,,the ,,detection ,,of ,,forgery4 ,a ,,practical ,,handbook ,,for ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,bankers1 ,,solicitors1 ,,magistrates' ,,clerks1 ,,and ,,all ,,handling ,,suspected ,,documents4 ,,by ,,douglas ,,blackburn 7,late ,expert to the ,natal ,criminal ,investigation ,department1 and the ,transvaal ,republic7 ,,and ,,captain ,,waithman ,,caddell4 ,,london3 ,,charles ,,edwin ,,layton1 ,,farringdon ,,street1 ,e4,c4 #aiji4 ,,erratum4 7,page #ae47 ,owing to the averages given in the table on page #ae being printed from some incomplete manuscript they are incorrect4 ,it is obvious that the proper averages are-- #g-a_/d #f-a_/b #e-c_/d #g-a_/b #af-a_/d #ba #bj-c_/d #bj-c_/d ,transcriber's ,note3 ,the corrections in the above erratum have been applied4 ,the handwritten pages entitled ',terminology' and ',alphabet ,variants' have been moved to the beginning of their relevant chapters4 ,greek text has been transliterated and is shown between braces4 ,hyphenation and punctuation have been standardised4 ,,contents4 ,,chapter ,,page ,,introduction #e ,i4--,,the ,,principles ,,of ,,handwriting ,,analysis #g ,,ii4--,,measurement ,,and ,,its ,,appliances #ac ,,iii4--,,terminology #ag ,,iv4--,,classes ,,of ,,handwriting #ai ,v4--,,how ,,to ,,examine ,a ,,writing #ba ,,vi4--,,the ,,alphabet ,,in ,,detail #bd ,,vii4--,,the ,,capitals #bi ,,viii4--,,punctuation #ca ,,ix4--,,paper ,,and ,,watermarks #cd ,x4--,,inks #ch ,,xi4--,,erasures #db ,,xii4--,,pencils ,,and ,,stylographs #de ,,xiii4--,,anonymous ,,letters ,,and ,,disguised ,,hands #dg ,,xiv4--,,forged ,,literary ,,autographs #eb ,,xv4--,,forged ,,signatures #fj ,,xvi4--,,the ,,expert ,,in ,,the ,,witness-,,box #fh ,,xvii4--,,handwriting ,,and ,,expression #gb ,,xviii4--,,bibliography ,,of ,,handwriting #gh ,,introduction4 ,the object of this little work is to assist those who may occasionally be called upon to form an opinion as to the genuineness of signatures1 alterations in cheques1 and the varied doubtful documents that demand the serious consideration of business men by way of a preliminary to taking further steps4 ,it is the first attempt published in ,england to explain the principles upon which the comparison and examination of handwriting are conducted by experts4 ,it is1 and can only be1 an outline of suggestions how to begin1 for no two experts follow precisely the same methods1 any more than two painters work on the same lines4 ,both agree in recognising certain rules and general principles1 but each strives for his objective point by the employment of those means which experience1 temperament1 taste and opportunity suggest4 ,the study of the elementary rules of their art puts them upon the road for perfecting it1 after which success can only be attained by rightly reading the signs that lead to the ultimate goal4 ,in reading these chapters the student should begin by practising that self-help which is essential to success4 ,he must read with pen and notebook4 ,it is with the object of compelling this valuable habit that no illustrative examples are given in the text4 ,it would have been easy to fill many pages with script illustrations1 but experience shows that a much greater impression is made upon the memory by the hand forming the outlines described than if they were provided in pictorial form4 ,in other words1 the student should supply this purposeful omission by himself constructing the illustrations from the description4 ,the trifling extra time and trouble thus demanded will be amply repaid by the ease and rapidity with which the various points will be fixed in the memory4 ,nor is this the only advantage to be gained4 ,the act of reproducing the illustration cited will emphasise and render clear technical and mechanical features that would require many words to explain1 with the attendant risk of confusing the mind by mere verbiage4 ,the material and opportunity for practising and studying the comparison of handwritings are abundant4 ,every letter written or read affords a subject1 and in a surprisingly short space of time the student will find himself instinctively noting and analysing peculiarities in handwriting that probably never arrested his attention before4 ,the principles of the art are exceedingly simple and free from complexity1 and many a person who takes up the study will find that he possesses powers of analysis and observation unguessed before4 ,the most successful expert is he who observes most closely and accurately1 and the faculty needs only the spur of an objective point for it to be developed4 ,after a little practice1 experience will suggest many methods of examination and test not dealt with here4 ,for example1 photographic enlargements can be and are utilised with great advantage by bringing out minute details1 especially in signatures1 erasures and alterations4 ,interesting experiments can be made with a view to discovering the effect of different kinds of ink--important in settling the question whether the whole of a particular writing was done with one fluid1 and at the same time1 or at intervals4 ,the study of erasures and alterations of figures or characters also comes within the scope of developments of the art which it is not deemed necessary to deal with at length in these pages1 for after experience will suggest their use and the best methods of procedure4 ,for the beginner the instructions given in the chapters that follow will be found amply sufficient to direct him how to take up a fascinating and practical accomplishment1 and this1 with no further aid than his own judgment1 perseverance and powers of observation and deduction4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,principles ,,of ,,handwriting ,,analysis4 ,the principle on which experts claim to be able to detect variations and to differentiate between handwritings is based on the well-established axiom that there is no such thing as a perfect pair in nature2 that1 however close the apparent similarity between two things1 a careful examination and comparison will reveal marked differences to those trained to detect them4 ,this is especially true of everything that is produced by human agency4 ,everyone knows how difficult it is to keep check upon and eradicate certain physical habits1 such as gestures1 style of walking1 moving the hands1 arms1 c41 tricks of speech1 or tone of voice4 ,these mannerisms1 being mechanical and automatic1 or the result of long habit1 are performed unconsciously1 and there is probably no person who is entirely free from some marked peculiarity of manner1 which he is ignorant of possessing4 ,it is a well-known fact that the subject of caricature or mimicry rarely admits the accuracy or justness of the imitation1 although the peculiarities so emphasised are plainly apparent to others4 ,even actors1 who are supposed to make a careful study of their every tone and gesture1 are constantly criticised for faults or mannerisms plain to the observer1 but undetected by themselves4 ,it is easy1 therefore1 to understand how a trick or a gesture may become a fixed and unconscious habit through long custom1 especially when1 as in the case of a peculiarity of style in handwriting1 there has been neither criticism on it1 nor special reason for abandoning it4 ,every person whose handwriting is developed and permanently formed has adopted certain more or less distinctive peculiarities in the formation of letters of which he is generally unaware4 ,the act of writing is much less a matter of control than may be supposed4 ,the pen follows the thoughts mechanically1 and few ready and habitual writers could1 if suddenly called upon to do so1 say what peculiarities their writing possessed4 ,for example1 how many could say off-hand how they dotted an i--whether with a round dot1 a tick or a dash--whether the tick was vertical1 horizontal or sloping2 what was the proportional distance of the dot from the top of the i4 ,again1 ask a practised writer how he crosses the letter t--whether with a horizontal1 up or down stroke8 ,it is safe to assume that not one in a thousand could give an accurate answer1 for the reason that the dotting of an i and crossing of a t have become mechanical acts1 done without thought or premeditation1 but as the result of a long-formed habit4 ,it is these unconscious hand-gestures and mechanical tricks of style that the handwriting expert learns to distinguish and recognise1--the unconsidered trifles that the writer has probably never devoted a minute's thought to1 and which come upon him as a surprise when they are pointed out to him4 ,their detection is rendered the more easy when one knows what to look for from the fact that they are1 unlike gestures and tricks of voice1 permanent4 ,a mannerism may not strike two observers in the same way1 nor is it easy to compare1 for it is fleeting1 and the memory has to be relied upon to recall a former gesture in order to compare it with the last4 ,it is not so with a hand-gesture in writing4 ,the sign remains side by side with its repetition1 for careful and deliberate comparison2 and if the writing be a long one1 the expert has the advantage of being in possession of ample material on which to base his judgment4 ,a ,popular ,fallacy4--,one of the most frequent objections offered by the casual critic when the subject of expert testimony is discussed is to the effect that people write different hands with different pens1 and he probably believes this to be true4 ,a very slight acquaintance with the principles on which the expert works would satisfy this spontaneous critic of the fallacy of his objection4 ,a person who habitually writes a fine1 small hand1 sloping from right to left1 may believe that he has altered the character of his hand by using a thick1 soft quill1 reversing the slope to what is called a backhand1 and doubling the size of the letters4 ,all he has done is to put on a different suit of clothes2 the same man is in them4 ,the use of a thick pen does not make him put a dot over the i where before he made an horizontal dash2 it does not turn a straight1 barred t into a curved loop1 neither does it alter the proportionate distance between the letters and lines4 ,it does not make him form loops where before he habitually made bars1 or vice vers1 and if he formerly made a u with an angle like a v he will not write the u with a rounded hook4 ,neither will it cause him to drop his habit of adding a spur to his initial letters or curtail the ends and tails that he was wont to make long4 ,in short1 the points to which the expert devotes his investigation are those least affected by any variation in the character of the pen used and the hand-gestures which have1 by constant usage1 become as much part of the writer's style as his walk and the tone of his voice4 ,it follows1 therefore1 that the work of the handwriting experts consists in learning how to detect and recognize those unconscious or mechanical signs1 characteristics or hand-gestures that are a feature in the handwriting of every person1 no matter how closely any two hands may approximate in general appearance4 ,however similar two hands may seem to the casual and untrained observer1 very distinct and unmistakable differences become apparent when the student has been taught what to look for4 ,there is no more certain thing than the fact that there has not yet been discovered two handwritings by separate persons so closely allied that a difference cannot be detected by the trained observer4 ,every schoolmaster knows that in a class of pupils taught writing from the same model1 and kept strictly to it1 no two hands are alike1 although in the early and rudimentary stage1 before the hand has attained freedom and approached a settled character1 the differences are less marked4 ,so soon as the child has been freed from the restraint of the set copy and the criticism of the teacher1 he begins to manifest distinct characteristics1 which become more marked and fixed with practice and usage4 ,there is no writing so uniform as the regulation hand used1 and wisely insisted upon1 in the ,civil ,service1 and familiar to the general public in telegrams and official letters4 ,yet it is safe to say that there is not a telegraph or post office clerk in ,england who would not be able to pick out the writing of any colleague with which he was at all acquainted4 ,duplicates non-existent4--,but the best and most decisive answer to the objection that writings may be exactly similar lies in the notorious fact that during half a century experts have failed to discover two complete writings by different hands1 so much alike that a difference could not be detected4 ,had such existed1 they would long ere this have been produced for the confuting of the expert in the witness-box2 particularly when we bear in mind that the liberty1 and even the life of a person1 have depended upon the identification of handwriting4 ,that there are many cases of extraordinary similarity between different handwritings is a fact2 if there were not1 there would be very little occasion for the services of the expert1 but it is equally a fact that the fancied resemblance becomes less apparent as soon as the writing is examined by a capable and painstaking expert4 ,it should not be forgotten that it is not every person who undertakes the comparison of handwritings who is qualified for the task1 any more than every doctor who diagnoses a case can be depended upon to arrive at an accurate conclusion4 ,but if the tried and accepted principles of the art be acted upon1 there should be no possibility of error1 always assuming that the person undertaking the examination has a sufficiency of material for comparison4 ,an expert who valued his reputation would1 for example1 be very cautious about giving an emphatic opinion if the only material at his disposal were two or three words or letters4 ,it is quite possible that a clever mimic might reproduce the voice of another person so accurately as to deceive those who knew the subject of the imitation2 but let him carry on a conversation in the assumed voice for a few minutes1 and detection is certain4 ,in like manner1 while a few characters and tricks of style in writing may be fairly well imitated1 it is impossible to carry the deception over a number of words4 ,sooner or later the forger lapses into some trick of his own1 and it is here the trained observer catches him4 ,the expert1 like the caricaturist1 lays himself out to note the peculiarities of his subject1 knowing that these are practically beyond the control of the writer1 and that the probabilities are that he is not even aware of them4 ,peculiarities in handwriting1 like unchecked habits in children1 become1 in time1 crystallised into a mannerism so fixed as to be part of the nature1 and consequently are difficult of eradication4 ,as a matter of fact a peculiarity in handwriting is more often cultivated than controlled1 many writers regarding a departure from orthodox copybook form as an evidence of an educated hand4 ,the ,law of ,probabilities4--,in examining a writing for comparison with another the expert notes all peculiarities1 which he labels1 for distinctive reference1 tricks4 ,when he has recorded as many as possible he looks for them in the writing which he has to compare4 ,suppose that he has taken note of a dozen tricks1 and finds them all repeated in the suspected writing4 ,the law of probabilities points to a common authorship for both writings1 for it is asking too much to expect one to believe that there should exist two different persons1 probably strangers1 who possess precisely the same peculiarities in penmanship4 ,this principle of the law of probabilities is applied in the case of the identification of persons wanted by the police4 ,for example1 the official description of an absconding forger runs as follows3--,he has a habit of rubbing his right thumb against the middle finger as if turning a ring4 ,he frequently strokes his right eyebrow with right forefinger when engaged in writing2 when perplexed1 he bites his lower lip and clenches and unclenches his fingers4 ,now there are1 probably1 thousands of people who do every one of these things singly1 but the chances are millions to one against there being two people who do them all as described in the official placard4 ,in like manner there may be a multitude of writers who form an f or k with a peculiar exaggerated buckle4 ,thousands more may make certain letters in the same way1 but to assume that there are two persons who possess equally the whole twelve characteristics noted by the expert is to strain coincidence to the breaking-point of absurdity4 ,therefore1 it follows that it is the weight of cumulative evidence of similarity in the production of unusual tricks of style that proclaims a common authorship for two apparently different writings4 ,it may be1 and often is1 the case that the peculiarities or tricks in the original have been imitated in the suspected writing4 ,as the result of his experience in knowing what to look for in a copied document1 the expert is not deceived4 ,however good the copy1 there are always apparent to the trained eye evidences that prove another and stranger hand1 plain as the difference between the firm1 clear line of the drawing master and the broken saw-edged effort of the