,illustration3 ,william ,harvey ,,the ,,world',s ,,greatest ,,books ,,joint ,,editors ,,arthur ,,mee ,editor and ,founder of the ,book of ,knowledge ,j4,a4 ,,hammerton ,editor of ,harmsworth's ,universal ,encyclopaedia ,,vol4 ,,xv ,,science ,,wm4 ,h4 ,,wise ,co4 ,table of ,contents ,,portrait ,,of ,,william ,,harvey ,frontispiece ,,page ,,bramwell1 ,,john ,,milne ,hypnotism3 ,its ,history1 ,practice and ,theory #a ,,buffon1 ,,comte ,,de ,natural ,history #ab ,,chambers1 ,,robert ,vestiges of ,creation #bb ,,cuvier1 ,,georges ,the ,surface of the ,globe #cc ,,darwin1 ,,charles ,the ,origin of ,species #dc ,,davy1 ,,sir ,,humphry ,elements of ,chemical ,philosophy #fd ,,faraday1 ,,michael ,experimental ,researches in ,electricity #ge ,the ,chemical ,history of a ,candle #he ,,forel1 ,,auguste ,the ,senses of ,insects #ie ,,galileo ,dialogues on the ,system of the ,world #aje ,,galton1 ,,sir ,,francis ,essays in ,eugenics #aaa ,,haeckel1 ,,ernst ,the ,evolution of ,man #abc ,,harvey1 ,,william ,on the ,motion of the ,heart and ,blood #acf ,,herschel1 ,,sir ,,john ,outlines of ,astronomy #adf ,,humboldt1 ,,alexander ,,von ,cosmos1 a ,sketch of the ,universe #aeh ,,hutton1 ,,james ,the ,theory of the ,earth #agj ,,lamarck ,zoological ,philosophy #agi ,,lavater1 ,,johann ,physiogonomical ,fragments #aia ,,liebig1 ,,justus ,,von ,animal ,chemistry #bjc ,,lyell1 ,,sir ,,charles ,the ,principles of ,geology #bae ,,maxwell1 ,,james ,,clerk ,a ,treatise on ,electricity and ,magnetism #bbg ,,metchnikoff1 ,,elie ,the ,nature of ,man #bch ,the ,prolongation of ,life #bdf ,,miller1 ,,hugh ,the ,old ,red ,sandstone #bee ,,newton1 ,,sir ,,isaac ,principia #bfg ,,owen1 ,,sir ,,richard ,anatomy of ,vertebrates #bhj ,,virchow1 ,,rudolf ,cellular ,pathology #bib 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,complete ,index of ,,the ,,world',s ,,greatest ,,books will be found at the end of ,volume ,,xx4 ,acknowledgment ,acknowledgment and thanks for the use of the following selections are herewith tendered to the ,open ,court ,publishing ,company1 ,la ,salle1 ,ill41 for ,senses of ,insects1 by ,auguste ,forel2 to ,g4,p4 ,putnam's ,sons1 ,new ,york1 for ,prolongation of ,human ,life and ,nature of ,man1 by ,elie ,metchnikoff2 and to the ,de ,la ,more ,press1 ,london1 for ,hypnotism1 c41 by ,dr4 ,bramwell4 ,science ,,john ,,milne ,,bramwell ,hypnotism3 ,its ,history1 ,practice and ,theory ,john ,milne ,bramwell was born in ,perth1 ,scotland1 ,may #aa1 #aheb4 ,the son of a physician1 he studied medicine in ,edinburgh1 and after obtaining his degree of ,m4,b41 in #ahgc1 he settled at ,goole1 ,yorkshire4 ,fired by the unfinished work of ,braid1 ,bernheim and ,libeault1 he began1 in #ahhi1 a series of hypnotic researches1 which1 together with a number of successful experiments he had privately conducted1 created considerable stir in the medical world4 ,abandoning his general practice and settling in ,london in #ahib1 ,dr4 ,bramwell became one of the foremost authorities in the country on hypnotism as a curative agent4 ,his ,works include many valuable treatises1 the most important being ,hypnotism3 its ,history1 ,practice and ,theory1 published in #aijc1 and here summarised for the ,,world',s ,,greatest ,,books by ,dr4 ,bramwell himself4 ,i4--,pioneers of ,hypnotism ,just as chemistry arose from alchemy1 astronomy from astrology1 so hypnotism had its origin in mesmerism4 ,phenomena such as ,mesmer described had undoubtedly been observed from early times1 but to his work1 which extended from #agef to his death1 in #ahae1 we owe the scientific interest which1 after much error and self-deception1 finally led to what we now term hypnotism4 ,john ,elliotson 7#agia-ahfh71 the foremost physician of his day1 was the leader of the mesmeric movement in ,england4 ,in #ahcg1 after seeing ,dupotet's work1 he commenced to experiment at ,university ,college ,hospital1 and continued1 with remarkable success1 until ordered to desist by the council of the college4 ,elliotson felt the insult keenly1 indignantly resigned his appointments1 and never afterwards entered the hospital he had done so much to establish4 ,despite the persistent and virulent attacks of the medical press1 he continued his mesmeric researches up to the time of his death1 sacrificing friends1 income and reputation to his beliefs4 ,the fame of mesmerism spread to ,india1 where1 in #ahde1 ,james ,esdaile 7#ahjh-ahei71 a surgeon in the ,east ,india ,company1 determined to investigate the subject4 ,he was in charge of the ,native ,hospital at ,hooghly1 and successfully mesmerised a convict before a painful operation4 ,encouraged by this1 he persevered1 and1 at the end of a year1 reported #abj painless operations to the government4 ,investigations were instituted1 and ,esdaile was placed in charge of a hospital at ,calcutta1 for the express purpose of mesmeric practice2 he continued to occupy similar posts until he left ,india in #ahea4 ,he recorded #bfa painless capital operations and many thousand minor ones1 and reduced the mortality for the removal of the enormous tumours of elephantiasis from #ej to #e per cent4 ,according to ,elliotson and ,esdaile1 the phenomena of mesmerism were entirely physical in origin4 ,they were supposed to be due to the action of a vital curative fluid1 or peculiar physical force1 which1 under certain circumstances1 could be transmitted from one human being to another4 ,this was usually termed the od1 or odylic1 force2 various inanimate objects1 such as metals1 crystals and magnets1 were supposed to possess it1 and to be capable of inducing and terminating the mesmeric state1 or of exciting or arresting its phenomena4 ,the name of ,james ,braid 7#agie-ahfj7 is familiar to all students of hypnotism4 ,braid was a ,scottish surgeon1 practising in ,manchester1 where he had already gained a high reputation as a skilful surgeon1 when1 in #ahda1 he first began to investigate mesmerism4 ,he successfully demonstrated that the phenomena were entirely subjective4 ,he published ,neurypnology1 or the ,rationale of ,nervous ,sleep1 in #ahdc1 and invented the terminology we now use4 ,this was followed by other more or less important works1 of which ,i have been able to trace forty-one1 but all have been long out of print4 ,during the eighteen years ,braid devoted to the study of hypnotism1 his views underwent many changes and modifications4 ,in his first theory1 he explained hypnosis from a physical standpoint2 in the second1 he considered it to be a condition of involuntary monoideism and concentration1 while his third theory differed from both4 ,he recognised that reason and volition were unimpaired1 and that the attention could be simultaneously directed to more points than one4 ,the condition1 therefore1 was not one of monoideism4 ,he realised more and more that the state was a conscious one1 and that the losses of memory which followed on waking could always be restored in subsequent hypnoses4 ,finally1 he described as double consciousness the condition he had first termed hypnotic1 then monoideistic4 ,braid maintained an active interest in hypnotism up to his death1 and1 indeed1 three days before it1 sent his last ,,ms4 to ,dr4 ,azam1 of ,bordeaux1 as a mark of esteem and regard4 ,sympathetic notices appeared in the press after his death1 all of which bore warm testimony to his professional character4 ,although hypnotic work practically ceased in ,england at ,braid's death1 the torch he had lighted passed into ,france4 ,in #ahfj1 ,dr4 ,a4,a4 ,libeault 7#ahbc-aijj7 began to study hypnotism seriously1 and four years later gave up general practice1 settled in ,nancy1 and practised hypnotism gratuitously among the poor4 ,for twenty years his labours were unrecognised1 then ,bernheim 7one of whose patients ,libeault had cured7 came to see him1 and soon became a zealous pupil4 ,the fame of the ,nancy school spread1 ,libeault's name became known throughout the world1 and doctors flocked to study the new therapeutic method4 ,while ,libeault's work may justly be regarded as a continuation of ,braid's1 there exists little difference between the theories of ,charcot and the ,salptrire school and those of the later mesmerists4 ,,ii4--,theory of ,hypnotism ,the following is a summary of ,braid's latest theories3 7#a7 ,hypnosis could not be induced by physical means alone4 7#b7 ,hypnotic and so-called mesmeric phenomena were subjective in origin1 and both were excited by direct or by indirect suggestion4 7#c7 ,hypnosis was characterised by physical as well as by psychical changes4 7#d7 ,the simultaneous appearance of several phenomena was recognised1 and much importance was attached to the intelligent action of a secondary consciousness4 7#e7 ,volition was unimpaired1 moral sense increased1 and suggested crime impossible4 7#f7 ,rapport was a purely artificial condition created by suggestion4 7#g7 ,the importance of direct verbal suggestion was fully recognised1 as also the mental influence of physical methods4 ,suggestion was regarded as the device used for exciting the phenomena1 and not considered as sufficient to explain them4 7#h7 ,important differences existed between hypnosis and normal sleep4 7#i7 ,hypnotic phenomena might be induced without the subject having passed through any condition resembling sleep4 7#aj7 ,the mentally healthy were the easiest1 the hysterical the most difficult1 to influence4 ,in ,england1 during ,braid's lifetime1 his earlier views were largely adopted by certain well-known men of science1 particularly by ,professors ,w4,b4 ,carpenter and ,j4 ,hughes ,bennett1 but they appear to have known little or nothing of his latest theories4 ,bennett's description of the probable mental and physical conditions involved in the state ,braid described as monoideism is specially worthy of note4 ,not only is it interesting in itself1 but it serves also as a standard of comparison with which to measure the theories of later observers1 who have attempted to explain hypnosis by cerebral inhibition1 psychical automatism1 or both these conditions combined4 7a7 ,physiological4--,according to ,bennett1 hypnosis was characterised by alterations in the functional activity of the nerve tubes of the white matter of the cerebral lobes4 ,he suggested that a certain proportion of these became paralysed through continued monotonous stimulation2 while the action of others was consequently exalted4 ,as these tubes connected the cerebral ganglion-cells1 suspension of their functions was assumed to bring with it interruption of the connection between the ganglion-cells4 7b7 ,psychical4--,from the psychical side1 he explained the phenomena of hypnosis by the action of predominant and unchecked ideas4 ,these were able to obtain prominence from the fact that other ideas1 which1 under ordinary circumstances1 would have controlled their development1 did not arise1 because the portion of the brain with which the latter were associated had its action temporarily suspended--i4e41 the connection between the ganglion-cells was broken1 owing to the interrupted connection between the fibres of association4 ,thus1 he said1 the remembrance of a sensation could always be called up by the brain2 but1 under ordinary circumstances1 from the exercise of judgment1 comparison1 and other mental faculties1 we knew it was only a remembrance4 ,when these faculties were exhausted1 the suggested idea predominated1 and the individual believed in its reality4 ,thus1 he attributed to the faculties of the mind a certain power of correcting the fallacies which each of them was likely to fall into2 just as the illusions of one sense were capable of being detected by the healthy use of the other senses4 ,there were mental and sensorial illusions1 the former caused by predominant ideas and corrected by proper reasoning1 the latter caused by perversion of one sense and corrected by the right application of the others4 ,in hypnosis1 according to this theory1 a suggested idea obtained prominence and caused mental and sensorial illusions1 because the check action--the inhibitory power--of certain higher centres had been temporarily suspended4 ,these theories were first published by ,professor ,bennett in #ahea4 ,,iii4--,hypnotic ,induction ,the methods by which hypnosis is induced have been classed as follows3 7#a7 physical2 7#b7 psychical2 7#c7 those of the magnetisers4 ,the modern operator1 whatever his theories may be1 borrows his technique from ,mesmer and ,libeault with equal impartiality1 and thus renders classification impossible4 ,the members of the ,nancy school1 while asserting that everything is due to suggestion1 do not hesitate to use physical means1 and1 if these fail1 ,bernheim has recourse to narcotics4 ,the following is now my usual method3 ,i rarely begin treatment the first time ,i see a patient1 but confine myself to making his acquaintance1 hearing his account of his case1 and ascertaining his mental attitude with regard to suggestion4 ,i usually find1 from the failure of other methods of treatment1 that he is more or less sceptical as to the chance of being benefited4 ,i endeavour to remove all erroneous ideas1 and refuse to begin treatment until the patient is satisfied of the safety and desirability of the experiment4 ,i never say ,i am certain of being able to influence him1 but explain how much depends on his mental attitude and power of carrying out my directions4 ,i further explain to the patient that next time he comes to see me ,i shall ask him to close his eyes1 to concentrate his attention on some drowsy mental picture1 and try to turn it away from me4 ,i then make suggestions of two kinds3 the first refer to the condition ,i wish to induce while he is actually in the armchair1 thus1 ,each time you see me1 you will find it easier to concentrate your attention on something restful4 ,i do not wish you to go to sleep1 but if you can get into the drowsy condition preceding natural sleep1 my suggestions are more likely to be responded to4 ,i explain that ,i do not expect this to happen at once1 although it does occur in rare instances1 but it is the repetition of the suggestions made in this particular way which brings about the result4 ,thus1 from the very first treatment1 the patient is subjected to two distinct processes1 the object of one being to induce the drowsy1 suggestible condition1 that of the other to cure or relieve disease4 ,i wish particularly to mention that although ,i speak of hypnotism and hypnosis--and it is almost impossible to avoid doing so--,i rarely attempt to induce so-called hypnosis1 and find that patients respond to treatment as readily1 and much more quickly1 now that ,i start curative suggestions and treatment simultaneously1 than they did in the days when ,i waited until hypnosis was induced before making curative suggestions4 ,i have obtained good results in treating all forms of hysteria1 including grande hysterie1 neurasthenia1 certain forms of insanity1 dipsomania and chronic alcoholism1 morphinomania and other drug habits1 vicious and degenerate children1 obsessions1 stammering1 chorea1 seasickness1 and all other forms of functional nervous disturbances4 ,it is impossible to discuss the different theories in detail here1 but ,i will briefly summarise the more important points1 7#a7 ,hypnotism1 as a science1 rests on the recognition of the subjective nature of its phenomena4 7#b7 ,the theories of ,charcot and the ,salptrire school are practically a reproduction of mesmeric error4 7#c7 ,libeault and his followers combated the views of the ,salptrire school and successfully substituted their own1 of which the following are the important points3 7a7 ,hypnosis is a physiological condition1 which can be induced in the healthy4 7b7 ,in everyone there is a tendency to respond to suggestion1 but in hypnosis this condition is artificially increased4 7c7 ,suggestion explains all4 ,despite the fact that the members of the ,nancy school regard the condition as purely physiological and simply an exaggeration of the normal1 they consider it1 in its profound stages at all events1 a form of automatism4 ,these and other views of the ,nancy school have been questioned by several observers4 ,as ,myers justly pointed out1 although suggestion is the artifice used to excite the phenomena1 it does not create the condition on which they depend4 ,the peculiar state which enables the phenomena to be evoked is the essential thing1 not the signal which precedes their appearance4 ,within recent times another theory has arisen1 which1 instead of explaining hypnotism by the arrested action of some of the brain centres which subserve normal life1 attempts to do so by the arousing of certain powers over which we normally have little or no control4 ,this theory appears under different names1 ,double ,consciousness1 ,das ,doppel-,ich1 etc41 and the principle on which it depends is largely admitted by science4 ,william ,james1 for example1 says3 ,in certain persons1 at least1 the total possible consciousness may be split into parts which co-exist1 but mutually ignore each other4 ,the clearest statement of this view was given by the late ,frederic ,myers2 he suggested that the stream of consciousness in which we habitually lived was not our only one4 ,possibly our habitual consciousness might be a mere selection from a multitude of thoughts and sensations--some1 at least1 equally conscious with those we empirically knew4 ,no primacy was granted by this theory to the ordinary waking self1 except that among potential selves it appeared the fittest to meet the needs of common life4 ,as a rule1 the waking life was remembered in hypnosis1 and the hypnotic life forgotten in the waking state2 this destroyed any claim of the primary memory to be the sole memory4 ,the self below the threshold of ordinary consciousness ,myers termed the subliminal consciousness1 and the empirical self of common experience the supraliminal4 ,he held that to the subliminal consciousness and memory a far wider range1 both of physiological and psychical activity1 was open than to the supraliminal4 ,the latter was inevitably limited by the need of concentration upon recollections useful in the struggle for existence2 while the former included much that was too rudimentary to be retained in the supraliminal memory of an organism so advanced as that of man4 ,the recollection of processes now performed automatically and needing no supervision1 passed out of the supraliminal memory1 but might be retained by the subliminal4 ,the subliminal1 or hypnotic1 self could exercise over the vaso-motor and circulatory systems a degree of control unparalleled in waking life4 ,thus1 according to the ,nancy school1 the deeply hypnotised subject responds automatically to suggestion before his intellectual centres have had time to bring their inhibitory action into play2 but1 on the other hand1 in the subliminal consciousness theory1 volition and consciousness are recognised to be unimpaired in hypnosis4 ,,iv4--,curative ,value of ,hypnotism ,the intelligent action of the secondary self may be illustrated by the execution of certain post-hypnotic acts4 ,thus1 one of my patients who1 at a later period1 consented to become the subject of experiment1 developed an enormously increased power of time appreciation4 ,if told1 during hypnosis1 for example1 that she was to perform some specific act in the waking state at the expiration of a complicated number of minutes1 as1 for example1 #dj1hbe1 she generally carried out the suggestion with absolute accuracy4 ,in this and similar experiments1 three points were noted4 7#a7 ,the arithmetical problems were far beyond her normal powers2 7#b7 she normally possessed no special faculty for appreciating time2 7#c7 her waking consciousness retained no recollection of the experimental suggestions or of anything else that had occurred during hypnosis4 ,it is difficult to estimate the exact value of suggestion in connection with other forms of treatment4 ,there are one or two broad facts which ought to be kept in mind4 #a4 ,suggestion is a branch of medicine1 which is sometimes combined by those who practise it with other forms of treatment4 ,thus it is often difficult to say what proportion of the curative results is due to hypnotism and what to other remedies4 #b4 ,on the other hand1 many cases of functional nervous disorder have recovered under suggestive treatment after the continued failure of other methods4 ,further1 the diseases which are frequently cured are often those in which drugs are of little or no avail4 ,for example1 what medicine would one prescribe for a man in good physical health who had suddenly become the prey of an obsession8 ,such patients are rarely insane2 they recognise that the idea which torments them is morbid2 but yet they are powerless to get rid of it4 #c4 ,in estimating the results of suggestive treatment1 it must not be forgotten that the majority of cases are extremely unfavourable ones4 ,as the value of suggestion and its freedom from danger become more fully recognised1 it will doubtless be employed in earlier stages of disease4 #d4 ,it should be clearly understood that the object of all suggestive treatment ought to be the development of the patient's will power and control of his own organism4 ,much disease would be prevented if we could develop and control moral states4 ,,buffon ,natural ,history ,georges ,louis ,leclerc1 created in #aggc ,comte de ,buffon1 was born at ,montbard1 in ,france1 on ,september #g1 #agjg4 ,evincing a marked bent for science he became1 in #agci1 director of the ,jardin du ,roi and the ,king's ,museum in ,paris4 ,he had long contemplated the preparation of a complete ,history of ,nature1 and now proceeded to carry out the work4 ,the first three volumes of the ,histoire ,naturelle1 ,gnrale et ,particulire appeared in #agdi1 and other volumes followed at frequent intervals until his death at ,paris on ,april #af1 #aghh4 ,buffon's immense enterprise was greeted with abounding praise by most of his contemporaries4 ,on ,july #a1 #ageb1 he was elected to the ,french ,academy in succession to ,languet de ,gergy1 ,archbishop of ,sens1 and1 at his reception on ,august #be in the following year1 pronounced the oration in which occurred the memorable aphorism1 ,le style est l'homme mme 7,the style is the very man74 ,buffon also anticipated ,thomas ,carlyle's definition of genius 7which means the transcendent capacity of taking trouble1 first of all7 by his famous axiom1 ,le gnie n'est autre chose qu'une grande aptitude la patience4 ,scope of the ,work ,buffon planned his ,natural ,history on an encyclopaedic scale4 ,his point of view was unique4 ,natural history in its widest sense1 he tells us1 embraces every object in the visible universe4 ,the obvious divisions of the subject1 therefore1 are1 first1 the earth1 the air1 and the water2 then the animals--quadrupeds1 birds1 fishes1 and so on--inhabiting each of these elements1 to use the phrase of his day4 ,now1 ,buffon argued1 if man were required to give some account of the animals by which he was surrounded1 of course he would begin with those with which he was most familiar1 as the horse1 the dog1 the cow4 ,from these he would proceed to the creatures with which he was less familiar1 and finally deal--through the medium of travellers' tales and other sources of information--with the denizens of field1 forest and flood in foreign lands4 ,in similar fashion he would consider the plants1 minerals1 and other products of ,nature1 in addition to recounting the marvels revealed to him by astronomy4 ,whatever its defects on the scientific side1 ,buffon's plan was simplicity itself1 and was adopted largely1 if not entirely1 in consequence of his contempt--real or affected--for the systematic method of the illustrious ,linnus4 ,having charted his course1 the rest was plain sailing4 ,he starts with the physical globe1 discussing the formation of the planets1 the features of the earth--mountains1 rivers1 seas1 lakes1 tides1 currents1 winds1 volcanoes1 earthquakes1 islands1 and so forth--and the effects of the encroachment and retreat of the ocean4 ,animate nature next concerns him4 ,after comparing animals1 plants and minerals1 he proceeds to study man literally from the cradle to the grave1 garnishing the narrative with those incursions into the domains of psychology1 physiology and hygiene1 which1 his detractors insinuated1 rendered his work specially attractive and popular4 ,i4--,the ,four-,footed ,animals ,such questions occupied the first three volumes1 and the ground was now cleared for the celebrated treatise on ,quadrupeds1 which filled no fewer than twelve volumes1 published at various dates from #agec 7vol4 iv47 to #agfg 7vol4 xv41 containing the ,new ,world monkeys1 indexes1 and the like74 ,buffon's modus operandi saved him from capital blunders4 ,though inordinately vain--,i know but five great geniuses1 he once said2 ,newton1 ,bacon1 ,leibniz1 ,montesquieu1 and myself--he was quite conscious of his own limitations1 and had the common-sense to entrust to ,daubenton the description of the anatomy and other technical matters as to which his own knowledge was comparatively defective4 ,he reserved to himself what may be called the literary aspect of his theme1 recording the place of each animal in history1 and relating its habits with such gusto as his ornate and grandiose style permitted4 ,after a preliminary dissertation on the nature of animals1 ,buffon plunges into an account of those that have been domesticated or tamed4 ,preference of place is given to the horse1 and his method of treatment is curiously anticipatory of modern lines4 ,beginning with some notice of the horse in history1 he goes on to describe its appearance and habits and the varieties of the genus1 ending 7by the hand of ,daubenton7 with an account of its structure and physiology4 ,as evidence of the pains he took to collect authority for his statements1 it is of interest to mention that he illustrates the running powers of the ,english horse by citing the instance of ,thornhill1 the postmaster of ,stilton1 who1 in #agde1 wagered he would ride the distance from ,stilton to ,london thrice in fifteen consecutive hours4 ,setting out from ,stilton1 and using eight different horses1 he accomplished his task in #c hours #ea minutes4 ,in the return journey he used six horses1 and took #c hours #eb minutes4 ,for the third race he confined his choice of horses to those he had already ridden1 and1 selecting seven1 achieved the distance in #c hours #di minutes4 ,he performed the undertaking in #aa hours and #cb minutes4 ,i doubt1 comments ,buffon1 whether in the ,olympic ,games there was ever witnessed such rapid racing as that displayed by ,mr4 ,thornhill4 ,justice having been done to it1 the horse gives place to the ass1 ox1 sheep1 goat1 pig1 dog1 and cat1 with which he closes the account of the domesticated animals1 to which three volumes are allotted4 ,it is noteworthy that ,buffon frequently1 if not always1 gives the synonyms of the animals' names in other languages1 and usually supports his textual statements by footnote references to his authorities4 ,when he comes to the ,carnivores--les animaux nuisibles--the defects of ,buffon's higgledy-piggledy plan are almost ludicrously evident1 for flesh-eaters1 fruit-eaters1 insect-eaters1 and gnawers rub shoulders with colossal indifference4 ,doubtless1 however1 this is to us all the more conspicuous1 because use and wont have made readers of the present day acquainted with the advantages of classification1 which it is but fair to recognise has been elaborated and perfected since ,buffon's time4 ,as his gigantic task progressed1 ,buffon's difficulties increased4 ,at the beginning of vol4 xii4 7#agfd7 he intimates that1 with a view to break the monotony of a narrative in which uniformity is an unavoidable feature1 he will in future1 from time to time1 interrupt the general description by discourses on ,nature and its effects on a grand scale4 ,this will1 he naively adds1 enable him to resume with renewed courage his account of details the investigation of which demands the calmest patience1 and affords no scope for genius4 ,,ii4--,the ,birds ,scarcely had he finished the twelve volumes of ,quadrupeds when ,buffon turned to the ,birds4 ,if this section were less exacting1 yet it made enormous claims upon his attention1 and nine volumes were occupied before the history of the class was concluded4 ,publication of ,des ,oiseaux was begun in #aggj1 and continued intermittently until #aghc4 ,but troubles dogged the great naturalist4 ,the relations between him and ,daubenton had grown acute1 and the latter1 unwilling any longer to put up with ,buffon's love of vainglory1 withdrew from the enterprise to which his co-operation had imparted so much value4 ,serious illness1 also1 and the death of ,buffon's wife1 caused a long suspension of his labours1 which were1 however1 lightened by the assistance of ,guneau de ,montbliard4 ,one stroke of luck he had1 which no one will begrudge the weary ,titan4 ,james ,bruce1 of ,kinnaird1 on his return from ,abyssinia in #aggc1 spent some time with ,buffon at his chteau in ,montbard1 and placed at his disposal several of the remarkable discoveries he had made during his travels4 ,buffon was not slow to appreciate this godsend4 ,not only did he1 quite properly1 make the most of ,bruce's disinterested help1 but he also expressed the confident hope that the ,british ,government would command the publication of ,bruce's precious work4 ,he went on to pay a compliment to the ,english1 and so commit them to this enterprise4 ,that respectable nation1 he asserts1 which excels all others in discovery1 can but add to its glory in promptly communicating to the world the results of the excellent travellers' researches4 ,still unfettered by any scheme of classification1 either scientific or logical1 ,buffon begins his account of the birds with the eagles and owls4 ,to indicate his course throughout the vast class1 it will suffice to name a few of the principal birds in the order in which he takes them after the birds of prey4 ,these1 then1 are the ostrich1 bustard1 game birds1 pigeons1 crows1 singing birds1 humming birds1 parrots1 cuckoos1 swallows1 woodpeckers1 toucans1 kingfishers1 storks1 cranes1 secretary bird1 herons1 ibis1 curlews1 plovers1 rails1 diving birds1 pelicans1 cormorants1 geese1 gulls1 and penguins4 ,with the volume dealing with the picarian birds 7woodpeckers7 ,buffon announces the withdrawal of ,guneau de ,montbliard1 and his obligations for advice and help to the ,abb ,bexon 7#agdh-aghd71 ,canon of ,sainte ,chapelle in ,paris4 ,,iii4--,supplement and ,sequel ,at the same time that the ,birds volumes were passing through the press1 ,buffon also issued periodically seven volumes of a supplement 7#aggd-aghi71 the last appearing posthumously under the editorship of ,count ,lacpde4 ,this consisted of an olla podrida of all sorts of papers1 such as would have won the heart of ,charles ,godfrey ,leland4 ,the nature of the hotchpotch will be understood from a recital of some of its contents1 in their chronological order4 ,it opened with an introduction to the history of minerals1 partly theoretical 7concerning light1 heat1 fire1 air1 water1 earth1 and the law of attraction71 and partly experimental 