,,practical ,,taxidermy ,a ,,manual ,,of ,,instruction ,,to ,,the ,,amateur ,,in ,,collecting1 ,,preserving1 ,,and ,,setting ,,up ,,natural ,,history ,,specimens ,,of ,,all ,,kinds4 ,,to ,,which ,,is ,,added ,a ,,chapter ,,upon ,,the ,,pictorial ,,arrangement ,,of ,,museums4 ,,illustrated4 ,,by ,,montagu ,,browne1 ,f4,z4,s1 etc4 ,curator1 ,town ,museum1 ,leicester4 ,,second ,,edition1 ,revised and considerably ,enlarged1 ,with additional ,instructions in ,modelling and ,artistic ,taxidermy4 ,,london3 #a4 ,,upcott ,,gill1 ,,bazaar ,,buildings1 ,,drury ,,lane1 ,w4,c4 7,,formerly ,,of #agj1 ,,strand74 ,,new ,,york3 ,,charles ,,scribner',s ,,sons1 #aec-aeg1 ,,fifth ,,avenue4 ,plate ,i ,peregrine ,falcon on ,flight ,showing ,method of ,binding etc4 ,frontispiece--see chapter ,v ,,london3 #a4 ,,upcott ,,gill1 ,,london ,,and ,,county ,,printing ,,works1 ,,bazaar ,,buildings4 ,w4,c4 ,,practical ,,taxidermy ,,preface ,,to ,,second ,,edition4 ,,the ,first ,edition of ,practical ,taxidermy having now run through the press--with1 ,i venture to hope1 some profit to students of the art1 if ,i may judge from the many hundreds ,of letters ,i have from time to time received--the publishers have invited me to revise such parts of the work as may be expedient1 and also to add many technical methods of modelling animals an artistic manner4 ,i do this the more readily because of the narrow way in which most professional ,taxidermists bolster up their art in a secret and entirely unnecessary manner--unnecessary because amateur can1 but by the severest application1 possibly compete with the experience of the technical or professional worker4 ,no pictorial artist ever pretends he has a special brush or colours with which he can paint landscapes or sea pieces at will2 he knows that only thorough mastery of the technicalities of his art--supplemented by wide experience and close application--enables him to succeed as he does1 and to delight people who1 seeing his facility of handling1 may imagine that picture painting is very easy and could be readily acquired--perhaps from books4 ,so it is with the ,taxidermist4 ,those1 therefore1 who procure this book1 thinking to do all attempted to be explained therein without long study and without a knowledge of anatomy1 form1 arrangement1 and colour1 may put it on one side as useless4 ,these pages are merely an introduction to a delightful art1 which must be wooed with patient determination and loving pains until technical skill invests it with beauty4 ,if ,i can be of any assistance to my readers1 ,i invite them to write to me if at any time they are puzzled or temporarily disheartened2 merely asking them to remember3 7#a7--,that1 not being in business1 ,i cannot of course answer purely business communications2 and 7#b7--,not being a man of infinite leisure1 it must also be remembered that a properly directed envelope for return to the inquirer is of consequence when minutes are precious4 ,unlike the ,prime ,minister1 ,i do not like post-cards1 and never answer them if from unknown correspondents4 ,i may here mention that this edition is not only considerably enlarged1 but has several woodcuts and four plates added1 three of which latter have been engraved from photographs specially taken for this work4 ,i say now1 in conclusion1 work hard1 study hard1 and look to good modellers and painters--and not to bird-stuffers--for conceptions of form1 arrangement1 and colour1 and in the end1 believe me1 you will achieve a better success than attends the labours of those who follow in the old paths of careless or inartistic ,taxidermy4 ,,montagu ,,browne4 ,,leicester4 ,,practical ,,taxidermy4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,rise ,,and ,,progress of ,,taxidermy4 ,,taxidermy1 which is derived from two ,greek words1 a literal translation of which would signify the arrangement of skins1 appears to have been practised in a limited degree ages ago1 for may we not say without doubt that the first taxidermists were the ancient ,egyptians1 who1 despite the fact that they seldom or never appear to have removed the skin as a whole1 as in our modern methods1 yet1 taking into consideration the excellent manner in which they preserved their human or other bodies for thousands of years by the aid of injections1 spices1 essential oils1 or what not1 they may1 ,i think1 be fairly placed in the front rank as the first taxidermists the world has known4 ,for an account1 of the arts used in embalming see ,herodotus1 who says3 ,in ,egypt certain persons are appointed by law to exercise this art 7embalming7 as their peculiar business2 and when a dead body is brought them they produce patterns of mummies in wood imitated in painting1 the most elaborate of which are said to be of him 7,osiris7 whose name ,i do not think it right to mention on this occasion4 ,the second which they show is simpler and less costly2 the third is the cheapest4 ,having exhibited them all1 they inquire of the persons who have applied to them which method they wish to be adopted1 and this being settled1 and the price agreed upon1 the parties return1 leaving the body with the embalmers4 ,in preparing it according to the first method1 they commence by extracting the brain from the nostrils with a curved iron probe1 partly clearing the head by this means1 and partly by pouring in certain drugs2 then1 making an incision in the side with a sharp ,ethiopian stone1 they draw out the intestines through the aperture4 ,having cleansed and washed them with palm wine they cover them with pounded aromatics1 and afterwards filling the cavity with powder of pure1 myrrh1 cassia1 and other fragrant substances1 frankincense excepted1 they sew it up again4 ,this being done1 they salt the body1 keeping it in natron seventy days1 to which period they are strictly confined4 ,when the seventy days are over they wash the body and wrap it up entirely in bands of fine linen smeared on their inner side with gum1 which the ,egyptians generally use instead of glue4 ,the relatives then take away the body1 and have a wooden ease made in the form of a man1 in which they deposit it1 and1 when fastened up1 they keep it in a room in their house1 placing it upright against the wall4 ,this is the most costly method of embalming4 ,for those who choose the middle-kind1 on account of the expense1 they prepare the body as follows3 ,they fill syringes with oil of cedar1 and inject this into the abdomen1 without making any incision or removing the bowels1 and1 taking care that the liquid shall not escape1 they keep it in salt during the specified number of days4 ,the cedar oil is then taken out1 and such is its strength1 that it brings with it the bowels and all the inside in a state of dissolution4 ,the natron also dissolves the flesh1 so that nothing remains but the skin and bones4 ,this process being over1 they restore the body without any further operation4 ,the third kind of embalming is only adopted for the poor4 ,in this they merely cleanse the body1 by an injection of syrmoea1 and salt it during seventy days1 after which it is returned to the friends who brought it4 ,the account given by ,diodorus is similar1 if we except the cost and time of embalming4 ,the most expensive way of embalming costs a talent of silver 7about #bej pounds sterling72 the second1 twenty-two minae 7#fj pounds72 and the third is extremely cheap4 ,the persons who embalm the bodies are artists who have learnt this secret from their ancestors4 ,they present to the friends of the deceased who apply to them an estimate of the funeral expenses1 and ask them in what manner they wish it to be performed1 which being agreed upon1 they deliver the body to the proper persona appointed to that office4 ,first1 one who is denominated the scribe1 marks upon the left side of the body1 as it lies on the ground1 the extent of the incision which is to be made2 then another1 who is called the dissector1 cuts open as much of the flesh as the law permits with a sharp ,ethiopian stone1 and immediately runs away1 pursued by those who are present throwing stones at him1 amidst bitter execrations1 as if to cast upon him all the odium of this necessary act1 for they look upon everyone who has offered violence to1 or inflicted b wound or any other injury upon a human body to be hateful2 but the embalmers1 on the contrary1 are held in the greatest consideration and respect1 being the associates of the priests1 and permitted free access to e temples as sacred persons4 ,as soon as they have met together to embalm the body thus prepared them1 one introduces his band through the aperture into the abdomen1 and takes everything out except the kidneys and heart1 another cleanses each of the viscera with palm wine and aromatic substances2 lastly1 having applied oil of cedar and other things to the whole body for wards of thirty days1 they add myrrh1 cinnamon1 and those drugs which have not only the power of preserving the body for a length of time1 but of imparting to it a fragrant odour4 ,it is then restored to the friends of the deceased2 and so perfectly are all the members preserved even the hair of the eyelids and eyebrows remains undisturbed1 and the whole appearance of the person is so unaltered that every feature may be recognised4 ,sir ,j4 ,gardener ,wilkinson 7,manners and ,customs of the ,ancient ,egyptians7 from whom ,i have quoted1 says that3 ,the extraction of the brain by the nostrils is proved by the appearance of the mummies found in the tombs2 and some of the crooked instruments 7always of bronze7 supposed to have been used for this purpose have been discovered at ,thebes4 ,the preservatives appear to have been of two classes1 bituminous and saline1 consisting1 in the first class1 of gums1 resins1 asphaltum1 and pure bitumen1 with1 doubtless1 some astringent barks powders1 etc4 rubbed in4 ,mummies prepared in this is way are known by their dry1 yet flexible skins1 retracted and adherent to the bones2 features1 and hair1 well preserved and life-like4 ,those mummies filled with bitumen1 have black skins1 hard and shining as if varnished1 but with the features perfect1 having been prepared with great care1 and even after ages have elapsed1 are but little susceptible to exposure4 ,of the mummies of the second class 7also filled with resins and asphaltum71 we must assume that their skins and flesh have been subjected to sodaic or saline products2 for ,boitard1 in a work published at ,paris in #ahbe1 says that an injection is made with oil of cedar and common salt1 also1 that they wash the corpse with nitre and leave it to steep for seventy days1 at the end of which time they remove the intestines1 which the injection has corroded1 and replace their loss by filling the cavity of the abdomen with nitre4 ,this is also borne out by ,wilkinson1 who says3 ,on exposure to air they 7the mummies7 become covered with efflorescence of sulphate of soda1 and also readily absorb moisture from the atmosphere4 ,it appears1 also1 that after the period of preparation 7thirty1 forty1 or seventy days1 as fixed by various authors71 the corpse was relieved1 in the first-class ones1 of all the old saline1 nitrous1 or resinous products1 and re-filled with costly resins1 aromatic spices1 and bitumen2 which1 says ,monsieur ,rouyer3 ,having styptic1 absorbent1 and balsamic qualities1 would produce a kind of tanning operation on the body1 which would also1 no doubt1 be heightened by the washing with palm wine4 ,he here broaches the ingenious and highly probable theory1 that the corpse1 during its mummification1 was placed in stoves of a certain temperature1 where the heat gradually and closely united the various preservative agents before mentioned4 ,they were then swathed in linen bandages of great length1 and enclosed in beautifully painted and gilded cartonages2 the faces were heavily gilded and the eyes imitated in enamel2 they were then inclosed in three or four cases1 also richly gilded and painted1 and finally mounted in a sarcophagus4 ,common people appear in some cases to have been merely salted and plunged in liquid pitch1 others were simply salted and dried4 ,mummies prepared by these methods freely attract moisture--are ill preserved1 and1 therefore1 as a matter of course1 fall to pieces easily on contact with external air4 ,in summing up the process of embalming1 as described by the authors just quoted1 we find a few problems of more or less difficulty1 and which none of them appear inclined to solve2 and ,i do not wonder at this1 as the attempt1 in my own case1 in one or two instances1 has involved days of study and references to dozens of medical and other works with but a meagre result4 ,however1 to take them seriatim1 we can assume1 ,i think1 with some show of evidence1 that the ,ethiopian stone1 mentioned as being used to make the first incision in the corpse1 might have been a piece of obsidian or basalt1 but most probably was merely an ordinary sharp flint of a dark colour4 ,the first chemical used in embalming is the hardest nut of all to crack1 and on which ,i have most exercised my intellectual teeth--and that is natron4 ,now1 what is natron8 ,footnote3 ,natrium is the old ,latin term for the metal or base we now call sodium4 ,the old names for some of its salts were3 ,natron ,carbonicum--or ,bicarbonate of ,soda2 ,natron ,vitriolatum--or ,sulphate of ,soda2 discovered or re-discovered about #afgj4 ,nitrum ,carbonate of soda4 ,ordinary dictionaries and authors tell us1 as a matter of course--carbonate of soda4 ,in support of this theory ,m4 ,rouyer writes3 ,the natron would be used just as it was got from many of the lakes of ,egypt1 where it is found abundantly in the form of carbonate of soda4 ,pereira1 in ,materia ,medica1 though intimating that natron is not to be confounded with nitre1 says1 in speaking of carbonate of soda3 ,this salt was probably known to the ancients under the term of ,nitron4 ,now1 as ,nitron is more likely1 from its etymology1 to be translated nitre1 we are landed into another difficulty1 if by nitre we mean saltpetre1 for that will1 as we all know1 preserve animal tissue for a certain time2 however1 ,i do not think we can translate natron as being nitre 7saltpetre71 for in former days many salts were included under the general term nitre2 for instance1 our common soda and potash1 the chemical composition of which was unknown until ,davy1 in #ahjg1 extracted the metals sodium and potassium from those salts4 ,boitard expressly states3 ,il parait que ce natrum tait un alkali fixe1 et pas du tout du nitre comme quelques auteurs l'ont pens2 ce qui semblerait appuyer cette opinion1 c'est que lea femmes egyptiennes se servaient de natrum pour faire leur lessive1 comme on as sert aujourd'hui de la soude4 ,in ,peru the soil may be said to be impregnated with nitre1 but that is nitrate of soda1 and not really saltpetre 7nitrate of potassium71 as many people imagine who hear it called simply nitre4 ,mr4 ,thos4 ,w4 ,baker1 who has most obligingly unearthed several old works for me1 says3 ,now ,i think of it1 natron is perfectly familiar to me as apparently a mixture of broken soda crystals and a brown earth which is sold in the bazaars of ,india1 under the name of 'sootjee moogee1' for domestic purposes2 and ,i know1 from experience1 that unless it is washed off paint work directly it is passed over it with a cloth all the paint comes off bare1 sometimes to the wood4 ,again1 he says3 ,in ,bayley's ,dictionary1 circa #agcj1 ,i find the following3 ',natron2 or1 a ,natron1 from ,gr4 ,natron 7871 a kind of black greyish salt1 taken out of a lake of stagnant water in the territory of ,terrana1 in ,egypt4 ,also see ,penny ,cyclopaedia1 vol4 xvi1 p4 #aje1 ,natron1 native sesquicarbonate of soda 7see ',sodium'73 ,the ,natron ,lakes1 which are six in number1 are situated in a valley bordering upon ,lower ,egypt1 and are remarkable for the great quantity of salt which they produce4 ,the crystallisations are both of muriate of soda 7or common salt7 and of carbonate of soda4 444 ,the ',natron' is collected once a year1 and is used both in ,egypt and ,syria1 as also in ,europe1 for manufacturing glass and soap1 and for bleaching linen4 ,turning to ,sodium for the sesquicarbonate1 which is found native in ,hungary1 and also near ,fezzan1 in ,africa3 ',by the natives it is called ,trona4 ,it is found in hard striated crystalline masses1 and is not altered by exposure to the air1 but is readily soluble in water4 ,this salt appears to be formed when a solution of the carbonate of soda is heated with carbonate of ammonia1 and probably also when a solution of the bicarbonate is heated4 ,its taste is less alkaline than that of the carbonate1 into which it is converted when strongly heated by losing one-third of its carbonic acid4' ,that it was one of the products of soda cannot reasonably be doubted4 ,biborate of soda 7with which ,i have been experimenting lately7 has certainly wonderfully preservative powers1 especially in conjunction with common salt1 or saltpetre2 but then it has not the caustic properties of natron4 ,may not natron have been a fixed alkali1 or has the native carbonate of soda more caustic and antiseptic properties than the usual carbonate of soda of commerce1 which plainly cannot be intended8 ,we have here a most interesting subject to solve as to the component parts of the ancient natron2 my suspicion is that natron1 as used by the ,egyptians1 was a mixture of biborate of soda1 caustic soda1 and muriate of soda4 ,footnote3 ,the following report appeared in the ,california ,alta1 #bdth ,june4 #ahgd3 ,,an ,,interesting ,,discovery4--,several weeks ago we mentioned the departure of ,mr4 ,arthur ,robottom1 ,birmingham1 ,england1 on a search for borax in the southern part of ,california4 ,he has now returned1 bringing news of an interesting and valuable discovery4 ,beyond the ,sierra ,nevada1 in the ,enclosed ,basin of ,north ,america1 about #adj miles in a north-eastward direction from ,bakersfield1 there is the bed of a dry lake filled over an area of fifteen miles long by six wide with saline crystals to a depth of about six or eight feet4 ,the appearance of the surrounding country clearly indicates that water once stood sixty feet deep here over a large area1 the ancient beach being distinctly traceable4 ,the most remarkable fact about this-saline deposit is that in its middle there is a tract1 five miles long and two wide1 of common salt1 while on the outside there is a deposit of borate of soda1 three feet thick1 and under this a lower stratum composed of sulphate of soda and tincal mixed together1 from one to three feet thick4 ,these minerals are all in crystals1 the sulphate of soda and tincal forming a solid mass1 almost like stone in its hardness4 ,the borate of soda is of a dirty hue1 but the salt1 which lies above the level of the entire deposit1 in some places to a depth of seven feet1 is white as snow4 ,the report of natural deposits thus situated will appear very improbable to scientific men1 for there is nothing to account for the separation of the salt from the borates1 or for the accumulation of salt above the level of other crystalline deposits4 ,we have ,mr4 ,robottom for authority1 and the country is open for those who wish to examine for themselves4 ,the place can easily be found4 ,it is known as the ,borax ,fields in the ,slate ,range1 and will be examined carefully by many competent men1 since the tincal--a crude borate of soda--is a valuable mineral1 and can be separated1 at little expense1 from the sulphate of soda4 ,the next chemical agent we have to notice 7which should1 however1 have appeared prior to natron71 is palm wine1 used in the first process of cleansing the intestines2 this would doubtless act as an astringent1 and would1 of course1 tend to coagulate the liquid albumen contained in the body 7in a similar manner to our ordinary spirits of wine71 which1 if followed by a caustic alkali 7such as natron may have been71 to dissolve the solid albumen1 fibrin and gelatine1 ought certainly to have exercised a decidedly tanning influence4 ,following this is oil of cedar4 ,the present oil of cedar 7ol cedrat of commerce7 cannot be intended1 as that is made from the citron1 and being merely an essential oil can have little of the antiseptic or corrosive qualities imputed to the ancient oil of cedars4 ,may it not have been a product distilled from the actual cedar tree 7one of the coniferae7 similar to our oil or spirit of turpentine8 ,i have1 however1 been unable to discover any writings in certain support of this theory2 ,encyclopaedia ,britannica merely mentions it as a certain oily liquor extracted from the cedar2 while ,boitard boldly says1 444 ,sans doute l'essence de terebenthine4 ,footnote3 ,the ,detroit ,review of ,medicine and ,pharmacy for ,july1 #ahgf4 gives a report of a case of poisoning through an overdose of oil of red cedar 7oleum juniper virginianae7 which supports my theory as to there being extracted an oil from the ,lebanon 7or other7 cedars partaking of the nature of turpentine and totally distinct from ol cedrat4 ,whatever may have been the composition of--and manner of applying--the foregoing agents1 it is certain that they had the effect intended1 for ,diodorus writes fully within bounds when mentioning the life-like appearance of the features in mummies1 as we know by later discoveries1 for there are some well-known specimens still in existence of which the eyelids1 lashes1 eyebrows1 and hair are still in their natural state1 and this after an interval of thousands of years4 ,in some mummies1 for instance1 the contour of the features is plainly discernible1 and surely this is scientific preparation of specimens not to be excelled in the present day4 ,the ,egyptian mode of embalming was imitated occasionally by the ,jews1 ,greeks1 ,romans1 and other nations1 and has sometimes been adopted in modern times1 but never to the same extent or perfection as they attained4 ,the only other method which is known to have been adopted as a national custom was that practised by the ,guanches1 the ancient inhabitants of the ,canary ,isles4 ,their mummies are particularly described by ,m4 ,bortj de ,st4 ,vincent1 in his ',essai sur les ,isles ,fortunes4' ,numerous and vast catacombs are filled with them in each of the thirteen islands1 but the best known is one in ,teneriffe1 which contained upwards of a thousand bodies4 ,the mummies are sewn up in goat or sheep skins1 and five or six are commonly found together1 the skin over the head of one being stitched to that over the feet of another2 but those of the great are contained in cases hollowed out of a piece of savin wood4 ,the bodies are not bandaged1 and are dry1 light tan-coloured1 and slightly aromatic4 ,several of them are completely preserved with distinct1 though distorted1 features4 ,the method of embalming adopted by the ,guanches consisted in removing the viscera in either of the same ways as the ,egyptians practised1 then filling the cavities with aromatic powders1 frequently washing and anointing the surface1 and1 lastly1 drying the body very carefully for fifteen or sixteen days in the sun or by a stove4 ,footnote3 ,my friend1 the late ,thos4 ,baker1 wrote me1 some time before his sad death by shipwreck3 ,in an old work which ,i have1 ',a ,general ,collection of ,voyages1' ,i find the following relating to the ',guanches' in vol4 i1 book ii1 chap4 i1 page #ahd1 ',the ,voyage of ,juan ,rejon to the ,canary ,islands1 ,,ad4 #adia'3 ',when any person died1 they preserved the body in this manner3 ,first1 they carried it to a cave and stretched it on a fiat stone1 where they opened it and took out the bowels2 then1 twice a day1 they washed the porous parts of the body1 viz1 the arm-pits1 behind the ears1 the groin1 between the fingers1 and the neck1 with cold water4 ,after washing it sufficiently they anointed those parts with sheep's butter 7871 and sprinkled them with a powder made of the dust of decayed pine trees1 and a sort of brushwood which the ,spaniards call ,brefsos1 together with the powder of pumice stone4 ,then they let the body remain till it was perfectly dry1 when the relatives of the deceased came and swaddled it in sheep or goat skins dressed4 ,girding all tight with long leather thongs1 they put it in the cave which had been set apart by the deceased for his burying place1 without any covering4 ,there were particular persons set apart for this office of embalming1 each sex performing it for those of their own4 ,during the process they watched the bodies very carefully to prevent the ravens from devouring them1 the relations of the deceased bringing them victuals and waiting on them during the time of their watching4' ,so complete is the desiccation of these mummies1 that a whole body1 which ,blumenbach possessed1 weighed only #g4e lb1 though the dried skeleton of a body of the same size1 as usually prepared1 weighs at least #i lb4 ,in some situations the conditions of the soil and atmosphere1 by the rapidity with which they permit the drying of the animal tissues to be effected1 are alone sufficient for the preservation of the body in the form of a mummy2 this is the case in some parts of ,peru1 especially at ,arica1 where considerable numbers of bodies have been found quite dry in pits dug in a saline dry soil4 ,there is an excellent specimen of a mummy of this kind in the ,museum of the ,college of ,surgeons1 which was brought from ,caxamarca by ,general ,paroissien--like most of them1 it is in a sitting posture1 with the knees almost touching the chin1 and the hands by the sides of the face4 ,it is quite dry and hard2 the features are distorted1 but nearly perfect1 and the hair has fallen off4 ,the ,peruvian mummies do not appear to have been subjected to any particular preparation1 the dry and absorbent earth in which they are placed being sufficient to prevent them from putrefying4 ,m4 ,humboldt found the bodies of many ,spaniards and ,peruvians lying on former fields of battle dried and preserved in the open air4 ,in the deserts of ,africa the preservation of the body is secured by burying it in the hot sand2 and even in ,europe soils are sometimes met with in which the bodies undergo a slow process of drying1 and then remain almost unalterable even on exposure to the air and moisture4 ,there is a vault at ,toulouse in which a vast number of bodies that have been buried were found1 after many years1 dry and without a trace of the effects of putrefaction2 and in the vaults of ,st4 ,michael's ,church1 ,dublin1 the bodies are similarly preserved4 ,in both cases putrefaction is prevented by the constant absorption of the moisture from the atmosphere1 and through its medium from the body by the calcareous soil in which the vaults are dug4--,penny ,cyclopaedia1 vol4 xv1 p4 #dgg4 ,having now given a brief sketch of the best-known methods of preserving ,nature's greatest handiwork--,man--,i may mention that the ,egyptians also devoted their energies to the preservation of those things more intimately connected with our theme1 namely1 mammals1 birds1 etc4 ,a people who knew how to preserve and arrest from decay the carcase of so immense an animal as the hippopotamus 7a mummy of which was discovered at ,thebes71 or the various bulls1 cows1 dogs1 cats1 mice1 ichneumons1 hawks1 ibises1 fishes1 serpents1 crocodiles1 and other sacred animals 7mummies of which have been and are constantly found71 must have had some glimmerings of taxidermy2 many of the subjects are preserved in so beautiful a manner that mummied ibises1 hawks1 etc1 are occasionally discovered even in a good state of preservation1 and ,cuvier actually found in the intestines of a mummied ibis 7,ibis religiosa1 a species still found1 though rarely1 in ,egypt7 the partly-digested skin and scales of a snake6 ,from this period of the world's history ,i can discover but few links to the chain of ,practical ,taxidermy4 ,true it is that the ,greeks1 ,romans1 and the tribes which inhabited ancient ,britain must have had some knowledge of preserving ,skins of animals slaughtered by them in the chase1 for we everywhere read of the skins of lions1 tigers1 wolves1 etc1 being used for purposes of necessity1 as in the case of those barbarians who clothed themselves with skins as a protection from the inclemency of the weather1 and also in the case of the luxurious ,greeks and ,romans1 who used skins in the adornment of their persons or homes4 ,in fact1 the conversion of skins into leather must be of the highest antiquity1 for1 in the ,leeds mummy described in #ahbh1 there was found on the bandages of the head and face a thong composed of three straps of leather1 and many of the ,egyptian divinities are represented with a lion or leopard skin as a covering for the throne1 etc42 and do we not read in many places in ,holy ,writ of leather and of tanners8--a notable instance1 to wit1 in ,simon1 the tanner--in fact1 the ancient history of all nations teems with the records of leather and of furs2 but of the actual setting up of animals as specimens ,i can find no trace4 ,i doubt1 however1 if we can carry taxidermy proper farther back than to about #aej years ago1 at which date naturalists appear to have had some idea of the proper preservation and mounting of natural history specimens2 but ,raumur1 more than a century and a quarter ago1 published a treatise on the preservation of skins of birds2 however1 as his plan was simply setting up with wires birds which had previously been steeped in spirits of wine1 his method did not find much favour4 ,it appears that1 just after that time1 the system was tried of skinning birds in their fresh state1 and also of cutting the skins longitudinally in two halves1 and filling the one half with plaster2 then the skin was fixed to a backboard1 an eye was inserted1 and the beak and legs were imitated by painting3 and this was then fixed in a sort of framework of glass4 ,this system is still followed to a certain extent2 for1 fifteen years ago1 when ,i was in one of the ,greek islands1 a ,german came round the town selling birds mounted in the same way1 and also mounted feather by feather4 ,to quote now from the translation of a ,french work1 published by ,longman1 ,rees1 and ,co1 in ,london1 in #ahbj1 we find that ,a work appeared at ,lyons in #ageh1 entitled ',instructions on the ,manner of ,collecting and ,preparing the ,different ,curiosities of ,natural ,history4' ,footnote3 ,the sixth edition1 twenty-three years later1 has this title1 ,taxidermy1 or the ,art of ,preparing and ,mounting ,objects of ,natural ,history for the use of ,museums and ,travellers1 by ,mrs4 ,r4 ,lee1 formerly ,mrs4 ,j4 ,edward ,bowdich4 ,sixth edition1 #ahdc4 ,longman1 ,brown1 ,green1 and ,longman4 ,the author was the first who submitted some useful principles for taxidermy4 ,he ornamented his book with many plates1 more than half of which are in all respects foreign to his subject1 as they simply represent shells1 and other marine productions1 with their descriptions4 ,in #aghf1 the ,abb ,manesse published a volume under the title of ,treatise on the ,manner of ,stuffing and ,preserving ,animals and ,skins4 ,he presented his work to the ,academy1 who made a favourable report of it4 ,mauduyt has given a memoir on the manner of preparing dead birds for forming collections4 7,see la #eme ,livraison de l',encyclopdie1 ,mthodique1 ,histoire ,naturelle des ,oiseaux1 t4 i1 deuxime partie1 p4 #dce47 ,by studying his method we may1 with perseverance1 be able to mount birds well1 although he had never prepared them himself1 for he has composed his memoir from the notes which ,lerot furnished him1 who mounted them very well1 and who merited the confidence which ,mauduyt had accorded him in all the preparations which his fine collection required4 ,an old sculptor1 living at ,lahaye1 devoted himself to the practice of taxidermy1 and in a short time surpassed all those who had employed themselves in mounting animals1 especially large mammalia4 ,it seems that neither the ,english nor the ,dutch have published any work which treats of the method of mounting animals according to system4 ,in #ahja we were not more advanced than they were4 ,what we possessed of this kind appeared insufficient to amateurs4 ,notwithstanding1 many derived advantage from the memoir of ,mauduyt1 but being inserted in the ,encyclopdie ,mthodique1 it was not always easy to procure it4 ,there was1 besides1 only the work of ,abb ,manesse1 and the tediousness of the means which he pointed out frightened all those who desired to learn taxidermy4 ,the professors of natural history to the central schools of the departments felt more than ever the want of a work which furnished the method of preserving and augmenting their zoological collections4 ,in #ahjb their wishes were nearly accomplished1 for there appeared almost at the same time two works on taxidermy1 the one by ,m4 ,nicholas1 a chemist1 the other by ,m4 ,henon4 ,m4 ,nicholas makes an analysis of all that had been said before on the preparation of animals4 ,this view comprehends nearly half the volume4 ,bcoeur1 of ,metz1 was the best apothecary in that city4 ,he mounted fresh birds in the greatest perfection1 and by a little practice one is sure to succeed with his method4 ,he opened his birds in the usual manner1 that is to say1 by the middle of the belly4 ,he easily took out the body by this opening without cutting any of the extremities2 he then removed the flesh by the aid of a scalpel1 taking the precaution to preserve all the ligaments2 he anointed the skin1 and put the skeleton in its place1 carefully dispersing the feathers on each side4 ,he ran the head through with an iron wire1 in which he had formed a little ring at nearly the third of its length2 the smallest side passed into the rump in such a manner that 'the ring of the iron wire was under the sternum4 ,he then passed a wire into each claw1 so that the extremities of the wire united to pass into the little ring2 he bent these extremities within1 and fixed them with a string to the iron in the middle of the vertebral column4 ,he replaced the flesh by flax1 or chopped cotton1 sewed up the bird1 placed it on a foot or support of wood1 and gave it a suitable attitude1 of which he was always sure--for a bird thus mounted could only bend in its natural posture 7874 ,he prepared quadrupeds in the same manner4 ,it remains for us to speak of a little work published by ,henon and ,mouton ,fontenelle4 ,they had at first no other object than to read their manuscript to the ,athenaeum at ,lyons1 of which they were members4 ,they were earnestly solicited to print it1 and published it in #ahjb4 ,the authors speak of birds only4 ,they describe an infinity of methods practised by others1 and compare them to their own1 which1 without doubt1 are preferable1 but too slow to satisfy the impatience of ornithologists4 ,the book from which ,i have just quoted seems to have been the only reliable text book known at that period1 and with the exception of certain modern improvements in modelling and mounting1 contains a mass of--for that day--valuable elementary information4 ,in fact1 the ,french and ,german taxidermists were then far in advance of us1 a stigma which we did not succeed in wiping off until after the ,great ,exhibition of #ahea4 ,although1 as ,i have just said1 the ,french and ,germans excelled us in the setting up of specimens1 yet their collections did not1 in all cases1 exceed ours in point of interest or magnitude1 for the old taxidermists had been at work prior to #agbe1 at which date it is recorded that the museum of ,sir ,hans ,sloane 7the nucleus of our ,british ,museum collection7 contained the following number of specimens3 ,mammals1 #aaid2 birds1 #gec2 reptiles1 #cde2 fishes1 #ajjg4 ,a gradual increase appeared by #agec1 when the figures stood3 ,mammals1 #ahhf2 birds1 #aagb2 reptiles1 #eba2 fishes1 #aeee4 ,a great proportion of these were1 however1 not stuffed specimens1 but simply bones and preparations of fleshy parts in spirits4 ,nothing shows the gradual rise and progress of taxidermy better than the history of the ,british ,museum1 which1 under the then name of ,montagu ,house1 was opened to the public by special ticket on ,jan4 #ae1 #agei4 ,soon after its opening the natural history collections appear to have claimed more interest from the public1 for in #agfe we had a very good collection of butterflies1 and in #agfi the trustees acquired1 by purchase1 a considerable collection of stuffed birds from ,holland4 ,the restrictions on visitors were1 however1 vexatious1 people of all classes being hurried through the rooms at a tremendous speed--vide ,hutton1 the ,birmingham historian1 who visited it in #aghd1 and relates how he would fain have spent hours looking at things for which only minutes were allowed4 ,from this period up to #ahaf 7at which date the valuable ornithological collection of ,col4 ,montagu was purchased for the nation at a cost of #aa1jjj7 the additions to the natural history galleries were not many1 probably owing to the troublous times2 however1 when we had succeeded in breaking the power of ,napoleon and restored peace to ,europe1 naturalists and taxidermists found that the public had then time and inclination to devote themselves to their collections or works4 ,accordingly1 during the next twenty years many works 7including those before noted7 were written on taxidermy1 the most notable being by ,swainson1 ,brown1 and that eccentric genius ,waterton1 whom we may call the pioneer of our present system of mounting1 and who1 in his usual caustic style1 pointed out the very inferior way in which specimens were then mounted4 ,at the end of his ,wanderings in ,south ,america appeared a treatise on ,taxidermy1 but1 as he decried the use of arsenical preparations1 and mounted his birds without wires in a fashion peculiar to himself1 his system did not find favour in the eyes of the school of rigid stuffing1 who had not then worked out the present happy compromise between his style and theirs4 ,his patience must have been inexhaustible2 indeed1 the ,rev4 ,j4 ,g4 ,wood1 who knew him well1 has told me of many instances in which he spent days in scraping out the hands and feet of the larger apes until he got them as thin as paper1 and also of his delight when he invented the kid-glove substitute for a peacock's face much to the astonishment of the reverend gentleman4 ,of course2 all these works on the preservation of natural history objects and the labours of collectors directed the public mind to the contemplation of natural history4 ,the ,british ,museum at this time also--relieved of a few of the restrictions on admission--became more popular1 and in #ahcf we find the natural history collections were as follow3 ,mammals1 species #dje2 birds1 species #bdjj2 constituting altogether in specimens the sum total of #dfei4 ,of reptiles we could boast--species #fjj1 specimens #acjj2 fish #ajjj specimens4 ,these figures did not contrast favourably with the ,paris ,museum as in the days of old for now ,paris stood3 ,mammals1 species #ejj2 birds1 species #bcjj2 grand total of specimens #fjjj4 ,of fish the ,french had four times as many as we 7and beat us1 proportionately1 in other sections71 while we were far in advance in this class of the ,vienna and ,berlin ,museums4 ,in shells 7not fossils71 ,london and ,paris were equal and much superior to ,berlin and ,leyden4 ,in #ahdh an extraordinary increase 7marking the great interest taken in taxidermical science7 had taken place2 we now had added to the ,british ,museum since #ahcf1 #bi1eie specimens1 comprising #egig mammals1 #ac1dad birds1 #daab reptiles1 #fbgb fish4 ,in mammals and birds we held the proud position of having the finest and most extensive collection in the world1 while in reptiles and fish we were again beaten by ,paris4 ,in proof of the growing interest taken in natural history1 we find that in #ahfj the number of visitors to the natural history department was greatly in excess of all the other departments2 and at the present time the attendance has greatly increased1 as also the objects exhibited1 a fact patent to all who will take the trouble to visit the ,british ,museum1 or to inspect the official catalogues published from time to time1 a synopsis of which cannot at present be given owing to their extent and variety2 but we can assume1 ,i think1 that we have as complete a natural history collection as is to be found in any of the museums of the world4 ,footnote3 ,some idea of the extent of the ,national ,natural ,history ,collections may be gathered from the pages of the recently-published ,british ,museum ,catalogues #ahgd-hb1 where1 in many instances1 the number of specimens of a certain order of birds contained in the ,museum falls very little short of the ascertained number of species for the whole of the world4 ,though taxidermy flourished1 as we see1 for some years previous to the ,great ,exhibition of #ahea1 yet that decidedly gave a considerable impetus to the more correct and artistic delineation of animals1 especially in what may be called the grotesque school instituted by the ,germans1 which1 though it may perhaps be decried on the score of misrepresenting nature in the most natural way possible1 yet teaches a special lesson by the increased care necessary to more perfectly render the fine points required in giving animals that serio-comic and half-human expression which was so intensely ridiculous and yet admirable in the studies of the groups illustrating the fable of ,reinecke the ,fox1 which were in the ,wurtemburgh ,court1 class ,,xxx4 and were executed by ,h4 ,ploucquet1 of ,stuttgart4 ,these groups1 or similar ones1 are now to be seen in the ,crystal ,palace at ,sydenham4 ,in nearly all of these groups the modelling and the varied expressions of hope1 fear1 love1 and rage1 were an immense step in advance of the old wooden school of taxidermy2 specimens of which are still to be found in museums--stiff1 gaunt1 erect1 and angular4 ,copies of those early outrages on nature may still be seen in the dreary plates of the anything but animated work of poor ,goldie1 who1 as ,boswell said1 loved to shine in what was least understood4 #af ,,practical ,,taxidermy4 ,from this era the ,english artists1 having had their eyes opened by the teachings of the foreign exhibits of #ahea1 steadily gained ground1 and the ,wards having the sense to employ1 in the first instance1 foreign artistic workmen1 rapidly pushed to the front1 until the finest animal study of ancient or modern times was achieved by one of them--the ,lion and ,tiger ,struggle1 exhibited at ,paris1 and afterwards at the ,sydenham ,crystal ,palace4 ,this1 and one or two analogous works1 carried the ,english to the foremost ranks of zoological artists2 and now that we embellish our taxidermic studies with natural grasses1 ferns1 etc4 and with representations of scenery and rockwork1 in the endeavour to carry the eye and mind to the actual localities in which the various species of animals are found--an advance in art not dreamed of fifty years ago--and also correctly model the heads and limbs of animals1 we still hold our own1 and are as far advanced in taxidermy as any other nation4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,decoying ,,and ,,trapping ,,animals4 ,,the decoying and trapping of birds1 etc1 is a somewhat delicate subject to handle1 lest we degenerate into giving instruction in amateur poaching2 but the application of my direction ,i must leave to the reader's own sense of fitness of time and scene1 and object to be snared4 ,and now1 before launching into my subject1 one word in season4 ,observe as a golden rule--never to be broken--this3 ,do not snare1 shoot1 nor kill any more birds or animals than you absolutely want--in fine1 do not kill for killing's sake1 or snare in wantonness4 ,let all you do have reference to some object to be attained1 either to procure specimens wanted for a collection1 or1 in cases of necessity1 for food4 ,bear this in mind1 for1 without sympathy with creatures fashioned in as complex and beautiful a manner as ourselves1 we can never hope to be true naturalists1 or to feel a thrill of exquisite pleasure run through us when a new specimen falls to our prowess4 ,how can we admire its beauty when alive1 or feel a mournful satisfaction at its death1 if we are constantly killing the same species of bird for sport alone8 ,another thing3 kill a wounded bird as quickly and humanely as possible1 which you may always do by pressing its breast just under the wings with your finger and thumb1 bearing the whole weight of the palm of the hand on the sternum or breast-bone1 and gradually increasing the pressure until life is extinct4 ,this plan suffices for even the larger birds1 provided you can find a means of holding them firmly while you employ both hands in the manner previously indicated4 ,again3 if collecting eggs1 be content with half the sitting of a nest1 and if you know of a very rare nest of eggs1 do not take them all in your acquisitive greed4 ,if you see a rare bird1 on common land1 you may as well secure him as let ,jack ,smith make him up in a sparrow pie2 but if the bird is on preserved land1 or in a retired spot where no one is likely to harry it1 do think a minute before pulling trigger1 and ask yourself three questions3 #a4 ,will this bird be likely to stay if unmolested8 #b4 ,is it likely to have a mate8 #c4 ,will it nest here8 ,if you can answer any of these questions in the affirmative1 why1 don't shoot1 colonel2 for think of the aid to science1 and your own satisfaction1 if you can discover anything new in its habits1 or verify any doubtful point4 ,many rare birds would nest here if undisturbed1 and come again with additions4 ,the ,hoopoe1 or golden oriole1 for instance1 and many other rare birds1 would nest1 and1 indeed1 do nest here when allowed4 ,an interesting account of the appearance of the great bustard in ,norfolk1 and the pains taken through the kindness of ,lord ,lilford to provide it with a mate1 appeared in the ,field of ,april #h1 #ahgf4 ,but alas6 everyone is not so considerate1 and we have but a select few of such self-sacrificing people4 ,i presume no notice is required how to set the first trap on our list --,i mean our boyhood's old favourite1 the brick trap1 or the sieve and string1 both very well in their way in hard weather2 but a notice may be required as to the uses to which the next simplest trap1 or springe 7the horsehair noose71 may be applied4 ,for the very few people who do not know how to set it1 ,i will1 in the manner of ,col4 ,hawker1 who did everything at the time which he wished to explain in writing1 proceed to make one4 ,fig4 #a--,loop in wire4 ,here1 then1 ,i have a black horsehair about two feet long2 ,i double it1 holding it between the right-hand finger and thumb1 leaving a little loose loop of about half an inch long2 from this point ,i proceed by an overhand motion of the thumb to twist it up2 on reaching the bottom ,i make a small knot to prevent its unrolling2 then1 pushing the knotted end through the eye of the loop1 ,i thus form a loose noose4 ,i then attach a piece of wire to the free end by a twisted loop 7see ,fig4 #a74 ,with about half a dozen of these springes coiled in an oval tin box ,i am ready to snare any small bird whose haunt ,i may discover4 ,birds which are nesting can easily be caught by placing one noose in the nest and others round the edge or mouth1 making fast the end wires to any contiguous branch or twigs4 ,moorhens or water-rails1 which swim or run through the constantly frequented tracks which they have made in dense undergrowth or rushes in bogs1 may be captured by attaching these nooses to a string stretched across--indeed1 a writer in the ,field1 of ,july #h1 #ahgf1 says1 speaking of ,turkestan3 ,ducks are caught by rather a clever arrangement with horsehair nooses attached to a string1 which is stretched over the ditches and canals used for irrigation1 and so close to the water that the ducks are compelled when swimming under the string to stretch out their necks1 when they are easily caught in the hanging nooses4 ,also a useful plan for catching plovers or snipes1 which haunt the edges of streams having a narrow margin between the bank and the water1 is described by him as used for catching quails3 ,one method is simplicity itself3 a hair noose is fastened to a lump of clay well worked together2 a number of these appliances are scattered about the lucerne fields1 which the quails are fond of frequenting2 the bird caught in the noose is prevented from flying away owing to the weight of the lump of clay and its getting easily entangled in the grass4 ,wheatears and ortolans are caught by suspending a hair noose between two turves placed on end and touching each other in the form of the roof of a house2 to this shelter the birds constantly run on the approach of danger1 or even1 apparently1 through timidity1 on the gathering of storm clouds4 ,with this springe1 also1 thrushes and similar birds are described as being snared by ,mr4 ,gould 7in his ,birds of ,great ,britain71 who1 giving ,mr4 ,box as his authority1 says3 ,the thrush is a great source of amusement to the middle1 and of profit to the lower1 classes during its autumnal migration4 ,many families of ,liege1 ,luxemburg1 ,luneburg1 ,namur1 parts of ,hainault1 and ,brabant choose this season for their period of relaxation from business1 and devote themselves to the taking of this bird with horsehair springes4 ,the shopkeeper of ,liege and ,verviers1 whose house in the town is the model of comfort and cleanliness1 resorts with his wife and children to one or two rooms in a miserable country village to enjoy the sport he has been preparing with their help during the long evenings of the preceding winter1 in the course of which he has made as many as from #ejjj to #aj1jjj horsehair springes and prepared as many pieces of flexible wood1 rather thicker than a swan-quill1 in and on which to hang the birds4 ,he hires what he calls his 'tenderie1' being from four to five acres of underwood about three to five years old1 pays some thirty shillings for permission to place his springes1 and his greatest ambition is to retain for several years the same tenderie and the same lodgings1 which he improves in comfort from year to year4 ,the springes being made and the season of migration near1 he goes for a day to his intended place of sojourn1 and cuts as many twigs1 about #ah in4 in length1 as he intends hanging springes4 ,there are two methods of hanging them--in one the twig is bent into the form of the figure six1 the tail end running through a slit out in the upper part of the twig4 ,the other method is to sharpen a twig at both ends1 and insert the points into a grower or stem of underwood1 thus forming a bow1 of which the stem forms the string below the springe2 and hanging from the lower part of the bow is placed a small branch1 with three or four berries of the mountain ash 7there called sorbier 72 this is fixed to the bow by inserting the stalk into a slit in the wood4 ,the hirer of a new tenderie three or four acres in extent is obliged to make zigzag footpaths through it1 to out away the boughs which obstruct them1 and even to hoe and keep them clean4 ,having thus prepared himself1 he purchases one or two bushels of mountain ash berries1 with the stalks to which they grow1 picked for the purpose after they are red1 but before they are ripe1 to prevent falling off3 these he lays out on a table in the loft or attic4 ,the collection of these berries is a regular trade1 and the demand for them is so great that1 although planted expressly by the side of the roads in the ,ardennes1 they have been sold as high as #b pounds the bushel2 but the general price is #e francs4 ,we will now suppose our thrush-catcher arrived at his lodgings in the country--that he has had his footpath cleared by the aid of a labourer1 and that he is off for his first day's sport4 ,he is provided with a basket1 one compartment of which holds his twigs bent or straight1 another his berries2 his springes being already attached to the twigs1 he very rapidly drives his knife into a lateral branch1 and fixes them1 taking care that the springe hangs neatly in the middle of the bow1 and that the lower part of the springe is about three fingers' breadth from the bottom4 ,by this arrangement the bird alighting on the lower side of the bow1 and bending his neck to reach the berries below1 places his head in the noose4 ,finding himself obstructed in his movements1 he attempts to fly away2 but the treacherous noose tightens round his throat1 and he is found by the sportsman hanging by the neck1 a victim of misplaced confidence4 ,the workman1 who at this season earns a second harvest by this pursuit1 carries on his industry in wilder districts1 or he frequently obtains permission from his employer to set springes in his master's woods4 ,in this case he supplies the family with birds1 which are highly appreciated as a delicacy1 especially when almost covered with butter1 with a few juniper berries1 and some bacon cut into small dice and baked in a pan4 ,the rest of his take he sells at from #e;d4 to #aj;d4 per dozen4 ,no person who has not lived in the country can imagine the excitement among all classes when the grives arrive4 ,if the morning be foggy1 it is a good day for grives2 if bright1 bad tenderie6 ,the reason is obvious4 ,when the birds arrive in a fog they settle at once in the woods2 if bright1 they fly about1 seeking the most propitious place for food4 ,it appears that redwings and fieldfares are caught by this method also1 as well as a few ring-ousels and blackbirds4 ,stonehenge says that the springe just described was used for snaring woodcocks1 in the following mariner3 ,it used to be the constant practice on all the hill downs in these parts to place out underwood or furze1 about a foot in height1 to a very great extent along the ground1 in the shape of a letter ,v1 at the apex of which an opening would be left1 where a hair noose or springe would be set1 which seldom failed to yield the pot-hunter a nightly supply1 as the cock would run along the side of the brushwood feeding1 not taking the trouble to top over it1 until he was led into the snare2 but this plan is now1 owing to the scarcity of cocks1 when compared with former years1 very seldom practised4 ,ptarmigan are said by ,daniels1 in his ,rural ,sports1 to be led up to springes in nearly the same manner1 stones being substituted for furze4 ,another mode of making a springe1 which is a capital plan for catching almost any bird1 whether it be a percher or a runner1 is this3 ,procure an elastic wand 7hazel or osier makes the best7 of about #c ft4 #f in4 long1 to the top of which tie a piece of twisted horsehair about #c in4 in length2 to the free end attach a little piece of wood of #b in4 in length1 by the middle1 cutting one end to an obtuse point1 flattened on the top and underneath4 ,just underneath this little crosspiece attach two horsehair springes1 at right angles2 next cut a little fork1 or rather angle piece1 from a tree1 one end of which is to be quite #d in4 long 7to drive in the ground71 the other end about #j4e in1 measuring from underneath4 ,to set this trap1 push the long wand into the ground until about #c ft4 of it is out2 then1 at a distance of #b ft1 drive in the fork piece1 until only #j4e in4 clears the ground2 next bend the wand down in the form of a bow1 and bring the pointed end of the crosspiece under the peg1 or fork1 planted in the ground at the other end4 ,the free end is now a little elevated1 while the middle is held very lightly on the point of the catch1 and its opposite end rests lightly on the ground4 ,on the ticklish setting of this everything depends4 ,next place some blades of grass or light moss so as to hide the fork piece at the back and sides1 taking care that no small sticks interfere with the proper working of the trap2 strew some suitable seed or bait on the grass or moss1 and then carefully place one horsehair noose in such a manner as to trap a bird should it merely hop on the crosspiece1 and the other noose arrange so as to catch it by the neck should it attempt to seize the bait or to pass4 ,in either case it dislodges the crosspiece1 which instantly flies up1 suspending the bird by the neck or legs in one or both of the nooses4 ,the appearance of the set trap before the grass or moss is arranged is as represented in ,fig4 #b1 which ,i have drawn from a trap set for that purpose4 ,sometimes this trap 7or properly springe7 is set with another fork placed at right angles to the other1 and sufficiently distant from it to just catch the opposite end of the crosspiece1 and though1 perhaps1 this plan allows it to be set a little finer1 it has many disadvantages4 ,fig4 #b--,,springe1 ,,or ,,snare ,,for ,,birds4 ,yet another modification of the same springe4 ,the wand or spring-stick1 crosspiece1 and nooses as before1 but instead of the simple catch1 use a complete bow1 with both ends stuck in the ground4 ,at some little distance from this drive in a straight piece of stick2 next procure a piece of stick with a complete fork or crutch at one end4 ,to set it1 draw down the spring-stick and pull the crosspiece under the bow by the top side farthest from the spring-stick4 ,now hold it firmly with one hand while you place the forked stick with its crutch pressing against the opposite upright stick1 and bring its free end against the lower end of the crosspiece1 and adjust both as finely as you can4 ,finally1 arrange the nooses in such a manner that if either of them or the crutched stick is touched the latter falls1 and releasing the crosspiece1 the spring-stick flies up1 and the bird with it4 ,to see the setting of this at a glance1 vide ,fig4 #c 7showing only one noose1 however71 which ,i have cribbed from a tail piece of ,bewick's1 putting it a little out of drawing to show it up4 ,fig4 #c--,springe ,,for ,,snipe4 ,the next simple trap to be considered is evidently the pit-fall1 used only1 however1 for large and fierce animals1 and varying in construction in different countries4 ,for descriptions of methods of baiting for and catching such animals as lions1 leopards1 tigers1 elephants1 etc1 consult almost any book on ,african or ,indian field sports4 ,of poisons or intoxicants for capturing birds or animals1 ,i do not intend to treat1 as they are better left to gamekeepers and poachers4 ,dead-falls1 such as the ,figure of #d trap1 are easy to make1 and useful for killing small animals4 ,the materials required are simply three ordinary pieces of wood1 a small piece of string1 or1 better still1 wire1 and a large1 heavy1 flat paving stone1 or slate4 ,having procured three pieces of wood of half an inch square by one foot long1 we call one the upright1 which is simply brought to a point at one end1 somewhat like a chisel4 ,the second is the slanting stick1 which should be cut to about #h in4 long1 having a nick in it about half an inch from one end1 about half way through its depth2 the other end is brought to a chisel point on its upper surface2 the third1 which is the foot or bait stick1 has a square notch1 the thickness of the upright1 cut in it1 about three inches from one end2 the inner end of this notch is relieved a little1 so as not to bind on the upright too much4 ,within half an inch of the other end another notch is cut1 but at right angles to the last1 that is to say1 this last notch is cut on the top1 while the other is cut at the side2 the outer or top notch also slopes inward4 ,at the inner or side notch end drill a little hole1 through which place a piece of pointed wire to receive the bait4 ,the appearance of the three sticks when set is best explained by ,fig #d2 ,a4 is the upright1 ,b the slanting stick1 and ,c bait or bottom stick4 ,to set it1 take the upright in the left hand1 chisel point up1 pick up ,b with the right hand1 place it with its notch fitting on the top of ,a1 and keeping the slanting stick pressed down firmly1 you hold the two in proper position4 ,this has relieved the left hand entirely1 which now is used to pick up c2 place the side notch of this on the upright ,a1 slide it up until its end nick is caught by the point of ,b2 a sufficient leverage1 as it were1 being attained on this1 we can hold the whole of the trap now with the right hand4 ,by grasping ,b with the fingers of the hand in opposition to the palm1 while the thumb presses it down on the top1 the left hand1 being at liberty1 is used to drag the stone and to raise one end to fall on the top of ,b2 the weight of the stone now sets the three parts in opposition to each other4 ,an animal touching the bait in the slightest manner is sufficient to destroy the nice balance of the whole affair1 and down it comes with a run4 ,the sizes given--from a trap ,i have just set--are1 of course1 for small animals only1 but it may be enlarged or decreased to any extent1 at the pleasure of the operator4 ,fig4 #d--;,,figure of #d ,,trap4 ,as ,stonehenge and ,high ,elms have introduced some improvements1 ,i may as well quote the former3 ,the ,figure of #d trap is composed of a large square piece of stone or slate propped up in a peculiar manner with three pieces of wood1 which are arranged in the shape of a #d4 ,in examining this figure it will be seen to consist of a perpendicular limb or upright1 of a horizontal one or stretcher1 and of a short slanting stick1 as the third is called4 ,the upright is usually cut about half an inch wide1 shaved to a thin edge at top1 but ,high ,elms recommends it to have a forked foot to keep it from twisting1 and a notch in it to prevent the stretcher slipping down4 ,the slanting stick has a notch cut in it half an inch from its upper end to receive the top of the upright1 while its lower end is shaved off to fit in a notch in the upper surface of the front of the stretcher4 ,lastly1 the stretcher has this notch in front1 and another notch cut in its side by which it is caught by the upright and held in its place4 ,a bait being tied to the external end of the stretcher1 and a stone placed so that it will lie flat on the ground1 the whole is ready for setting1 which is effected as follows3 ,raise the stone1 and support it by the notched end of the slanting stick held in the left hand1 the notch itself looking downwards1 then place the upright with one end on the ground and the other in this notch1 and let it carry the weight of the stone1 which will have a tendency to tilt up the slanting stick still held down by the left hand2 finally1 hitch the middle notch of the stretcher in the upright1 with its front notch facing upwards1 then bring the lower end of the slanting stick down to this front notch1 drop it in1 and the trap is set4 ,of course1 it requires that each part shall be carefully adapted to the others1 but when the trap is seen set it will be readily understood1 practice being1 however1 required to set it properly4 ,i quite agree with ,high ,elms that the footed upright is an improvement2 but ,i am inclined to doubt the advantage of the double notch between the upright and the stretcher4 ,i have tried both1 and ,i cannot find that there is any great superiority in his plan2 but1 perhaps1 though ,i have exactly followed his directions as given in the ,field1 ,i may have omitted some point of practical importance4 ,in setting the ,figure of #d trap1 the height of the upright and the size and weight of the stone will be proportioned to the animal for which it is set4 ,i do not like the trap myself1 as it cannot be concealed so well as the steel trap1 and1 indeed1 has no advantage except in cheapness4 ,dozens of them may be set in the woods1 and if stolen little harm is done1 as the cost is barely a penny apiece if made in large numbers4 ,i have also known pheasants caught by the head and killed in them1 the flesh with which they are baited being often attractive to tame-bred birds1 which usually are fed with more or less of it in their rearing4 ,mr4 ,g4 ,s4 ,purden has informed me that he has succeeded in capturing birds alive with this trap by hollowing out the ground where the stone falls4 ,another deadfall for taking capercailzie in ,norway is described by ,mr4 ,yarnell in his ,british ,birds3 ,where the trees grow thickly on either side of a footpath1 two long pieces of wood are placed across it2 one end of these rests on the ground1 the other being raised a foot and a half1 or somewhat more1 from the surface1 and supported by a piece communicating with a triangular twig1 placed in the centre of the path1 and so contrived that on being slightly touched the whole fabric falls2 a few stones are usually placed upon the long pieces of wood to increase the rapidity of the drop by the additional weight4 ,birds running along the footpath attempt to pass beneath the barrier1 strike the twig1 and are killed by the fall of the trap4 ,taking birds by means of bird-lime is my next consideration4 ,bird-lime is made either from boiled oil or from holly-bark1 but the making of it is not worth the candle1 it being so easily bought from any professional bird-catcher4 ,to those who wish to make their own1 ,i commend the following3 ,take half a pint of linseed oil and put it into an old pot1 or any vessel that will stand the fire without breaking4 ,the vessel should not be more than one-third full4 ,place it over a slow fire and stir it until it thickens as much as required4 ,this can be ascertained by cooling the stick in water and trying if it will stick to the fingers4 ,when sufficiently boiled1 pour into cold water1 and it will be found ready for use4 ,i have submitted the foregoing to a practical birdcatcher and maker of bird-lime1 and he has passed it as correct1 only adding that the oil takes somewhere about four hours to slowly boil before it becomes sufficiently tenacious for use4 ,holly-bark he does not believe in1 as he says it takes too long to make2 but that is no reason why we should pass over bird-lime made from this substance4 ,the ,encyclopaedia ,britannica says3 ,it is usually prepared by boiling holly-bark ten or twelve hours1 and when-the green coat is separated from the other it is covered up for a fortnight in a moist place2 then pounded into a rough paste1 and washed in a running stream till no motes appear4 ,it is next put up to ferment for four or five days1 and repeatedly skimmed4 ,to prepare it for use1 a third part of nut oil or thin grease must be incorporated with it over the fire4 ,bird-lime can also be made from many other plants1 but the best quality is made by either of the two methods mentioned above4 ,the ,edinburgh ,encyclopaedia says further that3 ,when bird-lime is about to be applied to use1 it should be made hot1 and the rods or twigs should be warmed a little before they be dipped in it4 ,where straws and cords are to be limed it should be very hot1 and after they are prepared they should be kept in a leather bag till used4 ,in order to prevent bird-lime from being congealed by cold1 it should be mixed with a little oil of petroleum2 and1 indeed1 before the common kind can be used at all1 it must be melted over the fire with a third part of nut oil or any thin grease1 if that has not been added in the preparation4 ,the smaller kinds of birds are frequently taken with bird-lime1 which is one of the most eligible modes in frost or snow1 when all sorts of small birds assemble in flocks1 and which may be used in various ways4 ,put the bird-lime into an earthen dish1 with the addition of one ounce of fresh lard to every quarter-pound of bird-lime1 and melt the whole gently over the fire4 ,take a quantity of wheat ears1 with a foot of the straw attached to thorn1 and1 having warmed the lime1 that it may spread the thinner1 lime about six inches of the straw from the bottom of the ears4 ,scatter a little chaff and thrashed ears over a compass of twenty yards2 stick the limed straws into the ground1 with the ears inclining downwards1 or even touching the surface2 traverse the adjoining places in order to disturb the birds1 and make them fly towards the snare1 and1 by pecking at the ears of corn1 they will become so entangled with the limed straw as to be easily taken by the hand4 ,the lime may also be applied to cords1 rods1 and twigs1 especially when it is intended to entangle the larger birds1 such as snipes and fieldfares1 and for this purpose the following mode may be adopted3 ,take the main branch of any bushy tree1 with long1 straight1 and smooth twigs1 such as the willow or birch1 clear the twigs from every notch and prickle1 lime the branches to within four fingers of the bottom1 leaving the main bough from which the others rise untouched by the composition1 and then place the bush where the birds resort4 ,for small birds two to three hundred single twigs1 about the thickness of a rush and three inches in length1 may be stuck in sheaves of flag and corn4 ,in hot and dry weather the twigs may be placed around the rivulets1 ditches1 and pools to which the birds come for drink1 covering the waters at the same time with brushwood1 so that they can have no access to quench their thirst1 except at the spot where the twigs are fixed4 ,for this purpose the rods or twigs should be about a foot in length1 limed to within two inches of the thickest end1 which is stuck into the bank in such a manner that they may lie within two fingers' breadth of the ground1 and as the birds do not alight at once upon the place where they are to drink1 but gradually descend from the higher trees to the lower1 thence to the bushes1 and lastly to the bank1 it is useful to fix a few branches about a fathom from the water in a sloping direction1 with a few lime twigs fastened upon them on which the birds will as frequently be caught as on those which are placed nearer to the water4 ,the best time for this sport is from ten to eleven in the forenoon1 from two to three in the afternoon1 and about an hour before sunset1 when the birds come to the watering places in flocks before they retire to roost4 ,the application of bird-lime is of ancient origin1 and is practised in many countries4 ,pennant gives an account of how to take ,small birds by liming twigs around a stuffed or tethered live owl4 ,i have heard of this plan being adopted1 but have not tried it myself4 ,from the curious manner in which small birds usually mob an owl1 ,i should fancy it would succeed4 ,according to ,folkard's ,wildfowler3 ,there was also a method much in vogue previously to the invention and discovery of decoys1 of taking wild fowl with lime strings made of packthread or string1 knotted in various ways and besmeared with birdlime2 these were set in rows about fens1 moors1 and other feeding haunts of the birds1 an hour or two before morning or evening twilight4 ,this plan was to procure a number of small stakes1 about #b ft4 in length1 sharpened to a point at the nether end1 and forked at the upper4 ,these were pricked out in rows about a yard or two apart1 some being placed in a slanting direction1 and each stake siding one with another1 within convenient distances of #d yds4 or #e yds1 so as to bear up the strings1 which were laid upon the crutches1 and placed loosely about #ah in4 above the ground4 ,the lime strings were thus drawn from stake to stake in various directions1 and lightly placed between the forks at the top of the stakes1 some rows being higher than others2 and in this manner the whole space occupied by the stakes was covered with lime strings1 as if carefully laid in wave-like coils1 or placed in different directions1 the ends being secured to the stakes with slip-knots1 so that upon a light strain the whole of any string which might be touched by the bird became instantly loose1 and1 sticking to the feathers1 the more it struggled to free itself1 so much the more the string twisted about it1 and thus the bird was quickly entangled1 and became an easy prey4 ,in this manner numbers of wild fowl of the largest species were taken at night at the moment of sweeping over the ground at very slow flight1 just before alighting2 and it would appear that this method of fowling was particularly successful in taking plovers1 which generally alight on the ground thickly congregated together4 ,a similar method was employed for taking wild fowl with lime strings placed over the surface of rivers and ponds frequented by those birds1 and apparently with remarkable success4 ,for this purpose it was necessary to procure a waterproof bird-lime wherewith to dress the strings1 which were knotted in a similar manner to those employed for taking birds on land4 ,the strings so prepared were in serpentine coils from stake to stake1 the stakes being forked at the top1 and of similar form to those last described1 but of sufficient length to reach the bottom of the water and obtain a firm fixing in the mud4 ,some of the stakes were placed on the banks of the water or in any manner so that the lime strings could be drawn across and about the surface in different directions1 resting here and there on some or other of the stakes or any boughs or overhanging trees1 in such a way that the birds1 when in the act of alighting on the water at night1 might strike against the lime strings and become therein entangled4 ,the principal secret of success in this and the preceding device was that of placing the lime strings in shaded places over the most assured haunts of the birds2 and it was only obtainable on dark nights1 or in good shade1 for whenever there was sufficient light for the birds to see the least sign of the snare spread for them the fowler had no chance of making any captives4 7,and be sure to take this caution not to use these strings in moonshine nights1 for the shadow of the line will create a jealousy in the fowl1 and so frustrate your sport47 ,and as wildfowl in their descent1 just before alighting on the water1 diverge from their accustomed angular figure1 and spread themselves more in a broad front line1 a whole flight sometimes comes swooping into the fowler's snare all at once4 ,a method of trapping1 with the assistance of bird-lime1 might1 ,i think1 be tried with some chance of success4 ,it is to insert a piece of fish in a cone of paper well smeared with bird-lime1 and to throw down a few of these prepared cones in places accessible to gulls1 herons1 and such birds1 who1 in attempting to seize the fish1 would be effectually hoodwinked1 and thus easily secured4 ,hawking1 by which birds are captured by trained falcons1 is of the highest antiquity4 ,pennant mentions that the ,saxon ,king ,ethelbert 7who died in #gfj7 sent to ,germany for a cast of falcons to fly at cranes 7herons874 ,as this sport has now fallen into disuse1 ,i must refer my readers for particulars to ,blaine1 ,daniel1 ,freeman1 ,harting1 ,captain ,dugmore1 and to occasional articles by one or two modern falconers in the columns of the ,field4 ,the infinite variety of nets used in the capture of various birds requires almost a chapter by itself2 but it will suffice for the present one if we mention those most generally used1 or the most striking varieties4 ,first1 then1 comes the ordinary clap-net of the ,london and provincial bird-catchers4 ,the ,edinburgh ,encyclopaedia says1 with regard to clap-nets3 ,birds are also taken with nets during the day1 and especially in those seasons of the year when they change their situation2 in the month of ,october1 for instance1 when the wild birds begin to fly1 and in ,march1 when the smaller kinds assemble for pairing4 ,they are chiefly on the wing from daybreak to noon1 and always fly against the wind4 ,the birdcatchers1 therefore1 lay their nets towards that point to which the wind blows4 ,the nets employed in this way are generally #ab4e yds4 long and #b4e yds4 wide1 and are spread on the ground parallel to each other1 in such a manner as to meet when turned over4 ,they are provided with lines1 fastened in such a way that1 by a sudden pull1 the birdcatcher is able to draw them over the birds that may have alighted in the space between those parallel sides4 ,in order to entice the wild birds to alight amongst the nets1 call birds are employed1 of which there must be one or two of each of the different kinds which are expected to be caught1 such as linnets1 goldfinches1 greenfinches1 etc4 ,besides the call birds there are others denominated flur birds1 which are placed upon a moveable perch within the net1 called a flur1 and which can be raised or depressed at pleasure1 and these are secured to the flur by means of a brace or bandage of slender silk strongly fastened round the body of the bird4 ,the call birds are deposited in cages at a little distance from the nets1 and as soon as they see or hear the approach of the wild birds1 which they perceive long before it can be observed by the birdcatcher1 they announce the intelligence from cage to cage with the greatest appearance of joy1 and they proceed to invite them to alight by a succession of notes or short jerks1 as they are termed by the birdcatcher1 which may often be heard at a considerable distance4 ,the moment that the call is heard by the wild birds they stop their flight and descend towards the net1 and so great is the ascendancy and fascination of the call birds that they can induce the others to return repeatedly to the nets till every bird in the flock be caught4 ,being somewhat afraid that this description would not meet all the practical requirements of the case1 and knowing myself but little or nothing of this mode of birdcatching1 ,i thought it advisable to interview a practical man4 ,having at last succeeded in capturing a specimen of the genus homo1 species birdcatcher1 ,i prevailed upon him 7through the medium of a tip7 to impart his stock of birdcatching lore1 and to cut me patterns of play-sticks and pegs1 and also to correct my rough sketches when necessary4 ,the sum and substance of my interview is as follows3 ,the nets1 which are of two pieces1 are each about twelve yards long by two-and-a-half yards wide1 and are made with a three-quarter mesh of what is technically called two-thread4 ,the staves at each end1 to which the nets are permanently attached1 are made of red deal1 ferruled and jointed at the middle1 in the manner of a fishing rod1 for the convenience of carriage4 ,the length of each when put together is about five feet six inches1 being thus shorter than the width of the net4 ,this1 it will be readily observed1 allows for the bagging of the net--an important particular1 as1 if the nets were strained tight with no allowance made for bagging1 the birds would flutter along the ground until they got out at one end or the other4 ,as it is1 they roll themselves up in the meshes1 and effectually entangle themselves while attempting to escape4 ,a strong line1 called the top line1 made of clock line1 passes the whole length of each net1 and is protracted some feet past the staves at either end4 ,a similar line runs along the bottom made of three-thread or whip thread4 ,this is called the bottom line4 ,there are then two unattached cords of some strength1 called the pull line and the forked line1 which latter is attached1 when required for use1 to the two staves nearest the birdcatcher1 at the intersection of the top line4 ,eight pegs are used1 made of hard wood1 generally ash1 four of which are called the chief pegs4 ,the whole of the pegs are notched1 for the convenience of attaching a line4 ,the method of laying the clap-net is best described with the aid of a drawing 7vide ,fig4 #e74 ,the first thing to be done is to lay down the right-hand net1 and to drive in the two chief pegs where shown1 namely1 at the bottom of the staves1 to which they are attached by a loop of strong cord1 acting as a hinge4 ,the two end pegs are then driven in the ground at some little distance from and in an exact line to the chief pegs4 ,the bottom line is then made fast at each end1 as also the continuation of the top line4 ,the two pegs1 lines1 and staff thus forma triangle at each end4 ,the other net is then laid in such a manner that when both are pulled over1 one net shall overlap the other to the extent of six inches4 ,it is then turned back and pegged down in the same way as the right-hand net4 ,the next operation is to tie the forked line to each top end of the staves1 a nick being cut in each for this purpose4 ,exactly in the centre of the forked line the pull line is knotted1 at the other end of which the birdcatcher stands at varying distances1 according to the bird he wishes to catch2 for instance1 for linnets or goldfinches1 thirty to forty yards2 for starlings a greater distance is required2 or to capture these wary birds a better plan is to place the nets in one field while you retire into another1 bringing the pull line through an intervening hedge4 ,cages containing birds are dispersed about on the outer edges of the nets1 the best1 or call birds1 being placed farther away2 in fact1 my informant thinks that if all the cages were placed a moderate distance away from the nets it would be better1 as he has found that the usual red or green cages have been the means of bashing --i4e4 frightening--the wild birds away from the nets4 ,fig4 #e--,,plan ,,and ,,method ,,of ,,setting ,,clap-,,net4 ,when doctors differ1 who shall decide8 ,on mentioning the above to another birdcatcher he gave a huge snort of dissatisfaction1 and roundly swore that my man knew nought about it1 for he always set his cages as near the nets as possible2 for don't it stand to reason1 quoth he1 that if you set your cages fur away1 your 'call birds' will 'tice the wild 'uns down round 'em8 an' they won't come near your nets4 ,an important actor in the performance is the play-bird1 which is a bird braced by a peculiar knot or brace1 as shown in ,fig4 #f1 on an arrangement called the play-stick4 ,the play-stick is resolvable into three parts1 ,fig4 #g being the ground peg1 formed of a piece of hard wood about six inches long1 having a round hole bored through close to the top1 through which the play-line passes4 ,immediately underneath is a square slot for the reception of a piece of brass tube beaten flat at one end 7,fig4 #h71 while the other end is left open for the reception of the play-stick 7,c1 ,fig4 #i71 simply a rough twig or piece of hard wood1 upon which the bird is tied by the brace 7,fig4 #f7--which is constructed1 as shown in drawing1 by doubling a piece of string1 tying a knot in the centre and then joining the ends4 ,the head and body of the bird is thrust through1 so that a loop catches it on each side and in front of the wings1 the legs and tail being thrust through the other1 one loop coming on each side of the body behind the wings4 ,a swivel is attached at one of the knots1 and1 by another piece of string1 is made fast to the play-stick near its end4 ,the bird is thus perfectly free so far as the wings and legs are concerned4 ,fig4 #f1 #g #h--,play-stick parts ,the play-stick1 as a whole1 is represented in ,fig4 #i1 which shows the bird in repose1 with the end of the stick 7,c7 resting on the ground1 the play-line passing through a hole in the ground peg 7,a71 while the part marked ,b works in the slot in the same4 ,a little food and water are put down by the play-bird's side1 to which it addresses itself in its intervals of rest4 ,directly birds appear1 the play-line is smartly pulled1 which has the effect of jerking the play-bird upwards1 while at the same time it flutters its wings to regain its perch4 ,this motion is mistaken by the wild birds as a natural proceeding2 they accordingly alight around the play-bird1 to assist it in feeding4 ,the pull-line of the net is then smartly jerked1 which causes the forked-line to fly inwards1 and1 acting on the hinged pegs and top and bottom lines as by a lever1 the staves rise from the outside1 become perpendicular1 and finally fall over1 inclosing all within the open space in the nets4 ,fig4 #i--;,,flur ,,or ,,play-,,stick4 ,the ,play-bird is always placed on the left hand of the birdcatcher1 about two yards into the net4 ,sometimes more than one play-stick and bird are used2 all are1 however1 played by the same string4 ,the best birds are1 however1 contrary to my expectations1 not used1 as the constant pulling up and down1 to say nothing of the worry of the falling nets1 very soon kills the poor little play-bird4 ,from ,michaelmas to ,christmas would appear to be the best times for catching4 ,many rare birds not calculated on by the operator1 are procured in this way4 ,i allude to hawks1 which constantly dash at the call1 or play-birds1 of the netsman4 ,i remember seeing1 taken in a lark net on the racecourse of ,corfu--one of the ,ionian ,isles--a most beautiful male specimen of the hen harrier 7,circus cyaneus1 ,macg472 and here in ,england ,i have received1 within the last few years1 one great grey shrike 7,lanus excubitor1 #a471 four or five hobby hawks 7,falco subbuteo1 #a471 a dozen or more merlins 7,falco oesalon1 ,tunstall71 and a great number of sparrowhawks1 and kestrels1 all captured by this method4 ,draw-nets are those used by fen-men and others at night for taking lark1 snipe1 plover1 etc1 by dragging a long net of a certain construction over the fields and swamps4 ,the actual originator of this method of capture as applied to snipe and such birds1 appears to have been ,mr4 ,daniel himself 7vide ,rural ,sports1 vol4 #c1 p4 #agi74 ,glade nets1 which are nets stretched in narrow glades or ridings in woods from tree to tree1 are used chiefly for taking night-flying birds1 such as woodcocks1 or wild ducks4 ,folkard thus describes their use3 ,the proceedings connected with the use of glade nets appear to be very simple4 ,these nets are of lengths and breadths proportioned to the places in which they are suspended4 ,they are simply pieces of fine thread netting1 edged with cords adapted to the extent of the lint4 ,the glade net so formed is suspended between two trees1 directly in the track of the woodcock's flight4 ,both the upper and lower corners have each a rope attached to them which1 as regards the upper part of the net1 is rove through sheaves1 iron rings1 or thimbles fastened to the trees on either side at the top of the glade at a moderate height1 varying from ten to twelve or fifteen feet4 ,the falls of the two upper ropes are joined or so adjusted that they form a bridge1 to the central part of which a rope is attached of several yards in length1 which the fowler holds in his hand in a place of concealment1 and thus commands full power over the net1 being able to drop it down suddenly and intercept the flight of any birds which may attempt to escape through the glade2 or he can draw it up as suddenly from the ground to a perpendicular position4 ,a stone1 of about #e lb4 weight1 is attached to each of the lower cords of the net1 so that when the fowler lets go his controlling rope the weight of the stones forces the lower part of the net down in an instant with a strong fall1 and1 at the same time1 they draw up the upper part of the net4 ,the fowler having stationed himself in such a position as to command a full view of the glade in which his net is placed1 beaters are employed to flush the cocks from their retreats2 immediately on one or more flying in the direction of the fowler a signal is given1 and just as the bird approaches the net it is suddenly let down or drawn up1 when the woodcock1 flying forcibly against it1 is immediately ensnared4 ,the instant the birds have struck the net the fowler lets go another rope1 which is generally looped to a stake within reach of his arm1 and the whole net1 with the birds entangled1 then drops to the ground4 ,in forcing themselves forward in their endeavour to escape they form the net into a sort of bag1 which makes their capture more certain4 ,nets are in some parts of the world set under water to procure wild fowl4 ,i remember1 when in ,norfolk1 a gannet being brought in by one of the fishing boats2 the bird had become accidentally entangled in one of the nets whilst attempting to rob-it of some fish4 ,small nets of a few yards long1 made of fine black silk1 with a small mesh1 are used in some parts of the country for taking kingfishers4 ,these nets are stretched across a small watercourse or the arch of a bridge in such a manner that1 a little slack being allowed1 the bird is taken to a certainty in attempting to pass4 ,so fatal is this net when skilfully set1 that ,i know one man who adds several pounds to his income in the course of a year by taking kingfishers in this manner4 ,for the netting of hawks by a contrivance called the bow net1 which was formerly used in ,england1 see ,blaine's ,encyclopaedia of ,rural ,sports4 ,many birds 7notably sea and rock birds7 are to be procured by descending the rocks attached to a stout line4 ,but this highly dangerous work had better not be attempted by the tyro4 ,for an ancient but interesting account of rock fowling in the ,orkneys1 see ,pennant's ,arctic ,zoology1 page #bi4 ,the same system is still adopted on many parts of the coast4 ,in fact1 ,i recollect 7when some years ago ,i visited the ,isle of ,wight on a collecting expedition7 seeing two men with ropes and an iron bar going to the top of the ,bench 7a famous place for sea fowl71 and while one man was let down over the edge of the cliff his fellow remained at the top to answer the pull of the bird-line and look after the safety of the man-rope and iron bar4 ,so fascinating did this appear to me that1 having been between heaven and earth once or twice before1 ,i volunteered to go below2 but ,i found that the fowlers did not care for the risk1 or the loss of time1 and booty1 involved in letting an amateur down4 ,it was1 indeed1 a wonderful sight4 ,i crept as closely as ,i dared1 and lying on my breast looked over the cliff4 ,hundreds of feet down1 the sea1 lashed into breakers by the breeze1 crept up the steep black rock walls1 or tumbled over the half-hidden crags2 and yet1 though you could see the white war of waters1 but the faintest murmur of this battle between land and sea could be heard--below and halfway up1 the puffins and guillemots were sitting in rows1 or flying off in droves as little black specks on the white foam4 ,here ,i learned that they often baited fish-hooks with offal or pieces of fish1 for the purpose of catching the gulls1 and this brought to my mind the quantities of robins1 thrushes1 and such birds ,i had seen caught by fish-hooks baited with worms and pegged down in the olive groves of the ,ionian ,sea4 ,i notice that ,pennant mentions that the lapwing is decoyed into nets by the twirling of looking glass4 ,i have seen exactly the same thing myself on the ,continent applied to the taking of larks4 ,a cylinder of wood1 inlaid with pieces of looking-glass1 is fixed 'between two uprights1 and made to revolve by means of a small crank and wheel1 to which a line is attached4 ,the netsman1 retiring to some little distance1 keeps the cylinder in constant motion by pulling the line1 at the same time keeping up a soft whistling noise with his mouth4 ,the larks flutter over the twirler1 and seemingly dazzled1 descend on the ground between the nets which are then pulled over in the usual manner4 ,steel traps are of many shapes and sizes1 and are best procured ready made from a good firm1 though ,i have known a few country blacksmiths who could turn them out decently4 ,as everyone knows this1 the ordinary gin1 or tooth trap1 used for capturing rats or other animals and birds1 no description is1 ,i think necessary1 further than to say that the springs should be highly tempered1 and that the teeth should not be too long4 ,these traps can be set in various places with or without baits--in the water1 on the ground1 up a tree1 or on a post2 but post-traps proper1 which are chiefly useful1 when set unbaited1 for catching hawks1 are made with an arm and spring at right angles to the plate1 so that they may be fastened to the post which supports them4 ,in setting these traps great care and skill are necessary2 and in giving directions how to do this properly1 ,i cannot do better than quote ,stonehenge1 who says3 ,first lay the trap on the ground1 then mark the outline of it1 allowing half an inch clear all round2 out away the turf to this pattern1 and in the centre dig a hole deep enough to receive a strong peg and the chain which fastens the trap to it1 which will thus be entirely concealed2 drive in the peg1 arrange the chain neatly upon this and in the channel for the spring1 and then set the trap in its place1 temporarily propping up the plate by a piece of twig1 which can finally be withdrawn by a string2 take care so to out away the turf that the jaws are only just below the level of the ground4 ,having done this1 cut a very thin slice of the turf which was removed to make way for the trap1 leaving little more than the grass itself with a ragged edge1 and lay this gently