,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eh4--,,the ,,venus ,,of ,,milo4 7,see page #hg47 ,a ,,history ,,of ,,art ,,for ,,beginners ,,and ,,students ,,painting--,,sculpture--,,architecture ,,with ,,complete ,,indexes ,,and ,,numerous ,,illustrations ,,by ,,clara ,,erskine ,,clement ,,author ,,of ,,handbook ,,of ,,legendary ,,and ,,mythological ,,art1 ,,painters1 ,,sculptors1 ,,engravers1 ,,architects ,,and ,,their ,,works1 ,,artists ,,of ,,the ,,nineteenth ,,century1 ,,etc4 ,,new ,,york ,,frederick ,a4 ,,stokes ,,company ,,mdcccxci ,,copyright1 #ahhg1 ,,by ,,frederick ,a4 ,,stokes1 ,,successor ,,to ,,white1 ,,stokes1 ,,allen4 ,,contents4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,page ,,ancient ,,sculpture3 ,,egypt1 #a ,,assyria1 #aj ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,greek ,,sculpture1 #ah ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,ancient ,,italian ,,sculpture1 #hb ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,mediaeval ,,sculpture1 ,,from ,,the ,,fifth ,,to ,,the ,,fifteenth ,,century1 #aje ,,chapter ,v4 ,,italian ,,sculpture ,,in ,,the ,,fifteenth ,,century1 #acf ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,sculpture ,,in ,,germany1 ,,france1 ,,england1 ,,and ,,spain1 ,,from #adej ,,to #aeej1 #afj ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,italian ,,sculpture ,,in ,,the ,,sixteenth ,,century--,,cellini1 ,,michael ,,angelo1 ,,and ,,others1 #aha ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,european ,,sculpture ,,from ,,michael ,,angelo ,,to ,,canova1 #bac ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,canova1 ,,thorwaldsen1 ,,and ,,other ,,recent ,,sculptors1 #bce ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations4 ,,page ,venus of ,milo1 ,frontispiece ,statue of ,cephren in the ,museum at ,cairo1 #c ,various ,kinds of ,dogs1 #e ,androsphinx1 #f ,kriosphinx1 #f ,the ,great ,sphinx1 #g ,hieracosphinx1 #h ,the ,colossi at ,thebes1 #i ,polishing a ,colossal ,statue1 #aj ,mode of ,transporting a ,colossus from the ,quarries 7from a lithographic ,drawing71 #aa ,statue of ,sardanapalus ,i4 7from ,nimrud71 #ab ,lion-,hunt 7from ,nimrud71 #ac ,wounded ,lion ,biting a ,chariot-wheel1 #ae ,arm-chair or ,throne 7,khorsabad71 #af ,mode of ,drawing the ,bow 7,koyunjik71 #ag ,lion ,devouring ,deer1 #bb ,heracles1 ,triton1 and ,nereids1 #bc ,heracles and the ,cecrops1 #bc ,actaeon and his ,dogs1 #bd ,from the ,harpy ,monument1 ,london1 #be ,figures from the ,pediment of the ,temple of ,minerva1 at ,a,egina1 #bg ,archaistic ,artemis at ,naples1 #bh ,the ,discobolus 7,myron71 #cj ,athenian ,coins with the ,minerva ,promachos1 #cd ,coin of ,elis with the ,olympian ,zeus1 #cf ,bust of ,jupiter found at ,otricoli1 #cg ,torso of a ,statue of ,theseus 7871 #ch ,from the ,frieze of the ,parthenon1 #dc ,the ,five ,central ,figures1 #dd ,youths ,preparing to join the ,cavalcade1 #de ,horsemen ,starting1 #df ,procession of ,cavalry1 #df ,procession of ,chariots1 #dg ,train of ,musicians and ,youths1 #dg ,cows for ,sacrifice1 #dh ,train of ,noble ,maidens1 #dh ,head of ,asclepius 7in the ,british ,museum71 #ej ,a ,wounded ,amazon 7,cresilas71 #eb ,statue of ,pericles 7,cresilas71 #eb ,eirene and the ,young ,plutus 7,cephisodotus71 #ef ,portrait of ,mausolus1 #eg ,from the ,frieze of the ,mausoleum1 #eh ,the ,eros of ,centocelle1 #fj ,niobe and her ,youngest ,daughter1 #fb ,brother and ,sister1 #fc ,the ,eldest ,daughter1 #fd ,a ,niobid1 #fe ,ganymede 7after ,leochares71 #ff ,monument of ,lysicrates 7,athens71 #fg ,bacchus and ,lion 7from the ,lysicrates ,monument71 #fh ,the ,apoxyomenos of ,lysippus1 #fi ,the ,laocoon ,group1 #ge ,the ,farnese ,bull1 #gg ,gallic ,warrior 7,venice71 #gh ,the ,dying ,gaul1 #gi ,boy and ,goose1 #hj ,spinario1 #ha ,venus de' ,medici1 #hf ,the ,farnesian ,hercules1 #hi ,the ,apollo ,belvedere1 #ij ,head of ,apollo ,belvedere1 #ia ,the ,steinhaeuser ,head1 #ia ,the ,stroganoff ,apollo1 #ib ,diane a la ,biche1 #ie ,athena of the ,capitol1 #if ,triumphal ,procession from ,arch of ,titus1 #ig ,from the ,reliefs of ,trajan's ,column1 #ii ,portrait of ,sophocles1 #aja ,statue of ,augustus1 #ajb ,agrippina the ,elder1 #ajc ,statue of ,st4 ,peter1 #ajf ,from the ,cathedra of ,maximianus1 #aji ,diptych 7,zurich71 #aaj ,from the ,facade of ,chartres ,cathedral1 #aac ,from the ,north ,transept of ,rheims ,cathedral1 #aah ,from the ,west ,facade of ,strasburg ,cathedral1 #abj ,duke ,robert of ,normandy1 #aba ,ivory ,relief 7,hunting ,scene71 #abd ,relief by ,nicola ,pisano 7,lucca71 #abh ,relief from the ,pulpit at ,pisa 7,nicola ,pisano71 #abi ,campo ,santo of ,pisa 7,giovanni ,pisano71 #acb ,relief by ,jacopo della ,quercia 7,bologna71 #ach ,from the ,eastern ,gates 7showing compartments #f1 #h1 and #aj71 #ada ,the ,annunciation 7,donatello71 #adc ,statue of ,st4 ,george 7,donatello71 #add ,dancing ,boys 7,luca della ,robbia71 #adg ,boy with ,dolphin 7,verocchio71 #adi ,statue of ,colleoni 7,verocchio71 #aej ,terra-cottas from the ,ospedale ,grande 7,milan71 #aef ,count ,eberhard von ,grumbach 7,rimpar71 #afi ,justice1 #agj ,the ,three ,wise ,virgins1 #agj ,tomb of ,st4 ,sebald 7,nuremberg71 #agb ,peter ,vischer's ,statue1 #agc ,st4 ,sebald and the ,burning ,icicles 7,vischer71 #agd ,peter 7,vischer71 #age ,john 7,vischer71 #age ,man and ,geese 7,labenwolf71 #agf ,pharisee1 ,levite 7,rustici71 #ahc ,bacchus 7,jacopo ,sansovino71 #ahe ,perseus 7,benvenuto ,cellini71 #aia ,michael ,angelo's ,angel 7,bologna71 #aig ,pieta 7,michael ,angelo71 #aii ,michael ,angelo's ,david1 #bja ,giuliano de' ,medici 7,michael ,angelo71 #bje ,statue of ,moses 7,michael ,angelo71 #bjg ,mercury 7,giovanni da ,bologna71 #bae ,relief by ,berruguete 7,valladolid71 #bag ,rape of ,proserpine 7,bernini71 #bbe ,caryatide 7,quellinus71 #bca ,heads of ,dying ,warriors 7,schlueter71 #bcb ,the ,great ,elector 7,schlueter71 #bcc ,the ,three ,graces 7,canova71 #bda ,hebe 7,canova71 #bdf ,ariadne and the ,panther 7,dannecker71 #bdi ,jason 7,thorwaldsen71 #bef ,ganymede and the ,eagle 7,thorwaldsen71 #bfj ,the ,three ,graces 7,thorwaldsen71 #bfa ,statue of ,queen ,louise 7,rauch71 #bgj ,nymph 7by ,bosio71 #bgc ,,sculpture4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,ancient ,,sculpture4 ,,egypt4 ,no one can speak with exactness as to the time when sculpture was first practised by the ,egyptians2 we only know that it was a very long time ago4 ,but we do know that in the time of the twelfth dynasty1 which dates from #bdff ,b4,c41 sculpture had reached a stage of excellence such as could only have resulted from the experience of many years of training and practice in this art4 ,in the ,egyptian collection of the ,louvre1 at ,paris1 there is the memorial stone of an old ,egyptian sculptor which has an inscription that reads as if he had written it himself2 this was the way by which ,egyptians made these inscriptions sound as if the dead themselves spoke to those who were still alive4 ,this sculptor's name was ,martisen1 and he lived about forty-four centuries ago4 ,brugsch-,bey1 a very learned writer on ,egypt1 says3 ,he calls himself 'a master among those who understand art1 and a plastic artist1' who 'was a wise artist in his art4' ,he relates in succession his knowledge in the making of statues1 in every position1 according to prescribed use and measure2 and brings forward1 as his particular invention1 an etching with colors1 if ,i have rightly understood the expression1 'which can neither be injured by fire nor washed off by water2 'and1 as a further explanation of this1 states that 'no man has arisen who has been able to do this except himself alone and the eldest son of his race1 whom ,god's will has created4 ,he has arisen able to do this1 and the exercise of his hand has been admired in masterly works in all sorts of precious stones1 from gold and silver to ivory and ebony4' ,there is no doubt but that ,martisen and his son1 who was named ,usurtasen1 were sculptors at the time when ,egyptian art reached its highest point4 ,the earliest works of ,egyptian sculpture are the bas-reliefs found in the chambers of the tombs2 the walls are almost covered with them1 and they are painted with colors which are still bright and fresh1 though more than four thousand years have passed since they were put on4 ,the subjects of these reliefs are taken from the life of the persons buried in the tombs1 and even their possessions and occupations are thus represented4 ,these sculptures were made by tracing the designs on the stone and then cutting it away between the figures4 ,the mode of arrangement in these reliefs does not satisfy our ideas of what it should be4 ,it seems as if the artists had no plan of their work in their minds--no aim as to what the effect should be when finished4 ,on the contrary1 the reliefs impress us as if the sculptors made one figure1 and then added another and another in such a way as to represent the fact they wished to tell without any attention to the beauty of the whole2 and so it does not seem as if there was any unity in them1 but as if the large bas-reliefs were made up of disjointed parts which in one sense really have no relation to each other4 ,the same is true of the ,egyptian statues4 ,it appears as if the different parts might have been made separately or even by different sculptors1 and then joined together4 ,all this is because the ,egyptians seemed to think of an object in parts and not as a whole4 ,then1 too1 the position of the early statues was so unnatural and awkward4 ,the arms were placed close to the sides of the body1 and there was no separation between the legs2 and though in some of their articles of furniture1 their pottery1 and in the details of their architecture1 the ,egyptians made a great advance1 they did not equally improve in their sculpture4 ,one great hindrance to the progress of ,egyptian sculpture was the fact that figures were never represented in action4 ,they were not figures moving and living in stone2 they were like figures petrified and fixed3 they were statues1 and no one can forget this for a moment while looking at them4 ,i can learn of but one ,egyptian figure sculptured as if in action2 this is a quoit-thrower in the ,tombs of the ,kings4 ,a sitting statue1 whether of a man or a woman1 had the hands rested on the knees or held across the breast 7,fig4 #a74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,,statue ,,of ,,cephren ,,in ,,the ,,museum ,,at ,,cairo4 ,there were very few groups in ,egyptian sculpture1 and these seldom had more than two figures4 ,it was customary to represent a husband and wife sitting on the same chair holding each other's hands1 or having their arms around one another's waists or shoulders4 ,sometimes the principal figure is of large size1 and the inferior persons are made much smaller and placed at the sides of the larger figure4 ,in short1 very few attitudes are represented in ,egyptian sculpture1 and it almost seems as if there must have been fixed rules for a certain limited number of positions after which all sculptured figures were made4 ,in spite of this sameness and stiffness1 ,egyptian sculpture is remarkable1 and it is probable that if they had not been fettered by prejudices and rules the ,egyptians would have excelled both in sculpture and painting4 ,the sides of obelisks and1 more especially1 the walls of temples were covered with sculptures which gave the history of kings--of their wars and conquests1 and of their great works in their kingdoms4 ,the sculptures upon the temple walls could be estimated by square rods1 or even acres1 better than by lesser measures4 ,their amount and the labor it required to make them are simply marvellous4 ,i will describe the subjects depicted upon one inner wall in the palace-temple of ,medemet ,haboo1 and will quote from ,wilkinson's ,egypt and ,thebes4 ,on the west wall the ,egyptian princes and generals conduct the 'captive chiefs' into the presence of the king4 ,he is seated at the back of his car1 and the spirited horses are held by his attendants on foot4 ,large heaps of hands are placed before him1 which an officer counts1 one by one1 as the other notes down their number on a scroll2 each heap containing three thousand1 and the total indicating the returns of the enemy's slain4 ,the number of captives1 reckoned one thousand in each line1 is also mentioned in the hieroglyphics above1 where the name of the ,rebo points out the nation against whom this war was carried on4 ,their flowing dresses1 striped horizontally with blue or green bands on a white ground1 and their long hair and aquiline noses give them the character of an ,eastern nation in the vicinity of ,assyria and ,persia1 as their name reminds us of the ,rhibii of ,ptolemy1 whom he places near the ,caspian4 444 ,the suite of this historical subject continues on the south wall4 ,the king1 returning victorious to ,egypt1 proceeds slowly in his car1 conducting in triumph the prisoners he has made1 who walk beside and before it1 three others being bound to the axle4 ,two of his sons attend as fan-bearers1 and the several regiments of ,egyptian infantry1 with a corps of their allies1 under the command of these princes1 marching in regular step and in the close array of disciplined troops1 accompany their king4 ,he arrives at ,thebes1 and presents his captives to ,amen-,ra and ,mut1 the deities of the city1 who compliment him1 as usual1 on the victory he has gained1 and the overthrow of the enemy he has trampled beneath his feet4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b--,,various ,,kinds ,,of ,,dogs4 ,this description of these bas-reliefs1 which are usually painted1 will give an idea of the great works of ,egyptian sculptors4 ,the representation of the animals in these sculptures is as successful as any part of them4 ,there being no intellectual expression required1 they are more pleasing than the human beings1 with their set1 unchanging features and expression4 ,the ,egyptians had several breeds of dogs1 and the picture here 7,fig4 #b7 is made up from the dogs found in the sculptures--,no4 #a1 hound2 #b1 mastiff2 #c1 turnspit2 #d1 #e1 fox-dogs2 #f1 #g1 greyhounds4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--;,,androsphinx4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4--,,kriosphinx4 ,one of the figures often repeated by the sculptors of ,egypt was the ,sphinx4 ,the colossal and most famous one 7,fig4 #e7 is not far from the great pyramid1 and has the form of a recumbent lion with a human head4 ,it is one hundred and seventy-two feet long1 and is the ,sphinx of the world2 but there were great numbers of these strange figures in ,egypt--in some cases there were avenues leading to the temples bordered by them on each side4 ,the form of the ,sphinx was intended to express some spiritual thought to the ,egyptians1 and the stories about it are very interesting4 ,its form certainly denotes the union of physical and mental power4 ,the form of which we have spoken as being that of the great ,sphinx is called the androsphinx 7,fig4 #c74 ,another has the body of the lion with the head of the ram1 and is called the kriosphinx 7,fig4 #d72 still another has the same body and the head of a hawk2 this is called the hieracosphinx 7,fig4 #f74 ,they all typified the king1 without doubt1 and it is probable that the various heads were so given to show respect for the different gods who were represented with the heads of these creatures4 ,sometimes the androsphinx has human hands in place of the lion's paws4 ,the winged ,sphinx has been found in ,egypt1 but it is rare4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4--,,the ,,great ,,sphinx4 ,the colossal statues of ,egypt are very wonderful on account of their vast weight and size4 ,the most famous are two which stand on the west bank of the ,nile at ,thebes 7,fig4 #g74 ,each of these colossi is made from a single block of stone such as is not found within several days' journey of the place where they stand4 ,they are forty-seven feet high1 and contain eleven thousand five hundred cubic feet each4 ,but a third is still larger2 it represents the ,king ,rameses ,,ii41 and1 when whole1 was of a single stone1 and weighed eight hundred and eighty-seven tons4 ,it was brought from ,assouan to ,thebes1 a distance of one hundred and thirty-eight miles4 ,it is wonderful to think of moving such a vast weight over such a distance1 and one would naturally wish to know also how the sculptors could work on such a statue4 ,the plate here given 7,fig4 #h7 shows the process of polishing a statue1 and the following one 7,fig4 #i7 illustrates the mode of moving one when finished4 ,these representations are found in tombs and grottoes1 and tell us plainly just what we wish to know about these things4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4--;,,hieracosphinx4 ,i have now pointed out the marked peculiarities of ,egyptian sculpture1 and before leaving the subject will call your attention to the fact that in most cases it was used in connection with and almost as a part of ,egyptian architecture4 ,in the tombs the bas-reliefs are for the decoration of the walls and to finish the work of the architect1 while at the same time they are an interesting feature of the art of the nation and period4 ,in the temple palaces this is also true--though the reliefs serve the purpose of telling the history of the kings2 they are1 as it were1 framed into and make a part of the architectural effect4 ,the obelisks1 colossal figures and ,sphinxes were placed before the grand buildings1 and made a part of them architecturally4 ,in general terms we may say that sculpture never became an independent art in ,egypt1 but was essentially wedded to architecture2 and this fact largely accounts for that other truth that sculpture never reached the perfection in ,egypt that it promised1 or the excellence that would have seemed to be the natural result of its earliest attainments4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4--,,the ,,colossi ,,at ,,thebes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h--,,polishing ,a ,,colossal ,,statue4 ,,assyria4 ,the works of sculpture in ,assyria consisted of statues1 bas-reliefs1 statuettes in clay1 carvings in ivory1 metal castings1 and some smaller works1 such as articles for jewelry1 made in minute imitation of larger works in sculpture4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4--,,mode ,,of ,,transporting ,a ,,colossus ,,from ,,the ,,quarries4 ,from a ,lithographic ,drawing4 ,in a ,grotto at ,dayr ,e',shake1 near ,el ,bersheh4 #a4 ,the statue bound upon a sledge with ropes4 ,it is of a private individual1 not of a king1 or a deity4 #b4 ,man probably beating time with his hands1 and giving out the verse of a song1 to which the men responded2 though #c appears as if about to throw something which #b is preparing to catch1 or striking crotala4 #d4 ,pouring a liquid1 perhaps grease1 from a vase4 #e4 ,egyptian soldiers1 carrying boughs4 #f1 #g1 #h1 #i4 ,men1 probably captives and convicts1 dragging the statue4 #aj4 ,men carrying water1 or grease4 #aa4 ,some implements4 #ab4 ,taskmasters4 #ac1 #ad1 #ae1 #af4 ,reliefs of men4 ,the statues found in ,assyria are by no means beautiful1 according to our idea of beauty4 ,they are as set and stiff in design as the ,egyptian works of this sort1 and they have suffered so much injury from the weather and from violence that we cannot judge of the manner in which they were originally finished4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4--,,statue ,,of ,,sardanapalus ,i4 ,from ,nimrud4 ,the number of ,assyrian statues that have been found is small2 this one given here 7,fig4 #aj71 of ,sardanapalus ,i41 is in the best state of preservation of any of them4 ,it is smaller than life size1 being about forty-two inches high4 ,the statuettes of the ,assyrians are less artistic than the statues4 ,they are made from a clay which turned red in baking1 and are colored so as to resemble ,greek pottery4 ,they are almost always of a grotesque appearance1 and usually represent gods or genii4 ,they also combine human and animal forms in a less noble and artistic way than is done in the ,egyptian representation of the ,sphinx4 ,there are also small figures of animals in terra-cotta1 principally dogs and ducks4 ,but the large and small statues of the ,assyrians are their most unimportant works in sculpture4 ,it is in their bas-reliefs that their greatest excellence is seen1 and in them alone their progress in art can be traced4 ,this sort of sculpture seems to have been used by the ,assyrians just as painting was used in ,italy after the ,renaissance4 ,it was their mode of expressing everything4 ,through it they gave expression to their religious feeling2 they told the history of their nation1 and glorified their kings2 they represented the domestic scenes which now make the subjects of genre pictures2 and even imitated vegetables and fruits1 as well as to reproduce landscapes and architecture in these pictures cut from stone4 ,in truth1 it is chiefly from the bas-reliefs that we learn the history of ,assyria1 and in this view their sculptures are even more important than when they are considered merely from an artistic view4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4--,,lion-,,hunt4 ,from ,nimrud4 ,the most ancient palaces at ,nimrud furnish the earliest examples of bas-relief4 ,these date at about the end of the tenth century ,b4,c4 ,one striking peculiarity in the design is that all the figures1 both men and animals1 are given in exact profile4 ,in spite of this sameness of position they have much spirit and action4 ,the picture of a lion-hunt given here 7,fig4 #aa7 is one of the very best of these reliefs1 and you will notice that the animal forms are much superior to those of the human beings4 ,this is true of all ,assyrian art in all its stages4 ,in these oldest bas-reliefs there are no backgrounds2 but later on these are added1 and mountains1 hills1 streams1 trees1 and wild animals are all introduced as details of the general design4 ,the highest state of this art was reached about #fej ,b4,c4 ,at this period the various forms seem to be more varied and less arranged according to some rule4 ,the human faces and figures are more delicately finished1 and there is an air of freedom and a spirit in the handling of the subjects that is far better than that of any other time4 ,the plants and trees are far more beautiful than before4 ,the figures of animals1 too1 are full of life and action in this period4 ,i shall only give one illustration1 and shall choose the head of a lion1 probably the best specimen of animal drawing which is yet known in ,assyrian art4 ,it represents the head of a wounded lion1 who1 in his agony1 rushes upon a chariot and seizes the wheel with his teeth4 ,the drawing of this head1 as a portrayal of agony and fierceness1 compares favorably with anything of the same kind belonging to any age of art1 either classic or modern 7,fig4 #ab74 ,there is a question which has not yet been decided as to the amount of color used on the ,assyrian bas-reliefs4 ,from the traces of color remaining on those that are found in the excavations1 and from what we know of the use of colors on the buildings to which the bas-reliefs belonged1 we may be sure that colors were used on them2 but to what extent cannot be told4 ,it may have been applied with the freedom of the ,egyptians1 or it may have been sparingly used1 as was the manner of the ancient ,greeks4 ,the colors that have been found in the ruins of ,assyria are white1 black1 red and blue4 ,next to the sculpture1 the metal work of the ,assyrians was the most important of their arts4 ,this work was done in three ways3 ,i4 ,whole figures or parts of figures cast in a solid shape4 ,,ii4 ,castings of low bas-reliefs4 ,,iii4 ,embossed designs made chiefly with the hammer1 but finished with the graver4 ,in the solid castings there are only animal forms1 and lions are far more numerous than any other creature4 ,many of them have a ring fastened to the back1 which indicates that they were used for weights4 ,these castings are all small and their form good2 but we have no reason to think that the ,assyrians could make large metal castings4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4--,,wounded ,,lion ,,biting ,a ,,chariot-,,wheel4 ,from the ,north ,palace1 ,koyunjik4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4--;,,arm-,,chair ,,or ,,throne4 ,khorsabad4 ,the castings in relief were used to ornament thrones1 furniture1 and perhaps chariots4 ,they were fastened in their places by means of small nails4 ,they had no great merit4 ,the embossed or hammered work1 on the contrary1 is artistic and very curious4 ,large numbers of embossed bowls and dishes have been found1 and this work was used for the end of sword-sheaths1 the sides of chairs and stools1 and various other ornamental purposes4 ,it is probable that the main part of the tables1 chairs1 and so on were of wood1 with the ornaments in embossed metals4 ,all this shows the ,assyrians to have been an artistic people1 and to have reached an interesting stage in their arts1 though their works are coarse and imperfect when judged by ,greek standards or by our own idea of what is beautiful4 ,if we had the space to consider all the various designs of the bas-reliefs in detail1 you would learn from them a great many interesting facts concerning the domestic life of this ancient and interesting people4 ,from them we can learn all about the costumes worn by the king and those of lesser rank2 can see how their wars were carried on1 and what their chariots1 weapons1 and equipments were4 ,their games1 amusements1 musical instruments1 agricultural pursuits1 food1 and1 in short1 everything connected with their daily life is plainly shown in these sculptures1 and1 as ,i have said before1 the whole history of ,assyria is better studied from them than from any other one source4 ,for this reason their great value cannot be over-estimated 7,fig4 #ac74 ,other very ancient nations had sculptors1 and a few remains of their arts still exist4 ,this is true of the ,medes1 ,babylonians1 and ,persians2 but the general features of their arts resembled those of the ,assyrians1 though they were less advanced than that nation1 and have left nothing as interesting as the ,egyptian and ,assyrian remains which we have considered4 ,i shall therefore leave them and pass to the sculpture of ,greece4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4--,,mode ,,of ,,drawing ,,the ,,bow4 ,koyunjik4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,greek ,,sculpture4 ,we have seen that the ,egyptians and ,assyrians were skilful in sculpture1 but at the same time their works have not moved us as we wish to be moved by art2 there is always something beyond them to be desired1 and it remained for the ,greeks to attain to that perfection in sculpture which satisfies all our nature and fills our highest conceptions of beauty and grace4 ,in truth1 in ,greece alone has this perfection in plastic art existed1 and since the time of its highest excellence there no other nation has equalled the examples of ,greek sculpture which still exist1 though we have reason to believe that its finest works have perished1 and that those remaining are of the second grade4 ,there are many reasons for the high artistic attainments of the ,greeks1 and a discussion or even a simple statement of them would require an essay far too learned and lengthy for the scope of this book2 but ,i will speak of one truth that had great influence and went far to perfect ,greek art--that is1 the unbounded love of beauty1 which was an essential part of the ,greek nature4 ,to the ,greek1 in fact1 beauty and good had the same meaning--beauty was good1 and the good must be beautiful4 ,sculpture deals almost exclusively with the form of man1 and the other features in it have some relation to the human element of the design2 and it would have been impossible for a true ,greek to represent the human form otherwise than beautiful4 ,a writer on this point says3 ,the chief aim of the enlightened ,greek1 his highest ambition and his greatest joy1 was to be a man in the fullest sense of the word--man in the most complete development of his bodily strength and beauty1 in the active exercise of the keenest senses1 in the greatest because tempered enjoyment of sensual pleasure1 in the free and joyous play of an intellect strong by nature1 graced and guided by the most exquisite taste1 and enlightened by the sublimest philosophy4 ,thus1 beauty was so important to the ,greek that every parent prayed that his children might have this gift1 and the names of beautiful persons were engraved upon pillars set where all could read them2 and at times there were competitions for the prize of beauty4 ,the religion of the ,greek1 too1 taught that the body was the beautiful and godlike temple of his soul2 and the truth that human beings have something in common with a higher power than their own gave him a great respect for humanity1 and1 in truth1 he felt that if he could escape death he should be content and almost1 if not quite1 a god4 ,for we must remember that the gods of the ,greek were not all-wise1 all-powerful1 and all-good1 as we believe our ,god to be4 ,if you read their mythology you will find that with the power of the god much imperfection and weakness were mingled4 ,they did not believe that ,zeus had been the greatest god from the beginning1 but that there was a time when he had no power4 ,he was not omniscient nor omnipresent1 and was himself subject to the decrees of ,fate1 as when he could not save his loved ,sarpedon from death4 ,not knowing all things1 even the gods are sometimes represented as depending upon mortals for information1 and all these religious views tended to make the human form far more noble to the ,greek than it can be to the ,christian1 with his different views of the relations of ,god and man4 ,greek sculpture existed in very early days1 and we have vague accounts of a person called ,,daedalus1 who seems to have been a wood-carver4 ,many cities claimed to have been his birthplace1 and no one can give any clear account of this ancient artist4 ,he is called the inventor of the axe1 saw1 gimlet1 plummet-line1 and a kind of fish-glue or isinglass4 ,he is also said to have been the first sculptor who separated the arms from the bodies of his statues1 or made the feet to step out2 he also opened their eyes1 and there is a legend that the statues of ,daedalus were so full of life that they were chained lest they should run away4 ,we call the time to which ,daedalus belonged the prehistoric period1 and his works and those of other artists of his day have all perished4 ,two very ancient specimens of sculpture remain--the ,lion ,gate of ,mycenae and the ,niobe of ,mount ,sipylus2 but as their origin is not known1 and they may not be the work of ,greek artists1 it is best for us to pass on to about #gjj ,b4,c41 when the records of individual artists begin4 ,among the earliest of these was ,,dibutades1 of whom ,pliny said that he was the first who made likenesses in clay4 ,this author also adds that ,dibutades first mixed red earth with clay1 and made the masks which were fastened to the end of the lowest hollow tiles on the roofs of temples4 ,pliny relates the following story of the making of the first portrait in bas-relief4 ,dibutades lived in ,sicyon1 and had a daughter called sometimes ,kora1 and again ,callirhoe4 ,she could not aid her father very much in his work as a sculptor1 but she went each day to the flower-market and brought home flowers1 which gave a very gay and cheerful air to her father's little shop4 ,kora was very beautiful1 and many young ,greeks visited her father for the sake of seeing the daughter4 ,at length one of these youths asked ,dibutades to take him as an apprentice2 and when this request was granted the young man made one of the family of the sculptor4 ,their life was one of simple content4 ,the young man could play upon the reed1 and his education fitted him to be the instructor of ,kora4 ,after a time1 for some reason that ,pliny does not mention1 it was best for the youth to go away from the artist's home1 and he then asked ,kora if she would be his wife4 ,she consented1 and vows of betrothal were exchanged1 while they were sad at the thought of parting4 ,the last evening of his stay1 as they sat together1 ,kora seized a coal from the brazier1 and traced upon the wall the outline of the face that was so dear to her2 and she did this so correctly that when her father saw it he knew instantly from what face it had been drawn4 ,then he wished to do his part1 for he also loved the young man4 ,so he brought his clay and filled in the outline which ,kora had drawn1 and so went on to model the first portrait in bas-relief that was ever made4 ,thus did this great art grow out of the love of this beautiful maiden of ,sicyon1 about twenty-five hundred years ago4 ,after this beginning ,dibutades went on to perfect his art4 ,he made medallions and busts1 and decorated the beautiful ,grecian structures with his work1 and work in bas-relief became the most beautiful ornamentation of the splendid temples and theatres of ,greece4 ,he also founded a school for modelling at ,sicyon1 and became so famous an artist that several ,greek cities claim the honor of having been his birthplace4 ,the bas-relief made from ,kora's outline was preserved in the ,nymphaeum at ,corinth for almost two hundred years1 but was then destroyed by fire4 ,she married her lover1 and he became a famous artist at ,corinth4 ,we have said that accounts of individual artists exist from about #gjj ,b4,c42 but these accounts are of so general a character and so wanting in detail that ,i shall pass on about two hundred years1 after saying a few words of the advance made in the arts of sculpture1 and mentioning a few of the examples which remain from that early time1 which is called the ,archaic period4 ,this expression not only means an ancient period of art1 but carries also the idea of an obsolete art--of something that is not only ancient1 but something that is no longer practised in the same manner or by the same people as existed in this ancient or archaic time4 ,during this archaic period a beginning was made in many branches of plastic art4 ,there were statues in metal and marble1 bas-reliefs in various kinds of stone and marble1 as well as some chryselephantine statues4 ,this kind of work is often said to have been invented by ,phidias1 but the truth seems to be that he was not its inventor1 but carried it to great perfection4 ,these chryselephantine statues were made of wood and then covered with ivory and gold2 the ivory was used for the flesh parts of the statue1 and gold for the drapery and ornaments of the figure1 and the finished work was very brilliant in its effect4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4--,,lion ,,devouring ,,deer4 ,the principal subjects represented in the sculpture of the archaic period were connected with the religion of the ,greeks1 which is known to us as mythology4 ,most statues were of the gods1 but portrait statues were not unknown1 and the custom of setting up statues of the victors in the ,greek games dates back to this very early time4 ,this was a custom which afforded a large field for sculptors to work in1 and must have had a great influence to give life and progress to their art4 ,of the remains of this art very interesting things have been written1 but ,i shall speak only of a few such objects of which pictures can be given to aid you in understanding about them4 ,among the earliest reliefs that have been preserved are those now in the ,museum of the ,louvre1 at ,paris1 which were found in the ruins of a ,doric temple at ,assos 7,fig4 #ae74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4--;,,heracles1 ,,triton1 ,,and ,,nereids4 ,the various designs upon these marbles seem to have no connection with each other1 and are executed in a rude manner4 ,the most interesting one represents ,heracles1 or ,hercules1 struggling with a ,triton 7,fig4 #af74 ,the female figures represent ,nereids1 who are terrified by seeing ,heracles in contest with the sea-monster4 ,there are many proofs that these reliefs belong to a very ancient day4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4--;,,heracles ,,and ,,the ,,cecrops4 ,an interesting relief from the temple of ,selinus represents ,heracles striding off with a pole across his shoulders1 to which are hung two ,cecrops who had robbed and tormented him 7,fig4 #ag74 ,a very fine work is also from ,selinus1 and represents ,actaeon torn by his dogs4 ,the mythological story was that ,zeus1 or ,jupiter1 was angry with ,actaeon because he wished to marry ,semele1 and the great god commanded ,artemis1 or ,diana1 to throw a stag's skin over ,actaeon1 so that his own dogs would tear him4 ,in the relief ,artemis stands at the left 7,fig4 #ah74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah4--;,,actaeon ,,and ,,his ,,dogs4 ,there is in the ,british ,museum a monument which was discovered at ,xanthos in #ahch4 ,it is thought to have been made about #ejj ,b4,c41 and is called ,the ,harpy ,monument1 ,it is a tower1 round the four sides of which runs a frieze at a height of about twenty-one feet from the ground4 ,the frieze is of white marble1 and is let into the frieze which is of sandstone4 ,the ,lycians1 in whose country it was found1 were accustomed to bury their dead at the top of such towers4 ,there is very great difference of opinion among scholars and critics concerning the meaning of the various scenes in these sculptures2 and as all their writing is speculation1 and no one knows the truth about it1 ,i shall only say that it is a very interesting object in the history of art1 and shall speak of the four corner figures on the shortest parts of the frieze1 from which the whole work takes its name4 ,the ,harpies are very curious2 they had wings1 and arms like human arms1 with claws for hands1 and feathered tails4 ,their bodies are egg-shaped1 which is a very strange feature in their formation4 ,we cannot explain all these different things1 but there is little doubt that1 with the little forms which they have in their arms1 they represent the messengers of death bearing away the souls of the deceased4 ,in the ,odyssey1 ,homer represents the ,harpies as carrying off the daughters of ,king ,pandareus and giving them to the cruel ,erinnyes for servants4 ,for this reason the ,harpies were considered as robbers1 and whenever a person suddenly disappeared it was said that they had been carried off by ,harpies 7,fig4 #ai74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai4--;,from the ,harpy ,monument1 ,london4 ,before leaving this subject of existing sculptures from the fifth century ,b4,c41 ,i will speak of the two groups which belonged to the temple of ,minerva in ,a,egina1 and are now in the ,glyptothek at ,munich4 ,the city of ,a,egina was the principal city of the island of ,a,egina1 which was in the gulf of the same name1 near the south-west coast of ,greece4 ,this city was at the height of its prosperity about #dge ,b4,c41 at which time a beautiful temple was built1 of which many columns are still standing1 though much of it has fallen down4 ,in #ahaa some ,english and ,german architects visited this place1 and the marbles they obtained are the most remarkable works which still exist from so early a period4 ,thorwaldsen1 the ,danish sculptor1 restored these reliefs1 and the ,king of ,bavaria bought them4 ,upon the western pediment there were eleven figures which represented an episode in the ,trojan war2 it was the struggle of ,ajax1 ,ulysses1 and other ,greek warriors to obtain the dead body of ,achilles1 which was held by the ,trojans4 ,the story is that the goddess ,thetis had dipped her son ,achilles in the river ,styx for the purpose of making him invulnerable1 or safe from wounds by weapons4 ,but as she held him by the ankles they were not wetted1 and so he could be wounded in them4 ,during the siege of ,troy ,apollo guided the arrow of ,paris to this spot1 and the great leader of the ,greeks was killed4 ,it is believed that the warrior in this picture who is about to send his arrow is ,paris4 ,in the central or highest part of the pediment the goddess ,minerva stands and tries to cover the fallen body of ,achilles with her shield4 ,these figures are on the side where the space grows narrower4 ,you can judge of what the action and spirit of the whole must be when these smaller figures have so much4 ,we are sure that the arrow will shoot out with such force as must carry death to its victim1 and the second warrior1 who braces himself on his feet and knee1 will thrust his lance with equal power 7,fig4 #bj74 ,there are traces of color and of metal ornaments upon these ,a,eginetan statues2 the weapons1 helmets1 shields1 and quivers were red or blue2 the eyes1 hair1 and lips were painted1 and there are marks upon the garments of the goddess that show that she must have had bronze ornaments4 ,there was a famous sculptor of ,a,egina named ,callon1 who lived about the time that this temple was built2 and though it is not known to be so1 yet many critics and scholars believe that he may have been the sculptor of these works1 because they resemble the written descriptions of his statues and reliefs4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj4--;,figures from the ,pediment of the ,temple of ,minerva1 at ,a,egina4 ,there was a period which we call archaistic1 and by this we indicate a time when it was the fashion for the sculptors to imitate as nearly as possible the works of the true archaic period4 ,it has constantly happened in the history of society that fashion has ordained this same thing1 though the objects of imitation have varied with the different ages and nations4 ,this archaistic craze to imitate old sculptures was at its height in the times of the ,roman emperors ,augustus and ,hadrian2 but here in ,america we have seen the same passion manifested in the desire to have such furniture as ,queen ,anne and her people admired1 or such as came over in the ,mayflower2 and when the true original articles were no longer to be found in garrets and out-of-the-way places1 then manufacturers began to imitate the old in the new1 and one can now buy all sorts of ancient-looking furniture that is only just from the workmen's hands4 ,but among the ,greeks there was a second motive for reproducing the works of the earlier artists1 which was the fact that the images of the gods and such articles as belonged to religious services were sacred in their earliest forms1 and were venerated by the people4 ,thus it followed that the advance and change in the taste of the people and the skill of the artists was more suited to other subjects1 while the religious images were made as nearly as possible like the older ones4 ,if it happened that a rude ancient image of a god was placed side by side with a modern and more beautiful statue of the same deity1 the pious ,greek would prefer the ugly one1 while he could well admire the most lovely4 ,you should remember that these temple images were really objects of actual worship4 ,many of these archaistic works are in various museums of art4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba4--;,,archaistic ,,artemis ,,at ,,naples4 ,this is a very beautiful temple image1 and was discovered at ,pompeii in #agfj4 ,it was found in a small temple or chapel1 of which it must have been the principal deity4 ,it is in excellent preservation2 the only parts which are wanting are the fingers of the right hand and the object which it held4 ,like many of these statues1 it is less than life-size--four feet and two inches in height4 ,when it was first discovered there were many traces of color about it4 ,the hair was gilded to represent the blonde hair which the poets ascribed to ,artemis 7,diana74 ,there was considerable red about the garments1 and some flowers were upon the border of the drapery4 ,there is an archaic stiffness about this statue1 but the flowing hair1 the form of the eyes1 and the free style of the nude parts all show that it belongs to the archaistic period 7,fig4 #ba74 ,it would be pleasant and satisfying if we could trace step by step the progress of ,greek sculpture from the rude archaic manner to that of the ,periclean age1 or from such art as is seen in the sculpture of ,a,egina to the perfections of the reliefs of the ,parthenon4 ,this we cannot do2 but we know some of the causes that led to this progress1 and can give accounts of a few sculptors who1 while they did not equal the great ,phidias1 were at least the forerunners of such a type of art as his4 ,the chief cause of the progress of art was the greater freedom of the artist in the choice and treatment of his subjects4 ,so long as the subjects were almost entirely religious there could be little variety in the manner of treating them4 ,each god or goddess had its own attributes1 which must be rendered with exact care2 and any new mode of portraying them was almost a sacrilege4 ,but as time passed on and the ,panhellenic games and the national ,pantheon at ,olympia grew into their great importance1 new subjects were furnished for the artists1 which allowed them to show their originality and to indulge their artistic imaginations to their fullest extent4 ,the victors in the games were heroes1 and regarded even as demi-gods1 and statues were allowed to be erected to them1 although this had hitherto been considered a divine honor and was accorded to the gods alone4 ,when these heroes were represented1 the artists1 not being bound by any laws1 could study their subjects and represent them to the life as nearly as they were able to do4 ,this exaltation of the ,olympian victors gave an opportunity for the development of sculpture such as cannot be over-estimated in its influence and results4 ,another characteristic of the art of the time we are now considering was the almost universal use of bronze4 ,this metal is excellent for displaying the minute features of the nude parts of statues1 but it is not equal to marble in the representation of draperies or for giving expression to the face4 ,,pythagoras ,,of ,,rhegium was a famous artist who worked entirely in bronze4 ,the only copies from his works of which we know are on two gems1 one of which is in the ,berlin ,museum4 ,he made exact studies of the body in action1 and gave new importance to the reproduction of the veins and muscles4 ,it is also claimed that ,pythagoras was the first to lay down clearly the laws of symmetry or proportion which is governed by strict mathematical rules4 ,,myron ,,of ,,eleutherae flourished about #ejj to #ddj ,b4,c41 and was reckoned among ,athenian artists because1 though not born at ,athens1 he did most of his works there1 and his most famous work1 the statue of a cow1 stood on the ,acropolis of that city4 ,this cow was represented as in the act of lowing1 and was elevated upon a marble base4 ,it was carried from ,athens to ,rome1 where it stood in the ,forum of ,peace4 ,many writers mentioned this work of ,myron's1 and thirty-seven epigrams were written concerning it4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb4--,,the ,,discobolus4 ,though the cow was so much talked of1 the artistic fame of ,myron rests more upon the ,discobolus1 or quoit-thrower4 ,the original statue does not exist1 but there are several copies of it4 ,that in the ,massimi ,villa is a very accurate one1 and was found on the ,esquiline ,hill at ,rome in ,a4,d4 #aghb2 our illustration is made from this statue4 ,myron's great skill in representing the human figure in excited action is well shown in the quoit-thrower4 ,to make such a figure as this requires great power in a sculptor4 ,no model could constantly repeat this action1 and if he could there is but a flash of time in which the artist sees just the position he reproduces4 ,this figure1 however1 is so true to life that one feels like keeping out of the range of the quoit when it flies 7,fig4 #bb74 ,there are several other existing works attributed to ,myron3 they are a marble copy of his statue of ,marsyas1 in the ,lateran at ,rome2 two torsi in the gallery at ,florence2 a figure called ,diomed1 and a bronze in the gallery at ,munich4 ,myron made statues of gods and heroes1 but he excelled in representing athletes4 ,his works were very numerous1 and a list of those which are only known through the mention of them by various writers would be of little value here4 ,while ,myron reproduced the form and action of the body with marvellous effect1 he made no advance in representing the expression of the face1 nor in the treatment of the hair4 ,he was daring in his art1 for he not only imitated what he saw in life1 but he also represented grotesque imaginary creatures1 and in many ways proved that he had a rich creative fancy4 ,a third sculptor of this time was ,,calamis1 who was in his prime about ,b4,c4 #dej4 ,he was not born in ,athens1 but he worked there4 ,calamis added to the exact representations of ,pythagoras and ,myron the element of grace beyond their powers in that direction4 ,he made a greater variety of figures than they1 for to gods and heroes he added heroines1 boys and horses4 ,his works were in bronze1 gold and ivory1 as well as marble4 ,but what we know of ,calamis is gathered from the writings of ,greek authors rather than from works1 or copies of works1 by him still existing2 indeed1 no statue remains known to be his own1 though there are some which critics fancy may be so4 ,but we may be certain of his great excellence from the many praises sung and said of him1 and ,lucian1 who knew all the best works of all the greatest masters of ,greece1 puts ,calamis before them all for elegance and grace1 and for the finer expression of faces2 when imagining a beautiful statue of a young girl he declares that he would go to ,calamis to impart to it a chaste modesty and give it a sweet and unaffected smile4 ,,phidias is the most famous of all ,greek sculptors1 and as ,greek sculpture is the finest sculpture of which we have any knowledge1 it follows that ,phidias was the first sculptor of the world4 ,and yet1 in spite of his fame1 we do not know the time of his birth4 ,we know that he was the son of ,charmidas1 but we know nothing of the father except that he had a brother who was a painter1 and this makes it probable that the family of ,phidias were artists4 ,as nearly as can be told1 ,phidias was born about ,b4,c4 #ejj4 ,this would have made him ten years old at the time of the battle of ,marathon and twenty years old when ,salamis was fought1 while he came of age at the time of ,plataea4 ,he seems to have begun his artistic life as a painter1 and we know nothing of him as an independent sculptor until the administration of ,cimon1 about ,b4,c4 #dga4 ,but his finest works belong to the time of ,pericles1 who was his friend as well as patron1 and made him the master over all the great public works at ,athens during what we speak of as the ,periclean age4 ,it seems that the favor of ,pericles was a dear privilege to ,phidias1 for it exposed him to bitter envy and hatred2 and those who feared to attack ,pericles himself avenged themselves upon ,phidias1 and accused him of dishonesty in obtaining the gold for the robe of the statue of ,minerva which he made for the ,parthenon4 ,he proved himself innocent of this1 but he was accused of other crimes1 and one account says that he was thrown into prison and died there of disease or poison4 ,another account relates that the great sculptor went into exile at ,elis1 where he made his most famous statue1 the ,olympian ,zeus1 and that he was there convicted of theft and put to death4 ,with such contradictory stories we cannot know the exact truth2 but we do know that he went to ,elis accompanied by distinguished artists4 ,he was received with honor1 and for a long time the studio that he occupied there was shown to strangers4 ,the ,olympians also allowed him an honor which the ,athenians never extended to him--that is1 to inscribe his name upon the base of the statue of ,zeus1 which he was not permitted to do in the case of the ,minerva 7or ,athena7 of the ,parthenon4 ,it often happens in the case of a very great man that the events which have preceded his manhood have prepared the way for him and his work in so striking a manner that it seems as if he could not have been great at any other time1 and that he could not avoid being so1 when everything had been shaped to his advantage4 ,this was true of ,phidias4 ,when he came to be a man the dreadful wars which had ravaged ,greece were over1 and the destruction of the older structures prepared the way for the rebuilding of ,athens4 ,large quantities of marble1 bronze1 ivory1 gold1 ebony and cypress wood were there1 and a great number of skilful workmen were at hand to work under his command4 ,the ,athenians were ablaze with zeal to rebuild the temples and shrines of their gods1 who1 as they believed1 had led them to their victories1 and not only the public1 but the private means were used to make ,athens the grandest and most beautiful city of the world4 ,the first great work with which the name of ,phidias was connected was the building of the temple of ,theseus1 called also the ,theseion4 ,this was a very important temple1 and was constructed in obedience to the command of an oracle in this wise3 ,in ,b4,c4 #dgj the island of ,scyros had been taken by the ,athenians1 and upon this island ,theseus had been buried4 ,after the battle of ,marathon1 in which he had aided the ,athenians1 ,theseus was much regarded by them1 and in ,b4,c4 #dgf they were directed to remove his bones to ,athens and build over them a shrine worthy of so great a champion4 ,just then a gigantic skeleton was discovered at ,scyros by ,cimon1 and was brought to ,athens with great ceremony1 and laid to rest with pompous respect1 and the splendid temple dedicated to ,theseus was begun1 and ,phidias was commissioned to make its plastic ornaments4 ,the precincts of this temple later became a sanctuary where the poor man and the slave could be safe from the oppressor4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bc4--;,,athenian ,,coins ,,with ,,the ,,minerva ,,promachos4 ,phidias executed many works under the patronage of ,cimon1 the greatest of which was the colossal statue of ,minerva1 which stood on the ,acropolis4 ,it was called the ,minerva ,promachos1 and was so gigantic that the crest of her helmet and the point of her spear could be seen by the mariner off the promontory of ,sunium glittering in the sunlight as a welcome to her own chosen people1 and an awful warning to her foes4 ,the meaning of ,promachos may be given as champion or guardian1 and we know from existing descriptions that1 with its pedestal1 it must have been at least seventy feet in height4 ,it was made from the spoils taken at ,marathon2 its pedestal was found1 in #ahdj1 standing between the ,parthenon and the ,erechtheium4 ,it has been called the ,pallas with the golden spear1 for this goddess was known as ,athena1 ,minerva1 and ,pallas1 and it is said that ,alaric was so impressed by its awful aspect that he shrank from it in horror4 ,the only representations of this statue now in existence are upon ,athenian coins1 and the position of the goddess differs in these1 as you will see by the illustration 7,fig4 #bc72 there are reasons for believing that the one in which the shield rests upon the ground is correct1 one of which is that some years after the death of ,phidias the inside of the shield was ornamented by a relief of the battle of the ,centaurs4 ,though ,phidias proved himself to be a great artist during the reign of ,cimon1 it was not until the time of ,pericles that he reached the glorious height of his genius4 ,pericles and ,phidias seem to have been two grand forces working in harmony for the political and artistic grandeur of ,athens1 and1 indeed1 of all ,attica1 for within a period of twenty years nearly all the great works of that country were begun and completed4 ,plutarch writes of these wonders in these words3 ,hence we have the more reason to wonder that the structures raised by ,pericles should be built in so short a time1 and yet built for ages4 ,for as each of them1 as soon as it was finished1 had the venerable air of antiquity1 so now that they are old they have the freshness of a modern building4 ,a bloom is diffused over them which preserves their aspect untarnished by time1 as if they were animated with a spirit of perpetual youth and unfading elegance4 ,it is quite impossible that ,i should speak here of the works of ,phidias in detail1 and ,i have decided to speak only of the frieze of the ,parthenon1 because the ,elgin marbles enable us to give illustrations from it and to know more about this than of the other works of the great masters about whom whole volumes might be written with justice4 ,but1 first1 ,i will give a picture of a coin which shows the great ,olympian ,zeus1 or ,jupiter1 which ,phidias made at ,elis1 after he was an exile from ,athens 7,fig4 #bd74 ,when ,phidias was asked how he had found a model for this ,jupiter1 he quoted the lines from ,homer3 ,he said1 and nodded with his shadowy brows1 ,waved on the immortal head the ambrosial locks1 ,and all ,olympus trembled at the nod4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd4--;,,coin ,,of ,,elis ,,with ,,the ,,olympian ,,zeus4 ,the writings of the ancients have almost numberless references to this statue1 and its praise is unending4 ,it was colossal in size and made of ivory and gold1 and one historian says that though the temple had great height1 yet the ,jupiter was so large that if he had risen from his throne he must have carried the roof away4 ,it is related that when the work was completed ,phidias prayed to ,jupiter to give him a sign from heaven that he might know whether his work was pleasing to the great god or not4 ,this prayer was answered1 and a flash of lightning came which struck the pavement in front of the statue4 ,this statue was reckoned among the seven wonders of the world1 and it is believed that the magnificent bust called the ,jupiter ,otricoli is a copy from the ,olympian statue 7,fig4 #be74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #be4--;,,bust ,,of ,,jupiter ,,found ,,at ,,otricoli4 ,i shall speak in another volume 7upon ,architecture7 of the former glory and the present ruin of the ,parthenon at ,athens1 and tell how upon its decoration ,phidias lavished his thought and care until it surpassed in beauty any other structure of which we have knowledge4 ,early in the present century ,lord ,elgin1 the ,english ,ambassador to the ,porte1 interested himself in having the sculptures found in the ruins taken to ,england4 ,in #ahab eighty chests containing these priceless works of the greatest sculptor who ever lived were placed in ,burlington ,house1 and a few years later ,parliament purchased them for ,l#ce1jjj1 and they were placed in the ,british ,museum1 where they now are4 ,there is a great number of them1 and all are of great interest2 but ,i shall pass over the metopes and the pediments1 and shall pass to the frieze after speaking of this one figure of ,theseus1 which is from the sculptures of the eastern pediment4 ,the sculptures upon this pediment represented the story of the birth of ,athena1 and it was proper that ,theseus should be present1 as he was king over ,athens1 of which city ,athena1 or ,minerva1 was the protecting goddess4 ,torso is a term used in sculpture to denote a mutilated figure1 and many such remains of ancient sculpture exist which are so beautiful1 even in their ruin1 that they are the pride of the museums where they are1 and serve as studies for the artists of all time4 ,this figure of ,theseus is wonderful for the majesty and grace of its attitude1 for perfection of its anatomical accuracy1 and for the appearance of elasticity of muscle with which it impresses one1 even though made of marble4 ,it really seems as if the skin could be moved upon it1 so soft does its surface look to be4 ,it is ranked as the