,,ontario ,,teachers' ,,manuals ,,nature ,,study ,,authorized ,,by ,,the ,,minister ,,of ,,education ,,toronto ,,the ,,ryerson ,,press ,,copyright1 ,,canada1 #aiae1 ,,by ,,the ,,minister ,,of ,,education ,,for ,,ontario ,second ,printing1 #aiah ,third ,printing1 #aibc ,fourth ,printing1 #aibd ,transcriber's note3 ,minor typos have been corrected4 ,italics are indicated by subscripts 77 and bold words are indicated by tildes 774 ,,contents ,,page ,,prefatory ,,note #a ,,course ,,of ,,study--,,details #c ,,chapter ,i ,the ,aims of ,nature ,study2 ,general ,methods #ac ,concrete ,material #ae ,topics and material must suit the season2 matter suited to the child2 use of the commonplace2 order of development of lesson2 problems in observation2 note-books and records #ae ,the ,school ,garden #ai ,suggestions2 ,garden ,expenses #bj ,the ,excursion #bc ,its value2 difficulties2 frequency2 suggestions for ungraded schools2 the teacher's excursions2 a type excursion #bc ,collections #bi ,animal ,studies #bi ,domestic animals2 references #bi ,birds2 references #cj ,insects2 insect collections #cd ,butterfly and moth collections #cg ,plant ,collections #ci ,,chapter ,,ii ,physical ,science ,phase of ,nature ,study #db ,instructions and ,general ,method #db ,value of such lessons2 conditions under which experiments should be performed #db ,correlations of physical science phase #dd ,list of ,reference ,books and ,bulletins on garden and plant study1 physical science1 and animal study #de ,physical ,science--,equipment for ,forms ,,iii and ,,iv #dg ,desirable apparatus #dg ,chemicals #dh ,apparatus #ej ,grenet cells2 decomposition apparatus2 pneumatic trough2 spirit-lamp2 barometer2 hygrometer2 hints #ej ,time ,apportioned to ,nature ,study #ec ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,form ,i3 ,,autumn ,garden ,work #ed ,lessons on a ,garden ,plant--,pansy #ee ,observation ,exercises on the ,dandelion #eg ,correlation with literature and reading #ei ,dwarf ,nasturtium #ei ,seeds #fj ,field exercise2 class-room lesson based on the collection #fj ,seed ,dispersal #fa ,lesson on seeds that fly2 correlations #fb ,twigs and ,buds #fb ,lesson on ,twigs #fb ,further study of twigs2 review lesson #fc ,lesson on ,buds #fe ,review lesson2 correlations #fe ,leaves #ff ,field exercises2 class-room lesson on leaves #ff ,garden ,studies #fh ,studies in the ,pupil's individual ,plot #fh ,studies from the ,garden as a ,whole #fi ,bulb ,planting #fi ,lesson on ,bulbs and ,bulb ,planting #fi ,planting the bulb #gj ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,form ,i3 ,,winter ,pet ,animals #gb ,the ,rabbit--,lesson on2 correlations #gb ,the ,domestic ,cat--detailed study #ge ,the ,pigeon--detailed study #gf ,winter-blooming ,plants--,observation and care of #gh ,trees #gi ,pines of the ,locality #gi ,the ,white ,pine #gi ,field exercises2 class-room lesson #gi ,the ,elm--field exercise #hb ,domestic ,animals #hc ,the ,horse2 correlations #hc ,domestic ,birds #he ,the ,duck--class-room lesson #he ,,chapter ,v4 ,,form ,i3 ,,spring ,garden ,work #hg ,garden ,studies--window garden #hh ,wild ,flowers #ij ,recognition of ,wild ,flowers #ia ,lesson in ,outline--,bloodroot2 correlations #ia ,insect ,study #ic ,cecropia1 or ,emperor-moth #ic ,dragon-fly #id ,other ,conspicuous ,insects #ie ,birds #ie ,the ,robin #if ,field exercises2 the nest1 eggs1 and young #if ,the ,song-sparrow #ig ,field exercises2 class-room lesson #ig ,the ,sheep #ii ,problems for ,field ,work #ii ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,form ,,ii3 ,,autumn ,bulb ,planting ,out-of-,doors #aja ,bed for growing bulbs2 planting of bulbs indoors #aja ,garden ,work #ajc ,seed selection2 storing seeds2 harvesting and storing of garden crops2 class-room lesson2 autumn cultivation #ajc ,garden ,studies #ajf ,garden ,records2 correlations #ajg ,climbing ,plants #ajh ,trees #aji ,storing of ,tree ,seeds #aaj ,a ,flower #aaj ,type--,nasturtium #aaj ,soil ,studies #aab ,kinds of ,soil #aab ,animal ,studies #aac ,bird ,migration2 correlations #aac ,common ,wild ,animals #aad ,general method for field work #aad ,the ,wood-chuck #aaf ,the ,chipmunk--field exercises #aag ,the ,eastern ,swallow-tail ,butterfly #aah ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,form ,,ii3 ,,winter ,care of ,plants in the ,home #abj ,trees #aba ,collection of ,wood ,specimens #abb ,related ,reading #abb ,the ,dog #abc ,class-room lesson2 observation exercises2 correlations #abc ,lessons ,involving ,comparison #abe ,cat and dog2 experiments for assisting in the study of the cat2 comparison of the horse and cow #abf ,the ,squirrel #abi ,field exercises2 class-room lesson #abi ,winter ,birds #acj ,field exercises2 class-room lesson2 correlations #acj ,animals of the ,zoological ,gardens #acb ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,form ,,ii3 ,,spring ,garden ,work #acc ,combating ,garden ,pests #acd ,cutworms2 root-maggots2 flea-beetles #acd ,seed ,germination #ace ,plants for ,individual ,plots #acg ,studies ,based on ,observations of ,growing ,plants #acg ,planting and care of sweet-peas #ach ,wild ,flowers #aci ,weeds #adj ,the ,apple ,tree #ada ,field exercise2 class-room lesson2 field exercise following class-room lesson #ada ,bird ,study #adc ,the ,toad #adc ,field exercises2 class-room lesson2 detailed study2 life history of the toad #adc ,the ,earthworm #adg ,class-room lesson2 references #adh ,the ,aquarium #adi ,aquarium ,specimens #aej ,mosquito2 study of adult form2 the development2 references #aej ,caddice-fly #aeb ,insects ,suitable for ,lessons in ,form ,,ii #aec ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,form ,,iii3 ,,autumn ,garden ,work #aed ,treatment of ,fungi #aed ,treatment of ,insects--cabbage-worm #aef ,plants #aeh ,annuals1 ,biennials1 and ,perennials #aeh ,class-room lesson #aeh ,garden ,studies #aei ,annuals1 biennials1 perennials #aei ,special ,study of ,garden ,plants #afj ,sweet-pea2 pumpkin2 corn2 correlations #afj ,seed ,dispersal--,lesson #afd ,detailed ,study of ,seed ,dispersal--class-room lesson #afe ,seed collections2 man as a disperser of seeds #aff ,the ,sugar ,maple--field exercises #afh ,maple ,leaves--class-room lesson2 correlations #afi ,weed ,studies #agj ,observation lesson on weed seeds #aga ,grasshopper--field exercises2 class-room lesson #agb ,aphides #agd ,tomato ,worm--the adult2 the chrysalis #age ,the ,crow2 correlations #agg ,,chapter ,x4 ,,form ,,iii3 ,,winter ,care of ,plants in the ,home #agh ,plant ,cuttings #agi ,selection of cuttings2 potting of rooted cuttings #agi ,evergreens--class-room lesson #aha ,collection of ,wood ,specimens #ahb ,related ,reading #ahc ,how ,animals ,prepare for ,winter #ahc ,summary of ,lessons2 correlations #ahd ,chickens #ahe ,conversation lesson2 arithmetic lesson2 care and food of chickens #ahe ,physical ,science ,phase of ,nature ,study #ahh ,solids1 ,liquids1 and ,gases #ahh ,change of ,state #ahi ,expansion of ,solids #ahi ,practical applications2 questions for further investigation #aij ,expansion of ,liquids--applications #aib ,the ,thermometer #aic ,expansion of ,air #aid ,sources of ,heat and ,light #aid ,notes for a ,series of ,lessons #aid ,conduction--problems #aif ,convection--problems1 convection in gases2 applications #aih ,radiation of ,heat--problems #aii ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,form ,,iii3 ,,spring ,window ,boxes #bja ,window ,gardens #bja ,suitable ,plants2 ,fertilizer #bjb ,soil ,studies--constituents #bjc ,garden ,work #bjf ,tree ,seeds #bjg ,transplanting--flowers1 vegetables1 tree seedlings #bjh ,budding #bji ,cuttings--leaf cuttings1 root cuttings1 layering #baa ,planting and ,care of ,herbaceous ,perennials #bab ,garden ,studies--biennials #bab ,wild ,flowers #bac ,study of the ,trillium #bac ,class-room lesson on the specimens #bac ,adaptations of ,animals #bae ,bird ,types #bag ,woodpeckers--the downy woodpecker2 observations #bag ,flycatchers #bai ,wrens #bai ,insect ,types #bbj ,cabbage-butterfly #bbj ,tussock-moth #bba ,potato beetle #bbb ,references #bbb ,fish--,observations2 problems2 references #bbc ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,form ,,iv3 ,,autumn ,garden ,work #bbe ,herbaceous ,perennials from ,seed #bbf ,trees--,deciduous2 references #bbg ,trees in ,relation to their ,environment #bbh ,fruits--,excursion to a well-kept orchard #bbi ,small ,fruits #bcj ,autumn ,wild ,flowers--,milkweed2 correlations #bcj ,trees--,the ,white ,pine #bcb ,outline of a class-room lesson on the white pine2 correlations2 references #bce ,apples--,comparative ,lesson on ,winter ,varieties #bci ,king1 ,baldwin1 ,northern ,spy #bci ,codling moth2 references #bdj ,some ,common ,animal ,forms2 references #bdb ,centipeds and millipeds #bdc ,salamanders or newts #bdc ,spiders #bdd ,bird ,studies #bde ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,form ,,iv3 ,,winter ,forest ,trees #bdf ,evergreens2 ,wood ,specimens #bdf ,fruits #bdg ,weeds and ,weed ,seeds #bdh ,physical ,science ,phase of ,nature ,study #bdh ,water ,pressure--exercises #bdh ,study of ,air #bdi ,the barometer2 the common pump2 expansive force of air2 composition of air2 oxygen2 carbon dioxide2 impurities of air #bej ,solutions of ,solids #bee ,solutions of ,liquids #bef ,solutions of ,gases #bef ,limestone #bef ,carbon #beg ,hydrogen #beh ,magnets #beh ,electricity #bei ,steam #bfj ,farm tools--machines2 problems #bfj ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,form ,,iv3 ,,spring ,method of ,improving ,home and ,school ,grounds #bfc ,making and ,care of a ,lawn2 ,references #bfd ,soil ,studies #bfe ,weight #bfe ,subsoils #bff ,fertilizers--experiments #bfh ,soil-forming ,agents #bfh ,tilling the ,soil #bfi ,garden ,work--experiments in plots out-of-doors #bgj ,function of ,parts of ,plants #bgc ,how the plant gets its food from the soil2 germination of some of the common grains #bgd ,weeds #bgh ,vines #bgi ,wild ,flowers #bgi ,planting of ,trees1 ,shrubs1 and ,herbaceous ,perennials in ,home and ,school ,grounds #bhj ,shade trees2 transplanting #bha ,animal ,studies #bhc ,scale ,insects #bhc ,san ,jose scale2 oyster-shell bark-louse2 cutworms2 white grubs #bhc ,crayfish #bhe ,freshwater ,mussel #bhf ,bird ,study #bhg ,different ,aspects of ,nature ,study #bhh ,,prefatory ,,note ,this ,manual is placed in the hands of the teachers in the hope that the suggestions which it contains on lesson topics1 materials1 books of reference1 and methods in teaching will be found helpful to all teachers and in particular to those who have had little or no instruction in ,nature ,study during their academic or professional training4 ,the first ,chapter of the ,manual discusses topics which have general reference to the subject as a whole4 ,the remaining part of the ,manual deals more particularly with the subject in its application to the different ,public and ,separate ,school ,forms4 ,while this division of the matter into ,forms is convenient for general classification1 it is not to be regarded as arbitrary4 ,materials and methods of presentation suitable for one class of pupils in a certain ,form might1 under different conditions1 be quite unsuitable for another class of pupils in the same ,form4 ,for example1 work which would be suitable for a class in ,form ,i made up of pupils admitted to a school at seven or eight years of age1 after two years' training in a kindergarten where nature lessons received special attention1 would not be suitable for a ,form ,i class made up of pupils admitted to a school at five years of age with no such previous training4 ,in selecting work for any class the teacher1 therefore1 should not be guided solely by the arbitrary divisions of the ,manual1 but should exercise his own judgment1 taking into account his environment and the attainments of his pupils4 ,to facilitate such a selection1 page references are given in the details of the ,course of ,study1 which in reality forms a detailed expansion of the ,public and ,separate ,school ,course in ,nature ,study4 ,by means of these references1 the teacher may find1 in any department of the subject1 typical matter suited to the development of his pupils4 ,the numerous type lessons that are contained in the ,manual are intended to suggest principles of method that are to be applied in lessons upon the same and similar topics1 but the teacher is cautioned against attempting to imitate these lessons4 ,this error can be avoided by the teacher's careful preparation of the lesson4 ,this preparation should include the careful study of the concrete materials that are to be used4 ,the books1 bulletins1 etc41 that are named in the ,manual as references will be found helpful4 ,to facilitate teaching through the experimental and investigation methods1 special attention has been given to the improvising of simple apparatus from materials within the reach of every teacher4 ,from the character of the subject the ,course of ,study must be more or less elastic1 and the topics detailed in the programme are intended to be suggestive rather than prescriptive4 ,it may be that1 owing to local conditions1 topics not named are among the best that can be used1 but all substitutions and changes should be made a subject of consultation with the ,inspector4 ,the treatment of the subject must always be suited to the age and experience of the pupils1 to the seasons of the year1 accessibility of materials1 etc4 ,notes should not be dictated by the teacher4 ,mere information1 whether from book1 written note1 or teacher1 is not ,nature ,study4 ,the acquisition of knowledge must be made secondary to awakening and maintaining the pupil's interest in nature and to training him to habits of observation and investigation4 ,as a guide to the minimum of work required1 it is suggested that at least one lesson be taught from the subjects outlined under each general heading in the detailed ,course of ,study1 with a minimum average of three lessons from the subjects under each general heading4 ,,public ,,and ,,separate ,,school ,,course ,,of ,,study ,,details ,,form ,i ,,autumn ,,garden ,,work ,,and ,,garden ,,studies3 ,division of the garden plots1 removal of weeds and observations on these weeds1 identification of garden plants1 observation lessons based on garden plants1 selection of seeds1 harvesting and disposing of the crop4 7,see pp4 #ed-i47 ,,study ,,of ,,plants3 ,class lessons based on a flowering garden plant1 as pansy1 aster1 nasturtium2 study of a field plant1 as buttercup1 goldenrod1 dandelion4 7,see pp4 #ee-i47 ,potted and garden plants3 ,observation lesson based on a bulb2 planting bulbs in pots1 or in the garden4 7,see pp4 #fi-ga47 ,,birds ,,and ,,conspicuous ,,insects3 ,identification of a few common birds1 as robin1 ,english sparrow1 meadow-lark2 observation lessons on the habits of these birds2 collection of the adult forms1 the larvae and the cocoons of a few common moths and butterflies1 as emperor-moth1 promothea moth1 eastern swallow-tail butterfly4 7,see pp4 #cj-i and #ic-h47 ,,common ,,trees3 ,identification of a few common trees1 as white pine1 elm1 maple2 observations on the general shape1 branches1 leaves1 and bark of these trees4 7,see pp4 #fb-g and #gi-hb47 ,,winter ,,farm ,,animals1 ,,including ,,fowls3 ,habits and characteristics of a few domestic animals1 as horse1 cow1 sheep1 hen1 duck2 the uses of these animals1 and how to take care of them4 7,see pp4 #hc-f47 ,,pet ,,animals3 ,observations on the habits1 movements1 and characteristics of pet animals1 as cat1 pigeon1 bantam1 rabbit1 etc42 conversations about the natural homes and habits of these animals1 and inferences upon their care4 7,see pp4 #gb-g47 ,,common ,,trees3 ,observations on the branching of common trees4 7,see pp4 #gi-hb47 ,,spring ,,garden ,,work3 ,preparation1 planting1 and care of the garden plot2 observations on the growing plants4 7,see pp4 #hg-ij47 ,,flowers3 ,identification and study of a few spring flowers1 as trillium1 bloodroot1 hepatica1 spring-beauty4 7,see pp4 #ij-b47 ,,birds ,,and ,,insects3 ,identification and study of the habits of a few common birds1 as song-sparrow1 blue-bird1 wren2 observations of the form and habits of a few common insects1 as house-fly1 dragon-fly4 7,see pp4 #cj-c and #ic-i47 ,,common ,,trees3 ,observations on the opening buds of the trees which were studied in the ,autumn4 7,see p4 #fe47 ,,form ,,ii ,,autumn ,,birds ,,and ,,insects3 ,autumn migration of birds2 identification and observations on the habits and movements of a few common insects1 including their larval forms1 as grasshopper1 eastern swallow-tail butterfly4 7,see pp4 #aac-d and #aah-i47 ,,animals ,,of ,,the ,,farm1 ,,field1 ,,and ,,wood3 ,observations on the homes and habits of wild animals1 as frog1 toad1 squirrel1 ground-hog2 habits and structures1 including adaptive features1 of domestic animals1 as dog1 cat1 horse1 cow4 7,see pp4 #hc and #abc-cj47 ,,trees ,,of ,,the ,,farm1 ,,roadside1 ,,wood1 ,,and ,,orchard3 ,observations on the shapes1 sizes1 rate of growth1 and usefulness of common orchard1 shade1 and forest trees1 as apple1 elm1 horse-chestnut4 7,see pp4 #aji-aj47 ,,wild ,,flowers ,,and ,,weeds3 ,identification and study of a few common weeds1 noting their means of persistence and dispersal4 7,see pp4 #aci-dj47 ,,care ,,of ,,potted ,,and ,,garden ,,plants3 ,preparation of pots and garden beds for bulbs2 selecting and storing garden seeds2 observations on the habits of climbing plants1 and application of the knowledge gained to the care required for these plants4 7,see pp4 #aja-i and #abj47 ,,winter ,,birds3 ,identification of winter birds and study of their means of protection and of obtaining food4 7,see pp4 #acj-b47 ,,animals ,,of ,,the ,,farm3 ,comparative study of the horse and cow1 of the dog and cat1 and of the duck and hen4 7,see pp4 #abc-h47 ,,animals ,,of ,,the ,,park ,,and ,,zoological ,,garden3 ,observations on the general structural features1 noting the natural adaptations of such animals as bear1 lion1 deer1 tiger1 etc4 7,see p4 #acb47 ,,trees3 ,winter study of trees1 noting buds1 branches1 and foliage of spruce1 cedar1 horse-chestnut1 etc4 7,see pp4 #aba-c47 ,,spring ,,birds ,,and ,,insects3 ,observations on the structure1 adaptations and development of insect larvae kept in an aquarium1 as larva of mosquito1 dragon-fly1 caddice-fly2 spring migration of birds4 7,see pp4 #adi-aec47 ,,animals ,,of ,,the ,,field ,,and ,,woods3 ,observations on the forms1 homes1 habits1 and foods of wild animals1 continued4 7,see pp4 #aad-h1 #adc-i47 ,,orchard ,,trees3 ,the buds and blossoms of apple1 and cherry or plum1 observed through the stages up to fruit formation4 7,see pp4 #ada-c47 ,,experiments ,,in ,,the ,,germination ,,of ,,seeds3 ,germination of seeds and general observations on the stages of development2 testing the conditions required for seed germination2 introductory exercises in soil study as a preparation for seed planting4 7,see pp4 #acc-h and #aab-c47 ,,wild ,,flowers ,,and ,,weeds3 ,field and class-room study of marsh marigold1 ,jack-in-the-pulpit1 violet1 etc4 7,see pp4 #aci-dj47 ,,form ,,iii ,,autumn ,,birds ,,and ,,insects3 ,observations on the habits and the ravages of common noxious insects1 as cabbage-worm1 grasshopper1 tussock-moth1 etc42 discussion of means of checking these insects4 7,see pp4 #aef-g and #agb-g47 ,,farm ,,and ,,wild ,,animals ,,of ,,the ,,locality3 ,field study and class-room lessons on the habits and structure1 including adaptive features1 of common animals1 as musk-rat1 fox1 fish1 sheep4 7,see pp4 #ii and #ahc-e47 ,,garden ,,and ,,experimental ,,plots3 ,harvesting of garden and field crops2 preparation of cuttings from geraniums1 begonia1 currant1 etc42 identification of garden plants2 seed dispersal4 7,see pp4 #aed1 #agi-hj1 and #afd-h47 ,,study ,,of ,,common ,,flowers1 ,,trees1 ,,and ,,fruits3 ,characteristics of annuals1 biennials1 and perennials2 life histories of common plants1 as sweet-pea1 ,indian corn1 etc4 7,see pp4 #aeh-fd and #afh-gj47 ,,study ,,of ,,weeds ,,and ,,their ,,eradication3 ,identification of the common noxious weeds of the locality2 collection1 description1 and identification of weed seeds2 cause of the prevalence of the weeds studied1 and means of checking them4 7,see pp4 #afd-h and #agj-b47 ,,winter ,,farm ,,and ,,wild ,,animals ,,of ,,the ,,locality3 ,habits and instincts of common domestic animals1 as fowls1 sheep1 and hogs2 the economic values of these animals4 7,see pp4 #ahe-h47 ,,garden ,,work ,,and ,,experimental ,,plots3 ,the characteristics of common house plants1 and care of these plants4 7,see pp4 #agh-i47 ,,study ,,of ,,common ,,flowers1 ,,trees1 ,,and ,,fruits3 ,comparative study of common evergreens1 as balsam1 spruce1 hemlock1 etc42 collection of wood specimens4 7,see pp4 #aha-c47 ,,observations ,,of ,,natural ,,phenomena3 ,simple experiments to show the nature of solids1 liquids1 and gases4 7,see pp4 #ahh-i47 ,,heat ,,phenomena3 ,source of heat1 changes of volume in solids1 liquids1 and gases1 accompanying changes in temperature2 heat transmission2 the thermometer and its uses4 7,see pp4 #ahi-bjj47 ,,spring ,,birds ,,and ,,insects3 ,field and class lessons on the habits1 movements1 and foods of common birds1 as crow1 woodpecker1 king-bird1 phoebe1 blackbird1 etc4 7,see pp4 #bag-bb47 ,,garden ,,work ,,and ,,experimental ,,plots3 ,care of garden plots2 transplanting2 testing best varieties2 making of1 and caring for1 window boxes2 propagation of plants by budding1 cuttings1 and layering4 7,see pp4 #bja-c and #bjh-ac47 ,,common ,,wild ,,flowers3 ,field lessons on the habitat of common wild flowers2 class-room study of the plant organs including floral organs2 study of weeds and weed seeds continued1 also the study of garden and field annuals1 biennials1 and perennials4 7,see ,autumn47 7,see pp4 #agj-b and #bab-e47 ,,soil ,,studies ,,and ,,experiments3 ,the components of soils1 their origin1 properties1 and especially their water absorbing and retaining properties2 the relation of soils to plant growth2 experiments demonstrating the benefits of mulching and of drainage4 7,see pp4 #bjc-f47 ,,form ,,iv ,,autumn ,,injurious ,,and ,,beneficial ,,insects ,,and ,,birds3 ,identification of common insects and observations on their habits2 means of combating such insects1 as codling moth1 etc42 bird identification1 and study of typical members of some common families1 as woodpeckers1 flycatchers2 spiders4 7,see pp4 #bag-bb and #bdj-e47 ,,ornamental ,,and ,,experimental ,,garden ,,plots3 ,observations and conclusions based upon experimental plots2 common shrubs1 vines1 and trees1 and how to grow them4 7,see pp4 #bbe-cj and #bgi47 ,,functions ,,of ,,plant ,,organs3 ,simple experiments illustrating roots as organs of absorption1 stems as organs of transmission1 and leaves as organs of respiration1 transpiration1 and food building4 7,see pp4 #bgc-h47 ,,economic ,,study ,,of ,,plants3 ,comparative study of varieties of winter apples1 of fall apples1 or of other fruits of the locality2 visits to orchards2 weed studies continued4 7,see ,form ,,iii47 7,see pp4 #bbi-cj and #bci-dj47 ,,relation ,,of ,,soil ,,and ,,soil ,,tillage ,,to ,,farm ,,crops3 ,soil-forming agents1 as running water1 ice1 frost1 heat1 wind1 plants1 and animals1 and inferences as to methods of tillage4 7,see pp4 #bfh-gj47 ,,winter ,,air ,,and ,,liquid ,,pressure3 ,simple illustrations of the buoyancy of liquids and of air2 simple tests to demonstrate that air fills space and exerts pressure2 the application of air pressure in the barometer1 the common pump1 the bicycle tire1 etc4 7,see pp4 #bdh-eb47 ,,oxygen ,,and ,,carbon ,,dioxide3 ,generate each of these gases and test for properties1 as colour1 odour1 combustion1 action with lime-water2 the place occupied by these gases in nature4 7,see pp4 #beb-e47 ,,practical ,,application ,,of ,,heat1 ,,steam1 ,,and ,,electricity3 ,making a simple voltaic cell1 an electro-magnet1 and a simple electroscope4 ,test the current by means of the two latter and also with an electric bell4 ,explain the application of the above in the electric telegraph and motor4 ,simple demonstration of pressure of steam2 history and uses of the steam-engine4 7,see pp4 #bei-fj47 ,,spring ,,injurious ,,and ,,beneficial ,,insects ,,and ,,birds3 ,identification of noxious insects and observations thereon2 study of representatives of common families of birds1 as thrushes1 warblers1 sparrows2 economic values of birds4 7,see pp4 #bhc-e and #bhf-g47 ,,aquatic ,,animals3 ,observation exercises upon the habits1 movements1 and structures1 including adaptive features of aquatic animals1 as crayfish1 mussel1 tadpole1 etc4 7,see pp4 #bhe-f47 ,,ornamental ,,and ,,experimental ,,garden ,,plots3 ,experimental plots demonstrating the benefits of seed selection2 ornamental plots of flowering perennials and bulbous plants2 how to improve the school grounds and the home lawns4 7,see pp4 #bgj-c and #bfc-e47 ,,tree ,,studies3 ,comparison of the values of the common varieties of shade trees1 how to plant and how to take care of shade trees4 7,see pp4 #bhj-b47 ,,the ,,functions ,,of ,,plant ,,organs3 ,examination of the organs of common flowers2 use of root1 flower organs1 fruit1 and seed4 7,see pp4 #bgc-h47 ,,economic ,,study ,,of ,,plants3 ,plants of the lawn and garden2 weed studies4 7,see pp4 #bfc-e1 #bgj-c1 and #bgh-i47 ,,relation ,,of ,,soil ,,and ,,soil ,,tillage ,,to ,,farm ,,crops3 ,study of subsoils2 capillarity in soils2 benefits of crop rotations and mulching2 experiments in fertilizing1 mulching1 depth of planting1 and closeness of planting4 7,see pp4 #bfe-g47 ,,nature ,,study ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,aims ,,of ,,nature ,,study ,nature ,study means primarily the study of natural things and preferably of living things4 ,like all other subjects1 it must justify its position on the school curriculum by proving its power to equip the pupil for the responsibilities of citizenship4 ,that citizen is best prepared for life who lives in most sympathetic and intelligent relation to his environment1 and it is the primary aim of ,nature ,study to maintain the bond of interest which unites the child's life to the objects and phenomena which surround him4 ,to this end it is necessary to adapt the teaching1 in matter and method1 to the conditions of the child's life1 that he may learn to understand the secrets of nature and be the better able to control and utilize the forces of his natural environment4 ,at all times1 the teacher must keep in mind the fact that it is not the quantity of matter taught but the interest aroused and the spirit of investigation fostered1 together with carefulness and thoroughness1 which are the important ends to be sought4 ,with a mind trained to experiment and stimulated by a glimpse into nature's secrets1 the worker finds in his labour a scientific interest that lifts it above drudgery1 while1 from a fuller understanding of the forces which he must combat or with which he must co-operate1 he reaps better rewards for his labours4 ,the claims of ,nature ,study to an educative value are based not upon a desire to displace conventional education1 but to supplement it1 and to lay a foundation for subsequent reading4 ,constant exercise of the senses strengthens these sources of information and develops alertness1 and at the same time the child is kept on familiar ground--the world of realities4 ,it is for these reasons that ,nature ,study is frequently defined as ,the ,natural ,method of ,study4 ,independent observation and inference should be encouraged to the fullest degree1 for one of the most important1 though one of the rarer accomplishments of the modern intellect1 is to think independently and to avoid the easier mode of accepting the opinions of others4 ,reading from nature books1 the study of pictures1 and other such matter1 is not ,nature ,study4 ,these may supplement ,nature ,study1 but must not displace the actual vitalizing contact between the child and natural objects and forces4 ,it is this contact which is at the basis of clear1 definite knowledge2 and clearness of thought and a feeling of at-homeness with the subject is conducive to clearness and freedom of expression4 ,the ,nature ,study lesson should therefore be used as a basis for language lessons4 ,undoubtedly one of the most important educative values that can be claimed for ,nature ,study is its influence in training the pupil to appreciate natural objects and phenomena4 ,this implies the widening and enriching of human interests through nurturing the innate tendency of the child to love the fields and woods and birds2 the checking of the selfish and destructive impulses by leading him to see the usefulness of each creature1 the harmony of its relation to its environment1 and the significance of its every part4 ,nor is it a mistake to cultivate the more sentimental love of nature which belongs to the artist and the poet4 ,john ,ruskin emphasizes this value in these words3 ,all other efforts are futile unless you have taught the children to love trees and birds and flowers4 ,,general ,,methods ,,in ,,nature ,,study ,,concrete ,,material ,it is evident that concrete material must be provided and so distributed that each member of the class will have a direct opportunity to exercise his senses1 and1 from his observations1 to deduce inferences and form judgments4 ,the objects chosen should be mainly from the common things of the locality4 ,the teacher should be guided in the selection by the interests of the pupils1 first finding out from them the things upon which they are expending their wonder and inquiry4 ,trees1 field crops1 flowers1 birds1 animals of the parks1 woods1 or farmyard1 all form suitable subjects for study4 ,,topics ,,and ,,material ,,must ,,suit ,,the ,,season ,the material should be selected not only with reference to locality but also with due regard to season4 ,for example1 better ,nature ,study lessons can be taught on the elm tree of the school grounds than on the giant ,douglas fir of ,british ,columbia2 and on the oriole whose nest is in the elm tree than on the eagle portrayed in ,roberts' animal stories2 and it is manifestly unwise to teach lessons on snow in summer1 or on flowers and ants in winter4 ,,matter ,,must ,,be ,,suited ,,to ,,the ,,child ,for the urban pupil the treatment of the material must be different from that in the case of the pupil of the rural school4 ,rural school pupils have already formed an extensive acquaintance with many plants and animals which are entirely unknown to the children of the city4 ,the simpler facts which are interesting and instructive to the pupils of the urban classes would prove commonplace and trivial to rural pupils4 ,for example1 while it is necessary to show the city child a squirrel that he may learn the size1 colour1 and general appearance of the animal1 the efforts of the pupil of the rural school should be directed to the discovery of the less evident facts of squirrel life4 ,,use ,,of ,,the ,,commonplace ,it must be kept in mind that besides leading the pupils to discover new sources of interest1 the teacher should strive to accomplish that which is even greater1 namely1 to lead them to discover new truth and new beauty in old1 familiar objects4 ,it may be true that familiarity breeds contempt and there is always a danger that the objects with which children have associated in early life may be passed by as uninteresting while they go in search of something new and interesting4 ,for example1 to be able to recognize many plants and to call them by name is no doubt something of an accomplishment1 but it should not be the chief aim of the teacher in conducting ,nature ,study lessons on plants4 ,it is of much greater importance that the child should be led to love the flowers and to appreciate their beauty and their utility4 ,such appreciation will result in the desire to protect and to produce fine flowers and useful plants1 and this end can be reached only through intelligent acquaintanceship4 ,there can be no true appreciation without knowledge1 and this the child gets chiefly by personal observation and experiment4 ,with reference to the wild flowers of the woods and fields1 the method employed is that of continuous observation4 ,,order ,,of ,,development ,,of ,,the ,,lesson ,each animal or plant should be studied as a living1 active organism4 ,the attention of the pupils should be focused upon activities2 for these appeal to the child nature and afford the best means for securing interest and attention4 ,what does this animal do8 ,how does it do it8 ,how is it fitted for doing this8 ,how does this plant grow8 ,what fits it for growing in this way8 ,these are questions which should exercise the mind of the child4 ,they are questions natural in the spirit of inquiry in child nature and give vitality to nature teaching4 ,they are an effective means of establishing a bond of sympathy between the child and nature4 ,the child who takes care of a plant or animal because it is his own1 does so at first from a purely personal motive1 which is perfectly natural to childhood2 but while he studies its needs and observes its movements and changes1 gradually and unconsciously this interest will be transferred to the plant or animal for its own sake4 ,the nature of the child is thus broadened during the process4 ,,problems ,,in ,,observation ,in studying the material provided1 whether it be in the class-room1 or during a nature excursion1 or by observations made in the farmyard at home1 the teacher must guide the efforts of the pupils by assigning to them definite and suitable problems4 ,care must be taken to reach the happy mean of giving specific directions without depriving the pupils of the pleasure of making original discovery4 ,for example1 instead of asking them to study the foot of the horse and learn all they can about it1 more specific problems should be assigned1 such as3 ,observe how the hoof is placed on the ground in walking4 ,what are the arrangements for lessening the shock when the hoof strikes the ground8 ,examine the under surface of the hoof and discover what prevents the unshod horse from slipping4 ,,note-,,books ,,and ,,records ,in ,grades higher than ,form ,i1 written exercises should be required and also sketches representing the objects studied4 ,for this purpose a ,nature ,study note-book is necessary--a loose-leaf note-book being preferable because of necessary corrections1 rearrangements1 additions1 or omissions4 ,in all records and reports1 independence of thought and of expression should be encouraged4 ,the drawing and the oral or written description should express what is actually observed1 not what the book or some member of the class says has been1 or should be1 observed4 ,the descriptions should be in the pupil's own words1 because these are most in keeping with his own ideas on the subject4 ,more correct forms of expression may be obtained when notes are taken from the teacher's dictation1 but this is fatal to the development of originality4 ,the disparity of the results in individual work gives opportunity for impressing upon the pupil1 in the first place1 the necessity for more accurate observation and1 secondly1 the impossibility of reaching a correct general conclusion without having studied a large number of examples4 ,the development of critical and judicious minds1 which may result from carefully observing many examples and generalizing from these observations1 is vastly more important than the memorizing of many facts4 ,,the ,,school ,,garden ,in the study of garden plants there is added a certain new interest arising out of experimentation1 cultivation1 and ownership4 ,the love of the gardener has in it elements that the love of the naturalist does not usually possess--a sort of paternal love and care for the plants produced in his garden2 but every gardener should be a naturalist as well4 ,most people have a higher appreciation for that which they own and which they have produced or acquired at some expense or personal sacrifice2 therefore it is that the growing of plants in home and school gardens or in pots and window boxes is so strongly advocated throughout this ,course4 ,ownership always implies responsibility1 which is at once the chief safeguard of society and the foundation of citizenship4 ,a careless boy will never respect the property of others so much as when he himself has proprietary interests involved4 ,we believe1 therefore1 that every teacher should encourage his pupils to cultivate plants and1 if possible1 to own a plot of ground however small4 ,the teacher should not merely aim at making a garden in the school grounds4 ,the great question is rather how best to use a school garden in connection with the training of boys and girls4 ,to learn to do garden work well is indeed worth while and provides a highly beneficial kind of manual training4 ,to understand something of soils and methods of cultivation1 of fertilizers and drainage1 the best kinds of flowers1 vegetables1 fruits1 and farm crops1 and how to grow them successfully1 is very important in such a great agricultural country as this2 but the greatest of all results which we may hope to realize in connection with school gardening is the ennobling of life and character4 ,the pupils are taught to observe the growing plants with great care1 noting developments day by day4 ,this adds to their appreciation of the beauties and adaptations found among plants on every side1 and cannot fail to produce good results in moral as well as in mental development4 ,the teachers must always remember that the gardeners with whom they are working are more important than the gardens which they cultivate4 ,the best garden is not always the largest and most elaborate one4 ,it is rather the garden that both teacher and pupils have been most deeply interested in4 ,it is the garden in which they have experienced most pleasure and profit that makes them want to have another better than the last4 ,no school is too small to have a garden of some kind1 and no garden is too small to become the joy and pride of some boy or girl4 ,,suggestions ,for the benefit of teachers beginning their duties on the first of ,september1 in school sections where school gardening has never been carried on1 the following suggestions are offered3 #a4 ,see if the grounds will permit of a part being used for a garden4 ,to ascertain this1 note the size of the present grounds and see if they meet the requirements of the ,department as laid down in the ,regulations4 ,if they do not1 consult your ,inspector at once and acquaint him with your plans4 ,if the grounds are to be enlarged1 try to take in sufficient land of good quality to make a good garden4 ,the part chosen for the garden should be both convenient and safe4 ,examine the soil to see if it is well drained and sufficiently deep to permit of good cultivation4 ,lack of fertility can be overcome by good fertilizing4 #b4 ,see that the fences and gates are in good repair4 ,when circumstances will permit1 a woven wire fence that will exclude dogs1 pigs1 and poultry is most desirable4 ,if not used to inclose the whole grounds1 it should at least inclose the part used for gardening4 #c4 ,begin modestly and provide room for extension as the work progresses4 ,sow clover on the part to be held in reserve for future gardening operations4 #d4 ,if local public sentiment is not strongly in favour of school gardening1 or is somewhat adverse1 begin on a small scale4 ,if the work is well done1 you will soon have both moral and financial support4 #e4 ,see that the land is well drained4 ,plough it early in the autumn and1 if a load of well-rotted manure is available1 spread it on the land before ploughing4 ,commercial fertilizer may also be used on the plots the following spring1 but no stable manure4 #f4 ,in spring1 when dry enough1 cultivate thoroughly with disc and drag harrows4 ,build up a compost heap in the rear of the garden with sods and stable manure1 for use in the autumn and also the following spring4 ,,garden ,,expenses ,in connection with those schools where the teacher holds a diploma from the ,ontario ,agricultural ,college in ,elementary ,agriculture and ,horticulture1 there is no difficulty in meeting the expenses for seeds1 tools1 fertilizers1 and labour1 as the ,government grant for such purposes is sufficient4 ,in other schools1 however1 where the teacher holds no such diploma 7and such is the case in most of the schools as yet71 other means of meeting the expenses must be resorted to4 ,the following are offered as suggestions along this line3 #a4 ,part of the grant made to every school for the maintaining of the school grounds should be available for school garden expenses4 #b4 ,an occasional school entertainment may add funds that could not be used to better advantage4 #c4 ,an occasional load of stable manure supplied free from neighbouring farms will help to solve the fertilizer problem4 #d4 ,donations of plants and seeds by the parents and other interested persons and societies will be forthcoming1 if the teacher is in earnest and his pupils interested4 #e4 ,if it is required1 the trustees could make a small grant each year toward the cost of tools4 #f4 ,fencing and cultivation of the garden can often be provided for by volunteer assistance from the men of the school section4 #g4 ,it is often possible to grow a garden crop on a fairly large scale1 the school being formed into a company for this purpose and the proceeds to be used to meet garden expenses4 #h4 ,the pupils can readily bring the necessary tools from home for the first season's work4 #i4 ,many ,agricultural and ,horticultural societies offer very substantial cash prizes for school garden exhibits1 and all funds so obtained should be used to improve the garden from which the exhibits were taken4 #aj4 ,an earnest1 resourceful teacher will find a way of meeting the necessary expenses4 ,,the ,,excursion ,nature ,study is essentially an outdoor subject4 ,while it is true that a considerable amount of valuable work may be done in the class-room by the aid of aquaria1 insectaria1 and window boxes1 yet the great book of nature lies outside the school-house walls4 ,the teacher must lead or direct his pupils to that book and help them to read with reverent spirit what is written there by its great ,author4 ,value4--,the school excursion is valuable chiefly because it brings the pupil into close contact with the objects that he is studying1 permits him to get his knowledge at first hand1 and gives him an opportunity of studying these objects in their natural environment4 ,incidentally the excursion yields outdoor exercise under the very best conditions--no slight advantage for city children especially2 and it gives the teacher a good opportunity to study the pupils from a new standpoint4 ,it also provides a means of gathering ,nature ,study material4 ,difficulties4--,where is the time to be found8 ,how can a large class of children be managed in the woods or fields8 ,if only one class be taken1 how1 in an ungraded school1 are the rest of the children to be employed8 ,will the excursion not degenerate into a mere outing8 ,what if the woods are miles away8 ,these are all real problems1 and the ,nature ,study teacher1 desirous of doing his work well1 will have to face some of them at least4 ,,short ,,excursions ,the excursion need not occupy much time4 ,it should be well planned beforehand4 ,one object only should be kept in view and announced to the class before starting4 ,matters foreign or subordinate to this should be neglected for the time4 ,the following are suggested as objects for excursions3 ,objects4--,a bird's nest in an adjacent meadow2 a ground-hog's hole2 a musk-rat's home2 crayfish or clams in the stream near by2 a pine 7or other7 tree2 a toad's day-resort2 the soil of a field2 the pests of a neighbouring orchard2 a stone-heap or quarry2 ants' nests or earthworms' holes2 the weeds of the school yard2 buds2 the vegetable or animal life of a pond2 sounds of spring2 tracks in the snow2 a spider's web4 ,such excursions may be accomplished at the expenditure of very little time4 ,many of them will take the pupils no farther than the boundaries of the school yard4 ,of course the locality will influence the character of the excursion1 as it will that of the whole of the work done in ,nature ,study1 but in any place the thoughtful teacher may find material for open-air work at his very door4 ,much outside work can be done without interfering with the regular programme4 ,the teacher may arrange a systematic list of questions and problems for the pupils to solve from their own observations1 and these observations may be made by the pupils at play hours1 or while coming or going from school1 or on ,saturdays4 ,the following will serve as an example of the treatment that may be followed3 ,pests of ,apple ,trees4--,look on the twigs of your apple trees for little scales4 ,bring an infected branch to school4 ,note whether unhealthy-looking or dead branches are infected4 ,examine scales with a lens4 ,loosen one1 turn it over1 and examine with a lens the under side4 ,for eggs1 look closely at the twigs in ,june4 ,do you see white specks moving8 ,if so examine them with a lens4 ,are there any small1 prematurely ripe apples on the ground in the orchard8 ,cut into one of these and look for a worm4 ,look for apples with worm holes in the side4 ,are there worms in these apples8 ,what is in them8 ,note the dirty marks that the larva has left4 ,keep several apples in a close box and watch for the worms to come out4 ,examine the bark of apple trees for pupae in the fall4 ,,frequency ,,of ,,excursions ,as to the frequency of excursions1 the teacher will be the best judge4 ,it is desirable that they occur naturally in the course of the ,nature ,study work as the need for them arises4 ,one short trip each week with a single object in view is much more satisfactory than a whole afternoon each term spent in aimless wandering about the woods4 ,,excursions ,,to ,a ,,distance ,long-distance excursions will of necessity be infrequent4 ,if the woods are far away1 one such trip in ,may or ,june would prove valuable to enable the pupils to become acquainted with wild flowers1 and another in ,october to gather tree seeds1 autumn leaves1 pupae1 and other material for winter study4 ,when a large class is to be taken on an excursion1 preparations must be made with special care4 ,the teacher and one or two assistants should go over the ground beforehand and arrange for the work to be done4 ,some work must be given to every pupil1 and prompt obedience to every command and signal must be required4 ,the class1 for example1 may decide to search a small wood or meadow to find out what flowers are there4 ,the pupils should be dispersed throughout the field to hunt for specimens and to meet at a known signal to compare notes4 ,,suggestions ,,for ,,ungraded ,,schools #a4 ,the teacher may take all the classes1 choosing an object of study from which he can teach lessons suitable to all ages1 a bird's nest1 for example4 #b4 ,in many sections1 the little ones are dismissed at #c4cj p4m4 ,opportunity is thus given for an excursion with the seniors4 #c4 ,the older pupils may be assigned work and left in charge of a monitor1 elected by themselves1 who shall be responsible for their conduct1 while the teacher is working outside with the lower ,forms4 #d4 ,boys who are naturally interested in outdoor work should be encouraged to show the others anything of interest they may have found4 #e4 ,an occasional ,saturday excursion may be arranged4 ,discipline4--,the teacher should insist on making the excursion a serious part of the school work1 not merely recreation4 ,school-room behaviour cannot be expected1 but the boisterous conduct of the playground should give place to earnest expectancy4 ,the pupils should keep within sound of the teacher's voice 7a sharp whistle may be used7 and should promptly respond to every call4 ,topics of conversations should as far as possible be restricted to those pertaining to the object of the excursion or related matters4 ,in visiting woods1 children should be trained to study flowers in their environment and leave them there1 plucking or digging for none except for some excellent reason4 ,the same respect should be shown to birds and their nests1 and to insects1 and all other living things encountered4 ,,the ,,teacher',s ,,excursions ,as soon as possible after coming to a section1 the teacher should acquaint himself with the woods1 groves1 streams1 or other haunts that may provide him with material for his indoor or outdoor work4 ,he can then direct the pupils effectively4 ,the teacher should go over the route of an excursion shortly before it takes place4 ,this prevents waste of time in looking for the objects that he wishes his pupils to see4 ,if the teacher wishes to increase his love for nature1 he must take many walks without his pupils4 ,the school garden offers a partial solution of the difficulties mentioned above4 ,it brings a large amount of material to the doors of the school4 ,plants of the farm or the garden may be studied under various changeable conditions1 and it will be seen that insect pests1 weeds1 and fungous diseases follow the lessons on plants1 while lessons on birds and toads follow those on insects4 ,with sections of the garden devoted to the cultivation of wild flowers1 ferns1 and forest trees1 the specially organized excursion will become less of a necessity1 although it will still continue to be a valuable factor in ,nature ,study work4 ,after an excursion is over1 it should be discussed in class4 ,the various facts learned should be reviewed and related4 ,if any pupils have made inaccurate observations1 they should be required to observe again to correct their errors4 ,finally1 the excursion may form the subject of a composition4 ,a ,,type ,,excursion ,a ,bird's ,nest4--,the children have been instructed to study the meadow-lark1 beginning about ,march twenty-first4 ,while engaged in this work1 a nest is discovered near the school4 ,the teacher is informed and the pupils are conducted to the spot4 ,what is growing in the field8 ,is there a long or a short growth8 ,did the mother bird make much noise as she rose from the nest8 ,did this help to reveal its presence8 ,is the nest easy to see8 ,the class will halt a few paces from it and try to find it4 ,how many eggs8 ,their colour8 ,note the arch of grass so beautifully concealing the nest4 ,returning to school1 the facts observed are reviewed4 ,the pupils may then express themselves by written composition or by drawings1 paintings1 or modellings of the nest1 the eggs1 or the surroundings4 ,frequent visits to the nest should not be made1 and the pupils should be warned not to disturb the bird1 as she may desert the nest on slight provocation4 ,a second excursion may be made1 when the eggs are hatched1 to see the young birds4 ,a ,wasp's ,nest4--,a nest having been discovered1 the pupils note how it is suspended and how it is situated with regard to concealment or to protection from rain1 its colour1 the material of the nest1 and the position of the entrance4 ,is the opening ever deserted8 ,how many wasps enter and how many leave the nest in a minute8 ,try to follow one and watch what he does4 ,wasps may be found biting wood from an old board fence4 ,this they chew into pulp1 and from this pulp their paper is made4 ,get the children to verify this by observations4 ,if the nest is likely to become a nuisance1 smoke out the wasps1 take the nest carefully down1 and use it for indoor study1 examining the inside of the nest to ascertain the nature and the structure of the comb which1 in this case is entirely devoted to larvae4 ,,collections ,general school collections of such objects as noxious weeds1 weed seeds1 wild flowers1 noxious insects1 leaves of forest trees1 rocks or stones of the locality1 etc41 should be undertaken4 ,all the pupils should contribute as many specimens as possible to each collection and should assist in the work of preparing them4 ,in addition to the above collections it is advisable that pupils who show special interest in this phase of nature work should be encouraged to make individual collections4 ,collections1 when properly prepared1 have a value within themselves1 because of the beauty and variety of the forms that they contain1 and also because of their usefulness in illustrating nature lessons and in the identifying of insects1 weeds1 etc4 ,nevertheless the chief value of the collection rests in the making of it1 because of the training that it gives the collector in carefulness and thoroughness1 and also because it causes the child to study natural objects in their natural surroundings4 ,,animal ,,studies ,,domestic ,,animals ,the teacher1 before attempting to teach lessons on domestic animals1 should carefully consider how his lessons will best fulfil the following important aims3 #a4 ,the cultivation of a deeper sympathy for1 and a more complete understanding of1 farm animals4 #b4 ,the development of more kindly treatment of domestic animals through awakened sympathy and more intelligent understanding4 #c4 ,implanting the idea that the best varieties are the most interesting and profitable4 ,the following domestic animals are suggested as being suitable for study3 horse1 cow1 sheep1 dog1 cat1 goose1 duck1 hen4 ,there are two practical methods of observation work2 namely1 home observation and class-room observation4 ,the observation work on some of the animals named must of necessity be done out of school4 ,in this the teacher can direct the efforts of the pupils by assigning to them definite problems to be solved by their study of the animals4 ,the results of their observations can be discussed in the class in lessons of ten or fifteen minutes length4 ,it may frequently be necessary to re-assign the problems in order that the pupils may correct their observations4 ,it is possible for the teacher or the pupils to bring to the school-room certain of the animals1 as the dog1 cat1 duck1 hen1 and the observations may then be made by the whole class directly under the guidance of the teacher4 ,,references ,crawford3 ,guide to ,nature ,study4 ,copp ,clark ,co41 #ij cents4 ,dearness3 ,how to ,teach the ,nature ,study ,course4 ,copp ,clark ,co41 #fj cents4 ,shaler3 ,domesticated ,animals4 ,scribners1 #b4ej4 ,smith3 ,the ,uses and ,abuses of ,domestic ,animals4 ,jarrold ,sons1 #ej cents4 ,,birds ,the chief aims in developing lessons on birds are3 #a4 ,to teach the children to recognize their bird neighbours1 to love them for their beauty1 and sweet songs1 and their sprightly ways4 #b4 ,to train the pupils to appreciate them for their usefulness in destroying insect pests4 ,many persons spend their lives surrounded by singing birds1 yet they never hear their songs4 ,many children see and hear the birds1 but if they have not been brought into sympathetic relation with them1 they never learn to appreciate them2 on the contrary1 their attitude becomes one of indifference or of