,,! ,,engli% ,,utilit>ians  by  ,,leslie
 ,,/eph5  ,9 ,?ree ,volumes  ,,vol4 ,,ii
  ,,james ,,mill        ,london         
,duckwor? ,& ,co4 #c ,h5rietta ,/reet1  
,w4,c4 #aijj     ,,cont5ts   ,,*apt] ,i 
,,james ,,mill                          
,,page    ,i4 ,e>ly ,life1              
#a   ,,ii4 ,b5?am's ,lieut5ant1         
#g  ,,iii4 ,lead] ( ! ,utilit>ians1     
#be   ,,*apt] ,,ii  ,,re=m ,,movem5ts   
,i4 ,political ,*ange1                  
#da   ,,ii4 ,law ,re=m1                 
#dg  ,,iii4 ,economic ,re=m1            
#ea   ,,iv4 ,*ur* ,re=m1                
#eg    ,v4 ,s9i/] ,int]e/s1             
#fb   ,,*apt] ,,iii  ,,political ,,!ory 
,i4 ,mill on ,gov]nm5t1                 
#gd   ,,ii4 ,:iggism1                   
#ih  ,,iii4 ,cons]vatism1               
#aji   ,,iv4 ,socialism1                
#aai   ,,*apt] ,,iv  ,,mal?us    ,i4    
,mal?us's ,/>t+-po9t1         #acg      
,,ii4 ,! ,ratios1                       
#adg  ,,iii4 ,moral ,re/ra9t1           
#aef   ,,iv4 ,social ,rem$ies1          

#afe    ,v4 ,political ,application1    
#agd   ,,vi4 ,r5t1                      
#aha   ,,*apt] ,v  ,,ric>do    ,i4      
,ric>do's ,/>t+-po9t1         #ahf      
,,ii4 ,! ,di/ribution ,problem1         
#aie  ,,iii4 ,value & ,lab\r1           
#bjd   ,,iv4 ,! ,classical ,political   
,economy1  #baf    ,v4 ,! ,ric>dians1   
#bbf   ,,*apt] ,,vi  ,,economic         
,,h]etics    ,i4 ,! ,mal?usian          
,controv]sy1       #bch   ,,ii4         
,socialism1                        #bei 
,,*apt] ,,vii  ,,psy*ology    ,i4 ,?omas
 ,br[n1                     #bfg   ,,ii4
 ,james ,mill's ,analysis1          #bhg
  ,,iii4 ,james ,mill's ,e?ics1         
#cab   ,,*apt] ,,viii  ,,religion    ,i4
 ,philip ,beau*amp1                 #cch
   ,,ii4 ,contempor>y ,?\ght1           
#cfa     ,,*apt] ,i  ,,james ,,mill     
,i4 ,,e>ly ,,life  ,b5?am's mantle fell 
^u ,james ,mill4#a ,mill exp\nd$ 9 !    
t]se/ =m ! doctr9es :i* 9 ,b5?am's h&s  
spread into endless ramifications & lo/ 
!mselves 9 m9ute details4 ,mill became !

 lead] ( ,b5?am's bodygu>d2 or1 r1 !    
m$iator betwe5 ! prophet 9 8 'h]mitage' 
& ! mission>ies :o 7 actively engag$ on 
! hu/+s & 9 committee-rooms4 ,! special 
*>act]i/ics ( ,engli% ,utilit>ianism 9 !
 p]iod ( its greate/ activity 7 ?us m   
affect$ by ,mill ?an by any o!r lead] ( 
op9ion4  ,james ,mill 0 "o ( ! c\ntless 
,scots :o1 hav+ be5 tra9$ at home 9     
/rict frugality & /]n ,puritanic        
pr9ciples1 h f\ght _! way to success 9  
,engl&4 ,he 0 born #f? ,april #aggc 9 ! 
p>i% ( ,logie ,p]t1 ,=f>%ire4 ,8 fa!r1  
also nam$ ,james ,mill1 0 a village     
%oemak]1 employ+ two or ?ree j\rneym5 :5
 at ! height ( 8 prosp]ity4 ,8 "m1      
,isabel ,f5ton1 daught] ( a f>m]1 _h be5
 a s]vant 9 ,ed9burgh4 ,h] family _h "s 
claims to sup]ior g5tility2 %e 0        
fa/idi\s1 delicate 9 frame1 & accus$ (  
pride by h] neighb\rs4 ,%e resolv$ to   
br+ up ,james1 h] elde/ son1 to be a    
g5tleman1 :i* practically meant to be a 
m9i/]4 ,he probably %[$ e>ly promise (  
intellectual sup]iority4 ,he receiv$ !  

usual tra9+ at ! p>i% s*ool1 & 0 !n s5t 
to ! ,montrose ,academy1 :]e he 0 !     
s*ool-fell[ & fri5d ( a y\ng] lad1      
,joseph ,hume 7#aggg-ahee71 aft]w>ds 8  
political ally4 ,he bo>d$ ) a ,montrose 
%opkeep] = #bs4 #f;d4 a week1 & rema9$  
at ! ,academy till he 0 sev5te54 ,he 0  
nev] put to "w 9 8 fa!r's %op1 & devot$ 
himself entirely to /udy4 ,! usual age =
 beg9n+ to att5d a ,scotti% univ]sity 0 
?irte5 or f\rte52 & x w\ld h be5 !      
normal c\rse = a lad 9 ,mill's position 
to be s5t at t age to ,ab]de54 ,mill's  
education 0 prolong$ by a connection :i*
 0 ( great s]vice to him4 ,sir ,john    
,/u>t 7previ\sly ,bel*es71 ( ,fett]cairn
 ,h\se1 9 ,mill's neighb\rhood1 _h m>ri$
 ,lady ,jane ,leslie1 & 0 by h] fa!r (  
an only *ild1 ,wilhelm9a4 ,lady ,jane 0 
giv5 to *>ity1 & _h set up a fund to    
educate promis+ lads = ! m9i/ry4 ,mill 0
 probably recomm5d$ to h] by ! p>i%     
m9i/]1 z likely to d cr$it to h]        
patronage4 ,he also act$ z tutor to     
,wilhelm9a1 :o aft]w>ds became ! object 

( ,scott's e>ly passion4 ,mill sp5t mu* 
"t at ,fett]cairn ,h\se1 & appe>s to h  
won ! w>m reg>ds bo? ( ! ,/u>ts & ( _!  
daught]1 :o spoke ( him affectionately  
') almo/ h] la/ brea?4'#b ,! ,/u>ts     
pass$ _! w9t]s at ,ed9burgh1 :i!r ,mill 
accompani$ !m4 ,he ent]$ ! univ]sity 9  
#agij1 & seems to h appli$ himself      
*iefly to ,greek & to philosophy4 ,he   
became s good a ,greek s*ol> t long     
aft]w>ds 7#ahah7 he _h "s ?\ghts ( /&+ =
 ! ,greek *air at ,glasg[4#c ,he 0      
always a ke5 /ud5t ( ,plato4 ,he read ! 
ord9>y ,scotti% au?orities1 & att5d$ !  
lectures ( ,dugald ,/ew>t4 ,besides     
read+ ,r\sseau1 he /udi$ ,massillon1    
probably ) a view to 8 future p]=mances 
9 ! pulpit4 ,massillon might be sugge/$ 
to him by quotations 9 ,adam ,smi?'s    
,moral ,s5tim5ts4 ,!re are few records (
 acqua9tance%ip ) any ( 8 di/+ui%$      
contempor>ies1 except ! *emi/ ,?omas    
,?omson1 :o became a lifelong fri5d4 ,he
 probably made acqua9tance ) ,br\gham1 &
 may h kn[n ,jeffrey2 b he 0 n a memb] (

 ! ,speculative ,society1 jo9$ by mo/ "y
 m5 ( promise4  ,9 #agid he began 8     
c\rse ( div9ity1 & on #d? ,octob] #agih 
0 lic5s$ to prea*4 ,he liv$ 9 8 fa!r's  
h\se1 :]e "p ( ! family room 0 scre5$ (f
 to =m a /udy = him4 ,he deliv]$ "s     
s]mons1 app>5tly ) little success4 ,he  
fail$ to obta9 a call f any p>i%2 & !re 
are vague reports ( 8 act+ z tutor 9 "s 
families1 & ( a rebuff receiv$ at !     
table ( ! m>quis ( ,twe$dale1 fa!r ( "o 
( 8 pupils1 :i* made him resolve to seek
 = indep5d5ce by a diff]5t c>e]4  ,9    
#ahjb ,mill w5t to ,london 9 company )  
,sir ,john ,/u>t1 :o 0 ab\t to take 8   
seat 9 p>liam5t4 ,/u>t procur$ admission
 = him to ! gall]y ( ! ,h\se ( ,commons1
 :]e he att5d$ _m debates1 & acquir$ an 
int]e/ 9 politics4 ,8 ambition1 h[ev]1  
dep5d$ ^u 8 p52 & at fir/1 x w\ld seem1 
he 0 n m p>ticul> ?an o!r j\rnali/s z to
 ! politics ( ! pap]s to :i* he         
contribut$4 ,he _h obta9$ a te/imonial f
 ,?omson1 on ! /r5g? ( :i* he introduc$ 
himself to ,john ,gif=d1 editor ( !     

,anti-,jacob9 ,review4#d ,?is 0 a mon?ly
 magaz9e1 :i* _h adopt$ ! "n & politics 
( ! deceas$ ,anti-,jacob91 edit$ by     
,william ,gif=d4 ,mill obta9$ employm5t1
 & wrote articles imply+ an int]e/ 9 !  
philosophy1 & especially 9 ! political  
economy1 ( ! "t4 ,x is notewor?y1       
consid]+ 8 lat] pr9ciples1 t he %\ld at 
?is "t h tak5 "p 9 a /rong ,tory organ4 
,he wrote a pamphlet 9 #ahjd 7! fir/    
publication "u 8 "n7 to prove ! impolicy
 ( a b\nty ^u ! exportation ( gra92 & 9 
#ahjg repli$ 9 ,comm]ce ,def5d$ to      
,william ,sp5ce's ,brita9 indep5d5t (   
,comm]ce4 ,mean:ile he _h f\nd employm5t
 ( a m regul> k9d4 ,he _h =m$ a         
connection ) a booksell] nam$ ,baldw91 =
 :om he und]took to help 9 rewrit+ a    
book call$ ,nature ,del9eat$4 ,?is s*eme
 0 *ang$ = a p]iodical call$ ! ,lit]>y  
,j\rnal1 :i* />t$ at ! beg9n+ ( #ahjc1 &
 liv$ ?r\gh f\r ye>s ) ,mill z editor4  
,at ! same "t app>5tly he edit$ ! ,/4   
,james's ,*ronicle1 also belong+ to     
,baldw91 :i* _h no v def9ite political  

col\r4 ,! ,j\rnal pr(ess$ to give a     
sy/ematic survey ( lit]>y1 sci5tific1 & 
philosophical publications4 ,= !        
sci5tific "p ,mill 0 help$ by ,?omson4  
,8 own contributions %[ t1 al?\gh cle>ly
 a rationali/1 he 0 /ill oppos$ to op5  
infidelity4 ,a translation ( ,vill]s'   
,hi/ory ( ! ,re=mation implies simil>   
t5d5cies4 ,o!r lit]>y hack-"w dur+ ?is &
 ! next few ye>s is vaguely indicat$4   
,mill 0 mak+ ab\t ,l#ejj a ye> or some?+
 m dur+ 8 editor%ips1 & ?\ght himself   
ju/ifi$ 9 m>ry+4 ,on #e? ,june #ahje he 
became ! husb& ( ,h>riett ,burr[1       
daught] ( a wid[ :o kept a private      
lunatic asylum orig9ally />t$ by h]     
husb&4 ,! ,mills settl$ 9 a h\se 9      
,p5tonville belong+ to ,mrs4 ,burr[1 =  
:i* !y paid ,l#ej a ye>4  ,! money "q   
soon became press+4 ,! editor%ips       
vani%$1 & to make an income by p]iodical
 writ+ 0 no easy task4 ,8 son obs]ves t 
no?+ c\ld be m oppos$ to 8 fa!r's lat]  
pr9ciples ?an m>ry+ & produc+ a l>ge    
family "u ^! circum/ances4 ,n9e *ildr5 7

 ultimately born1 all ( :om surviv$ _!  
fa!r4 ,! family 9 8 old home 7 an       
additional bur!n4 ,8 "m di$ be=e 8      
dep>ture f ,scotl&4 ,8 fa!r 0 p>alys$1 &
 hav+ incauti\sly giv5 security = a     
fri5d1 became bankrupt4 ,8 only bro!r1  
,william1 di$ soon aft]w>ds1 & 8 only   
si/]1 ,m>y1 m>ri$ "o ( h] fa!r's        
j\rneym5 nam$ ,greig1 & tri$ to c>ry on 
! bus9ess4 ,! fa!r di$ ab\t #ahjh1 & !  
,greigs _h a h>d /ruggle1 ?\gh two ( !  
sons ultimately set up a bus9ess 9      
,montrose4 ,james ,mill appe>s to h     
help$ to support 8 fa!r1 ^: debts he    
und]took to pay1 & to h aft]w>ds help$ !
 ,greigs4 ,!y ?\ght1 x seems1 t he ought
 to h done m1 b 7 n unlikely to         
exagg]ate ! res\rces ( a man :o 0 mak+ 8
 way 9 ,engl&4 ,mill 0 resolute 9 do+ 8 
duty1 b h>dly likely to d x graci\sly4  
,at any rate1 9 ! e>ly ye>s1 x mu/ h be5
 a sev]e /ra9 to d any?+4  ,9 spite (   
all difficulties ,mill1 by /rict        
frugality & unremitt+ en]gy1 manag$ to  
keep out ( debt4 ,9 ! end ( #ahjf he    

und]took ! hi/ory ( ,briti% ,india4 ,?is
 0 to be ! great "w :i* %\ld give him a 
"n1 & enable him to rise above ! h]d (  
contempor>y j\rnali/s4 ,he calculat$ !  
"t necess>y = its completion at ?ree    
ye>s1 b ! ye>s 7 to be m ?an trebl$ be=e
 ! book 0 actually f9i%$4 ,at t p]iod   
!re 7 few] facilities ?an !re c\ld n[ be
 = mak+ ! necess>y rese>*es3 & we d n "k
 :at 7 ! reasons :i* prompt$ ! selection
 ( a subject ( :i* he c\ld h no fir/-h& 
k4 ,! book necess>ily imp$$ o!r lab\rs2 
& to ! toil ( writ+ ,mill add$ ! toil ( 
sup]9t5d+ ! education ( 8 *ildr54 ,8    
/ruggle = "s ye>s 0 su* z to require an 
extraord9>y /ra9 ^u all 8 faculties4    
,mill1 h[ev]1 possess$ great physical & 
m5tal vig\r4 ,he 0 muscul>1 well-made1 &
 h&some2 he _h m>k$ p[]s ( conv]sation1 
& made a /rong impression ^u all ) :om  
he came 9 contact4 ,he gradually =m$    
connections :i* effectually det]m9$ 8   
future c>e]4   ,,ii4 ,,b5?am',s         
,,lieut5ant  ,! mo/ important influ5ce 9
 ,mill's life 0 ! fri5d%ip ) ,b5?am4    

,?is appe>s to h begun 9 #ahjh4 ,mill   
spe$ily became a valu$ disciple4 ,he us$
 to walk f ,p5tonville to d9e ) ,b5?am 9
 ,que5's ,squ>e ,place4 ,soon ! eld] man
 desir$ to h 8 new fri5d ne>] at h&4 ,9 
#ahaj ,mill mov$ to ! h\se 9 ,b5?am's   
g>d51 :i* _h once belong$ to ,milton2 :5
 ?is prov$ unsuitable1 he 0 oblig$ to   
move to a m di/ant abode at ,/oke       
,new+ton2 b f9ally1 9 #ahad1 he settl$ 9
 ano!r h\se belong+ to ,b5?am1 #a       
,que5's ,squ>e1 close "u ! old          
g5tleman's w+4 ,"h = "s ye>s !y liv$ 9 !
 close/ intimacy4 ,! ,mills also /ay$ ) 
,b5?am 9 8 c\ntry-h\ses at ,b>r[ ,gre51 
& aft]w>ds at ,=d ,abbey4 ,! association
 0 n )\t its tr\bles4 ,b5?am 0 fanciful1
 & ,mill /]n & rigid4 ,no "o1 h[ev]1    
c\ld be a m devot$ disciple4 ,! mo/     
curi\s illu/ration ( _! relations is a  
lett] writt5 to ,b5?am by ,mill1 #ai?   
,septemb] #ahad1 :ile !y 7 bo? at ,=d   
,abbey4 ,mill 9 ?is decl>es himself to  
be a 'mo/ fai?ful & f]v5t disciple' ( ! 
tru?s :i* ,b5?am _h ! 'immortal hon\r' (

 prop\nd+4 ,he _h fanci$ himself to be 8
 ma/]'s fav\rite disciple4 ,no "o is s  
completely ( ,b5?am's way ( ?9k+1 or s  
qualifi$ by position = c>ry+ on !       
propag&a4 ,n[1 h[ev]1 ,b5?am %[$ t he _h
 tak5 umbrage at "s "p ( ,mill's        
behavi\r4 ,an op5 qu>rel w\ld br+       
discr$it ^u bo? sides1 & ^u _! common   
beliefs4 ,! great dang]s to fri5d%ip are
 pecuni>y obligation & too close        
intimacy4 ,mill has made x a great      
purpose ( 8 life to avoid pecuni>y      
obligation1 ?\gh he took pride 9 receiv+
 obligations f ,b5?am4 ,he has conf9$   
himself to accept+ ,b5?am's h\se at a l[
 r5t1 & all[+ 8 family to live = "p ( ! 
ye> at ,b5?am's exp5se4 ,he n[ proposes 
s to arrange 8 future life t !y %all    
avoid an excessively close intimacy1 f  
:i*1 he ?9ks1 _h aris5 ! 'umbrage4' ,!  
lett]1 :i* is manly & /raight=w>d1 l$ to
 a reconciliation1 & = "s ye>s !        
int]c\rse 0 z close z ev]4#e  ,mill's   
unres]v$ adoption ( ,b5?am's pr9ciples1 
& 8 resolution to devote 8 life to _!   

propagation1 implies a developm5t (     
op9ion4 ,he _h entirely dropp$ 8 !ology4
 ,9 ! e>ly ye>s ( 8 ,london life1 ,mill 
_h be5 only a rationali/4 ,he _h by ?is 
"t become :at w\ld n[ be call$ an       
agno/ic4 ,he ?\ght 'dogmatic a!ism'     
absurd1 says ,j4 ,s4 ,mill2#f 'b he held
 t we c "k no?+ :atev] z to ! orig9 ( ! 
_w4' ,! occasion ( ! *ange1 accord+ to 8
 family1 0 8 int]c\rse ) ,g5]al ,mir&a1 
:o 0 sitt+ at ,b5?am's feet ab\t ?is "t4
 ,j4 ,s4 ,mill /ates t ! turn+-po9t 9 8 
fa!r's m9d 0 ! /udy ( ,butl]'s ,analogy4
 ,t book1 he ?\ght1 z o!rs h ?\ght1 0   
conclusive aga9/ ! optimi/ic deism :i* x
 assails2 b he ?\ght also t ! argum5t   
really de/roy$ ,butl]'s own /&+-gr\nd4  
,! evils ( ! _w are incompatible ) !    
!ory ( ,almighty b5evol5ce4 ,! purely   
logical objection 0 comb9$ ) an int5se  
moral s5tim5t4 ,!ological doctr9es1 he  
?\ght1 7 n only false1 b brutal4 ,8 son 
_h he>d him say 'a hundr$ times' t m5 h 
attribut$ to _! gods e trait ( wick$ness
 till ! conception culm9at$ 9 ! ,*ri/ian

 doctr9e ( hell4 ,mill /ill att5d$ *ur* 
s]vices = "s "t aft] 8 m>riage1 & !     
*ildr5 7 *ri/5$4 ,b ! elde/ son did n   
rememb] ! p]iod ( ev5 p>tial con=mity1 &
 consid]$ himself to h be5 br\ght up f !
 fir/ )\t any religi\s belief4 ,james   
,mill _h already tak5 up ! uncompromis+ 
position cong5ial to 8 "*1 al?\gh !     
retic5ce :i* ! :ole p>ty obs]v$ prev5t$ 
any op5 expression ( 8 s5tim5ts4        
,mill's propag&a ( ,b5?amism 0 = "s "t  
obscure4 ,he help$ to put toge!r "s (   
,b5?am's writ+s1 especially ! book ^u   
evid5ce4 ,he 0 consult$ 9 reg>d to all  
propos$ publications1 su* z ! pamphlet  
^u jury-pack+1 :i* ,mill desir$ to      
publi% 9 spite ( ,romilly's w>n+4 ,mill 
endeav\r$ also to dissem9ate ! true fai?
 ?r\gh v>i\s p]iodicals4 ,he obta9$     
admission to ! ,ed9burgh ,review1       
probably ?r\gh its *ief contributor1    
,br\gham4 ,nei!r ,br\gham nor ,jeffrey 0
 likely to commit ! great ,:ig review to
 ! support ( a cre$ /ill militant &     
reg>d$ ) di/ru/ by ! respectable4 ,mill 

contribut$ v>i\s articles f #ahjh to    
#ahac1 b *iefly ^u topics outside ( !   
political sph]e4 ,! ,ed9burgh ,review1 z
 ,i h said1 _h tak5 a condesc5d+ notice 
( ,b5?am 9 #ahjd4 ,mill tri$ to         
introduce a bett] tone into an article  
^u ,bexon's ,code de la ,legislation    
p5ale1 :i* he 0 p]mitt$ to publi% 9 !   
numb] = ,octob] #ahji4 ,kn[+ ,jeffrey's 
'dislike ( praise1' he tri$ to be on 8  
gu>d1 & to ins9uate 8 ma/]'s doctr9e )\t
 op5ly express+ 8 en?usiasm4 ,jeffrey1  
h[ev]1 sadly mangl$ ! review1 /ruck out 
e m5tion b "o ( ,b5?am1 & !re sub/itut$ 
words ( 8 own = ,mill's4 ,ev5 z x 01    
,br\gham pron\nc$ ! praise ( ,b5?am to  
be excessive4#g ,mill cont9u$ to write =
 a "t1 p>tly1 no d\bt1 ) a view to      
,jeffrey's *eques4 ,almo/ 8 la/ article 
79 ,janu>y #ahac7 0 devot$ to !         
,lanca/]ian controv]sy1 9 :i* ,mill1 z  
we %all directly see1 0 9 alliance ) !  
,:igs4 ,b ! ,ed9burgh ,review]s 7 too   
di/9ctly ( ! ,:ig p]suasion to be       
cong5ial company = a det]m9$ ,radical4  

,!y w\ld give him no m ?an a second>y   
position1 & w\ld !n take good c>e to    
avoid ! ins]tion ( any suspici\s        
doctr9e4 ,mill wrote no m aft] ! summ] (
 #ahac4  ,mean:ile he 0 f9d+ m sympa!tic
 allies4 ,fir/ among !m 0 ,william ,all5
 7#aggj-ahdc71 *emi/1 ( ,pl\gh ,c\rt4   
,all5 0 a ,quak]2 a man ( consid]able   
sci5tific ta/es2 successful 9 bus9ess1 &
 ard5tly devot$ ?r\gh\t 8 life to _m    
philan?ropic s*emes4 ,he took1 9        
p>ticul>1 an active "p 9 ! agitation    
aga9/ slav]y4 ,he 01 z we h se51 "o ( ! 
p>tn]s :o b\ght ,ow5's e/abli%m5t at    
,new ,lan>k2 & 8 religi\s scruples 7    
aft]w>ds ! cause ( ,ow5's retirem5t4    
,^!1 h[ev]1 7 only a "p ( 8 multif>i\s  
s*emes4 ,he 0 p]haps some?+ ( a         
busybody2 8 head may h be5 a little     
turn$ by ! att5tions :i* he receiv$ on  
all h&s2 he manag$ ! affairs ( ! duke ( 
,k5t2 0 visit$ by ! ,emp]or ,alex&] 9   
#ahad2 & int]view$ royal p]sonages on ! 
,cont95t1 9 ord] to obta9 _! support 9  
attack+ ! slave-trade1 & introduc+ good 

s*ools & prisons4 ,b1 ?\gh he may h %>$ 
"s ( ! weaknesses ( popul>              
philan?ropi/s1 he is m5tion$ ) respect  
ev5 by obs]v]s su* z ,ow5 & ,place1 :o  
_h _m prejudices aga9/ 8 pr9ciples4 ,he 
und\bt$ly des]ves a place among ! active
 & useful social re=m]s ( 8 "t4  ,i h   
already notic$ ! importance ( ! ,quak]  
%>e 9 ! v>i\s philan?ropic movem5ts ( ! 
"t4 ,! ,quak] %>$ _m ( ! views ^u       
practical que/ions :i* 7 fav\r$ by !    
free?9k]4 ,bo? 7 ho/ile to slav]y1 9    
fav\r ( spread+ education1 oppos$ to all
 religi\s te/s & re/rictions1 &         
advocates ( re=m 9 prisons1 & 9 ! h>%   
crim9al law4 ,! fundam5tal diff]5ces (  
!ological belief 7 n s productive (     
discord 9 deal+ ) ! ,quak]s z ) o!r     
sects2 = x 0 ! v ess5ce ( ! old ,quak]  
_s to look r to ! _s ?an to ! lett]4    
,all51 !re=e1 0 only act+ 9 ! _s ( 8    
society :5 he c\ld be on equally good   
t]ms ) ! ,emp]or ,alex&] or ! duke (    
,k5t1 &1 on ! o!r h&1 ) ,james ,mill1 ! 
d5\nc] ( k+s & autocrats4 ,he c\ld jo9  

h&s ) ,mill 9 assail+ slav]y1 insi/+ ^u 
prison re=m1 prea*+ tol]ation & advanc+ 
civilisation1 al?\gh he he>tily         
disapprov$ ( ! doctr9es ) :i* ,mill's   
practical pr9ciples 7 associat$4 ,mill1 
too1 practis$--ev5 to a que/ionable     
degree--! me?od ( retic5ce1 & took good 
c>e n to (f5d 8 coadjutor4  ,_!         
co-op]ation 0 manife/$ 9 a qu>t]ly      
j\rnal call$ ! ,philan?ropi/1 :i* appe>$
 dur+ ! sev5 ye>s1 #ahaa-ahag1 & 0      
publi%$ at ,all5's exp5se4 ,mill f\nd 9 
x ! opportunity ( advocat+ _m ( 8 *]i%$ 
op9ions4 ,he def5d$ tol]ation 9 ! "n (  
,p5n1 ^: life _h be5 publi%$ by         
,cl>kson4 ,he attack$ ! slave-own]s1 & s
 came into alliance ) ,wilb]=ce1 ,za*>y 
,macaulay1 & o!rs ( ! evangelical       
p]suasion4 ,he f\nd1 at ! same "t1      
opportunities = propagat+ ! cre$ (      
,b5?am 9 connection ) que/ions ( prison 
re=m & ! p5al code4 ,8 mo/ important    
article1 publi%$ 9 #ahab1 0 ano!r       
contribution to ! ,lanca/]ian           
controv]sy4 ,9 ?is ,mill _h allies ( a v

 diff]5t s*ool2 & 8 activity br+s him   
into close connection ) "o ( ! mo/      
rem>kable m5 ( ! "t4#h  ,?is 0 ,francis 
,place1 ! fam\s ,radical tailor4 ,place1
 born #crd ,novemb] #agga1 _h rais$     
himself f ! position ( a work+-man to be
 occupant ( a %op at ,*>+ ,cross1 :i*   
became ! c5tre ( important political    
movem5ts4 ,betwe5 ,place & ,mill !re 0  
mu* aff9ity ( "*4 ,place1 l ,mill1 0 a  
man ( rigid & vigor\s intellect4        
,dogmatic1 self-confid5t1 & decid$ly    
c5sori\s1 n attractive by any sweetness 
or grace ( "*1 b ?or\ghly s9c]e &       
indep5d5t1 he extorts r ?an comm&s our  
respect by 8 he>ty devotion to :at he at
 lea/ believ$ to be ! cause ( tru? &    
progress4 ,place 0 :at is n[ call$ a    
?or\gh 'individuali/4' ,he believ$ 9    
self-reliance & en]gy1 & held t ! class 
to :i* he belong$ 0 to be rais$1 z he _h
 rais$ himself1 by ! ex]cise ( ^?       
qualities1 n by invok+ ! direct         
int]f]5ce ( ! c5tral p[]1 :i*1 inde$1 z 
he knew x1 0 only likely to int]f]e on !

 wrong side4 ,he _h ! mis=tune to be    
born 9 ,london in/ead ( ,scotl&1 & _h   
!re=e n ,mill's educational advantages4 
,he tri$ en]getically1 & n              
unsuccessfully1 to improve 8 m9d1 b he  
nev] q surm\nt$ ! weakness ( !          
self-educat$ man1 & _h no special lit]>y
 tal5t4 ,8 writ+1 9 fact1 is dull &     
long-w9d$1 ?\gh he has ! m]it ( judg+ = 
himself1 & ( say+ :at he ?9ks4  ,place  
_h be5 a memb] ( ! ,correspond+         
,society1 & 0 at "o "t *airman ( !      
weekly committee4 ,he _h1 h[ev]1        
disapprov$ ( _! proce$+s1 & retir$ 9 "t 
to escape ! imprisonm5t :i* f9ally cru%$
 ! committee4 ,he 0 n[ occupi$ 9 build+ 
up 8 own =tunes at ,*>+ ,cross4 ,:51    
dur+ ! second w>1 ! native ,engli%      
,radicalism began aga9 to raise its     
head1 ,place took a highly important %>e
 9 ! political agitation4 ,we/m9/]1 !   
con/itu5cy 9 :i* he _h a vote1 _h long  
be5 "o ( ! mo/ important bor\ghs4 ,x 0  
"o ( ! few l>ge popul> con/itu5cies1 & 0
 affect$ by ! influ5ces naturally       

/ronge/ 9 ! metropolis4 ,aft] be+ long  
"u ! influ5ce ( ! c\rt & ! dean & *apt]1
 x _h be5 c>ri$ by ,fox dur+ !          
discont5ts ( #aghj1 :5 ! re=m movem5t   
took a />t & ! c\nty associations 7     
symptoms ( a gr[+ agitation4 ,! great   
,:ig lead]1 ?\gh n s\nd ^u ! "q ( re=m1 
repres5t$ ! con/itu5cy till 8 dea?1 &   
re=m dropp$ out ( notice = ! "t4 ,^u    
,fox's dea? 7#ac? ,septemb] #ahjf7 ,"l  
,p]cy 0 elect$ )\t opposition z 8       
successor by an arrangem5t among ! rul+ 
families4 ,place 0 disgu/$ at !         
di/ribution ( 'bread & *eese & be]1' &  
resolv$ to f9d a truly popul> c&idate4  
,9 ! g5]al election :i* soon foll[$ at !
 end ( #ahjf he support$ ,paull1 an     
impecuni\s adv5tur]1 :o made a good     
fight1 b 0 beat5 by ,sir ,j4 ,hood &    
,%]idan4 ,place n[ propos$ a m ?or\gh   
organisation ( ! con/itu5cy1 & =m$ a    
committee int5d$ to c>ry an indep5d5t   
c&idate4 ,sir ,francis ,burdett1 a      
typical c\ntry g5tleman ( no great bra9s
 & ( mu* ari/ocratic pride1 b a man (   

hon\r1 & ( z mu* lib]al feel+ z 0       
compatible ) weal? & /ation1 _h sat at !
 feet ( ! old ,radical1 ,home ,tooke4   
,he _h sympa?is$ ) ! ,fr5* revolution2 b
 0 ma9ly1 l 8 m5tor1 ,tooke1 a re=m] ( !
 ,engli% type1 & a believ] 9 ,magna     
,*>ta & ! ,bill ( ,rights4 ,he _h sat 9 
p>liam5t1 & 9 #ahjb _h be5 elect$ =     
,middlesex4 ,aft] a prolong$ litigation1
 co/+ enorm\s sums1 ! election _h be5   
f9ally annull$ 9 #ahjf4 ,he _h subscrib$
 ,l#ajjj t[>ds ,paull's exp5ses2 b 0 s  
disgu/$ ) 8 own election exp]i5ces t he 
refus$ to come =w>d z a c&idate4        
,place's committee resolv$ !re=e to     
elect him & ,paull free ( exp5se4       
,disputes betwe5 ,paull & ,burdett l$ to
 a duel1 9 :i* bo? 7 w\nd$4 ,! committee
 ?rew ov] ,paull1 & at ! election on !  
dissolution ( p>liam5t 9 ! spr+ ( #ahjg1
 ,burdett & ,co*rane--aft]w>ds ,"l      
,dundonald--7 triumphantly elect$1      
defeat+ ! ,:ig c&idates1 ,%]idan &      
,elliot4 ,! election 0 ! fir/ triumph ( 
! re=m]s1 & 0 due to ,place m ?an any   

"o4 ,burdett reta9$ 8 seat = ,we/m9/]   
until #ahcg1 &1 9 spite ( _m qu>rels ) 8
 p>ty1 0 a lead+ repres5tative ( !      
movem5t1 :i* h5ce=w>d sl[ly ga!r$ /r5g?4
 ,place1 inde$1 _h app>5tly b scanty    
respect = ! c&idate ^: success he _h    
secur$4 ,burdett & 8 l aim$ at          
popul>ity1 :ile he 0 cont5t to be ignor$
 s long z he c\ld by any means c>ry !   
measures :i* he approv$4 ,place1 !re=e1 
act$ z a mo/ effici5t wire-pull]1 b _h  
no ambition to leave 8 %op to make      
spee*es on ! hu/+s4  ,! sc&als ab\t !   
duke ( ,york & ! ,wal*]5 exp$ition gave 
a *ance to ! ,radicals & to _! lead] 9 !
 ,h\se ( ,commons4 ,ev5ts 9 #ahaj l$ to 
a popul> explosion1 ( :i* ,burdett 0 !  
h]o4 ,john ,gale ,jones1 an old memb] ( 
! ,correspond+ ,societies1 _h put out a 
plac>d d5\nc+ ! ,h\se ( ,commons = clos+
 its doors dur+ a debate ^u ! ,wal*]5   
exp$ition4 ,! ,h\se proce$$ aga9/       
,jones1 :o 0 m or less advis$ by ,place 
9 8 proce$+s4 ,burdett took ! "p (      
,jones1 by a pap] publi%$ 9 ,cobbett's  

,regi/]1 & 0 ultimately committ$ to !   
,t[] 9 consequ5ce4 ,! :ole ( ,london 0 =
 a "t 9 a /ate ( excitem5t1 & ^u ! v]ge 
( an outbreak4 ,burdett refus$ to submit
 to ! arre/4 ,mobs collect$2 soldi]s    
fill$ ! /reets & 7 pelt$4 ,burdett1 :5  
at la/ he 0 =c$ to admit ! (fic]s1      
appe>$ 9 8 draw+-room 9 ! act ( exp\nd+ 
,magna ,*>ta to 8 son4 ,t1 x 0 to be    
suppos$1 0 8 usual occupation ( an      
aft]noon4 ,meet+s 7 held1 & resolutions 
pass$1 9 support ( ! m>tyr to lib]ty2 & 
:5 8 imprisonm5t t]m9at$ on !           
prorogation ( p>liam5t1 va/ cr[ds       
collect$1 & a procession 0 arrang$ to   
convoy him to 8 home4 ,place _h be5     
active 9 arrang+ all ! details ( :at 0  
to be a great popul> manife/ation4 ,to 8
 inf9ite disgu/1 ,burdett %rank f !     
p]=mance1 & w5t home by wat]4 ,! cr[d 0 
left to exp5d its rema9+ en?usiasm ^u ! 
hackney c>riage :i* conta9$ 8           
fell[-suff]] ,jones4 ,jones1 9 ! foll[+ 
,decemb]1 0 s5t5c$ to twelve mon?s'     
imprisonm5t = a libel4 ,cobbett1        

,burdett's special support] at ?is "t1 0
 also imprison$ 9 ,june #ahaj4 ,= a "t !
 popul> agitation collaps$4 ,place seems
 to h ?\ght t ! failure 0 due to        
,burdett's want ( c\rage1 & dropp$ all  
communication ) him till a lat] conte/  
at ,we/m9/]4  ,place 0 ?us at ! c5tre ( 
! political agitation :i*1 = ! "t1      
repres5t$ ! mo/ en]getic re=m+ movem5t4 
,x 0 9 #ahaa or #ahab t he became       
acqua9t$ ) ,mill4#i ,9 ,mill he         
recognis$ a cong5ial _s1 & a man able to
 def5d & develop pr9ciples4 ,he p]haps1 
z ,pr(essor ,ba9 ?9ks1 made advances to 
,mill ^u ! /r5g? ( ! hi/ory ( ,india2 & 
9 #ahad he 0 c]ta9ly endeav\r+ to raise 
money to put ,mill above ! ne$ (        
prec>i\s hack-"w4#aj ,! anticipat$      
difficulty ( p]suad+ ,mill s f> to      
sacrifice 8 indep5d5ce 0 app>5tly fatal 
to ! s*eme4 ,place 0 9 occasional       
communication ) ,b5?am1 & visit$ him at 
,=d ,abbey 9 #ahag4 ,he became intimate 
) ! great man2 help$ him 9 bus9ess      
affairs2 & 0 "o ( ! disciples employ$ to

 prep>e 8 books = publication4#aa ,b5?am
 0 ! s\rce ( philosophy1 & ,mill only 8 
prophet4 ,b ,mill1 :o 0 capable (       
activity 9 practical affairs1 0 m useful
 to a man ( ! _w4 ,! fir/ bus9ess :i*   
br\ght !m into close connection 0 !     
,lanca/]ian controv]sy4 ,! /rong int]e/ 
r\s$ by ?is agitation 0 significant ( _m
 difficulties to come4 ,! av]age m9d _h 
be5 gradually com+ to ! conclusion t !  
poor %\ld be taught to read & write4    
,sunday s*ools & ,hannah ,m's s*ools 9  
,som]set%ire _h drawn ! att5tion ( !    
religi\s _w to ! subject4 ,dur+ ! e>ly  
ye>s ( ! c5tury ! education "q _h       
/eadily become m prom95t1 & ! gr[+      
int]e/ 0 %[n by a s+ul>ly bitt] &       
complicat$ controv]sy4 ,! opposite      
p>ties f\ght "u ! bann]s ( ,bell &      
,lanca/]4 ,&rew ,bell1 born at ,/4      
,&rews1 #bg? ,m>* #agec1 0 bo? a canny  
,scot & an ,anglican cl]gyman4 ,he      
comb9$ philan?ropy ) bus9ess faculties4 
,he sail$ to ,india 9 #aghg ) ,l#abh1   
#ajs4 9 8 pocket to be an army *apla92  

he return$ 9 #agif ) ,l#be1jjj & a new  
sy/em ( education :i* he _h devis$ z    
sup]9t5d5t ( an orphan asylum4 ,he      
settl$ 9 ,engl&1 publi%$ an acc\nt ( 8  
plan1 & did some?+ to br+ x into        
op]ation4 ,mean:ile ,joseph ,lanca/]    
7#aggj-ahch71 a "y ,quak]1 _h set up a  
s*ool 9 ,london2 he devis$ a plan simil>
 to t ( ,bell1 & 9 #ahjc publi%$ an     
acc\nt ( 8 improvem5ts 9 education )    
ackn[l$gm5ts to ,bell4 ,= a "t ! two 7  
on fri5dly t]ms4 ,lanca/] set ab\t      
propagat+ 8 new sy/em ) m en?usiasm ?an 
discretion4 ,8 fame rapidly spread till 
x rea*$ ! ?rone4 ,9 #ahje ,george ,,iii4
 s5t = him2 ! royal family subscrib$ to 
8 s*ools2 & ! k+ decl>$ 8 wi% t e *ild 9
 8 dom9ions %\ld be taught to read !    
,bible4 ,! k+'s graci\s wi% unconsci\sly
 indicat$ a difficulty4 ,0 x safe to    
tea* ! ,bible )\t ! safegu>d ( au?oris$ 
int]pretation8 ,or?odox oppon5ts fe>$ ! 
alliance ) a man ^: fir/ pr9ciple 0     
tol]ation1 & fir/ among !m 0 ! excell5t 
,mrs4 ,trimm]1 :o _h be5 already engag$ 

9 ! ,sunday-s*ool movem5t4 ,%e po9t$ out
 9 a pamphlet t ! s*ismatic ,lanca/] 0  
weak5+ ! ,e/abli%$ ,*ur*4 ,! ,ed9burgh  
,review came to 8 support 9 #ahjf &     
#ahjg2 = ! ,:ig1 especially if he 0 also
 a ,scot1 0 prejudic$ aga9/ ! ,*ur* (   
,engl&4 ,lanca/] w5t on 8 way1 b soon   
got into difficulties1 = he 0 impetu\s1 
c>eless ( money1 & autocratic4 ,william 
,all51 ) ano!r ,quak]1 came to 8 support
 9 #ahjh1 & f\nd$ ! ,royal ,lanca/]ian  
,society to ma9ta9 8 s*ool 9 ! ,bor\gh  
,road1 & propagate its l else:]e4       
,lanca/] travell$ ?r\gh ! c\ntry1 & !   
agitation prosp]$1 & spread ev5 to      
,am]ica4 ,! *ur*1 h[ev]1 0 n[ fairly    
ar\s$4 ,bi%op ,m>% prea*$ a s]mon 9 ,/4 
,paul's1 & foll[$ x up by pamphlets2 !  
cause 0 tak5 up by ! ,qu>t]ly ,review 9 
#ahaa1 & 9 ! same ye> ! ,national       
,society 0 f\nd$ to 'educate ! poor 9 ! 
pr9ciples ( ! ,e/abli%$ ,*ur*4' ,bell _h
 sugge/$ a national sy/em1 b ! times 7 n
 ripe4 ,mean:ile ! controv]sy became    
furi\s4 ,! ,ed9burgh & ! ,qu>t]ly ?und]$

 on opposite sides4 ,imm5se importance 0
 atta*$ by bo? p>ties to ! s*eme devis$ 
by ,bell1 & p>tly adopt$ by ,lanca/]4 ,!
 w> involv$ a p]sonal elem5t & ! *>ges (
 plagi>ism :i* give spice to a popul>   
controv]sy4 ,all p>ties1 & c]ta9ly !    
,utilit>ians1 /rangely exagg]at$ ! value
 ( ! new me?od4 ,!y reg>d$ ! proposal t 
*ildr5 %\ld be p>tly taught by o!r      
*ildr5 in/ead ( be+ :olly taught by     
adults z a k9d ( sci5tific discov]y :i* 
w\ld enorm\sly simplify & *eap5         
education4 ,believ]s 9 ! ',panopticon'  
saw 9 x ano!r pat5t me?od ( rais+ !     
g5]al level ( intellig5ce4 ,b ! real "q 
0 betwe5 *ur* & diss5t4 ,0 ! *ur*       
cate*ism to be impos$ or n8 ,?is1 z we h
 se51 0 ! occasion ( ,b5?am's assault ^u
 *ur* & cate*ism4 ,on ! o!r side1       
,bell's claims 7 support$ ) en?usiasm by
 all ! ,tories1 & by su* m5 z ,s\!y &   
,col]idge4 ,s\!y1 :o _h def5d$ ,bell 9 !
 ,qu>t]ly1#ab und]took to be ,bell's    
biograph]#ac & lit]>y executor4         
,col]idge 0 s vehem5t 9 ! cause t :5    

lectur+ ^u ',romeo & ,juliet' 9 #ahaa1  
he plung$ by way ( exordium into an     
assault ^u ,lanca/]'s modes (           
puni%m5t4#ad ,de ,qu9cey te/ifies t he  
became a positive bore ^u ,bell's       
virtues4 ,9 #ahab ,lanca/] _h got deeply
 into debt to ! tru/ees ( ! ,society1 :o
 includ$ besides ,all51 ,joseph ,fox--a 
'%all[1 gloomy bigot' accord+ to        
,place--& "s o!r ,quak]s4 ,lanca/]      
res5t$ _! control1 & 9 #ahab made ov] 8 
,bor\gh ,road s*ool to !m1 & set up "o (
 8 own at ,toot+4 ,!y cont9u$1 h[ev]1 to
 employ him1 & 9 #ahac =m$ !mselves into
 ! ',briti% & ,=eign' ,s*ool ,society4  
,place _h kn[n ,lanca/] f #ahjd1 & ,mill
 _h support$ him 9 ! press4 ,!y bo?     
became memb]s ( ! committee1 ?\gh ,place
 took ! mo/ active "p4 ,he makes _m     
grave *>ges aga9/ ,lanca/]1 :om he      
reg>d$ z hopelessly flighty &           
impracticable1 if n worse4 ,ultimately 9
 #ahad ,lanca/] resign$ 8 position1 &   
naturally retort$ t ,place 0 an infidel4
 ,place1 mean:ile1 0 ill at ease ) !    

'gloomy bigot1' z he calls ,fox4 ,aft]  
_m qu>rels1 ,fox succe$$ 9 gett+ ! upp] 
h&1 & ,place f9ally )drew f ! committee 
9 #ahae4  ,two o!r s*emes arose out (   
?is1 9 :i* ,mill 0 specially int]e/$1 b 
:i* bo? prov$ abortive4 ,mill & ,place  
resolv$ 9 #ahac to />t a ',we/ ,london  
,lanca/]ian ,in/itution1' :i* 0 to      
educate ! :ole population we/ ( ,temple 
,b>4 ,!y 7 jo9$ by ,edw>d ,wakefield1   
fa!r ( ! ,edw>d ,gibbon ,wakefield :o 9 
lat] ye>s 0 kn[n z an economi/1 &       
himself au?or ( a "w ( consid]able      
reputation1 ,an ,acc\nt ( ,irel&1       
,/ati/ical & ,political 7#ahab74 ,! ?ree
 jo9$ ,joseph ,fox1 & ultimately a meet+
 0 held 9 ,augu/ #ahac4 ,sir ,james     
,mack9to% 0 9 ! *air4 ,mill wrote !     
address1 & motions 7 propos$ by 8 fri5d 
,joseph ,hume & by ,william ,all54      
,pap]s 7 circulat$1 head$ ',s*ools =    
all1'#ae & ! in/itution 0 laun*$ ) a    
suffici5cy ( applause4 ,b ! 'gloomy     
bigot' 0 secret>y4 ,he decl>$ t he w\ld 
r see ! in/itution de/roy$ ?an p]mit x  

to be us$ = infidel purposes4 ,! ,bible 
01 ( c\rse1 to be read 9 ! s*ools1 b    
,fox wi%$ t ! ,bible alone %\ld be read4
 ,z ! committee1 accord+ to ,place1     
includ$ f\r infidels1 ?ree ,unit>ians1  
six ,me?odi/s1 two ,bapti/s1 two ,roman 
,ca?olics1 & sev]al memb]s ( ! ,e/abli%$
 ,*ur*1 x 0 h>dly a happy family4 ,to   
add to ! confusion1 ,sir ,francis       
,burdett1 :o _h contribut$ a ?\s& p\nds1
 _h tak5 x into 8 head t ,place 0 a     
gov]nm5t spy4#af ,! ,association1 z is  
h>dly surpris+1 ceas$ to exi/ 9 #ahaf1  
aft] keep+ up a s*ool ( less ?an ?ree   
hundr$ *ildr51 & end$ 9 hopeless        
failure4 ,! ,utilit>ians _h high] hopes 
f a s*eme ( _! own4 ,?is 0 ! ,*re/oma?ic
 s*ool :i* occasion$ ,b5?am's writ+4 ,an
 association 0 =m$ 9 ,febru>y #ahad4    
,mack9to%1 ,br\gham1 ,mill1 ,all51 ,fox1
 & ,wakefield 7 to be tru/ees4 ,! s*ool 
0 to apply ,lanca/]ian pr9ciples to !   
education ( ! middle classes1 & ,b5?am 0
 to supply !m ) a philosophy & ) a site 
9 8 g>d54 ,!re ! old g5tleman 0 to see a

 small v]sion ( ! ,panopticon build+1 &1
 = a "t1 he took great delight 9 !      
prospect4 ,gradually1 h[ev]1 x seems to 
h dawn$ ^u him t !re might be           
inconv5i5ces 9 be+ ov]look$ by a set (  
ev5 model s*oolboys4 ,!re 7 difficulties
 z to funds4 ,ric>do (f]$ ,l#bjj &      
collect$ subscriptions = ,l#ijj1 b      
,place ?\ght t he might h be5 m lib]al4 
,ab\t #ahag !y c\nt$ ^u subscriptions = 
,l#bcaj4 ,all5 0 treasur]1 ,place       
secret>y1 & ! dukes ( ,k5t & ,york 7 on 
! committee4 ,romilly 0 p]suad$ to jo91 
& !y _h hopes ( ! ,l#ajjj giv5 by       
,burdett to ! ,we/ ,london ,in/itution4 
,b ! ?+ c\ld nev] be got into work+     
ord]1 9 spite ( ,place's ef=ts & ,mill's
 c\nsels2 &1 aft] pa9ful haul+s &       
tugg+s1 x f9ally collaps$ 9 #ahbj4ag  ,!
 ef=ts ( ! ,utilit>ians to effect any?+ 
directly 9 ! way ( education ?us fell   
completely flat4 ,"o moral is           
suffici5tly obvi\s4 ,!y 71 aft] all1 b a
 small clique1 reg>d$ ) suspicion by all
 outsid]s2 & su* a sy/em z c\ld s]i\sly 

affect education c\ld only be c>ri$ out 
ei!r by gov]nm5t1 :i* 0 ?9k+ ( v diff]5t
 ?+s1 or by societies already connect$ )
 ! great religi\s bodies4 ,! only       
function :i* c\ld be adequately dis*>g$ 
by ! little b& ( ,utilit>ians 0 to act  
^u public op9ion2 & ?is1 no d\bt1 !y    
c\ld d to "s purpose4 ,i h gone s f>    
into ^! matt]s 9 ord] to illu/rate _!   
position2 b1 z w be se51 ,mill1 ?\gh    
consult$ at e /age by ,place1 & do+ :at 
he c\ld to advocate ! cause1 01 aft]    
all1 9 ! backgr\nd4 ,he 0 /ill wre/l+ ) 
! ,indian ,hi/ory1 :i* 01 z he hop$1 to 
w9 = him an indep5d5t position4 ,! ef=t 
0 enorm\s4 ,9 #ahad he told ,place t he 
0 work+ at ! ,hi/ory f #e ,a4,m4 till   
#aa ,p4,m4 ,:5 at ,=d ,abbey 8 regul>   
day's "w began at #f ,a4,m4 & la/$ till 
#aa ,p4,m41 dur+ :i* "t ?ree h\rs 7 giv5
 to tea*+ 8 *ildr51 & a c\ple ( %ort    
walks suppli$ him ) recreation4 ,h[1 )  
all 8 en]gy1 he manag$ to pay 8 way is a
 my/]y1 :i* 8 biograph] is unable fully 
to solve4#ah  ,! ,hi/ory at la/ appe>$ 9

 #c vols4 #dto1 at ! end ( #ahag4 ,dry &
 /]n z its au?or1 & embody+ "s ( 8      
political prejudices1 x 0 at lea/ a     
solid piece ( "w1 :i* succe$$ at once1 &
 soon became ! /&>d book ^u ! subject4  
,mill argues 9 ! preface ) *>act]i/ic   
c\rage t 8 want ( p]sonal k ( ,india 0 r
 an advantage4 ,x made him imp>tial4 ,a 
lat] editor#ai has %[n t x l$ to "s     
s]i\s misconceptions4 ,x is *>act]i/ic (
 ! ,utilit>ian attitude to assume t a   
suffici5t k ( fact c always be obta9$ f 
blue-books & /ati/ics4 ,"s facts require
 imag9ation & sympa?y to be appreciat$1 
& !re ,mill 0 defici5t4 ,he c\ld n give 
an adequate picture ( ,h9doo beliefs &  
cu/oms1 ?\gh he fully appreciat$ !      
importance ( su* que/ions4 ,:atev] its  
%ortcom+s1 ! book produc$ a rem>kable   
*ange 9 ,mill's position4 ,he appli$ = a
 vacant (fice 9 ! ,india ,h\se4 ,8      
fri5ds1 ,joseph ,hume & ,ric>do1 made   
int]e/ = him 9 ! city4 ,place co-op]at$ 
en]getically4#bj ,cann+1 !n presid5t ( !
 ,bo>d ( ,control1 is said to h support$

 him2 & ! g5]al impression ( 8 ability  
appe>s to h caus$ 8 election1 9 spite ( 
"s ,tory opposition4 ,he became         
,assi/ant to ! ,exam9] ( ,india         
,correspond5ce1 ) a sal>y ( ,l#hjj on   
#ab? ,may #ahai4 ,on #aj? ,april #ahba  
he became ,second ,assi/ant1 ) ,l#ajjj a
 ye>2 on #i? ,april #ahbc he 0 made     
,assi/ant ,exam9]1 ) ,l#abjj a ye>2 & on
 #a/ ,decemb] #ahcj ,exam9]1 ) ,l#aijj1 
:i* on #ag? ,febru>y #ahcf 0 rais$ to   
,l#bjjj4 ,! (ficial "w came 9 lat] ye>s 
to absorb ! greate/ "p ( ,mill's en]gy1 
& 8 position exclud$ him f any active   
p>ticipation 9 politics1 _h he ev] be5  
incl9$ = x4 ,mill1 h[ev]1 set free f    
bondage1 0 able to ex]t himself v       
effectually ) 8 p52 & 8 writ+s became 9 
a great degree ! text-books ( 8 sect4   
,dur+ #ahah he _h aga9 co-op]at$ )      
,place 9 a political matt]4 ,!          
dissolution ( p>liam5t 9 #ahah produc$  
ano!r conte/ at ,we/m9/]4 ,place & ,mill
 7 lead]s 9 ! ,radical committee1 :i*   
call$ a public meet+1 :]e ,burdett &    

,k9naird 7 *os5 z c&idates4 ,!y 7 oppos$
 to ,romilly1 ! old fri5d ( ,b5?am & (  
,mill himself4 ,bo? ,mill & ,b5?am      
reg>d$ him z n suffici5tly or?odox4     
,romilly1 h[ev]1 0 ?r\gh\t at ! head ( !
 poll1 & ! ,radical committee 7 oblig$  
to )draw _! second c&idate1 ,k9naird1 9 
ord] to secure ! election ( ,burdett    
aga9/ ! gov]nm5t c&idate ,maxwell4      
,romilly soon aft]w>ds d9$ at ,b5?am's  
h\se1 & met ,mill1 ) ,dumont1 ,br\gham1 
& ,ru%1 on fri5dly t]ms4 ,on ,romilly's 
sad dea? on #bnd ,novemb] foll[+1 ,mill 
w5t to ,wor?+ to (f] 8 sympa?y to !     
family1 & decl>$ t ! 'gloom' _h 'affect$
 8 heal?4' ,he took no "p 9 ! consequ5t 
election1 9 :i* ,hobh\se /ood           
unsuccessfully z ! ,radical c&idate4    
,,iii4 ,,lead] ,,( ,,! ,,utilit>ians    
,politics 7 beg9n+ to ent] ^u a new     
phase4 ,! p]iod 0 m>k$ by ! ',six ,acts'
 & ! ',pet]loo massacre4' ,! ,radical   
lead]s :o upheld ! cause 9 ^? d>k days 7
 n altoge!r to ! ta/e ( ! ,utilit>ians4 
,aft] ,burdett1 ,john ,c>twright        

7#agdj-ahbd7 & ,h5ry 7or ',orator'7     
,hunt 7#aggc-ahce71 h]o ( ! ',pet]loo   
massacre1' 7 ! mo/ conspicu\s4 ,!y 7    
support$ by ,cobbett1 ! greate/ j\rnali/
 ( ! "t1 & v>i\s m obscure writ]s4 ,!   
,utilit>ians held !m 9 consid]able      
contempt4 ,burdett 0 fla%y1             
melodramatic1 & va92 ,hunt an           
'unpr9cipl$ demagogue'2 & ,c>twright1 ! 
,ne/or ( re=m1 :o _h begun 8 lab\rs 9   
#aghj1 01 accord+ to ,place1 we>isome1  
impracticable1 & a m]e nuisance 9 matt]s
 ( bus9ess4 ,! ,utilit>ians tri$ to use 
su* m51 b %>$ ! ,tory op9ion ( _! value4
 ,!y _h "s relations ) o!r obscure      
writ]s :o 7 m>tyrs to ! lib]ty ( !      
press4 ,place help$ ,william ,hone 9 !  
,re=m]'s ,regi/]1 :i* 0 br\ght out 9    
#ahag4 ,! fam\s trial 9 :i* ,hone       
triumph$ ov] ,ell5bor\gh occurr$ at !   
end ( t ye>4 ,ri*>d ,c>lile             
7#agij-ahdc71 :o repr9t$ ,hone's        
pamphlets1 & 9 #ahah publi%$ ,pa9e's    
works1 0 s5t5c$ 9 #ahai to ?ree ye>s'   
imprisonm5t2 & :ile 9 conf9em5t began ! 

,republican1 :i* appe>$ f #ahai to      
#ahbf4 ,ultimately he pass$ n9e ye>s 9  
jail1 & %[$ unfl9*+ c\rage 9 ma9ta9+ !  
lib]ty ( spee*4 ,! ,utilit>ians1 z      
,pr(essor ,ba9 believes1 help$ him dur+ 
8 imprisonm5ts1 & ,john ,mill's fir/    
publication 0 a prote/ aga9/ 8          
prosecution4#ba ,a 'republican1 an a!i/1
 & ,mal?usian1' he 0 specially hat$ by !
 respectable1 & _h 9 all ^! capacities  
claims ^u ! sympa?y ( ! ,utilit>ians4   
,"o ( ,c>lile's fir/ employm5ts 0 to    
circulate ! ,black ,dw>f1 edit$ by      
,?omas ,jona?an ,wool] f #ahag to       
#ahbd4bb ,?is pap] repres5t$ ,c>twright1
 b x also publi%$ ,b5?am's re=m         
,cate*ism1 besides direct contributions 
& v>i\s selections f 8 works4  ,!       
,utilit>ians 7 oppos$ on pr9ciple to    
,cobbett1 a re=m] ( a type v diff]5t f  
_! own2 & /ill m vitally oppos$ to ,ow51
 :o 0 beg9n+ to develop 8 ,sociali/     
s*emes4 ,if !y _h sympa?y = ,radicalism 
( ! ,wool] or ,c>lile v>iety1 !y belong$
 too di/9ctly to ! ranks (              

respectability1 & 7 too deeply impress$ 
) ! necessity ( retic5ce1 to all[ _!    
sympa?ies to appe> op5ly4 ,z1 on ! o!r  
h&1 !y 7 too ,radical 9 _! g5u9e cre$ to
 be accept$ by ,ed9burgh ,review]s &    
frequ5t]s ( ,holl& ,h\se1 !re 0 a wide  
gap betwe5 !m & ! g5u9e ,:ig4 ,_! task  
!re=e 0 to give a political !ory :i*    
%\ld be ,radical 9 pr9ciple1 & yet 9 su*
 a =m z %\ld appeal to ! reason ( ! m   
cultivat$ read]s )\t too op5ly %ock+ _! 
prejudices4  ,james ,mill a*iev$ ?is    
task by ! publication ( a s]ies (       
articles 9 ! ,supplem5t to !            
,encyclopa$ia ,britannica1 :i* appe>$ f 
#ahaf to #ahbc1 ( :i* ,i %all pres5tly  
speak at l5g?4 ,x pass$ = ! or?odox     
pr(ession ( fai? among ! little circle (
 fri5ds :o _h n[ ga!r$ r\nd him4 ,fir/  
among !m 0 ,david ,ric>do4 ,he _h become
 kn[n to ,mill 9 #ahaa4 ',i1' said      
,b5?am1 '0 ! spiritual fa!r ( ,mill1 &  
,mill ! spiritual fa!r ( ,ric>do4'#bc   
,mill 0 really ! disciple ( ,ric>do 9   
economics2 b x 0 ,mill :o induc$ him to 

publi% 8 *ief "w1 & ,mill's own treatise
 ^u ! subject publi%$ 9 #ahbj is        
sub/antially an exposition ( ,ric>do's  
doctr9e4 ,mill1 too1 enc\rag$ ,ric>do to
 take a seat 9 p>liam5t 9 #ahah1 & !re =
 ! %ort rema9d] ( 8 life1 ,ric>do def5d$
 ! *>act]i/ic ,utilit>ian pr9ciples ) ! 
au?ority d]iv$ f 8 reputation z an      
economi/4#bd ,! two 7 n[ especially     
intimate4 ,dur+ ,mill's fir/ ye>s 9 !   
,india ,h\se1 8 only recreation 0 an    
annual visit to ,ric>do at ,gatcombe4   
,meet+s at ,ric>do's h\se 9 ,london l$  
to ! f\ndation ( ! ',political ,economy 
,club' 9 #ahba4 ,mill draft$ ! rules ( !
 club1 emphasis+ ! duty ( memb]s to     
propagate s\nd economic op9ions ?r\gh ! 
press4 ,! club took root & help$ to make
 ,mill kn[n to politicians & m5 (       
comm]cial influ5ce4 ,"o ( ! memb]s 0    
,mal?us1 :o is said1 & ! ass]tion is    
cr$ible en\gh1 to h be5 g5]ally wor/$ by
 ,mill 9 ! discussions at ! club4 ,mill 
0 an awkw>d antagoni/1 & ,mal?us c]ta9ly
 n conspicu\s = clos5ess ( logic4 ,!    

circle ( ,mill's fri5ds naturally ext5d$
 z 8 position 9 ! ,india ,h\se enabl$   
him to live m at 8 ease & br\ght him    
into contact ) m5 ( political position4 
,8 old s*ool-fell[ ,joseph ,hume _h made
 a =tune 9 ,india1 & return$ to take a  
seat 9 p>liam5t & become ! p]si/5t &    
tiresome advocate ( _m ( ! ,utilit>ian  
doctr9es4 ,a y\ng] g5]ation 0 gr[+ up1  
en?usia/ic 9 ! cause ( re=m1 & glad to  
sit at ! feet ( m5 :o claim$ at lea/ to 
be philosophical lead]s4 ,john ,black   
7#aghc-ahee71 ano!r /urdy ,scot1 :o came
 f ,duns 9 ,b]wick%ire1 _h1 9 #ahag1    
succe$$ ,p]ry z editor ( ! ,morn+       
,*ronicle4 ,! ,*ronicle 0 an opposition 
pap]1 & day by day ,black walk$ ) ,mill 
f ! ,india ,h\se1 discuss+ ! topics ( ! 
"t & dis*>g+ himself ?r\gh ! ,*ronicle4 
,! ,*ronicle decl9$ aft] #ahba1 ow+ to a
 *ange 9 ! proprietor%ip4#be ,albany    
,fonblanque 7#agic-ahgb7 took to        
j\rnalism at an e>ly age1 succe$$ ,leigh
 ,hunt z lead]-writ] = ! ,exam9] 9      
#ahbf1 became ano!r expon5t (           

,utilit>ian pr9ciples1 & = "s "t 9      
alliance ) ,john ,/u>t ,mill 0 among !  
mo/ effective repres5tatives ( ! new    
s*ool 9 ! press4 ,john ,ramsay          
,m',cullo* 7#aghi-ahfd7 upheld !        
economic battle 9 ! ,scotsman at        
,ed9burgh f #ahag-ahbg1 & edit$ x f     
#ahah-ahbj4 ,he aft]w>ds devot$ himself 
to lectur+ 9 ,london1 & 0 = _m ye>s !   
mo/ ard5t apo/le ( ! 'dismal sci5ce4'   
,he 0 a g5ial1 :isky-lov+ ,scot2 !      
fav\rite object ( ev]ybody's mimicry2 & 
0 especially intimate ) ,james ,mill4   
,_m o!r brilliant "y m5 contribut$ _!   
help 9 v>i\s ways4 ,h5ry ,bick]/e?      
7#aghc-ahea71 aft]w>ds ,"l ,langdale &  
,ma/] ( ! ,rolls1 _h br\ght ,b5?am &    
,burdett into political alliance2 & 8   
ris+ reputation at ! b> l$ to 8 be+     
plac$ 9 #ahbd ^u a commission = re=m+ ! 
proc$ure ( ! ,c\rt ( ,*anc]y1 "o ( ! mo/
 *]i%$ objects ( ! ,utilit>ian cre$4    
,besides ^! !re 7 ! gr\p ( "y m51 :o 7  
soon to be kn[n z ! 'philosophical      
,radicals4' ,john ,/u>t ,mill1 ^u :om ! 

mantle ( 8 fa!r 0 to desc5d1 0          
conspicu\s by 8 extraord9>y precocity1 &
 hav+ be5 c>efully educat$ 9 ! or?odox  
fai?1 0 employ$ 9 #ahbe ^u edit+        
,b5?am's great "w ^u evid5ce4 ,george   
,grote 7#agid-ahga71 ! future hi/orian1 
_h be5 introduc$ to ,mill by ,ric>do2 & 
0 9 #ahba def5d+ ,mill's !ory ( gov]nm5t
 aga9/ ,mack9to%1 & 9 #ahbb publi%$ !   
,analysis ( ,reveal$ ,religion1 f\nd$ ^u
 ,b5?am's manuscripts & express+ mo/    
unequivocally ! ,utilit>ian !ory (      
religion4 ,) !m 7 associat$ ! two       
,au/9s1 ,john 7#agij-ahei7 :o1 9 #ahba1 
liv$ close to ,b5?am & ,mill 9 ,que5's  
,squ>e1 & :o 0 reg>d$ z ! com+ tea*] ( !
 ,utilit>ian sy/em ( jurisprud5ce2 &    
,*>les 7#agii-ahgd71 :o upheld ! true   
fai? among ! "y g5tlem5 at ,cambridge ) 
a vig\r & ability :i* at lea/ rivall$ ! 
p[]s ( 8 contempor>y1 ,macaulay4        
,mean:ile1 ,mill himself 0 disqualifi$  
by 8 (fice f tak+ any direct "p 9       
political agitations4 ,place cont9u$ an 
active connection ) ! v>i\s ,radical    

committees & associations2 b ! y\ng]    
disciples _h comp>atively little conc]n 
9 su* matt]s4 ,!y 7 m int]e/$ 9 discuss+
 ! applications ( ,utilit>ianism 9 v>i\s
 directions1 or1 s f> z !y _h p>liam5t>y
 aspirations1 7 aspir+ to f\nd a sep>ate
 body ( 'philosophical ,radicals1' :i*  
look$ d[n ^u ,place & 8 allies f !      
heights ( sup]ior enlight5m5t4  ,mill   
c\ld n[ look =w>d to a successful       
propag&a ( ! cre$ :i* _h pass$ s sl[ly  
?r\gh its p]iod ( incubation4 ,! dea? ( 
,ric>do 9 #ahbc affect$ him to a degree 
:i* a/oni%$ 8 fri5ds1 accu/om$ only to 8
 /]n ext]ior4 ,a pl5tiful crop ( "y     
proselytes1 h[ev]1 0 aris+ to c>ry on ! 
"w2 & ! p>ty n[ became possess$ ( !     
indisp5sable organ4 ,! ,we/m9/] ,review 
0 laun*$ at ! beg9n+ ( #ahbd4 ,b5?am    
provid$ ! funds2 ,mill's (ficial        
position prev5t$ him f und]tak+ !       
editor%ip1 :i* 0 accord+ly giv5 to      
,b5?am's "y disciple1 ,b[r+1 help$ = a  
"t by ,h5ry ,s\!rn4 ,! ,we/m9/] 0 to    
repres5t ! ,radicals z ! two old]       

reviews repres5t$ ! ,:igs & ! ,tories2 &
 to %[ t ! new p>ty _h its philosoph]s &
 its m5 ( lit]>y cultivation z well z   
its popul> agitators & j\rnali/s4 ,x    
!re=e naturally put =? its claims by    
op5+ fire 9 ! fir/ numb]s aga9/ !       
,ed9burgh & ! ,qu>t]ly ,reviews4 ,!     
assault ^u ! ,ed9burgh ,review1 ( :i* ,i
 %all speak pres5tly1 made an           
impression1 &1 z ,j4 ,s4 ,mill tells u1 
br\ght success to ! fir/ numb] ( ! new  
v5ture4 ,! gauntlet 0 ?r[n d[n ) pl5ty (
 vig\r1 & re=m]s 7 expect$ to rally r\nd
 s ?or\ghgo+ a *ampion4 ,9 lat] numb]s  
,mill aft]w>ds 7,jan4 #i1 #ahbf7 fell ^u
 ,s\!y's ,book ( ! ,*ur*1 & 7,april     
#ahbf7 assail$ *ur* e/abli%m5ts 9 g5]al4
 ,he def5d$ tol]ation dur+ ! same ye> 9 
a review ( ,samuel ,bailey's ,=mation ( 
,op9ions1 & gave a g5]al acc\nt ( 8     
political cre$ 9 an article 7,octob]7 on
 ! ',/ate ( ! ,nation4' ,?is 0 8 la/    
contribution to ! ,we/m9/]2 b 9 #ahbg he
 contribut$ to ! ,p>liam5t>y ,hi/ory &  
,review1 />t$ by ,james ,m>%all ( ,le$s1

 an article ^u rec5t debates on re=m1   
:i* end$ = a "t 8 political writ+s4  ,! 
,utilit>ians _h no great tal5t =        
cohesion4 ,_! v pr9ciples 7 inde$ 9     
fav\r ( individual indep5d5ce1 & !y 7   
p]haps m ready to div]ge ?an to tol]ate 
div]g5ce4 ,! ,we/m9/] ,review _h made a 
good />t1 & drew att5tion to ! ris+     
'gr\p'--,j4 ,s4 ,mill decl>es t x nev]  
=m$ a 's*ool4'#bf ,f ! v fir/ ! ,mills  
di/ru/$ ,b[r+ & disapprov$ ( "s         
articles2 ! eld] ,mill fail$ to c>ry 8  
disciples ) him1 p>tly because !y 7     
already 9 fav\r ( giv+ votes to wom52 & 
z ! ,review soon %[$ itself unable to   
pay its way1 "s new arrangem5t became   
necess>y4 ,x 0 f9ally b\ght by ,p]ronet 
,?ompson1 & ceas$ = a "t to be ! (ficial
 organ ( ,b5?amism4  ,ano!r und]tak+    
occupi$ mu* ( ,mill's att5tion 9 !      
foll[+ ye>s4 ,! educational s*emes ( !  
,utilit>ians _h s f> prov$ abortive4 ,9 
#ahbd1 h[ev]1 x _h occurr$ to ! poet1   
,?omas ,campbell1 !n edit+ ! ,new       
,mon?ly ,magaz9e1 t ,london ought to    

possess a univ]sity comp>able to t (    
,b]l91 & m on a level ) mod]n ?\ght ?an 
! old univ]sities ( ,ox=d & ,cambridge1 
:i* 7 /ill 9 ! close/ connection ) !    
*ur*4 ,campbell address$ a lett] to     
,br\gham1 & ! s*eme 0 tak5 up           
en]getically on sev]al sides4 ,place#bg 
wrote an article1 :i* he (f]$ to        
,campbell = ! ,new ,mon?ly1 :o decl9$   
out ( mode/y to publi% x 9 8 own organ4 
,x 0 !n (f]$ to ,b[r+ = ! ,we/m9/]1 &   
ultimately suppress$ by him1 :i* may h  
be5 "o ( ! causes ( 8 diff]5ces ) !     
,mills4 ,br\gham took a lead+ "p 9 !    
agitation2 ,joseph ,hume promis$ to     
raise ,l#ajj1jjj4 ,george ,birkbeck1    
f\nd] ( ! ,me*anics' ,in/itution1 &     
,za*>y ,macaulay1 :o saw 9 x a place (  
education = diss5t+ m9i/]s1 jo9$ !      
movem5t1 & among ! mo/ active memb]s ( !
 new body 7 ,james ,mill & ,grote4 ,a   
c\ncil 0 =m$ at ! end ( #ahbe1 & aft]   
v>i\s difficulties a sum ( ,l#afj1jjj 0 
rais$1 & ! univ]sity />t$ 9 ,g[] ,/reet 
9 #ahbh4 ,among ! fir/ body ( pr(essors 

7 ,john ,au/9 & ,m',cullo*1 bo? ( !m    
s\nd ,utilit>ians4 ,! old difficulty1   
h[ev]1 made itself felt4 ,9 ord] to     
secure ! unsect>ian "* ( ! univ]sity1   
religi\s tea*+ 0 omitt$4 ,! college 0   
accus$ ( infidelity4 ,k+'s ,college 0   
/>t$ 9 opposition2 & viol5t antipa?ies 7
 ar\s$4 ,a special controv]sy rag$ )9 ! 
c\ncil itself4 ,two philosophical *airs 
7 to be f\nd$2 & philosophy _c be kept  
cle> ( religion4 ,aft] long discussions1
 "o *air 0 fill$ by ! appo9tm5t ( !     
,rev]5d ,john ,hoppus1 an indep5d5t     
m9i/]4 ,grote1 decl>+ t no man1 pl$g$ by
 8 position to ! support ( any t5ets1   
%\ld be appo9t$1 resign$ 8 place on !   
c\ncil4#bh ,! univ]sity 9 #ahcf became a
 college comb9$ ) its rival ,k+'s       
,college "u ! newly =m$ exam9+ body     
call$ ! ,univ]sity ( ,london4 ,x has1 ,i
 suppose1 be5 ( s]vice to education1 &  
may be reg>d$ z ! "o practical a*ievem5t
 ( ! ,utilit>ians 9 t direction1 s f> z 
its f\ndation 0 due to !m4 ,x mu/1      
h[ev]1 be admitt$ t ! actual body /ill  

falls v f> %ort ( ! ideal pres5t to !   
m9ds ( its f\nd]s4  ,f #ahbb ,james     
,mill sp5t 8 vacations at ,dork+1 &     
aft]w>ds at ,mickleham4 ,he _h devot$ !m
 to a task :i* 0 necess>y to fill a gap 
9 ! ,utilit>ian s*eme4 ,hi!rto ! s*ool  
_h assum$1 r ?an attempt$ to e/abli%1 a 
philosophical basis ( its tea*+4        
,b5?am's fragm5t>y writ+s ab\t !        
,*re/oma?ic s*ool suppli$ all t c\ld by 
c\rtesy be call$ a philosophy4 ,mill1   
h[ev]1 _h be5 f ! fir/ int]e/$ 9        
philosophical que/ions4 ,8 read+ 0 n    
wide2 he knew some?+ ( ! doctr9es taught
 by ,/ew>t & ,/ew>t's successor1 ,br[n4 
,he _h be5 especially impress$ by       
,hobbes1 to "s degree by ,locke & ,hume1
 b above all by ,h>tley4 ,he knew       
some?+1 too1 ( ,condillac & ! ,fr5*     
,ideologi/s4 ,( rec5t ,g]man speculation
 he 0 probably q ignorant4 ,i f9d inde$ 
t ,place _h call$ 8 att5tion to ! acc\nt
 ( ,kant1 publi%$ by ,wirgman 9 !       
,encyclopa$ia ,lond95sis #ahag4 ,mill   
ab\t ! same "t tells ,place t he has    

begun to read ,! ,critic ( ,pure        
,reason4 ',i see cle>ly en\gh1' he says1
 ':at poor ,kant w\ld be ab\t1 b x w\ld 
require "s "t to give an acc\nt ( him4' 
,he wi%es 7,decemb] #f1 #ahag7 t he _h  
"t to write a book :i* w\ld 'make !     
human m9d z pla9 z ! road f ,*>+ ,cross 
to ,/4 ,paul's4'#bi ,?is 0 app>5tly !   
task to :i* he appli$ himself 9 8       
vacations4 ,! ,analysis appe>$ 9 #ahbi1 
&1 :atev] its defects ( incomplet5ess & 
"o-sid$ness f a philosophical po9t (    
view1 %[s 9 ! highe/ degree ,mill's p[]s
 ( close1 vigor\s /atem5t2 & lays d[n ) 
s+ul> cle>ness ! psy*ological doctr9e1  
:i* f 8 po9t ( view suppli$ ! fundam5tal
 !orems ( k 9 g5]al4 ,x does n appe>1   
h[ev]1 to h made an impression          
proportionate to ! intellectual p[]     
display$1 & _h to wait a long "t be=e   
rea*+ ! second edition due to ! filial  
zeal ( ,j4 ,s4 ,mill4  ,james ,mill1    
aft] 8 articles 9 ! ,we/m9/]1 c\ld take 
little "p 9 political agitation4 ,he 0  
/ill consult$ by ,place 9 reg>d to !    

,re=m movem5t4 ,place himself took an   
important "p at ! f9al crisis1          
especially by 8 circulation 9 ! week (  
agony ( ! fam\s plac>d1 ',g = ,gold4' ,b
 ! ,utilit>ians 7 n[ lo/ 9 ! cr[d4 ,!   
dem& = re=m _h spread ?r\gh all classes4
 ,! attack ^u ! rul+ class c>ri$ on by !
 ,radicals ( all %ades 9 ! d>k days (   
,sidm\? & ! six ,acts 0 n[ support$ by !
 nation at l>ge4 ,! old ,toryism c\ld no
 long] support itself by appeal+ to !   
necessities ( a /ruggle = national      
exi/5ce4 ,! pre/ige due to ! victori\s  
end ( ! w> _h fad$ away4 ,! ,re=m ,bill 
( #ahcb 0 pass$1 & ! ,utilit>ians hop$ t
 ! mill5nium w\ld at lea/ beg9 to dawn4 
,mill 9 #ahcj remov$ f ,que5's ,squ>e to
 ,vic>age ,place1 ,k5s+ton4 ,he kept 8  
h\se at ,mickleham1 & !re took long     
,sunday walks ) a few ( 8 disciples4 ,8 
/r5g? 0 m & m absorb$ 9 8 (ficial       
duties4 ,he 0 especially call$ ^u to    
give evid5ce be=e ! committees :i* f    
#ahcj to #ahcc consid]$ ! policy to be  
adopt$ 9 r5ew+ ! *>t] ( ! ,ea/ ,india   

,company4 ,mill appe>$ z ! advocate ( ! 
company1 def5d$ _! policy1 & argu$ aga9/
 ! dem&s ( ! comm]cial body :i* dem&$ ! 
f9al suppression ( ! old trad+ monopoly 
( ! ,company4 ,! abolition1 inde$1 0 a  
=egone conclusion2 b ,mill's view 0 n 9 
accordance ) ! doctr9es ( ! ?or\ghgo+   
freetrad]s4 ,8 (ficial exp]i5ce1 x      
seems1 ^u ?is & o!r matt]s det]r$ him f 
! a priori dogmatism too *>act]i/ic ( 8 
political speculations4 ,mill also      
sugge/$ ! =mation ( a legislative       
c\ncil1 :i* 0 to conta9 "o man 'v]s$ 9 !
 philosophy ( m5 & gov]nm5t4' ,?is 0    
repres5t$ by ! appo9tm5t ( ! legal memb]
 ( c\ncil 9 ! ,act ( #ahcc4 ,mill       
approv$ ( ,macaulay z ! fir/ hold] ( !  
po/4 ,x 0 'v h&some' ( him1 z ,macaulay 
rem>ks1 inasmu* z ! fam\s articles      
writt5 by ,macaulay himself1 9 :i* !    
,ed9burgh _h at la/ retort$ ^u !        
,utilit>ians1 mu/ /ill h be5 fre% 9 8   
memory4 ,! ',p5al ,code' drawn by       
,macaulay z hold] ( ! (fice 0 ! fir/    
actual attempt to c>ry out ,b5?am's     

fav\rite s*emes "u ,briti% rule1 & !    
influ5ce ( ! *ief ( ,b5?am's disciples  
at ! ,india ,h\se may h _h some?+ to d )
 its initiation4 ,macaulay's *ief       
subord9ate1 x may be rem>k$1 ,*>les ,hay
 ,cam]on1 0 "o ( ! ,b5?amites1 & _h be5 
propos$ by ,grote = ! *air at ! ,london 
,univ]sity ultimately fill$ by ,hoppus4 
,aft] #ahcj ,mill wrote ! sev]e fragm5t 
on ,mack9to%1 :i*1 aft] a delay caus$ by
 ,mack9to%'s dea?1 appe>$ 9 #ahce4 ,he  
contribut$ "s articles to ! ,london     
,review1 f\nd$ by ,sir ,w4 ,moleswor?1 z
 an organ ( ! 'philosophical ,radicals1'
 & sup]9t5d$1 ?\gh n directly edit$1 by 
,j4 ,s4 ,mill4 ,^!1 8 la/ p]=mances1    
repeat ! old doctr9es4 ,x does n appe>1 
inde$1 t ,mill ev] alt]$ "o ( 8 op9ions4
 ,he accept$ ,b5?am's doctr9e to ! end1 
z unres]v$ly z a ma!matician might      
accept ,newton's ,pr9cipia4  ,mill's    
lungs _h begun to be affect$4 ,x 0      
suppos$ t !y 7 injur$ by ! du/ imbib$ on
 coa* j\rneys to ,mickleham4 ,he _h a   
bad attack ( haemorrhage 9 ,augu/ #ahce1

 & di$ peacefully on #bcrd ,june #ahcf4 
,:at rema9s to be said ( ,mill p]sonally
 may be sugge/$ by a noticeable p>allel4
 ,s4 ,t4 ,col]idge1 born ab\t six mon?s 
be=e ,mill1 di$ two ye>s be=e him4 ,!   
two lives ?us co9cid$ = m ?an sixty     
ye>s1 & ea* man 0 ! lead] ( a s*ool4 ,9 
all else ! contra/ c\ld h>dly be great]4
 ,if we 7 to apply ! rules ( ord9>y     
morality1 x w\ld be entirely 9 ,mill's  
fav\r4 ,mill dis*>g$ all 8 duties z     
/r5u\sly z a man c\ld1 :ile ,col]idge's 
life 0 a prolong$ illu/ration ( ! rem>k 
t :5 an action pres5t$ itself to him z a
 duty he became physically incapable (  
do+ x4 ,:atev] ,mill und]took he        
accompli%$1 (t5 9 ! face ( enorm\s      
difficulties4 ,col]idge nev] f9i%$      
any?+1 & 8 works are a heap ( fragm5ts (
 ! prolegom5a to ambiti\s s*emes4 ,mill 
work$ 8 h>de/ f y\? to age1 nev] sp>+   
lab\r or %irk+ difficulties or turn+    
aside f 8 pa?4 ,col]idge dawdl$ ?r\gh   
life1 solac+ himself ) opium1 & c\ld    
only be coax$ into occasional activity  

by skilful diplomacy4 ,mill pres]v$ 8   
indep5d5ce by rigid self-d5ial1         
temp]ance1 & punctuality4 ,col]idge 0   
always dep5d5t ^u ! g5]osity ( 8 fri5ds4
 ,mill br\ght up a l>ge family1 & 9 !   
mid/ ( sev]e lab\rs f\nd "t to educate  
!m ev5 to excess4 ,col]idge left 8 wife 
& *ildr5 to be c>$ = by o!rs4 ,&        
,col]idge di$ 9 ! od\r ( sanctity1 rev]$
 by 8 disciples1 & idolis$ by 8 *ildr52 
:ile ,mill w5t to ! grave amid/ ! %rugs 
( respectable %\ld]s1 & respect$ r ?an  
belov$ by ! son :o succe$$ to 8         
intellectual lead]%ip4  ,! answ] to !   
riddle is inde$ pla9 en\gh2 or r !re are
 _m sup]abundantly obvi\s answ]s4 ,_h   
,mill def5d$ or?odox views & ,col]idge  
be5 av[$ly het]odox1 we %\ld no d\bt h  
he>d m ( ,col]idge's opium & ( ,mill's  
blameless & en]getic life4 ,b ?is       
expla9s little4 ,t ,col]idge 0 a man (  
g5ius &1 moreov]1 ( exquisitely poetical
 g5ius1 & t ,mill 0 at mo/ a man (      
rem>kable tal5t & ! drie/ & /]ne/ (     
logicians is also obvi\s4 ,x is ev5 m to

 ! purpose t ,col]idge 0 ov]fl[+ )      
k9dl9ess1 ?\gh little able to turn      
goodwill to mu* effect2 :]eas ,mill's   
morality took ! =m *iefly ( attack+ !   
wick$4 ,?is is indicat$ by ! say+       
attribut$ by ,b[r+ to ,b5?am t ,mill's  
sympa?y = ! _m sprang out ( 8 hatr$ ( ! 
oppress+ few4#cj ,j4 ,s4 ,mill v prop]ly
 prote/$ aga9/ ?is /atem5t :5 x 0 quot$ 
9 ! ,ed9burgh ,review4 ,x w\ld obvi\sly 
imply a gross misund]/&+1 :e!r ,b5?am1 n
 a good obs]v] ( m51 said s or n4 ,b x  
indicates ! side ( ,mill's "* :i* made  
him unattractive to contempor>ies & also
 to po/]ity4 ,he p>took1 says 8 son1#ca 
( ! ,/oic1 ! ,epicurean1 & ! ,cynic "*4 
,he 0 a ,/oic 9 8 p]sonal qualities2 an 
,epicurean s f> z 8 !ory ( morals 0     
conc]n$2 & a ,cynic 9 t he c>$ little = 
pleasure4 ,he ?\ght life a 'poor ?+'    
aft] ! fre%ness ( y\? _h pass$2 & said t
 he _h nev] kn[n an old man happy unless
 he c\ld live ov] aga9 9 ! pleasures ( !
 "y4 ,temp]ance & self-re/ra9t 7 !re=e 8
 fav\rite virtues4 ,he despis$ all      

'passionate emotions'2 he held ) ,b5?am 
t feel+s by !mselves des]v$ nei!r praise
 nor blame2 he condemn$ a man :o did h>m
 :e!r ! h>m came f malevol5ce or f      
intellectual error4 ,!re=e all s5tim5t 0
 objectionable1 = s5tim5t means neglect 
( rules & calculations4 ,he %rank f %[+ 
feel+ ) m ?an ! usual ,engli% res]ve2 & 
%[$ 8 devotion to 8 *ildr5 by drill+ !m 
into k ) uncompromis+ /rictness4 ,he _h 
no feel+ = ! poetical or lit]>y side (  
?+s2 & reg>d$ life1 x w\ld seem1 z a    
s]ies ( argum5ts1 9 :i* p 7 to be       
con/ra9$ by logic1 n p]suad$ by sympa?y4
 ,he seems to h despis$ poor ,mrs4      
,mill1 & to h be5 unsuccessful 9        
conceal+ 8 contempt1 ?\gh 9 8 lett]s he 
ref]s to h] respectfully4 ,mill !re=e 0 
a man little likely to w9 ! he>ts ( 8   
foll[]s1 ?\gh 8 rem>kable vig\r ( m9d   
dom9at$ _! und]/&+s4  ,! amiable &      
k9dly1 ^: sympa?ies are quickly mov$1   
ga9 an unfair %>e ( our reg>d bo? 9 life
 & aft]w>ds4 ,we are m pleas$ by an     
ineffectual attempt to be k9dly1 ?an by 

real k9dness be/[$ ungraci\sly4 ,mill's 
great qualities %\ld n be ov]look$      
because !y 7 hidd5 by a mann] :i* seems 
almo/ delib]ately repell5t4 ,he devot$  
himself ?r\gh life to promote ! tru? z  
he saw x2 to increase ! scanty am\nts ( 
pleasures enjoy$ by mank9d2 & to dis*>ge
 all ! duties :i* he ow$ to 8 neighb\rs4
 ,he succe$$ beyond all dispute 9 =cibly
 pres5t+ "o set ( views :i* pr(\ndly    
influ5c$ 8 c\ntrym52 & ! v n>r[ness ( 8 
intellect enabl$ him to plant 8 bl[s m  
effectively4  ,,footnotes3  #a ,! *ief  
au?ority = ,james ,mill is ,james ,mill3
 a ,biography1 by ,alex&] ,ba91 ,em]itus
 ,pr(essor ( ,logic 9 ! ,univ]sity (    
,ab]de51 ,london1 #ahhb4 ,! book conta9s
 v full mat]ials2 &1 if r dry1 deals ) a
 dry subject4  #b ,wallas's ,francis    
,place1 p4 #gj n4  #c ,ba9's ,james     
,mill1 p4 #aff4  #d ,gif=d's real "n 0  
,john ,ri*>ds ,gre54 ,! id5tity ( 8     
assum$ "n ) t ( ! m fam\s ,william      
,gif=d has l$ to a common confusion     
betwe5 ! two p]iodicals4 ',pet] ,p9d>'  

assault$ ,william ,gif=d "u ! errone\s  
impression t he 0 editor ( ! second4  #e
 ,lett] 9 ,ba9's ,james ,mill1 pp4      
#acf-dj4  #f ,autobiography1 p4 #ci4  #g
 ,ba9's ,james ,mill1 pp4 #ig-ajf4 ,mill
 appe>s to h said some?+ 'extravagant'  
ab\t ,b5?am 9 an article ^u ,mir&a 9 !  
,ed9burgh ,review = ,janu>y #ahji4 ,he  
also got "s praises ( ,b5?am into !     
,annual ,review ( #ahji 7,ba91 #ib-if74 
#h ,see ! v int]e/+ ,life ( ,francis    
,place1 by ,mr4 ,graham ,wallas1 #ahih4 
#i ,ba9's ,james ,mill1 p4 #gh1 &       
,wallas's ,francis ,place1 p4 #ff4  #aj 
,wallas's ,francis ,place1 p4 #fh4  #aa 
,he 'put toge!r' ! ,n ,paul b ,jesus at 
,=d ,abbey 9 #ahag1 & help$ to preface !
 ,re=m ,cate*ism4 ,wallas's ,francis    
,place1 p4 #hd4  #ab ,! article ( #ahaa 
0 also publi%$ sep>ately4  #ac ,he wrote
 only ! fir/ volume4 ,two o!rs 7 add$ by
 ,cu?b]t ,s\!y4  #ad ,lectures 7,a%e1   
#ahhe71 pp4 #cb1 #fa4  #ae ,james ,mill1
 accord+ to ,place1 wrote a 'memorable &
 admirable essay1 ,s*ools = all1 n      

s*ools = ,*ur*m5 only4'--,wallas's      
,francis ,place1 #ii n4  #af ,?is absurd
 suspicion 0 ar\s$ by ! qu>rel ab\t     
,burdett's arre/4 ,see ,wallas's ,place1
 p4 #ef4  #ag ,mr4 ,wallas gives an     
acc\nt ( ^! s*emes 9 *ap4 iv4 ( 8 ,life 
( ,place4 ,i h also consult$ ,place's   
collections 9 ,additional ,,mss41       
#bg1hbc4  #ah ,ba9's ,james ,mill1 p4   
#afb4  #ai ,h4 ,h4 ,wilson 9 8 preface  
to ! edition ( #ahdj4  #bj ,wallas's    
,francis ,place1 p4 #gh4  #ba ,ba9's    
,james ,mill1 p4 #dce4  #bb ,ibid4 p4   
#dcc4  #bc ,b5?am's ,works1 p4 #dih4    
#bd ,see ,c>man 9 ,economic ,review1    
#ahid4  #be ,see "u ,black 9 ,diction>y 
( ,national ,biography4  #bf            
,autobiography1 p4 #aja4  #bg ,see      
,place's acc\nt 9 ,additional ,,mss4    
#bg1hbc4  #bh ,g4 ,c4 ,rob]tson1        
,philosophical ,rema9s1 p4 #aff2 & "u   
,george ,grote 9 ,diction>y ( ,national 
,biography4  #bi ,lett]s communicat$ by 
,mr4 ,graham ,wallas4 ,see ,mr4         
,wallas's ,francis ,place1 p4 #ia4  #cj 

,s ,place obs]v$ t ,mill 'c\ld help !   
mass1 b c\ld n help ! individual1 n ev5 
himself or 8 own4'--,wallas's ,francis  
,place1 p4 #gi4  #ca ,autobiography1 p4 
#dh4     ,,*apt] ,,ii  ,,re=m ,,movem5ts
   ,i4 ,,political ,,*ange  ,! la/ ye>s 
( ,mill's life correspond to ! p]iod 9  
:i* ,utilit>ianism rea*$1 9 c]ta9       
respects1 its highe/ pit* ( influ5ce4 ,!
 little b& :o ackn[l$g$ him z _! *ief   
lead]1 & z ! au?oris$ lieut5ant (       
,b5?am1 consid]$ !mselves to be 9 ! van 
( progress4 ,?\gh diff]+ on _m po9ts f  
ea* o!r1 & reg>d$ ) av]sion or di/ru/ by
 ! recognis$ p>ty lead]s1 !y 7 9 _! mo/ 
militant & confid5t /ate ( m9d4 ,!y 7   
sy/ematically retic5t z to _! religi\s  
views3 !y left to popul> orators !      
public advocacy ( _! fav\rite political 
measures2 & ! cr$it ( f9ally pass+ su* (
 ^? measures z 7 adopt$ fell *iefly to !
 h&s ( ! great political lead]s4 ,!     
,utilit>ians are ignor$ 9 ! or?odox ,:ig
 leg5d4 ,9 ! preface to 8 collect$      
works1 ,sydney ,smi? runs ov] ! usual   

li/ ( *anges :i* _h foll[$1 &1 z he     
seems to ?9k1 _h 9 great "p result$ f1 !
 e/abli%m5t ( ! ,ed9burgh ,review4 ,smi?
 himself1 & ,jeffrey & ,horn] &1 above  
all1 '! gigantic ,br\gham1' _h bl[n !   
bla/ :i* br\ght d[n ! t[]s ( ,j]i*o4    
,sir ,g4 ,o4 ,trevelyan1 9 8 ,life (    
,macaulay1 describes ! adv5t ( ! ,:igs  
to (fice 9 a simil> s5se4 ',agitators & 
inc5di>ies1' he says1 'retir$ into !    
backgr\nd1 z w always be ! case :5 !    
c\ntry is 9 e>ne/3 & /atesm5 :o _h mu*  
to lose1 & 7 n afraid to risk x1 /epp$  
quietly & firmly to ! front4 ,! m5 & !  
sons ( ! m5 :o _h s long endur$         
exclusion f (fice1 embitt]$ by          
unpopul>ity1 at l5g? reap$ _! rew>d4'#cb
 ,! ,radical v]sion ( ! hi/ory is       
diff]5t4 ,! great m51 x said1 :o _h left
 ! cause to be support$ by agitators s  
long z ! def5ce 0 dang]\s & pr(itless1  
/epp$ =w>d n[ t x 0 cle>ly w9n+1 &      
receiv$ bo? ! rew>d & ! cr$it4 ,mill &  
,place c\ld n f9d words to express _!   
contempt = ! trimm+1 %uffl+ ,:igs4 ,!y 7

 probably unju/ en\gh 9 detail2 b !y _h 
a /rong case 9 "s respects4 ,!          
,utilit>ians repres5t$ t "p ( ! re=m+   
p>ty :i* _h a def9ite & a reason$ cre$4 
,!y tri$ to give logic :]e ! popul>     
agitators 7 cont5t ) declamation1 &     
repres5t$ absolute convictions :5 ! ,:ig
 re=m]s 7 cont5t ) t5tative & hesitat+  
compromises4 ,!y _h "s gr\nds = consid]+
 !mselves to be ! '/eel ( ! lance'2 ! m5
 :o =mulat$ & delib]ately def5d$ !      
pr9ciples :i* 7 beg9n+ to conqu] ! _w4  
,! ,utilit>ians1 ,i h said1 became a    
political =ce 9 ! conclud+ ye>s ( !     
great w> /ruggle4 ,! cata/rophe ( !     
revolution _h un*a9$ a :ole :irlw9d (   
antagonisms4 ,! orig9al issues _h pass$ 
out ( sight2 & great social1 indu/rial1 
& political *anges 7 9 progress :i* made
 ! nation t em]g$ f ! w> a v diff]5t    
body f ! nation t _h ent]$ x ne>ly a    
g5]ation be=e4 ,x is n surpris+ t at    
fir/ v errone\s e/imates 7 made ( ! new 
position :5 peace at la/ return$4  ,!   
,radicals1 :o _h wat*$ on "o side ! gr[?