pupil4 ,habitual observation trains the eye to an extent that would scarcely be credited unless proved by experiment4 ,the art of observation cannot be taught2 it must be the outcome of practice4 ,the most the teacher can do is to indicate the lines on which the study should be carried out1 and offer hints and suggestions as to what to look for4 ,the rest is in the hands of the student4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,measurement ,,and ,,its ,,appliances4 ,the appliances necessary for the work of examination are1 a good magnifying or reading glass of the greatest power obtainable1 a pair of fine compasses or dividers1 a horn or celluloid protractor for measuring angles of slope1 and a clearly marked scale rule4 ,suitable articles will generally be found in an ordinary case of mathematical instruments4 ,a simpler and equally accurate method of taking measurements of handwriting is by the aid of the transparent paper known as foreign letter paper4 ,it is usually of quarto size1 very thin and transparent1 and is ruled horizontally and vertically1 dividing the sheet into tiny squares4 ,it is laid over the writing to be examined1 and the various measurement marks are made with a finely pointed lead pencil4 ,the lines and squares are used for measurement as the parallels of latitude and longitude are used on a chart4 ,for example1 a letter is said to be so many lines high1 so many lines wide4 ,one of the tiny squares should be carefully divided into two1 or1 if possible1 four parts1 so as to ensure finer and more accurate measurement4 ,a letter may then be measured in parts of a line1 being described1 for example1 as1 height #f-c_/d lines1 breadth #b-a_/b lines4 ,it is of course important that the same gauge of ruled paper be used uniformly1 otherwise the measurements will vary4 ,if the student has had practice in the use of the dividers and scale rule1 he may prefer to employ these1 but the ruled paper and a finely pointed lead pencil will be found sufficient for most purposes4 ,a paper specially prepared for surveyors1 ruled in squares of one-eighth of an inch may be obtained4 ,for measuring the slopes of letters a transparent protractor is necessary4 ,the letters measured are all topped and tailed small letters1 and all capitals having a shank4 ,letters like ,o1 ,c1 ,q1 ,s1 and ,x can only be measured approximately4 ,the method of applying the measurements of heights and angles of slope is shown in the case illustrated by the table on page #ae4 ,the subject of enquiry was a signature containing the letters ,b1 l1 k1 b4 ,the measurements of these letters in the forgery are given at the top of the table1 and show the height in lines and angle of slope in degrees4 ,the measurements of the corresponding letters in twelve genuine signatures are shown in the table as ,examples #a to #ab4 ,the total is averaged by dividing by twelve4 ,the presumption in favour of the suspected signature being a forgery is strongly supported by the arithmetical result4 ,a difference of more than #b per cent4 in angle of slope1 and #c per cent4 in height may be safely relied upon as ground for suspicion1 for it is rarely that a man's signature varies so greatly within a brief period4 ,in the absence of the explanation provided by illness1 intentional change in style or other abnormal circumstances1 such a difference as is shown in this example will justify a belief that the suspected signature is by another hand4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,height in lines4 ,angle of slope4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,b4 l4 k4 b4 ,b4 l4 k4 b4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,forgery #g #g #f #g-a_/d #ae #bj #ba #ba ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,example #a #g-a_/d #f-a_/b #e-a_/b #g-a_/b #af #bb #ba #bj #b #g-a_/d #f-a_/d #f #g-a_/d #ag #ba #bj #bj #c #g-a_/d #f #e-c_/d #g-c_/d #af #ba #bj #ba #d #g #f-a_/d #e-c_/d #g-a_/b #af #ba #bj #ba #e #g #f-c_/d #e-c_/d #g-a_/b #ag #bb #ba #bj #f #g-a_/b #f-c_/d #e #g-a_/b #af #ba #bj #ba #g #g-a_/b #f #f #g-a_/d #ag #bj #ba #ba #h #g-a_/b #f-a_/b #e-c_/d #g-a_/b #af #bb #ba #ba #i #g-a_/d #f-a_/b #e-a_/b #g #af #ba #ba #ba #aj #f-c_/d #f-a_/b #e-c_/d #g-a_/d #af #bj #ba #ba #aa #g-a_/d #f-c_/d #e-c_/d #g-a_/b #af #ba #ba #bb #ab #g #f-a_/d #e-c_/d #g-a_/b #af #bj #ba #ba ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,average #g-a_/d #f-a_/b #e-c_/d #g-a_/b #af-a_/d #ba #bj-c_/d #bj-c_/d ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,terminology4 ,illustration3 ,,terminology4 ,in order to render the description of a writing perfectly clear1 a system of terminology is adopted which is invariable4 ,that is1 the same terms are always employed in indicating the same parts of a letter4 ,these are simple1 and for the most part self-explanatory1 so that no effort is required to commit them to memory4 ,every part of a letter has a distinctive name1 so that it would be possible to reproduce a script character very closely by a verbal description4 ,the following are the terms used in describing a letter3-- ,letter means the whole of any script character1 capital or small4 ,for the sake of brevity in notes and reports capital is written ,cp42 small1 ,sm4 ,arc4--,an arc is the curve formed inside the top loop or curve1 as in f1 m1 h1 o4 ,in o1 the inside top half of the letter is the arc2 the inside bottom half is the hook4 ,buckle4--,the buckle is the separate stroke added to such letters as k1 f1 and capitals ,a1 ,f1 ,h4 ,beard4--,the beard is the preliminary stroke that often appears in capital letters4 ,body4--,the body of a letter is that portion of it which rests on the line and could be contained in a small circle4 ,for example1 in a small d the body consists of the circle and the final upward curve or toe4 ,in a small g the body is the circle minus the tail4 ,eye is the small circle formed by the continuation of a stroke as in the shoulder r4 ,finals4--,a final is the finishing stroke not carried beyond the shank in capitals1 and in a few smalls like y1 g1 z4 ,foot4--,the foot of a letter is that portion of it that rests on the line4 ,small m has three feet1 h has two1 etc4 ,hook4--,the hook is the inside of a bottom curve4 ,it is the opposite of the arc4 ,link4--,the link is that portion of the stroke which connects two letters4 ,broken link4--,a broken link is a disconnection in the link joining two letters4 ,loop4--,a loop is that portion of a letter which forms the top or tail4 ,unlooped tops and tails are called barred4 ,for example1 small f has two loops1 top and bottom2 f1 h1 l have one top loop2 g1 y1 z have one bottom loop4 ,shank4--,the shank of a letter is the principal long downstroke that forms the backbone4 ,shoulder4--,the shoulder is the outside of the top of the curve as seen in small m1 n1 o1 h4 ,small m has three shoulders1 n two1 h one4 ,spur4--,the spur is to the small letter what the beard is to the capital4 ,it is the initial stroke4 ,tick4--,a tick is a small stroke generally at the beginning of a letter1 sometimes at the end4 ,toe4--,the toe is the concluding upward stroke of a letter1 as seen in small e1 n1 h1 c4 ,whirl4--,the whirl is the upstroke in all looped letters4 ,it is a continuation of the spur in b1 h1 f1 l1 and is always an upstroke4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,classes ,,of ,,handwriting4 ,for convenience in differentiation1 handwritings are divided into the following classes4 ,practically every type of writing can be placed in one of them4 ,vertical ,hand4--,a vertical hand is one in which the tops and tails of letters form as nearly as possible a perpendicular with the horizontal line4 ,the best example of this class of handwriting is that known as the ,civil ,service hand1 familiar to the general public through telegrams and official documents4 ,back ,hand is a hand in which the general slope of the characters is from right to left4 ,italian ,hand is the reverse of a back hand1 the slope being at an acute angle from left to right4 ,it is a style fast going out of fashion1 and is almost invariably the handwriting used by elderly ladies4 ,its most pronounced characteristic is its sharp angles and absence of curves4 ,open ,hand4--,an open hand is one that generally approximates to the vertical1 its distinguishing feature being the wide space between the letters4 ,the best example of it is that known as the ,cusack style of writing4 ,closed ,hand4--,a closed hand is the opposite of an open hand1 the letters being crowded together and generally long and narrow1 with the slope from left to right4 ,greek ,hand4--,this is the name given to a type of writing that closely approximates to the printed character4 ,many letters1 both capital and small1 are formed to imitate print1 particularly the capitals ,t1 ,x1 ,y1 ,r1 ,b1 ,d1 and the smalls e1 f1 g1 h1 j1 k1 p1 r1 t1 v1 w1 x1 y1 z4 ,it is a hand frequently found in the writings of classical scholars1 literary men engaged in work entailing careful research1 and often is an evidence of short sight4 ,the ,wavy ,hand is generally vertical4 ,its characteristic is an undulating serpentine waviness4 ,little or no distinction is made between barred or looped letters4 ,there are no rounded shoulders to the m and n and the word minnie would be written by five small u's4 ,in round-bodied letters like a1 d1 g1 the circle is rarely completed1 but is left open1 so that small a becomes u1 and small d may be mistaken for it1 with the i undotted and t uncrossed4 ,despite its geometrical and caligraphic inaccuracy in detail1 this hand is generally written with great regularity1 that is1 the characters1 though incomplete1 are always uniform in their irregularity4 ,the e is never open1 but is an undotted i1 and n is u1 but when the peculiarities of the writer become familiar this hand is often very legible4 ,flat ,hand4--,a flat hand is a type of handwriting in which the characters have an oblate or flattened appearance1 the o1 a1 g1 c41 being horizontal ovals1 like the minim and breve in music4 ,the tails and tops are generally short1 with wide loops4 ,it is nearly always a vertical hand4 ,an ,eccentric ,hand is one that presents various marked peculiarities and departures from standard rules in the formation of certain letters1 and cannot be placed in any recognised class1 though it may approximate to one more than to another4 ,the ,round or ,clerical ,hand is a writing that preserves a close affinity for the round regular hand of the average school-boy1 with the difference that while the characters are formed on regular copybook model1 the hand is written with considerable fluency and firmness4 ,it is generally only a little out of the perpendicular1 sloping slightly towards the right4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,how ,,to ,,examine ,a ,,writing4 ,the examination of a writing generally consists in making a careful comparison between it and another or others1 the object being to determine whether all are by the same hand4 ,the writing which is in a known hand or as to the authorship of which there is no doubt1 is usually called the ,original1 and is always referred to by this name4 ,the writing which has to be compared with it1 and which practically forms the subject of the enquiry1 is called the ,suspect4 ,the ,suspects should be marked ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 c41 and put away without examination until the ,original has been thoroughly mastered4 ,this is more important than may appear at first sight1 for the confusing effect of having the two types of writing in the eye and mind before one type is made familiar is highly prejudicial4 ,any inclination to look at the ,suspects first should be firmly resisted4 ,let us assume that the object of the examination is to discover the writer of an anonymous letter--one of the most frequent tasks of the handwriting expert4 ,the material in hand is the anonymous letter1 which in such a case may be called the ,original1 and half-a-dozen specimens of the writing of suspected persons4 ,these ,suspects are numbered from #a to #f1 or marked ,a1 ,b1 ,c1 c41 and put aside until the ,original has been thoroughly studied4 ,the first thing is to examine the paper and envelope1 noting its quality1 watermark1 size1 and any feature that may afford a clue4 ,it is always safe to presume that the paper is in every respect unlike that commonly used by the writer1 just as it is equally safe to take it for granted that the writing it contains will1 so far as its general appearance goes1 be the reverse of the normal hand of the author4 ,that is1 if it be a heavy back hand1 the writer probably uses a hand approximating to the ,italian1 though too much weight must not be attached to this theory4 ,next1 note the general style of the document as a whole1 whether the margin between top1 bottom1 and sides is large or small4 ,a writer who habitually begins at the top left-hand corner very near to the edge of the paper will often betray himself by repeating the habit4 ,it is a very common sign of an economical disposition4 ,note whether he crowds his words and letters near the ends of lines or leaves a good margin4 ,clerks and those engaged in official work rarely crowd their final words1 preferring rather to leave a wide space and go on to the next line4 ,note whether the hyphen is used to divide words4 ,many writers never divide a word1 others do it frequently1 with or without the hyphen4 ,measure the average distance between lines1 if unruled paper be used1 and make a note of the average distance4 ,measure the distance between words and strike an average1 noting if words are connected without lifting the pen4 ,it may be found that this joining is only done when certain letters form the final of the first word joined and the initial of the word connected4 ,look carefully for such4 ,note particularly the slope of the topped and tailed letters4 ,note the punctuation1 whether frequent and accurate or otherwise4 ,determine the class to which the writing belongs4 ,read the document carefully1 noting any peculiarities of language1 errors1 or ,americanisms in spelling1 such as favor for favour1 color for colour1 c42 the substitution of z for s in such words as advertise1 c4 ,examine with the glass any words that may have been crossed out or rewritten1 noting particularly letters that have been mended or touched up4 ,note whether the horizontal lines have a tendency to slope up or down4 ,note particularly letters with two or more feet1 like a1 d1 h1 k1 m1 n1 c4 ,it will be found that a certain regularity in formation exists in most writings4 ,if the a be formed like an o1 the toe not touching the line1 or an n with the second foot high up like a bearded r1 these peculiarities should be carefully noted4 ,some writers go to the other extreme1 and carry the second foot below the line1 so that a becomes a small q4 ,too much time cannot be devoted to this aspect of handwriting1 as it presents features of which the writer is probably quite unconscious1 and1 therefore1 affords valuable evidence4 ,next study the topped and tailed letters1 noting whether they are looped or barred1 that is1 formed by a single stroke4 ,it will be often found that certain letters are always looped1 others barred4 ,take careful note of such4 ,if both barred and looped letters appear to be used indiscriminately1 count and average them4 ,in any case1 a characteristic will be revealed4 ,examine and classify the loops4 ,note whether they are long or short1 rounded or angular1 wide or narrow4 ,devote special attention to the arc1 shoulder and hook4 ,note1 also1 any difference of thickness between the up and down stroke2 test the degree of clearness and sharpness of stroke by means of the glass1 and carefully look for the serrated or ragged edge1 which will assist in determining the angle at which the pen is held4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,the ,,alphabet ,,in ,,detail4 ,illustration3 ,,alphabet ,,variants4 ,if the instructions so far given have been acted upon1 the student will have familiarised himself with the general character of the writing under examination4 ,he should now proceed with a detailed examination of each letter1 beginning with the smalls1 and taking them in alphabetical order4 ,take a sheet of tracing paper and trace each small a1 letting them follow each other on the line1 with about a quarter inch of space between each letter4 ,during the process of tracing1 the eye must be on the alert for peculiarities1 notably the roundness or otherwise of the circle as a whole1 the curve or angle of the arc and hook1 the relative position of the toe4 ,note the shank1 whether looped or barred1 whether the top of it is above or below the body of the circle1 whether it is vertical or sloping from right or left4 ,having compared all the a's1 count them1 and decide which form most frequently recurs4 ,this may be taken as the normal a of the writer4 ,the following are the principal points to be considered in examining succeeding letters4 b4--,note the spur1 its length1 how far up the shank it meets it2 whether the shank is barred or looped2 the character of the loop4 ,note particularly the toe1 which also forms the link4 ,this is a very significant hand-gesture4 ,it may be low down1 making the b