destructiveness4 ,too often1 boys cruelly destroy the nests and young and persecute the old birds with stone and catapult4 ,the cowardice of such acts should be condemned1 but more effective lessons may be taught through leading the children to find in the birds assistants and companions that contribute to their material progress and to their joy in life4 ,with these aims in view1 the teacher will readily perceive that the most effective work in bird study results from observing the living birds in their natural environment4 ,field excursions are valuable for this1 but good results can seldom be attained when the class is large1 for birds are shy and will hide or fly away from the unusual excitement4 ,quietness is absolutely necessary for success4 ,better results are obtained when only one or two accompany the teacher4 ,if the teacher selects a few who are interested in birds1 and there are always some pupils in every school who are readily interested in bird study1 these few can soon be made sufficiently acquainted with the more common birds1 so that they will be able to point them out to the other pupils of the school1 and thus they become the teacher's assistants in the work4 ,by beginning with the most common and conspicuous birds1 an acquaintance grows rapidly4 ,early spring is a good time to begin1 when the first birds return from their winter sojourn4 ,the teacher and pupils may now learn to recognize the birds1 because there are only a few1 and these are easily seen1 as the robin1 blue-bird1 junco1 meadow-lark1 goldfinch1 bronzed grackle1 sapsucker1 blue jay1 downy woodpecker1 and flicker4 ,the teacher1 assisted by the pupils who already know these birds1 directs the younger pupils to where these birds may be seen1 and they are also required to describe the birds observed and to identify them by means of the bird chart or colour key4 ,the description should include3 ,size 7compare with some common bird72 shape2 colour of head1 back1 and breast2 conspicuous markings1 as crest1 stripes1 bright patches of feathers2 movements in flight or on the ground2 song1 call notes2 whether in flocks1 or pairs1 or single birds4 ,later in spring1 other birds will attract attention1 as the song-sparrow1 phoebe1 wren1 horned lark1 cowbird1 and red-winged blackbird2 while in summer the oriole1 catbird1 vesper sparrow1 ,american redstart1 night hawk1 scarlet tanager1 and crested flycatcher are some of the birds that will call for attention1 because of their plumage1 songs1 or peculiar habits4 ,when a nest has been found by a pupil1 he should report it to the teacher1 and the other pupils should be permitted to visit it only upon promising not to molest the nest or to annoy the mother bird by remaining too long near it4 ,while it is well that the pupils should see the nest with the young birds1 they should be taught to respect the desire of the bird for quietness and seclusion4 ,in studying the nest1 observe3 ,concealment1 protection1 size1 comfort1 number and colour of eggs1 young birds1 size1 colour1 covering1 food4 ,the pupils should be asked to observe the feeding of birds thus3 ,watch the wrens returning to the nest2 what do they carry to their young8 ,where do the wrens get the snails and grubs8 ,observe how the robins find the worms and how they pull them out of the ground4 ,follow the downy woodpecker to the apple tree and find out what he was pecking4 ,watch the crow in the pasture field and learn whether this bird kills grasshoppers and crickets4 ,observe the birds that pick seeds out of the weeds4 ,collecting birds' eggs should be condemned1 because it nearly always leads to the robbing of the nests4 ,the practice of exchanging eggs is the chief cause of this2 for although an occasional boy will collect wisely1 the greater number are simply anxious to add to their collection without regard for the sacredness of the birds' homes4 ,a collection of birds' nests may be made after the nests have been abandoned for the season1 and it will be found useful for interesting the pupils in the ingenuity1 neatness1 and instinctive foresight of the builders4 ,,references ,chapman and ,reed3 ,colour ,key to ,north ,american ,birds #b4ge ,reed3 ,bird ,guide1 ,pts4 ,i and ,,ii 4#ge ,silcox and ,stevenson3 ,modern ,nature ,study 4#ge ,cornish3 ,thirty ,lessons in ,nature ,study on ,birds4 ,dominion ,book ,company #a4jj ,canadian ,birds in ,relation to ,agriculture4 ,this chart has pictures in colours of eighty-eight ,canadian birds4 ,g4 ,m4 ,hendry ,co41 #c4jj4 ,the ,audubon ,charts4 ,these three charts have pictures of fifty-five birds2 the pictures are larger in the latter charts than in the first named4 ,g4 ,m4 ,hendry ,co41 #b4jj each4 ,coloured ,bird ,pictures1 ,mumford1 ,chicago1 7separate coloured pictures7 are very suitable for illustrating nature lessons on birds4 ,,insects ,there are three classes of insects that are of immediate interest to the pupils of the ,junior ,grades1 and the teacher who makes direct use of this natural interest has taken possession of the key to success in insect study in the primary classes4 ,the three classes1 basing the classification upon their power to attract attention1 are3 ,the beautiful insects1 including moths1 butterflies1 and beetles1 ,the wonderful insects1 including such insects as ants1 ant-lions1 caddice-flies1 etc41 ,the economic insects1 including bees1 silk-worms1 codling-moths1 etc4 ,economic insects are interesting because of their relations to the occupations of the home4 ,the successful growing of farm1 orchard1 and garden crops practically depends upon keeping a proper balance of insect and bird life4 ,the teacher who feels that his knowledge of insects is too limited to allow him to undertake the teaching of this branch of ,nature ,study should cast his misgivings aside2 for it is not difficult for the teacher who knows nothing about insects at the outset to become acquainted with such members of the three classes named above as attract the attention of the pupils of the ,nature ,study classes4 ,the following suggestions in insect study are offered as guides to teacher or pupil3 ,obtain books and pamphlets from the ,department of ,agriculture1 ,toronto1 on the subject of ,insect ,pests on ,farm ,crops and ,fruit ,trees4 ,secure a good general book on insects4 ,modern ,nature ,study1 by ,silcox and ,stevenson1 contains illustrations of several of the most common moths and butterflies1 which are clear enough to make possible the identification of the forms represented4 ,comstock's ,manual for the ,study of ,insects is the best general book on the subject4 ,this1 and ,holland's ,the ,moth ,book and ,the ,butterfly ,book1 are valuable for those who wish to follow the study of insects at any length4 ,begin by studying the more conspicuous moths1 butterflies1 and beetles1 and especially by studying the injurious forms which thrust themselves into prominence by causing destruction of grain1 vegetable1 or fruit crops in the locality4 ,the utility phase of lessons on these insects will appeal to the older children and also to their parents4 ,moreover1 these are the easiest insects to identify and upon which to obtain literature dealing with their life histories and habits4 ,carefully observe the colour1 size1 and shape of the insect1 and note the plant on which it is feeding and its manner of feeding4 ,consult available books on plant pests to find descriptions of the insects that feed upon this plant1 and study carefully what is said about the insect observed4 ,if this method is persistently followed1 the teacher will be surprised at the rapidity with which his acquaintance with insects broadens4 ,pictures of moths1 butterflies1 and beetles are of great assistance in the identification of these insects4 ,a school collection1 made from the insects studied1 is useful for future collection and for identification of insects4 ,do not allow any insect to be killed unless it is a good specimen intended to fill a place in the collection1 or unless it is known to be an injurious insect4 ,the teacher1 by exercising proper control of the collecting1 has an efficient means of teaching the sacredness of life4 ,the fact should be emphasized that killing even an insect1 when there is no good reason for doing so1 is the act of a mean and selfish coward4 ,in addition to a collection of insects1 including larval and pupal forms1 collections of insect nests1 of plant galls1 of markings of engraver beetles1 of burrows of tree borers1 and of samples of the destructive workings of insect pests should be made4 ,while nothing is more beautiful than a carefully prepared collection of moths1 butterflies1 and beetles with their infinite variety of form and colour1 nothing is more disgusting than a badly preserved collection of distorted1 shrivelled1 vermin-infested specimens4 ,the teacher should avail himself of the collecting instinct which is prominent in boys of nine to fourteen years of age and of their desire to have things done well1 to develop in them habits of carefulness1 neatness1 and thoroughness4 ,,insect ,,collections ,see ,manual on ,manual ,training1 for details for making collecting appliances4 ,agricultural ,bulletin ,no4 #h1 ,nature ,collections for ,schools1 ,department of ,education1 ,ontario1 for detailed instructions on making insect collections4 ,the outfit for collecting is neither expensive nor hard to prepare4 ,it consists of 7#a7 an insect net for catching the insects1 made by sewing a bag of cheese-cloth to a stout ring one foot in diameter1 which is fastened to a broom handle2 7#b7 a cyanide bottle for killing the insects1 prepared by pouring some soft plaster-paris over a few lumps of potassium cyanide 7three pieces1 each of the size of a pea7 in a wide-mouthed bottle4 ,when the plaster has set1 keep the bottle tightly corked to retain the poisonous gases4 7#c7 ,pins to mount the specimens4 ,entomological pins1 ,nos4 #b1 #c1 and #d1 are the best for general use4 ,beetles are usually pinned through the right wing-cover at about one fourth of its length from the front end of it4 ,moths and butterflies are pinned through the thorax4 ,small insects may be fastened to a very small pin1 which in turn is set into a bit of cork1 supported by a pin of ordinary size4 7#d7 ,spreading board for moths and butterflies4 7#e7 ,insect boxes to hold the specimens4 ,this should be secured before the collection is begun4 ,it is a common mistake to believe that any box whatever will do for storing insects4 ,it is necessary to encourage effort in drying1 spreading1 pinning1 and labelling1 by providing an effective means of permanently preserving the specimens4 ,in cigar-boxes1 pasteboard boxes1 and such makeshifts1 the specimens soon become broken1 covered with dust1 and marred in other ways1 and the collectors become discouraged2 hence it is necessary to secure good boxes from dealers in entomological supplies4 ,a sponge saturated with carbon bisulphide should be placed in the box at intervals of not more than three months1 to ensure the killing of parasites that destroy the specimens4 ,entomological supplies may be obtained from ,chapman ,co41 ,london1 ,ont41 or from ,g4 ,m4 ,hendry ,co41 ,toronto1 ,ont41 or from ,messrs4 ,watters ,bros41 ,guelph1 ,ont4 ,,butterfly ,,and ,,moth ,,collections ,for a study of the metamorphosis of butterflies and moths1 it is necessary to have an insect cage4 ,this can be purchased from any dealer in entomological supplies or it may be made by the pupils in the ,manual ,training ,class4 ,see ,manual on ,manual ,training4 ,a very satisfactory cage may be made1 by the teacher or larger pupils1 from a soap box1 by tacking wire gauze over the open surface of the box1 removing the nails from one of the boards of the bottom1 and converting this board into a door by attaching it in its former position by light hinges and a hook and staple4 ,the box1 if now placed on end with two inches of loose soil in the bottom1 will constitute a satisfactory insect cage1 or vivarium4 ,a large lamp chimney with gauze tied over the upper end is useful for inclosing a small plant upon which eggs or insect larvae are developing4 ,the base of the chimney may be thrust an inch into the soil and the development of the larva as it feeds upon the growing plant can be studied4 ,the following are larvae suitable for study and may be found in the places named3 ,the tomato worm on tomato or tobacco plants4 7,look for stems whose leaves have been stripped off47 ,the milkweed butterfly larvae on milkweed1 ,the potato beetle on potato vines1 ,the eastern swallow-tail butterfly on parsnip or carrot plants1 ,the tussock-moth on horse-chestnuts1 ,the promothea moth on lilac bushes1 ,the cabbage-butterfly on cabbage or mustard plants1 ,the red-spotted purple1 banded purple1 and viceroy butterfly larvae on willow and alder1 ,cocoons of tussock-moth and tiger-moth under bark1 logs1 and rubbish in early autumn4 ,larvae of the emperor-moth 7cecropia7 may be found wandering about1 apparently aimlessly1 in ,september2 but they are searching for suitable places for attaching their cocoons to orchard and forest trees4 ,after the leaves have fallen from shrubs and trees1 cocoons can be found more easily on the naked twigs or in withered1 rolled-up leaves that are fastened by the silk of the cocoon to the branches4 ,larvae1 when placed in the cage1 should be supplied with green plant food such as they were found feeding upon1 and the pupils should be instructed to observe the chrysalis building or the cocoon weaving4 ,it will be found that some larvae burrow into the soil4 ,during winter the cage should be kept in a cool place1 such as a shed1 so that the winter conditions may be as nearly natural as possible4 ,in a few cases1 the development within the cocoon is quite rapid2 and the adult form hatches out in a few weeks1 for example1 the cabbage-butterfly1 monarch or milkweed butterfly1 and tussock-moth4 ,for this reason these are preferable for study by ,form ,i pupils4 ,in ,april the cage should be placed in the school-room1 that the pupils may observe the emergence of the insects and the spreading of the wings4 ,the insects can be fed with syrup or honey until they are strong1 then the pupils should set them free4 ,reference4--,reports of the ,entomological ,society of ,ontario1 ,department of ,agriculture4 ,,plant ,,collections ,the instructions given below for collecting1 pressing1 and mounting plants are applicable to wild flowers1 grains1 grasses1 and weeds4 ,the specimen4--,select a plant which in form and size is typical of its species and which is in full flower4 ,care must be taken to dig down and secure the root4 ,if the plant is too large for the mounting sheet1 cut out the central part1 and use the root1 lower leaves1 upper leaves1 and flower4 ,if the root is very thick1 cut slices lengthwise off the sides so as to reduce it to a flat form that is not too bulky4 ,before the plant has had time to wither1 spread it out flat on a sheet of paper and spread another sheet over it1 taking care to straighten the leaves and flower out4 ,blotting-paper is preferable1 but any soft paper that will absorb moisture will make a very good substitute4 ,pressing and drying4--,place several sheets of paper above and below the specimen4 ,any number of specimens prepared as described in the last paragraph may be placed in a pile1 one over another1 resting on the floor or on a table4 ,place on top of the pile a board which is large enough to cover the surface of the pile1 and on the board place a weight of about fifteen pounds of bricks1 or other convenient material4 ,a box containing sand1 stones1 or coal may be used in place of the board and weights4 ,the weight prevents the shrivelling and distortion of the plants4 ,to prevent discoloration and mildewing of the plants1 the papers around them must be changed at the end of the following successive intervals3 two days1 three days1 five days1 one week1 etc41 until they are quite dry4 ,the length of time required for pressing and drying depends upon the quantity of sap in the plants and also upon the dryness or humidity of the atmosphere4 ,mounting4--,when dry1 the specimens are mounted on sheets of heavy white paper4 ,these sheets are cut to a standard size1 eleven inches by fourteen inches1 or sheets of half this size1 namely1 seven inches by eleven inches2 are permissible4 ,the best method of attaching the plant to the sheet is by pasting narrow strips of gummed paper across the plant in such positions as will serve to hold all parts of it in position4 ,labelling4--,the name of the specimen1 the date of collection1 the place from which collected1 and the name of the collector are to be neatly written in a column in the lower right-hand corner of the sheet4 ,printed labels which are pasted on this corner of the sheet are also used4 ,collections of leaves may be prepared by the same process as that given for plants4 ,leaves will retain their autumn tints if their surface is covered with varnish or paraffin1 which will prevent the admission of air4 ,to cover with paraffin dip the leaf for a moment into melted paraffin4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,physical ,,science ,,phase ,,of ,,nature ,,study ,,instructions ,,and ,,general ,,method ,the preceding portions of this ,manual dealt with living things4 ,there is another phase of ,nature ,study which has a more direct relation to the physical sciences1 ,chemistry and ,physics1 two subjects that are essentially experimental in their methods4 ,although the lessons that follow are grouped in one portion of this book1 the teacher should understand that he is to introduce them into his work as the occasion demands4 ,they may be used to throw light on other parts of the school work4 ,the experimental method is somewhat advanced for young children1 hence no lessons are outlined for ,forms ,i and ,,ii4 ,in ungraded schools1 ,forms ,,iii and ,,iv may be combined for the subject4 ,it will be found most convenient to take this portion of the ,nature ,study during the winter months4 ,,value ,,of ,,such ,,lessons #a4 ,they are interesting1 hence there is attention4 ,the senses must be alert1 hence pupils are trained to observe accurately4 #b4 ,after the experiment comes the inference1 hence reasoning powers are developed4 #c4 ,they enable the teacher to make exceedingly concrete some very difficult abstract principles4 #d4 ,they can be correlated with a large number of other subjects and made to have a beneficial influence on the whole of the school work4 #e4 ,the great advance that is being made in all useful inventions to-day is largely due to the study of the physical sciences4 ,many boys and girls 7seventy-five per cent47 never attend the ,high ,school4 ,the ,elementary ,school owes them a taste at least of these sciences that have such a bearing on their lives1 that have surrounded them with so many mechanical contrivances for their comfort and convenience1 and that explain so many common natural phenomena4 ,give a boy a taste for experimental science1 and there is some chance that after leaving school he will not throw aside his studies to subsist intellectually on the newspaper1 but that he will continue to investigate for himself1 and make himself a well-informed man1 an influential man in his section4 ,the ,elementary ,school must aim at fitting the boys and girls for life4 #f4 ,the advent of the experiment marks the downfall of superstition1 prejudice1 and reliance on authority and tradition4 ,to lead a child to think for himself is a great achievement4 #g4 ,the use of the experiment in gaining knowledge will result in a cautiousness in accepting statements and making decisions4 ,,conditions ,,under ,,which ,,experiments ,,should ,,be ,,performed #a4 ,they should be introduced into the school work naturally1 as answers to questions which arise either in the regular course of the work or from suggestions made by the teacher at appropriate times4 #b4 ,as far as possible1 the pupils should assist in performing the experiment4 ,in small rural schools the scarcity of apparatus will necessitate the teacher's doing most of the work4 ,in ,form ,v classes and ,continuation ,schools the pupils may do the experiments individually4 #c4 ,the bearing of an experiment is not always evident2 the teacher must be ready with judicious questions to lead the class to the proper conclusions4 #d4 ,the pupils must be acquainted with all the apparatus used4 ,they must know what the teacher is doing and must be near enough to see the result4 #e4 ,a problem may be suggested1 and a few days allowed for the pupils to think out a means of solution4 ,if they invent and make their own apparatus1 so much the better4 #f4 ,whenever possible1 the experiment should be applied to some natural phenomenon or everyday occurrence4 ,,correlations ,,of ,,physical ,,science ,,phase ,geography4--,the value of ,physical ,science in the ,elementary ,school is largely due to the light it throws on geographical data4 ,numerous examples will appear in the succeeding pages4 ,hygiene4--,experiments in carbon dioxide1 oxygen1 air1 water1 sound1 and light1 are absolutely necessary1 if the children are to grasp with any degree of clearness the principles of respiration and ventilation1 and the phenomena of hearing and seeing4 ,manual ,training4--,many pieces of apparatus may be made by the boys in their work with wood or iron4 ,some of the elementary principles of chemistry enable the girls to do their cooking intelligently4 ,a knowledge of some of the principles of machines will help the pupils to understand the tools they may use in any employment4 ,drawing4--,careful drawing of the apparatus used helps to fix the experiment in the mind and at the same time gives practice in art4 ,composition4--,pupils must have ideas before they can write4 ,the description of the experiment will make a good composition exercise1 oral or written4 ,,list ,,of ,,reference ,,books ,,and ,,bulletins ,,garden ,,and ,,plant ,,study ,bulletins of the ,ontario ,department of ,agriculture1 ,toronto4 ,bulletins of the ,dominion ,department of ,agriculture1 ,ottawa4 ,improvement of ,school ,grounds4 ,department of ,education1 ,toronto4 ,atkinson4 ,first ,studies of ,plant ,life4 ,ginn ,co4 #fj cents4 ,bailey4 ,manual of ,gardening4 ,macmillan ,co4 #b4jj4 ,blanchan4 ,nature's ,garden4 ,doubleday ,co4 #b4jj4 ,comstock1 ,a4 ,m4 ,handbook of ,nature ,study4 ,comstock ,pub4 ,co4 #c4be4 ,gray4 ,field1 ,forest1 and ,garden ,botany4 ,amer4 ,book ,co4 #a4dj4 ,green1 ,louise4 ,among ,school ,gardens4 ,charities ,pub4 ,co4 #a4be4 ,hodge4 ,nature ,study and ,life4 ,ginn ,co4 #a4ej4 ,holtz4 ,nature ,study4 ,scribners' ,sons4 #a4ej4 ,jackson and ,dougherty4 ,agriculture through the ,laboratory and ,school ,garden4 ,judd4 #a4ej4 ,james4 ,agriculture4 ,appleton ,co4 #hj cents4 ,keeler4 ,our ,native ,trees4 ,scribners' ,sons4 #b4jj4 ,osterhout4 ,experiments with ,plants4 ,macmillan ,co4 #a4ej4 ,parsons4 ,how to ,plan the ,home ,grounds4 ,doubleday ,co4 #a4jj4 ,sergeant4 ,corn ,plants4 ,houghton1 ,mifflin ,co4 #ge cents4 ,,physical ,,science ,miller4 ,minerals and ,how ,they ,occur4 ,the ,copp1 ,clark ,co4 #a4ej4 ,milliken and ,gale4 ,first ,course in ,physics4 ,ginn ,co4 #b4jj4 ,newman4 ,laboratory ,exercises4 ,ginn ,co4 #aj;c4 each4 ,remsen4 ,college ,chemistry4 ,am4 ,pub4 ,co4 #b4ej4 ,simmons and ,syenhouse4 ,science of ,common ,life4 ,the ,macmillan ,company1 #a4jj4 ,woodhull4 ,home-made ,apparatus4 ,high ,school ,text-books4 ,,animal ,,study ,bulletin ,no4 #eb4 ,dominion ,department of ,agriculture1 ,ottawa4 ,bulletin ,no4 #acd4 ,ontario ,department of ,agriculture1 ,toronto4 ,bulletin ,no4 #afa4 ,ontario ,department of ,agriculture1 ,toronto4 ,bulletin ,no4 #abd4 ,ontario ,department of ,agriculture1 ,toronto4 ,reports of ,entomological ,society of ,ontario4 ,department of ,education4 ,fishes of ,ontario4 ,nash4 ,department of ,education4 ,bailey and ,coleman4 ,first ,course in ,biology4 ,the ,macmillan ,company4 #a4be4 ,buchanan4 ,senior ,country ,reader4 ,the ,macmillan ,company4 #dj cents4 ,chapman4 ,bird ,life4 ,appleton4 #b4jj4 ,crawford4 ,guide to ,nature ,study4 ,the ,copp1 ,clark ,co4 #ij cents4 ,dearness4 ,how to ,teach the ,nature ,study ,course4 ,the ,copp1 ,clark ,co4 #fj cents4 ,jordan and ,kellogg4 ,animal ,life4 ,appleton ,co4 #a4bj4 ,kellogg4 ,elementary ,zoology4 ,holt ,co4 #a4ce4 ,reed4 ,bird ,guide--,parts ,i and ,,ii4 ,musson ,book ,co41 ,toronto4 #dj cents each4 ,shaler4 ,domesticated ,animals4 ,scribners' ,sons4 #b4ej4 ,silcox and ,stevenson4 ,modern ,nature ,study4 ,the ,macmillan ,company4 #ge cents4 ,,note4--,the bulletins named above are supplied free to schools4 ,chemical and ,physical ,apparatus and ,entomological ,supplies may be obtained from ,g4 ,m4 ,hendry ,co41 ,victoria ,street1 ,toronto4 ,rocks and ,minerals may be obtained from the ,ward ,natural ,science establishment1 ,rochester1 or from the ,central ,scientific ,co41 ,chicago4 ,,physical ,,science ,,forms ,,iii ,,and ,,iv ,,desirable ,,apparatus #a lb4 glass tubing in #c ft4 lengths #c_/af in4 to #a_/d in4 outside diameter4 #f ,florence flasks1 #d oz4 to #h oz4 4#ej #a ,funnel1 #c in4 diameter 4#aj #a ,beaker1 #h oz4 4#aj #a ,evaporating dish 4#aj #c ft4 pure gum rubber tubing #a_/h in4 inside 4#be #a_/b sq4 foot thin sheet rubber 4#bj #a doz4 test-tubes #f in4 by #e_/h in4 4#bj #a_/b doz4 test-tubes #f in4 by #g_/h in4 4#aj ,capillary glass tubing1 #c sizes 4#aj #b rubber stoppers ,no4 #b1 one hole #a #d1 #a #g1 two holes 4#cj #b watch glasses 4#aj ,ball and ring #a4jj #b ,dry cells 4#fj #b ,bar magnets 4#ej #a ,chemical thermometer #bab deg4 ,f4 to #j deg4 ,f4 4#dj #a ,spirit-lamp 4#bj #a ,retort1 #d oz4 stoppered 4#ae ,wax candles 4#aj ,retort stand of iron1 two rings 4#he #a ,thistle tube 4#aj ,common corks1 assorted 4#aj ,filter paper #e in4 diameter 4#je ,test-tube holder 4#aj ,test-tube rack 4#aj ,test-tube cleaner 4#aj #a piece glass tubing #cj in4 long1 #a_/d in4 inside1 for barometer 4#bj #a clamp for closing rubber tube 4#aj ,covered copper wire 4#aj ,small compass 4#ej ,glass model of common pump #a4jj ,globe for weighing air #b4ej ,small piece of platinum foil1 #a_/b in4 by #b in4 4#be ,glass prism #fj 4#ej ,tuning fork #d-a_/b in4 4#ej ,electric bell 4#ej ,motor 7,ajax7 #a4ej ,balance #aj4jj ,air-pump #ae4jj ,iron wire gauze 4#je ,sheet metals1 iron1 copper1 zinc1 lead1 aluminum 4#be #b lamp chimneys1 straight ones preferred1 at #aj;c 4#bj ,iron ball1 #b in4 in diameter 4#bj #b dairy thermometers at #ae;c 4#cj ,,chemicals ,sulphuric acid1 #a lb4 4#aj ,hydrochloric acid1 #h oz4 4#aj ,nitric acid1 #d oz4 4#aj ,washing soda 4#je ,sugar 4#je ,salt 4#je ,blue vitriol 4#aj ,alum 4#je ,saltpetre 4#je ,sulphur 4#je ,potass4 permanganate 4#je ,lime 4#je ,plaster-paris 4#je ,potass4 bichromate 4#aj ,methylated spirits1 #a pt4 4#aj ,alcohol1 #ie 4#aj ,iodine crystals 4#aj ,mercury1 #a lb4 #a4jj ,pot4 chlorate 4#ae ,manganese dioxide 4#aj ,phosphorus 4#aj ,sweet oil1 #b oz4 4#aj ,benzine1 #b oz4 4#aj ,the following tools will be found very valuable3 saw1 square1 plane1 brace and bit1 knife1 hammer1 glass cutter1 files--round1 flat1 and triangular4 ,where the circumstances will not allow of the purchase of the preceding list1 the following apparatus is recommended as sufficient for the performance of a large number of the experiments3 #a_/b lb4 glass tubing in #c ft4 lengths1 #c_/af in4 and #a_/d in4 outside 4#bj #b ,florence flasks1 #d oz4 4#ae #a ,funnel 4#aj #b ft4 pure gum rubber tubing1 #a_/h in4 inside 4#ae #a_/b doz4 test-tubes assorted1 #e_/h to #g_/h diameter1 #f in4 long 4#bj #b rubber stoppers1 ,no4 #b1 one hole 4#aj #a rubber stopper1 ,no4 #d1 one hole 4#aj ,expansion of heat apparatus 7made at blacksmith's7 4#aj ,common corks1 assorted 4#aj #a chemical thermometer #j deg4 ,f4 to #bab deg4 ,f4 4#dj #a spirit-lamp1 #d oz4 4#aj #a thistle tube 4#aj ,covered wire1 copper 4#aj ,,chemicals ,iodine crystals 4#aj ,sulphuric acid1 #a lb4 4#aj ,methylated spirits #a pt4 4#bj ,alcohol1 #ie 4#aj ,mercury1 #a_/b lb4 4#ej ,pot4 chlorate 4#ae ,manganese dioxide 4#aj ,the following may be obtained1 for either list1 at little or no cost from household stores or home-made sources3 washing soda1 sugar1 salt1 ammonia1 coal1 coke1 saltpetre1 sulphur1 blue vitriol1 alum1 potass4 bichromate1 blueing1 lime1 pickle-jars1 wire gauze1 candles1 wire1 sheet metals1 test-tube holder and rack1 balance1 battery cells1 horse-shoe magnet1 pneumatic trough1 lamp chimneys1 tin cans1 melting spoon1 bicycle pump1 baking-powder4 ,for home-made apparatus1 consult ,laboratory ,exercises in ,physics by ,newman1 ,ginn ,co41 #ej;c41 and ,manual on ,manual ,training4 ,reference has been made in the preceding experiments to the use of simple and easily contrived apparatus4 ,the more of this the pupils can contrive and make under the direction of the teacher1 the more valuable will be the course in ,physical ,science4 ,,grenet ,,cells ,into a pint gem-jar put water #aj parts1 sulphuric acid #a part1 potass1 bichromate #a part4 ,have jar three quarters full4 ,cut a piece of board #d in4 square1 bore two holes in it1 and through the holes thrust two pieces of electric light carbon1 #e in4 or #f in4 long4 ,the outer edges of the carbons should not be more than two inches apart4 ,with a saw1 cut a slit in the board between the holes and insert a strip of zinc #b in4 by #g in4 previously rubbed over with mercury4 ,set the three elements in the jar1 connect the two carbons to one wire1 and the zinc to another4 ,one cell of this kind will run a small motor1 operate a telegraph sounder1 make a simple electro-magnet1 or ring an electric bell2 two cells will decompose water3 three will heat a piece of fine iron wire red-hot4 ,,decomposition ,,apparatus #a4 ,cut the neck end from a pickle bottle4 ,get a ,no4 #a stopper1 7rubber7 with two holes in it and insert a piece of platinum foil #b in4 by #a_/h in4 into each hole so that #a_/b in4 projects above and below4 ,insert a tight plug beside each strip1 thus holding it fast and making the stopper watertight4 ,insert the stopper into the neck of the jar4 ,pour into the vessel thus formed enough water to cover the platinums1 and add a few drops of sulphuric acid4 ,touch the wires from the battery to the lower ends of the strips4 ,note bubbles of gas arise from the platinums4 ,these may be collected in test-tubes and found by test to be oxygen and hydrogen4 #b4 ,fasten a strip of platinum #a in4 by #a_/h in4 to each wire from the battery and dip these into some acidulated water contained in a tumbler4 ,the decomposition of the water into two gases can be seen1 but the gases cannot be collected so readily as in #a above4 ,bits of electric light carbon will do instead of platinum if the current is not too weak4 ,,pneumatic ,,trough ,when oxygen or other gas is to be collected over water1 use a milk pan or similarly shaped vessel4 ,,spirit-,,lamp ,use an ink-bottle to contain the alcohol and several strands of string for the wick2 make a hole in a piece of tin and draw the wick through2 then let the tin rest on the neck of the bottle to support the wick4 ,,barometer ,a siphon barometer takes less mercury than a cistern barometer4 ,to the open end of the barometer tube attach a piece of strong rubber tubing #d in4 long and to this a piece of glass tubing #c in4 long4 ,fill the tube thus formed with mercury to within #c in4 from the top4 ,holding the short glass tube open end up1 turn the long tube closed end up4 7,a tube of #a_/h in4 bore needs only one quarter of the mercury required to fill a tube #a_/d in4 bore47 ,,hygrometer ,for a hygrometer1 suspend two dairy thermometers side by side against the wall1 cover the bulb of one with thin muslin1 and let the muslin hang down and dip into water in some small vessel placed about three inches below the bulb on a little shelf4 ,,hints ,to avoid explosions1 a spirit-lamp should be kept filled4 ,toy rubber balloons answer well for sheet rubber4 ,red ink makes good colouring matter4 ,make touch-paper by soaking any porous paper in a solution of saltpetre1 and drying it4 ,instead of bending glass tubes1 join them with rubber tubing4 ,to make a test-tube holder1 fold a sheet of paper until it is about half an inch wide and wrap this around the tube4 ,to bend glass tubing1 hold in the flame of the spirit-lamp and rotate between the fingers till it becomes soft and flexible1 remove from the flame1 and bend4 ,to break glass tubing1 first scratch with a file4 ,to break glass bottles1 make neatly a deep cut with a file1 then touch the glass near the cut with a red-hot wire4 ,when a crack appears1 move the hot wire and the crack will follow4 ,several heatings may be necessary4 ,in the case of a heavy glass bottle1 file the cut as before1 wrap the bottle with string dipped in alcohol1 light it1 and after it has burned1 plunge the bottle vertically into cold water4 ,melted paraffin is good for closing small leaks4 ,,time ,,apportioned ,,to ,,nature ,,study ,the ,nature ,study lesson should be given a definite place on the time-table4 ,it is recommended that each class should have at least one lesson of fifteen minutes in length1 a week4 ,in addition to this1 about five minutes a week should be spent in assigning problems for out-of-door work and in discussing the observations which the pupils have made on problems previously assigned4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,form ,i ,,autumn ,,garden ,,work ,on the re-opening of school after the summer holidays1 the pupils should see that their plots are put into good order without delay4 ,if they have been neglected during the holidays1 a good deal of attention will be needed1 and in some cases it may not be possible to reclaim them because of prolonged neglect4 ,if such plots are found1 they should be cleaned off completely1 spaded up1 and left in readiness for planting the following spring4 ,all plots should be cultivated throughout the month of ,september to keep the soil mellow and prevent the growth of weeds4 ,the pupils should be allowed to pick flowers from their own plots1 but should always leave a few in bloom for the sake of the general appearance of the garden4 ,paths should be kept clean1 and all rubbish1 weeds1 dead plants1 etc41 removed to the compost heap1 which should be in the least conspicuous part of the garden4 ,hoes1 rakes1 and claw-hand weeders should be used in cleaning up and cultivating the plots4 ,the soil should be kept fine and loose on top to prevent drying out4 ,,lessons ,,on ,a ,,garden ,,plant ,,pansy ,,lesson ,i ,materials4--,a flower for each pupil ,a plant set into a flower-pot ,a leaf for each pupil ,a pile of leaves containing a few pansy leaves and several of other kinds4 ,introduction4--,a conversation with the pupils about their favourite flowers4 ,observations4--,the pansy flowers are now distributed and the general form of the flower is first noted4 ,the resemblance to the face of an animal will be discovered4 ,the name corolla is given1 but no other botanical terms are to be introduced in this lesson4 ,the details of colours1 perfumes1 velvety feeling of the corolla1 and the number of leaflets in it are next discovered and described by the pupils4 ,lastly1 in a withering flower they discover the seed cases and the little seeds4 ,,lesson ,,ii ,the conception of the relationship between the flower1 root1 and stem is developed by a method similar to the following3 ,what soon happens to a pansy flower after it is broken from the plant8 ,are the flowers that you have in your hands withering8 ,how can you keep them from withering8 ,hence1 what must the flower get from the stem8 ,where does the stem get the moisture8 ,hence1 what is one use of the root8 ,a pupil is asked to pull the plant out of the soil in the flower-pot4 ,what is another use that you have discovered for the root8 ,the plant is now uprooted from the soil1 and the pupils examine the root to find how it is fitted for gathering water and food from the soil and for holding the plant in place4 ,note the number of branches touching a great deal of soil and also the twisted form of the roots for grasping the soil4 ,the form of the leaves is studied by the pupils1 and1 as a test of the accuracy of their observation1 they are asked to pick out the pansy leaves from the pile of leaves4 ,to the teacher4--,the pupils must be active participants in the lesson4 ,they must use their eyes1 hands1 and even their noses in gaining first-hand impressions1 and they are to be required to express in their own way the things that they discover4 ,the beautiful flower with its face like that of an animal is an appeal to the child's imagination1 and the child's interest in the use of things is utilized in the study of the relations of root1 stem1 and flower4 ,this lesson may be used as the basis for busy work by means of the following correlations3 #a4 ,with art3 ,represent the flower in colours4 #b4 ,with reading and literature3 ,the pupils are required to express the meaning and sentiment of the following stanza3 ,the pansy wakes in early spring ,to make our world more bright2 ,all summer long its happy face ,fills children with delight1 ,lessons similar to those on the pansy may be based upon the following plants of the garden or field3 dandelion1 aster1 buttercup1 nasturtium1 goldenrod4 ,the teacher in preparing the lesson should read a description of the plant from a ,nature ,study book and should also study the plant itself until he is familiar with all the phases of its life4 ,,observation ,,exercises ,,on ,,the ,,dandelion ,the exercises given below are suggestive for out of school observation work1 but must not be too long4 ,by way of preparation for an exercise of this kind1 the interest of the pupils in the dandelion must first be aroused4 ,,first ,,exercise ,the teacher places the pupils at the school windows from which dandelions are visible and asks them to name any flower that they can see4 ,a short conversation about the brightness of the flower follows4 ,the pupils are next instructed to3 #a4 ,find dandelions late in the evening1 and find out how they prepare to go to sleep and how they are tucked in for the night4 #b4 ,find where the leaves of the dandelion are1 and bring a leaf to school next morning1 and also observe how the leaves are grouped or placed4 ,to the teacher4--,dandelion flowers close up in the evening2 the green leaves beneath the head wrap closely around the flowers to form a snug covering4 ,the leaves have margins with teeth shaped like those of a lion1 and from this the plant gets its name1 for the name is the ,french dent de lion1 which is pronounced very much like the word dandelion4 ,the use of the leaf cluster as a system of rain-spouts for guiding the rain toward the root should be noted4 ,,second ,,exercise #a4 ,why is the dandelion easy to find8 #b4 ,what makes it easy to find even in long grass8 #c4 ,what insect friends visit the dandelion8 #d4 ,find out just how these visitors act during their visits1 and find whether they carry anything to or away from the flowers4 ,to the teacher4--,the bright yellow colour of the dandelion attracts attention4 ,when it grows in long grass1 the flower stalk grows long1 so that the flower surmounts its obstructions and climbs up to the sunshine4 ,the flowers are visited by ants1 bees1 and wasps1 and these may be seen burrowing into the flowers in search of honey4 ,if their bodies and legs be touched1 the yellow pollen of the flowers will be found sticking to them4 ,,third ,,exercise #a4 ,look for flower heads that do not open to the sun4 ,do not disturb them1 but watch them for a few days and find out what they become4 #b4 ,examine the large white balls of the dandelions and find out what they are4 #c4 ,blow the down away4 ,what does it carry with it8 ,to the teacher4--,in this exercise the pupils will learn that the large white balls are the mature1 or ripened1 flowers and are composed of little brown seeds1 each being a little airship for wafting it away4 ,,correlation ,,with ,,literature ,,and ,,reading ,when the above exercises have been completed1 the pupil's knowledge of the dandelion may be utilized in interpreting the following stanzas3 ,oh dandelion6 yellow as gold1 ,what do you do all day8 ,i just wait here in the tall green grass ,till the children come to play4 ,and what do you do when your hair is white ,and the children come to play8 ,they take me up in their dimpled hands ,and blow my hair away4 ,in addition to the dandelion1 the following plants are suitable for observation exercises3 morning-glory1 wild balsam1 sweet-pea1 snap-dragon1 nasturtium4 ,,dwarf ,,nasturtium ,observations4--,the size of the plant at the time of flowering2 its leaves--size1 colour1 shape1 length of petiole and how arranged2 colours found in the flower1 comparison with others of same species found in the garden2 size and shape of the flower and the length of its stems4 ,do the flowers grow higher than the leaves8 ,do they look better when with the leaves or when alone8 ,note the perfume and taste of the flower stem1 the insect visitors1 and what part of the flower they tried to get at1 when the first blossom was seen1 and how long the blossoms continued to come out4 ,do they keep well in bouquets8 ,do they stand hot1 dry weather as well as other flowers8 ,when did the frost kill them8 ,compare with the climbing nasturtium4 ,find the seeds4 ,,seeds ,the autumn months are the best for seed studies1 for almost all annuals are ripening their seeds at this time of year4 ,,field ,,exercise ,assign to the pupils the following exercise3 ,collect the seed pods from as many plants of your garden plots1 or home gardens1 or wild plants1 as possible1 and be careful to write the name of each plant on the paper in which you put the seed pod of that plant4 ,notice the part of the plant from which the seed pod is formed4 ,,class-,,room ,,lesson ,,based ,,on ,,this ,,collection ,the pupils place the seed pods on their desks1 and observations and problems are dealt with of which the following are representative3 ,how does each seed case open8 ,what are the seeds for8 ,how many seeds are in each case8 ,why should a plant have so many seeds8 ,how are the seed cases fitted for protecting the seeds8 ,are any two seeds alike in shape8 ,are the seeds easy to find if they are spilled upon the ground8 ,what makes them hard to find8 ,where do nearly all seeds spend the winter8 ,of what use is the hard shell of the seed8 ,,seed ,,dispersal ,study only a few of the more striking examples of seed dispersal with the ,form ,i class4 ,seeds that fly and seeds that steal rides are good examples of classes of seeds whose methods of dispersal will prove of interest to children4 ,,lesson ,,on ,,seeds ,,that ,,fly ,materials4--,a milkweed pod2 a ripe dandelion head4 ,introduction4--,a short conversation about the effects of the crowding of plants1 as carrots and turnips1 in a garden plot1 and hence the need for the scattering of seeds4 ,observations4--,open a milkweed pod in the presence of the class1 so that they may see how the pod opens1 how beautifully the seeds are arranged1 and how the silk tufts are so closely packed in together4 ,allow a pupil to lift a seed out1 blow it in the air1 and observe how the silk opens out like an umbrella4 ,distribute seeds1 one to each pupil4 ,ask the pupils to find out why this little airship is able to carry the seed4 ,they will find that the seeds though broad1 are thin and light1 and the silky plumes very light4 ,ask the pupils to release their milkweed seeds at recess1 when out of school1 and find out how far they can fly4 ,this is an interesting experiment for a windy day4 ,the white balls of the dandelion are next examined1 the tiny seeds are found standing on tiptoe on a raised platform1 each grasping a tiny parachute and waiting for a puff of wind to start them off4 ,a pupil is permitted to give the puff4 ,seeds are distributed1 and the means of flight is compared with that of the milkweed4 ,the shape of the seeds is observed and also the tiny anchor points at the lower end of the seed for clutching the ground when the seed alights4 ,another lesson on seeds that fly can be based on the study of tree seeds1 using those of the maple1 elm1 basswood1 pine1 and spruce4 ,,correlations #a4 ,drawing of milkweed pods and seeds1 and drawing of the dandelion seed-ball and the seeds when floating in the air4 #b4 ,reading and literature4 ,interpret the thought and read expressively3 ,dainty milkweed babies1 wrapped in cradles green1 ,rocked by ,mother ,nature1 fed by hands unseen1 ,brown coats have the darlings1 slips of milky white1 ,and wings1 but that's a secret1 they're folded out of sight4 ,,twigs ,,and ,,buds ,the study of buds is a part of tree study and may be taken as observation work in the class-room4 ,this somewhat detailed study should follow the general lessons on tree study4 ,the materials for the lessons may be collected by the pupils at the time of the field lesson and kept fresh in a jar of water until required for use4 ,,lesson ,,on ,,twigs ,materials4--,a twig of horse-chestnut about six inches long1 for each pupil4 ,a twig of the same tree with the leaves still on it4 ,observations4--,the twigs are distributed and the teacher asks the pupils to examine them and to describe all marks and projections that can be found on the twig4 ,answers are required from the pupils separately4 ,the pupil's answer in each case should be sufficiently clear for all the class to recognize the feature that the answer is intended to describe4 ,a few brief questions will guide the answerer in making his description more definite1 but the description should be the result of the pupil's observation and expressed in his own words4 ,the meaning or use of each feature should be discussed1 when possible1 immediately after it has been described4 ,the following features will be discovered and the problems suggested will be solved3 ,the brown or greenish-brown bark4 ,the buds4 ,one bud 7sometimes two7 is at the end of the twig4 ,some buds are along the side of the twig4 ,what caused the end bud to grow larger than the others8 ,there is a leaf scar under each bud4 ,of what use is it to the bud to be between the twig and the leaf stalk8 ,the bands of rings1 one or more on each twig4 ,the tiny oval pores1 each surrounded by a little raised band4 ,the detailed study of the buds is left for a separate lesson4 ,,further ,,study ,,of ,,twigs ,the study in detail of various features is illustrated in the following3 ,look closely at the leaf scars and describe them fully1 as to shape1 colour1 and marks4 ,do the scars look like fresh wounds1 or are they healed over8 ,of what use to the tree is the healing of the scar8 ,we will learn later that the part of the twig between each pair of bands of rings represents one year's growth4 ,how old is your twig8 ,who has the oldest twig8 ,do all twigs grow at the same rate8 ,who has the twig that had the most rapid growth8 ,to the teacher4--,the bud at the end of the twig or its branches is called the end bud2 there are two leaf scars underneath it4 ,the buds along the sides of the stem are called side buds1 the latter are smaller than the end bud4 ,the bud situated between the stem of the leaf and the twig is in a sheltered position4 ,this position also puts the bud close to the pantry door1 for the plant food is prepared in the leaf4 ,the leaf scars are yellowish-brown1 or if they are the scars from the leaves of former years1 are dark brown in colour4 ,each scar is shaped like a horse-shoe and tiny dots are found in the position that the horse-shoe nails would have4 ,even before the leaf falls1 a layer of corklike substance has formed over the scar4 ,this layer is a protection against the entrance of frost and rain and germs of fungi and it also prevents the loss of sap from the scar4 ,the tiny oval pores1 each as large as the point of a needle1 are the breathing pores of the twig4 ,the bands of rings are the scars of the scales of the end buds of successive years4 ,this latter fact can be discovered when the bud is opening4 ,,review ,,lesson ,the review lesson should consist of a review of the points taken up in the lessons that were based on the horse-chestnut twig1 supplemented by the examination of the twigs of elm1 apple1 or lilac4 ,,lesson ,,on ,,buds ,materials4--,twigs and buds of horse-chestnut1 one for each pupil4 ,an opening bud4 7,a bud or a twig placed in water in a warm room will develop rapidly47 ,lesson4--,distribute specimens1 and review the positions of the buds4 ,pupils examine the buds and tell all they can about them4 ,they describe the colour1 shape1 and size of the buds1 and also their gummy and scalelike covering4 ,of what use are the gum and scales8 ,of what use is the brown colour of the bud8 ,they next find out what is inside the little brown house4 ,they open the buds and try to identify the contents4 ,there will be some uncertainty as to the meaning of the contents4 ,leave this over till spring4 ,to the teacher4--,the brown colour of the bud makes it an absorbent of sunlight1 and also serves as a protection from observation by the sharp eyes of bud-eating birds4 ,the gummy scales are waterproof1 and the scales1 by spreading open gradually1 cause the waterproof property to be retained even after the bud has grown quite large4 ,the inner part of the bud is composed of two1 four1 or six tiny leaves folded up and supported on a short bit of stem4 ,some of the buds have1 in addition to leaves1 a tiny young flower cluster4 ,all of these things are densely covered with white down4 ,the down is the fur coat to protect the tender parts from the cold4 ,,review ,,lesson ,review the lesson on buds1 but substitute buds of the lilac or apple for the horse-chestnut buds of the original lesson4 ,,correlations ,the observational study of the buds and twigs is a good preparation for busy work in art and manual training1 and the pupils may be assigned exercises1 such as charcoal drawing of a horse-chestnut twig1 paper cutting of a lilac twig and buds1 clay or plasticine modelling of twigs and buds4 ,for oral and written language exercises1 enlarge the vocabulary of the pupils by requiring sentences containing the words--scales1 twigs1 buds1 protection1 terminal1 lateral1 leaf stalk1 blade1 etc4 ,,leaves ,leaves1 because of their abundance and the ease with which they may be obtained1 are valuable for ,nature ,study work4 ,it is possible to arouse the interest of even young children in the study of leaves1 but care must be taken not to make the observation work too minute and the descriptions too technical for the primary classes4 ,,field ,,exercises ,an excursion to the school grounds or to some neighbouring park will suffice to bring the pupils into direct contact with the following plants3 a maple tree1 a ,boston ivy 7or other climbing vine71 a nasturtium1 a geranium4 ,ask the pupils to find out where and how leaves are placed on each of these plants1 that is1 whether they are on the inner parts of the branches of the tree or out at the ends of the branches4 ,do the leaves overlap one another or does each make room for its neighbours8 ,are the leaves spread out flat or curled up8 ,what holds the leaves out straight and flat8 ,what do the leaves need to make them green and healthy8 ,are the leaves placed in the right way1 and are they of the right form to get these things8 ,to the teacher4--,the leaves of the plants named are quite noticeably so placed on the plants1 have such relations to one another1 and are of such outline that they present the greatest possible surface to the air and sunshine and rain4 ,the leaf stalk and midrib and veins are stiff and strong to keep the leaves spread out4 ,compare with the ribs of an umbrella4 ,the benefit of sunshine to leaves and plants can be developed by discussing with the pupils the paleness and delicateness of plants that have been kept in a dark place1 such as in a dark cellar4 ,they are also acquainted with the refreshing effect of rains upon leaves4 ,the use of air to the leaves is not so easy to develop with pupils of this age1 but the use of air for breathing just as boys and girls need air for breathing may be told them4 ,,class-,,room ,,lesson ,,on ,,leaves ,introduction4--,tell me all the things that you know upon which leaves grow4 ,on trees1 bushes1 flowers1 plants1 vegetables1 etc4 ,are leaves all of the same shape8 ,to-day we are going to learn the names of some of the shapes of leaves4 ,observations4--,show the class the heart-shaped leaf of catalpa or lilac1 and obtain from the pupils the name heart-shape4 ,use the following types3 ,maple leaf as star-shape1 ,grass or wheat or corn as ribbon-shape1 ,nasturtium or water-lily as shield-shape1 ,ash or rowan1 as feather-shape4 ,drill4--,pupils pick out the shape named4 ,pupils name the plant to which each belongs4 ,which shape do you think is the prettiest8 ,,garden ,,studies ,if the pupils of this ,form have planted and cared for garden plots of their own1 they will have a greater love for the flowers or vegetables that grow in them than for any others in the garden1 because they have watched their development throughout4 ,for them such continuous observation cannot but result in a quickening of perception and a deepening of interest and appreciation4 ,,studies ,,in ,,the ,,pupil',s ,,individual ,,plot ,what plant is the first to appear above ground8 ,what plant is the last to appear8 ,describe what each plant was like when it first appeared above ground4 ,what plants grow the fastest8 ,what effect has cold weather1 warm weather1 dry weather1 on the growth of the plants8 ,what weeds grow in the plot8 ,why do these weeds obstruct the growth of the other plants8 ,what kind of root has each weed8 ,find out what kind of seeds each weed produces8 ,why is each weed hard to keep out of fields8 ,what garden plants produce flowers8 ,how are the seeds protected8 ,compare the seeds with those that you planted4 ,select the seeds of the largest plants and finest flowers for next year's seeding4 ,,studies ,,from ,,the ,,garden ,,as ,a ,,whole ,what plants grow tallest8 ,what plants are most suitable for borders8 ,what plants are valuable for their flowers8 ,what plants are valuable for their edible roots1 for their edible leaves1 for their edible seeds8 ,how are the edible parts stored for winter use8 ,compare the plants that are crowded1 with others of the same kind that are not crowded4 ,compare the rate of growth of the plants in a plot that is kept hoed and raked with the rate of growth of plants in a neglected plot4 ,,bulb ,,planting ,the planting of bulbs in pots for winter blooming should be commenced with pupils in ,form ,i and continued in the higher ,forms4 ,as a rule1 the potted bulbs will be stored and cared for in the home1 as most school-rooms are not heated continuously during the winter4 ,paper-white narcissus and freesia are most suitable and should be planted about the fifteenth of ,october1 so that the plants will be in bloom for ,christmas4 ,,lesson ,,on ,,bulbs ,,and ,,bulb ,,planting ,materials4--,the bulbs to be planted4 ,as many four-inch flower-pots or tomato cans as are required4 ,soil1 composed of garden loam1 sand1 and well-rotted manure in equal proportions4 ,stones for drainage4 ,sticks for labels 7smooth pieces of shingle1 one and a half inches wide and sharpened at one end1 will answer74 ,pictures of the plants in bloom4 ,observations4--,the attention of the pupils is directed to the bulbs1 and they are asked to describe the size1 form1 and colour of each kind of bulb4 ,a bulb is cut across to make possible the study of the parts1 and the pupils observe the scales or rings which are the bases of the leaves of the plant from which the bulb grew4 ,the use of the fleshy mass of the bulb as a store of food for the plant that will grow from it is discussed4 ,the sprout in the centre of the scales with its yellowish-green tip is observed1 and its meaning inferred4 ,the picture is shown to illustrate the possibilities within the bulb4 ,,planting ,,the ,,bulb ,the teacher directs1 but the work is done by the pupils1 and the reasons for the following operations are developed3 ,what is the use of the one-inch layer of pebbles1 or broken brick1 or stone1 that is placed in the bottom of the pot8 ,why are the bulbs planted near the top of the soil8 ,why is the soil packed firmly around the bulbs8 ,why must the soil be well wetted8 ,why is the pot set in a cool1 dark place for a month or more8 ,to the teacher4--,the pebbles or broken bricks are for giving drainage4 ,the bulbs are planted with their tips just showing above the surface of the soil and there is about half an inch of space between the top of the soil and the upper edge of the pot in order to facilitate watering4 ,the potted bulbs must be set in a cool1 dark place until they are well rooted4 ,this is subjecting them to their natural winter conditions1 and it will cause them to yield larger flowers1 a great number of flowers1 and flowers that are more lasting4 ,sand in the soil permits of the more free passing of air through the soil4 ,basements and cellars are usually suited for storing bulbs until they have rooted1 but they must not be warm enough to promote rapid growth4 ,the pots when stored should be covered with leaves1 sawdust1 or coarse sand to prevent drying out4 ,the soil must be kept moist1 but not wet4 ,paper-white narcissus1 if brought out of the dark after three or four weeks1 will be in bloom at the end of another month if kept in the window of a warm room4 ,care must be taken not to expose the plants to bright light until they have become green4 ,the bulbs of the white narcissus are to be thrown away after the flowers have withered1 as they will not bloom again1 but freesia bulbs may be kept and planted again the following year4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,form ,i ,,winter ,,lessons ,,on ,a ,,pet ,,animal3 ,,the ,,rabbit ,i ,the lesson is introduced by a conversation with the pupils about their various pets4 ,since we are to have a rabbit brought to the school we must learn how to take care of it1 and the proper method of taking care of it is based upon a knowledge of the habits of the wild rabbit4 ,where do wild rabbits live8 ,what sort of home does a rabbit have8 ,in what ways does this home protect the rabbit8 ,hence1 what kind of home must we have ready for the rabbit8 ,what does the rabbit eat8 ,are there any of these foods that are not good for its health8 ,give a list of foods that you can bring for the rabbit4 ,why will the rabbit1 when kept in a hutch1 require less food than one that runs about8 ,since the rabbit likes a soft bed1 what can you bring for its bed8 ,,ii ,observations4--,the teacher or a pupil brings a rabbit to the school-room1 where1 during recreation periods1 the pupils make observations on topics suggested by the teacher1 such as3 ,its choice of food2 its timidity2 its movements--hopping1 squatting1 listening1 scratching1 and gnawing4 ,these observations are discussed in the class and are corrected or verified4 ,to the teacher4--,wild rabbits live in the woods or in shrubbery at the edges of fields4 ,the home of the rabbit is either a burrow under ground or a sheltered place under a root or log closely concealed among the bushes4 ,this home is dry and affords a shelter from enemies1 and from wind1 rain1 and snow4 ,from this we know that we must provide a dry bed for our rabbit in a strong box in which it will feel secure1 and in which it will be protected from wind and rain4 ,the food of the rabbit consists of vegetables and soft young clover and grains4 ,it also gnaws the bark of trees1 and in winter it feeds upon buds4 ,we can1 therefore1 feed our rabbit on carrots1 beets1 apples1 oats1 bran1 grass1 and leaves of plants1 and we must provide it with some twigs to gnaw1 for gnawing helps to keep its large chisel-shaped teeth in good condition4 ,we must be careful not to give it too much exercise1 and we must not give it any cabbage1 because this is not good for the rabbit's health4 ,a dish of water must be placed in the hutch1 for the rabbit needs water to drink4 ,,iii ,details1 if studied in isolation1 are uninteresting to ,form ,i pupils4 ,detailed study should be based upon the animal's habits1 movements1 and instincts1 and each detail should be studied as an answer to questions such as3 ,how is the animal able to perform these movements8 ,how is the animal fitted for this habit of life1 etc48 ,watch the rabbit moving4 ,how does a rabbit move8 ,which legs are the more useful for hopping8 ,how are the hind legs fitted for making long hops8 ,why is the rabbit able to defend itself by kicking with its hind feet8 ,find out how the rabbit is fitted for burrowing4 ,listen carefully and find out whether the rabbit makes much noise while moving4 ,of what advantage is it to the rabbit to move silently8 ,find out1 by examining the feet of the rabbit1 what causes it to make very little noise4 ,how are rabbits prepared for living during cold weather8 ,test the ability of the rabbit to hear faint noises4 ,why is it necessary for the rabbit to be able to hear faint sounds8 ,how is it fitted for hearing faint sounds8 ,examine the teeth and find out how they are fitted for gnawing4 ,to the teacher4--,the long1 strong1 hind legs of the rabbit are bent in the form of levers and enable the animal to take long1 quick hops4 ,when the rabbit attacks1 it frequently defends itself by vigorous kicks with its hind feet1 which are armed with long1 strong claws4 ,ernest ,thompson-,seton's story of ,molly ,cottontail and ,raggylug1 in ,wild ,animals ,i ,have ,known1 contains an interesting account of how ,molly rescued ,raggy from a snake by this manner of fighting4 ,the rabbit has many enemies1 hence it has need of large1 movable ears to aid its acute sense of hearing4 ,the thick pads of hair on the soles of its feet enable it to move noiselessly4 ,the thick1 soft1 inner hair keeps the animal warm1 while the longer1 stiffer1 outer hair sheds the rain4 ,impress upon the pupils the cruelty of rough handling of the rabbit and of neglecting to provide it with a place for exercise and with a clean1 dry home4 ,the following pet animals may be studied1 using the same order and general method of treatment3 pigeon1 cat1 canary1 guinea pig1 white mouse1 raccoon1 squirrel1 parrot4 ,in many cases these animals can be brought to school by the pupils4 ,encourage the keeping of pet animals by the pupils1 for the best lessons grow out of the actual care of the pets4 ,the study of a pet bird may be conducted along lines similar to the outline given below for the study of the pigeon4 ,,correlations ,with literature and reading3 ,ernest ,thompson-,seton's ,raggylug4 ,with art3 ,charcoal drawing representing the rabbit in various attitudes1 as squatting1 listening1 hopping4 ,with modelling in clay or plasticine4 ,with paper cutting4 ,with language3 ,the vocabulary of the pupils is enlarged by the introduction of new words whose meaning is made clear by means of the concrete illustration furnished by direct observation of the rabbit4 ,they use these new words in sentences which they form in describing the rabbit2 for example3 hutch1 gnaw1 padded1 cleft lip1 timid4 ,the rabbit has padded feet so that it can walk without noise4 ,the rabbit has a soft bed in its hutch4 ,,the ,,domestic ,,cat ,the following facts are suggested as topics for a first lesson on the domestic cat4 ,the teacher can rely upon the pupil's knowledge of the cat to furnish these statements of fact during a conversation lesson3 ,the cat goes about at night as readily as during the day4 ,the cat can hear faint noises quite readily4 ,the cat can walk noiselessly4 ,the cat creeps along until it is close to its prey1 then pounces upon it1 and seizes it with its claws4 ,the cat enjoys attention and purrs if it is stroked gently4 ,the cat likes to sleep in a warm place4 ,the cat can fight viciously with her claws4 ,the cat keeps her fur smooth and clean and her whiskers well brushed with her paws4 ,the cat eats birds1 mice1 rats1 meat1 fish1 milk1 bread1 and cake4 ,,detailed ,,study ,base the study of the details upon the facts of habit1 movements1 instincts1 etc41 which were developed in the preceding lesson4 ,observations4--,find out how the cat's feet are fitted for giving a noiseless tread4 ,find the claws4 ,how are the claws fitted for seizing prey8 ,how are the claws protected from being made dull by striking against objects when the cat is walking8 ,,the ,,pigeon ,a pigeon is kept in a cage in the school-room and the pupils observe3 its size as compared with that of other birds2 outline of body1 including shape of head2 the feathers1 noting quill feathers1 and covering or contour feathers2 manner of feeding and drinking2 movements1 as walking1 flying1 tumbling4 ,the owner or the teacher describes the dove-cot1 the necessity of keeping it clean1 the use of tobacco stems for killing vermin in the nest1 the two white eggs1 the habits of male and female in taking turns in hatching1 the parents' habit of half digesting the food in their own crops and then pouring it into the crops of the young1 the rapid growth of the young1 the next pair of young hatched before the first pair is full-fledged4 ,descriptions of the habits of one or more well-known varieties--pouters1 fantails1 homing pigeons1 etc4 ,read stories of the training and flights of homing pigeons1 from ,ernest ,thompson-,seton's ,arnex4 ,,more ,,detailed ,,study ,,for ,,class ,,work ,compare the uses of the quill and contour feathers4 ,find out how these two kinds differ in texture2 the differences fitting them for their difference in function4 ,the names quill and contour may be replaced by some simple names1 as feathers for flying and feathers for covering the body4 ,study the adaptations for flight1 noting the smooth body surface1 the overlapping feathers of the wing for lifting the bird upward as the wing comes down1 the long wing bones1 the strong breast1 and the covering of feathers giving lightness and warmth4 ,the warmth and lightness of feathers is illustrated by the feather boas worn by ladies4 ,examine the feet and find out why pigeons are able to perch on trees4 ,examine the beak1 mouth1 tongue1 nostrils1 eyes1 ears4 ,how is the bill adapted for picking up grains and seeds8 ,,observation ,,and ,,care ,,of ,,winter-,,blooming ,,plants ,children are most interested in things which they own and care for themselves4 ,if a child plants a bulb or a slip and succeeds in bringing it to maturity1 it will be to him the most interesting and1 at the same time1 will bring him more into sympathy with plants wherever he may find them4 ,the teacher should impress upon the pupil the desirability of having beautiful flowers in the home in winter1 when there are none to be had out-of-doors4 ,every pupil should be encouraged to have one plant at least1 and the bulbs planted in ,october and stored away in the dark in the home cellar will require a good deal of care and afford an excellent opportunity for observing plant growth and the development of flowers4 ,if the pots have been stored in a cool cellar and have been kept slightly moist1 the bulbs will have made sufficient root growth in a month and should be brought up into a warmer room where they can get some sunshine every day4 ,the pupils will make a report each week as to what changes are noticeable in the growing plant4 ,they will note the appearance of pale green shoots1 which later develop into leaves and at least one flower stalk4 ,they should make a drawing once every week and show it to the teacher1 and the teacher should make it a point to see a number of the pupils' plants by calling at their homes4 ,in this way the pupils come to know what plants need for their development in the way of soil1 water1 light1 and heat4 ,this interest will soon be extended1 until1 in a very few years1 the children will add new and beautiful plants to the home collection and assume the responsibility of caring for all of them4 ,,trees ,,pines ,,of ,,the ,,locality ,this study may be commenced in ,november after the deciduous trees have lost their leaves and have entered their quiescent winter period4 ,this is the time when the evergreens stand out so prominently on the landscape in such sharp contrast with the others that have been stripped of their broad leaves and now look bare and lifeless4 ,if no pines are to be found in the vicinity1 balsam or spruce may be substituted4 ,the lessons should1 as far as possible1 be observational4 ,the pupils should be encouraged to make some observations for themselves out of school4 ,at least one lesson should be conducted out-of-doors1 a suitable pine tree having been selected beforehand for the purpose4 ,the following method might serve as a guide in the study of any species of tree4 ,,the ,,white ,,pine ,,field ,,exercises ,have the pupils observe the shape and height of the tree from a distance1 tracing the outline with the finger4 ,compare the shape of this tree with that of other evergreens and also with that of the broad-leafed trees4 ,have them describe in what particulars the shapes differ in different trees4 ,they will come to realize that the difference in shape results from difference in length1 direction1 and arrangement of branches4 ,they may notice that other evergreen trees resemble the pine in that the stems are all straight and extend as a gradually tapering shaft from the bottom to the top1 that all have a more or less conical shape1 and that the branches grow more or less straight out from the main stem1 not slanting off as in the case of the maples and elms4 ,coming close to the tree1 the pupils may first examine the trunk4 ,by using a string or tape-line1 find its diameter and how big it is around4 ,tell them how big some evergreens are 7the giant trees of the ,pacific ,coast are sometimes over forty feet around74 ,have them notice where the trunk is largest1 and let them find out why a tree needs to be so strong at the ground4 ,heavy wind puts a great strain on it just at this point4 ,illustrate by taking a long slat or lath1 drive it into the ground firmly1 and then1 catching it by the top1 push it over4 ,it will break off just at the ground4 ,if a little pine tree could be taken up1 the pupils would be interested in seeing what long1 strong1 fibrous roots the pine has4 ,let them examine the bark of the trunk and describe its colour and roughness4 ,the fissures in the bark1 which are caused by the enlarging of the tree by the formation of new wood under the bark1 are deeper at the bottom of the tree than at the top1 the tree being younger and the bark thinner the nearer to the top we go4 ,let the pupils look up into the tree from beneath and then go a little distance away and look at it4 ,they will notice how bare the branches are on the inside1 and the teacher will probably have to explain why this is so4 ,they will discover that the leaves are nearly all out toward the ends of the branches as they get light there1 while the centre of the tree top is shaded1 and the great question that every tree must try to solve is how to get most light for its leaves4 ,the pupils will now see an additional reason why the lower limbs should be longer than the upper ones4 ,the greater length of the lower limbs brings the leaves out into the sunlight4 ,the reason for calling this tree an evergreen may now be considered4 ,why it retains its leaves all winter is a problem for more advanced classes2 but if the question is asked1 the teacher may get over the difficulty by explaining to the class that the leaves are so small1 and yet so hardy1 that wind1 frost1 or snow does not injure them4 ,each pupil may bring a small branch or twig back to the school-room for use in a class-room lesson4 ,,class-,,room ,,lesson ,materials4--,small branches--one for each pupil1 cones1 bark1 pieces of pine board4 ,introduction4--,review the general features of the pine that were observed in the field lesson4 ,observations4--,the branches are distributed4 ,pupils test the strength and suppleness of the branches and find the gummy nature of the surface4 ,of what value are these qualities to the tree during winter storms8 ,examine the texture1 stiffness1 and fineness of the needles4 ,note that the needles are in little bunches4 ,how many are in each bunch8 ,are there any buds on the branches8 ,if so1 where are the buds8 ,how are the buds protected from rain8 ,the pupils examine the cones and describe their general shape4 ,the pupils are asked to break open the tough scales and find the seeds4 ,allow the seeds to fall through the air1 and thus the pupils will discover the use of the wings attached to the seeds4 ,the wood is next examined1 its colour and odour are noted1 and its hardness is tested4 ,find articles in the school-room that are made of pine wood4 ,,elm ,the following topics are suggested for aiding in the selection of matter for a lesson on a typical broad-leafed tree3 ,the height of the tree4 ,the part of the height that is composed of tree tops4 ,the umbrella shape or dome shape of the top4 ,the gracefully drooping branches of the outer part of the top4 ,try to find other trees with tops like that of the elm4 ,the diameter of the trunk4 ,the diameter is almost uniform up to the branches4 ,the branches all come off from one point1 like the ribs of an umbrella4 ,the thick bark1 that of the old trees being marked by deep furrows4 ,the birds that make their nests in the elm4 ,in spring find and examine the flowers1 fruits1 seeds1 and also the leaves4 ,,field ,,exercise ,a good out-of-door exercise to follow the general lesson outlined above1 is to require the pupils to find all the elm trees or a number of elm trees growing in the locality and to describe their location and the kind of soil on which they grow4 ,the maple1 oak1 horse-chestnut1 and apple are also suitable trees upon which to base lessons for ,form ,i4 ,,domestic ,,animals ,domestic animals not only furnish suitable subjects for observation work1 but also afford good opportunities for developing that sympathetic interest in animal life which will cause the pupils to more nearly appreciate the useful animals and to treat them more humanely4 ,,the ,,horse ,i ,introduction4--,by means of a conversation with the pupils1 find out what they know about the horse and lead them to think about his proper treatment4 ,lesson4--,the matter and method are suggested by the following3 ,what are the different things for which horses are useful8 ,what kinds of horses are most useful for hauling heavy loads8 ,why are they most useful8 ,what kinds are the most useful for general farm work8 ,why are they the most useful8 ,what kinds are the most useful for driving8 ,are there any other animals that would be as useful as the horse for all these things8 ,what causes some horses to be lean and weary while others are fat and brisk8 ,what kinds of stables should horses have as to warmth1 dryness1 and fresh air8 ,why is it cruel to put a frosty bit into a horse's mouth8 ,when a horse is warm from driving on a cold day1 how should he be protected if hitched out-of-doors8 ,why1 when he is warm from driving1 should the blanket not be put on until he has been in the stable for a little while8 ,correlate with reading from ,black ,beauty4 ,,ii ,preparation4--,i want you to find out some more things about the horse1 but you will understand these things better if you remember that long ago all horses were wild1 just as some horses are wild on the prairies to-day1 and that the habits learned by wild horses remain in our tame horses4 ,the teacher should read to the class parts of ,the ,pacing ,mustang from ,ernest ,thompson-,seton's ,wild ,animals ,i ,have ,known1 or ,kaweah's ,run from ,neighbours with ,claws and ,hoofs4 ,this will give the pupils a motive for making the required observations4 ,observations4--,compare the length of the legs of the horse with his height4 ,of what use were these long legs to the wild horses8 ,what causes horses to shy8 ,of what use was this habit to wild horses8 ,in how many directions can a horse move his ears8 ,of what use was this to wild horses8 ,when horses in a field are alarmed1 do they rush together or keep apart1 and where are the young foals found at this time8 ,of what use were these habits to wild horses8 ,are the eyes of the horse so placed that he can see behind him and to either side as well as in front8 ,of what use was this to wild horses8 ,to the teacher4--,the horse is an animal which is strong1 swift1 graceful1 gentle1 obedient1 docile4 ,the pupils should learn that1 in return for his good services1 the horse should be treated with kindness and consideration4 ,the legs of the horse are long1 straight1 and strong1 and the single toe 7or hoof7 means that the horse walks on the tip of one toe1 and the hoof is in reality a large toe nail developed to protect the tip of the toe4 ,to these features is due the great speed of the horse4 ,horses gather together in the field with the foals in the most protected part of the group1 just as wild horses found it necessary to do for protection4 ,the wild horses shied at a fierce enemy concealed in the grass1 and the tame horse shies at a strange object4 ,,correlations ,with literature and reading3 ,by interpretation of ,the ,bell of ,atri4 ,with language3 ,by exercise on new words1 as graceful1 etc4 ,,domestic ,,birds ,,the ,,duck ,home ,observations4--,compare the duck and the drake as to size1 colouring1 calls1 and other sounds4 ,observe the position of the birds when standing4 ,observe their mode of walking1 of swimming1 and of flying4 ,where do they prefer to make their nests8 ,why is the duck more plain in dress than the drake8 ,what is the shape1 size1 and build of the nest8 ,describe the eggs4 ,when does the duck sleep8 ,why can it not sleep upon a perch as hens do8 ,how do ducks feed on land8 ,compare with the feeding of hens4 ,observe how ducks feed when in water4 ,observe the various sounds1 as alarm notes1 call notes1 social sounds4 ,describe the preening of the feathers and explain the meaning of it4 ,compare the appearance of the young ducks with that of the older ones4 ,do the young ducks need to be taught to swim8 ,,class-,,room ,,lesson ,provide1 where convenient1 a duck for class study4 ,observations4--,colour1 size1 general shape of the body1 and the relation of the shape to ease of swimming2 divisions of the body4 ,size of head1 length of neck1 and the relation of the length of the neck to the habit of feeding in water4 ,the legs and web feet1 and the relation of these to the bird's awkward walking and ease in swimming4 ,the bill and its relation to the bird's habits of feeding by scooping things from the bottom of the water and then straining the water out4 ,the sensitive tip of the bill by which the duck can feel the food4 ,the feathers1 their warmth1 and compactness for shedding water4 ,the oil spread over them during the preening is useful as a protection against water4 ,the bill1 feet1 and feathers should be compared with those of the hen and goose1 and reasons for the similarities and differences should be discussed4 ,the uses that people make of ducks and their feathers and eggs2 the gathering of eider-down4 ,for desk work1 make drawings of the duck when swimming1 flying1 and standing4 ,,chapter ,v ,,form ,i ,,spring ,,garden ,,work ,the pupils in ,form ,i cannot be expected to do heavy work1 such as spading plots or making paths4 ,in some cases the larger boys will undertake to line out the walks and do the spading or digging4 ,sometimes it may be best to engage a man to do the spading4 ,in any case the boys and girls should do the measuring and marking out of the plots4 ,if stable manure is used in fertilizing the plots1 it must be well rotted and then carefully spaded into the plots4 ,the rest of the work should be done by the pupils themselves under the direction of the teacher4 ,this work will include the levelling of the plots with hoes and rakes1 and the trimming of the edges to the exact size of the plots1 as determined by a string drawn taut about the four corner pickets4 ,if the pupils in this ,form have individual plots1 each pupil will mark out his drills1 put in the seeds1 and cover them4 ,the teacher may give demonstrations in connection with the work but should not do the work for the pupils4 ,the teacher must use his own judgment as to what seeds to allow the pupils to plant4 ,one variety of vegetable and one of flowers is sufficient for ,form ,i pupils1 and it is desirable that large seeds be chosen for them and such as are pretty sure to grow under ordinary circumstances4 ,beans1 beets1 radishes1 or lettuces are suitable as vegetables1 and nasturtiums1 balsams1 or four-o'clocks as flowers4 ,these seeds should be planted at least an inch apart in the drill and the drills1 twelve to fifteen inches apart4 ,large seeds may have an inch of soil over them and smaller seeds much less4 ,unless the soil is very dry1 watering should not be allowed1 and in any case it is better to water the plot thoroughly the day before planting the seed instead of after1 as is commonly done4 ,the pupils must not allow a crust to form over the plot either before the seeds come up or after4 ,claw-hand weeders are convenient for loosening the soil close to the plants1 and small-sized garden rakes can be used between the rows as soon as the seedlings appear4 ,it is always better to cultivate before the weeds get a start1 and thus prevent their growth4 ,usually the young plants will be too thick in the row1 so that thinning should be begun when the plants are about two inches high4 ,the edges of the plots should be kept straight and the paths clean and level4 ,each plot should have a wooden label bearing the owner's name or number and ,form4 ,the teacher is referred to ,circular #ac of the ,ontario ,department of ,education1 ,elementary ,agriculture and ,horticulture1 for lists of seeds1 tools1 etc4 ,,garden ,,studies ,the pupils should be in the garden every day as soon as gardening commences4 ,in this way only will they be able to follow and appreciate the whole life of the plant from seed to seed again4 ,the teacher should give a few minutes daily to receiving verbal reports from the pupils4 ,all new developments that the pupils notice should be reported for the good of all4 ,the teacher should make a practice of visiting the garden for a few minutes daily before or after school1 in order that he may be in a position to direct the pupils in their studies in the garden4 ,the pupils should watch for the first appearance of the young plants above ground1 noting how they get through the soil1 and the size1 shape1 and colour of the first leaves4 ,they can readily determine whether all of the seeds grow4 ,they will then watch for the opening of the second pair of leaves and compare them with the first pair4 ,they should report the amount of growth made from day to day1 and also what insect enemies attack the plants1 and what animals1 such as toads and birds1 are seen during the season4 ,they will also have occasion to note the effect of rain and sun upon the soil and upon the plants4 ,the first vegetables fit for use and the first flowers in bloom will be reported4 ,while they give special attention to the development of the plants in their own plots1 they will of course observe what is going on in the garden generally4 ,correlate with the interpretation of ,the ,seed in ,nature in ,verse4--,lovejoy4 ,silver1 ,burdett ,co41 #fj cents4 ,,window ,,garden ,the pupils should plant some seeds in sand or moist sawdust in boxes or pots in the school-room1 so that they may be able to examine the progress of germination4 ,in this way they will come to realize that every good seed has in it a tiny plant asleep and that warmth and moisture are needed to awaken it and help it to grow4 ,it sends one delicate shoot down into the soil and another up into the light4 ,another interesting way to plant seeds is in egg-shells filled with fine1 moist soil1 which are set in rows in a box of sand4 ,one seed only should be put in a shell4 ,the plants may be grown to quite a size and then set out in the garden plot1 the shell having first been broken off and the ball of earth containing the roots carefully set down in a small hole1 packed about with garden soil1 and watered4 ,the pupils should draw diagrams or maps of their plots and afterwards of the whole garden4 7,see ,manual on ,geography47 ,they can mark the lines of plants1 and those who can write can give in short1 simple sentences the main things noticed from day to day4 ,they should give the day and date when the seeds were planted1 when plants came up1 when rain storms occurred1 when work in weeding1 thinning1 and cultivating was done1 when the plants were fit to use1 and how they were disposed of1 etc4 ,this will serve as profitable seat work in writing1 drawing1 and language4 ,simple problems based upon dimensions of plots and the value of vegetables1 etc41 afford excellent supplementary exercises in arithmetic4 ,,wild ,,flowers ,the admiration that even little children have for the wild flowers of the woods and their delight in finding and gathering them is sufficient justification for including them in studies for ,form ,i4 ,the teacher must be careful1 however1 lest he go too far in the critical examination of the parts of the flowers1 forgetting that little children are not interested in stamens and petals1 but in the fresh1 fragrant1 and delicate blossoms that beautify the little banks and hollows of every woodland and that brighten up the fields and roadsides in spring time4 ,the teacher should aim to deepen that childish admiration and give to the child a more intelligent appreciation of the beauties of the wild flowers and a desire to protect them from extermination4 ,no attempt should be made to prohibit the picking of wild flowers1 but the pupils should be instructed not to pull up plants by the roots4 ,the picking of flowers in moderation does not injure the plants1 but rather tends to increase their vigour4 ,pupils should pick flowers with some purpose in view1 rather than to see how big a bunch each can gather4 ,the teacher should show them how to arrange a few flowers in a neat bouquet and emphasize the fact that a great mass of blossoms crushed closely together is far from being artistic or ornamental4 ,pupils should then be encouraged to make up pretty bouquets for the teacher's desk1 for the home dining-room1 and for old or invalid people who love flowers--especially those plucked by the hands of thoughtful children4 ,,recognition ,,of ,,wild ,,flowers ,the pupils should learn to recognize each year a few species of wild flowers by name as well as by sight4 ,this may be accomplished in two ways1 7#a7 by means of excursions to the woods a few times each year during the spring and summer months1 and 7#b7 by having occasional observation lessons in the school-room based upon the flowers gathered for the school-room bouquets4 ,both methods are to be recommended1 but it must be borne in mind that a wilted1 lacerated flower has no interest for a little child4 ,,lesson ,,in ,,outline ,,bloodroot ,plants are always most interesting when studied in their natural environment1 and this is one reason why the school excursion deserves the highest commendation as a method of studying wild flowers4 ,when studying wild flowers out-of-doors1 the pupils should notice what seems to be the favourite or usual location for the particular species under consideration4 ,have the pupils observe the following about the bloodroot3 ,it seems to prefer fairly dry1 rich soil1 on or near a hillside4 ,it opens its beautiful white blossoms early in the spring1 as if to enjoy the bright sunshine before the trees put out their thick coat of leaves to shade it4 ,it1 like many another early spring flower1 comes into bloom so early in the spring because it got ready the summer before4 ,the teacher should carefully dig up a specimen--root and all--as young pupils cannot be depended on to get up all of the underground part4 ,note the large amount of plant food stored up in the underground stem1 how the flower was protected before it opened out1 and what becomes of the protection4 ,note the peculiar beauty of the snow-white blossoms with their yellow centres1 and how beautiful they look as they nestle amongst the handsome green leaves with their pinkish-tinted stems4 ,wound the root1 and notice the reddish1 bloodlike juice whence the plant derives its name4 ,indians sometimes use this juice for war-paint1 and some mothers give it to their children on sugar as a cure for coughs and colds4 ,other wild flowers suitable for ,form ,i are buttercup1 spring beauty1 dog's-tooth violet1 hepatica1 and trillium4 ,if there is a corner of the school ground that is partly shaded1 and if the soil is fairly mellow and moist1 some of these wild flowers should be transplanted there where they will grow well and can be seen every day during the blooming period4 ,the leaves and flowers of the bloodroot and the above-mentioned wild flowers can be used for drawing4 ,,correlations ,oral and written descriptions of the flowers studied afford suitable exercises in language and composition4 ,,insect ,,study ,,cecropia1 ,,or ,,emperor-,,moth ,the larvae of this1 the largest of ,canadian moths1 may be found early in ,september1 as they wander about in search of a suitable branch upon which to fasten their cocoons4 ,if the pupils are not successful in finding the larvae1 the cocoons can be found after the leaves have fallen1 because their size makes them conspicuous4 ,the only difficulty in finding them is due to their being of the same colour as the withered leaves1 so that they are easily mistaken for the latter4 ,the pupils should be directed to look carefully at what appears at first sight to be a withered leaf attached to a tree or shrub1 and in this way many cocoons of various moths will be found4 ,observe4--,the large size--from three to four inches long2 the greenish colour2 the stumpy legs2 movements1 as walking1 feeling1 clinging2 the rows of warts1 and short1 stiff spines on these2 the feeding habits1 biting or sucking2 eggs of parasites1 for frequently these are found on the larvae4 ,place the larva in a box covered with gauze1 and observe the spinning and weaving of the cocoon4 ,from what part of the body is the silk obtained8 ,with what organs are the threads placed in position8 ,what part of the cocoon is made first and what part is made last8 ,what time is required for making the cocoon8 ,how is the cocoon fastened to the tree8 ,what provision is made in the cocoon for warmth1 for protection from birds1 for shelter from rain8 ,cut open a cocoon and examine the pupa1 noting the mummy-like case on which can be seen the impressions of the wings developing within4 ,if the cocoon is kept in the vivarium in a cool place1 so that the conditions may be as nearly as possible like the natural conditions1 the adult moth will emerge about the first of ,may4 ,in ,april the cocoon should be wetted occasionally1 as it would be if exposed to rains2 this ensures more perfect development of the insect4 ,observe4--,at what part of the cocoon the moth makes an opening2 the slow spreading and strengthening of the wings2 the size and coloration of the moth2 the feathery feelers2 the position of the wings and sucking mouth parts when at rest4 ,require the pupils to make drawings of the cocoon1 larva1 and adult4 ,the promothea moth1 whose cocoons are common on lilac bushes1 may be studied in the same way as the emperor4 ,reference4--,silcox and ,stevenson3 ,modern ,nature ,study ,,dragon-,,fly ,the larvae of this insect may be obtained in ,may or ,june by scraping leaves1 weeds1 and mud from the bottom of ponds and allowing the mud and water to settle in a pail or tub4 ,the larvae may be distinguished from other aquatic creatures by the long insect-like body1 three pairs of legs1 and the mask--a flap with pincers at the end4 ,this mask can be turned under the head and body when not in use1 or it can be projected in front of the larva for catching prey4 ,at the rear end are three tubes1 which fit together to form the breathing tube4 ,the pupils should observe the above features1 and also the movements1 seizing of prey1 breathing1 moulting1 semi-resting or pupa stage1 at the close of which the pupa climbs up a reed or stalk of grass and bursts the skin from which the adult emerges4 ,the pupils should put into the aquarium various kinds of insects and decide what foods are preferred by the larva and the adult4 ,observe4--,the size1 length of body1 movements in flight1 lace-like wings1 and insect-killing habits of the dragon-fly4 ,should dragon-flies be protected8 ,give reasons4 ,are all dragon-flies of the same size1 build1 and colour8 ,at what time of year are dragon-flies most numerous8 ,reference4--,silcox and ,stevenson3 ,modern ,nature ,study4 ,,other ,,conspicuous ,,insects ,the potato-beetle1 giant water-bug1 eastern swallow-tail butterfly1 and promothea moth are insects suitable as types to be studied by the pupils of ,form ,i4 ,the giant water-bug is the large1 broad1 grayish-brown insect that is found on the sidewalks in ,may and ,june mornings4 7,for information on the eastern swallow-tail and promothea see ,metamorphosis1 in ,butterfly and ,moth ,collections47 ,,birds ,bird studies for ,form ,i should be limited to observations made directly upon a few common birds1 such as the robin1 house-sparrow 7,english71 song-sparrow1 flicker1 house-wren1 crow1 bronzed grackle1 and meadow-lark4 ,these are easily reached by the pupils of every rural and village school1 and the purpose of the lessons should be to teach the pupils to recognize these birds1 and by making use of child interest in living active creatures1 to develop their interest in birds4 ,,the ,,robin ,,field ,,exercises ,i ,observe the robins and find out the following things3 #a4 ,are all robins of the same colour8 ,if not of the same colour1 what difference do you note8 #b4 ,does the bird run or hop8 ,imitate its movements4 #c4 ,listen to its song4 ,is it sweet or harsh8 ,is it loud or low8 ,is it cheerful or gloomy8 #d4 ,watch the robin as it moves along the grass and learn how it finds out where the worms are4 ,to the teacher4--,the pupils should be given a few days in which to find out answers to these questions1 and at the end of that time the answers should be discussed in the class4 ,male robins have more pronounced colours than female robins4 ,the beak is yellower1 the breast is brighter1 the back and the top of the head are darker4 ,robins both run and hop4 ,the sense of sight of the robin is very acute1 but its sense of hearing is even more keen4 ,the bird may be observed turning its head to one side to listen for the sound of a worm which is still inside its burrow4 ,,ii ,a second set of exercises may now be assigned which will demand a more detailed study of the bird1 namely1 a study of the size1 colour1 form of body1 manner of flight1 and length of beak4 ,,iii ,,the ,,nest1 ,,eggs1 ,,and ,,young #a4 ,find out various places in which robins build their nests4 ,in what ways are these places all alike8 ,examine the materials of the nest and find out why the nests are built in the kind of places in which they are found4 #b4 ,describe the eggs4 #c4 ,what kinds of food do the parent birds bring to the young8 ,does the father bird aid in bringing food to the young8 ,to the teacher4--,the nests are found in well-sheltered parts of apple trees and evergreens1 in sheds1 under ledges of roofs1 and in other sheltered places4 ,the nests1 since they are composed largely of mud and grass1 would easily be washed away if exposed to rain storms4 ,the food brought to the young consists of worms and insect larvae1 and the father bird is very industrious in helping to take care of his family4 ,it is the father bird that sings1 and the mother bird devotes all her energies to working and scolding4 ,,the ,,song-,,sparrow ,,field ,,exercises ,in early ,march1 when the streams are just beginning to break from underneath the ice and spots of ground peep here and there through the snow1 assign to the pupils an exercise such as the following3 ,watch for a small1 gray-brown bird which perches near the top of a bush1 or small tree1 and sings the ,tea-kettle ,song4 ,try to interpret the song in the words3 ,maids6 ,maids6 ,maids6 ,put on the tea-kettle1 tea-kettle1 tea-kettle1 tea-kettle1 tea-kettle-ettle4 ,is the song bright and cheerful or dull and gloomy8 ,does the bird sing this song often8 ,approach close to the bird4 ,are there any stripes or spots on its breast or head8 ,describe the flight of the bird from its perch1 when it is disturbed4 ,to the teacher4--,it is possible for the pupils to distinguish the song-sparrow by means of the above exercises4 ,it is one of the first birds to return in the spring1 and1 as it is a lusty singer1 it will attract the attention of all who are looking for birds4 ,the dark brown spot in the centre of the breast is a distinguishing mark1 and the more observant will find the three ashy-gray stripes on its head and the dark line through the eye4 ,when disturbed1 it does not rise into the air1 but flies downward and disappears with a swish of its tail4 ,the nest is usually built on the ground or in a low bush or tree4 ,it is composed of grass1 fine roots1 or weed stems1 and lined with fine grass or hair4 ,the eggs are usually four or five1 but sometimes there are as many as seven4 ,they are white with a greenish-blue tint and are closely spotted with brown4 ,,class-,,room ,,lesson ,discuss with the pupils the observations that they have made on the field exercises4 ,generalize as to the similarity of the places in which the pupils have seen the sparrow singing1 and as to the times of day in which the bird sings4 ,teach the marks of identification which some have discovered1 using for this purpose pictures of the bird or black-board drawings2 and encourage those who have not yet seen the song-sparrow to try again and to secure the assistance of those who have succeeded4 ,compare the size and form of the song-sparrow with that of the house-sparrow 7,english74 ,tell the pupils the great value of the bird in killing cutworms1 plant-lice1 caterpillars1 ground-beetles1 grasshoppers1 flies1 and other insects4 ,it also helps to prevent the spread of weeds by eating thousands of seeds of noxious weeds4 ,assign the pupils some other things to discover1 as for example3 ,through how many months of the summer does the bird sing8 ,find the nest4 ,why is it hard to find8 ,describe the eggs1 as to size1 colour1 and number4 ,do not disturb the nest and do not visit it very often4 ,to the teacher4--,base lessons in bird study upon the ,english sparrow1 flicker1 wren1 and meadow-lark4 ,,the ,,sheep ,,problems ,,for ,,field ,,work ,how do sheep find one another when they have become separated8 ,how old are the lambs before they can keep up with the old sheep when running8 ,what fits the lamb for running so well8 ,watch the lambs when they are playing1 and find out whether they play3 #a4 ,i'm the king of the castle4 #b4 ,follow the leader4 ,find out by watching a flock of sheep what is meant by ,men follow one another like a flock of sheep4 ,describe how sheep move when they are going very fast4 ,why should sheep be kept in a well-ventilated building that protects them from snow and rain but is not very warm8 ,to the teacher4--,each movement1 habit1 and instinct implied in this exercise is explained by the life of the wild sheep4 ,their natural home is in the mountain1 and their swift movement is that of bounding from rock to rock as they follow the strongest and boldest 7their leader7 to a place of safety4 ,the legs of the lamb grow rapidly1 beyond all proportion to the rate of growth of the body1 so that within two weeks after birth the young lamb is almost as strong of limb and fleet of foot as its mother4 ,in their games the lambs are fitting themselves for their place in the flock1 and these games very much resemble those named in the exercise4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,form ,,ii ,,autumn ,,bulb ,,planting ,,out-,,of-,,doors ,tulips and daffodils 7narcissus7 are the most suitable bulbs for out-of-door planting4 ,the best varieties for outdoor culture are usually designated in catalogues4 ,bulbs should not be planted in individual plots1 but in borders and ornamental beds4 ,the latter should not be placed in the centre of a lawn1 as is frequently done4 ,bulbs should be planted before the last of ,october4 ,,beds ,,for ,,growing ,,bulbs ,to make a bulb bed1 throw out the top soil to a depth of eight or nine inches1 put about three inches of well-rotted stable manure in the bottom1 and cover it with about three inches of the soil which was thrown out4 ,rake the plot level and then place the bulbs about eight inches apart on the top of the soil1 arranging them in any design chosen4 ,cover them with the rest of the soil and rake it level4 ,there will be about five inches of soil over the bulbs4 ,when a solid crust has formed over the bed1 put on a covering of leaves1 straw1 or branches of evergreens1 and some pieces of boards to hold them in place4 ,this covering does not protect the bulbs from freezing1 but prevents too rapid thawing out in the spring4 ,this covering should remain until the tips of the bulbs are showing above ground1 when it should be removed4 ,ordinarily the bulbs may be left a second year before digging up4 ,they should then be re-set or replaced with new ones1 and the bed made and fertilized as before4 ,in clay soil the bulbs should not be set quite so deep as in sandy soil1 and the bulbs have better drainage about their roots if a handful of sand is placed under each bulb in planting4 ,crocus bulbs may be planted in clumps anywhere about the grounds or borders by simply making a small hole about five inches deep1 dropping the bulb in1 and covering it4 ,lily of the valley grows best in partial shade in some unfrequented corner4 ,,planting ,,of ,,bulbs ,,indoors ,read again the instructions given under this heading in ,form ,i work1 regarding soil1 planting1 and care4 ,the ,chinese sacred lily and trumpet narcissus may be chosen for the pupils of this ,form4 ,the narcissus1 also called daffodil1 may be held back until early spring if kept in a cool1 dark cellar1 but the ,chinese sacred lily1 which is also a variety of narcissus1 comes into bloom from four to six weeks after planting4 ,it is usually grown in water in a bowl of suitable size4 ,place a few pieces of charcoal in the bottom of the bowl1 set the bulb upon them1 and pack coloured stones and shells around it as a support4 ,keep the bowl about two thirds full of water and set it in a warm1 sunny place4 ,it does not need to be set in the dark1 as is the case with other bulbs4 ,these may also be grown in soil in the same way as other varieties of narcissus4 ,when blooming is over1 the bulbs may be thrown away1 as they cannot be used again4 ,,garden ,,work 7,see ,autumn work for ,form ,i47 ,the pupils in ,form ,,ii should be given more responsibility with reference to the care and management of their garden plots4 ,if they have had a couple of years in gardening while in ,form ,i1 they will have gained sufficient knowledge as to the needs of plants and sufficient practice in garden craft to do a certain amount of work quite independently4 ,the boys of ,form ,,ii are able1 with suitable garden tools1 to do all the work needed in the management of their own plots and may even be allowed to do some of the harder work for the girls of their ,form4 ,,seed ,,selection ,besides the usual work of weeding1 cultivating1 and harvesting of their crops1 the pupils should undertake some work in seed selection4 ,this work not only results in the improvement of the plants grown from year to year1 but also helps to train the pupils in painstaking observation and the discerning of minute points of excellence4 ,the ambition to produce1 by careful selection and thorough cultivation1 a grain or flower better than has been1 is aroused1 and1 as the pupil's interest increases1 his love for the art increases and his efforts meet with greater success4 ,the teacher should aim from the first to use only the best available seed even if the cost be greater4 ,he should send for a number of catalogues and carefully choose those varieties of seeds that possess evident merit for the purpose intended4 ,in the case of flowers1 the pupils should be asked to decide what individual plants showed greatest excellence1 and these should be marked1 and the seed from them preserved for next season's planting4 ,when the flower is in full bloom1 a small string tag should be tied to the flower stem 7string tags can be got from a local merchant74 ,on this tag should be written in lead-pencil the name of the species1 the shade1 and date of flowering4 ,these flowers should be left to ripen thoroughly1 and then the seed picked and sealed up in small envelopes1 which the pupils should make as part of their manual training work4 ,the date on the tag should be transferred to the seed envelope4 ,,storing ,,seeds ,all the envelopes should be collected1 placed in a mouse-proof box1 and stored in a cool1 dry place until time to plant in the spring4 ,small bottles are excellent for holding seed and safer than envelopes4 ,if such selection is carried on systematically1 it will result in an increase of yield and of quality not to be equalled by even the best seed that the markets have to offer4 ,thus the school garden may become the centre of interest for the community4 ,seeds of good varieties can be distributed to the ratepayers1 and the standard of gardening and horticulture raised4 ,here1 as elsewhere1 much--almost everything--depends upon the teacher's interest and ability to lead as well as to instruct4 ,,harvesting ,,and ,,storing ,,of ,,garden ,,crops ,as soon as the vegetables reach their best stage of development1 they should be taken from the garden by the owner4 ,all dead plants and refuse should be removed and covered up in a compost heap4 ,the boys of this ,form should also assist in doing part of the general work of the school garden4 ,they might take up from the garden border such tender plants as dahlias1 gladioli1 and ,canna lilies4 ,these should be dried off and stored in a cool1 dry cellar4 ,if the cellar be warm1 it is necessary to cover the bulbs with garden soil to prevent their drying out too much4 ,,class-,,room ,,lesson ,the pupils are led1 through conversation1 to state their experiences and observations4 ,the teacher assists them in interpreting their observations and organizing their knowledge and stimulates them to thoughtful search for further information4 ,discuss with the pupils such questions as3 ,what are people busy doing on their farms and in their gardens at this time of year8 ,why do they harvest and store the wheat1 oats1 corn1 potatoes1 and apples1 etc48 ,are there any countries in which people do not need to gather in the grains1 vegetables1 and fruits8 ,the discussion of these questions will direct their thought to the need of storing sufficient food for animals and for man to last through the winter1 when these things do not grow4 ,they must be gathered to protect them from destruction by storms of wind and rain and the severe frosts of winter4 ,people who live in very warm countries find foods growing all the year round1 and they do not need to prepare for winter1 but these people are always lazy and unprogressive4 ,discuss the means taken to protect the various crops1 as follows3 ,why can grain be kept in barns or granaries or in stacks8 ,why can apples1 turnips1 and potatoes not be kept in the same way as grains8 ,what are the conditions that are best suited for keeping the latter products8 ,name some kinds of crops that cannot be kept in any of the ways already discussed4 ,why can they not be kept in these ways8 ,these discussions will develop the idea of the necessity of keeping apples1 potatoes1 and turnips1 in cellars1 root-houses1 and pits1 where they cannot freeze1 but where they are kept at uniformly low temperatures which are as close as possible to their freezing points4 ,the air must not be too dry1 as dryness causes them to shrivel up4 ,in dry cellars they should be covered with fine soil4 ,very delicate fruits1 such as cherries1 grapes1 peaches1 plums1 strawberries1 etc41 can only be kept for a length of time by preserving or canning them4 ,correlate with lessons in ,household ,management on preserving and canning4 ,,fall ,,cultivation ,when the garden has been finally cleaned out1 the plot should be spaded up and left without raking4 ,clay soil especially is much improved in physical qualities by thus being exposed to the air and frost4 ,all garden tools should receive a special cleaning up before storing for winter4 ,,garden ,,studies ,the observational studies suggested under this head for ,form ,i will be followed also in ,form ,,ii4 ,the pupils of ,form ,,ii will be expected to make more critical observations in connection not only with the plants growing in their own individual plots1 but also with those plants which other pupils have been growing4 ,they should give some attention also to the plants in the perennial flower border4 ,,garden ,,records4 ,in this ,form the pupils should begin to make garden records on such points as the following3 #a4 ,description of the plant--size1 habit of growth1 kind of leaves and their arrangement1 date of flowering1 form1 size and colouring of the flowers1 points of merit or the reverse1 description of the seed and how scattered1 how disposed of1 and the value4 #b4 ,the work done in the garden from day to day1 with dates4 #c4 ,the effect of rain1 drought1 or other weather conditions on the growth of the plants4 #d4 ,what insects were seen visiting the flowers and what they were doing--whether beneficial or harmful4 #e4 ,what birds or other animals were found frequenting the garden4 7,see ,animal ,studies1 pp4 #cj1 #if1 #bag47 #f4 ,what plants suffered from earliest