 ( debt & paup]ism1 &1 on ! o!r h&1 !   
pr(its made by /ockjobb]s1 l&lords1 &   
manufactur]s1 ascrib$ all ! t]rible     
suff]+s to ! selfi% designs ( ! upp]    
classes4 ,:5 ! w> end$ !y hop$ t ! evils
 w\ld dim9i%1 :ile ! pretext =          
misgov]nm5t w\ld be remov$4 ,a bitt]    
disappo9tm5t foll[$4 ,! w> 0 foll[$ by  
widespread mis]y4 ,pl5ty meant ru9 to   
agriculturi/s1 & comm]cial 'gluts'      
result+ 9 manufactur]s' w>eh\ses cramm$ 
) unsaleable goods4 ,! discont5t caus$  
by mis]y _h be5 enc\nt]$ dur+ ! w> by   
patriotic f]v\r4 ,x 0 n a "t = r$ress+  
evils1 :5 ! exi/5ce ( ! nation 0 at     
/ake4 ,n[ t ! mis]y cont9u$1 & ! excuse 
= delay+ r$ress _h be5 remov$1 a dem&   
arose = p>liam5t>y re=m4 ,un=tunately   
discont5t l$ also to sporadic riot+s1 to
 break+ ( ma*9]y & burn+ ( ricks4 ,!    
,tory gov]nm5t saw 9 ^! di/urbances a   
r5ewal ( ! old ,jacob9 _s1 & _h         
visions--app>5tly q gr\ndless--(        
widespread conspiracies & secret        
societies ready to produce a ru9 ( all  

social ord]4 ,x _h rec\rse to ! old     
repressive measures1 ! susp5sion ( !    
,habeas ,corpus ,act1 ! passage ( !     
',six ,acts1' & ! prosecution ( popul>  
agitators4 ,_m obs]v]s fanci$ t ! *oice 
lay betwe5 a s]vile insurrection & !    
e/abli%m5t ( arbitr>y p[]4  ,by degrees1
 h[ev]1 peace br\ght back prosp]ity4    
,?+s settl$ d[n2 comm]ce reviv$2 & !    
acute di/ress pass$ away4 ,! :ole nation
 w5t mad ov] ! wrongs ( ,que5 ,c>ol9e2 &
 ! dem& = political re=m became = ! "t  
less int5se4 ,b x soon appe>$ t1 al?\gh 
?is crisis _h be5 surm\nt$1 ! temp] ( ! 
nation _h pr(\ndly *ang$4 ,! supreme p[]
 /ill belong$ con/itutionally to ! l&$  
int]e/4 ,b x _h a pr(\ndly modifi$      
social ord] beh9d x4 ,! w> _h at lea/   
made x necess>y to take into acc\nt !   
op9ions ( l>g] classes4 ,an appeal to   
patriotism means t "s reg>d mu/ be paid 
to ! prejudices & passions ( p at l>ge4 
,:5 enorm\s sums 7 to be rais$1 ! money$
 classes w\ld h _! say z to modes (     
taxation4 ,comm]ce & manufactures w5t   

?r\gh crises ( t]rible difficulty due to
 ! v>i\s *anges ( ! w>2 b1 on ! :ole1 ! 
indu/rial classes 7 /eadily & rapidly   
develop+ 9 weal?1 & becom+ relatively m 
important4 ,! w> itself 01 9 "o aspect  
at lea/1 a w> = ! ma9t5ance ( ! ,briti% 
supremacy 9 trade4 ,! /ruggle m>k$ by ! 
policy ( ! ',ord]s 9 ,c\ncil' on "o     
side1 & ,napoleon's decrees on ! o!r1   
involv$ a con/ant ref]5ce to ,man*e/] & 
,liv]pool & ! rapidly gr[+ manufactur+ &
 comm]cial int]e/s4 ,! gr[?1 aga91 ( !  
press1 at a "t :5 e "o :o c\ld read 0   
ke5ly int]e/$ 9 news ( mo/ excit+ &     
important ev5ts1 impli$ ! rapid         
developm5t ( a great organ ( public     
op9ion4  ,! effects ( ^! *anges soon    
became palpable4 ,! political atmosph]e 
0 altoge!r diff]5t2 & an entirely new   
set ( influ5ces 0 gov]n+ ! policy (     
/atesm54 ,! *ange affect$ ! ,tory z mu* 
z ! ,:ig4 ,h[ev] /rongly he might       
believe t he 0 c>ry+ on ! old me?ods1 he
 0 affect$ by ! new ideas :i* _h be5    
almo/ unconsci\sly incorporat$ 9 8 cre$4

 ,h[ great 0 ! *ange1 & h[ mu* x took ! 
%ape ( accept+ ,utilit>ian !ories1 may  
be briefly %[n by consid]+ a few        
*>act]i/ic facts4  ,! able/ m5 :o held  
(fice at ! "t 7 ,cann+1 ,huskisson1 &   
,peel4 ,!y repres5t$ ! cons]vatism :i*  
s\ght to di/+ui% itself f m]e           
ob/ructiv5ess4 ,_! influ5ce 0 felt 9 _m 
directions4 ,! ,holy ,alliance _h !     
sympa?y ( m5 :o c\ld believe t ! w> _h  
br\ght back ! pre-revolution>y ord]1 & t
 its ma9 result _h be5 to put ! ,jacob9 
_s 9 *a9s4 ,cann+'s accession to (fice 9
 #ahbb meant t ! =eign policy ( ,engl& 0
 to be def9itely oppos$ to ! policy ( ! 
',holy ,alliance4' ,a pi?y /atem5t ( 8  
view is giv5 9 a rem>kable lett]1 dat$  
#a/ ,febru>y #ahbc1 to ! pr9ce :o 0 soon
 to become ,*>les ,x4#cc ,! ,fr5*       
gov]nm5t _h decl>$ t a p c\ld only      
receive a free con/itution z a gift f _!
 legitimate k+s4 ,%\ld ! ,engli% m9i/ry1
 says ,cann+1 aft] ?is decl>ation1      
support ! ,fr5* 9 _! attack ^u !        
con/itutional gov]nm5t ( ,spa91 x w\ld  

be driv5 f (fice amid '! execration (   
,tories & ,:igs alike4' ,he ?\ght t !   
doctr9e ( ! sov]eignty ( ! p 0 less ali5
 to ! _s ( ! ,briti% ,con/itution ?an ! 
opposite doctr9e ( ! legitimi/s4 ,9 !   
e>ly days1 :5 ,cann+ sat at ! feet (    
,pitt1 ! w>1 if n 9 _! eyes an          
,anti-,jacob9 crusade1 _h to be support$
 by /imulat+ ! ,anti-,jacob9 s5tim5t4 ,9
 lat] days1 ! w> _h come to be a /ruggle
 aga9/ ! oppression ( nations by =eign  
despots4 ,cann+ c\ld n[ accept ! v]sion 
( ,pitt's policy :i* correspond$ to !   
lat] phase4 ,engli%m5 9 g5]al _h no m   
sympa?y = despots :o claim$ a div9e "r  
?an = despots :o act$ 9 ! "n (          
democracy--especially :5 ! despots      
?reat5$ to int]f]e ) ,briti% trade4 ,:5 
,cann+ call$ '! new _w into exi/5ce to  
r$ress ! balance ( ! old1'#cd he decl>$ 
t ,engli% policy %\ld resi/ ?reats f !  
,holy ,alliance direct$ aga9/ "s ( our  
be/ cu/om]s4 ,! g5]al approval _h       
special =ce among ! ,utilit>ians4 ,9 !  
,s\? ,am]ican ,/ates ,b5?am _h f\nd eag]

 proselytes1 & _h hop$ to become a      
,solon4 ,he _h be5 consult$ by !        
con/itutionali/s 9 ,spa9 & ,portugal2 & 
he & 8 disciples1 ,joseph ,hume 9       
p>ticul>1 _h jo9$ ! ,greek ,committee1 &
 tri$ to reg5]ate ,a!ns by s\nd         
,utilit>ian tracts4 ,all ,engli%        
,lib]als sympa?is$ ) ! v>i\s movem5ts   
:i* 7 m or less fav\r$ by ,cann+'s      
policy2 b ! ,utilit>ians c\ld also see 9
 !m ! op5+ ( new fields already :ite = !
 h>ve/4  ,! =eign policy 0 significant4 
,x prov$ t ! w>1 :atev] else x _h done1 
_h n br\ght back ! old ord]2 & ! old    
,briti% traditions 9 fav\r ( lib]ty (   
spee* & action w\ld revive n[ t !y 7 no 
long] trammell$ by ! fe>s ( a de/ructive
 revolution4 ,! days ( ,july 9 #ahcj    
gave fre% importance to ! reaction (    
=eign ^u ,engli% politics4   ,,ii4 ,,law
 ,,re=m  ,mean:ile1 h[ev]1 !            
,utilit>ians _h a f> /rong] int]e/ 9    
dome/ic problems4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 9    
,b5?am's especial prov9ce a complete    
*ange ( feel+ _h tak5 place4 ,romilly 0 

,b5?am's e>lie/ disciple 7s ,b5?am      
said71 & look$ up to him ) 'filial      
rev]5ce4' ,e 're=matiuncle' introduc$ by
 ,romilly 9 p>liam5t _h be5 fir/ br\ght 
to ,b5?am1 to be conn$ ov] by ! two4#ce 
,) great difficulty ,romilly _h got two 
or ?ree measures ?r\gh ! ,h\se (        
,commons1 g5]ally to be ?r[n out by     
,eldon's influ5ce 9 ! ,lords4#cf ,aft]  
,romilly's dea? 9 #ahah1 ! cause 0 tak5 
up by ! ,:ig philosoph]1 ,sir ,james    
,mack9to%1 & made a di/9ct /ep 9        
advance4 ,?\gh !re 7 /ill ob/acles 9 !  
upp] regions1 a committee 0 obta9$ to   
consid] ! frequ5cy ( capital puni%m5t1 &
 measures 7 pass$ to aboli% x 9 p>ticul>
 cases4 ,f9ally1 9 #ahbc1 ! re=m 0      
adopt$ by ,peel4 ,peel 0 de/9$ to       
repres5t 9 ! mo/ /rik+ way ! process by 
:i* new ideas 7 gradually infiltrat+ !  
upp] sph]e4 ,?\gh /ill a /rong ,tory & a
 repres5tative ( ! univ]sity ( ,ox=d1 he
 0 closely connect$ ) ! manufactur+     
classes1 & _h become aw>e1 z he wrote to
 ,crok] 7#bcrd ,m>* #ahbj71 t public    

op9ion _h gr[n to be too l>ge = its     
accu/om$ *annels4 ,z ,home ,secret>y1 he
 took up ! :ole subject ( ! crim9al law1
 & pass$ 9 ! next ye>s a s]ies ( acts   
consolidat+ & mitigat+ ! law1 & repeal+ 
_m old /atutes4 ,a measure ( equal      
importance 0 8 e/abli%m5t 9 #ahbi ( !   
metropolitan police =ce1 :i* at la/ put 
an end to ! old *aotic muddle describ$  
by ,colquh\n ( p>i% (fic]s & con/ables4 
,o!r significant legal *anges m>k$ !    
op5+ ( a new era4 ,eldon 0 ! v          
inc>nation ( ! _s ( ob/ruction2 & !     
,c\rt ( ,*anc]y1 ov] :i* he presid$ = a 
qu>t] ( a c5tury1 0 ?\ght to be !       
typical /ronghold ( ! evil pr9ciples    
d5\nc$ by ,b5?am4 ,an attack 9 #ahbc ^u 
,eldon 0 made 9 ! ,h\se ( ,commons by   
,john ,williams 7#aggg-ahdf71 aft]w>ds a
 judge4 ,eldon1 ?\gh pr(\ndly irritat$  
by ! p]sonal imputations involv$1       
cons5t$ to ! appo9tm5t ( a commission1  
:i* report$ 9 #ahbe1 & recomm5d$        
measures ( re=m4 ,9 #ahbh1 ,br\gham made
 a great display ^u :i* he _h consult$  

,b5?am4#cg ,9 a spee* ( six h\rs' l5g?  
he gave a summ>y ( exi/+ abuses1 :i* may
 /ill be read ) int]e/4#ch ,commissions 
7 appo9t$ to inve/igate ! proc$ure ( !  
,common ,law ,c\rt & ! law ( real       
prop]ty4 ,ano!r commission1 int5d$ to   
codify ! crim9al law1 0 appo9t$ 9 #ahcc4
 ,br\gham says t ( 'sixty capital       
defects' describ$ 9 8 spee*1 fifty-five 
_h be5 remov$1 or 7 9 c\rse ( removal1  
:5 8 spee*es 7 collect$ 7i4e4 #ahch74   
,ano!r spee* ( ,br\gham's 9 #ahbh dealt 
) ! c>ry+ into execution ( a fav\rite   
plan ( ,b5?am's--! =mation ( local      
c\rts1 :i* ultimately became ! mod]n    
c\nty c\rts4#ci ,! facts are significant
 ( a />tl+ *ange--no less ?an an abrupt 
transition f ! reign ( entire apa?y to a
 reign ( cont9u\s re=m ext5d+ ov] ! :ole
 range ( law4 ,! ,re=m ,bill accel]at$ !
 movem5t1 b x _h be5 />t$ be=e ,b5?am's 
dea?4 ,! great /one1 s long immovable1 0
 fairly set roll+4  ,b5?am's influ5ce1  
aga91 9 br++ ab\t ! *ange is und5iable4 
,he 0 greatly dissatisfi$ ) ,br\gham's  

spee*1 &1 inde$1 w\ld h be5 dissatisfi$ 
) any?+ %ort ( a complete logical       
application ( 8 :ole sy/em4 ,he held    
,br\gham to be 'ins9c]e1'#dj a trimm] & 
popul>ity-hunt]1 b a useful in/rum5t4   
,br\gham's a/oni%+ vanity & self-seek+  
prompt$ & p]v]t$ 8 amaz+ activity4 ,he  
repres5ts ! process1 p]haps necess>y1 by
 :i* a philosoph]'s ideas h to be       
modifi$ be=e !y c be appli$ to practical
 application4 ,br\gham1 h[ev]1 c\ld     
speak g5]\sly ( m5 no long] 9 a position
 to excite 8 jeal\sy4 ,he says 9 !      
preface to 8 fir/ spee* t '! age ( law  
re=m & ! age ( ,j]emy ,b5?am' 7 ! same  
?+1 & decl>es ,b5?am to be ! 'fir/ legal
 philosoph]' :o _h appe>$ 9 ! _w4 ,z !  
,*ief advocates ( ,b5?am he reckons     
,romilly1 8 p>liam5t>y repres5tative2   
,dumont1 8 lit]>y int]pret]2 & ,james   
,mill1 :o1 9 8 article ^u               
'jurisprud5ce1' _h popul>is$ ! ess5tial 
pr9ciples ( ! doctr9e4  ,! ,utilit>ians 
_h at la/ brok5 up ! b>ri]s ( ob/ruction
 & set ! /ream fl[+4 ,:igs & ,tories 7  

tak+ up _! !ories4 ,!y naturally        
exagg]at$ 9 "s respects ! complet5ess ( 
! triumph4 ,! ,engli% law has n yet be5 
codifi$1 & x 0 *>act]i/ic ( ! ,b5?amite 
s*ool to exagg]ate ! facility ( t       
process4 ,9 _! hatr$ ( 'judge-made law' 
!y assum$ too easily t all ?+s w\ld be  
arrang$ into conv5i5t pigeon-holes z    
soon z ',judge & ,co4' 7 aboli%$4 ,x 0 a
 *>act]i/ic error to exagg]ate !        
simplicity ( _! problem1 & to fail to   
see t 'judge-made' law corresponds to a 
necess>y inductive process by :i* !     
complex & subtle diff]5ces h to be      
gradually asc]ta9$ & fitt$ into a       
sy/ematic /atem5t4 ,"o o!r rem>k sugge/s
 itself4 ,! ,utilit>ians saw 9 ! dogg$  
ob/ructiv5ess ( ,eldon & 8 l ! "o great 
ob/acle to re=m4 ,x did n occur to !m t 
! clums9ess ( p>liam5t>y legislation    
might be ano!r difficulty4 ,!y fail$ to 
notice di/9ctly "o t5d5cy ( _! re=ms4   
,to make a code y require a sov]eign    
/rong en\gh to dom9ate ! lawy]s1 n a    
sy/em 9 :i* lawy]s are an ess5tial "p ( 

a small gov]n+ class4 ,codification1 9  
%ort1 means c5tralisation 9 "o dep>tm5t4
 ,bl9dness to simil> results else:]e 0 a
 *>act]i/ic ( ! ,utilit>ian ?9k]s4      
,,iii4 ,,economic ,,re=m  ,9 ano!r      
dep>tm5t ! ,utilit>ians boa/$1 & also ) 
good reason1 ( ! triumph ( _! t5ets4    
,political economy 0 9 ! asc5dant4      
,pr(essor%ips 7 be+ f\nd$ 9 ,ox=d1      
,cambridge1#da ,london1 & ,ed9burgh4    
,mrs4 ,m>cet's ,conv]sations 7#ahah7 7  
spread+ ! doctr9e among babes & suckl+s4
 ,! ,utilit>ians 7 ! sacr$ b& :o def5d$ 
! /ricte/ or?odoxy aga9/ all oppon5ts4  
,!y spoke z recognis$ au?orities ^u "s (
 ! mo/ vital que/ions ( ! day1 ( :i* ,i 
ne$ "h only notice ,free ,trade1 !      
doctr9e mo/ closely associat$ ) ! tea*+ 
( _! rev]$ ,adam ,smi?4 ,9 #ahaf ,ric>do
 rem>ks ) satisfaction t ! pr9ciple 'is 
daily obta9+ conv]ts' ev5 among ! mo/   
prejudic$ classes2 & he ref]s especially
 to a petition 9 :i* ! clo?i]s (        
,gl\ce/]%ire#db express$ _! will+ness to
 give up all re/rictions4 ,!re 01 inde$1

 an important set-(f aga9/ ?is ga94 ,!  
l&[n]s 7 be+ pl$g$ to protection4 ,!y _h
 decid$ t 9 spite ( ! peace1 ! price (  
:eat mu/ be kept up to #hjs4 a qu>t]4   
,!y w\ld no long] be complim5t$ z ,adam 
,smi? _h complim5t$ !m on _! sup]ior    
lib]ality1 & 7 n[ creat+ a b>ri] only to
 be /orm$ aft] a long /ruggle4 ,mean:ile
 ! pr9ciple 0 mak+ rapid way among _!   
rivals4 ,"o symptom 0 ! adoption by !   
,london m]*ants 9 #ahbj ( a fam\s       
petition on behalf ( free trade4#dc ,x 0
 drawn up by ,?omas ,tooke 7#aggd-aheh71
 :o _h long be5 actively engag$ 9 !     
,russian trade1 & ^: ,hi/ory ( ,prices  
is 9 "s respects ! mo/ valuable economic
 treatise ( ! "t4 ,tooke gives a curi\s 
acc\nt ( 8 action on ?is occasion4#dd   
,he collect$ a few fri5ds engag$ 9      
comm]ce1 :o 7 oppos$ to ! corn laws4 ,he
 f\nd t sev]al ( !m _h 'crude & confus$'
 notions ^u ! subject1 & t ea* held t 8 
own special int]e/s %\ld be exempt$ on  
"s pretext f ! g5]al rule4 ,aft] v>i\s  
dext]\s pieces ( diplomacy1 h[ev]1 he   

succe$$ 9 obta9+ ! signature ( ,samuel  
,?ornton1 a gov]nor ( ! bank ( ,engl&1 &
 ultimately procur$ a suffici5t numb] ( 
signatures by private solicitation4 ,he 
0 fav\rably receiv$ by ! ,prime ,m9i/]  
,"l ,liv]pool1 & ,vansitt>t 7!n         
,*ancellor ( ! ,ex*equ]71 & f9ally got !
 petition pres5t$ to ! ,h\se ( ,commons 
by ,alex&] ,b>+ 7aft]w>ds ,"l           
,a%burton74 ,tooke rem>ks t ! ,liv]pool 
adm9i/ration 0 9 advance1 n only ( !    
public g5]ally1 b ( ! 'm]cantile        
community1' ,glasg[ & ,man*e/]1 h[ev]1  
foll[$ 9 ! same /eps1 & ! petition      
became a k9d ( (ficial manife/o ( !     
or?odox doctr9e4 ,! ,political ,economy 
,club =m$ next ye> at ,tooke's          
in/igation 7,april #ah1 #ahba7 0 int5d$ 
to ha/5 ! process ( disp]s+ crude &     
confus$ ideas4 ,x 0 ess5tially an organ 
( ! ,utilit>ian propag&a4  ,! influ5ce (
 ! economi/s ^u public policy 0 %[n by !
 important measures c>ri$ ?r\gh *iefly  
by ,huskisson4 ,huskisson 7#aggj-ahcj7 0
 a type ( ! mo/ intellig5t (ficial ( 8  

"t4 ,l 8 m brilliant fri5d ,cann+1 he _h
 be5 introduc$ into (fice "u ,pitt1 &   
reta9$ a pr(\nd rev]5ce = 8 e>ly lead]4 
,huskisson 0 a ?or\gh man ( bus9ess1    
capable ( wre/l+ ) blue-books1 ( und]/&+
 ! s9k+-fund1 & hav+ !ories ab\t !      
curr5cy2 a ma/] ( figures & /ati/ics & !
 :ole ma*9]y ( comm]ce4 ,?\gh em95tly   
useful1 he might at any mom5t be apply+ 
"s awkw>d doctr9e f ,adam ,smi?4        
,huskisson began ! s]ies ( economic     
re=ms :i* 7 br\ght to _! full developm5t
 by ,peel & ,glad/one4 ,! collection ( 8
 spee*es#de incid5tally br+s out v      
cle>ly 8 relation to ! ,utilit>ians4 ,! 
mo/ rem>kable is a great spee* ( ,april 
#bd1 #ahbfdf 7^u ! /ate ( ! silk        
manufacture71 ( :i* ,cann+ decl>$ t he  
_h nev] he>d "o abl]1 or :i* made a     
deep] impression ^u ! ,h\se4 ,9 ?is he  
reviews 8 policy1 go+ ov] ! mo/         
important f9ancial measures ( ! prec$+  
p]iod4 ,!y made a new era1 & he dates ! 
beg9n+ ( ! movem5t f ! ,london petition1
 & ! 'lum9\s spee*' made by ,b>+ :5     

pres5t+ x4 ,we foll[$ public op9ion1 he 
says1 & did n create x4#dg ,adopt+ !    
ess5tial pr9ciples ( ! petition1 !      
gov]nm5t _h 9 ! fir/ place set free !   
great wooll5 trade4 ,! silk trade _h be5
 emancipat$ by aboli%+ ! ,spitalfield   
,acts pass$ 9 ! previ\s c5tury1 :i*     
enabl$ magi/rates to fix ! rates (      
wages4 ,! pr9ciple ( prohibition _h be5 
ab&on$1 ?\gh protective duties rema9$4  
,! navigation laws _h be5 mat]ially     
relax$1 & /eps tak5 t[>ds remov+        
re/rictions ( diff]5t k9ds ^u trade )   
,france & ) ,india4 ,"o symptom ( !     
*ange 0 ! consolidation ( ! cu/om law   
effect$ by ,james ,deacon ,hume         
7#aggd-ahdb71 an (ficial patronis$ by   
,huskisson1 & an orig9al memb] ( !      
,political ,economy ,club4 ,by a law    
pass$ 9 #ahbe1 five hundr$ /atutes dat+ 
f ! "t ( ,edw>d ,i4 7 repeal$1 & !      
ess5ce ( ! law giv5 9 a volume ( mod]ate
 size4 ,f9ally1 ! removal ( prohibitions
 0 und]m9+ ! smuggl]s4  ,! measures ^u  
:i* ,huskisson ju/ly prid$ himself might

 h be5 dictat$ by ! ,political ,economy 
,club itself4 ,s f> z !y w5t !y 7 an    
application ( ! doctr9es ( its ?or\ghgo+
 memb]s1 ( ,mill1 ,ric>do1 & ! or?odox  
s*ool4 ,!y inde$ support$ him 9 ! press4
 ,! ,morn+ ,*ronicle1 :i* express$ _!   
views1 decl>$ him to be ! mo/ virtu\s   
m9i/]1 t is 79 true ,utilit>ian phrase71
 ! mo/ desir\s ( national welf>e :o _h  
ev] liv$4 ,! praise ( ,radicals w\ld be 
n altoge!r welcome4 ,cann+1 9 support+ 8
 fri5d1 ma9ta9$ t s\nd comm]cial policy 
belong$ no m to ! ,:igs ?an to !        
,tories4 ,huskisson & he 7 fai?ful      
disciples ( ,pitt1 ^: treaty ) ,france 9
 #aghf1 assail$ by ,fox & ! ,:igs1 _h   
be5 ! fir/ practical application ( !    
,weal? ( ,nations4 ,nei!r p>ty1 p]haps1 
c\ld claim a special connection ) good  
or bad political economy2 & c]ta9ly     
nei!r 0 prep>$ to incur political       
m>tyrdom 9 zeal = sci5tific tru?4 ,a "q 
0 beg9n+ to come to ! front :i* w\ld    
make p>ty l9es dep5d5t ^u economic      
!ories1 & ,huskisson's view ( ?is 0     

*>act]i/ic4  ,! spee* f :i* ,i h quot$  
beg9s ) an indignant retort ^u a memb]  
:o _h appli$ to him ,burke's phrase ab\t
 a p]fect-br$ metaphysician exce$+ !    
devil 9 malignity & contempt = mank9d4  
,huskisson frequ5tly prote/$ ev5 aga9/ !
 mild] epi!t ( !ori/4 ,he ass]t$ mo/    
emphatically t he appeal$ to 'exp]i5ce' 
& n to '!ory1' a slipp]y di/9ction :i*  
f9ds a good exposure 9 ,b5?am's ,book ( 
,fallacies4#dh ,! doctr9e1 h[ev]1 0 a   
conv5i5t "o = ,huskisson4 ,he c\ld      
appeal to exp]i5ce to %[ t comm]cial    
re/rictions _h injur$ ! wooll5 trade1 & 
_! abs5ce b5efit$ ! cotton trade1#di &  
:5 he 0 n be+ taunt$ ) !ories1 he w\ld  
/ate ) p]fect cle>ness ! g5]al free     
trade argum5t4#ej ,b he _h to keep an   
eye to ! uncom=table tricks :i* !ories  
sometimes play4 ,he argu$ emphatically 9
 #ahbeea t analogy betwe5 manufactures &
 agriculture is 'illogical4' ,he does n 
wi% to depress ! price ( corn1 b to keep
 x at su* a level t our manufactures may
 n be hamp]$ by de> food4 ,"h he 0 =c$  

by /ress ( politics to diff] f 8        
economical fri5ds4 ,! c\ntry g5tleman   
did n wi% to pay duties on 8 silk or 8  
br&y1 b he _h a direct & obvi\s int]e/ 9
 keep+ up ! price ( corn4 ,huskisson _h 
himself support$ ! ,corn ,bill ( #ahae1 
b x 0 becom+ m & m obvi\s t a revision  
w\ld be necess>y4 ,9 #ahbh he decl>$ t  
he 'lam5t$ f ! bottom ( 8 s\l ! mass (  
evil & mis]y & de/ruction ( capital :i* 
t law 9 ! c\rse ( twelve ye>s _h        
produc$4'#eb ,ric>do1 mean:ile1 & !     
economi/s _h f ! fir/ appli$ to         
agriculture ! pr9ciples :i* ,huskisson  
appli$ to manufactures4#ec ,huskisson's 
melan*oly dea? has left u unable to say 
:e!r ^u ?is matt] he w\ld h be5 z       
conv]tible z ,peel4 ,9 any case ! g5]al 
pr9ciple ( free trade 0 z fully adopt$  
by ,huskisson & ,cann+ z by !           
,utilit>ians !mselves4 ,! ,utilit>ians  
c\ld aga9 claim to be bo? ! inspir]s ( !
 fir/ pr9ciples1 & ! mo/ consi/5t 9     
c>ry+ out ! d$uctions4 ,!y1 x is true1 7
 n g5]ally biass$ by hav+ any int]e/ 9  

r5ts4 ,!y 7 to be ! allies or tea*]s ( !
 manufactur+ class :i* began to be      
decid$ly oppos$ to ! squires & ! old    
ord]4  ,9 "o v important economic "q1 ! 
,utilit>ians n only approv$ a *ange ( ! 
law1 b 7 ! ma9 ag5ts 9 br++ x ab\t4     
,francis ,place 0 ! wire-pull]1 to ^:   
en]gy 0 due ! abolition ( ! ,conspiracy 
,laws 9 #ahbd4 ,joseph ,hume 9 ! ,h\se (
 ,commons1 & ,m',cullo*1 !n editor ( !  
,scotsman1 _h ! mo/ conspicu\s "p 9 !   
agitation1 b ,place work$ ! ma*9]y (    
agitation4 ,! bill pass$ 9 #ahbd 0      
modifi$ by an act ( #ahbe2 b !          
modification1 ow+ to ,place's ef=ts1 0 n
 s]i\s1 & ! act1 z we are told on good  
au?ority1 'effect$ a real emancipation1'
 & = ! fir/ "t e/abli%$ ! "r (          
'collective b>ga9+4'#ed ,! rem>kable ?+ 
is t ?is act1 c>ri$ on ! pr9ciples (    
',radical individualism' & by ! ef=ts ( 
,radical individuali/s1 0 ?us a fir/ /ep
 t[>ds ! application to practice (      
sociali/ doctr9e4 ,place ?\ght t !      
result ( ! act w\ld be n ! enc\ragem5t1 

b ! decl9e1 ( trades-unions4 ,! unions  
_h be5 due to ! necessity ( comb9+ aga9/
 oppressive laws1 & w\ld cease :5 ^?    
laws 7 aboli%$4#ee ,?is m>ks a v        
significant /age 9 ! developm5t (       
economic op9ion4   ,,iv4 ,,*ur* ,,re=m  
,! movem5t :i* at ?is p]iod 0 mo/       
conspicu\s politically 0 t :i* result$ 9
 ,roman ,ca?olic emancipation1 & "h1    
too1 ! ,utilit>ians might be anticipat+ 
a complete triumph ( _! pr9ciples4 ,!   
exi/+ disqualifications1 inde$1 7 upheld
 by little b ! purely ob/ructive        
s5tim5t4 ,:5 ! duke ( ,york swore t 's  
help him ,god6' he w\ld oppose ! *ange  
to ! la/1 he summ$ up ! :ole 'argum5t'  
aga9/ x4 ,cann+ & ,huskisson "h         
repres5t$ ! policy n only ( ,pitt1 b (  
,ca/l]eagh4 ,! ,:igs1 inde$1 might claim
 to be ! natural repres5tatives (       
tol]ation4 ,! *ur* ( ,engl& 0 ?or\ghly  
subjugat$ by ! /ate1 & nei!r ,:ig nor   
,tory wi%$ = a fundam5tal *ange4 ,b !   
mo/ obvi\s diff]5tia ( ,:iggism 0 a     
dislike to ! ecclesia/ical _s4 ,! ,:ig  

noble 0 g5]ally m or less ( a free?9k]2 
& ^u su* topics ,holl& ,h\se diff]$     
little f ,que5's ,squ>e ,place1 or      
diff]$ only 9 a r /rict] retic5ce4 ,bo? 
,:ig & ,tory might accept ,w>burton's   
doctr9e ( an 'alliance' betwe5 *ur* &   
/ate4 ,! ,tory inf]r$ t ! *ur* %\ld be  
support$4 ,8 prescription = meet+       
discont5t 0 'm yeomanry' & a h&some sum 
= *ur*-build+4 ,! ,:ig ?\ght t ! *ur*   
got a suffici5t return 9 be+ all[$ to   
keep its rev5ues4 ,on ! ,tory view1 !   
relation might be comp>$ to t ( man &   
wife 9 ,*ri/ian c\ntries :]e1 ?\gh ! two
 are "o1 ! husb& is b\nd to fidelity4   
,on ! ,:ig view x 0 l a polygam\s sy/em1
 :]e ! wife is 9 complete subjection1 & 
! husb& may take any numb] ( concub9es4 
,! ,:ig noble reg>d$ ! *ur* z socially  
useful1 b he 0 by no means incl9$ to    
support its int]e/s :5 !y conflict$ )   
o!r political consid]ations4 ,he _h be5 
/eadily 9 fav\r ( dim9i%+ ! privileges (
 ! e/abli%m5t1 & _h tak5 "p 9 remov+ !  
grievances ( ! old p5al laws4 ,he 0 n   

prep>$ to uphold privileges :i* involv$ 
a palpable dang] to 8 ord]4  ,?is       
position is illu/rat$ by ,sydney ,smi?1 
! ideal div9e ( ,holl& ,h\se4 ,!        
,plymley ,lett]s#ef give 8 views mo/    
pi?ily4 ,smi?1 a man z full ( s\nd s5se 
z ( g5u9e hum\r1 appeals to ! pr9ciples 
( tol]ation1 & is ke5ly alive to !      
absurdity ( a p]secution :i* only       
irritates )\t conv]sion4 ,b he also     
appeals to ! dang] ( ! situation4 ',if  
,bonap>te lives1'#eg he says1 '& some?+ 
is n done to conciliate ! ,ca?olics1 x  
seems to me absolutely impossible b t we
 mu/ p]i%4' ,we are l ! capta9 ( a %ip  
attack$ by a pirate1 :o %\ld beg9 by    
exam9+ 8 m5 9 ! *ur* cate*ism1 & =bid   
any "o to sponge or ram :o _h n tak5 !  
sacram5t accord+ to ! =ms ( ! *ur* (    
,engl&4 ,he confesses frankly t ! /r5g? 
( ! ,iri% is ) him a /rong motive =     
li/5+ to _! claims4 ,to talk ( 'n act+ f
 fe> is m]e p>liam5t>y cant4'#eh ,al?\gh
 ! dang] :i* fright5$ ,smi? 0 evad$1 ?is
 0 ! argum5t :i* really br\ght          

conviction ev5 to ,tories 9 #ahbi4 ,9   
any case ! ,:igs1 ^: great boa/ 0 _!    
support ( tol]ation1 w\ld n be prompt$  
by any ,quixotic love ( ! *ur* to       
enc\nt] trem5d\s p]ils 9 def5ce ( its   
privileges4  ,smi?'s zeal _h its limits4
 ,he obs]ves humor\sly 9 8 preface t he 
_h f\nd himself aft] ! ,re=m ,bill      
engag$ 9 ! def5ce ( ! ,national ,*ur*   
aga9/ ! ar*bi%op ( ,cant]bury & ! bi%op 
( ,london4 ,! lett]s to ,ar*deacon      
,s+leton1 writt5 :5 ! ,:igs 7 flirt+ ) !
 ,radicals1 %[ h[ mu* good an old ,:ig  
c\ld f9d 9 ! e/abli%m5t4 ,?is m>ks !    
diff]5ce betwe5 ! true ,:ig & !         
,utilit>ian4 ,! ,:ig w\ld n risk !      
c\ntry = ! sake ( *ur*2 he w\ld keep !  
cl]ical p[] /rictly subord9ate to ! p[] 
( ! /ate1 b !n1 :5 consid]$ f !         
political side1 x 0 "p ( a gov]nm5t     
sy/em provid+ him ) patronage1 & to be  
gu>d$ f ! rude assaults ( ! ,radical    
re=m]4 ,! ,utilit>ian1 ?\gh = ! mom5t he
 0 9 alliance ) ! ,:ig1 reg>d$ ! common 
victory z a /ep to some?+ f> m sweep+4  

,he object$ to intol]ance z decid$ly z !
 ,:ig1 = absolute fre$om ( op9ion 0 8   
mo/ *]i%$ doctr9e4 ,he object$ /ill m   
emphatically to p]secution on behalf ( !
 *ur*1 because he entirely repudiat$ its
 doctr9es4 ,! objection to spread+ true 
doctr9e by =ce is a /rong "o1 b h>dly s 
/rong z ! objection to a =cible spread (
 false doctr9e4 ,b1 besides ?is1 ! *ur* 
repres5t$ to ! ,utilit>ian precisely ! v
 wor/ specim5 ( ! corruptions ( ! "t4 ,!
 ,c\rt ( ,*anc]y 0 bad en\gh1 b ! :ole  
ecclesia/ical sy/em ) its va/ prizes1#ei
 its opportunities = corrupt patronage1 
its pluralism & non-resid5ce 0 an evil  
on a l>g] scale4 ,! ,radical1 !re=e1    
unlike ! ,:ig1 0 an int]nec9e enemy ( ! 
:ole sy/em4 ,! '*ur* ( ,engl& sy/em1' z 
,b5?am calmly rem>ks1 is 'ripe =        
dissolution4'#fj ,i h already notic$ 8  
qua9t proposal = giv+ effect to 8 views4
 ,mill1 9 ! ,we/m9/] ,review1 d5\nc$ !  
*ur* ( ,engl& z ! wor/ ( all *ur*es4#fa 
,to ! ,utilit>ian1 9 %ort1 ! removal ( !
 disqualification ( diss5t]s & ,ca?olics

 0 ?us "o /ep to ! consummation :i* _!  
logic dem&$--! absolute dise/abli%m5t & 
dis5d[m5t ( ! *ur*4 ,cons]vatives 9     
g5]al anticipat$ ! confiscation ( *ur*  
rev5ues z a necess>y result ( re=m2 & s 
f> z ! _s ( re=m]s 0 repres5t$ by !     
,utilit>ians & _! ,radical allies1 !y _h
 good gr\nds = ! fe>4 ,james ,mill's    
!ory is be/ indicat$ by a lat] article  
publi%$ 9 ! ,london ,review ( ,july     
#ahce4 ,aft] po9t+ out t ! *ur* ( ,engl&
 reta9s all ! ma*9]y desir$ = support+  
prie/s & prev5t+ ! gr[? ( intellect &   
morality1 he proce$s to ask :at ! cl]gy 
d = _! money4 ,!y read pray]s1 :i* is a 
palpable absurdity2 !y prea* s]mons to  
spread sup]/iti\s notions ( ! ,supreme  
,be+1 & p]=m c]emonies--baptism1 & s    
=?--:i* are obvi\sly silly4 ,! *ur* is a
 m]e /ate ma*9e work$ 9 subs]vi5ce to ! 
s9i/] int]e/ ( ! gov]n+ classes4 ,! way 
to re=m x w\ld be to equalise ! pay3 let
 ! cl]gy be appo9t$ by a ',m9i/] (      
,public ,in/ruction' or ! c\nty         
au?orities2 aboli% ! articles1 &        

con/itute a *ur* ')\t dogmas or         
c]emonies'2 & employ ! cl]gy to give    
lectures on e?ics1 botany1 political    
economy1 & s =?1 besides hold+ ,sunday  
meet+s1 dances 7dec5t dances are to be  
specially inv5t$ = ! purpose71 & social 
meals1 :i* w\ld be a revival ( !        
'agapai' ( ! e>ly ,*ri/ians4 ,= ?is     
purpose1 h[ev]1 x might be necess>y to  
sub/itute tea & c(fee = w9e4 ,9 o!r     
words1 ! *ur* is to be made into a      
popul> ,london ,univ]sity4 ,! plan      
illu/rates ! incapacity ( an isolat$    
clique to und]/& ! real tone ( public   
op9ion4 ,i ne$ n pron\nce ^u ,mill's    
s*eme1 :i* seems to h "s s5se 9 x1 b "o 
w\ld l to "k :e!r ,newman read 8        
article4   ,v4 ,,s9i/] ,,int]e/s  ,9    
que/ions ( =eign policy1 ( law re=m1 (  
political economy1 & ( religi\s te/s1 ! 
,utilit>ians ?us saw ! gradual          
approximation to _! mo/ *>act]i/ic views
 on ! "p ( ! ,:igs1 & a /rong           
infiltration ( ! same views among ! less
 ob/ructive ,tories4 ,!y held ! logical 

cre$1 to :i* o!rs 7 sl[ly approximat+1  
ei!r f ! =ce ( argum5t or f ! great     
social *anges :i* 7 br++ new classes    
into political p[]4 ,! movem5t =        
p>liam5t>y re=m :i* = a "t ov]%ad[$ all 
o!r que/ions might be reg>d$ z a        
coroll>y f ! position already won4      
,briefly1 x 0 cle> t a new social /ratum
 0 ex]cis+ a va/ influ5ce2 ! doctr9es   
popul> ) x _h to be m or less accept$2 &
 ! only problem wor? consid]ation by    
practical m5 0 :e!r or n su* a *ange    
%\ld be made 9 ! political ma*9]y z w\ld
 enable ! influ5ce to be ex]cis$ by     
direct & con/itutional means4 ,to !     
purely ob/ructive ,tory p>liam5t>y re=m 
0 a /ep to ! g5]al cataclysm4 ,!        
proprietor ( a bor\gh1 l ! proprietor ( 
a *ur* patronage or commission 9 ! army1
 _h a "r to 8 votes1 & to attack 8 "r 0 
simply confiscation ( private prop]ty4  
,! next /ep might be to confiscate 8    
e/ate4 ,b ev5 ! m intellig5t            
,cons]vative drew ! l9e at su* a        
measure4 ,cann+1 ,huskisson1 & ev5 ,peel

 might accept ! views ( ! ,utilit>ians 9
 reg>d to =eign policy1 to law re=m1 to 
free trade1 or ! removal ( religi\s     
te/s1 decl>+ only t !y 7 obey+          
'exp]i5ce' in/ead ( logic1 & might !re=e
 g j z f> z !y pleas$4 ,b !y 7 all pl$g$
 to resi/ p>liam5t>y re=m to ! utmo/4   
,m5 ?or\ghly /eep$ 9 (ficial life1 &    
v]s$ 9 ! actual work+ ( ! ma*9]y1 7     
naturally alive to ! magnitude ( ! *ange
 to be introduc$4 ,!y saw ) p]fect      
cle>ness t x w\ld am\nt to a revolution4
 ,! old sy/em 9 :i* ! rul+ classes c>ri$
 on bus9ess by family alliances & b>ga9s
 betwe5 m9i/]s & great m5 w\ld be       
impracticable4 ,! fact t s mu* _h be5   
done 9 ! way ( concession to ! ideas ( !
 new classes 0 = !m an argum5t aga9/ !  
*ange4 ,if ! gov]n+ classes 7 ready to  
re=m abuses1 :y %\ld !y be made unable  
to gov]n8 ,a gradual enfran*isem5t ( !  
great t[ns on ! old sy/em might be      
desirable4 ,su* a man z ,huskisson1     
repres5t+ great comm]cial int]e/s1 c\ld 
n be bl9d to ! necessity4 ,b a ?or\gh   

recon/ruction 0 m al>m+4 ,z ,cann+ _h   
urg$ 9 a great spee* at ,liv]pool1 a    
,h\se ( ,commons1 ?or\ghly democratis$1 
w\ld be incompatible ) ! exi/5ce ( !    
mon>*y & ! ,h\se ( ,lords4 ,s trem5d\sly
 p[]ful a body w\ld r$uce ! o!r p>ts ( !
 con/itution to m]e excresc5ces1 feeble 
drags ^u ! new driv+-:eel 9 :i* ! :ole  
real =ce w\ld be conc5trat$4  ,t ?is    
express$1 9 po9t ( fact1 a s]i\s tru?1  
01 ,i take x1 und5iable4 ,! suffici5t   
practical answ] 01 t *ange 0 inevitable4
 ,to refuse to adapt ! con/itutional    
ma*9]y to ! alt]$ political =ces 0 n to 
h9d] _! gr[?1 b to make a revolution    
necess>y4 ,:51 accord+ly1 ! exclud$     
classes began s]i\sly to dem& admission1
 ! only "q came to lie betwe5 viol5t &  
peaceable me?ods4 ,! al>m ) :i* our     
fa!rs wat*$ ! progress ( ! measure may  
seem to u exagg]at$1 b !y sc>cely       
ov]e/imat$ ! magnitude ( ! *ange4 ,! old
 rul]s 7 tak+ a new p>tn] ( su* p[]1 t  
:atev] au?ority 0 left to !m might seem 
to be left on suff]ance4 ,z soon z he   

became consci\s ( 8 /r5g?1 !y w\ld be   
r$uc$ to non5tities4 ,! ,utilit>ians    
took "s "p 9 ! /ruggle1 & welcom$ !     
victory ) anticipations de/9$ to be1 = !
 "t at lea/1 cruelly disappo9t$4 ,b !y 7
 /ill a small m9ority1 ^: views r       
sc&alis$ ! lead]s ( ! p>ty ) :i* !y 7 9 
tempor>y alliance4 ,! pr9ciples ^u :i*  
!y bas$ _! dem&s1 z =mulat$ by ,james   
,mill1 look$1 z we %all see1 f> beyond !
 concessions ( ! mom5t4  ,"o o!r        
political *ange is significant1 ?\gh ,i 
am unable to give an adequate acc\nt (  
x4 ,b5?am's d5unciation ( 's9i/]        
int]e/s'--"o ( 8 lead+                  
topics--corresponds to ! "q ( s9ecures1 
:i* 0 among ! mo/ effective topics (    
,radical declamation4 ,! necessity (    
limit+ ! influ5ce ( ! cr[n & exclud+    
'placem5' f ! ,h\se ( ,commons _h be5 "o
 ( ! traditional ,:ig commonplaces1 & a 
little _h be5 done by ,burke's act (    
#aghb t[>ds limit+ p5sions & aboli%+    
obsolete (fices4 ,:5 ,engli% ,radicalism
 reviv$1 ! assault 0 r5ew$ 9 p>liam5t & 

! press4 ,dur+ ! w> little 0 a*iev$1    
?\gh a revival ( ! old compla9ts ab\t   
placem5 9 p>liam5t 0 among ! fir/       
symptoms ( ! ris+ s5tim5t4 ,9 #ahab an  
attack 0 made ^u ! 'tell]s ( !          
,ex*equ]4' ,romilly#fb says t ! value ( 
"o ( ^! (fices _h ris5 to ,l#bf1jjj or  
,l#bg1jjj a ye>4 ,! income came *iefly f
 fees1 & ! actual "w1 :atev] x 01 0 done
 by deputy4 ,! sc&al 0 enorm\s at a "t  
:5 ! /ress ^u ! nation 0 almo/          
unbe>able4 ,"o ( ! tell]%ips 0 held by a
 memb] ( ! great ,gr5ville family1 :o   
ann\nc$ t !y reg>d$ ! dem& = re=m z a   
p]sonal attack ^u !m4 ,! opposition1    
!re=e1 c\ld n mu/] ev5 its usual /r5g?1 
& ! motion = inquiry 0 reject$4 ,:5 ! w>
 0 ov]1 ev5 ! gov]nm5t began to feel t  
some?+ mu/ be done4 ,9 #ahag "s acts 7  
pass$#fc aboli%+ a v>iety ( s9ecure     
(fices & 'regulat+ c]ta9 (fices 9 !     
,c\rt ( ,ex*equ]4' ,! ,radicals consid]$
 ?is z a m]e delusion1 because x 0      
provid$ at ! same "t t p5sions might be 
giv5 to p]sons :o _h held c]ta9 great   

(fices4 ,! *ange1 h[ev]1 0 app>5tly (   
importance z remov+ ! *ief apology =    
s9ecures1 & ! sy/em ) modifications /ill
 rema9s4 ,! m>quis ( ,camd51 "o ( !     
tell]s ( ! ,ex*equ]1 volunt>ily resign$ 
! fees & accept$ only ! regul> sal>y (  
,l#bejj4 ,8 action is comm5d$ 9 ! ,black
 ,book1#fd :i* expresses a regret t !   
example _h n be5 foll[$ by o!r great    
s9ecuri/s4 ,public op9ion 0 beg9n+ to be
 felt4 ,dur+ ! subsequ5t p]iod ! cry    
aga9/ s9ecures became m emphatic4 ,!    
,black ,book1 publi%$ orig9ally 9 #ahbj 
& #ahbc1 & aft]w>ds reissu$1 gave a li/1
 s f> z x c\ld be asc]ta9$1 ( all       
p5sions1 & suppli$ a mass ( in=mation = 
,radical orators4 ,! am\nt ( p5sions is 
/at$ at ov] ,l#a1jjj1jjj1 includ+       
s9ecure (fices ) ov] ,l#cej1jjj         
annually2#fe & ! li/ ( (fices 7probably 
v inaccurate 9 detail7 gives a s+ul>    
impression ( ! /range ramifications ( ! 
sy/em4 ,besides ! direct p5sions1 e new 
dep>tm5t ( adm9i/ration seems to h      
sugge/$ ! f\ndation ( (fices :i* t5d$ to

 become s9ecures4 ,! cry = 'retr5*m5t' 0
 jo9$ to ! cry = re=m4#ff ,joseph ,hume1
 :o fir/ ent]$ p>liam5t 9 #ahah1 became 
a repres5tative ( ! ,utilit>ian         
,radicalism1 & began a long c>e] ( m9ute
 criticism :i* won = him ! reputation ( 
a /up5d\s bore1 b help$ to keep a /eady 
pressure ^u m9i/]s4#fg ,sir ,james      
,graham 7#agib-ahfa7 0 at ?is "t (      
,radical t5d5cies1 & fir/ made himself  
conspicu\s by dem&+ returns (           
p5sions4#fh ,! settlem5ts ( ! civil li/s
 ( ,george ,,iv41 ,william ,,iv41 &     
,victoria1 gave opportunities = impos+  
new re/rictions ^u ! p5sion sy/em4      
,al?\gh no s+le sweep+ measure 0 pass$1 
! :ole position 0 *ang$4 ,by ! "t ( !   
,re=m ,bill1 a s9ecure _h become an     
ana*ronism4 ,! presumption 0 t :5ev] an 
opportunity (f]$1 x w\ld be suppress$4  
,"s ( ! s9ecure (fices 9 ! ,c\rt (      
,*anc]y1 ! ',keep] ( ! ,hanap]1' !      
',*affwax1' & s =?1 7 aboli%$ by an act 
pass$ by ! p>liam5t :i* _h j c>ri$ !    
,re=m ,bill4#fi ,9 #ahcc a re=m ( !     

sy/em ( naval adm9i/ration by ,sir      
,james ,graham got rid ( "s cumbr\s     
ma*9]y2 & ,graham aga9 0 intru/$ 9 #ahcd
 ) an act "u :i* ! ,c\rt ( ,ex*equ] 0   
f9ally re=m$1 & ! ',cl]k ( ! ,pells' & !
 ',tell]s ( ! ,ex*equ]' ceas$ to        
exi/4#gj ,o!r (fices seem to h melt$    
away by degrees1 :5ev] a *ance (f]$4    
,_m o!r ( ! old abuses _h ceas$ to      
require any special d5unciations f      
political !ori/s4 ,! g5]al pr9ciple 0   
e/abli%$1 & :at rema9$ 0 to apply x 9   
detail4 ,! prison sy/em 0 no long] 9    
want ( a ,h[>d or a ,b5?am4 ,abuses     
rema9$ :i* occupi$ ! admirable ,mrs4    
,fry2 & _m s]i\s difficulties _h to be  
solv$ by a long c\rse ( exp]im5t4 ,b x 0
 no long] a "q :e!r any?+ %\ld be do+1 b
 ( ! mo/ effici5t means ( br++ ab\t an  
admitt$ly desirable end4 ,! agitation = 
! suppression ( ! slave-trade aga9 _h   
be5 succe$$ by ! attack ^u slav]y4 ,!   
sy/em 0 evid5tly doom$1 al?\gh n f9ally 
aboli%$ till aft] ! ,re=m ,bill2 &      
m9i/]s 7 only consid]+ ! "q :e!r !      

abolition %\ld be summ>y or gradual1 or 
:at comp5sation might be made to ve/$   
int]e/s4 ,! old agitation _h be5        
rem>kable1 z ,i h said1 n only = its end
 b = ! new k9d ( ma*9]y to :i* x _h     
appli$4 ,popul> agitation#ga _h tak5 a  
new %ape4 ,! c\nty associations =m$ 9 ! 
la/ days ( ! ,am]ican w> ( indep5d5ce1 &
 ! societies due to ! ,fr5* revolution  
_h set a prec$5t4 ,! revolution>y       
societies _h be5 suppress$ or _h di$    
out1 z oppos$ to ! g5]al _s ( ! nation1 
al?\gh !y _h done a good deal to ar\se  
political speculation4 ,9 ! p]iod (     
di/ress :i* foll[$ ! w> ! ,radical      
re=m]s _h aga9 held public meet+s1 & _h 
aga9 be5 met by repressive measures4 ,! 
acts ( #ahag & #ahaigb impos$ sev]e     
re/rictions ^u ! "r ( public meet+4 ,!  
old 'c\nty meet+1' :i* cont9u$ to be    
common until ! re=m p]iod1 & 0 summon$  
by ! "l-lieut5ant or ! %]iff on a       
requisition f ! freehold]s1 _h a k9d (  
con/itutional "*1 ?\gh ,i d n "k its    
hi/ory 9 detail4#gc ,! extravagantly    

repressive measures 7 an ana*ronism1 or 
c\ld only be en=c$ dur+ ! pressure ( an 
int5se excitem5t4 ,9 "o way or o!r1     
public meet+s 7 soon be+ held z         
frequ5tly z ev]4 ,! trial ( ,que5       
,c>ol9e gave opportunity = num]\s       
ga!r+s1 & /atesm5 began to f9d t !y mu/ 
use in/ead ( suppress+ !m4 ,cann+#gd    
appe>s to h be5 ! fir/ m9i/] to make    
frequ5t use ( spee*es address$ to public
 meet+s2 & meet+s to :i* su* appeals 7  
address$ soon began to use _! au?ority  
to dem& pl$ges f ! speak]s4#ge          
,repres5tation 0 to be und]/ood m & m z 
delegation4 ,mean:ile ! effect ( public 
meet+s 0 enorm\sly increas$ :5 a g5]al  
organisation 0 introduc$4 ,! great      
prec$5t 0 ! ,ca?olic ,association1 f\nd$
 9 #ahbc by ,o',connell & ,%eil4 ,!     
peculi> circum/ances ( ! ,iri% p & _!   
prie/s gave a ready-made ma*9]y = !     
agitation :i* triumph$ 9 #ahbi4 ,!      
,political ,union f\nd$ by ,attwood at  
,birm+ham 9 ! same ye> adopt$ ! me?od1 &
 l$ to ! triumph ( #ahcb4 ,political    

comb9ation h5ce=? took a diff]5t %ape1 &
 9 ! ord9>y phrase1 'public op9ion'     
became def9itely ! ultimate & supreme   
au?ority4 ,?is enorm\s *ange & !        
correspond+ developm5t ( ! p[] ( !      
press1 :i* affect$ to m\ld &1 at any    
rate1 express$ public op9ion1 entirely  
fell 9 ) ,utilit>ian pr9ciples4 ,_! "p 9
 br++ ab\t ! *ange 0 ( no special       
importance except 9 s f> z !y m or less 
inspir$ ! popul> orators4 ,!y 71 h[ev]1 
ready to take advantage ( x4 ,!y _h !   
,we/m9/] ,review to take a place beside 
! ,ed9burgh & ,qu>t]ly ,reviews1 :i* _h 
rais$ p]iodical writ+ to a f> high]     
position ?an x _h ev] occupi$1 & to :i* 
lead+ politicians & lead+ au?ors on bo? 
sides _h become regul> contributors4 ,! 
old contempt = j\rnalism 0 rapidly      
vani%+4 ,9 #ahbe ,cann+ expresses 8     
regret = hav+ giv5 "s in=mation to a    
pap] ( :i* an ill use _h be5 made4 ,he  
_h previ\sly ab/a9$ f all communication 
) '^! g5try1' & 0 n[ resolv$ to h done )
 hoc g5us omne = good & all4#gf ,9 #ahci

 we f9d 8 =m] colleague1 ,"l ,lyndhur/1 
seek+ an alliance ) ,b>nes1 ! editor ( !
 ,times1 z eag]ly z ?\gh ,b>nes _h be5 !
 head ( a p>liam5t>y p>ty4#gg  ,!       
newspap]s _h probably done m ?an !      
s*ools to spread habits ( read+ ?r\gh ! 
c\ntry4 ,yet ! /rong int]e/ :i* 0 gr[+  
up 9 educational matt]s 0 *>act]i/ic4   
,br\gham's phrase1 '! s*oolma/] is      
abroad' 7#bi? ,janu>y #ahba71 became a  
popul> prov]b1 & rejoic$ ! wor?y        
,b5?am4#gh ,i h already describ$ ! %>e  
tak5 by ! ,utilit>ians 9 ! great ,bell &
 ,lanca/] controv]sy4 ,p>liam5t _h z yet
 done little4 ,a bill br\ght 9 by       
,:itbread _h be5 pass$ 9 #ahjg by !     
,h\se ( ,commons1 enabl+ p>i%es to =m   
s*ools on ! ,scotti% model1 b accord+ to
 ,romilly1#gi x 0 pass$ 9 ! well-gr\nd$ 
confid5ce t x w\ld be ?r[n out by !     
pe]s4 ,a committee ^u education 0 obta9$
 by ,br\gham aft] ! peace1 :i* report$ 9
 #ahah1 & :i* l$ to a commission ^u     
s*ool end[m5ts4 ,br\gham introduc$ an   
education bill 9 #ahbj1 b no?+ came ( x4

 ,! beg9n+ ( any p>ticipation by        
gov]nm5t 9 national education 0 n to    
take place till aft] ! ,re=m ,bill4     
,mean:ile1 h[ev]1 ! f\ndation ( !       
,london ,univ]sity ^u unsect>ian        
pr9ciples 0 enc\rag+ ! ,utilit>ians2 &  
!re 7 o!r symptoms ( ! gr[? (           
enlight5m5t4 ,george ,birkbeck          
7#aggf-ahda7 _h />t$ "s popul> lectures 
^u sci5ce at ,glasg[ ab\t #ahjj1 & hav+ 
settl$ z a physician 9 ,london1 />t$ !  
',me*anics' ,in/itution' 9 #ahbd4       
,br\gham 0 "o ( ! fir/ tru/ees2 & !     
in/itution1 ?\gh expos$ to a good deal (
 ridicule1 manag$ to take root & become 
! p>5t ( o!rs4 ,9 #ahbg 0 />t$ !        
,society = ! ,diffusion ( ,useful ,k1 ( 
:i* ,br\gham 0 presid5t1 & ! committee (
 :i* includ$ ,james ,mill4 ,9 ! c\rse ( 
its tw5ty ye>s' exi/5ce x publi%$ or    
sanction$ ! publication by ,*>les       
,knight ( a great mass ( popul>         
lit]ature4 ,! ,p5ny ,magaz9e            
7#ahcb-ahde7 is said to h _h two hundr$ 
?\s& subscrib]s at ! end ( its fir/ ye> 

( exi/5ce4 ,crude & sup]ficial z 7 "s ( 
^! ent]prises1 !y cle>ly m>k$ a v       
important *ange4 ,cobbett & ! ,radical  
orators f\nd enorm\s audi5ces ready to  
li/5 to _! doctr9e4 ,*ur*m5 & ,diss5t]s1
 ,tories & ,radicals 7 f9d+ x necess>y  
bo? to educate & to dissem9ate _!       
pr9ciples by writ+2 & z new social /rata
 7 becom+ accessible to su* influ5ces1  
_! op9ions began to ex]cise 9 turn a m  
di/9ct reaction ^u political &          
ecclesia/ical affairs4  ,no p>ty felt m 
confid5ce at ! t5d5cy ( ?is new         
intellectual f]m5tation ?an !           
,utilit>ians4 ,!y _h a def9ite1 coh]5t1 
logical cre$4 ,e /ep :i* increas$ !     
fre$om ( discussion increas$ ! influ5ce 
( ! tru?4 ,_! doctr9es 7 ! tru?1 if n ! 
:ole tru?4 ,once all[ !m to get a       
fulcrum & !y w\ld move ! _w4 ,bit by bit
 _! pr9ciples ( legislation1 ( economy1 
( politics 7 be+ accept$ 9 ! mo/ diff]5t
 qu>t]s2 & ev5 ! m intellig5t ( _!      
oppon5ts 7 apply+ !m1 ?\gh ! application
 might be piecemeal & imp]fect4 ,x 0 9  

va9 t an adv]s>y prote/$ t he 0 n b\nd  
by logic1 & appeal$ to exp]i5ce in/ead (
 !ory4 ,let him ju/ify 8 action ^u :at  
gr\nds he pleas$1 he 01 9 po9t ( fact1  
introduc+ ! leav5 ( true doctr9e1 & x   
might be tru/$ to "w out ! desirable    
results4  ,i mu/ n[ deal m 9 detail ) ! 
,utilit>ian !ories4 ,i w only obs]ve 9  
g5]al t]ms t _! triumph 0 n likely to be
 accept$ )\t a /ruggle4 ,l>ge classes   
reg>d$ !m ) absolute abhorr5ce4 ,_!     
success1 if !y did succe$1 w\ld mean !  
de/ruction ( religi\s belief1 ( s\nd    
philosophy1 ( ! great important         
ecclesia/ical & political in/itutions1 &
 probably g5]al confiscation ( prop]ty &
 ! ru9 ( ! f\ndations ( society4 ,&1    
mean:ile1 9 spite ( ! progress ^u :i* ,i
 h dwelt1 !re 7 two problems1 at lea/1 (
 enorm\s importance1 ^u :i* x c\ld      
sc>cely be said t any progress _h be5   
made4 ,! *ur*1 9 ! fir/ place1 0 /ill   
:]e x _h be54 ,no *ange _h be5 made 9   
its con/itution2 x 0 /ill ! typical     
example ( corrupt patronage2 & ! object 

( ! hatr$ ( all ?or\ghgo+ ,radicals4 ,&1
 9 ! second place1 paup]ism _h gr[n to  
appall+ dim5sions dur+ ! w>2 & no       
effectual attempt _h be5 made to deal ) 
x4 ,beh9d paup]ism !re 7 great social   
que/ions1 ! discont5t & mis]y ( great   
masses ( ! lab\r+ population4 ,:atev]   
re=ms might be made 9 o!r p>ts ( !      
natural ord]1 "h 7 difficulties en\gh to
 task ! wisdom ( legislators &          
speculators ^u legislative pr9ciples4   
,,footnotes3  #cb ,life ( ,macaulay1 p4 
#aad4 7,popul> ,edition74  #cc ,cann+'s 
,political ,correspond5ce1 i4 #ga-gf4   
#cd #ab? ,decemb] #ahbf4  #ce ,b5?am's  
,works1 v4 p4 #cgj4  #cf ,romilly's     
attempts to improve ! crim9al law began 
9 #ahjh4 ,= v>i\s notices ( 8 ef=ts1 see
 8 ,life 7#c vols4 #ahfj71 especially   
vol4 ii4 #bdc-ed1 #cji1 #cba1 #cca1     
#cfi1 #cga1 #chi-ia4 ,romilly 0 deeply  
int]e/$ 9 ,dumont's ,!orie des ,pe9es   
,legales 7#ahaa71 :i* he read 9 ,,ms4 & 
tri$ to get review$ 9 ! ,qu>t]ly 7ii4   
#beh1 #cia2 iii4 #acf74 ,! rem>ks 7ii4  

#b-c7 on ! '/upid dread ( innovation' & 
! savage _s infus$ into ,engli%m5 by !  
horrors ( ! ,fr5* revolution are wor?   
notice 9 ?is connection4  #cg ,b5?am's  
,works1 x4 p4 #egd4  #ch ,br\gham's     
,spee*es 7#ahch71 ii4 #bhg-dhf4  #ci ,an
 int]e/+ summ>y ( ! progress ( law re=ms
 & ( ,b5?am's %>e 9 !m is giv5 9 ,sir   
,r4 ,k4 ,wilson's ,hi/ory ( ,mod]n      
,engli% ,law 7#ahge74  #dj ,b5?am's     
,works1 x4 #ega4  #da ,9 ,cambridge     
,pryme 0 ! fir/ pr(essor 9 #ahbh1 b _h  
only ! title )\t end[m5t4 ,! pr(essor%ip
 0 only sal>i$ 9 #ahfc4  #db ,ric>do's  
,works 7#ahhh71 p4 #djg4  #dc ,pr9t$ 9  
,port]'s ,progress ( ! ,nation &        
else:]e4  #dd ,see six? volume ( ,hi/ory
 ( ,prices by ,tooke & ,newm>*1 &       
privately pr9t$ ,m9utes ( ,political    
,economy ,club 7#ahhb74  #de ,spee*es1  
#c vols4 #hvo1 #ahca4  #df ,ibid4 ii4   
#dfe-ecj4  #dg ,ibid4 ii4 #dgg4  #dh    
,b5?am's ,works1 ii4 #dei4 ,we may      
rememb] h[ ,j4 ,s4 ,mill 9 8 boyhood 0  
aba%$ because he c\ld n expla9 to 8 fa!r

 ! =ce ( ! di/9ction4  #di ,spee*es1 ii4
 #bdf1 #ccb4  #ej ,ibid4 i4 #ajb-ajh    
7,curr5cy ,pamphlet ( #ahaj74  #ea      
,ibid4 ii4 #cig4  #eb ,spee*es1 iii4    
#beg4  #ec ,ric>do inde$ made a         
res]vation z to ! necessity (           
c\nt]balanc+ by a mod]ate duty ! special
 bur!ns ^u agriculture4  #ed ,9 !       
,hi/ory ( ,trades-,unionism by ,sidney &
 ,beatrice ,webb 7#ahid71 pp4 #hh-ih4 ,!
 hi/ory ( ,place's agitation is fully   
giv5 9 ,mr4 ,graham ,wallas's ,life1    
*ap4 viii4  #ee ,wallas's ,francis      
,place1 p4 #bag4  #ef ,fir/ publi%$ 9   
#ahjg-h4  #eg ,lett] iii4  #eh ,ibid4   
vi4  #ei ,sydney ,smi? put v +5i\sly !  
advantages ( :at he call$ ! 'lott]y'    
sy/em3 ( giv+1 t is1 a few great prizes1
 in/ead ( equalis+ ! incomes ( ! cl]gy4 
,?+s look s diff]5t f opposite po9ts (  
views4  #fj ,*ur* ( ,engl&ism1 ii4 #aii4
  #fa ,see especially 8 review ( ,s\!y's
 ,book ( ! ,*ur*4  #fb ,romilly's       
,memoirs1 iii4 #cc4  #fc #eg ,george    
,,iii4 caps4 #fj-fg4  #fd ,edition (    

#ahbh1 p4 #bd4  #fe ,ibid4 p4 #aj4  #ff 
,a ,mr4 ,gray propos$ at a c\nty meet+ 9
 #ahaf t ! cry ( 'retr5*m5t & re=m' %\ld
 be rais$ 9 e corn] ( ! isl& 7,h5ry     
,jephson's ,plat=m1 p4 #cgh74 ,i d n "k 
:e!r ?is 0 ! fir/ appe>ance ( ! =mula4  
#fg ,hume _h be5 introduc$ to ,place by 
,james ,mill1 :o ?\ght him wor? 'nurs+4'
 ,place f\nd him at fir/ 'dull &        
selfi%1' b 'nurs$ him' s well t by #ahcf
 he _h become ! 'man ( m51'--,wallas's  
,francis ,place1 p4 #aha1 #ahb4  #fh    
,torr5s's ,life ( ,graham1 i4 #bej-gb1  
:]e 8 great spee* ( #ad? ,may #ahcj is  
giv54  #fi #b & #c ,william ,,iv4 cap4  
#aaa 7pass$ #ae ,augu/ #ahcb74  #gj #d &
 #e ,william ,,iv4 cap4 #ae4  #ga ,!    
,plat=m1 its ,orig9 & ,progress1 by     
,h5ry ,jephson 7#ahib71 gives a v       
int]e/+ hi/orical acc\nt ( ! process4   
#gb #eg ,george ,,iii4 cap4 #ai1 & #fj  
,george ,,iii4 cap4 #f4  #gc ,see       
,jephson's ,plat=m1 pp4 #afg-gj4  #gd   
,see ,jephson's ,plat=m1 i4 #cdh1 #dee1 
#eag4  #ge ,see ,ibid4 ii4 #abi-dj = "s 

int]e/+ passages z to ?is4  #gf ,(ficial
 ,correspond5ce 7#ahhg71 #cjh4  #gg     
,greville's ,george ,,iv4 & ,william    
,,iv41 iii4 #aee1 #afg-fi1 #aga4  #gh   
,b5?am's ,works1 x4 #ega4  #gi          
,romilly's ,memoirs1 ii4 #fg1 #bbb4     
,,*apt] ,,iii  ,,political ,,!ory   ,i4 
,,mill ,,on ,,gov]nm5t  ,i n[ turn to ! 
g5]al political !ory ( :i* ,mill 0 !    
au?oritative expon5t4 ,! ,encyclopa$ia  
article ^u ',gov]nm5t' 7#ahbj7 gives !  
pi? ( _! doctr9e4 ,x 01 z ,pr(essor     
,ba9#hj ?9ks1 an 'impell+ & a guid+ =ce'
 9 ! movem5t :i* culm9at$ 9 ! ,re=m     
,bill4 ,! y\ng] ,utilit>ians reg>d$ x1  
says ,j4 ,s4 ,mill1 z 'a ma/]piece (    
political wisdom'2#ha :ile ,macaulay#hb 
taunts !m = hold+ x to be 'p]fect &     
unansw]able4' ,?is fam\s article is a   
t]se & en]getic summ>y ( ! doctr9e      
impli$ 9 ,b5?am's ,works1 b !re obscur$ 
"u elaboration ( m9ute details4 ,x is r 
s+ul>1 inde$1 t s vigor\s a manife/o (  
,utilit>ian dogma %\ld h be5 accept$ by 
,macvey ,napi]--a s\nd ,:ig--= a        

publication :i* pr(ess$ sci5tific       
imp>tiality4 ,x has1 h[ev]1 9 ! highe/  
degree1 ! m]its ( cle>ness & cond5sation
 desirable 9 a popul> exposition4 ,!    
retic5ce appropriate to ! place excuses 
! omission ( c]ta9 implicit conclusions4
 ,mill has to give a complete !ory (    
politics 9 ?irty-two #hvo pages4 ,he has
 scanty room = qualify+ /atem5t or      
hi/orical illu/ration4 ,he speaks z f ! 
*air ( a pr(essor lay+ d[n ! elem5t>y   
pr9ciples ( a demon/rat$ sci5ce4#hc     
,mill />ts f ! sacr$ pr9ciple4 ,! end ( 
gov]nm5t1 z ! end ( all conduct1 mu/ be 
! increase ( human happ9ess4 ,! prov9ce 
( gov]nm5t is limit$ by ano!r           
consid]ation4 ,x has to deal ) "o class 
( happ9ess1 t is1 ) ! pa9s & pleasures  
':i* m5 d]ive f "o ano!r4' ,by a 'law ( 
nature' lab\r is requisite = procur+ !  
means ( happ9ess4 ,n[1 if 'nature'      
produc$ all t any man desir$1 !re w\ld  
be no ne$ ( gov]nm5t1 = !re w\ld be no  
conflict ( int]e/4 ,b1 z ! mat]ial      
produc$ is f9ite1 & c be appropriat$ by 

individuals1 x becomes necess>y to      
insure to e man 8 prop] %>e4 ,:at1 !n1  
is a man's prop] %>e8 ,t :i* he himself 
produces2 =1 if y give to "o man m ?an !
 produce ( 8 lab\r1 y mu/ take away !   
produce ( ano!r man's lab\r4 ,! greate/ 
happ9ess1 !re=e1 is produc$ by 'assur+  
to e man ! greate/ possible quantity ( !
 produce ( 8 own lab\r4' ,h[ c ?is be   
done8 ,w n ! /ronge/ take ! %>e ( !     
weake/8 ,he c be prev5t$ 9 "o & app>5tly
 only 9 "o way4 ,m5 mu/ unite & delegate
 to a few ! p[] necess>y = protect+ all4
 ',?is is gov]nm5t4'#hd  ,! problem is  
n[ simple4 ,gov]nm5t is ess5tially an   
association ( m5 = ! protection (       
prop]ty4 ,x is a delegation ( ! p[]s    
necess>y = t purpose to ! gu>dians1 &   
'all ! difficult que/ions ( gov]nm5t    
relate to ! means' ( prev5t+ ! gu>dians 
f !mselves becom+ plund]]s4  ,h[ is ?is 
to be accompli%$8 ,! p[] ( protection1  
says ,mill1 foll[+ ! old !ory1 may be   
intru/$ to ! :ole community1 to a few1  
or to "o2 t is1 we may h a democracy1 an

 ari/ocracy1 or a mon>*y4 ,a democracy1 
or direct gov]nm5t ( all by all1 is = ! 
ord9>y reasons pron\nc$ impracticable4  
,b ! objections to ! o!r sy/ems are     
conclusive4 ,! ne$ ( gov]nm5t1 he has   
%[n1 dep5ds ^u '! law ( human nature'#he
 t 'a man1 if able1 w take f o!rs any?+ 
:i* !y h & he desires4' ,! v pr9ciple   
:i* makes gov]nm5t necess>y1 !re=e1 w   
prompt a gov]nm5t to defeat its own     
prop] end4 ,mill's doctr9e is s f>      
id5tical ) ! doctr9e ( ,hobbes2 m5 are  
naturally 9 a /ate ( w>1 & gov]nm5t     
implies a tacit contract by :i* m5 conf]
 ^u a sov]eign ! p[] necess>y = keep+ ! 
peace4 ,b "h1 ?\gh admitt+ ! =ce (      
,hobbes's argum5t1 he div]ges f its     
conclusion4 ,if a democracy be          
impossible1 & an ari/ocracy or mon>*y   
necess>ily oppressive1 x might seem1 he 
admits1 z x actually seem$ to ,hobbes & 
to ! ,fr5* economi/s1 t ! few] !        
oppressors ! bett]1 & t !re=e an        
absolute mon>*y is ! be/4 ,exp]i5ce1 he 
?9ks1 is 'on ! surface' ambigu\s4 ,ea/]n

 despots & ,roman emp]ors h be5 ! wor/  
sc\rges to mank9d2 yet ! ,danes pref]r$ 
a despot to an ari/ocracy1 & are z 'well
 gov]n$ z any p 9 ,europe4' ,9 ,greece1 
democracy1 9 spite ( its defects1       
produc$ ! mo/ brilliant results4#hf     
,h5ce1 he argues1 we mu/ g 'beyond !    
surface1' & 'p5etrate to ! spr+s )94' ,!
 result ( ! se>* is disc\rag+4 ,! hope (
 glutt+ ! rul]s is illusory4 ,!re is no 
'po9t ( saturation'#hg ) ! objects (    
desire1 ei!r = k+ or ari/ocracy4 ,x is a
 'gr& gov]n+ law ( human nature' t we   
desire su* p[] z w make '! p]sons &     
prop]ties ( human be+s subs]vi5t to our 
pleasures4'#hh ,?is desire is           
indef9itely great4 ,to ! numb] ( m5 :om 
we w\ld =ce into subs]vi5ce1 & ! degree 
9 :i* we w\ld make !m subs]vi5t1 we c   
assign no limits4 ,moreov]1 z pa9 is a m
 p[]ful in/rum5t = secur+ ob$i5ce ?an   
pleasure1 a man w desire to possess     
'unlimit$ p[] ( inflict+ pa9 ^u o!rs4'  
,w he also desire1 x may be ask$1 to    
make use ( x8 ,! '*a9 ( inf]5ce1' he    

replies1 9 ?is case is close & /rong 'to
 a mo/ unusual degree4' ,a man desires !
 actions ( o!rs to be 9 correspond5ce ) 
8 own wi%es4 ',t]ror' w be ! 'gr&       
in/rum5t4'#hi ,x ?us foll[s t ! v       
pr9ciple ^u :i* gov]nm5t is f\nd$ leads1
 9 ! abs5ce ( *ecks1 'n only to t degree
 ( plund] :i* leaves ! memb]s 7( a      
community7 444 ! b>e means ( subsi/5ce1 
b to t degree ( cruelty :i* is necess>y 
to keep 9 exi/5ce ! mo/ int5se t]ror4'  
,an ,engli% g5tleman1 he says1 is a     
fav\rable specim5 ( civilisation1 & yet 
,we/ ,indian slav]y %[s ( :at cruelty he
 c\ld be guilty :5 un*eck$4 ,if equal   
cruelty has n be5 exhibit$ else:]e1 x   
is1 he seems to ?9k1 because m5 7 n '!  
same z %eep 9 respect to _! %eph]d1'#ij 
& may !re=e resi/ if driv5 too f>4 ,!   
difficulty ^u ?is %[+ is to und]/& h[   
any gov]nm5t1 except ! mo/ brutal       
tyranny1 ev] has be51 or ev] c be1      
possible4 ,:at is ! comb9+ pr9ciple :i* 
c weld toge!r su* a mass ( ho/ile &     
mutually repell5t atoms8 ,h[ !y c ev5 =m

 ! necess>y compact is difficult to     
und]/&1 & ! view seems to cla% ) 8 own  
av[$ purpose4 ,x is ,mill's aim1 z x 0  
,b5?am's1 to secure ! greate/ happ9ess (
 ! greate/ numb]2 & yet he seems to set 
out by prov+ z a 'law ( human nature' t 
nobody c desire ! happ9ess ( any "o     
except himself4 ,he quotes f            
,montesquieu ! say+1 :i* %[s an 'acute  
s5se ( ?is important tru?1' 't e "o :o  
has p[] is l$ to abuse x4'#ia ,r x w\ld 
seem1 accord+ to ,mill1 all p[] implies 
abuse 9 its v ess5ce4 ,! problem seems  
to be h[ to make univ]sal cohesion out (
 univ]sal repulsion4  ,mill has 8 rem$y 
= ?is deeply seat$ evil4 ,he attacks1 z 
,b5?am _h already done1 ! old-fa%ion$   
!ory1 accord+ to :i* ! ,briti%          
,con/itution 0 an admirable mixture ( ! 
?ree 'simple =ms4' ,two ( ! p[]s1 he    
argues1 w always agree to 'swall[ up !  
?ird4'#ib ',! mon>*y & ari/ocracy h all 
possible motives = endeav\r+ to obta9   
unlimit$ p[] ov] ! p]sons & prop]ty ( ! 
community1' ?\gh ! democracy1 z he also 

says1 has e possible motive = prev5t+   
!m4 ,& 9 ,engl&1 z he no d\bt meant 8   
read]s to und]/&1 ! mon>*y & ari/ocracy 
_h to a great ext5t succe$$4 ,:]e1 !n1  
are we to look8 ,to ! 'gr& discov]y (   
mod]n times1' namely1 ! repres5tative   
sy/em4 ,if ?is does n solve all         
difficulties we %all be =c$ to !        
conclusion t good gov]nm5t is           
impossible4 ,=tunately1 h[ev]1 !        
repres5tative sy/em may be made p]fectly
 effective4 ,?is foll[s easily4 ,x w\ld1
 z he has said1#ic be a 'contradiction 9
 t]ms' to suppose t ! community at l>ge 
c 'h an int]e/ opposite to its int]e/1' 
,9 ! ,b5?am =mula1 x c h 'no s9i/]      
int]e/4' ,x _c desire its own mis]y4    
,?\gh ! community _c act z a :ole1 x c  
act ?r\gh repres5tatives4 ,x is necess>y
 to intru/ p[] to a gov]n+ body2 b t    
body c be prev5t$ by adequate *ecks f   
misus+ its p[]s4 ,inde$1 ! common !ory (
 ! ,briti% ,con/itution 0 precisely t ! 
,h\se ( ,commons 0 '! *eck+ body4'#id ,!
 :ole problem is to secure a body :i*   

%all effectively dis*>ge ! function ?us 
attribut$ 9 !ory to ! ,h\se ( ,commons4 
,t w be done :5 ! body is *os5 9 su* a  
way t its int]e/s are necess>ily        
co9cid5t ) ^? ( ! community at l>ge4    
,h5ce !re is ( c\rse no difficulty 9    
d$uc+ ! actual dem&s ( re=m]s4 ,)\t     
def9+ precise limits1 he %[s t          
repres5tatives mu/ be elect$ = brief    
p]iods1 & t ! "r to a vote mu/ at lea/  
be wide en\gh to prev5t ! electoral body
 f =m+ a class ) 's9i/] int]e/s4' ,he   
makes "s rem>kable qualifications1 ) !  
view app>5tly ( n />tl+ 8 read]s too mu*
 by absolute & impracticable claims4 ,he
 ?9ks t ! necess>y id5tity ( int]e/ w\ld
 /ill be secur$ if classes 7 unrepres5t$
 ^: int]e/s are 'indisputably includ$ 9 
^? ( o!rs4' ,*ildr5's int]e/s are       
involv$ 9 ^? ( _! p>5ts1 & ! int]e/s (  
'almo/ all wom5' 9 ^? ( _! fa!rs or     
husb&s4#ie ,aga91 all m5 "u =ty might be
 omitt$ )\t mis*ief1 = '! great majority
 ( old m5 h sons ^: int]e/s !y reg>d z  
an ess5tial "p ( _! own4 ,?is is a law (

 human nature4'#if ,!re w\ld1 he        
obs]ves1 be no dang] t m5 above =ty w\ld
 try to r$uce ! 're/ ( ! community to ! 
/ate ( abject slaves4' ,mill1 z 8 son   
tells u1#ig dis[n$ any int5tion (       
positively advocat+ ^! exclusions4 ,he  
only meant to say t !y 7 n condemn$ by 8
 g5]al pr9ciple4 ,! doctr9e1 h[ev]1 ab\t
 wom51 ev5 z ?us und]/ood1 sc&alis$ 8   
y\ng] foll[]s4  ,mill proce$s to argue  
at "s l5g? t a fav\rite s*eme ( "s      
mod]ate re=m]s1 = ! repres5tation (     
classes1 c\ld only lead to 'a motley    
ari/ocracy1' & !n answ]s two objections4
 ,! fir/ is t 8 s*eme w\ld lead to !    
abolition ( ! mon>*y & ! ,h\se ( ,lords4
 ,! reply is simple & significant4 ,x   
w\ld only lead to t result if a mon>*y  
or a ,h\se ( ,lords 7 fav\rable to bad  
gov]nm5t4 ,he does n inquire :e!r !y are
 s 9 fact4 ,! second objection is t ! p 
d n und]/& _! own int]e/1 & to ?is 8    
answ] is m rem>kable4 ,if ! doctr9e be  
true1 he says1 we are 9 'deplorable'    
position3 we h to *oose betwe5 evils :i*

 w be design$ly produc$ by ^? :o h bo? !
 p[] to oppress & an int]e/ 9           
oppression2 & ! evils :i* w be          
accid5tally produc$ by m5 :o w\ld act   
well if !y recognis$ _! own int]e/s4#ih 
,n[ ! fir/ evil is 9 any case ! wor/1 = 
x supposes an 'inv>iable' evil2 :ile 9 !
 o!r case1 m5 may at lea/ act well by   
accid5t4 ,a gov]n+ class1 t is ) int]e/s
 sep>ate f ^? ( ! gov]nm5t1 mu/ be bad4 
,if ! int]e/s be id5tical1 ! gov]nm5t   
may be bad4 ,x w be bad if ignorant1 b  
ignorance is curable4 ,"h he appeals =  
once to a hi/orical case4 ,! prie/hood  
at ! ,re=mation argu$ on behalf ( _! own
 p[] f ! dang] t ! p w\ld make a bad use
 ( ! ,bible4 ,! ,bible %\ld !re=e be    
kept = ! sacr$ ca/e4 ,!y _h1 ,mill ?9ks1
 a /rong] case 9 appe>ance ?an !        
,tories1 & yet ! effect ( all[+ ! p to  
judge = !mselves 9 religi\s matt]s has  
be5 productive ( good effects 'to a     
degree :i* has totally alt]$ ! condition
 ( human nature4'#ii ,:y %\ld n ! p be  
tru/$ to judge = !mselves 9 politics8   

,?is implies a doctr9e :i* _h great     
influ5ce ) ! ,utilit>ians4 ,9 !         
rem>kable essay ^u ',education1' :i* is 
conta9$ 9 ! volume ( repr9ts1 ,mill     
discusses ! doctr9e ( ,helvetius t all !
 diff]5ces betwe5 m5 are due to         
education4 ,)\t pron\nc+ positively ^u !
 diff]5ces betwe5 individuals1 ,mill    
obs]ves t1 at any rate1 ! enorm\s       
diff]5ce betwe5 classes ( m5 is :olly   
due to education4#ajj ,he takes         
education1 x mu/ be obs]v$1 9 ! wide/   
possible s5se1 z mean+ :at w\ld n[ be   
call$ ! :ole action ( ! 'environm5t' ^u 
! individual4 ,?is includes1 z he %[s at
 l5g?1 dome/ic education1 all ! va/     
influ5ce ex]cis$ ^u a *ild 9 8 family1  
'te*nical education1' by :i* he means ! 
ord9>y s*ool tea*+1 'social education1' 
t is ! influ5ces :i* we imbibe f !      
curr5t op9ions ( our neighb\rs1 &       
f9ally1 'political education1' :i* he   
calls ! 'key/one ( ! ar*4' ,! means1 he 
argues1 by :i* ! 'gr& objects ( desire  
may be atta9$1 dep5d almo/ :olly ^u !   

political ma*9e4'#aja ,if t 'ma*9e' be s
 con/itut$ z to make ! gr& objects (    
desire ! 'natural prizes ( j & virtu\s  
conduct1 ( high s]vices to mank9d & ( ! 
g5]\s & amiable s5tim5ts f :i* great    
endeav\rs 9 ! s]vice ( mank9d naturally 
proce$1 x is natural to see diffus$     
among mank9d a g5]\s ard\r 9 !          
acquisition ( ^? admirable qualities :i*
 prep>e a man = admirable action1 great 
intellig5ce1 p]fect self-comm&1 &       
ov]-rul+ b5evol5ce4' ,! contr>y w be !  
case :]e ! political ma*9e prompts to ! 
flatt]y ( a small rul+ body4  ,?is      
*>act]i/ic passage betrays an en?usiasm 
:i* really burn$ "u ,mill's /]n outside4
 ,he conf9es himself habitually to ! =ms
 ( sev]e logic1 & scorns any?+ l an     
appeal to s5tim5t4 ,! trammels ( 8      
sci5tific mann] imp$e 8 utt]ance a      
little1 ev5 :5 he is speak+ ) unwont$   
f]v\r4 ,yet ! prosaic ,utilit>ian :o has
 be5 lay+ d[n z a univ]sal law t ! /rong
 w always plund] ! weak1 & t all rul]s w
 r$uce _! subjects to abject slav]y1 is 

absolutely conv9c$1 x seems1 ( !        
possibility ( someh[ transmut+          
selfi%ness into public _s1 ju/ice1      
g5]osity1 & devotion to tru?4 ,equally  
*>act]i/ic is ! fai? 9 ! 'political     
ma*9e4' ,mill speaks z if somebody _h   
'discov]$' ! repres5tative sy/em z ,watt
 7m or less7 discov]$ ! /eam-eng9e2 t to
 'discov]' ! sy/em is ! same ?+ z to set
 x to "w2 & t1 once at "w1 x w be       
omnipot5t4 ,he is n less c]ta9 t a good 
con/itution w make m5 virtu\s1 ?an 0    
,b5?am t he c\ld gr9d rogues hone/ by ! 
,panopticon4 ,! indef9ite modifiability 
( "* 0 ! gr\nd ^u :i* ! ,utilit>ians    
bas$ _! hopes ( progress2 & x 0 connect$
 9 _! m9ds ) ! doctr9e ( :i* 8 essay ^u 
education is a cont9u\s application4 ,! 
!ory ( 'association ( ideas' appe>$ to  
him to be ( ! utmo/ importance 9        
education & 9 politics1 because x impli$
 almo/ unlimit$ possibilities ( m\ld+   
human be+s to fit !m = a new ord]4 ,9   
politics ?is impli$1 z ,j4 ,s4 ,mill    
says1#ajb 'unb\nd$ confid5ce' 9 !       

influ5ce ( 'reason4' ,tea* ! p & let !m 
vote freely1 & ev]y?+ w\ld foll[4  ,?is 
gives ,mill's answ] to "o obvi\s        
objection4 ,! ,cons]vative :o answ]$ him
 by dwell+ ^u ! ignorance ( ! l[]       
classes 0 9 "s respects prea*+ to a     
conv]t4 ,nobody 0 m conv9c$ ?an ,mill ( 
! dep?s ( popul> ignorance or1 inde$1 ( 
! /upidity ( mank9d 9 g5]al4 ,! lab\r]s 
:o *e]$ ,orator ,hunt at ,pet]loo 7 dull
 en\gh2 b s 7 ! pe]s :o *e]$ ,eldon 9 ! 
,h\se ( ,lords2 & ! lab\r]s at lea/     
desir$ g5]al prosp]ity1 :ile ! pe]s 7   
cont5t if _! own r5ts 7 kept up4 ,)     
g5]al education1 h[ev]1 ev5 ! l[] ord]s 
( ! p w\ld be fit = p[]1 especially :5  
we take into acc\nt "o o!r rem>kable    
conclusion4 ,! 'wise & good1' he says1  
'9 any class ( m5 d1 = all g5]al        
purposes1 gov]n ! re/4'#ajc ,n[1 ! class
 9 :i* wisdom & virtue are commone/ is n
 ! ari/ocracy1 b ! middle rank4 ,ano!r  
tru? foll[s 'f ! pr9ciples ( human      
nature 9 g5]al4' ,t is ! r surpris+ tru?
 t ! l[] ord]s take _! op9ions f !      

middle class2 apply to ! middle class = 
help 9 sickness & old age2 hold up !    
same class z a model to be imitat$ by _!
 *ildr51 & 'acc\nt x an hon\r' to adopt 
its op9ions4 ,consequ5tly1 h[ev] f> !   
fran*ise 7 ext5d$1 x is ?is class :i*   
has produc$ ! mo/ di/+ui%$ ornam5ts (   
art1 sci5ce1 & ev5 ( legislation1 :i* w 
ultimately decide ^u political que/ions4
 ',! great majority ( ! p1' is 8        
conclud+ s5t5ce1 'nev] cease to be guid$
 by t rank2 & we may ) "s confid5ce     
*all5ge ! adv]s>ies ( ! p to produce a  
s+le in/ance to ! contr>y 9 ! hi/ory ( !
 _w4'  ,?is article ^u ',gov]nm5t' gives
 ! v ess5ce ( ,utilit>ian politics4 ,i  
am afraid t x also sugge/s t ! political
 !ory 0 *iefly rem>kable = a simple-m9d$
 audacity4 ,good political treatises are
 r>e4 ,!y are apt to be pamphlets 9     
disguise1 us+ 'g5]al pr9ciples' = %[y   
p]orations1 or to be a /r+ ( platitudes 
) no def9ite application to facts4 ,!y  
are fit only = ! plat=m1 or only = !    
pr(essor's lecture-room4 ,mill's        

treatise1 accord+ to 8 mo/ fam\s        
antagoni/1 0 a m]e bundle ( pret5ti\s   
sophi/ry4  ,macaulay came =? l a ,:ig   
,david to slay ! ,utilit>ian ,golia?4 ,!
 ,encyclopa$ia articles1 f9i%$ 9 #ahbd1 
7 already 9 #ahbe1ajd z ,mill says1     
text-books ( ! "y m5 at ! ,cambridge    
,union4 ,macaulay1 :o won 8 ,tr9ity     
fell[%ip 9 #ahbd1 _h !re argu$ !        
que/ions ) 8 fri5d ,*>les ,au/91 "o (   
,b5?am's neophytes4 ,9 ! next ye>       
,macaulay made 8 fir/ appe>ance z an    
,ed9burgh ,review]2 & 9 #ahbi he took ! 
field aga9/ ,mill4 ,9 ! ,janu>y numb] he
 attack$ ! essay ^u ',gov]nm5t'2 & 9 two
 articles 9 ! succe$+ numb]s ( ! ,review
 repli$ to a def5ce made by "s          
,utilit>ian 9 ! ,we/m9/]4 ,mill himself 
made no direct reply2 & ,macaulay %[$ 8 
gratitude = ,mill's g5]osity 9 reg>d to 
! ,indian appo9tm5t by decl9+ to        
republi% ! articles4#aje ,he confess$ to
 h treat$ 8 oppon5t ) a want ( prop]    
respect1 ?\gh he retract$ none ( 8      
criticisms4 ,! (f5ce _h its excuses4    

,macaulay 0 a man "u ?irty1 9 ! full    
flu% ( e>ly success2 nor 0 ,mill's own  
treatm5t ( antagoni/s conciliatory4 ,!  
dogmatic arrogance ( ! ,utilit>ians 0 n 
unnaturally met by an equally arrogant  
c\nt]*eck4 ,macaulay ridicules !        
,utilit>ians = _! claim to be ! def5d]s 
( ! true political fai?4 ,he is afraid n
 ( !m b ( ! 'discr$it ( _! alliance'2 he
 wi%es to draw a broad l9e betwe5       
judici\s re=m]s & a 'sect :i* hav+ d]iv$
 all its influ5ce f ! c\nt5ance :i* !y  
imprud5tly be/[$ ^u x1 hates !m ) !     
deadly hatr$ ( +ratitude4' ,no p>ty1 he 
says1 0 ev] s unpopul>4 ,x _h already   
disgu/$ p ) political economy2 & w\ld   
disgu/ !m ) p>liam5t>y re=m1 if x c\ld  
associate itself 9 public op9ion ) !    
cause#ajf4 ,?is 0 inde$ to turn !       
tables4 ,! half-he>t$ disciple 0 insult+
 ! ?or\ghbr$ tea*] :o _h borne ! heat & 
bur!n ( ! day1 & f :om he _h le>n$ 8 own
 doctr9e4 ,^u ?is & o!r imp]t95ces--!   
ass]tion1 = example1 t ,utilit>ians 7 z 
incapable ( und]/&+ an argum5t z any    

'true blue b>onet aft] ! ?ird bottle at 
a ,pitt ,club'--x is ne$less to dwell4  
,!y illu/rate1 h[ev]1 ! /rong res5tm5t )
 :i* ! ,utilit>ians 7 reg>d$ by !       
classes f :om ! ,:igs drew _! mo/       
cultivat$ support]s4 ,macaulay's l9e (  
argum5t w %[ :at 0 ! real conflict (    
!ory4  ,8 view is1 9 fact1 a long       
amplification ( ! *>ge t ,mill 0 adopt+ 
a purely a priori me?od4 ,mill's /yle is
 z dry z ,euclid1 & 8 argum5ts are      
pres5t$ ) an affectation ( logical      
precision4 ,mill has inh]it$ ! '_s &    
/yle ( ! ,s*oolm54 ,he is an            
,ari/otelian ( ! fifte5? c5tury4' ,he   
writes ab\t gov]nm5t z ?\gh he 0 unaw>e 
t any actual gov]nm5ts _h ev] exi/$4 ,he
 d$uces 8 sci5ce f a s+le assumption (  
c]ta9 'prop5sities ( human nature4'#ajg 
,aft] deal+ ) ,mill's argum5ts1         
,macaulay w9ds up ) "o ( 8 *>act]i/ic   
purple pat*es ab\t ! me?od ( induction4 
,he invokes ! au?ority ( ,bacon--a great
 "n ) :i* 9 ^? days writ]s conjur$ )\t a
 v precise consid]ation ( its true      

significance4 ,by ,bacon's me?od we are 
to con/ruct 9 "t ! 'noble sci5ce (      
politics1' :i* is equally remov$ f !    
b>r5 !ories ( ,utilit>ian sophi/s & !   
petty craft ( intrigu+ jobb]s4 ,!       
,utilit>ians are s*oolm51 :ile ! ,:igs  
are ! true foll[]s ( ,bacon & sci5tific 
induction4 ,j4 ,s4 ,mill admitt$ )9     
c]ta9 limits ! relevancy ( ?is          
criticism1 & 0 l$ by ! reflections :i* x
 />t$ to a !ory ( 8 own4 ,mean:ile1 he  
obs]ves t 8 fa!r ought to h ju/ifi$     
himself by decl>+ t ! book 0 n a        
'sci5tific treatise on politics1' b an  
'argum5t = p>liam5t>y re=m4'#ajh ,x is n
 q easy to see h[ ,james ,mill c\ld h   
made su* a 'ju/ification' & di/+ui%$ x f
 a recantation4  ,if ,mill really meant 
:at ,macaulay took him to mean1 x w\ld  
be sup]flu\s to argue ! "q gravely4 ,!  
reason+ is only fit1 l ! reason+ ( all  
,macaulay's antagoni/s1 = ! prov]bial   
s*oolboy4 ,mill1 accord+ to ,macaulay1  
proposes to discov] :at gov]nm5ts are   
good2 &1 f9d+ t exp]i5ce gives no cle>  

answ]1 ?r[s exp]i5ce aside & appeals to 
absolute laws ( human nature4 ,"o su*   
'law' ass]ts t ! /rong w plund] ! weak4 
,!re=e all gov]nm5ts except !           
repres5tative mu/ be oppressive1 & rule 
by %e] t]ror4 ,mill's v reason = rely+  
^u ?is argum5t is precisely t ! facts   
contradict x4 ,"s despotisms "w well1 & 
"s democracies ill2 !re=e we mu/ prove  
by logic t all despotisms are bad1 & all
 democracies good4 ,is ?is really       
,mill's case8  ,an answ] giv5 by ,mill's
 *ampion1 to :i* ,macaulay replies 9 8  
la/ article1 sugge/s "s explanation (   
,mill's position4 ,macaulay _h paid no  
att5tion to "o highly important phrase4 
,! t]rible consequ5ces :i* ,mill d$uces 
f ! selfi%ness ( rul]s w foll[1 he says1
 'if no?+ *ecks4'#aji ,supply+ ?is      
qualification1 z impli$ ?r\gh\t1 we may 
give a bett] mean+ to ,mill's argum5t4  
,a simple obs]vation ( exp]i5ce is      
insuffici5t4 ,! ph5om5a are too complex2
 gov]nm5ts ( ! mo/ v>y+ k9ds h %[n !    
same faults2 & gov]nm5ts ( ! same k9d h 

%[n !m 9 ! mo/ v>i\s degrees4 ,!re=e !  
me?od :i* ,macaulay sugge/s is          
inapplicable4 ,we %\ld reason ab\t      
gov]nm5t1 says ,macaulay1#aaj z ,bacon  
told u to reason ab\t heat4 ,f9d all !  
circum/ances 9 :i* hot bodies agree1 & y
 w det]m9e ! pr9ciple ( heat4 ,f9d all !
 circum/ances 9 :i* good gov]nm5ts      
agree1 & y w f9d ! pr9ciples ( good     
gov]nm5t4 ,c]ta9ly2 b ! process1 z      
,macaulay admits1 w\ld be a long "o4 ,r1
 x w\ld be endless4 ,:at 'circum/ances' 
c be ! same 9 all good gov]nm5ts 9 all  
times & places8 ,mill held 9 sub/ance1 t
 we c\ld lay d[n c]ta9 broad pr9ciples  
ab\t human nature1 ! exi/5ce ( :i* is ( 
c\rse kn[n f 'exp]i5ce'1 & by %[+ h[ !y 
w\ld "w1 if re/ra9$ by no di/9ct *ecks1 
obta9 c]ta9 useful conclusions4 ,mill   
indicates ?is l9e ( reply 9 8 own attack
 ^u ,mack9to%4#aaa ,!re he expla9s t :at
 he really meant 0 to set =? a pr9ciple 
recognis$ by ,b]keley1 ,hume1           
,black/one1 &1 especially1 9 ,plato's   
,republic4 ,plato's treatise is a       

developm5t ( ! pr9ciple t 'id5tity (    
int]e/s af=ds ! only security = good    
gov]nm5t4' ,)\t su* id5tity ( int]e/1   
said ,plato1 ! gu>dians ( ! flock become
 wolves4 ,hume#aab _h giv5 a pi?y       
expression ( ! same view 9 ! maxim      
'e/abli%$1' z he says1 'by political    
writ]s1' t 9 fram+ ! '*ecks & controls (
 ! con/itution1 e man ought to be       
suppos$ a knave & to h no o!r end 9 8   
actions ?an private int]e/4' ,mill po9ts
 ?is by ref]r+ to ! 'organs (           
ari/ocratical op9ion' = ! la/ fifty     
ye>s4 ,! incessant appeal has be5 =     
'confid5ce 9 public m51' & confid5ce is 
ano!r "n = scope = misrule4#aac ,?is1 he
 expla9s1 0 :at he meant by ! /atem5t   
7:i* ,mack9to% consid]$ to h be5 explod$
 by ,macaulay7 t e man pursu$ 8 own     
int]e/4#aad ,x ref]r$ to ! class        
legislation ( ! great ari/ocratic r+3   
k+s1 nobles1 *ur*1 law1 & army4         
,utilit>ianism1 9 its political         
relations1 0 "o cont9u\s w>f>e aga9/ ^! 
s9i/] 'int]e/s1' ,! ma/]-evil ( !       

contempor>y political /ate und\bt$ly    
impli$ a want ( responsibility4 ,a      
political tru/ 0 habitually conf\nd$ )  
private prop]ty4 ,moreov]1 :atev] else  
may be ess5tial to good gov]nm5t1 "o    
ess5tial is a /rong s5se (              
responsibility 9 ! gov]nors4 ,t is a v  
s\nd pr9ciple1 ?\gh n an axiom f :i* all
 political sci5ce c be d$uc$4 ,if !     
essay on ',gov]nm5t' 0 really meant z a 
k9d ( political ,euclid--z a d$uction ( 
! be/ sy/em ( gov]nm5t f ?is s+le       
pr9ciple ( responsibility--x 0 z        
grotesque z ,macaulay ass]t$4 ,mill     
might p]haps h met ! criticism by l[]+ 8
 claims z 8 son sugge/s4 ,he c]ta9ly    
manag$ to express 8 argum5t 9 su* t]ms t
 x has an uncom=table appe>ance ( be+   
int5d$ = a sci5tific exposition4  ,?is  
des]ves notice because ! position is    
*>act]i/ic ( ! ,utilit>ians' me?od4 ,_! 
appeals to exp]i5ce always end by       
absolute ass]tions4 ,we %all f9d ! same 
difficulty 9 _! economic inquiries4 ,:5 
accus$1 = example1 ( lay+ d[n absolute  

pr9ciples 9 su* cases1 !y reply t !y are
 only speak+ ( 't5d5cies1' & recognise !
 exi/5ce ( '*ecks4' ,!y treat ( :at w\ld
 be1 if c]ta9 =ces act$ )\t limit1 z a  
necess>y /ep t[>ds discov]+ :at is :5 ! 
limits exi/4 ,!y appe> to _! oppon5ts to
 =get ! limits 9 _! practical           
conclusions4 ,?is political argum5t is  
an in/ance ( ! same me?od4 ,! g5esis ( 8
 !ory is pla94 ,mill's 'gov]nm5t1' l    
,b5?am's1 is simply ! conception ( legal
 'sov]eignty' transf]r$ to ! sph]e (    
politics4 ,mill's exposition is only    
di/+ui%$ f 8 ma/]'s by ! cle>ness ) :i* 
he br+s out ! und]ly+ assumptions4 ,!   
legal sov]eign is omnipot5t1 = :at he   
decl>es to be ! law is !re=e ! law4 ,!  
law is 8 comm&s en=c$ by 'sanctions1' & 
!re=e by organis$ =ce4 ,! motives =     
ob$i5ce are ! fe> ( ! gall[s on "o side1
 &1 on ! o!r1 ! desire ( protection =   
life & prop]ty4 ,law1 aga91 is !        
ultimate social bond1 & c be made at w  
by ! sov]eign4 ,he ?us becomes s        
omnipot5t t x is virtually assum$ t he c

 ev5 create himself4 ,n only c !        
sov]eign1 once con/itut$1 give comm&s   
en=c$ by co]cive sanctions ^u any k9d ( 
conduct1 b he c det]m9e 8 own           
con/itution4 ,he c at once1 = example1  
create a repres5tative sy/em 9 practice1
 :5 x has be5 discov]$ 9 !ory1 & c by   
judici\s regulations s di/ribute        
'self-int]e/' z to produce philan?ropy &
 public _s4 ,macaulay's answ] really    
makes a diff]5t assumption4 ,he accepts 
! purely 'empirical' or 'rule ( ?umb'   
position4 ,x is idle1 he says1 to ask   
:at w\ld happ5 if !re 7 no '*ecks4' ,x  
is l leav+ out ! effect ( friction 9 a  
problem ( me*anics4 ,! logic may be     
correct1 b ! conclusions are false 9    
practice4#aae ,n[ ?is 'friction' 0      
precisely ! fav\rite exp$i5t ( !        
,utilit>ians 9 political economy4 ,to   
reason ab\t facts1 !y say1 y mu/        
analyse1 & !re=e provisionally disreg>d 
! '*ecks1' :i* mu/ be aft]w>ds introduc$
 9 practical applications4 ,macaulay is 
really bidd+ u take 'exp]i5ce' 9 ! lump1

 & refra9s f ! only treatm5t :i* c lead 
to a sci5tific result4 ,8 argum5t1 9    
fact1 agrees ) t ( 8 fam\s essay on     
,bacon1 :]e we le>n t philosophy appli$ 
to moral que/ions is all nons5se1 & t   
sci5ce is simply crude common-s5se4 ,he 
is really say+ t all political reason+  
is impossible1 & t we mu/ tru/ to       
unreason$ obs]vation4 ,macaulay1 inde$1 
has good gr\nds ( criticism4 ,he %[s v  
=cibly ! absurdity ( transf]r+ ! legal  
to ! political sov]eignty4 ,p>liam5t    
might1 z he says1 make a law t e        
g5tleman ) ,l#bjjj a ye> might flog a   
paup] ) a cat-(-n9e-tails :5ev] he      
pleas$4 ,b1 z ! fir/ ex]cise ( su* a p[]
 w\ld be ! 'la/ day ( ! ,engli%         
ari/ocracy1' _! p[] is /rictly limit$ 9 
fact4#aaf ,t gives v cle>ly ! diff]5ce  
betwe5 legal & political sov]eignty4    
,:at p>liam5t makes law is law1 b is n  
!re=e en=ceable4 ,we h to g beh9d !     
comm&s & sanctions be=e we und]/& :at is
 ! actual p[] ( gov]nm5t4 ,x is v f> f  
omnipot5t4 ,macaulay1 see+ ?is1 proce$s 

to ?r[ aside ,mill's argum5t aga9/ !    
possibility ( a p]man5t division ( p[]4 
,! de facto limitation ( ! sov]eign's   
p[] ju/ifies ! old !ory ab\t 'mix$ =ms (
 gov]nm5t4' ',mix$ gov]nm5ts' are n     
impossible1 = !y are real4 ,all         
gov]nm5ts are1 9 fact1 'mix$4' ,l\is    
,,xiv4 c\ld n cut (f ! head ( any "o :om
 he happ5$ to dislike4 ,an ori5tal      
despot is /rictly b\nd by ! religi\s    
prejudices ( 8 subjects4 ,if            
'sov]eignty' means su* p[] x is a *im]a 
9 practice1 or only realis$             
approximately :51 z 9 ! case ( negro    
slav]y1 a class is actually rul$ by =ce 
9 ! h&s ( a really ext]nal p[]4 ,& yet !
 attack ^u 'mix$ gov]nm5ts1' :i* ,b5?am 
_h exp\nd$ 9 ! ,fragm5t1 has a real =ce 
:i* ,macaulay seems to ov]look4 ,mill's 
argum5t aga9/ a possible 'balance' ( p[]
 01 z ,macaulay ass]t$1 equally         
applicable to ! case ( indep5d5t        
sov]eigns2 yet ,france might be /rong]  
at ,calais & ,engl& at ,dov]4#aag ,mill 
might h repli$ t a /ate is a /ate       

precisely because1 & 9 s f> z1 !re is an
 agreem5t to recognise a common au?ority
 or sov]eign4 ,gov]nm5t does n imply a  
'mixture1' b a fusion ( p[]4 ,!re is a  
unity1 ?\gh n ! ab/ract unity ( !       
,utilit>ian sov]eign4 ,! weakness ( !   
,utilit>ians is to speak z ?\gh !       
sov]eign1 be+ ext]nal to ea* individual1
 c\ld !re=e be reg>d$ z ext]nal to !    
:ole society4 ,he rules z a /rong nation
 may rule a weak dep5d5cy4 ,:5 !        
sov]eign becomes also ! society1 ! p[]  
is reg>d$ z equally absolute1 ?\gh n[   
appli$ to ! desirable end ( maximis+    
happ9ess4 ,! :ole argum5t ignores !     
simple consid]ation t ! sov]eign is     
himself 9 all cases ! product ( !       
society ov] :i* he rules1 & 8 :ole      
action1 ev5 9 ! mo/ despotic gov]nm5ts1 
det]m9$ ?r\gh\t by organic in/9cts1     
expla9+ & n ultimately explicable by    
co]cion4 ,macaulay's doctr9e p>tially   
recognises ?is by fall+ back ^u ! ,:ig  
!ory ( *ecks & balances1 & ! mixture (  
?ree my/]i\s entities1 mon>*y1          

ari/ocracy1 & democracy4 ,b1 z ,b5?am _h
 suffici5tly %[n 9 ! ,fragm5t1 ! !ory   
becomes hopelessly unreal :5 we try to  
translate x into facts4 ,!re are n ?ree 
sep>ate =ces1 conflict+ l ?ree indep5d5t
 =ces1 b a complex set ( social         
in/itutions b\nd toge!r into a :ole4 ,x 
is impossible really to reg>d gov]nm5t z
 a p]man5t balance ( antagoni/ic =ces1  
confront+ ea* o!r l ! ?ree duelli/s 9   
,%]idan's ,critic4 ,! practical result (
 t !ory is to sub/itute = ! 'greate/    
happ9ess' pr9ciple ! vague crit]ion ( ! 
pres]vation ( an equilibrium betwe5     
indef9able =ces2 & to make ! ultimate   
end ( gov]nm5t ! ma9t5ance z long z     
possible ( a balance re/+ on no ult]ior 
pr9ciple1 b und\bt$ly pleasant = !      
com=table classes4 ,no?+ is left b !    
r\gh guesswork1 :i*1 if a f9e "n be     
want$1 may be call$ ,baconian induction4
 ,! 'mat*less con/itution1' z ,b5?am    
calls x1 repres5ts a conv5i5t           
compromise1 & ! t5d5cy is to atta*      
exagg]at$ importance to its o/5sible    

t]ms4 ,:5 ,macaulay ass]t$ aga9/        
,mill#aah t x 0 impossible to say :i*   
elem5t--mon>*y1 ari/ocracy1 or          
democracy--_h ga9$ /r5g? 9 ,engl& 9 !   
la/ c5tury1 he is obvi\sly look+ at !   
=mulae & n at ! social body beh9d4  ,?is
 leads to consid]ations really m        
important ?an ! argum5tation ab\t a     
priori & inductive me?ods4 ,mill 9      
practice knew v well ! qualifications   
necess>y be=e 8 pr9ciples appli$4 ,he   
%[$ x 9 8 ,indian evid5ce2 & ,place c\ld
 h told him1 _h x requir$ tell+1 t !    
actual political ma*9]y work$ by v      
/range & tortu\s me?ods4 ,yet he 0      
cont5t to ov]ride su* consid]ations :5  
he is exp\nd+ 8 !ory1 & laid himself op5
 to ,macaulay's broad common-s5se       
retort4 ,! nation at l>ge _c1 he says1 h
 a 's9i/] int]e/4' ,x mu/ desire        
legislation :i* is b5eficial to ! :ole4 
,?is is to make ! va/ assumption t e    
individual w desire :at is good = all1 &
 w be a suffici5t judge ( :at is good4  
,b is x cle> t a majority w ev5 desire  

:at is good = ! :ole8 ,may !y n wi% to  
sacrifice bo? o!r classes & com+        
g5]ations to _! own in/antane\s         
advantages8 ,is x pla9 t ev5 enlight5m5t
 ( m9d w\ld induce a poor man to see 8  
own advantage 9 ! policy :i* w\ld 9 !   
long run be be/ = ! :ole society8 ,y are
 b\nd1 said ,macaulay1 to %[ t ! poor   
man w n believe t he p]sonally w\ld     
b5efit by direct plund] ( ! ri*2 & inde$
 t he w\ld n be "r 9 s believ+4 ,!      
nation1 no d\bt1 w\ld suff]1 b 9 !      
imm$iate p]iod :i* alone is contemplat$ 
by a selfi% paup]1 ! mass ( ! poor might
 get m pleasure out ( confiscation4 ,w  
!y n1 on y\r own pr9ciples1 proce$ to   
confiscation8 ,%all we n h su* a        
cata/rophe z ! reign ( t]ror8  ,!       
,we/m9/] ,review] retort$ by say+ t     
,macaulay prophesi$ a reign ( t]ror z a 
necess>y consequ5ce ( an ext5d$         
fran*ise4 ,macaulay1 skilfully en\gh1   
prote/$ aga9/ ?is int]pretation4 ',we   
say aga9 & aga91' he decl>es1 't we are 
on ! def5sive4 ,we d n ?9k x necess>y to

 prove t a quack m$ic9e is poison4 ,let 
! v5dor prove x to be sanative4 ,we d n 
pret5d to %[ t univ]sal suffrage is an  
evil4 ,let its advocates %[ x to be a   
good4'#aai ,mill re/s 8 :ole case ^u !  
selfi%ness ( mank9d4 ,w n ! selfi%ness  
lead ! actual majority at a giv5 mom5t  
to plund] ! ri* & to disreg>d ! int]e/s 
( _! own successors8  ,macaulay's       
decl>ation t he 0 only '^u ! def5sive'  
might be ju/ifiable 9 an advocate4 ,8   
real ?\ght may be inf]r$ f a spee* on ! 
*>t] made 9 #ahdb4 ,! *>ti/s' petition (
 t ye> _h ask$ = univ]sal suffrage4     
,univ]sal suffrage1 he replies1 w\ld be 
incompatible ) ! 'in/itution (          
prop]ty4'#abj ,if ! *>ti/s act$ ^u _!   
av[$ pr9ciples1 !y w\ld en=ce '"o va/   
spoliation4' ,macaulay c\ld n say1 (    
c\rse1 :at w\ld actually result1 b 8    
'guess' 0 t we %\ld see 'some?+ m       
horrible ?an c be imag9$--some?+ l !    
siege ( ,j]usalem on a f> l>g] scale4'  
,! v be/ ev5t he c\ld anticipate--'& :at
 mu/ ! /ate ( ?+s be1 if an ,engli%man &

 a ,:ig calls su* an ev5t ! v           
be/8'--w\ld be a milit>y despotism1 giv+
 a 'sort ( protection to a mis]able     
wreck ( all t imm5se glory &            
prosp]ity4'#aba ,s 9 ! criticism ( ,mill
 he _h sugge/$ t if 8 oppon5t's         
pr9ciples 7 correct1 & 8 s*eme adopt$1  
'lit]ature1 sci5ce1 comm]ce1            
manufactures' w\ld be swept away1 & t a 
'few half-nak$ fi%]m5 w\ld divide ) !   
owls & foxes ! ru9s ( ! greate/ (       
,european cities4'#abb  ,c>efully z     
,macaulay gu>ds himself 9 8 articles ^u 
,mill1 ! spee* %[s suffici5tly :at 0 8  
'guess'2 t is1 8 real expectation4 ,?is 
gives ! vital diff]5ce4 ,:at ,macaulay  
pr(esses to d$uce f ,mill's pr9ciples he
 really holds himself1 & he holds x     
because he argues1 z inde$ ev]ybody has 
to argue1 pretty mu* on ,mill's me?od4  
,he does n really rema9 9 ! purely      
sceptical position :i* w\ld correspond  
to 8 v]sion ( ',baconian induction4' ,he
 argues1 j z ,mill w\ld h argu$1 f g5]al
 rules ab\t human nature4 ,selfi% &     

ignorant p w1 he ?9ks1 be naturally     
incl9$ to plund]2 !re=e1 if !y h p[]1 !y
 w plund]4 ,s ,mill _h argu$ t a selfi% 
class w\ld rule = its own s9i/] int]e/s 
& !re=e n = ! happ9ess ( ! greate/      
numb]4 ,! argum5t is ! same1 & x is !   
only l9e ( argum5t :i* is possible till1
 if t %\ld ev] happ51 a g5u9e sci5ce (  
politics %all h be5 con/itut$4 ,! only  
"q is :e!r x %all take ! pomp ( a priori
 speculation or conceal itself "u a %[ (
 ',baconian induction4'  ,on "o po9t !y 
agree4 ,bo? ,mill & ,macaulay pr(ess    
unb\nd$ confid5ce 9 ! virtue & wisdom ( 
! middle1 t is1 ( _! own class4         
,macaulay hopes = a re=m bill :i* w make
 ! votes ( ! ,h\se ( ,commons '! express
 image ( ! op9ion ( ! middle ord]s (    
,brita94'#abc ,mill holds t ! middle    
class w reta9 ?is moral au?ority1 h[ev] 
widely ! fran*ise be ext5d$2 :ile       
,macaulay fe>s t !y w be swamp$ by its  
ext5sion to ! masses4 ,! re=m bill :i*  
!y jo9$ 9 support+ 0 reg>d$ by !        
,radicals z a paym5t on acc\nt2 :ile !  