literally li1 or it may be a horizontal bar1 an angle1 or a neat semicircle4 ,its formation offers large scope for variation1 and should be very carefully studied4 ,compare the toe with the corresponding stroke in f1 o1 v1 w4 ,note whether it is joined with an eye1 and observe its average distance from the bottom on base line4 c4--,this letter1 when an initial1 is frequently begun with a spur1 often with a dot or tick4 ,when connected with a preceding letter1 the link may make the c into an e4 ,it is sometimes disconnected from the preceding letter4 ,note whether this is characteristic4 d4--,apply the same tests as in examining small a1 noting whether the shank is barred or looped4 e4--,examine the spur in initials2 closely observe the loop4 ,look for any recurrence of the ,greek e4 ,examine and compare the specimens given in the examples4 ,many writers have a habit of forming an e as an i and adding the loop4 ,look out for this with assistance of the glass4 f4--,this is an important letter1 giving scope for numerous varieties of form4 ,examine and classify the loops1 noting which is the longer--the top or bottom2 whether one or both are barred4 ,the eye and toe are pregnant with material for observation4 ,examine the various forms of this letter given in the examples4 g4--,like the preceding letter1 this one has many varieties of form1 and will repay careful study4 h4--,the characteristic portion of this letter is the hook forming its body4 ,note how it is joined to the shank--whether it starts from the line or high up2 whether the shoulder is rounded or angular1 whether the foot touches the line or remains above it2 whether the shank is looped or barred4 i4--,this is an important letter because of the dot1 which is made mechanically4 ,after noting whether the shank is spurred as an initial1 special attention must be devoted to the dot4 ,dots are of various forms4 ,they may be a wedge-shaped stroke sloping in any direction1 a horizontal dash1 a tiny circle or semicircle1 a small v1 or a perfect dot4 ,examine them all through the glass1 and compare them with the comma1 which often partakes of the same character as the dot4 ,note also its relative position to the shank1 whether vertical1 to the right or left1 and its average height and distance from the shank4 ,much may be learned from a careful examination of the dot1 and its every variation and characteristic should be most carefully noted and classified4 j is important for the same reason that makes the i significant4 ,there are several forms of it1 but the dotting offers the most valuable evidence4 k4--,this is the most significant and valuable of the small letters1 as it offers scope for so much originality and irregularity in its formation4 ,the characteristic features of the small k lie mainly in the body4 ,few writers form a k alike4 ,although it may belong to the same class1 the number of variations that can be rung on the body is surprisingly large1 ranging from the regulation copybook model to the eccentric patterns shown in the examples4 ,special attention should be devoted to the eye and buckle1 for it is at this junction of the two strokes forming the body that most writers exhibit their peculiarities4 l4--,the same principles of examination apply to this letter as to the small e4 ,note carefully the character of the loop and examine the position of the spur4 m and n offer ample material for examination4 ,as an initial the first stroke is sometimes exaggerated1 approximating the letter to the capital ,m or ,n4 ,note the formation of the shoulders and their relative heights and width2 also1 by means of a line touching the tops of the shoulders1 note carefully and compare the last shoulder with the first4 ,this letter presents great extremes in formation4 ,the shoulders may be high and well rounded1 or even horizontal1 or they may be sharp angles1 turning the m into in1 and the n into u4 ,note the distance between the shanks and observe whether it is uniform4 o4--,this letter owes its main importance to its connecting link4 ,note whether it is carried low down1 making the letter like an a1 whether it is joined to the body by an eye1 and if the toe is curved or angular4 ,note1 also1 the general conformation of the circular body and compare the toe with that in b1 f1 v1 and w4 p4--,there are several forms of this letter1 and a writer who affects one of them generally repeats it often4 ,the shank may be barred or looped1 wholly or in part1 especially when used as an initial4 ,the body generally offers ample material for examination4 q is also a letter with which great liberties are taken1 and is the subject of several variations4 ,some writers make no distinction between g and q1 and the final stroke often supplies the main characteristic of this letter4 r4--,this important letter has two forms--the square1 or eyed1 and the hooked4 ,many variants are employed in forming it1 as the specimens in the examples show4 ,many writers unconsciously form a habit of using both r's1 but with a certain degree of system4 ,for example1 one may use the hook r always as a final1 and the eyed r as an initial4 ,the formation of the eye should be specially studied1 with the shoulder1 which may be formed as a semicircle1 an arc1 a straight bar or an angular v4 ,the hooked r is equally rich in varying forms1 and the letter forms an interesting study4 s4--,this is a letter of such frequent recurrence in the ,english language that it not unnaturally has become the subject of a variety of forms1 and this despite the fact that its regulation shape is exceedingly simple and rudimentary4 ,the majority of writers have one favourite form of the letter1 which1 like the k1 becomes characteristic4 t4--,this letter is important because of its frequent recurrence1 and on account of the variations of form1 the bar or crossing being the most fruitful in material for observation4 ,there are two usual forms of the t1 the hooked and crossed1 and the barred1 and they are equally valuable and characteristic4 ,the crossing of a hooked t1 like the dotting of an i1 is so mechanical an act that it often reveals important evidence4 ,the cross stroke when closely examined will be found to present many variations4 ,it may be a fine horizontal line1 a curve1 a heavy short dash2 it may be ticked or dotted at either end or both--in short1 there is scarcely an end to the numerous forms this important hand-gesture may assume4 ,then its relative position to the shank tells much4 ,it may be high up1 not touching the shank2 low down1 neatly struck at right angles to the shank1 or it may be omitted altogether4 ,in some circumstances a t is crossed1 in others left uncrossed2 for example1 the t at the beginning of a word may be invariably uncrossed1 but the final t never4 ,these are the peculiarities and characteristics the student has to keep a watchful eye for4 ,the other form of the t is known as the bar t4 ,it is generally uncrossed1 and often the buckle is an important feature4 ,a careful examination of the examples will suggest the lines on which the analysis of the letter t should be conducted and at the same time reveal the richness of material at the disposal of the student4 u4--,note whether the two shanks are uniform1 whether the letter is spurred as an initial4 ,average the distance between the shanks1 and observe the conformation of the hook1 whether rounded or v-shaped4 v4--,the important feature of this letter is the toe4 ,its formation must be carefully noted as in f1 o1 hooked r and w4 w4--,apply the same test as to u and v4 ,note the uniformity or otherwise of the shanks and hooks1 and study the varied forms given in the examples4 x4--,this letter lends itself to tricks and variations1 and few letters depart more from the orthodox copybook form in actual practice1 as is shown in the examples4 y4--,note the spur and its relative position to the shank4 ,note the tail and its average length4 z4--,this letter offers good material for study and the detection of mannerisms4 ,its body is the most significant part1 as it is capable of so many variations4 ,it may be angular or well curved2 the eye may be large or exaggerated or merely suggested4 ,like k and x1 the form once adopted by a writer is not usually departed from to any great extent4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,the ,,capitals4 ,owing to their large size and more complex form the capital letters offer much more material for tests than the smalls4 ,they yield more scope for tricks and eccentricity1 though1 at the same time1 their extra prominence1 and the clearness with which their outlines strike the eye of the writer render it more likely that he will detect glaring departures from the orthodox model4 ,in other words1 a writer would probably pay more attention to accuracy in forming1 and particularly in copying1 a capital than a small letter4 ,this is generally found to be the case in signature forgeries1 the capitals being1 as a rule1 much nearer the original than the small letters4 ,but there is this great advantage in favour of the student in examining capitals--the strokes being more expansive supply a larger field and material for examination4 ,for example1 a ragged or diamond stroke in a much flourished capital like ,m1 ,w1 ,r or ,b would be more apparent than the same kind of stroke in a small letter4 ,there is no need to take the capital letters seriatim1 as was the case with the smalls1 for the same principles and rules for examination apply in both cases4 ,the same care is necessary in examining the arcs1 hooks and shoulders of loops1 with their general conformation4 ,the angle of slope is more noticeable in capitals1 and they reveal the characteristics of the writer more than small letters4 ,persons who profess to delineate character from handwriting always pay great attention to the capitals1 doubtless with good reason1 and as the result of long experience4 ,an examination will show that about ten capitals can be formed with two disconnected strokes4 ,they are ,a1 ,b1 ,f1 ,h1 ,k1 ,p1 ,q1 ,r1 ,t and ,x4 ,these are known as double capitals4 ,these doubles should be carefully looked for1 and the frequency1 or otherwise1 of their recurrence noted1 as it is probable they will be found to be nearly always used under the same circumstances2 that is1 a writer may have a habit of beginning with a double capital when possible1 but revert to the single form of the same letter in the body of the writing4 ,another writer will almost invariably disconnect the capitals from the rest of the word1 while a third as regularly connects them4 ,some writers affect the more simple form1 approximating to the printed character4 ,others again indulge in inordinate flourishes1 particularly in their signatures4 ,such writers prove easy prey to the forger4 ,a feature very easy of detection in capitals is the diamond4 ,it is formed by a sudden thickening of the downstroke4 ,it is particularly noticeable in the writing of those who have been instructed in the old-fashioned school1 where a distinction between the heavy downstroke and the light upstroke was insisted upon4 ,the diamond habit once formed is very difficult to eradicate1 and traces of it always remain in the writing of persons thus taught4 ,an important and significant part of a capital letter is the beard4 ,it is an automatic trick1 and always repays careful examination4 ,it may be a spurred1 ticked or dotted beard1 but in any case the initial stroke must be carefully examined1 whatever form it may assume1 for the oft-emphasized reason that it belongs so essentially to the clue-providing class of unguarded and unpremeditated automatic strokes that are overlooked by the writer4 ,variations in the form of a capital must be noted1 and a record kept1 for1 however great the variety1 it will be found that one particular form is more used than another1 and may be regarded as the normal type of the writer4 ,a peculiarity of some writers is the use of an enlarged form of the small letter for a capital4 ,the letters so made to serve a double purpose are generally ,a1 ,c1 ,e1 ,g1 ,m1 ,n1 ,o1 ,p1 ,q1 ,s1 ,u1 ,v and ,w4 ,they are referred to as small capitals4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,punctuation4 ,the ampersand 77 is a symbol that provides excellent material for clues to tricks and mannerisms4 ,it varies in form from a mere v-shaped tick of almost indeterminate character to an ornate thing of loops and flourishes4 ,it is very sparingly employed by illiterate persons1 and some educated writers avoid its use under the impression that1 like the abbreviation of words1 it is vulgar4 ,in a few high-class ladies' schools its use is sternly repressed1 and there are many fluent and habitual writers who never employ this sign4 ,this in itself supplies a useful clue to characterisation4 ,others1 again1 only employ it in such combinations as ,co41 c41 though this latter abbreviation is1 as often as not1 written etc4 by many persons4 ,the dash 7--7 occurs very largely in many writings1 and particularly in those of ladies1 who regard it as a universal punctuation mark1 and employ it indiscriminately as comma and full stop4 ,many persons of both sexes invariably make a dash below the address on an envelope1 using it as a kind of final flourish4 ,a close examination of the samples provided in such a writing will reveal many valuable idiosyncrasies4 ,it may be a bold1 firm horizontal line1 a curve with a tick at either end1 or both2 a wavy line or even an upward or downward line4 ,note1 also1 the ragged edge1 as it affords an important clue to the style of holding the pen4 ,the dash is so essentially an unpremeditated and mechanically-formed hand-gesture that it often betrays more of the character of the writer than any other letter4 ,cases have been known in which the writer of an anonymous letter has successfully concealed all his characteristics1 but in putting the final stroke in the form of a dash he has so far forgotten himself as to produce1 quite unconsciously1 what was probably one of his most pronounced hand-gestures1 thus providing a clue which led to ultimate conviction4 ,punctuation is rarely a marked feature of ,english handwriting4 ,it is said that many of our leading literary men practically leave this important phase of their work to the printer's proof-reader4 ,an examination of a hundred private letters by different hands will show a marvellous scarcity of punctuation marks1 and few correspondents use or appear to know the use of any stop other than the comma and full point1 the dash being made to do service for all else4 ,the mark of interrogation is fairly often used1 and its formation gives scope and material for careful examination4 ,the examples offer suggestions of the form and direction eccentricity sometimes takes4 ,the colon and semicolon are very little used by average writers1 and when they are1 it is generally inaccurately1 but nearly always under the same circumstances1 which should be carefully noted4 ,the quotation marks 7 7 are still more rarely employed1 and it will be found on examination that most people form them wrongly4 ,the accurate style is this1 1 but as often as not the initial quotation has the dot at the top instead of the bottom4 ,another almost universal omission is that of the full point after initials to a name1 after ,esq41 and in the initials of postal districts1 as ,e4,c41 ,w4,c4 ,the addressing of an envelope affords interesting and valuable material for clues1 for it will generally be found that a writer who uses punctuation marks at all will do so with automatic regularity under the same circumstances4 ,the shape and general formation of stops and marks must be carefully examined and classified1 for they belong to the significant unpremeditated class of hand-gestures1 and are1 therefore1 valuable as clues to peculiarities4 ,the ,esq4 that generally follows a man's name on a letter addressed to him partakes much of the character of a symbol like the 8 or 61 and1 being automatic through usage1 is therefore valuable4 ,most writers use a uniform style in shaping it1 and the three letters that go to make up the abbreviation are fortunately of a kind that lend themselves to characterisation4 ,notice1 also1 the position of the possessive sign in such words as men's1 writer's4 ,if accurately placed1 the writer may be presumed to understand punctuation1 and will give evidence of it in a long writing4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,paper ,,and ,,watermarks4 ,the brownish tint of old age which paper needs to help out a fraud is obtained in various ways--sometimes by steeping in a weak solution of coffee1 but in other cases by holding it before a bright hot fire4 ,this latter device is1 fortunately1 not easy of accomplishment1 considerable care1 judgment and even luck being needed to ensure a satisfactory result4 ,in our own case we have failed persistently in the attempt1 the paper becoming tinted so unequally as to excite remark at first sight4 ,all the old pattern of letter paper was almost uniform in size--post quarto1 and the watermark is invariably very distinct1 explainable by the fact that the art of close weaving the wire mould was not then brought to its present state of perfection4 ,the watermarks are very fairly imitated by means of a pointed