material from the ,google ,print        
project47            ,,the   ,,martyrs  
,,of ,,science1   ,,or   ,,the ,,lives  
,,of   ,,galileo1 ,,tycho ,,brahe1 ,,and
 ,,kepler4    ,,by    ,,sir ,,david     
,,brewster1 ,k4,h4 ,d4,c4,l41           
,,principal ,,of ,,the ,,united         
,,college ,,of ,,st ,,salvator ,,and    
,,st ,,leonard1   ,,st ,,andrews2       
,,fellow ,,of ,,the ,,royal ,,society   
,,of ,,london2 ,,vice-,,president   ,,of
 ,,the ,,royal ,,society ,,of           
,,edinburgh2 ,,corresponding ,,member   
,,of ,,the ,,institute ,,of ,,france2   
,,and ,,member ,,of ,,the   ,,academies 
,,of ,,st ,,petersburg1 ,,stockholm1    
,,berlin1 ,,copenhagen1 ,,gottingen1    
,,philadelphia1 c4 c4    ,,london3      
,,john ,,murray1 ,,albemarle ,,street4  
#ahda4    ,g4 ,s4 ,,tullis1 ,,printer1  
,,cupar4       ,,to ,,the   ,,right     
,,hon4 ,,francis ,,lord ,,gray1         
,f4,r4,s41 ,f4,r4,s4,e4  ,,my ,,lord1   
,in submitting this volume to the public
 under your ,lordship's auspices1 ,i    

avail myself of the opportunity thus    
afforded me of expressing the deep sense
 which ,i entertain of the friendship   
and kindness with which your ,lordship  
has so long honoured me4  ,although in  
these days1 when ,science constitutes   
the power and wealth of nations1 and    
encircles the domestic hearth with its  
most substantial comforts1 there is no  
risk of its votaries being either       
persecuted or neglected1 yet the        
countenance of those to whom ,providence
 has given rank and station will ever be
 one of the most powerful incitements to
 scientific enterprise1 as well as one  
of its most legitimate rewards4 ,next to
 the satisfaction of cultivating        
,science1 and thus laying up the only   
earthly treasure which we can carry     
along with us into a better state1 is   
that of having encouraged and assisted  
others in the same beneficent labours4  
,that your ,lordship may long continue  
to enjoy these sources of happiness is  
the earnest prayer of1  ,,my ,,lord1    

,your ,lordship's  ,most faithful and   
obedient servant1  ,,david ,,brewster4  
,,st ,,leonards1 ,,st ,,andrews1        
,october #ab1 #ahdj4     ,,contents4    
,,life ,,of ,,galileo4                  
,page4 ,,chapter ,i4                    
#a    ,peculiar interest attached to his
 ,life--,his ,birth--,his early         
studies--,his passion for               
,mathematics--,his work on the          
,hydrostatic   ,balance--,appointed     
,lecturer on ,mathematics at ,pisa--,his
 antipathy   to the ,philosophy of      
,aristotle--,his contentions with the   
,aristotelians--,chosen ,professor of   
,mathematics in ,padua--,adopts the     
,copernican system1 but still teaches   
the ,ptolemaic doctrine--,his   alarming
 illness--,he observes the new ,star in 
#afjd--;,his ,magnetical   experiments1 
,,chapter ,,ii4                         
#bj    ,cosmo1 ,grand ,duke of ,tuscany1
 invites ,galileo to ,pisa--,galileo    
visits ,venice in #afji1 where he first 
hears of the ,telescope--,he   invents  

and constructs one1 which excites a     
great   sensation--,discovers ,mountains
 in the ,moon1 and ,forty ,stars in the 
,pleiades--,discovers ,jupiter's        
,satellites in #afaj--;,effect of this  
discovery on ,kepler--,manner in which  
these discoveries were                  
received--,galileo appointed            
,mathematician to ,cosmo--,mayer claims 
the   discovery of the ,satellites of   
,jupiter--,harriot observes them in     
,england in ,october #afaj1  ,,chapter  
,,iii4                                  
#db    ,galileo announces his           
discoveries in ,enigmas--,discovers the 
,crescent of ,venus--the ,ring of       
,saturn--the ,spots on the              
,sun--,similar ,observations made in    
,england by ,harriot--,claims of        
,fabricius and ,scheiner to the         
discovery of the ,solar                 
,spots--,galileo's ,letters to ,velser  
on the claims of ,scheiner--,his        
residence at the ,villa of              
,salviati--,composes his work on        

,floating   ,bodies1 which involves him 
in new controversies1  ,,chapter ,,iv4  
#ef    ,galileo treats his ,opponents   
with severity and sarcasm--,he is aided 
by the ,sceptics of the day--,the       
,church ,party the most                 
powerful--,galileo commences the attack1
 and is answered by ,caccini1   a       
,dominican--,galileo's ,letter to the   
,grand ,duchess of ,tuscany1 in         
support of the motion of the ,earth and 
the stability of the   ,sun--,galileo   
visits ,rome--,is summoned before the   
,inquisition--,and   renounces his      
opinions as ,heretical--,the            
,inquisition denounces the   ,copernican
 system--,galileo has an audience of the
 ,pope1 but still   maintains his       
opinions in private society--,proposes  
to find out the   ,longitude at ,sea by 
means of ,jupiter's ,satellites--,his   
negotiation   on this subject with the  
,court of ,spain--,its failure--,he is  
unable   to observe the three ,comets of
 #afah1 but is involved in the          

controversy to which they gave rise1    
,,chapter ,v4                           
#gb    ,urban ,,viii41 ,galileo's       
friend1 raised to the                   
,pontificate--,galileo   goes to ,rome  
to offer his congratulations--,the ,pope
 loads ,galileo   with presents1 and    
promises a ,pension to his              
,son--,galileo in   pecuniary           
difficulties1 owing to the death of his 
patron1   ,cosmo--,galileo again rashly 
attacks the ,church1 notwithstanding the
   ,pope's kindness--,he composes his   
,system of the ,world1 to   demonstrate 
the ,copernican ,system--,artfully      
obtains a license to   print it--,nature
 of the work--,its influence on the     
public mind--,the   ,pope resolves on   
suppressing it--,galileo summoned before
 the   ,inquisition--,his ,trial--,his  
,defence--,his formal ,abjuration of his
   ,opinions--,observations on his      
conduct--,the ,pope shews great         
indulgence to ,galileo1 who is allowed  
to return to his own house at   ,arcetri

 as the place of his confinement1       
,,chapter ,,vi4                         
#ajb    ,galileo loses his favourite    
,daughter--,he falls into a state of    
melancholy and ill health--,is allowed  
to go to ,florence for its   recovery in
 #afch--;,but is prevented from leaving 
his ,house or   receiving his           
,friends--,his friend ,castelli         
permitted to visit him   in the presence
 of an ,officer of the ,inquisition--,he
 composes his   celebrated ,dialogues on
 ,local ,motion--,discovers the ,moon's 
,libration--,loses the sight of one     
,eye--,the other ,eye attacked by   the 
same ,disease--,is struck               
,blind--,negociates with the ,dutch     
,government respecting his ,method of   
finding the ,longitude--,he is   allowed
 free intercourse with his              
,friends--,his ,illness and ,death in   
#afdb--;,his ,epitaph--,his ,social1    
,moral1 and ,scientific ,character1     
99       99       99       99       99  
,,life ,,of ,,tycho ,,brahe4  ,,chapter 

,i4                                     
#abc    ,tycho's ,birth1 ,family1 and   
,education--,an ,eclipse of the ,sun    
turns   his attention to                
,astronomy--,studies ,law at            
,leipsic--,but pursues   ,astronomy by  
stealth--,his ,uncle's ,death--,he      
returns to ,copenhagen1   and resumes   
his ,observations--,revisits            
,germany--,fights a ,duel1 and   loses  
his ,nose--,visits ,augsburg1 and meets 
,hainzel--,who assists him   in making a
 large ,quadrant--,revisits             
,denmark--,and is warmly   received by  
the ,king--,he settles at his ,uncle's  
,castle of   ,herritzvold--,his         
,observatory and ,laboratory--,discovers
 the new ,star   in                     
,cassiopeia--,account of this remarkable
 ,body--,tycho's ,marriage   with a     
,peasant ,girl--,which irritates his    
,friends--,his ,lectures on             
,astronomy--,he visits the ,prince of   
,hesse--,attends the ,coronation of     
the ,emperor ,rudolph at ,ratisbon--,he 

returns to ,denmark1  ,,chapter ,,ii4   
#ade    ,frederick ,,ii4 patronizes     
,tycho--,and resolves to establish him  
in   ,denmark--,grants him the ,island  
of ,huen for ,life--,and ,builds the    
splendid ,observatory of                
,uraniburg--,description of the ,island1
 and   of the ,observatory--,account of 
its ,astronomical ,instruments--,tycho  
begins his ,observations--,his          
,pupils--,tycho is made ,canon of       
,rothschild1 and receives a large       
,pension--,his ,hospitality to his      
,visitors--,ingratitude of              
,wittichius--,tycho sends an ,assistant 
to   take the ,latitude of ,frauenburg  
and ,konigsberg--,is visited by         
,ulric1 ,duke of ,mecklenburg--,change  
in ,tycho's fortunes1  ,,chapter ,,iii4 
#afj    ,tycho's ,labours do honour to  
his ,country--,death of ,frederick      
,,ii4--,james ,,vi4 of ,scotland visits 
,tycho at ,uraniburg--,christian ,,iv4  
visits ,tycho--,the ,duke of            
,brunswick's visit to ,tycho--,the      

,danish   ,nobility1 jealous of his     
fame1 conspire against him--,he is      
compelled to quit ,uraniburg--,and to   
abandon his ,studies--,cruelty of   the 
,minister ,walchendorp--,tycho quits    
,denmark with his ,family and           
,instruments--,is hospitably received by
 ,count ,rantzau--,who   introduces him 
to the ,emperor ,rudolph--,the ,emperor 
invites him to   ,prague--,he gives him 
a ,pension of #cjjj ,crowns--,and the   
,castle of   ,benach as a ,residence and
 an ,observatory--,kepler visits        
,tycho--,who   obtains for him the      
,appointment of ,mathematician to       
,rudolph1  ,,chapter ,,iv4              
#agi    ,tycho resumes his ,astronomical
 ,observations--,is attacked with a     
,painful ,disease--,his ,sufferings and 
,death in #afja--;,his ,funeral--,his   
,temper--,his ,turn for ,satire and     
,raillery--,his ,piety--,account of his 
,astronomical ,discoveries--,his ,love  
of ,astrology and                       
,alchymy--,observations on the          

,character of the ,alchymists--,tycho's 
,elixir--,his ,fondness for the         
,marvellous--,his ,automata and         
,invisible   ,bells--,account of the    
,idiot1 called ,lep1 whom he kept as a  
,prophet--,history of ,tycho's          
,instruments--,his ,great ,brass ,globe 
preserved at ,copenhagen--,present state
 of the ,island of ,huen1         99    
99       99       99       99   ,,life  
,,of ,,john ,,kepler4  ,,chapter ,i4    
#bjc    ,kepler's ,birth in #aega--;,his
 ,family--,and early ,education--,the   
,distresses and ,poverty of his         
,family--,he enters the ,monastic       
,school   of ,maulbronn--,and is        
admitted into the ,university of        
,tubingen1   where he distinguishes     
himself1 and takes his ,degree--,he is  
appointed ,professor of ,astronomy and  
,greek in #aeid--;,his first            
speculations on the ,orbits of the      
,planets--,account of their   ,progress 
and ,failure--,his ,cosmographical      
,mystery published--,he   ,marries a    

,widow in #aeig--,religious troubles at 
,gratz--,he retires   from thence to    
,hungary--,visits ,tycho at ,prague in  
#afjj--,returns to   ,gratz1 which he   
again quits for ,prague--,he is taken   
ill on the   road--,is appointed        
,tycho's ,assistant in #afja--,succeeds 
,tycho as   ,imperial                   
,mathematician--,his ,work on the ,new  
,star of #afjd--,singular   specimen of 
it1  ,,chapter ,,ii4                    
#bbj    ,kepler's ,pecuniary            
,embarrassments--,his ,inquiries        
respecting the ,law   of                
,refraction--,his ,supplement to        
,vitellio--,his ,researches on          
,vision--,his ,treatise on              
,dioptrics--,his ,commentaries on       
,mars--,he   discovers that the orbit of
 ,mars is an ,ellipse1 with the ,sun in 
one   focus--,and extends this discovery
 to all the other ,planets--,he         
establishes the two first laws of       
,physical ,astronomy--,his ,family      
,distresses--,death of his ,wife--,he is

 appointed ,professor of   ,mathematics 
at ,linz--,his ,method of ,choosing a   
,second ,wife--,her   ,character1 as    
given by ,himself--,origin of his       
,treatise on   ,gauging--,he goes to    
,ratisbon to give his ,opinion to the   
,diet on the   change of ,style--,he    
refuses the ,mathematical ,chair at     
,bologna1  ,,chapter ,,iii4             
#bcg    ,kepler's continued             
,embarrassments--,death of              
,mathias--,liberality of                
,ferdinand--,kepler's ,harmonies of the 
,world--,the ,epitome of the            
,copernican ,astronomy--,it is          
prohibited by the ,inquisition--,sir    
,henry ,wotton1 the ,british            
,ambassador1 invites ,kepler to         
,england--,he declines the              
,invitation--,neglect of ,genius by the 
,english ,government--,trial of         
,kepler's ,mother--,her final           
,acquittal--,and ,death at the age of   
,seventy-five--,the ,states of   ,styria
 burn publicly ,kepler's ,calendar--,he 

receives his ,arrears of   ,salary from 
,ferdinand--,the ,rudolphine ,tables    
published in #afbh--;,he   receives a   
,gold ,chain from the ,grand ,duke of   
,tuscany--,he is   ,patronised by the   
,duke of ,friedland--,he removes to     
,sagan1 in   ,silesia--,is appointed    
,professor of ,mathematics at           
,rostoch--,goes to   ,ratisbon to       
receive his ,arrears--,his ,death1      
,funeral1 and   ,epitaph--,monument     
,erected to his ,memory in #ahjc--;,his 
,family--,his   ,posthumous ,volume1    
entitled ,the ,dream1 or ,lunar         
,astronomy1  ,,chapter ,,iv4            
#beb    ,number of ,kepler's published  
,works--,his numerous ,manuscripts in   
#bb   folio volumes--,purchased by      
,hevelius1 and afterwards by            
,hansch--,who   publishes ,kepler's     
,life and ,correspondence at the expense
 of   ,charles ,,vi4--,the ,history of  
the rest of his ,manuscripts1 which are 
deposited in the ,library of the        
,academy of ,sciences at ,st            

,petersburg--,general ,character of     
,kepler--,his ,candour in               
acknowledging his ,errors--,his ,moral  
and ,religious ,character--,his         
,astrological ,writings and ,opinions   
considered--,his ,character as an       
,astronomer and a ,philosopher--,the    
,splendour of his                       
,discoveries--,account of his ,method of
 ,investigating ,truth1     ,,life ,,of 
,,galileo4     ,,chapter ,i4            
,peculiar interest attached to his      
,life--,his ,birth--,his early          
studies--,his passion for               
,mathematics--,his work on the          
,hydrostatic      ,balance--,appointed  
,lecturer on ,mathematics at ,pisa--,his
 antipathy      to the ,philosophy of   
,aristotle--,his contentions with the   
,aristotelians--,chosen professor of    
,mathematics in ,padua--,adopts the     
,copernican system1 but still teaches   
the ,ptolemaic doctrine--,his           
alarming illness--,he observes the new  
,star in #afjd--;,his magnetical        

experiments4   ,the history of the life 
and labours of ,galileo is pregnant with
 a peculiar interest to the general     
reader1 as well as to the philosopher4  
,his brilliant discoveries1 the man of  
science regards as his peculiar         
property2 the means by which they were  
made1 and the development of his        
intellectual character1 belong to the   
logician and to the philosopher2 but the
 triumphs and the reverses of his       
eventful life must be claimed for our   
common nature1 as a source of more than 
ordinary instruction4  ,the lengthened  
career which ,providence assigned to    
,galileo was filled up throughout its   
rugged outline with events even of      
dramatic interest4 ,but though it was   
emblazoned with achievements of         
transcendent magnitude1 yet his noblest 
discoveries were the derision of his    
contemporaries1 and were even denounced 
as crimes which merited the vengeance of
 ,heaven4 ,though he was the idol of his
 friends1 and the favoured companion of 

princes1 yet he afterwards became the   
victim of persecution1 and spent some of
 his last hours within the walls of a   
prison2 and though the ,almighty granted
 him1 as it were1 a new sight to descry 
unknown worlds in the obscurity of      
space1 yet the eyes which were allowed  
to witness such wonders1 were themselves
 doomed to be closed in darkness4  ,such
 were the lights and shadows in which   
history delineates      ,the starry     
,galileo with his woes4#a        #a     
,childe ,harold1 canto iv4 stanza liv4  
,but1 however powerful be their         
contrasts1 they are not unusual in their
 proportions4 ,the balance which has    
been struck between his days of good and
 evil1 is that which regulates the lot  
of man1 whether we study it in the      
despotic sway of the autocrat1 in the   
peaceful inquiries of the philosopher1  
or in the humbler toils of ordinary     
life4  ,galileo ,galilei was born at    
,pisa1 on the #aeth of ,february1 #aefd1
 and was the eldest of a family of three

 sons and three daughters4 ,under the   
name of ,bonajuti1 his noble ancestors  
had filled high offices at ,florence2   
but about the middle of the #adth       
century they seem to have abandoned this
 surname for that of ,galileo4 ,vincenzo
 ,galilei1 our author's father1 was     
himself a philosopher of no mean powers2
 and though his talents seem to have    
been exercised only in the composition  
of treatises on the theory and practice 
of music1 yet he appears to have        
anticipated even his son in a just      
estimate of the philosophy of the age1  
and in a distinct perception of the true
 method of investigating truth4#b       
#b ,life of ,galileo1 ,library of       
,useful ,knowledge1 p4 #a4  ,the early  
years of ,galileo were1 like those of   
almost all great experimental           
philosophers1 spent in the construction 
of instruments and pieces of machinery1 
which were calculated chiefly to amuse  
himself and his schoolfellows4 ,this    
employment of his hands1 however1 did   

not interfere with his regular studies2 
and though1 from the straitened         
circumstances of his father1 he was     
educated under considerable             
disadvantages1 yet he acquired the      
elements of classical literature1 and   
was initiated into all the learning of  
the times4 ,music1 drawing1 and painting
 were the occupations of his leisure    
hours2 and such was his proficiency in  
these arts1 that he was reckoned a      
skilful performer on several musical    
instruments1 especially the lute2 and   
his knowledge of pictures was held in   
great esteem by some of the best artists
 of his day4  ,galileo seems to have    
been desirous of following the          
profession of a painter3 but his father 
had observed decided indications of     
early genius2 and1 though by no means   
able to afford it1 he resolved to send  
him to the university to pursue the     
study of medicine4 ,he accordingly      
enrolled himself as a scholar in arts at
 the university of ,pisa1 on the #eth of

 ,november1 #aeha1 and pursued his      
medical studies under the celebrated    
botanist ,andrew ,caesalpinus1 who      
filled the chair of medicine from #aefg 
to #aeib4  ,in order to study the       
principles of music and drawing1        
,galileo found it necessary to acquire  
some knowledge of geometry4 ,his father 
seems to have foreseen the consequences 
of following this new pursuit1 and      
though he did not prohibit him from     
reading ,euclid under ,ostilio ,ricci1  
one of the professors at ,pisa1 yet he  
watched his progress with the utmost    
jealousy1 and had resolved that it      
should not interfere with his medical   
studies4 ,the demonstrations1 however1  
of the ,greek mathematician had too many
 charms for the ardent mind of ,galileo4
 ,his whole attention was engrossed with
 the new truths which burst upon his    
understanding2 and after many fruitless 
attempts to check his ardour and direct 
his thoughts to professional objects1   
his father was obliged to surrender his 

parental control1 and allow the fullest 
scope to the genius of his son4  ,from  
the elementary works of geometry1       
,galileo passed to the writings of      
,archimedes2 and while he was studying  
the hydrostatical treatise#c of the     
,syracusan philosopher1 he wrote his    
essay on the hydrostatical balance1#d in
 which he describes the construction of 
the instrument1 and the method by which 
,archimedes detected the fraud committed
 by the jeweller in the composition of  
,hiero's crown4 ,this work gained for   
its author the esteem of ,guido ,ubaldi1
 who had distinguished himself by his   
mechanical and mathematical             
acquirements1 and who engaged his young 
friend to investigate the subject of the
 centre of gravity in solid bodies4 ,the
 treatise on this subject1 which        
,galileo presented to his patron1 proved
 the source of his future success in    
life4       #c ,de ,insidentibus in     
,fluido4       #d ,opere di ,galileo4   
,milano1 #ahaj1 vol4 iv4 p4 #bdh-beg4   

,through the ,cardinal del ,monte1 the  
brother-in-law of ,ubaldi1 the reigning 
,duke of ,tuscany1 ,ferdinand de ,medici
 was made acquainted with the merits of 
our young philosopher2 and1 in #aehi1 he
 was appointed lecturer on mathematics  
at ,pisa4 ,as the salary1 however1      
attached to this office was only sixty  
crowns1 he was compelled to enlarge this
 inadequate income by the additional    
occupation of private teaching1 and thus
 to encroach upon the leisure which he  
was anxious to devote to science4  ,with
 this moderate competency1 ,galileo     
commenced his philosophical career4 ,at 
the early age of eighteen1 when he had  
entered the university1 his innate      
antipathy to the ,aristotelian          
philosophy began to display itself4     
,this feeling was strengthened by his   
earliest inquiries2 and upon his        
establishment at ,pisa he seems to have 
regarded the doctrines of ,aristotle as 
the intellectual prey which1 in his     
chace of glory1 he was destined to      

pursue4 ,nizzoli1 who flourished near   
the beginning of the sixteenth century1 
and ,giordano ,bruno1 who was burned at 
,rome in #afjj1 led the way in this     
daring pursuit2 but it was reserved for 
,galileo to track the ,thracian boar    
through its native thickets1 and1 at the
 risk of his own life1 to strangle it in
 its den4  ,with the resolution of      
submitting every opinion to the test of 
experiment1 ,galileo's first inquiries  
at ,pisa were directed to the mechanical
 doctrines of ,aristotle4 ,their        
incorrectness and absurdity soon became 
apparent2 and with a zeal1 perhaps1     
bordering on indiscretion1 he denounced 
them to his pupils with an ardour of    
manner and of expression proportioned to
 his own conviction of the truth4 ,the  
detection of long-established errors is 
apt to inspire the young philosopher    
with an exultation which reason         
condemns4 ,the feeling of triumph is apt
 to clothe itself in the language of    
asperity2 and the abettor of erroneous  

opinions is treated as a species of     
enemy to science4 ,like the soldier who 
fleshes his first spear in battle1 the  
philosopher is apt to leave the stain of
 cruelty on his early achievements4 ,it 
is only from age and experience1 indeed1
 that we can expect the discretion of   
valour1 whether it is called forth in   
controversy or in battle4 ,galileo seems
 to have waged this stern warfare       
against the followers of ,aristotle2 and
 such was the exasperation which was    
excited by his reiterated and successful
 attacks1 that he was assailed1 during  
the rest of his life1 with a degree of  
rancour which seldom originates in a    
mere difference of opinion4 ,forgetting 
that all knowledge is progressive1 and  
that the errors of one generation call  
forth the comments1 and are replaced by 
the discoveries1 of the next1 ,galileo  
did not anticipate that his own         
speculations and incompleted labours    
might one day provoke unmitigated       
censure2 and he therefore failed in     

making allowance for the prejudices and 
ignorance of his opponents4 ,he who     
enjoys the proud lot of taking a        
position in advance of his age1 need not
 wonder that his less gifted            
contemporaries are left behind4 ,men are
 not necessarily obstinate because they 
cleave to deeply rooted and venerable   
errors1 nor are they absolutely dull    
when they are long in understanding and 
slow in embracing newly discovered      
truths4  ,it was one of the axioms of   
the ,aristotelian mechanics1 that the   
heavier of two falling bodies would     
reach the ground sooner than the other1 
and that their velocities would be      
proportional to their weights4 ,galileo 
attacked the arguments by which this    
opinion was supported2 and when he found
 his reasoning ineffectual1 he appealed 
to direct experiment4 ,he maintained1   
that all bodies would fall through the  
same height in the same time1 if they   
were not unequally retarded by the      
resistance of the air3 and though he    

performed the experiment with the most  
satisfactory results1 by letting heavy  
bodies fall from the leaning tower of   
,pisa1 yet the ,aristotelians1 who with 
their own eyes saw the unequal weights  
strike the ground at the same instant1  
ascribed the effect to some unknown     
cause1 and preferred the decision of    
their master to that of nature herself4 
,galileo could not brook this opposition
 to his discoveries2 nor could the      
,aristotelians tolerate the rebukes of  
their young instructor4 ,the two parties
 were1 consequently1 marshalled in      
hostile array2 when1 fortunately for    
both1 an event occurred1 which placed   
them beyond the reach of danger4 ,don   
,giovanni de ,medici1 a natural son of  
,cosmo1 had proposed a method of        
clearing out the harbour of ,leghorn4   
,galileo1 whose opinion was requested1  
gave such an unfavourable report upon   
it1 that the disappointed inventor      
directed against him all the force of   
his malice4 ,it was an easy task to     

concentrate the malignity of his enemies
 at ,pisa2 and so effectually was this  
accomplished1 that ,galileo resolved to 
accept another professorship1 to which  
he had been previously invited4  ,the   
chair of mathematics in the university  
of ,padua having been vacant for five   
years1 the republic of ,venice had      
resolved to fill it up2 and1 on the     
recommendation of ,guido ,ubaldi1       
,galileo was appointed to it1 in #aeib1 
for a period of six years4  ,previous to
 this event1 ,galileo had lost his      
father1 who died1 in #aeia1 at an       
advanced age4 ,as he was the eldest son1
 the support of the family naturally    
devolved upon him2 and this sacred      
obligation must have increased his      
anxiety to better his circumstances1 and
 therefore added to his other           
inducements to quit ,pisa4 ,in          
,september #aeib1 he removed to ,padua1 
where he had a salary of only #ahj      
florins1 and where he was again obliged 
to add to his income by the labours of  

tuition4 ,notwithstanding this fruitless
 occupation of his time1 he appears to  
have found leisure for composing several
 of his works1 and completing various   
inventions1 which will be afterwards    
described4 ,his manuscripts were        
circulated privately among his friends  
and pupils2 but some of them strayed    
beyond this sacred limit1 and found     
their way into the hands of persons1 who
 did not scruple to claim and publish1  
as their own1 the discoveries and       
inventions which they contained4  ,it is
 not easy to ascertain the exact time   
when ,galileo became a convert to the   
doctrines of ,copernicus1 or the        
particular circumstances under which he 
was led to adopt them4 ,it is stated by 
,gerard ,voss1 that a public lecture of 
,moestlin1 the instructor of ,kepler1   
was the means of making ,galileo        
acquainted with the true system of the  
universe4 ,this assertion1 however1 is  
by no means probable2 and it has been   
ably shown1 by the latest biographer of 

,galileo1#e that1 in his dialogues on   
the ,copernican system1 our author gives
 the true account of his own conversion4
 ,this passage is so interesting1 that  
we shall give it entire4       #e ,life 
of ,galileo1 in ,library of ,useful     
,knowledge1 p4 #i4  ,i cannot omit this 
opportunity of relating to you what     
happened to myself at the time when this
 opinion 7the ,copernican system7 began 
to be discussed4 ,i was then a very     
young man1 and had scarcely finished my 
course of philosophy1 which other       
occupations obliged me to leave off1    
when there arrived in this country1 from
 ,rostoch1 a foreigner1 whose name1 ,i  
believe1 was ,christian ,vurstisius     
7,wurteisen71 a follower of ,copernicus4
 ,this person delivered1 on this        
subject1 two or three lectures in a     
certain academy1 and to a crowded       
audience4 ,believing that several were  
attracted more by the novelty of the    
subject than by any other cause1 and    
being firmly persuaded that this opinion

 was a piece of solemn folly1 ,i was    
unwilling to be present4 ,upon          
interrogating1 however1 some of those   
who were there1 ,i found that they all  
made it a subject of merriment1 with the
 exception of one1 who assured me that  
it was not a thing wholly ridiculous4   
,as ,i considered this individual to be 
both prudent and circumspect1 ,i        
repented that ,i had not attended the   
lectures2 and1 whenever ,i met any of   
the followers of ,copernicus1 ,i began  
to inquire if they had always been of   
the same opinion4 ,i found that there   
was not one of them who did not declare 
that he had long maintained the very    
opposite opinions1 and had not gone over
 to the new doctrines till he was driven
 by the force of argument4 ,i next      
examined them one by one1 to see if they
 were masters of the arguments on the   
opposite side2 and such was the         
readiness of their answers1 that ,i was 
satisfied they had not taken up this    
opinion from ignorance or vanity4 ,on   

the other hand1 whenever ,i interrogated
 the ,peripatetics and the              
,ptolemeans--and1 out of curiosity1 ,i  
have interrogated not a few--respecting 
their perusal of ,copernicus's work1 ,i 
perceived that there were few who had   
seen the book1 and not one who          
understood it4 ,nor have ,i omitted to  
inquire among the followers of the      
,peripatetic doctrines1 if any of them  
had ever stood on the opposite side2 and
 the result was1 that there was not one4
 ,considering1 then1 that nobody        
followed the ,copernican doctrine1 who  
had not previously held the contrary    
opinion1 and who was not well acquainted
 with the arguments of ,aristotle and   
,ptolemy2 while1 on the other hand1     
nobody followed ,ptolemy and ,aristotle1
 who had before adhered to ,copernicus1 
and had gone over from him into the camp
 of ,aristotle2--weighing1 ,i say1 these
 things1 ,i began to believe that1 if   
any one who rejects an opinion which he 
has imbibed with his milk1 and which has

 been embraced by an infinite number1   
shall take up an opinion held only by a 
few1 condemned by all the schools1 and  
really regarded as a great paradox1 it  
cannot be doubted that he must have been
 induced1 not to say driven1 to embrace 
it by the most cogent arguments4 ,on    
this account ,i have become very curious
 to penetrate to the very bottom of the 
subject4#f       #f ,systema ,cosmicum1 
,dial4 ii4 p4 #aba4  ,it appears1 on the
 testimony of ,galileo himself1 that he 
taught the ,ptolemaic system1 in        
compliance with the popular feeling1    
after he had convinced himself of the   
truth of the ,copernican doctrines4 ,in 
the treatise on the sphere1 indeed1     
which bears his name1#g and which must  
have been written soon after he went to 
,padua1 and subsequently to #aeib1 the  
stability of the earth1 and the motion  
of the sun1 are supported by the very   
arguments which ,galileo afterwards     
ridiculed2 but we have no means of      
determining whether or not he had then  

adopted the true system of the universe4
 ,although he might have taught the     
,ptolemaic system in his lectures after 
he had convinced himself of its         
falsehood1 yet it is not likely that he 
would go so far as to publish to the    
world1 as true1 the very doctrines which
 he despised4 ,in a letter to ,kepler1  
dated in #aeig1 he distinctly states    
that he had1 many years ago1 adopted the
 opinions of ,copernicus2 but that he   
had not yet dared to publish his        
arguments in favour of them1 and his    
refutation of the opposite opinions4    
,these facts would leave us to place    
,galileo's conversion somewhere between 
#aeic and #aeig1 although many years    
cannot be said to have elapsed between  
these two dates4       #g ,the          
authenticity of this work has been      
doubted4 ,it was printed      at ,rome1 
in #afef1 from a ,,ms4 in the library of
 ,somaschi1 at ,venice4      ,see ,opere
 di ,galileo1 tom4 vii4 p4 #dbg4  ,at   
this early period of ,galileo's life1 in

 the year #aeic1 he met with an accident
 which had nearly proved fatal4 ,a party
 at ,padua1 of which he was one1 were   
enjoying1 at an open window1 a current  
of air1 which was artificially cooled by
 a fall of water4 ,galileo unfortunately
 fell asleep under its influence2 and so
 powerful was its effect upon his robust
 constitution1 that he contracted a     
severe chronic disorder1 accompanied    
with acute pains in his body1 and loss  
of sleep and appetite1 which attacked   
him at intervals during the rest of his 
life4 ,others of the party suffered     
still more severely1 and perished by    
their own rashness4  ,galileo's         
reputation was now widely extended over 
,europe4 ,the ,archduke ,ferdinand      
7afterwards ,emperor of ,germany71 the  
,landgrave of ,hesse1 and the ,princes  
of ,alsace and ,mantua1 honoured his    
lectures with their presence2 and       
,prince ,gustavus ,adolphus of ,sweden  
also received instructions from him in  
mathematics1 during his sojourn in      

,italy4  ,when ,galileo had completed   
the first period of his engagement at   
,padua1 he was re-elected for other six 
years1 with an increased salary of #cbj 
florins4 ,this liberal addition to his  
income is ascribed by ,fabbroni to the  
malice of one of his enemies1 who       
informed the ,senate that ,galileo was  
living in illicit intercourse with      
,marina ,gamba4 ,without inquiring into 
the truth of the accusation1 the ,senate
 is said to have replied1 that if he had
 a family to support1 he had the more   
need of an increased salary4 ,it is more
 likely that the liberality of the      
republic had been called forth by the   
high reputation of their professor1 and 
that the terms of their reply were      
intended only to rebuke the malignity of
 the informer4 ,the mode of expression  
would seem to indicate that one or more 
of ,galileo's children had been born    
previous to his re-election in #aeih2   
but as this is scarcely consistent with 
other facts1 we are disposed to doubt   

the authenticity of ,fabbroni's         
anecdote4  ,the new star which attracted
 the notice of astronomers in #afjd1    
excited the particular attention of     
,galileo4 ,the observations which he    
made upon it1 and the speculations which
 they suggested1 formed the subject of  
three lectures1 the beginning of the    
first of which only has reached our     
times4 ,from the absence of parallax1 he
 proved that the common hypothesis of   
its being a meteor was erroneous1 and   
that1 like the fixed stars1 it was      
situated far beyond the bounds of our   
own system4 ,the popularity of the      
subject attracted crowds to his         
lecture-room2 and ,galileo had the      
boldness to reproach his hearers for    
taking so deep an interest in a         
temporary phenomenon1 while they        
overlooked the wonders of creation which
 were daily presented to their view4    
,in the year #afjf1 ,galileo was again  
appointed to the professorship at       
,padua1 with an augmented stipend of    