greatest miracle of sculpture4 ,though it is called a ,theseus1 ,i ought to state that some critics take exceptions to this name1 and believe it to be ,hercules or ,bacchus2 but by almost general consent it is called a ,theseus 7,fig4 #bf74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bf4--,,torso ,,of ,a ,,statue ,,of ,,theseus 7874 ,we may imagine that the representation upon this eastern pediment must have been magnificent4 ,of course the chosen goddess of ,athens would be made to appear with great glory4 ,the myth relates that ,athena was born in an instant1 by springing forth from the head of ,zeus1 or ,jupiter1 fully armed4 ,it is believed that in this sculpture she was represented a moment after birth when she appeared in full1 colossal majesty1 shouting her war-cry and waving her lance--something as these lines represent the scene3 ,wonder strange possessed ,the everlasting gods1 that shape to see ,shaking a javelin keen1 impetuously ,rush from the crest of aegis-bearing ,jove4 ,fearfully ,heaven was shaken1 and did move ,beneath the might of the ,caerulean-eyed ,earth dreadfully surrounded far and wide1 ,and lifted from its depths2 the sea swelled high ,in purple billows4 ,it is very important1 when considering the sculpture at ,athens1 to know something about the character of this goddess whose power and influence was so great there4 ,i shall give an extract from an ,english writer on ,greek sculpture1 ,mr4 ,walter ,copeland ,perry3 ,it is a very remarkable fact1 and one which gives us a deep insight into the character of the ,athenians1 that the central figure in their religion1 the most perfect representative of their feelings1 thoughts1 and aspirations1 was not ,zeus or ,hera 7,juno71 nor the most popular gods of all times and nations1 ,ares 7,mars7 and ,aphrodite 7,venus71 but ,athena1 the virgin1 the goddess of wise counsel and brave deed6 ,she was enthroned in the very heart of their citadel2 and she stood in colossal grandeur on the battlements to terrify their foes1 and to give the first welcome to the mariner or the exile when he approached his divine and beautiful home1 which reposed in safety under the protection of her lance and shield4 ,the attributes of this goddess1 as given in ,greek literature and shown forth in ,greek art1 are very varied and hard to be understood as belonging to one person4 ,she is the patroness of war1 and in ,homer's ,iliad she is represented as rushing into battle in this wise3 ,the cuirass donn'd of cloud-compelling force ,and stood accoutred for the bloody fray4 ,her tasselled aegis round her shoulders next ,she threw1 with terror circled all around1 ,and on its face were figured deeds of arms ,and ,strife and ,courage high1 and panic ,rout4 ,there too a ,gorgon's head of monstrous size ,frown'd terrible1 portent of angry ,jove4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ,in her hand ,a spear she bore1 long1 weighty1 tough1 wherewith ,the mighty daughter of a mighty sire ,sweeps down the ranks of those her hate pursues4 ,but this warlike goddess is also represented as the wise counsellor who restrains ,achilles from rash action2 and though she does not shrink from war and danger1 yet the most precious gift to her people was not the war-horse1 but the olive1 the emblem of peace1 and to her honor was this sacred tree planted4 ,she stands in full armor1 with brandished lance1 on the highest point of the ,acropolis1 and yet she is the patroness of all household and female work1 in which she herself excels4 ,it is very interesting to notice that in the early representations of ,athena1 while she is very warlike in her bearing and raises her lance in her right hand1 she also carries in her left the distaff and the spindle and the lamp of knowledge4 ,in the later art of ,phidias she is still stern and severe1 but her face also expresses dignity and grandeur of thought and character4 ,later still1 her warlike attributes are made less prominent3 the shield rests on the ground1 and the lance is more like a sceptre1 until1 in the decline of art1 she is represented as lovely and gentle1 and all her grand power is lost1 and she is not above a great number of other goddesses who are attractive for their soft1 lovely grace1 but have no selfhood1 no individuality to command our admiration or respect4 ,we come now to speak of the ,elgin marbles from the frieze of the ,parthenon4 ,it was about thirty-five feet above the floor1 three feet three inches broad1 and about five hundred and twenty-two feet long4 ,it represented a continuous procession1 and the subject is called the great ,panathenaic ,procession4 ,about four hundred feet of this frieze remains1 so that a good judgment can be formed of it4 ,first ,i must tell you what this procession means4 ,the festival of the ,panathenaea was the most important of all the splendid pomps which were celebrated at ,athens4 ,it is probable that this festival was held every year about the middle of ,august1 but the great ,panathenaic occurred only in the third year of each olympiad2 an olympiad was a period of four years1 extending from one celebration of the ,olympic games to another1 which was an event of great importance in reckoning time with the ,greeks2 thus we see that the great procession represented on the frieze occurred once in every four years4 ,this festival continued several days1 and all were filled with horse-racing1 cock-fighting1 gymnastic and musical contests1 and a great variety of games2 poets also recited their verses1 and philosophers held arguments in public places4,a ,but the most important day was that on which a procession went up to the ,parthenon and carried the peplos1 or garment for the great goddess1 which had been woven by the maidens of ,athens4 ,this peplos was made of crocus-colored stuff1 on which the figures of the gods engaged in their contests with the giants appeared in beautiful1 rich embroidery4 ,in later years1 after the ,athenians had fallen from their first high-minded simplicity1 they sometimes embroidered on the peplos the likeness of a man whom they wished to flatter1 as thus placing him in the company of the gods was a very great compliment4 ,footnote ,a3 ,in the ,persian invasion of ,greece by ,xerxes1 ,b4,c4 #dhj1 that monarch was surprised to learn that the ,olympic games were not suspended at the approach of his army4 ,the procession of the peplos was formed at daybreak in the ,potters' ,quarter of the city1 and passed to the ,dromos1 then to the market-place1 onward to the temple of ,demeter1 round the ,acropolis along the ,pelasgic wall1 through the ,propylaea to the temple of ,athena ,polias4 ,the procession was as splendid as all the wealth1 nobility1 youth and beauty of ,athens could make it4 ,of the vast multitude which joined it some were in chariots1 others on horses and almost countless numbers on foot4 ,after the most important officers of the government come the envoys of the ,attic colonies with the noble ,athenian maidens1 the basket-bearers1 the aliens who resided in ,athens dressed in red instead of white1 and a chosen company of aged men bearing branches of the sacred olive4 ,the peplos was not borne by hands1 but was suspended from the mast of a ship1 upon wheels1 which some writers say was moved by machinery placed underground4 ,when the temple was reached the splendid garment was placed upon the sacred statue1 which was believed to have fallen from heaven4 ,during the festival of the ,panathenaea prisoners were permitted to enjoy their freedom1 men whose services to the public merited recognition received gifts of gold crowns1 and their names were announced by heralds in public places1 and many interesting ceremonies filled up the time4 ,we do not know the exact order in which all these things happened2 but it is believed that the procession of the peplos was the crowning glory of it all1 and was celebrated on the final day4 ,the plan of the ,parthenon frieze which represented this great procession was as follows3 ,on the eastern side above the main entrance to the temple there were two groups of the most important and powerful of the many gods of the ,greek religion4 ,each of these groups had six gods and an attendant1 so that there were seven figures in each of these groups1 as you will see by the illustration 7,fig4 #bg74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bg4 ,there has been much study of these sculptures1 and many scholars have written about them4 ,there is still a difference of opinion as to which gods are here represented1 but ,i shall give you the most generally accepted opinion1 which calls a1 ,hermes1 or ,mercury1 the messenger of the gods2 b1 ,apollo2 c1 ,artemis1 or ,diana2 d1 ,ares1 or ,mars2 e1 ,iris1 who is attending upon f1 ,hera1 or ,juno2 g1 ,zeus1 or ,jupiter2 h1 ,athena1 ,minerva1 or ,pallas2 i1 ,hephaestus1 or ,vulcan2 j1 ,poseidon1 or ,neptune2 k1 ,dionysus1 or ,bacchus2 l1 m1 n are more doubtful1 but are probably ,aphrodite1 or ,venus1 ,demeter1 or ,ceres1 and ,triptolemus1 the boy who was a favorite with ,ceres1 who invented the plough and first sowed corn4 ,now1 these two groups of divinities were divided by a very singular group containing five figures 7,fig4 #bh74 ,there has been much controversy as to these figures and what they are doing4 ,they seem to be unconscious of the great gods who are near to them on either side4 ,the greater number of critics consider that the two maidens1 e and d1 are of the number who have embroidered the peplos2 the central figure1 c1 a priestess of ,athena2 a1 the ,archon ,basileus2 and b1 a consecrated servant-boy1 who is delivering up the peplos4 ,other critics believe1 however1 that these figures are all preparing for the sacred ceremonies about to begin1 and that the priest is giving the boy-servant a garment which he has taken off4 ,other theories may arise1 and we can only listen to them all1 and yet not know the truth2 but the more we study the more we shall admire these exquisite figures4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bh4--,,the ,,five ,,central ,,figures4 ,just here ,i will call your attention to one feature of these antique bas-reliefs which is called ,isocephalism1 and means that all the heads are at an equal height4 ,you will see that all figures1 whether standing or sitting1 walking1 in chariots1 or on horseback1 have the heads on the same level4 ,these three groups1 the five central figures and the two groups of gods1 are approached on each side by long1 continuous processions1 and these processions each start out from the south-west corner of the ,parthenon1 so that one branch goes along the south and a part of the east side1 and the other and longer division marches on the whole of the west and north1 and a portion of the east side4 ,i shall give here a series of pictures which are all explained by their titles1 and will give you an excellent idea of this magnificent frieze1 and doubtless many of my readers have studied or will study and admire it in the ,british ,museum 7,figs4 #bi1 #cj1 #ca1 #cb1 #cc1 #cd1 #ce74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bi--,,youths ,,preparing ,,to ,,join ,,the ,,cavalcade4 ,though all this frieze was the conception of the great ,phidias1 it must have been the work of many hands1 and close examination shows that some portions of it are done much better than others4 ,these sculptures have a double value2 for while they are so priceless as treasures of art1 they tell us much of that prosperous1 glorious ,athens of which we love to read and hear stories4 ,these figures show us how the people dressed and moved1 and we see in them the stately magistrates and venerable seers of ,athens1 the sacred envoys of dependent states1 the victors in their chariots drawn by the steeds which had won for them the cheap but priceless garland1 the full-armed warriors1 the splendid cavalry1 and the noble youths of 'horse-loving' ,athens on their favorite steeds1 in the flush and pride of their young life2 and last1 not least1 the train of high-born ,athenian maidens1 marching with bowed heads and quiet gait1 for they are engaged in holy work1 with modest mien1 and gentle dignity and grace4 ,all that was sacred1 powerful1 and grand--all that was beautiful1 graceful1 and joyous in ,athenian life1 is represented there1 in ideal form1 of course1 but in strict conformity with the realities of life4444 ,it is by the study of such works as these that we get the clearest insight into the essence and spirit of classical antiquity2 and they help us better to understand all that we may read in history or poetry concerning the ancient1 classic ,greeks4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cj4--;,,horsemen ,,starting4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ca4--,,procession ,,of ,,cavalry4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cb4--,,procession ,,of ,,chariots4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cc4--,,train ,,of ,,musicians ,,and ,,youths4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cd4--;,,cows ,,for ,,sacrifice4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ce4--,,train ,,of ,,noble ,,maidens4 ,we must now leave ,phidias and speak of other sculptors who were his contemporaries and pupils4 ,among the last ,,alcamenes was the most celebrated4 ,he was born in ,lemnos1 but was a citizen of ,athens2 so he is sometimes called an ,athenian1 and again a ,lemnian4 ,his statues were numerous1 and most of them represented the gods4 ,one of ,hephaestus1 or ,vulcan1 was remarkable for the way in which his lameness was concealed so skilfully that no deformity appeared4 ,his most famous statue was a ,venus1 or ,aphrodite1 concerning which it is related that ,agoracritus1 another celebrated pupil of ,phidias1 contended with ,alcamenes in making a statue of that goddess4 ,the preference was given to ,alcamenes1 and ,agoracritus believed this to have been done on account of his being an ,athenian citizen1 and not solely for the merit of the statue4 ,the ,venus of ,alcamenes stood in a temple of that goddess in a garden beyond the eastern wall of ,athens4 ,this statue was very much praised for its beauty by ancient writers1 who all mention with especial pride the eurythmy of the action of the wrist4 ,this is a term frequently used in regard to sculpture1 and is somewhat difficult to explain4 ,it means a harmony and proportion of action which corresponds to rhythm in music4 ,when a statue has the effect it should have it appears as if the motion of the figure was arrested for a moment1 and would be resumed immediately4 ,that is what we mean when we say a statue has life2 and1 as in life1 the motion of a statue may be awkward or it may be graceful2 it may be harmonious to the eye1 just as music is harmonious to the ear1 or it may seem out of tune and time1 just as inharmonious sounds are to a correct ear for the rhythm of sound2 so when we speak of the eurythmy of sculpture we mean that its apparent motion is in accord with the laws of proportion1 and is harmonious and graceful to the eye4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cf4--;,,head ,,of ,,asclepius4 ,in the ,british ,museum4 ,while ,alcamenes had this power of imparting grace to his statues1 he also approached ,phidias in majesty and a divine sweetness1 which was the sweetness of great strength4 ,in truth1 he is recognized as the sculptor who most nearly approached the great ,phidias4 ,he represented also for the first time the god ,asclepius1 or ,a,esculapius1 who was very important to the ,greeks1 who placed great value upon physical health4 ,alcamenes represented him as a sort of humanized ,zeus or ,jupiter4 ,of the ,asclepius heads found at ,melos we may regard this one given here as a free copy of the type of god which this great sculptor represented the god of medicine and health to be 7,fig4 #cf74 ,alcamenes was also the principal assistant of ,phidias in his decoration of the temple of ,jupiter at ,olympia1 and is said to have himself executed the relief upon the western pediment1 in which the battle of the ,centaurs and ,lapithae was represented with great spirit4 ,,agoracritus of ,paros1 who has been mentioned as the rival of ,alcamenes1 is called the favorite pupil of ,phidias1 and it is said that the master even gave ,agoracritus some of his works1 and allowed the pupil to inscribe his name upon them4 ,for this reason the ancient writers were often in doubt as to the authorship of the statues called by the names of these sculptors4 ,it is said that when the ,venus of ,alcamenes was preferred before that of ,agoracritus the latter changed his mark1 and made it to represent a ,nemesis1 or the goddess who sent suffering to those who were blessed with too many gifts4 ,it is said that this statue was cut from a block of marble which the ,persians brought with them to ,marathon for the purpose of making a trophy of it which they could set up to commemorate the victory they felt so sure of gaining2 in their flight and adversity it was left1 and at last served a ,greek sculptor in making a statue of an avenging goddess4 ,this seems to be a striking illustration of poetic justice4 ,agoracritus sold the ,nemesis to the people of ,rhamnus1 who had a temple dedicated to that goddess1 and made a condition that it should never be set up in ,athens4 ,in the museum of the ,lateran at ,rome there is a small but very beautiful antique statue of ,nemesis1 which is thought to be a copy of this famous work4 ,as ,nemesis was the goddess who meted out fortune according to her idea of right1 a measure was her symbol1 and the ,greek measure of a cubit was generally placed in her hand4 ,the word cubit means the length of the forearm from the elbow to the wrist1 and in this statue of which we speak this part of the arm is made very prominent1 and the measure itself is omitted4 ,the sculptor ,myron also had pupils and followers who executed many works1 and of this school was ,,cresilas of ,cydonia1 in ,crete4 ,we are interested in him because two copies from his works exist1 of which ,i give pictures here4 ,pliny1 in speaking of the portrait statue of ,pericles1 said it was a marvel of the art which makes illustrious men still more illustrious4 ,the cut given here is from a bust in the ,british ,museum4 ,there is reason to believe that ,cresilas excelled ,myron in the expression of his faces 7,figs4 #cg1 #ch74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cg4--;,a ,,wounded ,,amazon4 ,cresilas4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ch4--,,statue ,,of ,,pericles4 ,cresilas4 ,,callimachus is an artist of whom we know little1 but that little is interesting4 ,we do not know where he was born1 but as he was employed to make a candelabra for the eternal lamp which burned before the sacred statue of ,athena ,polias1 we may suppose that he was an ,athenian4 ,some writers say that he invented a lamp which would burn a year without going out1 and that such an one made of gold was the work he did for the temple of ,minerva4 ,callimachus lived between ,b4,c4 #eej and #cif1 and is credited with having invented the ,corinthian capital in this wise3 ,a young girl of ,corinth died1 and her nurse1 according to custom1 placed a basket upon her grave containing the food she had loved best in life4 ,it chanced that the basket was put down upon a young acanthus plant1 and the leaves grew up about the basket in such a way that when ,callimachus saw it the design for the capital which we know as ,corinthian was suggested to him1 and was thus named from the city in which all this had occurred4 ,while the plastic art of ,athens1 or the ,attic school of sculpture1 reached its greatest excellence in ,phidias1 there was in the ,peloponnesus another school of much importance4 ,argos was the chief city of this school1 and its best master was ,,polycleitus of ,sicyon1 who was born about ,b4,c4 #dhb4 ,he was thus about twelve years younger than ,phidias4 ,polycleitus was held in such esteem that many of the ancient writers couple his name with that of ,phidias4 ,he was employed in the decoration of the ,heraion1 or temple of ,hera1 at ,argos4 ,but his greatest work was a statue of ,hera1 or ,juno1 for a temple on ,mount ,euboea1 between ,argos and ,mycenae4 ,this statue was chryselephantine1 and as ,juno was the majestic1 white-armed1 ox-eyed goddess consort of ,jupiter1 it is a striking coincidence that ,phidias at ,olympia and ,polycleitus on ,mount ,euboea should have made from ivory and gold two famous statues of this renowned pair1 who reigned over the mythical world of the ,greek religion4 ,there are several copies of heads of ,juno in various museums1 and some of them have been ascribed to ,polycleitus2 but the proof of the truth of this is far from being satisfactory4 ,this master made other statues of divinities1 but he excelled in representing athletes2 and however fine his other works may have been1 it was in the reproduction of strong1 youthful1 manly beauty that he surpassed other sculptors4 ,some of his statues of this sort1 especially a ,doryphorus1 or spear-bearer1 were considered as models from which all other artists could work4 ,polycleitus is said to have written a treatise in which he gave exact rules for the proportions of the different parts of the body4 ,this was called the canon of ,polycleitus1 and there is good reason to believe that the ,doryphorus was called by the same name1 the canon1 because it was fashioned according to the rules laid down by ,polycleitus in his treatise4 ,his pupils and followers are mentioned with honor by the ,greek authors of his time1 but ,i need not mention them here4 ,the art of ,phidias and ,polycleitus was the art of ,greece at its best period4 ,after the close of the ,persian wars the people of ,greece were a religious and patriotic people4 ,the ,persian wars developed the best quality of character1 for these wars were waged against a foreign foe1 and the ,greeks were defending their freedom and their civilization1 and at the end of the struggle ,pericles1 who guided them to their greatest prosperity1 was a statesman and a man of high aims2 he was a gentleman as well as a strong ruler4 ,the ,peloponnesian war1 on the contrary1 was a civil war1 and it divided the ,greeks among themselves and roused the evil passions of friend against friend all over their country4 ,it was the cause of selfishness1 treachery1 and immorality1 and one of its worst effects was seen in the loss of religious tone among the people3 their old contented simplicity of life and thought was gone2 every man thought only of himself1 and the nation began to sink into the condition which at last made it an easy prey to the ,macedonians4 ,we have studied all these wars in our histories1 but perhaps we have not thought how much they affected sculpture and the other arts1 and brought them down from the lofty heights of the ,periclean age4 ,but there were still men who strove to be great and grand in morals and in intellect1 and perhaps strove all the more earnestly for this on account of the decline they saw about them4 ,few countries in any age have had more splendid men than ,socrates1 ,plato1 ,euripides1 ,aristophanes1 ,pelopidas1 ,epaminondas1 ,demosthenes1 ,dion1 and ,timoleon1 and these all lived between the ,peloponnesian and the ,macedonian wars4 ,and while the arts were less grand than before1 they did not fall into decline for some years1 though they took on new features4 ,the gods who had been mostly represented were less often the subjects of the sculptor1 and when they were so they were softened and made less awful in their effect4 ,other gods were more freely taken for models1 such as came nearer to human life and thought1 because less sublime in their attributes and characters4 ,among these were ,venus as a lovely woman rather than as the great mother of all living creatures1 and ,eros1 or ,love2 while ,plutus1 or ,wealth1 and satyrs1 nymphs1 and tritons were multiplied in great numbers4 ,when the gods who were represented were more like human beings in their character1 it followed that the statues of them more nearly resembled men and women1 and gradually the old grandeur and sublimity were changed to grace1 beauty1 and mirth4 ,many people would prefer these works because they come nearer to the every-day life of the world2 but earnest1 thoughtful minds look for something more noble in art--something that will not come down to us as we are1 but will help us to rise above ourselves and to strive after better things4 ,,cephisodotus was a sculptor who lived until about ,b4,c4 #che1 or a little later1 and stood between the old and the new schools of ,greek art4 ,the cut given here is from a group at ,munich1 which is believed to be a copy of a work by him1 and it is a combination of the simple dignity of the art of ,phidias 7which is seen in the flowing drapery and the wavy edge of its folds7 and the later ,attic style 7which is seen in the dreamy1 gentle air of the face of the nurse of the little god74 7,fig4 #ci47 ,we know very little of the life of ,cephisodotus1 and as little is said of his works by ancient writers4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ci4--;,,eirene ,,and ,,the ,,young ,,plutus4 ,cephisodotus4 ,,scopas of ,paros was one of the greatest sculptors of the later ,attic school4 ,the island of ,paros1 where he was born1 was the place where the finest ,greek marble was found2 but he worked so much at ,athens that he is spoken of as an ,athenian4 ,he was an architect as well as a sculptor1 and he superintended the erection of some splendid structures1 which he also ornamented with his sculptures4 ,i shall speak especially of the tomb of ,mausolus1 the ,king of ,caria4 ,scopas executed the sculptures of the east side1 and as he was the best artist of the sculptors employed there1 it is probable that he had much to do with the design for all the work4 ,this mausoleum was reckoned as one of the seven wonders of the world1 and has given a name to fine tombs the world over4 ,the most interesting of the sculptures from this tomb which are now in the ,british ,museum seems to me to be the statue of ,mausolus himself4 ,it is plainly intended to be an exact portrait of the king1 and it is so designed and executed that we feel sure it must show him to us just as he was when alive1 more than twenty-two hundred years ago 7,fig4 #dj74 ,a part of the frieze upon the mausoleum showed the battle of the ,greeks and the ,amazons1 and this illustration from it gives an idea of the boldness of action and the correctness of the design 7,fig4 #da74 ,this picture is from a slab in the possession of the ,serra family in ,genoa4 ,on the right a warrior holds down an ,amazon whom he has forced to her knees and is about to kill1 while she stretches out her right hand in supplication4 ,the figures to the left are full of spirit1 and absolutely seem to be in motion4 ,we do not know that any of these figures were executed by the hand of ,scopas1 but it is probable that they were1 and they give us an idea of the art of his time4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dj4--,,portrait ,,of ,,mausolus4 ,scopas also carved one of the splendid pillars of the temple of ,diana at ,ephesus1 and did much architectural decoration1 as well as to execute many statues and groups of figures4 ,the ancient writers say very little of the art of ,scopas1 but when all that we can learn is brought together1 it shows that he had great fertility in expressing his own ideas1 that his genius was creative and his works original4 ,he represented the gods which the earlier sculptors had shown in their works in quite a new manner1 and he was the first to show the goddess ,venus in all the beauty which imagination could attribute to her4 ,his representations of nymphs of wood and sea1 of monsters1 and all sorts of strange1 imaginary beings were numberless1 and he made his sculptured figures to express every emotion that can be fancied or felt1 from the tenderest and sweetest affection to the wildest passions of the soul4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #da--;,,from ,,the ,,frieze ,,of ,,the ,,mausoleum4 ,his works were always representations of gods or of sentiments as shown by some superhuman beings2 he never portrayed a hero1 with the exception of ,hercules1 and was ever busy with the ideal rather than with realities about him4 ,he worked in marble only1 which is far more suited to the elegant beauty of his style than are bronze and gold or ivory4 ,we are accustomed to call ,,praxiteles the greatest sculptor of the second school of ,greek art1 just as we give that place to ,phidias in the first4 ,we have no fixed dates concerning ,praxiteles4 ,we know that he was the son of a ,cephisodotus1 who was a bronze worker1 and was thought to be a son of ,alcamenes1 thus making ,praxiteles a grandson of the latter4 ,praxiteles was first instructed by his father4 ,later he came under the influence of ,scopas1 who was much older than he2 and by ,scopas he was persuaded to give up working in bronze and confine himself to marble4 ,perhaps the most authentic date we have concerning him is that given by ,pliny1 who says that he was in his prime from ,b4,c4 #cfd-cfj4 ,it is impossible to praise a sculptor more than ,praxiteles was praised by the ,greek authors2 and1 although ,athens was the place where he lived and labored most1 yet he was known to all ,greece1 and even to other countries1 and the number of his works was marvellous4 ,there are trustworthy accounts of forty-seven groups1 reliefs1 and statues by his hand1 and it is not probable that these are all that he executed4 ,praxiteles represented youth and beauty and such subjects as are most pleasing to popular taste4 ,thus it happened that his male figures were the young ,apollo1 ,eros1 and youthful satyrs1 while a large proportion of his statues represented lovely women4 ,venus was frequently repeated by him1 and there is a story that he made two statues of her1 one being draped and the other nude4 ,the people of ,cos bought the first1 and the last was purchased by the ,cnidians1 who placed it in the midst of an open temple1 where it could be seen from all sides4 ,it became so famous that many people went to ,cnidos solely for the purpose of seeing it1 and the ,cnidian ,venus acquired a reputation wherever art was known4 ,when the oppressor of the ,cnidians1 ,king ,nicodemus of ,bithynia1 offered to release them from a debt of one hundred talents 7about #ajj1jjj7 if they would give him the ,venus1 they refused1 and declared that it was the chief glory of their ,state4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #db4--,,the ,,eros ,,of ,,centocelle4 ,another story relates that ,phryne1 a friend of ,praxiteles1 had been told by him that she could have any work which she might choose from his workshop4 ,she wished to have the one which the artist himself considered the best4 ,in order to find out which he so esteemed she sent a servant to tell him that his workshop was on fire4 ,he exclaimed1 ,all is lost if my ,satyr and ,cupid are not saved6 ,then ,phryne told him of her trick1 and chose the ,cupid1 or ,eros1 for her gift4 ,phryne then offered the statue to the temple of ,thespiae1 in ,boeotia1 where it was placed between a statue of ,venus and one of ,phryne herself4 ,this ,cupid was almost as celebrated as the ,cnidian ,venus1 and was visited by many people4 ,the head given here 7,fig4 #db71 which was found in ,centocelle by ,gavin ,hamilton1 and is now in the ,vatican1 is thought by many to be a copy of a ,cupid by ,praxiteles1 and even of the ,thespian statue2 but we have no proof of this4 ,the ,cupid1 or ,eros1 of the art of ,scopas and ,praxiteles is not the merry little creature who bears that name in later art2 he is a youth just coming into manhood1 with a dreamy1 melancholy face1 the tender beauty of which makes him one of the most attractive subjects in sculpture4 ,caligula carried the ,thespian ,cupid to ,rome2 ,claudius restored it to its original place1 but ,nero again bore it to ,rome1 where it was burned in a conflagration in the time of ,titus4 ,i shall say no more of ,praxiteles personally1 because ,i wish to describe to you the largest and grandest group of ,greek statues which exists1 or1 as ,i should say1 of which we have any copies4 ,we do not know whether ,scopas or ,praxiteles made these famous figures1 since they are attributed to both these sculptors2 perhaps we can never positively know to whom to ascribe the fame of this marvellous work4 ,the historian ,pliny tells us that they stood in the temple of ,apollo ,sosianus at ,rome4 ,sosius was the legate of ,antony in ,syria and ,cilicia2 he erected this temple in his own honor1 and brought many beautiful works from the ,east for its decoration4 ,it is believed that he brought the ,niobe group from ,cilicia1 and displayed it when celebrating his victory over ,judea1 ,b4,c4 #ce4 ,in ,a4,d4 #aehc a large number of statues representing this subject were found in ,rome1 and were purchased by the ,grand ,duke of ,tuscany1 who placed them in the ,villa ,medici4 ,in #agge they were removed to the ,palace of the ,uffizi1 in ,florence1 where an apartment was assigned to them4 ,the figures were restored1 and each one placed on its own pedestal1 which work was not completed until #agid4 ,the group must have had originally seventeen figures--,niobe and fourteen children1 a pedagogue and a female nurse4 ,now there are but twelve--,niobe1 six sons1 four daughters1 and the pedagogue4 ,at first it was supposed that these figures ornamented the temple pediment1 but it is now thought that they stood on an undulating rocky base1 with a background at a little distance4 ,niobe is the central figure1 in any case1 and the children were fleeing toward her from either side2 she is the only one represented in such a way as to present the full face to the beholder 7,fig4 #dc74 ,but we shall better understand our subject if ,i recount as concisely as possible the story of ,niobe1 which1 as you know1 is a ,grecian myth4 ,niobe was the daughter of ,tantalus1 and was born on ,mount ,sipylus4 ,when a child ,niobe played with ,lato1 or ,latona1 who afterward married the great god ,jupiter1 or ,zeus4 ,niobe became the wife of ,amphion1 and had a very happy life2 she was the mother of seven sons and seven daughters1 and all this prosperity made her forget that she was mortal1 and she dared to be insolent even to the gods themselves4 ,lato had but two children1 the beautiful ,apollo and the archer-queen of heaven1 called ,diana1 or ,artemis4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dc4--,,niobe ,,and ,,her ,,youngest ,,daughter4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dd4--;,,brother ,,and ,,sister4 ,amphion and ,niobe were the ,king and ,queen of ,thebes1 and when the worship of ,lato was established in that city ,niobe was very angry4 ,she thought of ,lato as her playmate and not a goddess1 and was so imprudent as to drive in her chariot to the temple and command the ,theban women not to join in this worship4 ,niobe also asserted that she was superior to this ,lato1 who had but two children1 while she had fourteen lovely sons and daughters1 any one of which was worthy of honor4 ,all this so enraged ,lato that she begged ,apollo1 who was the god of the silver bow1 and ,diana1 her huntress daughter1 to take revenge on ,niobe4 ,obedient to her commands1 ,apollo and ,artemis descended to earth1 and in one day slew all the children of ,niobe4 ,then this proud mother1 left alone1 could do nothing but weep1 and this she did continually until ,jupiter took pity on her and turned her into stone1 and whirled her away from ,thebes to ,mount ,sipylus1 the scene of her happy childhood4 ,in this picture of ,niobe she clasps her youngest child1 who has fled to her for protection4 ,i cannot give pictures of all the figures1 but one of the most interesting is this brother and sister4 ,she is wounded1 and he endeavors to raise his garment so as to shield her and himself from the deadly arrows which pursue them 7,fig4 #dd74 ,this figure of the eldest daughter is very beautiful4 ,an arrow has pierced her neck1 and the right hand is bent back to the wound4 ,the face is noble and simple1 and has been a favorite model to ,guido ,reni and other ,italian masters 7,fig4 #de74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #de4--,,the ,,eldest ,,daughter4 ,fig4 #df shows one of the older sons1 who1 though wounded and fallen on one knee1 still looks toward his slayer with an air of defiance4 ,there is a world of interest connected with these statues1 and they move us with a variety of emotions4 ,the poor mother1 so prosperous a moment before1 and now seeing her children dying around her1 slain by the sure arrows of the unseen gods--how can we pity her enough6 and then the brave son who tries to shield his sister while he is dazed by the suddenness of the misfortunes which he cannot account for2 the old pedagogue1 to whom the youngest boy has run for protection--and1 indeed1 all demand our sympathy for their grief and our admiration for their beauty1 which is still theirs in spite of their woe4 ,one of the young sculptors who was employed with ,scopas in the work on the mausoleum was ,,leochares4 ,we read of several statues of ,zeus and ,apollo by this master1 but his most celebrated work was the group of ,ganymede borne upward by the eagle of ,zeus4 ,there are several copies of this sculpture1 but that given here1 from the ,vatican figure1 is the best of all1 and is very beautiful4 ,we know very few facts concerning ,leochares1 and cannot even say whether he was an ,athenian or not 7,fig4 #dg74 ,there is still standing at ,athens1 in its original place1 the ,choragic monument of ,lysicrates2 and though we do not know the names of the architects and sculptors who made it1 there are traces upon it which indicate that it belonged to the school of ,scopas 7,fig4 #dh74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #df4--;,a ,,niobid4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dg4--;,,ganymede4 ,after ,leochares4 ,this monument was erected ,b4,c4 #ccd1 when ,lysicrates was choragus--that is1 when it was his office to provide the chorus for the plays represented at ,athens4 ,this was an expensive office1 and one that demanded much labor and care4 ,he had first to find the choristers1 and then bring them together to be instructed1 and provide them with proper food while they studied4 ,the choragus who gave the best musical entertainment received a tripod as his reward1 and it was the custom to build a monument upon which to place the tripod1 so that it should be a lasting honor to the choragus and his family4 ,the street in which these monuments were erected was called the street of the ,tripods4 ,it was also the custom to dedicate each tripod to some special divinity1 and this of ,lysicrates was dedicated to ,bacchus1 and had a frieze with sculptures telling the story of that god and the ,tyrrhenian robbers who bore him off to their ship4 ,in order to revenge himself he changed the oars and masts into serpents and himself into a lion2 music was heard1 and ivy grew all over the vessel2 the robbers went mad and leaped into the sea1 and changed into dolphins4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dh4--,,monument ,,of ,,lysicrates4 ,athens4 ,in the frieze1 however1 it is represented that the god is on shore quietly amusing himself with the lion 7,fig4 #di71 while satyrs and sileni punish the robbers by beating them with sticks and chasing them with fury1 while they are turning gradually into dolphins and rushing into the sea4 ,the design is so fine that it might easily be attributed to one of the best sculptors2 but the execution is careless1 and this is not strange when we remember that it was all done at the expense of one man1 and he a private citizen4 ,we will return now to the ,peloponnesian school1 of which ,polycleitus was the head in its earliest period4 ,after his time the sculptors of his school continued to prefer the subjects in which he excelled1 and represented youthful heroes and victors with as much industry as the artists of ,athens bestowed upon their statues of womanly grace and beauty4 ,the subjects of the ,peloponnesian school were especially suited to the use of bronze1 and the chief sculptor of his time1 ,,lysippus1 whose works are said to have numbered fifteen hundred1 worked entirely in bronze4 ,in order to keep a record of the number of his works1 he adopted the plan of putting aside one gold coin from the price of every statue1 and at his death his heirs are said to have found the above number of these coins thus laid away4 ,his home was at ,sicyon1 and his time of work is given as ,b4,c4 #cgb-caf4 ,this seems a long period for active employment as a sculptor2 but the number of his works accords well with this estimate of his working years4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #di4--;,,bacchus ,,and ,,lion4 ,from the ,lysicrates ,monument4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ej4--,,the ,,apoxyomenos ,,of ,,lysippus4 ,lysippus cannot be said to have followed any school2 he was original1 and this trait made him prominent1 for he was not bound by old customs1 but was able to adapt himself to the new spirit of the age1 which came to ,greece with the reign of ,alexander4 ,this sculptor made a great number of statues of ,hercules2 and as ,alexander loved to regard himself as a modern ,hercules1 ,lysippus also represented the monarch in many different ways1 and with much the same spirit as that he put into the statues of the hero-god4 ,for example1 he made a statue of ,alexander with his ,spear1 ,alexander at a ,lion ,hunt1 ,alexander as the ,sun-,god1 and so on through many changes of expression and attributes1 but all being likenesses of the great king4 ,there is in the ,capitol at ,rome a head of ,alexander called ,helios1 which is thought by many critics to be the best bust of him in existence4 ,there are metal rays fastened to the head2 it has a wild1 ,bacchus-like air1 and the hair is thrown back1 as if he had shaken his head furiously2 and the defect of a wry neck1 which the monarch had1 is cleverly concealed by this motion4 ,alexander was a very handsome man1 his faults being this twist in his neck and a peculiar shape of the eye4 ,we cannot here give the long list of works by ,lysippus1 but will speak of that which interests us most1 because we have a beautiful copy of it4 ,i mean the ,apoxyomenos1 which is in the ,vatican4 ,it represents a youth scraping himself 7as the name denotes7 with the strigil after a contest in the arena 7,fig4 #ej74 ,the ,vatican copy was found in the ,trastevere at ,rome in #ahdi1 and is well preserved4 ,without doubt it is a faithful reproduction of the original1 which was probably brought from ,greece to ,rome by ,agrippa1 who set it up in front of his public baths4 ,here it became such a favorite with the people that when ,tiberius removed it to his own house there was a demonstration in the theatre1 and so violent a demand was made for its restoration that the cunning emperor dared not refuse4 ,this statue may be called an example of a grand genre style4 ,it represents a scene from common life in ,greece1 but it is so simply natural1 so graceful and free from restraint1 that one could not weary of it4 ,the expression of the face is that of quiet content--his task has been faithfully done1 and the remembrance of it is pleasant4 ,the hair is finely executed2 this was a point in which ,lysippus excelled2 but the great charm of the whole is in the pose of the figure4 ,in his occupation of scraping one portion of the body after another he must constantly change his position1 and this one1 in which he can rest but a moment1 seems to have the motion in it which he must almost instantly make1 while it is full of easy grace in itself4 ,the art of ,lysippus was not as elevated as that of ,phidias1 who tried to represent the highest ideal which a mortal may form of a god2 but there was nothing mean or vulgar in the works of the former2 on the contrary1 it was with a pure and noble spirit that he endeavored to represent the perfections of youthful1 manly beauty1 and his naturalism was of a healthy and dignified sort4 ,the most important pupil of ,lysippus was ,,chares ,,of ,,lindos1 who was prominent not only on account of his own works1 but also because he introduced the art of ,sicyon into his native island of ,rhodes4 ,this island is but forty-five miles long and twenty miles wide at its broadest part1 and yet its art became second only to that of ,athens4 ,at the city of ,rhodes alone there were three thousand statues1 besides many paintings and other rare and beautiful objects4 ,chares is best known for the sun-god which he erected here2 it was called the ,colossus of ,rhodes1 and was reckoned as one of the seven wonders of the world4 ,one hundred statues of the sun were erected at ,rhodes1 and ,pliny says that any one of them was beautiful enough to have been famous2 but that of ,chares was so remarkable that it overshadowed all the rest4 ,it stood quite near the entrance to the harbor of ,rhodes1 but we have no reason to believe that its legs spanned the mouth of the port so that ships sailed between them1 as has often been said1 although its size was almost beyond our imagination4 ,the statue was one hundred and five feet high1 and few men could reach around one of its thumbs with their arms1 while each finger was as large as most statues4 ,twelve years were occupied in its erection1 from ,b4,c4 #bib to #bhj1 and it cost three hundred talents1 or about #cjj1jjj of our money1 according to its usual estimate1 though there are those who name its cost as more than four times that amount4 ,the men of ,rhodes obtained this great sum by selling the engines of war which ,demetrius ,poliorcetes left behind him when he abandoned the siege of ,rhodes in ,b4,c4 #cjc4 ,we have no copy of this statue1 but there are coins of ,rhodes which bear a face that is believed with good reason to be that of the ,colossus4 ,fifty-six years after its completion1 in ,b4,c4 #bbd1 the ,colossus was overthrown by an earthquake1 and an oracle forbade the restoration of it by the ,rhodians4 ,in ,a4,d4 #fgb1 nearly a thousand years after its fall1 its fragments were sold to a ,jew of ,emesa by the command of the ,caliph ,othman ,,iv4 ,it is said that they weighed seven hundred thousand pounds1 and nine hundred camels were required to bear them away4 ,when we consider what care must have been needful to cast this huge figure in bronze1 and so adjust the separate parts that the whole would satisfy the standard of art at ,rhodes1 we are not surprised that it should have been reckoned among the seven wonders1 and that ,chares should have become a famous master4 ,chares also founded a school of art which became very important1 and1 indeed1 it seems to have been the continuance of the school of the ,peloponnesus2 for after the time of ,lysippus the sculpture of ,argos and ,sicyon came to an end1 and we may add that with ,lysippus and his school the growth of art in ,greece ceased2 it had reached the highest point to which it ever attained1 and all its later works were of its decline1 and foreshadowed its death4 ,the reign of ,alexander the ,great was so brilliant that it is difficult to realize that it was a time of decline to the ,greeks2 and during the life of ,alexander perhaps this does not appear with clearness2 but at the close of his reign there arose such contentions and troubles among his generals that everything in ,greece suffered1 and with the rest ,greek art was degraded4 ,in the time of ,pericles it was thought to be a crime in him that he permitted his portrait to be put upon the shield of the ,parthenon1 and he was prosecuted for thus exalting himself to a privilege which belonged to the gods alone4 ,alexander1 on the contrary1 claimed to be a god1 and was represented by painters and sculptors until his portraits and statues were almost numberless4 ,soon after the death of ,alexander the humiliation of ,athens and its old ,periclean spirit was complete4 ,if you read the history of ,demetrius ,poliorcetes1 who was even allowed to hold his revels in the most sacred part of the ,parthenon--the temple of ,minerva--you will see that ,athens was enslaved and her people no longer worthy to lead the world in the arts of peace1 as they were no longer the brave men who could stand first in war4 ,in their degraded state the ,athenians suffered three hundred and sixty statues to be erected to ,demetrius ,phalereus1 and these were destroyed to make way for the golden images of the conquering freebooter ,poliorcetes4 ,this last was hailed by the debased people as a god and a saviour4 ,his name and that of his father1 ,antigonus1 were woven into the sacred peplos4 ,at length1 under the ,diadochi1 or successors of ,alexander1 order was restored1 and ,antigonus1 ,ptolemy1 ,seleucus1 and ,lysimachus divided the kingdom of ,alexander into four ,graeco-,oriental monarchies4 ,the dynasty of the ,ptolemies in ,egypt was the most reputable of these1 and gave much encouragement to art and letters4 ,but the sacred fire seems to have died out1 or did not burn clearly when transplanted from ,athens to ,alexandria4 ,the ,alexandrines seem to have been mere imitators of what had gone before1 and there is nothing to be said of them that is of importance enough for us to linger over it4 ,very few works remain from this ,diadochean period4 ,the ,metope of ,ilium1 which ,dr4 ,schliemann has in his garden in ,athens1 the ,barberini ,faun1 in the ,glyptothek at ,munich1 and the ,nile of the ,vatican are the most important remnants of ,alexandrine sculpture4 ,amid all the confusion and strife which followed the death of ,alexander the island of ,rhodes remained undisturbed1 and when the division of the monarchies was made the ,rhodians still retained their independence4 ,they were neutral1 and so had a commerce with all the monarchies1 and thus gained great wealth2 and theirs was the only independent ,state of the old ,hellenic world which was able to found and maintain a school of art4 ,among the great works of the ,rhodian artists none is more familiar to us than the group of the ,laocoon4 ,in the time of ,pliny this work stood in the palace of ,titus1 and the historian called it preferable to all other works of pictorial or plastic art4 ,there is a difference of opinion as to the period when it was made1 and many date it in the time of ,titus1 who lived ,a4,d4 #dj to #ha4 ,but the weight of argument seems to me to rest with those who believe that it was made at ,rhodes in the time of the ,diadochi4 ,the group in the ,vatican is probably a copy1 because ,pliny says that the original was made of one block1 and that of the ,vatican is composed of six pieces4 ,pliny also tells us that the ,laocoon was the work of three sculptors1 ,,agesander1 ,,polydorus1 and ,,athenodorus4 ,the ,vatican group was found in #aejf in the excavation of the ,baths of ,titus1 in ,rome1 and was placed in its present position by ,pope ,julius ,,ii4 7,fig4 #ea74 ,the right arm of ,laocoon was missing1 and ,michael ,angelo attempted to restore it1 but left it incomplete2 ,montorsoli made an unsatisfactory attempt for its restoration1 and the arm as it now is was made by ,cornacini1 and more straight than it should be4 ,the story which these statues illustrate is told in the second book of the ,a,eneid1 and says that ,laocoon was a priest of ,apollo at ,troy1 who1 when the ,greeks left the wooden horse outside the city and pretended to sail away1 warned the ,trojans against taking the horse inside the walls2 he also struck his spear into the side of the monster4 ,but ,sinon1 who had been left behind by the ,greeks1 persuaded the ,trojans that the horse would prove a blessing to them1 and they drew it into the city1 and ordered feasts and sacrifices to be celebrated to do honor to the occasion4 ,laocoon had much offended ,pallas ,athene by his words and acts1 and when he went to prepare a sacrifice to ,neptune that goddess sent two huge serpents up out of the sea to destroy him and his two sons1 who were with him by the altar4 ,when the three victims were dead the fearful creatures went to the ,acropolis and disappeared4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ea4--,,the ,,laocoon ,,group4 ,in the ,laocoon group it appears that the eldest son will save himself1 and in certain minor points the sculptors seem not to have followed the account of ,virgil2 but we see that it must be the same story that is illustrated1 and we know that it was told with some variation by other poets4 ,this group is a wonderful piece of sculpture1 but it is not of the highest art1 and it is far from pleasant to look at4 ,the same is true of another famous group which is in ,naples1 and which is also from the ,rhodian school4 ,i mean the ,farnesian ,bull1 or the ,toro ,farnese4 ,this group was made by ,,apollonius and ,,tauriscus1 who are believed to have been brothers4 ,it was probably made at ,tralles1 in ,caria1 which was their native place1 and sent by them to ,rhodes1 the great art-centre2 from ,rhodes it was sent to ,rome1 where it was in the possession of ,asinius ,pollio4 ,this splendid group1 which is probably the original work1 was found in the ,baths of ,caracalla1 in #aedf1 and was first placed in the ,farnese ,palace1 from which it was removed to the ,national ,museum in ,naples1 in #aghf 7,fig4 #eb74 ,this group tells a part of the story of ,dirce1 who had incurred the hatred and displeasure of ,antiope1 the mother of ,amphion1 who was ,king of ,thebes and the husband of ,niobe4 ,in order to appease the wrath of his mother1 ,amphion1 with the aid of his twin-brother ,zethus1 bound ,dirce to the horns of a wild bull to be dashed to pieces4 ,all this takes place on ,mount ,cithaeron1 and it is said that after ,dirce had suffered horrible agonies the god ,dionysus changed her into a fountain1 which always remains upon this mountain4 ,in this piece of sculpture1 dreadful as the idea is1 there is less of horror than in the ,laocoon1 for the reason that the moment chosen is that just before the climax of the catastrophe1 while in the ,laocoon it is in its midst4 ,the latter group is made to be seen from but one side1 and was probably intended for a niche2 but the ,farnese ,bull is perfect1 and presents a finished aspect on all sides and from every point of view4 ,there are numerous accessories and much attention to detail1 while the rocky base represents ,mount ,cithaeron and the wildness of the scene in a manner not before known in sculpture4 ,the group has been much restored1 but its excellences support the theory of its being the original work of the ,greek artists1 and the skill with which the various figures are brought into one stupendous moment is such as commands great praise and admiration2 it is doubtful if any other work of sculpture tells its story with power equal to that of this celebrated group4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eb4--,,the ,,farnese ,,bull4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ec4--;,,gallic ,,warrior4 ,venice4 ,after the art of ,rhodes that of ,pergamon was important4 ,when ,attalus ,i41 ,king of ,pergamon1 gained his victory over the ,gauls1 in ,b4,c4 #bbi1 the ,greek artists were aroused to new efforts to record in sculpture the great deeds of ,attalus and to place him on a level with the glorious heroes of their nation who had preceded him4 ,it is recorded that the conqueror himself offered four groups of statues at ,athens1 and that they stood on the southern wall of the ,acropolis4 ,the subjects were3 ,the ,battle of the ,gods and ,giants1 ,the ,battle of ,athenians and ,amazons1 ,the ,battle of ,marathon1 and ,the ,destruction of the ,gauls in ,mysia by ,attalus4 ,thus the different epochs of ,greek history were represented1 and ,attalus placed himself near the other great warriors who had preserved the honor and freedom of their nation4 ,these groups consisted of many figures1 and are estimated to have been from sixty to eighty in number4 ,it is believed that at least ten of them are now in ,european collections--that is1 three in ,venice1 four in ,naples1 one in ,paris1 one in the ,vatican1 and the last in the ,castellani collection in ,rome4 ,this picture of one of those in ,venice seems to represent a warrior who has been suddenly thrown down2 his weapons and shield--which last was probably held in the left hand--have been dropped in the violence of the shock which has prostrated him 7,fig4 #ec74 ,his face and hair are of the barbarian type1 and the power and elasticity of his powerful frame are manifest even in this moment of his defeat4 ,he is yet unwounded1 but the weapon of his adversary may be before his eyes1 and in another moment he may sink back in the agony of death4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ed4--,,the ,,dying ,,gaul4 ,it is now believed that the statue of the ,dying ,gaul1 often called the ,dying ,gladiator1 was the work of a sculptor of ,pergamon1 and represents a ,gaul who has killed himself rather than submit as a slave to his conquerors4 ,the moment had come when he could not escape1 and he chose death rather than humiliation4 ,we learn from history that when these barbarians saw that all was lost they frequently slew their wives and children and then themselves1 to avoid being taken as prisoners1 which really meant being made slaves4 ,this warrior has thrown himself upon his shield2 his battle-horn is broken1 and the sword which has given him the freedom of death has fallen from his hand4 ,his eye is already dim1 his right arm can scarce sustain him1 his brow is contracted with pain1 and it seems as if a sigh escaped his lips4 ,he has not the noble form of the ,greeks2 we do not feel the exalted spirit which is shown in the death scenes of some of the ,periclean statue heroes2 here it is only a rude1 barbarous ,gaul1 suffering death as a brute might2 it is very realistic1 and when we are near the marble itself we see the coarseness of the skin1 the hardened soles of the feet1 the coarse hand1 and we are sure the artist must have made a true representation of this wild1 savage man1 who yet had the nobility of nature which would not live to be enslaved 7,fig4 #ed74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ee4--;,,boy ,,and ,,goose4 ,these illustrations and remarks will give you some idea of the art of ,pergamon1 and ,i shall now leave the subject of ,greek sculpture after some account of ,,boethus ,,of ,,chalcedon4 ,his date is very uncertain1 though we have accounts of his works by ancient writers4 ,some scholars believe that he lived about ,b4,c4 #bge4 ,many works in chased silver made by ,boethus were in the temple of ,athena in ,lindus in the time of the historian ,pliny2 there are accounts of a figure of a boy made in gold and one of the youthful ,asclepius2 but the ,boy ,strangling a ,goose1 in the gallery of the ,louvre1 is his most interesting work for us 7,fig4 #ee74 ,you will remember that even the ancient ,egyptians made caricatures and playful1 mocking pictures not unlike some of our own day4 ,this boy and goose are of the same spirit1 and is intended as a parody on the representations of ,hercules struggling with the ,nemean lion1 which had been represented many times by ,greek artists4 ,the boy seems to be working as hard as any giant could do4 ,the execution of this work is fine4 ,it was probably made for a fountain1 the water coming through the beak of the goose4 ,there are several works of ancient sculpture which are of the same spirit1 and for this reason are attributed to ,boethus4 ,the ,spinario1 or ,thorn-extractor1 in the museum of the ,capitol1 at ,rome1 is one of the most charming pieces of genre statuary in existence 7,fig4 #ef74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ef4--,,spinario4 ,it represents a boy taking a thorn from his foot4 ,his attitude is natural and graceful1 and the purity and simplicity of its style places it on an equality with works of the best period of sculpture4 ,the expression of the face is that of perfect absorption in what he is doing1 and is