,,peat ,,and ,,its ,,uses1 ,,as ,,fertilizer ,,and ,,fuel4 ,,by ,,samuel ,w4 ,,johnson1 ,a4 ,m41 ,,professor ,,of ,,analytical ,,and ,,agricultural ,,chemistry1 ,,yale ,,college4 ,,fully ,,illustrated4 ,,new-,,york3 ,,orange ,,judd ,,company4 #bde ,,broadway4 ,entered according to ,act of ,congress1 in the year #ahff1 by ,,orange ,,judd ,,co41 ,at the ,clerk's ,office of the ,district ,court of the ,united ,states for the ,southern ,district of ,new-,york4 ,,lovejoy ,,son1 ,,electrotypers ,,and ,,stereotypers #ae ,vandewater street ,n4 ,y4 ,,to ,,my ,,father1 ,,my ,,earliest ,,and ,,best ,,instructor ,,in ,,rural ,,affairs1 ,,this ,,volume ,,is ,,gratefully ,,dedicated4 ,s4 ,w4 ,j4 ,,contents4 ,introduction vii ,,part ,i4--,,origin1 ,,varieties1 ,,and ,,chemical ,,characters ,,of ,,peat4 ,,page #a4 ,what is ,peat8 #i #b4 ,conditions of its ,formation #i #c4 ,different ,kinds of ,peat #ad ,swamp ,muck #ag ,salt ,mud #ah #d4 ,chemical ,characters and ,composition of ,peat #ah a4 ,organic or combustible part #ai ,ulmic and ,humic ,acids #ai ,ulmin and ,humin--,crenic and ,apocrenic ,acids #bj ,ulmates and ,humates #ba ,crenates and ,apocrenates #bb ,gein and ,geic ,acid--,elementary ,composition of ,peat #bc ,ultimate ,composition of the ,constituents of ,peat #be b4 ,mineral ,part--,ashes #be #e4 ,chemical ,changes that occur in the ,formation of ,peat #bf ,,part ,,ii4--,,on ,,the ,,agricultural ,,uses ,,of ,,peat ,,and ,,swamp ,,muck4 #a4 ,characters that adapt ,peat for ,agricultural ,use #bh ,a4 ,physical or ,amending ,characters #bh ,i4 ,absorbent ,power for ,water1 as ,liquid and ,vapor #ca ,,ii4 for ,ammonia #cb ,,iii4 ,influence in ,disintegrating the ,soil #cd ,,iv4 ,influence on the ,temperature of ,soils #cg ,b4 ,fertilizing ,characters #ch ,i4 ,fertilizing ,effects of the ,organic ,matters1 excluding ,nitrogen #ch #a4 ,organic ,matters as ,direct ,food to ,plants #ch #b4 ,organic ,matters as ,indirect ,food to ,plants #dj #c4 ,nitrogen1 including ,ammonia and ,nitric ,acid #db ,,ii4 ,fertilizing ,effects of the ,ashes of ,peat #df ,,iii4 ,peculiarities in the ,decay of ,peat #ej ,,iv4 ,comparison of ,peat with ,stable ,manure #ea #b4 ,characters of ,peat that are detrimental1 or that need correction #ed ,i4 ,possible ,bad ,effects on ,heavy ,soils #ed ,,ii4 ,noxious ,ingredients #ee a4 ,vitriol ,peats #ee b4 ,acidity--c4 ,resinous ,matters #eg #c4 ,preparation of ,peat for ,agricultural ,use #eg a4 ,excavation #eg b4 ,exposure1 or ,seasoning #ei c4 ,composting #fb ,compost with ,stable ,manure #fc ,night ,soil #fh ,guano #fi ,fish and other ,animal ,matters #gj ,potash-lye ,soda-ash2 ,wood-ashes1 ,shell-marl1 ,lime #gb ,salt and ,lime ,mixture #gc ,carbonate of ,lime1 ,mortar1 etc #ge #d4 ,the ,author's ,experiments with ,peat ,composts #gg #e4 ,examination of ,peat with reference to its ,agricultural ,value #ha #f4 ,composition of ,connecticut ,peats #hd ,method of ,analysis #hf ,tables of ,composition #hh-hi-ij ,,part ,,iii4--,,on ,,peat ,,as ,,fuel #a4 ,kinds of ,peat that ,make the ,best ,fuel #ib #b4 ,density of ,peat #ie #c4 ,heating ,power of ,peat as ,compared with ,wood and ,anthracite #if #d4 ,modes of ,burning ,peat #ajb #e4 ,burning of ,broken ,peat #ajc #f4 ,hygroscopic ,water of ,peat-fuel #ajd #g4 ,shrinkage #aje #h4 ,time of ,excavation and ,drying #aje #i4 ,drainage #ajf #aj4 ,cutting of ,peat for ,fuel--a4 ,preparations for ,cutting #ajg b4 ,cutting by ,hand2 with ,common ,spade2 ,german ,peat ,knife #ajh with ,irish ,slane--,system employed in ,east ,friesland #aji c4 ,machines for ,cutting ,peat2 ,brosowsky's ,machine2 ,lepreux's ,machine #aac #aa4 ,dredging of ,peat #aae #ab4 ,moulding of ,peat #aaf #ac4 ,preparation of ,peat-fuel by ,machinery1 etc #aaf ,a4 ,condensation by ,pressure #aaf a4 ,of ,fresh ,peat #aaf ,mannhardt's ,method #aag ,the ,neustadt ,method #aai b4 ,of ,air-dried ,peat--,lithuanian ,process #abj c4 ,of ,hot-dried ,peat--,gwynne's ,method2 ,exter's ,method #aba ,elsberg's ,process #abe ,b4 ,condensation without ,pressure #abg a4 ,of ,earthy ,peat #abh ,challeton's ,method1 at ,mennecy1 ,france #abh ,langenberg1 ,prussia #acj ,roberts' ,pekin1 ,n4 ,y4 #acb ,siemens' ,boeblingen1 ,wirtemberg #acd b4 ,condensation of ,fibrous ,peat--,weber's ,method2 ,hot-drying #ace ,gysser's ,method and ,machine #adj c4 ,condensation of ,peat of all ,kinds--,schlickeysen's ,machine #add ,leavitt's ,peat ,mill1 ,lexington1 ,mass #adf ,ashcroft ,betteley's ,machine #adh ,versmann's ,machine1 ,great ,britain #aej ,buckland's #aea #ad4 ,artificial ,drying of ,peat #aeb #ae4 ,peat ,coal #aeg #af4 ,metallurgical ,uses of ,peat #afb #ag4 ,peat as a ,source of ,illuminating ,gas #afe #ah4 ,examination of ,peat with regard to its ,value as ,fuel #afg ,,introduction4 ,in the years #aheg and #aheh1 the writer1 in the capacity of ,chemist to the ,state ,agricultural ,society of ,connecticut1 was commissioned to make investigations into the agricultural uses of the deposits of peat or swamp muck which are abundant in this ,state2 and1 in #aheh1 he submitted a ,report to ,henry ,a4 ,dyer1 ,esq41 ,corresponding ,secretary of the ,society1 embodying his conclusions4 ,in the present work the valuable portions of that ,report have been recast1 and1 with addition of much new matter1 form ,parts ,i4 and ,,ii4 ,the remainder of the book1 relating to the preparation and employment of peat for fuel1 c41 is now for the first time published1 and is intended to give a faithful account of the results of the experience that has been acquired in ,europe1 during the last twenty-five years1 in regard to the important subject of which it treats4 ,the employment of peat as an amendment and absorbent for agricultural purposes has proved to be of great advantage in ,new-,england farming4 ,it is not to be doubted1 that1 as fuel1 it will be even more valuable than as a fertilizer4 ,our peat-beds1 while they do not occupy so much territory as to be an impediment and a reproach to our country1 as they have been to ,ireland1 are yet so abundant and so widely distributed--occurring from the ,atlantic to the ,missouri1 along and above the #djth parallel1 and appearing on our ,eastern ,coast at least as far ,south as ,north ,carolina#a--;as to present1 at numberless points1 material1 which1 sooner or later1 will serve us most usefully when other fuel has become scarce and costly4 ,the high prices which coal and wood have commanded for several years back have directed attention to peat fuel2 and1 such is the adventurous character of ,american enterprise1 it cannot be doubted that we shall rapidly develop and improve the machinery for producing it4 ,as has always been the case1 we shall waste a vast deal of time and money in contriving machines that violate every principle of mechanism and of economy2 but the results of ,european invention furnish a safe basis from which to set out1 and we have among us the genius and the patience that shall work out the perfect method4 ,it may well be urged that a good degree of caution is advisable in entering upon the peat enterprise4 ,in this country we have exhaustless mines of the best coal1 which can be afforded at a very low rate1 with which other fuel must compete4 ,in ,germany1 where the best methods of working peat have originated1 fuel is more costly than here2 and a universal and intense economy there prevails1 of which we1 as a people1 have no conception4 ,if1 as the ,germans themselves admit1 the peat question there is still a nice one as regards the test of dollars and cents1 it is obvious1 that1 for a time1 we must hasten slowly4 ,it is circumstances that make peat1 and gold as well1 remunerative or otherwise2 and these must be well considered in each individual case4 ,peat is the name for a material that varies extremely in its quality1 and this quality should be investigated carefully before going to work upon general deductions4 ,in my account of the various processes for working peat by machinery1 such data as ,i have been able to find have been given as to cost of production4 ,these data are however very imperfect1 and not altogether trustworthy1 in direct application to ,american conditions4 ,the cheapness of labor in ,europe is an item to our disadvantage in interpreting foreign estimates4 ,i incline to the belief that this is more than offset among us by the quality of our labor1 by the energy of our administration1 by the efficiency of our overseeing1 and1 especially1 by our greater skill in the adaptation of mechanical appliances4 ,while counselling caution1 ,i also recommend enterprise in developing our resources in this important particular2 knowing full well1 however1 that what ,i can say in its favor will scarcely add to the impulse already apparent among my countrymen4 ,,samuel ,w4 ,,johnson4 ,sheffield ,scientific ,school1 ,yale ,college1 ,june1 #ahff4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,the great ,dismal ,swamp is a grand peat bog1 and doubtless other of the swamps of the coast1 as far south as ,florida and the ,gulf1 are of the same character4 ,,part ,i4 ,,the ,,origin1 ,,varieties1 ,,and ,,chemical ,,characters ,,of ,,peat4 #a4 ,what is ,peat8 ,by the general term ,peat1 we understand the organic matter or vegetable soil of bogs1 swamps1 beaver-meadows and salt-marshes4 ,it consists of substances that have resulted from the decay of many generations of aquatic or marsh plants1 as mosses1 sedges1 coarse grasses1 and a great variety of shrubs1 mixed with more or less mineral substances1 derived from these plants1 or in many cases blown or washed in from the surrounding lands4 #b4 ,the conditions under which ,peat is formed4 ,in this country the production of ,peat from fallen and decaying plants1 depends upon the presence of so much water as to cover or saturate the vegetable matters1 and thereby hinder the full access of air4 ,saturation with water also has the effect to maintain the decaying matters at a low temperature1 and by these two causes in combination1 the process of decay is made to proceed with great slowness1 and the solid products of such slow decay1 are compounds that themselves resist decay1 and hence they accumulate4 ,in the ,united ,states there appears to be nothing like the extensive moors or heaths1 that abound in ,ireland1 ,scotland1 the north of ,england1 ,north ,germany1 ,holland1 and the elevated plains of ,bavaria1 which are mostly level or gently sloping tracts of country1 covered with peat or turf to a depth often of #bj1 and sometimes of #dj1 or more1 feet4 ,in this country it is only in low places1 where streams become obstructed and form swamps1 or in bays and inlets on salt water1 where the flow of the tide furnishes the requisite moisture1 that our peat-beds occur4 ,if we go north-east as far as ,anticosti1 ,labrador1 or ,newfoundland1 we find true moors4 ,in these regions have been found a few localities of the ,heather 7,calluna vulgaris71 which is so conspicuous a plant on the moors of ,europe1 but which is wanting in the peat-beds of the ,united ,states4 ,in the countries above named1 the weather is more uniform than here1 the air is more moist1 and the excessive heat of our summers is scarcely known4 ,such is the greater humidity of the atmosphere that the bog-mosses1--the so-called ,sphagnums1--which have a wonderful avidity for moisture1 7hence used for packing plants which require to be kept moist on journeys71 are able to keep fresh and in growth during the entire summer4 ,these mosses decay below1 and throw out new vegetation above1 and thus produce a bog1 especially wherever the earth is springy4 ,it is in this way that in those countries1 moors and peat-bogs actually grow1 increasing in depth and area1 from year to year1 and raise themselves above the level of the surrounding country4 ,prof4 ,marsh informs the writer that he has seen in ,ireland1 near the north-west coast1 a granite hill1 capped with a peat-bed1 several feet in thickness4 ,in the ,bavarian highlands similar cases have been observed1 in localities where the atmosphere and the ground are kept moist enough for the growth of moss by the extraordinary prevalence of fogs4 ,many of the ,european moors rise more or less above the level of their borders towards the centre1 often to a height of #aj or #bj and sometimes of #cj feet4 ,they are hence known in ,germany as high moors 7,hochmoore7 to distinguish from the level or dishing meadow-moors1 7,wiesenmoore74 ,the peat-producing vegetation of the former is chiefly moss and heather1 of the latter coarse grasses and sedges4 ,in ,great ,britain the reclamation of a moor is usually an expensive operation1 for which not only much draining1 but actual cutting out and burning of the compact peat is necessary4 ,the warmth of our summers and the dryness of our atmosphere prevent the accumulation of peat above the highest level of the standing water of our marshes1 and so soon as the marshes are well drained1 the peat ceases to form1 and in most cases the swamp may be easily converted into good meadow land4 ,springy hill-sides1 which in cooler1 moister climates would become moors1 here dry up in summer to such an extent that no peat can be formed upon them4 ,as already observed1 our peat is found in low places4 ,in many instances its accumulation began by the obstruction of a stream4 ,to that remarkable creature1 the beaver1 we owe many of our peat-bogs4 ,these animals1 from time immemorial1 have built their dams across rivers so as to flood the adjacent forest4 ,in the rich leaf-mold at the water's verge1 and in the cool shade of the standing trees1 has begun the growth of the sphagnums1 sedges1 and various purely aquatic plants4 ,these in their annual decay have shortly filled the shallow borders of the stagnating water1 and by slow encroachments1 going on through many years1 they have occupied the deeper portions1 aided by the trees1 which1 perishing1 give their fallen branches and trunks1 towards completing the work4 ,the trees decay and fall1 and become entirely converted into peat2 or1 as not unfrequently happens1 especially in case of resinous woods1 preserve their form1 and to some extent their soundness4 ,in a similar manner1 ponds and lakes are encroached upon2 or1 if shallow1 entirely filled up by peat deposits4 ,in the ,great ,forest of ,northern ,new ,york1 the voyager has abundant opportunity to observe the formation of peat-swamps1 both as a result of beaver dams1 and of the filling of shallow ponds1 or the narrowing of level river courses4 ,the formation of peat in water of some depth greatly depends upon the growth of aquatic plants1 other than those already mentioned4 ,in our ,eastern ,states the most conspicuous are the ,arrow-head1 7,sagittaria72 the ,pickerel ,weed1 7,pontederia27 ,duck ,meat1 7,lemna27 ,pond ,weed1 7,potamogeton27 various ,polygonums1 brothers of ,buckwheat and ,smart-weed2 and especially the ,pond ,lilies1 7,nymphoea and ,nuphar47 ,the latter grow in water four or five feet deep1 their leaves and long stems are thick and fleshy1 and their roots1 which fill the oozy mud1 are often several inches in diameter4 ,their decaying leaves and stems1 and their huge roots1 living or dead1 accumulate below and gradually raise the bed of the pond4 ,their living foliage which often covers the water almost completely for acres1 becomes a shelter or support for other more delicate aquatic plants and sphagnums1 which1 creeping out from the shore1 may so develop as to form a floating carpet1 whereon the leaves of the neighboring wood1 and dust scattered by the wind collect1 bearing down the mass1 which again increases above1 or is reproduced until the water is filled to its bottom with vegetable matter4 ,it is not rare to find in our bogs1 patches of moss of considerable area concealing deep water with a treacherous appearance of solidity1 as the hunter and botanist have often found to their cost4 ,in countries of more humid atmosphere1 they are more common and attain greater dimensions4 ,in ,zealand the surfaces of ponds are so frequently covered with floating beds of moss1 often stout enough to bear a man1 that they have there received a special name ,hangesak4 ,in the ,russian ,ural1 there occur lakes whose floating covers of moss often extend five or six feet above the water1 and are so firm that roads are made across them1 and forests of large fir-trees find support4 ,these immense accumulations are in fact floating moors1 consisting entirely of peat1 save the living vegetation at the surface4 ,sometimes these floating peat-beds1 bearing trees1 are separated by winds from their connection with the shore1 and become swimming peat islands4 ,in a small lake near ,eisenach1 in ,central ,germany1 is a swimming island of this sort4 ,its diameter is #dj rods1 and it consists of a felt-like mass of peat1 three to five feet in depth1 covered above by sphagnums and a great variety of aquatic plants4 ,a few birches and dwarf firs grow in this peat1 binding it together by their roots1 and when the wind blows1 they act as sails1 so that the island is constantly moving about upon the lake4 ,on the ,neusiedler lake1 in ,hungary1 is said to float a peat island having an area of six square miles1 and on lakes of the high ,mexican ,plateau are similar islands which1 long ago1 were converted in fruitful gardens4 #c4 ,the different kinds of ,peat4 ,very great differences in the characters of the deposits in our peat-beds are observable4 ,these differences are partly of color1 some peats being gray1 others red1 others again black2 the majority1 when dry1 possess a dark brown-red or snuff color4 ,they also vary remarkably in weight and consistency4 ,some are compact1 destitute of fibres or other traces of the vegetation from which they have been derived1 and on drying1 shrink greatly and yield tough dense masses which burn readily1 and make an excellent fuel4 ,others again are light and porous1 and remain so on drying2 these contain intermixed vegetable matter that is but little advanced in the peaty decomposition4 ,some peats are almost entirely free from mineral matters1 and on burning1 leave but a few per cent4 of ash1 others contain considerable quantities of lime or iron1 in chemical combination1 or of sand and clay that have been washed in from the hills adjoining the swamps4 ,as has been observed1 the peat of some swamps is mostly derived from mosses1 that of others originates largely from grasses2 some contain much decayed wood and leaves1 others again are free from these4 ,in the same swamp we usually observe more or less of all these differences4 ,we find the surface peat is light and full of partly decayed vegetation1 while below1 the deposits are more compact4 ,we commonly can trace distinct strata or layers of peat1 which are often very unlike each other in appearance and quality1 and in some cases the light and compact layers alternate so that the former are found below the latter4 ,the light and porous kinds of peat appear in general to be formed in shallow swamps or on the surface of bogs1 where there is considerable access of air to the decaying matters1 while the compacter1 older1 riper peats are found at a depth1 and seem to have been formed beneath the low water mark1 in more complete exclusion of the atmosphere1 and under a considerable degree of pressure4 ,the nature of the vegetation that flourishes in a bog1 has much effect on the character of the peat4 ,the peats chiefly derived from mosses that have grown in the full sunlight1 have a yellowish-red color in their upper layers1 which usually becomes darker as we go down1 running through all shades of brown until at a considerable depth it is black4 ,peats produced principally from grasses are grayish in appearance at the surface1 being full of silvery fibres--the skeletons of the blades of grasses and sedges1 while below they are commonly black4 ,moss peat is more often fibrous in structure1 and when dried forms somewhat elastic masses4 ,grass peat1 when taken a little below the surface1 is commonly destitute of fibres2 when wet1 is earthy in its look1 and dries to dense hard lumps4 ,where mosses and grasses have grown together simultaneously in the same swamp1 the peat is modified in its characters accordingly4 ,where1 as may happen1 grass succeeds moss1 or moss succeeds grass1 the different layers reveal their origin by their color and texture4 ,at considerable depths1 however1 where the peat is very old1 these differences nearly or entirely disappear4 ,the geological character of a country is not without influence on the kind of peat4 ,it is only in regions where the rocks are granitic or silicious1 where1 at least1 the surface waters are free or nearly free from lime1 that mosses make the bulk of the peat4 ,in limestone districts1 peat is chiefly formed from grasses and sedges4 ,this is due to the fact that mosses 7sphagnums7 need little lime for their growth1 while the grasses require much2 aquatic grasses cannot1 therefore1 thrive in pure waters1 and in waters containing the requisite proportion of lime1 grasses and sedges choke out the moss4 ,the accidental admixtures of soil often greatly affect the appearance and value of a peat1 but on the whole it would appear that its quality is most influenced by the degree of decomposition it has been subjected to4 ,in meadows and marshes1 overflowed by the ocean tides1 we have salt-peat1 formed from ,sea-weeds 7,algae17 ,salt-wort 7,salicornia17 and a great variety of marine or strand-plants4 ,in its upper portions1 salt-peat is coarsely fibrous from the grass roots1 and dark-brown in color4 ,at sufficient depth it is black and destitute of fibres4 ,the fact that peat is fibrous in texture shows that it is of comparatively recent formation1 or that the decomposition has been arrested before reaching its later stages4 ,fibrous peat is found near the surface1 and as we dig down into a very deep bed we find almost invariably that the fibrous structure becomes less and less evident until at a certain depth it entirely disappears4 ,it is not depth simply1 but age or advancement in decomposition1 which determines these differences of texture4 ,the ripest1 most perfectly formed peat1 that in which the peaty decomposition has reached its last stage1--which1 in ,germany1 is termed pitchy-peat or fat peat1 7,pechtorf1 ,specktorf7--is dark-brown or black in color1 and comparatively heavy and dense4 ,when moist1 it is firm1 sticky and coherent almost like clay1 may be cut and moulded to any shape4 ,dried1 it becomes hard1 and on a cut or burnished surface takes a luster like wax or pitch4 ,in ,holland1 ,west ,friesland1 ,holstein1 ,denmark and ,pomerania1 a so-called mud-peat 7,schlammtorf1 also ,baggertorf and ,streichtorf17 is fished up from the bottoms of ponds1 as a black mud or paste1 which1 on drying1 becomes hard and dense like the pitchy-peat4 ,the two varieties of peat last named are those which are most prized as fuel in ,europe4 ,vitriol peat is peat of any kind impregnated with sulphate of iron 7copperas17 and sulphate of alumina1 7the astringent ingredient of alum47 ,swamp ,muck4--,in ,new ,england1 the vegetable remains occurring in swamps1 etc41 are commonly called ,muck4 ,in proper ,english usage1 muck is a general term for manure of any sort1 and has no special application to the contents of bogs4 ,with us1 however1 this meaning appears to be quite obsolete1 though in our agricultural literature--formerly1 more than now1 it must be admitted1--the word as applied to the subject of our treatise1 has been qualified as ,swamp ,muck4 ,in ,germany1 peat of whatever character1 is designated by the single word ,torf2 in ,france it is ,tourbe1 and of the same origin is the word ,turf1 applied to it in ,great ,britain4 ,with us turf appears never to have had this signification4 ,peat1 no doubt1 is a correct name for the substance which results from the decomposition of vegetable matters under or saturated with water1 whatever its appearance or properties4 ,there is1 however1 with us1 an inclination to apply this word particularly to those purer and more compact sorts which are adapted for fuel1 while to the lighter1 less decomposed or more weathered kinds1 and to those which are considerably intermixed with soil or silt1 the term muck or swamp muck is given4 ,these distinctions are not1 indeed1 always observed1 and1 in fact1 so great is the range of variation in the quality of the substance1 that it would be impossible to draw a line where muck leaves off and peat begins4 ,notwithstanding1 a rough distinction is better than none1 and we shall therefore employ the two terms when any greater clearness of meaning can be thereby conveyed4 ,it happens1 that in ,new ,england1 the number of small shallow swales1 that contain unripe or impure peat1 is much greater than that of large and deep bogs4 ,their contents are therefore more of the mucky than of the peaty order1 and this may partly account for ,new ,england usage in regard to these old ,english words4 ,by the term muck1 some farmers understand leaf-mold 7decayed leaves71 especially that which collects in low and wet places4 ,when the deposit is deep and saturated with water1 it may have all the essential characters of peat4 ,ripe peat1 from such a source is1 however1 so far as the writer is informed1 unknown to any extent in this country4 ,we might distinguish as leaf-muck the leaves which have decomposed under or saturated with water1 retaining the well established term leaf-mold to designate the dry or drier covering of the soil in a dense forest of deciduous trees4 ,salt-mud4--,in the marshes1 bays1 and estuaries along the sea-shore1 accumulate large quantities of fine silt1 brought down by rivers or deposited from the sea-water1 which are more or less mixed with finely divided peat or partly decomposed vegetable matters1 derived largely from ,sea-weed1 and in many cases also with animal remains 7mussels and other shell-fish1 crabs1 and myriads of minute organisms47 ,this black mud has great value as a fertilizer4 #d4 ,the ,chemical ,characters and ,composition of ,peat4 ,the process of burning1 demonstrates that peat consists of two kinds of substance2 one of which1 the larger portion1 is combustible1 and is organic or vegetable matter2 the other1 smaller portion1 remaining indestructible by fire is inorganic matter or ash4 ,we shall consider these separately4 a4 ,the organic or combustible part of peat varies considerably in its proximate composition4 ,it is in fact an indefinite mixture of several or perhaps of many compound bodies1 whose precise nature is little known4 ,these bodies have received the collective names ,humus and ,geine4 ,we shall employ the term humus to designate this mixture1 whether occurring in peat1 swamp-muck1 salt-mud1 in composts1 or in the arable soil4 ,its chemical characters are much the same1 whatever its appearance or mode of occurrence2 and this is to be expected since it is always formed from the same materials and under essentially similar conditions4 ,resinous and ,bituminous matters4--,if dry pulverized peat be agitated and warmed for a short time with alcohol1 there is usually extracted a small amount of resinous and sometimes of bituminous matters1 which are of no account in the agricultural applications of peat1 but have a bearing on its value as fuel4 ,ulmic and ,humic acids4--,on boiling what remains from the treatment with alcohol1 with a weak solution of carbonate of soda 7sal-soda71 we obtain a yellowish-brown or black liquid4 ,this liquid contains certain acid ingredients of the peat which become soluble by entering into chemical combination with soda4 ,on adding to the solution strong vinegar1 or any other strong acid1 there separates a bulky brown or black substance1 which1 after a time1 subsides to the bottom of the vessel as a precipitate1 to use a chemical term1 leaving the liquid of a more or less yellow tinge4 ,this deposit1 if obtained from light brown peat1 is ulmic acid2 if from black peat1 it is humic acid4 ,these acids1 when in the precipitated state1 are insoluble in vinegar2 but when this is washed away1 they are considerably soluble in water4 ,they are1 in fact1 modified by the action of the soda1 so as to acquire much greater solubility in water than they otherwise possess4 ,on drying the bulky bodies thus obtained1 brown or black lustrous masses result1 which have much the appearance of coal4 ,ulmin and ,humin4--,after extracting the peat with solution of carbonate of soda1 it still contains ulmin or humin4 ,these bodies cannot be obtained in the pure state from peat1 since they are mixed with more or less partially decomposed vegetable matters from which they cannot be separated without suffering chemical change4 ,they have been procured1 however1 by the action of muriatic acid on sugar4 ,they are indifferent in their chemical characters1 are insoluble in water and in solution of carbonate of soda2 but upon heating with solution of hydrate of soda they give dark-colored liquids1 being in fact converted by this treatment into ulmic and humic acids1 respectively1 with which they are identical in composition4 ,the terms ulmic and humic acids do not refer each to a single compound1 but rather to a group of bodies of closely similar appearance and properties1 which1 however1 do differ slightly in their characteristics1 and differ also in composition by containing more or less of oxygen and hydrogen in equal equivalents4 ,after complete extraction with hydrate of soda1 there remains more or less undecomposed vegetable matter1 together with sand and soil1 were these contained in the peat4 ,crenic and apocrenic acids4--,from the usually yellowish liquid out of which the ulmic and humic acids have been separated1 may further be procured by appropriate chemical means1 not needful to be detailed here1 two other bodies which bear the names respectively of ,crenic ,acid and ,apocrenic ,acid4 ,these acids were discovered by ,berzelius1 the great ,swedish chemist1 in the water and sediment of the ,porla spring1 in ,sweden4 ,by the action upon peat of carbonate of ammonia1 which is generated to some extent in the decay of vegetable matters and is also absorbed from the air1 ulmic and humic acids are made soluble1 and combine with the ammonia as well as with lime1 oxide of iron1 etc4 ,in some cases the ulmates and humates thus produced may be extracted from the peat by water1 and consequently occur dissolved in the water of the swamp from which the peat is taken1 giving it a yellow or brown color4 ,ulmates and ,humates4--,of considerable interest to us here1 are the properties of the compounds of these acids1 that may be formed in peat when it is used as an ingredient of composts4 ,the ulmates and humates of the alkalies1 viz43 potash1 soda1 and ammonia1 dissolve readily in water4 ,they are formed when the alkalies or their carbonates act on ulmin and humin1 or upon ulmates or humates of lime1 iron1 etc4 ,their dilute solutions are yellow1 or brown4 ,the ulmates and humates of lime1 magnesia1 oxide of iron1 oxide of manganese and alumina1 are insoluble1 or nearly so in water4 ,in ordinary soils1 the earths and oxides just named1 predominate over the alkalies1 and although they may contain considerable ulmic and humic acids1 water is able to extract but very minute quantities of the latter1 on account of the insolubility of the compounds they have formed4 ,on the other hand1 peat1 highly manured garden soil1 leaf-mold1 rotted manure and composts1 yield yellow or brown extracts with water1 from the fact that alkalies are here present to form soluble compounds4 ,an important fact established by ,mulder is1 that when solutions of alkali-carbonates are put in contact with the insoluble ulmates and humates1 the latter are decomposed2 soluble alkali-ulmates and humates being formed1 and in these1 a portion of the otherwise insoluble ulmates and humates dissolve1 so that thus1 in a compost1 lime1 magnesia1 oxide of iron1 and even alumina may exist in soluble combinations1 by the agency of these acids4 ,crenates and ,apocrenates4--,the ulmic and humic acids when separated from their compounds1 are nearly insoluble1 and1 so far as we know1 comparatively inert bodies2 by further change1 7uniting with oxygen7 they pass into or yield the crenic and apocrenic acids which1 according to ,mulder1 have an acid taste1 being freely soluble in water1 and in all respects1 decided acids4 ,the compounds of both these acids with the alkalies are soluble4 ,the crenates of lime1 magnesia1 and protoxide of iron are soluble1 crenates of peroxide of iron and of oxide of manganese are but very slightly soluble2 crenate of alumina is insoluble4 ,the apocrenates of iron and manganese are slightly soluble2 those of lime1 magnesia1 and alumina are insoluble4 ,all the insoluble crenates and apocrenates1 are soluble in solutions of the corresponding salts of the alkalies4 ,application of these facts will be given in subsequent paragraphs4 ,it may be here remarked1 that the crenate of protoxide of iron is not unfrequently formed in considerable quantity in peat-bogs1 and dissolving in the water of springs gives them a chalybeate character4 ,copious springs of this kind occur at the edge of a peat-bed at ,woodstock1 ,conn41 which are in no small repute for their medicinal qualities1 having a tonic effect from the iron they contain4 ,such waters1 on exposure to the air1 shortly absorb oxygen1 and the substance is thereby converted into crenate and afterwards into apocrenate of peroxide of iron1 which1 being but slightly soluble1 or insoluble1 separates as a yellow or brown ochreous deposit along the course of the water4 ,by further exposure to air the organic acid is oxidized to carbonic acid1 and hydrated oxide of iron remains4 ,bog-iron ore appears often to have originated in this way4 ,gein and ,geic acid4--,mulder formerly believed another substance to exist in peat which he called ,gein1 and from this by the action of alkalies he supposed geic acid to be formed4 ,in his later writings1 however1 he expresses doubt as to the existence of such a substance1 and we may omit further notice of it1 especially since1 if it really do occur1 its properties are not distinct from those of humic acid4 ,we should not neglect to remark1 however1 that the word gein has been employed by some writers in the sense in which we use humus1 viz43 to denote the brown or black products of the decomposition of vegetable matters4 ,it is scarcely to be doubted that other organic compounds exist in peat4 ,as yet1 however1 we have no knowledge of any other ingredients1 while it appears certain that those we have described are its chief constituents1 and give it its peculiar properties4 ,with regard to them it must nevertheless be admitted1 that our chemical knowledge is not entirely satisfactory1 and new investigations are urgently demanded to supply the deficiencies of the researches so ably made by ,mulder1 more than twenty years ago4 ,elementary ,composition of ,peat4 ,after this brief notice of those organic compounds that have been recognized in or produced from peat1 we may give attention to the elementary composition of peat itself4 ,like that of the vegetation from which it originates1 the organic part of peat consists of ,carbon1 ,hydrogen1 ,oxygen and ,nitrogen4 ,in the subjoined table are given the proportions of these elements as found in the combustible part of sphagnum1 of several kinds of wood1 and in that of a number of peats in various stages of ripeness4 ,they are arranged in the order of their content of carbon4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,car-,hydro-,oxy-,nitro- ,analyst4bon4 gen4 gen4 gen4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- #a--,sphagnum ,websky #di4hh #f4ed #db4db #a4af #b--,peach wood undecomposed ,chevandier#di4ij #f4aj #dc4aj #j4ij #c--,poplar #ej4cj #f4cj #db4dj #a4jj #d--,oak #ej4fj #f4jj #db4aj #a4cj #e--,peat1 porous1 light-brown1 sphagnous ,websky #ej4hf #e4hj #db4eg #j4gg #f-- porous1 red-brown4 ,jaeckel #ec4ea #e4ij #dj4ei #g-- heavy1 brown4 #ef4dc #e4cb #ch4be #h-- dark red-brown1 well decomposed ,websky #ei4dg #f4eb #ca4ea #b4ea #i-- black1 very dense and hard4 #ei4gj #e4gj #cc4jd #a4ef #aj-- black1 heavy1 best quality #ei4ga #e4bg #cb4jg #b4ei #aa-- brown1 heavy1 for