file was produced from images produced by ,core ,historical ,literature in ,agriculture 7,,chla71 ,cornell ,university7 ,illustration3 ,,prize ,,yearling ,,short-,,horn ,,bull1 ,,victor ,,emmanuel1 ,,the ,,property ,,of ,,lord ,,talbot ,,de ,,malahide1 ,was awarded the ,first ,prize in his ,section 7there being sixteen competitors71 at the ,show of the ,royal ,agricultural ,society1 held at ,belfast1 in ,august1 #ahfa4 ,calved ,june #bd1 #ahfj2 sire1 ,prince ,duke the ,second 7#af1gca72 dam1 ,turfoida1 by ,earl of ,dublin 7#aj1agh72 gd41 ,rosina1 by ,gray ,friar 7#i1agb72 ggd41 ,hinda1 by ,little ,john 7#d1bcb74 ,,the ,,stock-,,feeder',s ,,manual4 ,,the ,,chemistry ,,of ,,food ,,in ,,relation ,,to ,,the ,,breeding ,,and ,,feeding ,,of ,,live ,,stock4 ,,by ,,charles ,a4 ,,cameron1 ,ph4,d41 ,m4,d41 ,licentiate of the ,king and ,queen's ,college of ,physicians in ,ireland2 ,honorary ,corresponding ,member of the ,new ,york ,state ,agricultural ,society2 ,member of the ,agricultural ,society of ,belgium2 ,professor of ,hygiene or ,political ,medicine in the ,royal ,college of ,surgeons2 ,professor of ,chemistry and ,natural ,philosophy in ,steevens' ,hospital and ,medical ,college2 ,lecturer on ,chemistry in the ,ledwich ,school of ,medicine2 ,analyst to the ,city of ,dublin2 ,chemist to the ,county of ,kildare ,agricultural ,society1 the ,queen's ,county ,agricultural ,society1 c42 ,member of the ,international ,jury of the ,paris ,exhibition1 #ahfg2 ,editor of the ,agricultural ,review2 one of the ,editors of the ,irish ,farmer's ,gazette2 ,author of the ,chemistry of ,agriculture1 ,sugar and the ,sugar ,duties1 c4 c4 ,,london ,,and ,,new ,,york3 ,,cassell1 ,,petter1 ,,and ,,galpin4 #ahfh4 ,all rights reserved4 ,,london ,,cassell1 ,,petter1 ,,and ,,galpin1 ,,belle ,,sauvage ,,works1 ,,ludgate ,,hill1 ,e4 ,c4 ,,the ,,following ,,pages ,,are ,dedicated ,,to ,,the ,,right ,,honorable ,,the ,,lord ,,talbot ,,de ,,malahide1 ,f4,r4,s41 ,president of the ,royal ,irish ,academy1 c4 c4 c41 ,,one ,,of ,,the ,,most ,,enlightened ,,and ,,liberal ,,promoters ,,of ,,agricultural ,,improvements4 ,,the ,,author ,,is ,,under ,,many ,,obligations ,,to ,,his ,,lordship1 ,,for ,,which ,,he ,,can ,,make ,,no ,,return ,,save ,,this ,,public ,,acknowledgment ,,of ,,his ,,indebtedness4 ,,preface4 ,some papers on the ,chemistry of ,food1 read before the ,royal ,agricultural ,society of ,ireland and the ,athy ,farmers' ,club1 and a few articles on the ,management of ,live ,stock1 published in the ,weekly ,agricultural ,review1 constitute the basis of this ,work4 ,it describes the nature of the food used by the domesticated animals1 explains the composition of the animal tissues1 and treats generally upon the important subject of nutrition4 ,the most recent analyses of all the kinds of food usually consumed by the animals of the farm are fully stated2 and the nutritive values of those substances are in most instances given4 ,some information is afforded relative to the breeds and breeding of live stock2 and a division of the ,work is wholly devoted to the consideration of the economic production of meat1 milk1 and butter4 ,within the last twenty years the processes of chemical analysis have been so much improved1 that the composition of organic bodies is now determined with great accuracy4 ,the analyses of foods made from twenty to fifty years ago1 possess now but little value4 ,in this ,work the analyses of vegetables quoted are chiefly those recently performed by the distinguished ,scotch chemist1 ,dr4 ,thomas ,anderson1 and by ,dr4 ,voelcker4 ,the ,author believes that in no other ,work of moderate size are there so many analyses of food substances given1 and ventures to hope that the success of this ,work may fully justify the belief that a handy book containing such information as that above mentioned1 is much required by stock feeders4 #ajb1 ,lower ,baggot ,street1 ,dublin1 ,april1 #ahfh4 ,,table ,,of ,,contents ,,page ,,introduction3 ,history of ,agriculture--,agricultural ,statistics--,imports of ,live ,stock #a ,,part ,i4 ,,on ,,the ,,growth ,,and ,,composition ,,of ,,animals4 ,,section ,i4 ,,animal ,,and ,,vegetable ,,life4 ,functions of ,plants4 ,animal ,life4--,,section ,,ii4 ,,composition ,,of ,,organic ,,substances4 ,elements of ,organic ,bodies4 ,proximate ,composition of ,organic ,substances4--,,section ,,iii4 ,,use ,,of ,,fat ,,in ,,the ,,animal ,,economy4 ,fatty ,food necessary in ,cold ,climates4 ,fat ,equivalents4--,,section ,,iv4 ,,relation ,,between ,,the ,,composition ,,of ,,an ,,animal ,,and ,,that ,,of ,,its ,,food4 ,tables of ,experimental ,results4--,,section ,v4 ,,relation ,,between ,,the ,,quantity ,,of ,,food ,,consumed ,,by ,,an ,,animal ,,and ,,the ,,increase ,,of ,,its ,,weight1 ,,or ,,of ,,the ,,amount ,,of ,,its ,,work4 ,weights of ,foods necessary to sustain a ,man's ,life for twenty-four hours4 ,value of ,manure4 #h ,,part ,,ii4 ,,on ,,the ,,breeding ,,and ,,breeds ,,of ,,stock4 ,,section ,i4 ,,the ,,breeding ,,of ,,stock4--,,section ,,ii4 ,,the ,,breeds ,,of ,,stock4 ,the ,form of ,animals4 ,breeds of the ,ox4 ,shorthorns4 ,devons4 ,herefords4 ,ayrshires4 ,polled ,cattle4 ,kyloes4 ,long-horned4 ,kerrys4 ,alderneys4 ,sheep4 ,the ,leicester4 ,lincoln4 ,cotswold4 ,cheviot4 ,southdown4 ,shropshire4 ,blackfaced4 ,breeds of the ,pig4 ,berkshire4 ,yorkshire4 ,breeds of the ,horse4 ,clydesdales4 ,suffolk ,punch4 ,hunters and ,racers4 #dg ,,part ,,iii4 ,,on ,,the ,,management ,,of ,,live ,,stock4 ,,section ,i4 ,,the ,,ox4 ,breeding ,cows4 ,wintering of ,young ,stock4 ,shelter of ,stock4 ,milch ,cows4 ,stall ,feeding4 ,cost of ,maintaining ,animals4 ,cooking and ,bruising ,food4 ,value for ,feeding ,purposes of various ,foods4 ,bedding ,cattle4--,,section ,,ii4 ,,the ,,sheep4 ,breeding ,ewes4 ,yeaning4 ,rearing of ,lambs4 ,sheep ,feeding4 ,sheep ,dips4--,,section ,,iii4 ,,the ,,pig4 ,young ,pigs4 ,store ,pigs4 ,fattening ,pigs4--,,section ,,iv4 ,,the ,,horse4 ,foals4 ,dietaries for the ,horse4 #gd ,,part ,,iv4 ,,meat1 ,,milk1 ,,and ,,butter4 ,,section ,i4 ,,meat4 ,quality of ,meat4 ,is very ,fat ,meat ,unwholesome8 ,diseased ,meat4--,,section ,,ii4 ,,milk4 ,composition of ,milk of ,different ,animals4 ,yield of ,milk4 ,preserved ,milk4--,,section ,,iii4 ,,butter4 ,history of ,butter4 ,irish ,butter4 ,composition of ,butter4 ,the ,butter ,manufacture4 #aab ,,part ,v4 ,,on ,,the ,,composition ,,and ,,value ,,of ,,vegetable ,,foods4 ,,section ,i4 ,,the ,,money ,,value ,,of ,,food ,,substances4--,,section ,,ii4 ,,proximate ,,constituents ,,of ,,vegetables4 ,starch4 ,sugar4 ,inulin4 ,gum4 ,pectin4 ,cellulose4 ,oils and ,fats4 ,stearin4 ,margarin4 ,olein4 ,palmitin4 ,albumen4 ,fibrin4 ,legumin4--,,section ,,iii4 ,,green ,,food4 ,the ,grasses4 ,schroeder ,brome4 ,tussac ,grass4 ,the ,clovers4 ,leguminous ,plants--,vetch1 ,sainfoin1 c4 ,the ,yellow ,lupine4 ,rib ,grass ,plantain4 ,ergot in ,grasses4 ,holcus ,saccharatus4 ,green ,rye4 ,buckwheat4 ,rape4 ,mustard4 ,comfrey4 ,chicory4 ,yarrow4 ,melons and ,marrows4 ,cabbage4 ,furze4--,,section ,,iv4 ,,straw ,,and ,,hay4 ,straw4 ,anderson's1 ,voelcker's1 and ,cameron's ,analyses of ,straws4 ,feeding ,experiments with ,straw4 ,relative ,values of ,straw and ,oil-cake4 ,hay4 ,composition of the ,hay of different ,grasses4 ,over-ripening of ,hay4 ,damaged ,hay and ,straw4--,,section ,v4 ,,roots ,,and ,,tubers4 ,turnips4 ,swedish4 ,white ,globe4 ,aberdeen ,yellow4 ,purple-top4 ,norfolk ,bell4 ,greystone4 ,turnip ,tops4 ,analyses of ,turnips4 ,mangel ,wurtzel4 ,chemistry of the ,mangel4 ,stripping ,leaves off the ,mangel4 ,beet-root4 ,parsnip4 ,carrot4 ,kohl-rabi4 ,analyses of ,kohl-rabi4 ,radish4 ,the ,radish as a ,field ,crop4 ,composition of ,radish4 ,jerusalem ,artichoke3 ,advantages of ,cultivating it4 ,analysis of ,jerusalem ,artichoke4 ,potato3 ,analyses of six varieties4 ,feeding ,value of ,potatoes4--,,section ,,vi4 ,,seeds4 ,wheat4 ,analyses of ,wheat1 ,flour1 ,bran1 and ,husks4 ,over-ripening of ,grain4 ,wheat a ,costly ,food4 ,analyses of ,barley1 ,oat ,grain1 ,indian ,corn1 ,rye1 ,rice1 ,rice-dust1 and ,buckwheat4 ,malted ,corn4 ,voelcker's ,analyses of ,malt and ,barley4 ,experiments of ,thompson1 ,lawes1 c41 with ,malt4 ,malt ,combings4 ,leguminous ,seeds4 ,beans4 ,composition of ,common ,beans1 ,foreign ,beans1 ,peas4 ,lentils and ,winter ,tares4 ,oil ,seeds4 ,rape ,seeds4 ,experiments with ,rapeseed4 ,flax ,bolls4 ,composition of ,linseed1 ,rape-seed1 ,hemp-seed1 and ,cotton-seed4 ,fenugreek ,seed4--,,section ,,vii4 ,,oil-,,cakes ,,and ,,other ,,artificial ,,foods4 ,composition of ,linseed1 ,rape-seed1 ,cotton-seed1 and ,poppy-seed ,cake4 ,linseed-cake4 ,adulteration of ,linseed-cake4 ,rape-cake4 ,feeding ,experiments with ,rape-cake4 ,adulterations of ,rape-cake4 ,cotton-seed ,cake4 ,analyses of ,decorticated ,cotton-seed ,cake4 ,palm-nut ,meal3 its ,composition and ,nutritive ,properties4 ,locust1 or ,carob ,bean3 its ,composition4 ,dates4 ,brewers' ,dregs and ,distillery ,wash4 ,molasses and ,treacle4--,,section ,,viii4 ,,condimental ,,food4 ,lawes' ,experiments with ,thorley's ,food4 ,analyses of ,condimental ,food4 ,formula for a ,tonic ,food4--,,section ,,ix4 ,,tables ,,of ,,the ,,analyses ,,of ,,the ,,ashes ,,of ,,plants4 #adg ,,appendix4 ,,agricultural ,,statistics4 ,numbers of ,live ,stock in the ,united ,kingdom4 ,value of the ,agriculture ,products of ,great ,britain4 #bed ,,the ,,chemistry ,,of ,,food4 ,,introduction4 ,when ,virgil composed his immortal ,bucolics1 and ,varro indited his profound ,essays on ,agriculture1 the inhabitants of the ,british ,islands were almost completely ignorant of the art of cultivating the soil4 ,the rude spoils torn from the carcasses of savage animals protected the bodies of their hardly less savage victors2 and the produce of the chase served almost exclusively to nourish the hardy frames of the ancient ,celtic hunters4 ,in early ages wild beasts abounded in the numerous and extensive forests of ,britain and ,ireland2 but men were few1 for the conditions under which the maintenance of a dense population is possible did not then exist4 ,as civilisation progressed1 men rapidly multiplied1 and the demand for food increased4 ,the pursuit of game became merely the pastime of the rich2 and tame sheep and oxen furnished meat to the lowly as well as to the great4 ,nor were the fruits of the earth neglected2 for during the latter days of the dominion of the ,romans1 ,england raised large quantities of corn4 ,gradually the food of the people1 which at first was almost purely animal1 became chiefly vegetable4 ,the shepherds1 who had supplanted the hunters1 became less numerous than the tillers of land2 and the era of tillage husbandry began4 ,at present the great mass of the rural population of these countries subsist almost exclusively upon vegetable aliment--a diet which poverty1 and not inclination1 prescribes for them4 ,were the flesh of animals the staple food of the ,british peasantry1 their numbers would not be nearly so large as they now are1 for a given area of land is capable of sustaining a far larger number of vegetarians than of meat eaters4 ,the ,chinese are by no means averse to animal food1 but they are so numerous1 that they are in general obliged to content themselves on a purely vegetable diet4 ,in the manufacturing districts of ,great ,britain1 there are several millions of people whose condition in relation to food is somewhat different from that of the small farmer and agricultural laborer4 ,the artizans employed in our great industries are comparatively well paid for their toil2 and the results of their labor place within their reach a fair share of animal food4 ,this section of the population is rapidly increasing1 and consequently is daily augmenting the demand for meat4 ,the rural population is certainly not increasing2 rather the reverse4 ,less manual labor is now expended in the operations of agriculture1 and even horses are retiring before the advance of the steam plough4 ,the only great purely vegetable-feeding class is diminishing1 and the upper1 the middle1 and the artizan classes--the beef and mutton eating sections of society--are rapidly increasing4 ,it is clear1 then1 that we are threatened with a revival of the pastoral age1 and that in one way1 at least1 we are returning to the condition of our ancestors1 whose staple food consisted of beef1 mutton1 and pork4 ,and here two questions arise4 ,how long shall we be able to supply the increasing demand for meat8 ,how long shall we be able to compete with the foreign feeders8 ,these are momentous queries for the ,british farmer1 and ,i trust they may be solved in a satisfactory manner4 ,at any time during the present century the foreign or colonial grower of wheat could have undersold the ,british producer of that article1 were the latter not protected by a tariff2 but cattle could not1 as a general rule1 be imported into ,great ,britain at a cheaper rate than they could be produced at home4 ,were there no corn imported1 it is certain that the price of bread would be greater than it is now1 even if the grain harvests had been better than they have been for some years past4 ,a bad cereal harvest in ,england raises the price of flour1 but only to a small and strictly limited extent1 because1 practically1 there is no limit to the amount of bread-stuffs procurable from abroad4 ,when1 on the contrary1 the turnip crop fails1 or that excessive drought greatly curtails the yield of grass1 the price of meat and butter increases greatly1 and is but slightly modified by the importation of foreign stock4 ,hitherto the difficulty of transit has been so great that we have only derived supplies of live stock from countries situated at a short distance1 such as ,holstein and ,holland4 ,vast herds of cattle are fed with but little expense in ,america1 and myriads of sheep are maintained cheaply in ,australia2 but the immense distances which intervene between our country and those remote and sparsely populated regions have1 hitherto1 prevented the superabundant supply of animal food produced therein from being available to the teeming population of the ,british ,isles4 ,should1 however1 any cheap mode of conveying live stock1 or even their flesh1 from those and similarly circumstanced countries be devised1 it might render the production of meat in ,britain a far less profitable occupation than it is now4 ,that we are increasing the area from whence we draw our supplies of live stock is evident from the fact1 that within the last two years enormous numbers of horned stock have been imported from ,spain4 ,in that extensive country there are noble breeds of the ox2 and it would appear that very large numbers of animals could be annually exported1 without depriving the inhabitants of a due supply of bovine meat4 ,as ,spain is not very distant1 it is likely that this traffic will be increased1 and that in a short time we shall be as well supplied with ,spanish beef as we are now provided with ,french flour4 ,meat is at present dear1 and is likely to continue so for some time2 but still it is evident that1 sooner or later1 the ,british feeders will come into keen competition with the foreign producer of meat1 and that the price of their commodity will consequently fall4 ,the mere probability of such a state of things1 were there no other reason1 should induce the feeder to devote increased attention to the improvement of his stock1 and to discover more economical methods of feeding them4 ,there is still much to be learned relative to the precise nutritive values of the various feeding stuffs4 ,the proper modes of cooking1 or otherwise preparing1 food1 are still to be satisfactorily determined2 and there are many very important questions in relation to the breeding of stock yet unanswered4 ,it is but fair to admit that the farmer is earnestly endeavouring to improve his art1 and that he is willing1 nay anxious1 to obtain the co-operation of scientific men1 in order to increase his knowledge of the theory as well as the practice of his ancient calling4 ,indeed1 he not only admits the utility of science in agriculture1 but often places an undue degree of value upon the theories of the chemist1 of the botanist1 and of the geologist4 ,this is encouraging to the men of science2 but1 on the other hand1 they must admit that by far the greater portion of the sum of human knowledge has been derived from the experience and observation of men utterly unacquainted with science1 in the ordinary signification of that term4 ,this portion of our knowledge is also1 in its practical application1 the most valuable4 ,in the most important branch of industry--agriculture--the labors of the purely scientific man have as yet borne but scant fruit2 whilst the unaided efforts of the husbandman have reclaimed from sterility extensive tracts1 and caused them to blossom as the rose4 ,that practical men should have done so much1 and scientific men so little1 for agriculture1 may easily be explained4 ,countless millions of men1 during many thousands of years1 have incessantly been occupied in improving the processes of mechanical agriculture1 which1 as an art1 has consequently been brought to a high degree of perfection3 but scientific agriculture is a creation of almost our own time1 and the number of its cultivators is1 and always has been1 very small2 all its theories cannot1 therefore1 justly claim that degree of confidence which1 as a rule1 is only reposed in the opinions founded on the experience of practical workers in the field and in the feeding-house4 ,still1 the farmer has derived a great amount of useful information from the chemist and physiologist2 and they alone can explain to him the causes of the various phenomena which the different branches of his art present4 ,there was a time when it was the fashion of the man of science to look down with contempt1 from the lofty pedestal on which he placed himself1 upon the lessons of practical experience read to him by the cultivator of the soil2 whilst at the same time the farmer treated as foolish visionaries those who applied the teachings of science to the improvement of their art4 ,but this time has happily passed away4 ,the scientific man no longer despises the knowledge of the mere farmers1 but turns to good account the information derivable from their experience2 whilst the farmer1 on the other side1 has ceased to speak in contemptuous terms of mere book learning4 ,it is to this happy combination of the theorist with the practical man that the recent remarkable advance in agriculture is chiefly due2 and to it we may confidently look for improvement in the economic production of meat and butter1 and for the enlargement of our knowledge of the relative value of food substances4 ,,statement ,,of ,,the ,,number ,,of ,,live ,,stock ,,in ,,great ,,britain ,,and ,,ireland4 ---------------------------------------- ----- ,enumerated1 #ahff4 ---------------------------------- ,cattle4 ,sheep4 ,pigs4 --------------------------------- ,england #c1cjg1jcd #ae1abd1eda #b1jff1bii ,wales #eda1dja #a1ffh1ffc #aia1fjd ,islands #ag1gjj #eg1fhe #bb1hhg ,scotland #icg1daa #e1bee1jgg #bai1gaf ,ireland #c1dic1dad #c1fhh1gdb #a1bii1hic ---------------------------------- ,total #h1caf1ifj #be1gid1gjh #c1hjj1cii ---------------------------------------- --- ---------------------------------------- ----- ,estimated1 #ahfe4 ---------------------------------- ,cattle4 ,sheep4 ,pigs4 ---------------------------------- ,england #c1dbb1afe #ah1fia1jhh #b1cfc1gbd ,wales ---- ---- ---- ,islands ---- ---- ---- ,scotland #igd1dcg #e1fhc1afh #adf1ced ,ireland #c1dic1dad #c1fhh1gdb #a1bii1hic ---------------------------------- ,total #g1hij1jaf #bh1jfb1iih #c1hji1iga ---------------------------------------- --- ,,statement ,,of ,,the ,,population ,,and ,,number ,,of ,,live ,,stock ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,kingdom ,,and ,,various ,,foreign ,,countries1 ,,according ,,to ,,the ,,latest ,,returns4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------- - ,date of,population ,cattle4 ,countries4 ,returnsaccording ---------------------------- ,sheep4 ,pigs4 of ,liveto ,latest ,cows4 ,other ,total4 ,stock4 ,returns4 ,cattle4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------------- ,united ,kingdom#ahfe-ffbi1jgj1icbc1bhf1cjhe1jcj 1feb #h1caf1ifjbe1gie1gjh #c1hjb1cii ,russia #ahei-fcgd1aci1cid 444 444 #be1ddd1jjjde1acj1hjjaj1jig1jjj ,denmark ,proper #ahfa #a1ffb1gcd #gef1hcd #cfa1idj #a1aah1ggd #a1gea1iej #cjj1ibh ,sleswig #ahfa #dba1dhf #bag1gea #agb1bej #cij1jja #cfb1bai #hg1hfg ,holstein #ahfa #efa1hca #aih1caj #ib1jfb #bij1cgb #afe1cdd #hb1cih ,sweden #ahfj #c1hei1gbha1aab1idd #hjc1gad #a1iaf1feh #a1fdd1aef #deg1iha ,prussia #ahfb #ah1dia1bbjc1chb1gjcb1bea1gig #e1fcd1ejjag1dbh1jag #b1gji1gji ,hanover #ahfa #a1hhj1jgj 444 444 #idi1agi #b1baa1ibg #eed1jef ,saxony #ahfa #b1bbe1bdj #daa1efc #bbf1hig #fch1dfj #cga1ihf #bgj1dfb ,wurtemburg #ahfa #a1gbj1gjh #dff1geh #dij1dad #ieg1agb #fhc1hdb #baf1ife ,grand ,duchy of ,baden #ahfa #a1dbi1aii #cdh1dah #bgc1jfh #fba1dhf #agg1cbb #cjg1aih ,hesse #ahfc #hec1cae #ahg1ddb #abi1baa #caf1fec #bca1ghg #aie1eif ,nassau #ahfd #dfh1caa #aaf1dba #hd1bbd #bjj1fde #aeb1ehd #fe1igi ,mecklenb4 ,schwerin #aheg #eci1beh #aig1fbb #fi1bae #bff1hcg #a1aih1dej #aeg1ebb ,oldenburg #aheb #bgi1fcg 444 444 #bai1hdc #bie1cbb #hg1ccf ,holland #ahfd #c1fah1dei #idc1bad #cij1fgc #a1ccc1hhg #icj1acf #bid1fcf ,belgium #ahef #d1ebi1dfa 444 444 #a1beg1fdi #ehc1dhe #deh1dah ,france #ahfb #cg1chf1cace1gha1dfeh1dae1hiead1aig1cfjc c1bha1eib #e1bdf1djc ,spain #ahfe #ae1feh1eca 444 444 #b1ijd1eihbb1jed1ifg #d1bfd1hag ,austria #ahfc #cf1bfg1fdhf1cec1jhfg1ijd1jcjad1beg1aafa f1ifd1bcf #h1aea1fjh ,bavaria #ahfc #d1hjg1ddja1ecj1fbfa1fee1cef #c1ahe1hhb #b1jeh1fch #ibf1ebb ,united ,states #ahfj #ca1dde1jhjh1gbh1hfbh1ahb1hacaf1iaa1dgeb c1cag1gefcb1eee1bfg ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------------- ,,numbers ,,of ,,the ,,live ,,stock ,,imported ,,into ,,great ,,britain ,,during ,,the ,,eleven ,,months ,,ended #cast ,,november1 #ahfg4 ,bullocks1 bulls1 and cows #aej1eah ,calves #bj1gbj ,sheep and lambs #ejd1ead ,pigs #de1eff -------- #gba1cah ,,amount ,,of ,,animal ,,food ,,imported ,,during ,,same ,,period4 ,bacon and hams cwts4 #deb1acb ,salt beef #afc1fch ,salt pork #abc1beg ,butter #a1jjj1jie ,lard #bac1eii ,cheese #gih1bfg ,eggs #cgc1jdb1jjj ,i am indebted to ,professor ,ferguson1 ,chief of the ,veterinary ,department of the ,irish ,privy ,council ,office1 for the following statement3-- ,,return ,,of ,,horned ,,cattle ,,exported ,,from ,,the ,,several ,,irish ,,ports ,,at ,,which ,,veterinary ,,inspectors ,,have ,,been ,,appointed1 ,,and ,,certified ,,as ,,free ,,from ,,disease1 ,,from ,,the #ahth ,,of ,,november1 #ahff1 ,,to ,,the #afth ,,of ,,november1 #ahfg 7#eb ,,weeks74 ,fat ,stock #ahg1dhc ,store ,stock #cag1cca ,breeding and ,dairy ,stock #cf1eii -------- ,total #eda1dac ,,part ,i4 ,,on ,,the ,,growth ,,and ,,composition ,,of ,,animals4 ,,section ,i4 ,,animal ,,and ,,vegetable ,,life4 ,functions of ,plants4--,it is the primary function of plants to convert the inorganic matter of the soil and air into organised structures of a highly complex nature4 ,the food of plants is purely mineral1 and consists chiefly of water1 carbonic acid1 and ammonia4 ,water is composed of the elements oxygen and hydrogen2 carbonic acid is a compound of oxygen and carbon2 and ammonia is formed of hydrogen and nitrogen4 ,these four substances are termed the organic elements1 because they form by far the larger portion--sometimes the whole--of organic bodies4 ,the combustible portion of plants and animals is composed of the organic elements2 the incombustible part is made up of potassium1 sodium1 and the various other elements enumerated in another page4 ,the organic elements are furnished chiefly by the atmosphere1 and the incombustible matters are supplied by the soil4 ,water in the state of vapor forms1 according to the temperature and other conditions of the atmosphere1 from a half per cent4 to four and a half per cent4 of the weight of that fluid--about #a4be per cent4 being the average2 carbonic acid exists in it to the extent of #a_/bjjjth2 and ammonia forms a minute portion of it--according to ,dr4 ,angus ,smith1 one grain weight in #dab4db cubic feet of air 7of a town71 or #j4jjjdec per cent4 ,it is remarkable that the most abundant constituents of atmospheric air--oxygen and nitrogen--are not assimilable by plants1 although these elements enter largely into the composition of vegetable substances4 ,in the soil1 also1 the part which ministers to the wants of vegetables is relatively quite insignificant in amount4 ,plants are unendowed with organs of locomotion1 their food must therefore be within easy reach4 ,every breeze wafts gaseous nutriment to their expanded leaves1 and their rootlets ramify throughout the soil in search of appropriate mineral aliment4 ,but no matter how abundant1 or however easy of reach may be the food of plants1 the vegetable organism is incapable of partaking of it unless under the influence of light4 ,exposed to this potent stimulus1 the plant collects the gaseous carbonic acid and the vaporous water1 solidifies them1 decomposes them1 and combines their elements into new and organised forms4 ,in effecting these changes--in conferring vitality upon the atoms of lifeless matter--the plant acts merely as the mechanism1 the light is the force4 ,as the work performed by the steam-engine is proportionate to the amount of force developed by the combustion of the fuel beneath its boiler1 so is the rapidity of the elaboration of organic substances by plants proportionate to the amount of sunlight to which they are exposed4 ,it is an axiom that matter is indestructible2 we may alter its form as often as we please1 but we cannot destroy a particle of it4 ,it is the same with force3 we may convert one kind of it into another--heat into light1 or magnetism into electricity--but our power ends there2 we can only cause force1 or motion1 to pass from one of its conditions to another1 but its quantity can never be diminished by the power of man4 ,the principle of the ,conservation of the ,forces gives us a clear explanation of the fact that animals can obtain their food only through the medium of the vegetable kingdom4 ,plants are stationary mechanisms2 they have no need to develop motive power1 as animals have1 in moving themselves from place to place4 ,their temperature is1 we may say1 the same as that of the medium in which they exist4 ,such beings as plants do not1 therefore1 require the expenditure of force to maintain their vitality2 on the contrary1 their mechanisms are1 for a beneficent purpose1 constructed for the accumulation of force4 ,the growing plant absorbs1 together with carbonic acid1 water1 and ammonia1 a proportionate amount of light1 heat1 and the various other subtile forces which have their abiding place in the sun-beam-- ,that golden chain1 ,whose strong embrace holds heaven and earth and main4 ,co-incidentally with the conversion of the mineral constituents of the food of plants into organised structures--albumen1 fibre1 and such like substances--the light1 and the heat1 and the various other forces likewise suffer a change4 ,although the precise nature of the new force into which they are converted is still a mystery--one1 too1 which may never be revealed to us--still we know sufficient of it to satisfy us that it can only exist in connection with organic or organised structures4 ,it is owing to its presence that the elements of these structures 7the natural state of which is mineral7 are bound together in what may be aptly designated a constrained state2 or1 as ,liebig aptly expresses it1 like the matter in a bent spring4 ,so long as the organic structure retains its form1 it will be a reservoir of latent force--which will manifest itself in some form during the recoil of the atoms of the matter forming the structure to their original mineral1 or statical condition3 so the bent spring1 when the pressure is removed1 returns to its original straight form4 ,animal ,life4--,the chief manifestation of the life of a plant is the accumulation of force2 very different are the functions of animal life4 ,it is only by the continuous expenditure of force that the vitality of animals is preserved2 the heat of a man's body1 his power of locomotion1 the performance of his daily toil1 even his very faculty of thought1 are all dependent upon1 and to a great extent proportionate to1 the amount of organised matter disorganised in his body4 ,it is by the conversion of this organised matter into its original mineral state of water1 carbonic acid1 and ammonia1 that the force originally expended in arranging1 through the agency of plants1 its atoms1 is again restored1 chiefly in the form of heat and animal motive power4 ,animals1 as a class1 are completely dependent upon vegetables for their existence4 ,there is every reason to believe that the most lowly organised beings in the scale of animal life1 even those of so simple a structure as to have been long regarded as vegetables or as plant-animals1 are incapable of organising mineral matter4 ,the so-called vegetative life of animals--for ,i believe the term to be exceedingly inexact--is applied to their growth1 that is1 to the increase in their weight4 ,this increase takes place by their power of reorganising1 or of assimilating to the nature of their own organisms1 certain of the substances elaborated by plants1 and destined to become food for animals4 ,,section ,,ii4 ,,composition ,,of ,,organic ,,substances4 ,elements of ,organic ,bodies4--,the number of distinct kinds of substances--each distinguishable from all the others by the peculiarity of its properties1 taken as a whole--is exceedingly great1 yet all these substances are resolvable into a very small number of bodies4 ,as an illustration1 ,i shall take a well-known substance1 common green copperas1 or1 as the chemists term it1 protosulphate of iron4 ,by submitting this compound to the process termed chemical analysis1 two other kinds of matter may be obtained from it1 namely1 oxide of iron and oil of vitrol1 or sulphuric acid4 ,if we continued this process--if we submitted the acid and the oxide to analysis--we could separate the former into sulphur and oxygen1 and the latter into iron and oxygen4 ,now1 by these means we could demonstrate the compound nature of copperas2 we could prove that it was proximately composed of sulphuric acid and oxide of iron2 and1 ultimately1 of iron1 sulphur1 and oxygen4 ,iron1 sulphur1 and oxygen1 are elementary1 or simple bodies4 ,they cannot be decomposed2 they cannot be analysed4 ,torture them as we will in our crucibles2 expose them as we please to the highest temperature of a wind furnace1 or to the more intense heat evolved by a powerful galvanic battery2 subject them to the influence of any agent1 or force1 or process we may choose1 and still they will yield nothing but iron1 sulphur1 and oxygen3 hence these undecomposable bodies are regarded as elements1 or simple substances4 ,so far as our knowledge extends1 there are about sixty-six of these undecomposable bodies1 of which about one half occurs in but exceedingly minute quantities1 and a considerable number of the others exists in comparatively small amounts4 ,as by far the greater proportion of compounds is made up of two or more of about a dozen elementary bodies1 it would at first sight appear as if the distinct kinds of compounds which exist1 or which may be called into existence by the chemist1 must be limited to1 at most1 a realisable number2 but the fact is there is no practical limit to the variety of substances which may be artificially formed4 ,every difference in the mode of the arrangement of the constituent atoms of a compound1 causes its metamorphosis into another kind of substance4 ,to prove that the number of these changes is bounded by no narrow limits1 ,i need but refer to the rules of ,permutation1 which demonstrate that twelve letters of the alphabet may be arranged in no fewer than #dgi1jjj1jjj different ways4#a ,the elements are the letters of ,nature's alphabet1 their compounds are the words of the language of ,creation4 ,the combinations of sounds and of signs which express the ideas and sensations of man may be limited to millions2 but numberless are the hieroglyphs by which the ,divine wisdom and beneficence is inscribed on the pages of the magnificent volume of ,nature4 ,of the sixty-six elementary bodies1 not more than a dozen occur commonly in animal and vegetable substances2 these are ,oxygen1 ,hydrogen1 ,nitrogen1 ,carbon1 ,sulphur1 ,phosphorus1 ,chlorine1 ,silicium1 ,potassium1 ,sodium1 ,calcium1 ,magnesium1 and ,iron4 ,in addition to these1 ,iodine1 and sometimes ,bromine1 are found in plants which grow in or near the sea2 and the former element has also been detected in some of the lower animals1 and in land plants4 ,manganese1 ,lithium1 ,caesium1 ,rubidium1 and a few others of the simple bodies1 occasionally occur in plants and animals1 but ,i believe their presence therein is always accidental4 ,proximate ,composition of ,animal ,substances4--,the differences between vegetable and animal substances are often more apparent than real4 ,indeed many of the more important of these substances are almost identical in composition4 ,the albumen which coagulates when the juices of vegetables are boiled1 is identical with the albumen of the white of eggs2 the fibrine of wheat is in no respect chemically different from the fibrine1 or clot1 of the blood2 and1 lastly1 the legumine1 or vegetable caseine1 of peas is almost indistinguishable from the curd of milk1 or animal caseine4 ,but not only has chemical research demonstrated the identity of the albumen1 fibrine1 and caseine of vegetables with three of the more important constituents of animals1 it has gone a step further1 and proved that they differ from each other in but a few unimportant respects4 ,they are unquestionably convertible into each other#b within the animal organism2 and their functions1 as elements of nutrition1 are almost1 if not quite1 identical4 ,exclusive of the blood1 which contains the elements of every part of the body1 the animal organism is composed of three distinct classes of substances--namely1 nitrogenous1 non-nitrogenous1 and mineral4 ,all of these constituents1 or substances capable of being converted into them1 must exist in the food4 ,certain articles1 for example1 milk1 contains all of them2 but in others1 for instance1 butter1 only one of these substances is found4 ,the nitrogenous part of the body embraces the muscles1 or lean flesh1 the gelatine of the bones1 and the skin and its appendages--such as hair and horns2 the non-nitrogenous constituents are its fat and oil2 and its mineral matter is found chiefly in the bony framework4 ,these constituents are not1 however1 isolated3 the mineral matter1 no doubt1 accumulates in certain parts1 but in small quantities it is found in every portion of the body2 and although the fat forms a distinct tissue1 the muscles of the leanest animal are never free from a sensible proportion of it4 ,albumen1 fibrine1 and caseine are the principal nitrogenous constituents of food1 and as they are employed in the reparation of the nitrogenous tissues of the animal body1 they have been termed flesh-formers4 ,the fat and oil of animals are derived either from vegetable oil and fat1 or from some such substance as starch or sugar4 ,the constituents of food which form fat are termed fat-formers1 and sometimes heat-givers or respiratory elements1 from the notion that their slow combustion in the animal body is the chief cause of its high temperature4 ,the mineral elements of the body are furnished principally by the varieties of food which contain nitrogen4 ,the whey of milk is rich in them2 but they do not exist in pure butter1 in starch1 or in sugar4 ,fat is a much more abundant constituent of the animal body than is generally supposed1 ,that this substance should constitute the greater portion of the weight of an obese pig seems probable enough2 but few are aware that even in a lean sheep there is #ej per cent4 more fat than lean4 ,for a very accurate knowledge of the relative proportions of the fatty1 nitrogenous1 and mineral constituents of the carcasses of animals used as human food1 we are indebted to ,messrs4 ,lawes and ,gilbert4 ,before these investigators turned their attention to this subject1 it had scarcely attracted the notice of scientific men2 but a notion appears to have been current1 amongst non-scientific people1 at least1 that in all1 save the fattest animals1 the lean flesh greatly preponderated over the fat4 ,that this idea was unsustained by a foundation of fact1 has been clearly proved by the results of an investigation#c undertaken a few years ago by ,messrs4 ,lawes and ,gilbert--an investigation which ,i cannot avoid characterising as one of the most laborious and apparently trustworthy on record4 ,the mere statement of the results of this inquiry occupies #ahg pages of one of the huge volumes of the ,transactions of the ,royal ,society--a fact which best indicates the immensity of the labour which these gentlemen imposed upon themselves1 and which1 independently of their other and numerous contributions to scientific agriculture1 entitles their names to most honourable mention in the annals of science4 ,i shall now briefly advert to a few of the more important facts established by ,lawes and ,gilbert4 ,from a large number of oxen1 sheep1 and pigs1 on which feeding experiments were being conducted1 ten individuals were selected4 ,these were1 a fat calf1 a half-fat ox1 a moderately fat ox1 a fat lamb1 a store sheep1 a half-fat old sheep1 a fat sheep1 a very fat sheep1 a store pig1 and a fat pig4 ,these animals were killed1 and the different organs and parts of their bodies were separately weighed and analysed4 ,the results were1 that1 with the exception of the calf1 all the animals contained1 respectively1 more fat than lean4 ,the fat ox and the fat lamb contained each three times as much fat as lean flesh1 and the proportion of the fatty matters to the nitrogenous constituents of the carcass of the very fat sheep was as #d to #a4 ,in the pig the fat greatly preponderated over the lean2 the store pig containing three times as much1 and the fat pig five times as much fat as lean4 ,that part of the animal which is consumed as food by man1 is termed the carcass by the butcher1 and contains by far the greater portion of the fat of the animal4 ,the offal1 in the language of the butcher1 constitutes those parts which are not commonly consumed as human food1 at least by the well-to-do classes4 ,in calves1 oxen1 lambs1 and sheep1 the offal embraces the skin1 the feet1 and the head1 and all the internal organs1 excepting the kidneys and their fatty envelope4 ,the offal of the pig is made up of all the internal organs1 excepting the kidneys and kidney fat4 ,it is the relative proportion of fat in the carcasses analysed by ,lawes and ,gilbert that ,i have stated2 but as the nitrogenous matters occur in greatest quantity in the offal1 it is necessary that the relative proportions of the constituents of the body1 taken as a whole1 should be considered4 ,on an average1 then1 it will be found that a fat fully-grown animal will contain #di per cent4 of water1 #cc per cent4 of dry fat1 #ac per cent4 of dry nitrogenous matter--muscles separated from fat1 hide1 c4--and #c per cent4 of mineral matter4 ,in a lean animal the average proportions of the various constituents will be #ed per cent4 of water1 #be-a_/b per cent4 dry fat1 #ag per cent4 of dry nitrogenous substances1 and #c-a_/b per cent4 of mineral matter4 ,in the following table these proportions are set forth4 ,,summary ,,of ,,the ,,composition ,,of ,,the ,,ten ,,animals--,,showing ,,the ,,per-,,centages ,,of ,,mineral ,,matter1 ,,dry ,,nitrogenous ,,compounds1 ,,fat1 ,,total ,,dry ,,substance1 ,,and ,,water4 #ast4 ,in ,fresh ,carcass4 #bnd4 ,in ,fresh ,offal 7equal ,sum of ,parts1 excluding ,contents of ,stomachs and ,intestines74 #crd4 ,in ,entire ,animal 7,fasted ,live-weight1 including therefore the weight of ,contents of ,stomachs and ,intestines74 ---------------------------------------- - ,,key3 ,a4--,mineral matter4 ,b4--,dry nitrogenous compounds4 ,c4--,fat4 ,d4--,dry substance4 ,e4--,water4 ,f4--,contents of viscera4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,per cent4 in ,carcass4 ,,description ------------------------------------- ,,of ,,animal4 ,a4 ,b4 ,c4 ,d4 ,e4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,fat calf #d4dh #af4f #af4f #cg4g #fb4c ,half-fat ox #e4ef #ag4h #bb4f #df4j #ed4j ,fat ox #d4ef #ae4j #cd4h #ed4d #de4f ,fat lamb #c4fc #aj4i #cf4i #ea4d #dh4f ,store sheep #d4cf #ad4e #bc4h #db4g #eg4c ,half-fat old sheep #d4ac #ad4i #ca4c #ej4c #di4g ,fat sheep #c4de #aa4e #de4d #fj4c #ci4g ,extra fat sheep #b4gg #i4a #ee4a #fg4j #cc4j ,store pig #b4eg #ad4j #bh4a #dd4g #ee4c ,fat pig #a4dj #aj4e #di4e #fa4d #ch4f ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,means of all #c4fi #ac4e #cd4d #ea4f #dh4d ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,means of #h of the half-fat1 fat1 and very fat animals #c4ge #ac4c #cf4e #ec4f #df4d ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,means of #f of the fat1 and very fat animals #c4ch #ab4c #ci4g #ee4d #dd4f ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,per cent4 in ,offal4 ,description ------------------------------------- of ,animal4 ,a4 ,b4 ,c4 ,d4 ,e4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,fat calf #c4da #ag4a #ad4f #ce4a #fd4i ,half-fat ox #d4je #bj4f #ae4g #dj4d #ei4f ,fat ox #c4dj #ag4e #bf4c #dg4b #eb4h ,fat lamb #b4de #ah4i #bj4a #da4e #eh4e ,store sheep #b4ai #ah4j #af4a #cf4c #fc4g ,half-fat old sheep #b4gb #ag4g #ah4e #ch4i #fa4a ,fat sheep #b4cb #af4a #bf4d #dd4h #ee4b ,extra fat sheep #c4fd #af4h #cd4e #ed4i #de4a ,store pig #c4jg #ad4j #ae4j #cb4a #fg4i ,fat pig #b4ig #ad4h #bb4h #dj4f #ei4d ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,means of all #c4jb #ag4b #ba4j #da4b #eh4h ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,means of #h of the half-fat1 fat1 and very fat animals #c4ab #ag4d #bb4d #db4i #eg4a ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,means of #f of the fat1 and very fat animals #c4jc #af4i #bd4a #dd4j #ef4j ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,per cent4 in ,entire ,animal4 ,description ------------------------------------ of ,animal4 ,a4 ,b4 ,c4 ,d4 ,f4 ,e4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,fat calf #c4hj #ae4b #ad4h #cc4h #c4ag #fc4h ,half-fat ox #d4ff #af4f #ai4a #dj4c #h4ai #ea4e ,fat ox #c4ib #ad4e #cj4a #dh4e #e4ih #de4e ,fat lamb #b4id #ab4c #bh4e #dc4g #h4ed #dg4h ,store sheep #c4af #ad4h #ah4g #cf4g #f4jj #eg4c ,half-fat old sheep #c4ag #ad4j #bc4e #dj4g #i4je #ej4b ,fat sheep #b4ha #ab4b #ce4f #ej4f #f4jb #dc4d ,extra fat sheep #b4ij #aj4i #de4h #ei4f #e4ah #ce4b ,store pig #b4fg #ac4g #bc4c #ci4g #e4bb #ee4a ,fat pig #a4fe #aj4i #db4b #ed4g #c4ig #da4c ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,means of all #c4ag #ac4e #bh4b #dd4i #f4ac #di4j ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,means of #h of the half-fat1 fat1 and very fat animals #c4bc #ac4c #bi4i #df4d #f4bf #dg4c ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,means of #f of the fat1 and very fat animals #c4jj #ab4g #cb4h #dh4e #e4dh #df4j ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,,section ,,iii4 ,,use ,,of ,,fat ,,in ,,the ,,animal ,,economy4 ,as fat forms so large a portion of the body1 it is evident that the part it plays in the animal economy must be a most important one4 ,the general opinion which prevails amongst scientific men as to its physiological functions was originated by the celebrated ,liebig4 ,according to his theory1 the food of animals includes two distinct kinds of substances--plastic#d and non-plastic4 ,the plastic materials are composed of carbon1 hydrogen1 oxygen1 nitrogen1 and a little sulphur and phosphorus4 ,albumen1 fibrine1 and casein are plastic elements of nutrition2 they form the lean flesh1 or muscles1 the membranes1 and cartilages1 the gelatine of the bones1 the skin1 the hair1 and1 in short1 every part of the body which contains nitrogen4 ,the non-plastic elements of nutrition include fat1 oil1 starch1 sugar1 gum1 and certain constituents of fruits1 such as pectine4 ,all non-plastic substances--and of each kind there are numerous varieties--are capable of conversion1 in the animal mechanism1 into fat and oil4 ,the non-plastic food substances do not contain nitrogen1 hence they are commonly termed non-nitrogenous elements4 ,the oily and fatty matters contain a large proportion of carbon1 their next most abundant component is hydrogen1 and they contain but little oxygen4 ,unlike the plastic elements1 they are--except the fats of the brain and nervous tissue--altogether destitute of sulphur and phosphorus4 ,the starchy1 saccharine1 and gummy substances are composed of the same elements as the fatty bodies1 but they contain a higher proportion of oxygen4 ,according to ,liebig1 fat is used in the animal economy as a source of internal heat4 ,we all know that it is a most combustible body1 and that during its inflammation the most intense heat is developed4 ,it is less evident1 but not less true1 that heat is evolved during its slow oxidation1 or decay4 ,the more rapidly a body burns1 the greater is the amount of heat evolved by it in a given time2 but the total amount of heat developed by a specific weight of the body is the same1 whether the combustion takes place rapidly or slowly4 ,an experiment performed with phosphorus illustrates the case perfectly4 ,if we burned two pieces of equal weight1 the one in oxygen1 the other in atmospheric air1 we should find that the former would emit a light five times as brilliant as that evolved by the latter1 for the simple reason that its combustion would be five times as rapid4 ,the white1 vapor-like matter into which phosphorus is converted by its combustion1 is termed phosphoric acid4 ,it is composed of phosphorus and oxygen4 ,in forming an ounce of this compound1 by the direct oxidation1 or combustion of phosphorus1 the amount of force1 either as heat1 or as heat and light1 evolved is precisely the same1 whether the time expended in the process be a minute or a month4#e ,if1 in the experiment ,i have described1 we were to substitute two pieces of fat for the fragments of phosphorus1 the results would be precisely similar4 ,the fat burned in oxygen gas would emit intense light and heat2 but the total amount of these forces evolved would be neither greater nor less than that developed during the slower and therefore less brilliant combustion of the fat in ordinary atmospheric air4 ,now1 as we can demonstrate that an ounce of fat will emit a certain amount of heat1 if burned within a minute of time1 and that neither a larger nor a smaller amount will be developed if the combustion of the fat extend over a period of five minutes1 ,i think we may fairly assume that the amount of heat evolved by the complete oxidation of a specific quantity of fat is constant under all conditions1 except1 as ,i have already explained1 at high temperatures1 when a portion of the heat is converted into light4 ,in the animal organism fat is burned4 ,the process of combustion no doubt is a very slow one1 but still the total amount of heat evolved is just the same as if the fat were consumed in a furnace4 ,when the fat constituting a candle is burned1 what becomes of it8 ,its elements1 carbon and hydrogen 7we may disregard its small amount of oxygen7 combine with the oxygen of the air1 and form carbonic acid gas and water4 ,what becomes of the fat consumed within the animal body8 ,it also is converted into carbonic acid gas and water4 ,it is not difficult to prove these statements to be facts4 ,a candle will not burn in atmospheric air which has been deprived of its oxygen1 because there is no substance present with which the elements of the taper can combine1 consequently the process of combustion cannot go on4 ,now1 a man may in one respect be compared with this taper4 ,he is partly made up of fat2 that fat is consumed by the oxygen of the air1 and the heat developed thereby keeps the body warm4 ,in the process of respiration oxygen is introduced into the lungs1 and from thence1 by means of the blood vessels1 is conveyed throughout every part of the body4 ,in some way1 at present not thoroughly understood1 the elements of the fat combine with the oxygen1 and are converted into carbonic acid gas and water1 which are exhaled from the lungs and from the surface of the body4 ,fat is a constituent of both animals and plants4 ,the animal derives a portion of its fat directly from the vegetable2 but it possesses the power of forming this substance from other organic bodies1 such1 for example1 as starch4 ,plants elaborate fat directly from the minerals--carbonic acid gas1 and water4 ,i have already explained that the growth of plants is1 caeteris paribus1 directly proportionate to the amount of sunlight to which they are exposed4 ,not less certainly is the force which constitutes the sun-beam expended in grouping mineral atoms into organic forms1 than is the heat which converts water into steam4 ,but in neither case is the force destroyed4 ,when the vaporous steam is condensed into the liquid water1 all the heat is restored1 and becomes palpable4 ,by the ultimate decomposition of vegetable substances all the force expended on their production is liberated1 and1 in some form1 becomes manifest4 ,when the fat formed in the mechanisms of plants is decomposed in the animal organism1 two results follow3--,the atoms of the fat are re-converted to their original mineral1 or statical conditions of carbonic acid gas and water2 and the force which maintained them in their organic state is set free as heat1 and its equivalent1 motive power4 ,one of the most useful instruments which the ingenuity of man has devised1 is the ,thermometer4 ,it is so familiarly known that ,i need not describe it4 ,this instrument does not enable us to estimate the actual quantity of heat contained in a substance1 but it indicates the proportion of that subtile element which is sensible--that is recognisable by the sense of touch4 ,the dusky ,hindu1 clad in his single cotton garment1 and the ,laplander in his suit of fur1 are placed under the most opposite conditions in relation to the heat of the sun--the ,indian is exposed during the whole year to ,sol's most ardent beams1 whilst but a scant share of its genial rays goes to warm the body of the ,laplander4 ,now1 if we placed the bulb of a thermometer beneath the tongue of a ,hindu1 we would find the mercury to stand at #ih degrees on ,fahrenheit's scale1 and if we repeated the experiment on a ,laplander1 we would obtain an identical result4 ,numerous experiments of this nature have been made on individuals in most parts of the world1 and the results have proved that the temperature of the blood of man is #ih degrees ,fahrenheit1 whether he be in ,india or at ,nova ,zembla1 on the steppes of ,russia1 or the elevated plateaus of ,america4 ,this invariability#f of the temperature of the bodies of men and of all other warm-blooded animals1 appears the more wonderful when it it is considered that the range of the temperature of the medium in which they exist exceeds #bjj degrees ,fahrenheit4 ,in ,india1 the mercury in the thermometer has been observed to stand at #ade degrees in the direct sunlight1 and at #abj degrees in the shade4 ,in high latitudes the temperature is sometimes so low as #ajj degrees below zero4 ,a ,russian army1 in an expedition to ,china1 in #ahci1 was exposed for several successive days to a temperature of #db degrees below zero1 and suffered severely in consequence4 ,the facts which ,i have cited clearly prove that the animal body possesses the power of generating1 or1 to speak more correctly1 liberating heat1 either from portions of its own mechanism or from substances placed within that mechanism4 ,at one time it was the general belief amongst physiologists that one portion of the food consumed by an animal was employed in repairing the waste of its body1 and the remaining part was burned as fuel1 evolving heat just in the same way as if it had been consumed in a furnace4 ,it was this theory that led to the classification of food into flesh-formers1 and heat-givers4 ,it is now doubted if any portion of the food be really burned in this way2 and ,i1 for one1 think it far more probable that1 before its conversion into carbonic acid gas and water 7whereby1 according to this theory1 it develops the heat which keeps the body warm71 it first becomes assimilated1 that is1 becomes an integral part of the animal body--blood1 fat1 muscle4 ,perhaps we would be nearer the truth if we were to assume that heat is evolved during the decomposition of both the nitrogenous and fatty constituents of the body4 ,the constantly recurring contractions of the muscles must alone be a source of much heat4 ,the development of animal motive power is said to be strictly proportionate to the amount of muscular tissue decomposed4 ,as the nitrogen of the latter is almost completely excreted under the form of urea1 the quantity of the latter daily eliminated from the body of an animal is a measure of the decomposed muscular tissue1 and consequently of the amount of muscular power generated in the animal organism4#g ,the correspondence between the amount of the motive power of an animal1 and the quantity of effete nitrogen excreted from the body1 is limited to laboring men and to the lower animals4 ,strange as it may appear1 it is an incontrovertible fact that men whose pursuits require the constant exercise of the intellectual faculties--lawyers1 writers1 statesmen1 students1 scientific men1 and other brain-workers--excrete more urea than do men engaged in the most physically laborious occupations4 ,an activity of thoughts and ideas involves a corresponding destruction of the tissues1 and these require1 for their reparation1 the consumption of food4 ,here1 then1 we have a physical meaning for the common expression--food for thought4 ,that the amount of heat developed in the animal organism1 is proportionate to the quantity of fatty matters 7or of substances capable of forming them7 supplied to it in the shape of food1 is a proposition which admits of easy demonstration4 ,the natives of warm regions do not require the generation of much heat within their bodies1 because the temperature of the medium in which they exist is generally as high as1 or higher than1 that of their blood4 ,but as they must consume food for the purpose of repairing the waste of their nitrogenous tissues1 and as every kind of food contains heat-producing elements1 an excess of heat is developed within their bodies1 which1 if allowed to accumulate1 would speedily produce fatal results4 ,the means by which nature removes this superabundant heat are admirably simple1 as indeed all its contrivances are4 ,the skin is permeated with millions of pores1 and through these openings a large quantity of vapor is given off1 and carries with it the surplus heat4 ,the pores are the orifices of minute convoluted tubes which lie beneath the skin1 and when straightened measure each about the tenth of an inch1 or1 according to a writer in the ,british and ,foreign ,medico-,chirurgical ,review 7#ahei1 page #cdi71 the one-fifteenth of an inch in length4 ,according to ,erasmus ,wilson1 the number of these tubes which open into every square inch of the surface of the body is #b1hjj4 ,the total number of square inches on the surface of an average sized man is #b1ejj1 consequently the surface of his body is drained by not less than twenty-eight miles of tubing1 furnished with #g1jjj1jjj openings4 ,the cooling of the body1 by the evaporation of water from it1 admits of explanation by well-known natural laws4 ,water1 in the state of vapor1 occupies a space #a1gjj fold greater than it does in its liquid condition4 ,it is heat which causes its vaporous form1 but it ceases to be heat when it has accomplished this change in the condition of the liquid2 for1 suffering itself an alteration1 it passes into another form of force--mechanical1 or motive power4 ,the heat generated within the body is absorbed by the liquid water1 the conversion of the latter into vapor follows1 and both the heat and the water1 in their altered forms1 escape through the pores4 ,fatty food necessary in cold climates4--,as a grave objection against the chemical theory of heat1 it has been urged that rice--the pabulum of hundreds of millions of the inhabitants of tropical regions--contains an exceedingly high proportion of heat-giving substances4 ,i have1 however1 great doubt as to rice ever forming the exclusive food of those people1 without their health being impaired in consequence of the deficiency in that substance of the plastic elements of nutrition4 ,indeed ,i believe it is a great mistake to assert that the natives of ,india live almost exclusively on rice4 ,this article1 no doubt1 forms a large proportion of their food1 but it is supplemented with pulse 7the produce of leguminous plants71 which is rich in flesh-forming materials1 also with dried fish1 butter1 and various kinds of vegetable and animal food rich in nitrogen4 ,the innutritious nature of rice is clearly shown by its chemical composition1 and so large a quantity of it must the ,hindu consume in order to repair the waste of his body1 that his stomach sometimes acquires prodigious dimensions2 hence the term pot-bellied1 so often applied to the ,indian ryot4 ,i doubt very much1 however1 if the stomach of the ,hindu1 large as it is1 could accommodate a quantity of rice1 the combustion of which would produce a very excessive development of heat4 ,this substance1 when cooked1 contains a high proportion of water1 the evaporation of which carries off a large amount of the heat generated by the combustion of its respiratory constituents4 ,the amount of motive power developed by the ,hindu is small as compared with that which the ,european is capable of exerting2 hence he has less necessity for a highly nitrogenous diet4 ,on the whole1 then1 ,i am disposed to think that the food of the natives of tropical climates contains sufficient nitrogenous matters to effectually build up and keep in repair their bodies2 it also appears clear to me that the amount of heat developed in their bodies is not excessive1 and that it is readily disposed of in converting the water1 which enters so largely into their diet1 into vapor4 ,the proportion of plastic to non-plastic elements in the diet of the ,hindu and of the well-fed ,european1 is probably as follows3-- ,nitrogenous4 ,non-nitrogenous 7calculated as starch47 ,hindu #a to #i ,european #a to #h ,this statement does not quite correspond with ,liebig's1 who estimates the proportion of nitrogenous to non-nitrogenous substances in rice as #aj to #abc1 in beef as ten to seventeen1 and in veal as ten to one4 ,the results of ,lawes and ,gilbert's investigations1 already alluded to1 have1 however1 dispelled the illusion that the plastic constituents of flesh exceed its non-plastic4 ,in the potato1 which at one time constituted more of the food of the ,irish peasantry than rice does that of the ,hindu1 the proportion of plastic to non-plastic materials is as #aj to #aaj4 ,the results of some analyses of the food grains consumed in the ,presidency of ,madras1 made by ,professor ,mayer1 of the ,university of ,madras1 clearly prove that the food of the inhabitants of that part of ,india is of a far more highly nitrogenous character than is generally supposed4 ,that the ,hindu1 who subsists exclusively on rice1 exhibits all the symptoms of deficient nutrition1 is a fact to which numerous competent observers have testified4 ,a slight consideration of the facts which ,i have mentioned leads to the conclusion that the food of the inhabitants of very cold regions is required to produce a large amount of heat4 ,melons1 rice1 and other watery vegetable productions1 however delicious to the palate of the ,hindu1 would be rejected with disgust by the ,esquimaux1 whilst the train oil1 blubber1 and putrid seal's flesh which the children of the icy ,north consider highly palatable1 would excite the loathing of the ,east ,indian4 ,on this subject ,i may appositely quote the following remarks by ,dr4 ,kane1 the ,arctic explorer3--,our journeys have taught us the wisdom of the ,esquimaux appetite1 and there are few among us who do not relish a slice of raw blubber1 or a chunk of frozen walrus beef4 ,the liver of a walrus 7awuktanuk71 eaten with little slices of his fat--of a verity it is a delicious morsel4 ,fire would seem to spoil the curt1 pithy expression of vitality which belongs to its uncooked juices4 ,charles ,lamb's roast pig was nothing to awuktanuk4 ,i wonder that raw beef is not eaten at home4 ,deprived of extraneous fibre1 it is neither indigestible nor difficult to masticate4 ,with acids and condiments1 it makes a salad which an educated palate cannot help relishing2 and as a powerful and condensed heat-making and anti-scorbutic food1 it has no rival4 ,i make this last broad assertion after carefully considering its truth4 ,the natives of ,south ,greenland prepare themselves for a long journey1 by a course of frozen seal4 ,at ,upper ,navik they do the same with the narwhal1 which is thought more heat-making than the seal2 while the bear1 to use their own expression1 is 'stronger travel than all4' ,in ,smith's ,sound1 where the use of raw meat seems almost inevitable from the modes of living of the people1 walrus holds the first rank4 ,certainly this pachyderm 7,cetacean87 whose finely condensed tissue and delicately permeating fat 7oh6 call it not blubber7 assimilate it to the ox1 is beyond all others1 and is the best fuel a man can swallow4 ,the gastronomic capabilities of the ,esquimaux and of other northern races1 and their fondness for fatty food1 are exhibited in a sufficiently strong light in the following statements3-- ,captain ,parry weighed and presented to an ,esquimaux lad the following articles3-- lb4 oz4 ,frozen seahorse flesh #d #d ,wild seahorse flesh #d #d ,bread and bread dust #a #ab ,rich gravy soup #a #d ,water #aj #j ,strong grog #a tumbler4 ,raw spirits #c wine glasses4 ,this large quantity of food1 which the lad did not consider excessive1 was consumed by him within twenty-four hours4 ,according to ,captain ,cochrane a reindeer suffices but for one repast for three ,yakutis1 and five of them will devour at a sitting a calf weighing #bjj lbs4 ,mr4 ,hooper1 one of the officers of the ,plover1 in his narrative of their residence on the shores of ,arctic ,america1 states that one of the ladies who visited them was presented1 as a jest1 with a small tallow candle1 called a purser's dip4 ,it was1 notwithstanding1 a very pleasant joke to the damsel1 who deliberately munched it up with evident relish1 and finally drew the wick between her set teeth to clean off any remaining morsels of fat4 ,the partiality for certain kinds of food1 and disgust at other varieties1 which particular races of men exhibit1 is an instinct which they cannot avoid obeying4 ,instead of exciting our disgust1 as it too frequently does1 it should exalt our admiration of the infinite wisdom of the ,creator1 who by simply adapting man's desire for particular kinds of food to the external conditions under which he is placed1 enables him to occupy and subdue the earth from the ,equator to the ,poles4 ,the food of human beings and of the lower animals who inhabit cold countries is nearly exclusively composed of animal substances4 ,the flesh1 fat1 and oil of animals occupy less space than do the corresponding elements of vegetables2 consequently the nutriment they afford is more concentrated1 and a larger quantity can be stowed away without inconvenience in the stomach4 ,the heat-forming constituents of these substances constitute not only the chief part of their bulk1 but they are also capable of evolving a greater amount of heat than any other of the respiratory elements4 ,one pound of dry fat will develop as much heat as two and a half pounds of dry starch1 and the fattest flesh includes four times as much plastic materials as rice4 ,the diet of people all over the world1 unless under circumstances which prevent the gratification of the natural appetite1 establishes the intimate relation which subsists between cold and food4 ,the appetite of man is at a minimum at the ,equator1 and at a maximum within the ,arctic circle4 ,the statements as to the voracity of ,hottentots and ,bosjesmans1 recorded in the narratives of travellers1 do not in the slightest degree affect the general rule that more is eaten in cold climates than in hot regions4 ,these are mere records of gluttony1 and it would not be difficult to find parallel cases in our own country4 ,gluttony is an abnormal appetite1 and the greater part of the food devoured under its unnatural1 and generally unhealthy stimulus is not applied to the wants of the body4 ,the bodies of animals are heated masses of matter1 and are subject to the ordinary laws of radiation4 ,every substance radiates its heat1 and receives in return a portion of that emitted from surrounding bodies4 ,if two bodies of unequal temperature be placed near each other1 the warmer of the two will radiate a portion of its heat to the colder1 and will receive some of the heat of the latter in return2 but as