,:ig hop$ t x w\ld be a full & f9al     
dis*>ge4 ,! ,radical held t no b>ri]s   
aga9/ democracy 7 ne$$2 he took = grant$
 t a democracy w\ld f9d its natural     
lead]s 9 ! educat$ & intellig5t4 ,!     
,:ig1 to :om su* confid5ce appe>$ to be 
altoge!r misplac$1 _h to f9d "s         
ju/ification = ! '*ecks' & 'balances'   
:i* he ?\ght ess5tial4   ,,ii4 ,,:iggism
  ,i h spok5 ( ,macaulay's articles     
because !y repres5t ! mo/ po9t$ conflict
 betwe5 ! ,utilit>ian & ! ,:ig4         
,macaulay belongs prop]ly to ! next     
g5]ation1 b he appe>$ z ! m\?piece ( !  
e>li] gr\p ( writ]s :o 9 ,mill's "t     
deliv]$ ?r\gh ! ,ed9burgh ,review ! true
 oracles ( ! ,:ig fai?4 ,^u t gr\nd     
,mill _h assail$ !m 9 8 article4 ,_!    
cre$1 he said1 0 a 'see-saw4' ,! ,:igs 7
 ari/ocrats z mu* z ! ,tories4 ,!y 7    
simply ! 'outs' :o hop$ to be ! 'ins4'  
,!y trimm$ _! sails to cat* public      
op9ion1 b 7 c>eful n to drift into !    
true popul> curr5ts4 ,!y _h no desire to
 limit ! p[] :i* !y hop$ "o day to      

possess4 ,!y w\ld attack abuses--!      
slave-trade or ! p5al laws--to ga9 cr$it
 = lib]ality & enlight5m5t1 :5 ! abuses 
7 su* z c\ld be remov$ )\t injur+ ! p[] 
( ! ari/ocracy4 ,!y c\ld use 'vague     
g5]alities' ab\t lib]ty & s =?1 b only  
to evade def9ite applications4 ,:5 any  
measure 0 propos$ :i* really ?reat5$ !  
p[] ( ! privileg$ classes1 !y c\ld br+  
out a contradictory set ( f9e phrases   
ab\t ,jacob9ism & democracy4 ,_! :ole   
argum5t 0 a %uffle & !y !mselves m]e    
selfi% trimm]s4#abd ,to ?is ,jeffrey    
repli$ 79 ,decemb] #ahbf7 by accept+ !  
position4#abe ,he plead$ guilty to a    
love ( 'trimm+1' :i* meant a love ( !   
,briti% ,con/itution4 ,! con/itution 0 a
 compromise--a balance ( oppos+ =ces--& 
! only "q c\ld be :e!r !y 7 prop]ly     
balanc$4 ,! answ] 0 fair en\gh4 ,mill 0 
imput+ motives too easily1 & assum+ t ! 
,review]s saw ! abuses 9 ! same light z 
he did1 & 7 truckl+ to public robb]s 9  
hopes ( %>+ ! plund]4 ,he 0 break+ a    
butt]fly ^u a :eel4 ,! ,ed9burgh        

,review]s 7 n mission>ies ( a cre$4 ,!y 
7 a set ( brilliant "y m51 to :om !     
,review 0 at fir/ a m]e pa/ime1 occupy+ 
su* leisure z 0 all[$ by _! pr(essional 
pursuits4 ,!y 7 inde$ m5 ( lib]al       
sympa?ies1 intellig5t & indep5d5t en\gh 
to hold by a p>ty :i* 0 out ( p[]4 ,!y  
_h read ,hume & ,voltaire & ,r\sseau2 !y
 _h sat at ! feet ( ,dugald ,/ew>t2 & 7 
9 sympa?y ) intellectual lib]alism4 ,b  
!y 7 m5 :o meant to become judges1      
memb]s ( p>liam5t1 or ev5 bi%ops4 ,no?+ 
9 _! social atmosph]e _h /imulat$ ! deep
 res5tm5t aga9/ social inju/ice :i*     
makes ! fanatic or ! en?usia/4 ,we may  
take z _! int]pret] ! ,:ig philosoph]   
,james ,mack9to% 7#agfe-ahcb71 a man (  
wide read+1 bo? 9 hi/ory & philosophy1  
an eloqu5t orator1 & a v able writ]4    
,mack9to%1 said ,col]idge1#abf is ! 'k+ 
( ! m5 ( tal5t'2 by :i* 0 intimat$ t1 z 
a man ( tal5t1 he 0 n1 l "s p1 a man (  
g5ius4 ,mack9to%1 t is1 0 a man to      
accept plausible =mulae & to make !m m  
plausible2 n a man to pi]ce to ! he>t ( 

?+s1 or reveal fruitful g]ms ( ?\ght4 ,8
 intellect 0 judicial2 giv5 to          
compromises1 affect+ a judici\s via     
m$ia1 & endeav\r+ to reconcile          
antagoni/ic t5d5cies4 ,?or\ghgo+ or     
"o-sid$ ?9k]s1 & ,mill 9 p>ticul>1      
reg>d$ him ) excessive antipa?y z a     
typical repres5tative ( ! opposite      
intellectual t5d5cies4 ,mack9to%'s      
political attitude is in/ructive4 ,at ! 
outbreak ( ! ,fr5* revolution he 0 a    
/ruggl+ "y ,scot1 seek+ 8 =tune 9       
,london1 j turn+ f m$ic9e to ! b>1 &    
support+ himself p>tly by j\rnalism4 ,he
 became secret>y to ! ,society ( !      
',fri5ds ( ! ,p1' ! ,:ig rival ( !      
revolution>y clubs1 & 9 ,april #agia    
sprang into fame by 8 ,v9diciae         
,gallicae4 ,! ,:igs _h n yet lo/ ! f]v\r
 ) :i* !y _h welcom$ ! d[nfall ( !      
,ba/ille4 ,burke's ,reflections1 ! "w ( 
a great ?9k] 9 a /ate ( irritation      
bord]+ ^u fr5zy1 _h s\nd$ ! note ( al>m4
 ,! revolution1 z ,burke ma9ta9$1 0 9   
fact ! avat> ( a diabolic p[]4 ,x meant 

an attack ^u ! v organic pr9ciples (    
society4 ,x !re=e impli$ a complete     
brea* ( hi/orical cont9uity1 & a w>     
aga9/ ! rev]5ce = 'prescription' &      
tradition :i* is ess5tial to all heal?y 
developm5t4 ,to 8 extreme oppon5ts !    
same !ory af=d$ ! ju/ification ( !      
revolution4 ,x meant t e in/itution 0 to
 be ?r[n into ! crucible1 & a new _w to 
arise gov]n$ only by reason4 ,! view v  
ably def5d$ by ,mack9to% 0 oppos$ to    
bo?4 ,he looks ^u ! ,fr5* revolution z a
 m complete application ( ! pr9ciples ( 
,locke & ! ,engli% ,:igs ( #afhh4 ,!    
revolutioni/s are1 z he urges1#abg      
apply+ ! pr9ciples :i* _h be5 work$ out 
by ! 'philosoph]s ( ,europe' dur+ !     
prec$+ c5tury4 ,!y 7 n1 z ,burke urg$1  
reject+ exp]i5ce = !ory4 ,! relation    
betwe5 _! doctr9e & politics is analog\s
 to ! relation betwe5 geometry &        
me*anics4#abh ,we are n[ 9 ! position ( 
a p :o %\ld be famili> ) ,newton1 b 9   
%ipbuild+ be /ill on a level ) !        
,esquimaux4 ,! 'rights ( man' appe> to  

him to mean1 n1 z ,burke & ,b5?am once  
agre$1 a set ( 'an>*ical fallacies1' b a
 set ( fundam5tal moral pr9ciples2 & !  
decl>ation ( !m a mo/ wise & 'auspici\s'
 comm5cem5t ( ! 'reg5]at+ lab\rs' ( !   
new legislators4 ,! ,fr5* revolution    
repres5t$ :at ,som]s w\ld n[ approve if 
he _h our advantages4#abi ,a ?or\ghgo+  
*ange _h become necess>y 9 ,france4 ,!  
*ur*1 army1 & law 7 n[                  
'incorrigible4'#acj ,burke _h se51 9 !  
confiscation ( *ur* prop]ty1 an attempt 
to aboli% ,*ri/ianity4 ,to ,mack9to% x  
seem$ to be a re=m ju/ifiable 9         
pr9ciple1 :i*1 ?\gh too r\ghly c>ri$    
out1 w\ld r$uce 'a s]vile & imp]i\s     
prie/hood to humble utility4'#aca ,a    
poor prie/hood1 inde$1 might incl9e to  
popul> sup]/ition4 ,we c\ld console     
ourselves by reflect+ t ! p[] ( ! *ur*1 
z a corporation1 0 brok51 & t tol]ation 
& philosophy w\ld re/ra9 fanaticism4#acb
 ,! assignats 7 /ill 'almo/ at p>4'#acc 
,! sale ( ! national prop]ty w\ld ne>ly 
ext+ui% ! debt4 ,france _h 'r5\nc$ = ev]

 ! idea ( conque/1'#acd & _h no         
temptations to w>1 except h] colonies4  
,_! comm]cial inutility & political     
mis*iev\sness _h be5 s 'unanim\sly      
demon/rat$1' t ! ,fr5* empire mu/ soon  
be deliv]$ f '?is cumbr\s & de/ructive  
app5dage4' ,an arm$ p1 moreov]1 c\ld    
nev] be us$ l a m]c5>y army to suppress 
lib]ty4 ,!re 0 no dang] ( milit>y       
despotism1 & ,france w\ld h]eaft] seek =
 a pure glory by cultivat+ ! arts (     
peace & ext5d+ ! happ9ess ( mank9d4#ace 
,no wond] t ,mack9to%1 ) ^! views1 ?\ght
 t ! hi/ory ( ! fall ( ! ,ba/ille w\ld  
'k9dle 9 unborn millions ! holy         
en?usiasm ( fre$om'2#acf or t1 9 ! e>ly 
disord]s1 he saw tempor>y ab]rations (  
mobs1 de/9$ to be spe$ily suppress$ by !
 true lead]s ( ! revolution4 ,mack9to%  
saw1 ,i take x1 ab\t z f> z mo/         
philosoph]s1 t is1 ab\t z f> z p :o are 
n philosoph]s4 ,he obs]ves mu* t ,burke 
ought to h rememb]$1 & keeps fairly to !
 philosophical pr9ciple :i* he ann\nces 
( attribut+ ! revolution to g5]al       

causes1 & n to ! s*emes (               
individuals4#acg ,:5 assignats became   
wa/e pap]1 :5 ! guillot9e got to "w1 :5 
! religion ( reason 0 be+ set up aga9/  
,*ri/ianity1 :5 ! ,fr5* 7 conqu]+       
,europe1 :5 a milit>y despotism 0 aris+1
 :51 9 %ort1 x became q cle> t ! ,fr5*  
revolution meant some?+ v diff]5t f a   
philosophical application ( ! pr9ciples 
( ,locke & ,adam ,smi?1 ,mack9to% began 
to see t ,burke _h n s f> miss$ ! m>k4  
,burke1 be=e dy+1 receiv$ 8 p5it5t      
oppon5t at ,beaconsfield2 & 9 #ahjj     
,mack9to% took ! opportunity ( publicly 
decl>+ t he 'abhorr$1 abjur$1 & = ev]   
r5\nc$ ! ,fr5* revolution1 ) its        
sangu9>y hi/ory1 its abom9able          
pr9ciples1 & its ev] execrable lead]s4' 
,he hop$ to 'wipe (f ! disgrace ( hav+  
be5 once betray$ into t abom9able       
conspiracy aga9/ ,god & man4'#ach ,9 8  
fam\s def5ce ( ,pelti] 7#ahjc71 he      
d5\nc$ ! revolution 9 a passage :i*     
might h be5 adopt$ f ,burke's ,lett]s on
 a ,regicide ,peace4#aci  ,9 a rem>kable

 lett] to ,w9dham#adj ( #ahjf1 ,mack9to%
 gives 8 e/imate ( ,burke1 & takes "s   
cr$it to himself = hav+ discov]$1 ev5 9 
! "t ( 8 y\?ful errors1 ! consi/5cy (   
,burke's pr9ciples1 z f\nd$ ^u an       
abhorr5ce ( 'ab/ract politics4'#ada     
,politics1 he n[ ?\ght1 mu/ be made     
sci5tific by recognis+ ) ,burke !       
supreme importance ( prescription &     
hi/oric cont9uity1 & by admitt+ t !     
philosoph]s _h n yet con/ruct$ a sci5ce 
be>+ to practical politics ! same       
relation z geometry to me*anics4 ,he    
appli$ 8 !ory to ! "q ( p>liam5t>y re=m 
9 ! ,ed9burgh ,review4#adb ,"h he       
accepts ! doctr9e1 criticis$ by ,james  
,mill1 t a prop] repres5tative sy/em mu/
 be judg$1 n1 z ,mill ma9ta9$1 solely by
 ! id5tity ( its int]e/ ) t ( !         
community at l>ge1 b by its fitness to  
give p[] to diff]5t classes4 ,x foll[s t
 ! l&[n]s1 ! pr(essional classes1 & !   
populace %\ld all be repres5t$4 ,& he   
discov]s t ! v>iety ( ! ,engli% sy/em 0 
calculat$ to secure ?is end4 ,?\gh x 0  

only 9 a few con/itu5cies t ! poore/    
class _h a voice1 _! vote 9 su* places  
repres5t$ ! same class else:]e4 ,x 0 z  
well t !re %\ld be "s extreme ,radicals 
to speak = ! poore/4 ,b he ?9ks t any   
uni=m suffrage w\ld be bad1 & t univ]sal
 suffrage w\ld be ! mo/ mis*iev\s ( all 
sy/ems4#adc ,t w\ld mean ! swamp+ ( "o  
class by all--a tyranny m oppressive1   
p]haps1 ?an any o!r tyranny4 ,if "o     
class alone 7 to be repres5t$1 x %\ld be
 ! fav\rite middle class1 :i* has !     
'l>ge/ %>e ( s5se & virtue1' & is mo/   
connect$ 9 int]e/ ) o!r classes4#add ,a 
legitimate aim ( ! legislator is1 !re=e1
 to prev5t an excess ( democracy4 ,)    
,mack9to% x seems ess5tial n simply to  
suppress 's9i/] int]e/s1' b to save bo? 
! ari/ocracy & ! middle class f be+     
cru%$ by ! l[] classes4 ,! opposition is
 vital2 & x is pla9 t ! argum5t = !     
ari/ocracy1 t is1 = a sy/em develop$ f  
all mann] ( hi/orical accid5ts & n      
evolv$ out ( any simple logical         
pr9ciples1 mu/ be def5d$ ^u empirical   

gr\nds4  ,mack9to% 0 9 ,india dur+ !    
e>ly p]iod ( ! ,ed9burgh ,review4       
,jeffrey1 z editor = its fir/ qu>t] ( a 
c5tury1 may be tak5 m fully to repres5t 
its _s4 ,jeffrey's tr5*ant1 if n swagg]+
 /yle1 cov]$ a v timid1 s5sitive1 &1 9  
"s respects1 a v cons]vative temp]am5t4 
,8 objection to ! ',lake ,poets' 0 !    
objection ( ! classical to ! romantic   
s*ool4 ,jeffrey's brightness ( intellect
 may ju/ify ,c>lyle's comp>ison ( him to
 ,voltaire1--only a ,voltaire qualifi$  
by dislike to m5 :o 7 'dreadfully 9     
e>ne/4' ,jeffrey 0 a philosophical      
sceptic2 he int]pret$ ,dugald ,/ew>t z  
mean+ t metaphysics1 be+ all nons5se1 we
 mu/ make %ift ) common-s5se2 & he wrote
 a diss]tation ^u ta/e1 to prove t !re  
are no rules ab\t ta/e :atev]4 ,he 0 too
 g5u9e a sceptic to sacrifice peace to !
 hopeless se>* = tru?4 ,"o ( ! mo/ /rik+
 passages 9 8 ,essays#ade is an attack  
^u 'p]fectibility4' ,he utt]ly          
disbelieves t progress 9 k w improve    
morals or dim9i% w>1 or cure any ( !    

evils t fle% is heir to4 ,su* a man is n
 ( ! mat]ial ( :i* en?usia/ic re=m]s are
 made4 ,?r\gh\t ! w> he 0 m gov]n$ by 8 
fe> ?an by 8 zeal4 ,he 0 9 con/ant dread
 ( failure abroad & ru9 at home4 ,!     
,review provok$ ! ,tories1 & induc$ !m  
to />t its rival1 n by advocacy (       
political pr9ciples1 b by its despair+  
view ( ! w>4#adf ,he 0 /ill desir+ at t 
"t 7#ahjh7 to avoid 'p>ty politics' 9 ! 
n>r[] s5se4  ,! political view          
correspond+ to ?is is giv5 9 ! articles1
 "s ( :i* 7?\gh ! au?or%ip 0 n yet av[$7
 7 assail$ by ,mill 9 ! ,we/m9/]4 ,9 an 
e>ly article#adg he def5ds ! ,fr5*      
philosoph]s aga9/ ! imputation (        
responsibility = ! reign ( t]ror4 ,_!   
excell5t & humane doctr9es _h be5       
misappli$ by ! 'exasp]ation' &          
precipitation ( inexp]i5c$ vot]s4 ,8 mo/
 *>act]i/ic article is "o publi%$ 9     
,janu>y #ahaj4 ,! failure ( ! ,wal*]5   
exp$ition _h confirm$ 8 disbelief 9 our 
milit>y lead]s2 ! rise ( ,engli%        
,radicalism1 l$ by ,burdett 9 ! ,h\se ( 

,commons1 & ,cobbett 9 ! press1 ! widely
 spread di/ress & ! sev]ity ( oppressive
 measures1 r\s$ 8 ke5e/ al>m4#adh ,we   
are1 he decl>$1 betwe5 two viol5t &     
p]nici\s factions--! c\rti]s ( arbitr>y 
p[] & ! democrats4 ,if ! ,:ig lead]s did
 n fir/ conciliate & !n re/ra9 ! p1 !   
/ruggle ( ! extreme p>ties w\ld soon    
sweep away ! con/itution1 ! mon>*y1 & ! 
,:ig ari/ocracy by :i* t mon>*y 'is     
controll$1 confirm$1 & exalt$ above all 
o!r =ms ( polity4' ,democracy1 x 0 pla91
 0 increas+ ) dang]\s rapidity4 ,a ?ird 
( e man's income 0 be+ tak5 by taxes1 & 
aft] tw5ty ye>s' boa/ful ho/ility we 7  
left )\t a s+le ally4 ,consid]+ all ?is1
 x seems z ?\gh '! :olesome days (      
,engl& 7 numb]$1' & we are on ! 'v]ge ( 
! mo/ dreadful ( all calamities'--a     
civil w>4  ,jeffrey has le>n$ f ,hume t 
all gov]nm5t is ultimately f\nd$ ^u     
op9ion4 ,! great ?+ is to make ! action 
( public op9ion regul> & con/itut$4 ,!  
:ole ma*9]y ( ! con/itution1 he says1 is
 = ! express purpose ( 'prev5t+ ! k+ly  

p[] f da%+ itself to pieces aga9/ ! m   
radical p[] ( ! p4'#adi ,! m]it ( a     
repres5tative body is n to be te/$      
simply by ! goodness ( its legislation1 
b by its dim9i%+ ! int5sity ( ! /ruggle 
= ! supreme p[]4 ,jeffrey 9 fact is     
above all preoccupi$ ) ! dang] (        
revolution4 ,! popul> w is1 9 fact1     
supreme2 repression may =ce x into      
explosion2 b by judici\s managem5t x may
 be tam$ & temp]$4 ,!n we ne$ above all 
?+s t x %\ld1 z he says 9 8 reply to    
,mill 7,decemb] #ahbf71 give _! 'natural
 & :olesome influ5ce to weal? & rank4'  
,! /ability ( ! ,engli% ,con/itution    
dep5ds1 z he said 9 #ahaj1 ^u ! mon>*y &
 ari/ocracy1 & _! /ability on _! be+ !  
natural gr[? ( ages & hav+ '/ruck _!    
roots deep into e /ratum ( ! political  
soil4'  ,! ,:igs repres5t ! view impli$ 
9 ,macaulay's attack ^u ,mill--! view ( 
cultivat$ m5 ( s5se1 ) _! eyes op5 to _m
 difficulties ov]look$ by zealots1 b f> 
too sceptical & despond5t to r\se any   
en?usiasm or accept any dogmas          

absolutely4 ,by ! "t ( ! ,re=m ,bill !  
dang] 0 obvi\sly on ! side ( dogg$      
ob/ructionism1 & !n ! 'middle p>ty1' z  
,jeffrey calls x1 incl9$ t[>ds !        
,radical side & begg$ !m to jo9 its     
ranks & ab&on ! attempt to realise      
extreme views4 ,!y c\ld also take cr$it 
z mod]ate m5 d = hav+ all along be5 9 ! 
"r4 ,b to bo? extremes1 z ,jeffrey      
pa!tically compla9s1 !y appe>$ to be m]e
 trimm]s4#aej  ,! ,utilit>ian held !    
,:ig to be a 'trimm]'2 ! ,:ig ?\ght !   
,utilit>ian a fanatic2 !y agre$ 9 hold+ 
t ! ,tory 0 simply /upid4 ,& yet1 :5 we 
look at ! ,tory cre$1 we %all f9d t bo? 
,:ig & ,utilit>ian ov]look$ "s v vital  
problems4 ,! ,tories ( c\rse repres5t ! 
advocates ( /rong gov]nm5t2 &1 z _!     
oppon5ts held1 _h no !ories--only       
prejudices4 ,! fir/ article ( ! cre$ (  
an ,eldon or a ,sidm\? 01 ',i believe 9 
,george ,,iii4'2--n a doctr9e capable ( 
philosophical ju/ification4 ,su*        
,toryism meant ! cont5t ( ! ri* & p[]ful
 ) ! sy/em by :i* _! p[] & weal? 7      

gu>ante$4 ,_! in/9cts _h be5 %>p5$ by ! 
,fr5* revolution2 & !y saw 9 any *ange !
 removal ( "o ( ! safegu>ds aga9/ a fre%
 outbur/ ( ! ne!r fires4 ,! great bulk (
 all political op9ion is an in/9ct1 n a 
philosophy2 & ! ob/ructive ,tories      
repres5t$ little m ?an class prejudice &
 ! dread ( a great convulsion4 ,yet     
intellig5t ,tories 7 be+ driv5 to f9d "s
 reasons = _! cre$1 :i* ! ,utilit>ians  
might h consid]$ m c>efully4   ,,iii4   
,,cons]vatism  ,a fam\s man ( lett]s    
repres5ts c]ta9 t5d5cies m cle>ly ?an ! 
av]age politician4 ,rob]t ,s\!y         
7#aggg-ahdc71 ! 'ultra s]vile           
sack-guzzl]1' z ,b5?am pleasantly calls 
him 9 #ahbc1aea 0 probably ! be/ abus$  
man1 on 8 own side at lea/1 among       
,mill's contempor>ies4 ,he 0 attack$ by 
,mill himself1 & savagely d5\nc$ by     
,byron & ,hazlitt4 ,he 0 n only a       
conspicu\s writ] 9 ! ,qu>t]ly ,review b1
 z 8 enemies ?\ght1 a r5egade b\ght by  
p5sions4 ,x is1 ,i hope1 ne$less to     
def5d him aga9/ ?is *>ge4 ,he 0 simply  

an impati5t man ( g5]\s in/9cts & no    
reflective p[]1 :o _h 9 8 y\? caught !  
revolution>y fev]1 &1 z he grew up1     
develop$ ! patriotic fev]4  ,lat] views 
are giv5 9 ! ,colloquies on ! ,progress 
& ,prospects ( ,society 7#ahbi71 *iefly 
kn[n to mod]n read]s by "o ( ,macaulay's
 essays4 ,s\!y 0 z assailable z ,mill4  
,8 political economy is a m]e muddle2 8 
political views are obvi\sly di/ort$ by 
accid5tal prejudices2 & ! :ole book is  
desultory & disjo9t$4 ,9 a dialogue ) ! 
gho/ ( ,sir ,?omas ,m1 he takes !       
opportunity ( introduc+ descriptions (  
sc5]y1 lit]>y digressions1 & qua9t      
illu/rations f 8 va/ /ores ( read+ to ! 
confusion ( all def9ite arrangem5t4     
,s\!y is 9 ! awkw>d position ( a        
dogmati/ def5d+ a compromise4 ,an       
,anglican claim+ infallibility is       
necess>ily inconsi/5t4 ,8 view (        
tol]ation1 = example1 is oddly obscure4 
,he w\ld app>5tly l to p]secute         
infidels2#aeb & yet he wi%es to d5\nce !
 ,ca?olic *ur* = its p]secut+ pr9ciples4

 ,he seems to date ! ma9 social evils to
 ! *anges :i* began at ! ,re=mation1 &  
yet he looks back to ! p]iod :i* succe$$
 ! ,re=mation z repres5t+ ! ideal /ate (
 ! ,briti% polity4 ,8 sympa?y ) !       
lit]ature ( ! sixte5? & sev5te5?        
c5turies pr$ispos$ him to ?is position4 
,he w\ld h be5 m intelligible if he _h  
be5 m di/9ctly reaction>y4 ,= all t1 8  
views %[ ! pres5ce ( a leav5 :i* 0      
mat]ially to affect ! lat] developm5t ( 
,engli% op9ions4 ,t ,jacob9ism meant    
an>*y1 & t an>*y l$ irresi/ibly to      
milit>y despotism 7 propositions :i* to 
him1 z to s _m o!rs1 seem$ to be        
e/abli%$ by ! ,fr5* revolution4 ,:at1   
!n1 0 ! cause ( ! an>*y8 ,sir ,?omas ,m 
comes f ! grave to tell u ?is1 because  
he _h witness$ ! pa/ symptoms ( !       
process4 ,! transition f ! old feudal   
sy/em to ! mod]n indu/rial organisation 
_h 9 8 day become unmi/akably develop$4 
,9 feudal times1 e man _h 8 def9ite     
place 9 society2 he 0 a memb] ( a little
 gr\p2 support$1 if controll$ &         

discipl9$1 by an elaborate sy/em (      
spiritual au?ority4 ,! ,re=mation 0 !   
p]iod at :i* ! 'ma/]less man' made 8    
appe>ance4 ,! conv]sion ( pa/ures into  
arable l&1 ! gr[? ( comm]ce & (         
paup]ism1 7 m>ks ( ! com+ *ange4 ,x     
proce$$ quietly = "s g5]ations2 b !     
developm5t ( ! mod]n manufactur+ sy/em  
repres5ts ! op]ation ( ! same process on
 a f> l>g] scale1 & ) f> great]         
int5sity4 ,! result may be describ$ by  
say+ t we h in/ead ( a legitimate       
developm5t a deg5]ation ( society4 ,a   
va/ populace has gr[n up outside ( ! old
 ord]4 ,x is indep5d5t inde$1 b at !    
heavy price ( be+ r an inorganic mass   
?an a con/itu5t "p ( ! body politic4 ,x 
is1 briefly1 to ! gr[? ( a huge         
'prolet>iate' outside ! *ur*1 & ho/ile  
to ! /ate1 t ,s\!y attributes all social
 evils4  ,! view has become famili>     
en\gh 9 v>i\s %apes2 & 9 ! reproa*es :i*
 ,s\!y br+s aga9/ ! manufactur+ sy/em we
 h an anticipation ( o!r famili>        
lam5tations4 ,our manufactur+ weal? is a

 'w51' a 'fung\s excresc5ce f ! body    
politic'2#aec x is no m a pro( ( real   
prosp]ity ?an ! size ( a dropsical      
pati5t is a pro( ( heal?2#aed !         
manufactur] wor%ips mammon in/ead (     
,molo*2#aee & wr+s 8 =tune f !          
degradation ( 8 lab\r]s z 8 w>like      
ance/ors wrung weal? f _! slaves2 he    
conf9es *ildr5 9 a ta9t$ atmosph]e1     
physical & moral1 f morn+ till night1 & 
a celebrat$ m9i/] 7,pitt7 boa/s ( ?is v 
evil2#aef he treats 8 fell[-creatures z 
ma*9es1#aeg & weal?1 ?\gh accumulat$1 is
 n diffus$2 ! great capitali/s1 'l pikes
 9 a fi%pond1' dev\r ! weak] fi%2#aeh   
competition is n direct$ to provid+ !   
be/ goods1 b ! *eape/2#aei e man        
oppresses 8 neighb\r2 ! l&lord racks 8  
t5ant1 ! f>m] gr9ds ! lab\r]2 all !     
little c5tres ( p]man5t life are brok5  
up2 n "o man 9 a ?\s& is buri$ ) 8      
fa!rs1 & ! natural ties & dome/ic       
affections are prematurely dissolv$4#afj
  ,"h1 too1 is to be f\nd ! s\rce ( !   
infidel op9ions :i* call = suppression4 

,london is a hotb$ ( corruption2#afa a  
c5tre ( weal?2 & yet1 9 spite (         
poor-laws1 a place :]e wret*es are dy+ (
 />vation1 & :i* c\ld collect a mob     
capable ( produc+ ! mo/ appall+         
cata/rophes4 ,9 su* a place1 m5 become  
unbeliev]s l savages1 because remov$ f  
all humanis+ influ5ces1 & booksell]s c  
c>ry on a trade 9 blasphemy4 ,infidelity
 is br$ 9 '! fil? & corruption ( l>ge   
t[ns & manufactur+ di/ricts4'#afb ,!    
disappe>ance ( cl]ical influ5ce has l$  
to 'a mass ( ignorance1 vice1 &         
wret*$ness :i* no g5]\s he>t c          
contemplate )\t grief4'#afc ,x is n     
surpris+ t1 9 ,s\!y's op9ion1 x is      
d\btful :e!r ! bulk ( ! p has ga9$ or   
lo/ 9 ! la/ ?\s& ye>s4#afd ,macaulay    
takes all ?is z m]e s5tim5talism &      
pref]5ce ( a picturesque outside to     
solid com=t4 ,b :atev] ,s\!y's errors ( 
fact1 !y %[ at lea/ a deep] insight ?an 
8 oppon5t into "s social evils4 ,8      
propos$ rem$ies expla9 8 diagnosis ( !  
evil4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 x is n surpris+1 

?\gh x surpris$ ,macaulay1 t he _h _m   
sympa?ies ) ! sociali/1 ,rob]t ,ow54 ,he
 saw ,ow5 9 #ahaf1afe & 0 mu* impress$  
by 8 views4 ,9 ! ,colloquies1#aff ,ow5  
is call$ ! 'happie/1 mo/ b5efic5t1 & mo/
 practical ( all en?usia/s'2 an acc\nt  
is giv5 ( "o ( ! e>lie/ co-op]ative     
s*emes1#afg & ,s\!y believes 9 !        
possibility ( ! plan4 ,he makes1 h[ev]1 
"o significant rem>k4 ,ow51 he ?9ks1    
c\ld n succe$ )\t enli/+ 9 8 support "s 
sect>ian zeal4 ,z ,ow5 happ5$ to object 
to all religi\s sects1 ?is defect c\ld n
 be rem$i$4  ,s\!y1 9 fact1 held t !    
abs5ce ( religi\s discipl9e 0 at ! root 
( ! :ole evil4 ,religion1 he decl>es1   
mu* to ! scorn ( ,macaulay1 'is ! basis 
^u :i* civil gov]nm5t re/s4'#afh ,!re   
mu/1 z he inf]s1 be an e/abli%$         
religion1 & ! /ate :i* neglects ?is duty
 is prep>+ its own ru94 ',no?+1' he     
decl>es1 '9 ab/ract sci5ce c be m c]ta9 
?an ^! propositions1' ?\gh !y are d5i$  
by 'our pr(essors ( ! arts babblative & 
scribblative'--t is1 by ,b5?amites &    

,:igs4 ,= "h1 9 fact1 we come to !      
irreconcilable diff]5ce4 ,gov]nm5t is n 
to be a m]e ma*9]y = suppress+ viol5ce1 
b an ally ( ! *ur* 9 spread+ s\nd       
religion & morality4 ,! rul]s1 in/ead ( 
m]ely reflect+ ! popul> w1 %\ld lead &  
direct all ag5cies = suppress+ vice &   
mis]y4 ,s\!y1 z 8 son takes pa9s to     
%[1#afi ?\gh he 0 = uphold+ au?ority by 
! mo/ /r+5t measures1 0 conv9c$ t ! "o  
way to make gov]nm5t /rong 0 to improve 
! condition ( ! p4 ,he propos$ _m       
measures ( re=m2 national education on !
 pr9ciples1 ( c\rse1 ( ,dr4 ,bell2      
/ate-aid$ colonisation & ! cultivation (
 wa/e l&s at home2 ,prote/ant si/]hoods 
to reproduce ! good effects ( ! old ord]
 :i* he regrett$ & yet _h to condemn on 
,anglican pr9ciples4 ,! ,engli% *ur*    
%\ld h made use ( ! ,wesleyans z ! *ur* 
( ,rome _h us$ ! ,franciscans &         
,dom9icans2 & 8 ,life ( ,wesley 0       
prompt$ by 8 fond belief t ?is might yet
 be done4 ,gov]nm5t1 he said1 ought to  
be 'pat]nal'2#agj & 8 lead+ aspirations 

h be5 adopt$ by ,sociali/s on ! "o h&1 &
 ! conv]ts to ,ca?olicism on ! o!r4  ,= 
8 philosophy1 ,s\!y 0 9 ! habit ( ref]r+
 to ,col]idge2 & ,col]idge's            
,con/itution ( ,*ur* & ,/ate is p]haps !
 book 9 :i* ,col]idge comes ne>e/ to    
br++ an argum5t to a conclusion4 ,?\gh  
m>k$ by 8 usual complexities ( /yle1 8  
p>5!ses & irrelevant allusions & glances
 at wide metaphysical discussions1 he   
succe$s 9 lay+ d[n a suffici5t sket* ( 8
 position4 ,! book 0 orig9ally publi%$ 9
 #ahcj1 & ref]s to ! ,ca?olic           
emancipation ( ! previ\s ye>4 ,unlike   
,s\!y1 he approves ( ! measure1 only    
regrett+ ! abs5ce ( c]ta9 safegu>ds2 & 8
 g5]al purpose may be said to be to give
 su* a !ory ( ! relations ( *ur* & /ate 
z may ju/ify an e/abli%m5t ^u l(ti]     
gr\nds ?an ^? ( ! commonplace ,tory4  ,8
 me?od1 z he expla9s1 is to f9d ! true  
'idea' ( a con/itution & a national     
*ur*4 ,! 'idea1' he expla9s1 does n mean
 ! consci\s aim ( ! p]sons :o f\nd$ or  
n[ con/itute ! bodies 9 "q4 ,an 'idea'  

is ! subjective c\nt]p>t ( an objective 
law4#aga ,x corresponds to ! vital =ce  
:i* m\lds ! /ructure ( ! social         
organism1 al?\gh x may nev] h be5       
di/9ctly =mulat$ by any "o ( ! actors4  
,9 ?is s5se1 !re=e1 we %\ld h to proce$ 
by a hi/orical me?od4 ,we %\ld /udy !   
con/itution z we /udy ! physiology ( a  
physical body2#agb & he works out !     
analogy at "s l5g?4 ,s f>1 ,col]idge is 
express+ ! *>act]i/ic view t ,nature 9  
g5]al is to be reg>d$ z an evolution2   
only t evolution is to be und]/ood 9 !  
s5se ( ,s*ell+ n 9 ! s5se ( ei!r ,d>w94 
,( c\rse1 :5 ,col]idge pr(esses to f9d !
 'idea' ( ! *ur* & /ate1 :at he really  
f9ds is n ! idea s mu* z 8 idea ( !     
idea--:i* may be a v diff]5t ?+4 ,8 !ory
 ( 'evolution' is compatible ) assum+ t 
evolutions are illegitimate :5ev] he    
happ5s to dislike !m4  ,he co9cides r   
curi\sly ) ,james ,mill 9 ass]t+ t !    
'social bond' 0 orig9ally =m$ to protect
 prop]ty1 n to protect life4#agc ,he    
discov]s accord+ly t ! anci5t races1    

,jews1 ,go?s1 & ,kelts alike1 divid$ !  
l& into two p>ts1 "o to be inh]it$ by   
sep>ate families1 ! o!r to be set ap>t =
 ! nation4 ,f ! latt] or ! 'nationalty' 
spr+s ! *ur* e/abli%m5t4 ,?is prop]ty   
belongs rightfully & inali5ably to !    
nation itself4 ,x is held by :at he     
calls ! 'cl]isy4' ,its functions are1 9 
! fir/ place1 to provide a c>e] by :i* !
 poore/ classes may rise to a high]     
position2 & secondly1 to provide = !    
developm5t ( all ! qualities :i* di/+ui%
 ! civilis$ man f ! savage4#agd         
,briefly1 !n1 ! *ur* is t "p ( !        
national organism :i* is devot$ to      
educat+ ! p to be 'ob$i5t1 free1 useful 
organisable subjects1 citiz5s1 &        
patriots1 liv+ to ! b5efit ( ! e/ate1 & 
prep>$ to die = its def5ce4' ,h5ry viii4
 w\ld h surpass$ ,alfr$ if he _h direct$
 ! 'nationalty' to its true purposes2 t 
is1 especially to ! ma9t5ance (         
univ]sities1 ( a p>o*ial cl]gy1 & (     
s*ools 9 e p>i%4 ,unluckily1 ,h5ry      
,,viii4's 'idea' ( a national *ur* 0    

vague4 ,ideas 7 n 8 /rong po9t4         
,col]idge appe>s to be especially tr\bl$
 to "w ! pr9ciples into con=mity ) 8    
views ( ,ca?olic emancipation4 ,!       
peculi>ity ( ! !ory is t ! *ur*1 accord+
 to him1 seems to be simply a national  
in/itution4 ,x might exi/1 & 9 fact1 did
 exi/ be=e ,*ri/ianity1 z is prov$ n    
only by ! ,jewi% b by ! ,druidical      
*ur*4#age ,t x %\ld be ,*ri/ian 9 ,engl&
 is a 'bless$ accid5t1' or 'provid5tial 
boon'--or1 z he puts x1 'mo/ awfully a  
gods5d4' ,h5ce x foll[s t a prim>y      
condition ( its utility is t ! cl]isy   
%\ld contribute to ! support ( ! o!r    
organs ( ! community4 ,!y mu/ n be !    
subjects ( a =eign p[]1 nor1 z he argues
 at l5g?1 subject to ! desocialis+      
influ5ce ( celibacy4 ,x foll[s t !      
,roman *ur* is unfitt$ to be ev] a      
national *ur*1 al?\gh1 if t dang] be    
suffici5tly obviat$1 no political       
disqualifications %\ld be impos$ ^u     
,romani/s4 ,& ?us1 too1 ! ,*ur* ,ca?olic
 is ess5tially a body :i* has no        

relations to any p>ticul> /ate4 ,x is   
oppos$ to ! _w1 n to ! nation1 & c h no 
visible head or 'p]sonal c5tre (        
unity4'#agf ,! *ur* :i* makes su* claims
 is ! revelation ( ,anti*ri/4  ,we ne$ n
 inquire into ! prophecies4 ,x is en\gh 
to say t to ,col]idge z to ,s\!y !      
pres]vation ( an e/abli%$ *ur* seem$ to 
be an ess5tial condition ( morality &   
civilisation4 ,!y diff]$ f ! ord9>y     
,tory1 :o 0 cont5t to def5d any ( !     
abuses by ! cry ( sacrilege &           
confiscation4 ,! *ur* 0 to be made wor?y
 ( its position1 & r5d]$ capable (      
dis*>g+ its high functions effectually4 
,col]idge1 x may be said1 w\ld fully    
admit t an organ :i* _h ceas$ to        
correspond to its idea mu/ die4 ,x c\ld 
n cont9ue to pres]ve itself by m]e =ce (
 ob/ruction1 b mu/ ar\se1 ?r[ (f its    
abuses1 & %[ itself to be wor?y ( its   
high claims4 ,mean:ile1 h[ev]1 he 0     
p]haps m anxi\s to %[ ! ,utilit>ians t 9
 assail+ ! in/itution on acc\nt ( its   
abuses1 !y 7 really de/roy+ ! mo/       

ess5tial gu>antee ( progress4 ,he sums  
up1 9 a curi\s passage1 ! pro(s ( mod]n 
degradation4#agg ,! wick$ eighte5?      
c5tury is ( c\rse responsible = ev]y?+4 
,! 'me*anic corpuscul> !ory'2 !         
consequ5t decay ( philosophy1 illu/rat$ 
by su* phrases z an excell5t 'idea' (   
cook+2 '! ourang-outang !ology ( ! orig9
 ( ! human species sub/itut$ = ! fir/ t5
 *apt]s ( ! book ( ,g5esis2 rights (    
nature = ! duties & privileges (        
citiz5s2 idealess facts1 misnam$ pro(s f
 hi/ory1 = pr9ciples & ! insight d]iv$ f
 !m'3 all ^! & o!r calamit\s results (  
mod]n philosophy are connect$ ) a       
neglect ( ! well-be+ ( ! p1 ! mi/ak+ ( a
 l>ge rev5ue = prosp]ity1 & !           
consumption ( g9 by paup]s to ! 'value (
 eighte5 millions ye>ly4' ,he appeals   
pa!tically to ! lead]s ( ! ,utilit>ians4
 ,!y w scorn him = pron\nc+ t a 'natural
 cl]isy' is 'an ess5tial elem5t ( a     
rightly con/itut$ nation4' ,all _! tract
 societies & me*anics' in/itutes &      
'lecture baza>s "u ! absurd "n (        

univ]sities' are 'empiric specifics' :i*
 fe$ ! disease4 ,sci5ce w be plebifi$1 n
 popul>is$4 ,! morality necess>y = a    
/ate 'c only exi/ = ! p 9 ! =m (        
religion4 ,b ! exi/5ce ( a true         
philosophy1 or ! p[] & habit (          
contemplat+ p>ticul>s 9 ! unity & fontal
 mirror ( ! idea1--?is 9 ! rul]s &      
tea*]s ( a nation is indisp5sable to a  
s\nd /ate ( religion 9 all classes4 ,9  
fact1 religion1 true or false1 is & ev] 
has be5 ! c5tre ( gravity 9 a realm to  
:i* all o!r ?+s mu/ & w accommodate     
!mselves4'  ,! exi/5ce ( ! eighte5?     
c5tury always rema9$ a hopeless puzzle =
 ,col]idge & 8 foll[]s4 ,:y at t p]iod  
ev]y?+ w5t wrong 9 ! high] regions (    
?\ght rema9$ a my/]y4 ',god is above1'  
says ,sir ,?omas ,m to ,s\!y1#agh 'b !  
devil is bel[2 evil pr9ciples are 9 _!  
nature m active ?an good4' ,! devil     
seem$ to h got into ! upp] air1 & 0     
work+ ) 8 allies1 ,b5?am & ,mill & ,pa9e
 & ,cobbett1 ) rem>kable success4 ,b1   
:atev] ! !ories ( cons]vatives 9 *ur* & 

/ate1 ! fact t ! !ories 7 held is       
important4 ,! diametrical opposition    
betwe5 two s*ools1 "o ( :i* reg>d$ !    
*ur* z a simple abuse1 & its doctr9es z 
effete sup]/itions1 :ile ! o!r look$ to 
! *ur* & its cre$ z giv+ ! sole hope =  
suppress+ ! evil pr9ciple1 0 a critical 
po9t 9 lat] movem5ts1 political z well z
 religi\s4   ,,iv4 ,,socialism  ,i h    
spok5 ( ,s\!y's sympa?y = ,rob]t ,ow54  
,ow5 7#agga-aheh7 is "o ( ! *>act]i/ic  
figures ( ! "t4 ,he 0 ! son ( a village 
tradesman 9 ,wales1 & _h ris5 to        
prosp]ity by ! qualities ( ! virtu\s    
appr5tice4 ,indu/ry1 pati5ce1 an        
imp]turbably good temp]1 & sagacity 9   
bus9ess matt]s _h rais$ him to high     
position z a manufactur] at ! "t ( !    
rapid advance ( ! cotton trade4 ,_m poor
 m5 h foll[$ ! same pa? to weal?4 ,ow5's
 peculi>ity 0 t :ile he became a        
capitali/ he pres]v$ 8 sympa?y ) ! work+
 classes4 ,:ile improv+ ma*9]y1 he      
compla9$ t ! 'liv+ ma*9]y' 0 neglect$4  
,"o great /ep 9 8 c>e] 0 8 m>riage to ! 

daught] ( ,david ,dale ( ,new ,lan>k1 a 
religi\s & wor?y manufactur]4#agi ,dale 
_h employ$ a numb] ( paup] *ildr5 :o 7 9
 t day to be dispos$ ( by _! p>i%es2 &  
_h done 8 be/ to make _! position m     
tol]able4 ,ow5 took up ?is s*eme1 &     
c>ri$ x out m sy/ematically4 ,new       
,lan>k1 9 8 h&s1 became a model village2
 he provid$ 9 v>i\s ways = ! enc\ragem5t
 ( sobriety1 indu/ry1 & hone/y among 8  
workm51 set up /ores to supply *eap &   
good provisions1 & especially provid$   
infant s*ools & a sy/ematic education4  
',! *ildr51' he decl>es1 '7 ! happie/   
human be+s he ev] saw4' ,:5 8 p>tn]s    
int]f]$ ) 8 plans1 ,ow5 b\ght !m out &  
/>t$ ! company to :i* ,b5?am & ,all5    
belong$4 ,new ,lan>k rapidly became     
fam\s4 ,x 0 visit$ by all !             
philan?ropi/s ( ! day4 ,! royal dukes n 
only ( ,engl& b ( ,russia 7 int]e/$2 &  
,ow5 ev5 believ$ t he _h conv]t$        
,napoleon at ,elba4 ,s f>1 ,ow5 0 a     
b5evol5t capitali/1 ex]cis+ a pat]nal   
sway ov] 8 p4 ,he became conv9c$1 h[ev]1

 t he _h discov]$ ! key to ! great      
social problems ( ! day4 ,:5 ! di/resses
 foll[$ ! peace1 he 0 prep>$ to prop\nd 
8 rem$y1 & f\nd _m will+ he>]s 9 all    
classes4 ,liv]pool & ,sidm\? li/5$ to   
him ) fav\r1 & ! duke ( ,k5t became     
presid5t ( a committee />t$ to c>ry out 
8 views4 ,he gave ! impetus to ! movem5t
 by :i* ! ,factory ,act ( #ahai 0 c>ri$1
 al?\gh x 0 f> f embody+ 8 proposals 9  
_! complet5ess4  ,ow5's diagnosis ( !   
social disease expla9s ,s\!y's          
p>tiality4 ,l ,s\!y1 he trac$ ! evil to 
! developm5t ( ! manufactur+ sy/em4 ,t  
sy/em involv$1 z he held1 :at lat]      
,sociali/s h call$ ! 'exploitation' ( ! 
lab\r+ classes by ! capitali/s4 ,)      
s+ul>ly crude notions ( political       
economy1 ,ow5 assum$ t ! 'dead ma*9]y' 0
 9 competition ) ! 'liv+ ma*9]y4' ,he   
made />tl+ calculations z to ! am\nt (  
human lab\r repres5t$ by /eam-eng9es2 & 
took = grant$ t ! /eam-eng9e displac$ an
 equal numb] ( workm54 ,8 rem$y = pov]ty
 0 to set up a numb] ( communities1 :i* 

%\ld ma9ta9 !mselves by cultivat+ ! soil
 ) ! spade1 & 9 :i* e man %\ld lab\r =  
all4 ,?us ,new ,lan>ks 7 to be spread   
ov] ! c\ntry1 ) ! diff]5ce t ! employ] 0
 to be omitt$4 ,ow51 9 %ort1 became     
prop]ly a ,sociali/1 hav+ be5 simply a  
pat]nal philan?ropi/4 ,= a "t ,ow5 met )
 consid]able support4 ,a great meet+ 0  
held 9 ,london 9 #ahag1 & a committee 0 
/>t$ two ye>s aft]w>ds1 ( :i* ,ric>do 0 
a memb]4 ,ric>do1 inde$1 took pa9s to   
let x be kn[n t he did n believe 9 !    
efficacy ( ,ow5's plans4 ,mean:ile ,ow5 
0 break+ (f 8 connection ) ,new ,lan>k1 
& becom+ ! apo/le ( a new social cre$4  
,8 mission>y voyages took him to ,irel&1
 to ! ,unit$ ,/ates & ,mexico1 &        
attempts 7 made to e/abli% communities 9
 ,scotl& & 9 ! ,/ate ( ,ill9ois4  ,ow5 &
 8 foll[]s became natural antagoni/s ( !
 ,utilit>ians4 ,he agre$ ) ,s\!y 9 trac+
 di/ress to ! developm5t ( ! great      
manufactur+ sy/em1 ?\gh he w5t mu*      
fur!r4 ,! pr9ciples ess5tially involv$ 9
 ! :ole indu/rial sy/em 71 accord+ to   

him1 p]nici\s4 ,he held ! ess5tial      
doctr9e ( 8 mod]n successors t prop]ty  
is !ft4 ,betwe5 su* a man & ! m5 :o took
 ! ,weal? ( ,nations = _! gospel1 &     
,ric>do z its au?oris$ comm5tator1 !re 0
 an impassable gulf4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ,ow5 
0 equally f> f ! ,tory view ( religi\s  
pr9ciples4 ,s\!y's rem>k t he c\ld only 
succe$ by ally+ himself ) "s religi\s   
fanaticism 0 j to ! po9t4  ,ow5 0 a man 
( v few ideas1 ?\gh he held su* z he _h 
) extraord9>y t5acity1 & en=c$ !m by !  
effective if illogical me?od ( incessant
 repetition4 ,among !m 0 ! idea :i*1 z  
he decl>es1 _h occurr$ to him be=e he 0 
t5 ye>s old t !re 0 some?+ radically    
wrong 9 all religions4 ,:e!r ?is op9ion 
_h come to him f ! diffus$ rationalism (
 8 "t1 or 0 cong5ial to ! practical &   
prosaic temp]am5t :i* 0 disquiet$ by !  
wa/e ( en]gy ov] futile sect>ian        
squabbles1 or 0 sugge/$ by 8 e>ly /udy (
 ,s5eca--! only au?or ( :om he speaks z 
hav+ impress$ him 9 e>ly ye>s--x became 
a fix$ conviction4 ,he _h be5 an e>ly   

support] ( ,lanca/] & 'unsect>ian'      
education4 ,:5 8 great meet+ 0 to be    
held 9 #ahag x occurr$ to him t he might
 z well ann\nce 8 views4 ,he accord+ly  
in=m$ 8 he>]s t ! religions ( ! _w 7 !  
great ob/acles to progress4 ,he expect$1
 z he assures u1 t ?is c&id av[al w\ld  
cause him to be 'torn 9 pieces4' ,x     
provok$ on ! contr>y g5]al applause1 &  
,ow5 congratulat$ himself r ha/ily on   
hav+ /ruck ! dea?bl[ ( sup]/ition4      
,ow5's position1 at any rate1 0 a       
significant symptom4 ,x %[$ t !         
,sociali/ movem5t sprang f motives      
outside ! sph]e ( ! *ur*es4 ,ow5's      
p]sonal simplicity & calmness seems to h
 sav$ him f any bitt] animosity4 ,he    
simply set aside ,*ri/ianity z n to !   
purpose1 & w5t on calmly ass]t+ &       
re-ass]t+ 8 views to ,ca?olics &        
,prote/ants1 ,:igs1 ,radicals1 &        
,tories4 ,!y agre$ 9 consid]+ him to be 
a bore1 b 7 bor$ r ?an irritat$4 ,ow5   
himself1 l lat] ,sociali/s1 pr(ess$     
indiff]5ce to ! political w>f>e ( ,:igs 

& ,tories4 ,:51 at ! height ( ! ,re=m   
movem5t1 he publi%$ a pap] call$ !      
,crisis1 ! title ref]r$ n to ! /ruggle 9
 :i* all ! upp] classes 7 absorb$1 b to 
! indu/rial revolution :i* he hop$ to   
br+ ab\t4 ,he w\ld h be5 equally ready  
to accept help f ,:ig1 ,tory1 or        
,radical2 b 8 position 0 "o equally     
di/a/eful to all4 ,! ,tory c\ld n ally  
himself ) ! man :o ?\ght all religions  
nons5se2 nor any ( ! regul> p>ties ) !  
man :o condemn$ ! :ole indu/rial sy/em &
 0 oppos$ to all ! *]i%$ prejudices ( ! 
respectable middle classes4  ,ow5's     
fav\rite dogma is wor? a mom5t's notice4
 ,he 0 nev] tir$ ( repeat+ t '"* is =m$ 
by circum/ances'2 f :i* he placidly     
inf]s t no man des]ves praise or blame =
 8 conduct4 ,! inf]5ce1 x mu/ be        
admitt$1 is an awkw>d "o 9 any e?ical   
sy/em4 ,x repres5ts1 probably1 ,ow5's   
mo/ s]i\s objection to ! religions ( !  
_w4 ,! ultimate aim ( ! prie/ is to save
 m5's s\ls2 & s9 means conduct :i* leads
 to sup]natural puni%m5t4 ,ow51 on !    

contr>y1 held t immorality 0 simply a   
disease to be cur$1 & t wra? ) ! s9n] 0 
z mu* out ( place z wra? ) a pati5t4 ,9 
?is s5se ,ow5's view1 z ,i at lea/ %\ld 
hold1 def9es ! correct />t+-po9t ( any  
social re=m]4 ,he has to consid] a      
sci5tific problem1 n to be an ag5t ( a  
sup]natural legislator4 ,he %\ld try to 
alt] ! g5]al conditions f :i* social    
evils spr+1 n to deal 9 p>dons or       
puni%m5t4 ,ow5 0 act+ ) ?or\ghly good   
s5se 9 8 e>ly applications ( ?is        
pr9ciple4 ,! c>e1 = example1 :i* he     
be/[$ ^u infant education recognis$ !   
fact t social re=m impli$ a ?or\gh tra9+
 ( ! individual f 8 e>lie/ ye>s4 ,ow5's 
greate/ error corresponds to !          
trans=mation :i* ?is belief und]w5t 9 8 
m9d4 ,s9ce circum/ances =m "*1 he seems 
to h argu$1 x is only necess>y to *ange 
! circum/ances ( a gr[n-up man to alt] 8
 :ole disposition4 ,8 ambiti\s s*eme 9  
,am]ica seem$ to suppose t x 0 en\gh to 
br+ toge!r a miscellane\s collection ( !
 poor & discont5t$ p1 & to invite !m all

 to behave ) p]fect unselfi%ness4 ,at   
pres5t ,i ne$ only rem>k t 9 ?is respect
 !re 0 a close co9cid5ce betwe5 ,ow5 & !
 ,utilit>ians4 ,bo? ( !m really aim$ at 
an improvem5t ( social conditions on a  
sci5tific me?od2 & bo? ju/ifi$ _! hopes 
by ! *>act]i/ic belief 9 ! indef9ite    
modifiability ( human nature by ext]nal 
circum/ances4  ,i turn to a man :o 0 9  
"s ways ! mo/ complete anti!sis to ,ow54
 ,william ,cobbett 7#agfb-ahce71 unlike 
,ow51 took a passionate & conspicu\s "p 
9 ! political /ruggles ( ! day4         
,cobbett1 decl>es ! ,ed9burgh ,review 9 
,july #ahjg1 has m influ5ce ?an all !   
o!r j\rnali/s put toge!r4 ,he _h won x1 
z ! review] ?\ght1 by 8 =ce ( "*1 al?\gh
 he _h *ang$ 8 politics completely ')9 !
 la/ six mon?s4' ,! fact 0 m significant
 ?an 0 !n app>5t4 ,cobbett1 son ( a     
lab\r] :o _h ris5 to be a small f>m]1 _h
 9 spite ( all ob/acles le>n$ to read & 
write & become a great ma/] ( !         
v]nacul>4 ,8 e>lie/ model _h be5        
,swift's ,tale ( a ,tub1 & 9 d[nright   

vig\r ( homely language he c\ld sc>cely 
be surpass$ ev5 by ! au?or ( ! ,drapi]'s
 ,lett]s4 ,he _h enli/$ z a soldi]1 & _h
 aft]w>ds drift$ to ,am]ica4 ,!re he _h 
become conspicu\s z a typical ,john     
,bull4 ,/urdy & pugnaci\s 9 ! highe/    
degree1 he _h tak5 ! ,engli% side 9     
,am]ican politics :5 ! great "q 0 :e!r !
 new p[] %\ld be bulli$ by ,france or by
 ,engl&4 ,he _h d5\nc$ 8 precursor1     
,pa9e1 9 language sav\r+ too mu*1       
p]haps1 ( b>rack-rooms1 b c]ta9ly n     
want+ 9 vig\r4 ,he defi$ ?reats ( t> &  
fea!rs2 put a portrait ( ,george ,,iii4 
9 8 %op-w9d[2 & glori$ 9 ,briti%        
victories1 &1 9 8 own op9ion1 kept      
,am]ican policy /raight4 ,he _h1 h[ev]1 
end$ by mak+ ,am]ica too hot to hold    
him2 & came back to decl>e t            
republicanism meant ! vile/ & mo/       
corrupt ( tyrannies1 & t1 z an          
,engli%man1 he despis$ all o!r nations  
^u e>?4 ,he 0 welcom$ on 8 return by    
,pitt's gov]nm5t z likely to be a useful
 j\rnali/1 & became ! special adh]5t (  

,w9dham1 ! ideal c\ntry-g5tleman & !    
ard5t disciple ( ,burke's pr9ciples4 ,he
 set up an indep5d5t pap] & he>tily     
support$ ! w>4 ,on ! r5ewal ( ho/ilities
 9 #ahjc ,cobbett wrote a manife/o#ahj  
direct$ by ! gov]nm5t to be read 9 e    
p>i% *ur* 9 ! k+dom1 9 ord] to r\se     
popul> feel+4 ,:5 ,w9dham came into     
(fice 9 #ahjf1 ,cobbett's fri5ds suppos$
 t 8 =tune 0 made4 ,yet at ?is v crisis 
he became a re=m]4 ,8 conv]sion 0 put   
d[n1 ( c\rse1 to 8 res5tm5t at ! neglect
 ( m9i/]s4 ,i d n ?9k t ,cobbett 0 a man
 to ^: "* "o c appeal z a conclusive    
answ] to su* *>ges4 ,un=tunately he 0 n 
free f weaknesses :i* prev5t u f d5y+ t 
8 political c\rse 0 affect$ by p]sonal  
motives4 ,b1 9 spite ( weaknesses & (   
c\ntless inconsi/5cies1 ,cobbett _h     
p]fectly g5u9e convictions & int5se     
sympa?ies :i* suffici5tly expla9 8      
position1 & make him m attractive ?an _m
 less obvi\sly imp]fect *>act]s4 ,he    
tells u unconsci\sly :at 7 ! ?\ghts     
sugge/$ to a man p5etrat$ to ! core by !

 /ronge/ prejudices--!y c h>dly be call$
 op9ions--( ! true c\ntry lab\r]4  ,!   
lab\r]1 9 ! fir/ place1 if fairly       
repres5t$ by ,cobbett1 _h none ( ! bitt]
 feel+ aga9/ ! nobility :i* sm\ld]$ 9 ! 
,fr5* peasantry4 ,cobbett look$ back z  
fondly to ! surr\nd+s ( 8 y\? z any     
nobleman c\ld look back to ,eton or to 8
 c\ntry mansion4 ,he rememb]$ ! 'sweet  
c\ntry air' r\nd ,crooksbury ,hill1 !   
song ( birds1 & ! rambles ?r\gh hea!r & 
woodl&4 ,he lov$ ! r\gh jovial sports2  
bull-bait+ & prize-fight+ & s+le-/ick   
play4 ,he _h foll[$ ! squire's h\nds on 
foot1 & admir$ )\t jeal\sy ! spl5did    
g>d5s ( ! bi%op's palace at ,f>nham4    
,squire & p>son 7 an intr9sic "p ( !    
g5]al ord] ( ?+s4 ,! /ate ( ! ,engli%   
work+ classes 01 he (t5 decl>es1 !      
happie/ t c\ld be imag9$1#aha & he      
appeals 9 confirmation to 8 own         
memories4 ,al?\gh1 ^u enli/+1 he _h f\nd
 ! army corrupt1 he n only lov$ ! soldi]
 = ! re/ ( 8 life1 b %>$ to ! full !    
patriotic exultation :i* welcom$ ! #a/ (

 ,june & ! ,nile4 ,ev5 to ! la/1 he c\ld
 n /oma* ! ab&onm5t ( ! title ',k+ (    
,france'2 = s long z x 0 reta9$1 x      
enc\rag$ ! f>m] to tell 8 son ! /ory (  
,crecy & ,ag9c\rt4#ahb  ,:at1 !n1       
ali5at$ ,cobbett8 ,briefly1 !           
degradation ( ! class he lov$4 ',i wi%1'
 he said1 'to see ! poor m5 ( ,engl& :at
 ! poor m5 ( ,engl& 7 :5 ,i 0 born1 & f 
endeav\r+ to accompli% ?is task1 no?+ b 
! want ( means %all make me desi/4'#ahc 
,he _h a "r to make t boa/1 & 8 ard\r 9 
! cause 0 z unimpea*able z hon\rable4 ,x
 expla9s :y ,cobbett has /ill a         
sympa!tic side4 ,he 0 a mass ( r\gh     
human nature2 no prig or bundle (       
ab/ract =mulae1 l ,pa9e & 8 ,radical    
successors4 ,logic ) him is n 9 excess1 
b 9 defect4 ,8 doctr9es are hopelessly  
inconsi/5t1 except s f> z !y repres5t 8 
/ubborn prejudices4 ,any view w s]ve 8  
purpose :i* c be made a weapon ( (f5ce 9
 8 multitud9\s qu>rels4 ,cobbett1 l !   
,radicals ( ! "t1 0 fright5$ by !       
gigantic progress ( ! debt4 ,he _h      

advocat$ w>2 b ! peasant :o 0 accu/om$  
to reckon 8 income by p5ce1 & _h cri$ l 
a *ild :5 he lo/ ! price ( a r$ h]r+1 0 
al>m$ by ! reckless pil+ up ( millions (
 indebt$ness4 ,9 #ahjf he calmly propos$
 to 8 patron ,w9dham to put matt]s      
/raight by repudiat+ ! int]e/4 ',!      
nation mu/ de/roy ! debt1 or ! debt w   
de/roy ! nation1' z he argu$ 9 !        
,regi/]4#ahd ,! proposal v likely caus$ 
! ali5ation ( a respectable m9i/]1 ?\gh 
prop\nd$ ) an amus+ air ( philosophical 
morality4 ,cobbett's al>m develop$ until
 x became to him a revelation ( ! my/]y 
( iniquity4 ,8 ,radical fri5ds 7 d5\nc+ 
placem5 & jobb]y1 & ,cobbett began to   
p]ceive :at 0 at ! bottom ( ! evil4 ,!  
money rais$ to c>ry on ! w> s]v$ also to
 support a set ( bloodsuck]s1 :o 7 dra9+
 ! national /r5g?4 ,already1 9 #ahjd1 he
 0 lam5t+ a *ange due to ,pitt's fund+  
sy/em4 ,! old families1 he said1 7 giv+ 
way to 'loanjobb]s1 contractors1 &      
nabobs'2 & ! c\ntry p amaz$ to f9d t _! 
new ma/]s _h be5 'but*]s1 bak]s1        

bottle-cork]s1 & old-clo!sm54'#ahe ,b>+s
 & ,ric>dos & _! l 7 swall[+ up ! old   
c\ntry g5try :olesale2 & 9 lat] ye>s he 
reckons up1 z he rides1 ! *anges 9 8 own
 neighb\rhood4#ahf ,8 affection = ! old 
c\ntry-g5tleman might be sup]ficial2 b 8
 lam5tations ov] ! degradation ( !      
peasantry sprang f 8 he>t4 ,x 0 all1 9 8
 eyes1 "p ( "o process4 ,pap] money1 he 
f\nd out1 0 at ! bottom ( x all2 = pap] 
money 0 ! outw>d & visible symbol ( a   
gigantic sy/em ( corruption & jobb]y4 ,x
 repres5t$ ! device by :i* ! h>d-e>n$   
wages ( ! lab\r] 7 be+ someh[ conjur$   
away into ! pockets ( ,jews &           
/ockjobb]s4 ,! classes :i* pr(it$ by ?is
 atroci\s sy/em =m$ :at he call$ !      
',?+'--! huge1 intricate comb9ation (   
knaves :i* 0 be+ d5\nc$ by !            
,radicals--?\gh ) a diff]5ce4 ,cobbett  
c\ld jo9 ! re=m]s 9 s f> z1 l !m1 he    
?\ght t ! rott5 bor\ghs 7 a vital "p ( !
 sy/em4 ,he meets a mis]able lab\r]     
compla9+ ( ! 'h>d times4' ,! h>ve/ _h   
be5 good1 b its bless+s 7 n = ! lab\r]4 

,t 'accurs$ hill1' says ,cobbett1 po9t+ 
to old ,s>um1 'is :at has robb$ y ( y\r 
supp]4'#ahg ,! lab\r] repres5t$ ! class 
^: blood 0 be+ suck$4  ,s f>1 !n1 z !   
,radicals 7 assail+ ! bor\gh-mong]s1    
,cobbett c\ld be _! cordial ally4 ,two  
ye>s' imprisonm5t = libel embitt]$ 8    
feel+s4 ,9 ! di/ress :i* succe$$ !      
peace1 ,cobbett's voice 0 = a "t l\de/ 9
 ! g5]al hubbub4 ,he r$uc$ ! price ( 8  
,regi/]1 & 8 'two-p5ny tra%' rea*$ a    
circulation ( #be1jjj or #cj1jjj copies4
 ,he became a p[] 9 ! l&1 & anticipat$ !
 imm$iate triumph ( re=m4 ,! day 0 n    
yet4 ,sidm\?'s measures ( repression    
fright5$ ,cobbett to ,am]ica 7,m>*      
#ahai71 :]e he wrote 8 hi/ory ( ! 'la/  
hundr$ days ( ,engli% lib]ty4' ,he      
return$ 9 a c\ple ( ye>s1 damag$ 9      
reputation & brok5 9 =tune2 b only to   
c>ry on ! w> ) indomitable en]gy1 al?\gh
 ) a recklessness & extravagance :i*    
ali5at$ 8 allies & l[]$ 8 "*4 ,he tri$  
to cov] 8 errors by brags & bomba/1 :i* 
became ridicul\s1 & :i* are yet n )\t   

significance4  ,cobbett came back f     
,am]ica ) ! relics ( ,pa9e4 ,pa9e1 !    
object ( 8 abuse1 _h become 8 idol1 n   
because ,cobbett c>$ mu* = any ab/ract  
political !ories1 or = religi\s dogmas4 
,pa9e's m]it 0 t he _h attack$ pap]     
money4 ,to ,cobbett1 z to ,pa9e1 x seem$
 t ,engli% banknotes 7 go+ ! way ( ,fr5*
 assignats & ! prov9cial curr5cy ( !    
,am]icans4 ,?is became "o ma9 topic ( 8 
tirades1 & repres5t$1 z he said1 !      
',alpha & ,omega' ( ,engli% politics4 ,!
 !ory 0 simple4 ,! :ole bor\gh-mong]+   
sy/em dep5d$ ^u ! inflat$ curr5cy4      
,prick t bubble & ! :ole w\ld collapse4 
,x 0 absolutely impossible1 he said1 t !
 nation %\ld return to ca% paym5ts &    
cont9ue to pay int]e/ on ! debt4 ,%\ld  
su* a ?+ happ51 he decl>$1 he w\ld 'give
 8 poor body up to be broil$ on "o (    
,ca/l]eagh's wide/-ribb$ gridirons4'#ahh
 ,! 'gridiron prophecy' became fam\s2 a 
gridiron 0 = long a frontispiece to !   
,regi/]2 & ,cobbett1 f> f retract+1 w5t 
on prov+1 9 ! tee? ( facts1 t x _h be5  

fulfill$4 ,8 inf]5ce 01 n t pap] %\ld be
 pres]v$1 b t ! debt %\ld be treat$ ) a 
'sponge4'  ,cobbett1 !re=e1 0 an awkw>d 
ally ( political economi/s1 ^: great    
triumph 0 ! resumption ( ca% paym5ts1 & 
:o reg>d$ repudiation z ! deadly s94 ,! 
bur!n ( ! debt1 mean:ile1 0 s great t   
repudiation 0 well )9 ! limits (        
possibility4#ahi ,cobbett1 9 _! eyes1 0 
an advocate ( ! grosse/ di%one/y1 & us+ 
! base/ inc5tives4 ,cobbett fully       
retort$ _! scorn4 ,! economi/s belong$  
to ! v class :om he mo/ hat$4 ,he 0 nev]
 tir$ ( d5\nc+ ,scotti% 'feelosoph]s'2  
he sne]s at ,adam ,smi?1#aij & ,ric>do 0
 to him ! inc>nation ( ! /ock-jobb+     
int]e/4 ,cobbett sympa?is$ in/9ctively )
 ! doctr9e ( ! ,fr5* economi/s t        
agriculture 0 ! real s\rce ( all weal?4 
,he ne>ly accepts a phrase1 errone\sly  
attribut$ to ,w9dham1 ',p]i% ,comm]ce'2 
& he argues t comm]ce 01 9 fact1 (      
little use1 & its mon/r\s ext5sion at ! 
bottom ( all our wor/ evils4#aia ,nobody
 c\ld be m he>tily oppos$ to ! _s :i*   

animat$ ! political economi/s & ! :ole  
class repres5t$ by !m4 ,at times he     
spoke ! language ( mod]n ,sociali/s4 ,he
 def9es ,capital z 'money tak5 f !      
lab\r+ classes1 :i*1 be+ giv5 to army   
tailors & su*like1 enables !m to keep   
foxh\nds & trace _! desc5t f !          
,normans4'#aib  ,! mo/ *>act]i/ic po9t (
 8 speculations is 8 view ( ! poor-laws4
 ,nobody c\ld speak ) m good s5se &     
feel+ ( ! demoralisation :i* !y 7       
actually produc+1 ( ! sapp+ ( ! _s (    
indep5d5ce1 & ( all ! devices by :i* !  
agricultural lab\r] 0 los+ ! happ9ess   
enjoy$ 9 e>ly ye>s4 ,b ,cobbett's       
d$uction f 8 pr9ciples is peculi>4      
',p>son ,mal?us' is p]haps ! fav\rite   
object ( 8 mo/ virul5t abuse4 ',i h hat$
 _m m51' he says1 'b nev] any "o s mu* z
 y1' ',i call y p>son1' he expla9s1     
'because t ^w includes bor\ghmong] among
 o!r mean+s1 ?\gh no s+le ^w c\ld be    
suffici5t4'#aic ,cobbett rages aga9/ !  
phrase 'r$undant population4' ,!re w\ld 
be pl5ty = all if ! bor\gh-mong]s &     

/ockjobb]s c\ld be annihilat$1 taxes    
aboli%$1 & ! debt repudiat$4 ,! ord9>y  
palliatives sugge/$ 7 little to ! ta/e (
 ?is rem>kable ,radical4 ,! man :o      
approv$ bull-fight+ & support$ !        
slave-trade naturally sne]$ at          
'h$deka%un1' & ?\ght sav+s-banks a mean 
device to int]e/ ! poor 9 ! keep+ up ( !
 funds4 ,8 rem$y 0 always a sponge      
appli$ to ! debt1 & ! abolition ( taxes4
  ,?is leads1 h[ev]1 to "o rem>kable    
conclusion4 ,cobbett's attack ^u ! *ur* 
e/abli%m5t probably did m to cause al>m 
?an any writ+s ( ! day4 ,= ,pa9e's      
attacks ^u its cre$ he c>$ little en\gh4
 ',y\r religion1' said a p>son to him1  
'seems to be altoge!r political4' ,x    
might well be1 0 ,cobbett's retort1 s9ce
 8 cre$ 0 made = him by act (           
p>liam5t4#aid ,9 fact1 he c>$ no?+ =    
!ology1 ?\gh he call$ himself a memb] ( 
! *ur* ( ,engl&1 & reta9$ an int5se     
dislike = ,unit>ians1 diss5t]s 9 g5]al1 
'sa9ts' z he call$ ! ,evangelical p>ty1 
,scotti% ,presbyt]ians1 & g5]ally = all 

religi\s sects4 ,he look$ at *ur*       
que/ions solely f "o po9t ( view4 ,he _h
 le>n$1 x seems1 f a passage 9          
,ruggles's ,hi/ory ( ! ,poor1#aie t !   
ti!s _h be5 orig9ally int5d$ to support 
! poor z well z ! *ur*4 ,gradually1 z he
 look$ back ^u ! 'good old times1' he   
develop$ ! !ory exp\nd$ 9 8 ,hi/ory ( ! 
,re=mation4 ,x is a s+ul> p]=mance1     
writt5 at ! p]iod ( 8 mo/ reckless      
exasp]ation 7#ahbd-bg71 b ) 8 full vig\r
 ( /yle4 ,he decl>es#aif 9 #ahbe t he   
has sold =ty-five ?\s& copies1 & x has  
be5 (t5 repr9t$4 ,! purpose is to %[ t !
 ,re=mation 0 'eng5d]$ 9 bea/ly lu/1    
br\ght =? 9 hypocrisy1 & *]i%$ & f$ by  
plund] & deva/ation1 & by riv]s (       
,engli% & ,iri% blood4'#aig ,briefly1 x 
is ! cause ( e evil t has happ5$ s9ce1  
includ+ '! debt1 ! banks1 ! /ockjobb]s1 
& ! ,am]ican revolution4'#aih ,9 prov+  
?is1 ,cobbett writes 9 ! _s ( "s vehem5t
 ,ca?olic bigot1 madd5$ by ! p5al laws4 
,h5ry ,,viii41 ,elizabe?1 & ,william    
,,iii4 are 8 mon/]s2 ! ,m>ys ( ,engl& & 

,scotl& 8 ideal m>tyrs4 ,he almo/       
apologises = ! massacre ( ,/4 ,b>?olomew
 & ! ,gunp[d] ,plot2 &1 9 spite ( 8     
patriotism1 attributes ! defeat ( !     
,armada to a /orm1 = fe> ( prais+       
,elizabe?4 ,! bitt]e/ ,ultramontane (   
to-day w\ld %r9k f "s ( ?is ,radical's  
audaci\s /atem5ts4 ,cobbett1 9 spite ( 8
 extravagance1 %[s fla%es ( 8 usual     
%rewdness4 ,he rem>ks else:]e t ! true  
way ( /udy+ hi/ory is to exam9e acts (  
p>liam5t & li/s ( prices ( lab\r & (    
food2#aii & he argues ^u su* gr\nds = ! 
prosp]ity ( ! agricultural lab\r] "u    
,edw>d ,,iii41 ':5 a dung-c>t fill] c\ld
 get a fat goose & a half = half a day's
 "w4' ,he makes "s tell+ hits1 z :5 he  
contra/s ,william ( ,wykeham ) ,br[nl[  
,nor?1 ! la/ bi%op ( ,w9*e/]4           
,prote/ants condemn$ celibacy4 ,well1 _h
 ,william be5 m>ri$1 we %\ld n h _h     
,w9*e/] s*ool1 or ,new ,college2 _h     
,br[nl[ ,nor? be5 doom$ to celibacy1 he 
w\ld n h _h t5 sons & sons-9-law to %>e 
tw5ty-f\r ri* liv+s1 besides preb5ds &  

o!r pref]m5ts2 & p]haps he w\ld n h sold
 small be] f 8 episcopal palace at      
,f>nham4 ,cobbett's ma9 doctr9e is t :5 
! ,ca?olic *ur* fl\ri%$1 ! population 0 
actually m num]\s & ri*]1 t ! c>e ( !   
prie/s & monks made paup]ism impossible1
 & t ev] s9ce ! hide\s blund] p]petrat$ 
by ! re=m]s ev]y?+ has be5 go+ f bad to 
worse4 ,:5 x 0 retort$ t ! c5sus prov$ !
 population to be gr[+1 he repli$ t !   
c5sus 0 a lie4 ,7 ! facts truly /at$1 he
 decl>es1 we %\ld h a population ( ne>  
tw5ty-eight million 9 ,engl& by ! end ( 
?is c5tury1#bjj a manife/ r$uctio ad    
absurdum4 ,if x 7 rem>k$ t !re 0 a      
,ca?olic *ur* 9 ,france1 & t ,cobbett   
proves 8 case by ! sup]iority ( !       
,engli% poor to ! ,fr5* poor1 he rem>k$ 
summ>ily t ! ,fr5* laws 7 diff]5t4#bja  
,?us1 ! "o mon/] evil is ! debt1 & !    
taxes turn out to h be5 a ,prote/ant    
inv5tion made necess>y by ! orig9al act 
( plund]4 ,t 0 ,cobbett's doctr9e1 &1   
h[ev] p]v]se might be "s ( 8 reason+s1 x
 0 cle>ly to ! ta/e ( a l>ge audi5ce4 ,!

 poor-law 0 m]ely a p>tial atonem5t = a 
va/ & cont9u\s process ( plund]4        
,corrupt z might be its actual op]ation1
 x 0 a "p ( ! poor man's patrimony1     
extort$ by fe> f ! gang ( robb]s :o     
fatt5$ ^u _! lab\rs4  ,cobbett's !ories 
ne$ n be discuss$ f ! logical or        
hi/orical po9t ( view4 ,!y are !        
utt]ances ( a man made unscrupul\s by 8 
desp]ate circum/ances1 fight+ ) b\ndless
 pugnacity1 ready to /rike any bl[1 fair
 or f\l1 s long z x w vex 8 enemies1 &  
help to sell ! ,regi/]4 ,8 pugnacity    
ali5at$ all 8 fri5ds4 ,n only did ,:igs 
& ,tories agree 9 condemn+ him1 b !     
,utilit>ians hat$ & despis$ him1 & 8 old
 fri5ds1 ,burnett & ,hunt1 7 ali5at$ f  
him1 & revil$ by him4 ,8 actual foll[]s 
7 a small & insignificant remnant4 ,yet 
,cobbett1 l ,ow51 repres5t$ 9 a crude   
fa%ion bl9d in/9cts ( no small          
importance 9 ! com+ ye>s4 ,& x is       
especially to be not$ t 9 "o direction !
 philosophic ,col]idge & ! ke5 ,qu>t]ly 
,review] ,s\!y1 & ! ,sociali/ ,ow5 & !  

reaction>y ,radical ,cobbett1 7 m 9     
agreem5t ?an !y knew4 ,:at al>m$ !m 0 ! 
va/ social *ange indicat$ by ! indu/rial
 revolution4 ,9 "o way or ano!r !y      
connect$ all ! evils ( ! day ) ! gr[? ( 
comm]ce & manufactures1 & ! break+ up ( 
! old sy/em ( dome/ic trade & village   
life4#bjb ,t is to say1 t 9 a dumb &    
in>ticulate logic1 ?\gh 9 ! l\de/ tones 
( d5unciation1 ,tories & ,sociali/s1 &  
nondescript ,radicals 7 rag+ aga9/ !    
results ( ! great social *ange1 :i* !   
,utilit>ians reg>d$ z ! true l9e (      
advance ( ! day4 ,?is gives ! deepe/ l9e
 ( dem>cation1 & br+s u to ! political  
economy1 :i* %[s mo/ fully h[ ! case    
pres5t$ itself to ! true ,utilit>ian4   
,,footnotes3  #hj ,ba9's ,james ,mill1  
p4 #bae4  #ha ,autobiography1 p4 #ajd4  
#hb ,miscellane\s ,works 7,popul>       
,edition71 p4 #aca4  #hc ,! articles f !
 ,encyclopa$ia ^u ,gov]nm5t1            
,jurisprud5ce1 ,lib]ty ( ! ,press1      
,prisons & ,prison ,discipl9e1          
,colonies1 ,law ( ,nations1 ,education1 

7 repr9t$ 9 a volume 'n = sale1' 9 #ahbe
 & #ahbh4 ,i quote f a repr9t n dat$4   
#hd ',gov]nm5t1' pp4 #c-e4  #he         
',gov]nm5t1' p4 #h4  #hf ',gov]nm5t1' p4
 #i4  #hg ,ibid4 p4 #aa4  #hh ,ibid4 p4 
#i4  #hi ,ibid4 p4 #ab4  #ij            
',gov]nm5t1' p4 #i4  #ia ,c'e/ une      
exp]i5ce et]nelle que t\t homme qui a du
 p\voir e/ porte a en abus]2 il va      
jusqu'a ce qu'il tr\ve des              
limites4--,esprit des ,lois1 ,bk4 xi4   
*ap #d4  #ib ',gov]nm5t1' p4 #ae4  #ic  
',gov]nm5t1' p4 #g4  #id ,ibid4 p4 #ah4 
#ie ',gov]nm5t1' p4 #ba4  #if ,ibid4 p4 
#bb  #ig ,autobiography1 p4 #ajd4  #ih  
',gov]nm5t1' p4 #bh4  #ii ,ibid4 p4 #cj4
 ,mill especially ref]s to ! exposure ( 
cl]ical artifices 9 ,fa!r ,paul's       
,c\ncil ( ,tr5t4  #ajj ',education1' p4 
#bj  #aja ,ibid4 p4 #de4  #ajb          
,autobiography1 p4 #ajf4  #ajc          
',gov]nm5t1' p4 #ca4  #ajd ,ba9's ,james
 ,mill1 p4 #cib4  #aje ,!y 7 repr9t$ 9 !
 ,miscellane\s ,works aft] ,macaulay's  
dea?4 ,i quote f ! 'popul> edition' ( t 

"w 7#ahge74  #ajf ,miscellane\s ,works1 
p4 #aff4  #ajg ,miscellane\s ,works1 p4 
#acb4  #ajh ,mill's ,autobiography1 p4  
#aeh4  #aji ',gov]nm5t1' p4 #ab4  #aaj  
,miscellane\s ,works1 p4 #afi4  #aaa    
,fragm5t on ,mack9to% 7#ahgj71 pp4      
#bge-id4  #aab ,essay on ! ',indep5d5cy 
( ,p>liam5t4'  #aac ,fragm5t1 p4 #bib4  
#aad ,ibid4 p4 #bgf4  #aae ,miscellane\s
 ,works1 p4 #agj4  #aaf ,miscellane\s   
,works1 p4 #agc4  #aag ,miscellane\s    
,works1 p4 #ach4  #aah ,miscellane\s    
,works1 pp4 #ace-dj4  #aai ,miscellane\s
 ,works1 p4 #aeh1 & see pp4 #adc-dg4    
#abj ,spee*es 7,popul> ,edition71 p4    
#abe4  #aba ,ibid4 p4 #abh4  #abb       
,miscellane\s ,works1 p4 #adf4  #abc    
,miscellane\s ,works1 p4 #ahc4  #abd ,a 
full analysis ( ?is article is 9 ,ba9's 
,james ,mill1 pp4 #bfe-ge4  #abe        
,article ^u ,%]idan1 repr9t$ 9          
,jeffrey's ,essays1 iv4 7#ahdd74  #abf  
,table-,talk1 #bg? ,april #ahbc4  #abg  
,v9diciae ,gallicae1 9 ,miscellane\s    
,works1 iii4 7#ahdf71 p4 #eg4  #abh     

,mack9to% ?9ks x necess>y to add t ?is  
p>allel 0 sugge/$ to him by ,william    
,?omson 7#agdf-ahcg71 a lit]>y g5tleman 
:o cont9u$ ,watson's ,philip ,,iii41 &  
may1 = any?+ ,i "k1 des]ve ,mack9to%'s  
w>m eulogy4  #abi ,v9diciae ,gallicae1  
p4 #ei4  #acj ,ibid4 p4 #ea4  #aca      
,ibid4 p4 #adh4  #acb ,ibid4 p4 #fh4    
#acc ,ibid4 p4 #gb4  #acd ,ibid4 p4     
#abe4  #ace ,v9diciae ,gallicae1 p4     
#abh4  #acf ,ibid4 p4 #hd4  #acg ,ibid4 
p4 #cj4  #ach ,life ( ,mack9to%1 i4     
#abe4  #aci ,miscellane\s ,works1 iii4  
#bfa-fe4  #adj ,life1 i4 #cji-af4  #ada 
,see ,miscellane\s ,works1 iii4 #c4     
#adb ,ibid4 iii4 #bjc-ch 7an article    
highly prais$ by ,bagehot 9 8           
,p>liam5t>y ,re=m74  #adc ,miscellane\s 
,works1 iii4 #bae-af4  #add ,ibid4 iii4 
#bbf4 ,mack9to% 9 ?is article m5tions ! 
'caucus1' & obs]ves t ! "n implies t    
comb9ations h be5 already =m$ ^u ':i* ! 
future gov]nm5t ( ! conf$]acy may dep5d 
m ?an on ! =ms ( election1 or ! lett] ( 
! pres5t laws4' ,he incl9es to approve !

 sy/em z ess5tial to p>ty gov]nm5t4     
#ade ,essays 7#ahdd71 i4 #hd-ajf4  #adf 
,! fam\s ',cevallos' article ( #ahjh1   
said to be writt5 by ,jeffrey & ,br\gham
 7,macvey ,napi]'s ,correspond5ce1 p4   
#cjh71 gave ! imm$iate cause ( />t+ !   
,qu>t]ly2 &1 accord+ to ,br\gham1 fir/  
gave a di/9ctly ,lib]al "* to !         
,ed9burgh4 ,= ,jeffrey's desire to avoid
 'p>ty politics1' see ,lockh>t's ,life (
 ,scott1 ,m4 ,napi]'s ,correspond5ce1 p4
 #dce1 & ,hom]'s ,memoirs 7#ahec71 i4   
#dfd4  #adg ,april #ahje2 repr9t$ 9     
,essays1 ii4 #ch1 etc41 to %[1 z he     
says1 h[ e>ly he _h tak5 up 8 view ( !  
,fr5* revolution4  #adh ,sydney ,smi?   
compla9s 9 8 correspond5ce ( ?is article
 z exagg]at+ ! p[] ( ! ari/ocracy4  #adi
 ,essays1 iv4 #bi4  #aej ,i ne$ n speak 
( ,br\gham1 !n ! mo/ conspicu\s advocate
 ( ,:iggism4 ,he publi%$ 9 #ahdc a      
,political ,philosophy1 :i*1 accord+ to 
,"l ,campbell1 kill$ ! ',society = !    
,diffusion ( ,useful ,k4' ,no su*       
hypo!sis is necess>y to acc\nt = ! dea? 

( a society encumb]$ by a ',diction>y ( 
,univ]sal ,biography4' ,b ! book 0 bad  
en\gh to kill1 if a collection ( outworn
 platitudes c produce t effect4  #aea   
,b5?am's ,works1 x4 #ecf4  #aeb         
,colloquies1 i4 #bec4  #aec ,colloquies1
 i4 #aga4  #aed ,ibid4 i4 #agh4  #aee   
,ibid4 i4 #afi4  #aef ,ibid4 i4 #afg4   
#aeg ,ibid4 i4 #agj4  #aeh ,ibid4 i4    
#aid4  #aei ,ibid4 ii4 #bdg4  #afj      
,colloquies1 ii4 #bei4  #afa ,ibid4 i4  
#aji4  #afb ,ibid4 ii4 #aje-g4  #afc    
,ibid4 i4 #ajf4  #afd ,ibid4 i4 #dg4    
#afe ,life & ,correspond5ce1 iv4 #aie2  
,selections1 iii4 #de4  #aff            
,colloquies1 i4 #fb4  #afg ,colloquies1 
i4 #ace4  #afh ,ibid4 ii4 #adg4 ,s\!y is
 "h almo/ v]bally foll[+ ,burke's       
,reflections4  #afi ,life &             
,correspond5ce1 v4 #d-f4  #agj          
,colloquies1 i4 #aje4  #aga ,on !       
,con/itution ( ,*ur* & ,/ate1 accord+ to
 ! idea ( ea*1 #aheb 7f\r? edition74    
#agb ,*ur* & ,/ate1 p4 #ajj4  #agc      
,ibid4 p4 #ig4  #agd ,*ur* & ,/ate1 p4  

#he4  #age ,ibid4 p4 #fg4  #agf ,*ur* & 
,/ate1 p4 #adb4  #agg ,ibid4 pp4 #ge-gi4
  #agh ,colloquies1 i4 #cg4  #agi ,see  
an e>ly acc\nt ( ,dale 79 #agih7 9      
,sydney ,smi?'s ,life & ,lett]s1 i4 #ce1
 & ano!r 9 ,wilb]=ce's ,correspond5ce   
7#ahdj71 i4 #acg 79 #agif74  #ahj ,pr9t$
 9 ,political ,works1 i4 #cjb4  #aha    
,political ,works1 v4 #cac2 vi4 #egi4   
#ahb ,political ,works1 i4 #dgc2 v4     
#cai4  #ahc ,ibid4 ii4 #bhe4  #ahd      
,political ,works1 ii4 #bh2 iv4 #chh4   
#ahe ,ibid4 i4 #ddc4  #ahf ,rural ,rides
 7#ahec71 p4 #caa4  #ahg ,rural ,rides1 
p4 #chf4  #ahh ,political ,works1 v4    
#dcf 7#bbnd ,july #ahai74  #ahi ,ev5    
,m',cullo* _h recomm5d$ a p>tial        
repudiation4  #aij ,political ,works1   
iv4 #bcg4  #aia ,ibid4 ii4 #ai1 #ajg1   
#bej1 #cdf2 & iii4 #dbc4 ,see           
,p>liam5t>y ,hi/ory1 xxx41 :]e ! fir/   
use ( ! phrase by ,h>d+e is report$4    
#aib ,political ,works1 vi4 #agf4  #aic 
,ibid4 #cie4  #aid ,rural ,rides1 p4    
#ddf4  #aie ,he compla9s bitt]ly t      

,ruggles _h suppress$ ?is 9 a second    
edition4 ,prote/ant ,re=mation 7#ahej71 
ii41 ,introduction4  #aif ,political    
,regi/]1 #bi? ,jan4 #ahbe4  #aig        
,prote/ant ,re=mation1 p4 #ac4  #aih    
,ibid4 p4 #bfb4  #aii ,advice to ,"y    
,m51 p4 #h4  #bjj ,political ,works1 v4 
#dje4 ,if our c5sus be n a lie1 !re 7   
tw5ty-sev5 million ,engli%m5 9 #ahia4   
#bja ,prote/ant ,re=mation1 i4 #caa4    
#bjb ,col]idge 9 a lett] to ,allsop     
7,conv]sations1 etc41 i4 #bj7 approves  
"o ( ,cobbett's articles1 because x     
popul>ises ! weighty tru? ( ! 'holl[ness
 ( comm]cial weal?4' ,cobbett1 he sadly 
reflects1 is an ov]mat* = ,liv]pool4    
,see ,cobbett's ,political ,works1 v4   
#dff n4     ,,*apt] ,,iv  ,,mal?us   ,i4
 ,,mal?us',s ,,/>t+-,,po9t  ,! political
 movem5t repres5t$ ! conflu5ce ( _m     
diff]5t /reams ( agitation4 ,enorm\s    
social *anges _h g5]at$ multif>i\s      
discont5t4 ,new wants & ! new /ra9s &   
/resses betwe5 ! v>i\s p>ts ( !         
political me*anism requir$ new          

adaptations4 ,b1 if x 7 inquir$ :at 0 ! 
precise nature ( ! evils1 & h[ ! re=m ( 
p>liam5t 0 to op]ate1 ! mo/ v>i\s answ]s
 might be giv54 ,a mo/ important l9e (  
division did n co9cide ) ! l9e betwe5 ! 
recognis$ p>ties4 ,"o w+ ( ! ,radicals  
agre$ ) _m ,cons]vatives 9 attribut+ !  
great evils ( ! day to ! indu/rial      
movem5t & ! gr[? ( competition4 ,!      
middle-class ,:igs & ! ,utilit>ians 71  
on ! contr>y1 9 ?or\gh sympa?y ) !      
indu/rial movem5t1 & desir$ to limit !  
functions ( gov]nm5t1 & tru/ to         
self-help & free competition4 ,!        
,sociali/ic movem5t appe>$ = ! pres5t to
 be conf9$ to a few dream]s &           
demagogues4 ,! ,utilit>ians might       
approve ! _s ( ! ,ow5ites1 b held _!    
s*emes to be *im]ical4 ,b5ea? !         
political controv]sies !re 0 !re=e a set
 ( problems to be answ]$2 & !           
,utilit>ian answ] def9es _! di/9ction f 
,radicals ( a diff]5t &1 z !y w\ld h    
said1 unphilosophical s*ool4  ,:at1 !n1 
0 ! view really tak5 by ! ,utilit>ians (

 ^! und]ly+ problems8 ,!y n only _h a v 
def9ite !ory 9 reg>d to !m1 b 9 work+ x 
out a*iev$ p]haps _! mo/ important      
contribution to speculation4 ,b5ea? a   
political !ory lies1 or ought to lie1   
:at we n[ call a 'sociology'--a !ory ( t
 /ructure ( society :i* really det]m9es 
! "* & ! work+ ( political in/itutions4 
,! ,utilit>ian !ory 0 embodi$ 9 _!      
political economy4 ,i mu/ try to def9e z
 well z ,i c :at 7 ! ess5tial fir/      
pr9ciples impli$1 )\t go+ into ! special
 problems :i* w\ld be relevant 9 a      
hi/ory ( political economy4  ,! two     
lead+ names 9 ! lit]ature ( political   
economy dur+ ! fir/ qu>t] ( ?is c5tury 7
 und\bt$ly ,mal?us & ,ric>do4 ,?omas    
,rob]t ,mal?us#bjc 7#agff-ahcd7 0 n "o (
 ! ,utilit>ian b&4 ,z a cl]gyman1 he    
c\ld n %>e _! op9ion ( ! ,?irty-n9e     
,articles4 ,moreov]1 he 0 a ,:ig1 n a   
,radical2 & he 0 ev5 ta9t$ ) "s economic
 h]esy4 ,/ill1 he became "o ( !         
prophets1 if n ! lead+ prophet1 ( !     
,utilit>ians4 ,belief 9 ! ,mal?usian    

!ory ( population 0 ! mo/ ess5tial      
article ( _! fai?1 & m>k$ ! l9e (       
cleavage betwe5 ! two w+s ( ! ,radical  
p>ty4  ,mal?us 0 ! son ( a c\ntry       
g5tleman 9 ,surrey4 ,8 fa!r 0 a man (   
/udi\s habits1 & "o ( ! en?usia/ic      
admir]s ( ,r\sseau4 ,8 /udy ( ,emile    
probably l$ to ! r desultory education (
 8 son4 ,! boy1 aft] be+ taught at home1
 0 = a "t a pupil ( ,r4 ,graves         
7#agae-ahjd71 au?or ( ! ,spiritual      
,quixote1 a ,:ig cl]gyman :o 0 at lea/  
or?odox en\gh to ridicule ,me?odism4    
,mal?us 0 next s5t to att5d ,gilb]t     
,wakefield's lectures at ! ,w>r+ton     
',academy1' ! ,unit>ian place (         
education1 & 9 #aghd w5t to ,jesus      
,college1 ,cambridge1 ( :i* ,wakefield  
_h be5 a fell[4 ,= ,wakefield1 :o _h    
become a ,unit>ian1 & :o 0 aft]w>ds a   
m>tyr to political ,radicalism1 he      
appe>s to h reta9$ a /rong respect4 ,at 
,jesus1 aga91 ,mal?us 0 "u ,fr5d1 :o    
also 0 to jo9 ! ,unit>ians4 ,mal?us 0   
?us br\ght up "u ! influ5ces ( ! modifi$

 rationalism :i* 0 repres5t$ by !       
,unit>ians outside ! e/abli%m5t & by    
,paley )94 ,col]idge 0 at ,jesus :ile   
,mal?us 0 /ill a fell[1 & !re became an 
ard5t admir] ( ,prie/ley1 ,mal?us rema9$
 )9 ! bord]s ( ! *ur*4 ,its yoke 0 light
 en\gh1 & he 0 ess5tially pr$ispos$ to  
mod]ate views4 ,he took 8 degree z n9?  
wrangl] 9 #aghh1 became a fell[ ( 8     
college 9 #agic1 took ord]s1 & 9 #agih 0
 curate ( ,albury1 ne> 8 fa!r's h\se 9  
,surrey4 ,mal?us's home 0 )9 a walk (   
,f>nham1 :]e ,cobbett _h be5 born &     
pass$ 8 *ildhood4 ,he _h1 !re=e1 be=e 8 
eyes ! same agricultural lab\r] ^:      
degradation excit$ ,cobbett to          
,radicalism4 ,v diff]5t views 7 sugge/$ 
to ,mal?us4 ,! revolution>y doctr9e 0   
repres5t$ 9 ,engl& by ! writ+s ( ,godw91
 ^: ,political ,ju/ice appe>$ 9 #agic & 
,enquir] 9 #agig4 ,^! books naturally   
af=d$ topics = discussion betwe5 ,mal?us
 & 8 fa!r4 ,! usual relations betwe5    
s5ior & junior 7 inv]t$2 ! eld] ,mal?us1
 z became a foll[] ( ,r\sseau1 0 an     

en?usia/2 & ! y\ng] took ! "p ( sugge/+ 
d\bts & difficulties4 ,he resolv$ to put
 d[n 8 argum5ts ^u pap]1 9 ord] to cle> 
8 m9d2 & ! result 0 ! ,essay ^u         
,population1 ( :i* ! fir/ edition appe>$
 anonym\sly 9 #agih4  ,! argum5t ^u :i* 
,mal?us reli$ 0 already prep>$ = him4 ,!
 dreams ( ! revolution>y en?usia/s      
suppos$ ei!r a neglect ( ! actual       
conditions ( human life or a belief t ^?
 conditions c\ld be radically alt]$ by !
 propos$ political *anges4 ,! cool]     
reason] 0 entitl$ to rem9d !m t !y 7    
liv+ ^u solid e>?1 n 9 dreaml&4 ,!      
difficulty ( realis+ ,utopia may be     
pres5t$ 9 v>i\s ways4 ,mal?us took a    
po9t :i* _h be5 notic$ by ,godw94 ,9 !  
conclusion ( 8 ,political ,ju/ice1#bjd  
:ile tak+ a f9al glance at ! com+       
mill5nium1 ,godw9 ref]s to a difficulty 
sugge/$ by ,rob]t ,wallace4 ,wallace    
_h#bje said t all ! evils "u :i* mank9d 
suff]s might be remov$ by a community ( 
prop]ty1 7 x n t su* a /ate ( ?+s w\ld  
lead to an 'excessive population4'      

,godw9 makes light ( ! difficulty4 ,he  
?9ks t !re is "s 'pr9ciple 9 human      
society by means ( :i* ev]y?+ t5ds to   
f9d its own level & proce$ 9 ! mo/      
auspici\s way1 :5 lea/ int]f]$ ) by !   
mode ( regulation4' ,anyh[1 !re is pl5ty
 ( room on ! e>?1 at pres5t4 ,population
 may increase = 'myriads ( c5turies4'   
,m9d1 z ,frankl9 has said1 may become   
'omnipot5t ov] matt]'2#bjf life may be  
indef9itely prolong$2 our remote        
desc5dants :o h fill$ ! e>? 'w probably 
cease to propagate'2#bjg !y w n h !     
tr\ble ( mak+ a fre% />t at e g5]ation2 
& 9 ^? days !re w be 'no w>1 no crimes1 
no adm9i/ration ( ju/ice'2 & moreov]1   
'no disease1 angui%1 melan*oly1 or      
res5tm5t4' ,briefly1 we %all be l !     
angels1 only )\t ! ne$less addition ( a 
supreme rul]4 ,simil> ideas 7 express$ 9
 ,condorcet's fam\s ,tableau hi/orique  
des progres de l'esprit huma91#bjh      
writt5 :ile he 0 9 daily fe> ( dea? by !
 guillot9e1 & s giv+ ! mo/ /rik+ in/ance
 on record ( ! inv9cibility ( an ideali/

 conviction "u ! h>de/ pressure ( facts4
  ,! argum5t ( ,mal?us is a product ( ! 
:ole previ\s c\rse ( speculation4 ,! "q 
( population _h occupi$ ! ,fr5*         
economi/s4 ,! pr(\nd social evils (     
,france gave ! />t+-po9t ( _!           
speculations2 & "o ( ! grave/ symptoms  
_h be5 ! decay ( population "u ! la/    
ye>s ( ,l\is ,,xiv4 ,_! great aim 0 to  
meet ?is evil by enc\rag+ agriculture4  
,x c\ld n escape ! notice ( ! simple/   
obs]v] t if y w\ld h m m\?s y mu/       
provide m food1 unless1 z "s pi\s p     
assum$1 t task might be left to         
,provid5ce4 ,quesnay _h laid x d[n z "o 
( 8 axioms t ! /atesman %\ld aim at     
provid+ su/5ance be=e aim+ simply at    
/imulat+ population4 ,x foll[s1 accord+ 
to ,gulliv]'s fam\s maxim1 t ! man :o   
makes two blades ( grass gr[ :]e "o grew
 be=e des]ves bett] ( 8 c\ntry ?an !    
':ole race ( politicians put toge!r4'   
,o!r writ]s1 9 develop+ ?is !sis1 _h    
dwelt ^u ! ela/icity ( population4 ,!   
eld] ,mirabeau1 = example1 publi%$ 8    

,ami des hommes ou traite de la         
population 9 #agef4 ,he obs]ves t1 giv5 
! means ( subsi/5ce1 m5 w multiply l    
rats 9 a b>n4#bji ,! great axiom1 he    
says1#baj is 'la mesure de la subsi/ance
 e/ celle de la population4' ,cultivate 
y\r fields1 & y w raise m54 ,mirabeau   
replies to ,hume's essay ^u !           
',popul\sness ( anci5t nations' 7#ageb71
 ( :i* ,wallace's fir/ treatise 0 a     
criticism4 ,! problem discuss$ by ,hume 
& ,wallace _h be5 comp>atively          
academical2 b by ,mal?us's "t ! "q _h   
tak5 a m practical %ape4 ,! s5tim5tali/s
 d5\nc$ luxury z lead+ to a decay ( !   
population4 ,_! prevail+ doctr9e is     
embodi$ 9 ,goldsmi?'s fam\s passage 9 ! 
,des]t$ ,village 7#aggj73      ',ill    
f>es ! l&1 to ha/5+ ills a prey1        
,:]e weal? accumulates & m5 decay4'  ,! 
poetical v]sion only reflect$ ! s]i\s   
belief ( ,radical politicians4 ,al?\gh1 
z we are n[ aw>e1 ! population 0 9 fact 
increas+ rapidly1 ! belief prevail$     
among political writ]s t x 0 actually   

decl9+4 ,tru/wor?y /ati/ics did n exi/4 
,9 #agec ,john ,pott]1 son ( ! ar*bi%op1
 propos$ to ! ,h\se ( ,commons a plan = 
a c5sus4 ,a viol5t discussion arose1#baa
 9 ! c\rse ( :i* x 0 po9t$ out t ! plan 
w\ld inevitably lead to ! adoption ( !  
'canvas frock & wood5 %oes4' ,engli%m5  
w\ld lose _! lib]ty1 become ,fr5*       
slaves1 &1 :5 c\nt$1 w\ld no d\bt be    
tax$ & =cibly enli/$4 ,! bill pass$ !   
,h\se ( ,commons 9 spite ( su* reason+1 
b 0 ?r[n out by ! ,h\se ( ,lords4 ,till 
! fir/ c5sus 0 tak5 9 #ahja--;a p]iod at
 :i* ! absolute necessity ( su* k _h    
become obvi\s--! mo/ elem5t>y facts     
rema9$ unc]ta94 ,0 population increas+  
or decreas+8 ,t surely might be         
asc]ta9able4  ,ri*>d ,price 7#agbc-agia7
 0 n only a di/+ui%$ morali/ & a lead+  
politician1 b p]haps ! be/ kn[n writ] ( 
8 "t ^u /ati/ical que/ions4 ,he _h !    
cr$it ( sugge/+ ,pitt's s9k+ fund1#bab &
 spoke ) ! highe/ au?ority ^u facts &   
figures4 ,price argu$ 9 #aghjbac t !    
population ( ,engl& _h dim9i%$ by       