#ebj florins4 ,his popularity had now   
risen so high1 that his audience could  
not be accommodated in his lecture-room2
 and even when he had assembled them in 
the school of medicine1 which contained 
#ajjj persons1 he was frequently obliged
 to adjourn to the open air4  ,among the
 variety of pursuits which occupied his 
attention1 was the examination of the   
properties of the loadstone4 ,in #afjg1 
he commenced his experiments2 but1 with 
the exception of a method of arming     
loadstones1 which1 according to the     
report of ,sir ,kenelm ,digby1 enabled  
them to carry twice as much weight as   
before1 he does not seem to have made   
any additions to our knowledge of       
magnetism4 ,he appears to have studied  
with care the admirable work of our     
countryman1 ,dr ,gilbert1 ,de ,magnete1 
which was published in #afjj2 and he    
recognised in the experiments and       
reasonings of the ,english philosopher  
the principles of that method of        
investigating truth which he had himself

 adopted4 ,gilbert died in #afjc1 in the
 #fc;d year of his age1 and probably    
never read the fine compliment which was
 paid to him by the ,italian            
philosopher--,i extremely praise1       
admire1 and envy this author4           
,,chapter ,,ii4       ,cosmo1 ,grand    
,duke of ,tuscany1 invites ,galileo to  
,pisa--,galileo      visits ,venice in  
#afji1 where he first hears of the      
,telescope--,he      invents and        
constructs one1 which excites a great   
sensation--,discovers ,mountains in the 
,moon1 and ,forty ,stars in the         
,pleiades--,discovers ,jupiter's        
,satellites in #afaj--;,effect of this  
discovery on ,kepler--,manner in which  
these discoveries were                  
received--,galileo appointed            
,mathematician to ,cosmo--,mayer claims 
the discovery of the ,satellites of     
,jupiter--,harriot observes them      in
 ,england in ,october #afaj4   ,in the  
preceding chapter we have brought down  
the history of ,galileo's labours to    

that auspicious year in which he first  
directed the telescope to the heavens4  
,no sooner was that noble instrument    
placed in his hands1 than ,providence   
released him from his professional      
toils1 and supplied him with the fullest
 leisure and the amplest means for      
pursuing and completing the grandest    
discoveries4  ,although he had quitted  
the service and the domains of his      
munificent patron1 the ,grand ,duke of  
,tuscany1 yet he maintained his         
connection with the family1 by visiting 
,florence during his academic vacations1
 and giving mathematical instruction to 
the younger branches of that            
distinguished house4 ,cosmo1 who had    
been one of his pupils1 now succeeded   
his father ,ferdinand2 and having his   
mind early imbued with a love of        
knowledge1 which had become hereditary  
in his family1 he felt that the         
residence of ,galileo within his        
dominions1 and still more his           
introduction into his household1 would  

do honour to their common country1 and  
reflect a lustre upon his own name4 ,in 
the year #afji1 accordingly1 ,cosmo made
 proposals to ,galileo to return to his 
original situation at ,pisa4 ,these     
overtures were gratefully received2 and 
in the arrangements which ,galileo on   
this occasion suggested1 as well as in  
the manner in which they were urged1 we 
obtain some insight into his temper and 
character4 ,he informs the correspondent
 through whom ,cosmo's offer was        
conveyed1 that his salary of #ebj       
florins at ,padua would be increased to 
as many crowns at his re-election1 and  
that he could enlarge his income to any 
extent he pleased1 by giving private    
lectures and receiving pupils4 ,his     
public duties1 he stated1 occupied him  
only sixty half-hours in the year2 but  
his studies suffered such interruptions 
from his domestic pupils and private    
lectures1 that his most ardent wish was 
to be relieved from them1 in order that 
he might have sufficient rest and       

leisure1 before the close of his life1  
to finish and publish those great works 
which he had projected4 ,in the event1  
therefore1 of his returning to ,pisa1 he
 hoped that it would be the first object
 of his serene highness to give him     
leisure to complete his works without   
the drudgery of lecturing4 ,he expresses
 his anxiety to gain his bread by his   
writings1 and he promises to dedicate   
them to his serene master4 ,he          
enumerates1 among these books1 two on   
the system of the universe1 three on    
local motion1 three books of mechanics1 
two on the demonstration of principles1 
and one of problems2 besides treatises  
on sound and speech1 on light and       
colours1 on the tides1 on the           
composition of continuous quantity1 on  
the motions of animals1 and on the      
military art4 ,on the subject of his    
salary1 he makes the following curious  
observations3--  ,i say nothing1 says   
he1 on the amount of my salary2 being   
convinced that1 as ,i am to live upon   

it1 the graciousness of his highness    
would not deprive me of any of those    
comforts1 of which1 however1 ,i feel the
 want of less than many others2 and1    
therefore1 ,i say nothing more on the   
subject4 ,finally1 on the title and     
profession of my service1 ,i should wish
 that1 to the title of mathematician1   
his highness would add that of          
philosopher1 as ,i profess to have      
studied a greater number of years in    
philosophy1 than months in pure         
mathematics2 and how ,i have profited by
 it1 and if ,i can or ought to deserve  
this title1 ,i may let their highnesses 
see1 as often as it shall please them to
 give me an opportunity of discussing   
such subjects in their presence with    
those who are most esteemed in this     
knowledge4  ,during the progress of this
 negotiation1 ,galileo went to ,venice1 
on a visit to a friend1 in the month of 
,april or ,may #afji4 ,here he learned1 
from common rumour1 that a ,dutchman had
 presented to prince ,maurice of ,nassau

 an optical instrument1 which possessed 
the singular property of causing distant
 objects to appear nearer the observer4 
,this ,dutchman was ,hans or ,john      
,lippershey1 who1 as has been clearly   
proved by the late ,professor ,moll of  
,utrecht1#h was in the possession of a  
telescope made by himself so early as   
#b;d ,october #afjh4 ,a few days        
afterwards1 the truth of this report was
 confirmed by a letter which ,galileo   
received from ,james ,badorere at       
,paris1 and he immediately applied      
himself to the consideration of the     
subject4 ,on the first night after his  
return to ,padua1 he found1 in the      
doctrines of refraction1 the principle  
which he sought4 ,he placed at the ends 
of a leaden tube two spectacle glasses1 
both of which were plain on one side1   
while one of them had its other side    
convex1 and the other its second side   
concave1 and having applied his eye to  
the concave glass1 he saw objects pretty
 large and pretty near him4 ,this little

 instrument1 which magnified only three 
times1 he carried in triumph to ,venice1
 where it excited the most intense      
interest4 ,crowds of the principal      
citizens flocked to his house to see the
 magical toy2 and after nearly a month  
had been spent in gratifying this       
epidemical curiosity1 ,galileo was led  
to understand from ,leonardo ,deodati1  
the ,doge of ,venice1 that the senate   
would be highly gratified by obtaining  
possession of so extraordinary an       
instrument4 ,galileo instantly complied 
with the wishes of his patrons1 who     
acknowledged the present by a mandate   
conferring upon him for life his        
professorship at ,padua1 and generously 
raising his salary from #ebj to #ajjj   
florins4#i       #h ,on the ,first      
,invention of ,telescopes4--,journ4 ,r4 
,instit41      #ahca41 vol i41 p4 #dif4 
#i ,viviani ,vita del' ,galileo1 p4 #fi4
  ,although we cannot doubt the veracity
 of ,galileo1 when he affirms that he   
had never seen any of the ,dutch        

telescopes1 yet it is expressly stated  
by ,fuccarius1 that one of these        
instruments had at this time been       
brought to ,florence2 and ,sirturus     
assures us that a ,frenchman1 calling   
himself a partner of the ,dutch         
inventor1 came to ,milan in ,may #afji1 
and offered a telescope to the ,count de
 ,fuentes4 ,in a letter from ,lorenzo   
,pignoria to ,paolo ,gualdo1 dated from 
,padua1 on the #cast of ,august #afji1  
it is expressly said1 that1 at the      
re-election of the professors1 ,galileo 
had contrived to obtain #ajjj florins   
for life1 which was alleged to be on    
account of an eye-glass like the one    
which was sent from ,flanders to the    
,cardinal ,borghese4  ,in a memoir so   
brief and general as the present1 it    
would be out of place to discuss the    
history of this extraordinary invention4
 ,we have no hesitation in asserting    
that a method of magnifying distant     
objects was known to ,baptista ,porta   
and others2 but it seems to be equally  

certain that an instrument for producing
 these effects was first constructed in 
,holland1 and that it was from that     
kingdom that ,galileo derived the       
knowledge of its existence4 ,in         
considering the contending claims1 which
 have been urged with all the ardour and
 partiality of national feeling1 it has 
been generally overlooked1 that a single
 convex lens1 whose focal length exceeds
 the distance at which we examine minute
 objects1 performs the part of a        
telescope1 when an eye1 placed behind   
it1 sees distinctly the inverted image  
which it forms4 ,a lens1 twenty feet in 
focal length1 will in this manner       
magnify twenty times2 and it was by the 
same principle that ,sir ,william       
,herschel discovered a new satellite of 
,saturn1 by using only the mirror of his
 forty-feet telescope4 ,the instrument  
presented to ,prince ,maurice1 and which
 the ,marquis ,spinola found in the shop
 of ,john ,lippershey1 the spectacle    
maker of ,middleburg1 must have been an 

astronomical telescope consisting of two
 convex lenses4 ,upon this supposition1 
it differed from that which ,galileo    
constructed2 and the ,italian           
philosopher will be justly entitled to  
the honour of having invented that form 
of the telescope which still bears his  
name1 while we must accord to the ,dutch
 optician the honour of having          
previously invented the astronomical    
telescope4  ,the interest which the     
exhibition of the telescope excited at  
,venice did not soon subside3           
,sirturi#aj describes it as amounting   
almost to phrensy4 ,when he himself had 
succeeded in making one of these        
instruments1 he ascended the tower of   
,st ,mark1 where he might use it without
 molestation4 ,he was recognised1       
however1 by a crowd in the street2 and  
such was the eagerness of their         
curiosity1 that they took possession of 
the wondrous tube1 and detained the     
impatient philosopher for several hours1
 till they had successively witnessed   

its effects4 ,desirous of obtaining the 
same gratification for their friends1   
they endeavoured to learn the name of   
the inn at which he lodged2 but ,sirturi
 fortunately overheard their inquiries1 
and quitted ,venice early next morning1 
in order to avoid a second visitation of
 this new school of philosophers4 ,the  
opticians speedily availed themselves of
 the new instrument4 ,galileo's         
tube1--or the double eye-glass1 or the  
cylinder1 or the trunk1 as it was then  
called1 for ,demisiano had not yet given
 it the appellation of telescope1--was  
manufactured in great quantities1 and in
 a very superior manner4 ,the           
instruments were purchased merely as    
philosophical toys1 and were carried by 
travellers into every corner of ,europe4
       #aj ,de ,telescopio4  ,the art of
 grinding and polishing lenses was at   
this time very imperfect4 ,galileo1 and 
those whom he instructed1 were alone    
capable of making tolerable instruments4
 ,it appears1 from the testimony of     

,gassendi and ,gaertner1 that1 in #afcd1
 a good telescope could not be procured 
in ,paris1 ,venice1 or ,amsterdam2 and  
that1 even in #afcg1 there was not one  
in ,holland which could shew ,jupiter's 
disc well defined4  ,after ,galileo had 
completed his first instrument1 which   
magnified only three times1 he executed 
a larger and a better one1 with a power 
of about eight4 ,at length1 as he       
himself remarks1 sparing neither labour 
nor expense1 he constructed an          
instrument so excellent1 that it bore a 
magnifying power of more than thirty    
times4  ,the first celestial object to  
which ,galileo applied his telescope was
 the moon1 which1 to use his own words1 
appeared as near as if it had been      
distant only two semidiameters of the   
earth4 ,he then directed it to the      
planets and the fixed stars1 which he   
frequently observed with incredible     
delight4#aa       #aa ,incredibili animi
 jucunditate4  ,the observations which  
he made upon the moon possessed a high  

degree of interest4 ,the general        
resemblance of its surface to that of   
our own globe naturally fixed his       
attention2 and he was soon able to      
trace1 in almost every part of the lunar
 disc1 ranges of mountains1 deep        
hollows1 and other inequalities1 which  
reverberated from their summits and     
margins the rays of the rising sun1     
while the intervening hollows were still
 buried in darkness4 ,the dark and      
luminous spaces he regarded as          
indicating seas and continents1 which   
reflected1 in different degrees1 the    
incidental light of the sun2 and he     
ascribed the phosphorescence1 as it has 
been improperly called1 or the secondary
 light1 which is seen on the dark limb  
of the moon in her first and last       
quarters1 to the reflection of the sun's
 light from the earth4  ,these          
discoveries were ill received by the    
followers of ,aristotle4 ,according to  
their preconceived opinions1 the moon   
was perfectly spherical1 and absolutely 

smooth2 and to cover it with mountains1 
and scoop it out into valleys1 was an   
act of impiety which defaced the regular
 forms which ,nature herself had        
imprinted4 ,it was in vain that ,galileo
 appealed to the evidence of            
observation1 and to the actual surface  
of our own globe4 ,the very             
irregularities on the moon were1 in his 
opinion1 the proof of divine wisdom2 and
 had its surface been absolutely smooth1
 it would have been but a vast unblessed
 desert1 void of animals1 of plants1 of 
cities1 and of men--the abode of silence
 and inaction--senseless1 lifeless1     
soulless1 and stripped of all those     
ornaments which now render it so varied 
and so beautiful4  ,in examining the    
fixed stars1 and comparing them with the
 planets1 ,galileo observed a remarkable
 difference in the appearance of their  
discs4 ,all the planets appeared with   
round globular discs like the moon2     
whereas the fixed stars never exhibited 
any disc at all1 but resembled lucid    

points sending forth twinkling rays4    
,stars of all magnitudes he found to    
have the same appearance2 those of the  
fifth and sixth magnitude having the    
same character1 when seen through a     
telescope1 as ,sirius1 the largest of   
the stars1 when seen by the naked eye4  
,upon directing his telescope to nebulae
 and clusters of stars1 he was delighted
 to find that they consisted of great   
numbers of stars which could not be     
recognised by unassisted vision4 ,he    
counted no fewer than forty in the      
cluster called the ,pleiades1 or ,seven 
,stars2 and he has given us drawings of 
this constellation1 as well as of the   
belt and sword of ,orion1 and of the    
nebula of ,praesepe4 ,in the great      
nebula of the ,milky ,way1 he descried  
crowds of minute stars2 and he concluded
 that this singular portion of the      
heavens derived its whiteness from still
 smaller stars1 which his telescope was 
unable to separate4  ,important and     
interesting as these discoveries were1  

they were thrown into the shade by those
 to which he was led during an accurate 
examination of the planets with a more  
powerful telescope4 ,on the #gth of     
,january #afaj1 at one o'clock in the   
morning1 when he directed his telescope 
to ,jupiter1 he observed three stars    
near the body of the planet1 two being  
to the east and one to the west of him4 
,they were all in a straight line1 and  
parallel to the ecliptic1 and appeared  
brighter than other stars of the same   
magnitude4 ,believing them to be fixed  
stars1 he paid no great attention to    
their distances from ,jupiter and from  
one another4 ,on the #hth of ,january1  
however1 when1 from some cause or       
other1#ab he had been led to observe the
 stars again1 he found a very different 
arrangement of them3 all the three were 
on the west side of ,jupiter1 nearer one
 another than before1 and almost at     
equal distances4 ,though he had not     
turned his attention to the             
extraordinary fact of the mutual        

approach of the stars1 yet he began to  
consider how ,jupiter could be found to 
the east of the three stars1 when but   
the day before he had been to the west  
of two of them4 ,the only explanation   
which he could give of this fact was1   
that the motion of ,jupiter was direct1 
contrary to astronomical calculations1  
and that he had got before these two    
stars by his own motion4       #ab      
,nescio quo fato ductus4  ,in this      
dilemma between the testimony of his    
senses and the results of calculation1  
he waited for the following night with  
the utmost anxiety2 but his hopes were  
disappointed1 for the heavens were      
wholly veiled in clouds4 ,on the #ajth1 
two only of the stars appeared1 and both
 on the east of the planet4 ,as it was  
obviously impossible that ,jupiter could
 have advanced from west to east on the 
#hth of ,january1 and from east to west 
on the #ajth1 ,galileo was forced to    
conclude that the phenomenon which he   
had observed arose from the motion of   

the stars1 and he set himself to observe
 diligently their change of place4 ,on  
the #aath1 there were still only two    
stars1 and both to the east of ,jupiter2
 but the more eastern star was now twice
 as large as the other one1 though on   
the preceding night they had been       
perfectly equal4 ,this fact threw a new 
light upon ,galileo's difficulties1 and 
he immediately drew the conclusion1     
which he considered to be indubitable1  
that there were in the heavens three    
stars which revolved round ,jupiter1 in 
the same manner as ,venus and ,mercury  
revolve round the sun4 ,on the #abth of 
,january1 he again observed them in new 
positions1 and of different magnitudes2 
and1 on the #acth1 he discovered a      
fourth star1 which completed the four   
secondary planets with which ,jupiter is
 surrounded4  ,galileo continued his    
observations on these bodies every clear
 night till the #bb;d of ,march1 and    
studied their motions in reference to   
fixed stars that were at the same time  

within the field of his telescope4      
,having thus clearly established that   
the four new stars were satellites or   
moons1 which revolved round ,jupiter in 
the same manner as the moon revolves    
round our own globe1 he drew up an      
account of his discovery1 in which he   
gave to the four new bodies the names of
 the ,medicean ,stars1 in honour of his 
patron1 ,cosmo de ,medici1 ,grand ,duke 
of ,tuscany4 ,this work1 under the title
 of ,nuncius ,sidereus1 or the ,sidereal
 ,messenger1 was dedicated to the same  
prince2 and the dedication bears the    
date of the #bdth of ,march1 only two   
days after he concluded his             
observations4  ,the importance of this  
great discovery was instantly felt by   
the enemies as well as by the friends of
 the ,copernican system4 ,the planets   
had hitherto been distinguished from the
 fixed stars only by their relative     
change of place1 but the telescope      
proved them to be bodies so near to our 
own globe as to exhibit well-defined    

discs1 while the fixed stars retained1  
even when magnified1 the minuteness of  
remote and lucid points4 ,the system of 
,jupiter1 illuminated by four moons     
performing their revolutions in         
different and regular periods1 exhibited
 to the proud reason of man the         
comparative insignificance of the globe 
he inhabits1 and proclaimed in          
impressive language that that globe was 
not the centre of the universe4  ,the   
reception which these discoveries met   
with from ,kepler is highly interesting1
 and characteristic of the genius of    
that great man4 ,he was one day sitting 
idle1 and thinking of ,galileo1 when his
 friend ,wachenfels stopped his carriage
 at his door1 to communicate to him the 
intelligence4 ,such a fit of wonder1    
says he1 seized me at a report which    
seemed to be so very absurd1 and ,i was 
thrown into such agitation at seeing an 
old dispute between us decided in this  
way1 that between his joy1 my colouring1
 and the laughter of both1 confounded as

 we were by such a novelty1 we were     
hardly capable1 he of speaking1 or ,i of
 listening4 ,on our parting1 ,i         
immediately began to think how there    
could be any addition to the number of  
the planets without overturning my      
',cosmographic ,mystery1' according to  
which ,euclid's five regular solids do  
not allow more than six planets round   
the sun4444 ,i am so far from           
disbelieving the existence of the four  
circumjovial planets1 that ,i long for a
 telescope1 to anticipate you1 if       
possible1 in discovering two round      
,mars1 as the proportion seems to       
require1 six or eight round ,saturn1 and
 perhaps one each round ,mercury and    
,venus4  ,in a very different spirit did
 the ,aristotelians receive the         
,sidereal ,messenger of ,galileo4 ,the  
principal professor of philosophy at    
,padua resisted ,galileo's repeated and 
urgent entreaties to look at the moon   
and planets through his telescope2 and  
he even laboured to convince the ,grand 

,duke that the satellites of ,jupiter   
could not possibly exist4 ,sizzi1 an    
astronomer of ,florence1 maintained that
 as there were only seven apertures in  
the head--two eyes1 two ears1 two       
nostrils1 and one mouth--and as there   
were only seven metals1 and seven days  
in the week1 so there could be only     
seven planets4 ,he seems1 however1 to   
have admitted the visibility of the four
 satellites through the telescope2 but  
he argues1 that as they are invisible to
 the naked eye1 they can exercise no    
influence on the earth2 and being       
useless1 they do not therefore exist4   
,a protege of ,kepler's1 of the name of 
,horky1 wrote a volume against          
,galileo's discovery1 after having      
declared1 that he would never concede   
his four new planets to that ,italian   
from ,padua1 even if he should die for  
it4 ,this resolute ,aristotelian was at 
no loss for arguments4 ,he asserted that
 he had examined the heavens through    
,galileo's own glass1 and that no such  

thing as a satellite existed round      
,jupiter4 ,he affirmed1 that he did not 
more surely know that he had a soul in  
his body1 than that reflected rays are  
the sole cause of ,galileo's erroneous  
observations2 and that the only use of  
the new planets was to gratify          
,galileo's thirst for gold1 and afford  
to himself a subject of discussion4     
,when ,horky first presented himself to 
,kepler1 after the publication of this  
work1 the opinion of his patron was     
announced to him by a burst of          
indignation which overwhelmed the       
astonished author4 ,horky supplicated   
mercy for his offence2 and1 as ,kepler  
himself informed ,galileo1 he took him  
again into favour1 on the condition that
 ,kepler was to show him ,jupiter's     
satellites1 and that ,horky was not only
 to see them1 but to admit their        
existence4  ,when the spirit of         
philosophy had thus left the individuals
 who bore so unworthily her sacred name1
 it was fortunate for science that it   

found a refuge among princes4           
,notwithstanding the reiterated logic of
 his philosophical professor at ,padua1 
,cosmo de ,medici preferred the         
testimony of his senses to the          
syllogisms of his instructor4 ,he       
observed the new planets several times1 
along with ,galileo1 at ,pisa2 and when 
he parted with him1 he gave him a       
present worth more than #ajjj florins1  
and concluded that liberal arrangement  
to which we have already referred4  ,as 
philosopher and principal mathematician 
to the ,grand ,duke of ,tuscany1        
,galileo now took up his residence at   
,florence1 with a salary of #ajjj       
florins4 ,no official duties1 excepting 
that of lecturing occasionally to       
sovereign princes1 were attached to this
 appointment2 and it was expressly      
stipulated that he should enjoy the most
 perfect leisure to complete his        
treatises on the constitution of the    
universe1 on mechanics1 and on local    
motion4 ,the resignation of his         

professorship in the university of      
,padua1 which was the necessary         
consequence of his new appointment1     
created much dissatisfaction3 but though
 many of his former friends refused at  
first to hold any communication with    
him1 this excitement gradually subsided2
 and the ,venetian senate at last       
appreciated the feelings1 as well as the
 motives1 which induced a stranger to   
accept of promotion in his native land4 
,while ,galileo was enjoying the reward 
and the fame of his great discovery1 a  
new species of enmity was roused against
 him4 ,simon ,mayer1 an astronomer of no
 character1 pretended that he had       
discovered the satellites of ,jupiter   
before ,galileo1 and that his first     
observation was made on the #bith of    
,december1 #afji4 ,other astronomers    
announced the discovery of new          
satellites3 ,scheiner reckoned five1    
,rheita nine1 and others found even so  
many as twelve3 these satellites1       
however1 were found to be only fixed    

stars4 ,the names of ,vladislavian1     
,agrippine1 ,uranodavian1 and           
,ferdinandotertian1 which were hastily  
given to these common telescopic stars1 
soon disappeared from the page of       
science1 and even the splendid          
telescopes of modern times have not been
 able to add another gem to the diadem  
of ,jupiter4  ,a modern astronomer of no
 mean celebrity has1 even in the present
 day1 endeavoured to rob ,galileo of    
this staple article of his reputation4  
,from a careless examination of the     
papers of our celebrated countryman1    
,thomas ,harriot1 which ,baron ,zach had
 made in #aghd1 at ,petworth1 the seat  
of ,lord ,egremont1 this astronomer has 
asserted#ac that ,harriot first observed
 the satellites of ,jupiter on the #afth
 of ,january1 #afaj2 and continued his  
observations till the #beth of          
,february1 #afab4 ,baron ,zach adds the 
following extraordinary                 
conclusion3--,galileo pretends to have  
discovered them on the #gth of ,january1

 #afaj2 so that it is not improbable    
that ,harriot was likewise the first    
discoverer of these attendants of       
,jupiter4 ,in a communication which ,i  
received from ,dr ,robertson1 of        
,oxford1 in #ahbb1ad he informed me that
 he had examined a portion of ,harriot's
 papers1 entitled1 ,de ,jovialibus      
,planetis2 and that it appears1 from two
 pages of these papers1 that ,harriot   
first observed ,jupiter's satellites on 
the #agth of ,october1 #afaj4 ,these    
observations are accompanied with rough 
drawings of the positions of the        
satellites1 and rough calculations of   
their periodical revolutions4 ,my       
friend1 ,professor ,rigaud1#ae who has  
very recently examined the ,harriot     
,,mss41 has confirmed the accuracy of   
,dr ,robertson's observations1 and has  
thus restored to ,galileo the honour of 
being the first and the sole discoverer 
of these secondary planets4       #ac   
,berlin ,ephemeris1 #aghh4       #ad    
,edin4 ,phil4 ,journ4 vol4 vi4 p4 #cac4 

#ae ,life and ,correspondence of ,dr    
,bradley1 ,oxford1 #ahcb1 p4 #ecc1      
,see also his ,supplement4 ,oxford1     
#ahcc1 p4 #ag4     ,,chapter ,,iii4     
,galileo announces his discoveries in   
,enigmas--,discovers the      ,crescent 
of ,venus--the ,ring of ,saturn--the    
,spots on the      ,sun--,similar       
,observations made in ,england by       
,harriot--,claims of      ,fabricius and
 ,scheiner to the discovery of the      
,solar      ,spots--,galileo's ,letters 
to ,velser on the claims of             
,scheiner--,his      residence at the   
,villa of ,salviati--,composes his work 
on ,floating      ,bodies1 which        
involves him in new controversies4      
,the great success which attended the   
first telescopic observations of        
,galileo1 induced him to apply his best 
instruments to the other planets of our 
system4 ,the attempts which had been    
made to deprive him of the honour of    
some of his discoveries1 combined1      
probably1 with a desire to repeat his   

observations with better telescopes1 led
 him to announce his discoveries under  
the veil of an enigma1 and to invite    
astronomers to declare1 within a given  
time1 if they had observed any new      
phenomena in the heavens4  ,before the  
close of #afaj1 ,galileo excited the    
curiosity of astronomers by the         
publication of his first enigma4 ,kepler
 and others tried in vain to decipher   
it2 but in consequence of the ,emperor  
,rodolph requesting a solution of the   
puzzle1 ,galileo sent him the following 
clue3--       ,altissimam planetam      
tergeminam observavi4       ,i have     
observed that the most remote planet is 
triple4  ,in explaining more fully the  
nature of his observation1 ,galileo     
remarked that ,saturn was not a single  
star1 but three together1 nearly        
touching one another4 ,he described them
 as having no relative motion1 and as   
having the form of three o's1 namely1   
o,oo1 the central one being larger than 
those on each side of it4  ,although    

,galileo had announced that nothing new 
appeared in the other planets1 yet he   
soon communicated to the world another  
discovery of no slight interest4 ,the   
enigmatical letters in which it was     
concealed formed the following          
sentence3--       ,cynthiae figuras     
aemulatur mater ,amorum4       ,venus   
rivals the phases of the moon4          
,hitherto1 ,galileo had observed ,venus 
when her disc was largely illuminated2  
but having directed his telescope to her
 when she was not far removed from the  
sun1 he saw her in the form of a        
crescent1 resembling exactly the moon at
 the same elongation4 ,he continued to  
observe her night after night1 during   
the whole time that she could be seen in
 the course of her revolution round the 
sun1 and he found that she exhibited the
 very same phases which resulted from   
her motion round that luminary4         
,galileo had long contemplated a visit  
to the metropolis of ,italy1 and he     
accordingly carried his intentions into 

effect in the early part of the year    
#afaa4 ,here he was received with that  
distinction which was due to his great  
talents and his extended reputation4    
,princes1 ,cardinals1 and ,prelates     
hastened to do him honour2 and even     
those who discredited his discoveries1  
and dreaded their results1 vied with the
 true friends of science in their       
anxiety to see the intellectual wonder  
of the age4  ,in order to show the new  
celestial phenomena to his friends at   
,rome1 ,galileo took with him his best  
telescope2 and as he had discovered the 
spots on the sun's surface in ,october  
or ,november #afaj1 or even earlier1#af 
he had the gratification of exhibiting  
them to his admiring disciples4 ,he     
accordingly erected his telescope in the
 ,quirinal garden1 belonging to         
,cardinal ,bandini2 and in ,april #afaa 
he shewed them to his friends in many of
 their most interesting variations4     
,from their change of position on the   
sun's disc1 ,galileo at first inferred1 

either that the sun revolved about an   
axis1 or that other planets1 like ,venus
 and ,mercury1 revolved so near the sun 
as to appear like black spots when they 
were opposite to his disc4 ,upon        
continuing his observations1 however1 he
 saw reason to abandon this hasty       
opinion4 ,he found that the spots must  
be in contact with the surface of the   
sun1--that their figures were           
irregular1--that they had different     
degrees of darkness1--that one spot     
would often divide itself into three or 
four1--that three or four spots would   
often unite themselves into one1--and   
that all the spots revolved regularly   
with the sun1 which appeared to complete
 its revolution in about twenty-eight   
days4       #af ,professor ,rigaud is of
 opinion that ,galileo had discovered   
the      solar spots at an earlier      
period than eighteen months before ,may 
#afab4  ,previous to the invention of   
the telescope1 spots had been more than 
once seen on the sun's disc with the    

unassisted eye4 ,but even if these were 
of the same character as those which    
,galileo and others observed1 we cannot 
consider them as anticipations of their 
discovery by the telescope4 ,as the     
telescope was now in the possession of  
several astronomers1 ,galileo began to  
have many rivals in discovery2 but      
notwithstanding the claims of ,harriot1 
,fabricius1 and ,scheiner1 it is now    
placed beyond the reach of doubt that he
 was the first discoverer of the solar  
spots4 ,from the communication which ,i 
received in #ahbb from the late ,dr     
,robertson1 of ,oxford1#ag it appeared  
that ,thomas ,harriot had observed the  
solar spots on the #hth of ,december    
#afaj2 but his manuscripts1 in ,lord    
,egremont's possession1#ah incontestably
 prove that his regular observations on 
the spots did not commence till         
,december #a1 #afaa1 although he had    
seen the spots at the date above        
mentioned1 and that they were continued 
till the #ahth of ,january #afac4 ,the  

observations which he has recorded are  
#aii in number1 and the accounts of them
 are accompanied with rough drawings    
representing the number1 position1 and  
magnitude of the spots4#ai ,in the      
observation of ,harriot1 made on the    
#hth ,december #afaj1 before he knew of 
,galileo's discovery1 he saw three spots
 on the sun1 which he has represented in
 a diagram4 ,the sun was then #g deg4 or
 #h deg4 high1 and there was a frost and
 a mist1 which no doubt acted as a      
darkening glass4 ,harriot does not apply
 the name of spots to what he noticed in
 this observation1 and he does not      
enumerate it among the #aii observations
 above mentioned4 ,professor ,rigaud#bj 
considers it a misapplication of terms  
to call such an observation a discovery2
 but1 with all the respect which we feel
 for the candour of this remark1 we are 
disposed to confer on ,harriot the merit
 of an original discoverer of the spots 
on the sun4       #ag ,see page #dj4    
#ah ,these interesting ,,mss4 ,i have   

had the good fortune of seeing      in  
the possession of my much valued friend1
 the late ,professor      ,rigaud of    
,oxford4       #ai ,edin4 ,phil4 ,journ4
 #ahbb1 vol4 vi4 p4 #cag4 ,see ,rigaud's
 ,life of      ,bradley1 ,supplement1 p4
 #ca4       #bj ,id4 ,it41 p4 #cg1 #ch4 
,another candidate for the honour of    
discovering the spots of the sun1 was   
,john ,fabricius1 who undoubtedly saw   
them previous to ,june #afaa4 ,the      
dedication of the work#ba in which he   
has recorded his observation1 bears the 
date of the #acth of ,june #afaa2 and it
 is obvious1 from the work itself1 that 
he had seen the spots about the end of  
the year #afaj2 but as there is no proof
 that he saw them before ,october1 we   
are compelled to assign the priority of 
the discovery to the ,italian           
astronomer4       #ba ,joh4 ,fabricii   
,phrysii de ,maculis in ,sole           
observatis1 et      apparente earum cum 
,sole conversione1 ,narratio4 ,wittemb4 
#afaa4  ,the claim of ,scheiner1        

professor of mathematics at ,ingolstadt1
 is more intimately connected with the  
history of ,galileo4 ,this learned      
astronomer having1 early in #afaa1      
turned his telescope to the sun1        
necessarily discovered the spots which  
at that time covered his disc4 ,light   
flying clouds happened1 at the time1 to 
weaken the intensity of his light1 so   
that he was able to show the spots to   
his pupils4 ,these observations were not
 published till ,january #afab2 and they
 appeared in the form of three letters1 
addressed to ,mark ,velser1 one of the  
magistrates of ,augsburg1 under the     
signature of ,appelles post ,tabulam4   
,scheiner1 who1 many years afterwards1  
published an elaborate work on the      
subject1 adopted the same idea which had
 at first occurred to ,galileo--that the
 spots were the dark sides of planets   
revolving round and near the sun4#bb    
#bb ,it does not appear from the history
 of solar observations at      what     
time1 and by whom1 coloured glasses were

 first introduced for      permitting   
the eye to look at the sun with         
impunity4 ,fabricius was      obviously 
quite ignorant of the use of coloured   
glasses4 ,he      observed the sun when 
he was in the horizon1 and when his     
brilliancy was impaired by the          
interposition of thin clouds and        
floating vapours2 and he advises those  
who may repeat his      observations to 
admit at first to the eye a small       
portion of the      sun's light1 till it
 is gradually accustomed to its full    
splendour4      ,when the sun's altitude
 became considerable1 ,fabricius gave up
 his      observations1 which he often  
continued so long that he was scarcely  
able1 for two days together1 to see     
objects with their usual                
distinctness4 ,fabricius speaks of      
observing the sun by admitting      his 
rays through a small hole into a dark   
room1 and receiving his      image on   
paper2 but he says nothing about a lens 
or a telescope      being applied to the

 hole2 and he does not say that he saw  
the      spots of the sun in this way4  
,harriot also viewed the solar spots    
when the sun was near the horizon1 or   
was visible through thick      layer and
 thin cloudes1 or through thin mist4 ,on
 ,december #ba1      #afaa1 at a quarter
 past #b ,p4,m41 he observed the spots  
when the sky      was perfectly clear1  
but his sight was after dim for an      
houre4       ,scheiner1 in his ,appelles
 post ,tabulam1 describes four different
      ways of viewing the spots2 one of 
which is by the interposition of        
blue or green glasses4 ,his first method
 was to observe the sun      near the   
horizon2 the second was to view him     
through a transparent      cloud2 the   
third was to look at him through his    
telescope with a      blue or a green   
glass of a proper thickness1 and plane  
on both      sides1 or to use a thin    
blue glass when the sun was covered with
 a      thin vapour or cloud2 and the   
fourth method was to begin and          

observe the sun at his margin1 till the 
eye gradually reached the      middle of
 his disc4  ,on the publication of      
,scheiner's letters1 ,velser transmitted
 a copy of them to his friend ,galileo1 
with the request that he would favour   
him with his opinion of the new         
phenomena4 ,after some delay1 ,galileo  
addressed three letters to ,velser1 in  
which he combated the opinions of       
,scheiner on the cause of the spots4    
,the first of these letters was dated   
the #dth of ,may #afab2bc but though the
 controversy was carried on in the      
language of mutual respect and esteem1  
it put an end to the friendship which   
had existed between the two astronomers4
 ,in these letters ,galileo showed that 
the spots often dispersed like vapours  
or clouds2 that they sometimes had a    
duration of only one or two days1 and at
 other times of thirty or forty days2   
that they contracted in their breadth   
when they approached the sun's limb1    
without any diminution of their length2 

that they describe circles parallel to  
each other2 that the monthly rotation of
 the sun again brings the same spots    
into view2 and that they are seldom seen
 at a greater distance than #cj deg4    
from the sun's equator4 ,galileo        
likewise discovered on the sun's disc   
faculae1 or luculi1 as they were called1
 which differ in no respect from the    
common ones but in their being brighter 
than the rest of the sun's surface4#bd  
#bc ,the original of this letter is in  
the ,british ,museum4       #bd ,see    
,istoria e ,dimonstrazioni1 intorno alle
 macchie solare4      ,roma1 #afaf4 ,see
 ,opere di ,galileo1 vol1 v41 p4        
#aca-bic4  ,in the last of the letters  
which our author addressed to ,velser1  
and which was written in ,december      
#afab1 he recurs to his former discovery
 of the elongated shape1 or rather the  
triple structure1 of ,saturn4 ,the      
singular figure which he had observed in
 this planet had entirely disappeared2  
and he evidently announces the fact to  

,velser1 lest it should be used by his  
enemies to discredit the accuracy of his
 observations4 ,looking on ,saturn1 says
 he1 within these few days1 ,i found it 
solitary1 without the assistance of its 
accustomed stars1 and1 in short1        
perfectly round and defined like        
,jupiter2 and such it still remains4    
,now1 what can be said of so strange a  
metamorphosis8 ,are the two smaller     
stars consumed like the spots on the    
sun8 ,have they suddenly vanished and   
fled8 or has ,saturn devoured his own   
children8 or was the appearance indeed  
fraud and illusion1 with which the      
glasses have for so long a time mocked  
me1 and so many others who have often   
observed with me8 ,now1 perhaps1 the    
time is come to revive the withering    
hopes of those who1 guided by more      
profound contemplations1 have followed  
all the fallacies of the new            
observations1 and recognised their      
impossibilities4 ,i cannot resolve what 
to say in a chance so strange1 so new1  

and so unexpected2 the shortness of the 
time1 the unexampled occurrence1 the    
weakness of my intellect1 and the terror
 of being mistaken1 have greatly        
confounded me4 ,although ,galileo       
struggled to obtain a solution of this  
mystery1 yet he had not the good fortune
 to succeed4 ,he imagined that the two  
smaller stars would reappear1 in        
consequence of the supposed revolution  
of the planet round its axis2 but the   
discovery of the ring of ,saturn1 and of
 the obliquity of its plane to the      
ecliptic1 was necessary to explain the  
phenomena which were so perplexing to   
our author4  ,the ill health to which   
,galileo was occasionally subject1 and  
the belief that the air of ,florence was
 prejudicial to his complaints1 induced 
him to spend much of his time at ,selve1
 the villa of his friend ,salviati4     
,this eminent individual had ever been  
the warmest friend of ,galileo1 and     
seems to have delighted in drawing round
 him the scientific genius of the age4  

,he was a member of the celebrated      
,lyncaean ,society1 founded by ,prince  
,frederigo ,cesi2 and though he is not  
known as the author of any important    
discovery1 yet he has earned1 by his    
liberality to science1 a glorious name1 
which will be indissolubly united with  
the immortal destiny of ,galileo4  ,the 
subject of floating bridges having been 
discussed at one of the scientific      
parties which had assembled at the house
 of ,salviati1 a difference of opinion  
arose respecting the influence of the   
shape of bodies on their disposition to 
float or to sink in a fluid4 ,contrary  
to the general opinion1 ,galileo        
undertook to prove that it depended on  
other causes2 and he was thus led to    
compose his discourse on floating       
bodies1#be which was published in #afab1
 and dedicated to ,cosmo de ,medici4    
,this work contains many ingenious      
experiments1 and much acute reasoning in
 support of the true principles of      
hydrostatics2 and it is now chiefly     

remarkable as a specimen of the sagacity
 and intellectual power of its author4  
,like all his other works1 it           
encountered the most violent opposition2
 and ,galileo was more than once        
summoned into the field to repel the    
aggressions of his ignorant and         
presumptuous opponents4 ,the first      
attack upon it was made by ,ptolemy     
,nozzolini1 in a letter to ,marzemedici1
 ,archbishop of ,florence2#bf and to    
this ,galileo replied in a letter       
addressed to his antagonist4#bg ,a more 
elaborate examination of it was         
published by ,lodovico delle ,colombe1  
and another by ,m4 ,vincenzo di ,grazia4
 ,to these attacks1 a minute and        
overwhelming answer was printed in the  
name of ,benedetti ,castelli1 the friend
 and pupil of ,galileo2 but it was      
discovered1 some years after ,galileo's 
death1 that he was himself the author of
 this work4#bh       #be ,discorso      
intorno alle cose che stanno in su      
l'acqua1 o che in      quella si        

muovono4 ,opere di ,galileo1 vol4 ii4   
pp4 #afe-caa4       #bf ,opere di       
,galileo1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #cee-cfg4        
#bg ,ibid4 #cfg-cij4       #bh ,these   
three treatises occupy the whole of the 
third volume of      the ,opere di      
,galileo4     ,,chapter ,,iv4           
,galileo treats his opponents with      
severity and sarcasm--,he is      aided 
by the sceptics of the day--,the ,church
 party the most      powerful--,galileo 
commences the attack1 and is answered by
 ,caccini1      a ,dominican--,galileo's
 ,letter to the ,grand ,duchess of      
,tuscany1 in      support of the motion 
of the ,earth and the stability of the  
,sun---      ,galileo visits ,rome--,is 
summoned before the ,inquisition1 and   
renounces his opinions as               
heretical--,the ,inquisition denounces  
the      ,copernican ,system--,galileo  
has an audience of the ,pope1 but still 
maintains his opinions in private       
society--,proposes to find out the      
,longitude at ,sea by means of          