the warmer body will emit more heat than it will receive1 the result will be1 that after a time1 the length of which will depend on the nature of the bodies1 both will acquire the same temperature4 ,in very warm climates the bodies of animals derive from the sun1 and from the heated bodies surrounding them1 more heat than they give in return2 and were it not for their internal cooling apparatus1 which ,i have described1 the heat so absorbed would prove fatal4 ,in every climate1 on the contrary1 where the temperature is lower than #ih deg41 or blood heat1 the bodies of animals lose more heat by radiation than they receive by the same means4 ,the philosophy of the clothing of men and the sheltering of the lower animals is now evident4 ,it is not only necessary that heat should be developed within the body1 but also that its wasteful expenditure should be prevented4 ,the latter is effected by interposing between the warm body and the cold air some substances 7such as fur or wool7 which do not readily permit the transmission of heat--non-conductors as they are termed4 ,the close down of the eider duck is destined to protect its bosom from the chilling influence of the icy waters of the ,north ,polar ,sea1 and the quadrupeds of the dreary ,arctic ,circle are sheltered by thick fur coverings from the piercing blasts of its long winter4 ,fat ,equivalents4--,whilst it is quite certain that neither nerves nor muscles can be elaborated exclusively out of fat1 starch1 sugar1 or any other non-nitrogenous substance1 it is almost equally clear that fat may be formed out of nitrogenous tissue4 ,the quantity of fat1 however1 which is produced in the animal mechanism1 from purely nitrogenous food appears to be relatively very small4 ,no animal is capable of subsisting solely on muscle-forming materials1 no matter how abundantly supplied4 ,the food of the ,carnivora contains a large proportion of fat1 and the nutriment of the ,herbivora is largely made up of starch and other fat-formers4 ,dogs1 geese1 and other animals fed exclusively upon albumen or white of egg rapidly decreased in weight1 and after presenting all the symptoms of starvation1 died in three or four weeks4#h ,the fat of the bodies of the ,carnivora is almost entirely formed--and probably with little if any alteration--from the fatty constituents of their food4 ,herbivorous animals1 on the contrary1 derive nearly all their fat from starch1 sugar1 gum1 cellulose1 and other non-nitrogenous1 but not fatty1 materials4 ,although starch is convertible into fat1 it is not to be understood that a pound weight of one of these bodies is equivalent to an equal quantity of the other4 ,during the conversion of starch into fat1 the greater number of its constituent atoms is converted into water and carbonic acid gas4 ,the greater number of the more important metamorphoses of organised matter1 which take place in the animal organum1 is the result of either oxidation or fermentation3 in the conversion of starch or sugar into fat or oil1 both of these processes1 it is stated1 take place2 a portion of the hydrogen is converted by oxidation into water1 and by fermentation carbonic acid gas is formed1 which removes both oxygen and carbon4 ,perhaps in the formation of fat fermentation is alone employed--a portion of the oxygen being removed as water1 and another portion as carbonic acid4 ,the chief difference between the ultimate composition of starch and fat is1 that the latter contains a much larger proportion of hydrogen and carbon4 ,the knowledge of the exact quantity of starch required for the formation of a given amount of fat is of importance in enabling us to estimate the relative feeding value of both substances4 ,certain difficulties stand in the way of our acquiring an accurate knowledge on this point4 ,not only are there several distinct kinds of fat1 but the precise formula1 or atomic constitution of each1 is as yet veiled in doubt4 ,there are three fats which occur in man and the domesticated animals1 and in vegetables4 ,these are stearine1 margarine1 and oleine4 ,the relative proportions of these vary in each animal3 thus1 in man and in the goose margarine is the most abundant fat1 whilst oleine#i exists in the pig in a greater proportion than in man1 the sheep1 or the ox4 ,the composition of the animal fats does not1 however1 vary much2 and this fact1 together with other considerations1 have led chemists to assume that two-and-a-half parts of starch are required for the production of one part of the mixed fats of the different animals4 ,grape sugar and the pectine bodies--substances which form a large proportion of the food of the ,herbivora--contain more oxygen and hydrogen than exist in starch1 and1 consequently1 are not capable of forming so large an amount of fat as an equal weight of starch4 ,we may assume1 then1 that #b4ej parts of starch1 #b4ge parts of sugar1 or #c parts of the pectine bodies1 are equivalent to #a part of fat4 ,,section ,,iv4 ,,relation ,,between ,,the ,,composition ,,of ,,an ,,animal ,,and ,,that ,,of ,,its ,,food4 ,i have already stated that the results of the admirable investigations of ,lawes and ,gilbert prove that the non-nitrogenous constituents of the carcasses of oxen1 sheep1 and pigs exceed in weight their nitrogenous elements4 ,this fact is suggestive of many important questions4 ,what relation is there between the composition of an animal and that of its food8 ,should an animal whose body contains three times as much fat as lean flesh1 be supplied with food containing three times as much fat-formers as flesh-formers8 ,to these questions there is some difficulty in replying4 ,there is a relationship between the composition of the body of an animal and that of its food2 but the relationship varies so greatly that it is impossible to determine with any degree of accuracy the quantity of fat-formers which is required to produce a given weight of fat in animals1 taken in globo4 ,if1 however1 we deal with a particular animal placed under certain conditions1 it is then possible to ascertain the amount of fat which a given weight of non-plastic food will produce4 ,for the greater part of our knowledge on this point1 as on so many others1 in the feeding of stock1 we are indebted to ,lawes and ,gilbert4 ,in the case of sheep fed upon fattening food these inquirers found that every #ajj lbs4 of dry#aj non-nitrogenous substances consumed by them produced1 on an average1 an increase of #aj lbs4 in the weight of their fat4 ,in the case of pigs1 also1 supplied with food1 the proportion of non-nitrogenous matters appropriated to the animal's increase was double that so applied in the bodies of the sheep4 ,as the food supplied to these animals contained but a very small proportion of ready-formed fat1 it was inferred that four-fifths of the fat of the increase was derived from the sugar1 starch1 cellulose1 and pectine bodies4 ,these tables exhibit in a condensed form the results of one of the elaborate series of experiments in relation to this point carried out by ,lawes and ,gilbert3-- ,,estimated ,,amount ,,of ,,certain ,,constituents ,,stored ,,up ,,in ,,increase1 ,,for #ajj ,,parts ,,of ,,each ,,consumed ,,in ,,food ,,by ,,fattening ,,sheep4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,,key3 ,a4--,no4 of ,animals4 ,b4--,mineral matter 7ash74#aa ,c4--,nitrogenous compounds 7dry74 ,d4--,non-nitrogenous substance4 ,e4--,total dry substance4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------------- ,amount of each ,class in ,increase for #ajj of the same ,,general ,,particulars ,,of ,,the ,,experiments4 consumed in ,food4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,description of ,fattening ,food4 --------------------- ,given ,given in limited ad ,,breed4 ,a4,duration4 quantity4 libitum4 ,b4 ,c4 ,d4 ,e4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,class ,i4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- wks4 dys4,oilcake and ,swedish clover chaff4turnips4 ,cotswolds #df #ai #e #c4ihd4dcaa4fi4fj ,leicesters #dj #bj #j #c4aec4ciab4ji4dh ,cross-bred wethers #dj #bj #j #c4bdc4fjaa4fi4ca ,cross-bred ewes #dj #bj #j #c4bec4fjaa4hi4dj ,hants ,downs #dj #bf #j #c4djd4bhaj4ch4di ,sussex ,downs #dj #bf #j #c4cjd4afaj4ch4dd ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,means #c4cic4iaaa4ci4ab ,class ,,iii4--7,series #a47 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,swedish turnips4 ,hants ,downs #e #ac #f ,oilcake4 #d4afd4jaaa4ai4cc #e #ac #f ,oats4 #e4gcg4jgaj4ji4de #e #ac #f ,clover chaff4 #c4ihg4dd #i4jh4di ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,means #d4fbf4agaj4ji4ji ,class ,,iv4--7,series #b47 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,clover chaff4 ,hants ,downs #e #ai #a ,oilcake4 #a4fib4bj #f4ce4jg #e #ai #a ,linseed4 #a4hab4cb #f4be4ai #e #ai #a ,barley4 #a4geb4hb #e4ge4jj #e #ai #a ,malt4 #a4dfb4ag #e4cd4fa ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,means #a4fhb4ch #e4id4ig ,class ,v4--7,series #d47 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,mangolds ,hants ,downs #d #aj #j ,barley ground #c4hje4fe #i4hh4ia #e #aj #j ,malt1 ground1 #d4jdf4ahaj4di4di malt dust4 #d #aj #j ,barley ground #c4gbf4ce #h4ih4bh and steeped4 #d #aj #j ,malt1 ground #b4ied4cd #i4ch4bc and steeped1 malt dust4 #e #aj #j ,malt1 ground1 #c4dfe4df #i4ah4be malt dust4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,means #c4eie4fj #i4eh4fc ---------------------------------------- --------------------------------- ,means of all #c4bgd4da #i4dh4jf ,,estimated ,,amount ,,of ,,certain ,,constituents ,,stored ,,up ,,in ,,increase1 ,,for #ajj ,,of ,,each ,,consumed ,,in ,,food1 ,,by ,,fattening ,,pigs4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,,key3 ,a4--,no4 of ,animals4 ,b4--,mineral matter 7ash74 ,c4--,nitrogenous compounds 7dry74 ,d4--,non-nitrogenous substance4 ,e4--,total dry substance4 ,f4--,fat4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------------- ,amount of each ,class in ,increase for ,,general ,,particulars ,,of ,,the ,,experiments4 #ajj of the same consumed in ,food4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,description of ,fattening ,food4 --------------------------------------- ,given in ,given ,a4,durationlimited quantities4 ad libitum4 ,b4 ,c4 ,d4 ,e4 ,f4 ,the ,analysed ,fat ,pig4#ab ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ weeks #a #aj ,mixture of bran #a1 bean and lentil-meal #b4ff #g4gfag4fad4idje #b1 and barley-meal #c parts1 ad libitum ,series ,i4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- #c #h ,none4 ,bean lentil-meal4#j4fh #d4hhbe4cag4efba #c ,indian-meal4 #a4hf #f4cibc4gag4idgg #c ,indian-meal and bran #j4cc #e4jbba4aaf4acfb #c ,none4 ,indian meal4 #b4ji #i4bhbj4iah4fcjj #c ,bean and lentil-meal #j4ii #i4ahbj4iah4dcbd #c ,bran4 #b4ceab4ajbj4cah4gcjj #c ,bean1 lentil-meal1 #b4gaaj4jcba4cah4ecjg and bran4 ------------------- #c ,bean1 lentil-meal1 ,indian-meal1 bran1 #j4bb #e4feba4aaf4hcfb ad libitum4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,means #j4gd #g4hbba4hag4hchb ,series ,,ii4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- #c #h ,none4 ,bean lentil-meal4#c4bj #c4abbf4eah4bhja #c ,barley-meal4 #j4af #d4feai4bad4gege #c ,bran4 #j4af #c4iiba4bae4bedg #c ,barley-meal and bran #j4ge #d4egbj4aae4fead #c ,none4 ,barley-meal4 #j4efaj4jiah4eaf4iegd #c ,bean and lentil-meal #j4ec #f4egba4aag4efbj #c ,bran4 #j4di #i4giah4iaf4iejf #c ,bean1 lentil-meal1 #d4cc #d4dibb4gah4jegh and bran4 ------------------- #f ,mixture of bran #a1 barley-meal #b1 and #j4bg #e4febj4daf4adie bean lentil-meal #c parts1 ad libitum4 #f ,mixture of bran #a1 bean lentil-meal #b1 #a4eh #h4ajba4aag4feae barley-meal #c parts1 ad libitum4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,means #j4ei #f4ajba4jaf4gegb ,series ,,iii4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- #d #h ,dried ,cod ,fish4 ,bran ,indian-meal #a4jf #e4jfbd4cah4acae 7equal parts74 #d ,indian-meal4 #j4bf #h4afbe4fbj4iceb ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,means #j4ff #f4fabd4iai4eccc ,series ,,iv4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- #c #aj ,lentil-meal bran4 ,sugar4 #c4jg #i4cjai4daf4i #c ,starch4 #c4ah #i4cfai4daf4i #c ,sugar starch4 #d4jfaj4ghag4gaf4a ------------------- #c ,lentils1 bran1 sugar1 starch1 ad libitum#d4hj #i4ifah4gaf4e ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,means #c4gh #i4heah4haf4f ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,means of all #j4eh #g4cdba4bag4cdgb ,the larger appropriation of the non-nitrogenous constituents of its food by the pig1 as compared with the sheep1 must not be attributed solely to its greater tendency to fatten1 but partly to the far more digestible nature of the food supplied to it4 ,,section ,v4 ,,relation ,,between ,,the ,,quantity ,,of ,,food ,,consumed ,,by ,,an ,,animal1 ,,and ,,the ,,increase ,,in ,,its ,,weight1 ,,or ,,of ,,the ,,amount ,,of ,,its ,,work4 ,the manifestations of that wondrous and mysterious principle1 life1 are completely dependent upon the decomposition of organised matter4 ,not an effort of the mind1 not a motion of the body1 can be accomplished without involving the destruction of a portion of the tissues4 ,in a general sense we may regard the fat of the animal to be its store of fuel1 and its lean flesh to be the source of its motive power4 ,as the evolution of heat within the body is proportionate to the quantity of fat consumed1 so also is the amount of force developed in the animal mechanism in a direct ratio to the proportion of flesh decomposed4 ,the quantity of fat burned in the body is estimated by the amount of carbonic acid gas expired from the lungs and perspired through the skin2 the proportion of flesh disorganised is ascertained by the quantity of urea eliminated in the liquid egesta4 ,the amount of urea excreted daily by a man is influenced by the activity of his mind1 as well as by that of his body4 ,a man engaged in physical labor wears out more of his body than one who does no work2 and a man occupied in a pursuit involving intense mental application1 consumes a greater proportion of his tissue than the man who works only with his body4#ac ,in each of these cases1 there is a different amount of tissue disorganised1 and consequently a demand for different amounts of food1 with which to repair the waste4 ,but all the food consumed by a man is not devoted to the reparation of the tissue worn out in the operations of thinking and working4 ,a human being whose mind is a perfect blank1 and who performs no bodily work1 excretes a large quantity of urea1 the representative of an equivalent amount of worn-out flesh4 ,in fact the greater part of the food consumed by a man serves merely to sustain the functions of the body--the circulation of the blood--the action of the heart--the movements of the muscles concerned in respiration--in a word1 the various motions of the body which are independent of the will4 ,according to ,professor ,haughton1 about three-fourths of the food of a working man of #aej lbs4 weight1 are used in merely keeping him alive1 the remaining fourth is expended in the production of mechanical force1 constituting his daily toil4 ,in the nutrition of the lower animals1 as in that of man1 the amount of food made use of by a particular individual depends upon its age1 its weight1 the amount of work it performs1 and probably its temper4 ,as three-fourths of the weight of the food of a laboring man are expended in merely keeping him alive1 it is obvious that the withholding of the remaining fourth would render him incapable of working4 ,an amount of food which adequately maintains the vital and mechanical powers of three men1 serves merely to keep four alive4 ,it is the same with the horse1 the ox1 and every other animal useful to man3 each makes use of a certain amount of food1 for its own purposes2 all that is consumed beyond that is applied for the benefit of its owner4 ,let us take the case of two of our most useful quadrupeds--the horse and the ox4 ,the horse is used as an immediate source of motive power4 ,for this purpose food is supplied to it1 the greater portion of which is consumed in keeping the animal alive1 and the rest for the development of its motive power4 ,abundance of food is as necessary to the natural mechanism1 the horse1 as fuel is to the artificial mechanism1 the steam-engine4 ,in each case the amount of force developed is1 within certain limits1 proportionate to the quantity of vegetable or altered vegetable matter consumed4 ,the greater portion of the ox's food is also consumed in keeping its body alive1 and the rest1 instead of being expended in the development of motive power1 accumulates as surplus stores of flesh1 which in due time are applied to the purpose of repairing the organisms of men4 ,it is evident then1 that the greater sufferer from the deficient supply of food to animals is their owner4 ,that they cannot be taught to fast is a fact which does not appear very patent to some minds4 ,the man who sought by gradually reducing the daily quantum of his horse's provender to accustom it to work without eating1 was justly punished for his ignorant cruelty4 ,the day before the horse's allowance was to be reduced to pure water1 and when its owner's hope appeared certain of speedy realisation1 the animal died4 ,there are men who act almost as foolishly as the parsimonious horse owner in this fable did2 and who are as properly punished as he was4 ,such men are to be found in the farmers who overstock their sheep pastures1 and whose lean kine are the laughing stock of their more intelligent neighbours4 ,the weight of a working full-grown horse does not vary from day to day1 as the weight of its egesta is equal to that of its food4 ,the desideratum in the case of the working animal is that its food should be as thoroughly decomposed as possible1 and the force pent up in it liberated within the animal's body3 as an ox1 on the contrary1 increases in weight from day to day1 it is desirable that as little as possible of its food should be disorganised4 ,the wasteful expenditure of the animal's fat may be obviated by shelter1 and the application of artificial heat3 the retardation of the destruction of its flesh is even more under our control2 for1 as active muscular exertion involves the decomposition of tissue1 we have merely to diminish the activity of the motions which cause this waste4 ,this1 in practice1 is effected by stall-feeding4 ,confined within the narrow boundaries of the stall1 the muscular action of the animal is reduced to a minimum1 or limited to those uncontrollable actions which are conditions in the maintenance of animal life4 ,the proportion of the food of oxen1 sheep1 and pigs1 which is consumed in maintaining their vital functions1 has not been accurately ascertained2 probably1 as in the case of man1 it is strictly proportionate to the animal's weight4 ,we can determine the amount of plastic food consumed by an animal during a given period3 we can ascertain the increase 7if any7 in the weight of its body2 and finally1 we can weigh and analyse its egesta4 ,with these data it is comparatively easy to ascertain the quantity of food which produced the increase in the animal's weight2 but they do not enable us to determine the amount expended in keeping it alive1 because the egesta might be largely made up of unappropriated food--organised matter which had done no work in the animal body4 ,when we come to know the precise quantity of nitrogen1 in a purely1 or nearly pure1 mineral form#ad excreted by an animal1 then we shall be in a position to estimate the proportion of its food expended in sustaining the essential vital processes which continuously go on in its body4 ,but although we are in ignorance as to the precise quantity of flesh-formers expended in keeping the animal alive1 we know pretty accurately the amount which is consumed in producing a given weight of its flesh1 or rather in causing a certain increase in its weight4 ,this knowledge is the result of numerous investigations1 of which by far the most valuable are those of ,lawes and ,gilbert4 ,these experimenters found that fattening pigs stored up about #g-a_/b per cent4 of the plastic materials of their food1 whilst sheep accumulated somewhat less than #e per cent4 ,that is1 #ib-a_/b out of every #ajj lbs4 weight of the nitrogenous food of the pig1 and #ie out of every #ajj lbs4 of that of the sheep1 are eliminated in the excretions of those animals4 ,it appears from the results of ,lawes and ,gilbert's experiments1 that pigs store up in their increase about #bj per cent41 sheep #ab per cent41 and oxen #h per cent4 of their 7dry7 food4 ,the relative increase of the fatty1 nitrogenous1 and mineral constituents whilst fattening1 are shown in this table4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,estimated per cent4 in ,increase whilst ,fattening4 ,,cases4 ---------------------------------------- ------ ,mineral ,nitrogenous matter matter ,fat 7dry74 ,total dry 7ash74 7dry74 substance4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,average of #ih oxen #a4dg #g4fi #ff4b #ge4d ,average of #cdh sheep #a4hj #g4ac #gj4d #gi4ec ,average of #hj pigs #j4dd #f4dd #ga4e #gh4dj ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,the quantity of food consumed daily by an animal is1 as might be expected1 proportionate to the weight of its body4 ,the pig consumes1 for every #ajj lbs4 of its weight1 from #bf to #cj lbs4 of food1 the sheep #ae lbs41 and the ox #ab to #ac lbs4 ,these figures and the statements which ,i have made relative to the proportions of fat and plastic elements in the animals' bodies1 apply to them in their fattening state1 and when the food is of a highly nutritious character4 ,the calf and the young pig will make use--to cause their increase--of a larger portion of nitrogenous matters4 ,the sheep1 however1 being early brought to maturity1 will1 even when very young1 store up the plastic and non-plastic constituents of its food1 in nearly the same relative proportions that ,i have mentioned4 ,as it is the food taken into the body that produces heat and motion1 it might at first sight appear an easy matter to determine the amount of heat or of motion which a given weight of a particular kind of food is capable of producing within the animal mechanism4 ,but this performance is not so easy a task as it appears to be4 ,in the first place1 all of the food may not be perfectly oxidised1 though thoroughly disorganised within the body2 secondly1 as animals rarely subsist on one kind of food1 it is difficult1 when they are supplied with mixed aliments1 to determine which of them is the most perfectly decomposed4 ,but though the difficulties which ,i have mentioned1 and many others1 render the task of determining the nutritive values of food substances difficult1 the problem is by no means insoluble1 and1 in fact1 is in a fair way of being solved4 ,professor ,frankland1 in a paper published in the number of the ,philosophical ,magazine for ,september1 #ahff1 determines the relative alimental value of foods by ascertaining the quantity of heat evolved by each when burned in oxygen gas4 ,from the results of these researches he has constructed a table1 showing the amount of food necessary to keep a man alive for twenty-four hours4 ,the following figures1 which ,i select from this table1 are of interest to the stock-feeder3-- ,weight necessary to sustain a man's life for twenty-four hours4 ,kinds of ,food4 ,ounces4 ,potatoes #ac4d ,apples #bj4g ,oatmeal #c4d ,flour #c4e ,pea ,meal #c4e ,bread #f4d ,milk #ba4b ,carrots #be4f ,cabbage #ca4h ,butter #a4h ,lump ,sugar #c4i ,these figures show the relative calefacient1 or heat-producing powers of the different foods named outside the body2 but there is some doubt as to their having the same relative values when burned within the body4 ,the woody fibre of the carrots and cabbages is very combustible in the coal furnace1 but it is very doubtful if more than #bj or #cj per cent4 of this substance is ever burned in the animal furnace4 ,however1 such inquiries as those carried out by ,frankland possess great value2 and tables constructed upon their results cannot fail to be useful in the drawing up of dietary scales1 whether for man or for the inferior animals4 ,i may here remark1 that in my opinion the nutritive value of food admits of being very accurately determined by the adoption of the following method3-- #a4 ,the animal experimented upon to be supplied daily with a weighed quantity of food1 the composition and calefacient value of which had been accurately determined4 #b4 ,the gases1 vapors1 and liquid and solid egesta thrown off from its body to be collected1 analysed1 and the calefacient#ae value of the combustible portion of them to be determined4 #c4 ,the increase 7if any7 of the weight of the animal to be ascertained4 #d4 ,the difference between the amount of heat evolvable by the foods before being consumed1 and that actually obtained by the combustion of the egesta into which they were ultimately converted1 would be the amount actually set free and rendered available within the body4 ,the calculations would be somewhat affected by an increase in the weight of the animal's body2 but it would not be difficult to keep the weight stationary1 or nearly so1 and there are other ways of getting over such a difficulty4 ,an experiment such as this would be a costly one1 and could not be properly conducted unless by the aid of an apparatus similar to that employed by ,pettenkofer in his experiments on respiration4 ,this apparatus1 which was made at the expense of the ,king of ,bavaria1 cost nearly ,l#fjj4 ,value of ,manure4--,it is a complication in the question of the economic feeding of the farm animals that the value of their manure must be taken into account4 ,of the three classes of food constituents1 two--the mineral and nitrogenous--are recoverable in the animal's body and manure2 the non-nitrogenous is partly recoverable in the fat4 ,i shall take the case of a sheep1 which will consume weekly per #ajj lbs4 of its weight1 #ab lbs4 of fat-formers1 and #c lbs4 of flesh-formers4 ,twelve per cent4 of the fat-formers will be retained in the increase1 but the rest will be expended in keeping the animal warm1 and the products of its combustion--carbonic acid and water--will be useless to the farmer4 ,it is1 therefore1 desirable to diminish as much as possible the combustion of fatty matter in the animal's body2 and this is effected1 as ,i have already explained1 by keeping it in a warm place4 ,of the flesh-forming substance only five per cent4 is retained in the increase1 the rest is partly consumed in carrying on the movements of the animal--partly expelled from its body unaltered1 or but slightly altered1 in composition4 ,the solid excrement of the animal contains all the undigested food2 but of this only the mineral and nitrogenous constituents are valuable as manure4 ,the nitrogen of the plastic materials which are expended in maintaining the functions of the body is eliminated from the lungs1 through the skin1 and by the kidneys--perhaps also1 but certainly only to a small extent1 by the rectum4 ,the food consumed by an animal is disposed of in the following way3--,a portion passes unchanged1 or but slightly altered1 through the body2 another part is assimilated and subsequently disorganised and ejected2 the rest is converted into the carcass of the animal at the time of its death4 ,the undigested food and aliment which had undergone conversion into flesh and other tissues1 and subsequent disorganisation1 constitute the excrements1 or manure1 of the animal4 ,the richer in nitrogen and phosphoric acid the food is1 the more valuable will be the manure2 so that the money value of a feeding stuff is not determinable merely by the amount of flesh which it makes1 but also1 and to a great extent1 by the value of the manure into which it is ultimately converted4 ,corn and oil-cakes are powerful fertilisers of the soil2 but the three principles which constitute their manurial value--namely1 nitrogen 7ammonia71 phosphoric acid1 and potash--are purchasable at far lower prices in guano and other manures4 ,nevertheless1 many farmers believe that the most economical way to produce good manure is to feed their stock with concentrated aliment1 in order to greatly increase the value of their excreta4 ,they consider that a pound's worth of oil-cake1 or of corn1 will produce at least a pound's worth of meat1 and that the manure will be had for nothing1 or1 rather1 will be the profit of the business4 ,the richer food is in nitrogen and phosphoric acid1 the more valuable will be the manure it yields4 ,it follows1 therefore1 that if two kinds of feeding stuff produce equal amounts of meat1 that the preference should be given to that which contains the more nitrogen and phosphoric acid4 ,mr4 ,lawes1 who has thrown light upon this point1 as well as upon so many others1 has made careful estimates of the value of the manure produced from different foods4 ,they are given in the following table3-- ,,table ,showing the estimated value of the manure obtained on the consumption of one ton of different articles of food2 each supposed to be of good quality of its kind4 ,estimated ,money ,value ,description of ,food4 of the ,manure from ,one ,ton of each ,food4 #a4 ,decorticated cotton-seed cake ,l#f #aj #j #b4 ,rape-cake #d #ah #j #c4 ,linseed-cake #d #ab #j #d4 ,malt-dust #d #e #j #e4 ,lentils #c #ag #j #f4 ,linseed #c #ac #j #g4 ,tares #c #ac #f #h4 ,beans #c #ac #f #i4 ,peas #c #b #f #aj4 ,locust beans #a #b #f787 #aa4 ,oats #a #ad #f #ab4 ,wheat #a #ac #j #ac4 ,indian corn #a #aa #f #ad4 ,malt #a #aa #f #ae4 ,barley #a #i #f #af4 ,clover-hay #b #e #j #ag4 ,meadow-hay #a #aj #j #ah4 ,oat-straw #j #ac #f #ai4 ,wheat-straw #j #ab #f #bj4 ,barley-straw #j #aj #f #ba4 ,potatoes #j #g #j #bb4 ,mangolds #j #e #j #bc4 ,swedish turnips #j #d #c #bd4 ,common turnips #j #d #j #be4 ,carrots #j #d #j ,all the saline matter contained in the food is either converted into flesh1 or is recoverable in the form of manure1 but a portion of its nitrogen appears to be lost by respiration and perspiration4 ,reiset states that #ajj parts of the nitrogen of food given to sheep upon which he experimented1 were disposed of as follows3-- ,recovered in the excreta #eh4c ,recovered in the meat1 tallow1 and skin #ac4g ,lost in respiration #bh4j ------ #ajj4jj ,haughton's experiments1 performed upon men1 gave results which proved that no portion of the nitrogen of their food was lost by perspiration or by respiration4 ,barral1 on the contrary1 asserts that nitrogen is given off from the bodies of both man and the inferior animals4 ,boussingault states that horses1 sheep1 and pigs exhale nitrogen4 ,a cow1 giving milk1 on which he had experimented1 lost #ae per cent4 of the nitrogen of its food by perspiration4 ,the amount of nitrogen which ,reiset states that sheep exhale is exceedingly great1 and it is difficult to reconcile his results with those obtained by ,voit1 ,bischoff1 ,regnault1 ,pettenkofer1 and ,haughton4 ,of course1 men and sheep are widely different animals2 but still it is unlikely that all the nitrogen of the food of man should be recoverable in his egesta1 whilst nearly a third of the nitrogen of the food of the sheep should be dissipated as gas4 ,i think further experiments are necessary before this point can be regarded as settled2 and it is probable that it will yet be found that all1 or nearly all1 of the nitrogen of the food of animals is recoverable in their egesta4 ,regarding1 then1 an animal as a mechanism by which meat is to be manufactured1 five economic points in relation to it demand the feeder's attention3 these are--the first cost of the mechanism1 the expense of maintaining the mechanism in working order1 the price of the raw materials intended for conversion into meat1 the value of the meat1 and the value of the manure4 ,in proportion to the attention given to these points1 will be the feeder's profits2 but they are1 to some extent1 affected by the climatic1 geographic1 and other conditions under which the farm is placed4 99 99 99 99 99 ,footnote #a3 ,if the elements were only capable of combining with each other in simple ratios1 the number of their combinations would be as limited as that of the letters of the alphabet2 but as one1 two1 or more atoms of oxygen can combine with one1 two1 or more atoms of other elements1 we can assign no limits to the number of possible combinations4 ,there are hundreds of distinct substances formed of but two elements1 namely1 hydrogen and carbon4 ,footnote #b3 ,in a paper by ,professor ,sullivan1 of ,dublin1 the conversion of one of these substances into another outside the animal mechanism1 is almost incontrovertibly proved4 ,footnote #c3 ,experimental ,inquiry into the ,composition of some of the ,animals ,fed and ,slaughtered as ,human ,food4 ,by ,john ,bennet ,lawes1 ,f4,r4,s41 ,f4,c4,s41 and ,joseph ,henry ,gilbert1 ,ph4,d41 ,f4,c4,s4 ,philosophical ,transactions of the ,royal ,society4 ,part ,,ii41 #ahfj4 ,footnote #d3 ,from the ,greek plasso1 to form4 ,plastic materials are sometimes termed formative elements2 both terms imply the belief that they are capable of giving shape1 or form1 not only to themselves1 but also to other kinds of matter not possessed of formative power4 ,footnote #e3 ,the slow conversion of phosphorus into phosphoric acid takes place in the animal organism2 its gradual oxidation in the open air gives rise only to an imperfectly oxidised body--phosphorous acid4 ,but the latter fact does not invalidate the general proposition1 that the heat emitted by a substance undergoing the process of oxidation is proportionate to the amount of oxygen with which it combines1 and is not influenced by the length of time occupied by the process1 further than this1 that if the oxidation be very rapidly effected1 a portion of the heat will be converted into an equivalent amount of light4 ,footnote #f3 ,this statement is not absolutely correct1 but the range of variation is confined within such narrow limits as to be quite insignificant4 ,footnote #g3 ,doubt has recently been thrown on the truth of this belief by ,frankland1 ,fick1 and ,wislicenus4 ,footnote #h3 ,the results of ,savory's experiments on rats appear to prove that animals can live on food destitute of fat1 sugar1 starch1 or any other fat-forming substance4 ,i think1 however1 that animals could hardly thrive on purely nitrogenous food4 ,the conclusions which certain late writers1 who object to ,liebig's theory of animal heat1 have deduced from ,savory's investigations1 appear to me to be quite unfounded4 ,footnote #i3 ,so termed because it is the basis of the common oils2 the fluid portion of fat is composed of oleine4 ,footnote #aj3 ,the term dry is applied to the solid constituents of the food4 ,thus1 a pig fed with #ajj lbs4 of potatoes would be said to have been supplied with #be lbs4 of dry potatoes1 because water forms #ge per cent4 of the weight of those tubers4 ,footnote #aa3 ,the amounts of mineral matter are too high1 owing to the adventitious matters 7dirt7 retained by the wool4 ,footnote #ab3 ,this pig was completely analysed by ,lawes and ,gilbert4 ,footnote #ac3 ,the results of recent and accurately conducted investigations prove that men engaged in occupations requiring the highest exercise of the intellectual faculties1 require more nutritious food1 and even a greater quantity of nutriment1 than the hardest worked laborers1 such as paviours1 and navvies4 ,i have been assured by an extensive manufacturer1 that on promoting his workmen to situations of greater responsibility but less physically laborious than those previously filled by them1 he found that they required more food and that1 too1 of a better quality4 ,this change in their appetite was not the result of increased wages1 which in most cases remained the same--the decrease in the amount of labour exacted being considered in most cases a sufficient equivalent for the increased responsibility thrown upon them4 ,footnote #ad3 ,as ammonia1 urea1 uric acid1 or hippuric acid2 all of which are nearly or perfectly mineralised substances4 ,footnote #ae3 ,the excrements of animals are capable of evolving1 by combustion1 enormous amounts of heat4 ,,part ,,ii4 ,,on ,,the ,,breeding ,,and ,,breeds ,,of ,,stock4 ,,section ,i4 ,,the ,,breeding ,,of ,,stock4 ,cross ,breeding4--,for many years past feeders have zealously occupied themselves in the improvement of their stock1 and the result of their labors is observable in the marked superiority of the breeds of the present day over their ancestors in the last century4 ,the improvement of animals designed as food for man is effected by keeping them on a liberal dietary1 by selecting only the best individuals for sires and dams1 and by combining the excellencies of two or more varieties of a species in one breed4 ,a species consists of a number of animals which exhibit so many points of resemblance1 that they are regarded by the great majority of naturalists to be the descendants of a single pair4 ,if we except the believers in the hypotheses relative to the origin of existing varieties of animals and plants1 propounded by ,lamarck1 ,darwin1 and other naturalists of the advanced school1 there is a general belief in the immutability of species4 ,the individuals of an existing species1 say dogs1 can never acquire the peculiar features of another species2 nor can their descendants1 if we except hybrids1 ever become animals in which the characteristics of the dog tribe are irrecognisable4 ,by various influences1 such as1 for example1 differences in food and climate1 and domestication1 a species may be split into varieties1 or breeds1 all of which1 however1 retain the more important characteristics of the primordial type4 ,there appears to be no limit to the varieties of dogs1 yet one can perceive by a glance that there is no specific difference between the huge ,mont ,st4 ,bernard dog and the diminutive poodle1 or between the sparse greyhound and the burly mastiff4 ,all the varieties of our domestic fowl have been traced to a common origin--the wild ,indian fowl 7,gallus bankiva74 ,even ,darwin admits that all the existing kinds of horses are1 in all probability1 the descendants of an original stock2 and it is generally agreed that the scores of varieties of pigeons own a common ancestor in the rock pigeon 7,columba livia74 ,as certain individuals are grouped by naturalists into species1 so particular species1 which in habits and general appearance resemble each other1 are arranged under the head of genus4 ,the horse1 the ass1 and the zebra are formed on nearly the same anatomical plan2 they are therefore classed together1 and designated the genus ,equus1 a term derived from the ,latin word equus1 a horse--that animal being regarded as the type1 or perfect member of the group4 ,thus the horse1 in the nomenclature of the naturalist1 is termed ,equus caballus2 the ass1 ,equus asinus2 and the zebra1 ,equus zebra4 ,by a further extension of this principle of classification1 very closely allied genera are united under the term of family4 ,the different varieties of the same species breed1 as might be anticipated1 freely together2 but it frequently happens that two individuals of different species pair1 and produce an animal which inherits some of the properties of each of its progenitors4 ,these half-breeds are termed hybrids1 or mules1 and we have familiar examples of them in the common mule and the jennet4 ,as a general rule1 animals exhibit a disinclination to breed with other than members of their own species2 and although the interference of man may overcome this natural repugnance1 he can only effect the fruitful congress of individuals belonging to closely allied species1 being members of the same genus4 ,hybrids in the genus ,equus are very common4 ,a cross has been produced between the he-goat and the ewe2 the camel and the dromedary have bred together2 and ,buffon succeeded in producing a hybrid in which three animals were represented--namely1 the bison1 the zebu1 and the ox4 ,on the other hand1 attempts to effect a cross between animals belonging to different families have generally failed2 nor is it at all probable that a cross will ever be produced between the pig and the sheep1 between the horse and the cow1 or1 most unlikely of all1 between the dog and the cat4 ,it is the general belief that hybrids are sterile1 or1 at least1 that they are incapable of propagation inter se4 ,this may be true with respect to the hybrids of species not very closely allied2 but that there are exceptions to the rule is quite clear from ,roux's experiments with hares and rabbits4 ,this gentleman1 who is1 or was1 the president of a ,french agricultural society1 but who makes no profession of scientific knowledge1 has succeeded1 after several failures1 in producing a fruitful cross between the rabbit and the hare4 ,this hybrid has received the name of leporide 7from the ,latin leporinus1 pertaining to a hare71 and it is different from former crosses1 in being five parts hare1 and three parts rabbit4 ,m4 ,roux has bred this hybrid during the last eighteen years1 and has not observed the slightest appearance of decay of race manifest itself up to the present1 so that1 for all practical purposes1 the leporide may be regarded as an addition to the distinct species of animals4 ,the leporide fattens rapidly1 and with but little expenditure of food4 ,sold at the age of four months1 it realises1 in ,france1 a price four times greater than that commanded by a rabbit of the same age2 and at a year old it weighs on an average ten pounds1 and sometimes as much as sixteen pounds4 ,it breeds at four months1 continues thirty days in gestation1 and yearly produces five or six litters of from five to eight young4 ,to produce this hybrid is by no means difficult4 ,a leveret1 just old enough to dispense with the maternal nutriment1 should be placed with a few doe rabbits of his own age1 apart from other animals4 ,he will soon become familiar with the does1 and when they attain the age of puberty1 all the rabbits save one or two should be removed4 ,speedily those left with the hare will become with young1 upon which they should be removed1 and replaced by others4 ,after this the hare should be kept in a hutch by himself1 and a doe left with him at night only4 ,as the hare is naturally a very shy animal1 it will only breed when perfect quietness prevails4 ,the half-bred produced in the first instance should now be put to the hare1 and a cross1 three parts hare1 and one part rabbit1 obtained4 ,the permanent breed should then be obtained by crossing the quadroon doe leporide1 if ,i may use the term1 with the half-bred buck4 ,i have directed attention to the production of the leporide because ,i believe that the problems in relation to it1 which have been solved by ,m4 ,roux1 have an important bearing upon the breeding of animals of greater importance than hares and rabbits4 ,here we find a race of animals produced by the fusion of two species1 which naturally exist in a state of mutual enmity1 and which differ in many important respects4 ,the hare and the rabbit are respectively of but little value as food1 at least they are of no importance to the feeder2 yet a cross between them turns out to be an excellent meat-producing animal1 which may be reared with considerable profit to the feeder4 ,it is thus clearly shown that two kinds of animals1 neither of which is of great utility1 may give rise to an excellent cross1 if their blood1 so to speak1 be blended in proper proportions4 ,a half-bred animal may be less valuable than its parents1 but a quadroon may greatly excel its progenitors4 ,the goat and sheep are so closely related that they are classed by naturalists under one head--,capridae4 ,some kinds of sheep have hair like goats1 and certain varieties of goats have fleeces that closely resemble those on the sheep4 ,there are sheep with horns1 and goats without those striking appendages4 ,the ,cape of ,good ,hope goat might easily be mistaken for a sheep4 ,it would seem1 judging by the results of ,roux's experiments1 that there is no great difficulty in the way of obtaining a cross between the sheep and the goat4 ,i do not mean an ordinary half-breed1 but a prolific hybrid similar to the leporide4 ,of course1 it is impossible1 a priori1 to say whether or not such a hybrid race1 supposing it produceable1 would be valuable2 but as goats can find a subsistence on mountains where sheep would starve1 it is possible that an animal1 essentially a sheep1 but with a streak of goat blood in it1 could be profitably kept on very poor uplands4 ,whether a race of what we might term caprides be formed or not we have derived most suggestive information from ,m4 ,roux's experiments1 which ,i hope may be turned to account in what is by far the most important field of enquiry1 the judicious crossing of varieties of the same species4 ,it is a quaestio vexata whether or not the parents generally exercise different influences upon the shape and size of their offspring4 ,mr4 ,spooner supports the supposition--a very popular one--that the sire gives shape to the external organs1 whilst the dam affects the internal organisation4 ,i have considerable doubt as to the probability of this theory4 ,the children who spring from the union of a white man with a negress possess physical and intellectual qualities which are nearly if not quite the mean of their parents2 but the offspring of parents1 both of the same race--be it ,caucasian1 ,mongolian1 or ,indian--frequently conform1 intellectually and corporeally1 to either of their progenitors4 ,thus1 of the children of a tall1 thin1 dark man1 and a short1 fat1 fair woman1 some will be like their father1 and the others will resemble their mother1 or1 perhaps1 all may take after either parent4 ,sometimes a child appears to be in every respect unlike its parents1 and occasionally the likeness of an ancestor appears in a descendant1 in whom no resemblance to his immediate progenitors can be detected4 ,it is highly probable that both parents exercise1 under most circumstances1 a joint influence upon the qualities of their offspring1 but that one of them may produce so much greater an effect that the influence of the other is not recognisable1 except perhaps to a very close observer4 ,but ,i doubt very much that any particular organ of the offspring is1 as a rule1 more liable to the influence of the sire than of the dam1 or vice versa2 and the breeder who believes that the sire alone is concerned in moulding the external form of the offspring1 and who consequently pays no attention to this point in the dam1 will often find himself out in his reckonings4 ,in order to be certain of a satisfactory result1 the dam should in every respect be equal to the sire4 ,in practice1 however1 this is not always the case1 for as sires are so few as compared with the number of dams1 the greatest efforts have been directed towards the improvement of the former4 ,there is1 or ought to be1 a familiar maxim with breeders1 that like begets like1 or the likeness of an ancestor4 ,this is a wise saw1 of which there are many modern instances3 the excellencies or defects of sire or dam are certain to be transmitted through several generations1 though they may not appear in all4 ,as a general rule1 good animals will produce a good1 and defective animals a defective1 offspring1 but it sometimes happens that a bull or cow1 of the best blood1 is decidedly inferior1 whilst really good animals are occasionally the produce of parents of low degree4 ,if the defects or excellencies of animals were ineradicable there would be no need for the science of breeding2 but by the continual selection of only the most superior animals for breeding purposes the defects of a species gradually disappear1 and the good qualities are alone transmitted4 ,as1 however1 animals that are used as food for man are to some extent in an abnormal condition1 the points which may be excellencies in that state1 would not have been such in the original condition of the animal4 ,we find1 therefore1 that the improved breeds of oxen and sheep exhibit some tendency to revert to their original condition1 and it is only by close attention to the diet1 breeding1 and general management of these animals that this tendency can be successfully resisted4 ,sometimes1 however1 an animal of even the best breed will return to nature1 or will acquire some undesirable quality2 such an animal should be rejected for breeding purposes1 for its defects would in all probability be transmitted to its descendants1 near or remote4 ,a case1 which admirably illustrates this point1 is recorded in the ,philosophical ,transactions for #ahac1 and it is sufficiently interesting to be mentioned here3-- ,seth ,wright1 who possessed a small farm on the ,charles ,river1 about sixteen miles from ,boston1 had a small flock1 consisting of fifteen ewes and one ram4 ,one of these ewes1 in #agia1 produced a singular-shaped male lamb4 ,wright was advised to kill his former ram and keep this new one in place of it2 the consequence was1 the formation of a new breed of sheep1 which gradually spread over a considerable part of ,new ,england1 but the introduction of the ,merino has nearly destroyed them again4 ,this new variety was called the ,otter1 or ,ankon breed4 ,they are remarkable for the shortness of their legs1 and the crookedness of their forelegs1 like an elbow4 ,they are much more feeble and much smaller than the common sheep1 and less able to break over low fences2 and this was the reason of their being continued and propagated4 ,here we have an instance of an animal propagating a defect through a great number of descendants1 though it had not acquired it from its own ancestors4 ,it is1 however1 probable that occasionally a male descendant of this short-legged ram possessed considerably longer organs of locomotion than the founder of his breed2 and1 consequently1 if selected for breeding purposes might become the founder of a long-legged variety1 in which1 however1 a couple of pairs of short-legs would occasionally present themselves4 ,i have a notion that the higher animals are in the scale of being1 the greater is their tendency to transmit their acquired good or bad habits to their posterity4 ,dogs are1 perhaps1 the most intelligent of the inferior animals1 and it is well known that they transmit to their offspring their acquired as well as their natural habits4 ,i doubt very much that those most stupid of creatures1 guinea-pigs1 possess this property in any sensible degree2 or1 indeed1 that like the canine tribe1 they can be readily made to acquire artificial peculiarities3 but there once flourished a learned pig1 and it would be worth inquiring whether or not its descendants1 like the descendants of the trained setter1 and pointer1 were at all benefited by the education of their ancestor4 ,i shall conclude this part of my subject in the words of ,professor ,tanner3 ,in all cases where the breed has been carefully preserved pure1 great benefit will result from doing so4 ,the character of a breed becomes more and more concentrated and confirmed in a pedigree animal1 and this character is rendered more fully hereditary in proportion to the number of generations through which it has been transmitted4 ,by the aid of pedigree1 purity of blood may be insured1 and a systematic plan adopted by which we can perpetuate distinct families1 and thereby obtain a change of blood without its being a cross4 ,it is evident that any one adopting a systematic arrangement will be able to do this more effectually than another without this aid4 ,this is the more important when the number of families is small1 as is the case with ,devons and ,herefords1 especially the former4 ,the individual animals from which the ,devons are descended are very limited in number1 and in a few hands2 but1 with some honourable exceptions1 little attention is given to this point4 ,the importance is rendered evident by the decreasing size of the breed1 the number of barren heifers1 and the increased delicacy of constitution shown in the stock of many breeders of that district who are not particular in this respect4 ,the contrast between such herds1 and those in which more care and judgment are exercised1 renders the advantages of attention to pedigree very evident2 for here the strength of constitution is retained1 together with many of the advantages of this valuable breed4 ,,section ,,ii4 ,,the ,,breeds ,,of ,,stock4 ,the nature of the animal determines1 as ,i have already stated1 the proportion of its food carried off in its increase2 but this point is also greatly influenced by its variety1 or breed4 ,certain breeds which have for a long period been kept on bulky food1 and obliged to roam in quest of it1 appear to have acquired a normal tendency to leanness4 ,no doubt1 if they were supplied with highly nutritious food for many successive generations1 these breeds might eventually exhibit as great a tendency to fatten as they now do to remain in a lean condition4 ,as it is1 the horned cattle of ,kerry1 ,wales1 and some other regions1 rarely become fat1 no matter how abundantly they may be supplied with fattening food4 ,on the other hand1 the ,herefords1 but more especially the ,shorthorns1 exhibit a natural disposition to obesity1 and such animals alone should be stall-fed4 ,it is noteworthy that animals which are naturally disposed to yield abundance of milk are often the best adapted for fattening2 but it would appear that the continuous use of highly fattening food1 and the observance of the various other conditions in the forcing system1 diminish the activity of the lacteal secretion1 and increase the tendency to fatness in the races of the bovine tribe4 ,the ,shorthorns were at one time famous for their milking capabilities1 but latterly their galactophoric reputation has greatly declined4 ,still ,i am disposed to believe1 that if some of those animals were placed under conditions favorable to the improvement of dairy stock1 herds of ,shorthorn milch cows could be obtained which would vie in their own line with the famous fat-disposed oxen of the same breed4 ,in sheep the tendency to early maturity and to fatten is greatly influenced by the breed4 ,the ,leicester1 even when kept on inferior pasture1 fattens so rapidly that in eighteen months it is fit for the butcher2 whilst the ,merino1 though supplied with excellent herbage1 must be preserved for nearly four years before it is ready for the shambles4 ,the crossing of good herds has resulted in the development of numerous varieties1 all remarkable for their aptitude to fatten and to arrive early at maturity4 ,the ,leicester--itself supposed to be a cross--has greatly improved the ,lincoln1 and the ,hampshire and ,southdown have produced an excellent cross4 ,of course1 each breed and cross has its admirers2 indeed1 the differences of opinion which prevail in relation to the relative merits of the ,lincoln and the ,leicester--the ,southdown and the ,shropshiredown--the ,dorset and the ,somerset--occasionally culminate into newspaper controversies of an exceedingly ascerb character4 ,there is no doubt but that particular breeds of sheep thrive in localities and under conditions which are inimical to other varieties2 but still it is equally evident that1 caeteris paribus1 one kind of sheep will store up in its increase a larger proportion of its food than another kind1 and will arrive earlier at maturity4 ,it is the knowledge of this fact which has led to the great estimation in which are held some half-dozen out of the numerous breeds and cross-breeds of that animal4 ,in #ahfa an interesting experiment was made by the ,parlington ,farmers' ,club with the object of testing the relative merits of several varieties of sheep4 ,the results are shown in the tables3-- ,,table ,i4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------------- ,live ,weight of ,six ,wethers ,weights gained when ,shorn1 #bfth ,february1 #ahfb4 during the time of --------------------------- ,feeding from the ,weight of ,mutton when #aath ,november1 #ahfa1 ,description of ,slaughtered4 to #adth ,february1 #ahfb4 ,class of ,sheep4 --------------------------------------- ,weight,weight,weight of of of ,in ,live ,in ,in ,tallow ,wool4,pelts4,weight4,mutton4 ,wool4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- st4 lb4st4 lb4 lb4 lb4 lb4st4 lb4st4 lb4lb4 oz4 ,cross from the ,teeswater #he #c #ec #a #ajf #dc #he #ac #g #h #f #ad #e ,north ,sheep #hc #ab #ec #ab #ifdc-a_/b #hc #ab #aa #h #c #ad #h ,lincolns #ib #a #ei #ab #aje #ff #ajc #af #a #aj #g #bb #j ,south ,downs #ga #j #dg #g #ig-a_/d #bhfe-c_/d #aa #ac #h #j #i #e ,shropshire ,downs #he #f #ec #a #ajcdb-a_/b #ia #ae #aa #i #ab #ad #c ,leicesters #hj #i #ec #d #ij-a_/b #ddgh-a_/b #ad #aj #i #aj #ad #aa ,cotswolds #gf #e #dg #f #gi #ed #ij #ab #f #g #aa #ah #j ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,,table ,,ii4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,value of the preceding ,food ,description ,mutton and ,wool so gained4 consumed of ,sheep4 ---------------------------------------- --- during ,price of the ,mutton4 ,price of the ,wool4 time of ,feeding4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,swd4 ,lnd4 p4 lb4 p4 lb4 ,tnp4 ,cke4 ------- ------- ---------- d4 ,l s4 d4 d4 ,l s4 d4 st4 lb4 ,teeswater1 ,cross #f #b #ai #j #ah #a #a #f #igh #cjj ,north ,shropshire #f #b #ag #f #ag-a_/b #a #a #a-c_/d #iad #cjj ,lincolnshire#af #e-c_/d #c #aj #e-a_/d #ah #a #ac #j #icf #cfc ,southdowns #f-a_/b #c #j #h #ag #j #ac #b-a_/b #fhd #cjj ,shropshire #f-a_/d #c #aa #aj-a_/b #ag-a_/b #a #j #g-c_/d #ibd #cjj ,leicester #e-c_/d #c #e #b #ah #a #b #j #hgg #cjj ,cotswolds #f #b #ad #f #ah #a #g #j #ibf #cjj ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,value of the ,value of ,food ,food1 ,calculating ,value of deducted from ,value ,description ,turnips at #fs4 the ,mutton of ,mutton and ,wool1 of ,sheep4 #h;d41 and ,cake at and ,wool4 showing real value of ,l#aj #ajs4 per ton4 the different sheep4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,l s4 d4 ,l s4 d4 ,l s4 d4 ,teeswater1 ,cross #c #h #aj-a_/b #d #j #f #j #aa #g ,north ,shropshire #c #f #b-a_/b #c #ah #g-c_/d #j #ab #e ,lincolnshire#af #c #ac #j-a_/d #e #c #e-a_/d #a #aj #e ,southdowns #b #af #g-a_/b #c #ac #aj-a_/b #j #ag #c ,shropshire #c #f #g-c_/d #d #ab #f-a_/d #a #e #aj ,leicester #c #d #h #d #g #b #a #b #f ,cotswolds #c #f #h-a_/b #d #a #f #j #ad #i-a_/b ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,these results1 taken with the customary grain of salt1 tell well for the improved ,lincoln2 they also clearly show the aptitude to fatten1 without much loss in offal1 of the ,leicester2#ag and they commend to the lover of good mutton the ,shropshire and ,south-,downs4 ,in the sixteenth volume of the ,journal of the ,royal ,agricultural ,society of ,england1 ,mr4 ,lawes gives some valuable information relative to the comparative fattening qualities of different breeds of sheep4 ,the following table1 on this author's authority1 shows the average food consumed in producing #ajj lbs4 increase in live weight3-- ,breed4 ,oil ,cake4 ,clover4 ,swedes4 ,sussex #big-a_/d #bhe-a_/b #c4hce-c_/d ,hampshire #bia-a_/b #bfa-a_/d #c4iff-c_/d ,cross-bred ,wethers #bfd-a_/b #bea-c_/d #c4gbe-a_/d ,do4 ,ewes #bfc-a_/b #bej-a_/d #c4fga ,leicesters #bfc-c_/d #bea-a_/d #c4gfa ,cotswolds #bec-a_/b #baf-c_/d #c4eeg-a_/b ,some breeds are profitably kept in certain localities1 where other kinds would not pay so well3 for example1 the ,devons1 according to ,mr4 ,smith1 are better adapted than larger breeds for converting the produce of cold and hilly pastures into meat4 ,it is remarkable that nearly all the best existing breeds of oxen and sheep are crosses4 ,major ,rudd states that the dam of ,hubback1 the famous founder of pure improved ,shorthorns1 owed her propensity to fatten to an admixture of ,kyloe blood1 and also that the sire of ,hubback had a stain of ,alderney1 or ,normandy blood4 ,although the ,rudd account of the ancestry of ,hubback is not accepted by all the historians of this splendid breed of cattle1 there is no doubt but that the breed owes its origin as much to judicious crossing as to careful selection of sires and dams4 ,it must not1 however1 be imagined that there are no good pure races of stock4 ,there is a perfectly pure1 but now scarce1 tribe of ,kerry oxen1 admirably adapted to poor uplands4 ,the excellent ,southdown sheep1 though in every respect immensely superior to their ancestors in the last century1 have not attained to their present superior state by crossing4 ,the high value placed by breeders upon good sires and dams in the approved breeds of stock is shown by the large sums which they frequently realise at sales1 or when the former are let out for service4 ,bakewell received in one season for the use of a ram #djj guineas each from two breeders1 and they did not retain the animal during the whole season4 ,several hundred guineas have lately been more than once paid for a celebrated tup4 ,colonel ,towneley's ,shorthorn bull1 ,master ,butterfly1 was1 not long since1 disposed of to an ,australian buyer for ,l#a1bfj4 ,at the sale of ,mr4 ,bates's stock in #ahej1 a stock of ,shorthorns1 including calves1 brought on the average ,l#aaf #es4 per head4 ,at the ,earl ,ducie's sale in #aheb1 a three year old cow--,duchess--realised #gjj guineas4 ,the color of an animal is1 to some extent1 a criterion of the purity of its breed4 ,roan is a favourite hue with the breeders of ,shorthorns4 ,there have been celebrated sires and dams of that breed perfectly white2 but that color1 or rather absence of color1 is now somewhat unpopular1 partly from the idea that it is a sign of weakness of constitution--a notion for which there appears to me to be no foundation in fact4 ,the slightest spot of black1 or even a very dark shade1 is regarded to be a blemish of the most serious kind when observed on the pelt of a ,shorthorn4 ,the ,herefords are partly white1 partly red2 the ,devon possesses in general a deep red hue2 the ,suffolks are usually of a dun or faint reddish tint2 the ,ayrshires are commonly spotted white and red2 and the ,kerrys are seen in every shade between a jet black and a deep red4 ,uniformity in color would be most desirable in the case of each variety1 and this object could easily be attained if breeders devoted some attention to it4 ,the ,form of ,animals4--,the functions of an animal are arranged by ,bichat1 an eminent physiologist1 into two classes--those relating to its nutrition1 and those exhibited by its muscular and mental systems4 ,the first class of functions comprise the vegetative1 or organic life of the animal1 and the second class constitute its relative life4 ,adopting this arrangement1 we may say1 then1 that those animals in which the vegetative life is far more energetic than the relative life are best suited for the purposes of the feeder4 ,in tigers1 wolves1 and dogs the relative life predominates over the vegetative2 the muscles are almost constantly in a high degree of tension1 and the processes of nutrition are in constant requisition to supply the waste of muscle4 ,on the other hand1 in oxen1 sheep1 and pigs1 at least when in a state of domesticity1 the muscles are not highly developed2 they do not largely tax the vegetative processes1 and1 consequently1 the substances elaborated under the influence of the vegetative life rapidly increase4 ,the form of an animal is therefore mainly determined by the activity of its relative life4 ,in a greyhound1 the nervous power of which is highly developed1 the muscles are large and well-knit1 the stomach1 intended for the reception of concentrated nutriment only1 is small1 and the lungs are exceedingly capacious4 ,in such an animal the arrangements for the rapid expenditure of nervous power must be perfect4 ,it is not merely necessary that its muscles should be large and powerful1 its lungs must also admit of deep inspirations of oxygen1 whereby the motive power wielded by these muscles may be rapidly generated4 ,now1 an animal exactly opposite in organisation to the greyhound would1 according to theory1 be just the kind to select for the production of meat4 ,the greyhound and the horse expend all their food in the production of motive power2 the ox and the sheep1 being endowed with but a feeble muscular organisation1 use a smaller proportion of their food for carrying on the functions of their relative life1 consequently1 the weight of their bodies is augmented by the surplus nutriment4 ,it is clear1 then1 that an animal of a lymphatic temperament1 an indolent disposition1 a low degree of nervous power1 and a tendency to rapid growth1 is the beau ideal of a meat-manufacturing machine4 ,now1 as the larger the lungs of an animal are1 the greater is its capacity for burning1 or consuming its tissues1 one might suppose that small lungs would be a desideratum in an ox1 or other animal destined for the shambles4 ,this appears to be ,liebig's opinion1 for in one of his books he states that a narrow chest 7small lungs7 is considered by experienced agriculturists a sure sign1 in pigs1 for example1 of easy fattening2 and the same remark applies to cows1 in reference to the produce of milk--that is1 of butter4 ,on this subject ,professor ,tanner makes the following remarks1 in his excellent ,essay on ,breeding and ,rearing ,cattle3#ah--;,in our high-bred animals we find a small liver and a small lung1 accompanied with a