"o-f\r? s9ce ! revolution ( #afhh4 ,a   
%>p controv]sy foll[$ ^u ! few          
asc]ta9able data4 ,! vagu5ess ( !       
results %[s curi\sly h[ mu* economi/s _h
 to argue 9 ! d>k4 ,mal?us obs]ves 9 8  
fir/ edition t he _h be5 conv9c$ by     
read+ ,price t population 0 re/ra9$ by  
'vice & mis]y1' z results1 n ( political
 in/itutions1 b ( 'our own              
creation4'#bad ,?is gives ! ess5tial    
po9t ( diff]5ce4 ,mirabeau _h decl>$ t !
 population ( all ,europe 0 decay+4     
,hume's essay1 :i* he criticises1 _h be5
 9 answ] to a simil> /atem5t (          
,montesquieu4 ,price _h le>n$ t o!r     
c\ntries 7 increas+ 9 numb]1 ?\gh       
,engl&1 he held1 0 /ill decl9+4 ,:at1   
!n1 0 ! cause8 ,! cause1 repli$ bo?     
,price & ,mirabeau1 0 'luxury1' to :i*  
,price adds ! specially ,engli% evils ( 
! 'engrossm5t ( f>ms' & ! enclosure (   
op5 fields4 ,price _h to admit t !      
,engli% t[ns _h increas$2 b ?is 0 an    
additional evil4 ,! t[ns increas$ simply
 by dra9+ ! c\ntry2 & 9 ! t[ns !mselves 

! dea?s exce$$ ! bir?s4 ,! great cities 
7 ! graves ( mank9d4 ,?is op9ion 0      
/rongly held1 too1 by ,ar?ur ,"y1 :o    
ridicul$ ! g5]al fe> ( depopulation1 &  
decl>$ t if money 7 provid$1 y c\ld     
always get lab\r1 b :o look$ ^u ! t[ns z
 de/ructive canc]s 9 ! body politic4  ,!
 preval5ce ( ?is view expla9s ,mal?us's 
position4 ,to attribute depopulation to 
luxury 0 to say t x 0 caus$ by !        
inequality ( prop]ty4 ,! ri* man wa/$ ! 
sub/ance ( ! c\ntry1 became demoralis$  
himself1 & bo? corrupt$ & plund]$ 8     
neighb\rs4 ,! return to a '/ate (       
nature1' 9 ,r\sseau's phrase1 meant !   
return to a /ate ( ?+s 9 :i* ?is        
misappropriation %\ld become impossible4
 ,! :ole indu/ry ( ! nation w\ld !n be  
devot$ to support+ millions ( hone/1    
simple peasants & lab\r]s1 :]eas x n[   
w5t to increas+ ! spl5d\r ( ! great at !
 exp5se ( ! poor4 ,price enl>ges ^u ?is 
!me1 :i* 01 9 fact1 ! contempor>y v]sion
 ( ! lat] =mula t ! ri* are gr[+ ri*] & 
! poor poor]4 ,! imm$iate effect (      

equalis+ prop]ty1 !n1 w\ld be an        
increase ( population4 ,x 0 ! natural   
retort1 adopt$ by ,mal?us1 t su* an     
increase w\ld soon make ev]ybody poor1  
in/ead ( mak+ e "o com=table4           
,population1 ! ,fr5* economi/s _h said1 
foll[s subsi/5ce4 ,w x n multiply       
indef9itely8 ,! rapid gr[? ( population 
9 ,am]ica 0 notic$ by ,price & ,godw92 &
 ! !ory _h be5 long be=e exp&$ by       
,frankl91 9 a pap] :i* ,mal?us quotes 9 
8 lat] editions4 ',!re is no b\nd1' said
 ,frankl9 9 #agea1bae 'to ! prolific    
nature ( plants & animals b :at is made 
by _! cr[d+ & int]f]+ ) ea* o!r's means 
( subsi/5ce4' ,! :ole e>?1 he inf]s1    
might be ov]spread ) f5nel1 = example1  
or1 if empty ( m51 repl5i%$ 9 a few ages
 ) ,engli%m54 ,!re 7 suppos$ to be      
already "o million ( ,engli%m5 9 ,nor?  
,am]ica4 ,if !y d\bl$ once 9 tw5ty-five 
ye>s1 !y w\ld 9 a c5tury exce$ ! numb] (
 ,engli%m5 at home4 ,?is is id5tical )  
,mirabeau's pr9ciple ( ! multiply+ (    
rats 9 a b>n4 ,population treads closely

 on ! heels ( subsi/5ce4 ,"w out y\r    
figures & see ! results4#baf  ,mal?us's 
essay 9 ! fir/ edition 0 ma9ly an       
application ( ?is retort1 & ?\gh ! logic
 0 effective z aga9/ ,godw91 he made no 
elaborate appeal to facts4 ,mal?us soon 
came to see t a m precise application 0 
desirable4 ,x 0 cle>ly desirable to "k  
:e!r population 0 or 0 n actually       
increas+1 & "u :at conditions4 ,i h     
spok5 ( ! contempor>y lab\rs ( ,s9clair1
 ,"y1 ,sir ,f4 ,ed51 & o!rs4 ,to collect
 /ati/ics 0 pla9ly "o ( ! ess5tial      
conditions ( settl+ ! controv]sy4       
,mal?us 9 #agii travell$ on ! cont95t to
 ga!r in=mation1 & visit$ ,sw$51        
,norway1 ,russia1 & ,g]many4 ,! peace ( 
,ami5s enabl$ him 9 #ahjb to visit      
,france & ,switz]l&4 ,he inquir$ ev]y:]e
 into ! condition ( ! p1 collect$ su*   
/ati/ical k z 0 !n possible1 & return$  
to dige/ x into a elaborate treatise4   
,mean:ile1 ! condition ( ,engl& 0 giv+ a
 fre% significance to ! argum5t4 ,! fir/
 edition _h be5 publi%$ at ! critical "t

 :5 ! poor-law 0 be+ relax$1 & disa/r\s 
results 7 foll[+ w> & fam9e4 ,! old     
compla9t t ! poor-law 0 caus+           
depopulation 0 be+ *ang$ = ! compla9t t 
x 0 /imulat+ paup]ism4 ,! fir/ edition  
already discuss$ ?is subject1 :i* 0     
occupy+ all s]i\s ?9k]s2 x 0 n[ to      
receive a full] treatm5t4 ,! second     
edition1 greatly alt]$1 appe>$ 9 #ahjc1 
& made ,mal?us a man ( au?ority4 ,8     
m]its 7 recognis$ by 8 appo9tm5t 9 #ahje
 to ! pr(essor%ip ( hi/ory & political  
economy at ! newly f\nd$ ,ea/ ,india    
,college at ,haileybury4 ,!re he rema9$ 
till ! end ( 8 life1 :i* 0 placid1      
unev5tful1 & happy4 ,he made a happy    
m>riage 9 #ahjd2 & 8 calm temp]am5t     
enabl$ him to be> an am\nt ( abuse :i*  
might h brok5 ! heal? ( a m irritable   
man4 ,cobbett's epi!t1 'p>son ,mal?us1' 
/rikes ! keynote4 ,he 0 pictur$ z a     
,*ri/ian prie/ d5\nc+ *>ity1 & proclaim+
 ! necessity ( vice & mis]y4 ,he _h !   
ill luck to be ! c5tre ^u :i* !         
antipa?ies ( ,jacob9 & anti-,jacob9     

conv]g$4 ,cobbett's language 0 r\gh] ?an
 ,s\!y's2 b ! poet-laureate & ! au?or ( 
'two-p5ny tra%' 7 equally vehem5t 9     
s5tim5t4 ,mal?us1 on ! o!r h&1 0 accept$
 by ! political economi/s1 bo? ,:ig &   
,utilit>ian4 ,horn] & ,mack9to%1 lights 
( ! ,:igs1 7 8 w>m fri5ds z well z 8    
disciples4 ,he became intimate )        
,ric>do1 & he 0 "o ( ! orig9al memb]s ( 
! ,political ,economy ,club4 ,he took   
abuse imp]turbably2 0 nev] vex$ 'aft] ! 
fir/ =tnight' by ! mo/ unfair attack2 & 
w5t on develop+ 8 !ories1 lectur+ 8     
/ud5ts1 & improv+ lat] editions ( 8     
treatise4 ,mal?us di$ on #bcrd ,decemb] 
#ahcd4   ,,ii4 ,,! ,,ratios  ,! doctr9e 
m>ks a critical po9t 9 political        
economy4 ,mal?us's oppon5ts1 z ,mr4     
,bon> rem>ks1#bag attack$ him alt]nately
 = prop\nd+ a truism & = ma9ta9+ a      
p>adox4 ,a 'truism' is n useless s long 
z its tru? is n admitt$4 ,x w\ld be !   
greate/ ( a*ievem5ts to enunciate a law 
self-evid5t z soon z =mulat$1 & yet     
previ\sly ignor$ or d5i$4 ,0 ?is ! case 

( ,mal?us8 ,or did he really />tle ! _w 
by clo?+ a commonplace 9 p>adox1 & !n   
expla9 away ! p>adox till no?+ b !      
commonplace 0 left8  ,mal?us laid d[n 9 
8 fir/ edition a proposition :i* cont9u$
 to be worri$ by all 8 assailants4      
,population1 he said1 :5 un*eck$1       
increases 9 ! geometrical ratio2 ! means
 ( subsi/5ce increase only 9 an         
ari?metical ratio4 ,geometrical ratios 7
 j !n 9 fa%ion4#bah ,price _h appeal$ to
 _! wond]ful ways 9 8 argum5ts ab\t !   
s9k+ fund2 & _h po9t$ out t a p5ny put  
out to #e p] c5t4 comp\nd int]e/ at !   
bir? ( ,*ri/ w\ld1 9 ! days ( ,pitt1 h  
be5 wor? "s millions ( globes ( solid   
gold1 ea* z big z ! e>?4 ,bo? ,price &  
,mal?us lay d[n a proposition :i* c     
easily be v]ifi$ by !                   
multiplication-table4 ,if1 z ,mal?us    
said1 population d\bles 9 tw5ty-five    
ye>s1 ! numb] 9 two c5turies w\ld be to 
! pres5t numb] z #bef to #a1 & 9 ?ree z 
#djif to #a4 ,if1 mean:ile1 ! quantity (
 subsi/5ce increas$ 9 'ari?metical      

progression1' ! multipli]s = x w\ld be  
only #i & #ac4 ,x foll[s t1 9 ! ye>     
#bjjc1 two hundr$ & fifty-six p]sons w h
 to live ^u :at n[ supports n9e4 ,s f>1 
! case is cle>4 ,b h[ does ! argum5t    
apply to facts8 ,= obvi\s reasons1      
,price's p5ny c\ld n become ev5 "o solid
 planet ( gold4 ,mal?us's population is 
also cle>ly impossible4 ,t is j 8 case4 
,! population ( ,briti% ,nor? ,am]ica 0 
actually1 :5 he wrote1 multiply+ at !   
assign$ rate4 ,:at he po9t$ out 0 t su* 
a rate mu/ someh[ be /opp$2 & 8 "q 01 h[
 precisely w x be /opp$8 ,! fir/        
proposition1 he says#bai 7t is1 t       
population increas$ geometrically71 ',i 
consid]$ z prov$ ! mom5t t ! ,am]ican   
increase 0 relat$2 & ! second z soon z  
enunciat$4' ,to say t a population      
increases geometrically1 9 fact1 is     
simply to say t x increases at a fix$   
rate4 ,! ari?metical increase           
corresponds to a /atem5t :i* ,mal?us1 at
 any rate1 might reg>d z und5iable2     
namely1 t 9 a c\ntry already fully      

occupi$1 ! possibility ( increas+       
produce is re/rict$ )9 mu* n>r[] limits4
 ,9 a 'new c\ntry1' z 9 ! ,am]ican      
colonies1 ! increase ( food might proce$
 z rapidly z ! increase ( population4   
,improv$ me?ods ( cultivation1 or !     
virtual addition ( va/ tracts ( f]tile  
t]ritory by improv$ means (             
communication1 may ( c\rse add          
indef9itely to ! res\rces ( a           
population4 ,b ,mal?us 0 contemplat+ a  
/ate ( ?+s 9 :i* ! actual conditions    
limit$ ! p to an extraction ( great]    
supplies f a /rictly limit$ area4 ,:e!r 
,mal?us assum$ too easily t ?is         
repres5t$ ! normal case may be          
que/ionable4 ,at any rate1 x 0 n only   
possible b actual 9 ! ,engl& ( ! "t4 ,8 
problem 0 v mu* to ! purpose4 ,8 aim 0  
to trace ! way 9 :i* ! population ( a   
limit$ region is prev5t$ f increas+     
geometrically4 ,if ! desc5dants (       
,engli%m5 increase at a c]ta9 rate 9    
,am]ica1 :y d !y n increase equally 9   
,engl&8 ,t1 x mu/ be admitt$1 is a fair 

sci5tific problem4 ,f9d+ t two races (  
simil> orig91 & presumably l qualities1 
increase at diff]5t rates1 we h to      
inve/igate ! causes ( ! diff]5ce4       
,mal?us answ]$ ! problem 9 ! simple/ &  
mo/ consi/5t way 9 8 fir/ edition4 ,:at 
are ! *ecks8 ,! ultimate *eck w\ld      
cle>ly be />vation4 ,a population might 
multiply till x _h n food4 ,b be=e ?is  
limit is actually rea*$1 x w suff] 9    
v>i\s ways f sc>city4 ,briefly1 ! *ecks 
may be di/+ui%$ into ! positive1 t is1  
actual di/ress1 & ! prev5tive1 or       
'=esight4' ,we %all actually suff]      
unless we are re/ra9$ by ! anticipation 
( suff]+4 ,z a fact1 h[ev]1 he ?9ks t m5
 are b little influ5c$ by ! prud5ce :i* 
=esees suff]+s4 ,!y g on multiply+ till 
! consequ5ces are realis$4 ,y may be    
conf9$ 9 a room1 to use "o ( 8          
illu/rations1#bbj ?\gh ! walls d n t\*  
y2 b human be+s are seldom satisfi$ till
 !y h actually knock$ _! heads aga9/ !  
wall4 ,he sums up 8 argum5t 9 ! fir/    
edition 9 ?ree propositions4#bba        

,population is limit$ by ! means (      
subsi/5ce2 t is obvi\s2 population      
inv>iably increases :5 ! means (        
subsi/5ce are increas$2 t is %[n by     
exp]i5ce to be practically true2 &      
!re=e1 f9ally1 ! proportion is ma9ta9$  
by 'mis]y & vice4' ,t is ! ma9          
conclusion :i* n unnaturally />tl$ ! _w4
 ,mal?us always adh]$ 9 "s s5se to ! ma9
 doctr9e1 ?\gh he /at$ explicitly "s    
res]ves already implicitly involv$4 ,a  
writ] mu/ n be surpris$ if popul> read]s
 rememb] ! ungu>d$ & dogmatic utt]ances 
:i* give piquancy to a !ory1 & ov]look !
 lat5t qualifications :i*1 :5 fully     
express$1 make x approximate to a       
commonplace4 ,! political be>+ ( 8      
reason+ is significant4 ,! application (
 ,godw9's !ories ( equality w\ld        
necess>ily1 z he urges1 /imulate an     
excessive population4 ,to meet !        
consequ5t evils1 two measures w\ld be   
obvi\sly necess>y2 private prop]ty mu/  
be in/itut$ 9 ord] to /imulate prud5ce2 
& m>riage mu/ be in/itut$ to make m5    

responsible = ! increase ( ! population4
 ,^! in/itutions are necess>y1 & !y make
 equality impossible4 ,weak1 !n1 z      
=esight may be ) mo/ m51 ! ess5tial     
social in/itutions h be5 develop$ by !  
necessity ( enabl+ =esight to ex]cise "s
 influ5ce2 & ?us indirectly societies h 
9 fact gr[n 9 weal? & numb]s ?r\gh      
arrangem5ts :i* h by "o & ! same action 
/r5g!n$ prud5ce & creat$ inequality4    
,al?\gh ?is is cle>ly impli$1 ! ma9     
impression produc$ ^u ,mal?us's read]s 0
 t he held 'vice & mis]y' to be ess5tial
 to society2 nay1 t 9 "s s5se he reg>d$ 
!m z bless+s4 ,he 0 accus$1 z he tells  
u1#bbb ( object+ to vacc9ation1 because 
x t5d$ to prev5t dea?s f small-pox1 &   
has to prote/ aga9/ "s "o :o _h decl>$ 8
 pr9ciples to be fav\rable to ! slave   
trade4#bbc ,he 0 repres5t$1 t is1 z     
hold+ depopulation to be good 9 itself4 
,^! p]v]sions 7 grotesque1 b p>tly      
expla9 ! horror ) :i* ,mal?us 0         
con/antly reg>d$2 & we mu/ consid] :at  
made !m plausible4  ,i mu/ fir/ notice !

 matur] =m ( 8 doctr9e4 ,9 ! second     
edition he turns to acc\nt ! result ( 8 
lat] read+1 8 p]sonal obs]vations1 & !  
/ati/ical results :i* 7 beg9n+ to       
accumulate4 ,! remodell$ book op5s ) a  
survey ( ! obs]v$ action ( ! *ecks2 & x 
concludes ) a discussion ( ! 'moral     
re/ra9t' :i* is n[ add$ to 'vice &      
mis]y4' ,al?\gh consid]able fragm5ts ( !
 old treatise rema9$ to ! la/1 ! :ole   
book 0 alt]$ bo? 9 /yle & "*4 ,! /yle   
c]ta9ly suff]s1 = ,mal?us 0 n a ma/] ( !
 lit]>y art2 he ins]ts 8 additions )    
little c>e = ! g5]al effect4 ,he tones  
d[n "s ( ! m vivid phrases :i* _h giv5  
(f5ce1 ?\gh he does n retract !         
sub/ance4 ,a fam\s passage#bbd 9 !      
second edition1 9 :i* he speaks (       
'nature's mighty fea/1' :]e1 unluckily1 
! 'table is already full1' & !re=e      
unbidd5 gue/s are left to />ve1 0       
suppress$ 9 ! lat] editions4 ,yet !     
pr9ciple t no man has a claim to        
subsi/5ce z ( "r rema9s unalt]$4 ,!     
omission injures ! lit]>y effect )\t    

alt]+ ! logic2 & ,i ?9k t1 :]e ! argum5t
 is am5d$1 ! new elem5t is sc>cely work$
 into ! old s z to ga9 ?or\gh consi/5cy4
  ,mal?us's survey ( diff]5t c\ntries   
%[$ h[ v>i\s are ! '*ecks' by :i*       
population is limit$ 9 v>i\s c\ntries4  
,we take a glance at all nations ?r\gh  
all epo*s ( hi/ory4 ,9 ! ,s\? ,sea we   
f9d a delici\s climate & a f]tile soil1 
:]e population is ma9ly limit$ by vice1 
infanticide1 & w>2 & :]e1 9 spite ( ^!  
influ5ces1 ! population multiplies at   
int]vals till x is kill$ (f by fam9e4 ,9
 ,*9a1 a va/ & f]tile t]ritory1 inhabit$
 by an indu/ri\s race1 9 :i* agriculture
 has always be5 enc\rag$1 m>riage       
/imulat$1 & prop]ty widely diffus$1 has 
facilitat$ ! production ( a va/         
population 9 ! mo/ abject /ate ( pov]ty1
 driv5 to expose *ildr5 by want1 &      
liable at int]vals to de/ructive fam9es4
 ,9 mod]n ,europe1 ! *ecks appe> 9 ! mo/
 v>i\s =ms2 9 ,switz]l& & ,norway a     
frugal population 9 small villages      
sometimes in/9ctively und]/&s ! pr9ciple

 ( population1 & exhibits ! 'moral      
re/ra9t1' :ile 9 ,engl& ! poor-laws are 
produc+ a mass ( hopeless & in]t        
paup]ism4 ,consid]ation ( ^! v>i\s      
cases1 & a comp>ison ( su* records z are
 obta9able ( ! old savage races1 ( !    
classical /ates ( antiquity1 ( ! ,nor!rn
 b>b>ians & ( ! mod]n ,european nations1
 sugge/s a natural d\bt4 ,mal?us        
abundantly proves :at c h>dly be d5i$1 t
 population has ev]y:]e be5 f\nd to     
press ^u ! means ( subsi/5ce1 & t vice &
 mis]y are pa9fully abundant4 ,b does he
 e/abli% or ab&on 8 ma9 proposition8 ,he
 n[ ass]ts ! 't5d5cy' ( population to   
outrun ! means ( subsi/5ce4 ,yet he     
holds unequivocally t ! increase (      
population has be5 accompani$ by an     
increas$ com=t2 t want has dim9i%$      
al?\gh population has increas$2 & t !   
'prev5tive' *eck is /rong] ?an ( old 9  
proportion to ! positive *eck4 ,scotl&1 
he says1#bbe is '/ill ov]peopl$1 b n s  
mu* z :5 x conta9$ few] inhabitants4'   
,_m nations1 z he po9ts out 9 g5]al     

t]ms1 h be5 mo/ prosp]\s :5 mo/         
popul\s4#bbf ,!y c\ld export food :5    
cr[d$1 & h ceas$ to import x :5 ?9n$4   
,?is1 inde$1 expresses 8 p]man5t views1 
?\gh ! facts 7 (t5 alleg$ by 8 critics z
 a dispro( ( !m4 ,0 n ! dispro( real8   
,does n a real evasion lurk "u ! phrase 
't5d5cy'8 ,y may say t ! e>? has a      
t5d5cy to fall into ! sun1 & ano!r      
't5d5cy' to move away f ! sun4 ,b x w\ld
 be absurd to argue t we 7 !re=e 9 dang]
 ( be+ burnt or ( be+ froz54 ,to expla9 
! law ( a vital process1 we may h to    
analyse x1 & !re=e to reg>d x z due to  
conflict+ =ces2 b ! =ces d n really exi/
 sep>ately1 & 9 consid]+ ! :ole concrete
 ph5om5on we mu/ take !m z mutually     
impli$4 ,a man has a 't5d5cy' to gr[ too
 fat2 & ano!r 't5d5cy' to gr[ too ?94 ,t
 surely means t on ! :ole he has a      
't5d5cy' to pres]ve ! desirable mean4 ,!
 phrase1 !n1 c only h a di/9ct mean+ :5 
! conflict+ =ces repres5t two indep5d5t 
or really sep>able =ces4 ,to use an     
illu/ration giv5 by ,mal?us1 we might   

say t a man _h a 't5d5cy' to gr[ upw>ds2
 b 0 re/ra9$ by a weight on 8 head4 ,!  
man has ! 't5d5cy1' because we may reg>d
 ! weight z a sep>able accid5t4 ,:5 bo? 
=ces are ( ! ess5ce1 ! sep>ate          
't5d5cies' correspond m]ely to our way (
 analys+ ! fact4 ,b if "o c be prop]ly  
reg>d$ z relatively accid5tal1 !        
't5d5cy' means ! way 9 :i* ! o!r w      
manife/ itself 9 actual cases4  ,9      
#ahbi1 ,s5ior put ?is po9t to           
,mal?us4#bbg ,:at1 he ask$1 d y und]/&  
by a 't5d5cy' :5 y admit t ! t5d5cy is  
normally ov]balanc$ by o!rs8 ,mal?us    
expla9s 8 mean+ to be t e nation suff]s 
f evils 'specifically aris+ f ! pressure
 ( population aga9/ food4' ,! wages ( ! 
lab\r] 9 old c\ntries h nev] be5        
suffici5t to enable him to ma9ta9 a l>ge
 family at ease4 ,!re is ov]cr[d+1 we   
may say1 9 ,engl& n[ z !re 0 9 ,engl& at
 ! ,conque/2 ?\gh food has increas$ 9 a 
great] proportion ?an population2 & !   
pressure has !re=e tak5 a mild] =m4     
,?is1 aga91 is prov$ by ! fact t1 :5ev] 

a relaxation ( ! pressure has occurr$1  
:5 plagues h dim9i%$ population1 or     
improvem5ts 9 agriculture increas$ _!   
supply ( food1 ! gap has be5 at once    
fill$ up4 ,! p h n tak5 advantage ( !   
tempor>y relaxation ( ! *eck to pres]ve 
! new equilibrium1 b h tak5 out !       
improvem5t by a multiplication ( numb]s4
 ,! /atem5t !n appe>s to be t at any    
giv5 "t ! population is 9 excess4 ,m5   
w\ld be bett] (f if !y 7 less num]\s4   
,b1 on ! o!r h&1 ! t5d5cy to multiply   
does n repres5t a con/ant =ce1 an       
irresi/ible in/9ct :i* w always br+ m5  
d[n to ! same level1 b some?+ :i*1 9    
fact1 may v>y mat]ially4 ,mal?us admits1
 9 fact1 t ! 'ela/icity' is cont9ually  
*ang+2 & !re=e repudiates !             
int]pretation :i* seem$ to make all     
improvem5t hopeless4 ,:y1 !n1 di/+ui% ! 
'*eck' z some?+ ap>t f ! in/9ct8 ,if1 9 
any case1 we accept ?is explanation1    
does n ! !ory become a 'truism1' or at  
lea/ a commonplace1 in(f5sive b h>dly   
in/ructive8 ,does x am\nt to m ?an !    

obvi\s /atem5t t prud5ce & =esight are  
desirable & are un=tunately sc>ce8      
,,iii4 ,,moral ,,re/ra9t  ,! *ange 9 !  
!ory ( '*ecks' raises ano!r important   
"q4 ,mal?us n[ introduc$ a modification 
^u :i* 8 support]s laid great /ress4 ,9 
! new v]sion ! '*ecks' :i* proportion   
population to means ( subsi/5ce are n   
simply 'vice & mis]y1' b 'moral re/ra9t1
 vice1 & mis]y4'#bbh ,h[1 precisely1    
does ?is modify ! !ory8 ,h[ are !       
diff]5t '*ecks' relat$8 ,:at especially 
is meant by 'moral' 9 ?is connection8   
,mal?us takes 8 e?ical philosophy pretty
 mu* = grant$1 b is cle>ly a ,utilit>ian
 accord+ to ! v]sion ( ,paley4#bbi ,he  
agrees ) ,paley t 'virtue evid5tly      
consi/s 9 educ+ f ! mat]ials :i* !      
,creator has plac$ "u our guidance !    
greate/ sum ( human happ9ess4'#bcj ,he  
adds to ?is t our 'natural impulses are1
 ab/ract$ly consid]$1 good1 & only to be
 di/+ui%$ by _! consequ5ces4' ,hung]1 he
 says1 z ,b5?am _h said1 is ! same 9    
itself1 :e!r x leads to /eal+ a loaf or 

to eat+ y\r own loaf4 ,he agrees )      
,godw9 t morality means ! 'calculation (
 consequ5ces1'#bca or1 z he says )      
,paley1 implies ! discov]y ( ! w ( ,god 
by obs]v+ ! effect ( actions ^u         
happ9ess4 ,reason !n regulates c]ta9    
innate & practically unalt]able in/9cts 
by enabl+ u to =etell _! consequ5ces4 ,!
 reasonable man is influ5c$ n simply by 
! imm$iate gratification1 b by a =eca/ (
 all ! results :i* x w entail4 ,9 ^!    
matt]s ,mal?us 0 entirely at "o ) !     
,utilit>ians prop]1 & seems to reg>d _! 
doctr9e z self-evid5t4  ,he notices     
briefly "o logical difficulty ?us       
introduc$4 ,! '*ecks' are vice1 mis]y1 &
 moral re/ra9t4 ,b :y di/+ui% vice f    
mis]y8 ,is n conduct vici\s :i* causes  
mis]y1#bcb & precisely because x causes 
mis]y8 ,he replies t to omit 'vice' w\ld
 confuse our language4 ,vici\s conduct  
may cause happ9ess 9 p>ticul> cases2    
?\gh its g5]al t5d5cy w\ld be p]nici\s4 
,! answ] is n v cle>2 & ,mal?us1 ,i ?9k1
 w\ld h be5 m logical if he _h /uck to 8

 fir/ !ory1 & reg>d$ vice z simply "o =m
 ( imprud5ce4 ,mis]y1 t is1 or ! fe> (  
mis]y1 & ! indulg5ce 9 conduct :i*      
produces mis]y are ! '*ecks' :i* limit  
population2 & ! :ole problem is to make 
! ultimate sanction m op]ative ^u !     
imm$iate conduct4 ,man becomes m virtu\s
 simply z he becomes m prud5t1 & is     
!re=e gov]n$ 9 8 conduct by recognis+ ! 
wid] & m remote s]ies ( consequ5ces4    
,!re is1 inde$1 ! ess5tial diff]5ce t ! 
virtu\s man acts 7on :atev] motives7 f a
 reg>d to ! 'greate/ happ9ess ( !       
greate/ numb]1' & n simply f self-reg>d4
 ,/ill ! ultimate & decisive crit]ion is
 ! t5d5cy ( conduct to produce mis]y2 & 
if ,mal?us _h c>ri$ ?is ?r\gh z         
rigor\sly z ,b5?am1 he w\ld h be5 m     
consi/5t4 ,! 'moral *eck' w\ld !n h be5 
simply a dep>tm5t ( ! prud5tial2 includ+
 prud5ce = o!rs z well z = ourselves4   
,"o reason = ! *ange is obvi\s4 ,8      
assumption enables him to avoid com+    
into conflict ) ! accept$ morality ( !  
"t4 ,on 8 exposition 'vice' occasionally

 seems n to be productive ( mis]y b an  
alt]native to mis]y2 & yet some?+ bad 9 
itself4 ,is ?is consi/5t ) 8            
,utilit>ianism8 ,! vices ( ! ,s\? ,sea  
,isl&]s1 accord+ to him1 made fam9e less
 necess>y2 &1 if !y gave pleasure at !  
mom5t1 7 !y n on ! :ole b5eficial8      
,mal?us aga9 reckons among vices        
practices :i* limit ! population )\t    
caus+ 'mis]y' directly4#bcc ,c\ld he    
logically call !m vici\s8 ,he wi%es to  
avoid ! imputation ( sanction+ su*      
practices1 & !re=e condemns !m by 8     
moral *eck2 b x w\ld be h>d to prove t  
he 0 consi/5t 9 condemn+ !m4 ,or1 aga91 
!re is ano!r famili> difficulty4 ,!     
,ca?olic *ur* enc\rages m>riage z a     
rem$y = vice2 & !reby /imulates bo?     
population & pov]ty4 ,h[ w\ld ,mal?us   
solve ! problem3 is x bett] to enc\rage 
*a/ity & a sup]abundance ( p1 or to     
re/rict m>riage at ! co/ ( increas+     
temptation to vice8 ,he seems to evade !
 po9t by say+ t he recomm5ds bo? *a/ity 
& ab/95ce f m>riage4 ,by 'moral         

re/ra9t1' z he expla9s1 he means        
're/ra9t f m>riage f prud5tial motives1 
) a conduct /rictly moral dur+ ! p]iod (
 ?is re/ra9t4' ',i h nev]1' he adds1    
'int5tionally deviat$ f ?is s5se4'#bcd  
,a man1 t is1 %\ld po/pone tak+ a wife1 
& %\ld n console himself by tak+ a      
mi/ress4 ,he is to refra9 f increas+ !  
illegitimate z well z f increas+ !      
legitimate population4 ,x is n surpris+ 
t ,mal?us admits t ?is *eck has '9 pa/  
ages op]at$ ) inconsid]able =ce4'#bce ,9
 fact ,mal?us1 z a ?or\ghly respectable 
& dec5t cl]gyman1 manages by talk+ ab\t 
! 'moral re/ra9t' r to evade ?an to     
answ] "s awkw>d problems ( conduct2 b at
 ! co/ ( "s inconsequ5ce4  ,b ano!r     
result ( ?is mode ( pat*+ up 8 argum5t  
is m important4 ,! 'vices ( mank9d1' he 
says 9 an unusually rhetorical summ>y ( 
8 hi/orical inquiry1#bcf 'are active &  
able m9i/]s ( depopulation4 ,!y are !   
precursors 9 ! great army ( de/ruction1 
& (t5 f9i% ! dreadful "w !mselves4 ,b   
%\ld !y fail 9 ! w> ( ext]m9ation1      

sickly seasons1 epidemics1 pe/il5ce1 &  
plague advance 9 t]rific array1 & sweep 
(f _! ?\s&s & t5 ?\s&s4 ,%\ld success   
/ill be incomplete1 gigantic inevitable 
fam9e /alks 9 ! re>1 & at "o mighty bl[ 
levels ! population ) ! food ( ! _w4' ,!
 life ( ! race1 !n1 is a /ruggle )      
mis]y2 its expansion is con/antly =c+ x 
^u ?is array ( evils2 & 9 proportion to 
! ela/icity is ! sev]ity ( ! evils :i*  
foll[4 ,?is is n only a 'gloomy view1' b
 aga9 seems to sugge/ t 'vice' is an    
alt]native to 'mis]y4' ,vices are bad1 x
 w\ld seem1 b at lea/ !y obviate !      
necessity = disease & fam9e4 ,mal?us    
probably suppress$ ! passage because he 
?\ght x liable to ?is int]pretation4 ,x 
indicates1 h[ev]1 a real awkw>dness1 if 
n some?+ m1 9 8 exposition4 ,he "h      
speaks z if !re 0 room = a fix$ numb] ( 
gue/s at 8 banquet4 ,:atev]1 !re=e1     
keeps ! population to t limit mu/ be s  
f> good4 ,if he _h consid]$ 8 'moral    
*eck' m ?or\ghly1 he might h se5 t ?is  
does n correspond to 8 real mean+4 ,!   

'moral' & ! prud5tial *ecks are n really
 to be contra/$ z alt]native1 b         
co-op]ative4 ,e population1 vici\s or   
virtu\s1 mu/ ( c\rse proportion its     
numb]s to its means ( support4 ,t gives 
! prud5tial *eck4 ,b ! moral *eck       
op]ates by alt]+ ! "* ( ! population    
itself4 ,f ! purely economic po9t (     
view1 vice is bad because x l[]s        
effici5cy4 ,a lazy1 drunk51 & pr(ligate 
p w\ld />ve :]e an indu/ri\s1 sob]1 &   
hone/ p w\ld ?rive4 ,! *eck ( vice ?us  
br+s ! *eck ( mis]y into play at an     
e>li] /age4 ,x limits by l[]+ ! vitality
 & sub/itut+ deg5]ation = progress4 ,!  
*eck1 !re=e1 is ess5tially mis*iev\s4   
,?\gh x does n make ! fields b>r51 x    
l[]s ! p[] ( cultivation4 ,mal?us _h    
recognis$ ?is :5 he po9t$ out1 z we h   
se51 t em]g5ce f ! savage /ate meant !  
in/itution ( m>riage & prop]ty &1 we may
 inf]1 ! correlative virtues ( *a/ity1  
indu/ry1 & hone/y4 ,if m5 c =m l>ge     
societies1 & millions c be support$ :]e 
once a few ?\s&s 7 at />vation po9t1 x  

is due to ! civilisation :i* at e /age  
implies 'moral re/ra9t' 9 a wid] s5se   
?an ,mal?us us$ ! phrase4 ,an increase (
 population by su* means 01 ( c\rse1 to 
be desir$4 ,if ,mal?us emphasises ?is   
inadequately1 x is p>tly1 no d\bt1      
because ! ,utilit>ian view ( morality   
t5d$ to emphasise ! ext]nal consequ5ces 
r ?an ! alt]ation ( ! man himself4 ,yet 
! wid] & s\nd] view is logically impli$ 
9 8 reason+--s mu* s t he might h       
express$ 8 real aim m cle>ly if he _h   
alt]$ ! ord] ( 8 argum5t4 ,he might h   
consi/5tly tak5 ! same l9e z e>li]      
writ]s & decl>$ t he desir$1 above all  
?+s1 ! increase ( population4 ,he w\ld h
 _h inde$ to expla9 t he desir$ !       
increase ( a s\nd & virtu\s population2 
& t ha/y & imprud5t increase l$ to mis]y
 & to a demoralisation :i* w\ld         
ultimately limit numb]s 9 ! wor/ way4   
,we %all see directly h[ ne>ly he       
accepts ?is view4 ,mean:ile1 by insi/+  
^u ! ne$ ( limitation1 he 0 l$ to speak 
(t5 z if limitation by any means 0 good 

& ! "o ?+ ne$ful1 & ! polemic aga9/     
,godw9 9 ! fir/ edition _h giv5 prom95ce
 to ?is side ( ! "q4 ,_h he put 8 views 
9 a diff]5t %ape1 he w\ld p]haps h be5 s
 edify+ t he w\ld h be5 disreg>d$4 ,he  
c]ta9ly avoid$ t risk1 & _h :atev]      
advantage is ga9$ by /at+ s\nd doctr9e  
p>adoxically4  ,we %all1 ,i ?9k1        
appreciate 8 real position bett] by     
consid]+ 8 approximation to ! !ory :i*1 
z we "k1 0 sugge/$ to ,d>w9 by a p]usal 
( ,mal?us4#bcg ,!re is a clos]          
resemblance ?an appe>s at fir/4 ,! fir/ 
edition concludes by two *apt]s aft]w>ds
 omitt$1 giv+ ! philosophical           
application ( 8 !ory4 ,he !re says t !  
'_w is a mighty process ( ,god n = !    
trial b = ! creation & =mation ( !      
m9d4'#bch ,x is n1 z ,butl] ?\ght1 a    
place ( 'probation1' b a sc5e 9 :i* !   
high] qualities are gradually develop$4 
,godw9 _h quot$ ,frankl9's view t 'm9d' 
w\ld become 'omnipot5t ov] matt]4'      
,mal?us holds t1 z he puts x1 ',god is  
mak+ matt] into m9d4' ,! diff]5ce is t  

,mal?us reg>ds evil 9 g5]al n z a sort (
 accid5t ( :i* we c get rid by reason2 b
 z ! ess5tial /imulus :i* becomes !     
effici5t cause ( intellectual activity4 
,! evils f :i* m5 suff] raise savage    
tribes f _! indol5ce1 & by degrees give 
rise to ! gr[? ( civilisation4 ,!       
argum5t1 ?\gh ^! *apt]s 7 dropp$ by     
,mal?us1 0 tak5 up by ,j4 ,b4 ,sumn]1 to
 :om he ref]s 9 lat] editions4#bci ,x   
is1 9 fact1 an imp]fect way ( /at+ a    
!ory ( evolution4 ,?is appe>s 9 8 op5+  
*apt]s ^u ! 'moral re/ra9t4'#bdj ,he    
expla9s t moral & physical evils are    
'in/rum5ts employ$ by ! ,deity' to      
admoni% u aga9/ su* conduct z is        
de/ructive ( happ9ess4 ,diseases are    
indications t we h brok5 a law ( nature4
 ,! plague ( ,london 0 prop]ly int]pret$
 by our ance/ors z a h9t to improve !   
sanit>y conditions ( ! t[n4 ,simil>ly1  
we h to consid] ! consequ5ces ( obey+   
our in/9cts4 ,! desire ( food &         
necess>ies is ! mo/ p[]ful ( ^! in/9cts1
 & next to x ! passion betwe5 ! sexes4  

,!y are bo? good1 = !y are bo? natural2 
b !y h to be prop]ly correlat$4 ,to     
'virtu\s love' 9 p>ticul> we owe !      
'sunny spots' 9 our lives1 :]e !        
imag9ation loves to bask4 ,desire (     
necess>ies gives u ! /imulus ( !        
com=table fireside2 & love adds ! wife &
 *ildr51 )\t :om ! fireside w\ld lose   
half its *>m4 ,n[1 z a rule1 ! sexual   
passion is apt to be 9 excess4 ,! f9al  
cause ( ?is excess is itself obvi\s4 ,we
 _c b conceive t x is an object ( '!    
,creator t ! e>? %\ld be repl5i%$4'#bda 
,to secure t object1 x is necess>y t    
'!re %\ld be a t5d5cy 9 ! population to 
increase fa/] ?an food4' ,if ! two      
in/9cts 7 diff]5tly balanc$1 m5 w\ld be 
cont5t ?\gh ! population ( a f]tile     
region 7 limit$ to ! mo/ trifl+ numb]s4 
,h5ce ! in/9ct has m]cifully be5 made s 
p[]ful z to /imulate population1 & ?us  
indirectly & ev5tually to produce a     
population at once l>g] & m com=table4  
,on ! "o h&1 x is ( ! v utmo/ importance
 to ! happ9ess ( mank9d t !y %\ld n     

increase too fa/1#bdb b1 on ! o!r h&1 if
 ! passion 7 weak5$1 ! motives :i* make 
a man indu/ri\s & capable ( progress    
w\ld be dim9i%$ also4 ,x w\ld1 ( c\rse1 
be simpl] to omit ! 'teleology'2 to say 
t sanit>y regulations are made necess>y 
by ! plague1 n t ! plague is div9ely    
appo9t$ to enc\rage sanit>y regulations4
 ,mal?us is at ! po9t ( view ( ,paley   
:i* becomes ,d>w9ism :5 inv]t$2 b !     
conclusion is mu* ! same4 ,he rea*es    
else:]e1 9 fact1 a m precise view ( !   
value ( ! 'moral re/ra9t4' ,9 a *apt]   
devot$ = once to an ideal /ate (        
?+s1#bdc he %[s h[ a race ?or\ghly imbu$
 ) t doctr9e w\ld reconcile ! dem&s ( ! 
two in/9cts4 ,population w\ld 9 t case  
increase1 b1 in/ead ( beg9n+ by an      
increase1 x w\ld beg9 by provid+ ! means
 ( support+4 ,no man w\ld become a fa!r 
until he _h se5 8 way to provide = a    
family4 ,! in/9ct :i* leads to increas+ 
! population w\ld ?us be intr9sically z 
p[]ful z x n[ is2 b :5 regulat$ by      
prud5ce x w\ld impel mank9d to beg9 at !

 "r end4 ,food w\ld be ready be=e m\?s  
to eat x4   ,,iv4 ,,social ,,rem$ies    
,?is f9al solution appe>s 9 ,mal?us's   
propos$ rem$ies = ! evils ( ! "t4       
,mal?us#bdd decl>es t 'an increase (    
population :5 x foll[s 9 its natural    
ord] is bo? a great positive good 9     
itself1 & absolutely necess>y' to an    
increase ( weal?4 ,?is natural ord]     
falls 91 z he obs]ves1 ) ! view to :i*  
,mirabeau _h be5 conv]t$1 t 'rev5ue 0 ! 
s\rce ( population1' & n population (   
rev5ue4#bde ,mal?us holds specifically  
t1 '9 ! c\rse ( "s c5turies1' !         
population ( ,engl& might be d\bl$ or   
trebl$1 & yet e man be 'mu* bett] f$ &  
clo!d ?an he is at pres5t4'#bdf ,he p>ts
 company ) ,paley1 :o _h consid]$ !     
ideal /ate to be 't ( a labori\s frugal 
p m9i/]+ to ! dem&s ( an opul5t luxuri\s
 nation4'#bdg ,t1 says ,mal?us1 is 'n an
 invit+ prospect4' ,no?+ b a conviction 
( absolute necessity c\ld reconcile u to
 ! '?\ght ( t5 millions ( p condemn$ to 
incessant toil1 & to ! privation (      

ev]y?+ b absolute necess>ies1 9 ord] to 
m9i/] to ! excessive luxuries ( ! o!r   
million4' ,b he d5ies t any su*         
necessity exi/s4 ,he wi%es precisely to 
see luxury spread among ! poor] classes4
 ,a desire = su* luxury is ! be/ ( all  
*ecks to population1 & "o ( ! be/ means 
( rais+ ! /&>d4 ,x w\ld1 9 fact1        
contribute to 8 'moral re/ra9t4' ,s1    
too1 he he>tily condemns ! hypocrisy ( !
 ri*1 :o pr(ess$ a b5evol5t desire to   
bett] ! poor1 & yet compla9$ ( high     
wages4#bdh ,if1 he says else:]e1#bdi a  
c\ntry c 'only be ri* by runn+ a        
successful race = l[ wages1 ,i %\ld be  
dispos$ to say1 ,p]i% su* ri*es6' ,no   
"o1 9 fact1 c\ld see m di/9ctly ?an     
,mal?us ! demoralis+ influ5ce ( pov]ty1 
& ! surpass+ importance ( rais+ ! p f ! 
t]rible gulf ( paup]ism4 ,he ref]s to   
,colquh\n's acc\nt ( ! tw5ty ?\s& p :o  
rose e morn+ 9 ,london )\t kn[+ h[ !y 7 
to be support$2 & obs]ves t ':5 indig5ce
 does n produce ov]t acts ( vice1 x     
palsies e virtue4'#bej ,! temptations to

 :i* ! poor man is expos$1 & ! s5se (   
inju/ice due to an ignorance ( ! true   
cause ( mis]y1 t5d to 's\r !            
disposition1 to h>d5 ! he>t1 & dead5 !  
moral s5se4' ,un=tunately1 ! means :i* h
 be5 adopt$ to less5 ! evil h t5d$ to   
increase x4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 !re 0 !    
ma/]-evil ( ! poor-laws4 ,mal?us po9ts  
out ! demoralis+ effects ( ^! laws 9    
*apt]s full ( admirable common s5se1 :i*
 he 0 un=tunately able to en=ce by fre% 
illu/rations 9 successive editions4 ,he 
att5ds simply to ! /imulus to           
population4 ,he ?9ks t if ! laws _h nev]
 exi/$1 ! poor w\ld n[ h be5 mu* bett]  
(f4#bea ,if ! laws _h be5 fully c>ri$   
out1 e lab\r] might h be5 c]ta9 t all 8 
*ildr5 w\ld be support$1 or1 9 o!r      
words1 e *eck to population w\ld h be5  
remov$4#beb ,happily1 ! becom+ pride ( !
 ,engli% peasantry 0 n q ext9ct2 & !    
poor-law _h to "s ext5t c\nt]act$       
itself1 or tak5 away ) "o h& :at x gave 
) ! o!r1 by plac+ ! bur!n ^u !          
p>i%es4#bec ,?us l&lords h be5 m dispos$

 to pull d[n ?an to build cottages1 &   
m>riage has be5 *eck$4 ,on ! :ole1      
h[ev]1 ,mal?us c\ld see 9 ! poor-laws   
no?+ b a va/ ag5cy = demoralis+ ! poor1 
temp]$ by a sy/em ( petty tyrannical    
int]f]5ce4 ,he proposes1 !re=e1 t !     
poor-law %\ld be aboli%$4 ,notice %\ld  
be giv5 t no *ildr5 born aft] a c]ta9   
day %\ld be entitl$ to p>i% help2 &1 z  
he qua9tly sugge/s1 ! cl]gyman might    
expla9 to e c\ple1 aft] publi%+ ! banns1
 ! immorality ( reckless m>riage1 & !   
reasons = aboli%+ a sy/em :i* _h be5    
prov$ to fru/rate ! int5tions ( !       
f\nd]s4#bed ,private *>ity1 he ?9ks1    
w\ld meet ! di/ress :i* might aft]w>ds  
arise1 ?\gh humanity imp]i\sly requires 
t x %\ld be 'sp>+ly adm9i/]$4' ,^u ?is  
duty he writes a s5sible *apt]4#bee ,to 
8 negative proposals ,mal?us adds a few 
( ! positive k9d4 ,he is /rongly 9 fav\r
 ( a national sy/em ( education1 &      
speaks ) contempt ( ! 'illib]al &       
feeble' argum5ts oppos$ to x4 ,! s*ools1
 he obs]ves1 might conf] 'an almo/      

incalculable b5efit' ^u society1 if !y  
taught 'a few ( ! simple/ pr9ciples (   
political economy4'#bef ,he _h be5      
di%e>t5$ by ! prejudices ( ! ignorant   
lab\r]1 & felt ! incompatibility ( a    
free gov]nm5t ) su* ignorance4 ,a real  
education1 su* z 0 giv5 9 ,scotl&1 w\ld 
make ! poor n1 z al>mi/s _h sugge/$1 m  
inflammable1 b bett] able to detect !   
sophi/ry ( demagogues4#beg ,he is1 (    
c\rse1 9 fav\r ( sav+s banks1#beh &     
approves fri5dly societies1 ?\gh he is  
/rongly oppos$ to mak+ !m compulsory1 z 
!y w\ld !n be ! poor-law 9 a new =m4#bei
 ,! value ( e improvem5t turns ^u its   
effect 9 enc\rag+ ! 'moral re/ra9t4'    
,mal?us's ultimate crit]ion is always1  
,w ! measure make p av]se to premature  
m>riage8 ,he rea*es ! app>5tly          
inconsi/5t result t x might be desirable
 to make an all[ance = e *ild beyond    
six4#bfj ,b ?is is on ! hypo!sis t !    
'moral re/ra9t' has come to be s        
habitual t no man m>ries until he has a 
fair prospect ( ma9ta9+ a family ( six4 

,if ?is 7 ! practical code1 ! all[ance 9
 cases :]e ! expectation 0 disappo9t$   
w\ld n act z an enc\ragem5t to m>riage1 
b z a relief "u a bur!n :i* c\ld n h be5
 anticipat$4 ,?us all ,mal?us's tea*+   
may be said to conv]ge ^u ?is practical 
po9t4 ,add to ! ,t5 ,comm&m5ts ! new    
law1 ',?\ %alt n m>ry until !re is a    
fair prospect ( support+ six *ildr54'   
,!n population w increase1 b suffici5t  
means = subsi/5ce w always be provid$   
be=eh&4 ,we %all make sure t !re is a   
provision = additional numb]s be=e1 n   
aft]1 we add to our numb]s4 ,food fir/ &
 population aft]w>ds gives ! rule2 ?us  
we a*ieve ! good end )\t ! incid5tal    
evils4  ,mal?us's views ( ! appropriate 
rem$y = social evils und\bt$ly %[ an    
imp]fect appreciation ( ! great problems
 involv$4 ,reckless propagation is an   
evil2 b ,mal?us reg>ds x z an evil :i* c
 be isolat$ & suppress$ by simply add+ a
 new article to ! moral code4 ,he is    
deal+ ) a c5tral problem ( human nature 
& social ord]4 ,any modification ( !    

sexual in/9cts or ( ! con/itution ( !   
family involves a pr(\nd modification ( 
! :ole social ord] & ( ! dom9ant        
religi\s & moral cre$s4 ,mal?us tacitly 
assumes t conduct is det]m9$ by ! play (
 two in/9cts1 unalt]able 9 !mselves1 b  
capable ( modification 9 _! results by a
 m ext5sive view ( consequ5ces4 ,to     
*ange m5's rul+ motives 9 reg>d to ! mo/
 important "p ( _! lives is to alt] _!  
:ole aims & conceptions ( ! _w1 & (     
happ9ess 9 e o!r relation4 ,x supposes1 
!re=e1 n a m]e addition ( k1 b a        
trans=mation ( "* & an alt]$ view ( all 
! !ories :i* h be5 embodi$ 9 religi\s & 
e?ical philosophy4 ,he ov]looks1 too1   
consid]ations :i* w\ld be ess5tial to a 
complete /atem5t4 ,a population :i* is  
too prud5t may suff] itself to be cr[d$ 
out by m prolific races 9 ! g5]al       
/ruggle = exi/5ce2 & cases may be       
sugge/$ su* z t ( ! ,am]ican colonies1 9
 :i* an increase ( numb]s might be      
actually an advantage by facilitat+ a m 
effici5t organisation ( lab\r4  ,!      

abs5ce ( a di/9ct appreciation ( su*    
difficulties gives to 8 speculation t   
"o-sid$ "* :i* ali5at$ 8 m s5tim5tal    
contempor>ies4 ,x 0 natural en\gh 9 a   
man :o 0 con/antly confront$ by !       
t]rible developm5t ( paup]ism 9 ,engl&1 
& 0 too mu* tempt$ to assume t ! t5d5cy 
to reckless propagation 0 n only a v    
grave evil1 b ! ultimate s\rce ( e evil4
 ,! doctr9e tak5 up 9 ?is unqualifi$    
fa%ion by "s ( 8 disciples1 & prea*$ by 
!m ) ! utmo/ f]v\r z ! "o secret (      
prosp]ity1 %ock$ bo? ! cons]vative &    
or?odox ^: prejudices 7 trampl$ ^u1 &   
su* ,radicals z inh]it$ ,godw9's or     
,condorcet's !ory ( p]fectibility4 ,h>% 
& "o-sid$ z x might be1 h[ev]1 we may   
/ill hold t x 0 ( value1 n only 9 reg>d 
to ! mo/ press+ difficulty ( ! day1 b   
also z call+ att5tion to a vitally      
important condition ( social welf>e4 ,! 
"q1 h[ev]1 recurs :e!r1 :5 ! doctr9e is 
s qualifi$ z to be admissible1 x does n 
also become a m]e truism4  ,an answ] to 
?is "q %\ld beg9 by recognis+ "o        

specific resemblance betwe5 8           
speculations & ,d>w9's4 ,facts1 :i*     
appe> f an old] po9t ( view to be pro(s 
( a miracul\s int]position1 become )    
,mal?us1 z ) ,d>w91 ! normal results (  
admitt$ conditions4 ,godw9 _h admitt$ t 
!re 0 "s 'pr9ciple :i* kept population  
on a level ) subsi/5ce4' ',! sole "q    
is1' says ,mal?us1#bfa ':at is ?is      
pr9ciple8 ,is x "s obscure & occult     
cause8 a my/]i\s int]f]5ce ( heav51'    
inflict+ b>r5ness at c]ta9 p]iods8 or 'a
 cause op5 to our rese>*es & )9 our     
view8' ,o!r writ]s _h _h rec\rse to !   
miracul\s4 ,"o ( ,mal?us's e>ly         
au?orities 0 ,suessmil*1 :o _h publi%$ 8
 ,goettli*e ,ordnung 9 #agfa1 to %[ h[  
,provid5ce _h tak5 c>e t ! trees %\ld n 
gr[ into ! sky4 ,! ant$iluvians _h be5  
made long-liv$ 9 ord] t !y might h l>ge 
families & p an empty e>?1 :ile life 0  
div9ely %ort5$ z ! _w fill$ up4         
,suessmil*1 h[ev]1 reg>d$ population z  
/ill 9 ne$ ( /imulus4 ,k+s might help   
,provid5ce4 ,a new ,trajan w\ld des]ve  

to be call$ ! fa!r ( 8 p1 if he increas$
 ! m>riage-rate4 ,mal?us replies t !    
/ati/ics :i* ! wor?y man himself produc$
 %[$ conclusively t ! m>riages dep5d$ ^u
 ! dea?s4 ,! bir?s fill up ! vacancies1 
& ! pr9ce :o increas$ ! population be=e 
vacancies arose w\ld simply increase !  
rate ( mortality4#bfb ,if y want to     
increase y\r bir?-rate )\t absolutely   
produc+ fam9e1 z he rem>ks aft]w>ds1#bfc
 make y\r t[ns unheal?y1 & enc\rage     
settlem5t by m>%es4 ,y might ?us d\ble !
 mortality1 & we might all m>ry         
prematurely )\t be+ absolutely />v$4 ,8 
own aim is n to secure ! greate/ numb] (
 bir?s1 b to be sure t ! greate/ numb] (
 ^? born may be support$4#bfd ,! +5i\s  
,m4 ,muret1 aga91 _h f\nd a ,swiss p>i% 
9 :i* ! mean life 0 ! highe/ & !        
fecundity smalle/ kn[n4 ,he pi\sly      
conjectures t x may be a law ( ,god t '!
 =ce ( life 9 ea* c\ntry %\ld be 9 !    
inv]se ratio ( its fecundity4' ,he ne$s 
n betake himself to a miracle1 says     
,mal?us4#bfe ,! case is simply t 9 a    

small & heal?y village1 :]e p _h become 
aw>e ( ! importance ( ! 'prev5tive      
*eck1' ! "y p put (f m>riage till !re 0 
room = !m1 & consequ5tly bo? l[]$ !     
bir?-rate & rais$ ! av]age duration (   
life4  ,no?+1 says ,mal?us v =cibly1 has
 caus$ m errors ?an ! confusion betwe5  
'relative & positive1 & betwe5 cause &  
effect4'#bff ,he is "h answ]+ ! argum5t 
t because ! poor :o _h c[s 7 ! mo/      
indu/ri\s1 ! way to make !m indu/ri\s 0 
to give !m c[s4 ,mal?us ?9ks x m        
probable t indu/ry got ! c[ ?an t ! c[  
produc$ indu/ry4 ,?is is a trifl+       
in/ance ( a v g5]al tru?4 ,p _h be5     
cont5t to notice ! dea?s caus$ by w> &  
disease1 & to inf] at once t :at caus$  
dea? mu/ dim9i% population4 ,mal?us %[s 
! necessity ( obs]v+ o!r collat]al      
results4 ,! gap may be made s great z to
 dim9i% population2 b x may be comp5sat$
 by a m rapid reproduction2 or1 !       
rapidity ( reproduction may itself be ! 
cause ( ! disease2 s t to remove "o k9d 
( mortality may be on "s occasion to    

introduce o!rs4 ,! /ream is damm$ on "o 
brea* to fl[ m /rongly ?r\gh o!r        
outlets4#bfg  ,?is is1 ,i conceive1 to  
say simply t ,mal?us 0 introduc+ a      
really sci5tific me?od4 ,! facts tak5 9 
! true ord] became at once intelligible 
in/ead ( sugge/+ my/]i\s & irregul>     
int]f]5ces4 ,e>li] writ]s _h be5 cont5t 
to s+le out "o p>ticul> set ( ph5om5a   
)\t att5d+ to its place 9 ! m g5]al &   
complex processes1 ( :i* !y =m$ an      
integral "p4 ,infanticide1 z ,hume _h   
po9t$ out1 might t5d to increase        
population4#bfh ,9 prospect1 x might    
enc\rage p to h babies2 & :5 babies     
came1 natural affection might prev5t !  
actual c>ry+ out ( ! int5tion4 ,to judge
 ( ! actual effect1 we h to consid] !   
:ole ( ! concrete case4 ,x may be c>ri$ 
out1 z app>5tly 9 ! ,s\? ,sea ,isl&s1 s 
g5]ally z to limit population2 or x may 
be1 z 9 ,*9a1 an indication t ! pressure
 is s great t a numb] ( infants become  
sup]flu\s4 ,its suppression might1 9 !  
"o case1 lead to an increase ( !        

population2 9 ! o!r1 to ! increase ( o!r
 =ms ( mortality4 ,mal?us's             
inve/igations illu/rate ! necessity (   
ref]r+ e p>ticul> process to its place 9
 ! :ole sy/em1 ( not+ h[ any giv5 *ange 
might set up a set ( actions & reactions
 9 virtue ( ! g5]al ela/icity (         
population1 & ?us ( con/antly ref]r+ at 
e /ep to ! g5]al conditions ( human     
life4 ,he succe$$ 9 mak+ _m po9ts cle>1 
& ( %[+ h[ ha/ily _m inf]5ces _h be5    
drawn4 ,he expla9$1 = example1 :y !     
revolution>y w>s _h n dim9i%$ !         
population ( ,france1 9 spite ( ! great 
numb] ( dea?s1#bfi & ?us gave an example
 ( a s\nd me?od ( inquiry :i* has       
ex]cis$ a great influ5ce ^u lat]        
obs]v]s4 ,mal?us 0 con/antly misund]/ood
 & misrepres5t$1 & 8 oppon5ts (t5 allege
 z fatal objections to 8 doctr9e ! v    
facts by :i* x 0 really support$4 ,b we 
may1 ,i ?9k1 say1 t s9ce 8 writ+ no     
s]i\s economical writ] has adopt$ ! old 
ha/y guesses1 or has v5tur$ to propose a
 !ory )\t reg>d to ! pr9ciples ( :i* he 

fir/ br\ght out ! full significance4    
,v4 ,,political ,,application  ,?is ,i  
take to indicate "o real & p]man5t value
 ( ,mal?us's writ+s4 ,he introduc$ a new
 me?od ( approa*+ ! great social        
problems4 ,! value ( ! me?od may rema91 
h[ev] inaccurate may be ! assumptions ( 
facts4 ,! 't5d5cy1' if int]pret$ to mean
 t p are always multiply+ too rapidly1  
may be a figm5t4 ,if x is tak5 z call+  
att5tion to "o ess5tial factor 9 ! case1
 x is a mo/ important guide to          
inve/igation4 ,?is br+s out ano!r vital 
po9t4 ,! be>+ ( ! doctr9e ^u ! political
 z well z ^u ! economical views ( !     
,utilit>ians is ( conspicu\s importance4
 ,mal?us's />t+-po9t1 z we h se51 0 !   
opposition to ! doctr9e (               
'p]fectibility4' ,h>d facts1 :i* ,godw9 
& ,condorcet _h neglect$1 7 fatal to _! 
dreams4 ,y h1 urg$ ,mal?us1 neglect$    
c]ta9 und5iable tru?s z to ! unalt]able 
qualities ( human nature1 &1 !re=e1 y\r 
!ories w n "w4 ,! revolutioni/s _h      
oppos$ an ideal '/ate ( nature' to !    

actual arrangem5ts ( society4 ,!y imag9$
 t ! '/ate ( nature' repres5t$ !        
desirable consummation1 & t !           
con/itution ( ! 'natural' ord] c\ld be  
det]m9$ f c]ta9 ab/ract pr9ciples4 ,!   
equality ( man1 & ! absolute rights :i* 
c\ld be inf]r$ by a k9d ( ma!matical    
process1 suppli$ ! necess>y dogmatic    
basis4 ,! anti!sis to ! /ate ( nature 0 
! artificial /ate1 m>k$ by inequality1 &
 manife/+ its _s by luxury4 ,k+s1       
prie/s1 & nobles _h someh[ e/abli%$ ?is 
unnatural ord]2 & to sweep !m away      
summ>ily 0 ! way ( br++ ! natural ord]  
into full activity4 ,! ideal sy/em 0    
already pot5tially 9 exi/5ce1 & w\ld    
become actual :5 m5's m9ds 7 once cle>$ 
f sup]/ition1 & ! political made to     
correspond to ! natural rights ( man4   
,to ?is ,mal?us _h repli$1 z we h se51 t
 social inequality 0 n a m]e arbitr>y   
product ( fraud & =ce1 b an exp$i5t     
necess>y to re/ra9 ! primitive in/9cts (
 mank9d4 ,he ?us co9cides ) ,b5?am's    
pref]5ce ( 'security' to 'equality1' &  

illu/rates ! real significance ( t      
doctr9e4 ,prop]ty & m>riage1 ?\gh !y    
involve inequality1 7 in/itutions (     
ess5tial importance4 ,godw9 _h pu%$ 8   
!ories to absolute an>*y2 to !          
de/ruction ( all law1 = law 9 g5]al     
repres5t$ co]cion or an int]f]5ce ) !   
/ate ( nature4 ,mal?us virtually ass]t$ 
t ! metaphysical doctr9e 0 inapplicable 
because1 m5 be+ :at !y are1 ^!          
conclusions 7 incompatible ) ev5 ! fir/ 
/ages ( social progress4 ,?is means1    
aga91 t = ! metaphysical me?od ,mal?us  
is sub/itut+ a sci5tific me?od4 ,in/ead 
( reg>d+ all gov]nm5t z a k9d ( my/]i\s 
int]v5tion f )\t1 :i* has someh[        
introduc$ a fatal discord into ! natural
 ord]1 he inquires :at are ! facts2 h[  
law has be5 evolv$2 & = :at reason4 ,8  
answ] is1 9 brief1 t law1 ord]1 &       
inequality h be5 absolutely necess>y 9  
ord] to limit t5d5cies :i* w\ld o!rwise 
keep m5 9 a /ate ( hopeless pov]ty &    
depression4  ,?is gives ! 'diff]5tia' ( 
! ,utilit>ian consid]$ z "o species ( ! 

g5us ',radical4' ,mal?us's criticism (  
,pa9e is significant4#bgj ,he agrees )  
,pa9e t ! cause ( popul> ris+s is 'want 
( happ9ess4' ,b ,pa9e1 he rem>ks1 0 '9  
_m important po9ts totally ignorant ( ! 
/ructure ( society'2 & has fall5 into ! 
error ( attribut+ all want ( happ9ess to
 gov]nm5t4 ,consequ5tly1 ,pa9e advocates
 a plan = di/ribut+ taxes among ! poore/
 classes1 :i* w\ld aggravate ! evils a  
hundr$fold4 ,he fully admits ) ,pa9e t  
man has rights4 ,! true l9e ( answ] w\ld
 be to %[ :at ^? rights are4 ,to give   
?is answ] is n ,mal?us's pres5t bus9ess2
 b !re is "o "r1 at any rate1 :i* a man 
does n & _c possess3 namely1 ! '"r to   
subsi/5ce :5 8 lab\r w n fairly pur*ase 
x4' ,he does n possess x because he _c  
possess x2 to try to secure x is to try 
to 'rev]se ! laws ( nature1' & !re=e to 
produce cruel suff]+ by practis+ an     
'inhuman deceit4' ,! ,abbe ,raynal _h   
said t a man _h a "r to subsi/ 'be=e all
 social laws4' ,man _h ! same "r1 repli$
 ,mal?us1 z he _h to live a hundr$ or a 

?\s& ye>s4 ,he may live1 if he c )\t    
int]f]+ ) o!rs4 ,social laws h1 9 fact1 
enl>g$ ! p[] ( subsi/5ce2 b nei!r be=e  
nor aft] _! in/itution c\ld an unlimit$ 
numb] subsi/4 ,briefly1 ! "q ( fact     
comes be=e ! "q ( "r1 & ! fault ( !     
revolution>y !ori/s 0 to settle ! "r )\t
 ref]5ce to ! possibility ( mak+ ! "r   
correspond to ! fact4  ,h5ce ,mal?us    
draws 8 mo/ emphatic political moral4 ,!
 admission t all evil is due to gov]nm5t
 is ! way to tyranny4 ,make m5 believe t
 gov]nm5t is ! "o cause ( mis]y1 & !y w 
inevitably ?r[ ! :ole responsibility ^u 
_! rul]s2 seek = r$ress by cures :i*    
aggravate ! disease2 & /r5g!n ! h&s ( ^?
 :o pref] ev5 despotism to an>*y4 ,?is1 
he intimates1 is ! explanation ( !      
repressive measures 9 :i* !             
c\ntry-g5tlem5 _h support$ ,pitt4 ,! p  
_h fanci$ t by de/roy+ gov]nm5t !y w\ld 
make bread *eap2 gov]nm5t 0 =c$ to be   
tyrannical 9 ord] to resi/ revolution2  
:ile its support]s 7 l$ to 'give up "s (
 ! mo/ valuable privileges (            

,engli%m54'#bga ,x is !n ( vital        
importance to settle :at is & :at is n  
to be set d[n to gov]nm5t4 ,mal?us1 9   
fact1 holds t ! real evils are due to   
und]ly+ causes :i* _c be directly       
remov$1 ?\gh !y may be dim9i%$ or       
increas$1 by legislators4 ,gov]nm5t c d 
some?+ by giv+ security to prop]ty1 & by
 mak+ laws :i* w raise ! self-respect ( 
! l[] classes4 ,b ! effect ( su* laws   
mu/ be sl[ & gradual2 & ! error :i* has 
mo/ contribut$ to t delay 9 ! progress (
 fre$om1 :i* is 's di%e>t5+ to e lib]al 
m9d1'#bgb is ! confusion z to ! true    
causes ( mis]y4 ,?us1 z he has already  
urg$1 pr(ess$ economi/s c\ld /ill       
believe1 s long aft] ! publication (    
,adam ,smi?'s "w1 t x 0 '9 ! p[] ( !    
ju/ices ( ! peace or ev5 ( ! omnipot5ce 
( p>liam5t to alt] by a fiat ! :ole     
circum/ances ( ! c\ntry4'#bgc ,yet m5 :o
 saw ! absurdity ( try+ to fix ! price (
 provisions 7 ready to propose to fix ! 
rate ( wages4 ,!y did n see t "o t]m ( !
 proportion impli$ ! o!r4 ,mal?us's :ole

 criticism ( ! poor-law1 already notic$1
 is a comm5t>y ^u ?is text4 ,x is       
connect$ ) a g5]al !ory ( human nature4 
,! au?or ( nature1 he says1 has wisely  
made '! passion ( self-love beyond      
expression /rong] ?an ! passion (       
b5evol5ce4'#bgd ,he means1 z he expla9s1
 t e man has to pursue 8 own welf>e & t 
( 8 family z 8 prim>y object4           
,b5evol5ce1 ( c\rse1 is ! 's\rce ( our  
pure/ & mo/ ref9$ pleasures1' & s =?2 b 
x %\ld come 9 z a supplem5t to          
self-love4 ,!re=e we mu/ nev] admit t m5
 h a /rict "r to relief4 ,t is to injure
 ! v ess5tial social =ce4 ',h>d z x may 
seem 9 individual in/ances1 dep5d5t     
pov]ty ought to be held                 
disgraceful4'#bge ,! _s ( indep5d5ce or 
self-help is ! "o ?+ necess>y4 ',!      
desire ( bett]+ our condition & ! fe> ( 
mak+ x worse1 l ! vis m$icatrix 9       
physics1 is ! vis m$icatrix naturae 9   
politics1 & is cont9ually c\nt]act+ !   
disord]s aris+ f n>r[ human             
in/itutions4'#bgf ,x is only because !  

poor-laws h n q de/roy$ x1 t !y h n q   
ru9$ ! c\ntry4 ,! pi? ( ,mal?us's tea*+ 
is fairly express$ 9 8 la/ lett] to     
,s5ior4#bgg ,he holds t ! improvem5t 9 !
 condition ( ! great mass ( ! lab\r+    
classes %\ld be consid]$ z ! ma9 int]e/ 
( society4 ,to improve _! condition1 x  
is ess5tial to impress !m ) ! conviction
 t !y c d mu* m = !mselves ?an o!rs c d 
= !m1 & t ! only s\rce ( p]man5t        
improvem5t is ! improvem5t ( _! moral & 
religi\s habits4 ,:at gov]nm5t c d1     
!re=e1 is to ma9ta9 su* in/itutions z   
may /r5g!n ! vis m$icatrix1 or 'desire  
to bett] our condition1' :i* poor-laws  
_h directly t5d$ to weak54 ,he ma9ta9s 9
 8 lett] to ,s5ior1 t ?is desire is     
'p]fectly feeble' comp>$ ) ! t5d5cy ( ! 
population to increase1 & op]ates 9 a v 
slight degree ^u ! great mass ( ! lab\r+
 class4#bgh ,/ill1 he holds t on ! :ole 
! 'prev5tive *ecks' h become /rong]     
relatively to ! positive1#bgi &1 at any 
rate1 all proposals mu/ be judg$ by _!  
t5d5cy to /r5g!n ! prev5tive4  ,mal?us 0

 n a ?or\ghgo+ support] ( ! 'd-no?+'    
doctr9e4 ,he approv$ ( a national sy/em 
( education1 & ( ! e>ly factory acts1   
?\gh only z appli$ to infant lab\r4 ,s1 
z we %all see1 did all ! ,utilit>ians4  
,! 'individualism1' h[ev]1 is n less    
decid$2 & leads him to speak z ?\gh !   
ela/icity ( population 7 n m]ely an     
ess5tial factor 9 ! social problem1 b ! 
sole pr9ciple f :i* all solutions mu/ be
 d$uc$4 ,he is ?us l$1 z ,i h tri$ to   
%[1 to a n>r[ int]pretation ( 8 'moral  
*eck4' ,he is apt to take 'vice' simply 
z a product ( excessive pressure1 &1 9 8
 g5]al phrases at lea/1 to ov]look its  
reciprocal t5d5cy to cause pressure4 ,! 
'moral *eck' is only prev5tive or       
negative1 n a positive cause ( sup]ior  
vig\r4 ,a simil> defect appe>s 9 8 !ory 
( ! vis m$icatrix4 ,he 01 ,i hold1      
p]fectly "r 9 emphasis+ ! importance (  
individual responsibility4 ,no re=m c be
 p]man5t :i* does n raise ! morality ( !
 individual4 ,8 insi/5ce ^u ?is tru? 0 (
 ! highe/ importance1 & x is to be wi%$ 

t its importance might be m fully       
recognis$ to-day4 ,! "o-sid$ness appe>s 
9 8 proposal to aboli% ! poor-law       
simply4 ,t became ! mo/ conspicu\s &    
widely accept$ doctr9e4 ,all m5 (       
's5se1' said ,sydney ,smi?--c]ta9ly a   
qualifi$ repres5tative ( ! class--9     
#ahbj1 agree1 fir/1 t ! poor-law mu/ be 
aboli%$2 & secondly1 t x mu/ be aboli%$ 
v gradually4#bhj ,t is really to assume 
t by refus+ to help p at all1 y w =ce !m
 to help !mselves4 ,!re is ano!r        
alt]native1 namely1 t !y may1 z ,mal?us 
himself (t5 recognises1 become          
demoralis$ by excessive pov]ty4 ,to d   
simply no?+ may lead to deg5]ation      
in/ead ( increas$ en]gy4 ,! possibility 
( an improv$ law1 :i* might act z a     
moral discipl9e in/ead ( a simply       
corrupt+ ag5cy1 is simply left out (    
acc\nt2 & ! t5d5cy to /imulate reckless 
population is reg>d$ n only z "o        
probable consequ5ce1 b z ! v ess5ce (   
all poor-laws4 ,^u ,mal?us's            
assumptions1 ! /atem5t t s\nd political 

& social !ories mu/ be bas$ ^u sy/ematic
 inquiry into facts1 meant t !          
individual 0 ! ultimate unalt]able unit1
 ^: int]e/ 9 8 own welf>e gave ! "o     
fulcrum = all possible *anges4 ,! ideal 
'/ate ( nature' 0 a fiction4 ,! true    
basis ( our inquiries is ! actual man   
kn[n to u by obs]vation4 ,! ma9 fault ( 
?is be+ 0 ! excess ( ! in/9ct (         
multiplication1 & ! way to improve him 0
 to %[ h[ x might conflict ) ! in/9ct ( 
self-pres]vation4 ,9 ?is %ape ! doctr9e 
express$ ! mo/ *>act]i/ic t5d5cy ( !    
,utilit>ians1 & divid$ !m f ! ,sociali/s
 or believ]s 9 ab/ract rights ( man4    
,,vi4 ,,r5t  ,"h1 !n1 we are at a c5tral
 po9t ( ! ,utilit>ian cre$4 ,! expansive
 =ce ( population is1 9 a s5se1 ! great 
motive p[] :i* m\lds ! :ole social      
/ructure2 or1 r1 x =ces toge!r !        
indep5d5t units1 & welds !m into an     
aggregate4 ,! influ5ce ( ?is doctr9e ^u 
o!r economical speculations is ( !      
highe/ importance4 ,"o critical /age 9 !
 process is m>k$ by ! enunciation ( !   

!ory ( r5t1 :i* 0 to become ano!r       
ess5tial article ( ! true fai?4 ,!      
introduction ( ?is doctr9e is           
*>act]i/ic1 & m>ks ! po9t at :i* ,ric>do
 sup]s$$ ,mal?us z *ief expositor ( !   
doctr9e4  ,mal?us's views 7 fir/ fully  
giv5 9 8 ,inquiry into ,r5t1 ! second ( 
?ree pamphlets :i* he publi%$ dur+ !    
corn-law controv]sy ( #ahad-ae4bha ,!   
op9ions n[ /at$ _h1 he says1 be5 =m$ 9 !
 c\rse ( 8 lectur+ at ,haileybury2 & he 
made !m public on acc\nt ( _! be>+ ^u ! 
mo/ absorb+ que/ions ( ! "t4 ,!         
connection ( ! !ory ) ,mal?us's         
speculations & ) ! contempor>y          
difficulties is inde$ obvi\s4 ,! l&lord 
_h cle>ly "o ( ! res]v$ seats at !      
banquet ( nature4 ,he 0 ! mo/ obvi\s    
embodim5t ( 'security' z oppos$ to      
equality4 ,mal?us1 aga91 _h be5 influ5c$
 by ! ,fr5* economi/s & _! !ory ( !     
'surplus fund1' provid$ by agriculture4 
,accord+ to !m1 z he says1#bhb ?is fund 
or r5t con/itutes ! :ole national weal?4
 ,9 8 fir/ edition he _h def5d$ !       

economi/s aga9/ "s ( ,adam ,smi?'s      
criticisms2 & ?\gh he alt]$ 8 views &   
?\ght t !y _h be5 l$ into prepo/]\s     
errors1 he reta9$ a c]ta9 sympa?y = !m4 
,agriculture has /ill a c]ta9           
'pre-em95ce4' ,god has be/[$ ^u ! soil !
 'ine/imable quality ( be+ able to      
ma9ta9 m p]sons ?an are necess>y to "w  
x4'#bhc ,x has ! special virtue t !     
supply ( necess>ies g5]ates ! dem&4     
,make m luxuries & ! price may fall2 b  
gr[ m food & !re w be m p to eat x4     
,?is1 h[ev]1 seems to be only ano!r way 
( /at+ an unpleasant fact4 ,! bless+ (  
'f]tility' c\nt]acts itself4 ,z he      
argues 9 ! essay1#bhd an equal division 
( l& might produce su* an increase (    
population z w\ld exhau/ any conceivable
 increase ( food4 ,^! views--n1 ,i ?9k1 
v cle> or consi/5tly work$ out--lead    
app>5tly to ! conclusion t ! f]tility is
 inde$ a bless+1 b on condition ( be+   
conf9$ to a few4 ,! result1 9 any case1 
is ! or?odox !ory ( r5t4 ,! lab\r] gets 
less ?an he w\ld if ! products ( ! soil 

7 equally di/ribut$4 ,bo? wages & pr(its
 mu/ fall z m is left to r5t1 & t ?is   
actually happ5s1 he says1 ) unusual     
positiv5ess1 is an 'incontrov]tible     
tru?4'#bhe ,! fall enables ! less f]tile
 l& to be cultivat$1 & gives an excess (
 produce on ! m f]tile4 ',?is excess is 
r5t4'#bhf ,he proce$s to exp\nd 8       
doctr9e by comp>+ l& to a set ( ma*9es =
 mak+ corn4#bhg ,if1 9 manufacture1 a   
new ma*9e is introduc$ e "o adopts x4 ,9
 agriculture ! wor/ ma*9es h /ill to be 
us$2 & ^? :o h ! be/ & sell at ! same   
price1 c appropriate ! surplus          
advantage4 ,?is1 he decl>es1 is a law 'z
 inv>iable z ! action ( ! pr9ciple (    
gravity4'#bhh ,yet ,smi? & o!rs h       
ov]look$ a 'pr9ciple ( ! highe/         
importance'#bhi & h fail$ to see t !    
price ( corn1 z ( o!r ?+s1 mu/ con=m to 
! co/ ( production4 ,! same doctr9e 0   
exp\nd$ 9 ! same ye> by ,sir ,edw>d     
,we/2#bij &1 z x seems to me1 m cle>ly &
 simply4 ,we/1 l ,mal?us1 says t he has 
to ann\nce a pr9ciple ov]look$ by ,adam 

,smi?4 ,?is is briefly t 'ea* equal     
additional quantity ( "w be/[$ on       
agriculture yields an actually dim9i%$  
return4' ,he holds t pr(its fall z weal?
 increases1 b he d5ies ,adam ,smi?'s    
view t ?is is a simple result ( increas$
 competition4#bia ,competition w\ld     
equalise1 b w\ld n l[] pr(its1 = '!     
productive p[]s ( manufactures are      
con/antly increas+4' ,9 agriculture !   
law is ! opposite "o ( dim9i%+ returns4 
,h5ce ! admitt$ fall ( pr(its %[s t !   
necessity ( tak+ inf]ior soils into     
cultivation is ! true cause ( ! fall4   
,su* co9cid5ces z t betwe5 ,mal?us &    
,we/ are common en\gh1 = v obvi\s       
reasons4 ,9 ?is case1 ,i ?9k1 !re is    
less room = surprise ?an usual4 ,! writ]
 g5]ally cr$it$ ) ! discov]y ( ! r5t    
doctr9e is ,james ,&]son1 :o _h /at$ x z
 e>ly z #aggg4bib ,! /atem5t1 h[ev]1 did
 n attract att5tion until at ! "t ( ,we/
 & ,mal?us x 0 =c$ ^u obs]v]s by ! mo/  
conspicu\s facts ( ! day4 ,adam ,smi? & 
o!r economi/s _h1 z ,mal?us notices1    

obs]v$ :at is obvi\s en\gh1 t r5t 9 "s  
way repres5t$ a 'net produce'--a some?+ 
:i* rema9$ aft] pay+ ! co/s (           
production4 ,s mu* 0 obvi\s to any      
common-s5se obs]v]4 ,9 a curi\s pap] (  
,decemb] #ahjd1bic ,cobbett po9ts out t 
! l&lords w always keep ! pr(its ( f>m]s
 d[n to ! av]age rate ( equally         
agreeable bus9esses4 ,?is grant$1 x is a
 %ort ?\gh important /ep to ! !ory (    
r5t4 ,! ,engli% sy/em _h1 9 fact1       
spontane\sly analys$ ! problem4 ,!      
l&lord1 f>m]1 & lab\r] repres5t$ ! ?ree 
int]e/s :i* might else:]e be comb9$4    
,prices rais$ by w> & fam9e _h l$ to !  
enclosure ( wa/es & ! break+ up (       
pa/ures4 ,! 'm>g9 ( cultivation' 0 ?us  
illu/rat$ by facts4 ,f>m]s 7 compla9+ t 
!y c\ld n make a pr(it if prices 7 l[]$4
 ,! l&$ classes 7 pr(it+ by a rise (    
price rais$1 accord+ to a famili> law1 9
 great] proportion ?an ! defici5cy ( !  
h>ve/4 ,facts ( ?is k9d 71 "o mu/       
suppose1 famili> to e l&-ag5t2 & to     
discov] ! law ( r5t1 x 0 only necess>y =

 ,mal?us & ,we/ to put !m 9 _! natural  
ord]4 ,! egg _h only to be put on its   
end1 ?\gh t1 z we "k1 is (t5 a difficult
 task4 ,:5 ! feat 0 accompli%$          
consequ5ces foll[$ :i* 7 fully develop$ 
by ,ric>do4  ,,footnotes3  #bjc ,mr4    
,james ,bon>'s ,mal?us & 8 ,"w 7#ahhe7  
gives an admirable acc\nt ( ,mal?us4 ,! 
*ief orig9al au?orities are a life by   
,bi%op ,ott]1 prefix$ to a second       
edition ( ! ,political ,economy 7#ahca71
 & an article by ,empson1 ,mal?us's     
colleague1 9 ! ,ed9burgh ,review =      
,janu>y #ahcg4  #bjd ,political ,ju/ice 
7#crd edition1 #agih71 ii4 bk4 viii4    
*ap4 ix41 p4 #ead4  #bje ,wallace wrote 
9 answ] to ,hume1 ,a ,diss]tation on !  
,numb]s ( ,mank9d 9 ,anci5t & ,mod]n    
,times 7#agec71 & ,v>i\s ,prospects (   
,mank9d1 & ,nature & ,provid5ce 7#agfa74
 ,godw9 ref]s to ! la/4  #bjf ,political
 ,ju/ice1 ii4 #ebj4  #bjg ,ibid4 ii4    
#ebh4  #bjh ,fir/ publi%$ 9 #agie1 aft] 
! fir/ edition1 z ,godw9 rem>ks1 ( !    
,political ,ju/ice4  #bji ,ami des      

hommes 7repr9t ( #ahhc71 p4 #ae4  #baj  
,ami des hommes1 p4 #bf4  #baa ,see !   
curi\s debate 9 ,p>l4 ,hi/4 xiv4        
#acah-acfe4  #bab ,! sev5? edition (    
,price's ,obs]vations on ,rev]sion>y    
,paym5ts1 etc4 7#ahab71 conta9s a       
correspond5ce ) ,pitt 7i4 #baf1 etc474  
,! editor1 ,w4 ,morgan1 accuses ,pitt ( 
adopt+ ,price's plans )\t due           
ackn[l$gm5t & aft]w>ds spoil+ !m4  #bac 
,essay on ,population1 p4 #ah4 ,9       
,obs]vations1 ii4 #ada1 he e/imates !   
dim9ution at a million & a half4 ,o!r   
books ref]r+ to ! same controv]sy are   
,h[lett's ,exam9ation ( ,dr4 ,price's   
,essay 7#agha72 ,lett] to ,"l ,c>lisle1 
by ,william ,ed5 7#agdd-ahad71 fir/ ,"l 
,auckl&2 ,william ,wales's ,enquiry into
 ,pres5t ,/ate ( ,population1 etc4      
7#agha72 & ,geo4 ,*alm]s's ,e/imate ( ! 
,comp>ative ,/r5g? ( ,great ,brita9     
7#aghb & sev]al lat] editions74  #bad   
,essay 7fir/ edition71 p4 #cci4  #bae   
,memoirs1 etc4 7#ahai71 ii4 #aj4  #baf  
,s ,sir ,james ,/ew>t1 ^: light 0       

ext+ui%$ by ,adam ,smi?1 beg9s 8        
,enquiry into ! ,pr9ciples ( ,political 
,economy 7#agfg7 by discuss+ ! "q (     
population1 & comp>es ! 'g5]ative       
faculty' to a spr+ load$ ) a weight1 &  
ex]t+ itself 9 proportion to ! dim9ution
 ( resi/ance 7,works1 #ahje1 i4 #bb74   
,he comp>es population to 'rabbits 9 a  
w>r54' ,joseph ,t[ns5d1 9 8 ,j\rney     
,?r\gh ,spa9 7#agib71 to :om ,mal?us    
ref]s1 _h discuss$ ! suppos$ decay ( !  
,spani% population1 & illu/rates 8      
pr9ciples by a geometric progression3   
see ii4 #bac-ef1 #chf-ia4 ,ed51 9 8 book
 on ! poor 7i4 #bad71 quotes a tract    
attribut$ to ,sir ,mat!w ,hale = !      
/atem5t t ! poor increase on            
'geometrical progression4'  #bag ,mal?us
 & 8 ,"w1 p4 #he4  #bah ,voltaire says 9
 ! ,dictionnaire ,philosophique 7art4   
',population'73 ',on ne propage po9t en 
,progression ,geometrique4 ,t\s les     
calculs qu'on a faits sur cette pret5due
 multiplication sont des *im]es         
absurdes4' ,!y _h be5 us$ to reconcile !

 /ory ( ! deluge ) ! admitt$ population 
( ! _w soon aft]w>ds4  #bai ,essay      
7#ahbf71 ii #dec n4 ,i cite f ?is1 ! la/
 edition publi%$ 9 ,mal?us's lifetime1  
unless o!rwise /at$4  #bbj ,essay1 ii4  
#bea 7bk4 iii4 *4 xiv474  #bba ,ibid4   
7#agih71 p4 #ada4  #bbb ,essay1 ii4 #ddi
 7,app5dix74  #bbc ,essay1 ii4 #dgc     
7,app5dix74  #bbd ,ibid4 7,second       
,edition71 p4 #djj4 ,! passage is giv5 9
 full 9 ,mal?us & 8 ,"w1 p4 #cjg4  #bbe 
,essay1 i4 #dfi 7bk4 ii4 *4 x474 ,ed5 _h
 made ! same rem>k4  #bbf ,ibid4 ii4    
#bbi 7bk4 iii4 *4 xiv474  #bbg          
,correspond5ce 9 ,s5ior's ,?ree ,essays 
on ,population 7#ahbi74  #bbh ,essay1 i4
 #bcd 7bk4 i4 *4 ii474  #bbi ,mr4 ,bon> 
?9ks 7,mal?us & 8 ,"w1 p4 #cbd7 t       
,mal?us foll[$ ,paley's pr$ecessor1     
,abraham ,tuck]1 r ?an ,paley4 ,!       
diff]5ce is n = my purpose important4 ,9
 any case1 ,mal?us's ref]5ces are to    
,paley4  #bcj ,essay1 ii4 #bff 7bk4 iv4 
*4 i474  #bca ,essay 7fir/ edition71 p4 
#bab4  #bcb ,ibid4 i4 #af n4 7bk4 i4 *4 

ii474  #bcc ,see e4g4 8 rem>ks ^u       
,condorcet 9 ,essay1 ii4 #h 7bk4 iii4 *4
 i472 & ,ow5 9 ,ibid4 ii4 #dh 7bk4 iii  
*4 ii474  #bcd ,essay1 i4 #ae n4 7bk4 i4
 *4 ii472 & see ,ibid4 7edit4 ( #ahjg7  
ii4 #abh4  #bce ,ibid4 7#ahjg7 ii4 #abh4
  #bcf ,ibid4 7#ahjg7 ii4 #c 7bk4 ii4 *4
 ii474 7,omitt$ 9 lat] editions47  #bcg 
,mr4 ,a4 ,r4 ,wallace1 ,d>w9's          
fell[-discov]] ( ! doctr9e1 also le>n$ x
 f ,mal?us4 ,see ,clodd's ,pione]s (    
,evolution4 ,mal?us uses ! phrase       
'/ruggle = exi/5ce' 9 relation to a     
fight betwe5 two savage tribes 9 ! fir/ 
edition ( 8 ,essay1 p4 #dh4 ,9 reply+ to
 ,condorcet1 ,mal?us speaks 7,essay1 ii4
 #ab1 bk4 iii4 *4 i47 ( ! possible      
improvem5t ( liv+ organisms4 ,he argues 
t1 ?\gh a plant may be improv$1 x _c be 
indef9itely improv$ by cultivation4 ,a  
c>nation c\ld n be made z l>ge z a      
tulip4 ,x has be5 said t ?is implies a  
condemnation by anticipation ( !ories ( 
! developm5t ( species4 ,?is is h>dly   
correct4 ,mal?us simply urges aga9/     

,condorcet t our inability to fix limits
 precisely does n imply t !re are no    
limits4 ,?is1 x w\ld seem1 mu/ be       
admitt$ on all h&s4 ,evolution implies  
def9ite ?\gh n precisely def9able       
limits4 ,life may be l5g!n$1 b n made   
immortal4  #bch ,essay 7fir/ edition71  
#cec4  #bci ,ibid4 #db n4 7bk4 iii4 *4  
iii47  #bdj ,essay1 ii4 #cja-cf 7bk4 iv4
 *4 i4 & ii474 ,sumn]'s ,treatise on !  
,records ( ! ,creation1 & on ! ,moral   
,attributes ( ! ,creator3 ) ,p>ticul>   
,ref]5ce to ! ,jewi% ,hi/ory & !        
,consi/5cy ( ! ,pr9ciple ( ,population )
 ! ,wisdom & ,goodness ( ! ,creator     
7#ahae71 _h ga9$ ! second ,burnett      
prize4 ,x w5t ?r\gh _m editions2 & %[s  
h[ ,cuvi] confirms ,g5esis1 & ,mal?us   
proves t ! _w 0 int5d$ to involve a     
competition fav\rable to ! indu/ri\s &  
sob]4 ,sumn]'s view ( ,mal?us is giv5 9 
,"p ii41 *aps1 v4 & vi4 ,9 previ\s      
*apt]s he has support$ ,mal?us's attack 
on ,godw9 & ,condorcet4  #bda ,essay1   
ii4 #bff 7bk4 iv4 *4 i474  #bdb ,essay1 

ii #bfh 7bk4 iv4 *4 i474  #bdc ,ibid4   
7bk4 iv4 *4 ii474  #bdd ,essay1 #bda    
7bk4 iii4 *4 iv474  #bde ,ibid4 ii4 #bda
 7bk4 iii4 *4 xiv474  #bdf ,ibid4 ii4   
#bic 7bk4 iv4 *4 iv474  #bdg ,ibid4 ii4 
#dbe 7bk4 iv4 *4 xiii474 ,mal?us        
expresses a hope t ,paley _h modifi$ 8  
views ^u population1 & ref]s to a       
passage 9 ! ,natural ,!ology4  #bdh     
,essay1 ii4 #bib 7bk4 iv4 *4 iv474  #bdi
 ,political ,economy 7#ahcf71 p4 #bad4  
#bej ,essay1 ii4 #bih 7bk4 iv4 *4 iv474 
#bea ,ibid4 ii4 #hf 7bk4 iii4 *4 vi474  
#beb ,ibid4 ii4 #hg 7bk4 iii4 *4 vi474  
#bec ,essay1 ii4 #ij 7bk4 iii4 *4 vi474 
#bed ,ibid4 ii4 #cch 7bk4 iv4 *4 viii474
  #bee ,ibid4 ii4 7bk4 iv4 *4 x474  #bef
 ,ibid4 ii4 #cec 7bk4 iv4 *4 ix474  #beg
 ,essay1 ii4 #cef 7bk4 iv4 *4 ix474     
#beh ,ibid4 ii4 #djg 7bk4 iv4 *4 xii474 
#bei ,ibid4 ii4 #cge 7bk4 iv4 *4 xi474  
#bfj ,ibid4 ii4 #dbi 7bk4 iv4 *4 xiii474
  #bfa ,essay ( #ahjg 7bk4 iii4 *4 ii41 
& vol4 ii4 p4 #aaa74 ,! phrases quot$   
are ton$ d[n 9 lat] editions4  #bfb     

,essay1 i4 #ccj 7bk4 ii4 *4 iv474  #bfc 
,ibid4 ii4 #cjj 7bk4 iv4 *4 v474  #bfd  
,ibid4 ii4 #dje 7bk4 iv4 *4 xiii474     
#bfe ,ibid4 i4 #cdc 7bk4 ii4 *4 v474    
#bff ,essay1 ii4 #dbd 7bk4 iv4 *4       
xiii474  #bfg ,ibid4 ii4 #cjd 7bk4 iv4  
*4 v474  #bfh ,essay1 i4 #ge 7bk4 i4 *4 
v474  #bfi ,ibid4 7bk4 ii4 *4 vi474     
#bgj ,essay1 ii4 #cah 7bk4 iv4 *4 vi474 
#bga ,essay1 ii4 #cae 7bk4 iv4 *4 v474  
#bgb ,ibid4 ii4 #cbf 7bk4 iv4 *4 vi474  
#bgc ,ibid4 ii4 #gh 7bk4 iii4 *4 v474   
#bgd ,essay1 ii4 #ded 7,app5dix74  #bge 
,ibid4 ii4 #hb 7bk4 iii4 *4 vi474  #bgf 
,ibid4 ii4 #ij 7bk4 iii4 *4 vi474  #bgg 
,s5ior's ,?ree ,lectures1 p4 #hf4  #bgh 
,s5ior's ,?ree ,lectures1 p4 #fj4  #bgi 
,essay1 i4 #ecd 7bk4 ii4 *4 xiii474     
#bhj ,smi?'s ,works 7#ahei71 i4 #bie4   
#bha ,obs]vations on ! ,effects ( !     
,corn-laws1 #ahad2 ,inquiry into !      
,nature & ,progress ( ,r5t1 #ahae2 & ,! 
,gr\nds ( an ,op9ion on ! ,policy (     
re/rict+ ! ,importation ( ,=eign ,corn1 
int5d$ z an app5dix to ! ,obs]vations on

 ! ,corn-laws1 #ahae4  #bhb ,inquiry    
into ,r5t1 p4 #a4  #bhc ,ibid4 p4 #af4  
#bhd ,essay1 ii4 #ce 7bk4 iii4 *4 ii474 
#bhe ,inquiry into ,r5t1 p4 #bj4  #bhf  
,ibid4 p4 #ah4  #bhg ,ibid4 p4 #ch4     
#bhh ,inquiry into ,r5t1 p4 #bj4  #bhi  
,ibid4 p4 #cg4  #bij ,essay on !        
,application ( ,capital to ,l&1 by a    
,fell[ ( ,univ]sity ,college1 ,ox=d1    
#ahae4  #bia ,essay1 p4 #ai4  #bib ,9   
,an ,inquiry into ! ,nature ( !         
,corn-laws1 & aga9 7#ahja7 9            
,obs]vations on ,agriculture1 etc41 vol4
 v4 #dja-ea4  #bic ,political ,works1 i4
 #dhe1 etc4 ,9 ?is pap]1 ,i may add1    
,cobbett1 n yet a ,radical1 accepts     
,mal?us's view ( ! t5d5cy ( ! human     
species to multiply m quickly ?an its   
support4 ,he does n m5tion ,mal?us1 b   
speaks ( ! belief z univ]sally admitt$1 
& aft]w>ds illu/rates x amus+ly by say+ 
t1 9 8 pl\ghboy days1 he us$ to wond] t 
!re 0 always j en\gh hay = ! horses &   
en\gh horses = ! hay4     ,,*apt] ,v    
,,ric>do   ,i4 ,,ric>do',s ,,/>t+-,,po9t

  ,david ,ric>do1#bid born #ai? ,april  
#aggb1 0 ! son ( a ,dut* ,jew :o _h     
settl$ 9 ,engl&1 & made money ^u ! ,/ock
 ,ex*ange4 ,ric>do _h a desultory       
education1 & 0 employ$ 9 bus9ess f 8    
boyhood4 ,he ab&on$ 8 fa!r's cre$1 &    
m>ri$ an ,engli%woman soon aft] rea*+ 8 
majority4 ,he set up = himself 9        
bus9ess1 &1 at a "t :5 f9ancial         
transactions ^u an unprec$5t$ scale 7   
giv+ great opportunities = speculators1 
he made a l>ge =tune1 & ab\t #ahad b\ght
 an e/ate at ,gatcombe ,p>k1            
,gl\ce/]%ire4 ,he )drew soon aft]w>ds f 
bus9ess1 & 9 #ahai became memb] (       
p>liam5t4 ,8 dea? on #aa? ,septemb]     
#ahbc cut %ort a political c>e] f :i* 8 
p]haps too sangu9e fri5ds anticipat$    
great results4 ,8 influ5ce 9 8 own      
dep>tm5t ( inquiry _h be51 mean:ile1 ( !
 greate/ importance4 ,he _h %[n 9 8 y\? 
"s incl9ation = sci5tific pursuits2 he  
e/abli%$ a laboratory1 & became a memb] 
( sci5tific societies4 ,! p]usal ( ,adam
 ,smi?'s ,weal? ( ,nations 9 #agii gave 

him an int]e/ 9 ! application (         
sci5tific me?ods to ! que/ions ) :i* he 
0 mo/ conv]sant4 ,accept+ ,adam ,smi? z 
! lead+ au?ority1 he proce$$ to ?9k out 
= himself c]ta9 doctr9es1 :i* appe>$ to 
him to h be5 insuffici5tly recognis$ by 
8 tea*]4 ,! fir/ result ( 8 speculations
 0 a pamphlet publi%$ 9 #ahji ^u !      
depreciation ( ! curr5cy4 ,^u t topic he
 spoke z an exp]t1 & 8 ma9 doctr9es 7   
accept$ by ! fam\s ,bullion ,committee4 
,ric>do ?us became a recognis$ au?ority 
on "o great set ( problems ( ! highe/   
imm$iate int]e/4 ,mal?us's ,inquiry into
 ,r5t sugge/$ ano!r pamphlet2 & 9 #ahag1
 enc\rag$ by ! w>m pressure ( 8 fri5d1  
,james ,mill1 he publi%$ 8 *ief book1 ! 
,pr9ciples ( ,political ,economy &      
,taxation4 ,?is became ! economic ,bible
 ( ! ,utilit>ians4 ,! task ( a          
comm5tator or int]pret] is1 = v>i\s     
reasons1 a difficult "o4  ,!re is a     
c]ta9 analogy betwe5 ,ric>do & a v      
diff]5t writ]1 ,bi%op ,butl]4 ,ea* ( !m 
produc$ a great effect by a %ort        

treatise1 & 9 ea* case ! book ow$ v     
little to ! ord9>y lit]>y graces4       
,ric>do's want ( lit]>y tra9+1 or 8     
natural difficulty ( utt]ance1 made 8   
/yle /ill worse ?an ,butl]'s2 b1 l      
,butl]1 he comm&s our respect by 8      
obvi\s s9c]ity & e>ne/ness4 ,he is      
cont5t :5 he has s express$ 8 argum5t t 
x c be seiz$ by an att5tive read]4 ,he  
is incapable (1 or indiff]5t to1 cle> & 
ord]ly exposition ( pr9ciples4 ,! logic 
is !re1 if y w take ! tr\ble to look =  
x4 ,p]haps we ought to be flatt]$ by ?is
 tacit reliance ^u our pati5ce4 ',y1'   
,ric>do1 l ,butl]1 seems to say to u1   
'are anxi\s = tru?3 y d n c>e = ornam5t1
 & may be tru/$ to "w out ! full        
application ( my pr9ciples4' ,9 ano!r   
respect ! two are alike4 ,butl]'s       
argum5t has impress$ _m read]s z a      
demolition ( 8 own case4 ,x provokes    
revolt in/ead ( adhesion4 ,ric>do1 an   
or?odox economi/1 laid d[n pr9ciples :i*
 7 adopt$ by ,sociali/s to upset 8 own  
assumptions4 ,su* a ,god z y wor%ip1    

said ,butl]'s oppon5ts1 is an unju/ be+1
 & !re=e worse ?an no ,god4 ,su* a sy/em
 z y describe1 said ,ric>do's oppon5ts1 
is an embodim5t ( inju/ice1 & !re=e to  
be radically de/roy$4 ,admitt+ ! logic1 
! argum5t may be read z a r$uctio ad    
absurdum 9 bo? cases4  ,ric>do has      
involv$ himself 9 c]ta9 special         
difficulties4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 he       
presupposes famili>ity ) ,adam ,smi?4 ,!
 ,pr9ciples is a runn+ comm5t ^u "s (   
,smi?'s !ories1 & no attempt is made to 
r$uce !m to sy/ematic ord]4 ,he />ts by 
lay+ d[n propositions1 ! pro( ( :i*     
comes aft]w>ds1 & is !n r intimat$ ?an  
expressly giv54 ,he adopts ! t]m9ology  
:i* ,smi? _h accept$ f popul> use1#bie &
 (t5 applies x 9 a special significance1
 :i* is at lea/ liable to be misund]/ood
 by 8 read]s1 or =gott5 by himself4 ,x  
is difficult1 aga91 to feel sure :e!r "s
 ( 8 /atem5ts are to be tak5 z positive 
ass]tions ( fact1 or m]ely z conv5i5t   
assumptions = ! purposes ( 8 argum5t4   
,ric>do himself1 z appe>s 9 8 lett]s1 0 

pa9fully aw>e ( 8 own awkw>dness (      
expression1 & ^u t po9t alone all 8     
critics seem to be 9 tol]able agreem5t4 
,happily1 x w be en\gh = my purpose if  
,i c lay d[n 8 ess5tial premises )\t    
foll[+ him to ! remot] d$uctions4       
,ric>do's pamphlet ^u ,mal?us 7#ahae7   
gives a />t+-po9t4 ,ric>do cordially    
adopts ,mal?us's !ory ( r5t1 b decl>es t
 x is fatal to "s ( ,mal?us's           
conclusions4 ,mal?us1 we h se51 wi%$ to 
reg>d r5t z 9 "s s5se a gift (          
,provid5ce--a positive bless+ due to !  
f]tility ( ! soil4 ,ric>do ma9ta9s1 on !
 contr>y1 t '! int]e/ ( ! l&lord is     
necess>ily oppos$ to ! int]e/ ( e o!r   
class 9 ! community4'#bif ,! l&lord is  
prosp]\s :5 corn is sc>ce & de>2 all o!r
 p]sons :5 x is pl5tiful & *eap4 ,?is   
foll[s ^u ,mal?us's own %[+4 ,z m5 are  
=c$ to h rec\rse to inf]ior soils1 !    
l&lord obta9s a l>g] %>e ( ! :ole       
produce2 &1 moreov]1 s9ce corn also     
becomes m valuable1 w h a l>g] %>e ( a m
 valuable product4 ,! "q app>5tly 9     

dispute--:e!r we %\ld be glad t "s l& is
 bett] ?an ! wor/1 or sorry because all 
is n equal to ! be/--seems r idle4 ,!   
real "q1 h[ev]1 is :e!r r5t1 be+ a      
bless+1 %\ld be kept up by              
protection1#big or1 be+ a curse1 %\ld be
 br\ght d[n by competition8 ,:at is !   
real work+ ( ! sy/em8 ,set ! trade free1
 says ,ric>do1 & ! capital w be )drawn f
 ! poor l& & employ$ ^u manufactures1 to
 be ex*ang$ = ! corn ( o!r c\ntries4#bih
 ,! *ange mu/ correspond to a m         
advantage\s di/ribution ( capital1 or x 
w\ld n be adopt$4 ,! pr9ciple involv$ 9 
?is la/ proposition is1 he adds1 "o ( ! 
'be/ e/abli%$ 9 ! sci5ce ( political    
economy1 & by no "o is m readily admitt$
 ?an by ,mr4 ,mal?us4' ,to en=ce        
protection w\ld be1 on ,mal?us's        
illu/ration1 to compel u to use ! 'wor/ 
ma*9es1 :51 at a less exp5se1 we c\ld   
hire ! v be/ f our neighb\rs4'#bii      
,briefly1 !n1 ! l&lord's int]e/ is      
oppos$ to ! national int]e/1 because x  
en=ces a worse di/ribution ( capital4   

