,western ,reserve ,university           
,preservation ,department ,digital      
,library7       ,homer's ,odyssey4   ,a 
,commentary    ,by  ,denton ,j4 ,snider 
,the ,sigma ,publishing ,co4 #aj ,van   
,buren ,st41 ,chicago1 ,ill4 #baj ,pine 
,st41 ,st4 ,louis1 ,mo4     ,,table ,,of
 ,,contents4                            
,,page  ,,introduction                  
#e   ,i4 ,,first ,,twelve ,,books4      
,,telemachiad                           
#ba  ,,ulyssiad                         
#aba         7#a7 ,,ocygia              
#abi         7#b7 ,,phaeacia            
#aef         7#c7 ,,fableland           
#bca  ,,ii4 ,,second ,,twelve ,,books4  
,,ithakeiad                             
#cif     ,,books #ac-af 7,,preparation7 
#djg     ,,books #ag-bd 7,,execution7   
#dfa         7#a7 ,,wrong 7#ag-ba7      
#dfh         7#b7 ,,punishment 7#bb7    
#die         7#c7 ,,reconciliation      
7#bc-d7                       #ejj      
,,summary                               
#eaa     ,,homer',s ,,odyssey4          

,,book ,,first--,,introduction4   ,the  
,odyssey starts by organizing itself2 it
 maps out its own structure in what may 
be called a ,general ,introduction4     
,herein lies a significant difference   
between it and the ,iliad1 which has    
simply an ,invocation to the ,muse1 and 
then leaps into the thick of the action4
 ,the ,iliad1 accordingly1 does not     
formulate its own organization1 which   
fact has been one cause of the frequent 
assaults upon its unity4 ,still the     
architectonic principle is powerful in  
the ,iliad1 though more instinctive1 and
 far less explicit than in the ,odyssey4
 ,it is reasonable to suppose1          
therefore1 that the poet has reached a  
profounder consciousness of his art in  
his later poem2 he has come to a        
knowledge of his constructive principle1
 and he takes the trouble to unfold the 
same at the beginning4 ,to be sure1     
certain critics have assailed just this 
structural fact as not ,homeric2 without
 good grounds1 in our judgment4  ,the   

,first ,book1 accordingly1 opens with an
 ,introduction which belongs to the     
entire poem1 and which embraces #ie     
lines of the original text4 ,this       
portion we shall look at separately in  
some detail1 as it throws a number of   
gleams forward over the whole action1   
and1 as before said1 suggests the poetic
 organism4 ,it has three divisions1 the 
,invocation1 the ,statement of the      
,obstacles to the return of the ,hero1  
and the ,assembly of the ,gods1 who are 
represented as organizing the poem from 
,olympus4 ,the ,divine thus hovers over 
the poem from the first1 starting with  
one grand1 all-embracing providential   
act1 which1 however1 is supplemented by 
many special interventions of deities1  
great and small4  ,the ,invocation4 ,the
 first line speaks of the man1 ,ulysses1
 and designates his main attribute by a 
word1 which may be translated versatile 
or resourceful1 though some grammarians 
construe it otherwise4 ,thus we are told
 at the start of the chief intellectual 

trait of the ,hero1 who wandered much1  
and who1 therefore1 had many            
opportunities to exercise his gift4 ,in 
the second line our attention is called 
to the real starting point of the poem1 
the taking of ,troy1 which is the       
background of the action of the         
,odyssey1 and the great opening event of
 the ,greek world1 as here revealed4    
,for this event was the mighty shake    
which roused the ,hellenic people to a  
consciousness of their destiny2 they    
show in it all the germs of their coming
 greatness4 ,often such a concussion is 
required to waken a nation to its full  
energy and send it on its future career4
  ,note that ,ulysses is here stated to 
be the taker of ,troy1 and this view is 
implied throughout the ,odyssey4 ,note  
,achilles is the final ,greek hero2 he  
perished without capturing the city1 and
 in his hands alone the ,greek cause    
would have been lost4 ,the intellectual 
hero had to come forward ere the hostile
 town could be taken and ,helen         

restored4 ,herein the ,odyssey does not 
contradict the ,iliad1 but is clearly an
 advance beyond it4  ,but ,troy is      
destroyed and now the second grand      
question of the ,greeks arises3 ,how    
shall we get back6 ,only one half of the
 cycle is completed by the conquest of  
the hostile city2 the second half is the
 restoration4 ,for this disjunction from
 ,hellenic life1 brought about by war1  
is not only physical but has become     
spiritual4 ,the theme1 therefore1 deals 
with the wise man1 who1 through his     
intelligence1 was able to take ,troy1   
but who has now another and greater     
problem--the return out of the grand    
estrangement caused by the ,trojan      
expedition4 ,spiritual restoration is   
the key-note of this ,odyssey1 as it is 
that of all the great ,books of         
,literature4  ,here at the start we note
 two things coupled together which hint 
the nature of the whole poem3 ,he saw   
the cities of many men and knew their   
mind4 ,not alone the outer habitations  

of people ,ulysses beheld1 but also     
their inner essence1 their              
consciousness4 ,this last faculty indeed
 is the very vision of the sage2 he     
looks through the external sensuous     
appearances of men into their character1
 into their very soul4 ,the poem will   
describe many incidents1 wanderings1    
tempests1 calamities2 but in them the   
poetic glance is to behold a great      
spiritual experience4 ,the reader of the
 ,odyssey must himself be a ,ulysses1 to
 a degree1 and not only see the cities  
of many men1 but also he must know their
 mind4 ,then he1 too1 is heroic in his  
reading of this book4  ,but not merely  
knowledge the ,hero is to acquire1      
though this be much2 the counterpart to 
knowledge must also be his1 namely1     
suffering4 ,many things he suffered on  
the sea in his heart2 alas6 that too    
belongs to the great experience4 ,in    
addition to his title of wise man1 he   
will also be called the much-enduring   
man4 ,sorrow is his lot and great       

tribulation2 the mighty sea will rise up
 in wrath and swallow all1 except that  
which is mightier1 namely his heroic    
heart4 ,knowledge and suffering--are    
they not the two poles of the universal 
character8 ,at any rate the old poet has
 mated them as counterparts in his hero2
 the thirst to know drives the latter to
 reach beyond1 and then falls the       
avenging blow of powers unseen4         
,furthermore1 there is a third trait    
which is still higher1 also mentioned   
here3 he sought to save not only himself
 but also his companions4 ,that wisdom  
of his was employed1 and that suffering 
of his was endured1 not for his own good
 merely1 but for the good of others4 ,he
 must think and suffer for his          
companions2 a suggestion of             
vicariousness lies therein1 a hint of   
self-offering1 which has not yet        
flowered but is certainly budding far   
back in old ,hellas4 ,he must do for    
others what he does for himself1 if he  
be truly the universal man1 that is1 if 

he be ,hero4 ,for is not the universal  
man all men--both himself and others in 
essence8 ,so ,ulysses tries to save his 
companions1 quite as much he tries to   
save himself4  ,but he did not do it1 he
 could not do it2 herein lies his       
limitation and theirs also1 in fact1 the
 limitation of the entire ,greek world4 
,what did these companions do8 ,they    
perished by their own folly2 they would 
not obey the counsel of their wise man2 
they rejected their ,hero1 who could    
not1 therefore1 rescue them4 ,a greater 
wisdom and a deeper suffering than that 
of ,ulysses will be required for their  
salvation1 whereof the time has not yet 
come4 ,he would bring them home1 but    
they ate of the oxen of the sun2 they   
destroyed the attribute of light in some
 way and perished4 ,the fact is         
certainly far-reaching in its           
suggestion2 a deep glance it throws into
 that old heathen world1 whose greatest 
poet in the most unconscious manner     
hints here the tragic limitation of his 

people and his epoch4 ,it is a hint of  
which we1 looking back through more than
 twenty-five centuries can see the full 
meaning1 as that meaning has unfolded   
itself in the ages4 ,time is also a     
commentator on ,homer and has written   
down1 in that alphabet of his1 called   
events1 the true interpretation of the  
old poet4 ,still the letters of ,time's 
alphabet have also to be learned and    
require not only eyesight but also      
insight4  ,the ,invocation puts all its 
stress upon ,ulysses and his attempt to 
save his companions4 ,it says nothing of
 ,telemachus and his youthful           
experience1 nothing of the grand        
conflict with the suitors4 ,hence fault 
has been found with it in various ways4 
,but it singles out the ,hero and       
designates three most important matters 
concerning him3 his knowledge1 his      
suffering1 his devotion to his          
companions4 ,enough2 it has given a     
start1 a light has been put into our    
hand which beams forward significantly  

upon the poem1 and illumines the mazes  
of the ,hero's character4  ,mark again  
the emphatic word in this ,invocation2  
it is the ,return 7nostos71 the whole   
,odyssey is the ,return1 set forth in   
many gradations1 from the shortest and  
simplest to the longest and profoundest4
 ,the idea of the ,return dominates the 
poem from the start2 into this idea is  
poured the total experience of ,ulysses 
and his companions4 ,the two points     
between which the ,return hovers are    
also given3 the capture of ,troy and the
 ,greek world4 ,not a mere book of      
travels or adventure is this2 it        
contains an inner restoration           
corresponding to the outer ,return1 and 
the interpreter of the work1 if he be   
true to his function1 will trace the    
interior line of its movement1 not      
neglecting the external side which has  
also a right to be4  ,the ,obstacles4   
,two of these are mentioned and carried 
back to their mythical sources4 ,all the
 returning heroes are home from ,troy   

except the chief one1 ,ulysses1 whom    
,calypso detains in her grot1 wishing   
him to be her husband2 she1 the         
unmarried1 keeps him1 the married1 from 
family and country1 though he longs to  
go back to both4 ,she is the daughter of
 the evil-minded ,atlas1 a hoary        
gigantesque shape of primitive legend1  
who knows the depths of all the sea1--a 
dark knowledge of an unseen region1 from
 which come many fatalities1 as         
shipwreck for the ,greek sailor or      
earthquake for the volcanic ,greek      
islands2 hence he is imagined as        
evil-minded by the ,greek mythical      
fancy1 which also makes him the         
supporter of the long columns which hold
 ,heaven and ,earth apart--surely a hard
 task1 enough to cause anybody to be in 
a state of protest and opposition       
against the happy ,gods who have nothing
 to do but enjoy themselves on ,olympus4
 ,sometimes he refuses to hold the long 
columns for awhile1 then comes the      
earthquake1 in which what is below      

starts heavenward4 ,of this ,atlas1     
,calypso is the offspring1 and possibly 
her island1 the navel of the sea1 is a  
product of one of his movements         
underneath the waters4  ,here we touch a
 peculiar vein in the mythical treatment
 of the ,odyssey4 ,the fairy-tale1 with 
its comprehensive but dark              
suggestiveness1 is interwoven into the  
very fibre of the poem4 ,this remote    
,atlas is the father of ,calypso1 the   
hider1 who has indeed hidden ,ulysses in
 her island of pleasure which will      
hereafter be described4 ,but in spite of
 his concealment1 ,ulysses has          
aspiration1 which calls down the help of
 the ,gods for fulfillment4 ,such is the
 first obstacle1 which1 we can see1 lies
 somewhere in the sensuous part of human
 nature4  ,the second obstacle is       
,neptune1 whom we at once think of as   
the physical sea--certainly a great     
barrier4 ,the wrath of ,neptune is also 
set off with a tale of wonder1 which    
gives the origin of ,polyphemus1 the    

,cyclops--a gigantic1 monstrous birth of
 the sea1 which produces so many strange
 and huge shapes of living things4 ,but 
,neptune is now far away1 outside of the
 ,greek world1 so to speak1 among the   
,ethiopians4 ,this implies a finite     
element in the ,gods2 they are here1    
there1 and elsewhere2 still they have   
the infinite characteristic also2 they  
easily pass from somewhere into         
everywhere1 and ,ulysses will not escape
 ,neptune4  ,such1 then1 are the two    
obstacles1 both connected far back with 
mythical beings of the sea1 wherein we  
may note the marine character of the    
,odyssey1 which is a sea-poem1 in       
contrast with the ,iliad1 which is a    
land-poem4 ,the physical environment1 in
 which each of these songs has its      
primary setting1 is in deep accord with 
their respective themes--the one being  
more objective1 singing of the deed1 the
 other being more subjective1 singing of
 the soul4  ,and even in the two present
 obstacles we may note that the one1    

,neptune1 seems more external--that of  
the physical sea2 while the other1      
,calypso1 seems more internal--that of  
the soul held in the charms of the      
senses4  ,the ,assembly of the ,gods4   
,the two obstacles to the return of     
,ulysses are now to be considered by the
 ,gods in council assembled4 ,this is1  
indeed1 the matter of first import2 no  
great action1 no great poem is possible 
outside of the divine order4 ,this order
 now appears1 having a voice2 the       
supreme authority of the world is to    
utter its decree concerning the work4   
,the poet at the start summons before us
 the governing principle of the universe
 in the persons of the ,olympian        
deities4 ,on the other hand1 note the   
solitary individual ,ulysses1 in a      
lonely island1 with his aspiration for  
home and country1 with his plan--will it
 be realized8 ,the two sides must come  
together somehow2 the plan of the       
individual must fit into the plan of the
 ,gods2 only in the cooperation of the  

human and divine is the deed1 especially
 the great deed1 possible4 ,accordingly 
we are now to behold far in advance the 
sweep of the poem1 showing whether the  
man's purpose and hope be in harmony    
with the government of the ,gods4  ,zeus
 is the supreme divinity1 and he first  
speaks3 ,how sorely mortals blame the   
,gods6 ,it is indeed an alienated       
discordant time like the primal fall in 
,eden4 ,but why this blame8 ,for they   
say that evils come from us1 the ,gods2 
whereas they1 through their own follies1
 have sorrows beyond what is ordained4  
,the first words of the highest ,god    
concern the highest problem of the poem 
and of human life4 ,it is a wrong       
theology1 at least a wrong ,homeric     
theology1 to hold that the ,gods are the
 cause of human ills2 these are the     
consequences of man's own actions4      
,furthermore1 the cause is not a blind  
impersonal power outside of the         
individual1 it is not ,fate but man     
himself4 ,what a lofty utterance6 ,we   

hear from the supreme tribunal the final
 decision in regard to individual       
free-will and divine government4  ,not  
without significance is this statement  
put into the mouth of ,zeus and made his
 first emphatic declaration4 ,we may    
read therein how the poet would have us 
look at his poem and the intervention of
 the ,gods4 ,we may also infer what is  
the ,homeric view concerning the place  
of divinity in the workings of the      
world4  ,such being the command of      
,zeus1 the interpreter has nothing to do
 but to obey4 ,no longer shall we say   
that the ,gods in this ,odyssey destroy 
human freedom1 but that they are deeply 
consistent with it2 the divine          
interference when it takes place is not 
some external agency beyond the man     
altogether1 but is in some way his own  
nature1 veritably the essence of his own
 will4 ,such is truly the thing to be   
seen2 the poem is a poem of freedom1 and
 yet a poem of providence2 for do we not
 hear providence at the very start      

declaring man's free-will1 and hence his
 responsibility8 ,the ,god1 then1 is not
 to destroy but to secure human liberty 
in action1 and to assert it on proper   
occasions4 ,thus ,zeus himself has laid 
down the law1 the fundamental principle 
of ,homer's religion as well as of his  
poem4  ,have the ,gods1 then1 nothing to
 do in this world8 ,certainly they have1
 and this is the next point upon which  
we shall hear our supreme authority1    
,zeus4 ,he has in mind the case of      
,a,egisthus whom the ,gods warned not to
 do the wicked deed2 still he did it in 
spite of the warning1 and there followed
 the penalty4 ,so the ,gods admonish the
 wrong-doer1 sending down their         
bright-flashing messenger ,hermes1 and  
declaring through him the great law of  
justice3 the deed will return unto the  
doer4 ,zeus has now given expression to 
the law which governs the world2 it is  
truly his law1 above all caprice4       
,moreover1 the ,god gives a warning to  
the sinner2 a divine mercy he shows even

 in the heathen world4  ,the case of    
,a,egisthus1 which ,zeus has in mind1 is
 indeed a striking example of a supreme 
justice which smites the most exalted   
and successful criminal4 ,it made a     
profound impression upon the ,greek     
world1 and took final shape in the      
sublime tragedy of ,a,eschylus4         
,throughout the ,odyssey the fateful    
story peeps from the background1 and    
strongly hints what is to become of the 
suitors of ,penelope1 who are seeking to
 do to ,ulysses what ,a,egisthus did to 
,agamemnon4 ,they will perish1 is the   
decree2 thus we behold at the beginning 
of the poem an image which foreshadows  
the end4 ,that is the image of          
,a,egisthus1 upon whom vengeance came   
for the wrongful deed4  ,the ,gods1     
then1 do really exist2 they are the law 
and the voice of the law also1 to which 
man may hearken if he will2 but he can  
disobey1 if he choose1 and bring upon   
himself the consequences4 ,the law      
exists as the first fact in the world1  

and will work itself out with the ,gods 
as executors4 ,is not this a glorious   
starting-point for a poem which proposes
 to reveal the ways of providence unto  
men8 ,the idea of the ,homeric          
world-order is now before us1 which we  
may sum up as follows3 the ,gods are in 
the man1 in his reason and conscience1  
as we moderns say2 but they are also    
outside of man1 in the world1 of which  
they are rulers4 ,the two sides1 divine 
and human1 must be made one2 the grand  
dualism between heaven and earth must be
 overcome in the deed of the hero1 as   
well as in the thought of the reader4   
,when the ,god appears1 it is to raise  
man out of himself into the universal   
realm where lies his true being4 ,again1
 let it be affirmed that the deities are
 not an external fate1 not              
freedom-destroying power1 but           
freedom-fulfilling1 since they burst the
 narrow limits of the mere individual   
and elevate him into unity and harmony  
with the divine order4 ,there he is     

truly free4  ,thus we hear ,zeus in his 
first speech announcing from ,olympus   
the two great laws which govern the     
world1 as well as this poem--that of    
freedom and that of justice4 ,the       
latter1 indeed1 springs from the former2
 if man be free1 he must be held        
responsible and receive the penalty of  
the wicked deed4 ,moreover1 it is the   
fundamental law of criticism for the    
,odyssey2 freedom and justice we are to 
see in it and unfold them in accord with
 the divine order2 woe be to the critic 
who disobeys the decree of ,zeus1 and   
sees in his poem only an amusing tale1  
or a sun-myth perchance4  ,but here is  
,pallas ,athena speaking to the supreme 
deity1 and noting what seems to be an   
exception4 ,it is the case of ,ulysses1 
who always gave sacrifices to the       
immortal ,gods1 who has done his duty1  
and wishes to return to family and      
country4 ,pallas hints the difficulty2  
,calypso the charmer1 seeks to detain   
him in her isle from his wedded wife and

 to make him forget ,ithaca2 but she    
cannot4 ,strong is his aspiration1 he is
 eager to break the trance of the fair  
nymph1 and the ,gods must help him1 when
 he is ready to help himself4 ,else1    
indeed1 they were not ,gods4 ,then there
 is the second obstacle1 ,neptune2 he1  
only one1 cannot hold out against all1  
for the ,all now decrees the restoration
 of the wanderer4 ,verily it is the     
voice of the totality1 which is here    
uttered by ,zeus1 ordering the return of
 ,ulysses2 the reason of the world we   
may also call it1 if that will help the 
little brain take in the great thought4 
,but we must not forget the other side4 
,this divine power is not simply        
external2 the mighty hand of ,zeus is   
not going to pick up ,ulysses from      
,calypso's island1 and set him down in  
,ithaca4 ,he must return through        
himself1 yet must fit into the          
providential order4 ,both sides are     
touched upon by ,zeus2 ,ulysses excels  
mortals in intelligence1 and he will now

 require it all2 but he also gives      
sacrifices to the ,gods exceedingly1    
that is1 he seeks to find out the will  
of the ,gods and adjust himself thereto4
 ,intellect and piety both he has1 often
 in conflict1 but in concord at last4   
,with that keen understanding of his he 
will repeatedly fall into doubt         
concerning the divine purpose2 but out  
of doubt he rises into a new harmony4   
,when the decree of the ,highest has    
been given1 ,pallas at once organizes   
the return of ,ulysses1 and therewith   
the poem4 ,this falls into three large  
divisions3--  ,i4 ,pallas goes to       
,ithaca to rouse ,telemachus1 who is    
just entering manhood1 to be a second   
,ulysses4 ,he is to give the divine     
warning to the guilty suitors2 then he  
is to go to ,pylos and ,sparta in order 
to inquire about his father1 who is the 
great pattern for the son4 ,thus we have
 a book of education for the ,homeric   
youth whose learning came through       
example and through the living word of  

wisdom from the lips of the old and     
experienced man4 ,this part embraces the
 first four ,books1 which may be called 
the ,telemachiad4  ,,ii4 ,mercury is    
sent to ,calypso to bid the nymph       
release ,ulysses1 who at once makes his 
raft and starts on his voyage homeward4 
,in this second part we shall have the  
entire story of the ,hero from the time 
he leaves ,troy1 till he reaches ,ithaca
 in the #acth ,book4 ,as ,telemachus the
 youth is to have his period of         
education 7,lehrjahre71 so ,ulysses the 
man is to have his experience of the    
journey of life 7,wanderjahre74 ,both   
parts belong together1 making a complete
 work on the education of man1 as it    
could be had in that old ,greek world4  
,this part is the ,odyssey proper1 or   
the ,ulyssiad4  ,,iii4 ,the third part  
brings together father and son in       
,ithaca2 then it portrays them uniting  
to perform the great deed of justice1   
the punishment of the suitors4 ,this    
part embraces the last twelve ,books1   

but is not distinctly set forth in the  
plan of ,pallas as here given4  ,such is
 the structure of the poem1 which is    
organized in its main outlines from     
,olympus4 ,it is ,pallas1 the deity of  
wisdom1 who has ordered it in this way2 
her we shall follow1 in preference to   
the critics1 and unfold the             
interpretation on the same organic      
lines4 ,every reader will feel that the 
three great joints of the poetical body 
are truly foreshadowed by the ,goddess1 
who indeed is the constructive principle
 of the poem4 ,one likes to see this    
belief of the old singer that his work  
was of divine origin1 was actually      
planned upon ,olympus by ,pallas in     
accordance with the decree of ,zeus4 ,so
 at least the ,muses have told him1 and 
they were present4 ,but the grandest    
utterance here is that of ,zeus1 the    
,greek ,providence1 proclaiming man's   
free will4  ,very old and still very new
 is the problem of the ,odyssey2 with a 
little care we can see that the ,homeric

 ,greek had to solve in his way what    
every one of us still has to solve1     
namely1 the problem of life4 ,only      
yesterday one might have heard the      
popular preacher of a great city1 a kind
 of successor to ,homer1 blazoning the  
following text as his theme3 ,god is not
 to blame4 ,thus the great poem has an  
eternal subject1 though its outer garb  
be much changed by time4 ,the soul of   
,homer is ethical1 and that is what     
makes him immortal4 ,not till we realize
 this fact1 can we be said in any true  
sense1 to understand him4               
,,telemachiad4  ,the ,introduction being
 concluded1 the story of ,telemachus    
begins1 and continues till the ,fifth   
,book4 ,two main points stand forth in  
the narrative4 ,the first is the grand  
conflict with the suitors1 the men of   
guilt1 the disturbers of the divine     
order2 this conflict runs through to the
 end of the poem1 where they are swept  
out of the world which they have thrown 
into discord4 ,the second point of the  

,telemachiad is the education of        
,telemachus1 which is indeed the chief  
fact of these ,books2 the youth is to be
 trained to meet the conflict which is  
looming up before him in the distance4  
,thus we have one of the first          
educational books of the race1 the very 
first possibly2 it still has many       
valuable hints for the educator of the  
present age4 ,its method is that of oral
 tradition1 which has by no means lost  
its place in a true discipline of the   
human spirit4 ,living wisdom has its    
advantage to-day over the dead lore of  
the text-books4  ,very delightful is the
 school to which we see ,telemachus     
going in these four ,books4 ,heroes are 
his instructors1 men of the deed as well
 as of the word1 and the source from    
which all instruction is derived is the 
greatest event of the age1 the ,trojan  
,war4 ,the young man is to learn what   
that event was1 what sacrifices it      
required1 what characters it developed  
among his people4 ,he is to see and     

converse with ,nestor1 famous at ,troy  
for eloquence and wisdom4 ,then he will 
go to ,menelaus1 who has had an         
experience wider than the ,trojan       
experience1 for the latter has been in  
,egypt4 ,young ,telemachus is also to   
behold ,helen1 beautiful ,helen1 the    
central figure of the great struggle4   
,finally1 he is to learn much about his 
father1 and thus be prepared for the    
approaching conflict with the suitors in
 ,ithaca4  ,book ,first specially4      
,after the total ,odyssey has been      
organized on ,olympus1 it begins at once
 to descend to earth and to realize     
itself there4 ,for the great poem       
springs from the ,divine ,idea1 and must
 show its origin in the course of its   
own unfolding4 ,hence the ,gods are the 
starting-point of the ,odyssey1 and     
their will goes before the terrestrial  
deed2 moreover1 the one decree of theirs
 overarches the poem from beginning to  
end1 as the heavens bend over man       
wherever he may take his stand4 ,still  

there will be many special interventions
 and reminders from the ,gods during    
this poetical journey4  ,in accordance  
with the ,olympian plan1 ,pallas takes  
her flight down to ,ithaca1 after       
binding on her winged sandals and       
seizing her mighty spear2 thus she      
humanizes herself to the ,greek plastic 
sense1 and assumes finite form1 adopting
 the shape of a stranger1 ,mentes1 ,king
 of the ,taphians4 ,she finds a world   
full of wrong2 violence and disorder    
rule in the house of the absent         
,ulysses2 it is indeed high time for the
 ,gods to come down from lofty ,olympus 
and bring peace and right into the      
course of things4 ,let the divine image 
now be stamped upon terrestrial affairs1
 and bring harmony out of strife4       
,still1 it must not be forgotten that   
the work has to be done through man's   
own activity4  ,the conflict which      
unfolds before our eyes in a series of  
clear-drawn classic pictures1 lies      
between the ,house of ,ulysses on the   

one hand and the ,suitors of ,penelope  
on the other4 ,he who is the head of the
 ,family and the ruler of ,state1       
,ulysses1 has been absent for twenty    
years2 godless men have taken advantage 
of the youth of his son1 and are        
consuming his substance wantonly2 they  
also are wooing his wife who has only   
her cunning wherewith to help herself4  
,the son and wife are now to be brought 
before us in their struggle with their  
bitter lot4 ,thus we note the two main  
divisions in the structure of the       
present ,book3 ,the ,house of ,ulysses  
and the ,suitors4   ,i4  ,the ,goddess  
,pallas has already come down to ,ithaca
 and stands among the suitors4 ,she has 
taken the form of ,mentes1 the ,king of 
a neighboring tribe2 she is in disguise 
as she usually is when she appears on   
earth4 ,who will recognize her8 ,not the
 suitors2 they can see no ,god in their 
condition1 least of all1 the ,goddess of
 ,wisdom4 ,telemachus was much the first
 to observe her2 why just he8 ,the fact 

is he was ready to see her1 and not only
 to see her1 but to hear what she had to
 say4 ,for he sat among the suitors     
grieved in heart1 seeing his father in  
his mind's eye1 like ,hamlet just before
 the latter saw the ghost4 ,so careful  
is the poet to prepare both sides--the  
divine epiphany1 and the mortal who is  
to behold it4  ,furthermore1 the young  
man saw his father scattering the       
suitors and himself obtaining honor and 
ruling his own house4 ,this is just what
 the ,goddess is going to tell with a   
new sanction1 and it is just what is    
going to happen in the course of the    
poem4 ,truly ,telemachus is prepared    
internally2 he has already everything   
within him which is to come out of him4 
,throughout the whole interview the two 
main facts are the example of the parent
 and the final revenge1 both of which   
are urged by the ,goddess without and by
 the man within4  ,still there is a     
difference4 ,telemachus is despondent2  
we might almost say1 he is getting to   

disbelieve in any divine order of the   
world4 ,the ,gods plot evil things      
against the ,house of ,ulysses1 whose   
fate they make unknown above that of all
 men4 ,then they have sent upon me these
 suitors who consume my heritage4 ,the  
poor boy has had a hard time2 he has    
come to question providence in his      
misery1 and discredits the goodness of  
the ,gods4  ,here1 now1 is the special  
function of ,pallas4 ,she instills      
courage into his heart4 ,she gives      
strong hope of the return of his father1
 who will not long be absent from       
,ithaca2 she also hints the purpose of  
the ,gods1 which is on the point of     
fulfillment4 ,be no longer a child2     
follow the example of thy father2 go and
 learn about him and emulate his deeds4 
,therewith the ,goddess furnishes to the
 doubting youth a plan of immediate     
action--altogether the best thing for   
throwing off his mental paralysis4 ,he  
is to proceed at once to ,pylos and to  
,sparta to learn of his father with the 

final outlook toward the destruction of 
the suitors4 ,she is a veritable        
,goddess to the young striver1 speaking 
the word of hope and wisdom1 and then   
turning him back upon himself4  ,here   
again we must say that the ,goddess was 
in the heart of ,telemachus uttering her
 spirit1 yet she was external to him    
also4 ,her voice is the voice of the    
time1 of the reality2 all things are    
fluid to the hand of ,telemachus1 and   
ready to be moulded to his scheme4      
,still the ,goddess is in him just as   
well1 is his thought1 his wisdom1 which 
has now become one with the reason of   
the world4 ,both sides are brought      
together by the ,poet in the most       
emphatic manner2 this is the supreme    
fact in his procedure4 ,the subjective  
and objective elements are one2 the     
divine order puts its seal on the       
thought of the man1 unites with him1    
makes his plan its plan4 ,thus the ,god 
and the ,individual are in harmony1 and 
the great fulfillment becomes possible4 

,but if the thought of ,telemachus were 
a mere scheme of his own1 if it had not 
received the stamp of divinity1 then it 
could never become the deed1 the heroic 
deed1 which stands forth in the world   
existent in its own right and eternal4  
,the ,goddess flits away1 like a bird1  
in speed and silence4 ,telemachus now   
recognizes that the stranger was a      
divinity4 ,for has he not the proof in  
his own heart8 ,he is indeed a new      
person or the beginning thereof4 ,but   
hark to this song6 ,it is the bard      
singing the sad return of the           
,greeks--the very song which the poet   
himself is now singing in this ,odyssey4
 ,for it is also a sad return1 indeed   
many sad returns1 as we shall see       
hereafter4 ,homer has thus put himself  
into his poem singing his poem4 ,who    
cannot feel that this touch is taken    
from life1 is an echo of his own        
experience in some princely hall8  ,but 
here she comes1 the grand lady of the   
story1 ,penelope1 the wife of ,ulysses1 

as it were in response to the music4 ,a 
glorious appearance at a happy moment2  
yet she is not happy3 ,holding a veil   
before her face1 and shedding tears1 she
 bespoke the bard3 ,phemius cease from  
this sad song1 it cuts me to the heart4 
,it reminds her of her husband and his  
sorrowful return1 not yet accomplished2 
she cannot endure the anguish and she   
begs the bard to sing another strain    
which may delight his hearers4  ,this1  
then1 is the sage ,penelope whose       
character will be tested in many ways1  
and move through many subtle turns to   
the end of the poem4 ,in this her first 
appearance we note that she proclaims in
 the presence of the suitors her undying
 love for her husband4 ,this trait we   
may fairly consider to be the deepest of
 her nature4 ,she thinks of him         
continually and weeps at his absence4   
,still she has her problem which        
requires at times all her female tact1  
yes1 even dissimulation4 ,reckless      
suitors are pressing for her hand1 she  

has to employ all her arts to defer the 
hateful marriage2 otherwise she is      
helpless4 ,she is the counterpart of her
 husband1 a female ,ulysses1 who has    
waited twenty years for his return4 ,she
 also has had a stormy time1 with the   
full experience of life2 her adventures 
in her world rival his in his world4    
,but underneath all her cunning is the  
rock of eternal fidelity4 ,she went back
 to her room1 and wept for her husband  
till ,pallas closed her eye-lids in     
sweet sleep4  ,nor can we pass over the 
answer of ,telemachus1 which he makes at
 this point to his mother4 ,it may be   
called a little ,homeric treatise on    
poetry4 ,mother1 let the poet sing as   
his spirit moves him2 he is not to be   
constrained1 but must give the great    
fact2 poets are not to blame but ,zeus1 
for the sad return of the ,greeks2 men  
applaud the song which is newest1       
novelty being already sought for in the 
literature of ,homer's time4 ,but the   
son's harsh reproof of the mother1 with 

which his speech closes1 bidding her    
look after her own affairs1 the loom and
 distaff and servants1 is probably an   
interpolation4 ,such is the judgment of 
,aristarchus1 the greatest ancient      
commentator on ,homer2 such is also the 
judgment of ,professor ,nitzsch1 the    
greatest modern commentator on the      
,odyssey4   ,,ii4  ,the other side of   
the collision is the party of suitors1  
who assail the ,house of ,ulysses in    
property1 in the son1 in the wife1 and  
finally in ,ulysses himself4 ,they are  
the wrong-doers whose deeds are to be   
avenged by the returning hero2 their    
punishment will exemplify the faith in  
an ethical order of the world1 upon     
which the poem reposes as its very      
foundation4 ,they are insolent1         
debauched1 unjust2 they defy the        
established right4 ,zeus has them in    
mind when he speaks of ,a,egisthus1 who 
is an example of the same sort of       
characters1 and his fate is their fate  
according to the ,olympian lawgiver4    

,they too are going to destruction      
through their own folly1 yet after many 
an admonition4 ,just now ,telemachus has
 spoken an impressive warning3 ,i shall 
invoke the ever-living ,gods1 that ,zeus
 may grant deeds requiting yours4       
,still their insolence goes on2 the     
ethical world of justice and            
institutions has to be cleared of such  
men1 if it continue to exist4 ,who does 
not love this fealty of the old bard to 
the highest order of things8 ,the       
suitors are indeed blind2 they have not 
recognized the presence of the ,goddess1
 yet there is a slight suspicion after  
she is gone2 one of the suitors asks who
 that stranger was4 ,telemachus1 to lull
 inquiry1 gives the outer assumed form  
of the divine visitor1 an ancestral     
guest1 ,mentes of ,taphos2 the poet     
however1 is careful to add3 ,but he     
7,telemachus7 knew the immortal ,goddess
 in his mind4  ,the conflict with the   
suitors is the framework of the entire  
poem4 ,the education of ,telemachus as  

well as the discipline of ,ulysses reach
 forward to this practical end--the     
destruction of the wrong-doers1 which is
 the purification of the country1 and   
the re-establishment of the ethical     
order4 ,all training is to bring forth  
the heroic act4 ,the next ,book will    
unfold the conflict in greater detail4  
,appendix4 ,the reader will have        
observed that1 in the preceding account 
of ,book ,first1 it is regarded as      
setting forth three unities1 that of the
 total ,odyssey1 that of the            
,telemachiad1 and that of the ,book     
itself4 ,we see them all gradually      
unfolding in due order under the hand of
 the poet1 from the largest to the      
least4 ,now the reader should be        
informed that every one of these unities
 has been violently attacked and        
proclaimed to be a sheer phantasm4      
,chiefly in ,germany has the assault    
taken place4 ,what we have above        
considered as the joints in the organism
 of the poem1 have been cut into1 pried 

apart1 and declared to make so many     
separate poems or passages1 which       
different authors have written4 ,thus   
the one great ,homer vanishes into many 
little ,homers1 and this is claimed to  
be the only true way of appreciating    
,homer4  ,the most celebrated of these  
dissectors is probably the ,german      
,professor1 ,kirchhoff1 some of whose   
opinions we shall cite in this appendix4
 ,his psychological tendency is that of 
analysis1 separation1 division2 the very
 idea of unity seems a bugbear to him1 a
 mighty delusion which he must demolish 
or die4 ,specially is his wrath directed
 against ,book ,first1 probably because 
it contains the three unities above     
mentioned1 all of which he assails and  
rends to shreds in his own opinion4     
,the entire ,introduction 7lines #a-hh7 
he tears from its present place and puts
 it before the ,fifth ,book1 where it   
serves as the prelude to the ,calypso   
tale4 ,the rest of the ,telemachiad is  
the work of another poet4 ,indeed the   

rest of the ,first ,book 7after the     
,introduction7 is not by the same man   
who produced the ,second ,book4 ,then   
the ,second ,book is certainly older    
than the ,first1 and ought somehow to be
 placed before it4 ,the real truth is1  
however1 that the ,first ,book is only a
 hodge-podge made out of the ,second    
,book by an inferior poet1 who took     
thence fragments of sentences and of    
ideas and stitched them together4 ,in   
the ,invocation ,kirchhoff cuts out the 
allusion to the oxen of the ,sun 7lines 
#f-i7 as being inconsistent with his    
theory4  ,after disposing of the        
,introduction in this way1 ,kirchhoff   
takes up the remaining portion of the   
,first ,book1 which he tears to pieces  
almost line by line4 ,in about forty    
separate notes on different passages he 
marks points for skepticism1 having in  
the main one procedure3 he hunts both   
the ,iliad and the ,odyssey through1 and
 if he finds a line or phrase1 and even 
a word used elsewhere1 which he has     

observed here1 he at once is inclined to
 conclude that the same must have been  
taken thence and put here by a foreign  
hand4 ,every reader of ,homer is        
familiar with his habit of repeating    
lines and even entire passages1 when    
necessary4 ,all such repetitions        
,kirchhoff seizes upon as signs of      
different authorship2 the poet must have
 used the one1 some redactor or imitator
 the other4 ,to be sure we ought to have
 a criterion by which we can tell which 
is the original and which is the        
derived2 but such a criterion ,kirchhoff
 fails to furnish1 we must accept his   
judgment as imperial and final4 ,once or
 twice1 indeed1 he seems to feel the    
faultiness of his procedure1 and tries  
to bolster it1 but as a rule he speaks  
thus3 ,the following verse is a formula 
7repetition71 and hence not the property
 of the author4 7,die ,homerische       
,odyssee1 p4 #agd47  ,now such          
repetitions are common in all old       
poetry1 in the ballad1 in the folk-song1

 in the ,kalevala as well as in the     
,homeric poems4 ,messages sent are      
repeated naturally when delivered2 the  
same event recurring1 as when the boat  
is rowed1 the banquet prepared1 or the  
armor put on1 is described in the same  
language4 ,such is usually felt to be a 
mark of epic simplicity1 of the naive   
use of language1 which will not vary a  
phrase merely for the sake of variety4  
,but ,kirchhoff and his followers will  
have it just the other way2 the early   
poet never varies or repeats1 only the  
later poet does that4 ,so he seeks out a
 large number of passages in the rest of
 the ,odyssey1 and in the ,iliad also1  
which have something in common with     
passages of this ,first ,book1          
especially in the matter of words1 and  
easily finds it to be a cento1 a mixed  
mass of borrowed phrases4  ,but who was 
the author of such work8 ,not the       
original ,homer1 but some later matcher 
and patcher1 imitator or redactor4 ,it  
is not easy to tell from ,kirchhoff just

 how many persons may have had a hand in
 this making of the ,odyssey1 as it lies
 before us4 ,in his dissertations we    
read of a motley multitude3 original    
poet1 continuator1 interpolator1        
redactor1 reconstructor1 imitator1      
author of the older part1 author of the 
newer part--not merely individuals1 but 
apparently classes of men4 ,thus he     
anatomizes old ,homer with a vengeance4 
,,book ,,second4   ,the general relation
 between the ,first and ,second ,books  
is to be grasped at once4 ,in the ,first
 ,book the main fact is the ,assembly in
 the ,upper ,world1 together with the   
descent of the divine influence which   
through ,pallas comes to ,telemachus in 
person1 gives him courage and stirs him 
to action4 ,this action is to bring     
harmony into the discordant land4 ,in   
the ,second ,book the main fact is the  
,assembly in the ,lower ,world1 together
 with the rise of ,telemachus into a new
 participation with divine influence in 
the form of ,pallas1 who sends him forth

 on his journey of education4 ,we       
behold1 therefore1 in the two ,books a  
sweep from above to below1 then from    
below back to the divine influence4     
,earth and ,olympus are the halves of   
the cycle1 but the ,earth is in discord 
and must be transformed to the harmony  
of ,olympus4  ,looking now at the       
,second ,book by itself1 we note that it
 falls into two portions3 the ,assembly 
of the ,people1 which has been called   
together by ,telemachus1 and the        
communion of the youth with ,pallas1 who
 again appears to him at his call4 ,the 
first is a mundane matter1 and shows the
 ,lower ,world in conflict with the     
divine order--the sides being the       
,suitors on the one hand and the ,house 
of ,ulysses on the other4 ,the second   
portion lifts the young hero into a     
vision of divinity1 and should lift the 
reader along with him4 ,previously      
,pallas had1 as it were1 descended into 
,telemachus1 but now he rises of himself
 into the ,goddess4 ,clearly he         

possesses a new power1 that of communion
 with the ,gods4 ,these two leading     
thoughts divide the ,book into two      
well-marked parts--the first including  
lines #a-bei1 the second including the  
rest4   ,i4  ,the ,assembly of the      
,ithacans presupposes a political habit 
of gathering into the town-meeting and  
consulting upon common interests4 ,this 
usage is common to the ,aryan race1 and 
from it spring parliaments1 congresses1 
and other cognate institutions1 together
 with oratory before the ,people4 ,a    
wonderful development has come of this  
little germ1 which we see here still    
alive in ,ithaca1 though it has been    
almost choked by the unhappy condition  
of things4 ,not since ,ulysses left has 
there been any such ,assembly1 says the 
first speaker1 an old man drawing upon  
his memory1 not for twenty years2 surely
 a sign of smothered institutional life4
 ,the first thing which ,telemachus in  
his new career does is to call the      
,assembly1 and start this institutional 

life into activity again4 ,whereof we   
feel the fresh throb in the words of the
 aged speaker1 who calls him ,blessed4  
,now the oratory begins1 as it must     
begin in such a place4 ,the golden gift 
of eloquence is highly prized by ,homer1
 and by the ,homeric ,people2 prophetic 
it is1 one always thinks of the great   
,attic orators4 ,the speakers are       
distinctly marked in character by their 
speeches2 but the ,assembly itself seems
 to remain dumb2 it was evidently       
divided into two parties2 one           
well-disposed to the ,house of ,ulysses1
 the other to the ,suitors4 ,the        
corruption of the time has plainly      
entered the soul of the ,people1 and    
thorough must be the cleansing by the   
,gods4 ,two kinds of speakers we notice 
also1 on the same lines1 supporting each
 side2 thus the discord of ,ithaca is   
now to be reflected in its oratory4     
,three sets of orators speak on each    
side1 placing before us the different   
phases of the case2 these we shall mark 

off for the thought and for the eye of  
the reader4  #a4 ,after the short       
opening speech of the old man1          
,a,egyptius1 the heart of the whole     
movement utters itself in ,telemachus1  
who remains the chief speaker           
throughout4 ,his speech is strong and   
bold2 from it two main points peer      
forth4 ,the first is the wrong of the   
,suitors1 who will not take the right   
way of wooing ,penelope by going to her 
father and giving the bridal gift       
according to custom1 but consume the    
son's property under pretense of their  
suit for the mother4 ,the second point  
is the strong appeal to the             
,ithacans--to their sense of right1 to  
their sense of shame1 and to their fear 
of the ,gods1 who in their divine wrath 
shall turn back ill deeds upon the doer4
 ,but in vain2 that ,ithacan ,assembly  
contains friends and relatives of the   
,suitors1 and possibly purchased        
adherents2 nay1 it contains some of the 
,suitors themselves1 and here rises one 

of them to make a speech in reply4      
,this is ,antinous1 who now makes the   
most elaborate defense of the case of   
the ,suitors that is to be found in the 
poem4 ,the speech is remarkable for     
throwing the whole blame upon           
,penelope--not a gallant proceeding in a
 lover2 still it betrays great          
admiration for the woman on account of  
her devices and her cunning4 ,she has   
thwarted and fooled the whole band of   
unwelcome wooers for three years and    
more by her wonderful web1 which she    
wove by day and unraveled by night4 ,and
 even now when she has been found out1  
she holds them aloof but keeps them in  
good humor1 though clearly at a great   
expense of the family's property1 which 
fact has roused ,telemachus to his      
protest4 ,antinous1 though feeling that 
he and the rest have been outwitted by  
the woman1 does not stint his praise on 
that account1 he even heightens it4     
,but we hear also his ultimatum3 ,send  
thy mother away and bid her be married  

to whomsoever her father commands1 and  
whoso is pleasing to her4 ,so the will  
of the parent and the choice of the     
daughter had to go together even in     
,homer's days4 ,of course ,antinous has 
no ground of right for giving this      
order2 he is not the master of the      
house1 though he hopes to be2 his       
assumed authority is pure insolence4    
,then why should the ,suitors injure the
 son because they have been wheedled by 
the mother8 ,still they will continue to
 consume his living and his wealth as   
long as she keeps her present mind4     
,but the most interesting thing in his  
speech is to discover the attitude and  
motives of ,penelope4 ,we see her       
fidelity1 but something more than       
fidelity is now needed1 namely the      
greatest skill1 dissimulation1 or female
 tact1 to use the more genteel word4    
,she has a hard problem on her hands2   
she has to save her son1 herself1 and as
 much of the estate as she can1 from a  
set of bandits who have all in their    

might4 ,were she to undertake to drive  
them away1 they would pillage the house1
 kill her boy1 and certainly carry her  
off4 ,they have the power1 they have the
 inclination2 they are held by one small
 thread in the weak hands of a woman1   
but with that thread she snares them    
all1 to the last man4 ,love it may be   
called1 of a certain sort2 we see how   
,antinous admires her1 though conscious 
that she has made a fool of him and his 
fellows4 ,each hopes to win the prize   
yet1 and she feeds them with hope1      
sending private messages to each man2   
thus she turns every one of them against
 the other1 and prevents concerted      
action which looks to violence4 ,that   
wonderful female gift is hers1 the gift 
of making each of her hundred ,suitors  
think that just he is the favored one1  
only let it be kept secret now till the 
right time comes6  ,but ,penelope uses  
this gift as a weapon1 it is her means  
of saving the ,house of ,ulysses1 while 
many another fair lady uses it for the  

fun of the thing4 ,is she right8 ,does  
her end justify her means8 ,true she is 
in the highest degree to ,family and    
,state1 is saving both2 but she does    
dissemble1 does cajole the suitors4 ,one
 boy1 one woman1 one old man in the     
country constitute the present strength 
of the ,house of ,ulysses2 but craft    
meets violence and undoes it1 as always4
  ,and yet we may grant something to the
 other side of her character4 ,she takes
 pleasure in the exercise of her gift1  
who does not8 ,inasmuch as the ,suitors 
are here1 and not to be dismissed1 she  
will get a certain gratification out of 
their suit4 ,a little dash of coquetry1 
a little love of admiration we may      
discern peeping through her adamantine  
fidelity to her husband1 recollect after
 an absence of twenty years4 ,as all    
this homage was thrust upon her1 she    
seeks to win from it a kind of          
satisfaction2 the admiration of a       
hundred men she tries to receive without
 making a sour face4 ,still further she 

takes pleasure in the exercise of that  
feminine subtlety which holds them fast 
in the web1 yet keeps them off2 giving  
them always hope1 but indefinitely      
extending it4 ,verily that web which she
 wove is the web of ,fate for the       
,suitors4 ,so much for ,penelope at     
present1 whom we shall meet again4  ,to 
this demand of ,antinous to send the    
mother away1 ,telemachus makes a noble1 
yes1 a heroic response4 ,it would be    
wrong all around1 wrong to the mother1  
wrong to her father1 unless he          
7,telemachus7 restored the dower1 wrong 
to the ,gods2 vengeance from the        
,erinyes1 and nemesis from man would    
come upon him for such a deed4 ,thus the
 young hero appeals to the divine order 
and puts himself in harmony with its    
behests4 ,boldly he declares1 that if   
the ,suitors continue in their          
ill-doing1 ,i shall invoke the          
ever-living ,gods2 if ,zeus may grant   
fit retribution for your crimes1 ye     
shall die within this palace unavenged4 

,truly a speech given with a power which
 brings fulfillment2 prophetic it must  
be1 if there be any ,gods in the world4 
,already we have seen that ,telemachus  
was capable of this high mood1 which    
communes with deity and utters the      
decree from above4 ,behold1 no sooner is
 the word uttered by the mortal1 than we
 have the divine response4 ,it is in the
 form of an omen1 the flight of two     
eagles tearing each other as they fly to
 the right through the houses of the    
town4 ,also the interpreter is present1 
who tells the meaning of the sign1 and  
stamps the words of ,telemachus with the
 seal of the ,gods4  #b4 ,here we pass  
to the second set of speeches which show
 more distinctively the religious phase1
 in contrast to the preceding set1 which
 show rather the institutional phase1 of
 the conflict2 that is1 the ,gods are   
the theme of the one1 ,family and ,state
 of the other4 ,the old augur           
,halitherses1 the man of religion1      
explains the omen in full harmony with  

what ,telemachus has said2 he prophesies
 the speedy return of ,ulysses and the  
punishment of the ,suitors1 unless they 
desist4 ,well may the aged prophet      
foretell some such outcome1 after seeing
 the spirit of the son2 ,vengeance is   
indeed in the air1 and is felt by the   
sensitive seer1 and also by the         
sensitive reader4  ,but what is the     
attitude of the ,suitors toward such a  
view8 ,eurymachus is the name of their  
speaker now1 manifestly a representative
 man of their kind4 ,he derides the     
prophet3 ,go home1 old man1 and forecast
 for thy children6 ,he is a scoffer and 
skeptic2 truly a spokesman of the       
,suitors in their relation to the ,gods1
 in whom they can have no living faith2 
through long wickedness they imagine    
that there is no retribution1 they have 
come to believe their own lie4 ,impiety1
 then1 is the chief fact of this speech1
 which really denies the                
world-government and the whole lesson of
 this poem4 ,thus the divine warning is 

contemned1 the call to a change of      
conduct goes unheeded4  #c4 ,then we    
have the third set of speeches which are
 personal in their leading note1 and    
pertain to the absent ,ulysses1 whose   
kindness and regal character are set    
forth by ,mentor1 his old comrade1 with 
strong reproaches toward the ,ithacans  
for permitting the wrong to his house4  
,it is intimated that they could prevent
 it if they chose2 but they are         
evidently deaf to this appeal to their  
gratitude and affection for their       
chieftain4  ,leiocrates1 the third      
,suitor1 responds in a speech which is  
the culmination of insolence and        
defiance of right4 ,the ,suitors would  
slay ,ulysses himself1 should he now    
appear and undertake to put them out of 
his palace4 ,he dares not come and claim
 his own6 ,right or wrong we are going  
to stay1 and1 if necessary1 kill the    
owner4 ,it is the most open and complete
 expression of the spirit of the        
,suitors1 they are a lot of brigands1   

who must be swept away1 if there be any 
order in the world4 ,leiocrates         
dissolves the ,assembly1 a thing which  
he evidently had no right to do2 the    
people tamely obey1 the institutional   
spirit is not strong enough to resist   
the man of violence4 ,let them scatter2 
they are a rotten flock of sheep at any 
rate4  ,here the first part of the ,book
 concludes4 ,the three sets of speakers 
have given their views1 one on each     
side2 each set has represented a certain
 phase of the question2 thus we have    
heard the institutional1 religious and  
personal phases4 ,in such manner the    
sweep of the conduct of the ,suitors is 
fully brought out2 they are destroying  
,state and ,family1 are defying the     
,gods1 and are ready to slay the        
individual who may stand in their way4  
,certainly their harvest is ripe for the
 sickle of divine justice1 upon whose   
deep foundation this poem reposes4  ,the
 ,assembly of the ,people now vanishes  
quite out of sight1 it has indeed no    

valid ground of being4 ,the young men   
seem to be the chief speakers1 and show 
violent opposition1 while the old men   
hold back1 or manifest open sympathy    
with the ,house of ,ulysses4 ,the youth 
of ,ithaca have had their heads turned  
by the brilliant prize1 and rush forward
 forgetful of the penalty4 ,it is indeed
 a time of moral loosening1 of which    
this poem gives the source1 progress1   
and cure4 ,telemachus1 however1 rises   
out of the mass of young men1 the future
 hero who is to assert the law of the   
,gods4 ,in such manner we are to reach  
down to the fact that the spirit of the 
,odyssey is ethical in the deepest      
sense1 and reveals unto men the divine  
order of the world4   ,,ii4  ,we now    
pass to the second part of the book1    
which shows ,telemachus accomplishing   
with the aid of the deity what human    
institutions failed to do4 ,if the      
,assembly will not help him in the great
 cause1 the ,gods will1 and now he makes
 his appeal to them4  ,the ,ithacans had

 refused a ship in order that he might  
go and learn something about his father2
 that is1 they will not permit his      
education1 which is at present the first
 object4  ,he goes down to the seacoast1
 where he will be alone1 communing with 
the ,goddess and with himself1 and there
 he prays to ,pallas1 washing his hands 
in the grey surf--which is1 we may well 
think1 a symbolic act of purification4  
,is it a wonder that ,pallas1 taking the
 human shape of ,mentor1 comes and      
speaks to him8 ,she must1 if she be at  
all2 he is ready1 and she has to appear4
 ,her first words are but the echo of   
his conduct all through the preceding   
scene with the ,assembly3 ,telemachus   
henceforth thou shalt be wanting neither
 in valor nor in wisdom4 ,she rouses him
 by the fame and deeds of his father1   
because he is already aroused4 ,still   
she is a very necessary part2 she is the
 divine element in the world speaking to
 ,telemachus and helping him2 she shows 
that his thought is not merely          

subjective1 but is now one with hers1   
with objective wisdom1 and will rule the
 fact4 ,he ascends into the realm of    
true vision1 and from thence organizes  
his purpose4 ,it is true that the poet  
represents ,pallas as ordering the means
 for the voyage1 as at first she ordered
 the work of the whole poem4 ,yet this  
is also done by ,telemachus who has     
risen to participation in that glance   
which beholds the truth and controls the
 world4  ,often will the foregoing      
statement be repeated2 every divine     
appearance in ,homer1 of any import1 is 
but a repetition of the one fact1 which 
must always be re-thought by the reader4
 ,that which ,telemachus says is no     
longer his mere wish or opinion1 but it 
is the reality1 the valid thing outside 
of him1 hence it is voiced by the       
,goddess1 and must take place4 ,thus the
 poet often compels his reader to rise  
with him into the sphere of the divine  
energy1 where thinking and willing are  
one1 and man's insight is just the word 

of the ,god4  ,the remaining            
circumstances of the ,book group        
themselves around the two               
centers--,telemachus and ,pallas--as the
 ,goddess orders them in advance3 ,go   
thou home and get the stores ready1     
while ,i shall engage a ship and crew   
among the ,ithacans4  #a4 ,telemachus   
goes among the ,suitors1 evidently to   
avoid suspicion1 which his absence might
 provoke4 ,they taunt and deride him1   
whereof three samples are again given4  
,he goes his way1 conscious of his      
divine mission1 not failing however to  
tell them3 ,i shall surely make the     
voyage1 not in vain it will be4 ,he     
obtains food and wine from the aged     
stewardess ,eurycleia1 who seeks to     
dissuade him4 ,then too his mother must 
not know of his plan1 she would keep him
 still a boy in the house1 whereas he   
has become a man4  #b4 ,pallas in the   
semblance of ,telemachus goes through   
the town to secure the ship and crew4   
,then she pours over the ,suitors a     

gentle sleep after their revel2 she     
takes away their wisdom1 yet it is their
 own deed1 which just now has a divine  
importance4 ,finally she brings all to  
the ship1 seizes the helm and sends the 
favoring breeze4 ,or1 as we understand  
the poet1 intelligence brings about     
these things under many guises2 even    
nature1 the breeze1 it takes advantage  
of for its own purpose4  ,thus ,pallas  
has the controlling hand in this second 
part of the ,book1 she is above man and 
nature4 ,we can say that the controlling
 spirit is also ,telemachus1 who        
manifests ,reason1 controlling and      
directing the world4 ,note the various  
forms which she assumes1 as ,mentor1 as 
,telemachus2 then again she works purely
 through mind1 in the natural way1 as   
for example1 when ,telemachus goes home 
and obtains his food and wine for the   
voyage4 ,the poet thus plays with her   
shape2 still she is essentially the     
divine intelligence which seizes upon   
men and circumstances1 and fits them    

into the order universal1 and makes them
 contribute to the great purpose of the 
poem4 ,still the ,goddess does not      
destroy man's freedom1 but supplements  
it1 lifting it out of the domain of     
caprice4 ,telemachus willingly wills the
 will of ,pallas4  ,already it has been 
remarked that the ,goddess is made to   
command nature--the breeze1 the sleep of
 the ,suitors4 ,it is the method of     
fable thus to portray intelligence1     
whose function is to take control of    
nature and make her subserve its        
purpose4 ,the breeze blows and drives   
the ship2 it is the divine instrument   
for bringing ,telemachus to ,pylos1 a   
part of the world-order1 especially upon
 the present occasion4 ,the born poet   
still talks that way1 he is naturally a 
fabulist and cannot help himself4 ,in   
his speech1 the hunter does not chase   
the deer1 but brings it before his gun  
by a magic power2 the mystic fisher     
calls the fishes2 the enchanted bullet  
finds its own game and needs only to be 

shot off2 the tanner even lays a spell  
upon the water in his vat and makes it  
run up hill through a tube bent in a    
charm4 ,but back of all this enchantment
 intelligence is working and assumes her
 mythical1 supernatural garb when the   
poet images her control of nature4      
,thus in general the ,mythus shadows    
forth objective mind1 not subjective2 it
 springs from the imaginative ,reason1  
and not from a cultivated ,reflection4  
,in our time the demand is to have these
 objective forms translated into        
subjective thoughts2 then we can        
understand them better4 ,but the        
,homeric man shows the opposite         
tendency3 he had to translate his       
internal thoughts into the external     
shapes of the ,mythus before he could   
grasp fully his own mind4 ,his          
conception of the world was mythical2   
this form he understood and not that of 
abstract reflection4 ,we may well       
exclaim3 ,happy ,homeric man1 to whom   
the world was ever present1 not himself4

 ,yet both sides belong to the          
full-grown soul1 the mythical and the   
reflective2 from ,homer the one-sided   
modern mind can recover a part of its   
spiritual inheritance1 which is in      
danger of being lost4  ,it is therefore1
 a significant fact that the education  
of the present time is seeking to       
restore the ,mythus to its true place in
 the development of human spirit4 ,the  
,imagination is recognized to have its  
right1 and unless it be taken care of in
 the right way1 it will turn a ,fury1   
and wreak treble vengeance upon the age 
which makes it an outcast4 ,homer is    
undoubtedly the greatest of all         
mythologists1 he seizes the pure        
mythical essence of the human mind and  
gives to it form and beauty4 ,hence from
 this point of view1 specially1 we shall
 study him4  ,in the present ,book the  
fact is brought out strongly that little
 or nothing is to be expected from the  
,ithacan people toward rectifying the   
great wrong done to the ,house of       

,ulysses4 ,in part they are the         
wrong-doers themselves1 in part they are
 cowed into inactivity by the           
wrong-doers4 ,corruption has eaten into 
the spirit of the people2 the result is1
 the great duty of deliverance is thrown
 back upon an individual4 ,one man is to
 take the place of all1 or a few men the
 place of the many1 for the work must be
 done4 ,the mightiness of the individual
 in the time of a great crisis is thus  
set forth in vivid reality2 the one man 
with the ,gods on his side is the       
majority4 ,with truest instinct does the
 old poet show the ,goddess ,pallas     
directing ,telemachus1 who participates 
in the ,divine and is carrying out its  
decree4 ,this communion between man and 
deity is no mere mythologic sport1 but  
the sincerest faith2 verily it is the   
solidest fact in the government of the  
world1 and the bard is its voice to all 
ages4  ,this ,second ,book has its      
import for the whole poem4 ,it is now   
manifest that ,ulysses1 when he returns1

 is not to expect a grand popular       
reception2 he must bring himself back to
 his own by his skill and prowess alone4
 ,the people will not help him slay the 
wrong-doers2 rather the contrary will   
happen4 ,again the individual must work 
out the salvation of himself as well as 
of his family and his country4          
,telemachus has shown himself the worthy
 son of the heroic father2 the present  
,book connects him intimately with the  
return of ,ulysses1 and binds the entire
 ,odyssey into unity2 especially does   
this ,book look to and prepare for the  
last twelve ,books1 which bring father  
and son together in one great act of    
deliverance4  ,if in the previous ,book 
we beheld the depravity of the ,suitors1
 we now witness the imbecility of the   
,people4 ,still the spark of hope       
flashes out brightly in this ,ithacan   
night2 something is at work to punish   
the guilty and to redeem the land4      
,,book ,,third4   ,in narrative1 the    
present ,book connects directly with the

 preceding ,book4 ,pallas is still with 
,telemachus1 they continue the voyage   
together till they reach ,pylos1 the    
home of ,nestor4 ,they have left        
,ithaca1 and come into another realm2   
this change of place1 as is often the   
case in ,homer1 carries with it a change
 of inner condition2 the voyage is not  
simply geographical but also spiritual2 
indeed it must be so1 if the young man  
is to derive from it any experience4    
,great and striking is the difference   
between ,ithaca and ,pylos4 ,the latter 
is the abode of religion primarily1 the 
new-comers find the ,pylians engaged in 
an act of worship1 in which the whole   
people participate1 nine rows of seats  
and five hundred men in each row4  ,too 
large a number1 cry some commentators1  
but they have not looked into the real  
meaning of such a multitude4 ,here is   
sacrifice1 reverence1 belief in the     
,gods2 while among the ,ithacans is     
neglect of worship1 religious paralysis1
 and downright blasphemy on the part of 

the ,suitors4 ,furthermore1 in one      
country order reigns1 in the other is   
anarchy4 ,such is the contrast between  
the ,second and ,third ,books1 the      
contrast between ,ithaca and ,pylos4 ,we
 can well think that this contrast was  
intended by the poet1 and thus we may   
catch a glimpse of his artistic         
procedure4  ,the center of the picture  
is ,nestor1 a very old man1 who1        
accordingly1 gives soul to the ,book4   
,he is so near the world of the ,gods in
 the present life1 that he seems already
 to dwell with them2 age brings this    
serene piety4  ,no accident is it that  
this ,book of ,nestor begins and ends   
with a festival of sacrifice and prayer2
 that is the true setting of his        
character4 ,what he says to the visitors
 will take color and meaning from his   
fundamental trait2 we may expect in his 
words a full recognition of divinity in 
the events of the world4  ,but he has   
been a stout fighter in his time1 he was
 in the ,trojan ,war1 though old already

 at that period4 ,he will give the      
lesson of his life1 not during that war1
 but afterwards4 ,he was one of the     
heroes of the ,iliad1 which poem the    
,odyssey not only does not repeat1 but  
goes out of its way to avoid any        
repetition thereof4 ,moreover he was one
 of those who returned home             
successfully1 can he tell how it was    
done8 ,this is the question of special  
interest to ,telemachus1 as his father1 
after ten years1 has not yet reached    
home4  ,herewith the theme of the ,book 
is suggested3 the ,return4 ,physically  
this was a return from the ,trojan ,war1
 which is the pre-supposition of the    
whole ,odyssey2 all the heroes who have 
not perished1 have to get back to       
,hellas in some way4 ,these ways are    
very diverse1 according to the character
 of the persons and the circumstances4  
,thus we touch the second grand ,homeric
 subject1 and1 indeed1 the second grand 
fact of the ,greek consciousness1 which 
lies imbedded in the ,return 7,nostos74 

,a short survey of this subject must    
here be given4 ,we have in the present  
,book several phases of the ,return2    
,nestor1 ,menelaus1 ,ulysses are all    
,returners1 to use a necessary word for 
the thought2 each man solves the problem
 in his own manner4  ,now what is this  
problem8 ,let us see4 ,the expedition to
 ,troy involved a long separation from  
home and country on the part of every   
man who went with it2 still this        
separation had to be made for the sake  
of ,helen1 that she1 the wife and queen1
 return to home and country1 from which 
she had been taken4 ,her ,return1       
indeed1 is the essence of all their     
,returns4 ,we see that through the war  
they were severed from ,family and      
,state1 were compelled to give up for   
the time being their whole institutional
 life4 ,this long absence deepens into  
alienation1 into a spiritual scission1  
from mere habit in the first place2     
then1 in the second place1 they are     
seeking to destroy a home and a country2

 though it be that of the enemy1 and the
 act1 even if necessary1 brings its     
penalty4 ,it begets a spirit of         
violence1 a disregard of human life1 a  
destruction of institutional order4     
,such is the training of the ,greeks    
before ,troy4 ,the wanton attack of     
,ulysses and his companions upon the    
city of the ,ciconians 7,book ,ninth7 is
 an indication of the spirit engendered 
in this long period of violence1 among  
the best and wisest ,greeks4  ,still1 in
 spite of the grand estrangement1 they  
have the aspiration for return1 and for 
healing the breach which had sunk so    
deep into their souls4 ,did they not    
undergo all this severing of the dearest
 ties for the sake of ,helen1 for the   
integrity of the family1 and of their   
civil life also8 ,what he has done for  
,helen1 every ,greek must be ready to do
 for himself1 when the war is over2 he  
must long for the restoration of the    
broken relations2 he cannot remain in   
,asia and continue a true ,greek4 ,such 

is his conflict2 in maintaining ,family 
and ,state1 he has been forced to       
sacrifice ,family and ,state4 ,then when
 he has accomplished the deed of        
sacrifice1 he must restore himself to   
what he has immolated4 ,a hard task1 a  
deeply contradictory process1 whose end 
is1 however1 harmony2 many will not be  
able to reach the latter stage1 but will
 perish by the way4 ,the ,return is this
 great process of restoration after the 
estrangement4  ,many are the ,returners1
 successful and unsuccessful in many    
different ways4 ,but they all are       
resumed in the one long desperate       
,return of ,ulysses1 the wise and       
much-enduring man4 ,in space as well as 
in time his ,return is the longest2 in  
spirit it is the deepest and severest by
 all odds4 ,the present poem1 therefore1
 is a kind of resumption and summary of 
the entire series of ,returns 7,nostoi74
 ,in the old ,greek epical ages1 the    
subject gave rise to many poems1 which  
are1 however1 at bottom but one1 and    

this we still possess1 while the others 
are lost4 ,spirit takes care of its own 
verily4  ,the true ,returner1           
accordingly1 gets back to the           
institutions from which he once         
separated2 he knows them now1 previously
 he only felt them4 ,his institutional  
world must become thus a conscious      
possession2 he has gone through the     
alienation1 and has been restored2 his  
restoration has been reached through    
denial1 through skepticism1 we may say1 
using the modern term4 ,the old         
unconscious period before the ,trojan   
war is gone forever2 that was the       
,paradise from which the ,greek ,adam   
has been expelled4 ,but the new man     
after the restoration is the image of   
the complete self-conscious being1 who  
has taken the negative period into      
himself and digested it4 ,fortunate     
person6 he cannot now be made the       
subject of a poem1 for he has no        
conflict4  ,but the young man beginning 
life1 the son ,telemachus1 is to obtain 

the same kind of knowledge1 not through 
experience but through inquiry4 ,oral   
tradition is to give him the treasures  
of wisdom without the bitter personal   
trial4 ,it is for this reason that      
,pallas sends him to find out what his  
father did1 and to make the experience  
of the parent his own by education2 it  
is1 indeed1 the true education--to      
master the accumulated knowledge and    
wisdom of the race up to date4 ,so we   
are now to have the school period of the
 son1 who is thereby not merely the     
physical son 7which1 he remarks1 is     
always a matter of doubt71 but the      
spiritual son of his father1 whereof    
there can be no doubt4  ,the ,odyssey   
proper1 toward which we may now cast a  
glance1 contains the wanderings of      
,ulysses1 and is the work of the grown  
man who has to meet the world face to   
face and conquer it2 thus he obtains the
 experience of life4 ,the two parts are 
always to be placed together--the       
education of the young man and the      

experience of the mature man2 they      
constitute a complete history of a human
 soul4 ,both are1 indeed one--bud and   
flower2 at bottom1 too1 both mean the   
same thing--the elevation of the        
individual into an ethical life in which
 he is in harmony with himself and with 
the divine order4 ,true learning and    
true experience reach this end1 which   
may be rightfully called wisdom4  ,so   
,telemachus the youth is to listen to   
the great and impressive fact of his    
time1 containing the deep spiritual     
problem which is designated as the      
,return4 ,nestor is the first and       
simplest of these ,returners2 he is an  
old man1 he has prudence1 he is without 
passion2 moreover he has not the spirit 
of inquiry or the searching into the    
,beyond2 he accepts the transmitted     
religion and opinions without question1 
through the conservatism of age as well 
as of character4 ,it is clear that the  
spiritual scission of the time could not
 enter deep into his nature2 his long   

absence from home and country produced  
no alienation2 he went home direct after
 the fall of ,troy1 the winds and the   
waters were favorable1 no tempest1 no   
upheaval1 no signs of divine anger4 ,but
 he foresaw the wrath of the ,gods and  
fled across the wave in all speed1 the  
wrestle with the deity lay not in him4  
,it is worth our while to make a little 
summary of these ,returners in classes1 
since in this way the thought of the    
present ,book as well as its place in   
the entire ,odyssey can be seen best4   
,first are those who never succeeded in 
returning1 but perished in the process  
of it2 of this class the great example  
is the leader himself1 ,agamemnon1 who  
was slain by his own wife and her       
paramour4 ,second are those who         
succeeded in returning2 of this class   
there are three well-marked divisions1  
which are to be sharply designated in   
the mind of the reader4  7#a74 ,the     
immediate ,returners1 those who went    
straight home1 without internal scission

 or external trouble2 unimportant they  
are in this peaceful aspect though they 
were formerly heroes in the war4 ,four  
such are passingly mentioned by ,nestor 
in his talk3 ,diomed1 ,neoptolemus the  
son of ,achilles1 ,philoctetes1 and     
,idomeneus4 ,nestor himself is the most 
prominent and the typical one of this   
set who are the ,returners through      
,hellas4  7#b74 ,the second one of those
 who have succeeded in getting home is  
,menelaus1 whose sweep is far beyond    
that of ,nestor and the immediate ,greek
 world1 taking in ,egypt and the ,east4 
,he was separated from ,nestor1 having  
delayed to bury his steersman2 then a   
storm struck him1 bore him to ,crete and
 beyond1 the wind and wave carried him  
to the land of the ,nile4 ,he is the    
,returner through the ,orient4  7#c74   
,finally is ,ulysses1 not yet returned1 
but whose time has nearly arrived4 ,in  
comparison with the others he is the    
,returner through the ,occident4 ,but   
his ,return gives name to the poem1 of  

which it is the greater portion4  ,still
 the universal poem is to embrace all   
these phases of the ,return1 and the    
son1 through education1 is to know them 
all1 not by experience but by           
information4 ,thus his training is to   
reach beyond what the life of his father
 can give him2 it must be universal1 and
 in this way it becomes a true          
discipline4 ,we must note too1 that this
 poem reaches beyond the ,return of     
,ulysses1 beyond what its title         
suggests1 and embraces all the ,returns1
 ,hellenic1 ,oriental1 ,occidental1 as  
well as the grand failure to return4    
,such are some of the thoughts which    
gleam out the present ,book and         
illuminate the whole ,odyssey4 ,we can  
now consider structure of the ,book1    
which falls into two distinct parts1    
determined by the ,goddess4 ,when she   
makes ready to quit ,telemachus1 we     
enter the second portion of the ,book1  
and ,telemachus continues his journey   
without direct divine supervision4 ,as  

the previous ,book was marked by the    
coming of the ,goddess1 the present     
,book is marked by her going4 ,the      
intercourse of the youth with ,nestor is
 the extent of her immediate            
guardianship2 after such an experience1 
he must learn to make the rest of the   
journey through his own resources4 ,even
 the deity teaches that there must not  
be too much reliance upon the deity4    
,the first portion of the ,book extends 
to line #cbh1 where ,nestor ends his    
story of the ,returns and suggests the  
journey to ,menelaus for another phase  
thereof3 the sun set and darkness came  
on4 ,the second portion embraces the    
rest of the ,book4 ,again we must note  
that the fundamental ,homeric division  
into the ,upper and ,lower ,worlds is   
what divides the ,book1 thus giving to  
the same its organic principle4   ,i4   
,the religious setting of ,nestor's     
world has been noticed already4 ,into it
 ,telemachus comes1 out of a realm of   
violence2 it must indicate some cure for

 the ills of ,ithaca4 ,but he is now to 
show himself a man4 ,pallas orders him  
to put aside his youthful modesty1 and  
boldly make the inquiry concerning his  
father4 ,and here the ,goddess utters a 
remark which the student may well       
ponder3 ,some things thou wilt think of 
in thine own mind1 but a ,god will      
suggest others4 ,again the ,homeric     
dualism--the human and the divine--and  
also their harmony2 the two elements    
must come together in every high thought
 or action4 ,the double relation of the 
individual--to himself and to the       
,god--is necessary for all worthy       
speech2 his own activity and that of the
 deity run together in true discourse as
 well as in true action4 ,so the whole  
poem is made up of man's self-determined
 energy and the interference of the     
,gods2 yet both are to be seen as       
ultimately one in the deed4  ,the       
new-comers are asked to pray1 and we    
hear the famous utterance1 which is     
characteristic of ,nestor's world1 ,all 

men have need of the ,gods4 ,this is    
said by one of his sons4 ,pallas makes  
the prayer1 a happy one1 which brings   
forth a feeling of harmony between the  
strangers and all the ,people4 ,the     
sympathy is complete1 and ,telemachus   
can proceed to ask concerning his       
father1 after he has told who he himself
 is1 and whence he has come4 ,in        
response1 ,nestor begins to tell the    
fateful story of the ,returns after the 
fall of ,troy4 ,in his narrative we     
behold the starting-point of the        
calamities1 the difference between      
,agamemnon and ,menelaus1 followed by a 
series of separations in succession4    
,zeus planned for them a sad ,return1   
which1 however1 was their own fault1 for
 all were neither wise nor just4 ,it is 
clear that the ,greek unity is utterly  
broken1 a spiritual disruption sets in  
after the capture of the city4 ,it is1  
indeed1 the new problem1 this ,return to
 peace and institutional order after ten
 years' training to violence4 ,such is  

the penalty of all war1 however just and
 necessary2 after it is over1 the       
fighting cannot stop at once1 and so the
 victors divide into two camps and      
continue the fight4 ,nestor gives the   
picture of these repeated divisions2    
once1 twice1 thrice the breach occurs2  
first he separates from ,agamemnon1 the 
second time from ,ulysses1 the third    
time from ,menelaus4 ,he will go        
directly home1 and thus he has to leave 
the others behind2 the scission is not  
in him as in them2 he can be restored1  
in fact he restores himself4 ,he has the
 instinctive pre-,trojan character      
still1 being an old man2 but ,ulysses   
has lost that1 and so separates from    
,nestor1 though never before had they   
differed in the ,council of the ,chiefs 
or in the ,assembly of the ,people4 ,but
 ,ulysses has to return by a far        
different road1 and now each of the two 
wise men takes his own way1 though both 
have to return4  ,aged ,nestor          
manifestly does not belong to the new   

epoch1 he seems to have no sense of the 
deep spiritual struggle involved4 ,he   
instinctively went home1 shunning the   
conflict2 the others could not4 ,in the 
,iliad the relation between the two wise
 men1 ,nestor and ,ulysses1 is subtly   
yet clearly drawn2 the one--the younger 
man--has creative intelligence1 the     
other--the older man--has appreciative  
intelligence4 ,in the ,odyssey1 the     
relation is plainly evolved out of that 
described in the ,iliad2 the one is the 
boundless striver1 the other rests in   
the established order of things4        
,nestor1 therefore1 cannot tell much    
about ,ulysses1 who lies quite out of   
his horizon1 at least in the ,odyssey4  
,he can only give hope that the man of  
wisdom will yet return4 ,this           
,telemachus doubts1 dropping into one of
 his low human moods1 even in the       
presence of ,pallas1 who rebukes him    
sharply4 ,it is1 indeed1 the great      
lesson2 he must have faith in the       
reality of the ,gods1 this is the basis 

of all his future progress1 the chief   
attainment of wisdom4 ,the young man    
must not fall away into denial1 he must 
be taught that there is a divine order  
in the world4 ,old ,homer1 too1 had his 
notions about religion in education1 and
 the ,goddess herself is here introduced
 giving a lesson4  ,nestor1 though      
unable himself to give much information 
about the ,return1 can point to the     
second grand ,returner1 ,menelaus1 who  
has lately come from a distant land1 and
 may have something to say4 ,in fact    
,menelaus was the last to separate from 
,nestor1 ,ulysses had separated long    
before4  ,one other story ,nestor tells 
with great sympathy1 that of ,agamemnon1
 who represents a still different form  
of the ,return4 ,the great leader of the
 ,greeks can master the ,trojan         
difficulty1 can even get back to home   
and country1 but these are ultimately   
lost to him by his faithless spouse4    
,still1 after the father's death1 the   
son ,orestes restores ,family and       

,state4 ,therein ,telemachus sees an    
image of himself1 the son1 who is to    
slay his mother's suitors2 he sees1 too1
 the possible fate of his father4       
,ulysses has essentially the same       
problem as ,agamemnon1 though he has not
 the faithless wife in addition2        
,telemachus beholds his duty in the deed
 of ,orestes1 according to ,greek       
consciousness4 ,we shall see hereafter  
how ,ulysses takes due precaution not to
 be slain in his own land1 as ,agamemnon
 was4 ,in disguise he will go to his own
 palace and carefully note the situation
 in advance1 and then strike the blow of
 deliverance4  ,several times ,homer    
repeats in the ,odyssey the tragic story
 of ,agamemnon1 the great ,leader of the
 ,greeks at ,troy4 ,an awe-inspiring    
tale of destiny2 out of it ,a,eschylus  
will develop his great tragedy1 the     
,oresteia4 ,indeed the epos develops    
into tragedy with the full mythical     
unfolding of this story4 ,a,eschylus    
will deepen the motives into internal   

collisions2 he will show the right and  
the wrong in ,agamemnon1 and even in    
,clytemnestra4 ,orestes1 however        
beneficent his deed in avenging his     
father1 will not escape the             
counterstroke2 ,a,eschylus will send    
after him the ,furies for the guilt of  
having murdered his mother4 ,thus the   
double nature of the deed1 its reward   
and its penalty1 unfolds out of ,homer  
into ,a,eschylus1 and creates the ,greek
 drama as we know it at present4        
,nestor has now told what lay in the    
immediate circle of his experience3 the 
,return direct through ,hellas4 ,again  
he mentions the last separation2 it was 
that of himself from ,menelaus1 when the
 latter was swept beyond the limit of   
,hellas into ,egypt1 from which he has  
now returned4 ,what next8 ,evidently the
 young man must be sent to him at       
,sparta in order to share in this larger
 circle of experience1 extending to the 
,orient4 ,so ,greece points to the ,east
 in many ways2 ,nestor1 the purely      

,hellenic soul1 knows of that wider     
knowledge1 though it be not his1 and he 
knows that it should be possessed4  ,in 
this ,book as elsewhere in the ,odyssey 
the grand background is the ,trojan war4
 ,the incidents of the ,iliad are hardly
 alluded to1 but are certainly taken for
 granted2 the ,post-,iliad is the field 
of interest1 for in it the ,returns take
 place4 ,thus the two great poems of    
,homer join together and show themselves
 as complements of each other4   ,,ii4  
,now comes the separation which marks   
the second portion of the ,book4        
,pallas1 in the guise of ,mentor1       
coincides with ,nestor in advising      
,telemachus to pay a visit to ,menelaus1
 and then she departs1 sailing off like 
a sea-eagle1 whereat great astonishment 
from all present4 ,that is1 she reveals 
herself2 all recognize the ,goddess1 and
 probably that is the reason why she can
 no longer stay4 ,she has become        
internal4 ,telemachus is now conscious1 
as she disappears1 and he has his own   

wisdom2 he has seen ,pallas1 and so he  
must go without her to ,sparta4 ,hardly 
does he need her longer1 being started  
upon the path of wisdom to know wisdom4 
,at the court of ,nestor1 with its      
deeply religious atmosphere1 she can    
appear2 but she declines to go with him 
in person to ,menelaus1 though she      
advises the journey4 ,all of which1 to  
the sympathetic reader1 has its         
significance4 ,still ,pallas has by no  
means vanished out of the career of     
,telemachus2 she at present1 however1   
leaves him to himself1 as she often     
does4  ,nestor1 too1 responds to the    
marvelous incident in true accord with  
his character2 he invokes her with      
prayer and institutes a grand sacrifice1
 which is now described in a good deal  
of detail4 ,just as the ,book opens with
 a sacrifice to a deity1 so it closes   
with one--the two form the setting of   
the whole description4 ,thus the        
recognition of the ,gods is everywhere  
set forth in ,nestor's world2 he is the 

man of faith1 of primitive1 immediate   
faith1 which has never felt the doubt4  
,it is well that ,telemachus meets with 
such a man at the start1 and gets a     
breath out of such an atmosphere4 ,he   
has seen the ills of ,ithaca from his   
boyhood2 he may well question at times  
the superintendence of the ,gods4 ,his  
own experience of life would lead him to
 doubt the existence of a ,divine       
,order4 ,even here in ,pylos he         
challenges the supremacy of the         
,olympians4 ,when ,nestor intimates that
 his father will yet return and punish  
the ,suitors1 with the help of ,pallas1 
or that he himself may possibly do so   
with the aid of the same ,goddess1      
,telemachus replies3 ,never will that   
come to pass1 ,i think1 though ,i hope  
for it2 no1 not even if the ,gods should
 so will4 ,assuredly a young skeptic he 
shows himself1 probably in a fit of     
despondency2 sharp is the reproof of the
 ,goddess3 ,o ,telemachus1 what kind of 
talk is that8 ,easily can a ,god1 if he 

wills it1 save a man even at a distance4
 ,thus she1 a ,goddess1 asserts the     
supremacy of the ,gods1 even though they
 cannot avert death4 ,but the youth     
persists at present3 let us talk no more
 of this2 my father never will return4  
,but when ,nestor has told the story of 
,a,egisthus punished by the son         
,orestes1 the impression is strong that 
there is a divine justice which         
overtakes the guilty man at last2 such  
is the old man's lesson to the juvenile 
doubter4 ,the lesson is imparted in the 
form of a tale1 but it has its meaning1 
and ,telemachus cannot help putting     
himself into the place of ,orestes4     
,such is1 then1 the training which the  
young man1 shaken by misfortune1 obtains
 at the court of ,nestor2 the training  
to a belief in the rule of the ,gods in 
a ,divine ,order of the ,world--which is
 the fundamental belief of the present  
poem4 ,it is no wonder that ,telemachus 
sees ,pallas at last1 sees that she has 
been with him1 recognizing her presence4

 ,to be sure1 she now disappears as a   
personal presence1 having been found    
out2 still she sends ,telemachus on his 
journey to ,sparta4 ,thus the ,third    
,book has a distinctive character of its
 own1 differing decidedly from the ,book
 which goes before and from that which  
follows4 ,here is a religious world1    
idyllic1 paradisaical in its immediate  
relation to the ,gods1 and in the       
primitive innocence of its people1 who  
seem to be without a jar or inner       
scission4 ,no doubt or dissonance has   
yet entered apparently2 ,pylos stands   
between ,ithaca1 the land of absolute   
discord1 and ,sparta1 the land recently 
restored out of discord4 ,the ,book     
hears a relation to the whole ,odyssey  
in its special theme1 which is the      
,return1 of which it represents in the  
ruler ,nestor a particular phase4 ,it   
prepares the way for the grand ,return1 
which is that of ,ulysses2 it is a link 
connecting the whole poem into unity4   
,moreover it shadows forth one of the   

movements of ,greek spirit1 which seized
 upon this idea of a ,return from ,troy 
to express the soul's restoration from  
its warring1 alienated1 dualistic       
condition4 ,it is well known that there 
were many poems on this subject2 each   
hero along with his town or land had his
 ,return1 which became embodied in      
legend and song4 ,all ,hellas1 in a     
certain stage of its spiritual movement1
 had a tendency to break out into the   
lay of the ,return4 ,one of the         
so-called cyclic poets1 ,hagias of      
,troezen1 collected a number of these   
lays into one poem and called it the    
,nostoi or ,returns1 evidently an       
outgrowth of this ,third ,book in       
particular and of the ,odyssey in       
general4  ,thus ,telemachus has         
witnessed and heard a good deal during  
his stay with ,nestor4 ,he has seen a   
religious world1 a realm of faith in the
 ,gods1 which certainly has left its    
strong impression2 he has been inspired 
by the example of his father1 whose     

worth has been set forth1 and whose     
place in the great ,trojan movement has 
been indicated1 by the aged ,hero4      
,still further1 ,telemachus has been    
brought to share in the idea of the     
,return1 the present underlying idea of 
the whole ,greek consciousness2 thus he 
must be led to believe in it and to work
 for it1 applying it to his own case and
 his own land4 ,largely1 from a         
negative1 despairing state of mind due  
to his ,ithacan environment1 he has been
 led into glimpses of a positive        
believing one2 this has sprung from his 
schooling with ,nestor1 who may be      
called his first schoolmaster1 from whom
 he is now to pass to his second4  ,the 
reader must judge whether the preceding 
view be too introspective for ,homer1   
who is usually declared to be the       
unconscious poet1 quite unaware of his  
purpose or process4 ,no one can         
carefully read the ,third ,book without 
feeling its religious purport2 an       
atmosphere it has peculiar to itself in 

relation to the other ,books of the     
,telemachiad4 ,to be sure1 we can read  
it as an adventure1 a mere diverting    
story1 without further meaning than the 
attempt to entertain vacant heads       
seeking to kill time4 ,but really it is 
the record of the spirit's experience1  
and must so be interpreted4 ,again the  
question comes up3 what is it to know   
,homer8 ,his geography1 his incidents1  
his grammar1 his entire outer world have
 their right and must be studied--but   
let us proceed to the next ,book4       
,,book ,,fourth4   ,the transition from 
,book ,third to ,book ,fourth involves a
 very significant change of environment4
 ,in ,sparta1 to which ,telemachus now  
passes1 there is occurring no public    
sacrifice to the ,gods1 but a domestic  
festal occasion gives the tone2 he moves
 out of a religious into a secular      
atmosphere4 ,pylos allows the simple    
state of faith1 the world unfallen2     
,sparta has in it the deep scission of  
the soul1 which1 however1 is at present 

healed after many wanderings and        
struggles4 ,nestor1 as we have seen1 is 
quite without inner conflict2 ,menelaus 
and ,helen represent a long1 long       
training in the school of error1        
tribulation1 misfortune4 ,pylos is the  
peace before the fall1 ,sparta is the   
peace after the fall1 yet with many     
reminiscences of the latter4 ,this      
,fourth ,book reaches out beyond        
,greece1 beyond the ,trojan ,war1 it    
goes beyond the ,hellenic limit in      
,space and ,time1 it sweeps backward    
into ,egypt and the ,orient4 ,it is a   
marvelous ,book1 calling for our best   
study and reflection2 certainly it is   
one of the greatest compositions of the 
human mind4 ,its fundamental note is    
restoration after the grand lapse2      
witness ,helen1 and ,menelaus too2 the  
,third ,book has no restoration1 because
 it has no alienation4  ,the account of 
the various ,returns from ,troy is      
continued4 ,in the preceding ,book we   
had those given by ,nestor1 specially   

his own1 which was without conflict4 ,he
 is the man of age and wisdom1 he does  
not fall out with the ,gods1 he does not
 try to transcend the prescribed limits1
 he is old and conservative4 ,the       
,returns which he speaks of beside his  
own1 are confined to the ,greek world2  
that was the range of his vision4  ,but 
now in the ,fourth ,book we are to hear 
of the second great ,return1 in which   
two ,greeks participate1 ,menelaus and  
,helen4 ,this ,return is by way of the  
,east1 through ,egypt1 which is the land
 of ancient wisdom for the ,greek man1  
and for us too4 ,it is the land of the  
past to the ,hellenic mind1 whither the 
person who aspires to know the          
antecedents of himself and his culture  
must travel2 or1 he must learn of those 
who have been there1 if he cannot go    
himself4 ,egyptian lore1 which had a    
great influence upon the early ,greek   
world in its formative period1 must have
 some reflection in this primitive      
,greek book of education4 ,so           