gentle and peaceful disposition4 ,now1 these conditions1 which are so desirable for producing fat1 are equally favorable for yielding butter4 ,the diminished organs economise the consumption of the carbonaceous matters in the blood1 hence1 more remains for conversion into fat1 but equally prepared for yielding cream1 if the tendency of the animal is equally favorable to the same4 ,one would imagine1 from the foregoing passage1 that ,mr4 ,tanner and ,baron ,liebig coincided in believing small lungs necessary to rapid fattening2 but in another part of his essay1 ,tanner thus describes one of the points indicative of a tendency to fatten early3--,the chest should be bold and prominent1 wide and deep1 furnished with a deep but not coarse dewlap4 ,on comparing the two passages which ,i have quoted from ,tanner's essay1 a contradiction is apparent4 ,mr4 ,bowly1 ,major ,rudd1 and other eminent breeders and feeders1 appear to regard a capacious chest as the best sign of a fattening property which an animal could show4 ,lawes and ,gilbert have recorded the weights of the viscera of a number of animals which1 though supplied with equal quantities of the same kind of food1 attained to different degrees of fatness4 ,on carefully scrutinising these records1 ,i failed to perceive any constant relation between the weight of their lungs and their tendency to fatten rapidly4 ,some animals with large lungs converted a larger proportion of their food into meat than others with smaller respiratory organs1 and vice versa4 ,in a state of nature1 there is no doubt but that the lungs of the ox and of the sheep are moderately large2 and it is evident that in their case1 as well as in that of man1 over-feeding and confinement tend to diminish their muscular energy1 and1 of course1 to decrease the capacity of the lungs4 ,that such a practice does not tend to the improvement of the health of an animal is perfectly evident1 but then the perfect ox of nature is very different from the perfect ox of man4 ,the latter is a wide departure from the original type of its species3 any marked development of its nervous system is undesirable2 and it is valuable in proportion as its purely vegetative functions are most strongly manifested4 ,a young bullock1 therefore1 of this kind would1 no doubt1 be the most economical kind to rear1 provided that it was perfectly healthy1 and capable of assimilating the liberal amount of food supplied to it4 ,but it rarely happens that a young animal with a weakly chest turns out other than a scrofulous or otherwise diseased adult4 ,on the whole1 then1 ,i am disposed to believe that whilst naturally small-lunged species may be more prone to fatten than large-chested ones1 it is not the case that small-chested individuals fatten more rapidly than larger lunged individuals of the same kind4 ,the conditions under which oxen1 sheep1 and pigs have been so long maintained in civilised countries1 must have diminished the capacity of their chests in relation to other parts of their bodies2 and it may be fairly doubted if any good could result by reducing to still smaller dimensions those most important organs4 ,probably the lungs and hearts of the improved breeds of stock are already too small1 and that it is only the individuals which are least affected in this respect that answer to ,mr4 ,bowly's description of a fat-disposed beast4 ,whether or not small lungs are desirable in a bullock or milch cow1 it is certain that a ram or a bull should be possessed of a capacious chest1 for otherwise he will have but little vigour1 and will be likely to produce a weakly offspring4 ,a sire should be a perfectly developed animal in every respect--sound lungs and heart1 and not over fat4 ,it is sufficient that it belongs to a good fattening breed2 but to produce offspring with a tendency to fatness and early maturity1 it is not necessary that the sire should himself be obese4 ,it is to be regretted that so many sires of the ,shorthorns and other improved varieties should be used for breeding purposes1 when their hearts and lungs have become1 by over-feeding the animals1 unfitted for the proper discharge of their function4 ,the progeny of such sires must naturally inherit the acquired taint of their diseased progenitors1 and prove weakly and unhealthy animals4 ,with respect to the general outline structure of a bull1 he should have a small1 well-set head1 rounded ribs1 straight legs1 small bones1 and sound internal organs4 ,the following are considered to be the best points in a ,shorthorn bull3--,a short and moderately small head1 with tapering muzzle and broad forehead1 furnished with short1 white1 curved1 graceful looking horns2 bright1 yet mild1 large eyes1 placed in prominent orbits2 dilated nostrils1 and flesh-colored nose1 and long1 thin ears4 ,the neck should be broad1 deep1 and muscular1 sloping in a graceful line from the shoulder to the head4 ,the chest should be wide1 deep1 projecting1 but level in front4 ,the shoulders should be oblique1 the blades well set in towards the ribs4 ,the forelegs should be stout1 muscular above the knee1 and slender below it2 the hind legs should be slender to the hock1 and from thence increase in thickness to the buttocks1 which should be well developed4 ,the carcass should be well rounded at each side1 but level on the back and on the belly4 ,there should be no hollows between the shoulder and the ribs1 the line from the highest part of the shoulder to the insertion of the tail should be a perfect level4 ,the flank should be full1 the loins broad1 and the tail finely formed and only partially covered with hair4 ,the skin is a prime point3 it must be covered with hair of a roan1 or other fashionable color1 and communicate to the hand of the experienced feeler1 a peculiar sensation1 which it is impossible to describe4 ,with regard to this point1 ,i cannot do better than quote the words of an experienced handler3-- ,a nice or good judge of cattle or sheep1 with a slight touch of the fingers upon the fatting points of the animal--viz41 the hips1 rump1 ribs1 flanks1 breast1 twist1 shoulder score1 c4 will know immediately whether it will make fat or not1 and in which part it will be the fattest4 ,i have often wished to convey in language that idea or sensation we acquire by the touch or feel of our fingers1 which enables us to form a judgment when we are handling an animal intended to be fatted1 but ,i have as often found myself unequal to that wish4 ,it is very easy to know where an animal is fattest which is already made fat1 because we can evidently feel a substance or quantity of fat--all those parts which are denominated the fatting points2 but the difficulty is to explain how we know or distinguish animals1 in a lean state1 which will make fat and which will not--or rather1 which will make fat in such points or parts1 and not in others--which a person of judgment 7in practice7 can tell1 as it were1 instantaneously4 ,i say in practice1 because ,i believe that the best judges out of practice are not able to judge with precision--at least1 ,i am not4 ,we say this beast touches nicely upon its ribs1 hips1 c41 c41 because we find a mellow1 pleasant feel on those parts2 but we do not say soft1 because there are some of this same sort of animals which have a soft1 loose handle1 of which we do not approve1 because1 though soft and loose1 have not the mellow feel above mentioned4 ,for though they both handle soft and loose1 yet we know that the one will make fat and the other will not2 and in this lies the difficulty of the explanation4 ,we clearly find a particular kindliness or pleasantness in the feel of the one much superior to the other1 by which we immediately conclude that this will make fat1 and the other not so fat2 and in this a person of judgment1 and in practice1 is very seldom mistaken4 ,in many respects the good points in a ,shorthorn cow resemble those in the male of that breed1 but in others there is considerable difference4 ,as ,i have described in prose the excellencies which a bull should possess1 ,i will now give a poetical summary of the good points of a cow of that breed1 extracted from the ,journal of ,agriculture1 and composed evidently by an excellent breeder and poet1 ,mr4 ,carr3-- ,the following features constitute1 ,i trow1 ,the beau ideal of a short-horn cow3-- ,frame massive1 round1 deep-barrell'd1 and straight-back'd2 ,hind quarters level1 lengthy1 and well pack'd2 ,thighs wide1 flesh'd inwards1 plumb almost to hock2 ,twist deep1 conjoining thighs in one square block2 ,loin broad and flat1 thick flesh'd1 and free from dip2 ,back ribs well home1 arch'd even with the hip2 ,hips flush with back1 soft-cushion'd1 not too wide2 ,flanks full and deep1 well forward on the side2 ,fore ribs well-flesh'd1 and rounded like a drum2 ,fore flanks that even with the elbow come2 ,crop barrell'd flush with shoulders and with side2 ,girth large and round--not deep alone1 but wide2 ,shoulders sloped back1 thick cover'd wide at chine2 ,points snug1 well-flesh'd1 to dew-lap tapering fine2 ,neck vein fill'd up to well-clothed shoulder-point2 ,arm full above1 turn'd in at elbow-joint2 ,legs short and straight1 fine boned 'neath hock and knee2 ,belly cylindrical1 from drooping free2 ,chest wide between the legs1 with downward sweep2 ,brisket round1 massive1 prominent1 and deep2 ,neck fine at head1 fast thickening towards its base2 ,head small1 scope wide1 fine muzzle and dish'd face2 ,eyes prominent and bright1 yet soft and mild2 ,horns waxy1 clear1 of medium size1 unfiled2 ,tail fine1 neat hung1 rectangular with back2 ,hide soft1 substantial1 yielding1 but not slack2 ,hair furry1 fine1 thick set1 of colour smart2 ,udder well forward1 with teats wide apart4 ,these points proportion'd well delight the eye ,of grazier1 dairyman1 and passer-by2 ,and these to more fastidious minds convey ,appearance stylish1 feminine1 and gay4 ,breeds of the ,ox4--,the ,shorthorned cattle are now generally regarded as the most valuable breed in these countries4 ,they are the descendants of a short-horned breed of cattle which existed for centuries in the north-east of ,england4 ,they were not held in much estimation1 their flesh being coarse2 but the cows of this breed yielded abundance of milk4 ,in the eighteenth century this breed1 it is said1 was greatly improved by a large infusion of blood from ,dutch ,shorthorns3 but it is very doubtful that any such event took place1 for during that period the importation of cattle into ,great ,britain was prohibited by very stringent laws4 ,the present race of ,shorthorns owe most of their valuable qualities to the brothers1 ,charles and ,robert ,colling1 of the county of ,durham4 ,the former was the more successful breeder1 and established the celebrated breed of ,ketton ,shorthorns4 ,his whole process appears to have consisted in the careful selection of parents1 and in close breeding4 ,he must1 however1 have been an admirable judge of the good points of the ox1 for beginning with animals not worth more on an average than ,l#aj each1 he produced in less than a quarter of a century a stock worth on the average ,l#aej each4 ,the most famous bull of ,charles ,colling's was ,comet4 ,the sale of this animal realised the handsome sum of #a1jjj guineas4 ,the bull ,hubback is said by many writers to have been the great improver of ,shorthorn blood4 ,he was bought by ,robert ,colling for the trifling sum of ,l#h2 but although this animal was kept by both ,collings for three years1 there is good reason to believe that they made but little use of him4 ,it would appear1 indeed1 that to the cows first used by the ,collings--,lady ,maynard1 and young ,strawberry--many of the good qualities of this breed are traceable4 ,shorthorns are now to be found in almost every part of the ,united ,kingdom1 capable of maintaining heavy stock4 ,in ,ireland the breed has been greatly improved1 and it is gradually supplanting most of the other varieties4 ,shorthorn males have a short1 wide head1 covered very often with short curly hair2 the muzzle is taper2 the ear rather long and narrow2 the eye large1 and bright1 and mild4 ,the shape is symmetrical1 the carcass deep1 the back level1 ribs spreading out widely1 and the limbs fine4 ,the color is a mixture of red and white1 sometimes a rich roan4 ,the females are not so large in the head1 which tapers more1 and the neck is much thinner4 ,the ,,devons are not so large as the ,shorthorns4 ,their shape is symmetrical2 fine head1 horns of medium size1 often tapering gracefully2 rich red or orange red color2 fore-quarters rather oblique4 ,the meat of this breed is much esteemed3 they yield excellent milk1 but in rather limited quantity2 and the bullocks answer the plough much better than many other kinds do4 ,these animals arrive early at maturity4 ,the ,,herefords are a rather small-boned breed2 their horns are medium sized1 straight or slightly curved upwards2 their color is dark red2 neat shoulders1 thin thighs1 and wide sirloin4 ,they fatten well1 but are not generally kept on dairy farms4 ,in many respects they resemble the ,devons4 ,the ,,ayrshires have a tapering head1 fine neck1 and large1 bony1 but not coarse carcass2 flat ribs2 short and rather ugly horns2 their skin is soft1 and covered with hair1 which is usually red and white in spots4 ,the ,ayrshire cows are invaluable for dairy purposes4 ,the ,,polled ,,angus1 ,,polled ,,aberdeens1 and ,,polled ,,galloways are very large cattle1 with big heads1 unfurnished with horns4 ,their color is in general a decided black1 but occasionally it exhibits a mixture of black and white4 ,their flesh is in general not of the best quality1 but some of their crosses with ,shorthorns yield excellent meat1 and at an early age1 too4 ,the ,,kyloes are a breed peculiar to the ,highlands of ,scotland4 ,they are rather rough1 but very picturesque animals1 covered with long1 shaggy hair4 ,their horns are rather long1 and curve upwards4 ,their hair is differently colored--red1 yellow1 dun1 and black1 the latter being the prevailing hue4 ,no variety of the ox yields a sweeter meat than the ,kyloes1 and other mountain breeds of these countries4 ,the animals1 however1 arrive slowly to maturity1 and in this respect there is great room for improvement4 ,these mountain-bred animals are now transferred in large numbers to lowland tillage farms1 where the fattening process is more expeditiously performed4 ,there are excellent crosses between ,shorthorn bulls and ,highland cows4 ,,longhorned ,,cattle are rapidly advancing towards extinction4 ,at one time they were the chief breed kept by most farmers4 ,in general they may be regarded as an inferior variety1 being slow feeders1 and producing rather coarse beef4 ,they are1 however1 capable of great improvement1 as instanced in the case of ,bakewell's celebrated ,longhorn herds4 ,the ,,kerrys are a diminutive breed1 peculiar to ,ireland4 ,they have small heads1 fine necks1 fine horns of medium length1 and curved upwards near their summits4 ,they have a soft skin2 the hair is generally black1 interspersed with a few white streaks2 sometimes their color is red1 and occasionally brown4 ,they are a very hardy race1 being indigenous to mountains4 ,their flesh is very good1 more especially if the animals have been kept on fattening food4 ,the ,kerrys are good milch cows4 ,the ,,alderneys are a small race of oxen with deer-like faces4 ,they exhibit various shades of red1 white1 brown1 and roan4 ,no cows yield better milk1 or larger quantities of that fluid4 ,sheep4--,the different breeds of sheep are classified under three heads--viz41 ,long-woolled1 ,short-woolled1 and ,middle-woolled4 ,the ,,leicester is1 perhaps1 the most celebrated breed of sheep reared in these countries4 ,it was immensely improved by ,bakewell about a century ago1 and the breed is often termed the ,dishley1 after the name of ,bakewell's residence4 ,this sheep has a wide1 clean head1 broad forehead1 fine eyes1 long1 thin ears1 thick neck1 round body1 deep chest1 straight1 broad back1 high ribs1 and muscular thighs4 ,the wool is long1 very thick1 and fine4 ,at from fifteen to eighteen months old1 the ,leicester weighs from #be to #cj lbs4 per quarter2 but a fat animal often weighs from #ch to #dj lbs4 per quarter4 ,the fleece weighs from #f to #h lbs4 ,this breed is well adapted for ,ireland4 ,it is reared on very poor land3 but in order to maintain its good quality1 this sheep requires abundance of food1 and also good shelter during the winter4 ,the ,,lincoln is distinguished for its large bones and strong muscles4 ,originally a gaunt and ugly animal1 it has of late years been much improved4 ,indeed1 the prices lately realised by ,lincoln sheep are extremely high4 ,the ,lincoln has a long1 white face1 long body1 and thick legs4 ,the wool is long1 thick1 and moderately fine4 ,the flesh of the ,lincoln is lean1 owing to its great muscular development4 ,at fifteen months old it yields about #cj lbs4 weight per quarter4 ,it is said that a ,lincoln wether has attained the weight of #cjd-a_/b lbs4 ,the average weight of the wool of a hogget is #i-a_/b lbs4 ,the ,,cotswold breed arose in the ,cotswold hills1 in ,gloucestershire4 ,in this variety the skeleton is large1 the chest capacious1 the back broad and straight1 and the ribs well arched4 ,it has good quarters1 and a finely-arched neck4 ,it is distinguished by a large tuft of wool--fore-top1 on the forehead4 ,it fattens early1 and produces about #be lbs4 per quarter when fifteen months old1 and #dj lbs4 when two years old4 ,the wool is rather coarse2 its yield is about #h lbs4 ,the ,,cheviot has a long body1 long face1 long legs1 and long ears4 ,the chest projects slightly1 and is rather narrow4 ,the forehead is bare of wool2 the legs and face are white1 sometimes approaching to a dun shade4 ,weight from #gj to #hj lbs42 weight of fleece1 from #c to #d lbs4 ,the wool is of excellent quality1 and is used largely in the manufacture of tweeds4 ,the ,cheviot is a mountain sheep1 and1 as might be expected1 its flesh is well flavored4 ,there are several crosses of the ,cheviot with the ,leicester1 the ,southdown1 and the ,shropshire4 ,the ,,southdown is generally regarded as the best breed for wool reared in these countries4 ,it is indigenous to the chalk hills of ,kent1 ,sussex1 ,hampshire1 and ,dorsetshire4 ,it has a small head2 its back is broad and straight2 the ribs spring out at nearly right angles from the vertebrae4 ,it is rather light in the fore-quarters1 and full in the hind quarters4 ,its chest is pretty deep2 its face and legs are grey or brown4 ,the wool of the ,southdown is short1 and extremely fine2 the fleece weighs about #c lbs4 ,this sheep arrives early at maturity4 ,it weighs at #ae months old about #hj lbs4 ,the flesh is very well flavored4 ,,the ,,shropshire is said to combine in itself the good qualities of the ,southdown1 the ,cotswold1 and the ,leicester4 ,it resembles the ,southdown more than any other breed1 having the same grey1 or brownish grey hue1 and a similar shape4 ,it is1 however1 larger than the ,southdown1 and yields a larger quantity of wool4 ,this breed is becoming a great favorite in both ,england and ,ireland4 ,the ,,black-,,faced sheep is peculiar to ,scotland4 ,it is equipped with horns1 has a bold long face1 and possesses a tuft of wool on its forehead2 its limbs are strong1 and its body is somewhat long4 ,the wool of this breed is very coarse1 the fleece weighs about #c-a_/b lbs4 ,the average weight of this sheep is #ge lbs41 the quality of the mutton is excellent1 but it is long before it becomes matured4 ,there are several other breeds of the sheep1 but they are of far less importance than those which ,i have described4 ,breeds of the ,pig4--,there are several breeds of this useful animal1 of which those known as ,,berkshire and ,,yorkshire appear to be the greatest favorites4 ,the ,berkshire is black or dusky brown1 very rarely reddish brown4 ,it has a very small head4 ,its sides are extremely deep1 and its legs very short4 ,there are several sub-varieties of the ,yorkshire4 ,this breed is white1 has a compact body1 and very broad sides4 ,the head is very small1 somewhat like that of the ,berkshire4 ,both ,berkshire and ,yorkshire pigs attain to the enormous weight of #a1jjj lbs4 ,the old ,irish racer pig is the least profitable kind to keep1 but fortunately it is1 as a pure breed1 nearly extinct4 ,breeds of the ,horse4--,there are a great many breeds of horses4 ,the ,shetland pony is so small1 that many specimens are no larger than a ,newfoundland dog2 on the other hand1 ,clydesdale horses sometimes attain to almost elephantine proportions4 ,there is a wide difference between the bull-like ,suffolk ,punch and the greyhound-like racer4 ,the ,english and ,irish racer is said to owe its origin to a cross between the old ,english light-legged breed and the ,arabian4 ,the most valuable kind of carriage horse is the joint product of the draught-horse and the racer4 ,the dray-horse of these countries has a large share of ,flemish blood in him4 ,the best horses for agricultural purposes are unquestionably the ,,clydesdale and the ,,suffolk ,,punch4 ,the latter is perhaps to be preferred in most instances1 especially on light lands4 ,very light and feeble horses are the most expensive variety on almost any kind of farm2 for whilst they consume nearly as much food as the most powerful animals1 and are therefore nearly as costly1 they are incapable of effectively performing their work4 ,a large proportion of the farm horses used by the small farmers of ,ireland are totally unsuited for tillage purposes4 ,on the other hand1 there is no need to employ horses equal in size to the ponderous creatures that draw brewers' carts4 ,moderate sized horses1 with well rounded1 compact bodies1 and muscular but not too heavy limbs1 are the kind best adapted for farm purposes4 ,in ,ireland1 where there are not fewer than #fjj1jjj horses1 a considerable infusion of blood from ,clydesdales and ,suffolk ,punches is much required4 ,hunters and ,racers4--,there is a strong tendency in the human mind to look with a regretful feeling to the past1 and to compare it to the disadvantage of the present4 ,it is a general belief with most people that the old time was the best time2 that the seasons were more genial formerly2 that provisions were cheaper and more abundant2 that men were taller1 and stouter1 and healthier2 that1 in a word1 everything was better in the days of yore than it is now1 and that degeneracy and effeteness are the prevailing characteristics of our age4 ,philosophers1 statists1 and political economists tell us that all this regret for the good old time is mis-spent sympathy2 for that we are in every respect superior--in physique1 health1 morals1 and wealth--to our ancestors4 ,on the whole1 ,i rather incline myself to this comfortable philosophy2 but we must admit that we have not progressed in all things since the times of our fathers4 ,in a work entitled ,a ,comparative ,view of the ,form and ,character of the ,english ,racer and ,saddle ,horse during the ,last and ,present ,centuries1 published by ,hookham1 of ,old ,bond ,street1 ,london1 it is proved very clearly that the ,english race-horse has sadly degenerated4 ,the author very properly traces the cause of its decay to the avarice of the turfites3 they look upon the noble animal as a mere gambling machine2 and they sacrifice all its other qualities to the excessive development of that one which is likely to put money in their pockets4 ,formerly1 gentlemen kept horses for their own sakes--for their admiration and enjoyment of one of the most beautiful1 docile1 and useful of animals4 ,they were incessant in their efforts to develop into perfection all the really valuable points in the animal2 and the result was1 that the ,english and ,irish racer of the last century was unmatched for strength1 speed1 and endurance4 ,models of this splendid race of horses are seldom to be found at the present time2 but there are1 perhaps1 sporting men living who saw them in the celebrated ,mambrino1 ,sweet ,briar1 and ,sweet ,william4 ,those horses possessed compact bodies1 capacious lungs1 strong loins1 large joints1 and enormous masses of muscular tissue on the shoulder-blades and arms4 ,they were good weight-carrying hunters as well as racers1 and they could carry eight stones over a six miles heat1 or twelve stones over a four miles one4 ,the ,irish horses1 at least1 were capable of safely carrying thirteen stones over what would now be considered a very ugly ditch1 and could get over a long steeplechase in a style which would astonish the owners of the modern weeds4 ,since the distance to be traversed by competing horses has been reduced from the old-fashioned three heats of four miles each to a single run of a mile or two1 and also since the weight imposed upon the animals has been reduced to six or seven stones1 from ten to twelve1 the anatomical structure of the race-horse has undergone a remarkable and serious alteration4 ,the back has become very long1 the sides flat1 the loins weak1 the limbs long and very thin2 and this alteration in structure has been attended by weakness of constitution and a remarkable tendency to disease4 ,the modern horse has attained to a remarkable degree of rapidity of locomotion1 but it has been at the expense of its vigor1 endurance1 and health2 it can run with great velocity for a short distance1 but in a four-mile heat1 and mounted by a man of average weight1 a mediocre horse of the style of the middle of the last century would come to the post long before the winner of the last ,st4 ,leger4 ,the decay of the breed of horses in this country is a serious matter1 and the attention of all who are interested in the preservation of this animal should be earnestly and promptly directed towards discovering the means of regeneration4 ,my remarks are directed towards racers and hunters4 ,the quality of speed which they possess has been developed to an extent which is incompatible with the development of equally essential properties4 ,encouragement should be given to the production of weight-carrying hunters2 steeple-chasing should be restored to its old state1 when only a powerful horse had a chance of success4 ,the quality of speed should be promoted in the animal up to a certain point2 but when the development of this attribute begins to cause a loss of strength and endurance1 it is high time to check it4 ,there are a few horses at present which are strong and moderately fast3 why should not steeple-chasing be of the kind which would call this style of animal into competition8 ,only a weed can now enter with any probability of success at a race of this kind2 and when he has won it1 of what use is he as a good hunter8 ,what we want are good1 stout1 healthy horses1 capable of carrying1 in good style1 twelve stones weight over a rough country2 and the object of steeple-chasing should be the production of such a race of horses4 99 99 99 99 99 ,footnote #ag3 ,improved by ,leicester blood4 ,footnote #ah3 ,the object of the first breeders of the ,leicester was to produce a sheep which would yield a great carcass1 and small offal weight4 ,so far as the results of these experiments go1 ,i think the idea of the founder of this breed has been realised4 ,footnote #ai3 ,transactions of the ,highland and ,agricultural ,society of ,scotland1 for ,july1 #ahfj4 ,,part ,,iii4 ,,on ,,the ,,management ,,of ,,live ,,stock4 ,,section ,i4 ,,the ,,ox4 ,breeding ,cows4--,the period of gestation in the cow is about nine months4 ,the earliest time at which it is at all safe to breed from these animals is when they are one year and eight months old4 ,shorthorns breed early1 whilst the mountain varieties are seldom in calf before they are three years old4 ,the practice of very early breeding1 though approved of by some extensive rearers of stock1 is not to be commended for sound physiological reasons4 ,cows calve at all times of the year2 but the most favorable time is near the end of winter1 or in early spring4 ,the cows should at this time be in fair condition--neither too fat nor too lean4 ,parturition should take place in a roomy1 covered place1 provided with abundance of clean litter4 ,if such a place be not available1 a nice paddock close to the house must answer4 ,after having given birth to the calf1 the cow should receive an oatmeal drink1 or some warm and nutritious mash1 and afterwards be liberally fed4 ,the cow is usually allowed to run dry four or five weeks before calving3 this period should not be curtailed2 on the contrary1 it would be better to extend it to six weeks1 so as not to allow her condition to become too poor4 ,the ,wintering of ,young ,stock4--,there are certain localities wherein the rearing of young stock is one of the easiest tasks which devolve upon the farmer4 ,well-drained and shady fields1 yielding abundance of sound herbage1 and through which streams of pure water unceasingly flow1 are just the proper locale for economically feeding young animals4 ,but there are districts in which those favorable conditions do not exist2 yet they are not better adapted to other uses4 ,it is only the feeders of young stock in wet1 moory1 sandy1 or undrained1 heavy soils who really have cause for anxiety and incessant watchfulness4 ,in rearing a calf the great object is to cause a rapid and uninterrupted increase in the weight of its body4 ,at first the food of the animal should be furnished solely from the maternal founts2 but at an early stage of its existence--about the third or fourth week--other food may wholly1 or in part1 be substituted for the natural aliment4 ,it is important that no great interval should elapse between the hours of feeding4 ,the digestive apparatus of the young animal is small1 and its powers of assimilation are very energetic4 ,the food with which it is supplied should1 therefore1 be given in moderate quantities1 and very frequently4 ,this is1 in fact1 what takes place when the calf is allowed free access to its dam2 for the instant it feels a desire for aliment1 the supply is at once available4 ,of course1 there may be objections to this plan on the score of economy2 but as a general rule1 too much liberality cannot be exercised in feeding growing animals2 and there is nothing more certain than that the calf which is illiberally fed will never be developed into a valuable1 matured animal4 ,when carefully tended from their birth1 comfortably housed in winter1 and abundantly supplied with nutritious food1 it is sometimes wonderful the rapid progress which young stock make4 ,mr4 ,wright mentions a remarkable case of early maturity1 which occurred in his own herd4 ,a young steer1 one year old1 exhibited all the development of an animal twice its age4 ,this bullock had been suckled for three months1 whereby it had not only kept its calf-flesh1 but gained and retained a step in advance4 ,its weight when only a year old was no less than #ej stones2 and as the price of beef at the time was #hs4 #i;d4 per stone1 live weight1 the carcass of the animal was worth ,l#ba #ags4 #f;d4 ,mr4 ,wright offers this fact as a suggestive one to those farmers who think of bringing up their calves on old milk1 or who would otherwise stint their growth4 ,supposing1 then1 that we have young stock which had been liberally treated when in their baby state1 how are we to most economically maintain them throughout the winter8 ,in the first place1 they should be kept in warm sheds1 and well sheltered from both rain and wind4 ,some authorities contend that exercise is necessary to young stock1 and deny that a proper development of the muscles 7lean flesh7 can take place if they are cooped up like fattening turkeys during the winter4 ,there is some truth in this opinion2 and if the animals be designed for breeding or dairy purposes1 their freedom of motion should only be partially restrained4 ,on the other hand1 if they be intended for an early introduction to the shambles1 the less exercise they get the greater will be the profit on their keep4 ,i have known cases where animals were closely housed for seven months1 and yet their health did not appear to suffer in the slightest degree4 ,in fact1 so predominant are the vegetative functions of the ruminants over their nervous attributes1 that the only essential conditions of their existence are adequate supplies of good air and food4 ,that the health of these animals does occasionally suffer when the motions of their bodies are reduced to a minimum is quite true2 but in most of these instances the real cause is1 not the want of exercise1 but the want of pure air4 ,the greatest care should1 therefore1 be taken in the ventilation of the places where stock1 whether old or young1 are kept2 and no economy of space or heat will compensate for the want of wholesome air4 ,under the fallacious idea that exposure to cold renders young stock hardy1 many farmers turn them out to eat straw in the open fields in frosty weather4 ,treatment of this kind1 instead of being productive of good1 almost invariably lays the foundation of disease1 which will manifest itself at some stage of the animal's growth4 ,there are a few favored localities1 such as those to which ,i have already alluded1 where yearlings may be occasionally allowed a turn through the fields in winter2 but on cold clays1 wet moors1 and sandy soils the young stock should never be permitted to leave their sheds or courts from the time they are housed till late in the spring4 ,young stock are best fed on good meadow hay and turnips1 with a moderate supplement of oil-cake2 this1 however1 is expensive feeding in many farms1 and a little filling-in may be done with cheaper or more easily obtainable stuffs4 ,a mixture of cut chaff1 with pulped mangels1 is a good substitute for the more costly hay2 and particularly in the case of animals intended for breeding or for the dairy4 ,the roots should be pulped1 and allowed to remain until1 owing to a slight fermentation1 they become warm4 ,this change takes place in from twenty-four hours to sixty hours1 according to the temperature2 but the fermentation should not be carried farther than the earliest stage4 ,the heated pulp should then be thoroughly mixed with the chaff1 and the compound1 after an hour or two1 will be ready for use4 ,a little chopped hay--no matter if inferior or slightly mildewed--may be substituted for the chaff1 and turnips employed instead of the mangels1 but the latter are the more desirable roots4 ,until lately1 the use of oil-cake was confined to fattening animals1 but latterly it is freely given to calves1 even when they are only a month old2 and there is no doubt but that it is a suitable and economical food for store stock4 ,it is1 however1 sometimes given in excess3 from half a pound to two and a half pounds daily will be sufficient for animals under one year2 and this addition to their food will be found to exercise a beneficial influence on them when they are placed in stalls for finishing4 ,the experience of several eminent breeders has proved that fattening beasts1 which had in their youth a supply of oil-cake1 or its equivalent1 invariably store up a larger portion of their food than those which had been reared on hay and roots only4 ,mr4 ,george ,stodart1 of ,cultercullen1 an ,aberdeenshire farmer1 describes1 in the ,irish ,farmer's ,gazette1 his method of rearing calves3-- ,i occupy 7says ,mr4 ,stodart7 a farm of #chj acres4 ,i usually rear twenty-four calves yearly1 and buy in sixteen one-year-olds4 ,i generally breed from cross cows 7the same as mentioned above71 served by a pure ,shorthorn bull4 ,when the calves are dropped ,i put two calves to suck one cow for six months4 ,in autumn1 spring calves are put into the house upon turnips and straw1 with about #a lb4 of oil-cake per day to each1 until they are put out to grass in spring following1 at which time they are one year old4 ,then1 of course1 they have grass in summer1 and at the approach of winter they are again housed upon turnips and straw1 which bring them to be two years old in spring4 ,now they are sent out to the best grass1 and again brought into the house at the beginning of ,september1 and fed on turnips and straw until the end of ,november or middle of ,december1 when they usually fetch from ,l#be to ,l#cb a-head4 ,this year 7#ahfd71 however1 they will average ,l#cb4 a-head4 ,before selling ,i give each #c-a_/b lbs4 of oil-cake per day for six weeks1 and during this time they have swede turnips2 at other times yellow4 ,we give as much turnips at all times as they can eat4 ,mr4 ,bowick1 in his excellent paper on the rearing of calves1 published in the ,journal of the ,royal ,agricultural ,society1 gives the following information on this subject3-- ,we consider it desirable to allow the calf to remain with its dam for the first three or four days after calving4 ,not much trouble is generally experienced in getting it to take to the pail4 ,we find it better to miss the evening's meal1 and next morning a very little attention induces the majority of them to partake of what is set before them4 ,at most the guidance of the fingers may be wanted for the first meal or two4 ,as regards the quantity of milk which is needful to keep a moderately bred ,shorthorn calf in a thriving condition1 we have found the following allowance to come pretty near the mark1 although the appetite of calves varies1 both in individuals and at different times with the same animal3-- #ast week with the dam2 or #d quarts per day1 at two meals4 #bnd to #dth week1 #e to #f quarts per day1 at two meals4 #dth to #fth week1 #f to #g quarts per day1 at two meals4 ,and the quantity need not1 during the ensuing six weeks 7after which it is weaned71 exceed a couple of gallons per day4 ,this implies that the calf is fed upon new milk only1 and that no other feeding liquids are employed4 ,but1 in addition to the above1 the calf will1 towards the fourth week1 begin to eat a little green hay2 and in a week or two later1 some sliced roots1 or meal1 or finely crushed cake1 mixed with hay-chaff2 and1 if really good1 creditable beasts are wanted--such as will realise ,l#be a-head from the butcher when turned two and a half years old--a little cake or meal in their early days will be found a desirable investment4 ,in fact1 we doubt not but #a lb4 of cake per day to the calf will make as much flesh as triple the quantity of cake at any period of after life4 ,as regards meal1 if that is given with the chaff1 we prefer oatmeal1 or barley-meal1 or wheaten flour1 but not the meal of beans or pease4 ,others may see it differently1 but we believe beans to be too heating for any class of young stock4 ,for roots1 the best we know of is the carrot1 grated and mixed with the chaff1 or sliced thin with a knife and given alone4 ,it is also1 of all roots1 the one which we find them most fond of1 and which they will most readily take to4 ,as soon as they can eat them freely1 an immediate reduction in the supply of milk may be made4 ,in most articles it holds good in the end that the best is the cheapest4 ,so with the rearing of calves2 the best class of food1 or that above referred to1 is found to give the greatest ultimate satisfaction4 ,but practically the question often is1 how to rear good calves with comparatively little new milk1 a condition which circumstances often render almost imperative2 for where dairy produce1 in any other form1 is the chief object1 the calves stand in a secondary position1 and are treated accordingly4 ,but let us ask whether you cannot rear good stock under such circumstances also8 ,we believe that this may be1 and often is done4 ,we manage to turn out from twenty-five to thirty calves annually--such as will pass muster anywhere--and never use at any one time more than six gallons of new milk daily4 ,for this purpose1 as well as to obtain a regular supply of milk for other purposes1 the calves are allowed to come at different periods1 extending from ,october to ,may4 ,hence the calf-house has generally a succession of occupants throughout the season2 and as one lot are ready to be removed1 and placed loose in a small hovel1 with yard attached1 others fill their places4 ,we begin with new milk from the pail1 which is continued for a fortnight after leaving the cow4 ,then skim-milk--boiled1 and allowed to cool to the natural warmth--is substituted to the extent of one-third of the allowance4 ,in another week the new milk is reduced to half1 and at the same time1 not before1 boiled linseed is added to the mess4#bj ,as soon as they take freely to this food1 the new milk may be replaced with that from the dairy1 and the calf is encouraged to indulge in a few sliced carrots and the other dry foods named4 ,mr4 ,murray1 of ,overstone1 thus states the expense of rearing the calf until it is two years old1 when1 after the weaning process is completed1 it is turned out to grass3-- ,during the summer they have the run of a grass paddock during the day1 but return regularly to their yards at night2 the following winter they are kept in larger yards1 and which contain a greater number of animals4 ,their bill of fare for this winter is #b lbs4 of oil-cake1 half a bushel of cut roots1 with cut chaff ad libitum4 ,the chaff has a small quantity of flour or pollard mixed with it1 is moistened with water1 and the whole mass turned over2 this is done the day previous to using it4 ,by this means they eat the chaff with more relish1 and moistening it prevents the flour being wasted4 ,they are put to grass the following summer1 generally from the #aeth to the #bjth of ,may1 or as soon as the pastures are in a state to receive them2 they remain there on second-rate land till about the end of ,october1 when they are brought home and tied up in the stalls4 ,the daily allowance is then #d lbs4 linseed-cake1 #d lbs4 flour--#c_/d bean1 #a_/d barley--#a bushel of cut roots with cut chaff2 the flour and chaff is mixed as already described4 ,at about the end of ,december the quantity of cake is increased to #h lbs41 and the flour to #f lbs42 this they continue to receive till they are sold to the butcher during the months of ,march and ,april1 when they weigh1 on an average1 #ij stones of #h lbs4 per bullock1 and under two years and six months old4 ,at this season of the year beef generally makes #es4 per stone--we often make #is4--but taking that as an average would make the value of each beast ,l#bb #ajs4 ,the cost of keeping to this age will be as follows3-- ,l s4 d4 ,one calf #b #j #j ,milk1 c41 nine weeks #a #e #j ,cake1 grass1 c41 forty-three weeks1 at #as4 #f;d4 #c #d #f ,second year1 ,november till ,may1 cake1 flour1 roots1 c41 #bs4 #f;d4 per week1 for twenty-six weeks #c #e #j ,may till ,november1 grass1 twenty-six weeks1 at #bs4 #f;d4 #c #e #j ,third year1 ,november till ,april1 twenty weeks1 at #hs4 #h #j #j --------- ,l#bj #ai #f ,which leaves a gain to each animal of ,l#a #ajs4 #f;d41 besides the manure4 ,shelter of ,stock4--,the great diminution of temperature1 and the falling off in the supply of herbage1 that are coincident with the close of the autumn1 render it necessary to remove our cattle from the open fields1 and provide them with some sort of shelter during the winter months and early part of the spring4 ,the particular period at which this change of quarters takes place of course varies1 and is1 in fact1 altogether dependent upon the character of the season4 ,there are some years in which there is1 so to speak1 a kind of relapse of the summer1 ,november being bright and warm1 instead of1 as is usually the case1 cold and foggy4 ,in such a year there is some herbage to be picked up until the very end of ,december4 ,on the other hand1 the latter part of ,october is often very wet1 and ,october frosts are by no means uncommon4 ,tempestuous1 biting winds in ,november1 or torrents of rain1 or both1 tell severely upon the poor animals in the fields1 even where there is abundance of herbage2 and hence1 should such weather take place at the latter part of ,october1 the true economy would be to remove the animals at once to sheltered places4 ,nothing lowers the temperature of the surface so rapidly as a cold wind4 ,captain ,parry1 one of the explorers of the ,arctic regions1 states that his men1 when well clothed1 suffered no inconvenience on exposure to the low temperature of #ee degrees below zero1 provided the air was perfectly calm2 but the slightest breeze1 when the air was at this temperature1 caused the painful sensation produced by intense cold4 ,i could adduce the experience of many practical men in favor of the plan of affording shelter to animals1 but more especially to those kept in situations much exposed to winds4 ,mr4 ,nesbit relates a case bearing on this point3--,a farmer in ,dorsetshire put up twenty or thirty sheep1 under the protection of a series of upright double hurdles lined with straw1 having as a sort of roof1 or lean-to1 a single hurdle1 also lined with straw4 ,a like number of sheep1 of the same weight1 were fed in the open field1 without shelter of any kind4 ,each set was fed with turnips ad libitum4 ,the result was1 that those without shelter increased in weight #a lb4 per week for each sheep1 whilst those under shelter1 although they consumed less food1 increased respectively #c lbs4 per week4 ,as a general rule1 the latter part of ,october1 or early in ,november1 is the time for the removal of live stock from the pastures to the shelter of the farmstead4 ,in ,england and ,scotland the transference is seldom delayed after these dates2 but in ,ireland it is no uncommon thing to see the animals grazing very much later in the year--a circumstance which the lateness and mildness of our climate account for4 ,but whatever the date may be1 the importance of such shelter is universally recognised1 even by those who most neglect it and are least acquainted with the principles upon which its necessity depends4 ,the more important of these principles have already been explained1 but they may be here summarised as follows3-- #a4 ,a certain amount of warmth is an indispensable condition for the maintenance of the life of animals4 #b4 ,the internal heat of the bodies of animals is supplied by the chemical combination which takes place between the oxygen of the atmospheric air which they inspire and certain of the constituents 7carbon and hydrogen7 of the food which they consume1 or1 to speak more accurately1 of the tissues of their bodies1 which are formed out of their food4 ,it is very much in the same way in which our houses are heated by the burning of coal1 turf1 or wood in their fire-places1 since the heat derived in the latter case is obtained from a similar source as in the former one--namely1 by the union of the oxygen of the air with the carbon and hydrogen of the fuel4 ,the only real difference between the two kinds of combustion is1 that in respiration the process is conducted with an extreme degree of slowness1 whilst in the ordinary fire the combinations take place rapidly1 and the heat being evolved in a much shorter time is proportionately the more intense4 #c4 ,the temperature of the external parts of the animal body varies with the nature and quantity of the food supplied to it1 and also depends upon the state of the weather and the character of the protection afforded to it4 ,the colder the air1 the greater will be the quantity of food required1 and the more complete the shelter4 ,in other words1 a diminution of temperature1 no matter how caused1 will necessitate an increased amount of food and more perfect shelter1 in order to maintain at the proper degree of heat the fluids of the body4 ,it is only the external parts of the body that become cold3 so long as the animal is in health its blood always maintains the same degree of temperature2 but in cold weather the blood is subjected to a greater cooling power than it is in warm weather1 and this cooling power it can only resist by taxing more extensively the heat-producing resources of the body4 #d4 ,exposure to wet1 even in warm weather1 will tend to reduce the temperature of the body1 since the conversion of water into vapor can only be effected at the expense of heat1 which heat must be in great part extracted from the body of the animal itself4 #e4 ,no possible increase of food1 however nutritious it may be1 can suffice to keep up the due warmth and healthy condition of the animal frame in winter1 if shelter from cold and rain be not simultaneously effected4 ,on the contrary1 an animal well protected from the winter blasts will require much less food than if it were placed in an exposed position4 ,the reason of this is1 that the amount of food which an animal exposed to great cold consumes to maintain the temperature of its body would1 under opposite conditions1 be stored up in the form of permanent increase--beef or mutton for the butcher1 in fact4 ,the fat-forming constituents of the food of stock are in no case converted into permanent fat1 except when they exceed in quantity the amount required to keep up the internal heat of the animal2 but when this is constantly reduced by exposure to a wintry temperature1 the food becomes insufficient for even that purpose1 no matter how much aliment is given4 ,what1 then1 must not be the condition of the unfortunate animals whose fate it is to be the property of a farmer who neither shelters them from the weather nor provides them with a sufficient quantity of nourishing food6 ,milch ,cows4--,when dairy-farming is conducted on pure pastures1 the cows are altogether dependent upon the grasses2 and in winter1 the animals suffer much from scarcity of food4 ,this is the very worst system of cow-keeping1 but it is prevalent amongst many small farmers in ,ireland1 and is to be met with even in ,england and ,scotland4 ,i am strongly of opinion that it would be far more economical to keep cows 7and other cattle7 altogether in the house1 and feed them with cut grass1 than to allow them to remain out altogether in the field4 ,there are several disadvantages resulting from the depasturing of cows4 ,in the warm weather1 the animals are greatly annoyed by the attacks of flies3 there is a considerable waste of muscle1 caused by the movements of the animals whilst in search of their food2 and the excrements of the animals and their footmarks injure a large portion of the grass4 ,it may be somewhat troublesome and expensive to cut the grass1 and convey it from the field to the house2 but the labor and the cost will be more than repaid by the greatly-increased yield of food4 ,a grass-field1 mowed1 will produce from #bj to #cj per cent4 more food than it would if it were trampled upon and soiled by cattle4 ,exercise for an hour or two in the cool of the evening1 or early in the morning 7during the hot weather71 will be quite sufficient to keep the animals in health4 ,this may be taken in a field1 better in a paddock1 best of all in a roomy yard4 ,when cattle are supplied with cut grass1 or clover1 care should be taken not to give it to them when very wet1 for otherwise there is danger of the excessively moist herbage producing the hoove4 ,neither should large quantities of the green food be given to them--the supply should be little and often4 ,should the food be too succulent1 the addition of a little straw will correct its laxative effects4 ,when the stock is about passing from the winter keep to summer food1 the transition should be gradual2 a well-made compound of straw or hay with grass 7natural or artificial7 is much relished by cows4 ,a supply of good water is absolutely necessary2 but sufficient attention to this important point is seldom given4 ,cooked food is well adapted for milch cows4 ,mangels1 kohl-rabi1 and cabbages are each of them better food than turnips1 as the latter is apt to impart a disagreeable flavour to the butter4 ,three feeds in the day is a sufficient number for cows4 ,the first meal should be early in the morning1 and may consist of roots1 mixed with straw or hay4 ,some feeders prefer using dry fodder1 or cooked food of some kind1 and not raw roots4 ,the second meal is given at mid-day1 and the third in the evening4 ,the daily allowance of roots varies from #b to #h stones1 depending upon the quantities of other foods used4 ,mr4 ,horsfall's diet is as follows3--,hay1 #i lbs42 rape-cake1 #f lbs42 malt-combs1 #a lb42 bran1 #a lb42 roots1 #bh lbs4 ,these substances are mixed and cooked1 and the animals receive them in a warm state4 ,in addition to this food1 ,mr4 ,horsfall's cows get bean-meal--a cow in full milk #b lbs41 others from #a_/b lb4 to #a-a_/b lbs42 cost per week per cow1 #hs4 #g;d4#ba ,mr4 ,alcock1 of ,skipton1 feeds his cows as follows3--,raw mangels1 #bj lbs42 carob beans1 #c lbs42 bran and malt-combs1 #a-c_/d lbs42 bean-meal1 #c-a_/b lbs42 rape-cake1 #c lbs42 per diem4 ,a steamed mixture of wheat and bean straws and shells of oats ad libitum4 ,oats1 to the extent of #b or #c lbs4 daily1 are an excellent food for cows4 ,an important point in dairy economics is the feeding of the cows at regular intervals4 ,if the usual time for the feed be allowed to pass1 the animals are almost certain to become very uneasy--to worry2 and every feeder knows1 or ought to know1 that a fretting beast will neither fatten nor yield milk satisfactorily4 ,the cow-house ought to be kept as clean as possible2 and the excreta1 therefore1 should be removed several times a day4 ,mr4 ,harvey1 of ,glasgow1 has probably one of the largest dairies in the world4 ,his cow byres1 #ef yards long1 and from #ab to #bd feet wide--according as one or two rows of cows are to be accommodated--stand closely packed1 the whole surface of the ground being thus covered by a kind of roof4 ,from #ijj to #a1jjj cows are constantly in milk4 ,they are fed during winter partly on steamed turnips 7#g tons being steamed daily in order to give one meal daily to #ijj cows71 partly on coarse hay1 of which1 as of straw1 they get between #bj and #cj lbs4 a day each4 ,they are also fed on draff1 of which they receive half a bushel daily each2 on ,indian corn meal1 of which they have #c lbs4 daily each2 and on pot-ale1 of which they receive three times a day nearly as much as they will consume1 i4e41 from #f to #aj gallons daily4 ,during the summer they are let out1 a byreful at a time1 for half a day to grass1 and on coming in receive their spent malt and still liquor1 and hay in addition4 ,they are managed1 cleaned1 and fed by two men to each byre holding about #ajj cows4 ,the milking is done three times a day1 by women who take charge of #ac cows in full milk1 or double that number in half milk1 apiece4 ,between #d and #e o'clock a4m4 7taking the winter management71 the byres are cleaned out1 and the cows receive a big shovelful of draff apiece1 and half their steamed turnips and meal1 and a half stoupful1 7probably #b gallons7 of pot-ale4 ,they are milked very early4 ,at #g they receive their fodder-straw or hay4 ,at #aj they get a full stoupful 7probably #c or #d gallons7 of pot-ale4 ,they are milked at noon4 ,at #b p4m41 or thereabouts1 they are foddered again1 and at #d p4m4 receive the same food as at the morning meal4 ,they are again milked at #e to #f1 cleaned out and left till morning4 ,the average produce is stated to be #b gallons a day per cow4 ,mrs4 ,scott1 of ,weekston1 ,peebles1 who keeps one of the best managed dairy farms in the ,united ,kingdom1 thus conducts her operations in the winter3--,at #f o'clock in the morning the cows are well wiped or scrubbed1 have their bedding removed1 and receive each about #d or #e lbs4 of straw4 ,at #h o'clock the cows are milked1 and ,mrs4 ,scott examines each to ascertain whether or not the milk-maid has left any fluid in the udder--and woe betide the careless maid if her work has been carelessly done6 ,at #aj o'clock a barrowful of turnips is divided amongst three cows1 and when these roots are not available1 a quantity of peas or bean meal1 with a pint of cold water1 takes their place4 ,at #a o'clock the cows are allowed out to be watered1 and during their absence from the byre it is thoroughly cleansed and ventilated4 ,when the state of the weather prevents the cows from being turned out1 they receive twice a day a handful of oatmeal diffused throughout three pints of water--a handful of salt being given in the first of these drinks4 ,when the cows return to the byre1 they receive each about #d or #e lbs4 of straw1 and at #d or #e o'clock an evening meal of turnips equal to their morning feed4 ,at #h o'clock a windling of meadow hay is given to each pair of cows1 the quantity being always regulated according to the requirements of each cow4 ,the cows upon calving receive1 in addition to this allowance of hay1 half a pailful of boiled turnips1 mixed with a quart of peas or bean-meal4 ,this mess is given in a lukewarm state4 ,mrs4 ,scott's system may be thus epitomised3 ,regularity in feeding2 sufficient but not excessive food2 regularity in milking2 and minute attention to cleanliness and ventilation4 ,stall-feeding4--,what becomes of the #ij per cent4 of the weight of the non-nitrogenous constituents of the food of the sheep1 and of the #hj per cent4 of that of the nutriment of the pig1 which they consume but do not store up8 ,i have already partly answered this question4 ,this portion of the food is chiefly expended in the production of the heat with which the high temperature of the animal's body is maintained4 ,part of it1 no doubt1 passes unchanged through its body1 either owing to its indigestibility1 or to its being given in excess4 ,the quantity of non-nitrogenous matters consumed by a man is influenced greatly by the temperature of the air which he habitually breathes1 and by the nature of the artificial covering of his body2 there may be other conditions at present unknown to us1 but these are amongst the chief ones4 ,now1 as there is sufficient reason to lead us to believe that the consumption of carbonaceous food by the lower animals is influenced in the same way by the temperature of the medium in which they exist1 the question naturally suggests itself1 would it not be cheaper to maintain the heat of the animal by burning the carbon of cheap coal or turf outside its body1 than by consuming the carbon of costly fat within it8 ,the answer to this question is not so simple as at first sight it appears to be4 ,we must not consider that1 because #aj lbs4 weight of carbon1 as coal1 costs but a penny1 whilst an equal weight of the same element in starch costs twenty pence1 heat may be furnished to a fattening animal twenty times cheaper by the combustion of coal than by that of starch4 ,no doubt the amount of heat evolved by the conversion of a pound-weight of carbon into carbonic acid is the same1 whether it be a constituent of starch or of coal2 but the application of the heat so produced is less under our control in the latter case4 ,all the heat evolved during the combustion of the starch within the animal's body is made use of2 whilst a very large proportion of that developed by the combustion of coal in a furnace cannot in practice be applied to the purpose of heating the animal's body4 ,it is only the handiwork of the ,creator which is perfect1 and no machine constructed by the skill of man1 for the direction of force1 can rival that wondrous heat-producing1 force-directing mechanism--the animal organism4 ,according to ,dumas1 the combustion of about #b-a_/b lbs4 of carbon in a steam-engine is required to generate sufficient force to convey a man from the level of the sea to the summit of ,mont ,blanc2 but a man will ascend the mountain in two days1 and burn in his mechanism only half a pound of carbon4 ,there is no machine in which heat and force are more completely made available than the animal organism2 and were it not--thanks to the influence of antediluvian sunshine--that the carbon of fuel in these countries is so very much cheaper than the carbon of food1 there is no doubt but that the cheapest mode of keeping an animal warm would be to allow it to burn its carbon within its body4 ,as the matter stands1 however1 there is no question as to the advisability of keeping fattening animals in a warm place4 ,if the temperature of the stall be equal to that of the animal's body there will be less food consumed in the increase of its fat2 because less of the fat-forming materials will be expended in the production of heat4 ,in this sense1 therefore1 heat is an equivalent to food1 but only within certain limits2 because heat is developed in large quantity within the animal body independently of the temperature of the air4 ,there is1 therefore1 no object to be attained by having the stalls heated beyond #gj or #hj degrees4 ,indeed1 it is to be questioned whether or not stalls artificially heated are ever properly ventilated4 ,if they be not1 the health of the animal will suffer1 and its appetite--so essential a point in fattening stock--will become impaired4 ,we may conclude--firstly1 that animals1 when fattening1 should be kept at a temperature not under #gj degrees nor above #ij degrees ,fahrenheit2 secondly1 that the mode of heating must be such that there is as little wasteful combustion of fuel as is possible under the circumstances2 and1 lastly1 that no motives of economy of fuel should prevent the feeding places from being thoroughly ventilated4 ,stall-feeding is not so extensively carried on in ,ireland as it is in ,great ,britain4 ,there is a general impression that it does not pay in the former country2 but if such be the case1 it is simply owing to the want of skill on the part of the ,irish feeders4 ,the cattle intended for stall-feeding should be removed 7if out7 from the field in ,october1 and put into the house1 or court1 or crib1 or hammel1 as the case may be4 ,they are fed upon roots1 straw1 hay1 grain1 and artificial food4 ,the greatest skill is required in their treatment4 ,it is a nice point to determine which foods are the most economical1 and also to ascertain in what foods excessive proportions of certain nutritive elements exist4 ,sufficient food should be given2 but any approach to waste should be avoided4 ,three feeds a day are usually given1 and should be supplied at the same hours each day4 ,for about two weeks the animals are furnished with white turnips ad libitum2 but after the expiration of that time they receive ,swedish turnips1 straw1 and grain1 or oil-cake4 ,late in the season mangels will replace turnips4 ,almost every extensive feeder now uses oil-cakes in large quantities2 but when oats are low in price1 they will in general be found a cheap equivalent for a large proportion of the oil-cake4 ,different feeders have different dietaries1 and the nature of the aliments supplied to fattening stock depends very much upon the market prices of food-stuffs1 and the locality in which the feeding-house is situated4 ,the following dietaries are but examples of the methods of feeding adopted in different districts and by different persons3-- ,mr4 ,mc,combie1 of ,tillyfour1 fattens from #cjj to #djj beasts annually1 and obtained for them in #ahfa ,l#ce per head4 ,he never exceeds #d lbs4 of oil-cake per diem1 nor #b lbs4 of bruised oats1 for each beast4 ,he gives as much turnip and straw as they can consume4 ,he realises ,l#ab per acre in feeding on ,aberdeen and ,swedish turnips4 ,for fatting cattle1 says ,mr4 ,edmonds1 of ,cirencester1 ,i should recommend two parts hay and one part straw1 or in forward animals three parts hay and one part straw cut in chaff4 ,those of average size will eat somewhere about five bushels per day1 with #d lbs4 to #e lbs4 oil-cake1 and half a peck of mixed meal1 barley and peas1 or beans1 and1 if cheap1 a proportion of wheat also1 to be increased to one peck per day in a month or six weeks after they have come to stall1 the oil-cake and meal to be boiled in water for half-an-hour or three-quarters1 and thrown in the form of rich soup over the chaff1 and well mixed1 to which add a little salt4 ,colonel ,m',douall1 of ,logan1 ,wigtonshire1 gives #c lbs4 of bean-meal and #c lbs4 of cut straw cooked together1 and #hd lbs4 of ,swedish turnips4 ,according to the researches of ,messrs4 ,lawes and ,gilbert1 an ox weighing #a1djj lbs4 ought to gain #bj lbs4 weekly when fed under cover with #h lbs4 of crushed oil-cake1 #ac lbs4 of chopped clover hay1 and #dg lbs4 of turnips4 ,the chemical constituents 7in a dried state7 of this allowance are as follows3-- ,ounces4 ,fat-formers1 or heat givers #bcb ,flesh-formers #ee ,mineral matter #bi ,cost of ,maintaining ,animals4--,the animal mechanism1 which exhibits the least tendency to fatten1 is the most costly to keep in repair1 in relation to the work performed by it4 ,if1 for example1 a sheep store up in its increase one-fifth of its food1 then the remaining four-fifths are expended in preserving it alive1 and their cost represents1 so to speak1 the expense of preserving the animal's body in repair4 ,if another sheep store up only one-tenth of its food1 then the cost of its maintenance may be said to be double that of the animal which retains the larger proportion of its nutriment in the form of flesh4 ,of course in both cases the value of the manure will to a great extent compensate for the cost of the food expended in merely keeping the animal alive2 but that does not affect the proposition1 that the less food expended by an animal in carrying on its vital functions the more valuable is it as a meat-manufacturing machine4 ,from the moment it is brought into the world until it is ripe for the shambles1 an animal should steadily increase in weight3 every week that it does not store up a portion of its food in permanent