fuel4 #fb4ed #f4ha #bi4bd #a4da ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,from this table it is seen that sphagnum1 and the wood of our forest trees are very similar in composition1 though not identical4 ,further1 it is seen from analyses #a and #e1 that in the first stages of the conversion of sphagnum into peat--which are marked by a change of color1 but in which the form of the sphagnum is to a considerable extent preserved--but little alteration occurs in ultimate composition2 about one per cent4 of carbon being gained1 and one of hydrogen lost4 ,we notice in running down the columns that as the peat becomes heavier and darker in color1 it also becomes richer in carbon and poorer in oxygen4 ,hydrogen varies but slightly4 ,as a general statement we may say that the ripest and heaviest peat contains #aj or #ab per cent4 more carbon and #aj or #ab per cent4 less oxygen than the vegetable matter from which it is produced2 while between the unaltered vegetation and the last stage of humification1 the peat runs through an indefinite number of intermediate stages4 ,nitrogen is variable1 but1 in general1 the older peats contain the most4 ,to this topic we shall shortly recur1 and now pass on to notice-- ,the ultimate composition of the compounds of which peat consists4 ,below are tabulated analyses of the organic acids of peat3-- ,carbon4 ,hydrogen4 ,oxygen4 ,ulmic acid1 artificial from sugar #fg4aj #d4bj #bh4gj ,humic acid1 from ,frisian peat #fa4aj #d4cj #cd4fj ,crenic acid #ef4dg #b4gd #dj4gh ,apocrenic acid #de4gj #d4hj #di4ej ,it is seen that the amount of carbon diminishes from ulmic acid to apocrenic1 that of oxygen increases in the same direction and to the same extent1 viz43 about #ba per cent41 while the hydrogen remains nearly the same in all4 b4 ,the mineral part of peat1 which remains as ashes when the organic matters are burned away1 is variable in quantity and composition4 ,usually a portion of sand or soil is found in it1 and this not unfrequently constitutes its larger portion4 ,some peats leave on burning much carbonate of lime2 others chiefly sulphate of lime2 the ash of others again is mostly oxyd of iron2 silicic1 and phosphoric acids1 magnesia1 potash1 soda1 alumina and chlorine1 also occur in small quantities in the ash of all peats4 ,with one exception 7alumina7 all these bodies are important ingredients of agricultural plants4 ,in some rare instances1 peats are found1 which are so impregnated with soluble sulphates of iron and alumina1 as to yield these salts to water in large quantity2 and sulphate of iron 7green vitriol17 has actually been manufactured from such peats1 which in consequence have been characterized as vitriol peats4 ,those bases 7lime1 oxide of iron1 etc417 which are found as carbonates or simple oxides in the ashes1 exist in the peat itself in combination with the humic and other organic acids4 ,when these compounds are destroyed by burning1 the bases remain united to carbonic acid4 #e4--;,chemical ,changes that occur in the formation of ,peat4 ,when a plant perishes1 its conversion into humus usually begins at once4 ,when exposed to the atmosphere1 the oxygen of the air attacks it1 uniting with its carbon producing carbonic acid gas1 and with its hydrogen generating water4 ,this action goes on1 though slowly1 even at some depth under water1 because the latter dissolves oxygen from the air in small quantity1#b and constantly resupplies itself as rapidly as the gas is consumed4 ,whether exposed to the air or not1 the organic matter suffers internal decomposition1 and portions of its elements assume the gaseous or liquid form4 ,we have seen that ripe peat is #aj to #ab per cent4 richer in carbon and equally poorer in oxygen1 than the vegetable matters from which it originates4 ,organic matters1 in passing into peat1 lose carbon and nitrogen2 but they lose oxygen more rapidly than the other two elements1 and hence the latter become relatively more abundant4 ,the loss of hydrogen is such that its proportion to the other elements is but little altered4 ,the bodies that separate from the decomposing vegetable matter are carbonic acid gas1 carburetted hydrogen 7marsh gas71 nitrogen gas1 and water4 ,carbonic acid is the most abundant gaseous product of the peaty decomposition4 ,since it contains nearly #gc per cent4 of oxygen and but #bg per cent4 of carbon1 it is obvious that by its escape the proportion of carbon in the residual mass is increased4 ,in the formation of water from the decaying matters1 #a part of hydrogen carries off #h parts of oxygen1 and this change increases the proportion of carbon and of hydrogen4 ,marsh gas consists of one part of hydrogen to three of carbon1 but it is evolved in comparatively small quantity1 and hence has no effect in diminishing the per cent4 of carbon4 ,the gas that bubbles up through the water of a peat-bog1 especially if the decomposing matters at the bottom be stirred1 consists largely of marsh gas and nitrogen1 often with but a small proportion of carbonic acid4 ,thus ,websky found in gas from a peat-bed ,carbonic acid #b4ig ,marsh gas #dc4cf ,nitrogen #ec4fg ------ #ajj4jj ,carbonic acid1 however1 dissolves to a considerable extent in water1 and is furthermore absorbed by the living vegetation1 which is not true of marsh gas and nitrogen2 hence the latter escape while the former does not4 ,nitrogen escapes in the uncombined state1 as it always 7or usually7 does in the decay of vegetable and animal matters that contain it4 ,its loss is1 in general1 slower than that of the other elements1 and it sometimes accumulates in the peat in considerable quantity4 ,a small portion of nitrogen unites with hydrogen1 forming ammonia1 which remains combined with the humic and other acids4 ,,part ,,ii4 ,,on ,,the ,,agricultural ,,uses ,,of ,,peat ,,and ,,swamp ,,muck4 ,after the foregoing account of the composition of peat1 we may proceed to notice3 #a4--,the characters that adapt it for agricultural uses4 ,these characters are conveniently discussed under two heads1 viz43 ,those which render it useful in improving the texture and physical characters of the soil1 and indirectly contribute to the nourishment of crops1--characters which constitute it an amendment to the soil 7,a72 and ,those which make it a direct fertilizer 7,b74 ,a4--,considered as an amendment1 the value of peat depends upon ,its remarkable power of absorbing and retaining water1 both as a liquid and as a vapor 7,i73 ,its power of absorbing ammonia 7,,ii73 ,its effect in promoting the disintegration and solution of mineral ingredients1 that is the stony matters of the soil 7,,iii73 and ,its influence on the temperature of the soil 7,,iv74 ,the agricultural importance of these properties of peat is best illustrated by considering the faults of a certain class of soils4 ,throughout the ,state of ,connecticut1 for instance1 are found abundant examples of light1 leachy1 hungry soils1 which consist of coarse sand or fine gravel2 are surface-dry in a few hours after the heaviest rains1 and in the summer drouths1 are as dry as an ash-heap to a depth of several or many feet4 ,these soils are easy to work1 are ready for the plow early in the spring1 and if well manured give fair crops in wet seasons4 ,in a dry summer1 however1 they yield poorly1 or fail of crops entirely2 and1 at the best1 they require constant and very heavy manuring to keep them in heart4 ,crops fail on these soils from two causes1 viz42 want of moisture and want of food4 ,cultivated plants demand as an indispensable condition of their growth and perfection1 to be supplied with water in certain quantities1 which differ with different crops4 ,buckwheat will flourish best on dry soils1 while cranberries and rice grow in swamps4 ,our ordinary cereal1 root1 forage and garden crops require a medium degree of moisture1 and with us it is in all cases desirable that the soil be equally protected from excess of water and from drouth4 ,soils must be thus situated either naturally1 or as the result of improvement1 before any steadily good results can be obtained in their cultivation4 ,the remedy for excess of water in too heavy soils1 is thorough drainage4 ,it is expensive1 but effectual4 ,it makes the earth more porous1 opens and maintains channels1 through which the surplus water speedily runs off1 and permits the roots of crops to go down to a considerable depth4 ,what1 let us consider1 is the means of obviating the defects of soils that are naturally too porous1 from which the water runs off too readily1 and whose crops burn up in dry seasons8 ,in wet summers1 these light soils1 as we have remarked1 are quite productive if well manured4 ,it is then plain that if we could add anything to them which would retain the moisture of dews and rains in spite of the summer-heats1 our crops would be uniformly fair1 provided the supply of manure were kept up4 ,but why is it that light soils1 need more manure than loamy or heavy lands8 ,we answer--because1 in the first place the rains which quickly descend through the open soil1 wash down out of the reach of vegetation the soluble fertilizing matters1 especially the nitrates1 for which the soil has no retentive power2 and in the second place1 from the porosity of the soil1 the air has too great access1 so that the vegetable and animal matters of manures decay too rapidly1 their volatile portions1 ammonia and carbonic acid1 escape into the atmosphere1 and are in measure lost to the crops4 ,from these combined causes we find that a heavy dressing of well-rotted stable manure1 almost if not entirely1 disappears from such soils in one season1 so that another year the field requires a renewed application2 while on loamy soils the same amount of manure would have lasted several years1 and produced each year a better effect4 ,we want then to amend light soils by incorporating with them something that prevents the rains from leaching through them too rapidly1 and also that renders them less open to the air1 or absorbs and retains for the use of crops the volatile products of the decay of manures4 ,for these purposes1 vegetable matter of some sort is the best and almost the only amendment that can be economically employed4 ,in many cases a good peat or muck is the best form of this material1 that lies at the farmer's command4 ,i4--,its absorbent power for liquid water is well known to every farmer who has thrown it up in a pile to season for use4 ,it holds the water like a sponge1 and1 according to its greater or less porosity1 will retain from #ej to #ajj or more per cent4 of its weight of liquid1 without dripping4 ,nor can this water escape from it rapidly4 ,it dries almost as slowly as clay1 and a heap of it that has been exposed to sun and wind for a whole summer1 though it has of course lost much water1 is still distinctly wet to the eye and the feel a little below the surface4 ,its absorbent power for vapor of water is so great that more than once it has happened in ,germany1 that barns or close sheds filled with partially dried peat1 such as is used for fuel1 have been burst by the swelling of the peat in damp weather1 occasioned by the absorption of moisture from the air4 ,this power is further shown by the fact that when peat has been kept all summer long in a warm room1 thinly spread out to the air1 and has become like dry snuff to the feel1 it still contains from #h to #cj per cent4 7average #ae per cent47 of water4 ,to dry a peat thoroughly1 it requires to be exposed for some time to the temperature of boiling water4 ,it is thus plain1 as experience has repeatedly demonstrated1 that no ordinary summer heats can dry up a soil which has had a good dressing of this material1 for on the one hand1 it soaks up and holds the rains that fall upon it1 and on the other1 it absorbs the vapor of water out of the atmosphere whenever it is moist1 as at night and in cloudy weather4 ,when peat has once become air-dry1 it no longer manifests this avidity for water4 ,in drying it shrinks1 loses its porosity and requires long soaking to saturate it again4 ,in the soil1 however1 it rarely becomes air-dry1 unless indeed1 this may happen during long drouth with a peaty soil1 such as results from the draining of a bog4 ,,ii4--,absorbent power for ammonia4 ,all soils that deserve to be called fertile1 have the property of absorbing and retaining ammonia and the volatile matters which escape from fermenting manures1 but light and coarse soils may be deficient in this power4 ,here again in respect to its absorptive power for ammonia1 peat comes to our aid4 ,it is easy to show by direct experiment that peat absorbs and combines with ammonia4 ,in #aheh ,i took a weighed quantity of air-dry peat from the ,new ,haven ,beaver ,pond1 7a specimen furnished me by ,chauncey ,goodyear1 ,esq417 and poured upon it a known quantity of dilute solution of ammonia1 and agitated the two together occasionally during #dh hours4 ,i then distilled off at a boiling heat the unabsorbed ammonia and determined its quantity4 ,this amount subtracted from that of the ammonia originally employed1 gave the quantity of ammonia absorbed and retained by the peat at the temperature of boiling water4 ,the peat retained ammonia to the amount of #j4ie of one per cent4 ,i made another trial at the same time with carbonate of ammonia1 adding excess of solution of this salt to a quantity of peat1 and exposing it to the heat of boiling water1 until no smell of ammonia was perceptible4 ,the entire nitrogen in the peat was then determined1 and it was found that the dry peat which originally contained nitrogen equivalent to #b4d per cent4 of ammonia1 now yielded an amount corresponding to #c4g per cent4 ,the quantity of ammonia absorbed and retained at a temperature of #bab deg41 was thus #a4c per cent4 ,this last experiment most nearly represents the true power of absorption2 because1 in fermenting manures1 ammonia mostly occurs in the form of carbonate1 and this is more largely retained than free ammonia1 on account of its power of decomposing the humate of lime1 forming with it carbonate of lime and humate of ammonia4 ,the absorbent power of peat is well shown by the analyses of three specimens1 sent me in #aheh1 by ,edwin ,hoyt1 ,esq41 of ,new ,canaan1 ,conn4 ,the first of these was the swamp muck he employed4 ,it contained in the air-dry state nitrogen equivalent to #j4eh per cent4 of ammonia4 ,the second sample was the same muck that had lain under the flooring of the horse stables1 and had been1 in this way1 partially saturated with urine4 ,it contained nitrogen equivalent to #a4ae per cent4 of ammonia4 ,the third sample was1 finally1 the same muck composted with white-fish4 ,it contained nitrogen corresponding to #a4ca per cent4 of ammonia4#c ,the quantities of ammonia thus absorbed1 both in the laboratory and field experiments are small--from #j4g to #a4c per cent4 ,the absorption is without doubt chiefly due to the organic matter of the peats1 and in all the specimens on which these trials were made1 the proportion of inorganic matter is large4 ,the results therefore become a better expression of the power of peat1 in general1 to absorb ammonia1 if we reckon them on the organic matter alone4 ,calculated in this way1 the organic matter of the ,beaver ,pond peat 7which constitutes but #fh per cent4 of the dry peat7 absorbs #a4d per cent4 of free ammonia1 and #a4i per cent4 of ammonia out of the carbonate of ammonia4 ,similar experiments1 by ,anderson1 on a ,scotch peat1 showed it to possess1 when wet1 an absorptive power of #b per cent41 and1 after drying in the air1 it still retained #a4e per cent4--,trans4 ,highland and ,ag'l ,soc'y4 ,when we consider how small an ingredient of most manures nitrogen is1 viz43 from one-half to three-quarters of one per cent4 in case of stable manure1 and how little of it1 in the shape of guano for instance1 is usually applied to crops--not more than #dj to #fj lbs4 to the acre1 7the usual dressings with guano are from #bej to #djj lbs4 per acre1 and nitrogen averages but #ae per cent4 of the guano71 we at once perceive that an absorptive power of one or even one-half per cent4 is greatly more than adequate for every agricultural purpose4 ,,iii4--,peat promotes the disintegration of the soil4 ,the soil is a storehouse of food for crops2 the stores it contains are1 however1 only partly available for immediate use4 ,in fact1 by far the larger share is locked up1 as it were1 in insoluble combinations1 and only by a slow and gradual change can it become accessible to the plant4 ,this change is largely brought about by the united action of water and carbonic acid gas4 ,nearly all the rocks and minerals out of which fertile soils are formed1--which therefore contain those inorganic matters that are essential to vegetable growth1--though very slowly acted on by pure water1 are decomposed and dissolved to a much greater extent by water1 charged with carbonic acid gas4 ,it is by these solvents that the formation of soil from broken rocks is to a great extent due4 ,clay is invariably a result of their direct action upon rocks4 ,the efficiency of the soil depends greatly upon their chemical influence4 ,the only abundant source of carbonic acid in the soil1 is decaying vegetable matter4 ,hungry1 leachy soils1 from their deficiency of vegetable matter and of moisture1 do not adequately yield their own native resources to the support of crops1 because the conditions for converting their fixed into floating capital are wanting4 ,such soils dressed with peat or green manured1 at once acquire the power of retaining water1 and keep that water ever charged with carbonic acid3 thus not only the extraneous manures which the farmer applies are fully economized2 but the soil becomes more productive from its own stores of fertility which now begin to be unlocked and available4 ,dr4 ,peters1 of ,saxony1 has made some instructive experiments that are here in point4 ,he filled several large glass jars1 7#b-a_/b feet high and #e-a_/b inches wide7 with a rather poor loamy sand1 containing considerable humus1 and planted in each one1 ,june #ad1 #aheg1 an equal number of seeds of oats and peas4 ,jar ,no4 #b had daily passed into it through a tube1 adapted to the bottom1 about #c-a_/d pints of common air4 ,no4 #c received daily the same bulk of a mixture of air and carbonic acid gas1 of which the latter amounted to one-fourth4 ,no4 #a remained without any treatment of this kind1 i4 e43 in just the condition of the soil in an open field1 having no air in its pores1 save that penetrating it from the atmosphere4 ,on ,october #c1 the plants were removed from the soil1 and after drying at the boiling point of water1 were weighed4 ,the crops from the pots into which air and carbonic acid were daily forced1 were about twice as heavy as ,no4 #a1 which remained in the ordinary condition4 ,examination of the soil further demonstrated1 that in the last two soils1 a considerably greater quantity of mineral and organic matters had become soluble in water1 than in the soil that was not artificially aerated4 ,the actual results are given in the table below in grammes1 and refer to #fjjj grammes of soil in each case3-- ,,action ,,of ,,carbonic ,,acid ,,on ,,the ,,soil4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,no4 #a1 ,without ,no4 #b1 ,no4 #c1 ,substances soluble in water1 etc4 ,artificial ,common ,air and ,supply of ,air ,carbonic ,air4 ,added4acid added4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,mineral matters #b4jd #c4ga #d4ii ,potash #j4jg #j4ag #j4ad ,soda #j4ag #j4bc #j4bh ,organic matters #b4gf #d4cb #b4dc ,weight of ,crops #e4hi #aj4di #ab4ce ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,it will be seen from the above that air alone exercised nearly as much solvent effect as the mixture of air with one-fourth its weight of carbonic acid2 this is doubtless1 in part due to the fact that the air1 upon entering the soil rich in humus1 caused the abundant formation of carbonic acid1 as will be presently shown must have been the case4 ,it is1 however1 probable that organic acids 7crenic and apocrenic17 and nitric acid were also produced 7by oxidation17 and shared with carbonic the work of solution4 ,it is almost certain1 that the acids of peat exert a powerful decomposing1 and ultimately solvent effect on the minerals of the soil2 but on this point we have no precise information1 and must therefore be content merely to present the probability4 ,this is sustained by the fact that the crenic1 apocrenic and humic acids1 though often partly uncombined1 are never wholly so1 but usually occur united in part to various bases1 viz43 lime1 magnesia1 ammonia1 potash1 alumina and oxide of iron4 ,the crenic and apocrenic acids 7that are formed by the oxidation of ulmic and humic acids17 have such decided acid characters1--crenic acid especially1 which has a strongly sour taste--that we cannot well doubt their dissolving action4 ,,iv4--,the influence of peat on the temperature of light soils dressed with it may often be of considerable practical importance4 ,a light dry soil is subject to great variations of temperature1 and rapidly follows the changes of the atmosphere from cold to hot1 and from hot to cold4 ,in the summer noon a sandy soil becomes so warm as to be hardly endurable to the feel1 and again it is on such soils that the earliest frosts take effect4 ,if a soil thus subject to extremes of temperature have a dressing of peat1 it will on the one hand not become so warm in the hot day1 and on the other hand it will not cool so rapidly1 nor so much in the night2 its temperature will be rendered more uniform1 and on the whole1 more conducive to the welfare of vegetation4 ,this regulative effect on temperature is partly due to the stores of water held by peat4 ,in a hot day this water is constantly evaporating1 and this1 as all know1 is a cooling process4 ,at night the peat absorbs vapor of water from the air1 and condenses it within its pores1 this condensation is again accompanied with the evolution of heat4 ,it appears to be a general1 though not invariable fact1 that dark colored soils1 other things being equal1 are constantly the warmest1 or at any rate maintain the temperature most favorable to vegetation4 ,it has been repeatedly observed that on light-colored soils plants mature more rapidly1 if the earth be thinly covered with a coating of some black substance4 ,thus ,lampadius1 ,professor in the ,school of ,mines at ,freiberg1 a town situated in a mountainous part of ,saxony1 found that he could ripen melons1 even in the coolest summers1 by strewing a coating of coal-dust an inch deep over the surface of the soil4 ,in some of the vineyards of the ,rhine1 the powder of a black slate is employed to hasten the ripening of the grape4 ,girardin1 an eminent ,french agriculturist1 in a series of experiments on the cultivation of potatoes1 found that the time of their ripening varied eight to fourteen days1 according to the character of the soil4 ,he found1 on the #beth of ,august1 in a very dark soil1 made so by the presence of much humus or decaying vegetable matter1 twenty-six varieties ripe2 in sandy soil but twenty1 in clay nineteen1 and in a white lime soil only sixteen4 ,it cannot be doubted then1 that the effect of dressing a light sandy or gravelly soil with peat1 or otherwise enriching it in vegetable matter1 is to render it warmer1 in the sense in which that word is usually applied to soils4 ,the upward range of the thermometer is not1 indeed1 increased1 but the uniform warmth so salutary to our most valued crops is thereby secured4 ,in the light soils stable-manure wastes too rapidly because1 for one reason1 at the extremes of high temperature1 oxidation and decay proceed with great rapidity1 and the volatile portions of the fertilizer are used up faster than the plant can appropriate them1 so that not only are they wasted during the early periods of growth1 but they are wanting at a later period when their absence may prove the failure of a crop4 ,b4 ,the ingredients and qualities which make peat a direct fertilizer next come under discussion4 ,we shall notice3 ,the organic matters including nitrogen 7ammonia and nitric acid7 7,i73 ,the inorganic or mineral ingredients 7,,ii73 ,peculiarities in the decay of ,peat 7,,iii71 and ,institute a comparison between peat and stable manure 7,,iv74 ,i4--,under this division we have to consider3 #a4 ,the organic matters as direct food to plants4 ,thirty years ago1 when ,chemistry and ,vegetable ,physiology began to be applied to ,agriculture1 the opinion was firmly held among scientific men1 that the organic parts of humus--by which we understand decayed vegetable matter1 such as is found to a greater or less extent in all good soils1 and abounds in many fertile ones1 such as constitutes the leaf-mold of forests1 such as is produced in the fermenting of stable manure1 and that forms the principal part of swamp-muck and peat1--are the true nourishment of vegetation1 at any rate of the higher orders of plants1 those which supply food to man and to domestic animals4 ,in #ahdj1 ,liebig1 in his celebrated treatise on the ,applications of ,chemistry to ,agriculture and ,physiology1 gave as his opinion that these organic bodies do not nourish vegetation except by the products of their decay4 ,he asserted that they cannot enter the plant directly1 but that the water1 carbonic acid and ammonia resulting from their decay1 are the substances actually imbibed by plants1 and from these alone is built up the organic or combustible part of vegetation4 ,to this day there is a division of opinion among scientific men on this subject1 some adopting the views of ,liebig1 others maintaining that certain soluble organic matters1 viz41 crenic and apocrenic acids are proper food of plants4 ,on the one hand it has been abundantly demonstrated that these organic matters are not at all essential to the growth of agricultural plants1 and can constitute but a small part of the actual food of vegetation taken in the aggregate4 ,on the other hand1 we are acquainted with no satisfactory evidence that the soluble organic matters of the soil and of peat1 especially the crenates and apocrenates1 are not actually appropriated by1 and1 so far as they go1 are not directly serviceable as food to plants4 ,be this as it may1 practice has abundantly demonstrated the value of humus as an ingredient of the soil1 and if not directly1 yet indirectly1 it furnishes the material out of which plants build up their parts4 #b4 ,the organic matters of peat as indirect food to plants4 ,very nearly one-half1 by weight1 of our common crops1 when perfectly dry1 consists of carbon4 ,the substance which supplies this element to plants is the gas1 carbonic acid4 ,plants derive this gas mostly from the atmosphere1 absorbing it by means of their leaves4 ,but the free atmosphere1 at only a little space above the soil1 contains on the average but #a_/bejj of its bulk of this gas1 whereas plants flourish in air containing a larger quantity1 and1 in fact1 their other wants being supplied1 they grow better as the quantity is increased to #a_/ab the bulk of the air4 ,these considerations make sufficiently obvious how important it is that the soil have in itself a constant and abundant source of carbonic acid gas4 ,as before said1 organic matter1 in a state of decay1 is the single material which the farmer can incorporate with his soil in order to make the latter a supply of this most indispensable form of plant-food4 ,when organic matters decay in the soil1 their carbon ultimately assumes the form of ,carbonic acid4 ,this gas1 constantly exhaling from the soil1 is taken up by the foliage of the crops1 and to some extent is absorbed likewise by their roots4 ,boussingault ,lewy have examined the air inclosed in the interstices of various soils1 and invariably found it much richer 7#aj to #djj times7 than that of the atmosphere above4 ,here follow some of their results3 ,,carbonic ,,acid ,,in ,,soils4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------- ,key3 ,a - ,volumes of ,carbonic acid in #ajj of air in pores of ,soil4 ,b - ,cubic feet of air in acre to depth of #ad inches4 ,c - ,cubic feet of ,carbonic acid in acre to depth of #ad inches4 ,d - ,volumes of ,carbonic acid to #ajj of air above the soil4 ,e - ,cubic feet of air over one acre to height of #ad inches4 ,f - ,cubic feet of ,carbonic acid over one acre to a height of #ad inches4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,designation and ,condition of ,soil4 ,a ,b ,c ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,sandy subsoil of forest #j4bd #d1cbf #ad ,loamy #j4hb #c1deh #bh ,surface soil #j4hf #e1gfh #ef ,clayey soil of artichoke field #j4ff #aj1jid #ga ,soil of asparagus bed1 unmanured for one year #j4gi #aj1idh #hf newly manured #a4ed #aj1idh #agb ,sandy soil1 six days after manuring1 and three days of rain4#b4ba #aa1ecf #beg ten #i4gd #aa1ecfaadd ,compost of vegetable mold #c4fd #bj1fjh #ggb ,carbonic ,acid in ,atmosphere ,d ,e ,f --------------- #j4jbeej1hbj #ad ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,from the above it is seen that in soils containing little decomposing organic matters--as the forest sub-soils--the quantity of carbonic acid is no greater than that contained in an equal bulk of the atmosphere4 ,it is greater in loamy and clayey soils2 but is still small4 ,in the artichoke field 7probably light soil not lately manured71 and even in an asparagus bed unmanured for one year1 the amount of carbonic acid is not greatly larger4 ,in newly manured fields1 and especially in a vegetable compost1 the quantity is vastly greater4 ,the organic matters which come from manures1 or from the roots and other residues of crops1 are the source of the carbonic acid of the soil4 ,these matters continually waste in yielding this gas1 and must be supplied anew4 ,boussingault found that the rich soil of his kitchen garden 7near ,strasburg7 which had been heavily manured from the barn-yard for many years1 lost one-third of its carbon by exposure to the air for three months 7,july1 ,august and ,september17 being daily watered4 ,it originally contained #b4dc per cent4 ,at the conclusion of the experiment it contained but #a4fj per cent41 having lost #j4hc per cent4 ,peat and swamp-muck1 when properly prepared1 furnish carbonic acid in large quantities during their slow oxidation in the soil4 #c4 ,the ,nitrogen of ,peat1 including ,ammonia and ,nitric ,acid4 ,the sources of the nitrogen of plants1 and the real cause of the value of nitrogenous fertilizers1 are topics that have excited more discussion than any other points in ,agricultural ,chemistry4 ,this is the result of two circumstances4 ,one is the obscurity in which some parts of the subject have rested2 the other is the immense practical and commercial importance of this element1 as a characteristic and essential ingredient of the most precious fertilizers4 ,it is a rule that the most valuable manures1 commercially considered1 are those containing the most nitrogen4 ,peruvian guano1 sulphate of ammonia1 soda-saltpeter1 fish and flesh manures1 bones and urine1 cost the farmer more money per ton than any other manures he buys or makes1 superphosphate of lime excepted1 and this does not find sale1 for general purposes1 unless it contains several per cent4 of nitrogen4 ,these are1 in the highest sense1 nitrogenous fertilizers1 and1 if deprived of their nitrogen1 they would lose the greater share of their fertilizing power4 ,the importance of the nitrogen of manures depends upon the fact that those forms 7compounds7 of nitrogen which are capable of supplying it to vegetation are comparatively scarce4 ,it has long been known that peat contains a considerable quantity of nitrogen4 ,the average amount in thirty specimens1 analyzed under the author's direction1 including peats and swamp mucks of all grades of quality1 is equivalent to #a-a_/b per cent4 of the air-dried substance1 or more than thrice as much as exists in ordinary stable or yard manure4 ,in several peats the amount is as high as #b4d per cent41 and in one case #b4i per cent4 were found4 ,of these thirty samples1 one-half were largely mixed with soil1 and contained from #ae to #fj per cent4 of mineral matters4 ,reducing them to an average of #ae per cent4 of water and #e per cent4 of ash1 they contain #b4a per cent4 of nitrogen1 while the organic part1 considered free from water and mineral substances1 contains on the average #b4f per cent4 ,see table1 page #ij4 ,the five peats1 analyzed by ,websky and ,chevandier1 as cited on page #bd1 considered free from water and ash1 contain an average of #a4h per cent4 of nitrogen4 ,we should not neglect to notice that peat is often comparatively poor in nitrogen4 ,of the specimens1 examined in the ,yale ,analytical ,laboratory1 several contained but half a per cent4 or less4 ,so in the analyses of ,websky1 one sample contained but #j4gg per cent4 of the element in question4 ,as concerns the state of combination in which nitrogen exists in peat1 there is a difference of opinion4 ,mulder regards it as chiefly occurring in the form of ammonia 7a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen71 united to the organic acids from which it is very difficult to separate it4 ,recent investigations indicate that in general1 peat contains but a small proportion of ready-formed ammonia4 ,the great part of the nitrogen of peat exists in an insoluble and inert form3 but1 by the action of the atmosphere upon it1 especially when mixed with and divided by the soil1 it gradually becomes available to vegetation to as great an extent as the nitrogen of ordinary fertilizers4 ,it appears from late examinations that weathered peat may contain nitric acid 7compound of nitrogen with oxygen7 in a proportion which1 though small1 is yet of great importance1 agriculturally speaking4 ,what analytical data we possess are subjoined4 ,,proportions ,,of ,,nitrogen1 ,,etc41 ,,in ,,peat4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,total ,ammonia1 ,analyst4 ,nitrogen4 per cent4,nitric acid4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- #a--;,brown ,peat,air dry 787 ,boussingault #b4bj #j4jah #j4jjj #b--;,black ,peat ,undetermined #j4jbe ,undetermined #c--,peat ,dried at #bab deg4,reichardt#d #j4aeb #j4dhc #d--,peat #j4afe #j4ebe #e--,peat #j4cje #j4bda #f--,peat #j4cce #j4dba ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,specimens #c1 #d and #e1 are swamp 7or heath7 mucks1 and have been weathered for use in flower-culture4 #c and #d are alike1 save that #c has been weathered a year longer than #d4 ,they contain respectively #da1 #ef and #fg per cent4 of organic matter4 ,sample #f1 containing #hf per cent4 of organic matter1 is employed as a manure with great advantage1 and probably was weathered before analysis4 ,it contained #he per cent4 of organic substance4 ,more important to us than the circumstance that this peat contains but little or no ammonia or nitric acid1 and the other contains such or such a fraction of one per cent4 of these bodies1 is the grand fact that all peats may yield a good share of their nitrogen to the support of crops1 when properly treated and applied4 ,under the influence of ,liebig's teachings1 which were logically based upon the best data at the disposal of this distinguished philosopher when he wrote #be years ago1 it has been believed that the nitrogen of a fertilizer1 in order to be available1 must be converted into ammonia and presented in that shape to the plant4 ,it has been recently made clear that nitric acid1 rather than ammonia1 is the form of nitrogenous food which is most serviceable to vegetation1 and the one which is most abundantly supplied by the air and soil4 ,the value of ammonia is however positive1 and not to be overlooked4 ,when peat1 properly prepared by weathering or composting1 is suitably incorporated with a poor or light soil1 it slowly suffers decomposition and wastes away4 ,if it be wet1 and air have access in limited quantity1 especially if lime be mixed with it1 a portion of its nitrogen is gradually converted into ammonia4 ,with full access of air nitric acid is produced4 ,in either case1 it appears that a considerable share of the nitrogen escapes