given with great skill and truthfulness4 ,the treatment of the hair is like that of the archaic period1 and there will always be some critics who cannot think that such perfection could exist in the sculpture of what we call the ,alexandrian age4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,ancient ,,italian ,,sculpture4 ,ancient ,italian sculpture was essentially ,greek in its spirit1 and originated with the ,etruscans1 a very ancient people in ,italy4 ,there are traces of an ,oriental influence in the art of ,etruria--a suggestion of the sculpture of ,egypt and ,assyria1 just as there is in ,greek archaic art2 but the real feeling and spirit of it is ,greek1 and must have been borrowed from ,greece in some way4 ,the different theories and opinions about the ,etruscans and their origin do not concern us here2 we have to do only with their sculpture as it is seen in the remnants of it now in existence4 ,in the beginning the ,etruscans made their statues of clay2 marble was very rarely used4 ,later on they learned the art of working in bronze1 and carried it to great perfection4 ,their bronze works were so numerous that in ,b4,c4 #bie ,fulvius ,flaccus is said to have carried away two thousand statues from ,volsinii alone4 ,some of their figures were colossal1 but the greater number were statuettes4 ,there are some ,etruscan bronzes remaining in the museums of ,europe4 ,the ,etruscans always were copyists rather than original artists2 but they copied such excellent things1 and did it so well1 that their productions are by no means to be despised1 and the skill which they acquired caused their bronze and metal work to be highly valued1 even in ,athens itself4 ,the ,etruscans were physically a more luxurious people than the ,greeks1 as may be seen in the pictures of them which still remain in the tombs of ,corneto and other places4 ,they gave much attention to luxury of living1 and the richly decorated goblets and other articles of table furniture which they made may be seen in the ,vatican and ,british ,museum1 while the delicate and artistic gold work of their personal ornaments is still much admired and copied diligently4 ,the ,romans as a people were patrons of art rather than artists4 ,they seem from very early days to have admired the plastic art of other nations2 but of ,romans themselves there were very few sculptors2 their artists were architects of grand structures rather than workers in the lesser monuments of artistic skill and genius4 ,at first1 as we have said1 they relied upon the ,etruscans1 who built their earliest temples and adorned them with sculptures1 and the first record which we have of ,greek artists working in ,rome gives us the names of ,damophilus and ,gorgasus1 who decorated the temple of ,ceres with paintings and sculptures4 ,this temple was consecrated in ,b4,c4 #dic2 if its adornment was of the same date1 the knowledge of ,greek art was brought to ,rome at a very early period--at least fifty-six years before the completion of the ,parthenon4 ,but the means by which the whole ,roman people were made familiar with the beauties of ,greek art are to be found in another direction4 ,it was not the building of their own temples1 or any work done by ,greek artists in ,rome1 that gave the ,romans their love and appreciation for art2 it was rather the art spoils seized by their victorious leaders and brought home to adorn and beautify every portion of the ,eternal ,city4 ,in ,b4,c4 #bab ,marcellus carried to ,rome the spoils he had taken at ,syracuse2 he exhibited them in his triumphal procession1 and afterward consecrated them in the temple of ,honor and ,valor which he built4 ,from this time it was the fashion to bring home all the choice things that ,roman conquerors could seize1 and the number of beautiful objects thus gained for ,rome was marvellous4 ,when ,flaminius defeated ,philip of ,macedon it required two days to gather up the spoils4 ,after ,fulvius ,nobilior conquered the ,a,etolians he brought ,greek artists to ,rome to arrange his festivities1 and he exhibited five hundred and fifteen bronze and marble statues which he had taken from the defeated people4 ,when ,perseus of ,macedon was overcome by ,a,emilius ,paulus it required two hundred and fifty wagons to remove the pictures and statues alone which he displayed in his triumphal procession2 among these treasures there was a statue of ,athena by ,phidias himself4 ,this work of spoiling the ,grecian cities which came into their power was diligently carried on by ,mummius1 ,sulla1 and others1 until at length the ,emperor ,augustus removed many of the archaic sculptures to ,rome4 ,but the works which best pleased the ,romans were those of the later school of ,athens4 ,the ruling gods at ,rome were ,mars1 ,bacchus1 and ,venus1 and the statues of these deities were much valued4 ,so far1 to the time of ,augustus1 the statues and other objects removed had been the spoils of war2 but ,caligula and ,nero did not hesitate to go in times of peace and act the part of robbers4 ,the first sent a consul in ,a4,d4 #ca with orders to bring the best works of art from ,greece to ,rome to adorn his villas2 ,nero went so far as to send his agents to bring even the images of the deities from the most sacred temples1 together with the offerings made to them1 for the decoration of his ,golden ,house2 it is said that from ,delphi alone he received five hundred statues of bronze4 ,at first the larger number of these art spoils were so placed as to be constantly seen by the whole ,roman people1 and there is no doubt that their influence was very great and went far to refine their ideas and to prepare the way for the polish and grace of the ,augustan age4 ,very soon the individual desire for works of art was felt1 and wealthy men began to decorate their homes with pictures and statues2 and at last these things were thought to be necessary to the proper enjoyment of life4 ,from all these causes there came about a revival of ,greek art under the ,romans1 and in it many beautiful works were produced4 ,indeed1 the greater portion of the sculptures which are now the pride of the collections all over ,europe belong to this period4 ,it cannot be said that the artists of this date originated much1 but they followed the greatest masters that ever lived2 and if they repeated their subjects they so changed them to suit the spirit of their time that they gave their works a certain effect of being something new1 and threw their own individuality about them4 ,the list of names which can be given as belonging to ,greek sculptors who worked at ,rome is long1 and would have little interest here4 ,instead of speaking of the artists ,i shall speak of the most famous works of the time which remain2 most of these are so placed that they are seen by travellers1 and have become familiar to all the world4 ,the beautiful statue which is known as the ,venus de' ,medici is so called because after its discovery it rested for a time in the ,medici ,palace in ,rome4 ,it was found in the seventeenth century in the ,portico of ,octavia at ,rome1 and was broken into eleven fragments4 ,the arms from the elbows down are restored2 when it was found it had traces of gilding on the hair2 the ears are pierced1 as if gold rings had sometimes been placed in them4 ,in #afhj ,duke ,cosmo ,,iii4 removed it to ,florence1 where it is the chief glory of the famous ,tribune of the ,uffizi ,gallery4 ,many persons believe this to have been a copy of the renowned ,cnidian ,venus by ,praxiteles1 of which ,i have told you4 ,this ,venus de' ,medici was the work of an ,athenian artist named ,cleomenes4 ,he was the son of ,apollodorus1 a sculptor who lived in ,rome in the first or second century of the ,christian era4 7,fig4 #eg47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eg4--,,venus ,,de' ,,medici4 ,the aim of the sculptor was not to make a goddess1 and his work lacks the dignity which was thrown around the more ancient statues of ,venus4 ,cleomenes endeavored to produce a lovely woman in the youth of her beauty4 ,some critics believe that this ,venus is intended to represent the moment when that goddess stood before ,paris for judgment4 ,if this story is not well known ,i will tell how when ,peleus and ,thetis were married they invited all the gods to their wedding save the goddess ,discordia1 and she was so offended by this slight that she threw into the midst of the assembly a golden apple on which were the words1 ,to the fairest4 ,juno1 ,minerva1 and ,venus all claimed it1 and ,jupiter sent ,mercury to conduct these three beautiful goddesses to ,paris1 that he might decide to which it belonged4 ,his decision gave the apple to ,venus2 and this so excited the jealousy and hatred of the others that a long list of serious troubles arose until ,paris was driven out of ,greece1 and1 going to the house of ,menelaus1 he saw and loved ,helen1 carried her off to ,troy1 and thus brought on the ,trojan war of which the world has heard so much ever since4 ,if ,i were writing a ,sunday-school book ,i could draw many lessons from this story2 but as ,i am only writing about art1 ,i will go back and remind you that many persons try to study these old statues and to find out exactly what they mean2 some such students say that the moment when ,paris pronounced ,venus to be the most lovely of the goddesses is the time represented by the sculptor of the ,venus de' ,medici4 ,as ,venus was the goddess of ,love and ,beauty1 it was natural that statues of her should be multiplied4 ,the ,chigi ,venus in the ,vatican has much the same pose as the ,venus de' ,medici1 but she holds the end of a fringed garment in her hand4 ,the ,venus of the ,capitol1 in ,rome1 is larger than these2 the ,venus ,callipiga1 which was found in the ,golden ,house of ,nero1 and is now in the ,museum of ,naples1 is also worthy of being mentioned in company with these other exquisite sculptures4 ,however1 there is yet another ,venus more admirable and more praised than these4 ,she is called the ,venus of ,milo1 or ,melos1 and is in the gallery of the ,louvre1 at ,paris4 ,this statue is probably of a later date than those of which we have spoken1 and is thought to be the work of ,alexandros1 the son of ,menides of ,antiocheia1 or one of those sculptors who are called ,asiatic ,greeks4 ,it is said that the base of this statue with the name of the artist upon it was destroyed1 for the purpose of leading the ,king of ,france to believe it to be more ancient than it really is 7,fig4 #eh1 frontispiece74 ,this magnificent statue was discovered in #ahbj by a peasant of the town of ,melos1 or ,milo1 on the island of the same name4 ,it was in a niche of a wall which had long been buried4 ,the ,marquis of ,riviere1 who was the ,french ,ambassador at ,constantinople1 purchased it and presented it to ,king ,louis ,,xviii41 who placed it in the ,louvre4 ,it is made from two blocks of marble joined above the drapery which envelops the legs4 ,as the statue now stands it has the tip of the nose and the foot which projects beyond the drapery as they have been restored by modern artists4 ,this is the only ,venus which has come down to us from the past which represents a goddess rather than a beautiful woman4 ,the form has beauty of the highest type1 but it has a grandeur which exalts it far above mere beauty4 ,the pure1 majestic expression of the head and face speak the calm dignity of a superior being4 ,i shall quote from ,perry1 who says3 ,the ,venus de ,milo is justly admired1 not only for the grandeur of its design1 the perfection of its proportion1 and the exquisite moulding of the superb and luxuriant form1 but for the vivid freshness of the flesh and the velvet softness of the skin1 in which it stands unrivalled in ancient and modern art4 ,the extraordinary skill with which minute details1 such as the folds of the skin in the neck1 are harmonized with the ideal beauty of the whole is beyond all imitation and all praise4 ,the life-like effect of this wonderful masterpiece is greatly enhanced by the rare and perfect preservation of the epidermis and by the beautiful warm1 yellowish tinge which the lapse of centuries has given to the marble4 ,in the ,museum at ,naples is the ,farnesian ,hercules1 which was found in the ,baths of ,caracalla1 in ,rome1 in #aedj4 ,it was first placed in the ,farnese ,palace1 and from that circumstance received the name by which it is known4 ,it is the work of ,glycon1 an ,athenian1 and his name is inscribed upon it4 ,there is little doubt that this is a copy of a more ancient statue by the great ,lysippus2 that master created representations of ,hercules in all ages and forms4 ,glycon probably worked in the time of ,hadrian2 and though he copied the design and form of ,lysippus1 he exaggerated some points so as to injure the effect of the whole4 ,for example1 the head is small in proportion to the breadth of the breast and shoulders2 and because ,hercules was a swift runner the sculptor has made the legs too long to be natural4 ,it is in such particulars as these that the decline of art may be traced1 even in works that command admiration 7,fig4 #ei74 ,the moment in which the god is represented is that which immediately followed his securing the apples of the ,hesperides1 the wedding present of ,ge to ,juno4 ,of all the labors of ,hercules1 perhaps this was the most arduous4 ,juno had left these apples with the ,hesperides for safekeeping4 ,these goddesses lived on ,mount ,atlas1 and the serpent ,ladon helped them to guard their precious trust4 ,hercules did not know just where the apples were kept1 and this made his task all the more difficult4 ,when1 therefore1 he arrived at ,mount ,atlas he offered to hold up the world for ,atlas if he would go and fetch the apples4 ,this ,atlas did1 but refused to take the weight from ,hercules again4 ,however1 ,hercules took the apples and hastened to his master1 ,eurystheus1 with them4 ,while performing this labor he had a terrible struggle with ,ladon1 and some accounts say that he killed the monster4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ei4--,,the ,,farnesian ,,hercules4 ,now1 the statue represents the god with the apples in his right hand1 the world held on his back1 while he leans heavily on his club covered with a lion's skin4 ,all the muscles of his body are swollen from his struggle2 his head droops1 his whole expression of face and form is that of sadness and weariness4 ,the youthfulness and strength with which the older sculptors invested him is not here4 ,it is a splendid work1 but it is not of the best2 it belongs to an age when there was too much straining after effect1 when the moderation of the best ,greek masters did not satisfy the spirit of the time2 and no sculptor lived whose power equalled that of ,phidias or ,lysippus4 ,there are some reliefs and vases of this ,roman period that are very interesting4 ,i shall speak of but one relief--the ,sacrifice of ,iphigenia1 which is in ,florence4 ,it is called the work of ,cleomenes1 and his name is inscribed upon it2 but there is some doubt as to the genuineness of the inscription4 ,this relief is very beautiful4 ,it represents a priest cutting off the hair of the lovely maiden as a preparation for her sacrifice4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fj4--,,the ,,apollo ,,belvedere4 ,the story runs that ,iphigenia was the daughter of ,agamemnon1 who killed a hart sacred to ,diana4 ,to revenge this act the goddess becalmed the ,greek fleet on its way to ,aulis4 ,the seer ,calchas advised ,agamemnon to sacrifice his daughter to appease ,diana2 this he consented to do1 but ,diana put a hart in the place of the maiden1 whom she bore to ,tauris and made a priestess4 ,in this relief the maiden has an air of resigned grief2 her father stands by himself with his head covered4 ,the sculptor of this relief was not the first who had represented ,agamemnon thus1 for a painter1 ,timanthes1 had made a picture of this subject about ,b4,c4 #djj1 and in describing it ,quintilian said that when he had painted ,calchas sad1 ,ulysses sadder1 and had represented in the face of ,menelaus the most poignant grief that art can express1 having exhausted the deepest feelings and finding no means of worthily portraying the countenance of the father1 he covered his head and left it to every man's own heart to estimate his sufferings4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eg4--,,venus ,,de' ,,medici4 ,i come now to the ,apollo ,belvedere1 one of the most celebrated of all the statues in the ,vatican1 and the best known and most universally admired of all the ancient statues which remain to us4 ,it was found at about the end of the fifteenth century at the ancient city of ,antium1 where it probably made one of the ornaments of the ,imperial ,palace4 ,the authorities upon such subjects have never yet agreed as to whether the marble from which it is cut is a marble of ,greece or of ,italy 7,fig4 #fj74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fb4--,,the ,s,t,e,i,n,h,ae,u,s,e,r ,,head4 ,this statue has been lauded in all tongues of the civilized world1 and nothing could be added to what has been said in its praise2 and yet all who see it wish to exalt it still higher if possible4 ,a few years ago another head of ,apollo1 of ,greek marble1 was found in a magazine in ,rome1 by ,herr ,steinhaeuser1 by whose name it is known2 it is now in the museum at ,basle 7,figs4 #fa1 #fb74 ,though this statue has been so much studied and admired it has never yet been satisfactorily explained1 and there are several important questions about it which cannot be answered with certainty4 ,nothing is known of its age or of the name of its sculptor4 ,it is not described by any ancient writer1 neither can any one say whether it is an original or a copy2 and above all in importance is the question of what this beautiful young god is doing--what is the meaning of it8 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fc4--,,the ,,stroganoff ,,apollo4 ,the answers of the authorities to these queries vary so much that here ,i shall only mention the theory which ,i love1 and which is accepted by many4 ,when the statue was found the left hand was missing1 and a bow was believed to have been the article which it held2 and it was said that ,apollo had just shot an arrow on some dreadful flight1 and was watching for its effect4 ,this theory was the principal one until #ahfj1 when a scholar1 ,stephani1 called attention to the fact that in ,st4 ,petersburg there is a bronze statuette1 less than two feet high1 which is almost exactly the same as the ,apollo ,belvedere--too nearly the same to be an accidental likeness4 ,now1 as this is an antique bronze1 it seems to prove that both it and the marble of the ,vatican are copies of an ancient work4 ,the statuette is called the ,stroganoff ,apollo1 because it belongs to the collection of a nobleman of that name4 ,it is believed to be one of a number of bronzes which were found near ,janina in #agib1 and given by the son of ,ali ,pasha to his physician1 ,dr4 ,frank 7,fig4 #fc74 ,the chief importance of this discovery was the fact that the left hand was perfect1 and did not hold a bow1 but some soft1 elastic substance which ,stephani believes to be the aegis1 or shield1 of ,jupiter1 on which was the head of ,medusa4 ,the sight of this shield paralyzed those who saw it2 and though it belonged to ,jupiter and ,minerva1 ,jupiter sometimes lent it to his son ,apollo to aid him in his warfare2 such instances are recorded by ,homer4 ,after ,stephani had told his idea of it1 the ,german scholar ,ludwig ,preller pointed out what seems to be the true meaning of it by suggesting that ,apollo was extending this dreadful aegis before the sight of the ,gauls at ,delphi1 in ,b4,c4 #bgi4 ,history relates that when the ,gauls approached ,delphi the people asked the oracle if they should carry away and conceal the treasures of the temple4 ,the oracle replied1 ,i myself and the ,white ,maidens 7meaning ,athena and ,artemis7 will take care of that4 ,then four thousand ,greeks stood by ready to defend the sacred place2 but in the midst of the battle the youthful god came down through the roof of the temple1 and the ,white ,maidens left their own altars to aid him in driving back the barbarous foe4 ,a great tempest arose1 and rocks fell from ,parnassus on the heads of the ,gauls1 and it seemed as if all the powers of heaven and earth had united to sustain the ,greeks against their enemies4 ,it is also written that the spectres of ,greek heroes who had long been dead were seen in the midst of the battle dealing death upon the ,gauls4 ,but above all the fury of the tempest and the noise of war the clashing of the shield and spear of ,athena and the twanging sound of the oft-discharged bow of ,artemis were heard1 while the flash of the awful shield of ,apollo was seen to be even more vivid and terrific than the forked lightnings themselves4 ,it is recorded that after this victory two statues of ,apollo and one each of ,athena and ,artemis were offered in the temple of ,apollo as thank-offerings for its preservation and the victory over the ,gauls4 ,it is delightful to regard the ,apollo ,belvedere as a copy of one of these1 and this view of it is most satisfying4 ,luebke1 in speaking of this theory1 says3 ,not till now have we understood the ,apollo ,belvedere4 ,in unveiled beauty we see the elegant form of the slender figure1 the left shoulder only being covered by the chlamys1 which falls down over the arm1 which1 far outstretched1 holds the aegis with its ,medusa head4 ,the right arm is slightly turned aside1 but both hands have been unskilfully restored4 ,the attitude of the god is full of pathos1 and is conceived at a dramatic moment4 ,ardently excited and filled with divine anger1 with which is mingled a touch of triumphant scorn1 the intellectual head is turned sideward1 while the figure1 with elastic step1 is hastening forward4 ,the eye seems to shoot forth lightning2 there is an expression of contempt in the corners of the mouth1 and the distended nostrils seem to breathe forth divine anger4 ,it is a bold attitude thus transfixed in marble1 full of life-like and excited action4 ,in the ,iliad ,homer describes the scene when ,jupiter gave the aegis to ,apollo1 that he might put the ,achaeans to flight with it4 ,in connection with the ,apollo ,belvedere it is well to recall that description which is thus translated by ,lord ,derby ,while ,phoebus motionless his aegis held1 ,thick flew the shafts1 and fast the people fell ,on either side2 but when he turned its flash ,full in the faces of the astonished ,greeks1 ,and shouted loud1 their spirits within them quailed1 ,their fiery courage borne in mind no more4 ,it is very interesting to know that many who believe that the ,apollo ,belvedere represents that god when terrifying the ,gauls1 believe also that the statues of the ,white ,maidens rushing forth from their temples to aid him are in existence1 the ,artemis being the statue at the ,louvre known as ,diane a la ,biche and the ,minerva being the ,athena with spear and shield in the museum of the ,capitol at ,rome4 ,this statue of ,artemis1 or ,diana1 has been in ,france since the time of ,henry ,,iv4 ,formerly it was at ,versailles1 but is now one of the treasures of the ,louvre4 ,the left hand with the bow is restored4 ,the effect of the figure is that of lightness combined with strength4 ,she is going forward rapidly1 with her eyes fixed on some distant object1 and draws an arrow from her quiver even as she flies4 ,this figure corresponds to the ,apollo ,belvedere in its spirit and apparent earnestness of purpose2 it is of the same proportions1 and in such details of treatment as the rich sandals it plainly belongs to the time and the school of the ,apollo--indeed1 there is no reason why it might not have formed a part of a group in which the ,apollo stood4 7,fig4 #fd47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fd4--;,,diane ,a ,,la ,,biche4 ,if we think of this ,diana simply as an ideal huntress hastening to the chase the statue is very beautiful1 and a remarkable example of such a subject2 but when she is regarded as one of the ,white ,maidens rushing forth to aid her brother in defending his temple against a barbarous enemy she is invested with a deeper interest2 she becomes an important actor in a terrible drama1 and those of us who could have no sympathy with her love for hunting are roused to an enthusiastic hope that she will succeed in doing her part to turn the savage foe away from the sacred hill of ,pytho1 and thus preserve its temple and its treasures4 ,the statue of ,athena1 advancing with spear and shield1 is supposed to be a third member of the group which commemorated the victory over the ,gauls4 ,the position of the two goddesses would indicate that they were represented as hastening from opposite directions toward the ,apollo ,belvedere1 the central figure of the whole4 ,the whole bearing of this statue carries out the impression which ,homer gives of the delight with which ,athena led the ,greeks to battle2 she is full of eagerness1 and rushes forward with the undaunted vigor of the confidence and courage of one who goes to fight for a just and holy cause 7,fig4 #fe74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fe4--;,,athena ,,of ,,the ,,capitol4 ,whether this ,gallic theory1 as it is called1 concerning the ,apollo1 ,diana1 and ,athena be correct or no1 it is the most satisfactory in sentiment of any that has been advanced1 and certainly1 when we consider the three statues in this connection1 there is nothing inharmonious in the supposition that they made the important parts of a whole which may have had many other figures of lesser importance in it4 ,there are many other statues of the ,roman period in various museums1 but ,i shall leave this part of our subject here1 and speak briefly of the historical sculpture in the reliefs upon the triumphal arches of the ,eternal ,city4 ,in an age when martial glory was the chief desire of man1 and among a people who accorded to successful generals the highest honors1 it was most natural that the conquerors should desire to place some monument of their exploits where it would be constantly before the eyes of the people1 and thus keep in perpetual remembrance their valiant deeds and their great successes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ff4--,,triumphal ,,procession ,,from ,,arch ,,of ,,titus4 ,we read that pictures of the foreign scenes of sieges and battles were displayed in public places in ,rome at a very early date4 ,we cannot find records of plastic works of this sort before the time of the emperors1 but after such sculptures came into favor they were multiplied rapidly4 ,the principal historical reliefs in ,rome were upon the arches of ,claudius1 ,titus1 ,trajan1 ,marcus ,aurelius1 and ,septimius ,severus1 and on the architrave of the temple of ,minerva in the ,forum4 ,of the arch of ,claudius there are some remaining fragments of sculpture1 now in the ,villa ,borghese4 ,the arch of ,titus was erected to celebrate the taking of ,jerusalem in ,a4,d4 #gj4 ,it was restored in #ahbb4 ,the frieze represents both a triumphal procession and one of sacrifice4 ,the picture we give here shows a company of warriors in the dress of peace1 who bear articles of booty taken from the conquered city4 ,they have the candelabra with seven branches1 the table of the shew-bread1 the silver trumpets1 etc4 ,this will give you a good idea of these reliefs4 7,fig4 #ff47 ,the arch of ,trajan no longer stands1 and its reliefs are now on the arch of ,constantine2 but ,trajan's ,pillar is one of the best preserved of all the antique monuments of ,rome1 and with some account of this column and a picture from it we will leave the historical sculptures of ,rome4 ,the ,senate and people of ,rome decreed that this column should be erected to the memory of ,trajan1 and it was in the centre of the ,forum which bore the same name--the ,forum ,trajani4 ,the column is about one hundred and six feet high1 and originally was surmounted by a bronze statue of ,trajan1 which was replaced by one of ,st4 ,peter by ,pope ,sixtus ,v4 ,a band of reliefs runs around this pillar in a spiral form2 this band is six hundred feet long1 and the sculptures represent ,trajan's campaign against the ,dacians4 ,many of the figures lose their effect on account of the height at which they are placed4 ,there are more than a hundred scenes upon it1 in which are about twenty-five hundred human figures1 besides many horses and other objects4 ,the whole is executed with the greatest care4 ,the real object of the whole work was to glorify the ,emperor ,trajan1 and he is represented in many of the scenes2 sometimes he is conducting engagements1 storming a fort1 or encouraging his troops2 again he is holding an audience1 protecting the women of a conquered city1 or sitting in judgment on captives4 ,fig4 #fg represents the ,dacians assaulting a ,roman fort4 ,it is winter1 and while some have crossed the ice in safety1 others have broken through4 ,everything about it is represented in the most life-like and matter-of-fact manner1 and this shows distinctly the principal difference between the ,greek and the ,roman art when the latter was not influenced by the former4 ,it is pure1 realistic1 historical sculpture1 and this pillar shows this at its very best estate2 it is a splendid specimen of this kind of art4 ,in all these many scenes there are but two mythological figures3 one is ,selene1 used to represent ,night1 and the other is ,jupiter tonans1 who indicates ,storm4 ,but the correctness and elegance of the sculptures show what the ,greek teaching did for the ,romans2 for it was to the ,greeks that the latter owed their knowledge of the human form and their power to render it properly in sculpture4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fg4--;,,from ,,the ,,reliefs ,,of ,,trajan',s ,,column4 ,the last sort of ancient sculpture of which ,i shall speak is portrait sculpture1 and perhaps this belongs also to historical sculpture1 for it is by means of statues and busts that we know the faces and forms of many of the great men and women who hold their places in the regard of the world through all the centuries1 because they were concerned in the events which make up what we call the history of the world4 ,we have said that in ,greece in very early times there were no portrait sculptures2 gradually they were introduced until1 in the time of ,alexander1 portrait statues were almost numberless1 and these and busts were used for the decoration of libraries and public buildings1 as well as for the adornment of squares and places of resort in the open air4 ,the finest life-size statue which remains from the ,greeks is that of ,sophocles1 of which we give a picture 7,fig4 #fh74 ,it was not found until about #ahci1 and was presented to ,pope ,gregory ,,xvi4 by ,cardinal ,antonelli2 it is in the museum of the ,lateran4 ,this engraving from it shows its beauties so well that it is scarcely needful to speak of it in detail4 ,this statue is valuable not only as a portrait of ,sophocles1 but as a representation of a true product of the highest and best of ,athenian civilization and culture2 of an elegant1 aristocratic man who was trained in gymnastic and warlike exercises which developed his physical parts1 as well as in science1 philosophy1 and music--in various deep studies and lighter accomplishments which rendered him profound and scholarly1 and at the same time elegant and graceful4 ,the attitude1 though simple1 is well chosen to show the most graceful lines of the figure2 and the position of the arms--the one gracefully enveloped in the himation1 and the other firmly planted on the hip--gives to the whole form an air of mingled ease and dignity4 ,the face is handsome and full of winning grace1 and bears the stamp not only of the creative genius of the poet1 but of the experience of the active citizen2 of one who has felt both the joys and the sufferings of human lot1 and preserved amid them the constitutional calmness1 the gentle benevolence1 the tranquil1 meditative piety for which he was renowned and loved by the people among whom he lived and sang4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fh4--,,portrait ,,statue ,,of ,,sophocles4 ,among the ,romans portrait sculpture held a position of importance4 ,this people had always placed great value upon the likenesses of the dead1 and from the earliest times had used different means of making them4 ,in the very early days of the nation the custom prevailed of making masks of the faces of the dead in wax1 and these masks were worn in the funeral procession by one of the mourners1 who also wore the dress and insignia of the departed4 ,the first aim in these masks was to have an exact resemblance to the dead2 and this idea was carried on through all the eras of ,roman art1 and is a strong distinguishing feature between ,greek and ,roman sculpture2 for while the ,greeks wished to reproduce the face of one of whom they made a bust or statue1 they did not hesitate to idealize that face2 but the ,romans labored to make an exact likeness of the man1 leaving him in his statue as nothing more than he looked to be4 ,this manner of portraiture often does great injustice to its model1 for the changing expressions which come with emotions and with conversation often illuminate the plainest faces with a rare beauty2 therefore the aim of portraiture should be to give the very most and best that can be imagined as coming to the face which is reproduced4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fi4--,,statue ,,of ,,augustus4 ,i can speak of but a few of the almost numberless ,roman portrait sculptures4 ,this statue of ,augustus was found in #ahfc in a villa built by his wife1 ,livia1 about nine miles from ,rome1 at ,porta ,prima4 ,it is a noble work1 and every minute detail of the ornamentation has a force and meaning that can be explained4 ,at the same time the whole work is full of strength and dignity1 which comes from the character of the man himself1 and is in no sense dependent on all the emblems of his rank and power1 with which the dress is loaded 7,fig4 #fi74 ,this statue is in the ,vatican1 and there one can compare it with the exquisite bust known as the ,young ,augustus and with the statue of the emperor when aged1 in which he is veiled as a priest4 ,the study of these three sculptures1 thus fortunately near each other1 is most interesting4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gj4--;,,agrippina ,,the ,,elder4 ,the ,roman women who held important positions were frequently honored with statues4 ,among those that remain none is more interesting than this of the elder ,agrippina4 ,she was a woman of great strength and equally great purity of character1 and as we study this statue we can easily understand that she could perform the duties of a general when occasion demanded this service1 and when that necessity was past could nurse the sick and wounded with all the tenderness of a true womanly nature4 ,it is in every way a noble work of art1 combining grace1 dignity1 and the aristocratic refinement of a high-born lady4 ,the drapery of this and other similar statues is very beautiful1 and fully satisfies all artistic demands4 ,we have full proof that such garments were in actual use by the women of ,greece and ,rome 7,fig4 #gj74 ,it was not unusual for the great men and women of ,rome to be represented in portrait statues with the attributes of gods and goddesses4 ,livia appears as ,ceres1 ,julia as ,flora1 and so on2 and during the best days of ,roman art these statues were very beautiful4 ,but at last they1 like all other sculptures1 grew less and less worthy1 until they became positively absurd1 and lacked any power to command our admiration4 ,what is thus true of portrait sculpture is true of all ,roman art4 ,its decline kept step with the decline of the nation1 and both fell at length into a pitiable state of feebleness and corruption4 ,from this we are glad to turn to the study of ,christian art1 which1 even in its primary struggles1 when groping its way through ignorance and helplessness1 was still a living thing1 and held the promise of a new life--a renaissance of that which had gradually died in ,greece and ,rome4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,mediaeval ,,sculpture1 ,,from ,,the ,,fifth ,,to ,,the ,,fifteenth ,,century4 ,the ancient or classic ,italian sculpture of which we have spoken may be said to have extended to about the middle of the fourth century of the ,christian era4 ,the arch of ,constantine was one of its latest works1 and is interesting as an example of the decline of art4 ,the sculptures upon it1 which were taken from the arch of ,trajan1 executed two centuries earlier1 are so superior to those that were added in the time of ,constantine1 that nothing could give one a clearer idea of the decadence of sculpture than seeing the works of two periods thus placed side by side4 ,after the time of ,constantine1 when the ,christians were no longer forced to hide their art in the catacombs1 they began to have a sculpture of their own4 ,the first ,christians in ,rome were brought into contact with the worship of ,isis and ,pan1 ,venus and ,apollo1 and were filled with horror at the sight of the statues of these divinities4 ,they believed that any representation of the human form was forbidden by the commandment which says1 ,thou shalt not make to thyself any graven image1 nor the likeness of anything that is in the heaven above1 or in the earth beneath1 or in the water under the earth4 ,thus it happened that when the early ,christians desired to represent the ,saviour they employed painting1 such as is found in the catacombs1 rather than sculpture1 and separate statues are the rarest remains of early ,christian art4 ,the oldest ,christian statue which is known in marble is that of ,st4 ,hippolytus1 which is in the ,museum of the ,lateran ,palace1 where there are also two small statues of ,christ as the ,good ,shepherd1 which were found in the catacombs4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ga4--,,statue ,,of ,,st4 ,,peter4 ,the most important statue of this period is that of ,st4 ,peter1 which is held in great reverence by ,roman ,catholics1 who kiss its toe as they enter the church of ,st4 ,peter's at ,rome1 and press their foreheads against the extended foot4 ,the statue is of bronze1 and some antiquarians believe that it is the ,jupiter of the ,capitol changed so as to answer for a statue of ,st4 ,peter2 others say that it was cast from the metal of the statue of ,jupiter2 and the usual belief is that it was made by the order of ,pope ,leo ,i4 about the middle of the fifth century as a thank-offering for the deliverance of ,rome from the barbarian ,attila by the miraculous protection of ,st4 ,peter and ,st4 ,paul4 ,this statue is too rude to belong to classic art1 though it is of remarkable excellence for a work of the fifth century 7,fig4 #ga74 ,the principal use of sculpture by the early ,christians was for the decoration of the sarcophagi1 or burial-cases4 ,these were cut in bas-reliefs after the manner of the ancients1 the subjects being taken from the life of ,christ2 the ornaments were the ,christian emblems1 such as the lamb1 cross1 vine1 palm1 dove1 and the monogram of ,christ4 ,as time passed the designs were more and more elaborate2 stories from the ,old ,testament were frequently illustrated1 and numerous figures were crowded together1 with many symbols ingeniously inserted to make the meaning of the whole more clear4 ,the largest number and the best of these sarcophagi are now in the museums of the ,lateran and the ,vatican4 ,in the centre of one of the finest of these is a shell1 in which are the half figures of the two who were buried in this sarcophagus4 ,at the upper left hand is the ,saviour before the tomb of ,lazarus2 one of the sisters of the dead man kisses the hand of ,jesus2 next to this is the ,denial of ,peter2 nearest the shell ,moses reaches up to receive the ,table of the ,law4 ,on the right of the shell1 in the upper row1 is the ,sacrifice of ,isaac and the ,washing of ,pilate's ,hands4 ,on the lower row1 beginning at the left1 is ,moses causing the ,water to flow from the ,rock2 next is the ,apprehension of ,peter1 and next1 ,daniel in the ,lions' ,den4 ,besides these there are the ,healing of the ,blind and the ,miracle of the ,loaves and ,fishes4 ,this will show how elaborate the carving is on these burial-cases1 and how the subjects from the ,old and ,new ,testaments are mingled without order or apparent reason4 ,these sarcophagi have been found in various parts of ,italy and in ,france1 and are seen in many museums4 ,in no part of the ,roman ,empire was sculpture as favorably regarded by the early ,christians as at ,byzantium4 ,several attempts to adorn the city with statues and other works of art were made there1 and many of the ,greek sculptures which had been carried to ,rome were again borne off to decorate this new ,capitol4 ,the ,emperor ,constantine there erected a column a hundred feet high1 and placed his statue on it2 ,theodosius also erected a column and an obelisk2 but ,justinian excelled all these1 and about #edc ,a4,d4 set up a monument with a colossal equestrian statue of himself in bronze upon it4 ,the column which supported this statue was of brick masonry covered with plates of bronze4 ,from the accounts we have of it we conclude that this was a fine work for its time2 it was called the ,augustio1 and was placed on the ,augusteum near the church of ,st4 ,sophia2 in the sixteenth century it had been overthrown and broken in pieces1 and the metal was then melted down4 ,the artist who executed the ,augustio was ,eustathius of ,rome1 who was sent to ,byzantium for this purpose4 ,but the ,byzantine ,christians soon grew into a fixed disapproval of statues1 and favored only the lesser works of art4 ,ivory-carving1 which long before had been brought from the ,east by the ,greeks1 now came into special favor1 and the ,byzantine artists devoted all their talent to making beautiful works of this sort4 ,the most important of these carvings which remains is in the cathedral of ,ravenna4 ,it is the episcopal chair or cathedra of ,maximianus1 and was made between #edf and #eeb 7,fig4 #gb74 ,this chair is composed entirely of carved plates of ivory2 scenes from the life of ,joseph and other similar designs are represented1 and these are surrounded by a great variety of small figures1 which form a sort of framework around the principal parts2 for example1 animals and birds among vine-branches1 and all arranged in a life-like and artistic manner4 ,so large a work as this chair in ivory is unusual4 ,the greater number of ivory carvings are upon small objects1 such as drinking-cups and other vessels1 book-covers and diptychs1 or tablets for writing1 of which fine specimens remain and are seen in art collections4 ,diptychs were carved ivory tablets1 with the inner surface waxed for writing1 and were used by the early ,christians1 as they had been by the ancients4 ,the illustration given here is from the diptych of the ,consul ,areobrudus1 and belongs to the year #ejf 7,fig4 #gc74 ,the whole design upon it represents a contest with lions and bears2 the scene is where--the circus gates being thrown open--the animals rush into the arena to be slain by the gladiators4 ,some diptychs are ornamented with subjects from the life of ,christ and other religious themes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gb4--;,,from ,,the ,,cathedra ,,of ,,maximianus4 ,about the beginning of the tenth century ivory-carving was much used for church purposes4 ,the smaller altars were covered with it1 the vessels used for the ,holy ,sacrament were made of it1 magnificent covers for church books1 were carved1 and as much thought seems to have been given to the designs upon these small objects as had formerly been devoted to the splendid temples of the ancients4 ,ivory-carving extended from ,byzantium into ,germany and other ,western countries1 and along with it went the working in rich and precious metals1 which had also been practised somewhat by the earlier ,christians4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gc4--;,,diptych4 ,zurich4 ,during the tenth century the metal works were very costly1 and the different cathedrals and churches rivalled each other in possessions of this sort4 ,altar tables were covered with embossed metal plates1 which were extended down from the top of the table to the floor1 forming antependiums1 as they are called1 in the same way that those of cloth are now used4 ,these plates of metal were worked into designs in relief1 ornamented with delicate filigree work1 with paintings in enamel1 and even with rare antique cameos and exquisite gems4 ,crucifixes were also made of metals and richly adorned1 as well as all the vessels and smaller articles used in the service and ceremonials of the church--incense-burners1 candlesticks1 tabernacles and reliquaries1 or caskets for preserving relics4 ,in the sacristies of many old churches and in art collections these rare1 costly articles are still preserved1 and are of great interest in the study of art4 ,many of the designs used on these objects were quaint and even grotesque1 while the drawing of the figures and the arrangement of the subjects is often done in the crudest and most inartistic manner4 ,vessels for church use were made in the shapes of griffins1 dragons1 cranes1 lions1 and other curious birds and beasts1 while the human faces represented sometimes had enamelled or jewelled eye balls4 ,in one case the eyes of the ,saviour were made of large carbuncles2 you can understand that this would give an expression quite the opposite of that gentleness and peace which we look for in the face of the ,redeemer4 ,in truth1 there is so much of the grotesque and even barbarous element in many of these works1 that we can but ridicule while we recognize the industry and care which was expended upon them4 ,it is also difficult to understand how the feeling for art and the practice of it which had attained to such perfection among the ancients could have died out of the world so completely1 for in these mediaeval days it existed nowhere on the face of the earth4 ,about the beginning of the eleventh century bronze casting came to hold an important place in the art of ,germany1 and as architecture now received more attention1 and bronze gates1 and occasionally bronze figures of bishops and other church dignitaries1 were used for the decoration of church buildings1 we may say that bronze works made the medium through which sculpture in connection with architecture was again brought into use4 ,at ,hildesheim there is still a bronze gate at the principal entrance to the cathedral1 which was cast in #ajae1 and in various places in ,germany1 ,france1 and ,northern ,italy works of this kind are seen which belong to the eleventh century1 while a bit of stone or wood sculpture of this period is very rarely met4 ,the twelfth century brought about a great change in sculpture and its uses4 ,this century was a period of remarkable activity in every department of human life4 ,the ,crusades were then preached1 and armies of zealous ,christians went forth to redeem ,jerusalem from the power of the ,pagans2 in this century all the institutions of chivalry flourished2 the nations of the world had more intercourse with each other than had before existed2 commerce was extended into new channels2 men were more individual and thought more independently for themselves than they had done hitherto2 and1 in short1 human intellect all over the ,western world seemed to be awakening from a long1 deep sleep1 and to be inspired with strength and activity4 ,with all the other changes there came revivals of architecture and sculpture1 which went hand in hand1 and in the beginning can scarcely be separated from each other4 ,the early ,christians had been content with the decoration of interiors2 now the exteriors received much attention1 and the portals or entrances to the churches were richly decorated with statues and other sculptured ornaments1 and the exterior decoration soon extended to many portions of the edifices4 ,in the interiors1 too1 the altars1 fonts1 choir-screens1 and other objects were made of carved stone or of stucco1 which hardened like stone1 and were all richly ornamented with sculpture4 ,a completely new spirit seemed to possess the artists1 who thus found a satisfactory field for their labors1 and the period known as the ,romanesque was thus ushered in4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gd4--;,,from ,,the ,,facade ,,of ,,chartres ,,cathedral4 ,we cannot claim that the works of the twelfth century were free from the faults of the preceding eras1 or were satisfactory to our artistic sense2 but we may say that they show the effect of the new life which had come into the world1 and give unerring promise of the progress which followed4 ,the same improvement is seen in bronze-casting as in sculpture2 and though to our eyes it still remains crude and ungraceful1 yet by comparing it with the work of the previous century we mark a hopeful and important change4 ,germany1 in its different provinces1 took the lead in this artistic progress2 but ,france was not far behind2 and1 indeed1 in the cathedral of ,chartres the first promise was given of the splendid church portals of the early ,gothic style of architecture which followed the ,romanesque4 ,in this cathedral1 too1 we see for the first time an attempt to make the head and face a reproduction of nature rather than a repetition of the classic head1 which had come to be so imperfectly copied that it had degenerated into a caricature4 7,fig4 #gd47 ,other cathedrals at ,st4 ,denis1 ,le ,mans1 ,bourges1 and ,paris are splendid examples of the art of this time2 and when we remember how ,italy took the lead of these northern countries in later days1 it seems strange that at this era she was far behind them4 ,it is even true that the first works in ,northern ,italy which indicated that the awakening which had come north of the ,alps had reached that country were executed wholly or in part by ,german artists2 but by the end of the twelfth century both the sculpture and bronze-casting of ,italy gave promise of the great revival of true art which was to come in that home of the arts4 ,however1 it is not possible to connect the art of ,italy with that of any other country in any comprehensive sense4 ,italian art may be said to have died out more completely in the beginning of the middle ages than did the art of northern nations2 its period of decline1 too1 was longer2 but when its awakening came it aroused itself and took on new strength by a method of its own1 and may be said to have been distinct from northern art in every respect1 and divided from it by its different spirit as clearly as ,italy was divided from other lands by the towering summits of the ,alps4 ,about the beginning of the thirteenth century there dawned upon the northern nations a new era in literature4 ,hitherto the written language had been the monkish ,latin2 now the poets began to use their own tongues4 ,this new writing may be said to have commenced with the ,provencal poets1 who were followed by those of ,northern ,france2 but it was in ,germany that such song broke forth as showed how the national feeling had been repressed1 and how1 now that it had burst its bonds1 it resembled the freshets of spring when they escape from the icy hand of ,winter and rush from one point to another1 brushing aside every obstacle which lies in their way4 ,i cannot here speak in detail of these poets and their works1 but ,hartmann of ,aue1 ,walther von der ,vogelweid1 ,wolfram and ,gottfried of ,strasburg are names which grow brighter with passing centuries4 ,at the same time with this advance in letters there came1 in ,north-eastern ,france1 the new ,gothic style of architecture1 which had the effect to revive sculpture and in a degree restore to it the importance it had in classic days4 ,now1 the same artist was both architect and sculptor1 and the result was that architecture was so arranged as to afford an honorable place to sculpture1 which1 in its turn1 added much to the grand and full effect of architecture4 ,artists now began to study nature and the life about them in preference to the antique1 and the sculptors of the thirteenth century were fortunate in living in a time when costumes were picturesque and suited to artistic representations4 ,the dress of a knight was as graceful as one could wish1 with its flowing lines and the mantle clasped at one side of the neck1 or thrown loosely over the arm and shoulder2 and the costume of the other sex1 with the full folds of the lower garment fastened by the girdle1 and veiling without hiding the movement of the figure1 was scarcely less fitting for the artists use than were the classic robes of the ,greeks4 ,the effect of the sculpture of this period was frequently heightened by the use of color4 ,the draperies were enriched by gold ornaments1 and painted in rich blue and red1 while the flesh parts were delicately tinted4 ,colors were used with care1 and often served to conceal the defects in the sculpture itself1 and were thus of great advantage4 ,color was most frequently used in interior decoration1 but it was not unknown upon exterior portals1 and porches were introduced to protect this polychromy1 as the painting of sculpture was called4 ,the subjects now represented in sculpture were far more numerous than formerly4 ,while the life of ,christ and the ,virgin still made the central and most important topic1 there were added scenes from the lives of the saints1 those who were regarded as the patrons of the city or those to whom the edifice was dedicated being most frequently chosen4 ,new symbolic designs were made showing the flight of time by seasons and months2 others represented the virtues1 and even the customs and habits of the people were sometimes introduced4 ,there were also humorous representations1 even on sacred edifices4 ,water-pipes and gutter-spouts were ended with the heads of monsters and curious animals1 and even with grotesque faces2 in short1 the smaller details of the architecture of this period show the vividness of the imagination of the time4 ,for example1 the leaf-work which was used in the ornamental portions of sculpture had hitherto copied the antique acanthus leaf2 now the flowers and leaves native to ,france were the models of the sculptors1 and a charming variety of life-like ornament was the result4 ,the church of ,ste4 ,chapelle1 at ,paris1 completed about #abdh1 was the first edifice in which this style was seen in its full development4 ,here1 for the first time1 the statues were not placed in the stiff1 perpendicular posture1 but1 by being inclined to different positions1 had a light appearance and an air of movement1 which was a great relief from the rigidity which had ruled up to this time4 ,the cathedral at ,rheims1 however1 shows the perfection of thirteenth-century art4 ,it is conceded to be the best example of church building of its time1 and its facade the most beautiful structure of the ,middle ,ages4 ,its wealth of sculpture is wonderful2 its three great portals1 the buttresses1 the space above the great window and various other portions are so much ornamented that the whole effect is that of a forest of sculpture1 and it is difficult to turn from it to consider the architecture of the edifice4 ,it naturally follows that in this vast amount of artistic work there is no equality of excellence2 some of the statues are like those of an earlier date3 some are too tall and awkward2 others too short and rotund2 but there are many elegant figures1 full of grace and dignity1 with the drapery falling in natural folds1 and an air of life and freedom of movement about the heads quite unknown before this time4 ,in one of the side portals of this cathedral there is a figure of ,christ which was not surpassed by any work of this period4 ,the study of every portion of the figure is so perfect as to surprise us when we remember that anatomy was not then studied by artists as it had been in classic times or as it has been in more recent days4 ,this statue holds an orb in the left hand1 and the right hand is uplifted2 not only the nails of the fingers1 but the structure of all the joints is skilfully indicated4 ,it frequently happens that the reliefs are far more excellent than the statues of mediaeval date4 ,this is so noticeable that it would seem as if the best sculptors preferred to make the reliefs1 and that the figures were left to those of less talent4 ,on the pediment at ,rheims the ,last ,judgment is represented in five divisions1 and these reliefs are among the most beautiful sculptures of this century4 ,the scene of the ,resurrection of the ,dead is arranged in two rows of figures2 a section of it is here given 7,fig4 #ge74 ,there are twenty-nine of these little figures in the whole subject1 and the variety of positions and the naturalness of the various expressions are all that could be desired in any age of art4 ,the forms are in good proportions1 and the faces are filled with fear1 surprise1 hope1 and supplication4 ,a volume might be written upon the sculptures of the ,rheims ,cathedral which would be full of interest to the student of mediaeval art4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ge4--;,,from ,,the ,,north ,,transept ,,of ,,rheims ,,cathedral4 ,critics have compared the progress and life which pervaded the art of the thirteenth century with the spirit of the age of ,phidias4 ,the two periods are alike in the fact that the artists of each broke away from the traditions of those who had preceded them1 and took up their work with a desire to come nearer to nature4 ,they were alike1 too1 in the union of architecture and sculpture1 and in the fact that all kinds of sculpture were required for the adornment of a single structure4 ,colossal and full-sized statues1 statuettes1 reliefs1 and a great variety of simply ornamental designs were lavished upon the ,christian cathedral1 as they had been upon the ,greek temple2 and in one case as in the other the various groups and scenes represented were intended to show forth religious mysteries1 and to illustrate the working of the supreme power which controls the world in relation to human beings4 ,but ,i must leave this part of our subject and speak of the monumental sculpture of the thirteenth century4 ,while many of the tomb statues still retained a general resemblance to those of the past1 there were many examples of new strength and progress4 ,in a church near ,le ,mans the statue of ,berengaria1 the wife of ,richard ,coeur de ,lion1 who died in #abai1 was made with open eyes2 this gives a very life-like appearance to the face1 and the whole head is as noble as that of an antique statue2 the drapery is full and free2 the feet rest upon a dog1 which is the emblem of fidelity1 and in the hands is a casket4 ,there is something about this statue which appeals to us--a human element which had been sadly wanting in the monumental statues of the preceding centuries4 ,but the series of reliefs which were made for the ,cathedral of ,st4 ,denis were the most important tomb sculptures of this period4 ,they were sixteen in number1 and represented princes of the early lines of ,french sovereigns down to the thirteenth century4 ,of course those of the ,merovingians and ,carlovingians could not be portrait statues1 and the heads of both kings and queens are all of the same type until those of ,philip the ,bold1 who died in #abhe1 and his wife1 ,isabella of ,aragon1 who died in #abga1 are reached4 ,these two are intended to be portraits1 and they show the individual characters of these royal personages4 ,in all ,france there is no more interesting succession of monuments than these4 ,in ,germany the ,romanesque style of architecture and the sculpture which went with it held their sway much longer than in ,france1 and the new ,gothic style made its way very slowly in