increase is the loss of a week's food to the feeder2 for all the fodder consumed during that time by the animal is1 so to speak1 devoted to its own private purposes4 ,sheep overcrowded on pastures1 milch cows on short commons1 calves kept on bulky innutritious food1 are all so many sources of positive loss to the feeder--and as many proofs that he who aspires to be a successful producer of meat1 must1 in one respect at least1 be a devout believer in the doctrine of ,progressive ,development4 ,cooking and ,bruising ,food4--,the cooking1 or the otherwise preparing1 of the food of the domesticated animals is a subject which until recently was completely ignored by the vast majority of stock feeders4 ,it is now1 however1 beginning to attract a fair amount of attention2 and no doubt ere long the best modes of treating the food of cattle will be discovered4 ,as might be expected from our limited experience of the subject1 there exists considerable difference of opinion relative to the proper method of cooking cattle food2 and there are many very extensive feeders who object to the plan altogether1 and contend that as the food of the inferior animals is naturally supplied to them in a raw condition1 it would be quite unnatural to give it to them in a cooked state4 ,whatever difference of opinion there may be with regard to the propriety of cooking the food of stock1 we believe there ought not to be a doubt as to the desirability of mechanically treating the harder kinds of feeding stuff4 ,it is quite evident that a horse fed upon hard grains of oats and wiry fibres of uncut hay or straw must expend no inconsiderable proportion of his motive power in the process of mastication4 ,after a hard day's work of eight or ten hours he has before him the laborious task of reducing to a pulp from #ab lbs4 to #bj lbs4 weight of exceedingly hard and tough vegetable matter2 and as this operation is carried on during the hours which should be devoted to rest1 the repose of the animal is to some extent interfered with4 ,indeed1 it not unfrequently happens that a horse1 after a hard day's work1 is too tired to chew his food properly2 he consequently bolts his oats1 a large proportion of which1 as a matter of course1 passes unchanged through the animal's body4 ,in order to render fully effective the motive power of the horse1 it is absolutely necessary to pay attention to the condition1 as well as to the quantity and quality of his nutriment4 ,the force wasted by a horse in the comminution of his food1 when composed of whole oats and uncut hay and straw1 cannot1 at the lowest estimate1 be less than that which he expends in an hour of ordinary work1 such as1 for example1 in ploughing4 ,the preparation of his food by means of water or steam power1 or even by animal motive power1 would economise by at least #ej per cent4 the labor expended in its mastication2 and this would be equivalent to nearly half a day's work in each week1 and1 consequently1 a clear gain of so much labor to the owner of the animal4 ,in the present time of water-power and steam-power corn-mills1 one man is able to grind the flour necessary for the support of several thousand men2 in early ages the labor of one person in the grinding of wheat served but to supply the wants of twenty others4 ,in both cases machinery was employed for reducing the grain to flour2 but in the one case1 the mechanisms employed were more than a hundred times more effective than in the other4 ,but even the most imperfect flour mill is by far a more economical system of comminuting corn than the jaws of animals2 and if every man were obliged1 as the horse is1 to grind his corn by means of his teeth alone1 he would find his powers for the performance of other kinds of labor considerably lessened4 ,it has been urged as an objection to the use of bruised oats by horses1 that they exercise in that state a laxative influence upon the animal's bowels4 ,i doubt very much that such is frequently the case1 when the animal is fed only upon oats and hay and straw2 but even if the oats produce such an effect1 the addition of a small proportion of beans--the binding properties of which are well known--will obviate the disadvantage4 ,the desirability of mechanically acting upon soft food is not so apparent as the necessity for the bruising of oats is4 ,roots are so easily masticable that if they are rendered more so there is danger of their being so hastily swallowed as to escape thorough insalivation1 which is so necessary to ensure perfect digestion4 ,to guard against this danger1 perhaps the best way would be to give pulped mangels and turnips mixed with cut straw2 a mixture which could not easily be bolted4 ,mr4 ,charles ,lawrence1 of ,cirencester1 who is a great advocate for the cooking of food1 and has frequently published his experience of the benefits derivable therefrom1 thus describes his method of combining pulped roots with dry fodder3-- ,we find that1 taking a score of bullocks together fattening1 they consume per head per diem three bushels of chaff1 mixed with just half a cwt4 of pulped roots1 exclusive of cakes of corn2 that is to say1 rather more than two bushels of chaff are mixed with the roots1 and given at two feeds1 morning and evening1 and the remainder is given with the cake1 c41 at the middle-day feed1 thus3--,we use the steaming apparatus of ,stanley1 of ,peterborough1 consisting of a boiler in the centre1 in which the steam is generated1 and which is connected by a pipe on the left hand with a large galvanised iron receptacle for steaming food for pigs1 and on the right with a large wooden tub1 lined with copper1 in which the cake1 mixed with water1 is made into a thick soup4 ,adjoining this is a slate tank1 of sufficient size to contain one feed for the entire lot of bullocks feeding4 ,into this tank is laid chaff with a three-grained fork1 and pressed down firmly2 and this process is repeated until the slate tank is full1 when it is covered down for an hour or two before feeding time4 ,the soup is then found entirely absorbed by the chaff1 which has become softened and prepared for ready digestion4 ,mr4 ,wright1 near ,dunbar1 gives the following account of an experiment with pulped roots and straw and oil-cake4 ,it appears to prove the superiority of mixed foods over the same foods consumed separately3-- ,two lots of year-old cattle were fed2 the one in the usual way--sliced turnips and straw1 ad libitum--the others with the minced turnips1 mixed with cut straw4 ,the first lot consumed daily #hd lbs4 sliced turnips1 #a lb4 oil-cake1 #a lb4 rape-cake1 #a_/b lb4 bean-meal1 broken small and mixed with a little salt1 and what straw they liked4 ,the second lot ate1 each1 daily1 #ej lbs4 minced turnips1 #a lb4 oil-cake1 #a lb4 rape-cake1 #a_/b lb4 bean-meal1 and a little salt1 the whole being mixed with double the bulk of cut straw or wheat chaff4 ,in spring1 the lot of cattle which had the mixed food were in good condition1 and equally well grown as others1 though they had consumed in five months two tons less of roots apiece4 ,the reporter does not advise the mincing process to be commenced when cattle are very forward in condition1 as any change of food requires a certain time to accustom the animals to it1 and in the meantime fat cattle are apt to fall off in condition4 ,it ought to be begun when they are young and lean4 ,mr4 ,duckham1 of ,baysham ,court1 ,ross1 ,herefordshire1 says3-- ,the advantages of pulping roots for cattle are--#ast1 ,economy of food2 for the roots being pulped and mixed with the chaff1 either from threshing or cut hay or straw1 the whole is consumed without waste1 the animals not being able to separate the chaff from the pulped roots1 as is the case when the roots are merely sliced by the common cutter1 neither do they waste the fodder as when given without being cut4 #b4 ,the use of ordinary hay or straw4 ,after being mixed with the pulp for about twelve hours1 fermentation commences1 and this soon renders the most mouldy hay palatable1 and animals eat with avidity that which they would otherwise reject4 ,this fermentation softens the straw1 makes it more palatable1 and puts it in a state to assimilate more readily with the other food4 ,in this respect ,i think the pulper of great value1 particularly upon corn farms where large crops of straw are grown1 and where there is a limited acreage of pasture1 as by its use the pastures may be grazed1 the expensive process of haymaking reduced1 and1 consequently1 an increased number of cattle kept4 ,i keep one-third more1 giving the young stock a small quantity of oil-cake1 which ,i mix with the chaff1 c4 #c4 ,choking is utterly impossible1 and ,i have only had one case of hoove in three years1 and that occurred when the mixture had not fermented4 #d4 ,there is an advantage in mixing the meal with the chaff and pulped roots for fattening animals1 as thereby they cannot separate it1 and the moisture from the fermentation softens the meal and ensures its thorough digestion1 whereas1 when given in a dry state without any mixture1 frequently a great portion passes away in the manure4 ,on the value of the process for a grazing farm with but a small quantity of plough-land1 ,mr4 ,corner1 of ,woodlands1 ,holford1 ,bridgewater1 thus speaks3-- ,my plan is1 first commencing with the grazing beasts1 to cut about an equal quantity of hay and straw and mix with a sufficient quantity of roots 7mostly mangel7 to well moisten the chaff2 and as the beasts advance in condition1 ,i lessen the straw and increase the hay1 and in their further progress ,i mix--in addition to all hay1 chaff1 and roots--from #f to #aj lb4 per day to each bullock of barley and bean-meal1 according to its size--and ,i have them large sometimes4 ,i sold last week for the ,london market a lot of ,devon oxen of very prime quality1 averaging in weight upwards of #ajj stone imperial each4 ,for my horses1 cows1 yearlings1 and oxen--the latter to be kept in a thriving condition1 and turned to grass1 and kept through the summer for ,christmas1 #ahfj--;,i cut nearly all straw1 with a very small quantity of hay1 and this the offal of the rick4 ,these also have as many pulped roots as will moisten the chaff1 except the horses1 and to them ,i give1 along with bruised oats1 just enough roots to keep their bowels in a proper condition4 ,to the two or three-year-old beasts ,i give some long straw and a part chaff1 and the offal 7if any7 of the food of the above lots of stock4 ,my farm is but a small one--under #bjj acres4 ,my predecessor always mowed nearly all the pastures for hay1 which is about half the farm1 and with this scarcely ever grazed any beasts1 and kept but very few sheep4 ,since my occupation ,i scarcely ever exceed ten acres of meadow with one field of seeds for hay4 ,i keep from #bej to #cjj large-size ,leicester sheep1 and graze from #bj to #be large-size beasts a year1 with other breeding stock in proportion4 ,i consider the pulping of roots is better for fatting pigs than anything else4 ,my plan is to have a large two-hogshead vat as near the pulping machine as possible1 so as to fill it with a malt shovel as it comes from the machine2 at the same time ,i keep a lad sprinkling meal 7either barley or ,indian corn7 with the roots2 and this is all done in fifteen or twenty minutes4 ,it is then ready for use1 to be carried to the pigs in the stalls alongside the fatting beasts4 ,i never could fatten a pig with profit until ,i used pulped roots4 ,although the practice of cooking food has been advocated by several eminent feeders1 it has been condemned by others4 ,mr4 ,lawes is not favorable to the cooking of food unless when it is scarce4 ,the results of ,colonel ,m',douall's experiments go to prove that cattle can be more economically kept upon a mixture of raw and cooked foods than upon either raw or cooked fodder given separately4 ,one meal of cooked food and two feeds of raw turnips gave better results than three feeds of raw turnips2 whilst two cooked feeds and a raw one resulted in a loss4 ,the fermentation of food1 if not the best1 is certainly the cheapest mode of preparing it4 ,if the process be not pushed too far the loss of nutriment sustained is inconsiderable4 ,when a mixture of straw and roots is fermented1 the hard fibres of the latter are1 to a great extent1 broken up1 and the nutrient particles which they envelop are fully exposed to the action of the solvent juices of the stomach4 ,a great advantage in cooking or fermenting food is that the most rubbishy materials can be used up4 ,indeed1 as a general rule1 the better soft food is1 the less the necessity for cooking it2 but washed out hay and hard1 over-ripened straw are of but little value1 except when cooked and given in combination with some agreeably-flavored substance4 ,,value ,,for ,,feeding ,,purposes ,,of ,,various ,,foods4#bb ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,,key3 ,a4--,starch1 ,sugar1 c4 ,b4--,oil1 ,starch1 c41 computed as ,oil4 ,c4--,weight4 ,d4--,value4 ,e4--,value of ,nitrogen1 ,phosphoric ,acid1 and ,potash4 ,f4--,deduct ,nitrogen for perspiration4 ,g4--,net ,value for ,manure4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,,cost4 #ajj ,,lbs4 ,,contain4 ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,,material4 ,nitrogen4 ,per ,per #ajj ------------- ton4 lbs4 ,oil4 ,a4 ,b4 ,c4 ,d4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,l s4 d4 s4 d4 lbs4 lbs4 lbs4 lbs4 d4 ,meadow-hay #d #j #j #c #g #b4fh #ci4ge #bd4fc #a4dh #aj4fb ,wheat-straw #a #ae #j #a #g #j4ej #cb4j #ah4ej #j4db #c4j ,swedish ,turnips #d #aj #j #d #j #b4j #fj4j #ce4j #b4dj #ag4bh ,oil-cake #i #f #h #h #d #ab4j #ch4j #cc4j #e4j #cf4j ,beans #i #f #h #h #d #b4j #db4j #be4cj #d4de #cb4j ,indian ,meal #i #f #h #h #d #g4j #fj4j #dj4j #b4be #af4bj ,carob1 or ,locust ,bean #i #f #h #h #d #f4gf #eg4j #ce4j #j4fd #c4ge ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ #ajj ,,lbs4 ,,contain4 ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,,material4 ,phosphoric ,potash4 ,acid4 ------------------------ ,c4 ,d4 ,c4 ,d4 ,e4 ,f4 ,g4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- lbs4 d4 lbs4 d4 s4 d4 d4 s4 d4 ,meadow-hay #j4ij #a4ce #a4ej #d4ej #a #d-a_/b #b-a_/ab #a #b-a_/d ,wheat-straw #j4ad #j4ba #j4fe #b4af #j #e #a_/b #j #e ,swedish ,turnips #j4hj #a4bj #b4be #f4ge #b #a-a_/d #c-a_/b #a #i-c_/d ,oil-cake #b4be #c4cg #a4ge #e4be #c #h-a_/b #g-a_/d #c #a-c_/d ,beans #j4hf #a4bi #a4aa #c4cc #c #j-a_/b #f-a_/b #b #f ,indian ,meal #j4ai #j4bh #j4ag #j4ea #a #e #c-a_/d #a #a-c_/d ,carob1 or ,no analysis ,locust ,bean of ash4 say #e-c_/d -- #j #e ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,bedding ,cattle4--,instead of wasting straw in bedding cattle1 it would be much better to pass it through their bodies4 ,if straw must be used for litter1 let it be employed as economically as possible4 ,good substitutes1 wholly or in part1 for straw bedding may be found in sawdust1 ashes1 tan and ferns4 ,leaves of trees if procurable in quantity constitute an excellent litter4 ,,section ,,ii4 ,,the ,,sheep4 ,the management of sheep varies greatly--depending upon the breeds of the animal1 the localities in which they are reared and fattened1 and various economic conditions4 ,the tupping season varies of course with the country3 in ,ireland it commences about the middle of ,september and lasts for two months2 in ,england and parts of ,scotland1 the season is about a month earlier4 ,the best kinds of sheep admit of being very early put to breed4 ,both ram and ewe are ready for this purpose when about fifteen months old4 ,one ram is sufficient for about #hj ewes4 ,the breeding flock should be in a sound1 healthy condition1 and the ram ought to be as near perfection as possible4 ,the condition of the sire ought to be good1 but at the same time it is not desirable to have him over fat4 ,the more striking indications of good health in the sheep are dry eyes1 red gums1 sound teeth1 smooth1 oily skin1 and regular rumination4 ,the color of the excreta should be natural4 ,breeding ,ewes4--,after the tupping season1 which generally lasts for a month1 the sheep are usually put on a pasture1 which need not be very rich4 ,in cold situations ample shelter should be afforded to the breeding flocks2 and in severe weather they should1 if possible1 be removed to sheds4 ,when snow covers the ground1 the animals must be supplied with turnips1 or cooked food of some kind4 ,at such time a little oil-cake will be found very useful4 ,yeaning4--,in ,march the yeaning season sets in2 and as this time approaches1 the food of the animals should be improved1 and the greatest care must be taken of them4 ,the shepherd should be unceasing in his watchfulness1 frequently examining every individual animal4 ,the lambing1 if possible1 ought to take place in sheds1 or some covered place4 ,rearing of ,lambs4--,delicate lambs require great care4 ,very weak ones often require to be hand fed4 ,should a mother die1 her offspring may be placed with another ewe2 on the other hand1 should a lamb perish1 its mother may be appointed to rear one of another ewe's twins 7if such be available74 ,the ram lambs1 not intended for breeding purposes1 are subjected to a necessary mutilation when they are about three weeks old4 ,if this operation be performed later1 there is great danger that fatal inflammatory action may set in2 on the other hand1 a lamb much younger than three weeks is hardly strong enough to bear the pain of the operation4 ,the tails of the lambs are shortened about the same time2 but it would be better in the case of the rams not to perform both operations on the same day4 ,these operations are best performed during moist or cloudy weather2 if they must be done on frosty or stormy days1 the lambs should be kept under shelter for two or three days1 as otherwise the cold might induce inflammation4 ,the lambs remain with their mothers for about four months1 after which they are weaned1 and put upon a good pasture4 ,when the herbage is poor1 oil-cake1 say #a_/d lb4 daily1 or some other nutritious food1 should be used to supplement it4 ,during the summer and part of the autumn the young stock1 as a rule1 subsist upon grass2 but many flock-masters give them other kinds of food in addition4 ,as winter approaches1 the young sheep on tillage farms receive soft turnips1 and sometimes a little hay or straw4 ,the allowance of oil-cake may be increased to #a_/b lb41 or if corn be cheap1 it may be substituted for the oil-cake4 ,after ,christmas ,swedish turnips are used4 ,mr4 ,mechi gives the following information on the subject of rearing lambs during a season when roots are scarce3-- ,two hundred lambs1 which cost #bbs4 #f;d4 each on ,september #abth1 were kept on leas and stubble until ,november #crd1 then on turnips until ,december #aith1 when fifty of them were drafted to another flock getting a little cotton-cake4 ,on the #crd of ,february fatting commenced with linseed-cake in addition to cut ,swedes4 ,on the #gth of ,april the fifty tegs were put on rye with mangels1 and they were sold on the #dth of ,may at #fas4 each4 ,the remaining #aej lambs were wintered as stores at little cost1 on inferior turnips uncut2 they were put on rye from ,march #hth till ,may #dth1 when they were valued at #dhs4 each4 ,the district just referred to became so exhausted of its stock1 that at some of the later fairs the number of lambs and of ewes exhibited was less than one-fourth of the average4 ,but in ,essex1 on six adjoining farms1 including that from which ,i write1 the number of sheep wintered has been greater than these heavy lands ever carried before4 ,this has been effected by the extension of a system of management often practised on heavy land1 that of eking out a scanty supply of green food by a liberal allowance of straw1 chaff1 and grain2 which happily were good in quality1 as well as plentiful and low in price in #ahfd4 ,by these means we were enabled last winter to keep #a1ejj sheep on about #fej acres of arable1 and #cej acres of dry upland pasture--chiefly park surrounding a mansion4 ,the arable land does not very well bear folding in winter1 as a preparation for spring corn4 ,neither climate nor soil are favorable to turnips1 and notwithstanding our efforts in assisting ,nature1 our crops of turnips1 rape1 or ,swedes1 are never first-rate1 and sometimes very bad4 ,strong stubbles1 good beans1 clover-seed1 and mangel1 are the specialities of the locality1 and they indicate heavy land1 corn-growing1 and yard-feeding4 ,sheep have been generally conspicuous by their absence1 though even the heavy-land farmer is glad to winter a yard of them instead of cattle1 that he may keep some1 at least1 of the stock that pays best4 ,in the autumn of #ahfd our root crops consisted of some white turnips and rape1 eaten by the ewes in ,september1 and of a very bad crop of mangel1 the whole of which was reserved for the ewes at lambing-time4 ,in this predicament we wintered about #a1jjj half-bred lambs1 more than #djj ewes1 and some fatting sheep4 ,all1 except the fatting sheep1 were folded on the stubbles1 and allowed a daily run on the park of about an hour for each flock4 ,the freshest grass was reserved for the ewes1 and a very meagre bite remained for the lambs2 in fact1 except for a few weeks in autumn1 the parks afforded them little or nothing except exercise and water4 ,the flocks were divided between three separate farms1 and their food was prepared at the respective homesteads4 ,the treatment was in every respect similar2 we shall therefore only notice in detail the management at one farm4 ,the following details are taken from our ,live ,stock ,book3-- ,,extracts ,,from ,,stock ,,book4 ,lambs4 ,payments4 ,remarks4 ,november #dth1 #ahfd4 ,l s4 d4 #ceb lambs1 cost at date1 #cjs4 #i-a_/b;d4 each #edb #b #c 7a7 ,cost of keeping #bd weeks to ,april #ba1 #ahfe3-- 7b7 ,corn and cake1 as per granary book #bde #af #i 7c7 ,cutting #be tons of chaff1 at #fs4 #g #ac #j 7d7 ,grinding #if qrs4 #f bshls4 of corn1 at #i;d4 #c #ab #f ,attendance1 at #ais4 #aj;d4 per week #bc #af #j 7e7 ,horse labor1 at #fs4 per week #g #d #j ,coal1 #cs4 #b;d4 per week #c #af #j 7f7 ,use of #ba troughs1 at #c;d4 each per month #a #aa #f 7g7 ,use of #ahj hurdles1 at #a;d4 each per month #d #aj #j #a-a_/b cwt4 of rock salt #j #d #f ,l#hdj #f #f ,remarks4 7a7 ,total cost of keeping #ceb lambs for #bd weeks1 ,l#bih #ds4 #c;d4 7b7 ,cost per head1 #afs4 #aa;d4 7c7 ,cost1 food only1 #ads4 #aa;d4 7d7 ,value of the manure1 reckoned at one-fifth the cost of the corn and cake1 ,l#di #cs4 #d;d4 7e7 ,cost of the lambs1 per head1 ,l#b #gs4 #h;d4 7f7 ,value of manure1 per head1 #bs4 #aj;d4 7g7 ,no charge made for the straw-chaff eaten on the land4 ,the tegs would probably have been sold at a profit in ,april2 they were1 however1 put on grass and clover1 and were fattened in the summer4 ,september #bith4--#ceb lambs in the parks1 on a little cotton-cake and some oats1 until ,november #dth1 when they were folded on a wheat stubble4 ,gave them #e bushels of meal daily1 mixed with #dfh lb4 of straw chaff4 ,cost #c-a_/b;d4 each per week for meal4 ,december #bjth4--,increased the food to #f-a_/b bushels of meal and #a bushel of oil-cake4 ,december #ahth4-- lb4 #b-c_/d bushels of maize crushed and boiled #adc #d-a_/b bushels of mixed meal #bjj #a bushel of oil-cake #ej --- #cic ,cost #e-a_/b;d4 per week for corn and cake2 chaff1 #b-a_/d lb4 each1 between these and the ewes1 the lambs eating rather less than #b lb4 each4 ,eight pounds of rock-salt licked up by the #ceb lambs per week4 ,january #bcrd4--,the food was increased to #g-a_/b bushels of meal1 #b bushels of oil-cake1 and #b bushels of rape-cake4 ,mixture of ,corn4 ,wheat #d parts4 ,barley #d ,oats #b ,maize #d ,cost per stone 7#ad lb47 s4 d4 ,wheat #a #j ,barley #j #aj ,oats #a #j ,maize #j #aj ,oil-cake #a #d-a_/d ,rape-cake #j #i ,sheep ,feeding4--,in ,ireland sheep are often exclusively fed on grass2 but in most cases the addition of other food is desirable1 and more especially is it necessary during winter4 ,when confined to roots1 sheep1 on an average1 consume about #bf lbs4 daily1 unless when under shelter1 which diminishes the quantity by from five to ten per cent4 ,some sheep on which ,dr4 ,voelcker experimented were fed as follows3-- lbs4 ounces4 ,mangel wurtzel #ai #h ,chopped clover hay #a #c_/aj ,linseed cake #j #d-h_/ajj -------------- ,total #bj #ae-ch_/ajj ,on this diet four sheep were maintained from the #bbnd of ,march until the #ajth of ,may1 a period of forty-seven days4 ,the weights were as follows3-- #bbnd ,mar4 #ajth ,may4 ,gain4 ,no4 #a #aec #agj-a_/b #ag-a_/b ,no4 #b #acd #aea-a_/b #ag-a_/b ,no4 #c #agj #ahg #ag-a_/b ,no4 #d #acf #aee #ai ,this experiment shows that the sheep can increase in weight on a daily allowance of food1 much less than is usually given to them2 but it will be found that growing sheep will usually consume a greater quantity of food than that used by ,dr4 ,voelcker's fattening animals4 ,sheep washing is performed before the animal is shorn4 ,it is a process which should never be neglected1 as dirty wool is certain to bring a less price than the same quality would if clean4 ,after being washed1 sheep should be kept in dry pasture for about ten days in order to allow the loss of yolk removed by the washing to be repaired2 they will then be in proper condition for the shearer4 ,sheep ,dips are used for the purpose of removing parasites from the animal's skin4 ,they often contain arsenic1 or bichloride of mercury 7corrosive sublimate71 which are very objectionable ingredients4 ,the glycerine sheep dip1 prepared by ,messrs4 ,hendrick and ,guerin1 of ,london1 is a safe mixture1 as it is free from mineral poisons1 whilst the tar substances which it includes1 act as a powerful cleanser of the skin1 without injuriously affecting the yolk of the wool4 ,,section ,,iii4 ,,the ,,pig4 ,in the breeding of pigs1 as in the breeding of other kinds of stock1 great care should be taken in the selection of both sire and dam4 ,a good pig should have a small head1 short nose1 plump cheek1 a compact body1 short neck1 and thin but very hairy skin1 and short legs4 ,the black breed is considered to be more hardy than the white2 and pure--all black or all white--colors as a rule indicate the purest blood4 ,the sow should not be bred from until she is a year old1 and the boar especially should not be employed at an earlier age4 ,although one boar is sometimes left with forty pigs and even a greater number1 he will not be able to serve more than a dozen about the same time1 if vigorous progeny be expected4 ,the sow's regular period of gestation is #aac days2 she can have two litters a year1 and in each there are from five to fourteen young4 ,moderate sized litters are the best1 the young of very numerous ones being often weakly4 ,the best time to rear young pigs is during the warm or mild parts of the year4 ,during gestation the sow should be liberally fed1 but not with excessive amounts4 ,the food at this time should rather excel in quality than in quantity2 but so soon as she begins to nurse1 her allowance must be increased1 and may be rendered more stimulating4 ,for a week or so before farrowing1 the sow ought to be kept alone4 ,its sty should not be too small--not less than #h or #aj feet square--for pigs require good air in abundance as well as other animals4 ,the straw used for litter should neither be too abundant nor too long2 in the latter case some of the young might be covered by it1 and escaping the notice of the sow1 might unconsciously be crushed by the latter4 ,if the young are very feeble1 it may become necessary to hand-feed them4 ,some sows eat their young3 and when they have this habit1 the better plan is to cease breeding from them2 for it appears to be incurable4 ,after parturition some bran and liquid or semi-liquid food should be given to the sow4 ,young ,pigs subsist exclusively on their mother's milk but for a short time4 ,in two or three weeks they may receive skimmed or butter-milk from the dairy4 ,at a month old such of them as are not designed for breeding purposes may be subjected to the usual mutilations2 and at from five to six weeks old the young are weaned1 and converted into stores4 ,store ,pigs1 when young1 are best fed upon skimmed milk1 oatmeal1 and potatoes1 in a cooked state4 ,when they are approaching three months old1 they may be supplied with raw food1 if the weather be warm2 but in winter1 cooked and warm food will be found the more economical4 ,cabbages1 roots1 potatoes1 and all kinds of grain that are cheap are used in pig feeding4 ,the number of meals varies from six or seven in the case of very young animals1 to three in the case of those nearly ready for fattening4 ,store pigs should be allowed a few hours' exercise daily in a paddock1 or field1 or at least in a large yard4 ,the dietaries of store pigs vary greatly1 for these animals being omnivorous readily eat almost every kind of food4 ,mr4 ,baldwin1 of ,bredon ,house1 near ,birmingham1 an extensive pig breeder1 gave 7in #ahfb7 stores the following allowance3--,at three months old1 a quart of peas1 ,egyptian beans1 or ,indian corn4 ,he considered ,english beans to be too heating for young pigs4 ,the animals were allowed the run of a grass field4 ,on this diet the stores were kept until they were eight months old 7increasing at the average rate of five pounds per week71 after which they were allowed an extra half-pint of corn4 ,he calculated the weekly cost as follows3--,dry food1 #as42 grass1 #b;d42 man's time1 #a;d42 total1 #as4 #c;d4 ,these results yielded a profit of #as4 per week per pig1 pork being at the time #f;d4 per lb4 ,some feeders give young store pigs half-a-pint of peas1 mixed with pulped mangel1 and the quantum of peas is gradually increased to one pint per diem4 ,all kinds of food-refuse from the house are welcomed by the pig4 ,skins1 dripping1 damaged potatoes1 cabbage1 c41 may be given to them2 but they should not be altogether substituted for the ordinary food-stuffs4 ,coal-dust1 cinders1 mortar rubbish1 and similar substances are often swallowed by pigs1 and sometimes even given to them by the feeder4 ,in certain cases ,lawes and ,gilbert found that superphosphate of lime was a useful addition to the food of pigs4 ,a little salt should invariably be given1 more especially if mangels 7which are rich in salt7 do not enter into the animals' dietary4 ,fattening ,pigs4--,for some time before store pigs are put up to be fattened1 the quality and quantity of their food should be increased1 for it is not economy to put a rather lean animal suddenly upon a very fattening diet4 ,the sty should be well supplied with clean litter1 and should be darkened4 ,three feeds per diem will be a sufficient number1 and the remains 7if any7 of one should be removed from the trough before the fresh feed is put into it4 ,the feeding trough 7which should be made of iron7 should be so constructed that the animals cannot place their fore feet in it4 ,the pig is naturally a clean animal1 and therefore it should be washed occasionally1 as there is every reason to believe that such a procedure will tend to promote the animal's health4 ,it should be supplied with clean water4 ,in ,stephen's ,book of the ,farm1 it is stated that two pecks of steamed potatoes1 and #i lbs4 of barley-meal1 given every day to a pig weighing from #bd to #bh stones1 will fatten it perfectly in nine weeks4 ,barley-meal is largely used in ,england as food for pigs4 ,it is given generally in the form of a thin paste1 and in large quantities4 ,lawes and ,gilbert found that #a cwt4 of barley-meal given to pigs increased their weight by #bb-a_/b lbs4 ,indian meal is fully equal1 if it is not superior to barley-meal1 as food for pigs2 and for this purpose it is far more extensively employed in ,ireland4 ,every kind of grain given to pigs should be ground and cooked4 ,in ,scotland pigs are often fattened solely on from #bh to #ce lbs4 of barley-meal weekly1 and mangels or turnips ad libitum4 ,pollard is a good food for pigs1 being rich in muscle-forming materials2 it is a good addition to very fatty or starchy food4 ,a mixture of pollard and palm-nut meal is an excellent fattening food4 ,potatoes are now so dear1 that they are seldom--unless the very worst and diseased kinds--used in pig feeding4 ,they should never be given raw4 ,the more inferior feeding-stuffs should be used up first in the fattening of pigs1 and the more valuable and concentrated kinds during the latter part of the process4 ,,section ,,iv4 ,,the ,,horse4 ,the horse is subject to many diseases1 not a few of which arise from the defective state of his stable4 ,the best kinds of stables are large and lofty1 well ventilated and drained1 smoothly paved1 and well provided with means for admitting the direct sunlight4 ,the walls should be whitewashed occasionally1 and for disinfecting and general sanitary purposes1 four ounces of chloride of lime 7bleaching powder7 mixed with each bucket of whitewash1 will be found extremely useful4 ,farm horses are kept in stalls1 which should not be less than six feet wide1 and 7exclusive of rack and rere passage7 #aj feet long4 ,for hunters and thorough-breds1 loose boxes are now generally used4 ,the mare commences to breed at four years1 and the period of gestation is #cdj days4 ,she may be worked until within a fortnight of the time at which parturition is expected to occur4 ,after foaling1 the mare should be turned into a grass field 7unless the weather is severe7 and kept there idly for three or four weeks4 ,foals are kept with their mothers until they are about five or six months old3 after weaning1 their food must be tender and nutritious--well bruised oats1 cut hay1 bean or oatmeal mashes2 carrots are very suitable4 ,working horses are fed chiefly upon oats and hay1 which undoubtedly are the best foods for these animals1 both being rich in muscle-forming materials4 ,bruised oats are far more economical than the whole grains3 and if the animals eat too rapidly1 that habit is easily overcome by mixing chopped straw or hay with the grain4 ,according to ,playfair1 a horse not working can subsist and remain in fair condition on a daily allowance of #ab lbs4 of hay and #e lbs4 of oats4 ,according to the same authority1 a working horse should receive #ad lbs4 of hay1 #ab lbs4 of oats1 and #b lbs4 of beans4 ,beans are a very concentrated food1 rich in flesh-formers1 and are1 therefore1 well adapted for sustaining hard-working horses4 ,they are rather binding2 but this property is easily neutralised by combining the beans with some laxative food4 ,turnips1 carrots1 furze1 and various other foods are given to the horse1 often in large quantities4 ,the following are some among the many dietaries on which this animal is kept3-- ,professor ,low's formula is1 #cj to #ce lbs4 of a mixture of equal parts of chopped straw1 chopped hay1 bruised grain1 and steamed potatoes4 ,the daily rations of horses of the ,london ,omnibus ,company1 are #af lbs4 of bruised oats1 #g-a_/b lbs4 of cut hay1 and #b-a_/b lbs4 of chopped straw4 ,stage coach-horses in the ,united ,states receive daily about #ai lbs4 of ,indian meal and #ac lbs4 of cut hay4 ,mr4 ,robertson1 of ,clandeboye1 near ,belfast1 gives the following information on the subject of horse-keeping3-- ,the year we divide into three periods--,october1 ,november to ,may inclusive1 ,june to ,september inclusive4 ,during the first period1 the horses get about #ah lb4 of chaff and #ab lb4 of crushed oats and beans2 #aj-a_/b oats and #a-a_/b beans per head per day4 ,during the second period they get about #ae lb4 of hay chaff1 #ab lb4 of crushed oats and beans1 and about #c gallons of boiled turnips per head per day4 ,during the third period they were turned out to graze during the night4 ,in the day time1 whilst in the stable1 each animal is allowed about #ej lb4 of cut clover1 and about #ab lb4 of crushed oats and beans per day4 ,the feeding is all under the charge of one person4 ,he uses his own discretion in feeding the animals1 though he is not allowed to exceed the quantities named4 ,the horses to which ,i allude are the same on which the experiments commenced two years ago--six cart horses1 one cart pony1 and one riding horse4 ,from ,sept4 #a1 #ahfe1 to and including ,august #ca1 #ahff1 the cost of maintaining these horses in good working condition2 keeping the carts1 harness1 c41 in repair2 shoeing1 c41 was as follows3-- ,oats1 #ad tons1 at #afs4 per cwt4 ,l#aab #j #j ,beans1 #b tons1 at #ahs4 per cwt4 #ah #j #j ,hay1 #ac tons1 at #cjs4 per ton #ai #aj #j ,green ,clover #ae #j #j ,turnips #e #j #j ,night grazing #ah #j #j ,engine1 cutting chaff1 crushing oats1 c4 #g #d #j ,attendance #bf #j #j ,blacksmith #ab #j #j ,saddler #ab #j #j ,carpenter #aj #j #j ,five per cent4 interest on value1 ,l#aaj #e #aj #j ,depreciation in value #aj per cent4 #aa #j #j ------------ ,l#bga #d #j ,deduct cost of riding horse #ce #j #j ------------ ,l#bcf #d #j ,l#cc #aas4 #aj;d4 per head2 if we suppose the available working days to be #cjj1 allowing #ac for wet days1 holidays1 c41 the daily cost will be #bs4 #b-a_/b;d42 to this if we add #as4 #h;d41 the wages of the driver1 we shall have a total of #cs4 #aj-a_/b;d4 as the cost of a horse1 cart1 and driver per day4 ,i would only add1 in conclusion1 that the horses are kept in good working condition2 and1 as a proof of their good health under this system1 ,i may state that during the past two years we have not had occasion to require the services of a veterinary surgeon4 ,musty hay or straw should not be given to horses4 ,furze is said to be a heating food2 but it is very nutritious1 and when young1 may be given as part of the food of the horse4 ,boiled turnips and mangels are often given in winter2 but they are not sufficiently nutritious to constitute a substantial portion of the animal's diet4 ,oil-cake is occasionally given to horses2 but seldom in larger quantities than #a-a_/b lbs4 per diem4 ,on the whole1 experience is in favor of occasionally giving cooked food to horses2 and the practice meets with the full approval of the veterinarian4 ,to most kinds of food for horses1 the addition of one or two ounces of salt is necessary4 ,in the ,agricultural ,gazette for ,november #be1 #ahfe1 the following instructive tables are given3-- ,,stable ,,feeding ,,during ,,autumn4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,name and ,address ,clover1 ,weekly ,no4 of ,authorities4 ,hay4 ,oats4 ,beans4 c4 ,cost4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- lb4 lb4 lb4 s4 d4 #a ,w4 ,gater1 ,botley #afh #fc99 #cb99 444 #ab #j #b ,w4 ,c4 ,spooner #aab #hd #bd 444 #aa #j #c ,t4 ,aitken1 ,spalding4 444 #cg-a_/b 444 ad lib4 #g #f8 #d 444 #cg-a_/b #ce ad lib4 #aj ,o8 #e ,t4 ,p4 ,dods1 ,hexham4 444 #aje 444 ad lib4 #aj #f8 #f ad lib4 #aje 444 444 #aj #f8 ,straw #g ,a4 ,ruston1 ,i4 of ,ely4 ad lib4 #hd #aj ad lib4 #i #j #a_/b #a_/b ,bran4 #a_/c bush4 #h ,a4 ,simpson1 ,beauly #afh #gj #ad #bd lb4 #aj #j ,straw4 #i ,h4 ,j4 ,wilson1 ,mansfield 444 #eb-a_/b 444 ad lib4 #g #c8 #aj #db #hg-a_/b 444 ad lib4 #i #j ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,in this table the asterisk 7997 means that the grain is crushed or ground4 ,,stable ,,feeding ,,during ,,winter4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,no4,name and ,address4 ,hay4 ,oats4 ,beans4 ,roots4 ,sundries4,straw4,weekly ,cost4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- lb4 lb4 lb4 lb4 lb4 lb4 s4 d4 #a ,professor ,low --,elements of ,potatoes ,agriculture #ef99 #ef99 444 #ef 444 #ef99 #f #f #b ,h4 ,stephens --,book of the ,turnips ,farm #aab #ce 444 #aab 444 444 #f #j #c ,j4 ,gibson1 ,woolmet ,potatoes --,h4 ,soc4 #ahej 444 #hd 444 #bag #bag #aab #i #j #d --,binnie1 ,barley ad ,seaton 444 #gj99 #bh99 #bdc #db lib4 #aa #f #e --,thomson1 ad ,hangingside 444 #hd #ad #ccf #ad lib4 #i #f #f ,w4 ,c4 ,spooner1 ,ag4 ,soc4 ,journ4 vol4 ix4 444 #fc 444 #db 444 #aif #d #i #g ,t4 ,aitken1 ad ad ,spalding1 lib4 lib4 ,lincolnshire 7#b_/c7 #cg #ce 444 444 7#a_/c7 #i #j #h ,g4 ,w4 ,baker1 ,woburn1 ,bedfordshire 444 #fj99 #bj99 444 444 444 #i #h #i ,r4 ,baker1 ,writtle1 ,essex #gj #db 444 444 444 #adj #e #j #aj ,j4 ,coleman1 ad ,cirencester 444 #hd #af 444 444 lib4 #g #c #aa ,t4 ,p4 ,dods1 ad ,hexham 444 #ie 444 #ef 444 lib4 #h #j #ab ,j4 ,cobban1 ,linseed ad ,whitfield #hd99 #fj99 444 444 #c-a_/b lib499 #g #c #ac ,s4 ,druce1 jun41 ,swedes #b ,ensham #aab #eb 444 #gj 444 bu499 #g #j ad ad #ad ,c4 ,howard1 lib4 lib4 ,biddenham 7#b_/c7 #eb #ag #hd 444 #a_/c99 #h #f8 #ae ,j4 ,j4 ,mechi1 ,m4,wurzel ad ,tiptree4 #di99 #gj99 444 #baj 444 lib499 #g #f #af ,w4 ,j4 ,pope1 ad ,bridport #b99 #hd 444 444 444 lib4 #i #j8 #ag ,s4 ,rich1 ,didmarton1 ,grains ad ,gloucestershire #afh #fc 444 444 #b bush4 lib4 #aj #h #ah ,h4 ,e4 ,sadler1 ,lavant1 ,sussex #adj #hd 444 444 444 444 #i #i #ai ,j4 ,morton1 ,carrots ad ,whitfield ,farm 444 #abf 444 #cej 444 lib4 #aj #i #bj ,e4 ,h4 ,sandford1 ,bran ad ,dover #ef #db 444 444 #ab lib4 #e #f #ba ,a4 ,simpson1 ,tail ,corn ad ,beauly1 ,n4,b4 444 #di #g #aje #ba lib499 #e #f #bb ,h4 ,j4 ,wilson1 ,bran ad ,mansfield #db #eb-a_/b 444 444 #ba lib4 #f #f8 #bc ,f4 ,sowerby1 ,aylesby1 ,north ad ,lincolnshire #aab #bh ,cut ,oat ,sheaf4 444 lib499 #h #j8 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,where an asterisk 7997 is attached to any item1 it is to be understood that the corn has been bruised or ground1 or the hay or straw has been cut into chaff4 ,where a dagger 77 is appended1 the article so marked has been boiled or steamed4 ,a mark of interrogation 787 indicates that the result so marked is uncertain1 owing to some indefiniteness in the account given4 ,on feeding horses with pulped roots1 ,mr4 ,slater1 of ,weston ,colville1 ,cambridgeshire1 says3-- ,i give all my cart horses a bushel per day of pulped mangel1 mixed with straw and corn-chaff4 ,i begin in ,september1 and continue using them all winter and until late in the summer1 nearly1 if not quite1 all the year round1 beginning1 however1 with smaller quantities1 about a peck1 and then half a bushel1 the first week or two1 as too many of the young-growing mangel would not suit the stock4 ,i believe pulped mangels1 with chaff1 are the best1 cheapest1 and most healthy food horses can eat4 ,i always find my horses miss them when ,i have none1 late in the summer4 ,i give them fresh ground every day4 ,young store beasts1 colts1 c41 do well with them4 99 99 99 99 99 ,footnote #bj3 ,five pounds of linseed will make about seven gallons of gruel1 and suffice for five good-sized calves2 considerable allowance must1 however1 be made for differences of quality in the linseed1 that from ,india not being gelatinous enough1 and therefore boiling hard1 instead of coming down kindly4 ,footnote #ba3 ,journal of the ,royal ,agricultural ,society1 vol4 xxxix4 ,footnote #bb3 ,from ,mr4 ,horsfall's ,essay on ,dairy ,management1 in ,journal of ,royal ,agricultural ,society1 vol4 xviii41 part i4 ,,part ,,iv4 ,,meat1 ,,milk1 ,,and ,,butter4 ,,section ,i4 ,,meat4 ,no one ought to feel a greater interest in the subject of meat in all its branches than the stock feeder4 ,just in proportion as this kind of food is agreeable to the taste1 easily digestible1 and rich in nutriment1 will the demand for it increase4 ,the quality of meat is1 in fact1 a primary consideration with the producer of that article2 and he whose beef and mutton are the most tender and the best flavored will make the most profit4 ,quality of ,meat4--,the flesh of herbivorous animals is composed of muscular and adipose 7fatty7 tissues4 ,the muscles consist of bundles of elastic fibres 7fibrine71 enclosed in an albuminous tissue formed of little vessels1 termed cells1 and intimately commingled with water1 and a mixture of albuminous1 fatty1 and saline matters4 ,the leanest flesh 7muscles7 contains fat1 but the latter accumulates in certain parts of the body--often to such an extent as to seriously interfere with the functions of life4 ,the red color of flesh is due to a rather large proportion of blood1 which it contains in minute vessels2 and the slight acidity of its juice is owing to the presence of inosinic acid1 and probably of several other acids4 ,the agreeable odour of meat1 when it is subjected to the process of cooking1 is developed from a complex substance termed osmazome4#bc ,this constituent varies in nature and quantity in the different animals--hence the variety in flavor and odour of their flesh--and its amount increases with the age of the animal4 ,the albumen of the muscles1 and their fatty and saline constituents1 are digestible2 but it is generally believed that the elastic fibres1 and the horny cellular tissue which binds them into bundles1 are not assimilable4 ,it is more certain that the crystalline substances found in flesh1 such as1 for example1 kreatine1 are incapable of ministering to the nutrition of animals4 ,the composition of flesh varies very much--that of a very obese pig containing more than half its weight of fat1 whilst in some specimens of jerked beef1 imported from ,monte ,video1 scarcely #e per cent4 of that substance was found4 ,the flesh of a fat ox has on an average the following composition3-- ,per cent4 ,water #de ,fatty substances #ce ,lean flesh1 or muscle #ae ,mineral matters #e --- ,total #ajj ,i have examined for ,dr4 ,morgan several specimens of the corned beef recently prepared in ,south ,america1 by ,morgan's process4 ,the following were the average results of three analyses3-- ,per cent4 ,water #dj ,fatty matters #ba ,lean1 or muscular flesh #bg ,mineral matters 7chiefly common salt7 #ab --- ,total #ajj ,it may not here be out of place to direct attention to the composition of a kind of animal food extensively purchased by the poorer classes1 and known under the term of slink veal4 ,it is the flesh of calves that are killed on the first day of their existence1 and also1 ,i have reason to believe1 that of very immature animals--of calves that have never breathed4 ,the flesh is of a very loose texture naturally1 and is still further puffed out by air1 which is usually supplied from the lungs of the operator4 ,this kind of meat1 though regarded as a delicacy by some people1 is not held in much estimation1 otherwise its price would be higher than it is4 ,it is at present sold at about #d;d4 or #e;d4 per pound1 sometimes even at a lower rate4 ,apart from the disgusting process of blowing veal1 so generally adopted1 the use of this food is extremely objectionable1 owing to its great tendency to produce diarrhoea4 ,to the truth of this assertion every physician who has studied the subject of dietetics can testify4 ,i have analysed a specimen of it 7purchased from a person who admitted that it was part of a calf a day old71 and obtained the following results3-- #ajj parts contain-- ,per cent4 ,water #gb4be ,fat #f4ag ,lean flesh #ah4df ,mineral matter #c4ab ------ ,total #ajj4jj ,i believe that a large portion of the lean flesh is indigestible2 and altogether ,i may safely say of this kind of meat that it is1 especially during the prevalence of cholera1 an unsafe article of diet4 ,of course these observations do not apply to fed veal1 the only kind which respectable butchers1 as a rule1 offer for sale4 ,young meat is richer in soluble albumen and poorer in fibrine and fat than the matured flesh of the same animal4 ,the flesh of the goat contains hircic acid1 which renders it almost uneatable1 but this substance is either altogether absent from1 or present but in minute proportion in1 the well-flavored meat of the kid4 ,the flesh of game contains abundance of osmazome1 a substance which is somewhat deficient in that of the domestic fowl4 ,owing to the marked individuality which man exhibits in the selection of his food1 and to the intimate relationship subsisting between food and the organism it nourishes1 it is impossible to arrange the alimental substances in the strict order of their nutritive values4 ,you can bring a horse to the water1 but you cannot compel him to drink it2 you can swallow any kind of food you please1 but you cannot force your stomach to digest it4 ,it is1 therefore1 vain to tell a man that a certain kind of food is shown by chemical analysis to be nutritious1 when his stomach tells him unmistakeably that it is poisonous1 and refuses to digest it4 ,in the matter of dietetics ,nature is a safer guide than the chemist4 ,many substances1 when viewed only in the light shed upon them by chemical analysis1 appear to be rich in the elements of nutrition1 yet when they are introduced into the stomachs of certain individuals1 they disarrange the digestive organs1 and sometimes cause the whole system to go out of order4 ,every day we see exemplified the truth of the proverb1 that one man's meat is another man's poison4 ,there are persons who relish and readily digest fat pork1 and yet they cannot eat a single egg with impunity2 others enjoy and easily assimilate eggs1 but their stomachs cannot tolerate a particle of fat bacon4 ,it is not merely the composition of an aliment and its adaptability to the organism which determine its nutritive value--its digestibility and flavor are points which affect it4 ,there are few people in these countries who are disposed to quarrel with beef2 but no one would prefer the leg of an elderly milch cow to the sirloin of a well-fed three-year-old bullock3 yet if our selection were to be determined by the analysis of the two kinds of beef1 we would be just as likely to prefer the one as the other4 ,no doubt the relative tenderness of meats may be ascertained by experiments conducted outside the body2 but tenderness is not in every case synonymous with easy digestibility4 ,veal contains more soluble albumen1 and is1 consequently1 far more tender than beef2 yet1 as every one knows1 it is less digestible4 ,it is curious that maturity renders the flesh of some animals more digestible1 and that of others less digestible4 ,flavor has something to do with these differences4 ,beef is richer than veal in the agreeably flavorous osmazome1 and the flesh of the kid is destitute of the disagreeable odour of the fully-developed goat4 ,the superiority of wild-fowl over the domesticated birds is solely owing to the finer flavor of their flesh4 ,the habits of animals1 and the nature of their food1 affect the quality of their flesh4 ,exercise increases the amount of osmazome1 and consequently renders the meat more savory4 ,the mutton of ,wicklow1 ,wales1 and other mountainous regions is remarkably sweet1 because the animals that furnish it are almost as nimble as goats1 and skip from crag to crag in quest of their food4 ,the fatty mutton1 with pale muscle1 which is so abundant in our markets1 is furnished by very young animals forced prematurely into full development4 ,those animals have abundance of food placed within easy reach2 their muscular activity is next to nil1 and the result is1 that their flesh contains less than its natural proportion of savory ingredients4 ,it is the same with all other animals4 ,the flesh of the tame rabbit is very insipid1 whilst that of the wild variety is well flavored4 ,wild fowls cooped up1 and rapidly fattened1 lose their characteristic flavor2 and when the domesticated birds become wild their flesh becomes less fatty1 and acquires all the peculiarities of game4 ,ducks1 whether wild or tame1 ordinarily yield goodly meat2 but the flesh of some of those that feed on fish smacks strongly of cod-liver oil4 ,birds which subsist partly on aromatic berries assimilate the odour as well as the nutriment of their food4 ,the flesh of grouse has very commonly a slight flavor of heather4 ,foster states that in ,tahiti pigs are fed upon fruit1 which renders their fat very bland and their flesh like veal4 ,animals subjected to certain kinds of mutilation fatten more rapidly than they do in their natural state4 ,capons increase in weight more rapidly than cocks1 poulards than hens1 bullocks than bulls1 and cows deprived of their ovaries than perfect cows4 ,why it is that the flesh of mutilated animals should be fatter and more tender than that of whole animals1 we know not2 we only know that such is the fact4 ,the hunting of animals renders their flesh more tender2 the cause assigned is1 that the great exertion of the muscles liquefies their fibrine1 which is the toughest of their constituents4 ,the meat of animals brought very early to maturity is seldom so valuable as the naturally developed article4 ,lawes and ,gilbert state that portions of a sheep that had been fattened upon steeped barley and mangels1 and which gave a very rapid increase1 yielded several per cent4 less of cooked meat1 and lost more1 both in dripping and by the evaporation of water1 than the corresponding portions of a sheep which had been fed upon dry barley and mangels1 and which gave only about half the amount of gross increase within the same period of time4 ,although the digestibility and flavor of meat 7and of every other kind of food7 affect its nutritive value1 these points are in general of far less importance than its composition4 ,potatoes are not so nutritious as peas1 because they contain a smaller amount of fat and flesh-formers2 but they are more digestible4 ,fish contains less solid matter than flesh1 and is less nutritious1 yet a cut of turbot will be1 in general1 more easily digested than an equal weight of old beef4 ,the fact is1 that digestibility and flavor are only of great importance to dyspeptic persons4 ,in the healthy digestive organs a pound weight of 7dry7 food of inferior flavor and slow digestibility will be just as useful as the same weight of well-flavored and easily assimilable aliment1 provided all other conditions be alike4 ,if the food be eaten with a relish1 and tolerated by the stomach1 its digestibility will not1 except in extreme cases1 affect in a very sensible degree its nutritiveness4 ,were one question in animal nutrition satisfactorily answered1 it would then be comparatively easy to arrange aliments in the order of their nutritive value4 ,that question is--,what are the proper relative proportions of the fat-forming and flesh-forming constituents of our food8 ,it is constantly urged1 that the food of the ,irish peasantry contains an excess of the fat-forming materials in relation to the muscle-forming substances2 and the remedy suggested is1 that their staple article of food--potatoes--should be supplemented with flesh1 peas1 and such like substances1 in which1 it is supposed1 the elements of nutrition are more fairly balanced4 ,in potatoes1 the proportion of fat-formers 7calculated as fat7 is about five times as much as that of the flesh-formers2 but these principles exist in the same relative proportions in the fat bacon with which the potato-eater loves to supplement his bulky food4 ,in bread we find the proportion of fat-formers to be only #b-a_/b times as much as that of the flesh-formers1 whilst1 according to ,lawes and ,gilbert1 the edible portion of the carcass of a fat sheep contains #f-a_/b times as much fat as nitrogenous 7flesh-forming7 compounds4 ,it is evident1 then1 that meat such as1 for example1 the beef recently imported from ,monte ,video1 from which the fatty elements of nutrition are almost completely absent1 cannot be a suitable adjunct to a farinaceous food4 ,there is evidence to prove that in the animal food consumed by the population of these countries1 the proportion of fatty to nitrogenous matters is greater than in the seeds of cereal and leguminous plants1 and but little less than in potatoes4 ,it would appear to be unquestionable1 say ,lawes and ,gilbert1 therefore1 that the influence of our staple animal foods1 to supplement our otherwise mainly farinaceous diet1 is1 on the large scale1 to reduce1 and not to increase1 the relation of the assumed flesh-forming material to the more peculiarly respiratory and fat-forming capacity1 so to speak1 of the food consumed4 ,it must be remembered1 too1 that the fat formers are ready formed in animal food1 whereas they exist chiefly in the form of starch1 gum1 sugar1 and such-like substances in vegetables4 ,according to theory1 #b-a_/b parts of starch are equivalent to1 i4e41 convertible into1 #a part of fat2 but it is not certain whether the force which effects this change is derivable from the #b-a_/b parts of starch1 or from the destruction of tissue1 or of another portion of food4 ,if there be a tax on the system in order to convert starch into fat1 it is evident that #b-a_/b parts of starch1 though convertible into1 are not equivalent in nutritive value to one part of fat4 ,it is quite certain that millions of healthy1 vigorous men have subsisted for years exclusively on potatoes2 but it is no less clear that a diet of meat and potatoes enables the laborer to work harder and longer than if his food were composed solely of potatoes4 ,but we have seen that the relation between the flesh-forming and fat-forming elements is nearly the same in both potatoes and meat2 so that the superiority of a meat or mixed diet cannot be chiefly owing1 contrary to the generally received opinion1 to a greater abundance of flesh-forming materials4 ,as the proportion of flesh-formers to fat-formers is so much greater in wheaten or oaten bread than in potatoes1 and as peas and other vegetables rich in nitrogenous compounds are practically found to be an excellent supplement to potatoes1 it is probable that the latter may be somewhat relatively deficient in flesh-forming capacity4 ,it is1 however1 in all probability the great bulk of a potato diet1 and its total want of ready formed fat1 that render the addition to it of animal food so very desirable4 ,the concentrated state in which the ingredients of flesh exist1 the intimate way in which they are intermixed1 their agreeable flavor1 and their 7in general7 ready and almost complete digestibility1 appear to be the principal points in which a meat diet excels a vegetable regimen4 ,there may be others1 which1 though less evident1 are1 perhaps1 of equal importance4 ,at all events1 the general experience of mankind testifies to the superiority of a mixed animal and vegetable diet over a purely vegetable one4 ,is very ,fat ,meat wholesome8--,the enormous and rapidly increasing demand for meat which characterises the food markets of these days1 has reacted in a remarkable manner upon the nature of the animals that supply it4 ,formerly the animals that furnished pork1 mutton1 and beef1 were allowed to attain the age of three years old and upwards before they were considered to be ripe for the butcher2 but now sheep and pigs are perfectly matured at the early age of one year1 and two-year-old oxen furnish a large quota of the roast beef of old ,england4 ,the so-called improvement of stock is simply the forcing of them into an unnatural degree of fatness at an early age2 and this end is attained by dexterous selection and crossing of breeds1 by avoidance of cold1 by diminishing as much as possible their muscular activity1 and lastly1 and chiefly1 by over-feeding them with concentrated aliments4 ,every one knows that a man so obese as to be unable to walk cannot be in a healthy state2 yet many feeders of stock look upon the monstrously fat bulls and cows of cattle show prize celebrity as normal types of the bovine tribe4 ,it requires but little argument to refute so fallacious a notion4 ,no doubt it is desirable to encourage the breeding of those varieties of animals which exhibit the greatest disposition to fatten1 and to arrive early at maturity2 but the forcing of individual animals into an unnatural state of obesity1 except for purely experimental purposes1 is a practice which cannot be too strongly deprecated4 ,if breeders contented themselves with handing over to the butcher their huge living blocks of fat1 the matter would not perhaps be very serious2 but1 unfortunately1 it is too often the practice to turn them to account as sires and dams4 ,were ,i a judge at a cattle show1 ,i certainly should disqualify every extremely fat animal entered for competition amongst the breeding stock4 ,unless parents are healthy and vigorous1 their progeny are almost certain to be unhealthy and weakly2 and it is inconceivable that an extremely obese bull and an unnaturally fat cow could be the progenitors of healthy offspring4 ,we should by all means improve our live stock2 but we should be careful not to overdo the thing4 ,if we must have gaily-decked ponderous bulls and cows at our fat cattle exhibitions1 let us condemn to speedy immolation those unhappy victims to a most absurd fashion2 but in the name of common sense let us leave the perpetuation of the species to individuals in a normal state1 whose muscles are not replaced by fat1 whose hearts are not hypertrophied1 and whose lungs are capable of effectively performing the function of respiration4 ,mr4 ,gant1 in a small volume#bd devoted wholly to the subject1 describes the serious functional and structural disarrangements which over-feeding produces in stock4 ,he found the heart of a one-year old ,southdown wether1 fattened according to the high-pressure system1 to be little more than a mass of fat4 ,in several other young1 but so-called matured sheep1 he found more or less fatty degeneration of the heart1 and extensively spread disease of the liver and of the lungs4 ,a four-year old ,devon heifer1 exhibited by the late ,prince ,consort at a ,smithfield show1 was found to be in a highly diseased state4 ,it was slaughtered1 and of course its flesh sold at a high price as prize beef1 but its internal organs came into ,mr4 ,gant's possession4 ,the substance of both ventricles of the heart had undergone all but complete conversion into fat2 one of its muscles was broken up1 and many of the fibres of the others were ruptured4 ,in another animal the muscular fibres of the heart had given way to so great an extent that if the thin lining membrane 7endocardium7 had burst1 death would have instantly ensued4 ,the slightest exertion was likely to cause this catastrophe2 but1 fortunately enough in this case1 the animal was not capable of exertion1 for though under three years of age1 it weighed upwards of #bjj stones3 this animal had received for some time before its exhibition1 the liberal allowance of #ba lbs4 of oil-cake 7besides other food7 per diem4 ,a pen of three pigs1 says ,mr4 ,gant1 belonging to his ,royal ,highness the ,prince ,consort1 happened to be placed in a favorable light for observation1 and ,i particularly noticed their condition4 ,they lay helpless on their sides1 with their noses propped up against each other's backs1 as if endeavouring to breathe more easily1 but their respiration was loud1 suffocating1 and at long intervals4 ,then you heard a short catching snore1 which shook the whole body of the animal1 and passed with the motion of a wave over its fat surface1 which1 moreover1 felt cold4 ,i thought how much the heart under such circumstances must be laboring to propel the blood through the lungs and throughout the body4 ,the gold medal pigs of ,mr4 ,moreland were in a similar condition1 if anything1 worse2 for they snored and gasped for breath1 their mouths being opened1 as well as their nostrils dilated1 at each inspiration4 ,from a pig we only expect a grunt1 but not a snore4 ,these animals1 only twelve months and ten days old1 were marked 'improved ,chilton breed4' ,they1 with their fellows just mentioned1 of eleven months and twenty-three days1 had early come to grief4 ,three pigs of the black breed were in a similar state1 at seven months three weeks and five days1 yet such animals 'the judges highly commended4' ,dr4 ,brinton denies the accuracy of several of ,mr4 ,gant's statements relative to the structural changes in the muscles of obese animals2 but ,i do not think that he has succeeded in disproving the principal assertions made by the latter4 ,there is conclusive evidence to prove that one of the effects of the present mode of fattening beasts is disease of the internal organs of the animals2 but it is by no means certain that the flesh of those diseased animals is as unwholesome food as some writers assert it to be4 ,the flesh of an over-fattened animal differs from that of a lean1 or moderately fat one1 in containing an exceedingly high proportion of fat2 but it has not been proved that the fat of prize animals differs from the fat of lean kine1 or that it is less wholesome or nutritious4 ,be the flesh of those exceedingly fat animals unwholesome or not1 there are thousands1 ay1 millions of persons1 to whom its greasy quality renders it peculiarly acceptable2 and as for those who dislike fat--they do not usually invest their money in the flesh of prize sheep or oxen4 ,at the same time1 it must not be understood that all1 or even a large proportion of fully matured stock is in a diseased state2 though in most of them the vital and muscular powers are undoubtedly exceedingly low4 ,there is no doubt but that sheep and oxen1 from three to five years old1 moderately fat1 and fairly exercising their locomotive powers1 furnish the most savory1 and1 perhaps1 the most nutritious meat3 but if such were the only kind of meat in demand1 it may be fairly doubted that the supply would be equal to it4 ,the produce of meat in these countries has been rapidly increasing for many years past2 and the weight of meat annually supplied from a given area of land is now from #hj to #ajj per cent4 greater than it furnished thirty or forty years ago4 ,it is chiefly by means of the so-called forcing system that the produce of meat has been so considerably increased4 ,if this system were abandoned1 the production would be