in the free state as gas1 thereby becoming useless to vegetation until it shall have become converted again into ammonia or nitric acid4 ,it happens in a cultivated soil that the oxygen of the air is in excess at the surface1 and less abundant as we go down until we get below organic matters3 it happens that one day it is saturated with water more or less1 and another day it is dry1 so that at one time we have the conditions for the formation of ammonia1 and at another1 those favorable to producing nitric acid4 ,in this way1 so far as our present knowledge warrants us to affirm1 organic matters1 decaying in the soil1 continuously yield portions of their nitrogen in the forms of ammonia and nitric acid for the nourishment of plants4 ,the farmer who skillfully employs as a fertilizer a peat containing a good proportion of nitrogen1 may thus expect to get from it results similar to what would come from the corresponding quantity of nitrogen in guano or stable manure4 ,but the capacity of peat for feeding crops with1 nitrogen appears not to stop here4 ,under certain conditions1 the free nitrogen of the air which cannot be directly appropriated by vegetation1 is oxidized in the pores of the soil to nitric acid1 and thus1 free of expense to the farmer1 his crops are daily dressed with the most precious of all fertilizers4 ,this gathering of useless nitrogen from the air1 and making it over into plant-food cannot go on in a soil destitute of organic matter1 requires in fact that vegetable remains or humified substances of some sort be present there4 ,the evidence of this statement1 whose truth was maintained years ago as a matter of opinion by many of the older chemists1 has recently become nearly a matter of demonstration by the investigations of ,boussingault and ,knop1 while the explanation of it is furnished by the researches of ,schoenbein and ,zabelin4 ,to attempt any elucidation of it here would require more space than is at our disposal4 ,it is plain from the contents of this paragraph that peat or swamp muck is1 in general1 an abundant source of nitrogen1 and is often therefore an extremely cheap means of replacing the most rare and costly fertilizers4 ,,ii4--,with regard to the inorganic matters of peat considered as food to plants1 it is obvious1 that1 leaving out of the account for the present1 some exceptional cases1 they are useful as far as they go4 ,in the ashes of peats1 we almost always find small quantities of sulphate of lime1 magnesia and phosphoric acid4 ,potash and soda too1 are often present1 though rarely to any considerable amount4 ,carbonate and sulphate of lime are large ingredients of the ashes of about one-half1 of the thirty-three peats and swamp mucks ,i have examined4 ,the ashes of the other half are largely mixed with sand and soil1 but in most cases also contain considerable sulphate of lime1 and often carbonates of lime and magnesia4 ,in one swamp-muck1 from ,milford1 ,conn41 there was found but two per cent4 of ash1 at least one-half of which was sand1 and the remainder sulphate of lime1 7gypsum47 ,in other samples #bj1 #cj1 #ej and even #fj per cent4 remained after burning off the organic matter4 ,in these cases the ash is chiefly sand4 ,the amount of ash found in those peats which were most free from sand1 ranges from five to nine per cent4 ,probably the average proportion of true ash1 viz43 that derived from the organic matters themselves1 not including sand and accidental ingredients1 is not far from five per cent4 ,in twenty-two specimens of ,european peat1 examined by ,websky1 ,jaeckel1 ,walz1 ,wiegmann1 ,einhof and ,berthier1 eleven contained from #j4f to #c4e per cent4 of ash4 ,the other eleven yielded from #e4c to #bb per cent4 ,the average of the former was #b4d1 that of the latter #ab4g per cent4 ,most of these contained a considerable proportion of sand or soil4 ,variation in the composition as well as in the quantity of ash is very great4 ,three analyses of peat-ashes have been executed at the author's instance with the subjoined results3 ,,analyses ,,of ,,peat-,,ashes4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,a4 ,b4 ,c4 ,potash4 #j4fi #j4hj #c4df ,soda4 #j4eh trace4 ,lime4 #dj4eb #ce4ei #f4fj ,magnesia4 #f4jf #d4ib #a4je ,oxide of iron and alumina4 #e4ag #i4jh #ae4ei ,phosphoric acid4 #j4ej #j4gg #a4ee ,sulphuric acid4 #e4eb #aj4da #d4jd ,chlorine4 #j4ae #j4dc #j4gj ,soluble silica4 #h4bc #a4dj ,carbonic acid4 #ai4fj #bb4bh #fg4ja ,sand4 #ab4aa #ae4jd -------------------------------- #ii4ac #ajj4gd #ajj4jj ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,a was furnished by ,mr4 ,daniel ,buck1 ,jr41 of ,poquonock1 ,conn41 and comes from a peat which he uses as fuel4 ,b was sent by ,mr4 ,j4 ,h4 ,stanwood1 of ,colebrook1 ,conn4 ,c was sent from ,guilford1 ,conn41 by ,mr4 ,andrew ,foote4#e ,a and ,b1 after excluding sand1 are seen to consist chiefly of carbonates and sulphates of lime and magnesia4 ,,iii4 contains a very large proportion of sand and soluble silica1 much iron and alumina1 less lime and sulphuric acid4 ,potash and phosphoric acid are three times more abundant in ,c than in the others4 ,instead of citing in full the results of ,websky1 ,jaeckel and others1 it will serve our object better to present the maximum1 minimum and average proportions of the important ingredients in twenty-six recent analyses1 7including these three17 that have come under the author's notice4 ,,variations ,,and ,,averages ,,in ,,composition ,,of ,,peat-,,ashes4 ,minimum4 ,maximum4 ,average4 ,potash #j4je to #c4fd #j4hi per cent4 ,soda none #e4gc #j4hc ,lime #d4gb #eh4ch #bd4jj ,magnesia none #bd4ci #c4bj ,alumina #j4ij #bj4ej #e4gh ,oxide of iron none #gc4cc #ah4gj ,sulphuric acid none #cg4dj #g4ej ,chlorine #f4ej #j4fj ,phosphoric acid #f4bi #b4ef ,sand #j4ii #ef4ig #be4ej ,it is seen from the above figures that the ash of peat varies in composition to an indefinite degree4 ,lime is the only ingredient that is never quite wanting1 and with the exception of sand1 it is on the average the largest4 ,of the other agriculturally valuable components1 sulphuric acid has the highest average2 then follows magnesia2 then phosphoric acid1 and lastly1 potash and soda3 all of these1 however1 may be nearly or quite lacking4 ,websky1 who has recently made a study of the composition of a number of ,german peats1 believes himself warranted to conclude that peat is so modified in appearance by its mineral matters1 that the quantity or character of the latter may be judged of in many cases by the eye4 ,he remarks1 7,journal fuer ,praktische ,chemie1 ,bd4 #ib1 ,s4 #hg17 that while for example the peats containing much sand and clay have a red-brown powdery appearance1 and never assume a lustrous surface by pressure2 those which are very rich in lime1 are black1 sticky when moist1 hard and of a waxy luster on a pressed surface1 when dry3 a property which they share indeed with very dense peats that contain little ash4 ,peats impregnated with iron are easily recognized4 ,their peculiar odor1 and their changed appearance distinguish them from all others4 ,from my own investigations on thirty specimens of ,connecticut peats1 ,i am forced to disagree with ,websky entirely1 and to assert that except as regards sand1 which may often be detected by the eye1 there is no connection whatever between the quantity or character of the ash and the color1 consistency1 density or any other external quality of the peat4 ,the causes of this variation in the ash-content of peat1 deserve a moment's notice4 ,the plants that produce peat contain considerable proportions of lime1 magnesia1 alkalies1 sulphuric acid1 chlorine and phosphoric acid1 as seen from the following analysis by ,websky4 ,,composition ,,of ,,the ,,ash ,,of ,,sphagnum4 ,potash4 #ag4b ,soda4 #h4c ,lime4 #aa4h ,magnesia4 #f4g ,sulphuric acid4 #f4e ,chlorine4 #f4b ,phosphoric acid4 #f4g ,per cent4 of ash1 #b4e4 ,the mineral matters of the sphagnum do not all become ingredients of the peat2 but1 as rapidly as the moss decays below1 its soluble matters are to a great degree absorbed by the vegetation1 which is still living and growing above4 ,again1 when a stream flows through a peat-bed1 soluble matters are carried away by the water1 which is often dark-brown from the substances dissolved in it4 ,finally the soil of the adjacent land is washed or blown upon the swamp1 in greater or less quantities4 ,,iii4--,the decomposition of peat in the soil offers some peculiarities that are worthy of notice in this place4 ,peat is more gradual and regular in decay than the vegetable matters of stable dung1 or than that furnished by turning under sod or green crops4 ,it is thus a more steady and lasting benefit1 especially in light soils1 out of which ordinary vegetable manures disappear too rapidly4 ,the decay of peat appears to proceed through a regular series of steps4 ,in the soil1 especially in contact with soluble alkaline bodies1 as ammonia and lime1 there is a progressive conversion of the insoluble or less soluble into soluble compounds4 ,thus the inert matters that resist the immediate solvent power of alkalies1 absorb oxygen from the air1 and form the humic or ulmic acids soluble in alkalies2 the humic acids undergo conversion into crenic acid1 and this body1 by oxidation1 passes into apocrenic acid4 ,the two latter are soluble in water1 and1 in the porous soil1 they are rapidly brought to the end-results of decay1 viz43 water1 carbonic acid1 ammonia and free nitrogen4 ,great differences must be observed1 however1 in the rapidity with which these changes take place4 ,doubtless they go on most slowly in case of the fibrous compact peats1 and perhaps some of the lighter and more porous samples of swamp muck1 would decay nearly as fast as rotted stable dung4 ,it might appear from the above statement1 that the effect of exposing peat to the air1 as is done when it is incorporated with the soil1 would be to increase relatively the amount of soluble organic matters2 but the truth is1 that they are often actually diminished4 ,in fact1 the oxidation and consequent removal of these soluble matters 7crenic and apocrenic acids17 is likely to proceed more rapidly than they can be produced from the less soluble humic acid of the peat4 ,,iv4--,comparison of ,peat with ,stable ,manure4 ,the fertilizing value of peat is best understood by comparing it with some standard manure4 ,stable manure is obviously that fertilizer whose effects are most universally observed and appreciated1 and by setting analyses of the two side by side1 we may see at a glance1 what are the excellencies and what the deficiencies of peat4 ,in order rightly to estimate the worth of those ingredients which occur in but small proportion in peat1 we must remember that it1 like stable manure1 may be1 and usually should be1 applied in large doses1 so that in fact the smallest ingredients come upon an acre in considerable quantity4 ,in making our comparison1 we will take the analysis of ,peat from the farm of ,mr4 ,daniel ,buck1 ,jr41 of ,poquonock1 ,conn41 and the average of several analyses of rotted stable dung of good quality4 ,no4 ,i1 is the analysis of ,peat2 ,no4 ,,ii1 that of well rotted stable manure3-- ,i4 ,,ii4 ,water expelled at #bab degrees4 #gi4jjj #gi4jj ,soluble in dilute solution ,org4 of carbonate of soda4 #g4cab ,matter4 ,insoluble in solution #ad4af of carbonate of soda4 #ab4baj ,potash4 #j4jaj #j4fe ,soda4 #j4jji ,lime4 #j4fjh #j4eg ,magnesia4 #j4jia #j4ai ,phosphoric acid4 #j4jjh #j4bc ,sulphuric acid4 #j4jhb #j4bg ,nitrogen4 #j4fjj #j4ee ,matters1 soluble in water4 #j4dej #d4db ,to make the comparison as just as possible1 the peat is calculated with the same content of water1 that stable dung usually has4 ,we observe then1 that the peat contains in a given quantity1 about one-third more organic matter1 an equal amount of lime and nitrogen2 but is deficient in potash1 magnesia1 phosphoric and sulphuric acids4 ,the deficiencies of this peat in the matter of composition may be corrected1 as regards potash1 by adding to #ajj lbs4 of it #a lb4 of potash of commerce1 or #e lbs4 of unleached wood-ashes2 as regards phosphoric and sulphuric acids1 by adding #a lb4 of good superphosphate1 or #a lb4 each of bone dust and plaster of ,paris4 ,in fact1 the additions just named1 will convert any fresh peat1 containing not more than #hj per cent4 of water and not less than #bj per cent4 of organic matter1 into a mixture having as much fertilizing matters as stable dung1 with the possible exception of nitrogen4 ,it is a fact1 however1 that two manures may reveal to the chemist the same composition1 and yet be very unlike in their fertilizing effects1 because their conditions are unlike1 because they differ in their degrees of solubility or availability4 ,as before insisted upon1 it is true in general1 that peat is more slow of decomposition than yard-manure1 and this fact1 which is an advantage in an amendment1 is a disadvantage in a fertilizer4 ,though there may be some peats1 or rather swamp mucks1 which are energetic and rapid in their action1 it seems that they need to be applied in larger quantities than stable manure in order to produce corresponding fertilizing effects4 ,in many cases peat requires some preparation by weathering1 or by chemical action--fermentation--induced by decomposing animal matters or by alkalies4 ,this topic will shortly be discussed4 ,we adopt1 as a general fact1 the conclusion that peat is inferior in fertilizing power to stable manure4 ,experience asserts1 however1 with regard to some individual kinds1 that they are equal to common yard manure without any preparation whatever4 ,mr4 ,daniel ,buck1 of ,poquonock1 ,conn41 says1 of the 'muck1' over-lying the peat1 whose composition has just been compared with stable manure1 that it has been applied fresh to meadow with good results2 the grass is not as tall but thicker and finer1 and of a darker green in the spring1 than when barn-yard manure is spread on4 ,a swamp muck1 from ,mr4 ,a4 ,m4 ,haling1 ,rockville1 ,conn41 has been used as a top-dressing1 on grass1 with excellent results4 ,it is a good substitute for barn-yard manure4 ,a peat1 from ,mr4 ,russell ,u4 ,peck1 of ,berlin1 ,conn41 has been used fresh1 on corn and meadow1 with good effect4 ,of the peat1 from the ',beaver ,pond1' near ,new ,haven1 ,mr4 ,chauncey ,goodyear1 says1 it has been largely used in a fresh state1 and in this condition is as good as cow dung4 ,mr4 ,henry ,keeler1 remarks1 concerning a swamp muck occurring at ,south ,salem1 ,n4 ,y41 that it has been used in the fresh state1 applied to corn and potatoes1 and appears to be equal to good barn manure3 further3--it has rarely been weathered more than two months1 and then applied side by side with the best yard manure has given equally good results4 ,a few words as to the apparent contradiction between ,chemistry1 which says that peat is not equal to stable dung as a fertilizer1 and ,practice1 which in these cases affirms that it is equal to our standard manure4 ,in the first place1 the chemical conclusion is a general one1 and does not apply to individual peats1 which1 in a few instances1 may be superior to yard manure4 ,the practical judgment also is1 that1 in general1 yard manure is the best4 ,to go to the individual cases2 second3 ,a peat in which nitrogen exists in as large a proportion as is found in stable or yard manure1 being used in larger quantity1 or being more durable in its action1 may for a few seasons produce better results than the latter1 merely on account of the presence of this one ingredient1 it may in fact1 for the soil and crop to which it is applied1 be a better fertilizer than yard manure1 because nitrogen is most needed in that soil1 and yet for the generality of soils1 or in the long run1 it may prove to be an inferior fertilizer4 ,again2 third--the melioration of the physical qualities of a soil1 the amendment of its dryness and excessive porosity1 by means of peat1 may be more effective for agricultural purposes1 than the application of tenfold as much fertilizing1 i4 e4 plant-feeding materials2 in the same way that the mere draining of an over-moist soil often makes it more productive than the heaviest manuring4 #b4--,on the characters of ,peat that are detrimental1 or that may sometimes need correction before it is agriculturally useful4 ,i4--,bad effects on wet heavy soils4 ,we have laid much stress on the amending qualities of peat1 when applied to dry and leachy soils1 which by its use are rendered more retentive of moisture and manure4 ,these properties1 which it would seem1 are just adapted to renovate very light land1 under certain circumstances1 may become disadvantageous on heavier soils4 ,on clays no application is needed to retain moisture4 ,they are already too wet as a general thing4 ,peat1 when put into the soil1 lasts much longer than stubble1 or green crops plowed in1 or than long manure4 ,if buried too deeply1 or put into a heavy soil1 especially if in large quantity1 it does not decay1 but remains wet1 and tends to make a bog of the field itself4 ,for soils that are rather heavy1 it is therefore best to compost the peat with some rapidly fermenting manure4 ,we thus get a compound which is quicker than muck1 and slower than stable manure1 etc41 and is therefore better adapted to the wants of the soil than either of these would be alone4 ,here it will be seen that much depends on the character of the peat itself4 ,if light and spongy1 and easily dried1 it may be used alone with advantage on loamy soils1 whereas if dense1 and coherent1 it would most likely be a poor amendment on a soil which has much tendency to become compact1 and therefore does not readily free itself from excess of water4 ,but even a clay soil1 if thorough-drained and deeply plowed1 may be wonderfully improved by even a heavy dressing of muck1 as then1 the water being let off1 the muck can exert no detrimental action2 but operates as effectually to loosen a too heavy soil1 as in case of sand1 it makes an over-porous soil compact or retentive4 ,a clay may be made friable1 if well drained1 by incorporating with it any substance as lime1 sand1 long manure or muck1 which interposing between the clayey particles1 prevents their adhering together4 ,,ii4--,noxious ingredients4 a4 ,vitriol peat4 ,occasionally a peat is met with which is injurious if applied in the fresh state to crops1 from its containing some substance which exerts a poisonous action on vegetation4 ,the principal detrimental ingredients that occur in peat1 appear to be sulphate of protoxide of iron1--the same body that is popularly known under the names copperas and green-vitriol1--and sulphate of alumina1 the astringent component of alum4 ,i have found these substances ready formed in large quantity in but one of the peats that ,i have examined1 viz43 that sent me by ,mr4 ,perrin ,scarborough2 of ,brooklyn1 ,conn4 ,this peat dissolved in water to the extent of #ae per cent41 and the soluble portion1 although containing some organic matter and sulphate of lime1 consisted in great part of green-vitriol4 ,portions of this muck1 when thrown up to the air1 become covered with a white crust1 having the taste of alum or saltpeter4 ,the bed containing this peat1 though drained1 yields but a little poor bog hay1 and the peat itself1 even after weathering for a year1 when applied1 mixed with one-fifth of stable manure to corn in the hill1 gave no encouraging results1 though a fair crop was obtained4 ,it is probable that the sample analyzed was much richer in salts of iron and alumina1 than the average of the muck4 ,green-vitriol in minute doses is not hurtful1 but rather beneficial to vegetation2 but in larger quantity it is fatally destructive4 ,in a salt-marsh mud sent me by the ,rev4 ,wm4 ,clift1 of ,stonington1 ,conn41 there was found sulphate of iron in considerable quantity4 ,this noxious substance likewise occurred in small amount in swamp muck from ,e4 ,hoyt1 ,esq41 ,new ,canaan1 ,conn41 and in hardly appreciable quantity in several others that ,i have examined4 ,besides green-vitriol1 it is possible that certain organic salts of iron1 may be deleterious4 ,the poisonous properties of vitriol-peats may be effectually corrected by composting with lime1 or wood-ashes4 ,by the action of these substances1 sulphate of lime1 7plaster of ,paris7 is formed1 while the iron separates as peroxide1 which1 being insoluble1 is without deleterious effect on vegetation4 ,where only soluble organic salts of iron 7crenate of iron7 are present1 simple exposure to the air suffices to render them innocuous4 b4 ,the acidity of ,peats4--,many writers have asserted that peat and muck possess a hurtful acidity which must be corrected before they can be usefully employed4 ,it is indeed a fact1 that peat consists largely of acids1 but1 except perhaps in the vitriol-peats1 7those containing copperas17 they are so insoluble1 or if soluble1 are so quickly modified by the absorption of oxygen1 that they do not exhibit any acidity that can be deleterious to vegetation4 ,it is advised to neutralize this supposed acidity by lime or an alkali before using peat as a fertilizer or amendment1 and there is great use in such mixtures of peat with alkaline matters1 as we shall presently notice under the head of composts4 ,by the word acidity is conveyed the idea of something hurtful to plants4 ,this something is1 doubtless1 in many cases1 the salts of iron we have just noticed4 ,in others1 it is simply the inertness1 coldness of the peat1 which is not positively injurious1 but is1 for a time at least1 of no benefit to the soil4 c4 ,resinous matters are mentioned by various writers as injurious ingredients of peat1 but ,i find no evidence that this notion is well-founded4 ,the peat or muck formed from the decay of resinous wood and leaves does not appear to be injurious1 and the amount of resin in peat is exceedingly small4 #c4--,the ,preparation of ,peat for ,agricultural use4 a4 ,excavation4--,as to the time and manner of getting out peat1 the circumstances of each case must determine4 ,i only venture here to offer a few hints on this subject1 which belongs so exclusively to the farm4 ,the month of ,august is generally the appropriate time for throwing up peat1 as then the swamps are usually most free from water1 and most accessible to men and teams2 but peat is often dug to best advantage in the winter1 not only on account of the cheapness of labor1 and from there being less hurry with other matters on the farm at that season1 but also1 because the freezing and thawing of the peat that is thrown out1 greatly aid to disintegrate it and prepare it for use4 ,a correspondent of ,the ,homestead1 signing himself ,commentator1 has given directions for getting out peat that are well worth the attention of farmers4 ,he says3-- ,the composting of muck and peat1 with our stable and barn-yard manures1 is surely destined to become one of the most important items in farm management throughout all the older ,states at least4 ,one of the difficulties which lie in the way1 is the first removal of the muck from its low and generally watery bed2 to facilitate this1 in many locations1 it is less expensive to dry it before carting1 by beginning an excavation at the border of the marsh in autumn1 sufficiently wide for a cart path1 throwing the muck out upon the surface on each side1 and on a floor of boards or planks1 to prevent it from absorbing moisture from the wet ground beneath2 this broad ditch to be carried a sufficient length and depth to obtain the requisite quantity of muck4 ,thus thrown out1 the two piles are now in a convenient form to be covered with boards1 and1 if properly done1 the muck kept covered till the succeeding autumn1 will be found to be dry and light1 and in some cases may be carted away on the surface1 or it may be best to let it remain a few months longer until the bottom of the ditch has become sufficiently frozen to bear a team2 it can then be more easily loaded upon a sled or sleigh1 and drawn to the yards and barn4 ,in other localities1 and where large quantities are wanted1 and it lies deep1 a sort of wooden railroad and inclined plane can be constructed by means of a plank track for the wheels of the cart to run upon1 the team walking between these planks1 and if the vehicle is inclined to 'run off the track1' it may usually be prevented by scantlings1 say four inches thick1 nailed upon one of the tracks on each side of the place where the wheel should run4 ,two or more teams and carts may now be employed1 returning into the excavation outside of this track4 ,as the work progresses1 the track can be extended at both ends1 and by continuing or increasing the inclination at the upper end1 a large and high pile may be made1 and if kept dry1 will answer for years for composting1 and can be easily drawn to the barn at any time4 b4 ,exposure1 weathering1 or seasoning of peat4--,in some cases1 the chief or only use of exposing the thrown-up peat to the action of the air and weather during several months or a whole year1 is to rid it of the great amount of water which adheres to it1 and thus reduce its bulk and weight previous to cartage4 ,the general effect of exposure as indicated by my analyses1 is to reduce the amount of matter soluble in water1 and cause peats to approach in this respect a fertile soil1 so that instead of containing #b1 #d1 or #f per cent4 of substances soluble in water1 as at first1 they are brought to contain but one-half these amounts1 or even less4 ,this change1 however1 goes on so rapidly after peat is mingled with the soil1 that previous exposure on this account is rarely necessary1 and most peats might be used perfectly fresh but for the difficulty often experienced1 of reducing them to such a state of division as to admit of proper mixture with the soil4 ,the coherent peats which may be cut out in tough blocks1 must be weathered1 in order that the fibres of moss or grass-roots1 which give them their consistency1 may be decomposed or broken to an extent admitting of easy pulverization by the instruments of tillage4 ,the subjection of fresh and wet peat to frost1 speedily destroys its coherence and reduces it to the proper state of pulverization4 ,for this reason1 fibrous peat should be exposed when wet to winter weather4 ,another advantage of exposure is1 to bring the peat into a state of more active chemical change4 ,peat1 of the deeper denser sorts1 is generally too inert 7sour1 cold7 to be directly useful to the plant4 ,by exposure to the air it appears gradually to acquire the properties of the humus of the soil1 or of stable manure1 which are vegetable matters1 altered by the same exposure4 ,it appears to become more readily oxidable1 more active1 chemically1 and thus more capable of exciting or rather aiding vegetable growth1 which1 so far as the soil is concerned1 is the result of chemical activities4 ,account has been already given of certain peats1 which1 used fresh1 are accounted equal or nearly equal to stable manure4 ,others have come under the writer's notice1 which have had little immediate effect when used before seasoning4 ,mr4 ,j4 ,h4 ,stanwood says of a peat1 from ,colebrook1 ,conn41 that it has been used to some extent as a top-dressing for grass and other crops with satisfactory results1 although no particular benefit was noticeable during the first year4 ,after that1 the effects might be seen for a number of years4 ,rev4 ,wm4 ,clift observes1 concerning a salt peat1 from ,stonington1 ,conn43--,it has not been used fresh2 is too acid2 even potatoes do not yield well in it the first season1 without manure4 ,the nature of the chemical changes induced by weathering1 is to some extent understood so far as the nitrogen1 the most important fertilizing element1 is concerned4 ,the nitrogen of peat1 as we have seen1 is mostly inert1 a small portion of it only1 existing in a soluble or available form4 ,by weathering1 portions of this nitrogen become converted into nitric acid4 ,this action goes on at the surface of the heap1 where it is most fully exposed to the air4 ,below1 where the peat is more moist1 ammonia is formed1 perhaps simply by the reduction of nitric acid--not unlikely also1 by the transformation of inert nitrogen4 ,on referring to the analyses given on page #dd1 it is seen1 that the first two samples contain but little ammonia and no nitric acid4 ,though it is not stated what was the condition of these peats1 it is probable they had not been weathered4 ,the other four samples were weathered1 and the weathering had been the more effectual from the large admixture of sand with them4 ,they yielded to the analyst very considerable quantities of ammonia and nitrates4 ,when a peat contains sulphate of protoxide of iron1 or soluble organic salts of iron1 to an injurious extent1 these may be converted into other insoluble and innocuous bodies1 by a sufficient exposure to the air4 ,sulphate of protoxide of iron is thus changed into sulphate of peroxide of iron1 which is insoluble1 and can therefore exert no hurtful effect on vegetation1 while the soluble organic bodies of peat are oxydized and either converted into carbonic acid gas1 carbonate of ammonia and water1 or else made insoluble4 ,it is not probable1 however1 that merely throwing up a well characterized vitriol-peat into heaps1 and exposing it thus imperfectly to the atmosphere1 is sufficient to correct its bad qualities4 ,such peats need the addition of some alkaline body1 as ammonia1 lime1 or potash1 to render them salutary fertilizers4 c4 ,this brings us to the subject of composting1 which appears to be the best means of taking full advantage of all the good qualities of peat1 and of obviating or neutralizing the ill results that might follow the use of some raw peats1 either from a peculiarity in their composition1 7soluble organic compounds of iron1 sulphate of protoxide of iron17 or from too great indestructibility4 ,the chemical changes 7oxidation of iron and organic acids71 which prepare the inert or even hurtful ingredients of peat to minister to the support of vegetation1 take place most rapidly in presence of certain other substances4 ,the substances which rapidly induce chemical change in peats1 are of two kinds1 viz43 #a4--;animal or vegetable matters that are highly susceptible to alteration and decay1 and #b4--;alkalies1 either ammonia coming from the decomposition of animal matters1 or lime1 potash and soda4 ,a great variety of matters may of course be employed for making or mixing with peat composts2 but there are comparatively few which allow of extensive and economical use1 and our notice will be confined to these4 ,first of all1 the composting of peat with animal manures deserves attention4 ,its advantages may be summed up in two statements4 #a4--;,it is an easy and perfect method of economizing all such manures1 even those kinds most liable to loss by fermentation1 as night soil and horse dung2 and1 #b4--;,it develops most fully and speedily the inert fertilizing qualities of the peat itself4 ,without attempting any explanation of the changes undergone by a peat and manure compost1 further than to say that the fermentation which begins in the manure extends to and involves the peat1 reducing the whole nearly1 if not exactly1 to the condition of well-rotted dung1 and that in this process the peat effectually prevents the loss of nitrogen as ammonia1--,i may appropriately give the practical experience of farmers who have proved in the most conclusive manner how profitable it is to devote a share of time and labor to the manufacture of this kind of compost4 ,preparation of ,composts with ,stable ,manure4--,the best plan of composting is to have a water tight trench1 four inches deep and twenty inches wide1 constructed in the stable floor1 immediately behind the cattle1 and every morning put a bushel-basketful of muck behind each animal4 ,in this way the urine is perfectly absorbed by the muck1 while the warmth of the freshly voided excrements so facilitates the fermentative process1 that1 according to ,mr4 ,f4 ,holbrook1 ,brattleboro1 ,vt41 who has described this method1 much more muck can thus be well prepared for use in the spring1 than by any of the ordinary modes of composting4 ,when the dung and muck are removed from the stable1 they should be well intermixed1 and as fast as the compost is prepared1 it should be put into a compact heap1 and covered with a layer of muck several inches thick4 ,it will then hardly require any shelter if used in the spring4 ,if the peat be sufficiently dry and powdery1 or free from tough lumps1 it may usefully serve as bedding1 or litter for horses and cattle1 as it absorbs the urine1 and is sufficiently mixed with the dung in the operation of cleaning the stable4 ,it is especially good in the pig-pen1 where the animals themselves work over the compost in the most thorough manner1 especially if a few kernels of corn be occasionally scattered upon it4 ,mr4 ,edwin ,hoyt1 of ,new ,canaan1 ,conn41 writes3--,our horse stables are constructed with a movable floor and pit beneath1 which holds #bj loads of muck of #be bushels per load4 ,spring and fall1 this pit is filled with fresh muck1 which receives all the urine of the horses1 and being occasionally worked over and mixed1 furnishes us annually with #dj loads of the most valuable manure4 ,our stables are sprinkled with muck every morning1 at the rate of one bushel per stall1 and the smell of ammonia1 etc41 so offensive in most stables1 is never perceived in ours4 ,not only are the stables kept sweet1 but the ammonia is saved by this procedure4 ,when it is preferred to make the compost out of doors1 the plan generally followed is to lay down a bed of weathered peat1 say eight to twelve inches thick2 cover this with a layer of stable dung1 of four to eight inches2 put on another stratum of peat1 and so1 until a heap of three to four feet is built up4 ,the heap may be six to eight feet wide1 and indefinitely long4 ,it should be finished with a thick coating of peat1 and the manure should be covered as fast as brought out4 ,the proportions of manure and peat should vary somewhat according to their quality and characters4 ,strawy manure1 or that from milch-cows1 will ferment less peat than clear dung1 especially when the latter is made by horses or highly fed animals4 ,some kinds of peat heat much easier than others4 ,there are peats which will ferment of themselves in warm moist weather--even in the bog1 giving off ammonia in perceptible though small amount4 ,experience is the only certain guide as to the relative quantities to be employed1 various proportions from one to five of peat for one of manure1 by bulk1 being used4 ,when the land is light and needs amending1 as regards its retentive power1 it is best to make the quantity of peat as large as can be thoroughly fermented by the manure4 ,the making of a high heap1 and the keeping it trim and in shape1 is a matter requiring more labor than is generally necessary4 ,mr4 ,j4 ,h4 ,stanwood1 of ,colebrook1 ,conn41 writes me3-- ,my method of composting is as follows3 ,i draw my muck to the barn-yard1 placing the loads as near together as ,i can tip them from the cart4 ,upon this ,i spread whatever manure ,i have at hand1 and mix with the feet of the cattle1 and heap up with a scraper4 ,peat may be advantageously used to save from waste the droppings of the yard4 ,mr4 ,edwin ,hoyt1 of ,new ,canaan1 ,conn41 says3--,we use muck largely in our barn-yards1 and after it becomes thoroughly saturated and intermixed with the droppings of the stock1 it is piled up to ferment1 and the yard is covered again with fresh muck4 ,mr4 ,n4 ,hart1 ,jr41 of ,west ,cornwall1 ,conn41 writes3--,in the use of muck we proceed as follows3 ,soon after haying we throw up enough for a year's use1 or several hundred loads4 ,in the fall1 the summer's accumulation in hog-pens and barn cellars is spread upon the mowing grounds1 and a liberal supply of muck carted in and spread in the bottoms of the cellars1 ready for the season for stabling cattle4 ,when this is well saturated with the drippings of the stables1 a new supply is added4 ,the accumulation of the winter is usually applied to the land for the corn crop1 except the finer portion1 which