frosts2 what from subsequent frosts2 what ones proved to be most hardy1 etc4 #g4 ,what plants the pupils like most in the garden1 and what ones seem to suit the soil and weather conditions best4 ,the pupils in this ,form1 by direct observation1 should come to appreciate the development of the fruit and seed from the flower4 ,their work in seed selection1 based upon the excellence of the flower1 helps to ensure this line of observation4 ,,correlations ,art3 ,drawing of leaves1 flowers1 and vegetables1 in colour when possible4 ,arithmetic3 ,calculations as to dimensions1 number of plants1 number of flowers on a plant and seeds in a flower1 value of products of flowers and vegetables4 ,cost of seeds1 fertilizer1 and labour1 gross and net proceeds4 ,statement showing the above4 ,composition3 ,general connected account or story of the work done and the things learned during the season1 as taken from the garden diary and from memory4 ,exercises in writing and spelling1 as suitable seat work4 ,geography3 ,weather observations1 as related to the garden work and to plant growth4 ,comparison of the soil of the garden with other samples from the district1 as to composition and origin4 ,direction1 as related to the paths or walks in the garden4 ,map drawing3 ,plans of plots and of whole garden and grounds1 represented on sand-table1 paper1 or black-board4 ,map drawing on a horizontal surface is best for the first year or two4 ,the products of the garden1 as compared with home products1 as food supplies for man and beast4 ,manual ,training3 ,making of seed envelopes and boxes1 modelling in clay of fruits and vegetables4 ,,climbing ,,plants ,observe particularly the sweet-pea and morning-glory4 ,consider the following points3 #a4 ,advantages gained by climbing1 such as securing of more light1 production of many leaves and flowers1 and not so much stem4 #b4 ,method of climbing--sweet-pea by tendrils that wind around the support2 morning-glory by twining its rough stem closely around its support4 ,do all morning-glory vines twine in the same direction8 ,find other vines that climb4 ,examine their modes of climbing4 #c4 ,time of flowering and notes on how to plant4 ,make drawings of the leaves and blossoms4 ,,trees 7,see type lesson on trees under ,form ,i47 ,in this ,form it is better to follow closely the development of one or two selected trees in school or on the home grounds than to attempt to observe many different species4 ,allow the pupils to choose their own trees for study and1 if possible1 have them select one at home and another near the school or on the way to school4 ,the following points might receive attention3 ,the name of the species1 whence obtained and by whom planted if known2 its approximate height1 size1 and age2 its location1 and the nature of the soil2 its general shape1 and whether or not influenced at present or at some time in the past by proximity to other trees2 description and arrangement of its branches1 leaves1 and buds1 its bark1 flowers1 and fruit2 time of leafing out and blossoming2 colouring and falling of leaves and ripening of seeds2 the amount of growth for the year compared with that of previous years as shown by the younger branches2 qualities of beauty and usefulness of the tree4 ,drawing exercises4 ,at least two visits should be made to the woods during the autumn months1 one when the leaves of the trees begin to colour and another when the leaves have fallen4 ,consider the preparation made for winter in the woods and fields1 the use of dead leaves in the woods as a protection to forest vegetation and as soil-making material4 ,bring back samples of leaves and of leaf mould or humus for class-room observation4 ,note the effect of frost in hastening the falling of leaves--frost does not give the brilliant hues to leaves1 as many people think4 ,consider the relationship of the forest trees to animal life4 ,,storing ,,of ,,tree ,,seeds ,make a collection of nuts and other tree seeds1 some of which should be put in the school collection and the rest planted in the garden or stored away for spring planting4 ,the seeds of evergreens should be kept dry and cold1 but other seeds1 as a rule1 are best packed in a box of slightly moist sand set in a cold place or buried in the ground4 ,a ,,flower ,,type3 ,,nasturtium ,i ,teacher and pupils visit the nasturtium bed1 where the flowers stand up boldly1 surrounded by the shield-shaped leaves4 ,a search for the young flower buds and for the very old flowers leads to the discovery that these are snugly sheltered under the shields4 ,the greenish-yellow calyx1 which is closely wrapped around the bud1 is next examined4 ,its name is given1 and its use as a protector is discussed4 ,the strong seed cases are opened and the seeds are discovered4 ,the pupils are instructed to watch the insects that visit the bright flowers4 ,name the insects4 ,describe their movements4 ,catch a few and find the yellow powder on their furry little bodies and legs4 ,,ii ,each member of the class brings a flower to the school-room4 ,the varieties of colours of the flowers are discussed4 ,the cave-like form of each flower is noted4 ,the velvety feeling of the corolla and the delicate perfume are likewise sensed by the pupils4 ,the pupils nip off the point of the cave and taste the nectar 7honey71 and thus learn why the insects visit the flowers4 ,they next trace the course of the coloured lines on the corolla and find that they all point into the cave4 ,continuing their explorations of the mouth of the cave1 the pupils will discover the little boxes containing the yellow powder that the flower dusts upon the insects4 ,the names pollen and pollen boxes are given4 ,the fringe on the edges of the leaves of the corolla for the purpose of preventing the insects stealing into the cave without receiving their baptism of pollen1 is discovered4 ,the teacher should1 at this point1 give a brief explanation of the valuable work done by the insects in carrying pollen to cause seeds to grow in the next flower that the insect visits4 ,the position of the tiny brush 7stigma1 but do not give this name7 held up by the seed case for rubbing the pollen off the insect1 should also be observed4 ,summary4--,name and point out the parts of the flower 7calyx1 corolla1 pollen boxes1 seed cases74 ,what useful work do insects do for the flower8 ,what reward do they receive for their work8 ,what advertisements do the flowers put out for attracting themselves8 7,bright colours1 sweet perfumes1 and honey7 ,flowers suitable for lessons in ,form ,,ii are nasturtium1 larkspur1 snap-dragon1 morning-glory1 and sweet-pea4 ,,note4--,botanical names should be reduced to a minimum4 ,,soil ,,studies 7,see ,soils by ,fletcher47 ,soil should have a place in a ,nature ,study ,course because3 #a4 ,it is so closely related to life4 #b4 ,it lends itself so admirably to the experimental method4 #c4 ,it is so liable to be overlooked and considered as common and valueless4 ,,kinds ,,of ,,soil ,gravel is composed of small1 rounded stones of various colours1 sizes1 and shapes4 ,occurs in beds1 generally mixed with sand4 ,get a sample and examine the constituents4 ,lead the pupils to see that the pebbles are the result of the breaking up of larger rocks4 ,what has made the corners smooth and rounded8 ,what use is made of gravel8 ,have the pupils find some gravelly land4 ,sand is composed of small angular pieces of hard rock4 ,have a few samples from different places brought to school1 note fineness and colours1 examine with a lens and note resemblance to pieces of broken stone4 ,draw a magnet through the sand and note black particles adhering1 showing presence of iron in some form4 ,show the hardness by rubbing against the surface of a piece of glass4 ,sand is used for mortar1 concrete1 and glass4 ,the chief sand-forming rocks are quartz and granite4 ,show pupils how to recognize these4 ,examine a sample of sand under a lens4 ,clay4 ,note colour and odour of fresh sample4 ,dry and pulverize and note extreme fineness of the particles by rubbing between the fingers 7an ounce of clay contains about four and one half million particles74 ,clay is made from crushed rocks1 chiefly feldspars4 ,mix clay with a little water and note sticky character4 ,compare with sand in this respect4 ,which makes the best road in wet weather1 gravel1 sand1 or clay8 ,note how hard the clay bakes after being moistened4 ,uses of clay--pottery1 bricks1 tile4 ,pupils should visit a brick- or tile-yard and watch the process of manufacture4 ,in many parts of the world there are beds of clay of extreme fineness and whiteness1 from which beautiful china is made4 ,humus is decayed vegetable matter4 ,pupils should gather soil from the forest1 bog1 or marsh4 ,note dark colour4 ,examine carefully and see what you can find in it that is not in sand or clay4 ,most of our farm land consists of these four soils mixed in various proportions1 and it gets its name from the one that preponderates4 ,thus we have our sandy1 gravelly1 or clay loams4 ,humus is likely to be present in all fields1 because vegetable matter grows1 to some extent1 everywhere2 but freshly broken land1 reclaimed swamps1 and prairie lands are likely to be especially well supplied4 ,the great value of humus in the soil will appear in later studies4 ,,animal ,,studies ,,bird ,,migration 7,consult ,bird ,life by ,frank ,m4 ,chapman1 and ,bird ,studies by ,g4 ,a4 ,cornish47 ,in the autumn1 direct attention to the flight of wild ducks and geese and to the gathering into flocks of robins1 crows1 bronze grackles1 blue herons1 sparrows1 and other birds in preparation for migration4 ,discuss with the pupils the reasons for migration1 namely1 scarcity of food1 the cold1 the snow4 ,in the spring1 the return is stimulated by the nesting instinct4 ,note how the birds are guided--some1 for example the ducks and geese1 by their leaders1 while others have no guides but their instincts4 ,in winter1 require the pupils to observe the kinds of birds that are to be seen in the gardens1 fields1 orchards1 and woods1 having them note the scarcity of birds and the absence of many forms that are with us in the summer4 ,,correlations ,geography3 ,by pointing out on the map the countries into which the birds go1 namely1 ,central ,america1 ,brazil1 etc4 ,reading and literature3 ,by interpreting ,where did you spend the dreary winter8 ,in a green and sunny land1 ,by the warm sea-breezes fanned1 ,where orange trees with fruit are bent1 ,there the dreary time ,i've spent4 ,,common ,,wild ,,animals ,,general ,,method ,,for ,,field ,,work ,the best method for studying wild animals is to assign to each pupil some animal as his particular subject of study4 ,begin by finding out from the pupils the wild animals that each one knows to be near his home1 and assign to each pupil a number of problems on the animal which is most convenient for him to study4 ,in some cases1 only one pupil will be studying a particular kind of animal1 while in other cases several pupils may be studying the same kind of animal4 ,the latter method has the advantage of giving opportunity for comparison of results4 ,differences should serve as stimuli to more careful observation1 in order to verify or disprove previous conclusions4 ,the observations and inferences1 together with drawings illustrating the animals1 their homes1 etc41 are recorded in the ,nature ,study note-books4 ,these are discussed in the class1 verified or corrected1 and supplemented by descriptions of lives and habits of the animals from nature writers or naturalists1 such as ,charles ,g4 ,d4 ,roberts1 ,ernest ,thompson-,seton1 etc4 ,when pupils become interested in this form of study1 they become nature students in the true meaning of the term4 ,the pupil is brought into contact with the animal in its natural environment and1 under these conditions1 the natural habits1 interests1 and activities of the wild creatures are more likely to appeal to the sympathy of child nature than under any other method of study4 ,the method has also the advantage of being one of original discovery1 and consequently it trains in self-reliance and independence of thought4 ,finally1 since close and careful observation is necessary1 the child learns that it is unwise to alarm the animal1 and thus a better relationship between child life and animal life is fostered4 ,it may be objected that this method is slow and that little is accomplished4 ,this may be true from the view-point of matter learned1 but from the view-point of child training more can be accomplished from the study of a single living animal than from the study of a score of pictures or stuffed skins4 ,a second method that is recommended is the study of tame animals4 ,by conversations with the boys of the school the teacher will find what tame squirrels1 ground-hogs1 raccoons1 foxes1 and other animals are available for class-room work4 ,the possessors of these animals are usually quite willing to bring them to school for the class to study4 ,the movements1 habits1 food1 and other topics1 may be studied by direct observations guided by the teacher's questions or problems4 ,a third method and1 unfortunately1 the one which is in most general use1 is the study of animals by means of stuffed specimens and pictures1 supplemented by descriptions and stories by the teacher4 ,these lessons may be called information lessons1 but they are not worthy of the name ,nature ,study4 ,indeed1 if conditions are such that it is the only method available for animal study1 it is advised that the time be spent on other branches of the subject2 but if living animals are made the basis of study1 stuffed specimens may be found useful for identification and for confirming observations on minute structural features1 colour1 etc4 ,,the ,,wood-,,chuck ,the problems outlined below are intended to illustrate the plan of study suggested in the first general method4 ,they are assigned to a boy who has discovered a ground-hog burrow1 in order to direct him in his observations on the animal4 ,what is the kind of soil dug out in making the burrow8 ,why is this soil suitable for the burrow8 ,what size of stones are dug out in burrowing8 ,are there more entrances than one8 ,by slowly approaching the animal1 find out how close it will permit you to come4 ,at what times of day does the ground-hog come out8 ,give reasons for its coming out at these times rather than at mid-day4 ,upon what does the animal feed8 ,describe the colour of the animal and find out any advantages in this colour4 ,observe the following actions3 running1 hiding1 keeping sentry1 and scouting4 ,do more wood-chucks than one live in one burrow8 ,when do the young wood-chucks first come out of the burrow8 ,describe their size1 colour1 and habits4 ,are wood-chucks ever seen during the winter8 ,do they use the same burrow year after year8 ,describe the sounds made by the animal4 ,what injury does the animal cause to the fields8 ,describe the fur1 teeth1 and claws1 and show their relation to the animal's habits of life4 ,dig out a burrow and draw a plan of it4 ,make pictures showing the various attitudes of the animal4 ,,the ,,chipmunk ,,field ,,exercises ,describe the size1 colour1 shape1 length of tail1 and movements of the chipmunk4 ,compare with the red squirrel4 ,have all chipmunks the same number of stripes8 ,discover its home2 method of carrying grain1 nuts1 or other foods2 whether it is found most commonly on the ground1 in trees1 or among logs and stones4 ,try to tame it by placing food where it can reach it and1 finally1 try to have it feed from your hand4 ,find out why there is no loose soil around the entrance to its burrow1 whether more families than one live in one burrow1 whether the chipmunk comes out during winter1 or how early in the spring4 ,learn to distinguish the sounds of the animal1 as expressing alarm1 surprise1 anger1 playfulness4 ,to the teacher4--,chipmunks carry grain1 etc41 in their cheeks4 ,frequently these are so full that they must be emptied to permit them to enter their burrows4 ,it is not uncommon for several to spend the winter in the same burrow1 having a common storehouse connected by passages to the main burrow4 ,these little animals are easily tamed and soon learn to take food from the hand4 ,they are not hibernating animals1 for they store food for winter1 and though they are not asleep all winter1 yet they rarely come out of their burrows while there is snow on the ground4 ,,eastern ,,swallow-,,tail ,,butterfly ,no butterfly is more suitable for study by the ,junior ,forms than the ,eastern ,swallow-tail4 ,it is one of the most beautiful and attractive of our butterflies and lays its eggs so accommodatingly on every carrot or parsnip bed that it gives ample opportunity for observation4 ,if possible1 have the pupils observe the insect in the act of placing the eggs1 one here and one there1 on the under surface of the leaves of the plants1 noting the busy movements2 discuss the advantage of scattering the eggs1 and also that of placing them on the under surface of the leaves4 ,if the egg placing cannot be observed1 there will be little difficulty in finding the large yellow and green larva with a head shaped like that of a miniature sea-horse4 ,if the larva itself is not easily found1 the leaves stripped bare of green blade and the droppings on the ground will reveal its presence4 ,why was it difficult to see such a large1 and now that it is seen1 conspicuous object8 ,lead the pupils to notice that the yellow and green bands harmonize in colour with the green leaves and alternate streaks of golden sunlight4 ,does the larva feed by biting or by sucking8 ,how many legs has the larva8 ,cover the plant and larva with a paper bag1 or inverted bottle1 or a lamp chimney with a gauze top until the larva is full grown2 or place the larva in a vivarium1 feed it on carrot leaves1 and observe its growth4 ,when full grown1 the larva builds for itself a snail-shaped1 fairly firm case1 fastened by a slender girdle of silk to a piece of wood or other support4 ,keep this over winter1 and in ,march1 or early ,april1 the black-and-blue-and-gold insect emerges4 ,observe the movements of the wings in flight1 the long tube with which it sucks honey from flowers1 the three pairs of legs1 the position of the wings when at rest2 compare the structure with that of the larva4 ,make drawings of the butterfly and paint its colours4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,form ,,ii ,,winter ,,care ,,of ,,plants ,,in ,,the ,,home ,the care of flowering bulbs1 which was begun in ,form ,i1 will be continued in ,form ,,ii4 ,the growing of new plants from cuttings will now be taken up4 ,in those schools which are kept continuously heated1 potted plants may be kept throughout the year4 ,the pupils will come to appreciate the plants' needs and learn how to meet them in the supply of good soil1 water1 and sunlight4 ,the following points should be observed3 #a4 ,good potting soil can be made by building up alternating layers of sods and stable manure and allowing this compost to stand until thoroughly rotted4 ,a little sharp sand mixed with this forms an excellent soil for most house plants4 #b4 ,thorough watering twice a week is better than adding a little water every day4 #c4 ,the leaves should be showered with water once a week to free them from dust4 #d4 ,an ounce of whale-oil soap dissolved in a quart of water may be used to destroy plant-lice4 ,common soap-suds may also be used for this purpose1 but care should be taken to rinse the plants in clean water after using a soap wash4 #e4 ,most plants need some direct sunlight every day if possible1 although most of the ferns grow without it4 #f4 ,plants usually need re-potting once a year4 ,many kinds may be set out-of-doors in flower beds in ,may and left until ,september1 when they may be taken up and placed in pots1 or cuttings may be made from them for potting4 #g4 ,a flower exhibition at the school once or twice a year1 or at a local exhibition1 adds to the interest4 #h4 ,the pupils should report to the teacher1 from time to time1 the progress of their plants and make many drawings showing their development4 ,,trees ,in ,november or ,december make a study of ,canadian evergreens1 choosing spruce1 balsam1 and cedar if available4 ,the pupils should learn to distinguish the different species by an examination of the leaves1 buds1 arrangement of branches1 bark1 seeds1 and cones4 ,the age of young trees can be determined by noting the successive whorls of branches4 ,in this way also the age of the leaves may be determined4 ,on some trees the leaves persist for seven or eight years4 ,evergreens are frequently used as ,christmas trees and their branches for house decorations4 ,on which species do the leaves persist longest8 ,how do they compare with the pines8 ,the leaves are always as old as the wood upon which they grow4 ,have the pupils notice how the small leaves and horizontal branches resist the clinging of snow in winter4 ,each branch bends down enough to cause the snow to slide off on to the one next below1 and so on1 until it reaches the ground4 ,the conical shape of the tree also facilitates this action of dislodging the snow4 ,they will also notice that these trees are well adapted to withstand wind1 as the top part1 which is most exposed to the wind1 is much smaller and more pliable than the part next the bottom4 ,the gum1 or resinous covering1 of the buds protects them from injury by rain or snow4 ,some kinds of pine1 such as the pitch pine1 have a great abundance of gum and turpentine4 ,resin and pine tar are made chiefly from this species4 ,heat a piece of pine wood--a knot or root is best4 ,the gum will be seen oozing out of the wood4 ,pine torches were much used in the early days of settlement in ,canada4 ,examine the gum blisters in the bark of the balsam tree4 ,from this source the ,canada ,balsam gum of commerce is taken4 ,the gum and resin in the wood and bark help to preserve the wood from decay4 ,,collection ,,of ,,wood ,,specimens ,during the winter months the boys may prepare specimens of wood for the school collection4 ,these specimens should be cut green and dried4 ,they should be uniform in length--not more than six inches--and should show the bark at one side4 ,the side showing the bark should be two inches wide at most1 six inches long1 and running in a ,v-shaped1 radial section toward the pith4 ,a tangential section also shows well the annual layers4 ,a piece of slab as cut lengthwise off a round stick is tangential4 ,also visit wood-working factories for specimens of rare or foreign woods4 ,in securing these specimens1 care should be taken not to mutilate trees4 ,,related ,,reading ,winter is nature's quiescent period4 ,continuous active observation out-of-doors among the plants of the forest and garden gives place for a time to indoor work and reflection4 ,pupils need time for reading and reflection1 and no time is so opportune as the quiet winter season4 ,during these months some time should be devoted to the reading of nature stories and extracts from magazines and books dealing with plant as well as animal life4 ,pupils should review their gardening experiences and discuss plans of improvement for the approaching spring and summer4 ,let them write letters to the ,form ,,ii pupils of other schools where similar work has been carried on1 giving some of their experiences in gardening and plant and animal studies4 ,a certain ,friday afternoon might be appointed for hearing the letters read which have been received in reply4 ,suitable short poems that have a direct bearing upon their outdoor studies should be read from time to time4 ,good pictures come in here also as an aid in helping the children to appreciate written descriptions4 ,the first-hand observations made by the pupils will form a basis for the better and more appreciative interpretation of these literature selections4 ,,the ,,dog ,,class-,,room ,,lesson ,use the conversation method1 since this is an animal that is well known to all the pupils4 ,by natural1 easy conversation with the pupils1 encourage them to tell what they know about the usefulness and the other qualities of their canine friends4 ,the pupils know that some dogs are useful for hunting wild animals1 others for driving or herding cattle and sheep1 others for guarding their master's property1 others for hauling sleighs and wagons1 while others are of use as pets or playfellows4 ,discuss with the pupils the qualities that make the dog so generally useful to us4 ,in this discussion1 guide the thoughts of the pupils to the qualities of faithfulness1 loyalty to his friends1 and docility--few animals are so easily taught4 ,note his strength and swiftness--he can continue in a race until he catches almost any other animal4 ,note also his bravery--for he does not hesitate to attack an animal many times larger than himself4 ,short stories of the following type may be told1 to illustrate the chief qualities of the dog3 ,a dog was trained to guard any article that his master placed under his charge1 and not to permit any one to touch it until his master gave his consent4 ,one day1 when returning from the mill1 the master placed a sack of flour inside the gate for a neighbour who had asked him to do so1 and then continued on his way without noticing that his dog had taken charge of the sack4 ,all through the afternoon of that day and through the long1 cold night that followed1 the faithful animal remained at his post4 ,when the owner of the sack came next morning to get it1 the dog1 although numb with cold and famished with hunger1 would not permit him to take the flour4 ,nor could the stout-hearted creature be persuaded either by threats or by coaxing1 until his master was brought1 when1 at his first word of command1 the dog bounded joyfully toward him4 ,conclude the lesson by a short discussion of the proper care and treatment that should be given to dogs4 ,the dog requires a fairly warm but dry kennel1 with a soft bed of straw or rugs4 ,the food should consist chiefly of porridge1 milk1 bread1 biscuit1 and a little meat4 ,only dogs that are running a great deal out of doors should be given much meat4 ,the dog should be given bones to pick2 picking bones is as good for a dog's teeth as a tooth-brush is for a boy's4 ,,observation ,,exercises ,by making observations upon your dog at home1 find answers to these problems3 #a4 ,how does a dog hold a bone while he is picking it1 and how does he get the meat off the bone8 #b4 ,examine the dog's feet and find out3 7#a7 ,why he does not slip while running4 7#b7 ,what protects the soles of his feet from injury as he bounds over rough ground4 #c4 ,which is the sharper1 a dog's eye or his nose8 ,watch how he finds his master in a crowd or finds an object that you have hidden4 ,,correlations ,language3 #a4 ,require oral or written reproduction of the stories used in illustration in the lesson on ,the ,dog4 #b4 ,require the pupils to relate incidents from dog life that have come within their own experiences4 ,art and ,modelling3 #a4 ,a sleeping dog4 #b4 ,a dog waiting for his master4 ,,lessons ,,involving ,,comparison ,it will be found helpful1 both for increasing interest in the observations and for fixing the facts in memory1 to study an animal by comparing its habits1 qualities1 and physical peculiarities with those of another animal which is somewhat similar4 ,where differences are discovered1 explanations of the differences should be developed in such a way that a tendency may be cultivated for interpreting the adaptation of structure to use and of life habits to surrounding conditions4 ,,cat ,,and ,,dog ,compare the movement of a cat when approaching its prey with the movement of the dog when chasing a squirrel4 ,account for the difference4 ,the natural habit of the cat is to hunt alone and rely upon stealth1 while dogs hunt in packs and tire their prey by running and by terrifying noises4 ,other differences and their explanations1 which the pupils should be led to discover are3 ,the dog is a more useful animal to man than is the cat4 ,the cat's body is longer and more slender1 and this gives it greater suppleness in crawling and leaping4 ,the cat's eye is larger and the pupil is especially large at night1 to enable it to see4 ,the cat's whiskers are longer2 they help in guiding it at night4 ,the cat's tongue is rougher2 it uses it for cleaning bones4 ,the pads on the cat's feet are softer1 so that it can move more silently in stealing upon its prey4 ,the cat's claws are sharper1 because it uses them for seizing its prey1 while the dog seizes its prey with its teeth4 ,the dog is more faithful to its master because it is a more sociable animal4 ,in its natural state every dog is faithful to the pack and to the leader2 the cat is not a social animal1 but is by nature solitary and independent4 ,the dog's sense of smell is keener than that of the cat1 but its sense of hearing is less acute4 ,account for these differences from the animals' habits of hunting4 ,why does the cat bring home living animals to her kittens1 while the dog buries dead animals8 ,the cat trains the kittens to approach by stealth and then to pounce on the right spot4 ,wild animals related to the dog bury the kill which is too large to be eaten at one meal4 ,,experiments ,,for ,,assisting ,,in ,,the ,,study ,,of ,,the ,,cat #a4 ,gently scratch with a pin at some distance from where a cat is lying4 ,what do the movements of the cat indicate8 #b4 ,put a fish in water and watch a cat trying to get it4 #c4 ,sprinkle water on a cat's fur and find out why she dislikes being wetted4 #d4 ,attach a ball to a string and move it near a cat4 ,describe the movements1 as stalking1 springing1 seizing1 retreating4 #e4 ,put some catnip in a room out of reach of the cat and observe the movements of the animal4 ,nearly all children make pets of the house cat1 and although the cat is a domestic animal of thieving propensities and an enemy of birds1 yet it would be unwise to teach the younger children any enmity toward her4 ,the establishment of sympathy with animal life1 the humanizing effect upon child nature of having a kitty for a playfellow1 will offset many times over the amount of depredation of which she may be guilty4 ,,comparison ,,of ,,the ,,horse ,,and ,,cow ,assign problems for the pupils to solve by observations made upon the animals in the field or farmyard4 #a4 ,what features of build give to the horse greater speed than the cow8 #b4 ,compare the movements of the heads of the horse and cow while cropping grass4 ,account for the difference4 #c4 ,how has nature fitted the cow and the horse respectively1 for defence8 #d4 ,which end of the body does the horse raise first when it is getting up8 ,which end of its body does the cow raise first8 ,account for the difference4 ,to the teacher4--,the horse is the swifter and more graceful runner because the body is less bulky and the legs are longer and straighter4 ,in cropping grass the cow pushes its nose forward and breaks the grass off1 a process which is made necessary because the cow has no upper front teeth4 ,the strong1 sharp horns1 short1 powerful neck1 and heavy shoulders are an efficient equipment for the cow's method of defence1 while the long1 strong legs and powerful hindquarters of the horse enable it to deal terrific blows with its hard hoofs4 ,the horse rises upon its forelegs before raising the rear of its body1 while the cow raises its hindquarters first4 ,,the ,,squirrel ,,field ,,exercises ,problems3 ,is it true that squirrels have little roads along the ground8 ,does the squirrel come down a tree head foremost1 or tail foremost8 ,are a squirrel's feet close together or wide apart when it is climbing8 ,how many kinds of feeling can a squirrel express by its voice8 ,how does a squirrel open a nut8 ,examine a squirrel's tracks in the snow2 which foot-prints are in front8 ,try to gain the confidence of a squirrel by never chasing it and by placing some favourite food for it4 ,,class-,,room ,,lesson ,a tame squirrel is very desirable for concrete study4 ,describe the shape1 size1 and colour4 ,find out how the legs and feet are fitted for climbing and leaping4 ,compare the length of the tail with that of the body4 ,of what use is the tail in cold weather8 ,of what use is the tail in leaping8 ,examine the teeth and find out how they are fitted for opening nuts2 gnawing wood4 ,to the teacher4--,the legs of the squirrel are short so that it can press its body close to the tree when climbing4 ,the claws are strong and sharp and the hindquarters are very strong1 and are1 in consequence1 well fitted for leaping4 ,the tail of the squirrel is very long and bushy and serves as a fur for keeping the squirrel's nose warm in winter4 ,the tail is also used for balancing the body when the animal is leaping from bough to bough4 ,the front teeth of the squirrel are very large and strong and are shaped like chisels4 ,,winter ,,birds ,in the class lesson on winter birds1 take up the birds that the pupils have seen1 such as chickadee1 blue jay1 quail1 ruffed grouse1 hairy woodpecker1 downy woodpecker1 great horned owl1 house-sparrow1 snow bunting 7snow bird71 pine grosbeak1 snowy owl1 and purple finch4 ,the four latter are to be noted as winter visitors4 ,use pictures for illustrating these birds4 ,the habits and winter food of the birds should also be described from the view-point of how these adapt the birds for spending the winter in a cold climate4 ,direct the children to look for grosbeaks in the pine and rowan trees1 where they may be seen feeding on the seeds4 ,the ruffed grouse 7commonly called partridge7 feeds on the buds of trees in winter2 its legs and feet are thickly covered with feathers in winter but are bare in summer4 ,,field ,,exercises ,arouse the interest of the pupils by a conversation of about three minutes on birds that they have seen during the winter1 and assign the following exercise3 ,take a walk through the orchards and woods on a bright winter day4 ,what birds do you see8 ,what are these birds doing8 ,are they found singly or in flocks8 ,what bird sounds do you hear8 ,,class-,,room ,,lesson ,the method is conversational and based upon the observations made by the pupils during the field exercises4 ,the discussion would involve the winter habits of some of the more common birds1 as1 for example1 the ruffed grouse 7commonly though incorrectly called the partridge74 ,this bird takes shelter from the winter storms in the centre of a dense evergreen or burrows deep into a snow bank4 ,the close covering of feathers upon its feet serves not only to keep the feet warm1 but also as snow-shoes4 ,in the evenings these birds may frequently be seen in the tops of such trees as maple1 birch1 cherry1 and poplar1 the buds of which form the greater part of their winter food4 ,the snow bird1 or snow bunting1 is another bird commonly seen in winter4 ,flocks of these hardy little winter visitors frequent the roads and fields during winter4 ,its summer home is in the far north4 ,another visitor from the sub-arctic regions is the pine grosbeak1 which is often mistaken for the robin1 for these two birds are nearly equal in size4 ,the carmine colour of the upper surface of the male grosbeak distinguishes it from the grays and blacks of the upper part of the robin4 ,the grosbeak frequents the rowan trees4 ,the bird sounds which attract attention during the winter are the cheerful notes of the chickadee1 the bold clarion call of the blue jay1 and the sharp tap1 tap1 tap1 of the downy woodpecker4 ,the downy woodpecker and the chickadee have snug winter homes within hollow trees1 but1 when the weather is favourable1 they go about searching industriously for the eggs and larvae of insects that infest forest and orchard trees4 ,,correlations ,literature3 ,do you know the chickadee1 ,in his brownish ashen coat1 ,with a cap so black and jaunty1 ,and a black patch on his throat8 ,language3 ,write a story about the winter experiences of a downy woodpecker4 ,geography3 ,describe the summer home of the snow bird4 ,,animals ,,of ,,the ,,zoological ,,gardens ,pupils who have an opportunity to visit museums or zoological gardens will observe more intelligently if the visit is preceded by such a discussion in the class-room as will arouse their curiosity respecting the habits1 movements1 and adaptive features of the animals about to be studied4 ,,class-,,room ,,lesson ,name the kinds of bears you have seen or have read about4 ,what kind was the largest8 ,are all bears wholly flesh-eating animals8 ,find out what food the keepers give these animals4 ,what features give to the bear his great strength8 ,observe the length of his arms1 teeth1 claws4 ,does the bear climb a pole in the same way that a boy does8 ,read3 ,rogers4 ,wild ,animals ,every ,child ,should ,know4 ,mc,clelland1 ,goodchild1 ,stewart4 #ej cents4 ,thompson-,seton4 ,wild ,animals ,i ,have ,known4 ,briggs4 #a4ej4 ,roberts4 ,children of the ,wild4 ,macmillan4 #a4ce4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,form ,,ii ,,spring ,,garden ,,work ,the pupils have now arrived at an age when they are able to do most of the work of preparing and planting their own plots4 ,the seeds have been selected and placed in readiness for planting long before the ground is ready4 ,the plans for the garden and the varieties to be sown in the different plots have likewise been arranged4 ,fertilizers1 lines1 tools1 and labels are made ready for use4 ,with such thorough preparation the making and planting of the garden becomes a pleasure and a delight to both teacher and pupils4 ,the garden diary should begin as soon as the snow disappears from the garden and be continued until all the work is completed in the autumn1 and the garden again blanketed in snow4 ,the main points to be safeguarded are3 #a4 ,thorough cultivation and fertilization4 #b4 ,the best available seed carefully planted4 ,guard against thick sowing and deep covering4 #c4 ,frequent cultivation and careful thinning while the plants are quite small4 #d4 ,vigilance in detecting the appearance of cutworms or other injurious insects and promptness in combating them4 #e4 ,protection of the garden against injury from dogs1 pigs1 poultry1 and ,english sparrows4 #f4 ,failure of some plots1 through the owner's absence from school for long periods4 ,,combating ,,garden ,,pests ,,cutworms ,in gardens where the soil is light or sandy1 cutworms are most likely to be troublesome4 ,watch for them about the time that the plants are nicely above ground4 ,they come up at night and cut the young plants off just above the ground4 ,they are about an inch long1 gray and brown1 fat and greasy-looking4 ,to protect the plants put one quarter of a pound of paris-green with twenty-five pounds of slightly moistened bran1 using a little sugar in the water and stirring the paris-green into the bran very thoroughly4 ,if too wet1 add more dry bran4 ,it should crumble through the fingers4 ,sprinkle a little of this mixture with the fingers along the row close to the plants4 ,the cutworms eat this poisoned bran quite readily4 ,care must be exercised in using this poison lest poultry should get at it4 ,on the other hand1 poultry should not be allowed to get into the garden4 ,wrapping a piece of paper around the stem when transplanting young plants will help to save them from cutworms4 ,,root ,,maggots ,root maggots of cabbage1 radish1 and onions are the larvae of flies similar in appearance to house-flies but a little smaller4 ,when the plants are young1 the flies lay their white eggs on the stem close to the ground4 ,when the eggs hatch1 the larvae crawl down under the ground and cause the plants to decay4 ,the wilting of the leaves is the first sign of the trouble4 ,prevention is better than cure in this case4 ,dust some dry white hellebore along the rows of onions or radishes and around the cabbage plants2 or1 for radishes1 make a decoction of insect powder 7,pyrethrum71 four ounces to one gallon of water1 and pour around the root1 using half a teacupful to each plant4 ,,flea-,,beetles ,the turnip flea-beetle quickly destroys young plants of the cruciferae family by eating their leaves4 ,paris-green1 one part to twenty parts of pulverized gypsum 7land plaster7 dusted on the plants while damp1 helps to destroy these insects4 ,to the teacher4--,when pupils who are absent find it impossible to give the necessary attention to their garden plots at school1 they should turn them over to other pupils or to the teacher1 who may at his own discretion use the produce for purposes of general garden revenue4 ,,seed ,,germination ,the seeds for the garden should be purchased quite early in the spring4 ,as the planting of poor seed is often the cause of much disappointment1 it is well to test the germinating power of the different varieties to be planted4 ,the pupils of this ,form should test especially those varieties which they have chosen4 ,to do this1 place about twenty-five seeds in a germinating dish1 which may be made as follows3 ,take a deep plate1 such as a soup plate1 fill it about half full of moist sand1 and spread over this a piece of moist cloth4 ,put the seeds upon this cloth and cover them with a second piece of damp cloth or moss4 ,to prevent drying out invert over it another plate and set all in a warm dry place 7about #gj to #hj degrees ,f474 ,after a few days count the number of seeds that have germinated4 ,this will be a guide in planting as to how thick the seed should be sown4 ,the pupils should watch the development of germinating grains1 such as corn and beans1 germinated in the same way as in the last exercise4 ,the following points may be observed3 #a4 ,the first change noticed4 7,swelling of the seed7 #b4 ,the appearance of a growing shoot and its direction4 7,root7 #c4 ,the second shoot and its direction4 7,stem7 #d4 ,the appearance of the first pair of leaves4 #e4 ,the appearance of root-hairs and rootlets4 #f4 ,what becomes of the main body of the seed4 #g4 ,how the second pair of leaves differs from the first pair4 #h4 ,length of time required to produce the first pair of leaves4 ,pupils may be taught the conditions that are necessary for the germination of seeds by means of a few simple experiments which can be carried on in the school-room4 #a4 ,in ,february1 plant a few seeds of the pea1 or oat1 or wheat1 in a box of soil1 and place the box outside the school window4 #b4 ,in ,april1 plant a few seeds similar to those used in ,no4 #a1 in a box of perfectly dry soil1 and set the box inside the school window4 #c4 ,plant a few seeds similar to those used in ,no4 #a1 in a jar containing soil that is kept very wet1 and set the jar in the school window4 #d4 ,plant a few seeds1 similar to those used in ,no4 #a4 in a box containing soil that is moist but not wet1 and set the box in the school window4 #e4 ,plant seeds as in ,no4 #d1 except that the box is kept in a dark cupboard4 ,compare the results of the above with reference to3 #a4 ,the number of seeds that germinate4 #b4 ,the growth and condition of the plants4 ,form conclusions with reference to3 #a4 ,the conditions that are required for seed germination4 #b4 ,the benefits of well-drained soil4 ,pupils make drawings showing the boxes and plants4 ,,plants ,,for ,,individual ,,plots ,the pupils of this ,form should not attempt to grow more than two varieties of flowers and two of vegetables4 ,of flowers1 mixed asters and ,shirley poppy are to be recommended1 the poppy being an early blooming flower and the aster late blooming4 ,carrots and radishes are desirable vegetables1 as the carrot matures late and the radish early4 ,two or three crops of radishes may be grown on the same ground in one season4 ,besides these1 a few others should be chosen for special study1 such as the potato1 onion1 corn1 and sunflower4 ,,studies ,,based ,,on ,,observations ,,of ,,growing ,,plants ,attention should be given to the growing habits of plants1 the size and rate of development1 the method of multiplying and propagation1 and the part used for food4 ,the potato is a tuber which is nothing more than the swollen end of an underground stem2 the onion a bulb composed of the bases of thickened leaves2 the corn an example of a jointed stem or grass having two kinds of flowers1 the tassels being the staminate flowers and the cob with its silk the pistillate ones2 the sunflower an example of a compound flower made up of many little flowers each of which produces a single seed4 ,observations should also be made upon the progress in germination of the nuts and other tree seeds collected in the fall4 ,when the seeds fall from the elms and soft maples in the spring1 some of them should be collected and planted in the forestry plot1 or nursery4 ,,planting ,,and ,,care ,,of ,,sweet-,,peas #a4 ,sow as early as possible in spring4 #b4 ,sow on well-drained land and never in the shade or near grass4 ,grass roots rob the sweet-pea roots of water4 #c4 ,use a small amount of fertilizer--well-rotted manure spaded deeply into the soil4 ,this is best done in the autumn4 #d4 ,make the trench in the fall about five or six inches deep4 #e4 ,plant in a trench in ,april from half an inch to an inch apart4 #f4 ,cover from three inches to four inches deep4 #g4 ,water thoroughly once or twice a week1 and have the soil lower along the row than farther out1 so as to hold the water4 #h4 ,put a mulch of lawn clippings along the row on each side to prevent drying out4 ,,wild ,,flowers ,arrange an excursion to the woods when the spring flowers are in bloom4 ,keep a flower calendar1 showing3 #a4 ,the date when a plant was first found in bloom #b4 ,the name of the plant #c4 ,place where found #d4 ,name of the pupil who found it4 ,when in the woods discuss the following points3 #a4 ,why these wild flowers come into bloom so early in spring4 ,they have a large supply of food stored up from the previous summer4 #b4 ,dig down with a trowel or heavy knife and find this storehouse of food4 ,it may be in the form of bulb1 corm1 or rhizome4 #c4 ,the blooming of the spring flowers in the woods before the leaves of the trees reach their full development1 thus taking advantage of the sunlight4 #d4 ,mark a few clumps or individual plants and visit them again after a month4 ,look for the growing fruit with its seeds4 #e4 ,the leaves of the hepatica seen at the time when the blossoms appear are leaves which grew the previous season4 ,dig up a plant and notice the new leaves starting4 #f4 ,the kind of soil each seems to grow best in and the amount of light it receives4 #g4 ,have the pupils examine the flowers and leave them growing4 ,they should gather a few for the school-room4 #h4 ,have the pupils write a short account of their visit to the woods4 ,have them make drawings of the different flowers collected4 ,dig up a few specimens of wild flowers and transplant in a shady corner in the grounds or school garden4 ,the following varieties are suggested for special observation and study3 hepatica1 violet1 anemone1 columbine1 ,indian turnip1 marsh marigold4 ,teach one or two lessons on wild flowers1 similar to the lessons illustrated for the nasturtium4 ,,weeds ,pupils in this ,form should learn to identify most of the weeds that are found in the garden plots and a few of those commonly found in fields and along roadsides4 ,the large bulletin ,farm ,weeds1 published by the ,dominion ,department of ,agriculture1 will be of great value in helping to identify the weeds and also in gaining useful information regarding them and the best means of eradicating them4 ,the following species are recommended for special study during the season3 mustard 7such varieties as are found in the vicinity71 ,canada thistle1 purslane1 lamb's quarter1 pink-rooted pigweed1 and quack grass4 ,the pupils should be familiar with the general appearance of the plant2 its appearance when coming up in the spring2 whether annual1 biennial1 or perennial2 nature of the root1 and whether hard to pull up2 if hard to eradicate1 why so2 its rate of growth compared with the garden plants2 the number of seeds produced by a single plant2 how the seeds are scattered4 ,,the ,,apple ,,tree 7,when the buds are beginning to open7 ,,field ,,exercise ,the pupils1 during an excursion that is conducted by the teacher or while making individual observations1 obtain answers to problems of the following type3 ,what is the shape of the top of the apple tree8 ,are all apple trees of the same shape8 ,what is the height of the trunk8 ,measure the girth of the trunk of the largest8 ,are the leaf buds and flower buds more numerous near the inside of the tree top or more numerous at the outer part of the top8 ,to the teacher4--,when discussing the answers to the above problems1 develop the conception of the convenience of the low stature of the tree for gathering the apples1 of the wide-spreading branches for bearing a large crop1 of the stoutness of the trunk for supporting the weight1 and also of the position of the buds as adapting them for securing sunshine4 ,,class-,,room ,,lesson ,,on ,,the ,,apple ,,tree ,materials4--,twigs bearing flower and leaf buds4 ,these are gathered by the pupils from the apple trees that were studied during the field exercises4 ,each pupil finds on his twig the objects and markings1 etc41 as in the following outline3 ,describe the shape of the twig4 ,where were the apples that grew last year attached8 ,describe the positions of the buds on the twigs4 ,which buds are the larger1 those at the end or those on the side of the twig8 ,describe the condition of the bud scales4 ,open the buds and find what they contain4 ,of what use are the bud scales8 ,how many blossoms are in one bud8 ,of what use to the young leaves is the downy covering8 ,,field ,,exercise ,,following ,,class-,,room ,,lesson 7,just after the blossoms are fully open7 ,what is the colour of the apple blossom8 ,find the little green cup on which the petals rest4 ,describe the cup4 ,find the other things that are on the rim of1 or that are within1 the cup4 ,what are they8 ,what insects visit the flowers8 ,does the cup fall off when the petals fall8 ,does the cup close up as soon as the petals fall8 ,what does the green cup grow to be8 ,to the teacher4--,apple trees have somewhat round or pyramid-shaped tops1 varying in detail with the variety of apple tree4 ,the twigs are short and usually crooked4 ,the fruit twigs are called spurs4 ,the buds at the ends of the twigs and spurs are the largest and contain both leaves and blossoms1 and there are usually several blossoms in each bud4 ,the bud scales burst apart and drop off as the leaves and blossoms develop4 ,the side buds produce leaves only4 ,the petals and pollen boxes are borne on the rim of the green cup1 and inside the cup are found the five tips of the seed cases4 ,when the petals drop off1 the rim of the cup remains spread out for a short time4 ,this is the proper time for spraying1 so that the cup may hold a drop of poison to kill the tiny worms which cause apples to be wormy4 ,it is the green cup that grows and forms the flesh of the apple4 ,orchard trees suitable for lessons for ,form ,,ii are apple1 plum1 pear1 peach1 and cherry4 ,,bird ,,study ,a valuable exercise in bird study1 suitable for the pupils of ,form ,,ii1 is the study of a pair of birds and the history of their home through the entire season4 ,a record1 with dates1 should be kept1 and the following topics are suggested for observation3 ,where the nest is located1 protection of the nest1 part of building done by each bird2 eggs1 number1 colour1 size1 time required for hatching2 young birds1 number1 description1 how fed and upon what foods1 time required before ready to leave the nest2 history for a time after leaving the nest4 ,birds suitable for study by the pupils of ,form ,,ii are the crow1 flicker1 downy woodpecker1 blue-bird1 chipping-sparrow1 phoebe1 wren4 ,correlate with art1 by requiring drawings and models of the nest and its surroundings1 and with language1 by having pupils write the history of the nest and family4 ,,the ,,toad ,,field ,,exercises ,direct the pupils to watch for toads under the street lamps and on the lawns in the evenings1 and to observe what they are doing4 ,find out1 by turning over boards1 logs of wood1 stones1 and old stumps1 where toads spend the daytime4 ,if there is a sandy beach near by1 an interesting nature lesson is to trace a toad to its daytime retreat under a log or stone4 ,its wanderings and adventures during the night can be traced from the record that its trail makes in the sand4 ,are toads that live in light-coloured sand of the same colour as those that live in black clay8 ,of what value to the toad are these differences in colour8 ,the pupils are thus led to see that although the toad is not a handsome animal1 yet its rough1 dark skin is of great value to it for concealment among the lumps of soil with which it harmonizes4 ,can a dog be induced to seize a toad8 ,will he seize it as readily a second time as he did the first8 ,the secretion from the glands of the toad have a biting1 acid effect on the dog's mouth4 ,this secretion will not injure a person's hands unless the skin is broken1 and even then it does not cause warts4 ,how many toads can you find on your lawn in one evening8 ,how many in the vegetable garden8 ,how many in the flower beds8 ,place a toad on loose soil among some weeds and observe how it proceeds to get out of sight4 ,is it true that a toad is attracted by music8 ,give reasons for your answer4 ,,class-,,room ,,lesson ,secure a few living toads and keep them in a box covered with a pane of glass4 ,be sure to put moist soil and damp moss in the bottom of the box in which toads1 frogs1 newts1 or snakes are kept4 ,this enables these animals to live in comfort1 and they soon become sufficiently accustomed to their surroundings to act in a normal way4 ,observation4--,by flicking in front of a toad a small feather or a bit of meat attached to a thread1 the darting out of the tongue for catching prey on its adhesive surface may be observed4 ,the children1 by bringing slugs1 caterpillars1 grubs1 and various insects for the toads1 may learn what composes the food of the animal4 ,it is to be observed that the toad does not snap at an object until it moves4 ,,detailed ,,study ,observation4--,general shape2 division into head1 trunk1 and limbs2 size of head and mouth2 position and structure of eyes and ears2 difference in the size of the fore and hind limbs1 and explanation of this difference by references to the use of the limbs2 the hind foot1 uses of the web2 the glands on the surface of the body and their uses for protection4 ,why is a large mouth useful8 ,how are the ears fitted for life in water8 ,in conclusion1 the teacher should make sure that the pupils appreciate the usefulness of the toad and also the beauty represented in its adaptations to its conditions of life4 ,in these particulars the toad is a good illustration of the adage ,handsome is that handsome does4 ,,life ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,toad ,in early spring look for