the countries north of ,france4 ,slight traces of its influence in one way and another may be found about the middle of the thirteenth century2 but it was not until the very end of this period that the ,gothic style had affected ,german art1 except in the south-western portions of the country4 ,these provinces bordered upon ,france1 and formed a sort of middle ground between the two nations4 ,in ,strasburg1 at the end of the century1 a cathedral was built which was one of the most splendid examples of a union of the two styles that could be produced4 ,the sculptures show the effect of the new ,french manner in their life and ease of grouping and attitude1 while they are still crowded and over-decorated1 as in the earlier days1 and the fixed architectural frame of the ,german style is preserved throughout4 7,fig4 #gf47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gf4--;,,from ,,the ,,west ,,facade1 ,,strasburg ,,cathedral4 ,there is reason to believe that the relief of the ,death of the ,virgin1 at ,strasburg1 was the work of ,sabina von ,steinbach1 a daughter of the architect of the west facade of the cathedral4 ,the grouping is fine1 and the transparent drapery1 which reminds us of the same effects in antique sculpture1 is beautifully executed4 ,in the ,cathedral of ,freiburg1 the nave of which was completed in #abgj1 there are some very fine sculptures1 which are like the ,rheims works in spirit and execution2 a figure of the ,madonna is one of the best statues of the time in any country4 ,there is much to admire in the whole of this cathedral4 ,here and there in ,germany there are some tomb-sculptures of the thirteenth century1 which are simple1 noble1 and individual2 but the progress of art here was much less rapid than in ,france4 ,another marked event in the art history of the thirteenth century was the introduction of sculpture into ,england4 ,the few pieces of plastic art which existed in that country before this date were not sufficient in number or excellence to merit the name of ,english sculpture4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gg4--;,,duke ,,robert ,,of ,,normandy4 ,the first important step was made about the end of the twelfth century1 when ,guillaume de ,sens1 a ,french architect1 was employed to build a new choir to ,canterbury ,cathedral4 ,not long after this the ,temple ,church was erected2 then ,westminster ,abbey followed1 and at length1 under ,henry ,,iii41 all the arts were rapidly advanced in his kingdom4 ,this king summoned artists and skilled workmen from different countries1 and portrait-sculpture received especial attention in the ,england of that day4 ,by comparing ,english tomb-sculpture with that of other countries1 it is seen that the aim of the artists was to make the statues resemble those whose memories they honored1 far more than other nations had done4 ,the illustration given here1 with its air of life--almost of motion--is a good example of what ,i mean 7,fig4 #gg74 ,the sculptures upon the ,english exteriors1 and1 indeed1 upon the interiors of edifices1 were far less lavish than on the ,continent2 but in ,wells ,cathedral1 completed before #abej1 there is a wealth of sculpture for an ,english church of this date1 and from this time forward the plastic arts were of great importance in ,great ,britain4 ,with the beginning of the fourteenth century there were great changes in the religious and political affairs of all ,europe4 ,the ,pope no longer held the supreme authority that had belonged to his office1 and the imperial power was also much shaken4 ,we cannot speak of these subjects in detail here1 but the result to art of these changes was seen in a development of individualism1 and the effects of it did not show an improvement when considered as a whole1 though it has some new features which were attractive4 ,in these days of which we now speak the word citizen had a far deeper meaning than ever before1 and the growth of wealth and prosperity in the citizen classes gave a new impulse to all the activities of life1 and to art along with others4 ,this new life and spirit gave more freedom to artists1 and they attempted new effects1 so that a far greater variety was made in their works4 ,the statue of the ,madonna1 for example1 was so often repeated that it afforded an opportunity for all sorts of experiments1 by which the sculptors tried to add to the deep feeling and the devotion that had already been expressed in the representations of the sweet ,mother of ,christ4 ,but just here they failed2 the new era brought more realism1 more likeness to nature1 more freedom to the artist to put something of himself into his work2 but much of the deep thought and the devout feeling of the thirteenth century was lost1 and it cannot be said that art was elevated in its tone4 ,there were influences1 too1 in the new state of society which permitted details to be introduced into religious subjects which were far from suitable or devotional2 sometimes they were even comic in their effects4 ,for example1 such scenes as allowed the representation of evil spirits or devils were made to serve for all sorts of coarse1 grotesque1 and burlesque side-play1 and the little figures which represented these powers were made to do all kinds of ridiculous capers side by side with such serious subjects as the ,last ,judgment or the death scenes of eminent men4 ,this makes us feel1 when we study the fourteenth century1 that the sculpture of the ,middle ,ages reached its highest point in the thirteenth century1 and soon after began to decline4 ,in ,germany the most important sculptures of this period were executed at ,nuremberg4 ,the ,church of ,st4 ,laurence1 that of ,st4 ,sebald1 the ,frauenkirche1 or the ,church of ,our ,lady1 are all great monuments to the art of this city and the calm dignity and grace which marked the works of the ,nuremberg sculptors4 ,at the close of the century1 between #ache and #acif1 ,master ,heinrich den ,balier erected the ,beautiful ,fountain1 which is still the pride of the city and a splendid monument of the time4 ,in ,nuremberg many of the dwelling-houses were decorated with sculptures1 and it is now one of the most interesting places in all ,germany to the student of ancient art4 ,we have not the space to speak in detail of the sculpture of the time2 ,augsburg1 ,prague1 ,stuttgart1 ,bamberg1 ,wuerzburg1 ,cologne1 and many other ,german towns and cities have rich treasures of its work1 but its character is everywhere much the same1 and great activity1 with a tendency toward decline1 are its prominent features4 ,in ,germany in this century ivory-carving was much practised and used for a great variety of purposes4 ,in these smaller works the life and freshness1 the grace and spirit of the manner of the time were very attractive 7,fig4 #gh74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gh4--;,,ivory ,,relief4 ,,hunting ,,scene4 ,in ,france the fourteenth century was much less productive of works of art than the preceding one had been4 ,the fact that so much had been done in the thirteenth century--so many new churches built and so many older ones remodelled--is one reason for this change4 ,in this direction there was very little left to be done4 ,then1 too1 the country was so disturbed by wars with ,england that the arts of peace suffered neglect4 ,however1 there was still much to be done to complete the grand works already begun1 and during the early part of this century a great deal was accomplished by way of interior decoration in edifices not yet completed1 and in the making of monuments in memory of persons of rank and importance4 ,those in the ,cathedral of ,st4 ,denis were much increased in number1 and in all parts of ,france these works were multiplied4 ,during this century many artists from the ,netherlands were employed in ,france2 and in the city of ,dijon1 which was the residence of the dukes of ,burgundy1 the works of ,flemish artists were very numerous4 ,perhaps the most skilful of these masters was ,,claux ,,sluter1 who was the favorite of ,philip the ,bold1 and executed the splendid monument to that duke which is now in the ,museum at ,dijon4 ,he was also the sculptor of the ,moses ,fountain1 the decorations of the ,carthusian chapel1 and other works which still remain to show how fine a sculptor he was4 ,sluter had a great influence upon art1 and1 in fact1 may be said to have established a school the effects of which endured long after his time4 ,in ,england sculpture made no progress during the fourteenth century4 ,large architectural sculptures were neither numerous nor fine4 ,tomb-sculptures and monuments with portrait reliefs and statues were the principal plastic works of the time4 ,the habit of erecting monuments to the dead now extended to all classes1 whereas it had formerly been confined to noble and distinguished people4 ,the result was that the monuments of the higher classes were more and more splendid in order to mark the differences of rank1 and much grand effect was thus produced2 but the merits of the sculpture was less than formerly1 and the monuments of this age are wanting in spirit1 stiff and unattractive4 ,the costume of the time1 too1 was so ugly that it served to give a grotesque air to many figures1 and thus added to the general appearance of decline which marked the ,english tomb-sculpture of the fourteenth century4 ,it compares unfavorably with the ,german monuments of the same period1 and the realistic portrait element which ruled it makes it seem like a monotonous and feeble system of mechanics rather than a style of art4 ,as we have said1 the sculpture of ,italy was quite different from that of the more northern countries of ,europe4 ,one great reason for this was that individualism in art was a strong power in ,italy much earlier than in more northern countries4 ,in ,germany the early sculptors of the ,middle ,ages did not put their names upon their works2 they practised their art as a religious service1 and their pious devotion made them forget themselves4 ,not so in ,italy3 there each artist wished to be known in his works1 and regarded them as works of art1 done for the sake of art1 and not as acts of piety4 ,one result of this difference was that the northern sculptures had more of deep feeling and profound thought in them1 while the ,italian works had more perfection of form4 ,in ,italy sculpture held the second place in the decoration of churches4 ,painting was preferred before it1 and in spite of the influence of the ,gothic style1 which extended south of the ,alps1 the ,italians would not give up their large wall-spaces and the splendid ,christian paintings which were their glory4 ,they built their edifices with this end in view1 and as the same person was frequently an architect1 painter and sculptor1 he knew how to arrange his plans so as to suit his ideas of the merits of each art4 ,so it happened that the principal works which the sculptors did for the church were separate objects1 such as altar-pieces1 fonts1 pulpits1 and tombs4 ,it rarely occurred that whole fronts of churches were covered with sculptures1 as in ,germany or ,france1 and there were few richly sculptured portals of churches in ,italy4 ,the material mostly used for ,italian sculpture was fine white marble1 which was very rarely colored2 sometimes a little gilding was used2 but as a rule painting and sculpture were not united1 as they had been north of the ,alps4 ,however1 the sculptors of ,italy had a wider range in art than in other lands2 for being less devoted to the service of the church1 they were employed for more secular works4 ,it is true that the separate statues of the ,madonna were very numerous1 and that tomb-sculpture was important2 but added to these there were civil monuments to show forth the glory of the cities and their great men1 and there were public fountains and other sculptures which told of the splendor and fame of each one of the many petty powers into which the whole country was divided4 ,the council-halls of the free cities were very fine1 and gave great opportunity to ,italian artists to give variety to their works1 and the sculptors very early excelled in reliefs1 which told historical stones with great clearness4 ,as early as the beginning of the thirteenth century we can trace the progress of ,italian sculpture by telling the story of the lives of separate artists4 ,the first man of importance who thus claims our attention is ,,nicola ,,pisano1 who was born at ,pisa between #abje and #abjg1 and who1 according to the custom of his time1 was both architect and sculptor4 ,when he was but fifteen years old he received an appointment as architect to ,frederic ,,ii41 with whom he went to ,naples2 he served this sovereign ten years1 and then went to ,padua1 where he was employed as the architect of the ,basilica of ,st4 ,anthony4 ,in #abcg ,nicola made his first essay in sculpture1 and executed a relief representing the ,deposition from the ,cross1 which still remains in its place over one of the side doors of the ,cathedral of ,san ,martino at ,lucca4 ,this work was most excellent as the attempt of a young artist1 and it was also excellent when compared with the work of other ,italian sculptors who had preceded him4 7,fig4 #gi47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gi4--,,relief ,,by ,,nicola ,,pisano4 ,lucca4 ,during the twelve years following this time ,nicola ,pisano was chiefly employed as an architect1 and it was not until #abfj that he established his fame as a sculptor2 but when we consider the pulpit for the ,baptistery of ,pisa1 which he now did1 it is plain that he must have given much thought and study to sculpture since his first work at ,lucca2 and this last work has such qualities as indicate that he had studied the sculpture of classic days4 ,the work upon this pulpit is a wonderful advance upon the sculpture of the period2 and though there are marks of his inexperience in its arrangement1 as a whole it is above criticism when the time to which it belonged and the circumstances of its sculpture are taken into account4 7,fig4 #hj47 ,nicola went next to ,bologna to make a sarcophagus to contain the remains of ,st4 ,dominick1 who had died there in #abba4 ,this burial-case was completed in #abfg1 and is very interesting as an illustration of the art of the thirteenth century4 ,the next work of this sculptor was a pulpit for the ,cathedral of ,siena4 ,when he undertook this work he agreed to live at ,siena until it was completed1 with the exception of short visits to ,pisa--four in each year4 ,he had assistants in this work1 and it was completed in about a year and a half4 ,meantime he exerted a great influence upon the sculpture of ,siena1 which up to this time had amounted to little more than good stone-cutting4 ,indeed1 ,nicola ,pisano had an effect upon the art of all ,italy3 in the north at ,padua1 in the south at ,naples1 and in ,central ,italy at ,pisa1 ,lucca1 and ,siena4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hj4--,,relief ,,from ,,the ,,pulpit ,,at ,,pisa4 ,nicola ,pisano4 ,in #abfi he was commissioned to build a convent and an abbey at ,la ,scorgola1 which are now in ruins4 ,in #abgd ,nicola commenced his last work1 the ,fountain of ,perugia4 ,he did not remain constantly in that city1 but after making the plans he left his son ,giovanni in charge of the work1 while he returned to ,pisa and occupied himself with making the figures for its decoration4 ,this fountain was held in such esteem that laws were enacted for its preservation1 and it was called the most valuable possession of the city1 while some went so far as to say that it could not be surpassed in the world4 ,even now1 after all it has suffered from time and weather1 it commands our admiration4 ,in #abgh ,nicola died1 after a life of great achievements4 ,he left an untarnished name1 too1 for he had been loved and respected by all his associates1 and as patron1 friend1 and servant had done all his duty4 ,mr4 ,perkins1 in his ,tuscan ,sculptors1 says of him3 ,inestimable were the services rendered to art by this great man4 ,he gave the death-blow to ,byzantinism and barbarism2 established new architectural principles2 founded a new school of sculpture in ,italy1 and opened men's eyes to the degraded state of art by showing them where to study and how to study2 so that ,cimabue1 ,guido da ,siena1 the ,masuccios and the ,cosmati all profited by his pervading and enduring influence4 ,never hurried by an ill-regulated imagination into extravagances1 he was careful in selecting his objects of study and his methods of self-cultivation2 an indefatigable worker1 who spared neither time nor strength in obedience to the numerous calls made upon him from all parts of the peninsula2 now in ,pisa1 then in ,naples1 ,padua1 ,siena1 ,lucca1 or ,florence2 here to design a church1 there to model a bas-relief1 erect a pulpit1 a palace or a tower2 by turns architect and sculptor1 great in both1 original in both1 a reviver in both1 laying deep and well the foundations of his edifices by hitherto unpractised methods1 and sculpturing his bas-reliefs upon principles evolved from the study of antique models long unheeded4 ,ever respected and esteemed by the many persons of all classes with whom he came in contact1 he was truly a great man--one to whom the world owes an eternal debt of gratitude1 and who looms up in gigantic proportions through the mist of five centuries1 holding the same relation to ,italian art which ,dante holds to ,italian literature4 ,,fra ,,guglielmo ,d',,agnello 7#abch-acad871 also a ,pisan1 was a pupil of ,nicola ,pisano1 and worked with him at ,bologna4 ,there is little to be said of his works after his master's death4 ,,giovanni ,,pisano 7about #abdj-acbj7 was born at ,pisa1 and though a pupil of his father and a co-worker with him1 he seems to have fallen under some other and a very different influence4 ,in architecture he preferred the ,gothic style1 and in sculpture he was fond of all sorts of fantastic action and expression2 his works were full of exaggeration4 ,he was an architect as well as sculptor1 and was a master in his own right when twenty years old1 and in #abfh he went to ,naples to design a church for the ,franciscans2 he was also the architect of the episcopal palace there4 ,after the death of his father the ,pisans were anxious to retain ,giovanni in their service2 he first transformed an old church into a new one in the pointed style of architecture4 ,it was named ,santa ,maria della ,spina1 because a rich merchant had presented one of the thorns from the crown of ,christ to it4 ,this was the first building in ,italy of this style of architecture4 ,giovanni next built the ,campo ,santo of ,pisa4 ,many shiploads of earth had been brought from ,palestine to ,pisa in order to make a burial-place in which ,christians could be laid in the sacred earth4 ,giovanni ,pisano inclosed the spot where this earth was laid with walls and arranged the interior of the inclosure in such a way that it could be extensively decorated with works of art4 ,he made it the most beautiful ,campo ,santo in ,italy4 ,many of the sculptures are by his own hand4 7,fig4 #ha47 ,this allegorical representation of ,pisa was the first attempt at making large statues in ,italy since the days of the ,emperor ,constantine4 ,the city stands alone1 and is a proud princess with a diadem1 holding in her arms two infants to indicate her fruitfulness4 ,below her are four statues of the cardinal virtues1 ,temperance being a nude figure4 ,it is a very strange work1 and in some respects not attractive1 but it shows the originality of the sculptor2 the principal figure has much intensity of expression4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ha4--;,,campo ,,santo ,,of ,,pisa4 ,giovanni ,pisano4 ,from this monument and his other works in ,pisa1 ,giovanni became famous1 and was called to ,siena to build the front of the cathedral4 ,the people of ,siena held out every inducement to him to make his home there1 by freeing him from taxes for life2 but after three years he went to ,perugia1 where he erected a monument which has been destroyed4 ,after this time he devoted himself entirely to sculpture1 and executed a variety of works at ,arezzo1 ,pistoja1 ,florence1 ,perugia1 and ,cortona4 ,in #acab he commenced the rebuilding of the cathedral at ,prato4 ,we have not the space to speak of his works in detail4 ,the ,campo ,santo has more of interest than the others1 and is ,romanesque in its character2 and yet it is true that he employed ,gothic forms far more than any other4 ,some authors credit ,giovanni with having introduced an independent art into ,italy2 but let that be as it may1 he had not the feeling for beauty1 neither had he the repose which was such a charm in the works of his father4 ,at the same time his works are full of life and dramatic action1 and could never have been designed or executed by any man who had not an uncommon genius4 ,,arnolfo ,,di ,,cambio 7#abcb-acaj7 was also a pupil of ,nicola ,pisano1 and though eight years older than ,giovanni ,pisano he did not become an independent master until after ,giovanni had won much fame4 ,there are some works in ,rome which are attributed to ,arnolfo1 but as there are uncertainties about his being their author1 it is not best for us to discuss them here4 ,he erected at ,orvieto1 in the church of ,san ,domenico1 a monument to the ,cardinal de ,braye4 ,it was a very elaborate work1 and the statue of the ,madonna1 which is placed above that of the cardinal1 is full of majestic spirit and dignified repose4 ,this is the only well-authenticated sculptural work by ,arnolfo1 but this is one of the most finished monuments of the art of the ,pisan school1 and is quite sufficient to bring his name through the centuries with honor4 ,,andrea ,,pisano 7#abgj-acde7 is principally famous as a bronze-caster1 and his chief work was the making of the gates to the ,baptistery of ,florence1 which have since been replaced by those of ,ghiberti4 ,when these gates were finished1 in #acci1 the ,signory went in procession to view them2 this proves in what esteem they must have been held1 for the ,signory never left the ,palazzo ,vecchio in a body except on the most important occasions4 ,after examining the gates they conferred the honor of citizenship upon the sculptor4 ,these gates told the story of ,john the ,baptist1 and the work is full of sentiment1 beauty1 and simplicity1 while the design is pure1 the draperies full of elegant grace1 and the execution of the whole almost perfect4 ,,nino ,,pisano was the son of the latter4 ,the time of his birth is not known2 he died before #acfa4 ,his works are pleasing1 and he especially excelled in drapery4 ,they are not numerous1 and are seen in the churches of ,pisa4 ,but by far the most important pupil of ,andrea ,pisano1 and1 indeed1 the most important ,tuscan master of the end of the fourteenth century1 was ,,andrea ,,arcagnuolo ,,di ,,cione1 commonly called ,,andrea ,,orcagna 7#acbi-acgf874 ,this artist was the son of ,maestro ,cione1 a goldsmith of ,florence4 ,orcagna was an architect1 goldsmith1 sculptor1 painter1 mosaist1 and poet4 ,painting is the art by which he is best known and of which he executed the greatest number of interesting works4 ,in this place we shall speak of his most important work as a sculptor1 which was the tabernacle in the church of ,or ,san ,michele1 in ,florence1 made to hold the picture of the ,madonna painted by ,ugolino da ,siena4 ,this tabernacle is of white marble in the ,gothic style4 ,it rises from the centre high up toward the roof of the church1 and has sculptures in bas-relief1 statuettes and busts1 all illustrating the life of the ,virgin from her birth to her death4 ,it is also enriched with mosaics1 intaglios1 enamels1 gilded glass1 pietra dura1 and all of these arranged in a whole which is quite unique in art4 ,it may be regarded as a piece of architecture or as a sculptural work1 and it is full of symbolism2 and whatever view is taken of it1 it commands admiration for the artist who conceived and executed so difficult a task4 ,during the later years of the fourteenth century there were many sculptors in ,italy of whom we know very little more than their names4 ,they did a vast amount of work in all parts of the country1 much of which is still to be seen4 ,one of these1 of whom few personal facts are known1 exerted a large influence in ,florence1 where the fruits of his industry were almost marvellous4 ,he was called ,,pietro ,,di ,,giovanni and ,,pietro ,,tedesco1 or the ,german4 ,the time and place of his birth are not known1 but the records show that he worked on the ,cathedral of ,florence from #achf to #acii4 ,he worked in true ,german style2 wherever scroll-work and simple ornamental designs were required he mingled a variety of leaves and flowers where the acanthus alone had before been used4 ,he also made fantastic little human beings1 dwarfs and grotesque beings of different sorts1 and exhausted the animal world in his designs4 ,lions1 bears1 apes1 dogs1 lizards1 crabs1 birds and fish1 bees1 butterflies1 and all manner of insects may be seen nestling among vines and branches1 while angels play on pipes and violas4 ,the whole effect of these works is cheerful and natural1 and would be as suitable to decorate a music hall or a theatre as they are for a church4 ,the works of this master are too extreme in the realistic element to be taken as a fair example of the ,italian sculpture of this time1 but ,,niccolo ,,of ,,arrezzo1 the ,,massegne1 and the ,,bon or ,,buoni family1 and many others in different portions of the country contributed to put aside the stiff1 formal manner of the past1 and to bring in the more sympathetic and natural one of the fifteenth century4 ,in truth1 the last decades of the fourteenth century were a transition period1 when art was bursting its bonds1 and was preparing for the glorious works of the golden days of sculpture in ,italy4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,italian ,,sculpture ,,in ,,the ,,fifteenth ,,century4 ,there was no one great influence or circumstance which led up to the revival of art and letters which took place in the fifteenth century1 and which is known under the general name of the ,renaissance4 ,its causes were many1 and may be traced in every department of the life of the ,middle ,ages--in religion1 politics1 learning1 and the habits of the people4 ,this is far too great a topic for us to enter on here1 and we must keep to the one matter which we have in hand4 ,in ,italy1 heretofore1 as we have shown1 sculpture had been almost entirely separated from other arts1 and stood by itself4 ,its works had been the smaller objects of which we have spoken2 and though these were oftentimes splendid in their design and execution1 they did not afford the sculptor the same broad field for his work as he has when his productions are combined with architecture4 ,now all this was changed4 ,the ,french and ,german artists had brought out a style of architecture of their own1 the ,italians pursued another course1 and went back to classic art for their teaching1 and now every opportunity was given for sculpture to assume its utmost importance2 and the art of ancient ,greece was studied with all the enthusiasm of the ,italian nature4 ,the masters of ,florence1 or1 rather1 of ,tuscany1 were of great importance in the beginning of the new movement1 and ,i shall speak first of them4 ,,francesco ,,squarcione1 who lived from #acif to #adgd1 was a painter1 and travelled into ,greece to collect antique objects1 and made many drawings from the monuments which he saw4 ,he established a school in ,padua1 and his museum was of advantage to sculptors as well as to painters4 ,other ,tuscan artists who were in love with classic art wandered among its remains in ,rome and other parts of ,italy1 and brought back to their homes a greater knowledge of sculpture1 as well as the drawings which they had made2 and in this part of ,italy the ,renaissance early made itself a living1 active power4 ,among the very first of these sculptors was ,,jacopo ,,della ,,quercia 7#acgd-adch71 who was so called from the little market town of ,quercia1 near ,siena1 in which he was born4 ,his father was a goldsmith1 and instructed his son in his art2 but the boy loved sculpture1 and studied it under one ,luca di ,giovanni4 ,when but nineteen years old he made an equestrian statue of wood1 and covered it with cloth1 and painted it to represent marble in a manner which proved him to be an artist4 ,about this time he left his home1 and the next that we know of him was about ten years later1 when his design for the gates of the ,baptistery of ,florence was pronounced to be next in merit to those of ,ghiberti and ,brunelleschi4 ,in #adjh ,quercia went to ,ferrara1 where he did several works4 ,while there he was called by the ,signory of ,siena to make a new fountain in the ,piazza del ,campo4 ,this was a beautiful work1 and even in this century1 though much injured1 its remaining sculptures prove that it must have been a wonder in its day4 ,it has been restored after the original model by ,quercia1 who was often called ,jacopo della ,fonte on account of this work4 ,he executed some sculptures in ,lucca1 but his masterpiece was the decoration of the great portal of the ,basilica of ,san ,petronio1 at ,bologna4 7,fig4 #hb47 ,the fifteen reliefs here represent the history of ,adam and ,eve1 and other stories from the creation to the deluge4 ,they show the full freedom and power of ,quercia's style1 and are among the most attractive of all the ,tuscan sculptures of this period4 ,duringd the last years of his life this artist was employed as superintendent of the works upon the ,cathedral of ,siena1 in which city he died4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hb4--,,relief ,,by ,,jacopo ,,della ,,quercia4 ,bologna4 ,we come now to speak of the famous ,,lorenzo ,,ghiberti 7#acgh-adee71 who was born in ,florence1 and was both a goldsmith and sculptor2 and though his fame rests upon his bas-reliefs1 yet the exquisite detail and careful finish in them came from his practice of the goldsmith's art4 ,in #acih a plague broke out in ,florence1 and ,ghiberti fled to ,rimini for safety4 ,while there he painted a few pictures2 but his name is so linked with the splendid gates which he made for the ,baptistery of ,florence that it is of those that one naturally thinks when his name is heard4 ,we have spoken of the gates which ,andrea ,pisano had made to this ,baptistery long before2 these were for the south side2 and when1 in #adjj1 the plague again visited ,florence the people believed that the wrath of ,heaven should be appeased by a thank-offering4 ,accordingly the ,guild of ,wool-merchants promised to add gates on the north and east of the ,baptistery of ,st4 ,john the ,baptist4 ,a time was appointed for the examination of designs1 and many artists entered into the competition1 and sent in their drawings and models4 ,a great number of these represented the ,sacrifice of ,isaac4 ,at length all the models were set aside but two1 and these were made by ,brunelleschi and ,ghiberti2 then the former declared that he thought his rival's design the best1 thus showing a nobility of character which cannot be too much praised4 ,the commission was thus given to ,ghiberti1 who first executed the northern gates4 ,he began them in #adjc1 and finished them twenty-one years later4 ,they illustrate the life of ,christ in twenty scenes2 they have also the figures of the evangelists and the four ,fathers of the ,church in a beautiful framework of foliage1 animals1 and other ornamental figures1 which divides and incloses the larger compositions4 ,these gates are done in a manner much in advance of that of ,pisano1 and yet they retain some features of an earlier style which are not found in ,ghiberti's later works4 ,but from the first he showed original talent1 as one may see by his model of the ,sacrifice of ,isaac1 which is preserved in the ,museum of the ,bargello1 beside that of ,brunelleschi4 ,these northern gates are very beautiful1 but those on the east are far more so2 it is of these last that ,michael ,angelo declared1 ,they are worthy to be the gates of ,paradise6 ,these are divided into ten compartments1 representing3 #a1 ,creation of ,adam and ,eve2 #b1 ,history of ,cain and ,abel2 #c1 ,noah2 #d1 ,abraham and ,isaac2 #e1 ,jacob and ,esau2 #f1 ,history of ,joseph2 #g1 ,moses on ,mount ,sinai2 #h1 ,joshua before ,jericho2 #i1 ,david and ,goliath2 #aj1 ,solomon and the ,queen of ,sheba 7,fig4 #hc74 ,this sculptor showed great skill for one in his age1 but to us there is some disappointment in them on account of the crowded appearance of the figures4 ,familiarity with them1 however1 reveals their beauty1 and we find that1 in truth1 the stories ,ghiberti wished to tell are brought out with much distinctness4 ,they will ever remain one of the great monuments of the sculpture of the ,renaissance4 ,ghiberti endeavored to introduce fine backgrounds to his reliefs1 which gave him an opportunity to add figures illustrating other incidents than the principal one of the work4 ,his sculptures show the influence of the ,gothic style1 the study of nature and that of the antique all combined2 with these are united his own power of conception1 his ability in design1 and his wonderful delicacy of execution4 ,these gates have been continually studied by the artists of his own and succeeding generations4 ,the next work of importance by ,ghiberti is the sarcophagus of ,st4 ,zenobius in the ,cathedral of ,florence4 ,other lesser sculptures are in other churches in ,florence and in the ,cathedral of ,siena4 ,we come now to one of the most interesting sculptors of the fifteenth century4 ,,donatello he was called1 but his real name was ,,donato ,,di ,,betto ,,bardi 7#achf-adfh74 ,he was born in ,florence1 and from his boyhood was a member of the family of the rich banker ,ruberto ,martelli1 who was the firm friend of the sculptor for life1 and when he died he provided in his will that the works by ,donatello which he bequeathed to his family should never be pledged1 sold1 or given away1 but kept as a perpetual inheritance for his heirs4 ,donatello was a realist1 and followed nature with great exactness4 ,this was not always productive of beauty in his works2 indeed1 some of them are very ugly1 and a story which illustrates this is told of himself and ,brunelleschi4 ,donatello had made a crucifix1 carved from wood1 for the ,church of ,santa ,croce1 and when it was finished he asked ,brunelleschi's opinion of it4 ,this latter artist was principally an architect2 but as he had learned the goldsmith's trade1 he executed some sculptures1 and a close friendship existed between himself and ,donatello4 ,relying on their love for each other1 ,brunelleschi frankly told ,donatello that his crucifix was very ugly1 and his figure of ,christ like that of a day-laborer1 whereas it should represent a person of the greatest possible beauty4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hc4--;,,from ,,the ,,eastern ,,gates4 ,showing compartments #f1 #h1 and #aj4 ,donatello was very angry at this1 and exclaimed1 ,it is easier to criticise than to execute2 do you take a piece of wood and make a better crucifix6 ,brunelleschi determined to do this1 and when his work was finished he invited ,donatello to sup with him4 ,he placed the crucifix in a conspicuous place in his house1 and then took ,donatello with him to the market to buy their food4 ,he gave the parcels to ,donatello1 and asked him to go before to the house1 saying that he would soon follow4 ,when ,donatello entered and saw the crucifix he was so delighted at the sight that he forgot everything else1 and dropped the eggs1 cheese1 and all on the floor1 and stood gazing at the carving as motionless as if he were a statue himself4 ,when ,brunelleschi came he said1 ,what are we to do now8 ,you have spoiled all the dinner6 ,i have had dinner enough for to-day1 replied ,donatello4 ,you may have a better appetite4 ,to you1 ,i confess1 belongs the power of carving the figure of ,christ2 to me that of representing day-laborers4 ,this famous crucifix by ,brunelleschi is now in the ,gondi ,chapel of the ,church of ,santa ,maria ,novella2 that by ,donatello is in the chapel of ,saints ,ludovico and ,bartolommeo in the ,church of ,santa ,croce4 ,the ,annunciation cut from sandstone1 which is in ,santa ,croce1 is one of his earliest works1 and is full of grace and nobleness 7,fig4 #hd74 ,he made some beautiful groups of dancing children1 which are now in the ,uffizi ,gallery2 but he considered his ,david1 which is in the same gallery1 as his masterpiece4 ,he was so proud of it that he swore by it1 saying1 ,by the faith ,i have in my ,zuccone6 ,this word means bald-head1 and had come to be used as the usual name for the ,david4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hd4--,,the ,,annunciation4 ,by ,donatello4 ,but in spite of his liking for the ,david1 it is generally thought that his ,st4 ,george1 on the exterior of the ,church of ,or ,san ,michele1 is far better4 ,the ,german art-writer ,grimm thus speaks of this work3 ,what a man is the ,st4 ,george in the niche of the ,church of ,or ,san ,michele6 ,he stands there in complete armor1 sturdily1 with his legs somewhat striding apart1 resting on both with equal weight1 as if he meant to stand so that no power could move him from his post4 ,straight before him he holds up his high shield2 both hands touch its edge1 partly for the sake of holding it1 partly in order to rest on it2 the eyes and brows are full of expectant boldness4444 ,we approach this ,st4 ,george1 and the mere artistic interest is transformed suddenly into a more lively sympathy with the person of the master4444 ,who is it1 we ask1 who has placed such a man there1 so ready for battle8 7,fig4 #he47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #he4--,,statue ,,of ,,st4 ,,george4 ,by ,donatello4 ,donatello's impetuosity led him into many rash acts4 ,among other instances of this it is related that a rich ,genoese merchant gave an order for a portrait bust of himself in bronze2 when it was finished the great ,duke ,cosimo de' ,medici1 who was a friend of ,donatello1 admired the work so much that he placed it on his balcony1 so that all ,florentines who passed by could see it4 ,when the merchant was given the price of the bust he objected to it1 and it was referred to ,duke ,cosimo for settlement4 ,in the conversation the ,genoese said that the bust could be made in a month1 and that he was willing to pay the artist a dollar a day for his time and labor4 ,when ,donatello heard this he exclaimed1 ,i know how to destroy the result of the study of years in the twinkling of an eye6 and he threw the bust into the street below1 where it was broken into fragments4 ,then the merchant was deeply mortified1 and offered the sculptor double the price he had asked if he would repeat the work2 but though ,donatello sadly needed the money he would not do this1 and persisted in his refusal1 even when ,cosimo de' ,medici tried to persuade him to consent4 ,when ,donatello was old ,duke ,cosimo gave him an allowance which would support himself and four workmen2 but in spite of this ,donatello wore such shabby clothes that ,cosimo sent him a red surcoat1 a mantle and hood4 ,these ,donatello returned1 saying they were far too fine for him4 ,when the sculptor at length became feeble and bedridden his benefactor had died1 but ,piero de' ,medici1 the son of ,cosimo1 was careful to keep him in comfort2 and when he died his funeral was attended with much ceremony4 ,he was buried near ,duke ,cosimo1 in the ,church of ,san ,lorenzo4 ,several of ,donatello's works are in this church1 and are a more suitable monument to his memory than any that could be made by other hands4 ,the works of ,donatello are numerous1 both in marble and bronze1 and in both these substances he made statues and reliefs4 ,we cannot speak in detail of all that he accomplished2 but as he lived in an age when every advance in art was an event in history1 we must not forget to say that he made the first equestrian statue which had been produced since the time of the ,romans4 ,this statue is in ,padua1 in front of the ,church of ,san ,antonio2 it is of colossal size1 and represents the ,venetian ,general ,gattamelata2 and though it does not satisfy our conception as an equestrian statue1 it is worthy of some praise when we remember all the circumstances of its origin4 ,it is not probable that ,donatello had ever seen an antique equestrian statue1 unless it might have been that of ,marcus ,aurelius1 which was found in the ,forum in #aahg2 no modern statues existed as examples for him2 he was not familiar with the modelling of horses1 and for every reason it was a bold thing for him to undertake such a work4 ,donatello had more influence upon the art of his time than any other ,tuscan sculptor1 with the single exception of ,michael ,angelo4 ,as a man he was honest1 simple1 and upright in all his dealings2 as a friend he was loyal and faithful2 as a ,christian he was humble and charitable1 and left behind him a name which has been handed down through more than four centuries with respect and honor4 ,,luca ,,della ,,robbia 7#adjj-adha7 is another native of ,florence1 whose name is widely known4 ,like many others1 he began life as a goldsmith1 and in this way gained a mastery over detail and a finish of style that are remarkable in all his works4 ,he turned his attention to sculpture early in life1 and was so enthusiastic in his pursuit of this art that he worked night and day1 minding neither cold nor hunger and fatigue2 in the beginning he made numerous wax models1 which have perished1 and with all his industry we have no work of his before he was forty-five years old1 except the reliefs of ,music1 ,philosophy1 ,geometry1 ,grammar and ,astronomy1 ,plato and ,aristotle1 ,ptolemy and ,euclid1 and a man playing a lute1 which are set into the side of the ,campanile at ,florence1 and two scenes from the life of ,st4 ,peter1 which are in the ,uffizi4 ,in the same gallery are also the series of reliefs which ,luca began when forty-five years old for the balustrade of an organ in the cathedral4 ,these reliefs represent boys singing1 dancing1 and playing on musical instruments 7,fig4 #hf74 ,the attitudes are so graceful and so varied1 and the expressions on the faces are so many1 that there is much to admire in a subject which in unskilful hands would be very monotonous4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hf4--;,,dancing ,,boys4 ,by ,luca della ,robbia4 ,no sculptures since the classic days represent child-life with such freshness and charming qualities1 and these alone would have raised ,luca to a high rank as a sculptor4 ,in the ,uffizi one is able to examine these works closely1 and they gain by this nearness to the eye1 which enables one to see the minuteness of his finish4 ,there are various works of his in bronze and marble still to be seen in the churches of ,florence1 but the special art to which he gave his attention was to the perfecting of enamel upon terra-cotta--on the making of what is known as the ,robbia ware4 ,in this he achieved a great success1 and his bas-reliefs are very beautiful4 ,at first he used but few colors1 but later he increased their number1 and was able to produce a combined effect of painting and relief that is very pleasing4 ,these works were used for altar-pieces1 medallions on exteriors1 fountains1 wall decoration1 and a great variety of purposes4 ,twelve medallions representing the months1 which are in the ,south ,kensington ,museum1 are said to have been made by ,luca to decorate a writing cabinet for one of the ,medici4 ,luca worked with his nephew1 ,andrea1 who had four sons2 and when ,luca died his secrets belonged to them1 and made their fortunes4 ,they were occupied eleven years in making a frieze to a hospital in ,pistoja2 it represented the ,seven ,acts of ,mercy4 ,one of them went to ,france and decorated the ,chateau of ,madrid for ,francis ,i4 ,pope ,leo ,x4 employed another to pave the ,loggie of the ,vatican with ,robbia tiles1 and these wares1 in one form and another1 were used in numberless ways1 both useful and decorative4 ,the ,robbia family was followed by other workers in glazed ware1 and during about a century it was a prominent feature in art1 and then was gradually given up4 ,the most noted pupil of ,donatello was ,,andrea ,,del ,,verocchio 7#adcb-adhh74 ,he was born at ,florence1 and was early apprenticed to a goldsmith called ,verocchio1 from whom the sculptor took his surname4 ,it is said that this name came from the fact that the elder ,verocchio had remarkable exactness of sight4 ,neither the metal works nor the paintings which ,verocchio did remain1 and after about #adff he devoted himself entirely to sculpture4 ,it is difficult to associate him with ,donatello2 his execution is finished like most sculptors who were also metal-workers2 his nude parts are true to nature1 but not graceful or attractive1 and his draperies are in small folds1 which give a tumbled1 crumpled effect rather than that of the easy1 graceful falling of soft material4 ,his best works are a ,david in the ,museum of the ,bargello1 ,florence2 a bronze ,genius pressing a ,dolphin to itself on a fountain in the court of the ,palazzo ,vecchio 7,fig4 #hg72 an equestrian statue of ,colleoni before the ,church of ,san ,giovanni e ,paolo1 ,venice 7,fig4 #hh72 and a group of ,st4 ,thomas examining the ,wounds of ,christ at the ,church of ,or ,san ,michele1 ,florence4 ,this last work is in his best and latest manner2 the expression is powerful1 but the drapery is still very faulty4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hg4--;,,boy ,,with ,,dolphin4 ,by ,verocchio4 ,although this equestrian statue is called by ,verocchio's name1 he did not live to see it completed2 and though it was without doubt made from his design1 still some credit for its execution is due to ,alessandro ,leopardo1 who finished it4 ,when ,colleoni died he left all his large fortune to the ,republic of ,venice on condition that they should erect an equestrian monument to him in the square of ,st4 ,mark4 ,as it was forbidden by the laws of ,venice to place such things in the ,piazza of ,st4 ,mark1 it was placed in its present position1 before the ,church of ,san ,giovanni e ,paolo1 on the square of the ,school of ,st4 ,mark1 and it was thought that this answered the requirements of the will4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hh4--,,statue ,,of ,,colleoni4 ,by ,verocchio4 ,when ,verocchio had gone to ,venice and had modelled the horse1 he was told that the ,signory intended to have the rider made by another sculptor4 ,he felt this to be an insult1 and broke off the head and legs of the horse1 and left ,venice for ,florence4 ,the ,signory issued a decree forbidding him to set foot again on ,venetian soil under pain of death4 ,the sculptor replied that he should not take the risk1 as he well knew that the ,signory could take off his head1 and he could not put it on1 while he could replace his horse's head with a better one4 ,the ,venetians knew that this was true1 and repealed their decree1 and doubling his pay1 asked him to come to complete his work4 ,verocchio consented to do so1 but had not been long in ,venice when he died4 ,verocchio is said to have spent much time in drawing from the antique1 and his works prove him to have been diligent and painstaking2 these qualities made him the sculptor that he was2 but we see no traces in his work of the heaven-born genius which makes the artist great1 and so inspires himself that his works fill all beholders with an enthusiasm in a degree akin to his own2 the works of such artists as ,verocchio1 who have only the excellencies which come from patient industry1 interest us1 but they cannot move our hearts4 ,it often happened in ,italy that a number of artists belonged to the same family1 as in the case of the ,robbias4 ,one such family had the name of ,,gambarelli1 but were known in art as the ,,rossellini4 ,there were five sculptors of this name1 all brothers4 ,two of them had great ability1 ,bernardo and ,antonio4 ,bernardo was most distinguished as an architect1 and some very celebrated edifices were built from his designs2 he also executed some excellent sculptures1 among which are the fine monument of ,lionardo ,bruni in the ,church of ,santa ,croce1 and that of the ,beata ,villana in ,santa ,maria ,novella1 ,florence4 ,the first is one of the best monuments in ,tuscany4 ,in the ,uffizi are a bust of ,st4 ,john1 a charming work1 and a portrait bust of ,battista ,sforza4 ,,antonio ,,rossellino 7#adbg-adij71 called ,,proconsolo1 from the quarter of ,florence in which he was born1 was by far the best sculptor of the family4 ,he is called a pupil of ,donatello1 but his work very closely resembles that of ,ghiberti4 ,among his best works are the monument to ,cardinal ,portogallo1 in the ,church of ,san ,miniato1 near ,florence2 that of ,mary of ,aragon in ,monte ,oliveto at ,naples2 a relief of the ,nativity in the same church1 and a relief of the ,adoring ,madonna in the ,uffizi ,gallery4 ,his characteristics were grace1 delicacy of treatment1 sweetness of expression1 and all these combined with a noble dignity4 ,other ,tuscan sculptors of this period were ,,desiderio ,,da ,,settignano1 ,,mino ,,da ,,fiesole 7#adjj-adhf71 ,,andrea ,,ferrucci 7#adfe-aebf71 and ,,benedetto ,,da ,,majano 7#addb-adih71 who was eminent as an architect as well as for his sculpture4 ,his father was a stone-cutter1 and two other sons in the family were artists4 ,benedetto began life as a worker in wooden mosaics1 or intarsiatore1 as it is called4 ,he made two beautiful inlaid chests1 and carried them to ,hungary as a gift to ,king ,matthias ,corvinus1 whose fame as a patron of art had reached his ears4 ,but the young artist was doomed to a dreadful disappointment1 for when he unpacked his chests in the presence of the king it was found that the sea-damp had spoiled them1 and the mosaics had fallen apart4 ,benedetto then determined to work in more durable materials1 and executed some sculptures in marble and terra-cotta while he remained in ,hungary4 ,after his return to ,florence1 ,benedetto worked as an architect1 and the ,strozzi ,palace was built after his design4 ,his masterpiece in sculpture was the monument to ,filippo ,strozzi1 in the ,strozzi ,chapel in ,santa ,maria ,novella1 and it also merits mention among the best works of the fifteenth century4 ,a pulpit in ,santa ,croce1 by ,benedetto1 is also very fine1 and his skill was shown here in his supporting the pulpit against a column and putting the staircase by which the pulpit is entered inside the column2 thus it was concealed1 and the building in no wise weakened1 while the pulpit is far more beautiful than it would be were the staircase in sight4 ,benedetto was summoned to ,naples by the ,duke of ,calabria1 who gave him commissions which occupied him for two years4 ,few ,tuscan sculptors have produced more pleasing works than ,benedetto's2 though not profound they are pleasing and unaffected1 and in whatever frame of mind one may be1 they do not disturb1 but rather soothe and charm1 as they could not do if they were false in sentiment or executed in an affected manner4 ,,matteo ,,civitali ,,di ,,giovanni 7#adce-aeja7 was born in ,lucca1 but studied art in ,florence4 ,his statue of ,st4 ,sebastian in the ,cathedral of ,lucca was so much admired by the painter ,perugino that he copied it in his picture of the ,entombment4 ,civitali's chief work in sculpture was the tomb of ,pietro da ,noceto in the same cathedral4 ,in ,genoa1 in the ,chapel of ,st4 ,john the ,baptist1 he executed six statues and five bas-reliefs4 ,a bas-relief of ,faith by ,civitali in the ,uffizi ,gallery is a fine work1 full of earnestness and deep religious feeling4 ,civitali was also an accomplished architect1 and did much to improve the style of building in ,lucca4 ,the beautiful temple of the ,volto ,santo in the cathedral was designed by him4 ,this sculptor may be said to have had four different styles of work4 ,the ,st4 ,sebastian was in his earliest manner1 and is simply realistic2 his second manner was the best2 it is pure and dignified in conception1 while deep feeling pervades all2 the tomb of ,noceto was in this second style2 his third manner was more free and less pure1 while the fourth1 as seen in his work at ,genoa1 is full of extravagant exaggeration4 ,next to the sculptors of the ,tuscan or ,florentine school of this period were those of ,venice in importance and independence of manner4 ,this school was much influenced by that of ,tuscany because of the nearness of the two cities and the constant communication between them1 as well as by the fact that ,tuscan sculptors were more or less employed in ,venice4 ,one of the earliest ,venetian sculptors was ,,antonio ,,giovanni ,,bregno1 called ,,antonio ,,rizzo or ,,riccio 7about #adcj-adih874 ,although he was born in ,verona1 and there had the opportunity to study the ,roman ruins which are the pride of the city1 he is yet essentially an artist of ,venice1 since he spent most of his life there1 and was even at the head of the workshop for the sculptors who worked upon the palace4 ,one little episode in the life of this artist was an expedition to ,scutari with the ,venetian soldiers1 who went to its defence against the ,turks4 ,rizzo showed himself so brave in action1 and was so severely wounded1 that after his return to ,venice the ,senate gave him a pension which lasted through twenty years4 ,rizzo so won the confidence of the ,venetians that he was appointed to important offices with large salaries1 and it is sad to be forced to add that he proved to be a dishonest man1 and when his accounts were examined he fled to ,foligno1 where he soon died4 ,we will not speak of him as an architect2 as a sculptor he is known by statues of ,adam and ,eve in niches opposite the ,giant's ,staircase in the ,ducal ,palace1 and by sepulchral monuments in the ,church of the ,frari4 ,while his works cannot be highly praised for beauty1 they do show the style of the ,renaissance distinctly4 ,,lombardo is the family name of three sculptors of this period in ,venice4 ,they were ,,pietro and his two sons1 ,,tullio and ,,antonio1 and the three together are spoken of as the ,lombardi4 ,pietro1 the father1 was as much an architect as a sculptor1 and the works of the father and son are so associated that it is difficult to speak of them separately4 ,we know that ,tullio was the superior artist of the three1 but there are no works of theirs that command a detailed description here4 ,the monument to the ,doge ,pietro ,mocenigo1 in the ,church of ,,ss4 ,giovanni e ,paolo1 the angels of the font in ,san ,martino1 an altar-relief in the altar of ,san ,giovanni ,crisostomo1 reliefs on the front of the ,scuola di ,san ,marco1 and two reliefs in the ,church of ,san ,antonio at ,padua1 are the principal sculptures of the ,lombardi4 ,,alessandro ,,leopardo1 who flourished about #adij1 was the most eminent bronze-caster of his time1 and was distinguished for the happy manner in which he adapted classic ideas to his needs in his works4 ,very little is known of the life of this sculptor1 and that little is not to his credit4 ,he lived in ,venice1 and had a studio in the ,piazza del ,cavallo1 and in #adhg committed a forgery1 for which he was banished from the city4 ,but when ,verocchio died1 leaving the ,colleoni statue unfinished1 the ,senate desired to have it completed by ,leopardo1 so they sent him a safe-conduct for six months1 and he returned to ,venice4 ,as there is no account of his again leaving the city1 it is supposed that he was allowed to remain as long as he chose4 ,there has been much difference of opinion as to which artist--,verocchio or ,leopardo--should be credited with the excellence of the ,colleoni statue4 ,the truth1 as near as it can be told1 seems to be that ,verocchio designed and modelled it1 that ,leopardo completed and cast it1 and made the lofty pedestal upon which it stands1 and which1 taken by itself1 is a splendid work4 ,it is of fine proportions1 and has six ,corinthian columns1 in the capitals of which there are dolphins1 while the frieze is composed of trophies and marine animals1 all of which are symbols of the ,city on the ,sea which erected the monument4 ,after the ,colleoni statue was unveiled the ,senate gave ,leopardo an order for three standard bases of bronze to be placed in the ,piazza of ,st4 ,mark's4 ,he also made three splendid candelabra for the ,venetian ,academy4 ,leopardo was also an architect4 ,the time of his death is very uncertain1 but a writer speaks of him in #aeda as the new glory of our age1 who shines like a star in the ,venetian waters4 ,although an immense amount of sculpture of this period remains in various parts of ,italy1 it is very difficult to trace the story of separate artists and to give a satisfactory account of those whose works are worthy of high praise4 ,there is scarcely an ,italian city of any size which has not some splendid remains of this morning of the ,renaissance4 ,in ,ancona there are the portal of ,san ,francesco and the front of ,mercanzia1 with which the name of ,giorgio da ,sebenico is associated4 ,at ,rimini the ,church of ,san ,francesco1 with its wealth of plastic ornament1 cannot be ascribed to any one artist or to any number with surety2 it is in the style of ,luca della ,robbia and ,donatello1 but in the execution does not reach their standard4 ,in ,cesena1 ,padua1 and ,verona there are fifteenth-century sculptures1 and in the ,milanese territory the plastic art of this period is very interesting4 ,illustration3 ,,figs4 #hi1 #ij4--,,terra-,,cottas ,,from ,,the ,,ospedale ,,grande4 ,milan4 ,in ,milan1 in the ,church of ,santa ,maria delle ,grazie1 in the ,ospedale ,grande1 and in the cathedral there is a wealth of sculpture to reward the student of this art who visits them2 and in the ,museum of the ,breda there are many interesting works4 ,the terra-cotta decoration of the ,ospedale excels all other works of this sort in upper ,italy1 and the immense facade of this edifice is a marvel in its way 7,figs4 #hi1 #ij74 ,the differences between this hospital and the wonderful ,milan ,cathedral afford a remarkable contrast in works of the same period4 ,,giovanni ,,antonio ,,amadeo1 or ,,omodeo 7#addg-aebj71 was born on a farm near the ,certosa of ,pavia4 ,when but nineteen years old his name appears as one of those who were employed upon this splendid edifice1 and the records of his payments show that his work was well considered1 even then4 ,omodeo was undoubtedly the best sculptor of his time in all ,lombardy1 and his sculptures in the ,colleoni ,chapel at ,bergamo would be sufficient to make any artist famous4 ,the whole work may be called his1 for he designed the building and the sculptures of the facade1 which are in the richest style of the ,renaissance2 there are statuettes1 colonettes1 busts1 medallions1 and bas-reliefs1 and wherever a flat surface exists it is divided into diamond-shaped slabs of colored marbles4 ,the portal is very much ornamented3 on each side of the rose window above this entrance there are busts of ,caesar and ,augustus in contrast with numbers of angels' heads not far away4 ,there are bas-reliefs representing children playing upon musical instruments1 and the whole front of the chapel1 with its numerous pilasters and colonettes1 has been compared to a gigantic organ1 by ,mr4 ,perkins1 in his ,italian ,sculptors4 ,of the interior decoration we can only say that it is much in ,omodeo's style1 though the monument to ,colleoni1 the founder of the chapel1 is said to be the work of ,german sculptors1 and to have been done after ,omodeo left ,bergamo4 ,at ,pavia1 ,omodeo succeeded ,guiniforte as chief architect of the ,certosa1 and designed the facade1 which was made by him and his successors4 ,the bas-relief of the ,deposition from the ,cross1 which is on the front of the high-altar here1 is the work of ,omodeo4 ,at ,cremona and at ,isola ,bella