,he compels u to get corn f 8 wor/ l&1  
in/ead ( gett+ x indirectly1 b 9 great] 
quantity1 f our sp9n+-j5nies4  ,=       
,ric>do1 z = ,mal?us1 ! ultimate driv+  
=ce is ! pressure ( population4 ,! mass 
( mank9d is always /ruggl+ to obta9     
food1 & is able to multiply s rapidly z 
to exhau/ any conceivable increase (    
supplies4 ,! l&lord class alone pr(its4 
,! great] ! /ruggle = supply ! great] w 
be ! %>e ( ! :ole produce :i* mu/ be    
surr5d]$ to x4 ,beyond ?is1 h[ev]1 lies 
! fur!r problem :i* specially occupi$   
,ric>do4 ,h[ w ! result+ /ra9 affect !  
relations ( ! two rema9+ classes1 !     
lab\r]s & ! capitali/s8 ,! ultimate evil
 ( protection is ! bad di/ribution (    
capital4 ,b capital always acts by      
employ+ lab\r4 ,! f>m]'s capital does n 
act by itself1 b by enabl+ 8 m5 to "w4  
,h5ce1 to und]/& ! work+ ( ! indu/rial  
ma*9]y1 we h to settle ! relation (     
wages & pr(its4 ,ric>do /ates ?is       
emphatically 9 8 preface4 ,r5t1 pr(it1 &
 wages1 he says1 repres5t ! ?ree p>ts   

into :i* ! :ole produce ( ! e>? is      
divid$4 ',to det]m9e ! laws :i* regulate
 ?is di/ribution is ! pr9cipal problem 9
 political economy'2 & "o1 he adds1 :i* 
has be5 left 9 obscurity by previ\s     
writ]s4#cjj ,8 inve/igations are        
especially direct$ by ! purpose ?us     
def9$4 ,he 0 ! fir/ writ] :o fairly     
br\ght "u di/9ct consid]ation :at he    
held1 ) reason1 to be ! mo/ important   
bran* ( economical inquiry4  ,!re 0     
cle>ly a gap 9 ! economic doctr9e       
repres5t$ by ! ,weal? ( ,nations4 ,adam 
,smi? 0 prim>ily conc]n$ ) ! !ory ( !   
'm>ket4' ,he assumes ! exi/5ce ( !      
social arrangem5t :i* is indicat$ by t  
phrase4 ,! m>ket implies a con/itution (
 indu/rial ag5cies su* t1 )9 x1 only "o 
price is possible = a giv5 commodity1   
or1 r1 su* t a diff]5ce ( price _c be   
p]man5t4 ,accord+ to ! accept$          
illu/ration1 ! sea is n absolutely      
level1 b x is always t5d+ to a          
level4#cja ,a p]man5t elevation at "o   
po9t is impossible4 ,! ag5cy by :i* ?is 

levell+ or equilibrat+ process is c>ri$ 
out is competition1 involv+ :at ,smi?   
call$ ! 'higgl+ ( ! m>ket4' ,! mom5t>y  
fluctuation1 aga91 supposes ! action (  
'supply & dem&1' :i*1 z !y v>y1 raise & 
depress prices4 ,to illu/rate ! work+ ( 
?is ma*9]y1 to %[ h[ previ\s writ]s _h  
be5 cont5t to notice a p>ticul> *ange   
)\t foll[+ out ! collat]al results1 & _h
 ?us be5 l$ into fallacies su* z t ( !  
'm]cantile sy/em1' 0 ,smi?'s prim>y     
task4  ,beyond or b5ea? ^! que/ions lie 
difficulties1 :i* ,smi?1 ?\gh n bl9d to 
_! exi/5ce1 treat$ 9 a vacillat+ &      
inconsi/5t fa%ion4 ,v>iations ( supply &
 dem& cause fluctuations 9 ! price2 b   
:at f9ally det]m9es ! po9t to :i* !     
fluctuat+ prices mu/ gravitate8 ,we     
foll[ ! process by :i* "o wave          
propagates ano!r2 b !re is /ill ! "q1   
,:at ultimately fixes ! normal level8   
,^u ?is po9t ,ric>do c\ld f9d no def9ite
 /atem5t 9 8 tea*]4 ',supply & dem&' 0 a
 sacr$ phrase :i* w\ld always give a    
v]bal answ]1 or indicate ! imm$iate     

cause ( v>iations on ! surface4 ,b5ea? !
 surface !re mu/ be c]ta9 =ces at "w :i*
 settle :y a qu>t] ( corn 'gravitates'  
to a c]ta9 price2 :y ! l&lord c get j s 
_m qu>t]s ( corn = ! use ( 8 fields2 &  
:y ! produce1 :i* is due jo9tly to !    
lab\r] & ! f>m]1 is divid$ 9 a c]ta9    
fix$ proportion4 ,to settle su* po9ts x 
is necess>y to answ] ! problem (        
di/ribution1 = ! play ( ! indu/rial =ces
 is direct$ by ! con/itution ( ! classes
 :i* co-op]ate 9 ! result4 ,ric>do saw 9
 ,mal?us's doctr9es ( r5t & ( population
 a new mode ( approa*+ ! problem4 ,:at 0
 want$1 9 ! fir/ place1 0 to sy/ematise 
! logic adopt$ by 8 pr$ecessors4 ,r5t1 x
 0 cle>1 c\ld n be bo? a cause & an     
effect ( price1 ?\gh at diff]5t po9ts ( 
8 treatise ,smi? _h app>5tly accept$ ea*
 view ( ! relation4 ,we mu/ fir/ settle 
:i* is cause & :i* effect2 & !n br+ our 
:ole sy/em into ! correspond+ ord]4 ,= !
 facts1 ,ric>do is cont5t to tru/ ma9ly 
to o!rs4 ,! true title ( 8 "w %\ld be t 
:i* 8 comm5tator1 ,de ,qu9cey1 aft]w>ds 

adopt$1 ! ,logic ( ,political ,economy4 
,?is aim gives a p>tial explanation ( ! 
*>act]i/ic = :i* ,ric>do is mo/ g5]ally 
criticis$4 ,he is accus$ ( be+ ab/ract 9
 ! s5se ( neglect+ facts4 ,he does n d5y
 ! *>ge4 ',if ,i am too !oretical 7:i*  
,i really believe to be ! case7 y1' he  
says to ,mal?us1 ',i ?9k1 are too       
practical4'#cjb ,if ,mal?us is m guid$  
?an ,ric>do by a ref]5ce to facts1 he   
has ( c\rse an advantage4 ,b s f> z     
,mal?us or ,adam ,smi? !oris$--&1 (     
c\rse1 _! /atem5t ( facts involv$ a     
!ory--!y 7 at lea/ b\nd to be consi/5t4 
,x is "o ?+ to recognise ! exi/5ce (    
facts :i* y\r !ory w n expla91 & to     
admit t x !re=e requires modification4  
,x is q ano!r ?+ to expla9 ea* set (    
facts 9 turn by !ories :i* contradict   
ea* o!r4 ,t is n to be hi/orical b to be
 muddlehead$4 ,mal?us & ,smi?1 z x seem$
 to ,ric>do1 _h occasionally giv5       
explanations :i*1 :5 set side by side1  
de/roy$ ea* o!r4 ,he 0 !re=e cle>ly     
ju/ifi$ 9 ! attempt to exhibit ^!       

logical inconsi/5cies & to supply a !ory
 :i* %\ld be 9 h>mony ) itself4 ,he 0 s 
f> nei!r m nor less '!oretical' ?an 8   
pr$ecessors1 b simply m impress$ by !   
necessity ( hav+ at lea/ a consi/5t     
!ory4  ,!re 0 nev] a "t at :i* logic 9  
su* matt]s 0 m want$1 or its importance 
m completely disreg>d$4 ,ra% & ignorant 
!ori/s 7 plung+ into intricate problems 
& prop\nd+ ab/ract solutions4 ,! enorm\s
 taxation made necess>y by ! w> sugge/$ 
at e po9t que/ions z to ! true incid5ce 
( ! taxes4 ,:o really ga9$ or suff]$ by 
! protection ( corn8 ,7 ! l&lords1 !    
f>m]s1 or ! lab\r]s directly int]e/$8   
,c\ld !y %ift ! bur!n ^u o!r %\ld]s or  
n8 ,:at1 aga91 x 0 ( ! highe/ importance
 to "k1 0 ! true 'incid5ce' ( ti!s1 ( a 
l&-tax1 ( ! poor-laws1 ( an income-tax1 
& ( all ! multitud9\s indirect taxes f  
:i* ! national income 0 d]iv$8 ,! mo/   
v>y+ views 7 held & eag]ly def5d$4 ,:o  
really paid8 ,t "q int]e/$ ev]ybody1 &  
occupies a l>ge "p ( ,ric>do's book4 ,! 
popul> answ]s involv$ innum]able        

inconsi/5cies1 & 7 support$ by argum5ts 
:i* only requir$ to be confront$ 9 ord] 
to be confut$4 ,ric>do's aim 0 to       
sub/itute a cle> & consi/5t !ory = ?is  
tangle ( p]plex$ sophi/ry4 ,9 t s5se 8  
aim 0 9 ! highe/ degree 'practical1'    
al?\gh he left to o!rs ! detail$        
application ( 8 doctr9es to ! actual    
facts ( ! day4   ,,ii4 ,,! ,,di/ribution
 ,,problem  ,! r5t doctr9e gives "o     
ess5tial datum4 ,a cle> compreh5sion (  
r5t is1 z he 0 p]suad$1 '( ! utmo/      
importance to political economy4'#cjc ,!
 importance is t x enables him to       
sep>ate "o ( ! prim>y s\rces ( rev5ue f 
! o!rs4 ,x is z ?\gh1 9 ! famili>       
illu/ration1 we 7 consid]+ ! conditions 
( equilibrium ( a fluid2 & we n[ see t  
"o "p may be consid]$ z a m]e ov]fl[1   
result+ f 7n det]m9+7 ! o!r conditions4 
,! prim>y assumption 9 ! case ( ! m>ket 
is ! level ( price4 ,:5 we cle>ly       
di/+ui% r5t on "o side f pr(its & wages 
on ! o!r1 we see t we may also assume a 
level ( pr(its4 ,!re _c1 z ,ric>do      

con/antly says1 'be two rates ( pr(it1' 
t is1 at ! same "t & 9 ! same c\ntry4 ,b
 s long z r5t 0 lump$ ) o!r s\rces (    
rev5ue x 0 impossible to see1 :at       
,mal?us & ,we/ _h n[ made cle>1 t 9     
agriculture1 z 9 manufactures1 ! pr(its 
( ! produc] mu/ con=m to ! pr9ciple4    
,giv5 _! !ory1 x foll[s t ! p[] ( l& to 
yield a great rev5ue does n imply a v>y+
 rate ( pr(it or a special b\nty (      
nature be/[$ ^u agriculture4 ,x means   
simply t1 s9ce ! corn f ! good & bad l& 
sells at ! same price1 !re is a surplus 
on ! good4 ,b z t surplus con/itutes    
r5t1 ! f>m]'s rate ( pr(it w /ill be    
uni=m4 ,?us we h got rid ( "o           
complication1 & we are left ) a         
comp>atively simple issue4 ,we h to     
consid] ! problem1 ,:at det]m9es !      
di/ribution z betwe5 ! capitali/ & !    
lab\r]8 ,t is ! vital "q = ,ric>do4     
,ric>do's !ory1 9 ! fir/ place1 is a    
modification ( ,adam ,smi?'s4 ,he       
accepts ,smi?'s /atem5t t wages are     
det]m9$ by ! 'supply & dem& ( lab\r]s1' 

& by ! 'price ( commodities on :i* _!   
wages are exp5d$4'#cjd ,! appeal to     
'supply & dem&' implies t ! rate ( wages
 dep5ds ^u un*angeable economic         
conditions4 ,he endorses#cje ,mal?us's  
/atem5t ab\t ! absurdity ( consid]+     
'wages' z some?+ :i* may be fix$ by 8   
,maje/y's ',ju/ices ( ! ,peace1' & inf]s
 ) ,mal?us t wages %\ld be left to f9d  
_! 'natural level4' ,b :at precisely is 
?is 'natural level8' ,if ! ,ju/ice ( !  
,peace _c fix ! rate ( wages1 :at does  
fix !m8 ,supply & dem&8 ,:at1 !n1 is    
precisely meant 9 ?is case by ! supply &
 dem&8 ,! 'supply' ( lab\r1 we may      
suppose1 is fix$ by ! actual lab\r+     
population at a giv5 "t4 ,! 'dem&1'     
aga91 is 9 "s way cle>ly relat$ to      
'capital4' ,z ,smi? aga9 _h said1#cjf ! 
dem& = lab\r increases ) ! 'increase (  
rev5ue & /ock1 & _c possibly increase   
)\t x4' ,ric>do agrees t 'population    
regulates itself by ! funds :i* are to  
employ x1 & !re=e always increases or   
dim9i%es ) ! increase or dim9ution (    

capital4'#cjg ,x 0 inde$ a commonplace t
 ! increase ( capital 0 necess>y to an  
increase ( population1 z x is obvi\s    
en\gh t population mu/ be limit$ by !   
means ( subsi/5ce accumulat$4 ,smi?1 =  
example1 goes on to insi/ ^u ?is 9 "o ( 
! passages :i* p>tly anticipates        
,mal?us4#cjh ,b ?is does n enable u to  
sep>ate pr(it f wages1 or solve         
,ric>do's problem4 ,:5 we speak ( supply
 & dem& z det]m9+ ! price ( a commodity1
 we g5]ally h 9 m9d two di/9ct ?\gh     
relat$ processes4 ,"o set ( p is gr[+   
corn1 & ano!r work+ coal m9es4 ,ea*     
indu/ry1 !re=e1 has a sep>ate exi/5ce1  
?\gh ea* may be p>tly dep5d5t ^u ! o!r4 
,b ?is is n true ( lab\r & capital4 ,!y 
are n products ( diff]5t c\ntries or    
processes4 ,!y are insep>able con/itu5ts
 ( a s+le process4 ,lab\r _c be ma9ta9$ 
)\t capital1 nor c capital produce )\t  
lab\r4 ,capital1 accord+ to ,ric>do's   
def9ition1 is ! '"p ( ! weal? ( a c\ntry
 :i* is employ$ 9 production1 & consi/s 
( food1 clo?+1 raw mat]ials1 ma*9]y1    

etc41 necess>y to give effect to        
lab\r4'#cji ,t "p1 !n1 ( capital :i* is 
appli$ to ! support ( ! lab\r]--8 food1 
clo?+1 & s =?--is id5tical ) wages4 ,to 
say t1 if x increases1 8 wages increase 
is to be simply tautolog\s4 ,if1 on !   
o!r h&1 we include ! ma*9]y & raw       
mat]ials1 x becomes difficult to say 9  
:at s5se 'capital' c be tak5 z a dem& = 
lab\r4 ,ric>do tells ,mal?us t an       
accumulation ( pr(it does n1 z ,mal?us  
_h said1 necess>ily raise wages#caj2 &  
he ultimately decid$1 mu* to ! sc&al ( 8
 disciple1 ,m',cullo*1 t an increase (  
'fix$ capital' or ma*9]y might be       
actually prejudicial1 "u c]ta9          
circum/ances1 to ! lab\r]4 ,! belief ( !
 lab\r+ class t ma*9]y (t5 injures !m is
 n1 he expressly says1 'f\nd$ on        
prejudice & error1 b is con=mable to !  
correct pr9ciples ( political           
economy4'#caa ,! ^w 'capital1' inde$1 0 
us$ ) a vagu5ess :i* cov]$ "s ( ! mo/   
besett+ fallacies ( ! :ole doctr9e4     
,ric>do himself sometimes speaks z ?\gh 

he _h 9 m9d m]ely ! supply ( lab\r]s'   
necess>ies1 ?\gh he regul>ly uses x 9 a 
wid] s5se4 ,! g5]alities1 !re=e1 ab\t   
supply & dem&1 take u little fur!r4  ,f 
^! difficulties ,ric>do escapes by ano!r
 me?od4 ,mal?us's !ory ( population     
gives him :at he requires4 ,! 'natural  
price ( lab\r' 7z di/+ui%$ f its 'm>ket 
price'7 is1 z he ass]ts1 't price :i* is
 necess>y to enable ! lab\r]s1 "o )     
ano!r1 to subsi/ & p]petuate _! race )\t
 ei!r increase or dim9ution4'#cab ,?is  
is ! true 'natural price1' ab\t :i* !   
'm>ket price' oscillates4 ,an increase (
 capital may raise wages = a "t above ! 
natural price1 b an increase (          
population w br+ back ! previ\s rate4   
,ric>do w>ns u1 inde$1 t ?is natural    
price ( lab\r is n to be reg>d$ z some?+
 'absolutely fix$ & con/ant4'#cac ,x    
v>ies 9 diff]5t times & c\ntries1 & ev5 
9 ! same c\ntry at diff]5t times4 ,an   
,engli% cottag] n[ possesses :at w\ld   
once h be5 luxuries4 ,ric>do admits     
aga9#cad t ! wages ( diff]5t classes (  

lab\r]s may be diff]5t1 al?\gh he does n
 consid] t ?is fact affects 8 argum5t4  
,we may all[ = x by consid]+ ! skill$   
lab\r] z #b or #a-a_/b lab\r]s roll$    
into "o4 ,! assumption enables him to   
get out ( a vici\s circle4 ,he is seek+ 
to discov] ! proportions 9 :i* produce w
 be divid$ betwe5 ! two classes1 & :i*  
co-op]ate 9 ! production4 ,! 'dem& &    
supply' pr9ciple may %[ t an increase ( 
capital w t5d to increase wages1 b ev5 t
 t5d5cy1 z he c>efully po9ts out1 c only
 be admitt$ subject to c]ta9 important  
res]vations4 ,9 any case1 if x expla9s  
tempor>y fluctuations1 x w n asc]ta9 !  
po9t r\nd :i* ! fluctuations take place4
 ,b ! two v>iables1 wages & pr(it1 are  
cle>ly connect$1 & if we c once assume t
 "o ( ^! v>iables is fix$ by an         
indep5d5t law1 we may expla9 9 :at way !
 o!r w be fix$4 ,hav+ got rid ( 'r5t1' !
 rema9+ produce has to be divid$ betwe5 
wages & pr(it4 ,if ! produce be fix$1 ! 
great] ! %>e ( ! lab\r] ! less w be !   
%>e ( ! capitali/1 & vice v]sa4 ,b !    

lab\r]'s %>e aga9 is det]m9$ by !       
consid]ation t x mu/ be su* z to enable 
him to keep up ! population4 ,!         
capitali/ w get ! surplus produce aft]  
all[+ to ! lab\r] ! %>e s det]m9$4      
,ev]y?+ turns ultimately ^u ?is 'natural
 price'--! con/ant :i* und]lies all !   
v>iations4  ,"o o!r po9t is impli$4 ,!  
population is limit$1 z we see1 by !    
necessity ( rais+ supplies ( food f     
inf]ior soils4 ,moreov]1 ?is is ! sole  
limit4 ,a diff]5t view _h be5 tak5 :i*  
greatly ex]cis$ ! or?odox economi/s4 ,x 
0 g5]ally admitt$ t 9 ! progress (      
society ! rate ( pr(it decl9$4 ,adam    
,smi? expla9$ ?is by argu+ t1 z capital 
increas$1 ! competition ( capitali/s    
l[]$ ! rate4 ,to ?is x 0 repli$ 7z by   
,we/7 t ?\gh competition equalis$       
pr(its1 x c\ld n fix ! rate ( pr(it4 ,! 
simple increase ( capital does n prove t
 x w be less pr(itably employ$4 ,!      
economi/s _h con/antly to argue aga9/ ! 
t]rible possibility ( a g5]al 'glut4' ,!
 condition ( ?+s at ! peace _h sugge/$  

?is al>m4 ,! mis*ief 0 ascrib$ to       
'ov]-production' & n to misdirect$      
production4 ,! be/ cure = our evils1 z  
"s p ?\ght1 w\ld be to burn all ! goods 
9 /ock4 ,on ?is v]sion ( ! argum5t1 x   
w\ld seem t an increase ( weal? might be
 equival5t to an increase ( pov]ty4 ,to 
confute ! doctr9e 9 ?is =m1 x 0 only    
necess>y to h a m intellig5t conception 
( ! true nature ( ex*ange4 ,z ,james    
,mill _h argu$ 9 8 pamphlet aga9/       
,sp5ce1 e increase ( supply is also an  
increase ( dem&4 ,! m !re is to sell1 ! 
m !re is to buy4 ,! error involv$ 9 !   
!ory ( a 'glut' is ! confusion betwe5 a 
tempor>y dislocation ( ! ma*9]y (       
ex*ange1 :i* c & w be rem$i$ by a new   
direction ( indu/ry1 & ! impossible case
 ( an excess ( weal? 9 g5]al4#cae       
,mal?us nev] q cle>$ 8 m9d ( ?is error1 
& ,ric>do _h to argue ! po9t ) him4     
,abundance ( capital _c by itself1 he   
says1 'make capital less 9 dem&4' ,!    
'dem& = capital is inf9ite4'#caf ,!     
decl9e 9 ! rate ( pr(it1 !re=e1 dep5ds  

^u ano!r cause4 ',if1 ) e accumulation (
 pr(it1 we c\ld tack a piece ( fre%     
f]tile l& to our ,isl&1 pr(its w\ld nev]
 fall4'#cag ,f]tile l&1 h[ev]1 is       
limit$4 ,we h to resort to inf]ior soil1
 & !re=e to employ capital at a less    
advantage4 ,9 ! ,pr9ciples he en=ces !  
same doctr9e ) ! help ( ,say1 :o _h %[n 
'mo/ satisfactorily' t any am\nt (      
capital might be employ$4#cah ,if1 9    
%ort1 lab\r & capital 7 always equally  
effici5t1 !re w\ld be no limit to !     
am\nt producible4 ,if ! supply ( food & 
raw mat]ials c be multipli$1 weal? c be 
multipli$ to any am\nt4 ,! admitt$      
t5d5cy ( pr(its to fall mu/ !re=e be    
expla9$ simply & solely by ! gr[+       
difficulty ( produc+ ! food & ! raw     
mat]ial4  ,ric>do's doctr9e1 !n1 is     
,mal?us c>ri$ out m logically4 ,take a  
nation 9 a /ate ( indu/rial equilibrium4
 ,! produce ( ! wor/ soil j supports !  
lab\r]1 & leaves a pr(it to ! capitali/4
 ,! lab\r] gets j en\gh to keep up 8    
numb]s to ! /&>d2 ! capitali/ j en\gh   

pr(it to induce him to keep up ! capital
 :i* supports ! lab\r]4 ,s9ce !re c be  
only "o rate ( wages & only "o rate (   
pr(it1 ?is fixes ! %>es into :i* ! :ole 
produce ( ! nation is divid$1 aft] leav+
 to ! l&lord ! surplus produce ( ! m    
f]tile soils4 ,accept+ ?is s*eme z a    
/>t+-po9t1 we get a me?od = calculat+ ! 
results ( any *anges4 ,we c see h[ a tax
 impos$ ^u r5ts or pr(its or wages w    
affect ! classes :i* are ?us relat$2 h[ 
improvem5ts 9 cultivation or ma*9]y1 or 
a new dem& = our manufactures1 w act1   
assum+ ! conditions impli$ 9 ?is        
indu/rial organisation2 h[1 9 %ort1 any 
di/urbance ( ! balance w "w1 s z to     
produce a new equilibrium4 ,ric>do ex]ts
 all 8 +5uity 9 work+ out ! problem :i*1
 ) ! help ( a few assumptions1 becomes  
ma!matical4 ,! ari?metical illu/rations 
:i* he employ$ = ! purpose became a     
nuisance 9 ! h&s ( 8 disciples4 ,!y are 
v useful z *ecks to g5]al /atem5ts1 b   
l5d !mselves s easily to ! tacit        
introduction ( errone\s assumptions z   

(t5 to give a totally false air (       
precision to ! results4 ,happily ,i ne$ 
n foll[ him into t region1 & may omit   
any consid]ation ( ! logical value ( 8  
d$uctions4 ,i mu/ be cont5t to say t1 s 
f> z he is "r1 8 sy/em gives an economic
 calculus = work+ out ! ultimate result 
( assign$ economic *anges4 ,! pivot ( ! 
:ole con/ruction is ! 'm>g9 (           
cultivation'--! po9t at :i* ! food = a  
press+ population is rais$ at ! greate/ 
disadvantages4 ',pr(its1' z he says1#cai
 'dep5d on high & l[ wages2 wages on !  
price ( necess>ies2 & ! price (         
necess>ies *iefly on ! price ( food1    
because all o!r requisites may be       
increas$ almo/ )\t limit4'  ,ric>do     
takes ! actual con/itution ( society =  
grant$4 ,! ?reefold division into       
l&[n]s1 capitali/s1 & lab\r]s is assum$ 
z ultimate4 ,= him t is z mu* a f9al    
fact z to a *emi/ x is a f9al fact t air
 & wat] are compos$ ( c]ta9 elem5ts4    
,ea* class repres5ts c]ta9 economic     
categories4 ,! l&lord sits /ill &       

absorbs ! ov]fl[ ( weal? creat$ by o!rs4
 ,! lab\r] acts a v important b 9 "o    
respect a purely passive "p4 ,8 :ole    
means ( subsi/5ce are provid$ by !      
capitali/1 & advanc$ to him 9 ! %ape (  
wages4 ,8 %>e 9 ! process is conf9$ to  
multiply+ up to a fix$ /&>d4 ,!         
capitali/ is ! really active ag5t4 ,!   
lab\r] is simply "o ( ! implem5ts us$ 9 
production4 ,8 wages are "p ( !         
capitali/'s 'co/s ( production4' ,!     
capitali/ virtually raises lab\r]s1 "o  
may say1 s long z rais+ !m is pr(itable1
 j z he raises horses = 8 f>m4 ,ric>do1 
9 fact1 po9ts out t 9 "s cases x may be 
= ! f>m]'s int]e/ to sub/itute horses = 
m54#cbj ,if x be ess5tial to any product
 t !re %\ld be a c]ta9 numb] ( lab\r]s  
or a c]ta9 numb] ( horses1 t numb] w be 
produc$4 ,b :5 ! exp5se becomes         
excessive1 & 9 ! case ( lab\r]s t happ5s
 z worse soils h to be brok5 up = food1 
! *eck is provid$ ?r\gh its effect ^u ! 
accumulation ( capital4 ,t1 !re=e1      
becomes ! ess5tial po9t4 ,! :ole aim ( !

 legislator %\ld be to give facilities =
 ! accumulation ( capital1 & ! way to d 
t is to ab/a9 f all int]f]5ce ) ! free  
play ( ! indu/rial =ces4 ,! te/1 =      
example1 ( ! goodness ( a tax--or r (   
its comp>ative fre$om f ! evils ( e     
tax--is t x %\ld p]mit ( accumulation by
 int]f]+ z little z possible ) ! t5d5cy 
( ! capital to di/ribute itself 9 ! mo/ 
effici5t way4   ,,iii4 ,,value ,,&      
,,lab\r  ,to solve ! di/ribution        
problem1 !n1 x is necess>y to get beh9d 
! m]e fluctuations ( ! m>ket1 & to      
consid] :at are ! ultimate =ces by :i* !
 m>ket is itself gov]n$4 ,:at effect has
 ?is ^u ! !ory ( ! m>ket itself8 ,?is   
leads to a fam\s doctr9e4  ,accord+ to 8
 disciple1 ,m',cullo*1 ,ric>do's great  
m]it 0 t he 'laid d[n ! fundam5tal !orem
 ( ! sci5ce ( value4' ,he ?us cle>$ up  
:at _h be=e be5 an 'imp5etrable my/]y1' 
& %[$ ! true relations ( pr(it1 wages1 &
 prices4#cba ,ric>do's !ory ( value1    
aga91 0 a />t+-po9t ( ! *ief mod]n      
,sociali/ !ories4 ,x m>k$1 z has be5    

said1#cbb ! po9t at :i* ! doctr9e ( !   
rights ( man *anges f a purely political
 to an economical !ory4 ,ric>do rem>ks 9
 8 fir/ *apt] t ! vagu5ess ( !ories (   
value has be5 ! mo/ f]tile s\rce (      
economic errors4 ,he admitt$ to ! end ( 
8 life t he _h n fully cle>$ up !       
difficulty4 ,mod]n economi/s h refut$ & 
revis$ & discuss$1 &1 let u hope1 n[    
made ev]y?+ q pla94 ,!y h c]ta9ly %[n t 
"s ( ,ric>do's puzzles impli$ confusions
 s+ul> 9 s ke5 a ?9k]4 ,t may s]ve z a  
w>n+ aga9/ dogmatism4 ,boys 9 ! next    
g5]ation w probably be ask$ by exam9]s  
to expose ! palpable fallacies ( :at to 
u seem to be demon/rable tru?s4 ,at any 
rate1 ,i mu/ try to indicate ! critical 
po9t z briefly z possible4  ,! ^w       
'value1' 9 ! fir/ place1 has v>y+       
mean+s1 :i* give an opportunity = writ]s
 ( text-books to exhibit _! p[]s ( lucid
 exposition4 ,! value ( a ?+ 9 "o s5se  
is :at x w fet*2 ! quantity ( "s o!r ?+ 
= :i* x is actually ex*ang$ 9 ! m>ket4  
,9 t s5se1 z ,ric>do incid5tally        

obs]ves1#cbc ! ^w becomes mean+less     
unless y c say :at is ! o!r ?+4 ,x is   
self-contradictory to speak z if a ?+ by
 itself c\ld h a con/ant or any value4  
,value1 h[ev]1 may take a diff]5t s5se4 
,x is ! economic equival5t ( ! 'utility'
 ( ,b5?am's 'felicific calculus4' ,x    
means ! 'lot ( pleasure' :i* causes a ?+
 to be desirable4 ,if we c\ld tell h[ _m
 units ( utility x conta9$ we c\ld inf] 
! rate ( ex*ange = o!r ?+s4 ,! value (  
any?+ '9 use' w correspond to ! numb] ( 
units ( utility :i* x conta9s2 & ?+s :i*
 h ! same quantity ( 'utilities' w h !  
same 'ex*angeable value4' ,ric>do c ?us 
consid] ! old problem ( f9d+ 'an        
inv>iable measure ( value4' ,he po9ts   
out ! difficulty ( f9d+ any p>ticul> ?+ 
:i* w s]ve ! purpose1 inasmu* z !       
relations ( ev]y?+ to ev]y?+ else are   
con/antly v>y+4 ,he !re=e proposes to   
make use ( an imag9>y measure4 ,if gold 
7 always produc$ "u exactly ! same      
circum/ances1 ) ! same lab\r & ! same   
capital1 x w\ld s]ve approximately = a  

/&>d4 ,accord+ly he gives notice t1 = ! 
purposes ( 8 book1 he w assume ?is to be
 ! case1 & money to be 'inv>iable 9     
value4'#cbd ,we c ?us1 on ! "o h&1      
comp>e values at diff]5t p]iods4 ,a ?+  
has ! same value at all times :i* at all
 times requires '! same sacrifice ( toil
 & lab\r to produce x4'#cbe ,!          
'sacrifice' measures ! 'utility1' & we  
may assume t ! same lab\r corresponds 9 
all ages to ! same psy*ological unit4   
,b1 on ! o!r h&1 at any giv5 p]iod ?+s w
 ex*ange 9 proportion to ! lab\r (      
produc+ !m4 ,?is foll[s at once f       
,ric>do's po/ulates4 ,giv5 ! s+le rate (
 wages & pr(its1 & assum+ ! capital     
employ$ to be 9 ! same proportion1 ?+s  
mu/ ex*ange 9 proportion to ! quantity (
 lab\r employ$2 = if ,i got ! same value
 by employ+ "o lab\r] z y get by employ+
 two1 my pr(its w\ld be high]4 ,ric>do1 
inde$1 has to all[ = _m complexities    
aris+ f ! fact t v diff]5t quantities ( 
capital are requir$ 9 diff]5t indu/ries2
 b ! g5]al pr9ciple is giv5 by ! simple/

 case4 ,h5ce we h a measure ( value1    
applicable at any giv5 "t & 9 comp>+    
diff]5t times4 ,x implies1 aga91 :at    
,m',cullo* sums up z ! 'fundam5tal      
!orem1' t ! value ( 'freely produc$     
commodities' dep5ds on ! quantity (     
lab\r requir$ = _! 'production4' ,:at is
 made by two m5 is wor? twice :at is    
made by "o man4 ,t gives :at ,m',cullo* 
calls ! 'clue to ! labyr9?4'  ,! doctr9e
 leads to a puzzle4 ,if ,i c measure !  
'sacrifice1' c ,i measure ! 'utility'   
:i* x ga9s8 ,! 'utility' ( an ounce (   
gold is n some?+ 'objective' l its      
physical qualities1 b v>ies ) ! v>y+    
wants ( ! employ]4 ,iron or coal may be 
us$ = an inf9ite v>iety ( purposes & !  
utility w be diff]5t 9 ea*4 ,! ?+ may   
d]ive "p ( its 'utility' f its relation 
to o!r ?+s4 ,! utility ( my food is n   
really sep>ate f ! utility ( my hat2 =  
unless ,i eat ,i _c we> hats4 ,my desire
 = any object1 aga91 is modifi$ by all  
my o!r desires1 & ev5 if ,i c\ld isolate
 a 'desire' z a psy*ological unit1 x    

w\ld n give me a fix$ measure4 ,twice ! 
article does n give twice ! utility2 a  
d\ble /imulus may only add a small      
pleasure or conv]t x into agony4 ,^! &  
o!r difficulties imply ! hopelessness ( 
se>*+ = ?is *im]ical unit ( 'utility' :5
 consid]$ z a sep>ate ?+4 ,x %ifts &    
escapes f our h&s directly we grasp x4  
,ric>do discusses "s ( ^! po9ts 9 8     
int]e/+ *apt] on ',value & ,ri*es4'     
,gold1 he says1 may co/ two ?\s& times m
 ?an iron1 b x is c]ta9ly n two ?\s&    
times z useful4#cbf ,suppose1 aga91 t "s
 inv5tion enables y to make m luxuries  
by ! same lab\r1 y increase weal? b n   
value4 ,!re w be1 say1 twice z _m hats1 
b ea* hat may h half its =m] value4 ,!re
 w be m ?+s to enjoy1 b !y w only       
ex*ange = ! same quantity ( o!r ?+s4 ,t 
is1 he says1 ! am\nt ( 'ri*es' v>ies1   
:ile ! am\nt ( value is fix$4 ,?is1     
accord+ to him1 proves t value does n   
v>y ) 'utility4' ',utility1' z he       
decl>es 9 8 fir/ *apt]1 is 'absolutely  
ess5tial to value1' b x is 'n ! measure 

( ex*angeable value4'#cbg ,a solution ( 
^! puzzles may be s\ght 9 any mod]n     
text-book4 ,ric>do escapes by an        
app>5tly p>adoxical conclusion4 ,he is  
und]tak+ an impossible problem :5 he    
/>ts f ! buy]s' desire ( an 'utility4'  
,!re=e he turns f ! buy]s to ! sell]s4  
,! sell] has app>5tly a measurable &    
def9able motive--! desire to make s mu* 
p] c5t4 on 8 capital4#cbh ,ric>do1      
un=tunately1 speaks z ?\gh ! two p>ties 
to ! b>ga9 someh[ repres5t$ mutually    
exclusive processes4 ',supply & dem&'   
det]m9e ! value ( 'monopolis$ articles1'
 b ! co/ ( o!r articles dep5ds n 'on !  
/ate ( dem& & supply1' b 'on ! increas$ 
or dim9i%$ co/ ( _! production4'#cbi ,:y
 'n' & 'b'8 ,if supply & dem&           
corresponds to ! :ole play ( motives :i*
 det]m9es ! b>ga91 ?is is l say+1       
accord+ to ! old illu/ration1 t we mu/  
attribute ! :ole effect ( a pair (      
scissors to "o blade & n to ! o!r4 ,8   
view leads to ! app>5t confusion ( tak+ 
= ! cause ( value n our desire = a ?+1 b

 ! sacrifice we mu/ make to atta9 x4    
,b5?am#ccj said1 = example1 t ,ric>do   
confus$ 'co/' ) 'value4' ,! d5ial t     
utility mu/ 9 "s s5se or o!r det]m9e    
value p]plexes an intelligible &        
consi/5t mean+4 ,x is cle>ly true1 ^u 8 
po/ulates1 t ! value ( goods1 o!r ?an   
'monopolis$1' mu/ con=m to ! co/ (      
production4 ,he speaks z if he conf\nd$ 
a necess>y condition ) an 'effici5t     
cause1' & z if "o ( two correlative     
processes c\ld be expla9$ )\t ! o!r4 ,b 
! fact t !re is a con=mity1 h[ev] br\ght
 ab\t1 0 en\gh = 8 purpose4 ,! dem& (   
buy]s1 he w\ld say1 det]m9es ! p>ticul> 
direction ( production3 x settles :e!r  
hats %\ld be made ( silk or beav]2 :e!r 
we %\ld gr[ corn or sp9 cotton4 ,b !    
ultimate =ce is ! capitali/'s desire =  
pr(it4 ,s long z he c raise lab\r]s'    
necess>ies by employ+ "p ( 8 capital1 he
 c employ ! lab\r z he *ooses4 ,he c    
always produce weal?2 all ! weal?       
produc$ c be ex*ang$1 & ! dem& always be
 equal to ! supply1 s9ce ! dem& is m]ely

 ! o!r side ( ! supply4 ,! buy]'s ta/es 
decide h[ ! capital %all be appli$1 b   
does n settle h[ mu* weal? !re %all be1 
only :at p>ticul> =ms x %all take4      
,someh[ or o!r x mu/ always adju/ itself
 s t ! value ( ea* p>ticul> k9d %all    
correspond to ! 'co/ ( production4' ,!  
co/ ( production includes ! tools & !   
raw mat]ials1 :i* are !mselves products 
( previ\s lab\r4 ,all capital itself is 
ultimately ! product ( lab\r1 & ?us1 z  
,ric>do incid5tally says1 may be reg>d$ 
z 'accumulat$ lab\r4'#cca  ,?is phrase  
sums up ! doctr9e :i* und]lies 8 !ory ( 
value & indicates its connection ) !    
!ory ( di/ribution4 ,ric>do _h p]ceiv$ t
 ! supply & dem& =mula :i* w\ld s]ve    
suffici5tly 9 problems ( ex*ange1 or !  
fluctuations ( m>ket-price1 c\ld n be   
made to solve ! m fundam5tal problem (  
di/ribution4 ,we mu/ look b5ea? !       
sup]ficial ph5om5a & ask :at is ! nature
 ( ! /ructure itself3 :at is ! driv+ =ce
 or ! ma9spr+ :i* works ! :ole me*anism4
 ,we seem1 inde$1 to be inquir+ into ! v

 orig9 ( indu/rial organisation4 ,!     
f\ndation ( a s\nd doctr9e comes f ,adam
 ,smi?4 ,smi? _h said t 9 a primitive   
society ! only rule w\ld be t ?+s %\ld  
ex*ange 9 proportion to ! lab\r ( gett+ 
!m4 ,if x co/ twice z mu* lab\r to kill 
a beav] z to kill a de]1 "o beav] w\ld  
be wor? two de]4 ,9 accept+ ?is bit (   
:at ,smi?'s comm5tator1 ,dugald         
,/ew>t1#ccb calls '!oretical' or        
'conjectural' hi/ory1 ,ric>do did n mean
 to /ate a hi/orical fact4 ,he 0 n ?9k+ 
( actual ,*octaws or ,*]okees4 ,! beav] 
0 ex*ang$ = ! de] ab\t ! "t :5 !        
primitive man sign$ ! 'social contract4'
 ,he is a hypo!tical p]son us$ =        
purposes ( illu/ration & simplification4
 ,ric>do is n really deal+ ) ! "q (     
orig9s2 b he is n ! less imply+ a !ory (
 /ructure4 ,x did n matt] t ! 'social   
contract' 0 hi/orically a figm5t2 x w\ld
 s]ve equally well to expla9 gov]nm5t4  
,x did n matt] t actual savages may h   
ex*ang$ beav]s & de] by ! help ( clubs  
in/ead ( competition 9 ! m>ket4 ,!      

indu/rial fabric is :at w\ld h be5 _h x 
be5 ?us built up4 ,x c be con/ruct$ f   
base to summit by ! application ( 8     
=mula4 ,z 9 ! imag9>y /ate ( de] &      
beav]1 we h a numb] ( indep5d5t p]sons  
mak+ _! b>ga9s ^u ?is pr9ciple ( !      
equival5ce ( lab\r2 & t pr9ciple is     
suppos$ to be c>ri$ out s t ! mo/ remote
 processes ( ! indu/rial ma*9]y c be    
analys$ into results ( ?is pr9ciple4    
,?is gives a suffici5t clue to ! :ole   
labyr9? ( mod]n indu/ry1 & !re is no ne$
 ( consid]+ ! ext9ct =ms ( social       
/ructure1 :i* we "k to h exi/$1 & "u :i*
 ! :ole sy/em ( di/ribution took place  
"u entirely diff]5t conditions4#ccc ,a  
great *ange has tak5 place s9ce ! "t ( !
 de] & beav]3 ! capitali/ has be5       
develop$1 & has become ! motive p[]4 ,! 
lab\r]'s "p is passive2 & ! 'value' is  
fix$ by ! b>ga9+ betwe5 ! proprietors ( 
'accumulat$ lab\r1' =c$ by competition  
to make equal pr(its1 in/ead ( be+ fix$ 
by ! equitable b>ga9 betwe5 ! two hunt]s
 ex*ang+ ! products ( _! individual     

lab\r4 ,ess5tially1 h[ev]1 ! pr9ciple is
 ! same4 ,9 ! la/ z 9 ! fir/ /age (     
society1 ?+s are ex*ang$ 9 proportion to
 ! lab\r necess>y to produce !m4 ,n[ x  
is pla9 en\gh t su* a doctr9e _c lead to
 a complete solution ( ! problem (      
di/ribution4 ,x w\ld be a palpably      
inadequate acc\nt ( hi/orical processes 
:i* h det]m9$ ! actual relation (       
classes4 ,! indu/rial me*anism has be5  
develop$ z a "p ( ! :ole social         
evolution2 &1 h[ev] important ! economic
 =ces1 !y h be5 inextricably bl5d$ ) all
 ! o!r =ces by :i* a society is built   
up4 ,= ! same reason1 ,ric>do's !orem   
w\ld be inadequate 'sociologically1' or 
z a =mula :i* w\ld enable u to pr$ict ! 
future di/ribution ( weal?4 ,x omits    
ess5tial factors 9 ! process1 & !re=e   
supposes =ces to act automatically &    
inv>iably :i* w 9 fact be pr(\ndly      
modifi$ 9 societies diff]5tly organis$ &
 compos$ ( individuals diff]+ 9 "*4 ,! v
 fundam5tal assumptions z to ! ela/icity
 ( population1 & ! accumulation (       

capital z wages & pr(its fluctuate1 are 
cle>ly n absolute tru?s4 ,an increase ( 
! capitali/'s %>e1 = example1 at !      
exp5se ( wages1 may lead to ! l[]$      
effici5cy ( ! lab\r]2 &1 in/ead ( !     
comp5sat+ process suppos$ to result f ! 
/imulus to accumulation1 ! actual result
 may be a g5]al deg5]ation ( ! indu/ry4 
,or1 aga91 ! capacity ( lab\r]s to      
comb9e bo? dep5ds & reacts ^u _!        
intellig5ce & moral "*1 & w pr(\ndly    
modify ! results ( ! g5]al              
competition4#ccd ,su* rem>ks1 n[ famili>
 en\gh1 are en\gh to sugge/ t a full    
explanation ( ! economic ph5om5a w\ld   
require ref]5ce to consid]ations :i* lie
 beyond ! prop] sph]e ( ! economi/4 ,yet
 ! economi/ may urge t he is mak+ a fair
 & p]haps necess>y ab/raction4 ,he may  
consid] ! =ces to be con/ant1 al?\gh he 
may be fully aw>e t ! assumption        
requires to be correct$ :5 8 =mulae are 
appli$ to facts4 ,he may consid] :at is 
! play at any giv5 "t ( ! op]ations ( ! 
m>ket1 ?\gh ! m>ket organisation is     

itself dep5d5t ^u ! l>g] organisation ( 
:i* x is a product4 ,he does n pr(ess to
 deal 9 'sociology1' b 'pure political  
economy4' ,9 t m limit$ sph]e he may    
accept ,ric>do's po/ulates4 ,! rate (   
wages is fix$ at any giv5 mom5t by !    
'lab\r m>ket4' ,t is ! imm$iate organ   
?r\gh :i* ! adju/m5t is effect$4 ,wages 
rise & fall l ! price ( commodities1 :5 
= any reason ! numb] ( hir]s or ! numb] 
( pur*as]s v>ies4 ,! 'supply & dem&'    
=mula1 h[ev]1 c\ld n1 z ,ric>do saw1 be 
summ>ily id5tifi$ ) lab\r & capital4 ,we
 mu/ g beh9d ! imm$iate ph5om5a to      
consid] h[ !y are regulat$ by ! ultimate
 mov+ p[]4 ,!n1 ) ! help ( ! !ories (   
population & r5t1 we f9d t ! wages are  
"o product ( ! :ole indu/rial process4  
,we mu/ look beyond ! imm$iate m>ket    
fluctuation to ! effect ^u ! capitali/s 
:o con/itute ! m>ket4 ,! _w is conceiv$ 
z "o great m>ket1 9 :i* ! motives ( !   
capitali/ supply ! motive p[]2 & ! %>e  
:i* goes to ! lab\r] is an incid5tal or 
collat]al result ( ! work+ ( ! :ole     

ma*9]y4 ,n[1 ?\gh ! sociologi/ w\ld say 
t ?is is q inadequate = 8 purpose1 & t  
we mu/ consid] ! :ole social /ructure1  
he may also admit t ! s*eme has a       
validity 9 its own sph]e4 ,x describes !
 actual work+ ( ! me*anism at any giv5  
"t2 & x may be t 9 ,ric>do's "t x gave  
an approximate acc\nt ( ! facts4 ,to    
make x complete1 x requires to be set1 s
 to speak1 9 a m g5]al framework ( !ory2
 & we may !n see t x _c give a complete 
solution4 ,/ill1 z a consi/5t s*eme :i* 
corresponds to ! imm$iate ph5om5a1 x    
helps u to und]/& ! play ( ! indu/rial  
=ces :i* imm$iately regulate ! m>ket4   
,ric>do's position sugge/$ a diff]5t l9e
 ( reply4 ,! doctr9es t capital is      
'accumulat$ lab\r' & t all value is 9   
proportion to ! lab\r fell 9 ) !        
,sociali/ !ory4 ,if value is creat$ by  
lab\r1 ought n 'lab\r' to possess :at x 
makes8 ,! "r to ! :ole produce ( lab\r  
seem$ to be a natural conclusion4       
,ric>do might answ] t :5 ,i buy y\r     
lab\r1 x becomes m9e4 ,i may consid]    

myself to h acquir$ ! rights ( ! real   
creator ( ! weal?1 & to embody all !    
lab\r]s1 ^: 'accumulat$ lab\r' is       
capital4 ,/ill1 !re is a difficulty4 ,! 
beav] & de] case has an awkw>d e?ical   
aspect4 ,to say t !y are ex*ang$ at su* 
a rate seems to mean t !y ought to be   
ex*ang$ at ! rate4 ,?is aga9 implies !  
pr9ciple t a man has a "r to :at he has 
caught2 t is1 to ! :ole fruits ( 8      
lab\r4 ,james ,mill1 z we h se51 />ts 8 
political treatise by assum+ ?is z      
obvi\s4#cce ,he did n consid] ! possible
 inf]5ces2 = x is c]ta9ly a d>+         
assumption t ! pr9ciple is c>ri$ out by 
! economic sy/em4 ,accord+ to ,ric>do   
r5t is paid to m5 :o don't lab\r at all4
 ,! fundhold] 0 a weight ^u all indu/ry1
 & z dead a weight z ! l&lord4 ,!       
capitali/1 ,ric>do's social ma9spr+1    
requir$ at lea/ cross-exam9ation4 ,he   
repres5ts 'accumulat$ lab\r' 9 "s       
fa%ion1 b x is n pla9 t ! slice :i* he  
takes out ( ! :ole cake is proportion$  
accurately to 8 p]sonal lab\r4 ,! "r & !

 fact :i* co9cid$ 9 ! de] & beav] p]iod 
h someh[ come to div]ge4  ,"h1 !n1 we   
are at a po9t common to ! two oppos+    
s*ools4 ,bo? are absolute               
'individuali/s' 9 diff]5t s5ses4        
,society is built up1 & all indu/rial   
relations det]m9$1 by ! competition ( a 
multitude ( indep5d5t atoms1 ea* aim+ at
 self-pres]vation4 ,mal?us's pr9ciple   
applies ?is to ! great mass ( mank9d4   
,sy/ematically work$ out1 x has l$ to   
,ric>do's id5tification ( value )       
quantities ( lab\r4 ,keep+ simply to !  
matt] ( fact1 x %[s h[ a small m9ority h
 manag$ to get advantages 9 ! /ruggle1 &
 to raise !mselves ^u ! %\ld]s ( !      
/ruggl+ mass4 ,mal?us %[s t ! result+   
inequality prev5ts ! /ruggle f l[]+ e "o
 to />vation po9t4 ,b ! advantage 0 n   
obvi\s to ! /ruggl+ mass :i* exemplifi$ 
! /ruggle = exi/5ce4 ,if equality meant 
n ! initial facts b ! p]man5t "r1       
society 0 built ^u inju/ice4 ,apply !   
political doctr9e ( rights ( man to !   
economic "r to weal?1 & y h ! ,sociali/ 

doctr9e ( "r to ! :ole produce ( lab\r4 
,x is true t x is exce$+ly difficult to 
say :at ea* man has creat$ :5 he is     
really "p ( a complex ma*9]y2 b t is a  
problem to :i* ,sociali/s c\ld apply _! 
+5uity4 ,! real answ] ( ! political     
economi/s 0 t al?\gh ! exi/+ ord] impli$
 great inequalities ( weal? x 0 yet     
ess5tial to indu/rial progress1 & !re=e 
to an improvem5t 9 ! g5]al /&>d ( com=t4
 ,?is1 h[ev]1 0 ! less evid5t ! m !y    
insi/$ ^u ! individual int]e/4 ,! net   
result seem$ to be t by accid5t or      
inh]itance1 possibly by fraud or =ce1 a 
small numb] ( p]sons h got a mu* l>g]   
%>e ( weal? ?an _! rivals4 ,ric>do may  
exp\nd ! sci5ce accurately2 &1 if s1 we 
h to ask1 ,:at are ! "r e?ical          
conclusions8  ,= ! pres5t1 !            
,utilit>ians seem to h consid]$ ?is "q z
 sup]flu\s4 ,!y 7 cont5t to take ! exi/+
 ord] = grant$2 & ! "q rema9s h[ f> _!  
conclusions ^u t assumption c\ld be     
really satisfactory4   ,,iv4 ,,!        
,,classical ,,political ,,economy4      

,ric>do _h work$ out ! ma9 outl9es ( !  
',classical ,political ,economy'3 !     
sy/em :i* to 8 disciples appe>$ to be z 
cle>1 consi/5t1 & demon/rable z ,euclid2
 & :i* 0 d5\nc$ by _! oppon5ts z        
me*anical1 mat]iali/ic1 fatali/ic1 &    
degrad+4 ,aft] triumph+ = a season1 x   
has be5 ( late ye>s (t5 treat$ )        
contempt1 & sometimes bani%$ to ! limbo 
( ext9ct logoma*ies4 ,x is condemn$ z   
'ab/ract4' ,( all delusions on !        
subject1 replies a v able & sev]e       
critic1#ccf !re is none great] ?an !    
belief t x 0 ':olly ab/ract &           
unpractical4' ,its m]its lay 9 its      
treatm5t ( c]ta9 special que/ions ( !   
day2 :ile 9 ! purely sci5tific que/ions 
x 0 hopelessly confus$ & inconsi/5t4    
,und\bt$ly1 z ,i h tri$ to po9t out1    
,mal?us & ,ric>do 7 reason+ ^u !        
contempor>y /ate ( ?+s4 ,! doctr9e />t$ 
f obs]vation ( facts2 x 0 too 'ab/ract' 
s f> z x neglect$ elem5ts 9 ! concrete  
realities :i* 7 really relevant to !    
conclusions4 ,"o cause ( confusion 0 !  

necessity ( />t+ f ! classification     
impli$ 9 ord9>y phrases4 ,x is          
exemplifi$ by ! vague use ( su* words z 
'capital1' 'value1' 'supply & dem&4'    
,def9itions1 z is (t5 rem>k$1#ccg come  
at ! end ( an inve/igation1 ?\gh !y are 
plac$ at ! beg9n+ ( an exposition4 ,:5 !
 prim>y conceptions to be us$ 7 /ill s  
%ift+ & contradictory z is impli$ 9 !   
controv]sies ( ! day1 x is no wond] t ! 
=mulae %\ld be want+ 9 sci5tific        
precision4 ,until we h det]m9$ :at is   
meant by '=ce' we _c h a complete sci5ce
 ( dynamics4 ,! economi/s imag9$ t !y _h
 rea*$ ! goal be=e !y _h got rid (      
ambiguities hidd5 9 ! accept$ t]m9ology4
 ,mean:ile x w be en\gh if ,i try to    
consid] broadly :at 0 ! nature ( ! body 
( /atem5ts :i* ?us claim$ to be an      
elaborat$ sci5ce4  ,ric>do's purpose 0  
to frame a calculus1 to give a me?od (  
reason+ :i* w enable u to cl9* our      
economic reason+4 ,we are to be sure t  
we h foll[$ out ! :ole cycle ( cause &  
effect4 ,capitali/s1 l&[n]s1 lab\r]s =m 

p>ts ( a r\nd$ sy/em1 imply+ reciprocal 
actions & reactions4 ,! imposition ( a  
tax or a t>iff implies c]ta9 *anges 9   
exi/+ relations3 t *ange involves o!r   
*anges2 & to trace out ! total effect1  
we mu/ und]/& :at are ! ultimate        
conditions ( equilibrium1 or :at are !  
processes by :i* ! sy/em w adju/ itself 
to ! new conditions4 ,to describe1 aga91
 ! play ( a numb] ( reciprocal =ces1 we 
h to f9d :at ma!maticians call an       
'indep5d5t v>iable'3 "s "o elem5t 9 !   
*anges on :i* all o!r *anges w dep5d4 ,t
 elem5t1 r\ghly speak+1 ultimately comes
 out to be 'lab\r4' ,! simplicity ( !   
sy/em gave an impression bo? ( cle>ness 
& c]ta9ty1 :i* 0 transf]r$ f ! reason+  
to ! premises4 ,! facts seem$ to be     
e/abli%$1 because !y 7 necess>y to !    
sy/em4 ,! fir/ /ep to an e/imate ( !    
value ( ! doctr9e w\ld be to draw up a  
/atem5t ( ! 'po/ulates' impli$4 ,among  
!m1 we %\ld h su* =mulae z ! s+le rate (
 pr(its & wages2 :i* imply !            
'transf]ability' ( lab\r & capital1 or !

 fl[ ( ei!r elem5t to ! be/-paid        
employm5t4 ,we %\ld h aga9 ! ,mal?usian 
doctr9e ( ! multiplication ( lab\r up to
 a c]ta9 /&>d2 & ! fact t sc>city means 
de>ness & pl5ty *eapness4 ,^! doctr9es  
at lea/ are tak5 = grant$2 & x may      
p]haps be said t !y are approximations  
:i* only require qualifications1 ?\gh   
sometimes v important qualifications1 to
 hold good ( ! society actually         
contemplat$4  ,!y 7 true en\gh to give !
 really conclusive answ] to _m popul>   
fallacies4 ,! type ( sophi/ry :i*       
,ric>do specially assail$ 0 t :i*       
results f neglect+ ! necess>y           
implications ( c]ta9 *anges4 ,! argum5ts
 = ! old 'm]cantile !ory'--=            
'protection' ( indu/ry1 = ! poor-law1 = 
resi/+ ! introduction ( ma*9]y1 ! fe> ( 
'gluts' & all mann] ( doctr9es ab\t !   
curr5cy--7 really expos$ by ! economi/s 
^u ! "r gr\nds4 ,x 0 absurd to suppose t
 by simply exp&+ ! curr5cy1 or by mak+  
indu/ry less effici5t1 or =c+ x to !    
lea/ pr(itable employm5ts1 y 7 increas+ 

! national weal?2 or to ov]look !       
demoralis+ effects ( a "r to support    
because y resolv$ only to see ! imm$iate
 b5efits ( *>ity to individuals4 ,x is  
true1 no d\bt1 t 9 "s cases !re might be
 o!r argum5ts1 & t ! economi/s 7 apt to 
take a n>r[ view ( ! facts4 ,yet !y     
decisively explod$ _m bad argum5ts1 & by
 ! "r me?od ( en=c+ ! necessity ( trac+ 
out ! :ole s]ies ( results4 ,x 0 p>tly  
to _! success 9 confut+ absurd doctr9es 
t _! confid5ce 0 due2 ?\gh ! confid5ce 0
 excessive :5 x 0 transf]r$ to ! axioms 
f :i* !y pr(ess$ to />t4 ,a doctr9e may 
be true en\gh to expose an error1 & yet 
n capable ( yield+ def9ite & precise    
conclusions4 ,if ,i "k t no?+ c come out
 ( no?+1 ,i am on ! way to a great      
sci5tific pr9ciple & able to confute "s 
palpable fallacies2 b ,i am /ill a v    
long way f und]/&+ ! pr9ciple ( !       
'cons]vation ( en]gy4' ,! tru? t sc>city
 meant de>ness 0 app>5tly well kn[n to  
,joseph 9 ,egypt1 & appli$ v skilfully =
 8 purpose4 ,economi/s h fram$ a '!ory (

 value' :i* expla9s m precisely ! way 9 
:i* ?is is br\ght ab\t4 ,a cle> /atem5t 
may be valuable to psy*ologi/s2 b = mo/ 
purposes ( political economy ,joseph's k
 is q suffici5t4 ,x is ! doctr9e :i* is 
really us$ 9 practice :atev] may be its 
ultimate ju/ification4  ,! po/ulates1   
h[ev]1 7 tak5 by ! economi/s to repres5t
 some?+ m ?an approximate /atem5ts ( !  
fact4 ,!y imply c]ta9 propositions :i*  
might be reg>d$ z axioms4 ,m5 desire    
weal? & pref] _! own int]e/s4 ,! :ole   
!ory might !n be reg>d$ z a direct      
d$uction f ! axioms4 ,x ?us seem$ to h a
 k9d ( ma!matical c]ta9ty4 ,:5 facts    
fail$ to con=m to ! !ory ! difficulty   
c\ld be met by speak+1 z ,mal?us spoke1 
( 't5d5cies1' or by appeal+ to ! analogy
 ( 'friction' 9 me*anics4 ,! excuse     
might be p]fectly valid 9 "s cases1 b x 
(t5 sanction$ a s]i\s error4 ,x 0 assum$
 t ! =mula 0 /ill absolutely true (     
some?+1 & t ! *eck or friction 0 a      
really sep>able & accid5tal int]f]5ce4  
,?us x became easy to disc>d1 z         

irrelevant1 objections :i* really appli$
 to ! pr9ciple itself1 & to exagg]ate ! 
con=mity betwe5 fact & !ory4 ,! economic
 categories are suppos$ to /ate !       
ess5tial facts1 & ! qualifications      
necess>y to make !m accurate 7 apt to   
slip out ( sight4 ,ric>do1#cch to m5tion
 a famili> in/ance1 c>efully po9ts out t
 ! 'economic r5t1' :i* cle>ly repres5ts 
an important economic category1 is n to 
be conf\nd$1 z 9 'popul>' use1 ) !      
paym5ts actually made1 :i* (t5 include  
mu* t is really pr(it4 ,! di/9ction1    
h[ev]1 0 con/antly =gott51 & ! ab/ract  
=mula summ>ily appli$ to ! concrete     
fact4  ,! economi/s _h con/ruct$ a k9d (
 automaton :i* fairly repres5t$ ! actual
 work+ ( ! ma*9]y4 ,b !n1 ea* elem5t (  
_! con/ruction came to repres5t a       
p>ticul> =mula1 & to repres5t no?+ else4
 ,! l&lord is simply ! receiv] ( surplus
 value2 ! capitali/ ! "o man :o saves1 &
 :o saves 9 proportion to pr(it2 & !    
lab\r] simply ! embodim5t ( ,mal?us's   
multiply+ t5d5cy4 ,!n ! po/ulates z to !

 ebb & fl[ ( capital & lab\r are suppos$
 to "w automatically & in/antane\sly4   
,ric>do argues t a tax ^u wages w fall1 
n1 z ,bu*anan ?\ght1 ^u ! lab\r]1 nor1 z
 ,adam ,smi? ?\ght1 ^u r5t1 b ^u pr(its2
 & 8 reason is app>5tly t if wages 7    
'l[]$ ! requisite population w\ld n be  
kept up4'#cci ,! lab\r] is able to      
multiply or dim9i% s rapidly t he always
 con=ms at once to ! requir$ /&>d4 ,?is 
w\ld seem to neglect ! consid]ation t1  
aft] all1 "s "t is requir$ to alt] !    
numb]s ( a population1 & t o!r *anges ( 
a totally diff]5t "* may be mean:ile set
 up by rises & falls ( wages4 ,ric>do1 z
 8 lett]s %[1#cdj 0 well aw>e ( !       
necessity ( mak+ all[ance = su*         
consid]ations 9 apply+ 8 !orems4 ,he    
simplifi$ ! exposition by lay+ !m d[n   
too absolutely2 & ! doctr9e1 tak5 )\t   
qualification1 gives ! 'economic man1'  
:o mu/ be po/ulat$ to make ! doctr9e "w 
smoo?ly4 ,! lab\r] is a k9d ( con/ant   
unit--absolutely fix$ 9 8 effici5cy1 8  
wants1 & s =?2 & ! same at "o p]iod z at

 ano!r1 except s f> z he may become m   
prud5t1 & !re=e fix 8 'natural price' a 
little high]4 ,an 'iron law' mu/ foll[  
:5 y h inv5t$ an iron unit4 ,9 %ort1 :5 
society is repres5t$ by ?is hypo!tical  
me*anism1 :]e ea* man is an embodim5t ( 
! requir$ =mula1 ! !ory becomes imp]fect
 s f> z society is made up ( liv+ be+s1 
v>y+1 ?\gh gradually1 9 _! :ole "* &    
attributes1 & =m+ "p ( an organis$      
society incomp>ably too complex 9 its   
/ructure to be adequately repres5t$ by !
 ?ree di/9ct classes1 ea* ( :i* is m]ely
 a =mula embodi$ 9 an individual man4 ,!
 g5]al rules may be v ne>ly true 9 a    
great _m cases1 especially on !         
/ock-ex*ange2 b be=e apply+ !m to give  
ei!r a hi/ory or a true acc\nt ( !      
actual work+ ( concrete in/itutions1 a  
mu* clos] approximation mu/ be made to !
 actual data4  ,i ne$ n enl>ge1 h[ev]1  
^u a topic :i* has be5 s (t5 exp\nd$4 ,i
 ?9k t at pres5t ! t5d5cy is r to d     
inju/ice to ! common-s5se embodi$ 9 ?is 
sy/em1 to ! s\ndness ( its aims1 & to   

its value 9 _m practical & imm$iate     
que/ions1 ?an to ov]e/imate its claim to
 sci5tific accuracy4 ,t claim may be    
said to h become obsolete4  ,"o po9t1   
h[ev]1 rema9s4 ,! hold]s ( su* a doctr9e
 mu/1 x is said1 h be5 )\t ! b[els (    
compassion4 ,ric>do1 z critics obs]ve ) 
und5iable tru?1 0 a ,jew & a memb] ( !  
/ock-ex*ange4 ,n[ ,jews1 9 spite (      
,%ylock's ass]tions1 & c]ta9ly ,jewi%   
/ockbrok]s1 are naturally )\t human     
feel+4 ,if y prick !m1 !y only ble$     
banknotes4 ,!y are fitt$ to be          
capitali/s1 :o ?9k ( wages z an item 9  
an acc\nt1 & ( ! lab\r] z "p ( ! tools  
us$ 9 bus9ess4 ,ric>do1 h[ev]1 0 n a m]e
 money-deal]1 nor ev5 a walk+ treatise4 
,he 0 a k9dly1 lib]al man1 desir\s to   
be1 z he no d\bt believ$ himself to be1 
9 sympa?y ) ! lead]s ( political &      
sci5tific ?\ght1 & fully %>+ _!         
aspirations4 ,no d\bt he1 l 8 fri5ds1 0 
m conspicu\s = coolness ( head ?an =    
impulsive philan?ropy4 ,l !m1 he 0 on 8 
gu>d aga9/ 's5tim5talism' & 'vague      

g5]alities1' & ?\ght t a ha/y b5evol5ce 
0 apt to aggravate ! evils :i* x        
attack$4 ,! ,utilit>ians naturally      
translat$ all aspirations into logical  
dogmas2 b "s p :o despis$ !m z h>d-he>t$
 really took mu* less pa9s to give      
effect to _! own b5evol5t impulses4 ,n[ 
,ric>do1 9 ?is matt]1 0 at "o ) ,james  
,mill & ,b5?am1 & especially            
,mal?us4#cda ,! ess5tial doctr9e (      
,mal?us 0 t ! poor c\ld be made less    
poor by an improv$ /&>d ( prud5ce4 ,9   
writ+ to ,mal?us1 ,ric>do incid5tally   
rem>ks ^u ! possibility ( rais+ !       
condition ( ! poor by 'good education' &
 ! inculcation ( =esight 9 ! great matt]
 ( m>riage4#cdb ,incid5tal ref]5ces 9 ! 
,pr9ciples are 9 ! same /ra94 ,he       
accepts ,mal?us's view ( ! poor-laws1 & 
hopes t1 by enc\rag+ =esight1 we may by 
degrees approa* 'a s\nd] & m heal?ful   
/ate4'#cdc ,he repudiates emphatically a
 sugge/ion ( ,say t "o ( 8 argum5ts     
implies 'indiff]5ce to ! happ9ess' ( !  
masses1#cdd & holds t '! fri5ds (       

humanity' %\ld enc\rage ! poor to raise 
_! /&>d ( com=t & enjoym5t4 ,! lab\r]s1 
z he else:]e incid5tally obs]ves1 are   
'by f> ! mo/ important class 9          
society4'#cde ,h[ %\ld !y n be if !     
greate/ happ9ess ( ! greate/ numb] be ! 
legitimate aim ( all legislation8  ,x is
 true t 9 8 argum5t ,ric>do con/antly   
assumes t 8 'natural price' w also be ! 
real price ( lab\r4 ,! assumption t !   
lab\r]s' wages t5d to a m9imum is a base
 = 8 g5]al argum5ts4 ,! inconsi/5cy1 if 
!re be "o1 is easily intelligible4      
,ric>do agre$ ) ,mal?us t1 ?\gh ! /&>d  
might be rais$1 & ?\gh a rise 0 ! only  
way to improvem5t1 ! *ances ( su* a rise
 7 n enc\rag+4 ,improv$ wages1 z he     
says1#cdf might enable ! lab\r] to live 
m com=tably if only he w\ld n multiply4 
,b 's great are ! delights ( dome/ic    
society1 t 9 practice x is inv>iably    
f\nd t an increase ( population foll[s  
an am5d$ condition ( ! lab\r]1' & ?us ! 
advantage is lo/ z soon z ga9$4  ,i h   
tri$ to %[ :at 0 ! logical conv5i5ce ( !

 assumption4 ,ric>do1 :o has always to  
/ate an argum5t at ! co/ ( an           
intellectual contortion1 is cont5t to   
lay d[n a rule )\t introduc+ tr\blesome 
qualifications & res]ves4 ,yet he       
probably held t 8 po/ulate 0 a close    
approximation to ! facts4 ,look+ at !   
actual /ate ( ?+s at ! wor/ "t ( !      
poor-law1 & see+ h[ small 7 ! prospects 
( /irr+ ! languid m9d ( ! paup] to      
great] =e?\ght1 he ?\ght t he might     
assume ! con/ancy ( an elem5t :i* v>i$ s
 sl[ly4 ,! indiff]5ce ( ! ,ric>do s*ool 
g5]ally to hi/orical inquiry _h l$ !m no
 d\bt to assume su* con/ancy too easily4
 ,mal?us1 :o _h m lean+ to hi/ory1 _h   
himself call$ att5tion to _m cases 9 :i*
 ! 'prud5tial *eck' op]at$ m /rongly ?an
 x did among ! ,engli% poor4 ,probably  
,ric>do 0 9 ?is1 z 9 o!r cases1 too ha/y
 9 assum+ facts conv5i5t = 8 argum5t4 ,!
 poor man's "* c1 x is cle>1 be only    
kn[n empirically2 &1 9 fact1 ,ric>do    
simply appeals to exp]i5ce4 ,he ?9ks t1 
z a fact1 m5 always d multiply 9 excess4

 ,b he does n d5y t bett] education     
might *ange _! "* 9 ?is respect4 ,inde$1
 z ,i h said1 an ev5 excessive fai? 9 ! 
possible modification ( "* by education 
0 "o ( ! ,utilit>ian t5ets4 ,if ,ric>do 
_h said broadly t a necess>y condition (
 ! improvem5t ( ! poor 0 a *ange ( !    
av]age "*1 ,i ?9k t he w\ld h be5 say+  
:at 0 p]fectly true & v mu* to ! purpose
 bo? !n & n[4 ,! objection to 8 v]sion (
 a mo/ salut>y doctr9e is t x is /at$ 9 
too n>r[ t]ms4 ,! ultimate unit1 ! human
 be+1 is inde$ suppos$ to be capable (  
great modification1 b x is solely ?r\gh 
increas+ 8 =esight z to ! effects (     
multiplication t ! *ange is suppos$ to  
be atta9able4 ,! moral ?us drawn impli$ 
a v limit$ view ( ! true nature &       
influ5ce ( great social processes1 & 9  
practice came too (t5 to limit+ possible
 improvem5t to ! "o condition ( lett+   
?+s alone4 ,let a man />ve if he w n "w1
 & he w "w4 ,t1 z a sole rem$y1 may be  
insuffici5t2 ?\gh1 ev5 9 t %ape1 x is a 
doctr9e m likely to be ov]look$ ?an     

ov]valu$4 ,& mean:ile ! acquiesc5ce 9 ! 
pa9ful doctr9e t1 z a matt] ( fact1     
lab\r]s w\ld always multiply to />vation
 po9t1 0 calculat$ to produce revolt    
aga9/ ! :ole sy/em4 ,macaulay's doctr9e 
t ! ,utilit>ians _h made political      
economy unpopul> 0 s f> true t ! av]age 
p]son res5t$ ! unpleasant doctr9es ?us  
obtrud$ ^u him 9 _! mo/ unpleasant %ape2
 &1 if he 0 told t !y 7 embodi$ logic1  
revolt$ aga9/ logic itself4   ,v4 ,,!   
,,ric>dians  ,x w be q suffici5t to     
speak briefly ( ! m9or prophets :o      
exp\nd$ ! classical doctr9e2 sometimes  
fall+ into fallacies1 aga9/ :i*         
,ric>do's logical in/9ct _h w>n$ him2 & 
sometimes p]haps unconsci\sly reveal+   
errors :i* really lurk$ 9 8 premises4   
,:5 ,ric>do di$1 ,james ,mill told      
,m',cullo* t !y 7 '! two & only g5u9e   
disciples' ( _! common fri5d4#cdg ,mill 
wrote :at he int5d$ = a ,s*oolbook (    
,political ,economy4#cdh ,brief1 pi?y1 &
 vigor\s1 x purports to give ! ess5tial 
pr9ciples 9 _! logical ord]2 b1 z 8 son 

rem>ks1#cdi _h only a pass+ importance4 
,m',cullo* took a m important place by 8
 writ+s 9 ! ,ed9burgh ,review & else:]e1
 & by 8 lectures at ,ed9burgh & at      
,london4 ,he 0 "o ( ! fir/ pr(essors ( !
 new univ]sity4 ,8 ,pr9ciples (         
,political ,economy#cej became a        
text-book1 to be f9ally sup]s$$ by ,john
 ,/u>t ,mill4 ,o!r works /ati/ical &    
bibliographical %[$ great indu/ry1 & h  
/ill _! value4 ,he 0 s mu* ! typical    
economi/ ( ! day t he has be5 id5tifi$ )
 ,c>lyle's ,m',cr[dy1 ! apo/le ( !      
dismal sci5ce4#cea ,he writes1 h[ev]1 ) 
en\gh vivacity & f]v\r ( belief 9 8 cre$
 to r$eem him f ! *>ge ( absolute       
dulness4 ,an abl] ?9k] 0 ,colonel       
7,rob]t7 ,torr5s 7#aghj-ahfd74ceb ,he _h
 s]v$ ) di/9ction 9 ! w>2 b retir$ on   
half-pay1 & 0 drawn by "s natural       
idiosyncrasy into ! dry pa?s ( economic 
discussion4 ,he 0 already confut+ !     
,fr5* economi/s 9 #ahjh2 & 0 writ+ ^u ! 
,bank-*>t] ,act & ! ,t5 ,h\rs' ,bill 9  
#ahdd4 ,torr5s held himself1 app>5tly ) 

ju/ice1 to be r an indep5d5t ally ?an a 
disciple ( ,ric>do4 ,8 *ief works 7 an  
essay ^u ! ',ext]nal ,corn-trade'       
7#ahae7cec & an ',essay on ! ,production
 ( ,weal?' 7#ahba74 ,ric>do pron\nc$ 8  
argum5ts ^u ! ,corn-trade to be         
'unansw]$ & unansw]able1'#ced & he      
himself claim$ to be an indep5d5t       
discov]] ( ! true !ory ( r5t4#cee ,he 0 
c]ta9ly a man ( consid]able acut5ess &  
orig9ality4 ,9 ^! writ+s we f9d ! mo/   
sangu9e expressions ( ! belief t        
political economy 0 n only a pot5tial1 b
 on ! v]ge ( becom+ an actual1 sci5ce4  
,torr5s obs]ves t all sci5ces h to pass 
?r\gh a p]iod ( controv]sy2 b ?9ks t    
economi/s are em]g+ f ?is /age1 &       
rapidly approa*+ unanimity4 ,9 tw5ty    
ye>s1 says ?is hopeful prophet1 !re w   
sc>cely exi/ a 'd\bt ( its' 7,political 
,economy's7 'fundam5tal pr9ciples4'#cef 
,torr5s ?9ks t ,ric>do has g5]alis$ too 
mu*1 & ,mal?us too little2 b proposes1 )
 prop] pr(essions ( mode/y1 to take !   
true via m$ia1 & weld ! s\nd pr9ciples  

into a h>moni\s :ole by a due comb9ation
 ( obs]vation & !ory4 ,! sci5ce1 he     
?9ks1 is 'analog\s to ! mix$            
ma!matics4'#ceg ,z f ! laws ( motion we 
c d$uce ! !ory ( dynamics1 s f c]ta9    
simple axioms ab\t human nature we c    
d$uce ! sci5ce ( ,political ,economy4   
,m',cullo*1 at />t+1 insi/s 9 edify+    
t]ms ^u ! necessity ( a c>eful &        
compreh5sive induction1 & ( ! /udy (    
indu/rial ph5om5a 9 diff]5t times &     
places1 & "u v>y+ in/itutions4#ceh ,?is1
 h[ev]1 does n prev5t him f adopt+ !    
same me?ods ( reason+4 ',induction' soon
 does its (fice1 & supplies a few simple
 pr9ciples1 f :i* we may make a leap to 
our conclusions by a rapid1 d$uctive    
process4  ,! problems appe> to be too   
simple to require long prelim9>y        
inve/igations ( fact4 ,torr5s speaks (  
prov+ by '/rictly demon/rative evid5ce' 
or ( 'proce$+ to demon/rate' by /rict   
analysis4#cei ,?is is g5]ally ! preface 
to "o ( ^? *>act]i/ic ari?metical       
illu/rations to :i* ,ric>do's practice  

gave a sanction4 ,we are always />t+ an 
imag9>y capitali/ ) s _m qu>t]s ( corn &
 suits ( clo!s1 :i* he c transmute into 
any k9d ( product1 & tak+ = grant$ t he 
repres5ts a typical case4 ,?is gives a  
c]ta9 ma!matical air to ! reason+1 & too
 (t5 hides f ! reason] t he may be begg+
 ! "q 9 m ways ?an "o by ! arrangem5t ( 
8 imag9>y case4 ,"o ( ! (f5d]s 9 ?is k9d
 0 ,nassau ,s5ior 7#agij-ahfd71 a man ( 
rem>kable good s5se1 & fully aw>e ( !   
necessity ( caution 9 apply+ 8 !ories to
 facts4 ,he 0 ! fir/ pr(essor (         
,political ,economy at ,ox=d            
7#ahbe-ahcj71 & 8 treatise#cfj lays d[n 
! g5]al assumption ( 8 or?odox          
contempor>ies cle>ly & briefly4 ,!      
sci5ce1 he tells u1 is d$ucible f f\r   
elem5t>y propositions3 ! fir/ ( :i*     
ass]ts t e 'man desires to obta9        
additional weal? ) z little sacrifice z 
possible'2 :ile ! o!rs /ate ! fir/      
pr9ciples embodi$ 9 ,mal?us's !ory (    
population1 & 9 ! laws correspond+ to ! 
increas+ facility ( manufactur+ & !     

decreas+ facility ( agricultural        
indu/ry4#cfa ,z ^! propositions include 
no ref]5ce to ! p>ticul> in/itutions or 
hi/orical developm5t ( ! social         
/ructure1 !y virtually imply t a sci5ce 
might be con/ruct$ equally applicable 9 
all times & places2 & t1 hav+ obta9$ !m1
 we ne$ n tr\ble ourselves any fur!r )  
inductions4 ,h5ce x foll[s t we c at    
once get f ! ab/ract 'man' to !         
indu/rial ord]4 ,we may1 x w\ld seem1   
ab/ract f hi/ory 9 g5]al4 ,?is          
corresponds to ! po/ulate explicitly    
/at$ by ,m',cullo*4 ',a /ate1' he tells 
u1 'is no?+ m ?an an aggregate (        
individuals'3 m51 t is1 :o 'inhabit a   
c]ta9 tract ( c\ntry4'#cfb ,he inf]s t  
':atev] is mo/ advantage\s to !m' 7!    
individuals7 'is mo/ advantage\s to !   
/ate4' ,self-int]e/1 !re=e1 !           
individual's desire ( add+ to 8 '=tune1'
 is ! ma9spr+ or causa causans ( all    
improvem5t4#cfc ,?is is1 ( c\rse1 "p ( !
 famili> sy/em1 :i* applies equally 9   
e?ics & politics4 ,m',cullo* is simply  

g5]alis+ ,adam ,smi?'s cong5ial doctr9e 
t /atesm5 are guilty ( absurd           
presumption :5 !y try to int]f]e ) a    
man's managem5t ( 8 own prop]ty4#cfd    
,?is !ory1 aga91 is express$ by !       
famili> maxim pas trop g\v]n]1 :i* is   
common to ! :ole s*ool1 & (t5 accept$   
explicitly4#cfe  ,x w be q en\gh to     
notice "o or two *>act]i/ic results4 ,! 
mo/ important conc]n ! relation betwe5 !
 lab\r] & ! capitali/4 ,mal?us gives !  
/>t+-po9t4 ,torr5s1 = example1 says t ! 
'real wages ( lab\r h a con/ant t5d5cy  
to settle d[n' to ! am\nt r5d]$ necess>y
 by 'cu/om & climate' 9 ord] to keep up 
8 numb]s4#cff ,mill obs]ves 9 8 t]se way
 t ! capitali/ 9 ! pres5t /ate ( society
 'is z mu* ! own] ( ! lab\r' z !        
manufactur] :o op]ates ) slaves4 ,! only
 'diff]5ce is 9 ! mode ( pur*as+4'#cfg  
,"o buys a man's :ole lab\r2 ! o!r 8    
lab\r = a day4 ,! rate ( wages c !re=e  
be rais$1 l ! price ( slaves1 only by   
limit+ ! supply4 ,h5ce ! 'gr& practical 
problem is to f9d ! means ( limit+ !    

numb] ( bir?s4'#cfh ,m',cullo* is       
equally cle>1 & inf]s t e s*eme 'n      
bottom$ on' ! pr9ciple ( proportion+    
lab\r to capital mu/ be 'completely     
nugatory & ineffectual4'#cfi  ,! doctr9e
 common to ! :ole s*ool l$ ,m',cullo* to
 conclusions :i* became aft]w>ds        
notori\s en\gh to require a ^w ( notice4
 ,torr5s1 l ,ric>do1 speaks ( capital z 
'accumulat$ lab\r1' b makes a great po9t
 ( obs]v+ t1 al?\gh ?is is true1 ! case 
is radically *ang$ 9 a develop$ /ate (  
society4 ,! value ( ?+s no long] dep5ds 
^u ! lab\r1 b ^u ! am\nt ( capital      
employ$ 9 _! production4#cgj ,?is1      
inde$1 may seem to be ! mo/ natural way 
( /at+ ! accept$ pr9ciple4 ,m',cullo*   
replies t ! *ange makes no diff]5ce 9 ! 
pr9ciple1#cga inasmu* z capital be+     
'accumulat$ lab\r1' value is /ill       
proportion$ to lab\r1 ?\gh 9 a          
transub/antiat$ %ape4 ,m',cullo* suppos$
 t by c>ry+ out ?is pr9ciple            
sy/ematically he 0 simplify+ ,ric>do &  
br++ ! :ole sci5ce into unity4 ,all     

que/ions1 :e!r ( value 9 ex*ange1 or ( !
 rate ( wages1 c !n be r$uc$ to comp>+ !
 simple unit call$ lab\r4 ,bo? ,mill &  
,m',cullo* reg>d capital z a k9d (      
lab\r1 s t ?+s may be produc$ by capital
 alone1 ')\t ! co-op]ation ( any        
imm$iate lab\r'#cgb--;a result :i* c    
h>dly be realis$ ) ! discov]y ( a       
p]petual motion4 ,s1 aga91 ! value ( a  
jo9t product is ! 'sum' ( ^! two        
values4#cgc ,all value1 !re=e1 c be     
reg>d$ z proportion$ to lab\r 9 "o ( its
 two /ates4 ,m',cullo* advanc$ to an    
un=tunate conclusion1 :i* excit$ "s     
ridicule4 ,?\gh ,ric>do & ,torr5s#cgd   
reject$ x1 x 0 accept$ by ,mill 9 8     
second edition4#cge ,w9e kept 9 a cask  
might increase 9 value4 ,c\ld t value be
 ascrib$ to 'additional lab\r actually  
laid out'8 ,m',cullo* gallantly ass]t$ t
 x c\ld1 ?\gh 'lab\r' c]ta9ly has to be 
int]pret$ 9 a non-natural s5se4#cgf ,n  
only is capital lab\r1 b f]m5tation is  
lab\r1 or h[ c we say t all value is    
proportion$ to lab\r8 ,?is is only wor? 

notice z a pa!tic illu/ration ( !       
mis=tunes ( a !ori/ ridd5 by a dogma ( 8
 own creation4 ,ano!r conclusion is m   
important4 ,! 'real value' ( any?+ is   
measur$ by ! lab\r requir$ to produce x4
 ,no?+ 'aga9 is m obvi\s' ?an t equal   
lab\r implies ! 'same sacrifice' 9 all  
/ates ( society4#cgg ,x might seem to   
foll[ t ! value ( any?+ 0 measur$ by !  
lab\r :i* x w\ld comm&4 ,?is doctr9e1   
h[ev]1 ?\gh ma9ta9$ by ,mal?us1 01      
accord+ to ,m',cullo*1 a pe/il5t h]esy1 
fir/ explod$ by ,ric>do's sagacity4#cgh 
,?+s ex*ange1 z he expla9s1 9 proportion
 to ! lab\r :i* produces !m1 b ! %>e    
giv5 to ! lab\r] may v>y widely4 ,!     
lab\r]1 he says1 'gives a con/ant1 b    
receives a v>iable quantity 9 its /ead4'
 ,he makes ! same sacrifice :5 he works 
= a day1 b may get = x :at he produces 9
 t5 h\rs1 or only 9 "o4 ,9 e case1      
h[ev]1 he gets less ?an he produces1 = !
 excess 'con/itutes pr(its4'#cgi ,!     
capitali/ mu/ get 8 int]e/1 t is1 !     
wages ( ! accumulat$ lab\r4 ,"h we come 

aga9 to ! ,sociali/ position1 only t !  
,sociali/ inf]s t ! lab\r] is always    
*eat$ by ! capitali/1 & does n consid] t
 ! ma*9e c ask = 'wages' on ! pretext t 
x is accumulat$ lab\r4 ,:at1 h[ev]1     
det]m9es ! %>e actually receiv$8 ,aft]  
all1 z a ma*9e is n actually a lab\r]1 &
 its "w n a sep>able product1 we _c     
easily see h[ mu* wages x is entitl$ to 
receive4 ,m',cullo* foll[s ! accept$    
argum5t4 ',no proposition1' he says1 'c 
be bett] e/abli%$ ?an t ! m>ket rate (  
wages 444 is exclusively det]m9$ by !   
proportion betwe5 capital &             
population4'#chj ,we h ultimately "h1 z 
else:]e1 '! gr& pr9ciple to :i* we mu/  
always come at la/1' namely1 '! co/ (   
production4'#cha ,wages mu/ correspond  
to ! co/ ( rais+ ! lab\r]4 ,?is leads to
 a =mula1 :i* aft]w>ds became fam\s4 ,9 
a pamphlet#chb devot$ to ! "q1 he       
repeats ! /atem5t t wages dep5d ^u !    
proportion betwe5 population & capital2 
& !n1 z if ! phrase 7 id5tical1         
sub/itutes t portion ( capital :i* is   

requir$ = ! lab\r]'s consumption4 ,?is  
is g5]ally cit$ z ! fir/ /atem5t ( !    
'wage-fund' !ory1 to :i* ,i %all h to   
return4  ,i ne$ n pursue ^! illu/rations
 ( ! awkw>d results ( excessive zeal 9 a
 disciple4 ,x is wor? notic+1 h[ev]1 t  
,m',cullo*'s practical conclusions are n
 s rigid z might be inf]r$4 ,8 ab/ract  
doctr9es d n give 8 true !ory1 s mu* z  
:at he errone\sly took to be 8 !ory4 ,! 
rules ) :i* he works are approximately  
true "u c]ta9 conditions1 & he          
unconsci\sly assumes ! conditions to be 
negligible1 & ! rules !re=e absolute4 ,x
 mu/ be add$ t he does n apply 8        
conclusions s rigidly z might be        
expect$4 ,by ! help ( 'friction1' or !  
admission t ! ride is only true 9 n9ete5
 cases out ( tw5ty1 he c make all[ance =
 _m deviations f rigid or?odoxy4 ,he    
holds1 = example1 t gov]nm5t int]f]5ce  
is (t5 necess>y4 ,he wi%es 9 p>ticul> = 
! e/abli%m5t ( a 'good sy/em ( public   
education4'#chc ,he seems to h become m 
s5tim5tal 9 lat] ye>s4 ,9 ! edition (   

#ahdc he approves ! ,factory ,acts1     
rem>k+ t ! la/ !n pass$ 'may n1 9 "s    
respects1 h gone f> en\gh4'#chd ,he     
approves a provision = ! 'impot5t poor1'
 on ! pr9ciple ( ! ,elizabe?an act1 ?\gh
 he disapproves ! c5tralis+ t5d5cy ( !  
new poor-law4 ,?\gh he is a good        
,mal?usian1#che & holds ! in/9ct (      
population to be a 'con/ant             
quantity1'#chf he does n believe 9 !    
impossibility ( improvem5t4 ,!          
'necess>y' rate ( wages fixes only a    
m9imum3 an increase ( population has be5
 accompani$ by an increase ( com=t4#chg 
,wages rise if ! /&>d ( life be rais$1 &
 a rise ( wages t5ds to raise ! /&>d4   
,he cordially d5\nces ! b5evol5t p]sons 
:o held t bett] wages only meant m      
dissipation4 ,bett] wages are really !  
great spur to indu/ry & improvem5t4#chh 
,extreme pov]ty causes apa?y2 & ! wor/ (
 evils is ! sluggi%ness :i* induces m5  
to submit to r$uctions ( wages4 ,a s5se 
( com=t w raise =esight2 & ! vis        
m$icatrix %\ld be all[$ to act ^u e rank

 ( society4 ,he is no d\bt an           
individuali/1 z look+ to ! removal (    
re/rictions1 su* z ! ,conspiracy        
,laws1#chi r ?an to a positive action ( 
! gov]nm5t2 b x is wor? notice t ?is    
typical economi/ is f> f accept+ "s ( ! 
doctr9es attribut$ to ! s*ool 9 g5]al4  
,! classical s*ool blund]$ :5 x suppos$ 
t ! rules :i* x =mulat$ c\ld be made    
absolute4 ,to give !m t "*1 x 0 necess>y
 to make false assumptions z to !       
ultimate con/itution ( society2 & !     
fallacy became cle> :5 ! =mulae 7       
suppos$ to give a real hi/ory or to give
 fir/ pr9ciples1 f :i* all indu/rial    
relations c\ld be d$uc$4 ,mean:ile1 !   
=mulae1 z !y really express$ conditional
 tru?s1 might be v useful s long z1 9   
po9t ( fact1 ! conditions exi/$1 & 7 v  
effective 9 dispos+ ( _m fallacies4 ,!  
be/ illu/ration w\ld probably be giv5 by
 ! writ+s ( ,?omas ,tooke               
7#aggd-aheh71cij "o ( ! f\nd]s ( !      
,political ,economy ,club4 ,! ,hi/ory ( 
,prices is an admirable explanation (   

ph5om5a :i* _h giv5 rise to ! wilde/    
!ories4 ,! _m oscillations ( trade &    
f9ance dur+ ! great /ruggle1 ! di/ress  
:i* _h foll[$ ! peace1 _h bewild]$ ha/y 
reason]s4 ,"s p1 ( c\rse1 f\nd          
consolation 9 attribut+ ev]y?+ to !     
my/]i\s action ( ! curr5cy2 o!rs decl>$ 
t ! w>-exp5diture _h suppli$            
manufactur]s & agriculturi/s ) a dem& = 
_! w>es1 app>5tly n ! less advantage\s  
because ! paym5t came out ( _! own      
pockets4#cia ,tooke v pati5tly &        
?or\ghly explodes ^! explanations1 &    
traces ! fluctuations ( price to su*    
causes z ! effect ( ! seasons & ! v>y+  
ev5ts ( ! w> :i* op5$ or clos$ ! *annels
 ( comm]ce4 ,! explanation 9 g5]al seems
 to be ?or\ghly s\nd & conclusive1 &    
falls 91 z f> z x goes1 ) ! pr9ciples ( 
8 allies4 ,he %[s1 = example1 v cle>ly  
:at 7 ! conditions "u :i* ! or?odox !ory
 ( r5t 0 really applicable2 h[ bad      
seasons br\ght ga9 in/ead ( loss to !   
'agricultural int]e/1' t is1 z ,tooke   
expla9s1 to ! l&lord & f>m]2 h[ by a    

rise ( price out ( proportion to !      
dim9ution ( supply1 ! f>m] made l>ge    
pr(its2 h[ r5ts rose1 enclosure bills   
increas$1 & inf]ior l& 0 br\ght "u !    
pl\gh4 ,! l&lord's int]e/ 0 = ! "t      
cle>ly oppos$ to t ( all o!r classes1   
h[ev] inadequate ! doctr9e might become 
:5 made absolute by a ha/y g5]alisation4
 ,i ne$ n dwell ^u ! free-trade argum5t 
:i* made ! popul> reputation ( !        
economi/s4 ,x is en\gh to note briefly t
 ! error z to ! sph]e ( applicability ( 
! doctr9e did n prev5t _m ( ! practical 
conclusions f be+ ( ! highe/ value4     
,,footnotes3  #bid ,a life ( ,ric>do by 
,m',cullo* is prefix$ to 8 ,works4 ,i   
cite ! edition ( #ahhj4 ,ric>do's lett]s
 to ,mal?us 7 publi%$ by ,mr4 ,bon> 9   
#ahhg2 8 lett]s to ,m',cullo*1 edit$ by 
,mr4 ,holl&] = ! ,am]ican ,economic     
,association1 9 #ahie2 & 8 lett]s to ,h4
 ,tr[]1 edit$ by ,mr4 ,bon> & ,mr4      
,holl&]1 h j appe>$ 7#aijj74  #bie ,he  
rem>ks ^u ?is difficulty 9 ! case (     
,smi?'s treatm5t ( r5t1 & gives a       

def9ition to :i* he sc>cely             
adh]es4--,works1 p4 #cd 7',pr9ciples1'  
*4 ii41 #ahhh74  #bif ,works1 p4 #cgh4  
,ric>do1 x %\ld be said1 compla9$ :5    
,mal?us int]pret$ him to mean t ?is     
opposition ( int]e/s 0 p]man5t &        
absolute4  #big ,mal?us admits ! g5]al  
pr9ciple ( free trade1 b supports "s    
degree ( protection to corn1 ma9ly ^u   
political gr\nds4 ,he holds1 h[ev]1 )   
,adam ,smi?1 t 'no equal quantity (     
productive lab\r employ$ 9 manufactures 
c\ld ev] occasion s great a reproduction
 z 9 agriculture' 7,gr\nds ( an ,op9ion1
 etc41 p4 #ce7--;a relic ( !            
'physiocrat' doctr9e4  #bih ,works1 p4  
#che4  #bii ,ibid4 p4 #chf4  #cjj ,see  
also ,lett]s to ,mal?us1 p4 #age4  #cja 
',y\r mod]n political economi/s say t x 
is a pr9ciple 9 _! sci5ce t all ?+s f9d 
_! level2 :i* ,i d5y1 & say1 on !       
contr>y1 t x is ! true pr9ciple t all   
?+s are f9d+ _! level1 l wat] 9 a       
/orm4'--,col]idge's ,table-,talk1 #ag?  
,may #ahcc4  #cjb ,lett]s to ,mal?us1 p4

 #if2 & see ! frequ5tly quot$ passage   
:]e he compla9s t ,mal?us has tak5 8    
book z m 'practical' ?an he _h int5d$ x 
to be1 & speaks ( 8 me?od ( imag9+      
'/rong cases4'--,ibid4 p4 #afg4  #cjc   
,works1 p4 #dj n4 7*4 ii474  #cjd       
,works1 p4 #ec 7*4 v471 & p4 #abd 7*4   
xvi471 :]e he quotes f ! ,weal? (       
,nations 7,m',cullo*71 p4 #cij 7bk4 v4  
*4 ii4 art4 #c74  #cje ,works1 p4 #aca4 
#cjf ,weal? ( ,nations 7,m',cullo*71 p4 
#ca 7bk4 i4 *4 viii474  #cjg ,works1 p4 
#da 7*4 ii474  #cjh ,weal? ( ,nations   
7,m',cullo*71 p4 #cf4  #cji ,works1 p4  
#ea 7*4 v474  #caj ,lett]s to ,mal?us1  
p4 #ih4  #caa ,works1 p4 #bci 7*4 xxxi41
 add$ 9 ?ird edition1 #ahba74  #cab     
,ibid4 p4 #ej 7*4 v474  #cac ,ibid4 p4  
#eb4  #cad ,ibid4 p4 #ae 7*4 i4 sec4    
ii474  #cae ,!re is1 inde$1 a difficulty
 :i* ,i happily ne$ n discuss4          
,und\bt$ly ! doctr9e ( gluts 0 absurd4  
,!re is1 ( c\rse1 no limit to ! am\nt ( 
weal? :i* c be us$ or ex*ang$4 ,b !re   
c]ta9ly seems to be a great difficulty 9

 effect+ su* a readju/m5t ( ! indu/rial 
sy/em z is impli$ 9 increas$ production 
( weal?2 & ! disposition to save may at 
a giv5 "t be great] ?an ! p[] ( f9d+    
pr(itable *annels = employ+ weal?4 ,?is 
involves economical que/ions beyond my  
ability to answ]1 & happily n "h        
relevant4  #caf ,lett]s to ,mal?us1 p4  
#aja4  #cag ,ibid4 p4 #eb4  #cah ,works1
 p4 #agd 7*4 xxi474  #cai ,works1 p4 #ff
 7*4 vi474  #cbj ,works1 p4 #bdj 7*4    
xxxi474  #cba ,ric>do1 ,works1 p4 xxiv4 
#cbb ,m5g]'s ,das ,re*t auf d5 voll5    
,arbeits]trag 7#ahia71 p4 #ch4  #cbc    
,works1 p4 #bbh 7*4 xxviii474  #cbd     
,works1 pp4 #bi1 #fj4  #cbe ,ibid4 p4   
#aff4  #cbf ,works1 p4 #agj 7*4 xx474   
#cbg ,ibid4 p4 #g4  #cbh ,s he tells    
,mal?us 7,lett]s1 pp4 #agc1 #agd7 t !   
buy] has '! lea/ to d 9 ! _w' ) !       
regulation ( prices4 ,x is all !        
competition ( ! sell]s4 ',dem&'         
influ5ces price = ! mom5t1 b 'supply    
foll[s close ^u its heels1 & takes up ! 
regulation ( price4'  #cbi ,works1 p4   

#bcd4  #ccj ,b5?am's ,works1 x4 #dih4   
#cca ,works1 p4 #bej 7*4 xxxii474  #ccb 
,/ew>t's ,works1 x4 #cd4  #ccc ,see     
,bagehot's rem>ks ^u ,j4 ,s4 ,mill's    
v]sion ( ?is doctr9e 9 ,economic        
,/udies3 *apt] on ',co/ ( ,production4' 
#ccd ,ano!r illu/ration ( ! ne$ ( su*   
consid]ations is giv51 z has be5 po9t$  
out1 9 ,adam ,smi?'s fam\s *apt] ^u !   
v>iation 9 ! rate ( wages4 ,he assumes t
 ! highe/ wages w be paid = ! lea/      
agreeable employm5ts1 :]eas1 9 fact1 !  
lea/ agreeable are g5]ally ! wor/ paid4 
,8 doctr9e1 t is1 is only true ^u a     
tacit assumption z to ! "* & position ( 
! lab\r]1 :i* mu/ be revis$ be=e ! rule 
c be appli$4  #cce ,j4 ,s4 ,mill1 too1 9
 8 ,political ,economy makes ! f\ndation
 ( private prop]ty '! "r ( produc]s to  
:at !y !mselves h produc$4' 7,bk4 ii4 *4
 ii4 ,sec4 #a47  #ccf ,mr4 ,edw9        
,cannan1 9 ,production & ,di/ribution   
7#ahid71 p4 #chc4  #ccg ,a def9ition1   
says ,burke 9 8 essay on ! ',sublime &  
,beautiful' 7introduction7 'seems r to  

foll[ ?an to prec$e our inquiry1 ( :i* x
 ought to be consid]$ z ! result4'  #cch
 ,works1 p4 #cd 7*ap4 ii474 ,r5t is !re 
def9$ z ! sum paid = ! orig9al &        
inde/ructible p[]s ( ! soil4  #cci      
,works1 p4 #acb 7*ap4 xvii474 ,he admits
 7,ibid4 p4 #baj n47 t ! lab\r] may h a 
little m ?an :at is absolutely necess>y1
 & t 8 inf]5ce is !re=e 'express$ too   
/rongly4'  #cdj ,see ,lett]s to         
,m',cullo*1 p4 xxi4  #cda ',! assaults  
^u ,mal?us's great "w1' he says 7,works1
 p4 #bdc1 *4 xxxii471 'h only s]v$ to   
prove its /r5g?4'  #cdb ,lett]s to      
,mal?us1 p4 #bbf4  #cdc ,works1 p4 #eh  
7*4 v474  #cdd ,ibid4 p4 #baa n4 7*4    
xxvi474  #cde ,ibid4 p4 #beh 7*4        
xxxii474  #cdf ,works1 p4 #bdh 7*4      
xxii474  #cdg ,ba9's ,james ,mill1 p4   
#baa4  #cdh ,editions 9 #ahba1 #ahbd1 & 
#ahbf4  #cdi ,autobiography1 p4 #bjd4   
#cej ,! fir/ edition1 an exp&$ v]sion ( 
an article 9 ! ,encyclopa$ia            
,britannica1 appe>$ 9 #ahbe4  #cea      
,latt]-day ,pamphlets 7,new ,d[n+       

,/reet74 ,m',cr[dy is obvi\sly a type1 n
 an individual4  #ceb ,see ,mr4 ,hew9's 
life ( him 9 ,diction>y ( ,national     
,biography4  #cec ,f\r? edition 9 #ahbg4
  #ced ,ric>do's ,works1 p4 #afd n4     
#cee ,ext]nal ,corn-trade1 preface to   
f\r? edition4 ,j4 ,s4 ,mill obs]ves 9 8 
*apt] ^u ',int]national ,trade' t       
,torr5s 0 ! e>lie/ exp\nd] ( ! doctr9e  
aft]w>ds work$ out by ,ric>do & ,mill   
himself4 ,= ,ric>do's op9ion ( ,torr5s1 
see ,lett]s to ,tr[]1 p4 #ci4  #cef     
,production ( ,weal? 7,preface74  #ceg  
,production ( ,weal? 7,preface74  #ceh  
,political ,economy 7#ahbe71 p4 #ba4    
#cei ,ext]nal ,corn-trade1 pp4 xviii1   
#aji1 #aci2 ,production ( ,weal?1 p4    
#cge4  #cfj ,orig9ally 9 ! ,encyclopa$ia
 ,metropolitana1 #ahcf4  #cfa ,s5ior's  
,political ,economy 7#ahej71 p4 #bf4    
#cfb ,ibid4 7#ahbe71 pp4 #ee1 #abi-aca4 
#cfc ,s5ior's ,political ,economy       
7#aej71 p4 #abe4  #cfd ,ibid4 p4 #ace4  
,m',cullo* admits ! possibility t a man 
may judge 8 own int]e/s wrongly1 b ?9ks 

t ?is w n happ5 9 "o case out ( tw5ty   
7,ibid4 p4 #ae74  #cfe ,see ,torr5s's   
,production ( ,weal?1 p4 #bjh2 &        
,m',cullo*'s ,political ,economy        
7#ahdc71 p4 #bid1 :]e he admits "s      
exceptions4  #cff ,ext]nal ,corn-trade1 
p4 #hg1 etc4  #cfg ,political ,economy  
7second edition71 pp4 #ba1 #bb4  #cfh   
,ibid4 p4 #fg4  #cfi ,political ,economy
 7#ahbe71 p4 #cbi4  #cgj ,production (  
,weal?1 p4 #cd1 etc4  #cga ,political   
,economy 7#ahbe71 p4 #cah4  #cgb ,mill's
 ,political ,economy 7second edition71  
p4 #ajb2 ,m',cullo*'s ,political        
,economy 7#ahbe71 pp4 #bhi-bia4  #cgc   
,m',cullo*'s ,political ,economy1 p4    
#bij4  #cgd ,preface to ,ext]nal        
,corn-trade4  #cge ,ibid4 p4 #ie4  #cgf 
,political ,economy 7#ahbe71 pp4        
#cac-ah4 ,?is argum5t disappe>s 9 lat]  
editions4  #cgg ,ibid4 p4 #bag4  #cgh   
,political ,economy1 p4 #bba4 ,de       
,qu9cey makes a great po9t ( ?is        
doctr9e1 ( :i* x is n wor? :ile to      
exam9e ! mean+4  #cgi ,political        

,economy1 p4 #bba n4  #chj ,ibid4 p4    
#ccf4  #cha ,ibid4 p4 #ccg4  #chb       
',essay ^u ! ,circum/ances :i* det]m9e !
 ,rate ( ,wages' 7#ahbf71 p4 #aac4 ,?is 
0 writt5 = ,con/able's ,miscellany1 & is
 ma9ly repetition f ! ,political        
,economy4 ,x 0 republi%$1 ) alt]ations1 
9 #ahea4  #chc ,political ,economy1 pp4 
#cei-fa4  #chd ,ibid4 7#ahdc71 p4 #agh4 
,& see 8 rem>ks on ! unfav\rable side ( 
! ,factory ,sy/em1 p4 #ahf seq4  #che   
',:]ev] two p]sons h ! means ( subsi/+1'
 z he qua9tly obs]ves1 'a m>riage       
inv>iably takes place' 7,political      
,economy1 p4 #aed74  #chf ,political    
,economy1 p4 #bjf4  #chg ,political     
,economy1 p4 #cdd4  #chh ,ibid4 pp4     
#cdi-eb4  #chi ,see pamphlet on ! rate (
 wages1 pp4 #agh-bjd4  #cij ,tooke's    
,?\ghts & ,details on ! ,high & ,l[     
,prices ( ! la/ ,?irty ,ye>s appe>$ 9   
#ahbc 7second edition #ahbd74 ,?is 0    
rewritt5 & embodi$ 9 ! ,hi/ory (        
,prices1 ! fir/ two volumes ( :i* appe>$
 9 #ahch4 ,f\r lat] volumes appe>$ 9    

#ahci1 #ahdh1 & #aheg4  #cia ,! popul>  
view is giv5 by ,s\!y4 ,! ,radicals1 he 
says 9 #ahbc1 desire w> because !y      
expect x to lead to revolution4 ',9 ?is 
!y are greatly deceiv$1 = x w\ld re/ore 
agricultural prosp]ity1 & give a new    
spur to our manufactures' 7,selections f
 ,s\!y's ,lett]s1 iii4 #chb4 ,see also  
,life & ,correspond5ce1 iv4 #bbh1 #chf74
     ,,*apt] ,,vi  ,,economic ,,h]etics 
,i4 ,,! ,,mal?usian ,,controv]sy  ,!    
,economic !ory became triumphant4       
,exp\nd$ f new univ]sity *airs1 summ>is$
 9 text-books = s*ools1 advocat$ 9 !    
press1 & appli$ by an en]getic p>ty to  
"s ( ! mo/ important political          
discussions ( ! day1 x claim$ ! adhesion
 ( all enlight5$ p]sons4 ,x enjoy$ !    
pre/ige ( a sci5tific doctr9e1 & ! mo/  
popul> retort seem$ to be an involunt>y 
concession ( its claims4 ,:5 oppon5ts   
appeal$ f '!ori/s' to practical m51 !   
,utilit>ians scornfully set !m d[n z    
virtually appeal+ f reason to prejudice4
 ,no rival !ory held ! field4 ,if       

,mal?us & ,ric>do diff]$1 x 0 a diff]5ce
 betwe5 m5 :o accept$ ! same fir/       
pr9ciples4 ,!y bo? pr(ess$ to int]pret  
,adam ,smi? z ! true prophet1 &         
repres5t$ diff]5t %ades ( op9ion r ?an  
div]g+ sects4 ,!re 71 h[ev]1 symptoms ( 
opposition1 :i*1 at ! "t1 might be set  
d[n z simple reluctance to li/5 to      
disagreeable tru?s4 ,9 reality1 !y 7    
indications ( a dissatisfaction :i* 0 to
 become ( m importance & to lead 9 "t to
 a m decid$ revolt4 ,i mu/ indicate "s (
 !m1 ?\gh ! expressions ( diss5t 7 s    
v>i\s & confus$ t x is n v easy to r$uce
 !m to ord]4  ,mal?us's doctr9e 0 really
 at ! base ( ! :ole !ory1 ?\gh x mu/ be 
admitt$ t nei!r ,mal?us himself nor 8   
oppon5ts 7 cle> z to :at 8 doctr9e      
really 04 ,8 assailants (t5 attack$     
!ories :i* he disav[$1 or ass]t$        
pr9ciples :i* he claim$ z 8 own4#cib ,i 
m5tion only to set aside "s respectable 
& we>isome g5tlem5 su* z ,+ram1 ,j>rold1
 ,weyl&1 & ,grahame1 :o consid]$ ,mal?us
 *iefly z impugn+ ! wisdom ( ,provid5ce4

 ,!y quote ! div9e law1 ',increase &    
multiply'2 ?9k t ,mal?us reg>ds vice &  
mis]y z bless+s1 & prove t population   
does n 't5d' to increase too rapidly4   
,j>rold app>5tly accepts ! doctr9e :i*  
,mal?us attributes to ,suessmil*1 t     
lives h be5 %ort5$ s9ce ! days ( !      
patri>*s1 & ! reproductive =ces dim9i%$ 
z ! _w has gr[n full]4 ,grahame believes
 9 a provid5tial 'ordeal1' con/itut$ by 
infant mortality1 :i* is n1 l w> & vice1
 due to human corruption1 b a b5efic5t  
regulat+ =ce :i* correlates f]tility ) !
 /ate ( society4 ,?is might be tak5 by  
,mal?us z m]ely am\nt+ to ano!r v]sion (
 8 *ecks4 ,su* books1 9 fact1 simply %[1
 :at does n require to be fur!r         
emphasis$1 t ,mal?us _h put 8 v]sion ( !
 /ruggle = exi/5ce into a =m :i* seem$  
sc&al\s to ! av]age or?odox p]son4 ,!   
vagu5ess ( ,mal?us himself & ! confus$  
argum5t ( su* oppon5ts makes x d\btful  
:e!r !y are really answ]+ 8 !ories or   
r$uc+ !m to a less repulsive =m (       
/atem5t4  ,9 o!r directions1 !          