stick dipped in a solution of spermaceti and linseed oil melted in water and stirred till cold2 or1 equal quantities of turpentine and ,canada balsam shaken together4 ,the same result may be obtained by the use of megilp1 a mixture employed by artists4 ,the detection of this watermark fraud is simple and infallible4 ,if the suspected document be moistened with lukewarm water the spurious watermark disappears immediately1 but if genuine1 it becomes plainer4 ,the worn and dingy appearance inseparable from age in a letter is accentuated by rubbing it lightly with a dirty duster4 ,the effect is usually obvious under a strong glass1 the passage of the dirty cloth revealing itself in minute parallel lines4 ,very little care is needed to distinguish between paper that has been taken from books and the genuine letter paper of the period4 ,to begin with1 such letters are always on single sheets4 ,in genuine cases1 the sheet is as often as not a folio of four pages4 ,in the majority of cases the bogus sheet is of no recognised size4 ,if taken from a book larger than post quarto1 it has had to be cut to conceal the tear4 ,this operation has made an irregular sized sheet--too small for post quarto1 too large for the next size4 ,in the genuine writing paper1 all four edges are usually rough like those of a bank note4 ,if the sheet has been abstracted from a book1 one edge must have been cut or trimmed4 ,again1 such paper is of unequal thickness1 the writing paper of the period being much smoother and finer than the printing paper1 while in parts it is almost certain the ink has run1 as it does on a coarse1 absorbent paper4 ,this is a sure sign that the paper is printing and not writing4 ,further1 such paper is certain to show signs of wear at the bottom edges where they have been handled and exposed1 while that part of the page which has been closest to the inside edge of the cover is generally cleaner1 and shows less sign of wear4 ,in many cases the impression of the book binding is plainly visible4 ,a careful examination and comparison of a few sheets of genuine letter paper of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries with the blank leaves found in printed books will reveal differences so marked that mistake is scarcely possible afterwards4 ,it often occurs that grease marks interrupt the forger4 ,knowing that he cannot write over them1 and that they are hardly likely to have existed on the paper when it was new1 and when the letter was supposed to be written1 he avoids them4 ,the result becomes apparent in unequal spacing of words and even letters4 ,on one occasion a really excellent forgery1 which had successfully withstood all the tests we had applied1 had its real character revealed by a curious oversight on the part of the forger4 ,it was an early seventeenth century document1 and our attention was arrested by a peculiar uniform smudgy appearance1 such as results from blotting with a hard1 unabsorbent1 much-worn sheet of blotting paper4 ,at the period of the presumed date of this document blotting paper was unknown1 writings being dried by means of a specially prepared fine powder called pounce1 sand1 or a powder containing fine crystals of metal intended to give an ornamental gloss to the ink4 ,close examination under the microscope revealed the truth4 ,there were no signs of pounce or any other drying powder1 the crystals of which are usually plain to the unassisted eye1 but there were distinct signs of the fibre of the blotting paper left in the ink4 ,another forgery we discovered through the presence in the centre of the sheet of paper of a very faint square outline which enclosed a slight discolouration4 ,the sheet had1 as usual1 been removed from a book1 and the square outline was a faint impression of a book-plate which had been affixed to the opposite page4 ,the discolouration was caused by the ink on the book-plate4 ,it should be superfluous to have to remind intelligent and educated persons that it is necessary for a collector of old documents to make himself familiar with the peculiarities1 habits and customs of the period in whose literary curiosities he is dealing4 ,yet fact compels the admission that extraordinary laxity and even ignorance exist on these points4 ,we are acquainted with a collector1 by no means uneducated1 who gave a good price for a letter purporting to be by ,sir ,humphrey ,davy1 the inventor of the miners' safety lamp1 enclosed in an envelope4 ,he was ignorant of the fact that envelopes were unknown until #ahdj1 thirty years later than the date of this particular letter4 ,envelopes supposed to have been addressed by ,dickens have been offered for sale and purchased1 bearing postage stamps not in circulation at the period4 ,one would imagine that a forger would pay sufficient attention to his materials to be on his guard against the blunder which earned the perpetrator of the ,whalley ,will ,forgery penal servitude4 ,he put forward a will dated #ahfb1 written on paper bearing in a plain watermark the date #ahgj6 ,another indiscreet person asked the ,court to accept a will written and signed with an aniline copying pencil1 but dated years before that instrument had been invented4 ,both the works by ,dr4 ,scott and ,mr4 ,davies1 given in the list1 show samples of watermarks of the various periods affected by forgers of literary documents4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,inks4 ,examination for determining whether a writing has been done at one time1 or added to later1 necessitates some acquaintance with the nature and qualities of ink4 ,in the ordinary case the assistance of a chemist is necessary1 but an enlarged photograph shows up minute differences with amazing accuracy4 ,in the majority of instances alterations are made some time after the original has been written1 in which case a difference in the shade of the ink will be perceptible1 even to the unassisted eye4 ,this is particularly true when the now almost universal blue-black ink is used4 ,the period required for an addition to become as black as the older writing depends very much upon the character of the paper4 ,if this be smooth and hard1 and the writing has not been dried with blotting paper1 but allowed to dry naturally and slowly1 it will become black much quicker than if the paper be rough and of an absorbent nature4 ,a fairly reliable test is to touch a thick stroke of the suspected addition with a drop of diluted muriatic acid--as much as will cling to the point of a pin4 ,apply the drop to the suspected addition and to the older writing at the same moment1 and carefully watch the result4 ,the newer writing will become faint and watery1 with a bluish tinge almost instantly1 but the change will be slower in the case of the older writing1 taking ten or even twenty seconds4 ,the longer the period required for the change1 the older the writing4 ,this same acid test is applied to prove whether a writing is in ordinary ink1 or has been lithographed or photographed4 ,if the two latter1 the acid will have no effect4 ,on more than one occasion collectors have purchased as original autographs of celebrities which proved to have been lithographed or photographed1 but the persons so deceived have generally been inexperienced amateurs4 ,when the difference between a written and printed signature has been once noticed it is hardly likely that an observant person will be deceived4 ,it is1 however1 as well to be carefully on guard against this contingency1 for modern photography and process printing have been brought to such a degree of imitative perfection that it is easy for a not too keen-eyed person to experience great difficulty in forming an opinion in the absence of the acid test4 ,fortunately that is infallible4 ,it must1 however1 be admitted that up to the present no great success has attended efforts to determine how long an interval has passed between the writing of the original and the suspected addition4 ,broadly speaking1 the most that the expert can hope to gain from an examination of ink under these circumstances are hints1 clues and suggestions rather than definite1 reliable facts4 ,fortunately it often occurs that a suggestion so obtained proves of immense value to the trained or careful observer1 though it might convey no conviction to others4 ,as in the case of nearly all deductive reasoning the handwriting expert becomes sensitive to slight suggestions4 ,if called upon1 as he sometimes is1 to explain to others how and why one of these slight and almost imperceptible signs fit in with his theory1 he fails4 ,therefore the cautious expert1 like a good judge1 is careful in giving reasons for his judgment only to cite those which are self-evident4 ,many an expert has made a poor exhibition in the witness-box by failing to convey to a jury the impression produced on his own mind by a slight piece of evidence1 the proper understanding and interpretation of which can only be grasped by those who have learned how to recognize faint signs4 ,the process of chemically testing inks for the purpose of ascertaining the points mentioned is quite simple1 and is distinctly interesting4 ,in a very important case the services of a qualified chemist will probably be requisitioned1 but the cost of the necessary material and the time required to make oneself proficient as a capable tester are so slight that even the small fee that would be charged by a chemist is scarcely worth paying4 ,the materials necessary are a few test tubes1 some bottles of lime water1 diluted muriatic acid1 a solution of nitrate of silver in distilled water1 in the proportion of ten grains to the ounce1 some camel hair pencils1 and clean white blotting and litmus paper4 ,the whole need not cost more than half-a-crown4 ,the method of using these materials is best illustrated by describing a test often needed by autograph collectors4 ,a very common method employed by forgers to give an appearance of age to the ink used in spurious old documents is to mix with ordinary ink1 muriatic acid1 oxalic acid1 or binoxalate of potash4 ,the presence of these colouring agents can be detected in the following manner4 ,in the first place1 washing the letter with cold water will make the ink become darker if acid has been used to brown the ink1 but the following test will settle the point beyond dispute3 ,with a camel's-hair brush wash the letter over with warm water4 ,if1 as sometimes happens1 a sort of paint or coloured indian ink has been used1 this will be immediately washed away and disappear1 leaving a rusty smudge4 ,if not1 apply the litmus paper to the wetted ink1 and the presence of acid will be shown in the usual way by the litmus paper changing colour4 ,if genuine1 wetting makes no difference4 ,next1 pour a drop or two of the water from the writing into a test tube from off the letter1 add a little distilled water and one or two drops of the nitrate of silver solution4 ,if muriatic acid has been used to colour the ink1 a thick white precipitate will be seen in the tube immediately4 ,if not1 pour a few more drops of the water which has been washed over the writing into a second test tube1 add a little distilled water and a few drops of lime water4 ,a white precipitate will be seen in the tube if either oxalic acid or binoxalate of potash has been employed4 ,in many cases it will be sufficient to place the tip of the tongue to a thick stroke4 ,an unmistakable acid taste will be noticed4 ,further and fuller particulars of the methods resorted to by forgers to simulate ancient documents will be given in the chapter on ,autographs4 ,it is sometimes important to know whether a stroke has been made over another1 as in the famous case in which the real issue turned on the question whether an apparent alteration in a signature was really a pen-mark made to indicate where the signatory should sign4 ,it was obvious that if the mark was made first the signature would be over it2 if1 as was suggested1 the mark was added in an attempt to alter or touch up the signature1 it must have been written over the signature4 ,in cases of this kind an enlarged photograph leaves no room for doubt4 ,the ink is seen lying over the lower stroke as plainly as a layer of paint in a picture can be seen overlying the stroke beneath4 ,this is one of those apparently difficult points which become marvellously simple when dealt with in a practical manner4 ,pages might be needed to explain what a very simple experiment will reveal at a glance4 ,take a word which has been written long enough for the ink to have become dry1 and make a stroke across it4 ,for example1 make a letter t without the bar1 then1 after a lapse of an hour or two1 add the cross bar4 ,when this is quite dry and has become as dark as the first mark1 examine it with a good glass4 ,the ink of the added bar will be seen plainly overlaying the vertical stroke1 but any doubt can be promptly removed by taking an enlarged photograph4 ,even when the second stroke is added while the ink on the first is still wet the upper stroke can be distinguished1 though not so clearly as if the first stroke had been allowed to dry first4 ,by practising and examining such strokes1 the student will soon learn to distinguish important signs which leave no doubt as to which stroke was first made4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,erasures4 ,the alteration of the figures and amount written on a cheque is generally effected by erasure4 ,at one time chemicals were used for this purpose1 but fortunately the modern cheque is forgery-proof in this respect4 ,no means are known to chemists by which ordinary writing can be removed from a cheque without leaving a sign too pronounced to escape detection4 ,but even erasure on a cheque is extremely difficult1 and the experienced eye of the average bank teller can detect it in the vast majority of cases4 ,frauds perpetrated by this means are very rare1 and are usually the result of gross carelessness on the part of the person accepting the document so altered4 ,the more frequent form of cheque fraud is effected by adding to such words as six1 seven1 eight and nine4 ,the addition of ty and y is all that is necessary4 ,but the ordinarily careful business man never leaves sufficient blank space between his words to admit of this addition1 while there are few bank tellers who do not carefully scrutinise a cheque made out for these larger amounts4 ,it may be accepted as a satisfactory fact that cheque forgery is not only extremely difficult1 but rarely successful4 ,great frauds are usually perpetrated by means of other instruments1 such as bills of exchange1 credit notes1 c4 ,an erasure is the easiest thing to detect if looked for4 ,to begin with it is only necessary to hold a scratched document to the light to have the alteration revealed4 ,erasing must of necessity remove part of the surface of the paper which is made noticeably thinner at the spot erased4 ,in nearly every case the writing that has been added to the erasure is blurred1 owing to the rough and absorbent character of the paper4 ,expert forgers have devised means of counteracting this by rubbing in some substance which partially restores the original smoothness and mitigates the blurred appearance4 ,but such devices ought not to be successful for they are so easily detected4 ,as a matter of fact the only chance the forger of an erased cheque has lies in the carelessness of the teller4 ,any crowding of words and unequal spacing in the filling up of a cheque ought to excite suspicion and provoke careful and closer scrutiny1 and1 it may be added1 it generally does4 ,the addition of letters intended to increase the value of a number1 such as the adding of ty to six or seven1 is easy of detection if properly looked for4 ,it is safe to assume that the addition has been made long after the original word was written1 and the point of junction can be detected by the aid of a good glass4 ,had the word been originally written sixty1 the chances are that there would be no perceptible break between the x and the t4 ,few persons write such short words in a disconnected manner4 ,on placing the word under an ordinary glass the point of junction will be plainly apparent1 and a microscope1 or an enlarged photograph1 cannot fail to reveal the fraud4 ,of course these latter tests will not be possible under the ordinary circumstances attending the paying out of a cheque over the counter1 but when once the peculiarities of such alterations have been studied1 it is marvellous how quick the eye becomes in recognizing them at a glance4 ,erasure in writings on stout thick paper is not quite so readily noticed as those on thin paper such as cheques2 but the same methods of examination will apply--holding the document to the light1 or level with and horizontal to the eye4 ,a very effective application of the latter test is to bend or curve the paper1 making an arch4 ,the bending has a tendency to stretch and widen the erased part1 and if any smoothing substance such as starch or wax has been added to restore the gloss of the scraped portion1 it will usually reveal itself by separating and coming away in dust or tiny flakes4 ,this process may be accentuated by drawing the suspected document over a ruler1 or1 better still1 a pencil1 repeating the motion several