,jupiter's ,satellites--,his negociation
      on this subject with the ,court of
 ,spain--,its failure--,he is unable    
to observe the three ,comets of #afah1  
but is involved in the      controversy 
to which they gave rise4   ,the current 
of ,galileo's life had hitherto flowed  
in a smooth and unobstructed channel4   
,he had now attained the highest objects
 of earthly ambition4 ,his discoveries  
had placed him at the head of the great 
men of the age2 he possessed a          
professional income far beyond his      
wants1 and even beyond his              
anticipations2 and1 what is still dearer
 to a philosopher1 he enjoyed the most  
perfect leisure for carrying on and     
completing his discoveries4 ,the        
opposition which these discoveries      
encountered1 was to him more a subject  
for triumph than for sorrow4 ,prejudice 
and ignorance were his only enemies2 and
 if they succeeded for a while in       
harassing his march1 it was only to lay 
a foundation for fresh achievements4 ,he

 who contends for truths which he has   
himself been permitted to discover1 may 
well sustain the conflict in which      
presumption and error are destined to   
fall4 ,the public tribunal may neither  
be sufficiently pure nor enlightened to 
decide upon the issue2 but he can appeal
 to posterity1 and reckon with          
confidence on its sure decree4  ,the    
ardour of ,galileo's mind1 the keenness 
of his temper1 his clear perception of  
truth1 and his inextinguishable love of 
it1 combined to exasperate and prolong  
the hostility of his enemies4 ,when     
argument failed to enlighten their      
judgment1 and reason to dispel their    
prejudices1 he wielded against them his 
powerful weapons of ridicule and        
sarcasm2 and in this unrelenting        
warfare1 he seems to have forgotten that
 ,providence had withheld from his      
enemies those very gifts which he had so
 liberally received4 ,he who is allowed 
to take the start of his species1 and to
 penetrate the veil which conceals from 

common minds the mysteries of nature1   
must not expect that the world will be  
patiently dragged at the chariot wheels 
of his philosophy4 ,mind has its inertia
 as well as matter2 and its progress to 
truth can only be insured by the gradual
 and patient removal of the obstructions
 which surround it4  ,the boldness--may 
we not say the recklessness--with which 
,galileo insisted upon making proselytes
 of his enemies1 served but to alienate 
them from the truth4 ,errors thus       
assailed speedily entrench themselves in
 general feelings1 and become embalmed  
in the virulence of the passions4 ,the  
various classes of his opponents        
marshalled themselves for their mutual  
defence4 ,the ,aristotelian professors1 
the temporising ,jesuits1 the political 
churchmen1 and that timid but           
respectable body who at all times dread 
innovation1 whether it be in religion or
 in science1 entered into an alliance   
against the philosophical tyrant who    
threatened them with the penalties of   

knowledge4  ,the party of ,galileo1     
though weak in numbers1 was not without 
power and influence4 ,he had trained    
around him a devoted band1 who idolised 
his genius and cherished his doctrines4 
,his pupils had been appointed to       
several of the principal professorships 
in ,italy4 ,the enemies of religion were
 on this occasion united with the       
,christian philosopher2 and there were1 
even in these days1 many princes and    
nobles who had felt the inconvenience of
 ecclesiastical jurisdiction1 and who   
secretly abetted ,galileo in his crusade
 against established errors4  ,although 
these two parties had been long dreading
 each others power1 and reconnoitring   
each others position1 yet we cannot     
exactly determine which of them hoisted 
the first signal for war4 ,the church   
party1 particularly its highest         
dignitaries1 were certainly disposed to 
rest on the defensive4 ,flanked on one  
side by the logic of the schools1 and on
 the other by the popular interpretation

 of ,scripture1 and backed by the strong
 arm of the civil power1 they were not  
disposed to interfere with the          
prosecution of science1 however much    
they may have dreaded its influence4    
,the philosophers1 on the contrary1     
united the zeal of innovators with that 
firmness of purpose which truth alone   
can inspire4 ,victorious in every       
contest1 they were flushed with success1
 and they panted for a struggle in which
 they knew they must triumph4  ,in this 
state of warlike preparation ,galileo   
addressed a letter1 in #afac1 to his    
friend and pupil1 the ,abbe ,castelli1  
the object of which was to prove that   
the ,scriptures were not intended to    
teach us science and philosophy4 ,hence 
he inferred1 that the language employed 
in the sacred volume in reference to    
such subjects should be interpreted only
 in its common acceptation2 and that it 
was in reality as difficult to reconcile
 the ,ptolemaic as the ,copernican      
system to the expressions which occur in

 the ,bible4  ,a demonstration was about
 this time made by the opposite party1  
in the person of ,caccini1 a ,dominican 
friar1 who made a personal attack upon  
,galileo from the pulpit4 ,this violent 
ecclesiastic ridiculed the astronomer   
and his followers1 by addressing them   
sarcastically in the sacred language of 
,scripture--,ye men of ,galilee1 why    
stand ye here looking up into heaven8   
,but this species of warfare was        
disapproved of even by the church2 and  
,luigi ,maraffi1 the general of the     
,dominicans1 not only apologised to     
,galileo1 who had transmitted to him a  
formal complaint against ,caccini1 but  
expressed the acuteness of his own      
feelings on being implicated in the     
brutal conduct of thirty or forty       
thousand monks4  ,from the character of 
,caccini1 and the part which he         
afterwards played in the persecution of 
,galileo1 we can scarcely avoid the     
opinion that his attack from the pulpit 
was intended as a snare for the unwary  

philosopher4 ,it roused ,galileo from   
his wonted caution2 and stimulated1 no  
doubt1 by the nature of the answer which
 he received from ,maraffi1 he published
 a long letter of seventy pages1        
defending and illustrating his former   
views respecting the influence of       
scriptural language on the two          
contending systems4 ,as if to give the  
impress of royal authority to this new  
appeal1 he addressed it to ,christian1  
,grand ,duchess of ,tuscany1 the mother 
of ,cosmo2 and in this form it seems to 
have excited a new interest1 as if it   
had expressed the opinion of the grand  
ducal family4 ,these external           
circumstances gave additional weight to 
the powerful and unanswerable reasoning 
which this letter contains2 and it was  
scarcely possible that any man1         
possessed of a sound mind1 and willing  
to learn the truth1 should refuse his   
assent to the judicious views of our    
author4 ,he expresses his belief that   
the ,scriptures were designed to        

instruct mankind respecting their       
salvation1 and that the faculties of our
 minds were given us for the purpose of 
investigating the phenomena of nature4  
,he considers ,scripture and nature as  
proceeding from the same divine author1 
and1 therefore1 incapable of speaking a 
different language2 and he points out   
the absurdity of supposing that         
professors of astronomy will shut their 
eyes to the phenomena which they        
discover in the heavens1 or will refuse 
to believe those deductions of reason   
which appeal to their judgment with all 
the power of demonstration4 ,he supports
 these views by quotations from the     
ancient fathers2 and he refers to the   
dedication of ,copernicus's own work to 
the ,roman ,pontiff1 ,paul ,,iii41 as a 
proof that the ,pope himself did not    
regard the new system of the world as   
hostile to the sacred writings4         
,copernicus1 on the contrary1 tells his 
,holiness1 that the reason of inscribing
 to him his new system was1 that the    

authority of the ,pontiff might put to  
silence the calumnies of some           
individuals1 who attacked it by         
arguments drawn from passages of        
,scripture twisted for their own        
purpose4  ,it was in vain to meet such  
reasoning by any other weapons than     
those of the civil power4 ,the enemies  
of ,galileo saw that they must either   
crush the dangerous innovation1 or allow
 it the fullest scope2 and they         
determined upon an appeal to the        
inquisition4 ,lorini1 a monk of the     
,dominican order1 had already denounced 
to this body ,galileo's letter to       
,castelli2 and ,caccini1 bribed by the  
mastership of the convent of ,st ,mary  
of ,minerva1 was invited to settle at   
,rome for the purpose of embodying the  
evidence against ,galileo4  ,though     
these plans had been carried on in      
secret1 yet ,galileo's suspicions were  
excited2 and he obtained leave from     
,cosmo to go to ,rome about the end of  
#afae4bi ,here he was lodged in the     

palace of the ,grand ,duke's ambassador1
 and kept up a constant correspondence  
with the family of his patron at        
,florence2 but1 in the midst of this    
external splendour1 he was summoned     
before the inquisition to answer for the
 heretical doctrines which he had       
published4 ,he was charged with         
maintaining the motion of the earth1 and
 the stability of the sun--with teaching
 this doctrine to his pupils--with      
corresponding on the subject with       
several ,german mathematicians--and with
 having published it1 and attempted to  
reconcile it to ,scripture1 in his      
letters to ,mark ,velser in #afab4 ,the 
inquisition assembled to consider these 
charges on the #beth of ,february #afae2
 and it was decreed that ,galileo should
 be enjoined by ,cardinal ,bellarmine to
 renounce the obnoxious doctrines1 and  
to pledge himself that he would neither 
teach1 defend1 nor publish them in      
future4 ,in the event of his refusing to
 acquiesce in this sentence1 it was     

decreed that he should be thrown into   
prison4 ,galileo did not hesitate to    
yield to this injunction4 ,on the day   
following1 the #bfth of ,february1 he   
appeared before ,cardinal ,bellarmine1  
to renounce his heretical opinions2 and1
 having declared that he abandoned the  
doctrine of the earth's motion1 and     
would neither defend nor teach it1 in   
his conversation or in his writings1 he 
was dismissed from the bar of the       
inquisition4       #bi ,it is said that 
,galileo was cited to appear at ,rome on
 this      occasion2 and the opinion is 
not without foundation4  ,having thus   
disposed of ,galileo1 the inquisition   
conceived the design of condemning the  
whole system of ,copernicus as          
heretical4 ,galileo1 with more hardihood
 than prudence1 remained at ,rome for   
the purpose of giving his assistance in 
frustrating this plan2 but there is     
reason to think that he injured by his  
presence the very cause which he meant  
to support4 ,the inquisitors had        

determined to put down the new opinions2
 and they now inserted among the        
prohibited books ,galileo's letters to  
,castelli and the ,grand ,duchess1      
,kepler's epitome of the ,copernican    
theory1 and ,copernicus's own work on   
the revolutions of the heavenly bodies4 
,notwithstanding these proceedings1     
,galileo had an audience of the ,pope1  
,paul ,v41 in ,march #afaf4 ,he was     
received very graciously1 and spent     
nearly an hour with his ,holiness4 ,when
 they were about to part1 the ,pope     
assured ,galileo1 that the congregation 
were not disposed to receive upon light 
grounds any calumnies which might be    
propagated by his enemies1 and that1 as 
long as he occupied the papal chair1 he 
might consider himself as safe4  ,these 
assurances were no doubt founded on the 
belief that ,galileo would adhere to his
 pledges2 but so bold and inconsiderate 
was he in the expression of his         
opinions1 that even in ,rome he was     
continually engaged in controversial    

discussions4 ,the following very        
interesting account of these disputes is
 given by ,querenghi1 in a letter to the
 ,cardinal ,d',este3--  ,your eminence  
would be delighted with ,galileo if you 
heard him holding forth1 as he often    
does1 in the midst of fifteen or twenty1
 all violently attacking him1 sometimes 
in one house1 sometimes in another4 ,but
 he is armed after such fashion that he 
laughs all of them to scorn2 and even if
 the novelty of his opinions prevents   
entire persuasion1 he at least convicts 
of emptiness most of the arguments with 
which his adversaries endeavour to      
overwhelm him4 ,he was particularly     
admirable on ,monday last in the house  
of ,signor ,frederico ,ghisilieri2 and  
what especially pleased me was1 that    
before replying to the contrary         
arguments1 he amplified and enforced    
them with new grounds of great          
plausibility1 so as to leave his        
adversaries in a more ridiculous plight1
 when he afterwards overturned them all4

  ,the discovery of ,jupiter's          
satellites suggested to ,galileo a new  
method of finding the longitude at sea4 
,philip ,,iii4 had encouraged           
astronomers to direct their attention to
 this problem1 by offering a reward for 
its solution2 and in those days1 when   
new discoveries in science were         
sometimes rejected as injurious to      
mankind1 it was no common event to see a
 powerful sovereign courting the        
assistance of astronomers in promoting  
the commercial interests of his empire4 
,galileo seems to have regarded the     
solution of this problem as an object   
worthy of his ambition2 and he no doubt 
anticipated the triumph which he would  
obtain over his enemies1 if the         
,medicean stars1 which they had treated 
with such contempt1 could be made       
subservient to the great interests of   
mankind4 ,during his residence at ,rome 
in #afae and #afaf1 ,galileo had        
communicated his views on this subject  
to the ,comte di ,lemos1 the ,viceroy of

 ,naples1 who had presided over the     
council of the ,spanish ,indies4 ,this  
nobleman advised him to apply to the    
,spanish minister the ,duke of ,lerma2  
and1 through the influence of the ,grand
 ,duke ,cosmo1 his ambassador at the    
court of ,madrid was engaged to manage  
the affair4 ,the anxiety of ,galileo on 
this subject was singularly great4 ,he  
assured the ,tuscan ambassador that1 in 
order to accomplish this object1 he was 
ready to leave all his comforts1 his    
country1 his friends1 and his family1 to
 cross over into ,spain1 and to stay as 
long as he might be wanted at ,seville  
or at ,lisbon1 or wherever it might be  
convenient to communicate a knowledge of
 his method4 ,the lethargy of the       
,spanish court seems to have increased  
with the enthusiasm of ,galileo2 and    
though the negotiations were            
occasionally revived for ten or twelve  
years1 yet no steps were taken to bring 
them to a close4 ,this strange          
procrastination has been generally      

ascribed to jealousy or indifference on 
the part of ,spain2 but ,nelli1 one of  
,galileo's biographers1 declares1 on the
 authority of ,florentine records1 that 
,cosmo had privately requested from the 
government the privilege of sending     
annually to the ,spanish ,indies two    
,leghorn merchantmen free of duty1 as a 
compensation for the loss of ,galileo6  
,the failure of this negotiation must   
have been a source of extreme           
mortification to the high spirit and    
sanguine temperament of ,galileo4 ,he   
had calculated1 however1 too securely on
 his means of putting the new method to 
a successful trial4 ,the great          
imperfection of the time-keepers of that
 day1 and the want of proper telescopes1
 would have baffled him in all his      
efforts1 and he would have been subject 
to a more serious mortification from the
 failure and rejection of his plan1 than
 that which he actually experienced from
 the avarice of his patron1 or the      
indifference of ,spain4 ,even in the    

present day1 no telescope has been      
invented which is capable of observing  
at sea the eclipses of ,jupiter's       
satellites2 and though this method of   
finding the longitude has great         
advantages on shore1 yet it has been    
completely abandoned at sea1 and        
superseded by easier and more correct   
methods4  ,in the year #afah1 when no   
fewer than three comets visited our     
system1 and attracted the attention of  
all the astronomers of ,europe1 ,galileo
 was unfortunately confined to his bed  
by a severe illness2 but1 though he was 
unable to make a single observation upon
 these remarkable bodies1 he contrived  
to involve himself in the controversies 
which they occasioned4 ,marco ,guiducci1
 an astronomer of ,florence1 and a      
friend of ,galileo1 had delivered a     
discourse on comets before the          
,florentine ,academy4 ,the heads of this
 discourse1 which was published in      
#afai1cj were supposed to have been     
communicated to him by ,galileo1 and    

this seems to have been universally     
admitted during the controversy to which
 it gave rise4 ,the opinion maintained  
in this treatise1 that comets are       
nothing but meteors which occasionally  
appear in our atmosphere1 like halos and
 rainbows1 savours so little of the     
sagacity of ,galileo that we should be  
disposed to question its paternity4 ,his
 inability to partake in the general    
interest which these three comets       
excited1 and to employ his powerful     
telescope in observing their phenomena1 
and their movements1 might have had some
 slight share in the formation of an    
opinion which deprived them of their    
importance as celestial bodies4 ,but1   
however this may have been1 the treatise
 of ,guiducci afforded a favourable     
point of attack to ,galileo's enemies1  
and the dangerous task was entrusted to 
,horatio ,grassi1 a learned ,jesuit1    
who1 in a work entitled ,the            
,astronomical and ,philosophical        
,balance1 criticised the discourse on   

comets1 under the feigned name of       
,lotario ,sarsi4       #cj ,discorso    
delle ,comete4 ,printed in the ,opere di
 ,galileo1 vol4      vi41 pp4 #aag-aia4 
,galileo replied to this attack in a    
volume entitled ,il ,saggiatore1 or ,the
 ,assayer1 which1 owing to the state of 
his health1 was not published till the  
autumn of #afbc4ca ,this work was       
written in the form of a letter to      
,virginio ,cesarini1 a member of the    
,lyncaean ,academy1 and master of the   
chamber to ,urban ,,viii41 who had just 
ascended the papal throne4 ,it was      
dedicated to the ,pontiff himself1 and  
has been long celebrated among literary 
men for the beauty of its language1     
though it is doubtless one of the least 
important of ,galileo's writings4       
#ca ,printed in the ,opere di ,galileo1 
vol4 vi41 pp4 #aia-ega4     ,,chapter   
,v4       ,urban ,,viii41 ,galileo's    
friend1 raised to the                   
,pontificate--,galileo      goes to     
,rome to offer his congratulations--,the

 ,pope loads ,galileo      with         
presents1 and promises a ,pension to his
 ,son--,galileo in      pecuniary       
difficulties1 owing to the death of his 
patron1      ,cosmo--,galileo again     
rashly attacks the ,church1             
notwithstanding the      ,pope's        
kindness--,he composes his ,system of   
the ,world1 to      demonstrate the     
,copernican ,system--,artfully obtains a
 license to      print it--,nature of   
the work--,its influence on the public  
mind--,the      ,pope resolves on       
suppressing it--,galileo summoned before
 the      ,inquisition--,his            
,trial--,his ,defence--,his formal      
abjuration of his                       
opinions--,observations on his          
conduct--,the ,pope shews great         
indulgence to ,galileo1 who is allowed  
to return to his own house at           
,arcetri1 as the place of his           
confinement4   ,the succession of the   
,cardinal ,maffeo ,barberini to the     
papal throne1 under the name of ,urban  

,,viii41 was hailed by ,galileo and his 
friends as an event favourable to the   
promotion of science4 ,urban had not    
only been the personal friend of        
,galileo and of ,prince ,cesi1 the      
founder of the ,lyncaean ,academy1 but  
had been intimately connected with that 
able and liberal association2 and it was
 therefore deemed prudent to secure his 
favour and attachment4 ,if ,paul ,,iii4 
had1 nearly a century before1 patronised
 ,copernicus1 and accepted of the       
dedication of his great work1 it was not
 unreasonable to expect that1 in more   
enlightened times1 another ,pontiff     
might exhibit the same liberality to    
science4  ,the plan of securing to      
,galileo the patronage of ,urban ,,viii4
 seems to have been devised by ,prince  
,cesi4 ,although ,galileo had not been  
able for some years to travel1 excepting
 in a litter1 yet he was urged by the   
,prince to perform a journey to ,rome1  
for the express purpose of              
congratulating his friend upon his      

elevation to the papal chair4 ,this     
request was made in ,october #afbc2 and 
though ,galileo's health was not such as
 to authorise him to undergo so much    
fatigue1 yet he felt the importance of  
the advice1 and1 after visiting ,cesi at
 ,acqua ,sparta1 he arrived at ,rome in 
the spring of #afbd4 ,the reception     
which he here experienced far exceeded  
his most sanguine expectations4 ,during 
the two months which he spent in the    
capital he was permitted to have no     
fewer than six long and gratifying      
audiences of the ,pope4 ,the kindness of
 his ,holiness was of the most marked   
description4 ,he not only loaded        
,galileo with presents1#cb and promised 
him a pension for his son ,vincenzo1 but
 he wrote a letter to ,ferdinand1 who   
had just succeeded ,cosmo as ,grand     
,duke of ,tuscany1 recommending ,galileo
 to his particular patronage4 ,for we   
find in him1 says he1 not only literary 
distinction1 but the love of piety2 and 
he is strong in those qualities by which

 ,pontifical good-will is easily        
obtained4 ,and now1 when he has been    
brought to this city to congratulate us 
on our elevation1 we have very lovingly 
embraced him2 nor can we suffer him to  
return to the country whither your      
liberality recalls him1 without an ample
 provision of ,pontifical love4 ,and    
that you may know how dear he is to us1 
we have willed to give him this         
honourable testimonial of virtue and    
piety4 ,and we further signify1 that    
every benefit which you shall confer    
upon him1 imitating or even surpassing  
your father's liberality1 will conduce  
to our gratification4       #cb ,a fine 
painting in gold1 and a silver medal1   
and a good      quantity of agnus dei4  
,not content with thus securing the     
friendship of the ,pope1 ,galileo       
endeavoured to bespeak the good-will of 
the ,cardinals towards the ,copernican  
system4 ,he had1 accordingly1 many      
interviews with several of these        
dignitaries2 and he was assured1 by     

,cardinal ,hohenzoller1 that in a       
representation which he had made to the 
,pope on the subject of ,copernicus1 he 
stated to his ,holiness1 that as all the
 heretics considered that system as     
undoubted1 it would be necessary to be  
very circumspect in coming to any       
resolution on the subject4 ,to this     
remark his ,holiness replied--that the  
church had not condemned this system2   
and that it should not be condemned as  
heretical1 but only as rash2 and he     
added1 that there was no fear of any    
person undertaking to prove that it must
 necessarily be true4  ,the recent      
appointment of the ,abbe ,castelli1 the 
friend and pupil of ,galileo1 to be     
mathematician to the ,pope1 was an event
 of a most gratifying nature2 and when  
we recollect that it was to ,castelli   
that he addressed the famous letter     
which was pronounced heretical by the   
,inquisition1 we must regard it also as 
an event indicative of a new and        
favourable feeling towards the friends  

of science4 ,the opinions of ,urban1    
indeed1 had suffered no change4 ,he was 
one of the few ,cardinals who had       
opposed the inquisitorial decree of     
#afaf1 and his subsequent demeanour was 
in every respect conformable to the     
liberality of his early views4 ,the     
sincerity of his conduct was still      
further evinced by the grant of a       
pension of one hundred crowns to        
,galileo1 a few years after his visit to
 ,rome2 though there is reason to think 
that this allowance was not regularly   
paid4  ,the death of ,cosmo1 whose      
liberality had given him both affluence 
and leisure1 threatened ,galileo with   
pecuniary difficulties4 ,he had been    
involved in a great load of debt1 owing 
to the circumstances of his brother's   
family2 and1 in order to relieve        
himself1 he had requested ,castelli to  
dispose of the pension of his son       
,vincenzo4 ,in addition to this calamity
 he was now alarmed at the prospect of  
losing his salary as an extraordinary   

professor at ,pisa4 ,the great youth of 
,ferdinand1 who was scarcely of age1    
induced ,galileo's enemies1 in #afbi1 to
 raise doubts respecting the payment of 
a salary to a professor who neither     
resided nor lectured in the university2 
but the question was decided in his     
favour1 and we have no doubt that the   
decision was facilitated by the friendly
 recommendation of the ,pope1 to which  
we have already referred4  ,although    
,galileo had made a narrow escape from  
the grasp of the ,inquisition1 yet he   
was never sufficiently sensible of the  
lenity which he experienced4 ,when he   
left ,rome in #afaf1 under the solemn   
pledge of never again teaching the      
obnoxious doctrine1 it was with a       
hostility against the church1 suppressed
 but deeply cherished2 and his          
resolution to propagate the heresy seems
 to have been coeval with the vow by    
which he renounced it4 ,in the year     
#afah1 when he communicated his theory  
of the tides to the ,archduke ,leopold1 

he alludes in the most sarcastic manner 
to the conduct of the church4 ,the same 
hostile tone1 more or less1 pervaded all
 his writings1 and1 while he laboured to
 sharpen the edge of his satire1 he     
endeavoured to guard himself against its
 effects1 by an affectation of the      
humblest deference to the decisions of  
theology4 ,had ,galileo stood alone1 his
 devotion to science might have         
withdrawn him from so hopeless a        
contest2 but he was spurred on by the   
violence of a party4 ,the ,lyncaean     
,academy never scrupled to summon him   
from his researches4 ,they placed him in
 the forlorn hope of their combat1 and  
he at last fell a victim to the rashness
 of his friends4  ,but whatever         
allowance we may make for the ardour of 
,galileo's temper1 and the peculiarity  
of his position2 and however we may     
justify and even approve of his past    
conduct1 his visit to ,urban ,,viii41 in
 #afbd1 placed him in a new relation to 
the church1 which demanded on his part a

 new and corresponding demeanour4 ,the  
noble and generous reception which he   
met with from ,urban1 and the liberal   
declaration of ,cardinal ,hohenzoller on
 the subject of the ,copernican system1 
should have been regarded as expressions
 of regret for the past1 and offers of  
conciliation for the future4 ,thus      
honoured by the head of the church1 and 
befriended by its dignitaries1 ,galileo 
must have felt himself secure against   
the indignities of its lesser           
functionaries1 and in the possession of 
the fullest license to prosecute his    
researches and publish his discoveries1 
provided he avoided that dogma of the   
church which1 even in the present day1  
it has not ventured to renounce4 ,but   
,galileo was bound to the ,romish       
hierarchy by even stronger ties4 ,his   
son and himself were pensioners of the  
church1 and1 having accepted of its     
alms1 they owed to it1 at least1 a      
decent and respectful allegiance4 ,the  
pension thus given by ,urban was not a  

remuneration which sovereigns sometimes 
award to the services of their subjects4
 ,galileo was a foreigner at ,rome4 ,the
 sovereign of the papal state owed him  
no obligation2 and hence we must regard 
the pension of ,galileo as a donation   
from the ,roman ,pontiff to science     
itself1 and as a declaration to the     
,christian world that religion was not  
jealous of philosophy1 and that the     
church of ,rome was willing to respect  
and foster even the genius of its       
enemies4  ,galileo viewed all these     
circumstances in a different light4 ,he 
resolved to compose a work in which the 
,copernican system should be            
demonstrated2 but he had not the courage
 to do this in a direct and open manner4
 ,he adopted the plan of discussing the 
subject in a dialogue between three     
speakers1 in the hope of eluding by this
 artifice the censure of the church4    
,this work was completed in #afcj1 but1 
owing to some difficulties in obtaining 
a license to print it1 it was not       

published till #afcb4  ,in obtaining    
this license1 ,galileo exhibited        
considerable address1 and his memory has
 not escaped from the imputation of     
having acted unfairly1 and of having    
involved his personal friends in the    
consequences of his imprudence4  ,the   
situation of master of the palace was1  
fortunately for ,galileo's designs1     
filled by ,nicolo ,riccardi1 a friend   
and pupil of his own4 ,this officer was 
a sort of censor of new publications1   
and when he was applied to on the       
subject of printing his work1 ,galileo  
soon found that attempts had previously 
been made to thwart his views4 ,he      
instantly set off for ,rome1 and had an 
interview with his friend1 who was in   
every respect anxious to oblige him4    
,riccardi examined the manuscript1      
pointed out some incautious expressions 
which he considered it necessary to     
erase1 and returned it with his written 
approbation1 on the understanding that  
the alterations he suggested would be   

made4 ,dreading to remain in ,rome      
during the unhealthy season1 which was  
fast approaching1 ,galileo returned to  
,florence1 with the intention of        
completing the index and dedication1 and
 of sending the ,,ms4 to ,rome1 to be   
printed under the care of ,prince ,cesi4
 ,the death of that distinguished       
individual1 in ,august #afcj1 frustrated
 ,galileo's plan1 and he applied for    
leave to have the book printed in       
,florence4 ,riccardi was at first       
desirous to examine the ,,ms4 again1    
but1 after inspecting only the beginning
 and the end of it1 he gave ,galileo    
leave to print it wherever he chose1    
providing it bore the license of the    
,inquisitor-,general of ,florence1 and  
one or two other persons whom he named4 
,having overcome all these difficulties1
 ,galileo's work was published in #afcb1
 under the title of ,the ,system of the 
,world of ,galileo ,galilei1 c41 in     
which1 in four dialogues concerning the 
two principal systems of the world--the 

,ptolemaic and the ,copernican--he      
discusses1 indeterminately and firmly1  
the arguments proposed on both sides4   
,it is dedicated to ,ferdinand1 ,grand  
,duke of ,tuscany1 and is prefaced by an
 ,address to the prudent reader1 which  
is itself characterised by the utmost   
imprudence4 ,he refers to the decree of 
the ,inquisition in the most insulting  
and ironical language4 ,he attributes it
 to passion and to ignorance1 not by    
direct assertion1 but by insinuations   
ascribed to others2 and he announces his
 intention to defend the ,copernican    
system1 as a pure mathematical          
hypothesis1 and not as an opinion having
 an advantage over that of the stability
 of the earth absolutely4 ,the dialogue 
is conducted by three persons1          
,salviati1 ,sagredo1 and ,simplicio4    
,salviati1 who is the true philosopher  
in the dialogue1 was the real name of a 
nobleman whom we have already had       
occasion to mention4 ,sagredo1 the name 
of another noble friend of ,galileo's1  

performs a secondary part under         
,salviati4 ,he proposes doubts1 suggests
 difficulties1 and enlivens the gravity 
of the dialogue with his wit and        
pleasantry4 ,simplicio is a resolute    
follower of ,ptolemy and ,aristotle1    
and1 with a proper degree of candour and
 modesty1 he brings forward all the     
common arguments in favour of the       
,ptolemaic system4 ,between the wit of  
,sagredo1 and the powerful philosophy of
 ,salviati1 the peripatetic sage is     
baffled in every discussion2 and there  
can be no doubt that ,galileo aimed a   
more fatal blow at the ,ptolemaic system
 by this mode of discussing it1 than if 
he had endeavoured to overturn it by    
direct arguments4  ,the influence of    
this work on the public mind was such as
 might have been anticipated4 ,the      
obnoxious doctrines which it upheld were
 eagerly received1 and widely           
disseminated2 and the church of ,rome   
became sensible of the shock which was  
thus given to its intellectual          

supremacy4 ,pope ,urban ,,viii41        
attached though he had been to ,galileo1
 never once hesitated respecting the    
line of conduct which he felt himself   
bound to pursue4 ,his mind was1         
nevertheless1 agitated with conflicting 
sentiments4 ,he entertained a sincere   
affection for science and literature1   
and yet he was placed in the position of
 their enemy4 ,he had been the personal 
friend of ,galileo1 and yet his duty    
compelled him to become his accuser4    
,embarrassing as these feelings were1   
other considerations contributed to     
soothe him4 ,he had1 in his capacity of 
a ,cardinal1 opposed the first          
persecution of ,galileo4 ,he had1 since 
his elevation to the pontificate1 traced
 an open path for the march of          
,galileo's discoveries2 and he had      
finally endeavoured to bind the recusant
 philosopher by the chains of kindness  
and gratitude4 ,all these means1        
however1 had proved abortive1 and he was
 now called upon to support the doctrine

 which he had subscribed1 and administer
 the law of which he was the guardian4  
,it has been supposed1 without any      
satisfactory evidence1 that ,urban may  
have been influenced by less creditable 
motives4 ,salviati and ,sagredo being   
well-known personages1 it was inferred  
that ,simplicio must also have a        
representative4 ,the enemies of ,galileo
 are said to have convinced his         
,holiness that ,simplicio was intended  
as a portraiture of himself2 and this   
opinion received some probability from  
the fact1 that the peripatetic disputant
 had employed many of the arguments     
which ,urban had himself used in his    
discussions with ,galileo4 ,the latest  
biographer of ,galileo#cc regards this  
motive as necessary to account for the  
otherwise inexplicable change which took
 place in the conduct of ,urban to his  
old friend2--but we cannot admit the    
truth of this supposition4 ,the church  
had been placed in hostility to a       
powerful and liberal party1 which was   

adverse to its interests4 ,the dogmas of
 the ,catholic faith had been brought   
into direct collision with the          
deductions of science4 ,the leader of   
the philosophic band had broken the most
 solemn armistice with the ,inquisition3
 he had renounced the ties of gratitude 
which bound him to the ,pontiff2 and    
,urban was thus compelled to entrench   
himself in a position to which he had   
been driven by his opponents4       #cc 
,library of ,useful ,knowledge1 ,life of
 ,galileo1 chap4 viii4  ,the design of  
summoning ,galileo before the           
,inquisition1 seems to have been formed 
almost immediately after the publication
 of his book2 for even in ,august #afcb1
 the preliminary proceedings had reached
 the ears of the ,grand ,duke           
,ferdinand4 ,the ,tuscan ambassador at  
,rome was speedily acquainted with the  
dissatisfaction which his ,sovereign    
felt at these proceedings2 and he was   
instructed to forward to ,florence a    
written statement of the charges against

 ,galileo1 in order to enable him to    
prepare for his defence4 ,although this 
request was denied1 ,ferdinand again    
interposed1 and transmitted a letter to 
his ambassador1 recommending the        
admission of ,campanella and ,castelli  
into the congregation of ecclesiastics  
by whom ,galileo was to be judged4      
,circumstances1 however1 rendered it    
prudent to withhold this letter4        
,castelli was sent away from ,rome1 and 
,scipio ,chiaramonte1 a bigotted        
ecclesiastic1 was summoned from ,pisa to
 complete the number of the judges4  ,it
 appears from a despatch of the ,tuscan 
minister1 that ,ferdinand was enraged at
 the transaction2 and he instructed his 
ambassador1 ,niccolini1 to make the     
strongest representations to the ,pope4 
,niccolini had several interviews with  
his ,holiness2 but all his              
expostulations were fruitless4 ,he found
 ,urban highly incensed against         
,galileo2 and his ,holiness begged      
,niccolini to advise the ,archduke not  

to interfere any farther1 as he would   
not get through it with honour4 ,on the 
#aeth of ,september the ,pope caused it 
to be intimated to ,niccolini1 as a mark
 of his especial esteem for the ,grand  
,duke1 that he was obliged to refer the 
work to the ,inquisition2 but both the  
prince and his ambassador were declared 
liable to the usual censures if they    
divulged the secret4  ,from the measures
 which this tribunal had formerly       
pursued1 it was not difficult to foresee
 the result of their present            
deliberations4 ,they summoned ,galileo  
to appear before them at ,rome1 to      
answer in person the charges under which
 he lay4 ,the ,tuscan ambassador        
expostulated warmly with the court of   
,rome on the inhumanity of this         
proceeding4 ,he urged his advanced age1 
his infirm health1 the discomforts of   
the journey1 and the miseries of the    
quarantine1#cd as motives for           
reconsidering their decision3 ,but the  
,pope was inexorable1 and though it was 

agreed to relax the quarantine as much  
as possible in his favour1 yet it was   
declared indispensable that he should   
appear in person before the             
,inquisition4       #cd ,the            
communication between ,florence and     
,rome was at this time      interrupted 
by a contagious disease which had broken
 out in      ,tuscany4  ,worn out with  
age and infirmities1 and exhausted with 
the fatigues of his journey1 ,galileo   
arrived at ,rome on the #adth of        
,february1 #afcc4 ,the ,tuscan          
ambassador announced his arrival in an  
official form to the commissary of the  
holy office1 and ,galileo awaited in    
calm dignity the approach of his trial4 
,among those who proffered their advice 
in this distressing emergency1 we must  
enumerate the ,cardinal ,barberino1 the 
,pope's nephew1 who1 though he may have 
felt the necessity of an interference on
 the part of the church1 was yet        
desirous that it should be effected with
 the least injury to ,galileo and to    

science4 ,he accordingly visited        
,galileo1 and advised him to remain as  
much at home as possible1 to keep aloof 
from general society1 and to see only   
his most intimate friends4 ,the same    
advice was given from different         
quarters2 and ,galileo1 feeling its     
propriety1 remained in strict seclusion 
in the palace of the ,tuscan ambassador4
  ,during the whole of the trial which  
had now commenced1 ,galileo was treated 
with the most marked indulgence4        
,abhorring1 as we must do1 the          
principles and practice of this odious  
tribunal1 and reprobating its           
interference with the cautious          
deductions of science1 we must yet admit
 that1 on this occasion1 its            
deliberations were not dictated by      
passion1 nor its power directed by      
vengeance4 ,though placed at their      
judgment-seat as a heretic1 ,galileo    
stood there with the recognised         
attributes of a sage2 and though an     
offender against the laws of which they 

were the guardian1 yet the highest      
respect was yielded to his genius1 and  
the kindest commiseration to his        
infirmities4  ,in the beginning of      
,april1 when his examination in person  
was to commence1 it became necessary    
that he should be removed to the holy   
office2 but instead of committing him1  
as was the practice1 to solitary        
confinement1 he was provided with       
apartments in the house of the fiscal of
 the ,inquisition4 ,his table was       
provided by the ,tuscan ambassador1 and 
his servant was allowed to attend him at
 his pleasure1 and to sleep in an       
adjoining apartment4 ,even this nominal 
confinement1 however1 ,galileo's high   
spirit was unable to brook4 ,an attack  
of the disease to which he was          
constitutionally subject contributed to 
fret and irritate him1 and he became    
impatient for a release from his anxiety
 as well as from his bondage4 ,cardinal 
,barberino seems to have received notice
 of the state of ,galileo's feelings1   

and1 with a magnanimity which posterity 
will ever honour1 he liberated the      
philosopher on his own responsibility2  
and in ten days after his first         
examination1 and on the last day of     
,april1 he was restored to the          
hospitable roof of the ,tuscan          
ambassador4  ,though this favour was    
granted on the condition of his         
remaining in strict seclusion1 ,galileo 
recovered his health1 and to a certain  
degree his usual hilarity1 amid the kind
 attentions of ,niccolini and his       
family2 and when the want of exercise   
had begun to produce symptoms of        
indisposition1 the ,tuscan minister     
obtained for him leave to go into the   
public gardens in a half-closed         
carriage4  ,after the ,inquisition had  
examined ,galileo personally1 they      
allowed him a reasonable time for       
preparing his defence4 ,he felt the     
difficulty of adducing any thing like a 
plausible justification of his conduct2 
and he resorted to an ingenious1 though 