greatly diminished1 and the consequently high price of the article would place it beyond the reach of the masses of the population4 ,besides1 it has not been proved that the flesh of the animals brought early to maturity is much inferior1 except somewhat in flavor1 to the meat of three-year-old beasts4 ,there is1 no doubt1 plenty of unwholesome meat offered for sale1 but it is that of animals which were affected by diseases as likely to attack the young as the old4 ,on the whole1 then1 we may say of the improved system of fattening stock1 that it produces a maximum amount of meat on a given area of land2 that the meat so produced is1 except in rare cases1 perfectly wholesome2 that it is capable of supplying the ingredient--fat--which is almost wholly absent from a vegetable diet2 and1 finally1 that it places animal food within the reach of the working classes4 ,diseased ,meat4--,the losses occasioned to stockowners by the diseases of live stock are far greater than is generally supposed4 ,it has been calculated that in the six years ending #ahfj1 the value of the horned stock lost by disease amounted to ,l#be1icd1fej4 ,pleuro-pneumonia was the chief cause of these losses4 ,exclusive of the enormous losses occasioned by the ravages of the rinderpest1 the annual loss by disease in live stock in these countries for some years past cannot be much under ,l#f1jjj1jjj sterling4 ,whether it is owing to the somewhat abnormal condition under which the domesticated animals are placed1 or to causes which operate upon them when in a state of nature1 it is certain that they are remarkably prone to disease4 ,it is extremely difficult to get a horse six years old that is not a roarer or a whistler1 or weak on his pins1 or in some way or other unsound4 ,oxen1 sheep1 and pigs have almost as many maladies afflicting them as human flesh is heir to1 notwithstanding the short period of life which they are permitted to enjoy4 ,it is a very serious question whether or not the flesh of animals that have been killed while they are in a diseased condition is injurious to health4 ,the opinions on this point are conflicting1 but the majority of medical men believe that the flesh of diseased animals is not wholesome4 ,there are certain maladies which obviously render meat unsaleable1 by causing a sensible alteration in its quality4 ,for example1 blackleg in cattle and measles in the porcine tribe render the flesh of these animals1 as a general rule1 unmarketable1 or nearly so4 ,but there are very serious diseases--often proving rapidly fatal--which1 whilst seriously affecting certain internal organs1 do not palpably deteriorate the quality of the flesh4 ,in such cases are we to rely upon the evidence of our mere senses in judging of the wholesomeness of the meat8 ,if we find beef possessing a good color and odour1 and firm to the touch1 and appearing to be in every respect healthy flesh1 are we under such circumstances to take it for granted that it must be healthy8 ,this is a very important question1 involving as it does the interests of both the producers and consumers of animal food4 ,if the flesh of all diseased animals be unwholesome1 a very large number of oxen now sold whilst laboring under pleuro-pneumonia should not be sent into the market4 ,this1 of course1 would be a heavy loss to the stockowner1 but a still heavier one to the meat consumer2 because1 if there were fewer animals for sale1 the price of meat would ascend1 in obedience to the law of supply and demand4 ,the whole question is1 then1 well worthy of being considered in the most careful1 unbiassed1 and scientific manner2 for at present it is in a state which is the reverse of being satisfactory4 ,a large proportion of the animals conducted to the shambles is in a diseased condition4 ,professor ,gamgee estimates it at no less than one-fifth4 ,dr4 ,letheby1 food analyst to the ,corporation of ,london1 condemns weekly about #b1jjj pounds weight of flesh2 but as his jurisdiction is limited to the ,city1 which contains a population of only about #aad1jjj1 the #b1jjj pounds of diseased meat are probably only about #a-cjth of the quantity exposed for sale within the whole area of the metropolis4 ,making an estimate of the most moderate kind1 we may assume that #cj1jjj pounds weight of bad meat are weekly offered for sale in ,london--three million pounds weight annually4 ,many persons have been affected with dysentery and choleraic symptoms after partaking of butcher's meat of apparently the most healthy kind4 ,the meat has often been subjected to minute chemical and microscopical examination1 but no poison has been discovered4 ,but these cases are becoming so frequent that they are exciting uneasiness1 and demand an exhaustive investigation4 ,the unskilful persons who officiate in the capacity of clerks of the market and inspectors of meat can only judge of the quality of flesh that is obviously inferior to the eye1 nose1 or touch2 but are there not cases where the flesh may appear to be good1 and yet contain some subtle malign principle8 ,it is an ascertained fact that young or slink veal very frequently gives rise to diarrhoea1 more especially when that disease is epidemic4 ,dr4 ,parkes1 in his celebrated work on ,hygiene1 page #afb 7second edition71 states that the flesh of the pig sometimes produced diarrhoea--a fact ,i have had occasion to notice in a regiment in ,india1 and which has often been noticed by others4 ,the flesh is1 probably1 affected by the unwholesome garbage on which the pig feeds4 ,menschell states that #dd persons were afflicted with anthrax after eating the flesh of oxen affected with carbuncular fever4 ,dr4 ,kesteren1 in the ,medical ,times for ,march1 #ahfd1 mentions a case where twelve persons were affected with choleraic symptoms after the use of pork not obviously diseased4 ,at ,newtownards1 county of ,down1 several persons died after eating veal in which no poisonous matter of any kind could be detected4 ,one instance has come under my own notice where a man1 two dogs1 and a pig died after eating the flesh of an animal killed whilst suffering from splenic apoplexy4 ,several butchers have lost their lives in consequence of the blood of diseased animals being allowed to come in contact with abrasions or recently received wounds on their arms4 ,the flesh of over-driven animals is stated by ,professor ,gamgee to produce a most serious skin disease1 although the meat appeared to be perfectly healthy4 ,the ,belgian ,academy of ,medicine has decided that the flesh of animals suffering from carbuncular fever is unwholesome1 and its sale in that country is prohibited4 ,many persons have died in ,germany and a few in ,england from a disease produced by eating pork containing a small internal parasite termed trichina spiralis4 ,i have recently met with a case of trichiniasis in the human subject4 ,the body of the unfortunate person--who had been an inmate of the ,south ,dublin ,union ,workhouse--was found to contain thousands of the trichinae4 ,in ,iceland a large proportion of the population suffers from a parasitic disease traceable to the use of the flesh of sheep and cattle in which flukes abound4 ,pleuro-pneumonia is in this country the disease which most frequently affects the ox4 ,it is probable that about #e per cent4 of these animals sold in ,dublin are more or less affected by this malady4 ,there are two forms of pleuro-pneumonia--the sporadic1 or indigenous1 and the foreign1 or contagious4 ,it is the latter form which has become the scourge of the ox tribe in this country1 though unknown here until the year #ahda1 when it appeared as an epizooetic1 and carried off vast numbers of animals4 ,the contagious pleuro-pneumonia is an extremely severe inflammatory disease1 and is produced--not in the same way that common pleuro-pneumonia is1 by exposure to excessive cold1 c4--but by a blood poison received from an infected animal4 ,in the congestive stage of the disease there is no structural alteration in the organs of the animal1 and if well bled its flesh might 7probably7 be safely eaten2 but when a large portion of the lungs becomes solidified1 and rendered incapable of purifying the blood1 is it not doubtful1 to say the least1 that the blood or flesh is perfectly wholesome8 ,the blood1 during the life of the animal1 is in a state of fermentation2 there is extreme fever1 and the animal presents all the characteristic symptoms of acute disease4 ,on being killed1 the flesh1 if the disease be of a fortnight's duration1 will usually be extremely dark1 but in a less advanced stage of the malady the flesh will generally present a healthy appearance4 ,is it really so8 ,that is the question which science has to determine4 ,going upon a broad principle1 ,i can hardly conceive that so serious a disease as pleuro-pneumonia does not injuriously affect the quality of the flesh4 ,it is no argument to say that thousands consume such flesh1 and yet enjoy good health4 ,millions of people drink water and breathe air that are extremely impure1 and yet they do not speedily die4 ,it is one thing to be poisonous1 another to be unwholesome4 ,the flesh of animals killed whilst suffering from lung distemper is not directly poisonous1 but who can prove that it is not1 like bad water1 unwholesome8 ,as analyst to the city of ,dublin1 ,i am almost daily called upon to inspect meat suspected to be unwholesome2 and ,i have always condemned as being unfit for human food3-- #a4 ,animals slaughtered at the time of bringing forth their young4 #b4 ,oxen affected with pleuro-pneumonia1 when pus is present in the lungs1 or the flesh obviously affected2 animals suffering from murrain1 black-quarter1 and the different forms of anthrax4 #c4 ,animals in an anaemic1 or wasted condition4 #d4 ,meat in a state of putrefaction4 ,during the present year about #bj1jjj pounds weight of meat have been seized and condemned in the city of ,dublin4 ,,section ,,ii4 ,,milk4 ,milk is a peculiar fluid secreted by the females of all animals belonging to the class ,mammalia2 and1 being designed for the nourishment of their offspring1 contains all the constituents which enter into the composition of the animal body4 ,the milk of different animals varies very much in color1 taste1 and nutritive value4 ,that of the cow is a little heavier than water--its specific gravity being1 on the average1 about #a4jcj1 water being #a4jjj4 ,it is composed of three constituents--namely1 butter1 curd1 and whey--each of which is also composed of a number of substances4 ,these three constituents are of unequal weight1 or specific gravity1 and their separation is the chief process carried on in the dairy4 ,the butter is the lightest and the curd is the heaviest constituent4 ,the following table represents the composition of the milk of different animals3-- ,,composition ,,of ,,the ,,milk ,,of ,,different ,,animals4 #a1jjj ,,parts ,,contain-- ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,specific ,gravity1 ,water4 ,solid ,cheesy ,sugar4,butter4,mineral or ,ingredients4 ,matter4 ,matter4 ,density4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,woman #ajcb4fg #hhi4jh #aaj4ib #ci4cj #dc4fh #bf4ff #a4cj ,cow #ajcj #hfd4bj #ace4hj #dh4hj #dg4gj #ca4cj #f4jj ,goat #ajcc4ec #hdd4ij #aee4aj #ce4ad #cf4ia #ef4hg #f4ah ,ewe #ajdj4ih #hcb4cb #afg4fh #fi4gh #ci4dc #ea4ca #g4af ,mare #ajcc4gd #ijd4cj #ie4gj #cc4ce #cb4gf #bd4cf #e4bc ,ass #ajcd4eg #hij4ab #aji4hh #ce4fe #ej4df #ah4ec #e4bd ,bitch #ajda4fb #ggb4jh #bbg4ib #aaf4hh #ae4bi #hg4ie #g4hj ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,milk examined through a microscope is a colorless fluid1 containing a large number of little vesicles1 or bags1 filled with butter--a mixture of oily and fatty matters4 ,when the milk stands for some time1 the globules1 being lighter than the other constituents1 ascend to the top1 and1 mixed with a certain proportion of milk1 are removed as cream4 ,the curd is termed in scientific parlance casein1 and is in fresh milk in a state of solution--that is to say1 is dissolved in milk in the same way that we dissolve sugar in water4 ,when milk becomes sour1 either naturally or by the addition of rennet1 it can no longer hold casein in solution1 and the curd consequently separates4 ,casein is the substance which forms the basis of cheese4 ,the substance that remains after the removal of the butter and cheese is called serum1 or whey1 and is composed of a sweetish substance termed sugar of milk1 and certain saline bodies1 termed the ash1 dissolved in water4 ,the butter and the sugar of milk are employed in the animal economy in the production of fat1 and are what have been styled by physiologists heat-producers and fat-formers4 ,the casein resembles the gluten of wheat in composition2 it belongs to the class of food substances termed flesh-formers4 ,the ash1 or mineral part of the milk1 is chiefly employed in forming the bones of the young animals it is destined to nourish4 ,the quality of milk is influenced by the quantity and quality of the food given to the animal4 ,the milk of cows fed on distillery wash1 turnip1 and mangel tops1 coarse herbage1 and other kinds of inferior food1 is always of inferior quality4 ,hence it is of great importance that dairy stock be kept in good old pastures in summer1 and fed on ,swedish turnips1 mangel-wurtzel1 and oil-cake during winter4 ,it is true economy to supply dairy cows with abundance of nutritious food2 and it should be constantly borne in mind that the milk from two well-fed cows will give more butter than can be obtained from the produce of three badly-fed animals4 ,the butter is the constituent of milk which is most affected by the nature and amount of the animal's food2 and butter is precisely the article which is of the greatest importance to the ,irish dairy farmer1 as the quantity of cheese prepared in this country is inconsiderable4 ,when1 therefore1 it is found that a cow pastured on inferior land1 or badly fed in the byre1 yields a large supply of milk of a high specific quantity 7which1 however1 is rarely the case71 it must not be concluded that the result is satisfactory2 for if such milk be tested by the lactometer it will certainly be found wanting in butter4 ,the average composition of ,english milk1 according to ,way1 is3-- ,water #hg4jb ,butter #c4bc ,casein #d4dh ,sugar of milk #d4fg ,ash #j4fj ------ #ajj4jj ,in several analyses of milk published by ,professor ,voelcker1 the highest proportion of butter is stated to be #g4fb4 ,in that of cows kept on poor and over-stocked pastures less than #b per cent4 was found4 ,i have examined in my capacity of ,food ,analyst to the ,city of ,dublin several hundred samples of milk1 in not one of which have ,i found the proportion of butter to amount to more than #e4f per cent4 ,in no sample did ,i find a higher per-centage of solid matter than #ac4ae1 or 7when pure7 lower than #ab4jh4 ,the quality of the food of the milch cow exercises a great influence on the quality and yield of her milk4 ,aliments rich in fat and sugar favor the production of butter1 and augment the supply of milk4 ,locust-beans1 malt1 and molasses are good milk-producing foods2 but the chief condition in the production of milk rich in butter is simply that the animals which yield it must be fed with abundance of nutritious food4 ,nor must it be supposed that the richness of milk is due to the smallness of the yield1 for whenever the quality of the secretion is inferior1 it is almost certain to be deficient in quantity4 ,those cows which give the richest milk1 generally yield the largest quantity4 ,yield of ,milk4--,according to ,boussingault1 a cow daily yields on the average #aj4d parts of milk per #a1jjj parts of her weight4 ,morton1 in his ,cyclopaedia of ,agriculture1 p4 #fba1 states that ,mr4 ,young1 a ,scotch dairy keeper1 obtained #fhj gallons per cow per annum4 ,voelcker found that some common dairy stock gave each of them fifty-two pints of milk per diem1 whilst three pedigree cows yielded respectively forty-nine pints4 ,professor ,wilson gives the following information on this point3-- ,our principal dairy breeds are the ,ayrshire1 the ,channel ,islands1 the ,short-horn1 the ,suffolk1 and the ,kerry4 ,some published returns of two dairies of ,ayrshire cows give the annual milk produce per cow at #fej and #fcb gallons respectively4 ,three returns of dairies1 consisting wholly of ,short-horns1 show a produce of #edj gallons1 #fcj gallons1 and #gfe gallons respectively1 or an average of #fbe gallons per annum for each cow4 ,in two dairies1 where half-bred ,short-horns were kept1 the yield was #haj and #hff gallons respectively for each cow4 ,in four dairies in ,ireland1 where pure ,kerrys and crosses with ,short-horns and ,ayrshires were kept1 the annual produce per cow was returned at #ejj gallons1 #fjj gallons1 #fge gallons1 and #gdj gallons respectively2 or an average1 on the four dairies1 of #fcj gallons per annum for each cow4 ,a dairy of pure ,kerrys gave an average of #dhh gallons per cow1 and another of the larger ,irish breed gave an average of #ehc gallons per head per annum4 ,in the great ,london dairies1 now well-nigh extinguished by the ravages of the cattle disease1 these returns are greatly exceeded4 ,the cows kept are large framed ,short-horns and ,yorkshire crosses1 which1 by good feeding1 bring the returns to nearly #a1jjj gallons per annum for each cow kept4 ,the custom in these establishments is to dispose of a cow directly her milk falls below two gallons a-day1 and buy another in her place4 ,the following milk return of one of our best managed dairy farms 7,frocester ,court7 shows the relative produce of cows in the successive years of their milking4 ,the first lot was bought in at two-years old2 all the others at three years3-- ,no4 of ,cows4 ,year of ,milk4 ,produce per head4 #h #ast #cag gals4 #ae #ast #dgb #ad #bnd #cec #ae #crd #faf #bj #dth #ffe #ah #eth #fce #i #fth #gjh #ae ,old #fea ,the maximum reliable milk produce that we have recorded was that of a single cow belonging to the keeper of the gaol at ,lewes1 the details of which were authenticated by the ,board of ,agriculture4 ,in eight consecutive years she gave #i1gbj gallons1 or at the rate of more than #a1baj gallons per annum4 ,in one year she milked #cbh days1 and gave #a1bcj gallons1 which yielded #edj lbs4 of butter1 or at the rate of #a lb4 of butter to #bb-c_/d lb4 of milk4 ,in the early part of the present year 7#ahff7 a return was published of the produce of a cow in a ,vermont 7,u4,s47 dairy1 which was stated to have given1 in the previous year1 a butter yield of #ejd lbs41 at the rate of #a lb4 of butter to #bj lbs4 of milk4#be ,preserved ,milk4--,various plans have been proposed to render milk more portable1 and to preserve it sweet for days and even months4 ,mr4 ,borden of ,connecticut1 ,united ,states1 prepares a concentrated milk by boiling the fluid down in vacuo1 at a temperature under #adj deg4 ,fahrenheit1 mixing the resulting solid with sugar1 and rapidly placing the compound in tins1 which are then hermetically sealed4 ,it is said that solidified milk prepared by this process remains sweet for many months4 ,in ,france1 solidified and concentrated milk are largely prepared2 and it is certain that ,london and other large towns will yet be supplied with milk rendered portable and more stable1 by the removal of a large proportion of its water4 ,in many parts of ,ireland pure milk could be bought at from #g;d4 to #h;d4 per gallon4 ,i do not despair to see factories established in such places for the manufacture of preserved milk as a substitute for the dear and impure fluid sold under the name of milk in ,london and other large cities4 ,it is stated that solidified milk prepared in ,switzerland is now sold in ,london4 ,,section ,,iii4 ,,butter4 ,history of ,butter4--,the very general use of butter as an article of food is demonstrated by the familiar saying--,we should not quarrel with our bread and butter2 yet this article1 now so commonly used throughout the greater part of ,europe1 was either unknown or but imperfectly known to the ancients4 ,in the ,english translation of the ,holy ,scriptures the word butter does certainly frequently occur2 but the ,hebrew original is chamea1 which1 according to the most eminent ,biblical critics1 signifies cream1 or thick1 sour milk4 ,in the #bjth chapter of ,job the following passage occurs3--,he shall not see the rivers1 the floods1 the brooks of honey and butter4 ,now1 we can conceive streams of thin cream1 but we cannot imagine a river of butter4 ,the oldest mention of butter is found in the works of ,herodotus4 ,in the description of the ,scythians given by this ancient author1 reference is made to their practice of violently shaking the milk of their mares1 for the purpose of causing a solid fatty matter to ascend to its surface1 which1 when removed from the milk1 they considered a delicious article of food4 ,hippocrates1 who wrote a little later than ,herodotus1 describes1 but in clearer language1 the manufacture of butter by the ,scythians2 he also alludes to the preparation of cheese by the same people4 ,the word1 butter1 does not occur in any of ,aristotle's writings1 and although mention is made of it in the works of ,anaxandrides1 ,plutarch1 and ,a,elian1 it is evident that they considered it only in the light of a curious substance1 employed partly as an article of food1 partly as a medicinal salve1 by certain barbarous nations4 ,about the second or third century1 butter was but little known to the ,greeks and ,romans1 and there is no reason to believe that it was ever generally used as an article of food by the classic nations of antiquity2 it is noteworthy1 that the inhabitants of the south of ,europe even at the present time use butter in very small quantities1 which1 indeed1 is often sold for medicinal purposes in the apothecaries' shops in ,italy1 ,spain1 and ,portugal4 ,from the foregoing statements it is evident that the butter manufacture can lay no claim to a classic origin2 but that it took its rise in the countries of savage1 of semi-civilised1 and barbarous nations4 ,it is probable that the ,greeks were made acquainted with butter by the ,thracians1 ,phrygians1 and ,scythians2 and that the knowledge of this substance was conveyed to ,rome by visitors from ,germany4 ,during the middle ages the practice of butter-making spread throughout ,northern1 ,central1 and ,western ,europe2 but in many parts the commodity was very scarce and highly valued1 notwithstanding its being almost1 if not quite1 in a semi-fluid state1 instead of possessing the firm consistence of the butter of the present day4 ,irish ,butter4--,butter is produced in such large quantities in ,ireland that1 after the home demand has been supplied1 there remains a large excess--so considerable1 indeed1 as to constitute one of the more important of our few commercial staples4 ,the precise quantity of butter which1 during late years1 has been annually exported from ,ireland is unknown4 ,the greater part of the commodity is sent to trans-,channel ports2 and1 there being no duty on butter in the cross-,channel trade since #ahbf1 we have no means of accurately estimating the amount of our exports to ,great ,britain4 ,if1 however1 we refer to the statistics of our commerce for the period beginning in #aghg1 and ending in #ahbf1 we shall find that the exportation of butter was enormous1 and that a large proportion of that commodity consumed by the army and navy was supplied from the dairies of ,ireland4 ,during the three years ended on the #eth of ,january1 #ahbf1 the average annual amount of butter exported was as follows3-- cwts4 ,to ,great ,britain #dda1bbf ,to foreign countries #ea1fcg ,of late years the exportation to foreign and colonial countries has fallen off2 still the export trade is very considerable1 probably amounting to #dej1jjj cwts4 per annum4 ,during the year #ahfg1 the imports of foreign butter into ,great ,britain amounted to #a1adb1bfb cwts4 ,i have quoted the above statistics for the purpose of demonstrating the great importance of the butter trade to this country4 ,not only is a large proportion of the agricultural community pecuniarily interested in the production of this article1 but the exportation is the chief cause of the commercial prosperity of a city1 which1 in point of population1 ranks third in the kingdom4 ,if butter1 then1 be an article of so much importance1 it is obvious that the greatest care should be taken in its preparation1 and that the efforts of both scientific and practical men should be directed towards the best mode of improving its quality4 ,if the principles involved in the production of butter were thoroughly understood1 and generally known1 ,i believe that such terms as seconds1 thirds1 and fourths1 would speedily fall into disuse2 that there would be only one kind of butter sent into the market2 and that the article would always be of the best quality1 in other words1 firsts4 ,composition of ,butter4--,the composition and quality of butter depend to a great extent upon the condition of the milk or cream from which it is prepared1 and on the skill and cleanliness of the dairy-maid4 ,it consists essentially of fatty and oily matters1 but it is always found in combination with casein 7cheesy matter7 and water4 ,the following analyses1 made by ,mr4 ,way1 late consulting chemist to the ,royal ,agricultural ,society of ,england1 shows its composition3-- ,,ingredients ,,per ,,cent4 #a4 #b4 #c4 ,fatty matters #hb4gj #gi4fg #gi4ab ,casein #b4de #c4ch #c4cg ,water #ad4he #af4ie #ag4ea ,no4 #a analysis shows the composition of a specimen obtained from the well-known ,mr4 ,horsfall's dairy4 ,it was made from raw cream4 ,the other specimens were the produce of a ,devonshire dairy1 and were prepared from scalded cream4 ,in several specimens of well-made and unsalted ,irish butter which ,i have analysed1 ,i found the proportion of casein or cheesy matter never to exceed #a per cent41 whilst in the analysis above stated the centesimal amount is on the average more than #c per cent4 ,the fatty matter is composed of two substances--one1 a solid1 termed margarin2 the other fluid1 and styled by chemists elaine4 ,the solid fat is identical in composition with the solid fat of the human body4 ,the elaine is peculiar to milk1 but it differs very slightly from olein1 or fluid fat4 ,the relative proportions of the fluid and solid fats vary with the seasons4 ,according to ,braconnot1 the solid fat forms in summer #dj per cent4 of the butter1 but in winter the proportion rises to #fe4 ,this decrease in the proportion of the liquid fat in winter is the cause of the greater hardness of the butter in that season1 which is often incorrectly attributed solely to the cold4 ,the cheesy and acid matters contained in butter are by no means essential2 on the contrary1 if it were quite free from them1 it might be retained with little or no salt for a very long period without becoming rancid4 ,the cheesy matter contains nitrogen2 and nearly all the substances into which this element enters as a constituent are remarkably prone to decomposition4 ,yeast1 and ferments of every kind--gunpowder1 fulminating silver1 chloride of nitrogen--and almost every explosive compound1 contain this element4 ,the cheesy matter is a very nitrogenous body1 and in presence of air and moisture not only rapidly decomposes1 or decays1 itself1 but induces by mere contact a like state of decomposition in other substances--such1 for instance1 as fat1 sugar1 and starch1 which naturally have no tendency to change their state4 ,bearing the foregoing facts in mind1 it is obvious that the chief precautions to be observed in the manufacture of butter are3--,firstly1 to separate to as great an extent as practicable the casein from the butter2 and1 secondly1 as in practice a small portion of the curd remains in the butter1 to prevent it from undergoing any change--at least for a prolonged period4 ,how these desiderata may best be accomplished ,i shall now proceed to point out4 ,the ,butter ,manufacture4--,the theory of the process of churning is very simple4 ,by violently agitating the milk or cream the little vesicles1 or bags containing the butter1 are broken1 and1 the fatty matter adhering1 lumps of butter are formed4 ,the operation of churning also introduces atmospheric air into the milk1 which1 aided by the high temperature to which the fluid is raised1 converts a portion of the sweet sugar of milk into the sour lactic acid4 ,by the alteration produced in this way in the composition of the milk1 it is no longer capable of holding the casein in solution1 and the curd therefore separates4 ,the churn and other vessels in which the milk is placed cannot be kept too clean4 ,no amount of labor bestowed on the scalding and scrubbing of the vessels is excessive4 ,when wood is the material used in the milk-pans the utmost care should be taken in cleaning them1 as the porous nature of the material favors the retention of small quantities of the milk4 ,a simple washing will not suffice to clean such vessels4 ,they must be thoroughly scrubbed and afterwards well scalded with boiling water4 ,tin pans are preferable to wooden ones1 as they are more easily cleaned1 but in their turn they are inferior to glass vessels1 which ought to supersede every other kind4 ,earthenware1 lead1 and zinc pans are in rather frequent use4 ,the last-mentioned material is easily acted upon by the lactic acid of the sour milk1 and is1 therefore1 objectionable4 ,it is a matter of great importance that the dairy should not be situated near a pig-stye1 sewer1 or water-closet1 the effluvia from which would be likely to taint the milk4 ,it is surprising how small a quantity of putrescent matter is sufficient to taint a whole churn of milk2 and as it has been demonstrated that the almost inappreciable emanations from a cesspool are capable of conferring a bad flavor on milk1 it is in the highest degree important to remove from the churn and milk-pail every trace of the sour milk4 ,i go further1 it is even desirable that no one whose hands have a tendency to perspire should be allowed to manipulate in the dairy2 and it should be constantly borne in mind that the dairy-maid's fingers and hot water should be on the most intimate visiting terms4 ,butter is made either from cream--sour and sweet--or from whole milk which has stood sufficiently long to become distinctly sour4 ,it is asserted by some makers that butter prepared from whole milk1 or from scalded cream1 contains a large proportion of curd4 ,if this be true--which ,i greatly doubt--it is a serious matter1 for such butter would speedily become rancid in consequence of the casein acting as a ferment4 ,i believe that experience points to an exactly opposite conclusion4 ,from the results of careful inquiries ,i feel no hesitation in asserting that the butter should not be made from the cream1 but from the whole milk4 ,when made from the cream alone it is much more likely to acquire a bad taste1 and is generally wanting in keeping qualities4 ,i have no doubt but that in the process of churning the whole milk there is a large amount of lactic acid formed1 and a much higher temperature attained1 than in the churning of cream2 consequently1 the separation of caseous matter must be more perfectly effected in the former than in the latter case4 ,it is a mistake to think that there is very little casein in cream3 out of #g or #h lbs4 of thick cream only a couple of pounds of butter are obtainable2 the rest is made up of water1 casein1 and sugar of milk4 ,the yield of butter is greater when the whole milk is churned than when the cream alone is operated upon1 and1 what is of great importance1 the quality of the butter is uniform during the whole year4 ,the labor of churning whole milk is1 of course1 much greater than if the cream alone were employed1 but the increased yield and unvarying quality of the butter more than compensate for the extra expenditure of labor4 ,the proper temperature of the milk or cream is a point of great practical importance4 ,if the fluid be too warm or too cold the buttery particles will only by great trouble be made to cohere2 and the quality of the butter is almost certain to be inferior4 ,when the whole milk is operated on1 the temperature should be from #ee to #fj degs4 of ,fahrenheit's thermometer2 and if cream be employed the temperature should never exceed #ee degs4 nor be lower than #ej degs4 ,hence it follows that in summer the dairy should be kept cooler1 and in winter warmer1 than the atmosphere4 ,the temperature of milk is raised or lowered as may be found necessary1 by the addition of hot or cold water--in performing which operations properly1 a good thermometer is indispensable2 one should always be kept in the dairy1 and should be so constructed as to admit of being plunged into the milk4 ,in some dairies the water1 instead of being mixed with the milk1 is put into a tub in which the churn is placed4 ,there is a good kind of churn1 which consists of two cylinders1 the one within the other--the interval between them being intended for the reception of hot or cold water4 ,the influence of temperature upon the production of butter has been placed beyond all doubt by numerous carefully-conducted experiments4 ,mr4 ,horsfall1 a celebrated dairy farmer1 in discussing this question1 sums up as follows3--,by a series of carefully-conducted experiments at varying temperatures1 ,i am of opinion that a correct scale of the comparative yield of butter at different temperatures might be arrived at2 as thus3 ,from a very low degree of temperature little or no butter2 from a temperature of about #ch degs41 #af oz4 from #af quarts of milk2 ditto1 #de degs41 #ba oz4 from #af quarts of milk2 ditto1 #ee degs41 #bf to #bg oz4 from #af quarts of milk4 ,this is a higher yield of butter than1 ,i suspect1 most dairymen get3 but ,mr4 ,horsfall's cows being of the best kind for milking1 and well fed1 the milk is1 of course1 rich in butter2 and his experiments prove that even the richest milk will not throw up its butter unless at a certain temperature4 ,in the churning of cream the motion should be slow at first until the cream is thoroughly broken up4 ,in churning milk the agitation should neither be violent nor irregular2 about #dj or #ej motions of the plunger or board per minute will be sufficient4 ,in steam-worked churns the motion is often excessively rapid1 and the separation of the butter is effected in a few minutes2 but the article obtained in this hasty way very quickly becomes rancid1 and must be disposed of at once4 ,an hour's churning of sour cream appears in general to produce good butter4 ,sweet cream and whole milk require a longer period--the latter about #c hours--but in any case prolonged churning is certain1 by incorporating cheesy matter with the butter1 to produce an inferior article4 ,sweet milk becomes sour1 evolves a considerable quantity of gas during churning1 and its temperature ascends four or five degrees4 ,oxygen is unquestionably absorbed1 and it is probable that a portion of the sugar of milk is converted into acid products4 ,i have already stated that even the most carefully prepared butter contains a small proportion of casein and sugar of milk4 ,this casein is the good genius of the cheese-maker1 but the evil genius of the butter manufacturer4 ,how8 ,in this way3--,when butter containing a notable proportion of casein and sugar of milk is exposed to the air1 the following changes take place3 the casein passes into a state of fermentation1 and acting upon the sugar of milk1 converts it1 firstly into the bad-flavored lactic acid1 and secondly into the bad odorous butyric1 capric1 and caproic acids4 ,the first of these compounds in a state of purity emits an odor resembling a mixture of vinegar and rancid butter2 the second possesses an odor resembling that of a goat--hence the name capric2 the third has an odor like that of perspiration4 ,in addition to these acids1 there is another simultaneously generated--the caprylic1 but it does not unpleasantly affect the olfactory nerve4 ,the casein also injuriously affects the fatty constituents of the butter2 under its influence they absorb oxygen from the air1 and become converted into strong-smelling compounds4 ,the washing of butter is intended to free it from the casein and unaltered cream1 and the more perfectly it is freed from those impurities the better will be its flavor1 and the longer it will remain without becoming rancid4 ,some people believe that too much water injures the quality and lessens the quantity of butter4 ,it cannot do the former1 because the essential constituents of butter are totally insoluble in water2 it may do the latter1 but1 if it do1 so much the better1 because the loss of weight represents the amount of impurities--milk1 sugar of milk1 c4--removed4 ,i have already remarked that butter is so susceptible of taint that even a perspiring hand is sufficient to spoil it2 naturally cool hands should alone be allowed to come in contact with this delicate commodity1 and the hands should be made thoroughly clean by repeated washings with warm water and oatmeal--the use of soap in the lavatory of the dairymaid being highly objectionable4 ,wooden spades are now being commonly made use of in manipulating the butter1 and there is no good reason why they should not come into universal use4 ,the yield of butter per cow is subject to great variation4 ,some breeds of the animal are remarkable as milkers2 such1 for instance1 as the ,alderneys and ,kerrys--indeed1 ,i may say all the small varieties of the bovine race4 ,there are instances of cows yielding upwards of twenty pounds of butter per week1 but these are extraordinary cases4 ,in ,holland a good cow will produce1 during the summer months1 more than #ahj lbs4 of butter4 ,in these countries ,i think the average annual yield of a cow is not more than #agj lbs4 ,it sometimes happens that cows yield a large quantity of milk and a small amount of butter1 but it far more frequently occurs that the cow which gives most milk also yields most butter4 ,an estimate of the amount of butter contained in milk may be made by determining the amount of cream4 ,this may be effected by means of an instrument termed a lactometer1 which is simply a glass tube about five inches long1 and graduated into a hundred parts4 ,the specimen to be examined is poured into this tube up to zero or #j1 and allowed to stand for twelve hours in summer and sixteen or eighteen in winter4 ,at the end of that time the cream will have risen to the top1 and its per-centage may be easily seen4 ,in good milk the cream will generally extend #aa to #ae degrees down from #j4 ,this instrument1 although very useful1 is not reliable in every case1 especially in detecting the adulteration of milk4 ,i have already stated that the complete separation of the butter from the other constituents of the milk is never accomplished in the dairy4 ,now although the proportion of curd in the butter is very small--rarely more than two per cent4 and often not a fourth of one per cent4--yet it is more than sufficient1 under a certain condition1 to cause the butter to become speedily rancid4 ,that condition is simply contact with the air4 ,if the curd1 before it becomes dry and firm1 is subjected to the influence of the air1 it rapidly passes into a state of fermentation1 which is very soon communicated to the fatty and saccharine constituents of the butter 7substances not spontaneously liable to sudden changes in composition7 and those peculiar compounds--such1 for example1 as butyric and capric acids1 are generated1 which confer upon rancid butter its characteristic and very disagreeable odor and flavor4 ,the fermentation of the curd is prevented by incorporating common salt with the butter1 and by preventing1 so far as possible1 the access of air to the vessels in which the article is placed4 ,if fresh butter be placed in water--which apparently protects it from the influence of the air--it will soon become rancid4 ,the reason of this is1 that water always contains air1 which differs in composition1 though derived1 from the atmosphere1 by being very rich in oxygen4 ,now1 it is precisely this oxygen which effects those undesirable changes in the casein1 or curd1 to which ,i have so repeatedly referred2 hence its presence in a concentrated state in water causes that fluid to produce an injurious effect on the butter placed in it4 ,a saturated solution of salt contains very little air1 and1 so long as the curd is immersed therein1 it undergoes no change4 ,the salt1 too1 acts as a decided preservative2 for although it was long considered to be capable of preserving animal matters1 merely by virtue of its property of absorbing water from them 7the presence of water being a condition in the decomposition of organic matter71 it has lately been shown to possess very antiseptic properties4 ,the mixing of the salt with the butter is effected in the following manner3--,the butter1 after being well washed1 in order to free it from the butter-milk1 is spread out in a tub1 and the salt shaken over it2 the butter is then turned over on the salt by the lower part of the palm of the hand1 and rubbed down until a uniform mixture is attained4 ,a good plan in salting is to mix in only one half of the quantity of salt1 make up the butter in lumps1 and set them aside until the following day2 a quantity of milk is certain to exude1 which is to be poured off1 and then the rest of the salt may be incorporated with the butter4 ,according to butter-makers1 the quality of the article is greatly dependent on the quality of the salt used in preserving it4 ,i think there is a good deal of truth in this belief1 and ,i therefore recommend that only the very best and driest salt should be used in the dairy4 ,common salt is essentially composed of the substance termed by chemists chloride of sodium1 but it often contains other saline matters 7chloride of magnesium1 c471 some of which have a tendency to absorb moisture from the air1 and to dissolve in the water so obtained4 ,these salts are termed deliquescent1 from the ,latin deliquere1 to melt down4 ,when1 therefore1 common salt becomes damp by mere exposure to the air1 it is to be inferred that it contains impurities which1 as they possess a very bitter taste1 would1 if mixed with butter1 confer a bad flavor upon it4 ,the impurities of salt may be almost completely removed by placing about a stone weight of it in any convenient vessel1 pouring over it a quart of boiling water1 and mixing thoroughly the fluid and solid4 ,in an hour or two the whole is to be thrown upon a filter made of calico1 when the water will pass through the filter1 carrying with it all the impurities1 and the purified salt1 in fine crystals1 will remain upon the filter4 ,the solution need not be thrown away3 boiled down to dryness it may be given as salt to cattle2 or1 if added in solution to the dung-heap1 it will augment the fertilising power of that manure4 ,the proportion of salt used in preserving butter varies greatly4 ,when the butter is intended for immediate use1 ,i believe a quarter of an ounce of salt to the pound is quite sufficient2 but when designed for the market1 about half an ounce of salt to the pound of butter will be sufficient4 ,irish butter at one time commanded the highest price in the home and foreign markets1 but latterly it has fallen greatly in public estimation2 indeed1 at the present moment the price of ,irish butter at ,london is nearly twenty shillings per cwt4 under that of the ,dutch article4 ,it is really painful to be obliged to admit that the ,irish farmer is solely to blame for this remarkable depreciation in the value of one of our best agricultural staples4 ,in a word1 by the stupid 7and recent7 practice of putting into butter four times the quantity of salt necessary to its preservation1 the ,irish dairy farmers--or at least the great majority of them--have completely ruined the reputation of ,irish butter in those very markets in which1 at one time1 the ,cork brand on a firkin was sufficient to dispose of its contents at the very highest price4 ,it is a great mistake to think that the greater the quantity of salt which can be incorporated with the butter1 the greater will be the profit to the producer4 ,no doubt1 every pound of salt sold as a constituent of butter realises a profit of two thousand per cent42 but then the addition of every pound of that substance1 after a certain quantity1 to the cwt4 of butter depreciates the value of the latter to such an extent as to far more than neutralise the gain on the sale of salt at the price of butter4 ,in the county of ,carlow1 less salt is used in preserving butter than is the case in the county of ,cork and the adjacent counties2 the price1 therefore1 which the ,carlow commodity commands in the ,london market is higher than that of the ,cork butter3 but in every part of ,ireland the proportion of salt added to the butter is excessive4 ,the results of the analyses of butter supplied to the ,london market1 made by the ,lancet ,analytical ,commission1 showed that the proportion of salt varied from #j4cj to #h4bd per cent4 ,the largest proportion of salt found in fresh butter was #b4ba and the least #j4cj4 ,in salt butter the highest proportion of salt was #h4bd and the lowest #a4ec4 ,the butter which contained most salt was also generally largely adulterated with water4 ,indeed1 in several samples the amount of this constituent reached so high as nearly #cj per cent4 ,nothing is easier than the incorporation of water with salt butter4 ,the butter is melted1 and whilst cooling the salt and water are added1 and the mixture kept constantly stirred until quite cold4 ,in this way nearly #ej per cent4 of water may be added to butter2 but of course the quality of the article will be of the very worst kind4 ,a correspondent of the ,lancet states that1 on awakening about three o'clock in the morning at the house in which he was lodging1 he perceived a light below the door of his room2 and apprehending a fire1 he hurried down stairs1 and was not a little surprised to discover the whole family engaged in manipulating butter4 ,he was informed in a jocose way that they were making ,epping butter6 ,for this purpose they used inferior ,irish butter1 which1 by repeated washings1 was freed from its excessive amount of salt2 after which it was frequently bathed in sweet milk1 the addition of a little sugar being the concluding stroke in the process4 ,this sweet fresh butter from ,epping was sold at a profit of #ajj per cent4 ,our dairy farmers might take a hint from this anecdote4 ,does it not prove that the mere removal of the salt added to ,irish butter doubles the value of the article8 ,it is as necessary to pay attention to the packing of butter as it is to its salting4 ,if old firkins be employed1 great care should be taken in cleaning them1 and if the staves be loose1 the firkins should be steeped in hot water1 in order to cause the wood to swell1 and thereby to bring the edges of the staves into close contact4 ,new firkins often communicate a disagreeable odour to the butter4 ,in order to guard against this1 it is the practice in many parts to fill the firkins with very moist garden mould1 which1 after the lapse of a few days1 is thrown out1 and the firkin thoroughly scrubbed with hot water1 rinsed with the same fluid in a cold state1 and finally rubbed with salt1 just before being used4 ,in packing the butter1 the chief object to be kept in view is the exclusion of air4 ,in order to accomplish this1 the lumps of butter should be pressed firmly together1 and also against the bottom and sides of the vessel4 ,when the products of several churnings are placed in the same firkin1 the surface of each churning should be furrowed1 so that the next layer may be mixed with it4 ,a firkin should never be filled in a single operation4 ,about six inches of butter of each churning will be quite sufficient1 and in a large dairy two or more firkins can be gradually but simultaneously filled4 ,i strongly recommend the removal of the pickle jar from the dairy4 ,when the layers of butter have been carried up to within an inch or so of the top of the firkin1 the space between the surface of the butter and the edge of the vessel should be filled with fine dry salt1 instead of pickle4 ,a common mistake made is the holding over for too long a time of the butter3 the sooner this article can be disposed of the better1 for it never improves by age4 99 99 99 99 99 ,footnote #bc3 ,from two ,greek words1 signifying odour and soup4 ,footnote #bd3 ,a ,new ,inquiry1 fully illustrated by coloured engravings of the heart1 lungs1 c41 of the ,diseased ,prize ,cattle lately exhibited at the ,smithfield ,cattle ,club1 #aheg4 ,by ,frederick ,james ,gant1 ,m4,r4,c4,s4 ,london1 #aheh4 ,footnote #be3 ,professor ,john ,wilson's ,report of the ,agricultural ,exhibition1 ,aarhuus1 #ahfg4 ,,part ,v4 ,,on ,,the ,,composition ,,and ,,nutritive ,,value ,,of ,,vegetable ,,foods4 ,,section ,i4 ,,the ,,money ,,value ,,of ,,food ,,substances4 ,the flesh-forming principles of food are1 as ,i have already stated1 almost identical with the principal nitrogenous constituents of animals4 ,unlike the non-plastic substances1 they are convertible into each other with little1 if any1 loss either of matter or of force4 ,not many years since it was the fashion to estimate the nutritive value of a food-substance by its proportion of nitrogen2 but this method--not yet quite abandoned--was based on erroneous views1 and yielded results very far from the truth4 ,no doubt all the more concentrated and valuable kinds of food are rich in nitrogenous principles2 but there are other varieties1 the nutritive value of which is very low1 and yet their proportion of nitrogen is very high4 ,this point requires explanation4 ,both the plastic and the non-plastic materials of food exist in two distinct states--in one of which they are easily digestible1 and in the other either altogether unassimilable or so nearly so as to be almost useless4 ,thus1 for example1 the cellular tissue of plants1 when newly formed1 is to a great extent digestible1 whilst the old woody fibre is nearly1 if not quite1 incapable of assimilation4 ,gelatine1 which in raw bones is easily digested in the stomachs of the carnivora1 loses a large proportion of its nutritive value on being subjected to the action of steam4 ,again1 a portion of the nitrogen of young succulent plants is in a form not sufficiently organic to admit of its being assimilated to the animal body4 ,but1 independently of these strong objections to the method of estimating the nutritive value of food by its per-centage of flesh-formers1 there are many other reasons which as clearly prove the fallacy of this rule4 ,if we were1 for instance1 to estimate the value of albumen according to the tables of food equivalents which were constructed some years ago by ,boussingault and other chemists1 we would find one pound weight of it to be equivalent to four pounds weight of oil-cake1 or to twelve pounds weight of hay2 yet1 it is a fact that a horse would speedily die if confined to a purely albuminous diet1 whereas hay is capable of supporting the animal's life for an indefinite period4 ,it is clear1 then1 from what ,i have stated1 that neither the amount of flesh-formers1 nor of fat-formers1 contained in a given quantity of a substance is a measure of its nutritive value2 nevertheless it would be incorrect to infer from this that the numerous analyses of feeding substances which have been made are valueless4 ,on the contrary1 ,i am disposed to believe that the composition of these substances1 when correctly stated by the chemist1 enables the physiologist to determine pretty accurately their relative alimentary value4 ,theory is certainly against the assumption that food is valuable in proportion to its content of nitrogen2 nor has practice less strongly disproved its truth4 ,an illustration drawn from the nutrition of plants will make this matter more apparent4 ,every intelligent agriculturist knows that guano contains nitrogen and phosphoric acid2 both substances are indispensable to the development of plants1 and therefore it would be incorrect to estimate the manurial value of the guano in proportion to the quantity of nitrogen it was capable of yielding4 ,if the value of manures were determined only by their per-centage of nitrogen--a mode by which certain chemists still estimate the nutritive value of food--then woollen rags would be worth more than bones1 and bones would be more valuable than superphosphate of lime4 ,the truth is1 that the analysis of feeding stuffs and manures is sometimes of little value if the condition in which the constituents of these substances exist be undetermined4 ,for example1 the analysis of one manure may show it to contain #dj per cent4 of phosphate of lime1 and three per cent4 of ammonia1 whilst1 according to analysis1 another fertiliser may include #bj per cent4 of phosphate of lime1 and two per cent4 of ammonia4 ,viewed by this light solely1 the first manure would be considered the more valuable of the two1 whereas it might1 in reality1 be very much inferior4 ,if the phosphate of lime in the manure1 containing #dj per cent4 of that body1 were derived from coprolites or apatite1 and its ammonia from horns1 the former would be worth little or nothing1 and the latter1 by reason of its exceedingly slow evolution from the horns1 would possess a very low value4 ,if1 on the contrary1 the phosphate of lime1 in the manure comparatively poor in phosphate1 were a constituent of bones1 and its ammonia ready formed 7say as sulphate of ammonia71 then1 its value1 both commercial and manurial1 would be far greater than the other4 ,in estimating the money value of an article of food1 we should omit such considerations as the relative adjustment of its flesh-formers and fat-formers1 and its suitability to particular kinds of animals1 as well as to animals in a certain stage of development4 ,the manure supplied to plants contains several elements indispensable to vegetable nutrition2 and1 although the agriculturist most commonly purchases all these elements combined in the one article1 still he frequently buys each ingredient separately4 ,ammonia is one of these principles1 and1 whether it be bought per se1 or as a constituent of a compound manure1 the price it commands is invariable4 ,this principle should prevail in the purchase of food3 each constituent of which should have a certain value placed upon it2 and the sums of all the values of the constituents would then be the value of the article of food taken as a whole4 ,there are1 no doubt1 practical difficulties in the way which prevent this method of valuation from giving more than approximatively correct results2 but are there not precisely similar difficulties in the way of the correct estimation of the value of a manure according to its analysis8 ,there are several constituents of food1 the money value of which is easily determinable3 these are sugar1 starch1 and fat4 ,no matter what substance they are found in1 the nutritive value of each varies only within very narrow limits4 ,the value of cellulose and woody fibre is not so easily ascertained1 as it varies with the age and nature of the vegetable structure in which these principles occur4 ,there is little doubt but that the cellulose and fibre of young grass1 clover1 and other succulent plants1 are1 for the most part1 digestible2 and we should not be far astray if we were to assume that four pounds weight of soft fibre and cellulose are equivalent to three pounds weight of starch4 ,as to old hard fibre1 we are not in a position to say whether or not it possesses any nutrimental value worth taking into account4 ,the estimation of the value of the flesh-forming materials is far more difficult than that of sugar1 starch1 pectine compounds1 and fat4 ,the nitrogenous constituents of food must be in a highly elaborated state before they are capable of being assimilated4 ,in seeds--in which vegetable substances attain their highest degree of development--they probably exist in the most digestible form1 whilst much of the nitrogen found in the stems and leaves of succulent plants1 is either in a purely mineral state1 or in so low a degree of elaboration as to be unavailable for the purpose of nutrition4 ,but even plastic materials1 in a high degree of organisation1 present many points of difference1 which greatly affect their relative alimental value2 for example1 many of them are naturally associated with substances possessing a disagreeable flavor3 and as their separation from these substances is often practically impossible1 the animal that consumes both will not assimilate the plastic matters so well as if they were endowed with a pleasant flavor4 ,in seeds and other perfectly matured vegetable structures1 the flesh-formers may exist in different degrees of availability4 ,the nitrogen of the testa1 or covering of the seeds1 will hardly be so assimilable as that which exists in their cotyledons4 ,the solubility of the flesh-formers--provided they be highly elaborated--is a very good criterion of their nutritive power4 ,in linseed the muscle-forming substances are more soluble than in linseed-cake--the heat which is generally employed in the extraction of oil from linseed rendering the plastic materials of the resultant cake less soluble1 and diminishing thereby their digestibility1 as practice has proved4 ,from the considerations which ,i have now entered into1 it is obvious that the chemical analysis of food substances as generally performed1 though of great utility1 does not afford strictly accurate information as to their commercial value1 and still less reliable in relation to their nutritive power4 ,at the same time1 they as clearly establish the feasibility of analyses being made whereby the money value of feeding-stuffs may be estimated with tolerable exactitude4 ,let the chemist determine the presence and relative amounts of the ingredients of food-substances1 and--if it be possible so to do with a degree of exactness that would render the results useful--place on each a money value4 ,this done1 let the physiologist and the feeder combine the food in such proportions as they may find best adapted to the nature1 age1 and condition of the animal to be fed4 ,it is to be regretted that the market price of feeding stuffs is not1 in consequence of our defective knowledge1 strictly determined by their nutritive value1 for if such were the case1 the feeder would merely have to adapt each to the nature and condition of his stock4 ,even amongst practical men there prevails1 unfortunately1 great diversity of opinion as to the relative nutritive value of the greater number of food substances2 and ,i am quite certain that many of these command higher prices than others which in no respect are inferior4 ,it would lead me too far from my immediate subject were ,i to enter minutely into the consideration of such questions as--whether an acre of grass yields more or less nutriment than an acre of turnips8 ,i shall merely describe the composition and properties of grass and of turnips1 and of the various other important food substances1 and compare their nutritive power1 so far as comparisons are admissible2 but ,i shall say but little on the subject of the various economic and other conditions which affect the production of forage plants4 ,when ,i shall have described the chemical nature and physical condition of the various articles of food1 and the results of actual feeding experiments made with them1 the feeder will then be in a position to determine which are the most economical to produce or to purchase4 ,,section ,,ii4 ,,proximate ,,constituents ,,of ,,vegetables4 ,the saccharine1 or amylaceous substances constitute the most abundant of the proximate constituents of plants4 ,they are composed of carbon1 hydrogen1 and oxygen4 ,i shall briefly describe the more important members of this group of substances1 namely1 starch1 sugar1 inulin1 gum1 pectin1 and cellulose4 ,starch1 or fecula1 occurs largely in dicotyledonous seeds1 peas1 c41 and still more abundantly in certain monocotyledonous seeds1 such as wheat and barley4 ,it constitutes the great bulk of many tubers and roots--for example1 the potato and tapioca4 ,it consists of flattened ovate granules1 which vary in size according to the plant4 ,in the beetroot they are #a_/cejj of an inch in diameter1 whilst in tous les mois they are nearly #a_/bjj of an inch in diameter4 ,most of the starch granules are marked by a series of concentric rings4 ,starch is heavier than water1 and is insoluble in that fluid when cold2 neither is it dissolved by alcohol or ether4 ,when heated in water having a temperature of at least #adj deg4 ,fahrenheit1 it increases greatly in volume1 and acquires a gelatinous consistence4 ,when the water is allowed to cool1 a portion of the starch becomes insoluble1 whilst another portion remains in solution2 the latter form of starch is sometimes termed amidin1 from the ,french word for starch1 amidon4 ,when dry starch is heated to #djj deg4 ,fahr41 it is converted1 without any change in its composition1 into a soluble gum-like substance1 termed dextrin1 or ,british gum4 ,on being boiled in diluted sulphuric acid it is converted into a kind of sugar2 and the same effect is produced by fermentation--for example1 in the germination of seeds4 ,fresh rice contains #hb1 wheat #fj1 and potatoes #bj per cent4 of starch4 ,this substance constitutes a nutritious and easily digestible food1 but alone cannot support life4 ,arrowroot is only a pure form of starch4 ,sugar occurs less abundantly in plants than starch4 ,there are several varieties of this substance1 of which the kinds termed cane sugar 7sucrose7 and grape sugar 7glucose71 are only of importance to agriculturists4 ,the former enters largely into the composition of the sugar-cane1 the beetroot1 the sugar-maple1 the sorgho grass1 pumpkins1 carrots1 and a great variety of other plants4 ,grape sugar is found in fruits1 especially when dried--raisins and figs--in malted corn1 and in honey4 ,in the sugar-cane there is #ah per cent41 and in the beetroot #aj per cent4 of sugar4 ,cane sugar1 when pure1 consists of minute transparent crystals4 ,it is #a-f_/aj heavier than water1 and is soluble in one-third of its weight of that fluid4 ,by long-continued boiling in water it is changed into uncrystallizable sugar1 or treacle1 by which its flavor is altered1 but its sweetening power increased4 ,grape sugar crystallizes in very small cubes1 of inferior color as compared with cane sugar crystals4 ,it dissolves in its own weight of water1 being three times less soluble than sucrose4 ,in sweetening power one part of cane sugar is equal to #b-a_/b parts of grape sugar2 but there is probably little if any difference1 between the nutritive power of the two substances4 ,inulin is a substance somewhat resembling starch4 ,it does not occur in large quantities4 ,it is met with in the roots of the dandelion1 chicory1 and many other plants4 ,gum is an abundant constituent of plants4 ,the kind termed gum arabic1 so largely employed in the arts1 is a very pure variety of this substance4 ,common gums are said to be essentially composed of a very weak acid--gummic1 or arabic acid--united with lime and potash4 ,the solution of gum is very slightly acid1 and has a mucilaginous1 ropy consistence3 it is almost tasteless4 ,mucilage1 or bassorin1 is simply a modified form of gum1 which1 though insoluble in water1 forms a gelatinous mixture with that fluid4 ,it exudes from certain trees--the cherry for example--and exists largely in linseed and other seeds4 ,gums are nutritious foods1 but it is probable that they are not equal in alimental power to equal weights of starch or sugar4 ,vegetable jelly1 or pectin1 is almost universally diffused throughout the vegetable kingdom4 ,it is owing to its presence that the juices of many fruits and roots possess the property of gelatinizing4 ,it is soluble in water1 but prolonged boiling destroys its viscous property4 ,pectose is a modification of pectin2 it is insoluble in water4 ,according to ,fremy1 the hardness of green fruits is due to the presence of pectose2 which is also found in the cellular tissue of turnips1 carrots1 and various other roots4 ,cellulose is a fibrous or cellular tissue1 allied in composition to starch4 ,it is the most abundant constituent of plants1 and forms the very ground-work of the vegetable mechanism4 ,linen1 cotton1 and the pith of the elder and other trees are nearly pure forms of cellulose4 ,ligneous1 or woody tissue 7lignin7 is indurated cellulose1 hardened by age4 ,it is almost identical in composition with cellulose4 ,pure cellulose is white1 colorless1 tasteless1 insoluble in water1 oil1 alcohol1 or ether4 ,it is heavier than water4 ,sulphuric acid is capable of converting it into grape1 or starch sugar4 ,in its fresh and succulent state cellulose is digestible and nutritious2 but in the form of ligneous tissue it opposes a very great resistance to the action of the digestive fluids4 ,digestible cellulose is probably equal in nutritive power to starch4 ,oils and fats occur abundantly in vegetables1 more particularly in their seeds4 ,in the seeds of many cruciferous plants the proportion of fat and oil exceeds #ce per cent4 ,the oils and fats termed fixed are those which possess the greatest interest to agriculturists2 the volatile oils being those which confer on certain plants their fragrant odour4 ,there are a great variety