he executed some monuments1 but at length1 in #adij1 he began his work on the ,cathedral of ,milan4 ,here a cupola was commenced after his model and under his direction2 but when it was partly done doubts of its solidity were expressed1 and ,omodeo was commanded to leave it and design the north door to the cathedral4 ,he also constructed the spiral staircase leading to the roof through an elegant ,gothic turret1 where the medallion portrait of ,omodeo may be seen4 ,it has since been proved that the cupola of ,omodeo was solid enough1 for it has sustained the spire which was put upon it in #aggb2 but he was tormented concerning it in many ways1 and died without justification4 ,omodeo stands at the head of northern ,italian sculptors in his dexterous use of his chisel2 his ease in composition and his skill in the management of drapery would have made him eminent2 but the effect of all these good qualities was injured by his mannerism1 and the fact that his standard of beauty was not a high one4 ,this may be partly accounted for by the fact that in ,lombardy an artist had no opportunity to study the remains of classic art1 and this one circumstance very largely excuses the inferiority of the northern sculptors to those of ,tuscany1 whose taste had been much improved by close study of ancient plastic art4 ,there are many sculptors mentioned as having done some part of the work upon the ,milan ,cathedral1 but very few are known1 except by casual remark4 ,,cristoforo ,,solari1 called ,,il ,,gobbo1 or ,,del ,,gobbo1 was one of the most prominent1 and yet we know almost nothing of his history until1 in #adij1 he was so disappointed when ,omodeo was made architect of the cathedral instead of himself that he went to ,venice1 and remained there during several years4 ,after a time ,solari was appointed ducal sculptor to ,ludovico ,moro1 and the monument which he erected to ,beatrice d',este was one of his principal works4 ,when ,ludovico lost his power ,solari went to ,rome1 and remained until he was recalled to ,milan to execute sculptures for the cathedral4 ,he was very independent in his reply1 and refused to go unless his conditions were complied with2 one of these conditions was that he should not be under the direction of any one1 but should select his marbles and his subjects to please himself4 ,the statues he made are not as fine as we might expect them to be after this beginning2 however1 he was at length appointed head architect4 ,soon after this he was engaged in making a new model for a cupola1 and then suddenly his name ceases to appear upon the registers4 ,the ,cathedral of ,como is another of those vast edifices which afforded opportunities for artists to make themselves famous4 ,the principal part of the facade to this cathedral was ornamented by ,,tommaso and ,,jacopo ,,rodari4 ,the first was at one time architect of the cathedral1 and together they executed a large portion of the sculptures4 ,their best work was in the ornamental parts4 ,in the southern parts of ,italy1 both in the states of the ,church and in ,naples1 there are many works of the fifteenth century which were executed by artists from ,florence and other parts of ,italy4 ,thus there is nothing new to be said concerning sculpture in ,southern ,italy during this period1 since the works which are not by foreign artists are in the same style as theirs2 for the native sculptors copied those from ,central and ,northern ,italy1 and no great progress or original manner can be found in these southern districts4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,sculpture ,,in ,,germany1 ,,france1 ,,england1 ,,and ,,spain1 ,,from #adej ,,to #aeej4 ,in ,italy1 as we have seen1 the sculpture of the ,renaissance was much advanced by the fact that in the beginning of its growth the architecture of the country was largely an imitation of ,greek architecture2 and as the same artist was frequently an architect1 sculptor1 and painter1 edifices were designed with the purpose of placing the works of the sculptor in the most favorable positions4 ,in the countries north of ,italy sculpture had no such aid or advantages4 ,the ,gothic style of architecture was a hindrance to the sculptor1 whose works were combined with it4 ,the ,gothic construction afforded no broad1 generous spaces for sculpture2 all plastic work must be confined in limited spaces between columns and baldachins1 or in arched niches1 or between narrow flutings2 and though something had been done to vary the upright stiffness of the statues of its earliest days1 there was no freedom for the realistic and natural tendencies of the ,renaissance art to develop in4 ,another advantage on the side of ,italian art was the fact that ,italy was a land of grace and beauty2 its people were more refined in manner1 more elegant and picturesque in their costumes than were those of ,northern ,europe1 and all the influences surrounding the ,italian artist were far more favorable to a development of his artistic nature than were those of ,france or ,germany4 ,then1 too1 the remains of antique art which were within reach of the ,italian sculptor were quite shut off from others4 ,for all these and other reasons the sculpture of the north was more tardy in taking on the better spirit and form of the ,renaissance1 and as a whole it never became as pleasing to most people as was the sculpture of ,italy4 ,in a former chapter we have spoken of the sculptor ,claux ,sluter and his work at ,dijon in the fourteenth century2 the desire which he showed to make his figures like the men they represented1 and a general study of nature rather than of older works of sculpture1 had much effect upon the sculpture of his time1 and gradually became much exaggerated4 ,german sculptors tried not only to make exact portraits of the faces and heads of their figures1 but they gave the same attention to imitating every detail of costume and every personal peculiarity of the model from which they worked4 ,this tended to weaken and narrow their own designs1 and the whole effect of their work is fantastic and exaggerated--an effect quite opposed to the noble and harmonious treatment of the whole which the best ,italian masters strove to attain4 ,the attempt to produce startling effects in ,german art made such subjects as the ,passion of ,christ1 the ,temptation of ,st4 ,anthony1 and the ,martyrdoms of the ,saints to be constantly repeated1 and many reliefs are overloaded with such details as may very properly be used in painting1 and which belong to picturesque art1 but which take away the dignity and calm grandeur which should make the spirit of sculpture4 ,but there is one feature of ,german sculpture at this time which appeals to our sympathy--that is1 the deep1 earnest feeling which pervades it1 and which constantly tried new methods of expression4 ,in ,germany there were guilds or trade-associations1 and the members of these guilds were allowed to work in the special branch only of sculpture which belonged to their company1 so that this art was divided by more fixed lines than in ,italy1 where1 in truth1 at the period of which we speak1 the ,florentine school was a supreme power1 and its sculptors1 as we have seen1 worked in as many sorts of sculpture as pleased them4 ,the schools of ,germany were far more independent of each other1 and the entire organization of art in ,germany was very different from that of ,italy4 ,one of the most prominent effects of the architecture of ,germany was to drive the sculptors to seek for such work as had no relation to architecture1 and an important result from this was the great attention which they paid to wood-carving2 indeed1 this was the favorite pursuit of the ,german sculptors for many years4 ,about the middle of the fifteenth century the importance of this art in ,germany was far greater than those of bronze-casting or stone sculpture4 ,the principal works in wood-carving were the altars1 which finally came to be colossal in size1 and with their multitude of reliefs1 statuettes1 and ornaments were marvellous monuments to the industry and skill of the wood-carvers4 ,the reliefs in these works are usually arranged on landscape backgrounds1 and so much resemble pictures in many ways that the colors and gilding which were freely used on them do not seem out of place1 and it appears to be quite natural that wood-carvers should often have been painters also4 ,the ,swabian school1 the principal seat of which was ,ulm1 was the earliest to adopt the new1 realistic style4 ,there are works by ,swabian artists which show this tendency as early as #adca4 ,j,oe,r,g ,,syrlin1 who flourished during the last half of the fifteenth century1 was an eminent wood-carver1 and as he did not color his works he can be better judged as a sculptor than he could be if the effect of the whole depended partly upon painting4 ,the choir-stalls in the ,cathedral of ,ulm and the fountain in the market-place1 called ,fischkasten1 are his most important works2 but a singing-desk1 now in the museum1 and other lesser pieces are also excellent examples of his style4 ,the choir-stalls have an immense number of figures and a mass of ornament1 which made them far richer than any such work of an earlier date1 and none that have since been made have equalled them4 ,it is almost incredible that they were completed in four years1 and yet there are no marks of haste upon the work4 ,the figures are dignified and graceful1 the faces delicate and expressive1 the hands well formed1 and a beauty of design and execution marks the whole4 ,the lower figures1 which come nearest the eye1 are finer than those which are higher up1 so that a unity of effect is preserved throughout the whole4 ,he sometimes took occasion to give touches of humor in his works1 and in these stalls he introduced his own portrait and that of his wife4 ,the ,fischkasten is sculptured in stone1 and has three knights upon it which appear to be boldly advancing1 as if about to step off and walk away4 ,other works by this master are less important1 and it is doubtful if all that are called by his name are really his own4 ,joerg ,syrlin1 the younger1 trained by his father1 adopted his style1 and became an excellent artist4 ,we have not space to speak of the ,swabian sculptures in detail4 ,fine works exist in ,tiefenbronn1 ,rothenburg1 ,blaubeuren1 ,herrenberg1 ,gmuend1 ,ravensburg1 and many other places4 ,the influence of the ,swabian school was very wide2 it can be traced in many parts of ,germany1 in ,hungary and ,transylvania1 and even in ,switzerland1 ,austria1 and ,bavaria4 ,swabian artists were often summoned to adjacent provinces1 and thus did much work away from their homes4 ,the reliefs upon the door of the ,cathedral of ,constance were executed by ,simon ,hayder1 a ,swabian1 in #adgj4 ,the altar of the cathedral at ,chur was the work of ,jacob ,roesch1 another ,swabian master1 who thus labored on the very boundary of ,italy4 ,the school at ,augsburg was the second ,swabian school in importance1 and much influence went out from that centre1 though its sculptures were not as fine as those of ,ulm4 ,in some cases fine old sculptures still exist in the churches and other places for which they were intended4 ,again we find them either whole1 or in parts1 in museums to which they have been removed when they were no longer required for the uses for which they were made1 or when they were replaced by more modern works4 ,so few facts are known concerning them that it is almost impossible to do more than repeat descriptions of the subjects they represent2 and this is neither profitable nor entertaining in a book of this kind2 therefore ,i shall now speak only of such artists as have left some record behind them1 and of works whose authorship can be given4 ,,veit ,,stoss1 who flourished about the middle of the fifteenth century1 was an eminent wood-carver4 ,very little is known about him4 ,his name is sometimes said to be ,wit ,stwosz1 and ,cracow and ,nuremberg both claim to have been his birthplace4 ,but it is now believed that he was born in ,nuremberg1 as it is known that in #adgg he gave up his citizenship there and went to ,cracow1 and in #adif he paid a small sum to be again made a citizen of ,nuremberg4 ,we also know that his reputation as a man was not good4 ,in a ,nuremberg decree he is called a reckless and graceless citizen1 who has caused much uneasiness to the honorable council and the whole town4 ,he was convicted of crimes for which he should have suffered death1 but the sentence was changed1 and he was branded3 both cheeks were pierced with a hot iron4 ,after this he broke the oath he had taken to the city1 and joined her enemies in plotting against her2 he was subsequently imprisoned1 and at his death1 in #aecc1 he was very old and perfectly blind4 ,it seems almost like a contradiction to say that this master was one of the most tender in feeling of all the wood-carvers of his time4 ,he was especially successful in representing the purity of the ,madonna and of youthful saints4 ,his principal works are in the churches of ,cracow and ,nuremberg4 ,in the ,frauenkirche at ,cracow the high-altar1 a part of the stalls in the choir1 and some other sculptures are his4 ,in ,nuremberg his best works are a bas-relief of the ,crowning of the ,virgin1 which is preserved in the ,burgkapelle2 the great ,madonna statue1 which was placed in the ,frauenkirche in #aejd2 and the colossal ,angel's ,salutation1 which is suspended in the choir of the ,church of ,st4 ,laurence4 ,this last is an unusual and important work4 ,the angel appears as if flying1 and the drapery is much inflated2 the ,virgin is queenly and majestic1 yet graceful2 all around are medallions in which are represented the ,seven ,sorrows of the ,virgin4 ,the style of these reliefs is charming if we except the drapery2 that has the faults of the time1 and is bad in style2 but the female heads are all that we could ask2 the whole design is distinct1 and few reliefs could surpass these in simple beauty and genuine artistic feeling4 ,another remarkable work of his is a panel of roses1 now in the ,burgkapelle4 ,the panel is seven feet high by five wide2 more than half of this is covered by a wreath of roses2 there are besides four rows of small half-length figures arranged round a cross of ,st4 ,anthony1 a representation of the ,last ,judgment1 scenes in the history of man from the creation to the death of the ,virgin1 and many other saints and like subjects in bits of reliefs1 which fill up all spare spaces4 ,the style is very distinct1 and the draperies better in this work than in others from his hand4 ,there are other works in ,nuremberg and elsewhere which are attributed to ,veit ,stoss1 but these that are known to be his are quite enough to establish his fame as a gifted artist and a remarkable sculptor for his time4 ,though ,stoss is among the early masters of ,nuremberg1 it is yet true that others had been at work while he was in ,cracow1 and the way had been prepared for him and his work when he returned to his native city in #adif4 ,among the most active artists in ,nuremberg was ,,michael ,,wohlgemuth 7#adcd-aeai71 who is generally considered as a painter only2 but we know that he made contracts for entire works in which sculpture and painting are combined1 and must have had the oversight of the whole2 and in this view it is proper to mention this master's name4 ,the altars at ,haller ,cross ,chapel1 ,nuremberg1 one at ,zwickau1 another at ,schwabach1 and that of the ,heilsbronn ,monastery1 near ,nuremberg1 are all ascribed to ,wohlgemuth4 ,,albrecht ,d,ue,r,e,r 7#adga-aebh71 who was one of the great masters of the world1 was an architect1 painter1 and sculptor4 ,he was a pupil of ,michael ,wohlgemuth1 and sculpture was less practised by him than other arts2 yet the few works of his which remain are much valued4 ,duerer probably executed his carvings about #aeaj-aebj4 ,in the ,british ,museum there is a relief of the ,birth of ,st4 ,john the ,baptist1 which was purchased in the ,netherlands more than eighty years since for #bejj4 ,it is cut in a block of cream-colored stone1 seven and one half by five and one half inches in size1 and is a wonderful work4 ,the companion piece1 which represents the same saint ,preaching in the ,wilderness1 is in the ,brunswick ,museum1 where there is also an ,ecce ,homo carved in wood4 ,duerer executed many little carvings in stone1 ivory1 and boxwood1 and the existing ones are seen in various collections in ,germany4 ,it is quite probable that others are in private hands4 ,there are in ,nuremberg many most excellent wood-carvings by unknown masters2 one who cares for this art is well repaid for a visit to this old city1 and1 indeed1 this is true of other old ,german towns4 ,bamberg1 ,marburg1 ,frankfort-on-the-,main1 ,dortmund1 ,halle1 and many other towns have riches in this kind of art4 ,the stone sculpture of ,germany in the fifteenth century was of less importance than the wood-carving until toward the close of the period4 ,the exteriors of the churches and other edifices erected at this time had but little sculptural ornament1 and that consisted principally of traceries and figures in geometric designs4 ,some small detached works1 such as fonts1 pulpits1 or fountains1 were made in stone1 but the chief use of stone sculpture was for monuments to the dead4 ,,adam ,,krafft 7about #adcj-aejg71 of whose early history almost nothing is known1 is a very important master of this time1 and his principal works add another charm to the city of ,nuremberg4 ,a remarkable series of works by ,krafft are the ,seven ,stages1 or seven bas-reliefs placed on the way to the ,johannis ,cemetery1 the designs representing the seven falls of ,christ on his way to ,golgotha4 ,these reliefs are much crowded1 and the only part that is at all idealized is the figure of ,christ2 that is noble and calm in effect1 and the drapery is simple and dignified4 ,the other figures are coarse and dressed like the ,nurembergers of the time in which ,krafft lived4 ,in the churches of ,st4 ,sebald and ,st4 ,laurence and in the ,frauenkirche there are other splendid works of ,krafft1 and in some dwelling-houses of ,nuremberg there are sculptures of his4 ,a ,madonna on the houses1 #acjf1 in the ,hirschelgasse1 is one of the finest1 perhaps the very best in all ,germany4 ,we do not know whether this was by ,krafft or not1 but it has a purity and nobleness that scarcely any other ,german sculptor attained4 ,that ,krafft had a sense of humor is shown by a bas-relief above the entrance to the ,public ,scales4 ,the weigher stands observing the beam1 and beneath it is written1 ,to thyself as to others4 ,another man adds a weight to one scale1 and the man who is to be taxed puts his hand into his money-bag very reluctantly4 ,perhaps his most artistic work was the tabernacle in the ,church of ,st4 ,laurence4 ,it is sixty-four feet high2 the lower part is supported by the kneeling figures of ,krafft and two of his associates4 ,above this rises a slender ,gothic pyramid ornamented with bas-reliefs and statuettes4 ,he was employed upon this tabernacle from #adif to #aejj4 ,it is believed that a ,burial of ,christ1 in the chapel of the ,johannis ,cemetery1 was his latest work1 and executed in #aejg1 the year in which he died1 in the hospital of ,schwabach4 ,krafft led a most industrious life1 and was so skilful a workman that he could work with his left hand as readily as with his right4 ,,tilman ,,riemenschneider was an important sculptor1 born at ,osterode1 in the ,hartz ,mountains1 probably about #adfj4 ,in #adhc he went to ,wuerzburg1 and was elected to one honorable office after another1 until1 in #aebj1 he was head burgomaster4 ,after the ,peasants' ,war1 in #aebe1 he was deprived of his office2 he lived but six years after this1 and kept himself in close retirement1 not even practising his art4 ,his sculptures are mostly in stone1 and are quite numerous in ,wuerzburg and its vicinity4 ,his monument to the ,knight ,eberhard von ,grumbach1 in the church at ,rimpar1 was probably his earliest important work4 ,in it he has contrived to express strength and bravery of character in spite of the stiff costume1 every detail of which is worked out 7,fig4 #ia74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ia4--;,,count ,,eberhard ,,von ,,grumbach4 ,rimpar4 ,in #adie ,riemenschneider received the important commission to erect in ,bamberg ,cathedral a splendid monument to the ,emperor ,heinrich ,,ii4 and his wife ,kunigunde4 ,this occupied him until #aeac1 and is a splendid example of his skill4 ,the figures of the two royal personages lie upon a large sarcophagus2 the statues are more than life-size1 and are dressed in the fantastic costume of the fifteenth century4 ,upon the sides of the sarcophagus are five reliefs1 representing as many scenes from the lives of the emperor and empress4 ,the monuments and religious subjects executed by this sculptor are very numerous4 ,in the church at ,maidbrunn there is a relief representing the ,lamentation over the ,dead ,body of ,christ1 which is probably his latest work4 ,it is cut from sandstone1 and the figure of ,nicodemus is believed to be the sculptor's own portrait4 ,we give here four figures from the portal of the cathedral at ,berne1 in ,switzerland4 ,the really splendid sculptures were the work of ,nicolaus ,kuenz1 and from their style seem to belong to about #aebj4 ,they show the influence of such artists as the painters ,nicolaus ,manuel 7#adhd-aeca7 and ,hans ,holbein 7about #adei-aebd74 ,the statues of the ,wise and ,foolish ,virgins are fine1 and that of ,justice1 whose pose is full of grace1 and whose almost transparent garment is an exquisite work1 affords an excellent illustration of the most pleasing sculpture of this period 7,figs4 #ib1 #ic74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ib4--;,,justice4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ic4--,,the ,,three ,,wise ,,virgins4 ,another art1 which had its headquarters at ,nuremberg in the fifteenth century1 is bronze-casting1 and its chief master was the famous ,,peter ,,vischer1 who was the son of another brasier1 ,,hermann ,,vischer4 ,the date of ,peter ,vischer's birth is given as #adfj1 and he was admitted to be a master in his art in #adhi4 ,five years later than this he was summoned to ,heidelberg together with a sculptor1 ,simon ,lamberger1 to aid the ,elector ,philip with advice and skill4 ,nothing is known of any work which ,vischer did there4 ,vischer's foundry at ,nuremberg enjoyed a great fame1 and orders were sent to it from far and near4 ,no doubt a great many monuments were cast here which were not designed by ,vischer at all4 ,his works were numerous1 but ,i shall only describe his masterpiece1 which was the shrine or tomb of ,st4 ,sebald1 and occupied ,peter ,vischer from #aejh to #aeai1 he being assisted by his five sons4 ,the son ,peter was admitted as a master in the thimble trade in #aebg4 ,hans was called the caster1 and seems to have superintended the carving of models2 ,hermann went to ,italy and brought home designs and models2 and ,jacob and ,paul seem to have had no special departments4 ,between #adie and #aejh so little was recorded of ,peter ,vischer that it leads to the belief that these years must have been given to study and to the improvement which the tomb of ,st4 ,sebald shows over the work of the monument to ,archbishop ,ernst1 in the ,magdeburg ,cathedral1 which was done in #adie4 ,the bones of ,st4 ,sebald had been inclosed in a sarcophagus of the ,middle ,ages1 and the work required of ,vischer was a fitting tomb for such precious and honored relics1 for ,st4 ,sebald is the special patron saint of ,nuremberg1 and dwelt in a cell near that city4 ,his legend relates that he was the son of a ,danish king1 who came to ,germany as a missionary and settled at ,nuremberg1 where he did many miraculous works of charity4 ,on one occasion1 during very cold weather1 he is said to have found a family nearly frozen and without fuel2 he commanded them to bring the icicles hanging from the roof and make a fire of them4 ,they obeyed1 and were thus warmed4 ,many such wonders are told of him1 and ,vischer in his statue makes him to appear as a pilgrim1 with shell in hat1 staff1 rosary and wallet1 while in his hand he holds a model of a church intended to represent that in which the tomb is erected4 ,this ,church of ,st4 ,sebald is now used for the ,lutheran service1 and the shrine still stands in the centre of the choir4 7,fig4 #id47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #id4--,,tomb ,,of ,,st4 ,,sebald4 ,by ,peter ,vischer4 ,nuremberg4 ,the architecture of this remarkable work is of the richest style of ,gothic1 and the whole of it is in bronze1 except that the oaken sarcophagus is encased in silver plates4 ,this rests beneath a fret-work canopy supported on slender pillars4 ,there is an abundance of ornament everywhere1 but the close examination of its detail shows beauty and fitness in every part4 ,for example1 if we compare the statue of the saint1 of which we have spoken1 which stands at the end of the shrine most exposed1 with the statue of ,vischer himself1 which is at the opposite end1 we shall see how the saint1 with his symbols and his flowing drapery1 is an ideal work1 and seems to be advancing with authority and the air which befits the son of a king1 while ,vischer1 with his round cap1 leather apron1 and ,german face1 is simply the representation of a worker bent upon doing his best 7,fig4 #ie74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ie4--,,peter ,,vischer',s ,,statue4 ,the sarcophagus rests upon a base on which are four reliefs of scenes from the life of the saint1 all in the purest manner of the time4 ,one of these represents the burning of the icicles recounted above 7,fig4 #if74 ,this base and sarcophagus and the fret-work above it form the centre of the tomb4 ,then outside of this are eight pillars supporting a baldachin1 or canopy1 in the richly ornamented ,romanesque style1 and the combinations of the ,gothic and the decorative architecture are so skilfully made as not to offend our taste4 ,but it is generally acknowledged that the chief beauty of this work is the series of the figures of the apostles1 which are upon the pillars4 ,they are slender in proportion1 gracefully draped1 and bear their distinctive symbols4 ,they are perfectly free from the realism of the earlier works of ,vischer1 and have more of the purity and nobleness of the works of ,ghiberti than are seen in the statues of any other ,german artist of this age 7,figs4 #ig1 #ih74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #if4--,,st4 ,,sebald ,,and ,,the ,,burning ,,icicles4 ,vischer4 ,above the apostles are figures of prophets and other ,biblical personages2 ,perseus and ,hercules are also represented1 and other statues typify ,strength1 ,justice1 ,prudence1 and ,moderation4 ,the figure of the ,infant ,christ is upon the centre of the highest1 or middle dome4 ,between the pillars at their bases stand graceful candelabra1 and the base itself rests upon snails4 ,besides all these principal figures there are almost numberless others and many ornamental designs4 ,there are harpies1 sirens1 satyrs1 fawns1 and all sorts of fantastic creatures4 ,the whole work is full of the deep feeling of the north and the beauty and richness of the south1 and is a most remarkable production4 ,we are told that ,vischer was but poorly paid for this labor1 with all its thought and skill4 ,he inscribed upon it these words3 444 ,he completed it for the praise of ,god ,almighty alone1 and for the honor of ,st4 ,sebald1 ,prince of ,heaven1 by the aid of pious persons1 paid by their voluntary contributions4 ,there is a satisfaction in remembering that ,vischer lived ten years after this tomb was completed1 and must have heard many praises of his work4 ,the later works of ,vischer were a few reliefs and two important monuments at ,aschaffenburg and ,wittenberg4 ,his sons ,hans and ,hermann executed a few monuments1 which are done in the manner of their father1 but do not equal him in design or finish4 ,there are numerous works which must be regarded as productions of ,vischer's studio and foundry of which we cannot give clear accounts1 not knowing whether they were the earlier works of the father1 or were executed by the sons or other pupils1 of which he had many4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ig4--,,peter4 ,by ,peter ,vischer4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ih4--;,,john4 ,by ,peter ,vischer4 ,,pankraz ,,labenwolf was one of ,vischer's pupils1 and completed the splendid lattice-work over the ,town-hall which the master left unfinished2 ,labenwolf added some ornaments and coats-of-arms to it4 ,in #aeej he cast the fountain in the court-yard of the same building1 which is a graceful and creditable work2 but another fountain in the vegetable market1 behind the ,frauenkirche1 is truly original2 the water flows from the mouths of two geese held under the arms of a peasant2 the whole effect is droll and unique 7,fig4 #ii74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ii4--,,man ,,and ,,geese4 ,by ,labenwolf4 ,you will remember how1 about #acij1 ,claux ,sluter1 by his works in ,dijon1 had a great influence upon ,french sculpture4 ,a century and more later this art in ,france was largely under the influence of ,italian masters1 who had been called into ,france by ,francis ,i4 and other patrons of art4 ,splendid works of sculpture were also imported from ,italy1 and the effect of the ,italian ,renaissance1 which was so plainly seen upon the painting of ,france1 was also at work upon its sculpture4 ,where the sculptures were a part of an architectural decoration1 as in the case of the choir screen in the cathedral at ,amiens1 and other like works1 the change was not as complete as in cases where the work was one of independent sculpture1 as in monuments and statues to commemorate the dead1 or in portrait sculpture4 ,the wealth and power of the nobility of ,france at this period enabled them to gratify their desire to leave fine monuments of themselves1 in order to keep their names in memory in future centuries4 ,in these the ,italian manner was adopted1 and the works when completed were far more splendid and elegant than were the corresponding works in ,germany4 ,but they have a grave fault1 which makes them much less interesting than are the ,german sculptures3 they are more conventional1 less expressive1 and far less artistic in spirit4 ,they impress one as if the soft1 luxurious court atmosphere had passed over them1 and taking away their strong points1 had left them only a general air of being well-bred and well-kept persons1 of little importance to the real life of the world4 ,in the ,louvre1 in the ,museum of ,modern ,sculpture1 all this change can be traced1 and the traveller in ,france may see such monuments as we refer to in all the cathedrals and most of the churches all over the country4 ,many of them cannot be traced to any one master4 ,a fine specimen is the ,amboise ,monument in ,rouen ,cathedral1 which is said to have been the work of one ,roulland de ,roux and his assistants4 ,,jean ,,juste of ,tours was one of the best ,french artists of his day4 ,in the ,cathedral of ,tours is a monument to two young children of ,charles ,,viii41 which proves him to have had much delicacy and tenderness of execution4 ,the sarcophagus is covered with graceful designs1 and on the lid lie the two babies1 for the eldest was but three years old4 ,the whole work is exquisite1 and gives one a feeling of satisfaction4 ,about #aecj ,juste erected the splendid monument to ,louis ,,xii4 and ,anne of ,brittany in the ,church of ,st4 ,denis4 ,while the general form of the monument is much like that of the ,visconti in the ,certosa at ,pavia1 the figures of the dead couple are quite different from the ,italian manner4 ,below on a bier the two nude bodies are stretched in all the realism possible1 and the heads are noble and touching in expression4 ,above1 on the upper part of the monument1 where in ,italy the patron saint or some other figure usually is placed1 the king and queen again appear2 they are kneeling1 with full drapery about them1 while the faces are characteristic and very expressive4 ,this monument1 taken all in all1 is in the perfection of the ,french art of the time4 ,another work by ,juste now in the ,louvre is the monument to ,louis de ,poncher1 one of the ministers of ,francis ,i41 and his wife1 ,roberta4 ,these statues are in alabaster1 and were formerly in the ,church of ,st4 ,germain l',auxerrois1 which was built by ,poncher4 ,,pierre ,,bontemps must have been a famous sculptor1 as he was chosen to erect the monument to ,francis ,i41 his wife ,claude and their three children4 ,this is also at ,st4 ,denis1 and is even more grand than that to ,louis ,,xii4 ,on the upper platform the five figures are kneeling2 they are noble and simple1 with an air of great repose4 ,these examples serve to give an idea of the religious sculpture of the time4 ,secular subjects were unusual4 ,a house in ,bourges is decorated with the figures of the master and mistress above the entrance1 as if they would speak a welcome1 while reliefs of industrial scenes1 such as might be seen outside and inside of the house1 are placed in various positions over the building and in the court-yard4 ,something of a like sort is upon the ,hotel ,bourgtheroulde at ,rouen1 where the friezes show scenes between ,francis ,i4 and ,henry ,,viii4 ,biblical scenes are also distributed over the building4 ,bruges is almost the only city of the ,netherlands that has any sculptures of this period of which one would speak4 ,just at this time the art of that country was painting preeminently1 and the ,van ,eycks and their followers had done such things as held the attention of all to the neglect of other arts4 ,at ,bruges in the cathedral1 the ,church of ,st4 ,jacques1 and the ,liebfrauenkirche there are some fine monuments1 and the ,palais de ,justice has a carved chimney-piece which is magnificent1 and a work of the highest rank4 ,in ,england sculpture was of less account even than in the ,netherlands4 ,one circumstance is worthy of notice4 ,pietro ,torrigiano1 after quarrelling with ,michael ,angelo and breaking his nose1 fled to ,england1 and his monument of ,henry ,,vii4 and his queen in ,westminster ,abbey1 erected in #aeai1 marks the introduction of the style of the ,italian ,renaissance into ,england4 ,the structure is of black marble2 the statues of the king and queen are in gilt bronze1 and are grandly noble in design and finished in execution4 ,the smaller figures and all the details of the monument are fine4 ,the master received ,l#ajjj for this work4 ,torrigiano executed other works1 and entered into an agreement to make a monument to ,henry ,,viii4 and ,catherine of ,aragon1 but for some reason he went to ,spain in #aeai and never returned1 as he was destroyed by the ,inquisition three years later4 ,it is probable that ,torrigiano may have been led to ,spain by hearing of the revival of art which was taking place there4 ,flemish and ,italian artists went there1 and the influence of their styles was felt by the native masters4 ,the result was that they brought forth a manner of their own1 combining certain features of northern and of southern art1 and used to express the thoughts of the ,spaniards themselves4 ,the carved altars of ,seville1 ,toledo1 and ,burgos show how splendid this art was2 and though we cannot trace the lives and works of ,spanish sculptors as we should like to do1 we can be sure that there were men among them equal to any demand that could be made upon decorative sculptors4 ,this is proved by the portals and fronts of the churches1 by the highly ornamented chapels1 the wall niches and choir screens of the interiors1 while the monuments are also equal to those of other nations4 ,that of ,ferdinand and ,isabella in the ,church of the ,guardian ,angel1 at ,granada1 is noble and magnificent4 ,it is believed to have been erected before the death of ,ferdinand in #aeaf1 and was probably the work of an ,italian sculptor4 ,this monument has a large marble sarcophagus1 with a structure above it in the ,renaissance style4 ,at the corners of the sarcophagus there are griffins of excellent workmanship1 and on the sides reliefs and statuettes of the ,four ,fathers of the ,church2 on the lid repose the figures of the royal pair1 executed in a grand and dignified simplicity4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,italian ,,sculpture ,,in ,,the ,,sixteenth ,,century--,,cellini1 ,,michael ,,angelo1 ,,and ,,others4 ,by the beginning of the sixteenth century sculpture occupied a different place with relation to architecture from that which it had held in the previous centuries which we have just considered4 ,the architecture of ,italy became much more plain1 and its union with sculpture in any large degree was rare4 ,painting1 too1 had now an effect to lessen the sphere of sculpture4 ,this art was always preferred by the ,christians1 as has been shown before1 and now1 when it had reached most satisfactory heights1 it was used in many places where sculpture had before been placed4 ,one important example of this is seen in the decoration of altars2 where bas-reliefs had been used paintings were now preferred1 and the end of all was that sculpture was limited to monuments and to separate pieces--reliefs or single statues or groups of figures4 ,in some ways this separation of the arts was a benefit to all4 ,under the old rule sculptors had often been forced to sacrifice their design to the needs of the architecture their work adorned4 ,at other times they were compelled to put aside their own feeling and their artistic ideas as to how a subject should be treated1 and suit themselves to such forms as were approved by the particular priest or bishop whose church they decorated4 ,now1 when left to itself1 sculpture became more individual in its expression1 and far more free and interesting in itself4 ,in the beginning of the sixteenth century the works of ,italian sculpture were splendid in the extreme4 ,it was delicate and beautiful2 the drapery was made to show the figure and its natural motion1 while it added an exquisite grace to the whole2 many works of this period were fine in conception1 good in their arrangement1 and executed in a noble1 spirited manner4 ,some critics believe that during the first four decades of this era ,italian sculpture equalled the antique art of the ,romans4 ,others make #aebj1 or the time of ,raphael1 the limit to the best epoch of this art2 but it is scarcely possible thus to fix an exact bound2 the important point is that this excellence was reached1 and the regret follows that it could not endure for a longer period4 ,a far greater variety of subjects was represented in this age of sculpture than before4 ,formerly the rule was the production of religious effects4 ,scenes from the life of ,christ and his disciples1 others from those of the saints1 or the illustration of scriptural stories1 with the portrait tomb-sculpture1 had been the sculptor's work4 ,now all the stories of mythology were studied as diligently as they had been in classic days1 and artists studied to clothe the pagan personages with new forms2 and in all this effort much appeared that was original4 ,it is easy to see that such sculpture from the hand of a ,christian artist must lack the important element of pure sincerity4 ,an artist who believed in ,jesus ,christ could not conceive a statue of ,jupiter1 with all the glorious attributes1 that an ancient ,greek would have given to his god of gods4 ,in this view the sculpture of classic subjects of this sixteenth century may be said to have been two-sided--the work illustrated a religion in which the artist pleased his imagination1 but for which he had no reverence or love4 ,but in spite of all it was a golden age1 and many of its works are a joy forever4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajj4 ,,pharisee4 ,,fig4 #aja4 ,,levite4 ,by ,rustici4 ,although the first public work which ,leonardo ,da ,vinci did at ,milan was to model an equestrian statue1 we can scarcely speak of him as a sculptor4 ,but the first ,florentine of this period whom ,i shall mention is ,,giovanni ,,francesco ,,rustici 7#adgf-aeej71 who was a fellow-pupil with ,leonardo under ,verocchio4 ,very few works by this master remain1 but a prominent and important one is the bronze group above the northern portal to the baptistery at ,florence4 ,it represents the preaching of ,st4 ,john ,the ,baptist1 and is grand in the free action of its figures4 ,the ,drapery is in a pure style1 very much like that of ,ghiberti 7figs4 #ajj1 #aja74 ,this work was ordered by a guild of merchants1 and they failed to pay the price which had been fixed for it4 ,rustici was so embarrassed by this that he undertook no more large works1 and after the ,medici were expelled from florence he went into the service of ,francis ,i4 in ,france he had executed various works1 and was finally commissioned to model an equestrian statue of the king in colossal size1 when the sovereign died4 ,rustici survived but three years1 and we are told that he only executed small works1 and those for the most part for the sake of kindness4 ,,andrea ,,contucci ,,dal ,,monte ,,san ,,savino1 called ,,sansovino 7#adfj-aebi71 was a very important sculptor1 because large works were committed to him1 and his name must remain associated with them4 ,like ,giotto1 ,sansovino was a shepherd-boy1 and drew pictures upon the stones of the fields4 ,like ,giotto1 too1 he was sent to ,florence to study1 and in the school of ,pallajuolo made good progress4 ,when thirty years old he was appointed architect and sculptor to the ,king of ,portugal4 ,after an absence of ten years he returned to ,florence1 and later to ,rome1 where ,pope ,julius ,,ii4 commissioned him to erect monuments to the ,cardinals ,rovere and ,sforza1 in the ,church of ,santa ,maria del ,popolo4 ,these monuments were his best works1 but they cannot be praised4 ,the statues are in positions which seem to be uncomfortable1 and there is such a mass of ornament and so many statuettes that the whole has an effect of confusion4 ,in #aeac ,leo ,x4 sent ,sansovino to ,loreto to adorn the temple which incloses the ,casa ,santa with bas-reliefs4 ,this ,casa ,santa is believed to be the house in which the ,virgin ,mary was born at ,nazareth2 and when the ,saracens invaded the land four angels are said to have borne the house to the coast of ,dalmatia1 and later to a spot near ,loreto2 but here some brigands entered it1 and again it was removed to its present position in the ,church of ,loreto2 this is said to have been done in #abie4 ,naturally this ,casa ,santa is a sacred object to all ,roman ,catholics1 and it is visited by thousands and thousands of pilgrims each year4 ,the decoration of this shrine was very important1 and an honorable work for any artist4 ,sansovino did not execute all the reliefs1 and the highest praise that can be given to those he did is to say that they are superior to the others that are beside them4 ,he was a most skilful workman1 and it seems as if marble became like wax under his hand2 but this very skill led him to multiply his ornaments1 and to repeat acanthus leaves and honeysuckle vines until the whole was a weariness and confusion1 and conveyed no meaning or sentiment whatever4 ,sansovino's most important pupil was ,,jacopo ,,tatti1 who1 on account of his master1 is called ,,jacopo ,,sansovino 7#adgg-aegj74 ,he was born at ,florence1 and when ,andrea ,sansovino returned from ,portugal ,jacopo became his pupil4 ,early in life he went to ,rome1 and there studied and copied the works of antiquity2 among other things he made a copy of the ,laocoon1 which was cast in bronze at a later time4 ,soon after his return to ,florence1 in #aeaa1 ,jacopo received orders for some works1 but the most important statue which he made about this time is the ,bacchus1 now in the ,uffizi4 ,in this work he showed how completely he was in sympathy with the classic spirit2 this ,bacchus is a triumph in this manner1 and has been called the most beautiful and spirited pagan statue of the ,renaissance period4 ,it is full of gladness1 and is simple1 delicate1 and beautiful4 ,the young god is advancing and holding up a cup1 which he regards with an expression of delight2 in his right hand he has a bunch of grapes1 from which a ,pan is eating stealthily 7,fig4 #ajb74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajb4--;,,bacchus4 ,by ,jacopo ,sansovino4 ,in #aead ,jacopo ,sansovino was employed upon the decorations for the visit of ,leo ,x4 to ,florence4 ,soon after this he went again to ,rome and submitted plans for the ,church of ,san ,giovanni de' ,fiorentini1 which the ,florentines were about to erect--for this master was an architect as well as a sculptor4 ,the taking of ,rome by ,constable de ,bourbon1 in #aebg1 drove ,sansovino away2 he went to ,venice1 intending to go to ,france1 but ,venice charmed him1 and his work pleased the ,venetians1 and the result was that from #aebi he served the ,venetians as long as he lived4 ,he was appointed ,protomastro of the ,republic of ,venice1 and had the care of ,st4 ,mark's1 the ,campanile1 the ,piazza1 and the surrounding buildings4 ,he received a good salary1 and was provided with a handsome house to live in4 ,he first restored the cupolas of ,st4 ,mark's2 then completed the ,scuola della ,misericordia2 he next made the interior of ,san ,francesco della ,vigna2 then the ,zecca1 the ,fabbriche ,nuove1 and the ,loggietta of the ,campanile4 ,he also erected other churches and palaces1 besides smaller sculptural works4 ,but his architectural masterpiece was the ,library of ,st4 ,mark's4 ,the bronze gate to the ,sacristy of ,st4 ,mark's was one of his principal works4 ,it is subject to criticism as being too crowded2 but it is a fine work and full of strong feeling4 ,his statues are numerous and seen all over ,venice2 indeed1 it is proper to speak of him as a ,venetian1 so thoroughly did he adopt that city1 and so industriously did he work for it during forty years4 ,had he remained in ,florence he might have been a better artist2 the splendor and luxury of the ,venetians brought out corresponding traits in ,jacopo1 and he fell short of the purity which the influence of ,florence might have given him4 ,he is one of the masters in whom the sensual influence of the study of pagan art was fully manifested4 ,many of his subjects were mythological2 among them were the story of ,phrixos and ,helle1 ,mercury1 ,apollo1 ,pallas1 ,mars1 and ,neptune1 the last two being colossal figures on the steps of the ,doge's ,palace4 ,among the pupils and associates of ,sansovino were ,,niccolo ,,braccini 7#adhe-aeej71 called ,,il ,,tribolo1 and ,,francesco ,,sangallo 7#adih-aegj71 neither of whom were important artists1 though many works by them are seen in various places in ,italy4 ,,benvenuto ,,cellini 7#aejj-aegb7 is a far more interesting study than were many sculptors of his time4 ,his life was an eventful one1 and his own account of it is one of the most interesting books of its class in existence4 ,his statement of the origin of his family is that ,julius ,caesar had a chief and valorous captain named ,fiorino da ,cellino1 from a castle situated four miles from ,monte ,fiascone4 ,this ,fiorino having pitched his camp below ,fiesole1 where ,florence now stands1 in order to be near the river ,arno1 for the convenience of the army1 the soldiers and other persons1 when they had the occasion to visit him1 said to each other1 ',let us go to ,fiorenza1' which name they gave to the place where they were encamped1 partly from their captain's name of ,fiorino1 and partly from the abundance of flowers which grew there2 wherefore ,caesar1 thinking it a beautiful name1 and considering flowers to be of good augury1 and also wishing to honor his captain1 whom he had raised from an humble station1 and to whom he was greatly attached1 gave it to the city which he founded on that spot4 ,when this artist was born his father was quite old1 and named him ,benvenuto1 which means welcome1 on account of his pleasure in the child of his old age4 ,the father had a passion for music1 and from the first wished that his son should study this art2 but the boy loved drawing1 and was determined to be an artist2 thus his time was divided between these two pursuits until he was fifteen years old1 when he was apprenticed to a goldsmith4 ,benvenuto had a fiery temper1 and when still very young he became involved in so serious a quarrel that he was obliged to flee from ,florence4 ,he went first to ,siena1 and thence to ,bologna1 and at last back to ,florence1 where he resumed his work4 ,it was not long1 however1 before he became angry again because his best clothes were given to his brother1 and he walked off to ,pisa1 where he remained a year4 ,he had even then become so skilful in his art that some of his works done there have never been excelled either in design or execution4 ,when ,cellini was eighteen years old ,torrigiano came to ,florence to engage artists to go to ,england to aid him in some works he was to execute4 ,he wished to have ,cellini in the number2 but ,torrigiano so disgusted ,benvenuto by his boasting of the blow that he had given ,michael ,angelo1 that though he had the natural youthful desire to travel1 he refused to be employed by such a man as ,torrigiano4 ,we can safely assume that this predisposed ,michael ,angelo in ,cellini's favor1 and was the foundation of the friendship which he afterward showed to the younger sculptor4 ,from his eighteenth to his fortieth year ,cellini lived mostly at ,rome4 ,he was employed by ,pope ,clement ,,vii41 the cardinals and ,roman nobles4 ,the ,pope desired to have a cope button made and a magnificent diamond set in it4 ,this jewel had cost ,julius ,,ii4 thirty-six thousand ducats4 ,many artists sent in designs for this button1 and ,clement chose that by ,cellini4 ,he used the diamond as a throne1 and placed a figure of the ,almighty upon it2 the hand was raised as if in blessing1 and many angels fluttered about the folds of the drapery1 while various jewels were set around the whole4 ,when other artists saw the design they did not believe that it could be executed successfully2 but ,cellini made it a perfect work of art and of beauty4 ,cellini writes of himself as being very active in the siege of ,rome1 ,may #eth1 #aebg4 ,he says that he killed the ,constable de ,bourbon1 who led the siege1 and that he wounded the ,prince of ,orange1 who was chosen in ,bourbon's place4 ,no one else saw him perform these feats4 ,cellini went to the ,pope1 who was in the ,castle of ,st4 ,angelo1 and he there rendered such services to the cause of the ,church that the ,holy ,father pardoned him for all the sins into which his temper had led him--for all the homicides he had committed or might commit in the service of the ,apostolic ,church4 ,a few years later1 when ,cellini was called upon to take part in the defence of his own city1 he put all his property into the care of a friend1 and stole away to ,rome4 ,in #aecd ,cellini killed a fellow-goldsmith1 called ,pompeo2 ,paul ,,iii4 was now ,pope2 and as he needed the services of ,benvenuto very much he pardoned him4 ,but the sculptor felt that he was in ill favor with all about him1 and went to ,france4 ,in about a year he returned to find that he had been accused of stealing some jewels which the pope had commanded him to take out of their settings4 ,cellini was held a prisoner nearly two years1 but his guilt was never proved4 ,at the end of this time the ,cardinal ,ippolito d',este obtained his release in order that he might go to ,france to execute some work for ,francis ,i4 ,cellini remained in ,france five years1 and received many honors and gifts2 but as ,madame d',etampes and other persons to whose advice the king listened were enemies of ,cellini1 he never was treated as his artistic qualities merited4 ,francis ,i4 really admired ,cellini1 and presented him with the ,hotel de ,petit ,nesle1 which was on the site of the present ,hotel de la ,monnaie2 he also made him a lord1 and on one occasion expressed his fear of losing him1 when ,madame d',etampes replied1 ,the surest way of keeping him would be to hang him on a gibbet4 ,of all the objects which ,cellini made during his five years in ,france but two remain4 ,one is a splendid salt-cellar1 and the other is a nymph in bronze1 which was made for the ,palace of ,fontainebleau1 and is now in the ,renaissance ,museum of the ,louvre4 ,this salt-cellar is now in the ,ambraser ,gallery at ,vienna4 ,the frieze around the base has figures in relief which represent the hours of the day and the winds4 ,the upper part is made like the surface of the sea1 and from it rise figures of ,neptune and ,cybele4 ,the first is a symbol of the salt of the sea1 and the second of the spices which the earth gives4 ,the god is placing his arm on a small ship intended for the salt1 and a vessel for pepper1 in the form of a triumphal arch1 is near the goddess4 ,all this is made of fine embossed gold1 and has some touches of enamel-work4 ,it is one of the finest pieces of the goldsmith's art which remains from the sixteenth century4 ,in #aede ,cellini returned to ,florence1 and remained there1 with short absences1 until his death4 ,duke ,cosmo de' ,medici became his patron1 and commissioned him to make a statue of ,perseus for the ,loggia de' ,lanzi4 ,the ambition of the artist was much excited by the thought of having his work placed by those of ,donatello and ,michael ,angelo1 and all care was taken from his mind1 as the ,duke provided him with a comfortable house and gave him a salary sufficient for his support4 ,it was nine years before the statue was completed and in its place1 and in this time ,cellini had suffered much4 ,baccio ,bandinelli and others were his enemies1 and at times the ,duke had been under their influence1 and would not furnish the money necessary to the work4 ,but at last all was ready for the casting2 and just at this unfortunate moment for ,cellini to leave it he was seized with a severe illness2 he was suffering much1 and believed himself about to die1 when some one ran in shouting1 ,oh1 ,benvenuto1 your work is ruined past earthly remedy6 ,ill as he was he rushed out to the furnace1 to find that the fire was too low1 and the metal1 being cool1 had ceased flowing into the mould4 ,by almost superhuman efforts he remedied the evil1 and again the bronze flowed2 he prayed earnestly1 and when the mould was filled he writes3 ,i fell on my knees and thanked ,god with all my heart1 after which ,i ate a hearty meal with my assistants1 and it being then two hours before dawn1 went to bed with a light heart1 and slept as sweetly as if ,i had never been ill in all my life4 ,when the statue was unveiled ,cellini's prediction that it would please all the world except ,bandinelli and his friends was fulfilled4 ,perseus is represented just at the moment when he has cut off the head of ,medusa1 who was one of the ,gorgons1 and had turned to stone every one who looked at her4 7,fig4 #ajc47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajc4--,,perseus4 ,by ,benvenuto ,cellini4 ,after the completion of the ,perseus1 ,cellini went to ,rome for a short time4 ,while there he made a bust of ,bindo ,altoviti2 when ,michael ,angelo saw this he wrote3 ,my ,benvenuto1 ,i have long known you as the best goldsmith in the world1 and ,i now know you as an equally good sculptor1 through the bust of ,messer ,bindo ,altoviti4 ,cellini did no more important works1 though he was always industrious4 ,he made a crucifix which he intended for his own grave1 but he gave it to the ,duchess ,eleanora2 this was afterward sent to ,philip ,,ii4 of ,spain1 and is now in the ,escurial4 ,cellini's life was by no means a model one1 but he had his good qualities4 ,he took a widowed sister with six children to his home1 and made them welcome and happy4 ,at his death he was buried in the ,church of the ,annunziata1 beneath the chapel of the ,company of ,st4 ,luke1 and many honors were paid to his memory4 ,his autobiography was so rich in its use of the ,florentine manner of speech and so fine in its diction that it was honored as an authority by the ,accademia della ,crusca4 ,he also wrote valuable works on the goldsmith's art and on bronze-casting and sculpture4 ,he wrote poems and various kinds of verses1 but his large acquaintance with popes1 cardinals1 kings1 artists1 and men of letters makes his story of his life far more interesting than his other writings4 ,the artists of ,upper ,italy were much influenced by ,florentine art1 as they had formerly been1 and we can speak of no very great sculptor of this century who belonged to this part of the country4 ,,alfonso ,,lombardo 7#adhh-aecg7 was a native of ,lucca2 his principal works are seen in ,ferrara1 ,bologna1 and ,cesena4 ,,properzia ,,de' ,,rossi 7#adij-aecj7 was born at ,bologna1 and is interesting as the one ,italian sculptress of that time4 ,she was born about a year after her father had returned from the galleys1 where he had worked out a sentence of eighteen years for the crime of manslaughter4 ,properzia seems to have inherited her father's violent temper1 and was twice arraigned in court4 ,she was very beautiful in person1 and had a devoted lover in ,antonio ,galeazzo ,malvasia de' ,bottigari1 who did not marry until many years after the death of ,properzia4 ,properzia studied drawing under ,marc ,antonio ,raimondi1 the famous engraver4 ,she first devoted herself to the cutting of intaglios1 which demanded an immense amount of patient labor4 ,there is in the cabinet of gems in the ,uffizi ,gallery1 at ,florence1 a cherry-stone carved by ,properzia1 on which sixty heads may be counted2 the subject is a ,glory of ,saints4 ,other like works of hers exist in the ,palazzo ,grassi1 in ,bologna4 ,her next work was in arabesques1 marble ornaments1 lions1 griffins1 vases1 eagles1 and similar objects4 ,finally she essayed a bust of ,count ,guido ,pepoli2 it is now in the ,sacristy of ,san ,petronio1 in ,bologna4 ,in the same place are two bas-reliefs by her hand1 ,solomon receiving the ,queen of ,sheba1 and ,joseph and ,potiphar's ,wife4 ,in the chapel ,zambeccari in ,san ,petronio there are two large figures of angels by ,properzia1 which are near the ,ascension of the ,virgin by ,il ,tribolo4 ,her manner was much influenced by her contact with this sculptor4 ,properzia was employed1 with other artists1 to finish the sculpture of the portal of ,san ,petronio1 left unfinished by ,jacopo della ,quercia4 ,,antonio ,,begarelli 7#adii-aefe71 called also ,,antonio ,,da ,,modena1 from the place of his birth1 was a celebrated modeller in clay4 ,it is said that when ,michael ,angelo visited ,modena in #aebi he saw ,begarelli and his works1 and exclaimed1 ,alas for the statues of the ancients1 if this clay were changed to marble6 ,begarelli had a school for teaching design and modelling1 and he greatly influenced the manner of the ,lombard school of painting4 ,its foreshortening1 its relief and grace are largely due to him and his teaching4 ,begarelli and ,correggio were fast friends1 and resembled each other in their conception of the grand and beautiful4 ,when ,correggio was decorating the cupola of the ,cathedral of ,parma1 ,begarelli was at work in the same place1 and made many models from which ,correggio painted his floating figures4 ,some works by ,begarelli may be seen in the ,berlin ,museum4 ,his ,descent from the ,cross1 in the ,church of ,san ,francesco1 at ,modena1 is one of his best works4 ,he was also employed in the ,church of ,san ,benedetto1 in ,mantua1 and in ,san ,giovanni1 at ,parma4 ,during the sixteenth century the works at the ,certosa at ,pavia and in various edifices in ,milan were constantly carried on4 ,frequently the same sculptors worked in both cities1 but there is no one artist of great excellence among them of whom we can give an account4 ,the same is true of the works in ,venice and in ,southern ,italy4 ,the traveller