ae #aea4ie #ce #fee4ij ,total #hj #iea4fe #hj #a1ddf4be ,if #ej is added for the increased yields which may be expected on account of the employment of better methods1 the total yield from #hj acres of arable land would become for ,iowa #a1dbh and for ,pennsylvania #b1afi4 ,this does not mean that farming is necessarily more profitable in ,pennsylvania than in ,iowa4 ,not only may the cost of cultivating an acre of arable land be greater in ,pennsylvania1 but usually a larger territory must be owned in order to obtain #hj acres of arable land4 ,eighty acres of these four crops is probably as often grown on a farm of #ajj acres in ,iowa as on one of #afj acres in ,pennsylvania4 ,the total farm acreage in ,iowa is1 in round numbers1 #ce millions2 in ,pennsylvania1 #ai millions4 ,in ,iowa about one-half the farm area is in the farm crops under consideration1 while in ,pennsylvania these four crops occupy only one-third the farm area4 ,illustration3 ,mr4 ,r4 ,d4 ,maurice ,wertz1 after several years in railroad offices1 took charge of his fathers farm at ,quincy1 ,pa41 in #ahia1 and converted it into a fruit farm4 ,he now has about #bbj acres in peaches and apples4 ,it is understood that he has sent from the above shipping station and one other about #bjj1jjj worth of fruit in the last six years4 ,illustration3 ,mr4 ,t4 ,e4 ,martin1 ,rush1 ,n4 ,y41 is one of the most successful potato growers in the ,united ,states4 ,he has a farm of #eg acres of the ,dunkirk series of soil4 ,he has three #ah-;acre fields in rotation consisting of potatoes1 wheat and clover and alfalfa4 ,mr4 ,martin has increased the yield of potatoes from #fj bushels per acre in #ahib to #dag bushels in #aijf4 ,in #aijf he produced #g1eaj bushels on #ah acres4 ,in #aijg he sold #b1hjg4hi worth of potatoes from #ah acres1 or #afj per acre4 ,he attributes his large yields mainly to drainage1 thorough preparation of the soil1 good tillage1 spraying1 clover and alfalfa1 manure and commercial fertilizers4 7#c7 ,will there be a general increase or decrease in the price of crops during the coming years8 ,the following table gives the average farm price for ,missouri by five-year periods4 ,,the ,,average ,,december ,,farm ,,price ,,by ,,previous ,,decades ,,compared ,,with ,,average ,,of ,,five ,,years1 #aijf-aj4 #ahff #ahge #ahhf #ahif #aijf to to to to to #ahge #ahhe #ahie #aije #aiaj cts4 cts4 cts4 cts4 cts4 ,maize1 bu4 #dj #cc #cc #ce #di ,wheat1 bu4 #ajc #hg #fd #ga #hg ,oats1 bu4 #cj #bg #bf #bg #ci ,potatoes1 bu4 #eg #dh #di #ec #fh ,hay1 ton #ijb #gii #gjd #gjj #hge ,an examination of the last column shows that the average price of these staple farm products has been considerably greater during five recent years than during the previous thirty years4 ,will this increase in price continue1 or will there be a series of years of unusually low prices which will bring the average price of the decade down to that of the previous three decades8 ,few persons will care to venture an answer to this question1 which is of the utmost importance to all farmers and especially to the beginner4 7#d7 ,the figures employed are taken from the yearbook of the ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture and are the estimated farm price on ,december #a of each year4 ,can the commodities be sold for the ,december farm price8 ,will potatoes sold at the time of digging bring less than the ,december price8 ,will wheat or maize held until ,may bring a higher price8 ,to what extent1 by the judicious holding of products1 can advance in price be obtained8 7#e7 ,will the products be sold for cash1 or may they be turned into animal products at an increased profit8 ,in some sections of the ,united ,states animals are reared primarily because of the increased profit due to manufacturing soil products into animal products2 in other regions1 however1 they are kept primarily for the purpose of maintaining the fertility of the soil and only incidentally on account of the increased profits4 ,,cost ,,of ,,production ,for a number of reasons it is difficult to determine the cost of growing farm crops4 ,one reason deserves to be especially emphasized4 ,in any business enterprise it may be necessary to run at a loss1 because to stop would entail a still greater loss4 ,this is particularly true in farming1 where men are employed by the month in order that they may be had when needed4 ,since they are receiving pay1 it is better that such men should be employed some days at farm operations which return only a portion of their wages rather than not to have them employed at all4 ,under such circumstances1 therefore1 the cost of producing a given crop may be greater than is indicated by the time actually employed in its production4 ,many other factors also enter1 as the average number of hours per day which it is possible to work4 ,this is greatly influenced by weather conditions4 ,the ,minnesota station determined that the working day on about thirty farms in that state varied from seven and one-half to eight and one-half hours1 with two to three and one-half hours on ,sunday4 ,the average length of the working day for horses varied from #c4a to #c4c hours4 ,the cost for labor of cultivating a given area of land will depend not only on the crop or crops to be raised1 the climate1 the topography and character of the soil1 the size and shape of the fields and the system of cropping1 but also upon the man's ability for organization4 ,it is said that the ,european farmers1 and even the farmers from eastern ,canada1 are several years in adjusting themselves to farming in western ,canada4 ,when the farmers from ,iowa1 ,kansas1 ,nebraska or surrounding states move into western ,canada with their three-horse teams and other suitable equipment1 applying their thorough knowledge of prairie farming1 they are at once successful4 ,the man is thus an important factor4 ,,time ,,required ,,for ,,cultural ,,operations ,the following table will be helpful as showing time required to perform certain operations1 since it is a record of labor actually employed on a field of #ah acres of easily tilled land in central ,ohio4 ,all labor was employed at prices named1 board for man and food for horses being furnished in addition at the prices estimated4 ,the owner of the land furnished the horse for the harvester4 ,plowing #g4e days at #b #ae4jj ,harrowing #c days at #b #f4jj ,planting #b days at #b #d4jj ,cultivating 7#d times7 #g days at #b #ad4jj ,cultivating with harvester #f days at #a #f4jj ,husking and cribbing by the job #de4ed ,estimated cost of board #be-a_/b days #g4ie ,estimated team maintenance #be-a_/b days #d4ij ------- #ajc4ci ,according to these figures the cost for labor of raising the crop and the cost of harvesting was almost exactly the same1 each being a little less than #c an acre4 ,,the ,,cost ,,of ,,producing ,,farm ,,crops ,the ,minnesota station has determined the cost of growing the staple farm crops on #de farms in different sections of the ,state4 ,the total expense per acre for an average of six years is shown in the following table1 not including land rental or cost of marketing4 ,,cost ,,of ,,producing ,,farm ,,crops ,,in ,,minnesota4 ,spring wheat1 land fall plowed #e4ed ,oats1 land fall plowed #e4hj ,barley1 land spring plowed #f4hi ,maize1 husked from standing stalks #i4da ,hay1 timothy and clover #c4fh ,potatoes1 land not fertilized #bc4cf ,potatoes1 land fertilized #cd4gb ,some years ago the writer made an estimate of the cost of producing maize1 oats1 wheat and clover hay in a four-course rotation on a tenant farm in central ,pennsylvania4 ,the soil was a heavy clay and required plowing for each crop1 except1 of course1 the hay crop1 one acre a day being considered a good day's work4 ,counting the expense of man and team at #b per day1 the labor cost per acre was found to be #g for maize1 #e4aj for both wheat and oats1 and #b4cj for hay1 or an average of about #d4ij per acre for the four crops4 ,the interest on the capital invested in operating this farm1 exclusive of the land1 was estimated at #a4de per acre4 ,,influence ,,of ,,yield ,,upon ,,the ,,cost ,,of ,,production ,the ,illinois station has prepared a set of estimates upon the cost of producing an acre of maize1 showing variations in cost due to differences in yield4 ,in these estimates1 instead of making a charge for the actual cost of manure or fertilizer applied1 an estimate is made of the value of the plant food removed4 ,,cost ,,of ,,producing ,,one ,,acre ,,of ,,maize ,,in ,,illinois ,,as ,,modified ,,by ,,yield4 ,yield ,yield ,yield ,yield #ej bu4 #ge bu4 #ajj bu4 #ce bu4 ,disking #j4dj #j4dj #j4dj #j4dj ,plowing #a4jj #a4jj #a4jj #a4jj ,preparation 4#ge 4#ge 4#ge 4#ge ,planting 4#ae 4#ae 4#ae 4#ae ,seed 4#ce 4#ce 4#ce 4#ce ,cultivation #a4jj #a4jj #a4jj #a4jj ,plant food #a4jb #a4ec #b4jd 4#ga ,husking #a4be #a4hg #b4ej 4#hh ,marketing #a4jj #a4ej #b4jj 4#gj ----- ----- ------ ----- ,cost per acre #f4ib #h4ee #aj4ai #e4id ,cost per bushel 4#ad 4#aa 4#aj 4#ag ,the average yield per acre in ,illinois for #ab years preceding date of this estimate was #ce bushels per acre2 the average price per bushel during the same period was #cb cents4 ,,labor ,,cost ,,of ,,producing ,a ,,bushel ,,of ,,grain ,not counting rent of land or interest on capital invested in equipment1 nor depreciation of soil fertility1 it has been shown that under favorable conditions1 the labor cost of growing and harvesting an acre of wheat or oats may be as low as #d4ej1 and that of maize as low as #e per acre4 ,assuming the average labor cost of producing an acre of wheat or oats at #e4ej and of maize at #f per acre1 and taking the average yields per acre for a series of years to be #ac4h for wheat1 #cj4i bushels for oats and #bd4i bushels for maize1 the average labor cost per bushel will be3 ,wheat1 #dj cents2 oats1 #ag-a_/b cents2 and maize1 #bh cents4 ,the data given in this chapter are to be accepted as suggestive rather than as determinative4 ,the chief purpose in presenting them is to place before the young farmer an appreciation of some of the problems involved in the production of the chief and basic agricultural commodities4 ,the young farmer's success will be modified by the role which they occupy in his farming system and by his ability to adjust them to the economic conditions in which he may find himself placed4 ,a thorough understanding of the principle underlying the data submitted will go far toward enabling him to make this adjustment1 although none of the illustrations given may have been obtained under conditions identical to his own4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,the ,,place ,,of ,,intensive ,,farming ,the doctrine of the survival of the most fit applies equally to the field of biology and to the field of economics4 ,the general introduction of vegetables and fruits into the human dietary has1 by banishing the loathsome diseases of the ,middle ,ages1 greatly increased human efficiency4 ,it follows that those peoples or nations who employ vegetables and fruits in abundance1 other things being equal1 will be most fit to survive and must outstrip others less fortunately situated4 ,we may for this reason alone look forward to the increasing importance of vegetable growing and fruit raising2 but there is a more obvious and perhaps more direct reason4 ,there is in the production of vegetables1 at least1 a method of satisfying the dietetic needs of an increasing population4 ,the employment of a part of the area now in cereals and forage crops for the production of potatoes1 cabbages1 legumes1 roots and tomatoes is one of the most ready means of increasing the food supply4 ,whether such substitution will be advantageous to the human race depends1 however1 not so much upon the food returns from a given area of land as upon the products from a given amount or unit of labor4 ,,kinds ,,of ,,horticulture ,in that form of intensive agriculture to which is given the designation horticulture1 there may be recognized several more or less distinct divisions1 as fruit growing1 market gardening1 truck farming and floriculture4 ,each has its own special problems1 based upon conditions of culture and market4 ,while1 as in all classifications1 there is more or less overlapping1 the tendency is for them to become more and more distinct4 ,the market gardener is the producer of vegetables for a local market1 while the truck farmer produces similar products for a larger or wider distribution4 ,the former grows a great variety of products1 disposing of them in relatively small quantity1 not infrequently directly to the consumer4 ,the latter raises a few highly specialized crops which he sells in gross1 usually through a commission merchant4 ,truck farming has developed since #ahfj1 in consequence of the growth of large cities1 which require enormous supplies of vegetables of fairly uniform quality1 and on account of the continuous demand for fresh vegetables as nearly as possible throughout the year4 ,watermelons and sweet potatoes can be raised in the southern states and laid down in ,new ,york ,city or ,boston more cheaply than they can be raised in the suburbs of these cities1 and1 what is equally important1 they will be of superior quality4 ,the extension of railway facilities1 the introduction of refrigerator cars and the building of cold storage plants has made it possible to grow in one climate products to be consumed in another4 ,cold storage has enabled the fruit growers of ,california to supply the eastern markets with peaches and other fresh fruit4 ,chicago1 to give only one example1 begins to receive strawberries1 cabbages and tomatoes from the shores of the ,gulf of ,mexico early in the year and continues to receive these products1 until finally they are being shipped late in the summer from the shores of ,lake ,superior4 ,it is estimated that the change of locality from which these products come1 travels northward at the rate of from #ac to #ae miles a day4 ,,important ,,factors ,,in ,,intensive ,,farming ,in the neighborhood of large cities1 notably in the environs of ,paris1 market gardeners often produce their vegetables in made soil4 ,the local character of the soil under such conditions is a matter of comparative indifference1 since a board floor would answer every requirement as a resting place for the artificial soil4 ,the large expense in preparing and constantly renewing the seed bed is only economically possible1 however1 where proximity to a large city out-weighs all other considerations4 ,ordinarily climatic and soil adaptation are prime factors in successful horticulture--much more than in any other branch of agriculture4 ,each fruit has a restricted climatic range1 and in most cases the number of soil types on which a given fruit can be made a commercial success is likewise limited4 ,thus1 in general1 apples and pears require heavier soils than peaches4 ,success in commercial apple growing requires even greater discrimination1 since different varieties of apples demand different soil conditions4 ,thus ,baldwins are grown the most successfully where a northern climate is modified by proximity to the ,great ,lakes4 ,rhode ,island ,greenings will succeed on soils too heavy for many other varieties4 ,the ,york ,imperial has not yet achieved a great commercial success save on one type of soil4 ,some varieties of apples are much more restricted in their adaptation than others4 ,thus1 while the ,king is quite restricted1 the ,ben ,davis has a fairly wide cultural adaptation4 ,no one should plant an orchard until he has made a thorough study of his soil and climatic conditions and has received the highest possible expert assistance in choosing the varieties best adapted to his conditions4 ,there is an increasing tendency to specialize in vegetable growing4 ,the production of celery1 onions1 muskmelons1 watermelons1 cabbages1 cauliflowers1 tomatoes and sweet corn1 to mention only some of the most striking examples1 are becoming more and more localized4 ,even where vegetables and flowers are grown under glass1 not only is each house devoted to a single species1 but1 notably in the case of roses1 growers are restricting themselves more and more to a few varieties4 ,this is due to the fact that it is impossible to give in one house1 or even in one establishment1 the special set of conditions required for the most economic development of each species or variety of plant1 just as in the open air the natural conditions are best adapted to a limited number of horticultural products4 ,so much being admitted1 it follows that it is folly to attempt to grow plants under unfavorable climatic and soil conditions when competing in the same market with those possessing favorable ones4 ,it is true1 of course1 that where one man fails another often succeeds1 but this is no reason why a man should apply his talents under unfavorable circumstances4 ,in fact1 one of the important attributes of most successful men is their ability to recognize and apply their energies under conditions which will give them the most effective return for a given effort4 ,there is no virtue in unnecessary toil4 ,progress in any enterprise1 as progress in the human race1 can be accomplished only in reducing the amount of labor required to produce a desired result4 ,all this is axiomatic4 ,the purpose of emphasizing it here is that it is fundamental to the success of those who attempt to produce horticultural products4 ,the necessity for the emphasis