times4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,pencils ,,and ,,stylographs4 ,it is obvious that writing executed with a pencil or the now much-used stylograph will differ in many respects from that performed by an ordinary pen4 ,it is not too much to say that their use will eliminate many features and introduce new ones4 ,this change is mainly brought about by the different way in which a pencil or stylograph is held in comparison with a pen4 ,there is a much greater sense of freedom4 ,the pencil can be1 and is1 turned and twisted in the process of making a stroke as a pen cannot be1 and the signs of this freedom become apparent in a more rounded stroke4 ,even a writer whose characters are acutely angular shows a tendency to a more graceful outline4 ,as a matter of fact1 it is comparatively rare to meet a pencilled writing that is pronouncedly angular4 ,the same remarks apply with only little modification to writing produced by the stylograph1 and for the same reason--the ease and freedom with which the instrument is held4 ,there is no possibility of mistaking writing produced by a stylograph for that of an ordinary steel nib4 ,the strokes are absolutely uniform in thickness4 ,no nib-formed writing can be so1 for it is impossible for a writer1 however careful1 to avoid putting pressure on his pen at some point2 and the opening of the nib1 however slight1 must produce an apparent thickening4 ,therefore1 recognising these facts1 the expert is always extremely careful in giving an opinion upon a writing produced by pencil or stylo unless he have ample specimens of the writer's productions done with these instruments4 ,at the same time1 although an absence of characteristics present in pen writing would be noticeable1 the main features would exist3 for example1 the space between words and letters would be the same2 the dot over the i would be in its customary position2 the bar of the t would be of the same type as heretofore4 ,the principal changes would be in the direction of a more uniform stroke with a tendency to greater rotundity4 ,persons who habitually employ the stylo very frequently develop an unconscious habit of twisting the pen at certain points so as to form a deep1 rounded dot4 ,this occurs principally at the ends of words and strokes4 ,a magnifying-glass reveals this peculiarity at once1 and1 when discovered1 notice should be taken of the circumstances under which this twisting is usually done4 ,it will be found1 most probably1 that the trick is uniform2 that is1 certain letters or strokes are mostly finished with the dot4 ,there is a well-known public character who for years has employed no other writing instrument but the stylo4 ,his writing possesses one peculiarity which is so habitual that in four hundred examples examined it was absent in only five4 ,he forms this twist dot at the end of the last letter at the end of every line4 ,the inference and explanation is that1 in raising the pen to travel back to the next line1 he twists it with a backward motion in harmony with the back movement4 ,another trick is to make the same dot in words on which he appears to have halted or hesitated before writing the next4 ,in every such case there is an extra wide space between the word ended by a dot and that which follows4 ,it would appear as if the writer mechanically made the dot while pausing to choose the next word4 ,this is a striking example of the unconscious hand-gesture4 ,something akin to it occurs in the handwriting of a famous lawyer4 ,here and there in his letters will be noticed a faint1 sloping1 vertical stroke1 like a figure #a4 ,those who have seen him write explain it thus4 ,while hesitating in the choice of a word he moves his pen up and down over the paper1 and unintentionally touches it4 ,it is such slips as these which often supply the expert with valuable clues to identity4 ,when they occur they should be carefully examined1 for in the majority of cases a reason will be found for their presence4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,anonymous ,,letters ,,and ,,disguised ,,hands4 ,that mischievous and cowardly form of secret attack1 the anonymous letter1 demands1 unfortunately1 a large amount of attention from the handwriting expert4 ,one of the most pleasant rewards that can attend the conscientious and painstaking student of handwriting lies in the knowledge that his art may sometimes enable him to bring to deserved punishment the assassin of reputation and domestic happiness4 ,it is a moot point1 which has been discussed by legal authorities1 as to whether the handwriting expert is justified in tendering evidence and opinions of a kind that may be said to belong by right to the criminal investigator4 ,by this is meant that the expert should not be allowed to point out to a jury such pieces of circumstantial evidence as the similarity of the paper used by the suspected person with other found in his possession2 that he ought not to direct attention to postmarks1 coincidence of dates1 similarity of ink used1 the employment of certain words and phrases1 and other external and indirect clues that point to the authorship4 ,it is urged that the whole duty of the expert is to say whether in his opinion two or more writings are by the same hand or not1 and any expression of opinion outside this question is ultra vires4 ,the obvious answer to this objection is that it is impossible to limit the expert in the selection of those points which appeal to and assist him in forming an opinion4 ,it is impossible to say what may or may not suggest a valuable clue to a keen observer2 and as the expert is often called upon to give reasons for his opinion he is quite justified in indicating the steps by which he arrived at it4 ,these circumstances arise more often in connection with anonymous letters than with ordinary signature forgeries1 for the field of exploration and the material examined are so much larger4 ,details become invaluable4 ,the quality and make of the paper used1 or a peculiar method of folding and placing it in the envelope may afford a clue that will put the expert on the high road to an important discovery4 ,it is impossible to say how or where a clue may lurk4 ,the torn edge of a postage stamp once supplied a hint that was followed up successfully4 ,a smudge on the envelope1 that matched a similar one on a packet of envelopes in the writing case of a person quite unsuspected1 led to conviction1 as did a number of an address that was crossed out and rewritten1 the anonymous writer having1 by force of habit1 begun with the number he was in the habit of writing--his own4 ,in short1 the expert has1 nolens volens1 to assume many of the functions of the crime investigator in dealing with apparent trifles1 and even if they do not always help him in reaching his goal1 they provide material for exercising the useful art of observation4 ,strictly speaking the expert should1 perhaps1 ignore all outside suggestions as to the authorship1 and confine himself to saying whether or not the specimens submitted are in the same handwriting2 but in practice this will be found extremely difficult1 if not impossible1 for the student cannot shut his eyes to the accidental clues that invariably arise in the examination of the evidence1 and almost before he realizes it1 the most cautious expert finds himself trespassing upon ground that by right should be the preserve of the detective4 ,the points raised here may1 however1 be safely left to be dealt with by the judgment of the student as they arise4 ,in the early stages of study they will probably not present themselves with the same force and frequency as later on1 when they will be appreciated as providing useful private pointers for guidance2 and though at times they may put the inexperienced student upon a false scent1 he will have no difficulty in detecting his error if1 when in doubt1 he follows the principles laid down for the comparison of handwriting4 ,the first step to the examination of the anonymous letter consists in procuring as many suspects as possible1 which1 as before advised1 should be lettered or numbered and put aside1 until the original1 which in this case is the anonymous letter1 has been studied and mastered4 ,the external evidence of which so much has already been said may or may not be looked for4 ,next proceed with the examination and comparison of the writings4 ,it is presumed that the student has prepared his notes of the peculiarities of the original2 he has now to search for them in the suspects4 ,suppose he begins with the spurs and beards1 having found them well marked in the original4 ,he will take any one of the suspects and examine it for a repetition of the same signs4 ,he may follow on with the rest of the suspects1 taking advantage of his memory being fresh on this point1 or he may prefer to exhaust one suspect of all its evidences before proceeding with another2 but practice and experience will decide the best course in this matter1 and influence the line of procedure4 ,whatever method is pursued1 all have the same object--the discovery of the peculiarities of the original in one or more of the suspects1 and the student will be wise if he follow accurately the course laid down in the chapter on ,how to ,examine a ,writing4 ,it is generally safe to take it for granted that the writing in an anonymous letter is disguised4 ,there are occasions when the author persuades another person to write for him1 but only rarely2 for the perpetrator of a contemptible act is not usually brazen and indiscreet enough to expose himself to others4 ,the same reasons lend strength to the presumption that the writing will1 so far as its general appearance goes1 be as much the opposite of the author's usual style as his ingenuity can make it4 ,the extreme back hand occurs very frequently4 ,it seems to be the first impulse of the anonymous writer to avoid the right slope4 ,even when the normal hand is a vertical1 with a tendency to back hand1 the extreme left slope is often chosen4 ,fortunately1 the assumed back hand is one of the most transparent of disguises4 ,if the student has practised it1 he will not need to be reminded how difficult it is for a writer to conceal his mannerisms4 ,by altering the slope he has only stretched and lengthened his outlines1 and the expert soon learns to recognise them in their new form4 ,another common disguise is the illiterate hand4 ,this is quite as easy of detection4 ,it is no easier for the practised and fluent writer to reproduce the shaky1 irregular outlines of the illiterate1 than it is for the speaker of pure and cultured ,english to imitate the coarse accent of the vulgar4 ,however good the copy it always breaks down early1 and the sudden and unconscious firm1 clear and geometrically accurate stroke reveals the practised writer beneath the mask4 ,sometimes an accurately placed punctuation mark supplies the necessary clue1 for when once the art of proper punctuation has been acquired it becomes almost automatic4 ,even experienced novelists are caught this way occasionally4 ,they will introduce a letter1 supposed to be the work of an illiterate character4 ,the grammar and orthography suggest the idea1 but the more difficult details of punctuation will be attended to1 even to the apostrophe that marks the elided g in such words as talkin'1 comin'1 c4 ,very difficult and troublesome is the letter written throughout in imitation printed characters4 ,the expert has to rely upon the curved lines1 accidental punctuation marks and unpremeditated flourishes and hand-gestures2 but1 broadly speaking1 such a letter is beyond the skill of the expert if unaided by accidental betrayal4 ,if1 as sometimes happens1 the writer is ingenious enough to adopt an alphabet formed completely of straight lines and angles--an easy task--he may boast of having produced a detection-proof writing2 that is1 if characters formed with the aid of a rule can be called writing1 for it defies detection1 because there are none of the signs essential for comparison1 and is less easy of identification than an incomplete skeleton4 ,in the absence of external clues1 an expert would refuse to do more than offer a very guarded opinion1 and it would be wiser to decline to offer any comment whatever4 ,another trick that has been resorted to by some persons is writing with the hand constricted by a tight-fitting glove4 ,this produces a very effective disguise2 but if the student will practise with the same impediment1 he will discover many useful rules for guiding him on the road to penetrating this entanglement4 ,it should be remembered that the less control a writer has over his pen1 the more likely is he unintentionally to revert to those forms to which he is habituated1 for1 left by itself1 the hand steers the more familiar course4 ,disguise1 alteration and variation on customary forms are the result of premeditation4 ,when the mind is occupied more with the subject than the formation of characters1 the latter naturally assume that shape to which the force of custom has bent them4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,forged ,,literary ,,autographs4 ,the collection of autographs1 letters1 and documents of literary and historical interest has for many years been a prominent feature in the collecting world1 but at no time was the quest more keen or conducted on more systematic lines than to-day4 ,the records of the leading sale rooms often supply matter for surprise1 the prices asked and obtained for rare and choice specimens being such as to excite both wonder and amazement1 sometimes tempered with scepticism4 ,it is1 therefore1 not surprising that this profitable and growing market should have attracted the fraudulent1 for the prizes when won are generally of a substantial character1 and amply repay the misapplied effort and ingenuity demanded4 ,the success which has attended too many of these frauds may be largely accounted for by the fact that in many cases the enthusiasm of the collector has outrun his caution4 ,many a man famous for his astuteness in the pursuit of his ordinary business has allowed himself to fall an easy victim to the forger1 thus exemplifying the familiar adage that we are easily persuaded to believe what we want to believe4 ,the recorded stories of some of the frauds perpetrated upon ardent and presumably judicious collectors read like the tales told so often of the triumph of the confidence trickster1 and one marvels how a person of ordinary power of observation1 to say nothing of experience1 could fall a victim to a fraud requiring little perception to detect4 ,the explanation doubtless lies in the direction indicated--the ardour of the pursuit1 the pride and joy of possessing something that is absolutely unique4 ,the leading case--to use an expressive legal term--is that known as the ,vrain-,lucas fraud1 the principal victim of which was ,mons4 ,chasles1 probably the greatest of modern ,french geometricians1 and one of the few foreign savants entitled to append the distinguishing mark of a ,f4,r4,s4 of ,england4 ,lucas was a half-educated frequenter1 and nominal reading student of the great ,parisian library1 and for some years had dealt in autographs in a small way1 the specimens he offered being undoubtedly genuine4 ,inspired by the collecting ardour and the apparent blind faith placed in him by ,m4 ,chasles1 ,lucas embarked upon a series of deceptions so impudent1 that it is easy to sympathise with the defence put forward by his advocate at the trial1 namely1 that the fraud was so transparent that it could only be regarded as a freak4 ,in the period between the years #ahfa and #ahfi1 ,lucas sold to his dupe the enormous number of #bg1jjj documents1 every one a glaring fraud4 ,they comprised letters purporting to have been written by such improbable authors as ,abelard1 ,alcibiades1 ,alexander the ,great to ,aristotle1 ,cicero1 ,cleopatra1 ,joan of ,arc1 ,sappho1 ,anacreon1 ,pliny1 ,plutarch1 ,st4 ,jerome1 ,diocletian1 ,juvenal1 ,socrates1 ,pompey1 and--most stupendous joke of all--,lazarus after his resurrection4 ,it is hard to believe1 and but for the irrefutable records of the ,court1 few would credit the fact that every one of these letters was in the ,french language6 ,and the dupe a highly educated mathematician of ,european repute4 ,in the face of such incredible gullibility one is disposed to regard the sentence of two years' imprisonment and a fine of #ejj francs as extravagantly severe1 even despite the fact that ,lucas received in all over #adj1jjj francs from ,m4 ,chasles4 ,the ,chatterton and ,ireland forgeries are familiar to all educated persons4 ,these1 however1 hardly come under the head of the class of fraud with which the ordinary forger is associated4 ,in each of these cases the motive of the deception was not so much to make money as a literary reputation4 ,in both cases presumably competent judges were deceived4 ,but the standard by which they gauged the genuineness of the productions was not caligraphic1 but literary4 ,in neither instance was there occasion or opportunity for the handwriting expert to exercise his skill1 for the sufficient reason that there existed no material with which the writings could be compared4 ,what the literary expert had to do was to examine and compare the style of the