is used to top-dress meadow land4 ,a new supply is then drawn in for the swine to work up4 ,this is added to from time to time1 and as the swine are fed on whey1 they will convert a large quantity into valuable manure for top-dressing mowing land4 ,a difference of opinion exists as to the treatment of the compost4 ,some hold it indifferent whether the peat and manure are mixed1 or put in layers when the composting begins4 ,others assert1 that the fermentation proceeds better when the ingredients are stratified4 ,some direct1 that the compost should not be stirred4 ,the general testimony is1 that mixture1 at the outset1 is as effectual as putting up in layers2 but1 if the manure be strawy1 it is1 of course1 difficult or impracticable to mix at first4 ,opinion also preponderates in favor of stirring1 during or after the fermentation4 ,mr4 ,hoyt remarks3--,we are convinced1 that the oftener a compost pile of yard manure and muck is worked over after fermenting1 the better4 ,we work it over and add to it a little more muck and other material1 and the air being thus allowed to penetrate it1 a new fermentation or heating takes place1 rendering it more decomposable and valuable4 ,rev4 ,wm4 ,clift1 writes3--,three or four loads of muck to one of stable manure1 put together in the fall or winter in alternate layers1 forked over twice before spreading and plowing in1 may represent the method of composting4 ,mr4 ,adams ,white1 of ,brooklyn1 ,conn41 proceeds in a different manner4 ,he says3--,in composting1 #bj loads are drawn on to upland in ,september1 and thrown up in a long pile4 ,early in the spring #bj loads of stable manure are laid along side1 and covered with the muck4 ,as soon as it has heated moderately1 the whole is forked over and well mixed4 ,those who have practiced making peat composts with their yard1 stable1 and pen manure1 almost invariably find them highly satisfactory in use1 especially upon light soils4 ,a number of years ago1 ,i saw a large pile of compost in the farm-yard of ,mr4 ,pond1 of ,milford1 ,conn41 and witnessed its effect as applied by that gentleman to a field of sixteen acres of fine gravelly or coarse sandy soil4 ,the soil1 from having a light color and excessive porosity1 had become dark1 unctuous1 and retentive of moisture1 so that during the drouth of #ahef1 the crops on this field were good and continued to flourish1 while on the contiguous land they were dried up and nearly ruined4 ,this compost was made from a light muck1 that contained but three per cent4 of ash 7more than half of which was sand71 and but #a4b per cent4 of nitrogen1 in the air-dry state--7twenty per cent4 of water74 ,three loads of this muck were used to one of stable manure4 ,here follow some estimates of the value of this compost by practical men4 ,they are given to show that older statements1 to the same effect1 cannot be regarded as exaggerated4 ,mr4 ,j4 ,h4 ,stanwood1 of ,colebrook1 ,conn41 says3--,experiments made by myself1 have confirmed me in the opinion that a compost of equal parts of muck and stable manure is equal to the same quantity of stable manure4 ,mr4 ,daniel ,buck1 ,jr41 of ,poquonock1 ,conn41 remarks3--#h loads of muck and #d of manure in compost1 when properly forked over1 are equal to #ab loads of barn-yard manure on sandy soil4 ,rev4 ,wm4 ,clift1 of ,stonington1 ,conn41 writes3--,i consider a compost made of one load of stable manure and three of muck1 equal in value to four loads of yard manure4 ,mr4 ,n4 ,hart1 ,jr41 of ,west ,cornwall1 ,conn41 observes of a peat sent by him for analysis3--,we formerly composted it in the yard with stable manure1 but have remodeled our stables1 and now use it as an absorbent and to increase the bulk of manure to double its original quantity4 ,we consider the mixture more valuable than the same quantity of stable manure4 ,again1 so successful has been the use of it1 that we could hardly carry on our farming operations without it4 ,mr4 ,adams ,white1 of ,brooklyn1 ,conn41 states3--,the compost of equal bulks of muck and stable manure1 has been used for corn 7with plaster in the hill17 on dry sandy soil to great advantage4 ,i consider the compost worth more per cord than the barn-yard manure4 ,night ,soil is a substance which possesses1 when fresh1 the most valuable fertilizing qualities1 in a very concentrated form4 ,it is also one which is liable to rapid and almost complete deterioration1 as ,i have demonstrated by analyses4 ,the only methods of getting the full effect of this material are1 either to use it fresh1 as is done by the ,chinese and ,japanese on a most extensive and offensive scale2 or to compost it before it can decompose4 ,the former method1 will1 it is to be hoped1 never find acceptance among us4 ,the latter plan has nearly all the advantages of the former1 without its unpleasant features4 ,when the night soil falls into a vault1 it may be composted1 by simply sprinkling fine peat over its surface1 once or twice weekly1 as the case may require1 i4 e4 as often as a bad odor prevails4 ,the quantity thus added1 may be from twice to ten times the bulk of the night soil1--the more within these limits1 the better4 ,when the vault is full1 the mass should be removed1 worked well over and after a few days standing1 will be ready to use to manure corn1 tobacco1 etc41 in the hill1 or for any purpose to which guano or poudrette is applied4 ,if it cannot be shortly used1 it should be made into a compact heap1 and covered with a thick stratum of peat4 ,when signs of heating appear1 it should be watched closely2 and if the process attains too much violence1 additional peat should be worked into it4 ,drenching with water is one of the readiest means of checking too much heating1 but acts only temporarily4 ,dilution with peat to a proper point1 which experience alone can teach1 is the surest way of preventing loss4 ,it should not be forgotten to put a thick layer of peat at the bottom of the vault to begin with4 ,another excellent plan1 when circumstances admit1 is1 to have the earth-floor where the night soil drops1 level with the surface of the ground1 or but slightly excavated1 and a shed attached to the rear of the privy to shelter a good supply of peat as well as the compost itself4 ,operations are begun by putting down a layer of peat to receive the droppings2 enough should be used to absorb all the urine4 ,when this is nearly saturated1 more should be sprinkled on1 and the process is repeated until the accumulations must be removed to make room for more4 ,then1 once a week or so1 the whole is hauled out into the shed1 well mixed1 and formed into a compact heap1 or placed as a layer upon a stratum of peat1 some inches thick1 and covered with the same4 ,the quantity of first-class compost that may be made yearly upon any farm1 if due care be taken1 would astonish those who have not tried it4 ,james ,smith1 of ,deanston1 ,scotland1 who originated our present system of ,thorough ,drainage1 asserted1 that the excrements of one man for a year1 are sufficient to manure half an acre of land4 ,in ,belgium the manure from such a source has a commercial value of #i4jj gold4 ,it is certain1 that the skillful farmer may make considerably more than that sum from it in ,new ,england1 per annum4 ,mr4 ,hoyt1 of ,new ,canaan1 ,conn41 says3-- ,our privies are deodorized by the use of muck1 which is sprinkled over the surface of the pit once a week1 and from them alone we thus prepare annually1 enough poudrette to manure our corn in the hill4 ,peruvian ,guano1 so serviceable in its first applications to light soils1 may be composted with muck to the greatest advantage4 ,guano is an excellent material for bringing muck into good condition1 and on the other hand the muck most effectually prevents any waste of the costly guano1 and at the same time1 by furnishing the soil with its own ingredients1 to a greater or less degree prevents the exhaustion that often follows the use of guano alone4 ,the quantity of muck should be pretty large compared to that of the guano1--a bushel of guano will compost six1 eight1 or ten of muck4 ,both should be quite fine1 and should be well mixed1 the mixture should be moist and kept covered with a layer of muck of several inches of thickness4 ,this sort of compost would probably be sufficiently fermented in a week or two of warm weather1 and should be made and kept under cover4 ,if no more than five or six parts of muck to one of guano are employed1 the compost1 according to the experience of ,simon ,brown1 ,esq41 of the ,boston ,cultivator1 7,patent ,office ,report for #ahef71 will prove injurious1 if placed in the hill in contact with seed1 but may be applied broadcast without danger4 ,the ,menhaden or ,white fish1 so abundantly caught along our ,sound coast during the summer months1 or any variety of fish may be composted with muck1 so as to make a powerful manure1 with avoidance of the excessively disagreeable stench which is produced when these fish are put directly on the land4 ,messrs4 ,stephen ,hoyt ,sons1 of ,new ,canaan1 ,conn41 make this compost on a large scale4 ,i cannot do better than to give entire ,mr4 ,edwin ,hoyt's account of their operations1 communicated to me several years ago4 ,during the present season1 7#aheh17 we have composted about #bjj1jjj white fish with about #gjj loads 7#ag1ejj bushels7 of muck4 ,we vary the proportions somewhat according to the crop the compost is intended for4 ,for rye we apply #bj to #be loads per acre of a compost made with #d1ejj fish1 7one load7 and with this manuring1 no matter how poor the soil1 the rye will be as large as a man can cradle4 ,much of ours we have to reap4 ,for oats we use less fish1 as this crop is apt to lodge4 ,for corn1 one part fish to ten or twelve muck is about right1 while for grass or any top-dressing1 the proportion of fish may be increased4 ,we find it is best to mix the fish in the summer and not use the compost until the next spring and summer4 ,yet we are obliged to use in ,september for our winter rye a great deal of the compost made in ,july4 ,we usually compost the first arrivals of fish in ,june for our winter grain2 after this pile has stood three or four weeks1 it is worked over thoroughly4 ,in this space of time the fish become pretty well decomposed1 though they still preserve their form and smell outrageously4 ,as the pile is worked over1 a sprinkling of muck or plaster is given to retain any escaping ammonia4 ,at the time of use in ,september the fish have completely disappeared1 bones and fins excepted4 ,the effect on the muck is to blacken it and make it more loose and crumbly4 ,as to the results of the use of this compost1 we find them in the highest degree satisfactory4 ,we have raised #cj to #ce bushels of rye per acre on land that without it could have yielded #f or #h bushels at the utmost4 ,this year we have corn that will give #fj to #gj bushels per acre1 that otherwise would yield but #bj to #be bushels4 ,it makes large potatoes1 excellent turnips and carrots4 ,fish compost thus prepared1 is a uniform mass of fishy but not putrefactive odor1 not disagreeable to handle4 ,it retains perfectly all the fertilizing power of the fish4 ,lands1 manured with this compost1 will keep in heart and improve3 while1 as is well known to our coast farmers1 the use of fish alone is ruinous in the end1 on light soils4 ,it is obvious that any other easily decomposing animal matters1 as slaughter-house offal1 soap boiler's scraps1 glue waste1 horn shavings1 shoddy1 castor pummace1 cotton seed-meal1 etc41 etc41 may be composted in a similar manner1 and that several or all these substances may be made together into one compost4 ,in case of the composts with yard manure1 guano and other animal matters1 the alkali1 ammonia1 formed in the fermentation1 greatly promotes chemical change1 and it would appear that this substance1 on some accounts1 excels all others in its efficacy4 ,the other alkaline bodies1 potash1 soda and lime1 are however scarcely less active in this respect1 and being at the same time1 of themselves1 useful fertilizers1 they also may be employed in preparing muck composts4 ,potash-lye and soda-ash have been recommended for composting with muck2 but1 although they are no doubt highly efficacious1 they are too costly for extended use4 ,the other alkaline materials that may be cheaply employed1 and are recommended1 are wood-ashes1 leached and unleached1 ashes of peat1 shell marl1 7consisting of carbonate of lime17 quick lime1 gas lime1 and what is called salt and lime mixture4 ,with regard to the proportions to be used1 no very definite rules can be laid down2 but we may safely follow those who have had experience in the matter4 ,thus1 to a cord of muck1 which is about #ajj bushels1 may be added1 of unleached wood ashes twelve bushels1 or of leached wood ashes twenty bushels1 or of peat ashes twenty bushels1 or of marl1 or of gas lime twenty bushels4 ,ten bushels of quick lime1 slaked with water or salt-brine previous to use1 is enough for a cord of muck4 ,instead of using the above mentioned substances singly1 any or all of them may be employed together4 ,the muck should be as fine and free from lumps as possible1 and must be intimately mixed with the other ingredients by shoveling over4 ,the mass is then thrown up into a compact heap1 which may be four feet high4 ,when the heap is formed1 it is well to pour on as much water as the mass will absorb1 7this may be omitted if the muck is already quite moist17 and finally the whole is covered over with a few inches of pure muck1 so as to retain moisture and heat4 ,if the heap is put up in the ,spring1 it may stand undisturbed for one or two months1 when it is well to shovel it over and mix it thoroughly4 ,it should then be built up again1 covered with fresh muck1 and allowed to stand as before until thoroughly decomposed4 ,the time required for this purpose varies with the kind of muck1 and the quality of the other material used4 ,the weather and thoroughness of intermixture of the ingredients also materially affect the rapidity of decomposition4 ,in all cases five or six months of summer weather is a sufficient time to fit these composts for application to the soil4 ,mr4 ,stanwood of ,colebrook1 ,conn41 says3 ,i have found a compost made of two bushels of unleached ashes to twenty-five of muck1 superior to stable manure as a top-dressing for grass1 on a warm1 dry soil4 ,n4 ,hart1 ,jr41 of ,west ,cornwall1 ,conn41 states3 ,i have mixed #be bushels of ashes with the same number of loads of muck1 and applied it to #c_/d of an acre4 ,the result was far beyond that obtained by applying #cjj lbs4 best guano to the same piece4 ,the use of salt and lime mixture is so strongly recommended1 that a few words may be devoted to its consideration4 ,when quick-lime is slaked with a brine of common salt 7chloride of sodium71 there are formed by double decomposition1 small portions of caustic soda and chloride of calcium1 which dissolve in the liquid4 ,if the solution stand awhile1 carbonic acid is absorbed from the air1 forming carbonate of soda3 but carbonate of soda and chloride of calcium instantly exchange their ingredients1 forming insoluble carbonate of lime and reproducing common salt4 ,when the fresh mixture of quick-lime and salt is incorporated with any porous body1 as soil or peat1 then1 as ,graham has shown1 unequal diffusion of the caustic soda and chloride of calcium occurs from the point where they are formed1 through the moist porous mass1 and the result is1 that the small portion of caustic soda which diffuses most rapidly1 or the carbonate of soda formed by its speedy union with carbonic acid1 is removed from contact with the chloride of calcium4 ,soda and carbonate of soda are more soluble in water and more strongly alkaline than lime4 ,they1 therefore1 act on peat more energetically than the latter4 ,it is on account of the formation of soda and carbonate of soda from the lime and salt mixture1 that this mixture exerts a more powerful decomposing action than lime alone4 ,where salt is cheap and wood ashes scarce1 the mixture may be employed accordingly to advantage4 ,of its usefulness we have the testimony of practical men4 ,says ,mr4 ,f4 ,holbrook of ,vermont1 7,patent ,office ,report for #ahef1 page #aic47 ,i had a heap of seventy-five half cords of muck mixed with lime in the proportion of a half cord of muck to a bushel of lime4 ,the muck was drawn to the field when wanted in ,august4 ,a bushel of salt to six bushels of lime was dissolved in water enough to slake the lime down to a fine dry powder1 the lime being slaked no faster than wanted1 and spread immediately while warm1 over the layers of muck1 which were about six inches thick2 then a coating of lime and so on1 until the heap reached the height of five feet1 a convenient width1 and length enough to embrace the whole quantity of the muck4 ,in about three weeks a powerful decomposition was apparent1 and the heap was nicely overhauled1 nothing more being done to it till it was loaded the next ,spring for spreading4 ,the compost was spread on the plowed surface of a dry sandy loam at the rate of about fifteen cords to the acre1 and harrowed in4 ,the land was planted with corn and the crop was more than sixty bushels to the acre4 ,other writers assert that they have decomposed with this mixture1 spent tan1 saw dust1 corn stalks1 swamp muck1 leaves from the woods1 indeed every variety of inert substance1 and in much shorter time than it could be done by any other means4 7,working ,farmer1 ,vol4 ,,iii4 p4 #bhj47 ,some experiments that have a bearing on the efficacy of this compost will be detailed presently4 ,there is no doubt that the soluble and more active 7caustic7 forms of alkaline bodies exert a powerful decomposing and solvent action on peat4 ,it is asserted too that the nearly insoluble and less active matters of this kind1 also have an effect1 though a less complete and rapid one4 ,thus1 carbonate of lime in the various forms of chalk1 shell marl1#f old mortar1 leached ashes and peat ashes1 7for in all these it is the chief and most alkaline ingredient17 is recommended to compost with peat4 ,let us inquire whether carbonate of lime can really exert any noticeable influence in improving the fertilizing quality of peat4 ,in the case of vitriol peats1 carbonate of lime is the cheapest and most appropriate means of destroying the noxious sulphate of protoxide of iron1 and correcting their deleterious quality4 ,when carbonate of lime is brought in contact with sulphate of protoxide of iron1 the two bodies mutually decompose1 with formation of sulphate of lime 7gypsum7 and carbonate of protoxide of iron4 ,the latter substance absorbs oxygen from the air with the utmost avidity1 and passes into the peroxide of iron1 which is entirely inert4 ,the admixture of any earthy matter with peat1 will facilitate its decomposition1 and make it more active chemically1 in so far as it promotes the separation of the particles of the peat from each other1 and the consequent access of air4 ,this benefit may well amount to something when we add to peat one-fifth of its bulk of marl or leached ashes1 but the question comes up3 ,do these insoluble mild alkalies exert any direct action8 ,would not as much soil of any kind be equally efficacious1 by promoting to an equal degree the contact of oxygen from the atmosphere8 ,there are two ways in which carbonate of lime may exert a chemical action on the organic matters of peat4 ,carbonate of lime1 itself1 in the forms we have mentioned1 is commonly called insoluble in water4 ,it is1 however1 soluble to a very slight extent2 it dissolves1 namely1 in about #cj1jjj times its weight of pure water4 ,it is nearly thirty times more soluble in water saturated with carbonic acid2 and this solution has distinct alkaline characters4 ,since the water contained in a heap of peat must be considerably impregnated with carbonic acid1 it follows that when carbonate of lime is present1 the latter must form a solution1 very dilute indeed1 but still capable of some direct effect on the organic matters of the peat1 when it acts through a long space of time4 ,again1 it is possible that the solution of carbonate of lime in carbonic acid1 may act to liberate some ammonia from the soluble portions of the peat1 and this ammonia may react on the remainder of the peat to produce the same effects as it does in the case of a compost made with animal matters4 ,whether the effects thus theoretically possible1 amount to anything practically important1 is a question of great interest4 ,it often happens that opinions entertained by practical men1 not only by farmers1 but by mechanics and artisans as well1 are founded on so untrustworthy a basis1 are supported by trials so destitute of precision1 that their accuracy may well be doubted1 and from all the accounts ,i have met with1 it does not seem to have been well established1 practically1 that composts made with carbonate of lime1 are better than the peat and carbonate used separately4 ,carbonate of lime 7leached ashes1 shell marl1 etc471 is very well to use in conjunction with peat1 to furnish a substance or substances needful to the growth of plants1 and supply the deficiencies of peat as regards composition4 ,although in the agricultural papers1 numerous accounts of the efficacy of such mixtures are given1 we do not learn from them whether these bodies exert any such good effect upon the peat itself1 as to warrant the trouble of making a compost4 #d4--;,experiments by the author on the effect of alkaline bodies in developing the fertilizing power of ,peat4 ,during the summer of #ahfb1 the author undertook a series of experiments with a view of ascertaining the effect of various composting materials upon peat4 ,two bushels of peat were obtained from a heap that had been weathering for some time on the ,beaver ,meadow1 near ,new ,haven4 ,this was thoroughly air-dried1 then crushed by the hand1 and finally rubbed through a moderately fine sieve4 ,in this way1 the peat was brought to a perfectly homogeneous condition4 ,twelve-quart flower-pots1 new from the warehouse1 were filled as described below2 the trials being made in duplicate3-- ,pots #a and #b contained each #bgj grammes of peat4 ,pots #c and #d contained each #bgj grammes of peat1 mixed-with #aj grammes of ashes of young grass4 ,pots #e and #f contained each #bgj grammes of peat1 #aj grammes of ashes1 and #aj grammes of carbonate of lime4 ,pots #g and #h contained each #bgj grammes of peat1 #aj grammes of ashes1 and #aj grammes of slaked 7hydrate of7 lime4 ,pots #i and #aj contained each #bgj grammes of peat1 #aj grammes of ashes1 and #e grammes of lime1 slaked with strong solution of common salt4 ,pots #aa and #ab contained each #bgj grammes of peat1 #aj grammes of ashes1 and #c grammes of ,peruvian guano4 ,in each case the materials were thoroughly mixed together1 and so much water was cautiously added as served to wet them thoroughly4 ,five kernels of dwarf 7pop7 corn were planted in each pot1 the weight of each planting being carefully ascertained4 ,the pots were disposed in a glazed case within a cold grapery1#g and were watered when needful with pure water4 ,the seeds sprouted duly1 and developed into healthy plants4 ,the plants served thus as tests of the chemical effect of carbonate of lime1 of slaked lime1 and of salt and lime mixture1 on the peat4 ,the guano pots enabled making a comparison with a well-known fertilizer4 ,the plants were allowed to grow until those best developed1 enlarged above1 not at the expense of the peat1 etc41 but of their own lower leaves1 as shown by the withering of the latter4 ,they were then cut1 and1 after drying in the air1 were weighed with the subjoined results4 ,,vegetation ,,experiments ,,in ,,peat ,,composts4 ,,key ,a - ,weight of crops in grammes4 ,b - ,comparative weight of crops1 the sum of #a4 and #b4 taken as unity4 ,c - ,ratio of weight of crops to weight of seeds1 the latter assumed as unity4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,nos4 ,medium of ,growth4 ,a ,b ,c ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- #a #a4fa #b ,peat alone4 #b4ei #d4bj #a #b-a_/b #c #ad4ai #d ,peat1 and ashes of grass1 #ah4be #cb4dd #h #bj-a_/b #e #ah4ai #f ,peat1 ashes1 and carbonate of lime1 #bj4be #ch4dd #i #be-a_/b #g #ba4di #h ,peat1 ashes1 and slaked lime1 #bj4gc #db4bb #aj #bh-a_/b #i #bc4jh #aj ,peat1 ashes1 slaked lime1 and salt1 #bc4cd #df4db #aa #cj-a_/b #aa #bf4gi #ab ,peat1 ashes1 and ,peruvian ,guano1 #bf4ii #ec4gh #ac #ce-a_/b ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,let us now examine the above results4 ,the experiments #a and #b1 demonstrate that the peat itself is deficient in something needful to the plant4 ,in both pots1 but #d4b grammes of crop were produced1 a quantity two and a half times greater than that of the seeds1 which weighed #a4ei grammes4 ,the plants were pale in color1 slender1 and reached a height of but about six inches4 ,nos4 #c and #d make evident what are some of the deficiencies of the peat4 ,a supply of mineral matters1 such as are contained in all plants1 being made by the addition of ashes1 consisting chiefly of phosphates1 carbonates and sulphates of lime1 magnesia and potash1 a crop is realized nearly eight times greater than in the previous cases2 the yield being #cb4dd grammes1 or #bj-a_/b times the weight of the seed4 ,the quantity of ashes added1 viz43--#aj grammes1 was capable of supplying every mineral element1 greatly in excess of the wants of any crop that could be grown in a quart of soil4 ,the plants in pots #c and #d were much stouter than those in #a and #b1 and had a healthy color4 ,the experiments #e and #f appear to demonstrate that carbonate of lime considerably aided in converting the peat itself into plant-food4 ,the ashes alone contained enough carbonate of lime to supply the wants of the plant in respect to that substance4 ,more carbonate of lime could only operate by acting on the organic matters of the peat4 ,the amount of the crop is raised by the effect of carbonate of lime from #cb4dd to #ch4dd grammes1 or from #bj-a_/b to #be-a_/b times that of the seed4 ,experiments #g and #h show1 that slaked lime has more effect than the carbonate1 as we should anticipate4 ,its influence does not1 however1 exceed that of the carbonate very greatly1 the yield rising from #ch4dd to #db4bb grammes1 or from #be-a_/b to #bh-a_/b times the weight of the seed4 ,in fact1 quick-lime can only act as such for a very short space of time1 since it rapidly combines with the carbonic acid1 which is supplied abundantly by the peat4 ,in experiments #g and #h1 a good share of the influence exerted must therefore be actually ascribed to the carbonate1 rather than to the quick-lime itself4 ,in experiments #i and #aj1 we have proof that the lime and salt mixture has a greater efficacy than lime alone1 the crop being increased thereby from #db4bb1 to #df4db grammes1 or from #bh-a_/b to #cj-a_/b times that of the seed4 ,finally1 we see from experiments #aa and #ab that in all the foregoing cases it was a limited supply of nitrogen that limited the crop2 for1 on adding ,peruvian guano1 which could only act by this element 7its other ingredients1 phosphates of lime and potash1 being abundantly supplied in the ashes71 the yield was carried up to #ec4gh grammes1 or #ce-a_/b times the weight of the seed1 and #ac times the weight of the crop obtained from the unmixed peat4 #e4--,the ,examination of ,peat 7muck and marsh-mud7 with reference to its ,agricultural ,value4 ,since1 as we are forced to conclude1 the variations in the composition of peat stand in no recognizable relations to differences of appearance1 it is only possible to ascertain the value of any given specimen by actual trial or by chemical investigation4 ,the method by practical trial is usually the cheaper and more satisfactory of the two1 though a half year or more is needful to gain the desired information4 ,it is sufficient to apply to small measured plots of ground1 each say two rods square1 known quantities of the fresh1 the weathered1 and the composted peat in order1 by comparison of the growth and weight of the crop1 to decide the question of their value4 ,peat and its composts are usually applied at rates ranging from #bj to #dj wagon or cart loads per acre4 ,there being #afj square rods in the acre1 the quantity proper to a plot of two rods square 7 four square rods17 would be one half to one load4 ,the composts with stable manure and lime1 or salt and lime mixture1 are those which1 in general1 it would be best to experiment with4 ,from the effects of the stable manure compost1 could be inferred with safety the value of any compost1 of which animal manure is an essential ingredient4 ,one great advantage of the practical trial on the small scale is1 that the adaptation of the peat or of the compost to the peculiarities of the soil1 is decided beyond a question4 ,it must be borne in mind1 however1 that the results of experiments can only be relied upon1 when the plots are accurately measured1 when the peat1 etc41 are applied in known quantities1 and when the crops are separately harvested and carefully weighed4 ,if experiments are made upon grass or clover1 the gravest errors may arise by drawing conclusions from the appearance of the standing crop4 ,experience has shown that two clover crops1 gathered from contiguous plots differently manured1 may strikingly differ in appearance1 but yield the same amounts of hay4 ,the chemical examination of a peat may serve to inform us1 without loss of time1 upon a number of important points4 ,to test a peat for soluble iron salts which might render it deleterious1 we soak and agitate a handful for some hours1 with four or five times its bulk of warm soft water4 ,from a good fresh-water peat we obtain1 by this treatment1 a yellow liquid1 more or less deep in tint1 the taste of which is very slight and scarcely definable4 ,from a vitriol peat we get a dark-brown or black solution1 which has a bitter1 astringent1 metallic or inky taste1 like that of copperas4 ,salt peat will yield a solution having the taste of salt-brine1 unless it contains iron1 when the taste of the latter will prevail4 ,on evaporating the water-solution to dryness and heating strongly in a ,china cup1 a vitriol peat gives off white choking fumes of sulphuric acid1 and there remains1 after burning1 brown-red oxide of iron in the dish4 ,the above testings are easily conducted by any one1 with the ordinary conveniences of the kitchen4 ,those that follow1 require1 for the most part1 the chemical laboratory1 and the skill of the practised chemist1 for satisfactory execution4 ,besides testing for soluble iron compounds1 as already indicated1 the points to be regarded in the chemical examination1 are3-- #ast4 ,water or moisture4--,this must be estimated1 because it is so variable1 and a knowledge of its quantity is needful1 if we will compare together different samples4 ,a weighed amount of the peat is dried for this purpose at #bab deg4 ,f41 as long as it suffers loss4 #b;d4 ,the proportions of organic matter and ash are ascertained by carefully burning a weighed sample of the peat4 ,by this trial we distinguish between peat with #b to #aj per cent4 of ash and peaty soil1 or mud1 containing but a few per cent4 of organic matter4 ,this experiment may be made in a rough way1 but with sufficient accuracy for common purposes1 by burning a few lbs4 or ozs4 of peat upon a piece of sheet iron1 or in a sauce pan1 and noting the loss1 which includes both water and organic matter4 #c;d4 ,as further regards the organic matters1 we ascertain the extent to which the peaty decomposition has taken place by boiling with dilute solution of carbonate of soda4 ,this solvent separates the humic and ulmic acids from the undecomposed vegetable fibers4 ,for practical purposes this treatment with carbonate of soda may be dispensed with1 since the amount of undecomposed fiber is gathered with sufficient accuracy from careful inspection of the peat4 ,special examination of the organic acids is of no consequence in the present state of our knowledge4 #dth4 ,the proportion of nitrogen is of the first importance to be ascertained4 ,in examinations of #cj samples of peat1 ,i have found the content of nitrogen to range from #j4d to #b4i per cent41 the richest containing seven times as much as the poorest4 ,it is practically a matter of great moment whether1 for example1 a ,peruvian guano contains #af per cent4 of nitrogen as it should1 or but one-seventh that amount1 as it may when grossly adulterated4 ,in the same sense1 it is important before making a heavy outlay in excavating and composting peat1 to know whether 7as regards nitrogen7 it belongs to the poorer or richer sorts4 ,this can only be done by the complicated methods known to the chemist4 #eth4 ,the estimation of ammonia 7actual or ready-formed17 is a matter of scientific interest1 but subordinate in a practical point of view4 #fth4 ,nitric acid and nitrates can scarcely exist in peat except where it is well exposed to the air1 in a merely moist but not wet state4 ,their estimation in composts is of great interest1 though troublesome to execute4 #gth4 ,as regards the ash1 its red color indicates iron4 ,pouring hydrochloric acid upon it1 causes effervescence in the presence of carbonate of lime4 ,this compound1 in most cases1 has been formed in the burning1 from humate and other organic salts of lime4 ,sand1 or clay1 being insoluble in the acid1 remains1 and may be readily estimated4 ,phosphoric acid and alkalies1 especially potash1 are1 next to lime1 the important ingredients of the ash4 ,magnesia and sulphuric acid1 rank next in value4 ,their estimation requires a number of tedious operations1 and can scarcely be required for practical purposes1 until more ready methods of analyses shall have been discovered4 #hth4 ,the quantity of matters soluble in water has considerable interest1 but is not ordinarily requisite to be ascertained4 #f4--;,composition of ,connecticut ,peats4 ,in the years #aheg and #aheh1 the author was charged by the ,connecticut ,state ,agricultural ,society#h with the chemical investigation of #cc samples of peat and swamp muck1 sent to him in compliance with official request4 ,in the foregoing pages1 the facts revealed by the laborious analyses executed on these samples1 have been for the most part communicated1 together with many valuable practical results derived from the experience of the gentlemen who sent in the specimens4 ,the analytical data themselves appear to me to be worthy of printing again1 for the information of those who may hereafter make investigations in the same direction4--,see ,tables ,i1 ,,ii1 and ,,iii1 p4p4 #hi1 #ij1 and #ia4 ,the specimens came in all stages of dryness4 ,some were freshly dug and wet1 others had suffered long exposure1 so that they were air-dry2 some that were sent in the moist state1 became dry before being subjected to examination2 others were prepared for analysis while still moist4 ,a sufficient quantity of each specimen was carefully pulverized1 intermixed1 and put into a stoppered bottle and thus preserved for experiment4 ,the analyses were begun in the winter of #aheg by my assistant1 ,edward ,h4 ,twining1 ,esq4 ,the samples #a to #ag of the subjoined tables were then analyzed4 ,in the following year the work was continued on the remaining specimens #ah--cc by ,dr4 ,robert ,a4 ,fisher4 ,the method of analysis was the same in both cases1 except in two particulars4 ,in the earlier analyses1 #a to #ag inclusive1 the treatment with carbonate of soda was not carried far enough to dissolve the whole of the soluble organic acids4 ,it was merely attempted to make comparative determinations by treating all alike for the same time1 and with the same quantity of alkali4 ,i have little doubt that in some cases not more than one-half of the portion really soluble in carbonate of soda is given as such4 ,in the later analyses1 #ah to #cc1 however1 the treatment was continued until complete separation of the soluble organic acids was effected4 ,by acting on a peat for a long time with a hot solution of carbonate of soda1 there is taken up not merely a quantity of organic matter1 but inorganic matters