of vegetable oils1 but the proximate constituents of most of them are chiefly stearin1 margarin1 olein1 and palmitin4 ,stearin is a white crystalline substance1 sparingly soluble in alcohol and ether1 but insoluble in water4 ,there are two or three modifications of this substance1 but they do not essentially differ from each other4 ,the melting point varies from #acj deg4 to #afj deg4 ,fahr4 ,stearin is the most abundant of the fats4 ,margarin presents the appearance of pearly scales4 ,it is the solid fat present in olive oil1 and it is also met with in a great variety of fats and oils4 ,it melts at #aaf deg4 ,fahr4 ,olein is the fluid constituent of oils and fatty substances4 ,it resists an extreme degree of cold1 without solidifying4 ,there are several modifications of this body--the olein of olive oil being somewhat different from that of castor oil2 the olein of linseed is sometimes termed linolien4 ,palmitin4--,this fat occurs in many plants1 but as it makes up the great bulk of palm oil1 it has been termed palmitin4 ,it is white1 and may be obtained in feathery-like masses4 ,its melting point varies from #aad deg4 to #ade deg41 there being1 according to ,duffy1 three modifications of this substance4 ,the fats and oils are lighter than water4 ,they contain far more carbon and hydrogen1 and less oxygen1 than are found in the sugars and starches4 ,they all consist of acids 7stearic1 palmitic1 c47 united with glycerine4 ,on being boiled with potash or soda1 the latter take the place of the glycerine1 which is set free1 and a soap is produced4 ,the fatty acids strongly resemble the fats4 ,in nutritive power1 one part of fat is equal to #b-a_/b parts of starch or sugar4 ,the ,albuminous substances contain1 in addition to the elements found in starch1 nitrogen1 sulphur1 and phosphorus4 ,albumen1 fibrin1 and legumin constitute the three important members of the ,nitrogenous constituents of plants4 ,albumen is an uncrystallizable substance4 ,it is soluble in water1 unless when heated to #adj deg4 ,fahr41 at which temperature it coagulates1 i4e41 becomes solid and insoluble4 ,the gluten of wheat is composed chiefly of albumen1 and of bodies closely allied to that substance4 ,fibrin1 when dried1 is a hard1 horny1 yellow1 solid body4 ,it contains a little more oxygen than is found in albumen4 ,this substance is best known as a constituent of animals1 and it does not appear to be abundant in plants4 ,the portion of the gluten of wheat-flour1 which is insoluble in boiling alcohol1 is considered by ,liebig and ,dumas to be coagulated fibrin4 ,in the seeds of leguminous and a few other kinds of plants large quantities of a substance termed legumin are found4 ,it resembles the casein1 or cheesy ingredient of milk2 indeed1 some chemists consider it to be identical in composition with that substance4 ,when pure1 it is pearly white1 insoluble in boiling water1 but soluble in cold water and in vinegar4 ,the saline matters found in plants are always associated with the albuminous bodies2 the latter1 therefore1 form the bones as well as the muscles of animals4 ,a great many substances are found in plants1 such as wax1 mannite1 extractive matter1 citric1 malic1 and other acids1 of the nutritive value of which very little is known4 ,the substances described in this section constitute1 however1 at least #ie per cent4 of the weight of the vegetable matters used as food by live stock4 ,,section ,,iii4 ,,green ,,food4 ,the ,grasses4--,more than one-half the area of ,great ,britain and ,ireland is under pasture2 the grasses1 therefore1 constitute the most important and abundant food used by live stock4 ,the composition of the natural and artificial grasses is greatly influenced by the nature of the soil on which they are grown1 and by the climatic conditions under which they are developed4 ,many of them are almost worthless1 whilst others possess a high nutritive value4 ,amongst the most useful natural grasses may be enumerated ,italian rye-grass1 ,meadow barley1 ,annual ,meadow-grass1 ,crested dogstail-grass1 ,cocksfoot-grass1 ,timothy or ,meadow catstail-grass1 and ,sweet vernal-grass4 ,amongst grasses of medium quality ,i may mention common ,oatlike-grass1 ,meadow foxtail grass1 ,smooth and rough stalked ,meadow-grass1 and ,waterwhorl-grass4 ,there are very many grasses which are almost completely innutritious1 and which ought1 under no circumstances1 to be tolerated1 although too often they make up the great bulk of the herbage of badly-managed meadows and pastures4 ,such grasses are1 the ,meadow soft-grass1 ,creeping soft-grass1 ,false brome-grass1 and ,upright brome-grass4 ,the rough-stalked ,meadow-grass1 though spoken favorably of by some farmers1 is hardly worthy of cultivation1 and the same may be said of many of the grasses which have a place in our meadows and pastures4 7,see ,analyses of ,natural ,grasses in a ,fresh ,state1 by ,dr4 ,voelcker1 on next page47 ,the ,schraeder brome is a perennial lately introduced into ,france4 ,it is described as an exceedingly valuable forage crop1 and one which is admirably adapted for the feeding of dairy cows4 ,it would be desirable to give it a trial in these countries4 ,the composition 7which is very peculiar7 of this plant is stated to be as follows1 when dry3-- ,,analysis ,,of ,,schraeder ,,brome ,,hay4 ,water #af4bha ,nitrogenous matters #bc4ddc ,fat #c4cch ,starch gum1 c4 #bb4edi ,cellulose 7fibre7 #ai4hdc ,ashes #ad4edf ------- ,total #ajj4jjj ,,analyses ,,of ,,natural ,,grasses ,,in ,a ,,fresh ,,state1 ,,by ,,dr4 ,,voelcker4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------------- ,,key3 ,a4--,water4 ,b4--,albuminous or ,flesh-forming ,principles4 ,c4--,fatty ,matters4 ,d4--,respiratory ,principles3 ,starch1 ,gum1 ,sugar4 ,e4--,woody ,fibre4 ,f4--,mineral ,matter or ,ash4 ,g4--,date of ,collection4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,a4 ,b4 ,c4 ,d4 ,e4 ,f4 ,g4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,anthoxanthum odoratum-- ,sweet-scented vernal grass #hj4ce #b4jj 4#fg #h4ed #g4ae #a4bd,may #be ,alopecurus pratensis-- ,meadow foxtail grass #hj4bj #b4dd 4#eb #h4ei #f4gj #a4ee;,june #a ,arrhenatherum avenaceum-- ,common oat-like grass #gb4fe #c4ed 4#hg #aa4ba #i4cg #b4cf;,july #ag ,avena flavescens-- ,yellow oat-like grass #fj4dj #b4if #a4jd #ah4ff #ad4bb #b4gb;,june #bi ,avena pubescens-- ,downy oat-grass #fa4ej #c4jg 4#ib #ai4af #ac4cd #b4ja;,july #aa ,briza media-- ,common quaking grass #ea4he #b4ic #a4de #bb4fj #ag4jj #d4ag;,june #bi ,bromus erectus-- ,upright brome grass #ei4eg #c4gh #a4ce #cc4ai #b4aa #bc ,bromus mollis-- ,soft brome grass #gf4fb #d4je 4#dg #i4jd #h4df #a4cf ,may #h ,cynosurus cristatus-- ,crested dogstail grass #fb4gc #d4ac #a4cb #ai4fd #i4hj #b4ch;,june #ba ,dactylus glomerata-- ,cocksfoot grass #gj4jj #d4jf 4#id #ac4cj #aj4aa #a4ed #ac ,ditto1 seeds ripe #eb4egaj4ic 4#gd #ab4fa #bj4ed #b4fa;,july #ai ,festuca duriuscula-- ,hard fescue grass #fi4cc #c4gj #a4jb #ab4df #aa4hc #a4ff;,june #ac ,holcus lanatus-- ,soft meadow grass #fi4gj #c4di #a4jb #aa4ib #aa4id #a4ic #bi ,hordeum pratense-- ,meadow barley #eh4he #d4ei 4#id #bj4je #ac4jc #b4ed;,july #aa ,lolium perenne-- ,darnel grass #ga4dc #c4cg 4#ia #ab4jh #aj4jf #b4ae;,june #h ,lolium italicum-- ,italian rye-grass #ge4fa #b4de 4#hj #ad4aa #d4hb #b4ba #ac ,phleum pratense-- ,meadow catstail grass #eg4ba #d4hf #a4ej #bb4he #aa4cb #b4bf ,poa annua-- ,annual meadow grass #gi4ad #b4dg 4#ga #aj4gi #f4cj 4#ei ,may #bh ,poa pratensis-- ,smooth-stalked meadow grass#fg4ad #c4da 4#hf #ad4ae #ab4di #a4ie;,june #aa ,poa trivialis-- ,rough-stalked ditto #gc4fj #b4eh 4#ig #aj4ed #aj4aa #b4bj #ah ,grass from water meadow #hg4eh #c4bb 4#ha #c4ih #c4ac #a4bh;,apr4 #cj ,ditto1 second crop #gd4ec #b4gh 4#eb #aa4ag #h4gf #b4bd;,june #bf ,annual rye-grass #fi4jj #b4if 4#fi #ab4hi #ab4dg #a4ii #h ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,most of the grasses here mentioned were analysed when in flower4 ,tussac ,grass 7,dactylis caespitus7 is recommended as an excellent plant to grow on very poor1 wet1 or mossy soils4#bf ,it is an evergreen grass1 somewhat resembling coltsfoot4 ,it is relished by cattle4 ,,analysis ,,of ,,tussac ,,grass ,,by ,,johnstone4 ,lower part4 ,upper part4 ,water #hf4ji #ge4ag ,flesh-formers #b4dg #d4gi ,sugar1 gum1 c4 #d4fb #f4ha ,woody fibre 7with a little albumen7 #e4fh #aa4hf ,ash #a4ad #a4cg ------ ------ ,total #ajj4jj #ajj4jj ,the artificial grasses embrace the clovers1 vetches1 lucerne1 and a few other plants1 some of which are seldom cultivated4 ,,analyses ,,of ,,different ,,kinds ,,of ,,clover1 ,,by ,,dr4 ,,anderson4 ---------------------------------------- ----- ,,key3 ,a4--,water4 ,b4--,dry ,substances4 ,c4--,ash4 ,d4--,nitrogenised ,substances4 ,e4--,ash4 ,f4--,nitrogenised ,matters4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,per-centage in the ,per-centage ,fresh ,clover4 in ,dry ,clover4 ---------------------------------------- ,a4 ,b4 ,c4 ,d4 ,e4 ,f4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,red clover-- ,trifolium pratense3 #a4 ,from ,english seed #he4cj #ad4gj #a4cj #b4ca #h4ij #ae4hg #b4 ,from ,german seed 7from the ,rhine7 #ha4fh #ah4cb #a4di #b4ha #h4ae #ae4ej #c4 ,from ,french seed #hc4ea #af4di #a4ie #b4be #aa4hb #ac4ef #d4 ,from ,american seed #gi4ih #ba4jb #a4eh #b4hg #h4je 444 #e4 ,from ,dutch seed 444 444 444 444 #h4hb #ab4dc ,cowgrass-- ,trifolium medium3#bg ,variety1 ,duke of ,norfolk #gg4ci #bb4fa #b4gc #b4be #ab4ji #aj4ai common #ha4gf #ah4bd #a4ib #c4ai #aj4ec #ad4cg ,crimson clover1 ,trifolium incarnatum3 ,from ,french seed #hb4ef #ag4dd #a4hh #c4be #aj4ha #ah4ef ,yellow clover-- ,medicago lupulina3 ,from ,english seed #gg4ch #bb4fb #b4jb #c4ej #h4ie #ae4dd ,from ,french seed #gh4fj #ba4dj #a4ge #b4id #h4ah #ac4fi ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,clover is very rich in flesh-forming and heat-producing substances4 ,there are several varieties of this plant1 of which the ,alsike ,clover appears to be the most valuable1 as it contains a high proportion of organic matter and gives the largest acreable produce4 ,the nature of the soil influences1 to a great extent1 the composition of this plant3 this no doubt accounts for the somewhat discrepant result of the analyses of it made by ,way1 ,voelcker1 and ,anderson4 ,the composition of the ,vetch1 ,sainfoin1 and ,lucerne1 resembles very closely that of the ,clover3 indeed1 it appears to me that all these leguminous plants are nearly equally valuable as green forage1 but that the best adapted for hay is the ,clover4 ,in the following table the composition of these plants is shown3-- ,,analyses ,,of ,,clover1 ,,by ,,dr4 ,,voelcker4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,i4 ,,ii4 ,,iii4 ,,iv4 ,v4 ,red ,white ,yellow ,alsike4 ,bokhara ,clover4,clover4,clover4 ,clover4 ,clover4 --------------------------------------- ,water #hj4fd #hc4fe #gg4eg #gf4fg #ha4cj ,soluble in ,water-- a4 ,organic substances #f4ce #d4ih #h4bf #d4ia #f4hj b4 ,inorganic substances #a4ee #a4ac #a4dj #a4cc #a4ed ,insoluble in water-- a4 ,impure vegetable fibre #aa4jd #i4hj #ab4ag #af4cf #aj4ja b4 ,inorganic matters 7ash7 #j4db #j4dd #j4fj #j4gc #j4ce --------------------------------------- #ajj4jj #ajj4jj #ajj4jj #ajj4jj #ajj4jj ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,,analyses ,,of ,,lucerne1 ,,sainfoin1 ,,and ,,vetch4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,i4 ,,ii4 ,,iii4 ,lucerne4 ,sainfoin4 ,vetch4 ----------------------------- ,water #gc4da #gg4cb #hb4af ,soluble in ,water a4 ,organic substances #i4dc #h4jj #f4jg b4 ,inorganic substances #b4cc #a4bj #a4jg ,insoluble in water a4 ,impure vegetable fibre #ad4jh #ab4ie #aj4bc b4 ,inorganic matters 7ash7 #j4ge #j4ec #j4dg ----------------------------- #ajj4jj #ajj4jj #ajj4jj ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,the artificial grasses are1 on the whole1 more nutritious than the natural grasses2 but ,i should explain that the analyses of the natural grasses which ,i have quoted refer to those plants in what may be almost termed their wild state3 under the influence of good cultivation--when irrigated or top-dressed with abundance of appropriate manure--their analyses would indicate a higher nutritive value4 ,the grasses1 and more especially the so-called artificial grasses1 are more nutritious and digestible when young4 ,in old clover the proportion of insoluble woody fibre is often so considerable as to greatly detract from the alimental value of the plant4 ,the ,lentils1 the ,birdsfoot1 the ,trefoil1 and the ,melilot are leguminous plants which occasionally are found as constituents of forage crops4 ,lentils are extensively cultivated on the ,continent1 and are the only kind of these plants the chemistry of which has been at all studied4 ,the straw contains #g per cent4 of flesh-formers4 ,the ,yellow ,lupine is cultivated rather extensively in ,germany1 ,france1 and ,belgium1 partly for feeding purposes1 partly to furnish a green manure4 ,its seeds constitute a nutritious article of food for man1 and its stems and leaves are given to cattle4 ,an attempt was made a few years ago to introduce its cultivation1 as a field crop1 into ,england1 and very satisfactory results attended the first trials made with it4 ,mr4 ,kimber1 who has cultivated this crop1 states that it is likely to prove valuable on light sandy soils1 where the ordinary green fodder crops are not easily cultivated4 ,the produce per acre obtained in ,mr4 ,kimber's trial was about nineteen tons4 ,cattle and sheep relish the ,yellow ,lupine1 but according to ,mr4 ,kimber1 pigs reject it4 ,professor ,voelcker examined this plant1 and found that it resembled in composition the ordinary artificial grasses1 except in one respect1 namely1 a remarkable deficiency in sugar4 ,altogether1 it is not so rich in nutriment as any of the commonly cultivated leguminous plants2 but as it can be cultivated on a very poor soil1 and gives a good return1 it is probable that the ,yellow ,lupine will yet become a common crop in ,britain4 ,the following table exhibits the results of ,dr4 ,voelcker's analysis4 ,,composition ,,of ,,yellow ,,lupines 7,,cut ,,down ,,in ,a ,,green ,,state74 ,in natural state4 ,dried at #bab deg4,f4 ,water #hi4bj ,oil 4#cg #c4db 99 ,soluble albuminous compounds #a4cg #ab4fh ,soluble mineral 7saline7 substances 4#fa #e4fd ,insoluble albuminous compounds #a4ja #i4ce ,sugar1 gum1 bitter extractive matter1 and digestible fibre #c4if #cf4fh ,indigestible woody fibre 7cellulose7 #c4bi #cj4dh ,insoluble mineral matters 4#ai #a4ge ------ ------ #ajj4jj #ajj4jj 99 ,containing nitrogen 4#bb #b4jc ,containing nitrogen 4#af #a4dh ,rib grass plantain 7,plantago lanceolata7 is one of those plants1 the value of which for forage purposes is questionable4 ,many persons believe it to be a useful food4 ,its composition1 which looks favorable1 is as follows3-- ,water #hd4gh ,albuminous matters #b4ah ,fatty matters #j4ef ,starch1 gum1 c4 #f4jh ,woody fibre #e4aj ,mineral matter #a4cj ,the grasses1 natural and artificial1 are occasionally affected by a formidable and well-known fungus1 the ergot4 ,italian rye-grass is the most liable to the ravages of this pest1 and there are on record several cases in which ergotted rye-grass proved fatal to the animal fed upon it4 ,clover and the various leguminous plants appear more liable to the ergot disease than the natural grasses 7except rye-grass71 but ,i have on several occasions noticed this fungus on the spikelets of ,hordeum pratense1 ,festuca pratense1 and ,bromus erectus4 ,it has also been noticed that rye-grass rapidly developed under the influence of liquid manure is so rank that young animals fed upon it are poisonously affected4 ,alderman ,mechi states that in ,july1 #ahfd1 ten out of his thirty ,shorthorn calves died in consequence of eating the heads of ,italian rye-grass1 and that the survivors' health was seriously injured4 ,he was also unfortunate with his lambs1 which1 during the same month1 were folded on ,italian rye-grass4 ,four days ago1 writes the ,alderman1 it was sewaged1 having been prior to the former growth also guanoed4 ,in four days it had grown from four to five inches1 was of an intense green1 and pronounced to be1 by sharp practical men1 just the food for lambs4 ,well1 we put on our lambs1 taking care to do so in the evenings after they had been well fed4 ,my bailiff accompanied them1 and1 within five minutes1 turning accidentally round1 he saw two of the lambs with their heads in the air staggering 7stomach staggers it is called7 and frothing at the mouth4 ,he immediately saw the mischief1 removed the lambs1 and on their way back to a bare fold some of them vomited the ,italian rye-grass that they had just eaten1 accompanied by frothy slime2 others brought it up during the night4 ,some of them trembled1 gaped1 and showed all the same symptoms that my calves had done1 such as rapid pulse1 c4 ,two or three of them are rather queer to-day4 ,i hope that ,professor ,simmonds or some capable person will tell us how this is8 ,if we mow this grass1 bring it home1 and cut it into chaff1 all which tends to heat or dry it1 it becomes wholesome food4 ,the same remarks apply in degree to very succulent tares4 ,if the ,italian grass is brought home and given long and quite fresh to the calves1 it will kill them4 ,it does not appear to injure old ewes as it does lambs or shearlings4 ,the dry weather has something to do with it4 ,in wet weather the evil is much diminished1 or disappears4 ,it is probable that the juice of this poisonous herbage was extremely rich in matters only semi-organised1 and perhaps abounded in the crude substances from which the vegetable tissues are elaborated4 ,such rank grass as this was should not be used until it has attained to a tolerably developed state3 in mature plants the juices contain more highly organised matters than are found in young vegetables4 ,the ,sorghuo1 or ,holcus ,saccharatus4--,this plant1 introduced to the notice of the ,british farmer but a few years ago1 is only grown in these countries in small quantities4 ,it is very rich in sugar1 and cattle relish it greatly4 ,its composition1 according to ,dr4 ,voelcker1 is as follows3-- ,water #ha4hj ,albuminous matters #a4ec ,insoluble ditto #j4ff ,sugar #e4he ,wax and fatty matter #b4ee ,mucilage1 pectin1 and digestible matters #b4ei ,indigestible woody fibre #d4jc ,mineral matter #j4ii ------ #ajj4jj ,the plants referred to in the above analysis were cut in ,september4 ,it is found that the composition of the plant is very different at different seasons4 ,green ,rye is employed as a forage crop1 for which purpose it is well adapted4 ,it is about equal in nutritive power to clover4 ,according to ,dr4 ,voelcker its composition is as follows3-- ,water #ge4dbc ,flesh-formers #b4gje ,fatty matter #j4hib ,gum1 pectin1 sugar1 c4 #i4acd ,woody-fibre #aj4dhh ,mineral matter #a4ceh ------- #ajj4jjj ,buckwheat is occasionally cut in a green state and used as food for stock4 ,its composition1 according to ,einhof and ,crome1 is as follows3-- ,water #hb4e ,nitrogenous compounds #j4b ,extractive matters #b4f ,starch1 c4 #d4g ,cellulose #aj4j ----- #ajj4j ,rape is one of our most valuable plants for stock feeding4 ,two varieties are cultivated in these countries--the summer rape 7,brassica ,campestris oleifera7 and winter rape 7,brassica rapus74 ,the great utility of rape arises from the circumstance of its being generally obtained as a stolen crop2 for otherwise it is not quite equal to other plants that might be substituted for it--cabbages1 c4 ,this plant is very rich in oily matters1 and has been found well adapted both for the feeding of cattle and the fattening of sheep4 ,its composition1 according to ,voelcker1 is shown in this table3-- ,,composition ,,of ,,green ,,rape4 ,water #hg4jej ,flesh-formers #c4acc ,fatty matters #j4fdi ,other respiratory substances #d4jjj ,woody fibre #c4efj ,mineral matter 7ash7 #a4fjh ------- #ajj4jjj ,with respect to the value of rape for the feeding of stock in spring1 ,mr4 ,rham makes the following remarks3-- ,if the crop is very forward it may be slightly fed off1 but in general it is best to let it remain untouched till spring4 ,in the end of ,march and the beginning of ,april it will be a great help to the ewes and lambs4 ,it will produce excellent food till it begins to be in flower1 when it should immediately be ploughed up4 ,the ground will be found greatly recruited by this crop1 which has taken nothing from it1 and has added much by the dung and urine of the sheep4 ,whatever be the succeeding crop1 it cannot fail to be productive2 and if the land is not clean1 the farmer must have neglected the double opportunity of destroying weeds in the preceding summer1 and in the early part of spring4 ,if the rape is fed off in time1 it may be succeeded by barley or oats1 with clover or grass seeds1 or potatoes1 if the soil is not too wet4 ,thus no crop will be lost1 and the rape will have been a clear addition to the produce of the land4 ,any crop which is taken off the land in a green state1 especially if it be fed off with sheep1 may be repeated without risk of failure1 provided the land be properly tilled2 but where cole or rape have produced seed1 they cannot be profitably sown in less than five or six years after on the same land4 ,the cultivation of rape or cole for spring food cannot be too strongly recommended to the farmers of heavy clay soils4 ,the ,mustard ,plant is occasionally used as food for sheep1 for which purpose its composition shows it to be well adapted4 ,voelcker's analysis proves it to be very rich1 relatively1 in muscle-forming elements and in mineral matters2 it might1 therefore be with advantage combined with food relatively deficient in these principles4 ,,composition ,,of ,,fresh ,,mustard4 ,water #hf4cj ,albuminous matters #b4hg ,non-nitrogenous matters 7gum1 sugar1 oil1 c47 #d4dj ,woody fibre #d4ci ,ash #b4jd ------ #ajj4jj ,the ,prickly ,comfrey has been recommended as a good forage plant4 ,it yields an abundant crop--or rather crops1 for it may be cut several times in the year4 ,the plant is a handsome one1 and it might combine the useful with the ornamental if it were cultivated on demesne or villa farms4 ,dr4 ,voelcker states its composition to be as follows3-- ,water #hh4djj ,flesh-forming substances #b4gab ,heat and fat-producing matters #f4hih ,ash #a4iij ------- #ajj4jjj ,chicory is used as a forage crop on the ,continent1 and ,professor ,john ,wilson surmises that it may yet be generally cultivated for this purpose in ,great ,britain4 ,at present it is rarely grown except for the sake of its roots1 which are used as partial substitutes for1 or adulterants of1 coffee4 ,,composition ,,of ,,chicory1 ,,according ,,to ,,anderson4 ,fresh roots4 ,fresh leaves4 ,water #hj4eh #ij4id ,nitrogenous matters #a4gb #a4ja ,non-nitrogenous substances #af4ci #f4fc ,ash #a4ca #a4db ------ ------ #ajj4jj #ajj4jj ,yarrow 7,achillaea millefolium7 is usually regarded as a weed1 but sheep are very fond of it1 and when they can get it1 never fail to eat it greedily4 ,it possesses astringent properties4 ,some writers have recommended it as a good crop for warrens and sands4 ,its composition1 according to ,way1 is as follows3-- ,,dried ,,yarrow4 ,albuminous matter #aj4cd ,fatty matters #b4ea ,starch1 gum1 c4 #de4df ,woody fibre #cb4fi ,mineral matter #i4jj ------ #ajj4jj ,melons and ,marrows have been used1 but to a very limited extent1 as food for stock4 ,mr4 ,blundell advocates their use in seasons of drought4 ,he states that he has obtained more than forty tons per acre of both melons and marrows4 ,they are relished by horses1 oxen1 sheep1 and pigs4 ,mr4 ,blundell's advocacy has not been attended with much success1 but it would be desirable to give these vegetables a further trial4 ,dr4 ,voelcker's analysis of the cattle melon shows that it contains3-- ,water #ib4ih ,albuminous matters #a4ec ,oil 4#gc ,sugar1 gum1 c4 #b4ea ,fibre #a4fe ,ash 4#fj ------ #ajj4jj ,the ,cabbage4--,the composition of the ,drumhead ,cabbage has been studied by ,dr4 ,anderson4 ,he found a larger proportion of nutriment in the outer leaves than in the heart1 and ascertained that the young plants were richer in nutriment than those more advanced in age4 ,his results show the desirability of cultivating the open-leaved1 rather than the compact varieties of this plant4 ,,analysis ,,of ,,the ,,cabbage4--,,by ,,dr4 ,,anderson4 ,outer leaves4 ,heart leaves4 ,water #ia4jh #id4dh ,compounds containing nitrogen #a4fc #j4id ,compounds destitute of nitrogen1 such as gum1 sugar1 fibre1 c4 #e4jf #d4jh ,ash 7mineral matter7 #b4bc #j4ej ------ ------ #ajj4jj #ajj4jj ,according to ,fromberg1 the composition of the whole plant is as follows3-- ,water #ic4dj ,nitrogenous1 or flesh-forming compounds #a4ge ,non-nitrogenous substances such as gum1 sugar1 c4 #d4je ,mineral matter #j4hj ------ #ajj4jj ,dr4 ,voelcker1 who has more recently analysed the cattle cabbage1 furnishes us with the following details of its composition3-- ,,composition ,,of ,,cabbage ,,leaves 7,,outside ,,green ,,leaves74 ,water #hc4gb ,dry matter #af4bh ------ #ajj4jj ,the fresh and the dry matter consisted of3-- ,fresh ,dry matter4 ,matter4 ,per cent4 99 ,protein compounds #a4fe #aj4ai ,non-nitrogenous matter #ac4ch #hb4aj ,mineral matter #a4be #g4ga ----- ------ #af4bh #ajj4jj 99 ,containing nitrogen 4#bf #a4fc ,in the following table the results of a more elaborate analysis of the heart and inner leaves are shown3-- ,,composition ,,of ,,heart ,,and ,,inner ,,leaves4 ,in natural state4 ,dry4 ,water #hi4db ,oil 4#jh 4#ge 99 ,soluble protein compounds #a4ai #aa4bd ,sugar1 digestible fibres1 c4 #g4ja #ff4be ,soluble mineral matter 4#gc #f4hi ,insoluble protein compounds 4#ca #b4ic ,woody fibre #a4ad #aj4gg ,insoluble mineral matter 4#ab #a4ag ------ ------ #ajj4jj #ajj4jj 99 ,containing nitrogen 4#ai #a4gi ,containing nitrogen 4#je 4#dg ,if ,i were asked what plant ,i considered the most valuable for forage1 ,i certainly should pronounce an opinion in favor of cabbage4 ,this crop yields a much greater return than that afforded by the ,swedish turnip1 and it is richer in nutritive matter4 ,cabbages are greedily eaten by sheep and cattle1 and the butter of cows fed upon them is quite free from the disagreeable flavor which it so often possesses when the food of the animal is chiefly composed of turnips4 ,if the cabbage admitted of storing1 no more valuable crop could be cultivated as food for stock4 ,mr4 ,john ,m',laren1 of ,inchture1 ,scotland1 gives in the ,transactions of the ,highland ,agricultural ,society of ,scotland for #aheg1 a report on the feeding value of cabbage1 which is highly favorable to that plant3-- ,on the #ast ,december1 #ahee 7says the reporter71 two lots of ,leicester wethers1 bred on the farm1 and previously fed alike1 each lot containing ten sheep1 were selected for the trial by competent judges1 and weighed4 ,both lots were put into a field of well-sheltered old lea1 having a division between them4 ,all the food was cut and given them in troughs1 three times a day4 ,they had also a constant supply of hay in racks4 ,at the end of the trial1 on the #ast of ,march1 #ahef1 the sheep were all re-weighed1 sent to the ,edinburgh market1 and sold same day1 but in their separate lots4 ,as ,i had no opportunity of getting the dead weights1 ,i requested ,mr4 ,swan1 the salesman1 to give his opinion on their respective qualities4 ,this was to the effect that no difference existed in their market value1 but that the sheep fed on turnips would turn out the best quality of mutton1 with most profit for the butcher4 ,both lots were sold at the same price1 viz41 #ebs4 #f;d4 ,during the three months of trial1 we found that each lot consumed about the same weight of food--viz41 #h tons #ac cwt4 #dg lb4 of cabbage1 being at the rate of #ba-a_/c lbs4 per day for each sheep1 and #h tons #aj cwt4 #g lb4 ,swedes1 being at the rate of #bj-i_/aj lb4 per day4 ,it will be seen1 by referring to the table 7see next page71 that in this trial the ,swede has proved of higher value for feeding purposes than the cabbage1 making #aa st4 #d lb4 of gain in weight1 whilst the cabbage made #aj st4 #i lb4 ,at the same time1 #c cwt4 #dj lb4 less food were consumed2 and taking the mutton gained at #f;d4 per lb41 the ,swedes consumed become worth #is4 #c-a_/d;d4 per ton1 while the gain on the cabbage1 at the same rate1 makes them worth #hs4 #g;d4 per ton4 ,but from the great additional weight of the one crop grown over the other1 the balance1 at the prices1 c41 mentioned1 is in favor of the cabbage by ,l#a #aes4 #aa-c_/d;d4 per acre4 ,these results certainly speak strongly in favor of the cabbage2 but the weight of the acreable crop of cabbages stated in the table appears to be unusually great4 ,so heavy a crop is rarely obtained4 ,furze 7,gorse1 or ,whins74--,notwithstanding the natural historical knowledge of ,goldsmith1 his poetical description of the furze is far from accurate4 ,this plant1 instead of being unprofitably gay1 deserves to rank amongst the most valuable vegetables cultivated for the use of the domestic animals4 ,it grows and flourishes under conditions which most injuriously affect almost every other kind of fodder and green crop4 ,prolonged drought in spring and early summer not unfrequently renders the hay crop a scanty one2 while autumn and winter frosts change the nutriment of the mangels and turnips into decaying and unwholesome matter4 ,under such circumstances as these1 the maintenance of cattle in good condition is very expensive1 unless in places where a supply of furze is available4 ,this plant is rather improved than otherwise by exposure to a temperature which would speedily destroy a mangel or a turnip2 and1 although it thrives best when abundantly supplied with rain1 it can survive an exceedingly prolonged drought without sustaining much injury4 ,,table ,,showing ,,the ,,difference ,,of ,,weight ,,grown ,,on ,,an ,,acre ,,of ,,cabbage ,,and ,,an ,,acre ,,of ,,swedes1 ,,and ,,the ,,value ,,of ,,each ,,for ,,feeding4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,no4 ,weight ,weight ,value of ,total ,weight ,of of of ,gain of ,food ,value ,sheep ,kinds ,ten ,ten taking consumed of ,food ,in of ,sheep1 ,sheep1 ,gain4 ,mutton in consumed ,each ,food4 #ast ,dec41#ast ,mar41 at #f;d4 ,three ,months per ,lot4 #ahee4 #ahef4 per lb4 by each lot4 ,ton4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- st4 lb4 st4 lb4 st4 lb4 ,l s4 d4tons4 cwt4 lb4s4 d4 #aj ,cabbage #ij #aj #aja #e #aj #i #c #ad #f #h #ac #dg #h #g #aj ,swedes #hi #c #ajj #g #aa #d #c #ai #j #h #aj #g #i #c-a_/d ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,no4 ,total ,of ,weight ,value ,extra ,free ,balance ,sheep ,kinds per of each ,cost on ,value in favor ,in of ,acre ,crop each ,crop of each of ,each ,food4 of each per ,acre4 per ,acre4 ,crop ,cabbage ,lot4 ,crop4 per ,acre4 per ,acre4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- tons4 cwt4 ,l s4 d4 ,l s4 d4 ,l s4 d4 ,l s4 d4 #aj ,cabbage #db #ad #ah #f #f #d #aj #aa #ac #ae #g #a #ae #aa-c_/d #aj ,swedes #bf #ab #ab #f #g-a_/d #j #g #j #aa #ai #g-a_/d ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,the furze is a member of the family ,leguminosae1 which includes so many useful plants1 such as1 for example1 the pea1 the bean1 and the clovers4 ,there are three varieties of it met with in this country--namely1 the common furze1 ,ulex europaeus1 the dwarf furze1 ,ulex nanus1 and the ,irish1 or upright furze1 ,ulex strictus4 ,the common furze is a hardy shrub1 and grows luxuriantly at an elevation far higher than the limits of cereal cultivation4 ,it flourishes on any kind of soil which is moderately dry1 and heavy crops may easily be raised on uplands almost incapable of producing grass4 ,the dwarf furze is never cultivated1 but as it grows at a still greater elevation1 and on a poorer soil than the larger varieties1 it might be profitably cultivated on very high uplands4 ,the ,irish furze yields a softer and less prickly food than the other kinds1 but as it does not usually bear seed1 and must therefore be propagated by cuttings1 its cultivation has hitherto been limited to but a few localities4 ,the produce of an acre of furze appears to be at least equal to that of an acre of good meadow4 ,the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,townsend of ,aghada1 county of ,cork--the most zealous and successful advocate for the cultivation of this plant--informed me that he had obtained so much as #ad tons per acre2 a fact which proves that the furze is a plant which is well deserving of the attention of the farmer4 ,furze is an excellent food for every kind of stock4 ,cattle1 although they may at first appear not to relish its prickly shoots1 soon acquire a fondness for it4 ,i have known several instances of herds being fed almost if not entirely on the bruised plant1 and to keep in good condition4 ,the late ,professor ,murphy1 of ,cork1 stated that on the farm of ,mr4 ,boulger1 near ,mallow1 thirty-five cows were fed on crushed furze1 which they devoured voraciously4 ,each animal received daily from four to six stones of the crushed plant1 to which were added a little turnip pulp and a small quantity of oats4 ,the milk and butter yielded by these cows were considered excellent4 ,in a letter addressed to me by a very intelligent feeder1 ,mr4 ,john ,walsh1#bh of ,stedalt1 county of ,dublin1 the following remarks in relation to this subject are made3-- ,i had lately an opportunity of seeing a herd of cattle of about sixty head1 of which twenty had been fed with furze prepared with my machine for about six weeks before being put out to grass4 ,the condition of these was so superior that ,i pointed out every one of them1 one after the other1 out of the herd4 ,the owner of the cattle had made the same observation2 it was new to him but not to me4 ,furze is seldom given to sheep or pigs1 but ,i believe that it might with advantage enter into the dietary of those animals4 ,some of my friends who have lately tried it with pigs report favorably as to its effects4 ,horses partly fed upon this plant keep in good condition2 it is usually given to them cut merely into lengths of half an inch or an inch1 but it would be better to give it to them finely bruised4 ,a horse during the night will eat a much larger quantity of coarsely cut furze than of the well bruised article1 because he is obliged to expend a great deal of muscular power in bruising the furze1 and must1 consequently1 use an additional quantity of the food to make up for the corresponding waste of tissue4 ,until quite recently1 the chemistry of the furze was very little studied4 ,the analysis of this plant made many years ago by ,sprengel gave results which1 in the present advanced condition of agricultural chemistry1 are quite valueless4 ,the late ,professor ,johnston merely determined its amount of water1 organic matter1 and ash4 ,i believe ,i was the first to make a complete investigation into the composition of this plant according to the methods of modern chemical analysis4 ,i made two examinations4 ,the first was of shoots cut on the #beth ,april1 #ahfj1 on the lands of ,mr4 ,walsh of ,stedalt1 near ,balbriggan1 in the county of ,dublin4 ,the shoots were1 in great part1 composed of that year's growth1 with a small proportion of the shoots of the previous year4 ,they were very moist1 and their spines1 or thorns1 were rather soft4 ,their centesimal composition was as follows3-- ,water #gh4je ,nitrogenous1 or flesh-forming principles #b4ah ,fat-forming principles 7oil1 starch1 sugar1 gum1 c47 #h4bj ,woody fibre #aj4ag ,mineral matter 7ash7 #a4dj ------ #ajj4jj ,the second analysis was made of furze cut on the #aeth ,august1 #ahfb4 ,the following were the results obtained3-- ,water #gb4jj ,nitrogenous1 or flesh-forming principles #c4ba ,oil #a4ah ,other fat-forming principles 7starch1 gum1 c47 #h4bj ,woody fibre #ac4cc ,mineral matter #b4jh ------ #ajj4jj ,the specimen was allowed to lie for a few days in a dry room1 so that it lost a little water whilst in my possession1 before it was subjected to analysis4 ,the sample cut in ,august contained a larger amount of nutriment than the specimen analysed in the spring2 but its constituents appeared to be much less soluble in water1 and therefore1 less digestible4 ,professor ,blyth1 of the ,queen's ,college1 ,cork1 has more recently made a very elaborate analysis of furze1 grown in the county of ,cork1 which gave results still more favorable to the plant than those arrived at by me--probably because the specimens furnished to him were drier than mine4 ,,analysis ,,of ,,fresh ,,furze1 ,,by ,,dr4 ,,blyth4 #ajj parts contain3-- ,matters readily soluble in water and easily digested4 99 ,albuminous1 or flesh-forming compounds #a4fh ,fat and heat-producing1 or respiratory elements1 viz41 sugar1 gum1 c4 c4 #g4hc ,ash #j4hc ----- ,total matters soluble in water #aj4cd 99 ,containing nitrogen #j4bfe ,matters insoluble in water4 ,oil #b4ad ,albuminous1 or flesh-producing compounds #b4hc ,fat and heat-producing1 or respiratory elements #a4jj ,woody fibre #bh4hj ,ash #c4bc ----- ,total matters insoluble in water #ch4jj ,water1 expelled at #bab #ea4ej ----- #ii4dh ,total nitrogen in plant #j4ga ,total albuminous1 or flesh-producing compounds #d4ea ,total respiratory1 or heat and fat-producing compounds #h4hc ,total ash #d4jf ,the ash contains in #ajj parts3-- ,potash #bj4jj ,phosphoric acid #h4gb ,containing nitrogen #j4dde ,if the large per-centage of water be deducted1 the dry1 nutritive matters can then be more readily compared with the amount of the same substances in other feeding articles3-- ,composition of #ajj parts of furze dried at #bab deg44 ,matters soluble in water in the dry furze4 99 ,albuminous compounds #c4dg ,respiratory elements #af4ae ,ash #a4ga ------ ,total matters soluble in water #ba4cc 99 ,containing nitrogen #j4edf ,matters insoluble in water in the dry furze4 ,oil #d4da ,albuminous compounds #e4hd ,respiratory elements #b4jf ,woody fibre #ei4ch ,ash #f4ff ------ ,total matters insoluble in water #gh4ce ----- #ii4fh ,total nitrogen in dry furze #a4df ,total albuminous compounds #i4ac ,total respiratory elements #ah4bj ,total ash #h4cf ,containing nitrogen #j4iag ,composition of ash per cent4 ,potash #bj4jj ,phosphoric ,acid4 #h4gb ,the results of these analyses show that dry furze contains an amount of nutriment equal to that found in dry grass4 ,the nature of its composition resembles1 as might be expected1 that of its allied plants1 vetches1 c41 and therefore it exceeds the grasses in its amount of ready formed fatty matter4 ,,section ,,iv4 ,,straw ,,and ,,hay4 ,straw4--,at the present time1 when the attention of the farmer is becoming more and more devoted to the production of meat1 it is very desirable that his knowledge of the exact nutritive value of the various feeding substances should be more extensive than it is4 ,no doubt1 most feeders are practically acquainted with the relative value of corn and oil-cake--of ,swedish turnips and white turnips2 but their knowledge of the food equivalents of many other substances is still very defective4 ,for example1 every farmer is not aware that ,indian corn is a more economical food than beans for fattening cattle1 and less so for beasts of burthen4 ,locust-beans1 oat-dust1 malt-combings1 and many other articles1 occasionally consumed by stock1 have not1 as yet1 determinate places assigned to them in the feeder's scale of food equivalents4 ,the points involved in the economic feeding of stock are not quite so simple as some farmers1 more especially those of the amateur class1 appear to believe4 ,there are many feeders who sell their half-finished cattle at a profit1 and yet they cannot1 without loss1 convert their stock into those obese monsters which are so much admired at agricultural shows4 ,the complete fattening of cattle is a losing business with some feeders1 and a profitable one with others4 ,stall-feeding is a branch of rural economy which1 perhaps more than any other1 requires the combination of science with practice2 yet how few feeders are there who have the slightest knowledge of the composition of food substances1 or who are agreed as to the feeding value1 absolute or relative1 of even such well-known materials as oil-cake1 straw1 or oats6 ,it is thus seen how inexact are the equivalents which are understood to be established for the different foods used for the maintenance of the animals4 ,it is equally plain1 when we reflect on the different methods pursued for the preservation of the animals1 that we are still far from having attained that perfection towards which our efforts tend4 ,visit one hundred farms1 taken by chance in different parts of the country1 and you will find in each1 methods directly opposite--a totally peculiar manner of managing the stalls2 you will see1 in short1 that the conditions of food1 of treatment1 and of hygiene1 remain not understood in seven-eighths of rural farms4#bi ,the straws of the cereal and leguminous plants are a striking illustration of the erroneous opinions and practices which prevail amongst agriculturists with respect to particular branches of their calling4 ,the ,german farmers regard straw as the most valuable constituent of home-made fertilisers1 and their leases in general prohibit their selling off the straw produced on their farms4 ,yet chemical analysis has clearly proved that the manurial value of straw is perfectly insignificant1 and that1 as a constituent of stable manure1 it is chiefly useful as an absorbent of the liquid egesta of the animals littered upon it4 ,as food for stock1 straw was at one time regarded by our farmers as almost perfectly innutritious2 some even went so far as to declare that it possessed no nutriment whatever1 and even those who used it1 did so more with the view of correcting the too watery nature of turnips1 than with the expectation of its being assimilated to the animal body4 ,within the last few years1 however1 straw has been largely employed by several of the most intelligent and successful feeders in ,england1 who report so favorably upon it as an economical feeding stuff1 that it has risen considerably in the estimation of a large section of the agricultural public4 ,now1 even without adopting the very high opinion which ,mechi and ,horsfall entertain relative to the nutritive power of straw1 ,i am altogether disposed to disagree with those who affirm that its application should be restricted to manurial purposes4 ,unless under circumstances where there is an urgent demand for straw as litter1 that article should be used as food for stock1 for which purpose it will be found1 if of good quality1 and given in a proper state1 a most economical kind of dry fodder--equal1 if not superior to hay1 when the prices of both articles are considered4 ,the composition of straw is very different from that of grain4 ,the former contains no starch1 but it includes an exceedingly high proportion of woody fibre2 the latter is in great part composed of starch1 and contains but an insignificant amount of woody fibre4 ,dr4 ,voelcker1 the consulting chemist to the ,royal ,agricultural ,society of ,england1 and ,dr4 ,anderson1 chemist to the ,highland and ,agricultural ,society of ,scotland1 have made a large number of analyses of the straws of the cereal and leguminous plants1 the results of which are of the highest interest to the agriculturist4 ,in the following tables the more important results of these investigations are given3-- ,,analyses ,,of ,,straw1 ,,by ,,dr4 ,,voelcker4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,no4 #a4 ,no4 #b4 ,no4 #c4 ,no4 #d4 ,no4 #e4 ,wheat1 ,wheat1 ,barley1 ,barley1 ,oat1 just ripe over dead not too cut and well ripe4 ripe4 ripe4 green4 harvested4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,water #ac4cc #i4ag #ae4bj #ag4ej #af4jj ,albumen1 and other protein compounds3-- a4 ,soluble in water #a4bh #j4jf #j4fh #e4ea #e4gc b4 ,insoluble in water #a4fe #b4jf #c4ge _/ #b4ih ,oil #a4gd #j4fe #a4cf #a4ag #a4eg ,sugar1 mucilage1 extractive matters1 c4 7soluble in water7 #d4bf #c4df #b4bd #af4jd ,digestible woody fibre and cellulose #ai4dj #e4ig #ga4dd #bf4cd ,indigestible #hb4bf _/ fibre c4 #ed4ac _/ #ff4ed _/ #bd4hf ,inorganic matter3-- a4 ,soluble #a4ac #a4bi #b4hh #e4gf #d4eb b4 ,insoluble #c4jh #a4je #j4ch _/ #j4id ---------------------------------------- -- #ajj4jj #ajj4jj #ajj4jj #ajj4jj #ajj4jj ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,no4 #f4 ,no4 #g4 ,no4 #h4 ,no4 #i4 ,no4 #aj4 ,oat1 cut ,oat1 ,bean4 ,pea4 ,flax when over ,chaff4 fairly ripe4 ripe4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,water #af4jj #af4jj #ai4dj #af4jb #ad4fj ,albumen1 and other protein compounds3-- a4 ,soluble in water #b4fb #a4bi #a4ea #c4if #d4ge b4 ,insoluble in water #a4df #b4cf #a4he #e4ij _/ ,oil #a4je #a4be #a4jb #b4cd #b4hb ,sugar1 mucilage1 extractive matters1 c4 7soluble in water7 #aj4eg #c4ai #d4ah #h4cb #h4gb ,digestible woody fibre and cellulose #cj4ag #bg4ge #b4ge #ag4gd #ah4ef ,indigestible fibre c4 #ca4gh #da4hb #fe4eh #db4gi #dc4ab ,inorganic matter3-- a4 ,soluble #c4fd #b4bf #b4ca #b4gb #d4jg b4 ,insoluble #b4ga #d4jh #a4dj #b4ba #c4cf ---------------------------------------- -- #ajj4jj #ajj4jj #ajj4jj #ajj4jj #ajj4jj ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- 444 ,this table contains in a condensed form all the results of ,voelcker's analyses of the straws which are given in his paper published in the ,journal of the ,royal ,agricultural ,society of ,england1 vol4 xxii41 part #b4 #ahfb4 ,nos4 #e1 #f1 and #g were analysed shortly after being cut1 when they contained a high proportion of water4 ,they have1 therefore1 been calculated to contain #af per cent4 of moisture so as to arrive at accurate relative results4 ,,analyses ,,of ,,straw1 ,,by ,,dr4 ,,anderson4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,wheat ,barley ,wheat from from ,barley from from ,east ,lothian4 ,kent4 ,east ,lothian4 ,kent4 ---------------------------------------- --------- ,water #aj4fb #aj4ic #aa4ae #aa4dd #aa4ae #aa4aj ,flesh-formers-- ,soluble #j4hf #j4cg #a4cg #a4db #j4ci #j4ff ,insoluble #j4ea #a4ab #a4jj #a4ed #a4ab #a4ih ,oil #j4hj #a4jj #a4ej #j4ig #j4hh #a4je ,respiratory elements-- ,soluble #b4fh #f4fh #e4bf #c4bb #f4aa #d4ef ,insoluble #dd4hh #cf4dc #ch4gi #ce4ef #ch4ch #bg4ie ,woody fibre #cb4hh #cd4gh #ce4ja #da4cd #cf4fb #dg4ec ,ash #f4bj #h4jd #f4cb #d4ba #e4fb #d4he ---------------------------------------- --------- #ii4dc #ii4ce #ajj4dj #ii4gj #ajj4bg #ii4fh ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,oat ,oat from ,oat ,sandy ,oat from #hej feet ,oat from from from ,sea above ,mellhill1 ,kent ,east ,lothian4 level ,sea level1,inchture1 7,white ,east ,east ,scotland4 one ,lothian4 ,lothian4 side47 ---------------------------------------- --------- ,water #aa4gj #aj4ie #ab4fj #aa4bh #aa4gj #aj4ee ,flesh-formers-- ,soluble #j4dj #a4jc #j4fg #j4ib #j4ie #j4cc ,insoluble #j4ic #j4dc #j4ch #j4ci #a4ba #j4cc ,oil #a4de #j4gg #a4be #a4cf #a4fj #a4jj ,respiratory elements-- ,soluble #aj4ab #f4ij #g4af #g4db #ab4ja #f4bc ,insoluble #cc4eb #cd4gg #bd4bh #bi4ee #bc4ce #cj4ie ,woody fibre #ce4cf #ch4gc #dh4di #dd4dj #de4bg #dg4dj ,ash #f4cf #f4bh #e4aa #e4jg #c4ie #c4fb ---------------------------------------- --------- #ii4hd #ii4hf #ii4id #ajj4ci #ajj4ad #ajj4da ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- 444 ,this table is compiled from ,dr4 ,anderson's paper in the ,transactions of the ,highland and ,agricultural ,society of ,scotland for ,march1 #ahfb4 ,many very important conclusions are deducible from the facts recorded in these valuable tables4 ,we learn from them that straw is more nutritious when it is cut in the ripe state than when it is permitted to over-ripen1 and that green straw contains a far greater amount of nutriment than is found even in the ripe article4 ,it appears also that the least nutritious kind of straw equals the best variety of turnips in its amount of flesh-forming principles1 and greatly exceeds them in its proportion of fat-forming elements4 ,we further learn that in general the different kinds of straw will be found to stand in the following order1 the most nutritious occupying the highest1 and the least nutritious the lowest place3-- #a4 ,pea-haulm4 #b4 ,oat-straw4 #c4 ,bean-straw with the pods4 #d4 ,barley-straw4 #e4 ,wheat-straw4 #f4 ,bean-stalks without the pods4 ,it is a matter to be regretted that we possess so little accurate knowledge of the chemical composition of the plants cultivated in ,ireland4 ,no doubt the analyses of ,english grown wheat1 beans1 mangels1 and other plants1 serve to give us a general idea of the nature of those vegetables when produced in this country4 ,but this kind of information1 though very important1 must necessarily be defective1 as differences in climate modify--often to a considerable extent--the composition of almost every vegetable4 ,thus1 the results of ,anderson's analyses prove ,scotch oats to be superior1 as a feeding stuff1 to ,scotch barley1 whilst1 according to ,voelcker and the experience of most ,english feeders1 the barley of parts of ,england is superior to its oats4 ,it follows1 then1 that whilst the results of the analyses of straw1 made by ,voelcker and ,anderson are of great interest to the ,irish farmer1 they would be still more important to him had the straw to which they relate been the produce of ,irish soil4 ,in order1 therefore1 to enable the ,irish farmer to form a correct estimate of the value of his straw1 we should put him in possession of a more perfect knowledge of its composition than that which is derivable from the investigations to which ,i have referred4 ,the straws of the cereals--which alone are used here to any extent--should be analysed as carefully and as frequently as those of ,great ,britain have been2 and if such were done1 ,i have no doubt but that the results would indicate a decided difference in composition between the produce of the two countries4 ,some time ago ,i entered upon what1 at the time1 ,i had intended should be a complete investigation into the composition of ,irish straws2 but which want of time prevented me from making more than a partial one4 ,the results are given in the following tables3-- ,,analyses ,,of ,,irish ,,oat-,,straw4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,no4 #a4 ,obtained in the ,dublin ,market4 ,from ,co4---------------------------- ,wicklow4 ,no4 #b4 ,no4 #c4 ,no4 #d4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,water #ad4jj #ad4jj #ad4jj #ad4jj ,flesh-forming principles-- a4 ,soluble in water #d4jh #b4jb #b4jd #a4df b4 ,insoluble in water #b4ji #c4af #c4jj #b4bc ,oil #a4hd #a4dj #a4bf #a4jj ,sugar1 gum1 and other fat-forming matters #ac4gi #ab4fg #aj4ah #aa4af ,woody fibre #ei4if #fa4gi #fe4de #fe4bi ,mineral matter #d4bd #d4if #d4jg #d4hf ------------------------------------ #ajj4jj #ajj4jj #ajj4jj #ajj4jj ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,all the specimens of oats1 the analyses of which are given in the preceding table1 are assumed to contain #ad per cent4 of water1 in order the more correctly to compare their nutritive value4 ,no4 #a contained #ah4bc per cent4 of water2 ,no4 #b1 #ab4ij2 ,no4 #c1 #ab4gd2 and ,no4 #d1 #ab4jh4 ,oat straw1 before its removal from the field1 often contains nearly half its weight of water2 but after being for some time stacked1 the proportion of moisture rarely exceeds #ad per cent4 ,,analyses ,,of ,,irish ,,wheat-,,straw4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,no4 #a4 ,no4 #b4,no4 #c4 ,green1 ,obtained in the ,dublin changing ,markets4 to ,over yellow4 ,ripe4 ,ripe4 ----------------------- ,county ,county ,county ,kildare4,dublin4,dublin4 ,no4 #d4 ,no4 #e4 ,no4 #f4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,water #ac4jj #ac4ae #ab4ad #aj4hh #aa4bb #ab4ab ,flesh-forming principles-- a4 ,soluble in water #a4be #j4ih #j4dd #j4jf #j4db #j4cj b4 ,insoluble in water #a4bf #a4dj #a4da #a4ij #a4jj #a4gf ,oil #a4bb #a4ac #a4ad #j4ij #a4ag #a4jh ,sugar1 gum1 and other fat-forming matters #d4ah #c4ih #c4hh #d4jh #c4hi #d4cj ,woody fibre #ge4hd #gf4ag #gg4gf #gh4fg #gi4ah #gg4ae ,mineral matter 7ash7 #c4be #c4ai #c4bc #c4ea #c4ab #c4bi ---------------------------------------- --- #ajj4jj #ajj4jj #ajj4jj #ajj4jj #ajj4jj #ajj4jj ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,the results of these analyses are somewhat different from those arrived at by ,voelcker and ,anderson4 ,they show that properly harvested ,irish oat and wheat straws are far more valuable than those of ,scotland1 and somewhat less nutritive than those produced in ,england4 ,they also show that wheat-straw is allowed to over-ripen1 by which a very large proportion of its nutritive principles is eliminated and altogether lost1 and a considerable part of the remainder converted into an insoluble1 and therefore less easily digestible state4 ,nor is there any advantage to the grain gained by allowing it to remain uncut after the upper portion of the stem has changed from a green to a yellowish color2 on the contrary1 it also loses a portion--often a very considerable one--of its nitrogenous1 or flesh-forming constituents4 ,it has been clearly proved that wheat cut when green1 yields a greater amount of grain1 and of a better quality too1 than when it is allowed to ripen fully2 yet1 how often do we not see fields of wheat in this country allowed to remain unreaped for many days1 and even weeks1 after the crop has attained to its full development6 ,the oat-straw obtained in the ,dublin ,market proved less valuable than the green straw which ,i selected myself from a field of oats2 but the discrepancy between them was far less than between the nearly ripe wheat-straw and the straw of that plant purchased in ,dublin4 ,during visits which ,i have paid in harvest-time to the ,north of ,ireland1 ,i noticed that the oats were generally cut whilst green1 whereas wheat was almost invariably left standing for at least a week after its perfect maturation1 probably for the following reasons3--,firstly1 because oats are more liable to shed their seed2 secondly1 because there is a greater breadth of that crop to be reaped1 which necessitates an early beginning2 and1 lastly1 because most farmers know that over-ripe oat-straw is worth but little for feeding purposes1 as compared with the greenish-yellow article4 ,as compared with white turnips1 the nutritive value of oat-straw stands very high1 for whilst the former contains but little more than #a per cent4 of flesh-formers1 and less than #e per cent4 of fat-formers1 the latter includes about #d per cent4 of flesh-formers1 and #ac per cent4 of fat-formers4 ,again1 whilst the amount of woody fibre in turnips is only about #c per cent41 that substance constitutes no less than #fj per cent4 of oat-straw4 ,in comparison with hay--taking into consideration the prices of both articles--oat-straw also stands high1 as will be seen by comparing the following analyses of common meadow hay with that of properly harvested straw3-- ,meadow ,hay4 ,oat ,straw4 ,water #ad4fa #ad4jj ,flesh-forming constituents #h4dd #f4ag ,respiratory and fatty matters #dc4fc #ae4fc ,woody fibre #bg4af #ei4if ,mineral matter 7ash7 #f4af #d4bd ------ ------ #ajj4jj #ajj4jj ,woody fibre is as abundant a constituent of the straw of the cereals as starch is of their seeds1 and if the two substances were equally digestible1 straw would be a very valuable food--superior even to the potato4 ,at one time it was the general belief that woody fibre was incapable of contributing in the slightest degree to the nutrition of animals1 but the results of recent investigations prove that it is1 to a certain extent1 digestible4 ,in the summer of #ahei two ,german chemists1 ,stoeckhardt and ,sussdorf1 made a series of experiments1 with the view of ascertaining whether or not the cellulose#cj of the food of the sheep is assimilated by that animal4 ,the results of this inquiry are of importance1 seeing that they clearly prove that even the hardest kind of cellulose--sclerogen1 in fact--is capable of being assimilated by the ,ruminants4 ,the animals selected were two wethers1 aged respectively five and six years4 ,they were fed--firstly1 upon hay alone2 secondly1 upon hay and rye-straw2 thirdly upon hay and the sawdust of poplar wood1 which had been exhausted with lye 7to induce the sheep to eat the sawdust1 it was found necessary to mix through it some rye-bran and a little salt72 fourthly1 hay and pine-wood sawdust1 to which was added bran and salt2 fifthly1 spruce sawdust1 bran and salt2 sixthly1 hay1 pulp of linen rags 7from the paper-maker71 and bran4 ,the experiments were carried on from ,july till ,november1 excepting a short time1 during which the animals were turned out on pasture-land1 to recover from the injurious effects of the fifth series of experiments--produced probably by the resin of the spruce4 ,the animals1 together with their food1 drink1 and egesta1 were weighed daily4 ,the amount of cellulose in the food was determined1 and the proportion of that substance in the egesta was also ascertained2 and as there was a considerable discrepancy between the two amounts1 it was evident that the difference represented the weight of the cellulose assimilated by the animals4 ,in this way it was ascertained that from #fj to #gj per cent4 of the cellulose of hay1 #dj to #fj per cent4 of the cellulose of straw1 #de to #ej per cent4 of the cellulose of the poplar wood1 #cj to #dj per cent4 of the cellulose of the pine1 and #hj per cent4 of the cellulose of the paper pulp was digested4 ,in stating the results of his analyses of the straws1 ,professor ,voelcker sets down as digestible that portion of the cellulose which he found to be soluble in dilute acids and alkaline solutions2 but he admits that the solvents in the stomach might dissolve a larger amount4 ,the results of the experiments of ,stoeckhardt and ,sussdorf prove that #hj per cent4 of the cellulose of paper 7the altered fibre of flax7 is assimilable1 and it is1 therefore1 not unreasonable to infer that the cellulose of a more palatable substance than paper might be altogether digestible4 ,the facts which ,i have adduced clearly prove that the straws of the cereals possess a far higher nutritive power than is commonly ascribed to them2 that when properly harvested they contain from #bj to #dj per cent4 of undoubted nutriment2 and lastly1 that it is highly probable that their so-called indigestible woody fibre is to a great extent assimilable4 ,the composition of cellulose is nearly1 if not quite1 identical with that of starch1 and it may therefore be assumed to be equal in nutritive power to that substance--that is1 it will1 if assimilated1 be converted into four-tenths of its weight of fat4 ,now as cellulose forms from six-tenths to eight-tenths of the weight of straws1 it is evident that if the whole of this substance were digestible1 straws would be an exceedingly valuable fattening food4 ,when straw in an unprepared state is consumed1 there is no doubt but that a large proportion of its cellulose remains unappropriated--nay more1 it is equally certain that the hard woody fibre protects1 by enveloping them1 the soluble and easily digestible constituents of the straw from the action of the gastric juice4 ,i would1 therefore1 recommend that straw should be either cooked or fermented before being made use of2 in either of these states its constituents are far more digestible than when the straw is merely cut1 or even when it is in the form of chaff4 ,an excellent mode of treating straw is to reduce it to chaff1 subject it to the action of steam1 and mix it with roots and oil-cake or corn4 ,mr4 ,lawrence1 of ,cirencester1 one of the most intelligent agriculturists in ,england1 cooks his chaff1 which he largely employs1 in the following manner3--,we find that1 taking a score of bullocks together fattening1 they consume1 per head per diem1 #c bushels of chaff mixed with just half a hundred-weight of pulped roots1 exclusive of cake or corn2 that is to say1 rather more than #b bushels of chaff are mixed with the roots1 and given at two feeds1 morning and evening1 and the remainder is given with the cake1 c41 at the middle day feed1 thus3--,we use the steaming apparatus of ,stanley1 of ,peterborough1 consisting of a boiler in the centre1 in which the steam is generated1 and which is connected by a pipe on the left hand with a large galvanised iron receptacle for steaming food for pigs1 and on the right with a large wooden tub lined with copper1 in which the cake1 mixed with water1 is made into a thick soup4 ,adjoining this is a slate tank of sufficient size to contain one feed for the entire lot of bullocks feeding4 ,into this tank is laid chaff1 about one foot deep1 upon which a few ladles of soup are thrown in a boiling state2 this is thoroughly mixed with the chaff with a three-grained fork1 and pressed down firm2 and this process is repeated until the slate tank is full1 when it is covered down for an hour or two before feeding time4 ,the soup is then found entirely absorbed by the chaff1 which has become softened1 and prepared for ready digestion4 ,a cheap plan is to mix the straw with sliced roots1 moisten the mass with water1 and allow it to remain until a slight fermentation has set in4 ,this process effectually softens and disintegrates1 so to speak1 the woody fibre1 and sets free the stores of nutritious matters which it envelopes4 ,some farmers who hold straw in high estimation1 prefer giving it just as it comes from the field2 they base this practice on the belief that ,ruminants require a bulky and solid food1 and that their digestive powers are quite sufficient to effect the solution of all the useful constituents of the straw4 ,it may be quite true that cattle1 as asserted1 can extract more nutriment out of straw than horses can1 but that merely proves the greater power of their digestive organs4 ,no doubt the food of the ,ruminants should be bulky2 but ,i am quite sure that cooked or fermented straw is sufficiently so to satisfy the desire of those animals for quantity in their food4 ,so far as ,i can learn1 all the carefully conducted feeding experiments to test the value of straw which have been made1 have yielded results highly favorable to that article4 ,mr4 ,blundell1 in a paper on ,the ,use and ,abuse of ,straw1 read before the ,botley 7,hampshire7 ,farmer's ,club1 states that in his experience he found straw to be more economical than its equivalent of roots or oil-cake1 in the feeding of all kinds of cattle3-- ,i find 7says ,mr4 ,blundell7 that dairy cows1 in the winter months1 if fed on large quantities of roots1 particularly mangels and carrots1 will refuse to eat straw almost entirely1 and become very lean2 but they will always eat a full portion of sweet1 well-harvested straw1 when they get a small and moderate allowance of roots1 say1 for an ordinary-sized cow1 #ae lbs4 of mangel three times per day1 the roots being given whole1 just in the state they come from the store heap4 ,again1 calves and yearlings being fed with roots in the same way1 will eat a large quantity of straw1 and when they have been kept under cover ,i have had them in first-rate condition for many years past4 ,also1 in fattening beasts1 when they get a fair allowance of roots1 say #fe to #gj lbs4 per day1 with from #c to #d lbs4 of cake or meal in admixture1 they will eat straw with great avidity1 and do well upon it1 and make a profit4 ,it is1 however1 often the case that bullocks receive #ajj lbs41 or upwards1 of roots per day1 with a large quantity of cake or meal1 often #aj or #ab lbs4 per day2 they will not then look at straw1 and are obliged to be fed with hay4 ,the cost price of these quantities and kinds of food stands so high that the animals do not yield a profit2 for although they may make meat a little faster1 yet the proportionate increase is nothing compared to the increased cost of the feeding materials used4 ,mr4 ,blundell gives us also the tabulated results of one of his experiments1 which prove that by the use of straw there is to be obtained something more than manure by the feeding of stock3-- ,,cost ,,of ,,feeding ,,an ,,ox ,,per ,,week ,,with ,,straw1 ,,etc41 ,,according ,,to ,,mr4 ,,blundell4 s4 d4 #d lbs4 of oil-cake per day1 or #ch lbs4 per week1 at ,l#aj per ton #b #f #fd lbs4 of roots ditto1 or #d cwt4 ditto1 at #acs4 #d;d4 ditto #b #h #bj lbs4 of straw feeding1 or #a-a_/d cwt4 ditto1 at #cjs4 ditto #a #aj-a_/b #bj lbs4 of straw litter1 or #a-a_/d cwt4 ditto1 at #aes4 ditto #j #aa ,attendance1 c41 per week #j #a ---------- #h #j-a_/b ,deduct value of manure1 per week #a #c-a_/b ---------- #f #i ,increased value of ox per week #aj #j ,deduct cost of feeding #f #i ---------- #c #c ,if we now turn to the study of the composition of straw regarded from an economic point of view1 we shall find that the theoretical deductions therefrom harmonise with the results of actual feeding experiments4 ,let us assume that #ajj parts of oat-straw contain on an average-- #a part of oil1 #d parts of flesh-formers1 #aj parts of sugar1 gum1 and other fat-formers1 and #cj parts of digestible fibre2 and if the price of the straw be #cjs4 per ton1 we shall have at that cost the following quantities of digestible substances3-- ,,one ,,ton ,,of ,,oat-,,straw1 ,,at #cjs41 ,,contains3-- lbs4 #ca ,oil #bb4d ,flesh-forming principles #hi4f ,sugar1 gum1 and other fat-forming substances #bbd4j ,digestible fibre #fgb4j ------- #a1jjh4j #cb ,total amount of