compositions--a test in which the idiosyncrasies and predilections of the judge played a leading part4 ,probably the greatest1 and for a short time the most successful autograph fraud perpetrated in ,great ,britain was that known as the case of the ,rillbank ,,mss41 the detection and exposure of which were mainly attributable to one of the authors of this work 7,capt4 ,w4 ,w4 ,caddell74 ,just before1 and up till #ahia1 there was in ,edinburgh a young man named ,alexander ,howland ,smith1 who claimed to be the son of a reputable ,scottish law official1 and a descendant of ,sir ,walter ,scott4 ,on the strength of his presumed connection with the great novelist1 he had no difficulty in disposing of1 to an ,edinburgh bookseller1 for prices whose smallness alone should have excited suspicion1 letters purporting to be in the handwriting of ,sir ,walter ,scott4 ,emboldened by success1 he embarked upon a wholesale manufacture of spurious letters bearing the signatures of ,burns1 ,edmund ,burke1 ,sir ,walter ,scott1 ,grattan and ,thackeray4 ,his principal victim was an ,edinburgh chemist1 ,mr4 ,james ,mackenzie1 who1 when the fraud was not only suspected1 but proved1 distinguished himself by a stubborn and courageous defence of the genuineness of the documents4 ,smith's modus operandi consisted in purchasing large-sized volumes of the period of the subjects of his forgeries1 and using the blank leaves for the purpose of fabricating the letters4 ,in ,may1 #ahia1 a number of alleged ,burns' letters were put up for sale by public auction at ,edinburgh1 fetching the surprising paltry price of from twenty to thirty shillings apiece4 ,it was a feature of all ,smith's productions that the letters were extremely brief--a feature common to literary forgeries4 ,the circumstance which first gave rise to suspicion was that the letters attributed to ,scott1 ,burke1 ,burns1 ,general ,abercrombie1 ,grattan and ,thackeray all began and ended with the same words4 ,those signed by ,sir ,walter ,scott all began ,i have your letter1 and ended ,i remain1 a form of phraseology the reputed writer never used1 but which1 according to ,smith1 was common to all the distinguished men whose handwriting he had counterfeited with considerable success4 ,on the strength of the partial guarantee provided by the sale of some of these documents at a reputable auction room1 ,captain ,caddell purchased a parcel of alleged ,scott letters without prior inspection4 ,a brief examination disclosed their fraudulent nature1 and ,smith was arrested4 ,the ,edinburgh police took the matter up1 and the impostor was convicted in ,june1 #ahic1 and sentenced to eighteen months' imprisonment4 ,thackeray and ,dickens are favourite subjects with most literary forgers1 ,washington and ,benjamin ,franklin running them very close for favouriteship4 ,american collectors are particularly keen on procuring specimens of the last two-named1 and there is grave reason to believe that many fall easy victims4 ,fortunately the facilities for comparing and testing the genuineness of the autographs of every distinguished person whose holographs are most in favour with the forger1 are numerous4 ,in addition to the splendid collection of specimens extant at the ,british ,museum ,library1 there are many facsimiles available4 ,the excellent work on ,autograph ,collecting by ,dr4 ,henry ,t4 ,scott 7,upcott ,gill1 ,london7 is indispensable to the collector4 ,it contains some hundreds of specimens1 specially selected for the purposes of comparison1 and gives besides many very valuable rules and hints for detecting the real from the sham4 ,dr4 ,scott1 writing of the autographic letters of his distinguished namesake1 says3 ,of ,sir ,walter ,scott's autographs it may be observed 7#a7 the paper is generally letter size1 gilt edged1 with a soft1 firm feeling to the touch1 and an unglazed surface4 7#b7 ,the date and residence are placed on the top and right hand1 with a good space before the ',my ,dear ,sir1' uniform margins on the left side of the paper of a quarter of an inch1 but on the right side no margin at all1 the writing being carried close to the edge4 ,the folding is done with the precision of a man of business1 forming the space for the address into a nice oblong almost in the centre of the sheet1 and the first line of the address is written nearly in the centre of the space with the remainder below4 ,the watermarks found on the paper are one of the following3 ,valleyfield1 #ahji2 ,c4 ,wilmott1 #ahae2 ,j4 ,dickinson and ,co41 #ahac2 ,j4 ,dickinson1 #ahaf2 ,j4 ,dickinson 7without date72 ,j4 ,whatman1 #ahad2 ,j4 ,whatman 7without date72 ,turkey ,mill1 #ahai2 ,turkey ,mill 7without date72 ,g4 ,c4 ,co41 #ahbh4 ,the paper used by ,burns for his correspondence was always large in size1 rough in surface1 never glossy1 and all four edges had the rough edge that is the peculiarity of a ,bank of ,england note4 ,it is worthy of remark that in the case of the ,a4 ,h4 ,smith ,burns forgeries1 suspicion was first excited by a simple but significant matter4 ,the paper contained several worm holes4 ,these had been carefully avoided by the writer1 he knowing that if his pen touched them the result would be a spluttering and spreading of the ink4 ,now it is safe to assume that these worm holes1 being the effect of age1 did not exist at the time the letter--if genuine--was written2 as the worm did its work long afterwards1 it must be regarded as a fortunate circumstance that in perforating the paper it refrained from destroying the writing1 carefully selecting the wider spaces that the poet had1 with commendable foresight1 left for the insect's depredations4 ,the letters of ,thackeray are in two styles of handwriting1 the earlier sloping slightly1 the latter vertical1 round1 neat and print-like1 the capital ,i being invariably a simple vertical stroke4 ,his is the most neat and uniformly readable hand of all the great literary characters4 ,it is somewhat unfortunate that he was not anything like so uniform in his choice of paper4 ,letters are in existence on an extraordinary variety of material1 from a quarto sheet to a scrap torn from half a sheet of note paper4 ,on many of these letters is neither address nor date1 but when once the characteristics of the charming handscript have been mastered1 they are never forgotten1 and are recognisable amid the closest imitations4 ,there are extant a number of forged ,thackeray's4 ,their distinguishing features are that they are invariably very short1 as if the forger feared to provide sufficient matter to supply material for comparison2 most are on single half sheets of note paper1 many on quarto sheets of varying texture and quality1 and the characteristic vertical ,i1 ,thackeray's trade mark1 always occurs4 ,it is shaky and often out of the perpendicular1 as the genuine rarely is4 ,in the forgeries we have seen and suspect to be the work of ,a4 ,h4 ,smith1 a very significant sign is a sudden thickening of the downstrokes of tailed letters like y1 f1 g1 producing a tiny diamond-shaped excrescence in the middle of the letter4 ,the glass reveals that ragged-edged stroke which is inseparable from the writing of the nervous copyist4 ,it is generally safe to be cautious about very short letters4 ,the forger well knows how difficult is the task of maintaining an assumed character4 ,just as the mimic may succeed in reproducing the tone and manner of a person with sufficient closeness to deceive even the most intimate acquaintances of the subject1 yet fail to carry the deception beyond a few words or phrases1 so the literary forger invariably breaks down when he attempts to simulate handwriting over many sentences4 ,so conscious is he of this great difficulty that he often avoids it by boldly copying some genuine letter4 ,we have had offered to us guaranteed ,thackeray letters which we immediately recognised as such4 ,in one particularly glaring case the forger had copied the original letter very fairly so far as the penmanship was concerned1 but while the original was written on a half sheet of note paper1 the forgery was on a different size paper1 and the writing across the length of the paper instead of the breadth4 ,this naturally disarranged the spacing between the words1 which in all ,thackeray's writings is a pronouncedly regular feature1 and this variation was in itself sufficient to excite suspicion4 ,the popularity of ,dickens among collectors grows steadily4 ,despite the fact that he was an industrious correspondent1 and that a very large number of his letters appear from time to time in the market1 the demand is ever in excess of the supply4 ,as a consequence he has suffered perhaps more than any of the literary immortals at the hands of the forger4 ,yet it is safe to say that there should be no writer so safe from fraudulent imitation1 for there is a peculiar distinctiveness about his caligraphic productions that once seen and noted should never be forgotten4 ,specimens are easily available4 ,the catalogues of dealers are constantly presenting them1 and most public libraries possess examples1 either in the original holograph or in some form of reproduction4 ,probably no writer preserved his style with such little change as ,dickens4 ,his signature in later years varied somewhat from that of his literary youth1 but the body of his handscript retained throughout the same characteristics4 ,it was always a free1 fluent1 graceful hand1 legible as that of ,thackeray when its leading peculiarities have been mastered1 but less formal and studied than his4 ,it was always remarkably free from corrections or interlineations4 ,he wrote with the easy freedom of the stenographer2 indeed it is easy to recognise in the delicate gracefully formed letters the effect of years of training in the most difficult and exacting form of handscript4 ,perhaps the leading peculiarities in the ,dickens holograph are these3-- ,the date of the month is never expressed in figures1 but always written in full2 in fact1 abbreviation in any form he never countenanced4 ,the letter y1 both as a capital and a small letter is a figure #g except in the affix ly1 when the two letters become an f or long stroke s4 ,the letter t is crossed by the firm downward bar1 which the character readers claim as a sign of great resolution4 ,letter g is invariable in form4 ,capital ,e consists of a downstroke with a bar in the centre4 ,the hook of many final letters has a tendency to turn backwards4 ,new paragraphs are marked by beginning the line about an inch from the left-hand margin4 ,a very marked peculiarity noticeable in many letters is that the left-hand margin gradually grows wider as the lines approach the bottom of the page4 ,the narrowing is wondrously regular1 a line drawn from the first letter on the first line to the corresponding position on the last will touch nearly every other line4 ,this peculiarity appears to have escaped every forger whose work we have examined4 ,if the signs relied upon by the readers of character in handwriting are to be accepted1 self-esteem was a pronounced characteristic of the great novelist4 ,his writing abounds with those subtle symptoms of the prevalence of that weakness4 ,his signature is perhaps the best known of any with which the ,british public are familiar4 ,it is remarkably uniform1 and remained precisely the same from the time he adopted it after the ,pickwick period until his death4 ,that which he used in youth was less striking1 but none the less self-conscious4 ,after the ,pickwick period ,dickens adopted the use of blue paper and blue ink4 ,letters in black ink1 if undated1 may safely be attributed to the earlier period4 ,his note paper was in later years of the regulation note size4 ,the address1 ,gads' ,hill ,place1 ,higham by ,rochester1 ,kent1 was in embossed black old ,english letter4 ,his paper was hand-made1 and of good quality4 ,the envelopes were blue1 of the same quality paper1 but without crest1 monogram or distinctive mark4 ,dickens' vanity expressed itself in the habit of franking envelopes1 i4e41 by writing his name in the left-hand bottom corner1 after the fashion in vogue when ,peers and ,m4,p4's enjoyed the privilege of free postage4 ,his letters of the pre-envelope period--before #ahdb--were on quarto sheets4 ,these are exceedingly rare4 ,there is one feature about autographic forgery which may always be relied upon to assist greatly in the work of detection4 ,as a general rule there is sufficient matter in a literary forgery to supply the necessary material for comparison4 ,it must of necessity be a copy1 if not of an existing original1 at least of the general style4 ,the process of imitation must be slow and cautious1 and the signs remain in shaky1 broken lines1 and a ruggedness entirely absent from the writing of the real author1 which is fluent and free4 ,even the shakiness of age noticeable in a few distinguished handwritings is different to the shakiness of the forger's uncertainty4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,forged ,,signatures4 ,the most difficult phase of the art of the handwriting expert consists in the detection of forgery in signatures4 ,it will be obvious to the student who has followed the instructions and illustrations already given that this difficulty is brought about by two principal causes3 first1 by the paucity of material for comparison2 secondly1 because of the very important fact that a forgery must1 by its nature1 be a good and close copy of an original4 ,this means that the unconscious tricks and irregularities that often abound in a long letter1 written in a more or less disguised hand1 are almost entirely absent from a forged signature4 ,it follows1 therefore1 that the student must have some other clues and rules to guide him1 for he cannot rely upon the chance of a slip or accidental trick occurring in a signature that contains at most perhaps a dozen letters4 ,the first step in the examination of a suspected signature is to master thoroughly the various characteristics of the genuine signature4 ,these must be studied in every possible relation1 and from as many specimens as can be obtained4 ,the magnifying glass must be in constant use and the eye alert to detect the angle at which the pen is habitually held1 the class of pen used1 and the degree of pressure and speed employed4 ,these last-named points can only be discovered as the result of practice and observation1 and though at first sight it may appear impossible to form a correct estimate of the pace at which a pen has travelled1 the student will1 if observant1 soon learn to detect the difference between a swiftly formed stroke and one written with slowness and deliberation4 ,by making a number of each kind of stroke and carefully examining them through a glass1 the student will learn in an hour more than can be taught by means of verbal description4 ,the study of the genuine signatures must be continued until every stroke and its peculiarities are as familiar as the features of a well-known face1 for until one is thoroughly impregnated with the original it will be useless to proceed with the examination of the suspects4 ,at first sight the student will probably perceive very little1 if any1 difference between the original and the suspect4 ,it would be a very clumsy forgery if he could4 ,gradually the points of dissimilarity will become clear to him1 and with each fresh examination they grow plainer1 until he is surprised that they did not sooner strike him2 they are so obvious that the eye cannot avoid them2 they stand out as plainly as the hidden figure1 after it has been detected1 in the well-known picture puzzles4 ,there are few faculties capable of such rapid and accurate development as that of observation4 ,thousands of persons go through life unconscious of the existence of certain common things until the occasion arises for noticing them1 or accident forces them upon the attention2 then they marvel that the thing should have escaped observation4 ,this is a truism1 no doubt1 but the force of every platitude does not always present itself to every one4 ,the comparison of handwritings is so essentially a matter of cultivating the powers of observation1 that even if turned to no more practical account than that of a hobby its value as a mental exercise is great4 ,there are two principal methods by which a signature may be forged3 first1 by carefully copying the original as one would copy a drawing2 secondly1 by tracing it4 ,the first process is referred to as copied4 ,the forger will1 most probably1 have practised the signature before affixing it to the cheque or other document1 thereby attaining a certain degree of fluency4 ,but however well executed1 close examination with the aid of the magnifying glass will reveal those signs of hesitancy and irregularity that one may reasonably expect to find in a copy4 ,there is no part of a person's handwriting so fluent and free as his signature4 ,even the most illiterate persons show more freedom and continuity of outline in their signature than in the body of their writing4 ,this is explicable on the ground of usage4 ,a writer may feel a degree of momentary uncertainty in forming a word that he does not write frequently1 but his signature he is more sure about4 ,he strikes it off without hesitancy1 and in the majority of cases appends