a shallow artifice1 which was regarded  
by the court as an aggravation of the   
crime4 ,after his first appearance      
before the ,inquisition in #afaf1 he was
 publicly and falsely charged by his    
enemies with having then abjured his    
opinions2 and he was taunted as a       
criminal who had been actually punished 
for his offences4 ,as a refutation of   
these calumnies1 ,cardinal ,bellarmine  
had given him a certificate in his own  
handwriting1 declaring that he neither  
abjured his opinions1 nor suffered      
punishment for them2 and that the       
doctrine of the earth's motion1 and the 
sun's stability1 was only denounced to  
him as contrary to ,scripture1 and as   
one which could not be defended4 ,to    
this certificate the ,cardinal did not  
add1 because he was not called upon to  
do it1 that ,galileo was enjoined not to
 teach in any manner the doctrine thus  
denounced2 and ,galileo ingeniously     
avails himself of this supposed         
omission1 to account for his having1 in 

the lapse of fourteen or sixteen years1 
forgotten the injunction4 ,he assigned  
the same excuse for his having omitted  
to mention this injunction to ,riccardi1
 and to the ,inquisitor-,general at     
,florence1 when he obtained the licence 
to print his ,dialogues4 ,the court held
 the production of this certificate to  
be at once a proof and an aggravation of
 his offence1 because the certificate   
itself declared that the obnoxious      
doctrines had been pronounced contrary  
to the ,holy ,scriptures4  ,having duly 
weighed the confessions and excuses of  
their prisoner1 and considered the      
general merits of the case1 the         
,inquisition came to an agreement upon  
the sentence which they were to         
pronounce1 and appointed the #bb;d of   
,june as the day on which it was to be  
delivered4 ,two days previous to this1  
,galileo was summoned to appear at the  
holy office2 and on the morning of the  
#bast1 he obeyed the summons4 ,on the   
#bb;d of ,june he was clothed in a      

penitential dress1 and conducted to the 
convent of ,minerva1 where the          
,inquisition was assembled to give      
judgment4 ,a long and elaborate sentence
 was pronounced1 detailing the former   
proceedings of the ,inquisition1 and    
specifying the offences which he had    
committed in teaching heretical         
doctrines1 in violating his former      
pledges1 and in obtaining by improper   
means a license for the printing of his 
,dialogues4 ,after an invocation of the 
name of our ,saviour1 and of the ,holy  
,virgin1 ,galileo is declared to have   
brought himself under strong suspicions 
of heresy1 and to have incurred all the 
censures and penalties which are        
enjoined against delinquents of this    
kind2 but from all these consequences he
 is to be held absolved1 provided that  
with a sincere heart1 and a faith       
unfeigned1 he abjures and curses the    
heresies he has cherished1 as well as   
every other heresy against the ,catholic
 church4 ,in order that his offence     

might not go altogether unpunished1 that
 he might be more cautious in future1   
and be a warning to others to abstain   
from similar delinquencies1 it was also 
decreed that his ,dialogues should be   
prohibited by public edict2 that he     
himself should be condemned to the      
prison of the ,inquisition during their 
pleasure1 and that1 in the course of the
 next three years1 he should recite once
 a week the seven penitential psalms4   
,the ceremony of ,galileo's abjuration  
was one of exciting interest1 and of    
awful formality4 ,clothed in the        
sackcloth of a repentant criminal1 the  
venerable sage fell upon his knees      
before the assembled ,cardinals2 and    
laying his hands upon the ,holy         
,evangelists1 he invoked the ,divine aid
 in abjuring and detesting1 and vowing  
never again to teach1 the doctrine of   
the earth's motion1 and of the sun's    
stability4 ,he pledged himself that he  
would never again1 either in words or in
 writing1 propagate such heresies2 and  

he swore that he would fulfil and       
observe the penances which had been     
inflicted upon him4#ce ,at the          
conclusion of this ceremony1 in which he
 recited his abjuration word for word1  
and then signed it1 he was conveyed1 in 
conformity with his sentence1 to the    
prison of the ,inquisition4       #ce   
,it has been said1 but upon what        
authority we cannot state1      that    
when ,galileo rose from his knees1 he   
stamped on the ground1      and said in 
a whisper to one of his friends1 ,e pur 
si muove4      ,it does move1           
though4--,life of ,galileo1 ,lib4       
,useful ,knowledge1      part ii4 p4    
#fc4  ,the account which we have now    
given of the trial and the sentence of  
,galileo1 is pregnant with the deepest  
interest and instruction4 ,human nature 
is here drawn in its darkest colouring2 
and in surveying the melancholy picture1
 it is difficult to decide whether      
religion or philosophy has been most    
degraded4 ,while we witness the         

presumptuous priest pronouncing         
infallible the decrees of his own erring
 judgment1 we see the high-minded       
philosopher abjuring the eternal and    
immutable truths which he had himself   
the glory of establishing4 ,in the      
ignorance and prejudices of the age--in 
a too literal interpretation of the     
language of ,scripture--in a mistaken   
respect for the errors that had become  
venerable from their antiquity--and in  
the peculiar position which ,galileo had
 taken among the avowed enemies of the  
church1 we may find the elements of an  
apology1 poor though it be1 for the     
conduct of the ,inquisition4 ,but what  
excuse can we devise for the humiliating
 confession and abjuration of ,galileo8 
,why did this master-spirit of the      
age--this high-priest of the stars--this
 representative of science--this hoary  
sage1 whose career of glory was near its
 consummation--why did he reject the    
crown of martyrdom which he had himself 
coveted1 and which1 plaited with        

immortal laurels1 was about to descend  
upon his head8 ,if1 in place of         
disavowing the laws of ,nature1 and     
surrendering in his own person the      
intellectual dignity of his species1 he 
had boldly asserted the truth of his    
opinions1 and confided his character to 
posterity1 and his cause to an          
all-ruling ,providence1 he would have   
strung up the hair-suspended sabre1 and 
disarmed for ever the hostility which   
threatened to overwhelm him4 ,the       
philosopher1 however1 was supported only
 by philosophy2 and in the love of truth
 he found a miserable substitute for the
 hopes of the martyr4 ,galileo cowered  
under the fear of man1 and his          
submission was the salvation of the     
church4 ,the sword of the ,inquisition  
descended on his prostrate neck2 and    
though its stroke was not physical1 yet 
it fell with a moral influence fatal to 
the character of its victim1 and to the 
dignity of science4  ,in studying with  
attention this portion of scientific    

history1 the reader will not fail to    
perceive that the ,church of ,rome was  
driven into a dilemma1 from which the   
submission and abjuration of ,galileo   
could alone extricate it4 ,he who       
confesses a crime and denounces its     
atrocity1 not only sanctions but        
inflicts the punishment which is annexed
 to it4 ,had ,galileo declared his      
innocence1 and avowed his sentiments1   
and had he appealed to the past conduct 
of the ,church itself1 to the           
acknowledged opinions of its            
dignitaries1 and even to the acts of its
 pontiffs1 he would have at once        
confounded his accusers1 and escaped    
from their toils4 ,after ,copernicus1   
himself a catholic priest1 had openly   
maintained the motion of the earth1 and 
the stability of the sun3--after he had 
dedicated the work which advocated these
 opinions to ,pope ,paul ,,iii41 on the 
express ground that the authority of the
 pontiff might silence the calumnies of 
those who attacked these opinions by    

arguments drawn from ,scripture3--after 
the ,cardinal ,schonberg and the ,bishop
 of ,culm had urged ,copernicus to      
publish the new doctrines2--and after   
the ,bishop of ,ermeland had erected a  
monument to commemorate his great       
discoveries2--how could the ,church of  
,rome have appealed to its pontifical   
decrees as the ground of persecuting and
 punishing ,galileo8 ,even in later     
times1 the same doctrines had been      
propagated with entire toleration3 ,nay1
 in the very year of ,galileo's first   
persecution1 ,paul ,anthony ,foscarinus1
 a learned ,carmelite monk1 wrote a     
pamphlet1 in which he illustrates and   
defends the mobility of the earth1 and  
endeavours to reconcile to this new     
doctrine the passages of ,scripture     
which had been employed to subvert it4  
,this very singular production was dated
 from the ,carmelite convent at ,naples2
 was dedicated to the very reverend     
,sebastian ,fantoni1 general of the     
,carmelite order2 and1 sanctioned by the

 ecclesiastical authorities1 it was     
published at ,naples in #afae1 the very 
year of the first persecution of        
,galileo4  ,nor was this the only       
defence of the ,copernican system which 
issued from the bosom of the ,church4   
,thomas ,campanella1 a ,calabrian monk1 
published1 in #afbb1 ,an ,apology for   
,galileo1 and he even dedicates it to   
,d4 ,boniface1 ,cardinal of ,cajeta4    
,nay1 it appears from the dedication1   
that he undertook the work at the       
command of the ,cardinal1 and that the  
examination of the question had been    
entrusted to the ,cardinal by the ,holy 
,senate4 ,after an able defence of his  
friend1 ,campanella refers1 at the      
conclusion of his apology1 to the       
suppression of ,galileo's writings1 and 
justly observes1 that the effect of such
 a measure would be to make them more   
generally read1 and more highly         
esteemed4 ,the boldness of the          
apologist1 however1 is wisely tempered  
with the humility of the ecclesiastic1  

and he concludes his work with the      
declaration1 that in all his opinions1  
whether written or to be written1 he    
submits himself to the opinions of the  
,holy ,mother ,church of ,rome and to   
the judgment of his superiors4  ,by     
these proceedings of the dignitaries1 as
 well as the clergy of the ,church of   
,rome1 which had been tolerated for more
 than a century1 the decrees of the     
pontiffs against the doctrine of the    
earth's motion were virtually repealed2 
and ,galileo might have pleaded them    
with success in arrest of judgment4     
,unfortunately1 however1 for himself and
 for science1 he acted otherwise4 ,by   
admitting their authority1 he revived in
 fresh force these obsolete and         
obnoxious enactments2 and1 by yielding  
to their power1 he riveted for another  
century the almost broken chains of     
spiritual despotism4  ,it is a curious  
fact in the annals of heresy and        
sedition1 that opinions maintained with 
impunity by one individual1 have1 in the

 same age1 brought others to the stake  
or to the scaffold4 ,the results of deep
 research or extravagant speculation    
seldom provoke hostility1 when meekly   
announced as the deductions of reason or
 the convictions of conscience4 ,as the 
dreams of a recluse or of an enthusiast1
 they may excite pity or call forth     
contempt2 but1 like seed quietly cast   
into the earth1 they will rot and       
germinate according to the vitality with
 which they are endowed4 ,but1 if new   
and startling opinions are thrown in the
 face of the community--if they are     
uttered in triumph or in insult--in     
contempt of public opinion1 or in       
derision of cherished errors1 they lose 
the comeliness of truth in the rancour  
of their propagation2 and they are like 
seed scattered in a hurricane1 which    
only irritates and blinds the           
husbandman4 ,had ,galileo concluded his 
,system of the ,world with the quiet    
peroration of his apologist ,campanella1
 and dedicated it to the ,pope1 it might

 have stood in the library of the       
,vatican1 beside the cherished though   
equally heretical volume of ,copernicus4
  ,in the abjuration of his opinions by 
,galileo1 ,pope ,urban ,,vii4 did not   
fail to observe the full extent of his  
triumph2 and he exhibited the utmost    
sagacity in the means which he employed 
to secure it4 ,while he endeavoured to  
overawe the enemies of the church by the
 formal promulgation of ,galileo's      
sentence and abjuration1 and by         
punishing the officials who had assisted
 in obtaining the license to print his  
work1 he treated ,galileo with the      
utmost lenity1 and yielded to every     
request that was made to diminish1 and  
almost suspend1 the constraint under    
which he lay4 ,the sentence of          
abjuration was ordered to be publicly   
read at several universities4 ,at       
,florence the ceremonial was performed  
in the church of ,santa ,croce1 and the 
friends and disciples of ,galileo were  
especially summoned to witness the      

public degradation of their master4 ,the
 inquisitor at ,florence was ordered to 
be reprimanded for his conduct2 and     
,riccardi1 the master of the sacred     
palace1 and ,ciampoli1 the secretary of 
,pope ,urban himself1 were dismissed    
from their situations4  ,galileo had    
remained only four days in the prison of
 the ,inquisition1 when1 on the         
application of ,niccolini1 the ,tuscan  
ambassador1 he was allowed to reside    
with him in his palace4 ,as ,florence   
still suffered under the contagious     
disease which we have already mentioned1
 it was proposed that ,sienna should be 
the place of ,galileo's confinement1 and
 that his residence should be in one of 
the convents of that city4 ,niccolini1  
however1 recommended the palace of the  
,archbishop ,piccolomoni as a more      
suitable residence2 and though the      
,archbishop was one of ,galileo's best  
friends1 the ,pope agreed to the        
arrangement1 and in the beginning of    
,july ,galileo quitted ,rome for        

,sienna4  ,after having spent nearly six
 months under the hospitable roof of his
 friend1 with no other restraint than   
that of being confined to the limits of 
the palace1 ,galileo was permitted to   
return to his villa near ,florence under
 the same restrictions2 and as the      
contagious disease had disappeared in   
,tuscany1 he was able in the month of   
,december to re-enter his own house at  
,arcetri1 where he spent the remainder  
of his days4     ,,chapter ,,vi4        
,galileo loses his favourite            
,daughter--,he falls into a state of    
melancholy and ill health--,is allowed  
to go to ,florence for its      recovery
 in #afch--;,but is prevented from      
leaving his ,house or      receiving his
 ,friends--,his friend ,castelli        
permitted to visit him      in the      
presence of an ,officer of the          
,inquisition--,he composes his          
celebrated ,dialogues on ,local         
,motion--,discovers the ,moon's         
,libration--,loses the sight of one     

,eye--,the other ,eye attacked by       
the same ,disease--,is struck           
blind--,negociates with the ,dutch      
,government respecting his ,method of   
finding the ,longitude--,he is          
allowed free intercourse with his       
,friends--,his ,illness and ,death in   
#afdb--;,his ,epitaph--,his ,social1    
,moral1 and ,scientific ,character4     
,although ,galileo had now the happiness
 of rejoining his family under their    
paternal roof1 yet1 like all sublunary  
blessings1 it was but of short duration4
 ,his favourite daughter ,maria1 who    
along with her sister had joined the    
convent of ,st ,matthew in the          
neighbourhood of ,arcetri1 had looked   
forward to the arrival of her father    
with the most affectionate              
anticipations4 ,she hoped that her      
filial devotion might form some         
compensation for the malignity of his   
enemies1 and she eagerly assumed the    
labour of reciting weekly the seven     
penitentiary psalms which formed part of

 her father's sentence4 ,these sacred   
duties1 however1 were destined to       
terminate almost at the moment they were
 begun4 ,she was seized with a fatal    
illness in the same month in which she  
rejoined her parent1 and before the     
month of ,april she was no more4 ,this  
heavy blow1 so suddenly struck1         
overwhelmed ,galileo in the deepest     
agony4 ,owing to the decline of his     
health1 and the recurrence of his old   
complaints1 he was unable to oppose to  
this mental suffering the constitutional
 energy of his mind4 ,the bulwarks of   
his heart broke down1 and a flood of    
grief desolated his manly and powerful  
mind4 ,he felt1 as he expressed it1 that
 he was incessantly called by his       
daughter--his pulse intermitted--his    
heart was agitated with unceasing       
palpitations--his appetite entirely left
 him1 and he considered his dissolution 
so near at hand1 that he would not      
permit his son ,vicenzo to set out upon 
a journey which he had contemplated4    

,from this state of melancholy and      
indisposition1 ,galileo slowly1 though  
partially1 recovered1 and1 with the view
 of obtaining medical assistance1 he    
requested leave to go to ,florence4 ,his
 enemies1 however1 refused this         
application1 and he was given to        
understand that any additional          
importunities would be visited with a   
more vigilant surveillance4 ,he         
remained1 therefore1 five years at      
,arcetri1 from #afcd to #afch1 without  
any remission of his confinement1 and   
pursuing his studies under the influence
 of a continued and general             
indisposition4  ,there is no reason to  
think that ,galileo or his friends      
renewed their application to the ,church
 of ,rome2 but1 in #afch1 the ,pope     
transmitted1 through the ,inquisitor    
,fariano1 his permission that he might  
remove to ,florence for the recovery of 
his health1 on the condition that he    
should present himself at the office of 
the ,inquisitor to learn the terms upon 

which this indulgence was granted4      
,galileo accepted of the kindness thus  
unexpectedly proffered4 ,but the        
conditions upon which it was given were 
more severe than he expected4 ,he was   
prohibited from leaving his house or    
admitting his friends2 and so sternly   
was this system pursued1 that he        
required a special order for attending  
mass during passion week4  ,the severity
 of this order was keenly felt by       
,galileo4 ,while he remained at         
,arcetri1 his seclusion from the world  
would have been an object of choice1 if 
it had not been the decree of a         
tribunal2 but to be debarred from the   
conversation of his friends in          
,florence--in that city where his genius
 had been idolised1 and where his fame  
had become immortal1 was an aggravation 
of punishment which he was unable to    
bear4 ,with his accustomed kindness1 the
 ,grand ,duke made a strong             
representation on the subject to his    
ambassador at the ,court of ,rome4 ,he  

stated that1 from his great age and     
infirmities1 ,galileo's career was near 
its close2 that he possessed many       
valuable ideas1 which the world might   
lose if they were not matured and       
conveyed to his friends2 and that       
,galileo was anxious to make these      
communications to ,father ,castelli1 who
 was then a stipendiary of the ,court of
 ,rome4 ,the ,grand ,duke commanded his 
ambassador to see ,castelli on the      
subject--to urge him to obtain leave    
from the ,pope to spend a few months in 
,florence--and to supply him with money 
and every thing that was necessary for  
his journey4 ,influenced by this kind   
and liberal message1 ,castelli obtained 
an audience of the ,pope1 and requested 
leave to pay a visit to ,florence4      
,urban instantly suspected the object of
 his journey2 and1 upon ,castelli's     
acknowledging that he could not possibly
 refrain from seeing ,galileo1 he       
received permission to visit him in the 
company of an officer of the            

,inquisition4 ,castelli accordingly went
 to ,florence1 and1 a few months        
afterwards1 ,galileo was ordered to     
return to ,arcetri4  ,during ,galileo's 
confinement at ,sienna and ,arcetri1    
between #afcc and #afch1 his time was   
principally occupied in the composition 
of his ,dialogues on ,local ,motion1 in 
which he treats of the strength and     
cohesion of solid bodies1 of the laws of
 uniform and accelerated motions1 of the
 motion of projectiles1 and of the      
centre of gravity of solids4 ,this      
remarkable work1 which was considered by
 its author as the best of his          
productions1 was printed by ,louis      
,elzevir1 at ,amsterdam1 and dedicated  
to the ,count de ,noailles1 the ,french 
ambassador at ,rome4 ,various attempts  
to have it printed in ,germany had      
failed2 and1 in order to save himself   
from the malignity of his enemies1 he   
was obliged to pretend that the edition 
published in ,holland had been printed  
from a ,,ms4 entrusted to the ,french   

ambassador4  ,although ,galileo had for 
a long time abandoned his astronomical  
studies1 yet his attention was directed1
 about the year #afcf1 to a curious     
appearance in the lunar disc1 which is  
known by the name of the moon's         
libration4 ,when we examine with a      
telescope the outline of the moon1 we   
observe that certain parts of her disc1 
which are seen at one time1 are         
invisible at another4 ,this change or   
libration is of four different kinds1   
viz4 the diurnal libration1 the         
libration in longitude1 the libration in
 latitude1 and the spheroidal libration4
 ,galileo discovered the first of these 
kinds of libration1 and appears to have 
had some knowledge of the second2 but   
the third was discovered by ,hevelius1  
and the fourth by ,lagrange4  ,this     
curious discovery was the result of the 
last telescopic observations of         
,galileo4 ,although his right eye had   
for some years lost its power1 yet his  
general vision was sufficiently perfect 

to enable him to carry on his usual     
researches4 ,in #afcf1 however1 this    
affection of his eye became more        
serious2 and1 in #afcg1 his left eye was
 attacked with the same disease4 ,his   
medical friends at first supposed that  
cataracts were formed in the crystalline
 lens1 and anticipated a cure from the  
operation of couching4 ,these hopes were
 fallacious4 ,the disease turned out to 
be in the cornea1 and every attempt to  
restore its transparency was fruitless4 
,in a few months the white cloud covered
 the whole aperture of the pupil1 and   
,galileo became totally blind4 ,this    
sudden and unexpected calamity had      
almost overwhelmed ,galileo and his     
friends4 ,in writing to a correspondent 
he exclaims1 ,alas6 your dear friend and
 servant has become totally and         
irreparably blind4 ,these heavens1 this 
earth1 this universe1 which by wonderful
 observation ,i had enlarged a thousand 
times beyond the belief of past ages1   
are henceforth shrunk into the narrow   

space which ,i myself occupy4 ,so it    
pleases ,god2 it shall1 therefore1      
please me also4 ,his friend1 ,father    
,castelli1 deplores the calamity in the 
same tone of pathetic sublimity3--,the  
noblest eye1 says he1 which nature ever 
made1 is darkened2 an eye so privileged1
 and gifted with such rare powers1 that 
it may truly be said to have seen more  
than the eyes of all that are gone1 and 
to have opened the eyes of all that are 
to come4  ,although ,galileo had been   
thwarted in his attempt to introduce    
into the ,spanish marine his new method 
of finding the longitude at sea1 yet he 
never lost sight of an object to which  
he attached the highest importance4 ,as 
the formation of correct tables of the  
motion of ,jupiter's satellites was a   
necessary preliminary to its            
introduction1 he had occupied himself   
for twenty-four years in observations   
for this purpose1 and he had made       
considerable progress in this laborious 
task4 ,after the publication of his     

,dialogues on ,motion1 in #afcf1 he     
renewed his attempts to bring his method
 into actual use4 ,for this purpose he  
addressed himself to ,lorenzo ,real1 who
 had been the ,dutch ,governor-,general 
in ,india1 and offered the free use of  
his method to the ,states-,general of   
,holland4#cf ,the ,dutch government     
received this proposal with an anxious  
desire to have it carried into effect4  
,at the instigation of ,constantine     
,huygens1 the father of the illustrious 
,huygens1 and the secretary to the      
,prince of ,orange1 they appointed      
commissioners to communicate with       
,galileo2 and while they transmitted him
 a gold chain as a mark of their esteem1
 they at the same time assured him1 that
 if his plan should prove successful it 
should not pass unrewarded4 ,the        
commissioners entered into an active    
correspondence with ,galileo1 and had   
even appointed one of their number to   
communicate personally with him in      
,italy4 ,lest this1 however1 should     

excite the jealousy of the court of     
,rome1 ,galileo objected to the         
arrangement1 so that the negociation was
 carried on solely by correspondence4   
#cf ,it is a curious fact that ,morin   
had about this time proposed      to    
determine the longitude by the moon's   
distance from a fixed      star1 and    
that the commissioners assembled in     
,paris to examine it      requested     
,galileo's opinion of its value and     
practicability4      ,galileo's opinion 
was highly unfavourable4 ,he saw        
clearly1 and      explained distinctly1 
the objection to ,morin's method1       
arising from      the imperfection of   
the lunar tables1 and the inadequacy of 
astronomical instruments2 but he seemed 
not to be conscious that      the very  
same objections applied with even       
greater force to his own      method1   
which has since been supplanted by that 
of the ,french      savant4 ,see ,life  
of ,galileo1 ,library of ,useful        
,knowledge1 p4 #id4  ,it was at this    

time that ,galileo was struck with      
blindness4 ,his friend and pupil1       
,renieri1 undertook in this emergency to
 arrange and complete his observations  
and calculations2 but before he had made
 much progress in the arduous task1 each
 of the four commissioners died in      
succession1 and it was with great       
difficulty that ,constantine ,huygens   
succeeded in renewing the scheme4 ,it   
was again obstructed1 however1 by the   
death of ,galileo2 and when ,renieri was
 about to publish1 by the order of the  
,grand ,duke1 the ,ephemeris1 and       
,tables of the ,jovian ,planets1 he was 
attacked with a mortal disease1 and the 
manuscripts of ,galileo1 which he was on
 the eve of publishing1 were never more 
heard of4 ,by such a series of          
misfortunes were the plans of ,galileo  
and of the ,states-,general completely  
overthrown4 ,it is some consolation1    
however1 to know that neither science   
nor navigation suffered any severe loss4
 ,notwithstanding the perfection of our 

present tables of ,jupiter's satellites1
 and of the astronomical instruments by 
which their eclipses may be observed1   
the method of ,galileo is still         
impracticable at sea4  ,in consequence  
of the strict seclusion to which        
,galileo had been subjected1 he was in  
the practice of dating his letters from 
his prison at ,arcetri2 but after he had
 lost the use of his eyes1 the          
,inquisition seems to have relaxed its  
severity1 and to have allowed him the   
freest intercourse with his friends4    
,the ,grand ,duke of ,tuscany paid him  
frequent visits2 and among the          
celebrated strangers who came from      
distant lands to see the ornament of    
,italy1 were ,gassendi1 ,deodati1 and   
our illustrious countryman ,milton4     
,during the last three years of his     
life1 his eminent pupil ,viviani formed 
one of his family2 and in ,october      
#afda1 the celebrated ,torricelli1      
another of his pupils1 was admitted to  
the same distinction4  ,though the      

powerful mind of ,galileo still retained
 its vigour1 yet his debilitated frame  
was exhausted with mental labour4 ,he   
often complained that his head was too  
busy for his body2 and the continuity of
 his studies was frequently broken with 
attacks of hypochondria1 want of sleep1 
and acute rheumatic pains4 ,along with  
these calamities1 he was afflicted with 
another still more severe--with deafness
 almost total2 but though he was now    
excluded from all communication with the
 external world1 yet his mind still     
grappled with the material universe1 and
 while he was studying the force of     
percussion1 and preparing for a         
continuation of his ,dialogues on       
,motion1 he was attacked with fever and 
palpitation of the heart1 which1 after  
continuing two months1 terminated       
fatally on the #hth of ,january #afdb1  
in the #ghth year of his age4  ,having  
died in the character of a prisoner of  
the ,inquisition1 this odious tribunal  
disputed his right of making a will1 and

 of being buried in consecrated ground4 
,these objections1 however1 were        
withdrawn2 but though a large sum was   
subscribed for erecting a monument to   
him in the church of ,santa ,croce1 in  
,florence1 the ,pope would not permit   
the design to be carried into execution4
 ,his sacred remains were1 therefore1   
deposited in an obscure corner of the   
church1 and remained for more than      
thirty years unmarked with any          
monumental tablet4 ,the following       
epitaph1 given without any remark in the
 ,leyden edition of his ,dialogues1 is1 
we presume1 the one which was inscribed 
on a tablet in the church of ,santa     
,croce3--                    ,,galilaeo 
,,galilaei ,florentino1                 
,philosopho et ,geometrae vere lynceo1  
,naturae ,oedipo1           ,mirabilium 
semper inventorum machinatori1          
,qui inconcessa adhuc mortalibus gloria 
,caelorum provincias auxit              
,et universo dedit incrementum3         
,non enim vitreos spherarum orbes       

,fragilesque stellas conflavit3         
,sed aeterna mundi corpore              
,mediceae beneficentiae dedicavit1      
,cujus inextincta gloriae cupiditas     
,ut oculos nationum                     
,saeculorumque omnium                   
,videre doceret1                        
,proprios impendit oculos4              
,cum jam nil amplius haberet natura     
,quod ipse videret4       ,cujus inventa
 vix intra rerum limites comprehensa    
,firmamentum ipsum non solum continet1  
,sed etiam recipit4            ,qui     
relictis tot scientiarum monumentis     
,plura secum tulit1 quam reliquit4      
,gravi enim                 ,sed nondum 
affecta senectute1                      
,novis contemplationibus                
,majorem gloriam affectans              
,inexplebilem sapientiae animam         
,immaturo nobis obitu                   
,exhalavit                              
,anno ,domini                           
,,mcxlii4                               
,a,etatis suae                          

,,lxxviii4    ,at his death1 in #agjc1  
,viviani purchased his property1 with   
the charge of erecting a monument over  
,galileo's remains and his own4 ,this   
design was not carried into effect till 
#agcg1 at the expense of the family of  
,nelli1 when both their bodies were     
disinterred1 and removed to the site of 
the splendid monument which now covers  
them4 ,this monument contains the bust  
of ,galileo1 with figures of ,geometry  
and ,astronomy4 ,it was designed by     
,giulio ,foggini4 ,galileo's bust was   
executed by ,giovanni ,battista         
,foggini2 the figure of ,astronomy by   
,vincenzio ,foggini1 his son2 and that  
of ,geometry by ,girolamo ,ticciati4    
,galileo's house at ,arcetri still      
remains4 ,in #ahba it belonged to one   
,signor ,alimari1 having been preserved 
in the state in which it was left by    
,galileo2 it stands very near the       
convent of ,st ,matthew1 and about a    
mile to the ,s4 ,e4 of ,florence4 ,an   
inscription by ,nelli1 over the door of 

the house1 still remains4  ,the         
character of ,galileo1 whether we view  
him as a member of the social circle1 or
 as a man of science1 presents many     
interesting and instructive points of   
contemplation4 ,unfortunate1 and to a   
certain extent immoral1 in his domestic 
relations1 he did not derive from that  
hallowed source all the enjoyments which
 it generally yields2 and it was owing  
to this cause1 perhaps1 that he was more
 fond of society than might have been   
expected from his studious habits4 ,his 
habitual cheerfulness and gaiety1 and   
his affability and frankness of manner1 
rendered him an universal favourite     
among his friends4 ,without any of the  
pedantry of exclusive talent1 and       
without any of that ostentation which   
often marks the man of limited though   
profound acquirements1 ,galileo never   
conversed upon scientific or            
philosophical subjects except among     
those who were capable of understanding 
them4 ,the extent of his general        

information1 indeed1 his great literary 
knowledge1 but1 above all1 his retentive
 memory1 stored with the legends and the
 poetry of ancient times1 saved him from
 the necessity of drawing upon his own  
peculiar studies for the topics of his  
conversation4  ,galileo was not less    
distinguished for his hospitality and   
benevolence2 he was liberal to the poor1
 and generous in the aid which he       
administered to men of genius and       
talent1 who often found a comfortable   
asylum under his roof4 ,in his domestic 
economy he was frugal without being     
parsimonious4 ,his hospitable board was 
ever ready for the reception of his     
friends2 and1 though he was himself     
abstemious in his diet1 he seems to have
 been a lover of good wines1 of which he
 received always the choicest varieties 
out of the ,grand ,duke's cellar4 ,this 
peculiar taste1 together with his       
attachment to a country life1 rendered  
him fond of agricultural pursuits1 and  
induced him to devote his leisure hours 

to the cultivation of his vineyards4    
,in his personal appearance ,galileo was
 about the middle size1 and of a        
square-built1 but well-proportioned1    
frame4 ,his complexion was fair1 his    
eyes penetrating1 and his hair of a     
reddish hue4 ,his expression was        
cheerful and animated1 and though his   
temper was easily ruffled1 yet the      
excitement was transient1 and the cause 
of it speedily forgotten4  ,one of the  
most prominent traits in the character  
of ,galileo was his invincible love of  
truth1 and his abhorrence of that       
spiritual despotism which had so long   
brooded over ,europe4 ,his views1       
however1 were too liberal1 and too far  
in advance of the age which he adorned2 
and however much we may admire the noble
 spirit which he evinced1 and the       
personal sacrifices which he made1 in   
his struggle for truth1 we must yet     
lament the hotness of his zeal and the  
temerity of his onset4 ,in his contest  
with the ,church of ,rome1 he fell under

 her victorious banner2 and though his  
cause was that of truth1 and hers that  
of superstition1 yet the sympathy of    
,europe was not roused by his           
misfortunes4 ,under the sagacious and   
peaceful sway of ,copernicus1 astronomy 
had effected a glorious triumph over the
 dogmas of the ,church2 but under the   
bold and uncompromising sceptre of      
,galileo all her conquests were         
irrecoverably lost4  ,the scientific    
character of ,galileo1 and his method of
 investigating truth1 demand our warmest
 admiration4 ,the number and ingenuity  
of his inventions1 the brilliant        
discoveries which he made in the        
heavens1 and the depth and beauty of his
 researches respecting the laws of      
motion1 have gained him the admiration  
of every succeeding age1 and have placed
 him next to ,newton in the lists of    
original and inventive genius4 ,to this 
high rank he was doubtless elevated by  
the inductive processes which he        
followed in all his inquiries4 ,under   

the sure guidance of observation and    
experiment1 he advanced to general laws2
 and if ,bacon had never lived1 the     
student of nature ,would have found1 in 
the writings and labours of ,galileo1   
not only the boasted principles of the  
inductive philosophy1 but also their    
practical application to the highest    
efforts of invention and discovery4     
,,life ,,of ,,tycho ,,brahe4            
,,chapter ,i4       ,tycho's ,birth1    
,family1 and ,education--,an ,eclipse of
 the ,sun turns      his attention to   
,astronomy--,studies ,law at            
,leipsic--,but pursues      ,astronomy  
by stealth--,his ,uncle's ,death--,he   
returns to ,copenhagen1      and resumes
 his ,observations--,revisits           
,germany--,fights a ,duel1 and          
loses his ,nose--,visits ,augsburg1 and 
meets ,hainzel--,who assists him      in
 making a large ,quadrant--,revisits    
,denmark--,and is warmly      received  
by the ,king--,he settles at his        
,uncle's ,castle of                     

,herritzvold--,his ,observatory and     
,laboratory--,discovers the new ,star   
in ,cassiopeia--,account of this        
remarkable ,body--,tycho's ,marriage    
with a ,peasant ,girl--,which irritates 
his ,friends--,his ,lectures on         
,astronomy--,he visits the ,prince of   
,hesse--,attends the ,coronation of     
the ,emperor ,rudolph at ,ratisbon--,he 
returns to ,denmark4   ,among the       
distinguished men who were destined to  
revive the sciences1 and to establish   
the true system of the universe1 ,tycho 
,brahe holds a conspicuous place4 ,he   
was born on the #adth ,december #aedf1  
at ,knudstorp1 the estate of his        
ancestors1 which is situated near       
,helsingborg1 in ,scania1 and was the   
eldest son and the second child of a    
family of five sons and five daughters4 
,his father1 ,otto ,brahe1 who was      
descended from a noble ,swedish family1 
was in such straitened circumstances1   
that he resolved to educate his sons for
 the military profession2 but ,tycho    

seems to have disliked the choice that  
was made for him2 and his next brother1 
,steno1 who appears to have had a       
similar feeling1 exchanged the sword for
 the more peaceful occupation of ,privy 
,councillor to the ,king4 ,the rest of  
his brothers1 though of senatorial rank1
 do not seem to have extended the renown
 of their family2 but their youngest    
sister1 ,sophia1 is represented as an   
accomplished mathematician1 and is said 
to have devoted her mind to astronomy as
 well as to the astrological reveries of
 the age4  ,george ,brahe1 the brother  
of ,otto1 having no children of his own1
 resolved to adopt and to educate one of
 his nephews4 ,on the birth of ,tycho1  
accordingly1 he was desirous of having  
him placed under his wife's care2 but   
his parents could not be prevailed upon 
to part with their child till after the 
birth of ,steno1 their second son4      
,having been instructed in reading and  
writing under proper masters1 ,tycho    
began the study of ,latin in his seventh

 year2 and1 in opposition to his        
father's views1 he prosecuted it for    
five years under private teachers1 from 
whom he received also occasional        
instruction in poetry and the belles    
lettres4  ,in ,april #aeei1 about three 
years after his father's death1 ,tycho  
was sent to the ,university of          
,copenhagen1 to study rhetoric and      
philosophy1 with the view of preparing  
for the study of the law1 and qualifying
 himself for some of those political    
offices which his rank entitled him to  
expect4 ,in this situation he contracted
 no fondness for any particular study2  
but after he had been sixteen months at 
college1 an event occurred which        
directed all the powers of his mind to  
the science of astronomy4 ,the attention
 of the public had been long fixed on a 
great eclipse of the sun1 which was to  
happen on the #bast ,august #aefj2 and  
as in those days a phenomenon of this   
kind was linked with the destinies of   
nations as well as of individuals1 the  

interest which it excited was as intense
 as it was general4 ,tycho watched its  
arrival with peculiar anxiety4 ,he read 
the astrological diaries of the day1 in 
which its phases and its consequences   
were described2 and when he saw the sun 
darkened at the very moment that had    
been predicted1 and to the very extent  
that had been delineated1 he resolved to
 make himself master of a science which 
was capable of predicting future events1
 and especially that branch of it which 
connected these events with the fortunes
 and destinies of man4 ,with this view  
he purchased the ,tabulae ,bergenses1   
calculated by ,john ,stadius1 and began 
with ardour the study of the planetary  
motions4  ,when ,tycho had completed his
 course at ,copenhagen1 he was sent1 in 
,february #aefb1 under the charge of a  
tutor to study jurisprudence at         
,leipsic4 ,astronomy1 however1 engrossed
 all his thoughts2 and he had no sooner 
escaped from the daily surveillance of  
his master1 than he rushed with headlong

 impetuosity into his favourite         
pursuits4 ,with his pocket money he     
purchased astronomical books1 which he  
read in secret2 and by means of a       
celestial globe1 the size of his fist1  
he made himself acquainted with the     
stars1 and followed them night after    
night through the heavens1 when sleep   
had lulled the vigilance of his         
preceptor4 ,by means of the ,ephemerides
 of ,stadius1 he learned to distinguish 
the planets1 and to trace them through  
their direct and retrograde movements2  
and having obtained the ,alphonsine and 
,prutenic ,tables1 and compared his own 
calculations and observations with those
 of ,stadius1 he observed great         
differences in the results1 and from    
that moment he seems to have conceived  
the design of devoting his life to the  
accurate construction of tables1 which  
he justly regarded as the basis of      
astronomy4  ,with this view1 he applied 
himself secretly to the study of        
arithmetic and geometry2 and1 without   

the assistance of a master1 he acquired 
that mathematical knowledge which       
enabled him to realise these early      
aspirations4 ,his ardour for astronomy  
was still farther inflamed1 and the     
resolution which it inspired still      
farther strengthened1 by the great      
conjunction of ,jupiter and ,saturn1    
which took place in ,august #aefc4 ,the 
calculated time of this phenomenon      
differed considerably from the true time
 which was observed2 and in determining 
the instant of conjunction ,tycho felt  
in the strongest manner the imperfection
 of the instruments which he used4 ,for 
this purpose he employed a sort of      
compass1 one leg of which was directed  
to one planet and the second to the     
other planet or fixed star2 and1 by     
measuring the angular opening between   
them1 he determined the distance of the 
two celestial bodies4 ,by this rude     
contrivance he found that the           
,alphonsine ,tables erred a whole month 
in the time of conjunction1 while the   