7body heat1 heat in minerals1 the nature of platinum1 the ductility of iron74 ,then were discussed incandescence1 fusion1 ships' guns1 the strength and resistance of wood1 the preservation of forests and reafforestation1 the cooling of the earth1 the temperature of planets1 additional observations on quadrupeds already described1 accounts of animals not noticed before1 such as the tapir1 quagga1 gnu1 nylghau1 many antelopes1 the vicua1 ,cape ant-eater1 star-nosed mole1 sea-lion1 and others2 the probabilities of life 7a subject on which the author plumed himself71 and his essay on the ,epochs of ,nature4 ,nor did these concurrent series of books exhaust his boundless energy and ingenuity1 for in the five years preceding his death 7#aghc-aghh71 he produced his ,natural ,history of ,minerals in five volumes1 the last of which was mainly occupied with electricity1 magnetism1 and the loadstone4 ,it is true that the researches of modern chemists have wrought havoc with ,buffon's work in this field2 but this was his misfortune rather than his fault1 and leaves untouched the quantity of his output4 ,buffon invoked the aid of the artist almost from the first1 and his ,natural ,history is illustrated by hundreds of full-page copper-plate engravings1 and embellished with numerous elegant headpiece designs4 ,the figures of the animals are mostly admirable examples of portraiture1 though the classical backgrounds lend a touch of the grotesque to many of the compositions4 ,illustrations of anatomy1 physiology1 and other features of a technical character are to be numbered by the score1 and are1 of course1 indispensable in such a work4 ,the editio princeps is cherished by collectors because of the #a1jjh coloured plates 7,planches ,enlumines7 in folio1 the text itself being in quarto1 by the younger ,daubenton1 whose work was spiritedly engraved by ,martinet4 ,apparently anxious to illustrate one section exhaustively rather than several sections in a fragmentary manner1 the artist devoted himself chiefly to the birds1 which monopolise probably nine-tenths of the plates1 and to which he may also have been attracted by their gorgeous plumages4 ,as soon as the labourer's task was over1 his scientific friends thought the best monument which they could raise to his memory was to complete his ,natural ,history4 ,this duty was discharged by two men1 who1 both well qualified1 worked1 however1 on independent lines4 ,count ,lacpde1 adhering to the format of the original1 added two volumes on the ,reptiles 7#aghh-aghi71 five on the ,fishes 7#agih-ahjc71 and one on the ,cetaceans 7#ahjd74 ,sonnini de ,manoncourt 7#agea-ahab71 feeling that this edition1 though extremely handsome1 was cumbersome1 undertook an entirely new edition in octavo4 ,this was begun in #agig1 and finished in #ahjh4 ,it occupied #abg volumes1 and1 ,lacpde's treatises not being available1 ,sonnini himself dealt with the ,fishes 7thirteen volumes7 and ,whales 7one volume71 ,p4,a4 ,latreille with the ,crustaceans and ,insects 7fourteen volumes71 ,denys-,montfort with the ,molluscs 7six volumes71 ,f4,m4 ,dandin with the ,reptiles 7eight volumes71 and ,c4,f4 ,brisseau-,mirbel and ,n4 ,jolyclerc with the ,plants 7eighteen volumes74 ,sonnini's edition constituted the cope-stone of ,buffon's work1 and remained the best edition1 until the whole structure was thrown down by the views of later naturalists1 who revolutionised zoology4 ,,iv4--,place and ,doctrine ,buffon may justly be acclaimed as the first populariser of natural history4 ,he was1 however1 unscientific in his opposition to systems1 which1 in point of fact1 essentially elucidated the important doctrine that a continuous succession of forms runs throughout the animal kingdom4 ,his recognition of this principle was1 indeed1 one of his greatest services to the science4 ,another of his wise generalisations was that ,nature proceeds by unknown gradations1 and consequently cannot adapt herself to formal analysis1 since she passes from one species to another1 and often from one genus to another1 by shades of difference so delicate as to be wholly imperceptible4 ,in ,buffon's eyes ,nature is an infinitely diversified whole which it is impossible to break up and classify4 ,the animal combines all the powers of ,nature2 the forces animating it are peculiarly its own2 it wishes1 does1 resolves1 works1 and communicates by its senses with the most distant objects4 ,one's self is a centre where everything agrees1 a point where all the universe is reflected1 a world in miniature4 ,in natural history1 accordingly1 each animal or plant ought to have its own biography and description4 ,life1 ,buffon also held1 abides in organic molecules4 ,living beings are made up of these molecules1 which exist in countless numbers1 which may be separated but cannot be destroyed1 which pierce into brute matter1 and1 working there1 develop1 it may be animals1 it may be plants1 according to the nature of the matter in which they are lodged4 ,these indestructible molecules circulate throughout the universe1 pass from one being to another1 minister to the continuance of life1 provide for nutrition and the growth of the individual1 and determine the reproduction of the species4 ,buffon further taught that the quantity and quality of life pass from lower to higher stages--in ,tennysonian phrase1 men rise on stepping-stones of their dead selves to higher things--and showed the unity and structure of all beings1 of whom man is the most perfect type4 ,it has been claimed that ,buffon in a measure anticipated ,lamarck and ,darwin4 ,he had already foreseen the mutability of species1 but had not succeeded in proving it for varieties and races4 ,if he asserted that the species of dog1 jackal1 wolf and fox were derived from a single one of these species1 that the horse came from the zebra1 and so on1 this was far from being tantamount to a demonstration of the doctrine4 ,in fact1 he put forward the mutability of species rather as probable theory than as established truth1 deeming it the corollary of his views on the succession and connection of beings in a continuous series4 ,some case may be made out for regarding ,buffon as the founder of zoogeography2 at all events he was the earliest to determine the natural habitat of each species4 ,he believed that species changed with climate1 but that no kind was found throughout all the globe4 ,man alone has the privilege of being everywhere and always the same1 because the human race is one4 ,the white man 7,european or ,caucasian71 the black man 7,ethiopian71 the yellow man 7,mongol71 and the red man 7,american7 are only varieties of the human species4 ,as the ,scots express it with wonted pith1 ,we're a' ,jock ,tamson's bairns4 ,as to his geological works1 ,buffon expounded two theories of the formation of the globe4 ,in his ,thorie de la ,terre he supported the ,neptunists1 who attributed the phenomena of the earth to the action of water4 ,in his ,epoques de la ,nature he amplified the doctrines of ,leibniz1 and laid down the following propositions3 7#a7 ,the earth is elevated at the equator and depressed at the poles in accordance with the laws of gravitation and centrifugal force2 7#b7 it possesses an internal heat1 apart from that received from the sun2 7#c7 its own heat is insufficient to maintain life2 7#d7 the substances of which the earth is composed are of the nature of glass1 or can be converted into glass as the result of heat and fusion--that is1 are verifiable2 7#e7 everywhere on the surface1 including mountains1 exist enormous quantities of shells and other maritime remains4 ,to the theses just enumerated ,buffon added what he called the monuments1 or what ,hugh ,miller1 a century later1 more aptly described as the ,testimony of the ,rocks4 ,from a consideration of all these things1 ,buffon at length arrived at his succession of the ,epochs1 or ,seven ,ages of ,nature1 namely3 7#a7 the ,age of fluidity1 or incandescence1 when the earth and planets assumed their shape2 7#b7 the ,age of cooling1 or consolidation1 when the rocky interior of the earth and the great vitrescible masses at its surface were formed2 7#c7 the ,age when the waters covered the face of the earth2 7#d7 the ,age when the waters retreated and volcanoes became active2 7#e7 the ,age when the elephant1 hippopotamus1 rhinoceros1 and other giants roamed through the northern hemisphere2 7#f7 the ,age of the division of the land into the vast areas now styled the ,old and the ,new ,worlds2 and 7#g7 the ,age when ,man appeared4 ,,robert ,,chambers ,vestiges of ,creation ,robert ,chambers was born in ,peebles1 ,scotland1 ,july #aj1 #ahjb1 and died at ,st4 ,andrews on ,march #ag1 #ahga4 ,he was partner with his brother in the publishing firm of ,w4 ,r4 ,chambers1 was editor of ,chambers's ,journal1 and was author of several works when he published anonymously1 in ,october #ahdd1 the work by which his name will always be remembered1 ,vestiges of the ,natural ,history of ,creation4 ,his previous works1 some thirty in number1 did not deal with science1 and his labour in preparing his masterpiece was commensurate with the courage which such an undertaking involved4 ,when the book was published1 such interest and curiosity as to its authorship were aroused that we have to go back to the publication of ,waverley for a parallel4 ,little else was talked about in scientific circles4 ,the work was violently attacked by many hostile critics1 ,f4,w4 ,newman1 author of an early review1 being a conspicuous exception4 ,in the historical introduction to the ,origin of ,species1 ,darwin speaks of the brilliant and powerful style of the ,vestiges1 and says that it did excellent service in this country in calling attention to the subject1 in removing prejudice1 and in thus preparing the ground for the reception of analogous views4 ,darwin's idea of selection as the key to the history of species does not occur in the ,vestiges1 which belongs to the ,lamarckian school of unexamined belief in the hereditary transmission of the effects of use and disuse4 ,i4--,the ,reign of ,universal ,law ,the stars are suns1 and we can trace amongst them the working of the laws which govern our sun and his family4 ,in these universal laws we must perceive intelligence2 something of which the laws are but as the expressions of the will and power4 ,the laws of ,nature cannot be regarded as primary or independent causes of the phenomena of the physical world4 ,we come1 in short1 to a ,being beyond ,nature--its author1 its ,god2 infinite1 inconceivable1 it may be1 and yet one whom these very laws present to us with attributes showing that our nature is in some way a faint and far-cast shadow of ,his1 while all the gentlest and the most beautiful of our emotions lead us to believe that we are as children in ,his care and as vessels in ,his hand4 ,let it then be understood--and this for the reader's special attention--that when natural law is spoken of here1 reference is made only to the mode in which the ,divine ,power is exercised4 ,it is but another phrase for the action of the ever-present and sustaining ,god4 ,viewing ,nature in this light1 the pursuit of science is but the seeking of a deeper acquaintance with the ,infinite4 ,the endeavour to explain any events in her history1 however grand or mysterious these may be1 is only to sit like a child at a mother's knee1 and fondly ask of the things which passed before we were born2 and in modesty and reverence we may even inquire if there be any trace of the origin of that marvellous arrangement of the universe which is presented to our notice4 ,in this inquiry we first perceive the universe to consist of a boundless multitude of bodies with vast empty spaces between4 ,we know of certain motions among these bodies2 of other and grander translations we are beginning to get some knowledge4 ,besides this idea of locality and movement1 we have the equally certain one of a former soft and more diffused state of the materials of these bodies2 also a tolerably clear one as to gravitation having been the determining cause of both locality and movement4 ,from these ideas the general one naturally suggested to us is--a former stage in the frame of material things1 perhaps only a point in progress from some other1 or a return from one like the present--universal space occupied with gasiform matter4 ,this1 however1 was of irregular constitution1 so that gravitation caused it to break up and gather into patches1 producing at once the relative localities of astral and solar systems1 and the movements which they have since observed1 in themselves and with regard to each other--from the daily spinning of single bodies on their own axes1 to the mazy dances of vast families of orbs1 which come to periods only in millions of years4 ,how grand1 yet how simple the whole of this process--for a ,god only to conceive and do1 and yet for man1 after all1 to trace out and ponder upon4 ,truly must we be in some way immediate to the august ,father1 who can think all this1 and so come into ,his presence and council1 albeit only to fall prostrate and mutely adore4 ,not only are the orbs of space inextricably connected in the manner which has been described1 but the constitution of the whole is uniform1 for all consist of the same chemical elements4 ,and now1 in our version of the romance of ,nature1 we descend from the consideration of orb-filled space and the character of the universal elements1 to trace the history of our own globe4 ,and we find that this falls significantly into connection with the primary order of things suggested by ,laplace's theory of the origin of the solar system in a vast nebula or fire-mist1 which for ages past has been condensing under the influence of gravitation and the radiation of its heat4 ,,ii4--,history of the ,earth's ,crust ,when we study the earth's crust we find that it consists of layers or strata1 laid down in succession1 the earlier under the influence of heat1 the later under the influence of water4 ,these strata in their order might be described as a record of the state of life upon our planet from an early to a comparatively recent period4 ,it is truly such a record1 but not one perfectly complete4 ,nevertheless1 we find a noteworthy and significant sequence4 ,we learn that there was dry land long before the occurrence of the first fossils of land plants and animals4 ,in different geographical formations we find various species1 though sometimes the same species is found in different formations1 having survived the great earth changes which the record of the rocks indicates4 ,there is an unbroken succession of animal life from the beginning to the present epoch4 ,low down1 where the records of life begin1 we find an era of backboneless animals only1 and the animal forms there found1 though various1 are all humble in their respective lines of gradation4 ,the early fishes were low1 both with respect to their class as fishes1 and the order to which they belong--that of the cartilaginous or gristly fishes4 ,in all the orders of ancient animals there is an ascending gradation of character from first to last4 ,further1 there is a succession from low to high types in fossil plants1 from the earliest strata in which they are found to the highest4 ,several of the most important living species have left no record of themselves in any formation beyond what are1 comparatively speaking1 modern4 ,such are the sheep and the goat1 and such1 above all1 is our own species4 ,compared with many humbler animals1 man is a being1 as it were1 of yesterday4 ,thus concludes the wondrous section of the earth's history which is told by geology4 ,it takes up our globe at an early stage in the formation of its crust--conducts it through what we have every reason to believe were vast spaces of time1 in the course of which many superficial changes took place1 and vegetable and animal life was gradually evolved--and drops it just at the point when man was apparently about to enter on the scene4 ,the compilation of such a history1 from materials of so extraordinary a character1 and the powerful nature of the evidence which these materials afford1 are calculated to excite our admiration1 and the result must be allowed to exalt the dignity of science as a product of man's industry and his reason4 ,it is now to be remarked that there is nothing in the whole series of operations displayed in inorganic geology which may not be accounted for by the agency of the ordinary forces of ,nature4 ,those movements of subterranean force which thrust up mountain ranges and upheaved continents stand in inextricable connection1 on the one hand1 with the volcanoes which are yet belching forth lavas and shaking large tracts of ground1 as1 on the other1 with the primitive incandescent state of the earth4 ,those forces which disintegrated the early rocks1 of which detritus formed new beds at the bottom of the sea1 are still seen at work to the same effect4 ,to bring these truths the more nearly before us1 it is possible to make a substance resembling basalt in a furnace2 limestone and sandstone have both been formed from suitable materials in appropriate receptacles2 the phenomena of cleavage have1 with the aid of electricity1 been simulated on a small scale1 and by the same agent crystals are formed4 ,in short1 the remark which was made regarding the indifference of the cosmical laws to the scale on which they operated is to be repeated regarding the geological4 ,a common furnace will sometimes exemplify the operation of forces which have produced the ,giant's ,causeway2 and in a sloping ploughed field after rain we may often observe1 at the lower end of a furrow1 a handful of washed and neatly deposited mud or sand1 capable of serving as an illustration of the way in which ,nature has produced the deltas of the ,nile and ,ganges4 ,in the ripple-marks on sandy beaches of the present day we see ,nature's exact repetition of the operations by which she impressed similar features on the sandstones of the carboniferous era4 ,even such marks as wind-slanted rain would in our day produce on tide-deserted sands have been read upon tablets of the ancient strata4 ,it is the same ,nature--that is to say1 ,god through or in the manner of ,nature--working everywhere and in all time1 causing the wind to blow1 and the rain to fall1 and the tide to ebb and flow1 inconceivable ages before the birth of our race1 as now4 ,so also we learn from the conifers of those old ages that there were winter and summer upon earth1 before any of us lived to liken the one to all that is genial in our own nature1 or to say that the other breathed no airs so unkind as man's ingratitude4 ,let no one suppose there is any necessary disrespect for the ,creator in thus tracing ,his laws in their minute and familiar operations4 ,there is really no true great and small1 grand and familiar1 in ,nature4 ,such only appear when we thrust ourselves in as a point from which to start in judging4 ,let us pass1 if possible1 beyond immediate impressions1 and see all in relation to ,cause1 and we shall chastenedly admit that the whole is alike worshipful4 ,the ,creator1 then1 is seen to have formed our earth1 and effected upon it a long and complicated series of changes1 in the same manner in which we find that he conducts the affairs of ,nature before our living eyes2 that is1 in the manner of natural law4 ,this is no rash or unauthorised affirmation4 ,it is what we deduce from the calculation of a ,newton and a ,laplace on the one hand1 and from the industrious observation of facts by a ,murchison and a ,lyell on the other4 ,it is a point of stupendous importance in human knowledge2 here at once is the whole region of the inorganic taken out of the dominion of marvel1 and placed under an idea of ,divine regulation4 ,,iii4--,the ,history of the ,earth's ,life ,mixed up1 however1 with the geological changes1 and apparently as final object connected with the formation of the globe itself1 there is another set of phenomena presented in the course of our history--the coming into existence1 namely1 of a long suite of living things1 vegetable and animal1 terminating in the families which we still see occupying the surface4 ,the question arises3 ,in what manner has this set of phenomena originated8 ,can we touch at and rest for a moment on the possibility of plants and animals having likewise been produced in a natural way1 thus assigning immediate causes of but one character for everything revealed to our sensual observation2 or are we at once to reject this idea1 and remain content1 either to suppose that creative power here acted in a different way1 or to believe unexaminingly that the inquiry is one beyond our powers8 ,taking the last question first1 ,i would reply that ,i am extremely loth to imagine that there is anything in ,nature which we should1 for any reason1 refrain from examining4 ,if we can infer aught from the past history of science1 it is that the whole of ,nature is a legitimate field for the exercise of our intellectual faculties2 that there is a connection between this knowledge and our well-being2 and that1 if we may judge from things once despaired of by our inquiring reason1 but now made clear and simple1 there is none of ,nature's mysteries which we may not hopefully attempt to penetrate4 ,to remain idly content to presume a various class of immediate causes for organic ,nature seems to me1 on this ground1 equally objectionable4 ,with respect to the other question the idea has several times arisen that some natural course was observed in the production of organic things1 and this even before we were permitted to attain clear conclusions regarding inorganic nature4 ,it was always set quickly aside as unworthy of serious consideration4 ,the case is different now1 when we have admitted law in the whole domain of the inorganic4 ,otherwise1 the absurdities into which we should be led must strike every reflecting mind4 ,the ,eternal ,sovereign arranges a solar or an astral system1 by dispositions imparted primordially to matter2 he causes1 by the same means1 vast oceans to join and continents to rise1 and all the grand meteoric agencies to proceed in ceaseless alternation1 so as to fit the earth for a residence of organic beings4 ,but when1 in the course of these operations1 fuci and corals are to be1 for the first time1 placed in these oceans1 a change in his plan of administration is required4 ,it is not easy to say what is presumed to be the mode of his operations4 ,the ignorant believe the very hand of ,deity to be at work4 ,amongst the learned1 we hear of creative fiats1 interferences1 interpositions of the creative energy1 all of them very obscure phrases1 apparently not susceptible of a scientific explanation1 but all tending simply to this3 that the work was done in a marvellous way1 and not in the way of ,nature4 ,but we need not assume two totally distinct modes of the exercise of the divine power--one in the course of inorganic nature and the other in intimately connected course of organic nature4 ,indeed1 when all the evidence is surveyed1 it seems difficult to resist the impression that vestiges1 at least1 are seen of the manner and method of the ,creator in this part of ,his work4 ,it appears to be a case in which rigid proof is hardly to be looked for4 ,but such evidences as exist are remarkably consistent and harmonious4 ,the theory pointed to consorts with everything else which we have learned accurately regarding the history of the universe4 ,science has not one positive affirmation on the other side4 ,indeed1 the view opposed to it is not one in which science is concerned2 it appears as merely one of the prejudices formed in the non-age of our race4 ,for the history1 then1 of organic nature1 ,i embrace1 not as a proved fact1 but as a rational interpretation of things as far as science has revealed them1 the idea of progressive development4 ,we contemplate the simplest and most primitive types of being as giving birth to a type superior to it2 this again producing the next higher1 and so on to the highest4 ,we contemplate1 in short1 a universal gestation of ,nature1 like that of the individual being1 and attended as little by circumstances of a miraculous kind as the silent advance of an ordinary mother from one week to another of her pregnancy4 ,thus simple--after ages of marvelling--appears organic creation1 while yet the whole phenomena are1 in another point of view1 wonders of the highest kind1 being the undoubted results of ordinances arguing the highest attributes of foresight1 skill and goodness on the part of their ,divine ,author4 ,if1 finally1 we study the mind of man1 we find that its ,almighty ,author has destined it1 like everything else1 to be developed from inherent qualities4 ,thus the whole appears complete on one principle4 ,the masses of space are formed by law2 law makes them in due time theatres of existence for plants and animals2 sensation1 disposition1 intellect1 are all in like manner sustained in action by law4 ,it is most interesting to observe into how small a field the whole of the mysteries of ,nature thus ultimately resolve themselves4 ,the inorganic has been thought to have one final comprehensive law--gravitation4 ,the organic1 the other great department of mundane things1 rests in like manner on one law1 and that is--development4 ,nor may even these be after all twain1 but only branches of one still more comprehensive law1 the expression of a unity flowing immediately from the ,one who is first and last4 ,,iv4--,the ,future and its ,meaning ,the question whether the human race will ever advance far beyond its present position in intellect and morals is one which has engaged much attention4 ,judging from the past1 we cannot reasonably doubt that great advances are yet to be made2 but1 if the principle of development be admitted1 these are certain1 whatever may be the space of time required for their realisation4 ,a progression resembling development may be traced in human nature1 both in the individual and in large groups of men4 ,not only so1 but by the work of our thoughtful brains and busy hands we modify external nature in a way never known before4 ,the physical improvements wrought by man upon the earth's surface ,i conceive as at once preparations for1 and causes of1 the possible development of higher types of humanity1 beings less strong in the impulsive parts of our nature1 more strong in the reasoning and moral1 more fitted for the delights of social life1 because society will then present less to dread and more to love4 ,the history and constitution of the world have now been hypothetically explained1 according to the best lights which a humble individual has found within the reach of his perceptive and reasoning faculties4 ,we have seen a system in which all is regularity and order1 and all flows from1 and is obedient to1 a divine code of laws of unbending operation4 ,we are to understand from what has been laid before us that man1 with his varied mental powers and impulses1 is a natural problem of which the elements can be taken cognisance of by science1 and that all the secular destinies of our race1 from generation to generation1 are but evolutions of a law statuted and sustained in action by an all-wise ,deity4 ,there may be a faith derived from this view of ,nature sufficient to sustain us under all sense of the imperfect happiness1 the calamities1 the woes and pains of this sphere of being4 ,for let us but fully and truly consider what a system is here laid open to view and we cannot well doubt that we are in the hands of ,one who is both able and willing to do us the most entire justice4 ,surely1 in such a faith we may well rest at ease1 even though life should have been to us but a protracted malady4 ,thinking of all the contingencies of this world as to be in time melted into or lost in some greater system1 to which the present is only subsidiary1 let us wait the end with patience and be of good cheer4 ,,georges ,,cuvier ,the ,surface of the ,globe ,georges ,cuvier was born ,aug4 #bd1 #agfi1 at ,montbliard1 ,france4 ,he had a brilliant academic career at ,stuttgart ,academy1 and in #agie1 at the age of twenty-six1 he was appointed assistant professor of comparative anatomy at the ,museum d',histoire ,naturelle in ,paris1 and was elected a member of the ,national ,institute4 ,from this date onwards to his death in #ahcb1 his scientific industry was remarkable4 ,both as zoologist and palontologist he must be regarded as one of the greatest pioneers of science4 ,he filled many important scientific posts1 including the chair of ,natural ,history in the ,collge de ,france1 and a professorship at the ,jardin des ,plantes4 ,in #ahjh he was made member of the ,council of the ,imperial ,university2 and in #ahad1 ,president of the ,council of ,public ,instruction4 ,in #ahbf he was made grand officer of the ,legion of ,honour1 and five years later was made a peer of ,france4 ,the ,discours sur les ,rvolutions de la ,surface du ,globe1 published in #ahbe1 is essentially a preliminary discourse to the author's celebrated work1 ,recherches sur les ,ossemens fossiles de ,quadrupdes4 ,it is an endeavour to trace the relationship between the changes which have taken place on the surface of the globe and the changes which have taken place in its animal inhabitants1 with especial reference to the evidence afforded by fossil remains of quadrupeds4 ,it is apparent1 ,cuvier writes1 that the bones of quadrupeds conduct us1 by various reasonings1 to more precise results than any other relics of organised bodies4 ,the two books together may be considered the first really scientific palontology4 ,i4--,effects of ,geological ,change ,my first object will be to show how the fossil remains of the terrestrial animals are connected with the theory of the earth4 ,i shall afterwards explain the principles by which fossil bones may be identified4 ,i shall give a rapid sketch of new species discovered by the application of these principles4 ,i shall then show how far these varieties may extend1 owing to the influence of the climate and domestication4 ,i shall then conceive myself justified in concluding that the more considerable differences which ,i have discovered are the results of very important catastrophes4 ,afterwards ,i shall explain the peculiar influence which my researches should exercise on the received opinions concerning the revolutions of the globe4 ,finally1 ,i shall examine how far the civil and religious history of nations accords with the results of observation on the physical history of the earth4 ,when we traverse those fertile plains1 where tranquil waters cherish1 as they flow1 an abundant vegetation1 and where the soil1 trod by a numerous people1 adorned with flourishing villages1 rich cities1 and superb monuments1 is never disturbed save by the ravages of war1 or the oppression of power1 we can hardly believe that ,nature has also had her internal commotions4 ,but our opinions change when we dig into this apparently peaceful soil1 or ascend its neighboring hills4 ,the lowest and most level soils are composed of horizontal strata1 and all contain marine productions to an innumerable extent4 ,the hills to a very considerable height are composed of similar strata and similar