on the plate1 and withdraw the prop4 ,then cover the spring in the same way2 and1 lastly1 put some more shreds of grass or leaves over the jaws themselves1 but in such a way that the former will not be caught between the teeth when the trap is sprung4 ,when the keeper can do all this so neatly that the trap cannot be discovered by the eye at two or three yards distance1 and yet will be sprung by half an ounce weight being placed upon the plate over and above what it has already1 and without leaving anything between the jaws1 he may be considered a master of his craft4 ,all this should be done with strong leather gloves on the hands1 and with as little breathing over the trap as possible4 ,the object of these precautions is to avoid leaving any scent behind1 which might alarm the vermin1 who are always suspicions of any place where they have reason to believe man has been at work4 ,daniel1 in his ,rural ,sports1 says3 ,otters are taken in an unbaited trap1 for they reject every kind of bait1 ,this trap must be placed near his landing place1 which will be found by carefully examining the edges of rivers or ponds1 either by his spraints1 his seal1 or the remains of fish 7for in whatever place he eats his plunder he always leaves the tail or hinder parts of the fish undevoured74 ,the trap must be set in and covered with mud to prevent his seeing it2 the instant the trap strikes1 the otter plunges into the water with it1 when its weight1 preventing his rising to the surface1 soon destroys him4 ,the trap will seldom be drawn more than twenty yards from the spot1 and with a grappling iron is soon recovered4 ,if the place where he comes out of the water cannot be discovered1 upon the ground where the remains of fish are left1 out a hole near the edge of the water1 and place a trap or two upon a level with the ground and cover it over carefully with moss4 ,this aqueous method of trapping1 is also recommended for taking all birds of the crow tribe4 ,the bait in this case is an egg1 so secured that on the bird walking along a prepared pathway to seize the delicacy he springs a concealed trap1 and fluttering into deep water drowns by the weight of the attachment4 ,another method of setting the trap on land for the taking of some animals1 which1 says ,daniel1 speaking of the marten 7now a rare animal in most parts of ,england71 is a sure way of catching this destructive little animal in a park or covert which is railed in1 is to cut a groove in some of the posts or gate posts1 in which set an unbaited steel trap1 and as they constantly run along the posts and pales early in the morning to dry themselves1 in leaping up from the ground upon the place where the trap is set1 they are sure to be captured4 ,fish is recommended as bait for weasels1 polecats1 etc1 although ,i think the best way of trapping such animals is to form an enclosure of brushwood1 etc1 in which peg down some live bird1 leading two narrow pathways from it from each end and exactly opposite each other1 in each of which place an ordinary steel trap1 unbaited1 concealed in as skilful a manner as possible4 ,the animal running along one of these pathways1 to seize his prey1 is inevitably trapped4 ,be sure and have two openings1 or this plan will not succeed4 ,cats may be trapped in this manner4 ,st4 ,john1 in his ,highland ,sports1 mentions that if a wild cat1 or fox1 can be killed1 and the body placed in the usual haunts of its kind1 well surrounded with traps1 curiosity or some such feeling will impel them to visit the dear departed1 and in walking round they often succeed in springing the traps1 and remaining as mourners in a fashion they did not intend4 ,hawks may be trapped by first capturing their young1 and pegging one or more to the ground1 and surrounding it or them by concealed traps4 ,this cruel but highly effective way succeeds by reason of the old birds seeing or hearing their young1 and attempting to release them4 ,if part of a bird or animal killed by a hawk can be found1 a good plan is to allow it to remain1 surrounding it also with concealed traps1 as they usually return to finish their meal1 and that sometimes after the lapse of days4 ,the box trap is used for catching many animals for which the ordinary gin is used2 but the advantage which it possesses over the latter is that it captures all animals alive1 which1 in the case of a hare or a rabbit accidentally getting in1 is of consequence1 as it may be released unhurt1 whereas the ordinary steel trap1 if accidentally sprung by them1 would have killed or maimed them to a certainty4 ,these box traps can be bought ready-made at many places2 but1 for those who wish to make one themselves1 ,i must refer them for plans and description to ,col4 ,hawker1 or ,stonehenge4 ,almost anything does to bait a gin or box trap with--bits of flesh1 fish1 offal1 half-cooked red herrings1 etc4--and it is a generally understood thing that if half-putrid flesh or entrails of any animal are rubbed over traps or the thorns or bushes placed as entrances to traps1 hares and the like will seldom go near4 ,of course1 a very small trap must be used for small birds1 and baited either with seeds1 bread1 worms1 or a small piece of fat meat1 which latter is a most tempting bait for the birds of the genus ,parus 7titmice74 ,there are several other made traps1 such as the trap cage2 the best of which has a bird as a decoy partitioned off from the actual trap4 ,this is a useful little trap in some seasons1 and is well known1 being easily procurable at any of the bird fanciers'4 ,mr4 ,james ,hiam1 well known in ,worcestershire for his ,notes on ,natural ,history1 sends me the following description of his method of trapping bullfinches3 ,i find the best way to trap bullfinches is to procure a caged bird1 also what is known as a trap-cage1 putting the tame bird in the lower part1 placing a bunch of blackberries or privet berries in the top part2 and hanging the cage against a wall or tree out of the reach of cats4 ,i have reserved a stook of bunches of blackberries by inserting their stems in water1 grape-fashion1 for a succession of food for bait4 ,i have also caught scores1 if not hundreds1 on bird-lime1 but this injures their plumage and is somewhat troublesome1 especially to anyone not accustomed to handle it4 ,i have also caught them in a bat fowling net at night out of thick hedges4 ,i find a trap cage or cages best1 for bullfinches generally go in small parties1 and ,i have taken two out at once from two separate cages1 while others waited round and were caught afterwards4 ,the well-known and easily imitated call of the bullfinch at this season of the year 7autumn7 appears to have a greater attraction--for what reason ,i cannot say--than at any other period2 there is also a great difference in individual call birds4 ,the best should be selected4 ,when fresh caught1 bullfinches are best placed in a low kind of box cage about six inches deep1 with wires only on one side4 ,such cage may be easily made out of a soap box from the grocer's1 giving them a good supply of canary and hemp seed and water4 ,if they refuse to eat the seed1 which sometimes happens1 give a few blackberries or such other food as they feed on at the time2 the seed of the dock is always a favourite dish in the winter1 and the probability is in a day or two they will take to the seed1 which should be strewed over the bottom of the cage4 ,the nightingale trap 7perhaps not quite so well known7 is a compromise between the bow net and the spring trap2 it is useful for taking most insectivorous birds1 is easily made by anyone possessing a little mechanical ability1 and is to be bought cheaply at most of the bird shops4 ,as ,i have been asked1 however1 by many correspondents in the country1 where such things are to be procured1 they are informed that in the classic retreat of the ,seven ,dials--that is to say1 in the street running through from ,charing ,cross to ,bloomsbury--are to be found many bird fanciers' shops where the nightingale trap can be procured for something under a couple of shillings4 ,in setting all of these traps be sure to touch them with the hands as little as possible1 especially if setting a baited trap4 ,gloves are recommended to be worn1 scented with musk when baiting for stoats1 weasels1 etc1 and with vervain or valerian if baiting for cats4 ,i will proceed now to the consideration of decoys4 ,decoys are of two classes1 fixed and mechanical1 or those easily removable and natural4 ,of the former the most important is what is called a decoy for wild fowl1 viz1 a large tract of land and water specially fitted up with nets of the sorts most suitable for taking ducks and similar birds1 and near which it is unlawful to fire a gun4 ,for a thoroughly exhaustive and interesting article on decoy ponds1 see ,folkard's ,wild ,fowler1 pp4 #dd-id4 ,some singular and highly original methods of catching birds are described by ancient and modern authors4 ,pennant1 in his ,arctic ,zoology1 vol4 ii1 page #eej1 describes a quaint but doubtful method of decoying wild geese in ,siberia2 he also1 at page #caa1 records how immense numbers of willow grouse are taken by a curious mode of netting4 ,folkard also mentions an ingenious way of capturing wild fowl in their own element by the aid of calabashes4 ,this1 however1 ,i think1 must be seen to be believed1 though ,i am bound to confess that it is partly corroborated by other writers4 ,of the lasso or the bolas1 used in ,south ,america for capturing certain animals and birds1 no description need be given1 as this method of trapping is only to be performed by a person trained from childhood to ride and throw the lasso4 ,the same remark applies to the use of the blowpipe 7see ,bates's ,amazons71 and the ,australian boomerang and throwstick4 ,regarding the use of the blowpipe1 ,i see that an ,american author on ,taxidermy1 who has written a very good book on the subject--albeit he has1 perhaps unwittingly1 cribbed my title of ,practical ,taxidermy--appears to have attained remarkable proficiency in the use of this weapon1 and describes also his method of making it1 thus3 ,the blowpipe is of great service for collecting warblers and other small birds4 ,it should be made by encasing a long glass tube in wood1 to prevent breaking4 ,the ordinary glass tubes used by glass-blowers make good blowpipes1 which should have a diameter of #j4e in4 and be not less than #f ft4 long4 ,to encase a pipe with wood1 take two strips of straight-grained pine1 and plane or gouge out a half-round groove the full length of each1 glue them together1 and wire firmly over the glass pipe4 ,when the glue is dry1 remove the wires1 and plane the wood round until it has a diameter of #a4e in42 if smaller it will sag1 and not do good shooting4 ,putty balls should be used1 and blown with a quick puff1 which is easily acquired by practice4 ,the putty is thickened with whiting until the pellets will roll hard1 but they should not be dry enough to crumble4 ,with this novel gun ,i have killed as many as fifty-six warblers in less than a day1 and spoiled but few specimens in killing4 ,rowland ,ward1 also1 in his ,sportsman's ,handbook1 appears to favour the use of the blowpipe1 and very correctly says at page #i3 ,the implement is so simple and so easily constructed that the price of it is inappreciable4 ,about #c ft4 length of any straight metal or wooden tubing1 #j4ge in4 diameter1 through which a pellet the size of a marble may be thrown1 will serve well1 but an even longer tube may be chosen4 ,the pellet should be of clay or any putty1 rolled in the hand to easily pass through the barrel without too much windage4 ,it should not touch the mouth1 but be lightly placed just in the orifice1 by stopping which with the thumb the tube can be conveniently carried loaded1 muzzle up1 ready for the most rapid use4 ,to propel the pellet the puff must be sudden and powerful4 ,there is a proper way of effecting this4 ,when a practitioner first begins to use the blow-pipe1 it is a common error to eject the breath only direct from the lungs2 he should acquire the habit of inflating his cheeks1 so as to make a storage of wind1 as it were1 for each shot2 that1 added to the breath from the lungs1 gives a force which will sometimes astonish him4 ,the hand follows the eye in aim1 and practice will often develop unthought-of proficiency4 ,the catapult is also a first-rate weapon in a skilful hand for procuring small birds4 ,i must confess ,i cannot use it as well as some young friends of mine1 who knock over nearly every sitting bird they aim at1 and even now and then are successful with such difficult shots as at swallows on the wing2 a novice1 on the contrary1 nearly always succeeds in stinging his fingers and missing the object aimed at4 ,i remember also1 when a boy1 using a very effective weapon1 which ,i should describe as a catapult gun4 ,it was1 if ,i recollect aright1 fashioned similarly to a cross bow1 the bolt1 however1 from which was ejected from a little wash-leather bag by means of very powerful ,india-rubber springs1 which being released by a trigger delivered a bullet or small shot from a tube with amazing force and precision4 ,i do not know if such guns are made now1 but ,i should imagine that anyone with a little ingenuity could construct one for himself4 ,all these appliances1 with the well-known air-gun1 are chiefly of use for collecting the smaller birds with a minimum of noise4 ,there are several small collecting guns made which do the work required in a much more thorough manner4 ,messrs4 ,bland1 gun-makers1 of ,birmingham1 some time since showed me an elegant little double-barrelled central fire gun1 which seems to be just the thing for the purpose4 ,messrs4 ,clarke1 of ,leicester1 also make a small single-barrelled central fire 4#daj-;bore collector's gun1 but as before observed1 they are only fit for small birds at short ranges4 ,i have lately procured a small walking-stick gun 4#daj-;bore1 central fire1 with a removeable stock1 which ,i have found of great service in collecting small birds--bringing down swifts and swallows flying1 at moderate ranges4 ,many birds1 especially males1 in the breeding season1 are taken by decoying them into nets or snares by tame or wild birds of the opposite sex2 in fact1 advantage was wont to be taken of the pugnacity or devotion of the ,ruffes when hilling1 by previously setting springes or nets on their battle-ground1 into which said snares they danced1 when courting or fighting 7see ,daniel1 vol4 ,u1 p4 #bab74 ,poachers also sometimes take cock pheasants by bringing an armed gamecock into the woods and hiding themselves1 while the domesticated bird challenges and gives battle to the unarmed wild one4 ,the boldness of cock pheasants during their breeding time is wonderful2 many instances having come under my notice of wild pheasants coming from the woods to do battle with aviary ones1 and also with farm-yard roosters4 ,a highly interesting account of the ludicrous actions and insensibility to fear of the capercailzie1 and blackgame1 when courting 7and through which they are easily shot71 is given by a writer on ,norway in the ,field of ,march #bg1 #ahge2 and this brings us to the greatest of all aids for the procuring of specimens--,i mean the shot-gun and rifle4 ,so much of success depends upon being a clever marksman1 and also upon having a good general knowledge of woodcraft1 that although for instructions in guns and shooting ,i refer the reader to ,col4 ,hawker1 ,daniel1 ,blaine1 ,stonehenge1 ,folkard1 ,greener1 ,wildfowler1 and many others1 yet a few words on some peculiar1 and in some cases well-known1 methods of decoying birds within gunshot1 may not be out of place4 ,the stalking-horse was1 no doubt1 the earliest decoy or shield under which the ancient fowler got near his birds with the crossbow or gun4 ,it was sometimes a mere framework of wood1 covered with painted canvas to represent a horse or cow1 or was a real animal trained to feed and move in a natural manner in the midst of the fowl4 ,in the first instance1 the fowler carried the framework in front of him1 and made his shot through an opening2 in the second case he gently urged the animal on1 hiding behind1 and making his shot under the belly1 or over the back4 ,for ancient methods of stalking1 see ,gervase ,markham2 for a modern method1 see ,bustard ,shooting in ,spain1 in the ,country of ,jan4 #ba1 #ahge1 and current pages of the ,field4 ,decoying birds by imitating their notes or cries is an art which the collector must acquire4 ,many mechanical calls for wood pigeons1 curfews1 and other birds are made4 ,one call1 which ,i do not think is made or used in ,england1 is a ,greek idea for decoying thrashes4 ,it is a whistle formed from two discs of thin silver or silvered copper1 each the size of1 or a little smaller than1 a graceless florin1 or say an inch across2 those discs are--one fully concave1 and the other slightly convex1 both have a hole in the centre and are soldered together by their edges in the manner shown in ,fig4 #aj4 ,footnote3 ,since writing this ,i find there are now sold to boys1 for the large sum of one-halfpenny1 whistles formed in tin1 of almost similar construction to those described4 ,i never yet found anyone to make them speak properly2 boys not knowing how to modulate or inspire the breath4 ,i have now tried one of them against my silver whistle1 and ,i cannot say which has the better tone4 ,fig4 #aj--;,,decoy ,,whistle ,,for ,,thrushes1 etc4 ,the concave part is placed in the mouth1 pressing against the teeth1 and by inspiring the breath and modulating the tones with the closed or open hands1 as the case may be1 a very perfect imitation of the song-thrush's note is the result4 ,this1 the arriving or newly-arrived birds hear1 and1 imagining it proceeds from the throat of one of their species1 who1 entirely at his ease1 is letting the ornithological world know how excessively overjoyed he is at his safe arrival1 alight in the trees which surround and conceal the treacherous imitator1 and quickly fall a prey to the ready gun4 ,so infatuated are they1 that enormous quantities are killed by this method early in the season2 in fact1 ,i knew one person who shot one hundred and four1 besides other birds1 to his own gun in one day4 ,quails may be called from a distance if the sportsman hides himself and imitates with his mouth their peculiar cry1 ,more wet1 more wet4 ,there are many other birds which come to call in addition to quail4 ,woodpigeons and doves will sometimes be attracted to an ambush by making a soft cooing noise with the mouth and the hollows of both hands1 but the most successful way of procuring both of these birds is to build a hut with boughs in the hedge of a field to which they resort1 in which hut the shooter hides himself1 keeping perfectly quiet1 and not attempting to shoot until the birds have begun feeding1 as woodpigeons1 or doves1 when they first alight have their eyes all about them1 the slight rustle even of the gun being brought to the present1 is enough to scare them1 and a snap shot at a flying dove is rarely successful when you are penned and cramped up in a little bough hut4 ,pea1 tare1 and barley fields1 when they are first sown in the spring1 and pea and corn fields1 after getting in the crops in the autumn1 are their especial haunts1 though they do not despise turnip leaves and acorns4 ,salt marshes are also especially favoured by all the pigeon family in quest of salt1 of which they seem to be inordinately fond4 ,fresh water rivers in hot weather are also sure spots to find them2 and a stuffed pigeon is a good decoy in some seasons1 if placed in front of a place of concealment4 ,perhaps it may be as well to mention that often1 while lying in wait for wild pigeons1 you will observe the advent of one or two tame ones1 or even a flock from some neighbouring farmyard1 and1 as some of these pigeons are almost certain to closely resemble the wild stock dove 7,columba oenas1 #a471 some little discrimination is required to distinguish the two species4 ,the ,gannet or ,solon goose 7,sula bassana1 ,hewitson7 is said to be taken by the strange device of floating a plank out at sea1 to which a fish is attached1 in such a manner that1 on the bird dashing down on the half-submerged plank1 it strikes itself with such violence as not unfrequently to break its neck or breastbone4 ,on mentioning this to ,mr4 ,frederick ,ryland1 he assured me that he has in some instances observed the marks of the bird's bill1 which had indented the plank--a pretty conclusive evidence of the extraordinary force of its descent4 ,many other birds besides pigeons are attracted by stales1 which was the ancient name for a representation of the living bird by stuffed specimens or wooden images2 knots and godwits1 says ,daniel 7vol4 iii4 p4 #bad71 were attracted into nets by this mode4 ,gulls and terns ,i have often found attracted by a stuffed bird1 or1 when one can be shot1 should it be left to lie on the water1 or propped up on land1 as if alive1 the others almost always hover around it4 ,sheep's lights thrown on the water is another good decoy for gulls4 ,ducks are sometimes attracted by dummies of indiarubber sold at some of the shops for that purpose1 but the best modification of this is the ,french hut system1 described at length1 in his usual amusing style1 by the once-renowned ,col4 ,hawker4 ,a more singular way still1 of decoying these birds to the gun is by the ,american fashion of toling1 a lucid description of which ,i append1 culled from the pages of ,folkard's ,wildfowler3 ,there is one system of fowling practised in ,america which is as curious in performance as it is interesting4 ,it is probably one of the most remarkable methods ever invented1 and approaches the nearest to the system of decoy as practised in ,england of any of the arts employed by the people of a foreign country for the capture of wildfowl4 ,the method alluded to is termed toling4 ,i am unable to trace the origin of the term1 unless it simply implies a death knell1 for such it assuredly assumes to those birds which approach within range of the secreted sportsman4 ,this singular proceeding is said to have been first introduced upwards of fifty years ago near ,havre-de-,grace1 in ,maryland2 and1 according to traditional testimony1 the art was accidentally discovered by a sportsman whilst patiently lying in ambush watching a paddling of wild ducks1 which were a little beyond the range of his gun4 ,whilst in a state of doubt and anxiety as to whether they would approach near enough to be shot1 he suddenly observed them raise their heads and swim towards the shore apart from his ambuscade2 and1 whilst wondering at the cause of so strange a proceeding1 his attention was directed to a fox which was skipping about on the shore1 and evidently enticing the ducks to approach4 ,this accidental discovery of so weak a point in the nature of the feathered tribe led the sportsman to turn it to advantage1 and thence arose the curious art of toling4 ,to practise it successfully the sportsman requires simply the services of a dog1 which he uses in a similar way to that of a piper1 employed at an ,english decoy4 ,footnote3 ,the word toling may be explained as a corruption of tolling1 i4e4 enticing4 ,for the purpose of toling1 the ,american sportsman erects blinds or screens on the margin of some lake1 the resort of wildfowl2 when any birds are in sight upon the water1 he1 with his dog1 takes up a position behind the screens1 and by throwing small bits of wood or pebbles up and down the shore1 he keeps the dog in active motion so as to attract the attention of the birds1 and induce them to swim towards the shore within a few yards of the screens1 when1 if they do1 the sportsman immediately discharges his fowling piece at them1 and sometimes kills large numbers at a shot4 ,the principal things to be observed are1 a strict silence1 and to keep the dog constantly in motion1 and all the time in sight of the ducks4 ,the little animal should be encouraged to skip and bound over the rocks and stones in front of the screens1 and to flourish his tail about with playful vivacity4 ,he must never bark1 for that would alarm the fowl and cause them to fly away immediately4 ,red or chestnut coloured dogs with long bushy tails are best for the purpose of toling2 the nearer they approach a fox in colour and appearance the better4 ,tubs may be sunk on the seashore into which the shooter gets at the approach of night 7or even a skip or basket may be used to sit on7 to wait till flight time to procure specimens2 but having myself sat in a marsh at night between a river and the sea in ,norfolk more than once for several hours during a very severe winter1 ,i cannot recommend this as a torrid amusement--indeed1 the melancholy sough of the sea1 and the pale glitter of the stars in the half-frozen pools1 whose dead and dry sedges rustle in unison to the icy blasts rushing from the dead white north1 make even the most hardy long for the old armchair by the cozy fireside4 ,a writer in the ,zoologist some years ago appeared to think that iodine was a species of enchanter's wand in rendering your presence unknown to wildfowl4 ,i have never tried it1 having but little faith in cunning nostrums concocted for the taking of either birds or fish2 but as he is a gentleman of standing and great experience1 ,i will quote his words from which ,i drew my inference3 ,a cormorant once perched himself on my back as ,i lay concealed on a rock enveloped in a drab driving coat1 which so closely resembled the rock in colour that even he was deceived1 and1 taking my back as the highest pinnacle1 accommodated himself accordingly2 neither did he discover his error till my hand grasped him by the legs4 ,i have frequently had cormorants and shags perched around me within a few feet2 but their suspicions seemed generally to be aroused by human smell1 unless ,i had rubbed iodine on some part of my clothes4 ,the landrail or corncrake1 whose peculiar rasping cry we hear in the grass or young corn in the spring of the year1 is easily called to the gun by rubbing one notched bone over another1 or1 better still1 using that peculiar instrument of torture worked at fairs1 and called a scratchback--the same which1 in the palmy days of ,greenwich or ,charlton fairs1 was retailed to the cry of ,all the fun of the fair for one penny4 ,in bringing this chapter to a close1 let me not omit to mention that all shot birds should immediately have the mouth1 palatal slit1 and nostrils1 stopped with tow or cotton wool1 to prevent the blood from running out and soiling the feathers2 then1 if possible1 always wrap each specimen separately in paper1 smoothing the feathers in their proper places before doing so4 ,also1 never carry a shot bird by its neck1 as the weight of the bird's body depending from the neck must stretch the latter beyond its fair proportions4 ,i have here briefly glanced at a few of the many ways of taking birds and beasts2 to have described them all would have required a special volume double the size of the present one4 ,i think1 however1 ,i have said enough for all practical needs2 but in case any reader should require fuller information1 ,i must refer him to such articles as he will find week by week in ,the ,field1 ,land and ,water1 or the ,american publication1 ,forest and ,stream4 ,good text books1 also1 on ,trapping1 etc1 are ,w4 ,b4 ,lord's ,shifts and ,expedients of ,camp ,life1 ,captain ,darwin's 7,high ,elms7 ,game ,preservers' ,manual1 ,jefferries' ,amateur ,poacher1 ,gamekeeper at ,home1 etc4 ,for details as to the hunting and scientific shooting of foreign large game1 with directions as to the vulnerable spots to be aimed at1 ,i must again refer the reader to articles from the pen of such men as ,sir ,samuel ,baker1 ,g4 ,p4 ,sanderson1 ,smoothbore1 ,the ,old ,shekarry1 ,gordon ,cumming1 ,jules ,gerard1 ,c4 ,j4 ,andersson1 ,emil ,holub1 ,f4 ,c4 ,selous1 etc1 all of whom have either written books on sporting1 or whose articles are still to be met with in late numbers of ,the ,field4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,necessary ,,tools4 ,a ,,bad workman1 it is said1 always quarrels with his tools4 ,if this be so1 it is equally certain that a good workman1 though he may make shift with indifferent implements of his craft1 yet always prefers the best and most labour-saving tools he can procure4 ,the chief point of difference1 however1 between the skilled and unskilled workman is1 that the former may and often does get the best results with the fewest possible tools1 while the other must surround himself with dozens of unnecessary things before he can do a stroke4 ,this being so1 ,i propose to point out to my readers in a few words1 and by means of drawings1 how very few tools are required to skin and set up a bird or small animal4 ,my remarks will1 therefore1 be addressed as much to the amateur as to the tyro desirous of becoming a professional2 in fact1 ,i wish it to be understood that ,i write as much to educate the one as the other4 ,the first and almost indispensable tool is the knife 7,i say almost1 because ,i have known a person begin and finish a small bird with a pair of scissors72 nearly any small knife will do to make the first incision1 but experience has shown the most useful shape to be as in ,fig4 #aa1 which is the skinning knife2 the blade1 it will be observed1 is long and narrow1 #c in4 to #d in4 along the cutting edge1 and half an inch across2 the handle1 which should be of box1 lignum vitae1 or any hard wood susceptible1 of a high polish1 is #c4e in4 in length1 exclusive of a half-inch brass ferrule2 the shape shown is the most comfortable and handiest to work with4 ,fig4 #ab shows a broader and stronger knife1 five-eighths of an inch across1 having a somewhat differently shaped hard wood handle1 as the knife is intended for heavier work4 ,fig4 #ac shows a broad strong blade1 one inch across1 and of an entirely different character2 this1 which is useful for the rough1 large work1 to be hereafter mentioned1 has a perforated tang1 to which two half rounded pieces of hard wood should be bolted4 ,length of blade and handle1 #d in4 each4 ,my reason for having all of these handles of polished hard wood is1 that blood and dirt will the more easily wash off4 ,all of these knives are best procured at the leather sellers'1 for the reasons that1 first1 the shapes drawn are always in stock2 secondly1 they are manufactured of the finest and toughest steel2 and thirdly1 their expense is trifling4 ,the handles1 however1 are usually of softwood1 unpolished1 and had better be replaced at the turner's4 ,the knives when first purchased are about #d in4 long in the blade2 for skinning ,i think them pleasantest to use when ground or worn down to #c in4 or #c4e in42 this1 however1 is a matter of individual taste4 ,i have1 since the above was written1 found that some dealers in leather and shoemakers' grindery sell knives of varied and serviceable patterns--other than those described--all of which have hard wood handles4 ,dissecting knives and scalpels1 to be procured at any ,surgical instrument maker's1 are also very useful for fine work4 ,transfixion knives are of service when engaged upon very large animals1 and here also come in the post-mortem hooks4 ,fig4 #aa1 #ab1 #ac--,,skinning ,,knives4 ,the next most important tool is the scissors1 two pairs of which should be procured1 one pair long and fine1 #e4e in4 or #f in4 long 7see ,fig4 #ad71 for use in small and delicate work connected with birds2 the other about #d in4 long1 of a different shape and much stouter and stronger 7see ,fig4 #ae74 ,these are used for general work upon larger birds or small mammals4 ,fig4 #ad--,,scissors1 ,no #a4 pattern4 ,fig4 #ae--,,scissors1 ,no #b4 pattern4 ,for still heavier work connected with mammals1 and especially with fish1 ,i prefer a pair of small spring shears1 #f in1 to #g in4 long1 similar to those used by gardeners for grape-pruning4 ,fig4 #af4--;,bell-hangers' ,pliers4 ,fig4 #af brings us to a really indispensable adjunct to the taxidermist's kit--the compound or bell-hangers' pliers2 these pliers are as the ordinary holding ones at the top1 but have a cutting plane fixed lower down 7those with flat1 not raised1 cutters1 are to be preferred72 the figure gives a good idea1 but the grip should not be quite so broad as they are usually made2 from #h in4 to #aj in4 is the most useful size4 ,the #aj in4 is rather large1 but is1 perhaps1 the best for professional needs4 ,footnote3 ,these pliers are sometimes made with a nick at the intersection of the joint to form a cutting plane for thick wires4 ,fig4 #ag shows the ordinary cutting nippers1 #d in4 to #e in4 long1 useful for cutting fine wires or pins1 in situations where the use of the other pliers is impracticable4 ,remarks as to grip as before4 ,fig4 #ag--;,cutting nippers4 ,both of these articles should be of the best workmanship and materials4 ,buck1 of ,london1 and ,stubbs1 of ,warrington1 may be recommended as good makers4 ,i lately procured a very handy little pair of cutting nippers of elegant workmanship1 used chiefly by watchmakers1 and made in ,paris4 ,these are excellent for delicate work or for cutting very fine wire or entomological pins 7see ,fig4 #ah74 ,fig4 #ah--;,french ,cutting ,nippers ,i now figure a most necessary little pair of pliers for dressing the feathers of birds4 ,these are also used by watchmakers1 are of neat construction and differ from most pliers in having an obtusely rounded point 7see ,fig4 #ai1 ,a and ,b74 ,these1 which ,i call feather pliers1 are in conjunction with a small1 thick1 round1 camel-hair brush 7used by artists for washing in71 indispensable for feathering up birds1 a process to be described later on4 ,fig4 #bj is the next1 and ,i fancy ,i hear some reader exclaim1 ,what on earth has a goffering-iron to do with taxidermy8 ,i reply3 ,this shaped tool is wanted for artfully conveying small morsels of tow1 etc1 into the necks and hollow places of birds' skins4 ,it may be easily made in this wise3 ,procure as small and fine a pair of goffering-irons as you possibly can1 and have them drawn out and brought to a fine yet obtuse point by some smith1 and you thus get a finished tool for about half what it would cost to make outright4 ,length1 when finished1 should be somewhere about #aj in4 ,fig4 #ai--;,feather ,pliers ,a large and a fine crooked awl with handles1 a file1 and a rough stone from the leatherseller's1 are other things to procure1 and these1 with the ten tools previously particularised1 some tow1 wool1 wire1 eyes1 and a needle and thread1 a pot of preservative paste1 and a piece of wood or a wire for a stuffing iron1 are all that the amateur or the professional requires to skin and stuff a small or medium-sized bird or mammal4 ,cost of the stone and tools 7which1 with ordinary care1 will last for years7 should be within the reach of all4 ,fig4 #bj--,tow ,forceps ,the stuffing iron mentioned above is best made1 if wanted for small birds1 from the broken steel of a wool comber's devil1 about nine inches long1 fixed in a bradawl handle of about four inches1 or1 if for large birds or mammals1 the iron may be made from a broken fencing foil1 to any size between twelve and thirty inches1 with suitable handle4 ,in either case the smallest end is driven into the handle1 and the top is filed across with a smooth nick1 to push in1 but not to retain the tow4 ,see ,fig4 #ba4 ,fig4 #ba--,stuffing ,iron ,this1 ,i would point out to the non-professional reader1 is a much more satisfactory way of getting thoroughly efficient tools than going to the expense of ordering a box of bird-stuffing implements1 at a cost of many pounds and finding one half of them unnecessary1 and the other half worthless4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,preservative ,,soaps1 ,,powders1 ,,etc4 ,,having skinned a zoological specimen1 we require1 as a matter of course1 to anoint the inside of the skin with some preservative1 for the purpose of arresting decomposition and general decay1 and also defending it from the ravages of insects for an indefinite period4 ,many things will partially cure a skin2 for instance1 rubbing it with dry earth and exposing it to the sun1 as ,i have done with some success when hunting abroad2 chalk also will do1 if nothing else can be procured4 ,i have at the present moment a raven's head cut off by a rifle ball1 cured only with chalk1 and which is now1 after a lapse of twenty years1 in as good a state of preservation as need be4 ,still we require other aids than sun and chalk to properly preserve our specimens1 especially in our usually cold1 damp climate2 and if we ask what is the sine qua non1 a chorus of professional and amateur taxidermists shout out1 ,arsenic1 of course4 ,i propose to show the fallacy of this1 being quite of the way of thinking of ,waterton1 who says1 ,it 7arsenic7 is dangerous to the operator and inefficient as a preservative4 ,i will1 however1 give everyone a chance of doing exactly as he pleases by jotting down three different recipes for arsenical soaps4 ,the inventor of the first of these appears to have been one ,bcoeur1 of the now world-renowned ,metz4 ,bcoeur appears to have flourished about the year #aggj1 and his formula is still commonly used4 ,it is compounded as follows3 ,no4 #a4--;,bcoeur's ,arsenical ,soap4 ,camphor1 #e oz4 ,salt of tartar1 #ab oz4 ,powdered arsenic1 #b lb4 ,lime in powder 7or powdered chalk71 #d oz4 ,white soap1 #b lb4 ,cut the soap into small slices as thin as possible1 put them into a pot over a gentle fire with very little water1 stirring it often with a wooden spoon2 when dissolved1 add the salts of tartar and powdered chalk2 take it off the fire1 add the arsenic1 and stir the whole gently2 lastly1 put in the camphor1 which must first be pounded in a mortar with a little spirits of wine4 ,when the whole is properly mixed together it will have the consistence of paste4 ,it may be preserved in tin or earthenware pots1 well closed and cautiously labelled4 ,when wanted for use it must be diluted with a little cold water to the consistence of clear broth2 the pot may be covered with a lid of pasteboard1 having a hole for the passage of the brush1 by which the liquor is applied4 7,there appears in this formula to be an error in giving #ab oz4 of ,salts of tartar1 which should1 ,i think1 be reduced to #b oz42 also the proportion1 of arsenic and soap is clearly excessive with regard to the quantity of the lime or chalk47 ,swainson appears to have used a composition somewhat different from the preceding4 ,he describes it as follows3 ,no4 #b4--,swainson's ,arsenical ,soap4 ,arsenic1 #a oz4 ,distilled water1 #f drms4 ,white soap1 #a oz ,camphor1 #b drms4 ,carbonate of potash1 #a drm4 ,this mixture should be kept in small tin boxes2 when it is to be used moisten a camel-hair pencil with any kind of spirituous liquor1 and with it make a lather from the soap1 which is to be applied to the inner surface of all parts of the skin1 and also to such bones as may not be removed4 ,the next formula is of my own arrangement2 ,i have used it1 and have found it quite equal to any of the other arsenical preparations1 which is not saying much for any of them4 ,no4 #c4--;,browne's ,arsenical ,soap4 ,arsenic1 #a lb ,distilled water #f drms ,soft soap1 #b lb4 ,whiting 7or powdered chalk71 #c lb4 ,camphor or tincture of musk1 #b oz4 ,place the arsenic in an old saucepan 7which is not to be used for any other purpose whatever72 put the whiting over it1 next pour sufficient water over it to make it into a thick paste1 then add the soft soap1 stir the whole well together1 add a little water1 and place on the fire to boil1 adding from time to time water sufficient to render the whole mass of the consistence of gruel4 ,when it boils up it is sufficiently well done2 take it off the fire1 and place outside in the open air to cool1 as the fumes1 if given off in a close room1 are highly prejudicial to health4 ,when nearly cold1 stir in the camphor1 previously pounded to a fine powder by the addition of a few drops of any spirit--spirits of wine1 gin1 rum1 turpentine1 etc4 ,if musk is used it is sufficient to stir it in the mass1 or #a oz4 of pure carbolic acid 7previously melted7 may be substituted for either the camphor or musk4 ,the reason for stirring in the camphor1 musk1 or carbolic acid1 when the arsenical paste is nearly cold1 is twofold--first1 to prevent the inhaling of the metallic fumes1 which readily attack the lungs2 and secondly1 to prevent the said fumes or heated air carrying off with it the volatile essences of those drugs4 ,the quantities given are sufficient to fill two six-pound ,australian meat tins1 which form capital receptacles for arsenical paste1 and should be soldered up1 only to be opened as required for use4 ,as this quantity is1 however1 perhaps too much for the amateur1 the proportions may be decreased1 and what is not in actual use had better be soldered up in the tins just referred to1 and which may be found very useful1 besides1 for such purposes as paint pots1 etc4 ,carefully label this preparation ,poison1 and place it out of the reach of children4 ,i have given the foregoing formulae1 not because ,i have the slightest faith in any of them1 but simply for the benefit1 or otherwise1 of those persons who elect to use arsenical preparations in defiance of the teachings of common sense1 and in deference to the prevailing notion that arsenic is the only poison extant which has extraordinary preservative powers4 ,this ,i flatly deny1 after an experience of more than five and twenty years4 ,let us dissect the evidence as to the claim of arsenic to be considered as the antiseptic and preservative agent par excellence4 ,its advocates claim for it--,first1 that it dries and preserves all flesh from decay better than anything else known2 secondly1 that if the skin is well painted with arsenical soap no moth or maggot will be found to touch it4 ,this1 then1 is all is wanted--immunity from decay and protection from insects4 ,now ,i maintain that arsenical mixtures are not only most dangerous1 but quite useless also for the purpose4 ,arsenic is simply a drier of animal tissue to a certain extent1 but so are hundreds of other agents not so dangerous4 ,it is also perfectly useless as a scarecrow or poison to those btes noire of the taxidermist1 the larvae of the various clothes and fur eating moths of the genus ,tinea1 or the larvae of ,dermestes lardarius1 murinus1 and other museum beetles4 ,they simply laugh arsenic to scorn2 indeed1 ,i believe1 like the ,styrian arsenic eaters1 they fatten on it4 ,i could give many instances4 ,of course1 when you point out to a brother taxidermist--rival1 ,i mean2 there are no brothers in art--the fact that somehow this arsenical paste does not work the wonders claimed for it1 he replies1 ,oh6 ah6 yes6 that specimen1 ,i now recollect1 was done by a very careless man ,i employed2 he never half painted the skin4 ,all nonsense6 ,men1 as well as masters1 lay the preservative on as thickly as they can4 ,verbum sap46 ,a great outcry is being made at the present day as to arsenical wall papers and ladies' dresses--very properly so2 but did it never strike any taxidermist--they must read the papers some times1 even if not scientific men--that if it was dangerous to live in a room1 the paper of which contains a barely appreciable quantity of arsenic1 it was also dangerous to work all day in a shop amid hundreds of specimens actually reeking with arsenic1 and giving it off when dry1 and when handled1 in the form of dust8 ,painted on the skin while wet is bad enough2 but what shall we say to those--well1 we will not use harsh terms--who calmly tell you that they always use dry arsenic4 ,incredible as the statement may appear to the scientist1 yet it is true that ,i have seen a man plunge his hand in the most matter-of-fact way into a box containing dry arsenic1 and coolly proceed to dust it on a skin4 ,what is the consequence of this to the user of wet or dry arsenical preparations8 ,coughs1 colds1 chronic bronchitis1 soreness of the lips and nose1 ugly ulcers1 brittleness of nails1 and partial or complete paralysis4 ,i knew a man who formerly used dry arsenic1 whose constitution was thoroughly broken up by it4 ,again1 an amateur of long standing called on me some time since1 paralyzed in one hand--the doctors could make nothing of him4 ,i said at once1 ,you have been using quantities of arsenic1 and probably dry8 ,much astonished1 he said ,yes2 and he had never mentioned this fact to his numerous doctors1 who worked1 of course1 in the dark1 when1 by a course of antidotes taken at first1 he might have been saved4 ,used alone1 arsenical paste is worse than useless for animals1 causing them to sweat at once in certain places1 and preventing your pulling them about1 as you must do if modelling2 again1 if used for fur1 you seldom or never can relax by that crucial test of a good preservative1 i4e1--plunging in water4 ,yet one question to the advocates of arsenic4 ,if it possesses the chief advantage claimed for it1 why use camphor in museums under the idea that it drives away moths8 ,perhaps it will be as well to point out secundum artem the pros and cons for the use of arsenic4 ,,arsenical ,,paste4 ,advantages claimed4 ,disadvantages4 ,a perfect dryer of ,will often sweat skins1 especially animal tissue4 those of mammals1 for which it is useless4 ,keeps all things free ,is not of the slightest use for from attack of insects4 this purpose4 ,easier to make and use ,denied4 than any other preparation4 ,gives off poisonous fumes when hot4 ,deposits metallic arsenic when drying4 ,gives off poisonous dust when thoroughly dry4 ,causes colds1 coughs1 etc1 which turn to bronchitis1 paralysis1 etc4 ,having now summed up in the case of ,common ,sense versus ,arsenic1 ,i challenge contradiction to any of my statements1 and ask1 ,why use a dangerous and inefficient preservative agent1 when a harmless preservative1 and that quite as good worker and dryer as arsenic1 will suffice8 ,i have invented a soap for which ,i claim those advantages1 and as to its deterrent principle re insects1 ,i am convinced that it is quite as good as the other1 for is there any one thing known--compatible with clean-looking work--that will prevent the ravages of the maggots in birds' skins8 ,i answer1 ,no6--if we except one thing1 too dangerous to handle--bichloride of mercury1 of which anon4 ,let me whisper a little fact1 and blow the poison theory to the winds3 ,the real secret of success is to case your specimens up as soon as practicable1 or to keep them always in full light1 not poking them away in obscure corners1 which the ,tineidae and other pests love--hating light as the ,father of ,evil is said to hate holy water4 ,my ,preservative formula is as follows3 ,no4 #d4--;,brown's 7,non poisonous7 ,preservative ,soap4 ,whiting or chalk1 #b4e lb4 ,chloride of lime1 #b oz4 ,soft soap1 #a lb4 ,tincture of musk1 #a oz4 ,boil together the whiting and the soap with about a pint of water2 then stir in the chloride of lime 7previously finely pounded7 while the mixture is hot2 if this point is not attended to1 the mixture will not work smoothly2 when nearly cool1 stir in the tincture of musk4 ,this will about fill a #f lb4 ,australian meat tin4 ,caution3 ,it is not necessary to hold the mouth over the mixture while hot1 as chlorine is then rapidly evolved4 ,this mixture has stood the test of work and time1 and ,i therefore confidently bring it to the notice of the public as completely superseding the arsenical paste or soap for small mammals and all birds2 indeed1 numbers of persons1 totally unknown to me1 have written to me about its advantages4 ,one says3 ,i have followed the bird-stuffing now for several years in connection with another trade1 but ,i have never seen anything to touch it before4 ,i have quite given up arsenic1 and can get on fine without it1 and only wish that ,i had known the grand secret before4 ,another3 ,your recipe for preservative unction 7non-poisonous7 is simply invaluable to taxidermists4 ,i have been trying for a long time to make a non-poisonous unction1 but never fairly succeeded2 always had a doubt as to their efficacy1 prejudice had something to do with it4 ,a third says3 ,i have tried your recipe1 and am well satisfied of its qualities for preserving skins1 having tried ,swainson's1 and ,bcoeur's1 and yours1 and after a twelvemonth have relaxed the skins1 and give my favour to yours as a toughener of the skin4 ,none of the above correspondents are known tome1 and their opinion was sent unasked4 ,those people ,i do know who are using it are perfectly satisfied1 as ,i myself am after a constant use of it for the past seven years4 ,i find that skins dressed by it are not burned1 as some people may think1 but relax most perfectly after a lapse of years by any method1 even by the water process spoken of hereafter4 ,i do not think it any better or worse than the arsenical preparations for preventing the attacks of insects1 but the addition of tincture of musk 7a lasting perfume7 has seemed to me to be a great gain4 ,one person wrote to me stating his opinion that the lime unduly corroded the wires used in setting up4 ,i believe this might happen in cases where the mixture was used in a more fluid state than directed1 namely1 as a paste of a creamy consistence4 ,i know of no evil effects produced4 ,of course the mixture1 if kept exposed1 dries up in time1 and is then best wetted with a little warm water1 into which a few drops of tincture of musk have been stirred4 ,where there is more fat or flesh than usual1 say1 on the inside of the wings1 or on the leg bones1 or inside the mouth1 a small quantity of carbolic acid wash 7,formula ,no4 #af7 will be found useful to dilute the preservative paste4 ,carbolic acid1 however weak1 must not be used on the thin parts of the skin of small mammals or birds1 as it dries and shrivels them up so quickly as to seriously interfere with subsequent modelling4 ,though many insects eat the skin itself1 yet how is it possible to guard against insects which attack the feathers only of birds 7as the most minute species of the little pests do7 by an agent which professedly cures the skin only8 ,i remember once seeing the most comical sight possible1 a stuffed cock and hen entirely denuded of feathers by thousands of a minute tines1 their dry skins only left2 they were as parchment effigies of their former selves4 ,difficult as the matter is1 ,i yet hope to show both amateurs and professionals how to considerably increase the chances of preservation4 ,it is this3 ,after using the soap1 and having the mammal arranged or bird stuffed ready for cottoning1 brush over the whole of the feathers1 legs1 toes1 and beak1 with the following preparation3 ,no4 #e4--,waterton's ,solution of ,corrosive ,sublimate4 ,to a wine-bottleful of spirits of wine add a large teaspoonful of corrosive sublimate2 in twelve hours draw it off into a clean bottle1 dip a black feather into the solution1 and if1 on drying1 a whiteness is left on the feather1 add a little more alcohol4 ,care must be taken not to handle the bird more than absolutely necessary after this operation1 for reasons which ,i will give below when speaking of the following recipe1 which ,i have extracted from a little book professedly written by a well-known taxidermist1 though ,i believe he knew nothing at all about it until it was published4 ,the preparation referred to1 which should be labelled ,dangerous6 ,not to be used6 is as follows3 ,no4 #f4--;,gardner's ,preservative4 ,arsenic1 #f oz4 ,camphor1 #a oz4 ,corrosive sublimate1 #c oz4 ,spirits of wine1 #j4e pint4 ,yellow soap1 #b oz4 ,put all these ingredients in a pipkin1 which place over a slow fire1 stirring the mixture briskly till the several parts are dissolved and form one homogeneous mass4 ,this may then be poured into a wide-mouthed bottle and allowed to stand till quite cold1 when it will be ready for use4 ,of course1 these quantities may be increased or decreased according to the size of the animal to be operated on2 but the proportions here given must be preserved4 ,did it ever occur to the gifted author of this that stirring camphor and spirits of wine briskly over a slow fire would be as quick a way as could be invented of summoning the fire brigade2 also1 that nine ounces of poison to eleven ounces of other ingredients1 well worked into the hands at different times1 as it must be1 when handling1 or returning skins painted with it1 would not tend to lengthen the life of the learner8 ,corrosive sublimate being a mercurial preparation--i4e1 bichloride of mercury--,i ask any chemist amongst my readers what effect three ounces of that dangerous preparation1 six ounces of arsenic1 yellow soap1 and spirits of wine would have upon the constitution8 ,would it not be readily absorbed through the hands into the system8 and next comes salivation1 and then--the last scene of all6 ,yet another little treat for the amateur desirous of committing suicide under the transparent pretence of studying taxidermy4 ,this1 which ,i have culled from the pages of ,maunders' ,treasury of ,natural ,history1 is1 by a fine irony1 entitled ,bullock's ,preservative ,powder3 ,no4 #g4--;,bullock's ,preservative ,powder4 ,arsenic1 #a lb4 ,camphor1 #j4e lb4 ,burnt alum1 #a lb4 ,tincture of musk1 #ab oz4 ,tanners' bark #b lb4 ,mix the whole thoroughly1 and after reducing it to a powder pass it through a sieve4 ,keep in close tin canisters4 ,this powder is more particularly adapted to fill up incisions made in the naked parts of quadrupeds and the skulls of large birds4 ,it has been strongly recommended to us1 but1 being perfectly satisfied with our own1 we have never tried it4 ,with regard to the foregoing composition ,i have a few words to say1 which are these1 that the reason ,i have copied it is that ,i have met with it in more books than one1 and ,i wish therefore to call special attention to it1 that it may be labelled ,dangerous1 and that anyone using it will do so at his peril4 ,fancy shaking arsenic up in a sieve1 and afterwards dusting it in con amore6 ,really1 if people will use poisons1 and others put themselves to considerable pains to invent the most deadly compounds for them1 is it not criminal carelessness that such things should be published without a word of warning as to their character or effects8 ,powders1 as a rule1 being made of astringents1 dry the skin too quickly 7especially if a bird is being operated on7 to perfectly shape the specimen4 ,as they are useful1 however1 to fill up and quickly dry cavities in the wings1 and such like1 of large birds1 etc1 and in some cases even to prepare a skin for future stuffing1 ,i will give a powder of my own composition1 the chief point of merit of which consists in its being harmless to the user1 and also that it has been tried on a large bird's skin1 which it so effectually preserved and toughened that1 eighteen months afterwards1 it was relaxed and stuffed up better than the usual run of made skins3 ,no4 #h4--;,browne's ,preservative ,powder4 ,pure tannin1 #a oz4 ,red pepper1 #a oz4 ,camphor1 #a oz4 ,burnt alum1 #h oz4 ,pound and thoroughly mix1 and keep in stoppered bottles or canisters4 ,the foregoing preparation1 though perfectly efficient for small mammals 7say up to squirrel size7 and for birds1 is not sufficiently strong to penetrate the skin and thoroughly fix the hair of the larger mammals4 ,for this purpose the older taxidermists used a wash or powder1 composed of equal parts of alum and nitre 7saltpetre74 ,this had the double disadvantage of rendering the specimen cured by its aid almost dripping with humidity in damp weather1 and efflorescing with the double salts around the eyes and mouth in dry weather4 ,alum alone was frequently used by those unaware of its peculiar property of deliquescing in heat as well as in humidity4 ,i have1 ,i believe1 at last succeeded in arranging the proper proportions1 and in substituting1 for the worse than useless crude alum1 the alum ustum or burnt alum1 which is not affected by moisture 7at least to any appreciable extent74 ,the proportions are3 ,no4 #i4--;,browne's ,preservative ,powder for ,skins of ,mammals4 ,burnt alum1 #a lb4 ,saltpetre1 #j4be lb4 ,pound and thoroughly mix4 ,this1 well rubbed into the skin and fleshy parts of mammals1 is a certain and thoroughly trustworthy cure1 and will penetrate through skin a quarter of an inch or more thick1 fixing the hair or fur in a most admirable manner1 and has the double advantage of being harmless to the person using it1 and beneficial even if it gets on the outside of the skin of the specimen2 indeed1 it should be rubbed in on the fur side if the specimen is at all high when brought in4 ,in all cases it is a good plan to thoroughly rub the outside of the ears1 eyelids1 nose1 and lips1 with this composition before skinning4 ,i consider this the greatest boon to the animal preserver ever invented1 and those to whom ,i have imparted the formula are loud in its praise1 as witness the dozens of letters ,i have received from all parts during the last seven years4 ,if the proportions given are adhered to1 no crystallisation of salts will take place around the eyes and mouth4 ,should this1 however1 happen from any cause1 a stiff brush dipped in olive oil may be used to remove it and prevent its reappearance4 ,after the mammal is stuffed and mounted1 it may be washed over with ,waterton's ,solution 7previously given7 or the following1 which ought to preserve the specimen from the attacks of insects3 ,no4 #aj4--,preservative ,wash4 ,corrosive sublimate1 #a oz4 ,tincture of camphor 7or musk71 #a oz4 ,methylated spirits1 #a quart4 #a oz4 ,this solution must be kept in a bottle1 carefully labelled ,poison1 and when used is not to be touched with the hands1 but laid on with a brush4 ,it constantly happens that parts of the bodies of animals--notably their fore and hind limbs1 and their heads even--are required to be preserved for some considerable time for purposes of modelling their contour or muscles2 it then becomes necessary to find some preparation which will keep large pieces of flesh sufficiently sweet and firm to model from4 ,for the first edition1 ,i had written to a scientific friend as to the preparations now in use at the various hospitals for the preservation of subjects1 etc1 to which he answered3 ,as far as ,i can glean from various sources1 the medical profession has only within the last few years attempted to preserve whole bodies4 ,parts have1 of course1 been preserved in alcohol of some kind until they have literally crumbled away4 ,at ,st4 ,george's ,hospital they use a preservative fluid1 invented by the hospital porter 7dissecting-room porter74 ,the subjects are kept in a slate tank filled with the fluid4 ,to show the efficiency of this fluid1 ,i might mention that the first subject arrived much decomposed some months since1 but is now quite fresh and sweet4 ,the muscles inevitably lose a little of their colour in the preparation1 which is all the change as yet observed4 ,at ,guy's is used a preparation of glycerine and arsenic1 but at the present moment ,i do not recollect the exact proportions4 ,at ,king's ,college1 the method invented by ,sterling1 of ,edinburgh1 is used4 ,all other hospitals have the old methods in vogue1 such as preparations of arsenic4 ,since then1 ,i have had occasion to go more deeply into the subject and have used some of the formulae which follow1 viz1 rectified spirits1 ,moeller's ,solution1 and various preparations of lime4 ,messrs4 ,medlock and ,bailey's bisulphite of lime 7calcium7 is most highly recommended by analytical experts for preserving large joints of meat and fish2 and1 indeed1 the experiments conducted under scientific and ,government supervision have abundantly proved its value4 ,its price is not great4 ,for large joints the following is the formula3 ,no4 #aa4--,messrs4 ,medlock and ,bailey's ,formula4 ,bisulphite of lime1 #a gall4 ,common salt1 #j4be pint4 ,water1 #b to #d galls4 ,the following1 taken from the ,year ,book of ,pharmacy for #ahhj1 appears to be a very efficient formula2 like all the rest of such formulae1 it contains a certain percentage of arsenious acid3 ,a new ,preserving ,fluid4--,the ,prussian ,secretary of ,state for ,education has caused the publication of the following compound and method of its application1 discovered by ,wickersheimer1 the ,preparator of the ,anatomical ,museum of the ,university of ,berlin1 who had at first patented the compound1 but was induced to renounce his patent claims4 ,no4 #ab4--,wickersheimer's ,preserving ,liquid1 ,no4 #a4 ,in #cjjj parts of boiling water dissolve #ajj of alum1 #be of sodium chloride1 #ab of potassium nitrate1 #fj of potassa1 and #aj of arsenious acid1 let cool and filter4 ,to every #aj litres of the filtrate add #d litres of glycerine and #a litre of methylic alcohol4 ,footnote3 ,a gram #ae4ddd grains troy2 a litre a little more than #aa pints4 ,its application differs with the special objects to be preserved4 ,in general1 the objects must be impregnated with it4 ,if the objects are to be preserved dry1 they are soaked in the liquid from six to twelve days1 and afterwards dried in the air4 ,ligaments1 muscles1 and other animal objects remain perfectly soft and movable4 ,hollow organs1 as lungs and intestines1 should be filled with the liquid previous to immersion in it2 after being taken out1 and before drying1 it is advisable to inflate them with air4 ,injecting the liquid into a corpse will preserve the latter completely1 and the muscular tissue will always retain the natural colour of fresh corpses4 ,to preserve the outward appearance of the latter1 they should be well impregnated externally and enclosed in air-tight oases2 this is only necessary to preserve the exact original appearance2 if it is not done1 the body will keep equally well if thoroughly injected1 but the exterior will gradually become somewhat dry and dark coloured4 ,plants may likewise be preserved by this liquid4 ,footnote3 ,so expensive a preparation is1 ,i think1 sufficiently well replaced by salt1 corrosive sublimate1 and distilled water 7see ,formula ,no4 #bg74 ,m4 ,decandolle exhibited1 some years since1 a branch of a coffee tree which had been perfectly preserved for fifty years4 ,it was then pointed out that the efficacy of such solutions 7saline7 depended on their being boiled and applied to the plants hot 7not boiling74 ,the following is a modification of the above1 useful for comparison as to relative strengths for injection and immersion3 ,no4 #ac4--,wickersheimer's ,preserving ,liquids1 ,nos4 #b and #c4 ,for ,injecting4 ,for ,immersing4 ,arsenious acid #af grams #ab grams4 ,sodium chloride #hj grams #fj grams4 ,potassium sulphate #bjj grams #aej grams4 ,potassium nitrate #be grams #ah grams4 ,potassium carbonate #bj grams #ae grams4 ,water #aj litres #aj litres4 ,glycerine #d litres #d litres4 ,wood naphtha #j4ge litres #j4ge litres4 ,my friend1 ,dr4 ,priestley ,smith1 surgeon to the ,birmingham ,eye ,hospital1 has kindly given me his formula for a process which most admirably preserves delicate parts of animals4 ,having been enabled to give him some eyes of rare animals and fishes 7whales and sharks71 he showed me the process which is now fully explained in the following extract from the ,british ,medical ,journal of ,jan4 #ajth1 #ahhj3 ,,preservation ,,of ,,ophthalmic ,,specimens4 ,several friends and correspondents have asked me to refer them to a description of the method which ,i employ for the preservation of ophthalmic specimens1 examples of which were exhibited in the annual museum of the ,association in ,cork last summer4 ,i published an account of it in the ,birmingham ,medical ,review for ,july1 #ahgh2 but1 as several improvements have been effected since that time1 ,i shall be greatly obliged by being allowed space in this journal for a brief description of my present method4 ,no4 #ad4--,priestley ,smith's ,formula4 ,the following are the solutions1 etc1 employed3 #a4 ,mueller's ,fluid--viz4 ,bichromate of potash #a part1 ,sulphate of soda #a part1 ,water #ajj parts2 #b4 ,hydrate of chloral and water1 #a in #bj2 #c4 ,glycerine and water1 #a in #d1 #d4 ,glycerine and water1 #a in #b--;i4e1 equal parts2 #e4 ,glycerine-jelly--viz4 ,best ,french gelatine #a part1 ,glycerine #f parts1 ,water #f parts1 ,soak the gelatine in the water until swollen1 then heat and add the glycerine1 add a few drops of a saturated solution of carbolic acid1 and filter hot through white blotting-paper2 #f4 ,a thick white varnish made by mixing oxide of zinc with copal varnish in a mortar4 ,the eyeball is placed1 immediately after excision1 unopened1 in ,mueller's ,fluid for about three weeks1 light being carefully excluded4 ,it is then frozen solid by immersion for a few minutes in a mixture of finely powdered ice and salt1 and immediately divided into lateral halves by means of a sharp-edged table-knife4 ,the portion to be mounted is then placed in chloral solution for some weeks1 in order to remove the yellow colour2 light being still excluded1 and the fluid being changed until it is no longer discoloured by the bichromate4 ,the specimen next lies for twenty-four hours or longer in the weaker glycerine solution1 and is then transferred for a similar period to the stronger glycerine solution1 after which it may be mounted in the jelly without danger of shrinking4 ,a specimen-jar being two-thirds filled with melted jelly1 the half-eye is placed in it1 the concavity upwards4 ,when every interstice is filled1 it is turned over 7care being taken to avoid the inclusion of an air-bubble71 and held in a central position in contact with the bottom of the jar4 ,when cold and firmly coagulated1 the jelly is coated over with white varnish4 ,a few days later1 when the surface of the varnish is firm1 this again is thinly coated with a film of jelly1 and thereby preserved from the ultimate danger of cracking4 ,the jar is fixed with glue into a suitable wooden stand4 ,the gelatine which yields the strongest and most colourless jelly is that manufactured by ,coignet and ,co1 of ,paris1 obtainable in packets1 and known as the gold-label variety4 ,the specimen-jars1 admirable both as to material and workmanship1 have been made expressly for me by ,messrs4 ,f4 and ,c4 ,osler1 of ,broad ,street1 ,birmingham1 from whom they may be obtained in any number4--,,priestley ,,smith1 ,birmingham4 ,glycerine retards fermentation and decomposition to a remarkable degree4 ,it combines readily with alcohol or water4 ,boracic acid in small quantities mixed with a solution of saltpetre1 i4e1 #a to #ej1 is stated to be of service in the preservation of flesh4 ,previously salted meat cannot be preserved this way2 salting evidently removes the phosphates4 ,action of boracic acid would1 no doubt1 set up acid phosphates1 which are the prime causes of the preservation4 ,a preparation of borax has been brought out by ,mr4 ,robottom1 of ,birmingham1 who claims for it that it preserves all animal and vegetable tissue1 as well as being useful for tanning skins4 ,i shall refer to this preparation further on4 ,carbolic acid 7pure7 will be found a valuable ally of the taxidermist4 ,calvert was the chief if not the only maker of the pure preparation1 which is sold in #j4e lb4 or #a lb4 bottles in a solid crystalline state1 as if it were frozen4 ,the bottle1 with the stopper temporarily removed1 must be plunged in boiling water to melt out as much as is required1 to which must be added many times its weight or quantity of water4 ,this diluted preparation will be found of infinite service in the hot summer months for pouring in the gentle infested throats or wounds of mammals and birds preparatory to skinning4 ,diluted and poured on a little burnt alum or pure tannin1 and the mixture well shaken together1 it forms an exceedingly strong preparation1 as well as a valuable one1 for painting the noses or pickling the tongues of animals before or after skinning4 ,two strengths of this will be found very useful4 ,thus3 ,no4 #ae--;,carbolic ,wash1 ,no4 #a 7for ,mammals74 ,glacial carbolic acid1 #b oz4 ,burnt alum or pure tannin1 #a oz4 ,water1 #a pint4 ,keep in stoppered bottle labelled ,poison1 and shake up before using4 ,no4 #af4--;,carbolic ,wash1 ,no4 #b 7for ,birds74 ,glacial carbolic acid1 #a oz4 ,water1 #a pint4 ,keep in stoppered bottle labelled ,poison1 and shake before using4 ,carbolic acid is a caustic poison1 and therefore must be handled carefully4 ,it sometimes happens that the taxidermist1 if in a large way of business1 is called upon to destroy the insects infesting1 it may be1 the entire collection of heads or skins hanging in some gentleman's hall4 ,no better or more effective way of doing this is to be found than plunging them entirely in a bath composed of3 ,no4 #ag4--;,carbolic ,acid ,wash1 ,no4 #c 7,poison74 ,carbolic acid1 #a lb4 ,sal ammoniac1 #j4e oz4 ,corrosive sublimate1 #c oz4 ,pure tannin1 #d oz4 ,hot water1 #d galls4 ,mix this up in some out-house1 or in the open air away from the house1 if a fine day2 and when the mixture is cold plunge the heads or skins in1 holding the former by the horns1 and stirring the latter about with a stick2 in fact1 allowing the mixture to touch the hands as little as possible4 ,it is1 ,i believe1 more efficacious if laid on hot than cold1 but the danger to health is greater4 ,i venture to say that if there is anything which will preserve objects for an indefinite period it is corrosive sublimate4 ,deadly though it be1 and dangerous to work with1 it has the advantage of being used as a finishing preparation1 and therefore need not1 except in extreme cases1 be handled4 ,instead of rectified spirits of wine1 ,i have used with much success as an exterior wash for valuable bird skins1 the following3 ,no4 #ah4--,preservative ,wash4 ,pure sulphuric ether1 #a pint4 ,corrosive sublimate1 #f grs4 ,keep in a stoppered bottle1 labelled ,poison1 and when used apply with a brush4 ,this is more rapid in its evaporation than spirits of wine1 but is very expensive4 ,of course1 the more rapidly any spirit evaporates1 and deposits poison previously held in solution1 the better chance you have of not spoiling your specimens4 ,,preservative ,,fluids ,,for ,,fishes ,,and ,,reptiles4 ,i have lately given a great deal of attention to the preservation of fishes--and especially large ones--in some fluid which should have four advantages3 #a4 ,perfect preservation of the specimen--and which also1 if a foreign one1 is consequently a long time in transit4 #b4 ,its freedom from causing great shrinking or shrivelling of the integument4 #c4 ,the points #a and #b being so well balanced that the specimen is in a fit state--after many months--either to be treated as a specimen shown in fluid1 or to be mounted by the process of taxidermy4 #d4 ,the comparative cheapness and facility of carriage of the preservative medium4 ,in trying to obtain all these advantages there seem almost insuperable difficulties in the reconcilement of these diverse conditions4 ,dr4 ,a4 ,guenther1 ,f4,r4,s1 the eminent1 ichthyologist and ,chief of the ,british ,museum1 recommends1 in his new book1 that pure or rectified spirits of wine 7#ef per cent4 over-proof7 be the only thing used for fishes1 for permanent preservation in glass jars or tanks1 and this even for ordinary fishes #c ft4 to #d ft4 in length1 or even up to #f ft4 in length1 if eel-like4 ,proof spirit 7containing only #di per cent4 by weight of pure alcohol as against #hd per cent4 contained in rectified spirit7 is1 says ,dr4 ,guenther1 the lowest strength which can be used4 ,these will then stand as ,no4 #ai4--,rectified ,spirits of ,wine 7#ef per cent4 over-proof71 and ,no4 #bj4--,proof ,spirits of ,wine4 ,if a spirituous solution is absolutely required1 ,i would substitute for pure spirits of wine methylated spirit 7alcohol containing a certain percentage of impure gum or undrinkable wood spirit7 as being cheap and sufficiently good for some purposes4 ,it will not1 however1 bear any diluting with water2 it must stand1 therefore1 as ,no4 #ba4--,methylated ,spirit 7undiluted71 or as ,no4 #bb4--;,alcoholic ,solution1 ,no4 #a4 ,methylated spirit1 #a4e pints4 ,burnt alum 7pounded71 #b oz4 ,distilled water1 #j4e pint4 ,saltpetre1 #d oz4 ,this1 which is to be well shaken together1 becomes milky at first1 but will soon fine down1 and may then be decanted4 ,no4 #bc4--;,alcoholic ,solution1 ,no4 #b4 ,methylated spirit1 #c parts4 ,glycerine1 #a part4 ,distilled water1 #a part4 ,although turpentine will not preserve reptiles or fishes1 yet1 struck with the perfect manner with which ,i was enabled to preserve soft-bodied beetles for nearly a year in benzol or benzoline1 ,i lately tried if this cheap and colourless liquid would be of service for other subjects1 with the result that ,i have now some frogs 7six or seven7 in a glass jar containing benzoline which have been immersed for over three months1 and have apparently undergone less change than if in spirits for the same length of time4 ,whether they are likely to be permanently preserved by this method ,i cannot1 of course1 yet determine1 but if so1 it would be a great gain1 owing to the brilliancy of the liquid1 its cheapness1 and its advantages over all alcoholic spirit in its less powerful action on the sealing wax or coating used over the corks or stoppers of the glass preparation jars4 ,there is no doubt that pure spirits of wine will preserve objects for a great length of time1 but the cost is very serious to most persons1 or even to institutions of less importance than the ,british ,museum--added to which the strong spirit unquestionably shrivels and distorts such objects as fishes and reptiles1 whilst1 diluted to any appreciable extent1 spirit will not preserve anything for any great period4 ,to obviate these inconveniences chemists have invented more or less perfect preservative fluids1 the oldest perhaps of which is ,no4 #bd4--;,goadby's ,solution1 ,no4 #a4 ,bay salt1 #d oz4 ,corrosive sublimate1 #d grs4 ,alum1 #b oz4 ,boiling water1 #b quarts4 ,keep in stoppered bottle labelled ,poison4 ,footnote3 ,bay salt is salt formed by evaporation of sea-water in shallow lagoons or salt-pans exposed to the rays of the sun4 ,no4 #be4--;,goadby's ,solution1 ,no4 #b4 ,bay salt1 #j4e lb4 ,corrosive sublimate1 #b grs4 ,arsenious acid1 #bj grs4 ,boiling rain water1 #a quart4 ,keep in stoppered bottle labelled ,poison4 ,note that1 corrosive sublimate being a remarkably difficult thing to dissolve1 even in pure spirits of wine1 it may not be generally known that the addition of a saturated solution of sal ammoniac1 in weight about half an ounce1 is sufficient to dissolve many ounces of corrosive sublimate4 ,thus a solution useful for some purposes is easily made as follows3 ,no4 #bf4--;,browne's ,preservative ,solution4 ,saltpetre1 #d oz4 ,corrosive sublimate1 #j4be oz4 ,alum1 #b oz4 ,sal ammoniac1 #j4abe oz4 ,boiling water1 half gallon4 ,keep in stoppered bottle labelled ,poison4 ,this1 it will be seen1 is a modification of ,goadby's ,solution4 ,in the three preceding formulae the corrosive sublimate must be dissolved in a small quantity of spirits of some kind1 or1 as explained above1 by the addition of a strong solution of sal ammoniac4 ,no4 #bg4--,saline ,solution for bottling ,fish and ,reptiles4 ,bichloride of mercury 7corrosive sublimate71 #a grain4 ,chloride of sodium 7common salt71 #ij grains4 ,distilled water1 #a pint4 ,intimately mix1 set aside1 let settle1 and when clear1 decant and preserve in stoppered bottles4 ,the following might also be tried3 ,no4 #bh4--;,camphorated ,fluid for ,preserving ,fishes1 etc4 ,to distilled water1 sixteen parts1 add one part of rectified spirits of wine and a few drops of creosote1 sufficient to saturate it2 stir in a small quantity of best prepared chalk1 and then filter4 ,with this fluid mix an equal quantity of camphor water 7water saturated with camphor71 and before using1 strain off through very fine muslin4 ,the bisulphite of lime 7see formula ,no4 #aa1 ante7 would also1 no doubt1 be excellent as a preservative for fishes if not quite so much diluted4 ,chloride of zinc1 much diluted1 is recommended as a good preservative4 ,dr4 ,priestley ,smith's formula 7see ,no4 #ad1 ante7 would do exceedingly well for small specimens to be subsequently arranged in glass-topped tanks1 as at the ,british ,museum4 ,another formula1 sometimes used in the medical schools for preserving parts of subjects1 and useful as a pickle for fish and reptiles1 is a preparation called ,moeller's ,solution3 ,no4 #bi--,moeller's ,solution4 ,bichromate of potash1 #b oz4 ,sulphate of soda1 #a oz4 ,distilled water1 #c pints4 ,a saturated solution of chromic acid is also used for the same purposes4 ,the chief disadvantage which both this and ,moeller's ,solution possess in common is their colour--a rich golden one--which1 of course1 stains everything with which they come in contact4 ,this1 however1 is easily removable by the ,hydrate of ,chloral formula 7see ,priestley ,smith's formula1 ,no4 #ad1 ,section #b1 ante74 ,this last 7,moeller's ,solution7 ,i have kept purposely until the end1 as it is the formula which1 in my opinion1 fulfils all the four requirements stated in the opening paragraph1 as desirable in the preservation of the lower vertebrates4 ,on my appointment to the curatorship of the ,leicester ,museum ,i had occasion to overhaul the pickles and prepare some fresh specimens1 and was very loth to use expensive spirits1 or even methylated1 for large fish1 and therefore tried many things with varying results4 ,at last ,i was driven back on ,moeller's ,solution1 and by its aid saved some specimens which were slowly rotting in other fluids1 and successfully pickled such flabby things as sharks' eggs1 sea anemones1 and large-sized lump fish4 ,it was then tried on common dog-fish1 one of which came out limp1 yet perfectly tough1 and was skinned as an experiment after a month's immersion4 ,one day two large topers 7a small species of shark71 about six feet long1 were sent from ,scarboro'4 ,my taxidermist being very busy at the time1 ,i decided to give ,moeller a severe test and pickle them4 ,accordingly--their viscera only being removed--they were tumbled into a large tub containing #b lb4 of bichromate of potassa to #bj galls4 of spring water4 ,this was on #acth ,sept1 #ahhb2 ,i looked at them on #agth ,july1 #ahhc1 and they were perfectly fresh1 quite limp1 unshrivelled1 and yet so tough as to be capable of any treatment1 even to being cast as models1 or set up by the taxidermic art2 and this after the lapse of ten calendar months--a time more than sufficient for even a sailing vessel to come from any part of the world4 ,i changed the solution once1 the total cost from first to last being one shilling and fourpence4 ,had pure spirit been used1 the expense would have been many pounds1 to say nothing of the great shrivelling which would have taken place by now4 ,i must therefore think that ,moeller's solution is1 for the purpose1 one of the best things ever invented4 ,,preservative ,,fluids ,,for ,,mollusca4 ,generally speaking1 pure alcohol is the best for this purpose4 ,chloride of zinc would doubtless be of considerable service1 and ,i notice that ,woodward1 in his ,manual of the ,molluscs1 says that chloride of calcium1 made by dissolving chalk1 or the purer carbonate --white marble1--in hydro-chloric acid until effervescence ceases and a saturated solution is obtained1 is most useful as a preservative1 as it keeps the specimen previously steeped in it permanently moist without injuring its colour or texture2 while its antiseptic properties will aid in the preservation of matters liable to decay4 ,possibly some of the beautiful preparations in the ,fisheries ,exhibition of #ahhc were prepared in this manner1 and such objects as the sea-anemones1 with tentacles expanded as in life1 may have been instantaneously killed by osmic acid4 ,,luting ,,for ,,stoppers4 ,no doubt1 every one notices how the ordinary wax1 which is used as a protective coating for bottles or preparation jars1 is attacked by the contained spirit in such a manner as to be useless as a preventive of evaporation4 ,ordinary sealing wax1 bottle wax1 beeswax1 or paraffin wax1 being useless1 we are driven back on a very old recipe of the ,french naturalist ,m4 ,peron1 who claimed for it advantages which it certainly possesses4 ,no4 #cj4--,lithocolle for ,sealing ,bottles4 ,common resin4 ,yellow beeswax 7or paraffin wax74 ,red ochre 7in powder74 ,oil of turpentine 7turps74 ,the proportions of this luting are determined by putting more or less resin and red ochre1 or turpentine and wax1 as the lithocolle is to be more or less brittle or elastic4 ,melt the wax in the resin1 then add the ochre in small quantities1 and at each addition of this stir the whole briskly round4 ,when the mixture has boiled seven or eight minutes1 pour in the turpentine1 stir it round1 and set it near the fire to keep it warm some little time4 ,to ascertain the quality1 and if it requires more or less wax1 put a little out on a cold plate1 and note its degree of tenacity4 ,it is rather dangerous to prepare1 and is best managed over a gas jet or stove1 so arranged that the flame does not rise above the edge of the iron pot containing the composition2 if this is attended to1 not much danger can arise1 especially if1 in case of the composition firing1 the lid of the pot be immediately clapped on4 ,apply with an old brush1 or by repeatedly plunging the neck of the bottle in the luting before the latter becomes cold4 ,i have used an application of glue with great success on corks over spirits1 by procuring the best glue1 making it rather thin1 and applying it whilst hot in successive coats4 ,it will not do1 however1 for non-alcoholic solutions1 nor for glass stoppers1 from which it scales off when cold4 ,,general ,,remarks4 ,in all cases when pickling animals it must be remembered that the first pickle1 whether alcoholic or not1 is essentially deteriorated by the bloody mucus and water which exudes from the specimens1 especially if large and flabby2 this1 of course1 reduces the strength of the preservative medium4 ,it is well1 therefore1 to have from three to four different vessels1 in which the objects shall be successively immersed for several days1 or even weeks1 until1 coming to the final preparation jar1 they shall not stain the liquid in which they are ultimately to rest4 ,by using the various strengths of each preservative fluid one under the other1 in which to steep the specimens1 proper results will be obtained1 by the exercise of a little forethought and judgment4 ,filtration through blotting paper or charcoal is necessary from time to time1 and expensive spirits may be re-distilled when becoming too weak by constant use4 ,large fishes must have small cuts made in the walls of the abdomen to allow the fluid to properly penetrate4 ,in cases where the specimen is not required for dissection1 the removal of the viscera facilitates the ultimate preservation4 ,if at 'any time it is necessary to throw away a quantity of inexpensive spent liquor which may smell offensively1 a small quantity of the crystals of permanganate of potassa will instantly deodorise a large quantity of fluid1 and this without adding to it any offensive scent of its own1 as in the case of chloride of lime or carbolic acid4 ,the vessel must be afterwards well rinsed out in clean water1 as 'the potassa temporarily stains everything in contact a rich purplish red4 ,some experiments which ,i conducted with benzoline incontestably proved to me its valuable properties4 ,i experimented on a ,cornish chough--an old specimen1 infested with maggots or larvae of the clothes moth4 ,i immediately plunged it in benzoline1 took it out1 drained the superfluous spirit off1 and rapidly dried it by suspending it in a strong current of air4 ,it took but a short time to dry1 and1 though the feathers were very slightly clotted after the operation1 yet1 by a little manipulation1 explained hereafter1 they soon arrived at their pristine freshness1 and all the insects which previously infested it were effectually killed4 ,i afterwards found on another specimen--a short-eared owl--two or three larvae feeding on the feathers4 ,i poured a little benzoline over them in situ1 and they fell off1 apparently dead4 ,i kept them for a day1 and by that time they were shrivelled and undeniably dead4 ,here1 then1 we have the two elements of success--a perfect destroyer of insects1 and an agent not damaging1 but positively beneficial1 to the feathers of birds when applied2 added to which1 is the remarkable cheapness of benzoline4 ,caution--do not use it near a candle1 lamp1 nor fire1 as it gives off a highly inflammable vapour at a low temperature2 it also fills a house with a peculiarly disagreeable odour1 finding its way upstairs1 as all volatile gases do2 so it had better always be used in the workshop or outhouse4 ,i have just discovered--and feel very small that ,i did not do so before--that benzoline perfectly preserves birds in the flesh for a considerable time4 ,i tried it on a razorbill 7,alta torda1 #a471 which ,i placed in a preparation jar1 filled with common benzoline at #a s4 per gallon4 ,the bird was simply cut under the wing to allow the benzoline to penetrate1 and was left for three weeks2 at the end of which time it and taken out1 cleaned in plaster 7as described in ,chapter ,,xi471 and made a most excellent taxidermic object6 ,the advantages of this to the overworked professional are obvious4 ,in very severe cases ,i have used turpentine 7turps7 with excellent effect2 in fact1 as a destructive agent for insects1 ,i prefer it to benzoline1 having now mastered the hitherto fatal objections to its use on birds' skins4 ,for the skins of mammals there is nothing to beat it4 ,this will be enlarged on in the chapter on ,relaxing and ,cleaning ,skins4 ,in thus speaking of benzoline and turpentine as agents in the destruction of insect plagues1 ,i mean1 of course1 that the specimens should be plunged into1 or have poured over them either benzoline or turpentine4 ,this seems to have been lost sight of by some former correspondents of mine1 one of whom writes--,in your toxicological section1 ,i do not find any opinion on atmospheric poisoning of acari1 etc4 ,if not giving you too much trouble1 ,i should be glad to know whether you think spirits of turpentine would be efficacious if allowed to evaporate in a case of birds in which moths have lately shown themselves4 ,i am unwilling to have them taken out1 in fact they have not been cased twelve months1 and ,i thought of boring a hole in an obscure corner with bit and brace1 and inserting a saturated sponge1 and then closing it again4 ,waterton says--',the atmosphere of spirit of turpentine will allow neither acarus nor any insect to live in it3 ,do you believe this8 ,my answer to him1 and to all such correspondents1 was that ,i had repeatedly proved that all such little vermin did not care a bit for the fumes of benzoline1 nor of any spirits whatever1 as ,i had caused gallons of turpentine1 etc1 to be poured into large cases containing specimens without producing the smallest effect1 unless it absolutely touched them1 but that ,i had partly succeeded by introducing cyanide of potassium 7deadly poison7 into small cases containing birds1 through a hole bored for the purpose2 but it was objectionable3 7,i7 on the score of its danger to health1 should the poisonous vapour escape2 and 7#b7 because it deliquesced rapidly in any but the driest atmosphere1 by its affinity for damp1 and1 consequently1 often caused mildew in cases of birds1 etc1 into which it had been introduced4 ,the fumes of sulphur during combustion are1 on the contrary1 really of service in destroying insect life1 as evidenced in the fumigation of hospital wards1 etc1 but ,i cannot tell how anyone may burn sulphur in specimen cases without half choking himself1 and probably setting on fire the fittings and spoiling the work altogether4 ,it is also objectionable because it readily discharges certain colours from fabrics1 flowers1 and birds' feathers4 ,my advice is1 therefore1 to pull to pieces any case infested with insects1 to burn all fittings not absolutely valuable1 and to drench with turpentine all specimens1 together with all the rockwork and fittings desired to be retained4 ,footnote3 ,i would indeed advise the destruction by burning of the birds themselves even1 should they be common specimens1 or easily replaced4 ,crude creosote1 in little pots or saucers1 is a great deterrent to the visits of insect plagues2 it cannot1 however1 be exposed openly1 as its scent is overpowering and decidedly unhealthy for use in private houses4 ,in museums it does very well if cased up4 ,with regard to camphor in museums1 although it is so constantly used1 ,i consider it of no use as a deterrent4 ,a small piece of tallow candle is equally efficacious1 and of late ,i have had much more faith in insect powders1 the best of which is1 ,i believe1 compounded of the petals of the ,russian tansy 7,pyrethrum roseum74 ,this has certainly some principle contained in it not obvious to our senses4 ,it is perfectly harmless to man1 and to domestic animals1 but on insects its action is entirely different4 ,i cannot as yet discover whether insects eat it1 or if its smell overcomes them1 whether it repels1 or attracts them to their doom4 ,a series of experiments has left me just as much in the dark as ever4 ,certain it is that ,i have never found insects among skins over which it has been strewn4 ,there is1 however1 one slight objection to its use1 which is that it stains light-coloured skins1 if at all greasy1 with its fine1 brownish-yellow dust4 ,this is1 however1 but a trifle1 easily avoided1 in face of its unquestionable value4 ,i have used it now for many years1 and have never had cause to alter my opinion as to its efficacy4 ,the best only must be procured1 from some well-known wholesale house1 price about #cs4 per lb4 ,that sold made up in small quantities is generally adulterated and useless4 ,no curator should ever be without it1 and a small quantity should always be placed inside a newly-made skin4 ,it can also be worked up in many of the preservative pastes1 or macerated in spirit as a wash1 for the inside of skins4 ,baking or stowing maggot-infected specimens is recommended by some authors1 but ,i strongly object to it in the case of old or valuable skins1 firstly1 because the heat can seldom be properly regulated1 unless in an apparatus specially constructed2 secondly1 because heat sufficient to kill the larvae is also sufficient to crimp or twist some part of the plumage or render the skin1 if an old specimen1 too crisp or tender for ultimate handling2 thirdly1 because even a moderate degree of heat is sufficient to set free the fat contained in the skin1 and thus spoil the feathers4 ,perhaps the tyro may remark1 ,but in a preserved and stuffed skin there ought to be no fat to ooze out4 ,quite true1 there ought not to be1 but as skins are usually dressed with arsenical soap1 the fat1 instead of being dried up1 is beautifully conserved1 ready to run out at the slightest provocation1 or be drawn out by the capillary attraction of the threads used in sewing up--another hard knock for arsenical pastes6 ,writing about pastes reminds me that no taxidermist should be without a pot of flour paste1 which is far better and more cleanly than gum or glue for sticking in loose feathers1 etc4 ,for a small quantity1 sufficient to fill a jam-pot1 take ,no4 #ca4--;,flour ,paste4 ,good wheat flour1 #b oz4 ,essence of cloves1 #j4e a teaspoonful4 ,water1 #j4e pint4 ,mix the flour with part of the water in a basin1 being careful to crush out all the lumps1 and work it up smoothly to the consistence of thick cream2 add the remainder of the water1 and boil for a few minutes in a saucepan4 ,turn out into a jam-pot1 and when nearly cold stir in the essence of cloves2 this latter gives an agreeable odour to the paste1 is not poisonous1 and preserves the paste indefinitely from turning mouldy4 ,a few drops of carbolic acid may be used instead of the cloves2 but in this case the pot must be labelled ,poison4 ,strong gum water may be made from gum arabic1 into which a little powdered white sugar is stirred4 ,essence of cloves prevents mould in this also1 unless there be an excess of water4 ,a fine paste1 useful for paper or photographic work1 is made from rice-flour4 ,dextrine1 in powder1 is cheap and strong1 easily soluble in cold water1 but as a paste shows up on feathers1 etc1 much more than wheat-flour paste4 ,cement1 for uniting broken bones or fossils1 or to fix shells1 etc1 on tablets1 is1 says the late ,frank ,buckland1 made thus ,no4 #cb4--,white ,cement4 ,beeswax1 #a part4 ,powdered plaster of ,paris 7best fine71 #e parts4 ,resin1 #d parts4 ,warm the edges 7when possible7 and use the cement warm4 ,i would advise the plaster being stirred into the other two ingredients as wanted4 ,the great objection to this and to all the coagulines is that the edges of the specimen require warming1 which cannot always be done4 ,another good colourless cement is ,no4 #cc4--,white ,cement1 ,no4 #b4 ,gum tragacanth in powder1 #a part4 ,gum arabic 7acacia7 in powder1 #a part4 ,glacial acetic acid1 a few drops4 ,when used1 moisten the gums with a little of the acetic acid diluted4 ,gum mastic dissolved in alcohol1 and white shellac dissolved in naphtha1 are two other white cements4 ,where1 however1 colour does not matter1 take ,no4 #cd--;,brown ,cement4 ,common shellac1 #j4be lb4 ,spirits of naphtha1 #j4e pint4 ,place them in a bottle in a warm situation on a closed stove1 or in a vessel containing hot water4 ,be careful of fire4 ,the edges of bones or undersides of fossils are smeared with this1 tied with string1 and left for a day or so to unite4 ,the reader has now a repertoire of poisonous and harmless preparations from which he may choose4 ,as for myself1 for the preservation of birds1 ,i pin my faith to formula ,no4 #d1 viz1 my ,preservative ,soap for the inside of the skin1 and a wash of benzoline or turpentine liberally applied from time to time--say twice a year--to the outside of all uncased or exposed specimens4 ,this1 it will be seen1 entirely does away with the use of any poison1 and yet is proved to be of the highest efficacy4 ,for those who do not object to expense nor to the use of a poisonous preparation1 a wash of ,waterton's ,solution 7,no4 #e71 or the sulphuric ether preparation 7,no4 #ah71 can be substituted for benzoline or turpentine4 ,i mention the expense1 because only rectified spirits of wine1 or pure sulphuric ether1 will do for birds2 the methylated spirit1 though of service for washing over most subjects1 is not so good when applied to the delicate feathers of birds1 as it leaves on drying a certain impure residuum behind it4 ,for mammals ,i recommend my formula of burnt alum and saltpetre 7,no4 #i71 followed by a wash of benzoline or turpentine twice a year1 or by any one of the mercurial preparations given4 ,on a retrospect of this chapter it will1 ,i think1 be admitted that1 if ,i am adverse to the use of any poisonous preparations in taxidermy1 ,i at least point out the why and wherefore1 as also an alternative course1 showing at the same time the benefits and defects of both systems4 ,i now1 therefore1 leave the amateur to choose for himself--bearing in mind the time-honoured aphorism1 chacun son got4 ,plate ,,ii ,skeleton of ,peregrine ,falcon ,,showing ,,the ,,proper ,,position ,,of ,,the ,,various ,,boxes4 ,explanation3 follows3 ,,skeleton ,,of ,,peregrine ,,falcon 7above47 ,,showing ,,the ,,proper ,,position ,,of ,,the ,,various ,,boxes4 ,explanation3 ,a1 skull2 ,b1 upper mandible2 ,c1 lower mandible2 ,d1 cervical vertebrae 7#i72 ,e1 humeri 7sing4 humerus72 ,f1 radius2 ,g1 ,ulna2 ,h1 carpus1 or wrist ,i and ,j1 metacarpal bones 7#h72 i1 knuckle joint2 ,k1 pollex 7first digit1 or 'thumb72 ,k#b and ,k#c second or index digit1 and next or third digit2 #a1 pelvis or ossa innominata ilium1 ischium1 and pubes anchylosed2 ,m1 femur2 ,n1 tibia2 ,o ,o1 fibula2 ,p1 metatarse1 or tarso-metarsus 7#c1 sometimes #d bones72 p1 actual knee joint2 q1 heel1 or tibiotarsal joint2 ,q1 hallux 7first or big toe71 called in ornithology the hind toe ,r1 fourth 7or outermost7 toe2 ,s ,s sternum1 or breast bone4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,skinning ,,and ,,preserving ,,birds4 ,,in order that this shall be a thoroughly practical chapter1 ,i will1 in my method of working1 copy the admirable plan of my old sporting favourite1 ,col4 ,hawker1 who1 when wishing to note down some difficult point1 was in the habit of doing with his own hands all things pertaining to the matter at issue1 because1 as he said1 he might not make mistakes when subsequently writing upon knotty subjects intended for his readers' consideration4 ,i have1 therefore1 specially procured a starling1 as ,i consider this bird the very best for the amateur's purpose1 not only on account of the toughness of the skin1 but also because1 being a medium-sized bird1 it presents no difficult points in skinning1 and with this bird before me ,i shall minutely instruct my pupil1 pointing out each step that has to be taken and each difficulty that is likely to arise4 ,as ,i shall have occasion constantly to refer to the various parts of the skeleton1 ,i now give an engraving of that of the ,peregrine ,falcon1 in order to help my explanations in the future 7see ,plate ,,ii474 ,having placed ready for use the skinning knife 7see ,fig4 #aa71 the scissors 7,fig4 #ad71 and the cobbler's crooked awl in handle1 a pot of preservative mixture1 some cotton wool or wadding1 some tow1 and a needle and thread2 lay the starling on its back on a piece of clean paper1 the head of the bird pointing from the operator2 then seize the bird by the sides of the head with the first two fingers and thumb of the left hand in opposition1 the awl held in the palm of the right hand1 and a piece of wool between the right-hand finger and thumb2 then insert the point of the awl between the upper and lower mandibles1 and1 having opened them1 keep them open with the first finger of the right hand1 removing the piece of wool which should have been previously placed there by the sportsman 7see instructions re shot birds1 at end of ,chapter ,,ii474 ,replacing it with the fresh piece of wool held in readiness1 plug the nostrils in the same manner4 ,as even this simple operation will have somewhat disarranged the feathers of the head and neck1 smooth them down with the fingers1 taking care1 however1 not to stretch the neck in doing so4 ,the next operation is to hold the left-hand wing with the left hand1 and with the fingers of the right hand break or disjoint the bone of the wing as close to the body as possible1 i4e1 across the humerus 7,e7 7in the case of large birds1 or for some special purpose1 this bone is often left intact1 but the amateur will be puzzled how to subsequently arrange it in the skin if unbroken74 ,repeat this on the other wing4 ,for those whose fingers are not strong enough to do this effectually1 ,i recommend a small pair of flat-nosed pliers1 some sizes larger than the feather pliers 7,fig4 #ai74 ,large birds may have their wings broken at the humeri 7,e7 by striking them with a stick or hammer in such a manner as not to break nor seriously disarrange the feathers2 the largest-sized pliers 7,fig4 #af7 may also be used for this purpose1 but in that case a piece of clean rag should be folded in the jaws of the pliers so as to envelope the upper and under surface of the wing1 in order to protect the feathers from injury4 ,practice will1 however1 point out the best method of doing this4 ,next take hold of the legs with the fingers and gently twist them out of joint at the junction of the tibia and femur4 ,now1 keeping the head of the bird toward you1 part the feathers away from each side of the sternum or breast-bone2 then with the knife held short in the hand1 the point placed exactly in the centre of the bird 7calculating from the bill to the tip of the tail71 make the first incision just on the right side of the breast bone down to the vent1 taking care not to cut so deeply as to expose the intestines4 ,now turn the bill towards your right1 and gently lay hold of the cut edge of the skin1 which you see shining whitely in front of you2 then with the point of the knife--the cutting edge kept on the flesh--gently loosen the skin above1 below1 and downwards4 ,completely reverse the bird1 and repeat this for the other side4 ,at this stage the body may be held down1 with the knife pressed on the side of the breast bone1 and thus the two first fingers of the left hand may be advantageously employed--but in a very gentle manner--to loosen the skin around the upper part of the breast-bone from the inside1 while the thumb regulates the pull from the outside4 ,all must be done with the feathers kept as much away from the flesh as possible4 ,fig4 #bb--,starling--,showing ,position of ,first ,incision and the ,commencement of the ,removal of the ,skin4 ,fig4 #bb shows the appearance which the specimen should now present4 ,the skin being1 as it were1 nicely persuaded from the flesh 7more being done by pushing than by pulling71 the legs begin to appear4 ,take hold of the one nearest to you with the right hand1 at the same time inserting the fingers of the left inside the skin2 then1 by gently pushing up with the right hand1 free the legs sufficiently to show the second joint1 where it has been previously twisted or broken4 ,laying down the knife1 and picking up the scissors1 force their point underneath the joint1 marked ,p in ,plate ,,ii1 and cut it completely off2 it should then be clear of the flesh1 showing the skin on either side as if it were a stocking turned inside out4 ,pull it gently by the claw back into its proper position1 and there leave it1 and do the same by the other leg1 turning the bird again for that1 purpose4 ,both the legs should now be entirely free1 not holding to the body at any point4 ,taking up the knife again1 carefully work with it down toward the tail1 and as far round the back as you can get with safety4 ,now let the bird rest on its head1 as it were1 with the beak from you1 and1 placing the fingers with the thumb on the back 7which is now underneath71 the middle finger on the root of the tail inside1 flanked by the first and third fingers keeping down the skin on either side1 cautiously insert the knife through the skin of the vent1 and cut that free1 cutting upward in a slanting direction2 having done this1 carefully cut away on the root of the tail1 at the same time freeing it wherever it sticks2 then1 when nothing but one bone1 that is to say1 the last caudal vertebra1 holds it1 slip the knife underneath and cut with a drawing motion upward4 ,the tail is now entirely separated from the body4 ,now advance the fingers of the left hand and seize the bottom part of the loosened body with the right hand1 and by pushing with the finger-nails1 and occasionally using the knife where the tendons hold the skin1 gradually work up the back1 turning it round and round1 and working very carefully until the place where the wings have been previously broken is arrived at4 ,again lay down the knife1 and taking up the scissors1 cut the wing nearest to you away from the skin2 do the same with the other side2 and now the only thing which holds skin and body together is the neck4 ,taking the whole of the body in the hand1 proceed with the fingers of the other 7using no knife7 to gradually cause the skin to leave its attachment at the neck4 ,with care work over the head by the same means1 and here progress is stopped by the skin being held on either side of the face by a little membrane2 this is the inner skin of the ears4 ,regaining the knife1 slip the point underneath1 and gradually lift them out1 cutting towards the flesh and not towards the skin4 ,this done1 the skin will appear darker1 immediately above this point4 ,these are the eyes2 carefully cut on top of them with a very gentle motion1 until they are skinned to where only a very thin membrane hides them from view2 arrived at this1 the knife-point must be pushed gently underneath1 and an upward cut made1 which1 if carefully done1 entirely severs the eyelids from the retaining membrane4 ,the exact point shown in ,fig4 #bc is now reached4 ,fig4 #bc--,skin of ,bird ,turned ,ready for ,severance from ,body ,after this sever the skull from the neck at the point where the dotted lines ,a--,b are shown in the drawing4 ,this exposes the brain without cutting off too much at the base of the cranium1 the shape of which is wanted for subsequent operations4 ,after the body is completely severed1 proceed to pull the tongue out 7unless wanted for show7 by placing the knife on the other aside of it in opposition to the thumb1 give a smart pull1 keeping an even pressure on1 and the tongue will come out with little or no difficulty4 ,next enlarge the orifice at the back of the head by cutting a triangular piece out towards the palate or roof of the mouth1 scooping the brains out with the point of the knife1 having a small piece of paper in readiness to receive them4 ,during this operation hold the beak of the bird through the skin of the neck by the two first fingers1 and thumb1 the latter being uppermost1 the other fingers being employed in keeping the remainder of the skin with the feathers out of harm's way4 ,inserting the point of the knife at the back of the eye1 place the thumb on the eyeball and gently pull it out1 taking care not to let the point of the knife cut upward so as to burst the eye1 or the effect will be to liberate the dark-coloured pigment or the vitreous humour1 and thus wet or stain the feathers4 ,having done all this1 there will still remain some little flesh at the back of the eye and the junction of the mandibles1 and this must be carefully cut away so as not to dis-articulate the latter4 ,the ,preservative ,paste now comes into requisition1 and with this the skull and orbits are well painted inside and out4 ,a little tow1 previously chopped by the medium of a sharp pair of scissors1 is now pushed into the empty skull1 with the stuffing iron1 which is a small piece of thick wire 7see ,fig4 #ba74 ,for large birds the tow forceps 7see ,fig4 #bj7 may be conveniently used4 ,having neatly filled the head with the tow1 proceed to put a small piece of cotton wadding in each orbit4 7,note1 be careful that tow only is pushed into the head1 as if never so small a piece of wadding gets into the cavity of the head it will effectually prevent any subsequent mounting of the specimen1 as1 singular though it may appear1 a small piece of wadding is more than a match for a pointed wire47 ,during all this time the neck must be kept as short and as little stretched as possible4 ,in some birds a line of fat will be observed extending from the neck to the back or even to the breast1 which must be as carefully as possible scraped off the skin by using the edge of the knife1 guided by the thumb4 ,having done this1 paint the neck only with the preservative1 and lay the skin on the paper1 back upward and tail from you2 the under part of the head in this position points upward4 ,place the thumbs of both hands1 their nails touching each other1 at the back of the head with the first two fingers of each hand placed in this wise3 forefingers along the side of the face1 second fingers underneath on the top of the skin of the head2 then1 by gently pushing with the thumbs and pulling or scratching1 as it were1 with the other fingers1 gradually force the head through until the mandibles appear1 as also the eyelids4 ,let go with the right hand1 still keeping the thumb of the left pressing against the head2 and1 by gently working with the two first fingers of the left hand outside the feathers1 and by pulling the beak upward and toward you with the right1 the bird is returned to the position shown in ,fig4 #bb4 ,as the bird now lies1 it is optional whether the flesh is cleaned away from the root of the tail first or from the legs and wings4 ,i will1 however1 in this case take the wing on my right4 ,place the right hand underneath1 lift the wing as far up into the skin as possible1 and by holding it tightly in that position with the finger and thumb of the left hand1 a ridge of skin becomes visible1 running down each side1 and framing in1 as it were1 a little oval-shaped piece of flesh1 i4e4 that lying between the radius and ulna ,the broken bone and flesh of the wing is now toward you4 ,clean the flesh away from this and then devote the attention to the before-named oval-shaped piece of flesh4 ,putting the point of the knife down on the right1 lift and scoop away 7using the greatest care meanwhile7 some small pieces of flesh4 ,this by degrees reveals the top of another little bone1 from under which all the flesh to be seen must be scraped away2 anoint this freely with the preservative1 and return it to its normal position after tying a small piece of strong thread through the loop of the bone 7in large birds a little tow should be placed in the cavity74 ,if this process is too tedious1 or not quite comprehended by the amateur--i4e4 the clearing out of the flesh between the radius and ulna--the smaller bone of the two--the radius 7,f1 ,plate ,,ii7 may be twisted or cut out entirely1 leaving only the larger bone of the two to clear of flesh4 ,sometimes--but this with large birds only--the wing may be advantageously cut from the outside along its entire length underneath1 the flesh removed1 skin dressed1 and the cut carefully sewn up4 ,do the same by the other wing1 and then push the leg on the same side up through the skin1 pushing the skin down with the fingers and thumb of the left hand1 and pulling with the right1 until you have stripped the skin nearly down to the so-called knee1 q 7not the proper knee1 however1 that being situated higher up--,plate ,,ii71 or tibio-tarsal joint4 ,at this joint a bundle of little leaders1 or muscles1 assemble2 cut them away from around the bone 7without interfering with the joint1 however71 and they will roll up with the flesh to the head of the bone previously cut off at the proper knee joint1 and can there be easily pulled off4 7,in practice1 it will be found that retaining the full length of this bone--the tibia--is not desirable for subsequent operations2 it may therefore be advantageously shortened by one-half47 ,anoint with the preservative and neatly wrap a piece of tow around the leg-bone 7or tibia7 to the supposed shape of the flesh previously removed4 ,return the leg to its natural position2 and repeat the same on the other side4 ,the tail is now the only thing left which requires to be freed from flesh4 ,keeping the beak still from you1 push the tail1 with the left hand1 as far up into the body as possible1 then clear it of every particle of flesh by scraping and cutting1 taking care to cut away the oil ducts or glands--usually full of a thick fat--and being careful also not to cut away the attachment of the roots of the feathers to the skin2 anoint with the preservative1 and return4 ,several little streaks of fat in various parts of the skin may now be seen1 which must be carefully scraped away4 ,the wing bones must now be tied nearly together by the pieces of thread previously attached2 the distance between them varies with the size of the bird's body previously removed 7this knowledge is1 of course1 gained by experience1 but amateurs are recommended to take careful measurements of this and other analogous points74 ,the whole of the skin of the back1 body1 and throat is to be well anointed4 ,now take the forceps 7see ,fig4 #bj71 and form a little neck of tow on it1 introduce it into the skin1 leaving the end of the tow resting against the back of the head4 ,then insert some larger pieces of tow with the fingers or tongs into the body1 and when you have shaped it as nearly as possible to the original body of the bird--taking care to nicely observe the adjustment of the several parts--neatly sew up the skin with a fine needle and thread by an under stitch on the edges of the skin1 drawing it tight after two or three stitches2 and thus proceed until the bottom is reached1 avoiding the common fault of sewing the feathers in with the stitches4 ,some few ends of tow will possibly be protruding from the lower part1 which must be cut off before the final stitch4 ,the bird's legs are tied one across the other1 and the wings pressed close to the body in the proper position2 the neck is also shortened1 and a little narrow band of paper is cut1 and placed underneath the bird1 brought round the butts of the wings or shoulders1 and pinned together on the top of the breast2 a needle and thread are inserted through the nostrils1 the thread is brought round underneath the bird's lower mandible1 and is tied in a knot to keep the beak closed4 ,in the course of a week or so1 when sufficiently dry1 the bandage is removed1 and thus we have what is technically called a skin4 ,this is the loose body method of making skins2 perhaps a better plan is making a body--see farther on--on wire1 which should not come through the top of the head1 or on a piece of stick 7a lucifer match with the top broken off will do for small skins7 coming into the base of the skull2 this gives a great support to the neck1 and prevents the common fault of the skin breaking away just above the shoulders4 ,if great nicety is desired--and neatness in making a skin is everything--remember particularly not to overstuff it2 it will really require just about half as much packing as you would at first imagine sufficient to fill it4 ,be careful as to the set of the wings1 at the shoulders especially2 and after having coaxed every feather with loving care into its proper position1 wrap the whole skin in a sheet of wadding1 leaving the ends open1 and put away in a secure place to dry4 ,another method of shaping skins whilst drying is described by ,mr4 ,batty1 the well-known ,american taxidermist1 who makes a drying board for small skins in the following manner 7see ,fig4 #bd73 ,procure a piece of board of the length and width you require1 on which nail on edge #j4ge-;inch slips of wood two inches high at intervals required2 between these supports stretch stout cardboard in the form of gutters4 ,in these1 padded in wadding1 the skins rest until dry4 ,fig4 #bd--,set or ,drying ,board for ,birds' ,skins4 ,often blood and other substances clog and spoil the feathers of a bird2 how to remove these will be found explained in the chapter on ,cleaning ,birds' ,skins4 ,fig4 #be--,starling ,properly ,made ,into a ,skin ,with ,label ,attached4 ,in noting the sex of a bird an important matter1 only managed in most cases by the aid of a little dissection--it will be necessary to cut the body1 after it is out of the skin1 through the ribs along the side close to the back1 open it1 and look upon the kidneys 7dark coloured masses apparently let into the hollow of the back-bone at the narrowest part of the body7 for the sexual organs4 ,if a male1 there will appear just upon the upper end of the kidneys1 one on each side of the back bone1 two little oval-shaped bodies1 usually of a dull white or light yellow tint 7do not mistake the supra-renal capsules--quite yellow1 small1 and a little higher up--for these74 ,if a female1 these two small oval bodies will be replaced a little lower clown by a string or bundle of eggs1 very minute in some seasons1 but strongly marked and large in the breeding season4 ,it is sometimes difficult to tell the sex--in young birds especially2 but a good plan is to get a bird1 known by its plumage to be a male--say a cock sparrow--and a female bird1 and dissect out these organs1 putting them in spirits in separate bottles1 the organs of each sex attached to its part of the bone and kidneys1 and keep them for reference until experience teaches the way to readily decide sexes4 ,a label is attached to the legs1 giving scientific and common name of bird1 sex1 locality1 and date1 and name or initials of collector4 ,thus3 ,no4 #a4 ,,sturnus ,,vulgaris1 #a4 7,starling74 ,sex4--,male ,juv4 ,colour of irides--,dark brown4 ,colour of beak--,dark slate4 ,colour of legs toes--,reddish-brown4 ,leicester1 #ba_/i_/hc4 ,collector1 ,,mb4 ,in the cases of such birds as the hawks1 which have bare spaces around the eyes 7sub1 and super-ciliary patches7 and around the base of the beak 7cere71 note down the colours of these parts also4 ,in the cases of rare birds the measurements of the extreme length from tip of beak to tail--again from inner edge of gape to vent1 the bill and tail being measured separately from those points--should be carefully taken1 as also the length of culmen1 carpus1 and tarsus1 and set down in inches and tenths1 on the label1 or in the note book1 when the matter becomes too voluminous4 ,the reference number and name1 in the latter case1 will be sufficient for the label1 thus keeping it very small4 ,in ordinary cases1 all information1 excepting name1 date1 and collector's name1 may be written on the back4 ,part of the label may be printed ready for filling in4 ,another plan of skinning a bird is to work upward instead of downward1 and by raising the skin on top of the breast and throat to approach the neck1 which is then cut off by slipping the point of the scissors underneath4 ,this gives room for one wing to be loosened1 and ultimately cut off1 the other one then easily follows as a matter of course1 and by alternately skinning away the back and the breast1 the legs and the tail are arrived at1 which are treated as before described4 ,this method is useful in cases where the lower extremities are badly shot or high1 but is otherwise objectionable1 as1 in any other but the most careful hands1 it is apt to stretch or split any delicate skin1 in the attempt to get the shoulders out1 but for which ,i should have nothing to say against it4 ,curiously enough1 however1 it is more practised by amateurs than by professionals4 ,one of the most important1 however1 of all methods of skinning ever invented1 is that known as skinning from under the wing2 it is perhaps more difficult to a beginner than the other way of skinning1 but its advantages are enormous4 ,supposing you have a bird very badly shot1 or one with its wing half torn off or ripped underneath1 as sometimes happens1 you then1 instead of complicating matters by making an incision in another place1 take advantage of the ripped side and cut it open there4 ,the birds1 however1 for which this system is invaluable are sea birds1 or all birds having white or very light coloured breasts4 ,to cut such birds on the breast practically ruins them1 for however well a sea bird's skin may be cleaned1 there still remains some little greasiness between the roots of the feathers2 and in spite of the most careful sewing1 the capillary action of the thread used in stitching up 7aided1 of course1 by the position of the mounted bird--breast downward7 is sufficient to draw to the surface whatever oily fat or grease remains in the skin2 and though it may not show for a few months1 yet1 sooner or later1 a rust coloured line of grease appears1 and in spite of all cleaning will reappear1 and gradually spread over the breast1 destroying the beauty of perhaps a unique specimen4 ,to skin a bird from under the wing1 select the worst side1 or that injured the most by shot1 etc1 and laying the bird with that side uppermost1 make an incision from just above the leg to just under the wing4 ,push the leg-bone up1 and cut it off with a pair of scissors2 then work the skin away a little from the back1 and as much as possible from the breast1 gradually working your way until you see the wing-bone1 which cut off4 ,careful skinning brings you to the neck and windpipe1 which also cut off4 ,the whole of one side of the bird is now skinned out with the exception of the tail2 come downward on the opposite side to your incision1 and across the breast until you can cut off the remaining wing2 having done this1 keep skinning downward until the leg is arrived at1 and cut off4 ,nothing now holds the skin to the body but the tail-bone1 which separate4 ,clean and finish the bird in the ordinary way4 ,i shall now suppose that1 instead of making a skin 7as previously described71 you desire to stuff the specimen with the ultimate idea of its forming part of a collection mounted in the same manner as the birds are mounted in the ,british ,museum--namely1 on turned stands as perches2 or1 as is usual now1 to form a unit of a characteristic group mounted in a more artistic manner in a shade or a case4 ,for the purpose of this lesson ,i have relaxed the original starling we before made into a skin1 and shall now mount it1 keeping to one bird1 so as not to confuse the learner4 ,in setting up a bird we require to use wires4 ,the sizes of wires are determined by gauges4 ,thus the smallest sized wire made is that known as ,gauge #bh4 ,this and the two following numbers1 #bf and #bg1 are only required for the humming birds2 #bh is1 however1 a good size for the least4 #bd will be found a good size for the smaller kinds of warblers and finches up to canaries4 #ba is a useful general size for a great number of small birds1 and will do for such a bird as the hawfinch4 #ai is a good size for thrushes and starlings1 and will also do very well for squirrels4 #af is a good useful size for many things--will do for such birds as the landrail or pigeons4 #ac is a good size for such birds as parrots1 and that or the next largest size will do for owls4 #ab will do for the larger hawks1 such as the peregrine falcon1 etc4 and for small dogs4 #i is more suitable for foxes and larger dogs4 #g will do for eagles4 #e1 #c1 and #a approach so nearly to bars as to be fit only for the larger animals4 ,as a rule1 however1 practice enables a person to use smaller sized wires than appears possible to him at first4 ,i would here also recommend that galvanised be used instead of the common annealed wire 7never use hard wire7 for all purposes1 excepting for large animals4 ,its advantages are very great1 as ,i can personally testify4 ,if you decide on mounting your bird on a turned stand1 you will1 if not possessing a lathe yourself1 have to call in the assistance of a turner1 who will1 for a small sum1 turn the requisite stands1 which may be either in mahogany1 boxwood1 ebony1 or ivory1 according to your taste and the length of your pocket4 ,if1 on the contrary1 you decide to ultimately mount your specimen in a case or a shade1 you had better provide yourself with some wire of a suitable strength1 and some tow1 which latter you will proceed to wrap round the wire to within a couple of inches of one end--forming1 in fact1 an artificial twig1 which you may bend to any shape1 riveting the unbound end through a piece of wood of sufficient weight to balance the bird when set up4 ,having1 then1 before you1 as the first indispensable adjunct1 the turned stand or artificial twig 7a natural one does in some cases71 the stuffing irons1 file1 crooked awl1 pliers1 scissors1 wire1 tow1 needle and thread1 pins1 and some fine darning cotton1 which is called wrapping cotton1 you proceed to business thus3 ,the bird being skinned1 all the flesh cleaned out1 and well dressed with the preservative up to the point previously described--leg bones being wrapped and wings being tied--lay the bird down on a clean piece of paper4 ,having selected the wire of two sizes1 of a suitable thickness1 the thinner for the body wire and the other for the leg wires1 cut the three1 with the aid of the pliers1 a little longer than the body and legs respectively1 pointing each wire at one end with a file--not rounding the points1 but leaving them with cutting edges4 ,taking up the thicker or body wire in the right hand and some tow in the left1 commence at about an inch from the point to tightly and neatly bind on the tow in the shape of the neck1 and of nearly the same length that the neck was before being cut off--that is to say1 making the artificial neck somewhat longer than the neck of the skin 7if properly taken off and not abnormally lengthened7 appears to be4 ,the reason for this is that the natural neck1 being carried between the clavicles forming the furculum or merry-thought1 is bent downward and forward between them when perching 7see ,fig4 #bb72 hence the artificial neck must imitate nature so far as that1 when inserted in the skin1 it may be also bent forward and downward1 and afterwards thrown back on the body in a natural position4 ,of course1 if a bird's neck is to be represented very short1 as it will be in certain attitudes1 the artificial neck must be almost1 if not quite1 done away with2 indeed1 the shortening of the neck of the mounted specimen depends almost entirely on the absence of stuffing above the shoulders4 ,be sure1 also1 not to stuff the skin too wide about the shoulders2 if so1 the butts of the wings will never come into place1 nor allow the feathers of the breast to be brought over them in a natural manner4 ,it is exceedingly difficult to instruct in these niceties of detail2 close observation--note a canary or any song bird at rest--added to experience1 will alone teach the amateur these points4 ,to excel in mounting animals the arts of drawing and modelling from living examples must be cultivated2 the amateur taxidermist thus gains the requisite knowledge to help him in his art4 ,footnote3 ,it may perhaps1 be necessary to warn the non-scientific that whenever ,i speak of animals ,i include fishes1 reptiles1 and birds with the mammals4 ,having shaped the neck to your own satisfaction1 proceed thence to form the body1 by continuously wrapping the tow round and round the wire1 keeping the shape1 however1 somewhat flat on the sides1 full on the breast and back1 and narrowest at the lower extremity of the body1 where it comes in between the legs to the tail4 ,about an inch of the wire should now be left unbound1 which turn up on the back of the false body to prevent the tow slipping off2 next take some cotton1 which wind all over the false body to keep the tow in its place1 adding1 as you go on1 small pieces of tow1 and binding them on where depressions or faults appear4 ,this being finished secundum artem1 insert the pointed end of the wire or false neck up the neck of the specimen1 pushing the point of the wire right through the skull until it comes out at the crown of the head4 ,now gradually1 by persuasive means1 pull the skin over the false body2 and lift the starling up and observe what faults are apparent--possibly a little difficulty exists at the shoulders1 if so1 press them in with the thumbs1 and then note if there are any apparently hollow places2 if so1 fill them out with a little more tow4 ,see that the back is nicely sloped1 that the breast is full enough1 and especially if it be even and narrow between the legs4 ,having observed all these points with great exactness1 proceed to nicely sew up the skin with the stitch previously mentioned4 ,then select two other pieces of wire of the right size1 and point them each at one end4 7,note4--,the wires are generally a size or so stronger for the legs than for the body47 ,taking a wire in the right hand1 open the claws of the bird with the other1 so as to expose the sole of the foot1 into which push the point of the wire1 forcing it up the leg on its under side between the skin and the bone--be careful how you pass under the so-called knee joint4 ,pulling the leg now downward and upward1 that is to say1 toward the breast1 push the wire right through the false body to the other side1 until it comes out under the wing on the side farthest from the leg4 ,with a small pair of pliers turn the point downward1 pull the wire at the foot1 and it is thus clenched and firmly fixed2 do the same with the other leg4 ,remember that if the leg wires are not firmly clenched in the made body1 and are not perfectly stiff and tight1 all your labour goes for nothing4 ,now bring together the skin at the lower part with your fingers1 and push a small wire through the root of the tail up into the made body4 ,picking the bird up with one hand1 bend the legs into their proper position1 bend the neck a little downward and backward on the front1 then forward and downward from the back of the head4 ,place the leg wires through two holes bored in the crosspiece of the stand1 or through the natural twig1 or wind them round on the false twig and make them secure4 ,run a fine pin 7entomological pin1 ,no4 #b7 through the shafts of the feathers of the tail to cause them to dry in proper shape1 then neatly insert the eyes 7putting a small piece of putty in the orbit previously71 bringing the eyelids over with a fine needle1 being exceedingly careful not to rip them1 and not to have them too staring1 a very common fault with the amateur4 ,see that the wings are fixed in their right places with one or more pins or wires4 ,place one pin in the centre of the breast and in the middle of the back 7all of these pins must be left half-way out71 proceed to nicely arrange the feathers in their proper places by the aid of the crooked awl and feather pliers 7see ,fig4 #ai74 ,having done this till it appears as nearly like the living bird as possible 7which constant practice and close attention alone will enable you to do71 take the wrapping cotton1 and1 having made a loop on one end1 fix it to the pin on the back4 ,bring it across to the pin on one of the wings1 and across in a zig-zag manner to the other pins in the wings1 binding down the back first4 ,then attend to the breast and under tail coverts1 taking care to bind down more securely than the others those feathers which will start up 7usually the upper wing coverts74 ,a careful binder working properly will shape his bird by binding4 ,tie the mandibles if they are wanted closed1 and cut the wire off the head1 as it permanently raffles the feathers if left until the specimen is dry4 ,this is binding for a closed-winged bird2 but for one whose wings are to be thrown up1 say a hawk on flight1 the modus operandi is slightly different2 wire stays and card braces now supplement wrapping cotton4 ,the bird being opened on its worst side is stuffed in the usual manner as far as getting the neck up into the skull1 the attached body is now bolted through near the top of the cut by the wing1 by a long wire sufficiently strong to keep the bird suspended2 this wire1 being firmly clenched on the opposite side of the body to the cut1 has its free end1 of course1 depending from the incision under the wing4 ,the next thing to do is to support the wings in the position necessary to represent flight4 ,for this purpose1 point four wires sufficiently long to extend the wings1 and to come through the body to be clenched4 ,two of these wires should be of a size thinner than the other two4 ,select the wing on the side of the body farthest from the cut1 and enter the point of one of the thickest wires in the wing at the end of the part called the metacarpus 7i1 ,plate ,,ii72 push it gently along between the bone and the skin--meanwhile holding the wing with the left-hand fingers--along the side of or between the radius and ulna1 finally pushing it into the body at the shoulder1 and clenching it when it comes through1 which it should do under the opposite wing at the cut4 ,it is often very difficult or impossible to get the wire to go through the carpus2 it will suffice1 therefore1 if1 after coming along the metacarpus1 it just misses the carpus and enters the skin again at the junction of the radius and ulna4 ,if properly managed1 the wire will be snugly hidden in the skin of the wing by the feathers of the parts along which it has travelled4 ,do likewise with the other wing1 but this wire often cannot be carried right through to the opposite side1 and must therefore be firmly secured in the body on its own side2 next fix the legs in the manner before detailed1 or1 as the bird is to be represented on flight1 the wires need only be entered at the tibia-tarsal joint 7q1 ,plate ,,ii74 ,push a wire in the tail1 and sew up the incision under the wing4 ,the bird has now its wings1 legs1 and tail fixed1 and the free end of the supporting wire is sticking out from under the wing4 ,fix this wire firmly through the top of a narrow strip of board at such a distance as to miss the outspread wing2 let this board also be long enough to allow of one end being fixed in a vice or screwed to the edge of a table1 whilst the hawk or other bird clears its surface4 ,the bird being now shaped up a little1 take the two thinnest wires and enter the point of one in each wing at the end of the fleshy part of the wing 7really the bird's middle finger71 or through the base of the first quill1 an inch or so from the other wire4 ,this last wire travels along the outside of the feathers under the wing1 and is consequently not hidden at all when pushed into the body3 its use is to curve the wing upon it into a graceful shape1 and when the bird is sufficiently dry it is pulled out1 the first wire at the shoulder being quite sufficient to bear up the wing when set4 ,as1 however1 the wing feathers start up here and there1 and do not readily conform to all the curves of the wires1 the wiring and binding must be supplemented by braces1 which are narrow strips of cardboard pinned in pairs at intervals below and above the wing1 and held in position by pins running through both braces from the under to the upper surface4 ,for explanation of this see ,plate ,i 7,frontispiece71 a hawk properly set up and bound to represent it swooping on its prey4 ,putty sometimes greases light-coloured skins around the eyes2 it will be well1 therefore1 to insert in its stead a little pipe or modelling clay worked up stiff4 7,clay will be treated of in a subsequent chapter4 ,it will be found useful for the faces of some sea-birds and hawks1 and indeed for the greater part of the body and legs of large birds4 ,the ,cassowary in the ,leicester ,museum has been worked up largely in this manner47 ,steel pins with black bead heads are first-rate helps to binding4 ,they are sold in various lengths1 and being long1 sharp1 and fine1 quite supersede ordinary pins4 ,audi alteram partem6 ,let us now take the evidence of ,waterton3 ,you will observe how beautifully the feathers of a bird are arranged2 one falling over the other in nicest order1 and that1 where this charming harmony is interrupted1 the defeat1 though not noticed by an ordinary spectator1 will appear immediately to the eye of a naturalist4 ,thus1 a bird not wounded1 and in perfect feather1 must be procured1 if possible1 for the loss of feathers can seldom be made good2 and where the deficiency is great all the skill of the artist will avail him little in his attempt to conceal the defect2 because1 in order to hide it1 he must contract the skin1 bring down the upper feathers and shove in the lower ones1 which would throw all the surrounding parts into contortion4 ,you will also observe that the whole of the skin does not produce feathers1 and that it is very tender where the feathers do not grow4 ,the bare parts are admirably formed for expansion about the throat and stomach1 and they fit into the different cavities of the body at the wings1 shoulder1 rump1 and thighs1 with wonderful exactness1 so that in stuffing the bird1 if you make an even rotund surface of the skin1 where the cavities existed1 in lieu of re-forming them1 all symmetry1 order1 and proportion are lost for ever4 ,you must lay it down as an absolute rule that the bird is to be entirely skinned1 otherwise you can never succeed in forming a true and pleasing specimen4 ,you will allow this to be just1 after reflecting a moment on the nature of the fleshy parts and tendons1 which are often left in4 ,first1 they require to be well seasoned with aromatic spices2 secondly1 they must be put into the oven to dry2 thirdly1 the heat of the fire1 and the natural tendency all cured flesh has to shrink and become hard1 render the specimen withered1 distorted1 and too small2 fourthly1 the inside then becomes like a ham or any other dried meat4 ,ere long the insects claim it as their own1 the feathers begin to drop off1 and you have the hideous spectacle of death in ragged plumage4 ,wire is of no manner of use1 but1 on the contrary1 a great nuisance1 for1 when it is introduced1 a disagreeable stiffness and disarrangement of symmetry follow4 ,the head and neck can be placed in any attitude2 the body supported1 the wings closed1 extended1 or elevated2 the tail depressed1 raised1 or expanded2 the thighs set horizontal1 or oblique1 without any aid from wire4 ,cotton will effect all this4 ,a very small proportion of the skull bone--say from the fore part of the eyes to the bill--is to be left in1 though even this is not absolutely necessary4 ,part of the wing bones1 the jaw bones1 and half the thigh bones remain4 ,everything else--flesh1 fat1 eyes1 bones1 brain and tendons--are all to be taken away4 ,while dissecting1 it will be of use to keep in mind that1 in taking off the skin from the body1 by means of your fingers and a little knife1 you must try to shove it1 in lieu of pulling it1 lest you stretch it4 ,that you must press as lightly as possible on the bird1 and every now and then take a view of it1 to see that the feathers are all right4 ,that1 when you come to the head1 you must take care that the body of the skin rests on your knee2 for1 if you allow it to dangle from your hand1 its own weight will stretch it too much4 ,that throughout the whole operation1 as fast as you detach the skin from the body you must put cotton immediately between the body and it1 and this will effectually prevent any fat1 blood1 or moisture from coming in contact with the plumage4 ,here it may be observed that on the belly you find an inner skin which keeps the bowels in their place4 ,by a nice operation with the knife you can cut through the outer skin1 and leave the inner skin whole4 ,attention to this will render your work very clean1 so that1 with a little care in other parts1 you may skin a bird without even soiling your finger ends4 ,as you can seldom get a bird without shooting it1 a line or two on this head will be necessary4 ,if the bird be still alive1 press it hard with your finger and thumb just behind the wings1 and it will soon expire4 ,carry it by the legs1 and then1 the body being reversed1 blood cannot escape down the plumage through the shot holes4 ,as blood will often have issued out before you have laid hold of the bird1 find out the shot holes by dividing the feathers with your fingers and blowing on them1 and then1 with your penknife or the leaf of a tree1 carefully remove the clotted blood1 and put a little cotton in the hole4 ,if1 after all1 the plumage has not escaped the marks of blood1 or if it has imbibed slime from the ground1 wash the part in water without soap1 and keep gently agitating the feathers with your fingers till they are quite dry4 ,were you to wash them and leave them to dry by themselves they would have a very mean and shrivelled appearance4 ,in the act of skinning a bird you must either have it upon a table or upon your knee4 ,probably you will prefer your knee1 because1 when you cross one knee over the other1 and have the bird upon the uppermost1 you can raise it to your eye1 or lower it at pleasure1 by means of the foot on the ground1 and then your knee will always move in unison with your body1 by which much stooping will be avoided and lassitude prevented4 ,with these precautionary hints in mind1 we will now proceed to dissect a bird4 ,supposing we take a hawk4 ,the little birds will thank us with a song for his death1 for he has oppressed them sorely2 and in size he is just the thing4 ,his skin is also pretty tough and the feathers adhere to it4 ,we will put close by us a little bottle of the solution of corrosive sublimate in alcohol1 also a stick like a common knitting needle1 and a handful or two of cotton4 ,now fill the mouth and nostrils of the bird with cotton1 and place it upon your knee on its back with its head pointing to your left shoulder4 ,take hold of the knife with your two first fingers and thumb1 the edge upwards4 ,you must not keep the point of the knife perpendicular to the body of the bird1 because1 were you to hold it so1 you would cut the inner skin of the belly and thus let the bowels out4 ,to avoid this1 let your knife be parallel to the body1 and then you will divide the outer skin with great ease4 ,begin on the belly below the breastbone1 and cut down the middle quite to the vent4 ,this done1 put the bird in any convenient position1 and separate the skin from the body till you get at the middle joint of the thigh4 ,cut it through1 and do no more there at present1 except introducing cotton all the way on that side from the vent to the breastbone4 ,do exactly the same on the opposite side4 ,now place the bird perpendicular1 the breast resting on your knee1 with its back towards you4 ,separate the skin from the body on each side at the vent1 and never mind at present the part from the vent to the root of the tail4 ,bend the tail gently down to the back1 and while your fingers and thumb are keeping down the detached parts of the skin on each side of the vent1 cut quite across and deep till you see the backbone near the oil gland at the root of the tail4 ,sever the backbone at the joint1 and then all the root of the tail together1 with the oil gland dissected from the body4 ,apply plenty of cotton4 ,after this seize the end of the backbone with the finger and thumb1 and now you can hold up the bird clear of your knee and turn it round and round as occasion requires4 ,while you are holding it thus1 contrive1 with the help of your other hand and knife1 by cutting and shoving1 to get the skin pushed up till you come to where the wings join on the body4 ,forget not to apply cotton2 cut these joints through1 add cotton1 and gently push the skin over the head1 cut out the roots of the ears1 which lie very deep in the head1 and continue skinning till you reach the middle of the eye2 cut the nictating membrane quite through1 otherwise you would tear the orbit of the eye2 and after this nothing difficult intervenes to prevent your arriving at the root of the bill4 ,when this is effected cut away the body1 leaving a little bit of skull1 just as much as will reach to the fore-part of the eye1 clean well the jaw bones1 fasten a little cotton at the end of your stick1 dip it into the solution1 and touch the skull and corresponding parts of the skin1 as you cannot well get at these places afterwards4 ,from the time of pushing the skin over the head you are supposed to have had the bird resting upon your knee4 ,keep it there still1 and with great caution and tenderness return the head through the inverted skin1 and when you see the beak appearing pull it very gently till the head comes out unruffled and unstained4 ,you may now take the cotton out of the mouth4 ,cut away all the remaining flesh from the palate1 and whatever may have remained at the under jaw4 ,here is now before you the skin without loss of any feathers1 and all the flesh1 fat1 and unclean bones out of it1 except the middle joint of the wings1 one bone of the thighs1 and the fleshy root of the tail4 ,the extreme point of the wing is very small1 and has no flesh on it1 comparatively speaking1 so that it requires no attention except touching it with the solution from the outside4 ,take all the flesh from the remaining joint of the wing1 and tie a thread about four inches long to the end of it1 touch all with the solution1 and put the wing bone back into its place4 ,in baring this bone you must by no means pull the skin4 ,you would have it to pieces beyond all doubt1 for the ends of the long feathers are attached to the bone itself4 ,you must push off the skin with your thumb and forefinger4 ,now skin the thigh1 quite to the bone1 cut away all flesh and tendons1 and bare the bone1 form an artificial thigh round it with cotton1 apply the solution1 and draw back the skin over the artificial thigh2 the same to the other thigh4 ,lastly1 proceed to the tail1 take out the inside of the oil gland1 remove all the remaining flesh from the root till you see the ends of the tail feathers1 give it the solution and replace it4 ,now take out all the cotton which you have been putting into the body from time to time to preserve the feathers from grease and stain4 ,place the bird upon your knee1 on its back1 tie together the two threads which you had fastened to the ends of the wing joints1 leaving exactly the same space betwixt them as your knowledge of anatomy informs you existed there when the bird was entire1 hold the skin open with your finger and thumb1 and apply the solution to every part of the inside4 ,neglect the head and neck at present2 they are to receive it afterwards4 ,fill the body moderately with cotton lest the feathers on the belly should be injured4 ,whilst you are about the following operation you must recollect that half of the thigh--or1 in other words1 one joint of the thigh bone--has been out away4 ,now1 as this bone never moved perpendicular to the body1 but1 on the contrary1 in an oblique direction1 of course1 as soon as it is cut off1 the remaining part of the thigh and leg1 having nothing to support them obliquely1 must naturally fall to their perpendicular2 hence the reason why the legs appear too long4 ,to correct this1 take your needle and thread1 fasten the end round the bone inside1 and then push the needle through the skin just opposite to it2 look on the outside1 and after finding the needle amongst the feathers1 tack up the thigh under the wing with several strong stitches4 ,this will shorten the thigh and render it quite capable of supporting the weight of the body without the help of wire4 ,this done take out every bit of cotton except the artificial thighs1 and adjust the wing bones 7which are connected by the thread7 in the most even manner possible1 so that one joint does not appear to be lower than the other1 for unless they are quite equal the wings themselves will be unequal when you come to put them in their proper attitude4 ,here1 then1 rests the shell of the poor hawk ready to receive from your skill and judgment1 the size1 the shape1 the features1 and expression it bad ere death and your dissecting hand brought it to its present still and formless state4 ,the cold hand of death stamps deep its mark upon the prostrate victim4 ,when the heart ceases to beat and the blood no longer courses through the veins1 the features collapse1 and the whole frame seems to shrink within itself4 ,if1 then1 you have formed your idea of the real appearance of the bird from a dead specimen you will be in error4 ,with this in mind1 and at the same time forming your specimen a trifle larger than life to make up for what it will lose in drying1 you will reproduce a bird that will please you4 ,it is now time to introduce the cotton for an artificial body by means of the little stick like a knitting needle2 and without any other aid or substance than that of this little stick and cotton your own genius must produce those swellings and cavities1 that just proportion1 that elegance and harmony of the whole1 so much admired in animated nature1 so little attended to in preserved specimens4 ,after you have introduced the cotton1 sew up the orifice you originally made in the belly1 beginning at the vent4 ,and from time to time1 till you arrive at the last stitch1 keep adding a little cotton in order that there may be no deficiency there4 ,lastly1 dip your stick into the solution and put it down the throat three or four times in order that every part may receive it4 ,when the head and neck are filled with cotton quite to your liking1 close the bill as in nature4 ,a little bit of beeswax at the end of it will keep the mandibles in their proper place4 ,a needle must be stuck into the lower mandible perpendicularly4 ,you will shortly see the use of it4 ,bring also the feet together by a pin1 and then run a thread through the knees1 by which you may draw them to each other as near as you judge proper4 ,nothing now remains to be added but the eyes4 ,with your little stick make a hollow in the cotton within the orbit1 and introduce the glass eyes through the orbit2 adjust the orbit to them as in nature1 and that requires no other fastener4 ,your close inspection of the eyes of animals will already have informed you that the orbit is capable of receiving a much larger body than that part of the eye which appears within it when in life1 so that were you to proportion your eye to the size the orbit is capable of receiving it would be far too large4 ,inattention to this has caused the eyes of every specimen in the best cabinets of natural history to be out of all proportion4 ,to prevent this1 contract the orbit1 by means of a very small delicate needle and thread1 at that part of it farthest from the beak4 ,this may be done with such nicety that the stitch cannot be observed1 and thus you have the artificial eye in true proportion4 ,after this touch the bill1 orbits1 feet1 and former oil-gland at the root of the tail with the solution1 and then you have given to the hawk everything necessary1 except attitude and a proper degree of elasticity--two qualities very essential4 ,procure any common ordinary box1 fill one end of it about three-fourths up to the top with cotton1 forming a sloping plane4 ,make a moderate hollow in it to receive the bird4 ,now take the hawk in your hands1 and after putting the wings in order1 place it in the cotton with its legs in a sitting posture4 ,the head will fall down2 never mind4 ,get a cork and run three pins into the end1 just like a three-legged stool4 ,place it under the bird's bill1 and run the needle1 which you formerly fixed there1 into the head of the cork4 ,this will support the bird's head admirably4 ,if you wish to lengthen the neck1 raise the cork by putting more cotton under it4 ,if the head is to be brought forward1 bring the cork nearer to the end of the box4 ,if it requires to be set backwards on the shoulders1 move back the cork4 ,as in drying the back part of the neck will shrink more than the fore part1 and thus throw the beak higher than you wish it to be--putting you in mind of a star-gazing horse--prevent this fault by tying a thread to the beak and fastening it to the end of the box with a pin or needle4 ,if you choose to elevate the wings1 do so1 and support them with cotton2 and should you wish to have them particularly high1 apply a little stick under each wing1 and fasten the ends of them to the side of the box with a little beeswax4 ,if you would have the tail expanded1 reverse the order of the feathers1 beginning from the two middle ones4 ,when dry1 replace them in their true order1 and the tail will preserve for ever the expansion you have given it4 ,is the crest to be erect8 ,move the feathers in a contrary direction to that in which they lie for a day or two1 and it will never fall down after4 ,place the box anywhere in your room out of the influence of the sun1 wind1 and fire1 for the specimen must dry very slowly if you wish to reproduce every feature4 ,on this account the solution of corrosive sublimate is uncommonly serviceable1 for1 at the same time that it totally prevents putrefaction1 it renders the skin moist and flexible for many days4 ,while the bird is drying1 take it out and replace it in its position once every day4 ,then1 if you see that any part begins to shrink into disproportion1 you can easily remedy ft4 ,the small covert feathers of the wings are apt to rise a little1 because the skin will come in contact with the bone which remains in the wing4 ,pull gently the part that rises with your finger and thumb for a day or two2 press the feathers down2 the skin will adhere no more to the bone1 and they will cease to rise4 ,every now and then1 touch and re-touch all the different parts of the feathers1 in order to render them distinct and visible1 correcting at the same time any harshness or unnatural risings or sinkings1 flatness1 or rotundity4 ,this is putting the last finishing touch to it4 ,in three or four days the feet lose their natural elasticity1 and the knees begin to stiffen4 ,when you observe this1 it is time to give the legs any angle you wish1 and arrange the toes for a standing position1 or curve them to your finger4 ,if you wish to set the bird on a branch1 bore a little hole under each foot a little way up the leg1 and1 having fixed two proportional spikes on the branch1 you can in a moment transfer the bird from your finger to it1 and from it to your finger1 at pleasure4 ,when the bird is quite dry1 pull the thread out of the knees1 take away the needle1 etc1 from under the bill1 and all is done4 ,in lieu of being stiff with wires1 the cotton will have given a considerable elasticity to every part of your bird1 so that when perching on your finger1 if you press it down with the other hand1 it will rise again4 ,you need not fear that your hawk will alter1 or its colours fade4 ,the alcohol has introduced the sublimate into every part and pore of the skin1 quite to the roots of the feathers4 ,its use is twofold3 ,first1 it1 has totally prevented all tendency to putrefaction1 and thus a sound skin has attached itself to the roots of the feathers4 ,you may take hold of a single one1 and from it suspend five times the weight of the bird2 you may jerk it1 it will still adhere to the akin1 and1 after repeated trials1 often break short4 ,secondly1 as no part of the skin has escaped receiving particles of sublimate contained in the alcohol1 there is not a spot exposed to the depredation of insects2 for they will never venture to attack any substance which has received corrosive sublimate4 ,you are aware that corrosive sublimate is the most fatal poison to insects that is known4 ,it is anti-putrescent1 so is alcohol1 and they are both colourless4 ,of course1 they cannot leave a stain behind them4 ,the spirit penetrates the pores of the skin with wonderful velocity1 deposits invisible parts of the sublimate1 and flies off4 ,the sublimate will not injure the skin1 and nothing can detach it from the part where the alcohol has left it4 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,all the feathers require to be touched with the solution in order that they may be preserved from the depredation of the moth4 ,the surest way of proceeding is to immerse the bird in the solution of corrosive sublimate1 and then dry it before you begin to dissect it4 7,waterton's ,wanderings in ,south ,america47 ,on reference to the instructions given previously1 and those last quoted1 it will be seen that the two systems are diametrically opposed to each other4 ,i will1 therefore1 now point out the objections to a general use of ,waterton's plan4 ,first1 let me premise that ,i entirely agree with him in his opening paragraph as to selecting1 when practicable1 a bird as little damaged as possible2 but ,i need not remind professionals1 or amateurs of some practice1 how seldom these conditions exist1 especially in the instance of birds sent to them for mounting1 by people totally ignorant of the first principles of taxidermy4 ,where a great number of feathers are missing1 the loss must be repaired by the insertion of similar feathers placed one by one in position by the aid of strong paste1 in which a little of the corrosive sublimate preparation 7see chapter on ,preservatives1 ante7 or carbolic acid has previously been stirred4 ,he is also quite right when he insists upon the specimen not being stuffed as a round ball of feathers1 as some tyros are in the habit of doing1 and also when he says that the bird must be well skinned4 ,with the next paragraph1 as to the uselessness of wire1 ,i totally disagree1 and for this reason1 that1 although ,i have myself proved it possible--having many years ago followed ,waterton's instructions--to mount a bird entirely without wire1 still it is at the best but an amateur's dodge2 and ,i can fearlessly assert that it will not stand the test of work and expediency4 ,it is1 in fact1 impossible to dispense with wire1 if taxidermy is to be followed as a profession4 ,as to putting cotton wool between the flesh and the skin1 practice will enable one to do without this4 ,to me it would be a great nuisance1 unless in the case of much grease1 of persistent bleeding1 or clots of extravasated blood occurring4 ,all the rest of the instructions on skinning are sound and practical1 except where he advises the knee to be used instead of a table4 ,a little reflection1 or1 better still1 a trial1 will convince anyone that nothing can compare in practice with a table or bench for comfortable working4 ,i do not hold1 either1 with the total removal of the skull4 ,for instance1 how are you to exhibit the superciliary ridge which gives so distinctive a character to the very bird ,waterton selects--the hawk--if you cut it away8 ,i have tried both plans1 and ,i unhesitatingly say that you cannot give character to the heads of the larger birds if you remove the skull 7unless1 of course1 you choose to model it up in clay1 etc1 as in the heads of mammals71 though ,i agree that you must free the skin from all its surroundings4 ,i have at the present moment several birds 7set up by a man in the ,west of ,england71 in which the skulls have been removed2 the skin has shrunk in at the back of the head and at the mandibles2 and in one instance--an osprey--the bird has entirely lost its nobility and eagle-like appearance by the removal of the ridge above the eye4 ,i cannot urge the advisability of making the body larger to allow for shrinking1 inasmuch as in the case of certain birds--notably gulls--which should present an even' surface on the breast1 the opposite effect will be produced if the false body is unduly large1 as then1 in place of the evenness so desirable1 a division will appear in the centre of the body1 which entirely mars the beautiful symmetry of the sea-bird's breast4 ,no perceptible shrinkage can1 however1 occur if the body is properly made and packed2 and here is shown the vast superiority of the made body of well-wrapped tow over that made of loose cotton inserted in the skin1 bit by bit4 ,the eyes ,i prefer to insert in the larger birds after the specimen is dry1 as then any little fault in the shape of the head is easily rectified through the orbit1 the eyelid1 of course1 being previously relaxed 7with cotton wool dipped in warm water7 to do this and to receive the artificial eye4 ,waterton's method of setting up birds may be dismissed in a few words2 it is impracticable for anyone but an amateur who has unlimited time at his disposal1 and who does not object to spend about a couple of days over one specimen1 and who has also ample room for the large collection of different-sized boxes he must accumulate4 ,in using the corrosive sublimate the student will do well to carefully read the chapter on ,preservatives1 and then make up his mind4 ,i may here mention1 however1 that ,i should not advise anyone to work on a bird previously saturated with a solution of corrosive sublimate4 ,it has been said1 ,de mortuis nil nisi bonum2 but1 while fully acknowledging the force of the remark1 as also the great scientific attainments and love for natural history which distinguished the illustrious traveller1 ,i cannot allow anyone who reads his entertaining works to be misled into wasting time in an unprofitable manner4 ,another way of setting up a bird may be described as follows3 ,provide yourself with four wires--two of which are for the legs1 a long one for the body1 and a shorter one for the wings2 let us suppose we have another starling in front of us4 ,for this bird take a suitable piece of wire about three inches long 7pointed at both ends71 and bend it down at each end for the distance of an inch1 which of course leaves one inch in the middle at a right angle to each end2 this is called the wing-bearer4 ,then place a little piece of tow inside the skin to fit along the back1 and on to the top of this lay the wing-bearer1 pushing the pointed ends down and into the hollows of the wing-bones 7which must be left nearly their full length to admit of this74 ,next take the body wire1 also sharpened at both ends1 and a little longer than you require1 and at a sufficient distance from one end form with the pliers a loop similar to ,fig4 #a1 so that it comes about the centre of the projected body2 one end will thus be much longer from the loop than the other4 ,run one end 7the longest7 right up the body to come out at the crown of the head 7the head itself being previously stuffed71 push it through a sufficient distance1 so that the looped end falls within the incision of the skin2 so soon as it is passed inside pull the looped end down1 and push its point through the root of the tail2 the loop should now1 if accurately calculated1 come just in the centre of the body incision4 ,pack underneath the wire at all points with little pieces of finely cut tow1 not forgetting the neck4 ,the wire should now be protected from touching the bird on its underside4 ,now take the leg wires1 point them and pass them up the legs as before described2 when they appear within the skin by the side of the legs1 push the ends of each one through the little loop on the body wire1 and by the aid of the small pliers and your finger and thumb twist them tightly up or down the main wire4 ,if properly done1 the bird should be capable of being lifted by one leg wire and should feel perfectly stiff and firm4 ,proceed by the addition of cut tow to gradually form the body1 which1 when arranged to your liking1 sew up4 ,this1 in contradistinction to the other method1 is called the soft body1 and is not a plan which ,i at all recommend4 ,sometimes a cork is pushed on at the main or body wire to act in the place of the loop2 the leg wires are then pushed through and clenched on the other side1 and the skin is filled with cut tow as before4 ,another system of forming an artificial body for a bird is by means of peat4 ,footnote3 ,peat is compressed vegetable fibre cut from old bogs1 and is sold by the dealers1 in dried cakes about #a foot long by #f inches by #b inches4 ,having provided yourself with one of these bricks of peat1 you cut it with a sharp knife to as near the shape required as possible1 having the natural body before you as a guide1 finally inserting it in the bird4 ,my objection to the use of peat for this purpose is1 first1 the dust and dirt caused by the waste pieces2 and1 secondly1 the fact that birds mounted on this system have a tendency to look wooden1 as1 unlike a body formed of tow1 that made of peat is stiff and unyielding1 and1 therefore1 after it is once in the skin1 it cannot be pressed into shape where defects appear1 and is of course not so easily altered4 ,after a long and patient trial of the peat body1 ,i have become convinced of its many disadvantages1 and have of late years returned to my first plan--the body made of well wrapped tow--nor do ,i think anything will compare with it1 for the reasons above stated4 ,peat in the case of very large birds 7ostriches1 etc47 and mammals is useful1 but for the ordinary run of birds ,i decidedly veto its application4 ,birds with larger heads than necks1 such as ducks1 etc1 must be treated in one of three ways4 ,first1 after skinning out the body1 and cutting off the neck from the inside1 cut with the strong scissors a triangular piece away from the base of the skull1 from which extract the brain1 and then compress the sides of the face 7mandibles7 between your finger and thumb from the outside1 at the same time endeavouring to slip the head 7now somewhat elastic by the removal of the base of the skull7 through the neck4 ,do this whenever possible2 but for those birds whose mandibles resist any amount of moderate pressure1 of which the larger ducks1 woodpeckers1 etc1 are examples1 the second plan must be adopted1 which is to cut 7after the removal of the body7 on the crest of the head of a specimen--if a crested bird--or along the sides of the face if failing in this particular2 the head may then be carefully skinned1 leaving it attached as much as before directed1 brains cleared out1 eyes extracted1 etc1 then painted with the preservative1 head nicely stuffed with chopped tow1 and returned in the skin1 and finally very neatly sewn up4 ,if this latter operation be well performed1 and especially if the stitches are drawn tight1 the seam ought not to show4 ,a more tedious method is to extract the brain and eyes through the roof of the mouth1 or from the back of the head 7after the neck has been cut off71 but neither of these plans will bear comparison with slipping1 or with cutting on the crest1 or by the side of the head1 as by these latter methods you do not miss any flesh by the sides of the face in skinning out4 ,let me give an instance4 ,in the eider duck1 the flesh of the face is protracted along the sides of the bill2 if1 therefore1 you fail to open on the crown1 or by the side of the face1 you must of necessity miss these1 or have ten times more trouble in feeling your way to it4 ,if the processes by the side of the face are entirely missed1 the consequences are an unsightly and inartistic shrivelling2 it is as well1 therefore1 to make a note of all birds having such a peculiarity4 ,amongst the birds which may be instanced as having heads too large to pass the neck in the usual manner1 we may place the whole of the ducks1 geese1 and swans1 though the heads of the herons and divers1 which appear to be as large and yet have as small necks as the former birds1 pass easily4 ,again1 the head of the great or crested grebe passes1 while that of the little grebe sticks4 ,of the three woodpeckers found in ,britain1 the heads of the great-spotted and lesser-spotted will not pass the neck1 but the head of the other1 the green woodpecker1 the largest looking of the three1 will pass if care be taken4 ,these things being noted and borne in mind will save the tyro a considerable amount of trouble4 ,in concluding this chapter1 let it be noted as an unalterable doctrine1 that no white-breasted birds1 sea birds especially1 are1 under any pretence whatever1 to be cut on their breasts4 ,how many birds pass through the hands of the professional1 spoiled by a neglect or ignorance of this rule1 it would be impossible to say1 nor are amateurs the only offenders in this particular4 ,grebes1 etc1 which have wings hardly sufficient to hide the cut beneath1 can be cut on the back1 between the wings1 and skinned out that way2 and if the breast is1 as it should be1 fronted for the showpiece1 the effect1 if skilfully done1 is very fine4 ,i have lately given a great deal of attention to this method of skinning from the back1 having found it necessary in mounting young birds which otherwise showed an unsightly cut on their naked breasts4 ,i found that the modelling was much truer and more effective by this method1 and therefore extended it to mature specimens with the result that ,i now think no birds1 excepting the very largest1 perhaps1 should ever be opened on the breast4 ,i am quite convinced that if a person of any experience makes up his mind never to skin a bird by any other way than by the side or back1 he will have no reason to ever regret his decision4 ,should a bird be required for flight1 undoubtedly the proper place to cut it is under the side2 the suspending wire then comes along the off side and is hidden by the wing4 ,if the wings are to be raised and the breast or side shown1 cut it on the back2 if closed wings1 the same2 in either case the cut is perfectly hidden1 and is where it should be1 out of the way of grease4 ,perhaps it may be as well to state here that--contrary to my usual custom of working from the lowest to the highest animal form--,i have written upon birds out of their proper natural order2 the reason being that birds are always selected because of easiness of treatment for the student's first lessons in taxidermy1 before his teacher allows him to try his 'prentice hand on the more difficult branches of the art4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,skinning ,,and ,,preserving ,,mammals4 ,plate ,,iii ,skeleton of ,otter ,explanation3 ,a1 skull2 ,b1 lower maxillary 7or jaw7 at point of articulation with upper2 ,c1 cervical vertebrae 7#g72 ,d1 dorsal ,vertebrae2 ,e1 lumbar vertebrae2 ,f1 sacral vertebrae2 ,g1 caudal vertebrae2 ,h pelvic girdle1 or ossa innominata 7ilium1 ischium1 and pubes anchylosed72 ,i1 femur2 i1 patella1 or knee pan2 ,j1 tibia2 ,k1 fibula2 #a1 tarsal1 and meta-tarsal bones1 and phalanges of digits1 of pes or hind foot2 ,m1 scapula2 ,n1 humerus2 ,o1 radius2 ,p1 ulna2 ,q1 carpal and meta-carpal bones1 and phalanges1 of digits1 of manes or fore-foot2 ,r1 dorsal and sternal ribs4 ,,the art of setting up quadrupeds in a natural and life-like manner is of so recent a date that few1 if any1 of the manuals on taxidermy do more than glance at it4 ,true1 they nearly all give directions1 in an off-hand way1 as to the skinning of mammals2 but their instructions are so vague and meagre that1 though confessing that the subject is no easy one to write upon1 ,i yet feel that we may1 perhaps1 improve1 in point of detail1 on what has gone before4 ,in accordance with my usual custom1 ,i have procured an animal--a fox--to illustrate my instructions1 and1 the learner having got out the whole of the knives 7previously figured7 and the whetstone1 may proceed to work in the following manner3 ,measure the fox1 as a preliminary1 taking note of his length1 breadth1 and fineness of limb2 length and thickness of muzzle and side of face2 and1 having aided the recollection by the use of the callipers1 and made all necessary notes1 lay him on the skinning table1 back downwards1 and1 separating the fur on the stomach at about two inches from the root of the tail1 gently insert the point of the skinning knife 7keeping the handle well down7 under the skin1 and continue the cut to within about ten inches of the chest1 between the fore limbs--that is to say1 up to the first rib1 which may be felt with the finger and thumb4 ,if an ordinary-sized fox1 this will allow the cut to be of about the same length1 viz1 ten inches4 ,be very careful1 in making this incision1 to cut the top skin only1 and not that which retains the bowels4 ,having done this1 commence to clear away the skin from the flesh on one side by using the point of the knife in a slanting manner between skin and flesh4 ,the fox being with its head from you and directly to your front1 the side which you naturally begin on first would be the one on your left2 turn the fox now so that its head comes to your left hand instead of directly to your front1 and skin in the same manner on the other side1 which is now from you4 ,the skin of a fox being very thin about this part1 as indeed1 nearly all over its body1 you must be careful while making your cuts to release the skin1 not to push the point of your knife through4 ,as you get along the side of the fox1 use your knife1 point downward1 cutting edge toward you1 on the inner side1 and from you on the outer1 with a scraping motion to separate the skin from the body at the sides4 ,no doubt1 by this time you will be somewhat troubled with a discharge of blood2 if so1 use sawdust or silver sand1 either of which will not dirty the skin1 but yet affords a good grip4 7,plaster is very commonly used instead of either1 but1 though a capital absorbent of blood and grease1 ,i object to it1 except in the instances of white or very light coloured furs47 ,silver sand is1 ,i think1 the best of all1 as sawdust is apt to get into some furs1 and it requires a great deal of pains to get it out again4 ,by a little management of the point of the knife1 and by undercutting slightly1 you expose the thighs of the hind limbs4 ,the fox lies still in front of you with its head to your left4 ,changing your position1 go to the tail1 and1 seizing the foot nearest to you with your right hand1 and the skin with your left1 push and pull at one and the same time until you expose the knee-joint1 or rather--to speak more correctly--the articulation of the femur or thigh bone 7i1 ,plate ,,iii47 with the two smaller bones 7fibula and tibia7 which form the shank 7,k and ,j74 ,let go with your right hand1 and by an arrangement of the fingers of the left--difficult to describe--retain your hold of both the skin and flesh of the leg1 and re-commence skinning with the knife on each side of the leg until you arrive at the hollow which lies behind1 just above the shank2 this exposes daylight between skin and flesh1 and thus you may get your fingers between the two skins1 and1 finding the articulation1 or joint of the thigh 7just mentioned71 you push the point of your knife in1 and sever the ligaments1 and then return the loose shank to its skin4 ,holding the fingers of your left hand underneath the skin--thumb and bottom of the palm of the hand opposing--skin out the rest of the thigh1 which brings you just on top of the root of the tail4 ,turn the fox in an exactly opposite direction1 and repeat the process2 you will before doing this find yourself1 perhaps1 restrained by the skin of the ventral orifice1 which carefully cut out2 this frees the limb considerably4 7,i may mention that the animal skinner must not be afraid of handling his subject2 it is not so pleasant nor so delicate an operation as skinning a bird1 and1 consequently1 does not require so fine a touch47 ,you will now have exposed the tail at its back and front4 ,now double up the fox1 supporting it with your left hand1 and get the whole of the tail free at the root4 ,letting it rest on the table again1 you skin as far up the tail as you can go4 ,the two thighs and part of the back are entirely freed from the skin1 but the tail still holds at about three inches up4 ,now get a pair of common pincers1 such as are used for pulling nails out1 and place them so that the tail comes between their hollows2 push this against the part still unskinned2 hold this firmly down on the table with the left hand1 and pull from the root of the tail with the right4 ,very often the tail will not move past this point2 in that case there is nothing left but to cut it off at the root1 and place the latter firmly in a vice 7after the animal is skinned out71 and taking both hands to the skin1 cross the thumbs and two first fingers1 so as to obtain a good grip and yet prevent the skin of the tail from turning inside out1 and pull with all your might 7jerking it at the same time7 until it slides4 ,now free the skin from the back1 working round to the front4 ,during this operation the fox must be frequently turned to get round the sides and back4 ,the knife being held short in the hand and guided near the tip by the fore-finger considerably facilitates this4 ,endeavour as much as possible to keep all the flesh and fat 7if any7 on the body1 and not on the skin4 ,coming up now to the fore limbs you will find the skin hold considerably between them at the chest4 ,this is the place where an amateur generally runs his knife through1 which1 ,i need hardly say1 is one of the worst places in which this accident could happen4 ,having released the chest1 skin all away from the back and shoulder2 the fore-arm now appears1 showing the articulation of the humerus with the radius and ulna4 ,skin all round it until you come to the return of the fore-arm in precisely the same manner as you have done with the hind limbs4 ,this point is not so easy to find as is that of the hind legs1 but if you will twist the leg you will at once see the point of junction1 where slip the knife in and cut off as before4 ,turn the fox1 and treat the other leg in the same manner4 ,arrived at the neck1 skin all round until you arrive at the base of the skull2 you will then become aware of two cartilaginous bodies standing up one on each side--these are the ears4 ,having skinned a little on top of these1 with your finger and thumb raise them slightly and cut them away from their attachment at their bases4 ,having freed both ears carefully1 skin on the top of the head and the side of the face1 until1 at about two and a half inches from the ear1 and in a line with it1 you find the eye1 which holds by a thin membrane at this point2 carefully skin on the top until the eyeball shows through1 and very carefully free it from its attachment all round1 except at its lower angle1 i4e1 that nearest the nose2 do the same with the other4 ,now skin a little more by the side of the jaw until you find it firmly held by a return angle of skin2 there leave it attached4 ,turning the under jaw exactly uppermost1 skin along the bone toward the lip as far as you can get1 not1 however1 entirely relieving it from the jawbone at the side1 but only until a thin blue membrane appears1 which take care not to cut through2 this is inside of the skin which comes between the lower lip and the teeth4 ,the fox's skin is now held to the body at five points1 viz1 the lower corners of each eye1 two2 at each return of the jaw just underneath1 two more2 and at the point of the junction of the two lower jawbones close to the under lip4 ,procure a saw and saw the head off1 so as to expose the brain4 ,on reaching the flesh under the jaw1 slip the knife up between on each side of the jaw1 which will have the effect of pulling out the tongue attached to the body2 preserve the tongue for further operations4 ,with a small chopper1 or a mallet and chisel1 cut away part of the bone by the palate1 between which and the skull bones the brains are included4 ,this considerably assists the removal of the brain4 ,a large quantity of flesh still remains at the top of the head1 which must be cleanly removed1 and the eyeballs taken out4 ,you will then find just underneath the eye a bony ridge1 running backward to the base of the skull4 ,surrounding this is a pad of flesh1 which hides the attachment of the lower jaw with the upper4 ,by digging underneath with the point of the knife you remove all this flesh1 taking care1 however1 not to cut the attachments of the skin close by1 which you previously left1 nor the ligaments which hold the upper to the lower jaw4 ,both sides being served in the same manner1 the skull presents a tolerably clean appearance4 ,the ears are now nearest to the operator4 7,you will recollect they have been cut off inside74 ,all you can see of them1 however1 are two shapeless masses of gristle surrounding a small hole4 ,on the sides of each--farthest from the head--you must begin cautiously skinning1 and by pushing your left hand through the aperture of the skin of the body1 assist this with your finger and thumb1 pushed into the ear from the outside1 until by skilfully working with the knife and left-hand fingers you turn the inside skin of each ear to its very edge and tip1 until1 in fact1 each stands up inside the skin1 completely reversed4 ,the next thing which engages your attention is the near fore leg1 which you skin as far as you can go1 in this instance to the next joint1 the one above the carpus or wrist joint4 ,repeat this with all the limbs1 in each case removing all the flesh from the two bones 7the radius and ulna of the fore limbs and the tibia and fibula of the hind71 which together form those parts of the bones you leave in4 ,if not done previously1 now is the time to remove the tail bone4 ,finally1 rub every part of the skin on its inside1 as also all the bones left in1 with the preservative recommended for mammals 7,no4 #i71 not forgetting to push some up the hollow of the brush where the tail bone has been4 ,turn your fox's skin completely inside out1 skull1 leg bones and all1 until it comes to its normal position4 ,commence now from the pad of each foot1 and make an incision from near the toes to the point where you left off4 ,skin round carefully and as much underneath as possible1 so as to expose all the flesh and sinews1 which clear from off the bone4 ,be sure to push your knife well round on the top of the bones1 which you may do by feeling with the knife and keeping the pad uppermost4 ,this is for the purpose of freeing the attachment of skin around1 to prevent ultimate shrivelling4 ,you may get nearly to the points of the toes in this manner1 the only places it should hold to the bone being the top of the last joint and at the tips of the toes2 the actual pad1 which you will find loaded with a thick fat1 must be trimmed as well as possible4 ,whilst doing all this take notice of the points of attachment and shapes of sinews1 etc1 which you remove1 especially those of the hind legs4 ,it will be recollected that although we have returned the head1 nothing has been done to the upper lip or nose from the outside4 ,accordingly the knife must be slipped the whole way round1 beginning at the nose and keeping as close to the teeth as possible1 in fact1 on the very edges of the gums4 ,this is important4 ,skin away now from the bone of the upper jaw on each side2 having bared this1 come back to the nose1 the cartilage of which skin until you arrive at the extreme tip2 in point of fact1 skin it entirely out1 which is best done by cutting a portion off inside1 and then carefully skinning the little bit which is left until the extreme tip of the nostrils is arrived at4 ,this requires great care1 as the black skin on the top of the nose is extremely thin4 ,this is the very worst place in which a cut could be made2 and1 although the cutting out of the nose could be done in five minutes1 the tyro will do well if he completes it in half an hour4 ,this being satisfactorily ended1 free the flesh from the bone1 except at the attachment previously left at the corner of the eye4 ,there is now a smooth and shiny skin between the upper lip and the cut you made to free it from the gums2 this is the inner skin of the lips2 the knife must1 therefore1 be slipped between this skin and the outer skin1 and it must then be carefully separated the whole of the way round1 to the extreme edge of the upper lip2 this requires nice manipulation and great care4 ,this inner skin now hangs down from the inner lip1 and forms a bag1 the uses of which will be seen hereafter4 ,there still remains the inside of the bone of the nose to be cleaned out with a pointed knife4 ,the lower lip is now attached only at the extreme tip2 this must be cut away from the gum at that place and the knife pushed underneath1 by the side of the canine teeth1 to still further free the skin4 ,the skin is now ready for stuffing1 when you have thoroughly rubbed the preservative into the cut of the pads1 and around the eyelids1 outside the ears1 mouth1 nose1 and vent1 or any damaged parts4 ,if the skin is allowed to remain for a night as it is1 it will be all the better1 as it allows time for the preservative to penetrate4 ,throw the tongue into a pickle of tannin and carbolic acid 7see chapter ,,iv1 ,no4 #ae71 and there leave it until wanted4 ,it will no doubt have been observed that ,i have used several tools not previously mentioned as necessaries2 my reason is that ,i assume no one who aspires to become an amateur workman fails to provide himself with such everyday implements as saw1 chisel1 chopper1 hammer1 pincers1 rule1 etc1 the only tool not in ordinary use being the callipers1 which are made of various patterns1 and are used to take measurements of breadths and depths in situations where the foot rule is useless1 such as spherical and cylindrical bodies4 ,the price of a pair of callipers need not exceed #as4 ,when the skin is sufficiently penetrated with the preservative1 lay it on its back ready for stuffing4 ,first take hold of the bone of the nose and push the skull into the skin1 so that it comes through the orifice of the skin of the body4 ,the back of the skull being now toward you1 proceed to push tow into the cavity whence the brains were removed1 also in the cavity of each orbit1 between the articulations of the jaws at the sides of the face1 and the lower jaw--in fact1 everywhere where the flesh has been removed1 forming it as well as you possibly can to the shape which existed previously4 ,when you have modelled this as well as the nature of the tow will allow1 return the head through the skin to its first position4 ,next cut four strong wires of suitable size1 one a little stronger than the others and somewhat longer than the whole of your skin1 including brush4 ,point this wire at one end and make two loops in it 7each similar to that in ,fig4 #a72 one loop to occur about #d in4 from the tail1 and the other up in the chest1 near the junction of the fore limbs4 ,spread a sufficient quantity of tow inside the skin to run all the way along the back and up the neck to join the head4 ,enter the point of the wire through the orifice of the skin1 push it up the lower jaw into the hollow part of the skull1 and holding the head in the left hand1 calculate so that the wire may come through the skin at about the centre of the head1 about #a4e in4 from1 and above each eye4 ,bear in mind that the skull being somewhat thick1 it is the more necessary for your wire to have cutting edges1 as before explained4 ,having pushed the wire through three or four inches1 cut off the point with your large pliers 7,fig4 #af7 to prevent injuring yourself1 turning down the remainder to prevent the wire pulling through again4 ,push the other end of the wire right up the brush1 to do which you must bend it back on itself about halfway up1 straightening up as you proceed4 ,next take four wires1 somewhat longer