fat-formers1 calculated as starch #ieb4j ,add flesh-formers #hi4f ------- ,total amount of nutritive matter #a1jda4f ,we shall now compare this table with a similar one in relation to the composition of linseed cake1 which will place the greater comparative value of straw in a clearer light4 ,a fair sample of linseed-cake contains1 centesimally-- ,flesh-formers #bf ,oil #ab ,gum1 mucilage1 sugar1 c4 #cd ,woody fibre #f ,,one ,,ton ,,of ,,linseed ,,cake1 ,,at ,l#aa1 ,,contains3-- lbs4 ,flesh-forming principles #ehb4d ,oil #bfh4h ,gum1 sugar1 and other fat-formers #gfa4f ,woody fibre #gd4d ------- #a1fhg4b ,total amount of fat-formers1 calculated as starch #a1ejh4j ,add flesh-formers #ehb4d ------- ,total amount of nutriment #b1jij4d ,these comparisons are very instructive and important4 ,we learn from them that we pay ,l#aa for #b1jjj lbs4 of nutriment1 when we purchase a ton of linseed-cake1 whereas1 when we invest #cjs4 in a ton of straw1 we receive #a1jjj lbs4 of digestible aliment4 ,it cannot be said that ,i have strained any points in favour of the straw2 on the contrary1 ,i believe that when that article is cut in proper season and well harvested1 its composition will be found far superior to that detailed in the comparative analysis4 ,it must be borne in mind1 too1 that ,i take no account of the #cj per cent4 of the so-called indigestible woody fibre which straw contains1 and which1 ,i believe1 is partly assimilable under ordinary circumstances1 and could be rendered nearly altogether digestible by proper treatment2 on the other hand1 ,i have assumed that the woody fibre of the oil-cake is completely digestible1 although ,i believe it is in reality less so than the fibre of straw4 ,it is an important point in the composition of oil-cakes1 that they contain a large proportion of ready-formed fatty matters which can1 with but little alteration1 be at once transmuted into animal fat4 ,there are some individuals of the genus ,homo to whose stomachs fat1 per se1 is intolerable2 nevertheless1 as a general rule1 fatty substances exercise a favorable influence in the process of digestion1 and1 either in a separate state1 or intimately commingled with other aliments1 constitute a large proportion of the food of man4 ,digestion in the lower animals is1 no doubt1 similarly promoted by mixing with the aliments which are to be subjected to that process1 a due proportion of oily or fatty matter4 ,straw is relatively deficient in the flesh-forming principles1 and abounds in the fat-forming elements--of which1 however1 the most valuable1 oil1 is the least abundant4 ,now1 if we add to straw a due proportion of some substance very rich in flesh-formers and oil1 the compound will possess in nicely adjusted proportions all the elements of nutrition4 ,perhaps the best kind of food which we could employ for this purpose is linseed meal4 ,it contains about #bd per cent4 of flesh-formers1 #ce per cent4 of a very bland oil1 and #bd per cent4 of gum1 sugar1 and mucilage4 ,linseed-cake may be substituted for linseed-meal2 but the meal1 though its cost is #ae per cent4 greater1 is1 ,i believe1 rather the better article of the two4 ,its flesh-formers are more soluble1 and its oil thrice more abundant and far more palatable than the same principles in most samples of oil-cake4 ,an important point1 too1 is1 that linseed1 unlike linseed-cake1 is not liable to adulteration4 ,as linseed possesses laxative properties it cannot be largely employed2 the addition1 however1 of bean-meal--the binding tendency of which is well known--to a diet partly composed of linseed will neutralise1 so to speak1 the relaxing influence of the oily seed4 ,if oil-cakes be used as an adjunct to straw1 rape-cake will be found more economical than linseed-cake4 ,if it be free from mustard1 well steamed1 and flavored with a little treacle1 or a small quantity of locust-beans1 it will be readily consumed1 and even relished1 by dairy and fattening stock4 ,hay4--,there is no food substance more variable or more complex than hay1 for under that term are included1 not only mixtures of grasses1 but also of leguminous plants--clover1 for example4 ,the herbage of no two meadows is exactly alike2 and the composition of the meadow plants is so greatly modified by differences of climate1 soil1 and mode of culture1 that we have nothing to excite our wonder in the extreme variability of hay4 ,the composition of the hay made from clover1 lucerne1 and various other kinds of artificial grasses1 is shown in the table--which is based on the results of ,way's analyses3-- ,,composition ,,of ,,the ,,hay ,,of ,,artificial ,,grasses4 ---------------------------------------- --- ,,key3 ,a4--,flesh-forming ,substances4 ,b4--,fatty ,matters4 ,c4--,respiratory ,substances4 ,d4--,woody ,fibre4 ,e4--,ash4 ,f4--,water4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,a4 ,b4 ,c4 ,d4 ,e4 ,f4 -------------------------------------- ,trifolium pratense-- ,red clover #ah4gi #c4jf #cg4jf #af4df #g4ig #af4f ,trifolium pratense perenne-- ,purple clover #ae4ih #c4da #ce4ce #ba4fc #f4if ,trifolium incarnatum-- ,crimson clover #ac4hc #c4aa #ca4be #bf4ii #h4ae ,trifolium medium-- ,cowgrass #bj4bg #b4ig #cj4cj #bj4ab #i4fg ,do41 second specimen #ae4fd #c4ih #da4ch #ae4gj #f4fd ,trifolium procumbens-- ,hop trefoil #ag4jg #c4hi #cf4ee #ah4hh #f4id ,trifolium repens-- ,white trefoil #ae4fc #c4fe #cc4cg #bb4aa #h4eg ,vicia sativa-- ,common ,vetch #ai4fh #b4ee #cb4hg #bb4hb #e4db ,vicia sepium-- ,bush vetch #ai4bc #b4dj #bg4fb #be4hg #h4ba ,onobrychis sativa-- ,sainfoin #ae4ch #b4ea #ch4cj #bj4ei #f4ef ,medicago sativa-- ,lucerne #aj4fc #b4cj #cc4dg #bh4ea #h4db ,medicago lupulina-- ,yellow clover #bj4ej #c4ch #bg4gf #bb4ff #i4jc ,plantago lanceolata-- ,rib grass #aa4ia #c4jf #cc4eh #bg4ef #g4bc ,poterium sanguisorba-- ,burnet #ac4if #c4cd #ci4ej #ai4hi #f4fd ,achillea millefolium-- ,millefoil #h4fb #b4ji #cg4hh #bg4bd #g4ej -------------------------------------- ,mean #ae4ha #c4ah #cd4db #bb4dg #g4ei #af4f ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,very many analyses of hay have been made by ,british and ,continental chemists1 the results of which are of great interest to the agriculturist4 ,the composition of the natural and artificial grasses1 which is shown in the tables given in pages #aeh-i will1 if we reduce their per-centage of water to #af1 give us an approximation to the composition of hay4 ,if the herbage1 too1 be sown in the proper time1 and the hay-making process be skilfully conducted1 there will be but little difference1 except in the amount of water1 between the plants in their fresh and dry state2 but owing to inopportune wet weather1 and carelessness in manipulation1 excellent herbage is not unfrequently converted into inferior hay4 ,according to ,dr4 ,voelcker1 the average composition of meadow-hay1 as deduced from the results of twenty-five analyses1 is as follows3-- ,water #ad4fa ,flesh-forming constituents #h4dd ,respiratory and fatty matters #dc4fc ,woody fibre #bg4af ,mineral matter 7ash7 #f4af ------ #ajj4jj ,dr4 ,anderson's analysis of meadow-hay1 one year old1 and of inferior quality1 gave the following results3-- ,water #ac4ac ,flesh-forming matters #d4jj ,non-nitrogenous substances #gg4fa ,mineral matter #e4bf ------ #ajj4jj ,the results of the investigations of ,way prove that the herbage of water-grass meadows is more nutritious than that of dry meadows--results perfectly harmonious with the experience of practical men4 ,it is a somewhat general belief1 that the aftermath1 or second cutting1 is less nutritious than the first cutting2 but there appears to be no chemical difference between the two crops1 provided they be saved under equally favorable conditions4 ,according to ,dr4 ,anderson1 the composition of clover-hay of the second cutting is as follows3-- ,water #af4hd ,flesh-forming principles #ac4eb ,non-nitrogenous matters #fd4dc ,mineral matter 7ash7 #e4ba ------ #ajj4jj ,i have already shown the importance of reaping in proper season--not less necessary is it to mow before the plants ripen fully1 and even before they flower4 ,the results of the experiments of ,stoeckhardt1 ,hellreigel1 and ,wolff1 in relation to this point1 are very interesting1 and are well worthy of reproduction here4 ,,results ,,of ,s,t,oe,c,k,h,a,r,d,t',s ,,and ,,hellreigel',s ,,experiments4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,stem4 ,leaves4 ---------------------------------------- ---- ,hay4 ,hay4 ,water -------------- ,water -------------- in ,flesh- in ,flesh- ,fresh forming ,ash4 ,fresh forming ,ash4 ,plant4,matters4 ,plant4,matters4 ---------------------------------------- -- ,clover cut on the #dth ,june1 quite young #hb4hj #ac4af #i4ga #hc4ej #bg4ag #i4db #bcrd ready for cutting #ha4gb #ab4gb #i4jj #hb4fh #bg4fi #i4jj #ith ,july1 beginning to flower #hb4da #ab4dj #f4ab #gg4gg #ae4hc #aj4df #bith ,july1 full flower #gh4cj #i4bh #d4fc #gj4hj #ai4bj #i4eh #bast ,august1 ripe #fi4dj #f4ge #d4hb #fe4gj #ah4id #ab4cc ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,,results ,,of ,,wolff',s ,,experiment4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------------- ,red ,clover4 ,alsike ,clover4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------- ,beginning ,full ,beginning ,full to flower1 flower1 to flower1 flower1 #aath ,june4 #beth ,june4 #bcrd ,june4 #bith ,june4 ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,fresh4 ,hay4 ,fresh4 ,hay4 ,fresh4 ,hay4 ,fresh4 ,hay4 ---------------------------------------- ------------- pct4 pct4 pct4 pct4 pct4 pct4 pct4 pct4 ,water #hc4jg #af4ff #gf4da #aj4ff #hf4ih #af4ff #hb4fj #af4ff ,ash #a4dc #g4jd #a4fg #e4ij #a4ab #g4ag #a4de #f4id ,woody fibre #d4bd #bj4hg #h4hh #cg4cg #c4gi #bd4bf #e4aa #bd4dg ,nutritive substances #aa4bf #ee4dc #ac4jd #df4jg #h4aa #ea4ia #aj4hd #ea4ic ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,during the operation of converting the grass--natural or artificial--into hay1 there is more or less loss of nutritive matter sustained by fermentation1 the dispersion of the smaller leaves by the wind1 and other agencies4 ,but this unavoidable loss is trivial when compared with the prodigious waste sustained1 in ,ireland at least1 by allowing the hay to remain too long in cocks in the field4 ,within the last three or four years1 says ,mr4 ,baldwin1 of the ,glasnevin ,albert ,model ,farm1 we have made agricultural tours through twenty-five of the thirty-two counties of ,ireland2 and from careful consideration of the subject1 and having in some instances used a tape-line and weighing-machine to assist our judgment1 we have come to the conclusion that one-twentieth of the hay-crop of ,ireland is permitted to rot in field-cocks4 ,the portion on the ground1 as well as that on the outside of the cocks1 is too often only fit for manure4 ,and the loss of aftermath1 and of the subsequent year's crop 7if hay or pasture71 suffers to the extent of from sixpence to one shilling per acre4 ,if we unite all these sources1 the loss sustained annually in this country is something serious to contemplate4 ,on an average1 for all ,ireland1 it is not under #bj per cent41 or a fifth of the actual value of the crop4 ,this is a startling statement2 but ,i do not believe it to be an exaggeration of the actual state of things4 ,damaged ,hay and ,straw4--,damaged corn and potatoes1 so much injured as to be unfit for human food1 are generally given1 and with apparently good results1 to the inferior animals4 ,the meat manufacturing machines1 as the edible varieties of the domesticated animals are now generally termed1 are not very dainty in their choice of food2 and vegetable substances which would excite the disgust of the lords of the creation are rendered nutritious and agreeable by being reorganised in the mechanisms of oxen1 sheep1 and pigs4 ,now1 although it is pretty generally known that musty corn and diseased potatoes form good feeding stuffs1 it is not so patent whether or not the natural food of stock1 such as hay and straw in a diseased state1 is proper food for those animals4 ,this question is worthy of consideration4 ,firstly1 ,i shall describe the nature of the diseases which most frequently affect fodder2 these are1 mildew and mould4 ,these diseases are produced by the ravages of minute and very low forms of vegetable life1 termed by the botanists epiphytical fungi4 ,the mildew 7,puccinia graminis7 generally attacks the grasses when they are growing1 and is more frequently met with on rich and heavily manured soils4 ,in localities where heavy night-fogs and dews are of common occurrence1 this pest often destroys whole crops4 ,on the other hand1 in light1 sandy1 and well-drained soils1 and in warm and dry districts1 the mildew is a rare visitant4 ,the blue mould 7,aspergillis glaucus7 attacks hay and straw in the stack or rick1 and without any regard to their origin--no matter whether they were the produce of the wettest or the dryest1 the warmest or the coldest of soils4 ,the chief condition in the existence of the blue mould is excessive moisture4 ,if the hay or straw be too green and succulent when put up1 or if rain get at them in the rick1 the mould is very likely to make its appearance1 and the well-known odor termed musty will speedily be developed4 ,neither the mildew nor the mould can1 strictly speaking1 be regarded as parasites1 such as1 for example1 the flax-dodder1 which feeds upon the healthy juices of the plant to which it is attached4 ,it appears to me that the tissues and juices of the fodder-plants decay first1 and then the mould or the mildew appears and feeds upon the decomposing matter4 ,now1 as these vegetables belong to a poisonous class of fungi1 it is more than probable that they convert the decomposing substance of the straw or hay into unwholesome1 if not poisonous matter2 and it is not unlikely but that the disagreeable odor which they evolve is designed by nature as a sign to the lower animals not to partake of mouldy food4 ,there is no doubt but that most animals will instinctively reject fodder in this state2 and the question arises1 ought this odour to be destroyed or disguised1 in order to induce the animals to eat the damaged stuff8 ,the experience of most feeders who have largely consumed mouldy provender is1 that although cattle may be induced to eat it1 they never thrive upon such stuff if it form a heavy item in their diet4 ,the reason of this is obvious4 ,the nitrogenous portion of the straw is that which is chiefly assimilated by the fungi4 ,and as this constituent is the one which contributes to the formation of muscle1 and is naturally extremely deficient in straw and hay--more particularly the former--it follows that the animals fed upon mouldy fodder cannot elaborate it into lean flesh 7muscle74 ,in the case of young stock1 mouldy fodder is altogether inadmissible1 for these animals require abundance of flesh-forming materials--precisely those which the fungi almost completely remove from the diseased fodder4 ,as large quantities of mouldy or mildewed provender are at the present moment to be found in many farmsteads1 and as they are unsaleable1 and must therefore be made use of in some way at home1 it is well to consider the best way to dispose of them4 ,in the case of straw1 the greater portion will be required for litter1 and if the whole of the damaged article can be disposed of in this way so much the better4 ,if1 however1 there is more than is necessary for the bedding of the stock1 it may be used in conjunction with sound fodder1 but always in a cooked state4 ,the greater part1 if not the whole1 of the diseased nitrogenous part of the straw is soluble in warm water1 so that if the fodder be well steamed the poisonous matter will be eliminated to such an extent as to leave the article almost as wholesome as good straw1 but not so nutritious4 ,the straw cleansed in this way will be very deficient in flesh-forming1 though not in fat-forming power1 and this fact should be duly considered when the other items of the animal's food are being weighed out4 ,beans1 malt-combs1 and linseed-cake are rich in muscle-forming principles1 and are consequently suitable adjuncts to damaged fodder2 but the latter should never constitute the staple food1 or be given unmixed with some sweet provender4 ,when the fodder is considerably damaged it becomes1 after steaming1 nearly as tasteless as sawdust4 ,to this kind of stuff the addition of a small amount of some flavorous material is very useful4 ,for damaged hay1 ,mr4 ,bowick recommends the following mixture3-- ,fenugreek 7powdered7 #aab parts4 ,pimento #d ,aniseed #d ,caraways #d ,cummin #b ,a pinch of this compound will render agreeably-flavored the most insipid kinds of fodder4 ,mr4 ,bowick states that he had fed large numbers of bullocks on damaged hay1 flavored with this compound1 and that their health was not thereby injured in the slightest degree4 ,,section ,v4 ,,roots ,,and ,,tubers4 ,the important part which the so-called root crops play in the modern systems of agriculture1 has secured for them a large share of the attention of the chemist1 so that our knowledge of their composition and relative nutritive value is very extensive4 ,as compared with most other articles of food1 the roots1 as they are popularly called1 of potatoes1 turnips1 mangels1 carrots1 and such like plants1 contain a high proportion of water1 and are not very nutritious2 indeed1 with the exception of the potato1 none of them contain #bj per cent4 of solid matter1 and some not more than five per cent4 ,they are1 however1 easily produced in great quantities1 which compensates for their low nutritive value4 ,i shall consider each of the more important roots separately4 ,the ,turnip4--,there are numerous varieties of this plant1 which differ from each other in the relative proportions and total amount of their constituents1 and even in different individuals of the same variety there is considerable variation in composition2 hence the difficulty which has been felt by those who have endeavored to assign to this plant its relative nutritive value4 ,from the average results of a great number of experiments1 conducted both in the laboratory and the feeding-house1 it is concluded that turnips are the most inferior roots produced in the field4 ,the ,swedish turnips are the most valuable kind3 they contain a higher proportion of solid matter than the other varieties1 and they are firmer and store better4 ,the average composition of five varieties of turnips1 as deduced from the results of the analyses of ,anderson and ,voelcker1 is shown in the following table3-- ,,analyses ,,of ,,turnips4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,swedish ,white ,aberdeen,purpletop,norfolk ,turnip4 ,globe4,yellows4,yellows4 ,bell4 -------------------------------------- ,water #hi4dfj #ij4dcj #ij4egh #ia4bjj #ib4bhj ,albuminous1 or flesh-forming substances #a4ddc #a4adc #a4hjb #a4aag #a4gcg ,non-nitrogenous1 or fat-forming substances 7fat1 gum1 sugar1 c47 #e4icb #e4deg #d4fbb #d4dcf #b4ifb ,woody fibre #b4edb #b4cdb #b4cdi #b4fjg #b4jjj ,mineral matter 7ash7 #j4fbc #j4fbh #j4fdi #j4fdj #a4jba -------------------------------------- #ajj4jjjajj4jjj #ajj4jjj #ajj4jjj #ajj4jjj ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,the ,greystone ,turnip is a variety which has only quite recently been introduced4 ,it is stated to be an uncommonly productive crop1 usually yielding returns from #cj to #ej per cent4 greater than those obtained from other varieties of the turnip4 ,the composition of the ,greystone turnip appears to be inferior1 so that probably it is not1 after all1 a more economical plant than the ordinary kinds of turnips4 ,,dr4 ,,anderson',s ,,analysis ,,of ,,the ,,greystone ,,turnip4 ,no4 #a4 ,no4 #b4 ,grown on ,clay4 ,grown on ,sand4 ,water #ic4hd #id4ab ,oil #j4bf #j4cd ,soluble albuminous matters #j4ce #j4ef ,insoluble ditto #j4bj #j4ah ,soluble respiratory matters #b4ii #b4cb ,insoluble ditto 7chiefly fibre7 #a4gc #a4he ,ash #j4fc #j4fc ------ ------ #ajj4jj #ajj4jj ,it was at one time the fashion--not yet become quite obsolete--to regard the proportion of nitrogen in the turnip as the measure of the nutritive value of the bulb2 but the fallacy of this opinion has been shown by several late investigators1 and more particularly by the results of one of the numerous series of feeding experiments conducted by ,mr4 ,lawes4 ,many bulbs exceedingly rich in nitrogen are very deficient in nutritive power--partly from a deficiency in the other elements of nutrition--partly because most of their nitrogen is in so low a degree of elaboration as to be incapable of assimilation by animals4 ,the value of a food-substance does not merely depend upon the amount and the relative proportion of its constituents1 but also1 and to a very great extent1 upon their easy assimilability4 ,there is but little doubt that the nutritive matters contained in the ,swedish turnip when the bulb is fresh are very crude4 ,by storing1 certain chemical changes take place in the bulb1 which render it more nutritious and palatable4 ,a large proportion of the non-nitrogenous matters exist in the fresh root as pectin2 but this substance1 if the bulb be preserved for a couple of months1 becomes in great part converted into sugar1 which is one of the most palatable and fattening ingredients of cattle-food4 ,by storing1 too1 the bulbs lose a portion of their excessive amount of water1 and become less bulky1 which is unquestionably a desideratum4 ,these facts suggest the necessity for cultivating the earlier varieties of the turnip1 for it may be fairly doubted if a late-grown crop1 left for consumption in the field1 ever1 even under the most favorable circumstances1 attains its perfect development4 ,at the same time it must not be forgotten that turnips fully matured in the field rather deteriorate than otherwise after a few weeks' storage4 ,many agriculturists consider that there is a strict relation between the specific gravity1 or comparative weight of the bulb1 and its nutritive value2 others believe that a very large turnip must necessarily be inferior in feeding qualities to a small one2 whilst not a few maintain that neither its size nor its specific gravity is an indication of its feeding qualities4 ,dr4 ,anderson1 who has specially investigated a portion of this subject1 states that the specific gravity of the whole turnip cannot be accepted as indicating its real nutritive value1 the proportion of air in the cells being the determining element in such results2 that there is no constant relation between the specific gravity of1 and the nitrogen compounds in1 the bulb2 and that such relation does exist between the specific gravity of the expressed juice and the nitrogen compounds and solid constituents4 ,dr4 ,anderson allows1 however1 that the best varieties of the turnip have the highest specific gravity2 which admission--coupled with the fact admitted by all experimenters that the heavy roots store best--lead me to adopt the opinions of those who consider great specific gravity as one of the favorable indications of its nutritive value4 ,with respect to size1 ,i prefer bulbs of moderate dimensions2 the monsters that win the prizes at our agricultural shows--and which1 in general1 are forced--are inferior in feeding qualities1 are always spongy1 and almost invariably rot when stored4 ,the composition of the turnip is influenced not only by the nature of the soil on which it is grown1 but also by that of the manure applied to it4 ,the most reliable authorities are agreed that turnips raised on ,peruvian guano are watery1 and do not keep well2 but that with a mixture of ,peruvian guano and superphosphate of lime1 with phospho-guano1 or with farmyard manure supplemented with a moderate amount of guano1 the most nutritious and firm bulbs are produced4 ,turnip-tops have been analysed by ,voelcker1 with the following results3-- ,,one ,,hundred ,,parts ,,contain-- ,white4 ,swedish4 ,water #ia4bhd #hh4cfg ,nitrogen compounds #b4def #b4jhg ,non-nitrogenous matters 7gum1 sugar1 c47 #j4fdh #a4fab ,ditto1 as woody fibre #d4jib #e4fch ,mineral matter #a4ebj #b4bif ------- ------- #ajj4jjj #ajj4jjj ,these figures apparently show that the tops of turnips are more valuable than their bulbs2 but1 in the absence of any feeding experiments made to determine the point1 we believe they are less so1 as a very large proportion of the solid matter in the tops of turnips is in too low a degree of elaboration to be assimilable4 ,their high proportions of nitrogen and mineral matter constitute them1 however1 a very useful manure--nearly twice as valuable as the bulbs2 this fact should be borne in mind when turnips are sold off the land4 ,the ,mangel-wurtzel is one of the most valuable of our green crops4 ,its root is more nutritious than the turnip1 occupying a position in the scale of food equivalents midway between that bulb and the parsnip4 ,mangels1 when fresh1 possess a somewhat acrid taste1 and act as a laxative when given to stock2 but after a few months' storing they become sweet and palatable1 and their scouring property completely disappears4 ,although the mangel is one of the most nutritious articles of food which can be given to cattle1 yet it is stated on the best authority that sheep do not thrive upon it4 ,voelcker1 who has investigated this subject1 informs us that a lot of sheep which he fed on a limited quantity of hay and an unlimited quantity of mangels1 did not1 during a period of four months1 increase in weight1 whilst another lot of sheep supplied with a small quantity of hay1 and ,swedish turnips ad libitum increased on an average #b-a_/b lbs4 weekly4 ,i believe the experience of the greater number of feeders agrees with the results of ,dr4 ,voelcker's experiment4 ,the chemistry of the mangel-wurtzel has been thoroughly studied by ,way and ,ogston1 ,fromberg1 ,wolff1 ,anderson1 and ,voelcker4 ,according to the last-named chemist1 its average composition is as follows3-- ,water #hg4gh ,flesh-forming matters #a4ed ,sugar #f4aj ,gum1 pectin1 c4 #b4ej ,woody fibre #a4ab ,mineral matter 7ash7 #j4if ------ #ajj4jj ,it is difficult to accurately determine by a comparative trial the relative feeding properties of mangels and turnips1 for the former are only in a fit state to be given to the animals when the latter are deteriorating4 ,however1 by comparing the composition of the two substances1 and the results obtained from numerous feeding experiments1 it would appear1 that on the average #ge lbs4 weight of mangels are equal to #ajj lbs4 weight of turnips4 ,of the different varieties of the mangel the long yellow appears to be the most nutritious1 and the long red the least so4 ,the leaves of the mangel--some of which are occasionally pulled and used for feeding purposes1 during the growth of the bulb--are an excellent feeding substance3 their composition indicates a nutritive value but little inferior to that of the root2 but as their constituents cannot be in a highly elaborated condition1 it is probable they are not more than equal to half their weight of the bulbs4 ,one questio vexata of the many which at present occupy the attention of the agricultural world is1 whether or not the leaves of mangels may be removed with advantage during the latter part of the development of the plants4 ,this practice prevailed rather extensively a few years since1 but latterly it has fallen somewhat into disuse4 ,those who adopt this plan urge1 as its advantages1 that a large quantity of food is obtained at a time when it is urgently needed1 and that instead of the removal of the leaves exercising an injurious influence on the development of the roots1 the latter are actually increased in size4 ,in #ahei an experimental investigation was carried out at the ,glasnevin ,model ,farm1 with the view of throwing new light on the question4 ,the outside leaves were very gradually removed on different occasions--from the #abth ,august to the #aeth ,october4 ,in this way five tons of leaves per statute acre were removed1 and subsequently made use of for feeding purposes4 ,the experiment was conducted on a field of four acres1 of which the produce of #ab drills1 each #bjj yards in length1 was left untouched4 ,the result was that the produce of the roots of the untouched plants was only #dj tons #h cwt4 #f qrs4 per acre1 whilst the roots of the plants which had been partly denuded of their leaves weighed at the rate of #de tons #a cwt4 ,this experiment afforded results which are apparently favorable to the practice of stripping the leaves2 but it is to be regretted that it was not rendered more complete by an analysis of the roots1 as a great bulk of roots does not necessarily imply a great weight of dry food1 and it is just possible1 though not very probable1 that the roots of the stripped mangels contained a larger proportion of water than those of the untouched plants4 ,the results of the experiments of ,buckman1 and of ,professor ,wolff1 of the ,royal ,agricultural ,college at ,hohenheim1 are at direct variance with those obtained at ,glasnevin4 ,both of these experimenters found that the removal of the leaves occasioned a diminution in the produce of the roots to the amount of #bj per cent4 ,nor was this the only loss1 for it was found by the ,german professor that the roots of the untouched plants possessed a far higher nutritive value than those of the stripped mangels4 ,when doctors differ1 who is to decide8 ,here we have high authorities in the agricultural world at direct variance on a matter of fact4 ,the names of ,buckman and ,wolff are a sufficient guarantee that the experimental results which they announce are trustworthy1 and ,i can testify1 from observation1 that no field experiments could be more carefully conducted than those carried out at the ,albert ,model ,farm4 ,we can only1 then1 under the circumstances1 admit that both ,mr4 ,boyle1 on the one side1 and ,professors ,buckman and ,wolff on the other1 are correct in their statements of fact2 but as it is evident both cannot be right in the general inferences therefrom1 it is desirable that the subject should be still further investigated1 and the truth be placed beyond doubt4 ,it is a question which appears so simple that one is at a loss to account for the discrepant opinions in relation to it which prevail4 ,let nothing induce the growers1 says ,mr4 ,paget1 in a paper on the cultivation of the mangel1 to strip the leaves from the plant before taking up the root4 ,a series of careful experiments has convinced me that by so doing we borrow food at a most usurious interest4 ,although1 says ,mr4 ,boyle1 the practice of stripping has been followed for many years on the farm without any perceptible injury to the crop1 these results1 showing so considerable an addition to the crop from taking off the leaves1 were hardly anticipated4 ,it certainly does appear somewhat at variance with our notion of the functions of the leaves of plants1 that their partial removal could possibly cause an increase in the weight of the roots2 but granting such to be the fact1 it is not altogether theoretically inexplicable4 ,we know that highly nitrogenous manure has a tendency to increase the development of the leaves of turnips at the expense of the roots4 ,gardeners1 too1 not unfrequently remove some of the buds from their fruit trees1 lest the excessive development of foliage should retard or check the growth of the fruit4 ,theoretically an excessive development of the leaves of the mangel may be inimical to the growth of the root4 ,probably1 too1 it may be urged1 the outer leaves1 which soon become partially disorganised and incapable of elaborating mineral matter into vegetable products1 prevent the access of light to the more vigorous inner leaves4 ,in conclusion1 ,i may say of this subject that it is worthy of further elucidation2 and ,i would suggest to my readers1 and more especially to the managers of the various model farms1 the desirability of fully testing the matter4 ,the ,white ,beet is a congener of the mangel4 ,it is largely grown on the continent as a sugar-producing plant1 but is seldom cultivated in these countries4 ,it produces about #ae tons of roots per acre1 and its roots on the average contain-- ,water #hc4j ,sugar #aj4j ,flesh-formers #b4e ,fat-formers #a4e ,fibre #b4j ,ash #a4j ----- #ajj4j ,this plant is deserving of more extensive growth in ,great ,britain4 ,the ,parsnip is1 after the potato1 the most valuable of roots4 ,it differs from the turnip and the mangel in containing a high proportion of starch1 and but little sugar2 and its flesh-forming constituents are largely made up of casein1 instead of1 as in the case of the turnip1 albumen4 ,the average composition of the parsnip is as follows3-- ,water #hb4jj ,flesh-forming principles #a4cj ,fat-formers 7starch1 sugar1 c47 #g4ge ,woody fibre #h4jj ,mineral matter 7ash7 #j4ie ------ #ajj4jj ,the parsnip is extensively grown in many foreign countries1 on account of its valuable feeding properties4 ,as a field-crop it is but little cultivated in ,great ,britain1 and its use is--if we except the table--almost restricted to pigs4 ,its food equivalent is about double that of the turnip2 that is1 one pound of parsnips is equal to two pounds of turnips4 ,the ,carrot bears a close resemblance to the parsnip1 from which1 however1 it differs1 containing no starch1 and being somewhat inferior in nutritive value4 ,according to ,voelcker1 its average composition is as follows3-- ,water #hh4ej ,flesh-formers #j4fj ,fat-formers 7including woody fibre7 #aj4ah ,mineral matter 7ash7 #j4gb ------ #ajj4jj ,as carrots contain a high proportion of fat-forming matters1 and a low per-centage of flesh-forming substances1 they are better adapted for fattening purposes4 ,dairy stock greedily eat them2 and they are given with great advantage to horses out of condition4 ,kohl-,rabi4--,this plant1 though early introduced into the agriculture of these countries1 has made but little progress in the estimation of the farmer4 ,it belongs to the order and genus which include the turnip1 but differs widely from that plant in its mode of growth4 ,its bulb--which is formed by an enormous development of the overground stem--is1 according to some authorities1 less liable than the turnip to injury from frost4 ,it is subject to no diseases1 save anbury and clubbing2 and1 owing to its position above the soil1 it can be readily eaten off by sheep4 ,the bulbs store better than ,swedes1 and1 according to some farmers1 keep even better than mangels4 ,with respect to the flavor of this bulb1 there is some difference of opinion4 ,professor ,wilson1 of ,edinburgh1 quotes several eminent feeders to prove that whether in the fold for sheep1 in the yard for cattle1 or in the stables for horses1 it will generally be preferred to the other descriptions of homegrown keep4 ,mr4 ,baldwin1 on the contrary1 states that although good food for sheep1 it is too hard-fleshed for old ewes1 and that carrots are better food for horses1 and ,swedish turnips for cattle4 ,an accurately conducted comparative trial to test the nutritive value of the ,kohl-rabi1 was conducted at the ,glasnevin ,model ,farm1 under the direction of ,mr4 ,baldwin4 ,the experiment was commenced in ,january1 #ahfc4 ,four oxen were selected1 and divided into two lots4 ,nos4 #a and #b 7,lot #a7 were fed on ,kohl-rabi1 oil-cake1 and hay1 and ,nos4 #c and #d 7,lot #b7 on ,swedish turnips1 oil-cake1 and hay4 ,as the animals supplied with the ,kohl-rabi did not appear to relish it1 and as it was desirable to gradually accustom them to the change of food1 the experiment did not really commence till the #abth ,january4 ,on that date the weights of the animals were as follows3-- cwt4 st4 cwt4 st4 ,lot #a4 ,no4 #a4 #aj #a ,lot #b4 ,no4 #c4 #g #e ,no4 #b4 #g #d ,no4 #d4 #aj #b ------- ------- #ag #e #ag #g ,the lots1 therefore1 counterpoised each other pretty fairly4 ,from the #abth to the #bhth ,january they received the following quantities of food per diem3-- #a4 #b4 #c4 #d4 ,roots stones #g-a_/b #f #f #g-a_/b ,oil cake pounds #d-a_/b #c #c #d-a_/b ,hay pounds #aj-a_/b #aj-a_/b #aj-a_/b #aj-a_/b ,the animals fed upon the ,kohl-rabi evinced from the first a disinclination to it1 but they nevertheless ate it before their meal of oil-cake was supplied to them4 ,on the morning of the #bhth ,january they were put upon the dietary shown in the table1 and which induced them to eat the ,kohl-rabi more quickly4 #a4 #b4 #c4 #d4 ,at #f4cj a4m4 ,roots1 ,stones #c #b-a_/b #b-a_/b #c-a_/b ,cake1 lbs4 #a-a_/b #a #a #a ,at #ab4cj a4m4 ,roots1 ,stones #c #b-a_/b #b-a_/b #c-a_/b ,cake1 lbs4 #a-a_/b #a #a #a ,at #f4cj p4m4 ,roots1 ,stones #c #b-a_/b #b-a_/b #c-a_/b ,cake1 lbs4 #a-a_/b #a #a #a ,at #i4cj p4m4 ,hay1 lbs4 #g #g #g #g ,on the #aath ,february the cattle were again weighed1 when their increase was found to be as follows3-- ,weight on ,weight on ,increase in ,jan4 #ab4 ,feb4 #aa4 #cj days4 cwt4 st4 cwt4 st4 st4 #a ,lot #a1 fed on ,kohl-rabi1 #aj #a #aj #d #c #b c4 #g #d #g #f #b --- ,total #e #c ,lot #b1 fed on ,swedes1 #g #e #h #c #f #d c4 #aj #b #aj #g-a_/d #e-a_/b ------ ,total #aa-a_/b ,the results of this experiment show that the animals fed upon ,swedish turnips1 hay1 and oil-cake1 increased in weight at a rate more than #ajj per cent4 greater than the lot supplied with equal quantities of ,kohl-rabi1 hay1 and oil-cake4 ,the superiority of the ,swedish turnips was rendered more evident by the results of subsequent experiments4 ,nos4 #a and #d were not tried after the #aath ,february2 but ,nos4 #b and #c were kept under experiment4 ,no4 #b was put on ,swedes1 and ,no4 #c on mangel-wurtzel1 and after an interval of a fortnight ,no4 #b had increased much more than they had done on ,kohl-rabi4 ,specimens of the ,kohl-rabi and ,swedish turnips employed in this experiment were submitted to me for analysis by ,mr4 ,baldwin1 and yielded the following results3-- ,swedish ,kohl-rabi4 ,turnip4 ,water #hg4fb #hh4hd ,nitrogenous1 or flesh-forming principles #b4bd #a4ff ,non-nitrogenous1 or fat-forming principles #g4gh #f4jg ,woody fibre #a4cd #b4gc ,mineral matter 7ash7 #a4bb #j4gj ------ ------ #ajj4jj #ajj4jj ,these results show a slight superiority of the ,kohl-rabi over the ,swedish turnip2 the great difference in their nutritive power1 as shown by ,mr4 ,baldwin's experimental results1 must therefore be due to the superior flavor and digestibility of the turnip4 ,dr4 ,anderson's analysis of ,kohl-rabi afforded results more favorable to the highly nutritive character assigned by some feeders to that bulb than those arrived at by me4 ,the bulbs1 it should however be remarked1 were grown1 no doubt with great care1 by ,messrs4 ,lawson and ,son1 the well-known seedsmen3-- ,,analysis ,,of ,,kohl-,,rabi1 ,,by ,,dr4 ,,anderson4 ,bulbs4 ,tops4 ,water #hf4gd #hf4fh ,flesh-forming principles #b4ge #b4cg ,fat-forming principles #h4fb #h4bi ,woody fibre #j4gg #a4ba ,mineral matter #a4ab #a4de ------ ------ #ajj4jj #ajj4jj ,the ,radish is a plant which deserves a place amongst our field crops1 though hitherto its cultivation has been restricted to the garden4 ,at one time its leaves were boiled and eaten1 but in these latter days they are subjected to neither of these processes4 ,the root1 however1 in its raw state1 is1 as every one is aware1 considered one of the dainties of the table4 ,many of those who devote themselves to the important study of dietetics1 consider the use of raw vegetables to be objectionable2 but be their objections groundless1 or the reverse1 it is certain that a vegetable which1 like the radish1 may be eaten raw with apparently good results1 cannot be otherwise than a good article of food when cooked4 ,i once tried the experiment of eating matured radishes1 not as a salad1 but cooked like any other boiled vegetable1 and ,i must say that ,i found their flavor rather agreeable than otherwise4 ,boiled radishes--roots and tops--form excellent feeding for pigs4 ,how could it be otherwise8 for what is good for the family of man must surely be a luxury to the swine tribe4 ,i have known horses to eat radishes greedily1 and ,i am certain that they would prove acceptable to all the animals of the farm4 ,but it may be asked1 why it is that ,i recommend the use of radishes as food for stock1 when there are already so many more nutritious roots at our disposal--turnips1 mangels1 and potatoes4 ,simply for this reason3--,between the departure of the roots and the advent of the grasses1 there is a kind of interregnum4#cc ,now we want a good tuberous1 bulbous1 or tap-rooted plant to fill up this interregnum4 ,such a plant we have in the radish4 ,the root is certainly a small one1 but then it grows so rapidly that a good supply can be had within thirty days from the sowing of the seed1 and a crop can be matured before the time for sowing turnips4 ,two crops may be easily obtained from land under potatoes--one before the tops cover the ground1 the other after the tubers have been dug out4 ,the yield of radishes1 judging from the produce in the garden1 would be at least six tons of roots and three tons of tops4 ,i would suggest1 then1 that the radish should at once get a fair chance as a stolen crop4 ,if it succeed as such1 it will not be the first gift of the gardener to the husbandman4 ,was not the mangel-wurtzel once known only as the produce of the garden8 ,the composition of the radish indicates a nutritive value less than that of the white turnip4 ,i have analysed both the root and the tops1 and obtained the following results3-- ,,analysis ,,of ,,the ,,radish4 ,root4 ,tops4 ,water #ie4ji #id4cj ,flesh-forming principles #j4eb #j4ge ,fat-formers 7starch1 gum1 fat1 c47 #a4jf #a4af ,woody fibre #b4bb #b4cf ,mineral matter 7ash7 #a4aa #a4dc ------ ------ #ajj4jj #ajj4jj ,the ,jerusalem ,artichoke has long been cultivated as a field-crop on the ,continent1 and in certain localities the breadth occupied by it is very considerable4 ,the ,french term the tuberous root of this plant poitre de terre1 or topin ambour2 and although they expose it for sale in the markets1 it is not much relished by our lively neighbours1 who are so remarkable for their cuisiniere4 ,as food for cattle1 however1 the ,french agricultural writers state it to be excellent4 ,it is much relished by horses1 dairy cows1 and pigs2 store horned-stock also eat it when seasoned with a little salt1 and appear to enjoy it amazingly when permitted to pull up the roots from the soil4 ,the green tops are also given to sheep and cattle1 and1 it is stated1 are readily eaten by those animals4 ,the ,jerusalem artichoke 7,helianthus ,tuberoses7 differs from its half namesake1 the common artichoke1 and resembles the potato in being valuable chiefly for its tubers4 ,it is perennial1 and attains on the ,continent a height varying from #g to #aj feet4 ,in this country its dimensions are less4 ,the stem is erect1 thick1 coarse1 and covered with hairs4 ,it is a native of ,mexico1 and although introduced #bjj years ago into ,europe1 it can hardly be said to be acclimatised1 since it very seldom flowers1 and never develops seed4 ,the plant is therefore propagated by cuttings from its tubers1 each containing one or two eyes2 or if the tubers be very small1 which is often the case1 a whole one is planted4 ,the tubers possess great vitality1 and remain in the ground during the most severe frosts1 without sustaining the slightest injury4 ,for this reason it is usual to devote a corner of the garden to the cultivation of the ,jerusalem artichoke2 for1 no matter how completely the crop may appear to have been removed from the soil1 portions of the tubers will remain and shoot up into plants during the following season4 ,this peculiarity of the plant it is likely may prove an obstacle to its having a place assigned to it in the rotation system4 ,the question now presents itself--,what are the peculiar advantages which the crop possesses which should commend it to the notice of the ,british farmer8 ,i shall try to answer the question4 #ast4 ,no green crop 7except furze7 can be grown in so great a variety of soils2 except marshy or wet lands1 there is no soil in which it refuses to grow4 #bnd4 ,it does not suffer from disease1 is very little affected by the ravages of insects1 is completely beyond the influence of cold1 and may remain either above or below ground for a long time without undergoing any injurious changes in composition4 #crd4 ,it gives a good return1 when we consider that it requires very little manure1 and but little labor in its management4 ,at ,bechelbronn1 the farm of the celebrated ,boussingault1 the average yield is nearly eleven tons per acre1 but occasionally over fourteen tons is obtained4 ,donoil1 a farmer of ,bailiere1 in the department of ,haut-loire1 states that he fed sheep exclusively on the tops and tubers of this plant1 and that he estimated his profits at ,l#bc per hectare 7,l#i #cs4 #d;d4 per acre74 ,the soil was very inferior4 ,donoil terms it third-rate1 and it does not appear to have been manured even once during the fifteen years it was under ,jerusalem artichoke4 ,i fear our artificial manure manufacturers will hardly look with a favorable eye on the advent of a crop into our agriculture which can get on so well without the intervention of any fertilising agents4 ,indeed1 several of the ,french writers state that little or no manure is necessary for this plant4 ,but this can hardly be the case2 for it is evident that a crop which1 according to ,way and ,ogston1 removes #ce lbs4 of mineral matter per ton from the soil1 or three times as much potash as turnips do1 must certainly be greatly benefited by the application of manure4 ,and ,i have no doubt but that the ,jerusalem artichoke1 if well manured and grown in moderately fertile soil1 would produce a much heavier crop than our ,continental neighbors appear to get from it4 #dth4 ,the ,jerusalem artichoke may be cultivated with advantage in places where ordinary root-crops either fail or thrive badly4 ,in such cases the ground should be permanently devoted to this crop4 ,kade gives an instance where a piece of indifferent ground had for thirty-three years produced heavy crops of this plant1 although during that time neither manure nor labor had been applied to it4 ,in ,ireland the potato has been grown under similar circumstances4 ,the nutritive constituents of tubers of the ,jerusalem artichoke bear a close resemblance in every respect1 save one1 to those of the potato4 ,both contain about #ge per cent4 of water1 about #b per cent4 of flesh-forming substances1 and #bj per cent4 of non-nitrogenous1 or fat-forming and heat-giving elements4 ,in one respect there is a great difference--namely1 that sugar makes up from #h to #ab per cent4 of the ,jerusalem artichoke1 whilst there is but a small proportion of that substance in the potato4 ,the large quantity of sugar contained in this root is no doubt the cause of its remarkable keeping properties in winter1 and it also readily accounts for the avidity with which most of the domesticated animals eat it4 ,on the whole1 then1 ,i think that the facts ,i have brought forward relative to the advantages which the ,jerusalem artichoke presents as a farm crop1 justify the recommendation that it should get a fair trial from the ,british farmer1 who is now so much interested in the production of suitable forage for stock4 ,,composition ,,of 7,,dry7 ,,jerusalem ,,artichoke ,albuminous matters #d4f ,fatty matters #j4d ,starch1 gum1 c4 #ai4h ,sugar #fi4e ,fibre and ash #e4g ----- #ajj4j ,the ,potato1 regarded from every point of view1 is by far the most important of the plants which are cultivated for the sake of their roots4 ,its tubers form the chief--almost sole--pabulum of many millions of men1 enter more or less into the dietary of most civilised peoples1 and constitute a large proportion of the food of the domesticated animals4 ,the great importance of this plant1 arising from its enormous consumption1 has caused its composition to be very minutely studied by many ,british1 ,continental1 and ,american chemists4 ,with respect to its nutritive properties1 the least favorable results were obtained by the ,american chemists1 ,hardy and ,henry1 and the most by the ,european chemists4 ,the flesh-forming principles vary from #a per cent41 as found by ,hardy1 to #b4da per cent41 the mean results of the analyses of ,krocker and ,horsford4 ,the proportion of starch in different varieties of the potato also varies1 but not to the same degree as the nitrogenous principles4 ,in new potatoes1 only #e per cent4 has been found2 in ash-leaved kidneys1 #i4ej per cent42 and in different kinds of cups1 from #ae to #bd per cent4 ,the amount of starch is also influenced by the soil1 the manure1 the climate1 and the various other conditions under which the plant is developed4 ,the proportion of starch increases during the growth1 and diminishes during the storage of the tubers4 ,dr4 ,anderson is the most recent investigator into the composition of the potato2 the chief results of his inquiries are given in the following table3-- ,,analysis ,,of ,,the ,,potato ,,by ,,dr4 ,,anderson4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,regents4,dalmahoys4,skerry-blues4,white ,orkney ,flukes4 ,rocks4 ,reds4 ---------------------------------------- ------------ ,water #gf4cb #ge4ia #gf4fj #ge4ic #gh4eg #gd4da ,starch #ab4ba #ab4eh #aa4gi #ab4gg #aj4he #ab4ee ,sugar1 c4 #b4ge #b4ic #c4ji #b4ag #b4gh #b4hi ,flesh-formers soluble #b4af #b4aj #a4ij #a4hh #a4dh #a4ih insoluble #j4ba #j4ae #j4af #j4bd #j4ba #j4bj ,fibre #e4ec #e4ba #e4da #e4ee #e4ic #f4ga ,ash #j4hh #j4ha #j4id #a4jd #j4ih #j4ih ---------------------------------------- ------------ #ajj4jf #ii4fi #ii4hi #ii4eh #ajj4hj #ii4gb ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,the potato is relatively deficient in flesh-forming matters1 and contains the respiratory elements in exceedingly high proportions2 hence it is well adapted for fattening purposes1 and in this respect is equal to double its weight of the best kind of turnips4 ,when used as food for man1 it should be supplemented by some more fatty or nitrogenous substance--such1 for example1 as flesh1 oatmeal1 or peas4 ,buttermilk1 a fluid which is rich in nitrogen1 is an excellent supplement to potatoes1 and compensates to a great extent for the deficiency of those tubers in muscle-forming matters4 ,if1 then1 the potato is destined to retain its place as the national esculent of the ,irish1 ,i trust their national beverage may be--so far at least as the masses of the people are concerned--buttermilk1 and not whiskey4 ,potatoes so far diseased as to be unsuited for use as food for man1 may be given with advantage to stock4 ,they may be used either in a raw or uncooked state1 but the latter is the preferable form4 ,sheep do not like them at first1 but on being deprived of turnips they acquire a taste for them2 on a daily allowance1 composed of #a lb4 of oil-cake or corn1 and an unlimited quantity of potatoes1 they fatten rapidly4 ,cattle thrive well on a diet composed of equal parts of turnips and diseased potatoes1 and do not require oil-cake4 ,the evening feed of horses may advantageously be composed of potatoes and turnips4 ,if raw1 the potatoes should be given in a very limited quantity--four or five pounds2 in the cooked state1 however1 they may be given in abundance1 but the animals should not1 after their meal1 be permitted to drink water for some hours4 ,as a feeding substance1 diseased potatoes1 unless they be very much injured1 are equal to twice their weight of white turnips2 it is certain that they do not injure the health or impair the condition of the animals which feed upon them4 ,,section ,,vi4 ,,seeds4 ,in seeds the elements of nutrition exist not only in the most highly elaborated1 but also in the most concentrated state2 hence their nutritive value is greater than that of any other class of food substances4 ,wheat ,grain is the most valuable of seeds1 as it contains1 in admirably adjusted proportions1 the bone1 the fat1 and the muscle-forming principles4 ,in the form of bread1 it has been1 not inaptly1 termed the staff of life1 for no other grain is so well adapted1 per se1 for the sustenance of man2 and many millions of human beings subsist almost exclusively on it4 ,the lower animals are in general fed upon the grain of oats1 of barley1 and of the leguminous plants1 and the use of wheat is almost completely restricted to the human family4 ,wheat grain1 by the processes of grinding and sifting1 is resolvable into two distinct parts--bran and flour4 ,in twenty-four analyses made by ,boussingault1 the proportion of the bran was from #ac4b to #ch4e per cent4 and that of the flour from #fa4e to #hf4h per cent4 ,the floury part is of very complex structure2 it includes starch1 gluten1 albumen1 oil1 gum1 gummo-gelatinous matter1 sugar1#cd and various saline matters4 ,the gluten and albumen constitute the nitrogenous1 or flesh-forming principles of flour1 and make up from #af to #bj per cent4 of that substance2 the non-nitrogenous1 or fat-forming elements1 such as starch and gum1 form from #gd to #hb per cent4 ,according to ,payen1 the proportion of gluten diminishes towards the centre of the seed1 from which it follows that the part of the grain nearest the husk is the most nutritious--so far at least as muscle-making is concerned4 ,the desire on the part of the public for very white bread has led to the fine dressing of ,wheat-grain1 and consequently to the separation from that substance of a very large proportion of one of its most nutritious constituents4 ,crude gluten may be obtained by kneading the dough of flour in a muslin bag under a small current of water2 the starch1 or fecula1 and the gum1 are carried away by the water1 and the gluten in an impure form remains as an elastic viscous substance1 which on drying becomes hard and brittle4 ,it is to the gluten of flour that its property of panification1 or bread-making1 is due4 ,on the addition of a ferment1 a portion of the starch is converted into sugar and carbonic acid gas1 and the latter causes the gluten to expand into the little cells1 or vesicles1 which confer upon baked bread its light1 spongy texture4 ,,analyses ,,of ,,wheat4 #a4 #b4 #c4 #d4 ,whole ,grain4 ,flour4 ,bran4 ,husk4 ,water #ae4jj #ad4j #ac #ac4i ,flesh-formers #ab4jj #aa4j #ad #ad4i ,fat-formers #fh4ej #gc4e #ee #ee4h ,woody fibre #b4ge #j4g #ab #i4g ,mineral matter #a4ge #j4h #f #e4g ------ ----- --- ----- #ajj4jj #ajj4j #ajj #ajj4j ,nos4 #a1 #b1 and #c4--,the mean results of a great number of analyses4 ,no4 #d4--;,by ,,millon4 ,over-ripening of ,grain4--,the final act of vegetation is the production of seed1 after the performance of which function many plants1 having accomplished their destined purpose1 perish4 ,the grasses 7which include the cereals7 are annuals1 or plants which have but a year's existence1 consequently their development ceases so soon as they have produced their seed4 ,when wheat1 oats1 and the other cereals1 attain to this final point in their growth1 the circulation of their sap ceases1 their color changes from green to yellow1 and they undergo certain changes which destroy their power of assimilating mineral matter1 and consequently render them no longer capable of increasing their weight4 ,the proper time for cutting wheat and the other cereals is immediately after their grain has been fully matured4 ,when the green color of the straw just below the ears changes to yellow1 the grain1 be it ripe or unripe at the time1 cannot afterwards be more fully developed4 ,this is rendered impossible in consequence of the disorganisation of the upper part of the stem--indicated by1 but not the result of1 its altered hue--which cuts off the supply of sap to the ears1 and the latter do not possess the power of absorbing nutriment from the air4 ,when the vital processes which are incessantly going on in the growing plants are brought to a close1 the purely chemical forces come into operation4 ,if the seed be perfectly matured and allowed to remain ungathered1 it is attacked in wet weather by the oxygen of the air1 a portion of its carbon is burned off1 some of its starch is converted into sugar1 and in extreme cases it germinates and becomes malty4 ,but not only is the seed liable to injury from the elements2 it is also exposed to the ravages of the feathered tribe1 and no matter how well a field of corn may be watched1 or how great the number of scarecrows erected in it1 there is always a certain diurnal loss1 occasioned by the ravages of birds4 ,it is not only necessary that ripe corn should be cut as soon as possible1 but it is sometimes desirable to reap it before it becomes fully matured4 ,when the grain is intended for consumption as food1 the less bran it contains the better4 ,now the bran1 as is well known1 forms the integument1 or covering of the vital constituents of the seed2 and it is the last part of the organ to be perfected4 ,the growth of the seed for several days before its perfect development1 is confined to the testa or covering4 ,now as this is the least valuable part of the article1 its increase is matter of but little moment2 and when it is excessive it renders the grain less valuable in the eyes of the miller4 ,that the cutting of the grain before it is perfectly ripe is attended with a good result1 is clearly proved by the results of an experiment recorded in ,johnston's ,agricultural ,chemistry4 ,a crop of wheat was selected2 one-third was cut twenty days before it was ripe2 another third ten days afterwards2 and the remaining portion when its grain had been fully matured4 ,the relative produce in grain of the three portions taken1 as stated above1 was as #a1 #a4cbe1 and #a4bfj4 ,the following table exhibits the relative proportions of their constituents3-- ,in #ajj parts of the grain cut at #bj days4 #aj days4 ,dead ripe4 ,flour #gd4g #gi4a #gb4b ,sharps #g4b #e4e #aa4j ,bran #ag4e #ac4b #af4j ---- ---- ---- #ii4d #ig4h #ii4b ,the flour contained gluten #i4c #i4i #i4f ,the results of this experiment1 and of the general experience of intelligent growers1 show that grain cut a week or ten days before it is perfectly ripe contains more flour1 and of a better quality1 too1 than is found in either ripe or very unripe seed4 ,but this is not the only advantage1 for the straw of the green1 or rather of the greenish-yellow corn1 is fully twice as valuable for feeding purposes as that of the over-ripe cereals4 ,there is an extraordinary decrease in the amount of the albuminous constituents of the stems of the cereals during the last two or three weeks of their maturation1 and as there is not a corresponding increase of those materials in the seed1 they must be evolved in some form or other from the plants4 ,there can be only one object attained by allowing the seed to fully ripen itself1 and that is the insurance of its more perfect adaptability to the purpose of reproduction4 ,when the testa is thick it best protects the germ of the future plant enclosed in it from the ordinary atmospheric influences until it is placed under the proper conditions for its germination4 ,wheat1 a costly food4--,it occasionally happens that the wheat harvest is so abundant1 that many feeders give large quantities of this grain to their stock4 ,now1 as ,indian corn is at least #be per cent4 cheaper than wheat1 even when the price of the latter is at its minimum1 ,i believe that it is always more economical to sell the wheat raised on the farm1 and to purchase with the proceeds of its sale an equivalent of ,indian corn1 which is a more fattening kind of food4 ,bran is1 with perhaps the exception of malt-dust1 the most nutritious of the refuse portions of grains4 ,it is usually given to horses1 and owing to its high proportion of nitrogen1 is1 perhaps1 better expended in the bodies of those hard-working animals1 than in those of pigs and cows--animals that occasionally come in for a share of this valuable feeding-stuff4 ,it should be borne in mind that bran commonly acts as a slight laxative1 and that it is less digestible than flour1 a large portion of it usually passing through the animal's body unchanged4 ,this drawback to the use of bran may be obviated by either cooking or fermenting the article1 or by combining it with beans or some other kind of binding food4 ,,average ,,analyses ,,of ,,grain4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,indian ,rye ,buck- ,barley4 ,bere4,oats4,oatmeal4 ,corn4,rice47,irish74wheat4 ---------------------------------------- ----------- ,water #af4j #ad4be #ad4j #ac4jj #ad4e #ad4j #af4j #ad4ai ,flesh-formers #aj4e #aj4aj #aa4e #af4jj #aj4j #e4c #i4j #h4eh ,fat-formers #fg4j #fd4fj #fd4e #fh4jj #fi4j #gh4e #ff4j #ea4ia ,woody fibre #c4e #i4jc #g4j #a4ge #e4j #b4e #h4j #bc4ab ,mineral matter #c4j #b4jb #c4j #a4be #a4e #j4g #a4j #b4bj ---------------------------------------- ----------- #ajj4j #ajj4jjajj4j #ajj4jj #ajj4j #ajj4j #ajj4j #ajj4jj ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,barley is inferior in composition to wheat4 ,as a feeding stuff1 the ,english farmers assign to it a higher1 and the ,scotch farmers a lower1 place than oats1 which1 perhaps1 merely proves that in ,scotland the oat thrives better than the barley1 and in ,england the barley better than the oat4 ,barley-meal is extensively used by the ,english feeders1 and with excellent results4 ,where barley-dust can be obtained it is a far cheaper feeding stuff than the meal4 ,barley husks should never be given to animals unless in a cooked or fermented state4 ,oat ,grain is1 perhaps1 the most valuable of the concentrated foods which are given to fattening stock4 ,when it is cheap it will be found a more economical feeding stuff than linseed-cake1 and1 unlike that substance1 can be used without the fear of adulteration4 ,oats are equal to wheat in their amount of flesh-forming matters2 but their very high proportion of indigestible woody fibre detracts from their nutritive value4 ,oat-meal is more nutritious than wheat-meal2 and oat-flour1 especially if finely dressed1 greatly excels wheat-flour in its nutrimental properties1 because1 unlike the latter1 the finer it is the greater is its amount of flesh-formers4 ,bread made of oat-flour is very heavy1 and is far less palatable than the bread of wheat4 ,oat-meal has been found to contain nearly #bj per cent4 of nitrogenous matters4 ,the white oat is more nutritious than the black1 and the greatest amount of aliment is found in the grain which has not been allowed to over-ripen in the field4 ,oat husk is very inferior to the bran of wheat4 ,toppings are seldom worth the price at which they are sold4 ,indian ,corn has been highly extolled as a fattening food for stock1 and its chemical composition would seem to justify the high opinion which practical men have formed of its relative nutritive value4 ,in the ,united ,states1 the feeding of horses on ,indian corn and hay has been found very successful2 but in these countries oats will be found a more economical food4 ,for fattening purposes ,indian corn appears exceedingly well adapted1 as it contains more ready-formed fat--#d4e per cent4--than is found in most of the other grains1 and1 on an average1 #gj per cent4 of starch4 ,pigs thrive well on this grain4 ,the ,galatz round yellow grain is somewhat superior to the ,american flat yellow seed4 ,rye is not extensively cultivated in this country1 but on the ,continent it is raised in large quantities4 ,in the north of ,europe it forms a considerable proportion of the food of both man and the domesticated animals4 ,in ,holland it is commonly consumed by horses1 but in ,england there has always been a prejudice against the use of this grain as food for the equine tribe4 ,it has been highly recommended for dairy stock1 five pounds of rye-meal1 with a sufficiency of cut straw1 constituting1 it is stated1 a dietary on which cows yield a maximum supply of milk4 ,irish-grown rye contains less starch1 and more flesh-formers and oil1 than the ,black ,sea grain4 ,rice1 although it forms the chief pabulum of nearly one-third of the human family1 is the least nutritious of the common food grains4 ,rice-dust1 an article obtained in cleaning rice for ,european consumption1 is said to promote the flow of milk when given to cows4 ,it is sold in large quantities in ,liverpool1 where1 according to ,voelcker1 it often commands a higher price than it is worth4 ,buckwheat is chiefly used as a food for game and poultry4 ,malted ,corn4--,during a late session of ,parliament a ,bill was passed to exempt from duty malt intended to be used as food for cattle4 ,as feeders may now become their own maltsters1 it may be of some use to them to have here a resume of this ,bill3-- #a4 ,any person giving security and taking out a licence may make malt in a malt-house approved by the ,excise for the purpose2 and all malt so made and mixed with linseed-cake or linseed-meal as directed1 shall be free from duty4 #b4 ,the security required is a bond to ,her ,majesty1 with sureties to the satisfaction of the ,excise1 not to take from any such malt-house any malt except duly mixed with material prescribed by the ,act4 #c4 ,the malt-house must be properly named upon its door4 #d4 ,all malt made in it shall be deposited in a store-room1 and shall be conveyed to and from the room upon such notice as the officer of ,excise shall appoint4 #e4 ,the maltster shall provide secure rooms in his malt-house1 to be approved in writing by the supervisor1 for grinding the malt made by him in such malt-house1 and mixing and storing the same when mixed2 and all such rooms