likewise enter solution4 ,silica1 oxyd of iron and alumina are thus dissolved4 ,in this process too1 sulphate of lime is converted into carbonate of lime4 ,the total amount of these soluble inorganic matters has been determined with approximate accuracy in analyses #ah to #cc4 ,in the analyses #a to #ag the collective amount of matters soluble in water was determined4 ,in the later analyses the proportions of organic and inorganic matters in the water-solution were separately estimated4 ,the process of analysis as elaborated and employed by ,dr4 ,fisher and the author1 is as follows3 ,i4 ,to prepare a sample for analysis1 half a pound1 more or less1 of the substance is pulverized and passed through a wire sieve of #bd meshes to the inch4 ,it is then thoroughly mixed and bottled4 ,,ii4 #b grammes of the above are dried 7in tared watch-glasses7 at the temperature of #bab degrees1 until they no longer decrease in weight4 ,the loss sustained represents the amount of water1 7according to ,,marsilly1 ,annales des ,mines1 #aheg1 ,,xii41 #djd1 peat loses carbon if dried at a temperature higher than #bab degrees47 ,,iii4 ,the capsule containing the residue from ,i4 is slowly heated to incipient redness1 and maintained at that temperature until the organic matter is entirely consumed4 ,the loss gives the total amount of organic1 the residue the total amount of inorganic matter4 ,,note4--,in peats containing sulphate of the protoxide of iron1 the loss that occurs during ignition is partly due to the escape of sulphuric acid1 which is set free by the decomposition of the above mentioned salt of iron4 ,but the quantity is usually so small in comparison with the organic matter1 that it may be disregarded4 ,the same may be said of the combined water in the clay that is mixed with some mucks1 which is only expelled at a high temperature4 ,,iv4 #c grammes of the sample are digested for half an hour1 with #bjj cubic centimeters 7#ff4f times their weight17 of boiling water1 then removed from the sand bath1 and at the end of twenty-four hours1 the clear liquid is decanted4 ,this operation is twice repeated upon the residue2 the three solutions are mixed1 filtered1 concentrated1 and finally evaporated to dryness 7in a tared platinum capsule17 over a water bath4 ,the residue1 which must be dried at #bab degrees1 until it ceases to lose weight1 gives the total amount soluble in water4 ,the dried residue is then heated to low redness1 and maintained at that temperature until the organic matter is burned off4 ,the loss represents the amount of organic matter soluble in water1 the ash gives the quantity of soluble inorganic matter4 ,v4 #a gramme is digested for two hours1 at a temperature just below the boiling point1 with #ajj cubic centimeters of a solution containing #e per cent4 of crystallized carbonate of soda4 ,it is then removed from the sand bath and allowed to settle4 ,when the supernatant liquid has become perfectly transparent1 it is carefully decanted4 ,this operation is repeated until all the organic matter soluble in this menstruum is removed2 which is accomplished as soon as the carbonate of soda solution comes off colorless4 ,the residue1 which is to be washed with boiling water until the washings no longer affect test papers1 is thrown upon a tared filter1 and dried at #bab degrees4 ,it is the total amount of organic and inorganic matter insoluble in carbonate of soda4 ,the loss that it suffers upon ignition1 indicates the amount of organic matter1 the ash gives the inorganic matter4 ,,note4--,the time required to insure perfect settling after digesting with carbonate of soda solution1 varies1 with different peats1 from #bd hours to several days4 ,with proper care1 the results obtained are very satisfactory4 ,two analyses of ,no4 #f1 executed at different times1 gave total insoluble in carbonate of soda--#ast analysis #bc4bj per cent42 #b;d analysis #bc4de per cent4 ,these residues yielded respectively #ad4cj and #ad4ae per cent4 of ash4 ,,vi4 ,the quantity of organic matter insoluble in water but soluble in solution of carbonate of soda1 is ascertained by deducting the joint weight of the amounts soluble in water1 and insoluble in carbonate of soda1 from the total amount of organic matter present4 ,the inorganic matter insoluble in water1 but soluble in carbonate of soda1 is determined by deducting the joint weight of the amounts of inorganic matter soluble in water1 and insoluble in carbonate of soda1 from the total inorganic matter4 ,,vii4 ,the amount of nitrogen is estimated by the combustion of #a gramme with soda-lime in an iron tube1 collection of the ammonia in a standard solution of sulphuric acid1 and determination of the residual free acid by an equivalent solution of caustic potash and a few drops of tincture of cochineal as an indicator4 ,the results of the analyses are given in the following ,tables4 ,table ,i4 gives the direct results of analysis4 ,in ,table ,,ii4 the analyses are calculated on dry matter1 and the nitrogen upon the organic matters4 ,table ,,iii4 gives a condensed statement of the external characters and agricultural value#i of the samples in their different localities1 and the names of the parties supplying them4 ,,table ,i4-,,composition ,,of ,,connecticut ,,peats ,,and ,,mucks4 ,,key3 ,a - ,soluble in water4 ,b - ,insol4 in water1 but soluble in carbonate of soda4 ,c - ,insol4 in water and carbonate of soda4 ,d - ,total4 ,e - ,water4 ,f - ,nitrogen4 ,g - ,total matters soluble in water4 ---------------------------------------- -------- ,,organic ,,matter4 ,from ,whom and -------------------- ,whence ,received ,a ,b ,c ,d -------------------------v---------- #a4 ,lewis ,m4 ,norton4 ,goshen ,conn4 #ag4fc #cd4gieb4db #b4 #fj4jb #aa4fega4fg #c4 #ej4fj #bi4gehj4ce #d4 ,messrs4 ,pond ,miles4 ,milford ,conn4 #fe4ae #aa4iegg4aj #e4 #fg4ge #af4fehd4dj #f4 ,samuel ,camp4 ,plainville ,conn4 #dc4bj #h4ijeb4aj #g4 ,russell ,u4 ,peck4 ,berlin ,conn4 #ch4di #cj4eafi4jj #h4 ,rev4 ,b4 ,f4 ,northrop4 ,griswold ,conn4 #db4cj #aj4aeeb4de #i4 ,j4 ,h4 ,stanwood4 ,colebrook ,conn4 #di4fe #g4djeg4je #aj4 ,n4 ,hart1 ,jr4 ,west ,cornwall ,conn4 #ee4aa #aj4bife4dj #aa4 ,a4 ,l4 ,loveland4 ,north ,granby #ch4bg #b4hida4af #ab4 ,daniel ,buck1 ,jr4 ,poquonock #bg4ai #dh4hdgf4jc #ac4 #cc4ff #dj4eagd4ag #ad4 ,philip ,scarborough ,brooklyn ,conn4 #ea4de #be4jjgf4de #ae4 ,adams ,white4 ,brooklyn #ed4ch #bc4adgg4eb #af4 ,paris ,dyer4 ,brooklyn #ah4hf #e4jbbc4hh #ag4 ,perrin ,scarborough4 ,brooklyn ,conn4 #dc4bg #af4hcfj4aj #ah4 ,geo4 ,k4 ,virgin4 ,collinsville ,conn4 #b4babj4eg #h4beca4jc #ai4 #a4ab #i4ai #e4ajae4da #bj4 #j4gb #i4ca #c4feac4fh #ba4 ,s4 ,mead4 ,new ,haven ,conn4 #c4cjdj4eb #h4bjeb4jb #bb4 ,edwin ,hoyt4 ,new ,canaan #b4hdac4db #g4eebc4ha #bc4 #b4cdac4di #h4jebc4hh #bd4 #a4aeag4bi #h4jjbf4dd #be4 ,a4 ,m4 ,haling4 ,rockville #c4dceb4ae #h4fefd4bc #bf4 #c4hgga4eg #h4ddhc4hh #bg4 #c4hgdd4jd #d4beeb4af #bh4 ,albert ,day4 ,brooklyn #b4dedf4be #f4ceee4je #bi4 ,c4 ,goodyear4 ,new ,haven #a4hjde4dbaj4ceeg4eg #cj4 ,rev4 ,wm4 ,clift ,stonington #c4ccea4fh #i4hjfd4ha #ca4 ,henry ,keeler4 ,south ,salem ,n4 ,y4 #b4acde4abab4jeei4cj #cb4 ,john ,adams4 ,salisbury ,conn4 #a4gadb4hgaj4feee4bc #cc4 ,rev4 ,wm4 ,clift4 ,stonington #e4djaf4gb #g4bebi4cg ----- ,average #b4jf ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,,inorganic ,,matter4 ,from ,whom and -------------------- ,whence ,received ,a ,b ,c ,d ,e ,f ,g ---------------------------------------- -------------------- #a4 ,lewis ,m4 ,norton4 ,goshen ,conn4 #ce4baab4cg #a4bh #a4ed #b4 #h4jjbj4cc #a4he #c4 #d4ebae4ac #a4ij #b4ea #d4 ,messrs4 ,pond ,miles4 ,milford ,conn4 #c4bcai4fg #a4bj #a4fc #e4 #b4jjac4fj 4#ie #c4db #f4 ,samuel ,camp4 v ,plainville ,conn4 #ad4ij #ad4hjbi4bjah4gj #b4aj #b4ej #g4 ,russell ,u4 ,peck4 ,berlin ,conn4 #ac4eiag4da #a4fb #b4fa #h4 ,rev4 ,b4 ,f4 ,northrop4 ,griswold ,conn4 #cd4gjab4he #a4ca #a4fd #i4 ,j4 ,h4 ,stanwood4 ,colebrook ,conn4 #d4egch4ch #a4bc #a4hc #aj4 ,n4 ,hart1 ,jr4 ,west ,cornwall ,conn4 #ad4hiai4ga #b4aj #f4bj #aa4 ,a4 ,l4 ,loveland4 ,north ,granby #dg4bdaa4fj #a4jj 4#ge #ab4 ,daniel ,buck1 ,jr4 ,poquonock #e4ibah4je #b4dj #b4id #ac4 #h4fcag4bj #b4dj #a4hj #ad4 ,philip ,scarborough4 ,brooklyn ,conn4 #g4fgae4hh #a4bj #a4dc #ae4 ,adams ,white4 ,brooklyn #i4jcac4de #b4hi #e4ij #af4 ,paris ,dyer4 ,brooklyn #fg4gg #h4ce #a4jc #b4fc #ag4 ,perrin ,scarborough4 ,brooklyn ,conn4 #be4ghad4ab #j4hfae4ac #ah4 ,geo4 ,k4 ,virgin4 ,collinsville ,conn4 #j4cb #i4dadh4jeeg4ghaa4ai #j4fd #b4ec #ai4 #j4bh #a4jhdh4feej4jacd4eh #j4cd #a4dj #bj4 #j4be #j4gfbh4bjbi4baeg4aa #j4bh 4#ig #ba4 ,s4 ,mead4 ,new ,haven ,conn4 #b4fjaj4jbbc4ijcf4ebaa4df #a4ea #e4ij #bb4 ,edwin ,hoyt4 ,new ,canaan #b4gbai4hhdf4cjfh4ij #g4bi #j4de #e4ef #bc4 #a4edab4dbef4bjgj4af #e4if #j4ij #c4hh #bd4 #a4fgad4acea4ajff4ij #f4ff #a4ja #b4hb #be4 ,a4 ,m4 ,haling4 ,rockville #j4ce #j4af #d4ij #e4dacj4cf #a4fb #c4gh #bf4 #j4bc #a4ih #b4baac4ia #a4cb #d4aj #bg4 #j4ea #d4jg #e4je #i4fcch4ba #a4hh #d4ch #bh4 ,albert ,day4 ,brooklyn #j4cb #j4fe #e4dj #f4cgch4eh #j4hd #b4gg #bi4 ,c4 ,goodyear4 ,new ,haven #j4ce #g4ihah4hjbg4acae4cj #a4fh #b4ae #cj4 ,rev4 ,wm4 ,clift ,stonington #b4hb #e4hf #h4fhbf4ea #j4ie #f4ae #ca4 ,henry ,keeler4 ,south ,salem ,n4 ,y4 #j4gh #c4giaf4gjba4bgai4dc #a4eg #b4ia #cb4 ,john ,adams4 ,salisbury ,conn4 #a4jb #a4ccad4ceaf4gjbh4jg #a4gf #b4gc #cc4 ,rev4 ,wm4 ,clift4 ,stonington #g4dj #f4djdh4jefa4he #h4gh #a4cb #b4hj ----- ---------- ,average #a4dd #a4cg #c4gb ,,table ,,ii4-,,composition ,,of ,,connecticut ,,peats ,,and ,,mucks4 ,calculated in the dry state3 the percentage of nitrogen calculated also on organic matters4 ,,key3 ,a - ,in this table the matters soluble in water and the nitrogen are calculated to two places of decimals2 the other ingredients are expressed in round numbers4 ,b - ,soluble in water4 ,c - ,insol4 in water1 but soluble in carbonate of soda4 ,d - ,insol4 in water and carbonate of soda4 ,e - ,total4 ,f - ,total matters soluble in water4 ,g - ,nitrogen4 ,h - ,nitrogen in per cent4 of the organic matter4 ---------------------------------------- -------- ,,organic ,,matter4 -------------------- ,a ,b ,c ,d ,e -------------------------v---------- #a4 ,lewis ,m4 ,norton4 ,goshen ,conn4 #bj #dj #fj #b4 #ge #ae #ij #c4 #fj #ce #ie #e4 ,messrs4 ,pond ,miles4 ,milford ,conn4 #ha #ae #if #e4 #gi #ai #ih #f4 ,samuel ,camp4 ,plainville ,conn4 #ec #aa #fd #g4 ,russell ,u4 ,peck4 ,berlin ,conn4 #df #cg #hc #h4 ,rev4 ,b4 ,f4 ,northrop4 ,griswold ,conn4 #dh #aa #ei #i4 ,j4 ,h4 ,stanwood4 ,colebrook ,conn4 #ge #aa #hf #aj4 ,n4 ,hart1 ,jr4 ,west ,cornwall ,conn4 #fi #ac #hb #aa4 ,a4 ,l4 ,loveland4 ,north ,granby #dc #d #dg #ab4 ,daniel ,buck1 ,jr4 ,poquonock #cc #fj #ic #ac4 #da #di #ij #ad4 ,philip ,scarborough4 ,brooklyn ,conn4 #fa #cj #ia #ae4 ,adams ,white4 ,brooklyn #fc #bg #ij #af4 ,paris ,dyer4 ,brooklyn #ba #e #bf #ag4 ,perrin ,scarborough4 ,brooklyn ,conn4 #fb #h #gj #ah4 ,geo4 ,k4 ,virgin4 ,collinsville ,conn4 #b4dh #bc #i #ce #ai4 #a4gb #ad #h #bc #bj4 #a4fg #bb #h #cb #ba4 ,solomon ,mead4 ,new ,haven ,conn4 #c4gj #dh #i #fj #bb4 ,edwin ,hoyt4 ,new ,canaan #c4je #ad #h #bf #bc4 #b4dg #ad #h #be #bd4 #a4bc #ah #i #bh #be4 ,a4 ,m4 ,haling4 ,rockville #d4ij #ge #ab #ib #bf4 #d4ej #hc #aj #ig #bg4 #f4bd #ga #g #hd #bh4 ,albert ,day4 ,brooklyn #d4ja #gf #aj #ij #bi4 ,c4 ,goodyear4 ,new ,haven #b4aa #ed #ab #fh #cj4 ,rev4 ,wm4 ,clift ,stonington #d4ef #ga #ac #hh #ca4 ,henry ,keeler4 ,south ,salem ,n4 ,y4 #b4ff #ef #ae #gc #cb4 ,john ,adams4 ,salisbury ,conn4 #b4cg #ei #ae #gf #cc4 ,rev4 ,wm4 ,clift4 ,stonington #e4ic #ah #h #cb ---------------------------------------- ----- ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,,inorganic ,,matter4 -------------------- ,a ,b ,c ,d ,e ,f ,g ,h ---------------------------------------- -------------------- #a4 ,lewis ,m4 ,norton4 ,goshen ,conn4 #dj #a4ge #a4df #b4be #b4 #aj #b4cb #b4eh #c4 #e #b4ie #b4bc #b4cf #e4 ,messrs4 ,pond ,miles4 ,milford ,conn4 #d #b4jc #a4di #a4ee #e4 v #b #c4ig #a4ji #a4ab #f4 ,samuel ,camp4 #ah #ah ,plainville ,conn4 #cf #c4jh #b4eh #d4jc #g4 ,russell ,u4 ,peck4 ,berlin ,conn4 #ag #c4bg #a4if #b4cd #h4 ,rev4 ,b4 ,f4 ,northrop4 ,griswold ,conn4 #da #a4hh #a4ej #b4di #i4 ,j4 ,h4 ,stanwood4 ,colebrook ,conn4 #ad #b4gg #a4ii #b4ae #aj4 ,n4 ,hart1 ,jr4 ,west ,cornwall ,conn4 #ah #g4ge #b4fa #c4ba #aa4 ,a4 ,l4 ,loveland4 ,north ,granby #ec 4#he #a4ac #b4dc #ab4 ,daniel ,buck1 ,jr4 ,poquonock #g #c4eh #b4ib #c4ae #ac4 #aj #b4af #b4hi #b4bc #ad4 ,philip ,scarborough4 ,brooklyn ,conn4 #i #a4gj #a4db #a4eg #ae4 ,adams ,white4 ,brooklyn #aj #f4gh #c4cc #c4gb #af4 ,paris ,dyer4 ,brooklyn #gd #b4he #a4ab #d4ca #ag4 ,perrin ,scarborough4 ,brooklyn ,conn4 #cj #ag4ei #a4jj #a4dc #ah4 ,geo4 ,k4 ,virgin4 ,collinsville ,conn4 #j4ce #aa #ed #fe #b4hc #j4gb #b4jf #ai4 4#dc #b #ge #gg #b4ae #j4ea #b4bj #bj4 4#eh #b #ff #fh #b4be #j4fe #b4jd #ba4 ,solomon ,mead4 ,new ,haven ,conn4 #b4ib #aa #bg #dj #f4fb #a4gj #b4ij #bb4 ,edwin ,hoyt4 ,new ,canaan #b4ib #ba #ej #gd #f4jg #j4dh #a4hh #bc4 #a4fc #ac #fj #ge #d4aj #j4ie #c4gf #bd4 #a4gi #ae #ee #gb #c4jb #a4jh #c4hb #be4 ,a4 ,m4 ,haling4 ,rockville 4#ej #g #h #e4dj #b4cb #b4eb #bf4 4#bg #b #c #d4gg #a4ec #a4eg #bg4 4#hb #g #h #af #g4jf #c4jd #c4fd #bh4 ,albert ,day4 ,brooklyn 4#eb #a #h #aj #d4eh #a4cf #a4eb #bi4 ,c4 ,goodyear4 ,new ,haven 4#dj #i #bb #cb #b4ea #a4ih #b4ia #cj4 ,rev4 ,wm4 ,clift ,stonington #c4hf #h #ab #h4db #a4bi #a4df #ca4 ,henry ,keeler4 ,south ,salem ,n4 ,y4 4#ig #e #ba #bg #c4fc #a4ih #b4fd #cb4 ,john ,adams4 ,salisbury ,conn4 #a4dj #b #bj #bd #c4gg #b4dd #c4ah #cc4 ,rev4 ,wm4 ,clift4 ,stonington #h4ac #g #ec #fh #ad4jf #a4dd #d4di ---------------------------------------- -------------------- ,,table ,,iii4--,,description1 ,,etc41 ,,of ,,peats ,,and ,,mucks4 ,no4 ,color4 #a4 ,lewis ,m4 ,norton chocolate-brown1 4 #b4 #c4 light-brown1 #d4 ,messrs4 ,pond ,mileschocolate-brown1 #e4 brownish-red1 #f4 ,samuel ,camp black1 #g4 ,russell ,u4 ,peck chocolate-brown1 #h4 ,rev4 ,b4 ,f4 ,northrop grayish-brown1 #i4 ,j4 ,h4 ,stanwood chocolate-brown1 #aj4 ,n4 ,hart1 ,jr brownish-black1 #aa4 ,a4 ,l4 ,loveland black1 #ab4 ,daniel ,buck1 ,jr chocolate-brown1 #ac4 #ad4 ,philip ,scarborough #ae4 ,adams ,white chocolate-brown1 #af4 ,paris ,dyer grayish-black1 #ag4 ,perrin ,scarborough chocolate-brown1 #ah4 ,geo4 ,k4 ,virgin light brownish-gray #ai4 chocolate-brown1 #bj4 black1 #ba4 ,solomon ,mead grayish-brown1 #bb4 ,edwin ,hoyt brownish-gray1 #bc4 #bd4 #be4 ,a4 ,m4 ,haling chocolate-brown1 #bf4 #bg4 #bh4 ,albert ,day dark-brown1 #bi4 ,c4 ,goodyear black1 #cj4 ,rev4 ,wm4 ,clift chocolate-brown1 #ca4 ,henry ,keeler light-brown1 #cb4 ,john ,adams #cc4 ,rev4 ,wm4 ,clift dark ash-gray1 ,condition at ,time of ,analysis1 ,no4 ,reputed value1 etc4 #a4 ,lewis ,m4 ,norton air-dry1 tough1 compact1 heavy2 from bottom2 #c to #d feet deep2 very good in compost4 #b4 tough1 compact1 heavier than #a1 from near surface2 very good in compost4 #c4 coherent but light1 from between #a and #b1 very good in compost4 #d4 ,messrs4 ,pond ,miles coherent but light1 surface peat1 considered better than ,no4 #e2 good in compost4 #e4 very light and loose in texture1 from depth of #c feet1 good in compost4 #f4 ,samuel ,camp hard lumps1 half as good as yard manure1 in compost equal to yard manure4 #g4 ,russell ,u4 ,peck is good fresh1 long exposed1 half as good as barn-yard manure4 #h4 ,rev4 ,b4 ,f4 ,northrop light1 easily crushed masses containing sand1 has not been used alone1 good in compost4 #i4 ,j4 ,h4 ,stanwood moist1 hard lumps1 used fresh good after first year2 excellent in compost4 #aj4 ,n4 ,hart1 ,jr air-dry1 hard lumps1 excellent in compost4 #aa4 ,a4 ,l4 ,loveland hard lumps1 contains grains of coarse sand4 #ab4 ,daniel ,buck1 ,jr coherent cakes1 good as top dressing on grass when fresh2 excellent in compost4 #ac4 light surface layers of ,no4 #ab4 #ad4 ,philip ,scarborough after exposure over winter1 has one-third value of yard-manure4 #ae4 ,adams ,white hard lumps1 good in compost1 causes great growth of straw4 #af4 ,paris ,dyer easily crushed lumps1 largely admixed with soil4 #ag4 ,perrin ,scarborough well-characterized vitriol peat2 in compost1 after #a year's exposure1 gives indifferent results4 #ah4 ,geo4 ,k4 ,virgin light1 coherent surface peat2 sample long exposed2 astonishing results on sandy soil4 #ai4 moist1 crumbly1 contains much sand1 four feet from surface4 #bj4 wet4 #ba4 ,solomon ,mead air-dry1 light1 porous1 coherent from grass roots2 long weathered1 good2 fresh1 better in compost4 #bb4 ,edwin ,hoyt loose1 light1 much mixed with soil1 good in compost4 #bc4 ,no4 #bb saturated with horse urine1 darker than ,no4 #bb4 #bd4 ,no4 #bb composted with white fish1 darker than ,no4 #bc2 fish-bones evident4 #be4 ,a4 ,m4 ,haling moist1 fresh dug4 #bf4 air-dry1 ,no4 #be after two year's weathering4 #bg4 moist1 fresh dug1 good substitute for yard manure as top-dressing on grass4 #bh4 ,albert ,day coherent and hard2 fresh dug1 but from surface where weathered2 injurious to crops2 vitriol peat4 787 #bi4 ,c4 ,goodyear air-dry1 very hard tough cakes2 when fresh dug1 as good as cow dung4 #cj4 ,rev4 ,wm4 ,clift moist1 from an originally fresh water bog1 broken into #ajj years ago by tide1 now salt marsh2 good after weathering4 #ca4 ,henry ,keeler air-dry1 leaf-muck1 friable2 when fresh1 appears equal to good yard manure4 #cb4 ,john ,adams moist1 overlies shell marl1 fresh or weathered does not compare with ordinary manure4 #cc4 ,rev4 ,wm4 ,clift air-dry1 from bottom of salt ditch1 where tide flows daily2 contains sulphate of iron4 ,,footnotes3 #b ,the oxygen thus absorbed by water1 serves for the respiration of fish and aquatic animals4 #c ,this sample contained also fish-bones1 hence the larger content of nitrogen was not entirely due to absorbed ammonia4 #d ,reichardt's analyses are probably inaccurate1 and give too much ammonia and nitric acid4 #e ,these analyses were executed--,a by ,professor ,g4 ,f4 ,barker2 ,b by ,mr4 ,o4 ,c4 ,sparrow2 ,c by ,mr4 ,peter ,collier4 #f ,shell marl1 consisting of fragments and powder of fresh-water shells1 is frequently met with1 underlying peat beds4 ,such a deposit occurs on the farm of ,mr4 ,john ,adams1 in ,salisbury1 ,conn4 ,it is eight to ten feet thick4 ,an air-dry sample1 analyzed under the writer's direction1 gave results as follows3 ,water #cj4fb soluble in water #j4gj ,organic matter #f4eb insoluble in water #e4hb ,carbonate of lime #eg4ji ,sand #a4hf ,oxide of iron and alumina1 with traces of potash1 magnesia1 sulphuric and phosphoric acid #c4ia ------- #ajj4jj ,another specimen from near ,milwaukee1 ,wis41 said to occur there in immense quantities underlying peat1 contained1 by the author's analysis-- ,water #a4ad ,carbonate of lime #ib4da ,carbonate of magnesia #c4dc ,peroxide of iron with a trace of phosphoric acid #j4ib ,sand #a4fj ------ #ii4ej #g ,to the kindness of ,joseph ,sheffield1 ,esq41 of ,new ,haven1 the author is indebted for facilities in carrying on these experiments4 #h ,at the instigation of ,henry ,a4 ,dyer1 ,esq41 at that time the ,society's ,corresponding ,secretary4 #i ,derived from the communications published in the author's ,report4 ,trans4 ,conn4 ,state ,ag4 ,soc4 #aheh p4p4 #aja-aec4 ,,part ,,iii4 ,,on ,,peat ,,as ,,fuel4 #a4--,kinds of peat that make the best fuel4 ,the value of peat for fuel varies greatly1 like its other qualities4 ,only those kinds which can be cut out in the shape of coherent blocks1 or which admit of being artificially formed into firm masses1 are of use in ordinary stoves and furnaces4 ,the powdery or friable surface peat1 which has been disintegrated by frost and exposure1 is ordinarily useless as fuel1 unless it be rendered coherent by some mode of preparation4 ,unripe peat which contains much undecomposed moss or grass roots1 which is therefore very light and porous1 is in general too bulky to make an effective heating material before subjection to mechanical treatment4 ,the best peat for burning1 is that which is most free from visible fiber or undecomposed vegetable matters1 which has therefore a homogeneous brown or black aspect1 and which is likewise free from admixture of earthy substances in the form of sand or clay4 ,such peat is unctuous when moist1 shrinks greatly on drying1 and forms hard and heavy masses when dry4 ,it is usually found at a considerable depth1 where it has been subjected to pressure1 and then has such consistence as to admit of cutting out in blocks2 or it may exist as a black mud or paste at the bottom of bogs and sluices4 ,the value of peat as fuel stands in direct ratio to its content of carbon4 ,we have seen that this ranges from #ea to #fc per cent4 of the organic matter1 and the increase of carbon is related to its ripeness and density4 ,the poorest1 youngest peat1 has the same proportion of carbon as exists in wood4 ,it does not1 however1 follow that its heating power is the same4 ,the various kinds of wood have essentially the same proportion of carbon1 but their heating power is very different4 ,the close textured woods--those which weigh the most per cord--make the best fuel for most purposes4 ,we know1 that a cord of hickory will produce twice as much heat as a cord of bass-wood4 ,peat1 though having the same or a greater proportion of carbon1 is generally inferior to wood on account of its occupying a greater bulk for a given weight1 a necessary result of its porosity4 ,the best qualities of peat1 or poor kinds artificially condensed1 may1 on the other hand1 equal or exceed wood in heating power1 bulk for bulk4 ,one reason that peat is1 in general1 inferior to wood in heating effect1 lies in its greater content of incombustible ash4 ,wood has but #j4e to #a4e per cent4 of mineral matters1 while peat contains usually #e to #aj per cent41 and often more4 ,the oldest1 ripest peats are those which contain the most carbon1 and have at the same time the greatest compactness4 ,from these two circumstances they make the best fuel4 ,it thus appears that peat which is light1 loose in structure1 and much mixed with clay or sand1 is a poor or very poor article for producing heat3 while a dense pure peat is very good4 ,a great drawback to the usefulness of most kinds of peat-fuel1 lies in their great friability4 ,this property renders them unable to endure transportation4 ,the blocks of peat which are commonly used in most parts of ,germany as fuel1 break and crumble in handling1 so that they cannot be carried far without great waste4 ,besides1 when put into a stove1 there can only go on a slow smouldering combustion as would happen in cut tobacco or saw-dust4 ,a free-burning fuel must exist in compact lumps or blocks1 which so retain their form and solidity1 as to admit of a rapid draught of air through the burning mass4 ,the bulkiness of ordinary peat fuel1 as compared with hard wood1 and especially with coal1 likewise renders transportation costly1 especially by water1 where freights are charged by bulk and not by weight1 and renders storage an item of great expense4 ,the chief value of that peat fuel1 which is simply cut from the bog1 and dried without artificial condensation1 must be for the domestic use of the farmer or villager who owns a supply of it not far from his dwelling1 and can employ his own time in getting it out4 ,though worth perhaps much less cord for cord when dry than hard wood1 it may be cheaper for home consumption than fuel brought from a distance4 ,various processes have been devised for preparing peat1 with a view to bringing it into a condition of density and toughness1 sufficient to obviate its usual faults1 and make it compare with wood or even with coal in heating power4 ,the efforts in this direction have met with abundant success as regards producing a good fuel4 ,in many cases1 however1 the cost of preparation has been too great to warrant the general adoption of these processes4 ,we shall recur to this subject on a subsequent page1 and give an account of the methods that have been proposed or employed for the manufacture of condensed peat fuel4 #b4--;,density of ,peat4 ,the apparent#aj specific gravity of peat in the air-dry state1 ranges from #j4aa to #a4jc4 ,in other words1 a full cubic foot weighs from one-tenth as much as1 to slightly more than a cubic foot of water1 #fb-a_/c lbs4 ,peat1 which has a specific gravity of but #j4be1 may be and is employed as fuel4 ,a full cubic foot of it will weigh about #af lbs4 ,in ,germany1 the cubic foot of good ordinary peat in blocks1#aa ranges from #ae to #be lbs4 in weight1 and is employed for domestic purposes4 ,the heavier peat1 weighing #cj or more lbs4 per cubic foot in blocks1 is used for manufacturing and metallurgical purposes1 and for firing locomotives4 ,karmarsch has carefully investigated more than #ajj peats belonging to the kingdom of ,hanover1 with reference to their heating effect4 ,he classifies them as follows3-- ,a4 ,turfy peat1 7,rasentorf17 consisting of slightly decomposed mosses and other peat-producing plants1 having a yellow or yellowish-brown color1 very soft1 spongy and elastic1 sp4 gr4 #j4aa to #j4bf1 the full ,english cubic foot weighing from #g to #af lbs4 ,b4 ,fibrous peat1 unripe peat1 which is brown or black in color1 less elastic than turfy peat1 the fibres either of moss1 grass1 roots1 leaves1 or wood1 distinguishable by the eye1 but brittle1 and easily broken2 sp4 gr4 #j4bd to #j4fg1 the weight of a full cubic foot being from #ae to #db lbs4 ,c4 ,earthy peat4--,nearly or altogether destitute of fibrous structure1 drying to earth-like masses which break with more or less difficulty1 giving lustreless surfaces of fracture2 sp4 gr4 #j4da to #j4ij1 the full cubic foot weighing1 accordingly1 from #be to #ef lbs4 ,d4 ,pitchy peat1 7,pechtorf17 dense2 when dry1 hard2 often resisting the blows of a hammer1 breaking with a smooth1 sometimes lustrous fracture1 into sharp-angled pieces4 ,sp4 gr4 #j4fb to #a4jc1 the full cubic foot weighing from #ch to #ee lbs4 ,in ,kane and ,sullivan's examination of #bg kinds of ,irish peat1 the specific gravities ranged from #j4bgd to #a4jeh4 #c4--;,heating power of peat as compared with wood and anthracite4 ,karmarsch found that in absolute heating effect #ajj lbs4 of turfy1 air-dry peat1 on the average #ie lbs4 of pine wood4 fibrous #ajh earthy #ajd pitchy #aaa ,the comparison of heating power by bulk1 instead of weight1 is as follows3-- #ajj cubic ft4 of turfy peat1 on the average#ab #cc cubic ft4 of pine wood1 in sticks4 fibrous #ij cubic ft4 of pine wood1 in sticks4 earthy #ade cubic ft4 of pine wood1 in sticks4 pitchy #ahd cubic ft4 of pine wood1 in sticks4 ,according to ,brix1 the weight per ,english cord and relative heating effect of several air-dry peats--the heating power of an equal bulk of oak wood being taken at #ajj as a standard--are as follows1 bulk for bulk3#ac ,weight per ,heating cord4 effect4 ,oak wood #daej lbs4 #ajj ,peat from ,linum1 #ast quality1 dense and pitchy #cdjj #gj #b;d fibrous #bijj #ee #c;d turfy #bbgj #ec ,peat from ,buechsenfeld1 #ast quality1 pitchy1 very hard and heavy #cdjj lbs4 #gd ,peat from ,buechsenfeld1 #b;d quality #bgcj #fd ,these statements agree in showing1 that1 while weight for weight1 the ordinary qualities of peat do not differ much from wood in heating power2 the heating effect of equal bulks of this fuel1 as found in commerce1 may vary extremely1 ranging from one-half to three quarters that of oak wood4 ,condensed peat may be prepared by machinery1 which will weigh more than hard wood1 bulk for bulk1 and whose heating power will therefore exceed that of wood4 ,gysser gives the following comparisons of a good peat with various ,german woods and charcoals1 equal weights being employed1 and split beech wood1 air-dry1 assumed as the standard4#ad ,beech wood1 split1 air dry #a4jj ,peat1 condensed by ,weber's ,gysser's method1#ae air-dried1 with #be per cent4 moisture4 #a4jj ,peat1 condensed by ,weber's ,gysser's method1 hot-dried1 with #aj per cent4 moisture4 #a4dh ,peat-charcoal1 from condensed peat4 #a4gc ,the same peat1 simply cut and air-dried4 #j4hj ,beech-charcoal4 #a4ij ,summer-oak wood4 #a4ah ,birch wood4 #j4ie ,white pine wood4 #j4gb ,alder4 #j4fe ,linden4 #j4fe ,red pine4 #j4fa ,poplar4 #j4ej ,some experiments have been made in this country on the value of peat as fuel4 ,one was tried on the ,n4 ,y4 ,central ,railroad1 ,jan4 #c1 #ahff4 ,a locomotive with #be empty freight cars attached1 was propelled from ,syracuse westward--the day being cold and the wind ahead--at the rate of #af miles the hour4 ,the engineer reported that the peat gave us as much steam as wood1 and burnt a beautiful fire4 ,the peat1 we infer1 was cut and prepared near ,syracuse1 ,n4 ,y4 ,in one of the pumping houses of the ,nassau ,water ,department of the ,city of ,brooklyn1 an experiment has been made for the purpose of comparing peat with anthracite1 for the results of which ,i am indebted to the courtesy of ,moses ,lane1 ,esq41 ,chief ,engineer of the ,department4 ,fire was started under a steam boiler with wood4 ,when steam was up1 the peat was burned--its quantity being #agdc lbs41 or #ah barrels--and after it was consumed1 the firing was continued with coal4 ,the pressure of steam was kept as nearly uniform as possible throughout the trial1 and it was found that with #agdc lbs4 of peat the engine made #bgce revolutions1 while with #aajj lbs4 of coal it made #chff revolutions4 ,in other words1 #ajj lbs4 of coal produced #cea-de_/ajj revolutions1 and #ajj lbs4 of peat produced #aef-ia_/ajj revolutions4 ,one pound of coal therefore equalled #b-bd_/ajj lbs4 of peat in heating effect4 ,the peat burned well and generated steam freely4 ,mr4 ,lane could not designate the quality of the peat1 not having been able to witness the experiment4 ,these trials have not1 indeed1 all the precision needful to fix with accuracy the comparative heating effect of the fuels employed2 for a furnace1 that is adapted for wood1 is not necessarily suited to peat1 and a coal grate must have a construction unlike that which is proper for a peat fire2 nevertheless they exhibit the relative merits of wood1 peat1 and anthracite1 with sufficient closeness for most practical purposes4 ,two considerations would prevent the use of ordinary cut peat in large works1 even could two and one-fourth tons of it be afforded at the same price as one ton of coal4 ,the ,nassau ,water ,department consumes #bj1jjj tons of coal yearly1 the handling of which is a large expense1 six firemen being employed to feed the furnaces4 ,to generate the same amount of steam with peat of the quality experimented with1 would require the force of firemen to be considerably increased4 ,again1 it would be necessary to lay in1 under cover1 a large stock of fuel during the summer1 for use in winter1 when peat cannot be raised4 ,since a barrel of this peat weighed less than #ajj lbs41 the short ton would occupy the volume of #bj barrels2 as is well known1 a ton of anthracite can be put into #h barrels4 ,a given weight of peat therefore requires #b-a_/b times as much storage room1 as the same weight of coal4 ,as #b-a_/d tons of peat1 in the case we are considering1 are equivalent to but one ton of coal in heating effect1 the winter's supply of peat fuel would occupy #e-e_/h times the bulk of the same supply in coal1 admitting that the unoccupied or air-space in a pile of peat is the same as in a heap of coal4 ,in fact1 the calculation would really turn out still more to the disadvantage of peat1 because the air-space in a bin of peat is greater than in one of coal1 and coal can be excavated for at least two months more of the year than peat4 ,it is asserted by some1 that1 because peat can be condensed so as to approach anthracite in specific gravity1 it must1 in the same ratio1 approach the latter in heating power4 ,its effective heating power is1 indeed1 considerably augmented by condensation1 but no mechanical treatment can increase its percentage of carbon or otherwise alter its chemical composition2 hence it must forever remain inferior to anthracite4 ,the composition and density of the best condensed peat is compared with that of hard wood and anthracite in the following statement3-- ,in #ajj ,carbon4 ,hydrogen4 ,oxygen and ,ash4 ,water4 ,specific parts4 ,nitrogen4 ,gravity4 ,wood1 #ci4f #d4h #cd4h #j4h #bj4j #j4ge ,condensed peat #dg4b #d4i #bb4i #e4j #bj4j #a4bj ,anthracite #ia4c #b4i #b4h #c4j #a4dj ,in combustion in ordinary fires1 the water of the fuel is a source of waste1 since it consumes heat in acquiring the state of vapor4 ,this is well seen in the comparison of the same kind of peat in different states of dryness4 ,thus1 in the table of ,gysser1 7page #ig7 ,weber's condensed peat1 containing #aj per cent4 of moisture1 surpasses in heating effect that containing #be per cent4 of moisture1 by nearly one-half4 ,the oxygen is a source of waste1 for heat as developed from fuel1 is chiefly a result of the chemical union of atmospheric or free oxygen1 with the carbon and hydrogen of the combustible4 ,the oxygen of the fuel1 being already combined with carbon and hydrogen1 not only cannot itself contribute to the generation of heat1 but neutralizes the heating effect of those portions of the carbon and hydrogen of the fuel with which it remains in combination4 ,the quantity of heating effect thus destroyed1 cannot1 however1 be calculated with certainty1 because physical changes1 viz3 the conversion of solids into gases1 not to speak of secondary chemical transformations1 whose influence cannot be estimated1 enter into the computation4 ,nitrogen and ash are practically indifferent in the burning process1 and simply impair the heating value of fuel in as far as they occupy space in it and make a portion of its weight1 to the exclusion of combustible matter4 ,again1 as regards density1 peat is1 in general1 considerably inferior to anthracite4 ,the best uncondensed peat has a specific gravity of #j4ij4 ,condensed peat usually does not exceed #a4a4 ,sometimes it is made of sp4 gr4 #a4c4 ,assertions to the effect of its acquiring a density of #a4h1 can hardly be credited of pure peat1 though a considerable admixture of sand or clay might give such a result4 ,the comparative heating power of fuels is ascertained by burning them in an apparatus1 so constructed1 that the heat generated shall expend itself in evaporating or raising the temperature of a known quantity of water4 ,the amount of heat that will raise the temperature of one gramme of water1 one degree of the centigrade thermometer1 is agreed upon as the unit of heat4#af ,in the complete combustion of carbon in the form of charcoal or gas-coal1 there are developed #hjfj units of heat4 ,in the combustion of one gramme of hydrogen gas1 #cd1baj units of heat are generated4 ,the heating effect of hydrogen is therefore #d4b times greater than that of carbon4 ,it was long supposed that the heating effect of compound combustibles could be calculated from their elementary composition4 ,this view is proved to be erroneous1 and direct experiment is the only satisfactory means of getting at the truth in this respect4 ,the data of ,karmarsch1 ,brix1 and ,gysser1 already given1 were obtained by the experimental method4 ,they were1 however1 made mostly on a small scale1 and1 in some cases1 without due regard to the peculiar requirements of the different kinds of fuel1 as regards fire space1 draught1 etc4 ,they can only be regarded as approximations to the truth1 and have simply a comparative value1 which is1 however1 sufficient for ordinary purposes4 ,the general results of the investigations hitherto made on all the common kinds of fuel1 are given in the subjoined statement4 ,the comparison is made in units of heat1 and refers to equal weights of the materials experimented with4 ,,heating ,,power ,,of ,,different ,,kinds ,,of ,,fuel4 ,air-dry ,wood #bhjj ,peat #bejj #cjjj ,perfectly dry ,wood #cfjj ,peat #cjjj #djjj ,air-dry ,lignite or ,brown ,coal #ccjj #dbjj ,perfectly dry ,lignite or ,brown ,coal #djjj #ejjj ,bituminous ,coal #chjj #gjjj ,anthracite #gejj ,wood ,charcoal #fcjj #gejj ,coke #fejj #gfjj #d4--,modes of ,burning ,peat4 ,in the employment of peat fuel1 regard must be had to its shape and bulk4 ,commonly1 peat is cut or moulded into blocks or sods like bricks1 which have a length of #h to #ah inches2 a breadth of #d to #f inches1 and a thickness of #a-a_/b to #c inches4 ,machine peat is sometimes formed into circular disks of #b to #c inches diameter1 and #a to #b inches thickness and thereabouts4 ,it is made also in the shape of balls of #b to #c inches diameter4 ,another form is that of thick-walled pipes1 #b to #c inches in diameter1 a foot or more long1 and with a bore of one-half inch4 ,flat blocks are apt to lie closely together in the fire1 and obstruct the draft4 ,a fire-place1 constructed properly for burning them1 should be shallow1 not admitting of more than two or three layers being superposed4 ,according to the bulkiness of the peat1 the fire-place should be roomy1 as regards length and breadth4 ,fibrous and easily crumbling peat is usually burned upon a hearth1 i4 e4 without a grate1 either in stoves or open fire-places4 ,dense peat burns best upon a grate1 the bars of which should be thin and near together1 so that the air have access to every part of the fuel4 ,the denser and tougher the peat1 and the more its shape corresponds with that usual to coal1 the better is it adapted for use in our ordinary coal stoves and furnaces4 #e4--;,burning of broken peat4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a--,,stair ,,grate4 ,broken peat--the fragments and waste of the cut or moulded blocks1 and peat as obtained by plowing and harrowing the surface of drained peat-beds--may be used to advantage in the stair grate1 fig4 #a1 which was introduced some years ago in ,austria1 and is adapted exclusively for burning finely divided fuel4 ,it consists of a series of thin iron bars #c to #d inches wide1 a1 a1 a1 444 which are arranged above each other like steps1 as shown in the figure4 ,they are usually half as long as the grate is wide1 and are supported at each end by two side pieces or walls1 l4 ,below1 the grate is closed by a heavy iron plate4 ,the fuel is placed in the hopper ,a1 which is kept filled1 and from which it falls down the incline as rapidly as it is consumed4 ,the air enters from the space ,g1 and is regulated by doors1 not shown in the cut1 which open into it4 ,the masonry is supported at u1 by a hollow iron beam4 ,below1 a lateral opening serves for clearing out the ashes4 ,the effect of the fire depends upon the width of the throat of the hopper at u1 which regulates the supply of fuel to the grate1 and upon the inclination of the latter4 ,the throat is usually from #f to #h inches wide1 according to the nature of the fuel4 ,the inclination of the grate is #dj to #de deg4 and1 in general1 should be that which is assumed by the sides of a pile of the fuel to be burned1 when it is thrown up into a heap4 ,this grate ensures complete combustion of fuel that would fall through ordinary grates1 and that would merely smoulder upon a hearth4 ,the fire admits of easy regulation1 the ashes may be removed and the fuel may be supplied without checking the fire4 ,not only broken peat1 but coal dust1 saw dust1 wood turnings and the like may be burned on this grate4 ,the figure represents it as adapted to a steam boiler4 #f4--;,hygroscopic water of peat fuel4 ,the quantity of water retained by air-dried peat appears to be the same as exists in air-dried wood1 viz41 about #bj per cent4 ,the proportion will vary however according to the time of seasoning4 ,in thoroughly seasoned wood or peat1 it may be but #ae per cent42 while in the poorly dried material it may amount to #be or more per cent4 ,when hot-dried1 the proportion of water may be reduced to #aj per cent41 or less4 ,when peat is still moist1 it gathers water rapidly from damp air1 and in this condition has been known to burst the sheds in which it was stored1 but after becoming dry to the eye and feel1 it is but little affected by dampness1 no more so1 it appears1 than seasoned wood4 #g4--,shrinkage4 ,in estimating the value and cost of peat fuel1 it must be remembered that peat shrinks greatly in drying1 so that three to five cords of fresh peat yield but one cord of dry peat4 ,when the fiber of the peat is broken by the hand1 or by machinery1 the shrinkage is often much greater1 and may sometimes amount to seven-eighths of the original volume4--,dingler's ,journal1 ,oct4 #ahfd1 ,s4 #fh4 ,the difference in weight between fresh and dry peat is even greater4 ,fibrous peat1 fresh from the bog1 may contain ninety per cent4 of water1 of which seventy per cent4 must evaporate before it can be called dry4 ,the proportion of water in earthy or pitchy peat is indeed less2 but the quantity is always large1 so that from five to nine hundred weight of fresh peat must be lifted in order to make one hundred weight of dry fuel4 #h4--,time of excavation1 and drying4 ,peat which is intended to be used after simply drying1 must be excavated so early in the season that it shall become dry before frosty weather arrives3 because1 if frozen when wet1 its coherence is destroyed1 and on thawing it falls to a powder useless for fuel4 ,peat must be dried with certain precautions4 ,if a block of fresh peat be exposed to hot sunshine1 it dries and shrinks on the surface much more rapidly than within3 as a consequence it cracks1 loses its coherence1 and the block is easily broken1 or of itself falls to pieces4 ,in ,europe1 it is indeed customary to dry peat without shelter1 the loss by too rapid drying not being greater than the expense of building and maintaining drying sheds4 ,there however the sun is not as intense1 nor the air nearly so dry1 as it is here4 ,even there1 the occurrence of an unusually hot summer1 causes great loss4 ,in our climate1 some shelter would be commonly essential unless the peat be dug early in the spring1 so as to lose the larger share of its water before the hot weather2 or1 as would be best of all1 in the autumn late enough to escape the heat1 but early enough to ensure such dryness as would prevent damage by frost4 ,the peculiarities of climate must decide the time of excavating and the question of shelter4 ,the point in drying peat is to make it lose its water gradually and regularly1 so that the inside of each block shall dry nearly as fast as the outside4 ,some of the methods of hot-drying peat1 will be subsequently noticed4 ,summer or fall digging would be always advantageous on account of the swamps being then most free from water4 ,in ,bavaria1 peat is dug mostly in ,july and the first half of ,august4 #i4--;,drainage4 ,when it is intended to raise peat fuel in the form of blocks1 the bog should be drained no more rapidly than it is excavated4 ,peat1 which is to be worth cutting in the spring1 must be covered with water during the winter1 else it is pulverized by the frost4 ,so1 too1 it must be protected against drying away and losing its coherency in summer1 by being kept sufficiently impregnated with water4 ,in case an extensive bog is to be drained to facilitate the cutting out of the peat for use as fuel1 the canals that carry off the water from the parts which are excavating1 should be so constructed1 that on the approach of cold weather1 the remaining peat may be flooded again to the usual height4 ,in most of the smaller swamps1 systematic draining is unnecessary1 the water drying away in summer enough to admit of easy working4 ,in some methods of preparing or condensing peat by machinery1 it is best or even needful to drain and air-dry the peat1 preliminary to working4 ,by draining1 the peat settles1 especially on the borders of the ditches1 several inches1 or even feet1 according to its nature and depth4 ,it thus becomes capable of bearing teams and machinery1 and its density is very considerably augmented4 #aj4--,the ,cutting of ,peat4--a4 ,preparations4 ,in preparing to raise peat fuel from the bog1 the surface material1 which from the action of frost and sun has been pulverized to muck1 or which otherwise is full of roots and undecomposed matters1 must be removed usually to the depth of #ab to #ah inches4 ,it is only those portions of the peat which have never frozen nor become dry1 and are free from coarse fibers of recent vegetation1 that can be cut for fuel4 ,peat fuel must be brought into the form of blocks or masses of such size and shape as to adapt them to use in our common stoves and furnaces4 ,commonly1 the peat is of such consistence in its native bed1 that it may be cut out with a spade or appropriate tool into blocks having more or less coherence4 ,sometimes it is needful to take away the surplus water from the bog1 and allow the peat to settle and drain a while before it can be cut to advantage4 ,when a bog is to be opened1 a deep ditch is run from an outlet or lowest point a short distance into the peat bed1 and the working goes on from the banks of this ditch4 ,it is important that system be followed in raising the peat1 or there will be great waste of fuel and of labor4 ,if1 as often happens1 the peat is so soft in the wet season as to break on the vertical walls of a ditch and fill it1 at the same time dislocating the mass and spoiling it for cutting1 it is best to carry down the ditch in terraces1 making it wide above and narrow at the bottom4 b4 ,cutting by hand4 ,the simplest mode of procedure1 consists in laying off a field or plot of1 say #bj feet square1 and making vertical cuts with a sharp spade three or four inches deep from end to end in parallel lines1 as far apart as it is proposed to make the breadth of the peats or sods1 usually four to five inches4 ,then1 the field is cut in a similar manner in lines at right angles to the first1 and at a distance that shall be the length of the peats1 say #ah to #bj inches4 ,finally1 the workman lifts the peats by horizontal thrusts of his spade1 made at a depth of three inches4 ,the sods as lifted1 are placed on a light barrow or upon a board or rack1 and are carried off to a drying ground1 near at hand1 where they are laid down flatwise to drain and dry4 ,in ,ireland1 it is the custom1 after the peats have lain thus for a fortnight or so1 to foot them1 i4 e4 to place them on end close together2 after further drying the footing is succeeded by clamping1 which is building the sods up into stacks of about twelve to fifteen feet long1 four feet wide at bottom1 narrowing to one foot at top1 with a height of four to five feet4 ,the outer turfs are inclined so as to shed the rain4 ,the peat often remains in these clamps on the bog until wanted for use1 though in rainy seasons the loss by crumbling is considerable4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4--;,,german ,,peat-,,knife4 ,other modes of lifting peat1 require tools of particular construction4444 ,in ,germany it is common to excavate by vertical thrusts of the tool1 the cutting part of which is represented above1 fig4 #b4 ,this tool is pressed down into the peat to a depth corresponding to the thickness of the required block3 its three edges cut as many sides of the block1 and the bottom is then broken or torn out by a prying motion4 ,in other cases1 this or a similar tool is forced down by help of the foot as deeply into the peat as possible by a workman standing above1 while a second man in the ditch cuts out the blocks of proper thickness by means of a sharp spade thrust horizontally4 ,when the peats are taken out to the depth of the first vertical cutting1 the knife is used again from above1 and the process is thus continued as before1 until the bottom of the peat or the desired depth is reached4 ,in ,ireland1 is employed the slane1 a common form of which is shown in fig4 #c1 it being a long1 narrow and sharp spade1 #bj inches by six1 with a wing at right angles to the blade4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4--;,,irish ,,slane4 ,the peats are cut by one thrust of this instrument which is worked by the arms alone4 ,after a vertical cut is made by a spade1 in a line at right angles to a bank of peat1 the slane cuts the bottom and other side of the block2 while at the end the latter is simply lifted or broken away4 ,peat is most easily cut in a vertical direction1 but when1 as often happens1 it is made up of layers1 the sods are likely to break apart where these join4 ,horizontal cutting is therefore best for stratified peat4 ,system employed in ,east ,friesland4--,in raising peat1 great waste both of labor and of fuel may easily occur as the result of random and unsystematic methods of working4 ,for this reason1 the mode of cutting peat1 followed in the extensive moors of ,east ,friesland1 is worthy of particular description4 ,there1 the business is pursued systematically on a plan1 which1 it is claimed1 long experience#ag has developed to such perfection that the utmost economy of time and labor is attained4 ,the cost of producing marketable peat in ,east ,friesland in #ahfj1 was one silver groschenabout #b-a_/b cents1 per hundred weight2 while at that time1 in ,bavaria1 the hundred weight cost three times as much when fit for market2 and this1 notwithstanding living and labor are much cheaper in the latter country4 ,the method to be described1 presupposes that the workmen are not hindered by water1 which1 in most cases1 can be easily removed from the high-moors of the region4 ,the peat is worked in long stretches of #aj feet in width1 and #ajj to #ajjj paces in length3 each stretch or plot is excavated at once to a considerable depth and to its full width4 ,each successive year the excavation is widened by #aj feet1 its length remaining the same4 ,sometimes1 unusual demand leads to more rapid working2 but the width of #aj feet is adhered to for each cutting1 and1 on account of the labor of carrying the peats1 it is preferred to extend the length rather than the width4 ,assuming that the peat bed has been opened by a previous cutting1 to the depth of #e-a_/b feet1 and the surface muck and light peat1 #a-a_/b feet thick1 have been thrown into the excavation of the year before--a new plot is worked by five men as follows4 ,one man1 the ,bunker1 removes from the surface1 about two inches of peat1 disintegrated by the winter's frost1 throwing it into last year's ditch4 ,following him1 come two ,diggers1 of whom one stands on the surface of the peat1 and with a heavy1 long handled tool1 cuts out the sides and end of the blocks1 which are about seventeen by five inches2 while the other stands in the ditch1 and by horizontal thrusts of a light1 sharp spade1 removes the sods1 each of five and a half inches thickness1 and places them on a small board near by4 ,each block of peat has the dimensions of one fourth of a cubic foot1 and weighs about #ac pounds4 ,two good workmen will raise #be such peats1 or #f-a_/d cubic feet1 per minute4 ,a fourth man1 the ,loader1 puts the sods upon a wheel-barrow1 always two rows of six each1 one upon the other1 and-- ,a fifth1 the ,wheeler1 removes the load to the drying ground1 and with some help from the ,bunker1 disposes them flatwise in rows of #af sods wide1 which run at right angles to the ditch1 and1 beginning at a little more than #aj feet from the latter1 extend #ej feet4 ,the space of #aj feet between the plot that is excavating1 and the drying ground1 is1 at the same time1 cleared of the useless surface muck by the ,bunker1 in preparation for the next year's work4 ,with moderate activity1 the five men will lift and lay out #ab1jjj sods 7#cjjj cubic feet17 daily1 and it is not uncommon that five first-rate hands get out #af1hjj peats 7#dbjj cubic feet17 in this time4 ,a gang of five men1 working as described1 suffices for cutting out a bed of four feet of solid peat4 ,when the excavation is to be made deeper1 a sixth man1 the ,hanker1 is needful for economical work2 and with his help the cutting may be extended down to nine and a half feet2 i4 e4 through eight feet of solid peat4 ,the cutting is carried down at first1 four feet as before1 but the peats are carried #ej feet further1 in order to leave room for those to be subsequently lifted4 ,the ,hanker aids here1 with a second wheel-barrow4 ,in taking out the lower peat1 the ,hanker stands on the bottom of the first excavation1 receives the blocks from the ,diggers1 on a broad wooden shovel1 and hands them up to the ,loader2 while the ,wheeler1 having only the usual distance to carry them1 lays them out in the drying rows without difficulty4 ,after a little drying in the rows1 the peats are gradually built up into narrow piles1 like a brick wall of one and a half bricks thickness4 ,these piles are usually raised by women4 ,they are made in the spaces between the rows1 and are laid up one course at a time1 so that each block may dry considerably1 before it is covered by another4 ,a woman can lay up #ab1jjj peats daily--the number lifted by #e men--and as it requires about a month of good weather to give each course time 7two days7 to dry1 she is able to pile for #cj gangs of workmen4 ,if the weather be very favorable1 the peats may be stacked or put into sheds1 in a few days after the piling is finished4 ,stacking is usually practised4 ,the stacks are carefully laid up in cylindrical form1 and contain #bjj to #ejj cubic feet4 ,when the stacks are properly built1 the peat suffers but little from the weather4 ,according to ,schroeder1 from whose account 7,dingler's ,polytechnisches ,journal1 ,bd4 #aef1 ,s4 #abh7 the above statements are derived1 the peats excavated under his direction1 in drying thoroughly1 shrank to about one-fourth of their original bulk 7became #ab inches x #c inches x #c inches17 and to one-seventh or one-eighth of their original weight4 c4 ,machines for ,cutting ,peat4 ,in ,north ,prussia1 the ,peat ,cutting ,machine of ,brosowsky1 see fig4 #d1 is extensively employed4 ,it consists of a cutter1 made like the four sides of a box1 but with oblique edges1 a1 which by its own weight1 and by means of a crank and rack-work1 operated by men1 is forced down into the peat to a depth that may reach #bj feet4 ,it can cut only at the edge of a ditch or excavation1 and when it has penetrated sufficiently1 a spade like blade1 d1 is driven under the cutter by means of levers c1 and thus a mass is loosened1 having a vertical length of #aj feet or more1 and whose other dimensions are about #bd x #bh inches4 ,this is lifted by reversing the crank motion1 and is then cut up by the spade into blocks of #ad inches x #f inches x #e inches4 ,each parallelopipedon of peat1 cut to a depth of #aj feet1 makes #add sods1 and this number can be cut in less than #aj minutes4 ,four hands will cut and lay out to dry1 #ab1jjj to #ad1jjj peats daily1 or #cajj cubic feet4 ,one great advantage of this machine consists in the circumstance that it can be used to raise peat from below the surface of water1 rendering drainage in many cases unnecessary4 ,independently of this1 it appears to be highly labor saving1 since #acjj machines were put to use in ,mecklenburg and ,pomerania in about #e years from its introduction4 ,the ,mecklenburg moors are now traversed by canals1 cut by this machine1 which are used for the transportation of the peat to market4#ah ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d4--;,,brosowsky',s ,,peat ,,cutter4 ,lepreux in ,paris1 has invented a similar but more complicated machine1 which is said to be very effective in its operation4 ,according to ,herve ,mangon1 this machine1 when worked by two men1 raises and cuts #dj1jjj peats daily1 of which seven make one cubic foot1 equal to #efjj cubic feet4 ,the saving in expense by using this machine#ai is said to be #gj per cent41 when the peat to be raised is under water4 #aa4--,the ,dredging of ,peat4 ,when peat exists1 not as a coherent more or less fibrous mass1 but as a paste or mud1 saturated with water1 it cannot be raised and formed by the methods above described4 ,in such cases the peat is dredged from the bottom of the bog by means of an iron scoop1 like a pail with sharp upper edges1 which is fastened to a long handle4 ,the bottom is made of coarse sacking1 so that the water may run off4 ,sometimes1 a stout ring of iron with a bag attached1 is employed in the same way4 ,the fine peat is emptied from the dredge upon the ground1 where it remains1 until the water has been absorbed or has evaporated1 so far as to leave the mass somewhat firm and plastic4 ,in the mean time1 a drying bed is prepared by smoothing1 and1 if needful1 stamping a sufficient space of ground1 and enclosing it in boards #ad inches wide1 set on edge4 ,into this bed the partially dried peat is thrown1 and1 as it cracks on the surface by drying1 it is compressed by blows with a heavy mallet or flail1 or by treading it with flat boards1 attached to the feet1 somewhat like snow shoes4 ,by this treatment the mass is reduced to a continuous sheet of less than one-half its first thickness1 and becomes so firm1 that a man's step gives little impression in it4 ,the boards are now removed1 and it is cut into blocks by means of a very thin1 sharp spade4 ,every other block being lifted out and placed crosswise upon those remaining1 air is admitted to the whole and the drying goes on rapidly4 ,this kind of peat is usually of excellent quality4 ,in ,north ,germany it is called ,baggertorf1 i4 e4 mud-peat4 ,peat is sometimes dredged by machinery1 as will be noticed hereafter4 #ab4--,the ,moulding of ,peat4 ,when black1 earthy or pitchy peat cannot be cut1 and is not so saturated with water as to make a mud2 it is1 after raking or picking out roots1 etc41 often worked into a paste by the hands or feet1 with addition of water1 until it can be formed into blocks which1 by slow drying1 acquire great firmness4 ,in ,ireland this product is termed hand-peat4 ,in ,germany it is called ,formtorf1 i4 e4 moulded peat1 or ,backtorf1 i4 e4 baked peat4 ,the shaping is sometimes accomplished by plastering the soft mass into wooden moulds1 as in making bricks4 #ac4--,preparation of ,peat ,fuel by ,machinery1 etc4 ,within the last #ae years1 numerous inventions have been made with a view to improving the quality of peat fuel1 as well as to expedite its production4 ,these inventions are directed to the following points1 viz43 #a4 ,condensation of the peat1 so as bring more fuel into a given space1 thus making it capable of giving out an intenser heat2 at the same time increasing its hardness and toughness1 and rendering it easier and more economical of transportation4 #b4 ,drying by artificial heat or reducing the amount of water from #bj or #be per cent4 to half that quantity or less4 ,this exalts the heating power in no inconsiderable degree4 #c4 ,charring4 ,peat-charcoal is as much better than peat1 for use where intense heat is required1 as wood charcoal is better than wood4 #d4 ,purifying from useless matters4 ,separation of earthy admixtures which are incombustible and hinder draught4 ,a4--,condensation by ,pressure4 ,pressing ,wet ,peat4--,the condensation of peat was first attempted by subjecting the fresh1 wet material1 to severe pressure4 ,as long ago as the year #ahba1 ,pernitzsch1 in ,saxony1 prepared peat by this method1 and shortly afterwards ,lord ,willoughby d',eresby1 in ,scotland1 and others1 adopted the same principle4 ,simple pressure will1 indeed1 bring fresh peat at once into much smaller bulk2 but1 if the peat be fibrous and light1 and for this reason require condensation1 it is also elastic1 and1 when the pressure is relieved1 it acquires again much of its original volume4 ,furthermore1 although pressure will squeeze out much water from a saturated well-ripened peat1 the complete drying of the pressed blocks usually requires as much or more time than that of the unpressed material1 on account of the closeness of texture of the surface produced by the pressure4 ,the advantages of subjecting fresh peat to pressure in the ordinary presses1 it is found1 are more than offset by the expense of the operation1 and it is therefore unnecessary to give the subject further attention4 ,fresh peat appears however to have been advantageously pressed by other mechanical means4 ,two methods require notice4 ,mannhardt's ,method1 invented about the year #aheh1 has been practically applied on the large scale at ,schleissheim1 ,bavaria4 ,mannhardt's machine consists of two colossal iron rolls1 each of #ae feet diameter1 and #f-a_/b feet length1 geared into each other so as to revolve horizontally in opposite directions and with equal velocity4 ,these rolls are hollow1 their circumference consists of stout iron plate perforated with numerous small holes1 and is supported by iron bars which connect the ends of the roll1 having intervals between them of about one inch4 ,each roll is covered by an endless band of hair cloth1 stretched over and kept in place by rollers4 ,the rolls are operated by a steam engine of #ab horse power4 ,the fresh peat is thrown into a hopper1 and passing between the rolls1 loses a considerable share of its water1 issuing as a broad continuous sheet1 which is divided into blocks by an arrangement presently to be described4 ,the cloth1 covering the rolls1 must have great strength1 sufficient porosity to allow water to pass it freely1 and such closeness of texture as to retain the fine particles of peat4 ,many trials have led to the use of a fabric1 specially made for the purpose1 of goat's hair4 ,the cloth for each pair of rolls1 costs #afj4 ,the peat at ,schleissheim is about #e feet in depth1 and consists of a dark-brown mud or paste1 free from stones and sticks1 and penetrated only by fine fibers4 ,the peat is thrown up on the edge of a ditch1 and after draining1 is moved on a tram-way to the machine4 ,it is there thrown upon a chain of buckets1 which deliver it at the hopper above the rolls4 ,the rolls revolve once in #g-a_/c minutes and at each revolution turn out a sheet of peat1 which cuts into #ebh blocks4 ,each block has1 when moist1 a length of about #ab inches1 by #e inches of width and #a-a_/d inches of thickness1 and weighs on the average #a-a_/b lbs4 ,the water that is pressed out of the peat1 falls within the rolls and is conducted away2 it is but slightly turbid from suspended particles4 ,the band of pressed peat is divided in one direction as it is formed1 by narrow slats which are secured horizontally to the press-cloth1 at about #e inches distance from each other4 ,the further division of the peat is accomplished by a series of six circular saws1 under which the peat is carried as it is released from the rolls1 by a system of endless cords strung over rollers4 ,these cords run parallel until the peat passes the saws2 thenceforth they radiate1 so that the peat-blocks are separated somewhat from each other4 ,they are carried on until they reach a roll1 over which they are delivered upon drying lattices4 ,the latter move regularly under the roll2 the peats arrange themselves upon them edgewise1 one leaning against the other1 so as to admit of free circulation of air4 ,the lattices are loaded upon cars1 and moved on a tram-way to the drying ground1 where they are set up in frames4 ,the peat-cake separates well from the press-cloths2 but the pores of the latter become somewhat choked by fine particles that penetrate them4 ,they are therefore washed at each revolution by passing before a pipe from which issue1 against them1 a number of jets of water under high pressure4 ,the blocks1 after leaving the machine1 are soft1 and require #e or #f days to become air-dry4 ,when dry they are dense and of good quality1 but not better than the same raw material yields by simple moulding4 ,the capacity of the rolls1 which easily turn out #ajj1jjj peats in #bd hours1 greatly exceeds at present that of the drying arrangements1 and for this reason the works are not1 as yet1 remunerative4 ,the rolls are1 in reality1 a simple forming machine4 ,the pressure they exert on the peat1 is but inconsiderable1 owing to its soft pasty character2 and since the pair of rolls costs #hjjj and can only be worked #c to #d months1 this method must be regarded rather as an ingenious and instructive essay in the art of making peat-fuel1 than as a practical success4 ,the persevering efforts of the inventor may yet overcome all difficulties and prove the complete efficacy of the method4 ,it is especially important1 that blocks of greater thickness should be produced1 since those now made1 pack together too closely in the fire4 ,neustadt ,method4--,at ,neustadt1 in ,hanover1 a loose-textured fibrous peat was prepared for metallurgical use in #ahfj1 by passing through iron rolls of ordinary construction4 ,the peat was thereby reduced two-thirds in bulk1 burned more regularly1 gave a coherent coal1 and withstood carriage better4 ,the peat was1 however1 first cut into sods of regular size1 and these were fed into the rollers by boys4 b4 ,pressing ,air-dried ,peat4 ,some kinds of peat1 when in the air-dry and pulverized state1 yield by great pressure very firm1 excellent1 and economical fuel4 ,lithuanian ,process4--,in ,lithuania1 according to ,leo1#bj the following method is extensively adopted4 ,the bog is drained1 the surface moss or grass-turf and roots are removed1 and then the peat is broken up by a simple spade-plow1 in furrows #b inches wide and #h or #aj inches deep4 ,the broken peat is repeatedly traversed with wooden harrows1 and is thus pulverized and dried4 ,when suitably dry1 it is carried to a magazine1 where it is rammed into moulds by a simple stamp of two hundred pounds weight4 ,the broken peat is reduced to two-fifths its first bulk1 and the blocks thus formed are so hard1 as to admit of cutting with a saw or ax without fracture4 ,they require no further drying1 are of a deep-brown color1 with lustrous surfaces1 and their preparation may go on in winter with the stock of broken peat1 which is accumulated in the favorable weather of summer4 ,in this manufacture there is no waste of material4 ,the peat is dry enough for pressing when1 after forming in the hands to a ball1 it will not firmly retain this shape1 but on being let fall to the ground1 breaks to powder4 ,the entire cost of preparing #ajjj peats for use1 or market1 was #b ,thalers1 or #a4dj4 ,thirty peats1 or stones as they are called from their hardness1 have the bulk of two cubic feet1 and weigh #afj lbs4 ,the cost of preparing a hundred weight1 was therefore1 7in #ahei17 four ,silver-groschen1 or about #aj cents4 ,the stamp is of simple construction1 somewhat like a pile driver1 the mould and face of the ram being made of cast iron4 ,the above process is not applicable to fibrous peat4 c4 ,pressing ,hot-dried ,peat4 ,the two methods to be next described1 are similar to the last mentioned1 save that the peat is hot-pressed4 ,gwynne's ,method4--,in #ahec1 ,gwynne of ,london1 patented machinery and a method for condensing peat for fuel4 ,his process consisted1 first1 in rapidly drying and pulverizing the fresh peat by a centrifugal machine1 or by passing between rollers1 and subsequent exposure to heat in revolving cylinders2 and1 second1 in compressing the dry peat-powder in a powerful press at a high temperature1 about #ahj deg4 ,f4 ,by this heat it is claimed1 that the peat is not only thoroughly dried1 but is likewise partially decomposed2 bituminous matters being developed1 which cement the particles to a hard dense mass4 ,gwynne's machinery was expensive and complicated1 and although an excellent fuel was produced1 the process appears not to have been carried put on the large scale with pecuniary success4 ,a specimen of so-called ,peat coal in the author's possession1 made in ,massachusetts some years ago1 under ,gwynne's patent1 appears to consist of pulverized peat1 prepared as above described2 but contains an admixture of rosin4 ,it must have been an excellent fuel1 but could not at that time compete with coal in this country4 ,exter's ,method4#ba ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4--;,,exter',s ,,drying ,,oven4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4--;,,exter',s ,,drying ,,oven4 ,in #ahef1 ,exter1 of ,bavaria1 carried into operation on an extensive scale1 a plan of preparing peat-fuel in some respects not unlike the last mentioned method4 ,exter's works1 belonging to the ,bavarian ,government1 are on the ,haspelmoor1 situated between ,augsburg and ,munich4 ,according to ,ruehlmann1 who examined them at the command of the ,hanoverian ,government in #aheg1 the method is as follows3--#a4 ,the bog is laid dry by drains and the surface is cleared of bushes1 roots1 and grass-turf1 down to good peat4 #b4 ,the peat is broken up superficially to the depth of about one inch1 by a gang of three plows1 propelled by a portable steam engine4 #c4 ,the peat is further pulverized by a harrow1 drawn by a yoke of oxen4 #d4 ,in two or three days after harrowing1 the peat is turned by an implement like our cultivator1 this process being repeated at suitable intervals4 #e4 ,the fine and air-dry peat is gathered together by scrapers1 and loaded into wagons2 then drawn by rope connected with the engine1 to the press or magazine4 #f4 ,if needful1 the peat1 thus collected1 is further pulverized by passing it through toothed rollers4 #g4 ,the fine peat is now introduced into a complicated drying oven1 see figures #e and #f4 ,it falls through the opening ,t1 and is moved by means of the spirals along the horizontal floors ,o1 ,o1 falling from one to another until it emerges at ,q4 ,the floors1 ,o1 ,o1 are made by wide and thin iron chambers1 through which passes waste steam from an engine4 ,the oven is heated further by hot air1 which circulates through the canals ,k1 ,k4 ,the peat occupies about one hour in its passage through the oven and falls from ,q1 into the press1 having a temperature of from #abj deg4 to #adj deg4,fahrenheit4 ,the press employed at ,staltach is essentially the same as that now used at the ,kolbermoor1 and figured on p4 #abe4 ,it is a powerful eccentric of simple construction1 and turns out continuously #dj finished peats per minute4 ,these occupy about one-fourth the space of the peat before pressing1 the cubic foot weighing about #gb lbs4 ,the peats are #g inches long1 #c inches wide1 and one half to three quarters of an inch thick1 each weighing three quarters of a pound4 ,three presses furnish annually #ahj1jjj cwt4 of condensed peat1 which is used exclusively for firing locomotives4 ,its specific gravity is #a4ad1 and its quality as fuel is excellent4 ,ruehlmann estimated its cost1 at ,haspelmoor in #aheg1 at #h-a_/b ,kreuzers1 or a little more than #f cents per cwt41 and calculated that by adopting certain obvious improvements1 and substituting steam power for the labor of men and cattle1 the cost might be reduced to #f-a_/b ,kreuzers1 or a little more than #d cents per cwt4 ,exter's method has been adopted with some modifications at ,kolbermoor1 near ,munich1 in ,bavaria1 at ,miskolz1 in ,hungary1 and also at the ,neustadt ,smelting ,works1 in ,hanover4 ,at the latter place1 however1 it appears to have been abandoned for the reasons that it could be applied only to the better kinds of peat2 and the expense was there so great1 that the finished article could not compete with other fuel in the ,hanoverian markets4 ,details of the mechanical arrangements at present employed on the ,kolbermoor1 are as follows3 ,after the bog is drained1 and the surface cleared of dwarf pines1 etc41 and suitably leveled1 the peat is plowed by steam4 ,this is accomplished in a way which the annexed cut serves to illustrate4 ,the plot to be plowed1 is traversed through the middle by the railway x1 y4 ,a locomotive a1 sets in motion an endless wire-rope1 which moves upon large horizontal pulleys o1 o1 stationed at either border of the land4 ,four gang plows b1 b1 are attached to the rope1 and as the latter is set in motion1 they break up the strip of peat they pass over1 completely4 ,the locomotive and the pulleys are then moved back1 and the process is repeated until the whole field has been plowed4 ,the plows are square frames1 carrying six to eight shares and as many coulters4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g4 ,the press employed at ,kolbermoor1 is shown in figs4 #h and #i4 ,the hot peat falls into the hopper1 b1 c4 ,the plunger d1 worked in the cavity e1 by an eccentric1 allows the latter to fill with peat as it is withdrawn1 and by its advance compresses it into a block4 ,the blocks m1 once formed1 by their friction in the channel e1 oppose enough