than the legs1 and pointed at each end4 ,push one of these right up the foot in at the pad1 along the back of the leg1 and up into the body1 pushing it through its proper loop on the body wire1 and twisting it round and round the same with your pliers until it is firmly attached4 ,fill the cut pad with chopped tow1 and nicely sew it up to its normal shape4 ,do the same with the three remaining limbs4 ,you should be able now to lift the fox by any one of the leg wires1 and find it support the remainder4 ,having by this time determined the shape which the fox shall assume--that is to say1 if standing1 running1 or springing on its prey--commence by gradually filling up the neck with suitable pieces of tow1 bending the head and neck as you wish2 in point of fact1 shaping as you go on4 ,next work down the chest1 and then fill up the skin of the limbs with smaller pieces of tow1 endeavouring to keep to the characteristic shapes of the thin and thick parts 7various stuffing irons of different degrees of thickness will have to be used during the process74 ,having filled up the fore limbs1 bend them to their required position and go to the hind1 disregarding the body for the present4 ,the hind limbs have more character in them than the fore1 and are1 in consequence1 harder to model2 be the more careful1 therefore1 to pay particular attention to the proper development of these limbs1 bending them into shape during work1 and keeping the thighs nice and thin1 and distinct from the body4 ,all the limbs being shaped1 model up the various parts of the body1 not getting it like a sack1 as is too frequently the case1 but producing those fine flowing lines which are so necessary to ensure the perfect model of a zoological specimen4 ,lift your work up from time to time1 noting where inequalities appear4 ,the fox being now fairly well shaped1 sew it up with a three-cornered skin 7or glover's7 needle and string4 ,a board is now to be procured1 of the necessary length and thickness1 in which holes are to be bored to receive the leg wires1 which are then clenched underneath4 ,this operation1 no doubt1 will knock the specimen somewhat out of shape1 which1 of course1 is easily remedied1 and having brought up the limbs to their proper position1 you will now address yourself to the formation of the head and face4 ,this latter will possess but little expression1 owing to the nose1 etc1 being cut out4 ,to remedy this procure a cork1 which push into the cavity whence the cartilage of the nose has been removed1 roughly shaping it1 and covering it over with a pad of putty1 pushing some also into the skin of the nostrils at the same time4 ,the inner skin of the lips is still hanging down as a bag4 ,fill this up with sufficient putty to allow for shrinking1 sewing it to the outer skin4 ,the lips may now be adjusted in position by sewing the upper to the under1 if the fox is to be shown with a closed mouth1 or by driving in needle points in various positions1 if the mouth is to be open1 until these parts set4 ,fill in the orbits with putty1 attending to the eyebrows1 reproducing the various muscles underneath1 and insert the artificial eyes4 ,all that now remains to be done is to push two pointed wires down the back of the ears1 and run them along each edge1 finally pushing them in the skin of the head1 where required2 the two loose ends being twisted together at the top keep the ears in position4 ,the tongue1 if intended to be shown1 must be removed from the pickle1 cut on its under side1 and skinned completely out to the tips and to each edge4 ,all the included flesh must then be cut away1 and replaced with putty1 the cut sewn up1 and it is then ready to be inserted in the mouth in the required position1 when modelled into shape4 ,the animal being stuffed and mounted to your satisfaction1 you must bear in mind1 that although you have perfectly cured the skin--turning it1 in fact1 into a species of leather--you have not rendered it proof against the attacks of insects2 it must1 therefore1 be washed over with one of the preparations given in ,chapter ,,iv4 ,the preceding method of skinning and stuffing an animal is given1 not because it is the most scientific1 but because it is the most satisfactory to the learner1 and is1 indeed1 the method which obtains with the majority of taxidermists4 ,though perfectly efficient as far as it goes1 it yet possesses the disadvantage of allowing a certain percentage of shrinkage1 and that caused solely by the yielding nature of the tow used to fill out the places where the muscles formerly rested4 ,to an educated eye this defect is at once recognised by the uneven contour of the cheeks1 superciliary muscles1 and various parts of the limbs1 and also by the generally wooden appearance of the specimen4 ,the system on which ,i will now give a lesson is far more tedious in its application1 but certain in its effects1 being1 in fact1 substituting hard for loose stuffing1 and differing from the foregoing in one essential particular1 viz1 the modelling of the head and limbs with a medium of an unyielding nature4 ,to illustrate this1 we will take another fox or similar animal4 ,after skinning it1 as in the foregoing lesson1 you will1 instead of leaving the leg bones in the skin1 cut them completely out down to the claws1 which may best be done by skinning down as far as you can1 cutting the bones off at the last joint1 then making an incision above the pads1 and slipping the bones completely out2 this allows you to work right down to the last joint of the phalanges or toes1 at which point you cut the bones free4 ,the head is now to be considered4 ,when it has been cut off as before1 skin down to the eyelids1 and instead of leaving them attached at the lower angles1 cut them completely away4 ,now take the skin off all round the skull1 until the return of the skin of the side of the mouth is arrived at4 ,skin well under the jaw to the very tip1 and now begin under-cutting at the sides1 coming up to the return angle--keeping1 however1 well to the side of the skin4 ,by cautious working you can skin in between the inner and outer skins until you can touch the tips of the lower teeth at the point of the jaw with your fingers4 ,coming along from here by the side of the lower jaw1 you skin by undercutting almost to the inside of the mouth1 taking care not to cut the thin membrane which holds at the extreme edge4 ,still working along the lower jaw1 come right up until you can cut out1 just under the eye1 the top end of the return4 ,leaving it attached by a thin membrane 'to the upper jaw1 skin downward toward the nose1 and1 by undercutting and using great care1 completely skin up to the nostril1 which sever4 ,do precisely the same with the other side4 ,the nostrils being completely skinned out1 the skin holds just below them4 ,place the head on the table1 standing on the base of its skull1 the ears toward you4 ,take the nostrils with the finger and thumb of the left hand1 and with the knife 7the broad knife will be found most useful here7 very carefully work all round until you arrive at the extreme tip of the inner skin of the upper jaw1 which is now turned inside out1 and actually rests below the under jaw4 ,your cuts must be made a hair's breadth at a time to get to the extreme edge4 ,by this time the severed nostrils will have fallen some little distance underneath the under jaw4 ,see1 now1 that the lips1 both upper and lower1 as well as the inner angles of the mouth1 are skinned inside to the extreme edge at every point1 or all your labour will be thrown away4 ,this operation is one of the most nice and difficult in the whole range of skinning operations1 and is equally difficult to describe4 ,cut out the cartilage of the nose1 slip out the tongue1 and generally trim the head in the usual manner1 and well rub in the preservative4 ,if you should find too much of the inner angle left far up in the mouth it may be cut off4 ,if the head were returned now it would be seen that the lower edges of the inside skin of the mouth were the only points of attachment1 and even there only to the edge of the teeth all around them4 ,the skull bone being now only attached to the subject1 literally by the skin of its teeth1 you have the whole bone exposed to work on4 ,fill up the orbits and hollow bone of the nose with any loose pieces of peat1 to give solidity to the next operation1 which is1 to cut pieces of peat in an artistic manner to represent the flesh of the cheeks1 the chin1 the top of the head1 and the cartilage of the nose4 ,when the whole of these pieces are shaped to their required measurements1 attach them by string or wire to their neighbouring bones in the manner which occurs to you as being the best4 ,having well secured them1 go over the whole with plaster of ,paris1 mixed with water to the consistence of a stiff paste1 merely smoothing it as it sets1 up to the required shape with a broad knife4 ,the plaster will soon set1 and may be further rasped or trimmed into shape4 ,plaster alone may be used1 but my reason for making a substratum of peat is1 that if the former only is used it renders the head unpleasantly heavy4 ,the great advantage which this system has over the former is that1 by the unyielding nature of the medium1 nothing can possibly shrink or shift1 and though this plan is1 perhaps1 more tedious1 and certainly requires more skill in its execution1 yet it is1 as a matter of course1 far preferable than trusting to tow alone for the formation of the head4 ,finally1 place some putty or clay in the ears1 nose1 and around the skin of the lips1 and pull the mask over the model4 ,pad the body1 and put in the central body wire as before1 also the leg wires1 but in this system you add another1 but thinner1 wire to come up the back of each of the fore legs and the front of the hind1 not attaching these wires1 however1 to any point1 but letting them come up into the body1 and merely wrapping them with tow to the large leg wires in the necessary manner4 ,this second wire partly supplies the place of the small bone and muscles of each leg1 and its natural appearance is considerably enhanced by the application of putty or clay to pad parts of the animal's legs and feet4 ,being of a yielding nature1 until dry1 putty or clay may be squeezed and moulded into proper shape to give character to the various parts4 ,in the return of the sinews of the legs1 make their peculiar1 hollow appearance by stitching through from side to side4 ,wrinkles of the neck1 etc1 may be treated in the same manner4 ,finish as before directed4 ,no shrinking can possibly take place in the most important parts2 hence the manifest advantages of this system2 but as in practice it requires some knowledge and experience1 ,i have not ventured to insist upon it previously1 as it is too much to expect a tyro to take it up until he is thoroughly grounded in the first system4 ,an amateur1 however1 who can skin and stuff fairly may try this1 and ,i am positive that he will succeed1 and never again return to the good old style of loose stuffing4 ,in cases where the animal 7especially if small7 is merely to be lying down1 three wires will sometimes be found sufficient1 namely1 one long and strong body wire 7with no loops7 and two wires for the legs1 one of which will be run in at the right fore leg and cross the body1 and be pushed down the left hind leg and come out at the sole of the foot1 the other wire then crosses it reversely4 ,the body wire 7having no loops7 can be pushed in at the head through a hole previously made with a bradawl4 ,ears may be filled in with brown paper1 cut to shape1 instead of putty4 ,pieces of wood1 peat1 or clips of tin may be cut to the form of the ears1 and used to block them to shape1 from the outside4 ,a third system is for the smaller horned heads1 such as deer1 goats1 etc1 which are begun somewhat differently1 but are afterwards treated in a similar manner4 ,the usual way in which horned heads are skinned is to cut them under the throat right up to the jaw1 turning the skin back1 and then to skin upward to the horns4 ,this1 though perpetrated by people who ought to know better1 is based on entirely false principles1 for a head when finished being hung usually at some height1 you have constantly before your eyes the hideous spectacle of a chain of stitches 7which no art can successfully hide7 running up the throat and under the chin4 ,the buck's or goat's head1 being1 perhaps1 the most easily obtained1 ,i will take one as an example4 ,make an incision exactly on the top of the head1 running from the back of the neck to just behind the horns2 then make two cross cuts up to their seats or burrs1 and1 pushing your knife down at the side of the nearest horn1 cut the skin entirely away1 keeping as close to the horn as possible--in fact1 shaving its edge4 ,when you arrive just above the eye1 while doing this1 you will find the ear hold back the skin considerably4 ,skin it as much as possible on the top1 and1 putting your finger underneath1 cut it out as usual4 ,now you can work all round the horn to join the cut at the back4 ,do the same with the other horn and side1 skinning away round the neck to the under jaw and sides of the face until you find the skin of each eyelid holds4 ,skin this completely off1 not leaving it attached anywhere1 as also the skin on the forehead where it holds4 ,continue and finish in the same manner as the fox's head4 ,the skins of the heads of bulls1 large stags1 tigers1 etc1 are best taken completely off the bone1 and the inside of the lips1 nostrils1 eyelids1 etc1 afterwards skinned out and well cured2 the skull-bone may then be plunged in a copper full of water and boiled out2 this saves considerable labour1 and also gets the skulls nicely cleaned and free from grease4 ,the plan of taking the skin entirely off the head will be found of the utmost advantage to explorers or collectors in foreign countries1 as the skulls may be numbered and a corresponding number scratched on a tin1 or written on a parchment label1 which may be tied through the eyehole of the skin4 ,the skulls being left loose1 their skins may be packed in barrels1 and if well rubbed in with my preservative 7,no4 #i71 and looked at occasionally to prevent mildew1 they will1 after the lapse of many years1 only need relaxing to make perfect specimens4 ,the usual way of sending horned heads home from abroad is to leave the skins attached to the skull1 and the consequence is1 that at the various points of attachment the skin is improperly cured 7often with the--worse than--useless arsenic71 and if they escape the inevitable knocking about they receive in travelling1 and get to ,england in fair condition1 the hair1 when the skin is relaxed1 sweats off1 particularly at the very places it should not1 around the eyes1 lips1 nose1 and ears1 and the labour of1 perhaps1 years of anxious collecting and dangerous hunting is nullified4 ,fig4 #bf--,,skull ,,of ,,horned ,,head1 ,,blocked ,,ready ,,for ,,mounting4 ,i will now take a bull's head as our subject1 to illustrate the method of mounting such heads4 ,i will assume that a fair piece of neck is attached to the head1 and having skinned the head completely off the skull and preserved it1 proceed as follows3 ,when the bone is sufficiently trimmed1 should the meat have been cut off1 or dry1 if the head has been previously boiled1 tie together the upper and the lower jaws at their points of articulation behind the eye1 by the aid of wire or string2 tie also the tip of the lower jaw to the nose in any manner that allows the teeth to come in their proper position as in nature4 ,attention to this point will give you a guide as to the length of the model4 ,the jaws being now rigidly fixed1 lay the head down for a while1 and getting a piece of inch deal of suitable length1 saw it to the shape shown in ,fig4 #bf1 which also shows the method of attachment4 ,insert the part marked ,a inside the head up to the return ,b2 this being inserted exactly in the middle of the skull1 bore two or more holes through the latter at the forehead1 and make fast the bone to the wood by strong screws4 ,block on each side of this board and inside the jaws with pieces of peat nailed on with ,french nails 7,points-de-,paris7 or pieces of pointed wire4 ,at the place marked ,b 7,a to ,b being now hidden7 make up with wet plaster of ,paris1 which1 while filling up1 serves also to steady the prop4 ,fill up the orbits with any pieces of loose peat1 paper1 etc4 ,now carve a large piece of peat for each side1 cut to the shape of the cheeks1 and attach them to the jaw bones in their proper positions with wires driven right through into the board1 fill also the bone of the nose with peat roughly cut to shape4 ,cut another piece of peat for the swelling of the under jaw1 and entirely model up with peat the front and sides of the neck4 ,next mix some plaster of ,paris1 and go over the whole of the peat with it1 bringing it up level to the bones1 nicely smoothing it over with a knife1 and1 as it sets1 adding more where required1 or shaving it off if in excess--in short1 replacing the flesh1 where it has been removed1 with peat and plaster4 ,the front view should now present a somewhat even appearance2 the nice swelling of the cheeks being well rounded off1 as also under the jaws and on the top of the nose1 etc4 ,now draw the skin nicely over the model1 taking care especially to get the eye holes in their proper places around the orbits4 ,this being a guide for the truth of that part of the head1 drive two wires through the skin1 into the bone above the orbits1 to keep it in its place4 ,sew the hair in position round the horns4 ,being now qualified to judge as to the size of the neck-block1 you will cut an oval1 or rather egg-shaped1 piece of wood1 out of inch stuff1 to the required size2 this determines the breadth and length of the neck at the back4 ,the head-block of ,fig #bf being cut off along the dotted line ,d1 it of course stands to reason that if the neck-board 7,fig4 #bg7 is screwed on to it along its centre1 the head1 if the board is placed against a wall1 will now look downwards at the angle determined by the cutting of ,d4 ,having firmly screwed the oval neck-block to the prop1 or head-block1 in such a manner that the top of the oval does not come above nor interfere with the modelling of the back of the head1 fill the inside of the ears with putty1 and also make up the back of the head and neck1 with peat and plaster of ,paris between the wood and the skull4 ,having previously cut the board somewhere near the dotted line ,e1 the throat and neck will now claim your attention1 and will require the nicest skill to show the various wrinkles1 depressions1 etc1 where they should occur4 ,putty or clay as a finish will be found of great service at this stage4 ,fig4 #bg--,neck-board for skin of head4 ,constantly turn the head to the light1 to see how you are going on4 ,if a horned head and heavy1 many plans will occur to you for easily supporting it1 such as ropes attached to the horns1 and to a beam1 etc4 ,when all the head and back of the neck is adjusted to your measurements1 bring the skin over and around the edge of the oval to its back1 attaching it firmly there with strong tacks4 ,nothing has as yet been done to the eyes1 lips1 or nose4 ,turn1 therefore1 the bags of the skin of the eyelids inside out1 and1 filling them with putty or clay1 shape them and return4 ,fill up the orbits also with putty or clay to receive the eyes1 packing up above and below them to show the various depressions and ridges4 ,turning the nose up1 fill the nostrils and bag of the lips with putty or clay1 being careful to show up all the wrinkles 7the division in the chin1 if one exists71 and1 in fine1 generally modelling and filling out with putty or clay1 of which you will use several pounds if you are working on a large head4 ,sew up the lips1 or perhaps a better plan is to enter a skin needle1 charged with strong string1 in at the lower lip1 and bring the string around wires driven in at the front and sides of the nose inside1 pulling your string over from side to side1 and making a final stitch in the most convenient situation4 ,nicely insert the eyes1 bringing the upper lids over1 so as not to give too staring an appearance to the animal1 and hang the head up to dry by firmly attaching a very strong hook of wire to the oval block1 or by a small rope tied round the horns at their base4 ,note that the horns of goats1 antelopes1 etc1 and bulls and cows are set on a bony core1 and must come off to prevent an offensive effluvium4 ,placing the skull in a hot bed has been recommended1 boiling will sometimes fetch the horns off1 but it very often happens that nothing but time will loosen them4 ,when this occurs wash the cores and horns with carbolic wash 7,no4 #ae74 ,the student may1 if he likes1 fill in the eyelids1 bags of the upper and lower lips1 and nostrils with putty or clay before drawing the skin on the head2 but in this case he will have to sew the inner to the upper skins1 in addition to which he will find many things occur in drawing on and shaping the skin to render most of his labour useless if these parts are modelled first instead of last4 ,the following system1 the fourth1 differs from all the preceding in there being erected a sort of framework on which to mount the skin1 and hence is in use only for large animals4 ,as an illustration let us take the bear 7which was the last large animal ,i caused to be set up by this method74 ,skin as before1 subsequently removing the leg bones and head1 and modelling as in the second system1 or working by the first method1 according to your degree of proficiency4 ,to do such an animal as a bear1 however1 you should remove all the bones of the legs1 and skin to the toes1 as directed in the second system1 also removing the skull1 and treating it and the skin of the head as before4 ,procure now a piece of deal #b in4 square1 and of the length which you wish your animal to assume when finished1 calculating from the centre of the chest to the tail4 ,in this wood fix a strong iron rod1 or wire1 at one end1 by boring two holes through it at some distance apart1 and pushing the end of the wire in at one hole1 then beating it down and clenching it through the other4 ,the bar of wood now represents the backbone1 and the wire the neck of the animal4 ,point the wire and push it up into the skull1 which model up as before1 binding tow round the wire underneath to roughly form a neck somewhat smaller than you intend it to be when finished4 ,pull the skin over this1 and adjust it so that you may see the places on the wooden backbone where the fore and hind limbs will come4 ,having marked the position of these1 pull back the skin up to the neck1 and bore holes through the wood1 at right angles to the other holes made for the neck wire4 ,taking now four rods or wires for the legs1 point each at one end1 and screw the other with nuts to fit the screws1 bend each rod for #g in4 or more1 at a sharp angle1 at its screwed end1 and push the pointed end down the fore legs from the inside1 so that the points come through the ball of each foot1 and having stuffed and bent the fore-legs into shape1 push the screwed part into1 and through1 the corresponding holes in the artificial backbone2 screwing on the nuts on the opposite aides1 which will of course prevent the rods from pulling through again4 ,finish the stuffing of the neck and chest1 and coming along the body repeat the same process with the hind limbs as with the fore4 ,greater steadiness can be attained if required1 by using two nuts instead of one to each rod1 that is to say1 one on each side of the wood1 ,no4 #a being screwed on first1 the arm of the rod then pushed through the hole1 and nut ,no4 #b screwed up to its bearing4 ,for a nearly tail-less animal1 such as the bear1 it will be sufficient to drive a strong wire through the stump of the tail from the outside1 to hold in the end of the backbone1 but a long-tailed animal will require to have the tail-bearer inserted in the wood1 in the same manner as the neck wire1 and the artificial tail run up the skin before the legs are attached4 ,the extreme stability of the foregoing system is obvious1 as the backbone completely supports the weight of the skin and head1 while the leg rods support this in their turn4 ,wood of suitable thickness must be used to mount the animal on while drying1 and the leg rods1 if too strong to clench through on the under side1 may be screwed and nuts attached4 ,for the very largest animals1 such as the elephant1 a somewhat different system would be adopted2 a model in parts would be made1 fitted together1 and the skin stretched over4 ,a very interesting account of the method adopted many years ago in the ,french capital is here appended3 ,the corpse of the elephant having been extended upon the ground facilitated our taking and writing all its dimensions2 the thickness was taken by a sort of rule1 which ,m4 ,lassaigne1 cabinet maker of the museum of ,paris1 invented at the time4 ,this instrument is the rule used by shoemakers on a large scale4 ,the curves of the back1 the belly1 etc1 were taken by bars of lead1 #j4ge in4 thick4 ,this metal1 not having any elasticity1 accommodated or bent itself to the curves we wished to measure and preserved the measurements until wanted4 ,m4 ,desmoulins drew the animal on one of the sides of the wall according to all these measurements1 in the workshop where the model was to be constructed1 in its natural size4 ,this done1 we proceeded to the skinning of the elephant1 which we were only able to place upon its back by four corded pulleys fastened to the platform4 ,in this position we made an incision in the form of a double cross2 the middle line went from the mouth to the anus1 the two others were directed from each left foot to the opposite right foot2 the tail and trunk were opened underneath longitudinally4 ,we scooped out the soles of the feet within an inch of their edge1 that the nails might remain in the skin2 to effect this we were obliged to employ the chisel and mallet4 ,this operation was very difficult4 ,after four days' labour of several persons we separated the skin from the body2 it then weighed #egf lb4 ,we extended it on the ground to take away the cutaneous muscles which adhered to its interior--particularly to the head4 ,in this state the skin was placed in a large tub2 we spread a considerable quantity of pounded alum in all its folds4 ,we then boiled some water with such quantities of alum that some pieces still remained at the bottom of the boiler--that is1 more than saturated the water4 ,this water was poured upon the skin1 and we continued to do so until the skin was covered with it #f in4 deep4 ,to render the dimensions of the model or shape which was to receive the skin more exact1 we modelled one-half of the skinned head in plaster1 as well as one of the hind and one of the fore legs4 ,all these measures being taken1 ,lassaigne constructed a factitious body in linden wood4 ,the reader would find the detail too long and too minute if we were to describe the ingenious methods invented by ,lassaigne1 either to cut the wood or to preserve the form he had given to this great mass4 ,but to avoid all prolixity1 it will be sufficient to observe that he composed this wooden elephant in such a manner that all the parts could be separated4 ,he opened a panel 7it is immaterial on which side of the body7 and introduced himself into the interior by means of this opening1 either to diminish the thickness of the wood or for any other purpose during its construction2 the head1 the trunk1 all was hollow2 so that the body1 alarming at first from its supposed weight1 might be easily transported from one place to another4 ,after taking the alum water from the tub where the skin was placed1 we heated it1 and poured it1 boiling1 on the skin2 we left it an hour and a half in this state1 after which we drew the skin out to place it1 quite warm1 upon the shape4 ,this was not an easy thing1 but it was rendered still more difficult by our finding the false body a little too large--the skin would not entirely cover it4 ,there was but one thing which could be done2 we could not diminish the wood without destroying the proportions2 besides1 the iron pins1 the screws which fastened the work1 would have lost their hold1 and we should have run the risk of overturning the edifice4 ,we then took down the skin1 placed it on trestles1 and diminished the thickness of it by the help of large knives1 cutting it away in thick and long shreds from the whole of the inside4 ,this work occupied five persons for four days4 ,we weighed these shreds and they amounted to #aid lb4 ,during this operation the skin had dried1 and consequently lost its suppleness4 ,we put it back into a tub and covered it with soft cold water4 ,the next day we placed it afresh on the shape1 and fixed it with wire nails and large brads2 those which fixed the edge of the skin were driven in deeply1 the others only half way1 to accommodate the skin to all the sinuosities of the model4 ,we drew out a great many of them when the skin was sufficiently dry4 ,this paring of the skin answered our purpose in two essential points3 first1 by facilitating the means of enveloping the model entirely1 the form of which had not been altered2 and1 secondly1 by ensuring its speedy desiccation4 ,this last had not been the least alarming1 for we feared that the humidity secreted in the skin might concentrate in such a manner 7notwithstanding we had taken the precaution to give the wooden model a coat of oil paint7 as to occasion mouldiness in the parts exposed to the air4 ,the alum with which it was saturated soon crystallised on the interior1 which at first gave it a very ugly grey colour2 but we entirely got rid of it by rubbing the surface of the skin1 first with spirits of turpentine1 and then with oil of olives4 ,some little hints which occurred to me as being useful to the animal mounter ,i will now jot down3 ,i have been frequently asked1 ,supposing ,i get a fat dog1 or animal of any kind1 to set up1 how can ,i manage such a subject satisfactorily8 ,if ,i leave the fat on the skin ,i am doing wrong in every way1 and if ,i trim it cleanly off1 as it should be done1 ,i stretch the skin to such an extent that my dog is completely out of shape1 and though formerly a 'pug' he speedily becomes a 'greyhound4' ,in fact1 ,i am in a quandary1 and do not know what to do4 ,my reply is3 ,try what a hot knife will do passed over the skin1 with sand or sawdust thrown on to absorb the fat as it melts off4 ,candidly speaking1 however1 it is purely a matter of experience to trim fat off a skin without stretching it to any alarming degree1 and in very fine-skinned animals1 if we find them stretch in spite of all care1 we take advantage of wrinkles to sew up here and tuck in there1 resorting even1 in extreme cases1 to cutting away portions of the skin1 notably in those parts underneath1 hidden by the subsequent operation of mounting4 ,the skin of the soles of the feet of some animals requires paring down4 ,the bear is an instance of this4 ,the hands of monkeys also must be carefully skinned out to the extreme tips of the fingers4 ,these latter animals are best skinned out from the back1 as a great many of our relatives have but little hair on the abdomen to hide the stitches1 added to which their usually upright position tends still more to show up any defect in sewing4 ,peat and straw may sometimes be used with advantage in the bodies of large animals4 ,moles may be very well mounted by being cut across from one hind limb to the other1 just under the tail1 skinned out1 preserved1 and the skin then filled with sand or dry plaster4 ,hedgehogs1 if required to be curled up1 may be also filled with sand1 then tied up in a cloth1 and hung up to dry4 ,bats are skinned out from the back or front according to the position it is required to show them in4 ,a thin piece of wire is doubled2 each end is then pulled out at right angles for a certain distance up its length1 and pushed into the hollows of the bones of the wings4 ,the animal is then stuffed with chopped tow1 sand1 or sawdust1 sewn up1 leaving the doubled wire outside2 a hole is then made in a board 7of the length and breadth suited to the specimen71 through which the wire passes1 and the wings are kept in place1 until dry1 by fine needle-points1 or entomological pins passed through the joints1 or by braces of cardboard4 ,the ears1 if long1 are best blocked with cork cut to fit the inside1 and then bound round with wrapping cotton4 ,the shrivelled ears of these and much larger animals may be got into proper shape by careful ironing4 ,mice1 small leverets1 or rabbits1 will be found very useful1 if roughly stuffed1 to place in the mouth or under the feet of birds or small beasts of prey4 ,these animals1 if very young1 had better be placed for an hour or so in benzoline or in one of the hardening solutions 7,nos4 #ae or #af74 ,this remark applies with especial force to animals as yet unborn1 which the naturalist will sometimes find during work1 and will wish to preserve4 ,these foetal specimens1 however1 let it be remembered1 are of the greatest consequence in the study of embryology1 and should always be preserved intact in a fluid medium of some kind4 ,sometimes the operator comes across a foetus of some rarity1 which1 if not large1 can be preserved in a small preparation jar1 filled with best rectified spirits of wine1 as being not too expensive for such subjects4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,modelling ,,of ,,animals ,,by ,,substitution ,,of ,,clay1 ,,composition1 ,,plaster ,,casts1 ,,or ,,wax ,,for ,,loose ,,stuffing4 ,,the subject to be now treated of is of so varied a nature1 requiring so great a knowledge of anatomy1 and so much experience and aptitude1 that ,i have deemed it advisable to reserve for a separate chapter the explanations of the processes to be learned1 to avoid1 at the outset1 confusing the learner by asking him to attempt too much4 ,this chapter may therefore be considered a finishing one1 and1 perhaps1 it will be best to be candid1 and say at once1 that no one should attempt the mounting of animals by this method until he has fully mastered the principles laid down in the foregoing chapter1 and has learned the characteristic attitudes and expression of some hundreds of animal forms4 ,it is quite true that this art--which has for its end and aim the better delineation of character as exhibited by the lower animals--is not teachable unless the pupil is well grounded in anatomy1 and is also a clever draughtsman and modeller--in fine1 an artist6--with all an artist's perception of beauty of line and of form4 ,i will here indicate what ,i take to be the basis upon which a competent taxidermist must proceed to become a zoological artist4 ,first1 then1 let him take lessons in drawing1 pinning himself steadily to copying pictures by the best masters of zoological subjects2 as he advances1 let him draw from the casts of animals1 when procurable4 ,let him beware1 however1 of the conventional lion1 and lion's head1 which are about as much like the real things as the donkey is like the horse--just a family resemblance1 nothing more4 ,having done all this1 let him copy animals from nature2 and if he lives in or near ,london1 so much the better1 there is the ,zoo for him to study in4 ,indeed1 it is a marvel to me that1 with the museums and the ,zoological ,gardens surrounding them1 so few ,london taxidermists attain even a respectable proficiency in the correct delineation of animal forms4 ,the pupil being well grounded in drawing1 will have observed many points in animal anatomy not hitherto suspected by him1 and will naturally wish to know the why and wherefore of the swellings and depressions occurring in his subjects4 ,to this end he must study a little simple anatomy of bones and muscles--their objects and meanings in different animals4 ,the last stage is the reproduction1 by modelling in clay1 etc1 of the various parts of animals1 the head1 of course1 in the instance of large mammals1 being looked upon as the chief motif in composition4 ,to do all this requires time and considerable perseverance1 but1 with the facilities for study now offered by the various schools of art1 he should not despair of success in a few years' time after mastering the first principles of his art4 ,i will now proceed to demonstrate how the learner may work himself up to a respectable proficiency in modelling animals1 should he possess the necessary aptitude4 ,let us divide our theme into three parts--,first1 mounting the skin of the specimen1 by using the skeleton as a foundation4 ,secondly1 mounting by means of a rough framework of wood and iron1 more completely than as instanced in the example of the bear mentioned in the last chapter4 ,thirdly1 mounting on a model skeleton of carved wood and iron1 to represent1 and to take the place of1 the bones2 somewhat in the manner described for the elephant4 ,in each of these systems there is one point of resemblance1 namely1 that the bones1 or their semblances1 are to be covered with hard composition1 of some kind or another1 to replace the flesh and muscles1 and that the heads of mammals being often of great beauty1 and possessing certain characters of their own1 are to be copied first of all by one of two methods4 ,either they must be 7#a7 cast as a mould from the dead head1 and the return1 or model1 again cast from that2 or 7#b7 modelled from the dead head in clay1 by the eye and by measurements1 and a mould taken from that1 to be again cast into for the model4 ,this latter1 though entailing three processes1 is the more correct1 and gives the best result when the modeller is experienced2 but as the former is the easier1 and leads up to better things1 ,i must describe it first4 ,we will take as an example the most difficult head to cast--a horned head--considering that1 if we do this correctly1 all others will be easy enough4 ,here1 then1 is a stag's head1 some modelling or pipe-clay1 some soft-soap1 a hundredweight or so of common plaster of ,paris at about #ds4 per cwt1 two pails1 or rather zinc or galvanised iron buckets1 one of them containing water4 ,footnote3 ,pipe-clay quite good enough for this purpose is sold by the pipe makers in dry blocks or pieces1 at about #fs4 or #gs4 per cwt4 ,the clay must be soaked as wanted in a bucket of water and beaten up with a stick or bat until it is smooth1 free from lumps1 and of the consistence of very stiff putty4 ,it should then be formed into a square mass1 and kept damp by wet cloths4 ,the first operation1 after beating up the clay1 is getting the head into position2 this will be easy enough should it be cut off from the body1 otherwise the head must be propped up on the table1 whilst the greater part of the body rests on boxes1 or trestles1 somewhat lower than the table4 ,a very little gumption will enable the learner to cope with these small difficulties1 always remembering1 however1 that both body and head must be immovably fixed during the process of casting4 ,let us assume1 therefore1 the body arranged so that the head--face uppermost--and part of the neck1 rests on the table1 firmly fixed2 supports1 or stays of wood1 fastened at one end to the horns by wires or cords1 and at the other end by nails to the table1 will effect this4 ,the chin should be propped up a little from the surface of the table1 by means of a pad of clay which has been previously prepared2 next cut more slices of clay from the mass1 and build in the front and sides of the face in a straight line1 to just under the nostrils1 but above the line of the mouth2 smooth the clay--which should extend outwards some two or three inches from the head--with water and a broad knife4 ,the lower half of the head is now hidden1 mouth and all1 up to just above the upper lip4 ,next fill in the nostrils and the lachrymal sinuses 7the orifices below the eyes7 with clay1 but in a careful manner1 so that1 although they shall be filled up sufficiently to prevent the plaster from running in to make undercuts1 they shall still preserve a certain shallow imprint of their original form4 ,now mix your soft soap with a brush until it becomes a stiff lather1 and paint it all over the face and hair of the head2 build up a wall of thin board around the clay--in the manner described in ,chapter ,,viii4 on ,fish ,casting--and when practicable tie a thin board just in front of the horns1 so that the model may end there4 ,if1 however1 the back of the head down to the neck is required--which it seldom is1 for reasons explained hereafter--it must be managed by piece-casting4 7,see ,chapter ,,xii47 ,the head being nicely soaped1 lay a thin piece of string or strong hemp along the top of the face and head1 exactly in the centre1 and extending from the clay under the nostrils up to the back of the head in a straight line4 ,be sure that the string is perfectly straight1 and that it presses closely to the nose before coming on to the clay4 ,next mix the plaster1 not in the usual manner1 by adding water to it1 but by half filling a vessel with water1 to which the plaster is added1 a little at a time1 until enough is mixed to serve the purpose1 i4e1 in sufficient quantity to cover the head with a layer some inches thick4 ,after it is well worked up and moderately thick1 carefully pour it over the specimen1 taking it up as it runs down1 and piling it up a little thicker in the centre1 to give stability to the mass4 ,just as the plaster is setting--which a very little experience will teach--lift the ends of the string upward through the plaster1 which has the effect of cutting it in two1 but these halves will not fall off of their own accord if care be taken4 ,the mould being allowed to set for about half an hour or an hour1 according to the quality of the plaster1 is then ready for the next operation1 which is the turning of the carcase1 so that the head may also be turned upside down4 ,previously to this1 should the mould show the least sign of coming off1 it will be as well to tie it on4 ,supposing1 however1 that the wall of boards being removed1 the head is successfully turned until it rests with its centre on the table1 it may happen that the horns1 being in the way1 may require to hang over the edge of the table to effect this properly1 and that the head1 being rounded by the superior thickness of the mould1 may require propping4 ,to describe the means for overcoming such self-evident little difficulties as these1 would only insult my reader's judgment4 ,the head1 then1 being now securely fixed face downwards1 the clay which hides the lower half must be picked off4 ,this exposes the inner edge of the mould1 together with the lower jaw4 ,scrape the plaster to a level surface1 and cut two moderately large ,v-shaped nicks1 one on each edge of the mould1 build up around as before with wood1 and fill in all interstices leading to the table below with clay4 ,see that the mouth is properly shut1 introducing a little clay if needed4 ,brush over with soft soap1 not forgetting the top of the plaster mould1 and mix some more plaster and pour over the lower jaw1 on to the edges of the plaster mould1 until stopped by the wall2 build up thicker in the centre1 as before1 and suffer all to dry for about an hour4 ,after this1 pull away the walls1 and all retaining clay1 and the mould will easily come away from the head in three pieces1 i4e1 two for the upper surface1 and one for the under4 ,the chief thing to guard against is not to get the plaster behind the horns1 so that it locks the front up4 ,as1 however1 you may require to cast more1 in length1 of the under surface than of the upper1 you may easily do this by lengthening the upper surface1 when turned over1 with clay1 and casting on to that4 ,it is this system which gives the diagonally-cut appearance to the model 7see ,fig4 #bh74 ,you have now three pieces1 forming1 when trimmed and put together1 a concavity representing the place whence the stag's head has been extracted2 bake these pieces in an oven for a day or so until sufficiently dried1 then examine them for flaws or air-bubble holes1 which fill up with clay1 brush over inside with linseed oil or soft soap1 tie together1 and fix the mould1 nose downward1 in a bucket or pail1 pack with wedges1 and run in sand outside the mould to make all secure4 ,prepare some plaster and pour into the mould at the opening and before it is quite set1 scoop out some to make it hollow at the neck2 allow it to remain undisturbed for from two to four hours1 then take it out1 undo the string1 and gently tap the mould in every part with a small mallet1 rolling it every now and then upon the table2 in a short time you will hear something rattle1 and perhaps a little loosening of one edge or piece will take place2 tap now very cautiously1 lest you should break anything2 soon one piece will come off1 which will materially assist your labour2 take time and have patience1 and you will be rewarded by seeing a perfect model of the stag's head come out of the mould in due course4 ,footnote3 ,baking1 when practicable1 will often assist the parting of the mould from the model4 ,i have said perfect1 but ,i mean perfect so far as this system allows of perfection4 ,if you hold the model up to the light1 or look down upon it from above1 you will see1 if your eye is sufficiently educated1 that1 although it correctly represents the hair even1 and all prominent features1 yet that the weight of the plaster has perhaps caused one eye to drop lower than the other1 or twisted the mouth aside1 and given a different expression altogether to that needed4 ,what is to be done then8 ,nothing but altering the model1 by cutting and scraping it1 until both sides are even1 casting again from the corrected model when necessary1 that is to say1 when it is desired to get or to keep a very good one for reference4 ,remember that the model is a little larger than you require it1 so that the hair marks1 etc4 must be trimmed away to lessen it4 ,shaving the hair all away from the head1 leaving only the naked skin1 has been recommended as a preliminary to casting2 but this1 of course1 destroys one specimen entirely1 that others of the same size may be mounted from the model made from the shaved head4 ,skinning the head first1 and casting from the flesh1 does not help the amateur1 as so many muscles and other characteristic parts are cut away1 that a model taken in this manner is often worse than useless4 ,what1 then1 is our way out of this difficulty8 ,nothing but educating the hand and eye to the point of being able to take a dead head1 and1 by knowledge of its living anatomy1 to model it in clay so truthfully as to far surpass any other process whatever4 ,i can1 unfortunately1 give no directions for doing this4 ,i can merely say1 in the words of many unpractical guide books to art3 ,take a board1 some tools1 a well-kneaded lump of clay2 place the head before you in strong light1 and turn out a lifelike representation of it2 wrinkles1 muscles1 and all--in clay4 ,to me1 this is now far the easiest thing to do1 but ,i do not forget the time when ,i used perhaps a ton of plaster in experiments1 and wasted lots more1 and learned many little arts before ,i could model correctly4 ,let this be a grain of comfort to the learner1 that1 although he must waste a deal of good plaster ere he sees the points1 and before he can model straight away1 yet that he has an advantage which ,i1 as a self-taught man1 did not possess--the advantage of some little practical advice1 such as is given in the pages of this work4 ,now1 returning to our muttons1 it must not be supposed that our omega is gained when the tyro has modelled by eye1 and by measurements1 his first head in clay2 this has to be cast from1 as if from the dead head1 and the resultant model touched up1 where incorrect1 by cutting and scraping when too large1 or by addition of clay when too small4 ,sometimes it will be necessary to cast from this again and again1 but in all cases the mould and model should be managed as before described4 ,fig4 #bh--,stag's head in plaster from clay model4 ,assuming that the student has managed a cast to his satisfaction1 he will see1 by looking at the accompanying cut1 ,fig4 #bh1 that the orbits of the eyes are shallow1 that only the upper line of the sinus shows1 that the lips and nostrils are also shallow depressions2 all of these parts must be hollowed out or undercut4 ,to do this we require a knife such as that figured ,no4 #ab in ,chapter ,,iii1 and three other tools1 one a large crooked awl 7sharpened at one edge71 in handle1 and steel undercutting and relieving tools 7see ,figs4 #bi and #cj74 ,footnote3 ,messrs4 ,lechertier1 ,barbs1 et ,cie1 of #fj1 ,regent-street1 ,london1 have many patterns of these for plaster work1 at a low figure4 ,fig4 #bi--,steel undercutting tool4 ,fig4 #cj--,steel relieving tool4 ,with these the eyes1 nostrils1 lips1 etc1 of the model1 are relieved and undercut1 in order to take in the folds of the inner surfaces of the skin of those parts4 ,be sure to hollow out the mouth upward toward the nostrils1 keeping it fine1 however1 at the lips1 and not opening it outward too much2 the same with the nostrils1 looking to the dead head to note the beautiful curves which can be treated so as to express1 at will1 rest1 alarm1 or defiance1 according as the under-cutting is managed2 the eyes of the model must be hollowed out and deeply undercut to receive the hollow glass globes 7see ,chapter ,,xii71 and the eye pits 7lachrymal sinuses7 relieved4 ,although we have cast the head whilst attached to the body in order to get our difficulties increased1 yet we will now imagine the stag's head1 with a long piece of neck-skin attached1 severed from the body1 in the manner in which heads usually arrive from ,scotland to be mounted as trophies of the chase4 ,the model being ready1 the dead head is now skinned1 the skin being taken entirely off the head1 and being double-skinned as described1 washed and cured1 is now ready for mounting4 ,first1 however1 the horns must be sawn from the skull by cutting away a triangular piece of the bone to which they are attached2 drill this bone for two long screws1 by means of an ,american twist-drill1 fitted into an ordinary brace4 ,next1 the prepared model requires blocking2 this may be done as shown at ,fig4 #bf4 ,a slot to receive the board should have been previously cut in the plaster under-jaw of the model1 or1 in a more simple and efficient manner 7see ,fig4 #ca71 by procuring a piece of quartering1 #c in4 x #b in1 about #b ft4 in length1 cutting a channel in the under-jaw and the back of the head to fit it1 wedging up1 and pouring in wet plaster to make all secure4 ,the head of the model should be cut to receive the horns1 leaving about half-an-inch or more of plaster before coming to the wood4 ,the quartering protruding below the neck must now be fixed in a vice1 and the horns screwed in4 seats1 the screws coming through the plaster and into the wood1 which they should bite for an inch or so of their length2 wet plaster is then poured on the top1 and the back of the head made up by the addition of more4 ,when dry the quartering should support the model with horns attached1 and all parts should be immovably rigid4 ,nothing remains now but to thin the skin all over the inside in a careful manner1 remembering1 the thinner the skin the better the points of the model will show up4 ,when finished1 simply draw the skin over the model like a glove upon the hand1 put a little clay in the bags of the eyelids1 perhaps a little about the nostrils1 and fix the various parts in the under-cuttings made to receive them1 being sure that the lips go in naturally1 not leaving a thick edge outside4 ,the ears now require blocking2 to do this many taxidermists run a wire all around each ear from the inside1 or put cardboard inside1 sewing another piece outside by the edges to give shape4 ,neither of these plans is1 ,i am sure1 equal to my method of cutting a zinc plate to the full size of the ear--when flattened out--and inserting it between the skin1 pushing it well up to the tip2 afterwards it may be elevated or depressed1 and moulded to any shape1 or to any degree of convexity2 a little clay placed at the base of each ear improves its shape1 and assists to fix it in position4 ,the last thing to be done is to cut the quartering to the length and angle required1 to determine upon the shape and size of the neck1 and to fix the neck block 7see ,fig4 #bg7 to the quartering by screws4 ,fig4 #ca--;,back view of model with neck block inserted4 ,a ,a1 the ,horns attached to piece of ,skull2 ,b ,b1 the ,model2 ,c1 ,quartering on which the ,model is mounted4 ,try the skin of the neck for length and shape1 and then fill up each side of the block with peat nailed on1 over which pour wet plaster1 making up the back of the head as you go on1 keeping the neck in front narrow1 and of an elegant shape1 using clay afterwards over all to do this4 ,during all this time you will no doubt have had the skin off and on several times to get the shape to suit1 and you will have taken precautions not to break away the thinly carved parts around the mouth1 nose and eyes4 ,the very last operation is sewing up2 this is done with a skin needle 7glover's needle7 and strong hemp1 double and waxed2 commence your stitches at the skin in front of one of the horns1 bring it around to the back1 and enter your needle in the edge of the skin at the side1 lace across and across1 including the other horn1 in the manner most convenient1 being careful1 however1 to make every stitch tell1 otherwise1 as the skin dries1 the horns will be left bare around the burrs1 and ugly gaps appear4 ,the neck being sewn up1 is to be nailed around its circumference to the neckblock by strong tacks4 ,the skin of the face is1 perhaps1 a little out of position2 it must be properly arranged on the model1 and wire points of suitable size1 filed up from galvanized wire1 must be driven into the eye-pits1 inside the corners of the mouth1 the nostrils and ears1 and also on various parts of the face and the head1 to prevent the skin rising whilst drying4 ,the eyes should now be inserted1 and the skin of the eyelids filled slightly1 and drawn naturally around them4 ,hang the head up as high as possible out of the way1 and also because the room is always warmest near the ceiling2 two centre-bit holes of different sizes1 forming a kind of keyhole1 may be drilled in the centre of the neck-block1 or strong wire bolted in the form of a loop near the top to hang it up by4 ,be sure all is sound and firm1 as also the nail on which the specimen hangs1 otherwise your own1 or your stag's1 head may come to grief4 ,plaster heads being very heavy at first1 before drying1 it is as well to get them dried1 if possible1 in advance of the mounting1 to obviate great weight1 and also a tendency to cause mildew inside the skin4 ,it is really astounding1 however1 to observe how very light plaster becomes when thoroughly dry2 clay of the same sized model is1 on the contrary1 exceedingly heavy--more than twice the weight of plaster4 ,sometimes it may be necessary1 if wanting a frill of hair1 or what not1 to be conspicuous1 to keep it in position until dry1 by brushing on paste1 or thick clay water1 to stiffen the hair in the desired manner4 ,this can afterwards be brushed off1 when the head is ultimately cleansed1 before screwing it on its shield4 ,foxes' and other similar heads may be blocked best by the process sketched out as relating to ,figs4 #bf and #bg3 and finally attached to suitable shields 7see ,chapter ,,xiii47 ,looking at the skeleton of the otter1 ,plate ,,iii1 we at once observe that it is placed in the position it assumed when the animal was alive and walking with a stealthy1 cat-like1 movement4 ,this skeleton is not very unlike that of the fox1 nor1 if we except its smaller size1 that of the lion4 ,hence we shall be enabled to refer to it1 from time to time1 as being sufficiently our guide to the mounting of these animals4 ,we will not be too ambitious to begin with1 and will1 therefore1 take our old friend the fox for our first lesson4 ,this is the animal sure to be selected by all learners1 and the reason is not far to seek--it being of a manageable size1 not too large nor too small2 an animal1 moreover1 of a picturesque habit of body1 and about whose death more or less of mystery hangs--this mystery so dear to the imagination of the youthful amateur6 ,in some places the death of the vulpine robber of hen roosts is hailed with delight1 and people are to be found even --oh1 horror6--willing to grasp in friendship the hand of the slayer4 ,in such a county as ,leicestershire1 foxes are not accidentally killed1 but when so1 what bewailings over the late lamented6 what anathemas upon the villain's head who is suspected of vulpicide6 ,if it were not so serious a matter1 one would be inclined to laugh over ,anthony ,trollope's description1 in the ,american ,senator1 of the old hunting farmer who moved himself and his dinner to the other side of the table1 in speechless indignation1 lest he should be contaminated by the presence of a sympathiser with a man who wantonly killed a far too sacred fox1 which gobbled up the aforesaid man's ducks and fowls4 ,let this sad relation be a warning to all who look with acquisitive eyes on the scented jacket of our ,reynard4 ,moral1 procure your specimens from the ,highlands1 where they are not worshipped1 nor protected1 with a view to being hunted to death afterwards4 ,having procured our specimen1 we lay it in state on the modelling table1 and1 having decided to mount it by the first process mentioned at the beginning of this chapter1 viz1 by using the skeleton as a foundation1 we have further to decide if the animal is to be open-mouthed or not4 ,in the first case1 we shall require the skull1 in order to show the teeth and palate2 in the latter case1 we may discard the skull if we choose1 making a model of the head in a similar manner to that of the stag1 but with the difference that now1 our specimen not being horned1 will make a mould and model much more easily4 ,we decide1 then1 to keep the skull as part of the skeletal foundation4 ,skin out the animal in the usual manner1 as described in the last chapter1 with these differences1 that the skin must be split on the underneath1 from the vent to above the shoulder 7in some cases1 and for some attitudes1 this cut must extend up the throat72 cross cuts from this must extend all the way down the limbs1 on their inside surfaces4 ,by these five cuts the body is released entirely from the skin1 the head being cut off at the nose1 and the feet at the claws2 nothing1 therefore1 of the skeleton remains in the skin but the cores supporting the claws4 ,measure the body now carefully for size1 etc1 and treat the skin in the manner indicated1 and turning to the body1 disjoint the hind limbs at the junction of the femur with the pelvic girdle1 and the fore limbs at the junction of the humerus with the scapular arch 7see ,plate ,,iii74 ,cut off the head 7,a1 ,b71 and trim it4 ,if you cannot make a rough representation in wood of the pelvic girdle 7,h7 and scapular arch 7,m71 you had better cut these bones out and trim them1 as they1 or their representatives1 give a natural set to the limbs4 ,throw away the remainder of the body4 ,you now possess the complete skin1 and also the bones ,i1 ,j1 ,k1 #a1 and ,n1 ,o1 ,p1 ,q1 together with the skull and the four other bones1 or their semblances4 ,having properly cured all these parts1 we will for this lesson take the skeleton of the otter and its attitude as our guide4 ,our first care1 then1 is to provide a block of wood1 similar to that in the illustration1 for the animal to stand on2 the length and width of this are1 of course1 determined by the measurements which should have been previously taken--its thickness should not be less than one inch4 ,the next thing to be done is to cut a piece of #j4e in4 or #j4ge in4 deal to represent the body--now thrown away--figured in the plate as ,d1 ,e1 ,f1 and ,r2 the shape as shown in ,fig4 #cb will be found the most convenient4 ,to this attach1 by bolting1 a thick wire1 to represent the neck 7,c71 and of sufficient strength to carry the weight of the head1 also another thinner one to take the place of the tail 7,g74 ,at the point ,m nail two small blocks of wood on each side of the body-board1 in order to slightly raise from its surface1 and also attach thereto1 the scapulars2 do the same at ,h1 remembering that the thickness of the blocks with bones attached determines the width of the chest1 etc4 ,bore holes along ,d1 through which thrust stout wires to represent the ribs1 bending them into position1 and bringing them over the edge of ,r1 and bolting each end into one or the other of the holes along its lower surface4 ,the wires must1 of course1 be cut of sufficient length to go right through the holes at ,d1 to form both sides of the ribs1 ere being finally bolted in the holes at ,r4 ,fig4 #cb--;,false body of wood1 with neck and tail wires attached4 ,we now have a cage1 as it were1 of wood and wire1 terminating in two long wires1 in which state we leave it for the present4 ,the next process is to drill the leg bones 7,i and ,j1 and ,n and ,p7 with an ,american twist-drill and brace1 in order to push up a wire rod of sufficient stoutness to carry the weight of the body2 leave plenty of length of wire above and below4 ,footnote3 ,in cases where drilling is impracticable1 it will be sufficient to firmly lash the bones to the rod in the position which they should occupy during the subsequent modelling4 ,next drill the bottom board to receive the wires under the feet1 where shown at #a and ,q2 when firmly bolted underneath bend the rod with attached bones into the positions shown on ,plate ,,iii4 ,bend the upper portion of the rods now at right angles1 in order to go through the scapulars and pelvis4 ,next take the cage 7,fig4 #cb7 representing the body1 with pelvic girdle and scapular arch attached1 and ready drilled1 lift between the limbs1 pushing the top wires--now at right angles--through the holes drilled to receive them1 bending these down on each side4 ,we have now a rough but fairly correct image of the skeleton without a head4 ,taking now the natural skull 7,a ,b71 we open the jaws as much as desired1 and filling in the cavities with paper and tow1 perfect the shape by modelling with clay to replace the flesh4 ,fixing this on the wire1 ,c1 we make up the neck with tow and clay1 binding the former on very tightly1 and adding clay to give character1 especially where it approaches the chest4 ,the cage must now be tightly packed with old newspapers1 brown paper1 or clean straw1 but with neither hay nor flocks4 ,footnote3 ,flocks and sacking are the harbouring places of ,tinea ,tapetzella1 #a1 a destructive little moth1 the ravages of whose larvae once cost me all the soft parts of a sofa1 besides filling the house before discovery with the perfect insect--eager to perpetuate its race at my expense4 ,before this is done1 however1 it will be as well to interlace the wires with tow1 laid on as a thin sheet1 and glued2 be sure of the shape now--if ever2 let the cage be widest in the middle1 tapering off above and below and toward each end1 being careful to make it a little smaller1 if anything1 than the actual body2 make up with straw and tow at ,e1 keeping this part narrow underneath2 bind the tail1 ,g1 thinly with tow1 gradually thickening it as it approaches ,f2 cover all these parts with clay where required4 ,the fore and hind limbs1 especially the latter1 require very careful modelling4 ,to do this properly measurements and tracings of the shapes should have been taken4 ,bind tow around all1 to roughly represent the form1 and then artistically adjust clay to represent the muscles and flesh4 ,the appearance presented now should be as a clay model--without hair--of the specimen taken in hand4 ,nothing now remains but to take the skin1 properly thinned down and prepared1 and try it over the model1 altering the latter where it is too large or too small4 ,perhaps it may be necessary to pull it over--commencing at the head--several times before getting it quite right4 ,when fairly satisfied with your progress1 commence stitching the skin up from the neck1 adding clay where wanted1 noticing that1 in the position you are now working to1 the neck will hang low1 and rather fine in front1 between the fore limbs1 and that the flanks will be tucked up4 ,go on sewing up until you are at the point behind the shoulders1 including the fore limbs in this2 pad the skin at the toes with clay1 to replace the flesh previously cut away4 ,leave this now1 and go to the tail end2 bend the wire down1 and insert it in the hollow of the skin of the tail1 and work on the hind limbs1 finishing as you go on1 and sewing up to the point between ,f and ,e4 ,this leaves you the remainder of the body to finish1 and also gives you a chance to dispose of any loose skin about that part4 ,the clay and wire1 being both amenable to any alteration1 can be beaten into shape where required4 ,finally1 sew up1 and if your modelling is correct all the remainder must of necessity be correct also4 ,to keep the skin in position on the model1 tack it down with galvanised wire points1 or by stitching it through in places1 such as occur in the neck and various parts of the limbs4 ,these wires can1 of course1 be removed1 and all stitches cut and drawn away when the specimen is dry1 at which time the eyes can be inserted1 if not previously done4 ,in all cases1 however1 the specimen must be thoroughly dried before it can be finished off by modelling the inside of the lips and palate with wax or cement 7described in ,chapter ,,xii71 or before the model tongue is inserted4 ,the foregoing thus describes the method which may be adopted to educate the tyro to a correct idea of the osteology of his subject1 and1 by analogy1 to the osteology and relation of parts of many others4 ,it is practicable only in the case of mammals done from the flesh1 and whose skeleton is not valuable4 ,in this system1 as in all the following1 the model head of any animal1 cast as described for the stag1 may be substituted for the natural skull1 unless the teeth1 etc4 are required to be shown4 ,model teeth carved from bone1 or from wood1 subsequently coloured1 are sometimes inserted in model heads1 but this is not recommended4 ,the next part of our theme deals with mounting skins from the flat1 when no body or skeleton is forthcoming1 and is practised by masters of the art1 who know by experience the various positions assumed by their subjects when in a state of ,nature4 ,by this means large animals1 such as tigers1 lions1 bears1 etc1 may be mounted from skins sent home from abroad4 ,the skin having been relaxed and thinned 7see ,chapter ,x471 is put over the model in exactly the same manner as described for the otter4 ,the model is1 however1 now determined by the size of the skin1 which1 when perfectly soft1 is folded together1 legs and all1 and shaped on the floor of the studio1 in somewhat the position required2 from this a rough tracing is made with red chalk on boards kept for that purpose1 or on sheets of brown paper4 ,these are afterwards corrected by eye1 or by the aid of smaller drawings or good prints4 ,inside this large finished tracing trace an irregularly-shaped long oval1 quite two inches smaller all the way round than the tracing of the skin itself4 ,cut this out in stiff paper1 and from it shape up one or two boards of #a in4 to #a4e in4 deal1 jointed together on edge2 to this body-board bolt by staples the four strong rods representing the fore and hind limb bones4 ,let each have a right-angled crook where they first spring from the board1 to represent the scapular and pelvic arches1 then bend each one 7more or less7 at each joint 7see ,plates ,,iii4 and ,,iv47 according to the attitude desired4 ,insert these rods at the feet through a strong base made of #a in4 or #a4e in4 boards1 remembering that1 if the projected attitude of your model demands the fore-feet raised1 you must nail quartering on end1 to which attach a platform of board of the requisite height4 ,fix two medium sized or one very strong rod for the neck1 and one moderately strong for the tail4 ,in a large animal--and ,i am assuming that we are now engaged on a lion--the wire ribs may be replaced by sections of #j4e in4 board1 cut as in ,fig4 #cc1 and nailed vertically on each side of the body-board4 ,on the half-rounded surfaces of these1 laths are tacked1 and afterwards covered with straw1 or plastered over1 just as a plasterer would finish a partition2 let this be kept somewhat smaller than you wish it1 in order to allow for its subsequent covering with clay4 ,from this proceed to model the limbs as before1 using plaster over the tow1 and clay over all2 next arrange the tail1 and1 lastly1 fix on the skull1 if you possess it1 or the plaster head1 which has been modelled and cast in the same manner as the stag's head4 ,the skin is then fitted on as before1 with the difference that the head part1 which1 perhaps1 is split right through the chin1 and the tail1 split up its whole length1 will come on more easily1 but will of course require more sewing up4 ,when finished1 adjust the claws1 the mane1 the ears 7blocked with zinc as in the stag71 and the mouth4 ,should it be wished to open the mouth to express rage or what not1 the edges of the skin of the mouth1 being no doubt destitute 7in a flat skin7 of their inner lining 7the mucous membrane71 must have this replaced by wash leather sewn all around to form the bags of each side of the lips1 previously mentioned4 ,these bags are then filled with clay or modeling wax1 and when the skin is put on over the skull1 are pinched into proper shape and attached by their inner edges to where the gums should be1 or around convenient teeth by stitches1 or by strong wire points driven into the bone1 in the manner which will best commend itself to the learner4 ,suffer it to dry1 looking at it from time to time1 and when perfectly dried model the palate1 etc4 7should the animal be represented open-mouthed71 in the manner described in ,chapter ,,xii4 ,so great a mass of damp clay used on these large animals is apt to crack2 paper may advantageously be pasted over the whole surface before the skin is put on1 which will stick well and not interfere with the modelling4 ,fig4 #cc--,section of half-inch board to represent ribs ,plate ,,iv4 ,lion mounted from the ,flat4 ,plate ,,iv4 represents a lion mounted by this method3 ,a1 ,b1 the skull2 ,c1 the neck rod 7sometimes two72 ,d1 ,e1 and ,f1 the body-board2 ,g1 the tail rod2 and #a1 #b1 #c1 and #d1 the rods representing the parts ,h1 ,i1 ,j1 ,k1 #a1 and ,m1 ,n1 ,o1 ,p1 ,q1 in ,plate ,,iii4 ,the last process of all is mounting1 by means of a model skeleton of carved wood1 supplemented by iron rods4 ,this is a system which requires a slight knowledge of wood carving1 and would be practised in the case of having the skeleton of the large animal to model from1 or in cases where1 having both skeleton and flesh1 it is desirable to retain the former as an osteological preparation1 and to treat the skin as a taxidermic object4 ,supposing1 then1 we have a lion in the flesh1 our first care must be to determine upon the position and attitude it is to ultimately assume4 ,not to perplex the student too much1 we determine that it shall take the attitude of our last example 7,plate ,,iv71 or else that shown in ,plate ,,iii4 ,accordingly1 we arrange it on a platform just raised from the floor of the studio1 when by propping and judicious management we make it1 although lying on its side1 assume the position we require4 ,we carefully measure and take a rough tracing of the whole4 ,the muscles are now worked up into position1 and moulds taken from them1 or from such parts of the limbs as we require4 ,by careful arrangement of clay1 wooden walls1 and other packing1 it is quite possible to take a complete cast of the whole carcase4 ,piece-casting1 however 7described in ,chapter ,,xii71 assists us here4 ,from these moulds we cast reproductions of parts of the lion1 which will be patterns for1 and greatly assist us when1 ultimately modelling up4 ,the animal is now skinned1 and the skin prepared in the usual manner1 i4e1 stripped entirely from the body1 cured1 and thinned down4 ,the bowels are taken out1 the flesh is cut off the bones1 and the parts ,h1 ,i1 ,j1 ,k1 and ,m1 ,n1 ,o1 ,p 7see ,plate ,,iii471 are copied by carving in lime-tree or beech wood4 ,footnote3 ,bones can be cast in plaster quite as easily as anything else1 and often take the place of carved wood4 ,these models are then sawn longitudinally in halves1 and each half hollowed out to receive1 and to be either tied1 or wired on to1 the rods-#a1 #b1 #c and #d of ,plate ,,iv4 ,by this it will be seen that the model is made up precisely as in that1 the only addition being the substitution of carved limb-bones in place of tow previously used to bind over the rods4 ,clay or other substances is worked over these wooden bones1 and the finishing processes are the same as the last4 ,the skeleton must be carefully mounted and articulated1 as described in ,chapter ,,xii4 ,be careful to get the ultimate phalanges of each limb out of the skin1 and by careful management we shall also be enabled to get the bony core from the claw1 and thus reap the advantage of having two specimens instead of one only4 ,large fishes--such as sharks2 or reptiles1 such as very large alligators and crocodiles--may be mounted by slight modifications of any of the foregoing processes4 ,often hardened wax1 linseed oil and plaster1 plaster composition1 modelling wax1 cobbler's wax1 shellac1 or what not1 is used to represent the muscles and flabby parts4 ,wax is also used to paint over the mucous membrane1 where shown or exposed4 ,all this will be found fully explained in ,chapter ,,xii1 thus exploding all the rubbish talked1 and written1 about secret or patent compositions1 which1 when put on soft1 will ultimately dry as hard as marble4 ,these wonderful secrets may be summed up under three heads--,clay1 ,plaster1 and ,wax6 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,skinning1 ,,preserving1 ,,and ,,mounting ,,fish1 ,,and ,,casting ,,fishes ,,in ,,plaster1 etc4 ,,fish being1 perhaps1 the most difficult things in the range of taxidermical science to set up in a satisfactory manner1 ,i would impress upon the amateur to take particular note of their peculiarities of shape and colour1 and to practise upon any easily-obtained and tough-skinned fish1 such as the perch1 which is1 indeed1 one of the best of all subjects for the purpose4 ,however1 as ,i have now before me a pike of over #aa lb1 ,i will take it to illustrate this lesson4 ,provide yourself first with skinning knives 7see ,figs4 #aa-ac7 and a tool previously figured1 which ,i call the undercutting knife or scraper 7see ,fig4 #bi74 ,it is best made by an artisan1 but may be roughly fashioned by beating out a square piece of steel 7a worn-out1 narrow1 flat or square file will furnish this71 while hot1 to a flat surface at one end1 turning it at right angles for about an inch1 and filing each side of this return1 as also the point 7the latter previously rounded7 to a cutting edge1 and afterwards giving it the requisite hardness by tempering it in oil4 ,many tools used by the gun stockers are to be bought ready made1 which will fulfil all the requirements of this tool1 but it is so easily made that ,i consider anyone with the least mechanical ability should be able to make one4 ,the object of this tool is to run in under bones and to cut and drag out pieces of flesh through small openings4 ,measurements being taken and a board provided on which to trace the outline1 select the best side of the fish--by which ,i mean the side most free from bruises or gaff marks4 ,cover this with thin paper 7cap paper7 or muslin1 which readily adheres by the natural mucus peculiar to fish4 ,this process1 it will be seen1 keeps the scales fast in their seats during the operation of skinning1 and gives also a set1 as it were1 to the skin4 ,the fins and tail must not1 however1 be allowed to dry until the fish is finished4 ,to avoid this and the consequent splitting of these members1 keep them constantly damped by wet cloths or tow wrapped around them4 ,lay the worst side uppermost1 and then cut the skin from head to tail in a straight line4 ,a mark called the subdorsal or lateral line is an excellent guide for this4 ,with a strong pair of scissors1--or rather shears1 cut through the scapular arch 7the large bone beneath the gills--see ,fig4 #cd1 ,a74 ,slip the knife under the edges of the cut skin1 and lift the skin the whole of the way up at about an inch in on both sides of the cut4 ,having carefully separated this from the flesh1 take the broad knife in your hand1 and1 holding the skin lightly in the middle1 with a scraping motion of the knife on the skin free it from the flesh4 ,if the knife is held in a proper manner1 slanting inward towards you1 this will be done very easily4 ,take care1 however1 when approaching the fins not to cut outward too much1 or you will rip them out of the skin4 ,fig4 #cd shows the point where we have arrived1 ,b being the loosened skin and ,c the flesh denuded of that skin4 ,fig4 #cd--;,diagram of pike1 showing skin removed on one side from lower half of body4 ,skin out the remaining part up to the back1 holding the knife in the same manner2 the fish is now half way skinned1 and holding only by the fins4 ,slip the scissors carefully underneath the bones of each fin and cut them away from the inside4 ,do not be afraid of leaving a little flesh attached1 as this can be easily cut away from the inter-spinous bones afterwards1 it being better to have too much flesh attached to them than to find you have cut the skin through on the other side4 ,it is a matter of little importance as to which fin you cut away first2 but let me assume that you begin at the under anal fin1 and1 having cut this away carefully1 you now find that it is still held at a little distance above it by4 the orifice of the vent4 ,a great deal of care is required here to cut the attachment away so as not to pierce through to the outside2 a piece of wool comes in very handily to push in1 to stop the flow of blood1 etc4 ,now turn your attention to the only fin on a pike's back1 the second or lower dorsal one1 which cut away in the same careful manner as before4 ,working down toward the tail1 get the broad knife as much underneath as you can1 and then push the fingers underneath until they meet1 and thus gradually free the flesh from the skin almost up to the extreme end of the caudal fin 7or tail74 ,insert the point of the large shears underneath1 and cut the bone and flesh completely through at a distance of about #a in4 from the last joint of the vertebrae at the tail2 this leaves a little flesh attached to be subsequently cleared out4 ,leaving this1 go now to the head of the fish1 and1 holding down the skin of the back1 which is now flat on the table1 run the fingers of the right hand1 especially the thumb1 right down the whole length of the fish to the tail1 in order to loosen all from the underneath to the front of the fish1 when the whole will be free up to the two ventral fins1 which you may cut away1 as it were1 with your finger nails1 leaving the attached flesh to be trimmed away afterwards4 ,the only part which now holds to the skin is that near the head1 as also the under one of the pectoral fins2 this latter must be carefully cut away1 as the skin is very thin about here1 and is rather awkward to get at4 ,now let the fingers of both hands come into requisition1 and let them meet under the head4 ,regaining the large knife1 with it sever the bone of the head cutting toward you4 ,if this is properly performed1 the cutting edge of the knife will touch the gills2 be careful in this1 that your knife does not slip and go too far into the underneath skin4 ,various internal organs will now appear1 holding fast to the skin2 these must be cut through with the knife1 and the effect should be that the whole of the body comes out in a piece4 ,footnote3 ,the beginner may1 however1 for greater facility of handling1 cut the body of a large fish into sections1 and remove them piece by piece as he progresses4 ,for larger fish1 say one of #bj lb4 or more1 ,i recommend splitting the flesh longitudinally or vertically1 and getting out each section separately4 ,the skin now being free from the body1 scrape away all the small pieces of flesh that are still adhering inside the skin1 down the centre1 and around the fins and tail4 ,those fin-bones 7inter-spinous bones7 which protrude inside may be cut fairly short with the scissors1 and the flesh nicely scraped off from each side4 ,what flesh is left on the tail must be carefully cut away with the aid of the knife1 scissors1 and shears1 care being taken also to free the bone to the very end1 and yet not to disturb the scales underneath4 ,a considerable amount of scraping1 coaxing1 and undercutting will have to be done here4 ,having well freed the fins of flesh1 turn your attention to the head3 make a cut along the side of the under jaw1 then cut away the gills at their top and bottom attachments and pull them out1 if you do not wish them ultimately to show4 ,when this is done you will become aware that there is still remaining a piece of the vertebra leading up into the head2 take the large knife and chop it to the underneath2 it will then lift up1 exposing what little brain the fish has4 ,cut this piece off before it enters the palate2 and then1 by clearing away a little flesh1 you come to the eye1 which take hold of with your finger and pull out4 ,you will now see several small cavities filled with flesh running up to the sides of the face1 cheeks1 etc4 ,the scraper or undercutting knife will now come into use1 and small pieces of flesh must be laboriously cleared out4 ,after this tool has well loosened and partly cut away the intervening flesh1 the fingers may be advantageously used to work with1 by being pushed in at the orbits of the eyes1 to pull out the loose pieces of flesh4 7,note that1 in doing this1 it is as well to be careful not to cut your fingers with the edges of the small bones of the head1 nor with the palatal or lingual teeth47 ,the operator must not forget during work to keep the fins well damped1 otherwise they rapidly dry and split1 as ,i have before observed4 ,running between and from the pectoral fins a thick1 fleshy process continues right up underneath the jaw4 ,as the included flesh is contained in a remarkably thin silvery skin1 extraordinary care is necessary in freeing this from the flesh1 so the knife1 the scraper1 and the fingers will all have to come into play4 ,it is held at the extreme end under the jaw by a thin bone1 which1 though skinned to its under part1 must not be cut away1 but left slightly attached4 ,a little sand at this stage is useful to rub the fingers in1 to prevent them slipping1 when pulling out small pieces of flesh4 ,the pectoral fins are1 of all1 the most awkwardly situated to skin out1 coming1 as they do1 at the bottom of the pectoral process1 and they must be left with their bones attached1 and the flesh be scraped away from between the two fins1 and underneath each one1 until nothing remains4 ,carefully attend to the latter part of these instructions1 or the final result will be anything but creditable4 ,some flesh now lies between two skins along the sides of the fish's gums1 between the tongue and the teeth2 a hole must be cut inside at the back part of the head below the eye1 the crooked scraper inserted1 and all the flesh dragged out bit by bit4 ,remember1 this is merely a thin membrane1 and the slightest awkwardness ruptures it2 in large fish1 however1 the finger may be introduced with advantage1 to pull out pieces of flesh4 ,many taxidermists cut the whole of this away1 and replace it with plaster2 but if the fish's mouth is to be left open it never looks so well as if done by this method4 ,cut under the tongue from the outside1 and scrape out the flesh1 fill up with putty1 and sew up neatly4 ,to stuff the fish1 procure a thick piece of wire somewhat longer than the body1 bending one end1 to form a large oval-shaped loop1 to be afterwards pushed up as a bearer into the head4 ,at some little distance from this 7which will be determined by the size of the fish71 form a smaller loop1 to which1 by twisting1 attach a short piece of wire a size smaller than the main bearer4 ,at some distance from this--near the tail--form another small loop1 to which attach in the same manner another piece of wire4 ,cut off the end of the main wire1 so that when pointed and pushed through it will fall just outside the bone of the tail4 ,it will no doubt be obvious to the reader that this forms an artificial backbone4 ,the large oval or pear-shaped loop at the one end is intended to be pushed in to support the head1 and1 in the present method1 also to help the formation of the model4 ,the loops and attached wires are to support the body1 and also to bolt it to the back of the case when finished4 ,the pointed end is to push into and support the tail4 ,i should have previously mentioned that this wire backbone should be made before the fish is skinned1 as you then have a correct guide to position of bearing wire1 and1 more important still1 a guide to the extreme length of the fish4 ,round this wire1 wrap paper1 glued1 or tied with string1 until it is a little less than the body of the fish previously taken out2 when this is done1 cover over with tow well tied on with hemp1 until it has arrived at almost the shape and size of the body--being1 in fact1 the shape of the fish without head or tail--lay this down and thoroughly anoint all parts of the fish4 ,stuff out the now hollow sides of the face1 gums1 and the underneath of the throat with putty1 of which push some thick pads underneath the root of the tail and all about the fins2 next lay a thin skin of putty over the whole of the skin on the inside4 ,wet plaster is commonly used for this1 but ,i prefer putty1 as not being quite so heavy1 and as affording also a more agreeable agent to work with4 ,another objection to plaster1 used in quantities1 is that the heat it evolves in drying has a tendency to make the scales rise4 ,the next thing to be done is to insert the body4 ,pushing the sharpened end of the tail wire through the bone of the tail1 bring it up on the inside4 ,now drill a little hole with a straight awl through the bone of the scapular arch1 and with a strong needle and thread join that part together4 ,the next hole should be drilled through the uppermost gill-cover1 through which pass the needle2 then commence1 travelling downward1 to sew the skin together1 taking care to go inward a sufficient distance from the cut edges with the needle and thread1 and yet not allowing the edges of the skin to overlap4 ,this requires patience1 and a little coaxing together of the edges of the skin4 ,as you go on1 see where your fish appears out of shape on the upper side1 which is a pretty good guide but not always so--for the under1 or show side4 ,if the defect is serious1 insert a little more putty1 followed by a judicious application of tow1 which will push the putty to the under side where you most require it4 ,it is sometimes expedient1 after having sewn half-way down1 to begin to sew up from the tail end1 so as to meet the other stitches4 ,a fine skin needle must be used4 ,after it is entirely stitched up there will still be little places which will require deepening and filling up4 ,a little tow1 pushed in any interstices which maybe left between the stitches1 will soon rectify this1 and also help to shorten the fish1 which1 in a first attempt1 is almost sure to be made too long4 ,this is important1 as a well-fed pike should be of some considerable depth1 and not a lanky monster like a snake4 ,a little gentle tapping with the handle of the stuffer on the upper surface is sometimes advisable4 ,get the back almost straight1 and1 having brought it nearly to your measurements1 you may lift the fish by the two wires1 but in a very careful manner1 to examine the show side1 and there note any little defect4 ,of course1 you must constantly alter your position4 ,carefully lift the fish off the board1 still keeping the sewn side uppermost1 and measure the distance between the two upright wires1 and make corresponding holes in the board1 which push down on the top of the fish1 bringing the wires through1 and bending their ends down upon the board1 so that the specimen may be temporarily rivetted thereto4 ,place your hand carefully underneath the head of the fish1 and turn the board over4 ,you have now the fish right side uppermost4 ,about the head some little extra stuffing will doubtless be required1 and1 as the putty will have got a little out of place in the process1 it must be replaced1 and the head and neck made up nice and square2 also look to the tail1 and put that in proper shape4 ,gently press the skin all over with the hands1 deftly patting it with a small piece of smooth flat board to reduce any lumps1 and to get the putty to work evenly over the surface4 ,get some short wires and set the head1 with the mouth open as much as you require4 ,one wire may be pushed through the nostril1 another may go under the tongue1 and a third parallel to it beneath the under-jaw4 ,arrange the teeth1 some of which you will find loose1 and1 with needle points1 fix into position the gill-covers1 which tie over with a little wrapping cotton to keep them from springing up out of place4 ,next look to the fins1 under which put some pieces of peat1 covered by stiff card-board1 and nicely display them1 pinning them down and binding the wrapping cotton over them4 ,as a last operation1 go over the whole of the outside skin with the carbolic formula1 ,no4 #ae4 ,when this dries1 which it will do in the course of an hour or so1 varnish the whole upper surface with best clear paper varnish1 which will have the effect of keeping the skin and scales in position4 ,let the fish be now put by in a moderately warm situation to thoroughly dry1 which will1 in the case of a large specimen1 take about a month4 ,the skin is then like leather1 with no colour in it at all1 and must1 of course1 be subsequently coloured up according to nature1 the eyes put in1 and mounted in a case with appropriate water-weed2 notes on all of which will be found in ,chapters ,,xii1 ,,xiii1 and ,,xiv4 ,sawdust or bran may be used for stuffing the fish1 which1 with the addition of putty and tow to certain parts1 will shape it up very fairly4 ,some taxidermists use tow alone1 but this ,i do not think advisable4 ,small fish1 up to #b lb1 may1 after skinning1 have a bent wire inserted as before1 and be filled entirely with plaster of ,paris1 which must be mixed in readiness1 and poured in the skin to fill out every part4 ,the cut edges of the skin are now brought together1 and the whole fish turned over to show its proper side and rapidly patted into shape1 before the plaster has time to set4 ,beautiful models of the thicker-skinned fishes maybe made by this method1 but rapidity of execution is a sine qu non4 ,as the student progresses he will find that it will not be necessary in all cases to cut through the scapular arch of the under side to clear out the head4 ,as a proof1 ,i may mention that ,i have just finished an #ah lb4 fish1 the head of which was skinned out by this process4 ,small pieces of cabinet cork 7about one-eighth inch thick7 will be found very useful for spreading the fins of small fishes4 ,footnote3 ,notes on repairing fins will be found in ,chapter ,,xii4 ,in the event of the scales rising from the use of wet plaster or any other cause1 wrapping cotton1 i4e1 darning cotton1 or shoemakers' hemp1 must be bound over them to keep them in place4 ,since the foregoing was written ,i have considerably modified and improved on my former method4 ,having tried wet pipe or modelling clay1 with which to stuff the skin1 ,i found that although at first the working and general shape were excellent1 yet that1 after a few days1 the skin shrank and puckered in so abominable a fashion as to render all the labour bestowed upon it of no avail4 ,this was most unfortunately tried upon a twenty pound pike1 and so utterly misshapen did it become as to necessitate the relaxing of the specimen--the removal of the clay--and the ultimate shaping up again1 by the dry plaster process4 ,footnote3 ,several correspondents have written as to the relaxing of fish skins4 ,this is a very easy process1 nothing more being done to the