,telemachus1 to complete his discipline1
 must reach beyond ,greece into the     
,orient1 he must get far back of ,troy1 
which was merely an orientalizing       
,hellenic city2 he must learn of ,egypt4
 ,thus he transcends the national limit1
 and begins to obtain an universal      
culture4  ,but the moment we go beyond  
the ,greek world with its clear plastic 
outlines1 the artistic form changes2 the
 ,hellenic sunshine is tinged with      
,oriental shadows2 we pass from the     
unveiled ,zeus to the veiled ,isis4     
,homer himself gets colored with touches
 of ,oriental mystery4 ,the ,egyptian   
part of this ,fourth ,book1 therefore1  
will show a transformation of style as  
well as of thought1 and changeful       
,proteus will become a true image of the
 ,poet4 ,the work will manifest a       
symbolic tendency2 it will have an aroma
 of the wisdom of the ,east1 taught in  
forms of the parable1 the apologue1 with
 hints of allegory4 ,the world1 thrown  
outside of that transparent ,greek life1

 becomes a ,fairy ,tale1 which is here  
taken up and incorporated into a great  
poem4 ,we shall be compelled to look    
thoroughly into these strange shapes of 
,egypt1 and1 if possible1 reach down to 
their meaning1 for meaning they must    
have1 or be meaningless4 ,we shall find 
that this ,fourth ,book stands in the   
front rank of ,homeric poetry for depth 
and suggestiveness1 if not for epical   
lucidity4  ,what did not ,telemachus see
 and hear at ,sparta8 ,that was1 indeed1
 an education4 ,he saw the two great    
returned ones1 the woman and the man4   
,helen he saw1 who had passed through   
her long alienation and was now restored
 to home and country after the ,trojan  
discipline4 ,in her1 the most beautiful 
woman1 the human cycle was complete--the
 fall1 the repentance1 the restoration4 
,then the eager youth saw ,menelaus1 and
 heard his story of the ,return2 he is  
the man who seeks the treasures of the  
,east1 and brings them to ,hellas in the
 ,hellenic way4 ,he finds them1 too1    

after much suffering1 never losing them 
again in the tempests of his voyage1 for
 does he not spread them out before us  
in his talk8 ,both the man and the      
woman1 after the greatest human trials1 
have reached serenity--an institutional 
and an intellectual harmony4 ,the young 
man sees it and feels it and takes it   
away in his head and heart4  ,the       
present ,book falls easily into two     
distinct portions4 ,the first is the    
visit of ,telemachus to ,sparta and what
 he experiences there4 ,sparta is at    
peace and in order2 the youth to a      
degree beholds in it the ideal land to  
which he must help transform his own    
disordered country4 ,the second portion 
of the ,book goes back to ,ithaca 7line 
#fbe of the ,greek text74 ,here we are  
suddenly plunged again into the wrongful
 deeds of the suitors1 done to the      
,house of ,ulysses4 ,they are plotting  
the death of ,telemachus1 the bearing of
 whose new career has dawned upon them4 
,ithaca is truly the realm of discord in

 contrast to the harmony of ,sparta and 
the ,house of ,menelaus1 which has also 
had sore trials4 ,hence ,sparta may be  
considered a prophecy of the redemption 
of ,ithaca4  ,following out these       
structural suggestions1 we designate the
 organism of the ,book in this manner3--
  ,i4 ,the visit of ,telemachus at      
,sparta in which he beholds and         
converses with two chief ,returners from
 ,troy1 those who came back by way of   
the ,east1 ,menelaus and ,helen4 ,this  
part embraces the greater portion of the
 ,book and falls into three divisions4  
#a4 ,the arrival and recognition of the 
son of ,ulysses by ,menelaus and ,helen 
who are in a mood of reminiscence1      
speaking of and in the ,present with    
many a glance back into the ,past4 ,the 
,oriental journey to ,cyprus1           
,phoenicia1 and specially ,egypt1 plays 
into their conversation1 making the     
whole a ,domestic ,tale of real life    
with an ideal background lying beyond   
,hellas4  #b4 ,when the son is duly     

recognized and received1 the father     
,ulysses comes in for reminiscence2 with
 him the background shifts from the     
,orient to ,troy1 where he was the hero 
of so many deeds of cunning and valor1  
and where both ,menelaus and ,helen were
 chief actors4 ,the literary form passes
 out of the ,domestic ,tale of the      
,present into the ,heroic ,tale of the  
,past1 from sorrowful retrospection to  
bracing description of daring deeds4    
,helen and ,menelaus1 each in turn1 tell
 stories of ,ulysses at ,troy to the    
son1 who thus learns much about his     
father4 ,as already said1 the background
 of this portion is the ,trojan war     
which was the grand ,hellenic separation
 from the ,orient4 ,the ,iliad1 and     
specially the ,post-,iliad are here     
presupposed by the ,odyssey4  #c4 ,the  
,return of ,menelaus is now told to     
,telemachus1 which ,return reaches      
behind the ,trojan war into the ,east   
and beyond the limits of the real       
,hellas into ,egypt4 ,thus the spatial  

and temporal bounds of ,greece are      
transcended1 the actual both in the     
,present and ,past goes over into the   
purely ideal1 and the literary form     
becomes a ,marvelous ,tale--that of     
,proteus1 which suggests not only       
,present and ,past1 but all ,time4      
,,ii4 ,such is the grand ,return of     
,menelaus out of struggle and dualism   
into peace and reconciliation with      
himself and the world1 barring certain  
painful memories4 ,the poet next1 in    
sharp contrast throws the reader back to
 ,ithaca1 the land of strife and wrong1 
in general of limits for young          
,telemachus1 who is reaching out for    
freedom through intelligence1 and is    
getting a good deal thereof4 ,two       
phases3  #a4 ,the ,suitors' limits1     
which he has broken through2 their wrath
 and their plan of murdering him in     
consequence4  #b4 ,the mother's limits1 
which he has also broken through2 her   
paroxysm in consequence1 and final      
consolation4   ,i4  ,the first portion  

of the ,book1 as above given1 is by all 
means the greatest in conception and in 
execution as well as the longest4 ,as   
already indicated there are three kinds 
of writing in it1 yet fused together    
into unity1 which makes it a most       
varied1 yet profoundly suggestive piece 
of ,art4 ,the simple idyllic1 domestic  
strain of ordinary real life we hear at 
the start in the reception and          
recognition of ,telemachus at ,sparta2  
the scene lies in the sunshine of a     
serene existence1 yet after mighty      
tempests4 ,thence we pass into the      
heroic world of ,troy out of ,greece and
 the ,present1 and listen to an epical  
story of heroism told by ,menelaus and  
,helen1 of the ,hero ,ulysses2 finally  
we are brought to ,egypt1 and hear a    
prophecy concerning the same ,hero1 who 
is now the subject of the ,fairy ,tale4 
,in other words1 in this portion of the 
,fourth ,book we observe a change of    
scene to three localities--,greece1     
,troy1 ,egypt1 which correspond to      

,present1 ,past1 and ,future1 and which 
attune the soul respectively to ,sorrow1
 ,reminiscence1 ,prophecy4 ,in accord   
with this variety of place and          
circumstance is the variety of literary 
form already noted3 the ordinary        
,descriptive ,tale of the ,present1 the 
,heroic ,story of the ,past1 and the    
,fairy ,tale imaging what is distant in 
space and time4  #a4 ,as ,telemachus    
arrives1 he notes the outer setting to  
this noble picture of ,menelaus and     
,helen4 ,there is the magnificent palace
 with many costly ornaments of bronze1  
gold1 silver1 amber and ivory2 it has   
the ideal of ,greek architecture1 not   
yet realized doubtless1 still it        
suggests the ,hall of ,olympian ,zeus to
 the admiring ,telemachus4 ,the         
new-comers happen upon a                
wedding-festival1 which connects the    
place and the occasion with the ,trojan 
war and its ,hero ,achilles1 whose son  
is now to marry ,helen's daughter1      
betrothed to him while at ,troy4        

,moreover it is a time of joy1 which    
brings all before us at first in a      
festal mood4  ,nor must we pass by that 
astonishing utterance of ,menelaus to   
his servant who proposed to turn away   
the guests3 ,thou prattlest silly things
 like a child1 verily have we come      
hither partaking of the hospitable fare 
of other men4 ,therefore we ought to    
give that which we have received4 ,one  
likes to note these touches of humanity 
in the old heathen ,greek2 he too knew  
and applied the ,golden ,rule4 ,the     
wisdom of life here peers forth in the  
much-traveled ,menelaus2 suffering has  
taught him to consider others2 sorrow he
 has experienced1 but it has brought its
 best reward--compassion4 ,this sorrow  
at once breaks forth in response to the 
admiration of ,telemachus for the       
outward splendor of his palace and      
possessions4  ,the ,spartan king takes a
 short retrospect of life as it has been
 allotted him2 the sighs well out       
between his words as he tells his story4

 ,eight years he wandered after the     
taking of ,troy2 for he passed across   
the sea1 to ,egypt1 even to ,a,ethiopia 
and ,lybia1 which he portrays as a      
wonderland of golden plenty4 ,but while 
he was gone1 gathering much wealth1 his 
brother ,agamemnon was slain2 therefore1
 small joy ,i have bearing rule over    
these possessions4 ,but chiefly he      
laments the loss of one man1 on account 
of whom sleep and food become hateful to
 me when ,i think upon him4 ,that man is
 ,ulysses1 who has suffered more than   
any other ,greek4 ,thus a strong deep   
stream of sympathy breaks forth from the
 heart of ,menelaus1 and the son1       
hearing his father's name1 holds up the 
purple mantle before his eyes1 shedding 
the tear4 ,a strong unconscious bond of 
feeling at once unites both4  ,how can  
we fail to notice the clear indication  
of purpose in these passages6 ,the ,poet
 brings ,menelaus1 as the culmination of
 his story1 to strike the chord which   
stirs most profoundly the soul of       

,telemachus4 ,the son is there to       
inquire concerning his father2 without  
revealing himself he learns much about  
the character and significance of his   
parent4 ,the same artistic forethought  
is shown1 when1 at this sad moment1     
,helen enters1 the primal source of all 
these calamities1 in a glorious         
manifestation of her beauty4 ,telemachus
 sees or may see1 embodied in her the   
very essence of ,greek spirit1 that     
which had to be restored to ,hellas from
 ,asia1 if ,hellas was to exist4 ,the   
,poet likens her to a ,goddess1 and     
places her in surroundings which are to 
set off her divine appearance4 ,in her  
case1 too1 we notice the distant        
background3 ,egyptian presents she has1 
as well as ,menelaus1 a golden distaff  
and a silver basket bound in gold4      
,mementos from far-off wonderland are   
woven into the speech and character of  
the famous pair4  ,now for a true female
 trait4 ,helen at once recognizes the   
young stranger as the son of ,ulysses1  

wherein she stands in contrast to her   
husband ,menelaus1 who1 in spite of his 
thinking about his friend just at that  
moment1 had failed to see before him the
 son of that friend4 ,but no sooner had 
the woman laid eyes upon ,telemachus    
than she personally identified him4     
,when the wife had spoken the words of  
immediate insight and instinct1 the wise
 husband sees the truth and gives his   
reasons4 ,when the fact has been told   
him1 he can easily prove it4  ,supremely
 beautiful is this appearance of ,helen 
in the ,odyssey2 she is the completion  
of what we saw and knew of her in the   
,iliad4 ,now she is restored to home and
 country1 after her long alienation2    
still she has lurking moments of        
self-reproach on account of her former  
deeds4 ,though she has repented and has 
been received back1 she cannot forget1  
ought not to forget the past altogether4
 ,the conduct of the husband is most    
noble in these scenes2 he has forgiven  
her fully1 never upbraiding1 never even 

alluding to her fatal act1 excepting in 
one passage possibly1 in which there is 
a gentle palliation of her behavior3    
,thou camest to the place1 moved by some
 divinity who wished to give glory to   
the ,trojans4 ,the husband will not     
blame her1 she acted under the stimulus 
of a ,god4 ,the fallen woman restored is
 the divinest of all pictures2 we wonder
 again at the far-reaching humanity of  
the old bard2 to-day she would hardly be
 taken back and forgiven by the world as
 completely as she is in the pages of   
,homer4 ,she is indeed a new ,helen1    
standing forth in the purest radiance   
within the shining palace of ,menelaus4 
,long shall the world continue to gaze  
at her there4  ,telemachus is to see and
 to hear ,helen2 that is1 indeed1 one of
 his supreme experiences4 ,but it is not
 here a matter of superficial staring at
 a beautiful woman2 all that ,helen is1 
the total cycle of her spirit's history1
 is to enter his heart and become a     
vital portion of his discipline4 ,it is 

probable that the youth does not realize
 every thing that ,helen means and is2  
still he beholds her1 and that in itself
 is an education4 ,helen is not merely a
 figure of voluptuous beauty1 which     
captivates the senses2 she bears in her 
the experience of complete humanity2 she
 has erred1 she has transformed her     
error1 she has been restored to that    
ethical order which she had violated4   
,all of which the young man is to see   
written in her face1 and to feel in her 
words and conduct1 though he may not    
consciously formulate it in his thought4
 ,this is the true beauty of ,helen1 not
 simply the outer sensuous form1 though 
she possesses that too4 ,she could not  
be the ideal of the ,greek world1 if she
 were merely an ,oriental enchantress2  
indeed it is just the function of the   
,greeks to rescue her from such a       
condition1 which was that of ,helen in  
,troy4  ,already the heart of ,menelaus 
is full at the thought of his friend    
,ulysses1 and he warms toward the       

latter's son now present4 ,he again     
utters words of sympathetic sorrow4 ,all
 are touched2 all have lost some dear   
relative at ,troy2 it is a moment of    
overpowering emotion4 ,the four people  
weep in common2 it is but an outburst2  
they rally from their sorrow1 ,menelaus 
commands3 ,let us cease from mourning   
and think of the feast4  ,it is at this 
point that ,helen again interposes4 ,her
 experience of life has been the        
deepest1 saddest1 most complete of all1 
she has mastered her conflicts1 inner   
and outer1 and reached the haven of     
serenity2 she can point out the way of  
consolation4 ,in fact it is her supreme 
function to show to others what she has 
gone through1 and thereby save them1 in 
part at least1 the arduous way4 ,for is 
not the career of every true hero or    
heroine vicarious to a certain degree8  
,assuredly1 if they mean any thing to   
the sons and daughters of men4 ,helen   
can bring the relief1 and does so in the
 present instance4  ,she fetches forth  

that famous drug1 the grand antidote for
 grief and passion1 and all life's ills1
 the true solacer in life's journey4 ,it
 had been given her by an ,egyptian     
woman1 ,polydamna1 whom she had met in  
her wanderings1 and it had evidently    
helped to cure her lacerated soul4      
,again ,egypt lies in the background1 as
 it does everywhere in this ,book1 the  
veritable wonderland1 from which many   
miraculous blessings are sent4 ,moreover
 it is the land of potent drugs1 some   
beneficial and some baneful2 its        
physicians too1 are celebrated as       
excelling all men4 ,still more curious  
is the fact that women possess the      
secret of medicine as well as men1 and  
,polydamna may be set down as the first 
female doctor--she who gave the         
wonderful drug to ,helen4 ,surely there 
is nothing new under the sun4  ,this    
marvelous drug1 often called ,nepenthe  
from one of its attributes1 has         
naturally aroused much curiosity among  
the many-minded readers of ,homer down  

the ages4 ,some have held that it was an
 herb1 which they have pointed out in   
the valley of the ,nile4 ,others hold it
 to be opium literally1 though it does  
not here put to sleep or silence the    
company4 ,on the other hand allegory has
 tried its hand at the word4 ,certain   
ancients including ,plutarch found in it
 an emblem hinting the charm of pleasing
 narrative4 ,as ,helen at once passes to
 story-telling about ,ulysses at ,troy1 
changing from sad reminiscences of the  
dead to stirring deeds of living men1 we
 may suppose that this has something to 
do with her ,nepenthe1 which changes the
 mind from inward to outward1 from      
emotion to action4 ,the magic charm     
seems to work potently when she begins  
to talk4 ,through her1 the artist as    
well as the ideal1 we make the          
transition into the ,heroic ,tale of the
 olden time1 of which she gives a       
specimen4  #b4 ,very naturally the      
,trojan scene is next taken1 that       
greatest deed of the ,greek race1 being 

that which really made it a new race1   
separating it from the ,orient and      
giving it a new destiny4 ,helen now     
tells to the company myths1 particularly
 the labors of ,ulysses4 ,she narrates  
how he came to ,troy in the disguise of 
a beggar2 none knew him1 but ,i alone   
recognized him1 as she had just         
recognized ,telemachus4 ,thus she       
celebrates the cunning and bravery of   
,ulysses2 but she also introduces a     
fragment of her own history3 ,i longed  
to return home1 and ,i lamented the     
infatuation which ,venus sent upon me4  
,she wished to be restored to her       
husband who was in no respect lacking in
 mind or shape4 ,we must not forget that
 the husband was before her listening2  
she does not forget her skill4 ,also    
,telemachus was present and hears her   
confession of guilt and her             
repentance--important stages in her     
total life1 which he is to know1 and to 
take unto himself4  ,menelaus has also  
his myth of ,ulysses at ,troy1 which he 

now proceeds to tell4 ,it brings before 
us the ,wooden ,horse1 really the       
thought of ,ulysses1 though wrought by  
,epeios1 by which the hostile city was  
at last captured4 ,here the ,odyssey    
supplies a connecting link between      
itself and the ,iliad1 as the latter    
poem closes before the time of the      
,wooden ,horse4 ,ulysses is now seen to 
be the ,hero again1 he is the man who   
suppresses emotion1 especially domestic 
emotion in himself and others for the   
great end of the war4 ,it suggests also 
the difficulty of ,ulysses2 he had so   
long suppressed his domestic instincts1 
and done without the life of the family1
 that he will have great trouble in     
overcoming the alienation--whereof the  
,odyssey is the record4 ,in this story  
of ,menelaus1 ,helen has her part too2  
she came to the ,wooden ,horse1         
imitating in voice the wives of all the 
,greek leaders1 who were deeply moved1  
yet restrained themselves except one1   
,anticlus1 over whose mouth ,ulysses    

clapped his powerful hands1 and saved   
the ,greeks4 ,truly a strong image of   
the suppression of feeling in himself   
and in others4  ,but why did ,helen do  
thus8 ,was it a hostile act on her part8
 ,menelaus hints that it was at least   
very dangerous to the ,greeks1 though he
 delicately lays the blame of it on some
 ,god1 who must have inspired thee4 ,she
 was testing the ,greeks whom she       
supposed to be inside the horse4 ,will  
they answer the call of their wives8 ,do
 they still retain their affection for  
their families8 ,above all1 does        
,menelaus love me still8 ,such was her  
test1 in which we witness another of her
 many gifts4 ,at any rate1 she is not   
yet free1 she is still married in ,troy1
 though the hour of her release be near4
  ,with these two stories1 the note     
changes2 the sad turn of the talk is    
transformed into a quiet earnest joy1   
the sorrows of the present vanish in the
 glorious memories of the past4 ,the    
moment ,troy is introduced1 the         

narrative becomes an ,heroic ,tale1 a   
sort of ,iliad1 with its feats of arms4 
,thus we hear the story of ,ulysses     
while at ,troy1 giving two instances of 
his craft and his daring4 ,next we are  
to hear of him after his ,trojan        
experience1 this now theme will give the
 new poem1 the ,odyssey1 which1 however1
 is seen to interlink at many points    
with the ,iliad4  ,but this is          
sufficient1 night has come on1          
,telemachus has heard and beheld enough 
for one day4 ,helen disappears from the 
scene1 she has contributed her share1   
her own selfhood1 to the experience of  
the young man4 ,telemachus has seen     
,helen1 and thus attained one supreme   
purpose of ,greek education4 ,never can 
that face1 beautiful still1 yet stamped 
with all the vicissitudes of human      
destiny1 pass out of his mind2 never can
 that life of hers with its grand       
transformation pass out of his soul4    
,the reader1 too1 has at this point to  
bid good-bye to ,homer's ,helen1 the    

most lasting creation of a woman that   
has yet appeared upon our planet4 ,a    
power she has1 too1 of continuous       
re-embodiment2 every poet seeks to call 
her up afresh1 that is1 if he be a poet4
 ,it may be said that each age has some 
incarnation of ,helen2 the ,greek myth  
for two thousand years1 ,medieval       
legend1 even ,teutonic folk-lore have   
caught up her spirit and incorporated it
 in new forms4 ,the last great singer of
 the ages has in our own time1 evoked   
her ghost once more in the shining      
palace of ,menelaus at ,sparta4         
,farewell1 ,helen1 for this time1 but we
 shall meet thee again2 yesterday thou  
didst show thyself in a new book under a
 new garb1 to-morrow thou art certain to
 appear in another4 ,thine is the power 
to re-create thyself in the soul of man 
with every epoch and in every country4  
,great is that discipline of            
,telemachus1 which we still to-day have 
to seek3 he has seen ,helen4  #c4 ,the  
preceding story was the ,heroic ,tale1  

which goes back to the ,past1 especially
 to ,troy1 as the grand deed done by the
 united ,hellenic race1 whereof the     
,iliad is a sample4 ,but now we enter a 
new field1 and a new sort of            
composition1 which1 in default of a     
better name1 we shall call the ,fairy   
,tale4 ,helen is not now present1 nor is
 her struggle the theme2 ,menelaus1 the 
man1 is to recount his experience in his
 return to ,hellas4  ,the story is      
inspired by the desire of ,telemachus to
 know about his father4 ,as that father 
is not present the question arises1     
,where is he8 ,menelaus will undertake  
to answer the question by a tale which  
shadows forth the ,distant and the      
,future--a prophetic tale1 which casts  
its glance through the veil of ,time and
 ,space4  ,a mythical figure appears1   
,proteus1 the ,old ,man of the ,sea1 who
 is to foretell to the inquiring mortal 
what may be needful for his safety4 ,not
 an ,olympian ,god is ,proteus1 yet a   
supernatural shape standing between man 

and deity and mediating the two1 the    
human and the divine4 ,for it is        
,proteus who sends ,menelaus back to the
 ,gods whom he has neglected and        
offended4  ,the ,fairy ,tale which we   
are now to consider1 is not to be looked
 upon as an allegory2 it is a story with
 incident1 movement1 character1 all in  
their own right1 and not for the sake of
 something else4 ,but we must not1 on   
this account1 imagine that it has no    
thought2 in fact1 the ,fairy ,tale is   
just the way in which primitive peoples 
think4 ,it has thought1 often the       
profoundest thought1 which darts through
 it1 not steadily1 but fitfully in      
flashes at the important links1 like    
electric sparks4 ,this thought we are to
 catch and hold1 and not rest satisfied 
with the mere outer form of the story4  
,persons we can always find who are     
strongly prepossessed against seeing any
 meaning in the ,fairy ,tale1 or in the 
,mythus4 ,modern usage of these literary
 forms1 doubtless1 justifies such an    

opinion4 ,still we must remember that   
,homer was not playing1 but thinking    
with his ,fairy ,tale2 he had no        
technical terms1 and almost no abstract 
language for expressing thought2 the day
 of philosophic reflection had not yet  
dawned upon ,greece4 ,homer has a great 
and deep thought to utter1 but his      
utterance is and must be mythical4 ,his 
problem1 too1 he has1 and it is         
spiritual2 the ,mythus is his statement1
 honest1 earnest1 final4 ,no1 he was not
 playing at story-telling1 though it    
must have given him pleasure2 nor was   
his object merely to delight somebody1  
though he certainly has delighted many  
by his song4 ,he was the true ,poet1    
upholding his own worth and that of his 
vocation2 he was loyal to the ,muse     
whose word he must sing whether it find 
listeners or not4 ,homer built his      
legendary structure to live in1 not to  
play in2 with all his sportiveness1 he  
is a deeply earnest man2 if his ,zeus   
sometimes takes on a comic mask1 it is  

because ,providence is a humorist4      
,homer1 when he mythologizes1 is        
thinking1 thinking as profoundly as the 
philosopher1 and both are seeking to    
utter to men the same fundamental       
thought4 ,the reader is to think after  
the poet1 if not in the immediate       
mythical form1 then in the mediate1     
reflective way4  ,the present ,tale     
seeks to give an answer to the two main 
questions of ,telemachus3 ,where is my  
father now8 ,and1 ,will he return home8 
,to answer the one question requires a  
knowledge of what is distant in ,space2 
to answer the other question requires a 
knowledge of what is distant in ,time4  
,can we not see that herein is an       
attempt to rise out of that twofold     
prison of the spirit1 ,space and ,time1 
into what is true in all places and     
times8 ,in other words1 ,menelaus       
unfolds in a mythical form1 the         
,universal to his young pupil1 and we   
may now see in what manner he gives the 
lesson4  ,he leaps at once into the     

middle of his theme2 he was in ,egypt   
and detained there by the ,gods1 though 
longing to return home4 ,such is the    
great initial fact1 he did not do his   
duty to the ,gods4 ,without their aid or
 without their adequate recognition1 he 
seeks to come home4 ,this indicates the 
spiritual difficulty2 he is indifferent 
to or a disbeliever in the ,divine4 ,the
 ,gods are the upholders of the         
world-order1 they are the law and the   
spirit of the reality4 ,clearly         
,menelaus could not or did not fit      
himself into the providential system4   
,neglect of the ,gods--that detains him1
 must detain him4 ,the result is1 he and
 his companions are wasting away on an  
island1 without any chance of return4   
,the question of the hour is1 ,how shall
 ,i get out of the difficulty8 ,only in 
one way3 ,acknowledge the ,gods1 put    
yourself into harmony with their order1 
then the outer world and the inner man  
will be one1 and must bring about the   
deed1 which is the return4 ,we are now  

to witness the process whereby this     
reconciliation between man and the ,gods
 takes place--surely the supreme matter 
in life4 ,it is told in the form of the 
,fairy ,tale or ,marvelous ,legend1     
which shifts and changes2 we1 however1  
must cling to the essence else it will  
escape us1 ,proteus himself we must hold
 fast1 and not be misled by his many    
appearances4  ,menelaus begins to feel  
sorrow1 which is a penitent condition   
antecedent to all help4 ,moreover he    
wanders alone1 he has gone apart from   
his companions2 behold1 the ,goddess    
steps out of the air and speaks4 ,she   
reproaches him with folly1 and turns him
 to the deity who can assist him4 ,who  
is this ,goddess8  ,it is ,eidothea1 the
 ,goddess of ,appearance1 yet the       
daughter of ,proteus1 the old ,first    
,one1 to whom she directs ,menelaus1 as 
the only means of salvation4 ,mark how  
she designates ,proteus3 he is the true1
 the immortal2 without error1 without   
death2 he knows the depths of all the   

sea--the great sea of ,time and ,space1 
which envelops the poor mortal4 ,but he 
must be snared and held--surely not an  
easy task it is to catch him4  ,the     
etymology of the names of these two     
deities indicates their meaning and     
relation4 ,the grand dualism of the     
world is clearly suggested3 ,appearance 
and ,substance1 the ,transitory and the 
,eternal1 that which seems and that     
which is4 ,menelaus had gone astray1 he 
had neglected the ,gods1 he had followed
 ,appearance1 ,delusion1 ,negation2 the 
result could only be death4 ,but even   
,appearance points to something beyond  
itself1 something true and eternal4 ,so 
,eidothea suggests ,proteus1 who is her 
parent2 that is1 she is the             
manifestation of his being4 ,she is the 
many1 he is the one underneath and in   
the many2 she is change1 he is the      
permanent in all change4 ,he may well be
 designated as her father1 whose        
transformations she knows and declares4 
,these transformations are called his   

tricks or stratagems1 the shapes he puts
 on in the world of ,appearance2 they   
are indeed ,eidothea herself along with 
her voice telling what is higher than   
herself4  ,when this one first principle
 is clearly revealed1 then all is       
revealed2 the future becomes            
transparent1 and the distant becomes    
near4 ,but you must hold fast to the one
 true ,proteus2 he will turn to         
fire--hold fast2 he will become running 
water--hold fast2 he will change to     
tree1 beast1 reptile--hold fast4 ,then  
he will show himself in his right shape1
 and will speak the fact4 ,hold fast2   
the ,one is under all1 and is a ,god1   
who will lift the veil of ,space and    
,time from the visage of ,truth4 ,but   
unquestionably the man in his desperate 
struggle must never forget the          
injunction4 ,hold fast to old ,proteus4 
,we must note1 too1 that the poet has   
shown ,menelaus as prepared to receive  
this divine revelation2 the ,greek      
wanderer has been brought to contrition 

by manifold sufferings4 ,i surely must  
have sinned against the ,immortals1 is  
his penitent outcry4 ,thus he is ready  
for the new truth1 and the voice of the 
,goddess speaks1 when he is internally  
in condition to hear it4 ,the divine    
word is not forced upon him2 he must do 
his share even toward creating the same 
within himself4 ,now1 along the shore of
 the sea1 he prays the ,gods fervently1 
ere he goes to his task4 ,egyptian      
,proteus he seeks to catch and to hold1 
for it is ,proteus who is to point out  
to him the way of reconciliation with   
,zeus and the ,olympian ,gods4  ,stress 
is strongly laid by the poet upon the   
fact that ,proteus is of ,egypt4        
,evidently1 in the mind of ,homer1 the  
thought of this ,fourth ,book connects  
with the land of the ,nile4 ,what hint  
lies in that8 ,the highest wisdom of    
,egypt1 indeed1 of the ,orient1 is just 
this grand distinction between          
,appearance and ,substance1 the         
,transitory and the ,eternal1 the ,many 

and the ,one4 ,what ,egypt gave to      
,hellas is here suggested1 nay1 said    
directly4 ,in fact1 the first great step
 in wisdom1 is still to make the above  
distinction1 which in many ways has been
 handed down to us from the ,east4  ,but
 the ,greeks united the two sides--that 
which appears and that which is1 or the 
world of sense1 and the world of        
spirit--and thereby produced art1 the   
plastic forms of ,gods and ,men4 ,hellas
 brought forth to the sunlight ,beauty1 
which ,egypt never could4 ,even here    
,egyptian ,proteus leads ,menelaus to   
the ,greek ,gods1 and becomes himself a 
kind of antecedent ,hellenic deity4     
,egypt means to ,greek ,menelaus two    
things3 first1 it is a land of error1 of
 alienation1 of darkness2 secondly1 it  
has its light1 its wisdom1 which1 when  
he finds1 points him homeward to        
,hellas1 to his own ,gods4  ,deeply     
suggestive become all these mythical    
hints1 when we once are in touch with   
their spirit4 ,we naturally pass to the 

,hebrew parallel1 since that other great
 world-historical people of antiquity1  
the ,israelites1 had their experience   
also with ,egypt4 ,for them1 too1 it was
 a land of darkness1 slavery1 divine    
estrangement4 ,they also sought a       
,return1 not dissimilar to the ,greek   
,return1 to their true home4 ,it was a  
long1 terrible time1 a wandering not on 
the water1 like the sea-faring ,hellene1
 but in the wilderness and desert1 like 
the sand-faring ,semite4 ,all the       
companions 7but two7 were lost1 and the 
leader also2 moreover that leader was   
learned in all the wisdom of the        
,egyptians1 but had to get out of it and
 away from it1 and lead his people into 
their own possessions4 ,much light      
,egypt with all its darkness furnished  
to ,moses and ,judea2 much to ,menelaus 
and to ,hellas4 ,so the two chief       
streams of human culture1 the ,greek and
 the ,hebrew1 are traced back to the    
,egyptian source in the earliest books1 
or ,bibles of the two peoples           

themselves4  ,moreover we find the form 
of the two grand experiences quite the  
same2 there is a going into ,egypt1 the 
land of dazzling riches and power and   
civilization2 there is the misfortune   
and trial in that land after a time of  
prosperity1 finally1 there is the       
,return home1 with many wanderings and  
sufferings4 ,both peoples bring with    
them what may be called the ,egyptian   
idea1 yet each transforms it into its   
own spirit after its own fashion4       
,still further we may follow this       
thought and behold it as universal4 ,the
 form of separation and return is       
fundamental in human spirit2 this is its
 inherent movement1 and the shape which 
it imparts to the great works of        
literature4 ,the very destiny of man is 
cast into this mould2 there is1 first1  
his estrangement1 the fall from his high
 estate2 then is his return to harmony  
with the divine order4 ,the ,hebrew     
,bible begins with the ,fall of ,man2   
that is the first chapter2 the rest of  

the book is his rise1 and marks out the 
path of his ,return which1 of course1   
shows many sinuosities4 ,such is the    
deepest fact of the human soul1 and to  
image it1 there springs into existence  
the corresponding literary form4 ,not   
that it was taken consciously by the    
poet or maker after much ratiocination2 
he has to take it1 if he sees the       
universe as it is4 ,this form is the    
form of the everlasting reality1 of     
which he has the immediate vision1 it is
 also the form of very selfhood1 of the 
,ego4  ,though different in many things1
 the ,odyssey and the ,bible are both1  
at bottom1 ,returns4 ,they restore the  
man after alienation4 ,indeed we may    
behold the same form as fundamental in  
all ,great ,literary ,books--in ,homer1 
in ,dante1 in ,shakespeare1 in ,goethe4 
,many things connected with this        
catching and holding of ,proteus are    
suggestive1 but they are the flash of   
the poet into the depths1 and must be   
seen with the poetic glance1 for they   

bear with much loss the heavy           
translation into thought4 ,how this     
,eidothea1 the ,goddess of ,appearance1 
turns against her own father1 and helps 
to make him reveal himself in his true  
shape2 how ,menelaus and his three      
comrades put on the skins of the        
sea-calves1 and deceive the deceiver1   
applying the latter's art of            
transformation to himself1 and          
destroying appearance with appearance2  
how the poor mortals almost perish      
through the odor of the skins of the    
sea-calves1 thus showing their human    
weakness and limitation1 till ambrosia1 
the food of the ,immortals1 is brought  
by the ,goddess1 which at once relieves 
them of their mortal ailment--these and 
other incidents have their subtle1      
far-reaching hint of the supersensible  
world4 ,the whole story is illumined    
with one thought1 how to master the     
material show of things and reach their 
spiritual inwardness4  ,but the chief   
duty of these people1 now disguised to  

destroy disguise1 is to hold the ,old   
,man fast when they have once caught    
him1 that shifty1 ever-changing ,old    
,man of the ,sea4 ,let him turn to      
water1 to a snake1 to a lion1 to a      
tree--hold him fast2 he is the ,one     
under them all and will at last reveal  
himself4 ,very necessary1 indeed1 is it 
to hold fast1 and never let go in the   
grand play of ,appearances2 the strength
 of the man is shown by his ability to  
hold fast1 amid the fleeting shadows of 
,time4  ,menelaus holds the ,old ,man   
fast1 and asks3 ,what ,god detains me   
from my return8 ,the answer comes home  
strong3 ,thou hast neglected the        
sacrifice due to ,zeus and the other    
deities2 thou hast not recognized the   
,gods4 ,verily the heart of the         
difficulty2 ,menelaus has not placed    
himself in harmony with the divine      
order1 in which he must act4 ,what then8
 ,go back to the beginning1 back to     
,egypt1 and start aright2 commence thy  
return again with the new light1        

recognize ,zeus and the ,gods by        
sacrifice there1 and thou shalt see     
home4 ,thus the ,egyptian estrangement  
is removed1 the ,greek hero of wisdom   
must reach beyond the experience of     
,egypt and be restored to the ,greek    
,gods4  ,at once ,menelaus was ready to 
obey1 though his heart was broken at the
 thought of recrossing the sea to       
,egypt1 for the way was long and        
difficult4 ,still he will do it2 and    
next he is given a look into the        
,distant and ,future1 a glance into the 
soul of things separated from him by    
,space and ,time4 ,he will know         
concerning the ,returners1 in deep      
accord with the spirit of the poem4 ,he 
hears of the awful death of ,ajax1 son  
of ,oileus1 he hears of the sad fate of 
his brother ,agamemnon2 also the ,old   
,man of the ,sea tells him a few words  
concerning ,ulysses1 who is still alive 
but cannot get away from the isle of    
,calypso4 ,news just good enough to give
 hope to the son who is eagerly         

listening1 and hears that his father    
still lives4  ,finally1 ,menelaus learns
 of his own future existence from the   
,old ,man1 who is in person the very    
embodiment of what lies beyond the      
senses1 of immortality4 ,the ,gods have 
decreed thou shalt not die1 ,o          
,menelaus1 but shalt dwell in the       
,elysian ,plain1 at the ends of the     
earth4 ,he is the husband of ,helen1 and
 coupled forever with her destiny2 he   
is1 through her1 of the divine family of
 ,zeus4 ,such is the promise1 has it not
 been fulfilled8  ,the poet thus brings 
to an end his ,fairy ,tale1 with its    
deep-reaching glances into ,egypt as one
 of the antecedent sources of ,hellenic 
civilization4 ,we find therein hinted a 
double relation3 first1 ,egypt was the  
giver of much wisdom to ,greece         
especially the distinction into         
,appearance and the one ,first          
,principle2 secondly1 it was hostile to 
,greek spirit1 which had to pass through
 the ,egyptian stage to reach its own   

destiny4 ,homer spins1 in this ,book1 a 
thread which connects the culture of    
,hellas with that of ,egypt1 ,so much we
 dare find in the present legend without
 much straining4 ,the distant background
 of this entire visit of ,telemachus to 
,sparta is ,egyptian and ,oriental1 as  
we see from the talk of both ,helen and 
,menelaus4  ,we may now be certain that 
,homer1 the poet1 had before him a      
thought of this kind3 the inner soul of 
things and the outward manifestation4   
,the story of ,proteus we may call not  
merely a ,fairy ,tale1 but the ,fairy   
,tale1 which images its universal self  
in setting forth its special theme2 it  
has the one meaning1 which1 however1    
takes on many varieties of external     
shape2 it is the essence of all ,fairy  
,tales4 ,still you have to catch the    
,proteus and make him tell his secret2  
,i can only advise you to hold fast1 and
 finally the true form of the ,old ,man 
will reveal itself1 and speak the truth 
of many appearances1 nay1 of all4 ,in   

reading this poem of ,homer we are only 
following the poet1 if we seek to lay   
hold of its essence under its varied    
manifestations4 ,the whole ,odyssey is a
 ,proteus1 ever changing1 assuming new  
forms1 which will utterly bewilder the  
reader until he reaches its first       
principle4 ,homer probably suggests that
 his own ,fairy ,tale1 nay1 his own     
poem1 is a ,proteus1 which must be      
grasped and held by the one central     
thought4 ,in fact1 does not the modern  
reader1 like ancient ,menelaus1 in his  
wanderings need an ,eidothea1 an        
interpreter1 to point out the ,old ,man 
of the ,sea1 the ,first ,one1 and to    
tell how to catch him8 ,in the very     
names of ,proteus and ,eidothea we feel 
the intention1 the conscious etymology  
which borders on personification4 ,yet  
around this simple substrate of thought 
are woven so many wonders1 so many      
suggestions1 far-hinting and            
deep-glancing1 that it becomes truly the
 ,tale of ,tales 7,maerchen aller       

,maerchen74  ,the ,fairy ,tale will     
appear again in the ,odyssey1 and take  
possession of the whole poem for a time 
when we come to the wanderings of       
,ulysses4 ,now it is but a slight       
bubbling-up of what will be a great     
stream4 ,at present it turns to the     
,east and unfolds the ,greek relation   
thereto2 hereafter it will turn to the  
,west1 and unfold the ,greek relation   
thereto4 ,both have their wise men1 and 
the ,return is from each direction to   
,greece4 ,the distinction between them  
we may suggest in advance3 the one has  
more of the speculative1 of the spirit2 
the other has more of the active1 of the
 will1 though neither side excludes the 
other4 ,both men return to ,hellas as   
the common destination2 hence1 we find  
in this ,book everywhere expressed the  
intimate brotherhood between ,menelaus  
and ,ulysses4  ,it is of great interest 
to see the poet build his ,fairy ,tale1 
which is but one form of his mythical   
procedure4 ,instinctively he builds it1 

as the bee does the honey-cell4 ,he     
places the ,god or ,goddess at the      
center of every movement or event2 by   
divine will it is all brought about4    
,the sea which stands in the way of the 
return of ,ulysses is a deity1          
,poseidon2 ,eidothea is a person1 the   
voice of the world of ,appearance1 and  
she leads to ,proteus1 the ,primal ,one4
 ,to ,homer personality is at the heart 
of this universe4 ,such is truly the    
mythical mind2 all phenomena are the    
product of an intelligent will1 not of  
blind law4 ,not a long chain of cause   
and effect hovers before ,homer's soul1 
thus his work would be prose2 but he    
sees self-cause at once1 and so cannot  
help being poetical1 as well as         
religious4 ,the culture of to-day tends 
too much to divest us of the mythical   
spirit--which is not altogether a gain4 
,homer1 if rightly studied1 will help   
restore that lost gift of the early     
ages4  ,but now we must turn our look to
 the youth for whom the tale has been   

told--the learner ,telemachus4 ,he hears
 of the ,orient and its principle2 the  
antecedents of his people1 their        
origins1 separations1 their advance upon
 the older nations are significantly    
hinted4 ,all this is an education4 ,for 
its function is to bring together the   
scattered wisdom of the ,past and to    
give it to the youth who is coming upon 
the stage of life2 thus he is made the  
spiritual heir of all that his race has 
achieved in word and deed4 ,telemachus  
has learned about the history of ,troy1 
the great event of the early ,greek     
world2 he has heard the ,returns of the 
,heroes1 and he has seen ,helen4 ,but1  
chiefly1 he has been taught the grand   
distinction between ,appearance and     
,substance2 he has come to know1 if he  
has learned his lesson1 the ,one in the 
,many2 he has been shown how to reach   
beyond the sensuous appearances of      
things and enter the realm of spirit4   
,such is still the best education       
to-day1 though the manner of it be so   

different4 ,there were no books in those
 days1 no schools but the lips of the   
aged2 every ,greek youth1 to a degree1  
was a ,telemachus1 and had a similar    
discipline4 ,tradition1 song1 folk-lore 
are also means of education2 we cannot  
do without the mythus even now1 and we  
are in many ways seeking to restore it  
to its place in the training of the     
child1 and of the grown man too4        
,telemachus has graduated1 he can now go
 home2 so he asks to be permitted to    
depart for ,ithaca1 where the hardest   
practical problem of life is awaiting   
him4 ,but mark1 he carries with him the 
grandest of all hospitable presents3 the
 knowledge of the true and eternal in   
contrast to the unreal and transitory4  
,in these four ,books of the ,odyssey   
the education of the ,homeric youth has 
been given4 ,next we are to have the    
experiences of the man--those of the    
typical man ,ulysses1 as he works out   
his own problem4 ,menelaus could not    
tell that tale2 the man himself must be 

seen doing1 overcoming his obstacles by 
the deed4 ,he will present a phase of   
life not known to the ,east1 not known  
to ,egyptian ,proteus4 ,thus the        
,odyssey will be an entire book1 a      
veritable ,bible for young and old1 with
 its complete cycle of human discipline4
  ,the story of ,proteus itself is      
,protean1 and must be grasped in its    
essence through all its appearances4    
,the whole ,odyssey is veritably a      
,protean poem as already said1 whose    
study is to seize the one truth which is
 underneath all these shifting shapes   
and manifold events4 ,what are we doing 
now but trying to grasp ,proteus in this
 exposition8 ,there is no mythus in     
,homer which has wound itself so deeply 
and so variously into the literature of 
the world4 ,it would be an interesting  
history to trace its employment by later
 poets1 and see how it has mirrored     
itself in the consciousness of the ages4
 ,the last world-poet1 ,goethe1 takes   
the figure of ,proteus from his eldest  

brother1 the first world-poet1 and      
transplants it into the ,second ,part of
 ,faust1 where it has its place in the  
development of the modern man4 ,the     
,mythus of ,evolution the tale of       
,proteus becomes in ,goethe's hands1 and
 hints of ,darwinism long before        
,darwin4  ,still the most significant   
historical fact of this ,fourth ,book is
 the connection which it makes between  
,egypt and ,greece4 ,in another ,greek  
legend1 that of ,o,edipus1 the same     
connection is made through the ,sphinx1 
whose riddle the ,greek hero solves1    
whereat the ,egyptian monster destroys  
itself4  ,the ,sphinx1 the grand symbol 
of ,egypt and chief product of its ,art1
 may be taken as the ,egyptian          
starting-point for both ,greece and     
,judea4 ,the ,sphinx is half human1 half
 animal2 the two are put together in    
stone and thus stand a fixed1           
unreconciled contradiction4 ,such was   
just the ,sphinx-riddle of humanity to  
the old ,egyptian3 man is a beast and a 

spirit1 linked together without any true
 mediation4 ,both the ,hebrew and the   
,greek sought to solve this grand       
riddle1 each in his own way4 ,the       
,hebrew attempted to extirpate the      
sensuous element2 he would have no      
graven image1 no idolatry1 he would     
worship only the pure spirit1 and obey  
only the divine law4 ,the ,greek        
reconciled the two sides1 by making the 
sensuous element the bearer and the     
revealer of the spiritual4 ,the animal  
must be subordinated to the spirit1 then
 it can live1 nay can have a new and    
higher existence4 ,thus ,art arose in   
,greece1 and not in ,judea4  ,the       
interpretations which the story of      
,proteus has received are simply        
infinite4 ,probably it appeals to every 
reader in a somewhat different fashion2 
he pours into this marvelous form       
certain phases of his own experience and
 is satisfied4 ,indeed ,proteus is not  
only a ,form1 but a ,form of ,forms for 
the human mind1 hinting both the oneness

 and the multiplicity of the ,ego       
itself4 ,we may go back to the ,vedas   
and find traces of it there in some     
sun-myth2 we may go to the sea and find 
it a miraculous legend in which the     
,greek sailor set forth his perils and  
his escapes4 ,it certainly connects     
,hellas with ,egypt1 and suggests the   
movement of ancient civilization4       
,menelaus in his voyage transcends the  
,greek world of the ,trojan epoch1 and  
brings back the story thereof to his    
country4 ,the tale of ,proteus is said  
to have been carried back to ,egypt1    
where ,herodotus1 several hundred years 
after ,homer1 found it in a new         
transformation1 ,proteus being a king of
 ,egypt1 who took ,helen from ,paris and
 kept her till ,menelaus arrived and    
received her from the ,egyptian ruler4  
,thus the ,fairy ,tale raised the ,old  
,man of the ,sea to the royal dignity1  
changing sovereignty from water to land4
 7,herodotus1 ,,ii4 #aab-bj47 ,plato    
makes him typical of a sophist1         

,schlegel of a poet1 ,lucian of a       
dancer4  ,we shall now take a glance    
backwards and give a short summary of   
the story1 that its inner development in
 the hands of the poet may be more fully
 seen4  #a4 ,the desolation of ,menelaus
 and his companions on the island of    
,pharos2 no ,return possible1 death from
 hunger imminent4 ,moreover1 disregard  
of the ,gods1 internal estrangement1 a  
condition of separation from the        
,divine1 truly an ,egyptian condition4  
#b4 ,eidothea appears to him1 just the  
,goddess of ,appearance1 and points him 
to a power beyond herself4 ,hitherto he 
was lost in the world of ,appearance2   
but when he thinks of it1 he separates  
himself from it1 and sees its nullity4  
,so the ,finite points to the ,infinite1
 the ,fleeting to the ,permanent1 the   
,sensible to the ,supersensible1        
,eidothea to ,proteus1 who is the ,first
 ,one1 or the ,first ,principle         
underlying all ,appearance1 hence her   
father4  #c4 ,she tells also how to     

catch him4 ,when he emerges from the    
water1 source of all ,forms1 indeed just
 the ,formable 7see ,goethe's ,faust1   
,part ,,ii4 in the ,classical           
,walpurgisnight71 he will count by fives
 all his sea-calves1 or sea-forms1      
offspring of the sea 7,halosydna74 ,this
 counting by fives1 is significant1     
hinting the earliest abstraction from   
the sensuous through number1 specially  
by means of the five-system1 though     
,homer knew well the decimal system 7see
 ,od4 ,,xvi1 #bde4 ,iliad ,,ii4 #abf74  
,menelaus with his companions is to take
 on this sea-form1 and be counted with  
the rest1 though in disguise2 then when 
,proteus lies down to sleep with his    
herds or ,forms1 he is to be seized2    
that is1 seized in repose1 as he is     
himself1 not in relation to his shapes4 
,they must continue to hold fast to this
 primal ,form of ,proteus1 or the       
archetype1 through all his changes1 till
 he resumes his first shape1 the one in 
which thou sawest him in repose4 ,then  

they possess the ,essence as distinct   
from the ,phenomenon2 they know that    
their disguise has torn off all         
disguise1 and attained the real4  #d4   
,proteus will now tell ,menelaus the    
truth devoid of all delusive shows2 ere 
the latter can leave ,egypt and return  
to ,greece he must put himself into     
harmony with the ,greek ,gods1 ,zeus and
 the rest4 ,so he has to go back to     
,egypt's river and start over again in  
the right way4 ,then he will make the   
,return to ,hellas4  #e4 ,proteus also  
gives the fate of a number of           
,returners4 ,ajax he specially speaks   
about--,ajax1 son of ,oileus 7not the   
greater ,ajax71 the blasphemer1 who said
 he would return in spite of the ,gods1 
and at once perished4 ,the account of   
the death of ,ajax has its meaning for  
,menelaus1 who thought of getting home  
with paying due regard to the ,gods4    
,once more ,agamemnon's dire lot is told
 with some new incidents added4 ,thirdly
 ,proteus has seen ,ulysses in an ocean 

isle with the nymph ,calypso who detains
 him though eager to get away4 ,thus the
 son hears the fact about his father4   
,finally ,proteus prophesies the        
immortality of ,menelaus1 for has not   
the latter reached beyond ,appearance   
into the ,eternal already1 just by      
catching and holding ,proteus8 ,so the  
,old ,man of the ,sea cannot help giving
 this prophecy1 which lives directly in 
his own experience4  ,though ,telemachus
 is not told that his father is         
returning1 still he may draw such an    
inference from the story of ,menelaus1  
who was also detained on an island      
longing to get home4 ,if the ,gods1     
being duly recognized1 will give their  
help in the one case1 they will in the  
other2 they too1 will come to the aid of
 ,ulysses1 when he has placed himself in
 harmony with them4 ,this is what is    
about to happen4  ,as already set forth1
 there are three divisions of this first
 part of the ,fourth ,book3 the simple  
idyllic ,present at ,sparta1 the        

disrupted strifeful ,past at ,troy1 the 
movement out of the latter by way of    
,egypt4 ,taking the three divisions     
together1 we note that they form the    
total sweep of one great ,return1 that  
of ,menelaus1 from unity through        
separation back to harmony4 ,thus       
,menelaus and also ,helen are shown to  
have solved their problem4  ,but there  
remains the harder and deeper problem of
 ,ithaca1 which is that of ,ulysses4    
,here enemies have possession of the    
man's home1 and he brings back no help1 
only himself4 ,it is therefore1 a       
natural transition to introduce at this 
point the ,ithacan condition which is   
seen to be more difficult than the      
,spartan one1 for ,menelaus seems to    
have had no enemies in his house to     
dispute his ,return1 as ,agamemnon had  
and also ,ulysses has4 ,but ,agamemnon  
perished1 ,ulysses will not4   ,,ii4    
,accordingly the affairs of ,ithaca are 
introduced1 as they happened after the  
departure of ,telemachus4 ,this thread  

is picked up from the ,second ,book1    
where he had his final conference with  
the ,suitors and told them his mind4 ,we
 must recall that ,ithaca is the abode  
of conflict and disorder2 the ,suitors  
and ,household of ,penelope are the two 
antagonistic elements2 upon both the    
secret departure of ,telemachus explodes
 like a bomb1 and brings the characters 
of each side to the surface4            
,telemachus stands in relation to the   
,suitors as well as to his mother2 both 
are putting their restraints upon him   
which he has broken through and asserted
 his freedom1 his new manhood4 ,one1    
however1 is the restraint of hate1 the  
other is the restraint of love2 both    
stand in the way of his development4 ,he
 must get his great education in        
defiance of ,suitors and of mother4 ,the
 attitudes of these two parties are     
described1 and form the two divisions of
 this second part of the ,fourth ,book4 
#a4 ,the ,suitors1 when they hear of the
 deed of ,telemachus1 are not only      

surprised but startled1 and they at once
 recognise that a new power has risen   
which threatens to punish their         
misdeeds4 ,the youth has plainly become 
a man1 a man showing the skill and      
courage of his father1 and with the     
sense of wrong burning in his breast4   
,already he has declared that he would  
wreak vengeance upon them1 the day of   
reckoning seems to have dawned4         
,previously they despised his warnings  
as the helpless babble of a mere boy2   
now they have to meet him1 returning1   
possibly1 with help from his father's   
friends4  ,what will the ,suitors do8   
,the most audacious one1 ,antinous1 is  
ready with a proposal4 ,the boy will    
prove a pest1 we must waylay him on his 
return and murder him4 ,such is their   
final act of wrong1 which is now        
accepted by all1 and the proposer gets  
ready to carry out his plan4 ,hitherto  
it may be said the ,suitors had a       
certain right1 the right of suit1 which1
 however1 becomes doubtful through the  

uncertainty about the death of the      
husband1 and through the unwillingness  
of the wife4 ,but now their guilt is    
brought out in strong colors1 there can 
be no question about it4 ,they man a    
boat and lie in wait for their prey on a
 little island which the youth has to   
pass in coming home4  #b4 ,the mother   
,penelope hears of the daring act of her
 boy1 done without her consent or       
knowledge4 ,the news is brought to her1 
just as she is recounting the goodness  
of ,ulysses and the wrongs of the       
,suitors4 ,this new misfortune1 for so  
it seemed to her1 is quite too great a  
burden to bear2 she breaks out into     
lamentations find recites her woes3 a   
husband lost and now a son in the       
greatest danger4 ,but she is to get both
 human and divine consolation4          
,eurycleia1 the old nurse1 confesses to 
her part in the affair1 and advises the 
queen to put on fresh garments and to   
pray to ,pallas1 ascending to the upper 
chamber4  ,pallas sends to the          

distressed mother a refreshing sleep and
 a consoling dream1 which we may        
consider to have been suggested by the  
words of ,eurycleia4 ,her sister who    
dwelt far away1 appears to her and says 
that her son1 guided by ,pallas1 will   
surely return4 ,doubtless we see here an
 expression of the deepest instinct of  
,penelope2 the outer suggestion of the  
nurse and her own unconscious faith fuse
 together and form the phantom and give 
to the same an utterance4 ,the youth who
 can plan and carry out such an         
expedition will probably be able to take
 care of himself4 ,penelope of course   
has some doubt1 since the good ,ulysses 
has had to suffer so much from the      
,gods4 ,about him1 too1 she will know   
and so inquires of the phantom4 ,doth he
 live8 ,but the shadowy image can tell  
nothing1 the act of ,ulysses lies not in
 its field of vision1 it declines to    
speak further and vanishes4  ,thus      
,telemachus has broken through the two  
restraints which held him in bondage at 

his ,ithacan home1 both keeping down his
 manly endeavor4 ,the first comes from  
the ,suitors and is the restraint of    
hate1 which would give him no           
opportunity in the world of action1 and 
in addition is destroying his           
possessions4 ,the second restraint      
springs from love1 and yet is injurious4
 ,the solicitude of the mother keeps him
 back from every enterprise2 having lost
 her husband1 as she deems1 by his too  
adventuresome spirit1 she is afraid of  
losing her boy for the same reason1 and 
is in danger of losing him anyhow1 by   
making him a cipher4 ,such are the two  
obstacles in ,ithaca which ,telemachus  
is shown surmounting and asserting      
therein his freedom and manhood4 ,the   
whole is a flash of his father's mettle1
 he is already the unconscious ,ulysses2
 no wonder that he inquires after his   
parent in ,pylos and ,sparta4 ,the poet 
will now carry him forward to the point 
where he will actually meet and know    
,ulysses himself2 the son is to advance 

to direct communion with his great      
father4  ,here the ,fourth ,book1 or    
rather the ,telemachiad1 reaches out and
 connects with the ,ithakeiad1 which    
begins in the ,thirteenth ,book4        
,ulysses returns to ,ithaca and steals  
to the hut of the swineherd ,eumaeus2   
,telemachus comes back from ,sparta1    
and1 avoiding the ambush of the         
,suitors1 seeks the same faithful       
servant4 ,thus father and son are       
brought together1 and prepare themselves
 for their heroic task4  ,but before    
this task can be accomplished1 the grand
 experience of ,ulysses is to be told in
 the eight following ,books 7,v-,,xii72 
that is1 we are now to have the         
,ulyssiad1 just as we have had the      
,telemachiad4 ,father and son are now   
separated from home and country2 both   
are to return through a common deed of  
heroism4  ,general ,observations4       
,looking back at the ,telemachiad 7the  
first four ,books7 we observe that it   
constitutes a very distinct member of   

the total organism of the ,odyssey4 ,so 
distinct is it that some expositors have
 held that it is a separate poem1 not an
 integral portion of the entire action4 
,the joint is1 indeed1 plain at this    
place1 still it is a joint of the poetic
 body1 and not a whole poetic body by   
itself4 ,only too easy is it for our    
thought to dwell in division1           
separation1 scission1 analysis2 let us  
now turn to the opposite and more       
difficult habit of mind1 that of        
uniting1 harmonizing1 making the        
synthesis of what seems disjointed4 ,in 
other words let us find the bonds of    
connection between the last four ,books 
and the coming eight ,books1 or between 
the ,telemachiad and the ,ulyssiad4  #a4
 ,we have already noticed the three     
grand ,returns1 rising one above the    
other to the culmination--that of       
,nestor1 of ,menelaus1 of ,ulysses4 ,now
 the first two are told in the          
,telemachiad2 but they openly lead up to
 the third1 which is the complete       

,return1 and which is just the theme of 
the ,ulyssiad4 ,nestor makes the        
immediate ,return1 without conflict1    
through ,greece1 but he points directly 
to ,menelaus1 and foreshadows the coming
 of ,ulysses4 ,menelaus1 however1       
prophesies the third ,return1 and thus  
directly joins his account with the     
,ulyssiad4 ,in this manner we see and   
feel the intimate bond between these two
 grand divisions of the total ,odyssey4 
#b4 ,we notice the same general movement
 in the ,telemachiad and in the         
,ulyssiad2 the same fundamental scheme  
underlies both4 ,there is the real      
,present1 in the one case ,ithaca1      
,pylos1 ,sparta1 in the other ease      
,phaeacia2 then there is in the same    
heroic ,past the ,trojan war and its    
deeds of valor2 thirdly there is a      
movement in both to an ideal world1 to a
 ,fableland1 outside of ,hellas and     
beyond even ,troy2 finally there is a   
,return in both to ,greece and to the   
,present4 ,setting the stages of this   

movement down in definite numbers1 we   
have1 first in the ,telemachiad3 7#a7   
,hellas1 the ,present2 7#b7 back to     
,troy1 the ,past1 in the reminiscences  
of ,nestor1 ,menelaus1 ,helen2 7#c7     
forward to the ,fairy ,world in the     
account of ,proteus2 7#d7 return to     
,ithaca at the end of the ,fourth ,book4
 ,secondly in the ,ulyssiad we may here 
note in advance the same general        
movement3 7#a7 ,phaeacia1 the ,present2 
7#b7 back to ,troy in the strains of    
,demodocus2 7#c7 forward to the ,fairy  
,world of ,polyphemus and ,circe2 7#d7  
return to ,ithaca in the ,thirteenth    
,book4 ,thus we reach down and grasp the
 fundamental norm according to which the
 poet wrought1 and which holds in unity 
all the differences between these two   
divisions of the poem4 ,the spiritual   
basis of this movement1 its             
psychological ground1 we shall endeavor 
to unfold more fully hereafter4  #c4 ,in
 correspondence with the preceding1 we  
can distinguish in both divisions the   

same kinds of style3 7#a7 the symple    
,idyllic ,tale of the ,present2 7#b7 the
 ,heroic ,tale recounting the ,past and 
specially the ,trojan war2 7#c7 the     
,fairy ,tale which introduces a         
supernatural realm4 ,each of these      
styles is poetic1 yet with its own      
coloring and character4 ,here again we  
should observe the author employing his 
fundamental norm of composition a second
 time1 and thus re-asserting himself as 
the same person in both divisions of the
 poem--in the ,telemachiad as well as in
 the ,ulyssiad4  #d4 ,in each division1 
again1 there is a supreme woman at the  
center of domestic life--,penelope in   
the one1 ,arete in the other1 each being
 wife and mother1 each supremely        
faithful to her institution1 the        
,family4 ,this predominance and         
glorification of the married woman and  
the home constitute a common            
characteristic of both divisions1 and   
show the same fundamental conception of 
her worth1 as well as of her position in

 the social order4 ,it may be doubted if
 ,modern ,literature has improved upon  
this ,homeric representation4  #e4 ,then
 the contrasts between the ,telemachiad 
and the ,ulyssiad link them together4   
,disturbed ,ithaca1 peaceful ,phaeacia2 
the theoretic education of the son1 the 
practical discipline of the father2     
,telemachus1 the son of his father1     
,nausicaa1 the daughter of her mother1  
the ,ithacan boy and the ,phaeacian     
girl--such are a few of these contrasts4
 ,finally father and son1 strongly      
contrasted1 yet having their unity in   
this family of which they are members1  
suggest the unity of the poem of which  
they are characters4  ,these bonds of   
connection are so strong that they      
overbalance all discrepancies of single 
passages1 interpolations1 and           
inconsistencies of detail4 ,still1 if   
the mind of the critic refuses the      
general sweep1 and insists upon prying  
asunder the joints1 and upon looking    
through its microscope at the little    

things1 it will find only separation1   
discord1 and many small ,homers instead 
of a single great ,homer4 ,the          
particular always divides1 but the      
general unites2 so the ,homeric poems   
will have two sets of reader1 the       
dividers and the unifiers4  ,the        
,education of ,telemachus4 ,this is     
another name1 which we have frequently  
used1 for the ,telemachiad4 ,the        
,homeric youth is also to get his       
training for life2 he is to find and to 
take possession of his inheritance      
transmitted from the ,past4 ,the general
 statement of this educational fact     
occurs frequently in the work3          
,telemachus wishes to know about his    
father4 ,that is his immediate inquiry1 
which will extend to knowing something  
about the fathers and what they did2    
then his investigation will go beyond   
the fathers and the ,greek world1       
reaching over into ,egypt and the ,east4
 ,the function of education is to put   
into possession of the coming man the   

wisdom of the ,past1 and specially the  
means for acquiring this wisdom2 then he
 can transmit the intelligence of the   
race to those who are to follow him4 ,so
 ,telemachus has attained the age when  
he must know ancestral wisdom4 ,such is 
his strong instinct1 he feels his       
limitation1 he is penned up in a narrow 
life at ,ithaca1 whose barriers cramp   
his free spirit4 ,this intense desire   
for education1 for finding out something
 about the world in which he is placed1 
is the starting point for the boy4 ,he  
shows his spirit by breaking through the
 restraint of the ,suitors and his      
mother in order to get an education4    
,like many a youth to-day1 he has to    
leave home1 has to run away1 in fact1   
that he may have his opportunity4 ,what 
does he get8 ,or1 what is the content of
 this education6 ,let us see4  #a4 ,we  
find that he gets a fair amount of      
religious training4 ,he has been led    
through the misfortunes of his ,house to
 question the goodness of ,providence   

and the superintendence of the ,gods4   
,but ,minerva gives him a strong lesson1
 so does ,nestor4 ,he obtains a glimpse 
of the ,divine ,order1 and feels the    
necessity of keeping in harmony with the
 same4 ,the outcome of his visit must   
impress him with the providential side  
in human action4  #b4 ,he sees new      
countries1 talks with famous men1 and   
partakes of their wisdom4 ,chiefly1     
however1 he hears of the grand ,return  
in its manifold phases2 he learns the   
story of those who failed1 of those who 
reached home1 like ,nestor and          
,menelaus4 ,great is the lesson2 this   
,return images the movement of the soul1
 the breach within and the restoration4 
,it is remotely his own inner life      
outlined1 and that of every man2        
,telemachus has just made a separation  
from home and country1 to which he must 
come back and be reconciled4 ,his own   
soul-form he must dimly feel in the     
great ,return of the ,heroes from ,troy1
 and their various destinies he must    

recognize to be his own possibilities4  
#c4 ,telemachus the aspiring youth1 is  
trying to recover his patrimony1 which  
is of two kinds1 physical and spiritual4
 ,the ,suitors are destroying the one1  
and keeping it out of his hands2 with   
them is one conflict1 that of justice4  
,but he must also inherit his father's  
mental riches2 he has to separate from  
home and his mother to find this form of
 wealth or even to learn of its nature4 
,so ,telemachus has his ,trojan         
expedition1 not so great in itself1 yet1
 adventurous enough for a boy4 ,he is   
moving on the lines of his father when  
the latter went to ,troy--a national    
affair2 but his deed is a breaking loose
 from boyhood--the breach out of which  
he is to come back a man4  #d4 ,the form
 of this educative process of the       
,odyssey is very different from ours4   
,it seizes hold of the mythical element 
in man1 and the reader of to-day is to  
penetrate to the meaning by something of
 an effort4 ,telemachus is to see       

,helen2 what does that signify in       
education8 ,he is to hear the ,tale of  
,proteus and feel its purport in        
relation to his own discipline4 ,one    
asks3 ,is not this imaginative form     
still a vital element of education8 ,the
 ,odyssey has been and is now a         
school-book of the race4     ,,the      
,,ulyssiad4   ,we have now reached the  
second grand division of the poem1 the  
,odyssey proper1 which we have named    
under necessity the ,ulyssiad1 and which
 gives an account of the adventures of  
,ulysses before he comes to ,ithaca and 
joins ,telemachus4 ,if the division     
which we have just had may be called the
 education of a youth1 this division may
 be called the discipline of a man      
through experience of the world4 ,the   
whole embraces eight ,books1 fifth to   
twelfth inclusive1 with a little of the 
thirteenth4 ,there is no doubt that this
 is the most subtly constructed piece of
 writing in existence1 transparent in   
the highest degree1 and yet profound as 

thought itself4 ,we may therefore1 look 
a little at the structure in advance4   
,the first thing to be noticed is that  
there are two very distinct movements in
 the present division4 ,on the one hand 
the action moves through three separate 
localities--,ogygia or ,calypso's       
,island1 ,phaeacia1 ,fableland4 ,this   
external movement of the poem has its   
inner counterpart1 which the reader is  
to penetrate4 ,on the other hand there  
is the movement of the individual1 the  
,hero ,ulysses1 who begins with         
,fableland1 passes through ,ogygia and  
comes to ,phaeacia4 ,this movement also 
has its corresponding internal          
significance4 ,as the first movement is 
that of the poem1 or of the world1 we   
may call it objective2 as the second    
movement is that of the individual man1 
we may call it subjective4 ,the two     
together1 accordingly1 spin the two     
strands of the world and of man into the
 one thread of existence4 ,both we shall
 consider4   ,i4  ,the objective sweep  

with its three localities is coupled    
with geographical names which have given
 to the erudite guild a great deal of   
trouble1 with very small reward4 ,in    
general these names of places may be    
deemed to be mythical1 yet with certain 
far-off gleams of actual lands4 ,much   
more distinct and real is their         
spiritual significance4 ,the objective  
movement shadows forth the movement of  
society1 the rise of civilization1 the  
becoming of the institutional world1    
which is here unfolded through three    
stages in the following order3--        
#a4 ,ogygia4     #b4 ,phaeacia4     #c4 
,fableland4  #a4 ,ogygia is the pure    
product of nature without cultivation or
 with very little4 ,it is the place     
where the natural man must conquer his  
appetites1 and long for1 and finally    
seek for1 a realm of order4 ,calypso is 
the concealer1 she who conceals spirit  
in the jungle of nature4 ,here1 then1   
occurs the primordial breach between the
 physical and spiritual1 out of which an

 institutional world can rise4  #b4     
,phaeacia now appears1 in which we      
behold the fundamental institutions of  
man1 ,family and ,state1 in their       
primitive idyllic condition1 yet        
transcendently pure and beautiful4 ,the 
evolution of this new order from the    
savage ,cyclops is hinted in the poem4  
,only after ,calypso is put aside1 do   
,arete the wife and ,nausicaa the maid  
become possible4 ,upon such a foundation
 a social system can be developed1 with 
commerce1 navigation1 etc4 ,still       
further1 ,phaeacia can begin to mirror  
itself in art1 as it does here in the   
songs of the bard1 and also in games4   
#c4 ,fableland comes next1 really a     
product of self-conscious art4 ,in it   
are set forth the struggles which arise 
between man and the civilized order4    
,phaeacia is the simple condition of    
peace2 man is in complete harmony with  
himself and his institutional           
environment4 ,but what if he falls out  
with both8 ,that will be a new stage1   

represented by a new set of beings1 who 
are to indicate not so much the conflict
 with nature as the conflict with       
spirit4 ,the world of reality is        
transcended1 marvelous shapes sweep into
 view1 ,polyphemus1 ,circe1 the ,sirens1
 even the supersensible realm of        
,hades--all of which1 however1 must     
await a special exposition4 ,still we   
should note that after this ideal realm 
of struggle and desperate enterprise    
comes the real world of strife1 ,ithaca1
 which is to be harmonized by the man   
who has passed through this ,fableland1 
and has reached an ideal harmony in     
,phaeacia4   ,,ii4  ,we soon find that  
,ulysses has been thrown back to        
,calypso's ,isle from ,fableland1 of    
which in a certain sense it is the      
continuation4 ,the circle which he has  
passed through is1 therefore1 the       
following3--      #a4 ,fableland4       
#b4 ,ogygia4     #c4 ,phaeacia4  ,this  
is1 then1 the movement of the           
individual1 in contrast with the        

previous sweep of the poem as a whole1  
which represents the movement of the    
world4 ,both are bound together1 both   
pass through the same stages1 though in 
a different order4 ,the process of      
social development begins with the state
 of ,nature1 with ,ogygia1 unfolds into 
a simple institutional life1 into       
,phaeacia1 which then enters into       
certain negative phases1 such as are    
seen in ,fableland4 ,but the man from   
,troy1 ,ulysses1 begins with the last1  
and is whelmed back into the first1 and 
finally rests in the second before going
 to ,ithaca4 ,let us note this personal 
movement in a little more detail4  #a4  
,ulysses passes into ,fableland1 having 
wantonly done a deed of violence against
 civilized life and order by destroying 
the city of the ,ciconians 7,book ,,ix71
 as he was returning from the ,trojan   
,war4 ,such is the negative element in  
him1 which has been engendered by that  
war1 and which now appears in various   
manifestations1 such as his doings with 

,polyphemus and ,circe1 till his career 
in ,fableland winds up with destroying  
the ,oxen of the ,sun4 ,this is the     
extreme negative act which throws him   
back beyond ,circe's into ,calypso's    
realm4 ,he assaults really his own will 
in this last act1 he undermines his own 
power of recovery1 he puts out his own  
light4 ,circe would have sent him       
forward again1 leaving intact his       
will-power2 ,calypso detains him lulled 
in the sensuous delights of her bower4  
,he denies his own reason2 how then can 
he rise after a fall8 ,indeed what use  
is there of rising8 ,so he sinks down   
into ,ogygia1 the ,dark ,island4  #b4   
,it is no wonder1 therefore1 that he    
remained with ,calypso seven years and  
more1 draining to the dregs the cup of  
that life4 ,still he has desire to      
return home1 must have it1 he must      
possess reason to deny reason4 ,he longs
 for what he has not1 sensuous charms   
cannot drown his aspiration2 such is the
 ,hell in which he has placed himself4  

,still even here when he has passed his 
probation1 he must be released by a     
decree of the ,gods1 who1 formerly      
favorable to ,neptune1 the divine foe of
 ,ulysses1 have now become friendly to  
,minerva1 the ,hero's protectress4 ,why 
this change in the everlasting powers8  
,when ,ulysses is ready to leave        
,ogygia1 the ,gods cannot keep him      
there1 they have to change2 the divine  
,order must help him escape1 if it be   
divine4 ,this is just what happens2     
,zeus1 voice of the ,olympian law1      
commands his departure1 and ,calypso    
must obey4  #c4 ,ulysses1 then1 comes to
 ,phaeacia1 an institutional land with  
social1 domestic1 and political life4   
,from the grot of ,calypso he passes to 
the home of ,arete2 both woman and man  
are in an ethical relation4 ,he sees a  
world of peace and harmony1 he witnesses
 the corrective of his own negative     
,trojan experience4 ,he1 having taken   
,phaeacia into himself1 has a remedy for
 distracted ,ithaca2 he has beheld an   

ideal to which he can adjust his own    
land4 ,he was not the man to bring civil
 order to ,ithaca just after the        
destruction of ,troy2 now he has passed 
through his own destructive phases1 has 
become conscious of them1 has told them 
to the ,phaeacians1 which long account  
has in it the character of a confession4
 ,all is given in a mythical form1 but  
it is none the less an acknowledgment of
 error from first to last4 ,he is the   
poetical confessor of himself1 and the  
,phaeacians are contemplating the grand 
experience in the mirror of art4  ,we   
may now see the reason why the poet     
began the story of ,ulysses with the    
stay at ,calypso's ,isle4 ,thus the poem
 unfolds in the order of society1       
starting with the state of nature1      
passing thence to a civilized condition1
 and showing finally the conflicts of   
the same with the negative forces which 
develop in its own bosom4 ,homer could  
have landed ,ulysses at ,phaeacia1 and  
could have made the ,ulyssiad start in  

that sphere1 placing ,calypso's ,book   
just after the account of the slaughter 
of the ,oxen of the ,sun4 ,but what a   
loss would that have been6 ,no social   
development would thus be suggested in  
the movement of the poem1 and the       
individual ,ulysses would have to pass1 
not from institutional ,phaeacia1 but   
from savage ,ogygia to the reformation  
of ,ithaca4 ,in this way we realize to  
ourselves the true instinct1 or         
perchance the profound thought which    
underlies the structure of this portion 
of the poem4  ,thus we conceive the     
double movement of the ,ulyssiad through
 its three main stages1 in which we feel
 strongly emphasized the idea of        
development1 of a genetic process4      
,these lands and peoples are generated  
by the wanderer's own spirit1 though    
they all exist in their own right and   
are carefully set down in ,homeric      
geography4 ,ogygia is the product of    
,ulysses himself1 and so he goes thither
 to the reality4 ,the misfortunes in    

these lands are the very deeds of the   
offenders returning upon them4 ,as the  
,gods are both subjective and objective1
 so are these poetic places and persons2
 they are both in ,ulysses and outside  
of him1 they are the inner change of the
 individual and the outer development of
 the world4 ,each1 however1 fits into   
the other1 is inseparably intertwined   
with the other2 both together form the  
double movement which is the fundamental
 structural fact of the present division
 of the ,odyssey4  ,of course our       
unfolding of the subject must follow the
 movement of the poem1 but we shall not 
neglect the movement of the individual4 
,accordingly ,calypso's ,island1        
,ogygia1 is the realm which is to be    
first considered4     ,,book ,,fifth4   
,in this ,book the reader will observe  
two distinct parts1 which are so often  
found in ,homer and constitute the      
deepest distinction in his poems3 these 
two parts are the ,upper ,world of the  
,gods and the ,lower ,world of ,man1    

both of which are shown in action and   
counteraction4 ,the grand dualism       
between the mortal and the immortal is  
fused into a living narrative and makes 
the warp and woof of ,homeric poesy4    
,the general purport of both parts is   
seen to be the same at bottom3 it is to 
remove the obstacles which stand in the 
way of the ,return of ,ulysses to home  
and country4 ,these obstacles arise from
 the ,gods above and from ,nature       
below--the divine and the physical1     
though the latter also is presided over 
by deities4 ,thus the ,greek hero1 with 
the aid of the higher ,gods1 is to put  
down the lower ones1 or convert them    
into aids for his advancement towards   
the grand end1 which is his             
institutional life in ,family and       
,state4 ,in this way only can ,ulysses1 
from his alienation1 attain unto harmony
 with himself and with the ,divine      
,order4  ,the first part of the ,book   
gives the ,council of the ,gods and its 
consequences reaching down to the mortal

 who is the subject of deliberation4 ,we
 shall note three stages in this        
movement from ,olympus to ,earth3 7#a7  
,zeus to ,hermes1 7#b7 ,hermes to       
,calypso1 7#c7 ,calypso to ,ulysses4    
,thus from the highest the decree is    
brought below and opens the providential
 way4  ,the second part deals with the  
mortal1 who is brought into relation    
with three ,gods1 all representing      
phases of the physical element of water3
 7#a7 ,neptune1 the great deity of the  
sea1 7#b7 ,ino ,leucothea1 a lesser     
deity of the same1 7#c7 the ,river-,god1
 through whose channel ,ulysses comes at
 last to land4 ,it is manifest that he  
must rise beyond these water-divinities 
with their uncertain fluctuating        
element1 and attain to the fixed earth  
with its life1 ere he can find repose4  
,we shall now develop these two parts of
 the ,book with their subdivisions in   
the order stated above4   ,i4  ,first   
then is the divine obstacle1 which has  
to be removed by the ,gods in ,homer1   

when the individual is ready to have it 
removed4 ,this obstacle is at present   
centered in the ,goddess ,calypso1 the  
marvelous concealer and extinguisher of 
the ,hero in her island ,ogygia4        
,neptune is not here spoken of1 though  
his element1 the sea1 is mentioned as   
something which must also be met and    
transcended2 the ,hero through his own  
will can surmount this difficulty4      
,verily ,calypso is the grand spiritual 
hindrance of ,ulysses1 and1 to help him 
get rid of it1 the ,olympians assemble  
and start the movement1 the conditions  
being that he is internally prepared to 
be helped by the ,gods4 ,of the latter  
fact we shall note a number of          
indications hereafter4  ,of this divine 
activity in removing the first obstacle 
we may distinguish three phases3--  #a4 
,the council of the ,gods on ,olympus   
under the presidency of ,zeus1 and the  
decree there4  #b4 ,hermes is sent by   
the supreme deity to ,calypso1 with the 
decree4  #c4 ,calypso imparts the decree

 to ,ulysses1 who soon sets about doing 
his part4  ,in this brief outline we see
 the descent of the divine influence    
from ,zeus the ,highest1 through ,hermes
 messenger of the ,gods1 to ,calypso1 a 
local subordinate deity1 down to the    
mortal ,ulysses who is to get the       
benefit thereof4 ,thus the poet makes   
his world-order ready for the deed of   
the man1 who is now to act with all the 
energy of his being1 and not lie back   
expecting the ,gods to do everything for
 him4 ,such is the situation between the
 divine and human sides1 of which we    
shall elaborate the former a little more
 fully4  #a4 ,the council of the ,gods  
in which the matter is now discussed1   
seems somewhat like a repetition of the 
one at the beginning of the ,first      
,book1 which indeed starts the whole    
poem4 ,at present we may suppose that   
the poet wishes to recall that first    
council and its decree to the mind of   
the reader1 inasmuch as the latter is   
now to begin the second grand division  

of the poem1 the ,odyssey proper1 or    
,return of ,ulysses4  ,pallas takes up  
the complaint and arraigns ,providence  
on an ethical ground3 the good king is  
forgotten and the good man suffers4 ,to 
the face of the ,supreme ,ruler she     
draws the conclusion3 ,let not any      
sceptered king henceforth be kind to his
 people and recognize justice1 but      
always let him be harsh and work        
unrighteousness4 ,then she cites the    
unhappy lot of ,ulysses4 ,but ,zeus     
throws the charge back upon ,pallas1 for
 she already had laid the divine plan   
that ,ulysses was to take vengeance on  
wrong-doing suitors1 and ,telemachus she
 could save by her skill1 if so she     
chose4 ,here ,pallas again hints as she 
did in the ,first ,book1 the two lines  
on which the poem moves 7,telemachus and
 ,ulysses71 and she also notes the two  
present obstacles 7,calypso and the sea7
 in the way of the ,return of ,ulysses4 
,the divine activity begins work at     
once3 ,zeus sends ,hermes to ,calypso   

with the ,olympian decree4 ,ulysses1    
however1 is to reach home without any   
escort of the ,gods or of mortal men2   
that is1 he must exercise his own       
free-will tremendously1 there is to be  
no special intervention of the ,gods    
without the corresponding human effort4 
,note this passage as indicating the    
consciousness of the poet respecting    
divine help2 it is not to take the place
 of free agency1 but to complement the  
same4 ,the ,hero will have to sail on a 
raft1 suffering evils2 but he will reach
 the land of the ,phaeacians1 near of   
kin to the ,gods1 where he will be      
honored as a ,god1 and will be sent home
 with abounding wealth1 more than he    
would ever have received at ,troy1      
returning unharmed with his share of the
 booty4 ,such is the promise of the     
world-governor to the self-reliant man2 
this promise is not fate but foresight  
on the part of the ,supreme ,god4 ,thus 
is the ,hero destined to see again his  
friends1 namely by means of a small raft

 or float1 which he alone must control  
in his own strength1 without the help of
 ,god or man4 ,such is the reward of    
heroic endeavor1 proclaimed by ,zeus    
himself4  #b4 ,the messenger ,hermes    
begins his flight down to ,calypso1     
holding his magic wand1 with which he   
puts men to sleep or wakens them1       
imparting the power of vision or taking 
it away4 ,he reaches the wonderful      
island with its grot1 the account of    
which has been a master-stroke in       
literature1 and shows that the          
description of nature was not alien to  
the ,greek poet1 though he rarely       
indulges in it4 ,one thinks that the    
passage contains a suggestion of much   
modern writing of the kind4  ,it is to  
be noted that this island is mostly a   
wild product1 it has had very little    
training from its resident4 ,a natural  
house and garden we see it to be in the 
main2 the senses1 especially sight and  
smell1 are gratified immediately by     
physical objects4 ,there is little      

indication of ,art1 possibly a beginning
 in the singing and weaving2 rude nature
 may have been transformed somewhat in  
the four fountains and in the trailing  
grape-vine4 ,but this description is not
 made for its own sake1 as are many     
modern descriptions of nature2 the whole
 is the true environment for ,calypso1  
and suggests her character4  ,her name  
means the concealer1 concealed herself  
in that lone sea-closed island1 and     
concealing others4 ,undeveloped she is1 
like nature1 yet beautiful2 sunken still
 in the life of the senses1 she dwells  
in her little paradise without any inner
 scission4 ,but it must be recollected  
that ,ulysses is not native to the      
island1 he has come or rather fallen    
hither1 from a higher condition4 ,he1   
therefore1 has the scission in himself1 
he longs to leave and be restored out of
 this realm of mere nature4  ,with such 
a longing the ,gods must coincide1 for  
they are the ,gods of culture1 of the   
rise out of the physical4 ,the long     