some meaningless flourish1 which may be described as a superfluous stroke or strokes added for the purpose of ornamentation1 for adding distinctiveness1 or1 in some cases1 and particularly with business men1 with the idea that the flourishes help to secure the signature from forgery4 ,such writers will probably be surprised to learn that there is no form of signature so easy to forge as that involved and complicated by a maze of superfluous lines and meaningless flourishes4 ,the most difficult signature for the forger is the clear1 plain1 copybook-modelled autograph4 ,a little thought and examination will make the reason for this clear4 ,let a signature be enveloped in a web of curves and flourishes1 making it look like a complicated script monogram4 ,the lines are so numerous that the eye cannot take them all in at a glance1 and1 if copied1 any slight irregularity or departure from the original is more likely to pass undetected amid the confusing network of interlaced lines4 ,if1 on the other hand1 the signature be simple and free from the bewildering effects of flourishes1 the entire autograph lies revealed1 a clear and regular outline1 and the slightest variation from the accustomed figure stands out naked and plain4 ,most of the successful forgeries will be found to be on signatures of the complicated order4 ,their apparent impregnability has tempted the facile penman to essay the task of harmless imitation2 his success has surprised and flattered him1 and the easy possibilities of forgery opened up4 ,more than one forger has admitted that his initiatory lessons were prompted by an innocent challenge to imitate a particularly complicated forgery-proof signature4 ,it must be remembered that the eye of the casual observer takes in a word as a whole rather than in detail4 ,this explains why an author can rarely be trusted to correct his own proofs4 ,he knows what the word should be1 and in reading his work in print he notices only the general expected effect of a word4 ,it needs the trained eye of the proof-reader to detect the small c that has taken the place of the e1 the battered l that is masquerading as an i4 ,so long as the general outline of the word is not distorted the wrong letters are often passed2 and it is much the same with a signature with which one is fairly familiar4 ,the trained examiner of handwriting1 like the proof-reader1 knows what to look for1 and discovers irregularities that would escape the notice of the untrained eye4 ,the first part of a genuine signature that should be examined is the flourish1 which includes all fancy strokes appended to it1 and any superfluous addition to the body of the letters4 ,a close scrutiny through the glass will show that the lines forming the tail-flourish are generally clear1 firm and sharp in outline1 being formed1 not only without hesitation1 but with a dash and decided sweep that are strongly at variance with the broken1 saw-edged1 unsteady line of the copy4 ,it will also generally be found to follow an almost fixed rule in the matter of its proportionate conformation3 that is1 supposing the writer finishes up with a horizontal line under his signature1 it will be seen1 on averaging a dozen or so of them1 that the distance of the line from the feet of the letters is proportionately uniform4 ,if the line be begun with a spur or curved inward hook1 that feature will be repeated4 ,the end of the flourish or final stroke1 at the point where the pen leaves the paper1 should be very carefully examined4 ,one writer finishes with an almost imperceptible dot1 as if the pen had been stabbed into the paper2 another finishes with a curve1 either upward or downward2 a third with a hook turned upward1 either a curve or an angle2 while a fourth continues the line till it becomes finer and sharper to vanishing point4 ,some writers are fond of concluding with a more or less bold and expansive underline running horizontally with the signature4 ,a close examination will show a variation in the degrees of thickness of such a line1 which should be carefully noted and looked for in other genuine signatures4 ,in this connection it will be found extremely useful and instructive to study strokes1 either horizontal or vertical1 with a view to discovering whether they were struck from right to left1 top to bottom1 or vice vers4 ,the glass will render it easy to detect beginning from end after a few failures1 which1 by the way1 should not be allowed to discourage1 for every minute devoted to the study of handwriting is so much gain in experience1 and represents so much more learned1 which will never be forgotten4 ,the flourishes that occur on and about the signature proper must be treated as exaggerated loops1 and their shoulders1 arcs1 hooks and toes carefully measured and noted4 ,for this purpose an average genuine signature should be selected and gauged1 which is done in this way3 ,place over it a sheet of transfer paper4 ,with the scale-rule and a fine pencil draw horizontal lines that will touch the tops and bottoms of the bodies of the letters1 lines that touch the tops and bottoms of the tailed and topped letters1 and vertical lines that follow the shanks of every topped or tailed letter1 including the capitals4 ,the gauge1 when completed1 will represent a framework fitting the signature1 and its use is twofold4 ,it helps the eye to detect the variations in the general contour of the signature1 and1 when placed over another1 brings out the points of difference4 ,due allowance must be made for proportion4 ,it is obvious that the distance of letters will be greater in a signature written larger than another1 but the proportionate distances will be preserved4 ,the difference in the size of a letter is not very important1 except that it offers more scope for examination4 ,for example1 a looped l may be very small or half an inch long2 but1 if made by the same writer1 the proportionate width at top1 bottom and middle will be preserved1 and compare with the same measurements in the smaller letter4 ,signatures of the same writer do not often vary much in size1 though they may be thicker or finer according to the character of the pen used2 but observation will show that the difference in a handwriting caused by the use of different pens is much more imaginary than real4 ,the traced signature is produced by placing the paper over the genuine autograph1 holding it to the light1 generally on a sheet of glass1 and tracing it with a fine point4 ,such forgeries are often more easily detected than the copied signature1 for the reason that signs of the tracing process can generally be found by careful examination4 ,the fine1 hard point used to trace the autograph leaves a smooth hollow1 which can be seen through the glass on examining the back of the cheque or document4 ,if the paper be held in a line with the eye in a strong light1 the ridge will be more clearly perceived4 ,the difference between a mark made by a hard point and a pen can be tested by experiment4 ,the hard point must of necessity be pressed with a degree of force to make the desired impression on the paper1 and the result is a smooth hollow4 ,but if a pen be pressed hard1 it produces two parallel lines1 and1 instead of a hollow1 a ridge is formed between the parallels4 ,of course1 it will be so slight as to be hardly perceptible1 except through a strong glass1 but it will be there nevertheless1 and knowing what to look for1 the expert will generally have no difficulty in satisfying himself whether the forgery has been traced or copied1 a very valuable piece of evidence when once settled1 for it is within the bounds of probability that the genuine signature from which the tracing was made may be discovered4 ,it is possible1 and has often occurred1 that the writer of the original may have some recollection of having written to the suspected person1 or in many ways a clue may be suggested4 ,there is a well-known case of a forgery being brought home to the perpetrator through the accuracy of the tracing4 ,it is a fact easily proved1 that no man can write a word twice1 so exactly1 that if the two are overlaid they fit4 ,if two such signatures be produced1 it is safe to assume that one has been traced or otherwise mechanically produced4 ,in the case mentioned a signature on a cheque was pronounced a forgery by the person supposed to have signed it4 ,in examining specimens of the genuine autograph1 the experts came upon one which1 when placed upon that on the cheque1 proved a perfect replica1 down to the most minute detail1 showing beyond question that it had been used to trace the forgery from4 ,it was further proved that the original had been in the possession of the supposed forger1 and the jury were asked to decide whether it was probable that a man could reproduce his signature in exact facsimile after a lapse of time1 and without the original before him4 ,as the chances against such a contingency are many millions to one--a fact the student can verify--the jury decided against the forger4 ,at the risk of appearing tautological to a tiresome degree it is necessary to accentuate the fact that the comparison of handwriting1 and more particularly of signatures1 is essentially dependent on cultivating the faculty of observation4 ,this art cannot be taught2 it can only be acquired by practice and experience1 like swimming or riding4 ,the teacher can at most indicate the method of study and some of the leading principles of conducting an investigation4 ,most men are not naturally observant1 and the habit can be best fostered by having an object2 but when once a person has been taught what to look for he almost instinctively notices details that previously never struck him4 ,this is specially true of the study of handwriting4 ,the best method of practice that can be adopted by the student is to begin by making a careful study of his own signature and writing4 ,he will be surprised at the number of facts hitherto unsuspected that will be revealed to him4 ,the value of using his own handwriting as a subject of examination lies in this1 that the student can satisfy himself how and why certain strokes are made4 ,this he can only guess at in the writing of others4 ,the preliminary exercise should consist in studying the effect produced by the different methods of holding the pen4 ,the signature supplies excellent material for this class of practice4 ,begin by holding the pen with the top end pointed well towards the left shoulder1 in the absurd and unnatural position taught by the old school of writing masters4 ,repeat the signature with the pen held a trifle less acutely angular1 and go on till six or eight signatures have been written at a decreasing angle--until the top of the penholder points well to the right1 producing what is known as a backhand4 ,the effect of these angles must be carefully noted1 and in a short time it will be found possible to arrive at a very accurate opinion as to how the writer of a particular signature habitually holds his pen--an important and valuable piece of knowledge4 ,the practice should be extended to long sentences1 and a frequent repetition of all the letters1 capital and small1 the magnifying glass being always used to examine the effect of the various and varying strokes4 ,in examining a signature for comparing it with a suspected forgery it should be copied very frequently1 as the clues and suggestions the experiments will produce are of much greater service than will at first appear1 and of more practical value than pages of theory1 as the how and why will be revealed for much that would be obscure without this assistance4 ,as experience grows1 it will not be necessary to adopt this copying process so often1 for the eye soon becomes alert at detecting slight shades of difference in strokes1 and a glance will convey more than could be explained in many pages4 ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,the ,,expert ,,in ,,the ,,witness-,,box4 ,when the expert has been called upon to give an opinion upon the genuineness of writings he embodies his conclusions in a report of which the following may be taken as a fair example3-- ,to the ,chief of ,police4 ,,sir1 ,,rex versus ,,jones4 ,in accordance with your instructions dated ---- ,i beg leave to inform you that ,i have made a careful examination of the document marked ,a1 and attached hereto1 and compared it with the documents marked ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 ,e and ,f1 also attached4 ,i have arrived at the conclusion that the document ,a was written by the same hand as produced ,b1 ,c1 ,d1 ,e and ,f4 ,the main reasons which have led me to form this opinion are these3-- ,first1 although the writing in ,a bears at first sight no resemblance to that of the other documents1 the difference is only such as experience leads me to expect in a writing which has been purposely disguised1 as ,i believe this has been4 ,the writing on the five documents ,b to ,f ,i take to be the normal hand of the author1 and that on ,a to be the same writer's hand altered so as to present a different appearance4 ,i will call the specimens ,b to ,f the genuine examples1 and ,a the disguised4 ,experience shows that the person who writes an anonymous letter generally seeks to disguise his hand by departing as much as he deems possible from his normal writing4 ,the usual hand of the writer of the genuine document is a free rounded hand sloping upwards towards the right4 ,the writing of ,a presents exactly the features ,i would expect to find when1 as appears to be the case here1 the writer has adopted the familiar trick of sloping his writing in a direction opposite to his normal hand4 ,while the result of this change is to alter the apparent style and general appearance of the writing1 the alteration does not extend to certain tricks and characteristics which are plainly obvious in the genuine letters and are repeated in the anonymous letter ,a4 ,the writing in the genuine letters contains fourteen very distinctive peculiarities1 or tricks of hand1 which ,i find repeated in the anonymous letter ,a4 7,here describe them1 as for example47 #a4 ,the figure #d in the dates is always made like the print form of that figure4 #b4 ,the small e is always of the ,greek form4 #c4 ,the small t is always crossed by a bar thick at the beginning1 tapering to a point1 with its longest part behind the shank of the t and so on4 ,the various points of resemblance are set out in detail1 a separate paragraph for each1 and each paragraph numbered4 ,it is extremely important that a report should be fully descriptive and written in plain1 non-technical language1 easily understood by the jury1 who will have to decide whether the resemblance has been made out4 ,too many handwriting experts spoil the effect of their evidence by employing technical language and presuming on the part of the jury an acquaintance with the methods of comparing handwritings4 ,do not be satisfied by saying that certain letters resemble each other4 ,show by an enlarged diagram how and where1 indicating the parts to which attention is called by arrows4 ,place the single letters to be compared in parallel columns1 headed with the alphabetical letter distinguishing the document in which the particular letter occurs4 ,use foolscap paper1 and write on one side of the paper only4 ,the usual method of dealing with the handwriting expert in the witness-box is shown in the following extract from a report of an actual case4 ,mr4 ,d4 ,b---- was called by counsel for the prosecution and duly sworn4 ,q4--,you have had considerable experience in examining handwriting4 ,a4--,over twenty years4 ,q4--,look at these documents4 7,hands documents to witness47 ,have you seen and examined these8 ,a4--,i have4 ,q4--,have you formed any opinion upon them8 ,a4--,i have1 and have prepared a report4 ,in some cases the expert is allowed to read his report in full4 ,in others he is requested to give a verbal report1 but if the point be insisted upon1 the judge generally permits the report to be read1 either by the expert or by counsel4 ,a copy of the report1 together with the documents in dispute are then usually handed to the jury for examination4 ,the expert may proceed to illustrate his point with the aid of a blackboard and chalk1 but much depends upon the attitude taken by the judge and counsel4 ,some judges insist that the expert shall confine himself to expressing his opinion1 leaving counsel to deal with the explanation and comparison2 others give the expert every opportunity of showing how he has arrived at his opinions4 ,the examination in chief is usually a very simple matter4 ,the trouble for the expert begins when counsel for the other side gets up to cross-examine4 ,in nearly every case the object of the cross-examining counsel is to ridicule the art and get the expert to admit the possibility of other writers possessing the same peculiarities which are said to distinguish the letters before the ,court4 ,counsel's favourite trick is to select some letter and ask the expert if he is prepared to swear that he has never seen something just like it in some other person's writing4 ,the expert who knows his business will insist on keeping well to the front the bedrock basis of handwriting comparison1 which is the application of the law of