lies in the fact that these factors are so often disregarded4 ,they are of most vital importance to the man who attempts to raise tree fruits4 ,a mistake in the planting of celery1 cabbage1 or onions may be rectified the following season1 but if a mistake is made in planting tree fruits1 it may1 as in the case of apples1 require ten or even #bj years to discover the error4 ,the growth in commercial orcharding is due in part to the need of special knowledge and facilities for combating fungous diseases and insect enemies and to the better markets which a large production of uniform quality makes possible4 ,while these are extremely important considerations1 there is a more fundamental reason1 which may in the long run exercise an even more potent influence4 ,the location of the ordinary family orchard1 so called1 has been determined in almost every instance by the location of the farm buildings4 ,there is no necessary relation between a good site for a farm dwelling and a suitable location for an orchard4 ,it happens1 therefore1 that family orchards1 taken as a whole1 are not grown under as favorable conditions as are commercial orchards4 ,this is a sufficient reason in itself1 even if the other reasons above mentioned did not exist1 why the commercial orchard must1 in time1 supplant these accidental plantings4 ,,advantages ,,of ,,horticulture ,the advantages of this intensive form of agriculture as compared with the more extensive forms discussed in ,chapter ,,xii may be stated as follows3 7#a7 ,a large gross income per acre may be obtained4 ,an investigation of truck farming made some years ago indicated a gross return per acre about #dj times as great as that obtained on an average from all forms of agriculture4 7#b7 ,there is a large opportunity for the use of skill in raising and preparing products for market and an equal opportunity for the exercise of judgment in choosing the best markets4 ,,disadvantages ,,of ,,horticulture 7#a7 ,it requires considerable capital1 particularly for machinery and labor4 ,in the investigation in truck farming above mentioned the capital per acre invested in land1 buildings1 implements and teams was eight times that in the more general forms of agriculture4 7#b7 ,the products are for the most part readily perishable1 requiring special facilities if held for any length of time4 7#c7 ,growing out of above-mentioned fact1 the market is easily overstocked at any given point1 and hence prices often fluctuate widely4 7#d7 ,the yield is also quite variable1 this class of products being especially influenced by seasonal conditions and particularly subject to insect attacks and fungous diseases4 ,since large capital is invested in labor1 the horticulturist may be involved in financial ruin through causes which he is unable to control4 7#e7 ,the labor question1 in certain forms of horticulture more than in others1 involves difficulties1 among which is need of large quantities of cheap labor for short periods of time4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,reasons ,,for ,,animal ,,husbandry ,animal products in the ,united ,states nearly equal in value those of all other farm products4 ,those soil supplies which constitute the food of domestic animals are not implied4 ,practically every farm in the ,united ,states keeps domestic animals1 either for their labor or their products1 and nearly every household in both city and country keeps one or more animals for companionship4 ,the domestication of animals has been a prime factor in the civilization of the human race by furnishing man with motive force by which he has been able to increase his productive power2 by giving him a larger1 better and more regular food supply2 and by furnishing the materials for clothing1 making it possible for him to inhabit temperate and even arctic climates4 ,animals have not been less important in advancing the spiritual welfare of the human race1 by inculcating habits of regularity and kindliness1 which the care of domestic animals imposes4 ,,increase ,,in ,,animal ,,production ,during the last half century animals have not increased in numbers as rapidly as have the inhabitants1 but the value of animals has increased much more rapidly4 ,while a part of this increase in value is due perhaps to a greater cost of production1 a couple of illustrations will suffice to show that part of this increase in value has been due to increase in the individual merit of the animals4 ,in #ahej sheep in this country produced #b4d pounds of wool per fleece2 in #aiaj they produced #f4i pounds per fleece4 ,thus1 while in #ej years sheep have not quite doubled in numbers1 the production of wool has increased more than five times4 ,this is a striking example of the value of improvement in breeding1 because the improvement in wool production is due to the influence of heredity in far greater degree than to the effect of improved feeding4 ,wool1 like the hair on one's head1 is not greatly influenced by the food supply1 assuming it to be reasonably ample4 ,beef cattle offer another illustration of the way in which animal products have been increased without increasing the number of animals4 ,formerly beef cattle were matured in their fourth and fifth years1 or even their sixth year4 ,they are now placed upon the market in their second and third years4 ,if animals can be matured in their third instead of their fifth year1 it is obvious that a much smaller number of animals must be kept upon the farm in order to provide an equal annual supply for slaughter4 ,the increase in the size of our horses and the increased production of butter fat per cow which have occurred in the past half century are hardly less important factors in increasing the value of domestic animals and their products4 ,,the ,,future ,,of ,,domestic ,,animals ,one of the most striking features of recent progress in domestic animals is the large increase in the number of horses and the still greater increase in their value4 ,there are those who have believed that the invention of many beneficent forms of mechanical power would in time1 if not in the very near future1 supplant the use of animals as a motive power4 ,the fact seems to be1 however1 that they merely augment man's resources and increase his opportunities without lessening his need for animal power4 ,it appears reasonable to suppose that there will be witnessed in the ,united ,states a gradual shifting of live stock centers4 ,during the past half century1 the great central ,west has been noted for the production of live stock1 particularly for beef1 mutton and wool1 as an incident of its pioneer development4 ,already the production of large herds of cattle and flocks of sheep has disappeared for the central ,west1 and is now confined largely to ,texas and the mountain states4 ,the northeastern states are unrivaled in the production of grass1 and have considerable areas less fitted for tillage than the prairie states4 ,in time1 therefore1 the tendency will be for the regions best fitted to rear animals to increase their numbers of breeding animals4 ,on the other hand1 those states which produce grain in relatively large abundance may give more attention to fattening animals and to the production of dairy products which can be shipped long distances4 ,as time advances1 the history of other countries will doubtless be repeated4 ,a greater distinction between the breeding and rearing of animals1 and their fattening and preparation for market will occur4 ,,advantages ,,of ,,keeping ,,live ,,stock ,since animals occupy a place in practically all farm organizations1 it is desirable to state briefly the advantages and disadvantages which may accrue to any individual enterprise4 ,the most striking advantages affecting the farmer are3 7#a7 ,animals make it possible to use land that would otherwise be wholly or partly unproductive4 ,hillsides and mountain slopes1 soil too stony to cultivate1 fields traversed by winding streams1 and land partially covered with trees1 are familiar examples4 ,as previously mentioned1 only about one-half the farm area in this country is improved land1 and only two-thirds1 even of the improved land1 is in cultivated crops4 ,the other third of the improved land and a considerable portion of that half of the farm area known as unimproved land are utilized as pasture for domestic animals4 7#b7 ,they make use of farm crops which would be entirely or partially wasted4 ,straw1 the stalks of maize1 clover and alfalfa hay and other leguminous forage crops would not have sufficient value to pay for raising if animals were not kept to convert them into useful products4 ,in fact1 the usefulness of a given animal may be judged by the economy with which he converts these otherwise useless products into food or other materials for the use of man4 ,the most profound studies are being made to determine the conditions under which this takes place4 7#c7 ,in thus acting as machines in manufacturing raw materials into finished products animals convert these coarse and bulky materials into those which are much more concentrated1 thus making their transportation economically possible4 ,a pound of beef has required food containing ten pounds of dry substance1 and a pound of butter has required thirty pounds of dry matter to produce it4 ,these refined products may be shipped around the world1 while the raw materials may not be profitably transported beyond the county in which they are raised4 ,moreover1 the farmer has the profit which comes from manufacturing the raw materials into refined products4 7#d7 ,in the production of these finer products much of the essential materials of plant growth are left upon the farm4 ,the experiments of ,lawes and ,gilbert show conclusively that in fattening animals more than nine pounds out of ten of the essential fertilizing ingredients of the food reappear in the solid and liquid excrements4 ,prothero says3 ,farming in a circle1 unlike logic1 is a productive process4 ,the fiscal policy of one of the great nations of the globe is based upon this idea4 ,everything possible is done by ,germany to encourage the keeping of live stock1 because the more live stock that is kept1 the more productive will be the soil4 ,the larger the crops raised the more people will be required to harvest them and the larger will be the population to recruit the army and navy4 ,the ,kaiser and the ,german scientist recognize that the fighting force of the ,empire is related to the number of domestic animals reared4 ,the meat supplies of the people are1 therefore1 taxed to bring about this end4 7#e7 ,the rearing of live stock makes it possible to arrange a better rotation of crops4 ,a five-year and1 even better1 a six-year rotation1 is more effective than a four-year in maintaining the crop-producing power of the soil and enables the farmer to reduce his cost of production4 ,it is possible to keep a larger proportion of the farm in grass and other forage crops1 thus reducing the amount of land plowed annually and at the same time decreasing the exhaustion of the land1 provided the forage crops are fed to live stock upon the farm4 ,there is an old ,flemish proverb which reads3 ,no grass1 no cattle2 ,no cattle1 no manure2 ,no manure1 no crops4 ,the point of this proverb is that good grass is the basis of good agriculture4 ,investigations have shown that one may go farther and say that one of the most ready means of increasing the crop-producing power of the soil is by adding fertilizers to grass land4 ,the large number of plants per acre enables the plants to utilize the fertilizer to the highest degree1 and plowing under the resulting dense sod is one of the most effective methods of enriching the soil4 7#f7 ,animals require constant care1 thus making possible a more constant use of labor and other capital4 ,the wheat farmer of ,north ,dakota sows his wheat in ,april and ,may and harvests it in ,july and ,august4 ,he usually threshes it immediately1 and is practically without employment for himself1 his teams or his men from ,september until ,april4 ,on live stock farms the labor employed in the summer in the field is needed in the winter in paddocks and stables4 7#g7 ,the management of live stock1 including the rearing of poultry and the manipulation of dairy products1 may be made to require a higher skill than the production of farm crops as ordinarily practiced4 ,the communities which have given the most attention to dairying and to the rearing and fattening of animals have generally been the most prosperous4 ,,disadvantages ,,of ,,keeping ,,live ,,stock 7#a7 ,keeping live stock increases the capital required to operate a given area of land1 especially where animals are kept in connection with the production of hay and grain4 ,not only must there be capital with which to purchase animals1 but usually more is invested in buildings4 ,in a self-contained farm--that is1 one which raises sufficient food for the requirements of the live stock--ten dollars an acre may be considered a moderate investment for animals4 ,if1 however1 the plan is to raise only the coarse feed1 while the necessary grain as well as other concentrates is largely purchased1 a farm may easily carry from #be to #ce worth of live stock per acre4 ,lack of capital is one of the most potent influences in preventing a larger production of animals and animal products4 ,cattle paper1 or notes given to secure money for the purchase of fattening animals1 is a common bank asset in the feeding districts of the central ,west4 7#b7 ,the very perishable nature of animals entails a great risk in the investment of capital in live stock4 ,not only the products of a single year1 but the growth of a number of years1 may be suddenly swept away by disease4 ,this may include the crops of several years1 thus destroying capital invested in the production of the crops as well as the capital originally invested in the animals4 ,many a farmer has seen the gradual accumulations of years rapidly melt away in the presence of some contagious disease4 ,tuberculosis in cattle1 cholera in hogs and liver rot in sheep are striking examples of diseases that have caused the farmers of this country untold losses4 7#c7 ,when an animal has been properly fattened he must be sold4 ,if held for any great length of time1 not only is there a constant outlay for food to maintain the animal1 but the condition of the animal may actually deteriorate4 ,hence it is not possible to hold animals for a better market for a long period of time1 as is possible in the case of the cereal grains4 7#d7 ,serious losses may occur where profit was expected through a rise in the price of foodstuffs4 ,scarcity in food supplies1 due to an unfavorable season1 often compels the stockman to sacrifice animals that he has been raising for two or three years4 ,it is sometimes asserted that1 although society suffers from short crops1 the farmer is benefited1 because the increase in price is greater than the decrease in yield4 ,one year1 for example1 the decrease in the production of maize was #cj1 while the increase in price was #ej4 ,if1 therefore1 the crop had been sold it would have brought more than the crop of the previous year4 ,the farmers1 however1 require about #hj of the maize crop in the production of their live stock1 so that when there was a decrease of #cj in the yield of maize1 many had none to sell1 while others had to purchase maize at increased prices or use other crops1 such as oats1 which they might otherwise have sold4 ,still others would be compelled to sell1 at reduced prices1 their partially fattened animals4 ,there is a constant fluctuation in the price of animals and animal products1 due to variation in yield and hence in price of food supplies4 ,it requires continual vigilance on the part of the stockman to secure food supplies at such cost as will enable him to secure a profitable return from his animals4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,returns ,,from ,,animals ,in any well-considered plan of farm operations it is essential to have some basis for estimating the amount of food required to carry live stock through the year in order to know1 on the one hand1 what portion of the crops raised are available for sale and1 on the other hand1 what food supplies must be purchased4 ,a requisite of any successful farm enterprise is a proper consideration of these market conditions4 ,while domestic animals consume a variety of foods1 and each class of animals has special food requirements1 the basis of calculation of the needed supplies is fortunately not complicated4 ,twenty-five pounds of dry matter are required per day for each thousand pounds of live weight of horses1 cattle and sheep1 and for swine about #dj pounds for each thousand pounds of live weight4 ,it may be more convenient to calculate the food requirement of swine on the basis of increase in live weight1 allowing five pounds of dry matter for each pound of increase4 ,some further details as to food requirements will be found in the paragraphs which follow4 ,,cost ,,of ,,producing ,,hogs ,pigs possess two characteristics which make them unique among domestic animals4 ,they consume concentrated and easily digested foods only1 and they produce nothing but meat1 fat and bristles4 ,cattle furnish milk and hides2 sheep1 wool1 hides and sometimes milk2 fowls furnish eggs and feathers4 ,on account of their limited range of usefulness and because of the high value of much of the food consumed1 it would not