,journey of ,hermes hints the distance  
between ,olympus and ,calypso's isle--a 
distance which has its spiritual        
counterpart4 ,the command of the        
,olympians is borne to this lower       
,goddess2 ,hermes is the voice of the   
higher ethical divinity to the lower one
 of mere nature4 ,but even the higher   
,god has his physical counterpart1 is   
not yet wholly a spirit2 so ,hermes eats
 his ambrosia and drinks his nectar set 
before him by ,calypso in true ,greek   
fashion and misses the smoke of         
sacrifices along his barren route4  ,it 
is curious to see how ,hermes plays with
 polytheism1 hinting ever so slyly the  
contradiction in the ,greek ,pantheon4  
,why dost thou a ,god ask me a ,god why 
,i come8 ,it is indeed an absurd        
question1 for a ,god ought to know in   
advance4 ,in numerous places we can     
trace a subtle ,homeric humor which     
crops out in dealing with his many      
deities1 indicating a start toward their
 dissolution4 ,then with a strong       

assertion of the supremacy of one ,god1 
,zeus1 ,hermes utters the unwilling     
word3 ,ulysses must depart from this    
island4  ,the answer of ,calypso is     
significant1 she charges the ,gods with 
jealousy2 ,ye grudge the ,goddesses     
openly to mate with men1 which          
proposition she nails by several        
examples4 ,but the ,gods reserve to     
themselves the privilege of license with
 mortal women4 ,a complaint still heard1
 not in the ,olympian but in our ,lower 
,world2 men are not held to the same    
code of morals that women are6 ,but     
,calypso yields up her lover whom she   
thought to make immortal and ageless4   
,what else can she do8 ,it is true that 
she saved him once and has preserved him
 till the present2 she is1 however1 but 
a stage which must now be transcended4  
,appetite may preserve man1 still he is 
to rise above appetite4  #c4 ,now       
,ulysses is brought before us4 ,the     
first fact about him is1 his intense    
longing to return home2 he is found     

sitting on the shore1 and his eyes were 
never dry of tears as he looked out on  
the sea toward his country2 for the     
nymph was no longer pleasing to him1    
whatever may have been the case once4   
,surely the hero is in bonds which he   
cannot break1 though he would2 a        
penitential strand we may well find in  
his sorrow2 thus he is ready for        
release4  ,calypso1 therefore1 announces
 to him the divine plan3 he must make a 
raft and commit himself to the waters4  
,she has to obey1 for is she not really 
conquered by ,ulysses8 ,certainly the   
divine order requires her to send the   
man away from her island4 ,yet the      
return is by no means made easy1 but is 
to be won by hardest effort2 he must    
grapple with the waves1 with angry      
,neptune after leaving ,calypso4 ,no    
wonder that ,ulysses shuddered at the   
proposition2 truly he has the choice    
between the devil and the deep sea1 and 
he manfully chooses the latter4 ,first1 
however1 the ,goddess has to take the   

great oath by ,earth1 by ,heaven above  
and ,styx below1 the sum total of the   
physical universe1 from whose presence  
the perjurer cannot escape1 though a    
,god1 that she is not practicing any    
hidden guile against her much-desired   
guest4 ,always the doubter1 the skeptic 
,ulysses will show himself1 even toward 
a divinity4 ,he must test the ,gods     
also1 as well as man4 ,very beautiful   
and humane is the answer of the         
,goddess3 ,such things ,i plan and      
deliberate for thee as ,i would devise  
for myself1 were ,i in so great straits4
 ,for ,i too have a righteous mind1 and 
the heart within my breast is not of    
iron1 but compassionate4  ,has a change 
come over the ,goddess through this     
visit from ,olympus8 ,hardly could she  
have felt this before1 else she would   
have sent away ,ulysses of her own      
accord4 ,her adjustment to the divine   
decree seems now to be internal1 and not
 simply a yielding to an external power4
 ,still the separation costs her deep   

pangs1 and she wonders how ,ulysses1 a  
mortal1 can give her up1 who is         
immortal1 with all her beauty and the   
pleasures of her paradise4  ,the answer 
of ,ulysses reveals the man in his      
present stale of mind4 ,he recognizes   
,calypso as beautiful1 deathless1 ever  
young2 still he must have something more
 than sensuous life and beauty2 though  
it last forever1 it can never satisfy4  
,not to be compared with the ,goddess in
 grace and stature1 is his wife         
,penelope1 still he longs for his home2 
yea1 though some ,god wreck me on the   
wine-dark deep1 ,i shall endure4 ,but   
there is no doubt the other side is also
 present in ,ulysses2 he has within     
himself a strong sensuous nature with   
which is the battle1 and the poem does  
not disguise the matter1 for he is again
 ready to enjoy all the pleasures of    
,calypso's bower1 after this paroxysm of
 home-sickness4  ,such is the deep      
struggle of the man2 such is also the   
divine obstacle1 which has to be removed

 by an ,olympian interference before he 
can return4 ,we see that ,ulysses in    
spite of all blandishments of the       
,goddess and momentary weakness of      
himself1 was ready for its removal2 in  
his heart he has overcome ,calypso1 and 
wishes to get back to his institutional 
life in ,family and ,state4 ,such a man 
must return1 the ,gods must be on his   
side1 else they are not ,gods4          
,according to the ,greek conception1    
,calypso is a subordinate deity who must
 be put down by the ,olympians2 appetite
 is not a devil1 but a lower good1 which
 must be adjusted to the higher4 ,note1 
then1 that the external stream1 or the  
world-movement represented by the ,gods1
 now unites with the internal stream1   
the spirit of the individual1 and brings
 forth the great event4 ,as stated often
 before1 these two streams run through  
all ,homeric poetry4  ,ulysses now makes
 his raft2 the hero is also a           
ship-builder1 being the self-sufficient 
man1 equal to any emergency1 in whom lie

 all possibilities4 ,the boat1 still    
quite primitive1 is constructed before  
our eyes2 ,it is the weapon for         
conquering ,neptune1 and prophesies     
navigation4 ,calypso aids him in every  
way1 she even supplies him with tools1  
the axe1 the adze1 the augur1 which     
imply a more advanced state of          
civilization than has hitherto appeared 
in the ,dark ,island4 ,whence did she   
obtain them8 ,no special answer is      
given2 hence we are thrown back upon a  
general answer4 ,calypso is the original
 wild state of nature2 but her          
transformation has begun1 she helps     
,ulysses in her new character4 ,these   
tools are themselves formed from nature 
into means for subduing nature2 the     
instrument of bronze in the hands of the
 wood-cutter is the master of the tree4 
,at present ,calypso is also such an    
instrument2 she1 the wild product of    
nature1 is herself transformed into a   
means for helping ,ulysses conquer the  
mighty physical element before him2 an  

implement she has become in the hand of 
the ,gods for restoring the heroic      
endurer1 and hence she can              
emblematically hand him these material  
implements1 for they are one with her   
present spirit4 ,indeed we may carry the
 analogy one step further1 turning it   
inwardly3 ,calypso1 though once the     
inciter to sensuous desire1 now helps   
the man put it away and flee from it2   
ethically she is converted into an      
instrument against her former self4 ,in 
like manner nature is turned against    
nature by the thinking artificer4  ,also
 food and drink and raiment the ,island 
,goddess furnishes for the voyage2 with 
rare skill she tells him how to direct  
his course by the stars2 she is mistress
 over the winds1 it seems1 for she sends
 the right one to blow4 ,wonderful      
indeed is the change2 all those forces  
of nature1 formerly so hostile1 have    
been transformed into helpers1 ,calypso 
herself being also transformed4 ,thus we
 catch the outlines of the ,fairy ,tale 

or marvelous story1 which tells1 in a   
supernatural way1 of man's mastery of   
the physical world1 once so destructive1
 now so obedient4  ,cloth for his sails 
she brought him1 but we must recollect  
that she was a weaver at the start of   
the story4 ,at last ,ulysses pushes his 
raft down into the fair salt sea2       
,ogygia1 the place of nature's          
luxuriance and delight1 is left behind2 
he must quit the natural state1 however 
paradisaical1 and pass to the social    
order1 to ,ithaca1 though the latter be 
poor and rocky4 ,still we may well      
recall the fact that the island and     
,calypso once saved ,ulysses1 when      
wrecked elsewhere1 on account of the    
slaughter done to the ,oxen of the ,sun2
 this wild spot furnished him natural   
shelter1 food1 gratification2 nay1 it   
gave him love4  ,to be sure1 the other  
side is not to be forgotten3 it had to  
be transcended1 when it kept him away   
from the higher institutional life4     
,ulysses1 the wonderful1                

limit-transcending spirit1 unfolds      
within even while caught in this wild   
jungle2 he evolves out of it1 as man has
 evolved out of it1 thus he hints the   
movement of his race1 which has to quit 
a cave-life and a mere sensuous         
existence4 ,such is the decree of the   
,gods1 for all time3 the man must       
abandon ,calypso1 who is herself to be  
transformed into an instrument of his   
progress4  ,we may now begin to see what
 ,calypso means1 in outline at least4   
,the difficulty of comprehending her    
lies in her twofold character3 at one   
time she is nature1 then she is the     
helper against nature4 ,but just therein
 is her movement1 her development4 ,she 
is ,goddess of this ,island1 where she  
rules2 but she is a lesser deity who has
 to be subordinated to the ,olympians1  
as nature must be put under spirit4 ,the
 ,greek deified nature1 not being able  
to diabolize it2 still he knew that it  
must be ruled and transmuted by mind4   
,thus ,calypso is a ,goddess1 inferior1 

confined to one locality1 but having    
sensuous beauty as nature has4 ,she1    
without ethical content1 as purely      
physical1 stands in the way of          
institutions1 notably the ,family2 she  
seduces the man1 and holds him by his   
senses1 by his passion1 till he rise out
 of her sway4 ,on this side her         
significance is plain3 she is the female
 principle which stands between ,ulysses
 and his wedded wife1 she not being     
wedded4 ,thus she is an embodiment of   
nature1 from the external landscape in  
which she is set1 to internal impulse1  
to the element of sex4 ,so it comes that
 she is represented as a beautiful      
woman1 but beauty without its ethical   
content can no longer chain ,ulysses4   
,that charm is broken1 in spite of      
passing relapses4  ,then comes the other
 side of ,calypso's character1 as       
already indicated3 she changes1 she     
turns and helps ,ulysses put down       
herself and get away from her world1    
furnishing him quite all the means for  

his voyage4 ,not without a certain      
regret and parting display of her charms
 does she do this2 still the change is  
real1 and at the last stage we must     
imagine a ,calypso transformed or       
partially so4  ,the enchantress on her  
magic island is a favorite theme with   
the ,fairy ,tale1 and the situation in  
itself rouses curiosity and wonder4 ,the
 bit of land floating on the sea in     
appearance1 yet withstanding wave and   
tempest1 is1 to the sailor1 the home of 
supernatural beings4 ,the story of      
,calypso has the tinge of nautical      
fancy4 ,in like manner the story of     
,robinson ,crusoe is that of a          
sea-faring people4 ,we see in it the    
ship-wrecked man1 the lone island1 the  
struggle with nature for food and       
shelter4 ,but ,defoe has no supernatural
 realm playing into his narrative--no   
beautiful nymph1 no ,olympian ,gods4    
,that twofold ,homeric conception of an 
,upper and ,lower ,world1 of a human and
 divine element in the great experience1

 is lost2 the ,englishman is practical1 
realistic1 utilitarian even in his pious
 observations1 which he flings into his 
text from the outside at given          
intervals4  ,ogygia1 the abode of       
,calypso1 means the ,dark ,island1 upon 
which ,ulysses is cast after the        
destruction of the ,oxen of the ,sun4   
,calypso1 in harmony with the name of   
her abode1 signifies the concealer--and 
that is what has happened to ,ulysses1  
his light is hidden4 ,she is the        
daughter of ,atlas1 who has two mental  
traits assigned to him2 he is           
evil-minded and he knows all the depths 
of the sea4 ,a demonic being endowed    
with his dark knowledge of things out of
 sight2 he has a third trait also1 he   
upholds of himself the long pillars     
which keep ,heaven and ,earth apart     
7,book ,i4 #ec74 ,naturally under such a
 burden he is not in good humor4        
,calypso is the daughter who1 along with
 her grot1 may be conceived to have     
risen out of the obscure depths of the  

sea1 with something of her father's     
disposition4 ,doubtless ,greek sailors  
could behold in her image the dangerous 
rocks which lurked unseen beneath the   
waters around her island4 ,the          
comparative mythologist finds in her    
tale the clouds obscuring or concealing 
the ,sun 7here ,ulysses7 till the       
luminary breaks out of his concealment  
and shines in native glory4 ,something  
of truth lies in these various views1   
but the fundamental meaning is not      
physical1 but ethical4   ,,ii4  ,we now 
come to the great physical obstacle     
standing in the way of the ,return of   
,ulysses1 the sea1 which1 however1 has  
always its divine side to the ,greek    
mind4 ,a series of water-deities will   
rise before us out of this mighty       
element1 assuming various attitudes     
toward the solitary voyager4 ,three of  
them1 showing themselves as hostile     
7,neptune71 as helpful 7,ino            
,leucothea71 as saving 7the             
,river-,god72 all three too seem in a   

kind of gradation1 from the vast total  
sea1 through one of its phases1 to the  
small stream pouring into the sea from  
the land4 ,thus the ,greek imagination1 
playing with water1 deified the various 
appearances thereof1 specially in their 
relation to man4 ,the introduction of   
these three marine divinities naturally 
organizes this second part of the ,fifth
 ,book into three phases or stages4     
,such is the divine side now to be      
witnessed4  ,parallel to this runs the  
human side1 represented by the lone hero
 ,ulysses1 who is passing through a     
fearful ordeal of danger with its       
attendant emotions of anxiety1 terror1  
hope1 despair4 ,a very hard test is     
surely here applied to weak mortal      
flesh4 ,we shall observe that he passes 
through a series of mental perturbations
 at each divine appearance2 he runs up  
and down a scale of doubt1 complaint1   
resolution4 ,his weakness he will show1 
yet also his strength2 dubitation yet   
faith2 he will hesitate1 yet finally    

act4 ,thus he saves himself at last     
through his own will1 yet certainly with
 the help of the ,gods2 for both sides  
have to co-operate to bring about the   
heroic act of his deliverance4  ,pallas 
also comes to the aid of her favorite1  
but in an indirect manner4 ,the sea does
 not seem to be her element4 ,she stops 
the winds and informs his mind with     
forecast1 but she does not personally   
appear and speak1 nor is she addressed1 
as is the case with the water-gods4 ,she
 plays in by the way in this marine     
emergency2 her appearances now do not   
organize the action4 ,but the three     
appearances of the water-gods are the   
organic principle1 their element being  
at present the scene of the adventure4  
,on these lines we shall note the course
 of the poem in some detail4  #a4       
,neptune returning from the ,ethiopians 
to ,hellas1 sees the lone sailor with   
his little craft from the heights of the
 mountain called ,solyma2 at once the   
,god's wrath is roused and he talks to  

himself1 shaking his head4 ,the clouds1 
the winds1 the ocean obeyed his behest1 
and fell upon the voyager in a furious  
tempest4 ,a huge billow whirled the raft
 around and threw ,ulysses off into the 
deep2 with difficulty be regained his   
place1 and escaped death4  ,a vivid     
picture of the grand obstacle to early  
navigation1 of which ,neptune is the    
embodiment4 ,why should he not be angry 
at the man who seeks to tame him8 ,the  
raft means his ultimate subjection4     
,nature resists the hand which subdues  
her at first1 and then gracefully       
yields4 ,to be sure there had to be a   
mythical ground for ,neptune's anger at 
,ulysses3 the latter had put out the eye
 of his son1 the ,cyclops ,polyphemus1  
which was another phase of the          
subjection of wild nature to            
intelligence4 ,for seventeen days       
,ulysses had easy sailing1 guided by the
 stars2 but the sea has its destructive 
side which must also be experienced by  
the much-enduring man4  ,corresponding  

to this outer tempest1 we observe an    
inner tempest in the soul of ,ulysses4  
,o me wretched6 what is now to happen to
 me6 ,terror unmans him for the time    
being2 regret weakens him3 ,thrice      
happy1 four times happy the ,greeks who 
fell on ,troy's broad plain6 ,thus he   
goes back in memory to his heroic epoch 
and wishes for death then4 ,too late it 
is1 for while he is lamenting1 a wave   
strikes him and tosses him out into the 
deep2 now he has to act1 and this need  
of action saves him from his internal   
trituration1 as well as from external   
death4  ,with this renewed energy of the
 will1 a new help appears1 a divine aid 
from the sea4 ,for without his own      
strong effort1 no ,god can rescue him1  
however powerful4 ,that toss out into   
the waves was not without its blessing4 
#b4 ,ino ,leucothea1 ,ino the white     
,goddess1 beholds him with pity in his  
extremity--she was once mortal herself  
but now is divine4 ,her function seems  
to be to help the shipwrecked mariner2  

her name reminds the reader of the white
 calm of the sea1 elsewhere celebrated  
by ,homer 7,book ,x1 #id2 ,nitzsch's    
observation74 ,thus she appears to      
represent the peaceful placid mood of   
the marine element1 which rises in the  
midst of the storm and imparts hope and 
courage1 nay predicts safety4 ,she gives
 her veil to ,ulysses1 in which         
commentators trace a suggestion of the  
fillet or sacred cloth which was given  
out from a temple in ,samothrace1 and   
had the power of saving the endangered  
mariner1 if he had tied it round his    
body4 ,as it is here employed1 it       
strangely suggests a life-preserver4 ,at
 any rate ,ino is the calming power     
opposed to angry ,neptune1 and she works
 upon both the waters and the man4      
,ill-fated man1 she cries1 why hast thou
 so angered ,neptune8 ,then she changes 
her note3 ,still he shall not destroy   
thee1 however much he desires4 ,she bids
 him give up his raft to the anger of   
,neptune1 throw away his clinging wet   

garments of ,calypso1 and swim to the   
land of the ,phaeacians4 ,then she hands
 him the veil which he is to bind       
beneath his breast1 and1 when he has    
reached land1 he is to throw it back    
into the sea4 ,a ritual of some kind1   
symbolic acts we feel these to be1      
though their exact meaning may be       
doubtful4 ,ino1 the daughter of ,cadmus1
 is supposed to have been a ,phoenician 
,goddess originally1 and to have been   
transferred to the ,greek sailor1 just  
as his navigation came to him1 partly at
 least1 from the ,phoenicians4 ,if he   
girded himself with the consecrated veil
 of ,leucothea1 the ,goddess of the     
calm1 ,neptune himself in wrath could   
not sink him4  ,such was the faith      
required of ,ulysses1 but now comes the 
internal counterstroke3 his skepticism4 
,ah me6 what if some ,god is planning   
another fraud against me1 bidding me    
quit my raft6 ,the doubter refuses to   
obey and clings to his raft4 ,but the   
waves make short work of it now1 and    

,ulysses by sheer necessity has to do as
 the ,goddess bade him2 with hands      
outspread he plunged into the sea1 the  
veil being underneath him4 ,when he     
quits his raft1 and is seen in the      
water1 ,neptune dismisses him from view 
with a parting execration1 and ,pallas  
begins to help him1 not openly1 but     
indirectly4  ,in such manner the great  
doubter is getting toward shore1 but    
even here his doubts cease not4 ,steep  
jutting cliffs may not permit him to    
land1 the billows may dash him to death 
on the sharp shoaly rocks1 or carry him 
out again to sea1 or some huge monster  
of the deep may snap him up in its jaws2
 thus he is dashed about internally1 on 
the billows of doubt4 ,but this grinding
 within is stopped by the grinding he   
gets without2 a mighty surge overwhelms 
him1 he clutches a rock and saves       
himself1 but leaves flakes of flesh from
 his hands behind on the rock4 ,he swam 
along the coast and eyed it well1 he    
even reaches the mouth of a soft-flowing

 river1 where was a smooth beach and a  
shelter from the wind4 ,here is the spot
 so long desired1 here then he passes to
 an act of faith1 he prays to the river 
which becomes at once to the ,greek     
imagination a ,god4  #c4 ,this brings us
 to the third water deity1 and we       
observe a kind of scale from the        
universal one1 ,neptune1 down to a local
 one1 that of the river4 ,the middle    
one1 ,ino1 is the humane kindly phase of
 the great deep1 showing her kinship    
with man2 ,neptune was the ruder god of 
the physical sea1 and1 to the ,homeric  
,greek1 the most powerful and natural4  
,no wonder that he was angry at that    
little raft and its builder2 it meant   
his ultimate subjection4  ,the prayer of
 ,ulysses to the ,river-,god is1 on the 
whole1 the finest passage in the present
 ,book4 ,it shows him now a man of      
faith1 humbled though he be to the last 
degree of misery3 ,hear me1 ruler1      
whoever thou art1 ,i approach thee      
much-besought4 ,the deathless ,gods     

revere the prayer of him who comes to   
them and asks for mercy1 as ,i now come 
to thy stream4 ,pity1 ruler1 me thy     
suppliant4 ,certainly a lofty           
recognition of the true nature of deity2
 no wonder that the ,river stayed his   
current1 smoothed the waves and made a  
calm before him4 ,such a view of the    
,gods reveals to us the inner depths of 
the ,hero's character2 it calls to mind 
that speech of ,phoenix in the ,iliad   
7,book ,ninth7 where he says that the   
,gods are placable4 ,as soon as ,ulysses
 makes this utterance from his heart1 he
 is saved1 the ,divine ,order is        
adjusted to his prayer1 he having of    
course put himself into harmony with the
 same4 ,he has no longer any need of the
 protecting veil of the sea-goddess     
,ino1 having escaped from the angry     
element1 and obtained the help of the   
new deity belonging to the place4 ,he   
restores the veil to the ,goddess       
according to her request1 in which      
symbolic act we may possibly read a     

consecration of the object which had    
saved him1 as well as a recognition of  
the deity3 ,this veil of salvation      
belongs not to me1 but to the ,goddess4 
,not of his strength alone was he saved 
from the waves4  ,such is one side of   
,ulysses1 that of faith1 of the         
manifestation of the godlike in man1    
especially when he is in the very pinch 
of destruction4 ,but ,ulysses would not 
be ,ulysses1 unless he showed the other 
side too1 that of unfaith1 weak         
complaint1 and temporary irresolution4  
,so1 when he is safe on the bank of the 
stream1 he begins to cry out3 ,what now 
am ,i to suffer more6 ,if ,i try to     
sleep on this river's brink for the     
night1 the frost and dew and wind will  
kill me2 and if ,i climb this hill to   
yonder thicket1 ,i fear a savage beast  
will eat me while ,i slumber4 ,it is    
well to be careful1 ,o ,ulysses1 in     
these wild solitudes2 now let the       
petulant outburst just given1 be        
preparatory to an act of will which will

 settle the problem4 ,he rose and went  
to the wood near by2 he crept under two 
bushes that grew from the same place1   
one the wild and the other the tame     
olive4 ,there in a heap of leaves--man's
 first bed--he slept under the          
intertwined branches of the two         
olives--nature's shelter against wind1  
rain1 sun4 ,he1 with all his cultivation
 is quite reduced to the condition of   
the primitive man4  ,one cannot help    
feeling a symbolic intention in these   
two olive trees1 one wild and one       
cultivated4 ,they represent in a degree 
the two phases of the man sleeping under
 them2 they hint also the transition    
which he is making from the untamed     
nature of ,calypso's island to the more 
civilized land of ,phaeacia4 ,the whole 
,book is indeed the movement to a new   
life and a new country4 ,we might carry 
out the symbolic hint much further on   
these lines1 and see a meaning in their 
interwoven branches and the protection  
they are giving at present2 but the     

poetic suggestion flashing afar over    
poem backwards and forwards is the true 
effect1 and may be dimmed by too much   
explanation4  ,such is this marvelous   
storm with its ship-wreck1 probably the 
first in literature1 but often made use 
of since4 ,the outer surges of the      
tempest are indeed terrific2 but the    
main interest is1 that along with this  
external description of the storm1 we   
witness the corresponding internal      
heaving and tossing of a human soul4    
,everywhere we notice that ,ulysses     
doubts at first1 doubts ,calypso1 doubts
 ,ino1 doubts even his final safety when
 on land4 ,he is the skeptical man1 he  
never fails to call up the possibilities
 on the other side4 ,though a ,god give 
the promise1 he knows that there are    
other ,gods who do not promise1 or may  
give a different promise to somebody    
else4 ,it is the experience of life1    
this touch of doubt at first2 it always 
accompanies the thinking man1 who1 like 
,ulysses1 must be aware of a negative   

counterpart even to truth4 ,not         
pleasant1 but painful is this doubt     
shooting through the soul1 and keeping  
it in distress and often in lamentation4
 ,so even the ,hero breaks out into     
unmanly complaint1 and reveals to the   
full his finite nature4  ,yet if        
,ulysses doubts1 he always overcomes his
 doubt in the end2 he sees the positive 
element in the world to be deeper than  
the negative one1 after a little access 
of weakness4 ,under his doubt is the    
deeper layer of faith1 so he never gives
 up1 but valiantly holds on and         
conquers4 ,the ,gods come to his aid    
when he believes and acts4 ,his         
intellect is doubt1 his will is faith3  
wherein we may trace important lines    
which unite him with ,faust1 the chief  
character in our last world-poem4       
,ulysses will complain1 and having freed
 his mind1 will go to work and conquer  
the obstacle4 ,he struggles with the    
billow1 clinging to the mast1 though he 
had just said3 ,now ,i shall die a      

miserable death4  ,parallel to this     
human side runs the divine side1 which  
we need not further describe here1 with 
its three water-deities4 ,a little      
attention we may give to the part of    
,pallas4 ,at one time she seems to      
control the outer world for her         
favorite1 sending the wind or stopping  
it2 then she is said to inform his mind 
with forecast1 that he may do the thing 
in spite of wind or other obstacle2     
finally he often does the deed without  
any divine suggestion1 acting through   
himself4 ,in these stages we can see a  
transition of the ,mythus4 ,the first   
stage is truly mythical1 in which the   
deity is the mover1 the second is less  
so1 the ,goddess having become almost   
wholly internal2 in the third stage the 
mythical is lost4 ,all these stages are 
in ,homer and in this ,book1 though the 
first is still paramount4  ,taking into 
view the general character of the       
mythical movement of this ,fifth ,book1 
we observe that there is a rise in it   

from a lower to a higher form2 ,calypso 
and ,neptune are intimately blended with
 their physical environments1 the island
 and the sea4 ,though elevated into     
persons1 they are still sunk in ,nature2
 it is the function of the ,hero1       
especially the wise man1 to subordinate 
both or to transcend both3 which is just
 what ,ulysses has done4 ,his ,mythus   
is1 therefore1 a higher one1 telling the
 story of the subjection of nature and  
of her ,gods4 ,this story marks one     
phase of his career4  ,the reader will  
probably be impressed with the fact that
 in the present ,book the stress is upon
 the discipline of the will4 ,the inner 
reactions of complaint1 doubt1 or       
despair turn against the deed1 to which 
,ulysses has to nerve himself by a      
supreme act of volition4 ,the world of  
,calypso is that of self-indulgence1    
inactivity1 will-lessness1 to which     
,ulysses has sunk after his sin against 
the source of light1 after his negation 
of all intelligence4 ,it is not simply  

sensuous gratification with the mind    
still whole and capable of resolution1  
as was the case with ,ulysses in the    
realm of ,circe1 in which he shows his  
will-power1 though coupled with         
indulgence4 ,such is the difference     
between ,calypso and ,circe1 which is   
always a problem with the reader4 ,in   
this way1 too1 we see how the ,fifth    
,book before us is a direct continuation
 and unfolding out of the ,twelfth      
,book4 ,indeed the very movement of the 
poem is significant1 which is a going   
backwards2 so ,ulysses drops far to the 
rear out of that light-loving ,island of
 the ,sun1 against which is his         
violation1 when he comes to ,ogygia4    
,but ,ulysses has now1 after long       
discipline1 transcended this sphere1 and
 has reached a new land1 of which the   
account is to follow next4     ,,book   
,,sixth4   ,we are now to make one of   
the chief transitions of the poem1 we   
are going to pass from the ,dark ,island
 and the stormy sea to ,phaeacia1 a     

bright1 sunlit land1 where reign peace  
and harmony4 ,moreover1 we move out of  
the realm of nature to that of          
institutions4 ,still more significant   
are the central figures of the two      
localities1 both women2 one of these we 
have seen1 ,calypso1 who is now to give 
way to ,nausicaa4  ,this ,book may1     
therefore1 be called ,nausicaa's ,book1 
as she is the leading character in it1  
imparting to it a marvelous mood of     
idyllic beauty and womanly purity4 ,she 
is the person chosen by the poet to     
introduce the ,hero into the new realm1 
,phaeacia1 being in sharp contrast to   
,calypso1 who detained ,ulysses in dark 
,ogygia away from his family1 and whose 
character was adverse to the domestic   
relation4 ,but ,nausicaa shows from the 
start the primal instinct of the true   
woman for the home4 ,she is still young1
 but she has arrived at that age in     
which she longs with every throb of her 
heart to surrender her own separate     
existence1 and to unite it with another4

 ,she manifests in all its              
attractiveness the primordial love of   
the woman for the ,family1 basis of all 
institutional life1 as well as fountain 
of the deepest joys of our terrestrial  
sojourn4  ,on this account she          
represents the place of ,phaeacia in the
 ,greek world as well as in the present 
poem2 perhaps we ought to add1 in the   
whole movement of civilization4 ,that   
land may be called the idyllic one1 a   
land of peace and of freedom from all   
struggle2 the borderland between the    
natural and the civilized spheres4 ,man 
has risen out of the grossness of mere  
sensuous individualism1 such as we see  
in ,polyphemus and in other shapes of   
,fairyland2 but he has not yet reached  
the conflicts of higher forms of society
 resulting from a pursuit of wealth1    
from ambition1 from war4 ,here is a     
quiet half-way house on the road from   
nature to civilization2 a sweet         
reposeful realm1 almost without any     
development of the negative forces of   

society2 a temporary stopping-place for 
,ulysses in his all-embracing career1   
also for individuals and nations in     
their rush forward to reach the great   
end4 ,the deep collisions of social life
 belong not to ,phaeacia1 nor to        
,nausicaa1 its ideal image4  ,it is the 
virgin land1 the virgin world1 which now
 has a young virgin as its central      
character and representative1 to mediate
 ,ulysses with itself1 the universal man
 who must also have the new experience4 
,still she is not all of ,phaeacia1 but 
its prelude1 its introductory form2     
moreover1 she is just the person to     
conduct ,ulysses out of his present     
forlorn condition of mind and body into 
a young fresh hope1 into a new world4   
,the ,calypso life is to be obliterated 
by the vision of the true woman and her 
instinctive devotion to the ,family4 ,we
 are aware that ,ulysses has not been   
contented with the ,dark ,island and its
 nymph1 he has had the longing to get   
away and has at last gotten away2 but to

 what has he come8 ,lost the one and not
 attained the other1 till he beholds    
,nausicaa1 who grasps him by the hand1  
as it were1 and delivers him wholly from
 ,calypso1 leading him forth to her     
home1 where he is to witness the central
 phase of domestic life1 the mother4    
,the organism of the ,book easily falls 
into two parts1 one of which portrays   
,nausicaa at home1 the other gives the  
meeting between her and ,ulysses4 ,yet  
over this human movement hovers always  
the divine1 ,pallas is the active       
supernal power which brings these events
 to pass1 introducing both the parts    
mentioned4 ,she is the providence which 
the poet never permits to drop out4     
,most deeply does the old singer's      
sincerity herein move the reader1 who   
must rise to the same elevation2        
,homer's loyalty is to faith1 faith in  
the ,divine ,order of the ,world1 for   
this is not suffered to go its way      
without a master spirit2 the individual1
 especially in his pivotal action1 is   

never left alone1 but he fits in        
somewhere2 the ,whole takes him up and  
directs him1 and adjusts him into the   
providential plan2 not simply from      
without but through himself4 ,such is   
this poet's loyalty to his ,idea2 he has
 faith1 deep1 genuine faith1 yet        
unostentatious1 quite unconventional at 
times2 a most refreshing1 yes1 edifying 
appearance to-day1 even for religious   
people1 though he be an old heathen4    
,such continual recurrence of the ,god's
 interference with the course of        
events--what does it mean8 ,this is     
unquestionably the fundamental problem  
with the earnest student of ,homer4 ,let
 us observe1 then1 first1 that the      
poet's principle is not to allow a      
divine intervention to degenerate into a
 merely external mechanical act2 himself
 full of the spirit of the ,god1 he puts
 the divine influence inside the        
individual as well as outside1 and thus 
preserves the latter's freedom in the   
providential order4 ,the faithful reader

 will never let these movements of the  
deity drop into mere machinery2 when he 
does1 he has lost the essence of ,homer4
 ,doubtless it requires an alert        
activity of mind to hold the ,gods      
always before the vision in their truth2
 they must be re-thought1 or indeed     
re-created every time they appear4 ,the 
somnolescent reader is only too ready to
 spare himself the poetic exaltation in 
which the old bard must be read1 if we  
would really see the divinities1 and    
grasp the spirit of their dealings with 
man4 ,speak not1 then1 of epical        
machinery in ,homer1 the word is        
misleading to the last degree1 is indeed
 libellous1 belieing the poet in the    
very soul of his art4  ,in the present  
,book there is not by any means as much 
divine intervention as in the preceding 
one2 we pass from the lower realm of the
 water-gods to that of ,pallas1 the     
goddess of intelligence1 who is the sole
 active divinity in this ,book4 ,she    
appears to ,nausicaa at the beginning in

 the form of a dream1 and bids the      
maiden look after some washing4 ,our    
first question is1 why call in a goddess
 for such a purpose8 ,the procedure     
seems trivial and unnecessary1 and so it
 would be under ordinary circumstances4 
,but through this humble and            
common-place duty ,nausicaa is made a   
link in the grand chain of the ,return  
of ,ulysses1 which is the divine plan   
underlying the whole poem1 and is       
specially the work of ,pallas4 ,to be   
sure this had no place in ,nausicaa's   
intention1 but it does have a place in  
the providential scheme1 which has1     
therefore1 to be voiced by the ,goddess4
 ,yet that scheme does not conflict with
 the free-will of the maiden1 which     
finds its fullest scope just in this    
household duty1 and brings out her      
character4 ,she reveals to ,ulysses her 
nature1 this is the occasion2 she had to
 be free to represent what she truly was
 to the much-experienced man4 ,an       
ordinary wash-day has little divinity in

 it1 but this one is filled with the    
divine plan4 ,thus small events1        
otherwise immediately forgotten1 may by 
a mighty co-incidence he elevated into  
the sphere of the ,world's ,history1 and
 become ever memorable4 ,that ,french   
soldier who threw a camp-kettle over the
 head of ,mirabeau's ancestor and thus  
saved him from being trampled to death  
by a passing troop of cavalry1 made     
himself a factor in the ,french         
,revolution1 and was inspired by whom1  
demon or angel8  ,as already hinted1 the
 structure of the ,book is determined by
 the two interventions of ,pallas1 which
 divide it into two portions2 these are 
shown in the following outline3--  ,i4  
7#a47 ,pallas appears to ,nausicaa in a 
dream1 and gives the                    
suggestion4      7#b47 ,nausicaa1 when  
she awakes1 obeys the suggestion and    
proceeds to the place of the washing4   
,,ii4 7#a47 ,ulysses also asleep1 lies  
in his cover not far from the           
same spot1 when ,pallas starts the plan 

for his waking4      7#b47 ,meeting of  
,ulysses and ,nausicaa1 and the going to
 the city4  ,in both parts we observe   
the same general method2 the divine     
influence1 beginning above1 moves below 
and weaves the mortal into its scheme   
through his own action4   ,i4  ,first is
 a short introduction giving a bit of   
the history of the ,phaeacians1 in which
 we catch a glimpse of their            
development4 ,they once dwelt near the  
,cyclops1 the wild men of nature1 from  
whom they moved away on account of      
injuries received2 they could live no   
longer in such a neighborhood4 ,here we 
note an important separation1 probably a
 change of life which leaves the ruder  
stage behind4 ,the colony is led forth  
to a new land by its hero1 who lays the 
foundation of a social order by building
 houses1 temples to the ,gods1 and a    
wall round the city1 and who divides the
 territory4 ,thus a civil polity begins 
by getting away from the insolent       
,cyclops or savages4 ,on the other hand1

 civilized enemies who might bring war1 
seem not to dwell near the ,phaeacians1 
beloved of the ,gods4 ,beyond all       
conflict1 inner and outer1 lies the     
fortunate realm2 it touches the happy   
mean between barbarism and civilization1
 though perchance on the road from      
former to latter2 at present1 however1  
it is without the evils which go before 
it and come after it4 ,as already       
stated1 it is an idyllic world1 life    
appears to be one continued festival1   
with song and dance of youth4 ,it is not
 real ,greece1 not ,ithaca1 which just  
now is a land of discord and conflict4  
,what the poet says of ,olympus in a    
famous passage a little further on in   
this book1 seems applicable1 in spirit  
at least1 to ,phaeacia3      ,the       
storm-wind shakes it not1 nor is it wet 
,by showers1 and there the snow doth    
never fall2     ,the calm clear ether is
 without a cloud1     ,and over all is  
spread a soft white sheen4  #a4 ,now    
comes the appearance of ,pallas1 who    

like a breath of wind approaches the    
couch of the maiden in slumber1 and     
admonishes her about the washing4 ,some 
such care the ,goddess does impose upon 
the housekeeper to this day1 and if     
report be true1 at times troubles her   
dreams4 ,it is indeed an important duty1
 this necessity of keeping the household
 and its members clean1 specially the   
men1 too often indifferent4 ,young      
,nausicaa1 just entering upon womanhood1
 is ready for the divine suggestion2    
plainly she has come to that age at     
which the ,goddess must speak to her on 
such matters4 ,so much for ,pallas at   
present4  #b4 ,therewith we touch       
another fact2 the maiden has reached the
 time when she must think1 of marriage1 
which she instinctively regards as her  
true destiny in life4 ,still it does not
 appear that she is betrothed though the
 noblest ,phaeacians are wooing thee4   
,in simple innocence there hovers in her
 mind the thought of ,family1 yet she   
shows a shy reserve even before her     

father4 ,with that sweet thought is     
joined the primary household care1 which
 naturally enough comes to her in a     
dream4 ,cleanliness is next to godliness
 is our modern saying2 it is certainly  
the outward visible token of purity1    
which ,nausicaa is going to bring into  
her domestic surroundings4 ,we may      
reasonably think that in the present    
scene the external deed and the internal
 character mirror each other4  ,it must 
be confessed1 however1 that to the      
modern woman wash-day1 blue ,monday1 is 
usually a day bringing an unpleasant    
mood1 if not positive terror4 ,she will 
often declare that she cannot enjoy this
 ,phaeacian idyl on account of its      
associations2 she refuses to accept in  
image what in real life is so           
disagreeable4 ,as a symbol of           
purification the thing may pass1 but no 
human being wishes to be purified too   
often4 ,nausicaa's occupation is not    
popular with her sex1 and she herself   
has not altogether escaped from a tinge 

of disrelish4  ,it is curious to note   
how customs endure4 ,what ,homer saw1   
the traveler in ,greece will see to-day 
wherever a stream runs near a village4  
,the ,nausicaas of the place1 daughters 
and mothers too1 will be found at the   
water's side1 going through this same   
,phaeacian process1 themselves in white 
garments even at their labor1 pounding1 
rubbing1 rinsing the white garments of  
their husbands1 brothers1 sons4 ,not    
without sympathy will the by-stander    
look on1 thinking that those efforts are
 to make clean themselves and their     
household1 life being in truth a        
continual cleansing for every human     
soul4 ,so ,hellas has still the         
appearance of an eternal wash-day4 7,see
 author's ,walk in ,hellas1 passim47    
,nausicaa obtains without difficulty    
wagon and mules and help of servants4   
,after all1 the affair is something of a
 frolic or outing2 when the task is     
done1 there is the bath1 the song1 and a
 game of ball4 ,it is worthy of notice  

that the word 7amaxa7 here used by old  
,homer for wagon1 may still be heard    
throughout ,greece for the same or a    
similar thing4 ,in the harbor of        
,piraeus the hackman will ask the       
traveler3 ,do you want my amaxa8 ,the   
dance 7choros71 is still the chief      
amusement of the ,greek villagers1 and1 
as in ,nausicaa's time1 the young man   
wishes to enter the dance with          
new-washed garments1 white as snow1     
whose folds ripple around his body in   
harmony with his graceful movements4    
,many an echo of ,phaeacia1 in language1
 custom and costume1 can be found in    
,greece at present1 indicating1 like the
 ,cyclopean masonry1 the solid and      
permanent substructure of ,homer's      
poetry1 still in place after more than  
#bejj years of wear and tear4   ,,ii4   
,the washing is done now1 the sport is  
over1 and the party is getting ready to 
go home2 but the main object is not yet 
accomplished4 ,ulysses and ,nausicaa are
 here to be brought together--the       

much-experienced man and the innocent   
maiden with her pure ethical instinct of
 ,family4 ,in many ways the two stand   
far asunder1 yet in one thing they are  
alike3 each is seeking the domestic     
relation1 each will consummate the bond 
of love which has two phases1 the one   
being after marriage and the other      
before marriage4 ,both are moving in    
their deepest nature toward the unity of
 the ,family1 though on different lines2
 ,ulysses and ,nausicaa have a common   
trait of character1 which will be       
sympathetically found by each and will  
bring them together4  ,i4 ,at this fresh
 turn of affairs there is an            
intervention of ,pallas1 not prolonged1 
but sufficient3 ,thereupon ,athena      
7,pallas7 planned other things1 that    
,ulysses should wake1 and see the       
fair-faced maiden who would conduct him 
to the city of the ,phaeacians4 ,the    
,goddess does not appear in person1 as  
the deities so often do in the ,iliad1  
nor does she take a mortal shape1 or    

move ,ulysses through a dream2 she      
simply brings about an incident1 natural
 enough1 to wake the sleeping hero4 ,why
 then introduce the ,goddess at all8    
,because the poet wishes to emphasize   
the fact that this simple incident is a 
link in the providential chain2         
otherwise it would have no mention4 ,the
 ball is thrown at one of the servants1 
it falls into the stream1 whereat there 
is an outcry--and ,ulysses wakes4  ,of  
course1 the latter had at first his     
usual fit of doubt and complaint1 just  
when the ,gods are helping him3 ,ah me6 
to what land have ,i come6 ,what men are
 here--wild1 insolent1 unjust1 or are   
they hospitable1 reverencing the ,gods8 
,i shall go forth and test the          
matter--and so by an act of will he     
rescues himself from inner brooding and 
finds out the truth4  #b4 ,now we are to
 witness the gradual outer approach     
between ,ulysses and ,nausicaa1 till it 
becomes internal1 and ends in a strong  
feeling of friendship if not in a warmer

 emotion4 ,the wanderer1 almost naked1  
with only a branch of thick leaves bound
 about his loins1 comes forth from his  
hiding place1 a frightful object to     
anybody1 a wild man apparently4  ,all   
the servants run1 but ,nausicaa stands  
her ground before the nude monster2     
being a ,princess she shows her noble   
blood1 and1 being innocent herself1 what
 can she he afraid of8 ,thus does the   
poet distinguish her spiritually among  
her attendants1 as a few lines before in
 the famous comparison with ,diana he   
distinguished her physically3 ,over all 
the rest are seen her head and brow1    
easily is she known among them1 though  
all are fair3 such was the spotless     
virgin mid her maids4 ,thus is hinted   
the outer and also the inner superiority
 which has now revealed itself in the   
,phaeacian ,princess4  ,henceforth a    
subtle interplay takes place between her
 and ,ulysses1 in which we observe three
 main stages3 ,first1 the wild man in   
appearance he steps forth1 yet he       

succeeds in touching her sympathy1      
wherein her charity is shown2 ,second1  
the transformed man1 now a ,god in      
appearance he becomes1 at whose view the
 maiden begins to show deep admiration1 
if not love2 ,third1 the passing of     
,ulysses to the city to which he is     
conducted by the maiden1 who also tells 
him how to reach the heart of the       
family1 namely1 the mother ,arete4 ,thus
 she seeks to mediate him with her      
country and her hearth4  7#a7 ,ulysses1 
issuing from his lair1 addresses her in 
a speech which shows superb skill on    
account of its gradual penetration to   
the soul of the fair hearer4 ,he praises
 first her external beauty with many a  
happy touch1 yet with an excess which   
seems to border on adulation4 ,this     
reaches her outer ear and bespeaks his  
good-will and gentleness at least4 ,then
 he strikes a deeper chord3 he mentions 
his sufferings1 those which are past1   
and forebodes those which are yet to be1
 perchance upon this shore4 ,therefore1 

,o ,princess1 have compassion1 since ,i 
have come to thee first2 none besides   
thee do ,i know in this land4 ,give me  
some old rag to throw around me1 some   
useless wrappage which you may have     
brought hither4 ,pathetic indeed is the 
appeal2 therewith comes sympathy1 the   
man is no wild ,cyclops1 whom all       
,phaeacians still remembered with       
terror1 but a victim of misfortune4     
,now comes the culmination of his       
speech1 which shows his keen insight    
into human nature1 as well as his own   
deepest longing3 ,may the ,gods grant   
thy heart's desire---husband1 home1 and 
wedded harmony4 ,with this praise of    
domestic life upon his lips he has      
touched the profoundest chord of her    
heart2 he has divined her secretest yet 
strongest instinct1 and has appealed to 
it in deep emotion4 ,yet mark6 in the   
same general direction lies his own     
dearest hope3 he also will return home1 
to wife and family4 ,thus he has found  
the common meeting-place of their souls2

 the two strike the absolutely          
concordant note and are one in          
feeling--he the husband1 she the maiden4
  ,in her answer she expresses her      
strong sympathy1 her words indeed rise  
into the realm of charity4 ,it is no    
mark of baseness to be unfortunate2 but 
these must endure1 what ,zeus lays upon 
them4 ,such is the exhortation of the   
young maiden to the much-enduring man2  
she has divined too the ground-work of  
his character4 ,but now1 since thou hast
 come to our land1 thou shalt not want  
for garment or anything else proper for 
the needy suppliant4 ,then she recalls  
her attendants1 reproving them for their
 flight1 and orders them to give to     
,ulysses food and drink1 oil to be used 
after bathing1 and ample raiment4 ,nor  
should we pass by that other expression 
of hers3 all strangers and the poor are 
,jove's own1 under the special          
protection of the ,supreme ,god1 who    
will avenge their disregard4 ,such is   
this ideal world of ,phaeacia1 still    

ideal to-day2 for where is it realized8 
,the old poet has cast the imago of a   
society which we are still trying to    
embody4 ,well can she say that the      
,phaeacians dwell far apart from the    
rest of the nations1 nor does any mortal
 hold intercourse with us4 ,thus1 too1  
she marks unconsciously the limit of her
 people4  7#b7 ,the reader1 along with  
,nausicaa1 is to see the transformation 
of the beggarly wanderer1 who1 having   
taken his bath and put on his raiment1  
comes forth like a ,god4 ,this is said  
to be the work of ,pallas1 who caused   
him to appear taller and more powerful1 
with flowing locks1 like the hyacinth4  
,he becomes plastic in form1 beautiful  
as a statue1 into which the divine soul 
has been transfused by the artist4 ,such
 a transforming power lies within him1  
yet is granted also by a deity2 the     
godlike in the man now takes on a       
bodily1 or rather a sculpturesque       
appearance1 and prophesies ,greek       
plastic art4  ,the echo of this change  

is heard in the words of the maiden3    
,hear me attendants2 not without the    
will of the ,olympians does this man    
come to us2 lately ,i thought him       
unseemly1 now he is like the ,gods who  
hold the broad ,heavens4 ,such is her   
lively admiration now1 but what means   
this8 ,would that such a man might be   
called my husband1 dwelling here in     
,phaeacia6 ,that note is indeed deeper  
than admiration4  7#c7 ,the third phase 
of this little play is the bringing of  
,ulysses to the city and home of        
,nausicaa4 ,he1 having satisfied his    
hunger1 and being ready to start1       
receives some advice from the maiden1   
who seeks to conduct him at once to the 
center of the home4 ,they will pass     
first through the outlying country1     
which shows cultivation2 then they will 
go up into the city1 with its lofty     
tower and double harbor2 the seafaring  
character of the people is especially   
set forth by ,nausicaa1 whose name is   
derived from the ,greek word for a ship4

 ,particularly we must notice her fear  
of gossip1 which also existed in        
,phaeacia1 ideal though the land was4   
,she must not be seen with ,ulysses2 men
 with evil tongues would say3 ,what     
stranger is this following ,nausicaa8   
,now she will have a husband4 ,the sharp
 eye of ,goethe detected in this passage
 the true motive2 it is love1 always    
having the tendency to deny itself1     
which dictates so carefully this        
avoidance of public report2 the thing   
must not be said just because there is  
good reason for saying it4 ,her         
solicitude betrays her feeling4 ,in pure
 simplicity of heart she pays the       
supreme compliment to ,ulysses1 likening
 him indirectly to a ,god called down   
from ,heaven by her prayers1 to live    
with her all her days4 ,still further   
she intimates in the same passage1 that 
many noble suitors woo her1 but she     
treats them with disdain1 they are      
,phaeacians4 ,to be sure she puts these 
words into the mouth of a gossipy and   

somewhat disgruntled countryman1 but    
they come round to their mark like a    
boomerang4 ,does she not thus announce  
to the much-enduring man that she is    
free1 though under a good deal of       
pressure8 ,all this is done in such an  
artless way1 that it becomes the highest
 art--something which she does not      
intend but cannot help4 ,surely such a  
speech from such a source ought to repay
 him for suffering shipwreck and for ten
 years' wandering4  ,we cannot1         
therefore1 think of calling this passage
 spurious1 with some critics both       
ancient and modern4 ,the complaint      
against it is that the young ,phaeacian 
lady shows here too much reflection1 in 
conjunction with a tendency to sarcasm  
foreign to her life4 ,but we find it    
eminently unreflective and naive2 the   
very point of the passage is that she   
unconsciously reveals the deepest hidden
 thought and purpose of her heart to    
,ulysses4 ,with all her being she must  
move toward the ,family1 she would not  

be herself unless she did2 yet how      
completely she preserves modesty and    
simple-heartedness6 ,nor is the         
sarcastic tinge foreign to young girls4 
,so we shall have to set aside the      
objections of ,aristarchus the old      
,greek1 and ,faesi the modern ,german1  
commentator4  ,but the final instruction
 of ,nausicaa is the most interesting2  
the suppliant is not to go to the father
 but to the mother4 ,nay1 he is to pass 
by my father's throne and clasp my      
mother's knees1 in token of             
supplication2 then he may see the day of
 return4 ,herein we may behold in       
general1 the honored place of the mother
 as the center of the ,family1 its      
heart1 as it were1 full of the tender   
feelings of compassion and mercy4 ,in   
the father and king1 on the other hand1 
is the man of the ,state with its       
inflexible justice1 often putting aside 
sympathy and commiseration with         
misfortune4 ,the woman's heart may      
indeed be called the heart of the world1

 recognized here by the old poet and his
 ,phaeacians4  ,this mother1 however1 is
 in herself a great character2 she is   
next to have a ,book of her own1 which  
will more fully set forth her position4 
,the character of ,nausicaa1 as here    
unfolded in the ancient poet1 has       
captivated many generations of readers  
since ,homer began to be read4 ,the     
story has lived and renewed itself in   
manifold forms2 it has that highest     
power of a genuine mythus1 it produces  
itself through all ages1 taking on a    
fresh vesture in ,time4 ,in old ,hellas 
the tale of ,nausicaa was wrought over  
into various shapes after ,homer2 it was
 transformed into a drama1 love-story1  
as well as idyl4 ,the myth-making spirit
 did not let it drop1 but kept unfolding
 it2 later legend1 for instance1 brought
 about a marriage between ,telemachus   
and ,nausicaa4 ,our recent greatest     
poet1 ,goethe1 also responded mightily  
to the story of ,nausicaa2 he planned a 
drama on the subject1 of which the      

outline is to be found in his published 
works4 ,he did not find time to finish  
his poem1 but there is evidence that he 
thought much about it and carried it    
around with him1 for a long period4 ,one
 regrets that the ,german poet was not  
able to give this new transformation of 
his ancient ,greek brother1 with whom he
 has manifested on so many lines an     
intimate connection and poetical        
kinship4 ,in portions of the ,italian   
,journey specially we see how deeply the
 ,odyssey was moving him and how he was 
almost on the point of reproducing the  
whole poem with its marine scenery4 ,but
 ,nausicaa in particular fascinated him1
 and it would have been the best        
commentary on the present ,book to have 
seen her in a now grand poetic epiphany 
in the modern drama of ,goethe4         
,,book ,,seventh4   ,if the last ,book  
was ,nausicaa's1 this one is ,arete's2  
there is the transition from the        
daughter to the mother1 from the maiden 
to the wife4 ,still it is not quite so  

emphatically a woman's ,book1 since the 
wife has to include the husband in her  
world4 ,ulysses now goes to the center  
of the ,family1 to its heart1 that he   
may meet with compassion4 ,still she    
withholds her sympathy at first for a   
good reason2 ,arete is not wholly       
impulse and feeling1 she has thought1   
reflection4 ,so1 after all1 it is left  
to the men to take up the suppliant4    
,very surprising to us moderns is the   
picture drawn by the old ,greek poet of 
this woman1 and of her position3 the    
people look upon her as a ,god when she 
goes through the city2 her mind is      
especially praised2 she has a judicial  
character1 supposed usually to be alien 
to women3 she decides controversies     
among men1 or perchance harmonizes them4
 ,to be sure her position is stated as  
exceptional3 her husband honors her1 as 
no other woman on earth is honored2 she 
is evidently his counselor as well as   
wife4 ,thus the poet would have us      
regard ,arete not merely as a person of 

kind feelings and of sweet womanly      
instincts1 but she has also the highest 
order of intelligence2 she is united    
with her husband in head as well as in  
heart1 perchance overtopping him in     
ability4 ,not domestic simply is the    
picture1 it rises into the political    
sphere1 even into the administration of 
justice4  ,is the character of the      
woman1 as thus set forth1 possibly a    
thousand years before ,christ1 by a     
heathen poet in an uncivilized age      
comparatively1 to be a prophecy unto us 
still at this late date8 ,certainly the 
most advanced woman of to-day in the    
most advanced part of the world as      
regards her opportunities1 has hardly   
reached the height of ,arete4           
,unquestionably a glorious ideal is set 
up before the ,sisterhood of all time   
for emulation2 or is it unattainable8   
,at any rate the woman in ,homer stands 
far in advance of her later historical  
position in ,greece4  ,we may now turn  
to the husband for a moment1 ,alcinous  

the ,king1 the man of civil authority   
who represents the ,state1 whose        
function is to be the protector of the  
,family and of whomever the family      
receives into its bosom rightfully4 ,he 
is the element surrounding and guarding 
the warm domestic center2 still he seems
 to have stronger impulses1 or probably 
less governed1 than his wife4           
,distinctly is the superiority accorded 
to the woman in this discourse of       
,pallas to ,ulysses2 possibly the       
,goddess may have overdrawn the picture 
a little in favor of her sex1 as really 
,alcinous becomes the more prominent    
figure later one4  ,so we catch a very  
fascinating glimpse of the ,phaeacian   
world4 ,two prominent characters        
representing the two great institutions 
of man1 ,family and ,state1 we witness2 
thus is the spirit of the whole poem    
ethical4 ,here is no longer the realm of
 ,calypso1 the nymph of wild untrained  
nature1 but the clear sunlit prospect of
 home and country1 the anticipation of  

sunny ,ithaca and prudent ,penelope to  
the hapless sufferer4 ,ulysses sees his 
own land in the image of ,phaeacia1 sees
 what he is to make out of his own      
island4 ,verily it is a great and       
epoch-making experience for him just    
before his return2 he finds the ideal   
here which he is to realize4            
,accordingly we have in line three      
women1 ,calypso1 ,nausicaa1 ,arete1     
through whose spheres ,ulysses has      
passed on his way to his own female     
counterpart1 ,penelope4 ,we may see in  
them phases of man's development out of 
a sensuous into an institutional life4  
,nor is the suggestion too remote that  
we may trace in this movement certain   
outlines in the progress of mankind     
toward civilization4  ,in the mythical  
history of ,phaeacia which is also here 
given1 we can observe the same          
development suggested with greater      
distinctness4 ,already in the previous  
,book it was stated that the ,phaeacians
 at first dwelt near the insolent       

,cyclops1 from whom they had to make the
 removal to their present island on     
account of violence done them by their  
neighbors4 ,but now we hear that both   
,alcinous and ,arete are descended on   
one side from the daughter of ,king     
,eurymedon1 who ruled over the arrogant 
race of ,giants1 all of whom1 both king 
and wicked people1 had perished4 ,on the
 other side the royal pair had the      
sea-god ,neptune as their progenitor who
 was also the father of the ,cyclops    
,polyphemus4 ,it is impossible to       
mistake the meaning of this genealogy   
and the reason of its introduction at   
the present conjuncture4 ,the           
,phaeacians likewise were sprung of the 
wild men of nature1 and had been at one 
time savages2 but they had changed1 had 
separated from their primitive kindred  
and begun the march of civilization4    
,the poet has manifestly before his mind
 this question3 why does one branch of  
the same people develop1 and another    
branch lag behind2 why1 of two brothers1

 does one become civilized and the other
 remain savage8 ,of this dualism ,greece
 would furnish many striking            
illustrations1 whereof the difference   
between ,athena and ,sparta is the best 
known4 ,here the change from the        
locality of the ,cyclops1 implying also 
the change in spirit1 is made by a      
hero-king1 the large-souled ,nausithous1
 evidently a very important man to the  
,phaeacians4 ,then this respect given to
 the woman has often been noted as both 
the sign and the cause of a higher      
development of a people4 ,at any rate   
the ,phaeacians have made the great     
transition from savagery to             
civilization1 and thus reveal the       
inherent possibilities of the race4  ,we
 now begin to catch a hint of the sweep 
of the poem in these portions4 ,ulysses 
who has lapsed or at least has become   
separated from his institutional life1  
must travel back to the same through the
 whole rise of society2 he has to see   
its becoming in his own experience1 and 

to a degree create it over again in his 
own soul1 having lost it4 ,hence the    
evolution of the social organism passes 
before his eyes1 embodied in a series of
 persons and places4  ,in this ,seventh 
,book1 therefore1 ,ulysses is to make   
the transition to ,family and ,state as 
shown in ,phaeacia1 and as represented  
by ,arete and ,alcinous4 ,we shall mark 
three leading divisions3--  ,i4 ,ulysses
 enters the city in the dark1 when he is
 met by ,pallas and receives her        
instructions4 ,the divine principle     
again comes down and directs4  ,,ii4    
,the external side of this ,phaeacian   
world is shown in the city1 garden1 and 
palace of the king2 nature is           
transformed and made beautiful for man4 
,all this ,ulysses now beholds4  ,,iii4 
,the internal side of this ,phaeacian   
world1 its spiritual essence1 is shown  
in the domestic and civil life of the   
rulers and nobles2 of this also ,ulysses
 is the spectator1 recognizing and      
appropriating4  ,thus we see in the     

,book the movement from the divine to   
the human1 which we have so often before
 noticed in ,homer4 ,the three parts we 
may well put together into a whole3 the 
,goddess of ,intelligence informs the   
mind of man1 which then transforms      
nature and builds institutions4 ,here   
,pallas simply directs ,ulysses1 who1   
however1 is now to witness the works of 
mind done in ,phaeacia1 to recognize    
them and to take them up into his       
spirit4   ,i4  ,ulysses follows the     
direction of ,nausicaa and passes to the
 city stealthily in a kind of           
concealment2 ,pallas threw a divine mist
 over him1 the ,goddess now having the  
matter in hand4 ,moreover she appeared  
to him in the shape of a young girl with
 a pitcher1 who points out the house of 
,alcinous and gives him many a precious 
bit of history in her prattle4 ,again we
 must see what this divine intervention 
means2 ,pallas is in him as well as     
outside of him4 ,these are suggestions  
of his own ingenuity on the one hand1   

yet also the voice of the situation2    
indeed he knew them essentially already 
from the instructions of ,nausicaa4     
,still further1 they are now a part of  
the grand scheme1 which is in the       
,olympian order1 and hence is voiced by 
the ,gods4  ,the poet introduces his    
mythical forms2 we hear also the        
fabulous genealogy of the ,phaeacian    
rulers1 the meaning of which has been   
above set forth4 ,they1 too1 ,arete and 
,alcinous1 have come from the ,cyclops1 
and have made the same journey as       
,ulysses1 though in a different manner4 
,it must be remembered that he has had  
his struggle with the giant ,polyphemus1
 one of the ,cyclops1 whereof he will   
hereafter give the account4 ,but the    
chief matter of the communication of    
,pallas is to define to ,ulysses the    
position and character of ,arete1       
evidently a woman after her own heart4  
,in this way the ,goddess1 taking the   
part of a prattling maid1 gives the     
royal pedigree1 and especially dwells on

 the importance of the queen4 ,also she 
throws side glances into the peculiar   
disposition of the ,phaeacians1 needful 
to be known to the new-comer4 ,they are 
a people by themselves1 distrustful of  
other peoples2 they too must be         
transcended4  ,it is well at this point 
to observe ,homer's procedure in regard 
to ,pallas4 ,we can distinguish two     
different ways of employing the         
,goddess4 ,the poet says that ,pallas   
gives to the ,phaeacian women surpassing
 skill in the art of weaving4 ,this is  
almost allegorical1 if not quite2 the   
,goddess stands for a quality of mind1  
is subjective4 ,again1 when she endows  
,ulysses with forecast in an emergency1 
it is only another statement for his    
mental prevision4 ,many such expressions
 we can find in the ,odyssey2 ,pallas is
 becoming a formula1 indicating simply  
some activity of mind in the individual4
 ,but in the important places the       
,goddess is kept mythical2 that is1 she 
voices the ,divine ,order1 she utters   

the grand ethical purpose of the poem1  
or makes herself a vital part thereof4  
,thus she is objective1 truly mythical2 
in the other case she is subjective and 
is getting to be an allegorical figure4 
,the ,odyssey1 with its greater         
internality compared with the ,iliad1 is
 losing the mythus4  ,there is a third  
way of using ,pallas and the ,gods which
 is hardly found in ,homer1 indeed could
 not be found to any extent without     
destroying him4 ,this is the external   
way of employing the deities1 who appear
 wholly on the outside and give their   
command to mortals1 or influence them by
 divine authority alone4 ,thus the ,gods
 become mechanical1 and are not a       
spiritual element of the human soul4    
,virgil leaves such an impression1 and  
the ,roman poets generally4 ,even the   
,greek tragic poets are not free from   
it2 especially ,euripides is chargeable 
with this sin1 which is called in       
dramatic language ,deus ex machina4     
,though the ,homeric poems as wholes are

 not allegories1 yet they have allegory 
playing into them4 ,indeed the mythus   
has an inherent tendency to pitch over  
into allegory through culture4 ,then    
there is a reaction1 the mythical spirit
 must assert itself even among civilized
 peoples1 since allegorized ,gods are   
felt to be hollow abstractions1 having  
nothing divine about them4  ,there can  
hardly be a doubt that a proper         
conception of the relation of the       
deities to men is the most important    
matter for the student of ,homer4 ,but  
it requires an incessant alertness of   
mind to see the ,homeric ,gods when they
 appear to the mortal1 and to observe   
that they are not always the same1 that 
they too are in the process of          
evolution4 ,for instance1 in the present
 ,book as well as elsewhere1 ,pallas    
must be noted as having two characters1 
a mythical and allegorical1 as above    
unfolded4 ,nitzsch1 whose commentary on 
the ,odyssey1 though getting a little   
antiquated1 is still the best probably1 

because it grapples with so many real   
problems of the poem1 says3 ,it is      
wholly in ,homer's manner to represent1 
in the form of a conversation with      
,pallas1 what the wise man turns over in
 his own mind and resolves all to       
himself 7,anmerkungen zu ,homer's       
,odyssee1 ,band ,,ii1 ,s4 #acg74 ,very  
true1 yet on the next page ,nitzsch says
 that it is entirely wrong to suppose   
that ,pallas represents the wisdom of   
,ulysses allegorically4 ,but what else  
is allegory but this embodiment of      
subjective wisdom8 ,now ,nitzsch truly  
feels that ,pallas is something         
altogether more than an allegory1 but he
 has failed to grasp distinctly her     
mythical character1 the objective side  
of the ,goddess1 and so gets confused   
and self-contradictory4  ,one of the    
best books ever written on ,homer is    
,naegelsbach's ,homerische ,theologie1  
which also wrestles with the most vital 
questions of the poem4 ,but             
,naegelsbach's stress is almost wholly  

on the side of the ,gods1 he seems to   
have the smallest vision for beholding  
the free1 self-acting man in ,homer4 ,in
 his first chapter 7die ,gottheit1 the  
,godhead7 he recognizes the ,gods as the
 upholders and directors of the ,supreme
 ,order 7sec4 #bh72 also they determine1
 or rather create 7schaffen7 man's      
thought and will 7sec4 #db74 ,what1     
then1 is left for the poor mortal8 ,of  
course1 such a view is at variance with 
,homer in hundreds of passages 7see     
especially the speech of ,zeus with     
which the action of the ,odyssey starts1
 and in which the highest ,god asserts  
the free-will and hence the             
responsibility of the man74 ,naegelsbach
 himself suspects at times that         
something is wrong with his view and    
hedges here and there by means of some  
limiting clauses2 note in particular    
what he says about ,ulysses 7sec4 #ca71 
who is an exception1 being thrown upon  
his own resources in cases of extreme   
need1 without the customary intervention

 of the ,gods4 ,but the man in his      
freedom1 who co-operates with the ,god  
in the providential order1 is often     
brought before the reader in the ,iliad 
as well as in the ,odyssey 7see author's
 ,com4 on the ,iliad1 pp4 #abi1 #aeg1   
#baf1 etc474   ,,ii4  ,we now come to   
one of the most famous passages in      
,homer1 describing the palace and garden
 of ,alcinous4 ,first of all1 we must   
deem it the outer setting of this       
,phaeacian world with its spirit and    
institutions1 the framework of nature   
transformed which takes its character   
from within4 ,civilized life assumes an 
external appearance corresponding to    
itself2 it remodels the physical world  
after its own pattern4 ,the result is1  
this garden is in striking contrast with
 the bower of ,calypso1 which is almost 
a wild product of nature4 ,the two      
localities are mirrored surrounding each
 home respectively4 ,again we observe   
how ,homer employs the description of   
scenery3 he makes it reflect the soul as

 its center4  ,in a certain sense we may
 connect these ,phaeacian works with    
,pallas1 who has directed ,ulysses      
hither2 they are the works of           
intelligence4 ,the arts and the         
industries spring up through the        
transformation of nature4 ,here is first
 noted the palace of the king with      
certain hints of its materials and      
construction2 especially have the metals
 been wrought and applied to human uses4
 ,gold1 silver1 steel1 brass or bronze  
are mentioned in connection with the    
palace and its marvelous contents4 ,thus
 an ideal sense of architecture we note2
 still more strongly indicated is the   
feeling for sculpture1 the supreme      
,greek art4 ,those gold and silver      
watch-dogs at the entrance1 which       
,vulcan made by his skill1 deathless and
 ageless for all time2 those golden boys
 upon their well-built pedestals holding
 lighted torches in their hands are     
verily indications that the plastic     
artist has already appeared4 ,the naive 

expression of life which the old poet   
gives to the sculpturesque shapes in the
 palace of ,alcinous1 is fresh as the   
first look upon a new world1 which is   
indeed now rising4  ,but not only the   
,fine ,arts1 the ,industries also are   
touched upon4 ,weaving is specially     
emphasized along with navigation1 one   
being the ,phaeacian woman's and the    
other being the ,phaeacian man's most   
skillful work4 ,other occupations are   
involved in these two4 ,thus is marked  
the beginning of an industrial society4 
,after the palace the garden is         
described with its cultivated           
fruit-trees--pear1 pomegranate1         
apples--a good orchard for to-day4 ,of  
course the vineyard could not be left   
out1 being so important to the ,greek2  
three forms of its products are         
mentioned--the grape1 the raisin1 and   
wine4 ,finally the last part is set off 
for kitchen vegetables1 though some     
translators think that it was for       
flowers4 ,nor must we omit the two      

fountains1 such as often spout up and   
run through the ,greek village of the   
present time4  ,undoubtedly fabulous    
threads are spun through this           
description4 ,quite too lavish a use is 
made of the precious metals in the house
 of ,alcinous1 as in some fairy tale or 
romantic ballad2 so much gold is found  
nowhere outside of wonderland4 ,in the  
garden fruit is never wanting1 some of  
it just ripe1 some still green1 some in 
flower4 ,no change of season1 yet the   
effect of all seasons2 surely a         
marvelous country it appears2 still we  
learn that in ,campania are some sorts  
of grapes which produce thrice a year4  
,a mythical garden is indeed the delight
 of human fancy4 ,eden has its          
counterparts everywhere4 ,indeed a      
significant parallel might be drawn     
between ,greek ,phaeacia and the ,hebrew
 ,paradise2 in the one1 man unfolds out 
of savagery1 in the other he is created 
at once by a divine act4 ,can we not see
 ,orient and ,occident imaging          

themselves in their respective ideal    
products8 ,the one from below upwards1  
the other from above downwards2 both    
movements1 the ,greek and the ,hebrew1  
belong to man1 and have entered into his
 civilization4 ,the next world-poet1    
,dante1 will unite the two streams4     
,,iii4  ,ulysses now comes to the       
internal element of ,phaeacia1 to its   
soul as it were1 manifested in the      
institutional life of ,family and       
,state4 ,from this indeed is derived the
 beautiful world which we have just     
witnessed2 ,art builds up a             
dwelling-place1 which images the spirit 
of the people to themselves and to      
others4  ,in accord with his            
instructions from both4 ,pallas and     
,nausicaa1 he first goes to ,arete and  
clasps her knees in supplication1       
begging for an escort to his country4   
,but behold6 ,she hesitates1            
notwithstanding his strong appeal to her
 domestic feeling and her sympathy with 
suffering4 ,what can be the matter8     

,another ,phaeacian1 not of the royal   
house apparently1 but of the nobles1 is 
the first to speak and command the      
stranger to be raised up and to be      
hospitably received4 ,an old religious  
man who sees the neglect of ,zeus in the
 neglect of the suppliant1 a man of long
 experience1 knowing things many and    
ancient1 is this ,echeneus2 him at once 
the king obeys1 the queen still         
remaining silent4  ,soon1 however1 we   
catch the reason of her conduct in the  
question3 ,stranger1 where did you get  
those garments8 ,she noticed ,ulysses   
wearing the mantle and tunic which she  
herself had made with her servants1 and 
which ,nausicaa had given him4 ,surely  
this is a matter which must be accounted
 for before proceeding further4 ,herein 
the woman comes out in her own peculiar 
province2 no man would ever have noticed
 the dress so closely2 ,alcinous did    
not1 and wise ,ulysses in this case did 
not forecast so far out of his masculine
 domain4 ,but the poet had made the     

subtle observation and uses it as a     
turning-point in his little drama4 ,now 
we see the queen before us3 imagine a   
pair of dark eyes shooting indignation  
upon the man clothed with garments      
intrusted this very morning to the      
daughter4  ,nor should we fail to scan  
her second question3 ,do you not say    
that you have come hither a wanderer    
over the deep8 ,verily the case is      
suspicious4 ,ulysses sees his plight1   
and at once offers the most elaborate   
explanation1 going back and giving a    
history of himself for the last seven or
 eight years4 ,now we know why the poet 
specially praised the mind of ,arete1   
and why her husband so honored her1 and 
why she could be judge of disputes among
 men4 ,she shows the keenest observation
 united with reasoning power2 she stands
 out in contrast with the ,phaeacian    
men1 who follow impulse more readily    
than she1 as she keeps the judicial     
balance1 though a woman1 and demands    
evidence of truth from the uncertain    

stranger4  ,we may draw from this scene 
certain traits of the ,phaeacians1 as we
 see here a man1 a typical man probably 
who is outside of the royal family4 ,an 
ideal humanity seems to live in them2   
they will receive the unfortunate       
wanderer and succor him to the fullest  
extent4 ,more impressive still is their 
religious faith2 they live in intimate  
communion with the ,gods1 who appear in 
person at the feast sitting among us2   
nor do the deities conceal themselves   
from the solitary wayfarer2 since we are
 as near to them as are the ,cyclops and
 the wild tribes of ,giants4 ,so speaks 
,alcinous1 hinting that kinship1 which  
has been previously set forth2 both     
himself and ,arete are the descendants  
of savages1 who were children of the    
,gods of nature4 ,but they have risen   
into fellowship with the higher ,gods of
 ,olympus4 ,the words of the king seemed
 to be tinged with sarcasm at those     
inferior deities1 parents of savagery1  
from whom1 however1 they themselves are 

sprung4 ,he cannot forget the ,cyclops1 
the men of violence who once did his    
people wrong4  ,in these mythical       
allusions1 obscure enough just here1 we 
have already traced the rise of         
,phaeacia into an ethical existence4    
,the worship of the higher ,gods is the 
emotional side of such a condition1 and 
the treatment of the suppliant marks an 
advance toward the conception of an     
universal humanity4 ,still ,phaeacia1   
has its spiritual limits1 genuine ,greek
 limits1 of which hereafter something   
will be said4  ,it is sufficient to     
state that the speech of ,ulysses has   
its effect1 it contains a great deal    
which appeals to the character of       
,arete2 his leaving ,calypso and his    
desire to return to his home-life must  
be powerful motives towards winning her 
sympathy4 ,then she cannot help         
recognizing and admiring his skill2     
there is an intellectual bond between   
them1 as well as an ethical one4 ,not   
much does she say hereafter1 her part   

being finished2 her husband takes the   
lead henceforth4 ,she has tested the    
wanderer1 ,alcinous can now preform the 
ceremonies4  ,we soon see that the king 
needs a counterpart in such a wife1 he  
being impulsively generous2 he blames   
his daughter for her backwardness in not
 coming to town with ,ulysses1 whereat  
the latter frames one of his smallest   
fibs in excuse of the maiden4 ,still    
further1 the king in a surprising burst 
of admiration1 wishes that ,ulysses1 or 
such an one as thou art1 might stay and 
be called his son-in-law4 ,altogether   
too sudden2 ,arete would not have said  
that1 though the woman be the natural   
match-maker4 ,still ,alcinous1 in a     
counter-outpouring of his generosity1   
promises to send ,ulysses to his own    
land1 though this should be further off 
than ,euboea1 the most distant country4 
,thus overflows the noble heart of the  
king1 but he clearly needs his other    
half1 in the thorny journey of life4    
,thus has ,ulysses reached the heart of 

,phaeacia and found its secret beat2 he 
has felt its saving power1 not simply   
externally but also internally2 it      
rescues him from dangers of the sea and 
of himself too4 ,the truly positive side
 of life begins to dawn upon him again1 
after his long career of struggle with  
dark fabulous shapes4 ,well may he pray 
,zeus for ,alcinous3 ,may his fame be   
immortal over the fertile earth--a      
prayer which has been fulfilled1 and is 
still in the process of fulfillment4    
,arete gives the order to the servants  
to spread his couch for the night's     
repose1 she has received him4  ,in the  
sweep of the present ,book1 many origins
 are suggested4 ,the genealogy of the   
king and queen and people is            
significant1 it might be called the     
genealogy of civilization4 ,the woman is
 placed at the center2 out of her       
springs the family1 and with it come    
society1 state1 the institutional world4
  ,of such a world the external         
environment is seen in the garden1      

palace1 and city of the ,phaeacians1    
which are built by the spirit for its   
dwelling-place and reflect the spirit4  
,the ,greek world of ,beauty is born1   
and its course is foreshadowed2 this    
ideal ,homeric realm is prophetic of    
what ,greece is to become4 ,the plastic 
arts and the industrial arts are        
suggested1 and to a degree are realized4
  ,the artistic soul of ,hellas is fully
 felt in ,homer's ,phaeacia4 ,the       
formative impulse is everywhere alive   
and at work2 the instinctive need of    
shaping and transforming nature and life
 is here in its first budding1 and will 
bloom into the greatest art-people of   
all time4 ,those two supreme ,fine ,arts
 of mature ,greece1 ,architecture and   
,sculpture1 are present in examples     
which foretell plainly ,phidias and the 
,parthenon4      ,king ,alcinous2 thy   
fair palace has had fairer offspring1   
,thou art ruling the world still by the 
beautiful form2     ,out of thy mansion 
majestic was born in a song the ,greek  

,temple1       ,sentineled round with a 
choir--,titans columnar of stone1       
,bearing forever their burden to hymns  
of a ,parian measure1       ,wearing out
 heaviest ,fate to a ,pindaric high     
strain4     ,look6 those boys of thy    
garden with tapers are moving to        
statues1       ,seeming to walk into    
stone while they are bringing the light2
     ,hellas springs out of thy palace  
all sculptured with actions             
heroic1       ,even the ,god we discern 
turning to marble by faith4  ,such is   
the originative1 prophetic character of 
,phaeacia1 which the reader must take   
profoundly into his soul1 if he would   
understand the genetic history of ,greek
 spirit4 ,verily the poet is the maker  
of archetypes and reveals in his shapes 
all that his people are to become4      
,thou1 old ,homer1 wert the first       
builder in ,greece1 the first           
carver1       ,afterward she could but  
turn fancies of thine into stone2       
,architects followed thee1 building thy 

poem aloft into temples1                
,sculptors followed thee too1 thinking  
in marble thy line4  ,nor must we forget
 the ,industrial ,arts here             
suggested--weaving1 ship-building1 the  
working of metals2 in general1 there is 
hinted the varied transformation of     
nature1 which begets a civilized life4  
,agriculture is present1 also           
horticulture1 which the garden of       
,alcinous presupposes4 ,such1 then1 is  
the grand frame-work for the social     
order as here portrayed4  ,but the chief
 art of the ,homeric world has not yet  
been given1 though it is at work now1   
and is just that which has reproduced   
,phaeacia with all its beauty4 ,this is 
the poet's own art1 which having set    
forth the other arts1 is next to set    
forth itself4 ,accordingly we are to see
 the poet showing the poet in the       
following ,book1 which may1 therefore1  
be named the ,book of the ,bard4 ,thus  
we pass out of the industrial and       
plastic arts of ,phaeacia1 into the     

supreme art1 the poetic1 as it manifests
 itself in the ,phaeacian singer4       
,,book ,,eighth4   ,we observe a decided
 change in the present ,book2 it has a  
character of its own quite distinct from
 the preceding ,books4 ,yet it is on a  
line of development with them1 we note a
 further spiritual evolution which must 
be looked into with some attention4 ,in 
general1 ,phaeacia is now seen as an    
art-world1 in true correspondence with  
,hellas1 of which it is a kind of ideal 
prototype4 ,in the two previous ,books  
we saw portrayed chiefly institutional  
life in ,family and in ,state4 ,but in  
this ,book institutional life1 though   
present and active1 is withdrawn into   
the background1 and becomes the setting 
for the picture1 yet also is the spirit 
which secretly calls forth the picture4 
,a poetic art-world now passes before us
 in entrancing outlines1 a world filled 
with song1 dance1 games1 with all the   
poetry of existence4  ,such an artistic 
development follows from what has gone  

before4 ,man1 having attained culture1  
civilization1 and a certain freedom from
 the necessity of working for his daily 
bread1 begins to turn back and look at  
his career2 he observes the past and    
measures how far he has come4 ,the image
 of himself in his unfolding he beholds 
in art1 specially in the poetic art1    
whose essence must at last be just this 
institutional life which has been       
described in ,phaeacia4 ,he attains it  
and then steps back and portrays his    
attaining of it2 having done the heroic 
deed1 he must see himself doing it      
forever1 in the strains of the bard4    
,art is thus the mirror of life and of  
institutions2 it reflects the grand     
conflict of the times and the people2 it
 seizes upon the supreme national event1
 and holds it up in living portraiture  
along with its heroes4  ,now the great  
event which lies back of ,phaeacia at   
the present time1 in fact lies back of  
all ,greece for all ages1 perchance lies
 back of all ,europe1 is the ,trojan    

,war4 ,it was the first emphatic1       
triumphant assertion of the ,greek and  
indeed of the ,european world against   
the ,orient4 ,the fight before ,troy was
 not a mere local and temporary conflict
 between two quarrelsome borderers1 but 
it cuts to the very marrow of the       
,world's ,history1 the grand struggle   
between ,east and ,west4 ,family and    
,state are most deeply concerned in it1 
the restoration of the wife is the main 
object of the ,trojan ,war1 which the   
chieftains of ,greece must conclude     
victoriously or perish4 ,a new world was
 being born on this side of the         
,a,egean1 and the ,greeks were its first
 shapers and its earliest defenders4    
,this occidental world1 whose birth is  
the real thing announced at ,troy in    
that marvelous cradle-song of ,europe1  
called the ,iliad1 has already begun its
 career1 and shows its earliest period  
in ,phaeacia4 ,it is no wonder1 then1   
that the ,phaeacian people wish to hear 
the ,trojan song1 and it alone1 and that

 the ,phaeacian poet wishes to sing the 
,trojan song1 and it alone4  ,thus we   
behold in the present ,book a quiet     
idyllic folk on their island home out in
 the ,west listening to the mighty      
struggle of their race1 with dim far-off
 anticipations of all that it involved4 
,nor were the women indifferent4 ,arete1
 the wife and center of the ,family1 is 
not henceforth to be exposed to the fate
 of ,helen2 think what would ,phaeacia  
be without her1 or she without          
,phaeacia2 think what she would be in   
,troy1 for instance4 ,strong emotions   
must rise in the breasts of all the     
people at hearing such a song4  ,but    
still stronger emotions well out of the 
heart of ,ulysses4 ,he is one of the    
heroes of the ,trojan ,war not yet      
returned1 a living image of its         
sacrifices4 ,of course1 he is the main  
hero sung of by the bard in the present 
,book2 such is the artistic adaptation  
of the ,homeric work1 clearly done with 
a conscious design4 ,ulysses has already

 passed through several                 
stages--,calypso1 ,nausicaa1 ,arete2 now
 he has reached the poet1 ,demodocus    
certainly1 and perchance ,homer himself1
 who is to sing not only of the ,trojan 
,war1 but also of its consequences--this
 rise of man's spiritual hierarchy as   
here unfolded1 from ,nature1 into       
,institutions1 and thence into ,art4    
,after hearing ,demodocus1 ,ulysses     
picks up the thread and becomes his own 
poet1 narrating his adventures in       
,fairyland with the free full swing of  
the ,homeric hexameter4 ,thus he        
acquires and applies in his own way the 
art of ,phaeacia2 the arch of his life  
spans over from the heroic fighter      
before ,troy to the romantic singer     
before the ,phaeacian court4  ,it is    
plain1 therefore1 that this ,book is    
distinctively the ,book of the ,bard4   
,in the experience of ,ulysses1         
,demodocus is placed on a line with the 
three leading figures in the last three 
,books--they being women1 while the     

singer must be a man4 ,one reason is1   
possibly1 that a ,phaeacian woman could 
not be permitted to sing such a strain  
as the story of ,venus and ,mars4 ,at   
any rate1 he is fourth in the row of    
shapes1 all of which are significant4   
,we catch many touches of his           
personality2 he is blind1 though gifted 
with song2 evil and good he has         
received1 and is therein a typical man4 
,it is in every way a beautiful loving  
picture1 painted with strong deep       
undertones of sympathy2 no wonder is it1
 therefore1 that ,demodocus in all ages 
has been taken as a portrait of ,homer  
by himself1 showing glimpses of the man1
 of his station in life1 and of his     
vocation4 ,later on we shall consider   
this point in more detail4  ,the three  
songs of the bard furnish the main      
landmarks for the organism of the ,book4
 ,all of them will be found more or less
 intimately connected with the great    
event of the immediate ,past1 the story 
of ,troy4 ,phaeacia shows an intense    

interest in that story and the bard     
approves himself its worthy singer4     
,indeed the three songs stand in direct 
relation to the ,iliad2 the first deals 
with an event antecedent to the ,iliad2 
the second has the theme of the ,iliad1 
though in a changed form1 inasmuch as   
the seducer1 the wife and the husband   
are here ,gods 7,mars1 ,venus1 ,vulcan7 
instead of mortals 7,paris1 ,helen1     
,menelaus72 the third deals with an     
event subsequent to the ,iliad4 ,yet the
 singer carefully avoids repeating      
anything in the ,iliad4 ,it is almost   
impossible not to think that he had not 
that poem in mind2 or1 rather1 we are   
forced to conclude that the present     
author of the ,odyssey knew the ,iliad1 
and we naturally think that both were by
 the same man4 ,demodocus is the singer 
of the ,trojan ,war1 yet he shuns       
singing what has already been sung about
 it4 ,herein we may catch another faint 
reflection of ,homer1 the organizer1 the
 transfigurer of old legends into his   

two poems4 ,note also that he hovers    
around the ,iliad1 before and after it1 
yet never into it1 here and elsewhere in
 the ,odyssey2 specially in the ,third  
,book have we observed the same fact4   
,in the present ,book1 however1 is      
another strand2 besides these songs of  
the bard belonging to the past are the  
doings in ,phaeacia belonging to the    
present1 which doings have a connection 
and a correspondence with the songs4    
,thus we observe three divisions in the 
,book1 and two threads which run through
 these divisions4 ,the following outline
 may serve to show the general          
structure3--  ,i4 ,there is the         
representation of the struggle between  
the physical and mental in what may be  
called ,phaeacian art2 skill and        
strength have an encounter shown in two 
ways3      #a4 ,past1 heroic1 ideal2 the
 contest between ,ulysses and ,achilles 
at     ,troy2 intelligence vs4 mere     
courage4 ,sung by the bard4 ,pre-,iliad4
      #b4 ,present1 real1 not heroic2   

the games in which there is a contest   
also1 and in which both skill and       
strength are involved1 with the         
preponderance of the physical4  ,,ii4   
,now we drop to the sensuous inactive   
side of the ,phaeacian world1 the       
luxurious1 self-indulgent phase of their
 life1 which is also imaged in their art
 doubly3      #a4 ,past2 an ,olympian   
episode1 a story of illicit love among  
the     ,gods1 corresponding to the     
story of ,helen on earth4 ,sung by the  
bard4      #b4 ,present2 hints          
concerning the sensuous life of the     
,phaeacians who     love the feast1 the 
song1 the warm bath and bed1 along with 
dance     and music1 showing their      
pleasure in art4 ,return of the men from
     the market-place to the palace and 
into the presence of ,arete4  ,,iii4 ,we
 pass to what may be called the triumph 
of intelligence and the recognition     
thereof1--,phaeacian art is again       
introduced1 ,ulysses is revealed4       
#a4 ,past1 heroic1 ideal2 ,troy is taken

 by skill1 by the ,wooden     ,horse1   
not by the physical might and courage of
 ,achilles4 ,sung by     the bard4      
,post-,iliad4 ,this may be considered   
also a triumph over     ,venus who      
favored ,troy4      #b4 ,present2       
,ulysses weeps1 his tears are noticed by
 ,alcinous1 who     demands his name1   
country1 travels4 ,ulysses has already  
in a number     of ways discovered      
himself as connected with the past1 with
 the     ,trojan ,war4 ,in the next     
,book he tells his name1 country1       
character1     adventures4  ,if we scan 
the sweep of this outline1 we observe   
that it opens with the conflict between 
,brain and ,brawn1 or between ,mind and 
,might1 and ends in the victory of ,mind
 in the grand ,trojan conflict4 ,similar
 has been the movement hitherto1 from   
,calypso onwards1 which1 however1 shows 
the ethical conflict4 ,still the        
intellectual and the ethical spheres    
have to subordinate the natural1 and    
mind is the common principle of both4   

,as an introduction to the ,book we have
 an account of the men assembling in the
 marketplace1 where they sat on polished
 stones near one another4 ,pallas has1  
of course1 to be employed1 though in a  
passing and very subordinate way2 she   
acts as herald to call the assembly     
together1 and thus stamps it with a     
divine import4 ,we must grant to the    
poet his right1 but the ,goddess seems  
almost unnecessary here1 as the herald  
could have done the same work4 ,once    
more ,pallas interferes3 she sheds a    
godlike grace upon the head and         
shoulders of ,ulysses1 imparting to him 
majesty and beauty1 that he might be    
dear to all the ,phaeacians1 those      
lovers of the beautiful in art and life4
 ,thus1 like a visible deity1 he was to 
be feared and to be revered2 strength   
also the ,goddess gave him1 that he     
might accomplish all the contests which 
the ,phaeacians would try him with4     
,thus is the ,hero prepared divinely4   
,alcinous makes a speech to the         

assembly1 touching the wanderer1 who is 
again promised an escort to ,ithaca2 the
 king chooses the crew1 and the ship is 
launched4 ,meanwhile1 however1 there is 
to be a sacrifice with festival1 the    
bard is led in and his harp adjusted1   
his portion of food and drink not being 
omitted1 for he is not a hired musician1
 but an equal at the feast4  ,we are now
 to witness two kinds of entertainment1 
both of which according to the ,greek   
conception1 belong to the sphere of art4
 ,the one is an heroic song1 and is     
thrown into the past2 the other is a    
trial of bodily skill and strength1 and 
belongs to the present4 ,both kinds show
 contest1 and this contest is mainly    
between the physical and the spiritual  
elements in man4 ,which is paramount8   
,each is necessary1 yet one must be     
subordinate4  #a4 ,note1 first of all1  
the theme of the bard3 ,the ,muse       
inspired him to sing the strife between 
,ulysses and ,achilles1 the fame whereof
 had reached high ,heaven4 ,the ,trojan 

,war lies manifestly in the background  
of the quarrel4 ,when did it take place1
 at what period during the struggle8    
,there is nothing to settle the question
 decisively1 such a dispute might have  
arisen almost at any time4 ,but as it is
 the antecedent trouble in the ,greek   
army1 a dualism which this army brings  
with itself in its leaders1 we may      
reasonably put it somewhere towards the 
beginning4 ,this is also the opinion of 
,nitzsch 7,com4 ad loc471 who places the
 scene of the dispute on the island of  
,tenedos1 in sight of the walls of ,troy
 and who cites the old ,cypria in       
support of his opinion4 ,other ancient  
authorities place it after the death of 
,hector2 not long before the fall of the
 city4  ,concerning the subject of the  
dispute there is little difference of   
opinion4 ,the ,greek commentator1       
,eustathius 7died about #abjj ,a4,d47   
cites the following legend in reference 
to it3 ,agamemnon1 having consulted the 
,delphic ,oracle about the result of the