the toads on the surface of the water in ponds4 ,the music of the toads at this time of year has been described by one naturalist as one of the sweetest sounds of nature4 ,the eggs may be found in these ponds at this time4 ,they are attached to long strings of jelly which entwine among grasses and other objects in the ponds4 7,frogs' eggs are in masses of jelly1 not in strings47 ,place some of the eggs in a jar of water and set the jar in the window of the school-room4 ,a great mass of eggs is too much to put in a jar1 a few dozen eggs in a pint of water will be more likely to develop4 ,the water in the jar should be changed twice a week4 ,observations4--,the light and dark areas of the eggs1 the dark area gradually increasing in size2 the increase in the length of the egg2 the gradual change of the dark area into the general shape of a tadpole with head and tail1 the first appearance of the gills1 the separation from the jelly1 the movement by means of the tail1 the disappearance of the gills1 the growth of the hind legs and1 later1 of the forelegs1 and the disappearance of the tail4 ,questions and ,observations4--,what is the use of the dark colour of the area from which the tadpole is formed8 ,explain the uses of the strings of jelly4 ,describe how the tadpole swims4 ,upon what does the young tadpole feed8 ,what is the advantage of external gills at this stage in the tadpole's life8 ,later ,observations4--,the disappearance of the gills1 the budding out of the hind legs and1 later1 the forelegs4 ,while the legs are growing out1 the tail gradually becomes smaller1 at the same time the shape changes to that of the adult toad with a broad body and large mouth and eyes4 ,questions4--,what movements has the toad which the tadpole did not have8 ,what makes these movements possible8 ,why is the mouth of the toad better suited to its manner of life than the small mouth of the tadpole would be8 ,of what advantage to the tadpole was the smooth outline of its body1 and why is the rougher outline of the toad's body better suited for the life of the latter8 ,why would gills be unsuitable for the life of the toad8 ,to the teacher4--,from the dark area of the egg the tadpole develops1 the dark colour absorbs the sunlight1 and this causes growth4 ,the jelly holds the eggs up so that the sun can reach them and it also keeps them from being swept away by the water4 ,the tadpole is very small1 and external gills are needed to keep it in very close contact with the water4 ,the tail does not drop off1 the substance in it is absorbed into the body of the growing toad to serve as nutriment4 ,since all the changes in the development of the toad from egg to adult form take place in about one month1 this comparatively rapid development makes the life history of the toad particularly suitable for observation work4 ,the development of the eggs of the frog or newt may be studied from preparations made in precisely the same way as those for the study of the development of the toad4 ,if observations on the developments of two forms are carried on at one time1 interesting comparisons can be made on such points as1 shape and size of the eggs1 time required for development1 shapes and colours of the tadpoles1 activity of the tadpoles1 etc4 ,,the ,,earthworm ,time4--,may or ,june1 in connection with gardening1 when the working of the worms in the moist soil of the garden is quite noticeable4 ,outdoor studies may be assigned1 as3 ,observe the loose soil at the entrance to the burrows4 ,insert a straw in the burrow and1 following it1 dig downward with a garden trowel and learn the nature of the earthworm's home4 ,are earthworms ever found out of their burrows during the day8 ,if so1 on what kind of days8 ,why do earthworms burrow deep in dry weather8 ,earthworms can breathe only when the surfaces of their bodies are in moist conditions4 ,go out at night with a lantern to where earthworms are known to have burrows1 observe the worms stretched out with the rear ends of their bodies attached to the burrows1 and note how quickly they draw back when they are touched4 ,do they draw back if the ground is jarred near them8 ,do they draw back when the light falls upon them8 ,state the facts which are taught by the observations which were made on the above topics4 ,,class-,,room ,,lesson ,put two or three earthworms into a jar of rich1 damp soil1 on top of which there is a layer of sand a quarter of an inch thick4 ,put bits of cabbage1 onion1 grass1 and other plants on the surface and cover the jar with a glass slip or cardboard4 ,after a few days1 examine the jar1 noting the number of burrows1 the foods selected1 the castings1 the food dragged into the burrows4 ,pour water into the jar and observe the actions of the worms4 ,can an earthworm live in water8 ,place an earthworm on a moist plate or board and direct the pupils to study it1 as follows3 ,distinguish the head from the rear end1 the upper from the lower surface4 ,observe the means of living4 ,to assist in the latter observation1 stroke the worm from rear to head and find the four double rows of bristles4 ,why is it difficult to pull an earthworm out of its burrow8 ,find the mouth4 ,has the earthworm any eyes1 ears1 or nose8 ,place a pin in the path of a moving worm and try to explain why it turns aside before touching the obstacle4 ,test the sensitiveness to feeling4 ,why is it cruel to put an earthworm on a fishhook8 ,from the soil castings found in the jar1 infer the value of earthworms for enriching and pulverizing soil4 7,see ,soil ,studies1 p4 #bfi47 ,,references ,bailey and ,coleman3 ,first ,course in ,biology4 ,macmillan ,co4 #a4be4 ,crawford3 ,guide to ,nature ,study4 ,the ,copp1 ,clark ,co4 #ij cents4 ,kellogg3 ,elementary ,zoology4 ,holt ,co4 #a4ce4 ,,the ,,aquarium ,a large glass aquarium may be purchased from any ,school ,supply ,company at a cost of a few dollars1 but a small globe-shaped aquarium such as is used for gold-fishes will be found suitable for school purposes4 ,if it is not possible to secure either of these1 a large glass jar1 such as a battery jar or large fruit jar1 will be found to answer quite well4 ,to set up the aquarium1 put into the jar about two inches of clean shore sand 7sand from a sand pit1 washed until the water comes away clear1 will do74 ,secure from a pond some water-plants1 place these in the jar with their roots covered with sand and secured in position by small stones4 ,pour in water until the jar is nearly full1 taking care not to wash the roots out of place1 and then put in a freshwater clam and a few water snails4 ,these are scavengers1 for the clam feeds upon organisms that float in the water1 while the snails eat the green scum that grows on the glass4 ,the other aquarium specimens may now be put in4 ,one fish about three inches long to a gallon of water is about the right proportion4 ,when there is a sufficient quantity of plant life to keep the water properly oxygenated and enough animal life to supply the carbon dioxide necessary to keep the plants growing well1 the aquarium is said to be balanced4 ,the balanced aquarium does not require that the water be changed more often than once in two months4 ,too much direct sunlight causes too rapid growth of green slime1 hence the aquarium should not be set in a window4 ,close to a window through which the sun shines upon it for an hour or longer each day is the best position4 ,do not supply more food to the animals in the aquarium than they can eat up clean4 ,crayfish1 perch1 trout1 and other freshwater fishes are destructive of insect larvae and other aquarium specimens1 hence care must be taken in selecting the specimens that are put together into an aquarium4 ,suitable animals for the aquarium3 mosquito larvae1 dragon-fly larvae1 caddice-fly larvae1 crayfish1 clam1 water snails1 tadpoles1 fish1 frog1 turtle4 ,,aquarium ,,specimens ,,mosquito ,time4--,may or ,june4 ,questions and ,observations4--,at what time of the year are mosquitoes most plentiful8 ,in what localities are they most plentiful8 ,why are they most plentiful in these places8 ,are mosquitoes ever seen during fall or winter8 ,how do you account for their rapid increase in number early in summer8 ,how do mosquitoes find their victims8 ,observe the humming noise and try to discover how it is made4 ,watch a mosquito as it draws blood from your hand4 ,does the point of the beak pierce the skin8 ,capture a number of mosquitoes and place them in a jar containing some water and a few straws or sticks standing upright out of the water4 ,cover the mouth of the jar with a glass plate or fine gauze4 ,watch for the rafts of mosquitoes' eggs on the surface of the water4 ,the eggs may also be found on the surface of ponds or open rain barrels1 and may be transferred to water in a jar in the laboratory4 ,,study ,,of ,,the ,,adult ,,form ,note the shape1 colour1 sucking tube1 wings1 and legs4 ,compare with the house-fly4 ,distinguish the male insect from the female2 the former has feathery feelers1 and has mouth parts unsuited for biting4 ,how many kinds of mosquitoes have you seen8 ,direct attention to the kind which causes the spread of malaria4 ,it is recognized by its habit of standing with its body pointing at right angles to the surface on which its feet are placed or1 in other words1 it appears to stand on its head4 ,,the ,,development ,describe the egg raft4 ,observe the wigglers 7hatched in about a day72 the divisions of the body of the wigglers2 position of the wigglers when at rest4 ,observe that the tail end is upward4 ,lead the pupils to perceive that this is the means of getting air4 ,observe the rapid movement toward the bottom when disturbed2 the means of causing this movement2 the change into the large-headed pupae--a change which takes place about ten days after hatching2 the almost motionless character of the pupae2 the change from the pupae forms into the adult--a change which takes place at about the fourth day of pupae life4 ,put some mosquito larvae 7wigglers7 into the fish aquarium4 ,are mosquitoes of any use8 ,the wigglers are the food on which some young fishes live4 ,young bass and trout feed upon them4 ,put some kerosene on the surface of a jar in which there are mosquito larvae4 ,describe a method of destroying mosquitoes4 ,the teacher tells about the mosquito as the cause of the spread of malaria4 ,from the fact that the eggs hatch on stagnant water1 deduce a benefit arising from the draining of land4 ,,references ,silcox and ,stevenson3 ,modern ,nature ,study ,hodge3 ,nature ,study and ,life ,,caddice-,,fly ,time3 ,may4 ,the caddice-flies are very interesting insects1 owing to the habits of the larvae of building little cases of wood1 stones1 or shells1 in which they pass their development stages under water4 ,these larvae are easily found during the month of ,may in little streams of water everywhere throughout the ,province4 ,look for what at first sight appears to be a bit of twig or a cylinder of stone about an inch long moving along the bottom as though carried by currents4 ,closer observation will result in the discovery that this is a little case composed of grains1 of bits of stick1 or of sand and tiny shells1 and the head of the occupant may be seen projecting from one end4 ,collect some of these larvae in a jar of water and transfer them to the aquarium4 ,direct the pupils to look for others in the streams1 so that they may observe their appearances and movements in their natural environment4 ,if kept in jars1 the water must be changed every day1 and the top should be covered to prevent the escape of the adults4 ,observe4--,the shape of the various kinds of cases2 the materials1 and how fastened together 7chiefly by silk72 the part of the larva that protrudes from the case2 the movement1 and how caused2 the fitness of the case as a protection4 ,note hardness1 colour1 and shape as protective features4 ,the pupils will be fortunate if they observe the sudden rise of the larva to the surface of the water and the almost instantaneous change into the four-winged fly4 ,,insects ,,suitable ,,for ,,lessons ,,in ,,form ,,ii ,walking-stick insect1 katydid1 cricket1 mole-cricket1 clothes-moth1 giant water-bug1 potato beetle1 click-beetle1 luna moth1 and swallow-tail butterfly4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,form ,,iii ,,autumn ,,garden ,,work ,the pupils in this ,form should be able to do all of the work required of them in the garden without assistance4 ,they should aim at intensive and thorough cultivation and1 in the autumn1 when the plants of their gardens ripen1 these should be removed and the soil carefully spaded4 ,they should continue the work of selecting the seed from the best flowers1 as indicated in the work for ,form ,,ii1 and should grow some seed from vegetables and perennials seen to be particularly good4 ,boys in this ,form may also wish to do some gardening for profit4 ,in some cases where there is plenty of space1 this may be carried on in a part of the school garden set aside for that purpose4 ,usually1 however1 it will be found most convenient to carry it on in the home garden4 ,best varieties for local markets should then be grown and attention given to the proper time and manner of marketing or storing for a later market4 ,cool1 well-ventilated cellars are best for most fruits and vegetables4 ,,treatment ,,of ,,fungi ,during the summer and early autumn months attention should be given to the spraying of plants for blight and for injurious insects4 ,the potato is commonly affected by a fungous disease which causes the stalks to blacken and die before the tubers have matured4 ,this disease may be prevented in large measure by the use of a fungicide known as ,bordeaux mixture4 ,this may be prepared as follows3 ,take one pound of copper sulphate 7blue vitriol72 make it fine by pounding it in a bag or cloth and then dissolve it in water1 using a wooden pail4 ,it dissolves rapidly if put in a little cheese-cloth sack1 which is suspended near the top of the pail by putting a stick across the pail and tying the sack of copper sulphate to it4 ,dilute this solution to five gallons4 ,take also a pound of unslaked or quick-lime and add a cupful of water to it4 ,when it begins to swell up and get hot1 add more water slowly1 and1 when the action ceases1 dilute to five gallons4 ,mix these two solutions together in a tub or barrel1 and churn them up1 or stir them together vigorously4 ,they give a deep robin's-egg-blue mixture1 which is slightly alkaline and should be used at once4 ,the solutions can be kept separate as stock solutions throughout the summer and then diluted and mixed whenever needed4 ,care should be observed in not mixing the solutions before each has been diluted to the strength1 one pound to five gallons4 ,a piece of blue litmus paper will be convenient to prove that the mixture is alkaline4 ,if alkaline1 as it should be1 the paper remains blue when dipped in it4 ,if the mixture turns the litmus paper red1 it must have more lime-water added to make it alkaline4 ,the potato tops should be thoroughly sprayed with this mixture when about ten inches high and then once every two weeks1 until they have been treated three or four times4 ,this is to prevent blight and not to kill bugs4 ,if the potato-beetle is troubling the potatoes1 add paris-green to the ,bordeaux mixture--a teaspoonful to every two gallons4 ,to prove the value of this treatment have a trial plot of potatoes which receive all attention save spraying with ,bordeaux mixture4 ,if a heavy rain should follow the spraying1 it should be repeated4 ,potato-scab may be prevented to a large degree by soaking the tubers before cutting for planting in a solution of formalin 7a #dj-per cent4 solution of formaldehyde7 one-half pint to fifteen gallons of water4 ,seed grain is frequently treated this way before sowing1 to destroy smut spores4 ,a pound of formalin is put in forty gallons of water in a large barrel4 ,a bag full of the grain to be treated is set in the barrel of formalin mixture for about two hours and then taken and dried on a floor that has been previously washed with water containing formalin4 ,a solution of copper sulphate 7bluestone71 one pound in twenty gallons of water is sometimes used4 ,the grain is left in this solution for twelve hours and then dried for sowing4 ,all bags and utensils should also be disinfected with this formalin solution4 ,,treatment ,,of ,,insects ,in order to poison insects successfully1 it is necessary to determine how the insect feeds4 ,if it is a biting insect1 that is one that eats the leaf1 such as the potato beetle1 paris-green should be used4 ,paris-green sometimes burns the tender leaves4 ,this may be prevented by adding a tablespoonful of lime to each pail of water used4 ,it may also be used dry with flour or dust4 ,if the insect feeds by sucking the juices from the leaf1 as is the case with plant-lice1 then a solution that kills by contact must be used1 such as whale-oil soap1 one ounce to a quart of water4 ,tobacco-water is sometimes mixed with the soap solution as follows3 ,four pounds of tobacco-waste is steeped in nine gallons of hot water for five hours2 this is then strained1 and to the tobacco-water one pound of whale-oil soap dissolved in one gallon of hot water is added and mixed thoroughly4 ,kerosene emulsion1 which is made as follows1 is very destructive to plant-lice and scale insects3 ,dissolve a quarter of a pound of common laundry soap in half a gallon of rain-water and1 while hot1 mix with one gallon of coal-oil and churn vigorously for five minutes to get a smooth1 creamy mixture4 ,on cooling1 it thickens and is diluted before using by adding nine quarts of warm water to one quart of the emulsion4 ,use smaller quantities in correct proportions when only a few plants are to be treated4 ,,cabbage-,,worm ,the larvae of the cabbage-butterfly sometimes do a great deal of harm by eating the cabbage leaves4 ,it will not do to use paris-green on cabbage1 as the leaves are for eating4 ,instead1 use pyrethrum or insect powder1 which may be diluted by mixing with cheap flour--one ounce of insect powder to five of flour4 ,mix thoroughly and leave in a closed tin over night4 ,dust the mixture on the leaves from a cheese-cloth bag by tapping with a small stick or from a dusting-pan4 ,if used while the dew is on the leaves1 it sticks better4 ,insect powder is not poisonous to man as is paris-green1 and so may be used freely on cabbage or other similar plants4 ,,plants ,,annuals1 ,,biennials1 ,,and ,,perennials ,,class-,,room ,,lesson ,by means of questions based upon the pupils' knowledge of a few common annuals1 such as the oat1 sweet-pea1 and garden aster1 develop the following points3 #a4 ,these plants are always grown from seeds4 #b4 ,these plants produce flowers and ripe seeds during one season's growth4 #c4 ,these plants wither and die in the autumn4 ,plants having these characteristics are called annuals4 ,the teacher explains the meaning of the word and requires the pupils to name a few other annuals4 ,in a similar way1 discuss a few common types of biennials1 such as turnip1 cabbage1 hollyhock1 and develop the following points3 #a4 ,these plants produce no flowers and seeds during the first year of their life4 #b4 ,these plants1 during the first year1 lay up a store of food in roots1 leaves1 or stems4 #c4 ,the food is used in the second year of the plant's life to nourish the flowers and seeds4 ,a biennial should be grown for two years in the school garden to furnish material for concrete study4 ,in a similar way discuss a few common types of perennials1 such as rhubarb1 dahlia1 apple tree1 and develop the following points3 #a4 ,these plants may or may not produce seeds during the first year's growth4 #b4 ,some of these plants are herbs1 but most of them are trees and shrubs4 #c4 ,food is stored in roots or stems to provide for early spring growth4 #d4 ,these plants live on from year to year4 ,,garden ,,studies ,,annuals ,observations4--,some plants1 such as poppy and candy-tuft1 are early blooming1 while others1 such as aster and cosmos1 bloom in late summer1 hence a selection should be made that will yield a succession of bloom throughout the season4 ,some are hardy annuals which can be grown from open planting1 even when the weather is cold4 ,these often seed themselves2 for example1 sweet-pea1 morning-glory1 phlox1 poppy1 sweet-alyssum4 ,some are half-hardy annuals1 such as asters1 balsams1 stocks1 and nasturtiums4 ,these must be started indoors or in hotbeds1 or if in plots1 not until the soil is quite warm4 ,the heights of annuals vary1 and consequently they must be arranged in the bed in such a way that tall plants will not shade the short ones4 ,,biennials ,observations4--,during the first year food is stored in the root of the turnip1 carrot1 parsnip1 and beet1 in the leaves of the cabbage1 and in the stem of the hollyhock4 ,flowers and seeds are produced during the second year1 and the storehouse becomes empty1 dry1 and woody4 ,preparation for winter is therefore1 in the case of biennials1 preparation for a renewal of growth the following spring4 ,,perennials ,observations4--,the highest forms of plant life are found in this class2 namely1 the strong1 large1 hardy trees and shrubs4 ,the herbaceous perennials are equipped with underground parts that act as storehouses of food to ensure the growth of the plant through successive seasons4 ,examples3 the roots of dahlia1 rhubarb1 dandelion1 and chicory2 the underground stems of potato1 onion1 tulip1 scutch-grass1 ,canada thistle1 etc4 ,many of the wild flowers that bloom in early spring belong to this class1 and their rapid growth then is made possible by the store of food in the underground parts4 ,examples3 trillium1 bloodroot1 squirrel-corn1 ,indian turnip1 ,solomon's seal1 etc4 ,,special ,,study ,,of ,,garden ,,plants ,a few plants should be selected for special study1 and the following are recommended3 annuals--sweet-pea1 pumpkin1 and corn2 biennials--cabbage1 parsnip1 and carrot2 perennials--dahlia1 rhubarb1 and couch-grass4 ,it is desirable that the observations be made upon the plants in the garden1 but they may be conducted in the class-room upon specimens brought into the room by the pupils4 ,,sweet-,,pea ,examine the stem of the sweet-pea and describe its form1 its uniform slender structure1 and the fact that it climbs4 ,find out just how it climbs4 ,the pupils will observe the tendrils1 which are extensions of the midribs of the leaves4 ,describe the leaves1 noting what is meant by calling them compound4 ,observe the position of the flower1 its colours1 odour1 size1 and form4 ,what insect does it resemble in shape8 ,what different features of the flower enable it to attract attention8 ,the names and uses of the floral organs may be taught to this class4 ,for example3 ,pupils find the green blanket that protects the bud4 ,this is the calyx4 ,the beautiful1 attractive part is the corolla4 ,the parts that produce the pollen are called stamens4 ,the case that holds the seeds is the pistil4 ,examine flowers of different ages and trace the change from the minute pistil to the pod4 ,study1 comparatively1 the flowers of the field-pea1 bean1 or wild vetch4 ,select a few of the finest blossoms of the sweet-pea and put tags on them while they are still in bloom4 ,when they ripen1 collect the seeds and preserve them for spring planting4 ,conduct observation lessons on the pumpkin and corn1 in which the pupils will discover such facts as those given below4 ,,pumpkin ,notice the method of growth--the stem no stronger than that of the sweet-pea1 but lying flat on the ground4 ,notice the little roots sent out here and there where the stem touches the ground4 ,this gives extra nourishment4 ,the leaves are not numerous and grow only in one direction1 but are very large--entirely too large to be borne upon an upright stem4 ,notice the large funnel-like flowers and that not all of them set fruit4 ,examine the flowers4 ,some of them have stamens for producing pollen1 but no pistil4 ,these never produce fruit1 for pumpkins are simply enlarged and ripened pistils4 ,look for insects and examine them to find out whether they are carrying pollen4 ,notice younger pumpkins and even blossoms toward the end of the vine4 ,pick all the blossoms and small pumpkins off a vine1 leaving only one of the best growing pumpkins4 ,see whether this one grows larger than one of equal age on a vine having young pumpkins developing on it4 ,notice the arrangement of the seeds inside a ripe pumpkin4 ,collect some seeds1 wash clean1 and dry for spring planting4 ,it is desirable to plant pumpkins late in ,may1 so that they will have flowers on their vines as late as ,september4 ,study the flowers of the cucumber and compare them with those of the pumpkin4 ,,corn ,this plant is native to ,america1 was greatly prized by the aborigines1 and even worshipped by some of them4 ,note the upright character of the plant and how the stalk is divided into sections by the joints1 or nodes4 ,count these joints and also the leaves1 and note the relationship of leaves and joints in the stalk1 and how the leaves come off in different directions so as not to shade each other4 ,note the strong1 stringy threads in the leaf1 which give strength to the leaf as well as circulation of sap4 ,they are strong and elastic1 allowing of movement4 ,the same strengthening fibres are seen in the stalk when it is broken across4 ,in the stalk these fibres are arranged in a tubular form1 as this gives greatest strength1 the centre being soft and weak4 ,the stalks are largest near the base1 where the greatest stiffness is required4 ,the nodes are also closer together here for strength4 ,the stem is made much stronger by the bases of the leaves being wrapped so firmly around for a distance above the point of attachment at the node4 ,notice the close-fitting sheath or rain-guard1 where the blade of the leaf leaves the stalk4 ,this prevents rain soaking down inside the leaf sheath1 but lets it run down the outside to the root where it is needed4 ,as the plant gets older and taller1 new roots come out from the node next above the root and sometimes from the second node above4 ,these prop-roots are needed for support as the stalk lengthens1 and they also reinforce the feeding capacity4 ,note the appearance of little cobs in the axils of the leaves4 ,as soon as the silk appears1 take a cob off and open it carefully4 ,the little cob1 which corresponds to the pistil in other plants1 is covered with small and undeveloped kernels1 and to each kernel one of the strands of so-called silk is attached4 ,whilst this little cob is forming1 a bunch1 or tassel1 of flowers is forming on the top of the corn plant4 ,open one of these flowers and find the stamens with pollen-grains inside4 ,this pollen1 when shed1 falls upon the silk1 and each grain sends a tiny tube down inside the silk to the delicate ovules on the cob1 fertilizing them and starting them to develop4 ,the silk then withers4 ,the wind carries this pollen4 ,find out how the silk is fitted for catching the pollen4 ,what is the need for the great quantity of pollen that the plant produces8 ,strip off the husks and compare the tough1 hard husks that are found on the outside with the soft paper-like husks found close to the cob4 ,show how each kind is fitted for its particular work4 ,pupils make experiments in the corn plot to find3 #a4 ,whether the corn grows faster3 7#a7 ,when the soil is kept mellow or when the soil is hard2 7#b7 ,when the days are warm or when they are cool2 7#c7 ,when the nights are cool or when they are warm4 #b4 ,the effect of growing black corn and golden corn in the same or in adjoining plots4 ,account for the result4 ,,correlations ,art3 ,clay-modelling and drawing exercises on the whole plant1 and also upon the ear4 ,literature3 ,interpretation and reading of ,blessing the ,corn-fields1 from ,hiawatha4 ,history3 ,the name ,indian corn originated in the early colonial days of the ,eastern and ,central ,states1 when the pioneers obtained corn from the ,indians4 ,the ,indians showed the settlers how to kill the trees by girdling and how to plant the corn among the standing trunks1 and thus have corn ready for roasting by ,august1 and for grinding into meal or for boiling to make hominy by ,september4 ,,seed ,,dispersal ,the lessons on seed dispersal which were begun in ,form ,i should be continued in this ,form4 ,i4 ,,lesson ,select a few weeds belonging to species which produce large numbers of seeds1 such as wild mustard1 white cockle1 false-flax1 etc4 ,distribute the seed pods among the pupils of the class and require them to estimate the number of seeds produced by each plant4 ,by references to observations made in the garden1 help the pupils to recall the bad results1 both to parent plants and to young seedlings1 of improper scattering of seeds1 namely3 #a4 ,the excessive crowding and shading1 which causes the plants to become weak4 #b4 ,insufficient food and moisture for the large number of plants1 which causes the plants to be small and worthless4 ,discuss how the crowding of cultivated plants is prevented and1 in a general way1 how nature provides for the scattering of seeds4 ,the great work of the plant is the production and dispersal of its seeds4 ,ask the pupils to be on the alert to find examples of plants in which provision is made for the dispersal of the seeds1 and to bring these plants to the class for the next lesson4 ,,detailed ,,study ,,of ,,seed ,,dispersal ,,ii4 ,,class-,,room ,,lesson ,make use of the specimens gathered by the pupils and by the teacher for observing and classifying as follows3 #a4 ,seeds that steal rides4 ,examples--burdock1 blue burr1 pitch-fork weed1 barley1 stick-tight1 hound's tongue4 #b4 ,seeds that are carried in edible fruits which have attractive colours1 tastes1 etc4 ,examples--apple1 grape1 cherry1 rowan1 hawthorn4 #c4 ,seeds that are carried by the wind4 ,examples--dandelion1 thistle1 milkweed1 maple1 pine1 elm4 #d4 ,seeds that are scattered by being shot from bursting pods4 ,examples--violet1 jewel-weed 7touch-me-not71 sweet-pea1 witch-hazel4 #e4 ,seeds that are scattered by plants which are rolled along by the wind4 ,examples--,russian thistle1 tumble-mustard1 tumble-grass4 #f4 ,seeds that float4 ,very many seeds float1 although not specially fitted for floating1 and some1 such as the cocoa-nut and water-lily1 are especially adapted for dispersal by water4 ,to the teacher4--,require the pupils to observe the special structure that facilitates the dispersal of the seed4 ,as an illustration1 ask the pupils to find the seeds of the burdock and to describe what the burr is really like4 ,they find that the burr is a little basket filled with seeds4 ,the basket has many little hooks which catch on the hair of animals and1 since these hooks turn inwards1 they serve to hold the basket in such a position that all the seeds are not likely to drop out at one time4 ,the pupils should also observe that these baskets are quite firmly attached to the parent plant until the seeds are ripe2 after that the baskets break off the plant at the slightest pull4 ,,seed ,,collections ,during late summer and in the autumn the seeds of the weeds that have been identified by the pupils should be collected4 ,instruct the pupils to rub the ripened seed pods between the hands until the seeds are thrashed out1 at the same time blowing away the chaff4 ,the seeds are now placed in small phials or in small envelopes and these are carefully labelled4 ,if possible1 fill each phial so that there may be sufficient seed for use by all the members of the class in the lessons on seed description and identification which are to be taken during the winter months1 when ,nature ,study material is less plentiful than it is in the summer and autumn4 ,the phials or envelopes may be stored in a shallow box1 or the phials may be mounted on a stout card4 ,they may be attached to this card either by stout thread sewed through the card and passing around the phial1 or by brass cleats1 which may be obtained with the phials from dealers in ,nature ,study supplies4 ,,man ,,as ,a ,,disperser ,,of ,,seeds ,man as an agent in the dispersal of seeds should be made a topic for discussion4 ,obtain1 through the pupils1 samples of seed-grain1 clover seed1 timothy seed1 turnip seed1 etc4 ,ask the pupils to examine these and count the number of weed seeds found in each4 ,the results will reveal a very common way in which the seeds of noxious weeds are introduced4 ,describe the introduction from ,europe to the wheat-fields of the ,prairie ,provinces of such weeds as ,russian thistle1 false-flax1 ,french-weed4 ,the seeds of these weeds were carried in seed-grain1 fodder for animals1 and also in the hay and straw used by the immigrants as packing for their household goods4 ,careful farmers will not allow thrashing-machines1 seed drills1 fanning-mills1 etc41 to come from farms infested with noxious weeds to do work upon their farms1 nor will they buy manure1 straw1 or hay that was produced on dirty farms4 ,,the ,,sugar ,,maple ,,field ,,exercises ,select a convenient sugar maple as a type4 ,ask the pupils to observe and to describe the height of the tree1 the height of the trunk below the branches1 the shape and size of the crown1 the diameter of the trunk1 the colour of the bark1 the markings on the bark1 the number and direction of the branches1 and the density of the foliage4 ,compare the density of the foliage with that of other kinds of trees4 ,require the pupils to make a crayon drawing of the tree4 ,examine the crop of grain produced near a shade tree4 ,compare the crop on the north side of the tree with that on the south side4 ,account for the difference4 ,is the crop around the tree inferior to that in the rest of the field8 ,find out how long the various sugar maple shade trees in the locality have been planted4 ,is it a tree of rapid or slow growth8 ,are these sugar maples infested with insects or attacked by fungi8 ,do these trees yield sap that is suitable for making maple syrup8 ,examine trees that have been tapped and find whether the old wounds become overgrown or cause decay4 ,find out all you can about the uses that are made of maple wood4 ,to the teacher4--,the sugar maple is the most highly prized of our native trees for ornament and shade4 ,it grows fairly rapidly and becomes a goodly-sized tree within twenty years after it is planted4 ,the symmetrical dome-shaped crown and the dense foliage of restful dark green give to it a fine appearance4 ,it is hardy and has few insect pests1 and its value is enhanced by the abundant yield of rich sap4 ,as a commercial tree it has few superiors2 the wood is hard and durable and takes a high polish4 ,it is used for flooring1 furniture1 boat building1 for the wooden parts of machinery and tools1 and for making shoe-pegs and shoe lasts4 ,as fuel maple wood is surpassed only by hickory4 ,,maple ,,leaves ,,class-,,room ,,lesson ,the pupils bring to the class leaves of the sugar maple4 ,each pupil is provided with a leaf and makes direct observations under the guidance of the teacher4 ,observations4--,colour1 dark green on the upper surface1 lighter green on the lower surface4 ,surface smooth and shiny4 ,shape3 star-shaped1 broader than long4 ,lobes3 usually five1 often three2 each lobe has usually two large teeth4 ,base has a heart-shaped notch2 petiole long and slender1 usually red4 ,veins are stiff and run out to the points of the teeth4 ,distribute leaves of the red maple and ask the pupils to note the general resemblance4 ,next ask them to compare the leaves as to shape1 texture1 and teeth on the margin4 ,ask the pupils to find red maple trees and also to find maples with leaves that are different from those of the red maple and those of the sugar maple4 ,make a collection of maple leaves when they are in autumn colours4 7,see ,collections1 page #cc1 in ,general ,method47 ,to the teacher4--,the leaves of the red maple are longer than broad1 and are not so smooth and shiny as the leaves of the sugar maple4 ,there are numerous saw teeth on the margins of the lobes4 ,the silver maple1 with leaves having silver-white under surfaces1 is another common species4 ,a lesson similar to that on leaf studies may be based on the fruits 7keys7 of the maples4 ,the oak1 ash1 elm1 beech1 or birch may be taken up in lessons similar to those outlined for the study of the maple4 ,,correlations ,with literature and reading3 ,by interpreting ,the ,maple1 ,the ,ontario ,readers1 ,third ,book1 page #agi2 ,with art3 ,by sketching the tree and reproducing the autumn leaves in colour work4 ,,weed ,,studies ,in every locality there are about a dozen weeds that are particularly troublesome1 and the pupils of ,form ,,iii should be taught to identify these and to understand the characteristics which make each weed persistent4 ,to produce these results it will be necessary to have exercises such as the following3 #a4 ,the teacher exhibits a weed to the pupils and directs their attention to a few of the outstanding features of the plant4 #b4 ,the pupils are required1 as a field exercise1 to observe where the weed is abundant2 and whether in hay field1 pasture1 hoe crop1 or in grain4 ,the pupils will bring specimens to the class4 #c4 ,detailed study in the class of specimens of the weed brought by the pupils to find offensive odours and prickles1 also the character of the leaves1 flowers1 seed pods1 and seeds1 including the means of dispersal2 the underground parts1 whether underground stem1 tap-root1 or fibrous root1 and the value of the underground parts as a means of persistence4 #d4 ,the pupils make a collection of the weeds that have been studied4 7,see ,plant ,collection1 page #ci1 in ,general ,method47 #e4 ,the pupils make collections of the seeds of the weeds that have been studied4 ,,observation ,,lesson ,,on ,,weed ,,seeds ,the seed of a weed should always be exhibited and studied in association with a fresh or a mounted specimen of the weed4 ,each pupil should use a hand lens in examining the seed4 ,the pupils examine the seed of each species and describe it according to the following scheme3 ,,name ,,of ,,seed ,colour3 ,size3 7in fractions of an inch7 ,shape3 ,details3 ,occurrence3 ,the results of the pupils' study of the ox-eye daisy would then appear in the following form3 ,,seed ,,of ,,ox-,,eye ,,daisy ,colour3 ,black and greenish-white in stripes1 ,size3 ,one sixteenth of an inch1 ,shape3 ,club-shaped1 ,details3 ,grooved lengthwise1 yellow peg in large end1 ,occurrence3 ,a common impurity in grass seed4 ,,grasshopper 7,consult the ,manual on ,suggestions for ,teachers of ,science3 ,zoology1 ,first year47 ,the ease with which this insect may be obtained in ,august or ,september1 together with its fairly large size1 makes it a suitable specimen for insect study4 ,it is also a typical insect1 so that a careful study serves as a basis for a knowledge of the class insecta4 ,,field ,,exercises ,problems to be assigned for outdoor observation3 ,locomotion by flying1 leaping1 walking2 protective coloration and habit of lying low2 its behaviour when caught2 in what kinds of fields it is most plentiful2 in what kinds of weather it is most active2 its position on the grass or grain when feeding2 the nature and extent of the damage done by it4 ,use a class period for discussion of the above4 ,confirm1 correct1 or incite to more careful observation4 ,,class-,,room ,,lesson 7,studied as a typical insect7 ,observations4--,the three divisions of the body--head1 thorax1 abdomen2 the segmental division of the two latter parts2 the hard1 protecting covering2 the movements of the abdomen2 the two large compound eyes and three small eyes2 the feelers2 the two pairs of mouth feelers2 the cutting mandibles2 the three pairs of legs 7one pair for leaping7 and two pairs of wings on the thorax2 the breathing pores1 the ears1 ovipositors of the female4 ,the young grasshoppers may be found in spring or early summer1 and a few even in late summer1 among the grass of old meadows and pastures4 ,they are easily recognized because of their general resemblance to the adult and are in the stage of development called the nymph phase4 ,note the hairy body and the absence of wings4 ,to the teacher4--,the moulting of the nymph is a very interesting process to observe and so is the laying of the eggs by the female in a burrow that she prepares in the soil4 ,if females secured in ,july are kept in a jar having two inches of soil in the bottom1 they will lay their eggs in the soil2 the nests and eggs may then be taken up and examined4 ,in order that we may not destroy our friends and helpers1 it is expedient to know what creatures help to hold pests in check4 ,the enemies of grasshoppers are birds and insect parasites4 ,under the wings of grasshoppers may frequently be found little red mites2 these kill the grasshoppers to which they are attached4 ,the blister-beetles lay their eggs in the grasshoppers' nests1 and the larvae of the beetles feed upon and destroy the eggs4 ,the birds that are especially useful in destroying grasshoppers are the meadow-lark1 crow1 bobolink1 quail1 grasshopper sparrow4 ,the curious hairlike worms known to the school boys as hair snakes because of the belief that they are parts of horse hairs turned into snakes1 are worms that pass the early part of their life within the bodies of grasshoppers and1 when the insects die1 the worms escape and are washed by rains into troughs and ponds where their movements attract attention4 ,study the cricket and house-fly and compare the cricket with the grasshopper4 ,,aphides ,in ,september obtain leaves of sweet-pea1 apple1 rose bush1 maple1 oak1 turnip1 etc41 on which the insects are feeding2 also provide specimens of woolly aphides on the bark of apple trees or stems of goldenrod or alder4 ,observe the nature of the injury to the leaves and plants on which these insects feed4 ,do the insects bite the leaves or suck the juices8 ,give evidence in support of your answer4 ,sprinkle paris-green on the leaves2 does this kill the insects8 ,why does it not8 ,spray the insects with a little oil1 such as kerosene1 or with water in which the stub of a cigar has been soaked2 what is the effect8 ,insects that suck juices from inside the leaf escape the poisoning from solutions in the leaf surfaces2 such insects are killed by oils which enter the breathing pores and cause poisoning4 ,search in the garden1 orchard1 and forest for plants attacked by aphides4 ,carefully observe the lady-birds that are frequently found where there are aphides4 ,lady-birds 7also called lady-bugs71 are small1 spotted beetles1 broad oval in form1 of bright colours1 red and black1 or yellow and black1 or black and white4 ,they are of great service to the farmer and gardener because their foods consists largely of plant-lice 7aphides74 ,watch the action of ants which are found among the aphides4 ,the ants may be observed stroking the aphides with their feelers1 causing the aphides to excrete a sweet fluid on which the ant feeds4 ,aphides are sometimes called ant-cows4 ,direct the attention of the pupils to the difference between the male and female aphides2 the males have wings1 but the females are wingless4 ,,tomato ,,worm ,,the ,,adult ,the adult moth may be captured on spring evenings when the lilacs are in bloom1 as it buzzes about among the lilac blossoms sucking their honey4 ,it is frequently mistaken for the humming-bird when thus engaged4 ,it may also be observed during the summer evenings laying its eggs on the leaves of tomato vines4 ,observe the worms that hatch from these eggs and note their rapid growth4 ,keep the larvae in a box in the school-room and feed them on tomato leaves4 ,note their size and colour1 the oblique stripes on the sides1 the horn which is used for terrifying assailants1 the habit of remaining rigid for hours--hence the name sphinx moth4 ,the larvae burrow into the ground in ,september to form the chrysalides1 hence there should be soil in the vivarium in which they are kept4 ,,the ,,chrysalis ,observations4--,the shape1 colour1 nature of the covering1 the long handle1 the wing impressions1 the segmental part1 the emergence of the adult in ,may or early ,june4 ,what organ of the insect was contained in the handle of the chrysalis8 ,the adult is one of the handsomest of moths1 because of its graceful1 clear-cut shape and the variegated grays and yellows of its dress4 ,look on poplar1 cotton-wood1 plum1 and pine trees1 and on tobacco plants for relatives of the tomato worm1 the large green larvae whose chrysalis and adult forms resemble those of the tomato worm4 ,,the ,,crow ,crows are so plentiful that there will be no difficulty in making observations on the living birds in the free state in spring or summer4 7,as the crow is a bird that is easily tamed1 it may be possible to have a tame crow in the class-room for more careful study of the details of structure47 ,observations4--,describe its attitude when perched1 movements of the wings in flight1 speed of flight4 ,why does the crow perch high up in trees8 ,what gives to the crow its swift flight8 ,study the various calls of the crow and note the alarm1 threat1 summons1 and expression of fear4 ,find the nest and note its position1 size1 build1 materials1 eggs1 and young4 ,how is the nest concealed8 ,what makes it strong8 ,are crows often seen on the ground8 ,do they walk or hop8 ,observe and report on the crow's habits of feeding4 ,it eats corn1 potatoes1 oats1 beetles1 crickets1 grasshoppers1 cutworms1 and occasionally birds' eggs or young birds4 ,why do king-birds chase and thrash the crow8 ,are scarecrows effective in keeping crows off the grain fields8 ,note the sentinels that are on the watch to warn other crows of danger4 ,give reasons for the belief that the crow is a wise bird4 ,give reasons for regarding the crow as a neighbour of doubtful character4 ,give reasons why crows should be protected4 ,,note4--,crows will not pull up corn and seed that has been covered with coal-tar before it is planted4 ,in addition to the animals already named1 the musk-rat1 raccoon1 fox1 flying-squirrel1 robin1 wren1 and king-bird will be found convenient for study in many localities4 ,the swimming of the musk-rat1 and how its shape1 fur1 feet1 and tail fit it for a life in water are topics suitable for observational exercises1 as are also its food1 its winter home1 and the burrows leading from the water into the banks4 ,in the case of the winter home1 the location1 the structure1 the submerged entrance1 the living-room1 and the surrounding moat1 are topics of interest4 ,,correlations ,with literature3 ,by reading animal stories1 such as1 ,the ,kindred of the ,wild and ,red ,fox1 by ,charles ,g4 ,d4 ,roberts2 and ,wild ,animals ,i ,have ,known1 by ,ernest ,thompson-,seton4 ,with language3 ,by oral and written descriptions of the animals that have been observed4 ,,chapter ,x ,,form ,,iii ,,winter ,,care ,,of ,,plants ,,in ,,the ,,home ,the care of flowering bulbs which was begun in ,form ,i will be continued in ,form ,,ii4 ,the growing of new plants from cuttings will now be taken up4 ,in those schools which are kept continuously heated1 potted plants may be kept throughout the year4 ,the pupils will come to appreciate the plant's needs and learn how to meet them in the supply of good soil1 water1 and sunlight4 ,the following points should be observed3 #a4 ,good potting soil can be made by building up alternating layers of sods and stable manure and allowing this compost to stand until thoroughly rotted4 ,a little sharp sand mixed with this forms an excellent soil for most house plants4 #b4 ,thorough watering twice a week is better than adding a little water every day4 #c4 ,the leaves should be showered with water once a week to cleanse them from dust4 #d4 ,an ounce of whale-oil soap dissolved in a quart of water may be used to destroy plant-lice4 ,common soap-suds may also be used for this purpose1 but care should be taken to rinse the plants in clean water after using a soap wash4 #e4 ,most plants need some direct sunlight every day if possible1 although most of the ferns grow without it4 #f4 ,plants usually need re-potting once a year4 ,many kinds may be set out-of-doors in flower beds in ,may and left until ,september1 when they may be taken up and placed in pots1 or cuttings made from them for potting4 #g4 ,a flower exhibition at the school once or twice a year1 or at a local exhibition1 adds to the interest4 #h4 ,the pupils should report to the teacher from time to time the progress of their plants and make many drawings showing their development4 ,,plant ,,cuttings ,the pupils will be interested to know that it is possible to produce new plants without waiting for them to grow up from the seed4 ,it will indeed be quite a surprise to them to see a new plant complete in all its parts grow up from a small piece of stem1 root1 or even leaf4 ,with a little care even children may propagate plants in this way4 ,,selection ,,of ,,cuttings ,begin with some of the common herbaceous bedding-plants1 such as geranium1 coleus1 or fuschia4 ,these are such common bedding-plants that they are easily obtained in the autumn4 ,only well-matured stems of the season's growth1 such as will break with a slight snap when bent1 should be used4 ,let the pupils provide themselves with sharp knives for the lesson1 with small boxes or pots1 and with some moist1 clean sand--not potting soil4 ,a few holes should be bored in the bottom of the box1 then a layer of fine gravel put in to provide for good drainage1 and over it layers of moist sand4 ,take a slip or growing end of a stem about three inches in length1 always cutting it at or just below a node1 or joint1 and leaving only a couple of small leaves on the top of the slip4 ,insert it to about half its depth in the box of moist sand4 ,these cuttings may be placed a few inches apart in the box1 which should then be placed in a warm1 light room for a few weeks until the roots develop4 ,the cuttings should be partly shaded by papers from the strong sunlight1 and the sand kept slightly moist but not wet4 ,bottom heat and a moist1 warm atmosphere hasten their development4 ,another very convenient and very successful method of starting cuttings is to take a six-inch flower-pot1 put two inches of fine gravel in the bottom1 set a four-inch unglazed flower-pot in the centre1 and fill up the space around it with sand and garden-loam1 mixed4 ,put a cork in the hole in the bottom of the small flower-pot1 and then fill it with water4 ,put the cuttings around in the space between the two pots and set in a fairly warm room in moderate light4 ,,potting ,,of ,,rooted ,,cuttings ,when the cuttings are well rooted1 which requires from three to six weeks according to the variety and growth conditions furnished1 they should be carefully lifted with a trowel and each set in a small pot or can4 ,first put in the bottom a few small stones to secure drainage1 and then a little good potting soil4 ,set the plant in place and fill in around with more soil and pack this firmly around the roots4 ,keep room in the top of the pot for water4 ,when the new plant has made some growth1 it may be shifted to a larger pot4 ,geraniums and coleus 7foliage plants7 should not be kept more than two seasons4 ,take cuttings off the old plants and then throw the latter away4 ,,evergreens ,in ,december make a study of ,canadian evergreens1 choosing spruce1 balsam1 and cedar1 if available1 or substitute hemlock for any one of these4 ,compare the general features of these trees1 such as shape1 direction of branches1 colour1 persistence of leaves through the winter4 ,have the pupils notice how nature fits these trees to endure the snows and storms of winter by3 #a4 ,the tapering cone which causes the snow to slide off the tree4 #b4 ,the fine1 needle-shaped leaves to which only very sticky snow will adhere4 #c4 ,the very tough1 flexible1 and elastic branches1 which bend in the wind and under the weight of snow1 but spring back to their old positions4 #d4 ,the resin in leaves1 stems1 and buds1 which enables the trees to resist frost and rain4 ,teach the pupils to distinguish these trees by their differences in colour and form and also by the differences in their leaves and cones4 ,,class-,,room ,,lesson ,distribute small twigs of balsam and require the pupils to observe and describe the length1 shape1 and colour of the leaves4 ,next distribute small twigs of spruce and require the pupils to compare the spruce leaves with those of the balsam in length1 shape1 and colour4 ,next distribute twigs of cedar and proceed similarly4 ,the cones may be dealt with in a similar manner4 ,require the pupils to make a census of the evergreens of the locality1 recording the class of evergreen1 the size1 and the use of each kind for shade1 ornament1 or for commercial purposes4 ,to the teacher4--,the balsam1 spruce1 and hemlock are difficult for the beginner to distinguish1 but this may be done by noting the following points of difference in their leaves3 ,the leaf of the hemlock is the only one that has a distinct leaf-stalk4 ,look for this tiny stalk4 ,the leaf of the hemlock1 like that of the balsam1 is flat1 but the hemlock leaf is much the shorter4 ,the leaf of the spruce is not flat1 but is three-sided or nearly so4 ,its colour is uniform1 while the under surface of the hemlock leaf1 and also of the balsam leaf1 is of a decidedly lighter colour than the upper surface4 ,note that the spruce type is studied2 no attempt is made at this stage to differentiate the several species of spruce4 ,,collection ,,of ,,wood ,,specimens ,during the winter months the boys may prepare specimens of wood for the school collection4 ,these specimens should be cut when green1 and dried afterwards4 ,they should be uniform in length--not more than six inches--and should show the bark on one side4 ,the side showing the bark should be two inches wide at most1 six inches long1 and running in a ,v-shaped1 radial section toward the pith4 ,a tangential section also shows well the rounded layers4 ,a piece of slab as cut lengthwise off a round stick is tangential4 ,care should be taken not to mutilate trees in taking these specimens4 ,specimens of rare or foreign woods may be obtained at wood-working factories4 ,,related ,,reading ,winter is ,nature's quiescent period4 ,continuous active observation in the out-of-doors among the plants of the forest and garden gives place for a time to indoor work and reflection4 ,pupils need time for reading and reflection1 and no time is so opportune as the quiet winter season4 ,during these months some time should be devoted to the reading of nature stories and extracts from magazines and books dealing with plant as well as with animal life4 ,pupils should review their gardening experiences and discuss plans of improvement for the approaching spring and summer4 ,let them write letters to the ,form ,,ii pupils of other schools where similar work has been carried on1 and give some of their experiences in gardening and