be possible to rear swine economically were it not for their prolificacy and the fact that they are employed largely as scavengers4 ,many cattle are fattened without direct profit4 ,the indirect profit comes from the sale of the pigs which have followed the cattle4 ,it is customary to mature one hog with little or no additional food while fattening two steers4 ,in many well-known ways1 pigs consume products which would otherwise be wasted4 ,this is especially true in the more densely settled sections of the world4 ,on account of their prolificacy1 the returns obtained for the amount of capital invested is greater than in the case of sheep1 cattle or horses4 ,ten sows1 worth #ajj to #aej1 are sufficient to produce #ajj pigs2 #ge to #hj ewes1 worth from #cjj to #ejj1 are required to produce an equal number of lambs2 #aaj cows1 worth #d1ejj to #f1jjj1 to produce #ajj calves2 and #bjj mares1 worth from #bj1jjj to #cj1jjj1 to guarantee #ajj foals4 ,to put the matter in another way1 the capital invested in swine may be reproduced in the offspring ten times in one year2 the capital invested in horses not more than once in five years4 ,in general1 #ejj pounds of maize will produce #ajj pounds of pork1 which is equivalent to eleven pounds of pork from a bushel4 ,since hogs are so largely produced from maize1 the price of maize and the price of pork are very closely related4 ,for example1 if maize is worth fifty cents a bushel1 the grain required to produce a pound of increase in live weight will cost about #e cents2 if #dj cents a bushel1 #d cents2 if #cj cents a bushel1 #c cents2 and so on4 ,,cost ,,of ,,producing ,,sheep ,in the classic investigations by ,lawes and ,gilbert1 food containing #ajj pounds of dry matter produced a live-weight increase of nine pounds in steers and #aa pounds in sheep4 ,at the ,wisconsin station1 sheep required less food than steers per pound of gain4 ,during rapid fattening of sheep #ejj pounds of clover hay and #djj pounds of maize may produce #ajj pounds of increase in live weight4 ,while swine require a less weight of food for a pound of increase than sheep1 on account of the more digestible character of the food eaten1 yet the ,wisconsin station found that the expense of producing a pound of increase was less in sheep on account of the less expensive character of the food4 ,,meat ,,and ,,milk ,,production ,,compared ,a summary of the investigations of ,american experiment stations shows that #ajj pounds of dry matter produced ten pounds of increase in live weight of steers4 ,the same quantity of food when fed to milch cows produced #gd pounds of milk1 plus one pound of increase in live weight4 ,this #gd pounds of milk contained #c-a_/d pounds of fat4 ,in general1 therefore1 the food required to produce a pound of butter fat is about three times that required to produce a pound of increase in steers4 ,,cost ,,of ,,steer ,,feeding ,the fattening of beef animals is largely conducted by farmers who make a specialty of it4 ,this is particularly true in the so-called corn belt4 ,into this region are gathered the two and three-year-old and1 more rarely1 yearling steers1 many of which have been reared in ,texas or in the mountain states where the supply of maize is not sufficiently ample to fatten them4 ,these are placed in paddocks with open sheds1 where they are fed from #ij to #aej days1 after which they are sent to market for slaughter4 ,the food consists usually of maize fodder1 maize stover1 hay1 maize 7usually in the ear71 a little bran1 linseed or cottonseed oil meal4 ,the ration per day during rapid fattening is about #bj pounds of dry matter per #a1jjj pounds of live weight1 containing #af pounds of digestible substance1 of which #a4be to #a4ge is digestible protein4 ,one hundred pounds of increase may be obtained under average conditions from #aej pounds stover1 #cbe pounds of hay1 #gge pounds of maize and #ge pounds of cottonseed meal4 ,great variations will occur1 however1 depending upon the condition of the animals at the beginning of the feeding period and the degree of fatness or finish to which the animals are brought before placing upon the market4 ,in any case1 the food consumed will cost more than the value of the increase4 ,the only way that steers can be profitably fattened is by increasing the value per pound of the animal4 ,thus an #hjj-pound steer may be purchased at five cents per pound1 or #dj4 ,after feeding1 say #aej days1 he may weigh #a1ajj pounds1 when to bring a profitable return he should sell for #f cents a pound1 or #fe4 ,this is a gain of #be1 eight of which came from the increase in value of the original #hjj pounds4 ,usually steers cannot be fattened profitably unless there is an increase of at least three-quarters of a cent per pound in the value of the animals and then1 as previously explained1 only in connection with the hogs which follow them4 ,,cost ,,of ,,producing ,,milk ,,and ,,butter ,,fat ,well-selected and properly fed cows may produce #bdj pounds of butter fat annually4 ,the amount of fat obtained will depend upon the richness of the milk4 ,thus1 #h1jjj pounds of #c milk1 #f1jjj pounds of #d milk1 or a trifle less than #e1jjj pounds of #e milk1 will give this quantity of butter fat4 ,these are customary returns from different types of cows4 ,if each cow in the herd is dry for six weeks each year the daily average of the cows actually milked will be three-quarters of a pound of butter fat4 ,there are herds which make an average of nine-tenths of a pound of butter fat per day1 but to secure this result requires superior cattle1 careful feeding and more than ordinary care4 ,the standard ration for milch cows weighing from #a1jjj to #a1bjj pounds is #be pounds of dry matter1 two-thirds of which is digestible4 ,the ration should contain not less than two pounds of digestible protein4 ,in ordinary practice1 about ten pounds of the dry matter of the ration is obtained from maize silage1 nine pounds from hay and about six pounds from grain or other concentrates4 ,in general1 this is obtained by feeding #ce pounds of maize silage1 ten pounds of hay and seven to eight pounds of concentrates4 ,the silage may be estimated at one-tenth to one-eighth of a cent a pound1 hay at from one-fourth to one-half cent and concentrates at from three-quarters to one and one-quarter cents per pound1 varying1 of course1 with the different sections of the country4 ,the amount of food needed will vary somewhat with the size of the animals1 but will depend much more largely upon the amount of milk and butter fat given4 ,while maintaining substantially the general average just given for the whole herd1 it is the practice of careful feeders to vary the amount of concentrates fed to each individual in accordance with the amount of butter fat or milk given4 ,illustration3 ,mr4 ,gabriel ,hiester1 ,harrisburg1 ,pa41 graduate of the ,pennsylvania ,state ,college1 for many years trustee of the college and president of the ,state ,horticultural ,society1 had a beautiful farm home near ,harrisburg4 ,during the first twenty years in bearing his orchard1 of which one-fourth the trees were unprofitable varieties1 returned an average of #hj per acre with apples selling at #fj cents to #a per bushel4 ,mr4 ,hiester believed1 with a proper selection of varieties and a favorable location1 that any well-managed orchard can be made to do much better4 ,illustration3 ,dr4 ,j4 ,h4 ,funk1 ,boyertown1 ,pa41 graduate of the ,university of ,pennsylvania1 #ahfe1 farmers' institute lecturer1 former state pomologist1 has #ej acres of apples and peaches4 ,returns from his plantings begun in #ahif are so phenomenal that he is afraid to permit the publication of his profits4 ,it is known1 however1 that he has sold #e1jjj each of peaches and apples in one year4 ,,cost ,,of ,,maintaining ,,work ,,horses ,at the ,minnesota station1 the total cost of feeding and maintaining a farm work horse for one year was estimated to be from #ge to #ij1 of which about #bj was charged for interest and depreciation4 ,on the basis of #c4c hours as the length of the working day1 the cost per horse per hour was estimated to be #g-a_/b cents4 ,at the ,ohio state university1 it was found that four horses weighing about #a1djj pounds were chosen to perform #b1ahe hours of labor during one year1 while under like conditions four horses1 weighing about #bjj pounds less1 worked on an average but #a1fda hours each4 ,for each secular day1 therefore1 the former worked about #g-a_/b hours1 while the latter were employed but five and one-half hours4 ,the cost of food was estimated at #ed2 cost of shoeing1 repairs of harness and stable supplies at #f4ej2 and the cost of feeding1 grooming and cleaning of stables at #bc4ej1 or a total cost of #hd per year4 ,nothing was charged for interest or depreciation1 but the expense of feeding and caring for three colts was included in the estimates given4 ,the annual expense of maintaining a horse was practically the same in both states1 but the cost per hour of labor performed was less because of the possibility of employing the horses at productive labor a larger portion of the time4 ,too much emphasis cannot be placed upon the need of planning a farm organization which will give continuous employment to horses as well as to men in order to realize the most profitable returns4 ,an industrial system that makes it necessary to maintain work animals three days in order to secure one day's work falls far short of an ideal4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,farm ,,labor ,the problem of farm labor demands thoughtful and frank consideration4 ,since work is an essential element in the production of all wealth1 it follows that every industry has its labor problem4 ,the adjustment of labor to the production of the various forms of wealth must ever constitute one of the most important problems in any organized society4 ,it is often remarked that the labor problem is the chief difficulty in farming4 ,in a certain sense this is true1 since work is a primary element in the production of agricultural as well as all other wealth4 ,it is not true1 however1 that the problem of labor is more difficult or more intricate than that of other industries4 ,in fact1 that problem is less delicate than in some other occupations1 because farming is less industrialized4 ,it is not possible to settle once for all the problem of labor for any occupation1 since changing conditions will give rise to new questions or new phases of the old problem4 ,moreover1 the problem of labor on the farm will grow more difficult as farming becomes more specialized and as the methods of production become more complex4 ,however1 the labor problem on the farm is different from that in the manufacturing industries or in trade and transportation4 ,this chapter will not concern itself with an attempt to settle the farm labor problem1 but will undertake to state the character of some of the differences between it and other forms of labor and to discuss some of the changes in recent years4 ,a large proportion of farm work is done by the farm owner1 or renter1 and his family4 ,there is not much opportunity to profit by the labor of other persons4 ,in #aijj there were in the ,united ,states #a1hab industrial establishments each of which employed between #ejj and #a1jjj persons1 while there were #fge establishments each of which had more than one thousand employees4 ,in the same year there were #e1gci1feg farms1 which employed in the aggregate #d4d millions of people1 not including the owners of the farms4 ,moreover1 over one-half of the #d4d million persons thus employed were members of the families of the farmer4 ,in other words1 aside from members of the family1 there was less than one employee to every two farmers4 ,since a considerable number of farmers employ more than one person1 it follows that the majority of farmers employ no help other than members of the family4 ,in another particular farm labor differs from that of other forms of labor even more widely4 ,there are sociologic as well as economic questions involved4 ,baldly stated1 custom permits1 and necessity often requires1 the laborer to eat at the same table with the farm owner and in other particulars he mingles intimately with the farmer's family4 ,in all its bearings1 this is a very important fact4 ,it constitutes one of the greatest difficulties in the problem of securing suitable farm help4 ,industrial corporations employ as common laborers largely ,italians1 ,hungarians1 ,poles and negroes4 ,the ,english1 the ,irish1 the ,german1 the ,swede and the ,norwegian have been readily received and assimilated in the ,american farming communities4 ,the peoples of ,eastern and ,southern ,europe are often criticized because they do not become farm laborers4 ,that they do not is in large part due to the fact that the farm hand is usually a member of the farmer's family4 ,thus the supply of common labor which is today used by the rest of the industrial world is not open to the farmer4 ,farming differs from some other occupations in that it does not ordinarily offer the laborer much opportunity for advancement4 ,the fireman on a railway train becomes the engineer2 the brakeman becomes a conductor4 ,there are opportunities in many establishments for the advancement of the industrious and clever4 ,a man may enter their service with the hope of being able to marry and support a family4 ,on the other hand1 all our land laws are based upon the idea that each farm should be of sufficient size to support only one family4 ,where it does support two families1 the relation is usually that of landlord and tenant4 ,the farm laborer1 therefore1 must look upon his employment as more or less temporary4 ,the young man who intends to become a farmer will find employment upon the farm a desirable if not essential preparation for his future occupation4 ,the introduction of farm machinery has had the effect of increasing the price of farm labor while at the same time decreasing the amount of labor needed4 ,the reason is that the introduction1 not alone of farm machinery1 but all forms of machinery1 has made man's labor much more efficient than formerly4 ,farm wages have doubled since the introduction of horse-drawn machinery4 ,the labor income in the different sections of the ,united ,states is influenced by the extent and efficiency with which machinery is used4 ,the relation of labor income to the use of horse power is shown by the following table taken from a recent census3 ,,influence ,,of ,,farm ,,machinery ,,as ,,shown ,,by ,,the ,,relation ,,of ,,labor ,,income ,,to ,,horses ,,and ,,mules4 ,number of horses and mules to ,divisions of the #a1jjj persons ,united ,states ,labor ,income in agriculture ,north ,atlantic #bii #a1fee ,south ,atlantic #afc #hjh ,north ,central #djb #c1jcf ,south ,central #baa #a1fjc ,western #eaj #e1dgf ---------------------------------------- ------- ,united ,states #bhh #b1aje ,in one of the states of the ,south ,atlantic division the average price of farm labor1 without board1 was #ab per month1 while in one of the states of the western division the price on the same date was #ca4 ,why8 ,because in the latter case a man's labor was more productive4 ,in the ,south ,atlantic division1 in producing the chief crops cotton and maize1 a man uses one mule in preparing and cultivating the soil4 ,in the western division plowing and harrowing with six-horse teams is common and nine-horse teams are not unusual4 ,the cotton picker in one day will be able to gather not to exceed #cjj pounds of seed cotton1 worth not more than #ae4 ,the western wheat will be harvested by a machine drawn by #bh horses4 ,in the same time four men with this outfit will cut and thresh #gjj bushels of wheat1 worth #ejj4 ,when the threshing machine was first introduced in ,ohio1 it was stubbornly opposed by all farm laborers4 ,they claimed it1 says ,bateman1 as a right to thresh with a flail1 and regarded the introduction of machinery to effect the same object in a few days which would require their individual exertion during the whole winter1 not only as an invasion of a time-honored custom1 but as absolutely depriving them of the means of obtaining an honest livelihood4 ,at a later date1 when a reaper had been introduced into a field of ripe wheat as a matter of experiment only1 every one of the harvest hands deliberately marched out of the field and told the proprietor that he might secure his crop as best he could1 that the threshing machine had deprived them of their regular winter work twenty years ago and now the reaper would deprive them of the pittance they otherwise could earn during harvest4 ,how short-sighted they were6 ,no class gained so much from the introduction of labor-saving machinery as did those who did the labor4 ,the reason for the increase in well-being1 the reason society enjoys luxuries and comforts beyond the fondest dreams of former generations1 is due to the fact that the labor of each man has been made so much more effective through these labor-saving devices4 ,the humblest citizen shares in this improvement4 ,not all share alike and not all share equitably1 but each generation sees its members sharing more equitably than those of any generation which preceded it4 ,the proposition is an extremely simple one4 ,if a man produces just enough food for himself and family1 he will have nothing for clothing1 shelter1 or education4 ,if1 however1 a man produces four times as much food as