probability to cumulative evidence4 ,it is not a question whether some other person may be in the habit of making a t or a k similar to those cited as evidences of common origin1 but whether it is probable that two persons should make a dozen or more letters in precisely the same way under similar conditions and exhibit precisely the same peculiarities of style4 ,he should reply with the unanswerable postulate that millions of persons possess red hair1 snub noses1 a scar on the face1 blue eyes1 bent fingers and a stammer2 but it is millions to one against any two persons possessing all six of those peculiarities4 ,in the course of his replies the expert may justifiably help his own case by repeating1 when opportunity occurs1 such irrefutable axioms as1 ,no writer can say off-hand what peculiarities he may exhibit2 that there are scores of ways of dotting an i1 or crossing a t1 and that few persons know which form they mostly affect4 ,fifty such points may be gathered from this little volume alone1 while acquaintance with the works of other writers on caligraphy will supply ample ammunition for meeting and repelling the customary form of attack on the handwriting expert4 ,another method of discrediting a witness is to remind him that experts have differed1 the ,dreyfus case being usually cited4 ,the answer is obvious4 ,first it is essential to be assured that those experts were all competent1 for there are degrees of competency in judging handwriting as in every other subject on which opinion may be called4 ,it is a notorious fact that in the ,dreyfus case the most competent experts testified that the ,henry letters were forgeries1 the authorities called on the other side being in most cases unknown men or amateurs of no standing4 ,a number of these self-styled experts possessed no other qualification than presumed familiarity with the handwriting of ,dreyfus4 ,it is also worthy of note that several of the experts on both sides proved most inefficient witnesses1 obscuring their explanations by the employment of technical phraseology which conveyed little meaning to the lay mind4 ,exactitude and regularity in the choice of the words used in describing the parts of letters should be strictly observed by the student4 ,the rules given in the chapter on ,terminology should be mastered and adhered to4 ,in most cases the terms there applied to letter-analysis will be found to be self-explanatory4 ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,handwriting ,,and ,,expression4 ,no work dealing with the study of handwriting would be complete unless it recognised that phase of it which touches on the delineation of character by an examination of the caligraphy4 ,that many valuable clues can be picked up by the expert who applies the principles on which the graphologist works is indisputable1 nor is it necessary to accept all the theories claimed as reliable by those who practice this interesting branch of the art of writing-analysis4 ,there is no doubt that many persons have attained a remarkable degree of proficiency in deducing from the hand-gestures of an unknown person a very accurate estimate of his or her character1 and this fact should prove that the principles of the art of graphology are based on scientific grounds1 or at least that the rules on which the student works are regular and not1 as some suggest1 mere guess-work or coincidence4 ,the elder d',israeli1 in his fascinating work1 the ,curiosities of ,literature1 devotes considerable space to the subject4 ,among other things1 he says3-- ,assuredly nature would prompt every individual to have a distinct sort of writing1 as she has given a peculiar countenance1 a voice1 and a manner4 ,the flexibility of the muscles differs with every individual1 and the hand will follow the direction of the thoughts1 and the emotions and the habits of the writers4 ,the phlegmatic will portray his words with signs of labour and deliberation1 while the playful haste of the volatile will scarcely sketch them2 the slovenly will blot and efface and scrawl1 while the neat and orderly-minded will view themselves in the paper before their eyes4 ,the merchant's clerk will not write like the lawyer or the poet4 ,even nations are distinguished by their writing2 the vivacity and variableness of the ,frenchman1 and the delicacy and suppleness of the ,italian1 are perceptibly distinct from the slowness and strength of pen discoverable in the phlegmatic ,german1 ,dane1 and ,swede4 ,when we are in grief we do not write as we should in joy4 ,the elegant and correct mind1 which has acquired the fortunate habit of a fixity of attention1 will write with scarcely an erasure on the page1 as ,fenelon and ,gibbon2 while we find in ,pope's manuscripts the perpetual struggle of correction1 and the eager and rapid interlineations struck off in heat4 ,lavater's notion of handwriting is by no means chimerical2 nor was ,general ,paoli fanciful when he told ,mr4 ,northcote he had decided on the character and disposition of a man from his letters and the handwriting4 ,long before the days of ,lavater1 ,shenstone in one of his letters said1 ',i want to see ,mrs4 ,jago's writing that ,i may judge of her temper4' ,one great truth must1 however1 be conceded to the opponents of the physiognomy of handwriting4 ,general rules only can be laid down4 ,yet the vital principle must be true that the handwriting bears an analogy to the character of the writer1 as all voluntary actions are characteristic of the individual4 99 99 99 99 99 ,professor ,foli1 in his very useful work1 ,handwriting as an ,index to ,character 7,london3 ,c4 ,a4 ,pearson1 ,ltd471 says3 ,the changes which handwriting undergoes as maturity is reached prove how directly it is influenced by the nervous condition of the writer4 ,the writing proper to childhood is large1 round and accompanied by a laboured pen movement2 whereas that which is normal as manhood or womanhood is attained is smaller1 and turned off by a more rapid and fluent motion of the hand4 ,illness1 again1 affects the writing4 ,as the hand is charged with more or less of the nerve fluid1 so the writing is stronger or weaker1 firmer or feebler1 as the case may be4 ,this goes to show the important influence which the nerve current exerts in fashioning the handwriting4 ,small wonder that our handwriting alters day by day4 ,yet it does not alter either4 ,so far as its general appearance is concerned ,i grant it seems to do so4 ,but look at the really significant points of the writing written at different times4 ,give a glance at the height at which the 'i' is dotted1 the way in which the 't' is barred1 the manner in which the letters are1 or are not1 connected and finished off4 ,these things will crop up with unerring uniformity time after time4 ,you do1 of course1 get a studied handwriting now and then1 just as you sometimes meet with a formed facial expression4 ,but that does not express the true character1 simply because the control over the feelings or the power of disguising what is felt is a salient point in the character2 and this very fact will serve to show that there is truth in graphology4 ,that the pen1 whether it be a fine or a broad pointed nib1 plays a certain part in determining the thickness or thinness of the strokes1 ,i am willing to allow1 but here again we have no argument against graphology1 for most people have their favourite nib--just as they prefer one occupation to another--and this is the one which will best serve to define their characteristics4 ,the same with the surface of the paper upon which they write2 some will select a smooth1 others a rough kind1 but whatever that may be which is adopted with comfort1 it will be typical of the writer4 ,the following are some of the more marked signs of the character they indicate4 ,for a fuller exposition of their application it would be well to study the work of ,foli1 before mentioned1 and of ,rosa ,baughan 7,upcott ,gill1 ,london1 #bs4 #f;d471 with the scholarly work of ,j4 ,crpieux-,jainin1 entitled1 ,handwriting and ,expression1 translated by ,j4 ,holt ,schooling4 99 99 99 99 99 ,general ,characteristic4--,the fineness of an organism will be revealed by a fine light penstroke4 ,coarse1 low natures make heavy blurred entangled lines4 ,activity is denoted by the length of the letters4 ,where it is feeble the letters will be widely spaced and rounded4 ,excitability is shown by sharp strokes and stops4 ,the more acute and irregular the pen-strokes the greater the intensity of feeling4 ,aggression1 which is the inclination to attack1 the destructive force1 is indicated by the final strokes of letters and the cross-bars of t's advancing well forward1 the dots of the i's placed well forward4 ,in such a word as time the dot would probably be between the m and e4 ,the style is angular and well and evenly spaced1 altogether a forward1 go-ahead writing4 ,economy1 or acquisitiveness1 is shown by the finishing strokes being turned backwards1 and inwards2 by a cramped hand1 a disposition to curtail strokes1 particularly the endings of letters1 as if the expenditure of ink was begrudged4 ,secretiveness1 or extra caution1 has its sign in the narrow1 tightly-closed form of the body of the letters a1 d1 g1 o1 q1 the a and o often being merely a narrow v4 ,the general tendency of the writing is to compression1 the final strokes being very short4 ,when very marked1 the letters dwindle into an indistinct unformed condition4 ,the substitution of dashes for punctuation is another symptom4 ,insincerity4--,beware of the man or woman whose writing is a fine1 wavy line1 upright1 with short1 stumpy and indistinct tops and tails1 words running at their end to an almost straight line1 the letters merely indicated4 ,the flatter1 finer and more perpendicular this writing1 the greater the insincerity4 ,such a writer would probably be a polite1 pleasing and plausible person1 but double-faced as ,janus4 ,love of praise1 glory1 ambition are shown by a tendency to write upwards1 the lines of writing trending towards the right-hand corner of the paper4 ,the signature will usually have a curved line below it1 with a degree of flourish4 ,self-esteem1 to which is allied conceit and ostentation1 shows itself in proportion to the size of the writing1 the taller and more flourished the upstrokes and the longer the downstrokes1 the greater the self-assertiveness4 ,the flourish beneath the signature will be very pronounced1 often an elaborate spider's web of interlaced lines4 ,the writing is more or less angular with the finals turned backwards and inwards4 ,will power is shown by firm bars to the t1 with a tendency to descend from left to right1 bludgeon-like downstrokes to tailed letters1 writing rather angular than rounded1 and the final strokes finished by a heavy pressure4 ,straight1 firm1 downward strokes take the place of the tails to y1 g1 f1 q4 ,sympathy1 good nature1 kindness of heart are shown by a flowing open hand1 the finals of the letters being extended and thrown out with an expansive movement4 ,the tailed letters are long and looped1 and often turned up the right side of the letter4 ,the letters are well apart but not necessarily unconnected1 and the style is curved4 ,as a general rule hard matter-of-fact natures incline to an angular style2 the artistic and softer nature affects rounded1 gracefully curved strokes1 and avoids straight perpendiculars or horizontals4 ,constructiveness1 which implies the ability to combine and connect words and phrases1 is shown by joining the words together1 several being written without lifting the pen from the paper4 ,the more simple and ingenuous the method of attaching the words1 the greater will be the ability4 ,when this joining of words is carried to extremes1 it may be taken as a sign of good deductive judgment4 ,observation1 by which is implied the keen1 penetrating1 inquiring mind 7which in excess becomes curiosity71 is marked by angularity of the strokes and finals2 a small1 generally neat1 handwriting1 with the letters disconnected4 ,punctuation affords a very valuable clue to character-reading1 for reasons set out in the chapter ,how to ,study a ,handwriting4 ,they are the most mechanical and unpremeditated of hand-gestures1 and are1 therefore1 the more valuable4 ,when1 for example1 a dot is thick and heavy1 we infer that the pen has been driven across the paper with a strong1 decided movement of the hand1 which would be consistent with extreme energy and will power2 whereas1 when the dot is light and faintly indicated we may be certain that only a moderate force has been expended upon its production1 which would be compatible with less resistance and endurance in the character4 ,again1 a dot whose outlines were blurred would show a certain sensuousness of character--strong passions and a want of restraint over the lower propensities2 whereas1 a dot whose edges were sharply defined would tell of refinement and a loathing against all that was coarse or vulgar4 ,careful attention to punctuation indicates neatness1 order1 method and love of arrangement2 nor is it necessary that the punctuation should be strictly correct1 for the art is but imperfectly mastered by most people1 even the best educated4 ,stops that partake of the appearance of a comma indicate a degree of impetuosity2 well rounded stops imply calmness and tranquility of temperament4 ,when the full stops are fashioned after the form of a comma and droop towards the right hand they indicate a tendency to sulkiness4 ,when they are merely angular we may infer impatience and a peppery disposition4 ,flourishes are always indicative of a certain amount of assertiveness4 ,the simpler the flourish the less artificial this self-insistence2 the more elaborate1 the greater the desire to seem what one is not4 ,,bibliography ,,of ,,handwriting4 ,most of the works in this list relate to that aspect of the study of graphology which is supposed to bear upon the manifestations of character4 ,but there is not one which the student of handwriting can afford to ignore1 since1 apart from the debatable question of character reading1 they all contain numerous hints and observations of extreme value to the student whose objective is the acquisition of aptitude in the more practical art of detecting forgery4 ,,autograph ,,collecting3 ,a practical manual for ,amateurs and ,historical ,students4 ,by ,,henry ,t4 ,,scott1 ,m4,d4 ,london3 ,upcott ,gill4 ,price #es4 ,a ,,guide ,,to ,,the ,,collection ,,of ,,historical ,,documents1 ,,literary ,,mss4 ,,and ,,autograph ,,letters1 c4 ,by ,rev4 ,h4 ,t4 ,,scott and ,,samuel ,,davey4 7,out of print47 ,may be seen in ,british ,museum and many public libraries4 ,,the ,,autographic ,,mirror3 ,a monthly journal now defunct1 but procurable at second hand4 ,,handwriting ,,and ,,expression4 ,translated and edited by ,,john ,,holt ,,schooling1 from the third ,french edition of ,l',escriture et le ,caractere1 par ,j4 ,,cr,,pieux-,,jainin4 ,kegan1 ,paul and ,trench4 ,,character ,,indicated ,,by ,,handwriting4 ,by ,,rosa ,,baughan4 ,upcott ,gill4 ,price #bs4 #f;d4 ,,the ,,philosophy ,,of ,,handwriting4 ,by ,,don ,,felix ,,de ,,salamanca4 ,macmillan4 ,,how ,,to ,,read ,,character ,,in ,,handwriting4 ,by ,,henry ,,frith4 ,ward ,lock4 ,price #as4 ,,handwriting ,,as ,,an ,,index ,,to ,,character4 ,by ,professor ,,foli4 ,c4 ,a4 ,pearson4 ,price #as4 ,a ,,system ,,of ,,graphology4 ,by the ,,abb ,,michon4 ,in ,french2 no ,english translation4 ,a valuable work4 ,a ,,history ,,of ,,handwriting4 ,same ,author4 ,a ,,method ,,of ,,graphologic ,,study4 ,same ,author4 ,a ,,memoir ,,upon ,,the ,,faulty ,,methods ,,used ,,by ,,experts ,,in ,,handwriting4 ,same ,author4 ,a ,,dictionary ,,of ,,the ,,notabilities ,,of ,,france ,,judged ,,from ,,the ,,handwriting4 ,same ,author4 ,,the ,,handwriting ,,of ,,the ,,french ,,people ,,since ,,the ,,merovingian ,,epoch4 ,same ,author4 ,,les ,,myst,,res ,,de ,l',,criture4 ,preface by ,desbarrolles4 ,same ,author4 ,,the ,,handwriting ,,of ,,junius ,,professionally ,,examined ,,by ,,chabot4 ,edited by the ,hon4 ,e4 ,,twistleton4 ,john ,murray4 #ahga4 ,this work is the only one hitherto published in ,england explaining the methods of the handwriting expert4 ,mons4 ,chabot1 for many years the leading ,english expert1 was commissioned by ,mr4 ,twistleton to examine the handwriting of ,junius with a view to deciding the authorship of the famous letters4 ,the result was an exhaustive volume in which the process of handwriting analysis is illustrated by thousands of examples4 ,the conclusion arrived at was that the writer of the ,junius letters was ,sir ,philip ,francis4 ,literary and ,historical ,autograph ,letters and ,manuscripts ,purchased4 ,,opinions ,,given ,,as ,,to ,,genuineness ,,of ,,documents4 ,,also ,,on ,,suspected ,,forgeries ,,and ,,anonymous ,,letters4 ,,by ,,blackburn ,,caddell1 #ai1 ,,charlwood ,,place1 ,,london1 ,s4,w4 ,transcriber's ,note3 ,minor typographical errors have been corrected without note1 whilst more significant amendments have been listed below4 ,page #cg1 'analine' amended to aniline4 ,page #ec1 ',alcebiades' amended to ,alcibiades4 ,page #ef1 'correspence' amended to correspondence4 ,page #ef1 'addresss' amended to address4 ,page #fh1 'four documents' amended to five documents4 ,page #gh1 ',,meroringian' amended to ,,merovingian4