skin than plunging it in water until sufficiently softened4 ,this substitution of dry plaster of ,paris 7price about #ds4 per cwt47 for sand is one of the very best things ever tried4 ,having skinned your fish in the manner before directed1 crowd the head with peat and the face1 and parts of the skin inside1 and around the fins and tail1 with putty4 ,lay the fish-skin1 cut uppermost as before1 and ladle in dry plaster1 beginning at the tail end2 as this fills in1 sew up1 being careful to shorten the skin1 making it deep1 and not long and narrow at that part2 being particular also to well ram in with a short stick the plaster to fill all out1 and to remove ugly creases or depressions4 ,when about a third of the fish is done1 fasten your stitches and go on filling in at the head2 as you work toward the middle1 lift head or tail very gently to peep underneath at the progress you are making4 ,as the stuffing progresses1 deepen the body toward the middle1 being careful at the same time to well ram in the plaster4 ,finally sew up4 ,now take another board1 a little more than the length and breadth of the specimen1 lay it upon the top of the skin and tie it to the board on which the fish is resting2 by this means you will be enabled to reverse the fish without cracking the skin or destroying the set of it4 ,untie your boards and the object is before you right side uppermost4 ,it will now be seen if your modelling is true or not2 in the latter case1 note where all imperfections occur1 reverse the fish once more1 and ram more dry plaster in between the stitches1 or if the latter be sewn up too tightly1 cut them where needed1 sewing up again when all is satisfactorily accomplished4 ,the specimen being once again right side uppermost1 will appear somewhat flat along the centre1 this arises from the plaster accommodating itself to the flat surface of the board4 ,you must now1 therefore1 pass a wet cloth several times over the surface of the skin1 and proceed to pat it in a light and dexterous manner into a more rounded shape with your hand1 or by the aid of a piece of board shaped in the manner of a small flat bat4 ,the head will require a great deal of attention2 it is now flat and1 perhaps1 drops down upon the board1 causing the upper gill cover to open more widely than it should2 to obviate this1 prop the nose from the underneath by a piece of peat1 or by a wedge-shaped piece of wood2 the tail may be twisted or thrown up by the same means if required4 ,the mouth may be kept open as much as desired by pointed wires1 one driven through the nostrils of the upper jaw1 the other wire resting against the teeth inside the lower jaw4 ,the fins being kept damp during the preceding operations1 must now be braced out by the process heretofore described1 and the fish washed1 varnished1 and dried in the usual manner4 ,nothing1 you will observe1 has been said as to the oval-shaped piece of board previously used inside the pike mounted by the first process4 ,this is wanted when the fish is thoroughly set and dried2 when this takes place1 cut the stitches and carefully shake out the plaster4 ,if a large fish1 replace this by tow1 moderately packed2 on this lay an irregularly oval-shaped piece of three-quarter inch board1 edges rounded and cut to the shape1 and almost the length of the fish4 ,no wires are needed at the head and the tail 7one end of the board running into the head71 but only those required to support the specimen in its case4 ,when this board is properly in position inside the fish1 nail the edges of the skin on it with tacks of a suitable length4 ,nothing is now needed to complete the fish but the fixing of the eyes and the colouring of the skin4 ,the eyes are hollow1 and fixed by wax 7see ,chapter ,,xii74 ,in cases where it is undesirable or inconvenient to mount a fish as a whole1 the head only may be treated as a taxidermic object4 ,in this case cut off the head behind the scapular arch1 leaving sufficient of the skin of the neck for nailing on the block4 ,the head being skinned and preserved1 as above directed1 is then nailed by the skin of the neck on to a similar block to that shown in ,fig4 #bg4 ,the mouth is set open when required1 and the gullet and underneath the tongue filled up and modelled with either clay1 cement1 or wax1 the tongue remodelled or substituted by a copy in wax or cement1 the composition and application of which is fully explained in ,chapter ,,xii4 ,notes of the colour of the various parts of your specimen should have been taken previously2 in some cases1 it is a good plan to make a water-colour drawing of the whole or certain parts of your subject when fresh4 ,,fish ,,casting 4--,casting fishes by the plaster of ,paris method deserves description1 as by this means you are enabled to get correct copies of the shapes and peculiarities of any specimen1 from the smallest to the largest4 ,procure some plaster of ,paris of a finer quality--known as ,s4,f4--than that you have been using previously in modelling mammals1 or to fill out the skins of fishes2 also some tempered clay--described in ,chapter ,,vii4--and some strips of board calculated to the depth1 width1 and length of the fish you wish to cast4 ,the specimen having had all the mucus washed from its most perfect side1 is laid upon one or two sheets of brown paper or common card-board 7straw-board7 covering the work-table4 ,footnote3 ,i see that ,rowland ,ward advises the fish being washed with dilute vitriol 7sulphuric acid and water7 to remove this mucus4 ,decide now as to the attitude you wish it to finally assume1 and taking some of the tempered clay1 cut it into thin slices1 build it on1 as it were1 until only the upper half of the fish is exposed1 build under the fins--including the caudal one--and spread them out as you wish2 the clay will usually stick to their under surfaces1 and hold them in position4 ,should they run back1 stick fine pins in them here and there1 being sure1 however1 to cut of the heads of the latter close to the upper surface of the fins4 ,it is often advisable to lay thin card-board or strong paper under the fins1 if the clay is so soft as to come up over the edges4 ,having now nicely built in the fish--the upper surface of the clay being carefully smoothed over with a knife-blade and a stiff brush 7,artist's hog-hair1 ,no4 #h7 dipped in water1 surround the clay with pieces of board1 set up on edge1 so as to form a wooden wall around all2 the height of this wall should exceed the greatest depth or thickness of the fish by some inches4 ,tie these four walls--planed on their inside surface--around with strong string1 finally nailing outside all with long ,french nails1 driven into the table as a support against pressure from within4 ,look all over carefully1 and if any open spaces appear between the clay tablet and the boards1 fill in with more clay4 ,the fish being now ready for casting1 take a bowl1 which half fill with clean water1 into this dust in the fine plaster of ,paris1 in small quantities at a time1 stirring each portion until all is ultimately mixed smoothly and without lumps2 when enough is mixed--and the knowledge of quantity only comes with experience--pour it quickly1 yet gently1 over the whole surface of the fish2 jarring the table with your fist causes the plaster to settle down more evenly1 without leaving blowholes4 ,the plaster should now be an inch or more in thickness over the highest portion of the fish1 in order to give sufficient strength for the return cast4 ,should this not be so1 mix some more plaster and strengthen the cast1 endeavouring to get a flat surface on the top4 ,after ten minutes1 take away the nails and boards1 thus allowing more air to get to the mass of plaster4 ,in half an hour--should the plaster be of good quality--the mould may be raised1 turned over1 and the fish will tumble out1 or may be pulled carefully out without the least trouble4 ,remove the clay1 and on looking into the mould it will1 if properly made1 show every scale and every line1 be free from blow-holes or blemishes of casting1 besides having a fairly even and square surface surrounding the cavity from whence the fish has been extracted4 ,this first mould can be cast into again by plaster of ,paris1 and will1 in the case of most fishes1 turn out a satisfactory reproduction of the original4 ,some fishes there are1 however1 so curiously shaped as to make the first or female mould so undercut as to render it impossible to get a return cast4 ,in this case1 nothing avails but the destruction of the first to release the copy4 ,there are several ways of doing this2 one of the most simple is sawing with many cuts the edges of the first1 or1 as it now becomes1 the waste mould as near to the cavity as you dare1 before casting into it2 having done which1 and allowed several hours1 or a day even1 to elapse1 you proceed to break it away1 piece by piece1 by gentle blows with a hammer1 leaving the enclosed fish to make its appearance little by little4 ,when this plan is adopted1 the last cast or copy must be run double the thickness to that you wish to destroy1 otherwise you may break the copy instead of the waste mould4 ,another way is to make the first mould very thin1 or to put thin successive coats of plaster over the fish1 with brown paper between each coat1 and subsequently breaking them away1 layer by layer1 after the fish is extracted and the mould is filled in by plaster4 ,in casting into the first mould for the copy or perfect cast1 it will1 of course1 be necessary to lay it concavity uppermost1 and to surround it with a wall of board like the last1 brushing over the concavity1 and indeed the whole of the tablet surrounding it1 with soft soap and water1 or oil1 or thin pipe-clay and water2 or1 if the mould has been baked dry1 soaking it in water alone will be sufficient to prevent the copy sticking4 ,recollect that the flatter the tablet--surrounding the cavity left by the fish--is made1 the better will be that of the model4 ,supposing that your cast1 or model fish1 has been turned out in good condition1 you will see that there are still certain inequalities of the tablet1 and certain roughnesses around the fins1 mouth1 etc42 these latter must be relieved and undercut by the aid of the undercutting and relieving tools 7see ,figs4 #bi and #cj71 the tablet must be pared flat by a long broad flat chisel called a firmer1 and the edges also nicely squared4 ,your fish is now in high relief on a flat background1 but1 though having correct form1 it still lacks colour4 ,how to colour plaster satisfactorily is a puzzle which has perplexed more persons than taxidermists4 ,speaking for myself1 ,i say that1 having coloured the cast1 when wet and when dry1 with water-colours1 used paper varnish when dry1 with water-colours and varnished and painted1 and painted and varnished the cast in oils1 having used mediums1 tempera painting1 secco--yet ,i am not satisfied2 there appears a want of softness and brilliancy2 probably the electro-type or wax process ,i am now trying may give the desired effect4 ,so disgusted was ,i at the seeming impossibility of getting tone on plaster1 that ,i determined to try paper for the last cast or model2 to this end ,i took lessons at a theatre in the art of making 7paper7 faces1 with the result that ,i now employ paper whenever practicable1 and find it answer1 from a #b lb4 perch to a #b cwt4 skate4 ,two or three most valuable results accrue from the substitution of paper for plaster4 ,first1 extreme lightness combined with strength2 and secondly1 of course1 excellence of detail and facility of colouring in either water or oil4 ,for remarks upon the artistic mounting of fishes1 see ,chapters ,,xii1 ,,xiii1 and ,,xiv4 ,there are1 ,i find1 two excellent articles on fish-casting in ,science ,gossip for #ahgh1 to which ,i must refer my readers for further details4 ,they agree to differ1 however1 in one important particular4 ,one writer says that plaster-work is as cleanly as any cooking operation1 and there is no reason why ladies should not engage in it6 ,the other writer speaks of it as filthy1 and1 really1 ,i feel inclined to back his opinion2 for having now used some tons of plaster1 ranging in quantities from a few pounds to #c cwt4 at a time1 ,i must say that1 of all the diabolical messes for getting into the hair or on the boots1 and about a house or workshop1 plaster is the worst4 ,matter in the wrong place1 ma foi6 you can't keep it in the right4 ,i see that ,mr4 ,taylor1 amongst other suggestions1 advises the use of half glue and treacle 7see ,chapter ,,xii47 to cast the first mould for groups of small fishes4 ,if these glue-moulds were backed with plaster piece-moulds1 they might be useful for larger undercut specimens4 ,plaster moulds and casts1 it must be remembered1 are1 when dried1 about a quarter of their weight when wet1 and the same bulk of dried 7not dry7 plaster is not half the weight of dried clay4 ,a very scientific way of getting the correct shape of a fish for mounting by taxidermy is to take a cast of the specimen and to then adjust the skin1 stuffed by the dry-plaster process1 into the cavity of the mould1 suffering all to dry therein4 ,fishes are now and then mounted in halves1 should one side be very badly mangled2 the effect is not very good1 however1 and should not be resorted to but in extreme cases4 ,large fishes1 such as sharks1 rays1 and sturgeons of great size and weight1 must be cast by the piece-mould process--described in ,chapter ,,xii4 ,the mounting of such as these1 by processes of taxidermy1 differs from all previously described in this chapter4 ,when of excessive size and weight1 they may be set up with wood and iron 7see ,chapter ,,vii471 or if smaller--say1 up to #e cwt4--may be managed by being cut underneath along the stomach1 from head to tail1 and mounted by two short iron rods being screwed into a beam of wood1 or bar of iron fitted into the body1 now filled out with hay1 straw1 or1 better still1 clean shavings1 supplemented by tow here and there4 ,when all is sewn up1 and the mouth--if open--modelled by any of the methods described in ,chapter ,,xii1 the short iron rods protruding from each end of the fish must be let into metal sockets 7iron gas pipes will often do7 screwed into iron feet1 supporting all clear from the floor of the museum or room they are to be exhibited in4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,skinning1 ,,preserving1 ,,and ,,mounting ,,reptiles4 ,,the chief requirement in preserving reptiles is a fine and delicate hand1 in order to deal successfully with these mostly thin-skinned objects4 ,i will now take one of the easiest reptiles as our first study1 viz1 the common snake4 ,formerly1 by the old method of skinning1 the bodies of all snakes were removed through an incision made along the skin of the stomach4 ,this was a mistake1 for the smaller snakes may be skinned through the mouth1 in this wise3 ,open the jaws of the snake to their fullest extent1 taking care1 if a venomous one1 not to scratch the fingers with the fangs1 which1 in the adder or viper1 lie folded backward along the roof of the mouth4 ,if the fangs are not required to be shown1 the safest plan will be to cut them away with a pointed pair of scissors4 ,holding the snake by the back of the neck with the left hand1 push the pointed knife or scissors into the mouth towards the back of the head1 feeling at the same time with the point of the knife for the first joint of the cervical vertebrae1 having found which proceed to dislocate it with the point of the knife1 gently feeling your way1 and cutting downward toward the right hand1 the thumb of which presses against the snake's head at the under jaw4 ,feel round with the point of the knife or scissors up toward the outer skin1 gradually working the flesh away4 ,cut away the under jaw1 inside the skin1 from its attachment to the flesh1 pushing the point of your scissors or knife at the same time as far as you can get it down inside the skin4 ,this all requires time and patience1 lest you push the point of the knife or scissors through the skin1 and also as you will not at the first trial succeed in detaching the head from the body4 ,the knife or scissors must then be run a little way down the back1 to detach the skin4 ,the neck being now entirely free1 lay the knife down1 and endeavour to push the broken or cut part of the neck up through the mouth2 seize the end with your right-hand fingers and gradually slide the skin down with your left hand1 turning it inside out until the vent is reached1 which carefully cut away2 beyond this the skin1 instead of coming off easily1 holds most tenaciously to the flesh1 and the knife again comes into play to free it all around4 ,near the extreme tip of the tail it will be almost impossible to get the flesh out1 you must therefore skin as far as you can1 and then make a small incision underneath1 lay back the skin on each side1 and cut the flesh away4 ,this operation will bring the outside of that part inside4 ,return1 it1 and neatly sew up the cut from the inside1 trim away all flesh from the skull bone1 take out the eyes1 put a stitch in the vent1 and anoint the whole of the skin with the preservative4 ,to return the skin1 push a small round stick down and pull the skin back on it2 when nearing the tail1 the stick may be removed and the fingers used to gradually work this end through1 or tie a small piece of wool to form a knot on the end of a piece of doubled thread1 and push it through by a long fine needle from the inside to the out1 at the same time allowing the needle to come through1 by doubling up the skin4 ,you may reach the needle with your fingers1 or by long pliers1 or even shake it down by its own weight1 then by pulling gently you return the skin effectually4 ,to stuff the snake insert a funnel in the mouth1 and fill the skin through this with fine dry sand1 or dry plaster of ,paris1 taking great care to shake the sand well down1 and fill in every part in a regular and natural manner4 ,on nearing the head1 push a piece of wool in the mouth to prevent the sand from running back1 and then adjust the snake to the position you require1 leaving the head to be modelled last with clay1 putty1 or plaster1 then remove the wool and make up the throat and inside of the mouth4 ,the natural tongue should be left in1 and displayed with fine entomological pins pushed in the hollow underneath1 and1 if shown open-mouthed1 the fangs must be dropped1 and the head raised1 as in the attitude of striking4 ,large snakes1 such as rock snakes or boas1 must be cut on the old system1 viz1 under the belly and skinned out1 working up and down1 as the muscles have so firm an attachment that the slipping-out process cannot be resorted to1 but each inch will have to be laboriously cut away from the skin4 ,sawdust1 mixed with a little sand1 will be found very useful for stuffing the larger snakes1 as the weight of so large a quantity of sand1 or plaster1 is too great to successfully manipulate4 ,a few hints as to snakes and snake bites may not be out of place here4 ,to distinguish the only venomous snake found in the ,british ,isles is an easy matter1 if you have the opportunity of examination4 ,in the first place1 the viper appears to have a more spade-like and flatter head than the common snake1 and has a black cross from near the neck running up to the centre of the head1 where it terminates in a black1 oval-shaped spot4 ,but the greatest distinction1 perhaps1 is that a decided pattern runs down the centre of the back1 appearing as a chain of obtusely-shaped diamond markings1 joined together1 and somewhat confused in places4 ,again1 it has in the upper jaw two fangs or poison teeth1 which in rest lie folded back2 on pulling them down with a needle1 or by the crooked awl1 they appear as fleshy lobes1 out of the apex of which is thrust a little glittering point like a small fish bone4 ,this small bone or fang is hollow1 and through it the poison is ejected by a process too complex to describe in the pages of this work4 ,the slow-worm1 common snake1 and the one other rarer species found in ,britain1 have merely the ordinary holding teeth1 and are all perfectly harmless4 ,should anyone be so unfortunate as to be bitten or scratched by a viper's fang1 a speedy application of liquor ammoniae fort 7strong ammonia7 to the wound1 with the further application of a ligature above the bitten part will be found of benefit1 and perhaps avert serious consequences until surgical aid is obtained4 ,ipecacuanha has been recommended1 powdered and applied as a poultice1 with an internal administration at the time also1 of the same drug1 but that requires medical knowledge as to the extent and frequency of the doses4 ,to skin frogs1 they must be plunged for an hour or so into the hardening solution1 ,no4 #ae1 and then skinned out from the mouth4 ,this requires a finer hand and greater patience even than skinning a snake1 as they must be carefully cut all around the mouth1 and the body drawn out to the tips of the toes4 ,they may then be filled with sand or plaster4 ,various comic scenes may be made by skilfully grouping frogs1 but if required to stand on their hind legs1 etc1 they will have to be wired1 by pushing fine wires or stout needle points through a small piece of board into the sole of the foot1 to run a little distance up the legs4 ,a drop or two of strong glue1 or shellac1 may then be placed under each foot1 which should be tied down until the glue sets hard4 ,tortoises and turtles may be skinned out1 by having the skin of the legs1 tail1 and head1 cut away all round from their attachments to the under shell or plastron4 ,the joints of the limbs should then be cut away from the inside1 and the tortoise or turtle laid on its back1 in which position the separated limbs hang down1 remaining only attached by their top skin 7now underneath71 to the upper part of the shell or carapace4 ,this exposes the whole of the remaining skin and flesh1 which must be cut and scraped out with knives1 or with the under-cutting tool4 ,the limbs are then skinned out1 preserved and stuffed1 and their proper bottom edges1 when in position1 pushed back and attached by needle points to the plastron4 ,lizards1 horned toads1 and chameleons may be cut underneath and filled out with sand or plaster4 ,in all cases where sand is used it may1 after the animal is thoroughly dry1 be shaken out if desired2 but if the reptile is not very large1 it is better to leave it in4 ,dry plaster will1 in nearly all cases1 be found the best medium for filling out the skins of reptiles2 with this ,i have succeeded in giving characteristic and life-like attitudes to moderately-sized alligators1 etc4 ,very large saurians may be mounted by either of the methods referred to in the closing sentences of the last two chapters4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,dressing ,,and ,,softening ,,skins ,,or ,,furs ,,as ,,leather4 ,,the art of tanning is1 as ,i before observed 7vide ,chapter ,i471 of the highest antiquity1 as systems which are now in vogue must have been known--if even in a modified form--to the ancients4 ,we may roughly divide the operation of tanning into two distinct classes3 ,one which deals with skins without the preservation of the fur1 and which turns the skin so operated upon into the material known as leather2 and the other in which we seek to preserve the fur or hair in its normal position1 at the same time dressing or rendering soft the actual skin itself4 ,footnote3 ,some time during #ahgd1 ,mr4 ,joseph ,tussaud read a paper before the ,society of ,arts1 in which he described an ingenious method of removing the fur of any animal to an artificial backing of india-rubber or flannel1 whilst the original skin was utilised as leather4 ,the first process--the making of leather--does not lie within the scope of this work2 suffice it to say1 that the hair or fur is first removed by lime1 etc1 and that after the skin is scraped it is treated variously with oak bark1 valonia1 sumach1 divi-divi1 etc42 it is a long and tedious process1 and certainly does not lie within the province of a taxidermist to attempt2 and though it is possible for a tanner to preserve the fur with the skin1 yet the attempt is undesirable1 by reason of the false or unnatural colour it permanently gives the fur--totally destroying the character of a light one1 and heightening or lowering1 as the case may be1 the tint of a dark fur4 ,footnote3 ,technical works on ,tanning are ,tanning1 ,currying1 and ,leather-dressing1 by ,f4 ,dussance3 ,the ,arts of ,tanning1 ,currying1 and ,leather-dressing1 from the ,french of ,j4 de ,fontenelle and ,f4 ,malepeyre4 ,to obviate all these difficulties and disagreeable effects1 a totally distinct method of dressing skins has been devised1 which is called white leather dressing4 ,before ,i describe this1 however1 it may be as well to say that no liquid1 powder1 or combination of liquids or powders1 is known into which a skin can be plunged1 and--without the aid of manual labour--come out as leather4 ,i mention this to correct a popular error1 many people supposing that labour has no part in the preparation of white leather4 ,to those who are not prepared to work hard1 and very hard indeed1 ,i say1 ,do not waste your time in reading this chapter4 ,the usual and time-honoured method of dressing skins1 say a rabbit's skin1 is--directly it is removed from the animal--to nail it on a board1 and rub it in with alum four parts1 and common salt one part1 or plunge it in a warm solution of the same for a day or so1 taking it out1 nailing it on a board1 letting it dry1 rubbing it down with pumice stone1 and plunging it again and again1 and repeating the drying and pumice-stoning process until the skin becomes pliable4 ,this is rather an uncertain process1 for if well steeped the hair or fur is constantly damp1 or dripping even1 in humid weather1 and if alum alone is used1 though killing much of the dampness1 it renders a fine thin skin of a parchment-like texture4 ,however1 as anything is better than a damp skin1 ,i have used a mixture of four parts of burnt alum to one part of saltpetre 7see ,formula ,no4 #i7 for small skins1 finally rubbing down and dressing the skin with lard1 into which a little essence of musk has been stirred1 and kneading the skin with the hands in bran to remove the superflous grease4 ,this1 and all other such processes where alum is used1 must1 however1 give way to the following1 which ,i have used for certain skins for years1 and for which ,i was originally indebted to a correspondent in the ,english ,mechanic2 his formula was3 ,mix bran and soft water sufficient to cover the skins1 let this stand four hours covered1 before being used1 then immerse the skins1 keeping them well covered for twenty-four hours 7less in ,india71 then take out1 wash clean1 and carefully scrape off all the flesh4 ,to one gallon of water 7hot7 add one pound of alum and a quarter of a pound of salt4 ,when dissolved and the mixture is cool enough to bear the hand1 immerse the skins for twenty-four hours1 take out and dry in the shade1 and well rub with the hand4 ,stir the liquor1 and again immerse for twenty-four hours2 dry1 and hand-rub as before1 and then put the skins for twenty-four hours into warm oatmeal and water1 stirring occasionally4 ,dry in the shade1 and when the skin is nearly dry1 hand-rub till quite dry4 ,the only thing ,i have found necessary to guard against in this is1 that the skins must be perfectly fresh before being put in the bran and water1 otherwise it will be necessary to rub them in with the salt and alum first4 ,another improvement is1 to tear up the fibre with a little instrument ,i have invented1 or rather adapted 7see ,fig4 #ce71 which is simply a hog scraper1 ground up sharp all round1 and then filed up into short rounded teeth where shown2 this will be found of incalculable service in tearing off the hard upper skin or dried flesh and blood1 which locks up as it were the true skin1 and which must be got at before the pelt will become at all flexible4 ,fig4 #ce--,scraper with which to dress skins4 ,often a thorough wetting of the skin will considerably facilitate this operation4 ,constant scraping and hard hand-rubbing1 similar to a washerwoman's rubbing of clothes1 is necessary4 ,in the cases of some skins which are obstinate1 thick1 or have been simply sun-dried1 as are many tigers' and leopards' skins sent from ,india1 it will be found necessary to fix them over a sloping board or on the edge of a table1 and to use a spokeshave1 or currier's thinning knife1 to thin them down--perhaps an eighth of an inch all over--then tear the fibre up with the scraper1 grease them with lard1 to which has been added essence of musk1 and punch them for several hours or several days with a dolly in a tub half full of bran or hard-wood sawdust2 finally covering them with plaster of ,paris1 or powdered whiting1 to absorb the grease2 scraping off the old plaster or whiting1 and adding fresh from time to time1 until the skin is freed of fat and perfectly pliant4 ,footnote3 ,professional workmen often knead the lard into skins by the medium of their feet and hands--not too clean an operation6 ,to afterwards clean the fur1 dress it down with a scratch-card 7to be procured of any ironmonger7--steel wire woven on cloth in such a manner that short ends protrude like a wire brush4 ,very fat skins1 such as dogs' skins1 may1 if perfectly fresh1 be nailed out and gone over with a saturated solution of borax1 or a solution of one part borax to one-eighth part saltpetre1 and left to dry in the shade for three months1 after which they may be scraped1 and their natural fat will1 after all superfluity has been removed with plaster1 etc1 be found to have sufficiently imbued the under or proper skin to render the final greasing unnecessary4 ,the two foregoing processes seem to have been modified with some success by ,mr4 ,r4 ,backhouse1 of ,stockton-on-,tees1 whose process is spoken of in the ,field of ,june #crd1 #ahhb1 as follows3 ,the skin1 which should be removed from the animal as soon as possible after it has been killed1 is stretched and tacked on to a board1 the flesh side being outwards4 ,this is at once covered with lard carefully spread over the entire surface1 no portion being allowed to escape4 ,as the moisture dries out of the skin1 the lard enters the pores and supplies its place1 and in about a week's time 7the lard being carefully renewed when requisite7 the skin will have altered its character1 in consequence of being penetrated by the grease4 ,it is then removed and washed thoroughly in warm water and soap until the external grease is removed4 ,during the drying it is necessary to pull and stretch the skin in all directions1 so that its texture opens1 and it becomes white1 owing to the admission of air into the pores2 this stretching is accompanied1 or rather preceded1 by careful scraping or currying with a sharp knife or razor1 to remove the fleshy matters and render the skin thinner4 ,with the larger number of skins the process is successful2 but some few go bad1 apparently from not absorbing the lard with sufficient rapidity444 ,possibly the species of mammals treated may have something to do with this1 the skins of carnivorous animals bearing exposure better than those of the rodentia--hares1 rabbits1 squirrels1 etc1 and insectivora--bats1 shrew-mice1 and moles--indeed1 the latter animals must be skinned almost as soon as they are dead1 or the skin turns green and goes bad in a very short time4 ,no doubt the vegetable and insect food consumed by these cause fermentation after death1 with the resultant putrefaction of the bowels and the thin coverings of the latter4 ,i would here point out1 however1 that small skins--cats'1 rabbits'1 etc4--will be perfectly preserved if stretched out whilst fresh1 cured with the chloride of lime preservative 7,no4 #d71 and then finally treated with lard and essence of musk1 and finished off by either of the preceding methods to render them clean and supple4 ,a correspondent who had treated some cats' skins by this method writes to say he has succeeded in curing some cats' skins in an admirable manner by following these instructions4 ,a very convenient mixture of borax and another natural salt has been brought out by ,mr4 ,robottom1 of ,birmingham 7see ,chapter ,i74 ,i have given his preparation a long and patient investigation1 and can recommend it for small skins1 while its convenient form1 cleanliness1 and low price1 place it within the reach of all amateurs4 ,equal parts of salt1 alum1 and ,glauber's salts1 mixed with half a part of saltpetre1 the whole rubbed in several times a day1 has been recommended1 but ,i have not tried it4 ,a mixture of sulphur and arsenic with soft soap is sometimes used to dress skins with1 and if left on for about a year certainly renders them very pliant1 after the removal of the grease4 ,the ,north ,american ,indians1 ,i believe1 smoke their deer skins1 etc4 and after working them1 use brains to dress them with4 ,the skins of mammals in the flesh may1 if bloody1 be washed1 should the blood be new1 or combed with the scratch card 7see ante7 if it has dried on the hair or fur4 ,in old skins washing is effective when the animal is relaxed4 ,freshly skinned deer and bulls' heads should always be washed and combed1 and wrung out before having the preservative applied4 ,mammals' fur is also considerably improved in tone by being well brushed with stiff horse or carriage brushes1 and afterwards wiped down with turpentine1 followed by benzoline4 ,when a skin is properly cleaned and finished1 it may be lined with red or black cloth1 or baize1 and a pounced border of cloth attached4 ,the tools for pouncing are to be bought at most saddlers' or ironmongers'4 ,i have been asked many times what to do1 if camping out abroad1 supposing you shot a tiger or a bear1 and wished to preserve the skin as a flat4 ,simply lay it on the ground and slit the skin underneath1 in a straight line through the under lip to the tip of the tail1 then make four cross cuts from the median line along the inside of the limbs down to the toes1 and skin out the body by stripping it in a careful manner1 not allowing any pieces to be cut away1 in case you might change your mind and wish it mounted as a specimen4 ,take out the skull1 clean and preserve it1 and though skinning out the toes completely1 be careful to retain the claws in their seats4 ,when the body is removed1 flesh the skin1 which means scraping and cutting away all superfluous flesh and fat1 then lay it out flat and rub it well in with the burnt alum and saltpetre 7,formula ,no4 #i74 ,in dressing thick skins1 it will be advisable to make a paste of the alum and saltpetre by mixing it with a little water1 and repeatedly rub this mixture into those parts where the skin is thickest1 such as around the lips1 eyes1 ears1 etc1 taking care that not a wrinkle in any part escapes a thorough dressing1 otherwise it will assuredly sweat1 and the hair come off in such places4 ,the skin may now be rolled or folded together for travelling1 but the next day1 when settled in camp1 it must be dressed again--twice will be quite sufficient for any but the thickest or most greasy skins2 after that it must be exposed day by day to the sun and air1 taking care meanwhile to guard it against all possible enemies4 ,treated in this manner1 it has no nature in it1 but is as stiff as a board2 before this happens1 however1 it will be advisable to roll it1 unless you have plenty of space at disposal on the floor of a travelling waggon1 etc1 in which case it may be folded to fit4 ,a folded skin is1 however1 worse to treat1 subsequently1 than a rolled one4 ,valuable skins should be1 when practicable1 sprinkled with insect powder1 turpentine1 or pepper1 and sewn up in sacking until they can be tanned1 or made into soft leather1 by any one of the processes previously described4 ,if time is no object the skin may1 after the first rubbing-in of the preservative1 be stretched by the old-fashioned method of pegging out1 or by the more efficient professional frame1 made of four bars of wood1 to which the specimen is laced1 or sometimes made of bars of wood and stout sacking1 adjustable by means of wood screws1 which open the bars and stretch the attached skin in a proper manner to the required size4 ,when alum1 etc1 cannot be obtained1 recourse must be had to common salt1 which is generally procurable in any part of the world2 a strong --almost a saturated--solution with water must be made of this in a tub1 and the skin placed in it4 ,if possible1 change the liquor after a few days and add fresh2 head the tub up tightly and the skin will keep many years4 ,i received the skin of a polar bear1 sent from the ,arctic ,regions to ,leicester for the ,town ,museum1 simply flayed and pickled in this manner1 and after a lapse of two years it was examined1 and found to be perfectly sweet and firm--quite fit for mounting when opportunity served4 ,of course1 these salted subjects are terrible nuisances either to mount or to treat as flat skins1 having to go through many processes to rid them of the salt which pervades them4 ,the first process is thorough washing and steeping in water1 constantly changed2 after that experience alone determines the treatment to be pursued4 ,if alum were mixed with rough salt in the proportion of two parts of the former to one of the latter1 the solution would become more astringent in its operation4 ,a pickle made of oatmeal1 saltpetre1 and boiling vinegar has been recommended1 but ,i have not yet tried it4 ,i think ,i have now put the would-be tanner and currier in a fair way to do some of the dirtiest work imaginable1 and if after a fair trial he does not cry1 ,hold1 enough6 and hand all future leather-dressing over to the professionals1 ,i shall indeed think him hard to kill4 ,in conclusion1 ,i can only reiterate to those who wish to do skins well by any of the foregoing methods1 that nothing can be done without hard work4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,relaxing ,,and ,,cleaning ,,skins--,,making-,,up ,,from ,,pieces4 ,,relaxing ,,skins4--,in many instances1 especially when collecting abroad1 it may be found incompatible with the time and storage space at the disposal of the collector to set up birds and animals in their natural positions4 ,to obviate these difficulties we make a skin as previously described1 and by this means pack many in the space which would otherwise be occupied by one4 ,the time comes1 however1 when we wish to set up the skins procured by ourselves1 or by others1 and for this purpose we relax them4 ,relaxing is performed in various ways1 but probably the oldest plan is that of simply unstuffing the skin1 laying it down on a board1 wrapping the feet and legs round with wet cloths or tow1 and applying the same to the insides of the butts of the wings1 allowing the skin to remain from one to four or five days in this position1 according to its size2 then1 when the legs1 feet1 and wings are sufficiently damped1 warm water is poured into the orifices of the skin1 and suffered to run out at the eyes and beak4 ,it is then ready for stuffing in the ordinary way4 ,another rough and ready method is simply pouring hot water through the bird's skin2 this relaxes just sufficiently to bend the head1 which many workmen of slovenly habits consider quite sufficient6 ,the next most ancient method is relaxing by the plaster box1 which is a rough box1 with a lid made to fit over all tightly1 and having the whole of its inside lined with a coating of plaster of ,paris mixed with water1 and laid on two or three inches thick4 ',when a bird is to be relaxed1 the inside of the box is saturated with water1 which the plaster readily absorbs up to a certain point4 ,then the surplus water is poured off1 the skin or skins are placed within the box1 the lid is fastened down1 and the whole placed in the cellar for so long a time as is required to thoroughly soften the included skins4 ,this plan1 though fairly efficient for the smaller skins1 must give place to that which ,i have ever adopted1 and which is almost as effective for a large as for a small skin4 ,it is this3 ,procure a box of suitable size1 which1 for greater efficiency1 may be lined with zinc4 ,into this put several quarts of clean silver sand well damped with water1 but not up to the point of actual wetness4 ,wrap each skin separately in a clean rag or in a piece of unprinted paper 7cap paper will do for the smaller birds71 pull back the sand to one end of the box1 leaving a thin layer1 however1 all over the remaining part of the bottom1 on which place the skins1 covering them up as you go on with the sand from the other end4 ,when covered with the proper depth of sand1 lay a damp cloth over the top1 and put the box away in the cellar or in the shade4 ,in from three days to a week1 according to the size of the skins1 they will be found more thoroughly relaxed by this than by any other method1 and will be kept--by their covering paper or linen rag--from having their feathers soiled or disturbed by the sand4 ,in the first edition1 ,i decried the practice of plunging birds' skins into water in the manner pursued by ,waterton and his followers1 but ,i had not at that time found anyone to please me in the subsequent manipulation of skins after being taken out of water4 ,i have now1 however1 changed my views on the subject1 and will proceed to describe a plan1 which1 though entailing some little trouble1 is yet so simple1 and so complete in its effects1 as almost to supersede the previous methods1 when the operator has attained any degree of proficiency in this4 ,the skin to be operated upon is1 if small1 simply placed in a pan or bucket partly filled with water1 and weighted own in such a manner that it shall always be beneath the surface4 ,if the taxidermist is in a fair way of business1 he will find a wooden tank1 about #cf in4 by #bd in4 by #ab in4 deep 7inside measurement71 sufficiently large for his needs4 ,this tank should be tongued and dressed with red lead1 or lined with zinc1 to render it waterproof4 ,of course1 the professional will not find it large enough for anything but medium-sized skins2 for the larger ones1 and for mammals1 he will require other and larger tanks4 ,a petroleum cask 7procurable from any oilman for a few shillings71 cut unequally in two parts1 will be found of service when one large skin only is soaked at a time4 ,when the skin is in the water1 a board may be placed upon it1 weighted so as not to flatten against the bottom of the vessel1 or it may be kept in position under the water by pressing thin slips of wood over from side to side4 ,the skin being well saturated--which1 according to the size of the bird1 will take place in from twelve to twenty-four hours--must have the stuffing removed from it1 and then be allowed to soak for so long a time as experience will dictate4 ,footnote3 ,this should not be attempted before the skin is properly soaked1 otherwise the cotton wool1 or whatever it maybe stuffed with1 will stick and frequently pull the head1 etc4 off with it4 ,as a rule1 however1 when the wings and tail will spread out with gentle handling1 the bird is fit to mount4 ,sometimes the legs1 if thick1 and even the wings and tail1 if large1 will require a longer time to soak than is conducive to the well-being of the remainder of the skin2 in this case1 nothing remains but to skilfully pull off the wings1 legs1 and tail1 and let them soak a few hours longer4 ,footnote3 ,this would seem to an amateur very rough treatment1 but often it is the only method to pursue especially if the skin be tender1 although in them latter case vinegar is recommended to be added to the water in which it is steeped4 ,supposing1 however1 that the skin is properly relaxed without recourse to this1 it must then be hung up by a wire secured through the nostrils1 in order to drain the water out of it4 ,after hanging a few hours 7or many1 if large7 it is1 when all the water has drained away from it1 but while yet damp1 carefully wiped down in every part with benzoline1 applied liberally1 but from head to tail1 the way of the feathers2 this is important4 ,the skin may now be placed in a long shallow box1 called the dry plaster box1 and all the feathers well covered above and below with common dry plaster of ,paris1 and the skin allowed to be buried in it for three or four hours1 then the damp caked plaster may be shaken off and fresh dry plaster added1 allowing it to remain for several more hours4 ,this should be repeated until the feathers are fairly dry--which1 if the bird be large1 will take from twelve to twenty-four hours4 ,the feathers of the skin must now be beaten with a bundle of stiff feathers1 or the wing of a goose1 or other large bird1 until nearly dry1 then dry plaster added from time to time1 and the skin twirled about in the open air if possible4 ,very soon the feathers will cease to remain clogged with plaster1 and will come out ready for mounting1 nicely dried1 fresh1 and so beautifully clean as to surprise any person ignorant of the process4 ,carefully managed1 this is one of the most valuable aids to artistic taxidermy1 as by its means birds' skins are rendered as limp and supple1 and much tougher1 than if just removed from the body4 ,in proof of my assertion1 ,i may mention that ,i have caused skins from ten to fifteen years old1 and ranging in size from a cassowary to a humming bird1 to be prepared by this method1 all of which subsequently mounted up in a first-rate manner4 ,footnote3 ,a humming bird1 after relaxing by water1 is1 when drained sufficiently1 best treated by plunging in benzoline and then carefully dried in plaster4 ,a night in water1 and half-an-hour's treatment with benzoline and plaster1 is sufficient for these small creatures4 ,the points to observe are--first1 perfect relaxing2 secondly1 wiping down thoroughly with benzoline2 thirdly1 drying the feathers of the skin well1 by dusting in plaster and beating and agitating them in a current of air4 ,should the skin be greasy1 covered with fat1 or imperfectly freed of flesh 7as many of the foreign birds' skins are71 it will be necessary to scrape and trim when the specimen comes out of the plaster1 before it is finally cleaned4 ,in any case1 it is always advisable to turn the skin of the head inside out1 stretch the face1 scrape the neck1 and stuff the head in the ordinary manner before returning the skin4 ,the great advantage in the water process is1 that a ,past master in the method can mount a skin in as artistic and natural a manner as if done from the flesh4 ,usually1 specimens done from the skin are at once recognisable by their uneasy and wooden appearance1 but ,i defy anyone to pick out the skins in the ,leicester ,museum--unless by their neater appearance--from those anciently mounted from the flesh4 ,skins of mammals1 if cured by the formula 7,no4 #i7 given in ,chapter ,,iv1 need only to be plunged in water for a night or so to relax them1 wrung out1 thinned down where required1 and mounted straight away2 a wet skin being an advantage when modelling mammals1 wet cloths even being necessary to cover over certain parts1 should the mounting occupy more than a day or so4 ,this1 if the skin is properly cured1 does not injure the fur or any part in the slightest degree1 while1 at the same time1 it thoroughly relaxes4 ,as newly relaxed skins 7especially those of birds7 dry rapidly it will be advisable to have everything ready1 and shape them up as quickly as possible4 ,the colours of the bills and feet of most birds recover their pristine hues whilst being relaxed--a matter of great importance as assisting the naturalist to the subsequent natural rendering of those parts4 ,,cleaning ,,birds' ,,skins1 etc4--,formerly1 it appears1 the orthodox method of cleaning birds' skins was by the application of water and plaster of ,paris4 ,when it was wished to remove blood1 or other stains1 from a white or a light-coloured bird1 this was effected by means of a soft piece of wadding saturated with warm water1 and then rapidly and lightly applied to the stained part1 followed by plaster of ,paris dusted on the way of the grain1 and allowed to remain on the specimen until perfectly dry1 when it easily came off in cake-like pieces1 leaving the feathers thoroughly cleansed of all impurities4 ,if the wadding became overcharged with blood1 it was1 of course1 changed from time to time before the plaster was thrown on4 ,though this method does very well for blood stains of a recent date1 it will not remove grease or the stains from old skins4 ,this was always a weak point with the taxidermists of yore1 who used1 with very meagre results1 turpentine and plaster of ,paris to clean their skins4 ,this went on for many years1 and1 though an unsatisfactory state of things1 had to be endured1 as nothing better was known4 ,some few years ago benzine collas was introduced1 and the taxidermists were not long in finding out its valuable properties for feather cleaning4 ,benzoline 7,benzol1 or ,benzine ,c#f;,h#f71 then came into more general use1 and was1 of course1 found to have all the properties of the so-called benzine collas4 ,this discovery1 we may say1 completely revolutionised the art of feather cleaning4 ,it served equally as well as the other preparation1 and its superior cheapness placed it within the reach of everybody4 ,the cleansing property of benzoline is still somewhat a secret out of the profession1 and is really worth1 as a matter of business1 all the money which is sometimes asked for divulging it to an amateur4 ,when1 therefore1 you have a bird which is greased1 or stained with greasy dirt1 etc1 wipe it down the way of the feathers with a piece of wool saturated with common 7or ,french7 benzoline1 using from time to time fresh wool as the other becomes soiled4 ,when the feathers are well damped1 cover the newly-cleaned part with dry plaster of ,paris1 allowing the bird to remain from one to two or three hours1 at the expiration of which time take it out1 dusting the waste plaster off with a soft bundle of feathers1 ,do not be alarmed if the bird looks somewhat miserable at the outset1 but be sure that1 if the plaster is dusted on the way of the feathers1 all will come out right4 ,blood1 whether fresh or old1 is best removed by warm water as just described1 and the feathers then carefully wiped down with benzoline1 before putting1 on the plaster2 this obviates the roughness often observable in water-cleaned birds4 ,footnote3 ,the ,american publication1 ,science1 points out that the addition of salt to the water cleanses blood from feathers1 by preventing the solution of the blood-globules1 and diffusion to the colouring matter1 or red haemoglobin4 ,i have found this wrinkle of great benefit in cleansing white-plumaged birds4 ,sometimes1 in very old skins1 successive applications of water1 turpentine1 benzoline1 and plaster1 carefully managed1 will work wonders4 ,i have mentioned the fact that birds may be plunged into turpentine to rid them of insects4 ,after this process they do not readily dry in1 proper form1 remaining greasy and streaked with1 dirt--in fact1 in a generally deplorable condition 7as ,i know to my cost1 teste1 the ,leicester ,museum collection1 ignorantly treated in this manner before my advent74 ,birds treated with turpentine must be well washed down afterwards with benzoline and then dried in plaster of ,paris1 as before described4 ,in cleansing old specimens1 do not forget to dust them1 or to beat them thoroughly with feathers1 before applying the benzoline1 etc4 ,in a fresh specimen it would be a person's own fault if he should fail to clean a bird1 even were it dipped in blood and grease4 ,patience and several cleanings are all that are necessary4 ,dark plumaged birds--which may have light or white parts--will require care in cleaning1 in order that their darker feathers may not be dulled by contact with the white plaster4 ,should this happen1 however1 in spite of all pains1 it will be found that beating with feathers1 and a light touching over with wadding1 on which a very little benzoline has been poured1 will brighten them up wonderfully4 ,ostrich and other feathers may be effectually cleaned by any of the foregoing methods1 and1 by management1 re-curled with a blunt knife and the fingers4 ,,making ,,up ,from ,pieces4--,i have before mentioned that birds are sometimes made up feather by feather1 and also when pulled to pieces for relaxing4 ,the first is simply pretty pastime1 which any person possessed of patience1 some little ability1 and a stock of feathers1 paste1 and paper1 may indulge in as a recreation4 ,the latter1 however1 is a different matter1 and is practised in cases where a bird's skin is accidentally torn in several parts1 or drops to pieces when relaxed through imperfect curing1 or by old age4 ,when this happens1 the amateur need not feel as if the world would be the next thing to tumble to pieces1 but simply get to work thus3 ,make a body of tow1 with neck attached1 as described2 next1 pull the legs off 7if they have not previously fallen off71 wire them1 and attach them firmly to the body by clenching their free ends2 bend these legs into the position you wish the specimen ultimately to assume and attach the wires at the feet to a block or perch4 ,a ,t1 formed of two pieces of wood1 the bottom end attached to a block1 is1 perhaps1 the best support1 as you can get all round to adjust everything1 even to the tail4 ,your progress up to this point is simply a headless neck attached to a tow body1 supported by natural legs fixed to a perch4 ,i assume that your fragments are sufficiently relaxed1 and the feathers cleaned and nearly dried4 ,all the fat must1 of course1 have been scraped off the inside of each piece of skin4 ,arrange these pieces in the order they should come upon the model1 to get the fit1 as a dressmaker would arrange the patterns of a dress upon a lady4 ,notice where your model is too small or misshapen1 and bind on pieces of tow2 or paste and bind on wadding1 excepting near the wings1 where wires would fail to pierce wool or wadding4 ,when properly-shaped1 give the whole of the model a good dressing with flour paste 7see ,no4 #ca71 into which a little carbolic acid has been stirred4 ,paste the inside of each piece of skin with this1 and commence to finally rearrange them4 ,as a rule1 the under and breast pieces are fixed first1 then the wings are wired and firmly clenched on the body2 adjust the wings into proper position1 bringing the breast feathers over at the shoulders2 next1 put on the wing coverts1 the back1 the tail 7firmly wired71 and the upper and under tail coverts2 lastly1 the head and neck pieces1 shaping the made neck into position1 etc1 as you proceed4 ,footnote3 ,note that even in close-winged birds1 which a pieced specimen such as this one described must be of necessity1 it is always advisable to wire the wings as for flight1 running them on these wires close to the body1 and giving them by this means the necessary curvature2 entirely different1 and much more natural1 than if simply bolted on by straight wires running through the shoulders into the body4 ,sometimes it is necessary to slip a piece of wadding underneath to swell out a certain set of feathers2 in this case1 lift up the surrounding parts with a crooked awl or with the feather-pliers1 and carefully insert the wadding in such a manner that the paste shall not clog the other feathers in juxtaposition4 ,when finished to your satisfaction1 lightly sponge off any excess of paste with warm water2 wipe down with benzoline1 and dust plaster thickly over all the specimen2 this assists the drying and cleans it4 ,in an hour or so dust off the plaster with a bunch of feathers1 and bind the skin with wrapping cotton in the usual manner4 ,set it in a warm place1 or in a current of air1 for a week or so1 to dry1 and1 lastly1 put in the eyes and finish off4 ,the foregoing1 though apparently a ,caesarian operation1 is not difficult to a practised hand4 ,i may1 perhaps1 here mention1 in order to encourage my readers1 that ,i myself once successfully mounted a large snowy owl from thirteen pieces of skin1 and that had there been twenty-three it would have come out just as well4 ,in relaxing it is often better1 especially in such specimens as ,birds of ,paradise1 to pull off the legs and wings2 by this means the skin is more easily stretched1 and always1 in the hands of a master1 makes up more satisfactorily than by any other means4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,colouring ,bills ,and ,feet ,of ,birds1 ,bare ,skin ,of ,mammals1 ,fishes1 ,etc4--,restoring ,shrunken ,parts ,by ,a ,wax ,process--,drying ,and ,colouring ,ferns ,grasses1 ,seaweeds1 ,etc4--,piece ,moulds1 ,and ,modelling ,fruit ,in ,plaster--,preserving ,spiders--,making ,skeletons ,of ,animals1 ,skeleton ,leaves ,etc4--,polishing ,horns1 ,shells1 ,etc4--,egg ,collecting ,and ,preserving--,additional ,formulae1 ,etc4 ,,colouring ,,bills ,,and ,,feet ,,of ,,birds4--,birds which1 when alive1 have either legs1 bills1 or faces of various bright colours1 lose these tints when dead1 and after lapse of time1 the colouring matter in some cases totally disappears1 and nothing can restore the loss of pigment but artificial treatment of the faded parts4 ,to do this satisfactorily is not one of the easiest matters in the world1 inasmuch as two things are to be strictly guarded against4 ,one--thick painting1 which hides all the characteristics of the scutellae1 or plates of the legs and toes1 or fills up the minute papillae of the face2 the other--imparting a too shining or varnished appearance to the parts coloured4 ,so little colour is required for this purpose that ,i have found the oil-colour tubes used by artists to be the handiest and cheapest4 ,the colour1 when squeezed out1 is to be thinned with turpentine only1 until it readily flows off the brush on to the beak or legs of the specimen2 if properly done it is very transparent1 and of just sufficient quality to give the necessary brightness without undesirable shininess4 ,the colours that are most useful are chrome yellow1 yellow ochre1 ,prussian blue1 permanent blue1 light red1 burnt umber1 flake white1 and vermilion4 ,with these every shade of grey1 blue1 green1 red1 or pink can be obtained2 they are all cheap1 but if a quantity of vermilion is desired1 it is cheapest bought as a powder at the oilman's1 and mixed as required4 ,when colour tubes are not procurable1 the same colours are to be obtained at the oilman's in powder1 or ready mixed1 which latter must be thinned with one part transparent paper varnish to two parts turpentine 7turps71 the varnish being added or decreased as dry or mixed colours are used4 ,brunswick black1 a cheap and durable brown1 if laid on thinly1 i4e4 thinned with turps1 is sometimes used for colouring the noses of mammals4 ,it must be recollected1 however1 that greys predominate in some noses over browns1 and that the surface is seldom of one tint1 hence ,brunswick black is seldom used by artists1 who prefer to make tints from some of the colours mentioned4 ,faces of parrots must be whitened with dry flake white applied with a piece of cotton wool4 ,the bills of toucans1 and similar birds1 require some nice colouring to blend the various tints one within the other4 ,if the reader requires a more scientific method of doing this1 ,i must refer him to ,waterton's ,wanderings in ,south ,america1 in which work he will find an account of the manner in which that eccentric naturalist cut out the insides of his toucans' bills1 paring them down to the outer layer1 through which the subsequent artificially-introduced colour was revealed4 ,it would1 no doubt1 be possible to introduce colour into combs and wattles1 and also into the bills of some species of birds by subcutaneous injections of various dyes when the specimen was fresh1 but as all taxidermists are not skilled anatomists1 and have not too much time to spare in doing what is--at best--but an unsatisfactory and unpractical method1 ,i may relieve their anxiety by saying at once that the difficulty attendant on shrinkage of the integument may be avoided by using wax1 with which to thinly paint the large bills of some birds1 and the legs of all1 restoring also the fleshy appearance of wattles1 etc4 ,let us take one or two representative birds--first1 an eagle1 to work upon1 ,premising that your bird is finished and dry1 and that you have previously accurately copied into your note-book the colours of the soft parts1 you will begin by brushing over the parts to be coloured with a very little turpentine4 ,next1 heat in a pipkin1 or patty-pan1 some beeswax1 into which a little common resin has been powdered1 just sufficient to harden the wax under the point of brittleness2 apply this with camel-hair brushes of different sizes to the eyelids 7the eye being in and fixed71 the superciliary ridge1 the cere1 the gape1 and all over the bill1 and legs1 and feet1 regulating the thickness of the wax thus--very thin over the bill and eyelids1 a little thicker upon the cere1 ridge1 and gape1 and quite thick upon the legs and feet2 so much so1 indeed1 in places on the latter1 as to necessitate carving up with tools to reproduce the underlying shrunken scutes1 etc4 ,this1 of course1 is a delicate operation1 involving practice and artistic perception of form4 ,remove all superfluous wax by paring with curved awls of various sizes1 and rubbing down with rag wetted in turpentine4 ,some parts of the legs may be treated with hot irons 7large wires1 old awls1 knives1 etc474 ,when the wax is sufficiently cold1 which it will be in a quarter of an hour after finishing1 commence colouring1 by using the colours direct from the tubes1 with as little admixture of turps as possible4 ,footnote3 ,winsor and ,newton1 ,rowney1 or ,roberson1 are some of the best makers of these4 ,note the different tints--quite three shades of yellow upon the cere1 four or five upon the bill itself1 and perhaps half-a-dozen upon the legs and feet1 and carefully put them on4 ,properly finished1 your eagle will--if correctly shaped--be quite life-like2 all the soft parts now look full and fleshy1 having lost that hard appearance inseparable from direct painting on the shrivelled integument without the intervention of wax4 ,the wattles and combs of gallinaceous birds1 after being washed with preservative 7,formula ,no4 #ae71 or1 when practicable1 skinned out and filled1 together with analogous processes on the vultures1 and also the pouches of pelicans1 etc1 may be treated in like manner1 the wax being thinly or thickly painted as required4 ,the inside of the mouths of mammals1 their tongues1 eyelids1 and noses1 should be treated in a similar manner4 ,the skin of fishes also1 which1 when dry1 shrinks away above the eye and around the mouth and lips1 should have these parts replaced by wax before colouring1 in the manner practised on the new specimens in the ,leicester ,museum4 ,so little1 however1 is the want of this understood1 that1 of the thousands of stuffed fishes exhibited in the ,fisheries ,exhibition1 ,i looked in vain for one with unshrivelled lips or orbital ridges4 ,for the credit of artistic taxidermy1 let us hope ,i overlooked some1 finished as they should be4 ,the fins of fishes may be repaired with thin tissue paper1 or1 if finless by accident--ware cat6--may be replaced by wax4 ,white wax may be coloured in some instances before using4 ,paraffin wax does in some situations1 but is not a very tractable medium4 ,dry colours may sometimes be rubbed into the wax with advantage4 ,the colouring of a fish's skin1 which1 when set up and dried1 is colourless1 as noted1 is a nice operation involving some artistic ability2 the same remarks apply as those upon the colouring of the bills and feet of birds 7see ante71 but with this difference1 that although the colour should be thinly applied as directed1 yet in this instance the appearance of wetness has to be represented4 ,in ordinary taxidermic work this is managed by adding clear paper varnish1 or ,roberson's medium1 to the colours1 thinned by turpentine1 floating the tints on the skin of the specimen1 and nicely blending them1 in order to obviate unnatural streaks or bands of colour4 ,speaking of the duck-billed platypus1 the ,rev4 ,j4 ,g4 ,wood1 in ,homes without ,hands1 has some pertinent remarks upon the manner in which nearly all taxidermists allow the cuticle to dry and shrivel1 to the ultimate distortion of the surrounding parts3 ,the wonderful duck-like mandibles into which the head is prolonged are sadly misrepresented in the stuffed specimens which we generally see1 and are black1 flat1 stiff1 and shrivelled1 as if cut from shoe leather4 ,the dark colour is unavoidable1 at all events in the present state of taxidermy4 ,bare skin invariably becomes blackish-brown by lapse of time1 no matter what the previous colour may have been1 so that the delicate tints of an ,english maiden's cheek and the sable hue of the blackest negro would in a few years assume the same dingy colour1 and become quite undistinguishable from each other4 ,but there is no excuse now-a-days for allowing the bare skin to become shrivelled4 ,the colours we cannot preserve1 the form we can and ought to reproduce4 ,no one would conceive1 after inspecting a dried specimen1 how round1 full1 and pouting were once those black and wrinkled mandibles1 and how delicately they had been coloured while the animal retained life4 ,their natural hue is rather curious1 the outer surface of the upper mandible being very dark grey1 spotted profusely with black1 and its lower surface pale flesh-colour4 ,in the lower mandible the inner surface is flesh-coloured1 and the outer surface pinky white1 sometimes nearly pure white4 ,all this could easily be avoided by the taxidermist first skinning the beak and lips to their farthest extent1 and then filling them with clay or composition1 and afterwards waxing and colouring the parts in question4 ,small birds having black feet or bills1 which permanently retain their colour1 need only to have them slightly brushed with oil1 before casing up1 to give them proper freshness4 ,,hollow ,,eyes4--,i have for a great number of years discarded the conventional glass eyes--glass buttons ,i have heard them irreverently termed6--for all fishes1 reptiles1 birds1 and mammals1 excepting the smallest1 using1 in their stead1 hollow half-globes rather more oval than round2 these are hand-painted on the inside with either water or oil-colours1 and when dry are varnished1 filled in with wadding and putty1 or modelling-wax1 not clay1 and fixed in the orbits with wax1 see ante4 ,these1 properly coloured1 and1 in the instance of fishes1 gilded inside1 are wonderful representations of the natural eye1 and when properly inserted1 the cornea in mammals reproduced by wax1 and the eyelids properly managed1 give a most life-like and natural appearance to any specimen4 ,footnote3 ,glass eyes have of late been much improved in shape and colour by the ,germans1 and also by some ,english eyemakers1 who have had the sense to listen to the suggestions of artistic taxidermists4 ,i have by me now a really beautiful pair of glass lynx eyes1 veined and streaked1 and cornered in porcelain1 in almost as perfect a manner as could be managed by hand-painting4 ,,piece ,,moulds ,,and ,,modelling ,,tongues1 ,,muscles1 etc1 ,,in ,,composition4 ,as ,i stated at the end of ,chapter ,,vii1 composition has for its base one of three things--clay1 plaster1 or wax4 ,the uses of the first ,i have fully explained--glue-water and plaster will stiffen or toughen it4 ,there is also terra-cotta clay1 which1 if moulded into shape1 can be fired1 and is lighter1 and retains its shape without cracking4 ,its service to the taxidermist is limited to the reproduction of certain bones and some few natural objects1 such as fungi1 etc4 ,plaster casts of almost anything may be made by piece-casting1 which is casting arranged to take moulds from anything undercut or complicated2 such1 let us say1 as a lion's head with open jaws1 or the human face1 surrounded by a wreath of leaves and flowers1 as in the antique sculptures4 ,assuming you had such a model as this to cast from1 you would commence by oiling or soaping the whole in the ordinary manner4 ,the plaster being prepared1 is poured on the neck or chin1 being prevented from spreading to other parts by clay placed across as a barrier4 ,the first section1 being cast1 is trimmed1 and its edges cut diagonally toward the chin1 in such a manner that the next piece ultimately unlocks from it1 without being wedged by undercasting4 ,so you may proceed1 trimming each piece1 cutting its edges to prevent locking1 and casting bit by bit until you reach the hair and forehead1 with wreath4 ,here the pieces will be numerous1 and your ingenuity will be exercised to keep out of trouble from getting some piece or another to lock the others4 ,the face will often mould into three or four pieces2 but it is on the forehead1 chin1 and throat--and1 if a lion's head1 in the open mouth--where the multiplicity of parts may perplex4 ,these small pieces are1 when taken from off the model1 very difficult to put together again without a core2 hence1 when the mould is complete1 each little piece must have a shallow hole cut on its top1 be replaced on the model1 and a jacket-mould cut into two or more pieces by string 7as described at chapter ,,vii7 made over the whole4 ,this jacket keeps all together for the ultimate casting by the pegs in its surface made by the holes of the pieces underneath4 ,the ultimate cast is made by plaster being poured into a hole left at one end of the mould for that purpose4 ,should this ultimate casting be wanted hollow1 it will be necessary to shake the plaster1 when poured in1 around the mould in the manner described for making wax fruit4 ,small undercut articles may be cast from1 by making a mould of best glue--gelatine glue--which readily stretches enough to clear undercuts and come off the model4 ,to get a model from this glue mould1 cover the original model you wish to cast from with as thick a covering of clay as you wish your gelatine mould to be when run2 upon this pour plaster to form a jacket1 letting its top and bottom rest on the top and bottom of the original model4 ,when the clay is removed1 and the jacket fitted on again1 it will1 of course1 only touch at top and bottom1 leaving an interspace all over the remainder of the model4 ,a hole being now cut in the jacket1 the glue ,footnote3 ,made by steeping for a night1 and allowing it to absorb all the water it will1 throwing away the surplus1 and boiling the remainder in the usual manner in a glue-kettle4 ,pour on when hot1 not boiling4 is poured in over the original oiled model1 and fills up the interspace left by the removal of the clay4 ,when cold1 it1 of course1 forms a mould into which plaster can be run1 in the usual manner1 to form the ultimate model4 ,piece-casting of large subjects1 where the various parts are cast and then fitted together afterwards1 is best understood by learning a little from some ,italian modeller1 or looking over the seams 7representing the piece-casting joints7 in some one or other of ,brucciani's reproductions1 which may be seen in almost any art gallery or museum4 ,one great advantage of this system is1 that by its means large models1 if built up in ordinary field clay1 or by any other means1 may be cast from in plaster or in metal by the intervention of piece moulds1 failing which it would be impossible to do so4 ,the resultant model1 if in plaster1 is not cast solid1 but is hollowed out in the casting--to prevent weight--by cores being inserted in the moulds4 ,casting sand is1 however1 necessary when casting in metal1 together with all sorts of technical appliances and knowledge beyond the scope of the taxidermist1 and although ,i have found it necessary to cast in metal for some purposes1 it is so seldom needed that ,i do not purpose describing what any friendly brass founder will tell the amateur in a few minutes4 ,the casting by amateurs at an ordinary fire is limited to three metals--lead1 tin1 and zinc--or a mixture of two4 ,how large models in clay1 etc1 can be made is described by ,mr4 ,waterhouse ,hawkins1 ,f4,g4,s1 etc1 in his paper on the reproductions he made of the extinct animals exhibited at the ,crystal ,palace1 ,sydenham3 ,by careful study of their works ,i qualified myself to make preliminary drawings1 with careful measurements of the fossil bones in our ,museum of the ,college of ,surgeons1 ,british ,museum and ,geological ,society4 ,thus prepared1 ,i made my sketch-models to scale1 either a sixth or twelfth of the natural size1 designing such attitudes as my long acquaintance with the recent and living forms of the animal kingdom enabled me to adapt to the extinct species ,i was endeavouring to restore4 ,i caused the clay model to be built of the natural size by measurements from the sketch model1 and when it approximated to the form1 ,i1 with my own hand in all instances1 secured the anatomical details and the characteristics of its nature4 ,some of these models contained thirty tons of clay1 which had to be supported on four legs1 as their natural history characteristics would not allow of my having recourse to any of the expedients for support allowed to sculptors in an ordinary case4 ,i could have no trees1 nor rocks1 nor foliage to support these great bodies1 which1 to be natural1 must be built fairly on their four legs4 ,in the instance of the iguanodon1 it is not less than building a house upon four columns1 as the quantities of material of which the standing iguanodon is composed1 consist of #d iron columns1 #i ft4 long by #g in4 diameter1 #fjj bricks1 #fej #e in4 half-round drain-tiles1 #ijj plain tiles1 #ch casks of cement1 #ij casks of broken stone2 making a total of #fdj bushels of artificial stone4 ,these1 with #ajj ft4 of iron hooping and #bj ft4 of cube inch bar constitute the bones1 sinews1 and muscles of this large model1 the largest of which there is any record of a casting being made4 ,other uses of plaster are also described in ,chapters ,,vi4 and ,,vii4 ,one of the uses of plaster in modelling is1 however1 to reproduce flesh1 etc4 ,for this purpose mix plaster of ,paris 7best ,s4,f47 with boiled oil until it forms a smooth1 thick putty1 which1 though at first capable of much finger-and-thumb manipulation1 dries as hard as stone1 and is fairly light and impervious to damp4 ,plaster will also make a putty if mixed with glue-water4 ,the composition used by the picture-frame makers is also a first-rate medium1 being susceptible to the softening influences of hot water when newly made1 but ultimately dries as hard as the preceding4 ,it is made variously1 but perhaps the best is made thus3 ,cement for ,modelling4 ,three parts best glue4 ,one part linseed oil4 ,one part powdered resin4 ,whiting4 ,tallow candle4 ,melt the glue with water until it is moderately thin4 ,boil up the resin and oil together 7be careful of fire74 ,mix up this with the glue by thorough stirring and boiling together1 turn it all out into a bucket 7unless you are boiling it in one71 and add half a tallow candle4 ,stir in enough powdered whiting to make a thick putty4 ,pour some out on a plate1 and let it get cold2 you will then be able to determine whether the mixture requires more or less glue1 whiting or oil4 ,it should dry tough1 but not too brittle1 and should1 when cut into strips and warmed by hot water or steam1 be tough and yet pliable4 ,properly made1 this cement is invaluable to the taxidermist1 as it works well by the hand or by tools1 drying slowly until it sets4 ,it can be worked over real or modelled bones to show sinews or muscles as previously mentioned4 ,the tongues of mammals or fishes may be cast either in plaster1 glue1 or wax1 and subsequently modelled in this cement1 plaster1 or wax1 as required4 ,wax is the last1 and1 as ,i have before pointed out1 is1 whether used melted or softened by warm water1 of the highest service to the artist4 ,beeswax1 when melted1 will mix well with either plaster or whiting1 or with both1 and will make a useful modelling composition1 its brittleness being determined by its containing more or less plaster4 ,wax will also mix with red ochre1 and makes a modelling composition4 ,modelling wax is sold1 however1 ready prepared1 and is useful to pack under the skin for delicate muscles or flabby folds of skin4 ,paraffin wax melted1 and modelled when half cold1 is also sometimes of service2 it has1 however1 so little affinity for sticking as to come away from almost anything smooth1 on the slightest provocation4 ,white lead stiffened with whiting is sometimes useful in taking the place of putty1 and is a trifle more durable4 ,perhaps1 at the end of this section1 it may not be amiss to point out to the modeller that it is of the highest importance that all his tools should be freed from dirt and plaster at the conclusion of his day's work2 scarcely anything rusts and spoils tools more quickly than damp plaster left on them4 ,,to ,,imitate ,,blood4--,frequently blood is required to be shown1 as in instances where some animal may be represented tearing its prey4 ,usually this is done by thickly painting on vermilion and red lead mixed with varnish1 or brushing on red lead mixed with thick glue1 as a base on which to subsequently lay the vermilion4 ,i may point out1 however1 that blood differs in tint1 and that the appearance of torn flesh1 fresh blood1 and coagulated blood is best got by painting the parts with wax1 and tinting1 with a little vermilion1 some madder brown1 or madder lake 7a rather expensive colour71 and light red1 arranged and blended one with the other as in nature4 ,should you be setting up a large group1 such as a tiger tearing open a deer1 or a vulture at a sheep1 you may represent the liver and other organs in modelling clay or plaster1 dried1 waxed1 and coloured1 or by coloured wax alone if the part to be modelled is not large4 ,,snow1 ,,frost1 ,,and ,,ice4--,the appearances of snow and frost are imitated in a variety of ways4 ,pounded white sugar2 alum powdered1 or put on boiling1 and suffered to crystallize2 borax1 two parts1 alum1 four parts1 burnt in a shovel over the fire2 and various other crystalline preparations4 ,nothing1 however1 is half so good as using best ,s4,f4 plaster of ,paris mixed with powdered glass frosting--bought from the glass-blower's or artificial eyemaker's--to imitate snow1 the powdered glass frosting being thrown upon the foliage and rocks--the latter being gummed or varnished with paper varnish--to imitate ice4 ,blocks of ice require special treatment with glass and thin paper strained over a framework and varnished to get a good and natural effect4 ,icicles are best modelled in glass4 ,,water ,,and ,,waves4--,water is best represented by hammered glass coloured1 and streaked and varnished1 to the tint required4 ,birds may be represented swimming by being cut in halves1 their upper and under surfaces fixed to the corresponding sides of the glass1 or the glass may be cut to receive the body1 which is the most satisfactory1 although the most difficult to manage without smashing the glass4 ,footnote3 ,there is a black-necked swan 7,cygnus nigricollis71 from ,chili1 treated in this manner1 in the ,leicester ,museum4 ,holes may be drilled in the glass to allow water plants to come through1 or to allow long-legged birds1 such as herons1 to stand mid-leg in water4 ,waves are moderately well imitated by thin paper creased1 varnished and coloured1 on which white wool foam is arranged4 ,,modelling ,,fruit1 etc1 ,,in ,,plaster4--,you may1 perhaps1 wish to model an apple1 peach1 or plum1 to place in the hands of some mounted object1 such as a monkey4 ,to do this1 you take a natural fruit1 which oil1 and push it half way 7on its longest axis7 into a bed of damped and hard-pressed sand banked up all round4 ,at some little distance from the edges of the fruit stick two or three small pegs of wood 7points downwards7 about half-an-inch long1 leaving a quarter-of-an-inch out of the sand4 ,over all this pour some plaster of ,paris mixed with water to the thickness of a paste2 when set1 lift it up carefully--the plaster now appears with the fruit half set in it1 and the two or three little pegs of wood sticking up1 their other half firmly fixed in the plaster--oil their points1 the face of the plaster1 and also the fruit1 and laying the half-cast fruit uppermost1 pour over it some more plaster4 ,when set1 trim the edges1 the complete mould will then part in halves1 and the fruit will shake out4 ,oil the mould inside1 and when dry procure some wax--beeswax from the oilman's will do for this purpose--and after heating it carefully1 for fear of fire1 pour it while hot into the mould through a hole cut for that purpose4 ,when about a quarter full1 put your thumb or finger over the hole1 and rotate the mould rapidly4 ,allow it to cool1 and on opening the mould the artificial fruit will drop out1 and may then be coloured by powder or varnish colours to the tints required4 ,my friend1 ,wright ,wilson1 ,f4,l4,s1 etc1 surgeon to the ,birmingham ,ear and ,throat ,hospital1 has very kindly written me a short description of the plan he adopts1 which1 it will be seen1 is a complete reversal of the foregoing3 ,with regard to plaster casts of fruit1 etc1 a much neater and readier method of making the mould is to mix a sufficient quantity of beeswax with resin in a pipkin over a slow fire4 ,it must be used whilst just lukewarm by either dipping the fruit--say1 an apple--until sufficient adheres to form a good strong coating4 ,when cold 7dipping in cold water will readily make it so71 the whole can be cut through with a sharp knife1 the halves of the fruit come out easily1 and a perfect mould in two halves is thus obtained4 ,fasten the halves of the mould together with string1 and smear a little of the warm material over the joint to hold it together1 and cast your model 7into this1 through a small hole made for the purpose7 in the usual way with plaster of ,paris made rather thin with water4 ,when set1 place in a little warm water1 when the mould easily strips off1 leaving a model of the most perfect kind and at a small expense1 for the mould can be melted up and used over and over again4 ,glue may sometimes be substituted for the wax4 ,the advantage of being able to fall back on this system is obvious1 especially if the modelled fruit is to be placed in a position exposed to considerable heat4 ,of course1 the plaster model must be coloured to nature1 and1 as ,i have before pointed out1 this is not one of the easiest things to do4 ,i would suggest dipping the model 7when dry7 in melted wax to give a surface for colouring1 or modelling it in paper4 ,,preserving ,,spiders1 etc4--,spiders1 which from their rarity or the beauty of their markings it may be desirable to preserve1 require the contents of the abdomen to be pressed out1 or their bodies to be cut underneath4 ,a first-rate article on preserving these crustaceans appeared in ,science ,gossip for ,january1 #ahfh1 in which the author points out what is just as well to bear in mind1 which is that the colouring matter or pigment is placed between the outer or abdominal covering and the pulpy contents within1 upon a very delicate membrane1 which adheres very loosely to both1 but more firmly to the contents within2 so that when the viscera or contents are rudely removed1 and without much tearing1 the whole mass will be found more or less coloured1 while the outer skin will be left entirely transparent4 ,to preserve1 therefore1 the beauty of spiders1 this must be untouched4 ,he further says3 ,make an incision along the ventral aspect of the abdomen1 nearly its whole length1 or as long as will enable the pulpy contents to be easily removed2 then pinch up the pulpy mass with a small forceps1 carefully avoiding any dragging2 then1 with sharp-pointed scissors1 cut away the contents bit by bit until the whole is nearly removed1 or until you can see the brilliant colour shining through what remains in the cavity--better leave a little too much than be too nice in clearing all away2 then1 with a blowpipe1 distend the empty abdomen2 it will very soon become firm1 and retain its original form1 but until it is so the blowing must be frequently repeated4 ,a correspondent to ,science ,gossip1 page #ba1 #ahfh1 says3 ,i found the best way to preserve spiders was to suspend them by a loop round their waist in a solution of glycerine #b_/c1 water #a_/c4 ,the solution may want changing once or twice at first1 after that it will keep unchanged for years4 ,fig4 #cf--;,blow-pipe for inflating larvae ,,preserving ,,caterpillars4--,the larvae of moths and butterflies may be preserved by pressing out the contents of their bodies1 and by working from the head to the tail in a gentle manner1 and assisting the removal of the mass by a careful dragging with a crochet needle4 ,when empty1 a little corrosive sublimate solution may be injected with a metal or glass blow-pipe1 and the empty skin then distended by blowing into it through a very fine blowpipe1 made by drawing out in a clear flame a small glass tube until it is attenuated to a fine point4 ,this being inserted in the orifice at the last segment of the caterpillar1 is kept in place by being tied round with a piece of darning cotton1 or1 better still1 by a contrivance shown in ,fig4 #cf 7the invention of ,mr4 ,auld1 in ,science ,gossip for #ahgb74 ,a ,a are pieces of watch spring tied on the thick part of the blowpipe1 and holding the caterpillar by pressure on the last segments when the point ,b is inserted4 ,mr4 ,auld1 ,i see by his article1 used a spirit lamp under a glass jar to form a drying chamber while blowing2 but ,i have myself found a box iron a most convenient arrangement4 ,the inner iron1 being heated in the fire1 is placed in the chamber or box1 which it thoroughly heats2 then removed1 and the larvae introduced and blown out in the hot air1 but not so full as to unnaturally distend the segments4 ,a certain loss of colour inevitably takes place in preserved larvae1 which in the larger ones may be restored by colouring inside them with powder colours mixed in turps4 ,coloured wax is sometimes injected1 and makes the skin very firm1 but it is a delicate operation1 requiring great skill in application4 ,when finished1 they may be mounted on green silk-covered wire1 or1 more naturally1 on nicely modelled leaves of their various food-plants1 by gum attached to their claspers4 ,it is often necessary to plunge the more delicate larvae into a weak solution of carbolic acid1 or alum and water1 to harden them before preservation4 ,,skeletons ,,of ,,animals4--,many people being under the impression that it is only necessary to remove the flesh of any mammal or bird in order to get a perfect skeleton1 it may be as well to point out that as the flesh rots1 so do the ligaments which hold the bones1 and consequently the skeleton falls to pieces4 ,when1 therefore1 you have made your skeleton by the means recommended by various authors1 such as exposing it in an ant-hill1 a wasp's nest1 or to the attacks of the blow-flies or mealworm 7the larvae of a beetle71 to tadpoles1 or --as is the usual way with the bone preservers--by maceration in water for a lengthened period 7after removal of a great deal of the flesh1 the skin1 and entrails71 you will1 after the careful removal of the flesh still remaining1 and subsequent drying of the bones in the sun and air1 find that nearly every bone will have to be attached to its fellow by fine brass wire1 and in the case of the bones of large animals1 each bone will have to be neatly drilled and coupled with brass wire of greater strength4 ,skeleton-making by maceration in cold water is1 perhaps1 one of the most sickening operations4 ,i have been somewhat successful by trimming off all the flesh possible1 wiring some parts together1 tying others in cloths and boiling them gently for several hours in water changed from time to time1 afterwards taking them out and picking off1 with fingers and blunt tools1 all the flesh remaining--whilst hot--then drilling and wiring all together with galvanised or copper fastenings in a proper manner1 boiling again in plenty of water1 and then allowing the bones to remain in cold water--constantly changed--for a week or so2 finally laying out in the sun and air to bleach4 ,by this system ,i have lately skeletonized part of a horse1 and the bones are free from grease and fairly white4 ,experience1 however1 in this as in everything else1 will tell you what to do and how to piece one system into another to best advantage4 ,washing the bones with ,hudson's dry soap1 or soda and water1 will often remove a great deal of the grease4 ,chloride of lime and water will assist the bleaching1 but must be managed cautiously1 or in careless hands it is likely to do more harm than good4 ,the making of good and nicely bleached osteological preparations really depends on carefulness and neatness1 supplemented by water1 air1 and sun2 by the three latter aids1 ,i have repeatedly improved in a wonderful manner old bones which were greasy and discoloured4 ,should the sea be close at hand1 the skeleton1 shut in a box with holes1 may be sunk1 and exposed to the attacks of various small deer1 especially bees 7,aega tridens71 which swarm in some shallow waters to such an extent as to clear the flesh from a large animal in a few hours4 ,,skeleton ,,leaves4--,very beautiful objects may be made by placing the leaves of trees and shrubs1 or such as are of a strong or woody texture1 in a pan1 pouring boiling soft or rain water over them1 then exposing them to the atmosphere for a time varying from one to three or four months4 ,they are then gently lifted out and held on a board1 or on a plate1 under running water1 and the pulpy part1 or epidermis1 removed by gentle brushing with a camel-hair pencil or fine needle1 to split the skin away from the mid-rib4 ,when nothing but the ligneous skeleton or woody fibre remains1 it may be placed in a weak solution of chloride of lime1 and exposed to the sun under glass to dry and bleach4 ,to prevent them sticking to the paper on which you may wish to dry them1 use either blotting-paper or oiled paper1 after well washing the leaves4 ,if skeletonizing in summer time1 trust to sun alone1 as chloride of lime has a tendency to make the leaves go brittle4 ,the seed vessels of various plants1 such as the poppies1 thorn apples 7,daturae71 and campions1 as also the leaves of laurel1 holly1 ivy1 lime1 sycamore1 poplar1 and a host of others1 may be treated in this manner4 ,when finished1 they may be mounted on wires whipped with white silk1 and placed on black velvet under a shade4 ,some writers have advised the boiling of the leaves in a solution of caustic soda1 or steeping them in a strong mixture of chloride of lime and water1 but ,i have hitherto considered these plans not so practical as the foregoing1 though1 perhaps1 quicker2 as1 however1 ,i find two writers1 in ,science ,gossip for #ahfg1 very positive on the subject1 ,i will give the following extracts3 ,a solution of caustic soda is made by dissolving #c oz4 of washing soda in two pints of boiling water1 and adding #a4e oz4 of quicklime1 previously slacked2 boil for ten minutes1 decant the clear solution1 and bring it to the boil4 ,during ebullition add the leaves2 boil briskly for some time--say1 an hour--occasionally adding hot water to supply the place of that lost by evaporation4 ,take out a leaf and put into a vessel of water1 rub it between the fingers under the water4 ,if the epidermis and parenchyma separate easily1 the rest of the leaves may be removed from the solution1 and treated in the same way2 but if not1 then the boiling must be continued for some time longer4 ,to bleach the skeletons1 mix about a drachm of chloride of lime with a pint of water1 adding sufficient acetic acid to liberate the chlorine4 ,steep the leaves in this till they are whitened 7about ten minutes71 taking care not to let them stay in too long1 otherwise they are apt to become brittle4 ,put them into clean water1 and float them out on pieces of paper4 ,lastly1 remove them from the paper before they are quite dry1 and place them in a book or botanical press4--,dr4 ,g4 ,dickson1 ,science ,gossip1 ,january1 #ahfg4 ,i once saw another way of managing skeleton leaves that interested me greatly4 ,the leaves were boiled for two minutes1 and then transferred to a strong solution of permanganate of potash and gently heated4 ,in an hour or two the laxer tissues were easily removed by means of a brush4 ,sulphurous acid was used for bleaching them1 and this liquid was also employed with much facility