,copernican ones were at least several  
days in error4 ,to this celebrated      
conjunction ,tycho ascribed the great   
plague which in subsequent years        
desolated ,europe1 because it took place
 in the beginning of ,leo1 and not far  
from the nebulous stars of ,cancer1 two 
of the zodiacal signs which are reckoned
 by ,ptolemy suffocating and pestilent6 
,there dwelt at this time at ,leipsic an
 ingenious artisan named ,scultetus1 who
 was employed by ,homelius1 the         
professor of mathematics in that city1  
to assist him in the construction of his
 instruments4 ,having become acquainted 
with this young man1 ,tycho put into his
 hand a wooden radius1 such as was      
recommended by ,gemma ,frisius1 for the 
purpose of having it divided in the     
manner adopted by ,homelius2 and with   
this improved instrument he made a great
 number of astronomical observations out
 of his window1 without ever exciting   
the suspicions of his tutor4  ,having   
spent three years at ,leipsic1 he was   

about to make the tour of ,germany1     
when1 in consequence of his uncle's     
death1 he was summoned to his native    
country to inherit the fortune which had
 been left him4 ,he accordingly quitted 
,leipsic about the middle of ,may #aefe1
 and after having arranged his domestic 
concerns in ,denmark1 he continued his  
astronomical observations with the      
radius constructed for him by           
,scultetus4 ,the ardour with which he   
pursued his studies gave great umbrage  
to his friends as well as to his        
relations4 ,he was reproached for having
 abandoned the profession of the law2   
his astronomical observations were      
ridiculed as not only useless but       
degrading1 and1 among his numerous      
connexions1 his maternal uncle1 ,steno  
,bille1 was the only one who applauded  
him for following the bent of his       
genius4 ,under these uncomfortable      
circumstances he resolved to quit his   
country1 and pay a visit to the most    
interesting cities of ,germany4  ,at    

,wittemberg1 where he arrived in ,april 
#aeff1 he resumed his astronomical      
observations2 but1 in consequence of the
 plague having broken out in that city1 
he removed to ,rostoch in the following 
autumn4 ,here an accident occurred which
 had nearly deprived him of his life4   
,on the #ajth ,december he was invited  
to a wedding feast2 and1 among other    
guests1 there was present a noble       
countryman of his own1 ,manderupius     
,pasbergius4 ,some difference having    
arisen between them on this occasion1   
they parted with feelings of mutual     
displeasure4 ,on the #bgth of the same  
month they met again at some festive    
games1 and having revived their former  
quarrel1 they agreed to settle their    
differences by the sword4 ,they         
accordingly met at #g o'clock in the    
evening of the #bith1 and fought in     
total darkness4 ,in this blind combat1  
,manderupius cut off the whole of the   
front of ,tycho's nose1 and it was      
fortunate for astronomy that his more   

valuable organs were defended by so     
faithful an outpost4 ,the quarrel1 which
 is said to have originated in a        
difference of opinion respecting their  
mathematical acquirements1 terminated   
here2 and ,tycho repaired his loss by   
cementing upon his face a nose of gold  
and silver1 which is said to have formed
 a good imitation of the original4      
,during the years #aefg and #aefh1      
,tycho continued to reside at ,rostoch1 
with the exception of a few months1     
during which he made a rapid journey    
into ,denmark4 ,he lived in a house in  
the college of the ,jesuits1 which he   
had rented on account of its fitness for
 celestial observations2 but1 though he 
intended to spend the winter under its  
roof1 he had made no arrangement        
respecting his future life1 leaving it1 
as he said1 in the hands of ,providence4
 ,a desire1 however1 to visit the south 
of ,germany induced him to quit         
,rostoch1 and having crossed the        
,danube1 he paid a visit to ,augsburg4  

,upon entering this ancient city1 ,tycho
 was particularly struck with the       
grandeur of its fortifications1 the     
splendour of its private houses1 and the
 beauty of its fountains2 and1 after a  
short residence within its walls1 he was
 still more delighted with the industry 
of the people1 the refinement of the    
higher classes1 and the love of         
literature and science which was        
cherished by its wealthy citizens4      
,among the interesting acquaintances    
which he formed at ,augsburg1 were two  
brothers1 ,john and ,paul ,hainzel1 the 
one a septemvir1 and the other the      
consul or burgomaster4 ,they were both  
distinguished by their learning1 and    
both of them1 particularly ,paul1 were  
ardent lovers of astronomy4 ,tycho had  
hitherto no other astronomical          
instrument than the coarse radius which 
was made for him by ,scultetus1 and he  
waited only for a proper occasion to    
have a larger and better instrument     
constructed for his use4 ,having now the

 command of workmen who could execute   
his plans1 he conceived the bold design 
of making a divided instrument which    
should distinctly exhibit single minutes
 of a degree4 ,while he was transferring
 the first rude conception of his       
instrument to paper1 ,paul ,hainzel     
entered his study1 and was so struck    
with the grandeur of the plan1 that he  
instantly undertook to have it executed 
at his own expense4 ,the projected      
instrument was a quadrant of fourteen   
cubits radius6 and ,tycho and his friend
 entered upon its construction with that
 intense ardour which is ever crowned   
with success4  ,in the village of       
,gegginga1 about half a mile to the     
south of the city1 ,paul ,hainzel had a 
country house1 the garden of which was  
chosen as the spot where the quadrant   
was to be fixed4 ,the best artists in   
,augsburg1 clockmakers1 jewellers1      
smiths1 and carpenters1 were engaged to 
execute the work1 and from the zeal     
which so novel an instrument inspired1  

the quadrant was completed in less than 
a month4 ,its size was so great that    
twenty men could with difficulty        
transport it to its place of fixture4   
,the two principal rectangular radii    
were beams of oak2 the arch which lay   
between their extremities was made of   
solid wood of a particular kind1 and the
 whole was bound together by twelve     
beams4 ,it received additional strength 
from several iron bands1 and the arch   
was covered with plates of brass1 for   
the purpose of receiving the #edjj      
divisions into which it was to be       
subdivided4 ,a large and strong pillar  
of oak1 shod with iron1 was driven into 
the ground1 and kept in its place by    
solid mason work4 ,to this pillar the   
quadrant was fixed in a vertical plane1 
and steps were prepared to elevate the  
observer1 when stars of a low altitude  
required his attention4 ,as the         
instrument could not be conveniently    
covered with a roof1 it was protected   
from the weather by a covering made of  

skins1 but notwithstanding this and     
other precautions1 it was broken to     
pieces by a violent storm1 after having 
remained uninjured for the space of five
 years4  ,as this quadrant was fitted   
only to determine the altitudes of the  
celestial bodies1 ,tycho constructed a  
large sextant for the purpose of        
measuring their distances4 ,it consisted
 of two radii1 which opened and shut    
round a centre1 and which were nearly   
four cubits long1 and also of two       
arches1 one of which was graduated1     
while the other served to keep the radii
 in the same plane4 ,after the radii had
 been opened or shut till they nearly   
comprehended the angle between the stars
 to be observed1 the adjustment was     
completed by means of a very fine       
tangent screw4 ,with this instrument    
,tycho made many excellent observations 
during his stay at ,augsburg4 ,he began 
also the construction of a wooden globe 
about six feet in diameter4 ,its outer  
surface was turned with great accuracy  

into a sphere1 and kept from warping by 
interior bars of wood supported at its  
centre4  ,after receiving a visit from  
the celebrated ,peter ,ramus1 who       
subsequently fell a victim at the       
massacre of ,st ,bartholomew1 ,tycho    
left ,augsburg1 having received a       
promise from his friend ,hainzel that he
 would communicate to him the           
observations made with his large        
quadrant1 and with the sextant which he 
had given him in a present4 ,he paid a  
visit to ,philip ,appian in passing     
through ,ingolstadt1 and returned to his
 native country about the end of #aega4 
,the fame which he had acquired as an   
astronomer procured for him a warmer    
reception than that which he had        
formerly experienced4 ,the ,king invited
 him to court1 and his friends and      
admirers loaded him with kindness4 ,his 
uncle1 ,steno ,bille1 who now lived at  
the ancient convent of ,herritzvold1 and
 who had always taken a deep interest in
 the scientific character of his nephew1

 not only invited him to his house1 but 
assigned to him for an observatory the  
part of it which was best adapted for   
that purpose4 ,tycho cheerfully accepted
 of this liberal offer4 ,the immediate  
proximity of ,herritzvold to ,knudstorp1
 rendered this arrangement peculiarly   
convenient1 and in the house of his     
uncle he experienced all that kindness  
and consideration which natural         
affection and a love of science combined
 to cherish4 ,when ,steno learned that  
the study of chemistry was one of the   
pursuits of his nephew1 he granted him a
 spacious house1 a few yards distant    
from the convent1 for his laboratory4   
,tycho lost no time in fitting up his   
observatory1 and in providing his       
furnaces2 and regarding gold and silver 
and the other metals as the stars of the
 earth1 he used to represent his two    
opposite pursuits as forming only one   
science1 namely1 celestial and          
terrestrial astronomy4  ,in the hopes of
 enriching himself by the pursuits of   

alchemy1 ,tycho devoted most of his     
attention to those satellites of gold   
and silver which now constituted his own
 system1 and which disturbed by their   
powerful action the hitherto uniform    
movements of their primary4 ,his        
affections were ever turning to         
,germany1 where astronomers of kindred  
views1 and artists of surpassing talent 
were to be found in almost every city4  
,the want of money alone prevented him  
from realizing his wishes2 and it was in
 the hope of attaining the means of     
travelling1 that he in a great measure  
forsook his sextants for his crucibles4 
,in order1 however1 that he might have  
one good instrument in his observatory1 
he constructed a sextant similar to1 but
 somewhat larger than1 that which he had
 presented to ,hainzel4 ,its limb was   
made of solid brass1 and was exquisitely
 divided into single minutes of a       
degree4 ,its radii were strengthened    
with plates of brass1 and the apparatus 
for opening and shutting them was made  

with great accuracy4  ,the possession of
 this instrument was peculiarly         
fortunate for ,tycho1 for an event now  
occurred which roused him from his      
golden visions1 and directed all his    
faculties into their earlier and purer  
current4 ,on the #aath ,november #aegb1 
when he was returning to supper from his
 laboratory1 the clearness of the sky   
inspired him with the desire of         
completing some particular observations4
 ,on looking up to the starry firmament 
he was surprised to see an extraordinary
 light in the constellation of          
,cassiopeia1 which was then above his   
head4 ,he felt confident that he had    
never before observed such a star in    
that constellation1 and distrusting the 
evidence of his own senses1 he called   
out the servants and the peasants1 and  
having received their testimony that it 
was a huge star such as they had never  
seen before1 he was satisfied of the    
correctness of his own vision4          
,regarding it as a new and unusual      

phenomenon1 he hastened to his          
observatory1 adjusted his sextant1 and  
measured its distances from the nearest 
stars in ,cassiopeia4 ,he noted also its
 form1 its magnitude1 its light1 and its
 colour1 and he waited with great       
anxiety for the next night that he might
 determine the important point whether  
it was a fixed star1 or a body within1  
or near to1 our own system4  ,for       
several years ,tycho had been in the    
practice of calculating1 at the         
beginning of each year1 a sort of       
almanac for his own use1 and in this he 
inserted all the observations which he  
had made on the new star1 and the       
conclusions which he had drawn from     
them4 ,having gone to ,copenhagen in the
 course of the ensuing spring1 he shewed
 this manuscript to ,john ,pratensis1 a 
,professor1 in whose house he was always
 hospitably received4 ,charles ,danzeus1
 the ,french ambassador1 and a person of
 great learning1 having heard of        
,tycho's arrival1 invited himself to    

dine with him at the house of           
,pratensis4 ,the conversation soon      
turned upon the new star1 and ,tycho    
found his companion very sceptical about
 its existence4 ,danzeus was            
particularly jocular on the subject1 and
 attacked the ,danes for their          
inattention to so important a science as
 astronomy4 ,tycho received this lecture
 in good temper1 and with the anxious   
expectation that a clear sky would      
enable him to give a practical          
refutation of the attack which was made 
upon his country4 ,the night turned out 
serene1 and the whole party saw with    
astonishment the new star under the most
 favourable circumstances4 ,pratensis   
conceived that it was similar to the one
 observed by ,hipparchus1 and urged     
,tycho to publish the observations which
 he had made upon it4 ,tycho refused to 
accede to this request1 on the pretext  
that his work was not sufficiently      
perfect2 but the true reason1 as he     
afterwards acknowledged1 was1 that he   

considered it would be a disgrace for a 
nobleman1 either to study such subjects1
 or to communicate them to the public4  
,this absurd notion was with some       
difficulty overcome1 and through the    
earnest entreaties and assistance of    
,pratensis1 his work on the new star was
 published in #aegc4  ,this remarkable  
body presents to us one of the most     
interesting phenomena in astronomy4 ,the
 date of its first appearance has not   
been exactly ascertained4 ,tycho saw it 
on the #aath ,november1 but ,cornelius  
,gemma had seen it on the #ith1 ,paul   
,hainzel saw it on the #gth of ,august  
at ,augsburg1 and ,wolfgangus ,schulerus
 observed it at ,wittenberg on the #fth4
 ,tycho conjectures that it was first   
seen on the #eth1 and ,hieronymus       
,munosius asserts that at ,valentia1 in 
,spain1 it was not seen on the #b;d1    
when he was shewing that part of the    
heavens to his pupils4 ,this singular   
body continued to be seen during #af    
months1 and did not disappear till      

,march #aegd4 ,in its appearance it was 
exactly like a star1 having none of the 
distinctive marks of a comet4 ,it       
twinkled strongly1 and grew larger than 
,lyra or ,sirius1 or any other fixed    
star4 ,it seemed to be somewhat larger  
than ,jupiter1 when he is nearest the   
earth1 and rivalled ,venus in her       
greatest brightness4 ,in the first month
 of its appearance it was less than     
,jupiter2 in the second it equalled him2
 in the third it surpassed him in       
splendour2 in the fourth it was equal to
 ,sirius2 in the fifth to ,lyra2 in the 
sixth and seventh to stars of the second
 magnitude2 in the eighth1 ninth1 and   
tenth1 to stars of the third magnitude2 
in the eleventh1 twelfth1 and           
thirteenth1 to stars of the fourth      
magnitude2 in the fourteenth and        
fifteenth to stars of the fifth         
magnitude2 and in the sixteenth month to
 stars of the sixth magnitude4 ,after   
this it became so small that it at last 
disappeared4 ,its colour changed also   

with its size4 ,at first it was white   
and bright2 in the third month it began 
to become yellowish2 in the fifth it    
became reddish like ,aldebaran2 and in  
the seventh and eighth it became bluish 
like ,saturn2 growing afterwards duller 
and duller4 ,its place in the heavens   
was invariable4 ,its longitude was in   
the #fth degree and #edth minute of     
,taurus2 and its latitude #ec deg4 #de' 
north4 ,its right ascension was #j deg4 
#bf-b_/e' and its declination #fa deg4  
#df-c_/d'4 ,it had no parallax1 and was 
unquestionably situated in the region of
 the fixed stars4  ,after ,tycho had    
published his book1 he proposed to      
travel into ,germany and ,italy1 but he 
was seized with a fever1 and he had no  
sooner recovered from it1 than he became
 involved in a love affair1 which       
frustrated all his schemes4 ,although   
,tycho was afraid of casting a stain    
upon his nobility by publishing his     
observations on the new star1 yet he did
 not scruple to debase his lineage by   

marrying a peasant girl of the village  
of ,knudstorp4 ,this event took place in
 #aegc1 and in #aegd his wife gave birth
 to his daughter ,magdalene4 ,tycho's   
noble relations were deeply offended at 
this imprudent step2 and so far did the 
mutual animosity of the parties extend1 
that the ,king himself was obliged to   
effect a reconciliation4  ,the fame of  
our author as an astronomer and         
mathematician was now so high1 that     
several young ,danish nobles requested  
him to deliver a course of lectures upon
 these interesting subjects4 ,this      
application was seconded by ,pratensis1 
,danzeus1 and all his best friends2 but 
their solicitations were vain4 ,the     
,king at last made the request in a way 
which ensured its being granted1 and    
,tycho delivered a course of lectures1  
in which he not only gave a full view of
 the science of astronomy1 but defended 
and explained all the reveries of       
astrology4  ,having finished his        
lectures1 and arranged his domestic     

affairs1 he set out on his projected    
journey about the beginning of the      
spring of #aege1 leaving behind him his 
wife and daughter1 till he should fix   
upon a place of permanent residence4    
,the first town which he visited was    
,hesse-,cassel1 the residence of        
,william1 ,landgrave of ,hesse1 whose   
patronage of astronomy1 and whose skill 
in making celestial observations1 have  
immortalized his name4 ,here ,tycho     
spent eight or ten delightful days1     
during which the two astronomers were   
occupied one half of the day in         
scientific conversation1 and the other  
half in astronomical observations2 and  
he would have prolonged a visit which   
gave him so much pleasure1 had not the  
death of one of the ,landgrave's        
daughters interrupted their labours4    
,passing through ,frankfort1 ,tycho went
 into ,switzerland2 and1 after visiting 
many cities on his way1 he fixed upon   
,basle as a place of residence1 not only
 from its centrical position1 but from  

the salubrity of the air1 and the       
cheapness of living4 ,from ,switzerland 
he went to ,venice1 and1 in returning   
through ,germany1 he came to ,ratisbon1 
at the time of the congress1 which had  
been called together on the #ast of     
,november1 for the coronation of the    
,emperor ,rudolph4 ,on this occasion he 
met with several distinguished          
individuals1 who were not only skilled  
in astronomy1 but who were among its    
warmest patrons4 ,from ,ratisbon he     
passed to ,saalfeld1 and thence to      
,wittemburg1 where he saw the           
parallactic instruments and the wooden  
quadrant which had been used by ,john   
,pratensis in determining the latitude  
of the city1 and in measuring the       
altitudes of the new star4  ,tycho was  
now impatient for home1 and he lost no  
time in returning to ,denmark1 where    
events were awaiting him which          
frustrated all his schemes1 by placing  
him in the most favourable situation for
 promoting his own happiness1 and       

advancing the interests of astronomy4   
,,chapter ,,ii4       ,frederick ,,ii4  
patronises ,tycho--,and resolves to     
establish him in      ,denmark--,grants 
him the ,island of ,huen for ,life--,and
 ,builds the      splendid ,observatory 
of ,uraniburg--,description of the      
,island1 and      of the                
,observatory--,account of its           
,astronomical ,instruments--,tycho      
begins his ,observations--,his          
,pupils--,tycho is made ,canon of       
,rothschild1 and receives a large       
,pension--,his ,hospitality to his      
,visitors--,ingratitude of              
,witichius--,tycho sends an ,assistant  
to      take the ,latitude of           
,frauenburg and ,konigsberg--,is visited
 by      ,ulric1 ,duke of               
,mecklenburg--,change in ,tycho's       
fortunes4   ,the patronage which had    
been extended to astronomers by several 
of the reigning princes of ,germany1    
especially by the ,landgrave of ,hesse1 
and ,augustus1 ,elector of ,saxony1 had 

begun to excite a love of science in the
 minds of other sovereigns4 ,the ,king  
of ,denmark seems to have felt it as a  
stain upon his character1 that the only 
astronomer in his dominions should carry
 on his observations in distant kingdoms
 and adorn by his discoveries other     
courts than his own4 ,with this feeling 
he sent ambassadors to ,hesse-,cassel to
 inquire after ,tycho1 and to intimate  
to him his wish that he should return to
 ,denmark1 and his anxiety to promote   
the advancement of astronomy in his own 
dominions4 ,tycho had left ,cassel when 
these messengers arrived1 and had heard 
nothing of the ,king's intentions till  
he was about to quit ,knudstorp with his
 family for ,basle4 ,at this time he was
 surprised at the arrival of a noble    
messenger1 who brought a letter         
requesting him to meet the ,king as soon
 as possible at ,copenhagen4 ,tycho lost
 no time in obeying the royal summons4  
,the ,king received him with the most   
flattering kindness4 ,he offered to give

 him a grant for life of the island of  
,huen1 between ,denmark and ,sweden1 and
 to construct and furnish with          
instruments1 at his own expense1 an     
observatory1 as well as a house for the 
accommodation of his family1 together   
with a laboratory for carrying on his   
chemical inquiries4 ,tycho1 who truly   
loved his country1 was deeply affected  
with the munificence of the royal offer4
 ,he accepted of it with that warmth of 
gratitude which it was calculated to    
inspire2 and he particularly rejoiced in
 the thought that if any success should 
attend his future labours1 the glory of 
it would belong to his native land4     
,the island of ,huen is about sxix miles
 from the coast of ,zealand1 three from 
that of ,sweden1 and fourteen from      
,copenhagen4 ,it is six miles in        
circumference1 and rises into the form  
of a mountain1 which1 though very high1 
terminates in a plain4 ,it is nowhere   
rocky1 and even in the time of ,tycho it
 produced the best kinds of grain1      

afforded excellent pasturage for horses1
 cattle1 and sheep1 and possessed deer1 
hares1 rabbits1 and partridges in       
abundance4 ,it contained at that time   
only one village1 with about forty      
inhabitants4  ,having surveyed his new  
territory1 ,tycho resolved to build a   
magnificent tower in the centre of the  
elevated plain1 which he resolved to    
call ,uraniburg1 or ,the ,city of the   
,heavens4 ,having made the necessary    
arrangements1 he repaired to the island 
on the #hth of ,august1 and his friend  
,charles ,danzeus laid the foundation   
stone of the new observatory1 which     
consisted of a slab of porphyry1 with   
the following inscription3--            
,,regnante ,,in ,,dania ,,frederico     
,,ii41 ,,carolus ,,danzaeus ,,aquitanus 
,r4 ,g4 ,i4      ,d4 ,l41#cg ,,domui    
,,huic ,,philosophiae1 ,,imprimisque    
,,astrorum      ,,contemplationi1       
,,regis ,,decreto ,a ,,nobili ,,viro    
,,tychone ,,brahe ,,de      ,,knudstrup 
,,extructae ,,votivum ,,hunc ,,lapidem  

,,memoriae ,,et ,,felicis ,,auspicii    
,,ergo ,p4 ,,anno ,,cic4,,ic4,,lxxvi4#ch
 ,,vi ,,id4 ,,augusti4       #cg ,regis 
,gallorum in ,dania ,legatus4       #ch 
,transcriber's footnote3 ,the second ,cs
 in ,,cic and ,,ic are      printed     
reversed in the original4  ,this        
ceremony was performed early in the     
morning of a splendid day1 in which the 
rising sun threw its blessing upon      
,frederick1 and upon the party of       
noblemen and philosophers who had       
assembled to testify their love of      
science4 ,an entertainment was provided 
for the occasion1 and copious libations 
of a variety of wines were offered for  
the success of the undertaking4  ,the   
observatory was surrounded by a rampart1
 each face of which was three hundred   
feet long4 ,about the middle of each    
face the rampart became a semicircle1   
the inner diameter of which was ninety  
feet4 ,the height of the rampart was    
twenty-two feet1 and its thickness at   
the base twenty4 ,its four angles       

corresponded exactly with the four      
cardinal points1 and at the north and   
south angles were erected turrets1 of   
which one was a printing-house1 and the 
other the residence of the servants4    
,gates were erected at the east and west
 angles1 and above them were apartments 
for the reception of strangers4 ,within 
the rampart was a shrubbery with about  
three hundred varieties of trees2 and at
 the centre of each semicircular part of
 the rampart was a bower or             
summer-house4 ,this shrubbery surrounded
 the flower-garden1 which was terminated
 within by a circular wall about        
forty-five feet high1 which enclosed a  
more elevated area1 in the centre of    
which stood the principal building in   
the observatory1 and from which four    
paths led to the above-mentioned angles1
 with as many doors for entering the    
garden4  ,the principal building was    
about sixty feet square4 ,the doors were
 placed on the east and west sides2 and 
to the north and south fronts were      

attached two round towers1 whose inner  
diameter was about thirty-two feet1 and 
which formed the observatories which had
 windows in their roof1 that could be   
opened towards any part of the heavens4 
,the accommodations for the family were 
numerous and splendid4 ,under the       
observatory1 in the south tower1 was the
 museum and library1 and below this     
again was the laboratory in a           
subterraneous crypt1 containing sixteen 
furnaces of various kinds4 ,beneath this
 was a well forty feet deep1 from which 
water was distributed by syphons to     
every part of the building4  ,besides   
the principal building there were other 
two situated without the rampart1 one to
 the north1 containing a workshop for   
the construction of astronomical and    
other instruments1 and the other to the 
south1 which was occupied as a sort of  
farm-house4 ,these buildings cost the   
,king of ,denmark #ajj1jjj rix-dollars  
7,l#bj1jjj71 and ,tycho is said to have 
expended upon them a similar sum4  ,as  

the two towers could not accommodate the
 instruments which ,tycho required for  
his observations1 he found it necessary 
to erect1 on the hill about sixty paces 
to the south of ,uraniburg1 a           
subterranean observatory1 in which he   
might place his larger instruments1     
which required to be firmly fixed1 and  
to be protected from the wind and the   
weather4 ,this observatory1 which he    
called ,stiern-berg1 or the mountain1 of
 the stars1 consisted of several crypts1
 separated by solid walls1 and to these 
there was a subterranean passage from   
the laboratory in ,uraniburg4 ,the      
various buildings which ,tycho erected  
were built in a regular style of        
architecture1 and were highly           
ornamented1 not only with external      
decorations1 but with the statues and   
pictures of the most distinguished      
astronomers1 from ,hipparchus and       
,ptolemy down to ,copernicus1 and with  
inscriptions and poems in honour of     
astronomers4  ,while these buildings    

were erecting1 and after their          
completion1 ,tycho was busily occupied  
in preparing instruments for            
observation4 ,these were of the most    
splendid description1 and the reader    
will form some notion of their grandeur 
and their expense from the following    
list3--     ,in the south and greater   
,observatory4       #a4 ,a semicircle of
 solid iron1 covered with brass1 four   
cubits      radius4       #b4 ,a sextant
 of the same materials and size4        
#c4 ,a quadrant of one and a half cubits
 radius1 and an azimuth      circle of  
three cubits4       #d4 ,ptolemy's      
parallactic rules1 covered with brass1  
four cubits in      the side4       #e4 
,the sextant already described in page  
#acd4       #f4 ,another quadrant1 like 
,no4 #c4       #g4 ,zodiacal armillaries
 of melted brass1 and turned out of the 
solid1 of three cubits in diameter4     
,near this observatory was a large      
clock1 with one wheel two cubits      in
 diameter1 and two smaller ones1 which1 

like it1 indicated hours1      minutes1 
and seconds4     ,in the south and      
lesser ,observatory4       #h4 ,an      
armillary sphere of brass1 with a steel 
meridian1 whose      diameter was about 
#d cubits4     ,in the north            
,observatory4       #i4 ,brass          
parallactic rules1 which revolved in    
azimuth above a brass      horizon1     
twelve feet in diameter4       #aj4 ,a  
half sextant1 of four cubits radius4    
#aa4 ,a steel sextant4       #ab4       
,another half sextant1 with steel limb1 
four cubits radius4       #ac4 ,the     
parallactic rules of ,copernicus4       
#ad4 ,equatorial armillaries4       #ae4
 ,a quadrant of a solid plate of brass1 
five cubits in radius1      shewing     
every ten seconds4       #af4 ,in the   
museum was the large globe made at      
,augsburg1 see p4 #acd4     ,in the     
,stiern-berg ,observatory4       #ag4   
,in the central part1 a large           
semicircle1 with a brass limb1 and      
three clocks1 shewing hours1 minutes1   

and seconds4       #ah4 ,equatorial     
armillaries of seven cubits1 with       
semi-armillaries      of nine cubits4   
#ai4 ,a sextant of four cubits radius4  
#bj4 ,a geometrical square of iron1 with
 an intercepted quadrant of      five   
cubits1 and divided into fifteen        
seconds4       #ba4 ,a quadrant of four 
cubits radius1 shewing ten seconds1 with
 an      azimuth circle4       #bb4     
,zodiacal armillaries of brass1 with    
steel meridians1 three      cubits in   
diameter4       #bc4 ,a sextant of      
brass1 kept together by screws1 and     
capable of      being taken to pieces   
for travelling with4 ,its radius was    
four      cubits4       #bd4 ,a moveable
 armillary sphere1 three cubits in      
diameter4       #be4 ,a quadrant of     
solid brass1 one cubit radius1 and      
divided into      minutes by ,nonian    
circles4       #bf4 ,an astronomical    
radius of solid brass1 three cubits     
long4       #bg4 ,an astronomical ring  
of brass1 a cubit in diameter4          

#bh4 ,a small brass astrolabe4  ,in     
almost all the instruments now          
enumerated1 the limb was subdivided by  
diagonal lines1 a method which ,tycho   
first brought into use1 but which1 in   
modern times1 has been superseded by the
 inventions of ,nonius and ,vernier4    
,when ,tycho had thus furnished his     
observatory1 he devoted himself to the  
examination of the stars2 and during the
 twenty-one years which he spent in this
 delightful occupation1 he made vast    
additions to astronomical science4 ,in  
order to instruct the young in the art  
of observation1 and educate assistants  
for his observatory1 he had sometimes   
under his roof from six to twelve       
pupils1 whom he boarded and educated4   
,some of these were named by the ,king1 
and educated at his expense4 ,others    
were sent by different academies and    
cities2 and several1 who had presented  
themselves of their own accord1 were    
liberally admitted by the generous      
astronomer4  ,as ,tycho had spent nearly

 a ton of gold 7about #ajj1jjj dollars7 
in his outlay at ,uraniburg1 his own    
income was reduced to very narrow       
limits4 ,to supply this defect1         
,frederick gave him an annual pension of
 #bjjj dollars1 beside an estate in     
,norway1 and made him ,canon of the     
,episcopal ,church of ,rothschild1 or   
,prebend of ,st ,laurence1#ci which had 
an annual income of #ajjj dollars1 and  
which was burdened only with the expense
 of keeping up the chapel containing the
 ,mausolea of the ,kings of the family  
of ,oldenburg4       #ci ,this office   
had been usually conferred on the       
,king's      ,chancellor4  ,it would be 
an unprofitable task1 and one by no     
means interesting to the general reader1
 to give a detailed history of the      
various astronomical observations and   
discoveries which were made by ,tycho   
during the twenty years that he spent at
 ,uraniburg4 ,every phenomenon that     
appeared in the heavens1 he observed    
with the greatest care2 while he at the 

same time carried on regular series of  
observations for determining the places 
of the fixed stars1 and for improving   
the tables of the sun1 moon1 and        
planets4 ,though almost wholly devoted  
to these noble pursuits1 yet he kept an 
open house1 and received1 with unbounded
 hospitality1 the crowds of             
philosophers1 nobles1 and princes who   
came to be introduced to the first      
astronomer of the age1 and to admire the
 splendid temple which the ,danish      
,sovereign had consecrated to science4  
,among the strangers whom he received   
under his roof1 there were some who     
returned his kindness with ingratitude4 
,among these was ,paul ,witichius1 a    
mathematician2 who1 under the pretence  
of devoting his whole life to astronomy1
 insinuated himself into the utmost     
familiarity with ,tycho4 ,the           
unsuspecting astronomer explained to his
 guest all his inventions1 described all
 his methods1 and even made him         
acquainted with those views which he had

 not realised1 and with instruments     
which he had not yet executed4 ,when    
,witichius had thus obtained possession 
of the methods1 and inventions1 and     
views of ,tycho1 and had enjoyed his    
hospitality for three months1 he        
pretended that he was obliged to return 
to ,germany to receive an inheritance to
 which he had succeeded4 ,after quitting
 ,uraniburg1 this ungrateful            
mathematician neither returned to see   
,tycho1 nor kept up any correspondence  
with him2 and it was not till five years
 after his departure that ,tycho        
learned1 from the letters of the ,prince
 of ,hesse to ,ranzau1 that ,witichius  
had passed through ,hesse1 and had      
described1 as his own1 the various      
inventions and methods which had been   
shewn to him in ,huen4  ,being unable to
 reconcile his own observations with    
those of ,copernicus1 and with the      
,prutenic ,tables1 ,tycho resolved to   
obtain new determinations of the        
latitude of ,frauenburg1 in ,prussia1   

where ,copernicus made his observations1
 and of ,konigsberg1 to the meridian of 
which ,rheinhold had adapted his        
,prutenic ,tables4 ,for these purposes  
he sent one of his assistants1 ,elias   
,morsianus1 with a proper instrument1   
under the protection of ,bylovius1      
,ambassador of the ,margrave of         
,anspach1 to the ,king of ,denmark1 who 
was returning by sea to ,germany2 and   
after receiving the greatest attention  
and assistance from the noble ,canons of
 ,ermeland1 he determined1 from nearly a
 month's observations on the sun and    
stars1 that the latitude of ,frauenburg 
was #ed deg4 #bb-a_/b'1 in place of #ed 
deg4 #ai-a_/b'1 as given by ,copernicus4
 ,in like manner he determined that the 
latitude of ,konigsberg was #ed deg4    
#dc'1 in place of #ed deg4 #ag'1 as     
adopted by ,rheinhold4 ,when ,morsianus 
returned to ,huen in ,july1 he brought  
with him1 as a present to ,tycho1 from  
,john ,hannovius1 one of the ,canons of 
,ermeland1 the ,ptolemaic ,rules1 or the

 ,parallactic ,instrument which         
,copernicus had used and made with his  
own hands4 ,it consisted of two equal   
wooden rules1 five cubits long1 and     
divided into #adad parts4 ,tycho        
preserved this gift as one peculiarly   
dear to him1 and1 on the day of his     
receiving it1 he composed a set of      
verses in honour of the great astronomer
 to whom it belonged4  ,among the       
distinguished visits which were paid to 
,tycho1 we must enumerate that of       
,ulric1 ,duke of ,mecklenburg1 in #aehf4
 ,although his daughter1 ,sophia1 ,queen
 of ,denmark1 had already paid two      
visits to ,uraniburg in the same year1  
yet such was her love of astronomy1 that
 she accompanied her father and his wife
 ,elizabeth on this occasion4 ,ulric was
 not only fond of science in general1   
but had for many years devoted himself  
to chemical pursuits1 and he was        
therefore peculiarly gratified in       
examining the splendid laboratory and   
extensive apparatus which ,tycho        

possessed4 ,it has been said by some of 
the biographers of ,tycho1 that the     
,landgrave of ,hesse visited ,uraniburg 
about this period2 but this opinion is  
not correct1 as it was only his         
astronomer and optician1 ,rothman1 who  
made a journey to ,huen in #aeia for the
 recovery of his health4 ,tycho had long
 carried on a correspondence with this  
able astronomer respecting the          
observations made at the observatory of 
,hesse-,cassel1 and1 during the few     
months which they now spent together1   
they discussed in the amplest manner all
 the questions which had previously been
 agitated4 ,rothman was astonished at   
the wonderful apparatus which he saw at 
,uraniburg1 and returned to his native  
country charmed with the hospitality of 
the ,danish astronomer4  ,hitherto we   
have followed ,tycho through a career of
 almost unexampled prosperity4 ,when he 
had scarcely reached his thirtieth year 
he was established1 by the kindness and 
liberality of his sovereign1 in the most

 splendid observatory that had ever been
 erected in ,europe2 and a thriving     
family1 an ample income1 and a widely   
extended reputation were added to his   
blessings4 ,of the value of these gifts 
he was deeply sensible1 and he enjoyed  
them the more that he received them with
 a grateful heart4 ,tycho was a         
christian as well as a philosopher4 ,the
 powers of his gifted mind have been    
amply displayed in his astronomical     
labours2 but we shall now have occasion 
to witness his piety and resignation in 
submitting to an unexpected and an      
adverse destiny4     ,,chapter ,,iii4   
,tycho's ,labours do honour to his      
,country--,death of ,frederick          
,,ii4--,james ,,vi4 of ,scotland visits 
,tycho at ,uraniburg--,christian ,,iv4  
visits ,tycho--,the ,duke of            
,brunswick's visit to ,tycho--,the      
,danish      ,nobility1 jealous of his  
fame1 conspire against him--,he is      
compelled to quit ,uraniburg--,and to   
abandon his ,studies--,cruelty of       

the ,minister ,walchendorp--,tycho quits
 ,denmark with his ,family and          
,instruments--,is hospitably received by
 ,count ,rantzau--,who      introduces  
him to the ,emperor ,rudolph--,the      
,emperor invites him to                 
,prague--,he gives him a ,pension of    
#cjjj ,crowns--,and the ,castle of      
,benach as a ,residence and an          
,observatory--,kepler visits            
,tycho--,who      obtains for him the   
,appointment of ,mathematician to       
,rudolph4   ,the love of astronomy which
 had been so unequivocally exhibited by 
,frederick ,,ii4 and his ,royal         
,consort1 inspired their courtiers with 
at least an outward respect for science2
 and among the ministers and advisers of
 the ,king1 ,tycho reckoned many ardent 
friends4 ,it was every where felt that  
,denmark had elevated herself among the 
nations of ,europe by her liberality to 
,tycho2 and the peaceful glory which he 
had in return conferred upon his country
 was not of a kind to dissatisfy even   

rival nations4 ,in the conquests of     
science no widow's or orphan's tears are
 shed1 no captives are dragged from     
their homes1 and no devoted victims are 
yoked to the chariot wheels of the      
triumphant philosopher4 ,the newly      
acquired domains of knowledge belong1 in
 right of conquest1 to all nations1 and 
,denmark had now earned the gratitude of
 ,europe by the magnitude as well as the
 success of her contingent4  ,an event1 
however1 now occurred which threatened  
with destruction the interests of       
,danish science4 ,in the beginning of   
,april #aehh1 ,frederick ,,ii4 died in  
the #edth year of his age1 and the #bith
 of his reign4 ,his remains were        
conveyed to ,rothschild1 and deposited  
in the chapel under ,tycho's care1 where
 a finely executed bust of him was      
afterwards placed4 ,his son and         
successor1 ,christian ,,iv41 was only in
 the #aath year of his age1 and though  
his temper and disposition were good1   
yet ,tycho had reason to be alarmed at  

the possibility of his discontinuing the
 patronage of astronomy4 ,the taste for 
science1 however1 which had sprung up in
 the ,danish ,court had extended itself 
no wider than the influence of the      
reigning sovereign4 ,the parasites of   
royalty saw themselves eclipsed in the  
bright renown which ,tycho had acquired1
 and every new visit to ,uraniburg by a 
foreign prince supplied fresh fuel to   
the rancour which had long been         
smothering in their breasts4 ,the       
accession of a youthful king held out to
 his enemies an opportunity of          
destroying the influence of ,tycho2 and 
though no adverse step was taken1 yet he
 had the sagacity to foresee1 in trifles
 light as air1 the approaching          
confirmation of his fears4 ,hope1       
however1 still cheered him amid his     
labours1 but that hope was founded      
chiefly on the learning and character of
 ,nicolas ,caasius1 the ,chancellor of  
the ,kingdom1 from whom he had          
experienced the warmest attentions4     