,mal?usian doctr9e r\s$ ke5 feel+ on bo?
 sides1 & ! l9e tak5 by diff]5t p>ties  
is significant4 ,mal?us _h appe>$ z an  
antagoni/ ( ! revolution>y p>ty4 ,he _h 
laid d[n :at he took to be an insup]able
 ob/acle to ! realisation ( _! dreams4  
,yet 8 views 7 adopt$ & ext5d$ by ^? :o 
call$ !mselves ?or\gh ,radicals4 ,z1 9  
our days1 ,d>w9ism has be5 claim$ z     
support+ bo? individuali/ & sociali/ic  
conclusions1 ! !ory ( 8 pr$ecessor1     
,mal?us1 might be appli$ 9 a ,radical or
 a ,cons]vative s5se4 ,9 po9t ( fact1   
,mal?us 0 at once adopt$ by ! ,:igs1 z  
repres5t$ by ! ,ed9burgh ,review4 ,!y 7 
foll[]s ( ,adam ,smi? & ,dugald ,/ew>t2 
!y piqu$ !mselves1 &1 z ev5 ,james ,mill
 admitt$1 ) ju/ice1 ^u economic         
or?odoxy4 ,!y 7 at ! same "t pr$ispos$  
to a !ory :i* condemn$ ! revolution>y   
,utopias4 ,x provid$ !m ) an effective  
weapon aga9/ ! agitators :om !y         
especially dread$4 ,! ,tories might be a
 little re/ra9$ by or?odox qualms4 ,9   
#ahab ,s\!y 0 p]mitt$ to make an        

onslaught ^u ,mal?us 9 ! ,qu>t]ly2#cic b
 m complim5t>y allusions foll[$1 & five 
ye>s lat] ! essay 0 elaborately def5d$ 9
 an able article4#cid ,an apology 0 ev5 
ins9uat$ = ! previ\s assault1 ?\gh !    
blame 0 ?r[n ^u ,mal?us = putt+ 8       
doctr9es 9 an (f5sive %ape4 ,a ref]5ce  
to ,ow5 sugge/s t ! al>m excit$ by      
,socialism _h sugge/$ ! ne$ ( "s s\nd   
political economy4  ,ano!r controv]sy   
:i* 0 be+ c>ri$ on at int]vals indicates
 ! l9e ( cleavage betwe5 ! capitali/ & !
 l&$ int]e/4 ,james ,mill's e>ly        
pamphlet1 ,comm]ce ,def5d$ 7#ahjh71 &   
,torr5s's pamphlet1 ,economi/s ,refut$1 
7 sugge/$ by ?is discussion4 ,al?\gh !  
w> 0 p>tly 9 def5ce ( ,briti% trade1 its
 vicissitudes produc$ v>i\s comm]cial   
crises2 & ! patriotic ,tories 7 anxi\s  
to %[ t we c\ld ?rive ev5 if our trade 0
 %ut out f ! ,cont95t4 ,! trad+ classes 
ma9ta9$ t !y really suppli$ ! s9ews (   
w>1 & _h a "r to "s control ( ! policy4 
,! controv]sy ab\t ! ord]s 9 c\ncil &   
,b]l9 decrees emphasis$ ^! disputes1 &  

call$ "s att5tion to ! que/ions involv$ 
9 ! old controv]sy betwe5 ! 'm]cantile' 
& ! 'agricultural' sy/ems4 ,a grotesque 
exagg]ation ( "o !ory 0 giv5 by ,mill's 
oppon5t1 ,william ,sp5ce#cie            
7#aghc-ahfj71 9 8 ,brita9 indep5d5t (   
,comm]ce1 :i* w5t ?r\gh sev]al editions 
9 #ahjh1 & refurbi%$ or p]v]t$ ! doctr9e
 ( ! ,fr5* economi/s4 ,! argum5t1 at    
lea/1 %[s :at fallacies !n ne$$         
confutation by ! or?odox4 ,9 ! preface  
to 8 collect$ tracts1 ,sp5ce obs]ves t !
 high price ( corn 0 ! cause ( 'all our 
weal? & prosp]ity dur+ ! w>4' ,! causes 
( ! high price 7'assi/$1' he admits1 'by
 occasional bad seasons'7 7 ! 'national 
debt1 9 o!r words1 taxation1' :i* rais$ 
! price1 fir/1 ( necess>ies1 & !n (     
luxuries 7?us1 he says1 'neutralis+ its 
o!rwise injuri\s effects'71 & ! virtual 
monopoly by ! agriculturi/ ( ! home     
m>ket4#cif ,all our weal?1 t is1 0      
produc$ by taxation aid$ by fam9e1 or1 9
 brief1 by ! l&[n]'s p[] ( squeez+ m out
 ( ! poor4 ,=eign trade1 accord+ to     

,sp5ce1 is altoge!r sup]flu\s4 ,its     
effect is summ$ up by ! /atem5t t we    
give h>dw>e to ,am]ica1 &1 9 return1 get
 only '! vile we$1 tobacco4'#cig        
,sp5ce's writ+s only %[ ! effect ( /rong
 prejudices on a weak bra94 ,a simil>   
s5tim5t dictat$ a m notewor?y argum5t to
 a mu* abl] writ]1 ^: relation to       
,mal?us is significant--,?omas ,*alm]s  
7#aghj-ahdg71cih probably be/ rememb]$  
at pres5t = 8 lead]%ip ( ! great        
disruption ( #ahdc4 ,he _h a reputation 
= eloqu5ce & philosophic ability n fully
 intelligible at ! pres5t day4 ,8       
appe>ance 0 unc\?1 & 8 writt5 /yle is   
(t5 clumsy4 ,he gave an impression at   
times ( indol5ce & ( timidity4 ,yet 8   
sup]ficial qualities conceal$ an ard5t  
temp]am5t & cordial affections4 ,"u a   
suffici5t /imulus he c\ld blaze out 9   
/irr+ spee* & vigor\s action4 ,8        
intellectual tra9+ 0 limit$4 ,he _h1 we 
are told1 be5 mu* influ5c$ 9 8 y\? by ! 
,fr5* philosoph]s ( ! "t1 & _h appe>$ on
 ! side ( ! m free?9k+ p>ty 9 ! fam\s   

,leslie controv]sy4 ,soon aft]w>ds1     
h[ev]1 he 0 conv]t$ to 'evangelical'    
views4 ,he /ill accept$ ,?omas ,br[n z a
 great metaphysician1#cii b ?\ght t 9   
moral que/ions ,br[n's dei/ical optimism
 requir$ to be correct$ by an infusion (
 ,butl]'s !ory ( consci5ce4 ,he c\ld    
adapt ,butl]'s ,analogy1 & write an     
edify+ ,bridgewat] ,treatise4 ,i ne$    
only say1 h[ev]1 t1 ?\gh 8 philosophy 0 
n v pr(\nd1 he _h an en?usiasm :i*      
enables him at times to write =cibly &  
impressively4  ,*alm]s 0 f #ahjc to     
#ahae m9i/] ( ,kilmany1 ,fife%ire1 & 8  
att5tion _h already be5 drawn to ! "q ( 
paup]ism4 ,he took "p 9 ! ,sp5ce        
controv]sy1 by an essay ^u ! ,ext5t &   
,/ability ( ,national ,res\rces4#djj ,9 
?is he exp\nds a doctr9e :i* is aft]w>ds
 giv5 9 8 ,political ,economy 9         
,connection ) ! ,moral ,/ate & ,moral   
,aspects ( ,society4#dja ,! ma9 purpose 
( 8 e>ly book is ! patriotic4 ,x is     
meant1 l ,sp5ce's pamphlet1 to prove t  
,napoleon c\ld d u no vital injury4     

,%\ld he succe$1 he w\ld only lop (f    
sup]flu\s bran*es1 n hew d[n ! ma9      
trunk4 ,*alm]s's argum5t to %[ ! ease ) 
:i* a c\ntry may recov] ! effects ( a   
disa/r\s w> is highly prais$ by ,j4 ,s4 
,mill#djb z ! fir/ s\nd explanation ( ! 
facts4 ,*alm]s's position1 h[ev]1 is    
radically diff]5t f ! position ( ei!r   
,james or ,j4 ,s4 ,mill4 ,ess5tially x  
is ! developm5t ( ! ,fr5* economi/s'    
!ory1 ?\gh ,*alm]s is r unwill+ to admit
 8 aff9ity to a discr$it$ s*ool4#djc ,he
 has rea*$ "s ( _! conclusions1 he      
admits1 b by a diff]5t pa?4#djd ,he     
co9cides1 9 ?is respect1 ) ,mal?us1 :o 0
 equally impress$ by ! importance (     
'subsi/5ce1' or ( ! food-supply ( !     
lab\r]4 ,! great bulk ( ! food requir$  
mu/ be rais$ )9 our own bord]s4 ,z      
,*alm]s says1 9 #ahcb1 ! total          
importation ( corn1 ev5 9 ! two fam9e   
ye>s1 #ahjj & #ahja1 tak5 toge!r1 _h    
only provid$ food = five weeks1#dje &   
c\ld normally repres5t a m]e fr+e or    
sup]flu\s addition to our res\rces4 ,8  

ma9 argum5t is simple4 ,! economi/s h   
fall5 into a fatal error4 ,a            
manufactur]1 he obs]ves1 only makes 8   
own article4#djf ,! economi/s someh[    
imag9e t he also supports himself4 ,y   
see a prosp]\s '%awl-mak+ village4' ,y  
inf] t its ru9 w\ld cause ! de/itution (
 s _m families4 ,x w\ld only mean ! loss
 ( s _m %awls4 ,! food :i* supports !   
%awl-mak]s w\ld /ill be produc$1 & w\ld 
be only div]t$ to support mak]s ( "s o!r
 luxury4#djg ,!re w\ld be a tempor>y    
injury to individuals1 b no p]man5t     
weak5+ ( national res\rces4 ,h5ce we h 8
 division ( ! population4 ,!            
agriculturi/s1 & ^? :o make ! 'second   
necess>ies' 7! cottages1 pl\ghs1 & s =?1
 requir$ by ! agriculturi/71 create !   
great weal? ( ! c\ntry4 ,besides ^! we h
 ! 'disposable' population1 :i* is      
employ$ 9 mak+ luxuries = ! l&[n]s1 &1  
f9ally1 ! 'r$undant' or :at he calls 9 8
 lat] book ! 'excresc5t' or 'sup]9duc$' 
population1#djh :i* is really support$  
by =eign trade4 ,comm]ce1 !n1 is m]ely  

'! effloresc5ce ( our agriculture4'#dji 
,7 x annihilat$ ?is in/ant1 we %\ld /ill
 reta9 our :ole disposable population4  
,! effect ( w> is simply to f9d a       
diff]5t employm5t = ?is "p ( ! nation4  
,napoleon1 he says1 is 'empty+ our %ops 
& fill+ our battalions4'#daj ,all !     
'r$undant' population might be support$ 
by simply dim9i%+ ! numb] ( our         
c>t-horses4#daa ,simil>ly1 ! de/ruction 
( ! comm]ce ( ,france 'creat$ h]        
armies4' ,x only transf]r$ m5 f trade to
 w>1 & 'millions ( artisans' 7 'trans=m$
 into soldi]s4'#dab ,pitt 0 really      
/r5g!n+ :5 he suppos$ himself to be ru9+
 8 enemy4 ',excresc5ce' & 'effloresc5ce'
 are ,*alm]s's equival5t = ! '/]ility' (
 ! ,fr5* economi/s4 ,! backbone ( all   
indu/ry is agriculture1 & ! manufactur]s
 simply employ$ by ! l&[n] = su*        
purposes z he pleases4 ,:e!r he uses !m 
to make 8 luxuries or to fight 8        
battles1 ! real res\rces ( ! nation     
rema9 unt\*$4 ,! ,ric>dians insi/ ^u !  
vital importance ( 'capital4' ,! "o     

economic end ( ! /atesm51 z ! capitali/ 
class naturally ?9ks1 %\ld be to give e 
facility = its accumulation1 &          
consequ5tly = all[+ x to di/ribute      
itself 9 ! mo/ effici5t way4 ,*alm]s1 on
 ! contr>y1 argues t we may easily h too
 mu* capital4 ,he 0 a firm believ] 9    
gluts4 ,he admits t ! ext5sion ( comm]ce
 0 ( great good at ! end ( ! feudal     
p]iod1 b n z ! 'effici5t cause' ( weal?1
 only z 'unlock+ ! capabilities ( !     
soil4'#dac ,?is *ange produc$ ! illusion
 t comm]ce has a 'creative virtue1'     
:]eas its absolute dep5d5ce ^u          
agriculture is a tru? ( capital         
importance 9 political economy4 ,m      
,mal?usian ?an ,mal?us1 ,*alm]s argues t
 ! case ( capital is /rictly p>allel to 
! case ( population4#dad ,money may be  
r$undant z mu* z m51 & ! real causes ( e
 economic calamity are !                
'ov]-speculation ( capitali/s1' & !     
'ov]-population ( ! community at        
l>ge4'#dae ,9 ?is "q1 h[ev]1 ,*alm]s    
gets into difficulties1 :i* %[ s        

hopeless a confusion betwe5 'capital1'  
income1 & money1 t ,i ne$ n attempt to  
unravel 8 mean+4#daf ,anyh[1 he is l$ to
 approve ! ,fr5* doctr9e ( ! s+le tax4  
,ultimately1 he ?9ks1 all taxes fall ^u 
r5t4#dag ,agriculture fills ! great     
res]voir f :i* all ! subsidi>y *annels  
are fill$4 ,:e!r ! /ream be tapp$ at !  
s\rce or fur!r d[n makes no diff]5ce4   
,h5ce he inf]s t1 z ! l&lords necess>ily
 pay ! taxes1 !y %\ld pay !m op5ly4 ,by 
an odd co9cid5ce1 he w\ld tax r5ts l    
,mill1 ?\gh ^u opposite gr\nds4 ,he     
holds t ! int]e/ ( ! l&[n]s is n oppos$ 
to1 b id5tical )1 ! int]e/ ( all        
classes4 ,politically1 z well z         
economically1 !y %\ld be supreme4 ,!y   
are1 'naturally & prop]ly1 ! lords ( !  
asc5dant1' &1 z he oddly compla9s 9 !   
ye> ( ! ,re=m ,bill1 n 'suffici5tly     
repres5t$ 9 p>liam5t4'#dah ,a 'spl5did  
ari/ocracy' is1 he ?9ks1 a necess>y "p (
 ! social edifice2#dai ! law (          
primog5iture is necess>y to support !m2 
& ! division ( l& w cause ! decay (     

,france4 ,! ari/ocracy are want$ to keep
 up a high /&>d ( civilisation & promote
 philosophy1 sci5ce1 & art4#dbj ,!      
,briti% ari/ocracy 9 ! reign ( ,george  
,,iv4 sc>cely realis$ ?is ideal1 & w\ld 
h>dly h p]ceiv$ t to place all ! taxes  
^u _! %\ld]s w\ld be to give !m a bless+
 9 disguise4 ,accord+ to ,*alm]s1 h[ev]1
 an e/abli%$ *ur* repres5ts an ess5tial 
"p ( ! upp] classes1 & is requir$ to    
promote a high /&>d ( life among !      
poor4#dba ,9 connection ) ?is1 he writes
 a really =cible *apt] criticis+ !      
economical di/9ction ( productive &     
unproductive lab\r1 & %[s at lea/ t !   
direct creation ( mat]ial weal? is n a  
suffici5t crit]ion ( ! utility ( a      
class4  ,*alm]s's argum5ts are ( int]e/ 
ma9ly f _! be>+ ^u 8 practical          
application ( ! ,mal?usian problem4 ,8  
int]e/ 9 ! problem ( paup]ism _h be5    
/imulat$ by 8 resid5ce 9 ,glasg[1 :]e f 
#ahae to #ahbc he _h be5 actively engag$
 9 p>o*ial duties4 ,9 #ahai he _h set up
 an organis$ sy/em ( *>ity 9 a poor     

di/rict1 :i* bo? r$uc$ ! exp5diture &   
improv$ ! condition ( ! poor4 ,!        
exp]im5t1 ?\gh dropp$ "s ye>s lat]1     
became fam\s1 & 9 lat] ye>s ,*alm]s     
successfully />t$ a simil> plan 9       
,ed9burgh4 ,x 0 ?is exp]i5ce :i* gave   
%ape to 8 ,mal?usian !ories4 ,he 01 t   
is1 a ,mal?usian 9 ! s5se ( believ+ t ! 
great problem 0 ess5tially ! problem (  
rais+ ! self-respect & _s ( indep5d5ce (
 ! poor4 ,! great evil :i* confront$ him
 9 ,glasg[ 0 ! mis*ief connect$ ) ! gr[?
 ( ! factory sy/em4 ,he saw1 z he ?\ght1
 ! developm5t ( weal? lead+ to !        
degradation ( ! lab\r]4 ,! great social 
ph5om5on 0 ! t5d5cy to deg5]ation1 !    
gradual dissolution ( an organism1 &    
corruption de/roy+ ! vital =ces4 ,on !  
"o h&1 ?is spectacle l$ him1 z x l$     
o!rs1 to look back fondly to ! good old 
times ( homely food & primitive habits1 
to ! peasantry z repres5t$ 9 ,burns's   
,cott]'s ,saturday ,night or ,scott's   
,he>t ( ,midlo?ian1 :5 ! poor man 0 "p (
 a social1 political1 & ecclesia/ical   

ord]1 discipl9$1 tra9$1 & self-respect+1
 n a loose waif & /ray 9 a *aotic welt] 
( sep>ate atoms4 ,^! 7 ! facts :i*      
really sugge/$ 8 !ory ( ! 'excresc5t'   
population1 produc$ by ! ov]-speculation
 ( capitali/s4 ,! paup]s ( ,glasg[ 7    
'excresc5t1' & ! 'gluts' 7 visible 9 !  
comm]cial crises :i* _h ?r[n numb]s (   
poor weav]s out ( employm5t & degrad$ !m
 into p]man5t paup]s4 ,! facts 7 be=e 8 
eyes1 if ! g5]alisation 0 ha/y & crude4 
,he held1 on ! o!r h&1 t indiscrim9ate  
*>ity1 & /ill m ! e/abli%m5t by         
poor-laws ( a legal "r to support1 0    
/imulat+ ! evil4 ,! poor-law _h work$   
incalculable mis*iefs 9 ,engl&1#dbb & he
 /ruggl$ vigor\sly1 ?\gh unavail+ly1 to 
resi/ its introduction into ,scotl&4    
,*alm]s1 h[ev]1 did n accept ! !ory     
ascrib$ to ! ,utilit>ians1 t ! rem$y = !
 evils 0 simply to leave ?+s alone4 ,he 
gives 8 !ory 9 an article ^u !          
connection betwe5 ! ext5sion ( ! *ur* & 
! ext9ction ( paup]ism4 ,he def5ds      
,mal?us aga9/ ! 'execrations' (         

s5tim5talism4 ,mal?us1 he ?9ks1 w\ld n  
suppress b *ange ! direction (          
b5efic5ce4 ,a va/ exp5diture has only   
/imulat$ paup]ism4 ,! true c\rse is n to
 dim9i% ! rates b to make !m 'fl[ into !
 :olesome *annel ( ma9ta9+ an ext5d$    
sy/em ( moral & religi\s                
in/ruction4'#dbc ,9 o!r words1 suppress 
workh\ses b build s*ools & *ur*es2      
organise *>ity & sub/itute a sy/ematic  
individual inspection = reckless &      
indiscrim9ate almsgiv+4 ,!n y w get to !
 root ( ! mis*ief4 ,! *ur*1 support$ f !
 l&1 is to become ! great civilis+ ag5t4
 ,*alm]s1 accord+ly1 0 an ard5t advocate
 ( a *ur* e/abli%m5t4 ,he became ! lead]
 ( ! ,free ,*ur* movem5t n z object+ to 
an e/abli%m5t on pr9ciple1 b because he 
?\ght t ! actual legal fett]s ( !       
,scotti% e/abli%m5t made x impossible to
 c>ry out an effective reorganisation & 
!re=e unable to dis*>ge its true        
functions4  ,"h ,*alm]s's economical    
!ories are cross$ by v>i\s political &  
ecclesia/ical que/ions ) :i* ,i am n    

conc]n$4 ,8 peculi>ities z an economi/  
br+ out1 ,i ?9k1 an important po9t4 ,he 
%[s h[ ,mal?us's views might be         
int]pret$ by a man :o1 in/ead ( %>+1 0  
entirely oppos$ to ! ord9>y capitali/   
prejudices4 ,x w\ld be idle to ask :i* 0
 ! m logical developm5t ( ,mal?us4 ,:5  
two sy/ems are full ( d\btful           
assumptions ( fact & que/ionable logic &
 vague prim>y conceptions1 t "q becomes 
h>dly intelligible4 ,we c only note !   
v>i\s turns giv5 to ! argum5t by !      
preconceiv$ prejudices ( ! disputants4  
,by mo/ ( !m ! ,mal?usian view 0        
int]pret$ z imply+ ! capitali/ z        
di/+ui%$ f ! l&[n+ po9t ( view4  ,to    
,s\!y z to ,*alm]s ! great evil ( ! day 
0 ! gr[? ( ! disorganis$ populace "u !  
factory sy/em4 ,! diff]5ce is t :ile    
,*alm]s en?usia/ically adopt$ ,mal?us's 
!ory z indicat+ ! true rem$y = ! evil1  
,s\!y reg>ds x ) horror z decl>+ ! evil 
to be irrem$iable4 ,*alm]s1 a %rewd     
,scot actively engag$ 9 p>o*ial "w1 _h 8
 att5tion fix$ ^u ! reckless improvid5ce

 ( ! 'excresc5t' population1 & welcom$ a
 doctr9e :i* laid /ress ^u ! necessity (
 rais+ ! /&>d ( prud5ce & morality4 ,he 
recognis$ & po9t$ out ) great =ce !     
inadequacy ( su* palliatives z          
emigration1 home-colonisation1 & s      
=?4#dbd ,s\!y1 an ard5t & impulsive man 
( lett]s1 ) no practical exp]i5ce ( !   
difficulties ( social re=m1 has no      
pati5ce = su* inquiries4 ,8 rem$y1 9 all
 cases1 0 a 'pat]nal gov]nm5t' vigor\sly
 regulat+ society2 & ,mal?us appe>s to  
him to be simply an oppon5t ( all su*   
action4 ,s\!y _h begun ! attack 9 #ahjc 
by an article 9 ! ,annual ,review 7edit$
 by ,a4 ,aik97 = :i* ! lead+ h9ts 7 giv5
 by ,col]idge1 !n ) ,s\!y at            
,keswick4#dbe ,9 8 lett]s & 8 lat]      
articles he nev] m5tions ,mal?us )\t    
abhorr5ce4#dbf ,mal?us1 accord+ to 8    
article 9 ! ,annual ,review1 reg>ds     
'vice' & 'mis]y' z desirable2 ?9ks t !  
'gratification ( lu/' is a 'physical    
necessity'2 & attributes to ! 'physical 
con/itution ( our nature' :at %\ld be   

ascrib$ to ! 'exi/+ sy/em ( society4'   
,mal?us1 t is1 is a fatali/1 a          
mat]iali/1 & an an>*i/4 ,8 only rem$y is
 to aboli% ! poor-rates1 & />ve ! poor  
into celibacy4 ,! folly & wick$ness ( ! 
book h provok$ him1 he admits1 to       
contemptu\s indignation2 & ,mal?us may  
be a good man p]sonally4 ,/ill1 ! 'f>?+ 
c&le' ( ,mal?us's fame z a political    
philosoph] mu/ soon g out4 ,s 9 !       
,qu>t]ly ,review ,s\!y attributes !     
social evils to ! dis9tegrat+ effect ( !
 manufactur+ sy/em1 ( :i* ,adam ,smi? 0 
! 't$i\s & h>d-he>t$' prophet4 ,!       
excell5t ,mal?us inde$ becomes !        
'h>d-he>t$' almo/ z ,hook] 0 !          
'judici\s4' ,?is suffici5tly repres5ts !
 view ( ! s5tim5tal ,tory4 ,mal?us1     
trans=m$ into a mon/]1 des]ves !        
'execrations' notic$ by ,*alm]s4 ,!re is
 a ?or\gh co9cid5ce betwe5 ?is view & t 
( ! s5tim5tal ,radicals4 ,s\!y obs]ves t
 ,mal?us 7z int]pret$ by him7 does n    
really answ] ,godw94 ,mal?us argues t   
'p]fectibility' gives an impossible end 

because equality w\ld lead to vice &    
mis]y4 ,b :y %\ld we n suppose ) ,godw9 
a *ange ( "* :i* w\ld imply prud5ce &   
*a/ity8 ,m5 z !y are may be incapable ( 
equality because !y h brutal passions4  
,b m5 z !y are to be may cease to be    
brutal & become capable ( equality4     
,?is1 inde$1 repres5ts a s]i\s          
criticism4 ,:at ,mal?us 0 really conc]n$
 to prove 0 t ! social /ate & !         
correspond+ "* suppose ea* o!r2 & t real
 improvem5t supposes t ! individual mu/ 
someh[ acquire ! in/9cts appropriate to 
an improv$ /ate4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 him 
& 8 oppon5ts 0 t he emphasis$ ! mis*ief 
( legislation1 su* z t embodi$ 9 !      
poor-law1 :i* contemplat$ a =cible      
*ange1 de/roy+ pov]ty )\t rais+ ! poor  
man's "*4 ,su* a rise requir$ a long &  
difficult elaboration1 & he !re=e dwells
 ma9ly ^u ! folly ( ! legislative1      
unsupport$ by ! moral1 rem$y4 ,to       
,godw91 on ! o!r h&1 :o pr(ess$ an      
unlimit$ fai? 9 ! p[] ( reason1 ?is     
difficulty 0 comp>atively unimportant4  

,remove political inequalities & m5 w   
spontane\sly become virtu\s & prud5t4   
,godw9 accord+ly1 :5 answ]+ ,dr4 ,p>r & 
,mack9to%1#dbg 9 #ahja1 welcom$         
,mal?us's fir/ v]sion ( ! essay4 ,he    
decl>es x to be z 'unque/ionable an     
addition to ! !ory ( political economy' 
z has be5 made by any writ] = a c5tury  
pa/2 & 'admits ! ratios to _! full      
ext5t4'#dbh ,9 ?is philosophical _s he  
proce$s to draw "s r />tl+ conclusions4 
,he hopes t1 z mank9d improves1 su*     
practices z infanticide w n be necess>y2
 b he rem>ks t x w\ld be happi] = a *ild
 to p]i% 9 infancy ?an to sp5d sev5ty   
ye>s 9 vice & mis]y4#dbi ,he ref]s to ! 
inhabitants ( ,ceylon z a prec$5t =     
enc\rag+ o!r practices re/rictive (     
population4 ,9 %ort1 ?\gh he hopes t su*
 measures may be ne$less1 he does n %r9k
 f admitt+ _! possible necessity4 ,s f>1
 !n1 ,godw9 & ,mal?us might =m an       
alliance4 ,equality might be ! goal (   
bo?2 & bo? might admit ! necessity (    
*ange 9 "* z well z 9 ! political       

framework2 only t ,mal?us w\ld lay m    
/ress ^u ! evil ( legislative *anges    
outrunn+ or indep5d5t ( moral *ange4    
,"h1 h[ev]1 arose ! real (f5ce4 ,mal?us 
_h insi/$ ^u ! necessity ( self-help4   
,he _h ridicul$ ! pret5sions ( gov]nm5t 
to fix ! rate ( wages2 & _h %[n h[ !    
poor-laws defeat$ _! own objects4 ,?is 0
 ! really (f5sive gr\nd to ! political  
,radicals4 ,!y _h be5 9 ! habit ( trac+ 
all evils to ! selfi%ness & rapacity ( !
 rul]s2 p5sions1 s9ecures1 public debts1
 huge armies1 pr(ligate luxuries ( all  
k9ds1 7 ! fruits ( bad gov]nm5t & ! true
 causes ( pov]ty4 ,k+s & prie/s 7 !     
h>pies :o _h settl$ ^u mank9d1 & 7 ru9+ 
_! happ9ess4 ,mal?us1 !y ?\ght1 0       
ins9uat+ a base apology = rul]s :5 he   
attribut$ ! evil to ! "* ( ! subjects   
in/ead ( attribut+ x to ! wick$ness ( _!
 rul]s4 ,he 0 z bad z ! old ,tory1      
,johnson1#dcj exclaim+3--      ',h[     
small ( all t human he>ts endure     ,t 
"p :i* k+s & laws c cause or cure6'  ,he
 01 !y held1 tell+ ! tyrants t x 0 n _! 

fault if ! poor 7 mis]able4 ,! essay 0  
?us an apology = ! he>tlessness ( ! ri*4
 ,?is view 0 set =? by ,hazlitt 9 an    
attack ^u ,mal?us 9 #ahjg4dca ,x appe>s 
aga9 9 ! ,enquiry by ,g4 ,ensor         
7#agfi-ahdc7--;a vivaci\s ?\gh r        
long-w9d$ ,iri%man1 :o 0 kn[n bo? to    
,o',connell & to ,b5?am4#dcb ,godw9     
himself 0 r\s$ by ! appe>ance ( ! fif?  
edition ( ,mal?us's ,essay to write a   
reply1 :i* appe>$ 9 #ahbj4 ,he 0 help$  
by ,david ,boo? 7#agff-ahdf71dcc a man (
 "s ma!matical & /ati/ical k4 ,hazlitt's
 p]=mance is suffici5tly significant ( !
 g5]al t5d5cy4 ,hazlitt _h be5 an       
en?usia/ic admir] ( ,godw91 & reta9$ z  
mu* ( ! en?usiasm z 8 wayw>d prejudices 
w\ld all[4 ,he 0 ?r\gh life :at may be  
call$ a s5tim5tal ,radical1 s f> z      
,radicalism 0 compatible ) an ard5t     
wor%ip ( ,napoleon4 ,to him ,napoleon   
meant ! enemy ( ,pitt & ,liv]pool &     
,ca/l]eagh & ! ,holy ,alliance4 ,hazlitt
 c\ld =give any policy :i* meant !      
humiliation ( ! m5 :om he mo/ he>tily   

hat$4 ,8 attack ^u ,mal?us 0 su* z might
 satisfy ev5 ,cobbett1 ^: capacity =    
hatr$1 & especially = ?is p>ticul>      
object ( hatr$1 0 equal to ,hazlitt's4  
,! p]sonal ranc\r ( :i* ,hazlitt 0      
un=tunately capable leads to mon/r\s    
imputations4 ,n only does ,mal?us's     
essay %[ ! 'little l[ rankl+ malice ( a 
p>i% beadle 444 disguis$ 9 ! g>b (      
philosophy1' & bury 'false logic' "u 'a 
heap ( g>bl$ calculations1'#dcd & s =?2 
b he f\nds ins9uations ^u ,mal?us's     
argum5t z to ! con/ancy ( ! sexual      
passion4 ,mal?us1 he fully believes1 has
 none ( ! ord9>y passions1 ang]1 pride1 
av>ice1 or ! l1 b decl>es t he mu/ be a 
slave to an 'amor\s complexion1' &      
believe all o!r m5 to be made '( ! same 
combu/ible mat]ials4'#dce ,?is f\l bl[  
is too *>act]i/ic ( ,hazlitt's usual    
me?od2 b indicates also ! tone :i* c\ld 
be tak5 by contempor>y j\rnalism4  ,! m 
s]i\s argum5t is really t ! second      
v]sion ( ,mal?us is an answ] to 8 fir/4 
,briefly1 ! 'moral *eck' :i* came 9 only

 z a k9d ( aft]?\ght is a normal "p ( ! 
process by :i* population is kept )9    
limits1 & prev5ts ! mon/r\s results ( ! 
'geometrical ratio4' ,hazlitt1 aft]     
insi/+ ^u ?is1 admits t !re is no?+ 9 '!
 g5]al pr9ciples "h /at$ t ,mr4 ,mal?us 
is at pres5t dispos$ to d5y1 or t he has
 n himself expressly insi/$ ^u 9 "s "p  
or o!r ( 8 v>i\s works4'#dcf ,he only   
argues t ,mal?us's concessions are made 
at ! co/ ( self-contradiction4 ,:y !n1 x
 may be ask$1 %\ld n ,hazlitt take !    
position ( an improv] & h>monis] ( !    
doctr9e r ?an ( a fi]ce oppon5t8 ,!     
answ] has be5 already impli$4 ,he reg>ds
 ,mal?us z an apologi/ = an unju/       
inequality4 ,mal?us1 he says1 9         
classify+ ! evils ( life1 has 'allott$  
to ! poor all ! mis]y1 & to ! ri* z mu* 
vice z !y please4'#dcg ,! *eck (        
/>vation w keep d[n ! numb]s ( ! poor2 &
 ! *eck ( luxury & pr(ligacy w re/ra9 ! 
multiplication ( ! ri*4 ',! poor are to 
make a =mal surr5d] ( _! "r to provoke  
*>ity or p>i% assi/ance t ! ri* may be  

able to lay out all _! money on _!      
vices4'#dch ,! mis]y ( ! l[] ord]s is ! 
result ( ! p[] ( ! upp]4 ,a man born    
into a _w :]e he is n want$ has no "r1  
said ,mal?us1 to a %>e ( ! food4 ,t     
might be true if ! poor 7 a set ( lazy  
sup]num]>ies liv+ on ! indu/ri\s4 ,b !  
tru? is t ! poor man does ! "w1 & is =c$
 to put up 9 return ) a "p ( ! produce (
 8 lab\r4#dci ,! poor-laws recognise !  
pr9ciple t ^? :o get all f ! lab\r (    
o!rs %\ld provide f _! sup]fluities = ! 
necessities ( ^? 9 want4#ddj ,! 'gr9d+  
necessity' ( :i* ,mal?us _h spok5 does n
 raise b l[] ! /&>d2 & a sy/em (        
equality w\ld less5 in/ead ( increas+ ! 
pressure4 ,mal?us1 aga91 has propos$ t  
p>5ts %\ld be responsible = _! *ildr54  
,t is1 says ,hazlitt1 ,mal?us w\ld leave
 *ildr5 to />vation1 ?\gh he pr(esses to
 disapprove infanticide4 ,he w\ld       
'ext+ui% e sp>k ( humanity 444 t[>ds !  
*ildr5 ( o!rs' on pret5ce ( pres]v+ !   
'ties ( p>5tal affection4' ,mal?us tries
 to argue t ! 'iniquity ( gov]nm5t' is n

 ! cause ( pov]ty4 ,t belief1 he says1  
has g5]at$ discont5t & revolution4 ,t   
is1 says ,hazlitt1 ! way to prev5t      
revolutions & produce re=ms is to       
p]suade p t all ! evils :i* gov]nm5t may
 inflict are _! own fault4 ,gov]nm5t is 
to d z mu* mis*ief z x pleases1 )\t be+ 
answ]able = x4#dda ,! poor-laws1 z      
,hazlitt admits1 are bad1 b d n %[ !    
root ( ! evil4 ,! evils are really due  
to increas+ tyranny1 dep5d5ce1 indol5ce1
 & unhapp9ess due to o!r causes4        
,paup]ism has increas$ because !        
gov]nm5t & ! ri* h _h _! way 9 ev]y?+4  
,!y h squ&]$ our rev5ues1 multipli$     
s9ecures & p5sions1 d\bl$ sal>ies1 giv5 
monopolies & enc\rag$ jobs1 & depress$ !
 poor & indu/ri\s4 ,! 'poor create _!   
own fund1' & ! necessity = x has aris5 f
 ! exorbitant dem&s made by ! ri*4#ddb  
,mal?us is a ,blifil1#ddc hypocritically
 ins9uat+ argum5ts 9 fav\r ( tyranny "u 
pret5ce ( b5evol5ce4  ,hazlitt's writ+1 
al?\gh %[+ ! passions ( a bitt] p>tisan1
 hits "s ( ,mal?us's r cl\dy            

argum5tation4 ,8 successor1 ,ensor1     
repres5t+ ! same view1 f9ds an          
appropriate topic 9 ! wrongs ( ,irel&4  
,iri% pov]ty1 he holds1 is pla9ly due n 
to ov]-population b to "u-gov]nm5t1#ddd 
mean+1 we mu/ suppose1 misgov]nm5t4 ,b !
 same cause expla9s o!r cases4 ,! 'p are
 poor & are gr[+ poor]1'#dde & !re is no
 my/]y ab\t x4 ,! exp5se ( a c\rt1 !    
wa/e ( ! pr(its & money 9 ! ,h\se (     
,commons1 facts :i* are 9 /rik+ contra/ 
to ! republican virtues ( ! ,unit$      
,/ates1 are en\gh to acc\nt = ev]y?+2 & 
,mal?us's :ole aim is to 'calumniate !  
p4' ,godw9 9 #ahbj takes up ! same      
taunts4 ,mal?us ought1 he ?9ks1 to      
welcome w>1 fam9e1 pe/il5ce1 & !        
gall[s4#ddf ,he has taught ! poor t !y h
 no claim to relief1 & ! ri* t1 by      
indulg+ 9 vice1 !y are conf]r+ a b5efit 
^u ! c\ntry4 ,! poor-laws admit a "r1 & 
he taunts ,mal?us = propos+ to aboli% x1
 & refus+ food to a poor man on ! gr\nd 
t he _h notice n to come into ! _w two  
ye>s be=e he 0 born4#ddg  ,godw91 ^:    

e>li] a!ism _h be5 sup]s$$ by a vague   
deism1 n[ ?9ks ) ,cobbett t ! poor 7    
support$ by ! piety ( ! m$iaeval cl]gy1 
:o f$ ! hungry & clo!d ! nak$ f _! va/  
rev5ues1 :ile doom+ !mselves to sp>e    
liv+4#ddh ,he appeals to ! au?ority ( ! 
,*ri/ian religion1 :i* inde$ might be a 
fair argum5tum ad hom9em aga9/ ',p>son  
,mal?us4' ,he decl>es t ,nature takes m 
c>e ( h] "w ?an su* irrev]5t au?ors     
suppose1 & 'does n ask our aid to keep  
d[n ! excess ( population4'#ddi ,9 fact1
 he d\bts :e!r population increases at  
all4 ,mal?us's :ole !ory1 he says1 re/s 
^u ! case ( ,am]ica2 & ) ! help ( ,mr4  
,boo? & "s v unsatisfactory /ati/ics1 he
 tries to prove t ! increase %[n 9 !    
,am]ican c5sus has be5 entirely due to  
immigration4 ,mal?us safely decl9$ to   
take any notice ( a production :i* 9    
fact %[s t ,godw9 _h lo/ 8 e>ly vig\r4  
,! s\nd ,utilit>ian1 ,francis ,place1   
took up ! *all5ge1 & explod$ "s (       
,godw9's /ati/ics4 ,he %[s 8 ,radicalism
 by admitt+ t ,mal?us1 to ^: g5]al      

b5evol5ce he does ju/ice1 _h n spok5 ( !
 poor z "o sprung l himself f ! poor    
w\ld naturally d2 & he accepts modes (  
limit+ ! population f :i* ,mal?us       
himself _h %runk4 ,= improvem5t1 he     
looks *iefly to ! abolition ( re/rictive
 laws4   ,,ii4 ,,socialism  ,! argum5ts 
( ,hazlitt & 8 allies br+ u back to !   
,sociali/ position4 ,al?\gh x 0         
repres5t$ by no writ] ( mu* lit]>y      
position1 ,ow5 0 becom+ conspicu\s1 & "s
 ( 8 sympa?is]s 7 already lay+ d[n      
pr9ciples m famili> to-day4 ,already1 9 
! days ( ! ,six ,acts1 ! gov]nm5t 0     
al>m$ by c]ta9 ',sp5cean                
,philan?ropi/s4' ,accord+ to ,place !y 7
 a v feeble sect1 numb]+ only ab\t      
fifty1 & p]fectly h>mless4 ,_! prophet 0
 a poor man call$ ,?omas ,sp5ce         
7#agej-ahae71dej :o _h />t$ z a         
s*oolma/]1 & 9 #agge read a pap] at     
,newca/le be=e a ',philosophical        
,society4'#dea ,he propos$ t ! l& 9 e   
village %\ld belong to all !            
inhabitants--a proposal :i* ,mr4        

,hyndman reg>ds z a prophecy ( m        
?or\ghgo+ s*emes ( ,l& ,nationalisation4
 ,sp5ce drift$ to ,london1 pick$ up a   
prec>i\s liv+1 p>tly by sell+ books ( a 
revolution>y k9d1 & di$ 9 #ahae1 leav+1 
x seems1 a few proselytes4 ,a writ] (   
high] lit]>y capacity 0 ,*>les ,hall1 a 
physician at ,tavi/ock1 :o 9 #ahje      
publi%$ a book on ,! ,effects (         
,civilisation4#deb ,! effects (         
civilisation1 he holds1 are simply      
p]nici\s4 ,l&$ prop]ty orig9at$ 9       
viol5ce1 & has caus$ all social evils4  
,a great l&lord consumes unproductively 
z mu* z w\ld keep eight ?\s& p4#dec ,he 
gets ev]y?+ f ! lab\r ( ! poor2 :ile !y 
are =c$ to />vation wages by ! rais+ (  
r5ts4 ,trade & manufactures are equally 
mis*iev\s4 ,india gets no?+ b jewell]y f
 ,europe1 & ,europe no?+ b musl9 f      
,india1 :ile s mu* less food is produc$ 
9 ei!r c\ntry4#ded ,manufactures g5]ally
 are a cause & sign ( ! pov]ty (        
nations4#dee  ,su* sporadic prote/s     
aga9/ ! inequalities ( weal? may be tak5

 z p>ts ( t 'anci5t tale ( wrong' :i*   
has 9 all ages be5 /eam+ up f ! suff]+  
_w1 & provok+ a smile f epicurean       
deities4 ,z ,ow5ism advanc$1 ! argum5t  
took a m di/9ct =m4 ,mill#def m5tions   
,william ,?ompson ( ,cork z a 'v        
e/imable man1' :o 0 ! 'pr9cipal *ampion'
 ( ! ,ow5ites 9 _! debates ) !          
,b5?amites4 ,he publi%$ 9 #ahbd a book  
^u ! di/ribution ( weal?4#deg ,x is     
wordy1 & is apt to rema9 9 ! region (   
'vague g5]alities' j at ! po9ts :]e     
specific /atem5ts w\ld be welcome4 ,b   
besides ! m]it ( obvi\s s9c]ity & good  
feel+1 x has ! int]e/ ( %[+ v cle>ly !  
relation betwe5 ! oppos+ s*ools4        
,?ompson _h a common gr\nd ) !          
,utilit>ians1 ?\gh !y und\bt$ly w\ld    
consid] 8 logic to be loose & ov]ridd5  
by s5tim5talism4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 he    
he>tily admir$ ,b5?am3 '! mo/ pr(\nd &  
celebrat$ writ] on legislation 9 ?is or 
any o!r c\ntry4'#deh ,he accepts !      
'greate/ happ9ess pr9ciple' z applicable
 to ! social problem4 ,he argues =      

equality ^u ,b5?am's gr\nd4 ,take a p5ny
 f a poor man to give x to ! ri* man1 & 
! poor man cle>ly loses f> m happ9ess   
?an ! ri* man ga9s4 ,) ,b5?am1 too1 he  
admits ! importance ( 'security1' &     
agrees t x is n always compatible )     
equality4 ,a man %\ld h ! fruits ( 8    
lab\r2 & !re=e ! man :o lab\rs mo/ %\ld 
h mo/4 ,b1 unlike ,b5?am1 he reg>ds     
equality z m important ?an security4 ,to
 him ! ma9 consid]ation is ! mon/r\s    
mass ( evil result+ f va/ accumulations 
( weal? 9 a few h&s4 ,9 ! next place1 he
 adapts to 8 own purpose ! ,ric>dian    
!ory ( value4 ,all value :atev]1 he     
argues1 is creat$ by lab\r4 ,! lab\r]1  
he inf]s1 %\ld h ! value :i* he creates4
 ,z ?+s are1 ! lab\r] p>ts ) mo/ ( x to 
! capitali/ or ! own] ( r5ts4 ,!        
capitali/ claims a "r to ! :ole         
additional production due to ! employm5t
 ( capital4 ,! lab\r]1 on ! o!r h&1 may 
claim a "r to ! :ole additional         
production1 aft] replac+ ! we> & te> &  
all[+ to ! capitali/ en\gh to support   

him 9 equal com=t ) ! productive        
lab\r]s4#dei ,?ompson holds t :ile ei!r 
sy/em w\ld be compatible ) 'security1' !
 lab\r]'s dem& is sanction$ by          
'equality4' ,9 po9t ( fact1 nei!r sy/em 
has be5 fully c>ri$ out2 b ! lab\r]'s   
view w\ld t5d to prevail ) ! spread ( k 
& ju/ice4 ,:ile ?us anticipat+ lat]     
,socialism1 he diff]s on a significant  
po9t4 ,?ompson insi/s ^u ! importance ( 
'volunt>y ex*ange' z "o ( 8 fir/        
pr9ciples4 ,no "o is to be =c$ to take  
:at he does n himself ?9k a fair        
equival5t = 8 lab\r4 ,"h1 aga91 he w\ld 
co9cide ) ! ,utilit>ians4 ,!y1 n less   
?an he1 7 = free trade & ! abolition ( e
 k9d ( monopoly4 ,b t view may lead by  
itself to ! simple adoption ( ! d-no?+  
pr9ciple1 or1 z mod]n ,sociali/s w\ld   
say1 to ! m effectual plund] ( ! poor4  
,! mod]n ,sociali/ inf]s t ! means (    
production mu/ be 9 "s way nationalis$4 
,?ompson does n contemplate su* a       
consummation4 ,he d5\nces1 l all !      
,radicals ( ! day1 monopolies &         

conspiracy laws4 ,s9ecures & /&+ armies 
& ,/ate *ur*es are ! /rongholds (       
tyranny & sup]/ition4 ,! 'h]$it>y       
possession ( weal?' is "o ( !           
ma/]-evils1 & ) s9ecures w disappe> !   
sy/ems ( entails & unequal di/ribution (
 inh]itance4#dfj ,su* in/itutions h     
enc\rag$ ! use ( fraud & =ce1 &         
indirectly degrad$ ! lab\r] into a      
helpless position4 ,he w\ld sweep !m all
 away1 & ) !m all disqualifications     
impos$ ^u wom54#dfa ,?is once done1 x w 
be necess>y to e/abli% a univ]sal &     
?or\ghgo+ sy/em ( education4 ,!n ! poor 
man1 fre$ f ! %ackles ( sup]/ition &    
despotism1 w be able to obta9 8 rights z
 k & ju/ice spread ?r\gh ! :ole         
community4 ,! desire to accumulate =    
selfi% purposes w itself disappe>4 ,!   
lab\r] w get all t he creates2 !        
aggregate weal? w be enorm\sly          
multipli$1 ?\gh univ]sally diffus$2 & ! 
=m tak5 by ! new society w1 z he argues 
at great l5g?1 be t ( volunt>y          
co-op]ative associations ^u ,ow5's      

pr9ciples4  ,! economi/s w\ld1 ( c\rse1 
reject ! !ory t ! capitali/s %\ld h no  
pr(its2 b1 9 spite ( ?is1 !y might agree
 to a great ext5t ) ,?ompson's          
aspirations4 ,?ompson1 h[ev]1 holds !   
true ,sociali/ s5tim5t ( av]sion to     
,mal?us4 ,he d5ies en]getically :at he  
takes to be ! ,mal?usian doctr9e3 t     
increas$ com=t w always produce increas$
 numb]s4#dfb ,?is has be5 ! 'gr& sc>ecr[
 to fright5 away all attempts at social 
improvem5t4' ,?ompson accord+ly ass]ts t
 increas$ com=t always causes increas$  
prud5ce ultimately2 & looks =w>d to a   
/ation>y /ate 9 :i* ! bir?s w j balance 
! dea?s4 ,i ne$ n inquire "h :i* !ory   
puts ! c>t be=e ! horse4 ,! opposition  
possibly admits ( reconciliation2 b "h  
,i only rem>k once m h[ ,mal?us /ood = !
 appeal to h>d facts :i* always provok$ 
! ,utopians z mu* z x correspond$ to !  
/]n ,utilit>ian view4  ,ano!r writ]1    
,?omas ,hodgsk91 honor>y secret>y ( !   
,birkbeck ,in/itution1 :o publi%$ a     
tract call$ ,lab\r def5d$ aga9/ !       

,claims ( ,capital1 or !                
,unproductiv5ess ( ,capital prov$       
7#ahbe71 & aft]w>ds gave "s popul>      
lectures on political economy1 has be5  
notic$ z anticipat+ ,sociali/ ideas4 ,he
 c see1 he says1 :y some?+ %\ld g to !  
mak] ( a road & some?+ be paid by !     
p]son :o gets ! b5efit ( x4 ,b he does n
 see :y ! road itself %\ld h any?+4#dfc 
,hodgsk9 writes )\t bitt]ness1 if )\t   
mu* logic4 ,x is n = me to say :e!r     
mod]n ,sociali/s are well advis$ 9      
admitt+ t ^! crude sugge/ions 7         
anticipations ( _! own ideas4 ,! mo/    
natural inf]5ce w\ld be t vague guesses 
ab\t ! wick$ness ( ! ri* h be5 9 all    
ages curr5t among ! poor1 & n[ & !n take
 m pret5ti\s =m4 ,mo/ m5 want v         
naturally to get z mu* & to "w z little 
z !y c1 & call _! desire a fir/ pr9ciple
 ( ju/ice4  ,p]haps1 h[ev]1 x is fair]  
to notice 9 h[ _m po9ts !re 0 unconsci\s
 agreem5t2 & h[ by conv]t+ v excell5t   
maxims into absolute dogmas1 f :i* a    
:ole sy/em 0 d$ucible1 ! !ories appe>$  

to be mutually contradictory1 &1 tak5   
sep>ately1 became absurd4 ,! palpable & 
admitt$ evil 0 ! gr[? ( paup]ism &      
demoralisation ( ! lab\r]4 ,! rem$y1    
accord+ to ! ,utilit>ians1 is to raise !
 s5se ( individual responsibility1 to   
make a man dep5d5t ^u 8 own ex]tions1 & 
to give him security t he w enjoy _!    
fruit4 ,let gov]nm5t give education on  
"o h& & security on ! o!r1 & equality w 
foll[ 9 due "t4 ,! s5tim5tal ,radical   
naturally replies t leav+ a man to />ve 
does n necess>ily make him indu/ri\s2 t1
 9 po9t ( fact1 great & gr[+ inequality 
( weal? has result$2 & t ! rights ( man 
%\ld be appli$ n only to political      
privilege1 b to ! possession ( prop]ty4 
,! ,utilit>ians h left out ju/ice by    
putt+ equality 9 ! backgr\nd4 ,ju/ice1 z
 ,b5?am repli$1 has no mean+ till y h   
settl$ by exp]i5ce :at laws w produce   
happ9ess2 & y\r absolute equality w\ld  
de/roy ! v ma9spr+ ( social improvem5t4 
,mean:ile ! ,cons]vative ?9ks t bo?     
p>ties are really fo/]+ ! evils by mak+ 

individualism supreme1 & t organisation 
is necess>y to improvem5t2 :ile "o set (
 ,radicals w\ld p]petuate a m]e bl9d    
/ruggle = exi/5ce1 & ! o!r enable ! l[e/
 class to en=ce a dead level ( ignorance
 & /upidity4 ,!y !re=e call ^u gov]nm5t 
to become pat]nal & active1 & to tea* n 
only morality b religion2 & ^u !        
ari/ocracy to dis*>ge its functions     
wor?ily1 9 ord] to /amp out social evils
 & prev5t a s]vile insurrection4 ,b h[ 0
 ! actual gov]nm5t ( ,george ,,iv4 &    
,sidm\? & ,eldon to be conv]t$ to a s5se
 ( its duties8 ,on ea* side appeal is   
made to a sweep+ & absolute pr9ciple1 & 
amaz+ly complex & difficult que/ions (  
fact are tak5 = grant$4 ,! ,utilit>ians 
7 s f> "r t !y appeal$ to exp]i5ce1 z1 9
 fact1 su* que/ions h to be settl$ by ! 
sl[ co-op]ation ( _m m9ds 9 _m          
g5]ations4 ,un=tunately ! ,utilit>ians  
_h1 z we h se51 a v inadequate          
conception ( :at exp]i5ce really meant1 
& 7 fully z ra% & dogmatic z _!         
oppon5ts4 ,i mu/ n[ try to consid] :at 7

 ! intellectual conceptions impli$ by _!
 mode ( treat+ ^! problems4             
,,footnotes3  #cib ,! discussions (     
population mo/ frequ5tly m5tion$        
are3--,w4 ,godw91 ,?\ghts occasion$ by  
,dr4 ,p>r's ,spital ,s]mon1 etc41 #ahja2
 ,r4 ,s\!y1 9 7,aik9's7 ,annual ,review 
= #ahjc1 pp4 #bib-cja2 ,?omas ,j>rold1  
,diss]tations on ,man1 etc41 #ahjf2 ,w4 
,hazlitt1 ,reply to ! ,essay on         
,population1 #ahjg2 ,a4 ,+ram1          
,disquisitions on ,population1 #ahjh2   
,john ,weyl&1 ,pr9ciples ( ,population1 
etc41 #ahjf2 ,james ,grahame1 ,inquiry  
into ! ,pr9ciple ( ,population1 #ahaf2  
,george ,ensor1 ,inquiry conc]n+ !      
,population ( ,nations1 #ahah2 ,w4      
,godw91 ,on ,population1 #ahbj2 ,francis
 ,place1 ,pr9ciples ( ,population1      
#ahbb2 ,david ,boo?1 ,lett] to ! ,rev4  
,t4 ,r4 ,mal?us1 #ahbc2 ,m4 ,t4 ,sadl]1 
,law ( ,population1 #ahcj2 ,a4 ,alison1 
,pr9ciples ( ,population1 #ahdj2 ,t4    
,d\bl$ay1 ,true ,law ( ,population1     
#ahdb4  #cic ,qu>t]ly ,review1 ,dec4    

#ahab 7repr9t$ 9 ,s\!y's ,moral &       
,political ,essays1 #ahcb74  #cid       
,qu>t]ly ,review1 ,july #ahag1 by       
7,ar*bi%op7 ,sumn]1 ,mal?us's comm5tator
 9 ! ,records ( ,creation4 ,ric>do's    
,lett]s to ,tr[]1 p4 #dg4  #cie ,sp5ce's
 ,tracts on ,political ,economy 7       
collect$ ) a preface 9 #ahbb4 ,sp5ce is 
bett] kn[n z an entomologi/1 &          
collaborat$ ) ,william ,kirby4  #cif    
,tracts 7#ahbb71 p4 xiii4  #cig ,ibid4  
p4 #ei4  #cih ,*alm]s's ,works 7 publi%$
 9 tw5ty-five volumes 9 #ahda-db4  #cii 
,*alm]s's ,works1 i4 #bcg4  #djj ,?is   
essay is n 9 8 collect$ ,works1 ?\gh 9  
vol4 xxi4 x is promis$ = ! next volume4 
#dja ,works1 xix4 & xx4  #djb ,mill's   
,political ,economy1 bk4 i4 *4 v4 ,sec4 
#g & #h4 ,see ,*alm]s1 xix4 #adj4  #djc 
,national ,res\rces 7,app5dix74  #djd   
,works1 xix4 #cjf4  #dje ,ibid4 xix4    
#bbf1 #bcc4  #djf ,national ,res\rces1  
p4 #dh4  #djg ,works1 xix4 #fd4  #djh   
,works1 xix4 #bbf4  #dji ,ibid4 xix4    
#bce4  #daj ,national ,res\rces1 p4     

#aeh4  #daa ,ibid4 p4 #afj4  #dab       
,works1 xix4 #bfb4  #dac ,works1 xix4   
#ge4  #dad ,ibid4 xix4 #aah-dg4  #dae   
,ibid4 xix4 #cdc4  #daf ,see ,ibid4 xix4
 #aga4 ,j4 ,s4 ,mill speaks ( ,*alm]s's 
speculations ) a respect :i* x is       
difficult to und]/&4  #dag ,*alm]s holds
 t ! ,ric>dian doctr9e ( r5t inv]ts !   
true ord]4 ,f]tile l&s d n pay r5t      
because poor l&s are br\ght into        
cultivation1 b poor l&s are cultivat$   
because f]tile l&s pay r5t4 ,he app>5tly
 wi%es1 l ,mal?us1 to reg>d r5t z a     
bless+1 n a curse4 ,! po9t is n wor?    
argu+4 ,see ,works1 xix4 #cbj4  #dah    
,works1 xix4 #cjd-e4  #dai ,ibid4 xix4  
#cgj4  #dbj ,ibid4 xix4 #cff4  #dba     
,ibid4 xix4 #cbb4  #dbb ,works1 xx4     
#bdg1 #bif4  #dbc ,ibid4 xx4 #bij4  #dbd
 ,works1 xix4 #chj4  #dbe ,! copy (     
,mal?us's second edition ) ,col]idge's  
notes us$ by ,s\!y is 9 ! ,briti%       
,museum4  #dbf ,see ,s\!y's ,political4 
#dbg ,?\ghts occasion$ by ,dr4 ,p>r's   
,spital ,s]mon4 ,a copy annotat$ by     

,col]idge is 9 ! ,briti% ,museum4  #dbh 
,?\ghts1 etc41 pp4 #ef1 #fa1 #fb4  #dbi 
,ibid4 p4 #ga4  #dcj ,l9es add$ to      
,goldsmi?'s ,travell]4  #dca ,reply to !
 ,essay on ,population1 etc41 #ahjg4 ,! 
book 0 anonym\s4 ,! fir/ ?ree lett]s _h 
appe>$ 9 ,cobbett's ,regi/]4 ,two o!rs )
 an app5dix are add$4  #dcb ,b5?am's    
,works1 x4 #fjc1 #fjd2 & ,diction>y (   
,national ,biography4  #dcc ,see        
,diction>y ( ,national ,biography4  #dcd
 ,hazlitt's ,reply1 p4 #ai4  #dce ,ibid4
 pp4 #aci-da4  #dcf ,ibid4 p4 #aag4     
#dcg ,reply1 p4 #bfc4  #dch ,ibid4 p4   
#cdd4  #dci ,ibid4 p4 #bhd4  #ddj ,ibid4
 p4 #bhg4  #dda ,reply1 p4 #cea4  #ddb  
,ibid4 pp4 #cfb-fd4  #ddc ,ibid4 p4     
#ceb4  #ddd ,ensor's ,enquiry1 p4 #bid4 
#dde ,ibid4 p4 #dda4  #ddf ,godw9 on    
,population1 p4 #ejf4  #ddg ,ibid4 p4   
#eec4  #ddh ,ibid4 p4 #eeh4  #ddi       
,godw91 p4 #bai4  #dej ,see acc\nt ( him
 repr9t$ f ,mack5zie's ,hi/ory (        
,newca/le & ,diction>y ( ,national      
,biography4  #dea ,repr9t$ by ,mr4      

,hyndman 9 #ahbb1 ) a preface4  #deb    
,see ,diction>y ( ,national ,biography4 
,hall's book 0 repr9t$ by ,j4 ,m4       
,morgan 9 ! ',pho5ix ,libr>y1' #ahej4   
,see ,anton ,m5g]'s ,das ,re*t auf d5   
voll5 ,arbeits]trag 7second edition1    
#ahia71 = notices ( ,hall1 ,?ompson1 &  
o!rs4  #dec ,effects ( ,civilisation    
7#ahej71 p4 #hf4  #ded ,ibid4 p4 #ga4   
#dee ,ibid4 p4 #aae4  #def              
,autobiography1 p4 #abe4 ,see           
,holyoake's ,hi/ory ( ,co-op]ation1 i4  
#af1 #aji1 #bgh-hc1 #cdh1 = "s int]e/+  
notices ( ,?ompson4 ,m5g] 7,re*t auf d5 
voll5 ,arbeits]trag1 p4 #ajj n47 holds t
 ,?ompson n only anticipat$ b inspir$   
,m>x3 ,rodb]tus1 he says1 drew *iefly ^u
 ,/4 ,simon & ,pr\dhon4  #deg ,an       
,inquiry into ! ,pr9ciples ( !          
,di/ribution ( ,weal? mo/ conducive to  
,human ,happ9ess2 appli$ to ! ,newly    
,propos$ ,sy/em ( ,volunt>y ,equality ( 
,weal?4--#ahbd4  #deh ,di/ribution (    
,weal?1 p4 #cbg4  #dei ,di/ribution (   
,weal?1 p4 #afg1 etc4  #dfj ,ibid4 p4   

#caj4  #dfa ,he wrote1 z ,j4 ,s4 ,mill  
obs]ves1 an ,appeal #ahbe aga9/ ,james  
,mill's views on ?is matt]--a fact :i*  
no d\bt comm5d$ him to ! son4  #dfb     
,di/ribution ( ,weal?1 pp4 #dbe1 #ece1  
etc4  #dfc ,lab\r ,def5d$1 p4 #af4      
,,*apt] ,,vii  ,,psy*ology   ,i4 ,,?omas
 ,,br[n  ,! politicians & economi/s1 (  
:om ,i h spok51 took fir/ pr9ciples =   
grant$4 ,! intellectual temp]am5t1 :i*  
made c]ta9 me?ods cong5ial to !m1 w\ld  
no d\bt h l$ !m to an analog\s position 
9 philosophy4 ,b5?am _h t\*$ ^u         
philosophical po9ts 9 a summ>y way1 &   
,james ,mill1 z we %all see1 gave a m   
explicit /atem5t4 ,b su* m5 z ,ric>do & 
,mal?us _h no sy/ematic philosophy1 ?\gh
 a c]ta9 philosophy 0 cong5ial to _!    
me?ods4 ,desire to rea* a solid         
gr\ndwork ( fact1 he>ty av]sion to m]e  
^w-juggl+1 & to effem9ate s5tim5talism1 
respect = sci5ce & indiff]5ce to1 if n  
contempt =1 poetry1 resolution to       
approve no laws or in/itutions :i* c\ld 
n be support$ on pla9 gr\nds ( utility1 

& to accept no !ory :i* c\ld n be firmly
 bas$ on v]ifiable exp]i5ce1 imply moral
 & intellectual t5d5cies1 9 :i* we may  
p]haps say t ! ,utilit>ians repres5t "s 
( ! /ronge/ & mo/ valuable qualities ( !
 national "*4 ,tak+ ^! qualities =      
grant$1 let u consid] h[ ! ultimate     
problems pres5t$ !mselves to ! s*ool ?us
 di/+ui%$4  ,i h already obs]v$ t !     
,scotti% philosophy1 taught by ,reid &  
,dugald ,/ew>t1 repres5t$ ! only approa*
 to a liv+ philosophical sy/em 9 ^!     
isl&s at ! beg9n+ ( ! c5tury4 ,x held   
?is position = a long p]iod4 ,mill1 :o  
_h he>d ,dugald ,/ew>t's lectures1 knew 
no?+ ( ,g]man ?\ght4 ,he 0 well read 9  
,fr5* philosoph]s1 & 9 h>mony ) "o lead+
 sect4 ,! s-call$ ideologues1#dfd :o    
reg>d$ ,condillac z repres5t+ ! true l9e
 ( intellectual progress1 7 9 ,france ! 
analogues ( ! ,engli% ,utilit>ians4     
,de/utt de ,tracy & ,cabanis 7 _! mo/   
conspicu\s lead]s 9 ?is g5]ation4 ,!    
philosophy ( ,reid & ,/ew>t cross$ !    
*annel1 & suppli$ ! fir/ assailants ( ! 

ideologues ) _! controv]sial weapons4   
,?us1 until ! ,g]man influ5ce came to   
modify ! :ole controv]sy1 ! vital issue 
seem$ to lie betwe5 ! doctr9e ( ,reid or
 'intuitionism' on ! "o h&1 & ! purely  
'exp]i5tial' s*ool on ! o!r1 :e!r1 z 9  
,france1 x foll[$ ,condillac1 or1 z 9   
,engl&1 look$ back *iefly to ,h>tley4   
,bo? sections trac$ _! intellectual     
ance/ry to ,locke & ,hobbes1 ) "s       
ref]5ce to ,bacon1 &1 by ! ,fr5* writ]s1
 to ,desc>tes4 ,/ew>t1 aga91 z ,i h     
said1 0 ! accept$ ,:ig philosoph]4 ,x is
 true t ! ,:ig sat habitually 9 ! seat (
 ,gallio4 ,jeffrey1 :e!r he fully       
realis$ ! fact or n1 0 at bottom a      
sceptic 9 philosophy z 9 politics4 ,john
 ,all51 ! prophet ( ,holl& ,h\se1 0 a   
?or\gh sceptic1 & says#dfe t ,horn]1 "o 
( ,/ew>t's p]sonal admir]s1 0 really a  
foll[] ( ,hume4 ,! ,:igs 7 incl9$ to    
,%aftesbury's doctr9e t s5sible m5 _h   
all "o religion1 & t s5sible m5 nev]    
said :at x 04 ,^? :o _h a m def9ite &   
av[able cre$ 7 cont5t to foll[ ,/ew>t's 

amiable philosophis+4 ,br\gham pr(ess$1 
let u hope1 s9c]ely1 to be an or?odox   
!i/1 & expla9$ ! argum5t f design 9 a   
comm5t>y ^u ,paley4 ,sydney ,smi?       
exp\nd$ ,reid & ,/ew>t 9 lectures :i*   
%[$ at lea/ t he 0 /ill a wit :5 talk+  
'philosophy' at ! ,royal ,in/itution2 &1
 ?\gh he hat$ 'en?usiasm' 9 diss5t]s1   
evangelicals1 & tract>ians1 & kept      
religion /rictly 9 its place--a place   
well outside ( practical                
politics--manag$ to prea* a :olesome1   
commonplace morality 9 t]ms ( ,*ri/ian  
!ology4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ! ,:ig & !   
,radical temp] %[$ itself 9             
philosophical z 9 political que/ions4 ,!
 ,radical prid$ himself on be+ logical &
 ?or\ghgo+1 :ile ! ,:ig lov$ compromise1
 & ?\ght t logic 0 v apt to be a        
nuisance4 ,! sy/ematic retic5ce :i* !   
,utilit>ians held to be necess>y prev5t$
 ?is contra/ f %[+ itself di/9ctly on ! 
surface4 ,! ,utilit>ians1 h[ev]1 ?\gh !y
 avoid$ su* outspok5 scepticism z w\ld  
/>tle ! public1 indicat$ q suffici5tly  

to ! initiat$ _! ess5tial position4 ,x  
impli$ :at !y fully recognis$ 9 private 
conv]sation--a complete ab&onm5t (      
!ology4 ,!y left ! obvi\s inf]5ces to be
 drawn by o!rs4 ,9 philosophy !y c\ld   
speak out 9 a well-f\nd$ confid5ce t few
 p 7 able to draw inf]5ces4 ,i w beg9 by
 consid]+ ! doctr9e aga9/ :i* !y        
prote/$2 = ! antagonism reveals1 ,i ?9k1
 ! key to _! position4  ,:5 ,/ew>t 0    
oblig$ by infirmity to retire f ! active
 dis*>ge ( 8 duties1 he 0 succe$$ by    
,?omas ,br[n 7#aggh-ahbj74 ,br[n _h %[n 
e>ly precocity1 & at ! age ( fifte5 _h  
attract$ ,/ew>t's notice by "s rem>ks on
 a psy*ological po9t4 ,he publi%$ at    
tw5ty a criticism ( ,d>w9's ,zoonomia1 &
 he became "o ( ! ,ed9burgh ,review     
circle4 ,:5 ! ,review 0 />t$ he         
contribut$ an article ^u ,kant4 ,9 ^?   
happy days x 0 s f> f necess>y to prep>e
 oneself = su* a task by /udy+ a libr>y 
( comm5tators t ! "y review] c\ld       
frankly admit 8 :ole k to be d]iv$ f    
,vill]s' ,philosophie de ,kant          

7#ahja74dff ,soon aft]w>ds he took an   
important %>e 9 a once fam\s controv]sy4
 ,john ,leslie1 j elect$ to ! ma!matical
 *air at ,ed9burgh1 0 accus$ ( hav+     
writt5 fav\rably ( ,hume's !ory (       
causation4 ,:igs & ,tories took ?is up z
 a p>ty "q1#dfg & ,br[n und]took to     
expla9 9 a pamphlet :at ,hume's !ory 01 
& to %[ t x did n lead to a!ism4        
,leslie's fri5ds triumph$1 ?\gh x does n
 appe> h[ f> ,br[n's argum5ts contribut$
 to _! success4 ,! pamphlet 0 rewritt5 &
 enl>g$1 & a ?ird edition ( #ahah gives 
a full exposition ( 8 !ory4 ,br[n _h    
mean:ile become ,/ew>t's lead+ disciple1
 & 9 #ahaj 0 elect$ to be 8 colleague4  
,br[n held ! position1 do+ all ! active 
duties1 until 8 premature dea? 9 #ahbj4 
,br[n1 accord+ to 8 biograph]1 wrote 8  
lectures imm$iately be=e deliv]y1 &     
complet$ !m dur+ 8 fir/ two ye>s (      
(fice4 ,8 !ories1 z well z 8 words1 7   
(t51 accord+ to ! same au?ority1        
extemporis$4 ,br[n f\nd t he c\ld n     
improve :at he _h writt5 "u 'v p[]ful   

excitem5t4' ,moreov]1 he _h an unlucky  
belief t he 0 a poet4 ,f #ahad till     
#ahai he br\ght out ye>ly :at he suppos$
 to be a poem4 ,^! productions1 !       
,p>adise ( ,coquets & ! re/1 are 9 !    
old-fa%ion$ ta/e1 & h long pass$ into   
oblivion4  ,! lectures1 publi%$         
po/hum\sly1 became a text-book = /ud5ts1
 & rea*$ a n9ete5? edition 9 #ahea4 ,_! 
faults1 consid]$ z philosophical        
treatises1 are palpable4 ,!y h !        
word9ess ( ha/y composition1 & !        
discursive rhetoric int5d$ to cat* !    
att5tion ( an indol5t audi5ce4 ,br[n    
does n see t he is insult+ 8 he>]s :5 he
 apologises = introduc+ logic into      
lectures ^u metaphysics1 & indemnifies  
!m by quotations f ,ak5side & ! ,essay  
on ,man4 ,br[n1 h[ev]1 %[$ great        
acut5ess & orig9ality4 ,he made         
deviations1 & took pa9s to m>k 8        
deviations1 f ,reid1 ?\gh he spoke m    
gu>d$ly ( 8 own fri5d1 ,/ew>t4 ,/ew>t1  
:o _h /rongly support$ ,br[n's election1
 0 %ock$ :51 on ! publication ( !       

lectures1 he came to discov] t 8        
colleague _h be5 prea*+ h]esy1 & wrote )
 obvi\s annoyance ( ,br[n's ha/9ess &   
dang]\s concessions to ! enemy4#dfh     
,br[n1 h[ev]1 impress$ 8 contempor>ies  
by 8 ability4 ,sydney ,smi? is probably 
report+ ! curr5t judgm5t ( 8 own circle 
:5 he says#dfi t 9 metaphysics ,/ew>t 0 
a 'humbug' comp>$ ) ,br[n4 ,i c]ta9ly   
?9k t ,/ew>t1 :om ,i %\ld be sorry to   
call a humbug1 %[s less vig\r &         
subtlety4 ,br[n1 at any rate1 impress$  
bo? ! ,mills1 & 8 relation to !m is     
significant4  ,br[n's essay ^u          
,causation indicates ?is relation4 ,9   
?is1 inde$1 !re is little1 if any1      
div]g5ce f ,/ew>t1 ?\gh he attacks ,reid
 ) consid]able asp]ity4 ,he urges t     
,reid1 :ile really agree+ ) ,hume1      
affect$ to answ] him "u cov] ( m]ely    
v]bal di/9ctions4#dgj ,! ma9 po9t is    
simple4 ,hume _h ass]t$ t all ev5ts seem
 to be 'entirely loose & sep>ate1' or1 9
 o!r words1 'conjo9$ b nev] connect$4'  
,yet he po9ts out t1 9 fact1 :5 we h    

f\nd two ev5ts to be 'conjo9$1' we call 
"o cause & ! o!r effect1 & assume a     
'necess>y connection' betwe5 !m4 ,he !n 
asks1 ,:at is ! orig9 ( ?is belief1 &   
:at1 !re=e1 is ! logical w>rant = its   
validity8 ,br[n entirely accepts ,hume's
 /atem5t ( ! facts4 ,! real mean+ ( our 
/atem5ts is evad$ by appeal+ to !       
conception ( 'p[]4' ,:5 ! load/one 79 8 
fav\rite illu/ration7 attracts ! iron1  
we say x has a 'p[]' ( attract+ iron4 ,b
 to speak ?us ( a p[] is simply to      
describe ! same facts 9 o!r words4 ,we  
ass]t ?is1 & no?+ m ?an ?is1 t :5 !     
load/one comes ne> ! iron1 ea* moves    
t[>ds ! o!r4 ',p[]' is a ^w :i* only    
cov]s a /atem5t ( 'inv>iable antec$5ce4'
 ,br[n traces ! v>i\s confusions :i* h  
obscur$ ! true nature ( ?is belief4 ,he 
insi/s especially t we c no m discov]   
p[] 9 m5tal ?an 9 physical sequ5ces4 ,! 
w _h be5 suppos$ to be ! type ( causal  
p[]2 b volition1 accord+ to ,br[n1      
reveals simply ano!r succession (       
desires & bodily actions4 ,! hypo!sis ( 

'p[]' has be5 really ! s\rce (          
'illusion4' ,! t5d5cy to p]sonify leads 
u to conv]t metaphor into fact1 to inv5t
 a subject ( ?is imag9>y 'p[]1' & ?us to
 create a my?ology ( be+s to c>ry on !  
processes ( nature4 ,9 o!r words1 ,br[n 
"h foll[s ,hume or ev5 anticipates      
,comte4 ,z ,j4 ,s4 ,mill rem>ks1#dga ?is
 errone\s id5tification ( 'p[]' ) 'w'   
gives ! 'psy*ological rationale (       
,comte's great hi/orical g5]alisation'2 
&1 s f>1 ,br[n1 z a foll[] ( ,hume1 is  
cle>ly on ! way to positivism4  ,! _w1  
!n1 is a va/ aggregate ( 'loose'        
ph5om5a4 ,a contemplation ( ?+s reveals 
no reason = "o ord] r ?an ano!r4 ,y may 
look at y\r load/one z long z y please1 
b y w f9d no reason = its attract+ iron4
 ,y may inde$ int]polate a numb] ( m9ute
 int]v5+ sequ5ces1 & ! process (t5      
sugge/s a vague some?+ m ?an sequ5ce2 b 
?is is a m]e illusion4#dgb ,c\ld we1 9  
fact1 see all ! m9ute *anges 9 bodies we
 %\ld actually p]ceive t cause means    
no?+ b '! imm$iate inv>iable antec$5ce (

 an ev5t4'#dgc ,br[n especially argues  
aga9/ ! attempts ( d',alemb]t & ,eul] to
 d$uce ! fir/ laws ( motion f ! pr9ciple
 ( 'suffici5t reason4'#dgd ,t1 z he     
argues 9 detail1 is m]ely begg+ ! "q1 by
 introduc+ ! pr9ciple ( causation "u an 
alias4  ,:at1 !n1 is ! pr9ciple8 ,we    
believe1 he says1#dge t 'e ev5t mu/ h a 
cause1' & t circum/ances exactly 'simil>
 mu/ h results exactly simil>4' ,?is    
belief1 ?\gh applicable to all ev5ts1   
does n give u ! 'slighte/ aid' to       
det]m9+1 indep5d5tly ( exp]i5ce1 any    
p>ticul> ev5t4 ,we obs]ve t ,b foll[s   
,a1 b1 = all we c say1 x might z well   
foll[ any o!r lett] ( ! alphabet4 ,yet  
we are entitl$ to say 9 g5]al t x does  
uni=mly foll[ "s p>ticul> lett]4 ,!     
metaphor :i* describes cause & effect z 
a 'bond' ty+ ,a & ,b toge!r is p]fectly 
appropriate if tak5 to express ! b>e    
fact ( sequ5ce2#dgf b we fall into error
 if we fancy !re is really any bond     
:atev] beside ! ev5ts !mselves4  ,!     
belief1 !n1 9 causation has precisely ! 

same import accord+ to ,hume & ,br[n2 & 
bo? agree t x is n produc$ by 'reason+4'
 ,! proposition ',b has once succe$$    
,a1' or 'has succe$$ ,a a ?\s& times1'  
is entirely diff]5t f ! proposition ',b 
w = ev] succe$ ,a4'#dgg ,no process (   
logical inf]5ce c extract "o f ! o!r4   
,%all we1 !n1 give up a belief 9        
causation8 ,! belief 9 any case exi/s z 
a fact4 ,hume expla9s x by cu/om or     
association4 ,br[n argues1 & ,i ?9k )   
mu* =ce1 t ,hume's explanation is       
insuffici5t4 ,association may expla9 7if
 x does m ?an re/ate7 ! fact t "o 'idea'
 calls up ano!r idea1 b su* association 
may & (t5 does occur )\t sugge/+ any    
belief4 ,! belief1 too1 prec$es !       
association4 ,we beg9 by believ+ too    
mu*1 n too little1 & assume a necess>y  
connection ( _m ph5om5a :i* we aft]w>ds 
f9d to be indep5d5t4 ,! true answ] is   
!re=e diff]5t4 ,!re are ?ree s\rces (   
belief1 'p]ception1' 'reason+1' &       
'intuition4'#dgh ,n[1 we _c 'p]ceive'   
any?+ b a pres5t co9cid5ce2 nei!r c we  

e/abli% a connection by any process (   
'reason+1' & !re=e ! belief mu/ be an   
'intuition4' ,?is1 accord+ly1 is ,br[n's
 conclusion4 ',!re are pr9ciples1' he   
says1 'indep5d5t ( reason+1 9 ! m9d :i* 
save x f ! occasional follies ( all our 
ratioc9ations'2#dgi or r1 z he expla9s1 
:i* und]lie all reason+4 ,! diff]5ce1   
!n1 betwe5 ,hume & ,br[n 7&1 z ,br[n    
argues1 betwe5 ,hume & ,reid's real     
doctr9e7 is n z to ! import1 b z to !   
orig91 ( ! belief4 ,x is an 'intuition' 
simply because x _c be fur!r analys$4 ,x
 does n all[ u to pass a s+le /ep beyond
 exp]i5ce2 x m]ely au?orises u to       
int]pret exp]i5ce4 ,we c discov] any    
actual law ( connection betwe5 ph5om5a  
only by obs]v+ t !y occur 9 succession4 
,we _c get beyond or beh9d ! facts--&   
!re=e intuitionism 9 ?is s5se is n      
oppos$ to empiricism1 b a w>rant =      
empirical conclusions4 ,an 'intuition1' 
briefly1 is an unanalysable belief4     
,br[n ass]ts t a c]ta9 elem5t ( ?\ght   
has n be5 expla9$1 & assumes x to be    

!re=e inexplicable or ultimate4 ,br[n's 
acc\nt ( causation _h a great influ5ce  
^u bo? ! ,mills1 & especially affect$ ! 
tea*+ ( ! y\ng] ,mill4  ,ano!r po9t is  
important4 ,reid1 z ,i h said1 _h       
specially prid$ himself ^u 8 suppos$    
ov]?r[ ( ,b]keley's idealism4 ,he 0     
consid]$ to h %[n1 9 spite ( sceptics1 t
 ! common belief 9 an ext]nal _w 0      
reasonable4 ,br[n 9 8 lectures ridicul$ 
,reid's claim4 ,?is 'mighty a*ievem5t1' 
! 'suppos$ ov]?r[ ( a great sy/em1' 0   
'no?+ m ?an ! pro( t c]ta9 phrases are  
metaphorical1 :i* 7 int5d$ by _! au?ors 
to be und]/ood only z metaphors4'#dhj ,!
 !ory 0 dead be=e ,reid slew x1 ?\gh !  
phrases 7 /ill us$ z a m]e 'relic1' or  
survival ( an obsolete doctr9e4#dha ,!  
impossibility ( con/ruct+ ext5sion out (
 our s5sations is ! exp]im5tum crucis ^u
 :i* ,reid 0 ready to /ake 8 case4 ,if !
 attempt at su* a con/ruction c\ld      
succe$1 he w\ld 'lay 8 h& ^u 8 m\?' &   
give up ! argum5t4#dhb ,br[n takes up ! 
*all5ge ?us ?r[n out4 ,he holds t our k 

( an ext]nal _w is d]iv$ f a s\rce :i*  
,reid ov]look$4 ,he modifies ! ,scotti% 
psy*ology by introduc+ ! muscul> s5ses4 
,8 !ory is t ! infant :i* has le>n$ to  
move discov]s t on "s occasions its     
movem5ts are modifi$ by a s5se ( 'imp$$ 
ef=t4'#dhc ,! sudd5 int]ruption to a    
well-kn[n s]ies excites 9 its m9d !     
notion ( 'a cause :i* is n 9 itself4'   
,?is is ! s\rce ( our belief 9 an       
ext]nal _w4 ,t belief is ess5tially !   
belief 9 "s cause :i* we "k to be o!r   
?an our own m5tal con/itution or ! s]ies
 ( 'int]nal' ph5om5a1 & ( :i* we c "k   
no?+ else4 ,x is en\gh to indicate a    
!ory :i* has be5 elaborat$ by lat]      
psy*ologi/s1 & plays a great "p 7=      
example7 9 ! !ories ( ,mill1 ,ba91 &    
,mr4 ,h]b]t ,sp5c]4 ,x %[s ! real t5d5cy
 ( ,br[n's speculations4 ,9 ! fir/      
place1 x mu/ be notic$ t ! !ory itself  
_h be5 already emphatically /at$ by     
,de/utt de ,tracy4 ,hamilton accuses    
,br[n ( plagi>ism4#dhd ,:e!r 8          
accusation be ju/ifiable or n1 x is     

c]ta9ly true t ,br[n _h 9 "s way rea*$ !
 same pr9ciples :i* _h be5 already set  
=? by a lead+ 'ideologi/4' ,br[n1 t is1 
?\gh ! (ficial expon5t ( ! ,scotti%     
philosophy1 0 9 ?is philosophical t5et  
at "o ) ! s*ool :i* !y reg>d$ z         
mat]iali/ic or sceptical4 ,! pa? by :i* 
he rea*es 8 conclusions is also         
*>act]i/ic4  ,br[n has rev]s$ !         
int]pretation ( ,reid's exp]im5tum      
crucis4 ,i w give up my case1 says      
,reid1 if y c make ! ext]nal _w out (   
s5sations4 ,t1 replies ,br[n1 is        
precisely :at we c d4 ,h[ f s5sations d 
we get :at ,b]keley call$ 'outness'8 ,we
 get x1 says ,br[n1 f ! s5se ( resi/ance
 or 'imp$$ ef=t4' ,t reveals to u ! fact
 t !re is some?+ indep5d5t ( ourselves1 
& ! belief 9 su* a some?+ is precisely  
:at we mean1 & all t we mean1 by !      
belief 9 an ext]nal _w4 ,consi/5tly )   
?is1 ,br[n rejects ,reid's di/9ction    
betwe5 ! prim>y & second>y qualities4 ,!
 di/9ction corresponds no d\bt to "s    
real diff]5ces1 b !re is no diff]5ce ( !

 k9d sugge/$ by ,reid4 ',all ! qualities
 are relative & equally relative--our   
p]ception ( ext5sion & resi/ance z mu* z
 our p]ception ( fragrance &            
bitt]ness4'#dhe ,we ascribe ! s5sations 
to 'ext]nal objects1' b ! objects are   
only kn[n by ! 'm$ium' ( our s5sations4 
,9 o!r words1 ! :ole _w may be reg>d$ z 
a set ( s5sations1 :e!r ( sight1 smell1 
t\*1 or resi/ance to muscul> movem5t1   
accompani$ by ! belief t !y are caus$ by
 some?+ n ourselves1 & ( :i* some?+ we c
 only say t x is n ourselves4  ,once m1 
! analysis ( ! process by :i* ! belief  
is g5]at$ is significant4 ,f resi/ance1 
or ! s5sation produc$ :5 some?+ 'resi/s 
our attempts to grasp x1' we get !      
'outness4' ,!n p]ception is 'no?+ m ?an 
! association ( ?is complex notion ) our
 o!r s5sations--! notion ( some?+ ext5d$
 & resi/+1 sugge/$ by ^! s5sations1 :5 !
 sugge/ions !mselves h previ\sly aris51 
& sugge/$ 9 ! same mann] & on ! same    
pr9ciple z any o!r associate feel+      
sugge/s any o!r associate feel+4'#dhf ,!

 od\r or col\r ( a rose recalls !       
s5sation ( t\*+ & ( resi/ance to our    
grasp4 ,?us we reg>d ! :ole gr\p (      
s5sations z due to ! ext]nal cause :i*  
produces ! s5sation ( resi/ance4 ,br[n  
seems to hesitate a little z to :e!r he 
%all appeal to an 'intuition' or to     
'association1' b 'z ,i r ?9k1' he says1 
! belief is f\nd$ 'on associations z    
p[]ful z intuition4'#dhg  ,:atev]1 !n1  
may be ! orig9 ( ! belief--'intuition'  
or 'association'--x is cle> t x c give u
 no k except su* z is d]iv$ f s5sations4
 ,moreov]1 ,br[n is ?us l$1 z 9 !       
doctr9e ( causation1 to accept a really 
sceptical position4 ,he decl>es t he is 
9 ?is respect at "o ) bo? ,reid & ,hume4
 ,!y bo? accept two propositions3 fir/1 
t we _c 'by m]e reason+' prove ! exi/5ce
 ( an ext]nal _w2 secondly1 t x is      
'absolutely impossible = u n to believe'
 9 its exi/5ce4 ,hume1 he says1         
pron\nces ! fir/ proposition 9 a 'l\d   
tone ( voice' & ':isp]s' ! second4      
,reid1 conv]sely1 passes ov] ! fir/     

rapidly & 'dwells on ! second ) a tone (
 confid5ce4'#dhh ,br[n accepts bo?      
/atem5ts4 ,he has already said t !re is 
no argum5t aga9/ ,b]keley's d5ial (     
matt] any m ?an aga9/ ! 'inf9ite        
divisibility ( matt]4' ,b he adds1 x is 
'physically impossible' = u to admit !  
conclusion1 at lea/ )\t 'an in/ant      
diss5t f a mom5t>y logical              
admission4'#dhi ,?is1 inde$1 is b a     
v]sion ( ,hume's famili> /atem5t t      
,b]keley's argum5ts admit ( no reply &  
produce no conviction4  ,ano!r ess5tial 
doctr9e ( ! ,mills1 ! 'association'     
!ory1 is treat$ diff]5tly by ,br[n4     
,br[n1 z we h se51 bo? 9 8 !ory (       
causation & 9 8 !ory ( our belief 9 an  
ext]nal _w1 speaks ( pr9ciples 9 ! m9d  
:i* someh[ ov]ride 'ratioc9ation4' ,9 ! 
fir/ case1 he speaks ( 'intuition1' b 9 
! o!r1 z ,i h said1 he seems to pref]   
association4 ,! diff]5ce is rem>kable   
because ! belief 9 an ext]nal _w is ^u 8
 %[+ simply a case ( causation4 ,x means
 ess5tially ! ref]5ce ( our s5sations z 

to an ext]nal cause4 ,n[1 9 ! argum5t ^u
 causation1 he has insi/$ ^u !          
insuffici5cy ( association to g5]ate !  
belief2 & he w\ld h f\nd x difficult to 
meet 8 own argum5ts if appli$ to !      
belief 9 an ext]nal _w4 ,yet x does n   
seem to occur to him t !re is any       
difficulty 9 expla9+ ?is belief 9 an    
ext]nal _w z a case ( :at ,mill call$   
'indissoluble association4' ,br[n1 z    
,mill ?\ght1 0 n suffici5tly aw>e ( !   
p[] ( ?is pr9ciple1 & ! diff]5ce betwe5 
!m is m>k$ by ?is div]g5ce4 ,br[n _h a  
great deal to say ab\t association1 ?\gh
 he *ose g5]ally to sub/itute ! ^w      
'sugge/ion1' previ\sly famili> to ,reid 
& ,b]keley4#dij ,he consid]s x1 h[ev]1  
ma9ly 9 ano!r relation4 ,he proposes to 
trace ! ord] 9 :i* 'tra9s' ( ideas      
succe$ ea* o!r 9 our m9ds4 ,he does n   
dwell ^u ! influ5ce ( association 9     
produc+ belief4 ,8 "q is n prim>ily z to
 ! logic1 b z to ! actual succession (  
our ?\ghts4 ,he expla9s t he uses ! ^w  
'sugge/ion' 9 ord] to avoid ! hypo!sis t

 ! sequ5ce ( two ideas necess>ily       
implies a previ\s /ate ( m9d 9 :i* !y 7 
br\ght toge!r2 & endeav\rs to expla9    
v>i\s cases 7z1 = example1 association  
by 'contra/' z well z by 'lik5ess' or   
'cont9uity'7 by a m 'subtile'           
analysis4#dia ,he !n works out an       
elaborate !ory ( 'simple' & 'relative'  
sugge/ion4 ,simple 'sugge/ion'#dib      
corresponds ma9ly to ord9>y association1
 z :5 a fri5d's "n or 8 book calls up ! 
?\ght ( ! man himself4 ',relative       
sugge/ion' arises :5 two or m objects   
are p]ceiv$ & sugge/ v>i\s relations (  
lik5ess & s =?4#dic ,?is provides a     
s*eme = work+ out ! :ole doctr9e ( !    
sequ5ces ( ideas s f> z ! sequ5ces dep5d
 ^u ! m9d itself & n ^u ext]nal causes4 
,x ?us leads to problems ( ab/raction & 
g5]alisation & to 8 :ole !ory ( :at he  
calls ! 'intellectual /ates4' ,he aga9  
closely co9cides ) ! ,fr5* ideologi/s4  
,he />ts by exam9+ ,locke & ,condillac4 
,he ( c\rse pr(esses to hold t          
,condillac's v]sion ( ,locke is         

illegitimate1 & ridicules ! fam\s =mula 
p5s] c'e/ s5tir4 ,he is1 h[ev]1 equally 
unwill+ to admit ,reid's 'v>iety (      
p[]s4'#did ,9 fact1 8 criticism (       
,condillac %[s m aff9ity ?an contra/4   
,condillac err$1 he says1 9 hold+ t     
?\ghts are 'trans=m$ s5sations4' ,?is 0 
a false simplification into :i* he      
consid]s ,condillac to h be5 l$ p>tly by
 ! ambiguity ( ! ^w s5tir4#die          
,condillac appli$ to ! m9d ! !ory1 true 
9 '! *emi/ry ( ! mat]ial *emi/s1' t !   
'comp\nds are ! elem5ts !mselves4'#dif  
,he errs :5 he inf]s f ! analogy t a    
feel+ :i* arises out ( o!rs c be resolv$
 into !m4 ',love & hate' & o!r emotions 
are fundam5tally diff]5t f ! s5sations  
by :i* !y are occasion$1 n m]e          
'trans=mations' ( ^? s5sations4 ,we1 on 
! o!r h& 7t is to say1 ,reid & ,/ew>t71 
h err$ by excessive amplification4      
,in/ead ( id5tify+ diff]5t ?+s1 we h    
admitt$ a sup]flu\s numb] ( 'ultimate   
pr9ciples4'  ,! result is t besides !   
orig9al s5sations1 we h to consid] a    

numb] ( feel+s1 :i*1 :ile ess5tially    
diff]5t1 are 'sugge/$' or caus$ by !m4  
,^! are p>ts ( ! :ole intellectual      
con/ruction1 &1 ?\gh n trans=m$         
s5sations1 are /ill 'feel+s' aris+ 9    
consequ5ce ( ! s5sations4 ,!y are p>ts (
 ! 'tra9s' or sequ5ces ( 'ideas4' ,x is 
accord+ly *>act]i/ic ( ,br[n t he       
habitually describes an intellectual    
process z a 'feel+4' ,! /atem5t ( a     
ma!matical proportion1 = example1 is a  
case ( 'relative sugge/ion4' ,:5 we     
consid] two numb]s toge!r we h a 'feel+ 
( ! relation ( proportion4'#dig ,!      
'pr(\nde/ reason+s' are 'no?+ m ?an a   
cont9u$ analysis ( our ?\ght1' by :i* we
 resolve ! 'complex feel+s ( our m9ds'  
into ! simpl] conceptions out ( :i* !y 7
 con/ruct$4#dih ,9 o!r words1 ,br[n1 x  
w\ld seem1 really accepts ! p5s] c'e/   
s5tir1 only t he reg>ds ! s5tir z       
includ+ sep>ate classes ( feel+1 :i* _c 
be reg>d$ z simple 'trans=mations' (    
s5sation4 ,!y are '/ates ( ! m9d' caus$ 
by1 t is1 inv>iably foll[+ ^u1 ! simpl] 

/ates1 &1 ( c\rse1 comb9+ 9 an endless  
v>iety ( diff]5t =ms4 ,reason+ is no?+ m
 ?an a s]ies ( relative 'sugge/ions (   
:i* ! sep>ate subjects are felt by u to 
be mutually relat$4'#dii ,h5ce1 too1    
arises 8 !ory ( g5]alisation4 ,he is1 he
 says1 n a 'nom9ali/' b a               
'conceptuali/1' & "h1 = once1 agrees )  
,reid z aga9/ ,/ew>t4#ejj ,! 'g5]al     
t]m1' accord+ to him1 expresses ! 'feel+
 or g5]al notion ( resemblance1' :i*    
arises ^u a contemplation ( two objects4
 ',9 ,nature1' z he obs]ves else:]e1#eja
 '!re are no classes1' b ! obs]vation ( 
a numb] ( p>ticul> cases & a c]ta9 feel+
 to :i* we give a "n4 ,"h1 aga91 ,br[n's
 view co9cides ) t ( 8 ,fr5*            
contempor>ies4  ,we may !n say briefly t
 ,br[n c>ries out 9 8 own fa%ion !      
conception ( psy*ology :i* makes x an   
inductive sci5ce p>allel to ! physical  
sci5ces1 & to be pursu$ by ! same       
me?ods4 ,we h to d ) 'feel+s' in/ead (  
atoms1 & ) m5tal in/ead ( 'mat]ial'     
*emi/ry4 ,our sole me?od is /ill an     

analysis su* z guides u 9 unravell+     
complex physical ph5om5a4 ,we h1 inde$1 
to admit c]ta9 fir/ tru?s--! belief 9   
our own id5tity is "o ( !m--:i* are     
necess>y to our v exi/5ce1 al?\gh !     
ass]tion ( su* pr9ciples 0 c>ri$ to an  
extravagant & ridicul\s l5g? 'by ,reid &
 "s ( 8 fri5ds4' ,:51 h[ev]1 we come to 
ask :at ^! pr9ciples are1 x mu/ be      
admitt$ t !y are v innoc5t4 ,!y are n   
dang]\s ?+s1 l 'innate ideas1' capable (
 lead+ u to a transc5d5tal _w1 b simply 
ass]tions t we are w>rant$ 9 tru/+ our  
s5sations & apply+ a ?or\ghly inductive 
& empirical me?od4 ,!y are ! cem5t :i*  
jo9s ! feel+s1 & :i*1 z ,mill ?\ght1    
c\ld be supplant$ by 'indissoluble      
associations4' ,! indef9ite p[] ?us     
attribut$ to association became1 z we   
%all see1 ,mill's mo/ *>act]i/ic        
doctr9e4 ,mean:ile1 ,i w only m5tion "o 
inf]5ce :i* illu/rates ,br[n's          
philosophical t5d5cies4 ,/ew>t _h spok5 
d\btfully ( ! ontological argum5t =     
!ology4 ,br[n ?r[s x ov] altoge!r4 ,he  

does n ev5 *ange x into an 'intuition4' 
,he has always1 he says1 reg>d$ x z     
'absolutely void ( =ce' unless x tacitly
 assumes ! 'physical argum5t4' ,nay1 x  
is "o pro( ( ! =ce ( ?is physical       
argum5t t x has sav$ u f d\bts :i* w\ld 
be r /r5g!n$ ?an weak5$ by !            
'metaphysical argum5ts4'#ejb ,!         
'physical argum5t' means ! argum5t f    
design1 :i* ?us becomes ! sole support (
 !ology4  ,hamilton naturally reg>ds    
,br[n z a m]e sceptic 9 disguise4 ,8    
!ory ( p]ception de/roys 8 !ory (       
p]sonal id5tity4 ,he has refus$ to      
accept our intuitive belief 9 "o case1 &
 _c appeal to x 9 ! o!r4 ,he leaves no  
room = 'lib]ty ( w1' & advances 'no     
argum5t 9 support ( ?is condition ( our 
moral be+4'#ejc ,inde$1 z ,/ew>t        
compla9$1 ,br[n1 by id5tify+ 'w' &      
'desire1' has got rid ( ! w altoge!r4 ,x
 is only natural t a man :o is mak+ a   
sci5tific /udy ( ! laws ( human nature  
%\ld f9d no room = an ass]tion t )9 a   
c]ta9 sph]e !re are no laws4 ,a         

physiologi/ might z well admit t "s     
vital processes are uncaus$4  ,br[n ?us 
illu/rates ! gravitation ( !            
'common-s5se' philosophy to pure        
empiricism4 ,he 0 ! la/ 9 ! g5u9e l9e ( 
,scotti% common-s5se philosoph]s4 ,:5   
aft] :at may be call$ ! unphilosophical 
int]regnum :i* foll[$ ,br[n's dea?1     
,hamilton became pr(essor1 ! ,scotti%   
tradition 0 bl5d$ ) ! v diff]5t !ories  
d]iv$ f ,kant4 ,^u ,br[n's v]sion1 !    
,scotti% philosophy _h virtually decl>$ 
itself bankrupt4 ,! sub/ance ( 8 tea*+ 0
 t ( ! v s*ool :i* 8 pr$ecessors _h     
attempt$ to confute1 c>efully z ! fact  
might be hidd5 by dext]\s rhetoric &    
manipulation ( te*nical t]ms4 ,he agrees
 ) ,hume's premises1 & adopts ! me?od ( 
,condillac4 ,?is 0 p]ceiv$ by 8 mo/     
rem>kable he>]4 ,c>lyle w5t to ,ed9burgh
 at ! end ( #ahji4 ,br[n1 'an eloqu5t1  
acute little g5tleman1 full ( en?usiasm 
ab\t simple sugge/ions1 relative1 etc41'
 0 'utt]ly unpr(itable' to him1         
disspirit+ 'z ! autumn w9ds among )]$   

leaves4'#ejd ,9 ,signs ( ! ,times       
7#ahbi7 ,c>lyle gave 8 view ( ! ,scotti%
 philosophy g5]ally4 ,!y _h1 he says1   
/>t$ f ! 'me*anical' premises sugge/$ by
 ,hume4 ',!y let loose in/9ct z an      
indiscrim9atory b&og to gu>d !m aga9/   
787 conclusions'3 '!y tugg$ lu/ily at ! 
logical *a9 by :i* ,hume 0 s coldly t[+ 
!m & ! _w into bottomless abysses (     
,a!ism & ,fatalism4 ,b ! *a9 someh[     
snapp$ betwe5 !m1 & ! issue has be5 t   
nobody n[ c>es ab\t ei!r--any m ?an ab\t
 ,h>tley's1 ,d>w9's1 or ,prie/ley's     
contemporane\s do+s 9 ,engl&4'#eje ,!   
judgm5t goes to ! root ( ! matt]4 ,!    
me?od ( ,reid inevitably l$ to ?is      
result4 ,consid] ! philosophy z bas$ ^u1
 if n id5tical )1 an inductive sci5ce ( 
psy*ology1 & ! end is cle>4 ,y may /udy 
& analyse ! ph5om5a z c>efully z y      
please2 & may1 z ! ,scotti% pr(essors   
did1 produce1 if n a sci5tific          
psy*ology1 yet a mass ( acute prolegom5a
 to a sci5ce4 ,b ! analysis c only      
reveal ! actual comb9ations1 *emical or 

me*anical1 ( ?\ght4 ,! ultimate         
pr9ciples :i* ! tea*]s pr(ess to discov]
 are simply provisional2 products n yet 
analys$1 b n !re=e incapable ( analysis4
 ,x 0 v desirable to po9t !m out3 an    
insi/5ce ^u ! insuffici5cy ( ,hume's or 
,condillac's !ories 0 a mo/ valuable    
s]vice2 b x 0 valuable precisely because
 e indication ( su* an unresolv$ elem5t 
0 a *all5ge to ! next com] to resolve x 
by clos] analysis4 ,& ?us1 9 fact1 !    
intuitions1 :i* _h play$ s great a "p ) 
,reid1 come 9 ,br[n's h&s to be s cle>ly
 limit$ to ! mat]ials giv5 by s5sation  
or exp]i5ce t any %[ ( 'philosophy1'    
mean+ an indep5d5t !ory ( ! univ]se1 0  
an illusory comb9ation ( f9e            
phrases4#ejf   ,,ii4 ,,james ,,mill',s  
',,analysis'  ,james ,mill's ,analysis (
 ! ,ph5om5a ( ! ,human ,m9d is on ! "o  
h& an exposition ( ! pr9ciples impli$ 9 
,b5?am's writ+s1 &1 on ! o!r h&1 a      
/atem5t ( ! position f :i* ! y\ng] ,mill
 />t$4 ,j4 ,s4 ,mill discuss$ ! book ) 8
 fa!r dur+ its composition1 & 9 #ahfi he

 publi%$ a new edition1 ) elaborate     
notes by himself1 ,george ,grote1       
,pr(essor ,ba91 & ,&rew ,f9dlat]4#ejg ,!
 comm5t>y is ( great importance 9 def9+ 
! relation betwe5 ! two successors to ! 
?rone ( ,b5?am4  ,mill's ,analysis1 ?\gh
 n widely read1 made a deep impression  
^u ,mill's own disciples4 ,x is t]se1   
tr5*ant1 & uncompromis+4 ,x rem9ds u 9  
po9t ( /yle ( ! ,fr5* writ]s1 ) :om he  
sympa?is$1 r ?an ( ! ,engli%            
pr$ecessors1 to :om mu* ( ! sub/ance 0  
ow+4 ,! discursive rhetoric ( ,br[n or  
,/ew>t is replac$ by good1 h>d1 s9ewy   
logic4 ,! writ] is pla9ly 9 e>ne/4 ,if  
ov] confid5t1 he has no petty vanity1 & 
at lea/ believes e ^w t he says4 ,c]ta9 
limitations are at once obvi\s4 ,mill1 z
 a publici/1 a hi/orian1 & a busy       
(ficial1 _h n _h mu* "t to sp>e = purely
 philosophic read+4 ,he 0 n a pr(essor 9
 want ( a sy/em1 b an en]getic man (    
bus9ess1 wi%+ to /rike at ! root ( !    
sup]/itions to :i* 8 political oppon5ts 
appeal$ = support4 ,he _h he>d ( ,kant1 