he and his family consume1 he may exchange one-fourth for shelter1 one-fourth for clothing and have remaining a fourth for education1 and recreation or savings4 ,this is only another way of saying that the greater the amount of any useful commodity produced by a single day's labor the larger will be the laborer's income or wages4 ,although the increase in intensive agriculture and the diversification in farming tend to increase the need of farm laborers1 the introduction of farm machinery has much more than offset this demand4 ,the tendency of farm laborers to become farm tenants2 or1 to state it in other words1 the tendency of landowners to rent their land rather than to continue to operate it themselves1 is not without its influence upon the labor problem4 ,the invention and introduction of farm machinery has accentuated the difficulty of keeping the farm laborer continuously employed4 ,the decrease in the demand for farm labor and the increasing lack of uniformity in the amount required have caused a gradual depletion of the smaller villages and hamlets which were a source of labor supply during harvest and other busy seasons4 ,the problem of keeping labor continuously employed has always been a difficult one on the farm1 because of the change of seasons and because of the variations in the weather from day to day4 ,there is a wide difference between those industries which are carried on within doors and farming1 which is subject to the caprices of the weather4 ,natural causes produce tremendous variations in the return for labor4 ,for example1 in #aija there were produced in the aggregate #c1jjf million bushels of wheat1 maize and oats1 while in #aijb there were harvested #d1ahj million bushels4 ,here is an increase of over a thousand million bushels4 ,the same farmers tilled the same soil in the same way as far as natural causes would allow1 and yet there was a difference in result amounting to #ci per cent4 ,a variation of one hundred million bushels of wheat from year to year1 due to climatic conditions solely1 is not at all unusual4 ,the manufacturer also has far greater control of his labor4 ,when it rains1 he has a roof over his workmen1 and hence the work is not interrupted4 ,when it grows dark1 he turns on the light and the work continues4 ,if it gets cold1 he lights the fire and still the work continues comfortably4 ,it is not so in agriculture4 ,there is a great variation in the working efficiency of men employed in farming4 ,in a certain locality there were twenty-one days of rain in the thirty-one days of ,may4 ,the next year between ,june #e and ,september #e in the same locality there was not half an inch of rainfall at any one time4 ,what is true of labor is also true of machinery4 ,the farmer must purchase machinery which he can use only a few days in the year1 while the manufacturer1 for the most part1 employs his machinery continuously1 sometimes day and night4 ,while natural causes prevent the farmer from using the same business methods1 or from being able to calculate his profits with the same precision as is possible by those following manufacturing and mercantile pursuits1 it is nevertheless important that farming should be planned to avoid1 as far as possible1 the influence of natural causes4 ,certain kinds of farming are less dependent upon natural causes than others4 ,wisdom and foresight can do much to avoid1 in all farming1 untoward influences4 ,the clever farmer seldom complains about the weather4 ,farm machinery has made unnecessary1 and hence unprofitable1 some of the labor at which children were formerly employed4 ,in the not distant past many1 perhaps most farmers1 owed their prosperity in large measure to the labor of their children4 ,a large family1 especially of boys1 was a valuable asset4 ,even a generation ago conditions were not far different1 and two generations ago were quite the same as those described by ,homer3 ,another field rose high with waving grain3 ,with bended sickles stand the reaper train3 ,here1 stretch'd in ranks1 the level'd swaths are found2 ,sheaves heaped on sheaves here thicken up the ground4 ,with sweeping stroke the mowers strow the lands2 ,the gath'rers follow1 and collect in bands3 ,and last the children1 in whose arms are borne 7,too short to gripe them7 the brown sheaves of corn4 ,the rustic monarch of the field descries1 ,with silent glee1 the heaps around him rise4 ,a ready banquet on the turf is laid ,beneath an ample oak's expanded shade4 ,the victim ox the sturdy youth prepare3 ,the reapers due repast1 the women's care4 ,there is also another reason why the age of the employed has been raised4 ,it is due to the growth of higher education4 ,where formerly the farmer's children between the ages of twelve and twenty-one did most of the farm work1 now many of them at the same age are attending schools and colleges4 ,the sons of a man1 who a generation ago found no opportunity to get beyond the district school1 graduate from high school and college1 and thus spend most of their time in study until they are past twenty-one years of age4 ,labor unions have doubtless caused a scarcity of farm labor by increasing the proportion of the created wealth which goes to the man who labors without capital4 ,when a man can obtain fifty cents an hour for laying brick1 he does not wish to work in the hay field at twenty cents an hour1 even though the difference in the cost of living may in great measure offset the difference in wages4 ,there is a growing tendency to perform work by what is called contract labor4 ,thus a person may agree to weed and hoe sugar beets at a certain rate per acre4 ,he1 in turn1 employs a force of cheap laborers which he sends from farm to farm to do this work4 ,the harvesting of fruits and garden crops is not infrequently done in some such manner4 ,in one instance a contractor of laborers of foreign birth has been furnishing them for all kinds of farm work4 ,he keeps #bj to #dj of these laborers on a small farm1 furnishing them a dwelling and selling them food supplies4 ,farmers telephone for help when in need4 ,the contractor receives #a4fe for a day's work and pays the laborer #a4ej4 ,it appears from the preceding considerations that there are open to every farmer at least three methods of increasing the efficiency of farm labor4 ,he may make every day's labor more efficient by use of labor-saving machinery and the employment of it in the most efficient manner2 as1 for example1 using three #a1ejj-pound horses to his farm machinery instead of a pair of #a1bjj-pound horses4 ,he may modify the character of his farming in order that profitable labor will be more continuous4 ,he may modify the method of employing labor2 as1 for example1 by introducing the system of contracting labor for specific purposes where feasible4 ,increase in the price of farm labor is not an evil4 ,it is an indication that labor applied to agriculture is becoming more productive and hence more profitable4 ,since more than one-half the labor of the farm is done by the owner and his family1 the farmer is benefited through the rise in price of farm wages4 ,the more that labor can be made to earn upon the farm1 the better it will be not only for the farm owner but for society in general4 ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,shipping ,the means of facile transportation and the machinery of trade are the need and the development of a complex civilization4 ,the importance of these useful adjuncts of everyday life is indicated by the fact that about one-fourth of all the people engaged in gainful occupations in civilized communities are employed in them4 ,nevertheless the expense of transportation and trade constitutes a tax upon the consumer which it is the aim of modern methods to reduce to the lowest limits4 ,recent investigations indicate that for every thirteen dollars the consumer expends for farm products the producers receive six dollars4 ,in some directions most remarkable results have been accomplished4 ,a recent quotation on wheat per bushel was as follows3 ,chicago1 #j4ic2 ,antwerp1 #a4jd2 ,london1 #a4jf2 ,hamburg1 #a4jg4 ,eleven to #ad cents per bushel represents the cost of haul and commissions between ,chicago and the ,european cities named4 ,methods of handling have been so perfected that from the time the western farmer places the bundle of wheat at the mouth of the threshing machine the grain literally flows through the channels of trade until it reaches the flour sack4 ,on an average the ,english miller pays about #bj cents a bushel more for wheat than the ,american farmer receives for it4 ,the cost of distributing many other farm products is greater1 although the range of distribution is much less4 ,the cost of haulage and selling potatoes is from #be to #ej of the retail price1 while with hay it is still higher4 ,the cost of distributing all forms of truck and market garden produce is high and often wasteful4 ,many attempts have been made to eliminate a part of this cost as well as to better the conditions of the supplies when they reach the consumer4 ,while many individuals have been quite successful in dealing directly with the consumer1 little has thus far been accomplished that affects general trade conditions4 ,great improvements have been made in methods of transportation and methods of preservation4 ,cold storage and canned goods have been the direction in which progress has been notable4 ,,wasteful ,,methods ,,of ,,distribution ,owing to customs and traditions there is frequently a great waste of effort in some of the methods of trade4 ,the meat trade of ,france is an excellent illustration4 ,certain sections of ,france make a specialty of rearing cattle4 ,at a suitable age these animals are purchased by other farmers who fatten them4 ,many of the small towns maintain market places at which fairs are held to facilitate these negotiations4 ,frequently there is a shipment from one region to another1 which is conducted by a middleman4 ,when fattened the steers are collected by a stock buyer1 who may ship them to ,la ,villette1 the live stock market of ,paris4 ,here they are placed on sale through commission men4 ,there are the usual charges for yardage and food4 ,after being sold the animals are driven to the slaughterhouses4 ,the carcasses are then taken by wagon to the great market of ,paris located near the center of the city4 ,here the retail vender of meats comes1 makes his purchase1 reloads the meat1 which may have been unloaded less than an hour before1 carries it to his shop1 where the consumer seeks it4 ,the number of people concerned and the amount of hand labor have been excessive4 ,nor is the ,american system without its faults4 ,the ,iowa or ,illinois farmer fattens cattle that may have been reared in ,montana or ,texas4 ,after the stock buyer1 the commission man and the stock yard company have each taken his toll1 the packer ships the carcasses back to the very region where the animals were fattened1 when the stockman may purchase it of the local vender of meats4 ,the facilities and perfection with which these many transactions are accomplished is one of the wonderful sights of our country4 ,nevertheless the producer of meat products may well consider whether some more economical system of distribution may not be devised4 ,,shipments3 ,,sources ,,of ,,information ,all railroad rates are now carefully supervised by the federal government and are open to the inspection of the public4 ,such information as is ordinarily needed may be obtained from the local station agent1 who is always glad to be of service to patrons of his road4 ,if information of a special character is required1 it may be obtained by addressing the division freight agent of the railroad in the region under consideration4 ,the name of this officer is to be found in the circulars and upon the posters of the railroad4 ,in addition to the freight facilities offered by any individual railroad1 there are what are known as fast freight lines4 ,these agencies enable through and prompt shipment from inland points in our own country to inland points in another4 ,an individual railroad may operate in connection with several such agencies4 ,a certain railroad1 for example1 is combined with nine fast freight lines4 ,freight agents of local roads in the principal towns usually represent the fast freight lines and are prepared to transact business4 ,in seaport cities there are firms styling themselves foreign freight contractors1 outward freight agents1 steamship agents1 or ship brokers4 ,these firms are prepared to quote prices on shipments to any part of the world on either regular or tramp ships4 ,they will give freely to intending shippers full information concerning methods and conditions of shipment4 ,there is nothing mysterious about the business of shipping farm products4 ,the necessary details may be acquired by inquiry in the channels indicated and by a little study of the data1 which will be cheerfully furnished4 ,,railroad ,,rates ,a great many factors are involved in determining the rate which is charged for transporting different products4 ,in a certain sense it is doubtless true that the rate charged is based upon what the traffic will bear4 ,the purpose here1 however1 is to state some of the customs which exist rather than to discuss the philosophy or justice of them4 ,the rate may vary with the value of the product1 without any regard to the cost of the haul4 ,suppose the cost of shipping a ten-gallon can of fresh milk between two points to be #cb cents1 the cost of shipping a similar can of cream may be #ej cents4 ,the cost of shipping a carload of hay is less than a carload of wheat4 ,in some instances1 zones or belts have been recognized1 the rate from all towns within each zone being the same for a given product4 ,certain railroads centering in ,new ,york recognize four zones for the shipment of milk and cream1 as follows3 ,zone ,a--,first #dj miles4 ,zone ,b--,between #dj and #ajj miles4 ,zone ,c--,between #ajj and #aij miles4 ,zone ,d--,beyond #aij miles4 ,it will be noticed that the size of these zones varies and may be the subject of adjustment between railroads and shippers4 ,while less understood by the public1 railroads recognize zones or1 more properly1 groups of towns in making rates to them instead of from them1 as in the instance above mentioned4 ,it is possible to change the rate on a product to a given town by classifying it in another group4 ,the rate on bran and other stock foods from central western points to certain towns in ,new ,york state has been the same as that charged to ,boston1 ,mass41 while other towns in ,new ,york not far removed have taken a lower rate4 ,differential rates are recognized to be legitimate4 ,railroads are allowed to charge a less rate for wheat intended for export than that intended for local consumption4 ,there has sometimes been a wide difference between the freight rate on wheat between ,kansas ,city and ,galveston1 ,texas1 depending upon whether the wheat was to be exported or intended for domestic use4 ,in certain sections and for certain products the railroad rate varies with the season1 because of difference in competition4 ,the railroad rate between ,chicago and ,new ,york on grain is higher while the navigation of the ,great ,lakes is suspended4 ,as an illustration of the cheapness of transportation by water1 it is stated that sometimes it is cheaper to ship wheat from ,chicago to ,buffalo by boat than to store it in a grain elevator for an equal period of time4 ,products may sometimes be sent by baggage to greater advantage than by express1 special arrangements for which are generally required4 ,,facilities ,,for ,,freight ,,transportation ,american railway facilities are1 perhaps1 unrivaled among the nations of the world1 but the ,united ,states is still behind other nations in the matter of means of local transportation1 in which good roads is only a part of the problem4 ,in ,france1 the so-called messagers are a common feature of local traffic4 ,thus in the ,department of ,touraine there are #bdf towns each having from one to four messagers1 who with their great two-wheel carts1 each with single draft horse1 make one or two trips to ,tours each week4 ,the messagers carry freight both ways precisely in the same capacity as railroads do4 ,while the railroads are fairly abundant these local agencies continue to thrive because delivery can be made directly to the consignee and delivery at the exact time and place is more certain4 ,the enormous loads conveyed in these two-wheel carts by one horse is an element in this system to which the good roads of ,france now contribute4 ,in #agii1 ,france had constructed #be1jjj miles of roadway4 ,since that time1 over #cjj1jjj miles of roadway have been completed and about #cj1jjj miles of railway have been constructed--ten miles of roadway for each mile of steam railway4 ,the good roads of ,france are of comparatively recent origin1 contributing materially to the improvement in well-being which has taken place during the same period4 ,,chapter ,,xix ,,marketing ,without stopping to inquire the reasons1 it may be recalled that there are two rather distinct forms of trade1 wholesale and retail4 ,the wholesale trade is conducted by three classes of persons3 dealers or merchants1 commission men1 and brokers4 ,the dealer is one who buys the goods outright and takes his own risk on making a favorable sale to the retailer4 ,the commission man is one who