,among the princes who visited          
,uraniburg1 there were none who         
conducted themselves with more          
condescension and generosity than our   
own sovereign1 ,james ,,vi4 ,in the year
 #aeij1 when the ,scottish ,king        
repaired to ,denmark to celebrate his   
marriage with the ,princess ,anne1 the  
,king's sister1 he paid a visit to      
,tycho1 attended by his councillors and 
a large suite of nobility4 ,during the  
eight days which he spent at ,uraniburg1
 ,james carried on long discussions with
 ,tycho on various subjects1 but chiefly
 on the motion which ,copernicus had    
ascribed to the earth4 ,he examined     
narrowly all the astronomical           
instruments1 and made himself acquainted
 with the principles of their           
construction and the method of using    
them4 ,he inspected the busts and       
pictures in the museum1 and when he     
perceived the portrait of ,george       
,buchanan1 his own preceptor1 he could  
not refrain from the strongest          

expressions of delight4 ,upon quitting  
the hospitable roof of ,tycho1 ,james   
not only presented him with a           
magnificent donation1 but afterwards    
gave him his royal license to publish   
his works in ,england during seventy    
years4 ,this license was accompanied    
with the following high eulogium on his 
abilities and learning3--,nor have ,i   
become acquainted with these things only
 from the relation of others1 or from a 
bare inspection of your works1 but ,i   
have seen then before my own eyes1 and  
have heard them with my own ears1 in    
your residence at ,uraniburg1 and have  
drawn them from the various learned and 
agreeable conversations which ,i there  
held with you1 and which even now affect
 my mind to such a degree1 that it is   
difficult to determine whether ,i       
recollect them with greater pleasure or 
admiration2 as ,i now willingly testify1
 by this license1 to present and to     
future generations1 c4  ,at the request 
of ,tycho1 the ,king also composed and  

wrote in his own hand some ,latin       
verses1 which were more complimentary   
than classical4 ,his ,chancellor had    
also composed some verses of a similar  
character during his visit to ,tycho4 ,a
 short specimen of these will be deemed 
sufficient by the classical reader3--   
,vidit et obstupuit ,rex ,huennum       
,scoticus almam2     ,miratus clari tot 
monumenta viri4  ,in the year #aeia1    
when ,christian ,,iv4 had reached his   
#adth year1 he expressed a desire to pay
 a visit to ,uraniburg4 ,he accordingly 
set out with a large party1 consisting  
of his three principal senators1 and    
other councillors and noblemen2 and     
having examined the various instruments 
in the observatories and laboratory1 he 
proposed to ,tycho various questions on 
mechanics and mathematics1 but          
particularly on the principles of       
fortification and ship building4 ,having
 observed that he particularly admired a
 brass globe1 which1 by means of        
internal wheelwork1 imitated the diurnal

 motion of the heavens1 the rising and  
setting of the sun1 and the phases of   
the moon1 ,tycho made him a present of  
it1 and received in return an elegant   
gold chain1 with his ,majesty's picture1
 with an assurance of his unalterable   
attachment and protection4              
,notwithstanding this assurance1 ,tycho 
had already1 as we have stated1 begun to
 suspect the designs of his enemies2 and
 in a letter addressed to the ,landgrave
 of ,hesse1 early in #aeia1 he throws   
out some hints which indicated the      
anxieties that agitated his mind4 ,the  
,landgrave of ,hesse1 as if he had heard
 some rumours unfavourable to the       
prospects of ,tycho1 requested him to   
write him respecting the state of the   
,kingdom1 and concerning his own private
 affairs4 ,to this letter1 which was    
dated early in ,february1 ,tycho replied
 about the beginning of ,april4 ,he     
informed the ,landgrave that he led a   
private life in his own island1 exempt  
from all official functions1 and never  

willingly taking a part in public       
affairs4 ,he was desirous of leaving the
 ambition of public honours to others1  
and of devoting himself wholly to the   
study of philosophy and astronomy2 and  
he expressed a hope that if he should be
 involved in the tumults and troubles of
 life1 either by his own destiny or by  
evil counsels1 he might be able1 by the 
blessing of ,god1 to extricate himself  
by the force of his mind and the        
integrity of his life4 ,he comforted    
himself with the idea that every soil   
was the country of a great man1 and that
 wherever he went the blue sky would    
still be over his head2#dj and he       
distinctly states at the close of his   
letter1 that he had thought of          
transferring his residence to some other
 place1 as there were some of the       
,king's councillors who had already     
begun to calumniate his studies1 and to 
grudge him his pension from the         
treasury4       #dj ,omne solum forti   
patria1 et coelum undique supra est4    

,the causes which led to this change of 
feeling on the part of ,christian       
,,iv4's advisers have not been explained
 by the biographers of ,tycho4 ,it has  
been stated1 in general terms1 that he  
had made many enemies1 by the keenness  
of his temper and the severity of his   
satire2 but ,i have not been able to    
discover any distinct examples of these 
peculiarities of his mind4 ,in an event1
 indeed1 which occurred about this time1
 he slightly resented a piece of marked 
incivility on the part of ,henry        
,julius1 ,duke of ,brunswick1 who had   
married the ,princess ,eliza of         
,denmark2 but it is not likely that so  
trivial an affair1 if it were known at  
court1 could have called down upon him  
the hostility of the ,king's advisers4  
,the ,duke of ,brunswick had1 in #aeij1 
paid a visit to ,uraniburg1 and had     
particularly admired an antique brass   
statue of ,mercury1 about a cubit long1 
which ,tycho had placed in the roof of  
the hypocaust or central crypt of the   

,stiern-berg observatory4 ,by means of a
 concealed mechanism1 it moved round in 
a circular orbit4 ,the ,duke requested  
the statue and its machinery1 which     
,tycho gave him1 on the condition that  
he should obtain a model of it1 for the 
purpose of having another executed by a 
skilful workman4 ,the ,duke not only    
forgot his promise1 but paid no         
attention to the letters which were     
addressed to him4 ,tycho was justly     
irritated at this unprincely conduct1   
and ordered this anecdote to be inserted
 in the description of ,uraniburg which 
he was now preparing for publication4   
,in the year #aeib1 ,tycho lost his     
distinguished friend and correspondent  
the ,prince of ,hesse1 and astronomy one
 of its most active and intelligent     
cultivators4 ,his grief on this occasion
 was deep and sincere1 and he gave      
utterance to his feelings in an         
impassioned elegy1 in which he recorded 
the virtues and talents of his friend4  
,prince ,maurice1 the son and successor 

of the ,landgrave1 continued1 with the  
assistance of able observers1 to keep up
 the reputation of the observatory of   
,hesse-,cassel2 and the observations    
which were there made were afterwards   
published by ,snellius4 ,the extensive  
and valuable correspondence between     
,tycho and the ,landgrave was prepared  
for publication about the beginning of  
#aeic1 and contains also the letters of 
,rothman and ,rantzau4  ,for several    
years the studies of ,tycho had been    
treated with an unwilling toleration by 
the ,danish ,court4 ,many of the nobles 
envied the munificent establishment     
which he had received from ,frederick1  
and the liberal pension which he drew   
from his treasury4 ,but among his most  
active enemies were some physicians1 who
 envied his reputation as a successful  
and a gratuitous practitioner of the    
healing art4 ,numbers of invalids       
flocked to ,huen1 and diseases1 which   
resisted all other methods of cure1 are 
said to have yielded to the panaceal    

prescription of the astrologer4 ,under  
the influence of such motives1 these    
individuals succeeded in exciting       
against ,tycho the hostility of the     
court4 ,they drew the public attention  
to the exhausted state of the treasury4 
,they maintained that he had possessed  
too long the estate in ,norway1 which   
might be given to men who laboured more 
usefully for the commonwealth2 and they 
accused him of allowing the chapel at   
,rothschild to fall into decay4 ,the    
,president of the ,council1 ,christopher
 ,walchendorp1 and the ,king's          
,chancellor1 were the most active of the
 enemies of ,tycho2 and1 having poisoned
 the mind of their sovereign against the
 most meritorious of his subjects1      
,tycho was deprived of his canonry1 his 
estate in ,norway1 and his pension4     
,being no longer able to bear the       
expenses of his establishment in ,huen1 
and dreading that the feelings which had
 been excited against him might be still
 further roused1 so as to deprive him of

 the ,island of ,huen itself1 he        
resolved to transfer his instruments to 
some other situation4 ,notwithstanding  
this resolution1 he remained with his   
family in the island1 and continued his 
observations till the spring of #aeig1  
when he took a house in ,copenhagen1 and
 removed to it all his smaller and more 
portable instruments1 leaving those     
which were large or fixed in the crypts 
of ,stiern-berg4 ,his first plan was to 
remove every thing from ,huen as a      
measure of security2 but the public     
feeling began to turn in his favour1 and
 there were many good men in ,copenhagen
 who did not scruple to reprobate the   
conduct of the government4 ,the         
,president of the ,council1             
,walchendorp--a name which1 while the   
heavens revolve1 will be pronounced with
 horror by astronomers--saw the change  
of sentiment which his injustice had    
produced1 and adopted an artful method  
of sheltering himself from public odium4
 ,in consequence of a quarrel with      

,tycho1 the recollection of which had   
rankled in his breast1 he dreaded to be 
the prime mover in his persecution4 ,he 
therefore appointed a committee of two  
persons1 one of whom was ,thomas        
,feuchius1 to report to the government  
on the nature and utility of the studies
 of ,tycho4 ,these two individuals were 
entirely ignorant of astronomy and the  
use of instruments2 and even if they had
 not1 they would have been equally      
subservient to the views of the         
minister4 ,they reported that the       
studies of ,tycho were of no value1 and 
that they were not only useless1 but    
noxious4 ,armed with this report1       
,walchendorp prohibited ,tycho1 in the  
,king's name1 from continuing his       
chemical experiments2 and instigated1 no
 doubt1 by this wicked minister1 an     
attack was made upon himself1 and his   
shepherd or his steward was injured in  
the affray4 ,tycho was provoked to      
revenge himself upon his enemies1 and   
the judge was commanded not to interfere

 in the matter4  ,thus persecuted by his
 enemies1 ,tycho resolved to remain no  
longer in an ungrateful country4 ,he    
carried from ,huen every thing that was 
moveable1 and having packed up his      
instruments1 his crucibles1 and his     
books1 he hired a ship to convey them to
 some foreign land4 ,his wife1 his five 
sons and four daughters1 his male and   
his female servants1 and many of his    
pupils and assistants1 among whom were  
,tengnagel1 his future son-in-law1 and  
the celebrated ,longomontanus1 embarked 
at ,copenhagen1 to seek the hospitality 
of some better country than their own4  
,freighted with the glory of ,denmark1  
this interesting bark made the best of  
its way across the ,baltic1 and arrived 
safely at ,rostoch4 ,here the exiled    
patriarch found many of his early       
friends1 particularly ,henry ,bruce1 an 
able astronomer1 to whom he had formerly
 presented one of his brass quadrants4  
,the approach of the plague1 however1   
prevented ,tycho from making any        

arrangements for a permanent residence2 
and1 having received a warm invitation  
from ,count ,henry ,rantzau1 who lived  
in ,holstein at the ,castle of          
,wandesberg1 near ,hamburg1 he went with
 all his family1 about the end of #aeig1
 to enjoy the hospitality of his friend4
  ,though ,tycho derived the highest    
pleasure from the kindness and          
conversation of ,count ,rantzau1 yet a  
cloud overshadowed the future1 and he   
had yet to seek for a patron and a home4
 ,his hopes were fixed on the ,emperor  
,rudolph1 who was not only fond of      
science1 but who was especially addicted
 to alchemy and astrology1 and his      
friend ,rantzau promised to have him    
introduced to the ,emperor by proper    
letters4 ,when ,tycho learned that      
,rudolph was particularly fond of       
mechanical instruments and of chemistry1
 he resolved to complete and to dedicate
 to him his work on the mechanics of    
astronomy1 and to add to it an account  
of his chemical labours4 ,this task he  

soon performed1 and his work appeared in
 #aeih under the title of ,tychonis     
,brahe1 ,astronomiae instauratae        
,mechanica4 ,along with this work he    
transmitted to the ,emperor a copy of   
his ,,ms4 catalogue of #ajjj fixed      
stars4  ,with these proofs of his       
services to science1 and instigated by  
various letters in his favour1 the      
,emperor ,rudolph desired his           
,vice-,chancellor to send for ,tycho1   
and to assure him that he would be      
received according to his great merits1 
and that nothing should be wanting to   
promote his scientific studies4 ,leaving
 his wife and daughters at ,wandesberg1 
and taking with him his sons and his    
pupils1 ,tycho went to ,wittemberg2 but 
having learned that the plague had      
broken out at ,prague1 and that the     
,emperor had gone to ,pilsen1 he        
deferred for a while his journey into   
,bohemia4  ,early in the spring of      
#aeii1 when the pestilence had ceased at
 ,prague1 and the ,emperor had returned 

to his capital1 ,tycho set out for      
,bohemia4 ,on his arrival at ,prague1 he
 found a splendid house ready for his   
reception1 and a kind message from the  
,emperor1 prohibiting him from paying   
his respects to him till he had         
recovered from the fatigues of his      
journey4 ,on his presentation to        
,rudolph1 the generous ,emperor received
 him with the most distinguished        
kindness4 ,he announced to him that he  
was to receive an annual pension of     
#cjjj crowns2 that an estate would as   
soon as possible be settled upon him and
 his family and their successors2 that a
 town house would be provided for him2  
and that he might have his choice of    
various castles and houses in the       
country as the site of his observatory  
and laboratory4 ,the ,emperor had also  
taken care to provide every thing that  
was necessary for ,tycho's immediate    
wants2 and so overwhelmed was he with   
such unexpected kindness1 that he       
remarked that1 as he could not find     

words to express his gratitude1 the     
whole heavens would speak for him1 and  
posterity should know what a refuge his 
great and good ,sovereign had been to   
the ,queen of the ,arts4  ,among the    
numerous friends whom ,tycho found at   
,prague1 were his correspondents        
,coroducius and ,hagecius1 and his      
benefactor ,barrovitius1 the ,emperor's 
secretary4 ,he was congratulated by them
 all on his distinguished reception at  
court1 and was regarded as the ,a,eneas 
of science1 who had been driven from his
 peaceful home1 and who had carried with
 him to the ,latium of ,germany his     
wife1 his children1 and his household   
gods4 ,if external circumstances could  
remove the sorrows of the past1 ,tycho  
must now have been supremely happy4 ,in 
his spacious mansion1 which had belonged
 to his friend ,curtius1 he found a     
position for one of his best            
instruments1 and having covered with    
poetical inscriptions the four sides of 
the pedestal on which it stood1 in      

honour of his benefactors1 as well as of
 former astronomers1 he resumed with    
diligence his examination of the stars4 
,when ,rudolph saw the magnificent      
instruments which ,tycho had brought    
along with him1 and had acquired some   
knowledge of their use1 he pressed him  
to send to ,denmark for the still larger
 ones which he had left at ,stiern-berg4
 ,in the meantime1 he gave him the      
choice of the castles of ,brandisium1   
,lyssa1 and ,benach as his country      
residence2 and after visiting them about
 the end of ,may1 ,tycho gave the       
preference to ,benach1 which was        
situated upon a rising ground1 and      
commanded an extensive horizon4 ,it     
contained splendid and commodious       
buildings1 and was almost1 as he calls  
it1 a small city1 situated on the stream
 ,lisor1 near its confluence with the   
,albis4 ,it stood a little to the east  
and north of ,prague1 and was distant   
from that city only five ,german miles1 
or about six hours' journey4  ,on the   

#bjth of ,august1 the ,prefect of       
,brandisium gave ,tycho possession of   
his new residence4 ,his gratitude to his
 royal patron was copiously displayed1  
not only in a ,latin poem written on the
 occasion1 but in ,latin inscriptions   
which he placed above the doors of his  
observatory and his laboratory4 ,in     
order that he might establish an        
astronomical school at ,prague1 he wrote
 to ,longomontanus1 ,kepler1 ,muller1   
,david ,fabricius1 and two students at  
,wittemberg1 who were good calculators1 
requesting them to reside with him at   
,benach1 as his assistants and pupils3  
,he at the same time dispatched his     
destined son-in-law1 ,tengnagel1        
accompanied by ,pascal ,muleus1 to bring
 home his wife and daughters from       
,wandesberg1 and his instruments from   
,huen2 and he begged that ,longomontanus
 would accompany them to ,denmark1 and  
return in the same carriage with them to
 ,bohemia4  ,kepler arrived at ,prague  
in ,january #afjj1 and1 after spending  

three or four months at ,benach1 in     
carrying on his inquiries and in making 
astronomical observations1 he returned  
to ,gratz4 ,tycho had undertaken to     
obtain for him the appointment of his   
assistant4 ,it was arranged that the    
,emperor should allow him a hundred     
florins1 on the condition that the      
states of ,styria would permit him to   
retain his salary for two years4 ,this  
scheme1 however1 failed1 and ,kepler was
 about to study medicine1 and offer     
himself for a professorship of medicine 
at ,tubingen1 when ,tycho undertook to  
obtain him a permanent appointment from 
the ,emperor4 ,kepler1 accordingly1     
returned in ,september #afja1 and1 on   
the recommendation of his friend1 he was
 named imperial mathematician1 on the   
condition of assisting ,tycho in his    
observations4  ,tycho had experienced   
much inconvenience in his residence at  
,benach1 from his ignorance of the      
language and customs of the country1 as 
well as from other causes4 ,he was      

therefore anxious to transfer his       
instruments to ,prague2 and no sooner   
were his wishes conveyed to the ,emperor
 than he gave him leave to send them to 
the royal gardens and the adjacent      
buildings4 ,his family and his larger   
instruments having now arrived from     
,huen1 the astronomer with his family   
and his property were safely lodged in  
the royal edifice4 ,having found that   
there was no house in ,prague more      
suited for his purposes than that of his
 late friend ,curtius1 the ,emperor     
purchased it from his widow1 and ,tycho 
removed into it on the #beth ,february  
#afja4     ,,chapter ,,iv4        ,tycho
 resumes his ,astronomical              
,observations--,is attacked with a      
,painful ,disease--,his ,sufferings and 
,death in #afja--;,his ,funeral--,his   
,temper--,his ,turn for ,satire and     
,raillery--,his ,piety--,account of his 
,astronomical ,discoveries--,his ,love  
of ,astrology and                       
,alchymy--,observations on the          

,character of the ,alchymists--,tycho's 
,elixir--,his ,fondness for the         
,marvellous--,his ,automata and         
,invisible      ,bells--,account of the 
,idiot1 called ,lep1 whom he kept as a  
,prophet--,history of ,tycho's          
,instruments--,his great ,brass ,globe  
preserved at ,copenhagen--,present state
 of the ,island of ,huen4   ,although   
,tycho continued in this new position to
 observe the planets with his usual     
assiduity1 yet the recollection of his  
sufferings1 and the inconveniences and  
disappointments which he had            
experienced1 began to prey upon his     
mind1 and to affect his health4         
,notwithstanding the continued          
liberality of the ,emperor1 and the     
kindness of his friends and pupils1 he  
was yet a stranger in a distant land4   
,misfortune was unable to subdue that   
love of country which was one of the    
most powerful of his affections2 and1   
though its ingratitude might have broken
 the chain which bound him to the land  

of his nativity1 it seems only to have  
rivetted it more firmly4 ,his           
imagination1 thus influenced1 acquired  
an undue predominance over his judgment4
 ,he viewed the most trifling           
occurrences as supernatural indications2
 and in those azure moments when the    
clouds broke from his mind1 and when he 
displayed his usual wit and pleasantry1 
he frequently turned the conversation to
 the subject of his latter end4  ,this  
state of mind was the forerunner1 though
 probably the effect1 of a painful      
disease1 which had1 doubtless1 its      
origin in the severity and continuity of
 his studies4 ,on the #acth ,october1   
when he was supping at the house of a   
nobleman called ,rosenberg1 he was      
seized with a retention of urine1 which 
forced him to leave the party4  ,this   
attack continued with little            
intermission for more than a week1 and1 
during this period1 he suffered great   
pain1 attended with want of sleep and   
temporary delirium1 during which1 he    

frequently exclaimed1 ,ne frustra       
vixisse videor4 ,on the #bdth he        
recovered from this painful situation1  
and became perfectly tranquil4 ,his     
strength1 however1 was gone1 and he saw 
that he had not many hours to live4 ,he 
expressed an anxious wish that his      
labours would redound to the glory of   
his ,maker1 to whom he offered up the   
most ardent prayers4 ,he enjoined his   
sons and his son-in-law not to allow    
them to be lost4 ,he encouraged his     
pupils not to abandon their pursuits1 he
 requested ,kepler to complete the      
,rudolphine ,tables1 and to his family  
he recommended piety and resignation to 
the ,divine will4 ,among those who never
 quitted ,tycho in his illness1 was     
,erick ,brahe1 ,count ,wittehorn1 a     
,swede1 and a relation of his own1 and  
,counsellor to the ,king of ,poland4    
,this amiable individual never left the 
bedside of his friend1 and administered 
to him all those attentions which his   
situation required4 ,tycho1 turning to  

him1 thanked him for his affectionate   
kindness1 and requested him to maintain 
the relationship with his family4 ,he   
then expired without pain1 amid the     
consolations1 the prayers1 and the tears
 of his friends4 ,this event took place 
on the #bdth of ,october #afja1 when he 
was only fifty-four years and ten months
 old4  ,the ,emperor ,rudolph evinced   
the greatest sorrow when he was informed
 of the death of his friend1 and he gave
 orders that he should be buried in the 
most honourable manner1 in the principal
 church of the ancient city4#da ,the    
funeral took place on the #dth          
,november1 and he was interred in the   
dress of a nobleman1 and with the       
ceremonies of his order4 ,the funeral   
oration was pronounced by ,jessenius1   
before a distinguished assemblage1 and  
many elegies were written on his death4 
#da ,the church of ,tiers1 where a      
monument has been erected to his        
memory4  ,tycho was a little above the  
middle size1 and in the last years of   

his life he was slightly corpulent4 ,he 
had reddish yellow hair and a ruddy     
complexion4 ,he was of a sanguine       
temperament1 and is said to have been   
sometimes irritable1 and even obstinate4
 ,this failing1 however1 if he did      
possess it1 was not exhibited towards   
his pupils or his scientific friends1   
who ever entertained for him the warmest
 affection and esteem4 ,some of his     
pupils had remained in his house more   
than twenty years2 and in the quarrel   
which arose between him and ,kepler1#db 
and which is allowed to have originated 
entirely in the temper of the latter1 he
 conducted himself with the greatest    
patience and forbearance4 ,there is     
reason to think that the irritability   
with which he has been charged was less 
an affection of his mind than the effect
 of that noble independence of character
 which belonged to him1 and that it has 
been inferred chiefly from his conduct  
to some of those high personages with   
whom he was brought in contact4 ,when   

,walchendorp1 the ,president of the     
,council1 kicked his favourite hound1 it
 was no proof of irritability of        
character that ,tycho expressed in      
strong terms his disapprobation of the  
deed4       #db ,see the ,life of       
,kepler4  ,it was1 doubtless1 a greater 
weakness in his character that he       
indulged his turn for satire1 without   
being able to bear retaliation4 ,his    
jocular habits1 too1 sometimes led him  
into disagreeable positions4 ,when the  
,duke of ,brunswick was dining with him 
at ,uraniburg1 the ,duke said1 towards  
the end of the dinner1 that1 as it was  
late1 he must be going4 ,tycho jocularly
 remarked that this could not be done   
without his permission2 upon which the  
,duke rose and left the party1 without  
taking leave of his host4 ,tycho became 
indignant in his turn1 and continued to 
sit at table2 but1 as if repenting of   
what he had done1 he followed the ,duke1
 who was on his way to the ship1 and1   
calling upon him1 displayed the cup in  

his hand1 as if he had washed out his   
offence by a draught of wine4  ,tycho   
was a man of true piety1 and cherished  
the deepest veneration for the ,sacred  
,scriptures1 and for the great truths   
which they reveal4 ,their principles    
regulated his conduct1 and their        
promises animated his hopes4 ,his       
familiarity with the wonders of the     
heavens increased1 instead of           
diminishing1 his admiration of ,divine  
wisdom1 and his daily conversation was  
elevated by a constant reference to a   
superintending ,providence4  ,as a      
practical astronomer1 ,tycho has not    
been surpassed by any observer of       
ancient or of modern times4 ,the        
splendour and number of his instruments1
 the ingenuity which he exhibited in    
inventing new ones and in improving and 
adding to those which were formerly     
known1 and his skill and assiduity as an
 observer1 have given a character to his
 labours1 and a value to his            
observations1 which will be appreciated 

to the latest posterity4 ,the appearance
 of the new star in #aegb led him to    
form a catalogue of #ggg stars1 vastly  
superior in accuracy to those of        
,hipparchus and ,ulugh ,beig4 ,his      
improvements on the lunar theory were   
still more valuable4 ,he discovered the 
important inequality called the         
variation1 and also the annual          
inequality which depends on the position
 of the earth in its orbit4 ,he         
discovered1 also1 the inequality in the 
inclination of the moon's orbit1 and in 
the motion of her nodes4 ,he determined 
with new accuracy the astronomical      
refractions from an altitude of #de deg4
 down to the horizon1 where he found it 
to be #cd'2 and he made a vast          
collection of observations on the       
planets1 which formed the groundwork of 
,kepler's discoveries and the basis of  
the ,rudolphine ,tables4 ,tycho's powers
 of observation were not equalled by his
 capacity for general views4 ,it was1   
perhaps1 owing more to his veneration   

for the ,scriptures than to the vanity  
of giving his name to a new system that 
he rejected the ,copernican hypothesis4 
,hence he was led to propose a new      
system1 called the ,tychonic1 in which  
the earth is stationary in the centre of
 the universe1 while the sun1 with all  
the other planets and comets revolving  
round him1 performs his daily revolution
 about the earth4 ,this arrangement of  
the planets afforded a sufficient       
explanation of the various phenomena of 
the heavens2 and as it was consistent   
with the language of ,scripture1 and    
conformable to the indications of the   
senses1 it found many supporters1       
notwithstanding the physical absurdity  
of making the whole system revolve round
 one of the smallest of the planets4    
,it is a painful transition to pass from
 the astronomical labours of ,tycho to  
his astrological and chemical pursuits4 
,that ,tycho studied and practised      
astrology has been universally admitted4
 ,he calculated the nativity of the     

,emperor ,rudolph1 and foretold that his
 relations would make some attempts upon
 his life4 ,the credulous ,emperor      
confided in the prediction1 and when the
 conduct of his brother seemed to       
justify his belief1 he confined himself 
to his palace1 and fell a prey to the   
fear which it inspired4 ,tycho1 however1
 seems to have entirely renounced his   
astrological faith in his latter days2  
and ,kepler states1#dc in the most      
pointed manner1 that ,tycho carried on  
his astronomical labours with his mind  
entirely free from the superstitions of 
astrology2 that he derided and detested 
the vanity and knavery of astrologers1  
and was convinced that the stars        
exercised no influence on the destinies 
of men4       #dc ,in his ,preface to   
the ,rudolphine ,tables4  ,although     
,tycho informed ,rothman that he devoted
 as much labour and expense to the study
 of terrestrial 7chemistry7 as he did to
 that of celestial astronomy1 yet it is 
a singular fact that he never published 

any account of his experiments1 nor has 
he left among his writings any trace of 
his chemical inquiries4 ,he pretended1  
however1 to have made discoveries in the
 science1 and we should have been       
disposed to reprobate the apology which 
he makes for not publishing them1 did we
 not know that it had been frequently   
given by the other alchemists of the    
age--,on consideration1 says he1 and by 
the advice of the most learned men1 ,i  
thought it improper to unfold the       
secrets of the art 7of alchemy7 to the  
vulgar1 as few persons were capable of  
using its mysteries to advantage and    
without detriment4  ,admitting then1 as 
we must do1 that ,tycho was not only a  
professed alchemist1 but that he was    
practically occupied with its pursuits1 
and continually misled by its delusions1
 it may not be uninteresting to the     
reader to consider how far a belief in  
alchemy1 and a practice of its arts1    
have a foundation in the weakness of    
human nature2 and to what extent they   

are compatible with the piety and       
elevated moral feeling by which our     
author was distinguished4  ,in the      
history of human errors two classes of  
impostors1 of very different characters1
 present themselves to our notice--those
 who wilfully deluded their species1 and
 those who permitted their species to   
delude themselves4 ,the first of those  
classes consisted of the selfish tyrants
 who upheld an unjust supremacy by      
systematic delusions1 and of grovelling 
mountebanks who quenched their          
avaricious thirst at the fountains of   
credulity and ignorance4 ,the second    
class comprehended spirits of a nobler  
mould3 ,it embraced the speculative     
enthusiasts1 whom the love of fame and  
of truth urged onward1 in a fruitless   
research1 and those great lights of     
knowledge and of virtue1 who1 while they
 stood forward as the landmarks of the  
age which they adorned1 had neither the 
intellectual nor the moral courage to   
divest themselves of the supernatural   

radiance with which the ignorance of the
 vulgar had encircled them4  ,the       
thrones and shrines1 which delusion once
 sustained even in the civilized quarter
 of the globe1 are for ever fallen1 and 
that civil and religious liberty1 which 
in past ages was kept down by the       
marvellous exhibitions of science to the
 senses1 is now maintained by its       
application to the reason of man4 ,the  
charlatans1 whether they deal in moral  
or in physical wonders1 form a race     
which is never extinct4 ,they migrate to
 the different zones of the social      
system1 and though they change their    
place1 and their purposes1 and their    
victims1 yet their character and motives
 remain the same4 ,the philosophical    
mind1 therefore1 is not disposed to     
study either of these varieties of      
impostors2 but the other two families   
which compose the second class are      
objects of paramount interest4 ,the     
eccentricities and even the obliquities 
of great minds merit the scrutiny of the

 metaphysician and the moralist1 and    
they derive a peculiar interest from the
 state of society in which they are     
exhibited4 ,had ,cardan and ,cornelius  
,agrippa lived in modern times1 their   
vanity and self-importance would have   
been checked by the forms of society1   
and even if their harmless pretensions  
had been displayed1 they would have     
disappeared in the blaze of their genius
 and knowledge4 ,but nursed in          
superstition1 and educated in dark and  
turbulent times1 when every thing       
intellectual was in a state of restless 
transition1 the genius and character of 
great men necessarily reflected the     
peculiarities of the age in which they  
lived4  ,had history transmitted to us  
correct details of the leading          
alchemists and scientific magicians of  
the dark ages1 we should have been able 
to analyse their actions and their      
opinions1 and trace them1 probably1 to  
the ordinary principles by which the    
human mind is in every age influenced   

and directed4 ,but when a great man has 
once become an object either of interest
 or of wonder1 and still more when he is
 considered as the possessor of         
knowledge and skill which transcend the 
capacity of the age1 he is soon         
transformed into the hero of romance4   
,his powers are overrated1 his deeds    
exaggerated1 and he becomes the subject 
of idle legends1 which acquire a firmer 
hold on credulity from the slight       
sprinkling of truth with which they are 
seasoned4 ,to disclaim the possession of
 lofty attributes thus ascribed to great
 men is a degree of humility which is   
not often exercised4 ,but even when this
 species of modesty is displayed1 it    
never fails to defeat its object4 ,it   
but calls forth a deeper homage1 and    
fixes the demigod more firmly in his    
shrine4  ,the history of learning       
furnishes us with many examples of that 
species of delusion in which a great    
mind submits itself to vulgar adulation1
 and renounces unwillingly1 if it       

renounces at all1 the unenviable        
reputation of supernatural agency4 ,in  
cases where self-interest and ambition  
are the basis of this peculiarity of    
temperament1 and in an age when the     
conjuror and the alchemist were the     
companions and even the idols of        
princes1 it is easy to trace the steps  
by which a gifted sage retains his      
ascendancy among the ignorant4 ,the     
hecatomb which is sacrificed to the     
magician1 he receives as an oblation to 
his science1 and conscious of possessing
 real endowments1 the idol devours the  
meats that are offered to him without   
analysing the motives and expectations  
under which he is fed4 ,but even when   
the idolater and his god are not placed 
in this transverse relation1 the love of
 power or of notoriety is sufficient to 
induce good men to lend a too willing   
ear to vulgar testimony in favour of    
themselves2 and in our own times it is  
not common to repudiate the unmerited   
cheers of a popular assembly1 or to     

offer a contradiction to fictitious     
tales which record our talents or our   
courage1 our charity or our piety4  ,the
 conduct of the scientific alchemists of
 the thirteenth1 fourteenth1 and        
fifteenth centuries presents a problem  
of very difficult solution4 ,when we    
consider that a gas1 a fluid1 and a     
solid may consist of the very same      
ingredients in different proportions2   
that a virulent poison may differ from  
the most wholesome food only in the     
difference of quantity of the very same 
elements2 that gold and silver1 and lead
 and mercury1 and indeed all the metals1
 may be extracted from transparent      
crystals1 which scarcely differ in their
 appearance from a piece of common salt 
or a bit of sugarcandy2 and that diamond
 is nothing more than charcoal1--we need
 not greatly wonder at the extravagant  
expectation that the precious metals and
 the noblest gems might be procured from
 the basest materials4 ,these           
expectations1 too1 must have been often 

excited by the startling results of     
their daily experiments4 ,the most      
ignorant compounder of simples could not
 fail to witness the magical            
transformations of chemical action2 and 
every new product must have added to the
 probability that the tempting doublets 
of gold and silver might be thrown from 
the dice-box with which he was gambling4
  ,but when the precious metals were    
found in lead and copper by the action  
of powerful re-agents1 it was natural to
 suppose that they had been actually    
formed during the process2 and men of   
well-regulated minds even might have    
thus been led to embark in new          
adventures to procure a more copious    
supply1 without any insult being offered
 to sober reason1 or any injury         
inflicted on sound morality4  ,when an  
ardent and ambitious mind is once       
dazzled with the fascination of some    
lofty pursuit1 where gold is the object1
 or fame the impulse1 it is difficult to
 pause in a doubtful career1 and to make

 a voluntary shipwreck of the reputation
 which has been staked4 ,hope still     
cheers the aspirant from failure to     
failure1 till the loss of fortune and   
the decay of credit disturb the serenity
 of his mind1 and hurry him on to the   
last resource of baffled ingenuity and  
disappointed ambition4 ,the philosopher 
thus becomes an impostor2 and by the    
pretended transmutation of the baser    
metals into gold1 or the discovery of   
the philosopher's stone1 he attempts to 
sustain his sinking reputation1 and     
recover the fortune he has lost4 ,the   
communication of the great secret is now
 the staple commodity with which he is  
to barter1 and the grand talisman with  
which he is to conjure4 ,it can be      
imparted only to a chosen few--to those 
among the opulent who merit it by their 
virtues1 and can acquire it by their    
diligence1 and the divine vengeance is  
threatened against its disclosure4 ,a   
process commencing in fraud and         
terminating in mysticism is conveyed to 

the wealthy aspirant1 or instilled into 
the young enthusiast1 and the grand     
mystery passes current for a season1    
till some cautious professor of the art1
 like ,tycho1 denounces its publication 
as detrimental to society4  ,among the  
extravagant pretensions of the          
alchemists1 that of forming a universal 
medicine was perhaps not the most       
irrational4 ,it was only when they      
pretended to cure every disease1 and to 
confer longevity1 that they did violence
 to reason4 ,the success of the ,arabian
 physicians in the use of mercurial     
preparations naturally led to the belief
 that other medicines1 still more       
general in their application1 and       
efficacious in their healing powers1    
might yet be brought to light2 and we   
have no doubt that many substantial     
discoveries were the result of such     
overstrained expectations4 ,tycho was   
not merely a believer in the medical    
dogmas of the alchemists1 he was        
actually the discoverer of a new elixir1

 which went by his name1 and which was  
sold in every apothecary's shop as a    
specific against the epidemic diseases  
which were then ravaging ,germany4 ,the 
,emperor ,rudolph having heard of this  
celebrated medicine1 obtained a small   
portion of it from ,tycho by the hands  
of the ,governor of ,brandisium2 but1   
not satisfied with the gift1 he seems to
 have applied to ,tycho for an account  
of the method of preparing it4 ,tycho   
accordingly addressed to the ,emperor a 
long letter1 dated ,september #g1 #aeii1
 containing a minute account of the     
process4 ,the base of this remarkable   
medicine is ,venetian treacle1 which    
undergoes an infinity of chemical       
operations and admixtures before it is  
ready for the patient4 ,when properly   
prepared he assures the ,emperor that it
 is better than gold1 and that it may be
 made still more valuable by mixing with
 it a single scruple either of the      
tincture of corals1 or sapphire1 or     
hyacinth1 or a solution of pearls1 or of

 potable gold1 if it can be obtained    
free of all corrosive matter6 ,in order 
to render the medicine universal for all
 diseases which can be cured by         
perspiration1 and which1 he says1 form a
 third of those which attack the human  
frame1 he combines it with antimony1 a  
well known sudorific in the present     
practice of physic4 ,tycho concludes his
 letter by humbly beseeching the        
,emperor to keep the process secret1 and
 reserve the medicine for himself alone6
  ,the same disposition of mind which   
made ,tycho an astrologer and an        
alchemist1 inspired him with a singular 
love of the marvellous4  ,he had various
 automata with which he delighted to    
astonish the peasants2 and by means of  
invisible bells1 which communicated with
 every part of his establishment1 and   
which rung with the gentlest touch1 he  
had great pleasure in bringing any of   
his pupils suddenly before strangers1   
muttering at a particular time the words
 ,come hither1 ,peter1 as if he had     

commanded their presence by some        
supernatural agency4 ,if1 on leaving    
home1 he met with an old woman or a     
hare1 he returned immediately to his    
house3 ,but the most extraordinary of   
all his peculiarities remains to be     
noticed4 ,when he lived at ,uraniburg he
 maintained an idiot of the name of     
,lep1 who lay at his feet whenever he   
sat down to dinner1 and whom he fed with
 his own hand4 ,persuaded that his mind1
 when moved1 was capable of foretelling 
future events1 ,tycho carefully marked  
every thing he said4 ,lest it should be 
supposed that this was done to no       
purpose1 ,longomontanus relates that    
when any person in the island was sick1 
,lep never1 when interrogated1 failed to
 predict whether the patient would live 
or die4 ,it is stated also in the       
letters of ,wormius1 both to ,gassendi  
and ,peyter1 that when ,tycho was       
absent1 and his pupils became very noisy
 and merry in consequence of not        
expecting him soon home1 the idiot1 who 

was present1 exclaimed1 ,juncher xaa    
laudit1 ,your master has arrived4 ,on   
another occasion1 when ,tycho had sent  
two of his pupils to ,copenhagen on     
business1 and had fixed the day of their
 return1 ,lep surprised him on that day 
while he was at dinner1 by exclaiming1  
,behold your pupils are bathing in the  
sea4 ,tycho1 suspecting that they were  
shipwrecked1 sent some person to the    
observatory to look for their boat4 ,the
 messenger brought back word that he saw
 some persons wet on the shore1 and in  
distress1 with a boat upset at a great  
distance4 ,these stories have been given
 by ,gassendi1 and may be viewed as     
specimens of the superstition of the    
age4  ,tycho left behind him a wife and 
six children1 but even in the time of   
,gassendi nothing was known of their    
history1 excepting that ,tengnagel1 who 
married one of the daughters1 gave up   
his scientific pursuits1 and1 having    
been admitted among the ,emperor's      
counsellors1 was employed in several of 

his embassies4  ,the instruments of     
,tycho were purchased from his heirs1 by
 the ,emperor1 for #bb1jjj crowns4 ,they
 were shut up in the house of ,curtius1 
and were treated with such veneration1  
that no astronomer1 not even ,kepler    
himself1 was permitted to see or to use 
them4  ,here they remained till the     
death of the ,emperor ,matthias1 in     
#afai1 when the troubles in ,bohemia    
took place4 ,when ,prague was taken by  
the forces of the ,elector ,palatine1   
the instruments were carried off1 and   
some were destroyed1 and others         
converted to different purposes4 ,the   
great brass globe1 however1 was saved4  
,it was first carried to ,niessa1 the   
episcopal city of ,silesia2 and having  
been presented to the ,college of       
,jesuits1 it was preserved in their     
museum1 till ,udalric1 the son of       
,christian1 ,king of ,denmark1 took     
,niessa in #afcb4 ,the globe was        
recognized as having belonged to ,tycho1
 and it was carried in triumph to       