other plant studies1 and also in animal studies4 ,a certain ,friday afternoon might be appointed for hearing the letters read which were received in reply4 ,suitable short poems that have a direct bearing upon the outdoor studies should be read from time to time4 ,good pictures also come in here as an aid in helping the pupils to appreciate written descriptions4 ,the first-hand observations made by them will form a basis for the better and more appreciative interpretation of these literature selections4 ,for ,observation ,lesson on ,weed ,seeds1 see page #aga4 ,,how ,,animals ,,prepare ,,for ,,winter ,introduction4--,discuss the preparations that people make for winter1 such as the storing of food and the providing of warmer clothes and homes4 ,method4--,the teacher questions the pupils and encourages them to tell what they have learned through their own observation of animals4 ,the knowledge of the pupils is supplemented by information given by the teacher1 but the pupils are left to find out more facts by further observations4 ,thus3 ,do you ever see ground-hogs out during winter8 ,what do they feed upon during the winter8 ,what is the condition of ground-hogs in late summer and in autumn8 ,what is the use of the great store of fat that they have in their bodies8 ,examine the snow near the burrows of ground-hogs and find whether they ever come out in mid-winter4 ,to the teacher4--,the hibernating animals prepare a home or nest and lay up a store of food in the form of fat within their bodies4 ,to hibernate does not mean the same as to sleep4 ,the hibernating animals have much less active organs than the sleeping animals4 ,the heart-beat and the respiratory movements are very slow and feeble1 consequently a very little nourishment suffices to sustain life4 ,,summary ,,of ,,lessons 7,two lessons of twenty minutes7 #a4 ,some animals migrate3 ,examples--many birds1 butterflies1 and some bats2 the cariboo1 and buffalo4 #b4 ,some animals hibernate3 ,examples--bear1 ground-hog1 raccoon1 frogs1 toads1 snakes1 and some bats4 ,,note4--,flies1 mosquitoes1 and some other insects crawl into crevices and remain at rest during winter1 but their bodies are not stored with food4 #c4 ,some animals build houses and store foods3 ,examples--beaver1 squirrel1 chipmunk1 honey-bee1 deer-mouse4 #d4 ,some animals build homes convenient to food3 ,examples--musk-rat1 field-mouse4 #e4 ,some animals put on warmer clothing3 ,examples--fox1 mink1 otter1 rabbit1 horse1 cow1 partridge1 chickadee4 ,the rabbit and weasel turn white1 a colour protection4 #f4 ,many insect larvae form cocoons or pupae cases3 ,examples--emperor-moth1 codling moth1 tomato worm4 ,,correlations ,with literature1 reading1 and language4 ,with geography3 ,by a lesson on ,the influence of climate upon animal and plant life4 ,,chickens 7,consult ,principles and ,practice of ,poultry ,culture by ,robinson4 ,ginn ,co41 #b4jj47 ,,conversation ,,lesson ,how many of you keep chickens at your homes8 ,why do many kinds of people keep chickens8 ,what breeds of chickens do you keep8 ,how many other breeds do you know8 ,describe the appearance of a few of the commoner breeds4 ,why are there so many different breeds8 ,name those that are good laying breeds4 ,name breeds that are not usually considered good laying breeds4 ,to the teacher4--,chickens are kept by all classes of people4 ,many keep them for the profit in eggs and meat1 others keep them as a fad1 and others to gratify a craving for animal companionship4 ,there are one hundred and seventy-five recognized breeds1 varying in size from that of the ,japanese bantam weighing ten ounces to that of the huge ,brahma which weighs fourteen pounds4 ,the shapes and colours present as great a variation as the sizes4 ,the breeds that are usually regarded as good layers are ,white ,leghorn1 ,barred ,bock1 and ,rhode ,island ,red1 while the ,game breeds are usually regarded as poor layers4 ,careful tests prove1 however1 that there are good laying and poor laying strains in every breed1 and care must be taken to select from good strains1 since the breed is not a sufficient guide4 ,at the close of the first lesson1 assign to the pupils the task of making a chicken census of the district as follows3 #a4 ,request each pupil to count the number of hens under two years old at his home and also to count the hens that are more than two years old4 #b4 ,request each pupil to find out1 if possible1 the number of eggs obtained at his home during the whole year4 ,,arithmetic ,,lesson ,,based ,,on ,,the ,,chicken ,,census #a4 ,using the data collected by the pupils1 calculate the total number of chickens under two years old in the district4 ,calculate the number over two years old4 7,the latter are classed as unprofitable47 #b4 ,using the data obtained by the pupils 7provided sufficient data was obtained to make it reasonably reliable71 calculate the average number of eggs laid a year by each hen4 #c4 ,if the data collected by the pupils as to the number of eggs is thought to be unreliable1 make use of the following3 ,the average number of eggs laid each year by each hen in ,ontario is seven dozen4 ,use this average number1 and3 7#a7 ,calculate the value of the eggs produced in this district in a year1 the average price of eggs being twenty cents a dozen4 7#b7 ,if the average production of eggs were increased to ten dozen 7a number that is easily possible under improved management71 find the value of the eggs that would be produced in a year1 and find the gain that would result from this better management4 #d4 ,if it costs ninety cents a year to feed a hen1 find the net annual profit to this district from the egg production4 ,,care ,,of ,,chickens ,the method of developing conceptions of how to take proper care of chickens is based partly upon the pupils' experiences and partly upon a knowledge of the history of the original wild hens4 ,information can be gathered from the pupils as to the date of hatching of the earliest chickens and the date at which the pullets begin to lay4 ,chickens that are hatched in ,april begin to lay in ,november or ,december and lay throughout the winter when eggs bring the highest price4 ,the original wild hens lived in the dry1 grassy1 and shrubby jungles of ,india4 ,they were free to move about in the open air1 and at night they perched in the trees1 which sheltered them from rain4 ,hence may be inferred what kind of quarters should be provided for chickens4 ,,care ,,and ,,food ,,of ,,chickens ,points developed ,chickens must have plenty of fresh air without draughts4 ,heat is not necessary4 ,their quarters must be dry1 clean1 and well lighted4 ,they require exercise4 ,their food must have in it the materials that are needed to make the substance of the egg4 ,breakfast3 ,wheat or corn scattered among straw--the scratching affords exercise4 ,dinner3 ,meat scraps1 slaughter-house refuse1 vegetables1 sour milk1 and rolled oats4 ,supper3 ,as at breakfast4 ,,physical ,,science ,,phase ,,of ,,nature ,,study ,the teacher is advised to read carefully the instructions and ,general ,method of ,experimental ,science1 ,chapter ,i1 before beginning the lessons in ,physical ,science4 ,,solids1 ,,liquids1 ,,and ,,gases ,arrange a collection of objects of various shapes1 sizes1 colours1 and weights1 as cork1 glass1 lead1 iron1 copper1 stone1 coal1 chalk4 ,show that these are alike in one respect1 namely1 that they have a shape not easily changed1 that is1 they are solids4 ,compare these solids with such substances as water1 alcohol1 oil1 molasses1 mercury1 milk1 tar1 honey1 glycerine1 gasolene4 ,these latter will pour1 and depend for their shape on the containing vessel4 ,they are liquids4 ,compare air with solids and liquids4 ,such a material as air is called a gas4 ,other examples of illuminating gas1 and dentists' gas2 others will be studied in future lessons4 ,pupils may think all gases are invisible4 ,to show that some are not1 put a few pieces of copper in a test-tube or tumbler and add a little nitric acid4 ,watch the brown gas fall through the air2 note how it spreads in all directions4 ,some gases fall because they are heavier than air2 others rise because lighter4 ,all gases spread out as soon as liberated and try to fill all the available space4 ,spill a little ammonia and note how soon the odour of the gas is smelled in all parts of the room4 ,,change ,,of ,,state ,heat some lead or solder in a spoon till liquid4 ,let it cool4 ,do the same with wax4 ,heat some water in a flask till it becomes steam4 ,steam is a gas4 ,cool the steam and form water again4 7,see distillation47 ,refer to lava 7melted rock71 moulding iron1 melting ice and snow1 softening of butter4 ,all solids may be changed to liquids and even to gases if sufficiently heated4 ,likewise all gases may be changed into liquids and then to solids4 ,,expansion ,,of ,,solids ,in winter pupils may find that the ink is frozen4 ,the teacher directs attention to this and inquires why it has occurred4 ,it may be that in a lesson on rocks the teacher will ask the pupils to account for all the little stones4 ,the following experiments will aim at solving the foregoing problems3 #a4 ,a brass ball and ring are shown4 ,pupils handle these and note that both are cold and that the ball just passes through the ring4 ,they are asked to compare the size of the ball with that of the ring4 #b4 ,the spirit-lamp is lighted and examined4 ,pupils hold their hands over the flame to note the heat4 #c4 ,the ball is heated in the flame for a short time by one of the pupils1 and felt cautiously4 ,an attempt is made to pass it through the ring4 ,how has the ball changed in feeling8 ,in size8 ,how does one know it is larger8 ,what has caused these changes8 #d4 ,cool the ball4 ,feel it4 ,try to pass it through the ring now4 ,how has it changed in feeling8 ,in size8 ,what caused these changes8 ,how does heat affect the ball8 ,how does cold affect it8 ,the teacher may now give the words expand and contract1 writing them on the black-board and explaining their use4 ,pupils may then state their conclusions3 ,a brass ball expands when heated and contracts when cooled4 ,a blacksmith can make the following very serviceable apparatus3 ,a scrap of iron about eleven inches long1 one inch wide1 and one-eighth inch thick1 has one inch bent up at each end4 ,a rod one-eighth inch in diameter is made just long enough to pass between the upturned ends of the first piece when both are cold4 ,the rod is heated and the experiment conducted as in the case of the ball4 ,two additional facts are learned3 7#a7 ,iron expands as well as brass2 7#b7 solids expand in length as well as in volume4 ,the pupils may now be told that other solids have been tried and expansion has invariably followed heating4 ,the conclusion may then be made general4 ,,practical ,,applications #a4 ,when your ink-bottle was placed on the stove1 which end became warmer8 ,which expanded the more4 ,why then did it crack8 #b4 ,what other examples like this have you noticed8 7,lamp chimneys1 fruit jars1 stove plates7 #c4 ,the earth was once very hot and is now cooling4 ,how is the size of the earth changing8 ,does it ever crack8 ,what causes earthquakes8 #d4 ,find out by observation how a blacksmith sets tires4 #e4 ,invent a way to loosen a glass stopper stuck in the neck of a bottle4 #f4 ,what does your mother do if the metal rim refuses to come off the fruit jar8 #g4 ,next time you cross a railway1 notice whether the ends of the rails touch4 ,explain4 #h4 ,what allowance is made for contraction in a wire fence8 ,a railway bridge8 ,why8 #i4 ,why do the stove-pipes crack when the fire is first started8 #aj4 ,why does the house go thump on a very cold night8 #aa4 ,draw the ball1 ring1 and spirit-lamp in position4 #ab4 ,describe in writing the experiments we have made4 ,,questions ,,for ,,further ,,investigation ,you have seen that iron and brass both expand4 ,do they expand equally8 ,let pupils have a few days to invent a way of answering the question4 ,the experiment may then be tried with the compound bar4 ,see ,the ,ontario ,high ,school ,physics1 pages #bag-bah1 also ,first ,course in ,physics1 ,milliken and ,gale1 page #add4 ,if the equipment of the school is limited1 it may be necessary to dispense with the ball and ring and generalize from one experiment4 ,another easily made apparatus consists of two iron rings with handles4 ,one ring will just pass through the other when both are cold4 ,the stove may take the place of the spirit-lamp4 ,a still simpler plan consists in driving two nails into a block at such a distance apart that an iron rod 7six-inch nail1 poker1 bolt1 etc47 will just pass between4 ,on heating the rod the increase in length becomes evident4 ,,expansion ,,of ,,liquids ,fill a common bottle with coloured water2 insert a rubber stopper through which passes a glass tube about sixteen inches long4 ,set the bottle in a pan of water and gradually warm the water4 ,the rise of the liquid in the tube will indicate expansion4 ,on setting the bottle in cold water the fall of the column of coloured water shows contraction4 ,see ,the ,ontario ,high ,school ,physics1 page #bah1 also ,science of ,common ,life1 page #dh4 ,macmillan ,co41 #fj cents4 ,set the flask or bottle in a mixture of ice and salt and note that the extreme cold causes contraction for a while1 then expansion4 ,note that when expansion begins1 the water has not begun to freeze1 but that it does so soon after4 ,the night before this experiment the children should set out in the cold air1 tightly corked bottles of water4 ,in the morning they will be found burst by the expansion4 ,,applications #a4 ,why did some of the ink-bottles burst in the cold room8 #b4 ,find large stones split up into two or more fragments4 ,explain4 #c4 ,why is fall-ploughed land so mellow in spring8 #d4 ,why does ice float8 ,think what would happen if it did not4 #e4 ,explain the heaving of oats1 clover1 wheat4 #f4 ,do all liquids expand on freezing8 ,try melted paraffin4 ,,the ,,thermometer ,besides the ordinary thermometer the school should possess a chemical thermometer graduated from #j deg4 ,fahrenheit to #bab deg4 #a4 ,our sensations vary so much under different circumstances and in different individuals that they cannot be depended on4 ,find examples of this and show the need of a measuring instrument4 #b4 ,the pupils can learn1 by examination of the common wall instrument1 the parts of the thermometer--tube1 bulb1 liquid 7alcohol or mercury71 and scale4 #c4 ,repeat the experiment for expansion of liquids1 showing wherein the apparatus resembles the thermometer1 warm the thermometer bulb and watch the column rise2 cool it and note the fall4 #d4 ,set the bulb of the chemical thermometer in boiling water4 ,the mercury comes to rest near #bab deg4 ,bury the bulb in melting snow and notice that the column falls to #cb deg4 ,give names for these points4 ,explain that a degree is one of the #ahj equal parts which lie between boiling point and freezing-point4 ,show that #cb deg4 below freezing must be #j deg41 or zero4 #e4 ,the uses of thermometers for indoors and outdoors2 for dairy1 sick room1 incubator1 and soils2 maximum and minimum4 ,dairy thermometers registering #bab deg4 ,fahrenheit may be obtained2 they are cheaper than chemical thermometers4 ,,expansion ,,of ,,air ,half fill a flask with water and invert it uncorked over water in a plate4 ,apply a cloth soaked in boiling water to the part that contains air4 ,why does the water leave the flask8 ,apply cold water4 ,why does the water return8 ,any ordinary bottle may be used in place of the flask1 but it is more liable to crack4 ,make an air thermometer4 ,see ,the ,ontario ,high ,school ,physics1 page #bbc1 also ,science of ,common ,life1 page #da4 ,try to graduate it from the mercurial thermometer4 ,have the boys make a stand for it4 ,inferences4--,heated gases rise because they expand4 ,hot-air balloons1 winds1 and heating with hot-air furnaces1 all depend on this principle4 ,,sources ,,of ,,heat ,,and ,,light ,,notes ,,for ,a ,,series ,,of ,,lessons #a4 ,,the ,,sun4--,our dependence on it4 ,valuable results of its heat4 ,simple notions as to its size1 distance1 and nature4 ,our earth catches a very small fraction of the sun's heat2 our sun is but one of millions--the fixed stars4 ,show the burning effect of a lens4 #b4 ,,fuels4--,wood1 oil1 coal1 alcohol1 gas1 peat1 straw3 where obtained2 special uses of each under varying conditions2 need of economy4 7,this is closely related to geography47 #c4 ,,electricity4--,in urban schools use the electric light or some heating device for illustration4 ,in rural schools a battery of two or three cells 7see ,apparatus7 will melt a fine strand drawn from a picture wire4 ,applications3 ironing1 toasting1 cooking2 advantages or disadvantages compared with gas or wood4 #d4 ,,friction4--,pupils rub hands together2 rub a button on a cloth2 saw a string across the edge of a board or across the hand2 bore a hole through a hardwood plank1 then feel the auger-bit4 ,applications3 restoring circulation2 hot-boxes in machinery2 lubricants and their uses2 lighting matches4 #e4 ,,pounding4--,hammer a nail flat on an anvil or stone2 feel it4 ,bullets fired against an iron or stone surface may be picked up very hot4 ,note sparks that can be struck from a stone2 percussion caps1 flint-lock muskets4 #f4 ,,pressure4--,after using a bicycle pump for some time1 feel the bottom1 also the top4 ,if possible1 examine an air-compressor and find out the means used for cooling the air4 #g4 ,,sources ,,of ,,light4--,sun1 moon1 oil1 tallow1 gas1 electricity1 wax1 acetylene2 advantages of each2 relative cost4 ,,primitive ,,methods ,,of ,,obtaining ,,fire3 ,most savages obtain fire by friction2 rubbing two pieces of wood together till hot enough to set fire to some dry1 light material4 ,the natives of ,australia placed a flat piece of wood on the ground and pressed against this the end of a round piece1 which they twirled rapidly with their hands till fire was produced4 ,the ,north ,american ,indians did the twirling with their bow strings2 the ,eskimo's plan is somewhat similar4 ,it is impossible to say when flint and steel were first used1 but we know they continued to be the chief means of producing fire till about #ahcd1 when matches were invented4 ,let pupils try to produce fire by these means4 ,the earliest lamps consisted of shells1 skulls of animals1 and cup-shaped stones filled with fat or fish oils which burned on a wick of cloth or the pith of rushes4 ,the ,tibetans burn butter1 the ,eskimos whale- or seal-oil1 the ,arabians palm- or olive-oil4 ,for outdoor lighting1 torches carried in the hand were used till gas came into general use about #agib4 ,,conduction ,give to four boys strips of copper1 aluminium1 wood1 and glass1 respectively4 ,they hold these by one end and heat the other end till one or more are forced to drop the piece on account of the heat4 ,the boys with the metals will soon find them hot throughout1 but the other two will be able to hold on indefinitely4 ,the teacher gives the terms good conductor and poor conductor4 ,,problems #a4 ,are metals generally good conductors8 ,try with strips of zinc1 lead1 iron1 a silver spoon4 #b4 ,are all good conductors equally good8 ,devise a means of ascertaining4 ,see ,science of ,common ,life1 ,chapter ,,vi2 also ,the ,ontario ,high ,school ,physics1 page #bgd4 #c4 ,is water a good conductor8 ,lists of good and poor conductors may then be made1 the teacher adding to the list4 ,good3 metals2 poor3 wood1 horn1 bone1 cloth1 leather1 air1 water1 hair1 asbestos1 ashes1 rock1 earth4 ,,problems #a4 ,if the interior of the earth is very hot1 why do we not feel it8 #b4 ,how can the cold snow keep the earth warm8 #c4 ,why does your hand freeze to metals but not to wood8 #d4 ,let the children try to find other instances3 wools or furs for clothing1 fur coats on northern animals1 feathers on birds1 down quilts1 tea cosies1 sawdust for packing ice1 double windows1 wooden handles for hot irons1 asbestos coating for steam pipes4 ,,the ,,miners' ,,safety-,,lamp3 ,this is a most important application of conduction4 ,get from the tinsmith a piece of brass gauze six inches square4 ,raise the wick of the spirit-lamp causing it to give a high flame and bring the gauze down upon the flame till it touches the wick4 ,note that the flame does not rise above the gauze4 ,hold a piece of paper above the gauze near the flame and note that it does not take fire4 ,note also that the gauze soon becomes hot4 ,the brass wires conduct the heat of the flame rapidly away so that there is not heat enough above the gauze to cause combustion4 ,now roll the gauze into a hollow cylinder1 pin the edges together1 insert a cork at each end1 and have a short candle fastened to the lower one4 ,try to light the candle with the lamp through the gauze4 ,it is not easily done4 ,the miner carries a lamp made like this1 so that if he should be in the presence of the explosive gas1 fire damp1 it would not explode because of the wire gauze shield4 ,,convection ,water is not a conductor1 how then is it heated8 ,drop a few pieces of solid colouring matter1 7analine blue1 blueing1 or potassium permanganate7 into a beaker of cold water4 ,place the beaker over a heater and observe the coloured portion rise4 ,wet sawdust will make a good substitute for the colouring matter4 ,a sealing jar or even a tin cup will do instead of the beaker4 ,the stove or a dish of hot water will take the place of the lamp4 ,,problems #a4 ,using a thermometer1 see whether the water at the bottom is warmer than that at the top while the beaker is being heated4 #b4 ,heat some oil and pour it over the surface of some cold water4 ,lower a thermometer into this4 ,does the water at the bottom soon become warm8 #c4 ,if your kitchen is provided with a hot-water tank1 find out what part of the tank first becomes warm after the fire is lighted4 #d4 ,in bathing1 where do you find the coldest water of a pond or still river8 ,see ,science of ,common ,life1 ,chapter ,,vi2 also ,the ,ontario ,high ,school ,physics1 page #bhj4 ,,convection ,,in ,,gases ,a good apparatus may be made by cutting two holes one inch in diameter in one side of a chalk box1 replace the lid with a piece of glass1 place a lamp chimney over each hole and a lighted candle under one of the chimneys4 ,hold a piece of smoking touch-paper at each chimney in turn and note direction of air current4 ,,applications #a4 ,winds are caused by the rising of air over heated areas1 allowing cooler currents to take its place4 7,geography7 #b4 ,rooms are ventilated by heating some of the air more than the rest1 thus producing a current4 7,hygiene7 ,winds are nature's means of ventilating the earth4 ,,radiation ,,of ,,heat ,this should be taken up as an introduction to dew1 frost1 winds1 climate1 etc4 #a4 ,make an iron ball hot 7the end of a poker will answer74 ,hold the hand a few inches below the iron4 ,does the heat reach the hand by convection8 ,by conduction8 ,by means of suitable questions1 lead the pupil to see that it is not by convection1 for the hand is below the hot object while heated air rises2 it is not by conduction1 for air is one of the very poorest conductors2 moreover1 the heat is felt instantly from the poker1 but it takes an appreciable time for it to come by conduction and convection4 ,we say this heat is radiated from the iron4 ,the velocity of radiated heat is about #ahf1jjj miles a second4 #b4 ,the above experiment may be varied by bringing the hot iron gradually toward the bulb of the air thermometer and noting the greatest distance at which it will affect the thermometer4 ,it is by radiation that the sun's heat and light reach us4 ,we get much of the heat of stoves1 fire-places1 and radiators by the same means4 ,why does the earth cool off at night8 ,why does dew form8 ,why can no dew form on a cloudy night8 ,why is a mountain top or a desert so cold1 especially at night8 #c4 ,take two tin cans 7baking powder boxes will answer7 and make holes in the lids large enough to admit a thermometer4 ,blacken one box in the flame of an oil lamp4 ,fill both with boiling water and put in a cool place4 ,test with a thermometer from time to time4 ,which cools most rapidly8 #d4 ,fill the tin cans with cold water1 find the temperature1 and then place them near a hot stove4 ,which warms faster8 ,usually dark or rough surfaces radiate heat and absorb heat faster than bright or smooth ones4 ,an excellent way of testing this is to lay a black cloth and a white one side by side on the snow where the sun is shining brightly4 ,the snow will melt more rapidly under the black cloth4 ,painted shingles may be substituted for the cloths4 ,try different colours4 ,the day chosen should not be extremely cold4 ,,problems #a4 ,why should we have the outside of a tea-kettle1 teapot1 or hot-air shaft of a bright colour8 ,why should we have stoves and stove-pipes dull black8 #b4 ,why does a coat of snow keep the earth warm8 #c4 ,which is the warmest colour to wear in winter8 ,does this account for the colour of ,arctic animals8 #d4 ,which is the coolest colour to wear in the hot sun8 #e4 ,gardeners sometimes strew the ground with coal-dust to help ripen their melons4 ,show the value of this4 #f4 ,suggest a method of protecting a wall from the heat of a stove4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,form ,,iii ,,spring ,,window ,,boxes ,many garden plants should be started in a box of earth in a warm1 sunny window4 ,in some schools this can be done with a little care in heating on cold nights4 ,small boxes or grape baskets full of rich sandy loam with an inch of gravel in the bottom for drainage may be used4 ,sow the seeds in rows or broadcast4 ,to prevent the soil from drying out too quickly1 cover the box with a pane of glass4 ,when the plants are up1 give them plenty of light and not too much warmth4 ,on very mild days set them in a warm1 sheltered place out-of-doors and bring them in again early in the evening4 ,this tends to make them hardy4 ,when about three inches high1 pick the young plants out and set them in other boxes a few inches apart4 ,this moving causes the formation of numerous fibrous roots and makes stronger plants4 ,,window ,,gardens ,window boxes may be used for a whole season on the inside of the building in cold weather1 and on the outside in warm weather4 ,there is almost no limit to the kinds of plants that can be grown in them1 but they are most suitable for flowers4 ,good boxes may be made of dressed lumber so as to fit on the window-sill4 ,they should be six inches deep1 ten inches wide1 and the required length4 ,they should have a few small holes in the bottom to allow excess water to drain off and should be painted dark green or some quiet colour4 ,there should be an inch of gravel in the bottom1 some rotted sods covering this1 and then the box filled with rich sandy loam4 ,,suitable ,,plants ,some flowers suitable for growing in window boxes outside in summer are those of drooping habit3 lobelia1 ,kenilworth ivy1 verbena1 tropeolum1 petunia1 and sweet-alyssum toward the front1 and behind1 more erect plants1 such as geranium1 heliotrope1 begonia1 phlox1 and nasturtium4 ,the box must not be too much crowded4 ,for inside and in shady situations the following are suitable3 tradescantia1 parlour ivy1 moneywort1 vinca smilax1 climbing fern1 asparagus fern1 dracaena1 coleus1 centaurea1 sword fern1 and ,boston fern4 ,for indoor boxes in winter1 the following may be used3 abutilon1 calceolaria1 cyclamen1 violets1 primroses1 petunias1 geraniums1 freesia1 and such foliage plants as dracaena1 cannas1 dusty miller1 and coleus4 ,the following climbing plants may be trained up the window cases3 asparagus plumosus fern1 cobea scandens1 smilax1 maurandia1 and ,english ivy4 ,if drooping or trailing plants are desired1 the following may be used3 oxalis1 sweet-alyssum1 lobelia1 ivy1 geranium1 ,kenilworth ivy1 and ,wandering ,jew4 ,,fertilizer ,as the amount of soil is limited and the number of plants that it has to support is great1 the soil should be made quite rich and should be further fertilized from time to time with a little liquid manure4 ,this can be best obtained by taking a strong barrel or large keg and filling it about half full of water4 ,then fill an ordinary coarse potato sack with cow-stable manure and set the sack in the barrel for a few days4 ,a tap in the bottom of the barrel is most convenient for drawing off the liquid manure4 ,a little of this will also be found valuable for watering dahlias1 roses1 and other garden plants during the summer4 ,,soil ,,studies ,the classes of soil should be reviewed4 ,pupils should gather examples from many places4 ,the samples may be kept in bottles of uniform size and should include not only the four types but varieties of each1 also various kinds of loam4 ,,exercises ,,and ,,experiments ,,soil ,,constituents #a4 ,with a sharp spade1 cut a piece about twelve inches deep from 7#a7 the forest floor1 7#b7 an old pasture field4 ,note character and order of the layers of soil in 7#a7 leaves1 humus1 loam1 sand1 or clay2 in 7#b7 grass1 dead grass1 humus1 loam1 sand1 or clay4 ,observe soils shown in railway cuttings1 freshly dug wells1 post holes4 #b4 ,note the effect produced on the soil of a field by 7#a7 leaving it a few years in pasture1 7#b7 ploughing in heavy crops1 7#c7 applying barn-yard manure4 ,in all these cases vegetable matter is mixed with the soil4 #c4 ,dry some good leaf-mould4 ,throw a handful on the surface of some water4 ,the mineral matter sinks1 while the vegetable portion remains suspended for some time4 ,try this experiment with gravel1 sand1 and clay4 ,note that the gravel sinks rapidly1 the sand less rapidly1 and that the clay takes a long time to settle4 ,if the water be kept in rapid motion1 the finer soils will all remain suspended till motion becomes slower4 ,apply this in geography4 ,the bed of a stream will consist of stones if it be swift1 of sand if less swift1 and of clay if very slow4 ,how are alluvial plains formed8 #d4 ,place half an ounce of dry humus on an iron plate or fire-shovel and heat strongly in a stove4 ,note that it begins to smoke and a large part smoulders away to ashes2 the mineral portion remains4 ,weigh the part left and find what fraction of the humus consisted of vegetable material4 ,try to find the proportion of vegetable matter in each of the following3 loams from various sources1 sand1 clay1 gravel4 ,the last three will show scarcely any change4 ,this experiment will give rise to some good arithmetical problems in fractions4 ,,water ,,in ,,soils #e4 ,compare a handful of fresh garden soil with the same soil dried4 ,note the glistening of the fresh soil1 also its weight and darker colour4 ,the fresh soil admits of packing though no water can be squeezed from it4 ,in its best condition1 the water of the soil adheres as a film of moisture about every particle4 ,free water is to be avoided since it excludes the air from the soil4 #f4 ,equal weights of soils of different kinds and degrees of fineness are placed in funnels or in inverted bottles with bottoms removed4 ,water is then slowly added to each until it begins to drop from the lower end4 ,from this is seen 7#a7 the great value of humus as a water holder1 7#b7 the advantage of fine soil over coarse4 ,for retention of water by absorption1 consult ,nature ,study and ,life1 ,hodge1 page #chb4 #g4 ,take two wooden boxes 7chalk boxes will do71 fill one box with moist sand and the other with moist leaf-mould4 ,weigh the boxes separately and leave them for three or four days in a warm room4 ,weigh again and note decrease from evaporation4 ,the sand dries out much faster than the humus4 ,test with clay1 gravel1 and loam1 also with mixtures of these and leaf-mould4 #h4 ,take three paint cans2 punch holes in the bottoms4 ,fill each with good soil well shaken down4 ,stand the cans in water till the tops are moist1 then place them in a warm1 dry place4 ,loosen the soil on the top of ,no4 #a to a depth of one inch2 on ,no4 #b to a depth of two inches2 leave ,no4 #c untouched4 ,find out after a few days which is drying out fastest4 ,how may soil be treated so as to lessen evaporation of water8 ,,drainage #i4 ,gravel and sand allow water to run away rapidly1 but where the soil is fine or closely packed as in clay soils1 under-drains are necessary 7#a7 to carry off the surplus water1 7#b7 to allow air to enter the soil1 7#c7 to warm the soil 7wet soil is colder than dry74 ,take two equal-sized tin cans1 make several holes in the bottom of one1 place therein a layer of broken pottery or stones1 and fill with good soil4 ,fill the other with similar soil but make no holes for drainage4 ,plant in each can a healthy plant of the same size and kind4 ,water both till the soil is saturated and continue watering every two or three days for six weeks4 ,note 7#a7 the progress of the plants1 7#b7 the temperature of the soils1 7#c7 which plant has the largest and deepest roots4 7,see ,bulletin #agd1 ,ontario ,department of ,agriculture47 #aj4 ,take five equal-sized boxes1 provide for drainage1 and fill ,no4 #a with wood1 earth1 or humus1 ,no4 #b with clay1 ,no4 #c with sand1 ,no4 #d with a mixture of clay and humus1 ,no4 #e with a mixture of sand and humus4 ,plant corn in each box1 set in a warm room1 and keep watered for two or three weeks4 ,note in which case growth is most rapid4 ,set boxes in a dry place and cease watering4 ,which suffers most from the drought8 ,which bakes hardest in the sun8 ,test the temperature of each after watering and standing in the sun for an hour4 ,sand is warmer than clay1 also the presence of humus raises the temperature4 ,this item is important1 since most seeds decay instead of sprouting if the temperature is below #de deg4 ,fahrenheit4 #aa4 ,enumerate the services rendered to the soil by humus4 #ab4 ,in ,experiment #aj1 let the corn grow for some time and determine whether the very rich humus is the best in the end4 ,sand and clay are almost altogether mineral2 leaf-mould almost entirely organic2 neither alone is good1 but a mixture gives the best results4 ,,garden ,,work ,the boys of this ,form should attend to the fertilizing and spading of the plots belonging to the girls of their ,form4 ,the girls themselves can do all the rest of the work1 and they should try to keep the plots level1 uniform in size1 and in a straight line4 ,if the corner posts are kept in line and the plots made up the exact size1 the appearance of the garden will be greatly improved4 ,the pupils are now old enough to make their own choice of flowers and vegetables4 ,very tall growing plants1 such as corn and sunflowers1 are not desirable in individual plots as they shade other plants near them4 ,corn is best grown in a large plot about twenty feet square4 ,the same may be said of vines1 such as cucumbers1 melons1 squash1 etc4 ,if the plots are small1 it is better to plant but a single variety1 but in large plots from two to four varieties may be arranged to advantage4 ,usually rows of vegetables1 such as carrots and beets1 may be placed a foot apart1 cabbage about twice that distance1 and tomatoes a little farther apart than cabbage4 ,generally speaking1 plants should be placed so that when full grown they will just touch1 cover the ground completely1 and thus prevent the growth of weeds4 ,as soon as the young plants appear above the ground1 light cultivation with rakes and claw-hand weeders should be started1 so as to keep weeds from growing and at the same time to provide a loose surface or earth mulch for conserving the moisture and aerating the soil4 ,thinning should also be begun when the plants are quite small1 but it should not all be done at once4 ,as the plants increase in size1 the best ones should be left and the poor ones taken out4 ,in some cases plants thus removed may be re-set to fill vacant places4 ,,tree ,,seeds ,tree seeds that have been stored over winter should now be planted in rows in a small plot4 ,the rows should be a foot apart and the seeds quite close together in the row4 ,a cheese-cloth or slat shade should be used on this plot1 as the hot sun is too strong for tree seedlings when they first come up4 ,they should have cultivation every week and watering in dry weather4 ,always water in the evening after school1 or even later when possible4 ,,transplanting ,pupils in this ,form should have practice in transplanting1 as well as in sowing seed4 ,for this purpose seeds should be started about the first of ,april in hotbeds or window boxes1 seedlings transplanted into cold frames when two or three inches high1 and then set out in the garden in the latter part of ,may when danger of frost is past4 ,,transplanting ,,flowers ,,and ,,vegetables ,choose1 if possible1 a cool cloudy day4 ,water the plants thoroughly in the hotbed or cold frame a few hours before lifting them4 ,lift them with a trowel or small spade1 and keep as much earth on their roots as possible4 ,with a transplanting trowel1 make holes deep enough so that the plant will be a little deeper in the soil than before transplanting4 ,unless the soil is moist1 a little water put in the hole with the plant is beneficial4 ,the evening is considered best for transplanting if the weather is clear4 ,if the sun is very hot1 the plants should be shaded for a few days until the roots become established and begin their work4 ,shingles slanting over the plants from the south side and driven into the ground to hold them in position are best4 ,papers held by means of two stones also give good results4 ,the practice of covering them with inverted cans is not a good one1 as the light is almost completely cut off4 ,a few holes in the can would help considerably4 ,care must be taken to pack the earth firmly about the roots4 ,watering again twenty-four hours after transplanting is often necessary4 ,if the plant has a leafy top1 it is best to take off some of the leaves1 as they tend to give off water more rapidly than the roots can at first take it in4 ,,transplanting ,,tree ,,seedlings ,nuts and other tree seeds collected the previous autumn should now be planted in the forestry plots in rows a foot apart4 ,as the seeds may not all grow1 they may be planted close together in the row and thinned out the following spring if necessary4 ,they need some shelter from the sun the first summer4 ,in large plots this is provided by means of a slat covering1 but in a small plot cheese-cloth tacked on strips and fastened on corner posts is satisfactory4 ,when a shower comes1 this cheese-cloth screen should be removed so that the rain may moisten the plot evenly4 ,seedlings may be transplanted from the woods or from the forestry rows before the leaves open out4 ,,budding ,in budding1 a slit like the letter ,t is made in the side of the young seedling close to the ground4 ,the bark is raised a little at the point where the vertical slit meets the horizontal one1 and a bud of desired variety with a shield-shaped bit of bark 7and perhaps a little wood7 attached to it is shoved in and the sides of the slit bound down upon it4 ,after the bud1 or scion1 has started to grow1 the stock is cut off an inch above the point where the bud was inserted4 ,the bud then makes rapid growth1 and in two years the resulting tree is large enough to set in its permanent place in the orchard4 ,,cuttings ,pupils in this ,form should try to grow such woody plants as roses and grapes from cuttings4 ,roses are frequently propagated by budding1 as in the case of apples and peaches4 ,they may also be grown upon their own roots or from stem cuttings4 ,such cuttings should be from well-matured wood of the present year taken in the autumn and packed in moist sand over the winter4 ,make the cuttings about three inches in length4 ,the top end should be cut off immediately above a bud and the bottom end just below a bud1 as roots seem to start more readily from a node1 or bud4 ,such a cutting may have three or four buds of which only the upper two need be left4 ,if both of these grow1 the poorer one may afterwards be removed4 ,these rose cuttings should then be inserted in a box of clean1 moist sand to a depth of two inches1 kept in a warm room1 and shaded with a sheet of newspaper when the sun is very bright4 ,keep the sand moist but not wet1 and when possible have gentle bottom heat4 ,when roots have made some growth1 transplant carefully into small flower-pots1 using fairly rich1 clay loam4 ,in a few weeks they will be ready to plant out in the garden4 ,grape cuttings should be taken late in the fall when the vines are well matured4 ,such a cutting includes only two joints1 the upper one being the growing end and the lower the rooting end4 ,they must be stored over winter in cold1 moist sand1 but should not be permitted to freeze4 ,as soon as the ground can be prepared in the spring1 set them out4 ,they should be placed on a slant of about forty-five degrees and covered all but the top bud4 ,,leaf ,,cuttings ,some plants with large and vigorous leaves1 such as many of the begonias1 may be propagated by means of leaf cuttings4 ,buds readily develop from cuts made in the large veins4 ,take a full-grown healthy leaf and remove the stem all but about half an inch4 ,make a few cuts across the larger veins on the under side of the leaves at points where main veins branch4 ,press the leaf firmly down on the top of a box of moist sand with the under side next the sand4 ,keep the leaf in this position1 using small stones or little pegs pushed through the leaf into the sand4 ,put the box in a warm room and do not let the sand become dry4 ,when roots strike into the sand and buds develop from the points where the veins were wounded1 take a sharp knife and cut out the new plant from the old leaf and transplant it into a small flower-pot in good soil4 ,sink the pot in a box of moist sand to prevent its drying out4 ,,root ,,cuttings ,such plants as sprout from the roots may be propagated by root cuttings4 ,sections of underground stems may also come under this heading1 as in the case of horseradish cuttings4 ,but real roots may be used for cuttings1 as in the case of the blackberry and raspberry4 ,the roots should be cut in pieces three or four inches long1 planted in a horizontal position1 and entirely covered with two or three inches of soil4 ,,layering ,bush fruits1 such as currants and gooseberries1 are frequently propagated by stem cuttings1 as in the case of roses4 ,another method1 which is known as layering1 consists in bending one or more of the lowest branches down against the ground1 fastening it there by means of a forked stick1 and then covering it with two or three inches of earth4 ,the part in contact with the moist earth will send out roots1 while one or more shoots will come up4 ,when roots and shoots have developed1 the branch is severed from the parent bush and the new plant set in its permanent place4 ,strawberries exhibit a sort of natural layering4 ,,planting ,,and ,,care ,,of ,,herbaceous ,,perennials ,perennials grown from seed the previous summer should now be set in clumps two or three feet apart in the perennial border or here and there beside the fences or walks4 ,the soil should be made fine and fertilized with well-rotted manure from the compost heap before setting out the young perennials4 ,dahlias and gladioli which were taken in in the autumn should now be set out4 ,the dahlias should be divided and only the best roots used4 ,other perennials that have grown into large clumps should be dug up1 divided1 and re-set in well-fertilized soil4 ,,garden ,,studies ,pupils in this ,form have now had enough experience in the growing of vegetables and flowers to allow them to make intelligent variety tests4 ,they should grow some of the less familiar varieties and report on the merits of each variety tested4 ,this1 however1 should not be carried on to the exclusion of the well-known standard varieties4 ,let the pupils consult the best seed catalogues available and choose for themselves some varieties not already known to them4 ,they should keep a systematic record of all varieties grown and the methods used in cultivating1 fertilizing1 etc4 ,the knowledge thus gained will be of value in after years1 and the homes will also benefit by it4 ,,biennials ,the pupils should observe the second year's growth of biennials4 ,a special plot in the school garden should be set apart for this purpose4 ,have them plant in it a turnip1 a carrot1 a beet1 a cabbage1 or any other garden biennial saved over winter for the purpose4 ,if desired1 the pupils might grow their own seed of these varieties4 ,notice 7#a7 what part of the plant has become enlarged with stored up food and how big it is when planted1 7#b7 how this part changes in size and texture as the flowers and seeds develop1 7#c7 in what way this extra food seems to have been used4 ,,wild ,,flowers ,,study ,,of ,,the ,,trillium ,the pupils bring the plants for the lesson4 ,there should be a few purple trilliums among the white1 and some of the plants should have the underground parts intact4 ,discuss with the collectors their observations on where the trilliums grow1 the kind of soil1 the depth of the root-stocks below the surface1 the uses of the root-stocks1 insect visitors4 ,,class-,,room ,,lesson ,the pupils are directed to examine the plant and flowers and find out all the means for attracting insects4 ,find out why the purple trillium attracts flies and beetles1 while the white trillium attracts bees and butterflies4 ,look into the top of the flower2 what figure do the tips of the six flower leaves form8 ,using the names calyx and corolla1 describe the circle of flower leaves as to number1 colour1 and relative position4 ,find the stamens and describe as to number and position2 find out how the stamens are fitted to ensure that the pollen will get upon the visiting insects4 ,find the pistil and describe its shape4 ,how is the stigma fitted for receiving the pollen that is carried by the insect visitors4 ,to the teacher4--,the trilliums attract insects by their large white and purple flowers1 which are held up by their long stalks high above the three broad leaves4 ,the strong carrion-like odour of the purple trillium is attractive to flies and beetles1 while bees and butterflies find the fragrance of the white trillium more to their liking4 ,the root-stock serves as a buried store of food to tide the plant over the drought of late summer and the severe cold of winter4 ,the well-stocked cellar also explains the flourishing condition of the plant in early spring4 ,the six stamens stand on close guard around the pistil1 and insects forcing their way to the nectaries are well peppered with pollen4 ,continue the observation work by means of field exercises such as the following3 ,what change takes place in the colour of the white trillium as it grows old8 ,find the ripened seed pods of the trillium1 open them1 count the number of chambers1 and examine the seeds4 ,do trilliums grow from the same root-stock year after year8 ,as correlations1 represent the trillium in colour and design an embroidery pattern based on it4 ,lessons similar to that on the trillium may be based on adder's tongue1 ,indian turnip1 ,dutchman's breeches1 violet1 and clover4 ,,adaptations ,,of ,,animals ,it is not considered necessary to go outside the list of ordinary animals to find sufficient illustrations of adaptations1 and it is recommended that attention be given to these during the study of animals prescribed for the regular ,course4 ,this may be supplemented by an occasional review of adaptive features for the purpose of emphasizing the general fitness of animals for their varied habits and surroundings4 ,care must be taken lest the attempt to explain structures by adaptation be carried to an extreme1 for it is impossible to account for all the variations in animal forms4 ,the following list contains a few of the many examples of adaptations to be met with in the ,course prescribed for ,forms ,,ii and ,,iii4 ,the horse walks and runs on the tips of its toes2 this gives greater speed4 ,wild animals of the cow and deer kind can swallow their food hastily so that they may retire to a safe retreat2 there they regurgitate the food and chew it4 ,the domesticated animal retains this habit1 though there is no longer a need for it4 ,the wood-hare's fur is brown in summer1 hence its enemies cannot see it against the brown grass and moss2 in winter its colour is white1 which1 against the snow1 is a protective colour4 ,the porcupine is very slow1 but its colour and shape make it almost impossible to distinguish from a knot on a log4 ,its quills form an effective protection when it is discovered4 ,the feet of the squirrel are adapted for climbing and its teeth for gnawing wood and for opening nuts4 ,the tail serves as a balancing pole for leaping from tree to tree and in winter it acts as a protection from cold4 ,the earthworm's shape and movements are suited to its habits of burrowing through the soil4 ,its habits of swallowing the soil fit it for burrowing and for obtaining its food at the same time4 ,many insect larvae1 as the tomato worm and the cabbage-worm1 are of the same colour as the plants on which they feed1 and this enables them to escape detection by birds4 ,the larvae of dragon-flies and ,may-flies breathe in water by means of gills very much as fishes do1 but the adult forms are suited for breathing in air4 ,female birds are usually dull gray or mottled1 so that their colours blend with their surroundings while they are nesting1 and hence they do not attract the notice of their enemies4 ,birds that swim have webbed feet1 which act as oars for pushing them through the water4 ,their feathers are compact and soft for warmth1 and these properties1 together with oil on their surfaces1 make them waterproof4 ,the tongue of the woodpecker is long1 spear-shaped1 and sticky2 hence it is adapted for catching insects in the holes pecked into the wood4 ,the tongue of the toad is fastened at the front end1 so that a flap can be shot out for more than an inch in front of the animal1 thus enabling it to catch insects on its sticky surface4 ,the toes of the frog are webbed to make them more serviceable in swimming4 ,the tail of the musk-rat is strong and broad like the blade of an oar and serves the same purpose as an oar4 ,the tail of the fish is more serviceable for swimming than legs would be4 ,,bird ,,types ,,woodpeckers ,woodpeckers are easily distinguished from other birds by their habit of perching in a vertical position on the trunks of trees with the tips of their tails pressed against the bark4 ,while in this position1 they tap upon the tree with their sharp1 pointed beaks4 ,,the ,,downy ,,woodpecker ,learn to recognize the smallest of our woodpeckers1 the ,downy4 ,winter or summer it may be found among the apple trees and shade trees1 a tiny black and white bird little bigger than a wren4 ,,observations ,i ,why is checkerboard a good name for this bird8 ,are there any distinct lines of white8 ,are there any patches of red8 ,do its movements reveal energy or listlessness8 ,how does it move up a tree trunk8 ,how does it move down a tree trunk8 ,find out how it can hold so firmly to the trunk4 ,does it use its sharp beak as a drill or as a pick8 ,to the teacher4--,the downy is spotted black and white1 with barred wings and a white line down the centre of the back4 ,a bright scarlet crown is the colour distinction of the male4 ,this little bird is the embodiment of energy and perseverance4 ,it hops nimbly up the trunk1 tapping here and there with its beak1 and then listening for the movements of the disturbed wood-borers4 ,if it wishes to descend1 it wastes no time in turning around1 but hops backward down the trunk1 or jumps off and flies down4 ,,ii ,examine an apple tree upon which a downy has been at work and find out what it was doing there4 ,do you find the birds in pairs during winter8 ,during summer8 ,distinguish the male from the female4 ,tie a beef bone with scraps of meat adhering to it to a tree4 ,what birds come to it8 ,find the nest of the downy and describe the nest and the eggs4 ,do the holes made by the downy injure the trees8 ,why should the downy be welcomed in our orchards8 ,describe the sounds made by the birds4 ,to the teacher4--,discuss the pupils' answers to the above problems in the class lesson1 using a picture of a woodpecker to illustrate the features of the bird that adapt it for its habits4 ,examples3 the straight1 sharp beak suited for drilling2 the two backward1 projecting toes for perching2 the spines on the tips of the tail feathers to act as a prop4 ,the downy woodpecker is very useful in the orchard1 because it destroys great numbers of larvae of the tussock-moth and other insects4 ,the holes made in the bark have never been found to injure the trees4 ,the nest is made in a hollow tree1 the entrance to it being almost perfectly round and about one and one-quarter inches in diameter4 ,the downy woodpecker has a very unmusical voice1 but fortunately he is aware of this deficiency1 and his only attempt at music is drumming with his beak upon a hollow limb or tree4 ,the hairy woodpecker1 redheaded woodpecker1 flicker1 and yellow-bellied woodpecker 7sapsucker7 are other varieties which visit the orchards and are suitable for lessons similar to these on the downy woodpecker4 ,they are all beneficial birds4 ,,flycatchers ,members common to this class are3 king-bird2 house-phoebe1 wood-phoebe1 or pewee2 whip-poor-will2 least fly-catcher2 giant fly-catcher4 ,direct the observations of the pupils to the following type features3 ,brownish or grayish colours2 fringe of long bristles around the mouth 7explain their use72 whistling notes1 varying with the different members of the family2 habit of jumping from the perch1 catching an insect while on the wing1 and returning to the spot from which the flight began2 nests1 chiefly of mud built in a protected place1 as under a bridge1 ledge of rock1 or projecting log4 ,,wrens ,the house wren may be studied as a type4 ,observe its brownish colour1 faintly mottled2 its small size and energetic movements1 its tail turned nearly vertically upward4 ,observe and report on other wrens1 noting any differences4 ,,cabbage-,,butterfly ,have a plant of wild mustard or a cabbage growing in a pot4 ,in ,june1 have the pupils1 by means of the insect net1 catch a number of the white butterflies1 the adults of the cabbage-worm4 ,place the butterflies in jars or bottles and observe them4 ,make drawings of them4 ,direct the attention of the pupils to the difference between the wings of the male and those of the female4 ,the former has only one dark spot on the front wing1 while the female has two spots on this wing4 ,release the males and put the females in a vivarium with the potted plant4 7,a pasteboard box1 with a large piece cut out and the opening covered with gauze1 makes a good substitute for a vivarium in this case47 ,observe the laying of the eggs4 ,how many are placed at one spot8 ,how are the eggs protected8 ,the eggs may