for the removing of the stains on the fingers caused by the permanganate of potash4--,george ,newlyn1 ,science ,gossip1 ,november1 #ahfg4 ,the last-named gentleman appears to bleach his leaves by fastening them across a hat-box by means of strings1 inserting a pan or tin cup containing sulphur1 setting it on fire1 and shutting down the lid 7of course1 out of doors74 ,the whole article is very interesting1 but too long for insertion here4 ,,crustaceans4--,lobsters1 crawfish1 and crabs must have the cephalo-thorax 7the upper part7 disjointed from the body or tail part1 the limbs taken off at their attachment to the body1 and the whole of the flesh removed by means of the undercutting tool 7see ,fig4 #bi71 and crooked wires2 afterwards wash the inside with carbolic wash 7,no4 #ae71 and fill the limbs and body with dry plaster and wadding1 neatly fixing on the legs where disjointed1 and putting the remainder of the body together with any of the cements mentioned in ,chapter ,,iv4 ,,polishing ,,horns4--,as a commencement it will be requisite to remove all the rough shell-like layers of horn which stand up as knots and gnarls1 and mar the symmetry of the horns4 ,in some horns1 old ones especially1 you will find their inner sides covered with several thicknesses of this waste or dead stuff4 ,do not be afraid1 but boldly pare this down level with the surrounding horn1 for which purpose nothing is so good as a spokeshave4 ,blood stains usually lie in the soft upper layers2 shave these down carefully until they end1 which will be underneath where the horn becomes white and of a more ivory-like texture4 ,when nearing this it will be as well to give up the use of the spokeshave1 and use some instrument in a scraping manner2 the side of a chisel 7not the cutting edge7 or a knife is best for this purpose4 ,the handle being held in the right hand and the point in the left1 scrape the horn until you get to the white part1 which will be somewhat harder than the remainder4 ,in colourless horns you must get down to this white part1 or your polish will not be high2 besides this1 blood stains will show up1 and the surface will look of a soapy1 greasy nature1 instead of the ivory-like texture it should assume4 ,be careful when working to the largest part1 or base of the horn1 not to run your tool through1 as it is much thinner there than at the tips4 ,whilst thinning rough places in certain horns you will find a half round and flat fine rasp of great assistance4 ,when you have obtained a nice even surface all over1 use glass paper of different degrees of fineness1 and pumice-stone4 ,collect the dust which falls off1 with a rag dipped in linseed oil and well rub the horn with this4 ,next get some putty powder 7oxide of tin71 which rub violently on all parts of the horn with a rag and linseed oil1 finally finishing off with brown paper1 a soft rag1 and the palm of the hand1 using plenty of elbow grease4 ,remember1 horn polishing is all hard work1 unless managed by bobbing on a lathe1 so let no one attempt it who is not prepared to work very hard1 as plenty of quick and violent friction is indispensable in the latter stages to give the high polish requisite4 ,horn may be softened1 and ultimately dissolved in caustic soda4 ,,polishing ,,tortoise-,,shell1 etc4--,to polish tortoise-shell 7which is in many cases turtle-shell7 it is necessary to scrape the shell very carefully with a broad knife1 taking care not to cut through to the under shell or bone4 ,when properly smoothed rub it over with pumice-stone and water1 then with bath-brick and water1 finally polishing off1 when you have a nice fine surface1 with putty-powder and oil1 or rotten-stone and oil1 with plenty of hard work and hand-polishing towards the last4 ,a little tallow rubbed in with the hand1 as the very last finishing touch1 will be found of benefit4 ,a paste made of sal volatile and rouge has been recommended to be applied to the shell after scraping1 then suffered to remain until dry1 and finally polished off4 ,bad places in the shell1 where it has peeled or been broken off1 should be made up with coloured shellac1 or hardened wax1 put in with a warmed knife after polishing1 and finished off separately4 ,tortoise-shell may be welded by heat4 ,sea shells may be polished by being plunged for a little time in dilute nitric acid1 then rubbed down with sand paper or fine emery and oil1 finished with ,water-,ayr or ,snake-stone1 and finally polished with putty-powder and oil4 ,a mussel-shell treated in this manner makes a most beautiful object1 coming out purple1 with streaks of lighter blue and pearl4 ,stones1 such as agates1 which are found on the sea beach1 or any stone which is required to be polished1 is to be first ground down to a rough surface1 then polished by successive rubbings of first1 second1 and third grit-stones of different degrees of fineness1 lastly ,water-,ayr or ,snake-stone1 and finished with putty powder applied with oil4 ,all of the stones or grits mentioned are to be procured at the marble mason's at a low rate4 ,serpentine treated in this manner makes a very beautiful object4 ,,eggs1 ,,collecting ,,and ,,preserving4--,eggs of various birds may be sought for in their seasons in the localities best suited to the several species4 ,but so much depends upon special training or aptitude in the collecting of birds' eggs1 that a detailed description of localities where to seek and how to find1 eggs1 is hardly necessary1 in the pages of this work1 further than to remark that a pair of climbing irons are requisite for those individuals who do not possess the agility of a cat or of a schoolboy4 ,climbing ,irons 7see ,fig4 #cg71 to fit the foot and leg1 are best made of wrought iron with a welding of finely-tempered steel from ,c to ,,de1 to form the claw used when climbing4 ,to affix them to the leg1 the foot is placed as in a stirrup from ,c to ,b1 the claw ,,ed pointing inward4 ,a strap should now be passed through a slot or square hole punched in the metal between ,c and ,d 7not shown in the figure71 and laced under and across the foot to and through the loop shown between ,b and ,a at a1 thus keeping the foot itself tightly fixed4 ,another strap passes through the loop at the top where marked ,a1 and is strapped round the calf of the leg1 keeping all below the knee rigid and secure4 ,when climbing1 the hands clasp the tree in the usual manner1 and the side of the foot is struck smartly against the trunk1 to cause the claw to penetrate4 ,the climber now rests on this1 and strikes the claw of the other iron in1 on the other side1 higher up1 and so on alternately4 ,fig4 #cg--;,climbing iron ,eggs1 when procured1 must have their contents removed4 ,to do this they must first be drilled with little steel instruments called egg-drills1 which are made of various degrees of fineness according to the size of the egg to be operated upon4 ,drills are to be procured from the various dealers1 but can be made from steel wire softened in the fire and filed to a sharp three-cornered point--afterwards tempered to hardness--for the smaller eggs1 or filed up for the larger eggs to the pattern of a countersink used for wood2 indeed1 the smallest-sized countersink made--to be procured at any ironmonger's--will do very well for eggs the size of a hen's4 ,capital egg-drills are to be made from pinion wire used by watchmakers4 ,simply file to a point1 and relieve with a small three-square file the channels of the wire1 giving them a cutting edge up to their point4 ,with such a drill as this--cost1 about #b;d4--,i have blown1 without any breakage1 eggs varying in size1 from swallows' to hens'4 ,a drill costing #bs4 #f;d1 which was the price ,i paid for my first--purchased from a surgical-instrument maker in ,london1 since deceased--could not do the work better4 ,to use these drills1 rotate the point by twiddling the drill between the finger and thumb1 making only one hole1 and that in the centre of the egg4 ,when a nicely-rounded hole is cut1 the egg must be emptied by means of an egg-blower1 or blowpipe2 the point being introduced into the hole1 the contents are blown out or sucked up into the bulb1 which1 when full1 is emptied out at the other end4 ,it sometimes happens that the egg is hard set4 ,the embryo must1 in that case1 be cut out with small curved scissors specially made4 ,if hard set1 putrid1 or stale1 an egg often bursts when touched4 ,to obviate this1 drill and blow it under water4 ,young birds can often be extracted1 with a little care1 uninjured from their egg-shells1 and yet--as happened to me lately in the instance of a hawk--the shell may make a presentable museum object1 after such extraction4 ,in all cases eggs should be thoroughly rinsed out with a solution of six grains of corrosive sublimate to an ounce of rectified spirits of wine4 ,this may be sucked up into the bulb of the egg-blower1 and thence ejected into the egg1 which is to be rotated1 and what solution is left may then be sucked back and thrown away1 or returned to the bottle4 ,great care must be taken1 however1 that the mixture shall not pass the bulb and be drawn up into the mouth1 as it is1 of course1 a deadly poison2 the egg1 being placed 7hole downwards7 on blotting paper1 is to be left until dry4 ,those who object to poison may rinse their eggs out with water to which has been added a few drops of strong essence of cloves4 ,this is agreeable to use1 and appears to cleanse away all impurities4 ,a little label may finally be gummed over the orifice1 and the specimen is then ready for the cabinet2 or1 as labels will in time fall off1 however well they may have been previously gummed1 it is better to write a distinguishing number1 and as much of the history of its collection as is possible on the egg itself1 the full history1 of course1 being posted up in the note book4 ,labels may1 however1 be used with great advantage on the divisions of the cabinet drawer which separate one species of egg from the other4 ,loose labels are not to be used on any account1 as they often get reversed and create confusion1 and a collection thus treated is brought into grave discredit4 ,eggs1 when being sent any distance1 should be separately wrapped in cotton wool1 and packed in a strong box1 any interstices being lightly filled with wool also4 ,sawdust or bran should never be used as a packing medium1 as the eggs shake together and break each other in travelling4 ,for those who require coloured figures of eggs ,i must refer them to ,hewitson's ,eggs of ,british ,birds1 or ,atkinson's ,british ,birds' ,eggs and ,nests1 a much cheaper1 but very good little work2 also to a new work by ,mr4 ,h4 ,seebohm 7the celebrated traveller in ,siberia1 etc471 entitled1 ,a ,history of ,british ,birds1 with coloured illustrations of their eggs4 ,,preparation ,,of ,,microscopic ,,objects4--,the same remark applies to this as to aquaria 7see ,chapter ,,xiii474 ,the treatment is so varied1 the objects so numerous1 that books upon books have been written on it4 ,every naturalist and curator1 however1 has to work sometimes with the microscope2 but taking into consideration the vastness of the subject1 ,i must refer them to text-books1 such as ,beale's ,how to ,work with the ,microscope2 ,lankester's ,half-hours with the ,microscope2 ,hon4 ,mrs4 ,ward's ,the ,microscope2 ,davies ,on the ,preparation and ,mounting of ,microscopic ,objects2 ,g4 ,e4 ,davis' ,practical ,microscopy2 ,gosse's ,half-hours with the ,microscope2 ,wood's ,common ,objects of the ,microscope2 any of ,quekett's works1 and to late numbers of the ,monthly ,microscopical ,journal1 ,nature1 ,science ,gossip 7the latter teeming with practical hints on all matters connected with natural history71 and hosts of other works4 ,this chapter1 dealing as it does with details and hints upon many subjects1 may fittingly be closed with scraps forgotten in the body of this work1 but which now occur to me as being useful knowledge4 ,,starch ,,as ,,paste3 7see chapter ,,iv74--,procure some common starch 7that which is white looking is perhaps the best71 mix it up with a little cold water1 just sufficient to dissolve it1 stirring it thoroughly to prevent lumps4 ,pour upon this sufficient boiling water to make it into a stiff paste4 ,this will be found most useful for clean paper or photographic work1 as it enables paper to be pasted on cardboard1 etc4 without creasing4 ,the paper should be first wetted on the face side1 the back pasted with the starch-paste1 fixed on the cardboard1 and the whole dried off by blotting paper4 ,for common taxidermic work1 paste containing resin 7sold at leather merchants'7 is strong and cheap4 ,,best ,,glue1 made in the ordinary manner1 but rather thicker than usual1 then poured into a bottle containing enough methylated spirit to thin it1 is recommended as being a strong medium to stick paper on wood or cardboard1 with the advantage claimed for it that it does not cause the thin wood or cardboard to cast or buckle4 ,,marine ,,glue dissolved in diluted acetic acid makes a strong cement for certain things1 such as mending shells4 ,this1 as also the preparation of ,formula ,no4 #cc1 should be kept in bottles1 or small stoppered jars1 and melted for use by surrounding with hot water4 ,,leather is 7so says a bookbinder7 to be pasted1 after it is damped on the outside4 ,cloth is to be glued4 ,this is useful to know if making up cloth-covered boxes with leather backs1 to imitate books 7see ,chapter ,,xv1 on ,entomology74 ,,anti-,,insect ,,nostrums 7see chapter ,,iv74--,russian tallow in saucers1 oil of birch1 flowers of sulphur1 hellebore1 pepper1 tobacco1 are said to be bogies1 the last especially1 to the ,dermestes beetles and their cousin1 ,anthrenus museorum4 ,try them1 but don't rely too much upon them1 is my advice2 nor1 indeed1 upon anything--not excepting even corrosive sublimate4 ,trust only to exposure to light and constant supervision1 zinc or wire drying cases1 and to casing up as soon as possible4 ,if sending specimens long distances1 it is well to pepper the shot parts1 enclosing also in the parcel some pieces of charcoal wrapped in paper4 ,of course1 if the specimens are not for the table1 dilute glacial carbolic acid1 poured on the wounds and down the throat1 is the best thing to do1 but it should always be noted in an accompanying letter1 for fear of accidents4 ,smearing the hands and face with paraffin is said to keep forest flies and midges from biting4 ,,preservation ,,of ,,animal ,,tissue 7see chapter ,,iv74 ,chloride of zinc1 #a part4 ,water1 #bj parts4 ,this formula appears to be one of the non-alcoholic preservatives most suited for fishes in preparation jars4 ,i have so lately tried it that ,i cannot at present state if it is the very best4 ,,picric ,,acid1 formed by a certain chemical fusion of carbolic acid with nitric acid1 is recommended 7when diluted7 for the preservation of soft-bodied animals1 such as zoophytes1 etc4 ,,bichromate ,,of ,,potash 7see chapter ,,iv71 though so useful for pickling fishes1 mollusca1 worms1 and even jelly fish and sea-anemones1 is1 ,i have found1 liable to be attacked by mildew2 to prevent this add a few drops of phenic 7carbolic acid74 ,footnote3 ,phenol1 ,phenic ,acid1 ,phenic ,alcohol1 ,hydrate of ,phenyl 7,c#f;,h#e;,,ho7,carbolic add4 ,this salt is also used in microscopy to assist in fixing glass covers on glass slides4 ,the cement in question appears so admirably adapted to many purposes1 that ,i think it worth quoting 7see ,science ,gossip1 #ahgi1 p4 #acf73 ,cox's gelatine1 #b oz4 ,acetic acid1 fluid1 #a drachm4 ,gum ammoniac1 #aj grains4 ,dissolve in a water bath1 and filter through cotton while warm4 ,this cement remains fluid when cold1 and dries quickly4 ,after the ring has become set1 or stiff1 the whole slide is immersed for a minute or so in a #aj-;grain solution of bichromate of potash1 and is then allowed to dry1 exposed to the light1 which makes the bichromated gelatine perfectly insoluble1 even in boiling water1 and thoroughly prevents the escape of any glycerine4 ,,permanganate ,,of ,,potash 7see chapter ,,iv7 is recommended at p4 #di1 ,science ,gossip1 #ahgi1 by a ,french scientist1 for preserving delicate organisms4 ,it is especially good in histological researches1 as it acts like osmic acid1 burning up the protoplasm1 bringing out the minutiae1 and showing the nuclei1 outlines of cells1 etc4 ,it is used as a saturated solution in distilled or very pure spring water2 sea-water also dissolves it4 ,the concentrated solution1 of a lovely violet colour1 kills small organisms at once1 and then burns them4 ,they are left in it from thirty minutes to an hour1 then withdrawn1 and placed in alcohol1 after which they can be made transparent with essence of terebinth and mounted in ,canada balsam4 ,beautiful results are thus obtained with echinoderms1 zoophytes1 worms and marine arthropoda4 ,for delicate researches1 especially in the ciliated infusoria1 it is better than osmic acid1 without its great cost1 and is everywhere easily obtained4--,g4 du ,plessis4 ,,glycerine 7see ,chapter ,,iv74--,glycerine will be found useful for rubbing on the eyes or noses of animals to keep them moist and prevent their drying up when modelling1 as well as for many other purposes1 which will readily occur to the practical worker4 ,,corals1 etc1 may be cleaned by first soaking in warm water1 to remove surface dust1 etc1 then allowing the tap to run on them for some hours1 and afterwards soaking them in a weak solution of chloride of lime for a short time1 until fairly bleached4 ,,birds may be roughly preserved from immediate decay by pouring down their throats1 or into their bodies by an incision under the wing1 crude creosote or carbolic acid4 ,i remember once having a collection of birds from ,india prepared in this way1 which after a lapse of years were successfully skinned and made up--as well as could be expected4 ,sometimes ,i have been written to by correspondents to say that they had cured some mammals' skins by ,formula ,no4 #i1 and that there was an efflorescence about the mouth1 or that mildew had appeared4 ,my answer has ever been3 ,firstly1 that possibly the specimen had been cased up too soon4 ,at least two months should elapse after stuffing before mammals should be mounted in a case4 ,secondly1 that common alum had been used instead of burnt alum4 ,thirdly1 that an undue proportion of saltpetre had been mixed with the alum4 ,should mildew make its appearance1 it would point to improper mounting --i4e1 not trimming off enough flesh or fat1 or to the specimen being mounted in a case before it was sufficiently dry4 ,if it be mildew1 the specimen must come out of the case and be properly dried4 ,if it be merely crystallisation of impure alum1 the crystals must be washed off with warm water from time to time as they form1 until no more appear4 ,it must be remembered1 however1 that a damp house1 or juxtaposition to a wet wall1 will ruin the most carefully mounted specimens4 ,correspondents may be quite sure that neither the method nor the formula are to blame in the matter4 ,the great point is to wipe off the mildew or crystals as fast as they appear until no more form1 which will determine when the specimen is thoroughly dry4 ,how to solder1 either by the blowpipe or by the bit1 is now and then useful knowledge4 ,any mechanic will impart this for a consideration4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,cases1 ,,mounts1 ,,shields1 ,,egg ,,cabinets1 ,,rockwork1 ,,ferns1 ,,grasses1 ,,sea-,,weeds1 ,,etc1 ,,for ,,fitting ,,up4 ,,cases can be made in all styles4 ,the oldest is the box1 which needs no description4 ,next in age is the canted-corner case1 a most odious abomination beloved of the amateur2 the shape of the ground plan being as ,fig4 #ch4 ,a to ,a the front1 ,b to ,b the back1 ,c ,c ,c is glass1 the points ,a ,a are wooden or metal uprights1 pinning together top and bottom2 ,b ,b ,b ,b is wood2 hence it follows that all the space outside the dotted lines is useless1 or if used at all1 the uprights 7,a ,a7 cross perhaps the most important part of the work1 so that this shaped case resolves itself into the following difficulty3 either the case is too large for the object1 or two lines cross it4 ,fig4 #ch--,plan of canted-corner case4 ,the usual glass-ended square case is easily made by any amateur joiner in this wise3 ,take two pieces of wood for top and bottom to size required1 plane and square them up together to ensure their being exactly alike2 then1 with a plough plane1 set to #j4cge in1 plough out all around the front and sides of each to half its thickness4 ,take the back and nail it to the top and bottom with brads2 having done which1 next take two pieces of wood for the uprights of sufficient thickness to suit the case--too great thickness being guarded against4 ,fig4 #ci--,section of uprights or pillars of square case4 ,let us1 however1 assume that each of these pieces is #j4ge in4 square1 the height immaterial1 plough these out on two sides1 the plough still set at #j4cge in4 for depth4 ,for the front1 plough out #j4cge in4 from the edge1 and #j4cge in4 deep1 this still leaves #j4cge in4 out of the #j4ge in4 untouched2 turn the upright now on its side and repeat the ploughing1 allowing for just missing the point of intersection4 ,fig4 #ci shows a section2 the dark part is the wood left1 the dotted squares show where the wood has been removed2 the corner ,a1 outside the dotted line1 is afterwards rounded off4 ,each upright is ploughed alike2 they are then glued and nailed to the top and bottom by brads running through2 the rounded edges falling outside4 ,the case is now finished1 as will be seen1 for the reception of glass at its front and sides4 ,first1 however1 it will have to be blacked or ebonised4 ,mix1 therefore1 some lamp or drop black in powder with thin glue-water1 boil1 and lay the mixture on with a stiff brush over the case whilst warm4 ,when quite dry1 rub it down with fine sand paper4 ,the subjects being mounted in the case1 paper the glass in with brown paper and strong paste1 and then go over the previously blackened case with a very thin coat of ,brunswick black4 ,when this is dry put a slip of #j4e in4 or #j4ge in4 gilt moulding 7procured at the picture frame maker's7 all around the front of the case on top of the prepared glass1 and just within the edges of the wood ploughed out to receive it1 nicely mitring the comers with a mitre and shooting block4 ,the foundation of this latter is a sound #a in4 board1 #b ft4 #f in4 long by #ah in4 wide1 or of any other convenient dimensions4 ,upon this is screwed another piece an inch or more thick 7,fig4 #dj71 so as to make a step 7,c ,c74 ,both pieces must be dry1 so as not to be liable to warp2 upon the higher part are screwed two strips of hard wood 7,b ,b7 about #a4e in4 or #b in4 wide1 forming a right angle where they meet4 ,the whole must be very accurately made1 and although deal will answer the purpose1 hard wood of some kind will be more satisfactory4 ,beech or oak will do very well4 ,fig4 #dj--,mitre block4 ,suppose a piece of moulding to require mitring2 it has only to be laid as shown against the guide bar 7,b71 and sawn off on the line 7,,cc71 or laid on the other side against the second guide bar1 and similarly cut off4 ,it will be necessary to use both sides in this way1 because1 although the piece cut off has also an angle of #de deg1 it would need to be turned over and applied to the other1 which could not be done without reversing the moulding4 ,in a plain unmoulded strip this1 of course1 would not signify4 ,gilt moulding may be put at each end or not1 according to the fancy and pocket of the workman4 ,the case is now finished1 and shows the front and two sides of glass framed in by gilt1 outside of which is the narrow black line of the wood4 ,if it be desired to get up the wood of the case in a superior manner1 it must first be blacked with the glue and lamp-black1 sand-papered down1 blacked and sand-papered again1 and finally ,french polished4 ,the most substantial and effective case is the stop-chamfered one1 made either in deal ebonized1 or fancy woods polished4 ,in this the glass is put in from the back with putty1 or papered in1 and finally held in place by beads of wood1 the top is lined with linen and coloured in oil1 and after the work is put in 7from the back7 the back-board 7previously lined and coloured7 is screwed up1 and thus you have a case perfectly impervious to dust or to the changes of the atmosphere4 ,unless the amateur is a good workman1 it will be better for him to get such a case turned out by a professional joiner1 to ensure clean-cut work4 ,these are very handsome and neat cases1 especially if the back be ploughed out deeply to receive a canvas on a stretcher1 on which a characteristic scene is painted4 ,in this event the included work must be good1 and the fitting-up as plain as possible4 ,cases for fishes are best glazed by sprung or semi-convex glass for the fronts1 which often does away with the necessity for glass ends1 and gives also a more artistic and finished appearance4 ,glass shades1 especially those of an oval shape1 suit many birds well1 but for large work are more expensive than cases4 ,stands in black or gilt are usually supplied with them2 but those in mahogany1 oak1 and other fancy woods must be ordered1 unless the amateur possesses a lathe1 and the requisite knowledge to use it4 ,in fitting up these with rockwork1 etc1 it is best to arrange the work on a false bottom1 or at least to cover up with paper the polished stand1 lest it be spoiled4 ,,mounts4--,mounts1 which are simply tops of round or oval shades fitted into corresponding stands or frames of wood1 or are open cylinders of glass with a flat piece cemented on one end1 were1 ,i believe1 first invented by ,mr4 ,george ,ashmead1 of ,bishopsgate-street1 ,london4 ,they are very effective1 and also occupy but little space1 as they hang up on the wall in positions where shades or cases will not go4 ,the method of making up a mount is as follows3 ,procure from a glass merchant the top of a shade1 let us say #ab in4 in diameter by #g in4 high4 ,to this have a stand or rim turned out of thoroughly dry wood of sufficient size to overlap the shade #a in4 all round--#ad in4 in diameter1 therefore1 for a #ab in4 shade4 ,a groove should be turned in them stand of sufficient width to allow the glass to play freely4 ,the groove1 however1 should be so arranged that the excess in width should fall outside the glass4 ,the centre of the stand inside the groove being tinted for a sky1 as desired1 the objects1 whether small birds or butterflies1 are introduced in the usual manner1 and the glass is then cemented1 in the groove1 over them4 ,waste cylinders of glass may be economised for making mounts4 ,it will then1 however1 be necessary to have a circular plate for the top cut by a glazier's turn-table4 ,these are really better for showing up anything than the round-topped mounts1 as they cast no reflection2 but the top plates are harder to put on and to keep on when finished4 ,strongly pasted black tape will do to fix the very small ones1 but for larger the tops should be cemented with thick white-lead1 left to dry1 and then further cemented with narrow tape smeared with white-lead1 or any of the cements given in chapter ,,iv4 ,if it be desired to give a rounded edge to this taping1 plaster or whiting mixed with glue and lamp-black may be laid on thickly1 rubbed down with fine sand-paper1 and polished1 or if the black is left out1 the cement may be gilded1 after the manner of picture frames4 ,the stand itself may be dished out in the centre1 in concave form1 and thus more room allowed for the enclosed specimens2 but in this case the stand must be of some thickness4 ,at one time the glasses were put in the stands with glue and cork1 or glue and paper1 until it was found1 in nine cases out of ten1 that glue1 under atmospheric changes1 sooner or later broke the glass1 or else entirely released it4 ,putty was then used1 but that failed to hold with the tenacity required1 as there was a constant tendency of the shade to fall out by its natural weight when hanging up4 ,i have accordingly mixed white-lead with putty with better results1 in the proportion of two parts putty2 one ditto white-lead 7thick1 such as gasfitters use72 one-eighth ditto gold size--or ,i have used red-lead1 mixed with common putty and boiled oil2 and1 again1 simply plaster of ,paris mixed with water4 ,these last two are the best holdfasts of glass within my experience4 ,supposing the stand to be ebonized1 or of mahogany or any other fancy wood1 the putty or plaster can be coloured to any required tint1 or if the stand is gilt the cement can be gilded over4 ,failing to make a very neat job1 it will be necessary to wind a piece of chenille around the shade in order to hide the junction4 ,as it is very difficult to prevent a small percentage of the cement from working inside1 and thus spoiling the neatness of the sky effect1 ,i have devised the following plan1 which ,i do not think is generally known3 ,instead of using a solid stand with groove for the back of the mount1 ,i turn a rim of wood to form a ring1 in such a manner that it shall just pass over the shade without allowing the latter to fall through at its bottom edge4 ,underneath this rim1 or ring1 ,i turn it out to within a quarter of an inch of its edge to receive the back1 turned out of a piece of thinner wood4 ,the rim of wood is best turned by being nearly cut through on its upper or pattern side1 the wood then reversed on the lathe1 turned out to receive the back1 then altered again1 and the rim cut entirely through4 ,to fix this1 the rim is fitted on over the glass1 and kept in place with cement4 ,the work is made up on the back1 which is then screwed1 or pasted1 or glued1 in the hollow turned out at the back of the rim4 ,by this method there is no cement showing inside on the sky-line of the work when finished1 nor can the glass possibly tumble out1 being1 of course1 held by the rim1 which is of necessity smaller than the bottom of the glass4 ,such rims may1 of course1 be ebonized1 of fancy woods1 or gilded1 according to the taste of the workman4 ,a small screw-plate with ring should be attached to hang it up by4 ,a modification of the mount is made by securing five pieces of glass together in the usual manner1 by tape pasted on each edge to make a square glass cover1 making up the work on a piece of board of the required size1 rebated or grooved all around1 or by nailing on strips of wood to receive the glass cover1 which is then pasted or cemented to the edges of the board1 and finally finished off by dropping over all picture-frame moulding1 cut and joined to size1 to which the back is screwed4 ,this style does either for fishes or dead game to stand upon a hall table1 or easily becomes a mount by the simple process of screwing on plate-rings1 and hanging it up on a wall4 ,the colouring of the backs of cases and mounts is of two kinds--distemper and oil2 that is to say1 supposing paper1 calico or sheeting is used for the back of the cases or mounts4 ,colour the paper or other material--if you wish to show a toned sky--with whiting in which a little glue-water or paste is dissolved1 or with common flake-white and size 7note that there must be a good body of white to give a luminous appearance71 tinting at the same time with blue1 shading off into pink1 etc4 ,the colours most useful are ultramarine1 vermilion1 and chrome yellow in powder4 ,this colouring will not do if putty is used to put the glass in with1 as the oil flies over the tinted sky4 ,for oil painting place a thin calico or canvas on the backs1 and colour with the tints you desire1 mixed in oil and turps4 ,putty can be used in any part with this colouring4 ,one coat of colour is sufficient1 as if another is added an unpleasant glaze is the result4 ,,shields4--,heads of mammals1 etc1 when set up and finished1 should be mounted on shields of fancy wood2 oak or mahogany being the best1 unless ebonized and gilded pine is preferred4 ,the shapes are usually a modification of the conventional heart1 such as will be found in a pack of cards4 ,this being purely a matter of individual taste1 the taxidermist may easily make as many patterns as he chooses by doubling a piece of brown or stiff paper and cutting his shapes out therefrom4 ,one of these paper patterns may be traced around upon a piece of planed wood of the suitable size1 and cut out by a bow -saw1 the edges trimmed and bevelled1 and the surface finally polished4 ,a key-hole 7protected by metal screwed across in the instances of large or weighty heads71 is bored or cut1 by which to hang it up1 and the neck-block of the specimen is screwed thereto by three screws of sufficient length placed in the form of a triangle4 ,horns alone are attached to shields by screws running through the frontal bone1 or1 if without this1 are attached--to a model of the frontal bone in wood1 by nuts and screws4 ,,cabinets ,,for ,,eggs ,,and ,,skins4--,i have lately seen many cabinets for eggs1 skins1 etc1 constructed on a capital system1 the invention1 ,i believe1 of ,mr4 ,salvin1 the eminent ornithologist4 ,the drawers are made of varying depths1 from #a in4 to #f in1 and the bottoms are fitted with tongues overlapping each side1 which fit into grooves cut in the carcase of the cabinet1 and so arranged by a little calculation that a shallow drawer can immediately be inserted in the place previously occupied by a deep one1 or vice versa--i4e1 a deep #f in4 drawer1 which may be ,no4 #cj1 at the bottom1 can be pushed upwards at any intermediate point between that and ,no4 #a4 ,the modus operandi is as follows3 ,whatever the depth decided on of the drawers1 the carcase is grooved all the way down to half the depth of the shallowest drawer1 if in even inches1 or to a multiple of each drawer if otherwise4 ,example3 ,take a foot rule and mark off #aj in on a piece of paper1 dividing it into alternate half inches making1 of course1 twenty half inches2 this represents the carcase4 ,then take some strips of paper or cardboard1 which cut to #a in1 #a4e in1 #b in4 #b4e in4 and #c in4 respectively1 total #aj in4 ,these represent the drawers2 putting them in their order1 they will1 of course1 fit in the #aj in4 ,now change them about1 top to bottom1 or bottom in the middle1 or in any way that you like1 and you will find that they will always fall in a groove1 leaving room for the others1 when pushed down1 without any open space between4 ,the same method is adopted in the cabinets under the invertebrate show cases in the ,liverpool ,museum1 which ,i recently visited under the able guidance of the clever and genial curator1 ,mr4 ,moore1 so well known1 together with his family1 in connection with many unique and beautiful osteological preparations4 ,,casing ,,up ,,with ,,rockwork1 ,,etc4--,brown paper was formerly the pice de rsistance of those who aspired to imitate rocks on which to place or to surround their animals4 ,it was used by being first soaked in water and drawn over pieces of wood1 boxes1 or large cinders even1 to give shape4 ,it was then glued1 and small stones and sand thrown on4 ,usually uncoloured1 it revealed itself in its naked ugliness1 and looked what it was--paper4 ,later1 it was more artistically arranged1 and when divested of folds by the application of more paper1 plenty of glue1 and well coloured1 it certainly looked decent4 ,then came peat1 a glorious innovation for quick1 if not artistic1 work4 ,this dried earth1 dug from bogs1 admits of being carved and shaped to almost any form4 ,sandstone and some other rocks may be represented by it1 as also trunks of trees4 ,well glued and sanded1 it takes colour readily1 or it may be gone over with a mixture of whiting and plaster of ,paris with glue-water1 and finally coloured2 or dry plaster may be mixed with thick oil paint as a priming medium4 ,virgin cork is the latest rockwork model4 ,its shape being irregular1 it is well suited to imitate craggy rocks1 added to which it takes thick colour or whiting well1 glued or unglued4 ,nothing1 however1 beats a mixture of all methods--paper1 peat1 and cork1 their lines broken up or blended with wadding4 ,the whole of this1 well glued1 sanded1 and properly coloured1 will defy the most critical unprofessional judgment to declare it anything but what it seems--hard rock4 ,i am speaking1 of course1 of small cases2 large work requires consideration4 ,peat will not do for anything but the illustration of small subjects4 ,it is too heavy1 and does not readily adapt itself to imitate large masses of overhanging rock2 added to which1 its expense in large quantities is very great4 ,it is also dirty to work with1 and is often a harbour for larvae of various moths--inimical to the taxidermist4 ,i so recognised all these facts in the treatment of the rockwork in the ,leicester ,museum1 that ,i determined to use paper only1 treating it by an old method1 artistically elaborated4 ,this method was1 after making a rough drawing and calculation as to the positions the specimens would occupy in the case1 to nail strips of quartering across the backs of the cases1 to which again were nailed strips of #j4ge in4 wood1 crossing in all directions1 but especially where the drawings indicated a mass of rock4 ,on these1 and to these1 small shelves of wood were nailed in the positions to be subsequently occupied by the specimens4 ,to these shelves cardboard was tacked1 and bent upward and downward to the pointed or square shapes assumed by the rocks modelled from4 ,footnote3 ,it is quite necessary in artistic modelling not only to have coloured drawings of the rocks you are imitating1 but to have an actual piece by you as a little guide to form and colour4 ,where the edges were too sharp they were beaten in by a mallet1 or altered by glueing on wadding4 ,the mass of rock being joined here and there to break up the appearance of shelves1 and to give a certain homogeneity1 was then treated by having brown paper well glued on both sides1 stuck all over the edges1 joins1 or accidental fissures2 this1 suffered to dry1 was then well painted with a mixture of whiting and glue-water1 again allowed to dry1 and again painted4 ,when this last was dry it was gone over with a thin wash of glue-water1 and sharp silver sand thrown on2 when dry1 coloured by staining it with various oil colours 7not tube71 and some few powder colours--blue-black1 yellow ochre1 ,vandyke brown1 celestial blue 7cheap71 burnt sienna1 etc1 thinned with turps1 afterwards touched up1 when dry1 with touches of tube colours1 smartly and cleanly put on4 ,this would be the treatment and colouring for greyish-brown or yellowish-grey smooth1 dry-looking rocks1 sandstones1 etc42 and by a little alteration of tint and treatment in places1 would imitate the various slates4 ,for chalk and limestone1 mix plaster and sand with the whiting and lay it on thickly1 not throwing on sand1 as a final operation4 ,colours1 of course1 are different here1 more bright and light green predominating2 but the colouring of the rockwork1 etc1 to imitate the various kinds of rocks required1 is only to be learned by experience2 in point of fact1 to colour rocks in an effective manner is really the work of an artist1 for it is requisite to know the properties of colours1 and to scumble and stipple or glaze one colour over another to get depth4 ,a few hints may1 however1 help out the tyro4 ,for rough sea rocks1 after sanding and glueing1 go over the rockwork with a mixture of chrome yellow and ,prussian blue1 mixed with oil and turps1 the blue predominating2 touch up the points with white1 and allow it to dry4 ,the next day deepen the shadows with ,brunswick black1 stippling lightly the remainder of the rock with the same4 ,arrange sea-shells and sea-weed1 here and there1 where the mounted subject allows of this treatment4 ,this is a shining dark bluish-green and brown rock1 suitable for sea-gulls1 divers1 etc4 ,for rough grey land rock1 paint over all with lamp-black in powder1 mixed with plaster of ,paris1 and touch up the points with oil white4 ,when the work is quite dry1 go over all with a glaze of ,prussian blue mixed with ,brunswick black4 ,fit up with ferns1 grass1 and golden lichens on the points1 or in the hollows4 ,this makes a greyish rock with no gloss1 and is suitable for owls and similar birds4 ,for rough sandstone rock1 paint over with chrome yellow and a very little blue mixed with oil white1 the latter predominating2 dust over on the points with red sand1 touch up the hollows with ,brunswick black1 suffer to dry1 and then go over all with a very little rose pink or vermilion1 worked up in turps with a little varnish4 ,fit up with ferns1 grasses1 and mosses4 ,this is a reddish-yellow rock1 suitable for anything not having red or yellow fur or feathers4 ,the predominating colour may be mixed with the whiting1 etc1 to paint over the artificial rock2 but there is a certain loss of brilliancy in the colours which follow1 unless a white ground has been previously laid on4 ,for certain objects a great advantage is obtained by making up the rockwork on a false bottom and slipping it1 ready finished1 into the case4 ,there are hundreds of other varieties1 but they must be worked out by each person according to his proclivities4 ,it might as well be expected that a picture could be painted from printed directions as to imagine that one person could make a rockwork precisely similar to another without seeing it done1 or without working it out by his own experience4 ,trees for large groups may be carved out of successive layers of peat1 or modelled up with brown paper and virgin cork2 better still by arranging brown paper over rods or a wire framework1 covered previously by tow1 and afterwards coloured to nature4 ,the leaves of some trees dry and colour up well1 and can be introduced on the natural or artificial twigs4 ,,twigs4--,artificial twigs can be made by twisting tow round wire1 glueing1 and throwing on sawdust1 peat-dust1 etc1 and afterwards colouring4 ,the most natural way1 however1 is to rub up the gold and grey lichens1 and throw them on the glued tow1 filling up afterwards with larger pieces to break the lines4 ,natural and artificial twigs mix well together2 the latter1 from their flexibility1 allowing of any treatment4 ,,ferns1 ,,grasses1 ,,etc1 ,,for ,,fitting up4--,time was when our ancestors were content to stick their preserved specimens in boxes with nothing to break the blank of white paper which backed them up4 ,nowadays we have arrived at such a pitch of decorative art in taxidermy1 as in all things1 that this stiffness of outline does not suffice2 accordingly1 we break our background by flowing lines of beauty1 produced by the graceful aids of dried ferns and grasses1 twigs of trees1 etc4 ,many ferns are not suitable for decoration2 for instance1 the male fern 7,filix-mas7 is of too tender a texture to stand upright when weighted with colour4 ,the very best fern is the common brake 7,pteris aquilina71 as also the common polypody 7,polypodium vulgare74 ,the fronds of the brake should be gathered in ,august or ,september1 when they are fully matured and hard1 and also when the weather1 is hot and dry4 ,if gathered in continuous wet weather1 hardly any amount of drying will prevent the fronds from ultimately becoming mouldy1 when no amount of after-drying prevents them going brittle and dropping to pieces4 ,ferns which have lost their green colouring matter1 and are going red and yellow1 dry well1 and retain their colours nicely if quickly dried4 ,foreign ferns1 such as the various adiantums1 the gold and silver ferns1 and many others1 dry well1 and retain their colour if care be used2 nothing suits foreign birds better as a background than the ferns and grasses of the various countries they inhabit4 ,paper used in the drying of botanical specimens is sold1 but being too expensive for this particular purpose1 a supply of large sheets of common grey paper used by ironmongers or grocers1 or even brown paper1 will suffice--the ferns should1 directly they are gathered1 be laid out straight on a board1 or on a floor1 and covered with paper1 then more ferns1 again a layer of paper1 and so on--a board weighted with bricks should be placed over all1 and suffered to remain for a few days2 the ferns are then to be turned1 the paper dried1 and the process repeated4 ,when thoroughly dry1 the ferns may be coloured with oil paint thinned with turps and varnish1 sufficient to give lustre without shininess4 ,here and there break the green colour with white1 red1 blue1 and yellow1 in a manner which will occur to anyone having artistic ability4 ,ferns treated in this manner soon dry1 and retain their colour for an indefinite period1 the only thing to be said against them being their rather unnatural flatness--due to pressure2 this1 however1 may be counteracted by a little judgment during the drying1 one plan being the regulation of pressure at certain points1 aided also by clean dry sand4 ,several hard-leaved plants 7mostly foreign7 found in our conservatories are also excellent driers1 many taking colour readily4 ,many grasses 7not the flowers1 but the leaves or blades7 dry well4 ,amongst the best of these is the wiregrass1 found in woods1 growing especially over runnels in those localities4 ,the flower also of this plant is most eligible as a decorative agent4 ,the wood melick is another elegant and suitable plant4 ,the sedges 7,carex7 dry and colour well1 as also several of the water-rushes1 reeds1 and flags4 ,the toad-rush 7,juncus bufonius71 and its allies1 found in damp places1 by roads1 by canals1 and in pasture or corn-fields1 dry and colour excellently4 ,sphagnum1 or bog moss1 especially when having pink tips1 is a most beautiful object2 the only thing to be said against it is the difficulty of getting it free from water1 and the length of time it takes afterwards to dry4 ,mosses of various sorts growing in woods on trees--lichens1 gold and grey1 mosses or lichen-covered twigs1 sprigs of heather1 furze1 sea-lavender--all dry well1 and come in usefully4 ,many persons like their moss and grasses dyed3 this is perhaps allowable in some cases for common work2 but if a bird or a mammal is nicely mounted1 the plainer the fitting1 and nearer nature1 the better4 ,to those1 however1 who desire to dye their grasses1 ,i recommend ,judson's powder dyes as the readiest medium1 the directions for manipulating which are given with them4 ,any rough grass in flower does for dyeing1 and a visit to the fields just before haymaking will supply the amateur with all he wants for this4 ,teazles1 thistles1 and the umbels 7seed-heads7 of various plants1 chiefly compositae1 will be found of service2 but everything must be thoroughly dried before being coloured1 or before being introduced into shades or cases4 ,nothing must be coloured with water colours or gums1 as some writers contend1 or mould will inevitably follow4 ,a few drops of creosote1 or the black carbolic acid of commerce1 poured into the case or shade just before closing up1 is a very good thing to prevent mildew1 though if everything is thoroughly dried1 and only oil colours are used1 no danger from this cause need be apprehended4 ,,sea-,,weeds1 ,,shells1 ,,etc4--,sea-weeds1 which are constantly used in fitting up cases of sea birds1 need no description as to their collection1 further than to say that all sea-weeds1 whether sea-weeds proper1 corallines1 and zoophytes1 must be well washed in spring water1 many times changed1 to thoroughly remove the salt1 and must be well dried before being introduced into cases or shades4 ,those who require full descriptions of ,british sea-weeds1 their collection and preservation1 ,i must refer to ,british ,marine ,algae1 by ,w4 ,h4 ,grattan1 published at the office of ,the ,bazaar1 #agj1 ,strand1 ,london4 ,few sea-weeds proper are applicable to the purpose of the taxidermist1 though some of the oar-weeds can be used1 and many of the red sea-weeds 7,rhodosperms7 can be floated out in water and carelessly arranged on paper1 if wanted for fitting-up purposes1 or more carefully arranged if for a collection4 ,after washing1 these small plants adhere by their natural mucilage to the paper on which they may be floated out4 ,of all the sea-weeds proper the ,carrageen mosses 7,chondrus crispus and mamillosus7 are the most eligible1 and if dried and arranged in cases are very elegant4 ,the common coralline 7,corallina officinalis7--a sea-weed which so rapidly attracts carbonate of lime as to be almost of a stony or coral-like texture--is another invaluable plant for fitting up4 ,when wet it is usually purple or pink1 but on exposure to the sun becomes white4 ,amongst the zoophytes which1 though looking like the sea-weeds1 are not of vegetable origin1 there are many which are most useful1 not to say indispensable to the taxidermist4 ,leaving out the foreign corals1 sea-fans1 sponges1 etc1 we shall certainly find the most useful ,english species to be first3 the broad leaved horn-wrack 7,flustra foliacia71 that mass of thin hand-like leaves1 of the colour of brown paper1 which is cast up on some shores1 often in great quantities4 ,other useful sorts are those like little trees1 such as the common sea fir 7,sertularia1 abietina and operculata72 these last are found especially attached to stones1 shells and sea-weeds4 ,the lobster's horn coralline 7,antennularia antennina7 and the various sponges are also most useful things1 the branched sponge 7,halichondria oculata7 and others being amongst the best for use4 ,several of the bladder-wracks or sea-grapes will dry nicely1 as also will the egg cases of the whelk and the sea purses and skate barrows1 really the egg bags of the dogfish and skate4 ,the starfish1 or five fingers1 will1 after washing1 dry well1 or can be plunged in any one of the hardening solutions mentioned in ,chapter ,,iv4 ,the various sea urchins 7,echinii71 if emptied of their contents1 make pretty objects1 either with or without their spines4 ,the beautiful sea anemones are1 however1 impossible to preserve as dried objects1 but must be modelled in glass or wax1 as imitations4 ,various shells come in handily also2 amongst those may be mentioned the common razor shells 7,solen ensis and siliqua71 several of the ,venus shells1 the common limpets1 the chitons1 several of the trochi1 and last1 but not least1 the shells of the speckled scallop 7,pecten varius74 ,many freshwater1 as also land shells1 come in for decorating cases of littoral birds4 ,amongst those of the first we may instance ,limnoea stagnalis1 palustris1 peregra1 etc1 ,dreissena polymorpha1 ,planorbis corneus1 etc42 the various ,unios1 anodons1 and many others4 ,amongst the land shells very many of the ,helices1 such as the gaily-coloured nemoralis1 or its variety hortensis1 caperata1 arbustorum1 cantiana1 etc1 as well as many other specimens4 ,the preservation of most freshwater and land shells is exceedingly easy1 the greater number of specimens requiring only to be plunged into boiling water1 and the contents removed--an easy operation in the case of the bivalves1 and the contents of univalves or snail-like shells being also easily wormed out with a pin or crooked awl4 ,footnote3 ,mr4 ,r4 ,b4 ,woodward1 ,f4,g4,s1 etc4 in one of the very best and most practical of those wonderful little penny ,handbooks for young collectors1 advises a large spoonful of salt being added to the boiling water1 for two reasons1 one1 because it puts them out of pain at once1 and also makes their subsequent extraction more easy4 ,it is a good plan 7says he7 to soak the smaller shells in cold water 7without salt71 before killing them1 as they swell out with the water1 and do not when dead retreat so far into their shells4 ,for works on shells see ,manual of the ,mollusca1 by ,dr4 ,s4 ,p4 ,woodward1 ,j4 ,gywn-,jeffreys' ,british ,conchology1 ,lovell ,reeve's ,british ,land and ,freshwater ,mollusks1 and several clever articles in ,science ,gossip and the ,conchological ,journal1 by ,mr4 ,g4 ,sherriff ,tye and others4 ,glue is sufficient to fix all these objects in their places on rockwork1 in cases2 resins1 such as mastic or shellac1 or any of the cements mentioned in ,chapter ,,iv1 are1 however1 the best mediums to fix such objects upon tablets for scientific purposes4 ,for fixing shells on labelled cards1 ,mr4 ,woodward recommends gum arabic1 with one-sixth of its bulk of pure glycerine added to it1 which makes a semi-elastic cement1 with the advantage also of allowing the shells to be taken from their tablets1 at any time1 by the intervention of hot water4 ,,drying ,,and ,,storage ,,of ,,specimens4--,it is always a vexed question how to keep newly-mounted specimens free from moths1 and flies1 and dust1 whilst drying4 ,the difficulty is1 that you cannot put them away at once in boxes1 cases1 or shades1 for if you do they do not dry at all1 but sweat and slowly rot1 or else become mildewed4 ,if you expose them fully without any covering1 they are soon covered with dust1 and liable at any moment to--first1 the attacks of meat flies1 and next of moths and beetles4 ,good insect powder is1 as ,i have before pointed out1 a deterrent2 still1 to make assurance doubly sure1 ,i would always1 in the case of valuable specimens1 enclose them in square cages1 made one side of glass1 and the three other sides and top of fine meshed muslin1 wirework1 or perforated zinc1 the latter sufficiently fine not to allow small moths and flies to creep in4 ,these can be made of various sizes1 can be varied by having a top and back of wood1 can have the front to open like a meat safe with shelves1 or be simply cases to lift over the specimens like shades2 in any case1 however1 the front glass allows you to see how all is going on1 and the wire sides permit a free current of air to pass through to dry the specimens4 ,in this manner ,i have been enabled to laugh at the little wretches of insects buzzing around1 and flattening their noses against the zinc1 in vain endeavours to interview some charming specimens of young birds1 whose fluffy plumage they delight in4 ,like the cats1 they are so fond of noticing those dear little birds6 ,skins not in constant use for reference should1 when dried1 be wrapped in soft paper amidst insect powder1 and put away in closely fitting drawers4 ,paper fasteners are very useful to clip the ends of the paper--folded over--which encloses them4 ,,aquaria4--,this being a subject a little outside my province1 ,i do not purpose dwelling on it1 further than to say that all information will be found in ,the ,aquarium1 its ,history1 ,structure1 and ,management1 by ,dr4 ,j4 ,e4 ,taylor1 ,f4,l4,s1 etc42 ,gosse's ,handbook of the ,marine ,aquarium1 and many others4 ,two recipes1 culled from the ,scientific ,american1 #ahgi1 may be of service1 however3 ,cheap tanks can be made of wood and glass1 the frame and bottom being of wood1 and sides of glass4 ,in order to make the joints watertight1 care must be taken to get a proper aquarium putty or cement4 ,the following is a good recipe3 ,put an egg-cupful of oil and #d oz4 tar to #a lb4 resin1 melt over a gentle fire1 test it to see if it has the proper consistency when cooled2 if it has not1 heat longer1 or add more resin or tar4 ,pour the cement into the angles in a heated state1 but not boiling hot1 as it would crack the glass4 ,the cement will be firm in a few minutes4 ,then tip the aquarium in a different position1 and treat a second angle likewise1 and so on4 ,the cement does not poison the water4 ,to mend the broken glass of an aquarium1 fasten a strip of glass over the crack1 inside the aquarium1 using for a cement white shellac dissolved in one-eighth its weight of ,venice turpentine4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,general ,,remarks ,,on ,,artistic ,,mounting1 ,,modelled ,,foliage1 ,,screens1 ,,lamps1 ,,natural ,,history ,,jewellery1 ,,etc4 ,,artistic ,,mounting4--,,general ,,remarks4--,by the time the student has slowly worked his way to this chapter1 he will no doubt--should he be apt1 and have an artistic mind--have achieved things beyond the mere drudgery of the profession4 ,i take it that1 being interested in his work1 he will not have rested content with mounting--even in a perfect manner--his animals at rest1 but will have had a shy at animals in action1 or engaged in some characteristic occupation4 ,the days of birds on hat-pegs1 stiff-legged1 long-necked and staring1 round-eyed1 at nothing--of mammals1 whose length and stiffness are their greatest merit--has passed away for ever2 and only in dreary museums1 far behind the age1 where funereal silence obtains1 and where the dust of mummied animals arises to awe and half poison the adventurous explorer1 are these specimens to be found4 ,public museums are1 unfortunately1 in nine cases out of ten1 not good schools for delineating the natural attitudes or characteristics of animals4 ,this arises partly from the fact that all1 save the more modern ones1 retain their original specimens mounted in the old style4 ,the newer work of the museums of ,london1 ,paris1 ,madrid1 etc1 is1 however generally of quite a different stamp4 ,footnote3 ,since this was written1 the new ,south ,kensington ,natural ,history ,museum has been built and ,i lately had the pleasure of a private view--through the courtesy of ,mr4 ,r4 ,bowdler ,sharpe ,f4,l4,s4--of the new style of mounting of the future1 i4e4 pairs of birds their nests and young1 surrounded with carefully-modelled foliage and accessories4 ,i there saw a bunch of willow-herb magnificently modelled4 ,i was pleased1 however1 from an artist's point of view1 to discover that we in ,leicester could give them a ,roland for an ,oliver in our white-throats1 together with their nest and young1 surrounded by a modelled bramble-bush in blossom2 and with our swallows in section of a cow-house--neither of which groups have yet been attempted for the national collection4 ,i am trembling with apprehension1 however1 that ere long ,mr4 ,sharpe and his merry men--one of them1 a ,german1 the cleverest bird-mounter ,i ever saw--will leave us in the lurch4 ,nevertheless1 healthy emulation of the best features of our national collection will do us no harm4 ,this struck me most forcibly with regard to that of ,madrid1 which ,i visited some years ago4 ,the vertebrate specimens were old and wretchedly mounted1 the lepidoptera nowhere2 but the recently acquired animals were splendidly rendered4 ,the youthful and painstaking amateur will1 no doubt1 however1 do as ,i did when a boy--viz1 pitch upon some professional taxidermist1 to whose window he will repair at all available opportunities to learn his style1 now and then venturing on some small purchase 7usually a pair of eyes71 to gain admittance to the glories within1 and have speech with the great man himself4 ,exploring in this manner1 ,i have had occasion to thank many of the leading ,london taxidermists for little tips ungrudgingly given4 ,a few hints may suffice to help the reader4 ,the most important canon is3 ,do not mix your orders of birds2 that is to say1 abstain from surrounding a hawk tearing its prey1 with various birds in all attitudes1 placidly ignoring the existence of their enemy4 ,a scene of this kind irresistibly reminds me of the stage aside1 when the villain of the piece audibly proclaims vengeance against the unconscious hero but two yards away on his right or left4 ,birds not of the same kind1 and from different parts of the world1 are often cased together1 but this is open to criticism1 unless you avowedly wish to illustrate the whole order for purposes of reference1 as in the instance of1 say1 the ,columbae 7pigeons74 ,pairs of birds are the most effective1 if the idea of the surroundings is nicely carried out4 ,i have seen one or two very funny effects in the ,black ,country4 ,in one example1 a scarlet ibis1 mounted in a case on a broken piece of highly gorgeous china gaselier2 in another1 two puppies facing each other on velvet1 a piece of rock salt in the middle1 on which stood a lapwing1 surrounded by foreign birds in all attitudes4 ,need ,i warn the reader against such flights of fancy and works of art8 ,it is1 ,i would remark1 quite impossible to give directions as to attitudes1 but on one point ,i might advise1 in order to save the many inquiries addressed to me1 from time to time1 upon the subject of the straightness or otherwise of gulls' legs4 ,the fact is--gulls1 when standing1 tuck the tibia quite close to the abdomen1 apparently under the wing1 and reveal only a very little portion of the tibio-tarsal joint1 keeping the metatarse perfectly straight1 or1 as someone wrote to me once1 like two arrows or sticks4 7,for explanation of these parts named1 see ,plate ,,ii1 7,n1 q1 ,p47 7 ,although most works on taxidermy profess to give descriptions of the attitudes of animals1 ,i cannot do so for the simple reason that ,i consider the acquirement a speciality and purely a matter of experience4 ,nature must be closely studied2 failing this1 reference must be made to illustrated works on natural history4 ,all of ,gould's works are grand guides to attitudes of specimens and accessories1 as also that beautiful work of my friend ,h4 ,e4 ,dresser1 ,f4,l4,s1 etc1 on the ,birds of ,europe2 but as the price of these magnificent works places them beyond the reach of any but rich people1 the amateur may fall back on ,morris's ,british ,birds and ,bree's ,birds of ,europe for coloured plates1 and ,routledge's ,wood's ,natural ,history for uncoloured plates of many mammals1 birds1 and fishes2 those signed by ,coleman being especially artistic and natural4 ,add to these ,cassell's new ,natural ,history1 edited by ,dr4 ,duncan1 ,f4,r4,s4--really the best book on popular natural history we have4 ,other works1 perhaps not so easily accessible1 are the ,proceedings of the ,zoological ,society1 and the ,ibis1 for coloured illustrations of animals--often in characteristic attitudes1 and which1 with the above-named works1 fitly replace the more ancient pictures of animals1 arranged on the fore and aft system1 and from which instead of nature1 our taxidermists took their original ideas2 indeed1 the ,english school1 with true ,british insularity1 would1 ,i presume1 have continued the mounting of animals by this fore and aft method1 had not the ,germans and ,french broken rudely in on our slumbering taxidermists at the ,great ,exhibition of #ahea4 ,footnote3 ,is it not singular that even now anything stiff1 inartistic1 solidly 7i4e4 clumsily7 made1 or behind the age1 is cherished with the utmost veneration1 as being a proof of the solidity of our ,old ,english ,methods 7and skulls76 ,i propose now to give a few hints on groups1 etc1 not describing their management1 but merely giving a list of subjects4 ,first1 let me say that in order of merit1 in all arts connected with the preservation of natural history objects1 ,i must1 after many years study1 give the palm to the ,germans1 not only in all matters connected with artistic taxidermy1 but in their elegant and truthful setting of beetles1 their sensible setting of lepidoptera1 and their really beautiful method of making skins of birds etc4 ,next come the ,french1 then the ,english1 and lastly1 the ,americans4 ,the ,americans are the worst simply because they adopt the crudest ,english methods of taxidermy1 with other bad habits of ours4 ,i may say that ,i never saw an artistic piece of work1 nor a well made skin1 coming from ,america1 unless done by a ,german or a ,frenchman4 ,i believe1 however1 the ,european element is working wonders amongst them1 and reading ,mr4 ,batty's book 7if he be a true ,american71 ,i was very favourably impressed with the signs of progress contained therein1 and ,i should not at all wonder if soon our ,american friends go ahead and quickly leave us behind4 ,professor ,henry a4 ,ward1 of ,rochester1 ,new ,york1 ,u4,s4,a1 in a well-written article in one of his ,bulletins sent to me1 has1 since ,i wrote the above1 confessed the great superiority of ,european over ,american taxidermists1 but says that within the last few 7very few7 years1 their native taxidermists have greatly improved1 owing to the importation of clever foreign artists1 who are gradually educating the ,american workmen4 ,just before this there was an entertaining article in the ,century magazine1 and illustrations were given showing the best work of the ,american taxidermic artists4 ,i must say1 however1 that1 unless the draughtsman failed to copy what an educated eye looks for1 none of this work struck me as being of a high order--one or two pieces1 indeed1 being decidedly capable of improvement4 ,possibly this improvement has taken place by now2 anyway1 ,i heartily wish ,brother ,jonathan good luck in his taxidermic studies4 ,at present1 however1 ,i say to all rising taxidermists1 follow the lead of the ,germans--they are true artists2 and with the ,italian modelling and ,french neatness of workmanship to fall back on1 success is certain4 ,looking back to '#ea1 let us see what one of these foreigners 7mentioned in chapter ,i7 could teach us4 ,among over fifty groups of animals shown in the ,great ,exhibition were3 ,a stag caught by five hounds 7price #ahj pounds74 ,a wild boar set on by three hounds4 ,a couple of old and young foxes in front of their earth 7#fj pounds74 ,trophy of #be heads of animals of the chase4 ,nest of a horned owl4 ,two old birds and five young defending themselves against two polecats 7#cj pounds74 ,goshawk attacking an eagle owl4 ,these were followed by comic groups1 six of which illustrated ,goethe's fable of ,reinecke the ,fox1 and were skilfully managed as well as amusing4 ,some others were3 ,a duel between two dormice1 with moles as gravediggers4 ,a ,declaration of ,love4 ,two weasels4 ,a ,nursery ,maid4 ,one old and four young weasels4 ,shaving a ,luxury4 ,one frog shaving another4 ,apropos of the above1 frogs lend themselves better to comic scenes than almost any other animal1 from their ridiculous likeness1 when erect on their hind legs1 to mighty man4 ,hence advantage is often taken of this2 and amongst mirth-provoking caricatures ,i have seen ,a ,steeplechase1 frogs mounted on puppies as horses1 some tumbling at the water-jump1 others riding to win1 some unhorsed1 scrambling after their steeds1 and so on2 ,the ,battle of the ,nile1 frogs on rafts of leaves of water plants1 attacking one another with small bulrushes2 duel scenes2 ,courtship and ,matrimony2 ,fortiter in ,re1 a young frog soundly smacked 7in the most approved fashion7 by the irate paternal frog2 the companion picture1 ,suaviter in ,modo1 a young frog soothed by maternal affection4 ,monkeys are the next best for comic scenes1 but are more awkward to handle1 and not half so funny1 unless very carefully modelled to caricature the manners and customs of the human subject4 ,pourtrayed as shoemakers1 acrobats1 as ,you dirty boy6 or1 as in the ,fisheries ,exhibition of #ahhc1 as ,the ,enthusiast 7a gouty monkey fishing in a tub placed in his sick chamber71 they are1 perhaps1 the most successful4 ,the addition of miniature furniture to assist the delusion is permissible2 but1 after all1 these caricatures are not artistic taxidermy1 and they are only allowable now and then as a relaxation4 ,perhaps that which most exercises the skill and judgment of the taxidermic artist is reproducing large groups of some of ,landseer's pictures1 such as1 ,the ,combat 7two stags fighting72 the ,stag at ,bay1 and others in connection with hunting4 ,lion and tiger fighting over prey2 two tigers fighting for possession of a deer2 head and paws of lion or tiger peeping over a rock2 tiger crouching for a spring on some feeding animal2 lion and zebra2 panther or jaguar crouching on an overhanging tree-trunk2 leopard killed by a gemsbok antelope2 polar bear killing seal on ice2 lynx creeping over snow upon grouse2 wolf leaping with fore-legs in air on receiving his death-shot2 fox in full cry2 fox just missing a pheasant or duck by only securing the tail feathers2 two foxes fighting2 fox and playing cubs2 fox and trapped rabbit 7after ,ansdell72 ,heads and ,tails1 fox coming over bank as rabbit disappears2 dogs and puppies2 cats and kittens 7see ,landseer's1 ,ansdell's1 ,couldery's1 and ,frank ,paton's pictures for treatment of these72 otters and young2 otters with fish 7see ,landseer's and ,rolfe's pictures for these72 otters diving after fish1 both seen in mid-water1 are some of the studies which have been1 or can be1 executed4 ,among birds1 eagles and falcons at rest or in action are the most capable of artistic treatment1 such as ,the ,eagle's ,throne 7after ,wolf72 laemmergeyer carrying off lamb2 hawks fighting over a small bird1 allowing the latter to escape2 peregrine falcon striking a bittern2 eagle and wild cat2 sea-eagle and gulls2 osprey and fish4 ,in connection with the last1 one of the very best things ,i ever saw done with these specimens was in the ,fisheries ,exhibition1 #ahhc1 a piece of work--a study it might be called--executed by a ,german residing in ,london4 ,it represented an osprey tugging a fish from some sea rocks4 ,both fish and bird were excellently rendered2 the latter1 with wings expanded1 had gripped the fish with both feet1 and had raised it in the air some distance off the rocks2 the fish was1 however1 entangled by a line and hook it had swallowed2 and the action of the fish-hawk in attempting to tear the fish away was wonderfully fine1 the feathers were raised about the head1 the eye was fierce1 and the sidelong waft of the wings was most natural4 ,the study was all the more interesting from the fact that both bird and fish were poised in air without any visible means of support1 the case enclosing them being of glass all around4 ,how it was managed was easy for the professional eye to discover1 but ,i do not think ,i should be doing justice to the inventor to describe the method4 ,amongst the water birds1 which are the next best1 perhaps1 for artistic treatment1 come the swans1 in the attitude of swimming 7see ,chapter ,,xii471 ducks swimming1 diving1 and flying4 ,the ,widowed ,duck --after the celebrated picture--was one of the things very nicely rendered in the ,fisheries ,exhibition2 the painting of an artistic scene at the back of this case helped the effect wonderfully1 as it usually does in good work4 ,hooded ,crows ,tracking a ,widgeon1 and ,wounded ,tern1 fallen by its eggs1 were two other clever groups--said to be copyright1 though how on earth such things can be copyright ,i do not know1 especially as not one of the things exhibited could be called original2 indeed1 everything ,i saw at the ,fisheries1 with the exception of the osprey mentioned above1 had been done over and over again by ,german1 ,french1 and ,english artists4 ,the work of these copyright groups--excepting the foliage1 which was rather stiff--was1 however1 very clean and nice1 and favourably compared with work by other taxidermists1 many of whose pieces--as the ,americans say--should have been refused on the score of pretentious incompetence4 ,there was one detestable exhibit1 all the more grievous as being professional4 ,no wonder that people1 seeing this sort of thing1 should laugh at fish and bird stuffing4 ,as ,i looked and wondered1 ,i felt that a first-class assortment of injurious epithets applied to such work would have relieved my perturbed spirit4 ,this digression puts me in mind of another1 and that is to warn the amateur not to know too much1 and think he has nothing to learn directly he can set up a bird or mammal1 or anything else1 in a fairly respectable manner4 ,the people who know everything1 and imagine they cannot be taught1 are just the people who know very little and who will never learn more4 ,duffers they are1 and duffers they will be1 to the end of their days4 ,every sensible man1 even should he rival ,methusaleh--which heaven forfend6--must be learning ,art 7even should he teach7 all his life4 ,make haste to learn1 therefore1 from anyone who can give you a hint1 and don't set yourself up 7or down7 in some obscure country town and fancy you are great4 ,come out into the world1 measure yourself against the best1 criticise your own work as if it were a stranger's4 ,be honest1 and say1 ,that man's work knocks mine into a cocked hat1 and then go home miserable1 but determined to beat that man's work or perish in the attempt4 ,never sneak6 ,if you see first-class work by anyone1 go boldly and say1 ,sir1 ,i am an amateur1 or1 ,i am a young professional1 as the case may be4 ,your work interests and delights me4 ,may ,i look around8 ,doubtless1 the person addressed will be flattered by your appreciation1 and1 unless narrow-minded1 will exchange views with you to your benefit4 ,let us return to our theme4 ,amongst the water birds1 then1 we may instance herons with young as making a nice group1 moorhens leading out their young on water under a mossy bank and so on2 and this brings us to the question of mounting pairs of birds1 with their nests and eggs1 or nests and young4 ,,groups ,,of ,,birds ,,and ,,young1 ,,with ,,modelled ,,foliage--,nothing in taxidermy requires more correct mounting and taste1 and nothing is more charming1 if properly done1 than illustrating the life-history of1 say1 a pair of birds with their nest and young4 ,take any birds you like--sparrows or robins--and1 if you know anything1 you may invest with artistic merit even such common specimens as these4 ,there is a certain fascination in young things which1 ,i suppose1 calls up all the kindly feelings of our nature1 and so it is that young birds tended by their parents are groups which appeal the most to the finer senses1 besides being really educative if worked out properly4 ,i remember1 quite twenty years ago1 when a boy1 seeing a collection of nearly all the ,british birds1 their nests and eggs1 for sale1 so that the idea is not a new one1 nor is that of surrounding such groups1 with proper accessories and modelled leaves and flowers1 as will shortly be exhibited to the public in the new ,british ,natural ,history ,room at ,south ,kensington1 and as is now exhibited in the ,leicester ,museum4 ,i remember getting foliage done for me many years ago for such groups1 and ,i believe ,mr4 ,shaw1 of ,shrewsbury1 did it long before ,i copied his lead4 ,who was the original inventor of this system ,i know not1 but ,i shrewdly suspect we have to thank ,french artists for this4 ,let it be thoroughly understood that ,i do not intend to disparage the beautiful work done for ,south ,kensington by the various gentlemen and artists interested1 but ,i merely point the adage1 ,nothing new under the sun4 ,of course1 when ,i say modelled foliage ,i do not allude to stamped leaves in various materials1 sold at so much 7or so little7 a gross1 and used to decorate boxes of birds in the ,black ,country quite fifty or sixty years ago1 but that which has arisen on its ashes in response to the cry for more art1 and because of the impossibility of getting any other natural flowers than everlasting1 or any other leaves than those of grasses and ferns 7mentioned in the last chapter71 to dry for decorative1 or1 as we say1 fitting up purposes4 ,to describe the processes involved in copying leaves and flowers of any plant from nature1 so that all will appear perfectly life-like and yet be durable1 and stand exposure to moderate heat and cold1 would take up too much space1 added to which1 my personal knowledge of all is required in this is of such recent acquirement1 that1 although ,i have fairly succeeded in teaching myself modelling of this kind1 and have executed a few groups1 yet ,i would like a little more time to elapse ere ,i pose as a teacher2 but1 no doubt1 when the time comes1 someone--perhaps the publisher of ,practical ,taxidermy--may be induced to give the results of my labours to the class most interested4 ,i may instance some groups3 ,robin's nest1 in bank covered with ivy1 and primroses in flower1 the old female bird feeding the young1 the male searching for more food1 or singing on branch near nest2 long-tailed titmice1 in furze-bush 7,south ,kensington72 chiff-chaff1 in long grass1 surrounded by willow-herb2 chaffinches in blossoming hawthorn2 white-throat's nest1 with young1 surrounded by leaves and flowers of the bramble 7,leicester ,museum72 blue-tits1 in apple-tree with modelled foliage and flowers2 moorhens swimming1 with young just leaving nest1 surrounded with water-lilies1 flowering rush1 and other plants2 grouse and young2 swallows1 in section of cow-house1 with plants1 etc1 growing on roof 7,leicester ,museum72 grebes and nest1 amid marsh plants and marsh marigold in flower1 etc4 7,south ,kensington74 ,to give a tenth of the phases of the studies which can be worked out would fill pages of this book2 suffice it to say that nature1 being the guide in this1 must be rigidly adhered to4 ,there is1 of course1 no need to copy any accidental awkwardness2 but don't invent too much1 as the greatest charm of all is taking ,nature as your guide4 ,at the back of these groups may be placed the eggs1 and birds of the same species in change of plumage or winter dress1 thus making the life history complete4 ,for museums1 and similar educational institutions1 the food and the skeleton should be exhibited1 with explanatory label attached4 ,reptiles and fishes are most unsatisfactory things to treat artistically4 ,when set up and dried they shrivel1 and are seldom modelled nicely4 7,to counteract such shrivelling1 see ,chapter ,,xii47 ,i have almost made up my mind that1 taking into consideration the stiffness of outline usually present in mounting by the ordinary methods1 all fish should be cast in plaster or paper1 although even then stiffness may be present unless the fish is posed properly4 ,fish lying in a mass on a bank1 or in a dish1 as were some at the ,fisheries1 look the most natural and easy4 ,one plan1 new to me1 however1 was adopted in such subjects as large pike1 etc1 which were cast1 coloured1 and placed in a long basket upon straw1 the whole covered with glass4 ,this method is especially nice for the hall table as a souvenir of piscatorial success4 ,i was rather disappointed in the colouring of these casts4 ,many of the artists had entirely missed the subtle colours of the pike1 trout1 and other fish --one salmon only1 and one dishful of grayling1 magnificently managed1 excepted4 ,footnote3 ,one of the very best books ,i know to help teach the colouring of fish is ,british ,freshwater ,fishes1 by the ,rev4 ,w4 ,houghton1 ,m4,a4 ,two vols1 quarto1 each fish beautifully drawn and coloured4 ,perhaps1 the best treatment of fish1 when modelled in plaster1 was exhibited in the ,indian section2 here the tints of the fish were beautifully managed1 the skins appeared wet1 but not varnished1 and all the colours were nicely blended in4 ,as for the stuffed fish1 their name was legion1 and they were there in all degrees of merit4 ,one thing1 however1 struck me with painful surprise2 among the thousands of freshwater fish ,i saw mounted by taxidermy1 not one was without those ridiculous little spears 7cut from large rushes1 or from paper7 growing from the bottom of the case1 each one1 or each bunch of them1 erect as possible1 and almost always arranged at equal distances apart1 with maddening precision4 ,some of the sea-fish admitted of more elastic treatment1 and ,i saw one very good exhibit of these4 ,the artist had1 however1 rather detracted from their undeniably good treatment by modelling small stones4 ,these were so natural as to require a label explaining this2 but ,i would remind all workers in taxidermy that there is no useful end gained by modelling small stones2 a great amount of labour is wasted1 and the intention of modelling--which is to replace the great weight of large stones by extraordinary lightness--is completely overlooked4 ,,screens4--,the ordinary screen intended for use is made of two sheets of thick plate-glass1 between which are pressed ferns1 butterflies1 etc1 the whole set in an oak or other wood frame1 with castors4 ,those intended for ornament are more lightly made4 ,thus3 ,a square frame1 about #cj in4 by #bd in4 by #d4e in4 deep1 is made in thin fancy wood1 or in pine veneered2 no front nor back is fitted1 merely a groove ploughed all around1 with beads1 to receive and to retain the glass1 on each face4 ,this frame is then fixed by screws1 with buttons fitting over the screw holes1 between two turned and carved uprights 7like small bedstead posts71 supported by carved feet on castors2 a handle of carved wood is fixed on top of the box1 which completes the joiner's work4 ,the inside of the frame is papered and coloured2 the birds--usually brightly-coloured foreign birds1 or humming birds and butterflies--are inserted1 properly mounted on light twigs1 etc1 and the glass beaded in1 to complete all4 ,one very nice screen was exhibited at the ,fisheries1 almost a reproduction of the woodcut illustrating the outside of ,science ,gossip1 with the addition of a hawk striking the kingfisher4 ,there were also two large and capital trophies1 called ,the ,rod4 and ,the ,gun1 remarkably cheap1 mounted as screens in framed bamboo4 ,the first represented a string of large fresh-water fish depending from a branch of a tree1 a creel1 a rod1 a landing-net1 and other angling gear4 ,the ,gun showed a fine bittern and heron1 and1 ,i think1 some other birds1 also depending from a branch1 with a gun and some old-fashioned tools 7powder-flask1 etc47 included4 ,screens filled with corals and sponges 7,euplectellae1 etc47 would be very handsome and useful4 ,i am not sure whether ,i have seen any managed in this manner4 ,very handsome screens for the mantelpiece may be made up from owls1 hawks1 seagulls1 and a variety of other birds4 ,the birds being skinned out through an opening in the back1 the wings and tail are cut off and spread out on a board1 with fine needle points driven through their webs until the pair of wings--the butts or shoulders placed inward--assume the shape of a long oval2 the tail is fully spread by the same means1 and wings and tail are wrapped with cotton and left to dry4 ,the head and breast are stuffed independently of these and sewn up4 ,when all is ready1 a handle of about #h in4 to #aj in4 long by #j4e in4 square must be turned out of ivory1 ebony1 or any wood desired4 ,one end of this should be turned the full thickness of the wood for about #a4be in4 from the top1 then drilled with two holes through its diameter1 and a slot cut of #j4be in4 in width longitudinally for the full length of the #a4be in4 to receive a thin piece of oval shaped deal about #d in4 long by #b4e in4 broad by #j4be in4 thick1 which should have a silken loop attached1 and a piece of blue or other coloured silk stretched over it1 and the edges of the silk tucked under the wood and attached by paste2 this latter is then fixed to the handle by rivets running through the two holes previously drilled4 ,the wings and tail are now glued and pinned to the uncovered part of the thin wood1 the shoulders of the wing inward1 the tail radiating from the bottom4 ,on top of these comes the body 7also wired and glued7 fitting in the small space left between the wings4 ,the silk during the fixing of the wings1 tail1 and head1 should be protected by paper pasted over all1 and which can be removed when the screen is finished4 ,screens are also made of single large birds1 such as the peacock1 or swan and heron2 these are stuffed in the same manner as above1 but instead of being attached to handles should be fixed on a shield of some fancy wood1 the back of which must be polished1 and made to slide up and down on an upright standard1 springing from carved legs4 ,still more handsome screens are those intended to flank the fireplace4 ,these are1 however1 ovals of glass1 set in carved or gilded frames1 which are made to slide up or down on a standard or upright1 supported by a carved tripod4 ,humming birds or insects are included between the glasses of the carved oval4 ,these screens are made of all sizes1 the standard of some standing #e ft4 to #f ft4 high1 the ovals being often #c ft4 by #b ft42 but smaller ones are constantly made4 ,,jewellery4--,following the example of the ladies who indirectly send expeditions to frosty ,caucasus or glowing ,ind to take tithe of animals for the sake of their skins1 of birds for their plumes1 and of insects for their silk1 to be used in adornment1 society demands that objects of natural history should not be all relegated to the forgotten shelves of dusty museums1 but live as things of beauty and joys forever4 ,hence the new alliance between the goldsmith and the taxidermist1 resulting in a thousand ingenious combinations of nature and art--a list of a few of which may not be unacceptable as hints4 ,for earrings1 two leopard's claws are mounted as miniature ,robin ,hood bugles1 the mouth and bell of each being of gold1 attached to which is a chain depending by its centre from the ear-wire4 ,two tiger's claws placed base to base1 their hooks pointing inwards1 are strung and clasped with gold1 thus forming the lyre of the ,tragic ,muse1 as a brooch or ornament for the breast4 ,beetles1 usually of the genus chrysochroa1 also1 are set as earrings4 ,humming birds' heads1 their throats surrounded with a fillet of gold1 form also handsome brooches4 ,the feet of the various species of grouse and owls are capped with silver or gold 7in which is set a cairngorm71 the toes tipped1 or the tarsus banded with silver or gold1 to form clasps or brooches4 ,pins for the sterner sex are mounted up from the teeth of foxes or dogs1 or more curiously of their noses even4 ,hares' ears are also mounted for both sexes1 especially for the ,scotch markets4 ,to turn from the adornment of the person to that of the house1 we find horses' hoofs mounted in silver or electro for snuff boxes1 inkstands1 paper weights1 etc42 rams' or buffaloes' horns as ,scotch mulls or as flower stands4 ,sometimes the whole head of a ram or buffalo is mounted1 the horns polished1 sawn in two1 hinged and mounted in silver1 and set with ,scotch stones4 ,deers' heads are mounted as gas chandeliers2 foxes' heads as gas brackets or as supports for ,duplex lamps2 monkeys1 bears1 ibises1 owls1 eagles1 etc1 as dumb-waiters or lamp bearers4 ,these are a few of the uses to which mammals and birds can be put4 ,emu's eggs form also handsome goblets when sawn through and mounted in silver1 or when mounted as vases for the chimney-piece1 or formed into an inkstand group4 ,foxes' pads mount up as whip handles1 bell pulls1 and paper knives1 as also do the feet of the various deer4 ,the only satisfactory way1 however1 to prepare these is to slit them carefully up the back1 and pull the skin away from the bone all around1 leaving the skin attached to the lowest point you can skin to4 ,clean out all the flesh and sinews1 and dress the skin with the ,no4 #i1 and the bone with ,no4 #ae1 preservatives4 ,stuff with a little chopped tow where needed1 and sew up neatly1 sewing also the skin at top over the end of the bone2 if done neatly1 the stitches will never show4 ,use waxed hemp1 and pull each stitch tight4 ,game birds stuffed as dead game and hung in oval medallions form suitable ornaments for the billiard-room or hall if treated in an aesthetic manner4 ,not1 however1 in the manner ,i lately saw perpetrated by a leading ,london taxidermist--a game bird hanging in a prominent position1 as if dead1 from a nail1 enclosed in an elaborate mount1 the bird so beautifully sleek and smooth that1 although it was hanging head downwards1 not a feather was out of place6 ,all was plastered down1 and gravity and nature were utterly set at defiance4 ,a little consideration1 and a visit to the nearest poulterer's shop1 would have prevented such a palpable error4 ,kittens or puppies of a few days old1 if nicely marked1 can be stuffed and mounted on a piece of marble for paper weights1 or on red cloth for penwipers4 ,the shells of small tortoises make tobacco pouches if lined with silk1 as do also the skins of the feet of albatrosses 7the long bones of the wings of these birds make pipe-stems7 or squirrels mounted as a whole4 ,the shells of large tortoises make fancy baskets if the lower shell or plastron is sawn away1 with the exception of the centre piece1 which is left to form a handle4 ,the shell may be lined with metal or with any other material or fabric desired4 ,lobster claws make up as ,punchinellos1 or as old men and women1 or--as exhibited at the ,fisheries--handles of fish-knives and forks1 tops of inkstands1 paper weights1 etc4 ,the uses of ivory1 either in the rough1 or sawn and polished1 are too manifold to notice here4 ,,feather ,,flowers4--,i have seen some splendid specimens of flowers 7made from waste feathers of birds7 brought from ,china1 the ,island of ,ascension1 and ,brazil1 but can give no directions for making them1 further than to say that ,i should suppose anyone skilled in the making of such artificial flowers as are sold by the best milliners1 or makers of wax flowers1 would have but little difficulty in making up these beautiful objects4 ,this is1 of course1 but a prcis of the various uses to which objects of natural history can be applied as means of ornament2 and1 indeed1 so many branches are represented by this department of art that it would require a book double the size of the present1 and written by experts of the various professions and trades concerned1 to give a full history of the practical working of what is known as ,ornamental ,taxidermy4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,collecting ,,and ,,preserving ,,insects4 ,,the taxidermist will1 in the course of his avocation1 require to know something of various insects1 their methods of capture1 and how to preserve and utilise them in his profession4 ,of the various orders of insects1 ,hemiptera 7earwigs1 field-bugs1 etc471 ,orthoptera 7cockroaches1 grasshoppers1 locusts1 etc471 ,diptera 7flies1 etc471 ,neuroptera 7dragon flies1 ,may flies1 ,ac471 ,lepidoptera 7butterflies and moths71 ,coleoptera 7beetles71 and ,hymenoptera 7bees1 wasps1 and ,ichneumon-flies1 etc471 the ,lepidoptera and ,coleoptera will find most favour in his eyes1 owing to their brilliancy of colouring1 variety of shape and size1 and easiness of manipulation4 ,it must be remembered1 however1 that insects should be collected with a definite purpose by the taxidermist1 and not merely for pastime1 or he will degenerate into that most ,odious of all created beings--a collector for the sake of collecting1 or what used to be called an exterminator4 ,indeed1 ,i have known of a case in which over #afjj of the males of a certain species were caught in one day1 assembled by the attractions of seven or eight females4 ,these figures seem incredible1 but for the fact that ,i myself saw part of the spoil displayed on a #ab ft4 board4 ,need ,i say that such slaughter as this is far beyond the bounds of fair collecting1 and that such courses1 persevered in1 give the odious title of exterminators to all those who practise it4 ,in this particular instance the moths were made up into pictures1 which1 though ornamental perhaps for a workman's home1 hardly justify the slaughter of any but the very commonest or harmful species4 ,the tortoiseshell1 peacock1 and admiral butterflies are often bred in hundreds for the purpose of making a picture of a snake strangling a tiger1 or a crown1 or the wings are cut by punches to form the petals of flowers1 to be afterwards grouped under shades4 ,all these things1 though very curious1 and really striking if well done1 are steps in the wrong direction1 and on a par with the use of humming and other birds for ladies' hats--all of which adaptations of natural history objects to commerce inexpressibly worry anyone with the slightest taste or feeling4 ,if a really beautiful object is wanted1 in order to show a group of exotic or other insects as specimens1 out of a cabinet1 you may mount them in as natural a manner as possible on grasses or fine twigs1 made as directed1 setting them off with a few foreign ferns1 and inclosing the whole in a mount1 to hang up1 or in a narrow oval shade with carved oak or other stand2 or they may be scientifically and artistically mounted1 to show the life-history of any one species1 by arranging the larvae feeding on a properly modelled representation of its natural food-plant1 the imagines1 male and female1 with some few striking varieties1 shown at rest or flying1 as also the eggs and the pupa-case1 with a description of their economy affixed4 ,a few specimens of families or genera of insects shown thus is1 to my mind1 of far greater importance1 especially to museums1 than mere collectors are aware of4 ,many works have been written on the collecting and preserving of these orders1 and especially