resistance to the peat to effect its compression4 ,in order to regulate this resistance according to the varying quality of the peat1 the piece of metal g1 which hangs on a pivot at o1 is depressed or raised1 by the screw i1 so as to contract or enlarge the channel4 ,at each stroke of the plunger a block is formed1 and when the channel e is once filled1 the peats fall continuously from its extremity4 ,their dimensions are #g inches long1 #c-a_/b wide1 and #a-a_/b thick4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h4--;,,exter',s ,,peat ,,press4 ,several presses are worked by the same engine at the ,kolbermoor1 each of which turns out daily #bjj to #cjj cwt4 of peats1 which1 in #ahfc1 were sold at #bd ,kreuzers 7#af cents71 per cwt4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i4--;,,exter',s ,,peat ,,press4 ,c4 ,hodgson has patented in ,great ,britain a compressing-ram similar to ,exter's1 and works were put up at ,derrylea1 in ,ireland1 some years ago1 in which ,exter's process of manufacturing peat fuel appears to have been adopted4 ,elsberg's ,process4 ,dr4 ,louis ,elsberg1 of ,new ,york ,city1 has invented a modification of ,exter's method1 which appears to be of great importance4 ,his experimental machine1 which is in operation near ,belleville1 ,n4 ,j41 consists of a cylindrical pug-mill1 in which the peat1 air-dried as in ,exter's method1 is further broken1 and at the same time is subjected to a current of steam admitted through a pipe and jacket surrounding the cylinder4 ,the steamed peat is then condensed by a pair of presses similar to that just described1 which are fed directly from the mill4 ,in this way the complicated drying oven of ,exter is dispensed with4 ,elsberg ,co4 are still engaged in perfecting their arrangements4 ,some samples of their making are of very excellent quality1 having a density of #a4b to #a4c4 ,the pressing of air-dry peat only succeeds when it is made warm1 and is1 at the same time1 moist4 ,in ,exter's original process the peat is considerably dried in the ovens1 but on leaving them1 is so moist as to bedew the hand that is immersed in it4 ,it is1 in fact1 steamed by the vaporization of its own water4 ,in ,elsberg's process1 the air-dry peat is not further desiccated1 but is made moist and warm by the admission of hot steam4 ,the latter method is the more ready and doubtless the more economical of the two4 ,whether the former gives a dryer product or not1 the author cannot decide4 ,elsberg's peat occurs in cylindrical cakes #b inches broad1 and one inch in thickness4 ,the cakes are somewhat cracked upon the edges1 as if by contraction1 in drying4 ,when wet1 the surface of the cakes swells up1 and exfoliates as far as the water has penetrated4 ,in the fire1 a similar breaking away of the surface takes place1 and when coked1 the coal is but moderately coherent4 ,the reasons why steamed peat admits of solidification by pressure1 are simply that the air1 ordinarily adhering to the fibres and particles1 is removed1 and the fibres themselves become softened and more plastic1 so that pressure brings them into intimate contact4 ,the idea that the heat develops bituminous matters1 or fuses the resins which exist in peat1 and that these cement the particles1 does not harmonize with the fact that the peat1 thus condensed1 flakes to pieces by a short immersion in water4 ,the great advantage of ,exter's and ,elsberg's method consists in avoiding what most of the others require1 viz43 the expensive transportation and handling of fresh peat1 which contains #hj to #ij per cent4 of water1 and the rapid removal of this excess of water before the manufacture4 ,in the other methods the surplus water must be slowly removed during or after condensation4 ,again1 enough peat may be air-dried and stored during summer weather1 to supply a machine with work during the whole year4 ,its disadvantages are1 that it requires a large outlay of capital and great expenditure of mechanical force4 ,its product is1 moreover1 not adapted for coking4 ,b4--,condensation without ,pressure4 ,the methods of condensing peat1 that remain to be described1 are based upon radically different principles from those already noticed4 ,in these1 little or no pressure is employed in the operations2 but advantage is taken of the important fact that when wet or moist peat is ground1 cut or in any way reduced to a pulpy or pasty consistence1 with destruction of the elastic fibres1 it will1 on drying1 shrink together to a coherent mass1 that may acquire a density and toughness much greater than it is possible to obtain by any amount of mere pressure4 ,the various processes that remain to notice are essentially reducible to two types1 of which the ,french method1 invented by ,challeton1 and the ,german1 invented it appears by ,weber1 are the original representatives4 ,the former method is only applicable to earthy1 well-decomposed peat1 containing little fibre4 ,the latter was originally applied to fibrous moss-peat1 but has since been adapted to all kinds4 ,other inventors1 ,english1 ,german1 and ,american1 have modified these methods in their details1 or in the construction of the requisite machinery1 rendering them more perfect in their execution and perhaps more profitable in their results2 but1 as regards the essential principles of production1 or the quality of product1 no advance appears to have been made beyond the original inventors4 a4 ,condensation of ,earthy ,peat4 ,challeton's ,method consists essentially in destroying the fibres1 and reducing the peat by cutting and grinding with water to a pulp2 then slowly removing the liquid1 until the peat dries away to a hard coherent mass4 ,it provides also for the purification of the peat from earthy matters4 ,it is1 in many respects1 an imitation of the old ,dutch and ,irish mode of making hand peat 7,baggertorf71 and is very like the paper manufacture in its operations4 ,challeton's ,works1 situated near ,paris1 at ,mennecy1 near ,montanges1 were visited in #ahef by a ,commission of the ,agricultural ,society of ,holstein1 consisting of ,drs4 ,meyn and ,luetkens1 and also by ,dr4 ,ruehlmann1 in the interest of the ,hanoverian ,government4 ,from their account#bb the following statements are derived4 ,the peat at ,mennecy comes from the decay of grasses1 is black1 well decomposed1 and occasionally intermingled with shells and sand4 ,the moor is traversed by canals1 which serve for the transport of the excavated peat in boats4 ,the peat1 when brought to the manufactory1 is emptied into a cistern1 which1 by communicating with the adjacent canal1 maintains a constant level of water4 ,from this cistern the peat is carried up by a chain of buckets and emptied into a hopper1 where it is caught by toothed cylinders in rapid revolution1 and cut or torn to pieces4 ,thence it passes into a chamber where the fine parts are separated from unbroken roots and fibres by revolving brushes1 which force the former through small holes in the walls of the chamber1 while the latter are swept out through a larger passage4 ,the pulverized peat finally falls into a cistern1 in which it is agitated by revolving arms4 ,a stream of water constantly enters this vessel from beneath1 while a chain of buckets as rapidly carries off the peat pulp4 ,all sand1 shells1 and other heavy matters1 remain at the bottom of this cistern4 ,the peat pulp1 thus purified1 flows through wooden troughs into a series of basins1 in which the peat is formed and dried4 ,these basins are made upon the ground by putting up a square frame 7of boards on edge17 about one foot deep1 and placing at the bottom old matting or a layer of flags or reeds4 ,each basin is about a rod square1 and #hjj of them are employed4 ,they are filled with the peat pulp to the top4 ,in a few days the water either filters away into the ground1 or evaporates1 so that a soft stratum of peat1 about #c inches in thickness1 remains4 ,before it begins to crack from drying1 it is divided into blocks1 by pressing into it a light trellis-like framework1 having thin partitions that serve to indent the peat in lines corresponding to the intended divisions4 ,on further drying1 the mass separates into blocks at the lines thus impressed1 and in a few days1 they are ready to remove and arrange for further desiccation4 ,the finished peats from ,challeton's works1 as well as those made by the same method near ,neuchatel1 ,switzerland1 by the ,messrs4 ,roy1 were of excellent quality1 and in the opinion of the ,commission from ,holstein1 the method is admirably adapted for the purification and concentration of the heavy kinds of peat4 ,in ,holstein1 a ,french company constructed1 and in #aheg worked successfully a portable machine for preparing peat on this plan1 but were shortly restrained by legal proceedings4 ,of their later operations we have no information4 ,no data are at hand regarding the cost of producing fuel by ,challeton's machinery4 ,it is believed1 however1 that his own works were unremunerative1 and several manufactories on his pattern1 erected in ,germany1 have likewise proved unprofitable4 ,the principle is1 however1 a good one1 though his machinery is only applicable to earthy or pitchy1 and not to very fibrous peat4 ,it has been elsewhere applied with satisfactory results4 ,simplified machinery for applying ,challeton's method is in operation at ,langenberg1 near ,stettin1 in ,prussia4#bc ,the moss-meadows along the river ,oder1 near which ,langenberg is situated1 are but a foot or so higher at the surface than the medium level of this river1 and are subject to frequent and sudden inundations1 so that draining and partial drying of the peat are out of the question4 ,the character of the peat is unadapted to cutting by hand1 since portions of it are pitchy and crumble too easily to form good sods2 and others1 usually the lower layers1 at a depth of seven feet or more1 are made up to a considerable extent of quite firm reeds and flags1 having the consistence of half decayed straw4 ,the earthy peat is manufactured after ,challeton's method4 ,it is raised with a steam dredger of #bj horse power1 and emptied into flat boats1 seven in number1 which are drawn to the works by an endless rope operated by horse power4 ,the works themselves are situated on a small sand hill in the middle of the moor1 and communicate by canal with the dredger and with the drying ground4 ,a chain of buckets1 working in a frame #de feet long1 attached by a horizontal hinge to the top of the machine house1 reaches over the dock where the boats haul up1 into the rear end of the latter2 and1 as the buckets begin to raise the peat1 the boat itself is moved under the frame towards the house1 until1 with a man's assistance1 its entire load is taken up4 ,the contents of one boat are six square yards1 with a depth of one foot1 and a boat is emptied in #bj minutes time4 ,forty to forty-four boatloads are thus passed into the pulverizing machine daily1 by two chains of buckets4 ,the peat-mud falls from the buckets into a large wooden trough1 which branches into two channels1 conducting to two large tubs standing side by side4 ,these tubs are #aj feet in diameter and #b feet deep1 and are made of #b-;inch plank4 ,within each tub is placed concentrically a cylindrical sieve1 or colander1 #h feet in diameter and #b feet high1 made of #c_/h round iron1 and it is within this that the peat is emptied4 ,the peat is stirred and forced through the meshes of the sieve by four arms of a shaft that revolves #bj times per minute1 the arms carrying at their extremities stiff vertical brooms1 which rub the inside of the sieve4 ,in these four tubs the peat is pulverized under addition of water2 the fine parts pass the sieves1 while the latter retain the coarse fibres1 roots1 etc4 ,the peat-mud flows from the tubs into mills1 made like a flour mill1 but the stones constructed of hard wood4 ,the stones have a diameter of #h feet #f inches2 the lower is #h inches2 the upper #ba inches thick4 ,the pressure of the upper stone is regulated by adjusting the level of the discharging channel1 so that the stone may be more or less buoyed1 or even fully floated by the water with which it is surrounded4 ,the peat-substance1 which is thus finely ground1 gathers from the four mills into a common reservoir whence it is lifted by a centrifugal pump into a trough1 which distributes it over the drying ground4 ,the drying ground consists of the surface formed by grading the sand hill1 on which the works are built1 and includes about #cj ,english acres4 ,this is divided into small plots1 each of which is enclosed on three sides with a wall of earth1 and on the fourth side by boards set on edge4 ,each plot is surrounded by a ditch to carry off water1 and by means of portable troughs1 the peat is let on from the main channel4 ,the peat-slime is run into these beds to the depth of #bj to #bb inches1 an acre being covered daily4 ,after #d to #h days1 according to the weather1 the peat has lost so much water1 which1 rapidly soaks off through the sand1 that its surface begins to crack4 ,it is then thoroughly trodden by men1 shod with boards #e inches by #aj inches1 and after #f to #h days more1 it is cut with sharp spades into sods4 ,the peats are dried in the usual manner4 ,the works at ,langenberg yielded1 in #ahfc1 as the result of the operations of #fj days of #ab hours each1 #abe1jjj cwt4 of marketable peat4 ,it is chiefly employed for metallurgical purposes1 and sells at #c-a_/c ,silver-groschen1 or nearly #h cents per cwt4 ,the specific gravity of the peat ranges from #j4gc to #j4ij4 ,roberts' ,process4 ,in this country attempts have been made to apply ,challeton's method4 ,in #ahfe1 ,mr4 ,s4 ,roberts1 of ,pekin1 ,n4 ,y41 erected machinery at that place1 which was described in the ,buffalo ,express1 of ,nov4 #ag1 #ahfe1 as follows3-- ,in outward form1 the machine was like a small frame house on wheels1 supposing the smoke-stack to be a chimney4 ,the engine and boiler are of locomotive style2 the engine being of thirteen horse power4 ,the principal features of the machine are a revolving elevator and a conveyer4 ,the elevator is seventy-five feet long1 and runs from the top of the machine to the ground1 where the peat is dug up1 placed on the elevator1 carried to the top of the machine1 and dropped into a revolving wheel that cuts it up2 separates from it all the coarse particles1 bits of sticks1 stones1 etc42 and throws them to one side4 ,the peat is next dropped into a box below1 where water is passed in1 sufficient to bring it to the consistency of mortar4 ,by means of a slide under the control of the engineer1 it is next sent to the rear of the machine1 where the conveyer1 one hundred feet long1 takes it1 and carries it within two rods of the end2 at which point the peat begins to drop through to the ground to the depth of about four or five inches4 ,when sufficient has passed through to cover the ground to the end of the conveyer1--two rods1--the conveyer is swung around about two feet1 and the same process gone through1 as fast as the ground under the elevator1 for the distance of two rods in length and two feet in width gets covered1 the elevator being moved4 ,at each swing of the elevator1 the peat just spread is cut into blocks 7soft ones1 however7 by knives attached to the elevator4 ,it generally takes from three to four weeks before it is ready for use4 ,it has to lie a week before it is touched1 after the knives pass through it2 when it is turned over1 and allowed to lie another week4 ,it has then to be taken up1 and put in a shed1 and within a week or ten days can be used1 although it is better to let it remain a little longer time4 ,the machine can spread the peat over eighteen square rods of ground--taking out one square rod of peat--without being moved4 ,after the eighteen rods are covered1 the machine is moved two rods ahead1 enabling it to again spread a semicircular space of some thirty-two feet in width by eighteen rods in length4 ,the same power1 which drives the engine1 moves the machine4 ,it is estimated by ,mr4 ,roberts1 that1 by the use of this machine1 from twenty to thirty tons of peat can be turned out in a day4 ,mr4 ,roberts informs us that he is making 7,april #ahff17 some modifications of his machinery4 ,he employs a revolving digger to take up the peat from the bed1 and carry it to the machine4 ,at the time of going to press1 we do not learn whether he regards his experiments as leading to a satisfactory conclusion1 or otherwise4 ,siemens' method4 ,siemens1 ,professor of ,technology1 in the ,agricultural ,academy1 at ,hohenheim1 successfully applied the following mode of preparing peat for the ,beet ,sugar ,manufactory at ,boeblingen1 near ,hohenheim1 in the year #aheg4 ,much of the peat there is simply cut and dried in the usual manner4 ,there is great waste1 however1 in this process1 owing to the frequent occurrence of shells and clay1 which destroy the coherence of the peat4 ,besides1 a large quantity of material accumulates in the colder months1 from the ditches which are then dug1 that cannot be worked in the usual manner at that time of the year4 ,it was to economize this otherwise useless material that the following process was devised1 after a failure to employ ,challeton's method with profit4 ,in the first place1 the peat was dumped into a boarded cistern1 where it was soaked and worked with water1 until it could be raised by a chain of buckets into the pulverizer4 ,the pulverization of the peat was next effected by passing it through a machine invented by ,siemens1 for pulping potatoes and beets4 ,this machine1 7the same we suppose as that described and figured in ,otto's ,landwirthschaftliche ,gewerbe71 perfectly breaks up and grates the peat to a fine pulp1 delivers it in the consistency of mortar into the moulds1 made of wooden frames1 with divisions to form the peats4 ,the peat-paste is plastered by hand into these moulds1 which are immediately emptied to fill again1 while the blocks are carried away to the drying ground where they are cured in the ordinary style without cover4 ,in this simple manner #h men were able to make #aj1jjj peats daily1 which1 on drying1 were considerably denser and harder than the cut peat4 ,the peat thus prepared1 cost about one-third more than the cut peat4 ,siemens reckoned1 this greater cost would be covered by its better heating effect1 and its ability to withstand transportation without waste by crumbling4 b4 ,condensation of fibrous peat4 ,weber's method4 ,at ,staltach1 in ,southern ,bavaria1 ,weber has established an extensive peat works1 of which ,vogel has given a circumstantial account4#bd ,the peat at ,staltach is very light and fibrous1 but remarkably free from mineral matters1 containing less than #b per cent4 of ash in the perfectly dry substance4 ,the moor is large1 7#dge acres71 and the peat is from #ab to #bj feet in depth4 ,the preparation consists in converting the fresh peat into pulp or paste1 forming it into moulds and drying it2 at first by exposure to the air at ordinary temperature1 and finally1 by artificial heat1 in a drying house constructed for the purpose4 ,the peat is cut out by a gang of men1 in large masses1 cleared of coarse roots and sticks1 and pushed on tram wagons to the works1 which1 are situated lower than the surface of the bog4 ,arrived at the works1 the peat is carried upon an inclined endless apron1 up to a platform #aj feet high1 where a workman pushes it into the pulverizing mill1 the construction of which is seen from the accompanying cut4 ,the vertical shaft b is armed with sickle-shaped knives1 d1 which revolve between and cut contrary to similar knives c1 fixed to the interior of the vessel4 ,the latter is made of iron1 is #c-a_/b feet high1 #b feet across at top and #a-a_/b feet wide at the bottom4 ,from the base of the machine at g1 the perfectly pulverized or minced peat issues as a stiff paste4 ,if the peat is dry1 a little water is added4 ,vogel found the fresh peat to contain #ij per cent41 of water1 the pulp #ib per cent4 ,weber's machine1 operated by an engine of #aj horse power1 working usually to half its capacity only1 reduced #djj cubic feet of peat per hour1 to the proper consistency for moulding4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj4--,,weber',s ,,peat ,,mill4 ,three modes of forming the paste into blocks have been practiced4 ,one was in imitation of that employed with mud-peat4 ,the paste was carried by railway to sheds1 where it was filled by hand into moulds #ag inches by #g-a_/d by #e-a_/b inches1 and put upon frames to dry4 ,these sheds occupied together #eb1jjj square feet1 and contained at once #bjj1jjj peats4 ,the peats remained here #h to #ad days or more1 according to the weather1 when they were either removed to the drying house1 or piled in large stacks to dry slowly out-of-doors4 ,the sheds could be filled and emptied at least #ab times each season1 and since they protected from light frosts1 the season began in ,april and lasted until ,november4 ,the second mode of forming the peat was to run off the pulp into large and deep pits1 excavated in the ground1 and provided with drains for carrying off water4 ,the water soaked away into the soil1 and in a few weeks of good weather1 the peat was stiff enough to cut out into blocks by the spade1 having lost #bj to #be per cent4 of its water1 and #ae per cent4 of its bulk4 ,the blocks were removed to the drying sheds1 and set upon edge in the spaces left by the shrinking of the peats made by the other method4 ,the working of the peat for the pits could go on1 except in the coldest weather1 as a slight covering usually sufficed to protect them from frost4 ,both of these methods have been given up as too expensive1 and are replaced1 at present1 by the following3 ,in the third method the peat-mass falls from the mill into a hopper1 which directs it between the rolls ,a ,b of fig4 #aa1 7see next page74 ,the roll ,a has a series of boxes on its periphery m m1 with movable bottoms which serve as moulds4 ,the peat is carried into these boxes by the rolls c c4 ,the iron projections n n of the large roll ,b1 which work cog-like into the boxes1 compress the peat gently and1 at last1 the eccentric p acting upon the pin z1 forces up the movable bottom of the box and throws out the peat-block upon an endless band of cloth1 which carries it to the drying place4 ,the peats which are dried at first under cover and therefore slowly1 shrink more evenly and to a greater extent than those which are allowed to dry rapidly4 ,the latter become cracked upon the surface and have cavities internally1 which the former do not4 ,this fact is of great importance for the density of the peat1 for its usefulness in producing intense heat1 and its power to withstand carriage4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa--,,weber',s ,,peat ,,moulding ,,machine4 ,the complete drying is1 on the other hand1 by this method1 a much slower process1 since the dense1 fissureless exterior of the peats hinders the escape of water from within4 ,it requires1 in fact1 several months of ordinary drying for the removal of the greater share of the water1 and at the expiration of this time they are still often moist in the interior4 ,artificial drying is therefore employed to produce the most compact1 driest1 and best fuel4 ,weber's ,drying house is #abj feet long and #df feet wide4 ,four large flues traverse the whole length of it1 and are heated with the pine roots and stumps which abound in the moor4 ,these flues are enclosed in brick-work1 leaving a narrow space for the passage of air from without1 which is heated by the flues1 and is discharged at various openings in the brick-work into the house itself1 where the peat is arranged on frames4 ,the warm air being light1 ascends through the peat1 charges itself with moisture1 thereby becomes heavier and falls to the floor1 whence it is drawn off by flues of sheet zinc that pass up through the roof4 ,this house holds at once #cjj1jjj peats1 which are heated to #acj deg4 to #ade deg4 ,f41 and require #aj to #ad days for drying4 ,the effect of the hot air upon the peat is1 in the first place1 to soften and cause it to swell2 it1 however1 shortly begins to shrink again and dries away to masses of great solidity4 ,it becomes almost horny in its character1 can be broken only by a heavy blow1 and endures the roughest handling without detriment4 ,its quality as fuel is correspondingly excellent4 ,the effects of the mechanical treatment and drying on the ,staltach peat1 are seen from the subjoined figures3 ,lbs4 ,specific per ,cubic ,per cent of ,gravity4 ,foot4 ,water4 ,peat1 raised and dried in usual way1 #j4bd #ae #ah to #bj ,machine-worked and hot-dried #j4fe #ce #ab ,vogel estimates the cost of peat made by ,weber's method at #e ,kreuzers per 7,bavarian7 hundred weight1 while that of ordinary peat is #ac-a_/b ,kreuzers4 ,schroeder1 in his comparison of machine-wrought and ordinary peat1 demonstrates that the latter can be produced much cheaper than was customary in ,bavaria1 in #ahei1 by a better system of labor4 ,weber's method was adopted with some improvements in an extensive works built in #ahfj1 by the ,government of ,baden1 at ,willaringen1 for the purpose of raising as much fuel as possible1 during the course of a lease that expired with the year #ahfe4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab4--;,,geysser',s ,,peat ,,machine4 ,gysser's method4#be--,rudolph ,gysser1 of ,freiburg1 who was charged with the erection of the works at ,willaringen just alluded to1 invented a portable hand-machine on the general plan of ,weber1 but with important improvements2 and likewise omitted and varied some details of the manufacture1 bringing it within the reach of parties of small means4 ,in the accompanying cuts1 7figs4 #ab1 #ac1 and #ad71 are given an elevation of ,gysser's machine1 together with a bird's-eye view and vertical section of the interior mechanism4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ac4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ad4 ,it consists of a cast iron funnel c d i of the elevation1 7fig4 #ab71 having above a sheet iron hopper a b to receive the peat1 and within a series of six knives fastened in a spiral1 and curving outwards and downwards1 7figs4 #ac and #ad72 another series of three similar knives is affixed to a vertical shaft1 which is geared to a crank and turned by a man standing on the platform j k2 these revolving knives curve upwards and cut between and in a direction contrary to the fixed knives2 below the knives1 and affixed to the shaft a spiral plate of iron and a scraper m1 7fig4 #ac71 serve to force the peat1 which has been at once minced and carried downwards by the knives1 as a somewhat compressed mass through the lateral opening at the bottom of the funnel1 whence it issues as a continuous hollow cylinder like drain-tile1 having a diameter of four inches4 ,the iron cone i1 held in the axis of the opening by the thin and sharp-edged support g h1 forms the bore of the tube of peat as it issues4 ,two men operate the machine2 one turning the crank1 which1 by suitable gearing1 works the shaft1 and the other digging and throwing in the peat4 ,the mass1 as it issues from the machine1 is received by two boys alternately1 who hold below the opening a semi-cylindrical tin-plate shovel1 7fig4 #ae71 of the width and length of the required peats1 and break or rather wipe them off1 when they reach the length of #ad inches4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ae4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #af4 ,the formed peats are dried in light1 cheap and portable houses1 ,fig4 #ag1 each of which consists of six rectangular frames supported one above another1 and covered by a light roof4 ,the frames1 ,fig4 #af1 have square posts at each corner like a bedstead1 and are made by nailing light strips to these posts4 ,the tops of these posts are obtusely beveled to an edge1 and at the bottom they are notched to correspond4 ,the direction of the edges and of the notches in two diagonally opposite posts1 is at right angles to that of the other two4 ,by this construction the frames1 being of the same size1 when placed above each other1 fit together by the edges and notches of their posts into a structure that cannot be readily overturned4 ,the upper frame has a light shingled roof1 which completes the house4 ,each frame has transverse slats1 cast in plaster of ,paris1 #bj in number1 which support the peats4 ,the latter being tubular1 dry more readily1 uniformly1 and to a denser consistence than they could otherwise4 ,the machine being readily set up where the peat is excavated1 the labor of transporting the fresh and water-soaked material is greatly reduced4 ,the drying-frames are built up into houses as fast as they are filled from the machine4 ,they can be set up anywhere without difficulty1 require no leveling of the ground1 and1 once filled1 no labor in turning or stacking the peats is necessary2 while the latter are insured against damage from rain4 ,these advantages1 ,gysser claims1 more than cover their cost4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ag4 ,the daily production of a machine operated by two men with the assistance of one or two boys1 is #bejj to #cjjj peats1 which1 on drying1 have #i-a_/b to #aj inches of length1 and #b-a_/b in diameter1 and weigh1 on the average1 one pound each4 c4--,condensation of peat of all kinds4--,weber's method with modified machinery4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ah4--,,schlickeysen',s ,,peat ,,mill4 ,schlickeysen's ,machine4#bf--,this machine has been in use in ,germany since #ahfj1 in the preparation of peat4 ,it appears to have been originally constructed for the working and moulding of clay for making bricks4 ,the principle of its operation is identical with that of ,weber's process4 ,the peat is finely pulverized1 worked into a homogenous mass1 and moulded into suitable forms4 ,like ,gysser's machine1 it forces the peat under some pressure through a nozzle1 or1 in the larger kinds through several nozzles1 whence it issues in a continuous block or pipe that is cut off in proper lengths1 either by hand or by mechanism ,it consists of a vertical cylinder1 through the axis of which revolves a shaft1 whereon are fastened the blades1 whose edges cut and whose winding figure forces down the peat4 ,the blades are arranged nearly1 but not exactly1 in a true spiral2 the effect is therefore that they act unequally upon the mass1 and thus mix and divide it more perfectly4 ,no blades or projections are affixed to the interior of the cylinder4 ,above1 where the peat enters into a flaring hopper1 is a scraper1 that prevents adhesion to the sides and gives downward propulsion to the peat4 ,the blades are1 by this construction1 very strong1 and not liable to injury from small stones or roots1 and effectually reduce the toughest and most compact peat4 ,furthermore1 addition of water is not only unnecessary in any case1 but the peat may be advantageously air-dried to a considerable extent before it enters the machine4 ,wet peat is1 indeed1 worked with less expenditure of power2 but the moulded peats are then so soft as to require much care in the handling1 and must be spread out in single courses1 as they will not bear to be placed one upon another4 ,peat1 that is somewhat dry1 though requiring more power to work1 leaves the machine in blocks that can be piled up on edge and upon each other1 six or eight high1 without difficulty1 and require1 of course1 less time for curing4 ,the cut1 7fig4 #ah71 represents one of ,schlickeysen's portable peat-mills1 with elevator for feeding1 from which an idea of the pulverizing arrangements may be gathered4 ,in ,livonia1 near ,pernan1 according to ,leo1 two of ,schlickeysen's machines1 ,no4 #f1 were put in operation upon a purely fibrous peat4 ,they were driven by an engine of #ab horse-power4 ,the peat was plowed1 once harrowed1 then carted directly to the hopper of the machine4 ,these two machines1 with #bf men and #d horses1 produced daily #fj1jjj peats #gejj cubic feet4 #ajj cubic feet of these peats were equal in heating effect to #acj cubic feet of fir-wood1 and cost but two-thirds as much4 ,the peats were extremely hard1 and dried in a few days sufficiently for use4 ,in #ahfd1 five large ,schlickeysen machines were in operation at one establishment at ,st4 ,miskolz1 in ,hungary4 ,the smaller sizes of ,schlickeysen's machine are easily-portable1 and adapted for horse or hand-power4 ,leavitt's ,peat-condensing and ,moulding ,mill4#bg--;,in this country1 ,mr4 ,t4 ,h4 ,leavitt1 of ,boston1 has patented machinery1 which is in operation at ,east ,lexington1 ,mass41 at the works of the ,boston ,peat ,company4 ,the process is essentially identical with that of ,weber1 the hot-drying omitted4 ,the fresh peat is pulverized or cut fine1 moulded into blocks1 and dried on light frames in the open air4 ,the results claimed by ,mr4 ,leavitt1 indicate1 that his machine is very efficacious4 ,it consists1 principally1 of a strong box or cistern1 three feet in diameter1 and six feet high1 the exterior of which1 with its gearing1 is shown in figure #ai4 ,the mill is adapted to be driven by a four horse-power engine4 ,the upper portion of the box is divided by a series of horizontal partitions1 the upper ones being open latticework1 and the lower ones perforated with numerous holes4 ,the upright shaft1 which rotates in the centre of the box1 carries a series of arms or blades1 extending alternately on opposite sides1 and as these revolve1 they cut the peat1 and force it through the openings in the diaphragms4 ,the lower portion of the box1 in place of complete partitions1 has a series of corrugated shelves extending alternately from opposite sides1 and the peat is pressed and scraped from these by a series of arms adapted to the work4 ,by this series of severe operations the air-bubbles are expelled from the peat1 and it is reduced to a homogeneous paste4 ,when it arrives at the bottom of the box1 it is still further compressed by the converging sides of the hopper1 and it is received in light moulds which are carried on an endless belt4 ,mr4 ,leavitt has patented the use of powdered peat for the purpose of preventing the prepared peat from adhering to the moulds4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ai4--,,leavitt',s ,,peat ,,mill4 ,this mill1 it is asserted1 will condense #dj tons of crude peat daily1 which1 at ,lexington1 is estimated to yield #aj to #ad tons of dry merchantable fuel4 ,the cost of producing the latter is asserted to be less than #b4jj per ton2 while its present value1 in ,boston1 is #aj per ton4 ,it requires seven men1 three boys1 and two horses to dig1 cart1 mill1 and spread the peat4 ,the machine costs #fjj1 the needful buildings1 engine1 etc41 from #bjjj to #cjjj4 ,the samples of peat1 manufactured by this machine1 are of excellent quality4 ,the drying in the open air is said to proceed with great rapidity1 eight or ten days being ordinarily sufficient in the summer season4 ,the dry peat1 at ,lexington1 occupies one-fourth the bulk1 and has one-fourth to one-third the weight of the raw material2 the latter1 as we gather1 being by no means saturated with water1 but well drained1 and considerably dry1 before milling4 ,ashcroft ,betteley's ,machinery4 ,the ,american ,peat ,company1 of ,boston1 are the owners of five patents1 taken out by ,messrs4 ,ashcroft ,betteley1 for peat machinery4 ,they claim to make fuel equal to the best ,english ,cannel coal1 and really do make a very good peat1 though with a rather complicated apparatus4 ,the following statement is derived from the circular issued by the company4 ,the machinery consists of the following parts3-- ,first4--,,triturating ,,machine--#cf inches diameter1 #d feet #f inches high1 with arms both on the inside of this cylinder and on the upright revolving shaft4 ,in the bottom of the cylinder or tub a large slide gate is fitted to work with a lever1 so that the peat may be discharged1 at pleasure1 into the ,combing ,machine1 which is placed directly under this ,triturator4 ,second4--,,combing ,,machine--,semi-circular vessel #f feet long and #c feet #f inches in