& se5 :at '! poor man w\ld be at4' ,lat]
 ,g]man sy/ems1 _h he he>d ( !m1 w\ld h 
be5 summ>ily reject$ by him z s mu*     
transc5d5tal moon%9e4 ,! problem (      
philosophy 01 he held1 a v simple "o1 if
 attack$ 9 a /raight=w>d1 sci5tific     
me?od4  ,mill1 l 8 ,scotti% rivals1     
applies ',baconian' pr9ciples4 ,!       
inductive me?od1 :i* _h already be5 s   
fruitful 9 ! physical sci5ces1 w be     
equally effective 9 philosophy1 & ev]   
s9ce ,locke1 philosophy _h meant        
psy*ology4 ,! 'philosophy ( ! m9d' & !  
philosophy ( ! body may be treat$ z     
co-ord9ate & inve/igat$ by simil>       
me?ods4 ,9 ! physical sci5ces we come   
ultimately to ! laws ( movem5t ( _!     
con/itu5t atoms4 ,9 ! moral sci5ces we  
come 9 ! same way to ! /udy ( 'ideas4'  
,! que/ions1 ,h[ d ideas orig9ate8 & h[ 
are !y comb9$ s z to =m ! actual /ate ( 
consci\sness8 are !re=e ! g5]al problems
 to be solv$4 ,hume _h def9itely propos$
 ! problem4 ,h>tley _h work$ out ! !ory 
( association ( ideas :i* ,hume _h      

already comp>$#ejh to ! univ]sal        
pr9ciple ( gravitation 9 ! physical _w2 
& _h endeav\r$ to %[ h[ ?is might be    
connect$ ) physiological pr9ciples4     
,h>tley's foll[]s _h be5 cont5t to dwell
 ^u ! p[] ( association4 ,abraham       
,tuck]1 ,prie/ley1 ,erasmus ,d>w91 &    
,bel%am repres5t$ ?is t5d5cy1 & 7 !     
normal antagoni/s ( ,reid & ,/ew>t4 ,9  
,france ! 'ideologi/s' ma9ly foll[$     
,condillac1 & app>5tly knew no?+ (      
,h>tley4 ,mill1 z 8 son te/ifies1 _h be5
 pr(\ndly influ5c$ by ,h>tley's         
treatise--! 'really ma/]-production1' z 
he e/eem$ x1 '9 ! philosophy ( m9d4'#eji
 ,h>tley's "w1 z ! y\ng] ,mill ?\ght1 & 
! eld] app>5tly agre$1 0 v sup]ior to ! 
'm]ely v]bal g5]alisation ( ,condillac4'
 ,james ,mill1 h[ev]1 admir$ ,condillac 
& 8 successors4 ,9 8 article ^u         
education1 ,mill traces ! association   
!ory to ,hobbes1 ,locke1 & ,hume1 ! la/ 
( :om1 he says1 0 succe$$ by ! two 'm   
sob]-m9d$' philosoph]s1 ,condillac &    
,h>tley2 :ile he especially praises     

,erasmus ,d>w91 ,helvetius1 & ,cabanis4 
,mill1 !re=e1 may be reg>d$ z an        
indep5d5t ally ( ! ideologi/s ^:        
influ5ce ^u ,br[n has be5 already       
notic$4 ,mill _h n read ,br[n's         
,lectures :5 he began 8 ,analysis1 &    
aft] read+ !m ?\ght ,br[n 'b poorly read
 9 ! doctr9e ( association4'#eaj ,he _h1
 h[ev]1 read ! essay ^u causation1 :i*  
he r oddly describes z '"o ( ! mo/      
valuable contributions to sci5ce = :i*  
we are indebt$ to ! la/ g5]ation4'#eaa  
,he accept$ ,br[n's view m9us !         
'intuition4'  ,! pi? ( ,mill's book is  
?us det]m9$4 ,8 aim is to give a        
complete analysis ( m5tal ph5om5a1 &    
!re=e to resolve ^? ph5om5a into _!     
primitive con/itu5t atoms4 ,"h we h at  
once a tacit assumption :i* gov]ns 8    
me?od4 ,philosophy1 speak+ r\ghly1 is by
 "s p suppos$ to />t f tru?s1 & ?us to  
be 9 "s way an evolution ( logic4       
,accord+ to ,mill x mu/ />t f facts1 &  
!re=e f some?+ n giv5 by logic4 ,to /ate
 cle>ly1 inde$1 ! relation betwe5 tru? &

 fact may sugge/ v intricate problems4  
,mill1 at any rate1 mu/ f9d a basis 9   
fact1 & = him ! ultimate facts mu/ be   
feel+s4 ,! reality at lea/ ( a feel+ is 
und5iable4 ,! ,p5s] c'e/ s5tir1 or !    
doctr9e t all 'ideas' are trans=m$      
s5sations is 8 />t+-po9t4 ,! ^w 'feel+1'
 accord+ to him1 includes e 'ph5om5on ( 
! m9d4' ',?9k1' he says else:]e1#eab    
does n include all our exp]i5ce1 b '!re 
is no?+ to :i* we c\ld n ext5d ! t]m ,i 
feel4' ,he proce$s to inf] t our        
exp]i5ce is ei!r a k ( ! feel+s         
sep>ately1 or 'a k ( ! ord] 9 :i* !y    
foll[ ea* o!r2 & ?is is all4' ,we may   
add t ! k is ! feel+4 ,reid1 ,kant1 & ! 
,g]mans h inde$ tri$ to %[ t !re are    
feel+s n d]iv$ f ! s5sations1 b ?is1 z  
,h>tley & ,condillac h %[n1 is a mi/ake4
 ,?is is 8 fir/ pr9ciple 9 a nut%ell1 & 
mu/ give a clue to ! v>i\s applications4
  ,! next /ep is famili>4 ,hume _h      
di/+ui%$ impressions & ideas4 ',ideas'  
are copies ( previ\s 'impressions4' ,x  
is = psy*ology to say :at are ! laws by 

:i* !y are relat$ to _! orig9als4 ,!    
ultimate orig9 _c be expla9$ by         
psy*ology alone4 ,impressions are caus$ 
by ! outw>d _w act+ 9 "s way ^u ! m9d2 &
 ! psy*ologi/ c only classify ! v>i\s   
modes 9 :i* !y pres5t !mselves4 ,mill   
!re=e beg9s by ! usual acc\nt ( ! five  
s5ses1 ?r\gh :i* comes all k ( ! ext]nal
 _w4 ,he adds to ,reid's li/ muscul>    
s5sations1 & ^? d]iv$ f ! int]nal       
organs1 to :i* la/ ,cabanis 9 p>ticul>  
_h call$ att5tion4 ,s f> he is foll[+ ! 
/eps ( 8 pr$ecessors4 ,he is1 he says1  
simply ass]t+ an 'indisputable'         
fact4#eac ,we h s5sations & we h ideas1 
:i* are 'copies ( s5sations4' ,we may !n
 consid] h[ f> ^! facts w enable u to   
expla9 ! :ole s]ies ( m5tal ph5om5a4    
',ideation1' :i* he sugge/s z a new     
^w--! process by :i* a cont9u\s s]ies ( 
?\ghts goes on 9 our m9ds--is ! g5]al   
ph5om5on to be consid]$4 ,)\t1 z yet1   
pron\nc+ t s5sations & copies (         
s5sations w turn out to =m ! :ole       
cont5ts ( our consci\sness1 he tries to 

%[ = :at "p ( ^? cont5ts !y w acc\nt4   
,"h we come to ! doctr9e :i* = him & 8  
s*ool gave ! key to all psy*ological    
problems4 ,x 0 ,james ,mill's real m]it1
 accord+ to 8 son1 t he c>ri$ ! pr9ciple
 ( association ( ideas fur!r ?an x _h   
be5 c>ri$ by ,h>tley or o!r             
pr$ecessors4#ead ,! importance ( !      
doctr9e1 inde$1 is impli$ 9 ! v /atem5t 
( ! problem4 ,if x be true1 or s f> z x 
is true1 t our consci\sness reveals to u
 simply a s]ies ( 's5sations' & 'ideas1'
 ! "q mu/ be h[ !y are comb9$4 ',?\ght  
succe$s ?\ght1 idea foll[s idea         
incessantly1'#eae says ,mill2 & ?is     
phrase assumes '?\ghts' & 'ideas' to be 
sep>able atoms4 ,h[1 !n1 d !y come to   
coalesce into an app>5tly cont9u\s      
/ream8 ,! m9d is a /ream ( 'ideas4' ,if 
! /ream is compos$ ( drops1 we mu/1 (   
c\rse1 consid] ! drops z compos+ !      
/ream4 ,! "q is1 ,:at laws c we assign  
:i* w det]m9e ! process ( composition8  
,! phrase 'association' admitt$ly       
expresses "s g5]al & v famili> tru?s4   

,innum]able connections may be e/abli%$ 
:5 !re is no assignable gr\nd (         
connection 9 ! ideas !mselves o!r ?an ! 
fact ( a previ\s contact4 ,"o idea n    
only calls up ! o!r1 b 9 "s way g5]ates 
a belief 9 an indep5d5t connection4 ,we 
he> ?und]1 = example1 & ?9k ( lightn+4  
,! two ideas are entirely di/9ct &      
sep>ate1 = !y are due to diff]5t s5ses4 
,yet we n only ?9k ( lightn+ :5 we he>  
?und]1 b we h no d\bt t !re is a causal 
connection4 ,we believe 9 ?is           
connection1 aga91 ?\gh no fur!r         
explanation c be giv5 ( ! fact4 ,?und] &
 lightn+ h occurr$ toge!r1 & we inf] t  
!y w1 & ev5 mu/1 occur toge!r4 ,:5 we   
exam9e our :ole /ructure ( belief1 we   
f9d su* 'arbitr>y' associations p]vade x
 9 e direction4 ,language itself is     
le>n$ simply by association4 ,!re is no 
connection :atev] betwe5 ! s\nd ( ! ^w  
'man' & ! 'ideas' :i* ! ^w excites1     
beyond ! fact t ! s\nd has be5 previ\sly
 he>d :5 ! ideas 7 excit$4 ,"h1 !n1 is a
 ph5om5on to be expla9$ or g5]alis$4 ,we

 h 9 c\ntless cases a c]ta9 connection  
e/abli%$ = :i* no fur!r reason c be     
assign$ ?an ! fact ( its previ\s        
occurr5ce4 ,on su* a gr\nd1 we believe t
 fire burns1 t bread is :olesome1 t     
/ones fall2 & b = su* beliefs c\ld "k   
no?+ ( ! outside _w4 ',cont+5t' tru?1   
!re=e1 or tru? d]iv$ f m]e contact1     
p]vades1 if x does n con/itute1 ! :ole  
fabric ( our :ole k4 ,to prove t all our
 k is d]iv$ f exp]i5ce is1 accord+ to   
,mill1 to prove t 9 "s s5se or o!r      
association ( ideas lies at ! base ( all
 intellectual processes4 ,:5 ,locke     
introduc$ a *apt] ^u ',association (    
,ideas' into ! f\r? edition ( 8 essay1  
he treat$ x z ! exceptional case4 ,"s   
ideas _h a connection traceable by      
reason2 o!rs 7 only connect$ by '*ance &
 cu/om4' ,association does n expla9     
reason+1 only ! deviations f reason+4 ,b
 ) ,hume & ,h>tley ! relation is inv]t$4
 ,! pr9ciple1 in/ead ( be+ an           
exceptional case1 is simply ! univ]sal  
rule f :i* logical connection may be    

d$uc$ z a special case4  ,! facts ^u :i*
 ,mill reli$1 & ! acc\nt ( !m :i* he    
gave1 require notice & embodim5t 9 any  
s\nd psy*ology4 ,9 "s %ape or o!r !y =m 
! />t+-po9t ( all lat] sy/ems4 ,mill's  
vigor\s application ( 8 pr9ciple1 work$ 
out ) imp]fect appreciation & ) _m      
ov]sights1 _h !refrom1 at lea/1 ! m]it (
 prep>+ ! gr\nd = a m sci5tific me?od4  
,9 any case1 h[ev]1 8 conclusions1 s f> 
z s\nd1 mu/ be plac$ 9 a diff]5t        
framework ( !ory4 ,x becomes necess>y to
 dwell *iefly ^u ! curi\s defects ( 8   
!ory1 if tak5 z he wi%$ x to be tak51 = 
an ultimate sci5tific /atem5t4 ,! fact t
 !re is a syn!sis & an analysis is      
express$ by 'association4' ,b :at m c we
 say8 ,:at are ! 'laws' ( association8  
,unless "s rule c be giv51 we %all get  
no?+ t c be call$ a !ory4 ,"o idea is n 
sugge/$ by ! o!r ?r\gh any logical      
process4 ,!y are /ill 'conjo9$' b n     
'connect$4' ,! connection1 !re=e1 mu/ be
 giv5 by some?+ diff]5t f ! ideas       
!mselves4 ,n[ ! ord] ( ! orig9al        

's5sations' dep5ds ^u ! 'objects (      
nature1' & is !re=e left to 'physical   
philosophy4'#eaf ,!y occur1 h[ev]1 ei!r 
9 'syn*ron\s' or 9 'successive' ord]4   
,!n 'ideas' spr+ up 9 ! ord] (          
's5sations1' & ?is is ! 'g5]al law (    
association ( ideas4'#eag ,! syn*ron\s  
s5sations produce syn*ron\s ideas & !   
successive s5sations successive ideas4  
,f9ally1 ! /r5g? ( ! association betwe5 
! ideas dep5ds ^u '! vividness ( !      
associat$ feel+s1 & ! frequ5cy ( !      
association4'#eah ,hume _h said t       
association dep5d$ ^u ?ree pr9ciples1   
'contiguity 9 "t & place1' 'causation1' 
& 'resemblance4' ,contiguity 9 "t       
corresponds to ! successive1 &          
contiguity 9 place to ! syn*ron\s1 ord]4
 ,causation1 z ,br[n _h f9ally          
prov$1#eai means simply antec$5ce &     
consequ5ce4 ',resemblance' rema9s & is1 
z ,mill aft]w>ds says1#ebj a mo/        
important pr9ciple2 b 9 an unlucky mom5t
 he is half incl9$ to r$uce ev5         
'resemblance' to 'contiguity4'#eba      

,resemblance is1 he ev5 sugge/s1 m]ely  
'a case ( frequ5cy1' because we g5]ally 
see l ?+s toge!r4 ,:5 we see "o tree or 
%eep1 we g5]ally see sev]al trees or    
%eep4 ,j4 ,s4 ,mill mildly rem>ks ^u ?is
 qua9t sugge/ion z ! 'lea/ successful   
simplification' 9 ! book4 ,he argues !  
po9t gravely4 ,%eep1 x is cle>1 are n   
se5 to be l because !y (t5 compose a    
flock1 b are consid]$ to be a flock     
because !y are se5 to be l4 ,to d ,james
 ,mill ju/ice1 he drops ! argum5t z soon
 z he has /ruck x out4 ,x is only wor?  
notice z %[+ 8 aim4 ',lik5ess' seems to 
imply a relation dep5d5t on ! ideas     
!mselves2 n purely ext]nal & arbitr>y4  
,if we c\ld get rid ( lik5ess1 all      
association w\ld ultimately be          
'contiguity4' ',! fundam5tal law (      
association1' z he says else:]e1#ebb 'is
 t :5 two ?+s h be5 frequ5tly f\nd      
toge!r1 we nev] p]ceive or ?9k ( ! "o   
)\t ?9k+ ( ! o!r4' ,! two ideas are     
associat$ z two balls are associat$ :5  
!y are 9 ! same box4 ,s f> z !y are     

!mselves conc]n$1 !y might be sep>at$   
)\t any alt]ation 9 _! own prop]ties4   
,:at1 !n1 corresponds to ! 'box'8       
,association dep5ds ^u relations ( "t & 
space4 ,?+s are associat$ by occurr+ 9  
succession or toge!r2 ! r$ col\r ( a    
rose is 9 ! same place ) ! %ape ( !     
leaf2 ! sc5t is p]ceiv$ at ! same "t ) !
 col\r4 ,! ?und] foll[s ! lightn+4 ,:at1
 !n1 he might ask1 are '"t' & 'space'8  
,are !y 'ideas' or 's5sations' or       
qualities ( ! objects8 or1 9 any case1 z
 supply+ ! ultimate pr9ciple (          
association1 d !y n require             
inve/igation8 ,be=e com+ to t problem1  
h[ev]1 we h to settle o!r knotty po9ts4 
,we mu/ cle> away illusions :i* seem to 
introduce some?+ m ?an association4     
,elem5ts ( ?\ght n at fir/ sight        
expressible simply 9 t]ms ( s5sations & 
ideas mu/ be analys$ to %[ t !y are only
 disguises = diff]5t comb9ations ( !    
facts4 ,reason+1 accord+ to mo/         
logicians1 supposes1 fir/1 concepts1 &  
!re=e "s process ( classification ( !   

objects ( ?\ght2 &1 secondly1 "s process
 ( comb9+ ^! concepts to br+ out hi!rto 
unkn[n tru?s4 ,:at1 !n1 is ! mean+ ( !  
g5]al or ab/ract symbols employ$ 9 !    
process8 ,mill's provision ( raw        
mat]ials consi/s s f> ( s5sations &     
ideas1 :i* are work$ up s z to =m       
'clu/]s' 7! ^w is tak5 f ,h>tley7 &     
'tra9s4' ,?is corresponds to syn*ron\s &
 successive associations4 ,h[ does !    
logical t]m9ology express ^! 'clu/]s' & 
'tra9s'8 ,mill answ]s by a !ory (       
'nam+4' ,language fulfils two purposes2 
x is requir$ 9 ord] to make our ideas   
kn[n to o!rs2 & 9 ord] to fix our own   
ideas4 ,ideas are fluctuat+1 transitory1
 & 'come into ! m9d unbidd54' ,we mu/   
cat* & make a note ( ^! %ift+ cr[ds (   
impalpable entities4 ,we !re=e put m>ks 
^u ! simple s5sations or ^u ! 'clu/]s4' 
,we ticket !m z a tradesman tickets     
bundles ( goods 9 8 w>eh\se1 & c ref] to
 !m = our own purposes or ^? ( o!rs4 ,z 
! numb] ( objects to be m>k$ is enorm\s1
 z !re are c\ntless ideas & clu/]s &    

clu/]s ( clu/]s ( endless v>iety to be  
arrang$ 9 v>i\s ways1 "o ma9 object (   
nam+ is economy4 ,a s+le ^w has to be   
us$ to m>k a great numb] ( individuals4 
,?is w acc\nt = su* g5]al names z are   
repres5t$ by n\n-sub/antives3 man1      
horse1 dog1 & s =?4 ,mill !n proce$s1 ) 
! help ( ,horne ,tooke1 to expla9 ! o!r 
grammatical =ms4 ,an adjective is ano!r 
k9d ( n\n m>k+ a cross division4 ,v]bs1 
aga91 are adjectives m>k+ o!r sets (    
facts1 & enabl+ u to get rid ( !        
necessity ( us+ a new m>k = e individual
 or conceivable comb9ation into clu/]s4 
,j4 ,s4 ,mill rem>ks t ?is omits !      
special function ( v]bs--_! 'employm5t 9
 pr$ication4'#ebc ,james ,mill1 h[ev]1  
has 8 own view ( 'pr$ication4' ',man' is
 a m>k ( ,john1 ,pet]1 ,?omas1 & ! re/4 
,:5 ,i say ',john is a man1' ,i mean t  
'man is ano!r m>k to t idea ( :i* ,john 
is a m>k4'#ebd ,i am !n able to make a  
/atem5t :i* w apply to all !            
individuals1 & save ! tr\ble ( repeat+ !
 ass]tion ab\t ea*4 ',pr$ication1'      

!re=e1 is simply a sub/itution ( "o "n =
 ano!r4 ,s1 = example1 ari?metic is     
simply nam+4 ,:at ,i call two & two1 ,i 
also call f\r4 ,! s]ies ( ?\ghts 9 ?is  
case is m]ely 'a s]ies ( names          
applicable to ! same ?+ & mean+ ! same  
?+4'#ebe ,?is doctr9e1 z ,j4 ,s4 ,mill  
rem>ks1 is d]iv$ f ,hobbes1 :om ,leibniz
 9 consequ5ce call$ plus quam           
nom9alis4#ebf ,my belief t two & two    
make f\r expla9s :y ,i give ! same "n to
 c]ta9 numb]s2 b ! giv+ ! "n does n     
expla9 ! belief4 ,mean:ile1 if a class  
"n be simply ! m>k :i* is put ^u a      
bundle ( ?+s1 we h got rid ( a puzzle4  
,mill triumphs ov] ! un=tunate reali/s  
:o held t a class meant a my/]i\s       
entity1 exi/+ some:]e ap>t f all !      
individuals 9 :i* x is embodi$4 ,!re is 
really no?+ my/]i\s2 a "n is fir/ ! m>k 
( an individual1 ! individual           
correspond+ to a 'clu/]' or a set (     
'simple ideas1 concret$ into a complex  
idea4'#ebg ,!n ! "n & ! complex idea are
 associat$ reciprocally2 ea* 'calls up' 

! o!r4 ,! complex idea is 'associat$' ) 
o!r resembl+ ideas4 ,! "n becomes a     
talisman call+ up ! ideas ( an indef9ite
 numb] ( resembl+ individuals1 & ! "n   
appli$ to "o 9 ! fir/ in/ance becomes a 
m>k :i* calls up all1 or1 z he says1 is 
! '"n ( ! :ole comb9ation4'             
,classification1 !re=e1 'is m]ely a     
process ( nam+1 & is all resolvable into
 association4'#ebh ,! peculi>ity ( ?is  
!ory1 z 8 comm5tators aga9 rem>k1 is t x
 expressly omits any ref]5ce to         
ab/raction4 ,! class simply means !     
aggregate ( resembl+ individuals )\t any
 selection ( ! common attributes :i*    
are1 9 ,j4 ,s4 ,mill's phrase1 'connot$'
 by ! class-"n4 ,ab/raction1 z ,james   
,mill expla9s1 is a subsidi>y process1  
correspond+ to ! '=mation (             
sub-species4'#ebi  ,mill has n[ %[n h[ !
 v>i\s =ms ( language correspond to     
ideas1 =m$ into clu/]s ( v>i\s ord]s by 
! pr9ciple ( association4 ,! next /ep w 
naturally be to %[ h[ ^! clu/]s are     
connect$ 9 ! process ( reason+4 ,"h !   

difficulty ab\t pr$ication recurs4 ,j4  
,s4 ,mill#ecj rem>ks t 8 fa!r's !ory (  
pr$ication consi/5tly omits '! elem5t   
,belief4' ,:5 ,i say1 ',john is a man1' 
,i make an affirmation or ass]t a       
belief4 ,i d n simply mean to call up 9 
! m9d ( my he>] a c]ta9 'clu/]' or two  
co9cid5t clu/]s ( ideas1 b to convey k (
 tru?s4 ,! omission ( ref]5ce to belief 
is c]ta9ly no trifle4 ,mill has         
classifi$ ! v>i\s ideas & comb9ations ( 
ideas :i* are us$ 9 judgm5t1 b ! process
 ( judgm5t itself seems to h slipp$ out 
( acc\nt4 ,he may h giv5 u1 or be able  
to give u1 a reason$ catalogue ( !      
cont5ts ( our m9ds1 b has n expla9$ h[ !
 m9d itself acts4 ,x is a m]e passive   
recipi5t ( ideas1 or r itself a clu/] ( 
ideas coh]+ 9 v>i\s ways1 )\t en]gy (   
its own4 ,"o idea1 z he tells u1 calls  
up ano!r 'by its own associat+ p[]4'#eca
 ,ideas are ?+s :i* someh[ /ick toge!r &
 revive ea* o!r1 )\t ref]5ce to ! m9d 9 
:i* !y exi/ or :i* !y compose4 ,?is     
expla9s 8 frequ5t insi/5ce ^u "o        

ass]tion4 ,z we approa* ! "q ( judgm5t  
he f9ds x ess5tial4 ',hav+ a s5sation & 
hav+ a feel+1' he says1 'are n two ?+s4'
 ,to 'feel an idea & be consci\s ( t    
feel+ are n two ?+s2 ! feel+ & !        
consci\sness are b two names = ! same   
?+4'#ecb ,s1 aga91 'to h a s5sation & to
 believe t we h x1 are n di/+ui%able    
?+s4'#ecc ,locke's reflection ?us       
becomes no?+ b simple consci\sness1 &   
hav+ a feel+ is ! same z att5d+ to      
x4#ecd ,! po9t is ess5tial4 ,x am\nts to
 say+ t we c speak ( a ?\ght z ?\gh x 7 
simply a ?+4  ,?us belief n only dep5ds 
^u1 b actually is association4 ',x is n 
easy1' he says1 'to treat ( memory1     
belief1 & judgm5t sep>ately4'#ece ,z ,j4
 ,s4 ,mill naturally asks1 ',h[ is x    
possible to treat ( belief )\t includ+ 9
 x memory & judgm5t8' ,memory is a case 
( belief1 & judgm5t an 'act (           
belief4'#ecf ,to ,james ,mill1 h[ev]1 x 
appe>s t z ^! diff]5t functions all     
involve association1 !y may be resolv$  
into v>y+ applications ( t univ]sal p[]4

 ,memory involves 'an idea ( my pres5t  
self' & an 'idea ( my pa/ self1' & to   
rememb] is to 'run ov] ! int]v5+ /ates (
 consci\sness call$ up by               
association4'#ecg ,belief involves      
association at e /ep4 ,! belief 9       
ext]nal objects is1 z 'all m5 admit' 444
 ':olly resolvable into                 
association4'#ech ',t a cause means & c 
mean no?+ to ! human m9d b con/ant      
antec$5ce' 7& !re=e 'insep>able         
association1' z he ?9ks7 'is no long] a 
po9t 9 dispute4'#eci ,association1 x is 
true1 may produce wrong z well z "r     
beliefs2 "r beliefs :5 '9 con=mity ) !  
connections ( ?+s1'#edj & wrong beliefs 
:5 n 9 con=mity4 ,9 bo? cases ! belief  
is produc$ by 'cu/om1' ?\gh1 happily1 ! 
"r cu/om is by f> ! commone/4 ,! '/r5g? 
( ! association foll[s ! frequ5cy4' ,!  
cr[ flies ea/ z well z we/2 b ! /one    
always falls d[nw>ds4#eda ,h5ce ,i =m an
 'insep>able association' correspond+ to
 a belief 9 gravitation1 b h no p>ticul>
 belief ab\t ! direction ( a cr['s      

flight4  ,?is gives ! doctr9e (         
'indissoluble association'--! pivot ( ! 
:ole s*eme--! doctr9e1 says ,j4 ,s4     
,mill1 :i*1 'if x c be prov$1 is !      
greate/ ( all ! triumphs ( !            
,association ,philosophy4'#edb ,! y\ng] 
,mill always insi/$ ^u ! va/ importance 
( ! pr9ciple2 b he "h admits a          
difficulty4 ,9 a long note#edc ^u ,james
 ,mill's *apt] on ',belief1' conspicu\s 
= 8 usual c&\r1 he confesses !          
inadequacy ( 8 fa!r's view4 ,! comm5t   
indicates ! po9t ( div]g5ce & yet %[s   
curi\sly ! gr\nd common to bo?4 ,james  
,mill's !ory /ates facts 9 "s s5se      
und5iable4 ,our 'ideas' coh]e & comb9e  
to =m a tissue3 an imag]y or s]ies (    
pictures :i* =m ! cont5t & are someh[ ! 
gr\nd ( our beliefs4 ,! process (       
=mation cle>ly involves 'association4'  
,! sc5t ( ! rose is associat$ ) ! col\r3
 bo? ) ! visible =m & s =?4 ,b is ?is   
process ! same ?+ z believ+1 or h we to 
expla9 ! belief by "s m5tal activity    
diff]5t f1 h[ev] closely connect$ )1 !  

imag9ation1 or 9 8 phrase ! 'ideation'8 
,"h ,j4 ,s4 ,mill f9ds a difficulty4 ,! 
/atem5t1 ',i believe t ?und] w foll[    
lightn+1' is some?+ m ?an ! /atem5t1 '! 
sight sugge/s or calls up ! s\nd4' ,!   
m5tal picture consid]$ by itself may be 
describ$ z a fact1 )\t consid]+ :at     
belief1 or :e!r any belief1 is impli$4  
,j4 ,s4 ,mill !re=e makes a di/9ction   
int5d$ to cle> up 8 fa!r's confusion4   
,!re is a diff]5ce1 he says1 betwe5     
rememb]+ 'a real fact' & rememb]+ a     
'?\ght4'#edd ,he illu/rates ?is by !    
diff]5ce betwe5 ! idea ( ,lafayette & ! 
idea ( ,fal/aff4 ,lafayette 0 real1 & _h
 be5 se5 by ! rememb]]4 ,fal/aff is a   
figm5t :o1 hav+ nev] exi/$1 c nev] h be5
 se54 ,yet ! idea ( ,fal/aff may be q z 
vivid z ! idea ( ,lafayette4 ,:at1 !n1  
is ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! two /ates ( m9d8 
,"o1 says ,j4 ,s4 ,mill1 is a belief    
ab\t 'real facts'2 ! o!r ab\t '?\ghts4' 
,?is1 he obs]ves1 corresponds to ,james 
,mill's di/9ction betwe5 a 's5sation' & 
an 'idea1'#ede a diff]5ce :i* he _h     

admitt$ to be 'primordial4' ,!n1 says   
,j4 ,s4 ,mill1 we may z well admit t !re
 is an 'elem5t' 9 ! remembrance ( a real
 fact n impli$ 9 ! remembrance ( a ?\ght
 & n dep5d5t on any diff]5ce 9 ! 'ideas'
 !mselves4 ,x1 too1 may be tak5 z       
'primordial1' or incapable ( fur!r      
analysis4 ,?is doctr9e becomes important
 9 "s ( ,mill's logical                 
speculations1#edf & is connect$ ) 8 :ole
 !ory ( belief 9 an ext]nal _w4 ,x has  
an uncom=table lik5ess to ,reid's       
'common-s5se' view1 & ev5 to ! hat$     
'intuitionism'2 & ,mill des]ves ! m     
cr$it = 8 c&\r4  ,mean:ile x seems cle> 
t ! criticism implies an important      
confusion4 ,! l9e ( di/9ction is drawn 9
 ! wrong place4 ,s f> z ! simple        
'imag9ation' is conc]n$1 !re may be no  
"q ( belief or disbelief4 ,! picture (  
,fal/aff or ( ,lafayette1 a horse or a  
c5taur1 arises equally1 & is put toge!r1
 let u suppose1 by simple association4  
,b z soon z ,i ?9k ab\t ei!r ,i believe 
or disbelieve1 & equally :e!r ,i judge !

 object to be a ?\ght or to be a 'real  
fact1' :e!r ,i say t ,i c\ld h se5      
,lafayette1 or t ,i c\ld n h se5        
,fal/aff4 ,x is n a "q betwe5 reality or
 unreality1 b betwe5 two classes (      
reality4 ,a dream is a real dream1 j z a
 man is a real man4 ,! "q is simply :]e 
or h[ x exi/s1 n :e!r x exi/s4 ,!       
picture is1 9 "o case1 put toge!r by my 
m9d2 9 ! o!r1 due to a /imulus f )\t2 b 
x exi/s 9 bo? cases2 & belief is equally
 pres5t :e!r ,i put x 9 "o class (      
reality or ! o!r3 z we =m a judgm5t     
equally :5 we pron\nce a man to be ly+1 
& :5 we pron\nce him to be speak+ !     
tru?4 ,j4 ,s4 ,mill seems to suppose t  
association c expla9 ! imag9ation ( a   
c5taur or a ,fal/aff1 b _c expla9 !     
belief 9 a horse or ,lafayette4 ,!      
imag9ation or 'ideation1' he %\ld h     
said1 acc\nts 9 bo? cases = ! m]e       
cont5ts ( ! ?\ght2 b 9 nei!r case c x by
 itself expla9 ! judgm5t z to 'reality4'
 ,t is to say1 ,james ,mill may h       
describ$ accurately a "p ( ! process by 

:i* ! m5tal picture is con/ruct$1 b has 
omitt$ to expla9 ! action ( ! m9d       
itself4 ,belief1 we may agree1 is a     
'primordial' or ultimate faculty2 b we  
mu/ n int]pret x z belief 9 a 'real     
fact' z di/+ui%$ f belief 9 'a ?\ght'3 t
 is a second>y & incid5tal di/9ction4   
,?is confusion1 z ,i h said1 app>5tly   
prev5ts ,j4 ,s4 ,mill f see+ h[ deeply 8
 v frank admissions cut into ! v        
/ructure ( 8 fa!r's sy/em4 ,he has1 z ,i
 h said1 rem>k$ ^u ! s+ul> abs5ce ( any 
ref]5ce to 'belief1' 'ab/raction1' & s  
=?2 b he sc>cely obs]ves h[ mu* is      
impli$ by ! omission4 ,8 criticism %\ld 
h gone fur!r4 ,james ,mill has n only   
omitt$ a faculty :i* enables u to       
di/+ui% betwe5 '?\ghts' & '?+s1' images 
( fancy & pictures ( reality1 b also !  
faculty :i* is equally pres5t :5ev] we  
prop]ly ?9k in/ead ( simply see+ images 
passively2 & equally :e!r we ref] an    
image to fact or fancy4 ,8 'analysis ( !
 m9d' seems to get rid ( ! m9d itself4  
,! omission becomes important at ! next 

/ep4 ',"u ! mode/ title ( an explanation
 ( ! mean+ ( sev]al names1' says 8 son1 
,james ,mill discusses '"s ( ! deepe/ & 
mo/ intricate que/ions 9 all            
metaphysics4' ,a treatise on *emi/ry    
might almo/ z well be 'describ$ z an    
explanation ( ! names1 air1 wat]1       
potass1 sulphuric acid1 & s =?4'#edg ,:y
 does ! *apt] come 9 ?is place & 9 ?is  
peculi> =m8 ,probably because ,james    
,mill 0 p>tly consci\s ( ! inadequacy ( 
8 previ\s *apt]s4 ,! problems :i* he has
 be5 consid]+ c\ld n be adequately      
treat$ by reg>d+ ideas z '?+s' b\nd     
toge!r by association4 ,:at1 aft] all1  
is a proposition8 ,:at is meant by      
'true' or 'false1' z di/+ui%$ f real &  
unreal8 ,if an association actually is a
 tru?1 :at is ! diff]5ce betwe5 "r &    
wrong associations8 ,bo? are facts1 & ! 
v words '"r' & 'wrong1' t is1 true &    
false1 apply n to facts b to            
propositions4#edh ,! judgm5t is te/$ 9  
"s way by correspond5ce to ! 'ord] (    
,nature1' or ( our s5sations & ideas4   

,:at precisely is meant by ?is ord]8 ,s 
f> z we h gone1 x seems z if ideas might
 be comb9$ 9 any ord] :atev]1 & ! mo/   
v>i\s beliefs g5]at$ 9 diff]5t m9ds4    
,p]haps1 h[ev]1 ! pr9ciple ( association
 itself may reveal some?+ z to !        
possible modes ( coalesc5ce4 ,mill makes
 contiguity an ultimate gr\nd (         
association2 & contiguity implies t ?+s 
h c]ta9 relations expressible 9 t]ms (  
space & "t & s =?4 ,^! primitive        
relations n[ come up = consid]ation1 &  
%\ld enable u to say m precisely :at k9d
 ( ord] is possible4 ,9 fact1 ,mill n[  
endeav\rs to analyse ! mean+s ( su*     
words z relation 9 g5]al1 "t1 space1    
numb]1 lik5ess1 p]sonal id5tity & o!rs4 
,! effect ( 8 analysis is t ! pr9ciples1
 :atev] !y may be1 :i* might be suppos$ 
to und]lie association appe> to be      
products ( association4 ,he beg9s by    
ask+ :at is ! mean+ ( 'relative t]ms4'  
,_! peculi>ity is t !y 'always exi/ 9   
pairs1' su* z 'fa!r & son1' 'high & l[1'
 '"r & left4' ',if x is ask$1 ,:y d we  

give names 9 pairs8 ! g5]al answ]       
imm$iately sugge/s itself2 x is because 
! ?+s nam$ pres5t !mselves 9 pairs1 t   
is1 are jo9$ by association4'#edi ,j4   
,s4 ,mill ?9ks t no "p ( ! ,analysis is 
m valuable ?an ! 'simple explanation'   
:i* foll[s4 ,!re is no 'my/ical bond    
call$ a relation' betwe5 two ?+s1 b 'a v
 simple peculi>ity 9 ! concrete fact'   
m>k$ by ! names4 ,9 'ord9>y names (     
objects1 ! fact connot$ by a "n 444     
conc]ns "o object only'2 9 ! case (     
relative names1 '! fact connot$ conc]ns 
two objects1 & _c be und]/ood )\t ?9k+ (
 !m bo?4' ,a 'fact conc]n+ an object' is
 a curi\sly awkw>d expression2 b "o po9t
 is cle>4 ,if ! two objects conc]n$ are 
! same1 :e!r consid]$ ap>t or toge!r1 ! 
'relation' mu/ be some?+ m ?an ! facts1 
& !re=e requires to be specifi$4 ,if !y 
are1 9 fact1 "o ?+1 or p>ts ( a cont9u\s
 process1 we mu/ ask h[ !y come to be   
di/+ui%$1 & :at gr\nd !re is = speak+ ( 
association4 ,james ,mill1 by consid]+ !
 problem z a m]e "q ( 'names1' seems to 

intimate t ! relation is a m]e figm5t4  
,9 fact1 z ,j4 ,s4 ,mill p]ceives1 !    
'explanations' become nugatory4 ,!y     
simply repeat ! ?+ to be expla9$4 ,he   
beg9s ) 'resemblance4' ,to feel two ?+s 
to be alike is1 he says1 ! same ?+ z to 
h ! two feel+s4 ,he means to say1       
app>5tly1 t :5 !re are two 'ideas' !re  
is n also a ?ird idea ( 'lik5ess4' ,t   
w\ld be :at ,b5?am call$ a 'fictiti\s   
entity4' ,b ?is _c 'expla9' ! lik5ess ( 
! ideas4 ',_! be+ alike1' z 8 son       
int]prets1 'is no?+ b _! be+ felt to be 
alike--:i* does n help u4'#eej ,s       
'antec$5ce & consequ5ce' are 'expla9$'  
by say+ t "o ( two feel+s calls up !    
o!r2 or1 z ! son aga9 rem>ks1 antec$5ce 
is expla9$ by antec$5ce1 & succession by
 succession4 ,antec$5ce & consequ5ce1 l 
lik5ess & unlik5ess1 mu/ !re=e1 accord+ 
to ,j4 ,s4 ,mill1 be 'po/ulat$ z        
univ]sal conditions ( ,nature1 inh]5t 9 
all our feel+s :e!r ( ext]nal or int]nal
 consci\sness4'#eea ,9 o!r words1       
app>5tly1 "t is an ultimate =m ( ?\ght4 

,"t & space1 g5]ally1 z ,james ,mill    
?9ks1 are ! 'ab/ract names' respectively
 ( successive & simultane\s ord]1 :i*   
become 'indissolubly associat$ ) ! idea 
( e object4'#eeb ,space1 ( c\rse1 is    
said to be a product ( t\* & muscul>    
s5sations1 & ! problem z to h[ ^! v>y+  
s5sations & ^! alone give rise to       
app>5tly necess>y & inv>iable beliefs is
 n tak5 into consid]ation4 ,mill is "h  
deal+ ) ! que/ions :i* ,kant attempt$ to
 answ] by %[+ h[ ! m9d imposes its =ms  
^u s5se-giv5 mat]ials1 =ms !m into      
concepts1 & comb9es ! concepts into     
judgm5ts & reason+4 ,mill evades !      
my/]i\s & transc5d5tal at ! co/ ( omitt+
 reason altoge!r4 ,he repres5ts ! result
 ( accept+ "o horn ( a dilemma1 :i*     
presses ^u philosophies ( l(ti]         
pret5sions4 ,^? :o accept ! o!r horn    
speak ( a 'fact' z ?\gh x 7 a tru?1 &   
argue z ?\gh ! _w c\ld be spun out (    
pure logic1 or a tissue be made (       
relations )\t any ?+s to be relat$4     
,mill1 ) sc>cely a glance at su*        

doctr9es1 tries sy/ematically to speak (
 a tru? z if x 7 a fact4 ,! _w = him is 
made up ( ideas /ick+ toge!r2 & no?+    
else exi/s4 ,! relation is ! fact2      
belief is ! association2 consci\sness & 
reflection1 consid]$ ap>t1 are no?+ b ! 
s5sations1 ideas1 clu/]s1 & tra9s4 ,!   
attempt to base all tru? ^u exp]i5ce1 to
 br+ philosophy into h>mony ) sci5ce 01 
z ,i hold1 p]fectly "r4 ,only1 ^u ^!    
assumptions x c\ld n be c>ri$ out4 ,mill
 _h ! m]it :i* is impli$ ev5 by an      
unsuccessful attempt to hold by fact4   
,he raises a numb] ( int]e/+ que/ions2 &
 ,i ?9k t x is m rem>kable t s _m ( 8   
obs]vations h /ill an int]e/ =          
psy*ologi/s ?an t s mu* is obvi\sly     
wrong4 ,mill1 x may be said1 took an    
essay ^u association = a treatise ^u    
psy*ology 9 g5]al4 ,he 0 writ+ :at might
 be "o important *apt] 9 su* a treatise1
 & supposes t he has writt5 ! :ole1 & c 
d$uce 'philosophy' f x1 if1 inde$1 any  
philosophy c be said to rema94          
,mean:ile1 ,i may obs]ve1 t by pu%+ 8   

pr9ciples to extremes1 ev5 8            
'association' doctr9e is endang]$4 ,8   
,analysis seems to de/roy ev5 ! elem5ts 
:i* are ne$$ to give ! simple/ laws (   
association4 ,x is r difficult to say   
:at is meant by ! 'contiguity1'         
'sequ5ce1' & 'resemblance1' :i* are !   
only conditions specifi$1 & :i* he seems
 to expla9 n z ! conditions b z !       
product ( association4 ,j4 ,s4 ,mill    
p]ceiv$ t some?+ 0 want+ :i* he aft]w>ds
 tri$ to supply4 ,i w j indicate "o or  
two po9ts1 :i* may %[ :at problems !    
fa!r bequea!d to ! son4 ,james ,mill1 at
 "o place1 discusses ! odd problem 'h[ x
 happ5s t all tra9s ( ?\ght are n !     
same4'#eec ,! m obvi\s "q is1 on 8      
hypo!sis1 h[ x happ5s t any two p h !   
same beliefs1 s9ce ! beliefs are made ( 
! mo/ v>y+ mat]ials4 ,if1 aga91 two     
ideas :5 associat$ rema9 di/9ct1 we h   
,hume's difficulty4 ,:atev] is          
di/+ui%able1 he argu$1 is sep>able4 ,if 
two ideas simply lie side by side1 z is 
app>5tly impli$ by 'contiguity1' s t ea*

 c be tak5 ap>t )\t *ange1 :y %\ld we   
suppose t !y w nev] exi/ ap>t1 or1      
inde$1 t !y %\ld ev] aga9 come toge!r8  
,! contiguity does n dep5d ^u !m1 b ^u  
"s inscrutable collocation1 ( :i* we c  
only say t x exi/s n[4 ,?is is ! problem
 :i* greatly occupi$ ,j4 ,s4 ,mill4  ,! 
'indissoluble' or 'insep>able'          
association1 :i* became ! gr& arcanum ( 
! s*ool1 :ile int5d$ to answ] "s ( ^!   
difficulties1 raises o!rs4 ,mill seems  
to insi/ ^u splitt+ a unit into p>ts 9  
ord] t x may be aga9 br\ght toge!r by   
association4 ,s ,j4 ,s4 ,mill1 9 an     
admir+ note1 confirms 8 fa!r's          
explanation 7'"o ( ! mo/ important ?\ght
 9 ! :ole treatise'7 ( ! inf9ity (      
space4#eed ,we ?9k space inf9ite because
 we always 'associate' position )       
ext5sion4 ,surely space is ext5sion2 &  
to ?9k ( "o )\t ! o!r implies a         
contradiction4 ,we ?9k space inf9ite1   
because we ?9k ( a space z only limit$  
by o!r space1 & !re=e indef9itely       
ext5sible4 ,!re is no 'association1'    

simply repetition4 ,else:]e we h !      
problem1 ,h[ does "o association exclude
 ano!r8 ,only1 z ,j4 ,s4 ,mill replies1 
:5 "o idea includes ! idea ( ! abs5ce ( 
! o!rs4#eee ,we _c comb9e ! ideas ( a   
plane & a convex surface4 ,:y8 ,because 
we h nev] _h bo? sets ( s5sations       
toge!r4 ,! 'comm5cem5t' ( "o set has    
always be5 'simultane\s ) ! cessation ( 
ano!r set1' z1 = in/ance1 :5 we b5d a   
flat %eet ( pap]4 ,! difficulty seems to
 be t "o fact _c be contradictory (     
ano!r1 s9ce contradiction only applies  
to ass]tions4 ,:5 ,i say t ,a is above  
,b1 h[ev]1 ,i surely ass]t t ,b is bel[ 
,a2 & ,i _c make bo? ass]tions ab\t ,a &
 ,b at ! same "t )\t a contradiction4   
,to expla9 ?is by an association (      
simultane\s & successive s5sations seems
 to be a curi\sly r\ndab\t way (        
'expla9+4' ,e ass]tion is also a d5ial2 
&1 if ,i am entitl$ to say any?+1 ,i am 
enabl$ )\t any help f association to d5y
 its contradictory4 ,on ,mill's %[+1 !  
ass]tion & ! d5ial ( its contradiction1 

in/ead ( be+ id5tical1 are tak5 to be   
two beliefs accid5tally associat$4      
,f9ally1 ,i ne$ only make "o rem>k ^u ! 
fundam5tal difficulty4 ,x is h>d to     
conceive ( m]e loose 'ideas' go+ ab\t 9 
! univ]se at l>ge & /ick+ accid5tally to
 o!rs4 ,aft] all1 ! human be+ is 9 true 
s5se also an organis$ :ole1 & 8         
con/itution mu/ be tak5 into acc\nt 9   
discov]+ ! laws ( 'ideation4' ,?is is ! 
po9t ( view to :i* ,mill1 9 8 anxiety to
 get rid ( ev]y?+ t _h a sav\r ( a      
priori k ab\t x1 rema9s comp>atively    
bl9d4 ,x implies a rem>kable omission4  
,mill's great tea*]1 ,h>tley1 _h appeal$
 to physiology 9 a necess>ily crude     
fa%ion4 ,he _h !re=e an organism3 a bra9
 or a n]v\s sy/em :i* c\ld react ^u !   
ext]nal _w & modify & comb9e s5sations4 
,mill's ideas w\ld h m app>5t connection
 if !y c\ld be made to correspond to    
'vibratiuncles' or physical processes ( 
"s k9d4 ,b ?is "p ( ,h>tley's hypo!sis  
_h be5 dropp$3 & all reality is !re=e   
r$uc$ to ! :irl ( vagrant & accid5tally 

coh]+ ideas 9 bra9s & clu/]s4 ,8 "o ma9 
aim is to get rid ( ev]y?+ t c be call$ 
my/ical & to trace all m5tal processes  
to 'exp]i5ce1' z he und]/&s exp]i5ce--to
 %[ t we are nev] entitl$ to ass]t t two
 ideas may n be jo9$ 9 any way :atev]4  
,! g5]al t5d5cy ( ! ',association       
,philosophy' is suffici5tly cle>4 ,x may
 be be/ appreciat$ by comp>+ x to !     
me?od ( ! physical sci5ces1 :i* x 0     
int5d$ to rival4 ,! physici/ expla9s !  
'laws ( nature' by reg>d+ a ph5om5on z  
due to ! v>y+ arrangem5ts ( an indef9ite
 multitude ( uni=m atoms4 ,i ne$ n ask  
:e!r ^! atoms are to be reg>d$ z        
realities1 ev5 ! sole realities1 or1 on 
! o!r h&1 z a k9d ( logical scaffold+   
removable :5 ! laws are asc]ta9$4 ,9 any
 case1 ! assumption is necess>y & mo/   
fruitful 9 ! se>* = accurate &          
quantitative =mulae4 ,mill virtually    
assumes t ! same ?+ c be done by break+ 
up ! /ream ( consci\sness into ! ideas  
:i* correspond to ! primitive atoms4    
,:at precisely ^! atoms may be1 h[ !    

con/antly v>y+ fl[ ( ?\ght c be resolv$ 
into con/itu5t fractions1 is n easy to  
see4 ,! physici/ at lea/ supposes 8     
atoms to h def9ite space relations1 b   
!re is no?+ cle>ly correspond+ to space 
9 ! 'ideas4' ,!y are capable ( no?+ b   
co-exi/5ce1 sequ5ce1 & lik5ess2 b !     
attempt to expla9 ! mean+ ( ^? words    
ends 9 no?+ b repeat+ !m4 ,"o result is 
! curi\s comb9ation ( ! absolute & !    
indef9itely v>iable4 ,we get absolute   
/atem5ts because ! ultimate con/itu5ts  
are tak5 to be absolutely con/ant4 ,we h
 indef9ite v>iability because !y may be 
collocat$ 9 any conceivable or          
inconceivable way4 ,?is becomes evid5t  
:5 we h to d ) organisms ( any k9d3 )   
*>act]s or societies an organism v>ies1 
b v>ies along def9ite l9es4 ,b1 on      
,mill's %[+1 ! organic relations        
correspond to ! indef9itely v>iable4    
,education is omnipot5t2 /ate           
con/itutions c be manufactur$ at w1 &   
produce indef9ite consequ5ces4 ,& yet he
 c lay d[n laws ( absolute validity1    

because he seems to be d$uc+ !m f "o or 
two =mulae correspond+ to ! ess5tial &  
inv>iable prop]ties ( ! ultimate        
unit--:e!r man or ideas4 ,f ?is foll[s1 
too1 ! t5d5cy to speak z if human       
desires correspond$ to "s def9ite       
measurable ?+s1 su* z utility 9 e?ics1  
value 9 political economy1 & self-int]e/
 9 politics4 ,?is po9t appe>s 9 !       
application ( ,mill's !ories to ! moral 
sci5ces4   ,,iii4 ,,james ,,mill',s     
,,e?ics  ,james ,mill 9 8 e?ical doctr9e
 foll[s ,b5?am ) little v>iation2 b he  
%[s v cle>ly :at 0 ! psy*ology :i*      
,b5?am virtually assum$4 ,i may pass v  
briefly ov] ,mill's !ory ( conduct#eef 9
 g5]al4 ,! 'ph5om5a ( ?\ght1' he says1  
may be divid$ into ! 'intellectual' & ! 
'active' p[]s4 ,hi!rto he has consid]$  
's5sations' & 'ideas' m]ely z exi/+2 he 
w n[ consid] !m z 'excit+ to            
action4'#eeg ,! ph5om5a consi/ 9 bo?    
cases ( s5sations & ideas1 comb9$ into  
'clu/]s1' & =m$ into tra9s 'accord+ to !
 s5se laws4' ,we h n[ to consid] ! ideas

 z active1 & 'to demon/rate ! simple    
laws into :i* ! ph5om5a ( human life1 s 
num]\s & app>5tly s div]sifi$1 may all  
be easily resolv$4'  ,a desire is an    
'idea' ( a pleasant s5sation2 an        
'av]sion' an idea ( pa9ful s5sation4 ,! 
idea & ! s5sation are n two ?+s1 b two  
names = ! same ?+4 ,desire1 aga91 has a 
'tacit ref]5ce to future "t' :5 appli$  
to a giv5 case4 ,we associate ^! pa9s & 
pleasures ) ! causes2 & 9 ! important   
case our own actions are ! causes4 ,?us 
! association produces ! motive1 & !    
read9ess to obey ! motive is1 z ,b5?am  
says1 ! 'disposition4' ,!n1 foll[+      
,h>tley1 ,mill expla9s ! w4 ,bodily     
actions are muscul> contractions1 :i*   
are sl[ly co-ord9at$ by                 
habit--association1 ( c\rse1 act+ at e  
/age ( ! process4 ,n[1 x is a pla9 fact 
t muscul> contractions foll[ 'ideas4' ,x
 is easy1 !n1 to see h[ ! 'idea ( a     
pleasure %\ld excite ! idea ( ! action  
:i* is ! cause ( x2 & h[1 :5 ! idea     
exi/s1 ! action %\ld foll[4'#eeh ,an    

'end' is a pleasure desir$1 & gives !   
'motive4' ,:5 we />t f ! motive & get ! 
pleasure ! same association is call$    
'w4' ',free-w' is ( c\rse nons5se4 ,we h
 a full acc\nt ( ! human me*anism1 & c  
see t x is ?r\gh\t work$ by association1
 admitt+ ! prim>y fact ( exp]i5ce t !   
idea causes ! muscul> contraction4      
,?is1 & ! e?ical conclusions :i* foll[1 
sub/antially co9cide ) ,b5?am's doctr9e1
 or supply ! fir/ pr9ciples f :i* ,b5?am
 might be d$uc$4 ,a full] exposition ( !
 e?ics is giv5 9 ! ,fragm5t on          
,mack9to%4 ,mack9to%1 9 #ahbi1 wrote a  
,diss]tation ^u ',e?ical ,philosophy1' =
 ! ,encyclopa$ia ,britannica4#eei ,!    
book /irr$ ,mill's 'indignation aga9/ an
 evil-do]4'#efj ,he wrote a ,fragm5t on 
,mack9to%1 :i* 0 suppress$ = a "t 9     
consequ5ce ( 8 antagoni/'s dea? 9 #ahcb1
 b publi%$ 9 ! ye> ( 8 own dea?1        
#ahce4efa ,accord+ to ,pr(essor ,ba91 ! 
book 0 s(t5$ 9 consequ5ce ( remon/rances
 f ,bick]/e?4 ,x w\ld be curi\s to see !
 previ\s v]sion4 ,pr(essor ,ba9 says t  

!re are '?\s&s' ( books :i* conta9 'f>  
worse sev]ities ( language4' ,i confess 
t ,i _c rememb] q 'a ?\s&4' ,x is at    
lea/ difficult to imag9e m unmitigat$   
expressions ( contempt & av]sion4       
,mack9to%1 says ,mill1 uses 'mac>oni    
phrases1' 'tawdry talk1' 'gabble'2 he   
gets 'beyond drivell+' into some?+ m l  
'rav+'2 he 'deluges' u ) 'unspeakable   
nons5se4' ',good ,god6' sums up ! comm5t
 :i* c be made ^u "o s5t5ce4#efb ,sir   
,james1 he decl>es1 'has got into an    
intellectual /ate s ?or\ghly deprav$ t  
,i d\bt :e!r a p>allel to x is possible 
to be f\nd4'#efc ,!re is sc>cely a      
m5tion ( ,mack9to% )\t an insult4 ,a    
p>tial explanation ( ,mill's wra? may be
 sugge/$ by ! *apt] ^u ,b5?am4 ,mack9to%
 !re accus$ ! ,utilit>ians g5]ally (    
'wantonly w\nd+ ! mo/ respectable feel+s
 ( mank9d'2 ( 'cl++ to op9ions because  
!y are obnoxi\s'2 ( tak+ !mselves to be 
a '*os5 few1' despis+ ! multitude1 &    
retort+ ! dislike :i* _! arrogance has  
provok$ by us+ /ill m exasp]at+         

language4#efd ,he sugge/$ t !y %\ld d m 
ju/ice to '! ,romillys & ! ,br\ghams1'  
:o _h be5 ! real & judici\s re=m]s2 & he
 illu/rat$ ! errors ( ,b5?am by especial
 ref]5ce to ,mill's argum5ts ^u gov]nm5t
 & education4 ,!re _h long be5 an       
antipa?y4 ,mack9to%1 said ,mill 9 #ahbj1
 'lives b = ,london display2 p>l] et    
faire p>l] de lui 9 c]ta9 circles is 8  
heav54'#efe  ,mack9to% w\ld h be5 mo/ at
 home 9 a pr(essorial *air4 ,he 01      
inde$1 pr(essor at ,haileybury f #ahah  
to #ahbd1 & spok5 ( z a probable        
successor to ,br[n at ,ed9burgh4 ,b he  
c\ld nev] decid$ly conc5trate himself ^u
 "o ma9 purpose4 ,habits ( procra/9ation
 & c>elessness ab\t money caus$         
emb>rassm5t :i* =c$ him to write ha/ily4
 ,8 love ( society int]f]$ ) /udy1 & 8  
/udy 0 spread ov] an impossible range ( 
subjects4 ,8 great abilities1 wa/$ by ^!
 infirmities1 7 second$ by v wide le>n+4
 ,macaulay describes ! impression :i* he
 made at ,holl& ,h\se4#eff ,he pass$    
among 8 fri5ds z ! pr(\nd philosoph]2 ! 

man ( univ]sal k ( hi/ory2 ( ripe & mo/ 
imp>tial judgm5t 9 politics2 ! oracle to
 :om all m5 might appeal ) confid5ce1   
?\gh a little too apt to f9d out t all  
sides 7 9 ! "r4 ,:5 he w5t to ,india he 
took ) him "s ( ! s*ola/ic writ]s & !   
works ( ,kant & ,fi*te1 !n kn[n to few  
,engli%m54 ,"o ( ,macaulay's exp]i5ces  
at ,holl& ,h\se 0 a vision ( ,mack9to%  
v]ify+ a quotation f ,aqu9as4#efg ,x mu/
 h be5 delightful4 ,! e?ical            
'diss]tation1' h[ev]1 _h to be %ort5$ by
 omitt+ all ref]5ce to ,g]man           
philosophy1 & ! acc\nt ( ! s*oolm5 is   
cursory4 ,x is easy to see :y ! suave & 
amiable ,mack9to% appe>$ to ,mill to be 
a 'd&y' philosoph]1 an unctu\s sp9n] (  
platitudes to impose ^u ! frequ5t]s (   
,holl& ,h\se1 & hopelessly confus$ 9 !  
attempt to make compromises betwe5      
contradictory !ories4 ,x is equally easy
 to see :y to ,mack9to% ! ?or\ghgo+ &   
/r5u\s ,mill appe>$ to be a "o-sid$     
fanatic1 bl9d to ! m]its ( all sy/ems   
outside ! n>r[ limits ( ,b5?amism1 &    

mak+ ev5 philan?ropy hateful4 ,_h       
,mack9to% liv$ to read ,mill's ,fragm5t1
 he w\ld c]ta9ly h ?\ght x a pro( t !   
,utilit>ians 7 z dogmatic & acrid z he  
_h ev] ass]t$4  ,mack9to%'s position 9  
e?ics expla9s ,mill's antagonism4 ,nei!r
 ,aqu9as nor ,kant nor ,fi*te influ5c$  
him4 ,8 doctr9e is ! natural outcome ( !
 ,scotti% philosophy4 ,hut*eson _h bo?  
inv5t$ ,b5?am's sacr$ =mula1 & taught ! 
',moral ,s5se' !ory :i* ,b5?am attack$4 
,to /udy ! morality f ! po9t ( view (   
'inductive psy*ology' is to /udy ! moral
 faculty1 & to reject ! purely          
'intellectual' sy/em4 ,to assign !      
position ( ! moral faculty 9 !          
psy*ological sy/em is to %[ its utility4
 ,on ! o!r h&1 x 0 ! v aim ( ! s*ool to 
avoid ! sceptical conclusions ( ,hume 9 
philosophy1 & 9 e?ics to avoid !        
complete id5tification ( morality )     
utility4 ,!re mu/ be a di/9ction betwe5 
! judgm5ts1 '?is is "r1' & '?is is      
useful'2 ev5 'useful to m5 9 g5]al4'    
,h5ce1 on ! "o h&1 morality is          

imm$iately dictat$ by a special s5se or 
faculty1 & yet its dictates co9cide ) ! 
dictates ( utility4 ,i h spok5 ( ?is    
view z repres5t$ by ,dugald ,/ew>t2 &   
,br[n _h1 accord+ to 8 cu/om1 mov$ a /ep
 fur!r by dim9i%+ ! li/ ( orig9al fir/  
pr9ciples1 & mak+ 'virtue' simply       
equival5t to 'feel+s' ( approval &      
disapproval4#efh ,virtue1 he said1 is   
useful2 ! utility 'accompanies our moral
 approbation2 b ! p]ception ( t utility 
does n con/itute our moral approbation1 
nor is x necess>ily presuppos$ by       
x4'#efi ,he comp>es ! co9cid5ce betwe5  
virtue & utility to ,leibniz's          
pre-e/abli%$ h>mony4#egj ,! position is 
famili>4 ,! adaptation ( an organism to 
its conditions may be tak5 ei!r z an    
explanation ( its developm5t or z a pro(
 ( a creative purpose4  ,mack9to% takes 
ne>ly ! same position4 ,e?ical          
inquiries1 he says1 relate to 'two      
p]fectly di/9ct subjects4' ,we h !      
problem ( ! 'crit]ion' 7,:at is !       
di/9ction betwe5 "r & wrong87 & !       

problem ( ! 'moral s5tim5ts' 7,:at are !
 feel+s produc$ by ! contemplation ( "r 
& wrong874 ,9 treat+ ( ! feel+s1 aga91  
we mu/ avoid ! confusion caus$ 9 ! old] 
philosophy by ! r$uction ( 'feel+' to   
'?\ght4'#ega ,reason & s5sation are     
di/9ct ?\gh insep>ably comb9$2 & h5ce1  
he argues1 x is a fallacy to speak )    
,cl>ke z if reason c\ld by itself be a  
motive4 ,an argum5t to influ5ce conduct 
mu/ always be 9 ! la/ resort an appeal  
to a 'feel+4'#egb ,x is idle to tell a  
man t conduct is infam\s unless he feels
 infamy to be pa9ful4 ,we h !n to ask   
:at are ! feel+s :i* prompt to morality4
 ,s f> z ! crit]ion is conc]n$1         
,mack9to% fully agrees ) ,hume1 ^: !ory 
t 'g5]al utility con/itutes a g5]al     
gr\nd ( moral di/9ctions c nev] be      
impugn$ until "s example c be produc$ ( 
a virtue g5]ally p]nici\s or a vice     
g5]ally b5eficial4'#egc ,hume1 h[ev]1   
ov]looks ! 'rightful supremacy ( ! moral
 faculty ov] e o!r pr9ciple ( human     
action4' ,mack9to% ?\ght t 8 be/ s]vice1

 z he told ,macvey ,napi]1#egd _h be5 8 
'endeav\r to slip 9 a f\ndation "u      
,butl]'s doctr9e ( ! supremacy ( !      
consci5ce1 :i* he left baseless4' ,to   
slip 9 a f\ndation is a v delicate      
op]ation 9 logical z 9 mat]ial          
ar*itecture2 & ! new f\ndation seems "h 
to be 9 dang] ( inv]t+ ! edifice4 ,!    
'supremacy ( consci5ce'#ege means ) him 
t ! 'moral s5tim5ts' =m a sep>ate class4
 ,!y are ! feel+s ) :i* we contemplate  
volunt>y actions 9 g5]al1 & !re=e ^?    
ar\s$ by ! "* & conduct ( ! ag5t4       
,mack9to% ?us takes an ae/hetic view (  
morality4 ,we h a 'moral ta/e' or       
p]ception ( beauty4 ,! same qualities   
:i* make a horse beautiful make him also
 swift & safe1 b we p]ceive ! beauty )\t
 ?9k+ ( ! utility1 or r :5 we d n ?9k ( 
x4 ,s we admire a h]o or m>tyr = !      
beauty ( 8 "* )\t ref]5ce to 8 s]vices  
to u4#egf ,?is moral ta/e1 ?\gh n       
id5tical ) ! consci5ce1 becomes 'absorb$
 into x4' ,! consci5ce diff]s f ! 'moral
 ta/e' because x acts ^u ! w4 ,b its    

supremacy seems to be ?is quality :i* x 
%>es ) or d]ives f ! ta/e--its imm$iate 
& spontane\s op]ation4 ,x is1 he seems  
to mean1 a direct p]ception ( beauty 9  
"* appli$ to ! regulation ( conduct4    
,virtue corresponds to an in/9ctive & s 
f> ultimate appreciation ( beauty ( "*4 
,mack9to% insi/s ^u ?is intr9sic *>m (  
virtue 9 ! language :i* /ruck ,mill z   
simply foppi% affectation4 ,! pleasure (
 'b5evol5ce' itself1 says ,mack9to%1 is 
inf9itely sup]ior to ! pleasures to :i* 
x may lead4 ,c\ld x become 'la/+ &      
int5se1' x w\ld conv]t ! he>t into a    
heav54#egg ,to love virtue1 y mu/ love x
 '= its own sake4'#egh ,! delights ( be+
 virtu\s 7z he int]prets ! phrase7 are  
great] ?an any delight f ! consequ5ces (
 virtue4 ,& he holds up z a model       
,flet*] ( ,salt\n1 :o w\ld 'lose 8 life 
to s]ve 8 c\ntry1 b w\ld n d a base ?+  
to save x4'#egi  ,h[1 !n1 is ?is view to
 be reconcil$ ) ! unres]v$ admission (  
'utility' z ! 'crit]ion' ( "r & wrong8  
,"o answ] is t ,mack9to% fully accepts  

,h>tley's doctr9e ( association4 ,he ev5
 criticises previ\s philosoph]s = n pu%+
 x f> en\gh4 ,he says t association1    
in/ead ( m]ely comb9+ a '?\ght' & a     
'feel+1' '=ms !m into a new comp\nd1 9  
:i* ! prop]ties ( ! compon5t p>ts are no
 long] discov]able1 & :i* may itself    
become a sub/antive pr9ciple ( human    
virtue4'#ehj ,! "q ( orig91 !re=e1 is   
diff]5t f ! "q ( nature4 ,he foll[s     
,h>tley 9 trac+ ! developm5t ( v>i\s    
desires1 & 9 %[+ h[ ! 'second>y desires'
 are gradually =m$ f ! primitive by     
transf]5ce to diff]5t objects4#eha ,we  
mu/ />t f feel+s :i* lie b5ea? any      
intellectual process1 & ?us ! judgm5t ( 
utility is f ! fir/ second>y4 ,we arrive
 at ! high] feel+s :i* are 'z indep5d5t 
z if !y 7 und]iv$1'#ehb & yet1 z        
happ9ess has be5 involv$ at e /age z an 
end ( ea* desire1 x is no wond] t !     
ultimate result %\ld be to make ! g5]al 
happ9ess ! end4 ,! co9cid5ce1 !n1 ( !   
crit]ion ) ! end ( ! moral s5tim5ts is  
'n arbitr>y1' b arises necess>ily f '!  

laws ( human nature & ! circum/ances 9  
:i* mank9d are plac$4'#ehc ,h5ce we rea*
 ! doctr9e :i* 'has escap$ ,h>tley z    
well z e o!r philosoph]4'#ehd ,t doctr9e
 is t ! moral faculty is "o2 x is       
comp\nd1 inde$1 9 its orig92 b becomes  
an indep5d5t unit1 :i* c no long] be    
resolv$ ev5 9 ?\ght into its con/itu5t  
elem5ts4  ,! doctr9e approximates1 x    
w\ld seem1 to ,mill's2 b 0 all ! m      
unpalatable to him on t acc\nt4 ,!      
agreem5t implies plagi>ism1 & ! diff]5ce
 hopeless /upidity4 ,to ,mill ,b5?am 0 !
 legitimate developm5t ( ,h>tley1 :ile  
to ,mack9to% ,b5?am 0 ! plausible p]v]t]
 ( ,h>tley4 ,mill reg>d$ ,mack9to% z a  
sophi/1 ^: aim 0 to mislead hone/       
,utilit>ians into ! pa?s ( or?odoxy1 &  
:o also ignor$ ! m]its ( ,mill himself4 
',x 0 ,mr4 ,mill1' he says1 ':o fir/    
made kn[n ! great importance ( !        
pr9ciple ( ! indissoluble               
association'2#ehe ',mr4 ,mill' :o _h    
tak5 up ,h>tley's speculations &        
'prosecut$ ! inquiry to its end'2#ehf   

',mr4 ,mill' :o expla9$ affections &    
motives & dispositions2#ehg & ',mr4     
,mill' :o _h cle>$ up mi/akes ab\t      
classification :i* '_h done m to        
p]petuate d>kness on ! subject ( m9d ?an
 any o!r cause1 p]haps ?an all o!r      
causes tak5 toge!r4'#ehh ,sir ,james    
blund]$ because he _h n read ,mill's    
book1 z he pret5d$ to h done4 ,mill does
 n say all ?is f vanity2 he is simply   
/at+ an obvi\s matt] ( fact4  ,mill's   
polemic aga9/ ! ,moral ,s5se !ory1 ev5  
aga9/ a moral s5se produc$ by           
association1 reveals ! really critical  
po9ts ( ! true ,utilit>ian doctr9e4     
,mill w\ld cut d[n ! moral s5se root &  
bran*4 ,! 'moral s5se' means a 'p>ticul>
 faculty' necess>y to disc]n "r & wrong4
 ,b no p>ticul> faculty is necess>y to  
disc]n 'utility4'#ehi ,h5ce ! di/9ction 
betwe5 ! 'crit]ion' & ! 'moral s5tim5ts'
 is absurd4 ,! utility is n ! 'crit]ion'
 ( ! morality b itself con/itutes !     
morality4 ,to say t conduct is "r1      
accord+ to ! ,utilit>ians1 is ! same ?+ 

z to say t x produces happ9ess4 ,if !   
moral s5se ord]s conduct oppos$ to !    
crit]ion1 x is s f> bad4 ,if x nev]     
ord]s su* conduct1 x is sup]flu\s4      
,happ9ess1 z ) ,b5?am1 is a def9ite     
?+--a curr5cy ( solid bullion2 &        
'virtue' means no?+ except z calculat$ 9
 ?is curr5cy4 ,mill1 aga91 l ,b5?am1    
reg>ds ! 'utility' pr9ciple z giv+ !    
sole 'objective' te/4 ,! compla9t t x   
sanctions 'exp$i5cy' is a simple        
fallacy4  ,if y d n love virtue '= its  
own sake1' said ,mack9to%1 y w break a  
g5]al law :]ev] ! law produces a balance
 ( pa9ful consequ5ces4 ,mill replies )  
great vig\r4#eij ,all g5]al rules1 x is 
true1 imply exceptions1 b only :5 !y    
conflict ) ! supreme rule4 ',!re is no  
exception to a rule ( morality1' says   
,mill1 'b :at is made by a rule (       
morality4'#eia ,!re are num]\s cases 9  
:i* ! p>ticul> laws conflict2 & "o law  
mu/ !n be brok54 ,! "q :i* to break mu/ 
!n be decid$ by ! same unequivocal te/1 
'utility4' ,if a rule = increas+ utility

 dim9i%es utility 9 a giv5 case1 x mu/  
be brok5 9 t case4 ,mack9to%'s ,flet*] (
 ,salt\n illu/rates ! po9t4#eib ,:at is 
! 'base' ?+ :i* ,flet*] w\ld n d to save
 8 c\ntry8 ,w\ld he n be ! base/ ( m5 if
 he did n save 8 c\ntry at any co/8 ,to 
de/roy half a population & r$uce ! o!r  
half to mis]y has be5 ?\ght a sacrifice 
n too great = su* an end4 ,w\ld n       
,mack9to% himself all[ ,flet*]1 :5      
intru/$ ) an important =tress1 to       
sacrifice ! lives & prop]ties ( innoc5t 
p 9 def5ce ( 8 position8#eic ,:at1 !n1  
does ! love ( virtue '= its own sake'   
come to8 ,if y refuse to save y\r       
c\ntry1 because y ?9k ! means base1 y\r 
morality is mis*iev\s1 t is1 immoral4   
,if1 on ! o!r h&1 y admit t ! means     
cease to be base1 ! suppos$ supremacy is
 an empty brag4 ,! doctr9e is !n v]bally
 ma9ta9$1 b int]pret$ s z to con=m to ! 
crit]ion ( utility4 ,9 o!r words1       
,mack9to% _c reconcile 8 admission (    
utility z a 'crit]ion' ) 8 support ( a  
moral s5se entitl$ to ov]ride !         

crit]ion4 ,mack9to%'s moral s5se is     
meant to di/+ui% ! moral motive f       
'exp$i5cy4' ,to ?is1 aga91 ,mill has a v
 =cible answ]4 ,a man is blameable :o   
makes exceptions to laws 9 8 own private
 int]e/4 ,b if a man consi/5tly &       
inv>iably act$ = ! 'greate/ happ9ess ( !
 greate/ numb]1' & paid no m att5tion to
 8 own happ9ess ?an to o!r p's1 he w\ld 
c]ta9ly h a v l(ty & inflexible te/1    
assum+--z we mu/ all[ ,mill to assume--t
 we c calculate ! effect ( conduct ^u   
happ9ess at l>ge4 ,aga91 ^u ! assumption
 t 'moral' is equival5t to 'felicific1' 
we get a g5]al rule entitl$ to ov]ride  
any individual ta/es or fancies1 su* z  
,mill supposes to be meant by ! ',moral 
,s5se4' ,! rule is d]iv$ f ! int]e/s (  
all1 & gives an ultimate 'objective     
crit]ion4' ,j4 ,s4 ,mill1 describ+ 8    
fa!r's sy/em1 obs]ves t ! tea*+ ( su* a 
man 0 n likely to err on '! side (      
laxity or indulg5ce4'#eid ,x c]ta9ly did
 n4 ,&1 9 fact1 8 crit]ion1 h[ev]       
obta9$1 _h 9 8 eyes ! c]ta9ty ( a       

sci5tific law4 ,?is or t is "r z surely 
z ?is or t food is :olesome4 ,my ta/e   
has no?+ to d ) x4 ,&1 moreov]1 !       
crit]ion c]ta9ly gives a moral gr\nd4   
,if ,i "k t any conduct w produce m     
happ9ess ?an mis]y t is a moral reason =
 adopt+ x4 ,a 'moral s5se' :i* %\ld be  
radically inconsi/5t ) t crit]ion1 :i*  
%\ld ord] me to inflict suff]+ z suff]+1
 or )\t "s ult]ior reason1 w\ld be      
c]ta9ly at fault4 ,mack9to% inde$ w\ld h
 agre$ to ?is1 ?\gh1 if ,mill 0 "r1 at !
 exp5se ( consi/5cy4  ,mill1 h[ev]1     
d$uces f 8 crit]ion doctr9es :i* involve
 a rem>kable p>adox4 ,! mode 9 :i* he is
 l$ to !m is *>act]i/ic ( ! :ole me?od4 
,mill1 l ,b5?am1 puts morality ^u ! same
 plane ) law4 ,conduct is influ5c$ ei!r 
by ! 'community 9 its conjunct          
capacity'--t is1 by law2 or by          
'individuals 9 _! individual            
capacity'--t is1 by morality4#eie ,!    
sanction ( "o1 we may inf]1 is =ce2 ( ! 
o!r1 approval & disapproval4 ,) ?is we  
mu/ take ano!r ,b5?amite doctr9e1 ( :i* 

,i h already spok54#eif ',mr4 ,b5?am    
demon/rat$1' says ,mill1 't ! morality (
 an act does n dep5d ^u ! motive1' &1   
fur!r1 t x 'is altoge!r dep5d5t on !    
int5tion4'#eig ,^u ?is he con/antly     
insi/s4 ,mack9to%'s view t virtue dep5ds
 ^u motive w be 'scorn$ by e man :o has 
any k ( ! philosophy ( ! human m9d4444  
,! virtue does n dep5d ^u ! motive4 ,!re
 is no bad motive4 ,e motive is ! desire
 ( good2 to ! ag5t himself or to "s "o  
else4'#eih ,he gives an analysis (      
action to put ! po9t beyond d\bt4       
,action supposes a 'motive1' a          
'volition1' & an 'ext]nal act' or       
muscul> contraction4 ,s f> !re is no?+  
moral4 ,b !n an act has consequ5ces1    
good or bad1 to human be+s1 :i*         
con/itute its utility4 ,to make x moral1
 ! ag5t mu/ anticipate 'b5eficial       
consequ5ces1' & mu/ h no reason to      
anticipate a balance ( evil consequ5ces4
 ,int5tion means ! calculation (        
consequ5ces1 & )\t t calculation !re c  
be no morality4#eii ,h5ce ! morality is 

equival5t to a 'conviction ( ! g5]al    
utility' ( ! action4#fjj ',all ?is1' he 
concludes1 'is settl$ by univ]sal       
cons5t4 ,x is va91 !re=e1 to ?9k (      
disput+ x4' ,"o may1 h[ev]1 ask :at x   
means4 ,i h already obs]v$ t ! view ( ! 
non-moral "* ( motive 0 a natural       
coroll>y f ! purely legal po9t ( view4  
,i mu/ n[ consid] ! results ( apply+ x  
unres]v$ly 9 ! inappropriate sph]e (    
e?ics4  ,9 ! fir/ place1 ! d5ial ( any  
moral quality 9 motive seems to be      
inconsi/5t ) ,mill's own pr9ciples4 ,!  
,utilit>ian1 accord+ to him1 holds t !  
moral law is ess5tially ! /atem5t t     
c]ta9 conduct produces g5]al happ9ess4  
,if1 !n1 we ask1 ,:o is a good man8 we  
fir/ reply t he is a man ^: conduct     
produces happ9ess4 ,ano!r conclusion is 
obvi\sly necess>y1 & is impli$ 9 ,mill's
 /atem5t t ! 'int5tion' is ess5tial to  
morality4 ,! man1 t is1 mu/ =esee t 8   
conduct w produce happ9ess4 ,!          
'calculation' is precisely :at makes an 
action moral z well z accid5tally       

useful4 ,9 o!r words1 ! man is good to  
:om ! k t an act w produce happ9ess is !
 same ?+ z a comm& to p]=m ! act4 ,!    
'int5tion' c\ld n affect conduct )\t !  
correspond+ motive1 & ,mill c at times  
recognise ! obvi\s consequ5ce4 ,!       
'physical law' 7mean+ ! law en=c$ by    
physical co]cion71 he says incid5tally1 
has 'extr9sic' sanctions2#fja ! moral   
law is diff]5t1 because x sanctions good
 actions = _! goodness4 ',moral         
approval' mu/ !re=e include approval (  
"*4 ,a man1 to be moral1 mu/ be "o :o   
does useful ?+s simply because !y are   
useful4 ,he mu/ !n1 x w\ld seem1 be at  
lea/ b5evol5t4 ,! same ?+ is impli$ by !
 doctr9e ( 'int5tion' or 'calculation4' 
,an action may be useful or ! rev]se )\t
 be+ moral :5 ! consequ5ces are unkn[n  
to ! ag5t4 ,to make x moral he mu/ "k ! 
consequ5ces--= o!rwise he is m]ely act+ 
at r&om2 & ! =ese5 consequ5ces con/itute
 ! 'int5tion4' ,to ?is ,mill adds t he  
mu/ h tak5 into acc\nt ! consequ5ces :i*
 'might h be5 =ese54'#fjb ,o!rwise we   

%\ld h to excuse a man because he _h    
neglect$ to calculate1 :]eas to         
calculate is ! v ess5ce ( virtue4 ,a man
 :o fir$ a gun d[n a cr[d$ /reet w\ld n 
be excusable because he _h n ?\ght ( !  
result4 ,he 'ought' to h ?\ght ( x4 ,!  
"q ( moral approval ( any giv5 action   
turns ^u ^! que/ions4 ,did a man =esee  
evil consequ5ces & disreg>d !m8 ,he is  
!n cruel4 ,did he neglect to consid] !m8
 ,he is !n culpably c>eless1 ?\gh n     
actually malignant4 ,7 ! consequ5ces    
altoge!r beyond ! p[]s ( reasonable     
calculation8 ,!n he may be blameless4 ,!
 :ole moral "q1 !re=e1 dep5ds ^u ! "*   
indicat$2 t is1 ^u ! motives :i* induce 
a man to calculate consequ5ces & :i*    
det]m9e 8 conduct :5 ! calculation is   
made4  ,! tru? is1 ,i ?9k1 & x is       
*>act]i/ic ( ,mill's modes ( analysis1 t
 he is mak+ an impossible ab/raction4   
,he is sep>at+ p>ts ( a s+le process &  
treat+ !m z indep5d5t4 ,if actions are  
bad because !y h bad consequ5ces1       
motives are bad because !y are causes ( 

bad actions4 ,y _c suppress ! effect )\t
 suppress+ ! cause1 & !re=e ! cause ( ! 
cause4 ,mill relies *iefly ^u "o        
argum5t4 ,! same conduct w produce !    
same consequ5ces :atev] ! motives4 ,t is
 und5iable4 ,x is ! same to me :e!r ,i  
am burnt because ! p]secutor loves my   
s\l or because he hates me z a rebel to 
8 au?ority4 ,b :5 is conduct '! same'8  
,if we classify acts z ! legislator has 
to classify !m by 'ext]nal' or          
'objective' relations1 we put toge!r !  
man :o is hone/ solely f fe> ( ! gall[s 
& ! man :o is hone/ f hatr$ ( /eal+4 ,s 
long z bo? act alike1 ! 'consequ5ces' to
 _! neighb\rs are alike4 ,nei!r is      
legally puni%able4 ,b if acts are       
classifi$ by _! motives1 "o is a rogue &
 ! o!r virtu\s2 & x is only !n t ! "q ( 
morality prop]ly arises4 ,9 t case1 x is
 idle to sep>ate ! "q ( motive &        
consequ5ces1 because ! "* det]m9es !    
motive & !re=e ! action4 ,nobody %\ld h 
se5 ?is m cle>ly ?an ,mill z a good     
'det]m9i/4' ,conduct & "* are relat$ z !

 convex & concave ( ! curve2 conduct is 
simply ! manife/ation ( "*1 & to sep>ate
 !m is absurd4  ,:y did he n see ?is8 ,=
 reasons1 ,i ?9k1 :i* illu/rate 8 :ole  
me?od4 ,f a sci5tific po9t ( view1 !    
e?ical problem raises ! wide que/ions1  
,:at are ! moral s5tim5ts8 &1 ,:at      
functions d !y dis*>ge 9 reg>d to !     
society or to its individual memb]s8 ,we
 might hold t morality is ju/ifi$ by    
'utility' 9 ! s5se t ! moral rules & !  
"* :i* !y indicate are ess5tial to !    
welf>e ( ! race or its individual       
con/itu5ts4 ,b to ,mill ?is proposition 
is int]pret$ z id5tical ) ! proposition 
t conduct mu/ be e/imat$ by its         
'consequ5ces4' ,we are to consid] n !   
action itself1 b its effects2 & !       
effects are cle>ly indep5d5t ( ! motive 
:5 once ! action has be5 done4 ,we may  
!re=e get a calculus ( 'utility'3 g5]al 
rules /at+ :at actions w be useful      
consid]$ ab/ract$ly f _! motives4 ,!    
me?od1 aga91 might be plausible if we   
c\ld fur!r assume t all m5 7 ! same &   

diff]$ only 9 ext]nal circum/ances4 ,t  
is ! po9t ( view to :i* ,mill1 l ,b5?am1
 is always m or less consci\sly incl9+4 
,! moral & ! positive law are equally   
en=c$ by 'sanctions'2 by some?+ n       
dep5d5t ^u ! man himself1 & :i* he is   
incl9$ to suppose w op]ate equally ^u   
all m54 ,su* language c\ld be ju/ifiable
 only ( an av]age & uni=m 'man1' a k9d (
 con/ant unit1 ^: v>y+ behavi\r mu/     
always be expla9$ by diff]5ce 9         
circum/ance4 ,we h suffici5tly se5 !    
results else:]e1 & 9 ?is e?ical doctr9e 
!y are especially manife/4  ,mack9to%   
recognis$ ! fact t morality is          
ess5tially a function ( "*4 ,mill _c    
fully admit t1 because he virtually     
assumes all "* to be ! same4 ,reg>d+    
morality z some?+ co-ord9ate ) law1 he  
does n p]ceive t ! v possibility ( law  
implies ! moral in/9cts1 :i* correspond 
to ! con/itution ( "*1 & belong to a    
sph]e und]ly+1 n on ! same plane )1 !   
legislative sph]e4 ,!y are ! s\rce ( all
 ord]2 n !mselves ! product ( ! ord]4 ,x

 is impossible to d$uce !m1 !re=e1 f !  
organisation :i* presupposes !m4 ,n[1 9 
"o direction1 ,mill's !ory leads1 z 8   
son rem>k$1 n to laxity b to excessive  
/rictness4 ,! 'crit]ion' is laid d[n    
absolutely4 ,! 'moral s5se' is reject$  
because x means an autocratic faculty1  
entitl$ to ov]ride ! crit]ion by its own
 au?ority4 ,to appeal to 'motives' is to
 all[ ! individual to make 8 own feel+ !
 ultimate te/ ( "r & wrong4 ,if we foll[
 ,mill 9 ?is we are n really assum+ !   
moral neutrality ( motive or !          
indiff]5ce1 b an impossible pr(ession ( 
"*4 ,m5 are n gov]n$ by ab/ract         
pr9ciples b by _! passions & affections4
 ,! emotions1 z ,mack9to% rightly said1 
_c be resolv$ into ! m]e logic4 ,utility
 may give ! true crit]ion ( morality1 b 
x does n foll[ t ! p]ception ( utility  
is impli$ 9 moral conduct4 ,! motives   
are good :i* 9 fact produce useful      
conduct1 ?\gh ! ag5t does n contemplate 
! ab/ract pr9ciple4 ,x is impossible t  
m5 %\ld be mov$ simply by a desire = !  

'greate/ happ9ess ( ! greate/ numb]4'   
,:at does & always mu/ guide m5 is _!   
p]sonal relation to ! little circle :i* 
!y actually influ5ce4 ,! good man is !  
man s con/itut$ t he w spontane\sly     
fulfil 8 duties4 ,! moral law1 t is1 w  
be also ! law ( 8 "* & conduct4 ,! "m is
 good because %e loves h] *ild1 n       
because %e sees t c>e ( h] *ild is      
dictat$ by ! g5]al maxim ( utility4 ,!  
'utility' ( "* means ! fitness ( ! ag5t 
to be an effici5t memb] ( ! social      
/ructure to :i* he belongs4 ,9 p>ticul> 
cases ?is may lead to su* problems z t (
 ,flet*] ( ,salt\n4 ,8 s5se ( hon\r & 8 
g5]al b5evol5ce1 ?\gh bo? useful1 might 
come into collision2 & ! mo/ difficult (
 all que/ions ( casui/ry arise f su*    
conflicts betwe5 private & public       
affections4 ,mill is ju/ifi$ 9 hold+ t a
 s5se ( hon\r _c give an ultimate &     
autocratic decision4 ,"u "s pretext or  
o!r1 we %all h to ask ! ,utilit>ian "q  
:e!r on ! :ole x may n be caus+ m mis]y 
?an ! virtu\s action is wor?4 ,b t only 

means t ! "* mu/ be s balanc$ z to give 
due weight to ea* motive2 n t we c      
ab/ract f "* altoge!r1 z ?\gh human be+s
 c\ld be m]e col\rless & uni=m atoms1   
embody+ ab/ract =mulae4  ,mill is foll[+
 ,b5?am1 & only br+s out m cle>ly !     
psy*ological assumptions4 ,a man1 he    
says1 acts f ! 'same motive' :e!r he    
/eals five %ill+s or e>ns x by a day's  
lab\r4 ,! motive1 9 ?is s5se1 reg>ds    
only "o consequ5ce1 :]eas ! 'int5tion'  
reg>ds all4 ,! 'motive1' t is1 is only  
"o ( ! motives or a "p ( ! "*1 & ?is way
 ( speak+ is "o ( ! awkw>d results (    
turn+ 'motives' into '?+s4' ,! obvi\s   
answ] is t :i* ,mill himself makes to   
,mack9to%4 ,mack9to% & ,butl]1 he ?9ks1 
p]sonify p>ticul> 'appetites4'#fjc ,x is
 n really ! 'consci5ce' :i* decides1 b !
 man4 ,t is q true1 & simil>ly x is !   
:ole man :o /eals or works1 n !         
'p]sonifi$' motive2 & x is accord+ly f !
 :ole "* t we judge4 ,we h to consid] ! 
relation ( ! love ( five %ill+s to ! o!r
 qualities ( indu/ry & hone/y4 ,! same  

view appe>s 9 ,mill's *>act]i/ic dislike
 ( 's5tim5talism4' ,wi%+ to attack      
,mack9to%'s rhetoric ab\t ! delight (   
virtu\s feel+1 he = once quotes a novel 
to illu/rate ?is po9t4 ,:5 ,p>son ,adams
 def9$ *>ity z a 'g5]\s disposition to  
relieve ! di/ress$1' ,pet] ,p\nce       
approv$2 'x is1 z y say1 a disposition1 
& does n s mu* consi/ 9 ! act z 9 !     
disposition to d x4'#fjd ,:51 !re=e1    
,mack9to% says t he f9ds x difficult to 
sep>ate ! virtue f ! act1 ,mill replies 
t no?+ is easi]4 ,! virtue is '9 ! act &
 its consequ5ces'2 ! feel+ a m]e        
removable addition4 ,app>5tly he w\ld   
hold t ! good ,sam>itan & ! ,ph>isee _h 
! same feel+1 ?\gh x prompt$ "o to      
relieve ! suff]] & ! o!r to relieve     
himself ( ! sight ( ! suff]]4 ,!y _h1 ( 
c\rse1 a feel+ 9 common1 b a feel+ :i*  
produc$ diametrically opposite effects1 
because ent]+ into totally diff]5t      
comb9ations4  ,if ,mill's doctr9e leads 
to an impossible /rictness 9 "o         
direction1 x leads to less edify+       

results 9 ano!r4 ,we h omitt$ 'motive' &
 come to ! critical "q1 ,h[1 aft] all1  
is ! moral code to be en=c$8 ,by        
ov]look+ ?is "q & decl>+ 'motive' to be 
irrelevant1 we get ! p>adox already     
accept$ by ,b5?am4 ,8 def9ition ( virtue
 is action = ! good ( o!rs z well z (   
ourselves4 ,9 :at way is ! exi/5ce ( su*
 action to be reconcil$ ) ?is doctr9e8  
,:at are ! motives :i* make m5 c\nt !   
happ9ess ( o!rs to be equally valuable )
 _! own8 or1 9 ! ,utilit>ian language1  
,:at is ! 'sanction' ( morality8 ,aft]  
all ,b5?am's insi/5ce ^u !              
'self-pref]5ce pr9ciple' & ,mill's      
acc\nt ( selfi%ness 9 8 political !ory1 
we are sudd5ly told t morality means a  
l(ty & rigid code 9 :i* ! happ9ess ( all
 is ! "o end4 ,"h aga9 ,mill is entangl$
 by ! *>act]i/ic difficulty ( 8         
psy*ology4 ,to analyse is to divide     
objects into sep>ate units4 ,:5 he has  
to d ) complex objects & relations      
app>5tly reciprocal1 he is =c$ to       
repres5t !m by a simple sequ5ce4 ,! two 

factors are n mutually dep5d5t b di/9ct 
?+s someh[ connect$ 9 "t4 ,"o result is 
8 acc\nt ( 'ends' or 'motives' 7! two1 z
 he obs]ves1 are synonym\s74#fje ,! end 
is some?+ to be ga9$ by ! act1 !        
'association' ( :i* ) ! act con/itutes a
 'desire4' ,?is1 we h se51 always ref]s 
to ! future4#fjf ,9 act+1 !n1 ,i am     
always guid$ by calculations ( future   
pleasures or pa9s4 ,i believe ?is to be 
"o ( ! mo/ un=tunate because "o ( ! mo/ 
plausible ( ,utilit>ian fallacies4 ,if  
we are det]m9$ by pa9s & pleasures1 x is
 9 "o s5se z contradictory to speak (   
our be+ det]m9$ by future pa9s &        
pleasures z to speak ( our be+ n\ri%$   
to-day by to-morr['s d9n]4 ,! 'future   
pleasure' does n exi/2 ! anticipat$     
pleasure acts by mak+ ! pres5t action   
pleasant2 & we !n move 7z x is said7    
along ! l9e ( lea/ resi/ance4 ,c]ta9    
conduct is intr9sically pleasurable or  
pa9ful1 & ! future pleasure only acts   
?r\gh ! pres5t =eta/e4 ,:51 h[ev]1 we   
reg>d ! pleasure z future & z someh[ a  

sep>able ?+1 we c only express ^!       
und5iable facts by accept+ a purely     
egoi/ic conclusion4 ,we are1 ( c\rse1   
mov$ by our own feel+s1 z we brea! ) our
 own lungs & dige/ ) our own /oma*s4 ,b 
:5 we accept ! doctr9e ( 'ends' ?is     
h>mless & self-evid5t tru? is p]v]t$    
into ! /atem5t t our 'end' mu/ be our   
own pleasure2 t we _c be really or      
directly unselfi%4 ,! analysis1 inde$1  
is s defective t x c h>dly be appli$    
intelligibly4 ,hume obs]ves t no man    
w\ld re/ 8 foot indiff]5tly ^u a /ool or
 a g\ty toe4 ,! action itself ( giv+ pa9
 w\ld be pa9ful1 & _c be plausibly      
resolv$ into an anticipation ( an 'end4'
 ,?is1 aga91 is conspicu\sly true ( all 
! truly social emotions4 ,n only !      
consci5ce1 b ! s5se ( %ame or hon\r1 or 
pride & vanity act p[]fully &           
in/antane\sly z pres5t motives )\t      
necess>y ref]5ce to any future results4 
,! k t ,i am giv+ pa9 or caus+ future   
pa9 is intr9sically & imm$iately pa9ful 
to ! normal human be+1 & ! suppos$      

'analysis' is ?r\gh\t a fiction4 ,mill1 
h[ev]1 l ,b5?am1 takes x = grant$1 b    
p]ceives m cle>ly ?an ,b5?am !          
difficulty to :i* x leads4 ,h[1 f a !ory
 ( pure selfi%ness1 are we to get a     
morality ( g5]al b5evol5ce8 ,! answ] is 
giv5 by ! univ]sal 'association4' ,we   
are gov]n$1 he holds1 by our own        
emotions2 our end is our own pleasure1 &
 we h to consid] h[ ?is end dictates a  
desire = g5]al happ9ess4 ,he exp\nds )  
great vig\r ! process by :i* ! love (   
fri5ds1 *ildr5 & p>5ts & c\ntry may be  
gradually develop$ ?r\gh ! association (
 our pleasures ) ! fell[-creatures :o   
caus$ !m4 ,j4 ,s4 ,mill reg>ds 8        
exposition z 'almo/ p]fect1'#fjg & says 
t x %[s h[ ! 'acquir$ s5tim5ts'--! moral
 s5tim5ts & s =?--may be gradually      
develop$2 may become 'm int5se & p[]ful 
?an any ( ! elem5ts out ( :i* !y may h  
be5 =m$1 & may also 9 _! maturity be    
p]fectly dis9t]e/$4' ,james ,mill       
decl>es t ! analysis does n affect !    
reality ( ! s5tim5ts analys$4 ,gratitude

 rema9s gratitude1 & g5]osity g5]osity1 
j z a :ite ray rema9s :ite aft] ,newton 
_h decompos$ x into rays ( diff]5t      
col\rs4#fjh ,"h once m we h ! great     
pr9ciple ( indissoluble association or  
m5tal *emi/ry4  ,grant+ t ! emotions s  
g5]at$ may be real1 we may /ill ask :e!r
 ! analysis be suffici5t4 ,james ,mill's
 acc\nt ( ! way 9 :i* !y are g5]at$     
leaves a d\bt4 ,morality is fir/        
impress$ ^u u by au?ority4 ,our p>5ts   
praise & blame1 rew>d & puni%4 ,?us are 
=m$ associations ( praise & blame )     
c]ta9 actions4 ,!n1 we =m fur!r         
associations ) ! causes ( praise & blame
 & ?us acquire ! s5tim5ts (             
'praisewor?9ess' & 'blamewor?9ess4' ,!  
s5sibility to praise & blame g5]ally =ms
 ! 'popul> sanction1' & ?is1 :5         
praisewor?9ess is conc]n$1 becomes !    
moral sanction4#fji ,"h we see t        
morality is reg>d$ z someh[ ! product ( 
a 'sanction'2 t is1 ( ! action ( praise 
& blame ) _! usual consequ5ces ^u !     
individual4 ,8 s5sibility causes him    

?r\gh association to acquire ! habits   
:i* g5]ally br+ praise & blame2 &       
ultimately ^! qualities become          
attractive = _! own sake4 ,! difficulty 
is to see :]e ! l9e is cross$ :i*       
divides truly moral or altrui/ic conduct
 f m]e prud5ce4 ,admitt+ t association  
may impel u to conduct :i* involves     
self-sacrifice1 we may /ill ask :e!r su*
 conduct is reasonable4 ,association    
produces belief 9 error z well z 9 tru?4
 ,if ,i love a man because he is useful 
& cont9ue to love him :5 he c no long]  
be useful1 am ,i n misguid$8 ,if ,i we> 
a ragg$ coat1 because x 0 once sm>t1 my 
conduct is easily expla9$ z a p>ticul>  
k9d ( folly4 ,if ,i am good to my old "m
 :5 %e c no long] nurse me1 am ,i n     
guilty ( a simil> folly8 ,9 %ort1 a man 
:o inf]r$ f ,mill's pr9ciples t he w\ld 
nev] d good )\t be+ paid = x1 w\ld be   
h>dly inconsi/5t4 ,y\r associations1    
,mill w\ld say1 are indissoluble4 ,he   
might answ]1 ,i w try--x is surely n s  
h>d to dissolve a tie ( gratitude6      

,grant+1 9 %ort1 t ,mill gives an acc\nt
 ( su* virtue z may be made ( enlight5$ 
self-int]e/1 he does n succe$ 9 mak+    
intelligible ! conduct :i* alone des]ves
 ! "n ( virtu\s4 ,! !ory always halts at
 ! po9t :]e some?+ m is requir$ ?an an  
ext]nal sanction1 & supposes a *ange (  
"* z well z a wid] calculation ( p]sonal
 int]e/4  ,! imp]fection ( ?is !ory may 
be tak5 = grant$4 ,x has be5 expos$ by  
innum]able critics4 ,x is m important to
 obs]ve "o cause ( ! imp]fection4       
,mill's argum5t conta9s an elem5t ( real
 wor?4 ,x may be held to repres5t fairly
 ! hi/orical developm5t ( morals4 ,t    
morality is fir/ conceiv$ z an ext]nal  
law d]iv+ its sanctity f au?ority2 t x  
is direct$ aga9/ obvi\sly hurtful       
conduct2 & t x ?us s]ves z a protection 
"u :i* ! m g5u9e moral s5tim5ts c       
develop !mselves1 ,i believe to be 9    
full accordance ) s\nd !ories ( e?ics4  
,b ,mill 0 ?r\gh\t hamp]$ by ! abs5ce ( 
any !ory ( evolution4 ,he _h to repres5t
 a s]ies ( *anges z tak+ place 9 !      

individual :i* c only be conceiv$ z !   
product ( a long & complex social *ange4
 ,he is =c$ to repres5t ! gr[? (        
morality z an accretion ( new 'ends' due
 to association1 n z an intr9sic        
developm5t ( ! "* itself4 ,he has to    
make morality out ( atomic s5sations &  
ideas collect$ 9 clu/]s & tra9s )\t any 
di/9ct ref]5ce to ! organic con/itution 
( ! individual or ( society1 & z someh[ 
or o!r d$ucible f ! isolat$ human be+1  
:o rema9s a con/ant1 ?\gh he collects   
into gr\ps gov]n$ by ext]nal sanctions4 
,he sees t morality is =m$ someh[ or    
o!r1 b he _c %[ t x is ei!r reasonable  
or an ess5tial fact ( human nature4 ,"h1
 aga91 we %all see :at problem 0 set to 
8 son4 ,f9ally1 if ,mill did n expla9   
e?ical !ory satisfactorily1 x mu/ be    
add$ 9 common ju/ice t he 0 himself an  
excell5t example ( ! qualities = :i* he 
tri$ to acc\nt4 ,a life ( devotion to   
public objects & a consci5ti\s dis*>ge (
 private duties is j ! ph5om5on = :i* a 
clu/] ( 'ideas' & 'associations' seems  

to be an inadequate acc\nt4 ,h[1 x might
 h be5 ask$1 d y expla9 ,james ,mill8 ,8
 ma9 purpose1 too1 0 to lay d[n a rule (
 duty1 almo/ ma!matically asc]ta9able1 &
 n to be di/urb$ by any s5tim5talism1   
my/icism1 or rhetorical fopp]y4 ,if1 9 !
 attempt to free 8 he>]s f su* elem5ts1 
he ran ! risk ( r$uc+ morality to a l[] 
level & made x appe> z unamiable z s\nd 
morality c appe>1 x mu/ be admitt$ t 9  
?is respect too 8 !ories reflect$ 8     
p]sonal "*4  ,,footnotes3  #dfd ,= an   
acc\nt ( ^! writ]s & _! relation to !   
pre-revolution>y s*ools1 see ,les       
,ideologues by ,f4 ,picavet 7#ahia74    
#dfe ,macvey ,napi]'s ,correspond5ce1 p4
 #dbd4  #dff ,*>les ,francois ,dom9ique 
de ,vill]s 7#agfg-ahae7 0 a ,fr5* (fic]1
 :o emigrat$ 9 #agib1 & took refuge at  
,luebeck4 ,he became pr(\ndly int]e/$ 9 
,g]man life & lit]ature1 & endeav\r$ to 
introduce a k ( ,g]man speculation to 8 
c\ntrym54 ,8 *ief books 7 ?is exposition
 ( ,kant & an essay ^u ! ,re=mation (   
,lu!r 7#ahjc71 :i* w5t ?r\gh sev]al     

editions1 & 0 translat$ by ,james ,mill 
9 #ahje4 ,an int]e/+ acc\nt ( ,vill]s is
 9 ! ,biographie ,univ]selle4  #dfg ,see
 ,cockburn's ,memorials = a good notice 
( ?is4  #dfh ,/ew>t's ,works1 iv4 #cde4 
#dfi ,lady ,holl&'s ,life ( ,smi?1 ii4  
#chh4  #dgj ,inquiry into ! ,relations (
 ,cause & ,effect 7?ird edition71 pp4   
#agh1 #ahj1 & "p iv4 sec4 #f4  #dga     
,exam9ation ( ,hamilton 7f\r? edition71 
p4 #cgi4  #dgb ,cause & ,effect1 pp4    
#ahd-hg4  #dgc ,cause & ,effect1 p4     
#aig4  #dgd ,ibid4 p4 #bci seq4  #dge   
,ibid4 p4 #bdd4  #dgf ,ibid4 p4 #aej4   
#dgg ,ibid4 p4 #ceg4  #dgh ,cause &     
,effect1 p4 #cac4  #dgi ,cause &        
,effect1 p4 #dhb4 ,br[n ?9ks t we c     
logically disprove ! exi/5ce ( motion by
 ! h>e & tortoise argum5t1 & %\ld !re=e 
disreg>d logic4  #dhj ,br[n's ,lectures1
 7#ahea71 p4 #afg1 ,lect4 xxvi4  #dha   
,lecture xxv4 ,?is "q z to :e!r ,br[n _h
 or _h n grossly misrepres5t$ ,reid &   
o!r philosoph]s1 l$ to an entangl$      
argum5t1 9 :i* ,mill def5d$ ,br[n aga9/ 

,hamilton4 ,i w n ask :e!r ,reid 0 a    
'natural reali/' or a 'cosmo!tic        
ideali/1' or :at ,desc>tes or ,arnauld  
?\ght ab\t ! "q4  #dhb ,reid's ,works1  
p4 #abh4  #dhc ,lectures1 pp4 #aej1     
#aeh-ei4  #dhd ,diss]tations1 p4 #ih4   
,comp>e ,br[n's ,tw5ty-f\r? ,lecture )  
,tracy's ,ideologie1 *4 vii41 & ! acc\nt
 ( ! way 9 :i* ! infant le>ns f         
resi/ance to inf] a cause1 & make ( !   
cause un etre qui n'e/ pas moi4 ,!      
resemblance is c]ta9ly close4 ,br[n 0   
famili> ) ,fr5* lit]ature1 & %[s x by _m
 quotations1 ?\gh he does n1 ,i ?9k1    
ref] to ,tracy4 ,br[n1 x mu/ be notic$1 
did n himself publi% 8 lectures1 & a    
pr(essor is n b\nd to give all 8 s\rces 
9 popul> lectures4 ,an explanation w\ld 
h be5 due 9 a treatise4 ,picavet quotes 
,rhetore's ,philosophie de ,?omas ,br[n 
7a book :i* ,i h n se57 = ! /atem5t t   
,br[n's lectures (t5 read l a           
translation ( ,l>omigui]e1 ) :om ,br[n 0
 'p]haps' acqua9t$4 ,z1 h[ev]1 !        
,lecons1 to :i* ref]5ce is app>5tly     

made1 did n appe> till #ahae & #ahah1 :5
 ,br[n's lectures 7 already writt51 ?is 
seems to be impossible4 ,! co9cid5ce1   
:i* to me seems to be exagg]at$ by !    
/atem5t1 is explicable by a common      
relation to previ\s writ]s4  #dhe       
,lectures1 p4 #aff 7,lect4 xxvi474  #dhf
 ,lectures1 p4 #aeh 7,lect4 xxv474  #dhg
 ,ibid4 p4 #aea 7,lect4 xxiv474  #dhh   
,lectures1 p4 #agg 7*4 xxviii474 ,br[n  
made ! same rem>k to ,mack9to% 9 #ahab4 
7,mack9to%'s ,e?ical ,philosophy1 #ahgb1
 #bcf n47  #dhi ,ibid4 p4 #aed 7,lect4  
xxiv474  #dij ,see ,hamilton's note to  
,reid's ,works1 p4 #aaa4  #dia          
,lectures1 p4 #bee 7,lect4 xl474  #dib  
,ibid4 7,lect4 xxxiii4 & foll[+74  #dic 
,ibid4 p4 #bad-ae 7,lect4 xxxiii474 ,!  
phrase is reviv$ by ,pr(essor ,/\t 9 8  
,analytic ,psy*ology4  #did ,lectures1  
p4 #bac 7,lect4 xxxiii474  #die ,?is is 
"o ( ! co9cid5ces ) ,l>omigui]e 7,lecons
 7#ahcg71 i4 #ajc74  #dif ,lectures1 p4 
#baj4  #dig ,lectures1 p4 #cae 7,lect4  
xlviii474  #dih ,ibid4 p4 #cad4  #dii   