receives the goods1 sells them at such price as he may be able to obtain and remits to the seller the amount obtained less expenses and his commission4 ,the broker is a man who effects a sale without coming in contact in any way with the materials sold4 ,a cheese broker1 for example1 receives instruction from different factories to sell for them a certain quantity of cheese of a given kind and quality each week or month as the case may be4 ,at the same time he receives from grocery stores which retail cheese orders for various amounts1 kinds and quality of cheeses4 ,with this information at hand1 he directs the various factories intrusting their business to him to ship the kind1 quantity1 and quality of cheese required by his several customers4 ,for such service he receives a brokerage1 which is less than that charged by a commission man because he is not required to handle or store the material4 ,since the different farm products are purchased by different classes of retailers1 and since their handling and sale require different facilities and special knowledge1 there have arisen in the great centers of trade different kinds of markets1 each having its particular facilities for the handling1 care and sale1 and each conducted by commission men or brokers with a special knowledge of the trade4 ,furthermore1 certain cities have become1 on account of their favorable position--to mention but one reason--headquarters for certain products or groups of products4 ,thus ,petersburg1 ,virginia1 has the principal wholesale market for peanuts4 ,elgin1 ,illinois1 has been noted for its butter market4 ,st4 ,louis is the leading mart for mules4 ,in a general way1 the following five more or less distinct and important classes of markets for farm products may be recognized3 ,grain1 ,live ,stock1 ,produce1 ,cotton and ,tobacco4 ,,methods ,,of ,,trade ,the brokers or commission men doing business in any one of these markets usually form an association called a board of trade1 chamber of commerce or similar title for the purpose of assisting each other in the pursuit of common ends4 ,the result has been uniformity of methods and charges2 but above all in importance1 perhaps1 has been the definition of classes and grades of the products placed on sale4 ,the tendency is for the associations in the different cities to adopt uniform rules for the grading of products1 so that ,no4 #b red winter wheat may mean the same thing in ,toledo and ,new ,york2 that the quotation on prime beef may refer to the same quality of cattle in ,pittsburgh as it does in ,chicago2 and that ,no4 #a ,timothy hay in ,baltimore and ,st4 ,louis may be alike4 ,while the tendency is towards uniformity1 much yet remains to be accomplished4 ,the shipper must be on his guard lest he suffer loss through the variations in the classification or variations in their interpretations on the different markets4 ,there has grown up around these markets some agency which stands as a disinterested party between seller and buyer impartially determining the weight and in some cases the quality of the object under negotiation4 ,the ,state of ,illinois employs agents who inspect all cars of grain consigned to the ,chicago market4 ,these inspectors determine the kind1 grade and weight of the grain in each car4 ,the car is then delivered under seal to the purchaser4 ,if either seller or buyer is dissatisfied with the inspector's decision he may1 by complying with certain regulations1 have this decision reviewed by a higher authority4 ,the decision of this higher authority is final and must be accepted by both parties4 ,brokers selling grain in carload lots ship the cars subject to the weight and grade as determined by the inspector at ,chicago4 ,grain of a specific grade may thus be bought in ,chicago or other great grain markets with almost perfect security as to weight and quality by persons living in any part of this or any other country4 ,at ,elgin the quality of butter is determined by a committee appointed by the ,board of ,trade from its own members4 ,in the live stock markets1 the stock yards company1 in addition to furnishing yards1 shelter1 food and water1 acts as agent between seller and buyer in determining the weight of the animals4 ,the purchaser or his agent must determine for himself the quality of the animals he buys4 ,,grain ,,markets ,the ,chicago and ,st4 ,paul ,boards of ,trade and the ,new ,york ,produce ,exchange are the three great agencies for dealing in grain in the ,united ,states4 ,buffalo1 ,duluth1 ,baltimore and ,philadelphia are also important markets4 ,adjuncts to these markets are the great terminal elevators capable of holding almost indefinitely enormous quantities of wheat and other grain4 ,on the ,pacific ,coast all the wheat is handled in the bags1 as is the custom in the other markets of the world4 ,canada and the ,united ,states alone have recognized the principle that wheat and other grains will run like water1 which has been a prime factor in their competition with other nations4 ,country elevators charge two cents a bushel for storage during the first #ae days and #a_/b cent for each additional #ae days4 ,the charge for storage at terminal elevators for the first #ae days is #c_/d cent4 ,the farmer may thus store his wheat in an elevator in place of his farm if he chooses so to do1 although the wheat he thus puts in storage may have been made into flour and consumed before he sells it4 ,this may be looked upon as a sort of intermediary step between storing wheat in one's own granary and dealing in futures4 ,the country shipper pays #a_/b cent a bushel commission for the sale of wheat4 ,there is also a charge for inspection and insurance1 and1 in case there is an advance payment1 for interest4 ,after five days there are storage charges4 ,this has given rise to the expression1 gilt edge1 regular and short receipts1 depending upon the length of time there remains before storage charges must be paid4 ,every market has a grade known as contract grade1 meaning the quality that must be furnished when wheat or other grain is sold without specifying the grade4 ,in ,chicago ,no4 #b red winter wheat is the contract grade4 ,where grain is sold or purchased by a broker1 the brokerage is usually #a_/h cent per bushel4 ,,hay ,,markets ,at least twenty cities have adopted the rules of the ,national hay association as to classes and grades of hay and straw4 ,the southern states constitute an important market for the hay of the north central states1 while ,boston1 ,new ,york and the mining towns of ,pennsylvania are important markets for the northeastern states4 ,the size of bale varies from #ge to #bjj pounds4 ,small bales of #ajj pounds each are preferred in ,baltimore1 medium bales of #aaj to #adj pounds in ,philadelphia1 while ,new ,york and ,boston usually deal in the larger bales4 ,the commission charges vary from #ej cents to #a per car4 ,in ,new ,york1 #a pays all charges4 ,at ,chicago1 #c per car has been charged for the inspection1 divided equally between seller and buyer4 ,,produce ,,markets ,every town of any consequence has its produce market4 ,the ,south ,water street district in ,chicago and the ,west ,washington street market in ,new ,york are noted for their extent and variety4 ,there are also many special markets for certain classes of produce4 ,thus ,elgin1 ,chicago and ,new ,york have butter exchanges4 ,wisconsin1 ,utica1 ,watertown and ,cuba 7,new ,york7 maintain exchanges where cheese is placed on sale each week during the manufacturing season4 ,there is also a board of trade for cheese in ,new ,york ,city4 ,the prices quoted upon these exchanges are made the basis of many transactions between buyer and seller1 who never enter these markets4 ,not only do buyers and sellers agree to abide by the quotations of one or the other of these markets1 but the quotations are also used as a basis of settlement for milk furnished the creamery or factory4 ,these agencies are thus impartial arbiters in countless financial transactions4 ,the rate of commission varies in different markets and for different products4 ,generally1 however1 produce is handled on a #e basis1 but for individual products which are especially bulky and difficult to handle1 such as cabbage1 #aj may be charged4 ,in some cases commission is by quantity instead of on a percentage basis4 ,thus for potatoes the commission is sometimes #aj and in other cases #d or #e cents a bushel4 ,,live ,,stock ,,markets ,while poultry and game1 as well as the carcasses of the smaller animals1 may be handled through the produce markets1 the large animals require separate facilities4 ,the ,united ,states is noted for its large live stock markets and for the perfection and size of the packing houses which have grown up about them4 ,the most famous example of these combined agencies is to be found at ,chicago1 but important live stock markets are also maintained at ,st4 ,louis1 ,kansas ,city1 ,omaha1 ,pittsburgh1 ,buffalo and more recently ,fort ,worth1 ,texas4 ,the commission charges vary from #ej cents to #a per head for cattle and from #aj to #be cents per head for calves1 sheep and hogs4 ,in some markets1 the commission on hogs is #b of the gross returns4 ,when located within #aej miles of a central market1 it is customary to allow #ej cents per hundred pounds for cattle and #dj cents for hogs to cover shrinkage1 and cost of freight1 yardage1 food1 bedding and commission4 ,it is possible for an owner to sell his own live stock in these yards1 but the commission man1 because of his superior knowledge of existing trade conditions1 is almost universally employed4 ,firms which handle cattle1 sheep and hogs seldom sell horses4 ,although handled by different commission firms1 important horse markets are maintained at ,chicago and ,buffalo immediately adjacent to the market for meat animals4 ,in ,new ,york the horse markets are in a different section of the city1 that for draft and common work horses on one street1 while the ,american ,horse ,exchange1 located at another point1 handles high-class light horses4 ,the usual custom is to sell horses at auction1 although they may be purchased at private treaty4 ,in whatever manner purchased1 it is essential to understand precisely the character of the guarantee4 ,,cotton1 ,,wool ,,and ,,tobacco ,,markets ,because of their higher value per pound and the ease with which they can be stored1 cotton1 wool and tobacco are dealt in somewhat differently than other farm products4 ,the two great cotton exchanges are located at ,new ,orleans and ,new ,york1 the quotations on these markets controlling the financial transactions in cotton throughout the world4 ,the principal wool markets are ,boston1 ,new ,york1 ,philadelphia and ,st4 ,louis4 ,the principal tobacco markets are at ,richmond and ,danville1 ,va41 ,durham1 ,n4 ,c41 and ,louisville1 ,ky4 ,illustration3 ,mr4 ,c4 ,w4 ,wald1 graduate of the ,ohio ,state ,university1 farmer1 formerly assistant horticulturist of the ,new ,hampshire and ,ohio ,experiment ,stations1 is shown above in one of the ,new ,carlisle 7,ohio7 greenhouses1 in which three crops of lettuce occur in one bed4 ,one crop is ready to cut1 another planted and a third in pots between the other plants1 to be planted in another bed when large enough4 ,the net returns from a quarter of an acre under glass has been greater than from #afj acres devoted to general farm crops4 ,illustration3 ,c4 ,w4 ,zuck ,sons1 ,erie1 ,pa4 ,one son was a student in agriculture at the ,pennsylvania ,state ,college4 ,father and three sons1 beginning six years ago with a run-down farm of #ee acres1 have built an acre of glass and a heating plant of #bfj horsepower4 ,during the period they have spent #e1jjj on the place and at the end of season they will have very nearly cleared their improvements4 ,tell the youthful readers of your book to get as much education as possible and then go in partnership with their fathers or brothers4 ,if they do1 success will be theirs4 ,the country shipper or the young farmer wishing to place his products in the ordinary channels of trade must consider and determine among other things the following3 ,what cities have favorable markets for his products2 choose some commission man or broker to handle them2 calculate the expenses for freight1 commission and other customary items2 familiarize himself with the rules for grading his products in the market or markets under consideration2 and determine what agency there may be for protecting him as to the weight and quality when sales are effected4 ,whenever practicable1 a visit to the market in question and a personal study of the conditions under which selling is done will be wise4 ,having done so1 and perhaps having made a number of sales through these usual channels of trade1 he will be in a position to consider whether he may organize to advantage some more direct method of getting his products to the consumer4 ,,chapter ,,xx ,,laws ,,affecting ,,land ,,and ,,labor ,thus far property has been treated as invested capital upon which interest must be charged in determining the labor income4 ,labor1 likewise1 has been considered principally in its effect upon profits4 ,society has thrown around the transfer of property and the use of labor certain restraints for the protection of all individuals4 ,through the ages certain procedures have become fixed by custom4 ,these legal practices are largely the inheritance of old ,roman law and are usually known as common law4 ,various legislative bodies having jurisdiction enact from time to time other laws4 ,this body of enacted law is called statute law and is much more variable than common law4 ,in the briefest possible manner it is the purpose here to state a few of the principles and applications of the law1 chiefly the common law1 as it affects the farmer in acquiring or disposing of his property and in his dealings with labor4 ,,property ,property may be defined as anything which is a subject of ownership4 ,it possesses the characteristics of being acquired1 held1 sold1 willed or inherited and is of two kinds3 7#a7 ,real property1 real estate or realty2 7#b7 chattels or personal property4 ,these two kinds of property are subject to quite distinct legal practices4 ,in general1 real estate consists of land1 things attached to it1 such as trees1 buildings1 fences and certain rights and profits arising out of or annexed to the land4 ,the term land as ordinarily used includes all these things1 so that when land is said to be worth so much an acre it includes all fixtures4 ,ponds and streams are1 under this definition1 land4 ,the land not only has surface dimensions1 but extends upward indefinitely and down to the center of the earth1 and hence includes a right to ores1 coal1 oil1 gas or other materials whatsoever4 ,an article may1 however1 be real property or personal property depending upon circumstances4 ,thus a tree growing on the land is real property1 but when cut into cord wood becomes personal property4 ,new fence posts ready for use are personal property4 ,when set in the ground they become real estate4 ,just what goes with a farm or what are fixtures is frequently a subject for legal determination4 ,,fixtures ,the general rule is that fixtures are any chattels which have become substantially and permanently annexed to the land or to buildings or other things which are clearly a part of the land4,d ,the annexation may1 however1 be purely theoretical1 since the keys to the house or barn1 which may be in the owner's pocket1 are real estate4 ,one rule concerning fixtures is that they must be so annexed that they cannot be severed without injuring the freehold4 ,the intention of the party making the annexation also often determines1 since if the article is annexed with the intention of making it permanent1 it then becomes a part of the land4 ,among the things held to be fixtures1 and therefore a part of the land1 are3 7#a7 ,all buildings and everything which is a part of any building1 such as doors1 blinds1 keys1 etc42 7#b7 fence materials which have been once used and are piled up to be used again are a part of the land1 but new fence material not yet used is personal property4 7#c7 ,growing crops are real property4 ,they go to the purchaser of the land unless specially reserved in the deed4 ,a verbal agreement is not sufficient4 7#d7 ,trees1 if blown down or cut down and still lying where they fell1 are real property2 if cut or corded up for sale they become personal property4 7#e7 ,all manure made on the farm is real estate and passes with the land4 7#f7 ,all the ordinary portable machines and tools are considered personal property1 but certain machines held to be of permanent use upon the land are real estate4 ,among the things which courts have held to go with the land are cotton gins1 copper kettles encased in brick and mortar for cooking food for hogs1 cider mills1 pumps1 water pipes bringing water from distant springs4 ,in general1 motive power machinery and the shafting go with the land1 but the machinery impelled may or may not1 depending upon the way it is annexed4 7#g7 ,if stones have been quarried for the purpose of using upon the farm1 they go with the farm1 but if quarried for sale they are personal property4 ,,contracts ,the difference between personal property and real property may be indicated by considering the essential features of a contract4 ,a contract is an agreement between two or more persons4 ,the foundation rule concerning a contract is