be gathered from the cabbage plants in the garden4 ,observe and record the hatching of the tiny worm1 its feeding1 growth1 forming of chrysalis1 development into adult4 ,frequently little yellow silken cocoons are found in vivaria where cabbage-worms are kept2 these are cocoons of a parasite 7braconid7 that infests the worm4 ,because of the ease with which the cabbage-butterfly may be obtained and the rapidity of its development in the various stages1 it is very suitable as a type for the study of metamorphosis4 ,the sulphur1 or puddler 7called by the latter name because of its habit of settling in groups around the edges of the water holes71 is also a suitable type4 ,the larvae in this case must be fed on clover4 ,,the ,,tussock-,,moth ,begin the study of this insect in ,june and ,july by observing the larvae feeding on the foliage of the horse-chestnut and other shade trees1 and direct attention to their destructiveness4 ,in observing the larvae1 note the size1 movements1 legs1 colour1 coral red head1 tufts of hair on the back1 and the three long plumes4 ,watch the birds among the trees to discover whether they eat the larvae4 ,of what use are the tufts of hair8 ,do the larvae feed by biting or by sucking8 ,describe the damage done by the larvae4 ,collect a number of these larvae and place them in the vivarium with some twigs of horse-chestnut4 ,observe the spinning of the cocoon and1 about two weeks later1 look for the emergence of the adult moths4 ,observe the two kinds of insects4 ,describe each4 ,are there any differences in the cocoons from which they emerge8 ,which form of insect places the egg mass and is therefore the female8 ,note the number and shape of the eggs and how they are protected4 ,the female moths have no wings and do not move far from the cocoons from which they emerge1 while the males have the power of flight4 ,as outdoor work1 look for the egg masses on trees and fences and devise means of combating the tussock-moth4 ,gathering and destroying the egg masses during the winter is found to be fairly effective in checking these insects4 ,since the cocoons frequently contain parasites that prey upon the larvae1 it is advisable that only the cocoons that have egg masses attached to them should be destroyed2 the others are harmless and may contain the useful parasites4 ,the egg masses may be kept over winter in a box in a cool place1 and the hatching of the tiny larvae and their subsequent rapid growth observed4 ,,potato ,,beetle ,the eggs of this beetle may be found in early summer in clusters on the under surfaces of the leaves of potato plants4 ,,egg4--,observe the size1 colour1 shape1 position1 and number in a cluster2 appearance of head from outer end after a week4 ,,larva4--,observe the colour1 shape1 head1 legs1 voracious appetite1 movements1 rapid growth1 destructiveness4 ,,pupa4--,observe the larvae disappear from the plants2 a search underground reveals the resting stage1 or pupae4 ,after ten days1 the adult beetles emerge4 ,,adult4--,observe the colour1 the hard shell covering the head2 the hard outer wings and membraneous inner wings2 the hard shell on the under surface of the body2 the feelers1 and legs4 ,why will spraying with a poison1 such as paris-green1 kill these insects8 ,,references ,dearness3 ,how to ,teach the ,nature ,study ,course ,stories in ,agriculture1 ,bulletin ,no4 #abd4 ,,fish ,the ,nature ,study lessons must be based upon observations of the living fish1 preferably in ,may or ,june1 ,september or ,october4 ,the best place for this is on the bank of a clear stream from which it is possible to observe the fish in their natural environment4 ,here their life activities1 their struggles1 their conquests1 and silent tragedies are enacted before the eyes of the observer4 ,many observations may be made in this way which will create a life-long interest in these reticent1 yet active creatures4 ,since this method of study is practicable in but few cases1 the study of the living fish in the aquarium is the best available substitute4 ,the teacher or the boys of the class can catch a few fish of three or four inches in length and carry them in a jar of water to the aquarium4 ,minnows1 chub1 perch1 catfish1 or other common forms will do4 ,,observations ,i ,the general shape1 and the suitability of the shape for swimming4 ,the surface of the body and the protection it affords4 ,note the scales and the slime1 the latter a protection against the growth of fungi1 etc4 ,the gills--two openings behind the flaps at the rear of the head4 ,the colours1 and their value in concealing the fish4 ,the dark upper surface makes it inconspicuous from above2 the light under surface blends with the shadow and dims it4 ,the divisions of the body--head1 trunk1 and tail4 ,movements of the fish and the part that the various fins play in these movements4 ,note that the broad tail fin is the most useful fin for locomotion1 the others act as balancers or as brakes1 or for causing currents of water near the gills4 ,observe the movements of the pair of fins nearest the gills1 the movements of the mouth1 and the currents of water entering the mouth and passing through the gill slits4 ,when a fish is kept in a very small quantity of water1 observe the effect produced on the movements of the mouth and gill flaps4 ,what are the uses of these movements8 ,the pupils will thus discover the nature of the respiration of the fish4 ,why do fish die if many are kept in a jar of water8 ,,ii ,by supplying various foods learn what kinds are preferred4 ,find in the actions or habits of the living fish evidences of a sense of smell1 of sight1 of hearing1 and of taste4 ,nearly all the following points of detailed study can be observed from the living fish3 shape2 size2 tongue2 teeth2 gill slits leading from the mouth to the gills2 nostrils1 number and position2 eyes1 absence of eyelids2 fins1 size1 build2 the arrangement of the scales4 ,,problems ,why does the fish require a large mouth8 ,how are the eyes protected8 ,compare the shape of the eye with the shape of the eye of a land animal4 ,why are there no openings from the surface directly into the ears8 ,show the suitability of the fins as organs of locomotion in water4 ,,references ,silcox and ,stevenson3 ,modern ,nature ,study ,nash3 ,fishes of ,ontario 7from ,department of ,education1 free7 ,kellogg3 ,elementary ,zoology ,,chapter ,,xii ,,form ,,iv ,,autumn ,,garden ,,work ,the regular work of cultivation of garden and experimental plots should be carefully attended to4 ,pupils in this ,form should be able to do all kinds of garden work with a good deal of proficiency4 ,the work of selecting the best flowers for seed production should be continued4 ,these should be used for planting in the school garden and in home gardens as well4 ,this part of the work might be left to the girls4 ,the boys should be encouraged to take up the systematic selection of seed grain4 ,to get good seed to start with1 two methods may be used3 #a4 ,decide upon the kind of grain to be selected and choose from one of the best fields a hundred of the best heads--those that are vigorous1 clean1 free from rust or smut1 and standing up straight4 ,when the heads are dried a little1 shell the grain off them and preserve it in a jar in a cold1 dry place until spring4 #b4 ,take a quart of oats and pick it carefully1 keeping only the largest and most plump kernels4 ,keep this for spring planting4 ,at the same time1 a sample of the poorer grains should be kept for comparison4 ,a regular system of selection should be followed from year to year1 taking enough of the largest1 brightest1 and most compact heads from the plot each autumn to sow a plot of equal size the next spring4 ,after the selection of heads has been made1 the remainder of the crop may be harvested1 and the grain from this known as general crop from hand-selected seed of the first1 second1 third year1 etc4 ,if the value per acre is required1 the plots should be made of a certain size easy to compute1 such as one rod square or one rod by two rods4 7#aj-a_/b ft4 by #ba ft4 is about #a_/bjj acre47 ,samples of each crop should be kept in uniform bottles and labelled2 for example--,from selected heads of #aiaa4 ,the yield per acre in the plot from which the selected heads came should also be noted4 ,these will be interesting for purposes of comparison and for testing duration of vitality later4 ,if the same amount of grain is used in planting a plot each time1 the change in bushels per acre may be ascertained and also in pounds per bushel4 ,some of the boys in this ,form may wish to continue this work of improvement by selection and1 if so1 they should communicate with the ,secretary of the ,canadian ,seed ,growers' ,association1 ,canadian ,building1 ,ottawa1 and receive full instructions to enable them to carry on their work practically as well as scientifically4 ,,herbaceous ,,perennials ,,from ,,seed ,the teacher should encourage the growing of herbaceous perennials for the purpose of beautifying the school grounds4 ,many plants may be started from seed at the school and given to the pupils for home planting4 ,these plants require but little attention and provide excellent bloom in gardens and home grounds from early in spring before annuals are in bloom1 on into the autumn4 ,a list of the best varieties will be found in ,circular #ac1 on ,elementary ,agriculture and ,horticulture1 a copy of which should be in every school4 ,the seed plot should be fertilized and prepared in the usual way1 and the seeds planted before the first of ,september4 ,they may be started in ,june also1 in which case they make more growth before winter4 ,the plot should be well fertilized with thoroughly rotted manure and1 if the soil is very dry1 the plot should be well watered the day before the seeds are planted4 ,the seeds are usually quite small and should be covered very lightly4 ,the plot should be protected from the hot sun by means of cheese-cloth tacked on a frame4 ,the plants should be watered twice a week in dry weather4 ,in the late autumn1 when the ground freezes1 the plot should be covered with leaves or straw and some boards1 which should be removed when the frost comes out in the spring4 ,,deciduous ,,trees ,before the pupils of this ,form leave school they should be able to recognize1 by name as well as by sight1 all of the species of trees found in their vicinity4 ,to this end the teacher should help them to prepare an inventory of species of trees1 shrubs1 and vines of the vicinity4 ,they should learn to distinguish the different species of maples1 elms1 birches1 etc4 ,a named collection of leaves helps materially in doing this4 ,the influence of environment upon the growth and shape of trees and how trees adapt themselves to the conditions in which they live is a most interesting and profitable study1 demanding careful observation1 reflection1 and judgment4 ,,references ,muldrew3 ,sylvan ,ontario4 ,briggs4 ,keeler3 ,our ,native ,trees4 ,scribners' ,sons4 #b4jj4 ,,trees ,,in ,,relation ,,to ,,their ,,environment ,consider the influences at work and their effect under the following heads3 #a4 ,,character ,,of ,,the ,,soil ,,and ,,subsoil4--,it may be gravelly1 pure sand1 sandy loam1 clay or clay loam1 muck or humus1 shallow or rocky1 and the subsoil may be sand1 clay or hard clay with stones 7hard-pan74 ,notice what species are most common in each kind of soil4 #b4 ,,water ,,supply4--,what species are found naturally in moist ravines or along the margins of rivers and lakes1 in bogs or swamps1 on dry1 sandy plains1 or rocky hillsides4 ,consider also the rainfall4 #c4 ,,exposure ,,to ,,sunlight4--,account for the lack of symmetry in the shapes of trees4 ,branches grow only where their leaves can get the light4 ,account for the pith in many tree stems not being in the geometric centre4 ,account for the rapid growth in height made by young trees in the woods4 ,their light supply is chiefly from above1 and they stretch up toward it as rapidly as possible4 ,dim light causes rapid growth at the expense1 however1 of strength of tissue1 but as these young trees are protected in the woods from the strain of wind storms1 their slimness and lack of toughness is a benefit rather than a hindrance to them4 ,also1 the limbs near the ground die off while the trees are still young and small1 giving us the clear timber tree1 free from large knots1 tall and straight4 ,make further application of this principle of light in relation to the planting of trees for shade and for wood or lumber4 ,account for the large size of the leaves of young trees in the dimly lighted woods as compared with the leaves of older trees4 ,the principle of rapid growth in dim light is seen here also4 ,it will be noticed that the large leaves of the young trees are more thin1 soft1 and flexible4 #d4 ,,wind4--,observe the tops of tall trees that have always been exposed to a strong prevailing wind as1 for instance1 those growing on the tops of hills or the eastern shore of a lake which has a prevailing west wind4 ,the tops lean in the direction in which the prevailing wind blows4 ,does strong wind help or hinder the growth of a tree8 ,examples of stunted trees on wind swept hills or shores readily show this4 ,it will be seen also that the higher branches are poorest on the side most exposed to the wind4 #e4 ,,suitability ,,of ,,the ,,species ,,to ,,the ,,climate4--,observe that some trees retain their leaves much later in the autumn than do others4 ,the beech1 hickory1 red oak1 and chestnut are good examples4 ,these are on the northern extreme of their territory of growth4 ,the tree best suited to a rigorous climate is the one that finishes its work early in the autumn and has all its tissues well matured before cold weather sets in4 ,examples3 maple1 elm1 birch1 and willow4 ,,fruits ,,excursion ,,to ,a ,,well-,,kept ,,orchard ,if the teacher can arrange to take the pupils to see a well-kept orchard about the time of the apple harvest1 it will help to arouse interest in the study of fruits4 ,the trees1 as well as the fruit1 frequently show distinguishing marks whereby they may be identified4 ,have the pupils notice the following points3 general shape of tree1 colour of bark1 shape of leaf1 method of cultivation1 fertilizing1 pruning and grafting1 spraying and its need1 orchard pests1 method of picking and packing apples in barrels and boxes for market4 ,,small ,,fruits ,study the method of propagating strawberries and such bush fruits as currants1 gooseberries1 raspberries1 and blackberries4 ,reports issued from the ,fruit ,division of the ,experimental ,farm at ,ottawa give information regarding the best varieties suitable for different parts of ,ontario and ,quebec4 ,have the pupils try propagating strawberries by taking the stolons or runners2 currants and gooseberries1 by means of layers or stem cuttings2 and raspberries or blackberries1 by root cuttings or the detaching of root shoots or suckers4 ,stem and root cuttings1 when taken in the autumn1 may be planted at once or may be stored in damp moss or sand in a cold cellar over winter4 ,stem cuttings should be about the size and length of a lead-pencil and root cuttings about half that size4 ,,autumn ,,wild ,,flowers ,observations made with garden flowers should be supplemented by observation lessons on a few selected wild flowers of the woods1 fields1 and roadsides4 ,although the spring months afford a much greater variety of wild flowers than do the autumn months1 they do not afford quite as good an opportunity for finding and studying them4 ,the woods and fields are drier and more easily reached in the autumn and the fall flowers last much longer4 ,some of the species seen blooming in spring and early summer are now in fruit and scattering their seed1 so that the pupils have a chance to follow out the whole life history of a few chosen species4 ,the pupils in this ,form might select for special study the milkweed1 worm-seed mustard1 wild aster1 and goldenrod4 ,these should be observed out-of-doors1 preferably1 but suitable class-room lessons may be taught by using similar matter4 ,,milkweed ,taking the milkweed as a type1 the following points are to be considered3 ,the kind of soil1 where found1 and whether in sun or shade4 ,try to pull up a small-sized plant4 ,dig one up and notice the underground part4 ,note the size of the largest plant seen1 also the size of the leaves1 and how they are arranged to prevent overshadowing4 ,break off a leaf and note the white sticky juice1 whence the name milkweed4 ,discuss this milk as a protection to the plant4 ,note time of first and last flowering of the plant and the colour and odour of the flowers4 ,watch insects gathering honey on a bright day4 ,note the little sacks of pollen that cling to their feet4 ,they sometimes get their feet caught in little slits in the flower and perish4 ,after the flowers disappear1 note the forming of the little boat-shaped pods in pairs4 ,select one that is ripe and notice that it bursts along one side which is most protected4 ,open a pod carefully and notice how beautifully the flat1 brown seeds are arranged in overlapping rows and how each seed has a large tuft of silky down that serves to carry it far away in the wind4 ,this silk-like down is sometimes used to stuff cushions1 and because of it the plant is sometimes called silk weed4 ,one species of butterfly in particular feeds upon this plant--the monarch1 or milkweed1 butterfly4 ,this is one of the few butterflies that birds do not eat4 ,it is protected by a distasteful fluid4 ,look on the under side of the leaves of several plants until you find a pretty1 pale green cocoon with golden dots1 hanging by a thread-like attachment4 ,early in the season the larvae may be found feeding on the leaves4 ,this plant is troublesome in some fields and gardens and so is classed as a weed4 ,when the stems come up in the spring1 they are soft and tender and are sometimes used as pot herbs4 ,,correlations ,draw a leaf1 a flower1 a pair of pods1 and a seed with its tuft4 ,write an account of a visit to the woods to study wild flowers4 ,,trees ,a study of the pines of the locality may be commenced in ,november1 after the deciduous trees have lost their leaves and have entered their quiescent winter period4 ,this is the time when the evergreens stand out prominently on the landscape1 in sharp contrast with the other trees that have been stripped of their broad leaves and now look bare and lifeless4 ,if no pines are to be found in the vicinity1 cedar or hemlock may be substituted4 ,the lessons should1 as far as possible1 be observational4 ,the pupils should be encouraged to make observations for themselves out of school4 ,at least one lesson should be conducted out-of-doors1 a suitable pine tree having been selected beforehand for the purpose4 ,the following method will serve as a guide in the outdoor study of any species of tree3 ,,the ,,white ,,pine ,have the pupils observe the shape and height of the tree from a distance and trace the outline with the finger4 ,compare the shape of this tree with others near by of the same species and then with members of other species4 ,have the pupils describe in what particulars the shapes differ in different trees4 ,they will come to realize that the difference in shape results from differences in length1 direction1 and arrangement of branches4 ,they may notice that other evergreens resemble the pine in that the stems are all straight and extend as a gradually tapering shaft from the bottom to the top1 that all have a more or less conical shape1 and that the branches grow straight out from the main stem and not slanting off as in the case of the maples and elms4 ,coming close to the tree1 the pupils may first examine the trunk4 ,by using a string or tape-line1 they may find out how big it is around and the length of the diameter4 ,tell them how big some evergreens are 7the giant trees of the ,pacific ,coast are sometimes over forty feet around74 ,have them notice where the trunk is largest1 and let them find out why a tree needs to be so strong at the ground4 ,heavy wind puts a great strain on it just at this point4 ,illustrate by driving a long slat or lath into the ground firmly3 then catching it by the top1 push it over1 and it will break off just at the ground4 ,if a little pine tree could be taken up1 the pupils would be interested in seeing what long1 strong1 fibrous roots the pine has4 ,let them examine the bark of the trunk and describe its colour and roughness4 ,the fissures in the bark1 which are caused by the enlarging of the tree through the formation of new wood under the bark1 are deeper at the bottom of the tree than at the top--the tree being younger and the bark thinner1 the nearer to the top we go4 ,how old is the very top1 down to the first whorl of branches8 ,how old is the stem between the first and second whorls8 ,between the third and fourth8 ,let the pupils find out in this way the age of a little pine that is regular and unbroken4 ,the whorls of branches near the ground are usually small and dead in young trees and in old trees have completely disappeared4 ,relate the size of the trunk to its age1 and also relate the size and length of the branches to their age4 ,where are the youngest branches and how old are they8 ,what branches are oldest8 ,notice how the branch is noticeably larger just where it joins the trunk1 as this is the point of greatest strain4 ,are the branches the same length on all sides of the trunk8 ,if not1 find one where branches are shorter on one side than on the other and try to discover the cause4 ,usually1 if other trees are near enough to shade a certain tree1 the branches are shorter and smaller on the shaded side4 ,let the pupils look up into the tree from beneath and then go a little distance away and look at it4 ,they will notice how bare the branches are on the inside1 and the teacher will probably have to explain why this is so4 ,they will discover that the leaves are nearly all out toward the ends of the branches4 ,the leaves get light there while the centre of the tree top is shaded1 and the great question that every tree must try to solve is how to get most light for its leaves4 ,the pupils will now see an additional reason why the lower limbs should be longer than the upper ones4 ,the greater length of the lower limbs brings the leaves out into the sunlight4 ,why this tree is called an evergreen may now be considered4 ,why it retains its leaves all winter is a problem for more advanced classes1 but if the question is asked1 the teacher may get over the difficulty by explaining to the class that the leaves are so small and yet so hardy that wind and frost and snow do not injure them4 ,the pupils may each bring a small branch of twig back to the school-room1 if the white pine is growing commonly about1 otherwise the teacher may provide himself with a branch upon which to base another observation lesson in the class-room4 ,if the tree has cones on it1 an effort should be made to get a few1 as they will also be considered in a subsequent class-room lesson4 ,if the cones have not yet opened when they are picked1 so much the better1 as they will soon open in a warm room1 and the pupils will be able to examine the seeds and notice how they whirl through the air in falling4 ,if possible1 let the pupils have an opportunity of seeing pine trees growing in the woods as well as in the open4 ,,outline ,,of ,a ,,class-,,room ,,lesson ,,on ,,the ,,white ,,pine ,inferences4--,if possible1 each pupil is supplied with a small branch of the white pine and the teacher with a larger branch which can easily be seen by all the pupils4 ,before proceeding to examine the specimens1 give the pupils a chance to tell what they now know about the white pine1 and thus review the lesson taken out-of-doors4 ,then ask a few questions bearing upon their own observations1 such as3 ,what was the soil like where you found the pine tree growing8 7,they are found most commonly on light1 sandy soil47 ,did you notice any difference between the shapes of the pines in the deep woods and the pines in the open fields8 ,did you notice any dead limbs on those in the woods8 ,why did they die8 ,the pupils may conclude that branches whose leaves cannot get the sunlight must die4 ,show that this causes knots in the lumber and exhibit samples4 ,this explains also why the trees of the forest have such tall stems without branches for a long distance up from the ground4 ,they get the light only from above and seem to strive with the surrounding trees to reach it4 ,if we want trees to grow tall1 how should we plant them8 7,close together7 ,what would such trees be good for8 7,making timber or lumber7 ,if we want trees to grow low and have thick and bushy tops1 how should we plant them8 7,far apart7 ,what would such trees be good for8 7,their shade and their beauty7 ,good shade trees should be thirty to forty feet apart4 ,ask the pupils if they have ever been near a pine tree when a gentle breeze was blowing1 and have them tell the cause of the sound that they heard4 ,they may decide that the shape and size of the leaves caused the sound when the wind was blowing through the tree top4 ,have them examine the branches in order to discover the following points3 ,,leaves4--,these are in bunches of five1 two to three inches long1 three-cornered1 and with little teeth pointing toward the tip1 light green near the tip of the bough 7young leaves7 and darker further down 7older leaves72 age of a leaf the same as the age of the wood it grows on1 therefore some leaves are one year1 some two1 and a few three years old4 ,no leaves on four-year-old wood1 therefore the leaves fall off the white pine the third year4 ,ask pupils to try to find out by observation when the leaves fall off the pines4 ,note the fragrance of the leaves1 and that they are sometimes put into pine cushions1 also1 how slippery they are to walk on4 ,,buds4--,these are found at the tips of the branches1 one large one in the centre and several smaller ones grouped around it4 ,note their reddish-brown colour and that they are made up of scales overlapping and covered with gum which keeps out the rain1 thus protecting the little growing tip inside4 ,when buds grow1 they become little twigs with leaves on4 ,find where the buds were a year ago4 ,notice the light colour of the twigs that grow during the present season and the darker colour of the twigs of the previous year4 ,where were the buds two years ago8 ,what did the centre bud become8 7,a continuation of the stem7 ,what did the other buds1 called lateral buds1 become8 7,new branches7 ,compare the growth made in different years4 ,notice also how white the wood of the twigs is--the probable reason for calling it white pine4 ,,cones4--,note the length and shape of the cones and how the seeds are placed in them inside the large scales4 ,get some of the seeds and note the wing-like attachment4 ,take the wing off a seed and drop it from a height at the same instant with one that has its wing attached4 ,note the whirling motion and infer what purpose the wing serves in scattering seed4 ,taste the kernel of a pine seed and discover why squirrels are fond of them4 ,burn a pine cone4 ,find out what birds like to live in this tree4 ,what has been noticed about them and their nests8 ,have the pupils keep the seeds until the following spring by putting them in a box of dry sand and setting them in a cold place4 ,they should then plant them in a corner where they can be partly shaded when the sun is bright4 ,plant them about half an inch deep and keep them watered if the weather is dry during the first summer4 ,,note4--,the cones drop their seeds from high up in the tree so that the wind can carry the seeds long distances4 ,the cones usually stay on the trees for a couple of years after they lose their seeds4 ,,correlations ,draw a pine tree1 a bunch of pine needles1 a pine cone1 and a pine seed4 ,write a description of a pine tree seen in the woods2 also of one found in the open4 ,write a list of things for which the white pine is useful4 ,to the teacher4--,the winter months1 besides affording an opportunity for seeing trees and plants in their dormant or quiescent condition1 also afford an opportunity for reading and reflection1 for recalling observations and experiences of the past season1 and for making plans for work and study in the school garden1 woods1 and fields when spring returns4 ,the knowledge gained by the pupils through first-hand observation of trees1 flowers1 and gardens can be greatly extended by pictures and stories descriptive of these1 which the teacher may from time to time bring to the school-room4 ,their personal experiences will be the basis for interpretation of many new things which will come up in the reading lessons1 in selections which the teacher reads from week to week1 and in books and papers which they themselves read in their homes4 ,thus the interest that is aroused by the first-hand studies of plants in garden1 orchard1 or woodland will be carried over from autumn to spring1 and the pupils1 with the awakening of spring1 will take up anew the study of plant life with a keener interest because of the time given to reading and reflection during the winter4 ,illustrated magazines dealing with gardening and with the study of trees and plants1 and such magazines as have a children's department1 will prove of great assistance to the teacher who makes any serious attempt to interest pupils in plant studies4 ,stories of life in the woods and of plant studies suitable to young pupils should be used4 ,,references ,margaret ,morley3 ,flowers and their ,friends4 ,ginn ,co4 #ej cents4 ,margaret ,morley3 ,seed ,babies4 ,ginn ,co4 #be cents4 ,margaret ,morley3 ,little ,wanderers4 ,ginn ,co4 #cj cents4 ,alice ,lounsberry3 ,the ,garden ,book for ,young ,people4 ,stokes4 #a4ej4 ,gertrude ,stone3 ,trees in ,prose and ,poetry4 ,ginn ,co4 #de cents4 ,,comparative ,,lesson ,,on ,,varieties ,,of ,,winter ,,apples ,,king1 ,,baldwin1 ,,northern ,,spy ,discuss the names1 keeping and cooking qualities of the apples1 and bearing qualities of the trees4 ,provide each member of the class with a typical representative of each of the above varieties of apples4 ,compare the three apples as to size1 form1 colour--including marks2 hardness1 length1 and thickness of stem2 depth of cavity at the stem end2 depth and shape of the cavity at the calyx end4 ,split each apple from stem to calyx and compare as to the thickness and toughness of the skin1 the colour of the flesh1 the size of the core1 taste and juiciness of the flesh4 ,to the teacher4--,all three are apples of fair size1 the ,baldwin being on the average the smallest of the three4 ,all three are roundish1 but the ,king is somewhat oval-round1 and the ,spy1 conical-round4 ,the ,baldwin has a yellowish skin with crimson and red splashes dotted with russet spots4 ,the ,king is reddish1 shading to dark crimson4 ,the ,spy has a yellowish-green skin sprinkled with pink and striped with red4 ,the beautiful colours make all these apples very popular in the markets of ,american cities and in those of the ,british ,isles2 but the soft and easily damaged skin of the ,spy makes it the least desirable as an apple for export4 ,all keep well and in cool cellars remain in good condition until ,april4 ,they may be kept much longer in cold storage chambers1 where the temperature is uniformly near the freezing point of the apple4 ,the ,baldwin apple tree is reasonably hardy within the ordinary range for apple trees1 and its yield is a satisfactory average4 ,the ,king apple tree is not a hardy tree1 nor is it a satisfactory bearer except in the best apple districts4 ,the ,spy is a fairly hardy tree and thrives and yields well throughout a wide range2 but it does not begin to bear until it is about fifteen years old4 ,a comparative lesson may also be based on selected varieties of autumn apples1 such as ,fameuse1 ,mc,intosh ,red1 ,wealthy1 ,gravenstein1 and ,st4 ,lawrence4 ,,codling ,,moth ,begin the study of the codling moth in ,august by examining wormy apples4 ,find out1 by asking the pupils1 which orchards of the locality had been sprayed in the spring4 ,ask the pupils to count out at random one hundred apples and to select from these the number that are wormy4 ,what percentage of the apples are wormy8 ,compare the percentage of wormy apples in unsprayed1 with that in sprayed1 orchards4 ,the results will afford evidence of the benefit of spraying4 ,find out1 if possible1 the dates on which1 and the conditions under which1 the spraying of the orchards with the least number of wormy apples was done4 ,ask the pupils to bring to the school-room a number of wormy apples4 ,have the pupils cut these open and note the nature and position of the hole1 or burrow1 and the amount of damage done to the apples4 ,have the pupils observe the larva and note the size1 colour1 shape1 and number of legs4 ,to the teacher4--,the apple maggot is a less common insect larva and may be distinguished from the larva of the codling moth by the fact that the former has no legs and has the habit of burrowing in all directions through the pulp of the apple1 while the larva of the codling moth works almost entirely in the core4 ,the cocoon and pupa phase of this insect may be obtained by keeping the wormy apples in a box containing loose paper on which the cocoons will be placed1 or by searching under the bark scales of apple trees in ,october4 ,describe the cocoons4 ,open some of them and describe the contents4 ,keep the remaining cocoons in a box or vivarium in a cool place during the winter4 ,what birds are seen tapping at the bark scales of the apple trees during winter8 ,examine the bark scales when a downy woodpecker has been at work and note that the cocoons have been destroyed4 ,should we encourage the visits of woodpeckers to the orchards8 ,by hanging up a beef bone in the orchard1 various birds1 including woodpeckers1 will be induced to visit and perhaps to make their homes in the orchard4 ,,references ,common ,insects ,affecting ,fruit ,trees1 ,bulletin ,no4 #aeh1 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,parliament ,buildings1 ,toronto4 ,bulletins ,nos4 #aeh and #aga1 ,ontario ,department of ,agriculture1 deal with many insect pests and their remedies4 ,in ,may look for the adult moths as they emerge from the cocoons4 ,observe the colour1 size1 shape1 and the bright copper-coloured horse-shoe on the front wing--the brand of the codling moth4 ,examine the little apples when the blossoms are falling4 ,note the tiny1 flat1 oval-shaped egg at various places on the surfaces of the apples and a few days later the tiny worm which emerges from the egg4 ,this soon eats its way into the apple1 entering usually at the calyx end4 ,if spraying is done after the petals have fallen and just before the calyx end closes up1 a drop of poison is inclosed1 and when the larva enters it and begins eating its way into the apple1 it gets the poison4 ,,some ,,common ,,animal ,,forms ,brief lessons should be given on some of the lower members of the animal kingdom1 for the purpose of broadening the interests of the pupils4 ,the following are suggested as types3 snail1 spider1 freshwater mussel 7clam71 crayfish 7crab71 centiped1 milliped1 salamander1 and wood-louse4 ,these are common animal forms1 most of which are frequently seen by the pupils1 but seldom are their interesting life habits or their places in the animal kingdom recognized4 ,the salamander is to many pupils a lizard of the most poisonous kind2 centipeds and millipeds are worms1 and they do not recognize that the clam is an animal with sensibilities and instincts4 ,,references ,kellogg3 ,elementary ,zoology ,silcox and ,stevenson3 ,modern ,nature ,study ,,centipeds ,,and ,,millipeds ,under stones and sticks in moist soil are to be found two worm-like forms1 both having many legs4 ,one of these animals is flat1 about an inch long1 brown in colour1 and provided with a pair of long feelers4 ,on each division of the body is a single pair of legs4 ,this is the centiped4 ,the other animal is more cylindrical in shape and has two pairs of legs on each division of the body4 ,its colour is a darker brown than that of the centiped1 and it has a habit of coiling into a spiral shape1 when disturbed1 so that the soft under surface is concealed4 ,this is the milliped4 ,both of these animals are quite harmless and feed on decaying vegetable matter4 ,they stand midway between worms and insects in forms and habits4 ,a brief observation lesson on each animal1 involving their movements and the structural features named above1 will enable the pupils to identify them and to appreciate their position in the animal kingdom4 ,,salamanders1 ,,or ,,newts ,some forms of these are found in water1 as in streams1 ponds1 and ditches1 while other forms are found on land1 where they hide under stones and sticks4 ,they are commonly mistaken for lizards1 which they closely resemble in shape2 but the two animals may be distinguished by the fact that the surface of the body of a salamander is smooth1 while that of a lizard is covered with scales4 ,the small red or copper-coloured newts are the most common in ,ontario and are frequently found on roads after heavy rains4 ,the tiger salamanders are larger than the red newts and are marked with orange and black spots1 hence the name tiger4 ,many people believe this species to be especially venomous1 while in reality it is quite harmless and1 like the other salamanders1 is useful for destroying insects and small snails1 which form the greater part of its food4 ,to the teacher4--,the superstition of the salamander's power to extinguish a fire into which it is thrown still exists4 ,the early life of the salamander is spent in water1 the young form being very much like a tadpole4 ,the salamanders are close relatives of the frogs and toads and may be kept in a jar or vivarium in wet moss or grass4 ,the pupils should learn to recognize the animals and should be instructed as to their habits4 ,,spiders ,problems in observation4--,in how many places can you find spiders' webs8 ,how many forms of spiders' webs can you find8 ,are the many webs that are found on the meadow grass in the dewy mornings the homes of spiders8 ,if so1 describe where the spiders live4 7,at the bottom of tunnels that run into the ground47 ,what uses do spiders make of their webs8 7,trapping prey1 supporting egg cases1 protection1 and means of moving1 as in the case of cobweb spiders47 ,drop a fly upon a spider's web and observe the action of the spider4 ,search under the webs of spiders in attics and sheds and learn1 from the skeletons found there1 what the spider feeds upon4 ,it will be found that flies1 beetles1 and other spiders are killed by this monster4 ,watch a spider spinning its web and find out what parts of the body are used in this work4 ,it will be seen that the threads are produced from little tubes at the rear end of the animal and are placed and fastened by means of the feet4 ,examine1 by the aid of a hand lens1 the feet and head of the spider4 ,note the brushes and combs on the former4 ,note1 on the latter1 the four1 six1 or eight eyes 7the number and arrangement vary71 and the short poison claws at the front of the head4 ,how are the poison claws adapted for seizing and piercing8 ,note the sharp hooks at the lower ends4 ,,bird ,,studies ,continue the lessons in bird identification and in bird types1 using the methods outlined for these studies in ,form ,,iii4 7,see pp4 #bag-bd47 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,form ,,iv ,,winter ,,forest ,,trees ,,evergreens ,several species of evergreens have already been studied4 ,these should be reviewed1 and representatives of other species examined4 ,mid-winter is most suitable for the study of evergreens4 ,the following points should be considered3 #a4 ,description leading to identification #b4 ,nature of soil and water conditions #c4 ,common uses of each species of evergreen #d4 ,collection of wood specimens and cones4 ,,wood ,,specimens ,specimens should be uniform in size and should show bark on one side and heart wood as well as the outside1 or sap wood4 ,they should be about six inches long1 two inches wide on the side having the bark1 and should gradually come to an edge toward the pith1 or centre4 ,when seasoned1 one side and one edge should be polished and then oiled or varnished4 ,specimens of the wood of the deciduous trees may also be prepared during the winter4 ,,fruits ,during the winter months1 some time should be devoted to reading and discussing articles on general farming and fruit growing4 ,such articles may be taken from books1 magazines1 or newspapers1 and may be supplied partly by the teacher and partly by the pupils4 ,these articles will be appreciated by the pupils all the more because of their studies of fruit trees during the season4 ,such topics as the following may be discussed3 #a4 ,best kind of apples1 plums1 bush fruits1 and strawberries4 ,reports from the ,dominion and ,provincial ,departments of ,agriculture4 #b4 ,method of raising fruit trees--from seed1 grafting1 and budding4 #c4 ,demonstrations in pruning4 ,this may be done in early spring by taking a class to a neighbouring orchard4 #d4 ,methods of planting and cultivation4 #e4 ,packing and storing4 #f4 ,spraying4 ,much information is to be found in ,horticultural ,journals and papers1 and in ,bulletins to be obtained from the ,secretary of ,agriculture for ,ontario4 ,illustrated articles on gardening and fruit growing should be collected for school use4 ,views of fine gardens1 parks1 and home grounds will be of interest to the pupils4 ,simple artistic methods of ornamental planting with trees1 shrubs1 vines1 and herbaceous perennials can now be introduced1 and some scheme for improving the school grounds outlined4 ,catalogues should be obtained soon after ,new ,year's and1 after examining their merits1 the best varieties of seed and fruit for the district should be selected4 ,horticultural societies1 as well as ,dominion and ,provincial ,departments of ,agriculture1 commonly give selected lists with descriptions of the different varieties4 ,,weeds ,,and ,,weed ,,seeds ,the training in the observation and identification of weeds and weed seeds1 which was begun in ,form ,,iii1 should be continued in ,form ,,iv4 ,for method see ,form ,,iii4 ,,physical ,,science ,,phase ,,of ,,nature ,,study ,,water ,,pressure #a4 ,grasp an empty tin can by the top and push it down into a pail of water4 ,note the tendency of the can to rise4 ,the water presses upward4 ,its downward pressure is evident4 #b4 ,tie a large stone to a string1 hold it at arm's length1 shut the eyes1 and lower the stone into water4 ,note the decrease in weight4 ,this is also due to upward pressure1 which we call buoyancy4 ,the actual decrease may be found by means of a spring balance4 #c4 ,try ,experiment #b1 using a piece of iron the same weight as the stone4 ,is the decrease in weight as evident8 ,ships made wholly of iron will sink4 ,explain4 #d4 ,put an egg into water2 it slowly sinks4 ,add salt to the water2 the egg floats4 ,,exercises #a4 ,will the human body sink in water8 ,in which is there less danger of drowning1 lake or sea water8 #b4 ,when in bathing1 immerse nearly the whole body1 then take a full inspiration4 ,note the rise of the body4 #c4 ,why does ice float8 7,see expansion of water by freezing47 #d4 ,balloons are bags filled with some light gas1 generally hydrogen or hot air4 ,they are pushed up by the buoyancy of the air4 ,the rise of heated air or water 7see ,convection7 is really due to the same force4 ,clouds1 feathers1 and thistledown are kept in the air more by the action of winds and small air currents than by buoyancy4 ,,study ,,of ,,air 7,consult ,science of ,common ,life1 ,chaps4 ,,viii1 ,,ix1 ,x47 #a4 ,air takes up space4 ,put a cork with one hole into the neck of a flask or bottle4 ,insert the stem of a funnel and try to pour in water4 ,try with two holes in the cork4 ,when we call a bottle empty what is in it8 #b4 ,air is all around us4 ,feel it2 wave the hands through it2 run through it2 note that the wind is air2 inhale the air and watch the chest4 #c4 ,air has weight4 ,this is not easy to demonstrate without an air-pump and a fairly delicate balance4 ,fit a large glass flask with a tightly fitting rubber stopper having a short glass tube passing through it4 ,to the glass tube attach a short rubber one and on this put a clamp4 ,open the clamp and suck out all the air possible4 ,close the clamp and weigh the flask4 ,when perfectly balanced1 open the clamp and let the air enter again4 ,note the increase in weight4 ,if an air-pump is available1 procure a glass globe provided with a stop-cock 7see ,apparatus74 ,pump some of the air from the globe1 then weigh and1 while it is on the balance1 admit the air again and note increase in weight4 ,tie a piece of thin sheet rubber over the large end of a thistle tube2 suck the air out of the tube and note how the rubber is pushed in4 ,this is due to the weight or pressure of the air4 ,turn the tube in various positions to show that the pressure comes from all directions4 ,to show that suction is not a force1 let a pupil try to suck water out of a flask when there is only one opening through the stopper4 ,if two holes are made1 the water may be sucked up1 that is1 pushed up by the weight of the air4 ,fill a pickle jar with water4 ,place a piece of writing paper on the top and then1 holding the paper with the palm of the hand1 invert the jar4 ,the pressure of the air keeps the water in4 ,a cubic foot of air weighs nearly #a-a_/d oz4 ,find the weight of the air in your school-room4 ,the atmosphere exerts about fifteen pounds pressure on every square inch of the surface it rests against4 ,find the weight supported by the top of a desk #ah inches by #bd inches4 ,if the surface of the body is eight square feet1 what weight does it have to sustain8 ,why does this weight not crush us8 ,,the ,,barometer ,the experiments immediately preceding will have paved the way for a study of the barometer4 #a4 ,fill a jar with water and invert it1 keeping its mouth below the surface of the water in another vessel4 ,if the pupils can be led to see that the water is sustained in the jar by the air pressing on the water in the vessel1 they can understand the barometer4 #b4 ,fill a tube about #cj inches long1 and #a_/d inch inside diameter with water1 and invert it over water1 as with the jar in the previous experiment4 #c4 ,use the same tube or one similar to that in #b above1 but fill with mercury and allow the pupils to notice the great weight of the mercury4 ,holding the mercury in with your finger1 invert the tube over mercury4 ,this time the fluid falls some distance in the tube as soon as the finger is removed4 ,a tube of this size requires #a lb4 of mercury4 ,lead the pupils to see that the mercury remaining in the tube is sustained by the air pressure1 and that any increase or decrease of the atmospheric pressure will result in the rise or fall of the mercury column4 ,leave the barometer 7made as in #c above7 in the room for a few days and note whether its weight changes4 ,the use of the instrument in predicting weather changes should be emphasized4 ,compare your barometer with the records in the daily papers4 ,the average height of the barometric column is #cj inches at sea-level4 ,explain how you could estimate heights of mountains and balloons with a barometer4 ,,the ,,common ,,pump ,this is a valuable application of air pressure4 ,a glass model will prove useful1 but a model made by pupils will be much more so4 7,see ,laboratory ,exercises in ,physics by ,newman47 ,the water rises in the pump because the sucker lifts the air from the water inside1 allowing the air outside to push the water up4 ,a common pump will not lift water more than about #cj feet4 ,why is this8 ,compare the pump to a barometer4 7,see ,the ,ontario ,high ,school ,physics47 ,,expansive ,,force ,,of ,,air ,air and all other gases manifest a pressure in all directions not due to their weight4 ,the power of air to keep tires and footballs inflated and that of steam in driving an engine are examples4 ,it is this force that prevents the pressure of air from crushing in1 since there are many air spaces distributed throughout the body4 ,,composition ,,of ,,air ,this subject and the three immediately following it have a special bearing on hygiene4 #a4 ,invert a sealing-jar over a lighted candle4 ,has the candle used up all the air when it goes out8 #b4 ,place a very short candle on a thin piece of cork afloat on water in a plate2 light the candle1 and again invert the jar over it4 ,note that the candle goes out and the water rises only a short distance in the jar2 therefore all the air has not been used up4 #c4 ,slip the glass top of the jar under the open end and set the jar mouth upward on the table without allowing any water to escape4 ,now plunge a lighted splinter into the jar4 ,the flame is extinguished4 ,air1 therefore1 contains an active part that helps the candle to burn and an inactive part that extinguishes flame4 ,the names oxygen and nitrogen may be given4 ,these gases occur in air in the proportion of about #a3d4 7,this method is not above criticism4 ,its advantage for young pupils lies in its simplicity47 ,,oxygen ,make two or three jars of oxygen1 using potassium chlorate and manganese dioxide4 7,see any ,chemistry text-book47 ,let the pupils examine the chemicals1 learn their names1 and know where to obtain them4 ,perform the following experiments3 #a4 ,a glowing splinter relights and burns very brightly if plunged into oxygen4 #b4 ,a piece of picture wire tipped with sulphur burns with great brightness4 #c4 ,burn phosphorus or match heads in a spoon4 ,a spoon may be made by attaching to a wire a bit of crayon having a hollow scooped on its upper surface4 ,a clay pipe bowl attached to a wire will answer4 ,from these experiments pupils will learn the value of nitrogen as a diluent of the oxygen4 ,pure oxygen entering the lungs would be just as destructive as it would be entering the furnace4 ,,carbon ,,dioxide #a4 ,make a jar of this gas4 ,washing soda and vinegar will answer if hydrochloric acid and marble are not obtainable4 7,consult the ,science of ,common ,life1 ,chap4 ,,xiii1 and any ,chemistry text-book47 #b4 ,lower a lighted candle first into a jar of air then into the jar of carbon dioxide4 #c4 ,make some lime-water by stirring slaked lime with water and allowing the mixture to settle4 ,shake up some clear lime-water with a jar of the gas4 ,pupils will be made to understand that the milky colour will in future be considered the test for carbon dioxide4 #d4 ,have one of the pupils cause his breath to bubble through some clear lime-water for a minute4 ,using a bicycle pump1 cause some fresh air to bubble through lime-water4 #e4 ,hold a clear jar inverted over the candle flame for a few seconds1 then test with lime-water4 #f4 ,invert a large jar over a leafy plant for a day4 ,keep in the dark and test the jar with lime-water4 ,is this gas likely to be in the air8 ,set a plate of lime-water in the school-room for a day or two1 and then examine it4 ,try to pour the gas from jar to jar and use a candle as a test4 ,is the gas heavier than air8 ,on account of its weight1 the gas often collects in the bottoms of old wells1 mines1 and tunnels4 ,it is dangerous there since it will not support life4 ,,uses3 #a4 ,add a little water to some baking powder and cause the gas that forms to pass through lime-water4 ,what causes the biscuits to rise8 #b4 ,mix flour and water in a jar1 add a bit of yeast cake and a little sugar1 and let stand in a warm place4 ,test the gas that forms1 for carbon dioxide4 ,what causes bread to rise8 #c4 ,uncork a bottle of ginger ale1 shake the bottle1 and lead the gas that comes off through lime-water4 #d4 ,most portable fire extinguishers depend on the generation of carbon dioxide4 ,show the similarity between our bodies and the candle4 ,the candle needs oxygen2 it produces heat1 and yields water and carbon dioxide4 ,much of our food is somewhat similar in composition to the wax of a candle2 we breathe oxygen1 our bodies are warmed by a real burning within1 and we exhale water and carbon dioxide4 ,after exercise why do we feel more hungry8 ,why do we breathe faster8 ,why do we feel warmer8 ,why does the fire burn better when the damper is opened8 ,,impurities ,,of ,,air ,all air contains carbon dioxide4 ,if the amount exceeds #f parts in #aj1jjj1 it becomes an impurity1 not so much on its own account as because it indicates a poisoned state of the air in a room1 since organic poisons always accompany it when it is emitted from the lungs4 ,other impurities of the air1 dependent on the locality and the season1 are smoke1 dust1 disease germs1 sewer gas1 coal-gas1 pollen dust4 ,,solutions ,,of ,,solids 7,consult the ,science of ,common ,life1 ,chap4 ,,vii47 ,have the pupils weigh out equal quantities of sugar1 salt1 soda1 alum1 blue-vitriol4 ,shake up with equal quantities of water to compare solubilities4 ,repeat1 using hot water4 ,is it possible to recover the substance dissolved8 ,set out solutions on the table to evaporate1 or evaporate them rapidly over a stove or spirit-lamp4 ,try to dissolve sand1 sulphur1 charcoal1 in water4 ,obtain crystals of iodine and show how much better1 in some cases1 alcohol is as a solvent than is water4 ,,applications3 #a4 ,most of our essences1 tinctures1 and spirits are alcoholic solutions4 #b4 ,digestion is the effort of the body to dissolve food4 #c4 ,the food in the soil enters the plant only after solution4 #d4 ,the solvent power of water makes it so valuable for washing4 #e4 ,maple sap is water containing sugar in solution4 #f4 ,in the salt region along ,lake ,huron1 holes are drilled to the salt beds1 water is poured in1 then pumped out and evaporated4 ,explain4 #g4 ,meat broth is a solution of certain materials in the meat4 #h4 ,how could you manufacture salt from sea water8 ,,solution ,,of ,,liquids ,try to mix oil and water1 benzine and water1 oil and benzine4 ,only in the third case do we find a permanent mixture1 or solution4 ,try to dissolve vinegar1 glycerine1 alcohol1 mercury1 with water4 ,,applications3 #a4 ,paint is mixed with oil so that the rain will not wash it off so easily4 #b4 ,water will not wash grease stains4 ,benzine is necessary4 #c4 ,why is it necessary to shake the bottle before taking medicine8 ,,solution ,,of ,,gases ,study air dissolved in water1 by gently heating water in a test-tube and observing the bubbles of air that gather on the inner surface of the test-tube4 ,aquatic animals1 such as fish1 clams1 crayfish1 crabs1 subsist on this dissolved air4 ,,limestone ,pieces of this rock may be found in all localities4 ,teach pupils to recognize it by its gray colour1 its effervescence with acid1 and the fossils and strata that show in most cases4 ,if exposed limestone rocks are near1 visit them with the pupils and note the layers1 fossils1 and evidences