 ,trojan ,war1 received the answer that 
,troy would be taken when the best men  
of the ,greeks would begin to quarrel4  
,at a feast a dispute arose between     
,achilles and ,ulysses1 the former      
maintaining that ,ilion would be        
captured by bravery1 the latter by skill
 and cunning4 ,hence the joy of         
,agamemnon at what would otherwise be   
regarded as a ground for sorrow4  ,the  
response of the ,oracle was ambiguous1  
yet even out of its ambiguity we may    
read something4 ,achilles1 the man of   
courage1 was regarded as the hero of the
 ,greeks1 but this opinion must be      
contested1 and wisdom must also have its
 place in the management of the war1    
before the hostile city can be taken4   
,these two principles are represented by
 ,achilles and ,ulysses respectively4   
,the ,god of ,wisdom1 ,apollo1 responds1
 therefore1 in accord with his          
character1 carefully1 doubtfully1 not   
taking a decisive stand on either side1 
uttering an oracle which itself needs   

interpretation4 ,still we can see that  
it means a protest against mere brute   
courage--a protest which ,ulysses       
voices4 ,the ,trojan ,horse1 the grand  
successful stratagem1 may be considered 
as the outcome4  ,in ,shakespeare's     
,troilus and ,cressida1 the same subject
 is worked over very fully and is indeed
 the main pivot of the drama1 in which  
,achilles is substantially deposed from 
his heroship and replaced by ,ulysses4  
,the contest between mind and might or  
skill and courage1 is what the ,english 
poet took from his ,greek elder brother 
in part and in part derived from later  
legend4 ,the struggle between brain and 
brawn was indeed a vital one in the     
,greek camp2 there was always the danger
 lest the spirit would got lost in its  
physical manifestation4 ,indeed the     
danger of the ,greek world was just     
this1 and it perished at last of the    
same disease which we already notice at 
,troy4 ,it fell to a worship of the     
sensuous in life and art1 and so lost   

its soul in a grand debauch4  #b4 ,king 
,alcinous has noticed that ,ulysses hid 
his face and wept at the song of the    
bard4 ,thus strong emotion seizes him on
 hearing the strife at ,troy1 while the 
,phaeacians listen with delight4 ,such  
is the contrast1 hinting two very       
different relations to the song4 ,but   
the king will divert him from his grief1
 and so calls for the games to show him 
how much we excel others in boxing1     
wrestling1 leaping and running4 ,the    
quoit was also one of the games4  ,in   
like manner ,achilles is diverted from  
his sorrows for his friend ,patroclus1  
by an elaborate exhibition of games1    
which are set forth in ,book            
,twenty-,third of the ,iliad4 ,contests 
of strength and skill they are1 showing 
the body under control of mind and      
manifesting the same up to a certain    
point4 ,they have an artistic side and  
train the man physically1 requiring also
 no little mental alertness4  ,when the 
,phaeacian contestants had finished1    

there was an attempt to bring ,ulysses  
into the game and have him show what he 
was1 but he declined the courteous      
invitation2 cares are in my mind more   
than games4 ,then ,euryalus taunts him  
with being a merchant1 or robber1 and no
 athlete4 ,ulysses makes a caustic      
reply1 picks up the quoit1 and hurls it 
far beyond the marks of the others2 then
 with some display of temper he         
challenges any of the ,phaeacians       
present to any kind of contest4 ,he even
 becomes boastful1 and tells what he is 
ready to do in the way of games2 still  
further1 he can shoot the bow and throw 
the javelin in heroic fashion--which    
accomplishments he will employ with     
telling effect against the suitors      
hereafter4  ,alcinous pacifies him with 
gentle words1 and proceeds to withdraw  
all his previous claims extolling       
,phaeacian athletic skill4 ,the soft    
arts of peace are theirs2 in boxing and 
in wrestling we have small fame2 but on 
the other hand we delight in feasts1 we 

love the harp and dance2 new clothes are
 in favor1 and we like the warm bath and
 bed4 ,very different is now the call of
 ,king ,alcinous from that last one3 let
 the stranger see how much we excel     
others in the dance and song1 to which  
is strangely added seamanship4 ,such is 
the preparation for the lay of the loves
 of ,mars and ,venus4  ,through these   
games the heroic strand in the stranger 
has been brought to light1 somewhat in  
contrast with the ,phaeacians4 ,as he   
had a contest of mind with ,achilles at 
,troy1 so he has now a contest which    
shows his physical might2 he is no      
weakling in spite of his intellect4     
,pallas too does not fail him1 she marks
 his superiority in the throw of his    
quoit1 and thus inspires him with       
courage4   ,,ii4  ,we have now reached  
the second song of the bard1 for the way
 has been smoothed by the preceding     
description of the luxurious delights of
 the ,phaeacians4 ,it is often called   
the ,loves of ,venus and ,mars1 or the  

,adulterers caught on ,olympus4 ,from   
time immemorial much doubt of various   
sorts1 poetical1 moral1 philological1   
has been cast upon this song4 ,some     
ancient commentators have regarded it an
 interpolation1 not a genuine part of   
,homer2 modern expositors have not      
hesitated to follow the same opinion4   
,and indeed there are strong grounds for
 suspicion4 ,almost every reader feels  
at the first perusal its jar with the   
general character of this idyllic       
,phaeacian world2 it is decidedly       
adverse to the spirit of ,arete and     
,nausicaa1 as previously unfolded2 the  
fact would almost seem impossible that1 
in an atmosphere created chiefly by     
these two women1 there could be such a  
kind of artistic enjoyment4 ,the most   
conservative reader is inclined here to 
agree with those who perform an act of  
excision upon the text of ,homer4 ,the  
whole passage grates too harshly upon   
nerves which have been attuned to the   
sweet innocent life depicted in the two 

preceding ,books4  ,the objections to   
the song may be summed up in the        
following heads4 7#a7 ,it is            
inconsistent and deeply discordant with 
the ethical tone of ,phaeacia already   
given4 7#b7 ,it does not further        
,ulysses in any way1 it shows no trait  
in his character1 unless his faint      
approval signifies his liking for such  
songs4 ,nor does it seem on the surface 
to connect him with ,troy1 as do the    
other two songs of ,demodocus4 7#c7 ,it 
gives an unworthy view of the ,gods1    
degrading them far below ,homer's       
general level1 reducing them to ordinary
 burlesque figures which violate all    
decency1 not to speak of morality4 7#d7 
,philologists have picked out certain   
words and expressions peculiar to this  
passage1 which1 not being employed by   
,homer elsewhere1 tend to indicate some 
other author4  ,still1 if the passage be
 an interpolation1 this must have taken 
place early in the history of the poems4
 ,pausanias the traveler declares that  

he saw the dancing scene of the         
,phaeacians depicted upon the throne of 
,apollo at ,amyclae1 the artist of which
 probably flourished about #fjj ,b4 ,c4 
,the old philosopher ,heraclitus1 who   
would scourge ,homer from the festivals 
of the ,gods1 doubtless had this passage
 in mind4 ,plato censures its indecency 
specially1 and1 as is well known1 would 
exclude all ,homer from his ideal       
,republic4 ,the ancients thus accepted  
the passage as ,homeric1 with the       
exception of some of the later          
grammarians4  ,next come the many       
attempts1 old and new1 to allegorize the
 ,olympian scene1 or to explain it away4
 ,from the fact that the sun keeps watch
 and is mentioned twice in this part1   
the latest school of mythologists1 the  
comparative so-called1 have taken much  
comfort1 and have at once found in the  
whole a sun-myth4 ,some ancient         
expositors1 according to ,athenaeus1    
interpreted it as a story written for   
the purpose of deterring the listeners  

from doing similar bad deeds1 pointing  
to the punishment even of ,gods herein  
designated2 thus they sought to save the
 credit of ,homer1 treating him quite as
 some commentators have treated certain 
morally questionable stories in the     
,bible4 ,thus along down the ages to the
 present the loves of ,venus and ,mars  
have created trouble4  ,undoubtedly the 
song has meaning and deserves a rational
 exposition4 ,has it any connection with
 the other songs of this ,book1 or with 
,homer in general8 ,it is certainly a   
product of early ,greek poesy2 can it be
 organically jointed into anything      
before it and after it8 ,the burlesque  
tone which it assumes towards certain   
,olympians has caused it to be connected
 with the ,battle of the ,frogs and     
,mice1 and with the war of the ,gods in 
the ,iliad 7,book ,twenty-,first74 ,let 
us extend our horizon1 and take a new   
look in various directions4  ,in the    
first place this song connects with     
,troy and the ,iliad like the other two 

songs of ,demodocus4 ,the cause of the  
,trojan ,war and of its poem was the    
deed of ,paris4 ,the seducer1 the wife1 
the husband--,paris1 ,helen1            
,manelaus--are the three central figures
 of the legend4 ,here this legend is    
thrown up among the ,gods themselves1   
who furnish three corresponding         
characters--,mars1 ,venus1 ,vulcan4     
,then there is the wrong and the        
punishment of the wrong in both cases4  
,such is the theme of the ,trojan ,war  
as it appears in the ,iliad4 ,thus the  
three songs of ,demodocus indicate a    
,pre-,iliad1 an ,iliad1 and a           
,post-,iliad in due order4  ,in the     
second place one asks very emphatically3
 ,why this present treatment of the     
,gods on ,homer's part8 ,but here we    
must make an important distinction4 ,the
 ,supreme ,god1 ,zeus1 does not appear1 
nor does ,juno nor does ,pallas1 indeed 
none of the ,goddesses except the guilty
 one4 ,the disgrace falls upon two      
mainly3 ,mars and ,venus4 ,in the ,iliad

 they are ,trojan deities hostile to the
 ,greeks1 and here the ,greek poet      
serves them up together in an           
intermezzo1 which makes them comic4     
,indeed the ,greek ,hero ,diomed fights 
and puts down just these two ,trojan    
deities in the ,fifth ,book of the      
,iliad4 ,so must every ,greek ,hero at  
,troy conquer ,mars and ,venus          
7,violence and ,lust1 to give a         
suggestion of their purport7 before     
,helen can be restored to home and      
country2 he must put down the hostile   
city and its ,gods4 ,note too1 whither  
the ,greek poet sends each of these     
deities after their release3 ,mars flies
 off to ,thrace1 a distant1 barbarous   
country1 beyond the borders of ,hellas1 
where he can find his own2 ,venus on the
 contrary slips away southeastward to   
,cyprus inhabited by peoples ,oriental  
or ,orientalizing1 and therein like     
,troy and herself4 ,both rush out of    
,greece with all speed2 they belong     
somewhere in the outskirts of the ,greek

 world4  ,we may now see why the        
,phaeacians1 without being so very      
wicked1 could find an element in the    
song which they enjoyed4 ,to them1 with 
the ,trojan ,war always in mind1 this   
was the theme3 the adulterous ,trojan   
deities caught and laughed out of       
,olympus--those being the two deities   
who first misled by desire and then     
tried to keep by war the beautiful      
,helen1 the ,greek woman4 ,throwing     
ourselves back into his spirit1 we may  
also see why ,ulysses1 the old war-horse
 from ,troy1 was rejoiced in his heart1 
hearing the song which degraded and     
burlesqued the ,gods whom he had fought 
ten years1 and who were1 in part at     
least1 the occasion of his wandering ten
 more4 ,venus and ,mars did not find    
much sympathy in the ,phaeacian company1
 we may be sure4 ,why then regard them  
as ,gods8 ,the ,greek deified           
everything2 even the tendencies which he
 felt himself obliged to suppress had   
something of the divine in them4        

,calypso1 whom ,ulysses subordinated at 
last to the higher principle1 was a     
,goddess2 ,troy1 the hostile city1 had  
its deities1 whom the ,greek recognised4
 ,now its two chief deities are involved
 in a common shame1 and flee from       
,olympus1 flee almost outside of the    
,greek world4 ,certainly the audience   
could take some ethical satisfaction in 
that4  ,then there is a third           
consideration different from the two    
preceding1 both of which seek to look at
 the song from the ancient ,greek       
standpoint4 ,but from our modern        
standpoint it is also to be regarded4   
,there is no doubt that we see here the 
beginning of the end of polytheism2 the 
many ,gods collide with one another1    
some are now put out and all will be    
finally put out2 they are showing their 
finitude and transitoriness4 ,still     
further1 we catch a glimpse of the      
sensuous side of ,greek life1 the excess
 of which at last brought death4 ,homer 
is the prophet of his people1 when read 

with insight2 he tells not only what    
they are1 but hints what they are to    
become4  ,in general1 we pass in this   
second part of the present ,book as we  
have divided it1 to the sensuous element
 of the ,phaeacian world1 the inactive1 
quiet1 self-indulgent phase1 in decided 
contrast to the preceding part which    
shows a love of manly action in games   
and in war4 ,let us still further       
develop the twofold way in which this   
fact is brought out4  #a4 ,the second   
song of ,demodocus has the general theme
 of the ,trojan ,war and suggests the   
grand event of the aforetime4 ,it       
manifestly carries the ,trojan scission 
into ,olympus and drives out in disgrace
 the ,trojan deities4 ,vulcan1 the      
wronged husband1 is the divine          
artificer2 he makes a network of chains 
which could not be broken1 like a       
spider's web1 so fine that no one could 
see it1 not even a ,god2 in this snare  
the guilty deities are caught1 exposed1 
punished4 ,these invisible1 yet         

unbreakable chains have an ethical      
suggestion1 and hint the law which is   
also to be executed on ,olympus1 as it  
was below in ,troy4 ,as ,vulcan is the  
artist among the ,gods1 we are prompted 
to find also an artistic bearing in the 
scene2 the artist catches the           
wrong-doers by his art and holds them   
fast in a marvelous net where they still
 lie1 and shall lie for all time2 even  
the intercession of ,neptune cannot get 
them free4 ,the scene is indeed caught  
out of the reality and holds to-day2 the
 dashing1 finely-uniformed son of ,mars 
7so called at present7 is most apt to   
win the heart of the gay1 fashionable1  
beautiful daughter of ,venus1 have an   
escapade1 and cause a scandal4 ,oft too 
they are caught in our modern1 most     
adroitly woven spider's web1 which goes 
under the name of newspaper1 and held   
up1 if not before a seeing ,olympus1 at 
least before a reading public1 which not
 seldom indulges in conversation very   
much in the style of the ,gods as here  

set forth4 ,we moderns do not go to the 
market-place to hear such a strain1 but 
have it brought to us in the ,morning   
,journal4 ,one advantage the ,phaeacian 
had3 ,arete and ,nausicaa did not go to 
the market-place1 where this song was   
sung1 only men were there1 but the print
 will enter the household where are wife
 and daughter4 ,at any rate1 we have to 
pronounce the song of ,demodocus        
typical1 universal1 nay1 ethical in     
spite of its light-hearted raillery1    
inasmuch as the deed is regarded as a   
breach of divine law1 is exposed and    
punished1 and the recompense for the    
release of the guilty pair1 the penalty1
 is duly stated in accordance with law4 
,not every modern story-teller is so    
scrupulous1 in meting out justice to    
ethical violation4  #b4 ,so much for the
 song2 we turn again to the ,phaeacians1
 who are not now engaged in athletic1   
but in a milder sport1 the dance4       
,youths moved their bodies in tune to   
the strain2 still in ,greece the dance  

and the song often go together4 ,then   
two danced alone without the song1 but  
employed a ball1 tossing it from one to 
the other1 for the amusement of the     
spectators4 ,a rhythmical movement of   
the body in the dance shows more        
internality than the athletic game1 but 
it is less hardy1 is more indicative of 
luxury and effeminacy4  ,on account of  
these enjoyments1 which have been       
unrolled before us in so many striking  
pictures1 the ,phaeacians have been     
regarded by some writers both in ancient
 and modern times as the mythical       
,sybarites devoted simply to a life of  
pleasure4 ,the love of the warm bath and
 clean clothes1 the dance and the song1 
above all the second lay of ,demodocus  
have given them a bad name4 ,heraclides 
,ponticus derived their whole polity of 
non-intercourse1 of concealment1 of     
sending away the stranger as soon as    
possible out of their island1 from their
 desire to resign themselves more       
completely to their luxurious habits1   

without foreign disturbance4 ,horace    
expresses a similar view of this people4
 ,nitzsch in ,commentary 7ad loc47      
defends the ,phaeacians warmly against  
the charge1 and the view that ,arete and
 ,nausicaa cannot be products of a      
corrupt society holds good4 ,an idyllic 
people1 not by any means enervated1     
though pleasure-loving--so we must      
regard them4 ,that lay of the bard1     
rightly looked into1 does not tell      
against them as strongly as is sometimes
 supposed4 ,still ,heraclides touched   
upon a limitation of ,phaeacia in his   
criticism1 it refused to join the family
 of nations1 it sought to be a kind of  
little ,china and keep all to itself4   
,it had solved1 however1 the problem of 
external war and of internal dissension2
 no dispute with neighboring nations    
about commercial privileges1 no local   
strife which cannot be settled by       
,arete4 ,the poet has as nearly as      
possible succeeded in eliminating the   
negative element out of this society4   

,an unwarlike folk1 but not effeminate1 
happy in peace1 with a childlike delight
 in play1 which is the starting-point of
 art1 and remains its substrate1        
according to ,schiller2 truly idyllic it
 must be regarded1 a land on the way    
between nature and civilization1 where  
life is a perpetual holiday1 and even   
labor takes on a festal appearance4     
,ulysses gives the palm of excellence in
 the dance to the ,phaeacians1 and with 
this recognition the king proposes a    
large number of presents--hospitable    
gifts1 such as the host gives to his    
honored guest4 ,moreover an apology and 
a gift are required of that ,euryalus   
who recently offended ,ulysses4 ,thus   
reconciliation is the word and the deed4
 ,then all are ready to return to the   
palace into the presence of ,arete1 who 
is the orderer1 and she makes           
arrangements for packing up the gifts4  
,note the warm bath again1 supposed sign
 of effeminacy2 here it is taken by     
,ulysses with decided approbation4      

,nausicaa1 too1 appears in a passing    
glance1 and simply asks to be remembered
 for her deed2 the response of ,ulysses 
is emphatic3 when he gets home he will  
pray to her as to a ,god day by day1 for
 thou1 ,o maiden1 hast saved my life4   
,in this round of recognition1 the bard 
must not be forgotten2 he is again led  
in1 a banquet is served1 and ,ulysses   
takes special pains to honor him with a 
part of the fat back of a white-tusked  
boar1 and to speak a strong word of     
commendation3 ,demodocus1 ,i praise thee
 above all mortals2 either the ,muse or 
,apollo has taught thee1 so well dost   
thou sing the fate of the ,greeks4      
,,iii4  ,the praise of the bard         
naturally leads to the third portion of 
the ,book1 introduced by another song1  
which has its intimate connection with  
the preceding ones4 ,then its effect is 
noted upon ,ulysses1 who weeps as       
before1 being stirred by many memories  
of companions lost4 ,verily ,troy is a  
tearful subject4 ,what motive for       

weeping8 ,who is this stranger anyhow8  
,alcinous now starts his interrogations 
which ,ulysses answers in the following 
,book4 ,still1 though nameless1 he has  
unfolded himself quite fully through his
 actions in this ,book4 ,again we hear  
the deeds of the aforetime sung by the  
poet1 and see their influence in the    
present4  #a4 ,ulysses himself now asks 
the poet to sing of the ,wooden ,horse  
which was made by ,epeius with the aid  
of ,pallas1 the ,goddess here standing  
for skill1 as it is now skill which     
takes ,troy1 not mere courage4 ,then    
mark further3 ,ulysses was the man who  
introduced it within the ,trojan walls  
by stratagem--clearly another case of   
brain-work rather than brawn-work4 ,this
 famous ,wooden ,horse was filled with  
men who took ,troy4 ,such is the song   
which ,ulysses now calls for1 mentioning
 himself by name--a fact which makes the
 announcement of his name soon after    
more impressive and dramatic4 ,the      
,phaeacians had just heard the          

culminating act in the taking of ,troy1 
whereof ,ulysses was the hero2 behold6  
he stands before them1 in all the       
prestige of song4 ,some critics have    
wondered why the name of ,ulysses was   
withheld so long1 and have imagined all 
sorts of interpolations2 surely they    
have not seen the plan of the poet4     
,the ,wooden ,horse is not employed in  
the ,iliad1 but is one of the striking  
details of the later epics1 which       
recounted the destruction of ,troy4 ,the
 song of ,demodocus carries the incident
 back to the time of ,homer1 and before 
,homer1 for it suggests antecedent      
ballads or rhapsodies which ,homer knew1
 but did not use1 and which poets after 
him developed4 ,the ,odyssey takes for  
granted that its hearers knew the ,lay  
of the ,wooden ,horse1 and also the ,lay
 of the ,strife between ,ulysses and    
,achilles1 the fame of which had reached
 the broad ,heavens4 ,thus we get a peep
 into the workshop of ,homer and catch a
 glimpse of his materials1 which he did 

not invent1 but found at hand4 ,homer is
 the builder1 the architectonic genius2 
he organizes the floating1 disparate    
songs of his age into a great totality1 
into a ,greek ,temple of which they are 
the stones4 ,note what he does with this
 lay of ,demodocus2 he puts it into its 
place in the total structure of the     
,odyssey1 and thus preserves it forever4
 ,so he has done with all his materials 
doubtless4  ,we may now see that those  
who cut up the ,homeric poems into so   
many different songs or ballads simply  
destroy the distinctive work of ,homer4 
,they pry asunder the beautiful ,greek  
,temple1 lay its stones alongside of one
 another1 and say3 behold the poet4 ,but
 this is just what he is not1 and in the
 present ,book we may see him unfolding 
his own process4 ,homer is not          
,demodocus1 but the latter's lay he     
takes up and then weaves what he wants  
of it into the texture of the total     
poem4 ,he is thus a contrast to the     
bard1 whom1 however1 he fully recognizes

 and makes a part of his own work4 ,thus
 ,homer himself really answers the      
,wolfian theory1 which seeks to reduce  
him to a ,demodocus1 singing fragmentary
 lays about the ,trojan ,war4  ,from the
 ,greek poets the ,wooden ,horse passed 
to ,virgil1 who has made it the         
best-known incident of the ,trojan ,war4
 ,it is probably the most famous        
stratagem of all time1 due to the skill 
of ,ulysses4 ,herein lies the answer to 
the first lay of ,demodocus2 in the     
dispute ,ulysses is right1 indeed he is 
a greater hero than ,achilles1 who could
 never have captured the hostile city4  
,the incident took place after the      
action of the ,iliad1 and after the     
death of ,achilles1 who1 heroic in      
courage1 stood in the way of            
intelligence4 ,when he is gone1 the city
 falls1 overthrown by the brain of      
,ulysses4  ,homer does not pretend to   
give the song of ,demodocus in full1 but
 a brief summary of what he sang before 
the ,phaeacians4 ,a later poet1         

,arctinus1 took up the legend here      
alluded to1 and developed it in a       
separate epic1 called the ,iliou-persis 
or ,sack of ,troy4 ,indeed a vast number
 of legends and lays about the ,trojan  
,war bloomed into epics1 which were in  
later times joined together and called  
the ,epic ,cycle4 ,thus we distinguish  
two very different stages of            
consciousness in early ,greek poetry3   
the ballad-making and the epical1 ,homer
 being the supreme example of the       
latter1 and ,demodocus an instance of   
the former4  ,looking back at the three 
lays of the bard in the present ,book we
 find that they all are connected       
together in a common theme of which they
 show different phases1 beginning1      
middle and end--the conflict before the 
,iliad1 the conflict of the ,iliad1 and 
the conflict after the ,iliad1 all      
hovering around the great national      
enterprise of the ,greeks1 namely the   
,trojan ,war1 in which the deepest      
principle of the ,hellenic world1 indeed

 of the entire ,occident1 was at stake4 
,but ,homer1 in distinction from        
,demodocus1 weaves into his poem not    
only the past but the present1 not only 
,troy but ,phaeacia1 not only the       
movement against the ,east but also the 
movement toward the ,west1 of which     
,phaeacia is simply one stage4 ,the     
,hero who unites these two great        
movements of ,greek spirit is now       
brought before us again4  #b4 ,ulysses  
weeps at the song of the bard which     
recalls so many memories of friends     
departed and of dire calamities4 ,these 
tears connect him deeply with ,troy and 
its conflict2 the ,phaeacians listen    
intently1 but are outside of the great  
struggle1 they shed no tears4 ,thus does
 ,ulysses in his strongest emotions     
unite himself with the ,trojan          
enterprise of aforetime4 ,he is not     
simply a wanderer over the sea seeking  
to get home1 but a returner from ,troy2 
he has revealed himself through his     
feelings4 ,he personally shares in the  

woes sung by the bard1 because he has   
experienced them4 ,indeed the very image
 which the poet here employs to express 
sorrow1 taken from the woman whose      
husband has been slain fighting for his 
city1 and for his wife and his children1
 recalls ,hector1 ,andromache and       
,astyanax as they appear in the ,sixth  
,book of the ,iliad4 ,ulysses is like   
such a woman1 without home or family1   
alone among strangers1 shedding tears4  
,thus he connects himself with the      
fateful story of ,ilium4  ,previously   
,ulysses wept at the first lay of       
,demodocus1 now he emphasizes his sorrow
 by repetition4 ,whenever the theme of  
,troy is touched1 he has to respond with
 tears2 the second time of weeping at   
the ,trojan tale is necessary in order  
to fix his character and identify him as
 a returner4 ,yet this repetition so    
vitally organic is questioned by many   
critics1 some of whom resort to         
excision4 ,it is hardly worth the while 
to notice them in their various attempts

 at destruction and construction2 when  
we once catch the underlying motive all 
becomes plain4 ,the first and last      
scenes of weeping unifies the ,book1 the
 bond of tears holds its parts          
indissolubly together in the emotions4  
,alcinous has observed the stranger both
 times1 sitting near him1 while we may  
suppose that the other ,phaeacians1 not 
noticing him1 to be further off4 ,the   
king sees his distress and even hears   
his sobs2 in the first case the royal   
host refrained from inquiry1 that being 
the duty of hospitality2 but now the    
time for interrogation has arrived4 ,the
 speech of ,alcinous is characteristic2 
full of humanity1 full of sympathy is   
the tone3 a guest1 a suppliant stands   
for a brother even to the man of little 
feeling4 ,a touch of prophetic          
boastfulness he shows here and          
elsewhere2 the ships of the ,phaeacians 
he endows with supernatural powers1     
which fact1 however1 is not without     
meaning3 ,we have no pilots1 no rudders 

even1 our boats obey our thoughts1 and  
know the cities and lands to which they 
come2 very quickly do they shoot across 
the wave1 hid in fog and cloud4 ,truly  
an ideal ship1 which time has not yet   
realized1 though recent navigation1 with
 its present steam and its future       
electricity1 is on the way thereto4     
,still angry ,neptune threatens danger  
and may work damage1 smiting the ship on
 the dark deep4 ,this speech of         
,alcinous with its miraculous1 prophetic
 tinge1 with its far-seeing hints of    
coming realities1 almost foretelling our
 modern humanity and our modern mastery 
of the sea through science1 and putting 
the two side by side1 has given much    
trouble to the critics1 whom we again   
shall have to pass by1 as they simply   
darken the poet4  ,finally comes the    
demand3 who art thou and why didst thou 
weep8 ,what is thy relation to ,troy8   
,such is the culminating question2      
,ulysses has been unfolding himself more
 and more throughout the present ,book  

before the king and people4 ,the games  
showed his heroic strength2 the dances  
brought out his recognizing and         
harmonious spirit2 the lays of          
,demodocus have developed his connection
 with ,troy4 ,he clearly belongs to the 
past and to the present1 possibly he is 
a bridge spanning them1 which bridge he 
may be induced to build in wondrous     
rainbow colors before the eyes of the   
,phaeacians4  ,appendix4 ,it seems never
 to have been noticed what an important 
relation the present ,book sustains     
toward the ,wolfian theory concerning   
the ,homeric poems4 ,the picture of     
,demodocus here given doubtless         
suggested to ,wolf the first outline of 
his view1 and has influenced other      
commentators who lean toward similar    
opinions4 ,it is well known that ,wolf  
in his famous ,prolegomena maintains    
that the ,iliad and ,odyssey were       
originally a string of ballads more or  
less disconnected1 and that ,homer was  
only one of the many balladists1        

probably the best2 furthermore he holds 
that these ballads were brought         
together1 edited and put into their     
present shape by certain literary men   
called diaskeuastoe--revisers1          
redactors1 professors of poetry and     
philology at the court of ,peisistratus1
 about #ejj ,b4,c4  ,that is1 ,wolf     
regards ,homer as a ,demodocus1 a singer
 and also a maker of disjointed ballads 
and war-songs1 the latter pertaining    
mostly to the heroes of the ,trojan     
,war4 ,these were sung at the festivals 
of the people1 at the houses of the     
nobility1 and at the courts of kings1   
quite as we see the bard singing here in
 ,phaeacia4 ,this fact we may accept2   
but the question comes up3 ,is ,homer   
such a balladist and nothing more8  ,now
 it is clear that ,homer is not a       
,demodocus1 since the latter is not an  
epical builder1 but a simple singer of  
separate lays for the occasion4 ,mark   
well that ,homer in this book does not  
unfold the themes1 ,strife between      

,ulysses and ,achilles1 and ,the ,wooden
 ,horse1 but simply alludes to them as  
well-known2 he barely gives the title   
and a little of the argument1 then drops
 the matter1 leaving us to suppose that 
the ,bard sang a somewhat lengthy lay1  
of which the effect upon the hearers and
 specially upon ,ulysses is duly noted4 
,homer1 therefore1 in this ,book as well
 as in the ,first ,book where ,phemius  
is introduced1 makes the ,bard or       
,balladist merely one of his figures1   
and the song one of his incidents1 while
 he1 the veritable ,homer1 portrays the 
total environment1 showing the court1   
the games1 the household1 the complete  
,phaeacian world4 ,here we come upon the
 main distinction3 ,homer's eye is upon 
the totality of which the ballad-singer 
is but a small fragment2 ,demodocus     
appears in but one ,phaeacian ,book1 and
 is by no means all of that1 though for 
once the leading figure4  ,a step       
further we may carry the thought4 ,homer
 is not only not a ,demodocus1 but he   

very distinctly contrasts himself with  
,demodocus by his poetic procedure4 ,if 
he is at such pains to show himself a   
world-builder1 and then puts into his   
world a ballad-singer as a passing      
character1 he certainly emphasizes the  
difference between himself and the      
latter4 ,it is also to be noticed that  
,demodocus does not sing an ,iliad1     
though he chants lays of ,troy2 the     
,iliad is an organized work1 not a      
collection of ballads strung together4  
,everything about ,demodocus indicates  
separate songs2 everything about ,homer 
7the ,iliad and the ,odyssey7 indicates 
unity of song4 ,hence with the          
separatists1 dissectors1 anatomizers1   
,demodocus is a greater favorite than   
,homer1 indeed he has taken the place of
 ,homer4  ,moreover the poet has plainly
 marked another stage1 a stage between  
himself and ,demodocus4 ,in the next    
,book ,ulysses will begin singing and   
continue through four ,books1 giving his
 adventures in ,fableland1 which by     

itself possesses a certain completeness4
 ,still it is but an organic part of the
 total ,odyssey1 whose poetical         
architect is ,homer4 ,ulysses as singer 
is clearly higher than ,demodocus2 but  
,homer is above both1 for he takes both 
of them up into his unity1 which is the 
all-embracing poem4  ,most emphatically1
 therefore1 ,homer shows himself not to 
be a ,demodocus1 not to be a            
ballad-singer1 which is an essential    
point in the ,wolfian argument4 ,homer  
himself refutes ,wolf some #b1ejj years 
beforehand1 and his is still the best   
refutation4 ,a careful study of this    
,eighth ,book settles the relation      
between balladist and poet by a simple  
presentation of the facts in their      
proper co-ordination1 and also puts the 
alert reader on the track of the genesis
 of the ,wolfian ,prolegomena4 ,for     
there can hardly be a doubt that ,wolf1 
consciously or unconsciously1 directly  
or indirectly1 derived his main         
conception of ,homer from the present   

,book and from the part that ,demodocus1
 the bard1 plays in it4 ,to be sure1 the
 idea that ,demodocus1 in a general way1
 is ,homer1 is old1 coming down from    
antiquity and suggesting itself to the  
modern reader1 who very naturally thinks
 that ,homer is giving some traits of   
himself in his picture of the blind     
singer4 ,so much we may grant3 some     
traits of himself1 but not all by any   
means2 ,homer doubtless upon occasion   
could sing a short lay of ,troy for the 
amusement of his audience1 like         
,demodocus2 but in such a part he is    
only a wee fragment of the author of    
those magnificent works1 the ,iliad and 
the ,odyssey4 ,the total ,homer builds  
totalities1 by the very necessity of his
 genius4  ,who1 then1 according to the  
theory1 put these ballads together8     
,wolf1 fully possessed of the notion    
that ,demodocus is ,homer1 starts to    
account for the present form of the     
poems1 which he assigns to the shaping  
hand of ,peisistratus and his college of

 editors1 critics1 and poetasters4 ,that
 is1 the grand marvel of ,homeric       
poetry1 the mighty constructive act     
thereof1 he ascribes to a set of men    
essentially barren and uncreative1 for  
all of which he cites some very dubious 
and inadequate ancient authority4  ,here
 again we may be permitted to trace the 
,wolfian consciousness to its origin1   
for origin it has in time and           
circumstance4 ,wolf was a professor in a
 ,university1 and his department was    
philology2 his ideas on ,homer are      
really drawn from his vocation and his  
surroundings4 ,why should he not make a 
philologer and a professor the author of
 the ,homeric poems8 ,so he came to     
imagine that the tyrant ,peisistratus   
#ejj ,b4,c4 had under his patronage a   
kind of ,german ,university1 or at least
 a philological seminary1 whose         
professors really constructed ,homer as 
we now have him1 having put him together
 out of antecedent ballads which the    
actual ,homer and many others may have  

made ages before4 ,wolf1 therefore1 is  
the founder of two philological         
seminaries2 one at the ,university of   
,berlin1 and the other at the court of  
,peisistratus4 ,great is the professor  
in smelling out the professor anywhere2 
still we cannot help thinking that what 
,wolf ascribed to the old ,greek        
seminary1 was done only at his ,german  
seminary1 namely1 the patching together 
of ,homer out of ballads4               
,,fableland4   ,the movement of the     
second grand division of the poem1 the  
,ulyssiad1 has passed through two of its
 stages1 which have been already        
considered2 the third is now reached    
which we have called ,fableland1 though 
it may be said that the two previous    
lands are also fabulous4 ,let it then be
 named the ,fairy ,world1 though this   
term also does not state or suggest the 
fact with precision4 ,without troubling 
ourselves further about names1 we shall 
proceed to seize the meaning by an      
exposition given in some detail4  ,no   

careful reader can doubt that the poem  
changes decidedly at the present        
juncture in color1 style1 environment   
and purpose4 ,what reason for it8 ,and  
what is the connection with the         
preceding portion of the poem8 ,four    
,books 7,,ix-,,xii7 of the same         
character essentially1 unfold themselves
 before us and demand a new kind of     
appreciation2 they are not idyllic1 not 
epical2 they form a class of a peculiar 
sort1 which class1 however1 we have     
before noticed in the ,odyssey1 showing 
itself in short but suggestive          
interludes4  ,we shall1 accordingly1    
first grapple with the leading facts of 
this new poetic order and seek to       
interpret them1 or rather let them      
interpret themselves4 ,phaeacia1 which  
we have just seen1 lies before          
,fableland1 though the story of the     
latter is now told in ,phaeacia4  #a4   
,the first fact which strikes us is the 
decided contrast between the two realms4
 ,phaeacia is the land of pure idyllic  

delight1 its supreme characteristic is  
peace1 its happy people seem to have no 
conflict2 ,fableland1 on the contrary1  
is one incessant course of strife1      
struggle and calamity1 beginning with   
the unprovoked attack on the ,ciconians4
 ,polyphemus the savage ,cyclops is the 
opposite of the civil ruler ,alcinous2  
,circe1 the enchantress1 is the         
insidious foe to domestic life          
represented by ,arete2 ,state and       
,family in ,phaeacia are counterbalanced
 by an anti-,state and an anti-,family  
in ,fableland4 ,thus man and woman are  
shown in the two different places as    
institutional and anti-institutional4   
,still deeper does the opposition reach2
 ,phaeacia lies wholly in the           
,upperworld1 with its sweet sunlight1   
while ,fableland has a dim ,underworld1 
beyond the sunlight1 the realm of the   
,supersensible2 finally ,fableland      
witnesses the supreme negative act of   
man1 typified in the slaying of the     
,oxen of the ,sun4 ,we may1 therefore1  

affirm that ,fableland1 as compared with
 ,phaeacia1 shadows forth the realm of  
negation2 the one stands for the ideal  
,greek world of ethical order and       
harmony2 the other is the denial and    
destruction of the same4  ,but we must  
not omit the reverse side of the        
contrast4 ,in ,fableland there is one   
continued striving of the human soul1 a 
chafing against all limits1 a moving    
forward from one stage to another2 the  
spirit of man is shown transcending its 
bounds everywhere4 ,in ,phaeacia1       
however1 there is no striving           
apparently1 it is contented with itself 
and stays with itself1 seeking no       
neighbors2 it is the land of rest1 of   
cessation from conflict1 possibly of    
stagnation1 unless it is stirred by     
inner scission4  ,the transition from   
,phaeacia to ,fableland is1 therefore1  
full of meaning4 ,it is possible that   
,ulysses or the poet wished to show     
these people the struggles which were   
slumbering in their society1 for all    

civilized order has the possibility of  
them4 ,the negative spirit will rise    
hereafter in their midst2 so it rose in 
legendary ,greece after the ,trojan     
,war1 so it rose in historical ,greece  
after the ,persian ,war4 ,thus we may   
catch a prophetic tinge in this web of  
marvelous tales4 ,on the other hand1 we 
should note also that ,ulysses has      
reached the land of peace just through  
the realm of strife and negation4  #b4  
,the next important thing is to observe 
how the poet is going to locate1 and    
environ this negative world4 ,as it is  
the opposite of the civilized order of  
,hellas1 he throws it outside of        
,hellenic boundaries4 ,over the ,greek  
border somewhere it has to be placed2   
thus it passes easily from the known to 
the unknown1 out of the civilized to the
 barbarous1 out of the natural1 to the  
supernatural4  ,all this we feel at once
 in the narrative4 ,it is true that the 
first destructive deed1 the attack upon 
the ,ciconians1 occurs within the limits

 of historical ,hellas1 in a region well
 known2 but this act is the prelude and 
the example1 the offenders are at once  
borne to the ,lotus-eaters1 who have the
 faintest touch of historical reality1  
and thence to ,polyphemus who is wholly 
fabulous4 ,in this realm of pure fable  
they stay till the end1 having been cast
 out of ,greece by the poet on account  
of their hostile spirit4  ,moreover we  
should note that they move about on the 
sea1 that most unstable element1 in     
contrast to the fixed land2 on the one  
there is order and law1 on the other    
caprice and violence4 ,yet certain fixed
 points are set in this uncertain       
domain1 namely the islands1 which       
however1 are wholly separated from      
,hellas and her life1 and have          
inhabitants of their own1 strangers to  
,hellenic influence4 ,ulysses and his   
crew will pass from island to island1   
each of which will show its meaning in  
some way antagonistic to ,greek spirit4 
,out of the pale they all lie in the    

boundless billowy waters2 thus the      
,odyssey in this part becomes a sea     
poem1 while in the other two parts it is
 essentially a land poem4 ,the ,greek   
was and still is a native of both sea   
and land which are physically interwined
 and bound together in ,greece as in no 
other portion of the globe4 ,his great  
poetical book envisages his country as  
well as himself4  ,the main point1      
however1 is that ,fableland being       
negative to the ,greek world is put     
outside of all of its known geographical
 limits1 and thus becomes the setting   
for the marvelous story4 ,it may here be
 added that ,grimm's ,tales have a      
similar border which lies between       
civilized life and the forest1 since the
 forest was1 for our ,teutonic          
ancestors1 the fairy realm1 in which    
their supernatural beings dwelt for the 
most part4 ,out of culture back to      
nature the human being sometimes has to 
go and have strange communings with the 
spirits there2 such is often the        

movement of the ,fairy ,tale4 ,but who  
are these spirits or weird powers       
dwelling in the lone island or in the   
solitary wood8  #c4 ,this question      
brings us to the pivotal fact of all    
,fableland3 it is ruled over by a new   
order of deities1 not ,olympians2 the   
poet1 throwing it out of ,hellas below1 
throws it out of ,olympus above4 ,indeed
 what else could he do8 ,the ,gods of   
,greece are the protectors of its       
institutions1 ,state and ,family2 they  
are the embodiment of its spirit1 of its
 civilization4 ,but a spirit is now     
portrayed which is negative to ,greek   
spirit1 which denies and defies it in   
its very essence2 the result is a new   
set of supernatural shapes which        
dominate the separated world4 ,the      
negation also must be seen taking on a  
plastic form1 and appearing before the  
,greek imagination4  ,the deities of    
,fableland1 or its supernatural powers1 
are therefore opposite to the deities of
 ,olympus4 ,hence their shape is        

changed1 they can be even monstrosities1
 such as ,polyphemus1 the               
,laestrigonians1 ,scylla and ,charybdis4
 ,circe and ,calypso are beautiful      
women1 yet not natural women1 in spite  
of their beauty2 there is something     
superhuman about them1 divine1 though   
they be not ,olympians4 ,shapes of      
wonder they all seem1 unreal1 yet in    
intimate connection with mankind4       
,moreover they are local1 attached to a 
given spot1 or island2 they are not     
universal1 they have no general sway    
like the ,olympians2 limited1 confined1 
particular is their authority1 which the
 human being can and must transcend4    
,at this point ,olympus can descend into
 their world and give command4 ,so1     
after all1 the ,greek ,gods rule over   
the realm which is negative to them1    
must do so1 else they were not ,gods4   
,but they are in a far-off background1  
namely1 in civilized ,hellas1 beyond    
whose border ,ulysses passes in these   
,books4 ,still ,zeus1 the supreme ,greek

 ,god1 sends his decree to ,calypso1    
when ,ulysses is ready to leave the     
,dark ,island4 ,thus the ,olympians     
exercise a final jurisdiction even here4
 ,it is to be noticed1 however1 that    
,pallas has little to do with ,ulysses  
in ,fableland2 for is she not           
substantially negated8 ,but when he     
touches ,greece again1 and even in      
,phaeacia1 she will not fail to be at   
his side4 ,she belongs not to           
,wonderland1 but to the clear rational  
realm of light and order2 she cannot    
follow even her darling mortal through  
these dark mazy wanderings4  ,it is     
manifest that the epical ,upper ,world  
of the ,gods has receded from the place 
it occupies in the ,iliad and in the    
other portions of the ,odyssey2 in fact1
 it has been largely but not wholly     
supplanted4 ,a new order of deities is  
portrayed1 subordinate1 yet             
authoritative in their limited domain1  
which is cut off by the vast sea from   
united ,hellas1 and is thus made merely 

individual and anti-social by its       
situation4  ,what are these shapes and  
why8 ,man has created them that he may  
indicate his own spiritual state when he
 has fallen out with the established    
order4 ,really they are phases of the   
development of the hero1 who is reaching
 out through disbelief1 denial1         
defiance1 toward a restoration4 ,he is  
negative to the ,greek consciousness1   
and this negation takes shape by mind1  
yet has to be put down by mind4 ,the    
whole process he projects out of himself
 into two lines of movement3 the first  
is the row of preternatural forms       
arranged as if in a gallery of antique  
sculpture1 the second is himself passing
 through these forms1 grappling with    
them1 mastering them1 or fleeing from   
them4  ,such is this ,fairy ,world which
 has crept in under the grand ,olympian 
order in response to a true necessity4  
,its beings are not natural1 its events 
are not probable2 thus the poet forces  
us to look inward if we would see his   

meaning4 ,spirit is portraying spirit1  
and not externality1 which is here made 
absurd2 in this manner we are driven out
 of the real into ideal1 or we drop by  
the way in reading those four ,books4   
#d4 ,but it must not for a moment be    
thought that ,homer created this ,fairy 
,world or made1 single-handed1 these    
,fairy ,tales4 ,the latter are the work 
of the people1 possibly of the race4    
,comparative folk-lore has traced them  
around the globe in one form or other4  
,the story of ,polyphemus is really a   
collection of stories gathered about one
 central person2 some portions of it    
have been found in the ,east as well as 
the ,west1 in ,arabian and ,tartar      
legend as well as in ,celtic and        
,esthonian4 ,the subtle play upon the   
word nobody as a name is known far and  
wide by many people who never heard of  
,homer4 ,wilhelm ,grimm took the trouble
 to collect a lot of examples from a    
great variety of sources1 ancient1      
medieval and modern1 ,european and      

,asiatic1 in a special treatise called  
the ,legend of ,polyphemus4 ,circe1 the 
enchantress1 has been discovered in a   
,hindoo collection of ,tales belonging  
in the main to the thirteenth century of
 our era2 but the witch who has the     
power of turning men into animals is as 
universal as folk-lore itself4 ,the     
werewolf superstition will furnish      
instances without number4 ,the descent  
into ,hades has its parallel in the     
,finnish epic ,kalevala1 which reaches  
far back into ,turanian legend2 even the
 ,north ,american and ,australian       
savages have their heroes enter the     
world beyond1 and bring back an account 
of what is there4 ,truly one of the     
earliest needs of the human soul is this
 striving to find and to shadow forth in
 mythical outlines the realm of the     
supersensible4 ,dante's ,journey through
 ,inferno goes back to ,virgil1 ,virgil 
goes back to ,homer1 and ,homer to the  
folk-tales of his people1 and these     
folk-tales of ,greece reach out to still

 more remote ages and peoples4 ,thus    
into ,christian legend the old heathen  
stories are transformed2 many descents  
to ,hell and ,purgatory1 as well as     
visions of ,heaven are recorded in the  
,middle ,ages4 ,it may be said that     
folk-tales have an ancestry as old as   
man himself1 and have followed him      
everywhere as his spirit's own shadow1  
which he casts as his body casts its    
visible shadow4  ,a collection of ,fairy
 ,tales we may1 then1 consider these    
four ,books1 with its giants1 cannibals1
 enchantresses1 with its bag of winds1  
which is still furnished by the         
town-witch to the outgoing sailor in    
some countries1 if report be true4 ,in  
fact1 a little delving among the people1
 who are the great depositories of      
folk-lore1 would probably find some of  
the stories of the ,odyssey still alive1
 if not in their completeness1 at least 
some shreds or floating gossamers       
thereof4 ,indestructible is the genuine 
tale when once made and accepted by the 

people1 being of their very essence2 it 
is also the primordial material of which
 all true poetry is produced1 it is     
nature's ,parian marble of which the    
poetic temple of ,greece is built1      
specially this ,homeric temple4  #e4 ,at
 this point we begin to see just what is
 the function of ,homer who has         
inherited a vast mass of poetic         
material4 ,he is its shaper1 organizer1 
transformer2 chiefly1 however1 he is the
 architect of the beautiful structure of
 song4 ,he does not and cannot make the 
stone which goes into his edifice1 but  
he makes the edifice4 ,his genius is    
architectonic2 he has an idea which he  
builds into harmonious measures4 ,what  
the ages have furnished1 he converts to 
his own use1 and orders into a poetic   
,whole4  ,the store of ,fairy ,tales in 
those four ,books was unquestionably    
transmitted to him1 but he has jointed  
them into the ,ulyssiad1 and into the   
total ,odyssey1 of whose structure they 
form the very heart4 ,the question      

arises3 ,did ,homer find those ,tales   
already collected8 ,possibly he did1 to 
a certain extent2 they seem to come     
together of themselves1 making a        
marvelous romance of the sea4 ,some     
story-telling ,greek sailor may well    
have given him the thread of connection2
 certainly they are sprung of nautical  
experience4 ,but in whatever shape they 
may come to the poet1 we may be certain 
of one thing3 his constructive spirit   
transformed them and put them into their
 present place1 where they fit to       
perfection1 forming a most important    
stage in the grand ,return4  ,in the    
development of the folk-tale1 we can in 
a general way mark three grades4 7#a7   
,there is first the story which sets    
forth the processes in nature1 the      
clouds1 the winds1 the storms1 the sun  
and moon1 the conflict of the elements4 
,such is mainly the mythical character  
of the old ,vedas4 ,many a trace of this
 ancient conception we can find in      
,homeric ,fableland1 which has a strong 

elemental substrate in the wrath of     
,neptune1 in the tempests1 in the winds 
of ,a,eolus1 in the ,oxen of the ,sun4  
,still the ,odyssey has passed far      
beyond this phase of mythical           
consciousness2 it cannot be explained by
 resolving it back into mere            
nature-myths1 which method simply leaves
 out the vital fact1 namely1 that of    
development4 7#b7 ,in the second stage  
of the ,fairy ,tale the physical meaning
 begins to withdraw into the background1
 and an ethical element becomes         
dominant2 the outer conflicts of nature1
 if they be present1 are taken to       
portray the spirit's struggle1 in which 
a supreme moral order of some kind is   
brought to light4 ,here we may well     
place ,grimm's collection of folk-tales 
in many ways an epoch-making book4 ,in  
those simple stories of the people we   
observe the good and the bad marked off 
distinctly and engaged in some kind of a
 wrestle1 which shows at last the       
supremacy of the good4 ,not in every    

case perhaps1 but such is the tendency4 
,but these ,tales of ,grimm1 though     
collected1 are in no sense united2 the  
architect never appeared1 though they   
are the material of a great ,teutonic   
epos2 they are the stones of the        
edifice1 not the edifice itself by any  
means4 7#c7 ,out of this second stage   
easily rises the third1 the poet being  
given2 whereof the best example is just 
those four ,books of the ,odyssey4 ,now 
the folk-tale stands not alone1 in      
widowed solitariness1 but is made to    
take its place in the great national1 or
 perchance universal temple of song4    
,we may say1 therefore1 that ,homer not 
only gathered these ,tales but organized
 them into a ,whole1 so that they no    
longer fall asunder into separate       
narratives1 but they are deftly         
interwoven and form a great cycle of    
experience4 ,no segment of this cycle   
can be taken away without breaking the  
totality4 ,moreover the entire series is
 but an organic part of the ,odyssey4   

,it is now manifest that those who      
resolve these ,tales into a disconnected
 bead-roll have really fallen back into 
the second stage before mentioned2 they 
have undone the work of ,homer4 ,if     
these four ,books be simply a string of 
stories without an inner movement from  
one to the other1 or without any organic
 connection with the rest of the poem1  
the entire poetic temple is but a pile  
of stones and no edifice4 ,and this is  
what ,wolf and his disciples make out of
 ,homer4 ,in one way or other they tear 
asunder the structure and transform it  
backwards in a collection1 allowing it  
hardly as much unity as may be found in 
the ,canterbury ,tales of ,chaucer4 ,a  
school more recent than that of ,wolf1  
the ,comparative ,philologists1 have    
gone still further backwards1 and have  
reduced ,homer to the first stage1 to a 
nature-myth4 ,the merit of both schools 
is that they have called attention to   
,homer's primitive materials2 they have 
rendered impossible the idea that ,homer

 created the ,greek ,gods or his        
mythology1 or even his little stories4  
,the defect of these schools is that    
they fail to see the architectonic      
,homer1 the poet who builds the crude   
materials furnished by his people into  
an enduring structure of the noblest    
art4 ,they recognize in the edifice the 
stone and also the stone-cutter1 but no 
master-builder4  ,homer1 therefore1 is  
not merely the editor1 collector1       
redactor2 he is not a ,grimm1 gathering 
his tales from the mouths of the people 
with a scientific accuracy4 ,he gathered
 them1 doubtless1 but he transfigured   
them into an image reflecting the       
experience of a human soul4 ,our age is 
indeed scientific1 it is collecting the 
folk-songs and the folk-tales from every
 quarter of the globe1 and stringing    
them on a thread1 like so many beads1   
not being able to transmute them into   
poetry4 ,wolf heralded the coming time  
by starting to reconvert ,homer into his
 primitive materials1 by making him     

scientific and not poetic1 at least not 
architectonic4 ,still we may be         
permitted to hope that these vast       
collections of the world's folk-lore    
will yet be transmuted by some new      
,homer into a world-poem4  #f4 ,the     
careful reader will also weigh the fact 
that ,ulysses is now the story-teller   
himself4 ,the entire series of          
adventures in ,fableland is put into his
 mouth by the poet4 ,herein1 we note a  
striking difference from the previous   
,book1 the ninth1 in which ,demodocus is
 the singer4 ,what is the ground of such
 a marked transition8 ,demodocus has as 
his theme the war at ,troy with its lays
 of heroes1 and its famous deeds2 he    
celebrates the period portrayed in the  
,iliad2 his field is the ,heroic ,epos1 
or the songs of which it is composed4   
,but he cannot sing of the world outside
 of the ,greco-,trojan consciousness1 he
 cannot reach beyond the ,olympian order
 into the new set of deities of         
,fableland4 ,ulysses1 however1 has      

transcended the ,trojan epoch1 has1 in  
fact1 reacted against ,hellenic life and
 institutions1 though he longs to get   
back to them1 out of his alienated      
condition4 ,this internal phase         
,demodocus does not know1 it manifestly 
lies beyond his art4 ,he does not sing  
of the ,return at all1 though ,phemius1 
the ,ithacan bard1 did in the ,first    
,book4 ,a new strain is this1 requiring 
a new singer1 namely the man who has had
 the wonderful experience himself4  ,the
 result is1 another art-form has to be  
employed1 the ,fairy ,tale1 of which we 
have already spoken4 ,the individual now
 turns inward and narrates his marvelous
 adventures in the region of spirit1 his
 wrestlings there1 his doubts1 his      
defeats and escapes4 ,for ,fableland is 
not actual like ,hellas1 not even like  
,phaeacia2 it is a creation of the mind 
in order to express mind1 and its shapes
 have to be removed from sensuous       
reality to fulfill the law of their     
being4 ,such is plainly ,homer's        

procedure4 ,once before he sped off into
 ,fairyland1 toward ,egypt and the      
,east1 leaving ,hellas and ,troy behind1
 quite as ,ulysses here does4 ,it was   
the story of ,menelaus in the ,fourth   
,book1 who also found ,proteus and      
,eidothea1 a new order of deities1      
though ,olympus and ,zeus lay in the    
distant background4 ,moreover1 ,proteus 
and ,eidothea represent the two sides1  
the supersensible and the sensible1 the 
latter of which must be transcended and 
the former grasped1 ere return be       
possible4  ,nestor also tells his own   
experience in the ,third ,book1 but he  
keeps inside of ,hellas and under the   
direct control of the ,greek ,gods4     
,hence no ,faery ,realm rises in his    
narrative1 he needs none for            
self-expression4 ,but ,menelaus and     
,ulysses1 wandering far over the ,greek 
border1 reach a new world1 and require a
 new art-form for their adequate        
utterance4 ,especially is this the case 
with ,ulysses1 who has had a much larger

 and deeper experience than ,menelaus1  
and who thus stands in strong contrast  
with ,nestor1 the old man of faith with 
his devotion to the old order1 who has  
no devious return from ,troy1 and       
continues to live in immediate          
unquestioning harmony with the          
,olympians4 ,there is no room in ,pylos 
for a ,circe or a ,polyphemus4          
,ulysses1 therefore1 having reached the 
court of ,phaeacia1 takes a calm        
retrospect of the past1 and recounts the
 same to the people there2 he comes to  
know himself1 and he uses art for       
self-expression1 not for the praise of  
the external deed of war2 his inner life
 is the theme4 ,in other words1 he has  
become self-conscious in ,phaeacia1 he  
knows his own processes1 and shows that 
he knows them4 ,as already pointed out1 
this internal movement of his spirit is 
the process of the negative1 he has     
turned denier of the old institutional  
order of ,greece1 and he has to work    
through into a positive world again1    

which he now sees before himself in     
,phaeacia4  ,to be sure1 the            
self-consciousness to which he has      
attained is not expressed in the        
language of philosophy1 but in poetry1  
in a transcendental ,fairyland4 ,there  
is as yet no ,greek language of         
philosophy2 a long development will     
bring it forth however2 ,aristotle will 
deracinate the last image of ,homer1 and
 leave the ,greek tongue supersensible4 
#g4 ,the fact that ,ulysses must tell   
his own story is deeply coupled with the
 following characteristic3 these four   
,books of ,fableland are essentially a  
confession4 ,from beginning to end we   
observe it to be an account of          
shortcomings and their results2 we find 
the acknowledgment of error in the very 
statement of the transaction4 ,he       
confesses to ,alcinous and the          
,phaeacians his negative attitude to the
 ,state and the consequences thereof2 he
 confesses to ,arete in what way he has 
violated her institution4 ,here lies the

 necessity3 this confession is          
absolutely needful to his soul to free  
it of its negative past4 ,he has become 
conscious of his condition1 and utters  
his confession to these people who are  
the opposite of it1 and thus gets rid of
 his limitation4 ,the psychologic ground
 of his telling his own story is that he
 must4  ,to be sure1 this is all done in
 a mythical form1 which is somewhat     
alien to our method of making a         
confession4 ,then ,homer does not       
moralize by the way1 he does not usually
 approve or condemn2 he simply states   
the deed and its consequences4 ,his     
procedure is objective1 truly artistic1 
letting the thing speak for itself4 ,the
 modern reader1 however1 likes to have  
moral observations interspersed1 which  
will stir up his sentiments1 and save   
him the trouble of thinking the matter  
out for himself4  ,yet ,ulysses1 on the 
other hand1 is always striving to reach 
out of his error1 to transcend his      
limitation4 ,his mistake flings him to  

the earth1 but he gets up again and     
marches forward4 ,thus he asserts his   
own infinite worth2 he is certain to    
reach home at last and accomplish the   
grand ,return4  ,but he does not bring  
back his companions4 ,these often seem  
to be lower unheroic phases of human    
nature1 which the hero must throw off in
 the course of his development4 ,in     
general1 they may be considered to be in
 him1 a part of himself1 yet they are   
real persons too4 ,this rule1 however1  
will not always apply4 ,still his       
companions are lost1 having perished by 
their own folly1 while he is saved2 the 
wise man is to live1 the unwise to pass 
away4  ,the pivotal sin committed by    
,ulysses in ,fableland is against       
,neptune1 who is angry because ,ulysses 
put out the eye of his son ,polyphemus4 
,so the ,god1 after the affair of the   
,oxen of the ,sun1 becomes the grand    
obstacle to the ,return1 and helps to   
keep the hero with ,calypso4 ,such is   
the mythical statement in which three   

conceptions seem to blend4 7#a7 ,neptune
 is the purely physical obstacle of the 
sea1 very great in those early days4    
7#b7 ,nature has her law1 and if it be  
not observed1 the penalty follows1 when 
she may be said to be mythically angry4 
,if a man jump down from a high         
precipice1 he violates a law of nature1 
gravitation1 and she executes him on the
 spot1 it may be2 she is always angry   
and quick to punish in such cases2 but  
he may climb down the height and escape4
 ,in like manner a man1 undertaking to  
swim across the sea1 encounters the     
wrath of ,neptune2 but he may construct 
a ship1 and make the voyage4 7#c7       
,finally there is the ethical violation3
 we shall see in the narrative1 how     
,ulysses1 after appealing to humanity1  
becomes himself inhuman and a savage    
toward ,polyphemus1 who then curses him 
and invokes father ,neptune with effect4
 ,so the ,god visits upon ,ulysses the  
punishment for his ethical offense1     
which is the main one after all4 ,in    

this way ,fableland through the story of
 ,polyphemus contains a leading motive  
of the ,ulyssiad1 and thereby of the    
whole ,odyssey1 and ,ulysses is seen to 
be detained really by his own deed4  #h4
 ,the general structure of these four   
,books is simple enough4 ,they form a   
series of adventures1 with three to a   
,book4 ,though the connection seems     
slight on the surface1 there are inner  
threads which bind intimately together  
the separate adventures2 one of the     
points in any true interpretation is to 
raise these threads to light4 ,the      
general movement of the whole may be    
regarded as threefold3 the sensible     
world 7two ,books71 the supersensible   
,hades 7one ,book71 the sensible world a
 second time 7one ,book74 ,very         
significant are these changes1 but it is
 hardly worth while to forecast them    
here2 they must be studied in detail    
first1 then a retrospect can be given1  
as the contents of the four ,books will 
be present in the reader's mind4 ,we may

 now say1 however1 that this sweep from 
the sensible into the supersensible1 and
 back again to the sensible1 has in it  
the meaning of a soul's experience1 and 
that the second sensible realm here     
mentioned is very different from the    
first4  ,the central fact of ,fableland 
is1 accordingly1 that the man must get  
beyond the realm of the senses1 and hold
 communion with pure spirit1 with the   
prophet ,tiresias1 and then come back to
 the real world1 bringing the wisdom    
gained beyond1 ere he can complete the  
cycle of the grand ,return4     ,,book  
,,ninth4   ,ulysses is now called for by
 ,alcinous1 and he is to be the singer4 
,at first he naturally pays a compliment
 to his predecessor ,demodocus3 ,a      
pleasant thing to hear a bard such as   
this1 with a voice like unto that of the
 ,gods4 ,then he gives a delicate touch 
of commendation to the whole people     
sitting in a row and listening to the   
singer who is chanting the famous deeds 
of the aforetime4 ,but when ,ulysses    

praises the tables laden with bread and 
meat1 and the cupbearer filling the     
wine-cups of the guests1 saying1 ,this  
seems to me the best thing1 strong      
opposition has been aroused1 shown even 
in antiquity by the sharp protest of    
,plato and ,lucian4 ,still this         
,phaeacian enjoyment is innocent enough2
 not ascetic is the trait1 yet not      
sensual2 to-day good people usually eat 
and drink without the song of bard or   
other spiritual entertainment           
accompanying the material one of        
gustation4  ,now comes the change1      
,ulysses is to give a song1 he is to    
sing his own deeds1 the story of his    
trials1 which will wake fresh sorrow in 
me4 ,clearly this will be a different   
song from the preceding one of          
,demodocus2 not now an heroic tale of   
,troy1 but an account of the ,return    
therefrom2 a tale in which endurance is 
the theme rather than action4 ,the hero 
is more the sufferer than the doer2 he  
is to meet the hostile blows of ,fate   

and to master it by his ability to bear 
as well as by his ability to act4 ,a new
 poetic form will gradually rise out of 
the theme and in harmony with the same2 
the present movement runs counter to the
 ,trojan story both in space and in     
spirit4  ,the first act of ,ulysses in  
this novel procedure is to be duly      
noted3 he declares who he is1 gives his 
father's name and utters a hint of his  
own character4 ,very great surprise must
 the announcement have created among    
those ,phaeacians--a veritable          
sensation1 as we say in these times2 for
 ,ulysses had been the real hero of the 
songs of ,demodocus just sung2 behold1  
that hero himself is present and has    
been listening all the while4 ,the      
dramatic disguise1 in which the interest
 of the hearer has centered hitherto1 is
 thrown off1 the concealed man shows    
himself4  ,still deeper must we look    
into this act of self-revelation4 ,i am 
,ulysses1 says the bard now1 proposing  
to sing of ,ulysses4 ,i am myself1 ,i   

know what ,i have done and ,i am the man
 to tell it4 ,really here is a statement
 of self-consciousness2 the singer is no
 longer a ,demodocus singing of another 
man1 of ,ulysses1 at ,troy1 but it is   
,ulysses himself1 now singing of        
himself1 of his profoundest experiences1
 which none other but he can tell4 ,his 
internal life opens1 not that active    
heroic one2 the trials of his spirit are
 the theme1 therewith must follow a new 
manner of utterance1 a poetic form which
 can express what is within and still   
remain in the domain of the imagination4
 ,a self-conscious art we must now be   
prepared for1 which seeks to express    
just the self-consciousness of the poet 
going through his inner experiences1    
with the counterstroke from the outer   
world4  ,what new art-form1 then1 will  
,homer1 the grand constructive poet1 who
 seizes every object necessary for his  
temple of song1 assign to ,ulysses      
singing of himself8 ,the ,fairy ,tale is
 taken with its strange supernatural    

shapes1 which have no reality1 and hence
 can only have an ideal meaning2 we are 
ushered into the realm of the physically
 impossible1 where we have to see the   
spiritually actual1 if we see anything4 
,polyphemus is not a man1 not an animal1
 not a direct product of nature2 he is a
 creature of the mind made by the mind  
in order to express mind4 ,undoubtedly  
he has external shape1 but that shape is
 meaningless till we catch the spirit   
creating him4 ,the ,fairy ,tale removes 
the vision from an outer sensuous world1
 and compels an internal vision1 which  
looks into the soul of things and there 
beholds the soul4  ,the ,fairy ,tale    
existed long before ,homer1 it is a     
genuine product of the people4 ,the     
stories which here follow have been     
traced among the remotest races2 they   
spring up of themselves out of the      
popular heart and imagination4 ,homer   
picks them up and puts them into their  
true place in his grand edifice1        
polishing1 transforming them1 by no     

means creating them2 certainly he never 
created this art-form4 ,his merit is    
that he saw where they belong and what  
phase of human experience they express2 
to this merit must be added his special 
power1 that of poetic transfiguration4  
,not simply a redactor or putter        
together externally of odd scraps1 but  
the true architect of the totality2 thus
 he comes before us on the present and  
on all other occasions4  ,ulysses1      
having told us who he is1 proceeds to   
inform us of a second important fact3   
his soul's strongest aspiration4 ,he    
longs to return to home and country4    
,ithaca1 a small1 rocky island1 is the  
sweetest spot on earth to him2 ,circe   
and then ,calypso tried to detain him1  
each wishing to keep him as husband2 but
 they could not shake the purpose of my 
heart4 ,one thinks that he must1 while  
saying this1 have cast a sly glance at  
,arete1 for whose approval it must have 
been intended1 for she was no friend of 
,circe and ,calypso4  ,it is a curious  

fact that ,homer1 in this short         
description1 makes two mistakes in      
reference to the topography of ,ithaca4 
,the island can hardly be called low as 
here stated1 nor does it lie westward of
 ,cephallenia1 but northeastward4 ,a    
reasonable inference is that ,homer was 
not an ,ithacan1 and did not know the   
island very well1 though he may have    
seen it in a passing visit4 ,anaximander
 with his first map comes after ,homer  
several hundred years4  ,the present    
,book has three plainly marked portions4
 ,first comes the wanton attack on the  
,ciconians1 which connects immediately  
with the ,trojan experience of ,ulysses4
 ,second is the country of the          
,lotus-eaters1 to which he and his      
companions are driven by wind and storm4
 ,third is the ,land of the ,cyclops1   
especially of ,polyphemus1 with whom he 
has his chief adventures4 ,the first two
 portions are quite brief1 are in fact  
introductory to the third1 which takes  
up more than four-fifths of the ,book1  

and is the ,fairy ,tale proper4 ,we may 
observe the gradual transition3 the     
,ciconians are a real people in         
geography and history2 the ,lotus-eaters
 are getting mythical1 are but half-way 
historical2 the ,cyclops belong wholly  
to ,fableland4 ,thus there is a movement
 out of the ,trojan background of       
reality into the ,fairy ,world4  ,having
 marked the dividing lines1 the next    
thing will be to find the connecting    
links between these three portions4     
,they are not thrown together haphazard 
or externally joined into one ,book2    
they have an internal thought which     
unifies them and which must be brought  
to light4 ,the poet sees in images which
 are separate1 but the thinker must     
unite these images by their inner       
necessity1 and thus justify anew the    
poet4   ,i4  ,the first sentence strikes
 the leading thought3 ,the wind1 bearing
 me from ,troy1 brought me to the       
,ciconians4 ,troy is the starting-point1
 the background out of which everything 

moves4 ,after the fall of the city      
,nestor gives an account of the disputes
 of the ,greek leaders and their        
separation 7,book ,,iii4 l4 #acd et     
seq472 ,ulysses is driven alone with his
 contingent across the sea toward       
,thrace1 where he finds a city in peace1
 though it had been an ally of ,troy4 ,i
 sacked the city1 ,i destroyed its      
people2 he treated them as he did the   
,trojans1 taking as booty their wives   
and property4 ,such is the spirit       
begotten of that ten years' war in the  
character of ,ulysses1 a spirit of      
violence and rapine1 totally unfitted   
for a civilized life1 at bottom negative
 to ,family and ,state4 ,this is the    
spiritual starting-point from which he  
is to return to home and country through
 a long1 long1 but very needful         
discipline4  ,he is well aware that he  
has done something for which vengeance  
awaits him1 so he urges his companions  
to flee at once4 ,but they would not    
obey1 they stayed there drinking much   

wine and slaughtering sheep and oxen    
along the sea-shore4 ,revel and feasting
 follow1 till the ,ciconians rouse the  
outlying neighbors and drive the ,greeks
 to the ships1 with the loss of six     
companions for each ship4 ,such is the  
first incident after the ,trojan ,war1  
showing clearly the destructive phase   
thereof1 which has been drilled into the
 character by so long a period of       
bloodshed4  ,this is not yet ,fairyland1
 but a real people and a real conflict4 
,the ,ciconians in the later historic   
time of ,herodotus still dwelt in       
,thrace4 ,grotius in his famous book ,on
 the ,rights of ,peace and ,war cites   
the present instance as a violation of  
international justice4 ,the grand       
positive ground of attacking ,troy is   
not found here2 there was no ,helen     
detained in wrongful captivity4 ,the    
sack of ,ismarus pictures the evil      
results which spring from all war1 even 
the most just4 ,again we must affirm    
that this deed of wrongful violence is  

the start toward the great ,return1 and 
hints what has to be overcome internally
 by the journey through ,fairyland4     
,later we find a fact1 not here         
mentioned1 pertaining to the sack of the
 city of the ,ciconians4 ,ulysses had   
saved ,maron1 the priest of ,apollo1 who
 in gratitude gave him the strong wine  
with which he overcame ,polyphemus in   
the cave4 ,his merciful deed thus helped
 him conquer the monster of nature4 ,but
 in general it is plain that ,ulysses1  
though desiring to get back to an       
institutional life1 is not ready by any 
means for such a step2 he is in reality 
hostile to the very essence of          
institutional life4 ,he is too much like
 the suitors now to be their punisher4  
,all put to sea again1 to be tossed on  
that unruly element1 with their little  
vessels exposed to wind and wave4 ,they 
call thrice by name each one of their   
dead companions ere they set out2 the   
meaning of this invocation has been much
 discussed1 but it probably rests upon  

the belief that they could thus call the
 souls of the deceased to go along with 
them to home and country4 ,the fact that
 just six were lost from each ship was  
made the ground of an assault upon      
,homer in antiquity by ,zoilus1 famed as
 the ,homeromastix1 or ,homer's         
trouncer4  ,the great sea with its      
tempests is now before them1 heaving and
 tossing2 after the attack upon the     
,ciconians we can well imagine that this
 storm has its inner counterpart in the 
soul of ,ulysses4 ,does he not show     
within himself a deep scission--between 
his desire to return and his deed8 ,at  
any rate he is borne forward2 when he   
sought to round ,maleia1 the southern   
point of ,greece 7now ,cape ,st4        
,angelo71 and sail home to ,ithaca1 he  
was carried out to sea by the winds1    
beyond the ,island ,cythera1 across the 
main toward the coast of ,africa4 ,thus 
he is swept outside the boundaries of   
,hellas proper into a region dimly      
known1 half-mythical2 he cannot make the

 sharp turn at ,maleia1 inside the      
,greek world2 he must go beyond it and  
there reach his final experience4 ,not  
simply physical is this description1    
else it would be a mere statement in    
geography2 it is also spiritual and     
hence rises into poetry4   ,,ii4  ,next 
is the land of the ,lotus-eaters1 where 
,ulysses and his companions arrive1     
after being driven helplessly across the
 fishy deep for nine days 7this is a    
favorite number in ,homer7 by the       
hostile winds4 ,the ,lotus-eaters1 whose
 food is flowers use no violence1 but   
reach to the new-comers their plant1 the
 lotus1 to satisfy hunger4 ,whoever has 
once tasted of that pleasant food1      
straightway forgets home and the        
,return1 and wishes to live always among
 the ,lotus-eaters4 ,the will is broken1
 all activity is sapped2 the land of    
idlers it is1 relaxed in a sensuous     
dream life1 in which there is a complete
 collapse of volition4  ,now the point  
is to connect this country with the     

,ciconians1 or rather to see this       
internal condition evolving itself out  
of the preceding one4 ,for the line of  
conjunction must be within1 of the      
spirit2 physically the two countries are
 far enough apart4 ,in the first case1  
we have noted a state of external       
violence1 which really means a          
destroying of the will4 ,the ,greeks    
assailed a quiet people1 assailed its   
will2 then they were beaten and driven  
off1 they had their negative deed served
 up to themselves4 ,now what8 ,there    
follows an internal collapse of the     
will1 a logical result of their own     
conduct1 which is hinted by their being 
drifted about on the seas1 apparently   
quite helpless4 ,no wonder that1 when   
they touched land again1 and obtained   
some food1 they desired to stay there1  
and eat of the lotus4 ,yet it is the    
consequence of their own act2 that      
wanton destruction of the ,ciconian will
 is at bottom the destruction of their  
own will2 they are really assailing     

their own principle--a fact which is to 
be brought home to them by a long and   
bitter experience4  ,but there is one   
man among them1 who1 though not         
guiltless by any means1 felt the nature 
of the ,ciconian act1 and who has still 
some volition left in the right         
direction4 ,by force ,i led back to the 
ship those who had tasted of the lotus1 
and bound them beneath the oar-benches4 
,the rest of the companions were ordered
 aboard1 they obeyed2 off they sail     
again on the hoary deep--whitherward8   
,thus ,ulysses shows himself the man of 
will among the will-less1 and solves his
 part of the problem among the          
,lotus-eaters1 setting out for the new  
,unknown4  ,this people probably lived  
on the coast of ,lybia according to     
,homer's conception1 though the land is 
outside the clear ,greek geographical   
horizon1 floating mistily somewhere on  
its borders1 half real1 half fabulous1  
on the way to ,fairyland4 ,we enter more
 distinctly the inner realm of the      

spirit1 as the outer realm of reality   
becomes less distinct and demonstrable4 
,the ,ciconians were an actual people1  
the conflict with them also actual1     
quite the ,trojan conflict2 but the     
,lotus-eaters form the transition to the
 ,wonderland of the ,odyssey4  ,as      
regards the lotus1 several plants were  
called by that name2 one is mentioned in
 a previous ,book of the ,odyssey 7,,iv4
 #fjc7 which was probably a kind of     
clover growing in the damp lowlands of  
,greece and ,asia ,minor1 and utilized  
for grazing4 ,another sort was a species
 of lily which grew in the valley of the
 ,nile4 ,but the lotus of the present   
passage is generally considered to be   
the fruit of a shrub which yields a     
reddish berry of the size of a common   
olive1 having somewhat the taste of a   
fig4 ,this fruit is still highly        
esteemed in ,tripolis1 ,tunis and       
,algiers2 from the last named country it
 has passed over to ,france1 and is     
often hawked about the streets of ,paris

 under the name of ,jujube1 where the   
passing traveler will purchase a sample1
 and eat of the same1 testing the truth 
of ,homer's description1 but probably   
not losing thereby his desire for home  
and country4  ,the ,lotus-eaters have   
had a famous history2 they have caught  
the fancy of poets and literary men who 
have sought in various ways to reproduce
 and embellish them4 ,among             
,english-speaking peoples the poem of   
,tennyson on this subject is a prime    
favorite4 ,but in ,homer the            
,lotus-eaters are not an isolated fact1 
they are a link in the chain of a grand 
development2 this inner connecting      
thought is the true thing to grasp4     
,let us1 then1 penetrate the heart of   
the next movement of ,ulysses4 ,the     
,lotus-eater gave up family and country2
 chewing the lotus1 he forgot the       
return4 ,his will vanished into a       
sensuous oblivion2 he was indifferent1  
and this indifference was a passive     
destruction of the ,greek world to which

 he was returning4 ,but now in due order
 the active destroyer of that world     
appears2 behold the ,cyclops1 the wild  
man of nature1 truly a monster to the   
,greek institutional sense1 being       
without domestic and civil order4 ,thus 
we mark the inner transition3 the active
 principle of that which was a passive  
,lotus-eater is the ,cyclops1 a         
,polyphemus4 ,the ,trojan negative      
result1 so deeply lodged in the soul of 
,ulysses and his companions1 cannot     
remain mere indifference or             
forgetfulness2 it must proceed to       
action1 to virulent destructive action1 
which is now to be bodied forth in a    
fabulous shape4 ,only a few of the      
weakest companions of ,ulysses were     
ready to become ,lotus-eaters1 and they 
were easily thrust under the oar-benches
 and carried away4 ,here there is a     
fresh conflict1 altogether the main one 
of the present ,book4   ,,iii4  ,if then
 we have seized the matter aright1 we   
have reached a shape in ,fairyland1     

which represents what is hostile1       
actively hostile1 to the ,greek         
institutional world1 ,state1 ,family1   
,society4 ,ulysses stands in a double   
relation to the present condition of    
things4 ,the ,cyclops is really a       
picture of him in his negative          
character1 a product of his destructive 
,trojan spirit1 yet he is just the man  
who must put down the ,cyclops1 he must 
master his own negation or perish4      
,ulysses sees the natural man1 or       
rather1 he sees himself with all culture
 taken away1 with all institutional life
 eliminated from his existence4  ,he may
 well be frightened at the monster1 who 
is very real1 though a dweller in       
,fairyland4 ,nor should we forget that  
the ,cyclops also undergoes a change1 he
 too is in the process and shows        
something like development under the    
severe tuition of ,ulysses4  ,as already
 said1 the present portion is altogether
 the longest in the ,book1 it is        
essentially the entire ,book4 ,the other

 two portions were hardly more than a   
short introduction and a brief          
transitional stage2 now comes the full  
and highly elaborated tale1 in which    
both the land and its inhabitants are   
fabulous1 supernatural4 ,there are two  
distinct divisions treating of the      
,cyclops3 the first describes their race
 in general1 the second gives a         
description of the particular grand     
,cyclops1 ,polyphemus1 in his conflict  
with ,ulysses4  ,i4 ,this time there is 
no tempest1 such as arose after leaving 
the ,ciconians1 in order to reach the   
land of the ,cyclops2 that collapse of  
the will seems to have pictured itself  
in the quiet deep4 ,but who are the     
,cyclops8 ,a race without law1 addicted 
to violent deeds2 they have no          
agriculture1 they plant not1 neither do 
they plow2 they get their products1     
trusting to the ,gods1 that is1 trusting
 to nature1 since the ,cyclops have     
small regard for the higher ,gods1 as we
 shall soon see4 ,another mere formula  

this1 showing that the ,homeric deity   
was getting crystallized even for       
,homer4 ,they hold no councils in       
common1 are not associated together1 but
 they dwell in vaulted caves on mountain
 heights1 such as the famous ,corycian  
cavern which is near the top of a       
mountain on ,parnassus4 ,there each man 
rules his wives and children1 evidently 
a herding polygamous condition of the   
family2 nor do they 7the ,cyclops7 care 
for one another4 ,still further1 they   
have no ships with crimson prows1 no    
navigation1 no commerce which seeks the 
cities of men and binds them together in
 the bond of society and humanity4 ,yet 
there is an excellent harbor and a good 
soil1 with copious showers from ,zeus2  
nature has surely done her part1 and is 
calling loudly for the enterprising     
colonist to come and plant here his     
civilized order4 ,this passage must have
 stirred the ,greek emigrant to leave   
his stony ,hellas and seek in the ,west1
 a new home2 it suggests the great      

,hellenic movement for the colonization 
of ,italy and ,sicily from the #fth to  
the #ith century ,b4,c4 ,the poet has   
plainly been with the frontiersman1 and 
seen the latter's giants4  ,the main    
thing to be noticed in the present      
account is the extraordinary number of  
negatives4 ,no laws1 no assemblies1 no  
association2 no plows1 no ships1 no     
intercourse with other cities2 the whole
 civilized life of man is negated1 and  
man himself is thrown back into a state 
of nature4 ,it is worth while to search 
for the purpose of this negative        
procedure on the part of the poet4 ,he  
might have given a positive description 
of nature1 telling what it is1 and      
telling what the ,cyclops is1 not       
emphasizing so much what he is not4 ,but
 thus the meaning would not come out so 
plainly2 the ,cyclops is just the       
negation of the whole civilized world of
 ,greece1 which fact must be expressly  
imaged in the very words used in the    
poem4 ,he is not so much a simple being 

of nature as a being antithetic to      
society4  ,at this point we can trace   
his connection with the great ,trojan   
experience1 which1 as already set forth1
 has begotten a negative tendency in its
 participators4 ,the war at ,troy1 like 
all war long-continued1 has bred men to 
be anti-social2 they have to destroy    
,state1 ,family1 ,commerce1             
,agriculture1 till destruction becomes  
habit1 yea principle1 and takes         
possession of their intellect4 ,the     
,cyclops was generated at ,ilium1 and is
 a colossal phantasm of the spirit which
 prompted the attack on the ,ciconians4 
,it should be stated here that the      
,cyclops of ,homer are different from   
those of ,hesiod and of other           
mythographers1 inasmuch as the latter   
were represented as the demons who      
forged the thunderbolts of ,zeus1 and   
were connected with the volcanic        
agencies chiefly in ,sicily and ,italy4 
,mount ,a,etna belching forth its lava  
streams may have suggested to the ,greek

 imagination the sick giant ,polyphemus 
in its caverns1 drunk on the red        
destructive wine of ,ulysses4  ,first is
 a small island1 stretching outside the 
harbor of the land of the ,cyclops1     
woody1 full of wild goats2 there the    
ships of ,ulysses drew to the shore4 ,it
 was bare of human dwellers1 the        
,cyclops had no boats to reach it2 a    
good place for stopping1 therefore1     
quite out of reach of the savages4 ,nor 
is the fountain forgotten1 sparkling    
water flowing from a hollow rock down to
 the harbor--an adjunct still necessary 
to every ,greek village or encampment4  
,some ,god led us through the dark night
 without our seeing the island till the 
boats struck it--surely a providential  
intervention on our behalf4  ,leaving   
behind the other ships at this point1   
,ulysses takes only his own and its     
crew1 and goes forth to test these      
people1 whether just or unjust1         
hospitable or godless4 ,he cannot rest  
in ignorance1 he must have the          

experience and know the unknown4 ,he    
soon sees a cave high up the mountain1  
not far from the sea1 overarched with   
laurel shrubs2 he observes also an      
enclosure1 made of stones set in the    
earth2 these stones are not hewn 7as    
some translators say71 since the        
so-called ,cyclopean walls so common in 
,greece were not built by this kind of  
,cyclops4 ,in the enclosure were resting
 many herds of sheep and goats--just    
such a scene as can be witnessed in the 
rural parts of ,greece to-day4 ,this is 
the environment of the man-monster1 who 
is now to be the theme of song4  ,,ii4  
,polyphemus is a ,cyclops but he has    
characteristics of his own4 ,he has no  
family in his cave1 he lives wholly for 
himself apparently2 he seems to be the  
largest of his race1 like no man who    
lives by bread2 he towers alone like the
 peak of a high mountain shaggy with    
woods2 apart from others he plans his   
unjust deeds4 ,a portentous shape with  
but a single eye in his head1 a         

cave-dweller similar to the primitive   
man2 he has too an evil disposition in  
his huge bulk4  ,this is the being with 
whom ,ulysses is now to engage in       
conflict1 which becomes highly dramatic4
 ,the conquest of the man of ,nature by 
the man of ,intelligence--such is the   
theme through its various fluctuations4 
,this man of ,nature1 however1 we are   
always to consider from his negative    
side1 as hostile to a civilized order2  
so the poet has carefully represented   
him4 ,he is to be put down2 yet even    
,polyphemus has his right1 he is brought
 to a gleam of self-knowledge1 and      
,ulysses has to pay the penalty of his  
deed1 which has also its curse4 ,a very 
deep current runs through the poem in   
this part1 which we shall divide into   
five different scenes1 hoping thus to   
make its movement and thought somewhat  
more distinct4  #a4 ,ulysses1 taking    
twelve of his bravest companions from   
his ship1 not forgetting a goatskin of  
wonderful wine1 for he had a            

presentiment that he would meet a huge  
wild man1 who is wont to succumb readily
 to civilized drink1 enters the cave    
while ,polyphemus is absent4 ,a vivid   
picture of that primitive dairy with its
 cheese1 milk1 curds2 the men fell to   
and helped themselves1 as was natural4  
,then the companions wished to depart at
 once1 taking what quantity of cheese   
they could carry1 but ,ulysses refused1 
he must see the ,cyclops and test his   
hospitality4 ,just the opposite was the 
case in the land of the ,ciconians2     
there ,ulysses wished to flee but his   
companions would not4 ,why this         
difference8 ,he must know ,polyphemus1  
must see the giant and subordinate him2 
that is just his supreme necessity now1 
he really can no more run away from the 
monster than from himself4 ,but that    
attack on the ,ciconians was an unjust1 
violent deed of which the penalty was   
sure to follow2 this ,ulysses knew and  
sought to escape4 ,in the present case1 
however1 no wrong has been done as yet1 

and he must meet and solve his problem1 
while his weaker companions would shun  
the trial4  ,polyphemus returns with his
 herds in due time1 and closes the mouth
 of the cave with a huge rock1 which not
 two and twenty wains could move from   
the threshold4 ,soon by the light of his
 fire he sees the lurking strangers and 
asks1 ,who are you8 ,ulysses replies1   
stating that they are returning from    
,troy1 but have been driven out of their
 way by adverse winds2 then he makes his
 human and religious appeal3 ,we come as
 suppliants1 receive us2 revere the     
,gods1 specially ,zeus the protector of 
suppliants4 ,but the ,cyclops scoffs at 
,zeus and the rest of the ,gods3 we are 
their betters4 ,thus is witnessed in the
 monster the denial of the ,greek       
religion1 and an atheistic turn of mind4
  ,next follows in logical sequence his 
supreme negative act1 he is a man-eater4
 ,he seized two of my companions and    
hurled them against the ground as if    
they were dogs1 then he devoured them   

piecemeal1 swallowing all--entrails and 
flesh and marrowy bones4 ,surely        
,ulysses is getting some experience on  
the line of that ,trojan deed4  ,now we 
catch the entire sweep of this          
particular ,cyclops4 ,he has shown      
himself as the representative of three  
mighty negations3 of civilized life1 of 
religious life1 and of human life4 ,he  
destroys man1 feeds on him2 so negation1
 war1 revolution1 must do in the end4   
,the horrid phantasm is the true image  
of the destroyer of the race4 ,nor does 
he belong to the old ,greek world and to
 the ,trojan time only2 he is among us1 
and he can be translated into modern    
terms quite familiar4 ,polyphemus is an 
anarchist1 an atheist1 and a cannibal2  
the ancient poet wraps the three        
together in one mighty monstrosity4 ,in 
the morning the ,cyclops devoured two   
more companions for his breakfast1 then 
drove his flocks afield1 leaving the    
rest of the strangers shut up in the    
cave with the big stone in the opening4 