that every man must fulfill every agreement he makes4 ,an ethical practice grows out of this legal rule which1 if strictly adhered to1 will save much embarrassment1 viz41 make but few promises and always keep your engagements4 ,there are seven requirements generally necessary to a valid contract4 7#a7 ,possibility4 ,the thing to be done must be possible4 7#b7 ,legality4 ,it must not be forbidden by law4 7#c7 ,proper parties4 ,the parties to a contract must be competent4 ,contracts with idiots or drunken persons are not binding4 ,some contracts with minors are not binding1 although contracts for the necessities of life are4 7#d7 ,mutual assent4 ,a proposition not assented to by both parties is not binding on either4 7#e7 ,valid consideration4 ,a man is not regarded as injured by the breaking of a promise for which he has paid1 or is to pay1 nothing4 7#f7 ,fraud or deceit4 ,a contract obtained by fraud is void as against the party using the fraud1 but may be enforced by the innocent party if he sees fit4 7#g7 ,written contracts4 ,here comes the most important difference between real and personal property4 ,real property can only be conveyed by a written instrument1 properly executed and recorded1 while personal property passes by mere possession4 ,contracts relating to the sale of real estate are not binding unless in writing1 while verbal contracts are sufficient for personal property if accompanied by payment of a part of the purchase price or the acceptance of the goods4 ,for amounts under #ej verbal agreement in itself is binding4 ,,transfer ,,of ,,real ,,estate ,the purchaser should require of the seller evidence that the title to the land is straight and clear2 if not1 exactly what the defects are4 ,this is done through an abstract of title1 which should be prepared by a competent lawyer4 ,this is not an official document1 and its value depends largely upon the ability and watchfulness of the party making the abstract4 ,ownership of land is conveyed by means of a deed4 ,a deed is an instrument conveying at least a life interest in the land4 ,care should be taken that the deed contains the essential parts and that it is properly executed4 ,,deeds ,deeds are of two kinds3 ,quit claim deeds1 which convey all the rights1 title and interest which the seller has in the land1 but does not warrant the title2 and warranty deeds1 which1 in addition to what a quit claim does1 contain covenants which agree that the seller and his heirs1 etc41 shall warrant and defend the title to the purchaser against the lawful claims of all persons4 ,,the ,,requisites ,,of ,a ,,deed ,the requisites of a deed are3 ,the parties to the deed1 the consideration1 the description2 and with a warranty deed1 the covenants4 ,the seller must be of full age1 sound mind and if married his wife should always join in the deed4 ,her name should appear following his at the beginning of the instrument4 ,she should sign and acknowledge the deed1 and the certificate of acknowledgment should state that she is the wife of the seller4 ,if the seller is a married woman1 her husband does not need to join in the sale of her own property4 ,it is customary to state the consideration upon which the deed is given1 but this is not necessary1 nor will a false statement as to the amount paid invalidate the deed4 ,the description of the land conveyed should be as minute and careful as possible1 and preferably in the exact language of former deeds4 ,in case former description is in error1 it should be referred to and correct description given4 ,where land is conveyed by metes and bounds1 this description governs1 although it may not convey the number of acres of land stated4 ,in describing boundaries the location of monuments takes precedence of distances mentioned4 ,,execution ,,of ,,the ,,deed ,a deed must be signed1 witnessed1 acknowledged1 delivered and recorded4 ,in some states deeds must be sealed1 but in other states the law has dispensed with this formality4 ,witnesses to deeds are not required in all states4 ,some states require one1 but usually two witnesses are required4 ,the parties signing the deed are required to appear before an official designated by statute1 usually any magistrate1 justice or notary public1 and acknowledge the same to be his or her free act and deed4 ,a deed has no effect until delivered1 and should be immediately recorded by the purchaser4 ,generally an unrecorded deed is not good as against a subsequent purchaser in good faith4 ,it is well to note that the laws relating to the transfer of land are those of the place where the land lies and not necessarily those of the place where the deed is made4 ,,method ,,of ,,laying ,,out ,,public ,,lands ,the public lands of the ,united ,states are1 whenever practicable1 laid out into townships each six miles square1 as near as may be1 whose sides run due north and south and east and west4 ,the townships are laid off north and south of a base line which is a parallel of latitude1 and are numbered north and south from the base line3 ,thus1 ,t4 #c ,s41 means ,township ,no4 #c south from the base line4 ,each row of townships running north and south is called a range1 and is numbered east or west of the principal meridian3 ,thus1 ,r4 #b ,e41 means ,range #b east of the given meridian4 ,the townships are then laid off into sections or square miles of #fdj acres1 as near as may be1 and these are numbered1 beginning always at the northeast section1 as shown in the accompanying diagram4 ,n ----------------------------- #f #e #d #c #b #a ------------------------ #g #h #i #aj #aa #ab ------------------------ ,w #ah #ag #af #ae #ad #ac ,e ------------------------ #ai #bj #ba #bb #bc #bd ------------------------ #cj #bi #bh #bg #bf #be ------------------------ #ca #cb #cc #cd #ce #cf ----------------------------- ,s ,each quarter section is referred to as the northeast or southwest quarter of the section1 and each forty acres as the northwest or southeast quarter of a particular quarter4 ,for example1 an eighty-acre field may be referred to as the west half of the southwest quarter of ,section #c1 ,township #e ,north1 ,range #c1 west of ----4 ,base line and meridian1 or in some cases merely the meridian is mentioned4 ,the curvature of the earth's surface makes it impossible for the sides of townships to be truly north and south and at the same time six miles square4 ,the excesses and the deficiencies due to the convergency of meridians and the curvature of the earth are by law added to or deducted from the western and northern ranges of sections and half sections of the townships4 ,while the above has been the rule in laying out public lands for more than a century1 there are many exceptions1 due to many causes4 ,in the older settled sections the land was laid out in lots1 often in a very irregular manner1 although in some cases within a given tract the area was more or less regular4 ,in these cases1 the land must be described minutely and carefully by metes and bounds4 ,in some of the southern and western states1 also1 where there were ,spanish grants1 much irregularity in the surveys exists4 ,over much of the north ,central states this rectangular system of laying out lands obtains and has worked well in most respects4 ,,the ,,landlord ,,and ,,tenant ,leases of real estate follow the same procedure as deeds1 except that a verbal lease1 if for a term of not to exceed one year1 is valid in most states4 ,a written lease should be carefully drawn1 because1 according to common law1 there are few things implied in a lease that are not stated4 ,definite statement concerning repairs and insurance is desirable4 ,a tenant should also acquaint himself with the law of the state concerning the surrender of the farm upon the expiration of his term4 ,it is the duty of the tenant not only to guard the property1 but to conduct the farm in a husbandlike manner4 ,unless otherwise stated in the contract1 the tenant must pursue those methods of husbandry which are customary in the vicinity4 ,,the ,,relation ,,of ,,the ,,farmer ,,to ,,his ,,workmen ,the requirements of a valid contract1 as previously stated1 control most of the relations which the employer has with his employees4 ,contracts for labor1 unless for more than one year1 need not be in writing4 ,if1 however1 the service to be rendered is unusual1 the agreement should be reduced to writing1 because1 in the absence of specific agreement1 the law assumes that customary service and wages are implied4 ,like all other employers of labor the farmer is under obligation to protect his workman from injury4 ,he must not subject them to unusual and unreasonable risks4 ,he must hire workmen suited to the employment4 ,for example1 if he employs a young boy to drive a fractious horse1 he would be liable for any injury that might occur4 ,in like manner1 he must exercise proper care concerning the safety of the machinery placed in the hands of his workmen4 ,he must keep his premises in a safe condition and must not expose his workmen to risks not incident to the employment for which they are hired4 ,the farmer is liable in damages for the acts of his workmen which are within the scope of their employment1 although the authority may not have been expressly conferred4 ,he who acts by another acts himself4 ,in case one is sued for the acts of his employee1 the burden is upon him to prove that the act of the workman was without authority1 expressed or implied4 ----- ,d ,haigh's ,manual of ,law1 p4 #fi4 ,,chapter ,,xxi ,,rural ,,legislation ,various laws have been enacted by federal and state legislatures for the better protection of producer and consumer4 ,much of this legislation affects in a very special way the interests of the farmer4 ,not infrequently1 in fact1 generally1 the state department of agriculture has more or less direct jurisdiction over their enforcement4 ,state departments of agriculture usually publish a collection of the laws of this character4 ,these laws vary greatly in the different states and only the most general outline1 as they affect the interests of the farmer1 can be given here4 ,persons can inform themselves as to the details as enforced in a given state by applying to the state secretary of agriculture4 ,a number of these acts affect interstate commerce1 concerning which the ,united ,states ,constitution says3 ,no state shall1 without the consent of the ,congress1 lay any impost or duties on imports or exports1 except what may be absolutely necessary for executing its inspection laws4 ,by a series of judicial decisions it has been determined that a ,state has a right to enforce laws affecting interstate commerce when traffic in the articles thus modified or prohibited affects the public welfare4 ,when it is necessary to have a police regulation to prevent fraud in the traffic of an article or for the purpose of guarding the public health or morals1 police laws1 so called1 may be enacted and enforced4 ,around this general question there has waged a bitter controversy which has occupied some of the best legal minds and is one involving some difficulty4 ,,fertilizer ,,control ,one of the first of the control measures to be enacted1 and the one which has been most universally adopted by the several states1 is the law requiring the manufacturer and dealer in commercial fertilizers to guarantee the percentage of the so-called essential fertilizing elements--nitrogen1 phosphorus and potassium--contained in each bag of fertilizer offered for sale4 ,subsequent control laws have been modeled more or less closely after this law4 ,hence a description of the operation and execution of it will serve for all4 ,the execution of this law is usually under the immediate supervision of the state secretary of agriculture1 while the necessary chemical analyses are made by the state experiment station4 ,in some states the enforcement of the law is in charge of the state experiment station1 while in others the state department of agriculture has its own laboratories or employs a private chemist4 ,it is1 however1 becoming a more and more settled policy to place all police regulations in charge of the state department of agriculture1 while at the same time the chemical analyses and other scientific and technological inquiries are made at the state experiment station4 ,in order to facilitate the taking of samples and in order to raise funds for the execution of the law1 the manufacturer is required to take out a license and to make a statement of the brands of fertilizers which he will place upon the market in the given state during the given season4 ,during the spring and fall season agents traverse the state and sample the bags of fertilizers as found on sale by local merchants4 ,the samples are sent by number under seal to the designated chemist1 while at the same time the agent transmits to the state officer in charge of the enforcement of the law the necessary information concerning these samples4 ,upon the receipt of the analysis made by the chemist1 who has had no knowledge of the origin of the sample1 the state officer compares them with the guarantee of the manufacturer1 and if he finds it necessary enters legal complaint4 ,while these laws have been in force for many years in some states and in many states for some years1 prosecution has seldom been found necessary4 ,the honest manufacturer is protected from dishonest competition1 and the dishonest manufacturer1 if there be such1 cannot afford the publicity which noncompliance with the law would entail4 ,it has been customary to publish1 with the results of analysis1 also an estimate of the commercial value per ton of each brand of fertilizer4 ,this estimated commercial value is obtained by multiplying the pounds of each element or combinations of the element in a ton by a value per pound4 ,to the value of the fertilizer thus obtained is added something for cost of mixing1 bagging and freight1 and something for profit4 ,the price per pound given to each element or combinations of the elements is based upon the commercial value of the element when purchased in raw materials4 ,the price for each year is usually determined by a conference of those in control of the execution of the law in the several states for certain groups of states4 ,as a matter of fact1 the price varies little from year to year4 ,the published figures1 therefore1 constitute a table of comparative commercial values as determined by the most expert knowledge4 ,while not constituting a statement of absolute commercial value for any given locality1 they do enable the purchaser to determine whether the price quoted on a given brand of fertilizer is within reason4 ,persons who are unacquainted with the principles controlling the use of commercial fertilizers may1 however1 be led to believe that the price of the fertilizer is an indication of its value for the production of a given crop4 ,as is well known to all students of the subject1 there is no necessary relation between the commercial value of a fertilizer and the fitness of its formula for a given soil and crop4 ,for these and other reasons1 the publication of tables of commercial value has been strongly opposed by some manufacturers1 and in certain states the custom has been discontinued4 ,while granting that tables of commercial value are subject to misinterpretation1 it is perhaps fair to say that such tables have been of most benefit1 and1 moreover1 have been of great value to those who were most likely to misinterpret them4 ,it has been customary in most states to make analyses only of mixed fertilizers4 ,thus such raw materials as nitrate of soda1 sulphate of ammonia1 dried blood1 bone meal1 rock phosphate1 tankage1 muriate of potash1 sulphate of potash1 have not been brought under the operation of the law4 ,if one wishes to purchase nitrate of soda1 muriate of potash and tankage with the intention of mixing them according to a formula of his own1 he may not find any protection in his state4 ,however1 these products can be obtained through reputable dealers who will willingly guarantee the contents4 ,in case of doubt1 the purchaser may secure an analysis by his state experiment station at a moderate cost4 ,the law requires that there shall be affixed to every package of fertilizer offered for sale a statement about as follows3 ,the minimum per centum of each of the following constituents which may be contained therein3 7a7 ,nitrogen4 7b7 ,soluble1 available and total phosphoric acid1 except in cases of undissolved bone1 basic slag phosphate1 wood ashes1 unheated phosphate rock1 garbage tankage and pulverized natural manures1 when the minimum per centum of total phosphoric acid may be substituted4 ,this latter applies only in those states where raw materials are subject to inspection4 7c7 ,potash soluble in distilled water4 ,it is possible to comply with the law and yet state the guarantee upon each bag of fertilizer in such a manner as to mislead the uninformed4 ,it is not the purpose of this book to deal with such technical details1 but if the purchaser of commercial fertilizers is not already well acquainted with fertilizer terms1 he should secure an elementary textbook on the subject or write to his state experiment station for a bulletin discussing them4 ,,feeding ,,stuff ,,control ,the law controlling the sale of stock foods is of more recent origin than the fertilizer control act and has not been so universally adopted up to the present time4 ,the necessity for such a law arises from the growing