productions4 ,the shells are sometimes so numerous as to form the entire mass of the soil1 and all quarters of the globe exhibit the same phenomenon4 ,the time is past when ignorance could maintain that these remains of organised bodies resulted from the caprice of ,nature1 and were productions formed in the bosom of the earth by its generative powers2 for a scrupulous comparison of the remains shows not the slightest difference between the fossil shells and those that are now found in the ocean4 ,it is clear1 then1 that they inhabited the sea1 and that they were deposited by the sea in the places where they are now found2 and it follows1 too1 that the sea rested in these places long enough to form regular1 dense1 vast deposits of aquatic animals4 ,the bed of the sea1 accordingly1 must have undergone some change either in extent or situation4 ,further1 we find under the horizontal strata1 inclined strata4 ,thus the sea1 previously to the formation of the horizontal strata1 must have formed others1 which have been broken1 inclined1 and overturned by some unknown causes4 ,more than this1 we find that the fossils vary with the depth of the strata1 and that the fossils of the deeper and more ancient strata exhibit a formation proper to themselves2 and we find in some of the strata1 too1 remains of terrestrial life4 ,the evidence is thus plain that the animal life in the sea has varied1 and that parts of the earth's surface have been alternately dry land and ocean4 ,the very soil1 which terrestrial animals at present inhabit has a history of previous animal life1 and then submersion under the sea4 ,the reiterated irruptions and retreats of the sea have not all been gradual1 but1 on the contrary1 they have been produced by sudden catastrophes4 ,the last catastrophe1 which inundated and again left dry our present continents1 left in the northern countries the carcasses of large quadrupeds1 which were frozen1 and which are preserved even to the present day1 with their skin1 hair and flesh4 ,had they not been frozen the moment they were killed1 they must have putrefied2 and1 on the other hand1 the intense frost could not have been the ordinary climatic condition1 for they could not have existed at such low temperatures4 ,in the same instant1 then1 in which these animals perished the climate which they inhabited must have undergone a complete revolution4 ,the ruptures1 the inclinations1 the overturnings of the more ancient strata1 likewise point to sudden and violent changes4 ,animal life1 then1 has been frequently disturbed on this earth by terrific catastrophes4 ,living beings innumerable have perished4 ,the inhabitants of the dry land have been engulfed by deluges2 and the tenants of the water1 deserted by their element1 have been left to perish from drought4 ,even ancient rocks formed or deposited before the appearance of life on the earth show signs of terrific violence4 ,it has been maintained by some that the causes now at work altering the face of the world are sufficient to account for all the changes through which it has passed3 but that is not so4 ,none of the agents ,nature now employs--rain1 thaw1 rivers1 seas1 volcanoes--would have been adequate to produce her ancient works4 ,to explain the external crust of the world1 we require causes other than those present in operation1 and a thousand extraordinary theories have been advanced4 ,thus1 according to one philosopher1 the earth has received in the beginning a uniform light crust which caused the abysses of the ocean1 and was broken to produce the ,deluge4 ,another supposed the ,deluge to be caused by the momentary suspension of the cohesion of minerals4 ,even accomplished scientists and philosophers have advanced impossible and contradictory theories4 ,all attempts at explanation have been stultified by an ignorance of the facts to be explained1 or by a partial survey of them1 and especially by a neglect of the evidence afforded by fossils4 ,how was it possible not to perceive that the theory of the earth owes its origin to fossils alone8 ,they alone1 in truth1 inform us with any certainty that the earth has not always had the same covering1 since they certainly must have lived upon its surface before they were buried in its depths4 ,if there were only strata without fossils1 one might maintain that the strata had all been formed together4 ,hitherto1 in fact1 philosophers have been at variance on every point save one1 and that is that the sea has changed its bed2 and how could this have been known except for fossils8 ,from this consideration ,i was led to study fossils2 and since the field was immense ,i was obliged to specialise in one department of fossils1 and selected for study the fossil bones of quadrupeds4 ,i made this selection because only from a study of fossil quadrupeds can one hope to ascertain the number and periods and contents of irruptions of the sea2 and because1 since the number of quadrupeds is limited1 and most quadrupeds known1 we have better means of assuring ourselves if the fossil remains are remains of extinct or extant animals4 ,animals such as the griffin1 the cartazonon1 the unicorn1 never lived1 and there are probably very few quadrupeds now living which have not been found by man4 ,but though the study of fossil quadruped be enlightening1 it has its own special difficulties4 ,one great difficulty arises from the fact that it is very rare to find a fossil skeleton approaching to a complete state4 ,fortunately1 however1 there is a principle in comparative anatomy which lessens this difficulty4 ,every organised being constitutes a complete and compact system with all its parts in mutual correspondence4 ,none of its parts can be changed without changing other parts1 and consequently each part1 taken separately1 indicates the others4 ,thus1 if the intestines of an animal are made to digest raw flesh1 its jaws must be likewise constructed to devour prey1 its claws to seize and tear it1 its teeth to rend it1 its limbs to overtake it1 its organs of sense to discern it afar4 ,again1 in order to enable the jaw to seize with facility1 a certain form of condyle is necessary1 and the zygomatic arch must be well developed to give attachment to the masseter muscle4 ,again1 the muscles of the neck must be powerful1 whence results a special form in the vertebr and the occiput1 where the muscles are attached4 ,yet again1 in order that the claws may be effective1 the toe-bones must have a certain form1 and must have muscles and tendons distributed in a certain way4 ,in a word1 the form of the tooth necessitates the form of the condyle1 of the shoulder-blade1 and of the claws1 of the femur1 and of all the other bones1 and all the other bones taken separately will give the tooth4 ,in this manner anyone who is scientifically acquainted with the laws of organic economy may from a fragment reconstruct the whole animal4 ,the mark of a cloven hoof is sufficient to tell the form of the teeth and jaws and vertebr and leg-bones and thigh-bones and pelvis of the animal4 ,the least fragment of bone1 the smallest apophysis1 has a determinative character in relation to the class1 the order1 the genus1 and species to which it may belong4 ,this is so true that1 if we have only a single extremity of bone well preserved1 we may1 with application and a skilful use of analogy and exact comparison1 determine all those points with as much certainty as if we were in possession of the entire animal4 ,by the application of these principles we have identified and classified the fossil remains of more than one hundred and fifty mammalia4 ,,ii4--,what the ,fossils ,teach ,an examination of the fossils on the lines ,i have indicated shows that out of one hundred and fifty mammiferous and oviparous quadrupeds1 ninety are unknown to present naturalists1 and that in the older layers such oviparous quadrupeds as the ichthyosauri and plesiosauri abound4 ,the fossil elephant1 the rhinoceros1 the hippopotamus1 and the mastodons are not found in the more ancient layers4 ,in fact1 the species which appear the same as ours are found only in superficial deposits4 ,now1 it cannot be held that the present races of animals differ from the ancient races merely by modifications produced by local circumstances and change of climate--for if species gradually changed1 we must find traces of these gradual modifications1 and between the palotheria and the present species we should have discovered some intermediate formation2 but to the present time none of these have appeared4 ,why have not the bowels of the earth preserved the monuments of so remarkable a genealogy unless it be that the species of former ages were as constant as our own1 or at least because the catastrophe that destroyed them had not left them time to give evidence of the changes8 ,further1 an examination of animals shows that though their superficial characteristics1 such as colour and size1 are changeable1 yet their more radical characteristics do not change4 ,even the artificial breeding of domestic animals can produce only a limited degree of variation4 ,the maximum variation known at the present time in the animal kingdom is seen in dogs1 but in all the varieties the relations of the bones remain the same and the shape of the teeth undergoes no palpable change4 ,i know that some naturalists rely much on the thousands of ages which they can accumulate with a stroke of the pen2 but there is nothing which proves that time will effect any more than climate and a state of domestication4 ,i have endeavoured to collect the most ancient documents of the forms of animals4 ,i have examined the engravings of animals including birds on the numerous columns brought from ,egypt to ,rome4 ,m4 ,saint ,hilaire collected all the mummies of animals he could obtain in ,egypt--cats1 ibises1 birds of prey1 dogs1 monkeys1 crocodiles1 etc4--and we cannot find any more difference between them and those of the present day than between human mummies of that date and skeletons of the present day4 ,there is nothing1 then1 in known facts which can support the opinion that the new genera discovered among fossils--the palotheria1 anoplotheria1 megalonyces1 mastodontes1 pterodactyli1 ichthyosauri1 etc4--could have been the sources of any animals now existing1 which would differ only by the influence of time or climate4 ,as yet no human bones have been discovered in the regular layers of the surface of the earth1 so that man probably did not exist in the countries where fossil bones are found at the epoch of the revolutions which buried these bones1 for there cannot be assigned any reason why mankind should have escaped such overwhelming catastrophes1 or why human remains should not be discovered4 ,man may have inhabited some confined tract of country which escaped the catastrophe1 but his establishment in the countries where the fossil remains of land animals are found--that is to say1 in the greatest part of ,europe1 ,asia1 and ,america--is necessarily posterior not only to the revolutions which covered these bones1 but even to those which have laid open the strata which envelop them2 whence it is clear that we can draw neither from the bones themselves nor from the rocks which cover them any argument in favour of the antiquity of the human species in these different countries4 ,on the contrary1 in closely examining what has taken place on the surface of the globe1 since it was left dry for the last time1 we clearly see that the last revolution1 and consequently the establishment of present society1 cannot be very ancient4 ,an examination of the amount of alluvial matter deposited by rivers1 of the progress of downs1 and of other changes on the surface of the earth1 informs us clearly that the present state of things did not commence at a very remote period4 ,the history of nations confirms the testimony of the fossils and of the rocks4 ,the chronology of none of the nations of the ,west can be traced unbroken farther back than #c1jjj years4 ,the ,pentateuch1 the most ancient document the world possesses1 and all subsequent writings allude to a universal deluge1 and the ,pentateuch and ,vedas and ,chou-king date this catastrophe as not more than #e1djj years before our time4 ,is it possible that mere chance gave a result so striking as to make the traditional origin of the ,assyrian1 ,indian1 and ,chinese monarchies agree in being as remote as #d1jjj or #e1jjj years back8 ,would the ideas of nations with so little inter-communication1 whose language1 religion1 and laws have nothing in common1 agree on this point if they were not founded on truth8 ,even the ,american ,indians have their ,noah or ,deucalion1 like the ,indians1 ,babylonians1 and ,greeks4 ,it may be said that the long existence of ancient nations is attested by their progress in astronomy4 ,but this progress has been much exaggerated4 ,but what would this astronomy prove even if it were more perfect8 ,have we calculated the progress which a science would make in the bosom of nations which had no other8 ,if among the multitude of persons solely occupied with astronomy1 even then1 all that these people knew might have been discovered in a few centuries1 when only #cjj years intervened between ,copernicus and ,laplace4 ,again1 it has been pretended that the zodiacal figures on ancient temples give proof of a remote antiquity2 but the question is very complicated1 and there are as many opinions as writers1 and certainly no conclusions against the newness of continents and nations can be based on such evidence4 ,the zodiac itself has been considered a proof of antiquity1 but the arguments brought forward are undoubtedly unsound4 ,even if these various astronomical proofs were as certain as they are unconvincing1 what conclusion could we draw against the great catastrophe so indisputably demonstrated8 ,we should only have the right to conclude that astronomy was among the sciences preserved by those persons whom the catastrophe spared4 ,in conclusion1 if there be anything determined in geology1 it is that the surface of our globe has been subjected to a revolution within #e1jjj years1 and that this revolution buried the countries formerly inhabited by man and modern animals1 and left the bottom of the former sea dry as a habitation for the few individuals it spared4 ,consequently1 our present human societies have arisen since this catastrophe4 ,but the countries now inhabited had been inhabited before1 as fossils show1 by animals1 if not by mankind1 and had been overwhelmed by a previous deluge2 and1 indeed1 judging by the different orders of animal fossils we find1 they had perhaps undergone two or three irruptions of the sea4 ,,charles ,,darwin ,the ,origin of ,species ,charles ,robert ,darwin was born at ,shrewsbury1 ,england1 ,feb4 #ab1 #ahji1 of a family distinguished on both sides4 ,abandoning medicine for natural history1 he joined ,h4,m4,s4 ,beagle in #ahca on the five years' voyage1 which he described in ,the ,voyage of the ,beagle1 and to which he refers in the introduction to his masterpiece4 ,the ,origin of ,species containing1 in the idea of natural selection1 the distinctive contribution of ,darwin to the theory of organic evolution1 was published in ,november1 #ahei4 ,in only one brief sentence did he there allude to man1 but twelve years later he published the ,descent of ,man1 in which the principles of the earlier volume found their logical outcome4 ,in other works ,darwin added vastly to our knowledge of coral reefs1 organic variation1 earthworms1 and the comparative expression of the emotions in man and animals4 ,darwin died in ignorance of the work upon variation done by his great contemporary1 ,gregor ,mendel1 whose work was rediscovered in #aijj4 ,mendelism necessitates much modification of ,darwin's work1 which1 however1 remains the maker of the greatest epoch in the study of life and the most important contribution to that study ever made4 ,its immortal author died on ,april #ai1 #ahhb1 and was buried in ,westminster ,abbey4 ,i4--,creation or ,evolution8 ,when on board ,h4,m4,s4 ,beagle as naturalist1 ,i was much struck with certain facts in the distribution of the organic beings inhabiting ,south ,america1 and in the geographical relations of the present to the past inhabitants of that continent4 ,these facts1 as will be seen in the latter chapters of this volume1 seemed to throw some light on the origin of species--that mystery of mysteries1 as it has been called by one of our greatest philosophers4 ,on my return home1 in #ahcg1 it occurred to me that something might perhaps be made out on this question by patiently accumulating and reflecting on all sorts of facts which could possibly have any bearing on it4 ,after five years' work1 ,i allowed myself to speculate on the subject1 and drew up some short notes2 these ,i enlarged in #ahdd into a sketch of the conclusions which then seemed to me probable4 ,from that period to the present day ,i have steadily pursued the same object4 ,i hope that ,i may be excused for entering on these personal details1 as ,i give them to show that ,i have not been hasty in coming to a decision4 ,in considering the origin of species1 it is quite conceivable that a naturalist1 reflecting on the mutual affinities of organic beings1 on their embryological relations1 their geographical distribution1 geological succession1 and other such facts1 might come to the conclusion that species had not been independently created1 but had descended1 like varieties1 from other species4 ,nevertheless1 such a conclusion1 even if well founded1 would be unsatisfactory1 until it could be shown how the innumerable species inhabiting this world have been modified so as to acquire that perfection of structure and co-adaptation which justly excites our admiration4 ,naturalists continually refer to external conditions1 such as climate1 food1 etc41 as the only possible cause of variation4 ,in one limited sense1 as we shall hereafter see1 this may be true2 but it is preposterous to attribute to mere external conditions the structure1 for instance1 of the woodpecker1 with its feet1 tail1 beak1 and tongue1 so admirably adapted to catch insects under the bark of trees4 ,in the case of the mistletoe1 which draws its nourishment from certain trees1 which has seeds that must be transported by certain birds1 and which has flowers with separate sexes absolutely requiring the agency of certain insects to bring pollen from one flower to the other1 it is equally preposterous to account for the structure of the parasite1 with its relations to several distinct organic beings1 by the effects of external conditions1 or of habit1 or of the volition of the plant itself4 ,it is1 therefore1 of the highest importance to gain a clear insight into the means of modification and co-adaptation4 ,at the beginning of my observations it seemed to me probable that a careful study of domesticated animals and of cultivated plants would offer the best chance of making out this obscure problem4 ,nor have ,i been disappointed2 in this and in all other perplexing cases ,i have invariably found that our knowledge1 imperfect though it be1 of variation under domestication1 afforded the best and safest clue4 ,i may venture to express my conviction of the high value of such studies1 although they have been very commonly neglected by naturalists4 ,although much remains obscure1 and will long remain obscure1 ,i can entertain no doubt1 after the most deliberate study and dispassionate judgment of which ,i am capable1 that the view which most naturalists until recently entertained1 and which ,i formerly entertained--namely1 that each species has been independently created--is erroneous4 ,i am fully convinced that species are not immutable1 but that those belonging to what are called the same genera are lineal descendants of some other and generally extinct species1 in the same manner as the acknowledged varieties of any one species are the descendants of that species4 ,furthermore1 ,i am also convinced that ,natural ,selection has been the most important1 but not the exclusive1 means of modification4 ,,ii4--,variation and ,selection ,all living beings vary more or less from one another1 and though variations which are not inherited are unimportant for us1 the number and diversity of inheritable deviations of structure1 both those of slight and those of considerable physiological importance1 are endless4 ,no breeder doubts how strong is the tendency to inheritance2 that like produces like is his fundamental belief4 ,doubts have been thrown on this principle only by theoretical writers4 ,when any deviation of structure often appears1 and we see it in the father and child1 we cannot tell whether it may not be due to the same cause having acted on both2 but when amongst individuals1 apparently exposed to the same conditions1 any very rare deviation1 due to some extraordinary combination of circumstances1 appears in the parent--say1 once amongst several million individuals--and it re-appears in the child1 the mere doctrine of chances almost compels us to attribute its reappearance to inheritance4 ,everyone must have heard of cases of albinism1 prickly skin1 hairy bodies1 etc41 appearing in members of the same family4 ,if strange and rare deviations of structure are really inherited1 less strange and commoner deviations may be freely admitted to be inheritable4 ,perhaps the correct way of viewing the whole subject would be to look at the inheritance of every character whatever as the rule1 and non-inheritance as the anomaly4 ,the laws governing inheritance are for the most part unknown4 ,no one can say why the same peculiarity in different individuals of the same species1 or in different species1 is sometimes inherited and sometimes not so2 why the child often reverts in certain characters to its grandfather or grandmother1 or more remote ancestor2 why a peculiarity is often transmitted from one sex to both sexes1 or to one sex alone1 more commonly but not exclusively to the like sex4 ,the fact of heredity being given1 we have evidence derived from human practice as to the influence of selection4 ,there are large numbers of domesticated races of animals and plants admirably suited in various ways to man's use or fancy--adapted to the environment of which his need and inclination are the most essential constituents4 ,we cannot suppose that all the breeds were suddenly produced as perfect and as useful as we now see them2 indeed1 in many cases1 we know that this has not been their history4 ,the key is man's power of accumulative selection4 ,nature gives successive variations2 man adds them up in certain directions useful to him4 ,in this sense he may be said to have made for himself useful breeds4 ,the great power of this principle of selection is not hypothetical4 ,it is certain that several of our eminent breeders have1 even within a single lifetime1 modified to a large extent their breeds of cattle and sheep4 ,what ,english breeders have actually effected is proved by the enormous prices given for animals with a good pedigree2 and these have been exported to almost every quarter of the world4 ,the same principles are followed by horticulturists1 and we see an astonishing improvement in many florists' flowers1 when the flowers of the present day are compared with drawings made only twenty or thirty years ago4 ,the practice of selection is far from being a modern discovery4 ,the principle of selection ,i find distinctly given in an ancient ,chinese encyclopdia4 ,explicit rules are laid down by some of the ,roman classical writers4 ,it is clear that the breeding of domestic animals was carefully attended to in ancient times1 and is now attended to by the lowest savages4 ,it would1 indeed1 have been a strange fact had attention not been paid to breeding1 for the inheritance of good and bad qualities is so obvious4 ,study of the origin of our domestic races of animals and plants leads to the following conclusions4 ,changed conditions of life are of the highest possible importance in causing variability1 both by acting directly on the organisation1 and indirectly by affecting the reproductive system4 ,spontaneous variation of unknown origin plays its part4 ,some1 perhaps a great1 effect may be attributed to the increased use or disuse of parts4 ,the final result is thus rendered infinitely complex4 ,in some cases the intercrossing of aboriginally distinct species appears to have played an important part in the origin of our breeds4 ,when several breeds have once been formed in any country1 their occasional intercrossing1 with the aid of selection1 has1 no doubt1 largely aided in the formation of new sub-breeds2 but the importance of crossing has been much exaggerated1 both in regard to animals and to those plants which are propagated by seed4 ,over all these causes of change1 the accumulative action of selection1 whether applied methodically and quickly1 or unconsciously and slowly1 but more efficiently1 seems to have been the predominant power4 ,,iii4--,variation ,under ,nature ,before applying these principles to organic beings in a state of nature1 we must ascertain whether these latter are subject to any variation4 ,we find variation everywhere4 ,individual differences1 though of small interest to the systematist1 are of the highest importance for us1 for they are often inherited2 and they thus afford materials for natural selection to act and accumulate1 in the same manner as man accumulates in any given direction individual differences in his domesticated productions4 ,further1 what we call varieties cannot really be distinguished from species in the long run1 a fact which we can clearly understand if species once existed as varieties1 and thus originated4 ,but the facts are utterly inexplicable if species are independent creations4 ,how have all the exquisite adaptations of one part of the body to another part1 and to the conditions of life1 and of one organic being to another being1 been perfected8 ,for everywhere we find these beautiful adaptations4 ,the answer is to be found in the struggle for life4 ,owing to this struggle1 variations1 however slight1 and from whatever cause proceeding1 if they be in any degree profitable to the individuals of a species in their infinitely complex relations to other organic beings and to their physical conditions of life1 will tend to the preservation of such individuals1 and will generally be inherited by the offspring4 ,the offspring1 also1 will thus have a better chance of surviving1 for1 of the many individuals of any species which are periodically born1 but a small number can survive4 ,i have called this principle1 by which each slight variation1 if useful1 is preserved1 by the term ,natural ,selection1 in order to mark its relation to man's power of selection4 ,but the expression1 often used by ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer1 of the ,survival of the ,fittest1 is more accurate4 ,we have seen that man1 by selection1 can certainly produce great results1 and can adapt organic beings to his own uses1 through the accumulation of slight but useful variations given to him by the hand of ,nature4 ,natural ,selection is a power incessantly ready for action1 and is as immeasurably superior to man's feeble efforts as the works of ,nature are to those of ,art4 ,all organic beings are exposed to severe competition4 ,nothing is easier than to admit in words the truth of the universal struggle for life1 or more difficult--at least1 ,i have found it so--than constantly to bear this conclusion in mind4 ,yet1 unless it be thoroughly engrained in the mind1 the whole economy of ,nature1 with every fact of distribution1 rarity1 abundance1 extinction1 and variation1 will be dimly seen or quite misunderstood4 ,we behold the face of ,nature bright with gladness2 we often see superabundance of food4 ,we do not see1 or we forget1 that the birds which are idly singing round us mostly live on insects or seeds1 and are thus constantly destroying life2 or we forget how largely these songsters1 or their eggs1 or their nestlings1 are destroyed by birds or beasts of prey4 ,we do not always bear in mind that1 though food may be superabundant1 it is not so at all seasons of each recurring year4 ,a struggle for existence1 the term being used in a large1 general1 and metaphorical sense1 inevitably follows from the high rate at which all organic beings tend to increase4 ,every being1 which during its natural lifetime produces several eggs or seeds1 must suffer destruction during some period of its life1 and during some season or occasional year2 otherwise1 on the principle of geometrical increase1 its numbers would quickly become so inordinately great that no country could support the product4 ,hence1 as more individuals are produced than can possibly survive1 there must in every case be a struggle for existence1 either one individual with another of the same species1 or with the individuals of distinct species1 or with the physical conditions of life4 ,it is the doctrine of ,malthus applied with manifold force to the whole animal and vegetable kingdoms2 for in this case there can be no artificial increase of food1 and no prudential restraint from marriage4 ,although some species may be now increasing1 more or less rapidly1 in numbers1 all cannot do so1 for the world would not hold them4 ,there is no exception to the rule that every organic being naturally increases at so high a rate that1 if not destroyed1 the earth would soon be covered by the progeny of a single pair4 ,even slow-breeding man has doubled in twenty-five years1 and at this rate1 in less than a thousand years1 there would literally not be standing-room for his progeny4 ,linnus has calculated that if an annual plant produced only two seeds--and there is no plant so unproductive as this--and their seedlings next year produced two1 and so on1 then in twenty years there would be a million plants4 ,the elephant is reckoned the slowest breeder of all known animals1 and ,i have taken some pains to estimate its probable minimum rate of natural increase4 ,it will be safest to assume that it begins breeding when thirty years old1 and goes on breeding until ninety years old1 bringing forth six young in the interval1 and surviving till one hundred years old4 ,if this be so1 after a period of from #gdj to #gej years there would be nearly nineteen million elephants alive1 descended from the first pair4 ,the causes which check the natural tendency of each species to increase are most obscure4 ,eggs or very young animals seem generally to suffer most1 but this is not invariably the case4 ,with plants there is a vast destruction of seeds4 ,the amount of food for each species of course gives the extreme limit to which each can increase2 but very frequently it is not the obtaining food1 but the serving as prey to other animals1 which determines the average number of a species4 ,climate is important1 and periodical seasons of extreme cold or drought seem to be the most effective of all checks4 ,the relations of all animals and plants to each other in the struggle for existence are most complex1 and often unexpected4 ,battle within battle must be continually recurring with varying success2 and yet in the long run the forces are so nicely balanced that the face of ,nature remains for long periods of time uniform1 though assuredly the merest trifle would give the victory to one organic being over another4 ,nevertheless1 so profound is our ignorance1 and so high our presumption1 that we marvel when we hear of the extinction of an organic being2 and as we do not see the cause1 we invoke cataclysms to desolate the world1 or invent laws on the duration of the forms of life6 ,the struggle for life is most severe between individuals and varieties of the same species4 ,the competition is most severe between allied forms which fill nearly the same place in the economy of ,nature4 ,but great is our ignorance on the mutual relations of all organic beings4 ,all that we can do is to keep steadily in mind that each organic being is striving to increase in a geometrical ratio2 that each at some period of its life1 during some season of the year1 during each generation or at intervals1 has to struggle for life and to suffer great destruction4 ,when we reflect on this struggle1 we may console ourselves with the full belief that the war of ,nature is not incessant1 that no fear is felt1 that death is generally prompt1 and that the vigorous1 the healthy1 and the happy survive and multiply4 ,,iv4--,the ,survival of the ,fittest ,how will the struggle for existence act in regard to variation8 ,can the principle of selection1 which we have seen is so potent in the hands of man1 apply under ,nature8 ,i think we shall see that it can act most efficiently4 ,let the endless number of slight variations and individual differences occurring in our domestic productions1 and1 in a lesser degree1 in those under ,nature1 be borne in mind1 as well as the strength of the hereditary tendency4 ,under domestication1 it may be truly said that the whole organisation becomes in some degree plastic4 ,but the variability1 which we almost universally meet with in our domestic productions1 is not directly produced by man2 he can neither originate variations nor prevent their occurrence2 he can only preserve and accumulate such as do occur4 ,unintentionally he exposes organic beings to new and changing conditions of life1 and variability ensues2 but similar changes of condition might and do occur under ,nature4 ,let it also be borne in mind how infinitely complex and close-fitting are the mutual relations of all organic beings to each other and to their physical conditions of life1 and consequently what infinitely varied diversities of structure might be of use to each being under changing conditions of life4 ,can it1 then1 be thought improbable1 seeing what variations useful to man have undoubtedly occurred1 that other variations1 useful in some way to each being in the great complex battle of life1 should occur in the course of many successive generations8 ,if such do occur1 can we doubt1 remembering that many more individuals are born than can possibly survive1 that individuals having any advantage over others1 would have the best chance of surviving and of procreating their kind8 ,on the other hand1 we may feel sure that any variation in the least degree injurious would be rigidly destroyed4 ,this preservation of favourable individual differences and variations1 and the destruction of those which are injurious1 ,i have called ,natural ,selection1 or the ,survival of the ,fittest4 ,the term is too frequently misapprehended4 ,variations neither useful nor injurious would not be affected by natural selection4 ,it is not asserted that natural selection induces variability4 ,it implies only the preservation of such varieties as arise and are beneficial to the being under its conditions of life4 ,again1 it has been said that ,i speak of natural selection as an active ,power or ,deity2 but who objects to an author speaking of the attraction of gravity as ruling the movements of the planets8 ,it is difficult to avoid personifying the word ,nature2 but ,i mean by ,nature only the aggregate action and product of many natural laws1 and by laws the sequence of events as ascertained by us4 ,as man can produce1 and certainly has produced1 a great result by his methodical and unconscious means of selection1 what may not natural selection effect8 ,man can act only on external and visible characters2 ,nature1 if ,i may be allowed to personify the natural preservation or survival of the fittest1 cares nothing for appearances1 except in so far as they are useful to any being4 ,she can act on every internal organ1 on every shade of constitutional difference1 on the whole machinery of life4 ,man selects only for his own good2 ,nature only for that of the being which she tends4 ,every selected character is fully exercised by her1 as is implied by the fact of their selection4 ,man keeps the natives of many climates in the same country2 he seldom exercises each selected character in some peculiar and fitting manner2 he feeds a long and a short-beaked pigeon on the same food2 he does not exercise a long-backed or long-legged quadruped in any peculiar manner2 he exposes sheep with long and short wool to the same climate4 ,man does not allow the most vigorous males to struggle for the females4 ,he does not rigidly destroy all inferior animals1 but protects during each varying season1 as far as lies in his power1 all his productions4 ,he often begins his selection by some half-monstrous form2 or at least by some modification prominent enough to catch the eye or to be plainly useful to him4 ,but under ,nature1 the slightest differences of structure or constitution may well turn the nicely-balanced scale in the struggle for life1 and so be preserved4 ,how fleeting are the wishes and efforts of man6 ,how short his time6 ,and1 consequently1 how poor will be his results compared with those accumulated by ,nature during whole geological periods6 ,can we wonder that ,nature's productions should be far truer in character than man's productions2 that they should be infinitely better adapted to the most complex conditions of life1 and should plainly bear the stamp of far higher workmanship8 ,it may metaphorically be said that natural selection is daily and hourly scrutinising1 throughout the world1 the slightest variations2 rejecting those that are bad1 preserving and adding up all that are good2 silently and insensibly working1 whenever and wherever opportunity offers1 at the improvement of each organic being in relation to its organic and inorganic conditions of life4 ,we see nothing of these slow changes in progress until the hand of time has marked the lapse of ages1 and then so imperfect is our view into long-past geological ages that we see only that the forms of life are now different from what they formerly were4 ,although natural selection can act only through and for the good of each being1 yet characters and structures1 which we are apt to consider as of very trifling importance1 may thus be acted on4 ,natural selection will modify the structure of the young in relation to the parent1 and of the parent in relation to the young4 ,in social animals it will adapt the structure of each individual for the benefit of the whole community1 if the community profits by the selected change4 ,what natural selection cannot do is to modify the structure of one species1 without giving it any advantage1 for the good of another species2 and though statements to this effect may be found in works of natural history1 ,i cannot find one case which will bear investigation4 ,a structure used only once in an animal's life1 if of high importance to it1 might be modified to any extent by natural selection2 for instance1 the great jaws possessed by certain insects1 used exclusively for opening the cocoon1 or the hard tip to the beak of unhatched birds1 used for breaking the egg4 ,it has been asserted that of the best short-beaked tumbler pigeons a greater number perish in the egg than are able to get out of it2 so that fanciers assist in the act of hatching4 ,now1 if ,nature had to make the beak of a full-grown pigeon very short for the bird's own advantage1 the process of modification would be very slow1 and there would be simultaneously the most rigorous selection of all the young birds within the egg1 for all with weak beaks would inevitably perish2 or more easily broken shells might be selected1 the thickness of the shell being known to vary like every other structure4 ,with all beings there must be much fortuitous destruction1 which can have little or no influence on the course of natural selection4 ,for instance1 a vast number of eggs or seeds are annually devoured1 and these could be modified through natural selection only if they varied in some manner which protected them from their enemies4 ,yet many of these eggs or seeds would perhaps1 if not destroyed1 have yielded individuals better adapted to their conditions of life than any of those which happened to survive4 ,so1 again1 a vast number of mature animals and plants1 whether or not they be the best adapted to their conditions1 must be annually destroyed by accidental causes1 which would not be in the least degree mitigated by certain changes of structure or constitution which would in other ways be beneficial to the species4 ,but let the destruction of the adults be ever so heavy1 if the number which can exist in any district be not wholly kept down by such causes--or1 again1 let the destruction of eggs or seeds be so great that only a hundredth or a thousandth part are developed--yet of those which do survive1 the best adapted individuals1 supposing there is any variability in a favourable direction1 will tend to propagate their kind in larger numbers than the less well adapted4 ,on our theory the continued existence of lowly organisms offers no difficulty2 for natural selection does not necessarily include progressive development2 it only takes advantage of such variations as arise and are beneficial to each creature under its complex relations of life4 ,the mere lapse of time by itself does nothing1 either for or against natural selection4 ,i state this because it has been erroneously asserted that the element of time has been assumed by me to play an all-important part in modifying species1 as if all the forms of life were necessarily undergoing change through some innate law4 ,v4--,sexual ,selection ,this form of selection depends1 not on a struggle for existence in relation to other organic beings or to external conditions1 but on a struggle between the individuals of one sex1 generally the males1 for the possession of the other sex4 ,the result is not death to the unsuccessful competitor1 but few or no offspring4 ,sexual selection is1 therefore1 less rigorous than natural selection4 ,generally1 the most vigorous males1 those which are best fitted for their places in ,nature1 will leave most progeny4 ,but1 in many cases1 victory depends not so much on general vigour as on having special weapons1 confined to the male sex4 ,a hornless stag or spurless cock would have a poor chance of leaving numerous offspring4 ,sexual selection1 by always allowing the victor to breed1 might surely give indomitable courage1 length to the spur1 and strength to the wing to strike in the spurred leg1 in nearly the same manner as does the brutal cock-fighter by the careful selection of his best cocks4 ,how low in the scale of ,nature the law of battle descends ,i know not4 ,male alligators have been described as fighting1 bellowing1 and whirling round1 like ,indians in a war-dance1 for the possession of the females2 male salmons have been observed fighting all day long2 male stag-beetles sometimes bear wounds from the mandibles of other males2 the males of certain other insects have been frequently seen fighting for a particular female who sits by1 an apparently unconcerned beholder of the struggle1 and then retires with the conqueror4 ,the war is1 perhaps1 severest between the males of the polygamous animals1 and these seem oftenest provided with special weapons4 ,the males of carnivorous animals are already well armed1 though to them special means of defence may be given through means of sexual selection1 as the mane of the lion and the hooked jaw of the salmon4 ,the shield may be as important for victory as the sword or spear4 ,amongst birds1 the contest is often of a more peaceful character4 ,all those who have attended to the subject believe that there is the severest rivalry between the males of many species to attract1 by singing1 the females4 ,the rock-thrush of ,guiana1 birds of paradise1 and some others1 congregate2 and successive males display with the most elaborate care1 and show off in the best manner1 their gorgeous plumage2 they likewise perform strange antics before the females1 which1 standing by as spectators1 at last choose the most attractive partner4 ,if man can in a short time give beauty and an elegant carriage to his bantams1 according to his standard of beauty1 ,i can see no good reason to doubt that female birds1 by selecting1 during thousands of generations1 the most melodious or beautiful males1 according to their standard of beauty1 might produce a marked effect4 ,,vi4--,the ,struggle for ,existence ,under domestication we see much variability1 caused1 or at least excited1 by changed conditions of life2 but often in so obscure a manner that we are tempted to consider the variations as spontaneous4 ,variability is governed by many complex laws--by correlated growth1 compensation1 the increased use and disuse of parts1 and the definite action of the surrounding conditions4 ,there is much difficulty in ascertaining how largely our domestic productions have been modified2 but we may safely infer that the amount has been large1 and that modifications can be inherited for long periods4 ,as long as the conditions of life remain the same1 we have reason to believe that a modification1 which has already been inherited for many generations1 may continue to be inherited for an almost infinite number of generations4 ,on the other hand1 we have evidence that variability1 when it has once come into play1 does not cease under domestication for a very long period2 nor do we know that it ever ceases1 for new varieties are still occasionally produced by our oldest domesticated productions4 ,variability is not actually caused by man2 he only unintentionally exposes organic beings to new conditions of life1 and then ,nature acts on the organisation and causes it to vary4 ,but man can and does select the variations given to him by ,nature1 and thus accumulates them in any desired manner4 ,he thus adapts animals and plants for his own benefit or pleasure4 ,he may do this methodically1 or he may do it unconsciously by preserving the individuals most useful or pleasing to him without an intention of altering the breed4 ,it is certain that he can influence the character of a breed by selecting1 in each successive generation1 individual differences so slight as to be inappreciable except by an educated eye4 ,this unconscious process of selection has been the agency in the formation of the most distinct and useful domestic breeds4 ,that many breeds produced by man have to a large extent the character of natural species is shown by the inextricable doubts whether many of them are varieties or aboriginally distinct species4 ,there is no reason why the principles which have acted so efficiently under domestication should not have acted under ,nature4 ,in the survival of favoured individuals and races1 during the constantly recurrent struggle for existence1 we see a powerful and ever-acting form of selection4 ,the struggle for existence inevitably follows from the high geometrical ratio of increase which is common to all organic beings4 ,this high rate of increase is proved by calculation2 by the rapid increase of many animals and plants during a succession of peculiar seasons and when naturalised in new countries4 ,more individuals are born than can possibly survive4 ,a grain in the balance may determine which individuals shall live and which shall die2 which variety or species shall increase in number1 and which shall decrease1 or finally become extinct4 ,as the individuals of the same species come in all respects into the closest competition with each other1 the struggle will generally be most severe between them2 it will be almost equally severe between the varieties of the same species1 and next in severity between the species of the same genus4 ,on the other hand1 the struggle will often be severe between beings remote in the scale of ,nature4 ,the slightest advantage in certain individuals1 at any age or during any season1 over those with which they come into competition1 or better adaptation1 in however slight a degree1 to the surrounding physical conditions1 will1 in the long run1 turn the balance4 ,with animals having separated sexes1 there will be in most cases a struggle between the males for the possession of the females4 ,the most vigorous males1 or those which have most successfully struggled with their conditions of life1 will generally leave most progeny4 ,but success will often depend on the males having special weapons1 or means of defence1 or charms2 and a slight advantage will lead to victory4 ,as geology plainly proclaims that each land has undergone great physical changes1 we might have expected to find that organic beings have varied under ,nature in the same way as they have varied under domestication4 ,and if there has been any variability under ,nature1 it would be an unaccountable fact if natural selection had not come into play4 ,it has often been asserted1 but the assertion is incapable of proof1 that the amount of variation under ,nature is a strictly limited quantity4 ,man1 though acting on external characters alone1 and often capriciously1 can produce within a short period a great result by adding up mere individual differences in his domestic productions2 and everyone admits that species present individual differences4 ,but1 besides such differences1 all naturalists admit that natural varieties exist1 which are considered sufficiently distinct to be worthy of record in systematic works4 ,no one has drawn any clear distinction between individual differences and slight varieties1 or between more plainly marked varieties and sub-species and species4 ,on separate continents1 and on different parts of the same continent when divided by barriers of any kind1 what a multitude of forms exist which some experienced naturalists rank as varieties1 others as geographical races or sub-species1 and others as distinct1 though closely allied species6 ,if1 then1 animals and plants do vary1 let it be ever so slightly or slowly1 why should not variations or individuals1 differences which are in any way beneficial1 be preserved and accumulated through natural selection1 or the survival of the fittest8 ,if man can1 by patience1 select variations useful to him1 why1 under changing and complex conditions of life1 should not variations useful to ,nature's living products often arise1 and be preserved1 or selected8 ,what limit can be put to this power1 acting during long ages and rigidly scrutinising the whole constitution1 structure1 and habits of each creature--favouring the good and rejecting the bad8 ,i can see no limit to this power1 in slowly and beautifully adapting each form to the most complex relations of life4 ,in the future ,i see open fields for far more important researches4 ,psychology will be based on the foundation already well laid by ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer--that of the necessary acquirement of each mental power and capacity by gradation4 ,much light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history4 ,authors of the highest eminence seem to be fully satisfied with the view that each species has been independently created4 ,to my mind it accords better with what we know of the laws impressed on matter by the ,creator that the production and extinction of the past and present inhabitants of the world should have been due to secondary causes1 like those determining the birth and death of the individual4 ,when ,i view all beings not as special creations1 but as the lineal descendants of some few beings which lived long before the first bed of the ,cambrian system was deposited1 they seem to me to become ennobled4 ,judging from the past1 we may safely infer that not one living species will transmit its unaltered likeness to a distant futurity4 ,of the species now living very few will transmit progeny of any kind to a far distant futurity2 for the manner in which all organic beings are grouped shows that the greater number of species in each genus1 and all the species in many genera1 have left no descendants1 but have become utterly extinct4 ,we can so far take a prophetic glance into futurity as to foretell that it will be the common and widely-spread species1 belonging to the larger and dominant groups within each class1 which will ultimately prevail and procreate new and dominant species4 ,as all the living forms of life are the lineal descendants of those which lived long before the ,cambrian epoch1 we may feel certain that the ordinary succession by generation has never once been broken1 and that no cataclysm has desolated the whole world4 ,we may look with some confidence to a secure future of great length4 ,as natural selection works solely by and for the good of each being1 all corporeal and mental endowments will tend to progress towards perfection4 ,it is interesting to contemplate a tangled bank1 clothed with many plants of many kinds1 with birds singing on the bushes1 with various insects flitting about1 and with worms crawling through the damp earth1 and to reflect that these elaborately constructed forms1 so different from each other1 and dependent upon each other in so complex a manner1 have all been produced by laws acting around us4 ,these laws1 taken in the largest sense1 being ,growth with ,reproduction2 ,inheritance1 which is almost implied by reproduction2 ,variability from the indirect and direct action of the conditions of life1 and from use and disuse2 a ratio of increase so high as to lead to a struggle for life1 and1 as a consequence1 to ,natural ,selection1 entailing ,divergence of ,character and the ,extinction of less improved forms4 ,thus1 from the war of ,nature1 from famine and death1 the most exalted object which we are capable of conceiving1 namely1 the production of the higher animals1 directly follows4 ,there is grandeur in this view of life1 with its several powers1 having been originally breathed by the ,creator into a few forms1 or into one2 and that1 whilst this planet has gone cycling on according to the fixed law of gravity1 from so simple a beginning endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful have been1 and are being1 evolved4 ,,sir ,,humphry ,,davy ,elements of ,chemical ,philosophy ,humphry ,davy1 the celebrated natural philosopher1 was born ,dec4 #ag1 #aggh1 at ,penzance1 ,england4 ,at the age of seventeen he became an apothecary's apprentice1 and at the age of nineteen assistant at ,dr4 ,beddoes's pneumatic institution at ,bristol4 ,during researches at the pneumatic institution he discovered the physiological effects of laughing gas1 and made so considerable a reputation as a chemist that at the age of twenty-two he was appointed lecturer1 and a year later professor1 at the ,royal ,institution4 ,for ten years1 from #ahjc1 he was engaged in agricultural researches1 and in #ahac published his ,elements of ,agricultural ,chemistry4 ,during the same decade he conducted important investigations into the nature of chemical combination1 and succeeded in isolating the elements potassium1 sodium1 strontium1 magnesium1 and chlorine4 ,in #ahab he was knighted1 and married ,mrs4 ,apreece1 ne ,jane ,kerr4 ,in #ahae he investigated the nature of fire-damp and invented the ,davy safety lamp4 ,in #ahah he received a baronetcy1 and two years later was elected ,president of the ,royal ,society4 ,on ,may #bi1 #ahbi1 he died at ,geneva4 ,davy's ,elements of ,chemical ,philosophy1 of which a summary is given here1 was published in one volume in #ahab1 being the substance of lectures delivered before the ,board of ,agriculture4 ,i4--,forms and ,changes of ,matter ,the forms and appearances of the beings and substances of the external world are almost infinitely various1 and they are in a state of continued alteration4 ,in general1 matter is found in four forms1 as 7#a7 solids1 7#b7 fluids1 7#c7 gases1 7#d7 ethereal substances4 #a4 ,solids4 ,solids retain whatever mechanical form is given to them2 their parts are separated with difficulty1 and cannot readily be made to unite after separation4 ,they may be either elastic or non-elastic1 and differ in hardness1 in colour1 in opacity1 in density1 in weight1 and1 if crystalline1 in crystalline form4 #b4 ,fluids4 ,fluids1 when in small masses1 assume the spherical form2 their parts possess freedom of motion2 they differ in density and tenacity1 in colour1 and in opacity4 ,they are usually regarded as incompressible2 at least1 a very great mechanical force is required to compress them4 #c4 ,gases4 ,gases exist free in the atmosphere1 but may be confined4 ,their parts are highly movable2 they are compressible and expansible1 and their volumes are inversely as the weight compressing them4 ,all known gases are transparent1 and present only two or three varieties of colour2 they differ materially in density4 #d4 ,ethereal ,substances4 ,ethereal substances are known to us only in their states of motion when acting upon our organs of sense1 or upon other matter1 and are not susceptible of being confined4 ,it cannot be doubted that there is such matter in motion in space4 ,ethereal matter differs either in its nature1 or in its affections by motion1 for it produces different effects2 for instance1 radiant heat1 and different kinds of light4 ,all these forms of matter are under the influence of active forces1 such as gravitation1 cohesion1 heat1 chemical and electrical attraction1 and these we must now consider4 #a4 ,gravitation4 ,when a stone is thrown into the atmosphere1 it rapidly descends towards the earth4 ,this is owing to gravitation4 ,all the great bodies in the universe are urged towards each other by a similar force4 ,bodies mutually gravitate towards each other1 but the smaller body proportionately more than the larger one2 hence the power of gravity is said to vary directly as the mass4 ,gravitation also varies with distance1 and acts inversely as the square of the distance4 #b4 ,cohesion4 ,cohesion is the force which preserves the forms of solids1 and gives globularity to fluids4 ,it is usually said to act only at the surface of bodies or by their immediate contact2 but this does not seem to be the case4 ,it certainly acts with much greater energy at small distances1 but the spherical form of minute portions of fluid matter can be produced only by the attractions of all the parts of which they are composed1 for each other2 and most of these attractions must be exerted at sensible distances1 so that gravitation and cohesion may be mere modifications of the same general power of attraction4 #c4 ,heat4 ,when a body which occasions the sensation of heat on our organs is brought into contact with another body which has no such effect1 the hot body contracts and loses to a certain extent its power of communicating heat2 and the other body expands4 ,different solids and fluids expand very differently when heated1 and the expansive power of liquids1 in general1 is greater than that of solids4 ,it is evident that the density of bodies must be diminished by expansion2 and in the case of fluids and gases1 the parts of which are mobile1 many important phenomena depend upon this circumstance4 ,for instance1 if heat be applied to fluids and gases1 the heated parts change their places and rise1 and the currents in the ocean and atmosphere are due principally to this movement4 ,there are very few exceptions to the law of the expansion of bodies at the time they become capable of communicating the sensation of heat1 and these exceptions seem to depend upon some chemical change in the constitution of bodies1 or on their crystalline arrangements4 ,the power which bodies possess of communicating or receiving heat is known as temperature1 and the temparature of a body is said to be high or low with respect to another in proportion as it occasions an expansion or contraction of its parts4 ,when equal volumes of different bodies of different temperatures are suffered to remain in contact till they acquire the same temperature1 it is found that this temperature is not a mean one1 as it would be in the case of equal volumes of the same body4 ,thus if a pint of quicksilver at #ajj be mixed with a pint of water at #ej1 the resulting temperature is not #ge1 but #gj2 the mercury has lost thirty degrees1 whereas the water has only gained twenty degrees4 ,this difference is said to depend on the different capacities of bodies for heat4 ,not only do different bodies vary in their capacity for heat1 but they likewise acquire heat with very different degrees of celerity4 ,this last difference depends on the different power of bodies for conducting heat1 and it will be found that as a rule the densest bodies1 with the least capacity for heat1 are the best conductors4 ,heat1 or the power of repulsion1 may be considered as the antagonist power to the attraction of cohesion4 ,thus solids by a certain increase of temperature become fluids1 and fluids gases2 and1 vice vers1 by a diminution of temperature1 gases become fluids1 and fluids solids4 ,proofs of the conversion of solids1 fluids1 or gases into ethereal substances are not distinct4 ,heated bodies become luminous and give off radiant heat1 which affects the bodies at a distance1 and it may therefore be held that particles are thrown off from heated bodies with great velocity1 which1 by acting on our organs1 produce the sensations of heat or light1 and that their motion1 communicated to the particles of other bodies1 has the power of expanding them4 ,it may1 however1 be said that the radiant matters emitted by bodies in ignition are specific substances1 and that common matter is not susceptible of assuming this form2 or it may be contended that the phenomena of radiation do in fact1 depend upon motions communicated to subtile matter everywhere existing in space4 ,the temperatures at which bodies change their states from fluids to solids1 though in general definite1 are influenced by a few circumstances such as motion and pressure4 ,when solids are converted into fluids1 or fluids into gases1 there is always a loss of heat of temperature2 and1 vice vers1 when gases are converted into fluids1 or fluids into solids1 there is an increase of heat of temperature1 and in this case it is said that latent heat is absorbed or given out4 ,the expansion due to heat has been accounted for by supposing a subtile fluid1 or caloric1 capable of combining with bodies and of separating their parts from each other1 and the absorption and liberation of latent heat can be explained on this principle4 ,but many other facts are incompatible with the theory4 ,for instance1 metal may be kept hot for any length of time by friction1 so that if caloric be pressed out it must exist in an inexhaustible