,during the day the man of many shifts  
has an opportunity for reflection in    
that dark recess4 ,he dares not kill the
 giant outright1 with my sharp sword    
stubbing him where the midriff holds the
 liver1 for how could they then get out8
 ,no1 the man of nature must be saved   
and utilized2 with all his might he is  
to be overborne by the man of           
intelligence1 and made to remove the big
 stone4  #b4 ,the plan of ,ulysses with 
its successful execution is the subject 
of the next phase of the conflict4 ,by  
this plan three things must be done in  
order to counteract the giant and to    
negative his power4 ,he must be deprived
 of physical vision1 which becomes the  
more easily possible from the fact that 
he has but one eye2 if he had two eyes  
like the ordinary man1 he could still   
see though one be put out4 ,that this   
purpose be accomplished1 he must somehow
 be shorn of his physical strength2     
finally any resistance which might come 
from the rest of the ,cyclops outside   

must be rendered nugatory4 ,such are the
 three chief points of the impending    
problem1 which ,ulysses has to meet and 
does meet with astonishing skill and    
foresight2 the ,cyclops is blinded1 is  
made helpless by drink1 and is befooled 
by a pun4  ,ulysses burns out the eye of
 the monster with the charred end of a  
stick of olive wood1 which he prepares  
beforehand2 huge ,round-eye 7the meaning
 of the word ,cyclops7 has no eye now4  
,ulysses by means of that miraculous    
wine1 product of culture1 makes the     
giant drunk1 who thus loses his physical
 superiority4 ,the ,ithacan evidently   
knew1 as well as the ,american1 the     
power of fire-water over the wild man2  
that the wine had some strength1 is     
shown by the fact that one cup of it had
 to be diluted with twenty measures of  
water1 when taken by ordinary mortals4  
,not without significance does the      
exhilarated ,cyclops laud this civilized
 wine in contrast to that of the wild   
grapes of his own land4  ,but the third 

scheme of ,ulysses is the most subtle of
 all1 and touches the heart of the whole
 problem1 though it be merely a pun4 ,he
 calls himself ,nobody to ,polyphemus1  
who1 without sight or insight1 is the   
victim of a word4 ,for a complete man   
must have not only a double sight from  
his eyes1 but a double insight from his 
mind1 seeing before and after in the    
latter case especially4 ,the result is  
when the other ,cyclops1 roused by the  
cries of ,polyphemus1 ask him from      
outside the cave3 ,what is the matter8  
he answers1 ,nobody is killing me4      
,whereat off they go1 dropping a word or
 two of cold advice1 or perchance of    
sarcastic humor4  ,we should1 however1  
reach down to the essence of what       
appears on the surface as a mere trick  
of speech4 ,it may seem far-fetched to  
say1 but it is none the less the actual 
fact1 that ,ulysses is a ,nobody1 and a 
very active one to ,polyphemus4 ,that   
is1 he has shown himself the negative   
power which overwhelms the giant1 who is

 now himself quite reduced to a nobody  
by ,mr4 ,nobody4 ,or1 in abstract terms1
 ,ulysses has negated the negation and  
has here suggested the subtle work of   
the process in doing so4 ,has he not    
negatived ,polyphemus1 who was himself a
 negative1 so carefully and fully       
defined by the poet at the start8  ,thus
 we come upon the deepest pun ever made1
 or possible to be made1 a literary form
 which the greatest geniuses have been  
fond of sporting with2 we can find puns 
in ,dante1 ,goethe1 and notably in      
,shakespeare4 ,the pun of ,ulysses rests
 upon the duplicity inherent in the     
negative2 no-man is the man1 especially 
to ,polyphemus1 whose brain cannot span 
the two sides of the punning idea1 who  
is not two-eyed but one-eyed by nature1 
and this one eye is soon put out by the 
man with two eyes4 ,such is the earliest
 instance of what may be called the     
,play of the ,negative1 which is still  
subtly ensconced in the spoken and      
written word1 and winds in an elusive   

game of hide-and-seek through all       
,literature4 ,many men1 both writers and
 readers1 are its victims1 like         
,polyphemus4  ,and all these floating   
metaphysical gossamers are found in     
,homer6 ,yes1 but not in a metaphysical 
form2 ,homer's organ is poetic1 he lived
 in the age ere philosophers had dawned4
 ,still he too had before him the       
problems of the soul and of the world4  
,nor would he have been a true ,greek   
unless he had grappled with this ,play  
of the ,negative1 which had some        
marvelous fascination for the ,greek    
mind4 ,it is the leaven working in the  
,sophists with their subtle rhetoric1 in
 ,socrates with his negating elenchus1  
in ,plato with his confounding          
dialectic4 ,homer1 as the prophet of his
 people1 foreshadowing all forms of     
,greek spirit and of ,greek literature1 
bring to light repeatedly this ,play of 
the ,negative4  ,the modern ,german1 in 
more respects than one the spiritual    
heir of the ancient ,greek1 has not     

failed to give evidence of his          
birthright in the same direction4       
,kant's ,critique1 and ,hegel's ,logic  
are the most desperate efforts to grasp 
this slippery1 double-doing and         
double-thinking ,negative1 infinitely   
elusive1 verily the old ,serpent4 ,but  
the supreme attempt is the modern poetic
 one1 made by ,goethe in his ,faust     
poem1 in which is embodied anew the     
mighty ,negative1 who is now none other 
than the devil1 ,mephistopheles4 ,thus  
the last world-poet reaches across the  
ages and touches elbows with the first  
world-poet in a common theme4  ,thus    
,ulysses nullifies the ,cyclops1        
inflicting three deprivations through   
his three means3 the charred stick takes
 away vision1 the strong wine takes away
 strength1 the ambiguous pun prevents   
help4 ,the pun also announces covertly  
to ,polyphemus the nature of the power  
which is undoing him1 but he does not   
and cannot understand that4 ,but the    
problem of ,ulysses is not at an end    

with simply nullifying the ,cyclops2 he 
and his companions are not yet outside  
of the cave4 ,herewith we come to a new 
stage of process4  #c4 ,this is the     
escape1 to which the strong giant must  
be made to contribute1 he is skillfully 
turned against himself4 ,the great stone
 is removed by him from the mouth of the
 cave1 but he places himself there at   
the entrance1 and no human being can    
pass4 ,still1 the herds have to go out  
to their pasture4 ,ulysses dexterously  
binds three large sheep together1       
fastens a companion under the middle    
one1 while he clings beneath a huge ram1
 and out they move together4 ,but the   
giant stops just this ram and talks to  
it1 being his favorite of the flock4    
,the man of nature is again outwitted by
 the man of intelligence1 allowing his  
enemy to slip through his very fingers4 
,the conversation of the blind ,cyclops 
with the dumb animal is pathetic2 his   
one solitary friend apparently1 the only
 creature he loved1 is compelled to     

silent service against its master4 ,why 
art thou last to leave1 who wast always 
first8 ,dost thou long to see the eye of
 thy ruler1 which has been put out by   
that vile wretch1 ,nobody8 ,so the      
,cyclops speaks1 without seeing or      
knowing1 yet with a touch which excites 
sympathy for his misfortune4  ,the      
special characteristic of this scene is 
that ,ulysses does not now destroy1 but 
employs ,polyphemus and his property4   
,nature must be used by intelligence to 
overcome nature2 the strength of the    
giant must be directed to rolling away  
the big stone2 his herds are taken to   
bring about the escape of his foes1 and 
he is turned into an instrument against 
himself4 ,thus he is no longer negated  
as in the last scene1 but utilized2     
having been subdued1 he now must serve4 
,ulysses and his companions are outside 
the cave1 having gotten rid of those    
dark and fearful limits which walled    
them in with a monster4 ,mind1 thought  
has released them2 soon they are on     

their ship in a free element4 ,but the  
end is not yet2 even ,polyphemus1 the   
natural man1 must come to know who and  
what has subjected him1 he too is in the
 grand discipline of the time4  #d4 ,two
 things ,ulysses is now to tell to the  
,cyclops in the distance4 ,the first is 
the wrong and the penalty thereof3      
,amply have thy evil deeds been returned
 to thee1 namely1 his treatment of men4 
,zeus and the other ,gods have punished 
thee1 there is a divine order in the    
world1 which looks after the wrong-doer4
 ,thus ,polyphemus the anarchist1       
atheist1 and cannibal gets a short      
missionary sermon on justice1 religion  
and humanity4 ,but he does not receive  
it kindly1 he hurls a fragment of a     
mountain peak1 and almost strikes the   
ship4 ,the line of danger is not yet    
passed4  ,still ,ulysses must tell      
something else though his frightened    
companions try to dissuade him4 ,but he 
must1 he cannot help it3 ,if any one ask
 thee1 say it was ,ulysses1 the         

city-destroyer1 who put out thine eye4  
,a great light this word brings to the  
poor blind ,cyclops1 almost the light of
 self-consciousness4 ,he recalls1 he    
knows his conqueror1 and therein begins 
to know himself1 to recognize his error4
 ,ah1 woe is me6 the ancient oracles    
about me are fulfilled6 ,of old there   
had been prophecies concerning his      
destiny1 but he did not understand them1
 seemingly did not regard them4 ,how    
could he1 with his bent toward the      
godless8 ,the prophet ,telemus had      
foretold that ,i would lose my sight at 
the hands of ,ulysses4 ,how shall we    
consider this prophecy8 ,a dim1 far-off 
presentiment among the ,cyclops         
themselves that they were to be         
subjected to a higher influence2 their  
limited1 one-eyed vision was to vanish  
through a more universal1 two-eyed      
vision4 ,such a presentiment nature     
everywhere shows1 a presentiment of the 
power beyond her1 of the spiritual4     
,what else indeed is ,gravitation8 ,a   

longing1 a seeking which even the clod  
manifests in its fall earthward1 a      
prophetic intimation2 so the ,cyclops1  
the natural man1 had his prophet whom he
 now begins rightly to recognize2 truly 
he is getting religious1 quite different
 is his present utterance from his      
previous blasphemy3 we are better than  
the ,gods4 ,nay1 he offers to intercede 
with his father ,neptune1 praying the   
,god to give a sending of the stranger  
over the sea4 ,moreover he recognizes   
his divine father as the only one who   
can heal him in his present distress4   
,possibly the words are spoken to       
beguile1 but ,polyphemus here offers to 
do his duty to the stranger on his      
shores1 and he recognizes the ,gods4    
,manifestly we witness in this passage a
 striking development of the rude       
,cyclops under the tough discipline of  
experience4 ,he acknowledges first his  
mistake in regard to the prophecy3 ,i   
expected to see a man tall and beautiful
 and of vast strength1 not this petty   

worthless weakling who has put out mine 
eye4 ,a hero of visible might1 a giant  
like himself1 not a man of invisible    
intelligence1 he imagined he was to     
meet2 great was his mistake4 ,the       
conflict between ,brain and ,brawn was  
settled long ago before ,troy1 and has  
been sung of in the preceding ,book4    
,here then is certainly a confession of 
his mistake1 and1 if his words are      
sincere1 an offer to undo his wrong4    
#e4 ,at this point there is a change in 
,ulysses1 his victory has begotten      
insolence1 he becomes a kind of ,cyclops
 in his turn4 ,such is the demon ever   
lurking in success4 ,listen to his      
response to the confession and          
supplication of his wretched victim3    
,would that ,i were as sure of taking   
thy life and sending thee down to       
,hades1 as that the ,earth-shaker shall 
never heal thine eye4 ,the implication  
is that the ,god cannot do it--an act of
 blasphemy which the ,god will not be   
slow to avenge4 ,but how true to human  

nature is this new turn in ,ulysses1 how
 profound6 ,no sooner has he escaped and
 experiences the feeling of triumph1    
than his humanity1 nay his religion     
vanishes1 he sweeps over into his       
opposite and becomes his savage enemy4  
,what follows8 ,the law must be read to 
him too1 his own law2 he will hear it   
from the mouth of ,polyphemus1 and it is
 essentially this3 ,as thou hast done to
 me1 so shall it be done to thee4       
,accordingly we have next the curse of  
the ,cyclops denounced upon the head of 
the transgressor4 ,this curse is to be  
fulfilled to the letter1 the poet has   
fully shown the ground of it1 ,ulysses  
has really invoked it upon himself1 it  
lies in his deed4 ,possibly ,polyphemus1
 when he offered to give the dues of    
hospitality and to send the guest home1 
was merely using the words of deception1
 which he had just had the opportunity  
of learning1 and was trying to get      
possession of his enemy's body4         
,doubtless it was well for ,ulysses to  

keep out of the giant's hands4 ,but that
 does not justify his speech1 which was 
both cruel and blasphemous4  ,hear then 
the curse of the ,cyclops1 which hints  
the great obstructing motive to the     
return of ,ulysses1 and marks out the   
action of the poem2 ,give ,ulysses no   
return to his home2 but if he returns1  
may he arrive late and in evil plight1  
upon a foreign ship with loss of all his
 companions1 and may he find troubles in
 his house4 ,of course ,neptune heard   
the prayer1 had to hear it1 in the      
divine order of things4 ,the curse lay  
inside of ,ulysses1 else it could not   
have been fulfilled2 he himself could   
drop from his humane and religious mood 
in adversity and become a savage in     
prosperity4 ,his chief misfortunes      
follow after this curse4 ,but for the   
present he escapes to ,goat ,island1    
though another portentous rock is hurled
 at him by the ,cyclops4 ,there he      
sacrifices to the ,highest ,god1 ,zeus1 
who1 however1 pays no heed--how is it   

possible8  ,such is this far-reaching   
,fairy ,tale1 certainly one of the      
greatest and most comprehensive ever    
written4 ,it shows a movement1 an       
evolution both of ,polyphemus and       
,ulysses2 this inner unfolding indeed is
 the main thing to be grasped4 ,it is   
worth the while to take a short         
retrospect of the five leading points4  
7#a7 ,the completely negative character 
of the ,cyclops as to institutions1     
religion1 and even the physical man4    
7#b7 ,this negative being is negated by 
the man of intelligence1 who puts out   
his eye1 nullifies his strength by      
drink1 and thwarts all help for him by a
 punning stratagem4 7#c7 ,he is made to 
help his enemies escape from his cave by
 the skill of ,ulysses who turns the    
force of nature against nature4 7#d7    
,the ,cyclops reaches self-knowledge    
through ,ulysses1 who tells his wrong   
and its punishment1 who also tells his  
own name3 whereat the ,cyclops suddenly 
changes and makes a humane offer4 7#e7  

,ulysses changes the other way1 becomes 
himself a kind of ,cyclops and receives 
the curse4  ,this curse will now follow 
,ulysses and drive him from island to   
island through ,fableland1 till he gets 
back to ,ithaca with much suffering and 
with all companions lost1 where he will 
find many troubles4 ,in this manner the 
return of ,ulysses becomes intertwined  
with ,polyphemus and this ,fableland1   
which furnish an underlying motive for  
the third ,part of the ,odyssey 7the    
last #ab ,books74 ,the curse here spoken
 is still working when ,ulysses reaches 
home and finds the suitors in           
possession4 ,verily his negative spirit 
lies deep2 in cursing ,polyphemus1 he   
has cursed himself4  ,thus the impartial
 poet shows both sides--the guilt as    
well as the good in ,polyphemus and in  
,ulysses4 ,the man of nature has his    
right when he offers to transform his   
conduct1 and it shows that ,ulysses     
still needs discipline when he scorns   
such an offer4 ,polyphemus too is to    

have his chance of rising1 for he       
certainly has within himself the        
possibility4 ,has not the poet derived  
the noble ,arete and ,alcinous and      
institutional ,phaeacia from the savage 
,cyclops8 ,but ,ulysses negatives       
,polyphemus just at the start upward4   
,the character which he showed in       
sacking the city of the ,ciconians is in
 him still1 he is not yet ready to      
return4  ,the ,ninth ,book has thus run 
through its three stages and has landed 
us in pure ,fableland4 ,these three     
stages--the attack on the ,ciconians1   
the ,lotus-eaters1 the adventure with   
the ,cyclops--may now be seen to be     
parts of one entire process1 which we   
may call the purification of the spirit 
from its own negative condition4 ,the   
man1 having become destructive-minded   
7oloophrn7 must be put under training by
 the ,gods1 and sent to battle with the 
monsters of ,fableland4  ,so we advance 
to the next ,book with the certainty    
that there is still some stern          

discipline in store for the wandering   
,ulysses4     ,,book ,,tenth4   ,at the 
first glance we can observe a certain   
similarity between this ,book and the   
last one4 ,there are in each three      
distinct portions or adventures1 two    
very short and simple1 and one very long
 and intricate4 ,each ,book culminates  
in a fabulous being with whom the ,hero 
has a wrestle for supremacy1 and in both
 cases he comes out victorious4 ,we are 
still in ,wonderland1 we have to reach  
into the ideal realm in order to find   
out what these strange incidents mean4  
,the two central figures are ,polyphemus
 and ,circe1 respectively1 each of whom 
imparts the dominating thought to the   
,book in which he or she appears4  ,the 
first thing we ask for is the           
connection1 the inner thread which joins
 these ,books together4 ,it was stated  
that ,polyphemus was the negation of the
 institutional world1 he was            
individualistic1 he belonged to neither 
,family nor ,state4 ,no laws1 no        

councils1 no civil polity2 he is a huge 
man of violence1 hostile specially to   
man's social life4 ,circe on the        
contrary1 is the woman hostile to       
woman's domestic world1 the ,family1    
first of all2 she is the grand          
enchantress1 representing the power and 
seductiveness of the senses2 she is the 
enemy of what we call morals4 ,to be    
sure1 we shall find in her something    
more1 whereof the full unfolding will be
 given hereafter4  ,ulysses is the one  
who is to meet those negative forces and
 put them down4 ,his companions give him
 special trouble in the present ,book1  
they seem to represent the weaker phases
 of man1 possibly of ,ulysses himself4  
,already he has suppressed ,polyphemus1 
or the institutional negation2 now he is
 to subordinate ,circe or the moral     
negation4 ,the latter is a woman because
 she must have sensuous beauty and all  
the charm of passionate enticement2 the 
former is a man because he must show    
strength and violence rather than the   

allurement of pleasure4  ,nor should we 
forget that these forms are in ,ulysses 
himself1 and were really generated out  
of his ,trojan life2 that spirit of his1
 shown at the start by the attack on the
 ,ciconians1 has all these phases in its
 process4 ,he is traveling through an   
,inferno1 seeing its entire demonic     
brood1 which he has begotten1 and which 
he has to fight and subject4 ,at the    
same time these fantastic shapes are    
typical1 and shadow forth the universal 
experience of man1 belonging to all     
countries and all ages4  ,as already    
stated1 there are three different       
localities to which ,ulysses is brought4
 ,three islands1 bounded1 yet in a      
boundless sea1 through which he moves on
 his ships2 such is the outermost       
setting of nature1 suggestive of much4  
,no tempest occurs in this ,book2 the   
stress is upon the three fixed places in
 the unfixed aqueous element4  ,i4      
,first is the island where dwells       
,a,eolus with his ,family2 hither       

,ulysses comes after putting down       
,polyphemus who was hostile to domestic 
life4 ,in this spot the bag of winds is 
given into the possession of the        
navigator1 whose companions1 however1   
release them1 and he is driven to the   
starting-point1 with the winds at large4
 ,a,eolus refuses to receive him the    
second time4  ,,ii4 ,next is the city of
 the ,laestrigonians1 where is a civil  
life1 a ,state1 to which ,ulysses can   
come after subjecting the ,cyclops1 who 
had no polity of the sort4 ,but the     
,state is verily a giant1 a cannibal to 
him now1 with all the winds loose4      
,hence he has to flee for his life4     
,whither now does he go8  ,,iii4 ,not to
 ,penelope and ,ithaca1 but to ,circe1  
and her isle4 ,she is the form which    
next rises before ,ulysses1 banished    
from the domestic world of ,a,eolus1 and
 fleeing from the civil life of the     
,laestrigonians4  ,we shall try to bring
 the threads of connection to light1 for
 it is our emphatic opinion that these  

three islands with their shapes are     
spiritually bound and wound together4   
,still further1 they reach back and     
interlink with the forms of the previous
 ,book1 which furnish antecedent stages 
of the grand total movement of          
,fairyland4 ,separated in image are     
these islands and their inhabitants1 but
 they have to be united in thought4 ,not
 a mere accident is the sequence1 but a 
necessity1 a strict evolution4 ,the work
 here1 according our best belief1 is    
organic1 and the reader must not rest   
contented with his understanding of it1 
till he moves with the poet from place  
to place by the interior path of the    
spirit4   ,i4  ,the first fact about the
 ,a,eolian ,isle is that it was afloat  
in the waters of the sea1 as ,delos and 
other islands of antiquity were reported
 to be4 ,not stationary then2 the king  
of it1 ,a,eolus1 has a name which       
indicates a changeable nature1 veering  
about like the winds1 of which he is    
king4 ,the second fact pertaining to    

this ,isle is that a wall of brass      
encircles it not to be broken through2  
and the cliff runs up sheer from the    
sea4 ,manifestly two opposite ideas are 
suggested in this description3 the fixed
 and the movable2 the island within     
itself is bound fast1 and cannot be     
driven asunder2 yet it floats in the    
most unstable of elements1 in the sea   
and winds4 ,such is the physical        
environment1 clearly mirroring the      
meaning4 ,something permanent in the    
midst of all that is mutable we may     
expect to find here4  ,on the island    
dwell the ,king of the ,winds and his   
wife1 along with six blooming sons and  
daughters4 ,he gave his daughters to his
 sons for wives2 a custom not elsewhere 
found in ,homer outside of the realm of 
the ,gods2 yet is claimed to have been a
 very ancient custom1 which the         
,ptolomies revived in ,egypt4 ,at any   
rate here is the picture of the ,family 
in its patriarchal form1 wholly         
separated from other connections and set

 apart by itself1 on the brass-bound    
precipitous island4 ,the ,family is     
abstracted from the rest of the world   
and given a dwelling-place4  ,at this   
point we begin to catch a glimpse of the
 significance of the story4 ,the ,family
 is the first power which seizes the    
emotions and passions and caprices of   
men 7the winds of his soul7 and starts  
the taming of them2 the marriage tie is 
fixed1 is not for a day2 thus the       
,family makes itself permanent1 and     
makes the human being stable through    
feeling and duty4 ,none but married     
people are here2 very different will it 
be hereafter in the island of ,circe4   
,the king of the winds is not only      
,a,eolus1 but also his institution1 the 
,family1 rules here1 for there is no    
,state to be governed4 ,not polygamy1   
but monogamy1 as the great ,homeric     
principle of domestic life1 do we       
witness--the mutual devotion of one man 
and one woman4 ,externally we found the 
fixed and the floating2 internally also 

we discover the fixed and the floating1 
or rather1 that principle which fixes   
the floating1 and makes the world       
stable4 ,thus we see the reason why     
,homer puts the ,family upon the ,isle  
of the ,winds4  ,it is no wonder1       
therefore1 that in such a place is held 
up before us a picture of happiness and 
plenty4 ,all feast from day to day with 
endless change of meats2 why ask whence 
the viands come8 ,the inner peace       
provides them4 ,even the sound of flutes
 is heard round about1 according to one 
way of translating the passage2 music   
attunes the everlasting festival4 ,not  
mere gratification is this1 but         
happiness1 the outer again mirroring the
 inner2 domestic harmony is the matter  
set forth4  ,hither ,ulysses comes with 
his companions1 to the city and         
beautiful houses of ,a,eolus4 ,a city is
 here1 but no civil life is introduced  
into the story4 ,a whole month the      
monarch entertained me2 what was again  
the interest8 ,he asked me about ,ilium1

 the eternal theme1 which lies always in
 the background of ,fairyland as well as
 of ,historic ,hellas4 ,the ,trojan war 
and also the ,return of the ,greeks were
 recounted1 we may say1 sung by         
,ulysses2 the ,iliad and the ,odyssey1  
delighted also those domestic           
,a,eolians4 ,was not ,troy destroyed    
because of a wrong done to the ,greek   
,family8 ,finally ,ulysses was gotten   
ready to be sent home by his host4      
,a,eolus1 the ruler of the winds1 gives 
them into the might of ,ulysses2 he     
confines them in a bullock's bladder1   
which1 tied by a silver chain1 he places
 in the ship4 ,it is manifest that the  
sea1 deprived of these windy powers1    
cannot hinder the passage4 ,again we    
behold the main fact of the island3 the 
unstable1 uncertain1 capricious1 is held
 by the fixed1 the permanent2 during his
 sojourn with ,a,eolus1 ,ulysses has    
obtained an inner hold1 an anchorage of 
the moral kind1 which he sorely needed4 
,this was given him by his view of the  

,family1 which was the real security of 
the island4 ,all the conditions of his  
return 7but one7 are placed in his hand1
 tied up in a bag4 ,only the west-wind  
was allowed to blow1 which sent him     
homewards4  ,still the supreme condition
 was not1 could not be given by ,a,eolus
 or by anybody else1 could not be tied  
up in a bag4 ,the free man must be      
alert1 he must watch1 and win his own   
salvation2 his prime duty is to keep the
 bag tied1 and therein to exercise his  
will4 ,this is just what he failed to do
 at the last moment4 ,he went to sleep  
when in sight of ,ithaca2 his           
companions1 led by curiosity and avarice
 7two blasts of the soul7 open the bag1 
expecting to find gold and silver1 and  
find the rushing winds4 ,of course all  
are driven back to the starting-point1  
to the island1 on which they soon land4 
,what will ,ulysses do in such          
extremity8 ,shall ,i drop into the sea  
and perish1 or shall ,i still endure and
 stay among the living8 ,suicide will   

not solve his problem3 ,i remained and  
suffered4 ,herein also we trace the     
stamp of the hero1 whose special call it
 is to master fate4  ,so ,ulysses tries 
again to get the bladder of winds from  
,a,eolus1 confessing that it was equally
 the fault of himself and his           
companions4 ,but the opportunity is     
gone2 the sum total of conditions1 all  
bagged and tied up1 and put into his    
hands1 presents itself only once4       
,moreover the sleep of ,ulysses1 just at
 the nick of destiny1 showed an internal
 weakness2 he became careless1 almost   
insolent under such circumstances2 he   
manifested a similar trait to that which
 led to the curse of the ,cyclops4      
,again he hears a malediction1 now      
uttered by his former host3 ,get thee   
out of my island quickly1 most guilty of
 men1 hated by the ,gods6 ,thus ,a,eolus
 regards the man before him1 and        
reinforces the curse of ,polyphemus4    
,but if ,ulysses had to fall asleep by  
sheer fatigue 7which construction the   

passage hardly demands71 then he did not
 look properly after his companions1    
making them the sharers of his          
knowledge4 ,a foolish question has been 
asked here and much discussed3 ,how did 
,ulysses know what his companions said  
during his sleep8 ,easily enough2 but   
the answer is not worth the candle4     
,a,eolus1 therefore1 refuses to receive 
,ulysses and his companions a second    
time2 they have fallen1 they must       
experience the full meaning of their    
conduct2 they must go to ,circe1 and    
some of them1 at least1 be changed into 
swine1 till they know the nature of     
their deed4 ,a,eolus cannot receive     
them1 they have destroyed his gift2 they
 would repeat their act1 if he gave all 
into their hands again1 without the     
deeper penalty4 ,the law thus is clear2 
they1 having disregarded the fixed      
control of appetite and passion1 which  
the ,king of the ,island imparts1 are   
swept back into brutishness4  ,many have
 been the interpretations of this       

marvelous ,king and his children and his
 island4 ,the supporters of the physical
 theory of mythology have maintained    
that the twelve sons and daughters are  
the twelve months of the year1 six of   
summer and six of winter1 while         
,a,eolus1 the father1 is the ,sun who   
produces them4 ,others regard ,a,eolus  
as a mortal king1 who1 on account of    
certain traits or certain deeds1 was    
transformed into the fabled monarch of  
the winds4 ,there has been much dispute 
over the location of ,a,eolia2 the most 
of those who have searched for its      
geographical site are in favor of one of
 the ,lipari ,islands1 on the northern  
coast of ,sicily4 ,finally ,virgil has  
somewhat transformed the legend and put 
it into his ,a,eneid4   ,,ii4  ,ulysses 
and his companions now had to use the   
oar on seas without wind2 their spirit  
was worn out1 hope had fled from them   
toiling through the becalmed deep4 ,they
 arrive at the land of the              
,laestrigonians1 a race of giants1 into 

whose narrow harbor surrounded by its   
high precipices the ships enter1 with   
the exception of that of ,ulysses1 who  
has learned caution4 ,a kind of cave of 
the ,giant ,despair is that harbor1     
reflecting outwardly the internal       
condition of the men1 after their weary 
labor coupled with the repulse from     
,a,eolus4  ,first of all we here observe
 a city with a civil order2 there is the
 place of assembly1 a king over men1    
with a royal palace4 ,no husbandry      
appears1 but there are wagons fetching  
wood to town on a smooth road 7probably 
a made road72 shepherds are specially   
designated1 so that we may suppose a    
pastoral life prevails1 yet these people
 in their city are not roving nomads4   
,the ,family also is noticed1 being     
composed of the king1 queen1 and        
daughter2 the latter is bringing water  
from the town fountain--a primitive1    
idyllic touch4 ,but the stress is       
manifestly not upon the domestic but the
 civil institution2 the ,state is here  

in full operation1 in which fact we mark
 the contrast with the preceding island1
 ,a,eolia4 ,another sharp contrast may  
be drawn between the ,laestrigonians and
 the ,cyclops2 the latter are giants    
also1 but have no civil order4          
,ulysses1 therefore1 witnesses the      
,state1 in due gradation after the      
,family4 ,he can come to both these     
institutions now1 and see them at least1
 for he has put down ,polyphemus1 who1  
we recollect1 was the negation of both4 
,but only see them1 not share in them2  
the curse of the ,cyclops is still      
working upon him and in him2 though he  
destroy a destroyer1 that does not make 
him positive2 the devil destroys the    
wicked1 but that does not make him good4
 ,hence the ,state rejects him as did   
the ,family2 he is by no means ready to 
return to ,ithaca and ,penelope4 ,such  
is his experience at present4  ,but why 
should the ,laestrigonians be portrayed 
as giants8 ,of course the ,fairy ,tale  
deals in these huge beings for its own  

purpose4 ,a,eolus and his children seem 
to have been of common stature4 ,the    
fancy can often play into the meaning1  
or suggest a glimpse thereof4 ,the      
,state may be called the ,big ,man1 the 
concentrated personality of many        
persons2 he strikes hard1 he overwhelms 
the wrong-doer4 ,therefore he seems now 
so terrible to ,ulysses1 and is really  
so to the latter's companions1 of whom  
all perish here except one shipful4 ,it 
is the function of the ,state to punish2
 in the sweet domestic life of ,a,eolus1
 there was no punishment1 only          
banishment2 thus we behold now the      
penalty1 at the hands of that           
institution which is specially to       
administer it4 ,the companions did no   
wrong to the ,laestrigonians1 but note  
that just here judgment comes upon them4
 ,ulysses escapes1 but to him also these
 people appear as destroyers1 as        
man-devouring cannibals2 so the ,state  
often seems to the guilty1 overwhelming 
the individual with its penal vengeance4

  ,the ,cyclops was also a giant and a  
cannibal1 full of hostility2 but mark   
the difference4 ,he was the ,strong ,man
 of ,nature1 not human in shape1 with   
that one eye in his head2 his violence  
was against institutions1 the violence  
of the wild barbarian1 which has to be  
put down by man4 ,but the               
,laestrigonians live in a civilized     
order which has to punish the           
transgressor2 their shapes are not      
monstrosities of nature1 but magnified  
human bodies4 ,both are giants and      
cannibals1 both negative1 but in a      
wholly different sense4  ,what is the   
location of the ,laestrigonians8 ,a     
subject much disputed recently and of   
old1 with very little profit4 ,some     
expressions are puzzling3 ,the herdsman 
coming in greets the herdsman going out2
 then again1 a herdsman needing no sleep
 would earn double wages1 which implies 
apparently two periods for toil in      
twenty-four hours1 the one for tending  
cows and the other for tending sheep2   

and this is possible1 for the paths of  
day and night are near to each other1 as
 if somehow day and night ran their     
courses together4 ,what does it all     
mean8 ,some dim story of the polar world
 with its bright nights1 which story may
 have come from the far ,north into     
,greece1 along with another ,northern   
product1 amber1 which was known to      
,homer1 may lie at the basis of this    
curious passage4 ,but we can hardly     
place the ,laestrigonians under polar   
skies in spite of this polar            
characteristic4 ,others have sought     
their locality in the ,black ,sea and   
have even seen their harbor in that of  
,balaklava4 ,all of which is uncertain  
enough1 and destined to remain so1 but  
furnishes a marvelous field for erudite 
conjecture and investigation4 ,the      
certain matter here1 and we should say  
the important one also1 is the          
institutional order and its negative    
attitude toward ,ulysses4 ,that is1 we  
must reach down and bring to light the  

ethical thread which is spun through    
this wonderful texture of ,fairy ,tales1
 before we have any real explanation1 or
 connecting principle4   ,,iii4  ,onward
 the wanderer1 now with his single ship1
 has to sail again2 whither next8 ,he   
arrives at another island called        
,a,eaea1 where dwells the fair-haired   
,circe1 an awful ,goddess1 endowed with 
a singing voice1 own sister of the      
evil-minded wizard ,a,eaetes1 both      
sprung of the ,sun and of ,perse1       
daughter of ,oceanus4  ,this genealogy  
we have set down in full1 as given by   
the poet1 on account of its             
suggestiveness4 ,these names carry us   
back to the ,east1 quite to primitive   
,arya2 here is the ,sun1 the ,god of the
 old ,vedas2 here is ,perse1 curiously  
akin to ,persia1 which was              
light-worshiping in her ancient         
religion2 then we come to ,a,eaetes1    
father of ,medea1 usually held to be of 
,colchis on the ,eastern coast of the   
,black ,sea1 whence we busily pass to   

,hellas in many a legend1 and from      
,hellas we now have traveled far        
westward into ,fairyland4 ,one ancient  
story1 probably the first1 placed ,circe
 in the remote ,east2 another1 this of  
,homer for example1 sends her to the far
 ,west2 a third united the two and told 
of the ,flight of ,circe upon the       
chariot of the ,sun from ,orient to     
,occident1 which is doubtless a much    
later form of the tale1 though ascribed 
to ,hesiod4 ,circe is of a higher       
ancestry than ,polyphemus1 though both  
go back in origin to the sea with their 
island homes2 she1 however1 is a child  
of the light-giving body1 and will show 
her descent in the end4 ,her name is    
related to the circle1 and hints the    
circling luminary1 on whose car she is  
said to have fled once4 ,here in ,homer1
 however1 we may note an inner circle of
 development2 she passes through a round
 of experience1 and seems to complete a 
period of evolution4 ,she must be       
grasped as a movement1 as a cycle of    

character1 if you please2 she develops  
within1 and this is the main fact of her
 portrayal4  ,the preceding etymological
 intimations are dim enough1 yet they   
point back to ,asia1 and to an old      
,aryan relationship4 ,not too much      
stress is to be put upon them1 yet they 
are entitled to their due recognition1  
and are not to be thrown aside as       
absolutely meaningless4 ,by ,homer1     
himself1 they could not have been       
understood1 being traces of a migration 
and ethnical kinship which had been in  
his time long forgotten1 and which      
modern scholarship has resurrected      
through the comparative study of        
language4  ,more important is the       
connection between ,circe and the two   
preceding portions of this ,book1       
,a,eolia and the ,laestrigonians4 ,we   
have just seen how both ,family and     
,state cast ,ulysses off1 must cast him 
off1 since he is without moral          
subordination4 ,the inner self-control  
demanded by an institutional life he has

 not been able to reach1 after the      
alienation produced by the ,trojan ,war2
 the bag of winds given into his hand by
 ,a,eolus he could not keep tied4 ,why8 
,behold ,circe rise up and take on shape
 after his twofold experience4 ,really  
she is evolved out of ,ulysses in a     
certain sense2 he sees her just now and 
not before1 because he has created her4 
,why is he thus repelled by ,family and 
,state8 ,circe is the answer2 she is the
 enchantress who stands for sensuous    
pleasure in its most alluring form2 with
 her is now the battle4  ,thus we       
approach another struggle of the hero1  
the longest and by far the most         
elaborately unfolded1 of the present    
,book4 ,in many respects it is the      
counterpart of the story of ,polyphemus 
in the previous ,book4 ,there he meets  
and puts down the anti-institutional    
man2 here he meets and puts down the    
anti-moral woman4 ,the one represents   
more the objective side of man's spirit1
 the other more the subjective2 both    

together image the totality of the      
ethical world1 in its two supreme       
aspects1 institutions and morals4  ,very
 famous has this story of ,circe become 
in literature4 ,it has furnished        
proverbs1 allusions1 texts for          
exhortation2 it has been wrought over   
into almost every possible form--drama1 
novel1 poem1 paramyth2 from the nursery 
to old age it retains its charm and     
power4 ,its meaning is plain enough1    
especially at first2 but it grows more  
weird and more profound as it develops2 
at last it ascends quite into the beyond
 and points to the supersensible world4 
,now the main point to be seized in this
 tale is the movement1 the development  
of ,circe through her several stages1   
which are in the main three1 showing    
,circe victorious1 ,circe conquered1 and
 ,circe prophetic4 ,ulysses and his     
companions move along with these stages1
 being also in the process2 but the     
center of interest1 the complete        
unfolding1 is found in ,circe4 ,these   

three chief stages we may give somewhat 
more fully before entering upon the     
detailed exposition4  ,first4 ,the      
island is reached2 some of the          
companions under a leader 7not ,ulysses7
 go to ,circe's abode1 and are turned   
into swine after partaking of her food4 
,circe triumphant4  ,second4 ,ulysses   
himself then goes1 having obtained the  
plant moly2 he subdues1 enjoys2 he      
releases his companions4 ,he finally    
asks to be sent home1 according to the  
promise she had given4 ,circe           
subordinated4  ,third4 ,then she reveals
 her prophetic power and announces the  
future journey to ,hades1 ere he can    
return home4 ,thus she sends him on     
beyond herself1 and reaches her         
culmination in this ,book4  ,of these   
three stages the last seems             
inappropriate to ,circe's character1 and
 is always a puzzle to the reader1 till 
he probes to the thought underlying the 
tale4 ,circe1 then1 is to show herself a
 seeress1 and foreshadow the world      

beyond the present4 ,why just that in   
her case8 ,but before the question can  
be answered1 we must unfold the first   
two stages4  ,i4 ,after an introduction 
which names the new island and its      
occupant1 as well as gives a bit of her 
genealogy1 the tale takes up ,ulysses   
and his companions4 ,after a rest of two
 days and two nights1 the hero goes     
forth to spy out the land1 ascends a    
hill whence he sees the smoke of        
,circe's palace rising through the      
bushes and the trees4 ,his last         
experience makes him careful1 his thirst
 for knowledge does not now drive him to
 go at once into her presence4 ,he      
returns to his companions with his      
information1 and on the way back he     
kills a high-horned stag1 which had come
 down from the woods to the stream to   
slake its thirst4 ,the result is a good 
meal for all once more1 and a           
restoration of hope4  #a4 ,in such a    
mood he imparts his discovery3 ,i have  
seen with mine eyes smoke in the center 

of the island4 ,terror-striking was the 
announcement to his companions1 who at  
once thought of the cannibals1 ,cyclops 
and ,laestrigonians4 ,and they had cause
 for fear4 ,it may1 however1 be said in 
advance that ,circe is not a man-eater1 
but a man-transformer2 she is a new     
phase of the great experience1 she      
bestializes2 she is negative1 not so    
much from without as from within1 not   
consuming the human shape but           
transmuting it into that of an animal4  
,a curious expression here needs some   
explanation4 ,we know not where is east 
and where is west1 not where the ,sun   
goes under the earth1 nor where he      
rises4 ,why not8 ,there have been       
several ways of viewing this passage4   
,ulysses did not know the countries     
where the ,sun set or rose1 though he   
must have seen the direction4 ,a        
statement from ,voss may be here        
translated3 ,the side of night and of   
day he knew well1 for he saw sunrise and
 sunset2 but he does not know into what 

region of the world he has wandered away
 from home4 ,one other suggestion3 it   
may have been very foggy or cloudy      
weather at the time4 ,the internal hint1
 however1 is clear2 he is astray1 lost2 
he knows not what direction to take for 
his return4  ,but something has to be   
done4 ,accordingly ,ulysses divides his 
crew into two portions1 one commanded by
 ,eurylochus1 the other by himself4 ,the
 lot decided that ,eurylochus and his   
company should go to the house of       
,circe1 and the lot always decides      
aright in the hand of ,ulysses4 ,forth  
they go wailing1 two and twenty         
companions1 and leave us behind1        
weeping4 ,a tearful time for those      
forty-four people plus the two leaders2 
which numbers give a basis for          
calculating the size of the crew1 of    
which six had been already destroyed by 
the ,ciconians and six by the ,cyclops4 
#b4 ,soon they reach the abode of       
,circe1 whose picture is now drawn with 
characteristic touches4 ,she is         

beautiful1 sings with a beautiful voice1
 and makes beautiful things1 weaving    
webs such as the ,goddesses weave4      
,surely an artistic being2 her palace is
 built of hewn stone1 not of natural    
rock1 yet it lies in the depths of the  
forest4 ,here again she shows her power3
 wild animals1 wolves and lions1 lie    
around--fawning upon1 not attacking men1
 tamed by her powerful drugs4 ,that is1 
she shows herself the mistress of       
nature1 or rather the transformer       
thereof2 her mighty spell can change    
character and shape4  ,there has been a 
difference of opinion from antiquity    
down to the present about these animals4
 ,are they transformed men1 or merely   
wild animals tamed8 ,the matter is left 
in doubt by the poet and either view    
will answer for the passage4 ,the       
connection1 however1 with the           
transformation of the companions of     
,ulysses1 would suggest the first       
meaning4 ,these partake of her food1    
with which she mingles her drug1 in     

order that they might wholly forget     
their native country4 ,but here is      
something more than the indifference of 
the ,lotus-eaters2 these eaters and     
drinkers at once become swine as to     
their heads1 voices and hair1 and eat   
the acorn and the fruit of cornel-tree1 
like wallowing pigs4 ,yet their mind    
remained firm as before4  ,there can be 
no doubt that ,time has interpreted this
 scene in but one way1 and ,time is     
probably correct4 ,still it is not here 
expressly said that the companions      
indulged to excess in food and drink1   
though they apparently had just had a   
sufficiency of feasting along the       
sea-shore1 on venison and wine1         
unspeakable meat and sweet drink4 ,we   
must1 however1 consider the whole to be 
a phase of that same lack of inner      
subordination which led these people to 
untie the fatal bag of winds upon a     
former occasion4  #c4 ,one man alone    
escaped to tell the story1 as so often  
happens in such adventures2 it is       

,eurylochus1 who remained outside the   
palace suspecting guile4 ,when ,ulysses 
hears the account1 he proposes to go at 
once and release his comrades4          
,eurylochus beseeches him not to attempt
 it1 but he persists1 saying1 ,i shall  
go1 a strong necessity is upon me4      
,possibly in his contemptuous           
expression1 ,you stay in this place     
eating and drinking1 is hinted just that
 which he is now to put down1 in        
contrast with his companions4           
,eurylochus is the man who is unable to 
solve the problem2 he runs away from it1
 is afraid of it1 and leaves his        
wretched associates behind4 ,but the    
problem must have a positive solution1  
which here follows4  ,,ii4 ,we are now  
to witness the dealings of ,ulysses with
 ,circe2 he is to subordinate her1      
making her into a means1 not an end2 she
 will recognize him and submit          
completely1 taking an oath not to do him
 any harm2 she will release his         
companions and restore them to their    

natural forms at his behest2 she will   
then properly entertain the entire crew1
 no longer turning them into swine4 ,the
 world of the appetites and the senses  
will be duly ordered and subjected to   
the rational2 from an imperious         
enchantress ,ulysses changes ,circe into
 an instrument of life and restoration4 
,he is the transformer of her1 not she  
of him2 for she will reduce man to a    
beast1 unless he reduces her to reason4 
#a4 ,ulysses on his way to ,circe's     
palace is met by a seeming youth 7really
 a ,god1 ,mercury7 who warns him and    
gives him a plant potent against the    
drugs of the enchantress4 ,it is        
manifest that ,ulysses has a divine     
call2 he knows already his problem from 
,eurylochus1 the ,god reiterates it and 
inspires him with courage4 ,in addition 
he receives a plant from the divine     
hand1 whereof the description we may    
ponder3 ,the root is black1 its flower  
white as milk2 the ,gods call it moly1  
hard it is for men to dig up4 ,very hard

 indeed6 ,and the whole account is      
symbolical1 we think1 consciously       
symbolical2 it has an ,orphic tinge1    
hinting of mystic rites4 ,at any rate   
the hero has now the divine antidote2   
still he is to exert himself with all   
his valor2 when she shall smite thee    
with her staff1 draw thy sword and rush 
upon her1 as if intending to kill her4  
,thus he is to assert the god-like      
element in himself1 the rational1 and   
subject to it the sensuous4 ,it is clear
 that ,ulysses is beginning to master   
the lesson of his experience4  #b4 ,he  
does as the ,god 7and his own valor7    
directed1 and ,circe cowers down        
subdued4 ,she is not supreme1 there is  
something higher and she knows it4 ,at  
once she recognizes who it is3 ,art thou
 that wily ,ulysses whose coming hither 
from ,troy in his black ship has often  
been foretold to me8 ,such a prophecy   
she must have known and felt1 she had   
mind and was aware of a power above her1
 which would some day put her down1     

after the ,trojan time4 ,in like manner 
,polyphemus1 the man of nature1 has     
heard of a coming conqueror1 and        
actually named him4  ,this one kind of  
subjection1 however1 is not enough1 it  
must be made universal4 ,every kind of  
subordination of the sensuous1 not      
merely in the matter of eating and      
drinking1 is necessary4 ,the next thing 
to be guarded against is carnal         
indulgence1 which may make me cowardly  
and unmanly4 ,hence ,circe has to swear 
the great oath1 not to plot against me  
any harm4 ,thus in the two chief forms  
of human appetite1 that of eating and   
drinking and that of sexual indulgence1 
she is subjected4  ,ulysses is beginning
 to have some claims to being a moral   
hero1 still he is not by any means an   
ascetic4 ,he has the ,greek notion of   
morality2 we have a right to enjoy1 but 
enjoyment must not make us bestial2     
rational moderation is the law4 ,he     
drinks of ,circe's cup1 but does not let
 it turn him into a swine2 he shares in 

all her pleasures1 but never suffers his
 head to get dizzy with her             
blandishments4 ,every seductive delicacy
 she sets before him1 mingled with the  
most charming flattery2 ,i did not like 
the feast4 ,why8 ,this leads us to the  
next and higher point4  #c4 ,lofty is   
the response of ,ulysses3 ,o ,circe1    
what right-minded man would endure to   
touch food and drink before seeing his  
companions released8 ,at once she goes  
to the sty and sets them free1 restoring
 their shapes1 and they became younger1 
larger1 and more beautiful than they    
were before4 ,a great advantage is this 
to any man2 it is worth the hard        
experience to come out with such a gain1
 especially as the companions must have 
been getting a little old1 stooped and  
wrinkled1 having gone through so many   
years of hardship at ,troy and on the   
sea4  #d4 ,thus ,ulysses has transformed
 ,circe into an instrument for restoring
 his fallen comrades2 surely a noble    
act4 ,next she of her own accord asks   

,ulysses to go to the sea-shore for the 
rest of his men and to bring them to her
 palace for refreshment and             
entertainment4 ,this he succeeds in     
doing after some opposition from the    
terrified ,eurylochus1 who has not yet  
gotten over his scare4 ,sorely did the  
companions need this rest and           
recuperation after their many sufferings
 on land and sea2 weak and spiritless   
they were1 always thinking of the bitter
 wandering4 ,but now in the palace of   
,circe they feasted every day for a     
whole year1 eating and drinking without 
being turned into swine4 ,even          
,eurylochus follows after1 for he feared
 my terrible threat4  ,thus we catch the
 sweep of this grand experience of and  
with ,circe2 if she governs1 she        
bestializes man2 if she serves1 she     
refreshes and restores4 ,her complete   
subordination is witnessed2 from        
transforming people into swine1 she is  
herself transformed into their helper1  
and she becomes an important factor in  

the great ,return to home and country4  
,but it is time to think of this ,return
 again2 the period of repose and        
enjoyment must come to an end4  ,,iii4  
,here1 then1 we behold a new phase of   
,circe1 that of the seeress into the    
,beyond4 ,ulysses says to her at the end
 of the year3 ,now make your promise    
good1 send us home1 for which we long4  
,stunning is the answer after that      
period of relaxation3 ,ye must go       
another way1 ye must pass into the      
,houses of ,hades4 ,it is indeed a      
terrible response4 ,but for what        
purpose8 ,to consult the soul of the    
blind ,theban seer ,tiresias1 whose mind
 is still unimpaired2 to him alone of   
the dead ,proserpine gave a mind to     
know4 ,clearly this means the pure      
intelligence without body2 ,ulysses must
 now reach forth to the incorporeal     
spirit1 to the very ,idea beyond the    
senses1 beyond life4  ,the first        
question which arises in this connection
 is1 ,how can ,circe1 the enchantress of

 the senses1 be made the prophetess of  
the supersensible world8 ,if we watch   
her development through the two         
preceding stages1 we shall see that she 
not only can1 but must point to what is 
beyond1 to spirit4 ,in the second stage 
she experiences a great change1 no      
longer transforming into the lower1 but 
herself transformed into the higher2 she
 becomes a moral being1 subordinating   
the sensuous to the spiritual2 she has1 
therefore1 spirit in her life and       
manifests it in her actions1 when she is
 the willing means of subjecting        
appetite to reason4  ,the same          
transformation we may note on her       
artistic side1 for she remains always   
beautiful4 ,the first ,circe is that    
alluring seductive beauty which destroys
 by catering to the senses2 she is that 
kind of art1 which debauches through its
 appeal to appetite and passion alone4  
,but the second ,circe is transfigured1 
her service is of the spirit1 she       
releases from the bondage of indulgence1

 she aids the ethical ,return to ,family
 and ,state4 ,it is true that she never 
becomes a saint or a nun1 she would not 
be ,greek if she did2 moreover1         
according to the ,greek view1 she must  
be transcended by the typical man1 who  
is to rise into an institutional life1  
which is hardly ,circe's4 ,still the    
primal moral subjection is shown in her 
career4  ,the domain of morals reveals  
the spiritual in action1 the domain of  
true art reveals the spiritual in       
representation4 ,what shall ,i do with  
this world of the senses8 was a great   
question to the ,greek1 and still is to 
us4 ,in conduct subordinate it2 in      
nature transform it into an image of the
 higher4 ,the work of art is a divine   
flash from above into a sensuous form2  
this flash we separate from its         
material1 and pass into pure spirit2    
then we reach ,tiresias1 the mind       
embodied1 not limited in ,space and     
,time4  ,circe thus indicates her own   
limitation1 which belongs to morals and 

art4 ,she is not the ,infinite1 but can 
point to it2 she hints the rise from art
 to philosophy4 ,backwards and forwards 
runs the suggestion in her career2 the  
,greek can lapse to the first ,circe and
 die in a debauch of the senses1 or he  
can rise to the prophetic ,circe1 and   
lay the deep foundation of all future   
thought4 ,the ,greek world1 in fact1 had
 just this double outcome4  ,ulysses1   
then1 has to go to ,hades1 the          
supersensible realm2 his heart was      
wrung1 ,i wept sitting upon the couch1  
,i wished no longer to live nor to see  
the light of the sun4 ,but after such a 
fit1 he is ready for action3 when ,i had
 enough of weeping and rolling about1 ,i
 asked ,circe3 ,who will guide me8 ,then
 he receives his instructions1 which    
have somewhat of the character of a     
mystic ritual1 with offerings to the    
dead1 who will come and speak4 ,messages
 from the spirit world he will get1 but 
he must pass through the ,ocean stream1 
to the groves of ,proserpine4 ,from that

 point1 after mooring his ship1 he is to
 go to the houses of ,hades1 where is a 
rock at the meeting of two loud-roaring 
rivers2 pour there a libation to the    
dead with due ceremony4 ,in all of which
 is the method of the later necromancy1 
or consultation of the departed for     
prophetic purposes4 ,very old is the    
faith that the souls of deceased persons
 can be made to appear and to foretell  
the future1 after a proper rite and     
invocation2 nor is such a belief unknown
 in our day4  ,ulysses departs from     
,circe's palace and tells his companions
 concerning the new voyage3 whereat     
another scene of lamentation4 ,to the   
,greek the ,underworld was a place of   
gloom and terror2 he liked not the      
spirit disembodied1 he needed the       
sensuous form for his thought1 he was an
 artist by nature4 ,the ,homeric ,greek 
in particular was the incarnation of the
 sunny ,upperworld1 he shuddered at the 
idea of separating from it and its fair 
shapes4 ,but the thing must be done1 as 

it lies in the path of development as   
well as in the movement of this poem4   
,ulysses must therefore go below1       
inasmuch as this world with its moral   
life even1 is not the finality4 ,there  
is aught beyond1 the limit of death we  
must surmount in the present existence  
still2 a glimpse of futurity the mortal 
must have before going thither4 ,so     
,homer makes the ,hero transcend life as
 it were1 during life2 and extend his   
wanderings into the supersensible world4
  ,the reader has now witnessed the     
three stages of this ,tenth             
,book--,a,eolus1 the ,laestrigonians1   
and ,circe4 ,the inner connection       
between these three stages has also been
 investigated and brought to the        
surface2 at least such has been the     
persistent attempt4 ,especially has     
,circe been unfolded in the different   
phases which she shows--all of which    
have been traced back to a unity of     
character4  ,the intimate relation      
between the ,ninth and ,tenth ,books has

 been set forth along with their        
differences4 ,both belong to the        
,upperworld of this ,fableland2 hence   
they stand in contrast with the         
,netherworld1 which is now to follow4   
,,book ,,eleventh4   ,the present ,book 
is one of the most influential pieces of
 writing which man has produced4 ,it has
 come down through the ages with a      
marvelous power of reproduction2 in many
 ways poets have sought to create it    
over2 indeed ,time has imitated it in a 
series of fresh shapes4 ,virgil1 not to 
speak of other attempts in ancient      
,greek epics1 has re-written it in the  
,sixth ,book of the ,a,eneid2 from      
,virgil it passed to ,dante who has made
 its thought the mould which shapes his 
entire poem--the ,divine ,comedy4  ,it  
is one phase of the great ,mythus of the
 ,apocalypse1 or the uncovering of the  
,future ,state1 which in some form      
belongs to all peoples1 and which       
springs from the very nature of human   
spirit4 ,man must know the ,beyond2     

especially the ,hero1 the spiritual     
,hero of his race1 must extend his      
adventures1 not only over the world1 but
 into the other world1 and bring back   
thence the news concerning those who    
have already departed4  ,this then is   
the supreme ,return of the ,hero1 the   
,return from beyond life1 still alive2  
he is to conquer not only the monster   
,polyphemus and the enchantress ,circe1 
but also the greatest goblin of all1    
,death4 ,common mortals have to make the
 passage thither without returning2 the 
,hero must be the grand exception1 else 
he were no ,hero4 ,transcendent must he 
be1 rising above all limits1 even the   
limit of life and death4  ,we have1     
therefore1 in the present ,book the     
,greek glance into immortality4 ,this is
 the essence of it1 hence its prodigious
 hold upon human kind4 ,that the        
conscious individual persists after the 
dissolution of the physical body is here
 strongly affirmed2 indeed the world    
beyond is organized1 and its connection 

with the world on this side is unfolded1
 in a series of striking pictures for   
the imagination4 ,it is thus a grand    
chapter in the history of the soul's    
consciousness of its eternal portion1 is
 in fact the middle link between the    
,oriental and the ,christian view of    
immortality4  ,ulysses1 as the wise man1
 or rather as the intellectual ,hero of 
his age1 must go through the experience 
in question2 he cannot return to home   
and country1 and be fully reconciled    
with his institutional life here and    
now1 without having seen what is eternal
 and abiding in the soul4 ,the wanderer 
must wander thither1 the absolute       
necessity lies upon him--and he must    
fetch back word about what he saw1 and  
thus be a mediator between the sensible 
and supersensible1 between time and     
eternity4 ,in that way he means         
something to his people1 becomes1 in    
fact1 their ,great ,man1 helping them   
vicariously in this life to rise beyond 
life4 ,the complete ,return1 then1      

involves the descending to ,hades1 the  
beholding the shapes there1 and the     
coming back with the report to the      
living4 ,perhaps we ought to consider   
just this to be the culmination of the  
whole journey1 the grand adventure      
embracing all possible adventures4  ,the
 connection with the preceding ,book can
 not be too strongly enforced4 ,circe   
points out the way to ,ulysses2 her     
nature is to point to the ,beyond1 to   
which she cannot herself pass4 ,in her  
last phase1 she was spirit1 but still in
 the sensuous form2 that spirit in her1 
as in all true art and even in the      
world1 points to its pure realm1 where  
it is freed from the trammels of the    
senses4 ,this gives the main            
characteristic of ,homeric ,hades2 it is
 the supersensible world1 outside of    
,space and ,time2 or1 rather with its   
own ,space and ,time1 since it is still 
an image4  ,hence these mythical        
statements which seek to get beyond all 
known geographical limits4 ,ulysses had 

to cross the ,ocean stream1 which ran   
round the whole earth2 to go over it was
 indeed to go over the border4 ,there   
below is the gloomy grove of            
,proserpine2 there too1 are the four    
rivers of the ,lower ,regions1 with     
names terribly suggestive2 into ,acheron
 the stream of pain 7or lake7 flow      
,pyriphlegethon 7,fire-flames7 and      
,cocytus 7the ,howler71 the latter being
 an offshoot of ,styx 7,hate or         
,terror74 ,where the two loud-sounding  
rivers meet the third one 7,acheron7 is 
a rock1 a firm protected spot seemingly1
 there with mystic rites is the         
invocation of the dead to take place4   
,thus we see that the poet's description
 remains spatial in his attempt to get  
beyond space4 ,he has to express himself
 in images taken from the sensible      
world1 even while pushing them beyond   
into the supersensible4 ,he makes us    
feel that the image is inadequate1      
though he has to use it2 poetry is      
driven upon its very limit4 ,at this    

point specially we note the kinship of  
the ,odyssey with ,romantic ,art1 which 
through the finite form suggests the    
,infinite4 ,dante comes to mind1 whose  
great poem is one vast struggle of the  
limited symbol with the unlimited spirit
 which is symbolized4 ,thus the old     
,greek song becomes prophetic1          
foreshadowing the next great world-poem1
 or ,literary ,bible1 written in the    
light of a new epoch4  ,strong is the   
sympathy which one feels with the       
ancient singer in this attempt to probe 
the deepest mystery of our existence4   
,he must have reflected long and        
profoundly upon such a theme1 building  
in this ,book a world of spirits1 and   
laying down the lines of it for all     
futurity4 ,probably the most gigantic   
conception in literature3 the universal 
,hero1 ere he can round the complete    
cycle of experience1 must pass through  
the ,beyond and come back to the        
,present4 ,it deepens the idea of the   
,return1 till it embraces the totality  

of existence1 by making it reach through
 the ,underworld1 which is thus a domain
 in the spiritual circumnavigation of   
the globe4  ,the structure of the ,book 
is somewhat intricate and it requires   
quite a little search to find the lines 
upon which it is built4 ,it has at the  
first glance a rather scattered1        
disorganized look2 for this reason the  
analytic critics have fallen upon it in 
particular1 and have sought to tear it  
into fragments4 ,it is possible that    
some few lines may have been            
interpolated1 but it remains an organic 
whole1 and the final insight into it    
comes from viewing it in its total      
constructive movement4  ,as the ,book is
 an effort to make a bridge between the 
sensible and supersensible realms1      
manifestly this separation into two     
realms will constitute the fundamental  
division4 ,the diremption into soul and 
body1 into life and death1 runs through 
the entire narrative1 also that into men
 and women2 but the main distinction is 

into ,past and ,present4 ,the sensible  
world when canceled becomes ,past1 the  
distant in ,time and possibly in ,space2
 this ,past through its characters1 its 
spirits1 is made to communicate with the
 ,present4  ,moreover the ,past has its 
distinctions4 ,to the ,greek mind of    
,homer's age1 specially in ,phaeacia1   
the ,trojan ,war is the grand central   
fact of the aforetime2 thus the ,past   
divides into the ,pre-,trojan1 ,trojan1 
and immediate ,past1 in the ,book before
 us4 ,a complete sweep down into the    
,now is given--the sweep of the         
supersensible4 ,also the ,present has   
two representatives3 ,ulysses along with
 his companions1 and the ,phaeacians4   
,in the ,past1 therefore1 is arranged a 
long gallery of souls speaking to the   
,present1 which listens and also has its
 communication4 ,the problem now is to  
get a structural form which will hold   
the idea4 ,let the following scheme be  
sent in advance1 which scheme1 however1 
can only be verified or understood at   

the close of the ,book on a careful     
review4  ,i4 ,the first great           
communication of the dead and past to   
the living and present1 by voice and by 
vision2 some speak1 others are only     
seen4  #a4 ,the present and living      
element is made up of ,ulysses and his  
companions who are invoking by their    
rites and prayers the souls of the      
,underworld4 ,the companion ,elpenor    
dead1 but not yet buried1 forms the     
transition between the ,present and     
,past4  #b4 ,the past and dead element1 
,pre-,trojan1 is called up in two       
general forms3 the ancient seer         
,tiresias who is both ,past and ,future 
through his mind1 and1 secondly1 the    
souls of ,famous ,women1 who pass in    
review before the ,present4 ,the hint of
 a world-justice runs through both the  
prophecies of the seer and the destinies
 of some of these women4  ,,ii4 ,the    
second grand communication of the dead  
and past1 now ,trojan--to the living and
 present1 now ,phaeacian prominently1   

given by voice and vision4  #a4 ,the    
,present is here not only ,ulysses far  
off in ,hades1 but the ,phaeacians in   
their actual sensible world4 ,the latter
 demand again the grand background and  
presupposition of their present         
life--the ,trojan epoch represented in  
its great spirits4  #b4 ,the ,past1     
,trojan1 in three typical ,greek heroes1
 ,agamemnon1 ,achilles1 ,ajax4 ,the     
three typical ,greek women of the       
,trojan epoch are also mentioned4 ,an   
implicit idea of punishment1 or of      
heroic limitation brought home to the   
hero1 is traceable in this portion4     
,,iii4 ,the idea of a world-justice with
 its universal judgment1 hitherto only  
implied1 now becomes explicit in ,hades 
and organizes itself1 showing 7#a7 the  
judge1 ,minos1 7#b7 the culprits in four
 condemned ones1 7#c7 the saved one1    
,hercules1 who rises out of ,hades      
through the deed4 ,by implication so    
does the living ,ulysses--hence the     
journey is at an end1 ,hades is         

conquered4   ,i4  ,ulysses follows the  
direction of ,circe1 indeed he is       
propelled by the wind which she sends1  
to the confines of the ,ocean stream1 to
 the limits of this terrestrial         
,upperworld4 ,here is the land of the   
,cimmerians1 hid in fog and in cloud1   
which veils the realm of the dead2 here 
the sun sends no beam1 either rising or 
setting4 ,again it is possible that the 
poet may have heard some dim account of 
the regions of the extreme ,north4 ,but 
the significance of the ,cimmerians is  
to shadow forth the dark border-land    
between life and death1 which is here   
that between the limited and the        
unlimited4 ,we see the strong attempt of
 the poet to get beyond limitation in   
its twofold appearance3 first he will   
transcend the external boundary of the  
,homeric horizon1 that of the sea       
stretching far to the westward2 still   
more emphatic is his effort to transcend
 the limits of finite thinking and to   
reach an infinite realm1 which is the   

goal of the spirit4 ,he sweeps out of   
sensuous space1 yet the poetic          
imagination has to remain in space after
 all1 though it be a new space of its   
own creation4 ,in like manner1 he has to
 give the disembodied souls some finite 
nourishment in the shape of food and    
blood1 in order that they become real4  
,we feel in these dark ,cimmerian limits
 his wrestle to pass over to the        
supersensible by thought4  ,i4 ,the     
,present is represented by ,ulysses and 
his companions1 who now perform the     
rites consisting of a sacrifice and     
prayer to the nations of the dead4 ,we  
may find in the libation of mingled     
honey1 sweet wine1 and water1 a         
suggestion of the tissues and fluids of 
the body1 while the blood of the        
sacrificed animals hints the principle  
of vitality4 ,when the disembodied      
spirit tastes these elements1 it gets a 
kind of body again1 sufficient at least 
to be able to speak4 ,that the sheep    
must be black is curiously symbolical1  

hinting the harmony expressed in the    
color of the animal and of ,hades4  ,the
 souls came thronging out of ,erebus1   
eager to communicate4 ,this aspiration  
must thus be their general condition2   
they wish to hear from us as much as we 
wish to hear from them4 ,hence there    
must be a selection1 which involves a   
new rite1 the flaying and the burning of
 the carcasses of the animals along with
 prayer to ,pluto and ,proserpine king  
and queen of the ,underworld4 ,yet this 
choice requires activity from the hero1 
who has to draw his sword and keep off  
the crowd of spirits1 till the right one
 comes1 the ,theban seer ,tiresias4     
,thus is the ,past linked into the      
,present1 which to receive the          
communications of the departed by means 
of a ritual1 in whose symbolism we see  
the effort of the living to know the    
,beyond4 ,now occurs a curious incident3
 ,ulysses beholds his companion         
,elpenor1 dead1 yet unburned1 and hears 
his first message4 ,this soul can still 

speak1 and be seen2 it hovers half way  
between the two worlds1 having still a  
material phase of the body which has not
 yet been burnt4 ,elpenor tells the     
nature of his death3 some deity and too 
much wine did the thing--a combination  
which is usually effective in ,homer4   
,an unhappy condition1 suspended between
 matter and spirit2 he begs that it be  
ended4 ,but the poor fellow has another 
request which shows the longing of the  
humblest ,greek--the longing for the    
immortality of fame4 ,make a tomb beside
 the seashore for me1 an unfortunate    
man1 of whom posterity may hear4 ,thus  
he too will live in the mouths of men2  
wherein we catch possibly a gleam of    
,homer himself1 who has certainly       
erected an imperishable monument to     
,elpenor1 voicing the aspiration of the 
soul even in ,hades4  ,it is the hint of
 a deep maternal instinct that          
,anticleia1 my mother deceased comes at 
once to the blood and wishes            
communication4 ,but ,ulysses must first 

hear ,tiresias1 the strongest ties of   
,family are subordinate to the great    
purpose4 ,surely all are now ready to   
listen to the ,past with its message2   
here comes its spirit1 voiced with a    
fresh power4  ,,ii4 ,we have just had   
the ,present1 and in the case of        
,elpenor1 the immediate ,past1 which is 
not yet wholly gone4 ,next we take a    
leap to the ,past of long ago1 to the   
,pre-,trojan time1 whose spirits will   
appear4 ,two sets of them1 divided      
according to sex into man and woman1 we 
behold4 ,but the man here is the        
prophet1 hence what he says belongs to  
the ,future1 into which ,ulysses now    
gets a glimpse4  ,thus both ,future and 
,past are given their place in the      
supersensible realm1 both being         
abstractions from the ,present1 which is
 the reality1 the world of the senses4  
,yet that which is abiding and eternal  
knows not ,past1 ,present1 or ,future1  
or knows them all equally1 having that  
which is common to them all1 being      

indeed the principle of them all4 ,in a 
sense we may say that ,tiresias is      
,past1 ,present and ,future1 he is the  
voice of the ,past speaking in the      
,present foretelling the ,future4 ,then 
the ,famous ,women come forth1 whose    
fame causes them to appear now and to be
 recorded4 ,thus the poet takes the two 
ancient sets and suggests that which    
underlies them both and makes them ever 
present4  #a4 ,tiresias1 though he spans
 the three dimensions of ,time1 is      
essentially the prophet1 and so his     
stress is upon the ,future4 ,his body   
has been long dead1 but his mind is left
 in its untrammeled activity2 he may be 
considered as the purest essence of     
spirit4 ,no senses obstruct his vision1 
he sees the eternal and unchangeable    
law2 yet he must throw it into images   
and apply it to special cases4 ,what a  
conception for a primitive poet6 ,we    
feel in this figure of ,tiresias that   
,homer himself is prophetic1            
foreshadowing the pure ideas or         

archetypal forms of ,plato1 and that he1
 in his struggle for adequate expression
 of thought1 is calling for1 and in fact
 calling forth1 ,greek philosophy4      
,tiresias speaks at first without       
drinking of the blood1 yet he has to    
drink of it to tell his prophecy4 ,this 
little contradiction is not vital1 let  
it not trouble us4 ,the prophetic       
announcement to ,ulysses includes four  
special cases4 ,first1 the ,hero must   
have his struggle with ,neptune on his  
way homeward1 the ,god will avenge the  
blinding of his son1 though that        
blinding had to take place2 every man   
who overcomes a great power1 even a     
natural power1 will get the backstroke  
of his own deed4 ,the very ship of      
,ulysses1 which defies ,neptune1 exposes
 itself to a conflict which it might    
avoid1 did it not undertake to master   
the ,god's element2 such is the penalty 
of all victory4 ,secondly1 he must keep 
down appetite1 particularly at the      
,trinacrian ,isle1 and not slay the     

,oxen of the ,sun1 else the penalty will
 follow there too4 ,not to keep down    
passion and appetite is clearly to eat  
of those oxen in some way1 which will be
 more carefully scrutinized hereafter4  
,then1 thirdly1 thou shalt avenge the   
violent deeds of the ,suitors1 when thou
 hast returned home4  ,the common ground
 in these three cases of prophetic      
insight is retribution for the act done 
there above on earth4 ,the penalty is as
 certain in the future as it has been in
 the past2 violation brings punishment4 
,ulysses has had that experience often2 
note it is told him1 or1 if you wish to 
think the matter in that way1 he tells  
it to himself for his own future        
experience4 ,so the ,prophet sees the   
universal law1 he knows what abides in  
all the fleeting appearances of the     
world4 ,ulysses also1 were he to descend
 into the depths of his own soul1 would 
find the same prophecy2 indeed this     
descent into ,hades is also the descent 
into himself1 as well as into the outer 

supersensible world4 ,the hero in his   
intellectual journey has gone far1 we   
can now behold him near the eternal     
verities4  ,but the fourth statement of 
the ,prophet is here too1 it is the word
 of promise4 ,when this last conflict   
with the ,suitors is over1 then be      
reconciled with ,neptune by a fitting   
sacrifice 7which means that ,ulysses    
should quit the watery element7 give    
hecatombs to the ,immortals1 recognize  
them and their rule4 ,then serene old   
age will take thee off remote from the  
sea and all struggle1 among a happy     
people1 whom thou hast made happy4 ,such
 is the promise1 extending quite beyond 
the limits of the ,odyssey1 which ends  
not at the death of ,ulysses1 but with  
his last conflict4 ,so there is hope    
amid all this struggle1 hope of becoming
 the complete man1 who has reached      
harmony with the ,gods1 with his people1
 and with himself4  ,in such fashion    
,tiresias calls into vision the course  
of the entire poem1 and reaches even    

beyond it1 embracing the whole life of  
,ulysses1 till he too descends for the  
last time into ,hades4 ,verily the      
prophet is ,past1 ,present and ,future2 
his true abode is in the realm of pure  
spirit4 ,he foretells1 but the ,future  
is prefigured as the outcome of what is 
universal2 it must be so and not        
otherwise1 else is the world a chaos4   
,thus ,tiresias is put at the beginning1
 he being the typical person of this    
,underworld1 in which the deities1      
,pluto and ,proserpine1 do not appear1  
being held in the dark background4 ,the 
prophet telling his prophecy is the very
 ,figure of the ,supersensible4  ,but   
again let us be reminded that these     
hints of pure universal thought are     
borne to us in images1 in particular    
shapes1 whereby ambiguity rises1 and    
meaning runs double4 ,nevertheless the  
true-hearted reader will go down with   
the old poet into ,hades1 and there     
behold in these images things which lie 
beyond the senses2 he will behold the   

very spirit of ancient ,tiresias4  #b4  
,having seen the ,man1 ,ulysses is next 
to behold the ,famous ,women of the     
,past1 which is still ,pre-,trojan with 
one exception4 ,examples from all the   
relations of the woman in the ,family   
are given3 the mother1 the maiden1 the  
wife4 ,tragic and happy instances are   
brought before us--ideal forms taken    
from the ancient ,mythus of ,hellas1 and
 begetting in later times a prodigious  
number of works of art1 in poetry1      
sculpture and painting4 ,here they are  
put into ,hades1 the place of the spirit
 unbodied1 which will hereafter take on 
body in the drama1 in the statue1 and in
 the picture4 ,ulysses witnesses these  
shapes in advance1 and gives their idea1
 which is to be realized in the coming  
ages of ,hellas4 ,truly is ,homer the   
primordial ,hellenic seer1 he who sees  
and sets forth the archetypal forms of  
the future of his race4 ,undoubtedly he 
drew from mythical stores already       
existent1 but he ordered them1 shaped   

them anew1 and breathed into them the   
breath of eternal life4 ,no wonder the  
universal ,greek hero must go to ,hades 
to see these forms of the ,past which   
are1 however1 to live afresh in the     
,future4  ,we must also consider the    
audience of the singer4 ,who are        
present8 ,first of all1 ,arete1 mother  
and wife1 together with ,nausicaa1 the  
maiden1 to these he is specially        
singing4 ,their importance in the       
,phaeacian world has been already       
indicated2 naturally they wish to hear  
of woman in the ,family4 ,accordingly   
this portion of the ,eleventh ,book1 the
 catalogue of ,famous ,women1 or        
,homer's ,legende of ,good ,women1 is   
organized after the relations of        
domestic life4 ,three classes are       
suggested3 the mothers2 the maidens and 
the wives1 of the grey aforetime4  ,but 
by all means the glory and the stress of
 the song are given to the mothers2 the 
other two classes are very briefly      
dismissed1 as being essentially         

described in the first4 ,arete is indeed
 the grand center and end of womanhood2 
,nausicaa as maid is but a transitory   
phase1 and as wife she is to become     
mother1 and then take her supreme place 
in the chain which upholds and          
perpetuates humanity4 ,so the old ,greek
 poet must have thought2 was he very far
 from right8      a4 ,the first of these
 mothers to appear is ,anticleia1 the   
mother     of the ,hero ,ulysses1 of the
 ,hero who has made this remarkable     
voyage to the world beyond1 of its kind 
the supreme heroic act done     by a    
living mortal4 ,she1 however1 belongs to
 the immediate ,past1     and thus      
corresponds to the man1 ,elpenor1 in the
 previous section1     though she of    
course has been buried4 ,note1          
therefore1 this mark of     symmetrical 
structure4      ,it is the beautiful    
instinct of the mother1 that she flits  
in the     ghost-world to her son at    
once1 when the chance is afforded4 ,she 
has already appeared1 even before       

,tiresias came2 now she is the     first
 after that prophet1 who gives          
directions to ,ulysses     supplicating3
 ,tell me1 ,o ,prophet1 how shall my    
mother recognize me     as her son4     
,ulysses learns much from her about     
,ithaca1 especially     about his father
 ,laertes1 who now never goes to the    
town but stays     in the fields1 with a
 great sorrow in his heart1 desiring thy
     return1 while old age weighs hard  
upon him4 ,such is the father1     still
 living1 whom ,ulysses may yet see4     
,the mother died from longing for her   
son and the memory of his               
gentleness2 still her longing brings her
 to him in the life     beyond4 ,the    
great revelation is concerning the      
future state3 the     soul is immortal1 
this fact ,ulysses is to tell in        
,phaeacia4 ,the     strong desire to    
behold the loved ones who have passed   
away is     indeed the impulse2 but they
 too return1 though insubstantial4 ,it  
is the primary groundwork of faith in   

immortality--this feeling of     the    
domestic relation affirming that it is  
eternal and cannot be     broken by     
death4 ,still the mother is but a ghost 
and cannot be     embraced2 this the son
 has to accept1 though he would have her
 in     flesh and blood4      b4 ,at    
once there is the transition to the     
famous mothers of     legend--wives and 
daughters of ,heroes says the poet1     
with1 an eye     to his audience1 which 
has men in it also1 so he does not      
mention     mothers1 though they are the
 burden of his strain4 ,here follows a  
,catalogue of ,women1 giving them their 
due place in the genealogy     and      
destiny of distinguished houses4 ,three 
groups of these mothers     we may      
distinguish4      ,first is the group of
 mortal women who were embraced by some 
god1     and gave birth to heroic       
offspring4 ,tyro met ,neptune and       
brought     forth ,pelias and ,neleus2  
from the latter sprang ,nestor who      
connects     the ,pre-,trojan and       

,trojan ages1 since he appears both in  
the ,iliad     and ,odyssey4 ,in the    
,third ,book of the latter epos we have 
already     seen ,nestor sacrificing to 
his divine ancestor2 so the present     
passage has its pertinence to the total 
poem4 ,in the same group are            
,antiope and ,alemena1 the latter of    
whom was the mother of ,hercules1       
whose father was ,zeus4 ,at the end of  
the present ,book1 ,hercules     himself
 will appear as the supreme example of  
the ,greek ,hero4      ,such were three 
typical mothers1 famed in ,hellenic     
legend1 being     the women who bore    
,heroes1 the offspring of ,gods4 ,it was
 deemed the     highest function of the 
,greek mother to bring forth a ,hero1   
the     child of divinity1 with an      
immortal portion4 ,this view1 in its    
purely sensuous aspect1 is dubious      
enough to the modern ethical     mind1  
still its real meaning must be looked at
 with sympathetic     vision1 which sees
 therein the divine descent into mortal 

flesh1 a     mythical utterance of the  
faith that the great man is the son of  
,god4 ,the ,christian view universalizes
 this conception1 holding that     all  
men1 and not merely the ,heroes1 are    
,god's children4 ,yet the     ,christian
 world has also retained its faith in   
the ,son of ,god1 son     by a mortal   
woman1 which faith the old ,greek had   
too1 and expressed     in his way4 ,thus
 we may extract out of this ,homeric    
account     something more than divine  
license2 it has indeed a wonderful      
pre-,christian suggestiveness1 and gives
 a glimpse of the movement     of       
,universal ,religion4      ,the second  
group of famous mothers are mortal women
 with mortal     husbands4 ,the wedded  
wife brings up now the domestic         
relation1     which is passingly        
introduced by the spouse of ,hercules1  
,megara1     who is simply mentioned4   
,the two chief women of the group are   
,epicaste and ,chloris1 the one         
supremely tragic in her motherhood1     

the other reasonably happy4 ,epicaste is
 mother of ,o,edipus1 who     marries   
her after slaying his own father who is 
her husband1 both     deeds being done  
in ignorance2 thus the closest domestic 
ties are     whelmed into guilt and     
tragedy1 whereof ,sophocles has made a  
world-famous use1 in his two dramas on  
the subject of ,o,edipus4     ,chloris  
is1 on the contrary1 the mother of      
,nestor1 not a tragic     character by  
any means2 also she is mother of ,pero1 
the beautiful     maiden1 whom all the  
people around were wooing1 and who was  
happily won by an heroic deed4 ,mark the
 interest of those     listeners1 ,arete
 and ,nausicaa1 mother and daughter in  
this tale4     ,thus the two women1     
,epicaste and ,chloris1 have opposite   
destinies1     and show the sharp       
contrasts of life4      ,in the third   
group are two mothers who have a double 
honor2 each     has borne twins and     
heroic ones at that2 moreover the ,gods 
again     enter the domestic relation of

 mortals4 ,leda's sons are ,castor the  
horseman1 and ,pollux the boxer1 the    
first being mortal1 the second          
immortal1 and reputed son of ,zeus1 who 
permitted the immortal     brother to   
share his immortality with his mortal   
brother2 hence     every other day they 
both are alive1 and every other day they
 both     are dead4 ,again the divine   
gives itself to the human in the spirit 
of true brotherhood2 the son of ,zeus   
takes on the ills of mortality          
through fraternal love4 ,the second     
mother of this group is     ,iphidameia1
 who declares ,neptune to be the father 
of ,otus and     ,ephialtes1 of her     
monstrous twins1 who at the age of nine 
years     threatened war upon the ,gods1
 and proposed to storm heaven by        
piling ,mount ,ossa upon ,olympus and   
,pelion on top of that4 ,such is     the
 contrast3 one set of sons is noble1    
worthy1 and receive honor     like unto 
,gods2 the other set is defiant1        
assailing the divine     order1 and are 

slain by the arrows of ,apollo ere the  
down     blossomed beneath their        
temples1 and covered their chins with   
tender furze4      c4 ,such1 then1 is   
the account of the mothers1 the women   
who have     borne children famous in   
legend4 ,they have taken up nearly the  
whole of the present catalogue2 the     
wives and maidens now come in     for   
brief mention1 forming two groups1 three
 persons to the group4     ,the poet is 
impartial1 he introduces the faithful   
woman1 ,ariadne1     and the faithless  
woman1 ,eriphyle2 in the one case man is
 the     betrayer of woman1 and in the  
other case woman is the betrayer of     
man4 ,possibly in ,ariadne may be a     
little hint for ,nausicaa1 saying1      
,beware4      ,but the singer is tired  
and sleepy2 moreover has he not told the
     essence of the matter in this      
portion of his song8 ,he at once        
dismisses any further account of famous 
women1 wives and daughters     of       
,heroes1 whom he saw in ,hades4         

,nausicaa and ,arete have had their     
share1 wonderful has been their interest
 in the struggles and     sufferings of 
their sex2 they feel in themselves the  
possibility of     such conflicts4      
,these ideal shapes of the olden time1  
product of     the myth-making          
,imagination1 are types1 are the ghosts 
of ,hades     which ,ulysses must see   
and know1 ere he return to the          
,upperworld4   ,,ii4  ,we now reach the 
second main division of the ,book1 which
 is marked by the introduction of the   
audience1 the ,phaeacians1 who were held
 rapt with the charm of the story4      
,observe1 too1 that the palace was not  
brilliantly illuminated1 but            
shadowy--fit environment for fairy tales
 7line #ccd74 ,this main division is    
again separated into two subordinate    
divisions which embrace the ,present and
 the ,past1 and thus is in structure    
homologous with the preceding main      
division4 ,yet both the ,present and the
 ,past are not now the same as the      

previous ,present and ,past4  ,i4 ,first
 of the hearers speaks out the mother1  
wife of ,alcinous1 ,arete1 in response  
to the compliment of ,ulysses in singing
 of the ,famous ,women of ,greek legend4
 ,phaeacians1 how does this man seem to 
you now in form1 stature1 and mind8     
,very different does he seem from what  
he once did2 thus she gently apologizes 
for her previous treatment4 ,she        
appreciates the ,hero2 moreover1 she    
asks that the high guest receive        
hospitable gifts without stint2 for much
 wealth lies in your halls by the bounty
 of the ,gods4  ,having thus heard from 
the woman1 we now are to hear from the  
man1 the representative ,phaeacian1 king
 ,alcinous4 ,in the first portion of the
 ,book ,ulysses and his companions were 
the ,present to which the ,past appeared
 in ,hades4 ,now the ,phaeacians are    
introduced as the ,present1 which is to 
hear the voice of the ,past from ,hades4
 ,moreover1 the ,past is not the        
,pre-,trojan1 but the ,trojan ,past1    

which we have already 7in the ,eighth   
,book7 seen to be dear to the ,phaeacian
 heart4 ,it is no wonder1 then1 that    
,alcinous1 as soon as he can urge his   
request1 calls for a song about the     
,greco-,trojan ,heroes in the           
,underworld4 ,tell us if thou didst see 
any of those godlike ,argives who       
followed thee to ,troy and there met    
their fate4 ,not the mother of the      
,hero1 but the ,hero himself is now to  
be called up2 the man wishes to listen  
to the deeds of man4 ,demodocus1 the    
,phaeacian bard1 always sung of some    
phase of the ,trojan struggle1 which was
 the popular subject of story and song  
in ,phaeacia4 ,thus we note again how   
the famous ,past1 stored away in ,hades1
 is made to flow into the ,present1 and 
to contribute an ideal of heroism1 and a
 warning also1 to the living4  ,a touch 
of ,homer as literary critic we should  
not pass by1 as he does not often take  
that part4 ,alcinous1 praising the tale 
of ,ulysses1 says3 ,form of words is    

thine1 and a noble meaning1 and a       
mythus1 as when a minstrel sings4 ,three
 important qualities of poetry are      
therein set forth3 beauty of language1  
nobleness of content1 and the fable in  
its totality--all of which belong to the
 preceding narrative4 ,moreover1        
,alcinous draws a sharp contrast with   
that other sort of storytellers1 mere   
liars1 of whom the dark earth feeds     
many1 who go about fabricating lies1 out
 of which we1 looking into them1 can get
 nothing1 can draw no meaning4 ,such at 
least is our view of this passage 7line 
#cff7 about which there is a difference 
of opinion among commentators4 ,at any  
rate we catch a glimpse of ,homeric     
literary criticism in ,homer1 who states
 the requirements of good poetry1 and   
contrasts them with the liar or         
fabricator of yarns1 which are certainly
 devoid of the noble spirit or worthy   
content4  ,so ,ulysses is asked to begin
 his ,trojan story1 always more         
interesting than that catalogue of      

women1 at which everybody began to yawn4
 ,it is not yet time to go to sleep1    
cries ,alcinous1 the night here is      
unspeakably long1 and still further1 ,i 
would hold out till daylight1 listening 
to thy story4  ,,ii4 ,the ,trojan ,past1
 then1 is the theme2 we are to behold   
the ghosts of those who were famous     
during the ,war at ,troy1 and           
immediately afterwards1 both men and    
women4 ,but the women are not here given
 a special portion to themselves1 but   
are woven into the general narrative4   
,this part of the ,book is sung for the 
men1 the opposite sex is withdrawn into 
the background2 still they will be duly 
mentioned1 since the whole conflict is  
over a woman4 ,moreover ,alcinous wishes
 to hear what the heroic men are doing  
in the future world1 whither too he must
 go4  #a4 ,three ,greek shades will pass
 before us1 ,agamemnon the ,leader1     
,achilles the ,hero1 and ,ajax the man  
of strength4 ,we shall find them placed 
in a certain contrast with ,ulysses1 who

 is shown greater than any of the three4
 ,all have been overwhelmed by fate     
through their own folly or weakness1    
while ,ulysses still lives1 the master  
of fate1 and beholds them in ,hades4    
,such is his triumph1 which the shades  
themselves declare4  ,first comes the   
soul of ,agamemnon1 the great ,king1 who
 has the bond of authority in common    
with ,king ,alcinous4 ,he tells the     
story of his own murder in considerable 
detail1 which story has been given twice
 already in the poem4 ,a most impressive
 event to the ,greek mind of ,homer's   
age2 the greatest of the rulers is      
wretchedly cut off from his ,return by  
his wife ,clytaemnestra and her paramour
 ,a,egisthus4 ,this ,return is what     
points the contrast between him and     
,ulysses2 moreover the contrast is also 
drawn between the wives of the two men1 
one the faithless and the other the     
faithful woman4 ,still the wrong of     
,agamemnon is suggested by himself3 ,i  
heard the piteous voice of ,cassandra1  

whom ,clytaemnestra slew1 crying for me2
 ,i1 though dying1 grasped for my sword1
 to no purpose1 however4 ,surely the    
wife had her wrongs as well as the      
husband1 out of which double guilt      
,a,eschylus will construct his mighty   
tragedy4  ,next after the ,leader1 in   
due order comes the ,hero of the ,greeks
 before ,troy1 ,achilles4 ,he recognizes
 this descent to ,hades as the greatest 
deed of ,ulysses3 ,what greater deed1   
rash man1 wilt thou plan next8 ,it is   
verily the most wonderful part of his   
,return1 overtopping anything that      
,achilles did4 ,still ,ulysses pays him 
the meed of heroship3 ,we ,argives      
honored thee as a ,god1 while living1   
and now thou art powerful among the     
dead2 therefore do not sorrow at thy    
death1 ,o ,achilles4 ,but he answers    
that he would rather be the humblest day
 laborer to a poor man than to be ,king 
of the ,shades4 ,it is not his world1 he
 longs for the realm of heroic action1  
here he has no vocation4 ,no ,troy to be

 taken1 no ,hector to be vanquished down
 in ,hades2 the heroic man must sigh for
 the ,upper ,world with its activity4   
,some consolation he gets from the      
account which ,ulysses gives of his son1
 who was in the ,wooden ,horse and      
distinguished himself at ,troy for      
bravery4 ,thus the father lives in his  
son and strides off delighted through   
the meadow of asphodel4 ,this plant is  
usually regarded as the ,asphodelus     
ramosus1 a kind of lily with an edible  
tuberous root1 still planted1 it is     
said1 on graves1 to furnish to the dead 
some food which grows in the earth4     
,this ancient custom has been supposed  
to be the source of the legend of its   
being transplanted to ,hades4  ,the     
third heroic shade is that of ,ajax1 son
 of ,telamon1 with whom ,ulysses had a  
rivalry1 the story of which runs as     
follows3 ,after the death of ,achilles1 
,thetis his mother offered his arms1 the
 work of ,vulcan1 to the worthiest of   
the remaining ,greek heroes4 ,the       

contest lay between ,ajax and ,ulysses4 
,agamemnon would not decide1 but        
referred the question to the ,trojan    
prisoners present1 asking them which of 
the two contestants had done them the   
most injury4 ,they said ,ulysses4       
,whereupon ,ajax went crazy and slew    
himself4 ,now he appears in ,hades1     
still unreconciled2 it is really the    
most wretched lot of all4 ,ulysses here 
speaks the reconciling word1 growing    
tender and imploring2 but the hero      
answered not1 darting away with the     
other shades into ,erebos4 ,wherein we  
may well see how much greater in spirit 
,ulysses was than his big muscular      
rival4 ,he has reached in this respect  
the true outcome of life's discipline3  
to have no revenges1 and to speak the   
word of reconciliation4  ,in fact the   
superiority of ,ulysses over all these  
heroes is clearly manifested4 ,he brings
 no captive woman home to his domestic  
hearth1 and hence he has a right to     
count upon ,penelope's fidelity1 though 

certainly he shows himself no saint in  
his wanderings4 ,moreover ,agamemnon    
lacked foresight in his ,return1 which  
,ulysses will exhibit in a supreme      
degree when he first touches his native 
soil4 ,the second hero1 ,achilles1 could
 not conquer ,troy1 then he could not   
conquer ,hades2 yet both are conquered  
by ,ulysses who is thus the greater4    
,finally unreconciled ,ajax--all are    
limited1 incomplete1 in contrast with   
the complete1 limit-removing ,hero1 who 
has just removed even the limit of      
,death in the only way possible4 ,verily
 to him they have become shadows1 that  
whole heroic world before ,troy is now  
put by him into ,hades4  ,thus we see   
that1 while the characters belong to the
 ,trojan time1 there is a movement out  
of that period1 it is transcended4 ,the 
background here is the ,iliad1 yet the  
incidents are taken from the ,trojan war
 after the action of the ,iliad is      
brought to a close4 ,the fates of the   
three great heroes of that poem are not 

given in the poem2 here they are given  
with a tragic emphasis4 ,thus the       
,odyssey carries forward the ,iliad1    
supplements it1 and forms its real      
conclusion1 both being in fact one poem4
 ,in the full blaze of the glory of     
,achilles the ,iliad ends2 but he cannot
 take ,troy2 and still less1 after his  
death1 can ,ajax2 the divine armor must 
go to ,ulysses who has brain1 then can  
the city be taken4 ,even the son of     
,achilles will fight under ,ulysses and 
enter the ,trojan ,horse1 the work of   
,pallas1 of ,intelligence4 ,thus we     
catch here as in other places1 glimpses 
of the unity of both the ,iliad and the 
,odyssey1 the great work reflecting the 
one national consciousness of ,hellas in
 its complete cycle4  #b4 ,we should not
 fail to cast a separate glance at the  
three typical women of the ,trojan      
epoch--,helen1 ,clytemnestra1           
,penelope--in contrast with the three   
heroes already described4 ,they are all 
mentioned and compared in the speech of 