use as stock foods of various by-products in the manufacture of liquors1 starch1 glucose1 sugar1 cottonseed and linseed oils and breakfast foods4 ,various mixtures1 varying widely in chemical composition1 especially in protein and crude fiber1 were placed upon the market4 ,in some instances mixtures were grossly adulterated with such things as oat hulls and ground corn cobs4 ,the adoption of this law by certain states has served to make other states the dumping ground for inferior stock foods1 thus increasing the necessity for similar protection4 ,the law does not apply to the ordinary grains produced by farmers or to the usual by-products of millers4 ,,seed ,,control ,from time immemorial it has been the universal custom of seedsmen to disclaim all responsibility for the purity and germinating power of their seeds4 ,but as the importance of good seed--good in hereditary power1 good in germination1 good in its freedom from adulteration1 good in its absence of noxious weed seed--has become better understood demand for some method of control has arisen4 ,in at least one state there is a seed-control law modeled quite closely after the fertilizer-control law4 ,however1 the usual method of protection consists in purchasing by sample or the insistence of a guarantee1 with a subsequent analysis of a sample of the purchased seed4 ,the germinating power and purity of seed can be determined cheaply by an expert within from five to twenty days1 depending upon the species4 ,the federal government has a division of seed control in its ,department of ,agriculture at ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 ,any person may send a sample of seed to this division and have its purity and germinating power determined1 and in some of the states the experiment station will perform similar services without charge4 ,clover1 alfalfa1 grass and other small seeds should always be purchased subject to such inspection1 unless the purchaser is prepared to make his own inspection1 which a very little training makes possible4 ,,nursery ,,inspection ,there is no national law concerning the importation of insect-infested or diseased plant stock4 ,several of the states have passed both state and interstate regulations concerning the sale of nursery stock4 ,the insects usually legislated against are ,san ,jose scale1 gypsy moth and brown-tail moth1 while the diseases usually interdicted are yellows1 black knot1 peach rosette1 and pear blight4 ,the enforcement of the law is usually placed in charge of a person having special knowledge of economic insects and fungous diseases4 ,in addition to these police regulations this officer may1 by various means1 attempt to bring into practice methods calculated to eradicate or1 at least1 lessen the severity of existing attacks4 ,commerce in vinegar1 dried fruits1 insecticides and fungicides is also regulated in some states4 ,,dairy1 ,,food ,,and ,,drug ,,inspection ,an adequate discussion of the rise and development of the control in the sale of dairy and food products would require a chapter by itself1 if not an entire volume4 ,suffice it to say here that the laws on this general subject have acquired an importance in many ways quite beyond that of any of the other control measures discussed in this chapter4 ,in the extent of funds handled1 the number of agents employed and the public interest incited1 the office of dairy and food commissioner outranks any other control agency4 ,in some states the office is an elective one1 and the questions with which the office has to deal become a part of the state political campaign4 ,the importance of the inspection of dairy and food products grows out of the fact that not only is the consumer1 hence all the world1 interested1 but the execution of these laws touch large commercial interests4 ,not only are meat packers1 distillers and brewers deeply interested1 but the wholesale and retail grocers and1 more recently1 the manufacturing and prescribing druggists1 are vitally concerned4 ,not many years ago the inspection of dairy products1 particularly control of the traffic in oleomargarine1 was the chief function of this office4 ,to-day the enforcement of laws concerning pure foods1 liquor and drugs is of much greater importance4 ,interstate commerce in oleomargarine is now regulated through the enactment of an internal revenue law requiring a tax of ten cents a pound on colored oleomargarine and one-fourth of a cent a pound on uncolored oleomargarine and1 further1 by prescribing the character of package and method of marking all oleomargarine entering into interstate commerce4 ,state agencies are charged with the duty of requiring the compliance of local dealers and restaurateurs with the general features of the federal law4 ,some states1 however1 prohibit entirely the sale of colored oleomargarine within the state4 ,,purity ,,in ,,dairy ,,products ,attempts to define what is pure milk1 cream1 butter or cheese have been fraught with much difficulty4 ,thus1 for example1 legal definitions of pure milk have resulted in some cows giving illegal milk4 ,in some instances the law has declared simply that whole milk is milk from which no cream has been removed2 in others1 the minimum amount of butter fat has been prescribed2 in still others1 the minimum amount of total solids containing a minimum proportion of butter fat has been made the basis of legal milk4 ,in like manner full cream cheese has been defined as cheese made from whole milk or from milk from which only a given amount of cream has been removed1 while in other instances the minimum amount of butter fat which full cream cheese may contain is prescribed4 ,the wide variation in the amount of butter fat carried by cream has caused much jocular comment and some serious discussion as to what is cream4 ,while it is not feasible to indicate the laws for the several states1 the ruling of the federal government as to what constitutes purity in dairy products under the national food and drug act may be accepted as a general guide4 ,a circular giving the required information may be secured by addressing the ,secretary of ,agriculture1 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4 ,,live ,,stock ,,sanitation ,the control of contagious diseases in domestic animals and the inspection of meat products have been the chief work of the ,bureau of ,animal ,industry of the ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture since its establishment4 ,the bureau inspects all imported live animals and under certain conditions will inspect live animals intended for exportation4 ,it inspects all meat products intended for export4 ,its inspection of meats intended for interstate commerce is less rigid than that exported4 ,meats sold within the state in which they are slaughtered cannot be required by the federal government to undergo inspection4 ,it thus happens that the people of the several states enjoy less protection in the consumption of meat than the foreign purchaser of ,american meats unless there is a state meat inspection law4 ,however1 it is becoming more and more the custom for the large packers to have all their products inspected without regard to their destination4 ,the meats slaughtered in the locality in which they are consumed are the ones that receive the least supervision4 ,the federal government has been especially active and efficient in the prevention of interstate commerce in cattle suffering with ,texas fever1 and sheep attacked with scab and foot rot4 ,through the agency of the bureau dipping tanks have been provided in all the great live stock markets for the disinfection of cattle and sheep when needed4 ,several of the states have laws controlling the importation of diseased animals from other states and the transfer of them within the state4 ,the following are the diseases most commonly mentioned in the laws of the several states3 ,anthrax1 black quarter1 hog cholera1 swine plague1 rabies1 glanders and tuberculosis4 ,the law is generally enforced by a state veterinarian1 whose acts are supervised either by a state live stock commission or the state secretary of agriculture or these two agencies acting conjointly4 ,perhaps the disease which has required the greatest amount of attention in the several states is tuberculosis in milch cows4 ,it is customary for this office to apply the tuberculin test1 free of charge1 under certain stipulations1 to any herd upon the request of the owner and to supervise the slaughter and disposition of the reacting animals4 ,in some states the owner is indemnified in part or in whole for his loss4 ,the amount of indemnity as well as the general features of the law concerning the control of tuberculosis in domestic animals has been the subject of much controversy and cannot be said to have reached an altogether satisfactory solution in most states4 ,the young farmer should clearly understand that under no circumstances can he afford to have a tuberculous animal in his herd4 ,the contact of a diseased animal with other animals of the herd is certain to entail a greater loss than the destruction of the diseased animal4 ,the farmer must in his own interest rear healthy animals whether or not it is necessary for the protection of the consumer4 ,,fish ,,and ,,game ,,laws ,the motives underlying the enactment of laws concerning fish and game are varied4 ,the controversies over these laws in the legislatures of the several states indicate that there is a belief1 whatever may be the fact1 that there are opposing interests2 viz41 those of the hunter or sportsman on the one hand1 and those of the farmer or landowner on the other4 ,the law of trespass has been one over which has raged much bitterness1 both with regard to the form of the law to be enacted and concerning its subsequent enforcement4 ,sportsmen have usually held that a distinction existed between wild animals occupying private property and domestic animals4 ,the landowner has urged that others should not trespass upon his property for the purpose of shooting wild animals1 although his proprietary right in them was no greater4 ,in like manner1 laws concerning the closed season1 made to protect animals during the breeding period1 are the subject of extended discussion and are being constantly changed2 both because there is a difference of opinion concerning the habits of the different species and because the motive varies for maintaining the supply4 ,some animals are protected on account of their benefit1 supposed or real1 to agriculture4 ,other animals are protected because of their gaming qualities1 even to the extent of sometimes injuring farm crops4 ,the money spent by sportsmen in the pursuit of game is an element in the varied interests involved4 ,humane motives and a desire to prevent the further restriction of a not too varied fauna have helped1 also1 to save certain species from extinction4 ,on the other hand1 in some states commercial interests are involved1 as where large quantities of birds are taken for their plumage4 ,some attempts have been made to introduce foreign species1 as the ,japanese pheasant4 ,it is1 however1 with fish that the most has been accomplished in replenishment4 ,the federal government and several of the states have been active in regularly restocking1 each season1 certain streams with fry of edible and game fish4 ,information concerning the open season can be obtained from the proper state officer4 ,the fish and game laws are usually under the control of a commission with a secretary as the executive officer4 ,,chapter ,,xxii ,,rural ,,forces ,the ,united ,states is a vast domain4 ,its material resources are enormous4 ,its fertile and easily tilled soil1 its magnificent forests1 its great stores of ore1 coal1 oil and gas2 its fine water-power sites and its temperate and healthful climate have all contributed to the making of a prosperous and progressive nation4 ,without these natural resources the ,united ,states could not be what it is4 ,the waste of some of these resources is almost beyond belief4 ,in mining1 one-half the anthracite and one-third the soft coal is left in the ground in such a manner that it may never be economically recovered4 ,a ton of coal will produce #a1djj pounds of coke1 worth #a4ej1 and #bj pounds of sulphate of ammonia1 worth #ej cents4 ,if all the nitrogen in coal which is turned into coke in ,pennsylvania were recovered1 it would furnish enough of this element to supply the needs of every acre of tillable soil in that state4 ,only about #dd of the wood in the trees now harvested in the ,united ,states is incorporated into buildings1 apparatus and furniture4 ,the rest is wasted in the process of cutting1 sawing and manufacturing into the finished products4 ,facts like these have led the nation to realize that the conservation of our natural resources is an immediate and pressing problem4 ,the ,united ,states has1 however1 a greater inheritance than these great and beneficent gifts of nature and a more fundamental problem than the preservation and efficient use of them4 ,in a single sentence1 the greatest inheritance of the ,american people is their ,puritan ancestry4 ,the word ,puritan is here used to apply not only to the ,new ,england ,pilgrims1 but to all our early forefathers1 whose traditions and practices have served to set this country apart from the other countries of the world4 ,because of the traditions which have been handed down to us1 we are healthier-bodied and cleaner-minded men and women4 ,we are more efficient1 not merely in making money1 but in everything that goes to make a full and well-rounded life4 ,it is well to realize the resources of other nations4 ,the agricultural possibilities of ,france appear to the casual observer to compare favorably with any equal area in the ,united ,states4 ,one may see farm land in ,italy which has been cultivated for at least two thousand years which is evidently as fertile as any of the limestone valleys of the ,atlantic ,states1 the prairies of the ,mississippi valley or the ,palouse district of the ,northwest4 ,russia has enormous areas of fertile soil4 ,careful observers report that in ,manchuria there are great stretches of country1 which today possess natural opportunities similar to those which the ,mississippi valley offered one hundred years ago4 ,the recent stories of the deposits of coal and mineral wealth in ,china are almost fabulous4 ,europe has rich mines1 great forests and unrivaled water-power4 ,some years ago a native of ,argentina and a native of the ,united ,states were dining together4 ,the ,argentinian had served his government as consul to ,canada4 ,he related that he had recently written an official letter in which he had occasion to refer to the people of ,canada and to those of this country4 ,he explained that in alluding to the former he could say the ,canadians1 but the latter he could not call ,americans1 since his people were also ,americans4 ,after due consideration he referred to us as the ,yankees4 ,but1 turning to his hearer1 he said1 with great emphasis1 ,i do not look upon the people of the ,united ,states as a nation1 but as a new civilization4 ,in other words1 our nation is not simply one of fertile farms1 enormous mines1 great forests1 unparalleled railroad systems1 palatial stores1 or wealthy cities1 but he saw that we are a people of different economic1 political1 educational1 social1 moral and religious ideals4 ,there are in every rural neighborhood certain forces whose objects are to increase the educational advantages1 the social opportunities and the moral aspirations of the people4 ,this subject need not be discussed merely in the abstract4 ,there are in every community concrete evidences of these forces4 ,there is the rural church4 ,there is the rural school4 ,in many localities are to be found1 also1 buildings1 for social and fraternal purposes1 as grange halls1 structures for holding fairs and picnics4 ,these are tangible evidences that there are rural agencies at work in the community whose chief purpose is to increase the educational advantages1 the social opportunities and the moral aspirations of the people4 ,how are these existing rural forces to be made more effective8 ,if co-operation in financial affairs is essential under modern conditions1 it is more needed in social matters4 ,such co-operation does not imply that these separate forces shall be fused into a single one4 ,each of them has its particular and peculiar work to do1 but each should work in harmony and not in the spirit of antagonism with the others4 ,there should be formed in each locality a committee for which the following name is proposed3 ,the ,community ,committee of ,rural ,forces4 ,emphasis should be placed upon the word community4 ,like all moral movements1 progress must come from within1 and not from without4 ,the movement must be adapted to its environment4 ,like the plants that grow there1 it must be indigenous to the soil4 ,illustration3 ,jared ,van ,wagenen1 ,jr41 has a son ,jared1 #c;d1 who is the fifth of the name that has lived upon a farm of #bbd acres at ,lawyerville1 ,n4 ,y4 ,mr4 ,van ,wagenen graduated from ,cornell ,university in #ahia1 and is a noted farmers' institute lecturer4 ,he has taken great interest in the country church and the betterment of the rural community4 ,the view shows the pond that furnishes the power for the farm's electric light plant4 ,the plant was installed by ,mr4 ,van ,wagenen with his own hands and has proved a really