quantity4 ,delicate experiments have shown that bodies1 when heated1 do not increase in weight4 ,it seems possible to account for all the phenomena of heat1 if it be supposed that in solids the particles are in a constant state of vibratory motion1 the particles of the hottest bodies moving with the greatest velocity and through the greatest space2 that in fluids and gases the particles have not only vibratory motion1 but also a motion round their own axes with different velocities1 and that in ethereal substances the particles move round their own axes and separate from each other1 penetrating in right lines through space4 ,temperature may be conceived to depend upon the velocity of the vibrations1 increase of capacity on the motion being performed in greater space2 and the diminution of temperature during the conversion of solids into fluids or gases may be explained on the idea of the loss of vibratory motion in consequence of the revolution of particles round their axes at the moment when the body becomes fluid or aeriform1 or from the loss of rapidity of vibration in consequence of the motion of particles through greater space4 #d4 ,chemical ,attraction4 ,oil and water will not combine2 they are said to have no chemical attraction or affinity for each other4 ,but if oil and solution of potassa in water be mixed1 the oil and the solution blend and form a soap2 and they are said to attract each other chemically or to have a chemical affinity for each other4 ,it is a general character of chemical combination that it changes the qualities of the bodies4 ,thus1 corrosive and pungent substances may become mild and tasteless2 solids may become fluids1 and solids and fluids gases4 ,no body will act chemically upon another body at any sensible distance2 apparent contact is necessary for chemical action4 ,a freedom of motion in the parts of the bodies or a want of cohesion greatly assists action1 and it was formerly believed that bodies cannot act chemically upon each other unless one of them be fluid or gaseous4 ,different bodies unite with different degrees of force1 and hence one body is capable of separating others from certain of their combinations1 and in consequence mutual decompositions of different compounds take place4 ,this has been called double affinity1 or complex chemical affinity4 ,as in all well-known compounds the proportions of the elements are in certain definite ratios to each other1 it is evident that these ratios may be expressed by numbers2 and if one number be employed to denote the smallest quantity in which a body combines1 all other quantities of the same body will be multiples of this number1 and the smallest proportions into which the undecomposed bodies enter into union being known1 the constitution of the compounds they form may be learnt1 and the element which unites chemically in the smallest quantity being expressed by unity1 all the other elements may be represented by the relations of their quantities to unity4 #e4 ,electrical ,attraction4 ,a piece of dry silk briskly rubbed against a warm plate of polished flint glass acquires the property of adhering to the glass1 and both the silk and the glass1 if apart from each other1 attract light substances4 ,the bodies are said to be electrically excited4 ,probably1 all bodies which differ from each other become electrically excited when rubbed and pressed together4 ,the electrical excitement seems of two kinds4 ,a pith-ball touched by glass excited by silk repels a pith-ball touched by silk excited by metals4 ,electrical excitement of the same nature as that in glass excited by silk is known as vitreous or positive1 and electrical excitement of the opposite nature is known as resinous or negative4 ,a rod of glass touched by an electrified body is electrified only round the point of contact4 ,a rod of metal1 on the contrary1 suspended on a rod of glass and brought into contact with an electrical surface1 instantly becomes electrical throughout4 ,the glass is said to be a non-conductor1 or insulating substance2 the metal a conductor4 ,when a non-conductor or imperfect conductor1 provided it be a thin plate of matter placed upon a conductor1 is brought in contact with an excited electrical body1 the surface opposite to that of contact gains the opposite electricity from that of the excited body1 and if the plate be removed it is found to possess two surfaces in opposite states4 ,if a conductor be brought into the neighbourhood of an excited body--the air1 which is a non-conductor1 being between them--that extremity of the conductor which is opposite to the excited body gains the opposite electricity2 and the other extremity1 if opposite to a body connected with the ground1 gains the same electricity1 and the middle point is not electrical at all4 ,this is known as induced electricity4 ,the common exhibition of electrical effects is in attractions and repulsions2 but electricity also produces chemical phenomena4 ,if a piece of zinc and copper in contact with each other at one point be placed in contact at other points with the same portion of water1 the zinc will corrode1 and attract oxygen from the water much more rapidly than if it had not been in contact with the copper2 and if sulphuric acid be added1 globules of inflammable air are given off from the copper1 though it is not dissolved or acted upon4 ,chemical phenomena in connection with electrical effects can be shown even better by combinations in which the electrical effects are increased by alterations of different metals and fluids--the so-called voltaic batteries4 ,such are the decomposing powers of such batteries that not even insoluble compounds are capable of resisting their energy1 for even glass1 sulphate of baryta1 fluorspar1 etc41 are slowly acted upon1 and the alkaline1 earthy1 or acid matter carried to the poles in the common order4 ,the most powerful voltaic combinations are formed by substances that act chemically with most energy upon each other1 and such substances as undergo no chemical changes in the combination exhibit no electrical powers4 ,hence it was supposed that the electrical powers of metals were entirely due to chemical changes2 but this is not the case1 for contact produces electricity even when no chemical change can be observed4 ,,ii4--,radiant or ,ethereal ,matter ,when similar thermometers are placed in different parts of the solar beam1 it is found that different effects are produced in the differently coloured rays4 ,the greatest heat is exhibited in the red rays1 the least in the violet rays2 and in a space beyond the red rays1 where there is no visible light1 the increase of temperature is greatest of all4 ,from these facts it is evident that matter set in motion by the sun has the power of producing heat without light1 and that its rays are less refrangible than the visible rays4 ,the invisible rays that produce heat are capable of reflection as well as refraction in the same manner as the visible rays4 ,rays capable of producing heat with and without light proceed not only from the sun1 but also from bodies at the surface of the globe under peculiar agencies or changes4 ,if1 for instance1 a thermometer be held near an ignited body1 it receives an impression connected with an elevation of temperature2 this is partly produced by the conducting powers of the air1 and partly by an impulse which is instantaneously communicated1 even to a considerable distance4 ,this effect is called the radiation of terrestrial heat4 ,the manner in which the temperatures of bodies are affected by rays producing heat is different for different substances1 and is very much connected with their colours4 ,the bodies that absorb most light1 and reflect least1 are most heated when exposed either to solar or terrestrial rays4 ,black bodies are1 in general1 more heated than red2 red more than green2 green more than yellow2 and yellow more than white4 ,metals are less heated than earthy or stony bodies1 or than animal or vegetable matters4 ,polished surfaces are less heated than rough surfaces4 ,the bodies that have their temperatures most easily raised by heat rays are likewise those that are most easily cooled by their own radiation1 or that at the same temperature emit most heat-making rays4 ,metals radiate less heat than glass1 glass less than vegetable substances1 and charcoal has the highest radiating powers of any body as yet made the subject of experiment4 ,radiant matter has the power of producing chemical changes partly through its heating power1 and partly through some other specific and peculiar influence4 ,thus chlorine and hydrogen detonate when a mixture of them is exposed to the solar beams1 even though the heat is inadequate to produce detonation4 ,if moistened silver be exposed to the different rays of the solar spectrum1 it will be found that no effect is produced upon it by the least refrangible rays which occasion heat without light2 that a slight discoloration only will be produced by the red rays2 that the effect of blackening will be greater towards the violet end of the spectrum2 and that in a space beyond the violet1 where there is no sensible heat or light1 the chemical effect will be very distinct4 ,there seem to be rays1 therefore1 more refrangible than the rays producing light and heat4 ,the general facts of the refraction and effects of the solar beam offer an analogy to the agencies of electricity4 ,in general1 in ,nature the effects of the solar rays are very compounded4 ,healthy vegetation depends upon the presence of the solar beams or of light1 and while the heat gives fluidity and mobility to the vegetable juices1 chemical effects are likewise occasioned1 oxygen is separated from them1 and inflammable compounds are formed4 ,plants deprived of light become white and contain an excess of saccharine and aqueous particles2 and flowers owe the variety of their hues to the influence of the solar beams4 ,even animals require the presence of the rays of the sun1 and their colours seem to depend upon the chemical influence of these rays4 ,two hypotheses have been invented to account for the principal operations of radiant matter4 ,in the first it is supposed that the universe contains a highly rare elastic substance1 which1 when put into a state of undulation1 produces those effects on our organs of sight which constitute the sensations of vision and other phenomena caused by solar and terrestrial rays4 ,in the second it is conceived that particles are emitted from luminous or heat-making bodies with great velocity1 and that they produce their effects by communicating their motions to substances1 or by entering into them and changing their composition4 ,newton has attempted to explain the different refrangibility of the rays of light by supposing them composed of particles differing in size4 ,the same great man has put the query whether light and common matter are not convertible into each other2 and1 adopting the idea that the phenomena of sensible heat depend upon vibrations of the particles of bodies1 supposes that a certain intensity of vibrations may send off particles into free space1 and that particles in rapid motion in right lines1 in losing their own motion1 may communicate a vibratory motion to the particles of terrestrial bodies4 ,,michael ,,faraday ,experimental ,researches in ,electricity ,michael ,faraday was the son of a ,yorkshire blacksmith1 and was born in ,london on ,september #bb1 #agia4 ,at the age of twenty he became assistant to ,sir ,humphry ,davy1 whose lectures he had attended at the ,royal ,institution4 ,here he worked for the rest of his laborious life1 which closed on ,august #be1 #ahfg4 ,the fame of ,faraday1 among those whose studies qualify them for a verdict1 has risen steadily since his death1 great though it then was4 ,his researches were of truly epoch-making character1 and he was the undisputed founder of the modern science of electricity1 which is rapidly coming to dominate chemistry itself4 ,faraday excelled as a lecturer1 and could stand even the supreme test of lecturing to children4 ,faraday's ,experimental ,researches in ,electricity is a record of some of the most brilliant experiments in the history of science4 ,in the course of his investigations he made discoveries which have had momentous consequences4 ,his discovery of the mutual relation of magnets and of wires conducting electric currents was the beginning of the modern dynamo and all that it involves2 while his discoveries of electric induction and of electrolysis were of equal significance4 ,most of the researches are too technical for epitomisation2 but those given are representative of his manner and methods4 ,i4--,atmospheric ,magnetism ,it is to me an impossible thing to perceive that two-ninths of the atmosphere by weight is a highly magnetic body1 subject to great changes in its magnetic character1 by variations in its temperature and condensation or rarefaction1 without being persuaded that it has much to do with the variable disposition of the magnetic forces upon the surface of the earth4 ,the earth is a spheroidal body consisting of paramagnetic and diamagnetic substances irregularly disposed and intermingled2 but for the present the whole may be considered a mighty compound magnet4 ,the magnetic force of this great magnet is known to us only on the surface of the earth and water of our planet1 and the variations in the magnetic lines of force which pass in or across this surface can be measured by their action on small standard magnets2 but these variations are limited in their information1 and do not tell us whether the cause is in the air above or the earth beneath4 ,the lines of force issue from the earth in the northern and southern parts and coalesce with each other over the equatorial1 as would be the case in a globe having one or two short magnets adjusted in relation to its axis1 and it is probable that the lines of force in their circuitous course may extend through space to tens of thousands of miles4 ,the lines proceed through space with a certain degree of facility1 but there may be variations in space1 e4g41 variations in its temperature which affect its power of transmitting the magnetic influence4 ,between the earth and space1 however1 is interposed the atmosphere1 and at the bottom of the atmosphere we live4 ,the atmosphere consists of four volumes of nitrogen and one of oxygen uniformly mixed and acting magnetically as a single medium4 ,the nitrogen of the air is1 as regards the magnetic force1 neither paramagnetic nor diamagnetic1 whether dense or rare1 or at high or low temperatures4 ,the oxygen of the air1 on the other hand1 is highly paramagnetic1 being1 bulk for bulk1 equivalent to a solution of protosulphate of iron1 containing of the crystallised salt seventeen times the weight of the oxygen4 ,it becomes less paramagnetic1 volume for volume1 as it is rarefied1 and apparently in the simple proportion of its rarefaction1 the temperature remaining the same4 ,when its temperature is raised--the expansion consequent thereon being permitted--it loses very greatly its paramagnetic force1 and there is sufficient reason to conclude that when its temperature is lowered its paramagnetic condition is exalted4 ,these characters oxygen preserves even when mingled with the nitrogen in the air4 ,hence the atmosphere is a highly magnetic medium1 and this medium is changed in its magnetic relations by every change in its density and temperature1 and must affect both the intensity and direction of the magnetic force emanating from the earth1 and may account for the variations which we find in terrestrial magnetic power4 ,we may expect as the sun leaves us on the west some magnetic effect correspondent to that of the approach of a body of cold air from the east4 ,again1 the innumerable circumstances that break up more or less any average arrangement of the air temperatures may be expected to give not merely differences in the regularity1 direction1 and degree of magnetic variation1 but1 because of vicinity1 differences so large as to be many times greater than the mean difference for a given short period1 and they may also cause irregularities in the times of their occurrence4 ,yet again1 the atmosphere diminishes in density upwards1 and this diminution will affect the transmission of the electric force4 ,the result of the annual variation that may be expected from the magnetic constitution and condition of the atmosphere seems to me to be of the following kind4 ,since the axis of the earth's rotation is inclined #bc #bh' to the plane of the ecliptic1 the two hemispheres will become alternately warmer and cooler than each other4 ,the air of the cooled hemisphere will conduct magnetic influence more freely than if in the mean state1 and the lines of force passing through it will increase in amount1 whilst in the other hemisphere the warmed air will conduct with less readiness than before1 and the intensity will diminish4 ,in addition to this effect of temperature1 there ought to be another due to the increase of the ponderable portion of the air in the cooled hemisphere1 consequent on its contraction and the coincident expansion of the air in the warmer half1 both of which circumstances tend to increase the variation in power of the two hemispheres from the normal state4 ,then1 as the earth rolls on its annual journey1 that which was at one time the cooler becomes the warmer hemisphere1 and in its turn sinks as far below the average magnetic intensity as it before had stood above it1 while the other hemisphere changes its magnetic condition from less to more intense4 ,,ii4--,electro-,chemical ,action ,the theory of definite electrolytical or electro-chemical action appears to me to touch immediately upon the absolute quantity of electricity belonging to different bodies4 ,as soon as we perceive that chemical powers are definite for each body1 and that the electricity which we can loosen from each body has definite chemical action which can be measured1 we seem to have found the link which connects the proportion of that we have evolved to the proportion belonging to the particles in their natural state4 ,now1 it is wonderful to observe how small a quantity of a compound body is decomposed by a certain quantity of electricity4 ,one grain of water1 for instance1 acidulated to facilitate conduction1 will require an electric current to be continued for three minutes and three-quarters to effect its decomposition1 and the current must be powerful enough to keep a platina wire #a_/ajd inch in thickness red hot in the air during the whole time1 and to produce a very brilliant and constant star of light if interrupted anywhere by charcoal points4 ,it will not be too much to say that this necessary quantity of electricity is equal to a very powerful flash of lightning2 and yet when it has performed its full work of electrolysis1 it has separated the elements of only a single grain of water4 ,on the other hand1 the relation between the conduction of the electricity and the decomposition of the water is so close that one cannot take place without the other4 ,if the water be altered only in that degree which consists in its having the solid instead of the fluid state1 the conduction is stopped and the decomposition is stopped with it4 ,whether the conduction be considered as depending upon the decomposition or not1 still the relation of the two functions is equally intimate4 ,considering this close and twofold relation--namely1 that without decomposition transmission of electricity does not occur1 and that for a given definite quantity of electricity passed an equally definite and constant quantity of water or other matter is decomposed2 considering also that the agent1 which is electricity1 is simply employed in overcoming electrical powers in the body subjected to its action1 it seems a probable and almost a natural consequence that the quantity which passes is the equivalent of that of the particles separated2 i4e41 that if the electrical power which holds the elements of a grain of water in combination1 or which makes a grain of oxygen and hydrogen in the right proportions unite into water when they are made to combine1 could be thrown into a current1 it would exactly equal the current required for the separation of that grain of water into its elements again2 in other words1 that the electricity which decomposes and that which is evolved by the decomposition of a certain quantity of matter are alike4 ,this view of the subject gives an almost overwhelming idea of the extraordinary quantity or degree of electric power which naturally belongs to the particles of matter1 and the idea may be illustrated by reference to the voltaic pile4 ,the source of the electricity in the voltaic instrument is due almost entirely to chemical action4 ,substances interposed between its metals are all electrolytes1 and the current cannot be transmitted without their decomposition4 ,if1 now1 a voltaic trough have its extremities connected by a body capable of being decomposed1 such as water1 we shall have a continuous current through the apparatus1 and we may regard the part where the acid is acting on the plates and the part where the current is acting upon the water as the reciprocals of each other4 ,in both parts we have the two conditions1 inseparable in such bodies as these3 the passing of a current1 and decomposition4 ,in the one case we have decomposition associated with a current2 in the other1 a current followed by decomposition4 ,let us apply this in support of my surmise respecting the enormous electric power of each particle or atom of matter4 ,two wires1 one of platina1 and one of zinc1 each one-eighteenth of an inch in diameter1 placed five-sixteenths of an inch apart1 and immersed to the depth of five-eighths of an inch in acid1 consisting of one drop of oil of vitriol and four ounces of distilled water at a temperature of about #fj ,fahrenheit1 and connected at the other ends by a copper wire eighteen feet long1 and one-eighteenth of an inch in thickness1 yielded as much electricity in little more than three seconds of time as a ,leyden battery charged by thirty turns of a very large and powerful plate electric machine in full action4 ,this quantity1 although sufficient if passed at once through the head of a rat or cat to have killed it1 as by a flash of lightning1 was evolved by the mutual action of so small a portion of the zinc wire and water in contact with it that the loss of weight by either would be inappreciable2 and as to the water which could be decomposed by that current1 it must have been insensible in quantity1 for no trace of hydrogen appeared upon the surface of the platina during these three seconds4 ,it would appear that #hjj1jjj such charges of the ,leyden battery would be necessary to decompose a single grain of water2 or1 if ,i am right1 to equal the quantity of electricity which is naturally associated with the elements of that grain of water1 endowing them with their mutual chemical affinity4 ,this theory of the definite evolution and the equivalent definite action of electricity beautifully harmonises the associated theories of definite proportions and electro-chemical affinity4 ,according to it1 the equivalent weights of bodies are simply those quantities of them which contain equal quantities of electricity1 or have naturally equal electric powers1 it being the electricity which determines the equivalent number1 because it determines the combining force4 ,or1 if we adopt the atomic theory or phraseology1 then the atoms of bodies which are equivalent to each other in their ordinary chemical action have equal quantities of electricity naturally associated with them4 ,i cannot refrain from recalling here the beautiful idea put forth1 ,i believe1 by ,berzelius in his development of his views of the electro-chemical theory of affinity1 that the heat and light evolved during cases of powerful combination are the consequence of the electric discharge which is at the moment taking place4 ,the idea is in perfect accordance with the view ,i have taken of the quantity of electricity associated with the particles of matter4 ,the definite production of electricity in association with its definite action proves1 ,i think1 that the current of electricity in the voltaic pile is sustained by chemical decomposition1 or1 rather1 by chemical action1 and not by contact only4 ,but here1 as elsewhere1 ,i beg to reserve my opinion as to the real action of contact4 ,admitting1 however1 that chemical action is the source of electricity1 what an infinitely small fraction of that which is active do we obtain and employ in our voltaic batteries6 ,zinc and platina wires one-eighteenth of an inch in diameter and about half an inch long1 dipped into dilute sulphuric acid1 so weak that it is not sensibly sour to the tongue1 or scarcely sensitive to our most delicate test papers1 will evolve more electricity in one-twentieth of a minute than any man would willingly allow to pass through his body at once4 ,the chemical energy represented by the satisfaction of the chemical affinities of a grain of water and four grains of zinc can evolve electricity equal in quantity to that of a powerful thunderstorm4 ,nor is it merely true that the quantity is active2 it can be directed--made to perform its full equivalent duty4 ,is there not1 then1 great reason to believe that1 by a closer investigation of the development and action of this subtile agent1 we shall be able to increase the power of our batteries1 or to invent new instruments which shall a thousandfold surpass in energy those we at present possess8 ,,iii4--,the ,gymnotus1 or ,electric ,eel ,wonderful as are the laws and phenomena of electricity when made evident to us in inorganic or dead matter1 their interest can bear scarcely any comparison with that which attaches to the same force when connected with the nervous system and with life4 ,the existence of animals able to give the same concussion to the living system as the electrical machine1 the voltaic battery1 and the thunderstorm being made known to us by various naturalists1 it became important to identify their electricity with the electricity produced by man from dead matter4 ,in the case of the ,torpedo a fish belonging to the family of ,electric ,rings this identity has been fully proved1 but in the case of the ,gymnotus the proof has not been quite complete1 and ,i thought it well to obtain a specimen of the latter fish4 ,a gymnotus being obtained1 ,i conducted a series of experiments4 ,besides the hands two kinds of collectors of electricity were used--one with a copper disc for contact with the fish1 and the other with a plate of copper bent into saddle shape1 so that it might enclose a certain extent of the back and sides of the fish4 ,these conductors1 being put over the fish1 collected power sufficient to produce many electric effects4 ,,shock4 ,the shock was very powerful when the hands were placed one near the head and the other near the tail1 and the nearer the hands were together1 within certain limits1 the less powerful was the shock4 ,the disc conductors conveyed the shock very well when the hands were wetted4 ,,galvanometer4 ,a galvanometer was readily affected by using the saddle conductors1 applied to the anterior and posterior parts of the gymnotus4 ,a powerful discharge of the fish caused a deflection of thirty or forty degrees4 ,the deflection was constantly in a given direction1 the electric current being always from the anterior part of the animal through the galvanometer wire to the posterior parts4 ,the former were1 therefore1 for the time externally positive and the latter negative4 ,,making ,a ,,magnet4 ,when a little helix containing twenty-two feet of silked wire wound on a quill was put into a circuit1 and an annealed steel needle placed in the helix1 the needle became a magnet2 and the direction of its polarity in every cast indicated a current from the anterior to the posterior parts of the gymnotus4 ,,chemical ,,decomposition4 ,polar decomposition of a solution of iodide of potassium was easily obtained4 ,,evolution ,,of ,,heat4 ,using a ,harris' thermo-electrometer1 we thought we were able1 in one instance1 to observe a feeble elevation of temperature4 ,,spark4 ,by suitable apparatus a spark was obtained four times4 ,such were the general electric phenomena obtained from the gymnotus1 and on several occasions many of the phenomena were obtained together4 ,thus1 a magnet was made1 a galvanometer deflected1 and1 perhaps1 a wire heated by one single discharge of the electric force of the animal4 ,when the shock is strong1 it is like that of a large ,leyden battery charged to a low degree1 or that of a good voltaic battery of1 perhaps1 one hundred or more pairs of plates1 of which the circuit is completed for a moment only4 ,i endeavoured by experiment to form some idea of the quantity of electricity1 and came to the conclusion that a single medium discharge of the fish is at least equal to the electricity of a ,leyden battery of fifteen jars1 containing #c1ejj square inches of glass coated on both sides1 charged to its highest degree4 ,this conclusion is in perfect accordance with the degree of deflection which the discharge can produce in a galvanometer needle1 and also with the amount of chemical decomposition produced in the electrolysing experiments4 ,the gymnotus frequently gives a double and even a triple shock1 with scarcely a sensible interval between each discharge4 ,as at the moment of shock the anterior parts are positive and the posterior negative1 it may be concluded that there is a current from the former to the latter through every part of the water which surrounds the animal1 to a considerable distance from its body4 ,the shock which is felt1 therefore1 when the hands are in the most favourable position is the effect of a very small portion only of the electricity which the animal discharges at the moment1 by far the largest portion passing through the surrounding water4 ,this enormous external current must be accompanied by some effect within the fish equivalent to a current1 the direction of which is from the tail towards the head1 and equal to the sum of all these external forces4 ,whether the process of evolving or exciting the electricity within the fish includes the production of the internal current1 which is not necessarily so quick and momentary as the external one1 we cannot at present say2 but at the time of the shock the animal does not apparently feel the electric sensation which he causes in those around him4 ,the gymnotus can stun and kill fish which are in very various relations to its own body4 ,the extent of surface which the fish that is about to be struck offers to the water conducting the electricity increases the effect of the shock1 and the larger the fish1 accordingly1 the greater must be the shock to which it will be subjected4 ,the ,chemical ,history of a ,candle ,the ,chemical ,history of a ,candle was the most famous course in the long and remarkable series of ,christmas lectures1 adapted to a juvenile auditory1 at the ,royal ,institution1 and remains a rarely-approached model of what such lectures should be4 ,they were illustrated by experiments and specimens1 but did not depend upon these for