,agamemnon1 but do not form an organic  
part of the ,book by themselves1 as do  
the ,pre-,trojan women4 ,they are wives1
 and wifehood not motherhood1 as in the 
previous case1 is the phase of the      
domestic relation which is the theme of 
song and struggle in their lives4       
,possible its present importance is the 
reason why wifehood was dismissed with  
so brief mention in the portion         
concerning the famous mothers4  ,note1  
then1 the gradation of the three3       
,clytemnestra is the fallen unrestored2 
,helen is the fallen restored2 ,penelope
 is the unfallen1 who keeps a home for  
her absent husband during twenty years4 
,the tragic1 the mediated1 the pure2 or1
 to take a later analogy1 the infernal1 
the purgatorial1 the paradisaical2 such 
are the three typical female characters 
of ,homer1 ranging from guilt1 through  
repentance1 to innocence4 ,in this      
framework lies quite all possible       
characterization4 ,naturally ,agamemnon 
shows a bitter vein of misogyny1 with   

only his wife in view2 but he takes it  
all back when he thinks of ,penelope4   
,two of these women1 ,helen and         
,penelope1 are still alive and do not   
belong to the realm of ,hades2 the ghost
 of the third1 ,clytemnestra1 does not  
appear4 ,still all three are mentioned  
here in the text1 and stand in relation 
to the three ,greco-,trojan heroes1 none
 of whom were restored through the      
,return4 ,ulysses1 however1 is the real 
solution of them all2 he spans all their
 inadequacies1 masters their fates1 and 
reaches home4 ,the three ,greek heroes  
above mentioned fell by the way in the  
course of the grand problem1 and are    
seen in ,hades1 complaining1 unhappy1   
showing their full limitation4 ,to a    
degree they are suffering the penalty of
 their own shortcomings3 which fact     
prepares us for the third and last phase
 of the ,underworld4   ,,iii4  ,we now  
come to a new division of the ,book1    
which forms in itself a complete little 
poem1 yet is derived directly from the  

preceding divisions1 and is harmonious  
with them in thought1 development and   
structure4 ,undoubtedly there is a      
difference here1 but the difference     
means not absolute separation but a     
connected unfolding of parts4 ,the      
present division has been assailed more 
violently by the critics and torn out of
 its place with greater unanimity than  
any other portion of the ,odyssey1 with 
the possible exception of portions of   
the last two ,books4 ,let us confess1   
however1 that our tendency is to        
reconcile1 if this can be done1 the     
discords and to knit together the rent  
garment1 by threads not always on the   
surface1 but very real to any eye which 
is willing to look underneath4          
,unquestionably a punitive element      
enters now1 there is guilt and          
punishment in ,hades4 ,but who has not  
felt that in the preceding division the 
three ,greek heroes were under the      
inevitable penalty of their own deeds8  
,very natural is the transition4 ,indeed

 the three divisions of the ,book show a
 gradual movement toward a penal view of
 ,hades3 the first 7,tiresias and the   
,famous ,mothers7 has a slight          
suggestion of the penalty2 the second   
7the three ,greek heroes7 has the idea  
of punishment implicit everywhere2 the  
third makes the idea explicit and       
organizes itself upon the same4  ,again1
 there is a change of style1 which now  
is strongly tinged with the ,orphic1    
initiatory1 symbolical manner1 in marked
 contrast with the clear-flowing        
narrative which has just preceded4 ,but 
we noticed the same characteristic      
before1 in the first division of the    
,book1 where the sacrificial rites and  
the part of ,tiresias were given4 ,homer
 has many styles1 not each style has    
many ,homers1 nor is there a new ,homer 
needed for each change of style4 ,note  
the great varieties of style in the two 
,parts of ,faust by way of illustration4
 ,moreover we here pass into the dim    
,pre-,trojan epoch1 as was the case in  

the first division1 but guilt is now    
flung into that time and with it the    
penalty4 ,hoary1 gigantic shapes of eld 
do wrong to the ,gods1 and are put into 
the punitory ,hades4 ,thus this third   
division returns to the first with its  
own new principle4 ,in truth one may say
 that ,homer herein shows features akin 
to ,hesiod2 well1 ,homer is ,hesiod and 
many more4  ,we hold1 therefore1 that   
this third division is an organic part  
of the ,book both in idea and structure2
 it carries to completion the thought of
 a world-justice1 which ,tiresias has   
already declared in his speech to       
,ulysses1 and which is exemplified in   
the three ,greek heroes4 ,thus it       
unfolds what lies in the first two      
divisions1 and links them together in a 
new and deeper thought4 ,for this realm 
of ,hades1 hitherto a distracted spot   
without any apparent order1 now gets    
organized with its own ,justiciary and  
its own ,law4 ,yet here too we shall    
find a solution and a parallel2 just as 

,ulysses was the true hero at ,troy1    
standing above all the others and       
solving their problems1 so ,hercules is 
the great ,pre-,trojan hero1 saving     
himself at last and rising to ,olympus4 
,finally the two careers of ,ulysses and
 ,hercules are affirmed to be identical4
 ,this division1 therefore1 falls of    
itself into three portions3 7#a7 the    
,judge1 7#b7 the condemned1 7#c7 the    
redeemed4 ,thus the whole forms a       
complete little cycle within itself4    
#a4 ,minos1 the ,judge1 was the ancient 
king of ,crete1 where he was lawgiver   
and suppressed wrong-doing on sea and   
land4 ,here he continues his vocation1  
which demands the assigning of the just 
penalty to the guilty4 ,he is manifestly
 the type of ,justice1 both punishing   
and rewarding2 as punisher he has been  
transferred by ,dante to the ,inferno4  
,later ,greek legend united with him two
 other judges1 his brothers1            
,rhadamanthys and ,a,eacus4  #b4 ,we    
have next four instances of punishment1 

though this is apparently of different  
degrees4 ,the wrong1 however1 is not    
stated except in the case of ,tityos1   
which probably hints the general nature 
of the misdeeds of the three others4    
,the poet takes for granted that his    
hearer could fill out each legend for   
himself4 ,in every case there was       
evidently some violation done to the    
,gods1 not to men--some crime against   
,olympus4 ,the period is thrown back    
into the ,pre-,trojan time1 into the age
 of the demigods and of the free        
intercourse between mortals and         
immortals2 thus it is parallel with the 
first division of the ,book4 ,but now   
judgment has entered the ,houses of     
,hades along with the penalty4  ,the    
guilt of ,orion is that of love between 
a mortal and a ,goddess1 ,aurora1 which 
violation was punished by the soft bolts
 of ,artemis1 protectress of chastity4  
,this legend has already been alluded to
 by ,calypso4 7,book ,v4 line #aba47    
,jealous are the ,gods of that mortal   

man with whom a ,goddess falls in love1 
and with good reason4 ,orion's          
punishment is an eternal chase1 the     
hunter is compelled to hunt forever1    
repeating what he did in life4 ,perhaps 
not a heavy punishment for one who is   
fond of hunting2 yet a tremendous       
burden1 if never interrupted with rest2 
indeed it becomes a labor quite like the
 labor of ,sisyphus1 ever repeated4 ,of 
,tityos both the guilt and punishment   
are indicated2 the legend is similar to 
and yet in contrast with that of ,orion2
 in the one the ,goddess approaches the 
mortal and in the other the mortal      
approaches the ,goddess2 hence1 too1 the
 severer punishment in the latter case4 
,the second legend ought to be completed
 here by a fact derived from the story  
of ,prometheus3 the liver grows as fast 
as the vultures rend or consume it2 thus
 again rises the idea of infinite       
repetition1 now of suffering1 not of    
action1 for ,orion is active4  ,the next
 two forms1 ,tantalus and ,sisyphus1    

have also a kinship4 ,both had known    
secrets of the ,gods and had betrayed   
them2 ,tantalus is also reported to have
 taken away nectar and ambrosia from the
 ,olympian table after being a guest    
there2 ,sisyphus revealed to the        
river-god ,asopus the secret that ,zeus 
had spirited away the latter's daughter1
 ,a,egina4 ,the penalty is that         
,tantalus remains perpetually hungry and
 thirsty1 with sight of food and drink  
always before his eyes2 he cannot reach 
them when he strives4 ,the finite1 with 
an infinite longing1 cannot compass the 
infinite2 the man loses it just when he 
grasps for it--a truly ,greek penalty   
for a sin against the ,greek world1     
which rests upon the happy harmonious   
unity of the spirit with the body and   
with nature4 ,the ,christian or         
,romantic longing and grasping for the  
,beyond is to the ,greek soul a         
punishment of ,hades4 ,tantalus with his
 hunger and thirst seems to represent   
more the striving of the intellect to   

attain the unattainable2 while ,sisyphus
 suggests the effort of the             
will--practical endeavor1 the eternal   
routine of mechanical employment1 which 
always has to begin over again4         
,etymology brings also a suggestion4    
,both names are reduplicated2 in        
,tantalus is the root of the word which 
means to suffer2 in ,sisyphus1 lurks the
 signification of craft2 it hints the   
wise or crafty planner 7sophos7 who     
always pushes the act to a point where  
it undoes itself or must be done over   
again4 ,note the effect of this         
reduplication of the first syllables1   
which means repetition2 over and over   
again1 in an infinite series must the   
matter be gone through1 in suffering and
 in doing2 the very words are in labor4 
,indeed this indicates the common       
element in these four punishments3 the  
endless repetition of the struggle of   
finitude4 ,the first two1 ,orion and    
,tityos1 reached out for ,goddesses1    
being mortals2 the second two1 still    

mortals1 but in communion with deities1 
attempted to bring down divine secrets  
to earth2 the one set strove to make the
 finite infinite1 the other to make the 
infinite finite4 ,both were contrary to 
the nature of the ,greek mind1 which    
sought to keep the happy balance between
 the two sides1 between body and spirit1
 between the temporal and eternal4 ,now 
the punishment of these people is to    
give them their infinite1 but in the    
form of an infinite repetition of their 
finite act1 which is just the           
spirit-crushing penalty4 ,the power of  
these two types1 ,tantalus and          
,sisyphus1 is shown by the fact that all
 ages since ,homer have adopted them and
 wrought them over into many forms of   
art and poetry4  ,here then is the      
unsolved problem of the ,greek world1 a 
problem which the ,christian world has  
met and answered4 ,tantalus and         
,sisyphus are in pain and toil simply   
through themselves2 man1 however1 must  
have the power to reach the apples1 and 

roll the stone up hill1 he must assert  
himself as limit-transcending1 as       
infinite1 for once and for all1 and not 
caught in an infinite series1 which is a
 veritable mill of the ,gods1 that is1  
of the ,greek ,gods4 ,now this strange  
fact comes to light3 ,homer1 seer that  
he is1 has a dim consciousness of this  
solution1 and faintly but prophetically 
embodies it in a new figure1 namely1    
that of ,hercules1 which we shall now   
consider4  #c4 ,the ,homeric solution is
 to divide the man1 or to double him1   
into his shade 7eidolon7 and his self4  
,the former belongs to ,hades and       
appears now2 it is the finite ,hercules 
with his striving and labors2 he still  
has his bow and arrow1 is ready to slay 
beasts1 snakes1 and birds4 ,he is in    
quite the same punishment as ,orion or  
even ,sisyphus1 the penalty of all      
finitude is upon him4 ,yet the other    
side is given1 that of victory4 ,i1     
though the son of the highest ,god1     
,zeus1 had to endure boundless          

tribulation4 ,strangely ,christian does 
this sound4 ,i was put under service to 
a far inferior man to myself1 who laid  
upon me bitter labors4 ,the higher must 
serve and save the lower4 ,then the     
mightiest labor ,i performed1 ,i came   
down hither to ,hades alive and dragged 
thence the dog ,cerberus--conquered the 
great terror of the ,underworld4 ,thus  
,hercules has really transcended ,hades1
 and so we read here that he himself is 
among the immortal ,gods1 in bliss1 that
 is1 his infinite nature is there1 while
 the finite part is still below in      
,hades4 ,such is the old poet's far-cast
 glance1 reaching deep into the future  
and beyond the ,greek world4  ,still    
another significant word is spoken4 ,o  
,ulysses1 unhappy man6 ,thou dost       
experience the same hard fate which ,i  
endured upon the earth4 ,thus does      
,hercules identify the career of        
,ulysses with his own--the same striving
 and suffering1 and the same final      
victory1 the peace of ,olympus4 ,who    

cannot attain the latter is a ,tantalus1
 seeking but never reaching the fruit4  
,such is the outcome and culmination of 
,hades2 after ,hercules has spoken1 no  
further word is heard by ,ulysses4      
,dante1 whose poem on so many lines     
grows out of this ,eleventh ,book1 has  
also the same duplication of the person 
in his ,paradise4 ,the soul is in its   
special planet1 ,venus1 ,mars1 etc41 and
 also it is in the highest ,heaven1     
enjoying the ,vision of ,god4 ,but      
,dante universalizes the ,greek view1   
making it truly ,christian2 all men are 
children of ,god and can attain the     
seats of the ,blessed1 not merely the   
one man1 the ,hero ,hercules4 ,still    
even here the inference is that ,ulysses
 must also be transferred to ,olympus1  
though no such declaration is made4  ,we
 hope the reader feels how inadequate   
,hades would be1 and how incomplete the 
experience of ,ulysses would be1 if this
 last division of the ,book were cut    
out4 ,the wanderer has now gone through 

the total cycle of the ,underworld1 not 
only outwardly1 but inwardly2 he is just
 ready to step out of it1 because he is 
beyond it in spirit4 ,this last step is 
now to be given in ,homeric fashion4    
,there is a danger at present rising    
strongly into consciousness1 a danger   
inherent in this too-long contemplation 
of ,hades2 it is the danger of the      
,gorgon1 the monster whose view turns   
the spectator into stone1 taking away   
all sensation1 emotion1 life4 ,the      
,greek sooner or later must quit ,hades1
 and flee from its shapes2 the          
supersensible world he must transfuse   
into the sensible1 else the former will 
rush over into the fantastic1 the       
horrible1 the ugly4 ,the ,gorgon is down
 in ,hades too1 having been slain in the
 terrestrial ,upperworld by a ,greek    
,hero1 ,perseus1 who slew the monster of
 the ,orient which once guarded the fair
 ,andromeda1 a kind of ,pre-,trojan     
,helen1 chained in captivity1 whom the  
heroic ,hellenic soul came to release4  

,ulysses has now reached the ,greek     
limit1 ,oriental phantasms will rise    
unless there be a speedy return to the  
reality1 to the realm of sense4 ,hades  
has furnished its highest image in      
,hercules1 beware of its worst4 ,already
 the ,underworld has been in danger of  
running into the fantastic2 then        
,beauty1 the ,hellenic ideal1 would be  
lost4 ,the figures of ,homeric ,hades   
hitherto have all been men and women1   
but the monsters are ready to come      
forth4 ,so they did come forth in the   
later ,greek world under the spur of    
,oriental influence2 witness the        
,revelations of ,st4 ,john in the       
,island of ,patmos1 joint product of    
,greek and ,hebrew spirit1 showing truly
 the dissolution of the ,hellenic ideal4
  ,thus ,ulysses1 the supreme spiritual 
,hero of the ,greeks1 is shown running  
away from the ,underworld1 fearing to   
look upon coming shapes in ,hades2 about
 which fact two reflections can be made3
 first1 ,ulysses had to do this in order

 to remain a ,greek2 secondly1 the poet 
clearly announces1 in such an action1   
that there is another world lying beyond
 his world1 that underneath the ,greek  
,hades is another ,hades1 which         
threatens to rise into view4 ,that      
,hades will burst up hereafter and      
become the ,christian ,hell4 ,ulysses   
confesses that there is a realm beyond  
him there1 which he has not conquered1  
has not even dared to see1 and thus he  
significantly points to the future4 ,the
 ,gorgon is a shadowy anticipation of   
fiends1 of devils1 of the infernal      
monsters of the ,romantic ,netherworld  
of ,dante1 who is to be the next great  
,hero1 passing into the dark world      
beyond with a new light4 ,to be sure1   
,virgil sends ,a,eneas into ,orcus1 and 
makes such descent a ,book of his poem1 
but ,virgil too speaks of a realm beyond
 his ,orcus1 which his ,hero does not   
enter4 ,thus the ,roman poet shows      
substantially the same limits as the    
,greek poet1 whom he has for the most   

part copied4  ,here again we find a     
conception embodied in song1 on which   
the human mind has moved through many   
ages4 ,poetry1 ,art1 ,theology1 have    
taken from this ,eleventh ,book of the  
,odyssey many creative hints3 it is     
truly an epoch-making work in the       
history of man's spiritual unfolding4   
,as already stated1 ,virgil repeats it1 
,dante grows out of it and makes it     
over1 in accord with the spirit of      
,christendom1 which has many a root     
running back to this ,homeric ,hades4   
,the present ,book may be called the    
,greek prophecy heralding medieval ,art1
 and shows old ,homer foreshadowing     
,romanticism4 ,did he not see the limits
 of his world8 ,the particular          
connecting link between two ,literary   
,bibles1 ,homer and ,dante1 is just the 
present ,book1 even if ,dante never read
 ,homer4 ,for the study of ,universal   
,literature it is1 therefore1 a         
specially important document4 ,a        
many-sided production also2 its poetic1 

its religious1 its artistic1 its        
philosophical sides are all present in  
full activity and put to test the       
spiritual alertness of the reader4      
,wherein does the negative nature of    
,hades lie8 ,the question rises from the
 fact that ,ulysses in ,fableland has   
been declared to be passing through     
various negative phases2 such is the    
expression often used already4 ,first of
 all1 it is a negating of the sensible  
world and a going into the              
supersensible1 a seeking of the spirit  
without the body4 ,hades was quite the  
opposite of the ,greek mind1 which      
demanded embodiment1 and hence was      
inherently artistic4 ,still the ,greek  
mind created a ,hades1 and finally went 
over into the pure ,idea in ,plato and  
the philosophers4 ,even ,homer seems to 
feel that philosophy is at last a       
needful discipline1 that the abstract   
thought must be taken from its concrete 
wrappage1 that the ,universal must be   
freed from the ,particular4  ,ulysses   

has to pass through ,hades in order to  
complete the cycle of his experience1   
and realize what is beyond the senses2  
he must know the spirit apart from the  
body in this life2 he must see the ,past
 as it is in its great disembodied      
minds2 he must behold the famous heroes 
of ,troy as they are in reality1 not as 
they are in the glamor of poetry4 ,as   
tested by their life and deeds he sees  
them below in the ,netherworld2 ,greek  
souls stark naked in ,hades he beholds1 
and then rises out of it4  ,retrospect4 
,very important1 in our judgment1 is    
this ,eleventh ,book2 it is really one  
of the sacred documents of ,universal   
,religion1 as well as a great creative  
idea in the ,world's ,literature1 ,but  
it has fared badly as to its friends2   
for interpretation it usually falls into
 the hands of the negative1 merely      
critical ,understanding1 which has the  
unfortunate habit of turning ,professor 
of ,greek1 commentator on ,homer1 and   
philologer generally4 ,in order to grasp

 and connect its leading points more    
completely1 we shall look back at the   
thought and structure of the ,book once 
more4  ,first of all1 there must be felt
 and seen the necessity of taking this  
journey to the ,netherworld on the part 
of the ,hero1 the complete person of his
 time4 ,the very conception of the      
universal man must include the visit to 
the realm of the ,idea2 the passage from
 the sensible to the supersensible1 is  
the deepest need of his soul4 ,homer can
 give this spiritual movement only in a 
mythical form1 hence it occurs here in  
,fableland4 ,so ,ulysses has to make the
 transition from ,circe to ,hades4      
,having the entire ,book now before us1 
we observe that it shows a threefold    
movement2 that is1 one movement with    
three leading stages4 ,these take the   
shape of three communications from the  
realm of the dead1 which includes all   
past ,time1 imparted to the living who  
are now present1 namely the ,phaeacians1
 through ,ulysses1 who has had this     

cycle of experiences and now sings them4
 ,but that which is true in past ,time  
must be seen to be true in all          
,time--,past1 ,present and ,future4 ,so 
there unfolds the idea of a             
,world-,order1 foretold at first by the 
,pre-,trojan prophet ,tiresias1         
illustrated by the fate of the three    
,greco-,trojan heroes in ,hades1 and    
finally realized and active in the realm
 of ,minos4 ,the whole has1 therefore1  
the secret underlying thought of a      
world-tribunal1 which works through all 
human history2 it is a kind of ,last    
,judgment to which the deeds of men are 
appealed for final adjudication2 it most
 profoundly suggests in its movement the
 ethical order of the ,universe4 ,let us
 briefly sum up its three stages4  ,i4  
,the first communication from the ,hades
 of the ,past to the real world of the  
,present through ,ulysses is that of the
 prophet ,tiresias1 whose mind is whole2
 he may be called the pure ,idea 7as    
subjective7 uttering the ,idea 7as      

objective1 as principle of the world74  
,for he beholds the truth of things as  
they are in their essence1 he himself   
being the impersonation of ,truth4 ,thus
 he looks through the ,future and       
foretells2 he knows that ,neptune will  
avenge the deed done to ,polyphemus1    
that the ,oxen of the ,sun constitute a 
great danger1 that ,ulysses will punish 
the ,suitors2 then he prophesies the    
peace and final harmony of ,ulysses     
after his long conflict and separation  
from home1 country1 and the ,divine     
,order4  ,so speaks ,tiresias and is    
therein a kind of world-judge1          
prefiguring ,minos of the last stage of 
,hades4 ,for he prophesies according to 
the law of the deed2 what you have done 
is sure to return upon you1 be it good  
or bad4 ,hence he can tell what will    
happen to ,ulysses for acts already     
committed 7the wrath of ,neptune72 he   
can give a warning concerning things    
which ,ulysses may do 7the slaying of   
the ,oxen of the ,sun72 he can affirm   

the certain punishment of guilt 7the    
case of the ,suitors74 ,thus the prophet
 voices a world-justice1 which inflicts 
the penalty unflinchingly1 but also     
bears within itself reconciliation4     
,such is the prophetic ,idea1 appearing 
in advance1 not yet ordered and         
realized4  ,,ii4 ,the second            
communication from ,hades to the        
,phaeacians through ,ulysses comes from 
the ,trojan ,past1 and is voiced by the 
three most famous heroes of the         
,iliad--,achilles1 ,agamemnon1 ,ajax    
7the last one1 however1 does not speak1 
but acts out his communication74 ,all   
three are tragic characters1 are the    
victims of fate1 that is1 of their own  
fatal limitations4 ,such is the         
world-judgment here1 it is really       
pronounced by themselves upon themselves
 in each case4 ,agamemnon states his own
 guilt1 ,achilles shows his limit by his
 complaint1 ,ajax does not need to      
speak4 ,ulysses simply listens and sees2
 now he tells the story of ,troy and its

 heroes anew to the ,present1 indicating
 how they have put themselves into      
,hades4  ,the intimate connection       
between this part and the preceding part
 of ,tiresias is plain4 ,the prophet has
 forecast the law which rules these     
heroes also2 they are truly             
illustrations of his prophecy1 or of its
 underlying principle4 ,they expose the 
heroic insufficiency of that ,trojan    
time2 they are the negative1 tragic     
phases of greatness1 which have also to 
submit at last to the law of            
compensation4 ,thus is the illustrious  
,trojan epoch judged and sent down      
below2 but mark6 ,ulysses1 of that same 
epoch1 survives1 is present1 and is     
singing the judgment4  ,,iii4 ,the      
world-justice which ideally underlies   
the prophecies of ,tiresias in the first
 part of the present ,book1 and which is
 the secret moving principle in the     
fates of the three ,greco-,trojan heroes
 in the second part1 becomes explicit1  
recognized and ordered in the third     

part1 which is now to be given4 ,there  
is first the world-judge1 ,minos1 famous
 for his justice during life1           
distributing both penalties and rewards 
in the ,netherworld4 ,secondly we see   
the condemned ones1 ,orion1 ,tityus1    
,tantalus1 ,sisyphus 7mark the          
significant reduplication of the root in
 the names of each one of them74 ,all   
four are represented as having wronged  
the ,gods in some way2 they have        
violated the ,divine ,order1 according  
to the ,greek conception2 hence the     
tribunal of world-justice1 now organized
 and at work in ,hades1 takes them in   
hand4 ,to be sure1 the text of ,homer   
does not say that they were sentenced by
 the decree of ,minos1 but such is      
certainly the implication4 ,these four  
had a common sin1 to the ,greek mind3   
they sought to transcend the limit which
 the ,gods have placed upon finite man1 
hence the image of their penalty lies in
 the endless repetition of their acts1  
which is also suggested in their names4 

,orion has always to pursue and slay the
 wild beast1 never getting the work     
done2 the liver of ,tityus grows and    
swells afresh 7root from tu1 meaning to 
swell1 ,latin tumor7 though being       
consumed by the vultures2 in like manner
 ,tantalus and ,sisyphus have           
ever-repeated labors4 ,such is the      
glimpse here of the ,greek ,hades of    
eternal punishment4 ,now comes the      
curious fact that the heroic man through
 labor and suffering can rise out of    
this ,hades of finitude2 he can satisfy 
the demand of world-justice1 and rise to
 ,olympus among the blessed ,gods4 ,such
 was ,hercules1 and such is to be       
,ulysses1 who now having seen the       
culmination of ,hades and heard its     
prophecy of his future state1 leaves it 
and returns to the ,upperworld4         
,undoubtedly these thoughts of future   
punishment and reward are very dim and  
shadowy in ,homer2 still they are here  
in this ,eleventh ,book of the ,odyssey1
 and find their true interpretation in  

that view of the life to come into which
 they unfolded with time4 ,the best     
commentary on this ,book1 we repeat1 is 
the ,divine ,comedy of ,dante1 the grand
 poem of futurity1 which carries out to 
fullness the order1 of which we here    
catch a little glimpse4     ,,book      
,,twelfth4   ,ulysses flees from the    
,underworld1 there is something down    
there which he feels he cannot master1  
something which he has not seen but of  
which he has a vague presentiment4 ,the 
,gorgon stands for much1 dimly          
foreshadowing a ,hades beyond or below  
the ,greek ,hades1 with which1 however1 
it is not his call to grapple4 ,hence   
the poet puts upon his ,hero a          
limitation at this point1 strangely     
prophetic1 and sends him in haste back  
to the terrestrial ,upperworld4 ,the    
bark crossed the stream of the river    
,oceanus1 then it entered the wide-wayed
 ,sea in which lay the island of ,circe1
 where are the houses of the ,dawn1 and 
her dances1 and the risings of the ,sun4

 ,verily the ,hero has got back to the  
beginning of the world of light1 in     
which he is now to have a new span of   
existence after his experience in the   
supersensible realm4  ,from the brief   
geographical glances which we catch up  
from the voyage1 as well as from a      
number of hints scattered throughout the
 ,odyssey 7for instance1 from what is   
said of the ,ethiopians in the ,first   
,book71 we are inclined to believe that 
,homer held the earth to be round4 ,we  
like to think of the old ,poet seeing   
this fact1 not as a deduction of        
science1 not even as a misty tradition  
from some other land1 but as an         
immediate act of poetic insight1 which  
beholds the law of the physical world   
rising out of the spiritual by the      
original creative fiat2 the ,poet       
witnesses the necessity by which nature 
conforms to mind4 ,homer knew the       
spiritual ,return1 this whole ,odyssey  
is such a ,return1 whereby the soul is  
rounded off to completeness1 and becomes

 a true totality4 ,why should he not    
apply the same law to nature1 to the    
whole ,earth1 and behold it1 not        
indefinitely extended as it appears to  
the senses1 but returning into itself1  
whereby the line becomes a circle and   
the plain a globe8 ,some such need lay  
deep in his poetic soul1 to which he had
 to harmonize the entire universe1      
visible as well as invisible4 ,not      
science is this1 but an immediate vision
 of the true1 always prophetic1 which   
observes the impress of spirit          
everywhere upon the realm of matter4    
,the old ,greek sages seem to have known
 not merely of the rotundity of the     
,earth1 but also of its movement round  
the ,sun and upon its own axis1 both    
movements being circular1 returns1 which
 image mind4 ,did they get their        
knowledge from ,egypt or ,chaldea8      
,questionable2 if they looked inwardly  
deep enough1 they could find it all     
there4 ,indeed the sages of ,egypt and  
,chaldea saw the fact in their souls ere

 they saw it or could see it in the     
skies4  ,so these ,homeric glimpses into
 the realm of what is to become science 
are not to be neglected or despised1 in 
spite of their mythical1 ambiguous      
vesture4 ,moreover they are in profound 
harmony with the present poem1 to which 
they furnish remote1 but very suggestive
 parallels1 making the physical universe
 correspond to the spiritual unfolding  
of the ,hero4  ,ulysses1 accordingly1   
comes back to the sensible world and    
there he finds ,circe again4 ,indeed    
whom else ought he to find8 ,she is the 
bright ,greek realm of the senses       
reposing in sunlight2 she has been      
subordinated to the rational1 she is no 
longer the indulgence of appetite which 
turns men to swine1 nor is she1 on the  
other hand1 the rigid ascetic4 ,hence we
 need not be surprised at her bringing  
good things to eat and drink3 bread and 
many kinds of meat and sparkling red    
wine4 ,moreover1 she is still prophetic1
 she still has the outlook upon the     

,beyond1 being spirit in the senses4    
,her present prophecies1 however1 will  
be different from her former one1 she   
will point to the supersensible1 not in 
,hades1 for that is now past1 but in the
 ,upperworld of life and experience4    
,such is the return of the ,hero to     
,circe1 the fair1 the terrestrial1 who  
makes existence beautiful if she be     
properly held in restraint2 beautiful as
 sunlit ,hellas with its plastic forms  
she can become1 in striking contrast to 
the dark shapes of the sunless          
,underworld which leads to the ,gorgon1 
the realm of spooks1 shades1 fiends1 in 
general of romanticism4  ,so much for   
,circe in her new relation in the       
present ,book2 how about ,ulysses8 ,it  
is manifest that he too is prepared for 
a fresh experience4 ,he has been in the 
,underworld and great has been the      
profit4 ,there he has seen the famous   
men and women of old and beheld the very
 heart of their destiny2 the ,trojan and
 the ,pre-,trojan worthies sweeping     

backward through all ,greek time he has 
witnessed and in part heard2 he has     
become acquainted with the prophet      
,tiresias who knows ,past1 ,present and 
,future1 who is the universal mind in   
its purity from all material dross2 he  
has beheld the ,place of ,doom and its  
penalties1 as well as the supreme ,greek
 ,hero1 the universal man of action1    
,hercules4 ,nor must we forget that he  
has run upon a limitation1 that ,gorgon 
from whom he fled4 ,truly he has        
obtained in this journey to ,hades a    
grand experience of the ,past1 of all   
,greek ages1 which is now added to his  
own personal experience4 ,so this ,past1
 with its knowledge1 is to be applied to
 the ,future1 whereby knowledge becomes 
foreknowledge1 and experience is to be  
transformed into prophecy4 ,mark then   
the transition from the previous to the 
present ,book3 when ,ulysses comes back 
to the world of sense1 he will at once  
see in it the supersensible1 which he   
has just behold2 he must hear in the    

,present a prophetic voice1 that of     
,circe proclaiming the ,future4  ,thus  
,ulysses is now ready to listen to the  
coming event and to understand its      
import4 ,it is to be observed that up to
 the ,eleventh ,book he has had         
experience merely2 he took everything as
 it came1 by chance1 without knowing of 
it beforehand2 he simply happens upon   
the ,lotus-eaters1 ,polyphemus1 ,circe1 
though the careful reader has not failed
 to note an interior thread of          
connection between all these adventures4
 ,as to ,hades1 it is pointed out to him
 in advance by ,circe1 though all is not
 foretold him2 but in the ,twelfth      
,book1 now to be considered1 he has     
everything in detail laid open to him   
beforehand4 ,a great change in manner of
 treatment2 why8 ,because ,ulysses must 
be shown as having reached the stage of 
foreknowledge through his journey to    
,hades2 hitherto he was the mere        
empirical man1 or blind adventurer1     
surrendering himself to hazard and      

trusting to his cunning for getting out 
of trouble4 ,but now he foresees1 and   
,circe is the voice thereof2 he knows   
what he has to go through before he     
starts1 here in the ,upperworld1 to     
which he has come back1 and through     
whose conflicts he is still to pass1 for
 life has not yet ended4 ,such1 we      
think1 is the fruit of that trip to the 
,underworld1 the supersensible is seen  
in the sensible1 and the ,future becomes
 transparent4  ,accordingly ,circe      
foretells1 and ,ulysses foreknows2 the  
two are counterparts4 ,then he simply   
goes through what has been predicted1 he
 fills up the outline with the deed4    
,this is the essential fact of the      
,book1 which is organized by it into two
 portions1 namely the prophecy and the  
fulfillment2 ,circe has one part1       
,ulysses the other4 ,moreover each part 
exhibits the same general movement1     
which has three phases with the same    
names3 the ,sirens1 the ,plangctae on   
the one hand with ,scylla and ,charybdis

 on the other1 and the ,oxen of the     
,sun4   ,i4  ,as soon as ,ulysses1 after
 coming back from ,hades1 had performed 
the last rites over the corpse of       
,elpenor1 ,circe appears and makes a    
striking address3 ,o ye audacious1 who  
still living have gone down to the house
 of ,hades--ye twice-dead1 while others 
die but once4 ,such is one side of      
,circe1 now rises the other3 ,but come1 
eat food1 drink wine the whole day2 let 
us have a ,greek festival ere new labors
 begin4 ,then ,circe holds a private    
conference with ,ulysses1 she asked each
 thing about the journey to ,hades1     
which1 it seems1 she must know ere she  
can foretell the remaining part4  ,one  
cannot help feeling in this passage that
 the poet hints that these prophecies of
 ,circe have some connection with what  
,ulysses imparts to her concerning      
,hades4 ,indeed she repeats what        
,tiresias had already foretold in       
reference to the ,oxen of the ,sun--a   
matter which she probably heard from    

,ulysses4 ,cannot the other two         
adventures be derived in a general way  
from the experiences of the ,underworld8
 ,the ,past seems here to furnish the   
groundwork for the predictions of the   
,future1 and ,circe1 knowing what has   
been in the pure forms of the           
supersensible1 becomes the voice of what
 is to be4  #a4 ,first come the ,sirens1
 whom ,ulysses will have to meet again1 
as he has often met them before4 ,indeed
 ,circe herself was once a ,siren1 a    
charmer through the senses4 ,the present
 ,sirens are singers1 and entice to     
destruction through the sense of        
hearing1 inasmuch as heaps of bones lie 
about them1 evidently the skeletons of  
persons who have perished through their 
seductive song4 ,pass them the man must2
 what is to be done8 ,he will have      
somehow to guard against his sensuous   
nature and keep it from destroying      
itself4 ,yet on the other hand he must  
enjoy1 which is his right in this world 
of sensations2 each good music must be  

heard4 ,so ,circe tells of the scheme of
 putting wax into his companions' ears1 
while he is bound to the mast4 ,already 
,tiresias warned ,ulysses in the        
,underworld to hold his appetite in     
check and that of his companions1 if he 
wished to return home4 ,this warning    
,circe now repeats1 indeed she repeats  
in a new mythical form her own          
experience1 for she1 the ,siren1 has    
also been met by ,ulysses and mastered4 
,yet these later charmers seem to have  
been more dangerous4 ,when they are     
passed1 a new peril rises of necessity4 
#b4 ,next we behold an image1 or rather 
two sets of images1 of the grand dualism
 of existence4 ,that escape from the    
,sirens is really no solution of the    
problem1 it is external and leaves the  
man still unfree1 still subject to his  
senses4 ,there must be somehow an inner 
control through the understanding1 an   
intellectual subordination4 ,but just   
here trouble springs up again4 ,the mind
 has two sides to it1 and is certain to 

fall into self-opposition4 ,two are the 
ways after parting from the ,sirens1    
says ,circe3 ,i shall tell thee of both4
  ,one way is by the ,plangctae 7rocks  
which clasp together72 here no bird can 
fly through without getting caught1 even
 the doves of ,zeus pay the penalty4 ,no
 ship of men1 having gone thither1 has  
ever escaped--except the ,god-directed  
,argo3 surely a sufficient warning4     
,then the second way also leads to two  
rocks1 but of a different kind2 at their
 bases in the sea are found ,scylla1 the
 monstrous sea-bitch1 on one side1 and  
,charybdis1 the yawning maelstrom1 on   
the other2 between them ,ulysses must   
pass with his ship and companions4  ,it 
is manifest that here are two           
alternatives1 one after the other2 the  
first is that of the ,plangctae1 the    
,claspers1 which mean ,death1 unless    
they be avoided1 yet this avoidance does
 not always mean ,life4 ,we can trace   
the connection with the ,sirens3 the    
absolute resignation to the senses is   

license1 is destruction2 we may say the 
same thing of the opposite1 the absolute
 suppression of man's sensuous being is 
simply his dissolution4 ,hence the      
extremes appear2 the moral and the      
immoral extremes land us in the same    
place2 they are the two mighty rocks    
which may smite together and crush the  
poor mortal who happens to get in       
between the closing surfaces4 ,if we    
understand the image1 it holds true of  
excess on either side2 excessive        
indulgence is overwhelmed by its        
opposite1 so is excessive abstinence2   
they co-operate1 like two valves1 for   
the destruction of the one-sided        
extremist4 ,truly ,greek is the thought1
 for the ,greek maxim above all others  
was moderation1 no over-doing4 ,such    
then are the ,plangctae1 which ,ulysses 
must avoid wholly1 if he wishes to      
escape4 ,still1 even the danger is by no
 means over4  ,there is the second way  
which introduces a new alternative2 the 
path of moderation has its difficulty1  

it too forks and produces perplexity and
 peril to the voyager4 ,here is the     
point where ,scylla and ,charybdis      
appear1 a new set of extremes1 between  
which the mean is to be sought1 then the
 passage can be made4 ,yet even thus it 
costs1 ,ulysses will lose six of his    
companions2 the penalty has to be paid1 
just the penalty of moderation4 ,es     
raecht sich alles auf ,erden4 ,two sets 
of extremes always2 if you shun one set 
and take the middle path1 just this act 
of shunning produces a second set2 cut  
the magnet in twain with its two poles1 
then each part will at once have two    
poles of its own4 ,such is indeed the   
very dialectic of life1 the dualism of  
existence1 which the heroic voyager is  
to overcome with suffering1 with danger1
 with many penalties4  ,fault has often 
been found with this duplication of the 
alternative1 but when rightly seen into1
 it will show itself as the central fact
 of the entire description4 ,it casts an
 image of the never-ceasing             

differentiation both in the mind and in 
the world2 it hints the recurring       
contradiction in all thought and in all 
conduct1 always to be solved1 yet never 
quite solved4 ,what else indeed has man 
to do8 ,to master the contradiction     
gives him life1 movement1 energy1 and it
 must be mastered every day4 ,the old   
poet is going to the bottom of the      
matter4 ,the above mentioned repetition 
of the alternative has its              
correspondence with the repetition which
 we have seen to be the fundamental form
 into which the whole ,book is cast4    
,plainly the ,double ,alternative here  
mythically set forth1 springs out of the
 conflict with the ,sirens1 and is a    
deepening of the same to the very       
bottom4 ,indulgence kills1 abstinence   
kills1 in their excess2 and the middle  
path bifurcates into two new extremes   
with their problem4 ,prophetic ,circe   
can tell all this1 for does it not lie  
just in the domain of her experience1   
which has also been twofold8 ,pure forms

 of spirit1 wholly non-natural1 are     
these figures representing the ,double  
,alternative1 created by the            
,imagination to express ,thought4  #c4  
,the final warning of ,circe is mainly a
 repetition of what ,tiresias had told  
,ulysses already in the ,underworld2    
from the latter she heard it and puts it
 here into its place4 ,beware of slaying
 the cattle of the ,sun1 oxen and sheep 
in two flocks1 over which two bright    
nymphs keep guard4 ,there can scarcely  
be a doubt concerning the physical basis
 of this myth4 ,the seven herds of oxen1
 fifty to the herd1 suggest the number  
of days in the lunar year 7really #ced72
 the seven herds of sheep suggest the   
corresponding nights4 ,lampelia 7the    
,moon or ,lamp of ,night7 is the keeper 
of the one2 ,phaethusa 7the ,radiant    
one7 is the keeper of the other--namely 
the ,sun as the day-bringer4 ,seldom has
 the old ,aryan form of the myth been so
 well preserved2 the whole reads like a 
transcript out of the ,vedas4  ,still   

stronger than the physical side is the  
spiritual suggestion4 ,the slaughter of 
these cattle of the ,sun points to the  
supreme act of negation in the          
intellectual man1 to the sin against    
light4 ,ulysses and his companions now  
know the way to reach home1 having had  
the grand experience with the ,sirens   
and then with the ,double ,alternative2 
moreover the leader has heard the       
warning twice4 ,if they now do wrong1 it
 will be a wrong against the ,sun1      
against ,intelligence itself4  ,a       
certain critic finds fault with ,circe  
because she repeats the warning of      
,tiresias1 and he holds that some       
botcher or editor1 not ,homer1          
transferred the passage from one place  
to the other4 ,yet this repetition is   
not only an organic necessity of the    
poem1 but gives an insight into the     
character of ,circe3 she cannot foresee 
of herself the great intellectual       
transgression1 but ,tiresias can2 the   
,sirens and the ,double ,alternative1   

however1 lie within her own experience4 
,so she copies where she cannot         
originate1 and in this way she is       
decidedly distinguished from ,tiresias1 
though both are prophetic4  ,such is the
 outlook upon the ,future given by      
,circe1 in the way of warning1 whereby  
the warned know what is coming4 ,in the 
three adventures we feel a certain      
connection1 in fact an unfolding of one 
out of the other1 beginning with the    
primary conflict of the ,senses1 which  
soon rises into the ,understanding1 and 
finally ends in a revolt against ,reason
 itself1 the source of ,light4 ,they    
have the character of typical forms1    
derived from the ,past1 yet they are    
certain to recur again1 and hence can be
 foretold4   ,,ii4  ,we now have reached
 the second portion of the ,book1 which 
is the fulfillment of the prophecies of 
the first portion2 moreover we see how  
the forewarnings are heeded4 ,ulysses   
and his companions enter their vessel   
and start once more upon the sea1       

leaving the island of ,circe1 who sends 
them a favorable wind4 ,we note also    
that ,ulysses always repeats the warning
 to his companions1 and tells to what   
they are coming next2 they are to share 
in his knowledge4 ,three times he does  
this1 just before each incident1 and    
thus prepares them1 though he does not  
tell everything4 ,the experience with   
the ,bag of ,winds has taught him much2 
his companions through ignorance of its 
nature opened it and the fatality       
followed4 ,so he received the penalty of
 not sharing his knowledge with his     
fellows2 now he avoids that mistake1 for
 his conduct at present shows that he   
regards his failure to impart his       
information as a mistake4 ,he was the   
cause of the ignorance of his           
companions1 which was brought home to   
him by their deed4 ,now he tells them1  
still he will not be able to save them2 
the fault is theirs when they           
transgress1 and they will receive the   
penalty4  #a4 ,in accord with the plan  

already foretold1 the ship approaches   
the island of the ,sirens1 ,ulysses     
fills the ears of his men with wax and  
enjoys the song1 being tied firmly to   
the mast4 ,it is evident that he cannot 
control himself from within1 he wishes  
to be loosed1 but is only fastened the  
more tightly by his deafened associates4
 ,foreseeing his own weakness he guards 
against it1 yet brings out the more     
strongly his lack of self-mastery4 ,he  
gives up his freedom in order not to    
perish through enjoyment4 ,herein we    
find suggestive hints concerning the    
natural man2 he must be governed from   
without1 till he become self-governable4
 ,truly this is the first stage both in 
the individual and in history1 and      
,ulysses is the typical personality     
representing both4  ,the song of the    
,sirens is given1 which we did not hear 
in the previous prophetic portion4 ,we  
may note in it touches of flattery1 of  
enticement1 of boundless promises1 even 
of wisdom for the wise man4 ,then that  

favorite theme1 the ,trojan ,war1 they  
claim to know1 and all that has ever    
happened upon the foodful earth4 ,such  
are the gorgeous promises to the man    
thirsty for knowledge2 but mark in their
 meadow the bones and decaying bodies of
 dead men4 ,evidently their sweet song1 
promising all1 lures only to destroy4   
,their power1 however1 lasts but for the
 moment1 while the senses are tingled2  
when the fit is over1 ,ulysses is set   
free and he makes no attempt to return  
to them4 ,indeed another problem is upon
 him2 he sees a great wave and mist1 to 
which is added a loud sound of rushing  
waters4 ,again he exhorts his companions
 and tells them all that he dares about 
the approaching dangers4  #b4 ,now we   
are to witness a practical dealing with 
the ,double ,alternative1 which was     
theoretically set forth in the previous 
portion4 ,but the first ,alternative1   
those bi-valvular rocks called          
,plangctae1 which clasped the sea-faring
 man between their valves and crushed   

him to death1 is wholly avoided1 is not 
even mentioned in the present passage1  
though it is possibly implied in one    
place4 ,at any rate the grand stress is 
laid upon the second ,alternative1      
,scylla and ,charybdis1 between which   
the ship is to pass4  ,here again       
,ulysses shows his limitation4 ,in spite
 of ,circe's warning1 he puts on armor1 
takes two spears1 and goes on deck1 like
 a ,homeric hero1 to fight ,scylla4 ,he 
tries to solve his problem externally1  
as he did in the case of the ,sirens4   
,in vain2 he could not see his foe      
anywhere1 and his eyes grew weary1      
peering about at the mist-like rocks4   
,not thus was ,scylla to be met1 a      
monster not of mortal mould1 hardly     
attainable by the senses4 ,still she was
 present somehow1 and made herself      
valid4 ,the whirling waters roared and  
seethed1 all were intent upon the       
maelstrom1 ,charybdis1 the other side2  
we looked at her1 fearing destruction1  
and destruction came just from the      

direction in which they were not        
looking4 ,scylla1 watched1 remains      
invisible2 unwatched1 she appears and   
snaps up six companions2 external       
weapons can effect nothing against her4 
,still ,ulysses gets through1 scotched  
somewhat2 he has failed to see both     
sides at one and the same time2 mind1   
intelligence alone can rise out of the  
particular thing of the senses1 and     
grasp the two things in opposition4 ,as 
we read the story here1 it suggests the 
man1 the life-faring man1 who is so     
drawn to one part that he neglects the  
counterpart1 which has equal validity   
and soon makes itself felt by the       
penalty4 ,not the ,alternative1 then1   
,scylla or ,charybdis1 but the combined 
,scylla and ,charybdis is the word of   
mastery4 ,the two kept in separation    
destroy1 the two held in unity are      
conquerable4 ,under all difference of   
,nature lies the ,thought's oneness1    
which is the true synthesis of every    
,scylla and ,charybdis4 ,such is the    

experience of ,ulysses now2 the ,sirens1
 the creatures of the senses1 may be    
thwarted by a species of external force2
 but not the present monsters can be so 
treated4 ,the dualism exists doubtless1 
and we can be caught in it1 but the     
function of mind is to overspan it1 and 
so transform all difference1 discord1   
diabolism into unity1 harmony1 deity4   
,thus ,ulysses disobeys ,circe's command
 not to attempt to fight ,scylla with   
weapons2 the reason of her injunction   
becomes plain4 ,not a sensuous thing to 
be slain is ,scylla1 in spite of her    
animal figure2 the poet hints that she  
is to be encountered by mind1 which must
 here see both sides at once and so     
assert its supremacy over both4 ,to be  
intent upon the one and disregard the   
other--that is the grand human danger4  
,hence the thought of ,scylla and       
,charybdis has passed into the          
literature of the world1 nay into the   
proverbs of the people1 to express the  
peril of one-sidedness1 as well as the  

inherent dualism in all conduct4        
,moreover the golden mean is suggested1 
that principle of action so familiar in 
later ,greek philosophy4 ,deeper than   
this golden mean1 however1 runs the idea
 here2 the dialectic of existence1 the  
twofoldness which must be made one1 the 
higher synthesis over all analysis are  
dimly intimated in the marvelous tale4  
#c4 ,having escaped through the two     
rocks1 ,ulysses and his companions come 
to the flawless island of the ,sun1 the 
all-seeing luminary of ,heaven4 ,it is  
the total light beholding the totality4 
,is it not manifest that we have passed 
out of dualism into unity1 out of strife
 into harmony8 ,the island is           
represented as pastoral1 peaceful1      
idyllic1 with its herds reposing in     
sunlight2 certainly a decided contrast  
to the noise and struggle in the region 
of ,scylla and ,charybdis4 ,or we may   
give the matter a psychological turn and
 say3 ,such is the transition from the  
,understanding with its finitude to     

,reason with its universality1 to the   
all-seeing light within4 ,ulysses1      
having transcended the limit he showed  
in his last experience1 has gone forward
 to the clear sunlit realm which        
illumines all limitations4  ,but just at
 this point danger arises4 ,on the      
island are pasturing herds of oxen and  
sheep sacred to the ,sun1 things of     
light consecrated to light4 ,the        
temptation will be to use them for the  
gratification of appetite1 perhaps under
 some strong stress4 ,already both      
,tiresias and ,circe have given the     
warning1 which ,ulysses now repeats to  
his companions and even exacts an oath  
from them not to harm the holy flocks4  
,but hunger pinches1 ,ulysses again goes
 to sleep at the wrong moment1 and the  
oxen of the ,sun are slain by his men4  
,it is true that the test is a hard one1
 death by starvation is impending1 and  
they yield1 not only violating their    
oaths but their light4 ,then they       
defiantly repeated their deed1 for six  

whole days they feasted1 selecting the  
best of the ,sun's oxen4 ,when ,ulysses 
awoke1 he chid them sternly1 but did    
not1 or could not1 stop them4 ,the      
result was1 they perished4  ,already we 
have touched upon the physical basis    
which underlies this tale4 ,the         
symbolism we may consider somewhat more 
closely4 ,the sin against light on the  
part of the companions is double3 they  
knew better because they had been       
forewarned1 they were not ignorant as   
when they opened the ,bag of ,winds4    
,secondly1 they destroyed objects sacred
 to the grand luminary1 they assailed   
the very source of light4 ,ulysses has  
shared in the act also1 he too must take
 his part of the penalty4 ,he is saved1 
for he forbade the wrong1 yet he went to
 sleep at the critical moment4 ,to be   
sure the companions were hungry2 but    
that is just the test2 if they had had  
plenty to eat1 there would have been no 
real trial of their fidelity to         
principle4  ,the ancient poet1 throwing 

deepest glances into the soul and into  
the world1 beholds the supreme negative 
act of man1 and seeks to clothe it in a 
symbol4 ,mind turns against mind1 when  
the man does what he knows is wrong1 and
 the destructive side is doubly         
re-inforced when he assails light       
itself1 and knowledge slays knowledge4  
,when a person who knows affirms in word
 and deed that his knowing is a lie1 his
 light puts out a light1 he destroys the
 ,oxen of the ,sun4 ,what then8 ,it is  
no wonder that the great luminary       
threatens to go down to ,hades and there
 shine among the dead1 unless the full  
penalty is exacted for such a deed4 ,in 
fact1 he is already extinguished        
mentally for these men1 and ,zeus1      
voicing the world-order1 can only hurry 
them off into darkness4 ,very wonderful 
is the thought lurking in the symbolism 
of the old seer3 intellectual negation1 
skepticism1 denial1 culminating in the  
negative deed1 will at last drive the   
,sun himself out of ,heaven and send him

 below into the ,underworld4 ,it is     
highly probable1 however1 that the      
negative man will be sent down there    
first1 as is done in the present case4  
,after slaying the ,oxen of the ,sun and
 repeating the offense many times1      
,ulysses and his companions must again  
meet life1 and accordingly they set sail
 upon the sea1 bound for home and       
country4 ,but such men have not in them 
the elements of the ,return4 ,storms    
arise1 winds blow1 the helmsman is      
killed by the falling mast1 and the ship
 is struck by lightning4 ,the           
destructive powers of nature seem to    
concentrate upon these destroyers2 such 
is the decree of ,zeus1 carrying out his
 promise to the ,sun2 verily the        
,supreme ,god could not well do         
otherwise4 ,ulysses alone barely saves  
himself upon a fragment of the mast and 
keel2 manifestly there is a difference  
between him and his companions1 who     
disobeyed his order4 ,the text says that
 the companions feasted for six days1 it

 would seem that he did not2 still he is
 involved in their calamity1 though not 
fully in their guilt4 ,here is1 then1 a 
distinction of importance1 since upon it
 is based the saving of ,ulysses1 who is
 yet to have a career4  ,while ,ulysses 
may not have personally participated in 
the guilty deed1 he was not active      
against it1 he did not apparently seem  
to restrain the repetitions of it1 he   
was paralyzed in energy4 ,it was his    
will which was defective1 not his       
intellect2 he did not commit the        
offense1 but he did not stop it1 and try
 to conciliate the wrath of the ,gods by
 sacrifices1 by what we now call        
repentance4 ,hence1 while he does not   
perish1 he is still unfinished1         
incomplete1 with a limit to be removed4 
,a training of the ,will is to be gone  
through next1 till it be able to do what
 ,reason commands4 ,a new discipline    
therefore is in store for the ,hero     
after the loss of his ship and his      
companions4  ,what will this discipline 

be8 ,to a degree his entire career must 
be worked over again from the beginning4
 ,upon his fragment of wood he floats   
back to ,scylla and ,charybdis2 he falls
 into the old dualism in one of its     
phases1 for he cannot stay upon the     
,island of the ,sun1 the place of unity 
and rest and light4 ,indeed have we not 
just seen him in the fierce conflict    
between knowing and doing1 which he has 
not been able to unify in the last      
adventure8 ,so he drops back between the
 grinding mill-stones of two opposites2 
one of these opposites1 the maelstrom   
,charybdis1 is sucking him in1 but he   
clutches the branches of a large        
fig-tree overhanging the whirlpool1 and 
holds fast till his mast and keel return
 to the surface of the water1 upon which
 he escapes4  ,one cannot help feeling  
that the poet in this description has a 
conscious meaning underneath1 it is more
 or less allegorical4 ,the will of      
,ulysses was paralyzed in the ,island of
 the ,sun1 he is helplessly carried     

forward on the sea1 till the yawning    
gulf of ,charybdis 7,despair7 threatens 
to swallow him1 when he puts forth a    
mighty effort of will1 represented in   
his clinging to the branches of the fig 
tree1 which extends ,hope to him1 and   
thus he rescues himself4 ,now he rows   
his raft with both his hands1 it is     
indeed time to exert anew his volition4 
,charybdis could not take him1 on       
account of a saving germ in him still2  
she has to let him pass4 ,whither8      
,naturally the next station rearward is 
that of the ,sirens1 and this in a      
general way is what ,ulysses reaches in 
his relapse4 ,he comes to the realm of  
the senses1 for the fact is that this   
was the source of the great trouble in  
the ,island of the ,sun4 ,the           
companions1 pressed by appetite and the 
needs of the body1 yielded up their     
conviction1 their intelligence2 they had
 not reached that strength of the spirit
 which prefers the death of the body to 
a surrender of the soul4 ,ulysses at    

last acquiesced1 the problem was too    
great for him and so he also is cast out
 of the ,island of the ,sun back into   
the region of the senses4 ,but it is a  
new region of the senses1 not that of   
the ,sirens1 not that of ,circe1 both of
 which he has transcended by an effort  
of will-power2 it is the realm of       
,calypso1 the ,concealer1 which has been
 reached through the collapse of the    
will after the sin against light4 ,there
 is unquestionably an affinity between  
,circe1 the ,sirens1 and ,calypso1 yet  
there is also such a difference between 
them that the poet has assigned to them 
distinct domains1 ,it is plain1 too1    
that ,ulysses in his present paralysis  
will remain long with ,calypso1 not at  
once will he recover his power after    
such a negation4 ,he is hidden1 as it   
were1 in her ,dark ,island ,ogygia after
 that undoing of light2 he passes from  
the sun-world of ,reason to its         
opposite4 ,calypso1 therefore1 is       
reached through the grand ,relapse1 not 

through the progressive movement1 which 
we have seen him going through hitherto4
  ,still ,ulysses has in him the germ of
 betterment1 of salvation4 ,he longs to 
reach home and country1 to return to his
 institutional world2 that spark of     
aspiration has a saving power2 it will  
not be extinguished even in the sensuous
 delights of ,calypso's bower4          
,observations4 ,in looking back at the  
,twelfth ,book and thinking it over as a
 ,whole1 the reader will always feel    
that he has not fully sounded its       
depths4 ,it has not exercised so great  
an influence upon mankind as the        
,eleventh ,book1 but it is probably     
profounder4 ,it lures specially the     
thinker and the psychologist1 it seems  
not only to set forth thought but the   
thought of thought4 ,very difficult is  
the poetic problem in such a case1 the  
imaginative form really is driven to its
 utmost limit in order to express the   
content4  ,i4 ,the first thing to be    
fully grasped and thoroughly studied is 

the structure of the ,book4 ,for        
structure is the primordial fact of any 
work1 and especially of any great work1 
structure has always its own meaning and
 far-reaching suggestiveness1 and it    
points directly to what the ,book       
signifies1 being its inner vital        
organism4 ,in the ,twelfth ,book we     
shall ponder a little the three         
essential facts of its structure4  7#a7 
,there is the twofold division of the   
,book1 while the other ,books of        
,fableland have distinctly a threefold  
division4 ,herewith is coupled the      
duplication of its content2 the second  
part repeats what is contained in the   
first part2 or the first part tells in  
advance what is to be done in the second
 part4 ,thus the structure images       
dualism3 ,thought and ,action1 ,word and
 ,deed1 ,idea and ,reality1 ,prophecy   
and ,fulfillment4 ,yet it also hints the
 oneness in the dualism4  7#b7 ,the next
 point in structure is the threefold    
subdivision of each of the two parts4   

,that is1 now the structural principle  
falls back into that of the preceding   
,books of ,fableland4 ,each part has its
 three main adventures with their       
respective environments and shapes1     
quite as each ,book hitherto has had4   
,what does this suggest to the          
reader--this duplication of the         
threefold form of the ,book8  7#c7      
,finally comes the very peculiar        
structure of the second adventure1 which
 we have above called the ,double       
,alternative4 ,the dualism of the ,book 
we may say1 is now doubled1 and         
transformed into the middle one of the  
three grand trials or exploits which the
 ,hero has to pass through4 ,the monster
 ,scylla is here to be noted1 with its  
six necks and heads1 three on each side 
of the body1 wherein again the triple is
 duplicated1 though the body is         
certainly one4 ,it was this monster     
which did most harm to ,ulysses1        
snapping up six of his companions in the
 passage4  ,such are the main points in 

the structure of the present ,book1     
assuredly as great a marvel as anything 
recorded in the same1 when it is once   
fully beheld4 ,that it is intimately    
connected with the thought of the ,book1
 is indeed the very form and mould      
thereof1 is felt by every careful       
reader4 ,but what is this thought8 ,here
 the difference begins1 and the conflict
 of opinion ranges over and into fields 
diverse and far apart4  ,,ii4 ,it may be
 said that the interpretations suggested
 by these three adventures--with the    
,sirens1 with ,scylla and ,charybdis1   
and with the ,oxen of the ,sun--belong  
to two extremes2 those of ,nature and of
 ,mind4 ,readers and commentators of    
different character and training will   
differ2 one set will lean to the        
physical view1 the other to the         
spiritual4 ,it is our opinion that both 
views can find justification in the     
poem4 ,we may first look at the physical
 interpretation4  ,all these monsters   
have been supposed to represent perils  

of navigation1 especially in the        
,italian seas1 which were frequented by 
the early ,greek navigator4 ,they have  
also been located geographically1 to be 
sure in a variety of places4 ,the       
,sirens dwelt on three dangerous rocks  
near the island of ,capraea1 according  
to ancient authorities2 or they were    
found on the promontory between ,paestum
 and ,elea1 or even down at ,cape       
,pelorum in ,sicily4 ,why should they   
not be indeed everywhere6 ,then they    
have been supposed to personify the     
secret dangers of a calm sea1 and their 
song is the music of splashing waters4  
,undoubtedly a physical substrate must  
be granted in the case of the ,sirens1  
and in the ,mythus generally2 still they
 are truly everywhere1 not only in the  
,italian ,sea1 but also in the sea of   
life1 and they appear not only to the   
professional sailor but to every human  
navigator4 ,are literal rocks passed by 
putting wax into the ears of the crew   
and by tying the captain to the mast8   

,surely some other peril is suggested4  
,in the second adventure1 the ,plangctae
 7the ,claspers1 not the ,wanderers1 as 
some translations give it71 have been   
located at the ,lipari ,islands in the  
,sicilian ,sea1 where there is strong   
volcanic action4 ,the well-known        
,symplegades of the ,argonautic         
expedition which were placed at the     
entrance of the ,euxine1 were probably  
patterned after this ,homeric           
conception1 and transferred to the      
,north-east4 ,the two terrors1 ,scylla  
and ,charybdis1 lie in the straits of   
,messina1 according to the accepted     
view1 the former on the ,italian side1  
the latter on the ,sicilian4 ,a town    
named ,scilla still exists in those     
regions1 and an eddy in the straits of  
,messina is still called ,charilla 7from
 ,charybdis doubtless47 ,etymologically 
,scylla means a bitch1 ,charybdis is    
allied with ,chaos 7from a ,greek word  
meaning to yawn74 ,later legend gave to 
,scylla a great variety of forms1 which 

were reproduced in art and poetry4 ,one 
story represents her as having been a   
beautiful maiden who was loved by       
,glaucus1 and who was turned into her   
present monstrous shape by ,circe       
through jealousy1 for the enchantress   
loved ,glaucus too4 ,the sucking-in of  
the waters by ,charybdis1 and her       
disgorging of them has been connected   
with the ebb and flow of the tides4 ,it 
may also be added that the ,plangctae   
7in the sense of wandering or floating  
islands7 have been supposed to refer to 
icebergs1 some report of which may have 
reached the ,homeric world through the  
,phoenician sailor1 who must have passed
 outside of the straits of ,gibraltar1  
into the ,atlantic4  ,,iii4 ,such are   
some of the physical explanations which 
this ,book has suggested2 we may now    
consider it in relation to certain      
mental phenomena4 ,already we have      
unfolded the ethical meaning which      
especially lies in these shapes1 and the
 ,hero's struggle with them4 ,but they  

have another and deeper suggestion2 they
 adumbrate the nature of mind itself and
 the process of thinking2 both in form  
and content the whole ,book strangely   
points to psychology1 as if the poet1   
having created these wonders of         
,fableland1 were going to create his own
 creative act and present it in an      
image4  7#a7 ,the division of the ,book 
into the two parts already alluded to in
 which each is what the other is1 in    
which there are both separation and     
identity1 calls up the fundamental fact 
of self-consciousness1 which is often   
expressed in the formula ,ego,ego4      
,mind1 ,ego1 separates itself into two  
sides1 yet each side is the whole and   
recognizes the other side as itself4    
,this act is the condition of knowing of
 every kind1 which always differentiates
 then identifies4 ,one step more3 ,circe
 in her prophecy gave the pure form of  
the idea1 then came its realization1 so 
that there is suggested the primordial  
distinction of the mind into ,intellect 

and ,will1 or the ,thought and the      
,deed4 ,thus we see in this division of 
the ,twelfth ,book the exact            
characteristic of subject-object1 and   
there is still further suggested the    
distinction between ,thinking and       
,willing4  7#b7 ,passing to the         
threefold subdivision of each of the two
 parts1 we observe that it also calls up
 psychological distinctions4 ,three     
stages of the knowing mind1 ,senses1    
,understanding1 ,reason1 may be found   
here1 not very definitely given1 still  
distinctly implied4 ,the ,sirens        
represent the ,sensuous1 especially in  
its moral aspect2 the ,plangctae with   
,scylla and ,charybdis set forth a vivid
 image of the divisions and conflicts of
 the finite ,understanding2 the ,oxen of
 the ,sun point to the central light1   
that of ,reason1 which1 when destroyed  
in any way1 constitutes the chief human 
calamity4  ,another curious             
psychological hint may be noted in the  
text of ,homer4 ,the ,sirens1 the first 

or implicit stage1 are sometimes spoken 
of in the dual and sometimes in the     
plural2 ,homer would seem to imply that 
they are two in number1 yet they always 
act and sing as one4 ,that is1 the      
dualism or separation is as yet         
implicit2 but in the second stage 7that 
of ,scylla and ,charybdis7 it will      
become explicit with decided emphasis4  
,later legend made the ,sirens three in 
number1 and gave them names1 and        
otherwise distinguished them2 but this  
is not ,homeric and indeed has lost the 
,homeric consciousness4  7#c7 ,the fact 
that the previous ,books of ,fableland  
have a threefold division only1 while   
this threefold division is duplicated in
 the ,twelfth ,book1 has also its       
psychological bearing in connection with
 the foregoing views4 ,in the first     
case1 the poet was not aware of his     
process1 he yielded to the poetic act   
immediately2 but in the second case1 he 
is conscious1 he knows his own process  
and prefigures it2 he holds it up before

 himself in advance1 just as ,circe     
holds up before ,ulysses his future     
career4 ,ulysses also must know in      
advance1 hitherto he has simply followed
 instinct and chance1 whithersoever they
 led4 ,in like manner1 the poet now     
shows himself knowing what he will do2  
his threefold organic movement1 hitherto
 more or less implicit and unconscious1 
has become explicit and conscious1 and  
can be prophesied4 ,he himself thus is  
an example of the ,ego which both casts 
before and forecasts itself1 in other   
words is self-duplicated4  7#d7 ,here1  
however1 we must note a distinction4 ,in
 all four ,books of ,fableland1 ,ulysses
 is the poet himself in a sense1 he is  
singing his own adventures to the ,court
 of ,phaeacia1 he is well aware of what 
he has passed through and to what he has
 come4  ,he is not a ,demodocus chanting
 heroic strains of the ,trojan ,past2 he
 is ,ulysses telling his own spiritual  
experiences after the taking of ,troy4  
,it has been already unfolded 7p4       

#bdf-g7 that he was in a negative1      
alienated condition2 he had fallen out  
with and was separated from his         
,hellenic world1 whereof this ,fableland
 is the record4 ,but he arrives at      
,phaeacia1 an harmonious institutional  
realm1 then he becomes fully conscious  
of his negative condition and projects  
it out of himself in these ,tales or    
,songs4 ,so all ,fableland shows this   
consciousness in the man2 but the       
,twelfth ,book shows him conscious not  
only of his negative state1 but of his  
mental process1 conscious of his        
consciousness1 we may say2 he is not    
only ,thought1 but is ,thought thinking 
,thought1 or at least imaging the same2 
that is1 ,thought has itself as its own 
object or content4 ,so much we are      
inclined to find hinted in this         
duplication of the movement in the      
,twelfth ,book4  ,at this point we hear 
the cry of dissent3 ,you make ,homer too
 introspective1 you make him a          
self-introverted1 self-torturing        

nineteenth century man1 whereas he is   
the most unreflective1 unconscious of   
poets4 ,very natural is such a protest1 
my good reader2 this sort of thing may  
be carried too far1 and become          
fantastic4 ,still it is a great mistake 
to think that ,homer never takes a      
glance at his own mind and its workings4
 ,he must have looked within in order to
 see his world2 where else was it to be 
found in any such completeness8 ,he has 
built it1 and he must have taken some   
interest in the architect and in his    
processes4 ,homer himself is a greater  
wonder than any wonder he has created1  
and he probably knew it4  ,it is by no  
means the purpose to affirm in the      
preceding remarks that ,homer intended  
to make an allegorical psychology4 ,he  
simply had a mind1 and the essence of   
mind is to be able to look at mind4 ,so 
,homer saw himself and his own process1 
and set it forth in an imaginative form4
 ,very similar is the plan of           
,shakespeare in the ,tempest4 ,prospero 

is the poet1 not only as poet1 but the  
poet making his drama in the drama4     
,there is also a significant duplication
 both of structure and character3       
,prospero is at one time magician1 that 
is1 poet1 and commands the elements and 
the spirits1 especially ,ariel2 at      
another time he assumes his ordinary    
relations as parent and as king1 and is 
as limited as other mortals4            
,shakespeare made many dramas1 then he  
saw himself making dramas1 then he put  
into a drama himself making dramas4     
,that is1 he in the end 7,tempest is    
usually held to be the last of          
,shakespeare's plays7 took up his own   
poetic process into a poem1 and thus    
completed the arch of his great career4 
,so much for the psychological aspect of
 these ,books of ,fableland4 ,it must be
 stated again that abstract terms1 so   
necessary for an exact science of mind1 
had not been elaborated to any extent in
 ,homer's day4 ,reflective language is a
 later product of ,greek spirit4 ,still 

the philosopher is anticipated and      
prophesied in the poet1 and it certainly
 cannot be amiss to trace vague         
premonitions and promises of the coming 
,plato and ,aristotle in the old poet4  
,homer has in him the germ of the whole 
,greek world1 and for that matter1 much 
of the modern world also2 the best      
commentary upon him is the #bejj years  
since his time4  ,,iv4 ,the slaying of  
the ,oxen of the ,sun has also its      
searching suggestiveness1 and is found  
in one form or other in the ,world's    
greatest ,books4 ,mind destroying mind  
may be shown as light extinguishing its 
own luminary2 some such hint lies in the
 symbolism both of the act and its      
punishment4 ,it is indeed the           
culminating point of negation--spirit   
denying spirit4 ,this is the real sin   
against the ,holy ,spirit1 unpardonable 
because repentance1 all possibility of  
pardon is denied by the doer of the     
deed4 ,as ,i understand him1 this is the
 essence of the sin of ,dante against   

,beatrice1 with which she reproaches him
 in the last part of the ,purgatorio4   
,suggestions of the same kind of guilt  
may be found in the characters of       
,shakespeare's ,hamlet and ,banquo1 in  
whose cases the violation brings on a   
tragic fate2 indeed every true tragedy  
has some touches of the light-denying or
 light-defying deed and its penalty4    
,above all rises in this respect the    
,faust of ,goethe1 the theme of which is
 explicitly intelligence denying        
intelligence1 whereby the human mind    
becomes utterly negative1 begets the    
,devil1 and enters into compact with him
 for a life of indulgence4 ,while such a
 state lasts1 repentance is impossible4 
,some such intimation ancient ,homer    
must have had1 and shadowed it forth in 
this strange symbolic deed4 ,ulysses    
having disregarded all he had learned by
 his long and bitter experience1 leaving
 unheeded the warnings and prophecies of
 the ,supersensible and the ,sensible   
,world 7,tiresias and ,circe71 drops    

back into the sphere of ,calypso1 and   
has to serve the senses seven years till
 will and aspiration lift him again4    
,such a servitude was not uncommon in   
,greek legend1 ,hercules is the very    
embodiment thereof2 even a ,god1        
,apollo1 ,light itself1 has to serve    
,admetus1 a mortal1 in expiation of     
undivine guilt4  ,an important element  
of structure is to be noted at this     
point3 the poem bifurcates and the      
reader has to move in two directions4   
,if he wishes to follow the development 
of ,ulysses1 7which is indispensable7 he
 must return with the latter to         
,calypso's ,island and trace him through
 his three grand experiences--,oyggia1  
,phaeacia1 and ,fableland4 ,but if the  
reader wishes to continue in the action 
of the poem1 he must now pass out of    
,fableland to ,ithaca in the company of 
the ,hero4 7,for this double movement of
 the ,ulyssiad1 see pp4 #aba-h47  ,but  
before ,fableland is left behind1 its   
full sweep may be called up once more3  

from the ,upperworld of ,earth 7,ninth  
and ,tenth ,books1 both belong together 
in a general survey71 which shows the   
negation of ,greek ethical life and its 
conflicts1 we pass to the ,underworld of
 ,hades1 which on the one hand is the   
negation of all ,greek sensible         
existence1 and on the other hand is the 
revelation of the supersensible 7soul1  
idea1 world-justice72 thence we come    
back to the ,upperworld in which the    
idea1 obtained beyond1 is seen          
struggling with the reality in various  
negative phases--,ulysses1 knowing in   
advance1 is shown in his attempt to     
realize his knowledge in the deed4 ,such
 then1 is this grand threefold sweep of 
,fableland4  ,one more retrospect3 let  
us glance back at the whole ,twelve     
,books1 this first half of the ,odyssey1
 composed of the ,telemachiad and the   
,ulyssiad4 ,both are parts of one whole2
 father and son acquire each his special
 discipline for the coming deed4 ,both  
are brought to a recognition of the     

,divine ,order1 the son mainly through  
tradition1 the father mainly through    
experience4 ,both reach beyond the      
sensible into the supersensible or ideal
 realm2 ,telemachus hears the story of  
,proteus1 which teaches the essence in  
all appearance2 ,ulysses descends to    
,hades and there communes with pure mind
 without its terrestrial incumbrance1 in
 the case of ,tiresias and others4 ,such
 is the internal preparation2 now they  
are to do the deed4 ,the idea they      
possess1 the next is to make it real4   
,accordingly the action of the poem1    
with ,ulysses as its center1 moves next 
to ,ithaca1 the realm in which the idea 
is to be realized3 wherewith we enter   
upon a new grand division of the poem4  
7,the reader who wishes to study the    
parallelism between this ,twelfth ,book 
and ,prospero can consult the author's  
,commentary on ,shakespeare1 where it   
treats of the ,tempest4 ,in fact1 the   
entire play1 which is also a kind of    
,fairy ,tale1 has many correspondences  

with ,homer's ,fableland47              
,,ithakeiad4   ,such is the designation 
which we have concluded to give to the  
last twelve ,books of the ,odyssey1     
inasmuch as a name is needed for this   
portion corresponding to the            
,telemachiad and the ,ulyssiad4 ,the    
scene is laid wholly in ,ithaca1 the    
characters of the poem are all brought  
together1 and the main conflict takes   
place4 ,it is the country which is to be
 cleansed of violence and guilt2 that   
,divine ,order which father and son have
 learned about1 each in his own way1    
they must now make real in the world1   
especially in their own land4           
,manifestly ,ithaca represents the realm
 of wrong1 of hostility to the social   
system of man2 the ,suitors defy ,law1  
,family1 ,state1 ,gods4  ,but ,ulysses1 
before he can reform his country1 has   
had to reform himself4 ,when he attacked
 the ,ciconians1 he was as negative to  
institutional order as the ,suitors     
themselves2 he was not the man to       

destroy them at that time1 he was too   
like them to undo their work4 ,hence the
 long discipline in ,fableland1 which   
has been fully explained in the         
preceding comments2 hence too he had to 
see ,phaeacia1 the ideal institutional  
life realized in ,family and ,state1 as 
well as in ,industry and the ,fine      
,arts4 ,let the reader note that he     
passes1 not from ,fableland1 but from   
,phaeacia1 to ,ithaca2 having that      
,phaeacian ,idea in his soul1 he can    
transform his own country4 ,thus he will
 truly save his companions1 namely1 the 
people1 whom before he lost in          
,fableland4  ,telemachus also in his    
training has seen much and brought back 
an ideal with him4 ,he has heard the    
wise man ,nestor and witnessed the      
religious life of ,hellas in its highest
 manifestation4 ,pylos1 ,nestor's       
kingdom1 is almost a ,greek theocracy2  
the ,gods appear visible at the feasts  
and hold communion with the people4     
,likewise at ,sparta ,telemachus saw a  

realm of peace and concord1 in striking 
contrast with his own ,ithaca2 but      
chiefly he heard the ,marvelous ,tale of
 ,proteus1 after which he was eager to  
return home at once4 ,thus he too has   
had his experience of a social order1 as
 well as his ideal instruction4         
,previous to his journey he had shown a 
tendency to despair1 and to a denial of 
the ,gods on account of the disorders of
 the ,suitors in his house4             
,unquestionably he comes back to ,ithaca
 with renewed courage and aspiration1   
and with an ideal in his soul1 which    
makes him a meet companion for his      
father4  ,the third character is the    
swineherd ,eumaeus who is the great     
addition in this portion of the         
,odyssey4 ,he too has had his           
discipline1 which is to be recounted    
here2 he has been stolen as a child and 
sold into slavery2 still the most       
terrible calamities to himself and his  
master and to the ,house of ,ulysses1   
have not shaken his fealty to the ,gods4