shall be properly secured and kept locked by the proper officer of ,excise4 #f4 ,all malt before removal from the malt-house shall be ground and thoroughly mixed with one-tenth part at least of its weight of ground linseed-cake or linseed-meal1 and ground to such a degree of fineness and in such manner as the commissioners shall approve1 and mixed together in a quantity not less than forty bushels at a time in the presence of an officer of ,excise4 #g4 ,the maltster shall keep account of the quantity of all malt mixed as aforesaid which he shall from time to time send out or deliver from his malt-house1 with the dates and addresses of the person for whom such mixed malt shall be so sent or delivered4 #h4 ,if any person shall attempt to separate any malt from any material with which the same shall have been mixed as aforesaid1 or shall use this malt for the brewing of beer or distilling of spirits1 he shall forfeit the sum of ,l#bjj4 #i and #aj4 ,the penalties of existing ,acts are recited4 #aa4 ,this ,act shall continue and be in force for five years4 ,some samples of malt and barley examined in ,may1 #ahfe1 by ,dr4 ,voelcker for the ,central ,anti-,malt ,tax ,association1 afforded the following results3-- ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,barley ,malt marked marked ,no4 #a4 ,no4 #e4 ,no4 #g4 ,no4 #i4,no4 #ad4,no4 #af4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,moisture #aa4gf #h4gb #g4dc #g4gf #h4ce #g4jf ,sugar #c4ge #d4bi #e4dh #g4he #i4df #i4hf ,starch and dextrine #gj4dj #ga4jc #fi4gj #fg4eg #fg4ec #fg4fg 99 ,albuminous compounds 7flesh-forming matters7 #g4ge #h4dd #h4ha #i4cg #h4fj #h4ca ,woody fibre 7cellular7 #d4df #e4bb #f4ch #e4ch #d4ad #e4aa ,mineral matter 7ash7 #a4hh #b4cj #b4bj #b4jg #a4ib #a4ii ---------------------------------------- -- #ajj4jj #ajj4jj #ajj4jj #ajj4jj #ajj4jj #ajj4jj 99 ,containing nitrogen #a4bd #a4ce #a4da #a4ej #a4ch #a4cc ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,a great deal has been said and written in favor of malt as a feeding stuff1 but ,i greatly doubt its alleged decided superiority over barley2 and until the results of accurately conducted comparative experiments made with those articles incontestably prove that superiority1 ,i think it is somewhat a waste of nutriment to convert barley into malt for feeding purposes4 ,the gentlemen who verbally1 or in writing1 refer so favorably to malt1 acknowledge1 with one or two exceptions1 that their experience of the article is limited4 ,mr4 ,john ,hudson1 of ,brandon1 states that he made a comparative experiment1 the results of which proved the superiority of malt4 ,but1 in fact1 the only properly-conducted experiments to determine the relative values of malt and barley were those made some years ago by ,dr4 ,thompson1 of ,glasgow1 by the direction of the ,government1 and those recently performed by ,mr4 ,lawes1 both producing results unfavorable to the malt4 ,the issue of ,dr4 ,thompson's investigations proved that milch cows fed on barley yielded more milk and butter than when supplied with an equal weight of malt4 ,i do not deny the probability that malt1 owing to its agreeable flavor and easy solubility1 may be a somewhat better feeding stuff than barley2 and that1 weight for weight1 it may produce a somewhat greater increase in the weight of the animals fed upon it3 but although a pound-weight of malt may be better than a pound-weight of barley1 ,i am quite satisfied that a pound's worth of barley will put up more flesh than a pound's worth of malt4 ,barley-seeds consist of water1 starch1 nitrogenous substances--such as gluten and albumen--fatty substances1 and saline matter4 ,the amount of starch is considerable1 being sometimes about #gj per cent4 ,in the process of malting 7which is simply the germination of the seed under peculiar conditions71 a portion of the starch is converted into sugar and gum1 the grain increases in size and becomes friable when dried1 and the internal structure of the seed is completely broken up4 ,during these changes a partial decomposition of the solid matter of the seeds takes place1 and a large amount of nutriment is dissipated1 chiefly in the form of carbonic acid gas4 ,from the results of the experience of the maltster1 and of special experiments made by scientific men1 it would appear that a ton of barley will produce only #af cwt4 of malt4 ,allowance must1 however1 be made for the difference between the amount of water contained in barley and in malt1 the latter being much drier4 ,according to ,mr4 ,e4 ,holden1 the centesimal loss sustained in malting may be stated thus3-- ,water #f4jj ,organic matter #ab4eb ,saline matter #j4dh ------ #ajj4jj ,dr4 ,thompson#ce sets down the loss of nutriment 7exclusive of that occasioned by kiln-drying71 as follows3-- ,carried off by the steep #a4e ,dissipated on the floor #c4j ,roots separated by cleaning #c4j ,waste #j4e --- #h4j ,we may say1 then1 that by the malting of barley we lose at least #b-a_/b cwt4 of solid nutriment out of every ton of the article1 and this loss falls heaviest on the nitrogenous1 or flesh-forming constituents of the grain4 ,when there are added to this loss the expense of carting the grain to and from the malt-house1 and the maltster's charge for operating upon it 7,i presume in this case that the feeder is not his own maltster71 it will be found that two tons of malt will cost the farmer nearly as much as three tons of barley2 and he will then have to solve the problem--,whether or not malt is #dj or #ej per cent4 more valuable as a feeding-stuff than barley4 ,the difference in value between barley and malt is generally #ads4 per barrel2 but it is sometimes more or less1 according to the supply and demand4 ,barley1 well malted1 will lose on the average #be per cent4 of its weight1 the loss depending1 to some extent1 upon the degree to which the process is carried1 and on the germinating properties of the barley4 ,barley malted for roasters ought not to lose more than #ba per cent4 of its original weight--#ec lbs4 to the barrel4 ,the heavier the barley the less it loses in malting2 a barrel of #bbd lbs41 and value from #aes4 to #afs41 ought to produce a barrel of malt of #aif lbs41 value #bis4 to #cjs4 ,if we deduct from the cost of a barrel of malt the amount of duty at present levyable upon it1 the price of the article will be still nearly #ej per cent4 greater than that of an equal weight of barley4 ,the cheaper barley is the greater will be the relative cost of malt4 ,the maltster's charge for converting a barrel of barley into malt is about #ds42 so that if the price of the grain be so low as #abs4 per barrel1 which it sometimes is1 the cost of malting it would amount to #cc per cent4 of its price4 ,then1 the diminution in the weight of1 and the cost of carting the grain1 must be taken into account2 and when the whole expense attendant upon the process of malting is ascertained1 it will be found that ,i have not exaggerated in stating that a ton of malt costs as much as a ton and a half of barley4 ,if the consumer of malt germinate the seeds himself1 he may probably1 if he require large quantities of the article1 produce it at a somewhat cheaper rate than if he bought it from the maltster2 but few persons who have the slightest knowledge of the vexatious restrictions of the ,inland ,revenue authorities would be likely to place his premises under the espionage of an excise officer4 ,as the superiority of malt over barley 7if such be really the case7 must be chiefly due to the looseness of its texture1 which allows the juices of the stomach to act readily upon it1 barley in a cooked state might be found quite as nutritious3 ,it would not be fair to institute comparisons between dense hard barley-seeds and the easily soluble malted grains4 ,during the cooking of barley a portion of the starch is changed into sugar1 but in this case with only an inappreciable waste of nutriment4 ,when the cooking process is continued for a few hours1 a considerable amount of sugar is formed1 and the barley acquires a very sweet flavor4 ,when the malt for cattle question was under discussion1 ,i made a little experiment in relation to it1 the results of which are perhaps of sufficient interest to mention3--,two pounds weight of barley-meal were moistened with warm water2 after standing for three hours more water was added1 and sufficient heat applied to cause the fluid to boil4 ,after fifteen minutes' ebullition1 a few ounces of the pasty-like mass which was produced were removed1 thoroughly dried1 and on being submitted to analysis yielded six per cent4 of sugar4 ,the addition of a small quantity of malt to barley undergoing the process of cooking will rapidly convert the starch into sugar4 ,barley is naturally a well-flavored grain1 and all kinds of stock eat it with avidity4 ,it may be rendered still more agreeable if properly cooked1 and this process will1 by disintegrating its hard1 fibrous structure1 set free its stores of nutriment4 ,i incline strongly to the opinion that barley1 when well boiled1 is almost1 if not quite1 as digestible as malt4 ,a serious disadvantage in the use of malt is1 that it must be consumed1 it is said1 in combination with #aj per cent4 of its weight of linseed-meal or cake4 ,now1 malt is a very laxative food1 and so is linseed2 and if the diet of stock were largely made up of these articles the animals would1 sooner or later1 suffer from diarrhoea4 ,in such case1 then1 the addition of bean-meal1 or of some other binding food1 would become necessary1 and the compound of malt1 linseed1 and bean-meal thereby formed would certainly prove anything but an economical diet4 ,malt ,combs4--,i should mention that a portion of the nutriment which the barley loses in malting passes into the radicles1 or young roots1 which project from the seeds1 and are technically known by the term combs1 combings1 or dust4 ,at present these combs are separated from the malt1 but if the latter be intended for feeding purposes this separation is unnecessary1 and in such case the barley will not be so much deteriorated4 ,the combs1 which constitute about #d per cent4 of the weight of the malt1 are sometimes employed as a feeding stuff4 ,i have made an analysis of malt-combings for the ,county of ,kildare ,agricultural ,society1 and have obtained the following results3-- #ajj ,,parts ,,contained-- ,water #h4db 99 ,flesh-forming 7albuminous7 substances #ba4ej ,digestible fat-forming substances 7starch1 sugar1 gum1 c47 #ec4dg ,indigestible woody fibre #h4eg ,saline matter 7ash7 #h4jd ------ #ajj4jj 99 ,yielding nitrogen #c4dd ,containing potash #a4ce ,containing phosphoric acid #a4gd ,this article was sold as a manure at ,l#c #fs4 per ton--a sum for which it was not good value2 but as a feeding substance it was probably worth ,l#d or ,l#e per ton4 ,its composition indicates a high nutritive power2 but it is probable that its nitrogenous matters are partly in a low degree of elaboration1 which greatly detracts from its alimental value4 ,in conclusion1 then1 ,i would urge the following points upon the attention of the farmer3-- #ast4 ,before using malt for feeding purposes1 wait until you learn the general results of the experience of other farmers with that article4 ,the manufacture of malt for feeding purposes is rapidly on the decline1 instead of1 as had been anticipated1 on the increase4 #bnd4 ,should you experiment with barley and malt1 use equal money's worth of each1 and employ the barley in a cooked state4 #crd4 ,use malt-combings as a feeding stuff1 and not as a manure4 ,they are good value for at least ,l#c #ajs4 per ton4 #dth4 ,bear in mind that a ton of barley contains more saline matter than an equal weight of malt2 consequently1 that stock fed upon barley will produce a manure richer in potash and phosphates than those supplied with malt4 ,leguminous ,seeds4--,the seeds of the bean1 of the pea1 and of several other leguminous plants1 are largely made use of as food for both man and the domesticated animals4 ,they all closely resemble each other in composition1 but in that respect differ considerably from the grains of the ,cerealiae1 for whilst the latter contain on an average #ab per cent4 of flesh-formers1 beans and peas contain #bd per cent4 ,the flesh-forming constituent of the leguminous seeds is not gluten1 as in the grain of the cereals1 but a substance termed legumin1 which so closely resembles the cheesy matter of milk that it has also received the name of vegetable casein4 ,indeed1 the ,chinese make a factitious cheese out of peas1 which it is difficult to discriminate from the article of animal origin4 ,beans are used as fattening food for cattle1 for which purpose they should be ground into meal1 as otherwise a large proportion of their substance would pass through the animal's body unchanged4 ,it is not good economy to give a fattening bullock more than #c or #d lbs4 weight per diem2 a larger proportion is apt to induce constipation4 ,the very small proportion of ready-formed fat1 the moderate amount of starch1 and the exceedingly high per-centage of flesh-formers which beans contain1 prove that they are better adapted as food for beasts of burthen than for the fattening of stock4 ,oats1 ,indian corn1 or oil-cake1 will be found to produce a greater increase of meat than equal money's worth of beans or peas1 and ,i would therefore recommend the restriction of leguminous seeds1 under ordinary circumstances1 to horses and bulls4 ,it has been stated1 on good authority1 that when oats are given whole to horses1 a large proportion passes unchanged through the animal's body1 but that on the addition of beans1 the oats are thoroughly digested4 ,,composition ,,of ,,leguminous ,,seeds4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,common,foreign ,peas4,lentils4 ,winter ,beans4 ,beans4 ,tares 7foreign74 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,water #ac4j #ad4e #ad4j #ac4j #ae4e ,flesh-formers #be4e #bc4j #bc4e #bd4j #bf4e ,fat-formers #dh4e #dh4g #ej4j #ej4e #dg4e ,woody fibre #aj4j #aj4j #aj4j #aj4j #i4j ,mineral matter #c4j #c4h #b4e #b4e #a4e ---------------------------------------- ------------------- #ajj4j #ajj4j #ajj4j #ajj4j #ajj4j ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,oil ,seeds4--,the seeds of a great variety of plants1 such as the flax1 hemp1 rape1 mustard1 cotton1 and sunflower1 are exceedingly rich in oil1 some of them containing nearly half their weight of that substance4 ,of these oil-seeds there are many which might with advantage be employed as fattening1 food1 although one only--linseed--has come into general use for that purpose4 ,rape-seeds closely resemble linseeds in composition1 but they are considerably cheaper4 ,they contain an acrid substance1 but the large proportion of oil with which it is associated almost completely disguises its unpleasant flavor4 ,linseed is one of the most valuable kinds of food which could be given to fattening animals4 ,its exceedingly high proportion of ready-formed fatty matter1 the great comparative solubility of its constituents1 and its mild and agreeable flavor1 constitute it an article superior to linseed cake4 ,the laxative properties of linseed are very decided2 it should therefore be given only in moderate quantities4 ,as peas and beans exercise1 as ,i have already stated1 a relaxing influence upon the bowels1 a mixture of linseed and peas or beans would be an excellent compound1 the laxative influence of the one being corrected by the binding tendency of the other4 ,linseed being one of the most concentrated feeding stuffs in use1 it will be found an excellent addition to bulky food1 such as chaff and turnips4 ,linseed oil has been used as a fattening food1 but there is nothing to be gained by expressing seeds for the purpose of using their oil as a feeding material4 ,when hay is scarce1 and straw abundant1 the latter may be made almost as nutritious as the former by mixing it with linseed1 and steaming the compound4 ,a stone of linseed and two cwt4 of oat-straw chaff1 when properly cooked1 constitute a most economical and nutritious food4 ,mr4 ,horne1 who experimented with linseed two or three years ago1 obtained results highly favorable to the nutritive value of that article4 ,six bullocks were selected1 and each animal placed in a separate box4 ,they were fed with cut roots--at first ,swedes1 then mangels and ,swedes1 and lastly1 mangels alone3 in addition1 there were supplied to each #f lbs4 rough meadow-hay reduced to chaff1 and #e lbs4 oil-cake1 or value to that amount4 ,they were divided into three lots1 two in each4 ,lot #a had #e lbs4 oil-cake for each animal2 lot #b1 barley and wheat-meal1 equal in value to the #e lbs4 oil-cake2 and lot #c1 an equal money's worth of bruised linseed4 ,the oil-cake cost ,l#aj #afs4 per ton1 the mixture of barley and wheat ,l#h #aes4 per ton1 and the bruised linseed ,l#ac per ton4 ,the experiment lasted #aab days1 and at its close the results1 which proved very favorable to the bruised linseed1 were as follows3-- ,increase in live weight4 ,lot #a4 ,oil-cake #fcg lbs4 ,lot #b4 ,wheat and barley-meal #ffg lbs4 ,lot #c4 ,bruised linseed #gah lbs4 ,during the #aab days each bullock consumed #e cwt4 oil-cake 7or an equivalent amount of linseed or wheat and barley71 #f cwt4 hay1 and #ij cwt4 of roots4 ,the average increase in each animal's weight was #ccg lbs4 #bbd lbs4 dead weight4 ,the economic features of this experiment are best shown in the following figures3-- ,,food ,,consumed4 ,l s4 d4 #e cwt4 oil-cake1 at #ajs4 #f;d4 per cwt4 #b #ab #f #f cwt4 hay1 at #cs4 per cwt4 #j #ah #j #af weeks' attendance1 at #f;d4 per week #j #h #j --------- ,l#c #ah #f --------- ,gained #af stones per week1 at #hs4 per stone #f #h #j --------- ,balance to pay for #ij cwt4 of roots #b #i #f ,the manure obtained afforded a good profit4 ,the seed-pods1 or1 as they are termed1 the bolls of the flax1 have been recommended as an excellent feeding stuff4 ,they are not so nutritious as linseed1 but they are cheaper1 and when produced on the farm must be an economical food4 ,mr4 ,charley1 an intelligent stock-feeder in the county of ,antrim1 and an eminent authority in every subject in relation to flax1 strongly recommends the use of flax-bolls4 ,he says3-- ,the cost of rippling is considerable2 but ,i believe1 for every ,l#a expended1 on an average a return is realised of ,l#b1 particularly on a farmstead where many horses and cattle are regularly kept4 ,the flax-bolls contain much more nourishment than the linseed-cake from which the oil has1 of course1 been expressed1 and they form a most valuable addition to the warm food prepared during winter for the animals just named4 ,i believe they have also a highly beneficial effect in warding off internal disease1 owing1 no doubt1 to the soothing and slightly purgative properties of the oil contained in the seed4 ,the change made in the appearance of the animals receiving some of the bolls in their steamed food is very apparent after a few weeks' trial2 and the smoothness and sleekness of their shining coats plainly show the benefit derived4 ,is it not surprising1 with this fact before our eyes1 that many agriculturists--indeed1 ,i fear the majority--persist in the old-fashioned system of taking the flax to a watering-place with its valuable freight of seed unremoved1 and plunge the sheaves under water1 losing thereby1 in the most wanton manner1 rich feeding materials1 worth from ,l#a to ,l#c per statute acre8 ,in the following table1 the composition of all the more important oil-seeds is given3-- ,,composition ,,of ,,oil-,,seeds1 ,,according ,,to ,,dr4 ,,anderson4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,cotton-seed ,linseed4 ,rape-seed4,hemp-seed47decorticated74 ---------------------------------------- ---- ,water #g4ej #g4ac #f4dg #f4eg ,oil #cd4jj #cf4ha #ca4hd #ca4bd ,albuminous compounds 7,flesh-formers7 #bd4dd #ba4ej #bb4fj #ca4hf ,gum1 mucilage1 sugar1 c4 #ah4gc #ad4ab #cj4gc #cb4gb ,woody-fibre _/ #f4hf _/ #g4cj ,mineral matter 7ash7 #c4cc #h4ig #f4cg #h4ia ---------------------------------------- ---- #ajj4jj #ajj4jj #ajj4jj #ajj4jj ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,fenugreek-seed is used very extensively in the preparation of ,condimental food4 ,it is often given to horses out of condition4 ,sheep have been liberally supplied with this food1 which1 however1 it is stated1 communicates a disagreeable flavor to the mutton4 ,it contains1 according to ,voelcker1 the following3-- ,water #aa4iid ,flesh-formers #bf4ffe ,starch1 gum1 and pectin #cg4aaa ,sugar #b4bbj ,fatty and oily matters #h4cbj ,woody fibre #aj4hbj ,inorganic matter #b4hgj ------- #ajj4jjj ,,section ,,vii4 ,,oil-,,cakes1 ,,and ,,other ,,artificial ,,foods4 ,oil-seeds1 on being subjected to considerable pressure1 part with a large proportion of their oil1 the remaining part of that fluid1 together with the various other ingredients of the seeds1 constitute the substances so well known to agriculturists under the name of oil-cakes4 ,these cakes contain a larger proportion of ready-formed fatty matter than is found in any other feeding stuff1 and an amount of flesh-forming principles far greater than that yielded by corn1 or even by beans2 the manure1 too1 which is produced by the cattle fed upon some of them1 is often good value for nearly half the sum expended on the food4 ,the principal kinds of oil-cake employed for feeding purposes are the following3--,linseed-cake1 ,rape-cake1 and cotton-seed cake4 ,poppy cake is not much in use4 ,their average composition1 deduced from the results of numerous analyses made by ,voelcker1 ,anderson1 and myself1 are shown in the following table3-- ,,average ,,composition ,,of ,,oil-,,cakes4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,linseed ,decorticated ,cake1 ,rape ,cottonseed ,poppy ,english4 ,cake4 ,cake4 ,cake4 ---------------------------------- ,water #ab #aa #i #ab ,flesh-forming principles #bh #cj #ch #cb ,oil #aj #aa #ac #f ,gum1 mucilage1 c4 #cd #cj #bc #cj ,woody fibre #aj #aj #i #i ,mineral matter 7ash7 #f #h #h #a ---------------------------------- #ajj #ajj #ajj #ajj ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,linseed ,cake4--,within the last quarter of a century great attention has been given to the feeding of stock1 and the effects are observable in the improved quality and greatly increased weight of the animals4 ,in the year #ahci the average weight of the horned beasts from ,ireland sold in the ,london market was only #fej lbs41 whereas at the present time their average weight is about #gdj lbs4 ,this remarkable advance in the production of meat is in great part due to the cattle being more liberally supplied with food1 and that1 too1 of a more concentrated nature4 ,the practice of feeding animals destined for the shambles exclusively on roots containing #ij and even #ie per cent4 of water1 which once prevailed so generally in this country1 is now limited to the farmsteads of a few old-fashioned feeders2 and the necessity for the admixture of highly-nutritious aliment with the bulky substances which form the staple food of stock is almost universally recognised4 ,of concentrated foods used for fattening stock1 none stands higher in the estimation of the farmer than linseed-cake1 although it appears to me that the price of the article is somewhat too high in relation to its amount of nutriment1 and that corn1 if its price be moderate1 is a more economical food4 ,straw1 turnips1 and mangels form the bone and sinew of the animals1 and enable them to carry on the vital operations which are essential to their existence4 ,oil-cake and similar foods are supplemental1 and contribute directly to the animal's increase1 so that their nutritive value appears to be greater than it really is4 ,if an animal were fed exclusively upon oil-cake1 the greater part of it would be appropriated to the reparation of the waste of the body1 and the rest would be converted into permanent flesh--the animal's increase4 ,the addition of straw would produce a still further increase in the animal's weight--an increase which would be directly proportionate to the amount of straw consumed4 ,thus it will be seen that1 whatever the staple food may be1 it will have to sustain the life of the animal1 and will be principally expended for that purpose1 whereas the supplemental food will be chiefly1 if not entirely1 made use of in increasing the weight of flesh4 ,to me it appears manifestly incorrect to consider1 as feeders practically do1 the value of linseed-cake to be seven or eight times greater than that of oat-straw1 and twenty times greater than that of roots4 ,let us assume the case of an animal fed upon roots1 straw1 and oil-cake4 ,seventy-five per cent4 of its food1 say1 is expended in repairing the waste of its body1 and #be per cent4 is stored up in its increase4 ,now1 if the three kinds of food contributed proportionately to the reparation of the body and to its increase1 the roots and straw would be found to possess a far higher nutritive value1 in relation to the oil-cake1 than is usually ascribed to them4 ,but it may be asked why straw1 if it be relatively a much more economical feeding stuff than oil-cake1 is not employed to the complete exclusion of the latter4 ,i have already given an answer to such a question1 namely1 that animals thrive better on a diet composed partly of bulky1 partly of concentrated aliments4 ,this much1 however1 is certain1 that animals can be profitably fed upon roots and straw1 whilst it is equally certain that to feed them upon oil-cake alone 7assuming them to thrive upon such a diet7 would entail a very heavy loss upon the feeder4 ,at the same time it must be admitted that the oil of the linseed-cake exercises in all probability a beneficial influence on the digestion of the animal1 so that the nutritive value of the article may be somewhat higher than its mere composition would indicate4 ,the quantity of oil-cake given to fattening stock varies from #b lbs4 to #ad lbs4 per diem4 ,i believe there is no greater mistake made by feeders than that of giving excessive quantities of this substance to stock4 ,if their object in so doing be to enrich their manure-heap1 they would find it far more economical to add the cake directly to the manure--or rather of adding rape-cake to it1 for this variety of cake is fully as valuable for manurial purposes as the linseed-cake1 and is nearly #ej per cent4 cheaper4 ,a larger quantity of oil-cake than #g lbs4 daily should not be given to even the largest-sized milch cows or fattening bullocks4 ,if a larger amount be employed1 it will pass unchanged through the animal's body4 ,young cattle may with advantage be supplied with from #a to #c lbs41 according to their size1 and from #a_/b to #a lb4 will be a sufficient quantity for sheep4 ,intelligent feeders have remarked1 that cattle which had been always supplied with a moderate allowance of this food fattened more readily upon it1 during their finishing stage1 than did stock which had not been accustomed to its use4 ,adulteration of ,linseed ,cake4--,the great drawback to the use of linseed-cake is the liability of the article to be adulterated4 ,the sophistication is sometimes of a harmless nature1 if we except its injurious effect on the farmer's pocket2 but not unfrequently the substances added to the cakes possess properties which completely unfit them to be used as food4 ,amongst the injurious substances found in linseed and linseed-cake ,i may mention the seeds of the purging-flax1 darnel1 spurry1 corn-cockle1 curcus-beans1 and castor-oil beans4 ,several of these seeds are highly drastic purgatives1 and they have been known to cause intense inflammation of the bowels of animals fed upon oil-cake1 of which they composed but a small proportion4 ,amongst the adulterations of linseed-cake1 which lower its nutritive value without imparting to it any injurious properties1 are the seeds of the cereals and the grasses1 bran1 and flax-straw4 ,little black seeds belonging to various species of ,polygonum1 are very often present in even good cakes2 they are very indigestible1 but otherwise are not injurious4 ,rape-cake is stated to be occasionally used as adulterant of the more costly linseed1 but ,i have never met with an admixture of the two articles4 ,the only way in which a correct estimate of the value of linseed-cake can be arrived at is by a combined microscopical and chemical analysis2 but as the feeder is not always disposed to incur the cost of this process1 he should make himself acquainted with the characteristic of the genuine cake1 in order to be able to discriminate1 as far as possible1 between it and the sophisticated article4 ,i will indicate a few of the more prominent features of cake of excellent quality1 and point out a few simple and easily-performed tests1 which may serve to detect the existence of gross adulteration4 ,good cake is hard1 of a reddish-brown color1 uniform in appearance1 and possesses a rather pleasant flavor and odour4 ,the adulterated cake is commonly of a greyish hue1 and has a disagreeable odour4 ,a weighed quantity of the cake--say #ajj grains--in the state of powder should be formed into a paste with an ounce of water2 if it be good1 the paste will be light colored1 moderately stiff1 and endowed with a pleasant odour and flavor4 ,if the paste be thin1 the presence of bran1 or of grass seeds1 is probable4 ,the latter are easily seen through a magnifying-glass2 indeed1 most of them are readily recognisable by the unassisted eye3 they may1 therefore1 be picked out1 and their weight determined4 ,sand--a frequent adulterant--may be detected by mixing a small weighed quantity of the powdered cake with about twelve times its weight of water1 allowing the mixture to stand for half an hour1 and collecting and weighing the sand which will be found at the bottom of the vessel employed4 ,if there be bran present it will be found lying on the sand1 and its structure is sufficiently distinct to admit of its detection by a mere glance4 ,there are a great variety of linseed-cakes in the market1 of which the home-made article is the best4 ,on the ,continent the oil-seeds are subjected to the action of heat in order to obtain from them a greater yield of oil4 ,their cakes1 therefore1 contain less oil1 and their flesh-forming principles are less soluble1 in comparison with ,british linseed-cake4 ,next to our home-made oil-cakes1 the ,american is the best4 ,indeed1 ,i have met with some ,american cakes which were equal to the best ,english4 ,rape ,cake4--,the use of rape-cake was limited almost completely to the fertilising of the soil until the late ,mr4 ,pusey1 in a paper published in the tenth volume of the ,journal of the ,royal ,agricultural ,society of ,england1 advocated its employment as a substitute for the more costly linseed-cake4 ,the recommendation of this distinguished agriculturist has not been disregarded2 and since his time the use of this cake as a feeding stuff has been steadily on the increase1 and at the present time its annual consumption is not far short of #ej1jjj tons4 ,in relation to the nutritive value of rape-cake there exists considerable diversity of opinion4 ,certain feeders assert that animals fed upon it go out of condition2 others1 whilst admitting that stock thrive upon it1 maintain the economic superiority of linseed-cake2 whilst a third set believe rape-cake to be the most economical of feeding-stuffs4 ,how are we to account for these great differences of opinion--not amongst theorists1 be it observed1 but amongst practical men8 ,it is not difficult to explain them away satisfactorily4 ,rape-cake and linseed-cake are about equally rich in muscle and fat-forming principles2 and1 supposing both to be equally well-flavored1 there can be no doubt but that one is just as nourishing as the other4 ,but it so happens that a large proportion of the rape-cake which comes into the ,british market possesses a flavor which renders it very disagreeable to animals4 ,one variety--namely1 the ,east ,indian--is almost poisonous1 whilst the very best kind is slightly inferior to linseed-cake4 ,now1 if an experiment with a very inferior kind of rape-cake and a good variety of linseed-cake were tried1 who can doubt but that the results would be very unfavorable to the former article8 ,mr4 ,callan1#cf of ,rathfarnham1 county ,dublin2 ,mr4 ,bird1#cg of ,renton ,barns1 and some other feeders1 who found rape-cake to be worse than useless1 experimented1 in all probability1 with an adulterated article1 for they do not appear to have had the cake analysed4 ,on the other hand1 those whose experience with rape-cake has proved favorable1 must have employed the article in a genuine state1 fresh1 and moderately well-flavored4 ,it is noteworthy that amongst the advocates for the use of rape-cake as a substitute--partly or entirely--for the more costly linseed-cake1 are to be found the most successful feeders in ,england and ,scotland4 ,horsfall1 ,mechi1 ,lawrence1 ,bond1 ,hope1 and many other feeders of equal celebrity1 have assigned to rape-cake the highest place1 in an economic point of view1 amongst the concentrated feeding stuffs4 ,mr4 ,mechi says3--,i invariably give to all my animals as much rape-cake as they choose to eat1 however abundant their roots or green food may be4 ,it pays in many ways1 and not to do this is a great pecuniary mistake4 ,even when fed on green rape1 they will eat rape-cake abundantly4 ,my cattle are now under cover1 eating the steamed chaff1 rape-cake1 malt-combs1 and bran1 all mixed together in strict accordance with the proportions named by ,mr4 ,horsfall in the ,journal of the ,royal ,agricultural ,society1 vol4 xviii41 p4 #aej1ch which ,i find by far the most profitable mode of feeding bullocks and cows4 ,mr4 ,hope1 of ,edinburgh1 states that rape-cake is the best substitute for turnips1 and that1 excepting cases where spurious kinds had been used1 he never knew bullocks or milch cows to refuse it4 ,this gentleman states that it is best given in combination with locust-beans1 or a mixture of locust-beans and ,indian corn2 and suggests the proportions set down in the tables as the best adapted for lean cattle2 but ,i think about two-thirds of the quantities would be quite sufficient4 ,feed per week4 ,per week4 lbs4 s4 d4 ,rape-cake at ,l#e #aes4 per ton #h #b #aj-a_/b ,do4 do4 #aj #c #g ,mixture of two-thirds rape-cake and one-third locust-beans ,l#f #h #c #j ,do4 do4 #aj #c #i ,rape-cake1 locust-beans1 and ,indian ,corn in equal proportions #h #c #b-a_/b ,do4 do4 #aj #c #aa-a_/d ,an intelligent ,scotch dairy farmer bears the following testimony in favor of this cake3-- ,i have tried pease-meal1 bean-meal1 oat-meal1 and linseed-cake1 and after carefully noting the results1 ,i consider rape-cake1 weight for weight1 at least equal to any of them for milch cows2 and if ,i give the same money value for each1 ,i get at least one-third more produce1 and the butter is always of a very superior quality4 ,two years ago1 ,i took some of my best oats 7#da lbs4 per bushel71 and ground them for the cows1 and although ,i was at about one-third more expense1 ,i lost fully one-third of the produce that ,i had by using rape-cake4 ,i always dissolve it by pouring boiling water on it1 and give each cow #f lbs4 daily4 ,i have tried a larger quantity1 and found ,i was fully repaid for the extra expense4 ,i generally use it the most of the summer1 but always during the spring months4 ,a number of my neighbours who have tried it all agree that it is the best and cheapest feed for milch cows they have used4--,north ,british ,agriculturist1 ,edinburgh1 ,february #bi1 #ahfj4 ,the best kinds of rape-cake come from ,germany and ,denmark4 ,when neither too old nor too fresh1 and of a pale-green color1 these foreign cakes are tolerably well-flavored1 and are but slightly inferior to good linseed-cake4 ,most varieties of this cake1 however1 contain a small proportion of acrid matter1 which often renders them more or less distasteful to stock1 more particularly to cattle4 ,this substance may be rendered quite innocuous by steaming or boiling the cake2 either of these processes will also1 according to ,mr4 ,lawrence1 destroy the disagreeable flavor which mustard-seed--a frequent adulterant of rape-cake--confers upon that article4 ,molasses or treacle is an excellent adjunct to the cake1 as it serves in a great measure to correct its somewhat unpleasant flavor4 ,carob1 or locust-beans1 answer1 perhaps better1 the same purpose4 ,it is better1 as a general rule1 to give less rape-cake than linseed-cake1 unless the pale-green kind to which ,i have referred is obtainable2 that variety may be largely employed4 ,the animals should be gradually accustomed to its use4 ,at first1 in the case of bullocks1 they should get only #a lb4 per diem1 and the quantity should be gradually increased to about #d lbs42 but ,i would not advise1 under any circumstances1 a larger daily allowance than #e lbs4 ,given in moderate amounts1 it will1 supposing it to be of fair quality1 be found to give a better return in meat than almost any other kind of concentrated food2 and1 what is of great importance1 it will not injuriously affect the animal's health4 ,our experience of the use of rape-cake1 says ,mr4 ,lawrence1 thus used 7cooked71 extends over a period of ten years of feeding from #bj to #bd bullocks annually4 ,we have not had a single death during that period1 and the animals have been remarkably free from any kind of ailment4 ,rape-cake of good quality possesses a dark-green color 7the greener the better71 and when broken exhibits a mottled aspect--yellowish and dark-brown spots4 ,sometimes a tolerably good specimen has a brownish color2 but the ,german and ,danish cakes are always of a greenish hue4 ,the odor is stronger than that of linseed-cake1 and differs but little from that of rape-oil4 ,the only serious adulteration of rape-cake is the addition to it of mustard-seed--sometimes accidentally--less frequently1 as ,i believe1 intentionally4 ,this sophistication admits of easy detection4 ,scrape into small particles about half an ounce of the cake1 add six times its weight of water1 form the solid and liquid into a paste1 and allow the mixture to stand for a few hours4 ,if the cake contain mustard the characteristic odor of that substance will be evolved1 and its intensity will afford a rough indication of the amount of the adulterant4 ,as some specimens of genuine rape-cake possess a somewhat pungent odor1 care must be taken not to confound it with that of mustard2 but1 indeed1 it is not difficult to discriminate the latter4 ,the paste of rape-cake which contains an injurious proportion of mustard1 has a very pungent flavor4 ,rape-cake improves somewhat if kept for say six months2 but old cake is worse than the fresh article4 ,cottonseed ,cake is one of the most valuable feeding stuffs that have come into use of late years4 ,its chemical composition shows it to be about equal to that of the best linseed-cake1 and as its price is much lower than that of the latter1 it may be fairly considered a more economical food4 ,these remarks apply only to the shelled1 or decorticated seed-cake1 for the article prepared from the whole seed is of very inferior composition1 and should never be employed4 ,the use of the cake made from the whole seed has proved fatal in many instances1 not from its possessing any poisonous quality1 but in consequence of its hard1 indigestible husk1 accumulating in1 and inflaming1 the animal's bowels4 ,the composition of this cake varies somewhat4 ,the following analysis of a sample from one of the ,western ,states of ,north ,america1 imported by ,messrs4 ,g4 ,seagrave and ,co41 of ,liverpool1 was made by me3-- ,,composition ,,of ,,decorticated ,,cotton-,,seed ,,cake4 ,water #h4bj ,oil #aj4af ,albuminous1 or flesh-forming principles #dj4be ,gum1 sugar1 c4 #ba4aj ,fibre #i4bc ,ash 7mineral matter7 #aa4jf ------ #ajj4jj ,in some specimens so much as #af per cent4 of oil has been found4 ,the purchaser of cotton-seed cake should be certain that it is not old and mouldy1 which is frequently the case4 ,the recently prepared cake has a very yellow color1 which becomes fainter as the cake becomes older4 ,freshness is a very desirable quality in nearly every kind of cake4 ,i have known animals to have a greater relish for1 and thrive better upon1 home-made linseed-cake than upon cake of foreign manufacture of superior composition1 but of greater age4 ,palm-nut ,meal1 or ,cake is a very valuable fattening food4 ,it is extremely rich in ready-formed fatty matters1 but at the same time it is not very deficient in albuminous substances4 ,its strong flavor is rather a drawback to its use in the case of all the farm animals1 except pigs4 ,this difficulty may1 however1 be got over by using the cake in moderate quantities1 and by combining it with other food possessed of a good flavor4 ,reports of practical trials made with this food appear to have almost uniformly given very favorable results4 ,this food is only three or four years in use4 ,the first samples that came into my hand were richer in fatty matters than those which ,i have recently examined4 ,the average results of eight analyses made from #ahfd to #ahff were as follows3-- #ajj ,,parts ,,contained-- ,water #g4dh ,albuminous matters #ag4bf ,fatty substances #ba4ei ,gum1 sugar1 c4 #cb4ad ,fibre #ag4ah ,mineral matter #d4ce ------ #ajj4jj ,this year ,i have not found more than #ag per cent4 of fat in any sample of palm-nut cake4 ,one specimen which ,i analysed for ,mr4 ,j4 ,g4 ,alexander1 seed merchant1 of ,dublin1 had the following composition3-- ,water #i4bd ,albuminous matters #ai4bh ,fatty matters #i4cf ,gum1 starch1 fibre1 c4 #ec4bb ,mineral matters #h4ij ------ #ajj4jj ,but although inferior samples are occasionally met with1 ,i may say of palm-nut cake that on the whole it is a food which deserves to be largely used1 and which at its present price is the most economical source of fat4 ,to milch-cows and fattening cattle about #c lbs4 per diem may be given2 #a_/d lb4 will be sufficient for young sheep1 whilst pigs may be very liberally supplied with this food4 ,the ,locust1 or ,carob ,bean1 is now largely used by the stock-feeder4 ,it is extremely rich in sugar1 and is therefore an excellent fattening and milk-producing food4 ,it is used largely in the preparation of the sweet kinds of artificial food for cattle4 ,it is not well adapted for young animals1 owing to its deficiency of albuminous matters4 ,the following analysis shows the average composition of this food3-- ,water #ad ,sugar #ej ,albuminous matters #h ,oil #a ,gum1 c4 #bj ,woody fibre #e ,ash #b --- #ajj ,dates have been used1 but only in very small quantities1 as cattle food4 ,their composition is not constant1 some samples being greatly inferior in nutritive power to others2 they are rich in sugar1 and if they were obtained in sufficient quantities they might1 like carob-beans1 come into general use with the stock-feeder4 ,they contain about #b per cent4 of flesh-formers1 #aj per cent4 of fat-formers 7chiefly sugar71 and #b per cent4 of mineral matter4 ,distillery and brewery dregs 7or wash7 are chiefly used by dairymen4 ,according to ,dr4 ,anderson1 an imperial gallon 7#gjj1jjj grains7 of distillery wash 7from a distillery near ,edinburgh7 contained #d1acj grains of organic matter1 and #bgf grains of mineral substances4 ,he considers that #ae gallons of this stuff were equal in nutritive materials to #ajj pounds of turnips4 ,the following is the centesimal composition of brewery wash3-- ,water #ge4he ,albuminous matters #j4fb ,gummy matters #a4jf ,other organic matter 7husks1 c47 #ba4bh ,mineral matters #a4ai ------ #ajj4jj ,molasses constitute a very fattening food1 sometimes1 but not often1 given to stock4 ,treacle and molasses are composed of non-crystallisable sugar1 cane-sugar1 water1 and saline and other impurities4 ,the composition of average specimens of molasses1 as imported1 is as follows3-- ,cane-sugar #ej ,non-crystallisable sugar and grape-sugar #be ,water1 saline matter1 and organic impurities #be --- #ajj ,if admitted duty free1 molasses would be a much more economical food than it now is1 but at its present price it must be regarded as a mere flavoring food4 ,mr4 ,t4 ,cooke ,burroughs1 a ,west ,suffolk feeder1 who used treacle in #ahfd1 gives the following mode of mixing it with other food3-- ,my plan has been 7and is still carried on7 to give to each bullock per day 7divided into three meals7 one pint of treacle dissolved in two gallons of water1 and sprinkled1 by means of a garden water-pot1 over four bushels of cut chaff 7two-thirds straw and one-third hay7 amongst which a quarter of a peck of meal 7barley and wheat7 is mixed1 the animals also having free access to water4 ,the cost of the treacle and meal together is about #cs4 per bullock per week4 ,my bullocks 7two-year old ,shorthorns7 have grown and thrived upon the above diet to my utmost satisfaction2 and even during the present dry and warm weather they evince no lingering after roots or grass4 ,i am well aware that the use of treacle for neat stock is no new discovery of my own1 as ,i learnt the system while on a visit to a friend in ,norfolk1 where some graziers have used it in combination with roots during many years past4 ,perhaps flax-seed 7linseed7 boiled into a jelly and used in a similar way1 may be a more profitable substitute for roots than treacle2 but the preparation of it is attended with more expense and trouble4 ,,section ,,viii4 ,,condimental ,,food4 ,although every farmer may not have used1 there are few who have not heard of ,thorley's ,condimental ,food for ,cattle4 ,this nostrum is a compound of some of the ordinary foods with certain well-known aromatic and carminative substances4 ,it possesses a very agreeable flavor1 and it is therefore much relished by horses1 and indeed by every kind of stock4 ,the price of this compound was at first so much as ,l#fj per ton2 but owing to competition1 and perhaps to the attacks made upon the enormously high price of this article1 it is now to be obtained at prices varying from ,l#ab to ,l#bd per ton4 ,the inventor of condimental food1 and the numerous fabricators of that compound1 claim for it merits of no ordinary nature4 ,its use1 they assert1 not only maintains the animals fed upon it in excellent health1 but it also exercises so remarkable an action upon the adipose tissues that fat accumulates to an immense extent4 ,moreover1 it is said that an animal supplied with a very moderate daily modicum of this wonderful compound1 will consume less of its ordinary food1 though rapidly becoming fat4 ,now1 if these assertions were perfectly1 or even approximatively1 true1 ,mr4 ,thorley would be well deserving of a niche in the temple of fame1 and stock-feeders would ever regard him as a benefactor to his own and the bovine species2 but ,i fear that ,mr4 ,thorley's imagination outstripped his reason when he described in such glowing terms the wonderful virtues of his tonic food4 ,mr4 ,j4 ,b4 ,lawes1 of ,rothamstead1 than whom there is no more accurate experimenter in agricultural practice1 states that he made many careful trials with ,thorley's food1 and that he never found it to exercise the slightest influence upon the nutrition of the animals fed upon it4 ,in his report upon this subject1 ,mr4 ,lawes1 after describing the experiments which he made1 sums up as follows3-- ,there is nothing therefore in the above results to recommend the use of ,thorley's condiment with inferior fattening food1 to those who feed pigs for profit4 ,in fact1 the following balance-sheet of the experiment shows that1 in fattening for twelve weeks1 there was a balance of ,l#a #ajs4 #aa;d4 in favor of the lot fed without ,thorley's food1 notwithstanding that one of the pigs in that lot did badly throughout the experiment1 as above stated4 ,,lot #a4--,,with ,,barley-,,meal ,,and ,,bran4 ,l s4 d4 #d pigs bought in at #das4 #f;d4 each #h #f #j #a1hfj-c_/d lbs4 barley1 at #cgs4 #f;d4 per quarter of #daf lbs41 including grinding #h #g #h-c_/d #a1jbd-c_/d lbs4 bran at #es4 #f;d4 per cwt4 #b #aj #c-c_/d ------------ #ai #d #j-a_/b #hh stone #e lbs4 of pork sold at #ds4 #d;d4 per stone1 sinking the offal #ai #d #j-a_/b ,,lot #b4--,,with ,,barley-,,meal1 ,,bran1 ,,and ,,thorley',s ,,food4 ,l s4 d4 #d pigs bought in at #das4 #f;d4 each #h #f #j #a1hfb-c_/d lbs4 barley1 at #cgs4 #f;d4 per quarter of #daf lbs41 including grinding #h #g #aj-a_/d #a1jbj-c_/d lbs4 bran at #es4 #f;d4 per cwt4 #b #aj #a-a_/b #aje lbs4 ,thorley's food at #djs4 per cwt4 #a #ag #f ------------ #ba #a #e-c_/d #ij stone #a lb4 pork sold at #ds4 #d;d4 per stone1 sinking the offal #ai #aj #f-a_/b ------------ #a #aj #aa-a_/d ,the results of these experiments with pigs1 in which ,thorley's condiment was used with inferior fattening food1 may be summed up as follows3-- #a4 ,the addition of ,thorley's condimental food increased the amount of food consumed by a given weight of animal within a given time4 #b4 ,when ,thorley's condiment was given it required more food to produce a given amount of increase in live-weight4 #c4 ,in fattening for twelve weeks there was a difference of ,l#a #ajs4 #aa;d4 on the lot of #d pigs in favor of barley-meal and bran alone1 over barley-meal1 bran1 and ,thorley's food in addition4 ,at a meeting of the ,council of the ,royal ,agricultural ,society of ,england1 held some time ago1 the subject of the nutrimental value of condimental cattle food was discussed4 ,as there is scarcely any kind of quackery1 from spirit manifestations to ,holloway's pills1 that has not got its believers1 there were1 as might have been anticipated1 some voices raised at this meeting in favor of ,thorley's food2 but the sense of the meeting was decidedly against it4 ,professor ,simonds pronounced it to be worthless4 ,although the greater number of equine proprietors and feeders of stock are too sensible to throw their money away in the purchase of those costly foods1 still there are by no means an insignificant number who employ it1 under the idea that it preserves the health of the animals2 these stuffs are also highly appreciated by many grooms and herds4 ,now1 for the information of all believers1 ,i may state that there is no mystery whatever in the nature of condimental cattle foods4 ,they consist in substance of such matters as linseed-cake1 ,indian corn1 rice1 bean-meal1 locust-beans1 and malt-combings4 ,these substances are flavored by the addition of turmeric-root1 ginger1 coriander-seed1 carraway-seed1 fenugreek-seed1 aniseed1 liquorice1 and similar substances4 ,in addition to the nutritive and flavorous articles employed in the manufacture of these foods1 purely medicinal substances are also made use of with the idea that they would prove useful in maintaining the health and stimulating the appetite of the animals4 ,these medicinal ingredients constitute but a small proportion of the compound1 although they add considerably to the cost of manufacture4 ,the following is a formula for a condimental food1 which in every respect will be found fully equal1 if not superior1 to the ordinary high-priced articles4 cwt4 qrs4 lbs4 ,linseed-meal1 or cake #g #j #j ,locust beans 7ground7 #h #j #j ,indian corn #d #a #j ,powdered turmeric #j #a #d ,ginger #j #j #c ,fenugreek-seed #j #j #b ,gentian #j #j #aj ,cream of tartar #j #j #b ,sulphur #j #j #bj ,common salt #j #j #aj ,coriander-seed #j #j #e ----------------- ,one ton4 ,a ton of condimental food manufactured according to this formula will cost only about the same amount as an equal weight of linseed1 and will produce an effect fully equal to that of the food which at one time was sold at ,l#fj per ton4 ,whatever may be the medicinal virtues of these foods1 or however appropriate the term condimental which has been applied to them1 it is quite certain that their whilom designation concentrated was a misnomer4 ,their composition shows that they possess a degree of nutritive power considerably below that of linseed-cake1 and but little1 if at all1 superior to that of ,indian corn4 ,the following analytical statement1 which ,i published some years ago1 will give an insight into the nature of these articles3-- ,,analyses ,,of ,,condimental ,,food4 ,thorley's4 ,bradley's4 ,water #ab4jj #ab4ji ,nitrogenous1 or flesh-forming principles #ad4ib #aj4cf ,oil #f4jh #e4hj ,gum1 sugar1 mucilage1 c4 #ef4hf #fj4ba ,woody fibre #e4df #e4cb ,mineral matter 7ash7 #d4fh #f4bb ------ ------ #ajj4jj #ajj4jj ,as a ton of linseed-cake contains a greater amount of nutriment than an equal quantity of condimental food1 the latter should be clearly proved to possess very valuable specific virtues1 in order to induce the feeder to use it extensively4 ,cattle and horses out of condition may be benefited by its carminative and tonic properties2 but if they are1 it surely must be a bad practice to feed healthy animals upon a substance which is a remedy in disease4 ,it is asserted1 and probably with some degree of truth1 that when dainty1 over-fed stock loathe their food1 they are induced to eat greedily by mixing the condimental with their ordinary food4 ,if such really be the case1 let the feeder compound the article himself1 and effect thereby a saving of perhaps #ej or #hj per cent4 in the cost of it4 ,a good condimental food1 rich in actual nutriment1 and pleasantly flavored1 is no doubt a compound which might be used with advantage2 but it should be sold at a moderate and fair price4 99 99 99 99 99 ,footnote #bf3 ,see ,transactions of ,highland and ,agricultural ,society of ,scotland for #aheb4 ,footnote #bg3 ,zig-zag clover1 or ,marl grass8 ,cowgrass is ,trifolium pratense perenne4 ,footnote #bh3 ,this gentleman has invented an exceedingly simple but effective furze-bruiser1 which ,i hope soon to see in general use4 ,footnote #bi3 ,h4 ,le ,docte1 in ,journal de la ,societe ,centrale d',agriculture de ,belgique4 ,footnote #cj3 ,cellulose is the term applied to the chemical substance which forms woody fibre4 ,the latter is made up of very minute spindle-shaped tubes4 ,in young and succulent plants these tubes are often lined with layers of soft cellulose4 ,in many plants--such as trees--in a certain stage of development1 the substance lining the cells is very hard1 and is termed lignin1 or sclerogen4 ,this substance is merely a modification of cellulose2 and both resemble in composition sugar and starch so closely that1 by heating them with sulphuric acid1 they may be converted into sugar4 ,footnote #ca3 ,one part of oil is equal to #b-a_/b parts of starch--that is1 #b-a_/b parts of starch are expended in the production of #a part of fat4 ,footnote #cb3 ,no difference is here assumed between the nutritive value of sugar and starch4 ,footnote #cc3 ,unless when ,kohl-rabi is cultivated1 for the bulbs of this plant may be preserved in good condition up to ,june4 ,i have advocated the cultivation of the radish as a food crop in the ,agricultural ,review for #ahfa4 ,footnote #cd3 ,according to some chemists1 sugar does not exist in ripe grain1 but is produced in it1 during the process of analysis1 by the action of the re-agents employed and the influence of the air4 ,footnote #ce3 ,report to ,government on feeding cattle with ,malt1 #ahdd4 ,footnote #cf3 ,monthly ,agricultural ,review1 ,dublin1 ,february1 #ahei4 ,footnote #cg3 ,transactions of the ,highland and ,agricultural ,society of ,scotland1 ,october1 #aheh4 ,footnote #ch3 #c lbs4 of rape-cake1 #c_/d lb4 malt combs1 #c_/d lb4 bran1 steamed together with a sufficient quantity of straw4 ,,section ,,ix4--,,analyses ,,of ,,the ,,ashes ,,of ,,plants4 7,extracted from the ,author's ,chemistry of ,agriculture47 ,those numbers marked with an asterisk refer to #ajj parts of the substance in its natural or undried state2 the remaining numbers refer to #ajj parts when dried4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,flax4 -------------- ,white ,rape ,peas4 ,kidney ,turnip ,seed4 ,stalk4 ,seed4 ,beans4 ,seed4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,potash #be4ah #cd4if #cb4ee #dc4ji #cf4hc #ba4ia ,soda 444 444 #b4ea 444 #ah4dj #a4bc ,lime #ab4ia #ae4hg #i4de #d4gg #g4ge #ag4dj ,magnesia #aa4ci #c4fh #af4bc #h4jf #f4cc #h4gd ,sesquioxide of ,iron #j4fb #d4hd #j4ch 444 #b4bd #a4ie ,manganese 444 444 444 444 444 444 ,sulphuric ,acid #j4ec #d4ii #a4dc #j4dd #c4if #g4aj ,muriatic ,acid #j4aa 444 444 #a4if 444 444 ,carbonic ,acid #b4bj #ac4ci 444 444 444 #j4hb ,phosphoric ,acid #de4ie #h4dh #ce4ii #dj4ef #aa4fj #dj4ag ,silica #a4aa #e4fj #a4df #j4gi #d4ji #j4fg ,chloride of ,potassium 444 #g4fe 444 444 444 444 ,chloride of ,sodium 444 #j4ed 444 444 #b4hj 444 ---------------------------------------- -- ,total #ajj4jj #ajj4jj #ajj4jj #ii4fg #ajj4jj #ii4ii ,per-centage of ,ash #d4ea #e4jj #c4je #e4ba #j4fh #c4ih 99 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,turnip ,mangel ,bulb ,cucumber4 ,wurtzel,potatoes ,hop 7,swede74 ,seed4 7tubers74,flowers4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,potash #ci4hb #dg4eb #af4jh #ce4ae #ai4da ,soda #aj4hf 444 #f4hf #e4gg #j4gj ,lime #ab4ge #f4ca #ac4db #b4ad #ad4ae ,magnesia #d4fh #d4bf #ae4bb #b4fi #e4cd ,sesquioxide of ,iron #j4hi 444 #j4dj #a4gi #b4da ,manganese 444 444 444 444 444 ,sulphuric ,acid #ac4ae #d4fj #c4fd #c4bi #h4bh ,muriatic ,acid #c4fh 444 444 444 #b4bf ,carbonic ,acid 444 444 #ac4he #ag4ad #aa4ja ,phosphoric ,acid #f4fi #ah4jc #ac4ce #bj4gj #ad4fd ,silica #g4je #g4ab #a4hf #c4jj #ah4ef ,chloride of ,potassium 444 #d4ai 444 #a4hd 444 ,chloride of ,sodium 444 #i4jf #ae4cj #f4di #b4ie ---------------------------------------- --- ,total #ii4eg #ajj4ji #ii4ih #ajj4jj #ii4ga ,per-centage of ,ash #g4fj #j4fc #f4eh #f4je 99 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,the number marked with an asterisk refers to #ajj parts of the substance in its natural or undried state2 the remaining numbers refer to #ajj parts when dried4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,husks ,rye4 ,cauli- ,hopeton ,potato of ------------- flowers4,oats ,oats4 ,potato,grain4,straw4 7,grain747,grain74,oats4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,potash #cd4ci #bj4fe #b4bc #ca4gf #ag4cf #ca4ef ,soda #ad4gi 444 _/ #h4ig #d4de #j4ca ,lime #b4if #aj4bh #e4cb #d4cj #b4ib #i4jf ,magnesia #b4ch #g4hb #h4fi #b4ce #aj4ac #b4da ,sesquioxide of ,iron #a4fi #c4he #j4hh #j4cb #j4hb #a4cf ,manganese 444 #j4db 444 444 444 444 ,sulphuric ,acid #aa4af 444 444 #d4cj #a4df #j4hc ,muriatic ,acid 444 444 444 444 444 #j4df ,carbonic ,acid 444 444 444 444 444 444 ,phosphoric ,acid #bg4he #ej4dd #di4ai #j4ff #dg4bi #c4hb ,silica #a4ib #d4dj #a4hg #gd4ah #j4ag #fd4ej ,chloride of ,potassium 444 #a4jc 444 444 444 444 ,chloride of ,sodium #b4hf 444 #j4ce #b4ci 444 444 ---------------------------------------- -- ,total #ajj4jj #ih4hi #ig4hf #ii4gjajj4jjajj4aa ,per-centage of ,ash #j4ga #b4bb #b4cj #b4fj 99 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,grasses 7in flower74 ,hay4 --------------------------------------- ,bromus ,lolium ,annual ,avena erectus4perenne4,ryegrass4flavesceus4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,potash #bj4hj #bj4cc #bd4fg #bh4ii #cf4jf ,soda #aj4he 444 444 #j4hg #j4gc ,lime #h4bd #aj4ch #i4fd #f4hb #g4ih ,magnesia #d4ja #d4ii #b4he #b4ei #c4jg ,sesquioxide of ,iron #a4hc #j4bf #j4ba #j4bh #b4dj ,manganese 444 444 444 444 444 ,sulphuric ,acid #b4aa #e4df #e4bj #c4de #d4jj ,muriatic ,acid 444 444 444 444 444 ,carbonic ,acid #j4fh #j4ee #j4di 444 444 ,phosphoric ,acid #ae4dc #g4ec #h4gc #aj4jg #i4ca ,silica #cj4ja #ch4dh #bg4ac #da4gi #ce4bj ,chloride of ,potassium 444 #aj4fc #ac4hj 444 444 ,chloride of ,sodium #e4ji #a4ch #g4be #e4aa #a4be ---------------------------------------- --- ,total #ii4je #ii4ii #ii4ig #ii4ig #ajj4jj ,per-centage of ,ash #e4ba #g4ed #f4de #e4bj ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,those numbers marked with an asterisk refer to #ajj parts of the substance in its natural or undried state2 the remaining numbers refer to #ajj parts when dried4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,kohl-rabi1 from ,broccoli4 ,cow ,cabbage4 chalk soil4 ---------------------------------------- --- ,root4 ,leaves4,leaves4,stalk4 ,leaves4 ,tuber4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,potash #dg4af #bb4aj #dj4hf #dj4ic #i4ca #cf4bg ,soda 444 #g4ee #b4dc #d4je 444 #b4hd ,lime #d4gj #bh4dd #ae4ja #aj4fa #cj4ca #aj4bj ,magnesia #c4ic #c4dc #b4ci #c4he #c4fb #b4cf ,sesquioxide of ,iron 444 444 #j4gg #j4da #e4ej #j4ch ,manganese 444 444 444 444 444 444 ,sulphuric ,acid #aj4ce #af4aj #g4bg #aa4aa #aj4fc #aa4dc ,muriatic ,acid 444 444 444 444 444 444 ,carbonic ,acid 444 444 #af4fh #f4cc #h4ig #aj4bd ,phosphoric ,acid #be4hc #ai4ha #ab4eb #ai4eg #i4dc #ac4df ,silica #a4ha #b4hc #a4ff #a4jd #i4eg #j4hb ,chloride of ,potassium #f4bb 444 444 444 #e4ii 444 ,chloride of ,sodium a trace 444 444 #b4jh #f4ff #aa4ij ---------------------------------------- -- ,total #ajj4jj #ajj4bf #ii4ii #ii4ih #ii4ii #ii4ij ,per-centage of ,ash #a4ja #a4gj #j4gj #a4bd #ah4ed #h4ji 99 99 99 99 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,wheat ,wheat4 ,barley4 7,grain74 --------------------------------- ,grain4 ,straw4 ,grain4 ,straw4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,potash #bi4ea #be4ib #aj4gh #cb4jb #ad4cg ,soda #aj4fa 444 444 #a4ba #j4bh ,lime #j4ii #c4hj #b4dd #c4ci #h4ej ,magnesia #aj4fj #ab4bg #c4bc #aj4ii #a4gj ,sesquioxide of ,iron 444 #a4ab #j4ed #j4ae #j4bj ,manganese 444 444 444 444 444 ,sulphuric ,acid #j4ji 444 #a4gg 444 #b4bb ,muriatic ,acid 444 444 444 444 444 ,carbonic ,acid 444 #d4dc #f4ja #j4dh #a4be ,phosphoric ,acid #dg4ee #dc4dd #c4fi #bi4ib #d4bb ,silica #j4aa #g4af #fd4hd #ba4ab #fb4hi ,chloride of ,potassium 444 #a4jc #c4if 444 444 ,chloride of ,sodium #j4ed 444 #j4db #j4gb #d4cg ---------------------------------------- --- ,total #ajj4jj #ii4ag #ii4fh #ajj4jj #ajj4jj ,per-centage of ,ash #b4cb #a4fde #e4beb #b4bb #e4di ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,,appendix4 ,whilst this ,work was passing through the press1 a valuable ,report on ,agricultural ,statistics was issued by the ,board of ,trade4 ,the following statistics1 collected from this ,report1 are here given1 because they modify the statements made in page #e3-- ,,population1 ,,area1 ,,acreage ,,under ,,crops1 ,,etc41 ,,and ,,number ,,of ,,live ,,stock1 ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,kingdom ,,in #ahfg4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,england4 ,wales4 ,scotland4 ,ireland4 ---------------------------------------- ----- ,population 7#ahff7 #bj1bgf1did #a1ahg1ajc #c1acf1jeg #e1ega1iga ---------------------------------------- ----- ,area 7in ,statute ,acres7 #cb1eij1cig #d1gcd1dhf #ai1fci1cgg #bj1cbb1fda ---------------------------------------- ----- ,under ,corn ,crops #g1cii1cdg #eba1djd #a1cfd1jbi #b1aae1acg ,green ,crops #b1fia1gcd #ach1chg #ffh1jdb #a1dcb1beb ,bare ,fallow #gec1baj #hf1beg #hc1jia #bf1aia ,grass--,clover1 c41 #b1dgh1aag #cjj1gef #a1baa1aja #a1feh1dea ,under ,rotation ,permanent ,pasture1 not broken up in ,rotation#ci #i1ede1fge #a1dgb1cei #a1jec1bhe #aj1jeg1jgb ---------------------------------------- ----- ,per-centage of ,acreage3#dj-- ,under ,corn ,crops #cb4c #bj4g #ca4a #ac4f ,green ,crops #aa4g #e4e #ae4c #i4b ,bare ,fallow #c4c #c4d #a4i 4#b ,grass--,clover1 c41 under ,rotation #aj4h #aa4i #bg4g #aj4g ,permanent ,pasture#da #da4f #eh4e #bd4j #fd4g ---------------------------------------- ----- ,number of ,cattle #c1dfi1jbf #edd1ech #igi1dgj #c1gjb1cgh of ,sheep #ai1gih1ccg #b1bbg1afa #f1hic1fjc #d1hbf1jae of ,pigs #b1edh1gee #bbi1iag #ahh1cjg #a1bcc1hic ---------------------------------------- ----- ,number of ,live ,stock to every #ajj ,acres under ,crops1 ,fallow1 and ,grass3-- ,cattle #ae4a #ba4f #bb4d #bc4h ,sheep #hf4c #hh4d #aeg4d #ca4a ,pigs #aa4a #i4a #d4c #g4i ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,channel ,islands4 ,isle of ---------------------- ,total for ,man4 ,guernsey1 ,united ,jersey4 c4 ,kingdom ---------------------------------------- ----- ,population 7#ahff7 #eb1dfi #ee1fac #ce1cfe #cj1cae1jgb ---------------------------------------- ----- ,area 7in ,statute ,acres7 #ahj1jjj #bh1gag #ag1ifg #gg1eac1ehe ---------------------------------------- ----- ,under ,corn ,crops #bg1jci #b1hbg #b1aeg #aa1dca1idj ,green ,crops #ab1fgj #e1fcf #c1jge #d1iea1gif ,bare ,fallow #a1iij #b1eej #gji #iec1iih ,grass--,clover1 c41 #bf1hhd #c1bej #hgd #e1fgi1dcc ,under ,rotation ,permanent ,pasture1 not broken up in ,rotation#ci #ae1iae #f1jib #f1adc #bb1aef1eda ---------------------------------------- ----- ,per-centage of ,acreage3#dj-- ,under ,corn ,crops #cb4j #ac4i #af4g #be4a ,green ,crops #ae4j #bg4f #bc4g #aj4i ,bare ,fallow #b4d #ab4e #e4e #b4a ,grass--,clover1 c41 under ,rotation #ca4h #af4j #f4g #ab4d ,permanent ,pasture#da #ah4h #cj4j #dg4d #dh4g ---------------------------------------- ----- ,number of ,cattle #ah1fgb #aj1jha #g1cjh #h1gca1dgc of ,sheep #gj1ieh #ebi #a1cdh #cc1hag1iea of ,pigs #g1gjf #e1hjd #f1gah #d1bba1ajj ---------------------------------------- ----- ,number of ,live ,stock to every #ajj ,acres under ,crops1 ,fallow1 and ,grass3-- ,cattle #bb4a #di4e #ef4d #ai4b ,sheep #hd4j #b4f #aj4d #gd4c ,pigs #i4a #bh4e #ea4h #i4c ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- 99 99 99 99 99 ,footnote #ci3 ,exclusive of heath or mountain land4 ,footnote #dj3 ,the per-centage of acreage is exclusive of ,hops in ,great ,britain1 and ,flax in ,ireland4 ,footnote #da3 ,including under ,flax1 #bec1aje acres4