coherence and interest4 ,they were delivered in #ahfj-fa1 and have just been translated1 though all but half-a-century old1 into ,german4 ,i4--,candles and their ,flames ,there is not a law under which any part of this universe is governed that does not come into play in the phenomena of the chemical history of a candle4 ,there is no better door by which you can enter into the study of natural philosophy than by considering the physical phenomena of a candle4 ,and now1 my boys and girls1 ,i must first tell you of what candles are made4 ,some are great curiosities4 ,i have here some bits of timber1 branches of trees particularly famous for their burning4 ,and here you see a piece of that very curious substance taken out of some of the bogs in ,ireland1 called candle-wood--a hard1 strong1 excellent wood1 evidently fitted for good work as a resister of force1 and yet withal burning so well that1 where it is found1 they make splinters of it1 and torches1 since it burns like a candle1 and gives a very good light indeed4 ,and in this wood we have one of the most beautiful illustrations of the general nature of a candle that ,i can possibly give4 ,the fuel provided1 the means of bringing that fuel to the place of chemical action1 the regular and gradual supply of air to that place of action--heat and light all produced by a little piece of wood of this kind1 forming1 in fact1 a natural candle4 ,but we must speak of candles as they are in commerce4 ,here are a couple of candles commonly called dips4 ,they are made of lengths of cotton cut off1 hung up by a loop1 dipped into melted tallow1 taken out again and cooled2 then re-dipped until there is an accumulation of tallow round the cotton4 ,however1 a candle1 you know1 is not now a greasy thing like an ordinary tallow candle1 but a clean thing2 and you may almost scrape off and pulverise the drops which fall from it without soiling anything4 ,the candle ,i have in my hand is a stearine candle1 made of stearine from tallow4 ,then here is a sperm candle1 which comes from the purified oil of the spermaceti whale4 ,here1 also1 are yellow beeswax and refined beeswax from which candles are made4 ,here1 too1 is that curious substance called paraffin1 and some paraffin candles made of paraffin obtained from the bogs of ,ireland4 ,i have here also a substance brought from ,japan1 a sort of wax which a kind friend has sent me1 and which forms a new material for the manufacture of candles4 ,now1 as to the light of the candle4 ,we will light one or two1 and set them at work in the performance of their proper function4 ,you observe a candle is a very different thing from a lamp4 ,with a lamp you take a little oil1 fill your vessel1 put in a little moss1 or some cotton prepared by artificial means1 and then light the top of the wick4 ,when the flame runs down the cotton to the oil1 it gets stopped1 but it goes on burning in the part above4 ,now1 ,i have no doubt you will ask1 how is it that the oil1 which will not burn of itself1 gets up to the top of the cotton1 where it will burn8 ,we shall presently examine that2 but there is a much more wonderful thing about the burning of a candle than this4 ,you have here a solid substance with no vessel to contain it2 and how is it that this solid substance can get up to the place where the flame is8 ,or1 when it is made a fluid1 then how is it that it keeps together8 ,this is a wonderful thing about a candle4 ,you see1 then1 in the first instance1 that a beautiful cup is formed4 ,as the air comes to the candle1 it moves upwards by the force of the current which the heat of the candle produces1 and it so cools all the sides of the wax1 tallow1 or fuel as to keep the edge much cooler than the part within2 the part within melts by the flame that runs down the wick as far as it can go before it is stopped1 but the part on the outside does not melt4 ,if ,i made a current in one direction1 my cup would be lopsided1 and the fluid would consequently run over--for the same force of gravity which holds worlds together1 holds this fluid in a horizontal position4 ,you see1 therefore1 that the cup is formed by this beautifully regular ascending current of air playing upon all sides1 which keeps the exterior of the candle cool4 ,no fuel would serve for a candle which has not the property of giving this cup1 except such fuel as the ,irish bogwood1 where the material itself is like a sponge1 and holds its own fuel4 ,you see now why you have such a bad result if you burn those beautiful fluted candles1 which are irregular1 intermittent in their shape1 and cannot therefore have that nicely-formed edge to the cup which is the great beauty in a candle4 ,i hope you will now see that the perfection of a process--that is1 its utility--is the better point of beauty about it4 ,it is not the best-looking thing1 but the best-acting thing which is the most advantageous to us4 ,this good-looking candle is a bad burning one4 ,there will be a guttering round about it because of the irregularity of the stream of air and the badness of the cup which is formed thereby4 ,you may see some pretty examples of the action of the ascending current when you have a little gutter run down the side of a candle1 making it thicker there than it is elsewhere4 ,as the candle goes on burning1 that keeps its place and forms a little pillar sticking up by the side1 because1 as it rises higher above the rest of the wax or fuel1 the air gets better round it1 and it is more cooled and better able to resist the action of the heat at a little distance4 ,now1 the greatest mistakes and faults with regard to candles1 as in many other things1 often bring with them instruction which we should not receive if they had not occurred4 ,you will always remember that whenever a result happens1 especially if it be new1 you should say3 ,what is the cause8 ,why does it occur8 ,and you will in the course of time find out the reason4 ,then there is another point about these candles which will answer a question--that is1 as to the way in which this fluid gets out of the cup1 up to the wick1 and into the place of combustion4 ,you know that the flames on these burning wicks in candles made of beeswax1 stearine1 or spermaceti1 do not run down to the wax or other matter1 and melt it all away1 but keep to their own right place4 ,they are fenced off from the fluid below1 and do not encroach on the cup at the sides4 ,i cannot imagine a more beautiful example than the condition of adjustment under which a candle makes one part subserve to the other to the very end of its action4 ,a combustible thing like that1 burning away gradually1 never being intruded upon by the flame1 is a very beautiful sight2 especially when you come to learn what a vigorous thing flame is1 what power it has of destroying the wax itself when it gets hold of it1 and of disturbing its proper form if it come only too near4 ,but how does the flame get hold of the fuel8 ,there is a beautiful point about that4 ,it is by what is called capillary attraction that the fuel is conveyed to the part where combustion goes on1 and is deposited there1 not in a careless way1 but very beautifully in the very midst of the centre of action which takes place around it4 ,,ii4--,the ,brightness of the ,candle ,air is absolutely necessary for combustion2 and1 what is more1 ,i must have you understand that fresh air is necessary1 or else we should be imperfect in our reasoning and our experiments4 ,here is a jar of air4 ,i place it over a candle1 and it burns very nicely in it at first1 showing that what ,i have said about it is true2 but there will soon be a change4 ,see how the flame is drawing upwards1 presently fading1 and at last going out4 ,and going out1 why8 ,not because it wants air merely1 for the jar is as full now as it was before1 but it wants pure1 fresh air4 ,the jar is full of air1 partly changed1 partly not changed2 but it does not contain sufficient of the fresh air for combustion4 ,suppose ,i take a candle1 and examine that part of it which appears brightest to our eyes4 ,why1 there ,i get these black particles1 which are just the smoke of the candle2 and this brings to mind that old employment which ,dean ,swift recommended to servants for their amusement1 namely1 writing on the ceiling of a room with a candle4 ,but what is that black substance8 ,why1 it is the same carbon which exists in the candle4 ,it evidently existed in the candle1 or else we should not have had it here4 ,you would hardly think that all those substances which fly about ,london in the form of soots and blacks are the very beauty and life of the flame4 ,here is a piece of wire gauze which will not let the flame go through it1 and ,i think you will see1 almost immediately1 that1 when ,i bring it low enough to touch that part of the flame which is otherwise so bright1 it quells and quenches it at once1 and allows a volume of smoke to rise up4 ,whenever a substance burns without assuming the vaporous state--whether it becomes liquid or remains solid--it becomes exceedingly luminous4 ,what ,i say is applicable to all substances--whether they burn or whether they do not burn--that they are exceedingly bright if they retain their solid state when heated1 and that it is to this presence of solid particles in the candle-flame that it owes its brilliancy4 ,i have here a piece of carbon1 or charcoal1 which will burn and give us light exactly in the same manner as if it were burnt as part of a candle4 ,the heat that is in the flame of a candle decomposes the vapour of the wax1 and sets free the carbon particles--they rise up heated and glowing as this now glows1 and then enter into the air4 ,but the particles when burnt never pass off from a candle in the form of carbon4 ,they go off into the air as a perfectly invisible substance1 about which we shall know hereafter4 ,is it not beautiful to think that such a process is going on1 and that such a dirty thing as charcoal can become so incandescent8 ,you see1 it comes to this--that all bright flames contain these solid particles2 all things that burn and produce solid particles1 either during the time they are burning1 as in the candle1 or immediately after being burnt1 as in the case of the gunpowder and iron-filings--all these things give us this glorious and beautiful light4 ,,iii4--,the ,products of ,combustion ,we observe that there are certain products as the result of the combustion of a candle1 and that of these products one portion may be considered as charcoal1 or soot2 that charcoal1 when afterwards burnt1 produces some other product--carbonic acid1 as we shall see2 and it concerns us very much now to ascertain what yet a third product is4 ,suppose ,i take a candle and place it under a jar4 ,you see that the sides of the jar become cloudy1 and the light begins to burn feebly4 ,it is the products1 you see1 which make the light so dim1 and this is the same thing which makes the sides of the jar so opaque4 ,if you go home and take a spoon that has been in the cold air1 and hold it over a candle--not so as to soot it--you will find that it becomes dim1 just as that jar is dim4 ,if you can get a silver dish1 or something of that kind1 you will make the experiment still better4 ,it is water which causes the dimness1 and we can make it1 without difficulty1 assume the form of a liquid4 ,and so we can go on with almost all combustible substances1 and we find that if they burn with a flame1 as a candle1 they produce water4 ,you may make these experiments yourselves4 ,the head of a poker is a very good thing to try with1 and if it remains cold long enough over the candle1 you may get water condensed in drops on it2 or a spoon1 or a ladle1 or anything else may be used1 provided it be clean1 and can carry off the heat1 and so condense the water4 ,and now--to go into the history of this wonderful production of water from combustibles1 and by combustion--,i must first of all tell you that this water may exist in different conditions2 and although you may now be acquainted with all its forms1 they still require us to give a little attention to them for the present1 so that we may perceive how the water1 whilst it goes through its protean changes1 is entirely and absolutely the same thing1 whether it is produced from a candle1 by combustion1 or from the rivers or ocean4 ,first of all1 water1 when at the coldest1 is ice4 ,now1 we speak of water as water2 whether it be in its solid1 or liquid1 or gaseous state1 we speak of it chemically as water4 ,we shall not in future be deceived1 therefore1 by any changes that are produced in water4 ,water is the same everywhere1 whether produced from the ocean or from the flame of the candle4 ,where1 then1 is this water which we get from a candle8 ,it evidently comes1 as to part of it1 from the candle2 but is it within the candle beforehand8 ,no6 ,it is not in the candle2 and it is not in the air round about the candle1 which is necessary for its combustion4 ,it is neither in one nor the other1 but it comes from their conjoint action1 a part from the candle1 a part from the air4 ,and this we have now to trace4 ,if we decompose water we can obtain from it a gas4 ,this is hydrogen--a body classed amongst those things in chemistry which we call elements1 because we can get nothing else out of them4 ,a candle is not an elementary body1 because we can get carbon out of it2 we can get this hydrogen out of it1 or at least out of the water which it supplies4 ,and this gas has been so named hydrogen because it is that element which1 in association with another1 generates water4 ,hydrogen gives rise to no substance that can become solid1 either during combustion or afterwards1 as a product of its combustion4 ,but when it burns it produces water only2 and if we take a cold glass and put it over the flame1 it becomes damp1 and you have water produced immediately in appreciable quantity1 and nothing is produced by its combustion but the same water which you have seen the flame of a candle produce4 ,this hydrogen is the only thing in ,nature that furnishes water as the sole product of combustion4 ,water can be decomposed by electricity1 and then we find that its other constituent is the gas oxygen in which1 as can easily be shown1 a candle or a lamp burns much more brilliantly than it does in air1 but produces the same products as when it burns in air4 ,we thus find that oxygen is a constituent of the air1 and by burning something in the air we can remove the oxygen therefrom1 leaving behind for our study the nitrogen1 which constitutes about four-fifths of the air1 the oxygen accounting for nearly all the rest4 ,the other great product of the burning of a candle is carbonic acid--a gas formed by the union of the carbon of the candle and the oxygen of the air4 ,whenever carbon burns1 whether in a candle or in a living creature1 it produces carbonic acid4 ,,iv4--,combustion and ,respiration ,now ,i must take you to a very interesting part of our subject--to the relation between the combustion of a candle and that living kind of combustion which goes on within us4 ,in every one of us there is a living process of combustion going on very similar to that of a candle4 ,for it is not merely true in a poetical sense--the relation of the life of man to a taper4 ,a candle will burn some four1 five1 six1 or seven hours4 ,what1 then1 must be the daily amount of carbon going up into the air in the way of carbonic acid8 ,what a quantity of carbon must go from each of us in respiration6 ,a man in twenty-four hours converts as much as seven ounces of carbon into carbonic acid2 a milch cow will convert seventy ounces1 and a horse seventy-nine ounces1 solely by the act of respiration4 ,that is1 the horse in twenty-four hours burns seventy-nine ounces of charcoal1 or carbon1 in his organs of respiration to supply his natural warmth in that time4 ,all the warm-blooded animals get their warmth in this way1 by the conversion of carbon2 not in a free state1 but in a state of combination4 ,and what an extraordinary notion this gives us of the alterations going out in our atmosphere6 ,as much as #e1jjj1jjj pounds of carbonic acid is formed by respiration in ,london alone in twenty-four hours4 ,and where does all this go8 ,up into the air4 ,if the carbon had been like lead or iron1 which1 in burning1 produces a solid substance1 what would happen8 ,combustion would not go on4 ,as charcoal burns1 it becomes a vapour and passes off into the atmosphere1 which is the great vehicle1 the great carrier1 for conveying it away to other places4 ,then1 what becomes of it8 ,wonderful is it to find that the change produced by respiration1 which seems so injurious to us1 for we cannot breathe air twice over1 is the very life and support of plants and vegetables that grow upon the surface of the earth4 ,it is the same also under the surface in the great bodies of water1 for fishes and other animals respire upon the same principle1 though not exactly by contact with the open air4 ,they respire by the oxygen which is dissolved from the air by the water1 and form carbonic acid2 and they all move about to produce the one great work of making the animal and vegetable kingdoms subservient to each other4 ,all the plants growing upon the surface of the earth absorb carbon4 ,these leaves are taking up their carbon from the atmosphere1 to which we have given it in the form of carbonic acid1 and they are prospering4 ,give them a pure air like ours1 and they could not live in it2 give them carbon with other matters1 and they live and rejoice4 ,so are we made dependent not merely upon our fellow-creatures1 but upon our fellow-existers1 all ,nature being tied by the laws that make one part conduce to the good of the other4 ,,auguste ,,forel ,the ,senses of ,insects ,auguste ,forel1 who in #aiji retired from the ,chair of ,morbid ,psychology in the ,university of ,zrich1 was born on ,september #a1 #ahdh1 and is one of the greatest students of the minds and senses of the lower animals and mankind4 ,among his most famous works are his ,hygiene of ,nerves and ,mind1 his great treatise on the whole problem of sex in human life1 of which a cheap edition entitled ,sexual ,ethics is published1 his work on hypnotism1 and his numerous contributions to the psychology of insects4 ,the chief studies of this remarkable and illustrious student and thinker for many decades past have been those of the senses and mental faculties of insects4 ,he has recorded the fact that his study of the beehive led him to his present views as to the right constitution of the state--views which may be described as socialism with a difference4 ,his work on insects has served the study of human psychology1 and is in itself the most important contribution to insect psychology ever made by a single student4 ,only within the last two years has the work of ,forel1 long famous on the ,european ,continent1 begun to be known abroad4 ,i4--,insect ,activity and ,instinct ,this subject is one of great interest1 as much from the standpoint of biology as from that of comparative psychology4 ,the very peculiar mechanism of instincts always has its starting-point in sensations4 ,to comprehend this mechanism it is essential to understand thoroughly the organs of sense and their special functions4 ,it is further necessary to study the co-ordination which exists between the action of the different senses1 and leads to their intimate connection with the functions of the nerve-centres1 that is to say1 with the specially instinctive intelligence of insects4 ,the whole question is1 therefore1 a chapter of comparative psychology1 a chapter in which it is necessary to take careful note of every factor1 to place oneself1 so to speak1 on a level with the mind of an insect1 and1 above all1 to avoid the anthropomorphic errors with which works upon the subject are filled4 ,at the same time the other extreme must equally be avoided--anthropophobia1 which at all costs desires to see in every living organism a machine1 forgetting that a machine which lives1 that is to say1 which grows1 takes in nutriment1 and strikes a balance between income and expenditure1 which1 in a word1 continually reconstructs itself1 is not a machine1 but something entirely different4 ,in other words1 it is necessary to steer clear of two dangers4 ,we must avoid 7#a7 identifying the mind of an insect with our own1 but1 above all1 7#b7 imagining that we1 with what knowledge we possess1 can reconstruct the mind by our chemical and physical laws4 ,on the other hand1 we have to recognise the fact that this mind1 and the sensory functions which put it on its guard1 are derived1 just as with our human selves1 from the primitive protoplasmic life4 ,this life1 so far as it is specialised in the nervous system by nerve irritability and its connections with the muscular system1 is manifested under two aspects4 ,these may be likened to two branches of one trunk4 7a7 ,automatic or instinctive activity4 ,this1 though perfected by repetition1 is definitely inherited4 ,it is uncontrollable and constant in effect1 adapted to the circumstances of the special life of the race in question4 ,it is this curious instinctive adaptation--which is so intelligent when it carries out its proper task1 so stupid and incapable when diverted to some other purpose--that has deceived so many scientists and philosophers by its insidious analogy with humanly constructed machines4 ,but1 automatic as it may appear1 instinct is not invariable4 ,in the first place1 it presents a racial evolution which of itself alone already demonstrates a certain degree of plasticity from generation to generation4 ,it presents1 further1 individual variations which are more distinct as it is less deeply fixed by heredity4 ,thus the divergent instincts of two varieties1 e4g41 of insects1 present more individual variability and adaptability than do those instincts common to all species of a genus4 ,in short1 if we carefully study the behaviour of each individual of a species of insects with a developed brain 7as has been done by ,p4 ,huber1 ,lubbock1 ,wasmann1 and myself1 among others1 for bees1 wasps1 and ants71 we are not long in finding noteworthy differences1 especially when we put the instinct under abnormal conditions4 ,we then force the nervous activity of these insects to present a second and plastic aspect1 which to a large extent has been hidden from us under their enormously developed instinct4 7b7 ,the plastic or adaptive activity is by no means1 as has been so often suggested1 a derivative of instinct4 ,it is primitive4 ,it is even the fundamental condition of the evolution of life4 ,the living being is distinguished by its power of adaptation2 even the amoeba is plastic4 ,but in order that one individual may adapt itself to a host of conditions and possibilities1 as is the case with the higher mammals and especially with man1 the brain requires an enormous quantity of nerve elements4 ,but this is not the case with the fixed and specialised adaptation of instinct4 ,in secondary automatism1 or habit1 which we observe in ourselves1 it is easy to study how this activity1 derived from plastic activity1 and ever becoming more prompt1 complex1 and sure 7technical habits71 necessitates less and less expenditure of nerve effort4 ,it is very difficult to understand how inherited instinct1 hereditary automatism1 could have originated from the plastic activities of our ancestors4 ,it seems as if a very slow selection1 among individuals best adapted in consequence of fortunate parentage1 might perhaps account for it4 ,to sum up1 every animal possesses two kinds of activity in varying degrees1 sometimes one1 sometimes the other predominating4 ,in the lowest beings they are both rudimentary4 ,in insects1 special automatic activity reaches the summit of development and predominance2 in man1 on the contrary1 with his great brain development1 plastic activity is elevated to an extraordinary height1 above all by language1 and before all by written language1 which substitutes graphic fixation for secondary automatism1 and allows the accumulation outside the brain of the knowledge of past generations1 thus serving his plastic activity1 at once the adapter and combiner of what the past has bequeathed to it4 ,according to the families1 genera1 and species of insects1 the development of different senses varies extremely4 ,we meet with most striking contrasts1 and contrasts which have not been sufficiently noticed4 ,certain insects1 dragon-flies1 for instance1 live almost entirely by means of sight4 ,others are blind1 or almost blind1 and subsist exclusively by smell and taste 7insects inhabiting caves1 most working ants74 ,hearing is well developed in certain forms 7crickets1 locusts71 but most insects appear not to hear1 or to hear with difficulty4 ,despite their thick1 chitinous skeleton1 almost all insects have extremely sensitive touch1 especially in the antenn1 but not confined thereto4 ,it is absolutely necessary to bear in mind the mental faculties of insects in order to judge with a fair degree of accuracy how they use their senses4 ,we shall return to that point when summing up4 ,,ii4--,the ,vision of ,insects ,in vision we are dealing with a certain definite stimulus--light1 with its two modifications1 colour and motion4 ,insects have two sets of organs for vision1 the faceted eye and the so-called simple eye1 or ocellus4 ,these have been historically derived from one and the same organ4 ,in order to exercise the function of sight the facets need a greater pencil of light rays by night than by day4 ,to obtain the same result we dilate the pupil4 ,but nocturnal insects are dazzled by the light of day1 and diurnal insects cannot see by night1 for neither possess the faculty of accommodation4 ,insects are specially able to perceive motion1 but there are only very few insects that can see distinctly4 ,for example1 ,i watched one day a wasp chasing a fly on the wall of a veranda1 as is the habit of this insect at the end of summer and in the autumn4 ,she dashed violently in flight at the flies sitting on the wall1 which mostly escaped4 ,she continued her pursuit with remarkable pertinacity1 and succeeded on several occasions in catching a fly1 which she killed1 mutilated1 and bore away to her nest4 ,each time she quickly returned to continue the hunt4 ,in one spot of the wall was stuck a black nail1 which was just the size of a fly1 and ,i saw the wasp very frequently deceived by this nail1 upon which she sprang1 leaving it as soon as she perceived her error on touching it4 ,nevertheless1 she made the same mistake with the nail shortly after4 ,i have often made similar observations4 ,we may certainly conclude that the wasp saw something of the size of a fly1 but without distinguishing the details2 therefore she saw it indistinctly4 ,evidently a wasp does not only perceive motion2 she also distinguishes the size of objects4 ,when ,i put dead flies on a table to be carried off by another wasp1 she took them1 one after another1 as well as spiders and other insects of but little different size placed by their side4 ,on the other hand1 she took no notice of insects much larger or much smaller put among the flies4 ,most entomologists have observed with what ingenuity and sureness dragon-flies distinguish1 follow1 and catch the smallest insects on the wing4 ,of all insects1 they have the best sight4 ,their enormous convex eyes have the greatest number of facets4 ,their number has been estimated at #ab1jjj1 and even at #ag1jjj4 ,their aerial chases resemble those of the swallows4 ,by trying to catch them at the edge of a large pond1 one can easily convince oneself that the dragon-flies amuse themselves by making sport of the hunter2 they will always allow one to approach just near enough to miss catching them4 ,it can be seen to what degree they are able to measure the distance and reach of their enemy4 ,it is an absolute fact that dragon-flies1 unless it is cold or in the evening1 always manage to fly at just that distance at which the student cannot touch them2 and they see perfectly well whether one is armed with a net or has nothing but his hands2 one might even say that they measure the length of the handle of the net1 for the possession of a long handle is no advantage4 ,they fly just out of reach of one's instrument1 whatever trouble one may give oneself by hiding it from them and suddenly lunging as they fly off4 ,whoever watches butterflies and flies will soon see that these insects also can measure the distance of such objects as are not far from them4 ,the males and females of bees and ants distinguish one another on the wing4 ,it is rare for an individual to lose sight of the swarm or to miss what it pursues flying4 ,it has been proved that the sense of smell has nothing to do with this matter4 ,thus insects1 though without any power of accommodation for light or distance1 are able to perceive objects at different distances4 ,it is known that many insects will blindly fly and dash against a lamp at night1 until they burn themselves4 ,it has often been wrongly thought that they are fascinated4 ,we ought first to remember that natural lights1 concentrated at one point like our artificial lights1 are extremely rare in ,nature4 ,the light of day1 which is the light of wild animals1 is not concentrated at one point4 ,insects1 when they are in darkness--underground1 beneath bark or leaves--are accustomed to reach the open air1 where the light is everywhere diffused1 by directing themselves towards the luminous point4 ,at night1 when they fly towards a lamp1 they are evidently deceived1 and their small brains cannot comprehend the novelty of this light concentrated at one spot4 ,consequently1 their fruitless efforts are again and again renewed against the flame1 and the poor innocents end by burning themselves4 ,several domestic insects1 which have become little by little adapted to artificial light in the course of generations1 no longer allow themselves to be deceived thereby4 ,this is the case with house-flies4 ,bees distinguish all colours1 and seldom confound any but blue and green2 while wasps scarcely react to differences of colour1 but note better the shape of an object1 and note1 for instance1 where the place of honey is2 so that a change of colour on the disc whereon the honey is placed hardly upsets them4 ,further1 wasps have a better sense of smell than bees4 ,the chief discovery regarding the vision of insects made in the last thirty years is that of ,lubbock1 who proved that ants perceive the ultra-violet rays of the spectrum1 which we are unable1 or almost unable1 to perceive4 ,it has lately been proved also that many insects appreciate light by the skin4 ,they do not see as clearly as we do2 but when they possess well-developed compound eyes they appreciate size1 and more or less distinctly the contours of objects4 ,ants have a great faculty for recognition1 which probably testifies to their vision and visual memory4 ,lubbock observed ants which actually recognised each other after more than a year of separation4 ,,iii4--,smell1 ,taste1 ,hearing1 ,pain ,smell is very important in insects4 ,it is difficult for us to judge of1 since man is of all the vertebrates except the whales1 perhaps1 the one in which this sense is most rudimentary4 ,we can evidently1 