 ,thus in common with ,telemachus and   
,ulysses he has faith in the ,divine    
,order1 and can cooperate with them in  
realizing the same in ,ithaca4 ,very    
different has been his discipline from  
that of the other two1 both of whom     
became negative and had to be sent away 
from home for training1 but ,eumaeus has
 remained in his hut and never swerved  
in his fidelity to his sovereigns above 
and below1 though he does not understand
 the providential reason for so much    
wrong and suffering4  ,to these three   
men we are to add the woman1 ,penelope1 
who has her part1 perhaps the most      
difficult in this difficult business4   
,she cannot resort to violence1 she must
 use her feminine weapon1 tact1 with a  
degree of skill which makes her an      
example for all time4 ,indeed not a few 
of her sex declare that she has overdone
 the matter1 and that her acts are      
morally questionable4 ,but there can be 
no doubt that it is the part of tact to 
find fault with tact1 and that woman    

will always decry woman's skill in      
artifice1 without refraining from its   
employment altogether2 indeed just that 
is a part of the artifice4  ,for this   
and similar reasons the moral bearings  
of this portion of the ,odyssey have    
always aroused discussion4 ,in general1 
the question comes up3 ,what constitutes
 a lie8 ,is the disguise of ,ulysses    
justifiable8 ,is the subtlety of        
,penelope morally reprehensible8 ,the   
old dispute as to conduct rises in full 
intensity3 ,does the end justify the    
means8 ,two parties are sure to appear  
with views just opposite2 the one       
excuses1 the other condemns1 often with 
no little asperity4 ,the ,odyssey has   
been denounced even as an immoral ,book 
and both its hero and heroine have been 
subjected to a burning ordeal of        
literary damnation4  ,the poet has1     
however1 his wrongful set1 the ,suitors1
 about whose character there is no      
disagreement4 ,they are the negation of 
that ,divine ,order which is to be      

restored by those who believe in it--the
 three men who come together at the hut 
of the swineherd1 and who have been     
trained by the time and circumstances   
just to this end4 ,ulysses has had to   
pass through his negative period and    
overcome the same within2 now he is     
prepared to meet the ,suitors and to    
destroy them without the negative recoil
 which came upon him after destroying   
the city of ,troy4 ,he can do a         
necessary deed of violence without      
becoming violent and destructive        
himself2 he will not now re-enact the   
,ciconian affair4  ,let us look into the
 inner movement of the matter here      
indicated4 ,the slaughter of the        
,suitors by ,ulysses was undoubtedly a  
negative act1 yet the ,suitors also were
 negative in conduct1 wholly so2 thus   
violence is met and undone by violence1 
or negation negates negation4 ,what is  
the outcome8 ,manifestly a double result
 is possible3 if a negative cancels a   
negative1 there may remain still        

negation1 or there may be a positive    
result4 ,ulysses has passed through the 
first of these stages by his discipline 
already recorded1 after which he is     
master of the negative2 the destruction 
of the ,suitors will not now make him   
destructive1 as did the destruction of  
,troy4 ,it will be seen1 therefore1 that
 the poem has a positive outcome2 after 
some trouble1 ,ulysses will renovate the
 country1 will restore ,family and      
,state1 in fine the whole ,order which  
had been upset by the ,suitors4  ,with  
the transition from ,fableland occurs a 
marked change in the style of the poem4 
,in the previous portions we have       
already noted the ,marvelous ,tale of   
,fairyland1 the ,heroic ,tale of ,troy1 
the ,idyllic ,epopee of the ,present1   
the latter especially in ,phaeacia4 ,but
 in these last twelve ,books we read a  
story of actual social life1 a story    
which almost strikes into the domain of 
the modern ,novel4 ,still fabulous      
adventures will be interwoven--now more 

in the form of the novelette--with      
,phoenician and ,egyptian backgrounds4  
,also a tone of humanity1 even of       
sentiment1 makes itself felt in various 
places4 ,a new situation brings with it 
a new style1 yet ,homeric still4        
,hereafter these points will be more    
fully noticed4  ,we have already        
indicated the fact 7p4 #ai7 that ,pallas
 starts to organize the ,odyssey in     
,book ,first4 ,two portions she         
designates1 the ,telemachiad and the    
,ulyssiad1 which really belong together1
 showing the spiritual palingenesis1 or 
internal renovation of son and father   
ere they proceed to the renovation of   
their country4 ,such in general are the 
first twelve ,books1 showing the two    
masters of destiny1 the two positive men
 with their idea2 the second twelve     
,books show them realizing their idea1  
and doing the great deed for which they 
have been prepared4  ,this second half  
of the ,odyssey falls into two          
divisions4 ,the first is located at the 

hut of the swineherd and brings the     
three men together1 whose general       
character has been already indicated2   
they have been trained by life to a     
living realization of the ,divine       
,order4 ,this division consists of four 
,books 7,,xiii-,,xvi74 ,the second      
division transfers the scene from       
country to town1 from hut to palace4    
,ulysses in disguise will witness       
personally the full course of the wrong 
of the suitors1 against his property1   
his family1 his state1 and against the  
,gods4 ,then he becomes the minister of 
the world-justice which he has already  
seen in ,hades4 ,finally he harmonizes  
the distracted institutional life of his
 country and the poem ends4 ,this second
 division embraces the last eight       
,books1 and has its own special stages  
in its movement4  ,survey of ,books     
,thirteenth to ,sixteenth4 ,in this     
portion we are to witness the leading   
transition of the poem1 that of ,ulysses
 and ,telemachus to ,ithaca1 the        

transition from the long and elaborate  
preparation for the act to the act      
itself1 which is the supreme one of man1
 that of asserting and realizing the    
,divine ,order4 ,in these four ,books is
 the gathering of the chosen forces into
 one spot and into one purpose--which   
forces have been hitherto separately    
developed2 here it is that we behold the
 practical preliminary movement for     
destroying the ,suitors4 ,hence arises  
the feeling which most readers express  
on a sympathetic perusal1 that these    
four ,books of the ,ithakeiad1 which is 
the name already given to the present   
division of the ,odyssey1 have enough in
 common to cause them to be grouped     
together in an organic survey of the    
poem4 ,they have1 first of all1 unity of
 locality--the hut of the swineherd--to 
which1 round which1 and from which their
 incidents move4 ,to be sure there is a 
glance at the enemy1 the ,suitors1 who  
are at a different point2 but even this 
glance serves to emphasize the setting  

common to these four ,books1 which is   
the abode of ,eumaeus4 ,very humble it  
is1 but it stands in every way as the   
contrast to the palace4  ,this unity of 
place naturally suggests unity of action
 as to what is going on in that place4  
,all the forces in opposition to the    
,suitors are secretly gathering there   
and organizing4 ,it is the center of    
attraction which is drawing out of the  
universe every atom of congenial energy 
for punishing the transgressors4 ,it has
 brought ,ulysses from ,phaeacia1       
,telemachus from ,sparta1 and possesses 
already the faithful ,eumaeus in its own
 right4 ,this is the fortress1 and these
 are the three men who make the         
attacking army4 ,they are now getting   
themselves together4 ,all three have    
passed through a grand discipline just  
for the present end1 which is to be the 
great deed of deliverance4  ,moreover   
the place has a character of its own1 a 
peculiar atmosphere in sympathy with its
 purpose4 ,its strength we feel1 its    

adamantine fidelity to the ,house of    
,ulysses4 ,it is a secluded spot in     
contrast to the palace2 its occupant is 
a slave in contrast to the kings who are
 suitors2 his business is to be the     
companion of swine in contrast to the   
regal entertainment at court4 ,the      
highest and the humblest of the social  
order are here placed side by side2 with
 what result8 ,the unswerving rock of   
loyalty is the hut and the heart of the 
swineherd2 upon it as the foundation the
 shattered institutional world of       
,ithaca is to be rebuilt4 ,the lowest   
class of society is1 after all1 the     
basis of the edifice2 if it remain      
sound1 then the superstructure can be   
erected again after the fiery           
purification4 ,but if it be utterly     
rotten1 what then8 ,such1 however1 is   
not the case in ,ithaca1 as long as     
there exists a man like the swineherd4  
,from his rock1 then1 and1 still more1  
from his spirit1 is to issue the energy 
which is to transform that perverted    

land of ,ithaca4  ,still1 here too      
,ulysses is the pivot1 the central      
character2 the hero both in thought and 
action1 for whom ,eumaeus furnishes a   
spatial and spiritual environment4 ,the 
hut of the swineherd is but a phase1 one
 landing-place in the career of         
,ulysses4 ,an idyllic spot and forever  
beautiful2 who but ,homer has ever      
gotten so much poetry out of a pig-sty8 
,we witness the transfiguration of what 
is the very lowest of human existence   
into what is the very highest1 veritably
 the ,godlike on earth4  ,ulysses1      
however1 has to remain in disguise even 
to his most faithful servant2 not out of
 distrust we must think1 but out of     
prudence4 ,knowing his master1 the      
swineherd would be a different person in
 the presence of the ,suitors2 he has an
 open1 sincere1 transparent heart1 and  
he would probably let the secret be seen
 which lay therein4 ,the gift of        
disguise he possesses not1 as ,ulysses  
has clearly observed in his             

conversation2 in this respect he is the 
contrast to the ,hero himself4 ,but     
,telemachus will get the secret1 for he 
has craft1 is the true son of his       
father2 has he not just shown the       
paternal trait in cunningly thwarting   
the ,suitors who are lying in wait for  
him1 by the help of ,pallas1 of course8 
,in these four ,books1 accordingly1 we  
behold one stage of the great           
preparation for the deed which is the   
culmination of the poem4 ,not now the   
disciplinary1 but the practical         
preparation it is1 when one is ready and
 resolved internally1 and is seeking the
 method and means4 ,both ,ulysses and   
,telemachus have had their training2 now
 it must pass into action4  ,we behold1 
first1 ,ulysses making the transition   
from ,phaeacia to ,ithaca1 and thence to
 the fortress of loyalty1 from which the
 movement is to be made4 ,secondly we   
see all the instruments getting         
together1 and being prepared for the    
work1 particularly the three heroes of  

the attack4 ,finally we observe ,ulysses
 inquiring and learning all about the   
situation in ,ithaca2 he obtains        
everything that information at second   
hand can give4 ,but hearsay is not      
enough2 he must see at first hand4 ,thus
 we pass to the palace1 and out of the  
first series of four ,books1 which we   
are next to consider separately4        
,,book ,,thirteenth4   ,in general1 we  
have in this ,book the grand transition 
from ,phaeacia to ,ithaca1 in both of   
its phases1 physical and spiritual4 ,the
 sea is crossed from land to land in a  
ship2 the idyllic realm is left behind1 
and the real world with its terrible    
problem is encountered4 ,phaeacia was   
quite without conflict4 ,ithaca is just 
in the condition of conflict and        
discord4 ,phaeacia1 moreover1 was a land
 of looking back at the past1 of        
reminiscence and retrospection2 ,ithaca 
is the land of looking directly into the
 face of the future1 with the deed to   
follow at once2 it is the field for     

action and not contemplation4 ,not only 
spatially1 but also in thought we must  
regard this transition4  ,ulysses has   
both these worlds in him2 he is the man 
of thought and the man of action4       
,hitherto in his career the stress has  
been upon the former2 henceforth it is  
to be upon the latter4 ,in this ,book1  
which is the overture marking the change
 in the key-note of the poem1 we have   
three distinct facts brought out        
prominently and through them we can     
grasp the general structure4 ,there is1 
first1 the departure of ,ulysses from   
,phaeacia and arrival at ,ithaca2       
secondly1 when this is finished1 there  
is the glance backward1 on the part of  
the poet1 to the miraculous voyage and  
to ,phaeacia itself1 in which glance    
,neptune plays an important part2       
thirdly1 there is the glance forward1   
which occupies most of the ,book1 taking
 in ,ithaca and the future1 in which    
glance ,pallas1 the ,goddess of         
foresight1 gives the chief direction1   

and ,ulysses is her mortal counterpart4 
,this is1 accordingly1 to a large extent
 a ,book of divine suggestion2 two      
deities appear1 the ,upper ,world plays 
into the ,lower ,world1 yet in very     
different manners4 ,the ,god of the ,sea
 seems to be an obstructionist1 a       
reactionary1 with look turned behind1 an
 old divinity of ,nature2 while ,pallas 
always has her look turned forward1 and 
is furthering the great deed of         
purification1 is wholly a divinity of   
,spirit4 ,these three phases of the     
,book we shall note more fully4  ,i4 ,we
 have a glimpse of the court at         
,phaeacia2 ,ulysses has ended the long  
account of his experience1 the time of  
action has arrived4 ,the formal yet     
hearty farewell is described2 the gifts 
of the host are given1 and the guest is 
sent on his way4 ,nor must we forget the
 bard ,demodocus1 still singing at the  
banquet1 but the theme of his song is   
not now mentioned2 evidently it was some
 tale of ,troy1 as before1 and this     

stage of song has been far transcended  
by ,ulysses4 ,very eager the ,hero was  
to start2 often he turned his head      
toward the all-shining ,sun to see how  
far away the hour still remained4 ,he   
wishes to listen to no more lays of the 
,past1 sweet though they be1 nor does he
 desire to tell any tales himself4      
,moreover we hear the great longing of  
his heart3 ,may ,i1 returning1 find at  
home my blameless wife6 ,in like manner 
he wishes domestic joy to the king1 as  
this whole ,phaeacian world partakes    
more of the ,family than of the ,state4 
,of course1 he cannot leave without     
going to the heart and center of the    
,family1 namely1 ,arete1 wife1 mother1  
and even judge of the people4 ,so we    
hear from the lips of ,ulysses a final  
salutation to her in her threefold      
character1 ,within thy household rejoice
 in thy children1 thy people and thy    
husband the king4 ,she looks to the     
domestic part on the ship for ,ulysses2 
she sends servants bearing bread1 wine  

and garments for the passage4 ,nausicaa 
we feel to be present in the last       
interview1 but not a word from her or   
from the departing guest to her2        
self-suppression is indeed the law for  
both1 for is not ,penelope the grand end
 of this voyage8  ,the ship of the      
,phaeacians in which the passage is made
 is a miraculous one1 and yet prophetic2
 it is gifted with thought and flies    
more fleet than a falcon1 swiftest of   
birds4 ,again the mythical account      
prefigures the reality1 and this little 
marvelous story of the sea hints1 yes1  
calls for the speed of modern           
navigation4 ,it is not a matter to be   
understood2 ,ulysses1 the wise man1     
knows nothing about it1 he is sunk in   
sleep while making the passage4 ,but the
 wise man is to come to knowledge       
hereafter4  ,he has arrived in ,ithaca1 
and entered a safe port2 he1 still deep 
in slumber1 is laid on the shore with   
all his goods and gifts1 when the       
mariners turn back4 ,at this point we   

have an interesting description of the  
surroundings1 wherein we may observe the
 poet's employment of nature as a       
setting for the returned ,ulysses4      
,there is the secure haven shutting off 
the winds and waves of the sea2 at the  
end of the haven stands the olive tree1 
product of culture1 and hinting the     
civilized world1 which ,ulysses now     
enters2 it was a tree sacred to ,pallas 
in later ,greek legend1 and1 doubtless1 
in ,homer's time also4 ,next came the   
cave of the ,nymphs called ,naiads1 with
 its curious shapes of stone1 the work  
of the ,nymphs to the old ,greek eye1   
but named stalagmites and stalactites in
 modern speech4 ,two are the entrances1 
one for ,gods and one for men2 both     
human and divine visitors come thither1 
it is indeed a point of meeting for the 
two influences1 which is its essential  
suggestion4 ,ulysses1 lying with his    
goods beneath the olive tree and near   
the cave1 is under divine protection1   
which here ,nature herself is made to   

declare4 ,this scenery is not introduced
 for its own sake1 but for the divinity 
in it1 whereof another example is to    
follow in the case of ,neptune4  ,there 
have been repeated attempts to identify 
the locality described by the poet with 
the present geography of ,ithaca4       
,travelers have imagined that they have 
found the haven and cave1 notably this  
was the case with ,sir ,william ,gell2  
but the more common view now is that    
they were mistaken4 ,homer from his     
knowledge of ,greece1 which has         
everywhere harbors1 caves and           
olive-trees1 constructed an ideal       
landscape for his own purpose1 quite as 
every poet does4 ,he may or may not have
 seen ,ithaca2 in either case1 the      
poetic result is the same4  ,,ii4 ,the  
physical transition from ,phaeacia to   
,ithaca is accomplished2 while ,ulysses 
is asleep1 the poet casts a glance      
backward at the marvelous ship and at   
the marvelous land which has just been  
left behind4 ,both are henceforth to be 

forever closed to the real world and its
 intercourse2 the realm of fable is shut
 off from ,ithaca1 and from the rest of 
this poem4  ,the matter is presented in 
the form of a conflict between the      
,phaeacians and ,neptune1 between the   
sea-faring people and the sea2 clearly  
it is one of the many struggles between 
,man and ,nature which the ,greek       
,mythus is always portraying1 because   
these struggles were the ever-present   
fact in ,greek life4 ,the ,god has been 
circumvented by the speed of the        
navigators2 ,ulysses without suffering1 
without a storm1 has reached ,ithaca4   
,no more honor for me from mortals or   
,gods1 cries ,neptune1 if ,i can be thus
 defied8 ,he makes his appeal to the    
,highest ,god1 and we hear the decision3
 ,turn the ship to a stone and hide the 
city with a mountain4 ,the first is     
accomplished in view of the ,phaeacians2
 the second is possibly prevented by    
their speedy sacrifices to ,neptune1 and
 the new decree of the ruler1 which     

forbids their giving further escort over
 the sea to strangers4 ,at any rate     
,phaeacia is shut off from the world1   
and has not been heard of since2 there  
have been no more transitions thence    
since that of ,ulysses4 ,the marvelous  
ship and the marvelous city vanish      
forever by a divine act1 even by the    
will of ,zeus4 ,yet1 on the other hand1 
they eternally remain1 crystallized in  
these verses of ,homer1 more lasting    
than the rock of ,neptune4  ,why this   
interference from above8 ,wherein is the
 escort by the ,phaeacians a violation  
of the divine order as voiced by the    
,supreme ,god8 ,note that ,ulysses has  
escaped1 which is the will of ,zeus2    
note1 too1 that the ,phaeacians are     
punished for helping him escape1 which  
is also the will of ,zeus4 ,the sailors 
bring the wanderer to his home without  
trouble1 but they are smitten by the    
,god while returning4  ,for the primal  
suggestion of the legend1 may we not say
 that the sea1 that enormous force of   

,nature with many reserved energies in  
its vast bosom1 though bestrid and      
subdued by a ship1 at times breaks loose
 and destroys1 in spite of skillful     
navigation and perfect machinery8 ,still
 to-day the sea has a residue of the    
uncontrollable1 and probably will have  
for some ages to come4 ,neptune has not 
ceased from his wrath against the man of
 thought1 who tries to straddle and ride
 him1 and ,zeus still supports at times 
the ,sea-god's appeal for honor1 when   
his prerogative is violated4 ,yet not   
always by any means1 for ,zeus belongs  
to the true ,olympians1 deities of      
intelligence1 who once put down the old 
,gods of ,nature4  ,still ,nature has   
its right1 nay1 its law with the        
penalty4 ,the poet looks upon the sea as
 a great deity demanding sacrifice and  
honor4 ,furthermore1 for every conquest 
made over it1 there is the              
counterstroke1 the resistance1 which is 
the vengeance of the ,god4 ,thus says   
,zeus3 ,if any man1 trusting in his own 

strength1 refuses to give unto thee     
honor1 always vengeance is thine        
afterwards4  ,we have already noticed   
the creed of the poet to be that every  
action has its penalty2 the deed1 even  
the good deed1 is the fruit of a        
conflict and puts down something which  
has its might1 aye its right1 which is  
soon to make itself felt in             
counteraction4 ,es raecht sich alles auf
 ,erden1 sings our last world-poet in   
full harmony with his eldest brother4   
,it is not surprising that ,alcinous at 
this point remembers an ancient         
,god-spoken oracle1 which had uttered in
 advance the wrath of ,neptune and the  
present penalty4 ,in like manner1       
,polyphemus1 in his crisis1 remembered a
 similar oracle4 ,it is indeed the deep 
suggestion of ,nature which the sages   
have heard in all times4 ,the poet takes
 his thought and works it into a        
mythical shape1 in which1 however1 we   
are to see not merely the story but the 
insight into the world order4  ,ulysses 

now leaves the sea1 after having been   
chiefly in a struggle with it for years1
 ever since he sailed from ,troy4 ,it   
was the element in his way1 the         
environment always hostile to him2      
,neptune was the deity who was angry and
 made him suffer4 ,still the ,god of the
 sea could not prevent his ,return1 such
 was the will of ,zeus4 ,thus we cast a 
glance back at the ,phaeacians who      
vanish1 and at ,neptune who also        
vanishes4  ,the poem henceforth quits   
the sea1 after marking the fate of the  
sea-faring people of ,phaeacia4 ,that   
great mysterious body of water1 with its
 uncertainties of wind and wave1 with   
its hidden rocks and magic islands1 is  
now to drop out of the horizen of the   
,odyssey4 ,it is the great sea-poem of  
the ,greeks1 yes of the world2 the sea  
is the setting of its adventurous1      
marvelous1 illimitable portion4 ,it     
comes out the sea1 with its realm of    
wonders2 henceforth it is a land poem in
 the clear finite world4 ,ulysses the   

,hero must turn his face away from the  
briny element2 not without significance 
is that command given him that he must  
go till he find a people who take an oar
 for a winnowing-fan ere he can reach   
peace4 ,so the fairy-ship ceased to run1
 but the steam-ship has taken its place 
in these ,ithacan waters4 ,still the    
poetic atmosphere of the ,odyssey1 in   
spite of steam1 hovers over the islands 
of western ,greece to-day2 the traveler 
in the harbor of ,corfu1 will look up at
 the city from the deck of his vessel   
and call back the image of ,phaeacia1   
and if he listens to the speech of the  
,greek sailors1 he will find words still
 in use which were employed by old      
,homer1 possibly were heard by the poet 
in this very harbor4  ,,iii4 ,next comes
 the most important and longest portion 
of the ,book1 turning the glance forward
 to ,ithaca and the future1 also to the 
great deed of the poem4 ,a new deity    
appears when ,neptune vanishes1 not a   
hostile power of ,nature but a helpful  

spirit of ,intelligence--it is the      
,goddess of ,wisdom1 ,pallas4 ,this     
divine transition from the one ,god to  
the other is the real inner fact1 while 
the physical transition is but the outer
 setting and suggestion4  ,accordingly1 
the theme now is the man and the deity1 
,ulysses and ,pallas in their           
interrelation4 ,we are to have a        
complete account of the human unfolding 
into a vision of the divine4 ,the       
movement is from a complete separation  
of the twain1 to mutual recognition1 and
 then to co-operation4 ,pallas has had  
little to do with ,ulysses during his   
great sea-journey1 and since he left    
,troy4 ,that long wandering on the water
 was without her1 lay not at all in her 
domain1 which is that of clear          
self-conscious ,intelligence4 ,that     
misty ,fableland is the realm of other  
divinities1 though she appeared in      
,phaeacia4  ,the question1 therefore1 is
 at present3 ,how shall this man come   
into the knowledge of the ,goddess8 ,how

 shall he know the truth of the reality 
about him in his new situation1 how     
understand this world of wisdom8 ,the   
sides are two3 the man and the deity1   
and they must become one in spirit4 ,the
 supreme thing1 therefore1 is that      
,ulysses hear the voice of ,pallas1 and 
develop into unity with her2 indeed that
 may be held to be the supreme thing in 
,religion and ,philosophy3 to hear the  
voice of ,god4 ,even in the business of 
daily life the first object is to find  
out the word of ,pallas4  ,such is the  
dualism in the world1 which must be     
harmonized2 but in the individual also  
there is another dualism which has to be
 harmonized4 ,ulysses is mortal1 finite1
 given over to doubt1 passion1 caprice1 
is the unwise man1 subjective2 but he is
 also the wise man1 has an infinite     
nature which is just the mastery of all 
his weakness2 he has always the         
possibility of wisdom1 and will come to 
it by a little discipline4 ,he will rise
 out of his subjective self into the    

objective ,god4 ,this is just the       
process which the poet is now going to  
portray2 the ,hero overwhelmed in his   
new situation and with his new problem1 
is to ascend into communion with        
,pallas1 is to behold wisdom in person  
and hear her voice1 and then is to      
advance to the deed4 ,this process we   
may look at in four different stages1 as
 they unfold on the lines laid down by  
the poet4  #a4 ,first we have quite a   
full picture of ,ulysses before he      
reaches the recognition of the ,divine1 
and of his gradual climbing-up to that  
point4 ,at the start he is asleep1 is   
not even conscious of the external world
 about him1 he has indeed entered a new 
realm1 yet old4 ,as long as the         
,phaeacian spell is upon him1 he can do 
nought but slumber4 ,then he wakes1 he  
sees but does not recognize his own     
country4 ,he doubts1 he blames the      
,phaeacians wrongfully1 in his distrust 
of them he counts over his treasures4   
,he is now the unwise1 capricious man2  

he has no perception of ,pallas2 not    
only the land is in disguise to him1 he 
is in disguise to himself1 to his better
 self4  ,yet the poet is careful to mark
 the providential purpose just in this  
disguise4 ,the ,goddess threw a mist    
over things1 that he might not know     
them1 or make himself known till all was
 in readiness for the destruction of the
 ,suitors1 till she had told him what he
 had to do4 ,still it is his own act or 
state that he cannot at first hear the  
voice of the ,goddess4  ,the next step  
is that he recognizes the country1 it is
 described to him and named by ,pallas4 
,but she is in disguise now2 she has    
appeared1 but not in her true form2 she 
is not yet wisdom1 but simply identifies
 the land1 telling him3 ,this is        
,ithaca4 ,thus he recognizes the        
external landscape1 but not the         
,goddess1 who is as yet but a simple    
shepherd describing things4  ,now what  
will he do8 ,he also will disguise      
himself to the shepherd1 because he does

 not recognize who it is4 ,he makes up a
 fable to account for his presence and  
for his goods4 ,both are now in         
disguise1 the man and deity1 to each    
other4 ,they are doing the same thing1  
they are one1 with that thin veil of    
concealment between them4  ,then comes  
the mutual recognition4 ,she tears away 
the veil1 laughs at his artifice1 and   
calls out her own designation3 ,pallas  
,athena4 ,she had previously named      
,ithaca1 which brings the recognition of
 the outer world2 now she names herself1
 which brings the recognition of the    
divine world4 ,thus ,ulysses has rapidly
 passed from sleep through a series of  
non-cognizant states1 till he beholds   
the ,goddess4  #b4 ,both the deity and  
mortal have now reached the stage of    
mutual recognition1 and thrown off their
 mutual disguise1 which was a false     
relation1 though it often exists4 ,does 
not the man at times conceal himself to 
the ,god1 by self-deception1            
self-excuse1 by lying to his higher     

nature8 ,in such case is not the ,god   
also hidden1 in fact compelled to assume
 a mask8 ,thus the poet brings before us
 the wonderful interplay between the    
human and divine1 till they fully       
recognize each other4  ,at once ,pallas 
changes1 she assumes a new form1 the    
outward plastic shape corresponding to  
her ,godhood in the ,greek conception1  
that of a woman beautiful and stately4  
,nor must we forget that ,ulysses has   
also changed1 the two transformations   
run parallel1 in the spirit of the man  
and in the form of the ,goddess4 ,this  
unity of character also is stated by    
,pallas2 both of us are skilled in      
wiles2 thou art the best of mortals in  
counsel and in words2 ,i am famed among 
the ,gods for wisdom and cunning4 ,hence
 her argument runs1 let us throw off    
disguise to each other1 for we have a   
great work before us4  ,it is also to be
 noted by the reader that each1 the man 
and the ,goddess1 ascribes to the other 
the credit of skill and forethought1    

specially the credit of coming to       
,ithaca in disguise to discover the true
 situation4 ,says ,pallas3 ,another man 
would have rushed to see wife and       
children in his house1 but thou wilt    
first test thy wife4 ,here the ,goddess 
gives the thought to the man4 ,says     
,ulysses3 ,surely ,i would have perished
 in my own palace1 like ,agamemnon1 if  
thou1 ,o ,goddess1 hadst not told me    
everything aright4 ,here the man gives  
the thought to the ,goddess4 ,this is   
not a contradiction1 both are correct1  
and the insight is to see that both are 
one1 and saying the same thing at       
bottom4 ,the deity must be in the man1  
as well as in the world2 and the man    
must hear the deity speaking the truth  
of the world ere he attain unto wisdom4 
,even the mist which hung over the      
landscape at first1 has now completely  
vanished2 ,ulysses recognizes all the   
local details--the haven1 the           
olive-tree1 the grot of the ,nymphs1 and
 the mountain2 all the ,ithacan objects 

of ,nature come back fully4 ,but chiefly
 he recognizes the ,goddess1 whereupon  
both can pass to the great matter in    
hand--the deed4  #c4 ,this deed has been
 often mentioned before--the            
purification of ,ithaca1 chiefly by the 
slaughter of the ,suitors1 the shameless
 set1 who usurp thy house and woo thy   
wife4 ,sitting on the roots of the      
sacred olive1 the two1 the man and the  
deity1 plan destruction to the guilty4  
,verily those double elements1 the human
 and the divine1 must co-operate if the 
great action be performed4 ,the eternal 
principle of right1 the moral order of  
the world1 must unite with the free     
agency of the individual in bringing    
about the regeneration of the land4     
,thus after their complete recognition  
and harmony1 which takes place out of   
separation1 ,ulysses and ,pallas look   
forward to the impending deed1 which is 
their unity realized and standing forth 
as a fact in the world4  #d4 ,finally we
 have the manner of doing the deed1 the 

plan is laid before us4 ,pallas tells   
,ulysses that he must again assume his  
disguise1 both in the hut of the        
swineherd and in the palace at ,ithaca4 
,she does not propose to do his work for
 him2 on the contrary it must be his own
 spontaneous energy4 ,in fact1 ,pallas  
is in him making this suggestion1 yet   
outside of him1 too1 speaking the voice 
of the situation4  ,the scheme shows the
 structure of these four ,books         
7,,xiii-,,xvi71 organized of course by  
,pallas4 ,ulysses is to go to the       
swineherd who is loyal1 and will give   
shelter4 ,telemachus is to be brought to
 the same place by ,pallas1 not         
externally1 as we shall see1 but through
 the free act of ,telemachus himself4   
,thus the three chosen men are gathered 
together in their unsuspected fortress4 
,two things we must note in regard to   
these movements3 they are wholly        
voluntary on part of the persons making 
them1 yet they belong in the ,divine    
,order1 and thus are the work of the    

deity4 ,free-,will and ,providence do   
not trammel each other1 but harmoniously
 co-operate to the same end4 ,so        
carefully and completely is this thought
 elaborated that we may consider it     
fundamental in the creed of the poet4   
,in such manner the weak1 finite        
,ulysses is brought into communion with 
the immortal ,goddess4 ,yet he1 the poor
 frail mortal1 drops for a moment even  
here4 ,when ,pallas speaks of           
,telemachus having gone to ,sparta1 to  
learn about his father1 ,ulysses        
petulantly asks3 ,why did not you1 who  
know all things1 tell that to him       
without the peril of such a journey8    
,the answer of ,pallas is clear2 ,i sent
 him in order that he might be a man    
among men1 and have the good fame of his
 action4 ,telemachus1 too1 must be a    
free man2 that is the education of      
,pallas4 ,the ,goddess will help him    
only when he helps himself4 ,divinity is
 not to sap human volition1 but to      
enforce it2 she would unmake            

,telemachus1 if she allowed him to stay 
at home and do nothing1 tied to his     
mother's apron strings4  ,and here we   
cannot help noting an observation on    
,homer's poetry4 ,it must be in the     
reader ere he can see it in the book4   
,unless he be ready for its spirit1 it  
will not appear1 certainly it will not  
speak4 ,there must be a rise into the   
vision of ,homeric poetry on the part of
 the reader1 as there is a rise into the
 vision of the ,goddess on the part of  
,ulysses4 ,the two sides1 the human and 
the divine1 or the ,terrestrial and the 
,olympian1 must meet and commune2 thus  
the reader1 too1 in perusing ,homer1    
must become heroic and behold the ,gods4
     ,,book ,,fourteenth4   ,the ,book  
begins with another transition in place2
 ,ulysses passes from the sea-shore1    
with its haven1 grot1 and olive-tree up 
into the mountain1 to the hut of        
,eumaeus4 ,we have quite a full         
description of the latter's abode2 there
 is a lodge surrounded by a court and a 

wall2 within this inclosure are the     
sties1 and the droves of swine over     
which he is the keeper1 with four       
assistants4 ,nor must we omit the fierce
 dogs1 savage as wild beasts4 ,such is  
the new environment which ,ulysses      
enters1 and which has at its center a   
human being who gives character to this 
little world4 ,again we catch a clear   
quick glimpse of the ,greek landscape in
 one of its phases4  ,the spiritual     
transition is1 however1 the main thing4 
,ulysses passes from ,pallas1 the deity 
of pure wisdom1 to ,eumaeus1 the        
humblest of mortals in his vocation4    
,yet this poor man too has the divine in
 him1 and manifests it in a supreme     
degree1 not1 however1 in the form of    
reflective wisdom1 but in the form of   
piety1 of an immediate faith in the     
,gods4 ,still this faith has its sore   
trial4 ,such is the contrast between the
 two men4 ,ulysses has brought with him 
the ,goddess of ,wisdom1 whose words he 
has heard1 and with whom he has held    

communion4 ,hardly does ,eumaeus know   
,pallas1 he has not the internal gift of
 seeing her in her own shape4 ,thus both
 these men share in the divine1 but in  
very different ways4  ,from this        
difference in the two men spring both   
the character and the matter of the     
,book4 ,it is a play1 a disguise2 a play
 between ,wisdom and ,faith1 in which   
the former must be in disguise to the   
latter1 yet both have the same substance
 at bottom4 ,for ,faith is ,faith       
because it cannot take the form of      
,intelligence1 yet may have in its      
simple immediate form all the content of
 ,intelligence4  ,eumaeus has an open   
single-hearted piety2 he cannot play a  
disguise1 he hates it for he has been   
deceived by it when assumed by lying    
fablers4 ,for this reason he is not     
intrusted with the secret of his        
master's return till the last moment1 he
 would have to dissemble1 to violate his
 own nature1 and then perhaps he would  
not have succeeded in his attempt4 ,so  

,ulysses with a true regard for his man 
withholds the great secret1 and has to  
play under cover in order to get the    
needful information4  ,accordingly the  
present ,book has a decided tinge of    
comedy4 ,there is1 on the one hand1 the 
disguise1 external and internal--in     
garments and in identity2 on the other  
hand1 there is the error which takes one
 person for another1 and produces the   
comic situation4 ,thus the ,book is     
prophetic of a great branch of          
,literature1 and may be considered as a 
starting-point of ,greek ,comedy1 yes1  
as one of the origins of ,shakespeare4  
,to be sure1 it is not mere fun or      
amusement2 it is the ,comedy of         
,providence1 who often is in disguise   
bringing his blessing4 ,eumaeus in his  
piety has just that which he thinks he  
has not2 his loyalty has brought to him 
just that which he most desired2 his    
mistake is in reality no mistake1 but a 
mere appearance which will vanish in the
 end4  ,it is true that this sport of   

comic disguise began in the previous    
,book with ,pallas4 ,but can the mortal 
hide himself from the deity1 specially  
from the deity of wisdom8 ,hence the    
,goddess tears away the mask with a     
smile1 and there follows the            
recognition4 ,but at present it is the  
mortal who is the victim of disguise1 by
 virtue of his limitations4 ,still the  
mortal1 when he cannot see1 can believe1
 and so transcend these same            
limitations4 ,thus it is with ,eumaeus1 
his mistake is a comic nullity4  ,in the
 hut of the swineherd1 there is no      
domestic life1 the woman is absent4     
,this condition is specially ascribed to
 the present state of things in ,ithaca4
 ,eumaeus1 though he be a slave1 could  
have a household1 a dwelling and ground 
and wife1 if his old master were at     
home4 ,even now he has his own servant1 
bought with his own wealth4 ,slavery was
 not a hard condition in the house of   
,ulysses2 it was domestic in the best   
sense probably4 ,indeed the slaves were 

often of as high birth as their masters1
 who in turn might be slaves in the next
 fluctuation of war4 ,eumaeus himself   
was of kingly blood1 and he retains his 
regal character in his servitude4       
,ulysses has now reached the fortress   
which is to be the rallying-point of his
 army of three heroes1 and from which he
 is to issue to the work of the time4   
,but that is hereafter4 ,in the present 
,book1 we have his play with ,eumaeus1  
his disguise1 which assumes three main  
attitudes4 ,first1 he is passive1       
chiefly asking and listening2 thus he   
gets out of ,eumaeus what information he
 wishes2 then he plays an active part in
 his disguise1 telling his own history  
under the mask of fiction2 finally he   
assumes an open disguise1 that is1 he   
tells of one of his artifices at ,troy1 
and then states his present object in   
telling it4 ,the simple ,eumaeus1       
however1 does not suspect him in all    
these transformations4 ,still we may    
notice in the swineherd a strong feeling

 of oneness with the stranger1 an       
unconscious presentiment of who he is4  
,i4 ,the approach of ,ulysses to the    
lodge of ,eumaeus is an experience which
 one may have in the mountains of       
,greece to-day4 ,we can find the same   
general outline of a hut with its       
surrounding fence and court1 in which   
domestic animals are penned1            
particularly during the night4 ,then    
there is that same welcome from the     
dogs1 which issue forth in a pack with  
an unearthly howling1 growling and      
barking at the approaching stranger1    
till somebody appear and pelt them with 
stones4 ,often must the wandering ,homer
 have had such a greeting6 ,the         
hospitable swineherd1 ,eumaeus1 the poet
 must have met with in his travels2 the 
whole scene and character are drawn     
directly from real life4 ,a similar     
reception we have had in a remote       
pastoral lodge1 dogs included4 ,but the 
modern pedestrian will hardly employ the
 ruse of ,ulysses1 that of sitting down 

on the ground and letting his staff drop
 out of his hand4 ,he will use his      
weapon and grasp for a stone everywhere 
present on the ,greek soil1 though the  
fight be unequal4 ,still the sentence of
 ,pliny 7,nat4 ,hist4 ,,viii4 #fa7      
deserves always to be cited in this     
connection3 impetus eorum 7canum7 et    
soevitia mitigatur ab homine considente 
humi2 as if dogs in the height of their 
rage might be touched with the plea of  
piety4  ,the character of the swineherd 
straightway shows itself by his conduct 
toward this poor hungry stranger1 a     
vagabond in appearance4 ,to be sure1    
hospitality was and is a common virtue  
in ,greece2 but ,eumaeus saw at once in 
the wretched looking man his master     
wandering among people of a strange     
tongue1 needing food4 ,therefore come1  
old man1 and satisfy yourself with bread
 and wine4 ,such is the strong          
fellow-feeling warming the hearth of    
that humble lodge4 ,misfortune has not  
soured the swineherd1 but he has        

extracted from it his greatest          
blessing--an universal charity4 ,this is
 not a momentary emotion1 but has risen 
to a religious principle3 ,all strangers
 and the poor are of ,zeus2 such is the 
vital word of his creed4 ,he is a slave 
and has not much to share2 our giving is
 small but dear to us2 very dear indeed1
 a mite only1 but it is as good as a    
world4 ,well may we call him1 with the  
poet1 in the best sense of the title3   
the divine swineherd4 ,we should note   
too that the poet addresses ,eumaeus in 
the second person singular1 with a tone 
of loving familiarity very seldom       
employed elsewhere in his two poems4    
,was there some intimate personal       
relation figured in this character which
 we still seem to feel afar off there in
 antiquity8  ,at any rate the picture of
 the swineherd has the most modern touch
 to be found in ,homer4 ,it shows the   
feeling of humanity developed quite to  
its supreme fullness2 it has modern     
sentiment1 nay1 it borders at times upon

 modern sentimentality4 ,it recalls the 
recent novel1 which takes its hero from 
the lowest class and garnishes him with 
regal virtues4 ,strange old ,homer1     
prophetic again6 ,he seems to have      
anticipated the art-forms of all the    
ages1 and to have laid down the lines on
 which the literary spirit must move    
forever4 ,otherwise1 indeed1 it could   
not be2 he has in him the germs of      
future development2 the last novel is   
contained in the first1 which is the    
tale of ,eumaeus4  ,in the character of 
the swineherd1 the central point is his 
loyalty1 adamantine as the rock of his  
humble home4 ,it is loyalty in a double 
sense3 to his divine and to his human   
master1 to ,god and to man1 ,zeus and   
,ulysses4 ,the same trait it is1 in a   
terrestrial and a celestial             
manifestation4 ,both sides of this      
loyalty are just now under the sorest   
trial2 there is every temptation to fall
 away from ,god and man and become      
wholly disloyal4 ,many have yielded but 

he will not2 in his solitary abode he   
keeps piety and patriotism aflame with  
the breath of his spirit4 ,hence he     
furnishes the rock on which the new     
order can be built2 without this loyalty
 in the humble class1 no restoration    
would be possible1 even with the        
presence of ,ulysses4  ,first we may    
notice that he is loyal to his human    
master though he believes that the      
latter is dead and cannot return4 ,still
 he does not pass over to the side of   
the ,suitors1 who are doing that master 
and his house the great wrong4          
,secondly1 the swineherd is loyal to    
,zeus and the ,divine ,order of the     
,world4 ,hear him3 ,the ,gods love not  
deeds of violence2 they honor justice   
and the rightful works of men4 ,such is 
his faith2 still this faith is passing  
through the ordeal of fire3 why should  
the ,gods1 being good1 keep the good    
,ulysses away from his ,return8 ,the    
simple swineherd cannot fathom the ways 
of ,providence1 still he believes in    

that ,providence2 he is divinely loyal4 
,his allegiance does not depend upon    
prosperity1 not even upon insight4 ,zeus
 may rule the world as he pleases1 ,i   
shall still have faith3 ,though he slay 
me1 ,i shall believe in him4  ,now we   
may turn for a moment to ,ulysses4 ,he  
is a passive learner from the swineherd1
 calling forth information by subtle    
inquiry2 much1 indeed1 has he learned   
from the humble1 pious man4 ,first1 he  
has seen a shadow of his own doubt1 and 
how it may be dispelled4 ,then he has   
discovered loyalty in this              
representative of the people1 who must  
still possess it in their hearts1 though
 suppressed in the present1 untoward    
time4 ,also he hears again of the       
,suitors and their guilty deeds1 viewed 
with a loyal eye4 ,finally he plays the 
prophet to ,eumaeus and foretells the   
return of ,ulysses4 ,this is the height 
of his disguise1 wherein he rises to the
 humor of ,providence1 who has brought  
to the swineherd the realization of his 

strongest wish without his knowing it4  
,his prayers have come to pass1 could he
 but see4 ,herein ,ulysses suggests the 
part of ,providence in disguise1        
bringing the fulfillment of his own     
prophecy4  ,,ii4 ,it is now the turn of 
,ulysses to give some account of himself
 in answer to the swineherd's pressing  
questions4 ,he tells a famous story1 a  
fiction of his own life1 yet it has in  
its disguise the truth of his career4   
,the outer setting is changed1 but the  
main facts are the same4 ,still there is
 enough difference to prevent it from   
being a repetition4 ,it is the ,odyssey 
told over again with new incidents1 and 
variations upon an old theme4 ,we behold
 here the conscious storyteller1        
clothing the events of life in the garb 
of a marvelous adventure4 ,ulysses had  
in mind his own experience in this      
account1 and he adapts it to the time   
and place4  ,the main points of its     
contact with himself we may note4       
,first1 there is the pre-,trojan period1

 a time of roving and marauding1 which  
is true of that age in general1 and may 
have some touch of ,ulysses in          
particular4 ,second is the ,trojan war1 
the epoch of heroic conflict to which   
all had to go1 so strong was the public 
sentiment4 ,third comes the post-,trojan
 epoch1 with the wanton attack on the   
,a,egyptians1 very much like the attack 
upon the ,ciconians in the ,ninth ,book4
 ,from these attacks in both cases the  
grand calamity results1 which causes the
 long wandering4 ,the ,phoenician       
episode1 however1 has no counterpart in 
the career of ,ulysses4 ,fourth is the  
storm at sea1 with the clinging to the  
mast1 and the landing upon the coast of 
the ,thesprotians1 all of which is a    
transcript of the experience of ,ulysses
 in getting to ,phaeacia from ,calypso's
 isle4 ,fifth is the arrival at ,ithaca1
 which shows the actual fact1 with      
changed circumstances4 ,thus we may say 
that the true ,ulysses in disguise tells
 the true story of his life in disguise4

 ,this gift is what makes him the poet4 
,indeed we are compelled to think that  
,homer here suggests his own poetic     
procedure4 ,what he narrates is his own 
experience1 in the form of art4 ,his    
poetry is and must be his own life1     
though in disguise4 ,goethe has said    
something similar3 ,all that ,i have    
written is what ,i have experienced1 but
 not quite as ,i experienced it4 ,in    
this story we may hear in an undertone  
the old ,greek poet telling one of his  
secrets of composition4  ,moreover1 it  
is a tale of providential escapes2      
thrice has the so-called ,cretan been   
saved specially1 in ,a,egypt1 from the  
,phoenicians1 from the ,thesprotians4   
,thus the story aims to encourage       
,eumaeus1 and to answer his doubt2 it   
affirms the return of ,ulysses1 and     
tells even the manner thereof2 it is a  
story of ,providence appealing to the   
swineherd's faith4 ,on this line1 too1  
it touches the ethical content of the   
,odyssey1 as the latter was sung to the 

whole ,greek world4  ,looking at the    
external circumstances of the story we  
note that it takes them from the social 
life of the time4 ,there is universal   
slavery1 with its accompaniment1        
man-stealing2 the pirate and the        
free-booter are still on the seas and   
furnish incidents of adventure1 yet     
commerce has also begun2 the perils of  
navigation turn the voyage into a series
 of miraculous escapes4 ,it is a time of
 dawn in which many distinctions1 now   
clear1 have not yet been made4  ,we may 
also see the lines1 though they be      
faint1 of the movement of the world's   
culture in this story4 ,crete1 on the   
borderland between ,east and ,west1 is  
the home of the daring ,greek adventurer
 who attacks ,troy on the one hand and  
,a,egypt on the other4 ,from ,crete we  
pass backwards to ,phoenicia1 as well as
 to the land of the ,nile1 and we catch 
a glimpse of the current of ,oriental   
influence flowing upon ,greece4 ,already
 we have seen the spiritual gift of     

,egypt to the ,greek mind shadowed forth
 in the story of ,menelaus in the       
,fourth ,book4 ,in these latter ,books  
of the ,odyssey the ,phoenician         
intercourse with ,hellas is more        
strongly emphasized1 with glances into  
their art1 their trade1 their           
navigation4 ,all this ,phoenician       
development the ,greek looks at in a    
wondering way as if miraculous2 he is   
reaching out for it also4 ,to be sure   
the ,phoenician has a bad name1 as a    
shrewd1 even dishonest trader4 ,still he
 is the middleman between nations1 and a
 necessity4  ,thus it appears that the  
,greeks have lost their ,aryan          
connection1 and have become the heirs of
 a ,semitic civilization4 ,homer does   
not seem to know his ,indo-,european    
kinship1 but he does connect ,hellas    
with ,phoenicia and ,egypt in many a    
spiritual tie4 ,these ties take1 for the
 most part1 a mythical form1 still they 
must have been a great fact1 else they  
could not have influenced the mythology 

of the ,greek race4 ,so the present tale
 through the fiction of the myth-maker1 
hints the chief social fact of the time4
  ,the fiction in the previous ,book1   
which ,ulysses began to tell to ,pallas1
 also started in ,crete1 looked back at 
the ,trojan war1 and connected with     
,idomeneus1 the great hero of ,cretan   
legend in the affair of ,troy4 ,the     
,phoenican trader in his ship comes in  
there too4 ,but that tale is cut short  
by the ,goddess1 who knows the disguise4
 ,in the present case1 however1 the     
swineherd makes no such discovery4 ,the 
next ,book will also have its           
corresponding tale4  ,ulysses has thus  
told all about himself to the swineherd1
 has even hinted in one place his       
disguise4 ,he speaks of ,ulysses having 
gone to ,dodona to consult the sacred   
oracle whether he should return to      
,ithaca openly or secretly1 after so    
long an absence4 ,he runs along the very
 edge of discovering himself4 ,but the  
swineherd will not believe2 the ,gods   

all hate my master is still his view4   
,already a lying ,a,etolian had deceived
 him with a similar tale1 which also    
introduced ,idomeneus and the ,cretans4 
,ulysses has before himself a new       
picture of doubt1 and its blindness2    
quite a lesson it must have been to the 
skeptical man4  ,the story1 in its      
deepest suggestion1 hints the manner of 
providential working1 as seen by the old
 bard4 ,eumaeus has already had his     
prayers for the return of his master    
fulfilled1 though he does not know it1  
and believes that they never will be    
fulfilled4 ,still he never gives up his 
divine loyalty and turns atheist4 ,by   
his charity and piety he has helped1    
indeed has brought about the return of  
,ulysses unwittingly4 ,the man1 if he   
follow the law1 is always helping1      
though he may not see that he is1 may   
even think that he is not4 ,this ethical
 order of the world underlies the tale1 
and is what the ancient listener must   
have felt so that ,homer's poems became 

a bible to him4 ,providence in disguise 
is its title1 here represented by the   
,hero in disguise4  ,,iii4 ,the supper  
and its preparation are quite fully     
described2 it is the second meal of pork
 in this ,book4 ,this we may pass over1 
to note the stratagem of ,ulysses to    
obtain a cloak from the swineherd4 ,the 
stranger tells his stratagem once upon a
 time at ,troy for the same purpose2    
whereat the swineherd takes the hint and
 says3 ,thou shalt not lack for a       
garment or anything else which is       
befitting a suppliant4 ,thus ,ulysses   
obtained his cloak1 and slept warm by   
the hearth4  ,but the other hint the    
swineherd did not take1 the hint of the 
disguise4 ,he sees the artifice of his  
guest to obtain the cloak1 but never    
thinks in his own mind3 ,this is        
,ulyssess himself1 the man of wiles     
trying to get the cloak again tonight4  
,yet ,ulysses has gone far toward       
telling him just that4 ,the swineherd   
cannot suspect1 it is foreign to his    

nature2 this is just his beauty of      
character and its limitation4  ,but     
,ulysses has to disguise in order to do 
his work4 ,he is in his own land1 on his
 own territory1 yet he dares not appear 
as he is4 ,this is not his fault4 ,his  
whole object is to get rid of this      
necessity of disguise1 so that he may be
 himself4 ,the time will not permit     
candor1 hence his call is to correct the
 time4 ,violence is met by disguise1 as 
it always is2 fraud destroys itself2 the
 negation negates itself4 ,such is the  
process which we are now beholding4     
,,book ,,fifteenth4   ,in contrast with 
the previous ,book1 the present ,book   
has not so much disguise2 ,ulysses falls
 somewhat into the background1 and      
several undisguised characters came     
forward4 ,still there are points in     
common1 the most striking of which is   
the tale of ,eumaeus1 the correspondence
 of which with the tale of ,ulysses in  
the ,fourteenth ,book impresses itself  
upon every careful reader4  ,but the    

main fact of the present ,book is the   
bringing together of the various threads
 for the grand final enterprise1 which  
is the punishment of the guilty         
,suitors4 ,ulysses and ,eumaeus are     
already on hand2 to them now ,telemachus
 is to be added1 who comes from ,sparta1
 whither he had gone for the completion 
of his education4 ,thus the present     
,book goes back and connects with the   
,fourth ,book in which we left          
,telemachus4 ,still further1 the        
,ithakeiad is linked into and continues 
the ,telemachiad 7the first four        
,books71 inasmuch as we now see the     
purpose of that famous journey of the   
son to the courts of ,nestor and        
,menelaus4 ,it was the training for a   
deed1 a great deed which required       
knowledge1 skill1 and resolution1 and   
which was to show the youth to be the   
son of his father4  ,such is another    
organic link which binds the whole      
,odyssey together4 ,the two threads1    
separately developed hitherto1 are now  

united and interwoven with a third1 that
 of ,eumaeus4 ,telemachus has seen two  
,trojan heroes and heard their varied   
history1 he has learned about his father
 whom he is prepared in spirit to       
support4 ,so the son has his ,return    
also1 a small one1 yet important1 be    
returns to ,ithaca after the experience 
at ,pylos and ,sparta and is joined to  
the great ,return of his father4  ,but  
just here with these evident marks of   
unity in the poem1 occurs a slip in     
chronology which has given the most     
solid comfort to those who wish to break
 up the ,odyssey and assign its parts to
 different authors4 ,in the ,fourth     
,book 7l4 #eid7 ,telemachus proposes to 
set out at once for home1 he will not be
 detained even by the charm of ,menelaus
 and ,helen4 ,that was the #fth day of  
the poem1 whereas we find him here      
leaving ,sparta on #cfth day of the     
poem1 according to the usual reckoning4 
,two inferences have been drawn from    
this discrepancy1 if it be a            

discrepancy4 ,the ,wolfian ,school cries
 out in chorus3 two different poets for 
the two different passages2 it would    
have been impossible for old ,homer     
singing without any written copy thus to
 forget himself1 whatever a modern      
author might do with the manuscript or  
printed page before him4 ,the other set 
of opinions will run just in the        
opposite direction3 the connection      
between the ,fourth and the ,fifteenth  
,books is perfect1 as far as thought1   
narrative1 and incident are concerned2  
the ancient listener and even the modern
 reader could pay no attention to the   
intricate points of chronology in the   
poem1 especially when these points lay  
more than ten ,books or #e1jjj lines    
apart from each other4 ,there is no real
 sign of discrepant authorship1         
therefore1 but rather a new indication  
of unity4  ,the general theme of the    
,book is1 accordingly1 the ,return of   
,telemachus1 and his uniting with his   
father and the swineherd1 who are still 

further characterized in their relation4
 ,the structure of the ,book falls      
easily into three portions3 first is the
 separation of ,telemachus from         
,menelaus and ,helen till his departure 
on the ship2 second is the end to which 
he is moving just now1 the hut of       
,eumaeus1 where are ,ulysses and the    
swineherd1 the latter of whom tells his 
tale of discipline and is seen to be a  
hero too in his sphere2 the third part  
is the coming of ,telemachus4  ,i4 ,in  
the departure of ,telemachus from       
,sparta1 we witness the divine and human
 elements again in co-operation4 ,the   
former is represented by ,pallas who    
came down to ,sparta to remind the son  
of ,ulysses of his ,return7nostos74 ,she
 appears to him in the night as he lies 
awake full of care2 he is ready to see  
her plan and so she appears on the spot 
and tells it1 not in the form of a      
dream4 ,in the first place1 he is to    
hasten home in order to save his        
substance1 which is threatened with new 

loss through the possible marriage of   
,penelope with one of the suitors1      
,eurymachus4 ,the son 7through the mouth
 of ,pallas7 here shows some bitter     
feeling toward his mother1 whose mind be
 manifestly does not understand2 she is 
altogether too subtle for her own boy1  
who has not seen through her disguises4 
,in the second place ,pallas warns him  
against the ambush of the ,suitors1     
which was no doubt his own forecast of  
the situation4 ,in the third place1 the 
,goddess sends him to the hut of the    
faithful swineherd1 whose character he  
must have already known4 ,in this speech
 of ,pallas we feel everywhere the      
subjective element2 she is certainly the
 voice of ,telemachus1 yet also the     
voice of the situation2 the divine and  
human side easily come together1 with a 
stronger tinge of the human than is     
usual in ,homer4 ,still we must not     
forget that ,pallas1 ,goddess of        
,intelligence1 suggests the processes of
 mind more directly than any other      

deity4 ,thus we again see that ,pallas  
is the organizer of the poem2 she brings
 its threads together through her       
foresight2 she sends ,telemachus where  
he unites with ,ulysses and ,eumaeus4   
,the separation from ,menelaus and      
,helen is told in the style of lofty    
hospitality4 ,menelaus brings as his    
present a wine-bowl wrought by divine   
skill1 the work of ,vulcan1 which was   
given him by the king of the            
,sidonians--another glance back to      
,phoenicia and its art4 ,helen gives a  
garment of her own making1 which thou   
shalt preserve as a keepsake of ,helen  
till the day of thy marriage1 when thy  
bride shall wear it4 ,a most beautiful  
motive1 worthy indeed of ,helen and of  
,helen's art2 ,telemachus is to transfer
 to his bride1 and to her alone1 his    
keepsake of ,helen1 his memory of her1  
his ideal gotten during this journey4   
,finally ,helen appears as prophetess   
and foretells the total destruction of  
the ,suitors at the hands of returning  

,ulysses4 ,such is the last appearance  
of ,helen to ,telemachus1 giving strong 
encouragement1 suggesting in her two    
acts a new outlook for the youth both   
upon ,family and ,state4 ,no wonder his 
words to her rise into adoration3 ,zeus 
so ordering1 there at home ,i shall pray
 unto thee as unto a ,god4  ,telemachus 
in his return will not pass through     
,pylos lest he be delayed by the        
importunate hospitality of good old     
,nestor4 ,and indeed what can he gain   
thereby8 ,he has already seen and heard 
the ,pylian sage4 ,so he sends the      
latter's son home while he himself goes 
aboard his ship4 ,but just before he    
sets sail1 there comes a stranger1 a    
seer1 a fugitive1 having slain a man4   
,theoclymenus it is1 of the prophetic   
race of ,melampus1 the history of which 
is here given4 ,the victim of a fateful 
deed now beseeches ,telemachus for      
protection and receives it2 the prophet 
hereafter will give his forewarnings to 
the ,suitors4 ,yet he could not save    

himself from his own fate in spite of   
his foresight2 so all the seers of the  
family of ,melampus have a strain of    
fatality in them2 they foreknow1 but    
cannot master their destiny4  ,,ii4 ,the
 scene shifts 7l4 #cja7 to the hut of   
the swineherd1 which is the present     
destination of ,telemachus4 ,the reader 
beholds a further unfolding of the      
character of ,eumaeus1 in fact this     
portion of the ,book might be called his
 discipline or preparation to take part 
in the impending enterprise4  ,ulysses  
still further tests the charity and     
humanity of the swineherd by offering to
 go to town in order to beg for his     
bread among the ,suitors1 as well as to 
do their menial tasks4 ,whereat ,eumaeus
 earnestly seeks to dissuade him1       
reminding him of the insolence of those 
men and of their elegant servants in    
livery1 and assuring him that no one    
here is annoyed at thy presence1 neither
 ,i nor the others4 ,well may ,ulysses  
respond to such a manifestation of      

charity4 ,may thou be as dear to ,zeus1 
the ,father1 as thou art to me6  ,the   
stranger now tests the swineherd's      
interest in and devotion to ,laertes and
 ,eurycleia1 who are the parents of     
,ulysses1 the old father and mother of  
the house4 ,so ,eumaeus gives an account
 of his relation to them1 as well as to 
,ktimene1 sister of ,ulysses2 with her  
,i was reared1 and was honored by her   
mother only a little less4 ,eumaeus will
 soon tell how he came so young to the  
family of ,laertes4 ,indeed ,ulysses is 
moved by his narrative to ask just this 
question4 ,it is to be noted that the   
report of the swineherd about ,penelope 
is not so certain2 from the queen ,i    
have had no kindly word or deed1 since  
that evil fell upon her house--the      
haughty ,suitors4 ,here lies one motive 
why ,ulysses must go to the palace and  
test ,penelope4 ,thus ,eumaeus shows his
 love for the family of ,ulysses1 and   
responds deeply to the test of universal
 charity4  ,very naturally rises the    

question as to the history of his life4 
,what experience has called forth such a
 marvelous character8 ,eumaeus now gives
 his fateful story4 ,the ,phoenician    
background is again employed1 with its  
commerce in merchandise1 with its       
stealing and selling of free1 high-born 
people into slavery1 with its           
navigation4 ,the pith of the story is1 a
 ,phoenician female slave1 who had been 
stolen and bought by the king of the    
country1 plays false to her master1     
steals his child and what valuables she 
can carry off1 and escapes on a         
,phoenician trading vessel after an     
intrigue with one of its crew4 ,the     
captive woman avenged her wrong1 but was
 struck on the seventh day by ,diana1   
archer-queen1 for her own double guilt4 
,eumaeus was that child1 also stolen and
 enslaved1 but he is her emphatic       
contrast2 he has been able fully to     
digest his fate4 ,the ,phoenician galley
 came to ,ithaca1 and there ,laertes    
purchased me4 ,the swineherd is of royal

 birth and retains his more than royal  
character2 in being the humblest he can 
rise to the highest4  ,interesting      
touches of the ,phoenician traders are  
given3 ,sharp fellows1 having myriads of
 trinkets in their ship3 surely it is   
the ancient ,semitic retailer of        
jewelry1 going from town to town in his 
boat4 ,then note specially the cunning  
man who came to my father's house1      
showing a golden necklace strung with   
amber beads2 this amber was obtained    
doubtless through commerce from the     
,baltic1 by the ,phoenicians1 whose     
workmanship is also suggested4 ,the     
palace servants and my mother took the  
trinket into their hands1 turning it    
over and over2 they kept gazing at it   
haggling about the price2 the same scene
 can be witnessed today in our own      
country towns when the ,jewish peddler  
appears in the household4 ,in the       
present case1 however1 it was part of   
the scheme of stealing the child4       
,eumaeus says that his father ruled a   

city in the island of ,syria4 ,but where
 is this ,syria8 ,some think it is      
conceived by ,homer as lying in the     
extreme ,west1 where the ,sun turns2 but
 the ,sun turns anywhere4 ,rather is its
 position eastward toward ,phoenicia2   
the ,taphian pirates who stole the      
,sidonian woman and sold her into       
,syria1 dwelt not far from ,ithaca and  
preyed upon ,phoenician commerce1       
stealing and selling in the ,eastern    
,mediterranean4 ,certainly they could   
find little business of their kind in   
the ,west4 ,some vague idea of the      
actual land of ,syria must have flashed 
in ,homer's mind2 no more definite      
description is possible4  ,it is plain1 
however1 that the poet makes ,eumaeus a 
foreigner1 not a ,greek1 whose          
birth-land lies beyond the ,hellenic    
boundary to the ,east4 ,but he is not a 
,phoenician1 his character is different1
 and his people seem not to have been   
sea-faring4 ,his fundamental trait is   
religiosity2 he lives in the eternal    

presence of the ,divine ,ruler of the   
,world4 ,his character is that of the   
,old ,testament2 some of his utterances 
are strong reminders of the ,psalms4 ,we
 cannot help reading in him something of
 ,david and of ,job2 misfortune he here 
has had1 but he retains an unshaken     
faith in the deity2 intense wrestling he
 shows1 but it has been with him the    
process of purification4 ,he is not a   
,greek at all2 he has a ,hebrew         
character1 not of the modern mercantile 
type1 which resembles more the          
,phoenician1 but of the old ,hebrew     
strain4 ,in those times of man-stealing1
 ,homer could easily have met him in one
 of the ,greek islands1 a slave yet a   
spiritual prince1 have drawn his        
portrait1 and have heard his story      
substantially as here given4  ,indeed we
 think we can trace in the swineherd's  
thoughts and sometimes in his           
expressions a marked monotheistic       
tendency4 ,undoubtedly ,eumaeus speaks  
fluently of the ,greek ,gods1 as ,diana 

and ,apollo2 especially does he mention 
and honor ,zeus1 the supreme ,god2 still
 he is prone to employ the word ,gods in
 the unitary sense of ,providence1 and  
he repeatedly uses the singular ,god    
without the article1 as in the passage3 
,god grants some things and withholds   
others at his will1 for he is           
all-powerful 7,,xiv4 #ddd74 ,and it is  
characteristic that he does not like    
,helen1 for thus he says in an outburst 
of anti-,greek spirit3 ,o would that    
,helen and her tribe had utterly        
perished1 for whose sake so many fell6  
7,,xiv4 #fh47 ,striking is his contrast 
herein with the ,phaeacians1 and with   
their love of the ,trojan conflict4  ,we
 have already stated that this entire   
,ithakeiad resembles the novel1 giving  
pictures of the social life of the time1
 and elevating the humblest man into    
heroship4 ,in like manner1 this story of
 ,eumaeus might almost be called a      
novelette1 truly an ,homeric novelette  
interwoven into the greater totality of 

the novel here presented in the         
,ithakeiad1 and finally into the entire 
,odyssey4 ,it has its correspondence    
with the ,fairy ,tale of the previous   
portions of the poem1 yet stands in     
sharpest contrast4 ,here is no          
supernatural world far away1 but it is  
the present1 it is human life just now1 
and the hero lives before us4 ,here are 
no superhuman beings1 like ,calypso1    
,circe1 ,polyphemus1 ,proteus2 the      
environment1 the coloring1 the art-form 
are totally changed4 ,nor is it an      
heroic tale of ,troy1 with its order of 
,gods1 descending and interfering in    
human affairs2 no grand exploits of     
arms1 no mighty mustering of glorious   
warriors4 ,not high and magnificent     
,achilles in all the pride of his       
colossal individuality1 but humble      
,eumaeus1 a slave and a swineherd1 has  
become the ,homeric hero4 ,surely a new 
style1 and a new world-view2 yet surely 
,homer's1 not the work of any other man4
  ,it has been already made plain that  

we have passed from the ,idyl1 and      
,heroic ,epos1 and the ,fairy ,tale of  
the first portions of the ,odyssey into 
the ,social ,romance1 which takes the   
picture of society as its setting4      
,every human being can now be made a    
slave2 man-stealing1 woman-stealing1    
child-stealing1 give the motives for the
 strangest turns of destiny4 ,already   
,ulysses in his fictitious tale of the  
previous ,book has become a maker of the
 novelette2 but ,eumaeus tells a true   
tale of his own life1 it has no         
disguise2 he knows his past1 he is aware
 of his origin4 ,thus he is an example1 
showing how the man is still a          
fate-compeller in such a state of       
society4 ,though a slave externally1 he 
can still be a king within2 though      
struck by the hardest blow of destiny he
 can still remain loyal to the ,divine  
,order and obtain its blessing4  ,it is 
interesting to note the significance of 
this ,phoenician background1 with its   
universal commerce4 ,the ,phoenician    

traded already in remote antiquity with 
the extremes of the ,aryan race1 from   
,india in the ,east to ,britain in the  
,west1 including the whole intervening  
line of ,aryan migration1 ,persia1      
,greece1 ,italy1 ,gaul4 ,the ,aryan race
 is indeed a separative1 self-repellent1
 distracted race1 always on the move out
 of itself1 without returning into      
itself4 ,the ,phoenician1 on the        
contrary1 in his farthest voyages1 came 
back home with news and merchandise2 the
 remotest ,phoenician settlements kept  
up their connection with the mother     
country4 ,deep is the idea of the       
,return to the parent city in the       
,semitic consciousness for all time2 the
 ,phoenician returned anciently to ,tyre
 and ,sidon2 the ,arab ,mahommedan      
returns to-day to ,mecca1 home of the   
,prophet2 the ,jew experts to return to 
,jerusalem1 the holy city of his        
fathers4 ,the entire ,odyssey may well  
be supposed to show a ,semitic          
influence1 in distinction from the      

,iliad1 for the ,odyssey is the account 
of many returns and of the one          
all-embracing ,return to home and       
country4 ,it is1 therefore1 very        
suggestive that the ,odyssey has this   
,phoenician background of a             
world-commerce1 which is only possible  
for a city whose people1 going forth1   
come back to it as a center4 ,moreover  
this world-commerce is a kind of        
unification of the ever-separating      
,aryan race1 a bond created through the 
exchange of commodities4 ,thus the      
,semitic character has always shown     
itself as the unifier and mediator of   
,aryan peoples1 first through an        
external tie of trade1 which was the    
work of ,phoenicia1 and1 secondly1      
through the far deeper spiritual tie of 
religion1 which was the later work of   
,judea4 ,the ,semitic mind has always   
been necessary to the inherently        
centrifugal ,aryan soul in order to     
bring it back to itself from its        
wanderings1 inner and outer1 and to     

reconcile itself with itself and with   
the ,divine ,order4 ,the ,semite has    
been and still is the priest to all     
,arya1 by the deepest necessity of the  
spirit4  ,another word we may add in    
this connection4 ,the ,semitic race has 
also separated itself1 and shown three  
main branches--,phoenician1 ,hebrew1    
,arab--a sea-people1 a land-people1 and 
a sand-people4 ,in all three cases1     
however1 they have a returning and      
therewith a mediating character4 ,in    
their wildest wanderings1 on water1 and 
in the desert1 and in the soul1 they    
have the power of getting back2 and that
 which they do for themselves1 they aid 
others in doing4  ,so much by way of    
tracing the universal relations of this 
poem with its ,phoenician background of 
commerce as well as with its ,semitic   
character of ,eumaeus4 ,for1 somehow1 we
 cannot help seeing in this latter      
certain traits of the old ,hebrew4      
,,iii4 ,the last part of the ,book      
returns to ,telemachus and his ship2 he 

has escaped the men in ambush1 and has  
reached the ,ithacan shore at a distance
 from the palace2 he sends the vessel to
 the town while he goes to the hut of   
the swineherd in accord with the plan of
 the ,goddess4  ,but he has on his hands
 the seer ,theoclymenus1 whom he first  
thinks of sending to one of the         
,suitors2 but when the seer utters a    
favorable prophecy1 ,telemachus sends   
him to one of his own friends for       
entertainment4 ,a curious touch of      
policy2 it was well to have the prophet 
in a friendly house1 where he might be  
ready for service2 even prophetic vision
 can be colored by personal attachments4
     ,,book ,,sixteenth4   ,this ,book  
connects directly with the preceding    
,book1 and brings about not only the    
external meeting and recognition of     
father and son1 but their spiritual     
fusion in a common thought and purpose4 
,the scene is still laid in the         
swineherd's hut1 but the swineherd      
himself must be eliminated at this      

point4 ,the question rises1 ,why does   
the poet hold it so necessary to keep   
the matter secret from ,eumaeus8 ,the   
care which ,homer takes with this object
 in view1 is noteworthy4 ,evidently the 
swineherd was not ready to participate1 
or would endanger the scheme4 ,yet of   
his fidelity there could be no question4
  ,we have already stated our opinion on
 this subject4 ,various external reasons
 may be suggested but the real reason   
lay in the character of ,eumaeus4 ,he   
was too sincere1 open-hearted1          
transparent for those wily ,greeks2 he  
might let out the great secret in pure  
simplicity of mind2 he is their contrast
 just herein1 he is not a ,greek4 ,the  
situation demanded disguise1            
dissimulation1 possibly downright lying2
 ,eumaeus was not the man for that4     
,such is his greatest honor1 yet such is
 also his limit2 if ,ulysses and        
,telemachus were such as he1 they would 
have all died nobly in their cause1 but 
the ,suitors would have triumphed1 and  

the institutional world of ,ithaca would
 have gone to the dogs4 ,at least its   
rescue could not have taken place       
through them4 ,such is the moral        
contradiction which now rises1 and will 
continue to rise more and more          
distinctly to view throughout the rest  
of the poem4  ,there are the two strands
 in the ,book which are the main ones of
 the poem1 that of the father and son1  
and that of the ,suitors4 ,both are here
 put together and contrasted with new   
incidents1 which are leading inevitably 
to the grand culmination4 ,these two    
strands we shall now briefly follow out 
in order4 ,there is also a third        
portion1 the return of ,eumaeus from the
 palace to the hut1 which portion is    
short and unimportant4  ,i4 ,telemachus 
arrives at the hut of the swineherd1 the
 dogs give him a friendly greeting in   
contrast to that which they give to     
,ulysses--a fact which shows that the   
youth must have been in times past a    
good deal with ,eumaeus4 ,also the      

affectionate meeting of the two suggests
 the same thing4 ,herein we note a      
reason for ,pallas sending him          
hither--the ,goddess and the youth      
coincided4 ,of course the conversation  
soon turns toward the stranger present1 
the disguised ,ulysses4 ,now occurs a   
subtle movement between father and son  
who are to be brought together4  7#a7   
,first they are in a state of           
separation1 but the disguised ,ulysses  
holds the bond of unification in his    
power4 ,eumaeus first tells to          
,telemachus the fictitious ,cretan story
 concerning the stranger2 then ,ulysses 
gives a note of his true self3 ,would   
that ,i were ,ulysses' son or the hero  
himself6 ,what then8 ,i would be an evil
 to those ,suitors4 ,thus the father    
secretly stirs the spirit of the son1 in
 fact spiritually identifies himself4   
,the son sends off the swineherd on an  
errand to ,penelope1 in order to        
announce his safe arrival from his      
journey to the mainland4 ,in this way   

one obstacle is removed--the swineherd2 
now the second obstacle1 the disguise is
 to be stripped away4  7#b7 ,herewith   
occurs a divine intervention1 hinting   
the importance of the present moment4   
,pallas appears to ,ulysses1 but        
,telemachus beheld her not2 ,why8 ,for  
not by any means are the ,gods manifest 
to all men4 ,as already stated1 ,ulysses
 has the key of the situation1 and sees 
what is now to be done2 ,telemachus does
 not see and will not see till his      
father's disguise be removed4 ,so again 
the ,goddess ,pallas appears to the wise
 man and addresses him because the two  
are one in thought2 no other person not 
in this oneness of the human and divine 
can see her4 ,in like manner ,pallas    
appears to ,achilles1 seen by him alone1
 in the ,first ,book of the ,iliad2     
similar too is the case of ,telemachus  
when ,pallas comes to him among the     
,suitors under the form of ,mentes in   
the ,first ,book of this ,odyssey 7see  
p4 #bf74  ,but just here is added a fact

 in strangest contrast with the         
foregoing view2 ,the dogs 7as well as   
,ulysses7 saw the ,goddess2 they barked 
not1 but ran off whining through the    
gate in the opposite direction4 ,in the 
old ,teutonic faith 7and probably       
,aryan7 the dog can see a ghost1 hence  
his unaccountable whine at times4 ,the  
lower animals and even the elements     
recognize the approaching deity by some 
unusual commotion4 ,but mark the        
contrast3 the dogs ran in terror from   
the presence of the ,goddess2 ,ulysses1 
observing her1 went out of the house and
 stood before her alongside the wall of 
the court4 ,the rational man1 beholding1
 must commune with the deity present1   
and not run off like a dog4 ,if he does 
not see the ,goddess1 as in the case    
with ,telemachus here1 he is simply     
outside of her influence4  ,pallas gives
 to ,ulysses the strong promise of help1
 reflecting his own internal condition4 
,she transforms him1 he appears a new   
man1 nay a ,god to his son1 some        

divinity whose home is the broad heaven4
 ,then the recognition follows1 with its
 various doubts and its emotional ups   
and downs4 ,in the breasts of both rose 
the desire of tears2 they wept shrilly1 
and louder their screams than those of  
the eagle whose young have been stolen  
from its nest4 ,lamentation is a trait  
of the ,homeric hero2 in the present    
case it asserts its fullest right4 ,but 
enough6 let us pass from heroic tears to
 heroic deeds4  7#c7 ,next comes the    
general plan of action4 ,what have we to
 encounter8 ,telemachus gives a         
catalogue of the ,suitors2 they reach   
the surprising number of #ajh persons   
plus #aj attendants1 including the bard 
and the herald4 ,we now begin to        
appreciate the greatness of the task4   
,the ,ithacan people are helpless or    
hostile1 the ,suitors have friends and  
relatives everywhere1 yet they must be  
punished1 they cannot be allowed to     
escape4 ,but the aid for such an        
enterprise--whence8 asks ,telemachus1   

and also the reader4 ,listen to the     
answer of ,ulysses3 ,i shall tell thee1 
and thou bear it well in mind2 think    
whether ,pallas with her father ,zeus be
 not sufficient for us1 or shall ,i look
 about for some other defender8 ,such a 
believer has the skeptic become2 he now 
has faith in the ,gods1 and in a ,world 
,order4 ,it is also a lofty expression  
of belief in his divine mission2 the    
spirit of ,eumaeus1 which dwells in that
 humble hut1 has entered the heart of   
the hero4 ,such are the two allies3     
,pallas1 wisdom1 and ,zeus1 fountain of 
the world's justice1 which had been     
deeply violated by the ,suitors4        
,telemachus in response1 assents to his 
father's words1 and acknowledges the    
supremacy of the ,gods4 ,he also lays   
aside his doubt and shows himself in a  
spiritual harmony with his father1 which
 must be antecedent to the deed4  ,the  
next part of the plan is that ,ulysses  
in disguise shall go to the palace and  
see for himself the wrongs done to his  

,house1 and experience some of these    
wrongs in his own person4 ,then too he  
can make preparations on the spot and   
select the time for striking4 ,also he  
wishes to test a little further the wife
 ,penelope4 ,another period of disguise 
is necessary in order to get rid of the 
necessity of disguise and vindicate the 
right4 ,zeus is with him1 he is the     
bearer of universal justice1 which he is
 to establish anew2 but ,pallas must    
also be with him in the act1 for it     
requires all his skill and cunning and  
forethought4  ,thus the father and son  
are united in spirit2 the last obstacle1
 which was the disguise1 is removed1 and
 they behold each other as they are in  
truth4 ,the recognition is not merely an
 external one of face and form1 or even 
of the tie of kinship and affection2 it 
is in both a recognition of the ,divine 
,order of the ,world1 which they are now
 called upon to maintain in their own   
persons1 and to re-stablish in their    
country4  ,,ii4 ,the scene passes from  

the hut of the swineherd to the palace1 
where the ,suitors soon hear of the safe
 return of ,telemachus4 ,antinous also  
comes back1 foiled and evidently        
angered2 he proposes to the ,suitors    
that they should slay ,telemachus in the
 fields or on the highway wherever      
found1 or renounce the suit for         
,penelope in the palace3 ,let each one  
woo her from his own house with gifts4  
,it is clear that such a violent measure
 as the assassination of the royal heir 
in his own territory finds small        
response even among the ,suitors4       
,antinous says that the people are no   
longer friendly2 he thinks1 when they   
hear of the recent ambush1 that they may
 rise and drive out the aggressors4     
,still they do not rise1 and probably   
,antinous tried to frighten the ,suitors
 into his drastic method4 ,but he did   
not succeed1 ,amphinomus clearly voices 
their sentiment1 and the council        
dissolves4  ,soon it is seen that       
,antinous has lost his cause4 ,penelope 

appears and gives him a thorough        
tongue-lashing1 in which she also tells 
his antecedents4 ,thy father came to us1
 a fugitive from the people1 who were   
angry at him on account of his piratical
 misdeeds2 they wanted to kill him1 and 
tear out his heart1 and pillage his     
large wealth evidently gotten           
unlawfully4 ,but ,ulysses restrained    
them1 and now this is your gratitude3   
you waste his property1 woo his wife1   
slay his son1 and worry me to death4    
,antinous is true to his ancestry1 he is
 still a pirate4 ,strong words are      
these1 which call forth a hypocritical  
reply from another ,suitor1 ,eurymachus1
 which she probably saw through1 for she
 goes into her upper chamber1 where she 
weeps for her dear spouse ,ulysses1 till
 blue-eyed ,pallas cast upon her eyelids
 sweet sleep4  ,the internal weakness of
 the ,suitors is exposed2 it is manifest
 that they are divided among themselves4
 ,in fact1 how can they have any unity8 
,each wishes to win the fair prize1     

which can belong only to one2 hence     
every other man is his rival1 whom he   
tries to thwart4 ,hence come jealousy   
and suspicion4 ,the single bond they    
have in common is their wrong-doing1    
which they feel cannot much longer      
continue1 with ,telemachus so active4   
,,iii4 ,on the other hand1 we pass to   
the hut of the swineherd1 where the     
father and son show a complete unity of 
spirit and purpose4 ,eumaeus returns    
from his errand2 he brings no news      
specially except that the ,suitors who  
formed the ambush have come back to the 
town4 ,but he is not yet to be admitted 
into the grand secret2 so ,pallas stood 
again near ,ulysses1 striking him with  
her staff she made him an old man in    
wretched rags4 ,he resumes his disguise 
lest the swineherd might recognize him  
and hasten to announce the fact to      
,penelope1 instead of keeping the secret
 looked in his bosom4 ,so the           
kind-hearted1 sincere ,eumaeus cannot   
yet be entrusted with the important     

secret4     ,,books ,,xvii-,,xxiv4      
,the time has arrived for this          
exposition of the ,odyssey to be brought
 to a close with some degree of         
rapidity4 ,it has already expanded      
itself beyond its original purpose2 it1 
too1 like ,ulysses1 has asserted itself 
as limit-transcending4 ,we shall try to 
indicate the general character of these 
remaining eight ,books1 to find their   
place in the total organism of the poem1
 and then give a brief outline of each  
,book separately4  ,it has already often
 been stated that the ,odyssey is a     
,return1 an outer1 but specially an     
inner ,return from the ,trojan ,war and 
from the alienation and disruption      
produced by the same4 ,this ,return1    
narrated in the twenty-four ,books of   
the poem1 divides itself into two equal 
halves1 each containing twelve ,books4  
,the first half moves about two centers1
 ,telemachus and ,ulysses2 the former is
 to be trained out of his ignorance1 the
 latter is to be disciplined out of his 

negative attitude toward institutional  
life1 and thus be prepared to rescue    
institutional life4 ,the first twelve   
,books are1 therefore1 the getting rid  
of the destructive results caused by the
 ,trojan ,war and all war1 in the human 
soul4  ,still ,ulysses1 with            
,telemachus1 is to do a deed of         
destruction1 he is to destroy the       
,suitors1 who are themselves destructive
 of institutional order in ,ithaca4 ,in 
a general way they are like the         
,trojans1 they are assailing the        
domestic and political life of the      
,greek world2 they too must be put down 
at home by the hero1 as ,troy was put   
down abroad by him4 ,but at ,troy he    
became negative through the long        
training of a ten years' war1 the spirit
 of which he must get rid of before he  
can slay the ,suitors1 for he is too    
much like them to be their rightful     
destroyer4 ,this1 then1 is the          
discipline of the first twelve ,books3  
through the experience of life to get   

internally free of that destructive     
,trojan spirit1 to overcome the negative
 within1 and then proceed to overcome it
 without4  ,now this overcoming of the  
negative without 7embodied in the       
,suitors7 is just the work of the last  
twelve ,books of the ,odyssey1 which we 
have called the ,ithakeiad1 as the scene
 is laid wholly in ,ithaca4 ,internally 
both ,ulysses and ,telemachus are ready2
 they have now externally to make their 
world conform to their ,idea4 ,the trend
 of the poem is henceforth toward the   
deed which destroys the outer negation1 
as hitherto the trend was toward the    
deed which overcame the inner negation4 
,to be sure1 the destruction of the     
,suitors has hovered before the poem    
from the beginning2 but in the second   
half it is explicit1 is the immediate   
end of the action4  ,this second half   
divides itself into two distinct        
portions4 ,it being the direct movement 
toward the deed shows in the first      
portion the preparation of the          

instruments1 which takes place at the   
hut of the swineherd4 ,ulysses is alone1
 he must find out upon whose aid he can 
rely2 his helpers must show not only    
strength of limb1 but strength of       
conviction4 ,two persons appear--his son
 and his swineherd2 they believe        
themselves to be the bearers of a       
,divine ,order as against the ,suitors2 
they are the army of three to whom the  
cowherd is to be hereafter added on     
manifesting his loyalty4 ,this part of  
the poem has been unfolded in the       
preceding four ,books4  ,the second     
portion of this second half of the poem1
 consisting of eight ,books1 we are next
 to consider4 ,ulysses has hitherto only
 heard of the excesses of the ,suitors2 
he is now to see them directly and to   
experience their violence in his own    
person4 ,he is in disguise and gets full
 possession of the fact before he       
proceeds to the deed4 ,the insolent1    
destructive conduct of the ,suitors is  
set forth in all fullness1 as well as   

the subtle attempt of the wife to thwart
 them2 then the blow falls which sweeps 
them and their deeds out of existence4  
,restoration follows after this terrible
 act of vengence2 ,ulysses1 having done 
his great destructive work1 is to show  
himself constructive1 not simply the    
destroyer1 but the healer and restorer4 
,how can we best see the sweep of these 
eight ,books and their organic          
connection with the total ,odyssey8 ,no 
mere formal division will answer1 nor   
any external separation into parts4 ,the
 inner movement of the thought is to be 
found and shown as the organizing       
principle4 ,on the whole the joints of  
the structure are not so manifest as in 
the ,telemachiad and the ,ulyssiad2     
still they exist4 ,already it has been  
often said that the essential character 
of the ,suitors is that of destroyers2  
,ulysses is the destroyer of these      
destroyers2 but in destroying           
destruction he is also the restorer4    
,now just these three stages of the     

movement of the inner thought are the   
three organic divisions of the last     
eight ,books2 that is1 the thought      
organizes the poem4 ,let us look more   
closely4  ,i4 ,the first five ,books    
7,,xvii-,,xxi7 are devoted to revealing 
the ,suitors as destroyers to ,ulysses  
in person1 though he be disguised4      
,three strands are interwoven into the  
texture1 which we may separate for the  
purpose of an examination4  #a4 ,the    
,suitors are destroying what may in     
general be called the institutional     
world in its three leading forms3 7#a7  
,property1 7#b7 ,family1 7#c7 ,state4   
,to these may be added their disregard  
and even open defiance of the ,gods1 who
 are the upholders1 or rather the       
personified embodiment of all           
institutional life4 ,hence the statement
 may be made that the ,suitors are1 as  
far as their deeds go1 the destroyers of
 the ,divine ,order of the ,world2 they 
are spiritually negative4  #b4 ,the     
second strand is that of ,ulysses 7to   

whom ,telemachus and the swineherd can  
be added7 who is to behold with his own 
eyes1 to experience in his own person1  
the character and acts of the ,suitors2 
then he is also to plan and prepare for 
their destruction4 ,as he has overcome  
his own negative condition inwardly1 in 
the spirit1 he must be able to overcome 
the same condition outwardly1 in the    
world4  #c4 ,the third strand is that of
 ,penelope1 the wife1 who is seeking to 
thwart the attempt of the ,suitors to   
make her marry one of themselves2 thus  
she is heroically preserving the        
,family4 ,she1 with the loyal part of   
her household1 co-operates with         
,ulysses1 though not aware who he is4   
,between the second and third strands   
are many interweavings1 both being      
opposed to the ,suitors4 ,penelope1 to  
delay her marriage1 proposes the        
,bending of the ,bow1 which gives the   
weapon and the opportunity to ,ulysses4 
7,book ,,xxi47  ,,ii4 ,the second stage 
of the grand movement is given in one   

,book 7,,xxii74 ,this is the single     
bloody ,book of the poem1 it makes up   
all deficiencies in the way of          
sanguinary grewsomeness4 ,the destroying
 ,suitors are themselves destroyed by   
,ulysses1 who therein is destroyer4     
,hence the blood-letting character of   
the ,book and of the deed2 #aaf men     
skin1 #ab women hung1 and one man       
mutilated unto death4  ,,iii4 ,but the  
destroyer ,ulysses destroys destruction1
 and so becomes positive2 in the last   
two ,books he is shown as the restorer  
of the institutional order which the    
,suitors had assailed and were          
undermining4 ,he restores the ,family   
7,book ,,xxiii71 and the ,state 7,book  
,,xxiv74 ,this is1 then1 the end of the 
,return1 indeed the end of the grand    
disruption caused by the ,trojan ,war1  
to which ,ulysses set out from ,ithaca  
twenty years before4 ,the absence of the
 husband and ruler from home and country
 gave the opportunity for the license of
 the ,suitors4 ,but the ,return has     

harmonized the distracted condition of  
the land2 institutions1 ,family and     
,state1 are freed of their conflict2    
even the ,gods1 ,zeus and ,pallas       
7authority and wisdom7 enforce the new  
order1 bringing peace and concord4      
,still1 despite the bloody death of the 
,suitors1 there runs through this       
portion of the ,odyssey 7the last eight 
,books7 a vein of charity1 of humanity1 
sometimes even of sentiment1 which seems
 to link the poem with our own age4 ,yet
 the other side is present also2 there  
is little pity for the unrighteous1 and 
justice is capable of becoming cruel4   
,the ,suitors and their set of servants 
are represented as unfeeling and        
inhuman2 ,penelope and the whole loyal  
household on the other hand show        
sympathy with poverty and misfortune4   
,such1 indeed1 has been their           
discipline1 that of adversity1 which    
softens the heart toward the victims of 
hard luck4  ,the disguise of ,ulysses is
 continued1 and also the craft of       

,penelope4 ,the moral questioning which 
these two characters have always roused 
does not diminish4 ,the hardest         
practical problem of life comes to the  
front in their case4 ,both are willing  
to meet unjust violence with            
dissimulation1 till they get the power  
to act openly4 ,they put down a         
dishonest world with dishonesty1 and    
then proceed to live honestly4 ,it is   
another phase of that subtle play of the
 ,negative1 with which ,ulysses had to  
grapple repeatedly in ,fableland1 and of
 which the ,odyssey is full4 ,every     
situation seems to have its intricate   
ethical problem1 which the reader has to
 solve as he solves such questions in   
actual life4 ,our opinion upon this     
element in the poem we have already     
given1 and need not repeat it here4  ,we
 must note that ,ulysses still keeps up 
his romancing in order to explain his   
presence in ,ithaca and his beggarly    
appearance4 ,he introduces a kind of    
story1 which we have called the         

,novelette in distinction from the      
,fairy ,tale4 ,the scene is usually     
thrown back eastward to ,crete1 the     
,trojan ,war furnishes the background1  
the famous ,cretan hero ,idomeneus is   
usually in some way connected with the  
stranger who is speaking4 ,no less than 
five such ,novelettes are found in the  
last twelve ,books--some long1 some     
brief4 ,he tells one to ,pallas 7,,xiii4
 #bef71 to ,eumaeus the longest one     
7,,xiv4 #aii71 to ,antinous a short     
interrupted one 7,,xvii4 #dbe71 to      
,penelope 7,,xix4 #agb71 finally one to 
his father ,laertes 7,,xxiv4 #cjd71 in  
which the scene seems to be changed to  
the ,west from the mention of ,sicania4 
,for the reader who may wish to follow  
out in detail these eight ,books1 we    
append a general survey of each1 in     
which the thought and the structure are 
suggested1 yet by no means elaborated4  
,we have in the preceding pages given   
quite fully what we deem the main points
 of the ,odyssey2 there remains only    

this winding-up of the work in a rapid  
summary4  ,book ,seventeenth4 ,we now   
pass from the country and the hut of the
 swineherd to the town and the palace of
 the king4 ,this is an important        
transition1 and evidently marks a       
turning-point in the last twelve ,books 
of the ,odyssey4 ,the change of location
 brings us to the scene of the          
forthcoming deed1 and into the presence 
of the two conflicting sides4 ,the      
structure of the ,book moves about two  
centers1 ,telemachus and ,ulysses4  ,i4 
,telemachus is first to start for the   
city1 where he arrives1 and is received 
with great joy by the household4 ,the   
mother asks him whether he has obtained 
any tidings from his father4 ,but he    
shuns her question1 bids her make fresh 
vows to the ,gods1 and goes off to look 
after his guest1 the prophet            
,theoclymenus4 ,the ,suitors throng     
about him1 but do him no harm2 a number 
of his friends are near at hand1 and the
 ,suitors are divided among themselves4 

,after his return to the palace1        
,telemachus tells his mother the story  
of his journey4 ,first he went to ,pylos
 and saw ,nestor there1 and held        
intercourse with the wise old man of the
 ,greeks1 which was certainly a         
memorable event in the life of the      
youth4 ,but ,nestor could tell him      
nothing about the present condition or  
dwelling-place of ,ulysses1 so the son  
was sent onwards to ,sparta1 to         
,menelaus1 where ,i saw ,argive ,helen1 
for whose sake the ,greeks and ,trojans 
suffered many evils by will of the      
,gods4 ,menelaus tells ,telemachus the  
words of ,proteus concerning his father 
,ulysses1 gently touching the story of  
the nymph ,calypso1 whereat the queen   
was deeply moved4 ,his news is that his 
father cannot return4  ,at this point   
the prophet comes in with his prophecy4 
,i declare that ,ulysses in his own land
 again1 sitting or creeping about in    
secret2 he is taking note of these evil 
deeds just now1 and plans destruction   

for the ,suitors4 ,the response of      
,penelope shows her mind4 ,may thy      
prophetic word be fulfilled6 ,it is well
 to note the art with which this prophet
 has been brought to the palace of      
,ulysses to foreshadow the coming event4
  ,moreover this whole passage connects 
with the ,third and ,fourth ,books1     
which recounted the ,journey of         
,telemachus to ,pylos and ,sparta4 ,of  
course the school of dissectors have    
sought to show the entire narrative here
 to be an interpolation by a later hand4
 ,one says that the brief allusion to   
the trip is tiresome to the reader4 ,as 
if ,homer composed for readers6 ,but    
what reader ever found these few lines  
tiresome8 ,the whole account of the son 
to the mother is one of the links which 
bind the ,odyssey into unity1 hence the 
wrath against it in certain quarters4   
,,ii4 ,the second part of the present   
,book gives the movements of ,ulysses1  
and is more important and more fully    
elaborated than the preceding part4 ,the

 hero is in disguise1 he is to take his 
first glimpse of the state of affairs in
 his palace4 ,he will experience in his 
own person the wrongs of the ,suitors   
and their adherents2 he will apply a    
test to bring out their character4 ,this
 test is that of humanity1 of charity   
toward a beggar2 how will the ,suitors  
behave toward him8  ,while he is on the 
way to the city with ,eumaeus1 he has   
his preliminary skirmish4 ,they meet the
 goatherd ,melanthius1 who at the sight 
of the beggar breaks out into abuse4    
,there is an inhuman note in his speech1
 which we may regard as one result of   
the present disorder of the country4    
,doubtless the swineherd and the        
goatherd were rivals1 and showed a      
professional jealousy2 but ,melanthius  
had extracted from his humble calling a 
disposition quite opposite to that of   
,eumaeus1 and had become disloyal to his
 master's ,house4  ,the approach to the 
palace is indicated by the song of the  
bard and the noise of feasting guests4  