satisfying success4 ,illustration3 ,mr4 ,lowell ,b4 ,gable1 ,glen ,gable ,farms1 ,wybrooke1 ,pa41 a graduate of ,cornell ,university1 is developing #hab acres of land in ,chester county4 ,he has a herd of #hj ,guernsey cows in milk and is breeding ,percheron1 registered polling horses and ,chester ,white hogs4 ,mr4 ,gable has been supervisor of the township for two years1 during which time nine and one-half miles of macadam road have been built without materially increasing the taxes4 ,mr4 ,gable firmly believes that one of the best opportunities to be of help to a rural community lies in the work to be done for the improvement of social conditions--to help make what little leisure there is clean and refreshing4 ,hence on return from college he played baseball and football with local teams and helped out at every opportunity at dances1 musicales and other social entertainments4 ,this committee should be composed of representatives of the churches1 the schools1 farmers' clubs1 granges1 fair associations1 farmers' institutes2 and other organizations which are striving to increase the educational advantages1 the social opportunities and the moral aspirations of the people4 ,oftentimes the object of these rural forces is confused with efforts to increase the financial prosperity of the farmer4 ,it goes without saying that the maintenance of the fertility of the soil is essential to the food supply of the nation4 ,the problems of the economic production of plants and animals are of great importance to the prosperity of the farmer4 ,the idea1 however1 that the proper solution of these economic problems is to be the means of solving the educational1 social and religious problems is simply putting the cart before the horse4 ,economic questions can only be satisfactorily adjusted through the application of intelligence and right ideas4 ,let it be supposed that when a young man decides to pay attention to a young woman that instead of meeting her at the church door1 or it may be at the railway station1 it is considered better form for him to get permission of the mother to call upon the young woman in her own home4 ,this is the most fundamental question in every neighborhood4 ,what has it to do with the price of wheat8 ,this illustration has been used to emphasize two points4 ,first1 there are many problems in every community that are in no way related to the material prosperity of the neighborhood4 ,second1 there is1 at present1 no single force in the community with sufficient influence to cope properly with many of these problems4 ,a young college graduate who is now managing eight hundred acres of land recently wrote3 ,i firmly believe that one of the best opportunities to be of help to a rural community lies in the work that is to be done for the improvement of social conditions--to help make what little leisure there is clean and refreshing4 ,hence on return from college this young man has found time to play football and baseball with local teams and to help whenever opportunity offered at dances1 musicales and similar entertainments4 ,games and other forms of recreation may be clean and wholesome1 or they may be quite the reverse4 ,it would be the duty of the community committee to see that dances occurred under proper environment--not next an open saloon--and that the young women were properly chaperoned4 ,in many communities the boys and girls are almost wholly dependent upon the neighboring towns for their amusement4 ,this condition may or may not be desirable4 ,if the town and country are virtually one community1 there is every reason why the boys and girls from the farms should find recreation and social intercourse with the boys and girls of the village4 ,it is a relationship that should be fostered wherever possible4 ,when1 however1 the town and the country are separate communities1 which prevent the ordinary social relationships1 it is usually unfortunate when the young people of the one community are dependent upon the other community for their amusements4 ,a deeply earnest man recently said3 ,i was born and raised upon the farm4 ,i never knew a dull day in my life4 ,i went fishing4 ,i went hunting and---- ,stop right there1 said the listener4 ,there is not the same opportunity today for a boy to go hunting that there was when you were a boy4 ,that is true4 ,our ideas about such things have changed1 also4 ,yes1 he replied1 humbly enough1 for he was a man of fine fiber4 ,i propose a substitute1 said the listener4 ,there is much more pleasure and recreation to be obtained from photographing animals than from killing them4 ,what is needed in every rural community is a camera club4 ,when a boy wishes to go hunting1 he merely has to buckle on his ammunition pouch1 shoulder his gun and he is ready4 ,a camera club1 however1 requires a social organization and a social center4 ,the community committee would thus be required to decide whether the facilities for developing and printing pictures may best be located at the church1 the schoolhouse1 the grange hall or elsewhere4 ,a little reflection will show how many possibilities such a club might have on its social1 moral and educational side4 ,the suggestion has been made here1 however1 only as an illustration of the problems which arise when a rural community is organized for social welfare4 ,the organization of a book club1 or a magazine club in a rural community presents precisely the same problems4 ,some method must be devised for exchanging the books or magazines4 ,whether they are exchanged at the church1 the grange hall or through the school children will depend upon local conditions requiring a community committee to decide4 ,this community committee will do something more than reach immediate results4 ,it may project its influence far into the future4 ,not all of life is comprised in a porcelain bathtub and nickel adornments4 ,nevertheless modern methods of heating and plumbing are desirable in the country as well as in the city4 ,in ,indiana there is a one-room school building4 ,in the basement there has been placed a furnace and a gasoline engine4 ,the engine is used not only to teach the boys how to run a gasoline engine1 but it makes possible a modern system of plumbing4 ,it is well known that many of the states within the past decade have voted to abolish or very materially restrict the sale of alcoholic beverages4 ,no great temperance orators have roused the people as was the case thirty years or more ago4 ,why1 then1 has such progress been made in recent years8 ,in large part because twenty-five years ago1 the teaching of physiology was introduced into the public schools1 which taught the evil effects of alcohol to the human system4 ,during the past decade young men who studied these physiologies have been voting4 ,what has the teaching of physiology to do with the one-room schoolhouse in ,indiana with its modern system of plumbing8 ,the girls between the ages of six and fourteen are now becoming accustomed to modern systems of plumbing4 ,when they grow older and marry they will find some way to introduce similar conveniences into their homes without regard to the price of wheat4 ,a wise community committee will find many ways to influence future generations4 ,such a committee would be a priceless heritage to any community4 ,the natural resources of the ,united ,states are necessary to the prosperity of the people4 ,the preservation and economic use of these resources are of vast importance4 ,the natural resources of the world were1 however1 as great five thousand years ago as they are today4 ,the soil was no less fertile then than now4 ,the difference between the prosperity of the human race at these two periods is caused by a difference in human motive and efficiency4 ,it is the result of ideals and knowledge4 ,sit at the banquet table with men who are the real powers in shaping the affairs of the world4 ,the chances are that the champagne remains untouched4 ,these men are not in the habit of partaking of midnight suppers4 ,they must keep themselves fit for the next day's work4 ,they have the approval and loyalty of their wives because they deserve it4 ,in other words1 the men who do the world's work are not drunkards4 ,they are not gluttons4 ,they are not libertines4 ,they are efficient because they have healthy bodies and clean minds4 ,it is this efficiency which the critic from ,argentina saw when he said1 ,i do not look upon the people of the ,united ,states as a nation1 but as a new civilization4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,,standard ,,books ,,published ,,by ,,orange ,,judd ,,company ,,new ,,york ,,chicago ,,ashland ,,building ,people's ,gas ,building #cae-cba ,fourth ,avenue #aej ,michigan ,avenue ---------- ,any of these books will be sent by mail1 postpaid1 to any part of the world1 on receipt of catalog price4 ,we are always happy to correspond with our patrons1 and cordially invite them to address us on any matter pertaining to rural books4 ,send for our large illustrated catalog1 free on application4 ---------------------------------------- ,first ,principles of ,soil ,fertility ,by ,,alfred ,,vivian4 ,there is no subject of more vital importance to the farmer than that of the best method of maintaining the fertility of the soil4 ,the very evident decrease in the fertility of those soils which have been under cultivation for a number of years1 combined with the increased competition and the advanced price of labor1 have convinced the intelligent farmer that the agriculture of the future must be based upon more rational practices than those which have been followed in the past4 ,we have felt for some time that there was a place for a brief1 and at the same time comprehensive1 treatise on this important subject of ,soil ,fertility4 ,professor ,vivian's experience as a teacher in the short winter courses has admirably fitted him to present this matter in a popular style4 ,in this little book he has given the gist of the subject in plain language1 practically devoid of technical and scientific terms4 ,it is pre-eminently a ,first ,book1 and will be found especially valuable to those who desire an introduction to the subject1 and who intend to do subsequent reading4 ,illustrated4 #ex#g inches4 #bfe pages4 ,cloth4 ,net1 #a4jj ,the ,study of ,corn ,by ,,prof4 ,v4 ,m4 ,,shoesmith4 ,a most helpful book to all farmers and students interested in the selection and improvement of corn4 ,it is profusely illustrated from photographs1 all of which carry their own story and contribute their part in making pictures and text matter a clear1 concise and interesting study of corn4 ,illustrated4 #ex#g inches4 #ajj pages4 ,cloth4 ,net1 #j4ej ,profitable ,stock ,raising ,by ,,clarence ,a4 ,,shamel4 ,this book covers fully the principles of breeding and feeding for both fat stock and dairying type4 ,it tells of sheep and mutton raising1 hot house lambs1 the swine industry and the horse market4 ,finally1 he tells of the preparation of stock for the market and how to prepare it so that it will bring a high market price4 ,live stock is the most important feature of farm life1 and statistics show a production far short of the actual requirements4 ,there are many problems to be faced in the profitable production of stock1 and these are fully and comprehensively covered in ,mr4 ,shamel's new book4 ,illustrated4 #ex#g inches4 #bhh pages4 ,cloth4 ,net1 #a4ej ,the ,business of ,dairying ,by ,c4 ,b4 ,,lane4 ,the author of this practical little book is to be congratulated on the successful manner in which he has treated so important a subject4 ,it has been prepared for the use of dairy students1 producers and handlers of milk1 and all who make dairying a business4 ,its purpose is to present in a clear and concise manner various business methods and systems which will help the dairyman to reap greater profits4 ,this book meets the needs of the average dairy farmer1 and if carefully followed will lead to successful dairying4 ,it may also be used as an elementary textbook for colleges1 and especially in short-course classes4 ,illustrated4 #ex#g inches4 #cjj pages4 ,cloth4 ,net1 #a4be ,questions and ,answers on ,buttermaking ,by ,,chas ,a4 ,,publow4 ,this book is entirely different from the usual type of dairy books1 and is undoubtedly in a class by itself4 ,the entire subject of butter-making in all its branches has been most thoroughly treated1 and many new and important features have been added4 ,the tests for moisture1 salt and acid have received special attention1 as have also the questions on cream separation1 pasteurization1 commercial starters1 cream ripening1 cream overrun1 marketing of butter1 and creamery management4 ,illustrated4 #ex#g inches4 #ajj pages4 ,cloth4 ,net1 #j4ej ,questions and ,answers on ,milk and ,milk ,testing ,by ,,chas4 ,a4 ,,publow1 and ,,hugh ,c4 ,,troy4 ,a book that no student in the dairy industry can afford to be without4 ,no other treatise of its kind is available1 and no book of its size gives so much practical and useful information in the study of milk and milk products4 ,illustrated4 #ex#g inches4 #ajj pages4 ,cloth4 ,net1 #j4ej ,soils ,by ,,charles ,,william ,,burkett1 ,director ,kansas ,agricultural ,experiment ,station4 ,the most complete and popular work of the kind ever published4 ,as a rule1 a book of this sort is dry and uninteresting1 but in this case it reads like a novel4 ,the author has put into it his individuality4 ,the story of the properties of the soils1 their improvement and management1 as well as a discussion of the problems of crop growing and crop feeding1 make this book equally valuable to the farmer1 student and teacher4 ,illustrated4 #cjc pages4 #e-a_/bx#h inches4 ,cloth4 ,net1 #a4be ,weeds of the ,farm ,garden ,by ,l4 ,h4 ,,pammel4 ,the enormous losses1 amounting to several hundred million dollars annually in the ,united ,states1 caused by weeds stimulate us to adopt a better system of agriculture4 ,the weed question is1 therefore1 a most important and vital one for ,american farmers4 ,this treatise will enable the farmer to treat his field to remove weeds4 ,the book is profusely illustrated by photographs and drawings made expressly for this work1 and will prove invaluable to every farmer1 land owner1 gardener and park superintendent4 #ex#g inches4 #cjj pages4 ,cloth4 ,net1 #a4ej ,farm ,machinery and ,farm ,motors ,by ,j4 ,b4 ,,davidson and ,l4 ,w4 ,,chase4 ,farm ,machinery and ,farm ,motors is the first ,american book published on the subject of ,farm ,machinery since that written by ,j4 ,j4 ,thomas in #ahfg4 ,this was before the development of many of the more important farm machines1 and the general application of power to the work of the farm4 ,modern farm machinery is indispensable in present-day farming operations1 and a practical book like ,farm ,machinery and ,farm ,motors will fill a much-felt need4 ,the book has been written from lectures used by the authors before their classes for several years1 and which were prepared from practical experience and a thorough review of the literature pertaining to the subject4 ,although written primarily as a textbook1 it is equally useful for the practical farmer4 ,profusely illustrated4 #e-a_/bx#h inches4 #ebj pages4 ,cloth4 ,net1 #b4jj ,the ,book of ,wheat ,by ,p4 ,t4 ,,dondlinger4 ,this book comprises a complete study of everything pertaining to wheat4 ,it is the work of a student of economic as well as agricultural conditions1 well fitted by the broad experience in both practical and theoretical lines to tell the whole story in a condensed form4 ,it is designed for the farmer1 the teacher1 and the student as well4 ,illustrated4 #e-a_/bx#h inches4 #cgj pages4 ,cloth4 ,net1 #b4jj ,farmer's ,cyclopedia of ,agriculture ,a ,compendium of ,agricultural ,science and ,practice on ,farm1 ,orchard and ,garden ,crops1 and the ,feeding and ,diseases of ,farm ,animals4 ,by ,,earley ,,vernon ,,wilcox1 ,ph4 ,d4 and ,,clarence ,,beaman ,,smith1 ,m4 ,s4 ,associate ,editors in the ,office of ,experiment ,stations1 ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture ,this is a new1 practical1 and complete presentation of the whole subject of agriculture in its broadest sense4 ,it is designed for the use of agriculturists who desire up-to-date1 reliable information on all matters pertaining to crops and stock1 but more particularly for the actual farmer4 ,the volume contains ,detailed directions for the culture of every important field1 orchard1 and garden crop grown in ,america1 together with descriptions of their chief insect pests and fungous diseases1 and remedies for their control4 ,it contains an account of modern methods in feeding and handling all farm stock1 including poultry4 ,the diseases which affect different farm animals and poultry are described1 and the most recent remedies suggested for controlling them4 ,every bit of this vast mass of new and useful information is authoritative1 practical and easily found1 and no effort has been spared to include all desirable details4 ,there are between #f1jjj and #g1jjj topics covered in these references1 and it contains #gjj royal #hvo pages and nearly #ejj superb half-tone and other original illustrations1 making the most perfect ,cyclopedia of ,agriculture ever attempted4 ,handsomely bound in cloth4 #c4ej2 half morocco 7very sumptuous71 #d4ej4 postpaid ---------------------------------------- ,,orange ,,judd ,,company1 #cae-cba ,fourth ,avenue1 ,new ,york1 ,n4 ,y4 ,people's ,gas ,building1 ,chicago1 ,ill4