therefore1 form only a feeble idea of the world of knowledge imparted by a smell to a dog1 a mole1 a hedgehog1 or an insect4 ,the instruments of smell are the antenn4 ,a poor ant without antenn is as lost as a blind man who is also deaf and dumb4 ,this appears from its complete social inactivity1 its isolation1 its incapacity to guide itself and to find its food4 ,it can1 therefore1 be boldly supposed that the antenn and their power of smell1 as much on contact as at a distance1 constitute the social sense of ants1 the sense which allows them to recognise one another1 to tend to their larv1 and mutually help one another1 and also the sense which awakens their greedy appetites1 their violent hatred for every being foreign to the colony1 the sense which principally guides them--a little helped by vision1 especially in certain species--in the long and patient travels which they have to undertake1 which makes them find their way back1 find their plant-lice1 and all their other means of subsistence4 ,as the philosopher ,herbert ,spencer has well pointed out1 the visceral sensations of man1 and those internal senses which1 like smell1 can only make an impression of one kind as regards space--two simultaneous odours can only be appreciated by us as a mixture--are precisely those by which we can gain little or no information relative to space4 ,our vision1 on the contrary1 which localises the rays from various distant points of space on various distinct points of our retina at the same time1 is our most relational sense1 that which gives us the most vast ideas of space4 ,but the antenn of insects are an olfactory organ turned inside out1 prominent in space1 and1 further1 very mobile4 ,this allows us to suppose that the sense of smell may be much more relational than ours1 that the sensations thence derived give them ideas of space and of direction which may be qualitatively different from ours4 ,taste exists in insects1 and has been very widely written on1 but somewhat inconclusively4 ,the organs of taste probably are to be found in the jaws and at the base of the tongue4 ,this sense can be observed in ants1 bees1 and wasps2 and everyone has seen how caterpillars especially recognise by taste the plants which suit them4 ,much has been written on the hearing of insects2 but1 in my judgment1 only crickets and several other insects of that class appear to perceive sounds4 ,erroneous views have been due to confusing hearing with mechanical vibrations4 ,we must not forget that the specialisation of the organ of hearing has reached in man a delicacy of detail which is evidently not found again in lower vertebrates4 ,pain is much less developed in insects than in warm-blooded vertebrates4 ,otherwise1 one could not see either an ant1 with its abdomen or antenn cut off1 gorge itself with honey2 or a humble-bee1 in which the antenn and all the front of the head had been removed1 go to find and pillage flowers2 or a spider1 the foot of which had been broken1 feed immediately on this1 its own foot1 as ,i myself have seen2 or1 finally1 a caterpillar1 wounded at the tail end1 devour itself1 beginning behind1 as ,i have observed more than once4 ,,iv4--,insect ,reason and ,passions ,insects reason1 and the most intelligent among them1 the social hymenoptera1 especially the wasps and ants1 even reason much more than one is tempted to believe when one observes the regularly recurring mechanism of their instincts4 ,to observe and understand these reasonings well1 it is necessary to mislead their instinct4 ,further1 one may remark little bursts of plastic judgment1 of combinations--extremely limited1 it is true--which1 in forcing them an instant from the beaten track of their automatism1 help them to overcome difficulties1 and to decide between two dangers4 ,from the point of view of instinct and intelligence1 or rather of reason1 there are not1 therefore1 absolute contrasts between the insect1 the mammal1 and the man4 ,finally1 insects have passions which are more or less bound up with their instincts4 ,and these passions vary enormously1 according to the species4 ,i have noted the following passions or traits of character among ants3 choler1 hatred1 devotion1 activity1 perseverance1 and gluttony4 ,i have added thereto the discouragement which is sometimes shown in a striking manner at the time of a defeat1 and which can become real despair2 the fear which is shown among ants when they are alone1 while it disappears when they are numerous4 ,i can add further the momentary temerity whereby certain ants1 knowing the enemy to be weakened and discouraged1 hurl themselves alone in the midst of the black masses of enemies larger than themselves1 hustling them without taking the least further precaution4 ,when we study the manners of an insect1 it is necessary for us to take account of its mental faculties as well as of its sense organs4 ,intelligent insects make better use of their senses1 especially by combining them in various ways4 ,it is possible to study such insects in their homes in a more varied and more complete manner1 allowing greater accuracy of observations4 ,,galileo ,dialogues on the ,system of the ,world ,galileo ,galilei1 famous as an astronomer and as an experimental physicist1 was born at ,pisa1 in ,italy1 ,feb4 #ah1 #aefd4 ,his talents were most multifarious and remarkable2 but his mathematical and mechanical genius was dominant from the first4 ,as a child he constructed mechanical toys1 and as a young man he made one of his most important discoveries1 which was that of the pendulum as an agent in the measurement of time1 and invented the hydrostatic balance1 by which the specific gravity of solid bodies might be ascertained4 ,at the age of #bd a learned treatise on the centre of gravity of solids led to a lectureship at ,pisa ,university4 ,driven from ,pisa by the enmity of ,aristotelians1 he went to ,padua ,university1 where he invented a kind of thermometer1 a proportional compass1 a microscope1 and a telescope4 ,the last invention bore fruit in astronomical discoveries1 and in #afaj he discovered four of the moons of ,jupiter4 ,his promulgation of the ,copernican doctrine led to renewed attacks by the ,aristotelians1 and to censure by the ,inquisition4 7,see ,religion1 vol4 xiii47 ,notwithstanding this censure1 he published in #afcb his ,dialogues on the ,system of the ,world4 ,the interlocutors in the ,dialogues1 with the exception of ,salviatus1 who expounds the views of the author himself1 represent two of ,galileo's early friends4 ,for the ,dialogues he was sentenced by the ,inquisition to incarceration at its pleasure1 and enjoined to recite penitential psalms once a week for three years4 ,his life thereafter was full of sorrow1 and in #afcg blindness added to his woes2 but the fire of his genius still burnt on till his death on ,january #h1 #afdb4 ,does the ,earth ,move ,,salviatus3 ,now1 let ,simplicius propound those doubts which dissuade him from believing that the earth may move1 as the other planets1 round a fixed centre4 ,,simplicius3 ,the first and greatest difficulty is that it is impossible both to be in a centre and to be far from it4 ,if the earth move in a circle it cannot remain in the centre of the zodiac2 but ,aristotle1 ,ptolemy and others have proved that it is in the centre of the zodiac4 ,,salviatus3 ,there is no question that the earth cannot be in the centre of a circle round whose circumference it moves4 ,but tell me what centre do you mean8 ,,simplicius3 ,i mean the centre of the universe1 of the whole world1 of the starry sphere4 ,,salviatus3 ,no one has ever proved that the universe is finite and figurative2 but granting that it is finite and spherical1 and has therefore a centre1 we have still to give reasons why we should believe that the earth is at its centre4 ,,simplicius3 ,aristotle has proved in a hundred ways that the universe is finite and spherical4 ,,salviatus3 ,aristotle's proof that the universe was finite and spherical was derived essentially from the consideration that it moved2 and seeing that centre and figure were inferred by ,aristotle from its mobility1 it will be reasonable if we endeavour to find from the circular motions of mundane bodies the centre's proper place4 ,aristotle himself came to the conclusion that all the celestial spheres revolve round the earth1 which is placed at the centre of the universe4 ,but tell me1 ,simplicius1 supposing ,aristotle found that one of the two propositions must be false1 and that either the celestial spheres do not revolve or that the earth is not the centre round which they revolve1 which proposition would he prefer to give up8 ,,simplicius3 ,i believe that the ,peripatetics---- ,,salviatus3 ,i do not ask the ,peripatetics1 ,i ask ,aristotle4 ,as for the ,peripatetics1 they1 as humble vassals of ,aristotle1 would deny all the experiments and all the observations in the world2 nay1 would also refuse to see them1 and would say that the universe is as ,aristotle writeth1 and not as ,nature will have it2 for1 deprived of the shield of his authority1 with what do you think they would appear in the field8 ,tell me1 therefore1 what ,aristotle himself would do4 ,,simplicius3 ,to tell you the truth1 ,i do not know how to decide which is the lesser inconvenience4 ,,salviatus3 ,seeing you do not know1 let us examine which would be the more rational choice1 and let us assume that ,aristotle would have chosen so4 ,granting with ,aristotle that the universe has a spherical figure and moveth circularly round a centre1 it is reasonable to believe that the starry orbs move round the centre of the universe or round some separate centre8 ,,simplicius3 ,i would say that it were much more reasonable to believe that they move with the universe round the centre of the universe4 ,,salviatus3 ,but they move round the sun and not round the earth2 therefore the sun and not the earth is the centre of the universe4 ,,simplicius3 ,whence1 then1 do you argue that it is the sun and not the earth that is the centre of the planetary revolutions8 ,,salviatus3 ,i infer that the earth is not the centre of the planetary revolutions because the planets are at different times at very different distances from the earth4 ,for instance1 ,venus1 when it is farthest off1 is six times more remote from us than when it is nearest1 and ,mars rises almost eight times as high at one time as at another4 ,,simplicius3 ,and what are the signs that the planets revolve round the sun as centre8 ,,salviatus3 ,we find that the three superior planets--,mars1 ,jupiter1 and ,saturn--are always nearest to the earth when they are in opposition to the sun1 and always farthest off when they are in conjunction2 and so great is this approximation and recession that ,mars1 when near1 appears very nearly sixty times greater than when remote4 ,venus and ,mercury also certainly revolve round the sun1 since they never move far from it1 and appear now above and now below it4 ,,sagredus3 ,i expect that more wonderful things depend on the annual revolution than upon the diurnal rotation of the earth4 ,,salviatus3 ,,you do not err therein4 ,the effect of the diurnal rotation of the earth is to make the universe seem to rotate in the opposite direction2 but the annual motion complicates the particular motions of all the planets4 ,but to return to my proposition4 ,i affirm that the centre of the celestial convolutions of the five planets--,saturn1 ,jupiter1 ,mars1 ,venus1 and ,mercury1 and likewise of the earth--is the sun4 ,as for the moon1 it goes round the earth1 and yet does not cease to go round the sun with the earth4 ,it being true1 then1 that the five planets do move about the sun as a centre1 rest seems with so much more reason to belong to the said sun than to the earth1 inasmuch as in a movable sphere it is more reasonable that the centre stand still than any place remote from the centre4 ,to the earth1 therefore1 may a yearly revolution be assigned1 leaving the sun at rest4 ,and if that be so1 it follows that the diurnal motion likewise belongs to the earth2 for if the sun stood still and the earth did not rotate1 the year would consist of six months of day and six months of night4 ,you may consider1 likewise1 how1 in conformity with this scheme1 the precipitate motion of twenty-four hours is taken away from the universe2 and how the fixed stars1 which are so many suns1 are made1 like our sun1 to enjoy perpetual rest4 ,,sagredus3 ,the scheme is simple and satisfactory2 but1 tell me1 how is it that ,pythagoras and ,copernicus1 who first brought it forward1 could make so few converts8 ,,salviatus3 ,if you know what frivolous reasons serve to make the vulgar1 contumacious and indisposed to hearken1 you would not wonder at the paucity of converts4 ,the number of thick skulls is infinite1 and we need neither record their follies nor endeavour to interest them in subtle and sublime ideas4 ,no demonstrations can enlighten stupid brains4 ,my wonder1 ,sagredus1 is different from yours4 ,you wonder that so few are believers in the ,pythagorean hypothesis2 ,i wonder that there are any to embrace it4 ,nor can ,i sufficiently admire the super-eminence of those men's wits that have received and held it to be true1 and with the sprightliness of their judgments have offered such violence to their senses that they have been able to prefer that which their reason asserted to that which sensible experience manifested4 ,i cannot find any bounds for my admiration how that reason was able1 in ,aristarchus and ,copernicus1 to commit such a rape upon their senses1 as in despite thereof to make herself mistress of their credulity4 ,,sagredus3 ,will there still be strong opposition to the ,copernican system8 ,,salviatus3 ,undoubtedly2 for there are evident and sensible facts to oppose it1 requiring a sense more sublime than the common and vulgar senses to assist reason4 ,,sagredus3 ,let us1 then1 join battle with those antagonistic facts4 ,,salviatus3 ,i am ready4 ,in the first place1 ,mars himself charges hotly against the truth of the ,copernican system4 ,according to the ,copernican system1 that planet should appear sixty times as large when at its nearest as when at its farthest2 but this diversity of magnitude is not to be seen4 ,the same difficulty is seen in the case of ,venus4 ,further1 if ,venus be dark1 and shine only with reflected light1 like the moon1 it should show lunar phases2 but these do not appear4 ,further1 again1 the moon prevents the whole order of the ,copernican system by revolving round the earth instead of round the sun4 ,and there are other serious and curious difficulties admitted by ,copernicus himself4 ,but even the three great difficulties ,i have named are not real4 ,as a matter of fact1 ,mars and ,venus do vary in magnitude as required by theory1 and ,venus does change its shape exactly like the moon4 ,,sagredus3 ,but how came this to be concealed from ,copernicus and revealed to you8 ,,sir ,,francis ,,galton ,essays in ,eugenics ,sir ,francis ,galton1 born at ,birmingham1 ,england1 in #ahbb1 was a grandson of ,dr4 ,erasmus ,darwin4 ,he graduated from ,trinity ,college1 ,cambridge1 in #ahdd4 ,galton travelled in the north of ,africa1 on the ,white ,nile and in the western portion of ,south ,africa between #ahdd and #ahej4 ,like his immortal cousin1 ,charles ,darwin1 ,sir ,francis ,galton is a striking instance of a man of great and splendid inheritance1 who1 also inheriting wealth1 devotes it and his powers to the cause of humanity4 ,he published several books on heredity1 the first of which was ,hereditary ,genius4 ,the next ,inquiries into ,human ,faculty1 which was followed by ,natural ,inheritance4 ,the ,essays in ,eugenics include all the most recent work of ,sir ,francis ,galton since his return to the subject of eugenics in #aija4 ,this volume has just been published by the ,eugenics ,education ,society1 of which ,sir ,francis ,galton is the honorary president4 ,as epitomised for this work1 the ,essays have been made to include a still later study by the author1 which will be included in future editions of the book4 ,the epitome has been prepared by special permission of the ,eugenics ,education ,society1 and those responsible hope that it will serve in some measure to neutralise the outrageous1 gross1 and often wilful misrepresentations of eugenics of which many popular writers are guilty4 ,i4--,the ,aims and ,methods of ,eugenics ,the following essays help to show something of the progress of eugenics during the last few years1 and to explain my own views upon its aims and methods1 which often have been1 and still sometimes are1 absurdly misrepresented4 ,the practice of eugenics has already obtained a considerable hold on popular estimation1 and is steadily acquiring the status of a practical question1 and not that of a mere vision in ,utopia4 ,the power by which eugenic reform must chiefly be effected is that of public opinion1 which is amply strong enough for that purpose whenever it shall be roused4 ,public opinion has done as much as this on many past occasions and in various countries1 of which much evidence is given in the essay on restrictions in marriage4 ,it is now ordering our acts more intimately than we are apt to suspect1 because the dictates of public opinion become so thoroughly assimilated that they seem to be the original and individual to those who are guided by them4 ,by comparing the current ideas at widely different epochs and under widely different civilisations1 we are able to ascertain what part of our convictions is really innate and permanent1 and what part has been acquired and is transient4 ,it is1 above all things1 needful for the successful progress of eugenics that its advocates should move discreetly and claim no more efficacy on its behalf than the future will justify2 otherwise a reaction will be justified4 ,a great deal of investigation is still needed to show the limit of practical eugenics1 yet enough has been already determined to justify large efforts being made to instruct the public in an authoritative way1 with the results hitherto obtained by sound reasoning1 applied to the undoubted facts of social experience4 ,the word eugenics was coined and used by me in my book ,human ,faculty1 published as long ago as #ahhc4 ,in it ,i emphasised the essential brotherhood of mankind1 heredity being to my mind a very real thing2 also the belief that we are born to act1 and not to wait for help like able-bodied idlers1 whining for doles4 ,individuals appear to me as finite detachments from an infinite ocean of being1 temporarily endowed with executive powers4 ,this is the only answer ,i can give to myself in reply to the perpetually recurring questions of why8 whence8 and whither8 ,the immediate whither8 does not seem wholly dark1 as some little information may be gleaned concerning the direction in which ,nature1 so far as we know of it1 is now moving--namely1 towards the evolution of mind1 body1 and character in increasing energy and co-adaptation4 ,the ideas have long held my fancy that we men may be the chief1 and perhaps the only executives on earth2 that we are detached on active service with1 it may be only illusory1 powers of free-will4 ,also that we are in some way accountable for our success or failure to further certain obscure ends1 to be guessed as best we can2 that though our instructions are obscure they are sufficiently clear to justify our interference with the pitiless course of ,nature whenever it seems possible to attain the goal towards which it moves by gentler and kindlier ways4 ,there are many questions which must be studied if we are to be guided aright towards the possible improvement of mankind under the existing conditions of law and sentiment4 ,we must study human variety1 and the distribution of qualities in a nation4 ,we must compare the classification of a population according to social status with the classification which we would make purely in terms of natural quality4 ,we must study with the utmost care the descent of qualities in a population1 and the consequences of that marked tendency to marriage within the class which distinguishes all classes4 ,something is to be learnt from the results of examinations in universities and colleges4 ,it is desirable to study the degree of correspondence that may exist between promise in youth1 as shown in examinations1 and subsequent performance4 ,let me add that ,i think the neglect of this inquiry by the vast army of highly educated persons who are connected with the present huge system of competitive examination to be gross and unpardonable4 ,until this problem is solved we cannot possibly estimate the value of the present elaborate system of examinations4 ,,ii4--,restrictions in ,marriage ,it is necessary to meet an objection that has been repeatedly urged against the possible adoption of any system of eugenics1 namely1 that human nature would never brook interference with the freedom of marriage4 ,but the question is how far have marriage restrictions proved effective when sanctified by the religion of the time1 by custom1 and by law4 ,i appeal from armchair criticism to historical facts4 ,it will be found that1 with scant exceptions1 marriage customs are based on social expediency and not on natural instincts4 ,this we learn when we study the fact of monogamy1 and the severe prohibition of polygamy1 in many times and places1 due not to any natural instinct against the practice1 but to consideration of the social well-being4 ,we find the same when we study endogamy1 exogamy1 ,australian marriages1 and the control of marriage by taboo4 ,the institution of marriage1 as now sanctified by religion and safeguarded by law in the more highly civilised nations1 may not be ideally perfect1 nor may it be universally accepted in future times1 but it is the best that has hitherto been devised for the parties primarily concerned1 for their children1 for home life1 and for society4 ,the degree of kinship within which marriage is prohibited is1 with one exception1 quite in accordance with modern sentiment1 the exception being the disallowal of marriage with the sister of a deceased wife1 the propriety of which is greatly disputed and need not be discussed here4 ,the marriage of a brother and sister would excite a feeling of loathing among us that seems implanted by nature1 but which1 further inquiry will show1 has mainly arisen from tradition and custom4 ,the evidence proves that there is no instinctive repugnance felt universally by man to marriage within the prohibited degrees1 but that its present strength is mainly due to what ,i may call immaterial considerations4 ,it is quite conceivable that a non-eugenic marriage should hereafter excite no less loathing than that of a brother and sister would do now4 ,the dictates of religion in respect to the opposite duties of leading celibate lives1 and of continuing families1 have been contradictory4 ,in many nations it is and has been considered a disgrace to bear no children1 and in other nations celibacy has been raised to the rank of a virtue of the highest order4 ,during the fifty or so generations that have elapsed since the establishment of ,christianity1 the nunneries and monasteries1 and the celibate lives of ,catholic priests1 have had vast social effects1 how far for good and how far for evil need not be discussed here4 ,the point ,i wish to enforce is the potency1 not only of the religious sense in aiding or deterring marriage1 but more especially the influence and authority of ministers of religion in enforcing celibacy4 ,they have notoriously used it when aid has been invoked by members of the family on grounds that are not religious at all1 but merely of family expediency4 ,thus at some times and in some ,christian nations1 every girl who did not marry while still young was practically compelled to enter a nunnery1 from which escape was afterwards impossible4 ,it is easy to let the imagination run wild on the supposition of a whole-hearted acceptance of eugenics as a national religion2 that is1 of the thorough conviction by a nation that no worthier object exists for man than the improvement of his own race1 and when efforts as great as those by which nunneries and monasteries were endowed and maintained should be directed to fulfil an opposite purpose4 ,i will not enter further into this4 ,suffice it to say1 that the history of conventual life affords abundant evidence on a very large scale of the power of religious authority in directing and withstanding the tendencies of human nature towards freedom in marriage4 ,seven different forms of marriage restriction may be cited to show what is possible4 ,they are monogamy1 endogamy1 exogamy1 ,australian marriages1 taboo1 prohibited degrees1 and celibacy4 ,it can be shown under each of these heads how powerful are the various combinations of immaterial motives upon marriage selection1 how they may all become hallowed by religion1 accepted as custom1 and enforced by law4 ,persons who are born under their various rules live under them without any objection4 ,they are unconscious of their restrictions1 as we are unaware of the tension of the atmosphere4 ,the subservience of civilised races to their several religious superstitions1 customs1 authority1 and the rest1 is frequently as abject as that of barbarians4 ,the same classes of motives that direct other races direct ours2 so a knowledge of their customs helps us to realise the wide range of what we may ourselves hereafter adopt1 for reasons as satisfactory to us in those future times1 as theirs are or were to them at the time when they prevailed4 ,,iii4--,eugenic ,qualities of ,primary ,importance ,the following is offered as a contribution to the art of justly appraising the eugenic values of different qualities4 ,it may fairly be assumed that the presence of certain inborn traits is requisite before a claim to eugenic rank can be justified1 because these qualities are needed to bring out the full values of such special faculties as broadly distinguish philosophers1 artists1 financiers1 soldiers1 and other representative classes4 ,the method adopted for discovering the qualities in question is to consider groups of individuals1 and to compare the qualities that distinguish such groups as flourish or prosper from others of the same kind that decline or decay4 ,this method has the advantage of giving results more free from the possibility of bias than those derived from examples of individual cases4 ,in what follows ,i shall use the word community in its widest sense1 as including any group of persons who are connected by a common interest--families1 schools1 clubs1 sects1 municipalities1 nations1 and all intermediate social units4 ,whatever qualities increase the prosperity of most or every one of these1 will1 as ,i hold1 deserve a place in the first rank of eugenic importance4 ,most of us have experience1 either by direct observation or through historical reading1 of the working of several communities1 and are capable of forming a correct picture in our minds of the salient characteristics of those that1 on the one hand1 are eminently prosperous1 and of those that1 on the other hand1 are as eminently decadent4 ,i have little doubt that the reader will agree with me that the members of prospering communities are1 as a rule1 conspicuously strenuous1 and that those of decaying or decadent ones are conspicuously slack4 ,a prosperous community is distinguished by the alertness of its members1 by their busy occupations1 by their taking pleasure in their work1 by their doing it thoroughly1 and by an honest pride in their community as a whole4 ,the members of a decaying community are1 for the most part1 languid and indolent2 their very gestures are dawdling and slouching1 the opposite of smart4 ,they shirk work when they can do so1 and scamp what they undertake4 ,a prosperous community is remarkable for the variety of the solid interests in which some or other of its members are eagerly engaged1 but the questions that agitate a decadent community are for the most part of a frivolous order4 ,prosperous communities are also notable for enjoyment of life2 for though their members must work hard in order to procure the necessary luxuries of an advanced civilisation1 they are endowed with so large a store of energy that1 when their daily toil is over1 enough of it remains unexpended to allow them to pursue their special hobbies during the remainder of the day4 ,in a decadent community the men tire easily1 and soon sink into drudgery2 there is consequently much languor among them1 and little enjoyment of life4 ,i have studied the causes of civic prosperity in various directions and from many points of view1 and the conclusion at which ,i have arrived is emphatic1 namely1 that chief among those causes is a large capacity for labour--mental1 bodily1 or both--combined with eagerness for work4 ,the course of evolution in animals shows that this view is correct in general4 ,the huge lizards1 incapable of rapid action1 unless it be brief in duration and associated with long terms of repose1 have been supplanted by birds and mammals possessed of powers of long endurance4 ,these latter are so constituted as to require work1 becoming restless and suffering in health when precluded from exertion4 ,we must not1 however1 overlook the fact that the influence of circumstance on a community is a powerful factor in raising its tone4 ,a cause that catches the popular feeling will often rouse a potentially capable nation from apathy into action4 ,a good officer1 backed by adequate supplies of food and with funds for the regular payment of his troops1 will change a regiment even of ill-developed louts and hooligans into a fairly smart and well-disciplined corps4 ,but with better material as a foundation1 the influence of a favourable environment is correspondingly increased1 and is less liable to impairment whenever the environment changes and becomes less propitious4 ,hence1 it follows that a sound mind and body1 enlightened1 ,i should add1 with an intelligence above the average1 and combined with a natural capacity and zeal for work1 are essential elements in eugenics4 ,for however famous a man may become in other respects1 he cannot1 ,i think1 be justly termed eugenic if deficient in the qualities ,i have just named4 ,eugenists justly claim to be true philanthropists1 or lovers of mankind1 and should bestir themselves in their special province as eagerly as the philanthropists1 in the current and very restricted meaning of that word1 have done in theirs4 ,they should interest themselves in such families of civic worth as they come across1 especially in those that are large1 making friends both with the parents and the children1 and showing themselves disposed to help to a reasonable degree1 as opportunity may offer1 whenever help is really needful4 ,they should compare their own notes with those of others who are similarly engaged4 ,they should regard such families as an eager horticulturist regards beds of seedlings of some rare variety of plant1 but with an enthusiasm of a far more patriotic kind4 ,for1 since it has been shown that about #aj per cent4 of the individuals born in one generation provide half the next generation1 large families that are also eugenic may prove of