,denmark4 ,an inscription was written   
upon it by ,longomontanus1 and it was   
deposited with some pomp in the ,library
 of the ,academy of ,sciences4  ,after  
,tycho left ,huen1 the island was       
transferred to some of the ,danish      
nobility1 and the following brief but   
melancholy description of it was given  
by ,wormius4 ,there is1 in the island1 a
 field where ,uraniburg was4 ,the       
scientific antiquities of ,huen1 have   
been more recently described by ,mr     
,cox1 in his travels through ,denmark4  
,we landed1 says he1 on the south west  
part in a small bay1 just below the     
place where a stream1 supplied by       
numerous pools and fish ponds1 falls    
into the sea4 ,we ascended the shore1   
which is clothed with short herbage1    
crossed the stream1 and passed over a   
gently waving surface1 gradually sloping
 towards the sea1 and walked a mile to a
 farm house1 standing in the middle of  
the island1 inhabited by ,mr ,schaw1 a  
,swedish gentleman1 to whom the greater 

part of the island belongs4 ,he lives   
here in summer1 but in winter resides at
 ,landscrona4 ,this dwelling is the same
 as existed in ,tycho ,brahe's time1 and
 was the farm house belonging to his    
estate4 ,a guide1 whom we obtained from 
,mr ,schaw1 conducted us to the remains 
of ,tycho's mansion1 which are near the 
house1 and consist of little more than a
 mound of earth which enclosed the      
garden1 and two pits1 the sites of his  
mansion and observatory4#dd       #dd   
,cox's ,travels in ,poland1 c41 vol4 v41
 p4 #ahi1 #aij4     ,,life ,,of ,,john  
,,kepler4     ,,chapter ,i4             
,kepler's ,birth in #aega--;,his        
,family--,and early ,education--,the    
,distresses and ,poverty of his         
,family--,he enters the ,monastic       
,school      of ,maulbronn--,and is     
admitted into the ,university of        
,tubingen1      where he distinguishes  
himself1 and takes his ,degrees--,he is 
appointed ,professor of ,astronomy and  
,greek in #aeid--;,his first            

speculations on the ,orbits of the      
,planets--,account of their             
,progress and ,failure--,his            
,cosmographical ,mystery published--,he 
,marries a ,widow in #aeig--,religious  
troubles at ,gratz--,he retires         
from thence to ,hungary--,visits ,tycho 
at ,prague in #afjj--,returns to        
,gratz1 which he again quits for        
,prague--,he is taken ,ill on the       
road--,is appointed ,tycho's ,assistant 
in #afja--,succeeds ,tycho as           
,imperial ,mathematician--,his ,work on 
the ,new ,star of #afjd--,singular      
specimen of it4   ,it is a remarkable   
circumstance in the history of science1 
that astronomy should have been         
cultivated at the same time by three    
such distinguished men as ,tycho1       
,kepler1 and ,galileo4 ,while ,tycho1 in
 the #edth year of his age1 was         
observing the heavens at ,prague1       
,kepler1 only #cj years old1 was        
applying his wild genius to the         
determination of the orbit of ,mars1 and

 ,galileo1 at the age of #cf1 was about 
to direct the telescope to the          
unexplored regions of space4 ,the       
diversity of gifts which ,providence    
assigned to these three philosophers was
 no less remarkable4 ,tycho was destined
 to lay the foundation of modern        
astronomy1 by a vast series of accurate 
observations made with the largest and  
the finest instruments2 it was the proud
 lot of ,kepler to deduce the laws of   
the planetary orbits from the           
observations of his predecessors2 while 
,galileo enjoyed the more dazzling      
honour of discovering by the telescope  
new celestial bodies1 and new systems of
 worlds4  ,john ,kepler1 the youngest of
 this illustrious band1 was born at the 
imperial city of ,weil1 in the duchy of 
,wirtemberg1 on the #bast ,december     
#aega4 ,his parents1 ,henry ,kepler and 
,catherine ,guldenmann1 were both of    
noble family1 but had been reduced to   
indigence by their own bad conduct4     
,henry ,kepler had been long in the     

service of the ,duke of ,wirtemberg as a
 petty officer1 and in that capacity had
 wasted his fortune4 ,upon setting out  
for the army1 he left his wife in a     
state of pregnancy2 and1 at the end of  
seven months1 she gave premature birth  
to ,john ,kepler1 who was1 from this    
cause1 a sickly child during the first  
years of his life4 ,being obliged to    
join the army in the ,netherlands1 his  
wife followed him into the field1 and   
left her son1 then five years old1 under
 the charge of his grandfather at       
,limberg4 ,sometime afterwards he was   
attacked with the smallpox1 and having  
with difficulty recovered from this     
severe malady1 he was sent to school in 
#aegg4  ,having become security for one 
of his friends1 who absconded from his  
creditors1 ,henry ,kepler was obliged to
 sell his house and all his property1   
and was driven to the necessity of      
keeping a tavern at ,elmendingen4 ,owing
 to these misfortunes1 young ,kepler was
 taken from school about two years      

afterwards1 and was obliged to perform  
the functions of a servant in his       
father's house4 ,in #aehe1 he was again 
placed in the school of ,elmendingen2   
but his father and mother having been   
both attacked with the smallpox1 and he 
himself having been seized with a       
violent illness in #aehe1 his education 
had been much neglected1 and he was     
prohibited from all mental application4 
,in the year #aehf1 on the #bfth of     
,november1 ,kepler was admitted into the
 school at the ,monastery of ,maulbronn1
 which had been established at the      
,reformation1 and which was maintained  
at the expense of the ,duke of          
,wirtemberg1 as a preparatory seminary  
for the ,university of ,tubingen4 ,after
 remaining a year at the upper classes1 
the scholars presented themselves for   
examination at the ,college for the     
degree of ,bachelor2 and having received
 this1 they returned to the school with 
the title of ,veterans4 ,here they      
completed the usual course of study2 and

 being admitted as resident students at 
,tubingen1 they took their degree of    
,master4 ,in prosecuting this course of 
study1 ,kepler was sadly interrupted1   
not only by periodical returns of his   
former complaints1 but by family        
quarrels of the most serious import4    
,these dissensions1 arising greatly from
 the perverseness of his mother1 drove  
his father to a foreign land1 where he  
soon died2 and his mother having        
quarrelled with all her relations1 the  
affairs of the family were involved in  
inextricable disorder4 ,notwithstanding 
these calamities1 ,kepler took his      
degree of ,bachelor on the #aeth        
,september #aehh1 and his degree of     
,master in ,august #aeia1 on which      
occasion he held the second place at the
 annual examination4  ,in his early     
studies1 ,kepler devoted himself with   
intense pleasure to philosophy in       
general1 but he entertained no peculiar 
affection for astronomy4 ,being well    
grounded in arithmetic and geometry1 he 

had no difficulty in making himself     
master of the geometrical and           
astronomical theorems which occurred in 
the course of his studies4 ,while       
attending the lectures of ,moestlin1    
professor of mathematics1 who had       
distinguished himself by an oration in  
favour of the ,copernican system1       
,kepler not only became a convert to the
 opinions of his master1 but defended   
them in the physical disputations of the
 students1 and even wrote an essay on   
the primary motion1 in order to prove   
that it was produced by the daily       
rotation of the earth4  ,in #aeid1 the  
astronomical chair at ,gratz1 in        
,styria1 fell vacant by the death of    
,george ,stadt1 and1 according to       
,kepler's own statement1 he was forced  
to accept this situation by the         
authority of his professional tutors1   
who recommended him to the nobles of    
,styria4 ,though ,kepler had little     
knowledge of the science1 and no passion
 for it whatever1 yet the nature of his 

office forced him to attend to          
astronomy2 and1 in the year #aeie1 when 
he enjoyed some leisure from his        
lectures1 he directed the whole energy  
of his mind to the three important      
topics of the number1 the size1 and the 
motion of the orbits of the planets4 ,he
 first tried if the size of the planets'
 orbits1 or the difference of their     
sizes1 had any regular proportion to    
each other4 ,finding no proof of this1  
he inserted a new planet between ,mars  
and ,jupiter1 and another between ,venus
 and ,mercury1 which he supposed might  
be invisible from their smallness2 but  
even with these assumptions the         
distances of the planets exhibited no   
regular progression4 ,kepler next tried 
if these distances varied as the cosines
 of the quadrant1 and if their motion   
varied as the sun's1 the sine of #ij    
representing the motion at the sun1 and 
the sine of #j deg4 that at the fixed   
stars2 but in this trial he was also    
disappointed4  ,having spent the whole  

summer in these fruitless speculations1 
and praying constantly to his ,maker for
 success1 he was accidentally drawing a 
diagram in his lecture-room1 in ,july   
#aeie1 when he observed the relation    
between the circle inscribed in a       
triangle1 and that described round it2  
and the ratio of these circles1 which   
was that of #a to #b1 appeared to his   
eye to be identical with that of        
,jupiter's and ,saturn's orbits4 ,hence 
he was led to compare the orbits of the 
other planets' circles described in     
pentagons and hexagons4 ,as this        
hypothesis was as inapplicable to the   
heavens as its predecessors1 ,kepler    
asked himself in despair1 ,what have    
plane figures to do with solid orbits8  
,solid bodies ought to be used for solid
 orbits4 ,on the strength of this       
conceit1 he supposed that the distances 
of the planets were regulated by the    
sizes of the five regular solids        
described within one another4 ,the      
,earth is the circle1 the measurer of   

all4 ,round it describe a dodecahedron2 
the circle including this will be ,mars4
 ,round ,mars describe a tetrahedron2   
the circle including this will be       
,jupiter4 ,describe a cube round        
,jupiter2 the circle including this will
 be ,saturn4 ,then inscribe in the      
,earth an icosahedron2 the circle       
described in it will be ,venus4         
,inscribe an octohedron in ,venus2 the  
circle inscribed in it will be ,mercury4
  ,this discovery1 as he considered it1 
harmonized in a very rude way with the  
measures of the planetary orbits given  
by ,copernicus2 but ,kepler was so      
enamoured with it1 that he ascribed the 
differences to errors of observation1   
and declared that he would not renounce 
the glory of having made it for the     
whole ,electorate of ,saxony4  ,in his  
attempt to discover the relation between
 the periodic times of the planets and  
their distances from the sun1 he was not
 more successful2 but as this relation  
had a real existence1 he made some      

slight approach to its determination4   
,these extraordinary researches1 which  
indicate the wildness and irregularity  
of ,kepler's genius1 were published in  
#aeif1 in a work entitled1 ,prodromus of
 ,cosmographical ,dissertations2        
containing the cosmographical mystery   
respecting the admirable proportion of  
the celestial orbits1 and the genuine   
and real causes of the number1          
magnitude1 and periods of the planets   
demonstrated by the five regular        
geometrical solids4  ,notwithstanding   
the speculative character of this       
volume1 it obtained for its author a    
high name among astronomers4 ,galileo   
and ,tycho1 whose opinions of it he     
requested1 spoke of it with some        
commendation4 ,the former praised the   
ingenuity and good faith which it       
displayed2 and ,tycho1 though he        
requested him to try to adapt something 
of the same nature to the ,tychonic     
system1 saw the speculative character of
 his mind1 and advised him to lay a     

solid foundation for his views by actual
 observation1 and then1 by ascending    
from these1 to strive to reach the      
causes of things4  ,in #aeib1 before    
,kepler had quitted ,tubingen1 he was on
 the eve of entering into the married   
state4 ,though the foolish scheme was   
fortunately broken off1 yet he resumed  
it again in #aeif1 when he paid his     
addresses to ,barbara ,millar of        
,muleckh1 who was a widow for the second
 time1 though only twenty-three years of
 age4 ,her parents1 however1 would not  
consent to the match till ,kepler proved
 his nobility2 and1 owing to the delay  
which arose from this circumstance1 the 
marriage did not take place till #aeig4 
,the income which ,kepler derived from  
his professorship was very small1 and as
 his wife's fortune turned out much less
 than he had been led to expect1 he not 
only was annoyed with pecuniary         
difficulties1 but was involved in       
disputes with his wife's relations4     
,these evils were greatly increased by  

the religious troubles which took place 
in ,styria4 ,the ,catholics at ,gratz   
rose against the ,protestants1 and      
threatened to expell them from the city4
 ,kepler1 who openly professed the      
,protestant religion1 saw the risks to  
which he was exposed1 and retired with  
his wife into ,hungary4 ,here he        
continued nearly a year1 during which he
 composed and transmitted to his friend 
,zehentmaier1 at ,tubingen1 several     
small treatises1 ,on the ,magnet1 ,on   
the cause of the ,obliquity of the      
,ecliptic1 and ,on the ,divine ,wisdom1 
as shewn in the ,creation--all of which 
seem to have been lost4 ,in #aeii1      
,kepler was recalled to ,gratz by the   
,states of ,styria1 and resumed his     
professorship2 but the city was still   
divided into two factions1 and ,kepler1 
who was a lover of peace1 found his     
situation very uncomfortable4 ,having   
learned from ,tycho that he had been    
able to determine more accurately than  
had been done the eccentricities of the 

orbits of the planets1 ,kepler was      
anxious to avail himself of these       
observations1 and set out on a visit to 
,tycho at ,prague1 where he arrived in  
,january #afjj4 ,tycho received him with
 great kindness1 notwithstanding the    
part which he had taken against him     
along with ,raimar1 and he spent three  
or four months with him at ,benach4 ,it 
was then arranged that ,kepler should be
 appointed ,tycho's assistant in the    
observatory1 with a salary of #ajj      
florins1 provided the ,states of ,styria
 should1 on the ,emperor's application1 
allow him to be absent for two years and
 retain his salary4 ,kepler had returned
 to ,gratz before this arrangement was  
completed1 and new troubles having broke
 out in that city1 he resigned his      
professorship4 ,dreading lest this step 
would frustrate his scheme of joining   
,tycho1 he resolved to ask the patronage
 of the ,duke of ,wirtemberg for the    
professorship of medicine at ,tubingen2 
and with this view he corresponded with 

,moestlin and his other friends in that 
,university4 ,when ,tycho heard of this 
plan1 he pressed him to abandon it1 and 
promised his best exertions to procure a
 permanent situation for him from the   
,emperor4  ,encouraged by these         
promises1 ,kepler and his wife set off  
for ,prague1 but he was unfortunately   
attacked on the road with a quartan     
ague1 which lasted seven months2 and    
having exhausted the little money which 
he had along with him1 he was obliged to
 apply to ,tycho for a supply4 ,after   
his arrival at ,prague he was supported 
entirely by the bounty of his friend1   
and he endeavoured to make some return  
for this kindness by attacking in a     
controversial pamphlet two of the       
scientific opponents of ,tycho4         
,kepler's total dependence on the       
generosity of his friend had made him   
suspicious of his sincerity4 ,he        
imagined that ,tycho had not freely     
communicated to him all his             
observations1 and that he had not been  

sufficiently liberal in supplying his   
wife with money in his absence4 ,while  
absent a second time from ,prague1 and  
influenced by these feelings1 he        
addressed a violent letter to ,tycho1   
filled with reproaches4 ,on the plea of 
being occupied with his daughter's      
marriage1 ,tycho requested ,ericksen1   
one of his assistants1 to reply to      
,kepler's letter2 and he did this with  
so much effect1 that ,kepler saw his    
mistake1 and in the noblest and most    
generous manner supplicated the         
forgiveness of his friend4 ,tycho       
exhibited the same good feeling2 and the
 kindness of ,hoffman1 ,president of the
 ,states of ,styria1 completed the      
reconciliation of the two astronomers4  
,on his return to ,prague in #afja1 he  
was presented by ,tycho to the ,emperor1
 who conferred upon him the title of    
,imperial ,mathematician1 on the        
condition that he would assist ,tycho in
 his calculations4 ,this connexion was  
peculiarly valuable to ,kepler1 as the  

observations of his colleague were the  
only ones made in the world which could 
enable him to carry on his own          
theoretical inquiries4 ,these two       
astronomers now undertook to compute1   
from ,tycho's observations1 a new set of
 astronomical tables1 to be called the  
,rudolphine ,tables1 in honour of the   
,emperor4 ,this scheme flattered the    
vanity of their master1 and he pledged  
himself to pay all the expenses of the  
work4 ,longomontanus1 ,tycho's principal
 assistant1 took upon himself the labour
 of arranging and discussing the        
observations on the stars1 while ,kepler
 devoted himself to the more congenial  
task of examining those on the planet   
,mars1 with which ,tycho was at that    
time particularly occupied4 ,the        
appointment of ,longomontanus to a      
professorship in ,denmark1 and the death
 of ,tycho in ,october #afja1 put a stop
 to these important schemes4  ,kepler   
succeeded ,tycho as principal           
mathematician to the ,emperor1 and was  

provided with a handsome salary1 which  
was partly charged on the imperial      
treasury1 and partly on the ,states of  
,silesia1 and the first instalment of   
which was to be paid in ,march #afjb4   
,the generosity of the ,emperor did not 
fail to excite the jealousy of ignorant 
individuals1 who were not aware of the  
value of science to the state2 but the  
increasing fame of ,kepler1 and the     
valuable works which he published1 soon 
silenced their opposition4  ,in         
,september #afjd1 astronomers were      
surprised with the appearance of a new  
star in the foot of ,serpentarius4 ,it  
was not seen before the #bith of        
,september1 and ,moestlin informs us    
that1 on account of clouds1 he did not  
obtain a good view of it till the #fth  
of ,october4 ,like that of #aegb1de it  
at first surpassed ,jupiter in          
brightness1 and rivalled even ,venus1   
but it afterwards became as small as    
,regulus1 and as dull as ,saturn1 and   
disappeared at the end of a few months4 

,it constantly changed its colour1 and  
was at first tawny1 then yellow1 then   
purple and red1 and often white at great
 altitudes4 ,it had no parallax1 and    
therefore was a fixed star4 ,kepler     
wrote a short account of this remarkable
 body1 and maintained its superiority to
 that of #aegb1 as this last came in an 
ordinary year1 while the other appeared 
in the year of the fiery trigon1 or that
 in which ,saturn1 ,jupiter1 and ,mars1 
are in the three fiery signs1 ,aries1   
,leo1 and ,sagittarius1 an event which  
occurs only every #hjj years4 ,after    
discussing a great variety of topics1   
but little connected with his subject1  
and in a style of absurd jocularity1 he 
attacks the opinions of the ,epicureans1
 that the star was a fortuitous         
concourse of atoms1 in the following    
remarkable paragraph1 which is a good   
specimen of the work3--,when ,i was a   
youth with plenty of idle time on my    
hands1 ,i was much taken with the       
vanity1 of which some grown men are not 

ashamed1 of making anagrams by          
transposing the letters of my name1     
written in ,latin4 ,out of ,joannes     
,keplerus came ,serpens in ,akuleo 7a   
serpent in his sting72 but not being    
satisfied with the meaning of these     
words1 and being unable to make another1
 ,i trusted the thing to chance1 and    
taking out of a pack of playing cards as
 many as there were letters in the name1
 ,i wrote one upon each1 and then began 
to shuffle them1 and at each shuffle to 
read them in the order they came1 to see
 if any meaning came of it4 ,now1 may   
all the ,epicurean gods and goddesses   
confound this same chance1 which1       
although ,i have spent a good deal of   
time over it1 never shewed me anything  
like sense even from a distance4 ,so ,i 
gave up my cards to the ,epicurean      
eternity1 to be carried away into       
infinity2 and1 it is said1 they are     
still flying about there in the utmost  
confusion among the atoms1 and have     
never yet come to any meaning4 ,i will  

tell those disputants1 my opponents1 not
 my own opinion1 but my wife's4         
,yesterday1 when weary with writing1 and
 my mind quite dusty with considering   
these atoms1 ,i was called to supper1   
and a salad ,i had asked for was set    
before me4 ',it seems then1' said ,i1   
aloud1 'that if pewter dishes1 leaves of
 lettuce1 grains of salt1 drops of      
water1 vinegar1 and oil1 and slices of  
egg1 had been flying about in the air   
from all eternity1 it might at last     
happen by chance that there would come a
 salad4' ',yes1' says my wife1 'but not 
so nice and well dressed as this of mine
 is4'       #de ,see the ,life of       
,tycho1 page #acg4     ,,chapter ,,ii4  
,kepler's ,pecuniary                    
,embarrassments--,his ,inquiries        
respecting the      ,law of             
,refraction--,his ,supplement to        
,vitellio--,his ,researches on          
,vision--,his ,treatise on              
,dioptrics--,his ,commentaries on       
,mars--,he      discovers that the orbit

 of ,mars is an ,ellipse1 with the ,sun 
in one      focus--,and extends this    
discovery to all the other ,planets--,he
      establishes the two first laws of 
,physical ,astronomy--,his ,family      
,distresses--,death of his ,wife--,he is
 appointed ,professor of                
,mathematics at ,linz--,his ,method of  
,choosing a ,second ,wife--,her         
,character1 as given by                 
,himself--,origin of his ,treatise on   
,gauging--,he goes to ,ratisbon to give 
his ,opinion to the ,diet on the        
change of ,style--,he refuses the       
,mathematical ,chair at ,bologna4       
,although ,kepler now filled one of the 
most honourable situations to which a   
philosopher could aspire1 and possessed 
a large salary fitted to supply his most
 reasonable wants1 yet1 as the imperial 
treasury was drained by the demands of  
an expensive war1 his salary was always 
in arrear4 ,owing to this cause he was  
constantly involved in pecuniary        
difficulties1 and1 as he himself        

described his situation1 he was         
perpetually begging his bread from the  
,emperor at ,prague4 ,his increasing    
family rendered the want of money still 
more distressing1 and he was driven to  
the painful alternative of drawing his  
income from casting nativities4 ,from   
the same cause he was obliged to abandon
 his plan of publishing the ,rudolphine 
,tables1 and to devote himself to works 
of a less expensive kind1 and which were
 more likely to yield some pecuniary    
advantages4  ,in spite of these         
embarrassments1 and the occupation of   
his time in the practice of astrology1  
,kepler found leisure for his favourite 
pursuits4 ,no adverse circumstances were
 capable of extinguishing his scientific
 ardour1 and whenever he directed his   
vigorous mind to the investigation of   
phenomena1 he never failed to obtain    
interesting and original results4 ,since
 the death of ,tycho1 his attention had 
been much occupied with the subject of  
refraction and vision2 and1 in #afjf1 he

 published the result of his researches 
in a work1 entitled ,a ,supplement to   
,vitellio1 in which the optical part of 
astronomy is treated1 but chiefly on the
 artificial observation and estimation  
of diameters1 and of the eclipses of the
 ,sun and ,moon4 ,astronomers had long  
been perplexed with the refraction of   
the atmosphere1 and so little was known 
of the general subject1 as well as of   
this branch of it1 that ,tycho believed 
the refraction of the atmosphere to     
cease at #de deg4 of altitude4 ,even at 
the beginning of the second century1    
,claudius ,ptolemy of ,alexandria had   
unravelled its principal mysteries1 and 
had given in his ,optics a theory of    
astronomical refraction more complete   
than that of any astronomer before the  
time of ,cassini2#df but the ,,mss4 had 
unfortunately been mislaid1 and ,alhazen
 and ,vitellio and ,kepler were obliged 
to take up the subject from its         
commencement4 ,ptolemy had not only     
determined that the refraction of the   

atmosphere had gradually increased from 
the zenith to the horizon1 but he had   
measured with singular accuracy the     
angles of refraction for water and      
glass1 from a perpendicular incidence to
 a horizontal one4       #df ,cassini   
was born in #afbe1 and died in #agab4   
,kepler treated this branch of science  
in his own peculiar way1 hunting down1  
as he expressed it1 every hypothesis    
which his fertile imagination had       
successively presented to him4 ,in his  
various attempts to discover the law of 
refraction1 or a measure of it1 as      
varying with the density of the body and
 the angle of incidence of the light1 he
 was nearer the goal1 in his first      
speculation1 than in any of the rest2   
and he seems to have failed in          
consequence of his not separating the   
question as it related to density from  
the question as it related to incidence4
 ,i did not leave untried1 says he1     
whether1 by assuming a horizontal       
refraction according to the density of  

the medium1 the rest would correspond to
 the sines of the distances from a      
vertical direction1 but calculation     
proved that it was not so3 and1 indeed1 
there was no occasion to have tried it1 
for thus the refraction would increase  
according to the same law in all        
mediums1 which is contradicted by       
experiment4  ,although completely foiled
 in his search after the law of         
refraction1 which was subsequently      
discovered by ,willebrord ,snell1 and   
sometime afterwards by ,james ,gregory1 
he was1 singularly successful in his    
inquiries respecting vision4 ,regarding 
the eye as analogous in its structure   
with the camera obscura of ,baptista    
,porta1 he discovered that the images of
 external objects were painted in an    
inverted position on the retina1 by the 
union of the pencils of rays which      
issued from every point of the object4  
,he ascribed an erect vision to an      
operation of the mind1 by which it      
traces the rays back to the pupil1 where

 they cross one another1 and thus refers
 the lower parts of the image to the    
higher parts of the object4 ,he also    
explained the cause of long-sighted and 
short-sighted vision1 and shewed how    
convex and concave lenses enabled those 
who possessed these peculiarities of    
vision to see distinctly1 by accurately 
converging the pencils of rays to a     
focus on the retina4 ,kepler likewise   
observed the power of accommodating the 
eye to different distances1 and he      
ascribed it to the contraction of the   
ciliary processes1 which drew the sides 
of the eyeball towards the crystalline  
lens1 and thus elongated the eye so as  
to produce an adjustment of it for near 
objects4 ,kepler wisely declined to     
inquire into the way in which the mind  
perceives the images painted on the     
retina1 and he blames ,vitellio for     
attempting to determine a question which
 he considered as not belonging to      
optics4  ,the work of ,kepler1 now under
 consideration1 contains the method of  

calculating eclipses which is now in use
 at the present day4  ,the only other   
optical treatise written by ,kepler1 was
 his ,dioptrics1 with an appendix on the
 use of optics in philosophy4 ,this     
admirable work1 which laid the          
foundation of the science1 was published
 at ,augsburg in #afaa1 and reprinted at
 ,london in #afec4 ,although ,maurolycus
 had made some slight progress in       
studying the passage of light through   
different media1 yet it is to ,kepler   
that we owe the methods of tracing the  
progress of rays through transparent    
bodies with convex and concave surfaces1
 and of determining the foci of lenses1 
and of the relative positions of the    
images which they form1 and the objects 
from which the rays proceed4 ,he was    
thus led to explain the rationale of the
 telescope1 and to invent the           
astronomical telescope1 which consists  
of two convex lenses1 by which objects  
are seen inverted4 ,kepler also         
discovered the important fact1 that     

spherical surfaces were not capable of  
converging rays to a single focus1 and  
he conjectured1 what ,descartes         
afterwards proved1 that this property   
might be possessed by lenses having the 
figure of some of the sections of the   
cone4 ,the total reflection of light at 
the second surface of bodies was        
likewise studied by ,kepler1 and he     
determined that the total reflection    
commenced when the angle of incidence   
was equal to the angle of refraction1   
which corresponded to an incidence of   
#ij4  ,two years before the publication 
of his ,dioptrics1 viz4 in #afji1       
,kepler had given to the world his great
 work1 entitled ,the ,new ,astronomy1 or
 ,commentaries on the ,motions of ,mars4
 ,the discoveries which this volume     
records form the basis of physical      
astronomy4 ,the inquiries by which he   
was led to them began in that memorable 
year #afja1 when he became the colleague
 or assistant of ,tycho4 ,the powers of 
original genius were then for the first 

time associated with inventive skill and
 patient observation2 and though the    
astronomical data provided by ,tycho    
were sure of finding their application  
in some future age1 yet without them    
,kepler's speculations would have been  
vain1 and the laws which they enabled   
him to determine would have adorned the 
history of another century4 ,having     
tried in vain to represent the motion of
 ,mars by an uniform motion in a        
circular orbit1 and by the cycles and   
epicycles with which ,copernicus had    
endeavoured to explain the planetary    
inequalities1 ,kepler was led1 after    
many fruitless speculations1#dg to      
suppose the orbit of the planet to be   
oval2 and1 from his knowledge of the    
conic sections1 he afterwards determined
 it to be an ellipse1 with the sun      
placed in one of its foci4 ,he then     
ascertained the dimensions of the orbit2
 and1 by a comparison of the times      
employed by the planet to complete a    
whole revolution or any part of one1 he 

discovered that the time in which ,mars 
describes any arches of his elliptic    
orbit1 were always to one another as the
 areas contained by lines drawn from the
 focus or the centre of the sun to the  
extremities of the respective arches2   
or1 in other words1 that the radius     
vector1 or the line joining the ,sun and
 ,mars described equal areas in equal   
times4 ,by examining the inequalities of
 the other planets he found that they   
all moved in elliptic orbits1 and that  
the radius vector of each described     
areas proportional to the times4 ,these 
two great results are known by the name 
of the first and second laws of ,kepler4
 ,the third law1 or that which relates  
to the connexion between the periodic   
times and the distances of the planets1 
was not discovered till a later period  
of his life4       #dg ,an interesting  
account of the steps by which ,kepler   
proceeded      will be found in ,mr     
,drinkwater ,bethune's admirable ,life  
of ,kepler1      in the ,library of     

,useful ,knowledge4  ,when ,kepler      
presented to ,rudolph the volume which  
contained these fine discoveries1 he    
reminded him jocularly of his requiring 
the sinews of war to make similar       
attacks upon the other planets4 ,the    
,emperor1 however1 had more formidable  
enemies than ,jupiter and ,saturn1 and  
from the treasury1 which war had        
exhausted1 he found it difficult to     
supply the wants of science4 ,while     
,kepler was thus involved in the        
miseries of poverty1 misfortunes of     
every kind filled up the cup of his     
adversity4 ,his wife1 who had long been 
the victim of low spirits1 was seized1  
towards the end of #afaj1 with fever1   
epilepsy1 and phrenitis1 and before she 
had completely recovered1 all his three 
children were simultaneously attacked   
with the smallpox4 ,his favourite son   
fell a victim to this malady1 and at the
 same time ,prague was partially        
occupied by the troops of ,leopold4 ,the
 part of the city where ,kepler resided 

was harassed by the ,bohemian levies1   
and1 to crown this list of evils1 the   
,austrian troops introduced the plague  
into the city4  ,sometime afterwards    
,kepler set out for ,austria with the   
view of obtaining the professorship of  
mathematics at ,linz1 which was now     
vacant2 but1 upon his return in ,june1  
he found his wife in a decline1 brought 
on by grief for the loss of her son1 and
 she was sometime afterwards seized with
 an infectious fever1 of which she died4
  ,the ,emperor ,rudolph was unwilling  
to allow ,kepler to quit ,prague4 ,he   
encouraged him with hopes that the      
arrears of his salary would be paid from
 ,saxony2 but these hopes were          
fallacious1 and it was not till the     
death of ,rudolph1 in #afab1 that       
,kepler was freed from these distressing
 embarrassments4  ,on the accession of  
,mathias1 ,rudolph's brother1 ,kepler   
was re-appointed imperial mathematician1
 and was allowed to accept the          
professorship at ,linz4 ,his family now 

consisted of two children--a daughter1  
,susannah1 born in #afjb1 and a son1    
,louis1 born in #afjg4 ,his own time was
 so completely occupied by his new      
professorial duties1 as well as by his  
private studies1 that he found it       
necessary to seek another parent for his
 children4 ,for this purpose1 he gave a 
commission to his friends to look out   
for him a suitable wife1 and1 in a long 
and jocular letter to ,baron            
,strahlendorf1 he has given an amusing  
account of the different negotiations   
which preceded his marriage4 ,the       
substance of this letter is so well     
given by ,mr ,drinkwater ,bethune1 that 
we shall follow his account of it4  ,the
 first of the eleven ladies among whom  
his inclinations wavered1 was a widow1  
an intimate friend of his first wife2   
and who1 on many accounts1 appeared a   
most eligible match4 ,at first1 says    
,kepler1 she seemed favourably inclined 
to the proposal2 it is certain that she 
took time to consider it1 but at last   

she very quietly excused herself4 ,it   
must have been from a recollection of   
this lady's good qualities1 that ,kepler
 was induced to make his offer2 for we  
learn rather unexpectedly1 after being  
informed of her decision1 that when he  
soon afterwards paid his respects to    
her1 it was the first time that he had  
seen her during the last six years2 and 
he found1 to his great relief1 that     
there was no single pleasing part about 
her4 ,the truth seems to be1 that he was
 nettled by her answer1 and he is at    
greater pains than appears necessary1   
considering this last discovery1 to     
determine why she would not accept his  
offered hand4 ,among other reasons1 he  
suggested her children1 among whom were 
two marriageable daughters2 and it is   
diverting afterwards to find them also  
in the catalogue1 which ,kepler appeared
 to be making1 of all his female        
acquaintance4444 ,of the other ladies1  
one was too old1 another in bad health1 
another too proud of her birth and      

quarterings1 a fourth had learned       
nothing but shewy accomplishments1 not  
at all suitable to the sort of life she 
would have to lead with me1 another grew
 impatient1 and married a more decided  
admirer1 whilst he was hesitating4 ,the 
mischief1 says he1 in all these         
attachments was1 that whilst ,i was     
delaying1 comparing and balancing       
conflicting reasons1 every day saw me   
inflamed with a new passion4 ,by the    
time he reached the #hth1 he found his  
match in this respect4 ,fortune at      
length has avenged herself on my        
doubtful inclinations4 ,at first she was
 quite complying1 and her friends also2 
presently1 whether she did or did not   
consent1 not only ,i1 but she herself   
did not know4 ,after the lapse of a few 
days came a renewed promise1 which1     
however1 had to be confirmed a third    
time2 and four days after that1 she     
again repeated her confirmation1 and    
begged to be excused from it4 ,upon this
 ,i gave her up1 and this time all my   

counsellors were of one opinion4 ,this  
was the longest courtship in the list1  
having lasted three whole months2 and1  
quite disheartened by its bad success1  
,kepler's next attempt was of a more    
timid complexion4 ,his advances to ,no4 
#i were made by confiding to her the    
whole story of his recent               
disappointment1 prudently determining to
 be guided in his behaviour1 by         
observing whether the treatment he had  
experienced met with a proper degree of 
sympathy4 ,apparently the experiment did
 not succeed2 and1 almost reduced to    
despair1 ,kepler betook himself to the  
advice of a friend1 who had for some    
time past complained that she was not   
consulted in this difficult negotiation4
 ,when she produced ,no4 #aj1 and the   
first visit was paid1 the report upon   
her was as follows3--,she has1          
undoubtedly1 a good fortune1 is of good 
family1 and of economical habits3 but   
her physiognomy is most horribly ugly2  
she would be stared at in the streets1  

not to mention the striking             
disproportion in our figures4 ,i am     
lank1 lean1 and spare2 she short and    
thick3 in a family notorious for        
fulness1 she is considered superfluously
 fat4 ,the only objection to ,no4 #aa   
seems to have been her excessive youth2 
and when this treaty was broken off on  
that account1 ,kepler turned his back   
upon all his advisers1 and chose for    
himself one who had figured as ,no4 #e  
in the list1 to whom he professes to    
have felt attached throughout1 but from 
whom the representations of his friends 
had hitherto detained him1 probably on  
account of her humble station4  ,the    
following is ,kepler's summary of her   
character3--,her name is ,susannah1 the 
daughter of ,john ,reuthinger and       
,barbara1 citizens of the town of       
,eferdingen4 ,the father was by trade a 
cabinetmaker1 but both her parents are  
dead4 ,she has received an education    
well worth the largest dowry1 by favour 
of the ,lady of ,stahrenberg1 the       

strictness of whose household is famous 
throughout the province4 ,her person and
 manners are suitable to mine--no pride1
 no extravagance4 ,she can bear to work2
 she has a tolerable knowledge how to   
manage a family2 middle-aged1 and of a  
disposition and capability to acquire   
what she still wants4 ,her ,i shall     
marry1 by favour of the noble ,baron of 
,stahrenberg1 at #ab o'clock on the     
#cjth of next ,october1 with all        
,eferdingen assembled to meet us1 and we
 shall eat the marriage dinner at       
,maurice's at the ,golden ,lion4#dh     
#dh ,life of ,kepler1 chap4 vi4         
,kepler's marriage seems to have taken  
place at the time here mentioned2 for1  
in his book on gauging1 published at    
,linz in #afae1 he informs us that he   
took home his new wife in ,november1 on 
which occasion he found it necessary to 
stock his cellar with a few casks of    
wine4 ,when the wine-merchant came to   
measure the casks1 ,kepler objected to  
his method1 as he made no allowance for 

the different sizes of the bulging parts
 of the cask4 ,from this accident1      
,kepler was led to study the subject of 
gauging1 and to write the book which we 
have mentioned1 and which contains the  
earliest specimens of the modern        
analysis4  ,about this period1 ,kepler  
was summoned to the ,diet at ,ratisbon1 
to give his opinion on the reformation  
of the kalendar1 and he published a     
short essay on the subject2 but though  
the ,government did not scruple to avail
 themselves of his services1 yet his    
pension was allowed to fall in arrear1  
and1 in order to support his family1 he 
was obliged to publish an ,almanac1     
suited to the taste of the age4 ,in     
order1 says he1 to defray the expense of
 the ,ephemeris for two years1#di ,i    
have been obliged to compose a vile     
prophesying ,almanac1 which is scarcely 
more respectable than begging1 unless   
from its saving the ,emperor's credit1  
who abandons me entirely1 and would     
suffer me to perish with hunger4        