,still the disguised ,ulysses is        
recognized by one living object3 his old
 dog ,argo1 who dies on the spot out of 
joy at seeing his master again4 ,full of
 sentiment and tenderness is the        
description2 it has a modernity of touch
 which will be often noticed in this    
second half of the ,odyssey4 ,much      
comment has been bestowed upon the      
incident2 but its most striking         
characteristic is its symbolism4 ,the   
old dog1 neglected now1 full of vermin1 
hardly able to crawl1 yet loyal in his  
heart2 why should he not receive the    
praise of ,eumaeus1 who tells of his    
former skill in the chase6 ,the dog     
,argo images the ,house of ,ulysses at  
present2 to such straits has fidelity   
come4 ,a famous statement here by       
,eumaeus cannot be passed over3 ,the day
 which makes the man a slave1 ,zeus     
takes half his worth away4 ,true        
generally of men1 but not of the slave  
who utters it1 he being the             
fate-compeller4  ,ulysses now applies   

his test of charity to the ,suitors4 ,he
 goes around to them1 asking for alms1  
like a beggar1 that he might observe    
them all1 and know who was better and   
who was worse4 ,but in the end not one  
of them was to be spared4 ,such was the 
supreme test1 that of charity2 how will 
the ,suitors treat the poor beggar8     
,will they behave toward him as ,eumaeus
 has8 ,not by any means2 the test calls 
out the worst suitor of the lot1        
,antinous1 who finally hurls a stool at 
the supposed intruder4 ,the other       
,suitors give something1 not their own2 
still they share in the guilt4 ,is this 
test of charity1 selected by the poet   
here1 a true test of such characters8   
,one result of the present violation of 
law and order is inhumanity1 cruelty1   
disregard of the fellow-man4 ,especially
 marked is their contrast with ,eumaeus1
 who1 in response to the harshness of   
,antinous1 says3 ,the famous men of     
earth 7such as the seer1 the doctor1 the
 builder1 the bard7 are invited to the  

feast2 no one would invite a beggar to  
an entertainment4 ,still the beggar is  
here to be invited4 ,a ring of modern   
sentiment is surely heard in this       
passage2 the subjective element of      
,christendom seems embodied in that     
swineherd a thousand years before its   
time4  ,the poet does not leave out of  
this ,book the previous tendency of     
,ulysses to romancing4 ,in the talk with
 ,antinous he begins another tale or    
rather the old one1 with ,egypt and     
,cyprus in the background4 ,it is1 in   
substance1 the story of the attack on   
the ,ciconians1 which ,ulysses cannot   
help telling when he looks back toward  
his ,trojan period4 ,here again it is   
truth in the form of fiction4  ,meantime
 the uproar has called forth ,penelope1 
who desires to see the strange beggar4  
,the wish is conveyed to ,ulysses1 who  
artfully requests that the interview be 
deferred till night-fall2 the wife might
 see through his disguise4 ,the time for
 this recognition has not yet come4 ,she

 wishes to hear of her husband1 thinks  
of him in some such pitiable plight as  
this beggar is in2 she shows sympathy4  
,a charitable disposition is indeed a   
characteristic of the whole household1  
nurses and all2 misfortune has brought  
its blessing4 ,herein the contrast with 
the ,suitors is emphatic1 they are a    
stony-hearted set1 trained by their     
deeds to violence and inhumanity4       
,eumaeus praises the minstrel talent of 
,ulysses2 the poet endows his hero with 
the gift of song in this poem2 compare  
the praise given by ,alcinous to the    
singer of ,fableland4 ,so ,achilles in  
the ,iliad was found by the embassy     
singing the glory of heroes4 ,nor must  
we pass by that deeply-grounded belief  
in the good-luck which comes from a     
sneeze4 ,telemachus sneezes at the right
 moment1 and ,penelope interprets the   
omen1 with a smile1 however1 which hints
 a touch of humorous incredulity4       
,finally we may reflect upon that true  
,homeric view of the world indicated in 

the words of ,telemachus3 ,all these    
matters will be cared for by myself and 
the ,immortals4 ,these are the two sides
 working together throughout the poem4  
,book ,eighteenth4 ,ulysses1 as beggar1 
has now gotten a foothold in his own    
house4 ,he has made the transition in   
disguise from the hut to the palace2 he 
has tried his preliminary test upon the 
,suitors1 the test of charity1 and found
 out their general character4 ,he is not
 recognized1 on account of external     
disguise in part2 yet this disguise has 
its internal correspondence4  ,the      
present ,book is one of warnings2 on all
 sides the ,suitors are admonished of   
the day of wrath which is coming4 ,in   
,homeric fashion they are told to       
change1 to repent1 to cease their       
wrong-doing4 ,we observe three parts3   
first is the conflict with the beggar   
,irus1 foreshadowing the conflict and   
outcome with the ,suitors2 second is the
 appearance of ,penelope1 the female    
,ulysses in craft and in disguise1 here 

hoodwinking the ,suitors2 third is the  
male ,ulysses1 in craft and in disguise1
 observing1 testing1 planning fate for  
the guilty4  ,i4 ,ulysses has assumed   
the part of a beggar1 but he finds a    
real beggar on the ground ready to      
dispute his right4 ,irus1 this          
mendicant1 has a character on a par with
 the ,suitors1 violent1 inhuman1        
insolent2 he is1 moreover1 one with the 
,suitors in taking other people's       
property for nothing4 ,there is no doubt
 that the poet casts an image of the    
,suitors in the portrait of ,irus1 who  
acts toward ,ulysses the beggar1 as they
 do toward ,ulysses the ruler4 ,it is   
manifest by word and deed that his      
humble life has not given him the       
training to charity4  ,the result of the
 competition between the real and the   
disguised beggar is a fight1 which is   
urged on by the ,suitors for the sport  
of the thing2 ,antinous is specially    
active in this business1 which is a     
degraded ,olympic contest4 ,homer too   

shows his love of the athlete by his    
warm description of the body and limbs  
of ,ulysses1 who showed his large and   
shapely thighs1 his full broad          
shoulders1 his chest and sinewy arms1   
when he stripped for the contest4       
,there can be only one outcome of such a
 fight under such circumstances1        
especially in an heroic poem4 ,but is   
not ,ulysses himself inhuman and        
uncharitable toward his poor beggar     
rival8 ,certainly he does not deal with 
him gently1 and the modern reader is apt
 to think that ,ulysses ought now to    
have his own test of charity applied to 
himself4 ,still his defense is at hand3 
,irus sided with the ,suitors1 had their
 character1 ,telemachus says they       
favored him2 he is harsh and merciless  
to his seeming fellow-beggar1 and so he 
gets his own1 though ,ulysses at first  
warns him1 and wishes to be on good     
terms with him3 ,i do not speak or do   
thee any wrong1 nor do ,i envy thee     
getting alms2 this threshold is large   

enough for both of us2 thou art a beggar
 as well as ,i4 ,so beware my wrath4    
,surely a sufficient warning1 which1 if 
unheeded1 draws down the fateful        
consequences4  ,but the chief           
justification of the poet lies in the   
fact that this contest with ,irus is    
sent before the main conflict as a      
prototype and a warning4 ,the ,suitors  
looked on and saw the miserable beggar  
completely undone2 they threw up their  
hands and nearly died laughing2 a case  
of blind fatuity1 for they were soon to 
be in the place of ,irus1 every one of  
them4 ,a little later ,telemachus       
suggests the connection3 ,would that the
 ,suitors might droop their heads       
overcome in our house1 as now ,irus sits
 at the hall gate with drooping head    
like a drunken man1 and cannot stand    
erect or walk home1 since his dear limbs
 have been loosened4  ,another note of  
warning is given specially to           
,amphinomus1 who had extended a very    
friendly salutation to ,ulysses after   

the victory1 and who was the most       
honorable man of the ,suitors4 ,ulysses 
again resorts to fiction in order to    
convey his lesson1 ,many were the wrongs
 ,i did2 hence my present condition4    
,let no men ever work injustice1 such as
 these ,suitors are guilty of2 the      
avenger ,i now declare to be not far    
away from his friends and his country4  
,hence the warning3 ,may some ,god bring
 thee home at once1 for bloody will be  
the decision4 ,but ,amphinomus does not 
obey1 though his mind foreboded evil2 he
 remained in the fateful company and    
afterwards fell by the hand of          
,telemachus4  ,,ii4 ,the real person for
 whose possession this whole contest is 
waged is now introduced--,penelope4 ,she
 appears in all her beauty2 ,pallas     
interferes divinely in order to heighten
 the same1 making her more stately in   
form and fairer than the ivory just     
carved4 ,she is indeed the embodiment of
 all that is beautiful and worthy in    
that ,ithacan life2 loyalty to husband1 

love of her child1 devotion to family1  
the strongest institutional feeling she 
shows1 with no small degree of artifice1
 of course4 ,just now she reproves her  
son for having permitted the recent     
fight3 thou hast allowed a stranger     
guest to be shamefully treated4 ,thus   
she shows her secret unconscious        
sympathy with her husband in disguise4  
,then she turns her attention to the    
,suitors4 ,she alludes to the parting   
words of her husband as he set out for  
,troy3 ,when thou seest thy son a       
bearded man1 marry whom thou wilt and   
leave the house4 ,the time has come when
 she has to endure this hateful         
marriage2 how the thought weighs upon   
her heart6 ,but we catch a glimpse of   
her deeper plan in the following3 ,the  
custom of ,suitors in the olden time was
 not such as yours2 they would bring    
along their own oxen and sheep and make 
a feast for the friends of the maiden   
whom they wooed1 and give her splendid  
gifts2 they consumed not other folk's   

property without recompense4 ,what does 
all this mean8  ,one result takes place 
at once4 ,the ,suitors all hasten to    
bring her their presents1 and thus      
conform to the good old time and to her 
opinion4 ,great was the hurry3 ,each    
dispatched his herald to bring a gift4  
,does the poet hint through a side      
glance the real state of the case8 ,hear
 him3 ,ulysses wad delighted when he saw
 her wheedling the ,suitors out of their
 gifts and cajoling their mind with     
flattering speech1 while her heart      
planned other things4 ,cunning indeed   
she has and boundless artifice2 what    
shall we make of her8 ,as already often 
said1 craft is her sole woman's weapon  
against man's violence1 and she uses it 
with effect for the defense of her home 
and her honor4 ,is she justified8 ,is   
such deception allowable under the      
circumstances8 ,thus the poem puts the  
test to the modern reader1 and makes him
 ponder the moral problem of life4  ,one
 other point we should note in this     

speech of ,penelope to the ,suitors4    
,she says that their method of wooing   
was not the accustomed way2 they had no 
right to expect such entertainment for  
such a body of men4 ,they had the right 
of suit1 but it must be conducted in a  
lawful manner4 ,thus they are violating 
custom1 or making it a pretext for doing
 injustice4 ,but she meets violence with
 cunning1 and rude force with craft4    
,,iii4 ,ulysses now takes note of       
another phase of the wrong done to his  
household by the ,suitors2 they debauch 
the female servants1 of whom ,melantho  
is an example4 ,the seeming beggar      
wishes to stay all night by the fires   
kindled in the palace1 and take care of 
them1 instead of the maids who usually  
looked after them4 ,this plan of his    
evidently interferes with an existing   
arrangement1 hence the abusive words of 
,melantho toward him first1 and then the
 scoffing speech of ,eurynomus1 her     
lover1 who lets fly at him a footstool  
which hits the cupbearer4 ,general      

confusion results1 in the midst of which
 ,telemachus commands order which is    
seconded by ,amphinomus4 ,after a cup of
 wine1 all retire to their homes4 ,but  
,ulysses has got an inkling of what is  
transpiring between the ,suitors and    
some of the maid-servants4 ,hereafter we
 shall see that both share in the       
punishment4  ,book ,nineteenth4 ,this is
 a strong ,book of its kind4 ,penelope  
is the center1 her difficulties are     
shown anew1 moreover they are about to  
reach their culmination4 ,the husband   
disguised here tests the wife1 and finds
 out by his own personal observation her
 fidelity4 ,her womanly instincts are   
still intact1 in spite of the dissolute 
surroundings4 ,ulysses discovers that he
 is not to meet with the fate of        
,agamemnon on his return home4  ,from   
the preceding ,book1 which was occupied 
with the external conflicts in the      
palace1 we move in the present ,book    
more and more to the heart of the       
business1 which is the union in the     

hearts of husband and wife4 ,the oneness
 of the ,family after long separation of
 its two members is the ethical theme1  
showing that such union is eternal1 as  
far as the eternal can be shown in      
,time4 ,two divisions we shall mark3    
,ulysses and his son ,telemachus first1 
then ,ulysses and his wife ,penelope4   
,i4 ,the two men1 father and son1 are   
seen preparing for the conflict which is
 drawing on--just that being the duty of
 men4 ,the weapons which were hanging on
 the walls of the banqueting-room are   
removed in the absence of the ,suitors  
and of the servants4 ,also a pretext is 
framed for their removal4 ,moreover     
,pallas1 holding before them her golden 
lamp1 made very beautiful light4        
,certainly the ,goddess was there1 the  
scene shows her in every part2 ,such is 
the wont of the ,olympians1 says        
,ulysses2 divine illumination descends  
upon a work of this kind4  ,,ii4 ,but by
 far the longest portion of the ,book is
 devoted to the interview between       

,ulysses and ,penelope4 ,telemachus goes
 off to his chamber to rest for the     
night2 ,ulysses is now received by his  
wife at the hearth4 ,the various turns  
of this lengthy account we shall throw  
into four divisions4  #a4 ,by way of    
introduction1 the faithless handmaid    
,melantho again shows her character in a
 harsh speech to ,ulysses1 ,get out1 you
 beggar6 ,will you still keep sneaking  
through the house by night to spy out   
women8 ,so she reveals plainly what she 
is1 and even mentions the test which she
 cannot stand4 ,ulysses in his reply    
enforces charity3 ,i was once rich1 but 
,i gave the poor wanderer alms4 ,beware 
of the day of reckoning3 such is his    
repeated warning to all these people4   
,penelope also gives a sharp reproof to 
the shameless handmaid1 and intimates   
the fate impending3 ,thou hast done a   
deed which thy head shall atone for4 ,it
 is again to be noted that the guilty   
are the inhuman1 while the faithful have
 charity4 ,penelope specially shows this

 trait in the present ,book1 though her 
threat to ,melantho is not gentle4      
,quite as ,ulysses served ,irus1        
,penelope is ready to serve ,melantho2  
both can become uncharitable toward the 
uncharitable2 both can meet evil with   
evil1 and fight the negative with       
negation4  #b4 ,the main purpose of this
 portion of the interview is to furnish 
,penelope with hope4 ,she seems on the  
point of giving up the long contest1 she
 has played her last stratagem against  
the ,suitors4 ,now she must choose one  
of them1 her parents urge it1 her son   
demands it2 there seems no escape1      
though she hates the marriage like black
 ,death4 ,in such a frame of mind1 the  
disguised ,ulysses is to divert her     
thoughts with a story1 to gain her      
confidence in his honesty1 and to give a
 strong promise of her husband's speedy 
return4 ,the manner in which he puts    
these three points in succession is     
worthy of study4  ,first1 he must give  
some account of himself1 of his lineage 

and of his connections4 ,here he employs
 his old fiction1 he feigns a tale1     
putting the scene into ,crete1 and      
allying himself with the famous stock of
 ,minos1 as well as with the well-known 
,cretan hero ,idomeneus so often        
celebrated in the ,iliad1 whose brother 
he claimed to be4 ,there ,i saw ,ulysses
 and entertained him4 ,this story of his
 life has an analogy to what he told    
,eumaeus 7,book ,,xiv4 #aii7 and        
,antinous 7,book ,,xvii4 #dbe74 ,all    
three differ in details1 being adjusted 
to the person and the occasion2 still   
all are cast into the same general      
mould1 with the scene placed in the     
,east on the borderland toward ,phenicia
 and with the ,trojan war in the        
background4 ,it is another ,homeric     
novelette suggesting a life of adventure
 on sea and land1 and showing sparks of 
that enterprising ,greek spirit1 of     
which the ,odyssey is the best record4  
,but the poet adds3 ,so he went on      
fabricating lies like truth2 which      

indicates that he told more than is in  
the text and completed his story4  ,in  
the second place1 ,penelope applies her 
test1 for she is not so credulous as to 
believe every wandering story-teller3   
,describe me the garments he had on4    
,truly a woman's test4 ,it is needless  
to say that ,ulysses responds with great
 precision4 ,she1 however1 had no       
suspicion1 which might arise from such a
 complete account4 ,it is no wonder that
 ,penelope proposed to entertain this   
beggar guest1 one who has been so       
hospitable to her husband1 of whom she  
declares in an outburst of despair3 ,i  
never shall behold him returning home4  
,at this point the disguised ,ulysses   
makes his third and principal speech to 
his wife1 imparting to her the hope that
 ,ulysses will return4 ,this completes  
his story1 introducing the ,thesprotians
 again 7as in other tales7 and the      
oracle of ,dodona4 ,he almost lets the  
secret out3 ,he is alive and will soon  
be here2 not far off is he now1 ,i swear

 it4 ,not much further could disguise be
 carried4 ,still ,penelope remains      
skeptical3 ,i must think he will not    
come home4 ,her hard lot1 however1 has  
not hardened her heart1 but softened it 
rather2 she reveals her native character
 in the words here spoken 7,bryant's    
,translation73--      ,short is the life
 of man1 and whoso bears     ,a cruel   
heart1 devising cruel things1     ,on   
him men call down evil from the gods    
,while living1 and pursue him when he   
dies1     ,with scoffs4 ,but whoso is of
 generous heart1     ,and harbors       
generous aims1 his guests proclaim      
,his praises far and wide to all        
mankind1     ,and numberless are they   
who call him good4  #c4 ,having been    
brought so near to a discovery1 we next 
come to an actual discovery by the nurse
 ,eurycleia4 ,she is commanded by       
,penelope to bathe the beggar's feet1   
which she does with no little sympathy  
and lamentation4 ,the character of the  
nurse is in a certain sense the echo of 

that of ,penelope1 the echo in emotion1 
and in fidelity1 if not in intelligence4
 ,she gives way to her feelings1 she    
recalls the image of ,ulysses1 whom she 
nursed1 and addresses him as present4   
,she beholds in the stranger the        
resemblance at the start4 ,i have never 
yet seen any one so like ,ulysses as    
thou art in body1 voice and feet4 ,we   
now observe that ,ulysses really selects
 ,eurycleia1 a certain old woman1       
discreet1 who has endured as much as ,i 
have3 she may touch my feet 7line #cdf74
 ,he sought for some confidant among the
 servants1 one who might be needed for  
important duties before and during the  
fight2 ,eurycleia is chosen1 since      
,ulysses knew that she would discover   
the scar on his foot and thus recognize 
him4 ,all of which takes place1 ,ulysses
 exacts secrecy1 and she replies1 giving
 a hint of her character as well as the 
reason why she was chosen3 ,thou knowest
 my firmness1 ,i shall hold like the    
solid rock or iron4  ,there is a long   

narrative pertaining to the manner in   
which ,ulysses received the wound which 
caused the scar4 ,much fault has been   
found with this story for various       
reasons1 but it gives a certain relief  
as well as epical fullness to the       
movement of the ,book4 ,it is1 however1 
one of those passages which may have    
been interpolated--or may not1 and just 
there the argument stands4 ,it traces   
the character of ,ulysses back to his   
grandfather ,antolycus1 the most cunning
 of mortals1 and also gives the         
etymology 7fanciful probably7 of the    
name of ,ulysses4 7,odysseus1 the ,greek
 form of ,ulysses1 is here derived from 
a ,greek word meaning to be angry47  #d4
 ,after the bath ,ulysses returns to the
 hearth where ,penelope is still        
sitting4 ,she tells her dream of the    
eagle which destroyed her geese1 and    
which then spoke by way of              
interpretation3 ,the geese are the      
,suitors and ,i1 once the eagle1 am now 
thy husband4 ,such is the deep-lying    

presentiment of ,penelope1 indicated by 
the dream1 which crops out in spite of  
her declared skepticism4 ,note that she 
dreams not only the dream but also      
dreams its interpretation2 surely she is
 conscious of some hope now4  ,the      
legend at the end of the ,book1 which   
tells of the two ,gates of ,dreams1 one 
of ivory and one of horn1 has roused    
much curiosity among readers about its  
purport1 and has inspired much imitation
 from later poets4 ,through the ,gate of
 ,horn 7dimly transparent7 comes the    
true dream2 through the ,gate of ,ivory 
7polished on the outside1 but letting no
 light through7 comes the false dream4  
,such is the more common explanation1   
but ,eustathius derives the whole story 
from two puns on ,greek words for horn  
and ivory4 ,at any rate there are the   
two sorts of dreams1 one getting the    
impress of the future event1 the other  
being merely subjective4  ,but ,penelope
 has another suggestion1 which is found 
widely scattered in folk-lore1 the      

,bending of the ,bow4 ,this incident1   
however1 is developed in a later ,book4 
,it is one of her schemes to defer the  
hated marriage1 after the new hope given
 by the stranger4 ,she will not yet give
 up4  ,book ,twentieth4 ,this book is   
devoted to describing more fully the    
situation in the house of ,ulysses just 
before the slaying of the ,suitors4 ,the
 guilty and the guiltless are indicated 
anew1 with fresh incidents2 especially  
the fatuity of the ,suitors is set forth
 in a variety of ways4 ,the scene is in 
the palace4  ,the ,book may be divided  
into three portions1 which deal with    
7#a7 the royal pair1 7#b7 the servants  
faithful and faithless1 7#c7 the        
,suitors at their banquet4  ,i4 ,ulysses
 is lying on the porch1 restless1 unable
 to sleep2 he sees the disloyal women of
 the household come forth to the        
embraces of the ,suitors4 ,he commands  
himself3 ,endure it1 heart2 thou hast   
borne worse than this4 ,pallas has at   
last to come and to answer his two      

troublesome thoughts3 ,how shall ,i1    
being only one1 slay the ,suitors1 being
 many8 ,and still1 that is not the end4 
,how shall ,i escape afterward1 if ,i   
succeed8 ,wherein we may note already a 
hint of the last ,book of the ,odyssey4 
,pallas reproves him1 yet gives him     
assurance4 ,if fifty bands of men should
 surround us1 still we shall win1 for ,i
 am a ,god1 and ,i guard thee always in 
thy labors4 ,whereupon ,ulysses at once 
went to sleep4  ,the wife ,penelope is  
also having her period of anxiety and of
 weeping for her husband2 she prays to  
,diana and wishes for death1 being      
awake4 ,but when asleep1 her unconscious
 nature asserts itself3 ,this very night
 a man like him lay by me1 my heart     
rejoiced1 ,i thought it no dream4 ,such 
is the contrast between her waking and  
her sleeping state2 in the one her      
skepticism1 in the other her instinct   
manifests itself4  ,,ii4 ,we now pass to
 quite a full survey of the servants of 
the household4 ,female slaves have to   

grind the corn to make bread for the    
,suitors2 one of these slaves is still  
at her task1 though past daybreak1 she  
being the weakest of all4 ,standing at  
her hand-mill she utters the ominous    
word3 ,o ,zeus1 ruler1 fulfill this wish
 for me wretched3 may the present feast 
of the ,suitors be their last1 they who 
have loosed my limbs with painful toil  
in grinding their barley meal6 ,thus the
 prayer of the poor overworked          
slave-woman calls down the vengeance of 
the ,gods1 giving the word of friendly  
omen to the avenger4 ,certainly a most  
powerful motive2 but again we think1 how
 modern it sounds6 ,yet ancient too the 
thought must have been1 for here it     
stands in ,homer truly prophetic of many
 things4  ,eurycleia is the controlling 
power among the handmaids1 of whom there
 was a large number2 twenty went to the 
spring to fetch water1 while others were
 busy about the house1 preparing for the
 coming banquet4 ,the swineherd ,eumaeus
 came with three fat porkers2 his       

disloyal counterpart1 ,melanthius1 also 
appeared with goats for the feast2 both 
again show their character to ,ulysses4 
,the cowherd ,philoetius is now         
introduced1 in a full account2 he is one
 of the faithful1 has charity for the   
beggar1 and shows his fidelity in a     
number of points4 ,the beggar assures   
him3 ,ulysses will return1 thou shalt   
see him slaying those ,suitors1         
whereupon ,philoetius volunteers his    
aid4  ,thus the forces are assembling2  
the two sides1 loyal and disloyal1 are  
separating more and more1 preparatory to
 the grand struggle4 ,ulysses in his    
disguise has discovered those upon whom 
he can depend4 ,but the banquet is      
ready1 the ,suitors1 who have been      
plotting against the life of            
,telemachus1 enter2 they are divided    
among themselves1 and can show no       
concerted action4  ,,iii4 ,this banquet 
is noticeable1 inasmuch as ,telemachus  
asserts the mastery in his own house and
 defies the ,suitors4 ,he honors the    

beggar as his guest1 and gives warning  
that nobody insult the poor stranger1   
lest there be trouble4 ,a number of     
,suitors show their ill feeling2 one of 
them1 named ,ktesippus1 flings a        
bullock's foot at ,ulysses for a        
hospitable present1 at which the latter 
smiled in sardonic fashion1 but said    
nothing4 ,telemachus1 however1 reproves 
the agressor with great spirit1 and     
asserts himself anew against all deeds  
of violence4 ,one of the more reasonable
 ,suitors1 ,agelaus1 makes a speech1    
which commends ,telemachus but insists  
upon his ordering his mother to marry   
the man who is best and who will give   
most presents4 ,in reply ,telemachus    
declares that he does not hinder the    
choice of his mother1 but that he will  
not force her to marry4 ,that may ,god  
never bring about4 7,theos without      
article47  ,now follows a series of     
miraculous signs1 prodigies1 mad doings1
 which prefigure the coming destruction4
 ,insane laughter of the ,suitors1 yet  

with eyes full of tears1 and with hearts
 full of sorrow3 what does it all       
forbode8 ,here comes the seer           
,theoclymenus with a terrible           
interpretation uttered in the true      
,hebrew prophetic style3 ,the hall ,i   
see full of ghosts hastening down to    
,erebus2 the sun in ,heaven is          
extinguished1 and a dark cloud          
overspreads the land4 ,the ,suitors     
bemock the prophet1 who leaves the      
company with another fateful vision3 ,i 
perceive evil coming upon you1 from     
which not one of you ,suitors shall     
escape4 ,more taunts are flung at       
,telemachus who now says nothing2 he1   
his father1 and his mother1 witness the 
mad banquet1 which is a veritable feast 
of ,belshazzar1 and which has also its  
prophet4 ,the ,hebrew analogy is        
striking4  ,book ,twenty-first4 ,the    
test presented in many a tale is here   
introduced at the turning-point of      
destiny4 ,the ,bending of the ,bow and  
skill in the use thereof are incidents  

in the folk-lore of every people4 ,the  
theme is naturally derived from a social
 condition1 in which the bow and arrow  
are the chief weapons of defense and    
offense1 employed against human foes and
 wild animals4 ,hence the strong man1   
the ,hero1 is the one able to bend the  
strong bow and to use it with dexterity4
 ,such a man uses the chief implement of
 his time and people with the greatest  
success1 hence he is the greatest man4  
,so we have the test of bending the bow1
 which simply selects the best man for  
the time and circumstances4  ,in recent 
interpretations of mythology1 this      
employment of the bow and arrows has    
been connected with the sun and its     
rays4 ,ulysses is declared to be really 
a sun-god1 a form of ,apollo1 deity of  
archery2 he shoots his arrows which are 
sunbeams and destroys the ,suitors1 who 
are the clouds obstructing his light1   
and wooing his spouse1 the day or the   
sky4 ,it is also noteworthy that on this
 very day of the slaughter of the       

,suitors1 there is a festival in ,ithaca
 to ,apollo1 god of light and archery4  
,this is usually regarded as the ,new   
,moon 7,neomenios7 festival4 ,antinous  
refers to it 7l4 #bei7 and proposes to  
defer the contest on that account4 ,but 
,ulysses is made to shoot on the festal 
day of the sungod4  ,there is no doubt  
that mythology is closely connected with
 ,nature1 out of which it develops4 ,in 
the ,vedic hymns we see this connection 
in the most explicit manner1 and threads
 of the old ,aryan ,mythus can often be 
picked out in ,homer4 ,still we must    
recollect that it was the archer man who
 first projected the archer god out of  
himself1 and it is no explanation of    
,ulysses to say that he represents the  
sun-god2 rather the sun-god represents  
him4 ,moreover1 the ethical purpose of  
,ulysses in slaying the ,suitors is the 
soul of the poem1 which is to find its  
adequate interpretation in that purpose 
and in that alone4 ,the incident of     
,bending the ,bow is wrought into a     

grand scheme of indicating the ethical  
order of the world4  ,the three         
divisions of the ,book we shall briefly 
note1 observing how the bow rejects the 
unfit1 and selects the right man4  ,i4  
,it is ,pallas 7not ,apollo1 the archer7
 who started in the mind of ,penelope   
this scheme of testing the ,suitors4    
,why a ,goddess here8 ,it is first a    
chance thought of the woman1 but then it
 becomes an important link in the       
movement of divine nemesis2 hence the   
poet1 according to this custom1 traces  
the inspiration of the idea to a deity4 
,the history of the famous bow is given 
with an especial delight in details4    
,penelope herself goes to the room where
 the armor of the house was kept1 gets  
the bow1 and announces the contest to   
the ,suitors4  ,the man who can bend the
 bow and send the arrow through the     
twelve rings1 is to bear her away as his
 bride4 ,the trial is made1 no ,suitor  
is able to bend the weapon4 ,interesting
 is the prophet among the ,suitors1     

,leiodes1 who tries his hand1 yet gives 
the warning3 ,this bow upon this spot   
will take from many a prince the breath 
of life4 ,he foresees and forewarns1 but
 still acts the transgressor2 he        
prophesies death to the ,suitors1 but   
remains himself a ,suitor1 and so       
perishes in accord with his own         
prophecy4  ,,ii4 ,ulysses1 going to one 
side with the cowherd and swineherd     
7,philoetius and ,eumaeus71 whose       
loyalty has been so conspicuous1 now    
discloses himself to them1 and assigns  
their duties in the approaching         
conflict4 ,i know that you alone of the 
servants 7men7 have desired my return4  
,he will give them wife and property if 
he conquers the ,suitors1 and to me ye  
shall be as companions and brothers of  
,telemachus4 ,deserving to be adopted   
into the royal house of ,ulysses they   
both are1 being of this little army of  
four against more than a hundred        
enemies4 ,eumaeus is to put the bow into
 the hands of ,ulysses1 after the       

,suitors have tried the test2           
,philoetius is to fasten the gates that 
none escape4  ,,iii4 ,after the ,suitors
 have failed to bend the bow and a delay
 is proposed1 ,ulysses1 the beggar1     
comes forward and asks to make the      
trial4 ,violent opposition rises on part
 of the ,suitors1 but ,penelope in two  
speeches insists that he shall try4     
,here again we must ascribe to her      
unconscious nature some strong affinity 
with the ragged man before her4 ,she    
praises the form of the stranger and    
notes his noble birth1 though she denies
 the possibility of herself becoming his
 bride4 ,still she shows a deep         
attraction for him1 which she cannot    
suppress4  ,telemachus now takes the    
matter in hand1 orders his mother out of
 the way somewhat abruptly 7since the   
fight is soon to start71 and bids the   
bow to be carried to ,ulysses in face of
 the outcries of the ,suitors4          
,eurycleia1 the nurse1 is commanded to  
fasten the doors of the house2 now we   

see why ,ulysses let her recognize him  
by the scar4 ,meanwhile ,philoetius     
fastens the gates of the court4         
,apparently there is no escape for the  
,suitors2 ,ulysses has the bow2 he has  
tested its quality and possesses a      
quiver full of arrows4  ,such is the    
famous deed of ,bending the ,bow1 which 
is a symbolic act pointing out and      
selecting the ,hero4 ,ulysses is        
revealed by it to the ,suitors even     
before he calls out his name and throws 
off his disguise2 he performs the test1 
he shoots through the rings without     
missing1 he has strength and skill for  
the emergency4 ,if hitherto stress has  
been laid upon his mind and cunning1 now
 his athletic side is brought to the    
front4 ,but it required all his         
intelligence to reach the point at which
 his will is to act4  ,we have now gone 
through what may be called the first    
stage of this final part of the         
,odyssey4 ,the ,suitors have fully shown
 their destructive spirit1 disregarding 

property1 family1 state1 the ,gods4     
,ulysses has seen and felt in person    
their wrongs2 their negative career has 
reached its last deed1 he has the bow in
 his hands and is ready for the work of 
retribution4 ,such is the general sweep 
of the last five ,books2 but now the    
destructive deeds of the ,suitors are to
 meet with a still mightier destruction4
  ,book ,twenty-second4 ,the final act  
of justice1 the ,day of ,judgment1      
perchance the ,crack of ,doom2 such     
conceptions have long been familiar to  
man and still are2 in the present ,book 
they find one of their most striking    
embodiments4 ,that for which so long    
preparation has been made1 is now       
realized3 the vindication of the        
,ethical ,order of the ,world4 ,there   
is1 however1 little feeling for that    
charity and humanity before noticed2    
stern1 inflexible1 merciless justice is 
the mood and meaning of this piece of   
writing4  ,the ,book has essentially two
 parts3 the punishment of the guilty men

 7,suitors and ,servants7 with the      
sparing of the innocent1 and the        
punishment of the guilty women          
7servants7 with the sparing of the      
innocent4 ,thus in both parts there is  
the penalty1 yet also the               
discrimination1 according to the deed4  
,i4 ,the first part is mainly a battle1 
an ,homeric battle1 and reminds the     
reader of many a combat in the ,iliad4  
,of the conflict with the ,suitors here 
described we can discern three stages1  
which are marked also by the use of     
different weapons1 the bow1 the spear1  
and the sword4  7#a7 ,the first stage of
 the battle opens with the slaying of   
,antinous1 the ringleader of the band1  
who is pierced by an arrow from the bow 
of ,ulysses4 ,the crowd threatens       
,ulysses1 who now utters to them what   
may be called their last judgment1      
announcing who he is1 and his purpose to
 punish their crimes3 ,dogs6 you thought
 ,i would not come back from ,troy1 and 
therefore you devoured my substance1    

debauched my maid-servants2 and wooed my
 wife while ,i was still alive4 ,you    
feared not the ,gods1 nor the vengeance 
of man afterwards2 now destruction hangs
 over you all4 ,this may be taken as a  
statement of the ethical content of the 
poem from the mouth of ,ulysses himself 
at the critical moment4 ,the ,suitors   
feared not the ,gods1 were violators of 
the ,divine ,order1 for which violation 
man was to punish them4 ,again the two  
sides1 the divine and human1 are put    
together4 ,in vain ,eurymachus1 a       
spokesman for the ,suitors1 offers      
amends1 guilt cannot now buy itself free
 when caught4 ,ulysses answers3 ,if thou
 shouldst offer all that thou hast and  
all that thy father has1 and other      
gifts1 ,i would not desist4 ,so         
,eurymachus1 perishes by the second     
arrow and still another ,suitor1        
,amphinomus is pierced by the spear of  
,telemachus4 ,thus three leaders are    
slain in this preliminary stage4  7#b7  
,the second stage of the conflict begins

 by ,telemachus bringing a shield1 two  
spears1 and a helmet for his father1    
whose arrows are not enough for the     
enemies4 ,also he brings armor for the  
cowherd and swineherd1 as well as for   
himself2 thus the four men get          
themselves fully equipped4  ,but in     
order to make a fair fight1 it is       
necessary that the ,suitors be armed1 in
 part at least4 ,melanthius1 the        
goatherd1 finds his way to the chamber  
where the arms are deposited4 ,arms for 
twelve he brings1 and then goes for     
more1 when he is caught4 ,but now       
,pallas has to appear in the form of    
,mentor1 in order to put courage into   
the heart of ,ulysses4 ,the first armed 
set of ,suitors advance and throw their 
javelins without effect1 while the four 
on the side of ,ulysses kill four men4  
,four more ,suitors are slain in a fresh
 onset1 then two more2 now their store  
of weapons is exhausted4 ,thirteen      
mentioned here by name have fallen      
beside those unnamed ones whom the      

arrows of ,ulysses slew4 ,the most      
prominent ,suitors are weltering in     
their blood1 there are no more weapons1 
the result is a panic4  7#c7 ,this is   
the third stage of the battle4 ,a large 
majority of the ,suitors1 probably #hj  
or more out of the #ajh plus #aj        
attendants are still alive1 though      
without weapons and completely paralyzed
 with terror4 ,pallas held from the roof
 her man-destroying aegis1 their hearts 
trembled with fear1 they fled through   
the palace like a drove of cattle4 ,the 
four men now use their swords upon the  
terrified1 defenseless crowd1 and cut   
them down4 ,leiodes1 the soothsayer of  
the ,suitors1 begs for mercy and        
recounts his attempts to restrain their 
violent deeds2 vain is his prayer1 he   
perishes with his company of brigands1  
for if thou wert their soothsayer1 thou 
must often in my palace have prayed the 
,gods against my return and for the     
,suitors4 ,thus the priestly man too is 
involved in the net1 he knew the wrong1 

yet remained the chaplain of that       
godless company4  ,two1 however1 are    
saved1 the guiltless4 ,the bard1 who    
sings for ,gods and men is spared1      
because he sang by necessity for the    
,suitors1 and not for sake of gain2 also
 ,telemachus intercedes for the herald  
,medon1 who took care of me as a child1 
a beautiful gleam on this ghastly scene4
 ,from ,ulysses1 however1 we hear the   
moral of the event proclaimed1 which the
 reader may take unto himself3 ,from    
this thou mayst know and tell to another
 how much better well-doing is than     
evil-doing4 ,so speaks the slayer over  
these corpses1 which utterance we may at
 least regard as an attempt of the poet 
once more to enforce the ethical purpose
 of his work4 ,not a single living      
,suitor or attendant can be found       
skulking anywhere1 and none have        
escaped4  ,,ii4 ,having completed his   
task in regard to the guilty men1       
,ulysses now turns his attention toward 
the guilty women of his household4 ,for 

this purpose ,eurycleia is called1 and  
is brought to him2 when she sees the    
deadly work1 she shouts for joy4        
,ulysses restrains her3 ,it is an unholy
 thing to exult over the slain4 ,here   
again the ethical nature of this act is 
emphasized3 ,the decree of the ,gods and
 their own evil deeds overwhelmed these 
men2 they paid respect to no human      
being1 high or low1 who approached them4
 ,yet there are modern writers who can  
see no ethical purpose in the ,odyssey4 
,eurycleia gives her report3 out of     
fifty serving maids in the palace1      
twelve have mounted the car of          
shamelessness4 ,these latter are now    
called1 are compelled to carry out the  
dead 7among whom are their lovers71 and 
to make clean the place of slaughter4   
,then they are led out and hung3 such   
was the ancient fate of the prostitute  
in the household4  ,a still harsher and 
more ignoble punishment awaits the      
goatherd ,melanthius1 a cruel mutilation
 is inflicted upon him1 horrible to the 

last degree1 but it grades his          
punishment according to his offense4 ,a 
fumigation with sulphur we find here1 as
 old as ,homer4 ,then all the rest of   
the handmaids are summoned along with   
,penelope1 to witness the deed and to   
see the hero4  ,such is this terrible   
,book in which destruction is fully     
meted out to destroyers4 ,according to  
our count #abi people are here dead1 all
 of them guilty4 ,a doomsday spectacle  
for that household1 and for all readers 
and hearers since2 it shows the return  
of the deed negatively upon the negative
 doer4 ,but ,ulysses1 the hero sitting  
amid these corpses1 is simply the       
,destroyer1 the very picture and        
embodiment thereof4 ,is there to be no  
positive result of such bloody work8    
,yes2 that is the next thing to be shown
 forth in the two following ,books2     
,ulysses is also the restorer1 wherewith
 his career and this poem will          
terminate4  ,book ,twenty-third4 ,the   
essential fact of this ,book is the     

reunion of husband and wife after twenty
 years separation4 ,the eternal nature  
of the bond of the ,family is thus      
asserted as strongly as is possible in  
the world of ,time4 ,this is the deep   
institutional foundation upon which the 
,odyssey reposes4 ,still the wife also  
has to be conquered1 that is1 she has to
 be convinced that the beggar is her    
husband4 ,all along we have seen the    
struggle between her instinct and her   
intellect2 her understanding persists in
 thinking that ,ulysses will not come   
back1 yet she dreams of his restoration1
 and she feels a strange sympathy with  
the old man in rags4 ,thus the two      
opposing elements of female nature have 
been in a conflict with each other2 her 
instinct tries to surge over her        
intellect1 but does not succeed2 she    
demands the complete test of identity   
and gets it in the present ,book4 ,the  
old nurse1 her son1 and finally ,ulysses
 himself become impatient with her delay
 and her circumspection1 still she holds

 out against them all1 though she has1  
too1 her own inner emotions to combat4  
,the gradual unfolding of this scene to 
the point of recognition must be        
pronounced a masterpiece of character   
evolution4  ,the book may be divided    
into two portions--before and after the 
,recognition1 which culminates when     
,penelope accepts the test of the secret
 bed which was once made by ,ulysses4   
,i4 ,the movement up to the ,recognition
 shows ,penelope undergoing a double    
pressure1 from without and from within4 
,yet it shows too a corresponding double
 resistance on her part4 ,first         
,eurycleia goes to her chamber1 and     
tells her in great glee that the        
,suitors are slain and her husband has  
returned4 ,she can accept the slaughter 
of the ,suitors1 that could have been   
done by some ,god1 angry at their       
injustice2 but she will not believe that
 ,ulysses is really in the palace4 ,the 
nurse cries out3 ,truly thou hast ever  
had a disbelieving mind1 and then tells 

of the scar4 ,still incredulous2 but she
 goes down to the court1 and there sees 
,ulysses in his rags4 ,no sufficient    
proof yet1 though she has a strange     
inner struggle not to run up to him that
 she might clasp his hands and kiss him4
 ,but her understanding conquers1 she   
keeps at a distance1 scrutinizing1 till 
,telemachus1 impulsive youth1 breaks out
 into a reproach3 ,mother1 thy heart is 
harder than a rock4 ,but ,ulysses       
himself speaks to his son3 ,suffer that 
thy mother test me2 she is like himself1
 he understands her better than the son 
does4 ,finally ,ulysses takes the bath  
and puts on fresh garments1 while       
,pallas gives him fresh grace and       
majesty1 and increased stature2 he comes
 before ,penelope again2 still no       
yielding4 ,ulysses himself is now forced
 to exclaim3 ,above all women the ,gods 
have given thee a heart impenetrable4   
,thus the nurse1 the son1 the husband in
 turn have failed to shake her firmness1
 she must have an absolute test1 which  

is known to him and me1 and to us alone4
  ,this is that strange bed1 which      
,ulysses is unconsciously provoked by   
his wife to describe4 ,penelope commands
 the nurse3 ,bring the bed out of the   
chamber which he made4 ,but really it   
could not be removed1 it was constructed
 of the trunk of an olive tree rooted in
 the soil and its construction was the  
secret of himself and wife4 ,very strong
 is the symbolism of this bed1 and is   
manifestly intended by the poet4 ,it    
typified the firm immovable bond of     
marriage between the two2 their unity   
could not be broken4 ,mark the words of 
,ulysses3 ,woman1 thou hast spoken a    
painful word1 when she commanded the bed
 to be removed2 who hath displaced my   
bed8 ,in it there was built a great sign
 or mystery2 now ,i do not know if my   
bed be firm in position1 or whether some
 other man has moved it elsewhere1      
cutting the trunk of the olive tree up  
by the roots4 ,such is his intense      
feeling about that marriage bed1 deeply 

symbolic1 truly a sign1 as here         
designated4  ,now this is just the test 
which ,penelope wanted1 a double test   
indeed1 not only of the head1 but also  
of the heart4 ,he reveals to her not    
merely that he knows about the bed1 but 
how strongly he feels in reference to   
it1 and to what it signifies4 ,for he   
might be the returned ,ulysses1 and yet 
not be hers4 ,but now she has yielded1  
she explains the reason of her          
hesitation1 defends herself by the      
example of ,helen who was cozened by a  
stranger4 ,she used her craft to defend 
the unity and sacredness of the ,family1
 against ,suitors and even against      
husband4 ,after some talk1 the servant  
lights them to their chamber1 they in   
great joy take their customary place in 
their ancient bed4  ,,ii4 ,with the line
 just quoted 7#bif of the original7 the 
,alexandrian grammarians1 ,aristarchus  
and ,aristophanes1 concluded the        
,odyssey1 and declared the rest to be a 
post-,homeric addition4 ,still1 this    

part of the poem must have been in      
existence and accepted as ,homer's long 
before their time4 ,both ,aristotle and 
,plato cite portions of it without any  
declared suspicion of its genuineness4  
,what reason the old grammarians had for
 this huge excision is not definitely   
known2 we can see1 however1 that they   
wished to end the poem with complete    
restoration1 outer and inner1 of the    
domestic bond between husband and wife4 
,certainly a very noble thought in the  
poem1 but by no means a sufficient end2 
beside the domestic1 the political bond 
also must be restored1 and the ethical  
harmony be made complete both in ,family
 and in ,state4 ,ulysses1 moreover1 has 
spoken of the duty laid upon him by     
,tiresias in ,hades3 he must carry an   
oar till he comes to a land whose people
 take it for a winnowing fan2 there he  
is to plant it upright and make an      
offering to ,neptune4 ,so there is a    
good deal yet to be done1 which the poem
 has already called for4  ,but just now 

she tells him her story1 quite briefly2 
then he tells her his story1 more at    
length4 ,this has the nature of a       
confession1 with its ,circe and         
epecially ,calypso1 which she has to    
hear and he to make4 ,through it all    
runs his yearning to reach home and     
wife4  ,but with the sun risen1 new     
duties press upon him4 ,first he will   
seek some compensation for his property 
taken by the ,suitors2 secondly1 he will
 have to meet the vengeance of their    
relatives and friends4 ,so the army of  
four1 himself1 ,telemachus1 swineherd   
and cowherd1 march forth in arms from   
the palace gate1 through the city to the
 country4  ,book ,twenty-fourth4 ,this  
is another ,book over which there has   
been much critical discussion4 ,its     
thought1 whatever may be said about its 
execution1 is absolutely necessary to   
bring the ,odyssey to an organic        
conclusion1 and make the poem a         
well-rounded totality4 ,there is the    
political trouble generally1 and        

specially the blood feud caused by the  
slaying of the ,suitors1 which has to be
 harmonized4 ,repeatedly hitherto we    
have had hints of this coming           
difficulty2 ,ulysses thought of it1 and 
made his plan concerning it before the  
slaughter took place4 7,,xx4 #da47  ,in 
fact the complete restoration of        
,ulysses is both to ,family and ,state1 
the two great institutions which form   
the substructure of the ,odyssey4 ,his  
country was quite as deeply distracted  
and perverted as his household2 both had
 to undergo the process of purification4
 ,in ,book ,twenty-third we had the     
restoration of ,ulysses to ,family1 in  
,book ,twenty-fourth we are to have     
essentially his restoration to ,state2  
then he will truly have returned to     
prudent ,penelope and to sunny ,ithaca1 
and the poem can end4 ,moreover his     
restoration to ,family and ,state       
involves the restoration of ,family and 
,state2 the rightful husband and the    
rightful ruler heals the shattered      

institutions4  ,but it is undeniable    
that this ,book is the most poorly      
constructed of any ,book in the         
,odyssey4 ,there is undue repetition of 
previous matters1 yet certainly with    
important additions2 there is           
unnecessary expansion in the earlier    
parts of the ,book1 and too great       
compression and hurry at the end4 ,in   
general1 the subject-matter of the ,book
 is completely valid and necessary to   
the poem1 but the execution falls below 
the ,homeric level1 specially in its    
constructive feature4 ,still we see ino 
reason why it may not be ,homer's2 he   
too has his best and worst ,books4  ,of 
the present ,book there are two parts3  
the ,underworld and the ,upperworld4    
,i4 ,the ,suitors have been sent down to
 the realm where ,ulysses in the        
,eleventh ,book found the souls of the  
,trojan ,heroes1 ,agamemnon1 ,achilles1 
,ajax4 ,these three again are introduced
 with some others4 ,the death of        
,achilles is described quite fully1 when

 the souls of the ,suitors arrive1 and  
one of them1 ,amphimedon1 recapitulates 
the story of the ,odyssey4 ,it tells of 
the craft and fidelity of ,penelope1 and
 of the return of ,ulysses and his      
destruction of the ,suitors4 ,the words 
of ,agamemnon recognize the pair1       
,ulysses and ,penelope1 as the supreme  
,greek man and woman1 as those who have 
mastered the greatest difficulties of   
their epoch4 ,the ,trojan cycle is now  
complete1 the separation caused by the  
war is bridged over1 both ,family and   
,state are restored after the long      
disruption4 ,in striking contrast was   
the case of ,agamemnon and              
,clytaemnestra1 both of whom perished   
without restoration4 ,thus by means of  
the ghosts of the ,suitors1 the famous  
careers of ,ulysses and ,penelope are   
taken up into the realm of the          
,supersensible1 of ideal forms1 whose   
fame is to last forever4  ,this part of 
the ,book 7the so-called second ,nekyia7
 in which ,hades appears the second     

time1 has been sharply questioned both  
by ancient and modern critics on a      
number of grounds4 ,these we shall not  
discuss1 only stating that they are by  
no means conclusive against the         
genuineness of the whole passage4 ,the  
general idea of it belongs here2 the    
dead ,suitors represent the grand end of
 the ,trojan movement1 and its reception
 into the ,hades of famous deeds done   
and past1 and very significantly        
,agamemnon voices the praise of ,ulysses
 and ,penelope1 the great winners in the
 long struggle4 ,still the repetitions  
of previous portions of the ,odyssey are
 to our mind unnecessary and prolix1    
though the literary skill manifested    
just herein has been highly lauded by   
,saint ,beuve and ,lang4  ,,ii4 ,coming 
back to the ,upperworld we find a series
 of incidents following one another both
 slowly and hurriedly4 ,these we shall  
throw in groups for the sake of a rapid 
survey4  #a4 ,ulysses with his three    
companions comes to the country seat of 

his father ,laertes4 ,with him1 too1 he 
plays the same disguise as heretofore   
with ,penelope1 ,eumaeus and others1    
though its necessity is not now so      
plain4 ,i shall test my father1 to see  
if he will know me2 how fond ,ulysses is
 of this6 ,so we have more fictions1    
masquerading1 and final recognition by  
the scar and other proofs4 ,also an old 
servant here1 ,dolius1 is recognized4   
#b4 ,now the scene passes to the city4  
,the friends of the ,suitors have called
 an assembly2 a strong party rises in   
opposition to ,ulysses1 though two men1 
,medon and ,halitherses1 speak on his   
side4 ,the result is1 a band under      
,eupeithes1 father of ,antinous1 marches
 forth to wreak vengeance upon ,ulysses4
  #c4 ,hereupon a divine interference4  
,zeus decrees that there must be no     
blood-feud between the relatives of the 
slain and the ,house of ,ulysses1 but a 
league of friendship4 ,revenge must no  
longer beget revenge4  #d4 ,still a     
fight occurs in which ,laertes and      

,dolius with his six sons1 take part4   
,old ,laertes is now to have his warlike
 meed1 be kills old ,eupeithes1 so that 
the male members of the ,house of       
,ulysses for three generations--son1    
grandson1 grandfather--have each killed 
his man4  #e4 ,pallas hereupon stops the
 conflict1 and the last lines of the    
poem announce the peace which she makes 
under the form and voice of ,mentor4    
,surely the work of wisdom 7,pallas7 as 
well as of supreme law 7,zeus7--to stop 
the self-repeating blood-feud4 ,thus is 
the deep rent in the ,state healed by   
aid of ,zeus and ,pallas4 ,it should be 
observed that ,pallas at the end of the 
,eumenides of the poet ,a,eschylus      
released ,orestes1 who is pursued by the
 ,furies1 from the guilt of his mother's
 blood1 by casting the decisive ballot  
in the court of ,areiopagus4 ,here we   
find another link between ,homer and    
,a,eschylus4  ,very hurried are these   
later incidents of the ,book1 but they  
are necessary to complete the poem4 ,the

 blood-feud is harmonized1 the ,gods    
again make themselves valid in the land 
by introducing peace and harmony1 which 
had been undermined by the ,suitors4    
,property1 ,family1 ,state1 are         
restored1 and the ,divine ,order of the 
,world in the person of the ,gods is    
recognized4 ,only with this conclusion  
is the negative conduct of the ,suitors 
completely undone1 and a positive       
institutional life becomes possible4 ,it
 is true that in the hurry of coming to 
an end1 the poet says nothing of the    
journey enjoined by ,tiresias in ,hades1
 the journey to a distant people who    
would take an oar for a winnowing fan4  
,still we may suppose that it was       
performed1 and that angry ,neptune1 the 
great enemy of ,ulysses among the ,gods1
 was also reconciled4 ,but1 chiefly1    
,ulysses has above on this earth        
realized the idea of a world-justice1   
which we found running through all      
,hades1 in the statements of ,tiresias1 
in the fates of the great ,greek heroes1

 in the punitory portion presided over  
by ,minos4 ,from this point of view the 
,odyssey may be truly regarded an image 
of the working of the ,spirit of        
,history1 and the poem holds good for   
all time4     ,,summary4   ,in          
concluding these lengthy studies of the 
,iliad and the ,odyssey1 we shall try to
 grasp each of the poems as a whole1 and
 then the two together is one great     
totality sprung of one people and of one
 consciousness4 ,the central fact out of
 which both poems arise1 to which and   
from which both poems move1 is the      
,trojan ,war4 ,this ,war1 whether       
mythical or historical1 is certainly the
 most famous1 and probably the most     
significant that ever took place on the 
earth4  ,as to the ,odyssey1 the first  
thing to be seized is the complete      
career of its ,hero ,ulysses4 ,this     
career has naturally two parts3 the     
going to ,troy from ,ithaca1 and the    
coming back from ,troy to ,ithaca4      
,every ,greek hero had a similar career1

 wholly or in part2 many1 of coarse1    
never returned4 ,the two parts together 
constitute a total movement which begins
 at a certain point and returns to the  
same2 hence it may be called a cycle1   
and its two parts may be designated in a
 general way as the ,separation and the 
,return4  ,the ,odyssey has as its theme
 the second half of the cycle1 though1  
of course1 it presupposes the first     
half1 namely the going to ,troy and the 
stay there4 ,the poem1 accordingly1 does
 not give the entire life of ,ulysses2  
what may be called the ,trojan half must
 be looked for elsewhere1 mainly in the 
,iliad4 ,of course there are in the     
,odyssey many allusions to incidents    
which belong to the first half of this  
career4  ,the ,ulysses of the ,iliad is 
one of the great leaders and one of the 
great heroes1 but he is neither the     
chief leader nor the chief hero4        
,already he appears in ,book ,first as a
 member of the ,council1 and an epithet 
is applied to him which suggests his    

wisdom4 ,thus at the start of the ,iliad
 he is designated as the man of thought1
 of intelligence1 of many resources4    
,but in the ,second ,book he shines with
 full glory1 he is indeed the pivot of  
the whole ,book4 ,on account of a speech
 made by ,agamemnon1 their leader1 the  
,greeks start at once for home1 they are
 ready to give up the great enterprise  
of the restoration of ,helen1 they act  
as if they would abandon their cause4   
,it is ,ulysses who calls them back to  
themselves and restores order2 he shows 
himself to be the only man in the whole 
army who knows what to do in a critical 
emergency4 ,he suppresses ,thersites1 he
 exhorts the chieftains1 he uses force  
on the common people4 ,he finally makes 
a speech to the entire body of ,greeks  
in the ,assembly1 which recalls the     
great national purpose of the ,war1 and 
is the true word for the time4 ,nestor  
follows him in a similar vein1 and the  
,greek host again takes its place in    
line of battle and prepares for the     

onset upon ,troy4 ,here we have a       
typical action of ,ulysses1 showing his 
essential character1 and revealing the  
germ out of which the ,odyssey may well 
have sprouted4  ,other matters may also 
be noticed4 ,pallas1 the ,goddess of    
,wisdom1 appears to him in the midst of 
the tumult1 and gives him her           
suggestion4 ,she will remain with him   
ever afterwards1 manifesting herself to 
him in like emergencies till the end of 
the ,odyssey4 ,telemachus is mentioned  
in this ,book of the ,iliad4 ,the       
distinction between ,ulysses and the    
aged ,nestor is drawn3 the latter has   
appreciative wisdom1 that of experience1
 while ,ulysses has creative wisdom1    
that of immediate divine insight1 coming
 directly from ,pallas4 ,this           
distinction also will show itself in the
 ,odyssey4 ,ulysses is the real hero of 
the ,second ,book of the ,iliad2 he     
appears in other ,books with the same   
general character1 but never so         
prominently again4  ,in the             

,post-,iliad1 or that portion of the    
,trojan war which lies between the      
,iliad and ,odyssey1 ,ulysses will      
become the chief hero4 ,after the death 
of ,achilles1 there will be a contest   
for the latter's arms between him and   
,ajax2 ,ulysses wins4 ,that is1 ,brain  
not ,brawn is to control henceforth4    
,under the lead of ,intelligence1 which 
is that of ,ulysses1 ,troy falls4  ,the 
,odyssey1 then1 deals with the return of
 ,ulysses from the ,trojan ,war1 and    
lasts ten years1 as the account runs4   
,but the poet is not writing a history1 
not even a biography1 in the ordinary   
sense2 he does not follow step by step  
the hero's wanderings1 or state the     
events in chronological order2 we shall 
see how the poem turns back upon itself 
and begins only some forty days before  
its close4 ,still the ,odyssey will give
 not merely the entire return from      
,troy1 but will suggest the whole cycle 
of its hero's development4  ,the first  
half of the cycle1 the going to ,troy   

and the stay there1 lasted ten years1   
though some accounts have made it       
longer4 ,the ,iliad1 though its action  
is compressed to a few days1 treats     
generally of the first half of the cycle
 and hence it is the grand              
presupposition of the ,odyssey1 which   
takes it for granted everywhere4 ,the   
,iliad1 however1 is a unity and has its 
own center of action1 which is the wrath
 of ,achilles and his reconciliation    
also2 it is in itself a complete cycle  
of individual experience in the ,trojan 
,war4  ,we now begin to get an outline  
of the ,unity of ,homer4 ,in the first  
place the ,iliad is a unity from the    
stand-point of its hero ,achilles1 who  
has a completely rounded period of his  
life portrayed therein1 which portrayal1
 however1 gives also a vivid picture of 
the ,trojan ,war up to date4 ,as an     
individual experience it is a whole1 and
 this is what makes it a poem and gives 
to it special unity4 ,but it is only a  
fragment of the ,trojan cycle--a half or

 less than a half2 it leaves important  
problems unsolved3 ,troy is not taken1  
,achilles is still alive1 the new order 
under the new hero ,ulysses has not yet 
set in1 and chiefly there is no return  
to ,greece1 which is even more difficult
 than the taking of ,troy4 ,hence the   
field of the second poem1 the ,odyssey1 
which is also an individual             
experience--has to be so in order to be 
a poem--embraces the rest of the ,trojan
 cycle after the ,iliad4  ,thus we may  
well hold to these unities in ,homer3   
the unity of the ,iliad1 the unity of   
the ,odyssey1 and the unity of the      
,iliad and the ,odyssey4 ,both together 
make one grand cycle of human history   
and of human consciousness2 they portray
 a complete world in its deed and in its
 thought1 as well as in manners and     
institutions4  ,here is1 then1 the      
highest point of view from which to look
 at these poems3 they are really one in 
two parts1 written by one epoch1 by one 
consciousness1 and probably by one man4 

,the ,iliad as a poem is a complete     
cycle of individual experience1 but as  
an epoch is only half a cycle4 ,in like 
manner the ,odyssey as a poem is a      
complete cycle of individual experience1
 but as an epoch is the second half of  
the cycle of which the ,iliad is        
essentially the first4 ,both together   
constitute the one great movement       
usually called the ,trojan ,war4  ,much 
time has been spent in discussing the   
question whether the ,trojan ,war was   
historical or mythical4 ,we make bold to
 affirm that it was both--both          
historical and mythical4 ,it began long 
before the dawn of history and it exists
 to this day4 ,for the ,trojan ,war is  
the conflict between ,orient and        
,occident1 starting in the twilight of  
time1 and not yet concluded by any      
means4 ,the conflict between ,orient and
 ,occident runs through all ,greek      
,mythology1 is indeed just the deepest1 
tone-giving element thereof4 ,it also   
runs through all ,greek history from the

 ,persian ,war to the conquests of      
,alexander1 and lurks still in the      
present struggle between ,greek and     
,turk4 ,the true ,mythus gives in an    
image or event the events of all time2  
it is an ideal symbol which is realized 
in history4  ,we have above said that   
the ,trojan ,war was a complete cycle1  
of which the two poems portray the two  
halves4 ,still further can the matter be
 carried4 ,the ,trojan cycle1 complete  
in itself as a phase of ,greek          
consciousness1 is but a fragment1 a half
 of a still larger cycle of human       
development4 ,the ,iliad and the        
,odyssey give the ,greek half of the    
grand world-movement of the ,trojan     
epoch2 there is also an ,oriental half  
which these poems presuppose and from   
which they separate4 ,thus the grand    
,homeric cycle1 while a unit in itself1 
is really a separation from the ,east1 a
 separation which rendered the ,occident
 possible2 the woes before ,troy were   
the birth-pangs of the new-born child1  

,europe1 now also grown a little old4   
,the reader naturally asks1 will there  
be any return to the ,orient after the  
grand ,greek separation1 first heralded 
on the plains of ,ilium8 ,it may be     
answered that ,europe has often returned
 to the ,east in the course of          
history--,alexander1 ,rome1 the         
,crusades2 at present1 western ,europe  
seems bent on getting to the far ,east4 
,but the true return of the ,occident to
 the ,orient will be round the globe1 by
 way of ,america1 and that will be      
complete4 ,the recent war between ,japan
 and ,china is really a stage of the    
great new epoch in the world-historical 
return to the ,orient4  ,such is the    
more external1 the historical phase of  
the ,iliad and ,odyssey4 ,but they have 
also a deep internal ethical phase1 they
 show two sides of one grand process of 
the human soul which has been called    
self-alienation1 the sacrifice of the   
immediate self in order to gain true    
self-hood4 ,the ,greeks had to immolate 

their dearest ties1 those of home and   
country1 in order to preserve home and  
country1 which had been assailed to the 
very heart by the rape of ,helen4 ,they 
had to educate themselves to a life of  
violence1 killing men1 women1 even      
children1 destroying home and country4  
,for ,troy also has ,family and ,state1 
though it be a complete contradiction of
 ,family and ,state by supporting       
,paris4 ,but when the ,greeks had taken 
,troy1 they were trained destroyers of  
home and country1 they were destruction 
organized and victorious1 yet their     
whole purpose was to save home and      
country4 ,thus their self-alienation has
 deepened into absolute                 
self-contradiction1 the complete        
scission of the soul4  ,now this is the 
spiritual condition of which they are to
 get rid1 out of which they are to      
return to home and country4 ,as before  
said it may be deemed a harder problem  
than the taking of ,troy1 which was     
simply a negative act1 the destroying   

the destroyers of home and country4 ,but
 the great positive act of the ,trojan  
heroes is the restoration1 not merely   
the outer but the inner restoration1 to 
home and country4  ,with these          
considerations before the mind of the   
reader1 he is now ready to grasp the    
full sweep of the ,odyssey and          
understand its conflict4 ,it springs    
from the separation caused by a war1    
here the ,trojan ,war4 ,the man is      
removed from his institutional life and 
thrown into a world of violence and     
destruction4 ,let us summarize the      
leading points of the process4  ,i4 ,the
 absence of ,ulysses leaves his family  
without a head1 his country without a   
ruler1 and his property without an      
owner4 ,all these relations begin to    
loosen and go to pieces2 destructive    
forces assail the decaying organism2 the
 ,suitors appear1 who consume his       
property1 woo his queen1 and seek to    
usurp his kingly authority4 ,such are   
the dissolving energies at work in      

,ithaca4 ,also his son ,telemachus is   
left without paternal training4  ,,ii4  
,next let us glance at the individual4  
,ulysses1 released from domestic life   
and civil order1 gives himself up to    
destroying domestic life and civil      
order1 though they be those of the      
enemy4 ,for ten years he pays no respect
 to ,property1 ,family and ,state in    
,troy2 he is trained into their         
annihilation1 and finally does          
annihilate them4 ,yet his object is to  
restore ,helen1 to vindicate ,family and
 ,state1 and even ,property4  ,,iii4    
,troy is destroyed because it was itself
 destructive2 it assailed the ,greek    
domestic and civil institutions in the  
rape of ,helen4 ,so the destroying city 
itself is destroyed1 but this leaves    
,ulysses a destroyer in deed and in     
spirit2 home and country he is not only 
separated from but is destructive of--he
 is a negative man4  ,the previous three
 paragraphs contain the leading         
presuppositions of the ,odyssey1 and    

show the first half of the life of      
,ulysses4 ,they indicate three phases of
 the working of the negative--in        
,ithaca1 in ,troy1 and in ,ulysses4 ,but
 now that ,troy is destroyed1 how will  
,ulysses return to institutional life1  
which he has destroyed in ,troy1 in     
himself1 and1 through his absence1 in   
,ithaca8  ,,iv4 ,the ,return must in the
 first place be within himself1 he must 
get rid of the destructive spirit       
begotten of war4 ,for this purpose he   
has the grand training told in his      
adventures2 he must put down the        
monsters of ,fableland1 ,polyphemus1    
,circe1 ,charybdis2 he must endure the  
long servitude under ,calypso2 he must  
see ,phaeacia4 ,when he is internally   
ready1 he can go forth and destroy the  
,suitors1 destroy them without becoming 
destructive himself1 which was his      
outcome at ,troy4 ,for the destruction  
of ,troy left him quite as negative as  
the ,suitors1 of which condition he is  
to rid himself ere he can rid ,ithaca of

 the ,suitors4 ,this destruction thus   
becomes a great positive act1 now he    
restores ,family and ,state1 and brings 
peace and harmony4  ,one result of      
separating from the ,family is that the 
son ,telemachus has not the training    
given by the father4 ,but the son shows 
his blood2 he goes forth and gets his   
own training1 the best of the time4     
,this is told in the ,telemachiad4 ,thus
 he can co-operate with his father4     
,the movement overarching the ,odyssey4 
,the reader will note that in the       
preceding account we have tried to      
unfold the movement of the ,odyssey as  
the return from the ,trojan ,war4 ,but  
as already stated1 it is itself but a   
part of a larger movement1 a segment of 
a great cycle1 which cycle again        
suggests a still greater cycle1 which   
last is the movement of the ,world's    
,history4 ,recall1 then1 that the       
,odyssey by itself is a complete cycle  
as far as the experience of its hero is 
concerned2 but as belonging to an epoch1

 it is but half of the total cycle of   
the ,trojan ,war4 ,then again this      
,trojan ,war is but a fragment of a     
movement which is the total ,world's    
,history4 ,now can this be set forth in 
a summary which will suggest the        
movement not of the ,odyssey alone1 but 
also the movement underlying and        
overlying the poem8 ,let us make the    
trial1 for a world-poem must take its   
place in the ,world's ,history1 which   
fact gives the final judgment of its    
worth4  ,i4 ,in the prehistoric time    
before ,homer1 there was an ,orient1 but
 no ,occident2 the spiritual day of the 
latter had not yet dawned4 ,very early  
began the movement toward separation1   
which had one of its greatest epochs in 
the ,trojan ,war4  #a4 ,greece in those 
old ages was full of the throes of      
birth1 but was not yet born4 ,it was    
still essentially ,oriental1 it had no  
independent development of its own1     
though it was moving toward             
independence4 ,the earliest objects dug 

out of the long buried cities of ,greece
 show an ,oriental connection2 the      
famous sculptured lions over the gate of
 ,mycenae last to this day as a reminder
 of the early ,hellenic connection of   
,european ,greece with the ,orient1 not 
to speak of ,cyprus1 ,crete1 and the    
lesser islands of the ,a,egean4  #b4    
,then came the great separation of      
,greece from the ,orient1 which is the  
fundamental fact of the ,trojan ,war1   
and of which the ,homeric poems are the 
mighty announcement to the future4      
,troy1 an ,orientalizing ,hellenic city 
in ,asia1 seizes and keeps ,greek       
,helen1 who is of ,europe2 it tears her 
away from home and country1 and through 
its deed destroys ,family and ,state4   
,greek ,europe restores her1 must       
restore her1 if its people be true to   
their institutional principles2 hence   
their great word is restoration1 first  
of their ideal ,helen1 and secondly of  
themselves4  ,so all the ,greeks1 in    
order to make the separation from the   

,orient and restore ,helen1 have to     
march forth to war and thus be separated
 themselves from home and country1 till 
they bring back ,helen to home and      
country4 ,the deed done to ,helen       
strikes every ,greek man till he undoes 
it4 ,the stages of this movement may be 
set down separately4      7a7 ,the      
leaving home for ,troy--,achilles1      
,agamemnon1 ,ulysses2 all     the heroes
 had their special story of departure4  
,ulysses had to     quit a young wife1  
,penelope1 and an infant son1           
,telemachus4 ,for if     ,helen can be  
abducted1 no ,greek family is safe4     
7b7 ,stay at ,troy for #aj years4 ,this 
is also a long training to              
destruction4 ,ulysses is an important   
man1 but not the hero4 ,here     lies   
the sphere of the ,iliad4      7c7      
,destruction of the city and the        
restoration of ,helen to her            
husband1 both of which are not told in  
the ,iliad but are given                
subordinately in the ,odyssey4 ,thus is 

the separation from the     ,orient     
completed on its negative side1 that is1
 as far as     destruction can complete 
it4  #c4 ,the return to ,greece of the  
survivors4 ,the question is1 ,how can   
they truly get back after so long a     
period of violence8 ,the ,odyssey has   
this as its theme1 and will give an     
account of all the returns4 ,here1 too1 
we observe various stages4      7a7     
,leaving ,troy for home4 ,this means a  
complete facing about and     a going   
the other way1 not only in geography1   
but also in conduct4     ,the ,greeks   
must now quit destruction and become    
constructive4      7b7 ,it is no wonder 
that the journey home was very          
difficult4     ,quarrels arose at the   
start 7see ,nestor's account ,book      
,,iii41 and     that of ,menelaus ,book 
,,iv474 ,many perished on the way2 some 
were     lost in a storm at sea1        
,agamemnon was slain on the threshold of
 his     own palace4      7c7 ,those who
 reached home1 the successful returners1

 were of     three main kinds1          
represented by ,nestor1 by ,menelaus1   
and by     ,ulysses4 ,these were        
restored to home and family1 and brought
 peace     and harmony4 ,such is the    
positive outcome of the ,trojan ,war1   
and     the completion of its cycle4    
,,ii4 ,but this rounding-off of the     
,trojan cycle is1 on the other hand1 a  
final separation from the ,orient2 the  
scission is now unfolded1 explicit1     
quite conscious4 ,when ,ulysses comes   
back to ,ithaca1 and re-establishes     
,family and ,state1 ,greek life is      
independent1 distinct1 self-determined4 
,the ,hellenic world rises and fulfills 
its destiny in its own way2 it creates  
the ,fine ,arts1 ,literature1 ,science2 
it is the beginning of the ,occident4   
,still the thought must come up that the
 ,orient is also a part of the grand    
movement of the ,world's ,history1 whose
 cycle embraces both ,occident and      
,orient4 ,the ,odyssey has many glimpses
 of this higher view4 ,the first #ab    

books move westward and have their      
outlook in that direction1 the last #ab 
books have their outlook eastward toward
 ,egypt1 ,phoenicia1 and the ,oriental  
borderland4 ,the earlier fairy tales of 
,ulysses have their scene in the ,west1 
while the later romances or novelettes  
interwoven in the last #ab ,books have  
their scene in the ,east1 with one      
exception possibly4  ,the main fact1    
however1 of the ,trojan cycle is the    
great separation1 deepest in history1   
between ,orient and ,occident1 through  
the instrumentality of ,greece4 ,the    
civilization of ,europe and the ,west is
 the offspring of that separation1 which
 is still going on1 is a living fact1   
and is the source of the vexed ,eastern 
question of ,european politics4  ,,iii4 
,we are living to-day in that           
separation2 our art1 science1 education1
 poetic forms1 our secular life largely 
come from ancient ,greece4 ,oriental    
art1 customs1 domestic life1 government1
 we do not as a rule fraternize with2   

the ,greek diremption is in us still2   
only in one way1 in our religious life1 
do we keep a connection with an         
,oriental people4 ,but is this          
separation never to be overcome8 ,is    
there to be no return to the ,east and  
completion of the world's cycle8  ,the  
,cycle4 ,we have often used this word1  
and some may think that we have abused  
it2 still our object is to restore the  
,greek conception of these poems1 as    
they were looked at and spoken of by    
,hellas herself4 ,the idea of the cycle 
was fundamental in grasping the epics   
which related to the ,trojan ,war1 and  
this ,war itself was regarded as a cycle
 of events and deeds1 which the poets   
sang and put into their poetic cycle4   
,let us briefly trace this thought of   
the cycle as developed in old ,greece4  
,i4 ,in two different passages of his   
,organon1 ,aristotle calls the epic a   
cycle and the poetry of ,homer a cycle4 
,now both passages are employed by him  
to illustrate a defective syllogism1    

hence are purely incidental4 ,but no    
instance could better show the          
prevalence of the idea of a cycle as    
applied to ,homer and epic poetry1 for  
the philosopher evidently draws his     
illustration from something familiar to 
everybody4 ,it had become a ,greek      
common-place #cej ,b4,c41 and probably  
long before1 that an epic poem1 such as 
the ,iliad or ,odyssey1 is cyclical1 and
 that both together make a cycle4  ,,ii4
 ,but this idea develops1 and expands   
beyond the ,iliad and ,odyssey1 which   
are found to leave out many events of   
the ,trojan ,cycle4 ,indeed the         
myth-making spirit of ,greece unfolds   
new incidents1 deeds1 and characters4   
,the result is that many poets1 after   
,homer had completed his cycle1 began   
filling the old gaps1 or really making  
new ones that these might be filled by a
 fresh poem4 ,hence arose the famous    
,epic ,cycle1 which has been preserved  
in a kind of summary supposed to have   
been written by ,proclus1 not the       

philosopher1 but a grammarian of the    
time of the ,emperor ,marcus ,aurelius4 
,meantime1 let us carefully distinguish 
some of our ,cycles4 ,the ,trojan ,cycle
 is one of events and deeds1 in general 
is the going to and the returning from  
,troy4 ,the ,homeric ,cycle is ,homer's 
account1 in his two poems1 of this      
,trojan ,cycle4 ,finally the ,epic      
,cycle is the expansion of ,homer and   
includes a number of ,epics1 which fill 
out to ultimate completeness the ,trojan
 ,cycle4 ,the latter1 according to      
,proclus1 is made up of six ,epics      
beside the ,iliad and ,odyssey1 to which
 they stand in the following relations4 
#a4 ,the ,cypria1 which deals with      
events antecedent to the ,iliad1 such as
 the apple of ,discord1 the visit of    
,paris at ,sparta and the taking of     
,helen1 the mustering at ,aulis1 the    
sacrifice of ,iphigeneia1 and many      
incidents at ,troy4 ,ulysses1 to avoid  
going to the war1 feigns madness 7his   
first disguise7 and ploughs the         

sea-sand2 but he is detected by         
,palamedes who lays his infant          
,telemachus in the track of the plough4 
,the name ,cypria comes from ,kypris1   
,venus1 who caused the infatuation which
 led to the war4  #b4 ,four different   
epics fill in between the ,iliad and the
 ,odyssey4 ,the ,a,ethiopis takes up the
 thread after the death of ,hector1     
introducing ,penthesilea1 ,queen of the 
,amazons1 and ,memnon1 son of the ,dawn1
 both of whom are slain by ,achilles who
 is himself slain and is buried with    
funeral games4 ,after the death of      
,achilles1 the ,little ,iliad continues 
the story1 installing ,ulysses as hero  
over ,ajax in the contest for the arms  
of ,achilles4 ,this is the grand        
transition from ,brawn to ,brain in the 
conduct of the war4 ,the ,wooden ,horse 
is made1 and the ,palladium is carried  
out of ,troy--both deeds being the      
product of the brain1 if not of the     
hand1 of ,ulysses4 ,next comes the ,sack
 of ,troy1 whose name indicates its     

character4 ,laocoon and ,sinon appear in
 it1 but the main thing is the grand    
slaughter 7like that of the ,suitors7   
and the dragging of women and children  
into captivity2 the city is burned4     
,then follows the epic called the       
,nostoi or the ,returns1 really an      
elaboration of the ,odyssey1 specially  
of the ,third ,book1 which tells of     
these antecedent ,returns4 ,then comes  
the great ,return1 which is the         
,odyssey4  #c4 ,after the ,odyssey      
follows the ,telegonia written by       
,eugammon of ,cyrene in two ,books4 ,it 
continues the life of ,ulysses2 he now  
goes to that people who take an oar for 
winnowing fan1 and there he makes the   
offering to ,neptune1 enjoined by       
,tiresias in ,hades4 ,other incidents   
are narrated2 the final winding-up is   
that ,ulysses is unwittingly slain by   
,telegonus1 his and ,circe's son1 who   
appears in ,ithaca and takes ,telemachus
 and ,penelope to ,circe1 who makes them
 immortal4 ,the grand ,epic ,cycle      

concludes with the strangest set of     
marriages on record3 ,telegonus marries 
,penelope1 his step-mother1 and         
,telemachus marries ,circe who is also a
 kind of step-mother4  ,,iii4 ,after    
such a literary bankruptcy1 it is no    
wonder that we find the later ,greek and
 ,roman writers using the words cyclic  
and cyclic poet as terms of             
disparagement4 ,the great ,mythus of    
,troy had run its course and exhausted  
itself2 the age of imitation1 formalism1
 erudition had come1 while that of      
creation had passed away4 ,still it has 
preserved for us the idea of the cycle1 
which is necessary for the adequate     
comprehension of ,homer1 and which the  
,greeks themselves conceived and        
employed4  ,structure of the ,odyssey4  
,a brief summary of the structural      
elements of the poem may now be set     
forth4 ,it falls into two grand         
divisions1 both of which are planned by 
,pallas in ,book ,i and ,,xiii          
respectively4 ,in the main these        

divisions are the following3--      ,i4 
,the first takes up about one-half of   
the ,odyssey--twelve ,books1     which  
have as their chief object instruction  
and discipline--the     training for the
 deed4 ,this training has two very      
distinct     portions1 as it pertains to
 a young man and a middle-aged          
man--,telemachiad and ,ulyssiad4        
#a4 ,the ,telemachiad1 or the education 
of ,telemachus1 who has been        left
 without the influence of his father1   
when the latter went        to ,troy4   
,but he has his father's spirit1 hence  
he must know2        from ,ithaca he    
goes to ,nestor and ,menelaus for       
instruction4 ,four        ,books4       
#b4 ,the ,ulyssiad1 or the discipline of
 ,ulysses1 who must have        been a  
man over #dj years old4 ,he is to be    
trained out of the        negative      
spirit which he imbibed from the ,trojan
 war4 ,herein        lies his analogy to
 ,faust1 who is also a middle-aged man1 
and        negative1 but from study and 

thought4  ,both the ,telemachiad and the
 ,ulyssiad are essentially one great    
movement in two phases1 showing the bud 
and the flower1 the young and the mature
 man4 ,father and son reveal an         
overcoming of limitation2 ,telemachus   
overcomes his limit of ignorance1       
,ulysses overcomes his limit of         
negation--the one by the instruction of 
the wise1 the other by the experience of
 life4 ,both are trained to a belief in 
an ethical order which rules the world2 
therein both are made internally ready  
for the great act of delivering their   
country4 ,the training of both reaches  
forward to a supreme practical end--the 
destruction of the ,suitors and the     
purification of ,ithaca4 7,for the      
further structure of these two          
parts--the ,telemachiad and the         
,ulyssiad--see preceding commentary     
under these titles47  ,,ii4 ,the second 
grand division of the ,odyssey is the   
last twelve ,books4 ,the scene is laid  
in ,ithaca1 where the great deed1 to    

which the poem hitherto has looked      
forward1 is to be done4 ,the wanderings 
of the father have ceased1 the son      
returns from his schooling2 every       
movement is now directed toward action4 
,again ,pallas 7,,xiii4 #cic-dae7 plans 
two subdivisions1 without the ,council  
of the ,gods however4  #a4 ,the hut of  
the swineherd4 ,here the forces hostile 
to the ,suitors gather in secret and lay
 their plan4 ,ulysses1 ,telemachus1     
,eumaeus1 the gallant army of three1 get
 ready for the execution of the deed4   
,four ,books4  #b4 ,the palace of the   
,king4 ,ulysses in disguise beholds the 
,suitors in their negative acts2 they   
are as bad as the ,trojans1 assailing   
,property1 ,family1 ,state1 the ,gods2  
they are really in their way re-enacting
 the rape of ,helen4 ,ulysses1 as he    
destroyed ,troy1 must destroy them1 yet 
not become merely destructive himself4  
,eight ,books1 in which we can discern  
the following movement3 7#a7 ,suitors as
 destroyers--five ,books2 7#b7 ,ulysses 

as destroyer--one ,book2 7#c7 ,ulysses  
as restorer--two ,books4 ,thus the      
outcome is positive44  ,the career of   
,ulysses is now complete1 and with it   
the ,homeric ,cycle has rounded itself  
out to fullness4 ,the ,epic ,cycle in   
the ,telegonia will expand this         
conclusion1 but will deeply mar its     
idea4  ,note that the structure of the  
two grand divisions of the ,odyssey are 
symmetrical1 each a half of the poem2   
then each half subdivides into two      
parts1 and each of those parts is       
symmetrical1 being composed of four and 
eight ,books each4 ,to be sure1 the     
joint is not so plain in the second     
division as in the first1 which has the 
,telemachiad and the ,ulyssiad4 ,pallas 
is the orderer of both divisions1 and   
she orders them in a symmetrical manner4
  ,for both divisions the grand horizon 
is the ,trojan ,war1 yet both reach     
beyond it1 the one toward the ,west1 the
 other toward the ,east4 ,the one weaves
 into its regular narrative the ,fairy  

,tale1 the other takes up into its text 
what we have called the ,romantic       
,novelette4 ,the former looks toward the
 ,west and the ,future1 the latter looks
 back at the ,east and the ,past4 ,hence
 the ,fairy ,tale is prophetic and has  
supernatural beings1 the ,novelette is  
retrospective1 giving the experiences of
 life without supernatural agencies4 ,in
 scenery also the contrast is great3 the
 one is largely a sea poem1 the other is
 a land poem4  ,structural analogy      
between ,iliad and ,odyssey4 ,we have   
before said1 and we may repeat here at  
the end1 that the final fruit of        
,homeric study is to see and to fully   
realize that the ,iliad and ,odyssey are
 one work1 showing national             
consciousness1 and unfolding one great  
epoch of the ,world's ,history4 ,just   
here we may note the fundamental        
analogies of structure between the two  
poems4  ,i4 ,both poems have the dual   
division1 separating into two           
symmetrical portions4 ,the ,iliad has   

two ,wraths of ,achilles1 and also two  
,reconciliations2 thus each division is 
subdivided3  #a4 ,his first attitude or 
cycle of conduct toward the ,greeks4    
7a7 ,his wrath--both rightful and       
wrongful4      7b7 ,his reconciliation  
with ,agamemnon and his own people4  #b4
 ,his second attitude1 or cycle of      
conduct toward the ,trojans4      7a7   
,his wrath--both rightful and wrongful4 
7b7 ,his reconciliation with ,priam and 
the ,trojans4  ,such is the general     
organism of the ,iliad which is seen to 
be perfectly symmetrical within itself4 
7,for a fuller account see author's     
,commentary on the ,iliad1 pp4 #cf-h47  
,note that the negative attitude of     
,achilles is that of wrath2 in his anger
 he will destroy his people and his     
cause1 and finally1 in the dragging of  
,hector's corpse1 he disregards the     
,gods4 ,yet be overcomes both these     
negative attitudes in himself and       
becomes reconciled4  ,,ii4 ,the ,odyssey
 has two phases of ,negation1 both of   

which the heroes 7father and son7 must  
overcome4  #a4 ,the negative spirit     
caused by the ,trojan ,war and its      
overcoming4      7a7 ,the ignorance of  
the son and its overcoming4      7b7    
,the destructive tendency of the father 
and its overcoming4  #b4 ,the negative  
spirit abroad in ,ithaca 7,suitors7 and 
its overcoming4      7a7 ,the hut of the
 swineherd 7preparation74      7b7 ,the 
palace of the ,king 7execution74  ,that 
is1 ,ulysses and ,telemachus have the   
double problem1 which organizes the     
,odyssey3 they must conquer their own   
internal negation1 then proceed to      
conquer that of the ,suitors4 ,both     
poems divide alike2 both have the same  
fundamental thought3 the individual as  
hero is to master his own negative      
spirit and that of the world1 and then  
be reconciled with himself and the      
world4 ,the ,iliad has essentially but  
one thread of movement1 that of         
,achilles2 the ,odyssey has two such    
threads1 if not three--father1 son1 and 

perchance wife1 making the total ,family
 as the unit of movement4  ,thus the    
,iliad and ,odyssey are one poem        
fundamentally1 showing unity in thought 
and structure1 and portraying one       
complete cycle of national              
consciousness1 as well as one great     
phase of the ,world's ,history4         
99      99      99      99      99      
,,books ,,by ,,denton ,j4 ,,snider      
,,published ,,by  ,,sigma ,,publishing  
,,company  #baj ,pine ,street1 ,st4     
,louis1 ,mo4     ,i4 ,commentary on the 
,literary ,bibles1 in #i vols4          
#a4 ,shakespeare's ,dramas1 #c vols4    
,tragedies 7new edition7                
#a4ej             ,comedies 7new        
edition7                           #a4ej
             ,histories 7new edition7   
#a4ej         #b4 ,goethe's ,faust4     
,first ,part 7new edition7              
#a4ej             ,second ,part 7new    
edition7                        #a4ej   
#c4 ,homer's ,iliad 7new edition7       
#a4ej            ,homer's ,odyssey      

#a4ej         #d4 ,dante's ,inferno     
#a4ej            ,dante's ,purgatory and
 ,paradise                    #a4ej     
,,ii4 ,psychology1 ,system of1 in #af   
vols4         #a4 ,organic ,psychology4 
#a4 ,intellect                          
#a4ej             #b4 ,will             
#a4ej             #c4 ,feeling          
#a4ej         #b4 ,psychology of        
,philosophy4             #a4 ,ancient   
,european ,philosophy                   
#a4ej             #b4 ,modern ,european 
,philosophy                    #a4ej    
#c4 ,psychology of ,nature4             
#a4 ,cosmos and ,diacosmos              
#a4ej             #b4 ,biocosmos        
#a4ej         #d4 ,psychology of ,art4  
#a4 ,architecture                       
#a4ej             #b4 ,music and ,fine  
,arts                           #a4ej   
#e4 ,psychology of ,institutions4       
#a4 ,social ,institutions               
#a4ej             #b4 ,the ,state       
#a4ej         #f4 ,psychology of        
,history4             #a4 ,european     

,history                                
#a4ej             #b4 ,the ,father of   
,history                         #a4ej  
#c4 ,the ,american ,ten ,years' ,war    
#a4ej         #g4 ,psychology of        
,biography4             #a4 ,abraham    
,lincoln                                
#a4ej             #b4 ,frederick        
,froebel                                
#a4be  ,,iii4 ,poems in #e vols4        
#a4 ,homer in ,chios                    
#a4jj         #b4 ,delphie ,days        
#a4jj         #c4 ,agamemnon's ,daughter
                              #a4jj     
#d4 ,prorsus ,retrorsus                 
#a4jj         #e4 ,johnny ,appleseed's  
,rhymes                         #a4be   
,,iv4 ,the ,lincoln ,tetralogy ,an      
,epos4         #a4 ,lincoln ,in the     
,black ,hawk ,war                       
#a4ej         #b4 ,lincoln and ,ann     
,rutledge                          #a4ej
         #c4 ,lincoln in the ,white     
,house                        #a4ej     
#d4 ,lincoln at ,richmond               

#a4ej    ,v4 ,kindergarten4         #a4 
,commentary on ,froebel's ,mother       
,play-,songs         #a4be         #b4  
,the ,psychology of ,froebel's          
,play-,gifts            #a4be           
#c4 ,the ,life of ,frederick ,froebel   
#a4be   ,,vi4 ,miscellaneous4           
#a4 ,a ,walk in ,hellas                 
#a4be         #b4 ,the ,freeburgers 7a  
novel7                         #a4be    
#c4 ,world's ,fair ,studies             
#a4be         #d4 ,a ,tour in ,europe   
#a4ej         #e4 ,a ,writer of ,books  
in ,his ,genesis                  #a4ej 
,for sale by ,a4 ,g4 ,mc,c,l,u,r,g      
,,co41 ,chicago1 ,ill4