sees many pieces of sculpture belonging to this period1 but there are no great and interesting men whose story we can tell in connection with them1 and ,i shall now pass to an account of the great ,florentine4 ,,michael ,,angelo ,,buonarroti 7#adge-aefd7 was born in the ,castle of ,caprese1 where his father1 ,ludovico ,buonarroti1 was stationed at that time1 holding the office of ,podesta1 or ,governor1 of the towns of ,caprese and ,chiusi4 ,the ,buonarroti family held good rank in ,florence1 and the mother of the great artist was also a woman of good position4 ,when his father returned to ,florence the child ,michael was left at ,settignano upon an estate of the family1 and was in the care of the wife of a stone-mason4 ,as soon as the boy could use his hands he drew pictures everywhere that it was possible1 and his nurse could show many of these childish drawings with which he adorned the walls of her house4 ,at a proper time ,michael ,angelo was removed to ,florence and placed in a school1 where he became intimate with ,francesco ,granacci1 who was a pupil of the artist ,ghirlandajo4 ,michael ,angelo's father and his uncles were firmly opposed to his being an artist2 they wished him to follow the traditions of his family1 and carry on the silk and woollen trade4 ,but the boy was firm in his determination1 and after many trials was at length1 in #adhh1 apprenticed to the ,ghirlandaji for three years4 ,domenico ,ghirlandajo was at this time engaged in the restoration of the ,church of ,santa ,maria ,novella1 and ,michael ,angelo came into the midst of great artistic works4 ,one day at the dinner hour he drew a picture of the scaffolding and all its belongings1 with the men at work on it2 it was a remarkable drawing for a boy1 and when the master saw it he exclaimed1 ,he understands more than ,i do myself6 ,the master really became jealous of his pupil1 more especially when ,michael ,angelo corrected the drawings which ,ghirlandajo gave his scholars for models4 ,about this time ,michael ,angelo was brought to the notice of ,lorenzo de' ,medici1 who was at that time at the head of the government of ,florence1 and from him the boy-artist obtained admission for himself and ,granacci to study in the gardens of ,san ,marco4 ,the art treasures of the ,medici were placed in these gardens2 works of sculpture were there1 and cartoons and pictures were hung in buildings erected for the purpose1 and art-students were admitted to study there and proper instructors provided for them4 ,the master in sculpture was old ,bertoldo1 and ,michael ,angelo1 forsaking painting1 obtained some instruments and a piece of marble1 and copied a mask of a faun4 ,he changed his own work somewhat from the model1 and opened the mouth so that the teeth could be seen4 ,when ,lorenzo saw this he praised the work1 but said1 ,you have made your faun old1 and yet you have left all his teeth2 you should have known that at such an age there are generally some teeth wanting4 ,when he came again he saw that a gap had been made in the teeth1 and so well done that he was delighted4 ,this work is now in the ,uffizi ,gallery4 ,very soon ,lorenzo sent for ,michael ,angelo's father1 who had been sad enough at the thought that his son might be a painter1 and was now in despair when he found that he inclined also to be a stone-mason4 ,at first he refused to see the duke1 but ,granacci persuaded him to go4 ,he went with a firm determination to yield to nothing1 but once in presence of ,lorenzo he yielded everything1 and returned home declaring that not only ,michael1 but he himself1 and all that he had were at the nobleman's service4 ,lorenzo at once took ,michael ,angelo into his palace2 he clothed the boy properly1 and gave him five ducats a month for spending money4 ,each day ,lorenzo gave an entertainment1 and it was the rule that the first person who came should sit next the duke at the head of the table4 ,michael ,angelo often had this place1 and he soon became a great favorite with ,lorenzo1 and obtained besides the greatest advantages from the life in the palace2 for many eminent men from all parts of the world came to visit there1 and all sorts of subjects were discussed in such a manner that a young man could learn much of the world and what was in it1 and acquire a feeling of ease with strangers and in society such as few young persons possess4 ,michael ,angelo was but seventeen years old when ,poliziano advised him to attempt an original work1 and gave him the marble for a relief of the contest between ,hercules and the ,centaurs4 ,this work surprised every one1 and is still preserved in the collection of the ,buonarroti family4 ,in the year #adib he also made a relief of the ,madonna ,suckling the ,child ,jesus1 which is also in the same place4 ,in the same year ,lorenzo de' ,medici died1 and ,michael ,angelo1 full of grief1 went to his father's house and arranged a studio there4 ,after a time ,piero de ,medici invited him to come back to the palace1 and he went2 but it was no more the same place as formerly1 and he was unhappy there4 ,soon political troubles drove the ,medici from power1 and in #adid1 in the midst of the confusion1 ,michael ,angelo escaped to ,venice4 ,there he made friends with ,gian ,francesco ,aldovrandi of ,bologna1 and was persuaded by that nobleman to accompany him to his own city4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajd4--,,michael ,,angelo',s ,,angel4 ,bologna4 ,while at ,bologna he executed an angel holding a candelabra1 which is one of the most lovely and pleasing things he ever made 7,fig4 #ajd74 ,when he received the commission to ornament the sarcophagus which contained the remains of ,san ,domenico in the ,church of ,san ,petronio1 the ,bolognese artists were so angry at being thus set aside for a stranger1 and a youth of twenty1 that they threatened vengeance on him1 and he returned to ,florence4 ,it was at this time that he executed a ,cupid1 which was the means of leading him to ,rome4 ,the story is that when he had the statue completed ,lorenzo de' ,medici1 a relative of his first patron1 advised him to give it the appearance of an antique marble1 and added that he would then sell it in ,rome and get a good price for it4 ,michael ,angelo consented to this plan1 and in the end he received thirty ducats for the work4 ,the secret of its origin was not kept1 and the cardinal who had bought it sent an agent to ,florence to find out the truth about it4 ,this agent pretended to be in search of a sculptor2 and when he saw ,michael ,angelo he asked him what works he had done4 ,when he mentioned a ,sleeping ,cupid1 and the agent asked questions1 the young sculptor found that the cardinal had paid two hundred ducats for it1 and that he had been greatly deceived when attempting to deceive others4 ,michael ,angelo consented to go to ,rome with this man1 who promised to receive him into his own house1 and assured him that he would be fully occupied in the ,eternal ,city4 ,the oldest writing by the hand of ,michael ,angelo is the letter which he wrote to ,lorenzo telling him of his arrival in ,rome2 when this was written he was twenty-one years old4 ,the first work which he did after he reached ,rome was the ,drunken ,bacchus1 now in the ,uffizi ,gallery2 it shows a great knowledge of anatomy in one so young1 and the expression of drunkenness is given in the most natural manner4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aje4--,,pieta4 ,by ,michael ,angelo4 ,but the work that established his fame as a great sculptor is the ,pieta1 now in ,st4 ,peter's at ,rome 7,fig4 #aje74 ,he was twenty-five years old when he executed this work1 and from that time was acknowledged to be the greatest sculptor of ,italy--a decision which has never been reversed4 ,soon after this ,michael ,angelo returned to ,florence1 and his first important work was a ,madonna1 now at ,bruges2 it is life-size1 and one of his finest sculptures4 ,there was at this time an immense block of marble which had lain many years in the yard to the workshops of the cathedral4 ,several sculptors had talked of making something from it1 and now ,michael ,angelo was asked by the consuls to make something good of it4 ,he had just taken an order for fifteen statues for the ,piccolomini tomb at ,siena2 but when he saw the immense block he gave up the ,siena work1 and contracted to make a statue in two years4 ,he was to be paid six gold florins a month1 and as much more as could be agreed upon when the work was done4 ,he first made a model in wax of his ,david2 it was very small1 and is now in the ,uffizi4 ,in the beginning of #aejd1 after about two years and a half had been spent upon it1 the work was done1 and a discussion then arose as to where it should be placed4 ,at length it was decided to put it where ,michael ,angelo himself wished it to be1 next the gate of the palace where the ,judith of ,donatello then stood4 ,the statue weighed eighteen thousand pounds1 and its removal was a work of great importance4 ,i shall not give all the details of it here1 but shall quote what ,grimm says3 ,the erection of this ,david was like an occurrence in nature from which people are accustomed to reckon4 ,we find events dated so many years after the erection of the giant4 ,it was mentioned in records in which there was not a line respecting art4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajf4--,,michael ,,angelo',s ,,david4 ,in #aebg the statue was injured by a stone thrown in a riot4 ,at length it began to show the effect of time and weather1 and the people of ,florence talked of removing it for better preservation4 ,there was much feeling against this2 the ,florentines feared that misfortunes would fall upon them if this great work were disturbed2 but at last1 in #ahgc1 it was placed in the ,academy of ,fine ,arts4 ,it represents the youthful ,david at the moment when he declares to ,goliath1 ,i come unto thee in the name of the ,lord of ,hosts4 ,the beautiful figure is muscular and pliant1 and the face is full of courage4 7,fig4 #ajf47 ,about the beginning of the year #aeje ,pope ,julius ,,ii4 summoned ,michael ,angelo to ,rome1 and after a time gave him a commission to build a colossal mausoleum to be erected for himself4 ,the design was made and accepted1 and then ,michael ,angelo went to ,carrara to select marble2 after much trouble he succeeded in getting it to ,rome1 where all who saw it were astonished at the size of the blocks4 ,pope ,julius was delighted1 and had a passage made from the palace to the workshop of the sculptor1 so that he could visit the artist without being seen4 ,other sculptors now became jealous of ,michael ,angelo1 and when he went a second time to ,carrara1 ,bramante persuaded the pope that it was a bad sign to build his tomb while he was still living4 ,when ,michael ,angelo returned and the workmen he had hired arrived from ,florence1 he found the pope much changed toward him4 ,he no longer hastened the work1 neither would he furnish money to carry it on4 ,michael ,angelo sought the pope for an explanation1 and was refused an audience4 ,he wrote a letter thus3 ,most ,holy ,father1 ,i was this morning driven from the palace by the order of your ,holiness4 ,if you require me in future you can seek me elsewhere than in ,rome4 ,he ordered a ,jew to sell all he possessed in ,rome1 and started for ,florence1 and stopped not until he was on the ground of ,tuscany4 ,the pope sent after him1 but as he was a citizen of ,florence he threatened the messengers if they touched him4 ,he said he had been treated as a criminal1 and he considered himself free from his engagements1 and would not return then or ever4 ,when he reached home a letter came to the ,signory of ,florence urging his return1 and saying that he should be safe4 ,but ,michael waited until the third letter was received1 and only consented to go when it was arranged that he should be sent as an ambassador of ,florence1 and be under the protection of the ,florentine ,republic4 ,in ,november1 #aejf1 when the pope had taken ,bologna1 he sent for ,michael ,angelo to come to him there4 ,michael ,angelo had not yet seen the pope since he left ,rome in anger4 ,when he reached ,bologna he went first to ,san ,petronio to hear mass4 ,a servant of the pope recognized him and led him to his ,holiness4 ,julius was at table1 but ordered that ,michael ,angelo should come in1 and said to him1 ,you have waited thus long1 it seems1 till we should ourselves come to seek you4 ,michael ,angelo kneeled down and begged his pardon1 but added that he had remained away because he had been offended4 ,the pope looked at him doubtfully1 when one of the priests1 fearing what would happen1 advised the pope not to judge an ignorant artist as he would another man4 ,then the pope turned upon him in great anger1 and declaring that he himself was ignorant and miserable1 ordered him out of his sight4 ,the poor ecclesiastic was so terrified that the attendants were obliged to carry him out1 and then the pope spoke graciously to the sculptor1 and commanded him not to leave ,bologna without his permission4 ,the pope soon gave him an order for a colossal statue in bronze to be erected in ,bologna4 ,the first cast of this statue failed1 and the work was not ready to be put in its place until ,february1 #aejh4 ,this being done1 ,michael ,angelo returned to ,florence1 where he had much to do2 but ,julius soon sent for him to go to ,rome1 and insisted that he should paint the roof of the ,sistine ,chapel1 which occupied him a long time4 ,in #aeac ,julius ,,ii4 died1 and ,michael ,angelo resumed his work upon his mausoleum4 ,the pope had mentioned it in his will1 and his heirs wished it to be completed4 ,at this time he probably worked upon the statue of ,moses and upon the two chained youths4 ,he devoted himself to the mausoleum during three years4 ,leo ,x41 who was now pope1 demanded the services of ,michael ,angelo to erect a facade to the ,church of ,san ,lorenzo in ,florence4 ,the artist objected to this great work1 and declared that he was bound to complete the tomb for which he had already received money4 ,but ,leo insisted upon his going to ,florence4 ,he had much trouble to get his marble from the quarries--the men were ill there4 ,he was ill himself1 and he passed a year of great anxiety and trouble1 when there came word from ,rome that the work must be given up2 the building was postponed1 and no payment was made to ,michael ,angelo6 ,he was much disheartened1 but returned to his work on the mausoleum4 ,about #aebc1 when1 after many changes1 ,cardinal ,medici was pope1 the work at ,san ,lorenzo was resumed4 ,but in #aebe the pope again summoned ,michael ,angelo to ,rome4 ,the heirs of ,julius were complaining of delay1 but at last the pope insisted upon his great need of the artist1 and again he was sent back to ,florence1 where the cupola of the new ,sacristy to ,san ,lorenzo was soon finished4 ,great political confusion now ensued1 and little can be said of ,michael ,angelo as a sculptor until #aecj1 when he again resumed his work on the ,sacristy4 ,he worked with the greatest industry and rapidity1 and in a few months had nearly finished the four colossal figures which rest upon the sarcophagi of ,lorenzo and ,giuliano de' ,medici4 ,the pope was forced to command the sculptor to rest4 ,his health was so broken by the sorrow which the political condition of ,florence caused him1 and by his anxiety about the mausoleum of ,julius1 that there was much danger of his killing himself with work and worry4 ,he went to ,rome1 and matters were more satisfactorily arranged4 ,he returned to ,florence1 and labored there until #aecd1 when ,clement ,,vii4 died1 and ,michael ,angelo left his work in ,san ,lorenzo1 never to resume it4 ,unfinished as these sculptures are1 they make a grand part of the wonderful works of this great man4 ,the statues of the two ,medici and those of ,morning1 ,evening1 ,day1 and ,night would be sufficient to establish the fame of an artist if he had done nothing more4 7,fig4 #ajg47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajg4--;,,giuliano ,,de' ,,medici4 ,by ,michael ,angelo4 ,under the new pope1 ,paul ,,iii41 he was constantly employed as a painter1 and architectural labors were put upon him1 so that as a sculptor we have no more works of his to mention except an unfinished group which was in his studio at the time of his death4 ,it represents the dead ,christ upon his mother's lap1 with ,joseph of ,arimathea standing by4 ,this group is now in the ,church of ,santa ,maria del ,fiore1 or the ,cathedral of ,florence4 ,the mausoleum of ,julius ,,ii4 caused ,michael ,angelo and others so much trouble and vexation that the whole affair came to be known as the tragedy of the sepulchre4 ,when ,julius first ordered it he intended to place it in ,st4 ,peter's1 but in the end it was erected in the ,church of ,san ,pietro in ,vincoli1 of which ,julius had been the titular cardinal4 ,of all the monument but three figures can really be called the work of ,michael ,angelo4 ,these are the ,leah and ,rachel upon the lower stage1 and the ,moses1 which is one of the most famous statues in the world4 ,paul ,,iii41 with eight cardinals1 once visited the studio of the sculptor when he was at work upon this statue1 and they declared that this alone was sufficient for the pope's monument 7,fig4 #ajh74 ,the life of ,michael ,angelo was a sad one2 indeed1 it is scarcely possible to recount a more pathetic story than was his4 ,the misfortunes which came to the ,medici were sharp griefs to him1 and his temperament was such that he could not forget his woes4 ,his family1 too1 looked to him for large sums of money1 and while he lived most frugally they spent his earnings4 ,in his old age he said1 ,rich as ,i am1 ,i have always lived like a poor man4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajh4--,,statue ,,of ,,moses4 ,by ,michael ,angelo4 ,in #aebi1 when ,florence was under great political excitement1 ,michael ,angelo was appointed superintendent of all the fortifications of the ,florentine territory4 ,in the midst of his duties he became aware of facts which determined him to fly4 ,he went to ,venice1 and was proscribed as a rebel4 ,we cannot stay here to inquire as to his wisdom in this1 but must go on to say that at length he was so much needed that he was persuaded to return4 ,then he had the dreadful experiences of hope and fear1 sickness and famine1 and all the horrors of a siege1 only to see his beloved home deprived of its freedom1 and in the possession of those whom he despised and hated4 ,to ,michael ,angelo this was far more bitter than any personal sorrow2 he never recovered from its effects1 and it was immediately after this that he worked in the ,sacristy of ,san ,lorenzo as if trying to kill himself4 ,he was bold as he was angry4 ,he was treated kindly1 and advised to forget the past2 but he never concealed his views4 ,when his statue of ,night was exhibited1 verses were put upon it1 according to the custom of the time2 one verse read1 ,night1 whom you see slumbering here so charmingly1 has been carved by an angel1 in marble4 ,she sleeps1 she lives2 waken her1 if you will not believe it1 and she will speak4 ,to this ,michael ,angelo replied1 ,sleep is dear to me1 and still more that ,i am stone1 so long as dishonor and shame last among us2 the happiest fate is to see1 to hear nothing2 for this reason waken me not4 ,i pray you1 speak gently4 ,he had great courage to speak his anger thus publicly in the midst of those who could easily destroy him4 ,in #aecg or #aech his father died1 and the artist suffered terribly from his grief4 ,he wrote a sonnet beginning3 ,already had ,i wept and sighed so much4 ,i thought all grief forever at an end1 ,exhaled in sighs1 shed forth in bitter tears4 ,the religious views of ,michael ,angelo were very broad1 and he had a trustful and obedient dependence upon ,god1 in whose mercy and love he gratefully rested with the simple faith of a child4 ,it was not far from the time when his father died that ,michael ,angelo first met ,vittoria ,colonna4 ,he was now more than sixty years old2 and though his poems show that he had loved children and women all his life1 yet he had allowed himself no attachments2 his life had been lonely and alone4 ,now1 at this late hour1 he yielded his heart to this beautiful1 gifted woman1 who returned his friendship with the fullest esteem4 ,during these years he was happier than he had ever been4 ,but in #aeda she fell under the suspicion of the ,inquisition1 and was obliged to leave ,rome4 ,during two years they wrote constantly to each other1 and each sent to the other the sonnets they wrote4 ,at this time all ,italy read the poems of ,vittoria1 and those of ,michael ,angelo still stand the test of time4 ,in them he shows the blessed effect of her influence over him4 ,at length she returned to ,rome and entered a convent1 where she died in #aedg4 ,michael ,angelo was with her to the last1 and years later he declared that he regretted nothing so much as that he had only kissed her hand1 and not her forehead or cheeks in that last hour4 ,his loss was far too great to be told4 7,an engraving of a portrait of ,michael ,angelo can be seen in ,mrs4 ,clement's ,painting1 p4 #ie47 ,in the year following ,vittoria's death all the hopes which he had cherished for the freedom of ,florence were crushed4 ,high honors were offered him to induce him to return there1 but he would not go4 ,his health failed1 his sadness increased1 and his writings show how constantly he mourned for ,vittoria4 ,after this he did much work as an architect1 and held the post of director of the building of ,st4 ,peter's4 ,he superintended the erection of the statue of ,marcus ,aurelius1 and completed the ,farnese ,palace1 and had many improvements in mind4 ,now1 in his old age1 he was authority itself in ,rome4 ,he had no rival1 and his advice was sought by artists as well as others4 ,he lived very simply3 he dined alone1 and received his visitors in the plainest manner4 ,anatomy1 which had always been a passion with him1 was now his chief pursuit4 ,he made many dissections of animals1 and was grateful when a human subject could be allowed him4 ,when he could not sleep he would get up at night and work upon the group of which we have spoken2 he had a cap with a candle in it1 so that it cast a light upon his work4 ,vasari once entered when he was at work upon this group1 and had a lantern in his hand2 he dropped it purposely1 so that the sculpture should not be seen1 and said3 ,i am so old that death often pulls me by the coat to come to him1 and some day ,i shall fall down like this lantern1 and my last spark of life will be extinguished4 ,there are many very interesting circumstances told of his last years and his strength of mind1 and the work which he did was wonderful2 but we have not space to recount it here4 ,at length1 in ,february1 #aefd1 when almost ninety years old1 he died4 ,he had asked to be buried in ,florence4 ,his friends feared that this would be opposed1 so they held burial-services in ,rome1 and his body was afterward carried through the gates as merchandise4 ,in ,florence the body was first laid in ,san ,piero ,maggiore1 and on ,sunday1 at evening1 the artists assembled1 and forming a procession1 proceeded to ,santa ,croce1 where he was buried4 ,the younger artists bore the bier upon their shoulders1 and the older ones carried torches to light the way4 ,a great multitude followed the procession1 and in the ,sacristy of ,santa ,croce the coffin was opened2 though three weeks had passed since his death1 his face appeared as if he had just died2 the crowd was very great1 but all was quiet1 and before morning it had dispersed4 ,the ,duke had thought that a public funeral would recall old memories1 and might cause a disturbance2 but ,michael ,angelo had left ,florence thirty years before his death1 and his connection with the city was forgotten by many4 ,the ,july following was appointed for a memorial service in his honor2 ,san ,lorenzo was splendidly decorated2 ,varchi delivered an oration4 ,leonardo1 his nephew1 erected a monument to him in ,santa ,croce1 for which the ,duke gave the marble4 ,his statue stands in the court of the ,uffizi with those of other great ,florentines1 but with no especial prominence4 ,his house in the ,ghibelline ,street is preserved as a museum1 and visitors there see many mementos of this great man4 ,in #ahge a grand festival was held in ,florence to celebrate the four hundredth anniversary of his birth4 ,the ceremonies were impressive1 and certain documents relating to his life which had never been opened1 by command of the king1 were given to suitable persons for examination4 ,mr4 ,heath ,wilson1 an ,english artist1 then residing at ,florence1 wrote a new life of ,michael ,angelo1 and the last signature which ,victor ,emmanuel wrote before his death was upon the paper which conferred on ,mr4 ,wilson the ,order of the ,corona d',italia1 given as a recognition of his services in writing this book4 ,the national pride in ,michael ,angelo is very strong4 ,all ,italians feel that he occupies the third place by the side of ,dante and ,raphael1 and forms with them a triumvirate of the greatest men produced by their country--a poet1 a painter1 and one who was great in all arts4 ,who would place a general or a statesman by their side as equal to them8 ,it is art alone which marks the prime of nations4 ,the genius of ,michael ,angelo and his spirit were powerful forces4 ,they pervaded the whole art of ,italy to such an extent that it may be said that all sculptors were his imitators1 both while he lived and after his death4 ,he loved to treat strong subjects1 such as demanded violent movement and unusual positions4 ,it was only a man of his genius who could raise such subjects above grotesqueness and the one effect of strange and unnatural exaggeration4 ,as we look over all his works it seems as if the idea of beauty and such things as are pleasing to the ordinary mind rarely1 if ever1 came to his mind4 ,noble feeling1 depth of thought1 strength1 and grandeur are the associations which we have with him1 and in the hands of weaker men1 as his imitators were1 these subjects became barren1 hollow displays of distorted limbs and soulless heads and faces4 ,the result is1 that there is little to be said of the immediate followers of this great man4 ,,guglielmo ,,della ,,porta was one of his most able scholars1 and his chief work was a monument to ,pope ,paul ,,iii4 in the ,church of ,st4 ,peter's4 ,the figure of the pope is in bronze1 is seated1 and holding the right hand in benediction4 ,it is dignified and well designed4 ,the figures of ,justice and ,prudence are not as good1 and two others1 ,peace and ,abundance1 which were a part of this work1 but are now in the ,farnese ,palace1 lack power1 and show an attempt at a representation of mere physical beauty4 ,,baccio ,,bandinelli 7#adhg-aeei7 is more noticeable for his hatred of ,michael ,angelo than for any other characteristic4 ,he was a native of ,florence and a friend of ,leonardo da ,vinci4 ,he was powerful in his design and bold in his treatment of his subjects1 but he was full of affectation and mannerisms in his execution of his works4 ,he was false and envious1 and his one good quality was that of industry4 ,his best works are on the screen of the high-altar in the ,cathedral of ,florence1 a relief on a pedestal in the ,piazza of ,san ,lorenzo1 in ,florence1 and a group in the ,church of the ,annunziata1 which he intended for his own monument2 the subject is ,nicodemus supporting ,christ1 and the ,nicodemus is a portrait of ,bandinelli himself4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,european ,,sculpture ,,from ,,michael ,,angelo ,,to ,,canova4 ,not only ,italian artists attempted to follow the great sculptor of ,italy1 but those of other nations flocked to ,rome1 and whatever ideas they may have had before reaching that city they seemed to lose them all and to aim simply at one thing--to be ,michaelangeloesque4 ,,giovanni ,,da ,,bologna 7#aebi-afjh7 was born in ,douai1 in ,flanders1 and was called ,il ,fiammingo for this reason4 ,giovanni was intended for a notary by his father1 who planned his education with that end in view2 but the boy's passion for sculpture was so great that the father was obliged to yield to it1 and placed him under the instruction of a sculptor named ,beuch1 who had studied in ,italy4 ,later ,giovanni went to ,rome1 and finally settled in ,florence1 where his most important works remain4 ,he was an imitator of ,michael ,angelo1 and one of his best imitators2 but when his works are compared with those of the great master1 or with the masterpieces of the fifteenth century1 we see a decline in them4 ,in religious subjects ,giovanni was not at home2 his most successful works were those which represented sentiment or abstract ideas1 because on them he could lavish his skill in execution1 and use ornaments that did not suit the simplicity of religious subjects4 ,in the ,loggia de' ,lanzi1 at ,florence1 there are two groups by him1 the ,rape of the ,sabines and ,hercules and ,nessus4 ,in the ,piazza della ,signoria is his excellent statue of ,duke ,cosmo ,i41 and in the ,uffizi ,gallery a bronze statue of ,mercury4 ,the ,rape of the ,sabines is his masterpiece1 and the ,mercury is one of the best works of its kind since the days of classic art4 ,it is the favorite ,mercury of the world1 and has been frequently copied4 ,it is seen in many galleries and collections in its original size1 and a small copy is much used in private houses4 7,fig4 #aji47 ,giovanni was especially happy in his designs for fountains1 and that which he erected in ,bologna1 in #aefd1 in front of the ,palazzo ,pubblico1 is a splendid work of this kind4 ,the statue of ,neptune at its summit is stately and free in its action2 the children are charming and life-like1 and the ,sirens at the base give an harmonious finish and complete the outline with easy grace4 ,he also erected a magnificent fountain in the island of the ,boboli ,gardens4 ,in the ,palazzo ,vecchio is a marble group by ,giovanni representing ,virtue conquering ,vice4 ,at ,petraja there is a beautiful ,venus crowning a fountain remarkable for grace and delicacy1 and1 all in all1 his works prove him to have been the best sculptor of his own time4 ,tuscany may claim him and be proud of him1 for he was far more her son than that of his native ,flanders4 ,giovanni da ,bologna was far less successful in reliefs than in statues1 as may be seen in the bronze gates to the ,cathedral of ,pisa1 which he made in the last years of his life4 ,in his character this master was attractive and much beloved by his friends4 ,one of them wrote of him3 ,the best fellow in the world1 not in the least covetous1 as he shows by his poverty2 filled with a love of glory1 and ambitious of rivalling ,michael ,angelo4 ,giovanni decorated a chapel in the ,church of the ,annunziata with several reliefs in bronze and with a crucifix2 he not only wished to be buried here himself1 as he was1 but he also desired to provide a place of burial for any of his countrymen who might die in ,florence4 ,the chapel is called that of the ,madonna del ,soccorso4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aji4--,,mercury4 ,by ,giovanni da ,bologna4 ,the decline of sculpture in ,italy at this period makes its study so unpromising that it is a pleasure to turn to ,france1 where the works of ,,jean ,,goujon show that he had the true idea of sculpture in relief4 ,from #aeee to #aefb this sculptor was employed on the works at the ,louvre1 and during the massacre of ,st4 ,bartholomew he was shot while on a scaffold quietly working at a bas-relief on that palace4 ,goujon was an architect as well as a sculptor1 and also a medal engraver1 as is shown by the curious and rare medal which he made for ,catherine de' ,medici4 ,many of his works are preserved in different parts of ,france1 and some bas-reliefs in the ,museum of the ,louvre are excellent specimens of his style4 ,one also sees in ,france many works by ,,germain ,,pilon1 who died in #aeij4 ,he executed the monument to ,francis ,i41 and took a part in that of ,henry ,,ii4 and ,catherine de' ,medici at the ,church of ,st4 ,denis4 ,he was the sculptor of the group of the three ,graces in the ,louvre1 which formerly bore an urn containing the heart of ,henry ,,ii41 and was in the ,church of the ,celestines4 ,but the sculptors of ,france at this time are not of such interest as to hold our attention long4 ,there was a certain amount of spirit in their decorations of palaces and tombs1 but there were no men of great genius1 and no splendid works upon which we can dwell with pleasure or profit4 ,in ,germany1 too1 while there was much activity in sculpture1 and public fountains and luxurious palaces and rich ornaments employed many artists1 yet there was no originality or freshness in these works1 and they fell below those of the past4 ,bronzes are still made at ,nuremberg1 but they only serve to make one regret that they are so inferior to those of earlier days2 and nowhere in all ,germany does any one artist stand out and present a man to be studied in his works or remembered as one of the gifted of the earth4 ,and yet a list of the names of ,german sculptors of this time would be very long1 for all over the land churches were being decorated1 monuments built1 and statues and fountains erected4 ,in ,england the best sculpture of the sixteenth century was seen in the portrait statues on monuments1 and we find no great artists there of whom to give an account4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aaj4--,,relief ,,by ,,berruguete4 ,valladolid4 ,in ,spain ,,alonso ,,berruguete 7#adhj-aefa71 who was the most eminent artist of his time1 had introduced the ,italian manner4 ,he went to ,italy about #aejc1 and studied in ,rome and ,florence during seventeen years4 ,this was at the time when ,italian sculpture was at the height of its excellence2 and ,berruguete returned to ,spain filled with the purest and best conceptions of what art should be1 and the ends it should serve4 ,he has been called the ,michael ,angelo of ,spain1 because he was an architect1 painter1 and sculptor4 ,upon his return to ,spain he was appointed painter and sculptor to ,charles ,v4 ,among his most celebrated works in sculpture are the reliefs in the choir of the ,cathedral at ,toledo2 the altar in the ,church of ,san ,benito el ,real at ,valladolid 7,fig4 #aaj71 for which he was paid forty-four hundred ducats1 and his sculptures in the ,collegio ,mayor at ,salamanca4 ,his final work was a monument to the ,cardinal and ,grand ,inquisitor1 ,don ,juan de ,tavera1 which is in the ,church of the ,hospital of ,st4 ,john at ,toledo4 ,the sarcophagus is ornamented by reliefs from the story of ,john the ,baptist1 which are executed in an excellent manner1 simple and expressive4 ,other ,spanish sculptors were ,,esteban ,,jordan1 an eminent wood-carver1 ,,gregorio ,,hernandez 7#aeff-afcf71 who has been called the sculptor of religion4 ,his works are so full of a spirit of devotion that they seem to have been executed under an inspiration4 ,hernandez was very devout in his life1 and did many works of charity2 he often provided decent burial for the very poor who died without friends who could bury them4 ,many of his works have been removed from the chapels for which they were designed1 and are now in the ,museum of ,valladolid1 where they are not as effective as when placed in their original positions4 ,he is superior to other ,spanish sculptors in his representation of nude figures and in the grandeur of his expression4 ,,juan ,,de ,,juni 7died #afad7 studied in ,italy1 and acquired much mannerism2 his works are seen in ,valladolid4 ,,juan ,,martinez ,,montanes 7died #afej7 was a famous sculptor1 and excelled in figures of children and cherubs4 ,his conceptions had much beauty and depth of feeling1 and his draperies were most graceful2 and to this power of thinking out clearly and well the subject he wished to represent he added the ability to do his work in an artistic manner1 and to give it an elegance of finish without taking away its strength4 ,a ,conception by him1 in the ,cathedral of ,seville1 is a noble work1 and in the university church of the same city there is an altar which is one of his important works4 ,other sculptures by ,montanes are in the ,museum of ,seville4 ,the great ,,alonso ,,cano 7#afja-affg7 was a pupil of ,montanes in sculpture1 and1 like so many other artists of his time1 was a painter and architect as well as a sculptor4 ,his personal history is very peculiar4 ,he was a man of violent temper1 and was often involved in serious quarrels4 ,he was obliged to flee from ,granada to ,madrid on account of a duel1 and when his wife was found murdered in her bed he was suspected of the crime4 ,in spite of all this he took priest's orders1 and was appointed to a canonry in the ,cathedral of ,granada2 but on account of his temper he was deprived of this office by the chapter of the cathedral4 ,he was so angry at this that he would do no more work for the cathedral4 ,he devoted the remainder of his life to religious and charitable works4 ,he gave away the money he earned as soon as he received it1 and when he had no money to give away he was in the habit of making drawings1 which he signed and marked with a suitable price2 these he gave to the person he desired to assist1 and recommended some person to whom application to buy the work could be made4 ,after his death a large number of these charitable works was collected4 ,he hated ,jews with such hatred that he could not endure to look at one1 and many strange stories are told of him in connection with these people4 ,he loved his chisel better than his brush1 and was accustomed to say that when weary he carved for rest4 ,one of his pupils expressed great surprise at this1 when ,cano answered1 ,blockhead1 don't you perceive that to create form and relief on a flat surface is a greater service than to fashion one shape into another8 ,the most beautiful sculpture by ,cano which remains is a ,virgin about a foot high in the ,sacristy of the ,cathedral of ,granada1 where there are several other statuettes by him4 ,these are colored in a manner which the ,spaniards call estofado2 it has the effect to soften the whole appearance of the works1 like an enamel4 ,at the entrance of the choir of the cathedral there are two colossal busts by ,cano2 they are grand works1 and are called ,adam and ,eve4 ,,pedro ,,roldan 7#afbd-agjj71 born at ,seville1 is an interesting sculptor because of his work1 and on account of his being the last one whose manner was like that of ,juni and ,hernandez4 ,his first celebrated work was the high-altar in the chapel of the ,biscayans in the ,franciscan convent4 ,when the ,caridad1 or ,hospital of ,charity1 was restored1 ,roldan executed the last great work in painted sculpture2 it was an immense piece for the centre of the retablo of the high-altar of the church1 and represented the ,entombment of ,christ4 ,seville abounds in his works1 and he executed bas-reliefs in stone for the exterior of the ,cathedral at ,jaen4 ,he was so devoted to his art that he felt every moment to be lost that was not spent in its service4 ,he married a lady of good family1 and lived in the country2 when obliged to go to ,seville he was accustomed to carry a lump of clay1 and model from it as he rode along4 ,roldan was not by any means the best of ,spanish sculptors1 but he had great skill in the composition of his works1 and the draperies and all the details were carefully studied4 ,his daughter1 ,dona ,luisa ,roldan1 studied sculpture under her father's instruction1 and became a good artist2 he was accustomed to allow her to superintend her studio and his pupils4 ,she often aided him by her suggestions1 and on one occasion1 when a statue that he had made was rejected1 she pointed out to him certain anatomical defects1 which he remedied1 and the whole appearance of the work was so changed that it was thought to be new1 and was accepted for the place for which it had been ordered4 ,the works executed by ,dona ,luisa were principally small figures of the ,virgin1 the ,adoration of the ,shepherds1 and kindred subjects4 ,several of these were presented to ,king ,charles ,,ii41 and he was so pleased by them that he ordered a life-size statue of ,st4 ,michael for the ,church of the ,escorial4 ,she executed this to his satisfaction1 and he then appointed her sculptress in ordinary to the king4 ,she died at ,madrid in #agjd1 surviving her father but four years4 ,she left works in various convents and churches4 ,in ,italy at the beginning of the seventeenth century a new era in sculpture was inaugurated4 ,art was now required to serve the ,church in the way of appealing to sentiments and feeling in a far coarser and more sensational a manner than formerly4 ,painting was suited to these purposes far more than sculpture1 and it had been raised to great heights1 in ,spain1 by ,murillo1 in the ,north by ,rubens and his followers1 and in ,italy by numerous masters4 ,luebke says of this period3 ,all that was now demanded of art was effect and feeling at any price4 ,the one was attained through the other4 ,a passionate excitement pulsates throughout all artistic works2 the ideal repose of the former altar-pieces no longer satisfied4 ,longing1 devotional ardor1 passionate rapture1 enthusiastic ecstasy--these are the aims of the new art4 ,no longer the solemn dignity of the saint1 but the nervous visions of enraptured monks1 are its ideal4 ,it delights in thrilling delineations of martyrdom1 seeking to render such scenes as effective and touching as possible4 ,a desire for substantial power1 a political-religious tendency1 had taken possession of art1 and had adapted it to its own objects4 ,that1 under such circumstances1 painting reaches a new and truly artistic importance may be traced above all to the great masters who now cultivated the art1 and still more to the tone of the age1 which promoted it in a rare measure4444 ,the same spirit1 however1 which imparted such genuine importance to painting produced the ruin of sculpture4 ,this epoch1 more than any other1 is a proof that the greatest men of talent1 appearing in a perverted age1 are carried by their very genius all the more certainly to ruin4 ,all that1 in a more favorable period1 would have raised them to be stars in the art firmament1 now made them fall like some ignis fatuus1 the brilliant light of which owes its illusory existence only to miasma4 ,this striking fact appears1 at first sight1 inexplicable2 but it is easy to understand1 if we consider the different character of the two arts4 ,plastic art had formerly emulated painting1 and thus1 especially in relief1 had suffered unmistakable injury to its own peculiar nature4 ,at that time1 however1 painting itself was full of architectural severity and plastic nobleness of form4 ,now1 when everything depended on striking effect and speaking delineation of passionate emotions1 it was compelled to have recourse to naturalistic representation1 to freer arrangements and to more striking forms that emulated reality4 ,if1 however1 sculpture1 which could not keep pace with its rival in the enamelled coloring and mysterious charm of the chiaro-oscuro which it brought into the field1 would1 in anywise1 do the same as painting1 it was compelled to plunge regardlessly into the same naturalism of forms and into the same bold display of passion with which painting produced such grand effects4 ,and this sculpture did without the slightest scruple1 and in this lack of an artistic conscience its whole glory perished4 ,it is true in this passion for excited compositions an excess of splendid works were produced2 it is true immense resources were expended1 and able artists were employed2 but such inner hollowness stares at us with inanimate eye from the greater number of these works that we turn from them with repugnance1 and even often with disgust4 ,the artist who first met this new demand upon sculpture1 and may be called the founder of a new style1 was ,,giovanni ,,lorenzo ,,bernini 7#aeih-afhj71 a very gifted man4 ,when but ten years old this remarkable genius was known as a prodigy in art1 and it was at this early age that his father took him to ,rome4 ,pope ,paul ,v4 was soon interested in him1 and ,cardinal ,barberini assisted him in his studies2 from this fortunate beginning all through his life good fortune attended his steps4 ,he lived through the pontificate of nine popes1 and was always in favor with the reigning head of the ,church4 ,this gave him the opportunity to fill ,rome with his works1 and he imprinted himself upon the art of the ,eternal ,city2 no artist since the time of ,michael ,angelo held such sway1 and ,bernini acquired his power easily1 while the grand ,michael ,angelo was disputed at every step1 and fought a long1 hard battle before he was allowed to take the place which was so clearly his by right4 ,the fame of ,bernini extended to other lands1 and he was invited to ,france1 where he went when sixty-eight years old1 accompanied by one of his sons and a numerous retinue4 ,he was loaded with favors1 and received large sums of money and many valuable presents4 ,in ,rome1 too1 he was much favored2 he held several church benefices1 and his son was made a ,canon of ,santa ,maria ,maggiore2 and it was in this church that ,bernini was buried with great magnificence1 as became his position and his wealth1 for he left the immense fortune of four hundred thousand ,roman crowns4 ,bernini had great versatility of talent1 a remarkable imagination and power of conceiving his subjects clearly1 and1 more than all1 he had marvellous power of execution and compelling his marble to show forth his thought4 ,it has been said that marble was like wax or clay beneath his hand4 ,he was subject to no rules2 indeed1 he believed that an artist must set aside all rules if he would excel4 ,this sounds very fascinating1 but a study of ,bernini's works will show that it is a deceitful maxim4 ,a man of small talent could do nothing in this way1 and even ,bernini1 who without doubt had great gifts1 often failed to make up in any way for the sins against rules of which he was guilty4 ,westmacott1 in his writing upon sculpture1 says it would have been better for art if ,bernini had never lived2 and it is true that in his struggle for effect he was an injury rather than a benefit to the art of his own day and the succeeding years4 ,the worst defect in the sculpture of ,bernini is his treatment of the human body4 ,at times he exaggerates the muscular power beyond all resemblance to nature1 and again he seems to leave out all anatomy and soften the body to a point that far exceeds possibility4 ,this softness is seen in his ,apollo and ,daphne1 which shows the moment when she is suddenly changed into a laurel-tree in order to escape the pursuit of the young god4 ,this group is in the ,villa ,borghese1 at ,rome2 it was executed when ,bernini was but eighteen years old1 and near the close of his life he declared that he had made little progress after its production4 ,but he reached the height of this objectionable manner in his representation of the ,rape of ,proserpine1 which is in the ,villa ,ludovisi4 ,the ,pluto is a rough1 repulsive man1 with whom no association of a god can be made1 and the ,proserpine is made a soulless1 sensual figure1 so far from attractive in a pure sense that we are almost willing that ,pluto should carry her to some region from which she is not likely to come back4 ,at the same time we are sorry not to provide her with an ointment for the blue marks which the big hands of ,pluto are making on her soft flesh4 ,the plain truth is1 that this work makes a low and common thing of a subject which could be so treated as to be a thing of beauty in a charming sense4 7,fig4 #aaa47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aaa4--,,rape ,,of ,,proserpine4 ,by ,bernini4 ,bernini executed a statue of ,st4 ,bibiana for the church of that saint at ,rome1 and one of ,st4 ,longinus in one of the niches to the dome of ,st4 ,peter's2 he also made the designs for the one hundred and sixty-two statues in the colonnades of ,st4 ,peter's1 and for the decorations of the bridge of ,st4 ,angelo2 in such works1 almost without exception1 he chose some moment in the lives of the persons represented that called for a striking attitude and gave an opportunity for an effect that is often theatrical4 ,as a mere decoration such statues have a certain value of an inferior sort2 but as works of art1 as intellectual efforts1 they are worthless4 ,however1 this decorative effect1 as it is seen on the facade of the ,lateran1 where the figures stand out against the sky1 or on the bridge of ,st4 ,angelo1 is not by any means to be despised2 only we cannot call a sculptor a great artist when he can do nothing finer than this4 ,some of ,bernini's works in which he shows intense suffering have more genuine feeling1 and are finer in artistic qualities4 ,one of these is ,pieta1 in the chapel of ,st4 ,andreas ,corsini in the ,lateran4 ,but he frequently goes beyond the bounds of good taste1 as1 for example1 on the monument to ,pope ,urban ,,viii41 in ,st4 ,peter's1 where he represents ,death with his bony hand writing the inscription on the panel2 this is truly terrible1 and not less so is another ,death upon the monument of ,alexander ,,vii41 raising the marble curtain before the entrance to the vault1 as if he were inviting one to walk in4 ,many objections can be made to his draperies4 ,he exaggerated the small curtains seen on some ancient tombs until they were huge objects of ugliness2 the drapery upon his figures is so prominently treated that instead of being a minor object it sometimes seems like the principal one2 it no longer serves to conceal forms1 and at the same time show their grace and motion1 but it is inflated1 fluttering1 grotesque in form and quite absurd when compared with statues in which it answers its true purpose4 ,charles ,i4 of ,england heard so much of ,bernini that he desired to have a statue of himself executed by this sculptor2 three of ,vandyck's portraits of the king were sent to him1 and the likeness of the statue was so satisfactory to the monarch that he sent the artist six thousand crowns and a ring worth as much more4 ,bernini executed a colossal equestrian statue of ,constantine for the portico of ,st4 ,peter's2 he made another of ,louis ,,xiv41 which was changed into a ,marcus ,curtius1 and sent to ,versailles4 ,he also executed the fountain in the ,piazza ,navona1 at ,rome1 which is one of his exaggerated works4 ,,francois ,,duquesnoy 7#aeid-afdf7 was born at ,brussels1 and was known in ,rome as ,il ,fiammingo4 ,the ,archduke ,albert sent him to ,rome to study1 and he was a contemporary of ,bernini4 ,when his patron died ,duquesnoy was left without means1 and was forced to carve small figures in ivory for his support4 ,his figures of children1 which were full of life and child-like expression1 became quite famous4 ,an important work of his in this way is the fountain of the ,manneken-,pis1 at ,brussels4 ,his masterpiece is a colossal statue of ,st4 ,andrew in the ,church of ,st4 ,peter's2 it occupied him five years1 and is one of the best works of modern art4 ,his statue of ,st4 ,susanna in the ,church of ,santa ,maria di ,loreto1 in ,rome1 is simple and noble1 and is much admired4 ,little is known of this artist's life1 and it is said that he was poisoned by his brother when on his way to ,france4 ,there was a goodly company of sculptors following ,bernini1 but none whose works or life was of sufficient importance or interest to demand our attention here1 and we will pass to the sculpture of ,france1 where the arts were less devoted to the service of the ,church and more to the uses of kings1 princes1 and noblemen4 ,the court of ,france was devoted to pomp and pleasure1 and sculpture was used for the glorification of the leaders in all its follies4 ,in one sense this is more agreeable than the art in ,italy which we have been considering1 for nothing can be more disagreeable than a false religious sentiment in art2 it is only when the artist is filled with true devotion and feels deeply in his own soul all that he tries to express in his work that religious representations can appeal to us agreeably or benefit us by their influence4 ,,simon ,,guillain 7#aeha-afeh7 is especially interesting as the sculptor of the statue of ,louis ,,xiv4 as a boy1 which is in the ,louvre2 those of his parents are also there2 formerly they decorated the ,pont au ,change4 ,other works by this master are in the same museum4 ,,jacques ,,sarrazin 7#aehh-affj7 is only known by his works1 which are now in the ,louvre1 of which a bronze bust of the ,chancellor ,pierre ,seguier is worthy of notice4 ,,francois ,,anguier 7#afjd-affi7 was born at ,eu1 in ,normandy1 and was the son of a carpenter1 who taught his son to carve in wood at an early age4 ,when still quite young ,francois went to ,paris to study1 and later to ,rome4 ,he became one of the first artists of his time in ,france1 and was a favorite of the king1 ,louis ,,xiii41 who made him keeper of the gallery of antiquities1 and gave him apartments in the ,louvre4 ,most of his important works were monuments to illustrious men4 ,his copies of antique sculptures were very fine4 ,,michel ,,anguier 7#afab-afhf7 was a brother of the preceding1 with whom he studied until they both went to ,rome4 ,michel remained there ten years1 and was employed with other artists in ,st4 ,peter's and in some palaces4 ,in #afea he returned to ,paris1 and assisted ,francois in the great work of the tomb of the ,duke de ,montmorenci at ,moulins4 ,michel executed a statue of ,louis ,,xiii41 which was cast in bronze4 ,he adorned the apartments of ,queen ,anne of ,austria in the ,louvre1 and for her executed the principal sculptures in the ,church of ,val de ,grace2 a ,nativity in this church is his best work4 ,his sculptures are seen in various churches1 and he also executed statues of ancient gods and vases for garden ornaments4 ,he was a professor in the ,academy of ,arts in ,paris1 and wrote lectures on sculpture4 ,,francois ,,girardon 7#afcj-agae71 born at ,troyes1 was a protege of the ,chancellor ,seguier4 ,louis ,,xiv4 gave him a pension1 by which he was enabled to study in ,rome1 and after his return to ,france the king gave him many commissions4 ,the monument to ,cardinal ,richelieu in the ,church of the ,sorbonne is from the hand of this sculptor4 ,perhaps his best-known work is the ,rape of ,proserpine at ,versailles4 ,he made an equestrian statue of ,louis ,,xiv41 which was destroyed in the ,revolution2 a model of it in bronze is in the ,louvre4 ,his bust of ,boileau is a strong1 fine work4 ,many of his sculptures were destroyed by the revolutionists4 ,a devoted follower of ,bernini was ,,pierre ,,puget 7#afbb-afid74 ,his works are seen at the ,louvre and at ,versailles4 ,his group of ,milo of ,crotona endeavoring to free himself from the claws of the lion is full of life and is natural1 but the subject is too repulsive to be long examined2 his ,perseus liberating ,andromeda is more agreeable1 and is noble in its forms and animated in expression4 ,his ,alexander and ,diogenes is in relief1 and is effective and picturesque4 ,,antoine ,,coysevox 7#afdj-agbj7 was born at ,lyons1 and manifested his artistic talent very early in life4 ,before he was seventeen years old he had distinguished himself by a statue of the ,virgin1 and progressed rapidly in his studies1 which he made in ,paris4 ,in #affg he was engaged by ,cardinal ,furstenburg to go to ,alsace to decorate his palace2 this occupied him four years4 ,when he again went to ,paris he became a very eminent artist4 ,he executed a statue of ,louis ,,xiv41 and received a commission from the province of ,bretagne for an equestrian statue of the same monarch4 ,among his best works are the tomb of ,cardinal ,mazarin2 the tomb of the great ,colbert in the ,church of ,st4 ,eustache2 the monument of ,charles le ,brun in the ,church of ,st4 ,nicolas2 the statue of the great ,conde2 the marble statue of ,louis ,,xiv41 in the ,church of ,notre ,dame1 and others4 ,in the tomb of ,mazarin he showed fine powers of construction and excellence of design4 ,the kneeling figure of the minister is a dignified statue and well executed2 the statues in bronze of ,prudence1 ,peace1 and ,fidelity1 and the marble figures of ,charity and ,religion are each and all noble works1 and free to a remarkable degree from the mannerisms and faults of his time4 ,,nicolas ,,coustou 7#afeh-agcc7 was a nephew and pupil of ,coysevox4 ,he took the grand prize at ,paris1 and went to ,rome to study when he was twenty-three years old4 ,he made many copies of the antique4 ,after his return to ,france he was much employed4 ,his chief work was a colossal representation of the ,junction of the ,seine and the ,marne4 ,he also made for the city of ,lyons a bronze statue representing the river ,saone4 ,some of his sculptures are in the ,church of ,notre ,dame4 ,,guillaume ,,coustou 7#afgh-agdf71 brother of ,nicolas1 also gained the grand prize and went to ,rome1 and on his return made a fine reputation4 ,much of his best work was for the gardens of ,marly2 he executed a bronze statue of the ,rhone at ,lyons2 a bas-relief of ,christ with the ,doctors1 at ,versailles1 and statues of ,louis ,,xiv4 and ,cardinal ,dubois1 in the ,museum of ,french ,monuments4 ,,jean ,,baptiste ,,pigalle 7#agad-aghe7 is the last ,french sculptor of whom ,i shall speak here4 ,he was born in ,paris1 and gained his first fame by a statue of ,mercury2 but his masterpiece was the tomb of ,marshal ,moritz of ,saxony1 in the ,church of ,st4 ,thomas1 at ,strasburg4 ,the soldier is represented in his own costume1 just as he wore it in life1 about to enter a tomb1 on one side of which stands a skeleton ,death1 and on the other a mourning ,hercules4 ,a statue representing ,france tries to hold him back1 and a ,genius attends on him with an inverted torch4 ,there are many accessories of military emblems and trophies4 ,there have been several engravings made from this tomb1 the best part of which is the figure of the ,marshal4 ,pigalle was a favorite with ,mme4 ,pompadour1 of whom he made a portrait statue4 ,she employed him to do many works for her4 ,his best monument in ,paris is that of the ,comte d',harcourt1 in the ,church of ,notre ,dame4 ,in the ,netherlands1 as in ,italy1 the painting of the time had a great effect upon sculpture1 and it was full of energy1 like the pictures of the ,rubens school2 at the same time there remained traces of the traditions of former days1 and while a great change had come since the days of ,vischer1 there was still a firm adherence to nature1 and no such affectations and mannerisms existed here as were seen in the works of ,bernini and his followers in ,italy and ,france4 ,one of the ablest sculptors of his day was ,,arthur ,,quellinus1 who was born at ,antwerp in #afjg4 ,he studied under ,duquesnoy1 and was especially happy in his manner of imagining his subjects1 and of avoiding the imitation of others or a commonplace treatment of his own4 ,the magnificent ,town ,hall of ,antwerp was commenced in #afdh1 and ,quellinus received the commission to decorate it with plastic works4 ,his sculptures are numerous1 both on the interior and exterior of the edifice4 ,in the two pediments he introduced allegorical representations of the power of the city of ,antwerp1 especially in her commerce4 ,these compositions are picturesque in their arrangement1 but the treatment is such as belongs to sculpture2 in one of these a figure which represents the city is enthroned like a queen1 and is surrounded by fantastic sea-gods1 who offer their homage to her4 7,fig4 #aab47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aab4--;,,caryatide4 ,quellinus4 ,we cannot give a list of many detached works by ,quellinus1 but one of the best of the old monuments in ,berlin is attributed to him4 ,it is the tomb of ,count ,sparr in