of sea action4 ,compare lime with limestone as to touch1 colour1 and action on water and litmus4 ,try to make lime by putting a lump of limestone in the coals for some time2 add water to this4 ,other forms of limestone are marble1 chalk1 egg-shells1 clam-shells1 scales in tea-kettles4 ,geographically1 the study of limestone is of great importance4 ,grind some limestone very fine1 add a very little of this to water1 and bubble carbon dioxide through for some time2 note the disappearance of the limestone4 ,this explains how limestone rocks are being slowly worn away and why the water of rivers1 springs1 and wells is so often hard4 ,catch some rain-water in the open and test it for hardness4 ,it will be found soft4 ,place a few limestone pebbles in a tumbler with this soft water and after a day or two test again4 ,the water will be hard4 ,compare1 as to hardness1 the water from a concrete cistern with that from a wooden one4 ,,carbon ,procure specimens of hard and soft coal1 coke1 charcoal1 graphite1 peat1 and petroleum4 ,note the distinctive characteristics of each4 ,discuss the uses4 ,try to set each on fire4 ,note which burns with a flame when laid on the coals or placed over the spirit-lamp4 ,put a bit of soft coal into a small test-tube2 heat and light the gas that is produced4 ,this gas1 when purified1 is one kind of illuminating gas4 ,note the coke left in the test-tube4 ,fill the bowl of a clay pipe with soft coal and seal it up with plaster of paris4 ,after this has hardened1 place the bowl in hot coals or in the flame of a spirit-lamp and light the coal-gas at the end of the stem4 ,after all the gas has been driven off1 look for the coke inside4 ,heat a bit of wood in a small test-tube and light the gas that is evolved4 ,note the charcoal left4 ,cover a piece of wood with sand or earth2 heat1 and note that charcoal is formed4 ,this illustrates the old method of charcoal-burning4 ,this subject is closely related to industrial geography4 ,,hydrogen ,a convenient way to prepare hydrogen is to use zinc and hydrochloric acid with a test-tube for a generator4 7,consult any ,chemistry text-book47 ,make the gas and burn it at the end of a tube1 holding a dry1 cold tumbler inverted over the flame4 ,note that water is formed4 ,conclude what water consists of1 namely1 oxygen and hydrogen4 ,water may be decomposed into oxygen and hydrogen1 hence a use of hydrogen may be shown by attaching a clay pipe to the generator and filling soap bubbles with the gas4 ,when freed these rise quickly4 ,,magnets ,if bar magnets cannot be obtained1 use a child's horse-shoe magnet4 ,procure small pieces of cork1 wood1 iron1 brass1 glass1 lead1 etc41 and let pupils discover which the magnet attracts4 ,have pupils interpose paper1 wood1 slate1 glass1 iron1 lead1 etc41 in sheets between the magnet and the iron and note the effect on the force exerted4 ,note that when one end of a magnet touches or comes near the end of a nail1 the nail becomes a magnet1 but not a permanent one4 ,magnetize a needle by drawing one of the poles of the magnet from end to end of the needle1 always in the same direction1 about twenty times4 ,suspend the needle horizontally with a piece of silk thread and note its position when at rest4 ,get a small compass and show how it is related to the foregoing experiments4 ,emphasize its use to mariners4 ,if possible1 get a piece of lodestone and show its magnetic properties4 ,,electricity ,half fill a tumbler with water and add about a teaspoonful of sulphuric acid4 ,set in this a piece of copper and a piece of zinc1 but do not let them touch4 ,make a coil by winding insulated wire around a block of wood about ten times4 ,remove the wood and place a compass in the centre of the coil4 ,join the ends of the wire to the two metals in the tumbler4 ,the sudden movement of the needle will be taken as the indication of a current4 ,let pupils try experiments with many pairs of solids1 such as lead and silver1 carbon and glass1 wood and iron1 tin and zinc1 and liquids such as vinegar and brine4 ,show pupils how to make a simple battery4 ,see home-made apparatus1 page #ej1 and consult ,laboratory ,exercises by ,newman4 ,two or three dry cells will be found sufficient for any experiments1 but the home-made battery is to be preferred4 ,show pupils how to make a magnet by winding a piece of insulated wire around a nail and joining the ends of the wire to the battery4 ,make a horse-shoe magnet by bending the nail and winding the wire about both ends in opposite directions4 ,as an application of the electro-magnet1 show pupils how to make a telegraph sounder4 7,see ,manual on ,manual ,training47 ,if possible1 examine the construction of an electric bell4 ,the motor and electric light are other common applications of the current4 ,take up the uses of the motor in factories1 and for running street-cars and automobiles4 ,show the necessity for a water-wheel or engine to produce the current1 and for wires to connect4 ,explain that batteries are not used to produce large currents1 but that machines called dynamos1 similar to motors1 when driven by steam or water-power1 will yield electric currents as batteries do4 ,,steam ,the power of steam may be shown by loosely corking a flask and boiling the water in it until the cork is driven out1 or by stopping the spout of a boiling tea-kettle1 or by letting a stream of steam impinge on a toy paper wheel4 ,encourage pupils to learn all they can about steam and gasolene engines and their uses4 ,,farm ,,tools ,this topic should be dealt with only in so far as it can be made a subject for actual observation by the pupils4 ,children should learn to be thoughtful and observant and to do all kinds of work1 manual as well as mental1 intelligently4 ,,machines 7,consult ,the ,ontario ,high ,school ,physics1 ,chap4 ,,ix47 ,,lever4--,when a lever is used to lift a log1 one end is placed under the log1 a block called a fulcrum is placed under the lever as close as possible to the log1 and then the workman pulls down on the outer end of the lever4 ,for example1 if the fulcrum is one foot from the log and ten feet from the man1 the latter can raise ten pounds with a pull of one pound1 but he has to move his end of the lever ten times as far as the log rises4 ,try it4 ,see other examples in plough handles1 see-saw1 balance1 scissors1 wheel-barrow1 pump-handle1 handspike1 crowbar1 canthook1 nut-crackers4 ,,rope ,,and ,,pulley4--,in the rope and pulley note that when the pulley is a fixed one1 the only advantage is a changed direction of the rope4 ,when the pulley is movable1 the horse pulling will have only half the weight to draw if the pulley is single1 one quarter if double1 one sixth if triple1 etc4 ,thus in the case of a common hay-fork the horse draws only half the weight of the hay1 but he walks twice as far as the hay moves4 ,,cogs4--,if one wheel has eighty cogs and the other ten1 the latter will turn eight times to the former's once4 ,,belt4--,when a belt runs over two wheels1 one having1 say1 one fifth of the diameter of the other1 the smaller will revolve five times for one revolution of the other4 ,,crank4--,with a crank two feet long1 one may turn a wheel twice as easily as with one one foot long1 but the hand will move twice as far4 ,if a wedge is two inches thick at the large end and ten inches long1 a man may lift #ajjj pounds by striking the wedge a #bjj-lb4 blow4 ,,inclined ,,plane4--,if a plank twelve inches long has one end on the ground and the other on a cart four inches high1 one man can roll up the plank the same weight that would require three men to lift1 but he has to move the object three times as far4 ,,problems #a4 ,why is a long-handled spade easier to dig with than a short-handled one8 #b4 ,which is easier1 to dig when the spade is thrust full length or half length into the earth8 #c4 ,can a small boy teeter on a board against a big boy8 ,how8 #d4 ,in helping to move a wagon1 why grasp the wheel near its rim8 #e4 ,in making a balance1 why should the arms be equal8 ,in a balance with unequal arms1 compare the weights used with the article weighed4 #f4 ,in using shears1 is it better to place the object you wish to cut near the handles or near the points8 #g4 ,where is the best place to put the load on a wheel-barrow8 #h4 ,notice how three horses are hitched to a plough or binder4 #i4 ,where would you grasp the pump-handle when you wish to pump 7#a7 easily1 7#b7 quickly8 #aj4 ,stretch out your arm and see whether you can hold as heavy a weight on your hand as on your elbow4 #aa4 ,count the pulleys used in a hay-fork and determine the use of each4 #ab4 ,if a ton of hay is unloaded at five equal forkfuls1 what weight has the horse to draw at each load8 #ac4 ,count the cogs on the wheels of a fanning-mill1 washing-machine1 apple-parer1 or egg-beater1 and determine how the direction or rate of the motion is changed thereby4 #ad4 ,measure the diameter of the large fly-wheel of a thrashing-machine engine1 and of that which turns the cylinder in the separator4 ,decide how many times the cylinder revolves for one turn of the fly-wheel4 #ae4 ,think of all the uses of a wedge4 ,draw one4 ,compare the axe1 knife1 and chisel with the wedge4 #af4 ,how are heavy logs loaded on a sleigh or truck8 ,how are barrels of salt and sugar loaded and unloaded8 #ag4 ,there are two hills of the same height4 ,one has a gradual slope1 the other a steep one4 ,which is easier to climb8 ,in what case is it farthest to the top8 #ah4 ,why does a cow or horse take a zigzag path when climbing a steep hill8 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,form ,,iv ,,spring ,,methods ,,of ,,improving ,,home ,,and ,,school ,,grounds ,the study of plants should lead to an intelligent appreciation of their beauties and a desire to have them growing about4 ,many of our native trees1 shrubs1 vines1 and herbaceous plants are quite as beautiful as some that are procured at considerable expense from nurserymen4 ,a great work remains to be done in cultivating and popularizing our best native species4 ,up to this point the pupils have been getting acquainted with them in their own natural habitat2 the next step should be to use them in covering up harsh and offensive views about the school and home grounds1 in softening and giving restful relief to barren yards and bare walls1 to ugly fences and uninteresting walks and driveways4 ,begin to plan some simple improvements for the spring4 ,these may be repairing of fences and gates in order to protect the grounds from stray animals1 the cleaning up of the yards1 the gathering of stones which may be used in making a rockery1 the planting of trees along the sides and front of the grounds--a double row of evergreens to overcome a cold northern exposure or to exclude from view disagreeable features1 the laying out of a walk or drive with borders1 flower beds1 or shrubs in little clumps4 ,plans of grounds well laid out should be examined and discussed in the school-room4 ,many illustrated magazines give useful suggestions4 ,plans can be worked out on the black-board with the pupils4 ,it will take years to complete such a plan1 but the pupils should have a part in making the plan as well as in carrying it out4 ,the aim should be to encourage the use of simple and inexpensive things obtained in the vicinity1 wherewith to produce harmony and pleasing natural effects4 ,comfort and utility must be considered as well as beauty and natural design4 ,in the school grounds the outdoor games must also be provided for and sufficient room allowed4 ,such efforts on the part of the teacher and pupils1 if wisely directed1 are sure to meet with the approval of the parents and must call forth the hearty co-operation of the trustees4 ,it is not well to attempt too much in one year4 ,it is better to do a small amount well than to leave much work in a half-done condition4 ,,making ,,and ,,care ,,of ,a ,,lawn ,the soil must be drained and not too much shaded by trees4 ,at first it should be summer fallowed or cultivated every few weeks throughout the summer1 to kill the weeds and make it fine and level4 ,a thick seeding of lawn grass-seed should be sown early the next spring and raked lightly in4 ,all levelling and preparation must have been done the previous season4 ,coarse grasses1 such as timothy1 should not be used on a lawn4 ,red top and ,kentucky blue-grass in equal parts are best and1 if white clover is desired1 add about half as much white ,dutch clover seed as red top4 ,if the soil has been prepared as above1 there is no need to use a foster crop of oats or barley1 as is done in seeding down meadows4 ,roll the lawn after seeding and also after heavy rains as soon as the surface dries4 ,shortly after the grass appears1 begin to run the lawn-mower over it1 so as to cut weeds or native grasses that may be gaining a foothold4 ,watering is dangerous1 unless carefully and regularly done during the summer1 the evening being the best time4 ,merely wetting the surface by sprinkling encourages shallow rooting and therefore rapid drying out4 ,regular mowing and rolling are more important4 ,,references ,parsons3 ,how to ,plan the ,home ,grounds4 ,doubleday4 #a4jj ,waugh3 ,the ,landscape ,beautiful4 ,judd4 #b4jj ,department of ,education3 ,improvement of ,school ,grounds4 ,,soil ,,studies ,,weight ,using a balance1 compare weights of equal-sized boxes of different soils1 dried and powdered fine4 ,note the comparative lightness of humus4 ,weigh a box of earth taken fresh from the field1 from this compute 7#a7 the weight of a cubic foot of such soil1 7#b7 the weight of the soil to the depth of a foot in a ten-acre field4 ,repeat the experiment1 making it an exercise in percentage4 ,fill two glass tubes 7lamp chimneys will do71 one with finely powdered clay1 the other with sand4 ,set the tubes in a pan containing water4 ,note the rise of the water due to capillarity4 ,through which soil does it rise faster8 ,farther8 ,try with other soils4 ,try with fine soil and also with the same soil in a lumpy condition4 ,from this give a reason 7#a7 for tilling soil1 7#b7 for rolling after seeding4 ,,subsoils ,procure samples of soil from different depths1 four inches1 eight inches1 twelve inches1 sixteen inches1 etc4 ,note how the soil changes in colour and texture4 ,in which do plants succeed best8 ,in most fields the richest part of the soil is contained in the upper nine inches2 the portion below this is called subsoil4 ,this extends to the underlying rock and is usually distinguished from the upper portion by its lighter colour1 poorer texture1 and smaller supply of available plant food4 ,the difference is due largely to the absence of humus4 ,the character of the subsoil has an important bearing on the condition of the upper soil4 ,a layer of sand or gravel a few feet below the surface provides natural drainage1 but if it be too deep1 it may allow the water to run away rapidly1 carrying the plant food down below the roots of the plants4 ,a hard clay subsoil will render the top too wet in rainy weather and too dry in droughts1 because of the small amount of water absorbed4 ,such a soil is benefited by under-draining4 ,a deep and absorptive subsoil returns water to the surface1 by capillary action1 as it is needed4 ,the subsoil finally contains a large amount of plant food1 which becomes gradually changed into a form in which plants can make use of it4 ,pupils should find out the character of the subsoil in their various fields at home and its effect on the fertility of the field4 ,,fertilizers ,along with water1 the roots take up from the soil various substances that are essential to their healthy growth4 ,potash1 phosphoric acid1 nitrogen1 calcium1 sulphur1 magnesium1 and iron are needed by plants1 but the first three are particularly important4 ,if land is to yield good crops year after year1 it must be fertilized1 that is1 there must be added chemicals containing the above-mentioned plant foods4 ,land becomes poor from two causes3 the plant food in the soil becomes exhausted1 and poisonous excretions from the roots of one year's crops act injuriously on those of the next season4 ,rotating crops will improve both conditions for a while1 but eventually the soil will require treatment4 ,humus contains plant food and is also an excellent absorbent of the poisonous excretions4 ,it is added as barn-yard manure1 leaves1 or as a green crop ploughed in4 ,the chemicals commonly used comprise nitrate of soda1 bone meal1 sulphate of potash1 chloride of potash1 lime1 ashes1 cotton-seed meal1 dried blood1 super-phosphate1 rock phosphate1 and basic clay4 ,,experiments3 #a4 ,sow wheat on the same plot year after year and note the result when no fertilizer is used4 ,sow wheat on another plot1 but use good manure4 #b4 ,try the various commercial fertilizers on the school plots1 leaving some without treatment4 #c4 ,examine the roots of clover1 peas1 or beans1 and look for nodules4 ,these show the presence of bacteria1 which convert the atmospheric nitrogen into a form in which the plants can use it4 ,scientific farmers have learned the value of inoculating their soil with these germs4 ,a crop of peas or clover may produce the same result4 #d4 ,observe ,nature's method of supplying soil with humus4 ,,soil-,,forming ,,agents ,there was once a time when the surface of the earth was bare rock4 ,much of this rock still exists and in many places lies on the surface1 but it is usually hidden by a layer of soil4 ,soil is said to be rock ground to meal by ,nature's millstones4 ,the process is very slow1 but it is constantly going on4 ,the pupils should be directed to find evidences of this grinding4 #a4 ,,running ,,water4--,brooks1 creeks1 rain1 and the tiny streamlets on the hills all tell us how soil is carried from place to place4 ,get some muddy water from the river after a heavy rain4 ,let it settle in a tall jar and observe the fine layer formed4 ,wash some pebbles clean1 place them in a glass jar with some clear water1 and roll or shake the jar about for a few minutes4 ,note that the water becomes turbid with fine material worn from the stones4 ,a process similar to this is constantly going on in rivers1 lakes1 and seas4 ,account for the presence of gravel beds now situated far away from any water4 #b4 ,,ice ,,glaciers4--,how do these act on rocks8 ,show evidences in ,ontario as far as these can be illustrated from the surroundings1 such as polished rocks1 boulders1 beds of clay1 sand1 or gravel1 small lakes1 grooved stones1 etc4 #c4 ,,frost ,,and ,,heat4--,see ,expansion of ,solids1 pages #ahi1 #aij4 ,look for splintered or cracked stones4 ,why do farmers plough in the fall8 #d4 ,,wind4--,in sections near the lakes the action of the wind in moving the sand may be seen and appreciated4 ,there are other places where this work is going on on a smaller scale4 #e4 ,,plants4--,our study of humus shows the value of vegetable matter in soil4 ,besides contributing to the soil1 plants break up rocks with their roots and dissolve them with acid excretions4 ,it is interesting to study how a bare rock becomes covered with soil4 ,first come the lichens which need no soil2 on the remains of these the mosses grow4 ,the roots of mosses and lichens help to disintegrate the rock with their excretions1 so that1 with frost1 heat1 air1 and rain to assist1 there is a layer of soil gradually formed on which larger plants can live4 ,a forest develops4 ,the trees supply shade from the sun and shelter from the wind1 thus retarding evaporation4 ,the roots of the trees hold the soil from being washed away4 ,the dead leaves and fallen stems provide humus1 and1 on account of the water-holding capacity of humus1 the forest floor acts like a sponge1 preventing floods in wet seasons and droughts in dry times4 #f4 ,,animals4--,pupils should make a list of all burrowing animals and look for examples4 ,the work of the earthworms is especially interesting4 ,by eating the soil1 they improve its texture and expose it to the air4 ,their holes admit air and water to the soil4 ,the worms also drag leaves1 sticks1 and grass into their holes and thus add to the humus4 ,darwin estimated that the earthworms in ,england passed over ten tons of soil an acre through their bodies annually4 ,this is left on the surface and makes a rich top-dressing4 ,,tilling ,,the ,,soil #a4 ,it makes the soil finer1 thus increasing the surface for holding film water and enabling it to conduct more water by capillarity4 #b4 ,it saves water from evaporation4 7,see ,experiments #g and #h1 ,form ,,iii47 #c4 ,it aerates the soil1 enabling roots to thrive better4 #d4 ,it drains 7hence warms7 the soil1 assuring more rapid growth4 #e4 ,it kills weeds4 ,a large part of the work with soils may be done in connection with the garden studies1 though most of the above mentioned experiments may be tried in the school-room4 ,in ungraded schools any of the experiments may be made instructive to all the ,forms4 ,pupils should be asked to acquaint themselves with the common implements used on the farm4 ,they should ascertain the special service rendered by each4 ,see ,circular #aef1 ,dominion ,department of ,agriculture4 ,,garden ,,work ,the work in gardening for ,form ,,iv should be connected with some definite line of experimental work4 ,the garden should be so planned that a part of it can be used exclusively for experimental work4 ,co-operation with the ,farmer's ,experimental ,union of the ,ontario ,agricultural ,college at ,guelph is advisable at this point4 ,the following list of experiments is suggested as suitable for boys especially1 but no pupil should attempt more than one experiment each year4 ,,experiments ,,in ,,plots ,,out-,,of-,,doors ,experimental plots may be of different sizes1 according to the space available1 from a yard square to a rod square or larger4 ,a plot #aj ft4 #e in4 by #bj ft4 #aj in4 is almost #a_/bjj of an acre1 so that the actual yield on such a plot when multiplied by #bjj is an approximation of the yield an acre4 #a4 ,testing of varieties of grains1 vegetables1 or root seeds1 including potatoes new to the district4 #b4 ,testing different varieties of clovers and fodder grasses4 ,these plots should be so situated that they can remain for three years4 #c4 ,thick and thin sowing of grain3 ,use plots not less than four feet square4 ,they may be tried most easily with wheat1 oats1 or barley1 although any species of grain may be used4 ,use four plots of the same size1 equal in fertility and other soil conditions4 ,in ,no4 #a put grains of wheat or oats1 as the case may be1 two inches apart each way4 ,in ,no4 #b put the grains two inches apart in the row and the rows four inches apart4 ,in ,no4 #c put the grains four inches apart in the row and the rows four inches apart4 ,in ,no4 #d put the grains four inches apart in the row and the rows eight inches apart4 ,if possible1 weigh the straw and grain when cut and the grain alone when dry and shelled out of the heads4 #d4 ,deep and shallow growing of grain3 ,use four plots similar to those in experiment ,no4 #c4 ,put the same amount of seed in the different plots4 ,in ,no4 #a1 one inch deep2 in ,no4 #b4 two inches deep2 in ,no4 #c1 four inches deep1 and in ,no4 #d1 six inches deep4 ,note which is up first1 and which gives the best yield and best quality4 #e4 ,early and late sowing3 ,three plots are required4 ,plant the same amount of seed in each and cover to the same depth4 ,plant ,no4 #a as early as the soil can be made ready2 ,no4 #b1 two weeks later2 and ,no4 #c1 two weeks later than ,no4 #b4 ,compare the quality and the yield4 #f4 ,effect of sowing clover with grain the first year3 ,only two plots are required4 ,sow the same amount of wheat or oats on each plot4 ,on one plot put a moderate supply of red clover and none on the other4 ,weigh 7or estimate71 as in ,experiment #c above1 the straw and the grain produced on each4 #g4 ,effect of a clover crop on the grain crop succeeding it the following year3 ,the same two plots must be used as in ,no4 #f4 ,when the grain was cut the previous autumn1 the plots should have been left standing without cultivation until spring4 ,when the clover has made some growth1 spade it down and prepare the other plot in the same way4 ,rake them level and sow the same amount of grain in each again4 ,weigh the crops produced on each4 #h4 ,test quality1 yield1 and time of maturity of several varieties of the same species4 ,samples of such varieties of wheat as ,red ,fife1 ,white ,fife1 ,preston1 ,turkey ,red1 ,dawson's ,golden ,chaff1 ,white ,russian1 etc41 may be obtained from the ,central ,experimental ,farm at ,ottawa1 if not available in the district4 #i4 ,effect of different fertilizers 7#a7 on the same crop1 7#b7 on different crops3 ,this can be done either out-of-doors in small plots or indoors1 using pots or boxes4 7#a7 ,effect on the same crop3 ,for example1 oats on plots four feet square4 ,the following standard fertilizers may be used3 stable manure1 nitrate of soda1 muriate of potash1 and bone meal4 ,on plot ,no4 #a1 a dressing of stable manure1 ,on plot ,no4 #b1 four oz4 nitrate of soda1 ,on plot ,no4 #c1 four oz4 muriate of potash1 ,on plot ,no4 #d1 eight oz4 bone meal1 ,on plot ,no4 #e1 two oz4 nitrate of soda1 two oz4 muriate of potash1 and four oz4 bone meal4 ,on plot ,no4 #f1 use no fertilizer4 ,record results4 7#b7 ,effect on different crops3 ,try a series of experiments similar to the above1 using 7a7 peas instead of oats1 7b7 using corn1 7c7 using cabbage1 7d7 using potatoes4 ,,function ,,of ,,parts ,,of ,,plants ,this may be introduced in ,form ,,iii and continued in the next ,form4 ,already the attention of the pupils has been directed to the essential organs of the flower1 namely1 stamens and pistil4 ,they have noticed the two kinds of flowers on pumpkins1 corn1 and many trees4 ,they have seen that only the pistillate flowers produce fruit and seeds1 and that when the staminate flowers have shed their pollen1 they die4 ,they have seen the yellow dust that the stamens contain and have seen bees laden with it as they emerge from the heart of the flower4 ,have them watch the bee as it enters the flower and notice how it invariably rubs some part of its pollen-covered body against the pistil4 ,when on the moist1 sticky top of the pistil1 these little pollen-grains soon begin to grow1 sending a delicate tube down to the bottom of the pistil to the ovary4 ,inside the ovary are little bodies called the ovules that are moistened by a fluid that comes from this delicate pollen tube1 and at once they begin to enlarge and eventually become the seeds4 ,the coverings surrounding them complete the true fruit4 ,the use of the root in supporting the plant in its normal position is apparent to every pupil4 ,to demonstrate the firm hold it has upon the soil1 have the pupils try to pull up some large plants by the roots4 ,they will then notice the branching roots of some plants and the long conical roots of others4 ,compare the colour and other surface features of the root and stem4 ,to prove its feeding power1 try two plants of equal size1 taking the root off one and leaving it uninjured in the other4 ,set them side by side in moist earth and notice which withers4 ,take all the leaves off a plant and keep them off for a few weeks4 ,the plant dies if its leaves are not allowed to grow4 ,keep it in the dark for a long time1 and it finally dies even when water and soil are supplied4 ,the leaves1 therefore1 are essential and require sunlight in doing their work4 ,their complete work will be considered later4 ,,how ,,the ,,plant ,,gets ,,its ,,food ,,from ,,the ,,soil ,when seeds germinate1 the lower end of the caulicle1 which becomes the root1 bears large numbers of root-hairs4 ,inside the root-hairs is protoplasm and cell sap4 ,these root-hairs grow among the soil particles which lie covered over with a thin film of moisture4 ,it is this moisture that is taken up by these root-hairs1 and in it is a small amount of mineral matter in solution which helps to sustain the plant4 ,the transmission of soil water through the delicate cell walls of these root-hairs is known as osmosis4 ,,germination ,,of ,,some ,,of ,,the ,,common ,,grains ,make a special study of corn1 wheat1 and buckwheat4 ,take three plates and put moist sand in each to a depth of about half an inch4 ,spread over this a piece of damp cloth4 ,put in ,no4 #a1 one hundred grains of corn2 in ,no4 #b1 the same number of grains of wheat2 and in ,no4 #c1 the same number of grains of buckwheat1 peas1 or beans4 ,cover each plate with another piece of damp cloth and invert another plate over each to prevent drying out4 ,keep in a warm room and do not allow the cloths to become dry4 ,if one of the cloths be left hanging six or eight inches over the side of the plate and dipping into a dish of water1 the whole cloth will be kept moist by capillarity4 ,note the following points3 #a4 ,changes in the size of the seeds during the first twenty-four hours4 #b4 ,in which variety germination seems most rapid4 #c4 ,the percentage vitality1 that is1 the number of seeds which germinate out of one hundred4 #d4 ,the nature of the coverings and their use4 7,protection to the parts inside7 #e4 ,the parts of the seed inside4 7,buckwheat1 pea1 or bean divides into two parts1 which become greenish and are called seed leaves4 ,wheat and corn do not divide thus47 #f4 ,the first signs of growth4 ,a little shoot or tiny plant begins to develop at one end of the seed4 ,note which end bears this tiny plant4 #g4 ,note the development of this embryo plant and the formation of stem and root4 #h4 ,of what use is the bulky part of the seed8 ,to answer this1 let the pupils separate the white part of a kernel of corn1 which is attached to the embryo plant1 from the pulpy mass surrounding it4 ,set five such plants in moist sand and also five germinating seeds not so dissected4 ,pupils will discover that the mass surrounding the embryo is for the nourishing of the embryo plant4 ,it is a little store of food prepared by the mother plant for the little ones that grow from the seeds4 ,note that it disappears as the plant grows4 ,to further show the great value of this stored plant food1 put a large-sized pea in a pot of moist moss or sawdust for a few days4 ,when it has germinated and its root is a couple of inches long1 place the pea in a thistle tube or small funnel1 with the root projecting down the tube into a glass of water in which the funnel tube rests4 ,place all in a sunny window and note how much growth the plant is able to make without any food except that which the seed contained4 #i4 ,note the development of the root and root-hairs4 ,it is by means of these root-hairs that the plant absorbs moisture4 ,the branching form of the root gives greater support to the plant and increased area for absorption of water by means of root-hairs4 ,to show the direction taken by the root and also by the shoot1 take a glass jar with straight sides like a battery jar 7a large fruit jar will do72 line it inside with a layer of blotting-paper and then fill it with moist sawdust4 ,drop seeds of sunflower or squash down between the paper and the glass4 ,the moisture from the blotting-paper will cause them to sprout1 the shoot or stem always taking an upward direction and the root turning downward quite regardless of the position in which the seeds were placed4 #aj4 ,apply this study to seed planting3 ,plant seeds of wheat in four pots of soil1 ,no4 #a1 half an inch deep2 ,no4 #b1 two inches2 ,no4 #c1 four inches2 ,no4 #d1 six inches4 ,repeat this experiment1 using buckwheat4 ,what seeds are up first8 ,what seeds last8 ,which are best after a week8 ,after three or four weeks8 ,from this experiment could you recommend a certain depth for the planting of wheat and buckwheat8 #aa4 ,does the kind of soil make any difference8 ,to answer this have different pupils choose different soils1 such as 7#a7 coarse sand1 7#b7 fine sand1 7#c7 wet clay1 7#d7 humus or leaf mould1 7#e7 mixed soil or loam2 and let each put in grains of wheat1 two inches deep4 ,allow five other pupils to plant seeds of buckwheat1 under similar conditions4 ,treat all pots alike as to time of watering and quantity of water used on each and give them all equal light and heat4 ,note which come up first4 ,which are highest in one week1 in two weeks1 in four weeks8 #ab4 ,this study may be continued in the garden by planting one plot each of corn1 wheat1 and buckwheat4 ,plots ten feet by twenty feet are large enough4 ,observe the rate of development in the plots4 ,which seems to mature most quickly8 ,which blossoms first8 ,in what respect are the leaves of these plants alike or unlike8 ,how do the stems differ8 ,examine the blossoming and seed formation4 ,when the grains are ripe1 collect a hundred of the best looking and most compact heads of each grain and also a hundred of the smallest heads of each4 ,dry1 shell1 and store the two samples of each grain in separate bottles4 ,these samples are for planting the following spring4 #ac4 ,to show the need of moisture in germination3 ,fill two flower-pots or cans with dry sand2 put seeds of sunflower in each1 covering them an inch deep4 ,put water in one pot and none in the other4 ,examine both pots after two or three days4 #ad4 ,to show that heat is needed for germination of seeds3 ,plant sunflower seeds in two pots as above2 place one in a warm room and the other in a cold room or refrigerator2 water both and observe result in three days4 #ae4 ,to show that air is necessary for germination3 ,fill a pint sealer with hydrogen 7the gas collected over water in the usual way1 as shown in any ,chemistry text-book74 ,put a few sunflower seeds in a small sponge or wrap them loosely in a piece of soft cloth4 ,keeping the mouth of the jar which has been inverted over water and filled with hydrogen1 under the surface of the water1 introduce the sponge containing the seeds1 by putting it under the water and pushing it up into the jar4 ,seal the jar without letting the gas get out4 ,put some seeds in another jar in a wet sponge and leave the jar uncovered4 ,compare results after several days4 ,here is a second experiment to prove this4 ,boil some water in a beaker in order to drive out all the air1 put a few grains of rice in the water1 and then add enough oil to make a thin covering on the water4 ,this covering will prevent air from mixing with the water again4 ,put some rice in a second beaker without boiling or adding the oil4 ,leave the beakers side by side in a warm room for a week4 ,the seeds will not germinate in the boiled water4 ,it is not always easy to get rice that will germinate1 but when it has been procured1 the experiment is easy and very interesting4 ,any other seeds1 such as those of pond lily and eel-grass1 that germinate readily under water1 will do as well as rice4 ,,weeds ,pupils in this ,form should learn to identify a large number of weeds and weed seeds4 ,the collecting and mounting of weeds and weed seeds the previous summer and autumn will have helped to prepare them for this work4 ,in the spring1 when flower and vegetable seeds are coming up in the garden1 it is often difficult for pupils to distinguish the weeds from the useful plants4 ,to help in this work of distinguishing the good from the bad1 the teacher should arrange for a plot having1 say1 ten rows1 one row for each variety of weed selected4 ,each row should be designated by a number instead of a name4 ,the identification of these growing weeds by name may be given as a problem to the pupils4 ,this plot should remain until the pupils have observed the manner of growth of each variety1 the blossoming and seed formation1 and then the root growth1 as they are being uprooted previous to the ripening of the seed4 ,each pupil should prepare a brief description of each of the ten varieties studied1 and make drawings of the plant and its parts1 especially the leaf1 flower1 seed1 and root4 ,they should learn the best methods of eradication and add these in their notes4 ,farm ,weeds will be of great value in such weed studies4 ,,vines ,suitable garden vines for study are climbing nasturtium1 scarlet runner bean1 and ,japanese hop4 ,their growth and method of climbing should be compared with that of the sweet-pea and morning-glory already studied4 ,observe particularly the kind of leaves and their arrangement1 also the flowers and fruit4 ,observe also the gourd family--melon1 cucumber1 and squash--their tendency to climb1 and the nature of their flowers and fruit4 ,,wild ,,flowers ,in schools where the studies with garden plants1 such as have been indicated1 can be carried on1 there will not be as much time for the study of wild flowers as in those schools where no garden plants are available4 ,a definite list of wild flowers for study should be arranged by the teacher early in spring4 ,the following are common in most parts of ,ontario3 squirrel-corn1 ,dutchman's breeches1 blue cohosh1 dog's-tooth violet1 water-parsnip1 catnip1 and mallow4 ,in each study observe the following points3 #a4 ,description of leaves and flowers for identification4 #b4 ,storing of food in underground parts4 #c4 ,time of flowering4 7,pupils of this ,form should keep a flower calendar47 #d4 ,description of fruit and seeds and how these are scattered4 #e4 ,their location1 and the character of the soil where found4 ,encourage the pupils to transplant a specimen of each from the woods to the school or home garden4 ,moist humus soil and partial shade are the best conditions for the growth of these wild wood flowers4 ,review the type lessons given already for ,primary classes and apply the information thus gained to the observational study of the varieties of flowers named above4 ,,planting ,,of ,,trees1 ,,shrubs1 ,,and ,,herbaceous ,,perennials ,,in ,,home ,,and ,,school ,,grounds ,this work should be the outcome of the plans made in the winter4 ,if each pupil does a little toward the carrying out of the scheme of planting1 the grounds will soon be wonderfully improved4 ,the teacher should guard against over-planting and arrange for the care of the shrubs and flowers during the summer holidays4 ,new varieties of herbaceous perennials1 grown from seed planted the previous summer or procured from homes in the vicinity1 should be introduced4 ,as most herbaceous perennials become too thick after a few years1 it is necessary to keep digging some out year by year1 dividing and resetting them1 and fertilizing the ground4 ,native trees and shrubs should be placed so as to obscure undesirable views1 such as closets and outbuildings1 rough fences1 or bare walls4 ,this principle in planting should be observed in the case of trees4 ,evergreen trees are particularly desirable as screens and shelters from cold winds4 ,no planting should be done1 on the other hand1 that would shut out a good view of the school or obscure a beautiful landscape4 ,too frequently unused corners of the school ground are covered with weeds4 ,prevent this by putting trees there and also shrubs4 ,keep all centres open1 and let the trees1 shrubs1 and flowering perennials be massed about the corners and along the sides4 ,the informal method of planting is to be preferred to formal planting of designs4 ,the ,public ,school ,inspector will provide a copy of a departmental circular on the ,improvement of ,school ,grounds1 which should be carefully studied by every teacher4 ,,shade ,,trees ,consider suitable varieties to plant for shade and for ornamental effects4 ,white elm1 hard and soft maple1 white birch1 pines1 and spruces are among the best4 ,elms and maples are excellent trees for roadside or street planting1 and should be about forty feet apart4 ,spruces and pines may be planted five or six feet apart along the north and west1 to act as a wind break4 ,otherwise1 evergreens are best when planted in triangular clumps4 ,white birch is particularly ornamental against a dark background of evergreens4 ,specimen trees of horse-chestnut1 beech1 ash1 and hickory are also desirable4 ,,transplanting ,the best time for transplanting trees is in the autumn after the leaves have fallen1 or in the spring before the buds have opened4 ,in planting a tree1 the following points should be observed3 #a4 ,preserve as much of the root system as possible1 and trim off all broken or bruised portions4 #b4 ,do not expose the roots to sun or wind while out of the ground4 ,this is especially important in transplanting evergreens4 #c4 ,reduce the top of the tree sufficiently to balance with the reduced root system4 #d4 ,set the tree a few inches deeper than it was before transplanting4 #e4 ,pack the best top soil closely about the roots1 so as to exclude all air spaces1 since these tend to dry the delicate roots4 #f4 ,if the ground is very dry1 water should be used in planting2 otherwise it is of no advantage4 ,water the trees thoroughly once a week in dry weather during the first season4 #g4 ,after planting1 put a mulch or covering of fine straw1 grass1 or chips for two or three feet around the tree2 or establish a soil mulch and keep down the grass by frequent cultivation4 ,grass roots dry out the soil4 #h4 ,in the case of deciduous trees1 have the lowest limbs at least seven feet from the ground4 ,evergreens1 however1 should never be trimmed1 but should have their branches right from the ground up--this uninterrupted pyramid form is one of their chief beauties4 ,,animal ,,studies ,,scale ,,insects ,,san ,,jose ,,scale ,certain districts in ,ontario and especially those bordering on ,lake ,erie have suffered from the ravages of this scale on apple1 peach1 pear1 and other orchard trees4 ,a hand lens should be used in studying these insects1 observations being carried on from ,may to ,september4 ,carefully examine the fruits and twigs of orchard trees for evidences of the presence of the scale1 and learn to identify it and to recognize the damages resulting from its attacks4 ,observe the almost circular flat scale of a grayish colour and having a minute point projecting upward at its centre4 ,the young insects which emerge from underneath these scales in the spring crawl around for a time1 then become stationary1 and each one secretes a scale under which it matures4 ,the mature males have two wings but the mature females are wingless4 ,note the withering of fruit and twigs due to the insects' attacks and the minute openings in the skin of the twig1 made by the insertion of the sucking mouth parts4 ,describe to the pupils how the insect was transported from ,japan to ,america and how it is now spread on nursery stock4 ,give a brief account of its destructiveness in the orchards of ,essex and ,kent4 7,consult ,bulletin ,no4 #aec1 ,common ,insects ,affecting ,fruit ,trees and ,fungus ,diseases ,affecting ,fruit ,trees4 ,bethune ,jarvis1 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,toronto1 free47 ,,oyster-,,shell ,,bark-,,louse ,this is very common throughout the ,province on apple and pear trees4 ,observe the unhealthy appearance of the leaves of the infested trees1 the inferior quality of the fruit1 and the gray scales shaped like tiny oyster-shells4 ,the means of destroying these pests should be discussed4 ,the ,bulletins named above give detailed information in reference to spraying and fumigation4 ,,cutworms 7,consult ,bulletin #eb1 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,ottawa47 ,cutworms are the larvae of medium-sized brown moths that fly at night4 ,there are many species of cutworms1 all of which are destructive to some forms of plants or grasses1 grains1 and vegetables4 ,the larvae are rather thick1 naked1 worm-like forms4 ,they burrow into the ground1 but emerge at night to feed by cutting through the stems of tender plants or by feeding upon the leaves4 ,for the most effective method of dealing with these refer to what is said on ,combating ,garden ,pests1 ,form ,,ii4 ,when a field is known to be infested with cutworms1 it is a good plan to spread poisoned clover or cabbage leaves over the ground before the seed is planted4 ,,white ,,grubs ,white grubs are large1 fat1 white larvae of ,june beetles4 ,these beetles are the well-known large1 brown1 clumsy beetles that blunder into the house at night in ,may or ,june and drop with a thud upon the floor4 ,three years are spent in the larval form1 the grubs living underground and feeding on the roots of plants1 especially the roots of grains and grasses4 ,since they are found chiefly in fields recently ploughed from grass1 they may be held in check by rotation of crops and by fall ploughing1 which exposes the larvae to the winter frosts4 ,in ,may or ,june1 when the adults are feeding on the foliage of fruit and shade trees1 spraying the trees with ,london purple is quite effective for destroying the beetles before they have laid their eggs among the roots of the grass4 ,hogs destroy many larvae by rooting in the soil to find them for food4 ,,crayfish ,search for the crayfish in streams and ponds4 ,why is the crayfish hard to find8 ,hard to capture8 ,obtain a living crayfish from a pond or stream and place it in a jar of water or in an aquarium4 ,the crayfish should not be placed in an aquarium containing insects and small fish which are to be kept1 as it is fierce and voracious4 ,the pupils should study the living animal1 noting its habit of lurking under stones2 the sweeping of the water with the feelers2 the backward movement in swimming1 produced by bending the tail sharply underneath the body2 the walking by means of four pairs of legs1 the great claws being used to turn the animal2 the use of the great claws in seizing prey and holding food near the mouth2 the movements of the small appendages under the front part of the animal and the water currents caused by these2 the movements of the small appendages under the abdomen of the animal4 ,,freshwater ,,mussel ,the freshwater mussel--clam as it is usually called by school-boys--may be found in almost any stream4 ,place a mussel in the aquarium1 and note the opening and closing of the valves of the shell2 the hinge connecting the valves2 the foot protruding from the shell2 the movements by means of the foot2 the mantle lobes lining the shell and visible at the open margins2 the two siphons at the rear of the animal--water currents may be observed entering the upper and emerging from the lower of these4 ,infer uses for these currents4 ,touch the edge of the upper siphon and observe how quickly the shell is closed4 ,compare the mussel with the snail as to movements and shell4 ,compare also with the oyster and sea clam4 ,examine empty shells and notice the pearly layer of the shell1 the action of the hinge1 and the marks on the shell to which the muscles for closing the shell were attached4 ,state all the means of protection that you have discovered the animal to possess4 ,,bird ,,study 7,consult ,bulletin #bah4 ,birds of ,ontario in ,relation to ,agriculture1 ,nash4 ,department of ,agriculture1 free47 ,if the lessons in bird study which are prescribed for ,forms ,i1 ,,ii1 and ,,iii have been successful1 the pupils of ,form ,,iv should have a fair acquaintance with the habits of the common birds4 ,a very interesting exercise is to hold a trial upon those birds which are viewed with suspicion or which are openly condemned as objectionable neighbours4 ,a pupil is appointed to act as judge and other pupils give evidence4 ,the evidence must be based upon the pupil's personal observations on the habits of the bird4 ,the following birds are named1 and brief descriptions of their habits are given as suggestions for materials for bird trials3 ,,robin4--,he steals small fruits1 such as cherries1 currants1 etc4 ,he is a cheerful1 jolly neighbour1 who sings sweetly4 ,he eats great numbers of cutworms and white grubs4 ,,crow4--,he robs the nests of other birds1 and steals chickens1 corn1 and potatoes4 ,he helps the farmer by killing cutworms1 white grubs1 grasshoppers1 and other insects4 ,,woodpecker4--,the members of this family are grievously persecuted because they are believed to injure orchard and shade trees by pecking holes in the bark from which to suck the sap4 ,careful observations tend to show that the trees are benefited rather than injured by this treatment4 ,woodpeckers are undoubtedly beneficial as destroyers of wood-borers and other obnoxious insects4 ,,crow-,,blackbird 7bronzed grackle74--,his habits are similar to those of the crow4 ,,owls4--,all the owls are held in ill repute because of the crimes of a few members of the family4 ,very seldom does an owl steal a chicken2 their food consists chiefly of mice1 rats1 squirrels1 grasshoppers1 and other field pests4 ,,hawks4--,the hawks are unjustly persecuted for crimes of which they are seldom guilty4 ,as a class they are beneficial1 not injurious birds4 ,,different ,,aspects ,,of ,,nature ,,study ,there is a knowledge of ,nature which contributes to the earning of a living4 ,this is the utilitarian aspect4 ,there is a knowledge of ,nature which may be obtained in such a way as to develop the observing and reasoning powers and give a training in scientific method4 ,this is the disciplinary aspect4 ,there is a knowledge which leads the pupil to perceive the beautiful in ,nature1 to enjoy it and so add to his happiness4 ,this is the aesthetic aspect4 ,there is a knowledge of ,nature which1 through the life history of plant and animal1 throws light on the pupil's own life1 gives him an insight into all life in its unity1 and leads him to look up reverently to the author of all life--through ,nature up to ,nature's ,god4 ,this is the spiritual aspect4 ,each of these aspects supplements1 interprets1 or enforces the others4 ,he who omits or neglects any of these perceives but a part of a complete whole4 ,nature ,study develops in the pupil a sympathetic attitude toward ,nature for the purpose of increasing the joy of living4 ,it leads him to see ,nature through the eyes of the poet and the moralist as well as through those of the scientist4 ,nature ,study is concerned with plants1 birds1 insects1 stones1 clouds1 brooks1 etc41 but it is not botany1 ornithology1 entomology1 geology1 meteorology1 or geography4 ,in this study1 it is the spirit of inquiry developed rather than the number of facts ascertained that is important4 ,gradually it becomes more systematic as it advances until1 in the high school1 it passes over into the science group of studies4 ,,illustrations ,,of ,,these ,,aspects ,the simple observational lessons on ,the ,robin1 pages #if-g1 form the bases for further study in more advanced classes4 ,this bird as a destroyer of worms1 beetles1 etc41 is a valuable assistant to the farmer as1 indeed1 are practically all birds in this ,province4 ,birds such as the duck1 goose1 partridge1 etc41 are valuable as food1 and laws are made to protect them during certain seasons4 ,the training in inference which a pupil receives in studying the parts of a plant or an animal and the adaptation of these parts to function is valuable4 ,he studies the plant and the animal as living organisms with work to do in the world1 and learns how what they do and their manner of doing it affect their form and structure4 ,the short1 curved1 and slightly hooked bill of the hen and her method of breaking open a pea pod or splitting an object too large to swallow shows the bill to be a mallet1 a wedge1 or a pick as the case may be4 ,a study of the bills of the duck1 woodpecker1 and hawk will reveal the method by which each gets his food and how the organ is adapted to its purpose4 ,similar studies of the feet and legs of birds will make the idea of adaptation increasingly clear4 ,literature is rich with tributes to the songs of the birds4 ,the thoughts and feelings aroused or suggested by these songs are the topics of much of the world's enduring poetry4 ,longfellow1 in his ,birds of ,killing-worth 7,tales of a ,wayside ,inn7 sings exquisitely of the use and beauty and worth of birds4 ,shelley1 in his ,skylark1 describes in glowing verse the unbodied joy that singing still dost soar and soaring ever singest4 ,wordsworth hears the blithe new comer1 the ,cuckoo1 and rejoices ,though babbling only to the vale ,of sunshine and of flowers ,thou bringest unto me a tale ,of visionary hours4 ,the life story of a bird throws light on our own lives1 puts us in sympathy with the lives of others1 teaches kindness1 teaches the duties and responsibilities of the higher to the lower1 teaches respect for all life4 ,observe the helpless bird in its nest1 helpless as a baby4 ,see the care given by the mother and father to keep it warm till its down and feathers grow1 to feed it till it is able to leave the nest4 ,watch the parents teaching it to fly by repeated short flights4 ,olive ,thorn ,miller in her ,bird ,ways gives a delightful sketch of the father robin teaching a young robin where to look for worms and how to dig them up4 ,when that task was accomplished1 his father began to give him music lessons1 that is1 practice in imitating the ,robin's song4 ,thus1 the young bird was equipped to make a living and to enjoy life4 ,the social life of birds1 as they sing their matins1 as they choose their mates1 as they gather in flocks preparatory to migration1 furnish many opportunities for indirect teaching on many of life's problems4 ,the ,ontario ,readers contain many poems that may be used in connection with the ,nature ,study lessons4 ,to supplement the observational studies of birds1 read from the ,third ,reader1 ,the ,robin's ,song1 ,the ,red-winged ,blackbird1 ,the ,sandpiper1 ,to the ,cuckoo1 ,bob ,white1 ,the ,lark and the ,rook1 ,the ,poet's ,song4 ,in the ,third ,reader1 the lessons on ,the ,fountain1 ,the ,brook1 ,the ,tide ,river1 and ,a ,song of the ,sea form a group that can be used in connection with lessons in geography4 ,a ,song for ,april1 ,an ,apple ,orchard in the ,spring1 ,the ,gladness of ,nature1 ,the ,orchard1 ,a ,midsummer ,song1 ,corn-fields1 ,the ,corn ,song1 ,the ,death of the ,flowers1 ,the ,frost1 ,the ,snow-storm1 make another group to accompany a study of the seasons4 ,a similar group may be selected from the ,fourth ,reader4 ,the pupil who has made a study of a brook as a lesson in geography and defined it as a small natural stream of water flowing from a spring or fountain will1 if he studies the following lines from ,tennyson's ,the ,brook and perceives by careful observation the descriptive accuracy and aptness of the words in italics1 realize that the poet sees much that the geographer has not included in his definition4 ,i chatter over stony ways1 ,in little sharps and trebles1 ,i bubble into eddying bays1 ,i babble on the pebbles4 99 99 99 ,i slip1 ,i slide1 ,i gloom1 ,i glance4 ,among my skimming swallows2 99 99 99 ,i murmur under moon and stars4 99 99 99 ,i linger by my shingly bars4 ,i loiter round my cresses4 ,correlations such as these add greatly to the pupil's interest in this subject4 ,given a teacher with a love of out-of-door life1 with observant eyes and ears1 and the spirit that sympathizes with children's curiosity and stimulates inquiry1 ,nature ,study will be a joy and an inspiration to pupils4