of the ,lepidoptera1 vide ,dr4 ,guard ,knagg's work on ,collecting ,lepidoptera1 ,rev4 ,joseph ,greene's ,insect ,hunter's ,companion1 and many others1 including a little work on ,collecting ,butterflies and ,moths by myself4 ,cruelty has been advanced as a crime specially to be laid to the charge of the student in entomology2 but some of the greatest workers in that science have been ladies and clergymen1 as also laymen of the most humane and advanced scientific principles4 ,a vast amount of ignorant ideas1 carefully nursed1 are used as weapons against the entomologist--the pet one of which is1 that impalement of a living insect through the head constitutes the sole aim and end of the collector4 ,the fact is curiously inverse of this1 for not only are insects captured for purposes of study1 but they are never impaled alive but by a very ignorant or careless person4 ,the lepidoptera 7butterflies especially7 are very easy to kill1 the simplest plan being to press the thorax underneath the wing with the finger and thumb1 which instantly causes death4 ,this is now superseded by the cyanide bottle1 of which anon4 ,it is singular how many people there are1 even in the middle class1 who fail to recognise the fact that the egg 7ovum7 produces the caterpillar or grub 7larva71 which1 after a due season of preparation1 produces the chrysalis 7pupa71 which latter1 lying quiescent for a variable period1 either in the ground or in other situations favourable for its development1 changes the last time to the perfect insect 7imago74 ,this latter1 if a butterfly or moth1 does not1 as some people imagine1 grow1 but after it has unfolded its wings on emergence to their full extent1 it never becomes either larger or smaller4 ,an insect1 especially a butterfly1 when seen by a youngster1 is usually chased in the most reckless fashion--jacket and cap1 and even sticks and stones1 are pressed into the service1 and the unfortunate insect is usually a wreck before its fortunate 787 captor falls on top of it4 ,i shall endeavour in the following pages to show the proper way in which to collect and preserve insects1 especially the lepidoptera and coleoptera4 ,,nets4--,the first thing to be considered is1 how to catch your game4 ,this is managed by a net1 not of the construction of those mentioned in ,chapter ,,ii1 but made of a lighter material4 ,they are of various shapes1 the professional1 or old ,english pattern1 being something of the construction of a bat-folding net4 ,it is1 in my opinion1 a most unsportsmanlike weapon1 rapidly going out of date--if not deceased already--and is fitly replaced by the ,continental1 or ring-net1 which is now generally used4 ,however1 it may1 perhaps1 be necessary to describe how to make this machine or clap-net--fit only for dealers or exterminators4 ,procure two pieces of ash 7or beech1 as being the lighter wood71 each of about #e ft4 in length4 ,with a plane or spokeshave round these up until they taper from #a in4 diameter at bottom to little less than #j4e in4 at top4 ,now saw each rod into four pieces of #ae in4 long1 or1 for greater strength1 but less portability1 into three #bj in4 pieces4 ,ferrule these in the manner of fishing-rods1 so that each rod joins up to its normal length of #e ft4 ,at the top of each rod fix a specially-made ferrule1 bent or brazed to about the angle of #de deg4 ,next get two pieces of cane1 each #ae in4 in length1 and of sufficient diameter to fit tightly into the bent angle of the top piece2 bore the top ends of these canes and tie them loosely together4 ,if the rods with canes attached are now laid down1 with the ends of the canes pointing inwards1 it will be seen that they assume somewhat the shape of the gable-end of a house1 which would fold in on itself by means of the cord acting as a hinge4 ,now get some stout black holland1 which sew all round the rods to within #f in4 of the ends of the bottom joints1 so as to fit loosely to allow them to be inserted or withdrawn at pleasure4 ,when the cane ends are tied together1 cut a hole on the top of the holland1 so that you may be enabled to untie them when required4 ,this hole1 for greater neatness and strength1 should be button-holed around4 ,to this framework of holland attach at the bottom some strong black tape1 which pass through the holes previously bored in the last joints of the rods within #f in4 of their ends4 ,this prevents the net slipping either up or off when in use4 ,the material of the net itself is the next consideration4 ,this is of leno1 a cheap kind of strong gauze4 ,procure as many yards of this as will make a loose bag when sewn on and around the framework of holland1 when the net-rods are folded together2 bagging especially at the bottom part1 so as to fall down some inches when the net is held up4 ,you have now a portable bag1 or clap-net1 of over #e ft4 high by #b ft4 #f in4 or more wide4 ,to use this machine1 you simply stretch it to its full extent and run out in front of any insect you wish to stop1 clapping it smartly together and securing your captive in the bag formed when the net is shut4 ,some little practice is needed to do this neatly1 especially with such dashing1 fast-flying moths as the ,emperor1 or ,bee ,hawks4 ,laying down the net1 and confining the insect to one part1 is the best way to get it out uninjured4 ,to take this net to pieces1 the tapes at the bottom and the cords at the top require only to be loosened1 when the rods can be drawn out1 unjointed1 and slipped into a bag or a pocket specially sewn in the breast of the coat to receive them4 ,when portability is not a desideratum1 the rods may be easily made of green hazel 7or nut tree7 wands1 bent and secured into shape and dried in the sun1 or up a chimney1 or otherwise a strong cane may be steamed 7or boiled7 and dried in like manner2 few people1 ,i opine1 however1 care to carry out from a town two long roughly-shaped rods of #e ft4 or #f ft4 long in this clumsy fashion4 ,i did not wish to describe this net at all1 as it is1 in my opinion1 a most unsportsmanlike or un-entomological weapon1 as nothing can escape it4 ,indeed1 a friend of mine not inaptly describes it as the gobbler2 and it does really gobble up any insect it is used against4 ,the continental or ring net is now generally used4 ,for one variety a tin or brass ,y is made1 into the bottom arm of which a stick fits4 ,the spreading arms serve to hold a cane1 which is bent round1 and each end thrust in4 ,a net of gauze or leno1 is attached4 ,my objection to this net is that the cane often slips out of the arms of the ,y1 which latter also breaks at the junction2 added to which it takes up a great deal of room1 not being very easily doubled without the risk of breaking4 ,the points which a net should possess in perfection are--first1 strength2 secondly1 portability2 and1 thirdly1 adaptability to more than one use4 ,i shall endeavour to show by the next two figures my ideas of a perfect net4 ,fig4 #da--,plan of ring net4 ,fig4 #da shows a strong and easily made net4 ,to make this1 procure some brass wire1 gauge ,no4 #h or #i4 ,cut from the ring of wire sufficient to form a net a foot in diameter1 allowing enough in addition for two short arms4 ,cut off about #c ft4 #h in1 which will allow for joints2 divide this so that one half is about an inch and a half longer than the other2 make one end of the longest piece into a small loop1 cranking it at the bottom1 as shown at ,c2 one end of the other piece is then thrust through the loop at ,a1 turned round1 and beaten down1 forming as it were two links of a chain2 this acts as a hinge1 and allows the net to be doubled4 ,the other end is then cranked1 as shown at ,b1 but shorter than the arm ,c4 ,next procure sufficient of the material known as black holland1 which sew all round the ring of the net in such a manner that it does not interfere with the working of the hinge4 ,for this purpose a strip of about #b in4 wide will be enough1 which1 doubled over and hemmed at the bottom1 allows sufficient for the net--a bag made of the material called leno--to be subsequently affixed4 ,about a yard of leno suffices for the bag1 and the pieces which come off the bottom during the operation of rounding it1 form gussets to fill the net in up to the point where the arms ,b and ,c first spring4 ,to fit this net ready for use1 get an ordinary walking-stick1 a portion of which is shown at ,a 7,fig4 #db71 in which bore two holes1 one on each side1 to receive the little returns shown at ,b and ,c 7,fig4 #da71 and at such a distance from the top of the stick as is determined by the length of the arms4 ,with a #j4abe in4 gouge or chisel1 groove out the wood from these holes to the end of the stick1 until the arms of the net just1 bed up level with the surface4 ,the arms being nicely adjusted1 remove the net temporarily from the stick4 ,next procure a piece of brass tube from #b in4 to #b4e in4 long1 and of sufficient diameter to slip from the point of the stick until it passes the last hole 7a #j4fbe or #j4ge in4 diameter will be found a generally suitable size74 ,on the extreme point of the stick affix an ordinary walking-stick ferrule of such a size and thickness as not to allow the tube to slip off4 ,to fix the net1 slip the tube up the stick past the last hole1 and placing the little cranks1 ,b and ,q in their proper holes1 the remainder of the arms properly bedded in the grooves1 slide the tube ,d 7,fig4 #da7 up to the point of the stick1 as shown in ,fig4 #db1 and the net is thus effectually locked and ready for use4 ,fig4 #db--,ring-net complete4 ,i claim for this net the following advantages3 ,that it is the most easily made1 the strongest1 and the most easily taken down of any net known2 added to which its joint ,a1 which does not in the least weaken the frame1 allows it to be folded in half the space taken up by the ring net or the ordinary landing net arrangement4 7,note for fishermen3 ,landing nets1 formed as ,fig4 #da1 ,i have found very useful1 as they take up less room in the fishing basket1 and are quite as quickly put together as by the screw and socket arrangement47 ,larger nets than are generally used in this country will of course be necessary when collecting such insects as form the genus ,ornithoptera or ,morpho4 ,for collecting abroad no net will be found more serviceable than a large and strong one1 made as ,fig4 #da2 and really when you have five large papilios in your net at one time1 as ,i once had1 you require one a little out of the common4 ,a short handle to the net will be found more useful than a long one for collecting some insects1 but a brass telescopic handle can be easily made by any gasfitter1 and used either long or short as expediency directs4 ,the next figure shows apparently a more elaborate looking net4 ,the only other one known to me which folds in four1 folds by means of the rule joint1 and is somewhat objectionable1 inasmuch as it must either be made of unnecessarily thick and cumbersome wire1 to stand the strain1 or if made1 as it should be1 of the proper sized wire and of light construction1 it is sure to break out at one or the other of the joints4 ,experience having proved this1 ,i devised the net shown in ,fig4 #dc1 which1 in compliment to a gentleman who gave me a hint with regard to the slide1 ,i have called the ,hill ,sliding ,net4 ,this slide allows the net to be folded to just half the size of the preceding one1 making it1 therefore1 highly convenient to carry4 ,fig4 #dc--,the ,hill sliding net1 open4 ,fig4 #dd--,the ,hill sliding net1 closed4 ,this net frame is1 ,i fear1 beyond the power of the amateur to make for himself1 being really a brazier's job4 ,a ,a ,a ,a are four pieces of wire of the same thickness as used for the preceding net4 ,the two top pieces are flattened out at the top and each one drilled with a hole1 b b4 ,at e e e e are little brass tubes1 brazed to the arms1 which allow each arm to slide down on the other4 ,when these are brazed and fitted to slide they are fixed to the tube ,d by smaller tubes1 one on each side1 in this manner4 ,at f the arm is brought across the tube and permanently fixed in the smaller tube4 ,at g the other arm is brought across in the same manner1 but allowed to revolve in the small tube brazed to the side of ,d2 the end of this am 7on the right of ,fig4 #dc7 coming through the tube is coiled round and brazed to a screw1 ,h1 fixed in such a manner that1 though screwing freely through a burr fixed on ,d1 it cannot come out4 ,there are then no loose pieces to this net1 which1 from the nature of the slides1 is remarkably strong1 and is easily opened and shut4 7,fig4 #dd shows the net folded1 and with the arms slid down one on the other47 ,to finish1 tie a piece of whipcord in the holes from b to b1 and sew the holland all around the net as before1 leaving plenty of room for the playing of the slides2 the leno is then sewn to this in the usual manner1 and thus becomes a fixture1 as in the preceding net4 ,to open and fix the net from the position shown in ,fig4 #dd 7which for the sake of clearness is shown without the leno 71 pull the whipcord ,c 7now hidden1 of course1 by the holland7 and ease up the slides2 bend over the revolving arm until the screw ,h comes over the hole in the burr on ,d4 ,push the walking stick ,a 7,fig4 #de7 into the tube ,d1 and screw up ,h1 the point of which enters the stick1 and firmly fixes and locks the net4 ,fig4 #de shows the net ready for use4 ,the arrangement of the whipcord at ,c is to enable the net to be used as a sugaring net in addition to its ordinary use for catching2 ,c being pressed against a tree1 the corner of a wall1 a fence1 or a gas lamp1 etc1 readily accommodates itself to any angle required4 ,a useful net for sugaring purposes1 if ,fig4 #de is not used1 is one recommended by ,dr4 ,guard ,knaggs4 ,it is of triangular shape1 the frame of it being formed by socketing two pieces of paragon wire into a metal ,y piece1 and connecting their diverging extremities by means of catgut1 which1 when pressed against a tree or other object1 will adapt itself to the outline of it1 as shown below by the dotted line 7,fig4 #df74 ,killing ,insects4--,having caught your butterfly1 you will wish to kill it in the most painless and least troublesome manner4 ,for this purpose you will require a cyanide bottle4 ,purchase1 therefore1 at the druggist's a wide-mouthed bottle 7a #d oz4 bottle is a handy size for the pocket1 but you will require larger sizes for certain uses74 ,into this bottle put from an ounce to an ounce and a half of pure cyanide of potassium1 in lumps1 not pounded 7a deadly poison71 which you will completely cover with a layer of plaster of ,paris1 mixed to the consistence of paste4 ,the bottle may be corked1 have a screw top1 or glass stopper1 according to your fancy4 ,a glass stopper is1 of course1 the safest to confine the deadly vapour given off1 but in point of convenience1 and especially for outdoor work1 nothing can surpass a well-fitting cork--rising sufficiently high above the mouth of the bottle to afford a good grip4 ,as the plaster is setting it should be well shaken down to insure an even surface1 and afterwards a piece of wool or blotting-paper should be put into the bottle to absorb any superfluous moisture4 ,in the course of a day1 the plaster will be dry and ready for use4 ,footnote3 ,a piece or pieces of blotting-paper cut to fit will be found very handy to introduce into the bottle from time to time to absorb all moisture1 and to keep the specimens themselves mean and dry4 ,fig4 #de--,the ,hill sliding net ready for use4 ,fig4 #df--,sugaring net4 ,the insect being captured1 you twist your net rapidly over to get it as near to the bottom as possible--a very necessary precaution in the case of a swift-flying or excitable insect4 ,holding the net now in the left hand1 take the bottle1 previously uncorked1 in your right hand and slip it into the net and over the insect4 ,in case of refractory insects1 blowing from the outside will sometimes make them go to the bottom of the bottle4 ,when this happens1 you can slip your hand from the outside over the mouth of the bottle1 and hold it there until the insect is corked up4 ,in less than a minute it is stupefied and motionless4 ,if taken out1 however1 it will revive2 it must be left in1 therefore1 from ten to fifteen minutes4 ,in the case of female insects which have not yet deposited their eggs1 and are consequently exceedingly tenacious of life1 a longer time will be found necessary4 ,bruised laurel leaves1 chloroform1 benzol1 etc1 are recommended by some authors4 ,the first is1 ,i think1 uncertain in its effects1 and has1 perhaps1 a tendency to make the insects go ultimately mouldy4 ,the second stiffens the wing rays of some insects to such an extent as to render them difficult to set4 ,it has been recommended in the case of large insects1 such as the hawk moths1 to pierce them underneath the thorax at the insertion of the first and second pairs of wings with a steel pen dipped in a saturated solution of oxalic acid4 ,i have frequently done this myself with good results in the days when cyanide bottles were unknown1 but for the largest hawk moths--,death's heads even--,i find nothing to beat a large bottle 7a glass jar1 such as the ,french bottle plums in1 does admirably71 in which is placed about #j4be lb4 of cyanide4 ,with a killing jar of this kind1 which ,i call the home bottle1 ,i have frequently instantaneously killed mice and even rats4 ,in fact1 the volume of poisonous vapour evolved from one of these bottles is such1 that ,i advise my readers not to take sniffs therefrom1 lest severe headaches1 or worse results1 should follow4 ,as it is nearly all but impossible to pin an insect so correctly as you would wish during the hurry and excitement of butterfly hunting1 ,i recommend that all insects captured when the collector is from home be laid on their sides1 and the pin passed through the body whilst in that position4 ,this saves the unnecessary marking of the thorax by more than one pin hole1 as the pin can be removed without detriment to the formation of the body1 and the insect pinned in its proper position when the collector reaches home4 ,,setting4--,having brought the entomologist to this point1 ,i may discuss what to do to preserve the trophies of the day's chase4 ,first1 then1 the insects must be set4 ,to do this properly is the vexata quaestio of the day4 ,as a nation we anciently practised the setting of lepidoptera with four or eight braces1 two or one underneath and two or one on top of the wings4 ,the wings were then not so fully extended as now1 but the body was pressed as close to the setting board as it was possible to get it4 ,the next step was the cork setting board1 cut to show in section nearly a half oval1 the bodies were a little raised from the set1 and the rounded points of the fore and hind wings invariably touched the paper of the cabinet when placed therein1 curling up wherever they touched4 ,fig4 #dg--,section of ,setting ,board ,fig4 #dg shows a section of a setting board designed to remedy this evil4 ,the block ,a is formed of a piece of #j4ge in4 deal1 #ab in4 to #ad in4 long1 and of varying widths according to the insects required to be set4 ,exactly in the centre a groove is ploughed to the depth of #j4e in42 from the outer edges of this groove ,b the board should be pitched or bevelled #j4abe in4 on each side to its outer edge4 ,on top of each half1 a piece of #j4abe in4 cabinet cork ,c ,c is glued1 and also in the groove ,b1 where shown at ,c4 ,presuming that you have a ,red ,admiral to set with #a4abe in4 or a ,no4 #ac pin1 you will find1 if allowing #j4abe in4 for the body1 that after setting an insect in a board of this kind the matter will be pretty evenly adjusted--that is to say1 about #j4e in4 of pin above and below the butterfly4 ,this allows the insect when placed in the cabinet to be well clear of the paper1 and is the mode now generally adopted by those entomologists who effect a compromise between the ridiculous ,english low setting and the ,continental high-set4 ,what the real objections are to this latter setting it has always puzzled me to discover1 unless it is the true ,british objection to anything foreign or ,french4 ,in a foreign ,camberwell ,beauty 7,vanessa ,antiopa7 which ,i have just measured1 the relative proportions are as follow3 ,the whole length of the pin is #a4e in1 it comes through the body on the underside #j4hge in1 whilst above the body it shows but a little more than #j4be in4 ,its advantages are manifest4 ,first1 it brings the insects much nearer the eye when placed in the cabinet4 ,secondly1 by its position the body is prevented from greasing the paper of the cabinet 7a not unimportant item when the reader is told that the white velvet of a newly-lined cabinet drawer has been utterly ruined by the grease from the bodies of low-set insects74 ,thirdly1 the almost total immunity from mites which high-set insects enjoy4 ,this last consideration ought to induce our entomologists to adopt the ,continental set nem4 con4 ,for what entomologist dare tell me that he has no mites in his cabinet8 ,is it the user of camphor1 of creosote1 of phenic acid1 or of corrosive sublimate8 ,why1 then1 this foolish prejudice against the high-set8 ,i have tried both plans1 low setting for fifteen1 and high setting for ten years4 ,i have1 as an experiment1 mixed high-set insects in with low-set exchanges4 ,the brown dust underneath the latter tells their tale too well4 ,in a box of foreign high-set insects which ,i have had by themselves for four or five years little or no trace of the destroyer is to be seen4 ,reform your setting boards1 then1 say ,i2 plough your grooves deeper1 and if you object to the flat appearance of the foreign set insects1 there is no earthly reason why you should not pitch your boards to the angle ,i show in ,fig4 #dg1 or to any other angle you desire4 ,the objection to this high-set lies in a nutshell3 it looks odd to one accustomed to the ,english method1 and that is really all to be advanced against its general use4 ,let me1 therefore1 ask my brother entomologists to give the high-set a fair trial1 and not to be deterred by the sneers of any novice4 ,it may strengthen my pleading and terminate the hesitation of the young entomologist if ,i mention here that the officer in charge of the collection of lepidoptera in the ,british ,museum--the well-known authority1 ,a4 ,g4 ,butler1 ,f4,l4,s1 etc4--is not only setting all newly-received butterflies and moths in precisely the fashion advocated above1 but is actually re-setting all the old low-set insects in the same manner6 ,whilst on the subject of foreign insects ,i should like to impress upon the young beginner not too greedily to rush after real ,british specimens of rarities1 or he may find that he has purchased1 at the expense of some pounds1 perhaps1 a reset continental type worth as many pence4 ,i fancy ,i see our would-be entomologist shaking his head and very sagely saying1 ,oh no6 ,i intend to collect all my insects myself4 ,my young friend1 let me tell you that you will have to collect far beyond the prescribed threescore years and ten if you would yourself collect all the ,british lepidoptera4 ,work1 therefore1 in collecting as hard as you can1 and when you want a rarity to fill up a void in your cabinet1 go at once to some respectable dealer and ask for a continental type of the insect you want1 place it in your cabinet1 label it ,foreign1 and when you can replace it with an undoubted ,britisher think yourself lucky4 ,fig4 #dh--;,butterfly braced on board4 ,to make my meaning plain1 we will take the ,bath ,white butterfly 7,pieris ,daplidice7 as an example4 ,an undoubted ,british specimen of this1 caught1 say1 at ,dover1 is certainly worth a sovereign--the price of a continental one precisely similar1 but captured on the other side of the silver streak1 #e;d4 ,difference in cost for a mere fancy1 #ais4 #g;d46 ,again1 what would be the price of an ,english captured ,oleander ,hawk 7,choerocampa ,nerii7--shall we say from #ab to #bj pounds1 according to the conscience of the vendor and the pocket of the purchaser8 ,a fine foreign specimen1 beautifully set and precisely similar1 can be bought for about #es4 ,to set your butterflies1 see ,fig4 #dh1 which shows a common white butterfly braced on the setting board4 ,to do this your insect must be truly pinned as before directed1 and placed in the centre of the groove ,a ,b 7which is also shown in section at ,b1 ,fig4 #dg72 four pieces of thin cardboard1 each about #a in4 long1 are cut to the shape shown at ,c ,c ,c ,c4 ,an ordinary pin is pushed a little way through them at their bases4 ,with a fine needle now lift up from underneath the left hand upper wing of the insect to about the angle shown in ,fig4 #dh2 picking up a brace with the left hand1 push the pin in the cork in such a manner that the brace lightly holds down the wing4 ,do the same with the underwing4 ,repeat with the other side4 ,footnote3 ,the braces shown in ,fig4 #dh should be a little nearer the tips of the fore wings1 or supplemented by stiff papa pinned across1 otherwise the tips are likely to curl up when drying4 ,i have been assuming that the wings of the insect previously lay flat4 ,if they are folded up above the back they had better be pushed down with the braces instead of with the needle1 and pinned to any position they will readily fall to1 and from that gradually worked up by means of another brace to the angle required4 ,the fore pair of legs should be braced to the front1 and hind pair of legs1 especially of moths1 are to be braced out to fall neatly between the body and the wings4 ,sometimes very fine cambric needles are thrust through1 just underneath one of the wing rays1 to lift up and keep it in position1 -until the braces can be brought to bear4 ,this ought not to be resorted to except in extreme cases1 or for other than cabinet specimens4 ,a correspondent 7,mr4 ,g4 ,h4 ,bryan7 writing in ,science ,gossip for ,december1 #ahhc1 says3--,the grooved cork1 instead of being glued to one wooden board1 is fastened on to the two boards1 the groove between them corresponding exactly with the groove in the cork4 ,these in turn are held together by three slips of wood1 to which they are firmly nailed4 ,in setting insects1 the pin should not be run into the groove just above the slips4 ,if run into the cork anywhere else1 the pin can be pushed through to any depth required1 and1 as a rule1 the slips are so high that1 when the board is laid down on a table1 none of the pins touch the table4 ,i some time ago saw1 at the house of a well-known naturalist and traveller1 residing near ,cirencester1 an ingenious arrangement applied to setting-boards1 by which the groove of each board could be altered so as to take in the body of the smallest or the largest butterfly or moth at will4 ,it was managed by one half of the board being movable from its fellow1 and capable of being adjusted to any size1 by simply turning a screw working in a slot in a brass plate at top and bottom4 ,another method of setting insects is by means of blocks1 sections of varying widths cut from the uncorked setting-board1 the grooves only being corked4 ,the insect being pinned in the groove is extended with the setting needle1 and the wings lightly wrapped1 when in position1 with silk coming over and over1 from side to side4 ,to do this nicely requires practice1 to avoid marking the wings with the silk4 ,the block system of setting is more used by collectors in the ,midlands and the ,north than about ,london or in the ,south4 ,insects should be left on the setting-boards or blocks from two or three days to a week1 or even more1 according to their size2 and during this time should be kept out of the dust1 but allowed air to dry them thoroughly4 ,the ,german system of setting by means of pieces of glass dropped over the wings when in position is a clean neat method of flat setting1 allowing the insect to be clearly seen if it be truly set or not4 ,when insects are from any cause too stiff to set without first relaxing them--placing them in the cyanide bottle for a day or night will often do this effectually1 or placing them in a wet corked zinc box1 or in a box with damp sand1 or in a small plaster box will do equally as well4 ,this is made by lining the whole of the inside of a wooden box with plaster of ,paris mixed with water1 and laid on from one to two inches thick4 ,the plaster is1 of course1 thoroughly damped1 and the insects enclosed in the box4 ,the same pins with which they are pinned whilst relaxing should not be permanently left in1 if it be possible to remove them without injuring the aspect of the thorax4 ,pins so left in1 being more corroded than usual1 frequently break after being in use a short time4 ,old insects1 which it may be dangerous to relax1 or large foreign unset lepidoptera1 may sometimes be set by a skilful hand by having their wings carefully pinched off by forceps1 and replaced in the required position by using a strong paste or cement 7see ,formula ,no4 #cc73 ,repairs may be executed with promptness and despatch by cementing on parts of other wings to replace torn or missing pieces1 or tissue paper may be used1 providing the repairer is a skilful artist4 ,i once saw a very poor specimen of ,urania rhipheus--a splendid moth from ,madagascar--so cleverly pieced by tissue paper and coloured1 that it would deceive any but an expert4 ,beetles 7in science--,coleoptera7 may be sought for everywhere--in woods1 fields1 ponds1 rivers1 underneath stones and exuviae of cattle2 in decaying leaves1 trees1 and fungi2 in and underneath dead animals2 in cellars1 outhouses1 and even in what would be supposed the most unlikely place to find them--ant hills1 bees' and wasps' nests--and in the rubbish collected at the sides of streams1 especially if after a flood4 ,they may be taken by sweeping1 beating1 sugaring1 or by carefully prospecting tufts of grass1 moss1 leaves1 and flowers4 ,bags of moss or ant-hills may be brought home and looked over at leisure for minute beetles--throwing rubbish into water1 or sifting it over white paper1 being the handiest way to reveal them4 ,for those which inhabit water1 a net made of any strong material1 which allows water1 but nothing else1 to run through quickly 7a net fashioned as in ,fig4 #da or #df will do for this71 should be used as well as for collecting other water insects4 ,beetles may be brought home in small test tubes1 corked at the open end1 or in quills stopped at one end with sealing wax1 and at the other with wadding1 or a quill may be inserted in the cork of a larger bottle1 into and through which they may be dropped1 or they may be killed at once in the cyanide bottle1 or otherwise thrown into a bottle containing alcohol1 in which corrosive sublimate 7in the proportion of #f gr4 to the ounce of spirit7 has been previously placed1 which effectually kills and ultimately tends to preserve them4 ,on reaching home1 the contents of this bottle may be turned out into any shallow dish kept specially for that purpose 7a photographer's print pan7 and fished for with small pieces of paper or cardboard1 and the spirit afterwards returned to the bottle4 ,the larger beetles are to be pinned through the right wing case1 and never in the centre1 their legs being nicely arranged in the proper positions1 and in some cases the wings may be displayed4 ,the more minute beetles may be gummed on a small slip of card through which the pin passes1 their legs arranged by the aid of fine patience1 a crooked pin1 a camel-hair pencil1 and a pair of small forceps1 the latter being also very handy for picking up any other small objects4 ,in setting the larger beetles1 as well as the various thick-bodied insects1 belonging to the orders ,orthoptera1 ,neuroptera1 ,diptera1 and ,hymenoptera1 double braces instead of setting-boards may be used in the following manner3 ,the insect being pinned high on a board or piece of cork1 with legs extended1 two large pieces of card1 one for each side1 are brought up underneath the wings and close to the body by pins stuck through the corners4 ,this forms a rest for the wings when extended1 which are then braced on top of the cards by smaller braces in the usual manner1 the pins1 however1 of the braces falling outside the supporting cards and fixing in the wood or flat cork underneath4 ,many exotic insects--butterflies and moths--are set in this manner1 which is really flat setting4 ,if the braces are at any time too limp and do not seem to clip the wings properly1 a little piece of cork just sufficient for the pin to slip through may be added on top of the brace4 ,the larger beetles and other insects1 such as the dragon-flies1 cicadas1 grasshoppers1 and walking leaf insects1 should always have the contents of the abdomen removed either by pressure1 or by being cut underneath1 and1 when empty1 injected with a little of the corrosive sublimate preparation1 and afterwards filled out with wool or blown out with a small blowpipe until the abdomen is again distended and dry4 ,some insects which are narrow at the waist may be advantageously snipped through at that part to remove the contents therefrom1 the body being afterwards fixed with gum or cement to its normal position4 ,in the setting of beetles--as in other things--the ubiquitous ,germans and the ,frenchmen beat us4 ,compare the beautifully foreign set coleoptera1 with our wretchedly lame and uneven-sided attempts4 ,it is impossible to mistake the ordinary ,english for foreign setting1 and of this ,i was curiously convinced on my arrival at ,leicester1 in the ,museum of which town ,i found some exquisitely-set specimens of coleoptera4 ,i said at once1 ,these are ,german-set4 ,no1 indeed1 ,i was told1 they are set by a local man4 ,i could not believe it2 and after great difficulty1 the man himself even persisting in this assertion1 ,i discovered that they were all procured from ,germany or were set by a ,german friend4 ,this gentleman having subsequently shown me his method1 ,i now give it for the benefit of coleopterists3 ,the beetles1 after being killed1 are plunged into benzoline 7benzol7 for two or three days1 to cleanse them from grease and impurities4 ,indeed1 it considerably simplifies matters to carry a bottle of benzol1 as ,i do when collecting beetles1 to plunge them into when first taken4 ,it instantly kills1 and the cleansing operation goes on at once4 ,on reaching home the beetles are1 after a day or two1 pinned1 or gummed unset on to any pieces of card in any manner most suitable at the time to economise space2 the cards can then be pinned into a store-box4 ,during the winter months1 or at any time when required1 the beetles may be set1 thus3 first1 plunge them into water for a day or so until quite limp1 then take them out and place them one by one on separate pieces of card1 well gummed in the centre to retain them firmly by the abdomen whilst being set4 ,a very little time will suffice to do this should the gum be strong4 ,after twenty or so are fixed1 the first one gummed down can be finished off4 ,the card is smeared with gum where the legs1 or rather tarsi1 will come into place1 and arranged with a setting needle4 ,now carefully place the limbs into a natural and even position1 their feet resting on the gummed surface2 adjust the antennae1 etc1 and leave the insect to dry by pinning the card in any suitable receptacle4 ,when perfectly set and dry1 the final operations are once more plunging the beetle into benzoline1 then wetting its abdomen and feet to release it from the dirty card1 and lastly slightly re-gumming the underneath and tips of the feet with cement 7see ,formula #cc7 and finally adjusting it on a clean card1 which may be labelled or numbered1 and secured by a small pin at each end in the cabinet or store-box4 ,,collecting ,,and ,,other ,,boxes4--,the collecting box is a small box made to fit the pocket1 corked top and bottom1 opening in the middle1 and made of sufficient depth to allow the heads of the pins on one side to well clear the insects1 which may be pinned on the other4 ,collecting boxes may be made of various woods and of various sizes to suit the pleasure and pocket of the collector4 ,they should be made light but strong1 and a little fillet of thin wood should be inserted along one side on the front edge1 to ensure the close fitting of the box4 ,another sort of collecting box is that corked at the bottom1 having a flat lid1 on which a piece of cork is glued1 and cut to fit the box tightly when closed1 thus forming the top lid4 ,this style is also used for postal boxes4 ,in very hot weather1 or if the collector roves far afield1 he will find that many of his butterflies1 if placed in the ordinary wooden collecting box1 will have become stiff before he can reach home to set them4 ,the remedy for this is a zinc box lined with cork1 which latter is soaked in water before commencing the day's collecting4 ,these boxes are made in various shapes and sizes4 ,a handy one for the pocket is a #g in4 by #d in1 #b4e in4 deep1 made of an oval shape if desired1 corked on top and bottom1 the cork held by clips of zinc soldered to top and bottom4 ,for more extended operations a larger box will be required1 say1 #ac in4 by #i in1 #b4e in4 deep1 with loops soldered to the back1 through which a strap passes to suspend it from the shoulders4 ,these boxes are lighter if made in tin1 and the water does not corrode them so rapidly if they are japanned inside as well as out4 ,postal boxes1 by which entomologists transmit their captures to one another1 should be made of strong white pine1 the tops and bottoms nailed on1 on the cross4 ,they may open in the middle or at top1 as before mentioned1 and further have a strengthening piece of thick cork glued all over them outside and rasped down to the shape of a rough oval4 ,inside1 the cork should be glued down on top and bottom2 on this a few small strips of the same cork running across with interstices left between them4 ,on top of this another sheet of cork1 thus forming three thicknesses1 in which the pin is pushed as far as it will go4 ,in the case of large-bodied moths1 or any valuable insects1 it is as well to support the abdomen with a layer of wool1 cross-pinning the body on either side to prevent it jarring or shifting4 ,the box may then1 for greater security1 be wrapped in a sheet of wool and tied up4 ,the address should not be written on the box1 or the stamps affixed thereto1 but on a direction label1 otherwise some vigorous post-office sorter1 or stamper1 will convince you to your sorrow that he scorns such paltry protection as is afforded by the triple alliance of wood1 cork1 and wool4 ,the ,germans cover the bottoms of a great many of their entomological boxes with peat1 and this certainly holds the long pins firmly in transit2 and it is also much less expensive than cork4 ,foreign insects1 when space is limited1 may be sent home unpinned and unset1 their wings folded over their backs1 and each specimen wrapped in silver or tissue paper4 ,it is astonishing what a number of them will pack in this manner in the compass of an ordinary cigar box4 ,drying houses are sold by most of the dealers1 but are expensive and cumbersome1 and are really only of service when travelling1 or collecting away from home4 ,for this reason ,i suggest the following--which is a store box and receptacle for setting boards combined4 ,make of #j4e in4 deal a box #bj in4 long and #ae in4 wide by #j4e in4 deep 7all inside measurements71 glue up all but the front piece 7#d in4 wide by #bj in4 long71 which merely tie in its place whilst glueing up the others4 ,cut the box when dry through the #d in4 back piece to exactly halve it4 ,hinge each half with strong hinges4 ,it now resembles an open backgammon board box1 without its two fronts4 ,take now a strip of #a in4 deal1 #ae in4 long1 and form it with a plough plane to the shape shown in ,fig4 #di4 ,the part marked ,a will be #j4cge in4 thick1 the parts marked ,b ,b overhang #j4be in1 and rise from ,a to ,b ,b to the height which the thickness of your setting boards determine4 ,divide this down the whole length with a cutting gauge where shown by the dotted lines2 glue one of these halves to the side of one of the bottoms of the box1 and from here measure off #e in1 which will be the size of your largest setting board for hawk moths4 ,at this point glue down a whole strip1 as shown in ,fig4 #di1 which 7supposing you have commenced from your left7 clips the right-hand side of the first or #e in4 setting board1 and the left-hand side of the second4 ,proceed in this manner until the bottom of the box is covered with setting boards1 which will now slide in and out between the #j4cge in4 divisions4 ,turn the box round and do precisely the same with the other half4 ,as many more insects under1 than above1 #d in4 in expanse of wing will be captured1 the most useful sizes for setting boards1 as also the proper proportions of boards and divisions to fill up the bottom of each half of the box1 are as follow3 ,first half4--#j4be in4 strip1 #e in4 board2 #j4cge in4 strip1 #d in4 board2 #j4cge in4 strip1 #c4e in4 board2 #j4cge in4 strip1 #c in board2 #j4cge in4 strip1 #b4e in4 board2 #j4be in4 strip #bj in4 total4 ,second half4--#j4be in4 strip1 #c4e in4 board2 #j4cge in4 strip1 #c in4 board2 #j4cge in4 strip1 #b4e in4 board2 #j4cge in4 strip1 #b4e in4 board2 #j4cge in4 strip1 #b4be in4 board2 #j4cge in4 strip1 #b in4 board2 #j4cge in4 strip1 #a4e in4 board2 #j4be in4 strip #bj in4 total4 ,fig4 #di--,section of division strips4 ,there are thus twelve setting boards #ae in4 long1 of the most useful sizes1 contained in this box4 ,the front is still as it was1 open4 ,the loose piece of wood1 #bj in4 by #d in1 must now be cut down the length1 and each half must 7making #bj in4 by #b in47 be hinged to the top and bottom of the box2 a lock can then be fixed to bolt together the two halves1 hooks also being fixed at each end of the box to further secure the front flaps4 ,fig4 #ej shows the arrangement of the box at this stage--shut1 but with the front flaps lifted up and down1 showing the sliding setting boards snugly fixed within4 ,insects may by this method be left on the boards whilst travelling without the slightest risk1 as nothing can come loose1 and the pins of one side miss those of the other when the box is shut and locked4 ,fig4 #ej--;,front of setting-board box1 with flaps open4 ,a more simple plan1 serving equally as well perhaps1 and having the advantage of dispensing with the intervening slips1 therefore giving more space for setting boards1 is simply fixing a slip of wood at each inner end of the box1 and another on each flap1 so arranged as to hold all the setting boards down when shut4 ,this is managed by allowing the wood of each setting board to protrude beyond its cork to the thickness of the slip--say half an inch4 ,footnote3 ,this box should be made in oak or mahogany2 put together with brass screws1 if for foreign service4 ,insects1 after removal from their sets1 require to be stored in glazed cases or cabinets for greater security and protection against evils previously glanced at4 ,some collectors content themselves with using for this purpose the ordinary store-box1 made in the same manner as the collecting box1 but of greater capacity4 ,one #ae in4 by #aj in4 by #d in4 deep will be found a useful size2 this--opening in the same manner as a backgammon board--is corked with cabinet cork1 each sheet of which is usually #aa in4 by #c4e in4 or 7double size7 #ab in4 by #g4e in4 ,the cork being glued evenly over each half of the box1 is rubbed down with pumice-stone1 and afterwards with sand-paper1 to get an even surface and reconcile the joints one with the other4 ,it is then papered with white blotting-paper1 toned1 or black paper1 pasted down over the cork with paste1 in which has been previously stirred a little carbolic acid or corrosive sublimate 7both poisons74 ,it has also been recommended to previously steep the cork1 especially if for foreign service1 in a solution of3 ,corrosive sublimate1 #j4e oz4 ,camphor1 #a oz4 ,spirits of wine1 #a pint4 ,some little care is1 of course1 required in the handling of poisoned cork1 etc1 but ,i do not write expecting that infants will be allowed to handle the various lethal agents with which these chapters necessarily abound4 ,another sort of store box is the book box1 hinged at the back and opening along the front1 representing two distinct volumes of a book4 ,this is either covered in cloth1 labelled with gilt letters1 or is made in mahogany1 the bands let in in ebony1 or white wood1 and strips of lettered leather pasted in between them4 ,footnote3 see remarks on leather in chapter ,,xii4 ,all around the box inside runs a little ledge of wood for the reception of glass1 which1 as each half is filled with insects1 is pasted in with ornamental paper4 ,for those who delight in camphor1 a piece of perforated cardboard or cork should be placed in the corners1 forming angle pieces1 and enclosing within the triangle thus formed1 the 7un7necessary morsels of the drug4 ,when filled1 it should be pasted over on the top1 and the glass then fits close on top of it4 ,book boxes have one or two advantages3 they look well in a library and take up but little room1 and are easily handled when showing them to friends4 ,as exhibition boxes they are nearly perfect4 ,,cabinets4--,the entomological cabinet is a much more serious matter2 there is no limit to its size1 from the modest one of six drawers to the working one of thirty4 ,the size of the drawers varies with individual taste4 ,a nice size1 however1 is #ah4e in4 long by #af4e in4 by #b4e in1 or the #bj in4 by #ah in4 by #b4e in1 or deeper if for large insects4 ,no amateur1 unless he is a past master at joinery1 can hope to construct a thoroughly well-made cabinet2 indeed1 few cabinet makers know how to turn out one to suit a veteran entomologist4 ,briefly3 the drawers of a first class cabinet should be made of the best ,spanish mahogany1 or oak1 in every part2 no baywood1 cedar1 or any such spurious stuff should enter into its composition 7good white pine being preferable to such74 ,cedar is totally unfit for store boxes or cabinets1 owing to its tendency to throw out in time a gummy exudation1 which settles on the wings of the insects and utterly ruins them4 ,this remark applies also to cabinets for eggs4 ,the frames which hold the covering glass should preferably fit by a tongue resting in a groove1 ploughed with a filister in the substance of the drawer itself4 ,a fillet should rest inside1 fitting against the inner edge of the frame1 which should also be lined with velvet1 to further exclude the dust4 ,drawer and frame should be made so true that the latter should fit back to front1 if required1 equally with its normal position4 ,the carcase1 or part into which the drawers fit1 either by runners or in grooves by tongues attached to the drawers1 should be made so truly that ,no4 #a drawer should fit in the place of ,nos4 #ae or #cj1 and vice versa1 and all should suck back when pulled out half way4 ,the drawers should be looked by pilasters1 or have glazed and framed doors4 ,there are but few makers of such cabinets as ,i have just described1 and prices are proportionately high1 a sovereign a drawer being about the figure4 ,fair cabinets in mahogany or walnut1 quite good enough4 ordinary purposes1 can be made1 however1 for half this sum1 and deal ones a little less4 ,the corking of these best cabinets is generally done before the bottoms are fixed1 as thus an open surface is obtained for rubbing down1 by leaving out the bottom until corked4 ,white or black velvet1 instead of paper1 is often used to cover the cork4 ,some little skill is requisite to do this without soiling the delicate material2 the best way is1 perhaps1 to glue the cork on cardboard1 cut to the size of the drawer1 less the thickness of the velvet all round2 on this glue the cork1 rub it down as before directed1 and strain the velvet over it1 bringing its edges underneath the cardboard2 glue the bottom of the cabinet drawer1 and drop the prepared velvet-covered cork and cardboard into it1 place clean paper over the velvet1 and weight it down for a day or two4 ,this plan ensures the cleanliness of your covering medium--a highly necessary precaution if using white velvet4 ,there are many other ways of fitting glass to drawers than that recommended4 ,for instance1 a hinged frame may be used1 dropping in a rabbet1 ploughed around the front1 back1 and sides of the drawers2 or the top frame may have a tongue fitting inside the whole substance of the drawer1 or the glass may be a fixture1 beaded or puttied in on top1 the whole of the bottom unscrewing from the drawer frame4 ,this latter is very well for a collection when fully made up and complete1 but if required for an incomplete collection1 the risk and annoyance of unscrewing and screwing up1 to constantly remove or insert a specimen1 are great4 ,in view of the almost impossibility of keeping dust out of even the best-made cabinet drawers1 if made on the top-lifting system1 and also to do away with the screws1 ,i have devised what ,i call the dust-proof cabinet drawer4 ,the glass is beaded and puttied in as a fixture on the top of the drawer1 either from the inside or out4 ,at the usual distance from the glass1 to clear the pins1 a strip is fixed all around the frame of the drawer4 ,below this1 at a depth settled by the thickness of the bottom1 a groove runs all around1 except at the back1 which is cut out up to the bottom edge of the groove4 ,the bottom1 when corked and papered1 fits inside the frame1 butting up to the strip which clips it all around to about the width of #j4be in4 ,a false bottom now slides in the groove below1 and fastens with a catch1 making all perfectly secure and altogether dust proof4 ,if well made1 this drawer is easy to open1 as1 directly the false bottom is removed the inner one slips down and is found on the table when the upper part is lifted off4 ,the only thing to be said against this drawer is that the fronts show a little deeper than usual to allow for the extra bottom4 ,a modification of this is a closely glazed cabinet drawer1 with a false corked bottom1 loosely held down by a slip affixed to each side of the drawer1 and sliding out from the back2 managed by hinging the back piece or fixing it by brass eyes and hooks4 ,note1 that all loose flaps to drawers or door-frames1 in best cabinet-work1 should be worked and fitted by ,dust-joint planes4 ,this reduces risk and dust to a minimum4 ,,pins4--,the pins used are those called entomological1 and are made in various sizes to suit various insects4 ,an insect should be pinned with one of these exactly in the centre of the back1 running through truly to the underneath1 slanting1 however1 a little downward toward the body1 thus throwing the pin's head a little forward1 but exactly in a line with the longest axis of the body4 ,these are specially made by one or two firms only4 ,messrs4 ,d4 ,f4 ,tayler and ,co1 of ,birmingham1 issue a sample card1 the most useful sizes of which are ,no4 #aa 7at #f;d4 per oz47 for the hawk moths1 ,no4 #ac 7at #f;d4 per oz47 for smaller moths and butterflies1 and ,no4 #g 7at #bs4 #f;d4 per oz47 for small moths1 and such butterflies as the ,blues4 ,i have1 of late1 almost confined myself to ,no4 #b 7at #bs4 per oz471 a long fine pin1 useful for many purposes 7see chapter ,v74 ,there are many other sizes1 but these will be found quite sufficient for the beginner4 ,these pins are also gilt1 under the impression that gilding tends to prevent the corrosion of verdigris which the juices from the bodies of some moths1 the ,hepialidae especially1 induce4 ,this is not so2 the ,continental black varnished pins are better safeguards1 but prejudice forbids their use4 ,messrs4 ,tayler now make all their sizes in enamelled black to order1 at the same prices as their gilded ones4 ,varnishing the common entomological pins with a hard and nearly colourless varnish has been tried with good effect1 though it is a trial of patience to do this to pins one by one4 ,really the only thing to stop grease appearing in the bodies of moths1 to the subsequent breaking of your pins and soiling of your cabinet paper or velvet1 is to open all the insects underneath1 take out all their internal organs1 carefully paint the inside with a little of the corrosive sublimate preparation 7see ,chapter ,,iv71 and fill up the void with cotton wool4 ,unfortunately the evil of greasy exudations from the bodies of unstuffed or low-set insects does not stop at the corrosion of the pins or greasing of the paper1 but in many cases extends to the underlying cork1 which is sometimes so badly greased as to necessitate the cutting out of the damaged patch to prevent the grease reappearing when the drawer is newly papered4 ,,grease ,,and ,,mites4--,grease and mites are in fact the btes noires of the entomological collector4 ,when you have an insect1 therefore1 old and greasy1 but yet too fondly dear to throw in the fire1 place the offender on a piece of cork weighted at the bottom with lead and sink it bodily in a wide-mouthed bottle1 partly full of benzoline2 leave it there from a day to a week1 according to its state4 ,when it comes out it will look even worse than before1 but after being covered up with a layer of powdered chalk1 magnesia1 or plaster of ,paris1 it will often come out as good as new4 ,i say often1 for cases occur now and then in which no amount of pains restores the insect to its pristine freshness2 but these exceptions are few and far between4 ,mitey insects are cured in a similar manner2 in fact1 ,i would advise that all exchanges be submitted to the benzoline test4 ,i have also used ,waterton's solution 7see chapter ,,iv7 to plunge them in1 though #f gr4 of corrosive sublimate to the ounce of alcohol are about the proportions of the bath for most insects2 but the spirit may be increased1 if1 on trial with a common insect or black feather1 it should be found that the mercury is deposited as a white stain on the evaporation of the spirit4 ,rectified aether 7pure7 is a better medium than alcohol for rapidity of drying 7especially in a draught71 but is more expensive4 ,nothing1 ,i believe1 prevents mites 7psocidae7 appearing now and then even in poisoned insects4 ,constant care1 stuffed bodies1 and soaking in benzoline1 are the deterrent agents2 camphor is a pleasant fiction1 so is wool soaked in creosote1 phenic acid1 cajeput oil1 crystals of napthelin1 etc4--in fact1 it may be laid down as an indisputable doctrine that no atmospheric poison is of the slightest avail against mites4 ,footnote3 ,see remarks on this in chapter ,,iv4 ,get them to eat poison1 or drown them and shrivel them up in spirit and you may settle them1 but not otherwise4 ,i have heard of cabinet drawers suffered to remain upside down to prevent mites getting to the insects2 but ,i very much fear that such a plan as this1 is on all fours with that of a man whom ,i knew1 who1 being abroad in a ,norfolk-,howard infested country1 turned the head of his bed every other night to puzzle the enemy6 ,the late ,mr4 ,doubleday1 the father of ,english entomology1 never admitted camphor in his cabinet 7thinking1 as ,i do1 that it conduces to grease71 but used the corrosive sublimate preparation instead1 to touch the underneath of the bodies of doubtful strangers4 ,loose quicksilver or insect powder is by some strewn amongst their insects2 but the danger of the first to the pins1 and the untidy appearance of the second1 militate against their general use4 ,footnote3 ,it is quite true that1 although camphor evaporates rapidly1 and settles on anything1 so as to be perceptible even to the naked eye1 yet that it re-evaporates and ultimately disappears4 ,this1 to my mind1 is the most fatal objection to its use3 its ready evaporation leaving the insects etc1 ultimately without any protection4 ,,haunts4--,having given a brief outline of the capture1 setting and storing of an ordinary insect1 ,i will1 in as few words as possible1 give a short history of any peculiarities attending the capture of extraordinary insects4 ,some butterflies and moths 7the autumnal appearing species7 live through all the winter hid up in hollow trees1 outhouses1 etc4 appearing at the first rays of the spring sun to lay their eggs and die4 ,others pass through the frost and snow as pupae1 bursting their cerements in the sunshine1 to live their brief life and perpetuate their race2 others eke out a half dormant existence as minute larvae1 others pass the winter in the egg state4 ,in fact1 each species has its idiosyncrasy4 ,footnote3 ,here1 perhaps1 ,i may explode that myth and enormous gooseberry of the mild winter or early spring1 headed in the newspaper every year as ,extraordinary ,mildness of the ,season3 ,we are credibly informed that1 owing to the mildness of the past week1 ,mr4 ,william ,smith1 of ,dulltown1 ,blankshire1 captured a splendid specimen of a butterfly1 which a scientific gentleman to whom it was sent pronounced to be the small tortoiseshell ,vanessa1 etc4 ,now the fact is1 that ,urticae merely came out for an airing1 awakened from its winter sleep by the extraordinary warmth of the day1 and it might just as likely have been shook up on the preceding ,guy ,faux or ,christmas-day2 all the ,vanessidae1 and many others1 being hybernators4 ,far different1 however1 is it when any of the ,whites--,pieridae--are seen or caught4 ,they indeed do herald the coming spring1 as1 lying in the chrysalis state throughout the autumn and following winter1 some degree of continuous warmth must take place 'ere they can emerge4 ,the swallow-tail butterfly1 first on some ,british lists1 must be sought for in the fens of ,norfolk1 and ,cambridgeshire1 and ,northamptonshire4 ,it is a strong flyer1 and requires running down1 unless when settled on the head of one of the various umbelliferous plants it delights in4 ,the clouded yellow is usually a lover of the sea-coast during the months of ,august and ,september--though in that year of strange climatic changes 7#ahgg7 it appeared in considerable numbers from the beginning of ,june1 whether hybernated1 or an early brood evolved from pupae lying dormant throughout the last summer1 is an open question4 ,the ,purple ,emperor1 now one of our rarest insects 7,i have not seen it alive since the time when ,i was a boy1 and saw it around the oaks of ,darenth ,wood71 was formerly captured by the aid of a net fixed to a pole #cj ft4 or #dj ft4 long4 ,but accident or science discovered1 however1 that this wearer of ,imperial purple possessed a very degraded taste1 descending1 in fact1 from the tops of the highest oaks to sip the juices from any decaying or excremental matter4 ,now1 therefore1 the recognised bait is a dead dog or cat in a severe state of highness4 ,the gamekeeper's museum in the few places where ,iris now resorts may be searched with advantage1 yielding also a plentiful supply of beetles of various sorts4 ,the ,holly ,blue ,i have noticed to have a similar degraded taste4 ,mud holes also in hot weather attract many butterflies1 as do the sweet exudations from various trees1 or from fallen or over-ripe fruit4 ,occasionally a high-flying insect may be induced to follow to the ground a stone or piece of turf thrown up in front of it4 ,the persistent manner in which some species will return again and again to the very same spot is something wonderful4 ,the same flower head1 the same muddy puddle or patch of road1 is selected4 ,the collector1 if foiled in his first attempt1 will do well1 therefore1 to wait for the probable return of his prize4 ,certain species frequent the chalk district only1 others woods and sandy lanes2 some are found only high up in the mountains of the north1 others but in the low-lying valleys of the south4 ,the sea coast has its specialities1 some insects even flying well out to seaward1 in crossing from land to land4 ,i remember a crimson-speckled footman moth1 ,deiopeia pulchella1 flying on board a steamship whilst we were fully a hundred miles from the nearest land4 ,no place1 in fact1 should be disregarded in which to search for insects1 for some are so exceedingly local that a district of perhaps twenty miles in extent may be searched in vain for a desired species1 until the collector suddenly comes upon one or two fields swarming with them4 ,nor is this all1 for in the case of two or three extremely local species1 but one or two spots in the ,british ,isles are their favoured haunts4 ,bean fields in flower1 clover and lucerne fields in sunshine1 are first-class hunting grounds1 whilst on cloudy or very windy days many butterflies1 such as the ,blues1 may be found resting on grasses or on tree trunks in woods2 or1 as in the case of the ,hairstreaks1 higher up under the leaves4 ,beating the boughs with a long stick will often force insects to fly1 when their presence is unknown to us4 ,i have hitherto spoken of the collecting of insects by day only1 but as there are many insects--moths--which appear but at night1 we must follow them to their haunts1 prepared with lantern and net4 ,in the dusk of the evening1 just as the sun sets and twilight comes on1 we must take our stand near the flowers frequented by certain moths4 ,in spring the blue bell1 cherry1 and apple blossom may be watched4 ,later on1 the blossoms of lime trees1 flowers of the honeysuckle1 bramble1 petunias1 scabious1 and a host of others4 ,nettle beds also are great hunting localities at this time of the evening for many moths4 ,dark and sheltered hedgerows of lanes1 fields of mowing grass1 willows near water1 heather1 the seashore1 all add their quota to the persevering entomologist4 ,the sallow blooms 7commonly called palm71 both male and female1 must be searched early in spring time for the whole of the genus ,taeniocampa and many other newly-emerged or hybernated species4 ,as they usually drop at the first contact of the light from the lantern1 the net must be held under them1 or a sheet may be spread under the bush1 and those which do not fall at first may be shaken off the blooms with a smart stroke or two of a stick4 ,if the bushes are not high1 hand-picking with the net held in readiness is really the best4 ,ivy blooms in the autumn are also sure finds1 several species--many of great rarity--being taken off this plant at night4 ,owing to the usual localities in which ivy is found1 the spread sheet and subsequent beating come in more often than the safer method of netting and bottling4 ,light is also a great attraction to many moths1 some of our greatest rarities being captured frequently1 inside or outside street lamps1 and the spectacle is by no means rare to see a grave and reverend signor climbing up the lamp-posts at a most unseemly hour of the night in search of specimens4 ,lighthouses have also yielded important captures1 and there are worse things than being on friendly terms with the cleaner of street lamps1 or the keeper of a lighthouse4 ,true1 you will get some awful rubbish1 but the day will come when ,alniaria or ,celerio 7which latter ,i once received alive71 or some other rarity1 will reward your faith4 ,light surfaces1 such as white cloths or sheets left out all night1 sometimes attract moths4 ,,sugaring4--,the great nostrum for capturing moths is--,sugar6 ,a legend tells that many years ago someone discovered 7or imagined7 that moths came to an empty sugar cask1 situate somewhere in a now-unknown land2 and acting as the ,chinaman is said to have done1 in re the roast pork--thought perhaps that the virtue resided in the barrel1 and accordingly carted it off into the woods1 and was rewarded by rarities previously unknown4 ,a sage subsequently conceived the grand idea that the virtue resided in the sugar and not in the cask1 and afterwards came the idea of an improved sugar1 made as follows3 ,coarse brown sugar 7foots71 #a lb4 ,porter 7or ale71 #a gill4 ,treacle 7common71 #j4be lb4 ,rum1 a wineglassful or #j4e quartern4 ,mix together the sugar1 treacle1 and beer in a saucepan1 and bring the mixture to the boiling point1 stirring it meanwhile4 ,put it in corked bottles1 and just before you wish to use it add the rum4 ,aniseed is sometimes used as the flavouring medium4 ,honey is also substituted for sugar1 and sometimes the whole is mixed unboiled2 but if the collector will try the foregoing recipe1 the result of many years' experience1 he will1 ,i am sure1 be thoroughly satisfied4 ,the entomologist having provided himself with a bottle of the foregoing mixture1 a tin pot to pour it into1 and a brush to lay it on with1 the net figured at ,fig4 #df1 the cyanide bottle1 a collecting box1 and a lantern1 is equipped for sugaring4 ,a special sugaring can may be made from a tin canister1 to the rim of which a sort of funnel has been soldered in such a manner as to prevent any spilling of the contents1 and to the lid of which a brush has been affixed4 ,the wood-cut 7,fig4 #ea71 will explain4 ,this is1 however1 but a fad1 intended to do what it never does--viz1 keep your fingers from sticking1 and your tongue from evil speaking about the messiness of the sugar4 ,fig4 #ea--,sugaring can4 ,all seasons of the year 7except when too great an abundance of a favourite flower abounds7 yield a certain percentage of moths attracted by sugar4 ,mild nights in the depth of winter1 or in very early spring1 sometimes afford rarities1 and certainly many hybernated common species4 ,warm1 cloudy nights1 with a little wind stirring1 are generally the most favourable2 but one of the best nights ,i ever had amongst the ,peach ,blossoms and ,buff ,arches 7,thyatira batis and derasa7 was in a wood in ,warwickshire1 when the rain fell in torrents1 accompanied with fierce lightning and thunder1 from about #aa p4m4 until #f the next morning4 ,on this night everything swarmed1 a hundred or more common things on one patch of sugar being of frequent occurrence4 ,moonlight nights are1 as a rule1 blank ones for the sugarer--7,do the moths fly high to the light87--but ,i once had a grand capture of many specimens of the sword-grass 7,c4 exoleta7 on a bright moonlight and very windy night in ,february2 and ,dr4 ,knaggs says that on one occasion he met with night-flying moths literally swarming on a sugared fence in a field once in his possession1 whither1 in the small hours1 he had taken a stroll with a friend on the brightest moonlight morning it was ever his lot to behold4 ,many nights which appear the most favourable will1 on the contrary1 be unaccountably disappointing2 not a single moth will make its appearance4 ,the presence of ground-fog1 honeydew1 more attractive flowers1 or a coming change of wind or temperature 7nothing caring to stir in an east1 north1 or northeast wind7 will sometimes account for this4 ,showers1 rain1 thunderstorms1 provided they are accompanied by warmth1 are1 says ,dr4 ,knaggs1 very favourable1 and the catch during these conditions of the atmosphere will generally repay the inconvenience of a wet jacket4 ,on one terrible night1 when the lightning was perfectly terrific1 almost blinding even1 though my companion's eyes and mine were kept upon our work1 an incredible profusion of moths of various kinds were hustling one another for a seat at the festive board1 and continued thus to employ themselves until a deluge of rain swept both sweets and moths away from their positions4 ,on another stormy night1 ,i well remember having counted no less than a hundred and fifty moths of several sorts and sizes struggling for the possession of two small patches of sugar4 ,perhaps the best condition of the air may be described as cloudy overhead1 but clear and free from ground-fog near the earth2 and when this state of things has been preceded by sultry weather1 and a steady west1 south1 or south-west wind is blowing at the time1 the collector need not fear the result1 for he can hardly fail to be successful4 ,july is usually one of the very best months for sugaring1 and1 if warm1 what can be more charming than to select a fine night at this season of the year and to spend it in the woods8 ,just before dusk get your sugar painted on the trees1 at about the height of your chest1 in long narrow strips1 taking care not to let any fall at the foot of the tree or amongst the adjacent bushes 7though ,i have sometimes done very well by sugaring low down near the foot of the tree74 ,just as the nightjars and bats begin to fly you will have finished the last tree of your round1 and rapidly retracing your steps to the first you will perhaps see a small moth1 with wings raised1 rapidly flitting up and down your patch of sugar4 ,this is most probably the ,buff ,arches1 usually first to come2 in fact1 during the summer months1 it is perhaps as well to get the sugar on at eight o'clock1 as ,i have known this species1 the ,peach ,blossom and the ,crimson ,underwings 7,catocala promissa and sponsa71 to come on the sugar in bright light while yet the last rays of the sun were lighting the westward side of the tree-trunk1 when all the rest lay in shadow4 ,fig4 #eb--;,impaler4 ,if you are not facile princeps at bottling1 do not attempt it with the three or four species named above1 but strike them with the net o at nce1 for they are the most skittish of noctuae1 especially in the early part of the evening4 ,striking down such insects with a parchment-covered battledore1 which ,dr4 ,guard ,knaggs considers inflicts the least injury1 or impaling them with a triangle of needles stuck in cork1 in the manner shown in ,fig4 #eb1 or even with a single darning needle1 has been recommended1 but after a trial ,i have come to the conclusion that such plans are clumsy in the extreme4 ,a little practice will enable the beginner to dispense even with the net1 which tends to rub such dashing or unquiet insects1 and to rapidly cover them with a large cyanide bottle1 or1 failing this1 with the instrument shown in ,fig4 #ec1 which is a combination of the drum and cyanide bottle1 and will be found very useful for skittish insects4 ,a1 represents a cyanide bottle with no neck--a wine or ginger-beer bottle cut down1 by filing it around1 and then tapping it smartly1 does very well on an emergency4 ,fig4 #ec--;,diaphragm bottle4 ,on this is fixed a tin cylinder1 ,b1 having a slot cut in at ,d1 in which a diaphragm1 ,c1 works1 and is prevented from falling out by a stud fixed to its inside1 and from falling inside by the stud above ,c4 ,to use this1 the bottom must be stopped with a cork1 through which a piece of stout wire is bolted1 the wire to come up to1 but just underneath1 the slot ,d1 allowing the diaphragm to close4 ,in action this machine is worked thus3 ,supposing an insect is seen resting on a flat surface1 such as palings1 a wall1 or the trunk of a tree1 you having previously removed the cork and pulled the diaphragm out of the slot to its full extent1 take aim1 as it were1 at the insect with the open mouth of ,b1 and rapidly cover him with it4 ,the moth1 or what not1 as a matter of course1 flies toward the light which is at the bottom of the bottle1 ,a2 directly it has done so you push in the diaphragm1 which of course effectually bottles him up4 ,now enter the cork in the mouth1 ,b1 and pull out the diaphragm again to allow the cork to pass to its place in the mouth of the cyanide bottle1 which stopping is of course fatal to the insect4 ,fig4 #ed--,sugaring drum4 ,the sugaring drum referred to is thus described and figured by ,dr4 -,knaggs2 and it will be seen that in its main principle it is similar to my diaphragm bottle1 sans cyanide3 ,this is a hollow metal tube of two or three inches diameter1 over one end of which a piece of gauze has been strained1 while at the other end a valve1 to open and shut the mouth1 works in a transverse slit 7shown in ,fig4 #ed74 ,to use it we open the valve and deftly place the mouth of the drum over the insect which1 in nineteen cases out of twenty1 flies towards the gauze4 ,we then seize the opportunity to close the valve1 and pushing the corked piston represented at the right side of the figure against it1 once more open the valve1 and force the capture up to the gauze1 through which it may be pinned1 and the piston should then be withdrawn with the insect stuck upon it4 ,after all1 ,i like nothing so well as working two or three large cyanide bottles in this manner3 ,get some #f oz4 or #h oz4 bottles1 with as large mouths as possible--a confectioner's small and strong glass jar is about as good a thing as you can get4 ,to this have a cork1 cut as tightly as possible1 sloping outwards above the bottle some little distance1 to afford a good grip4 ,fill with cyanide as before directed1 putting in enough to make the bottles work quickly4 ,when you see one of the restless hovering kind of insects at your sugar1 aim at him stealthily1 as it were1 with the mouth of your bottle1 and when near enough rapidly close the mouth over him--ten to one he flies to the light1 and with a little management you can contrive to get the bottle recorked4 ,let him remain in the bottle until stupefied1 meanwhile using another bottle4 ,when this is tenanted and the insect drops1 gently shake him into the first bottle1 using the last to capture the next insect1 and so on4 ,by using three bottles you can always have one disengaged1 and the bottled insects can thus be allowed to remain a sufficient time to go dead before pinning4 ,many insects sit very quietly at the sugar1 but some few have a nasty trick of dropping at the least alarm2 to prevent this1 the whipcord of the net 7,fig4 #dc or ,fig4 #df71 should be always pressed close to the tree to receive them4 ,the cyanide bottle should be held with the left hand1 and the insect gently flicked in with a disengaged finger1 the cork held in the right hand to close the bottle as quickly as possible4 ,my readers will say1 ,how is the necessary lantern held all this time8 ,between the teeth by a piece of wood1 or leather1 fixed round the top or swinging handle2 or by being strapped on the chest at the height of the sugar patch4 ,this is1 of course1 on the assumption that you work solus--not too pleasant if in a lonely wood for three or four days and nights4 ,unless you are greedy1 therefore1 and wish to make a regular trade of your loneliness1 you will find that a friend1 holding the lantern or net while you bottle1 is not by any means prohibitory to enjoyable collecting4 ,two working together can get over more ground than one1 and what one friend misses1 the other stops4 ,from dusk to eleven on a favourable night in the summer months the fun is fast and furious2 thousands of moths of the common sorts come and go2 now and then a good thing to sweeten the toil4 ,the ,peach ,blossoms and ,buff ,arches slacken at about half-past nine1 and do not reappear until exactly the same light reappears in the morning1 going on well into the daylight4 ,in fact1 ,i have taken them still coming to the sugar as late as a quarter past three1 when the first rays of the sun were just appearing4 ,this is one of the most curious things about sugaring4 ,the swarming of one species at a certain hour of the night1 their almost total disappearance1 and their replacement by moths of quite a different genus1 giving way again to others2 then comes a lull--remarked by everyone--between half-past eleven and one or half-past1 then a rush again up to daylight1 when they all disappear1 save one or two1 who remain until they tumble dead drunk off the tree--a shocking example to the wood fairies1 who are popularly supposed to draw the line at rum6 ,another curious thing is that you may sugar in a wood for years and will always find certain trees unprofitable4 ,i remember one tree in a favourite wood1 which tree ,i sugared for years without taking a single moth from it4 ,you can assign no reason for this1 as the unproductive tree may be precisely similar to others on which insects swarm4 ,as a rule1 however1 rough-barked trees are the best2 and smooth1 or dead or rotten ones1 the worst4 ,still there is no hard-and-fast line in this4 ,failing trees on which to put your sugar1 paint palings1 walls1 bushes1 leaves of plants1 and even flower heads3 or1 if working on the seashore1 on which several rare and local species are found1 sugar flat stones1 rocks1 or even make bundles of the mat weed1 as you will have to do on the denes of ,norfolk or similar places1 and sugar them4 ,if you are entirely at a loss for bushes or grasses1 soak some pieces of cloth or calico1 before leaving home1 in the sugar1 and peg them down on the ground1 or stick them in the crevices of the rocks1 if the latter are1 from any cause1 too wet to hold the sugar4 ,it often happens that moths will come to sugar1 even when not freshly painted on the trees4 ,i remember once taking several ,crimson ,underwings 7,c4 promissa71 and several other things1 on sugar which was painted on the trees by a collector four nights before ,i arrived at the spot4 ,butterflies and several other things are often attracted by sugared trees1 whether old or fresh2 and ,dr4 ,knaggs says that by day several butterflies1 chiefly ,vanessidae1 a group comprising the ,peacock1 the ,tortoiseshell1 the ,red ,admiral1 the ,painted ,lady1 and the ,camberwell ,beauty1 have a penchant for the sugar1 and may1 by this means1 be enticed within our reach2 and the ,purple ,emperor has thus been frequently entrapped4 ,sugaring constantly in the same tract of woodland is certain ultimately to yield something out of the common1 for moths have been proved to fly many miles in search of natural or artificial sweets1 and even a barren locality may be made exceedingly productive by perseveringly sugaring it4 ,some very curious things come to sugar now and then4 ,such insects as beetles1 woodlice1 slugs1 etc1 are expected as a matter of course1 but toads1 dormice1 and bats--all attracted1 however1 ,i suspect1 as much by the insects as the sugar--you do not expect1 nor the sundry caterpillars which you occasionally can catch sipping at the sweet juice4 ,the ,hawk moths and ,bombyces are popularly supposed not to come1 but ,i have a distinct recollection of catching1 near ,woolwich1 many years ago1 a goat moth certainly inspecting the sugar1 and analogous but isolated instances now and then occur4 ,in the grey of the morning1 when sugaring is finished1 it will be as well to keep your eye on the hedgerows or heaths you may pass1 as occasionally certain insects swarm at an early hour1 and now and then important captures may be made4 ,before dismissing the subject of sugaring1 it may be as well to say a few words on lanterns and chip boxes4 ,with regard to the first1 bull's eyes are generally recommended4 ,possibly1 ,i may be prejudiced against them when ,i say that ,i think they concentrate the glare of light too suddenly and in too narrow a focus1 causing thereby many insects to drop1 which the broader stream of light from an ordinary lantern does not appear to do to such an extent4 ,i recommend1 therefore1 a medium-sized ordinary lantern1 about #g in4 high by #d4e in4 by #c4e in back to front1 fitted with a double-wicked reservoir1 holding sufficient oil to burn seven or eight hours4 ,a screw cap should be fitted over the burners to prevent the oil running out and spoiling everything with which the lantern may be packed when travelling4 ,the usual plate glass door should be made to open from the front1 the glass sides1 however1 being replaced with bright metal1 converging the rays from a strong reflector at the back2 a swing handle should be fixed at the top and two at the back1 all folding close to the lantern when not in use4 ,plenty of ventilation1 without allowing actual wind to penetrate1 should be provided1 and only the best colza oil be used4 ,if made to order1 a great advantage will be found in having the right-hand side to open outwards 7from the back7 instead of opening on the front1 as the lantern can then be more easily trimmed when strapped on the body without the necessity of its removal for that purpose4 ,the chip boxes1 which some entomologists use instead of the cyanide bottle to take the moths off the trees1 are simply the various sized ointment boxes of the druggist1 strengthened by papering1 or by pieces of glued linen crossing them4 ,many use them1 chiefly those of the old school1 in preference to anything else--,de gustibus1 etc4 ,the objections to a general use of these boxes are many4 ,first1 you must provide yourself with a large bagful or pocketful of these boxes on starting out1 as one moth only goes in each box1 leaving one pocket empty on the reverse side of your coat to receive the boxes when filled1 in order not to mix the empty with the full ones4 ,second1 you are not quite sure at night as to rubbed or chipped specimens1 and may find in the morning your boxes filled with worthless things1 which a brief introduction to the cyanide bottle would long before have revealed4 ,third1 the most important fact1 that though there are many insects which rest quietly when boxed1 there is a large percentage which pass the time of their captivity in madly dashing themselves against the walls of their prison1 and a boxed insect of this turn of mind presents a sorry sight in the morning1 many stages1 in fact1 on the wrong side of shabby-genteel4 ,then when1 after a night's severe work1 you are limping home in the morning1 thinking how cold it is--until roused to action by the appearance of some unexpected insect--then1 indeed1 how much more cold and hollow seems the world1 when1 suddenly catching your tired foot in a stump or tangle of grass1 you roll over on the full pocket side and hear 7and feel7 the boxes burst up on the unhappy moths within4 ,i have gone through it all1 and ,i don't like it6 ,,assembling--,i had almost forgotten to mention another extraordinary way of catching moths 7chiefly ,bombyces71 by what is called assembling1 which is exposing in a gauze-covered box a virgin female1 who1 by some mysterious power calls the males of the same species around her in so infatuated a manner that they will even creep into the collector's pocket in their quest of the hidden charmer4 ,in a highly interesting paper in the ,country1 of #bnd ,oct1 #ahgc1 ,dr4 ,guard ,knaggs gave a very full account of the theory and practice of assembling1 so interesting1 indeed1 that ,i venture to reproduce it in extenso4 ,he says3 ,the generally accepted theory is that each female should1 at one or other period of her existence1 captivate at least one of the opposite sex1 though it will be found by experience that some species possess a far more potent influence for this purpose than others4 ,it may be set down as a rule that females which are captured at rest during the time of day or night at which they should naturally be upon the wing are unimpregnated1 and may be used for attracting with fair chances of success4 ,there may be exceptions to this rule2 my opinion inclines to the belief that the butterflies take wing before impregnation2 but of this ,i am certain1 namely1 that the females of butterflies--at any rate of certain species--have considerable influence over the males4 ,doubtless1 too1 there are many skittish ,geometrae or slender-bodied moths1 and ,pyrales1 or ,pearls1 which are easily frightened1 the females of which will rush from their places of concealment even before they are prepared to start on the mission of ovipositing4 ,the converse of this rule1 that female insects captured on the wing are almost invariably impregnated1 may be taken as an axiom1 at least so far as the moth tribe is concerned4 ,of course females which have made their appearance in our breeding cages are the most eligible for the purpose of attraction2 but whenever we breed these with the intention of using them for attracting1 we must bear well in mind that the rearing process1 whether from the chrysalis1 the caterpillar1 or the egg1 must be conducted under surrounding conditions of temperature1 etc1 as nearly as possible resembling those to which they would be subjected in their natural state4 ,otherwise1 if we retard their appearance by keeping our breeding-cages in too cool a situation1 we shall be too late for our sport1 or at best capture only worn specimens2 while1 if we force them by an unnatural state of warmth1 the males will not have made their appearance at large by the time we are ready to arrive upon the hunting-ground4 ,having furnished ourselves with a bred female1 the next procedure will be to construct a cage for her reception in such a manner that the males will be compelled to keep within a respectful distance1 and formed of such material as will permit the air to readily permeate the sides of the prison4 ,fig4 #ee--;,assembling cage4 ,the cage 7,fig4 #ee7 adapted to our requirements is a very simple affair2 it is formed by bending our three strips of cane of about equal lengths each into the form of a circle1 and fixing them in that form by means of twine2 these three circular pieces are then placed in such a manner that they cross one another at right angles 7,fig4 #ee71 thereby forming the rudimentary outline of a hollow sphere1 over which it is an easy matter to stretch and tie a piece of leno4 ,when required for use the female may be put in1 either loose or clinging to a twig of the length of the diameter of the globe1 and the leno tied afterwards4 ,the theory of the peculiar action of the female upon the senses of the males is usually considered to be due to a subtle scent which emanates from her1 and is wafted on the breeze to distant parts2 and it is believed that by means of this scented track the males are enabled to discover the whereabouts of the object of their search4 ,and that this would appear to be the true solution1 no one who has witnessed the grand spectacle of the ',kentish ,glories' or the ',emperor' moths coming up against the wind can1 ,i should say1 for a moment doubt4 ,to be attractive the female must be in that condition which is known by the fraternity as 'calling1' that is1 she should be slightly convulsed with tremor1 and the last segment of the body should be denuded of fur4 ,then1 if the weather be propitious--bright for such males as fly in the sunshine1 warm at dusk for those whose hour of flight commences with the shades of evening--and if also the wind be blowing steadily from a favourable quarter1 such as west1 south1 or a gentle south-west1 we may reasonably hope for success4 ,but the young collector must remember that it does not by any means follow that because he captures a female1 say an ',oak eggar1' on the wing in the evening1 he has detected the time of flight of the males4 ,in fact1 it very frequently happens that the males fly in the daytime and the females in the evening4 ,in the case of species which inhabit open parts of the country1 such as moors1 mosses1 commons1 chases1 fens1 and fields1 we should take care that no obstacle is in the way to prevent the current of air from carrying the scent freely over the locality4 ,on the other hand1 if it be the inmates of a wood or copse which we are desirous of attracting1 we must either select a ride down which the wind finds its way1 or else we shall have to allow the breeze to convey the scent from some part of the surrounding country to the outskirts of the wood4 ,as a rule1 it is quite sufficient for our ends to lay the baited cage upon the ground1 and then to lie down at a little distance off and keep watch4 ,but in some cases it is advisable to tie the cage to the trunk or branch of a tree1 or to fix it in a bush4 ,i have found the latter very effective with the red-belted apple clearwing 7,sesia myopiformis71 and no doubt it would also prove so with other species of the class4 ,any ,londoner who would like to judge for himself can easily manage it4 ,he has only1 in the first place1 to hunt about in his own or some one else's garden for a handsome little caterpillar1 of a blackish colour1 spotted with pink1 with four rows of thick tufts of yellowish hairs resembling brushes upon its back1 with two long tufts of blackish hairs pointing forwards in front1 almost like horns1 and a similar one behind pointing backwards1 something like a tail4 ,it eats almost anything1 and is easily reared4 ,when full fed it spins a web1 in which it changes to a chrysalis2 and1 in time1 from some of the cocoons thus formed1 spider-like creatures will emerge and attach themselves to the outer part of the web4 ,these should at once be removed 7web and all71 and placed securely in the cage already mentioned1 when1 if there be any males about1 ,i will warrant it will not be long before the proprietor has a very tolerable idea of what is meant by attracting by the bred female4 ,,collecting ,,and ,,rearing ,,larvae4--,very many insects are more easily collected in the larval or caterpillar stage than in the perfect one4 ,every tree1 bush1 or plant1 the grass1 and even the lichens growing on trees or walls1 produce some larvae feeding on it4 ,it would1 ,i feel1 be a work of supererogation to attempt to give detailed descriptions of food-plants and the insects feeding on them1 when we have a book so good and cheap to fall back on as ,merrin's ,lepidopterist's ,calendar1 which gives the times of appearance of butterflies and moths in all their stages1 with localities and the food-plants of the larvae1 and this for every month of the year4 ,for bringing caterpillars home1 a larvae box is necessary2 this should1 if possible1 be made of a cylinder of wire gauze or perforated zinc 7see ,fig4 #ef71 capped top and bottom with zinc1 the bottom a fixture1 the top to lift off1 dished inward towards an orifice with a tube soldered in it1 which is kept corked until it is wanted to drop larvae down it4 ,the tube coming well through into the cylinder1 and narrowing inside to half its diameter at the top1 prevents anything escaping1 even if the cork should be left out1 and also prevents the swarming out of the enclosed larvae1 which would take place if the top were lifted off bodily4 ,wooden canisters1 such as tobacco is often stored in1 make very good substitutes if small holes are bored in the side4 ,tin canisters1 or1 indeed1 anything made entirely of metal1 unless plenty of ventilation is afforded1 as in ,fig4 #ef1 have a tendency to cause the enclosed larvae to sweat4 ,some few hints as to collecting larvae may not be unacceptable4 ,in the spring1 just as the buds of various low plants and bushes break forth1 they should be searched by night1 by the aid of a lantern1 for the larvae of various noctuae and geometrae then feeding4 ,the best plants to search will be the mountain ash1 bilberry1 honeysuckle1 and bramble1 given in their order of merit4 ,many other plants may be advantageously searched1 in fact1 all low plants and bushes ought to be well looked over by the persevering collector4 ,later on1 sweeping1 i4e1 pushing a strong ring net through the grass1 may be resorted to4 ,the net for this should be made of strong wire in the shape of the net at ,fig4 #df1 or #dc1 if without the joints1 a bag of strong dowlas and a stick are attached1 and the front square-ended part is pushed by the collector through the grass1 in order to trap any low feeding or invisible insects4 ,when the leaves are fully out on the trees1 beating will shake many larvae1 pupae1 certain moths1 beetles1 etc1 into the net or sheet spread to receive them1 ,both sweeping and beating may be practised by night as by day4 ,the situations in which larvae are found are many1 some rolling themselves in nettle1 oak1 or other leaves2 others boring into the substance of the wood itself1 and some feeding in the stems of various bushes1 plants1 reeds1 etc4 ,for life histories of such consult the pages of the ,entomologist's ,monthly ,magazine1 or ,entomologist1 both published every month at #f;d4 each2 or ,newman's ,british ,butterflies and ,british ,moths1 published as complete volumes at4 #gs4 #f;d4 and #bjs4 respectively4 ,these latter are the finest works at the price in any language whatever1 giving figures--perfect specimens of the wood engraver's art--of the whole of the ,macro-,lepidoptera1 backed up by exhaustive descriptions4 ,fig4 #ef--;,cage for collecting larvae4 ,digging in the dead months of the year1 when the weather is mild1 for pupae1 is another method of getting insects4 ,corners where roots meet or spring from the trunks of trees1 are good harbours of refuge for pupae2 so are inner angles of walls1 underneath sheltered hedgerows1 or under isolated trees in parks or meadows1 and a host of other spots4 ,the best places for digging are not always1 as you would suppose1 in the thickest parts of woods or shrubberies1 but under skirting trees or in avenues4 ,the best times for pupae are from ,october to ,january4 ,many people attain great proficiency in finding--the ,rev4 ,joseph ,greene1 to wit4 ,for my own part ,i must confess that ,i have never earned my salt at it1 but that is possibly due to want of skill or perseverance4 ,the tools required are simply a trowel1 a curved piece of steel fitted in a handle1 or a three-cornered instrument similar to1 but smaller than1 the scraper used by shipwrights2 anything1 in fact1 handy to carry1 and efficacious in scratching up the sod at the roots of trees1 or tearing off the pseudo-knots of bark which veil the pupae of various moths4 ,when larvae or pupae are brought home1 it will be necessary to place them in something which1 though retaining them in captivity1 yet allows them as natural conditions of living as is possible in a circumscribed space4 ,pupae1 may be kept in a flower pot covered with earth1 or in moss damped from time to time with water of not too cold a temperature4 ,over the flower pot may be strained two pieces of wire or cane1 crossing each other in the form of arches1 the whole covered with muslin2 or a handier plan to get to the insects quickly when emerged1 or to damp the pupae1 is to procure from the glass merchant the waste cylinders of glass cut from shades1 pasting over one end with leno or muslin1 and placing the other in the flower pot on top of the earth or moss4 ,this also makes a cheap substitute for the breeding cage for larvae1 if a little earth only is put in the flower pot in which a bottle of water is placed containing the food plant4 ,wire gauze cylinders are handy as affording plenty of air to delicate larvae4 ,bandboxes with a square piece cut out from the top lid1 the hole thus made covered with muslin1 will do very well for breeding a quantity of a hardy common sort4 ,fig4 #eg--;,insect breeding cage ,the usual wooden breeding cage is shown at ,fig4 #eg4 ,this requires hardly any explanation3 ,a is a glass door1 ,b ,b ,b are sides and top of perforated zinc1 ,c is a tray fitting inside1 where dotted lines are shown1 to hold the earth in which the bottle of water holding food is placed1 or where the larvae bury themselves to change to pupae4 ,properly1 the inner tray of box ,c should be constructed of zinc perforated with a few holes at the bottom1 in order that it may be lifted out to allow the pupae to be well damped when forcing4 ,footnote3 ,for those larvae of butterflies and moths which do not require earth1 it will be sufficient to have a zinc pan1 with covered top perforated with holes1 in which the stalks of the food plants be inserted in the water which fills the pan1 whose covering prevents the insects from drowning themselves therein4 ,forcing is a method adopted to cause any moth to emerge at the collector's will1 and several months before its proper time1 it having been proved that certain moths more than others die in the chrysalis or pupa state if left to go their full time1 notably the ,death's ,head1 the ,spurge1 and other hawks4 ,the best time for forcing is about ,christmas1 and the conditions are simply heat and moisture1 the pupae being placed over a spirit lamp1 in a hothouse1 on the kitchen mantelpiece1 or by the fire grate even1 kept for a week or so at a temperature of #he deg4 or thereabout1 and constantly damped with moss wrung out in warm water4 ,bear in mind that heat without moisture will not do by any means4 ,the breeding cage itself need not be used1 but only the tray1 provided that gauze is stretched over in such a manner as to allow room for the moth to dry its wings on emergence4 ,but if the whole of the breeding cage were made of framed zinc 7such as aquaria are made of71 and the glass and perforated zinc fixed in1 the cost1 though greater at first1 would be more than counterbalanced by its greater strength1 with lightness and capability of resisting wear and tear1 added to which is the advantage of being used as a whole during the operation of forcing1 wood not standing1 of course1 the heat and moisture necessary4 ,breeding cages should not be painted4 ,fresh food1 and plenty of it1 should1 if possible1 be supplied to the larvae4 ,dry food is1 as a rule1 the best1 though the larvae of one or two of the foreign ,saturnidae require their food to be sprinkled with water1 and sometimes even with the addition of salt1 to make them thrive4 ,moths on emergence should not be killed at once1 as they are then too flaccid1 and have not sufficiently purged themselves4 ,yet they should not be left too long or over night1 as they often fly at that time1 and knock themselves about in the cage1 to the detriment of their beauty2 destroying1 in fact1 the whole aim and end of breeding1 which is of course1 instituted to procure specimens for the cabinet as fine as it is possible to get them4 ,in collecting insects it is always as well to bear in mind that a worn female1 though not of the slightest use to the entomologist1 unless she can be induced to lay in confinement1 may become the progenitor of many1 and may thus afford you during the next season great pleasure in collecting4 ,this being so1 ,i should like to impress upon my readers 7the young especially7 the propriety of giving all insects1 not actually noxious1 heir liberty1 if on examination they prove to be useless as specimens4 ,these remarks apply also to the case of hybernated females4 ,many female insects1 though unwilling to lay in confinement1 may be watched at large1 and the flowers and plants on which they have from time to time rested1 searched for their eggs4 ,in concluding this chapter1 ,i feel that ,i might have said much more upon nearly every section--have explained many new dodges1 and so forth1 were it not that the limit of space has been reached4 ,one thing1 however1 may be noted as an omission1 and that is the recommendation as to what books should be procured by the young entomologist4 ,this is so difficult a matter--depending entirely upon the aim of the individual--that ,i prefer to leave it an open question1 merely making the general statement that nearly all our advanced systems are founded upon the labours of ,german and ,french entomologists4 ,footnote3 ,mr4 ,wm4 ,wesley4 ,essex ,street ,strand1 ,london1 publishes monthly a ,natural ,history ,book ,circular1 which he will send to naturalists if asked4 ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,on ,,natural ,,history ,,museums1 ,,with ,,special ,,reference ,,to ,a ,,new ,,system ,,of ,,pictorial ,,arrangement ,,of ,,vertebrates4 ,i ,,must confess that1 at one time1 the consideration of the best method of dealing to advantage with the limited space usually existing in the older provincial museums would have dismayed me4 ,even at that time1 however1 ,i had glimmerings of the brighter light which has since illumined the way1 and ,i was1 perhaps1 aided by the persistent manner in which ,i haunted museums both abroad and at home1 until at last ,i never went on a journey without managing to break it1 or to make it end at the then summum bonum of my happiness--a museum4 ,like ,diogenes1 ,i went about with my lamp to find1 not an honest man1 but an honest museum--a museum with some originality1 and with some definite idea as to its sphere of work4 ,leaving out1 of course1 such complete and technical institutions as the ,museum of ,geology1 the ,museum of the ,college of ,surgeons1 and such institutions which really have a motive in view--steadfastly adhered to--,i saw1 then as now1 that every provincial museum was nothing if left to its own devices1 and1 if inspired1 was1 at the best1 but a sorry and servile imitator of the worst points of our national museum4 ,everyone must have observed1 no doubt1 in any provincial museum which dates back thirty or forty years1 that the great curse of the collection1 so to speak1 is sketchy versatility4 ,in walking through the usually dry-as-dust collections you find numbers of very atrociously-rendered mammals1 a greater sprinkling of funereal and highly-disreputable birds1 some extremely-protracted fishes1 some chipped insects1 and a lot of shells1 chiefly marine1 which suggest association with the word stores4 ,i allude to those odds and ends which people do not want themselves1 and which are1 therefore1 so kindly brought as an offering--would ,i might say a burnt one--to any institution so reckless of consequences as to admit them4 ,nearly all museums of early days were imitators of the ,british ,museum1 whilst those of later days affect the newer treatment of ,south ,kensington4 ,hence1 in walking through any museum1 a technical observer can easily detect the sources of inspiration and the lines of demarcation between the old and the new4 ,really it amounts to this1 that hardly any institution in ,england thinks for itself4 ,museum authorities1 like sheep1 follow the lead of the most ancient bell-wether2 and the reason of this is not far to seek4 ,curators1 as a rule1 are men with one hobby--one-horse men1 as the ,americans so aptly put it--sometimes wise1 sometimes otherwise1 but in many cases totally devoid of that technical education so much needed in reconciling the divergent atoms of the institutions they represent2 in fact1 head and hand seldom work together4 ,often1 owing to the want of technical advice1 money is wasted in more than one department1 cases are too highly paid for1 and have not been thought out sufficiently as to their fitness for their future contents1 or the position in which they are to be placed1 or the more fatal error has been perpetrated of considering them as merely units of a certain department instead of parts of a whole4 ,i contend that if it be necessary for a civil engineer or other professional man to have mastered the various technicalities of his profession1 it is also incumbent on curators to have done or to do likewise1 in order that they may grasp the treatment of their museum as a whole1 and not fall into the grave fault of working up one department whilst ignoring the others4 ,nothing is more distasteful to my mind than that a man in the position of a curator should impertinently ride one single hobby to death1 to the utter exclusion and detriment of all other branches of knowledge entrusted to his care4 ,what is the sum total of this8 ,in looking around any museum of old standing we see twenty different styles and colours of cases1 which may be briefly summarized as representing the eocene1 miocene1 and pliocene formation of cases2 space has been wasted1 or not utilized as it might be1 and the result is a confused jumble of odds and ends1 consequent on some persons considering that the end and aim of a museum should be the preservation of bullets collected by ,handy-,andy from the field of ,arrah-na-,pogue1 ,my ,grandfather's ,clock1 and so on4 ,this is certainly not the mission of any museum1 nor should it lay itself out with avidity to collect disjointed scraps of savage life1 such as portraits of the ladies who ate cold savage and who--horresco referens6--drank his blood4 ,footnote3 ,a fact6 ,such a museum object as this1 awfully1 yet ludicrously1 reminds me of that showman who enticed his audience in with--,here you'll see the ,duke of ,vellington at the battle of ,vauterloo1 with the blood all a-runnen down his fut1' or of poor little ,totty 7in ,helen's ,babies71 who loved to hear about ,b'liaff and his headlessness1 and the sword that was all bluggy4 ,this is1 ,i think1 one of the mistakes which most museums fall into4 ,they collect a vast quantity of rubbish utterly useless to anyone but a schoolboy or a showman1 and in consequence they find valuable space wasted to make way for tops of teapots1 bits of leather1 ,kaffirs' or ,zulus' knives made in ,sheffield1 native ornaments1 in beads and brass1 made in ,birmingham1 and such-like members of the great family of curios4 ,all such as these should be firmly and respectfully declined without thanks4 ,footnote3 ,when ,i first came to the ,leicester ,museum ,i was requested to present to the ,museum and enclose in a suitable receptacle--,no4 #a1 a piece of thick leather1 which the donor thought just the right thickness for the heel of a boot2 and ,no4 #b a teapot lid with no particular history1 only that--as the dame who brought it phrased it--maybe it's summat old4 ,i have spoken1 in somewhat sacrilegious terms1 of imitation of the worst points of the old ,british ,museum and of ,south ,kensington 7,i don't mean the new ,natural ,history ,galleries1 but artistic ,south ,kensington72 but perhaps ,i may be forgiven when ,i state that ,i consider1 and always considered1 the weakest part of our old natural history galleries at ,bloomsbury was the arrangement of all the mammals1 birds1 etc1 in that provokingly fore-and-aft manner 7spoken of before71 on uninteresting stands or perches 7hat-pegs7 such as the skeletons in ,plates ,,ii4 and ,,iii4 are represented on4 ,this1 which was1 perhaps1 inevitable in a national collection professedly showing to the public every species of bird and mammal in the least possible space1 is unpardonable in a provincial museum1 which has not the task imposed upon it of attempting to vie with the national collection in point of numbers4 ,provincial museums1 then1 if electing to show only animals collected in their immediate vicinity or county 7which some authorities--of whom anon--say is the only raison d'tre of a provincial museum71 or1 if electing to supplement these by showing a few foreign forms of striking appearance1 fall into grievous error by mounting the necessarily few specimens they can get together on hat-pegs1 simply because the national collection1 with which they are not on all fours1 sets them the bad example in this4 ,now for ,south ,kensington3 the imitation ,i decry is that of black1 or black-and-gold cases1 suitable the exhibition of art treasures1 but objectionable for natural history objects1 which1 usually dreary enough in their abject condition on pegs1 are rendered more funereal by their black1 or black-and-gold surroundings2 yet1 with these obvious disadvantages1 what do we see in some provincial museums8--a servile adoption of ,south ,kensington ebonized cases1 without any reference to fitness4 ,it is positively painful to see elaborately carved and gilded cases1 costing1 perhaps1 a hundred guineas a-piece1 entombing a few wretchedly-mounted specimens worth1 perhaps1 less than #e the lot4 ,i have technical objections to ebonized cases1 which ,i am sure have been lost sight of by all but the makers of such articles4 ,these are--first1 that if deal1 or pine1 or common cedar is used to make the cases with1 they will shrink1 lose colour1 or be easily chipped or dinted1 becoming in a short time useless and shabby2 and1 on the other hand1 if made by first-class makers out of good mahogany1 afterwards blacked or ebonized1 their price is enormous1 and out of all proportion to their appearance1 added to which they get worn on their edges in a short time and show the mahogany underneath in reddish1 rust-coloured streaks on their most prominent parts4 ,how ridiculous1 then1 does it seem to cover up serviceable and handsome 7and expensive7 mahogany with a coat of black simply for the sake of getting an effect which is1 to say the least1 depressing6 ,well1 you will say1 you have fallen foul of the fundamental principles of nearly all museums--black cases1 and animals on hat-pegs4 ,what do you propose8 ,i propose1 in the first place1 mahogany1 walnut1 or oak cases2 and1 in the second place1 the pictorial mounting of all specimens1 and not only do ,i propose it1 but ,i claim in the ,leicester ,museum to have done on a large scale what has hitherto been applied to small matters only4 ,first1 as to the wood2 ,i delight in oak1 and1 although ,i know how much more liable it is to twist than first-class mahogany1 yet if of good picked quality1 dry and sound1 and properly tongued and framed1 there is not much to fear1 and its light and elegant appearance is a great gain in a large room1 added to this it improves by age and is practically indestructible4 ,now for the pictorial mounting of specimens2 and here let me say that1 for any person to lay down a hard-and-fast line as to what natural history specimens should be1 or should not be1 collected by provincial natural history museums as a whole1 is about as sensible a plan as saying that a nation as a whole must drink nothing but beer or nothing but water4 ,it is apparently forgotten that general principles cannot apply to museums ranging in size from #bj ft4 by #ab ft4 to that of ,liverpool with its several large rooms1 each one larger than the entire museum of small towns4 ,i think it may be laid down as a common-sense proceeding that1 if a provincial museum consists of only one or two rooms of the size above given1 the managers should strictly confine themselves to collecting only the fossils1 animals1 and plants of their own district4 ,if1 however1 like ,leicester1 they possess a zoological room #hj ft4 in length by #dj ft4 in width1 and of great height1 together with smaller rooms1 then the proposition to strictly confine themselves to local forms is unwise in the extreme4 ,how would it be possible to fill so much cubic space with the few specimens--even if extended unwarrantably1 and elaborately mounted--which many years of arduous collecting might obtain8 ,taking the list of vertebrates of any midland county1 how many of them do we find could be collected if we left out of count the accidentals8 ,here is a list3 ,fishes1 #bf2 reptiles1 #aj2 birds1 #aaj2 mammals1 #bf 7the fox being the largest of these74 ,footnote3 ,about #hj only1 of the #aaj1 breed in any given midland district4 ,it would be impossible to fill the wall-cases1 if properly proportioned1 with these few1 even given all the favourable conditions of procuring the accidentals and varieties1 under ten years4 ,it is quite true1 also1 that the contemplation of purely local fauna1 though giving interest to1 and holding undue importance in the eyes of a few men1 who narrow their views to their own county 7which1 perhaps1 they believe in to such an extent as to seldom pass its boundaries71 is misleading and even possibly damaging to the student of biology1 who must be shown1 in the clearest possible manner1 the affinities--say1 of such a well-known bird as the heron1 which a local collection will tell him1 by means of a huge and unblushing label1 is a ,blankshire bird1 shot somewhere in the vicinity2 not a word is said as to its being also a ,british bird and also a ,foreign bird1 the heron ranging throughout every county in ,britain1 throughout ,europe1 the greater part of ,africa and ,asia1 and even penetrating into ,australia4 ,the remedy for this is a typical general collection--running around the room1 let us say--and a local collection entirely distinct and separate4 ,first1 in the structural necessities of a museum1 ,i place well-lighted rooms--preferably from the top4 ,of course1 side windows1 though giving an increase of light1 yet by that very increase become objectionable by making cross lights1 which the sheets of glass enclosing the various objects tend to multiply2 next1 the colour of the walls--this is very important4 ,some museums have blue or ,pompeian-red walls1 under the impression that it suits certain objects2 in the instances of pictures or statuary1 etc1 it may be right1 but1 for natural history objects1 nothing suits them and shows them up better than a light neutral tint--one of the tertiaries--lightened considerably1 until it arrives at a light stone1 very light sage1 or pale slate colour4 ,footnote3 ,the ,leicester ,museum1 when ,i first came to it1 had the walls of its chief room1 the then ,curiosity shop1 painted dull dark red1 cut up by twenty-four pilasters of ad deep green in imitation of marble2 the ceiling bad not been whitened for twenty years1 and the birds and animals on hat-pegs1 in cases with small panes of glass1 etc1 were frightfully contrasted by a backing of crude1 deep ultramarine-blue6 ,three primary colours4 ,could human perversity and bad taste go much further8 ,the pilasters1 if any1 must be ignored1 and blended into the walls by being painted of the same colour as the remainder2 otherwise1 the first things which strike the observer on entering are the walls and pilasters1 and not the objects2 whereas the impression to be secured on the mind should be exactly the reverse of this1 for be sure that1 if the colour of the walls be noticed at all by the casual visitor1 something is radically wrong4 ,this is one of the reasons why ,i prefer light oak wall-cases to anything else1 by their being so unobtrusive1 and not dividing the room so sharply into squares as the black and gold4 ,i venture to say that the first thing noticeable on entering the zoological-room at ,leicester is the form and colour of the objects1 and this is as it should be4 ,having now got light in the rooms from the top and1 possibly1 from the north1 supplemented by1 and radiating from1 the light walls and ceiling1 we1 having our oak cases in position1 must glaze them with as large sheets of plate glass as are manageable or as we can afford2 a very handy size is-say1 #h ft4 in height by #e ft4 #d in4 in breadth1 this prevents cutting up the enclosed specimens by many bars1 enclosing small panes1 so prevalent in the older museums1 also1 of course1 adding greatly to the general effect4 ,the backs of the wall cases should be1 if the specimens are mounted on pegs1 of some light tint slightly contrasting with that of the walls1 or1 if the specimens are to be pictorially treated1 with softly graduated skies applicable to each group4 ,perhaps a sketch of the treatment of the zoological-room of ,leicester ,museum would help the reader to grasp the facts of the case better4 ,in the first place1 the walls were cut for more windows1 at a height of #ab ft4 above the floor1 the top light not being sufficient nor properly available1 nor end lights obtainable1 owing to the structural defects of the existing building2 the ceiling was then whitewashed1 and walls painted of a nice warm stone colour1 quite unobtrusive in itself2 the artificial light was provided for by twelve gas pendants of twenty-four lights each1 i4e1 eight arms1 each holding three burners4 ,the heating--a most important matter1 not only for the comfort of visitors1 but for the proper preservation of the specimens--was managed by hot-water coils running around the walls under the cases4 ,footnote3 ,i am not at all sure if the artificial lighting of wall cases is not best managed by gas arms shaded from the eye of the spectator1 and throwing their light into the cases by a hi similar arrangement to that adopted for lighting jewellers' and other shops from the outside4 ,the cases themselves were framed in oak1 rising #aj ft4 from the floor1 thus--#a ft4 #c4e in4 of plinth and frames1 enclosing panelled gratings to allow the hot air to escape2 on this the wooden bottoms of the range was built2 then #c4e in4 and #c in4 frame at bottom and top1 enclosing #g ft4 #f in4 space for glass1 and #h in4 frieze moulding2 the divisions of each were arranged to suit the space at disposal to represent all orders of vertebrates4 ,the doors or sashes were round-headed and glazed with plate glass1 three plates of which were #g ft4 #f in4 by #d ft4 #d4e in42 eight1 #g ft4 #f in4 by #d ft4 #f in42 eleven1 #g ft4 #f in4 by #e ft4 #a in42 eleven1 #g ft4 #f in4 by #e ft4 #b4e in42 one1 #g ft4 #f in4 by #d ft4 #g4e in42 and three1 #g ft4 #f in4 by #d ft4 #a in42 thirty-seven plates in all4 ,all but twelve of the cases were #b ft4 #f in4 from back to front1 these twelve being #c ft4 from back to front1 all glazed at the top1 to admit light1 by glass fixed in iron ,t-pieces at intervals of #b ft4 #f in1 making two divisions4 ,to these1 two cases were subsequently added2 one1 #g ft4 #f in4 by #b ft4 #f in42 the other1 #g ft4 #f in4 by #f ft4 ,the division frames1 being rebated and lined with moleskin1 had the sashes1 previously glazed from the inside1 lifted in and screwed to them1 the screw heads being hidden by turned buttons of oak4 ,i objected to these doors or sashes being hung in the ordinary manner1 it being so difficult to hinge large and weighty frames without danger of twisting or of straining the surrounding parts1 to say nothing of the almost impossibility of keeping dust from getting in through hinged doors2 accordingly it was felt that1 although there might be a little inconvenience in unscrewing the eight or ten screws which held them in their places1 yet that the trouble of their removal1 not being an every-day occurrence1 in any instance1 would be more than compensated by the increased strength1 and air and dust-proof advantages4 7,that these predictions were justified is proved by the fact that the cases1 being filled1 were opened at the end of #ahhc to allow of their contents being photographed-without the intervention of glass-and the air which then issued from them was strongly charged with turpentine and other agents used about the birds1 and the rockwork1 nearly two years before1 whilst not a particle of dust was observable anywhere47 ,these cases were1 as regards workmanship1 strongly and well made by a local man1 working under my direction1 and although1 of course1 lacking the minute finish of such champions of case-making as ,sage1 yet1 taking into consideration that quite #cjj pounds was saved in the construction1 we may be fairly proud of our success4 ,regarding the classification of the vertebrates1 it was admitted on all hands that we might take ,huxley as our standpoint2 but ,i felt that1 in this age of specialists1 we ought to be guided by those who1 taking the labours of the leading physiologists and men of science for their groundwork1 compiled1 so to speak1 from these results1 and being anatomists and men of great learning themselves1 were generally accepted throughout the world as the leading exponents of the branch of biology they represented4 ,accordingly the plan was sketched out1 and1 selecting ,professor ,w4 ,h4 ,flower1 ,f4,r4,s1 the president of the ,college of ,surgeons1 for the mammals2 ,dr4 ,p4 #a4 ,sclater1 ,f4,r4,s1 secretary of the ,zoological ,society1 for the birds2 and ,dr4 a4 ,c4 ,guenther1 ,f4,r4,s1 chief of the ,british ,museum1 for the reptiles and fishes1 ,i submitted my plans to each gentleman1 who did me the honour to return them corrected where necessary4 ,since then ,i have slightly modified where the latest views of these great men have undergone some slight change2 and now the scheme of our zoological room is as in the accompanying plan 7see ,plate74 ,of course1 for purposes of convenience and reference1 a linear arrangement has been adopted1 but it will not be necessary to point out that no actual linear arrangement can exist in nature1 the chain being broken1 not only in links1 but by large portions being twisted off4 ,rather may we liken biology to a tree whose branches ramify in many directions from the main trunk of life4 ,the classification--superseding the old1 unscientific ,vigorsian and other systems1 founded on external characteristics--being decided on1 the style of mounting of the specimens had to be settled4 ,the peg system was to be discarded2 but here occurred the most serious hitch of all4 ,in accordance with the plan now being pursued in many provincial museums1 it was wished by one party to elevate the local exhibits into undue importance1 at the expense of general zoology1 by taking up much more of the room at disposal than was practicable or necessary4 ,plate ,v4 ,arrangements of vertebrates in ,zoological ,room4 ,the suggestion was to furnish cases of a certain size1 one or more of which was to be devoted to each order of animals4 ,taking birds 7for convenience7 as the standpoint1 we were to place on the ground line local birds1 male and female1 with nest and young1 and eggs1 mounted with appropriate accessories1 in the most complete and artistic manner4 ,this division taking up #c ft4 #f in4 in height out of a possible #h ft1 leaving #d ft4 #f in4 to be disposed of thus--another division for ,british birds which have never been found in the locality4 ,these ,british were to be in pairs1 but not very well mounted1 and without nests and young4 ,above these1 again1 another line1 exhibiting a few of the most striking typical foreign birds4 ,these ,foreign birds were not to be well mounted1 but plain stuffed4 ,it was claimed for this that each order would be distinct1 and that there would be the best opportunity of comparing the local birds with those of ,britain generally and of the whole world1 while a real notion of the life of birds would be conveyed by the full portraiture of those forms with which the local visitors would be most familiar1 making them distinct items of knowledge in a manner scarcely ever attempted1 and1 in fact1 almost impossible with the usual methods of arrangement4 ,it is an elastic system1 admitting of many variations1 while retaining the fundamental principle2 and of all really effective systems it is the least expensive1 because it depends mainly upon objects procurable in the locality4 ,the ,leicestershire species should occupy the ground line1 and come up to the front4 ,the ,british species should be set back #h in4 to #ab in1 and the ,foreign #ae in4 to #ah in42 but these limits might be occasionally infringed where it seems necessary4 ,to give the reader an idea of how disproportionate these divisions would be when comparing local with foreign1 see the diagram 7,fig4 #eh71 representing one division or bay marked on ,plan4 ,fig4 #eh--,projected arrangement of a biological collection by ,scheme ,a4 ,again1 it was urged that ,the three sections should be divided horizontally1 but the lines of division need not be straight4 ,they may be broken so as to preserve the pictorial effect1 but not to destroy the division4 ,regarding this part of the contention1 it is only necessary to point out that no pictorial effects were possible under such a system1 which is really a lucus a non lucendo4 ,by this scheme1 we have local birds at bottom 7very well arranged71 ,british next 7not so well arranged71 and foreign at top 7not well arranged at all71 and these arbitrary and totally unnatural divisions were supposed to drive home the truths of natural history into the minds of casual visitors1 to be applicable to all the departments of a museum1 so that1 if it were adopted1 a uniform plan might be carried through the collections from end to end1 giving a systematic completeness which is rarely found in museums at the present time4 ,it utilises the breaks and blank spaces in every series4 ,never was there a more impracticable theory broached4 ,the whole arrangement was based on an utter disregard of the requirements of science1 leaving out art altogether1 and1 worse still1 upon an utter ignorance of first principles of zoology4 ,may ,i ask if anyone can define a local bird from a ,british bird1 or a ,british bird from a foreign bird8 ,lastly1 every one should know that every bird found in ,leicestershire is a ,british bird1 and that every ,british bird is a foreign one2 and that each of these imaginary divisions is being constantly recruited from the division immediately above it4 ,footnote3 ,there are but two birds belonging to the ,paridae 7,titmice71 which are claimed as being peculiar to ,britain2 and these merely on the ground of being climatic varieties--hardly sufficient to warrant the founding of new species4 ,for instance1 the golden eagle is not a local bird1 but it may be so to-morrow1 should one stray from ,north ,britain1 as they sometimes do1 and be shot by some person within the boundary of the county4 ,it then becomes local6 ,this bird1 which is as distinctly foreign--being found in ,europe1 ,north ,africa1 ,america1 etc4--as it is ,british6 ,put this in1 or leave it out of the local division1 and what does it teach8 ,arguing per contra1 the osprey has been killed in our own county more than once2 it is thus local2 it is also ,british1 nesting in ,north ,britain2 it is also distinctly foreign1 being found positively in every quarter of the globe--in ,australia even--sharing with the common barn owl the distinction of being actually cosmopolitan4 ,in which division are we to place this8 ,it is local1 and yet cannot be mounted in that division1 with its nest and young1 because it has never bred in the ,midlands2 but it has bred in ,north ,britain1 and might be shown in the ,british division fully displayed2 but1 says this contention1 which ,i have called ,scheme ,a1 no ,british specimens shall be mounted with nest and young6 ,being foreign1 it should also come in the ,foreign division4 ,what1 then1 can this teach8 ,either the bird must be repeated in all three divisions1 or it must1 according to the foregoing1 appear only in the local division1 thus acting an ornithological lie1 and leading the unlearned to believe that it is a very rare bird1 peculiar only to ,leicestershire4 ,these examples might be repeated ad nauseam4 ,the sparrow1 the swallow1 the kingfisher1 the heron1 the wild duck1 the wood-pigeon1 the pheasant1 the coot1 the woodcock1 the terns1 the gulls1 etc1 are some common forms which occur to me4 ,again1 there are five orders of birds not represented in ,leicestershire1 nor in ,england even4 ,these contain nearly five hundred species4 ,are these to be entirely eliminated from the collection8 or does it teach anything to put cards in the ,local or ,british divisions of the parrot cases to say that no parrots occur 7out of cages7 in either ,leicestershire or ,britain8 ,again1 what can this teach8 ,well1 we will take a representative group--say1 the order ,gallinae1 or game-birds1 and1 taking our own county of ,leicestershire as an example1 we shall find that1 although there are nearly four hundred species of this order known1 but eleven at the very outside are claimed as having occurred in ,britain1 whilst but three of these are commonly found in the county4 ,i give their names and values under each heading3 ,,local4 ,,british4 ,,foreign4 ,ptarmigan ,no4 ,yes4 ,yes4 ,red ,grouse ,has occurred4 ,yes4 ,yes4,footnote3 ,formerly indigenous to ,britain1 but now found in ,sweden1 etc4 ,capercaillie ,no4 ,yes4 ,yes4 ,black ,grouse ,has occurred4 ,yes4 ,yes4 ,pheasant ,yes4 ,yes4 ,yes4 ,red-legged ,partridge ,yes4 ,yes4 ,yes4 ,barbary ,partridge ,said to have once occurred ,doubtful4 ,yes4 ,partridge ,yes4 ,yes4 ,yes4 ,virginian ,colin ,no4 ,doubtful4 ,yes4 ,quail ,has occurred4 ,yes4 ,yes4 ,andalusian ,hemipode ,no4 ,doubtful4 ,yes4 ,or1 putting it into a tabular form1 as if supposing that the whole four hundred known species could be shown1 we should have it presented thus3 ,,order--,,gallinae4 7#djj ,,species47 #chi 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4#djj ,,foreign4 #h 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #aa 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,,british4 #c 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,,local4 ,that is to say1 that1 although it was wished to claim the #c ft4 #f in4 division in height1 of indefinite length 7really ten feet when worked out7 for the three local birds1 yet it will be seen by the foregoing tables that those three locals would do equally as well if placed in the ,british division1 and the sum total of the local and ,british might be placed correctly with all the rest in the foreign4 ,why1 then1 should valuable space be wasted for three birds1 simply to perpetuate an error in working out a crotchet8 ,the question again arose1 ,what could such a model system as this teach8 ,this was effectually answered by a specimen case1 representing the above1 being fitted up1 when the glaring errors of the proposed system were at once evident1 there being fully a space of #aj ft4 x #c ft4 #f in4 x #b ft4 #f in4 #hg4e ft4 cube1 devoted to five birds only--three of which were not now found in the county4 ,these represented the locals4 ,in the ,british division1 of #aj ft4 in length x #b ft4 #f in4 in height x #a ft4 #f in4 back to front1 viz1 a cube of #cg4e ft4 there appeared but six others--three of which were doubtful4 ,furthermore1 as if to point to the crowning absurdity of the whole scheme1 but #aj ft4 x #b ft4 x #a ft4 #bj ft4 cube1 was provided for the great remainder of the foreign specimens1 nearly thirty-seven times as numerous as both local and ,british combined4 ,now for the cheapness of the system advocated4 ,in the first place1 local specimens of rare birds are not cheap4 ,for instance1 anyone can get a foreign specimen of--say1 the honey buzzard--for about #hs4 but a locally-killed specimen would be very likely to cost several pounds4 ,as for the elasticity of such a system1 if it is meant that it will stretch any way but the right1 ,i agree1 but if meant to be applied to any department of natural history it is distinctly wrong4 ,let us take the case of the invertebrates1 nearly all of which1 as the birds1 have a wide range4 ,many instances occur to me1 but one will be sufficient1 ,vanessa ,antiopa1 the ,camberwell ,beauty butterfly4 ,now this insect has been taken three times 7perhaps more87 in the county1 and ,i suppose it has occurred in nearly every county in ,england1 but as it is found also commonly throughout the greater part of ,europe1 parts of ,africa1 ,asia1 and ,america1 we are confronted by the unpleasant reminder1 what shall we do with it under the system proposed8 ,it is1 according to that theory1 local1 ,british1 and foreign2 it is rarest as local1 being1 of course1 of accidental occurrence2 yet it is proposed to show it only in that division1 to the extent of ignoring the two other divisions which have manifestly a greater claim on it4 ,if this1 then1 were adhered to1 the student would at once have presented to him an incorrect view of the distribution of species4 ,one other way only is there out of the difficulty1 which is to show a specimen of the same insect in all three divisions2 but this would1 though more correct1 be as embarrassing to understand1 to say nothing of the loss of space involved1 because the same thing would have to be repeated with nearly every invertebrate possessed by a museum arranged on these lines4 ,the proper way1 ,i contend1 to give real information is to shake off all insular prejudice and not call things by their wrong names1 i4e4 claim as ,british1 things which are not essentially so4 ,to this end ,i have labelled the butterfly in question3 ,,vanessa4 ,,antiopa1 #a4 7,camberwell ,beauty47 ,range3 ,asia1 ,africa1 ,america1 ,europe generally1 including ,britain 7rarely71 and has occurred in ,leicestershire three times4 ,this1 ,i am quite sure1 is the proper method to educate the public1 who cannot understand1 or are misled by1 such crudities as placing specimens in arbitrary divisions such as ,local1 ,british1 and ,foreign4 ,the same rule applies to the plants2 and ,i remember a case occurring1 but a short time since when a young botanist1 wishing to name a few plants collected abroad 7in ,europe71 came to our herbarium1 modelled on these misleading lines1 and at once turned to the ,foreign division to find specimens by which to compare his own4 ,an hour was wasted in trying to puzzle some of them out1 and he then came to me saying1 ,you hav'n't got them4 ,at once ,i saw he had things of world-wide distribution1 and turning1 much to his amazement1 to the ,local division1 found them for him4 ,all this comparison1 and waste of time and temper1 might have been saved had the plants been arranged in their proper orders and families1 irrespective of imaginary divisions1 with a label attached stating their range and if occurring locally4 ,leaving biology now1 we shall see how this elastic system can be carried through the collections from end to end4 ,take the rocks as an example4 ,is it real science--or what is it--which would label syenite a ,leicestershire rock8 ,such queries and replies could be multiplied ad infinitum1 for it will be observed that ,i have said nothing about the mammals1 where the loss of space and want of cohesion in such a group as the carnivora--best represented of all in local--are patent4 ,the fishes--fancy a local salmon6 yet they occasionally run up the rivers4 ,but ,i need not enlarge on this1 further than to say that under this elastic system it was gravely proposed to pictorially mount the local freshwater fishes under the sea fishes1 not because it was a direct violation of the physics of salt and fresh water1 but because the local division must come in its place at the bottom of the range of cases6 ,i had almost forgotten to say that these precious divisions were to be made self-evident to the bucolic intellect even1 by means of colour--thus1 ,local was to be brownish-red rock2 ,british1 green2 and ,foreign1 blue2 and these colours were1 without reference to any artistic considerations such as the laws of contrast in colour1 or light and shade1 to be rigidly adhered to1 and to be carried in distinct1 if wavy bands1 all around the room4 ,fortunately1 it was pointed out that shelves of wood would carry out that idea more effectually than playing with science and art in such a manner1 therefore these absurd propositions were promptly discarded4 ,and now1 having described what ,i take to be the evils to be guarded against in plain or pictorial mounting1 if founded on such lines as those in the scheme ,i have called ,a1 ,i will briefly sketch out what ,i take to be the lines of the museum of the future4 ,i must confess ,i had thought a great deal of arranging the vertebrata in zoo-geographical order1 in a manner founded on a4 ,r4 ,wallace's great and concise work on the ,geographical ,distribution of ,animals4 ,it seemed to me a fairly comprehensive and scientific1 certainly a novel1 method of treatment1 and ,i had gone so far as to sketch out several of my groups1 when ,i was confronted by difficulties1 and saw that it was not a system which was thoroughly coherent throughout the whole of the collections1 and ,i finally abandoned it1 on the advice of ,dr4 ,sclater1 the originator1 ,i believe1 of the zoo-geographical divisions4 ,i wanted a system which might be carried out throughout the whole biological collections1 and this end was best gained by arranging them in zoological order1 so far as is possible in these days1 when the microscope tells us that a plant may be an animal1 or vice versa1 or that an organism may be a plant now and something very like an animal a short time after 7see ,saville ,kent on the myxomycetes74 ,with the plants and invertebrates this was comparatively easy1 for though1 as ,i have before pointed out1 no linear arrangement is correct1 yet in a small museum the table cases for invertebrates must run on in lines1 and the mounting1 owing to their enormous numbers and usually small size1 must be tabular1 and not pictorial 7except1 of course1 in rare instances74 ,i was aware that several naturalists had laid down the law as to the position to be taken by local museums1 and that notably ,mr4 ,john ,hopkinson1 of the ,watford ,natural ,history ,society1 had written his views upon the subject2 but these views are1 ,i think1 probably somewhat narrowed by the small size of the museum he had in mind whilst writing4 ,though agreeing with him in the main1 ,i considered that very few provincial museums1 excepting ,liverpool1 could boast of having anything like so large a space for the exhibition of specimens as we possessed in our zoological room4 ,it may be taken1 therefore1 for granted1 that what was written specially to suit the requirements of ,watford is not of the slightest use when sought to be applied to larger museums4 ,when1 however1 ,mr4 ,hopkinson quotes the opinions of such well-known scientists as ,professors ,flower1 ,rudler1 ,dr4 ,sclater1 and other practical workers1 his compilation becomes of some value4 ,professor ,rudler1 it will be seen1 points out that1 however full and perfect a local collection may be1 it would teach nothing if narrowed down to purely local limits1 and that1 therefore1 it must be broadened for the sake of comparison2 and he very properly says3 ,whilst we should patriotically aspire to render the local collection as perfect as possible1 ,i would not by any means have the usefulness of museums stop here4 ,comparing any local collection with a general collection1 it will1 of course1 be found that many important groups of 'animals1 vegetables1 and minerals1 are but imperfectly represented1 whilst others are altogether blank4 ,there is1 consequently1 great danger of very limited and inadequate notions of the great system of ,nature being formed by the student who confines his attention to local natural history4 ,to counteract such a tendency1 it is eminently desirable to form1 under proper conditions1 a general collection1 which will give the visitor some notion of1 at any rate1 the larger groups in which natural bodies are classified4 ,there should1 consequently1 be two departments to our central museum---one local and the other general--each with distinct aims1 and each appealing to a distinct class of visitors4 ,these being exactly my views1 but with the radical change of wishing to mount both collections pictorially1 ,i considered that1 although the newly-erected wall-cases in oak1 with single sheets of plate-glass1 #g ft4 #f in4 by #e ft1 were1 when filled as ,i projected1 admirably suited to interest the general public1 who comprise1 perhaps1 nine-tenths of museum visitors1 yet that the claims of the respectable minority of students1 artists1 and quasi-scientific people should not be neglected1 and for these the local fauna1 etc1 should be perseveringly collected and mounted with all the appliances which science and art can suggest4 ,to do this properly1 and to preserve groups for an indefinite time1 it is necessary1 and indeed indispensable1 that each group of male1 female1 nest and eggs1 or young1 should be mounted in a separate case1 or in separate divisions of a row of cases quite distinct from the general collection4 ,although ,i had assumed1 and1 indeed1 had the courage of my opinions1 that the pictorial method of displaying natural history specimens was a great improvement upon the old peg system1 ,i recognised the difficulties attendant upon this and also that many excellent authorities were adverse to any pictorial arrangement whatever4 ,and1 indeed1 if we come to the consideration of true science1 ,i unhesitatingly assert that end is best served by a collection of properly authenticated birds' skins scientifically arranged in cabinets1 and not mounted in any way whatever2 but although this method might satisfy a few workers1 ,i very much fear that the general bulk of the ratepayers would be hardly satisfied with a museum arranged on so severely scientific principles4 ,it must be considered that a public museum differs from a private one in a very material point4 ,in the former there is a diversity of tastes to please1 and it is often difficult to know the exact point where the line should be drawn2 in a private museum1 on the contrary1 there is but one person to please1 and that the owner1 consequently he may indulge his crotchets without fear of doing damage to anyone but himself4 ,i considered that public museums must always be affected by matters of expediency and local feeling1 and that the will of the majority must always be studied1 when it has common sense for its basis4 ,to this end ,i worked1 and not wishing to be so much in love with my own system as to be blind to advice1 ,i wrote to ten of the most eminent men of science--men of ,european reputation1 and whose dictum on museum matters cannot be questioned--setting forth1 under the heading ,scheme ,a and ,scheme ,b1 the pros and cons of both1 not favouring one or the other in the slightest1 giving no clue whatever to my leaning to either1 and resolving to be guided entirely by the opinion of the majority1 or1 should it be a close tie1 to refer it to an umpire4 ,of these ten1 eight returned unqualified approval of having a general collection for ,leicester1 and also of that plan which kept the general and local collections entirely distinct2 one gave no opinion1 and one eminent man suggested an alternative scheme of a typical collection somewhat like ,professor ,owen's ,index ,museum at ,south ,kensington1 and which could be carried out afterwards without reference to the question at issue4 ,as regards the pictorial mounting of the specimens in zoological order --the thing ,i was most doubtful about--both for the general and the local collections1 five out of the ten unhesitatingly favoured pictorial mounting--if well done--of both collections1 and four more said nothing for or against it4 ,nearly every one of these gentlemen wrote me a lengthy letter1 giving most valuable advice--advice which has in all cases been acted on where practicable4 ,dr4 a4 ,c4 ,guenther1 ,f4,r4,s1 etc1 at one time the ,keeper of ,zoology1 ,british ,museum1 has kindly allowed me to quote his views embodied in a letter to me4 ,he says3 ,i should recommend you to adopt the following plan3 ,arranging the general and ,british collections together1 strictly systematically1 receiving1 of the foreign animals1 typical forms only1 but making the ,british series as complete as possible1 and choosing in preference ,leicestershire animals when practicable4 ,excluding from the general series specially mounted objects1 such as groups of birds showing nidification1 change of plumage1 or illustrating the habits of animals--such groups to be mounted on separate stands in the middle of the room4 ,i believe this plan would best meet the requirements in your museum4 ,having now something to work upon1 the ,museum ,committee rejected ,scheme ,a4 whose weak points have been detailed at length1 and sanctioned ,scheme ,b being carried out1 which not only separated local from general1 but provided for the pictorial mounting of both4 ,taking1 therefore1 any of the orders marked on the plan 7see ,plate7 as an example1 the best known1 and therefore local or ,british species of the first family 7or genera7 of that order is selected1 then the least known or most striking foreign species of the same family 7or genera7 to compare with it1 and so on throughout4 ,space being limited1 however1 species closely allied are not always represented1 but are collected as skins to fill up the unavoidable blanks4 ,in all cases1 however1 typical specimens of the families and genera of animals are attempted to be shown1 and as many species as possible are collected as skins4 ,the highest form of each order is placed at the top1 the next underneath1 until the bottom of the case is arrived at1 then ascends again1 forming a serpentine line1 which1 taking the first order1 ,passeres1 as an example1 begins at the top of the first case1 and takes the song thrush--one of the locals--as being of the first genera of the first family2 this is contrasted by a foreign form of the same family 7and genus71 the ,american ,robin1 and thus runs on throughout the whole of the wall-cases on that side of the room devoted to birds 7see ,plan71 until it ends at the ostrich1 as being the last4 ,it win be seen by this that1 although the so-called local birds are often1 nay nearly always1 represented1 they have no fictitious value given to them1 but simply take their place in the great scheme of ,nature in a proper manner1 being often close to so-called foreign forms1 with which they are easily compared4 ,the whole arrangement of accessories is pictorial1 birds being represented on trees or on rockwork1 many of them swimming1 or flying1 or eating1 surrounded by mosses and the few dried plants available for such purposes--in fact1 represented in as natural a manner as is possible under the circumstances4 ,exception may be taken to the close contiguity of an ,american or ,indian form with an ,european1 sometimes ,british form1 which1 though scientifically correct1 is artistically and topographically wrong2 and this certainly was a crux of mine until ,i reflected that1 under the old peg system1 the same state of affairs existed4 ,i have endeavoured to isolate as much as possible such incongruities one from the other1 often by partially surrounding them with ferns1 etc1 of their native habitat1 and by leaving little blanks here and there4 ,apart from this1 the general opinion of both scientific ,footnote3 ,in this category ,i may place ,sir ,philip ,cunliffe ,owen1 ,c4,b1 etc42 ,mr4 ,r4 ,bowdler ,sharpe1 ,f4,l4,s1 etc42 ,mr4 ,smith ,woodward1 all of ,south ,kensington2 ,sir ,j4 ,a4 ,picton1 ,f4,s4,a1 etc of ,liverpool2 ,professor ,st4 ,george ,mivart1 ,f4,r4,s4 etc42 ,professor #a4 ,o4 ,miall2 ,professor ,wm4 ,knight2 ,professor ,a4 ,schuster1 etc42 ,mr4 ,jas4 ,orrock1 ,member of the ,royal ,institute of ,water-colour ,painters2 and several other gentlemen who have done me the honour to speak in most flattering terms of the new arrangement4 and unscientific people is that the scheme is a success1 and that such trifling and inevitable irreconcilements are amply condoned and compensated for by the increased beauty of the groups1 and by the pleasure it affords1 not only to artistic people1 but to the general public2 indeed1 if vox populi be vox ,dei1 there is no doubt upon the subject whatever4 ,other defects there are2 for instance1 repetitions of grasses in fitting-up1 which proves how little can be done with dried things1 and how much better it would be to replace them by modelled foliage 7mentioned in ,chapter ,,xiv74 ,footnote3 ,one would-be critic wrote to the papers condemning the whole arrangement1 because1 in one of the cases1 one plant was about a foot nearer the water or a yard nearer to another plant than it should be6 ,the same wiseacre1 or his friend1 wrote quite an article upon some supposed fir twigs which1 much to his confusion1 were nothing of the sort1 but a plant quite proper to its place in the case4 ,i would now wish to point out why ,i object so much to carefully-managed groups of so-called local birds1 their nests and eggs1 being introduced in a general collection1 especially if the latter be arranged in a pictorial manner4 ,first1 because small groups1 such as of necessity the greater number of pairs of local birds would cut up into1 would be lost amidst their larger surroundings1 and be really as if an artist were to paint a small1 highly finished picture in the corner of some large1 broad subject2 secondly1 the great difficulty there is in protecting such choice groups from moth if exposed in1 say1 a cubic space of #ajj ft4 filled with other specimens1 some of them old and doubtful as regards freedom from insects4 ,a general collection1 even should great care be taken1 requires constant watching to seize upon any specimen showing signs of damage2 but why a choice group of young birds in their nest1 with parents--birds in change of plumage1 surrounded by accessories which perhaps have cost hundreds of hours to execute--should be exposed to all the evils imaginable when isolation is so much more practicable and practical1 passes comprehension4 ,no2 ,i am convinced that the only way to manage1 in a museum of sufficient size to have a general collection1 is to arrange it as ,i have sketched out1 and to make a separate collection close at hand1 if need be1 for comparison of the animals collected in the district4 ,now for labelling4 ,it was proposed originally in ,scheme ,a in this form3 ,it will be essential to have labels in the cases4 ,these maybe made simple1 however1 with references to a descriptive catalogue4 ,the labels should bear the ,english name1 with ',resident1' ,summer ,visitant1' or ',winter ,visitant' on all ,british species4 ,nothing more4 ,the three sections should have labels of distinct colours--say1 yellow for local1 pink for ,british1 white for foreign4 ,the labels will probably be best glued on to some part of the stand or setting4 ,they should be as small as possible1 so as to be legible1 ,local species maybe distinguished as ',native' and ',casual1 or ,accidental4 ,the latter might have a dark line above1 and below the name on the label--thus1 ,stork1 or be marked ',casual--,spring1' or ',casual--,autumn4' ,to this ,i objected that if the arrangement was to be pictorial1 the spotty appearance of labels1 especially if of light tints1 was destructive to the effect sought to be gained2 that yellow is not distinct from white by gaslight2 and that pink often fades to yellow2 also that to colour-blind people these labels would have no significance whatever4 ,in addition1 ,i submitted that there are educated people as well as people of the other class1 and that the system of labels written with common names inside the cases is not only unscientific but ugly in the extreme1 for these reasons--that there are many birds whose ,english names are just as puzzling as their scientific to the uneducated2 whereas1 for those who care to learn1 the scientific name is a factor of knowledge4 ,regarding their inexpedience and ugliness1 such a word as the ,lesser-spotted-,woodpecker with the marking underneath it of ,resident1 would fill up a large label if it were to be read at any height or distance4 ,taking it as a whole1 the proposition was behind the age1 and was commonplace also4 ,to dispense altogether with the necessity for labels1 ,i proposed that a chart might be made for every group--a picture1 in fact1 of the contents of each case1 every bird numbered1 and a list prepared1 whose corresponding number would give the whole history of each specimen2 but1 in any case1 the adoption of a mass of printed matter clumsily introduced amidst pictorial effects must be condemned4 ,that all this was practicable is now proved by the present state of the ,leicester ,museum1 provisionally finished in its general zoological collections so far as the birds and fishes are concerned4 ,footnote3 ,that is to say1 that many of the ill-mounted and old specimens will ultimately be replaced by better ones of the same species1 and that some modelled foliage will take the place of many of the dried grasses1 rushes1 etc1 which are not quite truthfully arranged4 ,the reference to species in the general collection is now managed as ,i proposed4 7,see list1 on p4 #ccg1 of part of the ,order ,anseres1 printed on sage-green cards47 ,this is1 ,i contend1 a great advance on the old system of labelling1 which has this defect1 that the labels1 even if small1 are spotty and obtrusive near the eye1 and if placed #aj ft4 from the floor1 as they must be in many instances1 it is impossible to read them unless both label and type be very large1 which is an absurdity in a pictorially-mounted collection4 ,footnote3 ,when ,i first came to ,leicester the birds1 mounted on stands and perches #i ft4 from the floor1 were labelled by slips of yellow paper pasted on the stands1 the type being that known as ,pica and ,bourgeois6 ,fancy ,ramiphomicron microrhynchum1 ,boiss4 7one of the humming-birds71 peeping over a label long enough to take his name--say1 #c in4 x #a in46 ,multiply this by fifty1 and fancy a typical collection of pictorially-mounted humming-birds labelled in this manner6 ,a well-known naturalist and scientific zoologist1 personally unknown to me1 to whom ,i wrote1 advised1 as usual1 the labels to be of different colours as distinguishing marks4 ,i sent him one of my lists and charts1 and he wrote3 ,i return the printed description which seems to me admirably calculated to convey instruction in a becoming and sightly way4 ,it is undoubtedly an advance upon labelling4 ,again1 a scientific gentleman of local celebrity wrote an article on the museum1 and did me the honour to especially note the substitute for labels4 ,he says3 ,affixed to the front of each group case1 and on a level with the eye1 is a neatly-printed explanatory tablet1 suitably framed1 comprising a list of the specimens 7numbered71 class1 sub-class1 order1 family1 etc1 with their scientific terms4 ,the literal interpretation of these several terms is then given4 ,then follow the scientific names1 with sex 7where determined72 and1 lastly1 the known range of each species--a matter of acknowledged importance4 ,this is supplemented by an artistically-coloured chart1 representing each example 7also numbered71 in the corresponding position which it occupies in any given group case4 ,thus is conveyed1 in a concise and intelligible form1 all the information which can fairly be embodied in the limited space at command4 ,another redeeming feature1 consequent upon this instructive and unique method1 is the dispensing with the formidable array of labels mounted on unsightly coils of wire dotted about1 reminding one of the labels displayed in the shop window of a hatter or haberdasher--',the ,latest ,novelty1' ',new this ,season1' etc4 ,they are not only obtrusive to the eye1 but have a decided tendency to mar the neat effect and appropriate mounting of the general collection1 and materially interfere with the surroundings1 outline1 and beauty of the objects to which they are appended1 and their multiplied form only enhances this confusion4 ,beside which1 these labels are of necessity frequently placed at such a height that1 in order to decipher them1 the head of the observer needs to be perched on a neck somewhat like the giraffe4 ,so forcibly impressed am ,i with the soundness and value of this newly-devised plan1 that ,i am led to predict that its adoption will sooner or later find favour among other kindred institutions even of a larger growth4 ,,list ,,of ,,the ,,specimens ,,contained ,,in ,,this ,,group4 7,arranged from the most highly specialized to lowest form47 ,for ,reference see coloured ,,chart below4 ,,order--,,anseres4 ,from the ,latin ,anser--a ,goose1 ,,including ,,geese1 ,,swans1 ,,tree-,,ducks1 ,,ducks1 ,,mergansers1 etc ,total number of ,species of this ,order known to inhabit the ,world #ahe ,of this number there are as visitants to1 and residents in ,britain1 but #dd1 #ai only of which remain to breed4 ,of these #dd for ,britain1 there are as visitants to1 and residents in ,leicestershire #ac #c only of which breed in the ,county4 ,family--,,anatidae4 ,from the ,latin ,anas--a ,duck4 7,ducks1 ,geese1 etc47 ,no4--,,egyptian ,,goose ,chenalopex aegyptiaca 7#a74 ,,range--,africa4 ,domesticated in many parts of ,europe1 including ,britain and ,leicestershire4 ,shot at ,withcote ,hall1 near ,oakham 7probably escaped from confinement71 and presented by ,f4 ,,palmer1 ,esq4 ,no4--,,black-,,necked ,,swan4 ,cygnus nigricollis 7,gm474 ,,range--,antarctic ,america4 ,from ,river ,plate1 ,s4 ,america4 ,presented 7in the skin7 by ,c4 ,j4 ,,musson1 ,esq1 #ahgf4 ,no4--,,black ,,swan4 ,cygnus atratus 7,lath47 7,immature7 ,,range--,australia ,from ,sydney1 ,new ,south ,wales4 ,presented by ,w4 ,m4 ,,squires1 ,esq1 #ahge4 ,no--,,sheldrake4 ,tadorna cornuta 7,gm474 ,,range--,n4 ,africa1 ,asia1 as far east as ,japan1 ,europe including ,britain1 and has occurred as a rare straggler in ,leicestershire4 ,from ,scotland1 by purchase1 #ahha4 ,no4--,,wild ,,duck ,,or ,,mallard4 ,anas boscas 7#a474 ,range--,north ,africa1 ,asia from the far ,north to ,china and ,japan1 ,n4 ,america to ,mexico1 ,europe generally1 including ,britain1 and commonly occurring in ,leicestershire4 ,from ,barston1 ,warwickshire4 ,presented by the ,curator 7,m4,b471 #ahhb4 ,the animals collected in the district are now being placed in the middle of the room in oak cases1 with plate-glass all around1 on the tops of table-cases holding at present the invertebrates1 and will show the male and female1 young in nest1 the eggs1 birds in change of plumage1 all surrounded as in nature by carefully-modelled plants and other accessories1 the food1 and the skeleton4 ,the labelling of these latter groups requiring a mass of information1 as being of local interest1 is in this wise 7on light sage-green coloured cards73 ,,town ,,museum1 ,,leicester4 ,studies illustrating the ,habits1 etc1 of ,animals collected in the ,county4 ,,class--,aves ,,order--,passeres ,,family--,turdidae ,,group ,no4 4--,illustrative of the ,life-,history of the ,whitethroat 7,,sylvia ,,cinerea1 ,bechst71 a ,bird of ,passage1 or ,spring ,migrant to ,britain 7winters in ,africa74 ,no4 ,c#a;,a--,male ,whitethroat ,no ,c#a;,b--,female ,whitethroat ,no ,c#a--,nest ,of ,whitethroat ,nos4 ,c#a4ej to ,c#a4ec--;,four ,young ,of ,whitethroat ,the whole collected by the ,curator at ,aylestone1 ,august1 #ahhc4 ,the ,male and ,female are the actual builders of the nest1 and parents of the young birds here shown4 ,no4 ,a ,male1 and ,no4 ,female1 in ,spring plumage4 ,to be procured ,,range4--,n4 ,africa1 ,western ,asia1 ,europe generally1 common in ,britain 7except in the ,north71 and also in ,leicestershire4 ,,food4--,caterpillars1 various small insects1 and occasionally small fruits4 ,,eggs4--,four or five4 ,builds its nest amongst nettles or brambles1 in low bushes near to the ground4 7,n4,b4--,eggs shown at back of group47 ,duplicate ,skin and ,skeleton4 ,,plant ,,exhibited4 ,,bramble 7,rubus fruticosus1 #a474 ,,var43 discolor ,,range4--,whole of ,europe except extreme ,north1 ,russian and ,central ,asia and ,northern ,africa 7,not high ,alpine74 ,common in ,leicestershire4 ,flowers and leaves modelled from ,nature by the curator ,now for the invertebrates4 ,not having a special room at present for these1 they are best displayed in the centre of the vertebrate-room1 if possible1 in table-cases1 which are--for convenience1 though1 incorrectly in science--arranged in linear order1 beginning at the ,protozoa and running on to the ,cephalopoda4 ,as ,i before pointed out1 a tabular arrangement is inevitable except in some rare cases1 where a group might be taken to be pictorially displayed to give an idea of the creature's mode of life4 ,by far the best arrangement of invertebrates ,i have ever seen is that adopted at the ,liverpool ,museum under the auspices of the ,rev4 ,h4 ,h4 ,higgins1 ,m4,a1 whose views on the invertebrates are very clearly defined in his ,introduction to a ,synopsis of an ,arrangement of ,invertebrate ,animals contained in the ,liverpool ,museum4 ,he says therein3 ,the series had to be conformed to a linear arrangement4 ,in some respects this was a serious disadvantage4 ,the classes of invertebrate animals cannot well be represented in a single ascending or descending series4 ,probably it would not be possible on any symmetrical plan to assign to them their proper positions relatively to each other2 but some palpable incongruities might be avoided by the use of table-cases on a ground plan resembling a genealogical tree1 one proposed form of which is represented by a diagram in a work published by ,professor ,rolleston4 ,the importance of a suitable ground plan for cases in museums seems to be much underrated4 ,when a class of students visit a museum frequently1 the localities of cases containing special groups become indelibly impressed upon the memory4 ,this might be turned to good account4 ,in preparing the first scheme of the collection1 it seemed essential that plain and moderately-simple printed descriptions of the life-history of the animals should accompany the specimens2 therefore1 as it was clearly impossible to describe every genus1 it became necessary to fix on some mode of associating in groups a number of examples to which the descriptions might apply4 ,such divisions as 'classes' and 'orders' were manifestly too large1 whilst 'families' varied from a single genus1 including a solitary species1 to an army of more than a thousand genera--e4g1 the ,linnaean families ,cerambycidae and ,curculionidae in the ,coleoptera4 ,it was with some regret that the idea of attaching a readable sketch to each division of a given rank in recent systems of classification was relinquished2 but it was found to be impracticable1 and the life-history sketch thus became the foundation of the arrangement eventually adopted4 ,whether it might be a few species1 or a genus1 or a family1 or an order1 that seemed to afford suitable scope for a page of readable and instructive matter1 it was decided that1 throughout the entire collection1 such a group should be segregated1 so as to form the unit of the series4 ,eventually1 in order that the sketches1 which it was proposed to print for that purpose on tablets1 might all be in positions where they could conveniently be read1 it was found to be expedient that each group or unit should occupy an equal space2 and as the blocks on which the table-cases rested were to be fitted up with trays or drawers1 twelve of which would occupy the table-case without loss of room1 these trays or drawers were adopted as the receptacles and boundaries of the groups4 ,the entire plan of the table-cases1 and the limits of many of the groups1 were committed to writing before any considerable advance had been made in procuring specimens4 ,in one respect this circumstance was found to be very advantageous--our desiderata were at once well defined4 ,it was an object that each of the groups should be illustrated by carefully-selected specimens1 and1 until this could be attained1 other acquisitions need not be sought for4 ,in making purchases1 such an object1 steadily kept in view1 exercises a powerful influence against the seductive attractions of 'great bargains1' which often turn out to be great misfortunes to a museum4 ,moreover1 in accepting donations1 it is sometimes convenient to be able to refer to a fixed plan4 ,where room is scanty1 as in most museums1 nothing is more subversive of order1 or more fatal to an instructive arrangement1 than the gift of a collection1 coupled with a stipulation that it must be displayed in some special way4 ,footnote3 ,we possess in the ,leicester ,museum a very fine collection of the whole of the ,british ,birds 7totally devoid1 however of a history of the specimens7 called the ,bickley ,collection--bequeathed to the town under these conditions--which1 could we have used it to embellish our present arrangement1 would have saved money1 and1 what is still more important1 the entire wall space of a small room now devoted to them4 ,it is far better to forego the possession even of a valuable series of specimens than to sacrifice order for their sake 4 4 4 4 ,the following is the plan of arrangement adopted in connection with each group3 ,wherever circumstances permit1 the plan for each group includes 7#a7 ,a printed schedule1 7#b7 ,exotic species1 7#c7 ,british representatives1 7#d7 ,the printed tablet1 7#e7 ,earliest fossils1 7#f7 ,diagrams and other illustrations1 7#g7 ,species and varieties on a more extended scale4 ,the schedule1 of which an example follows1 is printed in large type1 and is attached conspicuously to the drawer3 ,,group #bbb4 ,,sub-,,kingdom ,,province ,,class ,,sub-,,class ,,order ,,sub-,,order ,,family ,annulosa ,arthropoda ,insecta ,metabola ,lepidoptera ,rhopalocera ,papilionidae ,skeleton external1 ringed4 ,limbs jointed4 ,legs1 six4 ,transformations complete4 ,wings with scales4 ,horns clubbed at the apex4 ,middle nerve of fore-wing #d-;branched4 ,the whole ,synopsis1 published at a shilling1 by the authorities of the ,liverpool ,museum1 is well worth reading4 ,it contains a store of information1 not the least interesting being the ,greek and ,latin derivations of the scientific names4 ,i am especially glad to see that the ,greek characters are not barbarously replaced by ,english equivalents1 which nearly always fail to give the key to the roots4 ,footnote3 ,i noticed ,ocnai gunaike written in a scientific work lately1 and ,i thought ,i never saw a sentence so ugly and so unlike what it would be if written in ,greek characters or properly pronounced4 ,the cases themselves are excellently adapted to show the specimens1 and the plan--if we except the division labelled ,british1 which might be advantageously altered1 ,i think1 to ,animals belonging to the above group 7etc471 found also in ,britain--is admirable4 ,not only are objects dried1 mounted1 or shown in spirits1 but first-class coloured drawings of such creatures as ,medusae1 etc1 are provided4 ,this is1 ,i am sure1 a step in the right direction1 and ,i so recognise the importance of this1 that ,i am preparing charts of parts1 etc1 of animals as keys to their structure1 and also enlarging minute forms under the microscope1 to be placed in position in the invertebrate cases for the ,leicester ,museum4 ,another very fine feature of the ,liverpool ,museum1 and worthy of imitation1 is the manner in which the osteological preparations are managed4 ,not only are complete skeletons of mammals shown1 but parts for comparison--that is to say1 there is a large series of skulls of various mammals1 birds1 reptiles1 and fishes1 and1 again1 leg and arm bones1 and their parts1 arranged side by side2 hence you may compare the fore-limb of the human subject with that of a monkey1 a lion1 a whale1 a marsupial1 a bird1 a reptile1 or a fish4 ,footnote3 ,of course1 all this may be seen in the ,museum of the ,college of ,surgeons1 or at ,oxford or ,cambridge1 etc1 but these are special institutions1 and ,i am merely taking provincial general museums as my standpoint4 ,it is needless to say--taking into consideration the fact that these are prepared under the direction of the curator1 ,mr4 ,moore1 and his accomplished family--that all are beautifully arranged and classified4 ,in short1 ,liverpool is to be congratulated on its collections of bones and invertebrates4 ,turning1 however1 to the vertebrates1 we see that1 although the management begins to recognise the importance of pictorial mounting1 it is done in a half-hearted manner--isolated groups here and there1 on square boards1 placed in the general collection amongst the birds1 on pegs1 serving only to render the latter more conspicuous in their shortcomings4 ,this system of ,liverpool is being copied at ,nottingham1 ,derby1 and other places1 and was being copied also at ,leicester1 but not being1 to my mind1 half thorough enough1 has been discarded for the more ambitious--certainly more effective--and quite as scientific method of arranging the vertebrates pictorially1 and in their proper sequence in orders and families1 endeavour being made to represent specimens of each genus also1 where practicable1 in this manner4 ,as will be seen1 in making a brief rsum of what has gone before1 ,i am in favour of large1 top-lighted rooms1 painted in a light neutral tint1 well warmed2 cases built in oak1 with single sheets of plate-glass not less than #g ft4 #f in4 by #e ft4 or #h ft4 by #e ft4 #d in1 artificially lighted by pendants shaded from the eye2 the vertebrates to be pictorially mounted both in the general and local collections1 but1 of course1 zoological sequence and science not to suffer in consequence2 ,i think that the local and general typical collections should be entirely distinct though close to each other in the same room for comparison2 that extreme care should be taken in the collection and mounting of the animals inhabiting the district1 and that no opportunity be lost of making this latter as complete as possible2 that anything for which the locality is famed1 be it fossils or antiquities1 be the chief motif of any provincial museum2 that1 failing this1 some groups or forms be collected to establish a monograph1 such as ,norwich is doing with its ,accipitres2 that1 where practicable1 bones and complete skeletons of animals should be collected1 as being1 of the greatest service to all students1 be they medical or biological4 ,also that explanatory charts and lists take the place of labels for the vertebrates1 and that all information as to range and distribution of species be given4 ,further1 that anatomical diagrams and figures explanatory of the structure and form of animals be provided1 together with all facilities for the study of biology from a scientific stand-point4 ,i have also laid down the axiom that a very small museum must and should confine itself to objects collected in its immediate vicinity1 but that a fairly large museum would ever be in a disjointed and unfurnished state if it relied solely on such specimens4 ,it must1 therefore1 have a general collection2 and care should be taken in the selection of specimens so that they may fill up the blanks occurring in the local4 ,another thing ,i am quite assured of2 it is that the management should exercise a wise discretion in refusing unsuitable objects 7chiefly of ethnology7 or duplicates of common forms1 and never receive a collection if fettered with the condition that it must be kept separate4 ,order1 method1 neatness1 and careful cataloguing ,i say nothing about1 for ,i assume that all principals must practise these virtues to do any good whatever with the collections entrusted to their care4 ,scanner's remarks4 ,this book seems to have been printed about #ahhe4 ,i got my copy when ,i was still a teenager 7nth-hand2 ,i am not really as old as all that67 and have greatly enjoyed the enlightened1 yet practical and down-to-earth attitude of the writer4 ,it seems to me a fine example of late ,victorian instructional material of the unpretentious persuasion4 ,some of ,browne's views were ahead of his time in terms of compassion and conservation1 so ,i urge modern readers not to sneer at what they see as his out-of-date interest in stuffed animals4 ,nor should they take too patronising an attitude to ,browne's long paragraphs and occasionally strained concordances2 he was not a professional writer and he produced a fine1 readable1 and useful work4 ,both to the biologist and historian of science1 the book remains useful to this day1 and1 as books of that period disappear for good1 ,i hope1 in scanning it1 to prevent a sorry loss to our generation and to those who follow us4 ,though ,i nowhere edited his wording or punctuation in any other way1 no matter how much self-control this occasionally demanded1 ,i did split a lot of paragraphs1 especially when they spanned pages and thereby confused lines of thought4 ,in transcribing this book ,i have generally kept as truly to the original as ,i could1 including when ,browne's 7or possibly his editors'7 conventions for the use of quotes and parentheses set my teeth on edge4 ,however1 for lack of convenient font characters and sophistication of scanning software1 ,i have converted most of the vulgar fractions to decimals4 ,the others ,i have represented with slashes1 so that say1 a value of one third might appear as #a_/c4 ,similarly1 ,i have split ligatured characters such as the ligatured ae and oe frequent in late ,latin in particular4 ,also1 following a practical and common convention1 ,i have replaced the umlaut with a following letter e4 ,thus ,mller becomes ,moeller4 ,browne frequently cross-referred readers to pages in the book4 ,as pages got changed in scanning and editing1 ,i have changed such page references mainly to chapters or similar references4 ,there were several places where changes 7generally advances1 ,i hope67 in technical biology1 or possibly slips that ,browne made in matters outside his speciality1 led to errors4 ,i have not corrected these in the text of course1 nor do ,i discuss many of them4 ,after all1 most readers who can recognise the errors in modern terms do not need my assistance in correcting them1 and to the other readers they would hardly matter4 ,here however are comments on a few arbitrarily chosen points1 in no particular sequence3 99 ,browne seems to have worked before hydrogen peroxide became generally available1 or possibly before its bleachng powers were recognised4 ,for bleaching most biological specimens1 especially bones and the like1 hydrogen peroxide is in every way better1 less offensive1 less corrosive1 and less damaging to tissues1 than hypochlorite4 ,soaking even badly yellowed teeth in say1 a five volumes concentration 7about #a to #b7 of peroxide for a few days or weeks1 whitens them beautifully without damage or rotting of tissues4 ,you might find that other peroxide compounds1 such as perborates1 work better still1 but ,i have not yet had occasion to use them4 ,other methods of bleaching only are worth trying when the specimens happen to contain a particular pigment that does not respond well to peroxide bleaching4 ,some such pigments are better bleached with other chemicals1 such as sulphites or hypochlorites4 99 ,it takes some trawling through the book to discover that by mites in insect collections1 ,browne probably means booklice1 i4e4 ,psocoptera4 99 ,earwigs 7,dermaptera7 are not ,hemiptera1 as ,browne classed them4 ,dermaptera and ,hemiptera are not even closely related4 ,the error is an interesting one however4 ,it presumably arose from a nineteenth-century confusion of the hemelytra of the ,hemiptera1 with the short tegmina1 the covering fore-wings of the ,dermaptera1 that protect their hind wings when they are not in flight4 ,hemelytra of ,hemiptera are not really half-wings anyway1 but protective fore-wings armoured for only about half their length4 ,the two orders do not even resemble each other in appearance1 anatomy1 habits or ecological significance4 99 ,browne uses a few terms not easily to be found in every dictionary nowadays4 ,dowlas is 7was7 a coarse kind of linen1 but probably ,browne referred to a strong calico in imitation of such linen4 ,for filister read fillister2 according to more or less contemporary dictionaries1 it is a misspelling4 ,it turns out to be a type of rabbet plane used in making window frames and similar structures4 99 ,for setting insects on a setting board1 ,i was slightly surprised at ,browne's use of braces and the like4 ,nowadays everyone ,i know uses strips of smooth1 non-sticky1 translucent paper or similar material for the purpose1 and ,i had not realised that any other methods had been used in the past4 ,the use of such strips is easy1 fast and effective4 ,it permits one to set large numbers of insects almost in an assembly line fashion1 working from the far end of the board towards oneself1 laying the tape over the wings1 blowing or gently dragging the wings into position1 pinning down the tape1 and proceeding to the next insect4 99 ,if you get a small fish alive1 then there is absolutely no way to set it more perfectly than by dropping it alive into rather strong acetic acid4 ,this is not generally practical for say1 a large salmon1 but for anything of manageable size1 it leaves the gills1 jaws1 and fins fully and stiffly extended4 ,strong formaldehyde has a similar effect1 but not as good4 ,immediately the specimen is stiff and dead 7a few seconds at most7 remove it from the acid and rinse it gently with clean1 cold water1 then transfer it to a solution of ammonium carbonate1 lime water1 or similarly gentle alkaline material1 to neutralise the acid before proceeding with whatever means of preparation you intended4 ,see also the means ,i describe for preventing acid damage4 99 ,if you happen to use hypochlorite or any other compound that releases chlorine1 and you then wish to remove the residues1 first rinse your specimens clean as well as is convenient1 then soak them in very weak peroxide for a while4 ,hypochlorite and peroxide react with each other to produce free oxygen 7harmless7 and chloride 7also harmless in any plausible concentrations74 ,the effect is to neutralise any harmful or irritating residues or smell of chlorine4 99 ,in at least one place ,i was surprised to see that ,browne speaks of pinning insects exactly through the middle4 ,nowadays this is not widely done because one risks damaging structures on the median line of the specimen4 ,instead the common convention is to pin specimens somewhat to the right of the median1 so that anything damaged on the right can generally be seen undamaged on the left4 ,when setting beetles or the like1 this usually means pinning them through the right elytron4 ,commonly one then may set the specimen with the left elytron and wing spread4 ,not all beetles will permit this of course1 as many flightless species have their elytra fastened down1 and some1 such as many ,scarabaeidae1 flip their flying wings out pen-knife-like without noticeably raising the elytra4 99 ,no doubt the non-toxic soaps and so on that ,browne describes do work as advertised1 but for keeping pests of dried material at bay1 for protecting hides1 preserved insects and so on1 do not copy the recipes from this book4 ,though many of ,browne's observations are in every way practical and intelligent1 our current knowledge of safe1 persistent1 effective insecticides would not emerge for some fifty or sixty years after his death4 ,and1 please1 please6 ,though ,browne was realistic in his assessment of the dangers of the chemicals he describes1 bear in mind that even his precautions were insufficient for modern purposes4 ,above all1 be very wary of the mercurial recipes he mentions666 ,it is true that mercuric chloride is very effective1 but ,i cannot think of a single modern reason to use it4 ,today we have much safer1 more appropriate1 materials at our disposal1 including some very effective fumigants that ,browne would have coveted4 99 ,note that among the substances that ,browne fails to warn us against1 are those that certainly are of low acute toxicity1 but present serious risks of chronic medical conditions or cancer1 unrecognised in his day4 ,his much beloved benzoline seems to have been largely benzene1 which nowadays is regarded as a carcinogen1 and for many purposes too dangerous to handle4 ,before this became generally known ,i personally handled benzene in totally unacceptable ways1 but so far ,i seem to have been lucky1 and ,i seem to have given up tempting fate before ,i incurred dangerous symptoms4 99 ,browne seems to me a bit too cheerful about high-pinned insects being protected from some museum pests4 ,high pinning might help a little1 but it most certainly is nowhere near adequate4 ,i have seen entire cases reduced to labelled pins standing among ,dermestid beetle frass4 ,use modern insecticides and carefully sealed drawers or cases4 ,i like the new pyrethroids1 but keep in touch with museums to be sure you know the best current means of protection4 ,grease from pinned insects has caused me less of a problem than ,browne describes1 but possibly that is because ,i always have used the high-pinning techniques1 never having known any other4 99 ,when it comes to setting insects ,browne was no doubt very artistic and very competent at producing a presentable specimen no matter what1 but some of his procedures for cheerfully snipping insects and re-assembling them should be avoided4 ,such expedients could ruin specimens intended for the use of professional entomologists4 ,for the requirements of biological studies1 it is far more important to have a fully genuine specimen1 no matter how badly disfigured1 than a hopefully reconstructed mosaic1 no matter how artistic4 ,for some purposes one could use more radical relaxing procedures instead4 ,browne seems to have used only cool water vapour or sometimes liquid water4 ,careful application of hot steam can relax most specimens that otherwise could not be re-set4 ,one good trick 7,beware of the risks of cuts and scalding if your apparatus should burst67 is to boil water in a closed vessel1 leading the steam out into a tube1 preferably of silicone rubber1 tipped with a drawn glass tube or the blunted needle of a syringe4 ,direct steam at the parts that need relaxing4 ,with practice you often can relax legs or wings one at a time1 stopping as soon as they reach the desired position4 99 ,note too1 that ,browne is cheerful about mounting some insects by gumming their feet 7tarsi7 to card4 ,for entomological purposes this has severe disadvantages4 ,nowadays professionals hardly ever use any means of setting that prevent one from examining a specimen from all sides4 ,even mounting them on a transparent material tends to interfere with proper examination4 ,for most purposes pin the insects using what ,browne called flat setting1 high on the pin1 with the label beneath4 ,where this is not practical1 such as for tiny specimens1 there are other methods1 which you may see described in manuals or used in museums4 99 ,note3 ,browne wrote in pre-decimal days1 using largely the so-called ,imperial units4 ,this might raise difficulties in understanding his quantities4 ,e4g4 his dram or drachm 7drm7 probably was #j4abe ounce 7roughly #c4e grams74 ,his pound would be sixteen ounces 7oz47 of #bh4ce grams1 but his pint would be twenty fluid ounces 7not #af as in ,american pints67 ,correspondingly his gallon would be ten pounds1 not eight4 ,a grain would be about #fe mg4 ,of other units and utensils apparently common in ,browne's day1 such as six-pound ,australian meat tins1 or goffering-irons1 make what sense you may4 ,a wine-bottleful was probably about #gjj cc4 99 ,note3 ,i have had little use for hexavalent chrome compounds but one thing ,i did notice in experimenting with a few of ,browne's recommendations 7bichromates1 chromic acid etc71 is that the merest few drops of such compounds 7typically as a solution of potassium dichromate or chromate7 added to water containing soft creatures such as molluscs1 generally will kill them gently by paralysis and leave them relaxed4 ,usually almost anything else one uses1 short of illegal or expensive drugs1 causes such specimens to distort or contract into useless lumps4 ,once the chromate has thoroughly killed and relaxed them1 say after an hour or two1 the specimens can be fixed1 preserved1 or manipulated as required4 ,you may wish to compare this method with the method that ,i describe for killing molluscs with boiled water4 99 ,one effective way of killing molluscs1 particularly gastropods1 snails and the like1 whether terrestrial1 freshwater or marine1 in fully extended form1 is to put them into cool or barely lukewarm1 freshly-boiled water that has been kept closely covered in airtight containers for cooling without permitting a lot of oxygen to re-dissolve in the water4 ,first rinse the live specimens in fresh water to clean away superficial dirt and slime1 then submerge them in the de-oxygenated water4 ,place some sort of grid or other barrier to ensure that they cannot get near the surface1 and re-seal the container to keep air out4 ,leave them for at least twenty-four hours before transferring them to a preservative fluid or otherwise proceeding to deal with them4 ,this method leaves them fully extended and firm1 ready for dissection or for preservation for display4 ,if you remove them too soon1 they at first seem dead1 but contract say1 when a scalpel stimulates a still-living nerve4 99 ,the cyanide bottle for killing insects certainly could be very useful1 though ,i am not certain how widely such a dangerous substance would be available nowadays4 ,many forms of killing bottle have been used in the last century or so1 and several are described in many handbooks4 ,an old favourite handbook of mine is the ,british ,museum ,instructions to ,collectors 7,insects74 ,most killing bottles depend on some volatile liquid soaked into plaster1 rubber or cotton wool4 ,my own favourite was ethyl acetate1 which is safe1 inoffensive1 and has several advantages1 as long as the bottle and fluid are kept free from moisture4 ,for some reason the presence of water seems to reduce its effectiveness at quickly immobilising specimens4 ,dry ethyl acetate paralyses most insects very quickly1 even if it takes longer to kill them4 ,for example1 unlike many popular components of killing bottles1 ethyl acetate leaves dead specimens relaxed4 99 ,when you have treated wet specimens with anything acid1 do remember to neutralise the acid residues as soon as possible4 ,the same applies if you have preserved them with anything that gradually produces acid2 ,for example1 formaldehyde gradually reacts with oxygen to produce formic acid4 ,in due course it destroys shells1 and even fine bones and teeth4 ,as a buffer1 ammonia is cheap1 effective and safe in reasonable circumstances4 ,however1 it is too volatile to be a reliable buffer against long term acidity4 ,specimens preserved in formaldehyde can be protected in the long term by adding hexamethylenetetramine 7otherwise known as hexamine1 the product of ammonia and formaldehyde7 to the liquid4 ,a practical proportion is to add #ajj grams of hexamine to a litre of concentrated formaldehyde solution 7formalin74 ,dilute this solution before use1 according the requirements of your particular application4 ,if you cannot get hexamine1 you can use strong ammonia 7about #cf7 solution1 about #aej ml to #a litre of formalin4 ,in preparing to use such formalin1 allow for the fact that in adding the ammonia you diluted the formalin by about one sixth4 ,alternatively1 though usually less effectively1 you could add some ammonium carbonate or sodium bicarbonate to the container4 ,sometimes a little oyster-shell grit or chalk will do for long-term buffering2 it can be used together with the hexamine and can go on working after the hexamine is exhausted if the collection is poorly maintained4 ,use your good sense in adapting your measures to your needs4