the ,marienkirche4 ,at the present day ,berlin is a city of much artistic importance1 and the beginning of its present architectural and sculptural prominence may be dated at about the end of the seventeenth century1 not quite two hundred years ago4 ,one of the most influential artists of that time was ,,andreas ,s,c,h,l,ue,t,e,r 7#affb-agad71 who was born in ,hamburg4 ,his father was a sculptor of no prominence1 but he took his son with him to ,dantzig1 where many ,netherlandish artists were employed upon the buildings being constructed there4 ,andreas ,schlueter was naturally gifted1 and he devoted himself to the study of both architecture and sculpture1 at home and later in ,italy4 ,before he was thirty years old he was employed in important affairs in ,warsaw1 and in #afid he was summoned to ,berlin1 where he executed the plastic ornaments of the ,arsenal2 the heads of the ,dying ,warriors above the windows in the court-yard are remarkable works4 ,they are very fine when regarded only as excellent examples of good sculpture1 and they are very effective placed as they are1 for they seem to tell the whole tragic story of what a soldier's life and fate must often be 7,fig4 #aac74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aac4--;,,heads ,,of ,,dying ,,warriors4 ,by ,schlueter4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aad4--,,the ,,great ,,elector4 ,by ,schlueter4 ,however1 the masterpiece of this sculptor is the equestrian statue of the ,great ,elector for the long bridge at ,berlin1 which was completed in #agjc 7,fig4 #aad74 ,luebke says of this3 ,although biassed as regards form by the age which prescribed the ,roman costume to ideal portraits of this kind1 the horseman on his mighty charger is conceived with so much energy1 he is filled with such power of will1 he is so noble in bearing and so steady in his course1 that no other equestrian statue can be compared with this in fiery majesty4 ,equally masterly is the arrangement of the whole1 especially the four chained slaves on the base1 in whom we gladly pardon a certain crowding of movements and forms4 ,schlueter also made a statue of the ,elector ,frederic ,,iii41 which is now in ,koenigsberg4 ,besides his works in sculpture he was the architect of the royal palaces at ,potsdam1 ,charlottenburg1 and ,berlin1 and there are many sculptures by him at these places4 ,when he was thus in an important position and at the height of professional prosperity he met with a sad misfortune1 from the effects of which he never recovered4 ,a chime of bells had been purchased in ,holland1 and ,schlueter was commissioned to arrange an old tower for their reception4 ,he carried it higher than it had been1 and was proceeding to finish it1 when it threatened to fall1 and had to be pulled down4 ,on account of this ,schlueter was dismissed from his position as court architect2 and though his office of sculptor was left to him his power was gone1 and he was broken down in spirit4 ,he was called to ,st4 ,petersburg by ,peter the ,great1 and died soon after4 ,now1 the verdict of judges is that he was one of the greatest artists of his age1 and that his works1 both in sculpture and architecture1 belong to the noblest productions of his century4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,canova1 ,,thorwaldsen1 ,,and ,,other ,,recent ,,sculptors4 ,in the middle of the eighteenth century the arts had fallen into such a feeble state that a true artistic work--one conceived and executed in an artist spirit--was not to be looked for4 ,as in the ,middle ,ages1 too1 thought seemed to be sleeping4 ,both art and letters were largely prostrated to the service of those in high places2 they were scarcely used except for the pleasure or praise of men whose earthly power made them to be feared1 and because they were feared they were flattered openly and despised secretly4 ,but about the end of the century another spirit arose2 a second ,renaissance took place1 which may be traced in literature and in art1 as it may be in the movement of political events and an independence of thought everywhere4 ,naturally the question as to where artists could turn for their models was an important one1 and as before in various epochs in art the antique had been the only help in time of trouble1 so it proved again4 ,in #agfd ,winckelmann published his ,history of ,ancient ,art1 in which the rich significance of classic art was clearly placed before the student4 ,the service which this author rendered to art can scarcely be over-estimated1 coming1 as it did1 at a time when the genius of art seemed to have turned his back upon the world1 and all true inspiration was lost4 ,at about the same time the monuments of ,athens were recalled to the ,european world by ,stuart and ,revett in their architectural designs1 and by the end of the century the study of the antique had done its transforming work1 and artists were striving for more worthy ends than the favor of kings and powerful patrons4 ,this new study of classic art did not show its full and best results until the ,danish sculptor ,thorwaldsen executed his works2 but before his time others were striving for that which it was his privilege to perfect4 ,among the earliest and most famous of these eighteenth-century reformers was the ,venetian1 ,,antonio ,,canova 7#ageg-ahbb74 ,he was born in ,possagno1 and was the son and grandson of stone-cutters4 ,his father died when he was very young1 and he was thus left to the care and instruction of his grandfather1 the old ,pasino ,canova1 who lost no time in accustoming the boy to the use of the chisel1 for there are cuttings in existence which were executed by ,canova in his ninth year4 ,signor ,giovanni ,faliero dwelt near ,possagno1 and was in the habit of employing ,pasino ,canova frequently2 he entertained such respect for the old stone-cutter that he sometimes asked him to spend a few days at his villa4 ,on these visits the old man was accompanied by ,antonio1 who soon became a favorite with all the family of ,faliero1 and a friend of the young ,giuseppe4 ,on one occasion when ,pasino and the boy attended a festival at ,villa ,faliero1 the ornament for the dessert was forgotten4 ,when the servants remembered it at the last moment they went to the old ,pasino in distress1 and begged him to save them from the displeasure of the master4 ,the old man could do nothing for them1 but the young ,tonin1 as he was called1 asked for some butter1 and from it quickly carved a lion4 ,at table this strange ornament attracted the attention of all the guests1 and ,tonin was called in to receive their praises2 from this time the ,senator ,faliero became his patron1 and he placed the boy under the instruction of ,giuseppe ,bernardi1 called ,toretto1 a ,venetian sculptor who had settled at ,pagnano4 ,at this time ,canova was twelve years old2 he studied two years under ,toretto1 and made many statues and models1 which are still preserved by the ,faliero family1 or in other collections4 ,his first really original work was the modelling of two angels in clay2 he did these during an absence of his master's2 he placed them in a prominent place1 and then awaited ,toretto's opinion with great anxiety4 ,when the master saw them he was filled with surprise1 and exclaimed that they were truly marvellous2 from these models the grandfather cut two angels in pietra dura for the high-altar at ,monfumo4 ,at this same period ,canova made his first representations of the human form2 he was accustomed to make small statues and give them to his friends4 ,when he was fifteen years old ,faliero sent for him1 and received him into his own family4 ,canova wished to earn something for himself1 and engaged to work half of the day for ,giuseppe ,ferrari1 who was a nephew of his former master1 ,toretto4 ,of this time ,canova afterward wrote3 ,i labored for a mere pittance1 but it was sufficient4 ,it was the fruit of my own resolution1 and1 as ,i then flattered myself1 the foretaste of more honorable rewards4 ,this circumstance proves how remarkable he must have been2 it is unusual for a boy of fifteen to be paid for work instead of paying for instruction4 ,in ,venice he was able to learn much from observation4 ,he divided his time systematically1 spending his mornings in the ,academy or some gallery1 his afternoons in the shop where he was employed1 and his evenings in studies for which he had had no opportunity as a child4 ,the first commission which was given to ,canova was from the ,commendatore ,farsetti for a pair of baskets filled with fruit and flowers1 to be sculptured in marble1 and placed on a staircase which led to the picture gallery in the ,farsetti ,palace1 where ,canova spent much time in study4 ,these works have no special excellence4 ,after a year in ,venice he went to ,asolo with the ,faliero family4 ,some time before this his patron had asked ,canova to make for him a group of ,orpheus and ,eurydice1 taking the moment when ,eurydice beholds her lover torn away from her forever4 ,canova had been busy with this in his leisure hours in ,venice1 and he took with him to ,asolo everything necessary to the work4 ,he completed the ,eurydice in his sixteenth year2 it was life-size1 and cut from pietra di ,costosa4 ,with this first attempt ,canova became convinced that the small models such as were in use by sculptors were quite insufficient to good work1 and he determined that his models should be of the size which the finished work would have1 even when colossal4 ,after this time he had his studio in a cell of the monastery of the ,augustine friars attached to the ,church of ,san ,stefano1 in ,venice4 ,during the next three years he was occupied with his ,orpheus and a bust of the ,doge ,renier4 ,at this time he studied entirely from nature2 he devoted himself to the pursuit of anatomy1 and after a time was accustomed to make dissections in order to sketch or model from important parts or some conformations that he desired in particular instances4 ,in #aggf his ,orpheus was finished and exhibited1 and it chanced to be at the annual festival of the ,ascension1 when the opera of ,orpheus was brought out in ,venice4 ,canova was accustomed to say that the praise he then received was that which made him a sculptor2 and so grateful was he for it that later1 when he became ,marquis of ,ischia1 he chose for his armorial ensigns the lyre and serpent which are the mythological symbols of ,orpheus and ,eurydice4 ,the ,senator ,grimani ordered a copy of the ,orpheus1 and this was the first work of ,canova in ,carrara marble4 ,he soon found his workshop too small1 and removed to one in the street of ,san ,maurizio1 where he remained until he left his native country4 ,his next work was a statue of ,a,esculapius1 larger than life2 a short time before his death1 when he saw this statue1 he sorrowfully declared that his progress had by no means corresponded with the indications of excellence in this performance of his youth4 ,about this time he executed an ,apollo and ,daphne which was never entirely finished1 and when twenty-two years old he completed a group of ,daedalus and ,icarus for the ,senator ,pisani4 ,this was intended for an exterior decoration of his palace2 but when it was done ,pisani considered it worthy of a place in his gallery1 already famous on account of the painting of ,darius and his ,family1 by ,paul ,veronese1 and other fine works4 ,this may be called ,canova's last work in ,venice1 as he went to ,rome soon after his twenty-third birthday4 ,the ,cavaliere ,zuliani was then the representative of ,venice in ,rome1 and ,faliero gave ,canova letters to him4 ,zuliani was an enlightened patron of art1 and he received the young sculptor with great kindness1 and soon arranged to have his model of ,daedalus and ,icarus exhibited to the best artists and judges of art in ,rome4 ,we can fancy the anxiety with which ,canova went to this exhibition2 but the praise which he there received secured for him a place among the artists then in ,rome4 ,canova had a great desire to undertake a group of some important subject1 and ,zuliani was his friend in this2 for he gave him the marble1 and promised if no other purchaser appeared to give him the full value of the work when completed4 ,he also gave him a workshop in the ,venetian ,palace1 to which no one had access1 where he could be entirely free and undisturbed4 ,the subject chosen for the group was ,theseus vanquishing the ,minotaur1 and the size was to be colossal4 ,canova now worked with untiring devotion2 he was often seen before the statues on ,monte ,cavallo1 with sketch-book in hand1 as soon as it was light enough for him to see1 and he studied faithfully in the museums and galleries of ,rome4 ,his friends in ,venice had secured for him a pension of three hundred ducats1 which placed him above want1 and he was free to devote himself to his ,theseus1 although while at work on that he made a statue of ,apollo1 which was exhibited with ,angelini's ,minerva1 and received much praise4 ,meantime no one knew of the ,theseus save the ambassador4 ,when it was finished ,zuliani prepared it for exhibition1 and invited all the most distinguished men in ,rome to an entertainment4 ,a model of the head of ,theseus was put in a prominent place1 and the guests were busy in discussing it2 they asked questions and expressed opinions1 and when their interest was well awakened ,zuliani said3 ,come1 let us end this discussion by seeing the original1 and the statue was unveiled before their eyes4 ,canova often declared that death itself could not have been more terrible to him than were those moments4 ,but he and all else were forgotten in the surprise and admiration which the group excited2 in that hour the artists who afterward hated him gave him their sincere praise4 ,from that day the fame of ,canova was established4 ,very soon he was selected to erect a monument to ,clement ,,xiv4 ,this pope was a famous man2 he was the collector of the ,clementine ,museum1 the author of the elegant letters known by his family name of ,ganganelli1 and1 above all1 he was the suppressor of the ,jesuits4 ,while ,canova felt the honor that was thus offered him he also thought himself bound to consult those who had conferred his pension upon him1 and thus helped him to become the artist that he was4 ,he went1 therefore1 to ,venice and sought direction from the ,senate2 he was told to employ his time as should be most profitable to himself4 ,he therefore gave up his studio in ,venice1 and as his patron1 ,zuliani1 had now left ,rome1 he fitted up the studio in the ,strada ,babbuino1 which became so well known to lovers of art of all nations who visited ,rome4 ,in #aghg the above monument was exhibited1 and was much admired4 ,an engraving was made from it and dedicated to ,zuliani2 but ,canova desired to do something more worthy for his patron1 and made a statue of ,psyche as a gift to him2 ,zuliani hesitated to accept it1 but finally consented to do so if ,canova would in turn accept a number of silver medals with the ,psyche on one side and a head of ,canova on the other1 which he could give to his friends4 ,in the midst of all this ,zuliani died1 and his heirs were so angry because he had left works of art to the ,public ,library that they refused to carry out his plans4 ,in the end the ,psyche was bought by ,napoleon and presented to the ,queen of ,bavaria4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aae4--,,the ,,three ,,graces4 ,by ,canova4 ,canova executed a second papal monument to ,pope ,clement ,,xiii4 ,it was erected in ,st4 ,peter's by his nephews4 ,the mourning genius upon it is frequently mentioned as one of ,canova's happiest figures4 ,the execution of these two monuments occupied almost ten years of the best part of this sculptor's life4 ,canova's fame had extended over all ,europe1 and he was asked to go to ,st4 ,petersburg1 and offered most advantageous terms if he would do so2 but he declined1 and executed the monument of ,admiral ,emo1 on a commission from the ,venetian ,senate4 ,for this work he received a gold medal and an annuity for life4 ,in #agih1 during the revolutionary excitement at ,rome1 ,canova went to ,possagno1 his native town4 ,here1 in his retirement1 he painted more than twenty pictures1 which were by no means to be despised4 ,his masterpiece represented the ,saviour just taken from the cross1 and surrounded by the ,marys1 ,st4 ,john1 ,nicodemus1 and ,joseph of ,arimathea4 ,this was the first of the many gifts which he made to this little church1 by which it became a splendid temple and the expression of ,canova's love for his birthplace and early home4 ,after he returned to ,rome his health was not sufficient to allow of his usual close application to work1 and he went to ,berlin and ,vienna in company with ,prince ,rezzonico1 and this so benefited him that he was able to resume his labors with new energy4 ,he soon achieved a proud triumph1 for his ,perseus was placed in one of the ,stanze of the ,vatican by a public decree2 this was the first modern work which had been thus honored4 ,in #ahjb-ahjc ,napoleon requested ,canova to go to ,paris to model a portrait bust for a colossal statue2 the work was finished six years later4 ,in #ahje the artist went again to ,vienna1 where he modelled a bust of the ,emperor of ,austria2 in #ahaj again to ,paris to prepare a model for the statue of ,maria ,louisa4 ,with the exception of these short journeys he was constantly at work in his ,roman studio until #ahae1 when he was sent in an official capacity to ,france by the pope1 for the purpose of reclaiming the works of art which had been carried from ,italy in times of war1 and which really belonged to the patrimony of the ,church4 ,canova executed his commission with rare judgment1 and then continued his journey to ,england4 ,in ,london he received many honors2 the king gave him an order for a group1 held several conversations with him1 made him valuable gifts1 and intrusted him with a private letter to the pope4 ,canova returned to ,rome on ,january #eth1 #ahaf4 ,his entry might almost be called a triumphal one1 for the people of ,rome were so grateful for the restoration of their treasures that they expressed their joy in demonstrations to ,canova4 ,he had been ,president of ,st4 ,luke's ,academy before2 he was now made ,president of the ,commission to purchase works of art1 and of the ,academy of ,archaeology4 ,in full consistory of all the high officers of the ,church1 the pope caused his name to be inscribed upon the golden volume of the ,capitol1 and conferred upon him the title of ,marquis of ,ischia1 with a pension of three thousand crowns a year4 ,canova now determined to execute a colossal statue of ,religion1 which should commemorate the return of the pope from banishment4 ,he endeavored to persuade the authorities to decide where it should be placed2 this was not done1 and he was much grieved at his failure to carry out the idea4 ,but he determined that from this time he would devote his life and fortune to religion1 and resolved to erect a church at ,possagno1 to adorn it with works of art1 and to make it his own burial-place4 ,on ,july #hth1 #ahai1 ,canova assembled his workmen in his native town1 and gave them a fete2 many peasant girls joined in the festivities and assisted in the breaking of the ground2 at evening1 as they all passed before ,canova to bid him farewell1 each one received a gift from him4 ,three days later the religious ceremony of laying the corner-stone of the future church took place4 ,an immense number of people from the surrounding country and from ,venice were present2 ,canova1 in his robes as a ,knight of ,christ1 and wearing the insignia of other orders1 led the procession2 all who had seen ,canova when a poor boy in their midst were much impressed by this occasion4 ,here1 in a public manner1 he consecrated his life and fortune to the service of ,god and the benefit of his birthplace4 ,every autumn ,canova went to ,possagno to encourage the workmen and to give directions as to how the whole should be done4 ,between these visits he worked devotedly1 for he was forced to earn all he could in order to pay for his great undertaking4 ,at this time he executed a statue of ,washington1 and was making an equestrian statue of ,ferdinand of ,naples1 and in the month of ,may1 #ahbb1 went to that city1 where he fell ill2 he returned to ,rome1 and revived somewhat1 and resumed his work4 ,on ,september #agth he went to ,possagno1 in ,october to ,villa ,faliero1 where1 fifty years before1 he had spent such happy days4 ,from here he went to ,venice1 and on the #acth of the same month he died4 ,solemn services were held in the cathedral1 and his remains were then intrusted to the priests of ,possagno1 who bore them to their temple1 where he was buried on the #beth of the month2 the crowd was so great that the oration was delivered in the open air4 ,canova's heart was given to the ,academy of ,venice1 and an elegant little monument was erected in the ,palace of ,arts to contain this relic of the sculptor4 ,the ,venetian artists arranged to erect to him a monument1 and chose the design which he himself had made for the tomb of ,titian2 it is in the ,church of ,santa ,maria de' ,frari4 ,in ,rome a statue was decreed to him1 and he was declared the perpetual ,president of her chief academy4 ,in personal appearance ,canova was not grand or very attractive4 ,his head was remarkably well placed upon his shoulders1 and the loose manner in which he dressed his neck allowed this to be seen2 his forehead was a noble one1 his hair black1 and his whole manner and dress was modest and simple4 ,his habits were very orderly and quiet2 he rose early to work1 and went little into public society2 but he welcomed a few friends to dinner almost daily4 ,he entertained them cordially1 but without display1 and led the conversation to light1 cheerful topics that did not touch upon art1 or demand mental exertion4 ,at eleven o'clock he retired to his own room and amused himself with a book or pencil before sleeping4 ,some of his best drawings were made at this hour1 and have been published with the title of ,pensieri1 or thoughts4 ,to describe one day was to give a picture of all1 so regular were his habits of life4 ,in his professional life he was just and generous to others1 and though he would have no pupils1 he would leave everything to advise an artist or visit his works4 ,he was also a patron of art1 and had executed1 at his own expense1 the numerous busts of distinguished persons in the ,capitoline ,museum4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aaf4--;,,hebe4 ,by ,canova4 ,there is a story of a romance in his life4 ,it is said that when he first arrived in ,venice he fell in love with a beautiful girl who was older than himself1 who went to draw in the ,farsetti ,gallery4 ,day by day he watched her until she came no more2 at length her attendant returned1 and ,canova inquired for her mistress2 she burst into tears and answered1 ,la ,signora ,julia is dead4 ,he asked no more1 and never knew who ,julia was or any circumstances of her history2 but all his life he treasured her image1 and when he endeavored to unite the purity of an angel with the earthly beauty of a woman1 the remembrance of ,julia was always in his mind4 ,canova was one of the few artists who received their full merit of praise and the benefits of their labors while alive4 ,without doubt he was a great sculptor1 and coming as he did1 at a time when art was at its worst1 he seemed all the more remarkable to the men around him4 ,but the verdict of to-day would not exalt him as highly as did his friends and patrons4 ,his statues lack the repose which makes the grandest feature of the best sculpture2 his female figures have a sentimental sort of air that is not all we could wish1 and does not elevate them above what we may call pleasing art4 ,his male figures are better1 more natural and simple1 though some of his subjects bordered on the coarse and brutal1 as in the two fencers1 ,kreugas and ,damoxenes1 or ,hercules and ,lichas4 ,but in his religious subjects he is much finer1 and in some of his monuments he shows dignity and earnestness1 while his composition is in the true artistic spirit4 ,taken on the whole1 he was a wonderful artist and a man of whom his century might well be proud4 ,other sculptors of this period and of different nations studied at ,rome1 and devoted themselves to the antique with enthusiasm4 ,one of these was ,,antoine ,,denis ,,chaudet 7#agfc-ahaj71 who was born at ,paris4 ,his talent was so early developed that he was admitted to the ,royal ,academy when fourteen years old1 and when twenty-one he gained the first prize1 and with the royal pension went to ,rome1 where he remained five years4 ,he soon took good rank among artists of that time1 for he was a designer and painter as well as sculptor4 ,he adhered strictly to the antique style1 and attained much purity1 though he was always cold in treatment4 ,he was made a ,professor of ,sculpture in the ,french ,academy1 and made valuable contributions to the ,dictionary of ,fine ,arts4 ,chaudet's principal works in sculpture were the silver statue of ,peace in the ,tuileries2 a statue of ,cincinnatus in the ,senate ,chamber2 a statue of ,o,edipus2 a bas-relief of ,painting1 ,sculpture1 and ,architecture1 in the ,musee ,napoleon1 and many busts and smaller works4 ,he also designed numerous medals and some of the illustrations for a fine edition of ,racine1 and painted a picture of ,a,eneas and ,anchises in the ,burning of ,troy4 ,,johann ,,heinrich ,,dannecker 7#ageh-ahda7 was born at ,stuttgart4 ,by a statue of ,milo he gained the prize of the academy founded by ,duke ,charles ,eugene1 and with the royal pension he went first to ,paris and then to ,rome1 where he studied seven years4 ,he then returned to ,wuertemberg1 and was made ,director of the ,royal ,academy1 with a salary of fifteen thousand francs a year4 ,during fifteen years ,dannecker maintained a high rank in his art1 but his health became so feeble that he was forced to see others excel him4 ,one of his works has a wide reputation1 and is known to many people the world over1 through the generosity of ,herr ,bethmann of ,frankfort1 who admits visitors to his gallery1 and from the models and pictures which have been made from it2 it is the ,ariadne on a ,panther 7,fig4 #aag74 ,dannecker had a delicate feeling for nature2 his figures were light and graceful1 and his heads were noble in expression4 ,he labored eight years upon a figure of ,christ1 which belongs to the ,emperor of ,russia2 in ,stuttgart a nymph pouring water on ,neckar ,street and two nymphs on a reservoir in the palace garden show his fine taste in architectural sculpture4 ,among his other works are a statue of ,alexander1 a monument to ,count ,zeppelin1 a ,cupid1 and a ,maiden lamenting a ,dead ,bird4 ,some of his works are among the very best productions of modern sculpture2 his portraits are noble and true to nature2 the works named here are by no means all that he did1 and we should add that his efforts in religious subjects exhibit a pure sense of the beautiful1 and a true conception of ,christian ideas4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aag4--;,,ariadne ,,and ,,the ,,panther4 ,by ,dannecker4 ,we come now1 for the first time1 to a great ,english sculptor4 ,,john ,,flaxman 7#agee-ahbf7 was born in ,york1 but while he was still an infant his father removed to ,london1 where he kept a plaster-cast shop4 ,the boy began to draw and even to model very early2 when but five years old he kept some soft wax1 with which he could take an impression from any seal or ring or coin which pleased him4 ,he was very delicate in health1 and was once thought to be dead1 and was prepared for burial1 when animation returned2 his parents tried to gratify all his wishes1 and while a child he modelled a great number of figures in wax1 clay1 and plaster4 ,by the time he was ten years old he was much stronger1 and was able to use the activity which corresponded to his enthusiastic feeling and imagination4 ,about this time he read ,don ,quixote1 and was so moved by the adventures of that hero that he went out early one morning armed with a toy sword and bent upon protecting some forlorn damsel2 he went to ,hyde ,park and wandered about all day1 not finding any one who was in need of his services4 ,at night he returned home1 very hungry and weary1 to find his family in great alarm over his unusual absence4 ,he now spent all his time in drawing and modelling1 and never had more than two lessons from a master2 at eleven years of age he began to gain various prizes1 and at fourteen was admitted to study at the ,royal ,academy1 and gained the silver medal there that same year4 ,about this time he made some friends who aided him to study the classics and to learn more of history1 all of which was of great use to him in his art4 ,he was also fortunate in having the friendship of ,mr4 ,wedgwood1 for whom he made many models4 ,he also painted a few pictures in oil4 ,among his earliest sculptures were a group of ,venus and ,cupid and a monument to ,mrs4 ,morley1 who1 with her baby1 died at sea4 ,flaxman represented the mother and child rising from the sea and being received by descending angels4 ,in #aghb ,flaxman married ,miss ,ann ,denman1 whose intelligence and love of art were of great assistance to her husband4 ,in #aghg he went to ,rome1 where he remained seven years4 ,during this time he made a group for ,lord ,bristol1 representing the ,fury of ,athamas1 from the ,metamorphoses of ,ovid2 this work cost him much labor1 for which he received but small pay2 it was carried to ,ireland and then to ,ickworth ,house1 in ,suffolk1 where but few people see it4 ,in ,rome ,flaxman also made a group of ,cephalus and ,aurora for ,mr4 ,thomas ,hope1 and the designs from ,homer1 ,a,eschylus1 and ,dante1 which have such a world-wide fame4 ,in #agid he returned to ,england1 where he was constantly employed on important works until his death4 ,we cannot give a list of his numerous works4 ,many of his monuments are seen in the churches of ,england4 ,in ,glasgow are his statues of ,mr4 ,pitt and ,sir ,john ,moore1 in bronze2 in ,edinburgh is that of ,robert ,burns4 ,flaxman executed much sculpture for the ,east ,indies1 one of these works being unfinished when he died4 ,some critics consider his ,archangel ,michael and ,satan his best work2 it was made for the ,earl of ,egremont1 who had his life-size ,apollo also4 ,in #agig ,flaxman was elected an ,associate of the ,royal ,academy1 in #ahjj an ,academician1 and in #ahaj1 when a ,professor of ,sculpture was added to the other professors of the ,academy1 he was appointed to the office4 ,his lectures have been published4 ,the friezes on the ,covent ,garden ,theatre were all designed by ,flaxman1 and he executed the figure of ,comedy himself4 ,his last work was making designs for the exterior decoration of ,buckingham ,palace1 which would have been entirely under his direction and partly executed by him if he had lived4 ,his wife died in #ahbj1 and her loss was a grief from which he could not recover2 she had been a great advantage to him1 and he had depended much upon her sympathy and counsel4 ,flaxman was a singularly pure man1 and so attractive in manner that he was the friend of old and young alike4 ,sir ,richard ,westmacott succeeded ,flaxman as ,professor at the ,royal ,academy2 he said3 ,but the greatest of modern sculptors was our illustrious countryman1 ,john ,flaxman1 who not only had all the fine feeling of the ancient ,greeks 7which ,canova in a degree possessed71 but united to it a readiness of invention and a simplicity of design truly astonishing4 ,though ,canova was his superior in the manual part1 high finishing1 yet in the higher qualities1 poetical feeling and invention1 ,flaxman was as superior to ,canova as was ,shakespeare to the dramatists of his day4 ,but the perfection of the results of the study of ,canova and others who endeavored to raise sculpture to its ancient glory was seen in the ,dane1 ,,bertel ,,thorwaldsen 7#aggj-ahdd71 who was born in ,copenhagen4 ,the descent of this artist has been traced to memorable sources in two quite distinct ways4 ,those who claim that the ,norsemen discovered ,america relate that during their stay upon this coast a child was born1 from whom ,thorwaldsen's descent can be distinctly followed4 ,the learned genealogists of ,iceland say that his ancestors were descended from ,harald ,hildetand1 ,king of ,denmark1 who1 in the eighth century1 was obliged to flee1 first to ,norway and then to ,iceland1 and that one of his descendants1 ,oluf ,paa1 in the twelfth century1 was a famous wood-carver4 ,but this much is certain3 in the fourteenth century there lived in ,southern ,iceland a wealthy man1 whose family and descendants were much honored4 ,one of these1 ,thorvald ,gottskalken1 a pastor1 had two sons and but a small fortune2 so he sent his sons to ,copenhagen1 where one became a jeweller and died young2 the other1 who was a wood-carver1 was the father of the artist1 whose mother was ,karen ,groeulund1 the daughter of a ,jutland peasant4 ,the father was employed in a shipyard1 and carved only the rude ornaments of vessels and boats2 but these served to lead the mind of the little ,bertel to the art he later followed4 ,his father could not have dreamed of such a future as came to his son1 but he was wise enough to know that the boy might do more and better than he had done1 and he sent him1 when eleven years old1 to the free school of the ,royal ,academy to study drawing2 and very soon the works of the father showed the gain which the son had made1 for his designs were those now used by the old wood-carver4 ,bertel was also sent to study his books at the school of ,charlottenburg1 and here he was so far from clever that he was put in the lowest class4 ,when ,bertel gained his first prize at the academy the chaplain of the school at ,charlottenburg asked him if the boy who had taken the prize was his brother4 ,he looked up with surprise1 and blushing1 said1 ,it is myself1 ,herr ,chaplain4 ,the priest was astounded at this1 and said1 ,herr ,thorwaldsen1 please to pass up to the first class4 ,the boy was amazed at these honors1 and from this day retained the title of ,herr1 which gave him much distinction4 ,when1 after many years1 the sculptor had been loaded with honors1 and stood on the heights of fame1 he was accustomed to say that no glory had ever been so sweet to him as that first rapture which came from the words of the ,chaplain ,hoeyer when he was seventeen years old and a poor school-boy4 ,the effect of this first prize seemed to be to rouse his ambition1 and he worked with the greatest diligence and earnestness4 ,two years later he made a bas-relief of ,love in ,repose1 which took the large silver medal4 ,his father now thought him prepared to enter on the life of a ship's carver1 and ,bertel made no objection to doing so2 but the painter ,abildgaard1 who had been his teacher in the academy1 had grown very fond of him1 and saw how much talent he had1 and could not think of his being but a common tradesman without deep regret4 ,he went1 therefore1 to the old carver1 and after some difficulty obtained his consent that his son should spend half his time in study at the academy1 and the other half in the earning of his daily bread at his father's side4 ,in #agij1 when twenty years old1 ,thorwaldsen made a medallion of the ,princess of ,denmark1 which was so good a likeness that a number of copies was sold4 ,a year later he gained the small gold medal of the academy by a bas-relief of the ,expulsion of ,heliodorus from the ,temple4 ,the ,minister of ,state now became interested in the young artist1 and measures were taken to aid him to go on with his studies4 ,his patrons desired him to study the subjects of the antique sculptures1 and he chose that of ,priam begging the ,body of ,hector from ,achilles4 ,later in life he repeated this subject1 and it is interesting to notice the strength and grandeur of the second when compared with the weakness of the first4 ,and yet it was from the latter that predictions were made of ,thorwaldsen's future greatness4 ,in #agic he gained the prize which entitled him to travel and study three years at the expense of the academy4 ,the work he presented was a bas-relief of ,saint ,peter healing the ,paralytic4 ,in these works this sculptor already showed two qualities which remained the same through his life2 in his subjects from antiquity he showed a ,greek spirit1 which has led some writers to speak of him as a posthumous ,greek1 or a true ,greek artist born after other ,greek artists had died2 on the other hand1 when he treated religious subjects his spirit was like that of the best masters of the ,renaissance1 and these works remind us of ,raphael4 ,all this excellence came entirely from his artistic nature1 for outside of that he was ignorant2 he knew nothing of history or literature1 and was never a man of culture as long as he lived4 ,outside of the work connected with his profession ,thorwaldsen was indolent1 and only acquired knowledge of other matters through observation or from the conversation of others4 ,although he gained the prize which allowed him to travel in #agic1 he did not leave ,copenhagen until ,may1 #agif4 ,in the mean time he had done what he could to earn something3 he had made designs for book-publishers1 given lessons in drawing and modelling1 and made some bust and medallion portraits1 reliefs1 and so on4 ,the vessel in which the young sculptor sailed for ,naples was called the ,thetis1 and the captain engaged to watch over him2 the voyage was long1 and all on board became fond of ,thorwaldsen1 though the captain wrote1 ,he is an honest boy1 but a lazy rascal4 ,this opinion is very amusing when we know what an enormous amount of labor he performed4 ,at ,naples he remained for some time1 and saw and admired all its works of art4 ,he did not reach ,rome until about nine months after leaving ,copenhagen1 but from that time his whole thought and life were changed4 ,he was accustomed to say1 ,i was born on the #hth of ,march1 #agig2 before then ,i did not exist4 ,while in ,naples ,thorwaldsen had been ill1 and suffered from a malarial affection1 which compelled him to be idle much of the time4 ,but he was always studying the antique statues1 and made many copies4 ,some of the first original works which he attempted were failures1 when1 at last1 he modelled a colossal statue of ,jason1 which was well received by those who saw it1 and made him somewhat famous in ,rome 7,fig4 #aah74 ,canova praised it1 and other critics did the same2 but ,thorwaldsen had no money2 the academy had supported him six years2 what could he do8 ,quite discouraged1 he was engaged in his preparations for leaving ,rome1 when ,mr4 ,thomas ,hope1 the ,english banker1 gave him an order for the ,jason in marble4 ,in an hour his life was changed4 ,he was living in ,rome not as a student on charity1 but as an artist gaining his living4 ,we are forced to add that ,mr4 ,hope did not receive this statue until #ahbh1 and ,thorwaldsen has been much blamed for his apparent ingratitude2 but we cannot here give all the details of the unfortunate affair4 ,thorwaldsen had a true and faithful friend in ,rome1 the archaeologist ,zoega2 at his house the young ,dane had met a beautiful ,italian girl1 ,anna ,maria ,magnani1 whom he loved devotedly4 ,she was too ambitious to marry a poor sculptor1 so she married a rich ,m4 d',uhden2 but she persuaded ,thorwaldsen to sign an agreement by which he bound himself to take care of her if she should not agree with her husband and should leave him2 this was just what happened in #ahjc1 and the sculptor received her into his house1 where she remained sixteen years1 when she disappears from his life4 ,he provided an honorable marriage for their daughter4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aah4--;,,jason4 ,by ,thorwaldsen4 ,in #ahjc ,thorwaldsen also made the acquaintance of the ,baron von ,schubart1 the ,danish ,minister1 who presented the sculptor to ,baron von ,humboldt2 and through the friendship of these two men1 and the persons to whom they presented him1 ,thorwaldsen received many orders4 ,in #ahjd his fame had become so well established that he received orders from all countries1 and from this time1 during the rest of his life1 he was never able to do all that was required of him4 ,he was much courted in society1 where he was praised for his art and beloved for his agreeable and pleasing manner4 ,in this same year he was made a ,professor of the ,royal ,academy of ,florence2 and though the ,academy of ,copenhagen expected his return1 they would not recall him from the scene of his triumphs1 and sent him a gift of four hundred crowns4 ,a few months later he was made a member of the ,academy of ,bologna and of that of his native city1 in which last he was also appointed a ,professor4 ,many circumstances conspired to increase his popularity and to excite the popular interest in him1 when1 in #ahje1 he produced the bas-relief of the ,abduction of ,briseis1 which still remains one of his most celebrated works4 ,his ,jason had put him on a level with ,canova1 who was then at the height of his fame2 now the ,briseis was said by many to excel the same type of works by ,canova1 and there is no question that in bas-relief the ,dane was the better sculptor of the two4 ,this relief and his group of ,cupid and ,psyche1 which was completed in #ahje1 mark the era at which ,thorwaldsen reached his full perfection as a sculptor4 ,in this same year he modelled his first statue of ,venus2 it was less than life-size2 and though two copies of it were finished in marble1 he was not pleased with it1 and destroyed the model3 later he made the same statue in full size4 ,in #ahjf he received his first commission for religious subjects1 which consisted of two baptismal fonts for a church in the island of ,fionia4 ,but he was devoted to mythological subjects1 and preferred them before all others1 and in this same year modelled a ,hebe while engaged upon the fonts4 ,his industry was great1 but he found time to receive many visitors at his studio1 and went frequently into society4 ,at the house of ,baron von ,humboldt1 then ,prussian ,ambassador at ,rome1 ,thorwaldsen was always welcome and happy2 here he met all persons of note who lived in or who visited ,rome4 ,it was at this period that the young ,prince ,louis of ,bavaria entered into a correspondence with ,thorwaldsen1 which ended only with the sculptor's life4 ,louis was collecting objects for his ,glyptothek at ,munich1 and he frequently consulted ,thorwaldsen in these matters2 his advice was of value1 and he more than once saved ,louis from imposition by dealers4 ,louis gave the sculptor the order for the fine ,adonis1 now in the ,glyptothek2 it was modelled in #ahjh1 but was not completed until #ahcb2 this splendid work was executed entirely by ,thorwaldsen's own hands4 ,in #ahjh he also received the order for four bas-reliefs to be used in the restoration of the ,palace of ,christiansborg1 which had been injured by fire4 ,this was the year1 too1 when he was made an honorary member of the ,academy of ,st4 ,luke4 ,the year #ahji brought deep sorrows to ,thorwaldsen in the death of his two friends1 ,stanley and ,zoega4 ,he interested himself in the settlement of the affairs of the latter1 and had much trouble and anxiety2 but he managed to accomplish the modelling of six bas-reliefs in this year1 in spite of the disturbed state of ,rome on account of the pope's departure1 and in spite of the hindrances in his own life4 ,in #ahaj the ,king of ,denmark made ,thorwaldsen a ,knight of ,danebrog1 and he was then known in ,italy as the ,cavaliere ,alberto4 ,his work this year was in bas-reliefs1 and in #ahaa he modelled a colossal statue of ,mars1 the bust of ,mademoiselle ,ida ,brun1 a lovely statue of ,psyche1 and his own portrait as a colossal ,hermes4 ,the people of ,denmark were growing very impatient at the prolonged absence of their artist4 ,he had left home a mere boy1 and was now famous over all the world4 ,they wished for his return2 a marble quarry had been discovered in ,norway1 and even ,prince ,christian ,frederick wrote to ,thorwaldsen to urge his going home4 ,the sculptor wished to go1 and even made some preparations to do so1 when he received so important a commission that it was impossible to leave ,rome4 ,this new work was a frieze for one of the great halls in the ,quirinal ,palace4 ,he chose the ,entrance of ,alexander the ,great into ,babylon for his subject1 and it proved to be one of the most important works of his life4 ,it was completed in ,june1 #ahab2 and though it had been somewhat criticised as too rough in its finish1 when it was elevated to its proper height it was all that had been expected by the artist's friends2 later he repeated this frieze for his own countrymen4 ,in ,rome he was now frequently called the ,patriarch of ,bas-relief4 ,soon after this he was made a member of the ,imperial ,academy of ,vienna4 ,in #ahac ,thorwaldsen was again a victim of malignant fever1 and visited the baths of ,lucca1 in company with the ,baron and ,baroness von ,schubart1 for the benefit of his health4 ,he met many people and received much honor1 especially from the ,grand ,duchess of ,tuscany4 ,his health was improved1 but his old and tried friend1 the ,baroness von ,schubart1 died the winter following2 he felt her loss deeply1 for she had been his friend and confidante from the time of his arrival in ,rome4 ,he was always busy1 and one after another of his almost numberless works was finished4 ,in #ahae he made the ,achilles and ,priam1 a relief which is sometimes called his masterpiece2 in the same year he made the famous and familiar medallions of ,night and ,morning2 it is said that he conceived the first while awake in a sleepless1 restless condition1 and modelled it entirely on the following day2 these medallions have been reproduced in all possible forms--in engravings1 on cameos1 gems1 in metals1 and a variety of marble1 plaster1 and porcelain4 ,about this time ,thorwaldsen removed to a spacious studio with gardens1 and received pupils1 and was overwhelmed with orders1 so that he could not yet go to ,denmark1 in spite of the urgent letters he received4 ,he executed many important original works1 and also restored the marbles of ,a,egina1 now at ,munich2 this was a great task1 but his study of the antique had made him better able to do it than was any other modern sculptor4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aai4--;,,ganymede ,,and ,,the ,,eagle4 ,by ,thorwaldsen4 ,the exquisite group of ,ganymede and the ,eagle 7,fig4 #aai7 shows the effect of his study of the antique1 and the same may be said of his statue of ,hope1 a small copy of which was afterward placed above the tomb of the ,baroness von ,humboldt4 ,the ,three ,graces 7,fig4 #abj7 belongs to the year #ahag2 the ,mercury was of about this date1 as well as the elegant statue of the ,princess ,baryatinska1 which is his finest portrait statue4 ,after an absence from ,denmark of twenty-three years he left ,rome in ,july1 #ahai1 and turned his face toward home4 ,his model for the famous ,lion of ,lucerne had already been sent on before him1 and the work commenced by one of his pupils1 ,bienaime4 ,thorwaldsen first went to ,lucerne1 where he gave all necessary advice in this work1 and then proceeding on his journey reached ,copenhagen on the #c;d of ,october4 ,apartments had been prepared for him in the ,academy of ,fine ,arts1 and as soon as it was known that he was there he was the centre of attraction and importance4 ,crowds went to welcome him to his home4 ,a great reception and a grand banquet were given in his honor1 and he was lauded to the skies in speeches1 and was made a ,counsellor of ,state1 in order that he might sit at table with the royal family and not violate the court etiquette4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abj4--,,the ,,three ,,graces4 ,by ,thorwaldsen4 ,all this must have gratified the artist1 who had earned such proud honors by the force of his genius2 but it interests us much more to know that he received commissions for some very important works1 among which those of the ,church of ,our ,lady are very interesting4 ,the orders for all the work which he did here were not given at once1 but in the end it became a splendid monument to this sculptor1 and embraces almost all his religious works of any importance4 ,there are the figures of ,christ and the ,twelve ,apostles2 the ,angel of ,baptism1 which is an exquisite font2 the ,preaching of ,st4 ,john the ,baptist1 which is a group in terra-cotta on the pediment of the church2 a bas-relief in marble of the ,institution of the ,lord's ,supper2 another in plaster of ,christ's ,entry into ,jerusalem2 one of ,christ ,bearing the ,cross2 one of the ,baptism of ,christ2 another of the ,guardian ,angel1 and one of ,christian ,charity4 ,he did not remain very long in ,denmark1 but went to ,warsaw1 where he had been summoned to arrange for some important works4 ,he was presented to the ,emperor ,alexander1 who gave him sittings for a portrait bust2 this was so successful that for some years ,thorwaldsen employed skilled workmen to constantly repeat it1 in order to fill the demand for it which was made upon him4 ,while at ,warsaw he received an order for a monument to ,copernicus1 which was dedicated in #ahcj2 other important commissions were given him1 and after visiting ,cracow1 ,troppau1 and ,vienna1 he reached ,rome in ,december1 #ahbj1 where he was heartily welcomed by the artists1 who gave him a banquet1 on which occasion the ,prince ,royal of ,denmark sat next to the sculptor4 ,before this a correspondence had established a friendship between ,thorwaldsen and ,prince ,louis of ,bavaria2 but from the year #ahba intimate personal relations existed between them4 ,he took up work with great energy2 he had returned to ,rome with so much to do that he required much room1 and employed a large company of workmen4 ,in the summer of #ahbb he was able to secure a large building which had been used for a stable to the ,barberini ,palace1 and here he was able to set up all his large models4 ,in #ahbd ,thorwaldsen was summoned by the ,cardinal ,consalvi1 who gave him the commission for the monument to ,pius ,,vii41 now in the ,clementine ,chapel of ,st4 ,peter's at ,rome2 this work was not completed when the cardinal himself died1 and his own monument by ,thorwaldsen was placed in the ,pantheon before that of ,pius ,,vii4 was put in its place4 ,he also made a cross for the ,capuchins for which he would accept no reward1 though they were entirely satisfied with it4 ,in #ahbe ,thorwaldsen was elected ,president of the ,academy of ,st4 ,luke with the advice and consent of ,pope ,leo ,,xii41 who paid him a visit in his studio4 ,many delays occurred1 and the monument to ,pius ,,vii4 was not erected until #ahca4 ,the works upon which the artist and his assistants were engaged were far too numerous to be mentioned2 he was at the very height of fame and popularity1 and was forced to refuse some of the commissions sent him4 ,in #ahcj he went to ,munich to superintend the setting up of his monument to ,eugene ,beauharnais1 the ,duke of ,leuchtenberg4 ,this gave ,louis of ,bavaria an opportunity to show his regard for the sculptor1 which he did in every possible way4 ,soon after the monument was unveiled ,thorwaldsen received the cross of an officer of the ,legion of ,honor4 ,thorwaldsen's place in ,rome was a very important one1 not only as an artist1 but as a man4 ,he had the respect and esteem of many good men of all nations2 he also suffered some things from the envy of those who were jealous of him1 as is the case with all successful men2 but he was a fearless person1 and did not trouble himself on account of these things4 ,the frequent agitations of a political nature1 however1 did disturb him1 and he began to think seriously of returning to ,denmark4 ,in #ahcg1 when the cholera broke out in ,rome1 he determined to leave2 his countrymen were delighted1 and a government frigate was sent to take him home2 he sailed from ,leghorn in ,august1 #ahch4 ,his arrival was hailed with joy in ,denmark1 and wherever he went his progress was marked by tokens of the pride which his countrymen felt in him4 ,as soon as it was known in ,copenhagen1 on ,september #agth1 that the ,rota1 which brought the sculptor1 was in the harbor1 a flag was run up from ,st4 ,nicolas ,church as a signal for the beginning of the festivities which had been arranged4 ,although it rained heavily1 boats filled with artists1 poets1 students1 physicians1 mechanics1 and naval officers went out to meet him2 each boat had a flag with an appropriate device1 that of the artists having ,thorwaldsen's ,three ,graces1 the poets1 a ,pegasus1 and so on4 ,the meeting with his friends on the deck of the ship was a pleasant surprise to the artist1 who was hurried ashore amid the firing of salutes and all sorts of joyous demonstrations1 a vast number of boats rowing after that in which he was seated4 ,his carriage was drawn by the people from the quay to ,charlottenburg1 where a vast crowd assembled to get a sight at him4 ,his form was tall and erect1 his step firm2 his long white hair fell on his shoulders1 and his clear eye and benevolent face beamed with intelligence and sympathetic interest in all around him4 ,he was led out on a balcony1 where1 uncovered1 he saluted the people1 who greeted him with wild applause4 ,thorwaldsen smiled and said1 ,would not any one think that we were in ,rome1 and ,i were the pope about to give the benediction urbi et orbi from the balcony of ,st4 ,peter's8 ,one ovation after another followed1 day by day1 and such crowds of visitors went to see him that he was unable to unpack and arrange his possessions which he had brought from ,italy1 or to work at all1 which was worse to him4 ,at last he began to do as he had done in ,rome1 and to receive his friends with his chisel or modelling-stick in hand4 ,he lived frugally1 and continued many of his ,roman habits of life2 but he was forced to dine out every evening4 ,he was now sixty-eight years old1 but he did a vast amount of work in one way and another1 and was so pursued by all sorts of people who wished to engage his attention in a variety of projects1 that he seriously considered the question of leaving ,copenhagen4 ,he became very fond of certain families where he visited1 among which was that of the ,baron von ,stampe1 who1 with his wife and children1 were soon treated by the sculptor as if they were his own kindred4 ,he went with them to their summer home at ,nysoe1 and while there the baroness persuaded him to model his own statue4 ,he did this imperfectly1 as he had no suitable workshop2 and when the baroness saw his difficulty in working in an ordinary room she had a studio built for him in a garden near the castle4 ,she took the time to do this when ,thorwaldsen was absent for eight days1 and in this short space the whole was completed1 so that when he returned it seemed to him like magic4 ,this studio was dedicated in ,july1 #ahci4 ,he then began the proper modelling of his own statue1 and was progressing very well when he received a letter from the poet ,oehlenschlaeger1 who was in great haste to have a portrait bust made of himself4 ,thorwaldsen felt that he ought not to make his own statue when thus wanted for other work1 and he threw down his tools1 and would have broken the model4 ,but the baroness succeeded in getting him away1 and locked the studio1 keeping the key4 ,however1 no argument or entreaty would move the sculptor1 and she could do nothing with him until she happened to think of crying4 ,when she began to weep and to accuse him of having no affection for her1 and reminded him of the proofs of her devotion which she had given him1 he was taken in by her mock tears1 and exclaimed1 ,well1 they may think what they like4 ,my statue is not for posterity1 but ,i cannot refuse it to a friend to whom it will give such pleasure4 ,he then resumed his work1 and completed his statue in seventeen days4 ,he represented himself standing with one arm resting upon his statue of ,hope4 ,after this summer ,thorwaldsen divided his time between ,copenhagen and ,stampeborg1 and worked with the same industry in one place as in the other4 ,the life in the country was a great delight to him2 he played games1 listened to fairy tales from the poet ,andersen1 or to music from the young girls of the house1 all with equal pleasure2 and if he were allowed to have his mornings for work he would spend the rest of the day in the woods or pay visits1 and was perfectly happy in this succession of labor and leisure4 ,baroness ,stampe did not stop at one trick upon the old artist1 for she found it more easy to gain a point in this way than by argument4 ,he had promised to execute a statue of ,christian ,,iv4 for ,christian ,,viii41 the reigning king2 he put it off until the king was impatient4 ,one day1 when he had gone for a walk1 the baroness went to the studio and began a sketch in clay as well as she could4 ,when ,thorwaldsen returned he asked what she was doing1 and she answered1 ,i am making the statue of the king4 ,since you will not do it1 and ,i have pledged my word1 ,i must do it myself4 ,the artist laughed1 and began to criticise her work2 she insisted it was all right1 and at last said1 ,do it better1 then1 yourself2 you make fun of me2 ,i defy you to find anything to change in my work4 ,thorwaldsen was thus led on to correct the model1 and when once he had begun he finished it4 ,it would be impossible to give any account here of the numerous incidents in the later years of the life of this sculptor2 of the honors he received1 of the many works he was consulted about and asked to do1 of the visits he paid and received from persons of note2 few lives are as full as was his1 and the detailed accounts of it are very interesting4 ,he had always desired to go again to ,rome1 and in #ahda1 when the ,baron von ,stampe decided to go there with his family1 ,thorwaldsen travelled with them4 ,they went through ,germany1 and were everywhere received as honorably as if he were a royal person3 he was invited to visit royal families2 court carriages were at his service2 ,mendelssohn gave a musical fete for him2 in all the great cities he was shown the places and objects worthy of his attention2 poets and orators paid him respect1 and nothing that could be done to show appreciation of his genius and his works was omitted4 ,in ,rome it was the same2 he remained there almost a year1 and upon his arrival at ,copenhagen1 in ,october1 #ahdb1 he experienced the crowning glory of his life4 ,during his absence the ,thorwaldsen ,museum had been completed1 and here1 the day after he reached home1 he was received4 ,the building was decorated with garlands1 and he went over the whole of it2 at last he entered the inner court1 where he was to be buried2 here he stood for some time with bowed head1 while all about him kept silence4 ,can any one fancy the thoughts that must have come to him8 ,here he must be buried1 and yet here would he live in the works of his hand which would surround him and remain to testify to his immortal powers4 ,he lived three years more1 and was always busy4 ,his mind was strong and his conceptions of his subjects had lost nothing1 but his ability to execute his works was less2 his hand had lost somewhat of its cunning4 ,he went much into society1 was fond of the theatre1 and under the devoted care of his servant1 ,wilkens1 he enjoyed all that was possible to a man of his age4 ,on the #bdth of ,march #ahdd1 the ,baroness von ,stampe went to ask him to dine at her house2 he said he was not well and would not go out2 but as his daughter was to be there and expected him he decided to go4 ,he was modelling a bust of ,luther1 and threw down before it a handful of clay and stuck a trowel in it2 just so1 as he left it1 this now stands in the museum1 preserved under glass1 with the print of his hand in