#di ,these ,ephemerides1 from #afag to  
#afbj1 were published at ,linz      in  
#afaf4 ,the one for #afbj was dedicated 
to ,baron ,napier of      ,merchiston4  
,although ,kepler's residence at ,linz  
was rendered uncomfortable by the ,roman
 ,catholics1 who had excommunicated him 
on account of his refusing to subscribe 
to some opinions respecting the ubiquity
 of our ,saviour1 or1 as others         
maintain1 on account of some opinions   
which he had expressed respecting       
transubstantiation1 yet he refused1 in  
#afag1 to accept of an invitation to    
fill the mathematical chair at ,bologna4
 ,the prospect of his fortune being     
bettered by such a change could not     
reconcile him to live in a country where
 his freedom of speech and manners might
 expose him to suspicion2 and he        
accordingly declined1 in the most       
respectful manner1 the offer which was  
made him4     ,,chapter ,,iii4          
,kepler's continued                     
,embarrassments--,death of              

,mathias--,liberality of                
,ferdinand--,kepler's ,harmonies of the 
,world--,the ,epitome of the            
,copernican ,astronomy--,it is          
prohibited by the ,inquisition--,sir    
,henry ,wotton1 the ,british            
,ambassador1 invites ,kepler to         
,england--,he      declines the         
,invitation--,neglect of ,genius by the 
,english      ,government--,trial of    
,kepler's ,mother--,her final           
,acquittal--,and      ,death at the age 
of ,seventy-five--,the ,states of       
,styria burn      publicly ,kepler's    
,calendar--,he receives his ,arrears of 
,salary from      ,ferdinand--,the      
,rudolphine ,tables published in        
#afbh--;,he receives a      ,gold ,chain
 from the ,grand ,dulce of ,tuscany--,he
 is ,patronised by the      ,duke of    
,friedland--,he removes to ,sagan1 in   
,silesia--,is appointed      ,professor 
of ,mathematics at ,rostoch--,goes to   
,ratisbon to receive      his           
,arrears--,his ,death1 ,funeral1 and    

,epitaph--,monument ,erected to      his
 ,memory in #ahjc--;,his ,family--,his  
,posthumous ,volume1 entitled      ,the 
,dream1 or ,lunar ,astronomy4   ,kepler 
was kept in a state of constant anxiety 
from the delay in the ,government to pay
 up the arrears of his pension1 while   
their repeated promises prevented him   
from accepting of other employments4 ,he
 had hoped that the affair of the       
,bolognese chair would rouse the        
imperial treasury to a sense of its     
duty1 and enable him to publish the     
,rudolphine ,tables1--that great work   
which he owed to the memory both of     
,tycho and of ,rudolph4 ,but though he  
was disappointed in this expectation1 an
 event now occurred which at least held 
out the prospect of a favourable change 
in his circumstances4 ,the ,emperor     
,mathias died in #afai1 and was         
succeeded by ,ferdinand ,,iii41 who not 
only continued him in the situation of  
his principal mathematician1 with his   
former pension1 but promised to pay up  

the arrears of it1 and to furnish the   
means for publishing the ,rudolphine    
,tables4  ,the year #afai1 so favourable
 to ,kepler's prospects in life1 was    
distinguished also by the publication1  
at ,linz1 of one of his most remarkable 
productions1 entitled ,the ,harmonies of
 the ,world4 ,it is dedicated to ,james 
,i4 of ,england1 and will be for ever   
memorable in the history of science1 as 
containing the celebrated law that the  
squares of the periodic times of the    
planets are to one another as the cubes 
of their distances4 ,this singular      
volume1 which is marked with all the    
peculiarities which distinguish his     
,cosmographical ,mystery1 is divided    
into five books4 ,the two first books   
are principally geometrical1 and relate 
to regular polygons inscribed in a      
circle2 the third book is a treatise on 
music1 in which musical proportions are 
derived from figures2 the fourth book is
 astrological1 and treats of the harmony
 of rays emanating on the earth from the

 heavenly bodies1 and on their influence
 over the sublunary or human soul2 the  
fifth book is astronomical and          
metaphysical1 and treats of the         
exquisite harmonies of the celestial    
motions1 and of the celebrated third law
 of the universe1 which we have already 
referred to4  ,this law1 as he himself  
informs us1 first entered his mind on   
the #hth ,march #afah2 but1 having made 
an erroneous calculation1 he was obliged
 to reject it4 ,he resumed the subject  
on the #aeth ,may2 and having discovered
 his former error1 he recognised with   
transport the absolute truth of a       
principle which for seventeen years had 
been the object of his incessant        
labours4 ,the delight which this grand  
discovery gave him had no bounds4       
,nothing holds me1 says he2 ,i will     
indulge in my sacred fury2 ,i will      
triumph over mankind by the honest      
confession1 that ,i have stolen the     
golden vases of the ,egyptians1 to build
 up a tabernacle for my ,god1 far away  

from the confines of ,egypt4 ,if you    
forgive me1 ,i rejoice2 if you are      
angry1 ,i can bear it4 ,the die is cast2
 the book is written1 to be read either 
now or by posterity1 ,i care not which4 
,it may well wait a century for a       
reader1 as ,god has waited six thousand 
years for an observer4  ,about the same 
time1 in #afah1 ,kepler published1 at   
,linz1 the three first books of his     
,epitome of the ,copernican ,astronomy1 
of which the fourth was published at the
 same place in #afbb1 and the fifth1    
sixth1 and seventh at ,frankfort in the 
same year4 ,this interesting work is a  
kind of summary of all his astronomical 
views1 drawn up in the form of a        
dialogue for the perusal of general     
readers4 ,immediately after its         
publication1 it was placed by the       
,inquisition in the list of prohibited  
books2 and the moment ,kepler learned   
this from his correspondent ,remus1 he  
was thrown into great alarm1 and        
requested from him some information     

respecting the terms and consequences of
 the censure which was then pronounced  
against him4 ,he was afraid that it     
might compromise his personal safety if 
he went to ,italy2 that he would be     
compelled to retract his opinions2 that 
the censure might extend to ,austria2   
that the sale of his work would be      
ruined2 and that he must either abandon 
his country or his opinions4  ,the reply
 of his friend ,remus calmed his        
agitated mind1 by explaining to him the 
true nature of the prohibition2 and he  
concluded his letter with a piece of    
seasonable exhortation1 ,there is no    
ground for your alarm either in ,italy  
or in ,austria1 only keep yourself      
within bounds1 and put a guard upon your
 own passions4  ,in the year #afbj1 ,sir
 ,henry ,wotton1 the ,english ambassador
 at ,venice1 paid a visit to ,kepler on 
his way through ,germany4 ,it does not  
appear whether or not this visit was    
paid at the desire of ,james ,i41 to    
whom ,kepler had dedicated one of his   

works1 but from the nature of the       
communication which was made to him by  
the ambassador1 there are strong reasons
 to think that this was the case4 ,sir  
,henry ,wotton urged ,kepler to take up 
his residence in ,england1 where he     
could assure him of a welcome and an    
honourable reception2 but1              
notwithstanding the pecuniary           
difficulties in which he was then       
involved1 he did not accept of the      
invitation4 ,in referring to this offer 
in one of his letters1 written a year   
after it was made1 he thus balances the 
difficulties of the question--,the fires
 of civil war1 says he1 are raging in   
,germany4 ,shall ,i then cross the sea  
whither ,wotton invites me8 ,i1 a       
,german1 a lover of firm land1 who dread
 the confinement of an island1 who      
presage its dangers1 and must drag along
 with me my little wife and flock of    
children8 ,as ,kepler seems to have     
entertained no doubt of his being well  
provided for in ,england1 it is the more

 probable that the ,british ,sovereign  
had made him a distinct offer through   
his ambassador4 ,a welcome and an       
honourable reception1 in the ordinary   
sense of these terms1 could not have    
supplied the wants of a starving        
astronomer1 who was called upon to      
renounce a large though an ill-paid     
salary in his native land2 and ,kepler  
had experienced too deeply the          
faithlessness of royal pledges to trust 
his fortune to so vague an assurance as 
that which is implied in the language of
 the ,english ambassador4 ,during the   
two centuries which have elapsed since  
this invitation was given to ,kepler1   
there has been no reign during which the
 most illustrious foreigner could hope  
for pecuniary support1 either from the  
,sovereign or the ,government of        
,england4 ,what ,english science has    
never been able to command for her      
indigenous talent1 was not likely to be 
proffered to foreign merit4 ,the        
generous hearts of individual           

,englishmen1 indeed1 are always open to 
the claims of intellectual pre-eminence1
 and ever ready to welcome the stranger 
whom it adorns2 but through the frozen  
life-blood of a ,british minister such  
sympathies have seldom vibrated2 and1   
amid the struggles of faction and the   
anxieties of personal and family        
ambition1 he has turned a deaf ear to   
the demands of genius1 whether she      
appeared in the humble posture of a     
suppliant1 or in the prouder attitude of
 a national benefactor4  ,if the        
imperial mathematician1 therefore1 had  
no other assurance of a comfortable home
 in ,england than that of ,sir ,henry   
,wotton1 he acted a wise part in        
distrusting it2 and we rejoice that the 
sacred name of ,kepler was thus withheld
 from the long list of distinguished    
characters whom ,england has starved and
 dishonoured4  ,in the year #afbj1      
,kepler was exposed to a severe         
calamity1 which continued to harass him 
for some time4 ,his mother1 ,catherine  

,kepler1 to whose peculiarities of      
temper we have already referred1 was    
arrested on the #eth ,april1 upon a     
charge of a very serious nature4 ,one of
 her friends having some years before   
suffered a miscarriage1 was subsequently
 attacked with violent headaches1 and   
,catherine was charged with having      
administered poison to her friend4 ,this
 accusation was indignantly repelled1   
and a young doctor of the law1 whom she 
consulted1 advised her to raise an      
action against her calumniator4 ,from   
professional reasons1 or probably       
pecuniary ones1 this zealous            
practitioner continued to delay the     
lawsuit for five years4 ,the judge who  
tried it happened to be displaced1 and  
was succeeded by another1 who had a     
personal quarrel with the prosecutor4   
,the defender1 who was aware of this    
favourable change in her case1 became   
the accuser1 and1 in ,july #afbj1       
,catherine ,kepler was sent to prison1  
and condemned to the torture4 ,the      

moment this event reached the ears of   
her son1 he quitted ,linz1 and arrived  
in time to save her from punishment4 ,he
 found that the evidence upon which she 
was condemned had no other foundation   
but her own intemperate conduct2 and1   
though his interference was successful1 
yet she was not finally released from   
prison till the #dth ,november #afba4   
,convinced of her innocence1 this bold  
woman1 now in the #gith year of her age1
 raised a new action for damages against
 her opponent2 but her death1 in ,april 
#afbb1 put an end to her own miseries1  
as well as to the anxiety of her son4   
,among the virtues of this singular     
woman1 we must number that of           
generosity4 ,moestlin1 the old preceptor
 of ,kepler1 had generously declined any
 compensation for his instructions4     
,kepler never forgot this act of        
kindness1 and1 in the midst of his      
poverty1 he found means to send to      
,moestlin a handsome silver cup in token
 of his gratitude4 ,in acknowledging    

this gift1 ,moestlin remarks1 ,your     
mother had taken it into her head that  
you owed me #bjj florins1 and had       
brought #ae florins and a chandelier    
towards reducing the debt1 which ,i     
advised her to send to you4 ,i asked her
 to stay to dinner1 which she refused4  
,however1 we hanselled your cup1 as you 
know she is of a thirsty temperament4   
,in the same year in which his mother   
was arrested1 the ,states of ,styria    
ordered all the copies of the ,kalendar 
for #afbd to be publicly burnt4 ,there  
does not seem to be any reason for      
supposing that this insult proceeded    
from his old enemies the ,catholics4    
,they would1 no doubt1 take an active   
share in carrying it into effect2 but it
 would appear that his former patrons   
were affronted at ,kepler's giving the  
precedence in his title page to the     
,states of ,upper ,ens1 where he then   
resided1 above the ,states of ,styria4  
,in #afbb1 the ,emperor ,ferdinand1     
notwithstanding his own pecuniary       

difficulties1 ordered the whole of      
,kepler's arrears to be paid1 even those
 which had been due by ,rudolph and     
,mathias2 and so great was his anxiety  
to have the ,rudolphine ,tables         
published1 that he supplied the means   
for their immediate completion4 ,new    
difficulties1 however1 sprung up to     
retard still longer the appearance of   
this most important work4 ,the wars of  
the reformation1 which were then        
agitating the whole of ,germany1        
interfered with every peaceful pursuit4 
,the library of ,kepler was sealed up by
 order of the ,jesuits1 and it was only 
his position as imperial mathematician  
that saved him from personal            
inconvenience4 ,a popular insurrection  
followed in the train of these          
disasters4 ,the peasantry blockaded     
,linz1 the place of ,kepler's residence1
 and it was not till the year #afbg1 as 
the title page bears1 or #afbh1 as      
,kepler elsewhere states1 that these    
celebrated ,tables were given to the    

world4  ,the ,rudolphine ,tables were   
published at ,ulm in one volume folio4  
,these ,tables were calculated by       
,kepler from the ,observations of       
,tycho1 and are founded on his own great
 discovery of the ellipticity of the    
planetary orbits4 ,the first and third  
parts of the work contain logarithmic   
and other auxiliary tables1 for the     
purpose of facilitating astronomical    
calculations4 ,the second part contains 
tables of the sun1 moon1 and planets2   
and the fourth a catalogue of #ajjj     
stars1 as determined by ,tycho4 ,a      
nautical map is prefixed to some copies 
of the tables1 and the description of it
 contains the first notice of the method
 of determining the longitude by means  
of occultations4  ,a short time after   
the publication of these tables1 the    
,grand ,duke of ,tuscany1 instigated no 
doubt by ,galileo1 sent ,kepler a gold  
chain in testimony of his approbation of
 the great service which he had rendered
 to astronomy4  ,about this time ,albert

 ,wallenstein1 ,duke of ,friedland1 a   
great patron of astrology1 and one of   
the most distinguished men of the age1  
made the most munificent offers to      
,kepler1 and invited him to take up his 
residence at ,sagan in ,silesia4 ,the   
religious dissensions which agitated    
,linz1 the love of tranquillity which   
,kepler had so little enjoyed1 and the  
publication of his great work1 induced  
him to accept of this offer4 ,he        
accordingly removed his family from     
,linz to ,ratisbon in #afbi1 and he     
himself set out for ,prague1 with the   
double object of presenting the         
,rudolphine ,tables to the ,emperor1 and
 of soliciting his permission to go into
 the service of the ,duke of ,friedland4
 ,the ,emperor did not hesitate to grant
 this request2 and would have gladly    
transferred ,kepler's arrears as well as
 himself to the charge of a foreign     
prince4 ,kepler accordingly set out with
 his wife and family for ,sagan1 where  
he arrived in #afbi4 ,the ,duke ,albert 

treated him with liberality and         
distinction4 ,he supplied him with an   
assistant for his calculations1 and also
 with a printing press2 and1 by his     
influence with the ,duke of             
,mecklenburg1 he obtained for him a     
professorship in the ,university of     
,rostoch4  ,in this remote situation1   
,kepler found it extremely difficult to 
obtain payment of the imperial pension  
which he still retained4 ,the arrears   
had accumulated to #hjjj crowns1 and he 
resolved to go to the ,imperial         
,assembly at ,ratisbon to make a final  
effort to obtain them4 ,his attempts1   
however1 were fruitless4 ,the vexation  
which this occasioned1 and the great    
fatigue which he had undergone1 threw   
him into a violent fever1 which is said 
to have been one of cold1 and to have   
been accompanied with an imposthume in  
his brain1 occasioned by too much study4
 ,this disease baffled the skill of his 
physicians1 and carried him off on the  
#eth ,november1 ,o4,s4 #afcj1 in the    

sixtieth year of his age4  ,the remains 
of this great man were interred in ,st  
,peter's ,churchyard at ,ratisbon1 and  
the following inscription1 embodying an 
epitaph which he had written for        
himself1 was engraven on his tombstone4 
,,in ,,hoc ,,quiescit ,,vir             
,,nobilissimus1 ,,doctissimus ,,et      
,,celeberrimus ,,dom4      ,,johannes   
,,keplerus1 ,,trium ,,imperatorum       
,,rudolphi ,,ii41 ,,mathiae1 ,,et       
,,ferdinandi ,,ii41 ,,per ,,annos ,,xxx1
 ,,antea ,,vero ,,procerum ,,styriae    
,,ab ,,anno      #aeid ,,usque #afjj1   
,,postea ,,quoque ,,astriacorum         
,,ordinum ,,ab ,,anno #afab      ,,usque
 ,,ad ,,annum #afbh1 ,,mathematicus     
,,toti ,,orbi ,,christiani1 ,,per       
,,monumenta ,,publica ,,cognitus1 ,,ab  
,,omnibus ,,doctis1 ,,inter ,,principes 
,,astronomiae ,,numeratus1 ,,qui        
,,propria ,,manu ,,assignatum ,,post    
,,se ,,reliquit      ,,tale             
,,epitaphium4          ,mensus eram     
coelos1 nunc terrae metior umbras3      

,mens coelestis erat1 corporis umbra    
jacet4       ,,in ,,christo ,,pie       
,,obiit ,,anno ,,salutis #afcj1 ,,die #e
 ,,novembris1 ,,aetatis ,,suae          
,,sexagesimo4  ,this monument was not   
long preserved4 ,it was destroyed during
 the wars which desolated ,germany2 and 
no attempt was made till #aghf to mark  
with honour the spot which contained    
such venerable remains4 ,this attempt1  
however1 failed1 and it was not till    
#ahjc that this great duty was paid to  
the memory of ,kepler1 by the ,prince   
,bishop of ,constance1 who erected a    
handsome monumental temple near the     
place of his interment1 and in the      
,botanical ,garden of the city4 ,the    
temple is surmounted by a sphere1 and in
 the centre is a bust of ,kepler in     
,carrara marble4  ,kepler left behind   
him a wife and seven children--two by   
his first wife1 ,susanna and ,louis2 and
 three sons and two daughters by his    
second wife1 viz4--,sebald1 ,cordelia1  
,friedman1 ,hildebert1 and ,anna ,maria4

 ,the eldest of these1 ,susanna1 was    
married a few months before her father's
 death to ,jacob ,bartschius1 his pupil1
 who was educated as a physician2 and   
his son ,louis died in #affc1 while     
practising medicine at ,konigsberg4 ,the
 children by his second wife are said to
 have died young4 ,they were left in    
very narrow circumstances2 and though   
#bd1jjj florins were due to ,kepler by  
the ,emperor1 yet only a part of this   
sum was received by ,susanna1 in        
consequence of her refusing to give up  
,tycho's ,observations till the debt was
 paid4 ,kepler composed a little work   
entitled ,the ,dream of ,john ,kepler1  
or ,lunar ,astronomy1 the object of     
which was to describe the phenomena seen
 from the moon2 but he died while he and
 ,bartschius were engaged in its        
publication1 and ,bartschius having     
resumed the task1 died also before its  
completion4 ,louis ,kepler dreaded to   
meddle with a work which had proved so  
fatal to his father and his             

brother-in-law1 but this superstitious  
feeling was overcome1 and the work was  
published at ,frankfort in #afcf4       
,,chapter ,,iv4       ,number of        
,kepler's published ,works--,his        
numerous ,manuscripts in #bb      folio 
volumes--,purchased by ,hevelius1 and   
afterwards by ,hansch--,who             
publishes ,kepler's ,life and           
,correspondence at the expense of       
,charles ,,vi4--,the ,history of the    
rest of his ,manuscripts1 which are     
deposited in the ,library of the        
,academy of ,sciences at ,st            
,petersburg--,general ,character of     
,kepler--,his ,candour in               
acknowledging his ,errors--,his ,moral  
and ,religious ,character--,his         
,astrological ,writings and ,opinions   
considered--,his ,character as an       
,astronomer and a ,philosopher--,the    
,splendour of his                       
,discoveries--,account of his ,methods  
of ,investigating ,truth4   ,although   
the labours of ,kepler were frequently  

interrupted by severe and long-continued
 indisposition1 as well as by the       
pecuniary embarrassments in which he was
 constantly involved1 yet the ardour and
 power of his mind enabled him to       
surmount all the difficulties of his    
position4 ,not only did he bring to a   
successful completion the leading       
inquiries which he had begun1 but he    
found leisure for composing an immense  
number of works more or less connected  
with the subject of his studies4        
,between #aeid1 when he published his   
,kalendar at ,gratz1 and #afcj1 the year
 of his death1 he published no fewer    
than thirty-three separate works2 and he
 left behind him twenty-two volumes of  
manuscripts1 seven of which contain his 
epistolary correspondence4  ,the        
celebrated astronomer ,hevelius1 who was
 a cotemporary of ,louis ,kepler1       
purchased all these manuscripts from    
,kepler's representatives4 ,at the death
 of ,hevelius they were bought by ,m4   
,gottlieb ,hansch1 a zealous            

mathematician1 who was desirous of      
giving them to the world4 ,for this     
purpose he issued a prospectus in #agad 
for publishing them by subscription1 in 
#bb volumes folio2 but this plan having 
failed1 he was introduced to ,charles   
,,vi41 who liberally obtained for him   
#ajjj ducats to defray the expense of   
the publication1 and an annual pension  
of #cjj florins4 ,with such             
encouragement1 ,hansch published in     
#agah1 in one volume folio1 the         
correspondence of ,kepler1 entitled     
,epistolae ad ,joannem ,keplerum1       
insertis ad easdem responsionibus       
,keplerianis1 quidquid hactenus reperiri
 potuerunt1 opus novum1 et cum ,jo4     
,kepleri vita4  ,the expenses of this   
volume unfortunately exhausted the #ajjj
 ducats which had been granted by the   
,emperor1 and1 instead of being able to 
publish the rest of the ,,mss41 ,hansch 
was under the necessity of pledging them
 for #hbh florins4 ,under these         
difficulties he addressed himself in    

vain to the celebrated ,wolfius1 to the 
,royal ,society of ,london1 and to other
 bodies that were likely to interest    
themselves in such a subject4 ,in #agfa1
 when ,m4 ,de ,murr of ,nuremberg was in
 ,london1 he made great exertions to    
obtain the ,,mss41 and ,dr ,bradley is  
said to have been on the eve of         
purchasing them4 ,the competition       
probably raised the demands of the      
proprietor1 in whose hands they         
continued for many years4 ,in #aggc they
 were offered for #djjj francs1 and     
sometime afterwards ,m4 ,de ,murr       
purchased them for the ,imperial        
,academy of ,sciences at ,st            
,petersburg1 in whose library they still
 remain4 ,euler1 ,lexell1 and ,kraft    
undertook the task of examining them1   
and selecting those that were best      
fitted for publication1 but we believe  
that no steps have yet been taken for   
executing this task1 nor are we aware   
that science would derive any advantage 
from its completion4  ,although1 in     

drawing his own character1 ,kepler      
describes himself as troublesome and    
choleric in politics and domestic       
matters1 yet the general events of his  
life indicate a more peaceful           
disposition than might have been        
expected from the peculiarities of his  
mind and the ardour of his temperament4 
,on one occasion1 indeed1 he wrote a    
violent and reproachful letter to       
,tycho1 who had given him no just ground
 of offence2 but the state of ,kepler's 
health at that moment1 and the          
necessitous circumstances in which he   
had been placed1 present some palliation
 of his conduct4 ,but1 independent of   
this apology1 his subsequent conduct was
 so truly noble as to reconcile even    
,tycho to his penitent friend4 ,kepler  
quickly saw the error which he          
committed2 he lamented it with genuine  
contrition1 and was anxious to remove   
any unfavourable impression which he    
might have given of his friend1 by the  
most public confession of his error1 and

 by the warmest acknowledgments of the  
kindness of ,tycho4  ,in his relations  
with the scientific men of his own      
times1 ,kepler conducted himself with   
that candour and love of truth which    
should always distinguish the           
philosopher4 ,he was never actuated by  
any mean jealousy of his rivals4 ,he    
never scrupled to acknowledge their high
 merits2 and when the discoveries made  
by the telescope established beyond a   
doubt the errors of some of ,kepler's   
views1 he willingly avowed his mistake1 
and never joined in the opposition which
 was made by many of his friends to the 
discoveries of ,galileo4 ,a striking    
example of this was exhibited in        
reference to his supposed discovery of  
,mercury on the sun's disc4 ,in the year
 #afjg1ej ,kepler observed upon the face
 of the sun a dark spot1 which he       
mistook for ,mercury2 but the day       
proving cloudy1 he had not the means of 
determining by subsequent observations  
whether or not this opinion was well    

founded4 ,as spots on the sun were at   
that time unknown1 ,kepler did not      
hesitate to publish the fact in #afjg1  
in his ,mercurius in ,sole visus2 but   
when ,galileo1 a few years afterwards1  
discovered a great number of similar    
spots with the telescope1 ,kepler       
retracted his opinions1 and acknowledged
 that ,galileo's discovery afforded an  
explanation1 also1 of many similar      
observations in old writers1 which he   
had found it difficult to reconcile with
 the actual motions of ,mercury4        
#ej ,it is said that ,kepler saw this   
dark spot while looking at      the sun 
in a camera obscura4 ,as a camera       
obscura is actually a      telescope1   
magnifying objects in proportion to the 
focal length of      the lens employed1 
he may be said to have first seen these 
spots      with the aid of an optical   
instrument4  ,kepler was not one of     
those cold-hearted men who1 though      
continually occupied in the study of the
 material world1 and ambitious of the   

distinction which a successful          
examination of it confers1 are yet      
insensible to the goodness and greatness
 of the ,being who made and sustains it4
 ,his mind was cast in a better mould4  
,the magnificence and harmony of the    
divine works excited in him not only    
admiration but love4 ,he felt his own   
humility the farther he was allowed to  
penetrate into the mysteries of the     
universe2 and sensible of the           
incompetency of his unaided powers for  
such transcendent researches1 and       
recognising himself as but the          
instrument which the ,almighty employed 
to make known his wonders1 he never     
entered upon his inquiries without      
praying for assistance from above4 ,this
 frame of mind was by no means          
inconsistent with that high spirit of   
delight and triumph with which ,kepler  
surveyed his discoveries4 ,his was the  
unpretending ovation of success1 not the
 ostentatious triumph of ambition2 and  
if a noble pride did occasionally mingle

 itself with his feelings1 it was the   
pride of being the chosen messenger of  
physical truth1 not that of being the   
favoured possessor of superior genius4  
,with such a frame of mind1 ,kepler was 
necessarily a ,christian4 ,the          
afflictions with which he was beset     
confirmed his faith and brightened his  
hopes3 he bore them in all their variety
 and severity with ,christian patience2 
and though he knew that this world was  
to be the theatre of his intellectual   
glory1 yet he felt that his rest and his
 reward could be found only in another4 
,it is difficult to form any very       
intelligible idea of the nature and     
extent of ,kepler's astrological        
opinions1 and of the degree of credit   
which he himself placed in the opinions 
that he did avow4 ,in his ,principles of
 ,astrology1 published in #afjb1 and in 
other works1 he rails against the vanity
 and worthlessness of the ordinary      
astrology4 ,he regards those who        
professed it as knaves and charlatans2  

and maintains that the planets and stars
 exercise no influence whatever over    
human affairs4 ,he conceives1 however1  
that certain harmonious configurations  
of suitable planets1 like the spur to a 
horse1 or a speech to an audience1 have 
the power of exciting the minds of men  
to certain general actions or impulses2 
so that the only effect of these        
configurations is to operate along with 
the vital soul in producing results     
which would not otherwise have taken    
place4 ,as an example of this1 he states
 that those who are born when many      
aspects of the planets occur1 generally 
turn out busy and industrious1 whether  
they be occupied in amassing wealth1    
managing public affairs1 or prosecuting 
scientific studies4 ,kepler himself was 
born under a triple configuration1 and  
hence1 in his opinion1 his ardour and   
activity in study2 and he informs us    
that he knew a lady born under nearly   
the same configurations1 who not only   
makes no progress in literature1 but    

troubles her whole family and occasions 
deplorable misery to herself4 ,this     
excitement of the faculties of sublunary
 natures1 as he expresses it1 by the    
colours and aspects and conjunctions of 
the planets1 is regarded by ,kepler as a
 fact1 which he had deduced from        
observation1 and which has compelled his
 unwilling belief4 ,i have been driven  
to this1 says he1 not by studying or    
admiring ,plato1 but singly and solely  
by observing seasons1 and noting the    
aspects by which they are produced4 ,i  
have seen the state of the atmosphere   
almost uniformly disturbed as often as  
the planets are in conjunction1 or in   
the other configurations so celebrated  
among astrologers4 ,i have noticed its  
tranquil state either when there are    
none or few such aspects1 or when they  
are transitory and of short duration4   
,had ,kepler been able to examine these 
hasty and erroneous deductions by long  
continued observation1 he would soon    
have found that the coincidence which he

 did observe was merely accidental1 and 
he would have cheerfully acknowledged   
it4 ,speculations of this kind1 however1
 are1 from their very nature1 less      
subject to a rigorous scrutiny2 and a   
long series of observations is necessary
 either to establish or to overturn     
them4 ,the industry of modern observers 
has now supplied this defect1 and there 
is no point in science more certain than
 that the sun1 moon1 and planets do not 
exercise any influence on the general   
state of our atmosphere4  ,the          
philosophers in ,kepler's day1 who had  
studied the phenomena of the tides1     
without having any idea of their cause1 
and who observed that they were clearly 
related to the daily motions of the two 
great luminaries1 may be excused for the
 extravagance of their belief in        
supposing that the planets exercised    
other influences over sublunary nature4 
,although ,kepler1 in his ,commentaries 
on ,mars1 had considered it probable    
that the waters of our ocean are        

attracted by the moon1 as iron is by a  
loadstone1 yet this opinion seems to    
have been a very transient one1 as he   
long afterwards1 in his ,system of      
,harmonies1 stated his firm belief that 
the earth is an enormous living animal1 
and enumerates even the analogies       
between its habits and those of known   
animated beings4 ,he considered the     
tides as waves produced by the spouting 
out of water through its gills1 and he  
explains their relation to the solar and
 lunar motions by supposing that the    
terrene monster has1 like other animals1
 its daily and nightly alternations of  
sleeping and waking4  ,from the         
consideration of ,kepler's astrological 
opinions1 it is an agreeable transition 
to proceed to the examination of his    
high merits as an astronomer and a      
philosopher4 ,as an experimental        
philosopher1 or as an astronomical      
observer1 ,kepler does not lay claim to 
our admiration4 ,he himself             
acknowledges1 that for observations his 

sight was dull1 and for mechanical      
operations his hand was awkward4 ,he    
suffered much from weak eyes1 and the   
delicacy of his constitution did not    
permit him to expose himself to the     
night air4 ,notwithstanding these       
hindrances1 however1 he added several   
observations to those of ,tycho1 which  
he made with two instruments that were  
presented to him by his friend ,hoffman1
 the ,president of the ,states of       
,styria4 ,these instruments were an iron
 sextant1 #b-a_/b feet in diameter1 and 
a brass azimuthal quadrant #c-a_/b feet 
in diameter1 both of which were divided 
into single minutes of a degree4 ,they  
were very seldom used1 and we must      
regard the circumstances which          
disqualified ,kepler for an observer1 as
 highly favourable to the developement  
of those great powers which he directed 
with undivided energy to physical       
astronomy4  ,even if ,kepler had never  
turned his attention to the heavens1 his
 optical labours would have given him a 

high rank among the original inquirers  
of his age2 but when we consider him    
also as the discoverer of the three     
great laws which bear his name1 we must 
assign him a rank next to that of       
,newton4 ,the history of science does   
not present us with any discoveries more
 truly original1 or which required for  
their establishment a more powerful and 
vigorous mind4 ,the speculations of his 
predecessors afforded him no assistance4
 ,from the cumbrous machinery adopted by
 ,copernicus1 ,kepler passed1 at one    
step1 to an elliptical orbit1 with the  
sun in one of its foci1 and from that   
moment astronomy became a demonstrative 
science4 ,the splendid discoveries of   
,newton sprung immediately from those of
 ,kepler1 and completed the great chain 
of truths which constitute the laws of  
the planetary system4 ,the eccentricity 
and boldness of ,kepler's powers form a 
striking contrast with the calm         
intellect and the enduring patience of  
,newton4 ,the bright spark which the    

genius of the one elicited1 was fostered
 by the sagacity of the other into a    
steady and a permanent flame4  ,kepler  
has fortunately left behind him a full  
account of the methods by which he      
arrived at his great discoveries4 ,what 
other philosophers have studiously      
concealed1 ,kepler has openly avowed1   
and minutely detailed2 and we have no   
hesitation in considering these details 
as the most valuable present that has   
ever been given to science1 and as      
deserving the careful study of all who  
seek to emulate his immortal            
achievements4 ,it has been asserted that
 ,newton made his discoveries by        
following a different method2 but this  
is a mere assumption1 as ,newton has    
never favoured the world with any       
account of the erroneous speculations   
and the frequent failures which must    
have preceded his ultimate success4 ,had
 ,kepler done the same1 by recording    
only the final steps of his inquiries1  
his method of investigation would have  

obtained the highest celebrity1 and     
would have been held up to future ages  
as a pattern for their imitation4 ,but  
such was the candour of his mind1 and   
such his inordinate love of truth1 that 
he not only recorded his wildest        
fancies1 but emblazoned even his        
greatest errors4 ,if ,newton had        
indulged us with the same insight into  
his physical inquiries1 we should have  
witnessed the same processes which were 
employed by ,kepler1 modified only by   
the different characters and intensities
 of their imaginative powers4  ,when    
,kepler directed his mind to the        
discovery of a general principle1 he set
 distinctly before him1 and never once  
lost sight of1 the explicit object of   
his search4 ,his imagination1 now       
unreined1 indulged itself in the        
creation and invention of various       
hypotheses4 ,the most plausible1 or     
perhaps the most fascinating1 of these  
was then submitted to a rigorous        
scrutiny2 and the moment it was found to

 be incompatible with the results of    
observation and experiment1 it was      
willingly abandoned1 and another        
hypothesis submitted to the same severe 
ordeal4 ,by thus gradually excluding    
erroneous views and assumptions1 ,kepler
 not only made a decided approximation  
to the object of his pursuit1 but in the
 trials to which his opinions were      
submitted1 and in the observations or   
experiments which they called forth1 he 
discovered new facts and arrived at new 
views which directed his subsequent     
inquiries4 ,by pursuing this method1 he 
succeeded in his most difficult         
researches1 and discovered those        
beautiful and profound laws which have  
been the admiration of succeeding ages4 
,in tracing the route which he followed1
 it is easy for those who live under the
 light of modern science to say that his
 fancies were often wild1 and his labour
 often wasted2 but1 in judging of       
,kepler's methods1 we ought to place    
ourselves in his times1 and invest      

ourselves with the opinions and the     
knowledge of his contemporaries4  ,in   
the infancy of a science there is no    
speculation so absurd as not to merit   
examination4 ,the most remote and       
fanciful explanations of facts have     
often been found the true ones2 and     
opinions which have in one century been 
objects of ridicule1 have in the next   
been admitted among the elements of our 
knowledge4 ,the physical world teems    
with wonders1 and the various forms of  
matter exhibit to us properties and     
relations far more extraordinary than   
the wildest fancy could have conceived4 
,human reason stands appalled before    
this magnificent display of creative    
power1 and they who have drunk deepest  
of its wisdom will be the least disposed
 to limit the excursions of physical    
speculation4  ,the influence of the     
imagination as an instrument of         
research1 has1 we think1 been much      
overlooked by those who have ventured to
 give laws to philosophy4 ,this faculty 

is of the greatest value in physical    
inquiries4 ,if we use it as a guide1 and
 confide in its indications1 it will    
infallibly deceive us2 but if we employ 
it as an auxiliary1 it will afford us   
the most invaluable aid4 ,its operation 
is like that of the light troops which  
are sent out to ascertain the strength  
and position of an enemy4 ,when the     
struggle commences1 their services      
terminate2 and it is by the solid       
phalanx of the judgment that the battle 
must be fought and won4   ,g4 ,s4       
,,tullis1 ,,printer1 ,,cupan4           
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,transcriber's ,notes and ,errata       
,the following typographical errors have
 been corrected3                        
,error         ,correction              
betwen        between                   
his his       his                       
secretry      secretary                 
there sidence the residence             
guaging       gauging                   

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