diameter4 ,inside1 a shaft is placed1 which is provided with fingers1 placed one inch apart2 the fingers to be #bj inches long1 so as to reach within #b inches of the bottom and sides of this vessel4 ,another shaft1 of the same size and dimensions1 is placed at an angle of #de deg41 #bf inches from the first shaft1 with arms of the same dimensions placed upon this shaft1 with the same spaces1 and so placed that this set of arms pass between the first set1 both shafts revolving in the same direction2 the second shaft mentioned being driven at double the speed of the first4 ,at the bottom of this ,combing ,machine is to be fixed a gate1 to be operated by a lever1 to deliver1 at pleasure1 the cleansed peat into the ,manipulator or ,kneading ,machine4 ,third4--,,manipulator4--,a ,tube of iron #g feet long and #af inches diameter1 fitted with a shaft1 with flanges upon it1 to gain #f inches in each revolution4 ,fourth4--,,conveyor4--,this ,conveyor1 to be made with two endless chains and buckets of iron1 with a driving shaft4 ,the hopper1 to receive the peat when first taken from the bog1 to be placed below the surface of the ground1 so that the top edge of the hopper may be level with the surface1 that the peat may be dumped from the car by which it is taken from the bog1 and carried to the hopper without hand labor2 and this conveyor to be so arranged that the peat will be delivered into the ,triturator without hand labor4 ,fifth4--,,conveyor4--,another conveyor1 precisely like the one above described1 is to be placed so as to convey the peat from the ,manipulator into the ,tank without hand labor4 ,sixth4--,,tank4--,a tank #ce feet high and #ae feet in diameter2 the bottom of this tank is made sloping towards the sides1 at an angle of #fe deg41 and is covered with sole tile or drain tile1 and the entire inside of this tank is also ribbed with these tile2 the ends of these pipes of tile being left open1 so that the water which percolates through the pores of the tile1 by the pressure of the column of peat1 will pass out at the bottom1 through the false floor of the tank into the drain1 and the solid peat is retained in the tank4 ,a worm is fixed in the bottom of this tank1 which is driven by machinery1 which forces out the peat in the form of brick1 which are cut to any length1 and stacked up in sheds1 for fuel1 after it is fully dried by the air4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bj4--,,versmann',s ,,peat ,,pulverizer4 ,versmann's ,machine#bh--,this machine1 see ,fig4 #bj1 was invented by a ,german engineer1 in ,london1 and was patented there in ,sept41 #ahfa4 ,it consists of a funnel or hollow cone b1 of boiler-plate1 from one to two feet in diameter at top1 and perforated with #bjj to #cjj small holes per square foot of surface1 within which rapidly revolves an iron cone a1 carrying on its circumference two spiral knives4 ,the peat thrown in at the top of the funnel is carried down by the knives1 and at once cut or broken and forced in a state of fine division through the holes of the funnel1 as through a colander4 ,the fine peat collects on the inclined bottom of the chamber d1 whence it is carried by means of ,archimedean screws to a moulding machine4 ,the coarse stuff that escapes pulverization falls through e into the cavity c4 ,it may be employed as fuel for the engine1 or again put through the machine4 ,this machine effects a more perfect pulverization of the peat1 than any other hitherto described4 ,this extreme division is1 however1 unnecessary to the perfection of the product1 and is secured at great expense of power4 ,through the opening at the bottom of the funnel1 much unpulverized peat finds its way1 which must be continually returned to the machine4 ,again1 stones1 entering the funnel1 are likely to break or damage the spiral knives1 which bear close to the walls of the funnel4 ,the pulverized peat must be moulded by hand1 or by a separate instrument4 ,buckland's ,machine#bi is identical in principle with ,versmann's1 and in construction differs simply in the fact of the interior cone having spiral grooves instead of spiral knives4 ,this gives greater simplicity and durability to the machine4 ,it appears1 however1 to require too much power to work it1 and can hardly equal other machines in the quantity of product it will deliver for a given expenditure4 ,the ground peat yielded by it1 must be moulded by hand1 or by other machinery4 ,this machine1 we understand1 has been tried near ,boston1 and abandoned as uneconomical4 ,the machines we have described are by no means all that have been proposed and patented4 ,they include1 however1 so the author believes1 all that have been put into actual operation1 at the date of this writing1 or that present important peculiarities of construction4 ,the account that has been given of them will serve to illustrate what mechanism has accomplished hitherto in the manufacture of peat-fuel1 and may save the talent of the ,american inventor from wasting itself on what is already in use1 or having been tried1 has been found wanting4 ,at present1 very considerable attention is devoted to the subject4 ,scarcely a week passes without placing one or more ,peat-mill patents on record4 ,in this treatise our business is with what has been before the public in a more or less practical way1 and it would1 therefore1 be useless to copy the specifications of new1 and for the most part untried patents1 which can be found in the files of our mechanical ,journals4 #ad4 ,artificial ,drying of ,peat4 ,as we have seen1 air-dry peat contains #bj to #cj and may easily contain #ej per cent4 of water1 and the best hot-made machine peat contains #ae per cent4 ,when peat is used as fuel in ordinary furnaces1 this water must be evaporated1 and in this process a large amount of heat is consumed1 as is well understood4 ,it is calculated1 that the temperature which can be produced in perfectly burning full-dried peat1 compares with that developed in the combustion of peat containing water1 as follows3-- ,pyrometric effect of perfectly dry peat #djjj deg4 ,f4 peat with #cj per cent4 of water #cbdj deg4 #ej #bhdh deg4 ,but1 furthermore1 moist or air-dried peat does not burn in ordinary furnaces1 except with considerable waste1 as is evident from the smokiness of its flame4 ,when air-dried peat is distilled in a retort1 a heavy yellow vapor escapes for some time after the distillation begins1 which1 obviously1 contains much inflammable matter1 but which is so mixed and diluted with steam that it will not burn at all1 or but imperfectly4 ,it is obvious then1 that when a high temperature is to be attained1 anhydrous or full-dried peat is vastly superior to that which has simply been cured in the open air4 ,notice has already been made of ,weber's drying-house1 the use of which is an essential part of his system of producing peat-fuel4 ,various other arrangements have been proposed from time to time1 for accomplishing the same object4 ,it appears1 however1 that in most cases the anticipations regarding their economy have not been fully realized4 ,it is hardly probable1 that artificially dried peat can be employed to advantage except where waste heat is utilized in the operation4 ,a point of the utmost importance in reference to the question of drying peat by artificial warmth is this1 viz43 ,although the drying may be carried so far as to remove the whole of the water1 and produce an absolutely dry fuel1 the peat absorbs moisture from the air again on exposure2 so that drying to less than #ae per cent4 of water is of no advantage1 unless the peat is to be used immediately1 or within a few days4 ,the employment of highly dried peat is consequently practicable only for smelting-works1 locomotives1 and manufacturing establishments1 where it may be consumed as fast as it is produced4 ,a fact likewise to be regarded is1 that artificial drying is usually inapplicable to fresh peat4 ,the precautions needful in curing peat have already been detailed4 ,above all1 slow drying is necessary1 in order that the blocks shrink uniformly1 without cracking and warping in such a way as to seriously injure their solidity and usefulness4 ,in general1 peat must be air-dried to a considerable extent before it can be kiln-dried to advantage4 ,if exposed to dry artificial heat1 when comparatively moist1 a hard crust is formed externally1 which greatly hinders subsequent desiccation4 ,at the same time this crust1 contracting around the moist interior1 becomes so rifted and broken1 that the ultimate shrinkage and condensation of the mass is considerably less than it would have been had the drying proceeded more slowly4 ,besides ,weber's drying oven1 the fuel for firing which is derived without cost from the stumps and roots of trees that are abundant on the moor1 at ,staltach1 and which are thus conveniently disposed of1 we have briefly to notice several other drying kilns with regard to all of which1 however1 it must be remarked1 that they can only be employed with profit1 by the use of waste heat1 or1 as at ,staltach1 of fuel that is comparatively worthless for other purposes4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ba4--;,,carinthian ,,peat ,,drying-,,kiln4 ,the ,peat ,kilns employed at ,lippitzbach1 in ,carinthia1 and at ,neustadt1 in ,hanover1 are of the kind shown in fig4 #ba4 ,the peat with which the main chamber is filled1 is heated directly by the hot gases that arise from a fire made in the fire-place at the left4 ,these gases first enter a vault1 where they intermingle and cool down somewhat2 thence they ascend through the openings of the brick grating1 and through the mass of peat to the top of the chamber4 ,on their way they become charged with vapor1 and falling1 pass off through the chimney1 as is indicated by the arrows4 ,the draught is regulated by the damper on the top of the chimney4 ,to manage the fire1 so that on the one hand the chimney is sufficiently heated to create a draught1 and on the other waste of fuel1 or even ignition of the peat itself is prevented1 requires some care4 ,in ,welkner's ,peat ,kiln#cj 7fig4 #bb7 the peat1 previously air-dried1 is exposed to a stream of hot air1 until it is completely desiccated1 and the arrangement is such1 that air-dried peat may be thrown in at the top1 and the hot-dried fuel be removed at the bottom1 continuously4 ,in the cut1 ,a represents the section of a wooden cylinder about #aj feet wide and #f-a_/b feet deep1 which surmounts a funnel of iron plate ,a'4 ,the mouth of the funnel is closed by a door n2 about #bj inches above the door the pipe ,b1 which conducts hot air1 terminates in the ring a a1 through the holes in which1 e e1 it is distributed into the funnel filled with peat4 ,the air is driven in by a blower1 and is heated by circulating through a system of pipes1 which are disposed in the chimney of a steam boiler4 ,from time to time a quantity of dried peat is drawn off into the wagon ,d1 which runs on rails1 and a similar amount of undried peat is thrown in above4 ,according to ,welkner1 a kiln of the dimensions stated1 which cost1 about #ahjj gold1 is capable of desiccating daily ten tons of peat with #bj per cent4 of water1 using thereby #bjjj cubic feet of air of a temperature of #bab deg4 ,f4 ,when the air is heated by a fire kept up exclusively for that purpose1 #aj per cent4 of the dried peat1 or its equivalent1 is consumed in the operation4 ,at the ,alexis ,smelting ,works1 near ,lingen1 in ,hanover1 this peat kiln furnishes about half the fuel for a high furnace1 in which bog iron ore is smelted4 ,the drying costs but little1 since half the requisite heat is obtained from the waste heat of the furnace itself4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bb4--,,welkner',s ,,peat ,,drying ,,kiln4 ,the advantages of this drying kiln are1 that it is cheap in construction and working2 dries gradually and uniformly2 occupies little ground1 and runs without intermission4 ,other drying ovens are described in ,knapp's ,lehrbuch der ,chemischen ,technologie1 #c4 ,aufl4 ,bd4 #a1 ,theil #a1 pp4 #agh-i2 ,jahrbuch der ,bergakademien ,schemnitz und ,leoben1 #ahfj1 p4 #ajh1 #ahfa1 p4 #ee2 ,wagner's ,jahresbericht der ,chemischen ,technologie1 #ahfc1 p4 #gdh2 ,zerrenner's ,metallurgische ,gasfeuerung in ,oesterreich2 ,tunner's ,stabeisen- und ,stahlbereitung1 #b4 ,auflage1 ,bd4 ,i1 pp4 #bc-be4 #ae4 ,peat ,coal1 or ,coke4 ,when peat is charred1 it yields a coal or coke which1 being richer in carbon1 is capable of giving an intenser heat than peat itself1 in the same way that charcoal emits an intenser heat in its combustion than the wood from which it is made4 ,peat coal has been and is employed to some extent in metallurgical processes1 as a substitute for charcoal1 and when properly prepared from good peat1 is in no way inferior to the latter2 is1 in fact1 better4 ,it is only1 however1 from peat which naturally dries to a hard and dense consistency1 or which has been solidified on the principles of ,challeton's and ,weber's methods1 that a coal can be made possessing the firmness necessary for furnace use4 ,fibrous peat1 or that condensed by pressure1 as in ,exter's1 ,elsberg's1 and the ,lithuanian process1 yields by coking or charring1 a friable coal comparatively unsuited for heating purposes4 ,a peat which is dense as the result of proper mechanical treatment and slow drying1 yields a very homogeneous and compact coal1 superior to any wood charcoal1 the best qualities weighing nearly twice as much per bushel4 ,peat is either charred in pits and heaps1 or in kilns4 ,from the regularity of the rectangular blocks into which peat is usually formed1 it may be charred more easily in pits than wood1 since the blocks admit of closer packing in the heap1 and because the peat coal is less inflammable than wood coal4 ,the heaps may likewise be made much smaller than is needful in case of wood1 viz43 six to eight feet in diameter1 and four feet high4 ,the pit is arranged as follows3 ,the ground is selected and prepared as for charcoal burning1 and should be elevated1 dry and compact4 ,three stout poles are firmly driven into the ground1 so as to stand vertically and equi-distant from each other1 leaving within them a space of six or eight inches4 ,around these poles the peats are placed endwise1 in concentric rows to the required width and height1 leaving at the bottom a number of air-channels of the width of one peat1 radiating from the centre outwards4 ,the upper layers of peat are narrowed in so as to round off the heap1 which is first covered with dry leaves1 sods1 or moss1 over which a layer of soil is thrown4 ,dry1 light wood being placed at the bottom of the central shaft1 it is kindled from one of the canals at the bottom1 and the charring is conducted as is usual in making wood coal4 ,the yield of coal ranges from #be to #ce per cent4 of the peat by weight1 and from #cj to #ej per cent4 by volume4 ,gysser recommends to mould the peat for charring in the form of cylinders of #c to #d feet long1 which1 when dry1 may be built up into a heap like wood4 ,a great variety of ovens or kilns have been constructed for coking peat4 ,at the ,gun ,factory of ,oberndorf1 in ,wirtemberg1 peat is charred in the kiln represented in the accompanying figure4 ,the chamber is #i feet high1 and #e-a_/b feet in diameter4 ,the oven proper1 b b1 is surrounded by a mantle of brick a a1 and the space between1 c c1 is filled with sand4 ,each wall1 as well as the space1 is #ae inches in thickness1 and the walls are connected by stones d d1 at intervals of three feet4 ,above the sole of the kiln1 are three series of air holes1 made by imbedding old gun barrels in the walls4 ,the door1 which serves to empty the kiln1 is a plate of cast iron1 the sides of its frame are wider than the thickness of the wall1 and by means of a board e1 a box m can be made in front of the door1 which is filled with sand to prevent access of air4 ,the peat is filled in through i1 a channel being arranged across the bottom of the kiln1 from the door f1 for kindling4 ,when the firing begins1 the lowest air-holes and i are open4 ,when1 through the lower gun barrels1 the peat is seen to be ignited1 these are corked1 and those above are opened4 ,when the smoke ceases to escape above1 all the openings are closed1 m1 is filled with sand1 i is covered over with it1 and the whole is left to cool4 ,it requires about #h to #i days to finish the charring of a charge4 ,several kilns are kept in operation1 so that the work proceeds uninterruptedly4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bc4--,,oberndorfer ,,peat ,,charring ,,kiln4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bd4--,,weber',s ,,charring ,,furnace4--,,transverse ,,section4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #be4--,,weber',s ,,charring ,,furnace4--,,longitudinal ,,section4 ,at ,staltach1 ,weber prepares peat coal in a cylinder of sheet iron1 which is surrounded by masonry4 ,below1 it rests on a grating of stout wire4 ,above1 it has a cover1 that may be raised by a pulley and on one side is attached a small furnace1 figure #bd1 the draught of which is kept up by means of a blower1 or an exhauster1 and the flame and hot gases from it1 which contain no excess of oxygen1 play upon the peat and decompose it1 expelling its volatile portions without burning or wasting it in the slightest degree4 ,the construction of the furnace1 see fig4 #bd1 is such1 that the sticks of wood1 which are employed for fuel1 are supported at their ends on shoulders in the brick-work1 and the draught enters the fire above instead of below4 ,the wood is hereby completely consumed1 and by regulating the supply of air at a 7fig4 #be7 by a sliding cover1 and at b by a register1 the flame and current of air which enters the cylinder containing the peat1 is intensely hot and accomplishes a rapid carbonization of the peat1 but as before stated1 does not burn it4 ,in this furnace the wood1 which is cut of uniform length1 is itself the grate1 since iron would melt or rapidly burn out2 and the coals that fall are consumed by the air admitted through c4 ,the hot gases which enter the cylinder filled with peat near its top1 are distributed by pipes1 and1 passing off through the grating at the bottom1 enter the surrounding brick mantle4 ,before reaching the exhaustor1 however1 they pass through a cooler in which a quantity of tar and pyroligneous acid is collected4 ,weber's oven is #ae feet in diameter1 and #c-a_/b feet high2 #ebh cubic feet of peat may be coked in it in the space of #ae hours4 ,the wood furnace is #b feet in section1 and consumes for the above amount of peat #c-a_/b cwt4 of wood4 ,so perfectly are the contents of the iron cylinder protected from contact of oxygen1 that a rabbit placed within it1 has been converted into coal without the singeing of a hair2 and a bouquet of flowers has been carbonized1 perfectly retaining its shape4 ,the yield of coal in ,weber's oven is nearly #ej per cent4 of the peat by weight4 ,whenever possible1 charring of peat should be carried on1 or aided by waste heat1 or the heat necessary to coking should be itself economized4 ,in manufacturing and metallurgical establishments1 a considerable economy in both the drying and coking may often be effected in this manner4 ,on the bog of ,allen1 in ,ireland1 we have an example of this kind4 ,peat is placed in iron ovens in the form of truncated pyramids1 the bottoms of which consist of movable and perforated iron plates4 ,the ovens are mounted on wheels1 and run on a rail track4 ,five ovens filled with peat are run into a pit in a drying house1 in which blocks of fresh peat are arranged for drying4 ,each oven is connected with a flue1 and fire is applied4 ,the peat burns below1 and the heat generated in the coking1 warms the air of the drying house4 ,when the escaping smoke becomes transparent1 the pit in which the ovens stand is filled with water slightly above their lower edges1 whereby access of air to the burning peat is at once cut off4 ,when cool1 the ovens are run out and replaced by others filled with peat4 ,each oven holds about #fjj lbs4 of peat1 and the yield of coal is #be per cent4 by weight4 ,the small yield compared with that obtained by ,weber's method1 is due to the burning of the peat and the coal itself1 in the draught of air that passes through the ovens4 ,the author has carbonized1 in an iron retort1 specimens of peat prepared by ,elsberg's1 ,leavitt's1 and ,aschcroft and ,betteley's processes4 ,elsberg's gave #ce1 the others #cg per cent4 of coal4 ,the coal from ,elsberg's peat was greatly fissured1 and could be crushed in the fingers to small fragments4 ,that from the other peats was more firm1 and required considerable exertion to break it4 ,all had a decided metallic brilliancy of surface4 #af4--,metallurgical ,uses of ,peat4 ,in ,austria1 more than any other country1 peat has been employed in the manufacture of iron4 ,in ,bavaria1 ,prussia1 ,wirtemberg1 ,hanover1 and ,sweden1 and latterly in ,great ,britain1 peat has been put to the same use4 ,the general results of experience1 are as follows3-- ,peat can only be employed to advantage1 when wood and mineral coal are expensive1 or of poor quality4 ,peat can be used in furnaces adapted for charcoal1 but not in those built for mineral coal4 ,good air-dry peat1 containing #bj to #cj per cent4 of water1 in some cases may replace a share of charcoal in the high furnace4 ,at ,pillersee1 in ,austria1 spathic iron ore has been reduced by a mixture of fir-wood charcoal1 and air-dry peat in the proportions of three parts by bulk of the former to one of the latter4 ,the use of peat was found to effect a considerable saving in the outlay for fuel1 and enabled the production to be somewhat increased1 while the excellence of the iron was in no way impaired4 ,the peat was of the best quality1 and was worked and moulded by hand4 ,when the ore is refractory and contains impurities that must be fluxed and worked off in slag1 a large proportion of air-dry peat cannot be used to advantage1 because the evaporation of the water in it consumes so much heat1 that the requisite temperature is not easily attained4 ,at ,achthal1 in ,bavaria1 air-dry peat was employed in #ahfj1 to replace a portion of the fir wood charcoal1 which had been used for smelting an impure clay-iron-stone3 the latter fuel having become so dear1 that peat was resorted to as a make shift4 ,instead of one sack1 or #cc cubic feet of charcoal1 #bd cubic feet of charcoal and #ae cubic feet of peat were employed in each charge1 and the quantity of ore had to be diminished thereby1 so that the yield of pig was reduced1 on the average1 by about #ag per cent4 ,in this case the quality of the iron1 when worked into bar1 was injured by the use of peat1 obviously from an increase of its content of phosphorus4 ,the exclusive use of air-dry peat as fuel in the high furnace1 appears to be out of the question4 ,at ,ransko1 in ,bohemia1 kiln-dried peat1 nearly altogether free from water1 has been employed in a high furnace1 mixed with but one-third its bulk of charcoal1 and in cupola furnaces for re-melting pig1 full-dried peat has been used alone1 answering the purpose perfectly4 ,the most important metallurgical application of peat is in the refining of iron4 ,dried peat is extensively used in puddling furnaces1 especially in the so-called gas puddling furnaces1 in ,carinthia1 ,steyermark1 ,silesia1 ,bavaria1 ,wirtemberg1 ,sweden1 and other parts of ,europe4 ,in ,steyermark1 peat has been thus employed for #be years4 ,air-dry peat is1 indeed1 also employed1 but is not so well adapted for puddling1 as its water burns away a notable quantity of iron4 ,it is one of the best known facts in chemistry1 that ignited iron is rapidly oxidized in a stream of water-vapor1 free hydrogen being at the same time evolved4 ,in the high furnace1 peat-coal1 when compact and firm 7not crumbly7 may replace charcoal perfectly1 but its cost is usually too great4 ,when peat or peat-coal is employed in smelting1 it must be as free as possible from ash1 because the ash usually consists largely of silica1 and this must be worked off by flux4 ,if the ash be carbonate of lime1 it will1 in most cases1 serve itself usefully as flux4 ,in hearth puddling1 it is important not only that the peat or peat-coal contain little ash1 but especially that the ash be as free as possible from sulphates and phosphates1 which act so deleteriously on the metal4 ,the notion that1 in general1 peat and peat charcoal are peculiarly adapted for the iron manufacture1 because they are free from sulphur and phosphorus1 is extremely erroneous4 ,not infrequently they contain these bodies in such quantity1 as to forbid their use in smelting4 ,in the gas-puddling furnace1 or in the ordinary reverberatory1 impure peat may1 however1 be employed1 since the ashes do not come in contact with the metal4 ,the only disadvantage in the use of peat in these furnaces is1 that the grates require cleaning more frequently1 which interrupts the fire1 and1 according to ,tunner1 increases the consumption of fuel #h to #aj per cent41 and diminishes the amount of metal that can be turned out in a given time by the same quantity4 ,notwithstanding the interruption of work1 it has been found1 at ,rothburga1 in ,austria1 that by substitution of machine-made and kiln-dried peat for wood in the gas-puddling furnace1 a saving of #ej per cent4 in the cost of bar iron was effected1 in #ahfj4 ,what is to the point1 in estimating the economy of peat1 is the fact that while #f4b cubic feet of dry fir-wood were required to produce #ajj lbs4 of crude bar1 this quantity of iron could be puddled with #d4c cubic feet of peat4 ,in the gas furnace1 a second blast of air is thrown into the flame1 effecting its complete combustion2 ,dellvik asserts1 that at ,lesjoeforss1 in ,sweden1 #ajj lbs4 of kiln-dried peat are equal to #aig lbs4 of kiln-dried wood in heavy forging4 ,in an ordinary fire1 the peat would be less effective from the escape of unburned carbon in the smoke4 ,in other metallurgical and manufacturing operations where flame is required1 as well as in those which are not inconvenienced by the ingredients of its ash1 it is obvious that peat can be employed when circumstances conspire to render its use economical4 #ag4--,peat as a source of illuminating gas4 ,prof ,pettenkofer1 of ,munich1 was the first to succeed in making illuminating gas from wood2 and peat1 when operated according to his method1 furnishes also a gas of good quality1 though somewhat inferior to wood-gas in illuminating power4 ,it is essential1 that well-dried peat be employed1 and the waste heat from the retorts may serve in part1 at least1 for the drying4 ,the retorts must be of a good conducting material2 therefore cast iron is better than clay4 ,they are made of the symbol3 ,d form1 and must be relatively larger than those used for coal4 ,a retort of two feet width1 one foot depth1 and #h to #i feet length1 must receive but #ajj lbs4 of peat at a charge4 ,the quantity of gas yielded in a given time1 is much greater than from bituminous coal4 ,from retorts of the size just named1 #hjjj to #ijjj cubic feet of gas are delivered in #bd hours4 ,the exit pipes must1 therefore1 be large1 not less than #e to #f inches1 and the coolers must be much more effective than is needful for coal gas1 in order to separate from it the tarry matters4 ,the number of retorts requisite to furnish a given volume of gas1 is much less than in the manufacture from coal4 ,on the other hand1 the dimensions of the furnace are considerably greater1 because the consumption of fuel must be more rapid1 in order to supply the heat1 which is carried off by the copious formation of gas4 ,gas may be made from peat at a comparatively low temperature1 but its illuminating power is then trifling4 ,at a red heat alone can we procure a gas of good quality4 ,the chief impurity of peat-gas is carbonic acid3 this amounts to #be to #cj per cent4 of the gas before purification1 and if the peat be insufficiently dried1 it is considerably more4 ,the quantity of slaked lime that is consumed in purifying1 is therefore much greater than is needed for coal-gas1 and is an expensive item in the making of peat-gas4 ,while wood-gas is practically free from sulphur compounds and ammonia1 peat-gas may contain them both1 especially the latter1 in quantity that depends upon the composition of the peat1 which1 as regards sulphur and nitrogen1 is very variable4 ,peat-gas is denser than coal-gas1 and therefore cannot be burned to advantage except from considerably wider orifices than answer for the latter1 and under slight pressure4 ,the above statements show the absurdity of judging of the value of peat as a source of gas1 by the results of trials made in gas works arranged for bituminous coal4 ,as to the yield of gas we have the following data1 weights and measures being ,english3-- #ajj lbs4 of peat of medium quality from ,munich1 gave ,,reissig #cjc cub4 ft4 air-dry peat from ,biermoos1 ,salzburg1 gave ,,riedinger #cje very light fibrous peat1 gave ,,reissig #cgi to #dcj ,exter's machine-peat1 from ,haspelmoor1 gave #cfg ,thenius states1 that1 to produce #ajjj ,english cubic feet of purified peat-gas1 in the works at ,kempten1 ,bavaria1 there are required in the retorts #bib lbs of peat4 ,to distil this1 #ach-a_/b lbs4 of peat are consumed in the fire2 and to purify the gas from carbonic acid1 #ia-a_/b lbs4 of lime are used4 ,in the retorts remain #aag lbs4 of peat coal1 and nearly #f lbs4 of tar are collected in the operation1 besides smaller quantities of acetic acid and ammonia4 ,according to ,stammer1 #d cwt4 of dry peat are required for #ajjj cubic feet of purified gas4 ,the quality of the gas is somewhat better than that made from bituminous coal4 #ah4--,the examination of ,peat as to its value for ,fuel1 begins with and refers to the air-dry substance1 in which3 #a4--,water is estimated1 by drying the pulverized peat1 at #bab deg41 as long as any diminution of weight occurs4 ,well-dried peat-fuel should not contain more than #bj per cent4 of water4 ,on the other hand it cannot contain less than #ae per cent41 except it has been artificially dried at a high temperature1 or kept for a long time in a heated apartment4 #b4--;,ash is estimated by carefully burning the dry residue in #a4 ,in first-rate fuel1 it should amount to less than #c per cent4 ,if more than #h per cent41 the peat is thereby rendered of inferior quality1 though peat is employed which contains considerably more4 #c4--,sulphur and phosphorus are estimated by processes1 which it would be useless to describe here4 ,only in case of vitriol peats is so much sulphur present1 that it is recognizable by the suffocating fumes of sulphuric acid or of sulphurous acid1 which escape in the burning4 ,when peat is to be employed for iron manufacture1 or under steam boilers1 its phosphorus1 and especially its sulphur1 should be estimated1 as they injure the quality of iron when their quantity exceeds a certain small amount1 and have a destructive effect on grate-bars and boilers4 ,for common uses it is unnecessary to regard these substances4 #d4--,the quantity of coal or coke yielded by peat1 is determined by heating a weighed quantity of the peat to redness in an iron retort1 or in a large platinum crucible1 until gases cease to escape4 ,the neck of the retort is corked1 and when the vessel is cool1 the coal is removed and weighed4 ,in case a platinum crucible is employed1 it should have a tight-fitting cover1 and when gases cease to escape1 the crucible is quickly cooled by placing it in cold water4 ,coal1 or coke1 includes of course the ash of the peat4 ,this1 being variable1 should be deducted1 and the ash-free coal be considered in comparing fuels4 #e4--,the density of peat-fuel may be ascertained by cutting out a block that will admit of accurate measurement1 calculating its cubic contents1 and comparing its weight with that of an equal bulk of water4 ,to avoid calculation1 the block may be made accurately one or several cubic inches in dimensions and weighed4 ,the cubic inch of water at #fj deg4 ,f41 weighs #beb-a_/b grains4 ,,footnotes3 #aj ,the apparent specific gravity here means the weight of the mass1--the air-filled cavities and pores included--as compared with an equal bulk of water4 ,the real specific gravity of the peat itself is always greater than that of water1 and all kinds of peat will sink in water when they soak long enough1 or are otherwise treated so that all air is removed4 #aa ,the full cubic foot implies a cubic foot having no cavities or waste space1 such as exist in a pile1 made up of numerous blocks4 ,if a number of peat blocks be put into a box and shaken together1 the empty space between the more or less irregular blocks1 may amount to #df per cent4 of the whole2 and when closely packed1 the cavities amount to #cj per cent41 according to the observations of ,wasserzieher4 7,dingler's ,journal1 ,oct41 #ahfd1 p4 #aah47 ,some confusion exists in the statements of writers in regard to this matter1 and want of attention to it1 has led to grave errors in estimating the weight of fuel4 #ab ,the waste space in peat and wood as commonly piled1 is probably included here in the statement1 and is usually about the same in both2 viz43 not far from #dj per cent4 #ac ,see note on the preceding page4 #ad ,der ,torf1 etc41 ,s4 #dc4 #ae ,see page #jj4 #af ,on account of the great convenience of the decimal weights and measures1 and their nearly universal recognition by scientific men1 we have adopted them here4 ,the gramme #ae grains2 #e degrees centigrade #i degrees ,fahrenheit4 #ag ,pliny1 ,hist4 ,nat4 7,lib4 ,,xvi1 #a7 expresses his pity for the miserable people living in ,east ,friesland and vicinity in his day1 who dug out with the hands a moor earth1 which1 dried more by wind than sun1 they used for preparing their food and warming their bodies3 captum manibus lutum ventis magis quam sole siccantis1 terra cibos et rigentia septembrione viscera sua urunt4 ,as regards the misera gens1 it should be said that rich grain fields and numerous flourishing villages have occupied for several centuries large portions of the ,duevel moor near ,bremen4 #ah ,for further account and plans of this machine see ,dingler's ,polytechnisches ,journal1 ,bd4 #agf1 ,s4 #ccf4 #ai ,described and figured in ,bulletin de la ,societe d',encouragement1 ,august #aheg1 p4 #eac2 also ,dingler's ,polytechnisches ,journal1 ,bd4 #adf1 ,s4 #beb4 #bj ,berg- und ,huettenmaennische ,zeitung1 #ahei1 ,nr4 #bf4 #ba ,henneberg's ,journal fuer ,landwirthschaft1 #aheh1 ,s4 #db4 #bb ,henneberg's ,journal fuer ,landwirthschaft1 #aheh1 p4p4 #db and #hc4 #bc ,dingler's ,journal1 ,oct41 #ahfd4 #bd ,dingler's ,polytechnisches ,journal1 ,bd4 #aeb1 ,s4 #bgb4 ,see also1 ,knapp1 ,lehrbuch der ,chemischen ,technologie1 #cte ,auflage1 #a41 #afg4 #be ,der ,torf2 seine ,bildung und ,bereitungsweise1 von ,rudolph ,gysser1 ,weimar1 #ahfd4 #bf ,dingler's ,journal1 ,bd4 #afe1 ,s4 #ahd42 und ,bd4 #agb1 ,s1 #ccc4 #bg ,scientific ,american1 ,feb4 #aj1 #ahff2 also1 ,facts about ,peat as ,fuel1 by ,t4 ,h4 ,leavitt1 #b;d ,ed41 ,boston1 p4 #bc4 #bh ,dingler's ,journal1 ,bd4 #afh1 ,s4 #cjf1 und ,bd4 #agb1 ,s4 #ccb4 #bi ,described in ,journal of the ,society of ,arts1 #ahfj1 p4 #dcg4 #cj ,bernemann ,kerl's ,berg und ,huettenmaennische ,zeitung1 #ahfb1 #bba4 ---------------------------------------- --- ,transcriber's ,note3 ,typographical errors corrected in text3 ,page #f ,robert's changed to ,roberts' ,page #bd ,jaeckel changed to ,jaeckel ,page #dg ,poquonnock changed to ,poquonock ,page #di connexion changed to connection ,page #ea ,poquonnock changed to ,poquonock ,page #ec ,poquonnock changed to ,poquonock ,page #ec ,russel changed to ,russell ,page #fb subtances changed to substances ,page #fg ,poquonnock changed to ,poquonock ,page #hi #e changed to #d ,page #hi ,poquonnock changed to ,poquonock ,page #ij ,poquonnock changed to ,poquonock ,page #ia ,poquonnock changed to ,poquonock ,page #aaf artifical changed to artificial ,page #abg developes changed to develops ,page #adi ,kneeding changed to ,kneading ,page #afe ,the symbol looks like a ,d lying on its back4 ---------------------------------------- ---