,lectures1 p4 #cce 7,lect4 li474 ,see   
,lect4 xi4 = a g5]al explanation4 ,! m9d
 is no?+ b a 's]ies ( feel+s'2 & to say 
t ',i am consci\s ( feel+' is simply to 
say ',i feel4' ,! same phrase (t5 occurs
 9 ,james ,mill4  #ejj ,ibid4 p4 #bih   
7,lect4 xlvi474  #eja ,ibid4 p4 #dih    
7,lect4 lxxiv474  #ejb ,lectures1 p4    
#fbb 7,lect4 xciii474  #ejc             
,diss]tations1 p4 #ih4  #ejd ,fr\de's   
,c>lyle1 p4 #be4  #eje ,miscellanies    
7#aheh71 ii4 #ajd4 ,see1 too1           
,miscellanies1 i4 #fj1 on ,g]man        
,lit]ature1 :]e he ?9ks t ! ,g]mans     
attack$ ! c5tre in/ead ( ! outworks (   
,hume's citadel4 ,c>lyle speaks ) m>k$  
respect ( ,dugald ,/ew>t1 :o1 if he knew
 :at he 0 ab\t1 w\ld agree ) ,kant4     
#ejf ,9 ,c>ol9e ,fox's ,memories ( ,old 
,fri5ds 7second edition71 ii4 #cad1 is a
 lett] f ,j4 ,s4 ,mill1 express+ a v    
high op9ion ( ,br[n1 :om he _h j be5    
re-read+ 7#ahdj7 ) a view to ! ,logic4  
,br[n's 'analysis 9 8 e>ly lectures ( ! 
am\nt ( :at we c le>n ( ! ph5om5a ( ! _w

 seems to me p]fect1 & 8 mode ( inquiry 
into ! m9d is /rictly f\nd$ ^u t        
analysis4'  #ejg ,i quote f ?is edition4
 ,&rew ,f9dlat] 7#ahaj-ahhe71 a ,scotti%
 s*oolma/]1 & editor ( ,*amb]s's        
,cyclopa$ia1 0 a philologi/ 7,diction>y 
( ,national ,biography71 & 8 notes      
*iefly conc]n ,mill's adaptations (     
,horne ,tooke4  #ejh ,treatise 7bk4 i4  
pt4 i4 sec4 iv474  #eji ,j4 ,s4 ,mill's 
,autobiography1 p4 #fh4  #eaj ,fragm5t  
on ,mack9to%1 p4 #cad4  #eaa ,analysis1 
ii4 #db4 ',odd1' because ,br[n 0 six    
ye>s y\ng] ?an ,mill4  #eab             
',education1' p4 #f4  #eac ,analysis1 i4
 #eb4  #ead ,analysis1 i4 xvii4  #eae   
,ibid4 i4 #gj4  #eaf ,analysis1 i4 #ga4 
#eag ,ibid4 i4 #gh4  #eah ,ibid4 i4 #hc4
  #eai ,analysis1 ii4 #db4  #ebj ,ibid4 
i4 #bgj4  #eba ,ibid4 i4 #aaa4  #ebb    
,ibid4 i4 #cfb4  #ebc ,analysis1 i4 #aed
 n4  #ebd ,ibid4 i4 #afa4  #ebe         
,analysis1 i4 #ahi4  #ebf ,ibid4 i4 #afc
 n4  #ebg ,ibid4 i4 #bff4  #ebh ,ibid4  
i4 #bfi4  #ebi ,ibid4 i4 #bie4  #ecj    

,analysis1 i4 #afb n41 #ahg n4  #eca    
,ibid4 ii4 #ba4  #ecb ,ibid4 i4 #bbd-be4
  #ecc ,analysis1 i4 #cdb4  #ecd e4g4   
,ibid4 ii4 #agf4  #ece ,ibid4 i4 #cda4  
#ecf ,ibid4 i4 #cdb n4  #ecg ,ibid4 i4  
#cca4  #ech ,ibid4 i4 #cde4  #eci ,ibid4
 i4 #ceb4  #edj ,ibid4 i4 #cha4  #eda   
,analysis1 i4 #cfc4  #edb ,ibid4 i4     
#djb4  #edc ,ibid4 i4 #djb-bc4  #edd    
,analysis1 i4 #dbc4  #ede ,ibid4 i4     
#dac1 #dai4  #edf ,see especially 8     
acc\nt ( def9ition1 ,logic1 bk4 i4 *4   
viii41 & ! problem ab\t ! s]p5t & !     
dragon4  #edg ,analysis1 ii4 #b4  #edh  
,?is po9t puzzles ,de/utt de ,tracy4    
,all error1 he says1 arises 9 judgm5ts3 
',cep5dant les jugem5ts1 les p]ceptions 
de rapports1 en tant que p]ceptions que 
n\s avons actuellem5t1 sont aussi       
c]ta9es et aussi reelles que t\tes les  
autres4'--,elem5ts d',ideologie 7#ahfe71
 iii4 #ddi4  #edi ,analysis1 ii4 #f1 #g4
  #eej ,analysis1 ii4 #ah n4  #eea      
,analysis1 ii4 #bd n4  #eeb ,ibid4 ii4  
#acb-cc4  #eec ,analysis1 ii4 #fg-fi4   

#eed ,analysis1 ii4 #aac n4  #eee ,ibid4
 i4 #ig n4  #eef ,pr(essor ,ba9 po9ts   
out t ,mill is occasionally confus$ by 8
 ignorance ( ! triple division1         
intellect1 feel+s3 & w1 introduc$ 9 !   
next g5]ation4--,analysis1 ii4 #ahj n4  
#eeg ,analysis1 ii4 #aha-hc4  #eeh      
,analysis1 ii4 #cea4  #eei ,also        
privately pr9t$ 9 #ahcj4 ,lat] editions1
 edit$ by ,:ewell1 appe>$ 9 #ahcf1      
#ahfb1 #ahgc4 ,i quote ! la/4 ,see ,m4  
,napi]'s ,correspond5ce1 pp4 #eg-ei1 = !
 composition4  #efj ,mill's ,fragm5t    
7,preface74  #efa ,see ,ba9's ,james    
,mill1 pp4 #cgd1 #dae-ah4  #efb         
,fragm5t1 pp4 #aij1 #aib1 #bac1 #bih1   
#cjg1 #cbf4  #efc ,ibid4 p4 #baj4  #efd 
,e?ical ,philosophy 7#ahgc71 pp4 #ahh1  
#aic4  #efe ,m4 ,napi]'s ,correspond5ce1
 p4 #be4  #eff ,essay on ,sir ,j4       
,mack9to%4  #efg ,essay on ,"l ,holl&4  
#efh ,lectures1 p4 #ejj 7,lect4 lxxv474 
#efi ,ibid4 p4 #eai 7,lect4 lxxvii474   
#egj ,ibid4 p4 #ebb 7,lect4 lxxviii474  
#ega ,e?ical ,philosophy 7,hobbes71 pp4 

#fb-fd4  #egb ,ibid4 p4 #he4  #egc      
,ibid4 p4 #ade4  #egd ,ibid4 p4 #i4     
#ege ,ibid4 p4 #abj4  #egf ,e?ical      
,philosophy1 pp4 #ad1 #agj4  #egg ,ibid4
 p4 #aig4  #egh ,ibid4 p4 #bdh4  #egi   
,ibid4 p4 #bjd4  #ehj ,e?ical           
,philosophy p4 #bdb4  #eha ,ibid4 p4    
#bea4  #ehb ,ibid4 p4 #bfb4  #ehc ,ibid4
 p4 #bfd4  #ehd ,ibid4 p4 #afi4  #ehe   
,fragm5t1 p4 #agc4  #ehf ,ibid4 p4 #cbc4
  #ehg ,ibid4 p4 #bba4  #ehh ,fragm5t1  
p4 #bdg4 ,mack9to% quotes ,mill's       
,analysis at p4 #aig4 ,x _h only j      
appe>$4  #ehi ,fragm5t1 p4 #aa4  #eij   
,fragm5t1 p4 #bdf1 etc4  #eia ,ibid4 p4 
#bdf4  #eib ,ibid4 pp4 #bfi1 #bgj4  #eic
 ,cf4 ,newman's ,apologia4 ',! ,ca?olic 
,*ur* holds x bett] = ! sun & moon to   
drop f heav51 = ! e>? to fail1 & = all !
 millions on x to die ( />vation 9      
extreme/ agony1 s f> z temporal         
affliction goes1 ?an t "o s\l1--,i w n  
say %\ld be lo/1 b %\ld commit "o s+le  
v5ial s91 tell "o wilful untru?1 or %\ld
 /eal "o poor f>?+ )\t excuse4' ,i %\ld 

/eal ! f>?+ & assume ! 'excuse4' ,i     
confess t ,i w\ld n only lie1 b %\ld ?9k
 ly+ "r "u ! suppos$ circum/ances4  #eid
 ,autobiography1 p4 #ea4  #eie ,fragm5t1
 p4 #bea4  #eif ,vol4 i4 p4 #beg4  #eig 
,fragm5t1 p4 #afa4  #eih ,fragm5t1 pp4  
#cae-af4  #eii ,ibid4 p4 #afd4  #fjj    
,ibid4 pp4 #cbj-bb4  #fja ,fragm5t1 p4  
#ajb4  #fjb ,ibid4 p4 #afb4  #fjc       
,analysis1 p4 #gc4  #fjd ,fragm5t1 p4   
#bji4  #fje ,fragm5t1 p4 #caf4  #fjf ,at
 "o po9t1 z ,j4 ,s4 ,mill notes1 he     
speaks ( an 'unsatisfi$ desire' z a     
motive1 :i* seems to indicate a pres5t  
feel+2 b ?is is n 8 usual               
view4--,analysis1 ii4 #cfa1 #cgg n4     
#fjg ,analysis1 ii4 #bcc n4 ,mill adds t
 ?\gh 8 fa!r expla9s ! 'intellectual1'  
he does n expla9 ! 'animal' elem5t 9 !  
affections4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is irrelevant =
 my purpose4  #fjh ,fragm5t1 pp4 #ea-eb4
  #fji ,analysis1 ii4 #bib-cjj2         
,fragm5t1 pp4 #bdg-fe4 ,note ,mill's    
int]pretation ( ?is !ory (              
'praisewor?9ess4'--,analysis1 ii4 #bih  

n4     ,,*apt] ,,viii  ,,religion   ,i4 
,,philip ,,beau*amp  ,! application (   
,mill's ,analysis to ! views ( or?odox  
!ologians requir$1 "o might h suppos$1 z
 little int]pretation z a slap 9 ! face4
 ,b a respectable philosoph] may lay d[n
 :at premises he pleases if he does n   
av[$ly draw 8 conclusions4 ,mill c\ld   
argue 9 p]fect safety aga9/ ! f\ndations
 ( !ology1 :ile ,ri*>d ,c>lile 0 be+ s5t
 to gaol aga9 & aga9 = attack+ !        
sup]/ructure4 ,! ,utilit>ians ?\ght     
!mselves ju/ifi$ 9 tak+ advantage ( !   
illogicality ( mank9d4 ,:e!r x 0 t !    
rul+ p[]s _h no philosophical pr9ciples 
!mselves1 or t !y did n see :at inf]5ces
 w\ld foll[1 or t !y ?\ght t ! av]age   
p]son 0 incapable ( draw+ inf]5ces1 !y  
drew ! l9e at ?is po9t4 ,y may op5ly    
ma9ta9 doctr9es inconsi/5t ) all !ology1
 b y mu/ n po9t out ! inconsi/5cy4 ,!   
,utilit>ians cont5t$ !mselves ) sapp+ ! 
=t in/ead ( risk+ an op5 assault4 ,if   
its def5d]s 7 bl9d to ! obvi\s          
consequ5ces ( ! proc$ure1 s mu* ! bett]4

 ,9 private1 !re 0 obvi\sly no want (   
pla9 speak+4 ,9 ,b5?am's ,,mss4 !       
,*ri/ian religion is nicknam$ ',jug' z !
 %ort = ',jugg]naut4' ,he & 8 fri5ds 7 z
 anxi\s z ,voltaire to cru% ! 'infam\s1'
 b !y w\ld d x by indirect means4 ,!y   
argu$ resolutely = m fre$om2 & ,samuel  
,bailey's essay ^u ! =mation (          
op9ions--a vigor\s argum5t on behalf ( !
 wide/ possible tol]ation--0            
en?usia/ically prais$ by ,james ,mill 9 
! ,we/m9/] ,review4 ,= ! pres5t !y      
c>efully ab/a9$ f ! direct av[al (      
obnoxi\s op9ions1 :i* 7 /ill legally    
puni%able1 & :i* w\ld und\bt$ly excite !
 /ronge/ ho/ility4 ,b5?am1 z we h se51  
_h v5tur$1 ?\gh anonym\sly1 to assail ! 
*ur* cate*ism & to cross-exam9e ,/4     
,paul4 ,"o rem>kable manife/o gave a    
full] utt]ance to 8 op9ions4 ,a book    
call$ ,! ,analysis ( ! ,influ5ce (      
,natural ,religion on ! ,temporal       
,happ9ess ( ,mank9d1 by ',philip        
,beau*amp1' appe>$ 9 #ahbb4 ,! publi%] 0
 ,ri*>d ,c>lile1 :o 0 !n 'safe 9        

,dor*e/] gaol4' ,no legal notice 0 tak5 
( ',philip ,beau*amp4' ,! reason may h  
be5 t ! book excit$ v little att5tion 9 
g5]al4 ,yet x is probably z =cible an   
attack z has (t5 be5 writt5 ^u ! popul> 
!ology4 ,! "n ( ',philip ,beau*amp'     
cov]$ a comb9ation ( ,b5?am & ,george   
,grote4#faj ,! book1 !re=e1 repres5ts ! 
view ( repres5tative ,utilit>ians ( !   
fir/ & ?ird g5]ation1 & cle>ly express$ 
! real op9ions ( ! :ole p>ty4 ,9 8      
po/hum\s essays ,j4 ,s4 ,mill speaks ( x
 z ! only explicit discussion kn[n to   
him ( ! "q ( ! utility1 z di/+ui%$ f !  
"q ( ! tru?1 ( religion4 ,obvi\sly1 x 0 
desirable to apply ! univ]sal te/ to    
religi\s belief1 & ?is v pi?y & cond5s$ 
/atem5t %[s ! result4  ,a %ort summ>y   
may indicate ! ess5ce ( ! argum5t4 ,x is
 only necess>y to obs]ve t ! phrase     
'natural religion' is "p ( ! disguise4  
,x enables ! au?or to avoid an explicit 
attack ^u revelation2 b x is            
sup]abundantly obvi\s t ! ^w 'natural'  
is sup]flu\s4 ,revelation is really a   

fiction1 & all religions are 'natural4' 
,a religion is call$ a 'sup]/ition1' z  
',philip ,beau*amp' rem>ks at />t+1 :5  
its results are ?\ght to be bad2 & all[$
 to be a religion only :5 !y are ?\ght  
to be good4#faa ,t device cov]s !       
famili> fallacy ( di/+ui%+ betwe5 uses &
 abuses1 &1 ^u t pret5ce1 omitt+ to take
 bad consequ5ces into acc\nt4 ,we mu/   
avoid x by def9+ religion & !n trac+ all
 ! consequ5ces1 good or bad4 ,religion  
is accord+ly tak5 to mean ! belief 9 !  
exi/5ce ( 'an ,almighty ,be+1 by :om    
pa9s & pleasures w be disp5s$ to mank9d 
dur+ an inf9ite & future /ate (         
exi/5ce4' ,! def9ition is already       
*>act]i/ic4 ',religion' may be us$ 9 a  
f> wid] s5se1 correspond+ to a          
philosophy ( ! univ]se1 :e!r t          
philosophy does or does n include ?is   
p>ticul> doctr9e4 ,b ',philip           
,beau*amp's' assumption is conv5i5t     
because x gives a rational reason+ to ! 
problem ( utility4 ,religion is tak5 to 
be some?+ adv5titi\s or sup]impos$ ^u   

o!r beliefs1 & we c !re=e intelligibly  
ask :e!r x does good or h>m4 ,tak+ ?is  
def9ition = grant$1 let u consid] !     
results4  ,! fir/ po9t is t we are (    
necessity 9 absolute ignorance z to a   
po/hum\s /ate4 ,n[1 fe> is f our e>lie/ 
infancy ! 'nev]-fail+ companion & (fspr+
 ( ignorance4' ,k alone c rescue u f    
p]petual suff]+1 because all security   
dep5ds ^u k4 ,pa91 moreov]1 is f> m     
'pung5t' & di/9ct ?an pleasure4 ',want &
 pa9 are natural2 satisfaction &        
pleasure artificial & inv5t$4' ,pa91    
!re=e1 z ! /ronge/1 w dictate our       
anticipations4 ,! hope ( immortality is 
by ! or?odox describ$ z a bless+2 b !   
tru?1 d$ucible f ^! pr9ciples ( human   
nature & v]ifi$ by exp]i5ce1 is t       
natural religion1 in/ead ( soo?+        
appreh5sions1 adds fre% gr\nds (        
appreh5sion4 ,a revelation1 z ',philip  
,beau*amp' admits1 might conceivably    
dispel our fe>s2 b he w\ld obvi\sly say 
t ! religion :i* is tak5 to be reveal$  
gives a f> m vivid picture ( hell ?an ( 

heav54#fab ,9 ! next place1 x is 'obvi\s
 at fir/ sight' t natural religion c    
prop]ly give 'no rule ( guidance4' ,x   
ref]s u to a region ( 'desp]ate &       
unfa?omable' d>kness4#fac ,b x nev]!less
 indirectly sugge/s a p]nici\s rule4 ,x 
re/s entirely ^u conjectures z to ! "* (
 ! invisible ,be+ :o apportions pa9 or  
pleasure = inscrutable reasons4 ,w ?is  
,be+ be expect$ to approve useful or    
p]nici\s conduct8 ,f m5's language we   
might suppose t he is ?\ght to be purely
 b5evol5t4 ,yet f _! dogmas x w\ld seem 
t he is a caprici\s tyrant4 ,h[ are we  
to expla9 ! discrepancy8 ,! discrepancy 
is ! infallible result ( ! circum/ances 
already /at$4#fad ,! ,deity has         
limitless p[]1 & !re=e is ! natural     
object ( our in/9ctive fe>s4 ,! "* ( !  
,deity is absolutely incompreh5sible1 & 
incompreh5sibility 9 human affairs is   
id5tical ) caprice & insanity4#fae ,!   
ends & ! means ( ! ,deity are alike     
beyond our k2 & ! extremes bo? ( wisdom 
& ( folly are equally unacc\ntable4 ,n[1

 we praise or blame human be+s 9 ord] to
 affect _! conduct t[>ds u1 to attract  
fav\rs or repel injuries4 ,a tyrant     
possess$ ( unlimit$ p[] consid]s t by   
simple ab/95ce f injury he des]ves      
b\ndless gratitude4 ,! weak w only d>e  
to praise1 & ! /rong w only blame4 ,!   
slave-own] nev] praises & ! slave nev]  
blames1 because "o c use ! la% :ile !   
o!r is subject to ! la%4 ,if1 !n1 we    
reg>d ! invisible ,be+ z a caprici\s    
despot1 &1 moreov]1 z a despot :o kn[s e
 ^w we utt]1 we %all nev] speak ( him   
)\t ! highe/ eulogy1 j because we       
attribute to him ! mo/ arbitr>y tyranny4
 ,h5ce1 ! invisible despot w specially  
fav\r ! prie/s ^: lives are devot$ to   
support+ 8 au?ority1 &1 next to prie/s1 
^? :o1 by ! practice ( c]emonies pa9ful 
or useless to !mselves1 %[ t _! sole aim
 is to give him pleasure4 ,he w         
specially dete/ ! a!i/s1 &1 next to     
a!i/s1 all :o v5ture to disreg>d 8      
arbitr>y laws4 ,a human judge may be    
b5evol5t1 because he is responsible to !

 community4 ,!y give & c take away 8    
p[]4 ,b ! invisible & irresponsible rul]
 w h no motives = b5evol5ce1 & approve  
conduct p]nici\s to m5 because x is !   
be/ pro( ( a complete subs]vi5ce to     
himself4#faf ,9 spite ( ?is1 x has be5  
g5]ally ass]t$ t religion supplies a    
motive1 & ! only adequate motive1 to    
moral conduct4 ,b ! decay ( religion    
w\ld leave ! s\rces ( pa9 & pleasure    
un*ang$4 ,to say1 !n1 t ! conduct       
prescrib$ by religion w\ld disappe> if !
 religi\s motives 7 remov$ is virtually 
to admit t x produces no 'temporal      
b5efit4' ,o!rwise1 ! motives = practis+ 
su* conduct w\ld n be affect$4 ,9 fact1 
morality is ! same 9 all c\ntries1 ?\gh 
! injunctions ( religion are v>i\s &    
contradictory4 ,if religion ord]$ only  
:at is useful1 x w\ld co9cide ) human   
laws1 & be at wor/ sup]flu\s4 ,z a fact1
 x condemns ! mo/ h>mless pleasures1 su*
 z ! wor/ ( human legislators h nev]    
s\ght to suppress4 ,p h become tol]ant1 
t is1 !y h refus$ to en=ce religi\s     

obs]vances1 precisely because !y h se5 t
 su* obs]vances _c be repres5t$ z       
conducive to temporal happ9ess4  ,duty1 
aga91 may be divid$ into duty to ,god & 
duty to man4 ,our 'duty to ,god' is a   
'd$uction f ! pleasures ( ! individual  
)\t at all b5efit+ ! species4' ,x mu/   
!re=e be tak5 z a tax paid = ! efficacy 
suppos$ to be communicat$ to ! o!r      
bran*--! 'duty to man4'#fag ,does       
religion1 !n1 /imulate our ob$i5ce to ! 
code ( duty to man8 ',philip ,beau*amp' 
admits = once t1 9 c]ta9 cases1 x 'might
 possibly' be useful4 ,x might affect   
'secret crimes1' t is1 crimes :]e !     
(f5d] is undiscov]able4 ,t1 h[ev]1 is a 
trifle4 ,^! cases1 he ?9ks1 w\ld be     
'uncommonly r>e' "u a well-conceiv$     
sy/em4 ,! ext5t ( evil 9 ?is life w\ld  
!re=e be trifl+ 7 sup]human inducem5ts  
entirely effac$ f ! human bosom1 & if   
'human in/itutions 7 ameliorat$ accord+ 
to ! progress ( philosophy4'#fah ,on !  
o!r h&1 ! imag9>y puni%m5ts are s+ul>ly 
defective 9 ! qualities ^u :i* ,b5?am _h

 insi/$ 9 human legislation4 ,!y are    
remote & unc]ta91 & to make up = ?is are
 repres5t$ z b\ndless 9 int5sity &      
durability4 ,= t reason1 !y precisely   
rev]se ! admitt$ pr9ciple t puni%m5t    
%\ld be s devis$ z to produce ! greate/ 
possible effect by ! smalle/ infliction 
( pa94 ,sup]natural sanctions are       
suppos$ to maximise pa9 ) a m9imum (    
effect4 ,! fe> ( hell r>ely produces any
 effect till a man is dy+1 & !n inflicts
 great suff]+1 ?\gh x has be5 totally   
ineffici5t z a prev5tive at ! "t (      
temptation4 ,! influ5ce ( sup]natural   
p5alties is !re=e 9 'an inv]se ratio to 
! dem& = x4'#fai ,9 reality1 ! efficacy 
( ! sanctions is due to _! dep5d5ce ^u  
public op9ion4 ,our real motive = act+  
rightly is our desire = ! praise ( our  
fell[s & our int]e/ 9 _! good conduct4  
,we conceal ?is motive ev5 f ourselves1 
because we wi% to h ! cr$it ( s]v+ !    
,deity exclusively4 ,?is is confirm$ by 
! famili> in/ances ( a conflict betwe5  
public op9ion & religi\s sanctions4     

,duell+1 =nication1 & p]jury are =bidd5 
by ! div9e law1 b ! prohibition is      
ineffectual :5ev] ! real s5tim5t (      
mank9d is oppos$ to x4 ,! div9e law is  
set aside z soon z x conflicts ) !      
popul> op9ion4 ,9 exceptional cases1    
inde$1 ! cr$it atta*$ to unreasonable   
practices leads to fanaticism1          
asceticism1 & ev5 insanity2 b sup]human 
t]rors fail at once :5 !y try to curb ! 
action ( g5u9e sub/antial motives4 ,h5ce
 we mu/ admit t !y are useless 9 ! case 
ev5 ( 'secret crimes4' ,religion1 9     
%ort1 prescribes mis*iev\s practices1   
becomes impot5t except = ! production ( 
mis]y1 & is really1 ?\gh n av[$ly1      
dep5d5t on ! popul> sanction4#fbj  ,we c
 n[ classify ! evils actually produc$4  
,religion injures individuals by        
prescrib+ useless & pa9ful practices3   
fa/+1 celibacy1 volunt>y self-torture1 &
 s =?4 ,x sugge/s vague t]rors :i* (t5  
drive ! victim to insanity1 & x causes  
remorse = h>mless enjoym5ts4#fba        
,religion injures society by creat+     

antipa?ies aga9/ unbeliev]s1 & 9 a less 
degree aga9/ h]etics & noncon=mi/s4 ,x  
p]v]ts public op9ion by mak+ innoc5t    
actions blameable2 by di/ort+ ! :ole    
sci5ce ( morality & sanction+ !         
het]og5e\s dictates ( a c]ta9 bl9d &    
unacc\ntable impulse call$ ! 'moral     
in/9ct or consci5ce4'#fbb ,morality     
becomes a 'm]e catalogue ( reign+       
s5tim5ts1' because x has ca/ away ! /&>d
 ( utility4 ,a special av]sion to       
improvem5t is g5]at$1 because :atev]    
*anges our conceptions ( ! 'sequ5ces (  
ph5om5a' is suppos$ to break ! div9e    
'laws ( nature4' ',unnatural' becomes a 
'self-ju/ify+' epi!t =bidd+ any propos$ 
*ange ( conduct1 :i* w c\nt]act !       
'designs ( ,god4' ,religion necess>ily  
injures intellectual progress4 ,x       
disjo9s belief f its only safe gr\nd1   
exp]i5ce4 ,! v basis1 ! belief 9 an     
inscrutable & arbitr>y p[]1 sanctions   
sup]natural or 'extra-exp]im5tal'       
beliefs ( all k9ds4 ,y reject 9 ! case (
 miracles all ! te/s applicable to      

ord9>y in/ruction1 & appeal to trial by 
ordeal in/ead ( li/5+ to witnesses4     
,in/ead ( tak+ ! tr\ble to pl\gh & s[1 y
 expect to get a h>ve/ by pray+ to an   
inscrutable ,be+4 ,y m>ry )\t means1    
because y hold t ,god nev] s5ds a *ild  
)\t s5d+ food = x to eat4 ,mean:ile y   
suborn 'unw>rant$ belief' by mak+ belief
 a matt] ( rew>d & p5alty4 ,x is made a 
duty to dwell ^u ! argum5ts ^u "o side  
)\t att5d+ to ^? ^u ! o!r1 & '! weak] ! 
evid5ce ! great] ! m]it 9 believ+4'#fbc 
,! temp] is deprav$ n only by !         
antipa?ies g5]at$1 b by ! 'fitful &     
int]mitt5t "*' ( ! inducem5ts to        
conduct4#fbd  ,! f9al result ( all ?is  
is /ill m s]i\s4 ,x is t religion1      
besides ea* sep>ate mis*ief1 'subsidises
 a /&+ army = ! p]petuation ( all !     
re/4'#fbe ,! prie/ ga9s p[] z a         
'wond]-work]1' :o kn[s h[ to propitiate 
! invisible ,be+1 & has a direct int]e/ 
9 'deprav+ ! intellect1' *]i%+          
sup]/ition1 surr\nd+ himself ) my/]ies1 
repres5t+ ! w ( ! ,deity z arbitr>y &   

caprici\s1 & =m+ an organis$ 'array (   
human =ce & fraud4'#fbf ,! prie/hood    
sets up an infallible head1 imposes ^u !
 weak & dy+1 /imulates antipa?y1 =ms !  
mass ( 'extra-exp]im5tal' beliefs into !
 lik5ess ( a sci5ce1 & allies itself ) !
 /ate4 ,h]esy becomes a crime4 ,! rul]  
helps ! prie/s to raise a tax = _! own  
com=t1 :ile !y repay him by suppress+   
all s$iti\s op9ions4 ,?us is =m$ an     
unholy alliance betwe5 ! au?orities (   
'natural religion' & ! 's9i/] int]e/s ( 
! e>?4' ,! alliance is s complete t x is
 ev5 m effici5t ?an if x _h be5 op5ly   
proclaim$4 ',pro/ration & plund] ( !    
community is inde$ ! common end ( bo?'  
7prie/s & rul]s74 ,! only *ance (       
diss5sion is ab\t ! 'p>tition ( !       
spoil4'#fbg  ,! book is z *>act]i/ic ( !
 ,utilit>ians 9 /yle z 9 _s4 ,x is t]se1
 vigor\s reason+1 ) no m]e rhetorical   
fl\ri%es4 ,! consequ5ces ( ! lead+      
pr9ciple are d$uc$ )\t fl9*+ & )\t      
res]ve4 ,_h ! au?ors giv5 _! names1 !y  
w\ld no d\bt h excit$ antipa?ies        

injuri\s to ! propag&a ( ,utilit>ianism4
 ,!y held1 = t reason presumably1 t !y 7
 n b\nd to po9t out ! ultimate goal ( _!
 speculations4 ,no intellig5t read] ( _!
 o!r writ+s c\ld fail to see :at t goal 
mu/ be2 b an 'op5 secret' is /ill = _m  
purposes a real secret4 ,:atev] might be
 ! suspicions ( _! antagoni/s1 !y c\ld  
only be accus$ ( a t5d5cy4 ,! book      
am\nts to an admission t ! suspicions 7 
well f\nd$4 ,utilit>ianism1 !           
,utilit>ians cle>ly recognis$1 logically
 impli$ ! rejection ( all !ology4       
,religion--on _! und]/&+ ( ! ^w--mu/1 l 
ev]y?+ else1 be te/$ by its utility1 & x
 0 %[n to be ei!r useless or absolutely 
p]nici\s4 ,! aim ( ! ,utilit>ians 01 9  
brief1 to be ?or\ghly sci5tific4 ,! man 
( sci5ce mu/ be oppos$ to ! belief 9 an 
inscrutable ag5t ( b\ndless p[]1 int]f]+
 at e po9t ) ! laws ( nature1 & a       
product ( ! fancy in/ead ( ! reason4    
,su* a conception1 s f> z accept$1 makes
 all !ory ( human conduct impossible1   
sugge/s rules conflict+ ) ! supreme rule

 ( utility1 & gives au?ority to e k9d ( 
delusion1 impo/ure1 & 's9i/] int]e/4'   
,x w\ld1 ,i ?9k1 be difficult to m5tion 
a m vigor\s discussion ( ! problem /at$4
 ,z anonym\s1 x c\ld be ignor$ in/ead ( 
answ]$2 & probably su* or?odox p]sons z 
read x assum$ x to be a k9d ( r$uctio ad
 absurdum ( ! ,utilit>ian cre$4 ,x might
 foll[1 !y c\ld admit1 logically f !    
,utilit>ian analysis ( human nature1 b x
 c\ld only prove t ! analysis 0         
fundam5tally wrong4 ,yet its real       
significance is precisely its ?or\gh    
applicability to ! contempor>y /ate (   
op9ion4 ,beau*amp's def9ition co9cides )
 ,paley's4 ,! co9cid5ce 0 inevitable4   
,utilit>ians bo? 9 e?ical &             
philosophical que/ions />t f ! same     
assumptions z ,paley1 & ! ,paley doctr9e
 gave ! pi? ( ! dom9ant !ology4 ,i h    
obs]v$ t ! ,scotti% philosoph]s _h      
ab&on$ ! a priori argum5t1 & laid ! :ole
 /ress ( _! !ological doctr9e ^u        
,paley's argum5t f f9al causes4 ,! *ange
 ( base 0 an inevitable consequ5ce ( _! 

:ole sy/em4 ,!y appeal$ to exp]i5ce1 to 
',baconian' me?ods1 & to 'inductive     
psy*ology4' ,! !ory ( 'intuitions1'     
effective :]e x fell 9 ) admitt$        
beliefs1 0 idle aga9/ an a!i/1 :o d5i$ t
 he _h ! intuition4 ,! 'f9al causes'    
argum5t1 h[ev]1 re/$ ^u common gr\nd1 & 
suppli$ a possible l9e ( def5ce4 ,!     
exi/5ce ( ! ,deity c\ld p]haps be prov$ 
empirically1 l ! exi/5ce ( ! 'wat*mak]4'
 ,accord+ly1 ?is 0 ! argum5t ^u :i*     
reliance 0 really plac$ by ! av]age     
!ologian ( ! "t4 ,metaphysical or       
ontological reason+ _h be5 disc>d$ =    
pla9 common-s5se4 ,! fam\s ,bridgewat]  
,treatises are ! *>act]i/ic product ( ! 
p]iod4 ,x _h occurr$ to ! e>l (         
,bridgewat]1 :o di$ 9 #ahbi1 t ,l#hjjj f
 8 e/ate might be judici\sly sp5t 9     
prov+ ! exi/5ce ( a b5evol5t creator4 ,!
 c\ncil ( ! ,royal ,society employ$     
eight em95t m5 ( sci5ce to c>ry out ?is 
design4#fbh ,!y wrote "s int]e/+ manuals
 ( popul> sci5ce1 int]sp]s$ ) prop]     
!ological applications4 ,! argum5ts 7   

s9c]e en\gh1 ?\gh !y n[ seem to ov]look 
) s+ul> bl9dness ! answ] :i* w\ld be    
sugge/$ by ! 'evolutioni/4' ,! logical  
result is1 9 any case1 a purely         
empirical !ology4 ,! religion :i* em]ges
 is n a philosophy or !ory ( ! _w 9     
g5]al1 b corresponds to a belief 9 c]ta9
 matt]s ( fact 7or fiction74 ,! exi/5ce 
( ! ,deity is to be prov$1 l ! exi/5ce (
 ,caes>1 by special evid5ce4  ,! ma9    
results are obvi\s4 ,! logical base ( ! 
:ole cre$ is 'natural !ology1' &        
'natural !ology' is simply a bran* (    
sci5ce1 am5able to ! ord9>y sci5tific   
te/s4 ,x is int5d$ to prove ! exi/5ce ( 
an ag5t ess5tial to ! work+ ( ! ma*9]y1 
z f ! movem5ts ( a planet we inf] !     
exi/5ce ( a di/urb+ planet4 ,! argum5t f
 design1 9 ?is acceptation1 is briefly  
m5tion$ by ',philip ,beau*amp4' ,x is1  
he argues1 'completely                  
extra-exp]im5tal'2 = exp]i5ce only      
reveals design 9 liv+ be+s3 x supposes a
 pre-exi/+ *aos :i* c nev] be %[n to h  
exi/$1 & ! 'omnipot5t w' introduc$ to   

expla9 ! facts is really no explanation 
at all1 b a collection ( mean+less      
words4#fbi ,! argum5t is briefly        
dismiss$ z conc]n+ ! tru?1 n ! utility1 
( religion1 b "o po9t is suffici5tly    
indicat$4 ,! argum5t f 'design' is      
always plausible1 because x applies     
reason+ und5iably valid :5 x is appli$  
)9 its prop] sph]e4 ,! inf]5ce f a wat* 
to a wat*mak] is cle>ly conclusive4 ,we 
"k suffici5tly :at is meant by !        
wat*mak] & by 'mak+4' ,we !re=e reason  
to a v]a causa--an ag5t already kn[n4   
,:5 ! inf]5ce is to ! action ( an       
inconceivable ,be+ p]=m+ an             
inconceivable op]ation ^u inconceivable 
mat]ials1 x really becomes illusory1 or 
am\nts to ! simple ass]tion t ! ph5om5on
 is inexplicable4 ,!re=e1 aga91 x is    
ess5tially oppos$ to sci5ce ?\gh claim+ 
to be sci5tific4 ,! action ( ! creator  
is suppos$ to beg9 :]e ! possibility ( k
 ends4 ,x is j ! inexplicable elem5t :i*
 sugge/s ! creative ag5cy4 ,conv]sely1 !
 satisfactory explanation ( any ph5om5on

 takes x out ( ! !ological sph]e4 ,z    
soon z ! process becomes 'natural' x    
ceases to dem& ! sup]natural artific]4  
',mak+1' !re=e1 is contradi/+ui%$ f     
'gr[+4' ,if we see h[ ! eye has come    
into exi/5ce1 we h no long] any reason  
to assume t x 0 put toge!r me*anically4 
,9 o!r words1 'teleology' ( ?is v>iety  
is dispell$ by !ories ( evolution4 ,!   
hypo!sis ( int]f]5ce becomes ne$less :5 
we see h[ ?+s came to be by work+ out   
p]fectly natural processes4 ,z sci5ce1  
!re=e1 exp&s1 !ology rec$es4 ,?is 0 to  
become m evid5t at a lat] p]iod4 ,= !   
pres5t1 ! teleological argum5t 9 !      
,paley =m1 triumphantly set =? 9        
,bridgewat] ,treatises & ! l1 re/$ !    
def5ce ( !ology on ! pro(s ( !          
discont9uity ( ! univ]se & ! consequ5t  
necessity = admitt+ sup]natural         
int]f]5ce4 ,sci5ce 0 !re=e invok$ to    
place absolute limits on its own        
progress4  ,b o!r vital difficulties 7  
already felt4 ,! argum5t f contrivance  
naturally implies limitation4 ,! mak] ( 

a ma*9e is /rictly limit$ by ! prop]ties
 ( ! matt] ^u :i* he works4 ,! inf]5ce  
might be v]bally sav$ by say+ t ! mak] 0
 'pot5tially' omnipot5t2 b ! argum5t1 s 
f> z x goes1 is m easily satisfi$ by !  
hypo!sis ( a ,be+ ( great b /ill limit$ 
p[]s4 ,! ,deity s prov$1 if ! pro( be   
valid1 is n himself ! gr\nd ( ! univ]se1
 ! s\rce f :i* nature itself emanates1 z
 well z ! special laws ( nature1 b a "p 
( ! :ole sy/em2 int]f]+1 guid+1 &       
controll+1 b /ill only "o ( ! p[]s :i*  
contribute to ! =mation ( ! :ole4 ,h5ce 
arise que/ions :i* !ologians r evad$ ?an
 attempt$ to answ]4 ,if ) ! help (      
,paley we c prove ! exi/5ce ( an        
invisible ,be+--pot5tially omnipot5t1   
?\gh always op]at+ z ?\gh limit$--!re   
w\ld /ill rema9 ! "q z to 8 attributes4 
,he is skilful1 we may grant1 b is he   
b5evol5t or is he moral8 ,! b5evol5ce   
c\ld ( c\rse be ass]t$ by optimi/s1 if  
facts 7 am5able to rhetoric4 ,b a !ory  
:i* is ess5tially sci5tific or          
empirical1 & consi/5tly argues f !      

effect to ! cause1 mu/ />t f an imp>tial
 view ( ! facts1 & mu/ make no          
presupposition z to ! nature ( ! cause4 
,! cause is kn[n only ?r\gh ! effects1 &
 our judgm5t ( !m _c be modifi$ by      
simply discov]+ t !y are caus$4 ,if1 !n1
 contrivance is z manife/ 9 disease z 9 
heal?1 9 all ! suff]+s :i* afflict      
mank9d z well z 9 ! pleasures :i* solace
 him1 we mu/ ei!r admit t ! creator is n
 b5evol5t1 or frankly admit t he is n   
omnipot5t & fall into ,mani*aeism4      
,nature1 we are frequ5tly told1 is      
indiff]5t if n cruel2 & ?\gh ,paley & 8 
foll[]s *oose to %ut _! eyes to ugly    
facts1 x c\ld be only by sacrific+ _!   
logic4 ,!y 7 b\nd to prove f obs]vation 
t ! _w 0 s design$ z to secure !        
'greate/ happ9ess' be=e !y c\ld         
logically inf] a purely b5evol5t        
design]4 ,x 0 ( ! v ess5ce ( _! position
 t obs]v$ facts %\ld be ! ultimate basis
 ( ! :ole !ory2 & to alt] ! prim>y data 
by virtue ( d$uctions drawn f !m c\ld   
obvi\sly n be logically ju/ifiable4     

,su* reflections1 ?\gh suffici5tly      
obvi\s1 might be too f> f practical     
application to h mu* imm$iate effect4 ,b
 ! "q ( ! moral be>+ ( !ology 0 ( m     
int]e/2 &1 "h1 ! co9cid5ce ( !          
,utilit>ianism ) ! accept$ !ology ( !   
day is especially important4 ,! ,deity  
reg>d$ z ! artific] appe>s to be f> f   
purely b5evol5t4 ,9 respect to morality1
 is he n simply indiff]5t8 ,does he n   
make m5 fragile & place !m amid/        
pitfalls8 ,does he n con/antly slay !   
virtu\s & save ! wick$8 ,h[1 inde$1 f ! 
purely empirical or sci5tific base1 d y 
d$uce any moral attributes :atev]8      
',natural !ology1' z x 0 call$1 might   
reveal a contriv]1 b c\ld x reveal a    
judge or a moral guide8 ,"h ! difficulty
 ( a purely matt]-(-fact !ology made    
itself felt on _m sides4 ,! rem>kable   
influ5ce ( ,butl] ^u _m m9ds 0 p>tly due
 to a p]ception ( ?is omission4 ,butl]  
av[$ly appeals to ! consci5ce1 & !re=e  
at lea/ recognises ,god z directly      
reveal$ 9 a moral "*4 ,t seem$ to supply

 a gap 9 ! ord9>y !ology4 ,b 9 ! purely 
empirical view ,butl]'s argum5t 0       
unt5able4 ,x appeal$ to "o ( !          
'intuitions' :i* 7 incompatible ) its   
fundam5tal assumptions4 ,! compunctions 
( consci5ce 7 facts to be expla9$ by    
'association1' n to be reg>d$ z         
intimations ( wra?4 ,butl]'s view might 
be inv]t$4 ,! 'consci5ce' does1 9 tru?1 
sugge/ ! div9e wra?2 b t only means t x 
sugge/s ! quack rem$ies ^u :i*          
'wond]-work+' prie/s e/abli% _! p[]4    
,in/ead ( prov+ ! tru? ( ! religion1 x  
expla9s ! orig9 ( sup]/ition4 ,to ,james
 ,mill1 z we h se51 ,butl]'s argum5t    
w\ld logically prove n a righte\s       
gov]nor b a cruel creator4 ,!ologians1  
aga91 ( ! ,paley s*ool1 7 b\nd 9        
consi/5cy to ! empirical or ,utilit>ian 
view ( morality4 ,paley accept$ !       
consequ5ces unres]v$ly2 & if su*        
philosoph]s z ,br[n & ,mack9to% p]si/$ 9
 reg>d+ ! co9cid5ce betwe5 morality &   
happ9ess z indicative ( a pre-e/abli%$  
h>mony1 n ( an id5tification ( morality 

) ! pursuit ( g5]al happ9ess1 !y /ill   
admitt$ t 'utility' 0 ! 'crit]ion' (    
morality4 ,! moral law1 t is1 co9cides 9
 its sub/ance ) ! law1 'maximise        
happ9ess1' & happ9ess means1 z ',philip 
,beau*amp' calls x1 'temporal'          
happ9ess--! happ9ess ( actual m5 liv+ 9 
?is _w & kn[+ no?+ ( any ext]nal _w4    
,h[1 !n1 is ! moral law relat$ to       
!ology8 ,to "k :at is moral1 we mu/     
appeal to exp]i5ce & 'utility4' ,we mu/ 
discov] :at makes = happ9ess1 j z 9     
m$ic9e we mu/ discov] :at makes = heal? 
or pleasure1 by ! ord9>y me?ods (       
obs]vation4 ,:at place is left = any    
sup]natural int]v5tion8 ,! o/5sible     
answ] 0 t ?\gh ! moral code c\ld be     
d$uc$ f its utility1 ! motives by :i* x 
0 to be en=c$ requir$ "s sup]natural    
ag5cy4 ,! natural man might see :at 0   
"r1 b ne$ n !re=e d :at 0 "r4 ,"h       
',philip ,beau*amp' comes to a direct   
issue ) ! !ologians4 ,he d5ies t !      
sup]natural motive w be on ! side (     
morality4 ,:5 ,j4 ,s4 ,mill rem>k$ t !re

 _h be5 few discussions ( ! 'utility' z 
di/+ui%$ f ! tru? ( religion1 he sc>cely
 recognises "o conspicu\s fact4 ,! great
 argum5t ( div9es _h always be5 !       
absolute necessity ( religion to        
morality2 & if morality be und]/ood to  
mean utility1 ?is is simply an argum5t f
 utility4 ,! po9t1 inde$1 0 (t5 tak5 =  
grant$2 b x c]ta9ly repres5ts "o ( !    
/ronge/ p]suasives1 if n "o ( ! /ronge/ 
reasons4 ,! div9es1 9 fact1 ass]t$ t    
religion 0 ( ! highe/ utility z supply+ 
! motive = moral conduct4 ,:at motives1 
!n1 c be d]iv$ f su* k ( ! ,deity z is  
atta9able f ! ',natural !ology' argum5t8
 ,h[ c we prove f x t he :o puts ! _w   
toge!r is m fav\rable to ! virtues ?an  
to ! vices :i* are its results2 or1 if m
 fav\rable1 t he %[s any o!r fav\r ?an c
 be inf]r$ f exp]i5ce8 ,he has1 x is    
agre$1 put m51 z ,b5?am _h said1 "u !   
comm& ( two sov]eign ma/]s1 ,pleasure & 
,pa92 & has enabl$ !m to calculate      
consequ5ces1 & !re=e to seek future     
pleasure & avoid future pa94 ,t only    

proves t we c increase our happ9ess by  
prud5ce2 b x sugge/s no additional      
reasons ei!r = seek+ happ9ess or = alt]+
 our e/imate ( happ9ess4 ,z ',philip    
,beau*amp' argues1 we _c f ! purely     
empirical gr\nd get any motive = tak+   
into acc\nt any?+ beyond our 'temporal' 
or secul> int]e/s4 ,?is1 aga91 0 9 fact 
admitt$ by ,paley4 ,8 mode ( escape f ! 
dilemma is famili>4 ,! exi/5ce ( a      
supreme artific] is inf]r$ f !          
int]v5tions 9 ! g5]al ord] ( nature4 ,! 
exi/5ce ( a moral rul]1 or ! fact t !   
rul] approves morality1 is inf]r$ f 8   
int]f]5ce by ! p>ticul> manife/ations ( 
p[] :i* we call miracul\s4 ,we "k t     
actions w h o!r consequ5ces ?an ^? :i* c
 be inf]r$ f our own exp]i5ce1 because  
"s two ?\s& ye>s ago a ,be+ appe>$ :o   
c\ld raise ! dead & heal ! sick4 ,if    
suffici5t evid5ce ( ! fact be =?com+1 we
 are entitl$ to say ^u 8 au?ority t !   
wick$ w be damn$ & ! virtu\s g to heav54
 ,ob$i5ce to ! law en=c$ by ^! sanctions
 is obvi\sly prud5t1 & con/itutes ! true

 diff]5tia ( moral conduct4 ,virtue1    
accord+ to ! fam\s def9ition1 is do+    
good '= ! sake ( ev]la/+ happ9ess4' ,!  
d[nright bluntness ) :i* ,paley ann\nc$ 
^! conclusions />tl$ contempor>ies1 &   
yet x mu/ be admitt$ t !y 7 a natural   
outcome ( 8 position4  ,9 %ort1 !       
!ological position ( ! ,paley s*ool & ! 
,utilit>ian position ( ',philip         
,beau*amp' />t f ! common gr\nd (       
exp]i5ce4 ,religion means ! k ( c]ta9   
facts1 :i* are to be inf]r$ f           
appropriate evid5ce4 ,x does n modify ! 
:ole sy/em ( ?\ght1 b simply adds c]ta9 
coroll>ies2 & ! :ole "q is :e!r !       
coroll>ies are or are n prov$ by        
legitimate reason+4 ,c we discov] heav5 
& hell z we discov]$ ,am]ica8 ,c        
obs]vation ( nature reveal to u a       
sup]natural _w8' ,! fir/ difficulty is t
 ! argum5t = natural !ology has to re/  
^u int]f]5ce1 n ^u ord]1 & !re=e comes  
into conflict ) ! fir/ pr9ciples (      
sci5tific proc$ure4 ,! ,deity is reveal$
 n by ! rational b by ! arbitr>y2 & ! m 

! _w is expla9$1 ! less ! pro( t he     
exi/s1 because ! n>r[] ! sph]e ( 8      
action4 ,!n1 z su* a ,deity1 ev5 if     
prov$1 is n prov$ to be b5evol5t or     
moral1 we h to rely = ! moral elem5t ^u 
! evid5ce ( 'miracles1' t is1 aga91 (   
c]ta9 int]ruptions ( ord]4 ,! sci5tific 
t5d5cy m or less embodi$ 9              
,prote/antism1 s f> z x appeal$ to      
reason or to 'private judgm5t1' _h1     
moreov]1 made x necess>y to relegate    
miracles to a remote p]iod1 :ile d5y+ !m
 at ! pres5t4 ,to prove at once t !re   
are no miracles n[1 & t !re 7 a few     
miracles two ?\s& ye>s ago1 0 really    
hopeless4 ,9 fact1 ! argum5t _h come to 
be /at$ 9 an artificial =m :i* _h no    
real relation to ! facts4 ,if ! apo/les 
_h be5 a jury conv9c$ by a c>eful legal 
exam9ation ( ! evid5ce2 if !y _h        
pron\nc$ _! v]dict1 9 spite ( ! k t !y  
w\ld be put to dea? = f9d+ x1 !re w\ld h
 be5 "s =ce 9 ,paley's argum5t4 ,b !n !y
 _h n4 ,to assume su* an orig9 = any    
religion impli$ a total misconception ( 

! facts4 ,paley assum$ t ! apo/les      
resembl$ twelve respectable deans (     
,c>lisle solemnly decl>+1 9 spite ( !   
mo/ appall+ ?reats1 t ,john ,wesley _h  
be5 prov$ to h ris5 f ! dead4 ,paley    
might plausibly urge t su* an ev5t w\ld 
require a miracle4 ,b1 mean:ile1 8      
argum5t appe>$ to re/ ! :ole case =     
morality & religion ^u ?is n>r[ & p]il\s
 base4 ,we c only "k t x is our int]e/  
to be moral if we "k ( heav5 & hell2 &  
we only "k ( heav5 & hell if we accept !
 evid5ce ( miracles1 & inf] t ! work] ( 
miracles _h sup]natural s\rces (        
in=mation4 ,! moral difficulty :i*      
em]ges is obvi\s4 ,! ,paley conception (
 ! ,deity is1 9 fact1 co9cid5t )        
,b5?am's conception ( ! sov]eign4 ,he is
 simply an invisible sov]eign1 op]at+ by
 trem5d\s sanctions4 ,! sanctions are   
'ext]nal1' t is to say1 pa9s &          
pleasures1 annex$ to conduct by !       
volition ( ! sov]eign1 n intr9sic       
consequ5ces ( ! conduct itself4 ,su* a  
conception1 ?or\ghly c>ri$ ?r\gh1 makes 

! relation betwe5 religion & morality   
ess5tially arbitr>y4 ,moreov]1 if )     
',philip ,beau*amp' we reg>d ! miracle  
argum5t z obvi\sly insuffici5t1 &       
consid] :at are ! attributes really     
attribut$ to ! sov]eign1 we mu/ admit t 
!y sugge/ su* a sy/em z he describes r  
?an ! revelation ( an all-wise &        
b5evol5t rul]4 ,x is true1 z ',philip   
,beau*amp' argues1 t ! sy/em has all !  
faults ( ! wor/ human legislation2 t !  
puni%m5t is made atroci\sly--inde$      
inf9itely--sev]e to comp5sate = its     
unc]ta9ty & remot5ess2 & t 7z he w\ld   
cle>ly add71 to prev5t x f %ock+ & /unn+
 ! intellect1 x is reg>d$ z remissible 9
 consid]ation ( vic>i\s suff]+4 ,if1 !n1
 ! religion is really :at its dogmas    
decl>e1 x is easi] to assume t x        
repres5ts ! cunn+ ( a prie/hood op]at+  
^u ! bl9d fe>s & wild imag9ations ( an  
inaccessible _w2 & ! o/5sible pro(s ( a 
div9e orig9 re/+ ^u miracul\s pro(s are 
n wor? consid]ation4 ,x pr(esses to be a
 sanction to all morality1 b is =c$ to  

con/ruct a my?ology :i* outrages all    
moral consid]ations4 ,tak5 z a s]i\s    
/atem5t ( fact1 ! an?ropomorphism ( !   
vulg> belief 0 op5 to ! objections :i*  
,socrates br\ght aga9/ ! ,pagan         
my?ology4 ,! supreme rul] 0 virtually   
repres5t$ z arbitr>y1 cruel1 & despotic4
  ,if we ask ! "q1 :e!r 9 po9t ( fact ! 
religion attack$ by ',philip ,beau*amp' 
fairly repres5t$ ! religion ( ! day1 we 
%\ld h1 ( c\rse1 to admit t x 0 9 "o    
s5se a gross c>icature4 ,if1 t is1 we   
ask$ :at 7 ! real roots ( ! religi\s    
zeal ( ,wilb]=ce & ! ,evangelicals1 or (
 ! philan?ropi/s ) :om ev5 ,james ,mill 
manag$ to associate on fri5dly t]ms1 x  
w\ld be ! height ( inju/ice to assume t 
!y tri$ to d good simply f fe> ( hell & 
hope ( heav51 or t _! belief 9          
,*ri/ianity 0 due to a /udy ( ,paley's  
,evid5ces4 ,_! real motives 7 f> nobl]3 
g5u9e hatr$ ( inju/ice & sympa?y =      
suff]+1 jo9$ to ! conviction t ! sects  
to :i* !y belong$ 7 work+ on ! side (   
ju/ice & happ9ess2 :ile ! cre$s :i* !y  

accept$ 7 someh[ cong5ial to _! be/     
feel+s1 & enabl$ !m to give utt]ance to 
_! deepe/ emotions4 ,b :5 !y _h to give 
a gr\nd = t belief !y c\ld make no      
adequate def5ce4 ,!y 7 bett] ?an _!     
o/5sible cre$1 because ! connection ( _!
 cre$ ) _! morality 0 really arbitr>y & 
traditional4 ,we mu/ always di/+ui%     
betwe5 ! causes ( /rong convictions & ! 
reasons (ficially assign$ = !m4 ,!      
religi\s cre$1 z di/+ui%$ f ! religi\s  
s5tim5t1 0 really traditional1 & re/$ ^u
 ! simple fact t x 0 cong5ial to ! g5]al
 frame ( m9d4 ,its philosophy mean:ile  
_h become hopelessly incoh]5t4 ,x wi%$  
to be s5sible1 & admitt$ 9 pr9ciple ! "r
 ( 'private judgm5t' or rationalism s f>
 z consi/5t ) ,prote/antism4 ,! effect  
_h be5 t 9 sub/ance x _h become         
,utilit>ian & empirical2 :ile x _h yet  
insi/$ ^u hold+ on to ! ess5tially      
irrational elem5t4  ,! religi\s         
tradition 0 becom+ unt5able 9 ?is s5se  
at ! same "t z ! political tradition4   
,if radicalism 9 bo? 7 to be effectually

 resi/$1 "s bett] f\ndation mu/ be f\nd 
= cons]vatism4 ,i %\ld be tempt$ to say 
t a critical p]iod 0 approa*+1 did ,i n 
admit t e p]iod c always be describ$ z  
critical4 ,9 fact1 h[ev]1 ?\ghtful p1   
p]ceiv+ on ! "o h& t ! f\ndations ( _!  
cre$ 7 %ak+1 & yet hold+ x to be        
ess5tial to _! happ9ess1 began to take a
 new position4 ,! ',ox=d movem5t1' />t$ 
soon aft]w>ds1 impli$ a conviction t !  
old ,prote/ant position 0 z unt5able z !
 radical ass]t$4 ,its adh]5ts attempt$  
to f9d a liv+ & visible body ^:         
sup]natural au?ority might ma9ta9 ! old 
dogmatic sy/em4 ,lib]al ?9k]s endeav\r$ 
to spiritualise ! cre$ & prove its      
ess5tial tru?s by philosophy1           
indep5d5tly ( ! p>ticul> hi/orical      
evid5ce4 ,! popul> t5d5cy 0 to admit 9  
sub/ance t ! dogmas mo/ assail$ 7 9 fact
 immoral3 b to put !m into ! backgr\nd1 
or1 if necess>y1 to expla9 !m away4 ,!  
/ress 0 to be laid n ^u miracles1 b ^u !
 moral elevation ( ,*ri/ianity or !     
beauty ( "* ( its f\nd]4 ,! 'unsect>ian'

 religion1 repres5t$ 9 ! mo/ *>act]i/ic 
writ+s ( ! next g5]ation1 9 ,t5nyson &  
,br[n+1 ,?ack]ay & ,dick5s1 reflects ?is
 view4 ,su* m5 dete/$ ! co>se &         
brutalis+ dogmas :i* might be exp\nd$ z 
! true 's*eme ( salvation' by ignorant  
prea*]s seek+ to r\se sluggi% natures to
 excitem5t2 b !y held to religi\s       
conceptions :i*1 z !y ?\ght1 really     
und]lay ^! di/urb+ images1 & :i*1 inde$1
 c\ld h>dly be express$ 9 any m def9ite 
=m ?an t ( a hope or a g5]al attitude ( 
! :ole "*4 ,! problem seem$ to be :e!r  
we %all support a dogmatic sy/em by     
recognis+ a liv+ spiritual au?ority1 or 
frankly accept reason z ! sole au?ority1
 &1 :ile expla9+ away ! repulsive       
dogmas1 try to reta9 ! real ess5ce (    
religi\s belief4   ,,ii4 ,,contempor>y  
,,?\ght  ,if ,i 7 writ+ a g5]al hi/ory (
 op9ion1 x w\ld be necess>y to discuss !
 views ( ,mill's ,engli% contempor>ies2 
to note _! attitude 9 reg>d to !        
,utilit>ian position1 & po9t out h[ !y  
prep>$ ! way = ! lat] developm5ts (     

?\ght4 ,! ,utilit>ians 7 oppos$ to a    
vague s5tim5t r ?an to any def9ite      
sy/em4 ,!y 7 a small & a v unpopul>     
sect4 ,!y excit$ antipa?y on all sides4 
,z advocat+ republicanism1 !y 7 h>dly m 
dislik$ by ! ,tories1 :o directly oppos$
 !m1 ?an by ! ,:igs1 :o might be        
suspect$ ( complicity4 ,z en?usia/ic    
political economi/s1 !y 7 equally dete/$
 by s5tim5tal ,radicals1 ,sociali/s1 &  
by all :o desir$ a /rong gov]nm5t1 :e!r 
= ! suppression ( social evils or !     
ma9t5ance ( social abuses4 ,& n[1 z     
suspect$ ( a!ism1 !y 7 hat$ by          
!ologians4 ,b ?\gh ! ,utilit>ians 7 on  
all sides condemn$ & d5\nc$1 !y 7 met by
 no def9ite & coh]5t s*eme ( philosophy4
 ,! philosophy ( ,/ew>t & ,br[n _h at   
lea/ a /rong drift 9 _! direction4 ,?\gh
 'political economy' 0 d5\nc$ 9 g5]al   
t]ms1 all :o spoke ) au?ority accept$   
,adam ,smi?4 ,_! political oppon5ts     
g5]ally did n s mu* oppose _! !ories z  
object to !ory 9 g5]al4 ,! ,utilit>ian  
sy/em might be bo? imp]fect & dogmatic2 

b x _h sc>cely to cont5d ) any cle> &   
assignable rival4 ,! dislike ( ,engli%m5
 to any sy/ematic philosophy1 :e!r f\nd$
 ^u ! national "* or *iefly due to      
special conditions1 0 /ill conspicu\s   
outside ( ! small ,utilit>ian camp4  ,to
 discov]1 !re=e1 ! true position (      
contempor>y op9ion1 we %\ld h to look   
else:]e4 ,in/ead ( seek+ = ! philosoph]s
 :o did n exi/1 we %\ld h to exam9e ! m5
 ( lett]s :o express$ ! g5]al t5d5cies4 
,9 ,g]many1 philosophical !ories may be 
held to repres5t ! true drift ( !       
national m9d1 & a hi/orian ( ,g]man     
?\ght w\ld inquire into ! v>i\s sy/ems  
elaborat$ by pr(essors ( philosophy4 ,he
 w\ld at lea/ be 9 no want ( mat]ials = 
def9ite logical /atem5ts4 ,9 ,engl&1 !re
 0 no su* intellectual movem5t4 ,!re we 
%\ld h to consid] poetry & lit]ature2 to
 read ,wordswor? & ,col]idge1 ,scott &  
,byron & ,%elley1 if we w\ld "k :at m5 7
 really ?9k+ & feel+4 ,! difficulty is1 
( c\rse1 t none ( ^! m51 unless         
,col]idge be an exception1 _h any       

consci\s or sy/ematic philosophy4 ,we c 
only ask1 !re=e1 :at !y w\ld h said if  
!y _h be5 reque/$ to ju/ify _! views by 
ab/ract reason+2 & t is a r conjectural 
& indef9ite ent]prise4 ,x lies1         
=tunately1 outside ( my field2 & x w be 
en\gh if ,i try to sugge/ "o or two     
suffici5tly vague h9ts4 ,9 ! fir/ place1
 ! contra/ betwe5 ! ,utilit>ians & _!   
oppon5ts may almo/ be id5tifi$ ) !      
contra/ betwe5 ! prosaic & ! poetical   
aspects ( ! _w 9 g5]al4 ,b5?am frankly  
object$ to poetry 9 g5]al4 ,x prov$     
no?+4 ,! true ,utilit>ian 0 ! man :o    
held on to fact1 & to no?+ b ! b>e/1 mo/
 nak$ & unadorn$ fact4 ,poetry 9 g5]al  
came )9 ! sweep ( 8 d5unciations (      
's5tim5talism' & 'vague g5]alities4' ,x 
0 ! 'production ( a rude age'2 ! silly  
j+l+ :i* might be suitable to savages1 b
 0 ne$less = ! gr[n-up man1 & 0 de/9$ to
 disappe> along ) ! :ole rubbi% (       
my?ology & sup]/ition 9 ^: s]vice x _h  
be5 enli/$4 ,!re is inde$ a natural     
sympa?y betwe5 any s]i\s view ( life & a

 di/ru/ ( ! ae/hetic t5d5cies4          
,!ologians ( _m diff]5t types h condemn$
 m5 = dally+ ) ! m]ely pleasurable1 :5  
!y ought to be preoccupi$ ) ! great     
e?ical problems or ! safety ( _! s\ls4  
,james ,mill _h en\gh ( ! old ,puritan 9
 him to sympa?ise ) ,c>lyle's           
aspiration1 ',may ! devil fly away ) !  
f9e arts6' ,to su* m5 x 0 difficult to  
di/+ui% betwe5 fiction & ly+2 & if "s   
concession might be made to human       
weakness1 poets & noveli/s might supply 
! relaxations & s]ve to fill up !       
int]vals ( life1 b mu/ be /]nly exclud$ 
if !y tri$ to intrude into s]i\s /udies4
 ,someh[ love ( ! beautiful only int]f]$
 ) ! sci5tific inve/igation ( h>d facts4
  ,poets1 inde$1 may take ! side ( re=m1
 or may p]haps be naturally expect$ to  
take t side4 ,! ideali/ & ! dream] %\ld 
be attract$ mo/ p[]fully by ! visions ( 
a bett] _w & ! re/oration ( ! gold5 age4
 ,%elley 0 among ! mo/ en?usia/ic       
prophets ( ! com+ era4 ,8 words1 he     
hop$1 7 to be '! trumpet ( a prophecy'  

to 'unawak5$ e>?4' ,%elley _h sat at !  
feet ( ,godw91 & repres5t$ t vague      
metaphysical dream+ to :i* !            
,utilit>ians 7 radically ho/ile4 ,to !  
lit]>y critic1 ,%elley's p[] is ! m     
rem>kable because f a flimsy philosophy 
he span an imag9ative tissue ( su*      
magical & m>vell\s beauty4 ,b ,%elley   
dwelt 9 an e!real region1 :]e ord9>y    
be+s f\nd brea?+ difficult4 ,!re facts  
seem$ to dissolve into ?9 air in/ead (  
supply+ a solid & sub/antial base4 ,8   
idealism meant unreality4 ,8 'trumpet'  
did n 9 fact /imulate ! mass ( mank9d1 &
 8 fame at ?is p]iod 0 conf9$ to a few  
"y g5tlem5 ( lit]>y ref9em5t4 ,! man :o 
_h really /irr$ ! _w 0 ,byron2 & if !   
decl9e ( ,byron's fame has result$ p>tly
 f real defects1 x is p>tly due also to 
! fact t 8 poetry 0 s admirably adapt$  
to 8 contempor>ies4 ,byron at lea/ c\ld 
see facts z cle>ly z any ,utilit>ian1   
?\gh fact col\r$ by int5se passion4 ,he1
 l ! ,utilit>ians1 hat$ solemn          
platitudes & hypocritical conv5tions4 ,i

 h notic$ ! po9t at :i* he came into    
contact ) ,b5?am's disciples4 ,8 pa!tic 
dea? %ortly aft]w>ds excit$ a s+ul>ly   
/rong movem5t ( sympa?y4 ',! news ( 8   
dea?1' said ,c>lyle at ! "t1 'came ^u my
 he>t l a mass ( lead2 & yet ! ?\ght ( x
 s5ds a pa9ful tw+e ?r\gh all my be+1 z 
if ,i _h lo/ a bro!r4' ,at a lat] "t he 
def9es ,byron z 'a d&y ( sorr[s &       
acqua9t$ ) grief4'#fcj ,t hits (f "o    
aspect ( ,byronism4 ,byron 0 ! ,mirabeau
 ( ,engli% lit]ature1 9 s f> z he 0 at  
once a ?or\gh ari/ocrat & a /rong       
revolutioni/4 ,he _h ! qualification ( a
 true satiri/4 ,8 fate 0 at discord ) 8 
"*4 ,he 0 pr\d ( 8 ord]1 & yet despis$  
its actual lead]s4 ,he 0 ready          
alt]nately to boa/ ( 8 vices & to be    
consci\s t !y 7 degrad+4 ,he %ock$ !    
respectable _w by mock+ ',satanically1' 
z !y held1 at moral conv5tions1 & yet r 
d5\nc$ ! hypocrisy & ! he>tlessness (   
precisians ?an insult$ ! real           
affections4 ,he cov]$ sympa?y ) human   
suff]+ "u a mask ( misan?ropy1 & attack$

 w> & oppression 9 ! "* ( a reckless    
outlaw4 ,full ( ! affectation ( a 'd&y1'
 he 0 yet r\s+ all ,europe by a cry (   
pure s5tim5talism4 ,x w\ld be absurd to 
attribute any def9ite doctr9e to ,byron4
 ,8 scepticism 9 religi\s matt]s 0 m]ely
 "p ( a g5]al revolt aga9/              
respectability4 ,:at he illu/rates is ! 
vague b pr(\nd revolution>y s5tim5t :i* 
indicat$ a belief t ! _w seem$ to be out
 ( jo9t1 & a vehem5t prote/ aga9/ !     
selfi% & /olid cons]vatism :i* fanci$ t 
! old ord] c\ld be pres]v$ 9 all its    
fossil in/itutions & correspond+ dogmas4
  ,:at 0 ! philosophy cong5ial to       
,cons]vatism8 ,!re is1 ( c\rse1 ! simple
 answ]1 ,none4 ,toryism 0 a 'reaction'  
due to ! great /ruggle ( ! w> & !       
excesses ( ! revolution4 ,a 'reaction'  
is a v conv5i5t phrase4 ,we are l our   
fa!rs2 !n ! resemblance is only natural4
 ,we diff]2 !n ! phrase 'reaction' makes
 ! alt]ation expla9 itself4 ,no d\bt1   
h[ev]1 !re 0 9 "s s5se a reaction4 ,_m p
 *ang$ _! m9ds z ! revolution>y movem5t 

fail$ to fulfil _! hopes4 ,i ne$ n argue
 n[ t su* m5 7 n necess>ily corrupt     
r5egades4 ,i c only try to indicate !   
process by :i* !y 7 l$ t[>ds c]ta9      
philosophical doctr9es4 ,scott1         
,wordswor?1 & ,col]idge repres5t x en\gh
 = my purpose4 ,:5 ,mill 0 reproa*+     
,engli%m5 = _! want ( int]e/ 9 hi/ory1  
he po9t$ out t ,?i]ry1 '! e>lie/ ( !    
?ree great ,fr5* hi/orians' 7,guizot &  
,mi*elet are ! two o!rs71 ascrib$ 8     
int]e/ 9 8 subject to ,ivanhoe4#fca     
,engli%m5 read ,ivanhoe simply =        
amusem5t4 ,fr5*m5 c\ld see t x ?rew a   
light ^u hi/ory1 or at lea/ sugge/$ a   
great hi/orical problem4 ,scott1 x is   
(t5 said1 0 ! fir/ p]son to tea* u t our
 ance/ors 7 once z mu* alive z          
ourselves4 ,scott1 inde$1 ! "o ,engli%  
writ] ^: fame ^u ! ,cont95t c\ld be     
comp>$ to ,byron's1 _h cle>ly no int]e/ 
91 or capacity =1 ab/ract speculations4 
,an imag9ative p[]1 j fall+ %ort ( !    
high] poetical gift1 & a mascul9e       
common-s5se 7 8 mo/ conspicu\s          

faculties4 ,! two qualities 7           
occasionally at issue2 8 judgm5t /ruggl$
 ) 8 prejudices1 & he sympa?is$ too     
ke5ly ) ! active lead]s & concrete      
causes to c>e mu* = any ab/ract !ory4   
,yet 8 influ5ce ^u ?\ght1 ?\gh indirect1
 0 rem>kable4 ,! vividness ( 8 hi/orical
 pa9t+--inaccurate1 no d\bt1 &          
delightfully reckless ( dates &         
facts--/imulat$ ! gr[+ int]e/ 9         
hi/orical inquiries ev5 9 ,engl&4 ,8    
influ5ce 9 "o direction is recognis$ by 
,newman1 :o 0 p]haps ?9k+ *iefly ( 8    
m$iaevalism4#fcb ,b ! hi/orical novels  
are only "o side ( ,scott4 ,patriotic to
 ! core1 he liv$ at a "t :5 patriotic   
feel+ 0 /imulat$ to ! utmo/1 & :5       
,scotl& 9 p>ticul> 0 /ill a prov9ce1 &  
yet 9 _m ways ! mo/ vigor\s &           
progressive "p ( a great empire4 ,he    
repres5ts patriotism /imulat$ by contact
 ) cosmopolitan movem5ts4 ,lov+ e local 
peculi>ity1 pa9t+ e class f ! noble to !
 peasant1 lov+ ! old traditions1 & yet  
%>+ ! great impulses ( ! day1 ,scott 0  

able to int]e/ ! _w at l>ge4 ,:ile ! mo/
 fai?ful portray] ( ! special national  
type1 he has too mu* s5se n to be well  
aw>e t picturesque cattle-/eal]s &      
,jacobite *iefs 7 ?+s ( ! pa/2 b he     
loves ) 8 :ole he>t ! in/itutions root$ 
9 ! pa/ & ri* 9 hi/orical associations4 
,he transf]r$ to poetry & fiction !     
political doctr9e ( ,burke4 ,to him1 !  
revolution>y movem5t 0 simply a solv5t1 
corrod+ all ! old ties because x sapp$ !
 old traditions1 & t5d$ to sub/itute a  
mob = a nation4 ,! cont9uity ( national 
life seem$ to him ! ess5tial condition2 
& a nation 0 n a m]e aggregate ( sep>ate
 individuals1 b an anci5t organism1     
develop+ on an ord]ly sy/em--:]e e man  
_h 8 rightful place1 & ! begg>1 z he    
obs]ves 9 ! ,antiqu>y1 0 z ready z !    
noble to rise aga9/ =eign invasion4 ,to 
him1 ! k+s or prie/s :o1 to !           
revolutioni/1 repres5t$ simple          
despotism1 repres5t$ "p ( a r\gh b manly
 ord]1 9 :i* _m virtues 7 conspicu\s & !
 gov]n+ classes 7 dis*>g+ great         

functions4 ,?\gh he did n use ! phrase1 
! revolution>y or radical view 0 hateful
 to him on acc\nt ( its 'individualism4'
 ,x meant ! summ>y de/ruction ( all t he
 *]i%$ mo/ w>mly 9 ord] to c>ry out     
!ories altoge!r revolt+ to 8            
common-s5se4 ,! v roots ( a s\nd social 
ord] dep5d ^u ! traditions & accept$    
beliefs :i* b9d toge!r clans or         
families1 & assign to e man a           
satisfactory function 9 life4 ,! vivid  
realisation ( hi/ory goes naturally ) a 
love--excessive or reasonable--( ! old  
ord]2 & ,scott1 ?\gh writ+ c>elessly to 
amuse idle read]s1 0 /imulat+ !         
hi/orical conceptions1 :i*1 = :atev]    
reason1 7 mo/ uncong5ial to !           
,utilit>ian z to all ! revolutioni/s4   
,! m consci\s philosophical application 
is illu/rat$ by ,wordswor? & ,col]idge4 
,bo? ( !m _h %>$ ! truly revolution>y   
en?usiasm1 & bo? came 9 "t to be class$ 
) ! ,tories4 ,bo?1 z w be se51 _h a m>k$
 influ5ce ^u ,j4 ,s4 ,mill4 ,wordswor?  
has writt5 9 ! ,prelude "o ( ! mo/      

rem>kable ( intellectual                
autobiographies4 ,he 0 to be1 ?\gh he   
nev] q succe$$ 9 be+1 a great           
philosophical poet4 ,he nev] succe$$1   
because1 9 tru?1 he 0 n a great         
philosoph]4 ,b no "o has m cle>ly       
indicat$ ! hi/ory ( 8 m5tal evolution4  
,8 sympa?y ) ! revolution 0 p]fectly    
g5u9e1 b involv$ a va/ misconception4 ,a
 /urdy1 indep5d5t y\?1 ?or\ghly imbu$ ) 
! in/9cts ( 8 nor!rn dalesm51 he _h e>ly
 lean$ to a republican s5tim5t4 ,8      
dislike ( ! effete conv5tionalism ( !   
lit]>y cre$ bl5d$ ) 8 av]sion to !      
political rule ( ! "t4 ,he caught !     
contagion ( revolution>y en?usiasm 9    
,france1 & 0 conv]t$ by ! sight ( !     
'hung]-bitt5' peasant girl--! victim (  
ari/ocratic oppression4 ',x is aga9/ t1'
 said 8 fri5d1 't we are fight+1' & s f>
 ,wordswor? 0 a conv]t4 ,! revolution1  
!re=e1 meant to him ! re/oration ( an   
idyllic /ate1 9 :i* ! homely virtues ( !
 indep5d5t peasant %\ld no long] be     
cru%$ & depriv$ ( rew>d by ! in/rum5ts (

 selfi% despotism4 ,! outbreak ( w> put 
8 pr9ciples at issue ) 8 patriotism4 ,he
 suff]$ ke5ly :5 call$ ^u to triumph ov]
 ! calamities ( 8 c\ntrym54 ,b gradually
 he came to ?9k t 8 sympa?ies 7         
misplac$4 ,! revolution _h n alt]$ human
 nature4 ,! atrocities di/urb$ him1 b = 
a "t he c\ld reg>d !m z a m]e accid5t4  
,z ! w> w5t on1 he began to p]ceive t ! 
new p[] c\ld be z tyrannical & selfi% z 
! old4 ,in/ead ( recon/ruct+ a simple   
social ideal1 x 0 =m+ a milit>y         
despotism4 ,:5 ! ,fr5* armies put d[n ! 
simple ,swiss peasantry1 to :om he _h   
be5 drawn by 8 home-br$ sympa?ies1 he   
f9ally gave up ! revolution>y cause4 ,he
 _h gone ?r\gh a m5tal agony1 & 8       
di/ract$ sympa?ies ultimately det]m9$ a 
*ange :i* correspond$ to ! adoption ( a 
new philosophy4 ,wordswor?1 inde$1 _h   
little ta/e = ab/ract logic4 ,he _h     
imbib$ ,godw9's doctr9e1 b :5 acceptance
 ( ,godw9's conclusions involv$ a       
conflict ) 8 /ronge/ affections--!      
sacrifice n only ( 8 patriotism b ( !   

sympa?ies :i* b\nd him to 8 fell[s--he  
revolt$4 ,godw9 repres5ts ! extreme (   
'individualism1' ! absolute dissolution 
( all social & political bonds4         
,wordswor? escap$1 n by discov]+ a      
logical defect 9 ! argum5t1 b by yield+ 
to ! prote/ ( 8 emotions4 ,! sy/em1 he  
?\ght1 0 fatal to all ! affections :i*  
_h made life de> to him2 to ! vague     
'intimations' :i*1 :atev] else !y might 
be1 _h yet p[] to give h>mony to our    
exi/5ce4  ,by degrees he adopt$ a new   
diagnosis ( ! great political evils4 ,on
 "o side1 he sympa?is$ ) ,scott's s5se (
 ! fatal effects ^u ! :ole social       
organism4 ,among 8 noble/ poems are !   
',bro!rs' & ',mi*ael1' to :i* he        
specially call$ ! att5tion ( ,fox4 ,!y 7
 int5d$1 he expla9$1 to %[ ! surpass+   
value ( ! dome/ic affections conspicu\s 
among ! %eph]ds & '/atesm5' ( ! nor!rn  
dales4 ,he _h n[ come to hold t !       
pr9ciples ( ,godw9 & 8 l 7 de/ructive to
 ! mo/ important elem5ts ( human welf>e4
 ,! revolutioni/s 7 n simply break+ !   

fett]s ( ! simple peasant1 b de/roy+ !  
mo/ sacr$ ties to :i* ! peasant ow$     
:atev] dignity or happ9ess he possess$4 
,revolution1 9 %ort1 meant an>*y4 ,x    
meant1 !re=e1 ! de/ruction ( all t gives
 real value to life4 ,x 01 z he held1 "o
 product ( ! wor%ip ( ! 'idol pr\dly    
nam$ ! weal? ( nations1'#fcc selfi%ness 
& gre$ replac+ ! old motives to 'pla9   
liv+ & high ?9k+4' ,wordswor?1 9 %ort1  
saw ! ugly side ( ! indu/rial           
revolution1 ! injury done to dome/ic    
life by ! factory sy/em1 or !           
sub/itution ( a prolet>iate = a         
peasantry1 & ! replacem5t ( ! l[e/      
social ord] by a va/ inorganic mob4 ,!  
contempor>y process1 :i* 0 lead+ to     
paup]ism & to ! evils ( ! factory sy/em1
 pr(\ndly affect$ ,wordswor?1 z well z !
 impulsive ,s\!y2 & _! frequ5t          
d5unciations gave col\r to ! imputations
 t !y 7 oppos$ to all progress4 ,c]ta9ly
 !y 7 ev5 morbidly alive to ! evil      
aspects ( ! political economy ( ,mal?us 
& ,ric>do1 :i* to !m seem$ to prescribe 

ins5sibility & indiff]5ce to mo/ s]i\s &
 rapidly accumulat+ evils4  ,mean:ile1  
,wordswor? 0 also impress$ by ! und]ly+ 
philosophical difficulties4 ,! effect ( 
! revolution>y pr9ciples 0 to de/roy !  
religi\s s5tim5t1 n simply by disprov+  
?is or t hi/orical /atem5t1 b by mak+ ! 
:ole _w prosaic & matt]-(-fact4 ,8      
occasional outbur/s aga9/ ! man (       
sci5ce--! 'f+]+ slave' :o w\ld 'peep &  
botanise ^u 8 "m's grave'--are "o v]sion
 ( 8 feel+4 ,! :ole sci5tific me?od t5d$
 to mat]ialism & atomism2 to a break+ up
 ( ! _w into disconnect$ atoms1 & los+ !
 life 9 dissect+ ! ma*9]y4 ,8 prote/ is 
embodi$ 9 ! pan!ism ( ! noble l9es on   
,t9t]n ,abbey1 & 8 me?od ( answ]+ might 
be div9$ f ! ode on ! ',intimations (   
,immortality4' ,someh[ or o!r ! _w      
repres5ts a spiritual & rational unity1 
n a m]e *aos ( disconnect$ atoms &      
fragm5ts4 ,we 'see into ! he>t ( ?+s' :5
 we tru/ to our emotions & hold by !    
in/9cts1 cle>ly manife/$ 9 *ildhood1 b  
cl\d$ & ov]:elm$ 9 our lat] /ruggles ) !

 _w4 ,! ess5tial ?+ is ! cultivation (  
our 'moral be+1' ! c>eful pres]vation & 
assimilation ( ! /]n s5se ( duty1 :i*   
alone makes life be>able & gives a mean+
 to ! univ]se4  ,wordswor?1 x is pla91 0
 at ! v opposite pole f ! ,utilit>ians4 
,he came to consid] t _! :ole me?od     
meant ! dissolution ( all t 0 mo/       
vitally sacr$1 & to hold t ! revolution 
_h attract$ 8 sympa?ies on false        
pret5ces4 ,yet x is obvi\s t1 h[ev]     
great ! /imulus :i* he ex]t$1 & h[ev]   
l(ty 8 highe/ flights ( poetry1 he _h no
 di/9ct !ory to (f]4 ,8 doctr9e         
und\bt$ly 0 cong5ial to c]ta9           
philosophical views1 b 0 n itself an    
articulate philosophy4 ,he appeals to   
in/9cts & emotions1 n to any def9ite    
!ory4 ,9 a rem>kable lett]1 ,col]idge   
told ,wordswor? :y he 0 disappo9t$ ) !  
,excursion4#fcd ,he _h hop$ t x w\ld be 
! 'fir/ & only true philosophical poem 9
 exi/5ce4' ,wordswor? 0 to h />t$ by    
expos+ ! 's&y sophisms ( ,locke1' & aft]
 explod+ ,pope's ,essay on ,man1 & %[+ !

 vanity ( 7,erasmus7 ,d>w9's belief 9 an
 'ourang-outang /ate1' & expla9+ ! fall 
( man & ! 's*eme ( r$emption1' to h     
conclud$ by 'a gr& didactic swell on !  
id5tity ( a true philosophy ) true      
religion4' ,he w\ld %[ h[ life &        
intellig5ce 7 to be sub/itut$ = !       
'philosophy ( me*anism4' ,facts w\ld be 
elevat$ into !ory1 !ory into laws1 &    
laws into liv+ & intellig5t p[]s--true  
idealism necess>ily p]fect+ itself 9    
realism1 & realism ref9+ itself into    
idealism4'  ,! programme 0 a l>ge "o4   
,if x repres5ts :at ,col]idge s]i\sly   
expect$ f ,wordswor?1 x also sugge/s t  
he 0 unconsci\sly w&]+ into an          
exposition ( "o ( ! gigantic b con/antly
 %ift+ s*emes ( a compreh5sive          
philosophy1 :i* he 0 always propos+ to  
execute4 ,to try to speak ( ,col]idge   
adequately w\ld be hopeless & out (     
place4 ,i mu/ briefly m5tion him1       
because he 0 und\bt$ly ! mo/ conspicu\s 
repres5tative ( ! t5d5cies oppos$ to    
,utilit>ianism4 ,! "y m5 :o f\nd ,b5?am 

exasp]at+ imbib$ draughts ( m+l$ poetry 
& philosophy f ,col]idge's monologues at
 ,hamp/ead4 ,c>lyle has told u1 9 a     
fam\s *apt] ( 8 ,life ( ,/]l+1 :at !y   
w5t out to see3 at once a re$ %ak5 by ! 
w9d & a great exp\nd] ( transc5d5tal    
tru?4 ,! fact t ,col]idge ex]t$ a v     
great influ5ce is und5iable4 ,to def9e  
precisely :at t influ5ce 0 is           
impossible4 ,8 writ+s are a heap (      
fragm5ts4 ,he contemplat$ innum]able    
s*emes = great works1 & nev] got )9     
measurable di/ance ( writ+ any4 ,he p\r$
 himself out indef9itely ^u ! m>g9s (   
o!r m5's books2 & ! piety ( disciples   
has collect$ a mass ( ^! scatt]$ &      
incoh]5t jott+s1 :i* ann\nce conclusions
 )\t giv+ ! premises1 or sugge/         
difficulties )\t attempt+ to solve !m4  
,he seems to h be5 almo/ z indu/ri\s z  
,b5?am 9 writ+2 b :]eas ,b5?am's        
fragm5ts c\ld be put toge!r z :oles1    
,col]idge's are ess5tially di/ract$ h9ts
 ( views nev] really elaborat$4 ,he 0   
always ?9k+1 b seems always to be mak+ a

 fre% />t at any po9t t /rikes him = !  
mom5t4 ,besides all ?is1 !re is ! pa9ful
 "q ( plagi>ism4 ,8 mo/ coh]5t          
exposition 79 ! ,biographia ,lit]>ia7 is
 simply appropriat$ f ,s*ell+1 ?\gh he  
ascribes ! id5tity to a 'g5ial          
co9cid5ce' ( ?\ght4 ,i ne$ make no      
attempt to make out :at ,col]idge really
 ?\ght = himself1 & !n to try to put 8  
?\ghts toge!r1--& inde$ hold ! attempt  
to be impossible4 ,! mo/ rem>kable ?+ is
 ! app>5t disproportion betwe5          
,col]idge's def9ite s]vices to          
philosophy & ! effect :i* he c]ta9ly    
produc$ ^u "s ( 8 able/ contempor>ies4  
,t seems to prove t he 0 really aim+ at 
"s important aspect ( tru?1 incapable z 
he may h be5 ( def9itively rea*+ x4 ,i c
 only try to give a h9t or two z to its 
g5]al nature4 ,col]idge1 9 ! fir/ place1
 0 ess5tially a poet1 &1 moreov]1 8     
poetry 0 ( ! type mo/ completely divorc$
 f philosophy4 ,nobody c\ld say m       
emphatically t poetry %\ld n be rhym$   
logic2 & 8 mo/ impressive poems are     

simply wak+ dreams4 ,!y are spontane\s  
inc>nations ( s5su\s imag]y1 :i* has no 
ne$ ( morals or def9ite logical s*emes4 
,al?\gh he expect$ ,wordswor? to        
transmute philosophy into poetry1 he    
admitt$ t ! a*ievem5t w\ld be           
unprec$5t$4 ,ev5 9 ,lucretius1 he said1 
:at 0 poetry 0 n philosophy1 & :at 0    
philosophy 0 n poetry4 ,yet ,col]idge's 
philosophy 0 ess5tially ! philosophy ( a
 poet4 ,he _h1 inde$1 great dialectical 
+5uity--a faculty :i* may c]ta9ly be    
alli$ ) ! highe/ imag9ation1 ?\gh x may 
involve c]ta9 temptations4 ,a poet :o   
has also a ma/]y ( dialectics becomes a 
my/ic 9 philosophy4 ,col]idge _h1 x     
seems1 be5 attract$ by ,plot9us 9 8     
s*ooldays4 ,at a lat] p]iod he _h be5   
attract$ by ,h>tley1 ,b]keley1 &        
,prie/ley4 ,to a brilliant y\?1 anxi\s  
to be 9 ! van ( intellectual progress1  
!y repres5t$ ! mo/ advanc$ !ories4 ,b   
!re c\ld nev] be a full sympa?y betwe5  
,col]idge & ! =efa!rs ( ,engli%         
empiricism2 & he w5t to ,g]many p>tly to

 /udy ! new philosophy :i* 0 beg9n+ to  
%9e--?\gh v feebly & int]mitt+ly--9     
,engl&4 ,:5 he _h return$ he began to   
read ,kant & ,s*ell+1 or r to mix       
excursions into _! books ) !            
miscellane\s inquiries to :i* 8 v]satile
 intellect attract$ him4  ,n[1 x is     
abundantly cle> t ,col]idge nev] /udi$  
any philosophy sy/ematically4 ,he nev]  
acquir$ a precise acqua9tance ) !       
te*nical language ( v>i\s s*emes1 or c>$
 = _! precise logical relations to ea*  
o!r4 ,! 'g5ial co9cid5ce' ) ,s*ell+1    
?\gh an unlucky phrase1 repres5ts a real
 fact4 ,he dipp$ into ,plot9us or ,behm5
 or ,kant or ,s*ell+1 or any "o :o      
int]e/$ him1 & did n "k :e!r !y 7 simply
 embody+ ideas already 9 8 own m9d1 or  
sugge/+ new ideas2 or1 :at 0 probably m 
accurate1 express+ op9ions :i*1 9 a     
g5]al way1 7 cong5ial to 8 own way (    
contemplat+ ! _w4 ,8 p[] ( /imulat+ o!r 
m9ds proves suffici5tly t he frequ5tly  
hit ^u impressive & sugge/ive ?\ghts4   
,he /ruck out illum9at+ sp>ks1 b he nev]

 diffus$ any di/9ct or /eady daylight4  
,8 fav\rite position1 = example1 ( !    
di/9ction betwe5 ! ,reason & ! ,und]/&+ 
is always com+ up & be+ en=c$ ) !       
/ronge/ assev]ations ( its importance4  
,t he _h adopt$ x m or less f ,kant is  
obvi\s1 ?\gh ,i imag9e x to be also     
obvi\s t he did n cle>ly und]/& 8       
au?ority4#fce ,to :at1 precisely1 x     
am\nts is also un9telligible to me4     
,someh[ or o!r1 x implies t ! m9d c rise
 into transc5d5tal regions1 &1 leav+    
grovell+ ,utilit>ians & ! l to ! conduct
 ( ! und]/&+ 9 matt]s ( practical       
exp$i5cy1 c p]ceive t ! univ]se is 9 "s 
way evolv$ f ! pure reason1 & ! m9d     
capable ( ideas :i* correspond to /ages 
( ! evolution4 ,h[ ?is leads to !       
conclusions t ! ,*ri/ian doctr9es ( !   
,logos & ! ,tr9ity are embodim5ts ( pure
 philosophy is a problem ^u :i* ,i ne$ n
 t\*4 ,:5 we h call$ ,col]idge a my/ic1 
) fla%es ( ke5 insight into ! weakness (
 ! opposite !ory1 ,i d n see h[ we are  
to get mu* fur!r1 or attribute to him   

any articulate & def9ite s*eme4         
,hopelessly unsy/ematic z ,col]idge may 
h be51 8 significance 9 reg>d to !      
,utilit>ians is notewor?y4 ,x is        
indicat$ 9 a fam\s article :i* ,j4 ,s4  
,mill contribut$ to ! ,we/m9/] ,review 9
 ,m>* #ahdj4fcf ,mill's concessions to  
,col]idge r sc&alis$ ! fai?ful2 & x is  
en\gh to obs]ve "h t x m>ks ! apogee (  
,mill's ,b5?amism4 ,influ5ces1 ( :i* ,i 
%all h to speak1 _h l$ him to reg>d 8   
old cre$ z imp]fect1 & to ass5t to great
 "p ( ,col]idge's doctr9e4 ,mill does n 
discuss ! metaphysical or !ological     
views ( ! opposite s*ool1 ?\gh he       
briefly intimates 8 diss5t4 ,b x is     
int]e/+ to obs]ve h[ ,col]idge impress$ 
a disciple ( ,b5?am4 ,!                 
',g]mano-,col]idgian doctr9e1' says     
,mill1 0 a reaction aga9/ ! philosophy (
 ! eighte5? c5tury3 'ontological1'      
'cons]vative1' 'religi\s1' 'concrete &  
hi/orical1' & f9ally 'poetical1' because
 ! o!r 0 'exp]im5tal1' 'innovative1'    
'infidel1' 'ab/ract & metaphysical1' &  

'matt]-(-fact & prosaic4' ,yet ! two    
approximate1 & ea* helps to re/ore !    
balance & comes a little ne>] to a f9al 
equilibrium4 ,! error ( ! ,fr5*         
philosoph]s _h be5 _! negative & purely 
critical t5d5cy4 ,!y _h ?\ght t x 0     
en\gh to sweep away sup]/ition1         
prie/craft1 & despotism1 & t no         
con/ructive process 0 necess>y4 ,!y _h n
 p]ceiv$ ! necessity ( social discipl9e1
 ( loyalty to rul]s1 or ( patriotic     
feel+ among ! subjects4 ,!y _h1 !re=e1  
entirely fail$ to recognise ! hi/orical 
value ( old cre$s & in/itutions1 & _h   
tri$ to remodel society ')\t ! b9d+ =ces
 :i* hold society toge!r4'#fcg ,h5ce1   
too1 ! philosophes came to despise      
hi/ory2 & ,d',alemb]t is said to h wi%$ 
t all record ( pa/ ev5ts c\ld be blott$ 
out4 ,_! !ory1 9 its popul> v]sion at   
lea/1 came to be t /ates & *ur*es _h be5
 got up '= ! sole purpose ( pick+ p's   
pockets4'#fch ,?is _h become incr$ible  
to any intellig5t reason]1 & any ,tory  
c\ld prove t !re 0 some?+ good 9 ! pa/4 

,! peculi>ity ( ! ',g]mano-,col]idgian' 
s*ool 0 t !y saw beyond ! imm$iate      
controv]sy4 ,!y 7 ! fir/ to inquire )   
any p[] into '! inductive laws ( !      
exi/5ce & gr[? ( human society'2 ! fir/ 
to recognise ! importance ( ! great     
con/ructive pr9ciples2 & ! fir/ to      
produce n a piece ( p>ty advocacy1 b 'a 
philosophy ( society 9 ! only =m 9 :i* x
 is yet possible1 t ( a philosophy (    
hi/ory4' ,h5ce arose t 's]ies ( great   
writ]s & ?9k]s1 f ,h]d] to ,mi*elet1' :o
 h giv5 to pa/ hi/ory an intelligible   
place 9 ! gradual evolution (           
humanity4#fci ,?is v =cible passage is  
int]e/+ 9 reg>d to ,mill1 & %[s a v cle>
 p]ception ( "s defects 9 8 own         
philosophy4 ,x also raises an important 
"q4  ,accept+ ,mill's view1 x is        
rem>kable t ! great error ( 8 own s*ool1
 :i* pr(ess$ to be bas$ ^u exp]i5ce1 0 !
 rejection ( hi/ory2 & ! great m]it ( ! 
a priori & 'intuitioni/' s*ool 0        
precisely _! insi/5ce ^u hi/ory4 ,to ?is
 ,i %all h to return h]eaft]4 ,mean:ile1

 ,mill proce$s to %[ h[ ,col]idge1 by   
argu+ f ! 'idea' ( *ur* & /ate1 _h at   
lea/ recognis$ ! necessity ( %[+ t      
political & social in/itutions mu/ h a  
suffici5t reason1 & be ju/ifi$ by some?+
 m ?an m]e ob/9ate prejudice4 ,m5 l     
,pitt & ,sir ,rob]t ,peel1 if !y accept$
 ,col]idge's support1 w\ld h to alt] _! 
:ole position4 ,col]idge's def5ce ( 8   
ideal *ur* 0 at once ! sev]e/ satire ^u 
! exi/+ body & a pro(1 z aga9/ ,b5?am & 
,adam ,smi?1 ( ! advantages ( an end[$  
class = ! cultivation & diffusion (     
le>n+4 ,col]idge1 moreov]1 ?\gh he      
object$ to ! ,re=m ,bill1 %[$ himself a 
bett] re=m] ?an ,"l ,john ,russell4 ,he 
admitt$ :at ! ,:igs refus$ to see1 !    
necessity ( dim9i%+ ! weight ( ! l&[n]  
int]e/4 ,l&[n]s 7 n to be ultimate      
s\rces ( p[]1 b to repres5t "o factor 9 
a reason$ sy/em4 ,9 %ort1 by admitt+ t  
all social arrangem5ts 9 "s s5se 7      
embodim5ts ( reason1 he admitt$ t !y mu/
 also be made to con=m to reason4       
,col]idge & ,b5?am1 !n1 are n really    

enemies b allies1 & !y wield p[]s :i*   
are 'opposite poles ( "o great =ce (    
progression4'#fdj ,! "q1 h[ev]1 rema9s1 
h[ ! philosophy ( ea* lead] is really   
connect$ ) 8 practical conclusions4     
,mill's view w\ld app>5tly be t         
,col]idge someh[ manag$ to correct !    
errors or fill ! gaps ( ! ,utilit>ian   
sy/em--a v necess>y task1 z ,mill       
admits--:ile ,col]idge w\ld h held t ^? 
errors 7 ! inevitable fruit ( ! :ole    
empirical sy/em ( ?\ght4 ,! ,reason mu/ 
be re/or$ to its rightful supremacy ov] 
! ,und]/&+1 :i* _h be5 work+ its wick$ w
 s9ce ! days ( ,locke & eighte5? c5tury4
 ,! problem is a wide "o4 ,i mu/ be     
cont5t to rem>k ! inevitable anti!sis4  
,:e!r enemies or allies1 ! ,utilit>ians 
& _! antagoni/s 7 sep>at$ by a gulf :i* 
c\ld n be bridg$ = ! "t4 ,! m5 (        
common-s5se1 :o _h no philosophy at all1
 7 %ock$ by ! imm$iate practical        
applications ( ,utilit>ianism1 its      
ho/ility to ! old ord] :i* !y lov$1 its 
app>5t helplessness 9 social que/ions1  

its relegation ( all progress to !      
conflict ( selfi% int]e/s1 its          
indiff]5ce to all ! virtues associat$ ) 
patriotism & local ties4 ,by m          
reflective m9ds1 x 0 condemn$ z robb+ ! 
_w ( its poetry1 /ifl+ ! religi\s       
emotions1 & ev5 qu5*+ s5tim5t 9 g5]al4  
,! few :o wi%$ = a philosophy f\nd !    
root ( its errors 9 ! assumptions :i*   
r$uc$ ! _w to a *aos ( atoms1 outw>dly  
connect$ & comb9$ into m]e dead         
me*anism4 ,! _w1 = ! poet & ! philosoph]
 alike1 mu/ be n a cong]ies ( sep>ate   
?+s1 b 9 "s s5se a product ( reason4    
,?\ght1 n fact1 mu/ be ! ultimate       
reality4 ,un=tunately or o!rwise1 !     
poetical s5tim5t c\ld nev] get itself   
translat$ into philosophical !ory4      
,col]idge's r&om & discursive h9ts      
rema9$ m]e h9ts--a sugge/ion at be/ =   
future ?\ght4 ,mill's criticism %[s h[  
f> !y c\ld be assimilat$ by a s+ul>ly   
c&id ,utilit>ian4 ,to him1 we see1 !y   
repres5t$ ma9ly ! tru? t 8 own p>ty1    
foll[+ ! g5]al t5d5cy ( ! eighte5?      

c5tury1 _h be5 l$ to neglect ! vital    
importance ( ! con/ructive elem5ts (    
society2 t !y _h sacrific$ ord] to      
progress1 & !re=e conf\nd$ progress )   
de/ruction1 & fail$ to p]ceive ! real   
importance 9 pa/ times ev5 ( !          
in/itutions :i* _h become obsolete4     
,social atomism or individualism1 !re=e1
 impli$ a total misconception ( :at     
,mill calls ! 'evolution ( humanity4'   
,?is m>ks a critical po9t4 ,!           
',g]mano-,col]idgians' _h a !ory (      
evolution4 ,by evolution1 inde$1 0 meant
 a dialectical evolution2 ! evolution ( 
'ideas' or reason1 9 :i* ea* /age (     
hi/ory repres5ts a mom5t ( "s va/ &     
transc5d5tal process ( ?\ght4           
,evolution1 s und]/ood1 seem$ rightly or
 wrongly to be m]e my/icism or          
intellectual juggl+4 ,x took leave (    
fact1 or manag$ by "s illegitimate      
process to give to a crude g5]alisation 
f exp]i5ce ! appe>ance ( a purely       
logical d$uction4 ,9 ?is %ape1 !re=e1 x 
0 really oppos$ to sci5ce1 al?\gh ! "t 0

 to come 9 :i* evolution w\ld pres5t    
itself 9 a sci5tific =m4#fda ,mean:ile1 
! concessions made by ,j4 ,s4 ,mill 7 n 
approv$ by 8 fell[s1 & w\ld h be5 reg>d$
 z little %ort ( treason by ! old]      
,utilit>ians4 ,! two s*ools1 if         
,col]idge's foll[]s c\ld be call$ a     
s*ool1 reg>d$ ea* o!r's doctr9es z      
simply contradictory4 ,9 appeal+ to     
exp]i5ce & exp]i5ce alone1 !            
,utilit>ians1 z _! oppon5ts held1 _h    
r$uc$ ! _w to a dead me*anism1 de/roy$ e
 elem5t ( cohesion1 made society a      
/ruggle ( selfi% int]e/s1 & /ruck at ! v
 roots ( all ord]1 patriotism1 poetry1 &
 religion4 ,!y retort$ t _! critics 7   
bl9d adh]5ts ( antiquat$ prejudice1 &   
s\ght to cov] sup]/ition & despotism    
ei!r by unprovable dogmatic ass]tions1  
or by tak+ refuge 9 a cl\dy my/ical     
j>gon1 :i* really meant no?+4  ,!y did n
 love ea* o!r4  ,,footnotes3  #faj ,see 
,diction>y ( ,national ,biography1 "u   
',george ,grote4' ,b5?am's ,,ms4 is 9 ! 
,briti% ,museum1 & %[s1 ,i ?9k1 t       

,grote's %>e 9 ! "w 0 a good deal m ?an 
m]e edit+4 ,i quote f a repr9t by       
,truelove 7#ahge74 ,x 0 also privately  
repr9t$ by ,grote himself 9 #ahff4  #faa
 ,cf4 ,hobbes's def9ition3 ',fe> ( p[]  
invisible feign$ by ! m9d1 or imag9$ f  
tales publicly all[$1 is ,religion3 n   
all[$1 ,sup]/ition4 ,& :5 ! p[] imag9$  
is truly su* z we imag9e1 ,true         
,religion4'--,works 7,moleswor?71 iii4  
#de4  #fab ',philip ,beau*amp1' *4 ii4  
pp4 #aa-ae4  #fac ,ibid4 p4 #ag4  #fad  
',philip ,beau*amp1' p4 #ba4  #fae      
,ibid4 pp4 #bb & #ajd4  #faf ',philip   
,beau*amp1' *4 iii4  #fag ',philip      
,beau*amp1' *4 iv4  #fah ,ibid4 p4 #de1 
*4 v4  #fai ,ibid4 p4 #eb1 *4 vi4  #fbj 
',philip ,beau*amp1' *4 viii4  #fba     
,ibid4 "p ii4 *4 i4  #fbb ,ibid4 p4 #hj1
 "p ii4 *4 ii4  #fbc ',philip           
,beau*amp1' pp4 #ig1 #ii4  #fbd ,ibid4  
p4 #aja4  #fbe ,ibid4 p4 #ajc4  #fbf    
',philip ,beau*amp1' p4 #afc4  #fbg     
,ibid4 p4 #abb4  #fbh ,! writ]s 7       
,*alm]s1 ,kidd1 ,:ewell1 ,sir ,*>les    

,bell1 ,roget1 ,buckl&1 ,kirby1 & ,pr\t4
 ,! essays appe>$ f #ahcc to #ahce4 ,!  
v]satile ,br\gham %ortly aft]w>ds edit$ 
,paley's ,natural ,!ology4  #fbi        
',philip ,beau*amp1' p4 #hh4  #fcj      
,fr\de's ,c>lyle1 i4 #bae2 ii4 #ic4     
#fca ,mill's ,diss]tations1 i4 #bce2 ii4
 #acj4  #fcb ,george ,borr['s vehem5t   
dislike ( ,scott z ! inv5tor ( ,puseyism
 & mod]n ,jesuitism ( all k9ds is       
*>act]i/ic4  #fcc ,prelude1 bk4 xiii4   
#fcd ,col]idge's ,lett]s 7#ahij71 pp4   
#fdc-di4  #fce ,mr4 ,hut*ison ,/irl+    
insi/s ^u ?is 9 ! ,=tnightly ,review =  
,july #ahfg4 ,he proves1 ,i ?9k1 t      
,col]idge's k ( ! v>i\s s*emes ( ,g]man 
philosophy & ( ! precise relation (     
,kant1 ,fi*te1 & ,s*ell+ 0 altoge!r     
desultory & confus$4 ,h[ f> ?is is      
important dep5ds ^u :e!r we atta* mu* or
 little importance to precise           
comb9ations ( words us$ by ^!           
philosoph]s4  #fcf ,diss]tations1 i4    
#cib-dgd4  #fcg ,ibid4 i4 #dbd4  #fch   
,diss]tations1 i4 #dcg4  #fci ,ibid4 i4 

#dbe-bg4  #fdj ,diss]tations1 i4 #dcg4  
#fda ,col]idge's ,h9ts t[>ds ! ,=mation 
( a m ,compreh5sive ,!ory ( ,life1 edit$
 by ,s4 ,b4 ,watson1 9 #ahdh1 is a      
curi\s attempt to apply 8 evolution     
doctr9e to natural sci5ce4 ,lewes1 9 8  
,lett]s on ,comte's ,philosophy ( !     
,sci5ces1 says t x is a '%ameless       
plagi>ism' f ,s*ell+'s ,er/] ,entwurf1  
etc4 ,x seems1 z f> z ,i c judge1 t     
,col]idge's doctr9es ab\t magnetism1    
reproduction1 irritability1 s5sibility1 
etc41 are1 9 fact1 adapt$ f ,s*ell+4 ,! 
book 0 int5d$1 z ,mr4 ,e4 ,h4 ,col]idge 
tells me1 = a *apt] 9 a "w on           
,scrophula1 project$ by ,gillman4 ,z    
,col]idge di$ long be=e ! publication1  
he _c be directly responsible = n       
ackn[l$g+ obligations to ,s*ell+4       
,un=tunately he _c claim ! b5efit ( a   
good "* 9 su* matt]s4 ,anyh[1           
,col]idge's occasional excursions into  
sci5ce c only repres5t a vague          
acceptance ( ! transc5d5tal me?od       
repres5t$1 z ,i und]/&1 by ,ok54        

99       99       99       99       99  
,pr9t$ by ,t4 & ,a4 ,con/able1 ,pr9t]s  
to h] ,maje/y at ! ,ed9burgh ,univ]sity 
,press