the clay4 ,he was merry at dinner1 and in speaking of the museum said he could die now1 whenever he chose1 since the architect ,bindesboell had finished his tomb4 ,after dinner he went to the theatre1 and there it was seen that he was really ill2 he was taken out with haste and laid upon a sofa1 when it was found that he was already dead4 ,the ,charlottenburg joined the theatre1 and there1 in the hall of antique sculpture1 he was laid4 ,he was first buried in the ,frue ,kirke1 which he had so splendidly decorated2 four years later he was borne to the vault in the centre of the ,thorwaldsen ,museum1 where above him grows the evergreen ivy1 a fitting emblem of his unfading fame4 ,thiele1 in his splendid book called ,thorwaldsen and his ,works1 gives a list of two hundred and sixty works by this master2 and as one journeys from ,rome1 where are some of his sculptures in ,st4 ,peter's and the ,quirinal1 to ,copenhagen1 with the ,frue ,kirke and the ,museum1 one passes through few cities that are not adorned by his statues and reliefs4 ,among his most important works are the frieze of ,alexander's entrance into ,babylon1 at the ,quirinal2 the ,lion of ,lucerne2 the many statues1 groups1 and bas-reliefs in the ,frue ,kirke2 more than thirty sepulchral and commemorative monuments in various cities and countries2 sixteen bas-reliefs which illustrate the story of ,cupid and ,psyche2 twenty bas-reliefs of ,genii2 twenty-two figures from antique fables1 and many portrait busts and statues1 and various other subjects4 ,thorwaldsen was a very remarkable man4 ,no circumstance of his youth indicated his success1 and a certain indolence which he had would have seemed to forbid it2 but the power was within him1 and was of that genuine quality which will declare itself2 and a man who has it becomes great without intending to be so1 and almost without believing that he is remarkable beyond others4 ,the true antique spirit seems to have been revived in him4 ,his characteristics as a sculptor are severe simplicity1 perfect beauty in form1 distinctness1 and repose4 ,thiele says of him3 ,he has challenged and has received the decision of the world's ,supreme ,court1 that his name shall stand on the rolls of immortality4 ,and if his life might be embodied in a single emblem1 perhaps it should be that of a young lion1 with an eye that glows and flashes fire1 while he is bound with ivy and led by the hand of the three graces4 ,the sculpture of ,germany in the last part of the eighteenth and the early years of the present century was very interesting4 ,the architect ,schinkel was a great lover of antique art1 and he had much influence over all arts1 as well as in his special department4 ,thorwaldsen himself so admired the sculptor ,,john ,,rudolph ,,schadow 7#aghf-ahbb7 that when the ,king of ,prussia gave him a commission for a statue he replied3 ,sire1 there is at this moment in ,rome one of your faithful subjects who is more capable than ,i of performing to your satisfaction the task with which you deign to honor me2 permit me to solicit for him your royal favor4 ,the commission was given to ,schadow1 and he made his charming work1 ,the ,spinner4 ,john ,rudolph was the son of ,,john ,,gottfried ,,schadow 7#agfd-ahej71 who was court sculptor1 and long survived his gifted son4 ,the chief works of the father were the statues of ,count von der ,mark1 at ,berlin2 that of ,frederick the ,great1 at ,stettin2 ,luther's monument in the market-place at ,wittenberg1 and ,bluecher's statue at ,rostock4 ,john ,rudolph ,schadow studied under both ,canova and ,thorwaldsen1 and was a very gifted artist4 ,he was engaged upon a group of ,achilles protecting the body of ,penthesilea at the time of his death2 it was finished by ,wolff4 ,,christian ,,frederic ,,tieck 7#aggf-ahea7 was an eminent sculptor of his time1 and decorated with sculpture some of the fine edifices erected at ,berlin by ,schinkel4 ,he was very active in establishing a gallery of models from the antique at ,berlin1 and was a ,director of the ,sculptures in the ,museum as well as a member of the ,academy4 ,his most successful original works were portrait busts1 and he had many notable people among his sitters4 ,among them were the ,emperor of ,germany1 the ,king of ,bavaria1 ,schelling1 ,goethe1 ,lessing1 and many others4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aba4--,,statue ,,of ,,queen ,,louise4 ,by ,rauch4 ,,christian ,,rauch 7#aggg-aheg74 ,this eminent sculptor was born at ,waldeck1 and followed the manner of ,schadow1 which he carried to its perfection4 ,his statue of ,queen ,louise 7,fig4 #aba7 is one of the finest works of modern sculpture1 and his statues of the ,generals ,scharnhorst and ,buelow1 in ,berlin1 are very fine2 the reliefs upon the pedestals are of classic beauty4 ,but his masterpiece is the grand ,friedrichs monument4 ,rauch executed many excellent busts2 he made good portraits1 and yet he elevated the character of his subjects to the greatest nobleness of which they were capable4 ,as a rule ,rauch avoided religious subjects1 but late in life he modelled the group of ,moses supported in prayer by ,aaron and ,hur4 ,among his important works are the statue of ,bluecher1 at ,breslau2 that of ,august ,hermann ,franke1 at ,halle2 ,duerer1 at ,nuremberg2 monument to ,maximilian ,i41 at ,munich2 and six marble ,victories for the ,walhalla4 ,his works are numerous1 and in them we feel that this artist had not a great imaginative power2 he rarely conceived imaginary subjects1 but he took some fact or personality as his motive1 and elevated it to the highest point to which it could be brought1 and under his masterly style of execution produced splendid results4 ,,ernst ,,rietschel 7#ahjd-ahfj7 was a gifted pupil of ,rauch4 ,after spending some time in ,rome he settled in ,dresden1 and executed the statue of ,friederich ,august of ,saxony1 for the ,zwingerhof1 when but twenty-seven years old4 ,his chief excellence was in portrait statues1 and those of ,lessing and ,luther are remarkable for their powerful expression of the intellectual and moral force of those men4 ,his religious subjects were full of deep feeling1 and his lighter works have a charming grace about them4 ,,ludwig ,,schwanthaler 7#ahjb-ahdh7 studied much in ,rome1 and was as devoted to the antique as was ,thorwaldsen4 ,he executed many works in ,munich1 the principal ones being the interior decoration of the ,glyptothek2 also that of the ,koenigsbau and two groups for the ,walhalla4 ,a prominent work by this master is the bronze statue of ,bavaria1 which is fifty-four feet high and stands in front of the ,ruhmeshalle4 ,he also made twelve gilt-bronze statues of ,bavarian sovereigns4 ,schwanthaler had remarkable powers of invention and a fruitful imagination2 in these points he ranks with the first of modern sculptors2 but his works rarely rise above what we call decorative art1 and in spite of his excellent gifts he lacked the power to arouse any enthusiasm for his statues4 ,there are many other names that might be mentioned in connection with modern sculpture in ,germany4 ,nowhere have the monuments and portrait statues and busts reached a higher excellence than in what we may call1 in general terms1 the ,berlin school4 ,profound attention has been given to the proper reproduction of the individual characters of its subjects1 while the art has not been allowed to sink into caricature or commonplaceness4 ,nowhere does the traveller better appreciate the art of our own day than in the sculpture of ,germany4 ,but there are exceptions to this rule2 some such artists as ,,theodore ,,kalide and ,,ludwig ,,wichmann are wanting in the serious qualities of ,schadow1 ,rauch1 and their followers1 and sometimes fall into a coarse realism2 but in spite of this1 the revival of love for the antique1 which began with ,canova and his time1 has borne rich fruit in the works of modern ,german sculptors4 ,in ,france the spirit of modern sculpture has been largely that of the severe classic style1 and it has shown many of the same qualities that we have seen in modern ,german sculpture2 but the different characteristics of the two nations have had their influence here as in everything else4 ,in ,france the artist has aimed at a fine effect--flowing outline and dazzling representations of dramatic motives--far more than the northern sculptors have done4 ,there is less thought and depth of feeling1 more outward attraction and striking effect4 ,the classic taste which asserted itself in the time of ,canova was adopted in ,france1 but in a ,french manner2 and one of the earliest artists who showed its effects was ,,francois ,,joseph ,,bosio 7#agfi-ahde71 who was much honored4 ,he was made a member of the ,institute of ,france and of the ,royal ,academy of ,berlin3 he was chief sculptor to the ,king of ,france1 and executed many public works4 ,he made many portrait busts of the royal family and other prominent persons1 but his chief works were the reliefs on the column of the ,place ,vendome1 the ,chariot on the arch of the ,place du ,carrousel1 the monument to the ,countess ,demidoff1 and statues of mythological heroes and heroines4 ,for the ,chapelle ,expiatoire1 ,bosio executed a group representing ,louis ,,xvii4 receiving comfort from an angel2 the design is not as good as in some of his classic works1 but the conception is pure and noble4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abb4--,,nymph4 ,by ,bosio4 ,,james ,,pradier 7#agij-ahcb71 though born in ,geneva1 was essentially a ,french sculptor1 and excelled the artists of his day in his representations of feminine beauty4 ,his masterpiece is a fountain at ,nimes1 in which the figures are fine and the drapery noble and distinct in treatment4 ,the serious and comic ,muses of the ,fountain ,moliere are excellent works4 ,he made several separate statues which are well known2 his ,psyche has a butterfly poised on the upper part of the arm2 ,atalanta is fastening her sandals2 ,sappho is in despair4 ,his ,niobe group showed his power to represent bold action1 and his ,prometheus chained1 erected in the garden of the ,tuileries1 is grand and spirited4 ,we could name a great number of ,french sculptors belonging to this period whose works are seen in many public places which they adorn1 but whose genius was not sufficient to place them in the first ranks of the world's artists1 or make the accounts of them anything more than a list of works which has little meaning1 except when one stands before them4 ,perhaps no one man had so wide an influence upon this art as had ,,pierre ,,jean ,,david 7#agic-ahef71 who is called ,david of ,angers1 which was his birthplace1 in order to distinguish him from ,jacques ,louis ,david1 the great painter1 who was like a father to this sculptor1 though in no way connected with him by ties of kindred1 as far as we know4 ,but when the sculptor went to ,paris1 a very poor boy1 ,david the painter1 whose attention was called to him in some way1 was his friend1 and gave him lessons in drawing and aided him in other ways4 ,in #ahaa ,david of ,angers obtained the prize which enabled him to go to ,rome1 and after his return to ,paris he was constantly employed4 ,the amount of his work was enormous2 many of his statues were colossal1 and he executed a great number of busts and more than ninety medallions4 ,he made the statue of ,mme4 de ,stael2 one of ,talma for the ,theatre ,francais2 the colossal statue of ,king ,rene at ,aix2 monument to ,fenelon at ,cambray2 the statue of the great ,conde at ,versailles2 the ,gutenberg memorial at ,strasburg1 which is one of his most successful works1 and a large number of other sculptures4 ,his chief characteristic is realism1 and he carried this so far that it frequently became coarseness4 ,david designed the relief for the pediment of the ,pantheon4 ,the inscription on the building declares that it is dedicated by a grateful country to its great men1 and the sculptor seems to have had this in mind1 for he represented in his group a figure of ,france surrounded by those who had been great in its times of war and days of peace4 ,it is too realistic to be pleasing1 and is far less creditable to the sculptor than are many of his less prominent works4 ,if little can be said of the modern ,french sculpture prior to our immediate time1 there is still less to be told of that of ,england4 ,there are many public monuments there1 but they do not show forth any high artistic genius or rise above the commonplace except in very rare instances4 ,there is but one ,english sculptor of whom ,i shall speak4 ,,john ,,gibson 7#agia-ahff7 was born near ,conway1 in ,wales4 ,when he was nine years old his parents went to ,liverpool with the intention of sailing for ,america2 but they gave up the idea1 and the boy was sent to school in ,liverpool4 ,before this he had been in the habit of drawing and of making sketches of anything that he saw and was pleased with2 he now studied the prints in the shop windows1 and made pictures1 which he sold to his fellow-pupils4 ,he attracted the attention of a print-seller1 who was so interested in him that he allowed him to draw from studies and casts from the antique which he had4 ,when fourteen years old the boy was apprenticed to a cabinet-maker1 but after a year he persuaded his employer to allow him to leave his shop1 and was then apprenticed to a wood-carver4 ,he did not stop at this1 however1 for when he became acquainted with the ,messrs4 ,francis1 who had a marble-yard1 he persuaded his second master to release him1 and was apprenticed for the third time1 and in this case to the occupation which he had determined should be that of his life4 ,he was now very happy1 and his improvement in drawing1 modelling1 and working in marble was very rapid4 ,after a few months he made the acquaintance of ,william ,roscoe1 who became his friend and patron4 ,he remained in ,liverpool until he was twenty-seven years old2 he had improved every advantage within his reach1 but he was very desirous of travelling4 ,in #ahag1 armed with a few letters of introduction1 he went to ,london1 where he obtained several orders1 and in ,october of that year went to ,rome4 ,he had a letter to ,canova1 who took him under his care and gave him admission to the classes in the ,academy1 in which he could draw from living models4 ,in #ahai he received his first important commission2 it was from the ,duke of ,devonshire for a group of ,mars and ,cupid4 ,from this time he advanced steadily in his profession1 and was always busy4 ,he lived twenty-seven years in ,rome1 and passed his summers in ,innsbrueck4 ,in #ahdd he went to ,liverpool to oversee the erection of his statue of ,mr4 ,huskisson2 he was received with enthusiasm1 and when he went to ,glasgow to superintend the placing of his statue of ,mr4 ,finlay in the ,merchants' ,hall his reception was even more flattering1 as it was given him simply as an artist1 and not connected with any former associations1 as in ,liverpool4 ,during this visit to ,england ,gibson was summoned to ,windsor to make a statue of ,queen ,victoria1 which he completed after his return to ,rome4 ,the queen was represented in a classical costume1 and the diadem1 sandals1 and borders of the drapery were colored4 ,this was very much criticised and much was written and said about it2 ,gibson took little notice of all this1 and simply answered it by saying1 ,whatever the ,greeks did was right4 ,in #ahea ,gibson sustained a great loss in the death of his brother ,ben1 who had lived with him in ,rome for fourteen years4 ,five years later1 when in perfect health1 the sculptor was attacked by paralysis1 and lived but a short time4 ,he was buried in the ,english cemetery at ,rome1 and ,lord ,lytton wrote the inscription upon his monument4 ,it says3 ,his native genius strengthened by careful study1 he infused the spirit of ,grecian art into masterpieces all his own4 ,his character as a man was in unison with his attributes as an artist--beautiful in its simplicity and truthfulness1 noble in its dignity and elevation4 ,a monument was also raised to ,gibson in the church at ,conway4 ,the master left the models of all his works and the larger part of his fortune to the ,royal ,academy in ,london4 ,among his works are ,mars and ,cupid1 at ,chatsworth2 ,psyche borne by ,zephyrs1 in the ,palazzo ,torlonia1 at ,rome1 and a replica at ,st4 ,petersburg2 ,hylas surprised by ,nymphs1 in the ,national ,gallery1 ,london2 ,sleeping ,shepherd ,boy1 in the ,lenox collection in ,new ,york2 ,cupid disguised as a ,shepherd1 which he often repeated2 portraits of ,queen ,victoria1 at ,buckingham ,palace and ,osborne2 ,sir ,robert ,peel1 in ,westminster ,abbey2 ,george ,stephenson1 in ,st4 ,george's ,hall1 ,liverpool2 eighteen portrait busts2 sixteen bas-reliefs of ideal subjects and sixteen others for monuments to the dead4 ,a large part of these are in the chapel of the ,liverpool ,cemetery4 ,he modelled a bas-relief of ,christ blessing little children4 ,gibson found his entire happiness in his art4 ,in his own words1 he worked on happily and with ever new pleasure1 avoiding evil and with a calm soul1 making images1 not for worship1 but for the love of the beautiful4 ,the beautiful elevates us above the crowd in this world2 the ideal1 higher--yes1 higher still1 to celestial beauty1 the fountain of all4 ,socrates said that outward beauty was the sign of the inward2 in the life of a man1 as in an image1 every part should be beautiful4 ,he was never elated by praise2 he was glad of tributes which proved that he was respected1 but he received all honors with a simplicity of self-respect which spoke the sincere nobility of his nature4 ,there are many amusing anecdotes told of his absentmindedness about everything not connected with his art4 ,miss ,harriet ,hosmer was his only pupil1 and she said of him3 ,he is a god in his studio1 but ,god help him when he is out of it4 ,he never could master the ins and outs of railroad travelling1 and even when put in the right train at the right time he would be sure to get out at the wrong place at the wrong time4 ,on one of his journeys1 when he supposed he was at the right place1 he got out and asked the porter to show him the way to the cathedral4 ,in his own account he said3 ,but the scoundrel would have it there was no cathedral in the place1 and at last had the impudence to ask me if ,i knew where ,i was4 ,then ,i discovered that instead of being in ,chichester1 where ,i had a particular appointment with the dean and chapter1 ,i was safe in ,portsmouth1 where there was no cathedral at all4 ,the time has not come for any comprehensive estimate of the sculpture of our own country4 ,so many of our artists are still living that it would be unjust to speak of them in connection with those whose work is complete and whose rank is fixed as a matter of history4 ,we have no right to say of one who is still working that he has reached his full height1 and even after death a certain period must elapse before the true merit of an artist can be established and his name written in its just place upon the roll of fame4 ,so1 in leaving this subject1 we will turn again to the land of which we first spoke in considering modern sculpture4 ,in ,italy this art has not risen above the elevation to which ,canova and ,thorwaldsen brought it2 for though the last was a ,dane1 his work may truly be said to belong to the ,roman school4 ,we must regard ,italy as the land of art in a peculiar sense1 but it is easy to understand that under the political misfortunes which she has suffered an advance in artistic life could not be made4 ,now1 when a new spirit is active there1 and a freer thought prevails in other directions1 may we not believe that in the arts there will be a revival of the best inspiration that has ever come to that home of grace and beauty8 ,as we glance over the entire civilized world of to-day we find an immense activity in all matters pertaining to the fine arts4 ,schools and academies are multiplied everywhere1 and the interest in works of art is universal4 ,many a private gentleman is to-day as liberal a patron of artists as were the princes and nobles of the past4 ,it is as if there were a vast crucible in which artists of all nations are being tested1 and from this testing of their metal it would seem that much pure gold must come forth4 ,as we review the history of sculpture from its earliest days to the present1 we are compelled to linger lovingly with the ,greek or classic art4 ,the period in which it existed was a blessed period for the sculptor4 ,we all know that the best foundation for the excellence of art is the study and reproduction of nature1 and in the times of the ,greeks there was no reason why the human form1 the most beautiful object in nature1 should not be used by the sculptor for the decoration of the temple1 for the statues of the public square or theatre1 or for any position in which sculpture could be used at all4 ,the customs of modern life are opposed to this free exhibition of nude forms1 and the difficulties that are thrown in the way of the sculptor by this one fact are almost more than we can realize2 and the task of draping a figure and yet showing its shape and indicating its proper proportions and action is one before which even a ,greek sculptor would have reason to doubt himself4 ,on the other hand1 when a sculptor does succeed in producing a draped figure which satisfies artistic taste1 he has achieved much1 and merits the highest praise4 ,a drapery which has gracefully composed masses and flowing lines adds great dignity to the figure of a patriarch or a prophet1 and there are numerous subjects1 religious and monumental1 in which a full1 graceful drapery is requisite2 but when1 as is often the case1 the sculptor is required to reproduce the actual costume of the day1 what can we look for8 ,the truth is1 it has no grace in itself2 what1 then1 must it be when put into the fixedness of bronze or marble8 ,yet where is the remedy for this8 ,we do not wish to see the men whom we have known and who have moved among us in the dress of other men put into an antique disguise by the sculptor2 the incongruity of this is too apparent4 ,much has been written and said upon these points1 and no solution of the difficulty has been found2 but it is only just that when we judge of the statues made under such difficulties1 we should remember them and give the artist the benefit of the consideration of all the hindrances that exist for him4 ,westmacott1 in his ,handbook of ,sculpture1 gives as his ,conclusion an account of the mechanical methods of the sculptor1 and ,i believe that ,i can add nothing here which will be of greater use to my readers than a quotation from that author4 ,the artist1 having invented or conceived his subject1 usually begins by making a small sketch of it in some soft and obedient substance1 as clay or wax4 ,he can change or alter this at his pleasure till he is satisfied with the lines and masses of the composition1 and the proportions it will command of light and shadow4 ,he then proceeds to copy this small but useful sketch1 as his guide1 in its general arrangement1 for his full-sized model4 ,before commencing the larger model it is necessary to form a sort of skeleton or framework of iron and wood1 with joints made of wire1 to support the great mass of clay in which the figure or group is now to be executed4 ,this iron frame is firmly fixed upon a turning bench1 or banker1 so that the model may be constantly moved without difficulty1 so as to be seen in different lights and in various points of view4 ,as the clay is likely to shrink as it gets dry1 it is necessary occasionally to wet it4 ,this is done by sprinkling water over it with a brush1 or from a large syringe1 and by laying damp cloths upon it4 ,this is the ordinary process for making a model in the 'round4' ,in modelling in rilievo of either kind1 alto or basso1 a plane or ground is prepared upon which the design is1 or should be1 carefully drawn4 ,this may be made of clay floated or laid upon a board1 or the ground may be of slate1 or even of wood1 though the latter is objectionable1 in large works especially1 from its liability to shrink and to be warped by the action of damp or moisture4 ,the clay is then laid in small quantities upon this ground1 the outline being bounded by the drawing1 which should be carefully preserved2 and the bulk or projection of the figures is regulated by the degree of relief the sculptor desires to give to his design4 ,if the final work is to be baked in clay 7terra-cotta7 there must be no iron or wooden nucleus1 as it would interfere with the model drying regularly and uniformly1 and probably cause it to crack in shrinking4 ,the model is therefore prepared for drying without such support4 ,when perfectly free from moisture the model is placed in an oven and baked slowly1 by which it acquires great hardness and the peculiar brownish-red color seen in these works4 ,this art has been brought to great perfection in ,england in modern days4 ,if the final work is to be in marble1 or bronze1 or only in plaster1 the next process after finishing the model is to mould it1 in preparation for its being reproduced in a material that will bear moving about without risk of injury to the design4 ,this is done by covering it with a mixture of plaster of ,paris with water1 which quickly sets or becomes consistent1 forming a hard and thick coating over the whole4 ,the clay is then carefully picked out1 and an exact matrix1 or form1 remains4 ,this is washed clean1 and the interior is then brushed over with any greasy substance1 usually a composition of soap and oil1 to prevent the plaster with which it is next to be filled adhering too firmly to it4 ,the fresh plaster is mixed to about the consistency of cream and then poured into the mould1 which is gently moved about till the inner surface is entirely filled or covered1 so that all parts may be reached4 ,the thickness or substance of the coating depends upon the size of the work and the degree of strength required4 ,when the newly introduced plaster is set the mould is carefully knocked away with chisels1 and a true cast appears beneath1 giving an entire fac-simile of the original model4 ,some skill is required in making moulds1 in order to provide for projecting parts and under-cuttings2 practice alone can teach the artist how to deal with those difficulties when they occur4 ,the above general instructions sufficiently explain the ordinary processes of moulding and casting in plaster4 ,in metal-casting or founding great attention must be paid to the strengthening of the parts to bear the weight of the metal2 but the principle described in plaster-moulding applies also to the preparation for metal-casting4 ,the mixture of metals to form bronze1 the proper heating of the furnace1 burning and uniting parts1 chasing and other processes of founding cannot be fully described in this place4 ,they belong to a distinct practice1 and to be well understood must be studied in the foundry4 ,if the model--now reproduced in plaster--is to be copied in marble or stone1 the first step is to procure a block of the required size4 ,two stones1 called scale-stones1 are then prepared1 upon one of which the model or plaster cast is placed1 and upon the other the rough block of marble4 ,the fronts of these stones have figured marks or 'scales1' to use the technical term1 exactly corresponding4 ,an instrument capable of being easily moved1 and which is fitted up with socket-joints and movable arms1 is then applied to the scale-stone of the model1 and a projecting point or 'needle' is made to touch a particular part of the model itself4 ,this is carefully removed to the scale-stone of the rough block1 and the marble is cut away till the 'needle' reaches so far into the block as to correspond with the 'point' taken on the model4 ,a pencil-mark is then made to show that the point is found and registered4 ,this process is repeated all over the model and block1 alternately1 till a rough copy or shape of the model is entirely made4 ,these 'pointing' machines are not always precisely alike in their forms1 but the principle upon which they act is exactly similar in all4 ,the statue being thus rudely shaped out1 the block is placed in the hands of a superior workman1 called a 'carver1' who1 having the plastic model near at hand to refer to1 copies the more minute portions of the work by means of chisels1 rasps1 and files1 the pencil-marks made by the 'pointer' showing him the precise situation of the parts and the limit beyond which he is not to penetrate into the marble4 ,when the carver has carried the work as far as the sculptor desires1 he proceeds himself to give it the finishing touches1 improving the details of form and expression1 managing the different effects produced by two different materials--one1 the plastic model1 being opaque2 the other1 the marble1 being considerably diaphanous2 giving the proper varieties of texture in the flesh1 hair1 and drapery1 and1 more especially1 harmonizing the whole4 ,the rich quality of surface that appears more or less in works of marble is produced by rubbing with fine sand or pumice-stone and other substances1 and the ancients appear to have completed this part of their work by a process which is called 'circumlitio1' and may mean not only rubbing or polishing1 but applying some composition1 such as hot wax1 to give a soft1 glowing color to the surface4 ,many of the ancient statues certainly exhibit the appearance of some foreign substance having slightly penetrated the surface of the work to about one eighth of an inch1 and its color is of a warmer tint than the marble below it2 a process1 be it observed1 quite distinct from and not to be confounded with polychromy1 or what is usually understood by painting sculpture with various tints1 in imitation of the natural color of the complexion1 hair1 and eyes4 ,its object1 probably1 with the ancients as with modern sculptors1 has been simply to get rid of the glare and freshness of appearance that is sometimes objected to in a recently finished work1 by giving a general warmth to the color of the marble4 ,,index4 ,abduction of ,briseis 7,thorwaldsen71 #beg ,abildgaard1 #bed ,abraham and ,isaac1 #aci ,abundance 7della ,porta71 #bab ,academy of ,fine ,arts1 ,florence1 ,michael ,angelo's ,david in1 #bja ,achilles1 story of1 #bf2 and ,priam 7,thorwaldsen71 #bii2 and ,penthesilea 7,schadow71 #bgj ,acropolis1 #gh ,action in ,egyptian sculpture1 #c ,actaeon and his ,dogs1 #bd ,adam 7,cano71 #bbj ,adam and ,eve1 reliefs of1 #ach1 #aci2 by ,rizzo1 #aed ,adonis 7,thorwaldsen71 #beh ,adoring ,madonna1 #aeb ,a,egina1 marbles of1 and ,thorwaldsen1 #bfj ,a,emilius ,paulus1 #hd ,a,eneas and ,anchises 7,chaudet71 #bdh ,a,esculapius4 ,see ,asclepius ,a,etolians1 #hd ,agamemnon1 #ij ,agesander and the ,laocoon1 #gd ,agnello1 ,fra ,guglielmo d'1 #acj ,agoracritus1 #di1 #ea ,agrippa and the ,apoxyomenos1 #gj ,agrippina1 statue of1 #ajc ,aix1 #bge ,alaric and ,minerva ,promachos1 #ce ,albert1 ,archduke1 and ,duquesnoy1 #bbf ,alcamenes1 #di ,aldovrandi1 ,gian ,francesco1 #aih ,alexander the ,great2 statues of1 #fi1 #gb2 decline after1 #gb2 portrait statues of1 #ajj2 and ,diogenes1 by ,puget1 #bbi2 by ,dannecker1 #bdh2 by ,thorwaldsen1 #bei2 ,entrance into ,babylon of1 #bfh ,alexander1 ,emperor of ,russia1 and ,thorwaldsen1 #bfb ,alexander ,,vii41 monument of1 #bbf ,alexandros1 sculptor of ,venus of ,milo1 #hg ,alto-rilievo1 #bha ,altoviti1 statue of 7,cellini71 #aia ,amadeo1 ,giovanni ,antonio1 #aeg ,amboise ,monument1 #agg ,ambraser ,gallery1 ,vienna1 ,cellini's salt-cellar in1 #aij ,amiens ,cathedral1 #agf ,ancient ,italian sculpture1 #hb ,ancona1 #aef ,andersen1 ,hans1 and ,thorwaldsen1 #bff ,androsphinx1 #f ,angel of ,baptism 7,thorwaldsen71 #bfb ,angel's ,salutation 7,stoss71 #afe ,anguier1 ,francois1 #bbh ,anguier1 ,michael1 #bbh ,animals in ,egyptian sculpture1 #e ,anne of ,austria1 and ,anguier1 #bbh ,anne of ,brittany1 monument of1 #agg ,annunciation 7,donatello71 #adb ,annunziata1 church of1 #bab ,antigonus1 father of ,poliorcetes1 #gc ,antium1 #ia ,antonelli1 ,cardinal1 #ajj ,antwerp1 town hall of1 #bca ,aphrodite4 ,see ,venus ,apollo2 ,sosianus1 temple of1 #fa2 by ,leochares1 #fe2 the ,belvedere1 #ia1 theories concerning1 #ib1 #ie2 the ,steinhaeuser1 #ia2 the ,stroganoff1 #ib2 by ,sansovino1 #ahf2 and ,daphne1 by ,bernini1 #bbd2 and ,daphne1 by ,canova1 #bci2 by ,canova1 #bdj2 by ,flaxman1 #bea ,apollodorus1 #hf ,apollonius1 of the ,toro ,farnese1 #gf ,apostles 7,thorwaldsen71 #bfb ,apoxyomenos 7,lysippus71 #gj ,archaic period1 #bb ,archaistic period1 #bg ,arches in ,rome1 #ig ,architecture1 close connection with ,egyptian sculpture1 #aj ,archangel ,michael and ,satan 7,flaxman71 #bea ,areobrudus1 diptych of1 #aji ,arezzo1 #acb ,argos1 school of1 #gb ,ariadne 7,dannecker71 #bdh ,arrezzo1 ,niccolo of1 #ace ,artemis1 archaistic statue of1 #bh1 #id1 #ie 7and see ,diana7 ,aschaffenburg ,vischer's works in1 #age ,asclepius1 by ,alcamenes1 #ej2 by ,canova1 #bci ,assos1 reliefs from1 #bc ,assyria1 #aj ,assyrian influence on ,etruscan art1 #hb ,atalanta1 by ,pradier1 #bgd ,athena2 ,promachos 7,phidias71 #cd2 birth of1 #ch2 attributes of1 #ci2 representations of1 #dj2 by ,phidias1 #hd2 of the ,capitol1 #id1 #ie1 #if 7and see ,minerva and ,pallas7 ,athenodorus and the ,laocoon1 #gd ,athens1 statue from1 at ,rome1 #hd ,attalus ,i41 statues of1 #gh ,augsburg1 #abc1 #afd ,augustio1 #ajh ,augustus1 ,emperor2 and archaistic period1 #bg2 and ,grecian spoils1 #hd2 statue of1 #ajb ,babylonians1 #ag ,bacchus2 and the ,tyrrhenian robbers1 #fg2 tripod of1 by ,lysicrates1 #fg2 #hd2 by ,sansovino1 #ahe2 by ,michael ,angelo1 #bjj ,baldachin1 #agd ,balier1 ,heinrich den1 #abc ,bamberg1 #abc2 carvings in1 #afg2 and ,krafft1 #afh ,bandinelli1 ,baccio1 #bab2 and ,cellini1 #aij ,baptistery of ,pisa1 #abh ,baptistery of ,florence1 #acg1 #ach2 gates of1 #acc ,barberini1 ,cardinal1 and ,bernini1 #bbc ,barberini ,faun1 #gc ,bargello1 museum of the1 #aci ,baryatinska1 ,princess1 #bfj ,basle1 ,steinhaeuser ,apollo in1 #ia ,basilica of ,san ,petronio1 ,bologna1 #acg ,bas-relief2 ,egyptian1 #b2 ,assyrian1 #ab2 the first1 #bj ,basso-rilievo1 #bha ,battle of ,athenians and ,amazons1 #gh ,battle of ,marathon1 #gh ,battle of the ,gods and ,giants1 #gh ,bavaria2 ,king of1 #bgj2 statue of1 #bga2 sovereigns of1 ,schwanthaler's statues of1 #bgb ,beata ,villana1 #aea ,beauharnais1 monument to1 #bfc ,beautiful ,fountain1 ,nuremberg1 #abc ,beauty1 ,greek love of1 #ah ,begarelli1 ,antonio1 #aic ,berengaria1 statue of1 #aai ,berlin ,museum1 works of ,pythagoras in1 #cj2 ,begarelli's works in1 #aid ,berlin school1 #bgb ,bernardi1 ,giuseppe1 #bcg ,berne1 cathedral of1 #agj ,bernini1 #bbc ,berruguete1 ,alonso1 #bag ,bertoldo and ,michael ,angelo1 #aie ,bethmann1 ,herr1 #bdh ,beuch1 #bac ,bienaime1 pupil of ,thorwaldsen1 #bfa ,bindesboell1 architect1 #bfh ,birth of ,st4 ,john 7,duerer71 #aff ,bluecher1 ,schadow's statue of1 #bfi2 ,rauch's statue of1 #bga ,boboli ,gardens1 #bad ,boethus of ,chalcedon1 #hj ,boileau1 bust of1 #bbi ,bologna2 #abh2 works of ,lombardo in1 #aib2 ,michael ,angelo in1 #aih ,bologna1 ,giovanni da1 #bac ,bon family1 #ace ,bontemps1 ,pierre1 #agh ,bosio1 ,francois ,joseph1 #bgc ,bottigari1 de'1 #aic ,bourges1 ,cathedral of1 #aad1 #agh ,bourgtherroulde1 ,hotel1 #agh ,boy and ,dolphin 7,verocchio71 #adi ,boy and ,goose1 #hj ,braccini1 ,nicolo1 #ahg ,bramante and ,michael ,angelo1 #bjb ,braye1 ,cardinal de1 monument of1 #acc ,bregno1 ,antonio ,giovanni1 #aed ,breslau1 #bga ,briseis1 by ,thorwaldsen1 #beg ,bristol1 ,lord1 and ,flaxman1 #bea ,british ,museum2 ,harpy monument in1 #bd2 ,elgin marbles in1 #cg2 statue of ,pericles in1 #eb2 statue of ,mausolus in1 #eg2 ,etruscan table-ware in1 #hc2 ,duerer's carvings in1 #aff ,bronzes1 ,etruscan1 #hb ,brother and ,sister1 ,niobe group1 #fd ,bruges1 #agh ,brugsch-,bey concerning ,martisen1 #a ,brun1 ,charles le1 monument of1 #bbi ,brun1 ,ida1 ,thorwaldsen's statue of1 #beh ,brunelleschi1 #aci1 #adj ,bruni1 ,lionardo1 statue of1 #aea ,brunswick ,museum1 #aff ,buckingham ,palace1 and ,flaxman1 #bea2 and ,gibson1 #bgg ,buonarroti1 #aid ,buoni1 #ace ,burgkapelle1 and ,veit ,stoss1 #afe ,burgos1 ,altars of1 #agi ,burial of ,christ 7,krafft71 #afh ,burns1 ,flaxman's statue of1 #bea ,buelow1 ,rauch's statue of1 #bgj ,byzantium1 early ,christian sculpture in1 #ajh2 ivory carving in1 #ajh ,cain and ,abel1 #aci ,calabria1 ,duke of1 #aec ,calamis1 #ca ,caligula1 and the ,thespian ,cupid1 #fa2 and ,grecian spoils1 #hd ,callimachus1 #eb ,callon of ,a,egina1 #bg ,cambio1 ,arnolfo di1 #acc ,cambray1 #bge ,campanile at ,florence1 #adf ,campo ,santo of ,pisa1 #aca ,cano1 ,alonso1 #bai ,canon of ,polycleitus1 #ed ,canova1 ,antonio1 #bcf2 and ,gibson1 #bgf ,canova1 ,pasino1 #bcf ,canterbury ,cathedral1 #aba ,capitol at ,rome2 ,helios in1 #fi2 ,minerva in1 #ie ,capitoline ,museum1 busts by ,canova in1 #bdf ,capuchins and ,thorwaldsen1 #bfc ,caracalla1 ,baths of2 and ,farnese ,bull1 #gf2 and ,farnesian ,hercules1 #hh ,caridad of ,seville1 #bbj ,carlovingians1 statues of1 #aai ,carrousel1 ,place du1 ,chariot of1 #bgc ,carthusian ,chapel1 ,dijon1 #abe ,carver1 #bhc ,casa ,santa1 ,loreto1 #ahd ,castellani collection1 #gh ,cavaliere ,alberto1 #beh ,cellini1 ,benvenuto1 #ahg ,centaurs and ,lapithae 7,alcamenes71 #ea ,cephalus and ,aurora 7,flaxman71 #bea ,cephisodotus1 #ee ,ceres2 ,roman temple of1 #hc2 ,livia as1 #ajd ,certosa of ,pavia1 #agg2 #aid2 and ,omodeo1 #aeh ,cesena1 #aef2 and ,lombardo1 #aib ,chapelle ,expiatoire1 #bgd ,chares of ,lindos1 #ga ,charity 7,coysevox71 #bbi ,charles ,i4 and ,bernini1 #bbf ,charles ,,viii41 #agg ,charmidas1 #cb ,chartres1 cathedral of1 #aad ,chaudet1 ,antoine ,denis1 #bdg ,choragic monument of ,lysicrates1 #fe ,choragus1 #fe ,christ2 early statues of1 #ajf2 figure of1 at ,rheims1 #aag2 by ,vischer1 #agd2 by ,michael ,angelo1 #bjf2 by ,coustou1 #bcj2 by ,dannecker1 #bdh2 various statues of1 by ,thorwaldsen1 #bfb2 by ,gibson1 #bgg ,christian ,,iv41 ,thorwaldsen's statue of1 #bff ,christian ,,viii4 and ,thorwaldsen1 #bff ,christian ,art1 #ajd ,christian ,charity 7,thorwaldsen71 #bfb ,christian ,frederick1 ,prince1 #bei ,christian sculpture1 #aje ,christiansborg palace and ,thorwaldsen1 #beh ,chryselephantine statues1 #bb ,chur1 cathedral of1 #afd ,church of ,our ,lady1 ,thorwaldsen's works in1 #bfb ,cimon1 patron of ,phidias1 #cd ,cincinnatus1 by ,chaudet1 #bdh ,cione1 ,andrea ,arcagnuolo di1 #acd ,circumlitio1 #bhd ,civitali1 ,matteo1 #aec ,claudius2 and the ,thespian ,cupid1 #fa2 arch of1 in ,rome1 #ih ,clement ,,vii4 and ,cellini1 #ahg ,clement ,,xiii41 ,canova's monument of1 #bdb ,clement ,,xiv41 monument of1 #bdj ,cleomenes1 #hf1 #ij ,cnidos1 ,venus of1 #fj ,coins1 ,athenian1 #ce2 of ,elis1 #ce ,colbert1 tomb of1 #bbi ,colleoni2 statue of1 #adi2 and ,leopardo1 #aee ,colleoni ,chapel1 ,bergamo1 #aeg ,cologne1 #abc ,colonna1 ,vittoria1 and ,michael ,angelo1 #bji ,color2 in ,assyrian bas-reliefs1 #ad2 in ,a,eginetan statues1 #bf2 in thirteenth century sculptures1 #aae ,colossi1 ,egyptian1 #h2 of ,thebes1 #h ,colossus of ,rhodes1 #ga ,comedy 7,flaxman71 #bea ,como1 cathedral of1 #aei ,conception 7,montanes71 #bai ,conde1 statues of1 by ,coysevox1 #bbi2 by ,david1 #bge ,consalvi1 ,cardinal1 #bfc ,constance1 cathedral of1 #afc ,constantine1 arch of1 #aje2 column of1 #ajh2 ,bernini's statue of1 #bbf ,conway1 #bgg ,copernicus1 ,thorwaldsen's monument to1 #bfb ,corinthian capital1 #ec ,cornacini1 #gd ,corneto1 #hc ,correggio and ,begarelli1 #aic ,cortona1 #acb ,cosmo ,i41 and ,donatello1 #add2 ,giovanni da ,bologna's statue of1 #bad ,cosmo ,,iii4 and ,venus de' ,medici1 #he ,coustou1 ,guillaume1 #bcj ,coustou1 ,nicolas1 #bbi ,covent ,garden ,theatre1 #bea ,cow1 ,myron's statue of1 #cj ,coysevox1 ,antoine1 #bbi ,cracow and ,veit ,stoss1 #afd ,cresilas1 #eb ,crowning of the ,virgin 7,stoss71 #afe ,cupid2 by ,praxiteles1 #fj2 by ,michael ,angelo1 #aih2 by ,dannecker1 #bdh2 and ,psyche 7,thorwaldsen71 #beg2 as a shepherd 7,gibson71 #ahc 7and see ,eros7 ,cybele1 by ,cellini1 #aij ,dacians on ,trajan's ,pillar1 #ii ,daedalus1 #bj2 and ,icarus 7,canova71 #bci ,damophilus1 #hc ,dannecker1 ,johann ,heinrich1 #bdh ,da ,siena1 ,ugolino1 #acd ,david1 by ,donatello1 #adb2 by ,verocchio1 #adi2 by ,michael ,angelo1 #bjj ,david and ,goliath1 #aci ,david of ,angers1 #bgd ,david1 ,jacques ,louis1 #bgd ,david1 ,pierre ,jean1 #bgd ,day 7,michael ,angelo71 #bjf ,death1 by ,bernini1 #bbf2 by ,pigalle1 #bcj ,death of the ,virgin 7,strasburg71 #abj ,delphi1 bronzes from1 #hd ,demetrius ,poliorcetes1 #ga ,demidoff1 ,countess1 ,bosio's statue of1 #bgd ,denman1 ,ann1 #bea ,deposition from the ,cross1 by ,pisano1 #abg2 by ,omodeo1 #aeh ,descent from the ,cross 7,begarelli71 #aid ,destruction of the ,gauls in ,mysia1 #gh ,devonshire1 ,duke of1 #bgf ,diadochi1 #gc ,diana2 temple of1 at ,ephesus1 #eg2 a la ,biche1 #ie 7and see ,artemis7 ,dibutades1 #bj ,dijon1 #abe ,diomed1 by ,myron1 #ca ,diptychs1 #aji ,discobolus of ,myron1 #cj ,donatello1 #adj ,donato di ,betto ,bardi1 #adj ,dortmund1 wood-carvings in1 #afg ,doryphorus1 by ,polycleitus1 #ed ,dubois1 ,cardinal1 ,coustou's statue of1 #bcj ,duquesnoy1 ,francois1 #bbf1 #bca ,duerer1 ,albrecht2 #aff2 ,rauch's statue of1 #bga ,dying ,gaul1 #gi ,dying ,warriors 7,schlueter71 #bcb ,egremont1 ,earl of1 #bea ,egyptians2 ancient sculpture of1 #a2 influence of1 on ,etruscan art1 #hb ,eldest ,daughter1 ,niobe group1 #fd ,elector ,frederic ,,iii41 ,schlueter's statue of1 #bcd ,eleventh century1 metal work in1 #aaa ,elgin1 ,lord1 #cg ,elgin marbles1 #ce1 #dj ,emo1 ,admiral1 monument of1 #bdb ,emperor of ,austria1 ,canova's bust of1 #bdc ,england2 sculpture introduced into1 in fourteenth century1 #abe2 in sixteenth century1 #agi ,entombment of ,christ 7,roldan71 #bbj ,erinnyes1 #be ,ernst1 ,vischer's monument of1 #aga ,eros1 #ee2 of ,centocelle1 #fj 7and see ,cupid7 ,escorial1 church of1 #bba ,esquiline1 ,discobolos found on1 #ca ,estofado1 #bbj ,etampes1 ,mme4 d'1 #ahi ,etruscans originated ,italian sculpture1 #hb ,eurydice1 by ,canova1 #bch ,eurythmy1 #di ,eustathius of ,rome1 #ajh ,eve1 by ,cano1 #bbj ,evening 7,michael ,angelo71 #bjf ,expulsion of ,heliodorus 7,thorwaldsen71 #bed ,eyck1 van1 #agh ,fabbriche ,nuova1 #ahf ,faliero1 ,giovanni1 #bcf ,farnese ,palace2 and ,michael ,angelo1 #bji2 della ,porta's statues in1 #bab ,farnesian ,bull1 #gf ,farnesian ,hercules1 #hh ,farsetti1 ,commendatore and ,canova1 #bcg ,fenelon1 ,david's statue of1 #bge ,ferdinand and ,isabella1 monument of1 #ahj ,ferrara1 ,quercia's works in1 #acg2 ,lombardo's works in1 #aib ,ferrari1 ,giuseppe1 and ,canova1 #bcg ,ferrucci1 ,andrea1 #aeb ,fiammingo1 ,il1 #bac ,fidelity 7,coysevox71 #bbi ,fiesole1 ,mino da1 #aeb ,fifteenth century1 #acf ,finlay1 ,gibson's statue of1 #bgf ,fionia1 ,island of1 #beg ,fiorino1 #ahg ,fischkasten 7,syrlin71 #afc ,flaccus1 ,fulvius1 and statues from ,volsinii1 #hb ,flaminius1 #hd ,flaxman1 ,john1 #bej ,flora1 ,julia as1 #ajd ,florence2 and ,giovanni ,pisano1 #acb2 and ,pietro di ,giovanni1 #ace2 ,ghiberti's works in1 #adj ,florence1 ,baptistery of1 #acc ,florence1 cathedral of1 high altar in1 #bab ,forum ,trajani1 #ih ,fountain2 by ,labenwolf1 #agf2 by ,giovanni da ,bologna1 #bad2 by ,bernini1 #bbf2 of the ,manneken-,pis1 #bbg2 ,moliere1 #bgd ,fourteenth century1 #abb ,fra ,guglielmo d',agnello1 #acj ,france in fourteenth century1 #abd ,francis ,i41 #adh1 #agf2 and ,rustici1 #ahc2 and ,cellini1 #ahi2 monument of1 by ,pilon1 #baf ,franke1 ,rauch's statue of1 #bga ,frankfort1 wood-carvings in1 #afg ,frari1 church of1 #aed ,frauenkirche1 ,nuremberg2 #abc2 ,krafft's works in1 #afg ,frederic ,,ii41 #abg ,frederick the ,great1 ,schadow's statue of1 #bfi ,freiburg1 cathedral of1 #aba ,french monuments1 ,museum of1 #bcj ,friedrich ,august1 ,rietschel's statue of1 #bga ,friedrichs monument1 #bga ,frue ,kirche1 #bfh ,fulvius ,nobilior1 #hd ,furstenburg1 ,cardinal1 and ,coysevox1 #bbi ,fury of ,athamas 7,flaxman71 #bea ,gallic theory concerning ,apollo1 ,diana1 and ,minerva1 #if ,gallic ,warrior in ,venice1 #gh ,gambarelli1 ,the1 #aea ,ganymede1 by ,leochares1 #fe2 by ,thorwaldsen1 #bfj ,gattamelata1 statue of1 #ade ,genii1 by ,thorwaldsen1 #bfh ,genoa1 #aec ,genre2 ,apoxyomenos as example of1 #gj2 sculpture1 #ha ,germany1 ,emperor of1 #bgj ,ghibelline ,street1 #baa ,ghiberti1 ,lorenzo1 #acc1 #ach ,ghirlandajo1 ,domenico1 and ,michael ,angelo1 #aie ,gibson1 ,john1 #bge ,giovanni1 ,luca di1 #acg ,giovanni1 ,pietro di1 #ace ,girardon1 ,francois1 #bbh ,glycon1 #hh ,glyptothek1 ,munich2 groups from ,a,egina in1 #be2 ,barberini ,faun in1 #gc2 ,thorwaldsen's ,adonis in1 #beh2 ,schwanthaler's decoration of1 #bga ,gobbo1 ,il4 ,see ,solari ,goethe1 ,tieck's statue of1 #bgj ,golden ,house of ,nero1 #hd2 ,venus ,callipiga in1 #hg ,gorgasus1 #hc ,gothic style1 #aad1 #aae2 in ,german art1 #abj2 hindrances of1 #afj ,gottfried of ,strasburg1 #aae ,gottskalken1 ,thorvald1 #bec ,goujon1 ,jean1 #baf ,graces1 ,the1 by ,pilon1 #baf2 by ,canova1 #bda2 by ,thorwaldsen1 #bfj ,granacci1 ,francesco1 #aid ,granada1 cathedral of1 ,virgin by ,cano in1 #bbj ,great ,elector1 ,schlueter's statue of1 #bcc4 ,greece2 ancient sculpture of1 #ah2 religion of1 #ai2 influence of1 on ,etruscan art1 #hb2 portrait sculpture in1 #ajj ,gregory ,,xvi41 ,pope1 #ajj ,grimani1 ,senator1 #bci ,grimm2 concerning ,donatello's ,st4 ,george1 #adc2 concerning ,michael ,angelo's ,david1 #bjj ,groeulund1 ,karen1 #bec ,grumbach1 statue of 7,krafft71 #afh ,guardian ,angel1 church of1 #ahj ,guardian ,angel 7,thorwaldsen71 #bfb ,guido ,reni1 #fd ,guillain1 ,simon1 #bbg ,guillaume de ,sens1 #aba ,guinifort and ,omodeo1 #aeh ,gutenberg memorial1 ,strasburg1 #bge ,hadrian1 ,emperor2 and archaistic period1 #bg2 and ,glycon1 #hh ,halle2 wood-carvings in1 #afg2 statue of ,franke in1 #bga ,hamilton1 ,gavin1 #fj ,harald ,hildetand1 #beb ,harcourt1 ,comte d'1 ,pigalle's statue of1 #bcj ,harpy ,monument1 #bd ,hartmann of ,aue1 #aae ,hayder1 ,simon1 #afc ,hebe1 by ,thorwaldsen1 #beh ,heinrich ,,ii41 ,krafft's statue of1 #afh ,helios1 #fi ,henry ,,ii41 monument of1 #baf ,henry ,,iii4 of ,england1 #aba ,henry ,,vii41 monument of1 #agi ,hephaestus 7,vulcan7 by ,alcamenes1 #di ,hera2 statue of1 by ,polycleitus1 #ec2 temple of1 at ,argos1 #ec 7and see ,juno7 ,heracles 7,hercules72 and ,triton1 #bc2 and ,cecrops1 #bc 7and see ,hercules7 ,hercules2 by ,scopas1 #ei2 by ,lysippus1 #fi2 caricature of1 #hj2 the ,farnesian1 #hh2 by ,vischer1 #agd2 by ,michael ,angelo1 #aif2 and ,nessus1 by ,giovanni da ,bologna1 #bad2 by ,pigalle1 #bcj2 and ,lichas1 by ,canova1 #bdg 7and see ,heracles7 ,hermes1 by ,thorwaldsen1 #beh ,hernandez1 ,gregorio1 #bah1 #bbj ,hesperides1 apples of1 #hi ,hieracosphinx1 #f ,hildesheim1 bronze gate at1 #aab ,history shown by ,assyrian bas-reliefs1 #af ,honor and ,valor1 temple of1 #hc ,hope1 ,thomas1 #bea1 #bef ,hope1 ,thorwaldsen's statue of1 #bfj ,hosmer1 ,harriet1 #bgh ,hoeyer1 #bec ,humboldt1 ,baron von1 #beg1 #beh ,huskisson1 ,gibson's statue of1 #bgf ,hylas and ,nymphs 7,gibson71 #bgg ,iliad1 selection from1 #id ,intarsiatore1 #aeb ,iphigenia1 relief of1 #ij ,isabella of ,aragon1 statue of1 #aai ,ischia1 ,marquis of1 #bdd ,isocephalism1 #dd ,italian classic sculpture1 time of1 #aje ,italy in fourteenth century1 #abf ,ivory carving2 in ,byzantium1 #ajh2 in ,germany1 #aaj2 in fourteenth century1 #abc ,jacob and ,esau1 #aci ,jacopo della ,fonte1 #acg ,jaen1 cathedral of1 #bbj ,janina1 #ib ,jason1 by ,thorwaldsen1 #bee ,johannis ,cemetery1 #afg1 #afh ,john the ,baptist1 by ,andrea ,pisano1 #acd2 by ,berruguete1 #bah ,jordan1 ,esteban1 #bah ,joseph2 history of1 by ,ghiberti1 #aci2 and ,potiphar's wife1 #aic ,joseph of ,arimathea1 by ,canova1 #bdc ,joshua before ,jericho1 #aci ,julia as ,flora1 #ajd ,julia and ,canova1 #bdf ,julius ,,ii41 ,pope2 and the ,laocoon1 #gd2 and ,sansovino1 #ahd2 and ,michael ,angelo1 #bjb2 mausoleum of1 #bjf ,junction of the ,seine and ,marne 7,coustou71 #bcj ,juni1 ,juan de1 #bah1 #bbj ,juno1 #hf 7and see ,hera7 ,jupiter2 ,otricoli1 #cf2 temple of1 at ,olympia1 #ea2 ,tonans on ,trajan's ,pillar1 #ii2 as ,st4 ,peter1 #ajg 7and see ,zeus7 ,juste1 ,jean1 #agg ,justice1 by ,krafft1 #agj2 by ,vischer1 #agd2 by della ,porta1 #bab ,justinian1 monument of1 #ajh ,kalide1 ,theodore1 #bgb ,king of ,prussia and ,schadow1 #bfi ,koenigsbau1 #bga ,koenigsberg1 statue in1 #bcd ,kora1 #bj ,krafft1 ,adam1 #afg ,kreugas and ,damoxenes 7,canova71 #bdg ,kriosphinx1 #f ,kunigunde1 by ,krafft1 #afh ,kuenz1 ,nicolaus1 #agj ,labenwolf1 ,pankraz1 #age ,lamberger1 ,simon1 #aga ,lamentation 7,krafft71 #agj ,lamp of ,minerva1 by ,callimachus1 #ec ,laocoon1 #gd2 by ,sansovino1 #ahe ,last ,judgment1 of ,rheims cathedral1 #aag ,lateran2 ,myron's ,marsyas in1 #ca2 antique statue of ,nemesis in1 #ea2 statue of ,sophocles in1 #ajj2 statue of ,st4 ,hippolitus in1 #ajf2 ,sarcophagi in1 #ajg2 ,bernini's ,pieta in1 #bbf ,leah1 by ,michael ,angelo1 #bjf ,le ,mans1 cathedral of1 #aad ,lenox ,gallery1 ,new ,york1 #bgg ,leo ,i41 ,pope1 #ajg ,leo ,x41 ,pope1 #adh1 #ahd2 and ,michael ,angelo1 #bjd ,leo ,,xii4 and ,thorwaldsen1 #bfc ,leochares1 #fe ,leopardo1 ,alessandro1 #adi1 #aee ,lessing1 ,tieck's statue of1 #bgj2 ,rietschel's statue of1 #bga ,leuchtenberg1 ,duke of1 monument to1 #bfc ,liebfrauenkirche1 #agh ,lion of ,lucerne 7,thorwaldsen71 #bfa ,liverpool ,cemetery1 chapel1 #bgg ,livia1 wife of ,augustus1 #ajb1 #ajd ,loggia de' ,lanzi1 ,florence1 groups in1 #bac ,loggietta of the ,campanile1 ,venice1 #ahf ,lombardi1 ,the1 #aed ,lombardo1 ,alfonso1 #aib ,lord's ,supper 7,thorwaldsen71 #bfb ,loreto1 #ahd ,louis of ,bavaria and ,thorwaldsen1 #beh1 #bfb1 #bfc ,louis ,,xii41 monument of1 #agg ,louis ,,xiii41 ,anguier's statue of1 #bbh ,louis ,,xiv42 ,guillain's statue of1 #bbg2 and ,girardon1 #bbh2 ,coysevox's statue of1 #bbi2 ,coustou's statue of1 #bcj ,louis ,,xviii42 and ,venus of ,milo1 #hg2 ,bosio's statue of1 #bgd ,louise1 ,queen1 ,rauch's statue of1 #bgj ,louvre1 ,paris2 ,egyptian collection in1 #a2 archaic reliefs in1 #bc2 ,venus of ,milo in1 #hg2 statue of ,artemis in1 #ie2 ,museum of ,modern ,sculpture in1 #agg2 monument by ,juste in1 #agh2 ,cellini's nymph in1 #aij2 ,pilon's ,graces in1 #baf2 bas-reliefs by ,goujon in1 #baf2 ,sarrazin's works in1 #bbg2 ,guillain's ,louis ,,xiv4 in1 #bbg2 ,girardon's works in1 #bbh2 ,puget's works in1 #bbi ,love in ,repose 7,thorwaldsen71 #bed ,luebke1 ,wilhelm2 concerning ,apollo ,belvedere1 #id2 concerning fourteenth century1 #bba2 concerning ,schlueter1 #bcc ,lucca1 #abh1 #acg ,lucian1 concerning ,calamis1 #cb ,ludovico ,moro and ,omodeo1 #aei ,luther1 bust of 7,thorwaldsen71 #bfh2 ,schadow's monument to1 #bfi2 ,rietschel's statue of1 #bga ,lysippus1 #fh2 school of1 #gb2 ,hercules by1 #hh2 power of1 #hi ,lytton1 ,lord1 concerning ,gibson1 #bgg ,madonna1 statue of 7,freiburg71 #aba2 repetition of1 #abb2 by ,arnolfo di ,cambio1 #acc2 by ,stoss1 #afe2 by ,michael ,angelo1 #aif1 #bjj ,madonna del ,soccorso1 chapel of1 #baf ,magnani1 ,anna ,maria1 #bef ,maidbrunn1 ,krafft's work in1 #agj ,maiden and ,bird 7,dannecker71 #bdh ,majano1 ,benedetto da1 #aeb ,manuel1 ,nicolaus1 #agj ,marburg1 wood-carvings in1 #afg ,marcellus1 #hc ,marcus ,aurelius2 arch of1 in ,rome1 #ih2 statue of1 #bji ,maria ,louisa1 ,canova's statue of1 #bdc ,marienkirche1 ,count ,sparr's monument in1 #bca ,mark1 ,count von der1 #bfi ,mars2 and the ,romans1 by ,sansovino1 #ahf2 by ,thorwaldsen1 #beh2 and ,cupid1 by ,gibson1 #bgf1 #bgg ,marsyas1 by ,myron1 #ca ,martisen1 ,egyptian sculptor1 #a ,mary of ,aragon1 #aeb ,marys1 ,the1 by ,canova1 #bdc ,massegne1 ,the1 #ace ,massimi ,villa1 #cj ,matthias ,corvinus1 #aeb ,mausoleum1 #eg ,mausolus1 #ef ,maximianus1 cathedra of1 #ajh ,maximilian ,i41 ,rauch's statue of1 #bga ,mazarin1 ,cardinal1 tomb of1 #bbi ,medemet ,haboo1 sculpture in1 #d ,medes1 #ag ,medici1 ,catherine de'1 #baf ,medici1 ,cosmo de'1 #add2 and ,cellini1 #aij ,medici1 ,giuliano de'1 #bjd ,medici1 ,lorenzo de'1 #aie1 #bjd ,medici1 ,piero de'1 #add2 and ,michael ,angelo1 #aif ,melos1 #ej ,mendelsohn and ,thorwaldsen1 #bfg ,menides of ,antiocheia1 #hg ,mercury1 by ,sansovino1 #ahf2 by ,giovanni da ,bologna1 #bad2 by ,pigalle1 #bcj2 by ,thorwaldsen1 #bfj ,merovingians1 statues of1 #aai ,metal work2 ,assyrian1 #ad2 in tenth century1 #aaj2 in eleventh century1 #aaa ,michael ,angelo2 attempted to restore the ,laocoon1 #gd2 concerning ,ghiberti's gates1 #aci2 and ,cellini1 #ahg1 #aia1 #aid ,milan1 #aef2 cathedral of1 and ,omodeo1 #aeh ,milo 7,melos71 #hg ,milo1 by ,puget1 #bbi2 by ,dannecker1 #bdh ,minerva2 temple of1 in ,a,egina1 #be2 of the ,capitol1 #ie2 temple of1 in the ,forum1 #ih 7and see ,athena and ,pallas7 ,mocenigo1 ,doge ,pietro1 #aee ,modena1 ,antonio da1 #aic ,moderation 7,vischer71 #agd ,montanes1 ,juan ,martinez1 #bah ,monte ,oliveto1 #aeb ,montmorenci1 ,duke de1 tomb of1 #bbh ,montorsoli attempted to restore the ,laocoon1 #gd ,monumental sculpture of thirteenth century1 #aai ,moore1 ,sir ,john1 ,flaxman's statue of1 #bea ,moritz1 statue of 7,pigalle71 #bcj ,morley1 ,mrs41 monument of1 #bea ,morning 7,michael ,angelo71 #bjf ,moses2 on ,mount ,sinai1 #aci2 by ,michael ,angelo1 #bjf1 #bjg2 ,aaron1 and ,hur 7,rauch71 #bga ,moses ,fountain1 #abe ,mount ,cithaeron and ,farnese ,bull1 #gf ,mummius and ,grecian spoils1 #hd ,munich1 group by ,cephisodotus in1 #ee ,murillo1 #bba ,music 7della ,robbia71 #adf ,mycenae1 ,lion ,gate of1 #bj ,myron of ,eleutherae1 #cj2 followers of1 #ea ,naples2 ,laocoon group in1 #gf2 historical statues in1 #gh ,naples1 ,museum of2 ,venus ,callipiga in1 #hg2 and ,farnese ,bull1 #gf2 ,farnesian ,hercules in1 #hh ,napoleon and ,canova1 #bdb1 #bdc ,national ,gallery1 ,london1 #bgg ,nativity1 by ,rossellino1 #aeb2 by ,anguier1 #bbh ,nemesis of ,agoracritus1 #ea ,neptune2 by ,sansovino1 #ahf2 by ,cellini1 #aij2 by ,giovanni da ,bologna1 #bad ,nero1 and the ,thespian ,cupid1 #fa2 and ,grecian spoils1 #hd ,niccolo of ,arezzo1 #ace ,nicodemus2 by ,krafft1 #agj2 by ,bandinelli1 #bab2 by ,canova1 #bdc ,night1 by ,michael ,angelo1 #bjf1 #bjh ,nile of the ,vatican1 #gc ,nimes1 ,pradier's fountain at1 #bgd ,nimrud1 bas-reliefs at1 #ac ,niobe2 of ,mount ,sipylus1 #bj2 group1 #fa2 myth of1 #fb ,noah1 #aci ,noceto1 #aec ,notre ,dame1 church of2 statue of ,louis ,,xiv4 in1 #bbi2 ,coustou's sculptures in1 #bcj2 d',harcourt's monument in1 #bcj ,nuremberg2 sculptures of1 #abc2 and ,veit ,stoss1 #afd2 and ,wohlgemuth1 #aff2 statue of ,duerer in1 #bga ,nymph1 by ,dannecker1 #bdh2 by ,bosio1 #bgc ,nysoe and ,thorwaldsen1 #bfe ,obelisks1 #d ,octavia1 portico of1 and ,venus de' ,medici1 #he ,o,edipus1 by ,chaudet1 #bdh ,oehlenschlager1 #bfe ,oluf ,paa1 #beb ,olympiad1 #da ,olympic games1 #da ,omodeo4 ,see ,amadeo ,or ,san ,michele1 church of1 #acd1 #adc1 #adi ,orcagna1 ,andrea1 #acd ,orpheus and ,eurydice 7,canova71 #bch ,orvieto1 #acc ,osborne1 #bgg ,othman ,,iv41 ,caliph1 and ,colossus of ,rhodes1 #gb ,our ,lady1 church of1 ,nuremberg1 #abc ,padua1 #acg1 #aef ,painting1 ,sculpture1 and ,architecture1 relief of1 by ,chaudet1 #bdh ,palais de ,justice 7,bruges71 #agh ,palazzo ,grassi1 #aic ,palazzo ,pubblico1 fountain in front of1 #bad ,palazzo ,torlonia 7,rome71 #bgg ,palazzo ,vecchio1 #adi1 #bad ,pallajuolo1 #ahd ,pallas1 by ,sansovino1 #ahf 7and see ,athena and ,minerva7 ,panathenaic ,procession1 #da ,pandareus1 ,king1 #be ,panhellenic games1 #bi ,pantheon1 influence of1 upon sculpture1 #bi ,pantheon1 ,paris1 #bge ,paris2 historic statue in1 #gh2 cathedrals of1 #aad ,paros1 #ef ,parthenon1 frieze of2 #ce2 #dj2 groups of seven on1 #db2 central group in1 #dc2 historical value of1 #de2 inequality of work in1 #de ,paul ,,iii4 and ,michael ,angelo1 #bjf2 monument of1 #bab ,paul ,v4 and ,bernini1 #bbc ,pavia1 ,omodeo in1 #aeh ,peace1 by della ,porta1 #bab2 by ,coysevox1 #bbi2 by ,chaudet1 #bdh ,peel1 ,sir ,robert1 ,gibson's statue of1 #bgg ,peleus1 #hf ,peloponnesus1 school of1 #ec1 #fh ,peloponnesian war1 effect of1 on sculpture1 #ed ,pensieri1 by ,canova1 #bdf ,peplos1 #da ,pepoli1 bust of1 #aic ,pergamon1 school of1 #gh2 and the ,dying ,gaul1 #gi ,periclean age1 #bi ,pericles2 patron of ,phidias1 #cb2 portrait statue of1 #eb2 qualities of1 #ed ,perkins1 ,mr42 concerning ,nicola ,pisano1 #acj2 concerning ,amadeo1 #aeg ,perry1 ,walter ,copeland2 concerning ,athena1 #ci2 concerning ,venus of ,milo1 #hh ,perseus2 by ,vischer1 #agd2 by ,cellini1 #aij2 and ,andromeda1 by ,puget1 #bbi2 by ,canova1 #bdc ,perseus of ,macedon1 #hd ,persians1 #ag ,perugia2 fountain of1 #abi2 ,giovanni ,pisano's works in1 #acb ,peter the ,great and ,schlueter1 #bcd ,phalereus1 ,demetrius1 statues to1 #gc ,phidias2 forerunners of1 #bi2 and ,pericles1 #cb2 and ,praxiteles1 #ef2 and ,lysippus1 #gj2 statue of ,athena by1 #hd2 superiority of1 #hi2 and thirteenth century1 #aah ,philip1 ,elector1 and ,vischer1 #aga ,philip the ,bold2 statue of1 #aai2 and ,sluter1 #abe ,phrixos and ,helle1 #ahf ,phryne and ,praxiteles1 #fj ,piazza della ,signoria1 #bad ,piazza ,navona1 fountain in1 #bbf ,piazza of ,san ,lorenzo 7,florence71 #bab ,piccolomini tomb1 ,siena1 #bjj ,pieta2 by ,michael ,angelo1 #bjj2 by ,bernini1 #bbf ,pigalle1 ,jean ,baptiste1 #bcj ,pilon1 ,germain1 #baf ,pisa2 ,baptistery of1 #abh2 and ,giovanni ,pisano1 #aca2 ,nino ,pisano's works in1 #acd2 cathedral of1 #bad ,pisani1 ,senator1 #bci ,pisano1 ,andrea1 #acc1 #acd ,pisano1 ,giovanni1 #aca ,pisano1 ,nicola1 #abg1 #acc ,pisano1 ,nino1 #acd ,pistoja1 #acb1 #adh ,pitt1 ,flaxman's statue of1 #bea ,pius ,,vii41 monument of1 #bfc ,pliny2 concerning the first bas-relief1 #bj2 concerning ,cresilas1 #eb2 concerning the ,niobe group1 #fa2 concerning the ,laocoon1 #gd2 and ,boethus1 #hj ,plutarch1 concerning the ,pericleian age1 #ce ,plutus1 #eh ,point1 #bhc ,pointer1 #bhc ,poliorcetes1 ,demetrius1 #gb ,poliziano1 #aif ,pollio1 ,asinius1 #gf ,polychromy1 #bhd ,polycleitus1 #ec2 canon of1 #ed2 and ,peloponnesian school1 #fh ,polydorus and the ,laocoon1 #gd ,pompadour1 ,mme41 #bcj ,pompeii1 #bh ,poncher monument1 #agh ,porta1 ,guglielmo della1 #bab ,porta ,prima1 #ajb ,portogallo1 ,cardinal1 #aeb ,portrait sculpture2 archaic1 #bb2 in ,greece and ,rome1 #ajj ,possagno and ,canova1 #bdd ,pradier1 ,james1 #bgd ,prague1 #abc ,prato1 cathedral of1 #acb ,praxiteles1 #he ,preller1 ,ludwig1 and ,apollo ,belvedere1 #ic ,priam begging ,hector's body 7,thorwaldsen71 #bed ,proconsolo1 #aea ,prometheus1 by ,pradier1 #bgd ,provencal ,poets1 #aad ,prudence2 by ,vischer1 #agd2 by della ,porta1 #bab2 by ,coysevox1 #bbi ,psyche2 by ,canova1 #bdb2 by ,thorwaldsen1 #beh2 by ,pradier1 #bgd2 and ,zephyrs1 by ,gibson1 #bgg ,ptolemy1 ,alexander's general1 #gc ,puget1 ,pierre1 #bbi ,pythagoras of ,rhegium1 #cj ,quellinus1 ,arthur1 #bca ,quercia1 ,jacopo della1 #acg ,quintilian1 concerning ,timanthes1 #ia ,quirinal ,palace2 ,thorwaldsen's frieze in1 #bei2 ,thorwaldsen's works in1 #bfh ,quoit-thrower of ,myron1 #cj ,rachel1 by ,michael ,angelo1 #bjf ,racine1 illustrated by ,chaudet1 #bdh ,raimondi1 #aic ,rameses ,,ii41 colossus of1 #h ,rape of ,proserpine1 by ,bernini1 #bbd2 by ,girardon1 #bbh ,rape of the ,sabines 7,giovanni da ,bologna71 #bac ,rauch1 ,christian1 #bgj ,ravenna1 ivory carving in1 #ajh ,religion1 by ,coysevox1 #bbi2 by ,canova1 #bdd ,renaissance1 #acf ,rene1 ,king1 statue of1 #bge ,resurrection of the ,dead 7,rheims71 #aag ,rezzonico1 ,prince1 and ,canova1 #bdc ,rhamnus and ,nemesis of ,agoracritus1 #ea ,rheims1 cathedral of1 #aaf ,rhodes2 colossus of1 #ga2 undisturbed by death of ,alexander1 #gc2 and the ,farnese ,bull1 #gf2 school of1 #gh ,rhone1 by ,coustou1 #bcj ,richelieu1 monument of1 #bbh ,riemenschneider1 ,tilman1 #afh ,rietschel1 ,ernst1 #bga ,rilievo1 #bha ,rimini1 #aef ,riviere1 ,marquis of1 #hg ,rizzo1 or ,riccio1 ,antonio1 #aed ,robbia1 ,luca della1 #adf ,robbia ware1 #adh ,rodari1 ,the1 #aei ,roldan1 ,louisa1 #bbj ,roldan1 ,pedro1 #bbj ,romanesque period1 #aac ,rome1 lack of artists in1 #hc2 portrait sculpture of1 #aja2 decline of art in1 #ajd ,roesch1 ,jacob1 #afd ,roscoe1 ,william1 #bgf ,rossellini1 ,the1 #aea ,rossellino1 ,antonio1 #aea ,rossi1 ,properzia de'1 #aib ,roux1 ,roulland de1 #agg ,rovere1 monument of1 #ahd ,royal ,academy1 ,london1 #bgg ,rubens1 #bba ,ruhmeshalle1 #bga ,rustici1 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