primary importance to the nation and become its most valuable asset4 ,,iv4--,practical ,eugenics ,the following are some views of my own relating to that large province of eugenics which is concerned with favouring the families of those who are exceptionally fit for citizenship4 ,consequently1 little or nothing will here be said relating to what has been well termed by ,dr4 ,saleeby negative eugenics1 namely1 the hindrance of the marriages and the production of offspring by the exceptionally unfit4 ,the latter is unquestionably the more pressing subject1 but it will soon be forced on the attention of the legislature by the recent report of the ,royal ,commission on the ,feeble-minded4 ,whatever scheme of action is proposed for adoption must be neither ,utopian nor extravagant1 but accordant throughout with ,british sentiment and practice4 ,by worth ,i mean the civic worthiness1 or the value to the state1 of a person4 ,speaking only for myself1 if ,i had to classify persons according to worth1 ,i should consider each of them under the three heads of physique1 ability and character1 subject to the provision that inferiority in any one of the three should outweigh superiority in the other two4 ,i rank physique first1 because it is not only very valuable in itself and allied to many other good qualities1 but has the additional merit of being easily rated4 ,ability ,i place second on similar grounds1 and character third1 though in real importance it stands first of all4 ,the power of social opinion is apt to be underrated rather than overrated4 ,like the atmosphere which we breathe and in which we move1 social opinion operates powerfully without our being conscious of its weight4 ,everyone knows that governments1 manners1 and beliefs which were thought to be right1 decorous1 and true at one period have been judged wrong1 indecorous1 and false at another2 and that views which we have heard expressed by those in authority over us in early life tend to become axiomatic and unchangeable in mature life4 ,in circumscribed communities especially1 social approval and disapproval exert a potent force4 ,is it1 then1 ,i ask1 too much to expect that when a public opinion in favour of eugenics has once taken sure hold of such communities1 the result will be manifested in sundry and very effective modes of action which are as yet untried8 ,speaking for myself only1 ,i look forward to local eugenic action in numerous directions1 of which ,i will now specify one4 ,it is the accumulation of considerable funds to start young couples of worthy qualities in their married life1 and to assist them and their families at critical times4 ,the charitable gifts to those who are the reverse of worthy are enormous in amount4 ,i am not prepared to say how much of this is judiciously spent1 or in what ways1 but merely quote the fact to justify the inference that many persons who are willing to give freely at the prompting of a sentiment based upon compassion might be persuaded to give largely also in response to the more virile desire of promoting the natural gifts and the national efficiency of future generations4 ,v4--,eugenics as a ,factor in ,religion ,eugenics strengthen the sense of social duty in so many important particulars that the conclusions derived from its study ought to find a welcome home in every tolerant religion4 ,it promotes a far-sighted philanthropy1 the acceptance of parentage as a serious responsibility1 and a higher conception of patriotism4 ,the creed of eugenics is founded upon the idea of evolution2 not on a passive form of it1 but on one that can1 to some extent1 direct its own course4 ,purely passive1 or what may be styled mechanical evolution displays the awe-inspiring spectacle of a vast eddy of organic turmoil1 originating we know not how1 and travelling we know not whither4 ,it forms a continuous whole1 but it is moulded by blind and wasteful processes--namely1 by an extravagant production of raw material and the ruthless rejection of all that is superfluous1 through the blundering steps of trial and error4 ,the condition at each successive moment of this huge system1 as it issues from the already quiet past and is about to invade the still undisturbed future1 is one of violent internal commotion4 ,its elements are in constant flux and change4 ,evolution is in any case a grand phantasmagoria1 but it assumes an infinitely more interesting aspect under the knowledge that the intelligent action of the human will is1 in some small measure1 capable of guiding its course4 ,man has the power of doing this largely so far as the evolution of humanity is concerned2 he has already affected the quality and distribution of organic life so widely that the changes on the surface of the earth1 merely through his disforestings and agriculture1 would be recognisable from a distance as great as that of the moon4 ,as regards the practical side of eugenics1 we need not linger to reopen the unending argument whether man possesses any creative power of will at all1 or whether his will is not also predetermined by blind forces or by intelligent agencies behind the veil1 and whether the belief that man can act independently is more than a mere illusion4 ,eugenic belief extends the function of philanthropy to future generations2 it renders its action more pervading than hitherto1 by dealing with families and societies in their entirety1 and it enforces the importance of the marriage covenant by directing serious attention to the probable quality of the future offspring4 ,it sternly forbids all forms of sentimental charity that are harmful to the race1 while it eagerly seeks opportunity for acts of personal kindness4 ,it strongly encourages love and interest in family and race4 ,in brief1 eugenics is a virile creed1 full of hopefulness1 and appealing to many of the noblest feelings of our nature4 ,,ernst ,,haeckel ,the ,evolution of ,man ,ernst ,haeckel1 who was born in ,potsdam1 ,germany1 ,feb4 #af1 #ahcd1 descends from a long line of lawyers and politicians4 ,to his father's annoyance1 he turned to science1 and graduated in medicine4 ,after a long tour in ,italy in #ahei1 during which he wavered between art and science1 he decided for zoology1 and made a masterly study of a little-known group of sea-animalcules1 the ,radiolaria4 ,in #ahfa he began to teach zoology at ,jena ,university4 ,darwin's ,origin of ,species had just been translated into ,german1 and he took up the defence of ,darwinism against almost the whole of his colleagues4 ,his first large work on evolution1 ,general ,morphology1 was published in #ahff4 ,he has since published forty-two distinct works4 ,he is not only a master of zoology1 but has a good command of botany and embryology4 ,haeckel's ,evolution of ,man 7,anthropogenie71 is generally accepted as being his most important production4 ,published in #ahgd1 at a time when the theory of natural evolution had few supporters in ,germany1 the work was hailed with a storm of controversy1 one celebrated critic declaring that it was a blot on the escutcheon of ,germany4 ,from the hands of ,english scientists1 however1 the treatise received a warm welcome4 ,darwin said he would probably never have written his ,descent of ,man had ,haeckel published his work earlier4 ,i4--,the ,science of ,man ,the natural history of mankind1 or anthropology1 must always excite the most lively interest1 and no part of the science is more attractive than that which deals with the question of man's origin4 ,in order to study this with full profit1 we must combine the results of two sciences1 ontogeny 7or embryology7 and phylogeny 7the science of evolution74 ,we do this because we have now discovered that the forms through which the embryo passes in its development correspond roughly to the series of forms in its ancestral development4 ,the correspondence is by no means complete or precise1 since the embryonic life itself has been modified in the course of time2 but the general law is now very widely accepted4 ,i have called it the biogenetic law1 and will constantly appeal to it in the course of this study4 ,it is only in recent times that the two sciences have advanced sufficiently to reveal the correspondence of the two series of forms4 ,aristotle provided a good foundation for embryology1 and made some interesting discoveries1 but no progress was made in the science for #b1jjj years after him4 ,then the ,reformation brought some liberty of research1 and in the seventeenth century several works were written on embryology4 ,for more than a hundred years the science was still hampered by the lack of good microscopes4 ,it was generally believed that all the organs of the body existed1 packed in a tiny point of space1 in the germ4 ,about the middle of the eighteenth century1 ,caspar ,friedrich ,wolff discovered the true development2 but his work was ignored1 and it was only fifty years later that modern embryology began to work on the right line4 ,k4,e4 von ,baer made it clear that the fertilised ovum divides into a group of cells1 and that the various organs of the body are developed from these layers of cells1 in the way ,i shall presently describe4 ,the science of phylogeny1 or1 as it is popularly called1 the evolution of species1 had an equally slow growth4 ,on the ground of the ,mosaic narrative1 no less than in view of the actual appearance of the living world1 the great naturalist ,linn 7#agce7 set up the dogma of the unchangeability of species4 ,even when quite different remains of animals were discovered by the advancing science of geology1 they were forced into the existing narrow framework of science by ,cuvier4 ,sir ,charles ,lyell completely undid the fallacious work of ,cuvier1 but in the meantime the zoologists themselves were moving toward the doctrine of evolution4 ,jean ,lamarck made the first systematic attempt to expound the theory in his ,zoological ,philosophy 7#ahji74 ,he suggested that animals modified their organs by use or disuse1 and that the effect of this was inherited4 ,in the course of time these inherited modifications reached such a pitch that the organism fell into a new species4 ,goethe also made some remarkable contributions to the science of evolution4 ,but it was reserved for ,charles ,darwin to win an enduring place in science for the theory4 ,the ,origin of ,species 7#ahei7 not only sustained it with a wealth of positive knowledge which ,lamarck did not command1 but it provided a more luminous explanation in the doctrine of natural selection4 ,huxley 7#ahfc7 followed with an application of the law to man1 and in #ahff ,i gave a comprehensive sketch of its application throughout the whole animal world4 ,in #ahgd ,i published the first edition of the present work4 ,the doctrine of evolution is now a vital part of biology1 and we might accept the evolution of man as a special deduction from the general law4 ,three great groups of evidence impose that law on us4 ,the first group consists of the facts of palontology1 or the fossil record of past animal life4 ,imperfect as the record is1 it shows us a broad divergence of successively changing types from a simple common root1 and in some cases exhibits the complete transition from one type to another4 ,the next document is the evidence of comparative anatomy4 ,this science groups the forms of living animals in such a way that we seem to have the same gradual divergence of types from simple common ancestors4 ,in particular1 it discovers certain rudimentary organs in the higher animals1 which can only be understood as the shrunken relics of organs that were once useful to a remote ancestor4 ,thus1 man has still the rudiment of the third eyelid of his shark-ancestor4 ,the third document is the evidence of embryology1 which shows us the higher organism substantially reproducing1 in its embryonic development1 the long series of ancestral forms4 ,,ii4--,man's ,embryonic ,development ,the first stage in the development of any animal is the tiny speck of plasm1 hardly visible to the naked eye1 which we call the ovum1 or egg-cell4 ,it is a single cell1 recalling the earliest single-celled ancestor of all animals4 ,in its immature form it is not unlike certain microscopic animalcules known as amoeboe4 ,in its mature form it is about #a_/abeth of an inch in diameter4 ,when the male germ has blended with the female in the ovum1 the new cell slowly divides into two1 with a very complicated division of the material composing its nucleus4 ,the two cells divide into four1 the four into eight1 and so on until we have a round cluster of cells1 something like a blackberry in shape4 ,this morula1 as ,i have called it1 reproduces the next stage in the development of life4 ,as all animals pass through it1 our biogenetic law forces us to see in it an ancestral stage2 and in point of fact we have animals of this type living in ,nature to-day4 ,the round cluster becomes filled with fluid1 and we have a hollow sphere of cells1 which ,i call the blastula4 ,the corresponding early ancestor ,i name the ,blasta1 and again we find examples of it1 like the ,volvox of the ponds1 in ,nature to-day4 ,the next step is very important4 ,the hollow sphere closes in on itself1 as when an india rubber ball is pressed into the form of a cup4 ,we have then a vase-shaped body with two layers of cells1 an inner and an outer1 and an opening4 ,the inner layer we call the entoderm1 the outer the ectoderm2 and the primitive mouth is known as the blastopore4 ,in the higher animals a good deal of food-yolk is stored up in the germ1 and so the vase-shaped structure has been flattened and altered4 ,it has1 however1 been shown that all embryos pass through this stage 7gastrulation71 and we again infer the existence of a common ancestor of that type--the ,gastra4 ,the lowest group of many-celled animals--the corals1 jelly-fishes1 and anemones--are essentially of that structure4 ,the embryo now consists of two layers of cells1 the germ-layers1 an inner and outer4 ,as the higher embryo develops1 a third layer of cells now pushes between the two4 ,we may say1 broadly1 that from this middle layer are developed most of the animal organs of the body2 from the internal germ-layer is developed the lining of the alimentary canal and its dependent glands2 from the outer layer are formed the skin and the nervous system--which developed originally in the skin4 ,the embryo of man and all the other higher animals now develops a cavity1 a pair of pouches1 by the folding of the layer at the primitive mouth4 ,sir ,e4 ,ray ,lankester1 and ,professor ,balfour1 and other students1 traced this formation through the whole embryonic world1 and we are therefore again obliged to see in it a reminiscence of an ancestral form--a primitive worm-like animal1 of a type we shall see later4 ,the next step is the formation of the first trace of what will ultimately be the backbone4 ,it consists at first of a membraneous tube1 formed by the folding of the inner layer along the axis of the embryo-body4 ,later this tube will become cartilage1 and in the higher animals the cartilage will give place to bone4 ,the other organs of the body now gradually form from the germ-layers1 principally by the folding of the layers into tubes4 ,a light area appears on the surface of the germ4 ,a streak or groove forms along its axis1 and becomes the nerve-cord running along the back4 ,cube-shaped structures make their appearance on either side of it2 these prove to be the rudiments of the vertebr--or separate bones of the backbone--and gradually close round the cord4 ,the heart is at first merely a spindle-shaped enlargement of the main ventral blood-vessel4 ,the nose is at first only a pair of depressions in the skin above the mouth4 ,when the human embryo is only a quarter of an inch in length1 it has gill-clefts and gill-arches in the throat like a fish1 and no limbs4 ,the heart--as yet with only the simple two-chambered structure of a fish's heart--is up in the throat--as in the fish--and the principal arteries run to the gill-slits4 ,these structures never have any utility in man or the other land-animals1 though the embryo always has them for a time4 ,they point clearly to a fish ancestor4 ,later1 they break up1 the limbs sprout out like blunt fins at the sides1 and the long tail begins to decrease4 ,by the twelfth week the human frame is perfectly formed1 though less than two inches long4 ,last of all1 it retains its resemblance to the ape4 ,in the embryonic apparatus1 too1 man closely resembles the higher ape4 ,,iii4--,our ,ancestral ,tree ,the series of forms which we thus trace in man's embryonic development corresponds to the ancestral series which we would assign to man on the evidence of palontology and comparative anatomy4 ,at one time1 the tracing of this ancestral series encountered a very serious check4 ,when we examined the groups of living animals1 we found none that illustrated or explained the passage from the non-backboned--invertebrate--to the backboned--vertebrate--animals4 ,this gap was filled some years ago by the discovery of the lancelet--,amphioxus--and the young of the sea-squirt--,ascidia4 ,the lancelet has a slender rod of cartilage along its back1 and corresponds very closely with the ideal ,i have sketched of our primitive backboned ancestor4 ,it may be an offshoot from the same group4 ,the sea-squirt further illustrates the origin of the backbone1 since it has a similar rod of cartilage in its youth1 and loses it1 by degeneration1 in its maturity4 ,in this way the chief difficulty was overcome1 and it was possible to sketch the probable series of our ancestors4 ,it must be well understood that not only is the whole series conjectural1 but no living animal must be regarded as an ancestral form4 ,the parental types have long been extinct1 and we may1 at the most1 use very conservative living types to illustrate their nature1 just as1 in the matter of languages1 ,german is not the parent1 but the cousin of ,anglo-,saxon1 or ,greek of ,latin4 ,the original parental languages are lost4 ,but a language like ,sanscrit survives to give us a good idea of the type4 ,the law of evolution is based on such a mass of evidence that we may justly draw deductions from it1 where the direct evidence is incomplete4 ,this is especially necessary in the early part of our ancestral tree1 because the fossil record quite fails us4 ,for millions of years the early soft-bodied animals left no trace in the primitive mud1 which time has hardened into rocks1 and we are restricted to the evidence of embryology and of comparative zoology4 ,this suffices to give us a general idea of the line of development4 ,in nature to-day1 one of the lowest animal forms is a tiny speck of living plasm called the amoeba4 ,we have still more elementary forms1 such as the minute particles which make up the bluish film on damp rocks1 but they are of a vegetal character1 or below it4 ,they give us some idea of the very earliest forms of life2 minute living particles1 with no organs1 down to the ten-thousandth part of an inch in diameter4 ,the amoeba represents the lowest animal1 and1 as we saw1 the ovum in many cases resembles an amoeba4 ,we therefore take some such one-celled creature as our first animal ancestor4 ,taking food in at all parts of its surface1 having no permanent organs of locomotion1 and reproducing by merely splitting into two1 it exhibits the lowest level of animal life4 ,the next step in development would be the clustering together of these primitive microbes as they divided4 ,this is actually the stage that comes next in the development of the germ1 and it is the next stage upward in the existing animal world4 ,we assume that these clusters of microbes--or cells1 as we will now call them--bent inward1 as we saw the embryo do1 and became two-layered1 cup-shaped organisms1 with a hollow interior 7primitive stomach7 and an aperture 7primitive mouth74 ,the inner cells now do the work of digestion alone2 the outer cells effect locomotion1 by means of lashes like oars1 and are sensitive4 ,this is1 in the main1 the structure of the next great group of animals1 the hydra1 coral1 meduca1 and anemone4 ,they have remained at this level1 though they have developed1 special organs for stinging their prey and bringing the food into their mouths4 ,both zoology and the appearance of the embryo point to a worm-like animal as the next stage4 ,constant swimming in the water would give the animal a definite head1 with special groups of nerve-cells1 a definite tail1 and a two-sided or evenly-balanced body4 ,we mean that those animals would be fittest to live1 and multiply most1 which developed this organisation4 ,sense-organs would now appear in the head1 in the form of simple depressions1 lined with sensitive cells1 as they do in the embryo2 and a clump of nerve-cells within would represent the primitive brain4 ,in the vast and varied worm-group we find illustrations of nearly every step in this process of evolution4 ,the highest type of worm-like creature1 the acorn-headed worm--,balanoglossus--takes us an important step further4 ,it has gill-openings for breathing1 and a cord of cartilage down its back4 ,we saw that the human embryo has a gill-apparatus1 and that1 comparing the lancelet and the sea-squirt1 the backbone must have begun as a string of cartilage-cells4 ,we are now on firmer ground1 for there is no doubt that all the higher land-animals come from a fish ancestor4 ,the shark1 one of the most primitive of fishes in organisation1 probably best suggests this ancestor to us4 ,in fact1 in the embryonic development of the human face there is a clear suggestion of the shark4 ,up to this period the story of evolution had run its course in the sea4 ,the area of dry land was now increasing1 and certain of the primitive fishes adapted themselves to living on land4 ,they walked on their fins1 and used their floating-bladders--large air-bladders in the fish1 for rising in the water--to breathe air4 ,we not only have fishes of this type in ,australia to-day1 but we have the fossil remains of similar fishes in the ,old ,red ,sandstone rocks4 ,from mud-fish the amphibian would naturally develop1 as it did in the coal-forest period4 ,walking on the fins would strengthen the main stem1 the broad paddle would become useless1 and we should get in time the bony five-toed limb4 ,we have many of these giant salamander forms in the rocks4 ,the reptile now evolved from the amphibian1 and a vast reptile population spread over the earth4 ,from one of these early reptiles the birds were evolved4 ,geology furnishes the missing link between the bird and the reptile in the ,archopteryx1 a bird with teeth1 claws on its wings1 and a reptilian tail4 ,from another primitive reptile the important group of the mammals was evolved4 ,we find what seem to be the transitional types in the rocks of ,south ,africa4 ,the scales gave way to tufts of hair1 the heart evolved a fourth chamber1 and thus supplied purer blood 7warm blood71 the brain profited by the richer food1 and the mother began to suckle the young4 ,we have still a primitive mammal of this type in the duck-mole1 or duck-billed platypus 7,ornithorhyncus7 of ,australia4 ,there are grounds for thinking that the next stage was an opossum-like animal1 and this led on to the lowest ape-like being1 the lemur4 ,judging from the fossil remains1 the black lemur of ,madagascar best suggests this ancestor4 ,the apes of the ,old and ,new ,worlds now diverged from this level1 and some branch of the former gave rise to the man-like apes and man4 ,in bodily structure and embryonic development the large apes come very close to man1 and two recent discoveries have put their blood-relationship beyond question4 ,one is that experiments in the transfusion of blood show that the blood of the man-like ape and man have the same action on the blood of lower animals4 ,the other is that we have discovered1 in ,java1 several bones of a being which stands just midway between the highest living ape and lowest living race of men4 ,this ape-man 7,pithecanthropus7 represents the last of our animal and first of our human ancestors4 ,,iv4--,evolution of ,separate ,organs ,so far1 we have seen how the human body as a whole develops through a long series of extinct ancestors4 ,we may now take the various systems of organs one by one1 and1 if we are careful to consult embryology as well as zoology1 we can trace the manner of their development4 ,it is1 in accordance with our biogenetic law1 the same in the embryo1 as a rule1 as in the story of past evolution4 ,we take first the nervous system4 ,in the lowest animals1 as in the early stages of the embryo1 there are no nerve-cells4 ,in the embryo the nerve-cells develop from the outer1 or skin layer1 of cells4 ,this1 though strange as regards the human nervous system1 is a correct preservation of the primitive seat of the nerves4 ,it was the surface of the animal that needed to be sensitive in the primitive organism4 ,later1 when definite connecting nerves were formed1 only special points in the surface1 protected by coverings which did not interfere with the sensitiveness1 needed to be exposed1 and the nerves transmitted the impressions to the central brain4 ,this development is found in the animal world to-day4 ,in such animals as the hydra we find the first crude beginning of unorganised nerve-cells4 ,in the jelly-fish we find nerve-cells clustered into definite sensitive organs4 ,in the lower worms we have the beginning of organs of smell and vision4 ,they are at first merely blind1 sensitive pits in the skin1 as in the embryo4 ,the ear has a peculiar origin4 ,up to the fish level there is no power of hearing4 ,there is merely a little stone rolling in a sensitive bed1 to warn the animal of its movement from side to side4 ,in the higher animals this evolves into the ear4 ,the glands of the skin 7sweat1 fat1 tears1 etc47 appear at first as blunt1 simple ingrowths4 ,the hair first appears in tufts1 representing the scales1 from underneath which they were probably evolved4 ,the thin coat of hair on the human body to-day is an ancestral inheritance4 ,this is well shown by the direction of the hairs on the arm4 ,as on the ape's arm1 both on the upper and lower arm1 they grow toward the elbow4 ,the ape finds this useful in rain1 using his arms like a thatched roof1 and on our arm this can only be a reminiscence of the habits of an ape ancestor4 ,we have seen how the spinal cord first appears as a tube in the axis of the back1 and the cartilaginous column closes round it4 ,all bone appears first as membrane1 then cartilage1 and finally ossifies4 ,this is the order both in past evolution and in present embryonic development4 ,the brain is at first a bulbous expansion of the spinal nerve-cord4 ,it is at first simple1 but gradually1 both in the scale of nature and in the embryo1 divides into five parts4 ,one of these parts1 the cerebrum1 is mainly connected with mental life4 ,we find it increasing in size1 in proportion to the animal's intelligence1 until in man it comes to cover the whole of the brain4 ,when we remove it from the head of the mammal1 without killing the animal1 we find all mental life suspended1 and the whole vitality used in vegetative functions4 ,in the evolution of the bony system we find the same correspondence of embryology and evolution4 ,the main column is at first a rod of cartilage4 ,in time the separate cubes appear which are to form the vertebr of the flexible column4 ,the skull develops in the same way4 ,just as the brain is a specially modified part of the nerve-rod1 the skull is only a modified part of the vertebral column4 ,the bones that compose it are modified vertebr1 as ,goethe long ago suspected4 ,the skull of the shark gives us a hint of the way in which the modification took place1 and the formation of the skull in the embryo confirms it4 ,that adult man is devoid of that prolongation of the vertebral column which we call a tail is not a distinctive peculiarity4 ,the higher apes are equally without it4 ,we find1 however1 that the human embryo has a long tail1 much longer than the legs1 when they are developing4 ,at times1 moreover1 children are born with tails--perfect tails1 with nerves and muscles1 which they move briskly under emotion1 and these have to be amputated4 ,the development of the limb from the fin offers no serious difficulty to the osteologist4 ,all the higher animals descend from a five-toed ancestor4 ,the whale has taken again to the water1 and reconverted its limb into a paddle4 ,the bones of the front feet still remain under the flesh4 ,animals of the horse type have had the central toe strengthened1 for running purposes1 at the expense of the rest4 ,the serpent has lost its limbs from disuse1 but in the python a rudimentary limb-bone is still preserved4 ,the alimentary system1 blood-vessel system1 and reproductive system have been evolved gradually in the same way4 ,the stomach is at first the whole cavity in the animal4 ,later it becomes a straight1 simple tube1 strengthened by a gullet in front4 ,the liver is an outgrowth from this tube2 the stomach proper is a bulbous expansion of its central part1 later provided with a valve4 ,the kidneys are at first simple channels in the skin for drainage1 then closed tubes1 which branch out more and more1 and then gather into our compact kidneys4 ,we thus see that the building up of the human body from a single cell is a substantial epitome of the long story of evolution1 which occupied many millions of years4 ,we find man bearing in his body to-day traces of organs which were useful to a remote ancestor1 but of no advantage1 and often a source of mischief to himself4 ,we learn that the origin of man1 instead of being placed a few thousand years ago1 must be traced back to the point where1 hundreds of thousands of years ago1 he diverged from his ape-cousins1 though he retains to-day the plainest traces of that relationship4 ,body and mind--for the development of mind follows with the utmost precision on the development of brain--he is the culmination of a long process of development4 ,his spirit is a form of energy inseparably bound up with the substance of his body4 ,his evolution has been controlled by the same eternal1 iron laws as the development of any other body--the laws of heredity and adaptation4 ,,william ,,harvey ,on the ,motion of the ,heart and ,blood ,william ,harvey1 the discoverer of the circulation of the blood1 was born at ,folkestone1 ,england1 on ,april #a1 #aegh4 ,after graduating from ,caius ,college1 ,cambridge1 he studied at ,padua1 where he had the celebrated anatomist1 ,fabricius of ,aquapendente1 for his master4 ,in #afae he was elected ,lumleian lecturer at the ,college of ,physicians1 and three years later was appointed physician extraordinary to ,king ,james ,i4 ,in #afbh1 twelve years after his first statement of it in his lectures1 he published at ,frankfurt1 in ,latin1 ,an ,anatomical ,disquisition on the ,motion of the ,heart and ,blood1 in which he maintained that there is a circulation of the blood4 ,moreover1 he distinguished between the pulmonary circulation1 from the right side of the heart to the left through the lungs1 and the systemic circulation from the left side of the heart to the right through the rest of the body4 ,further1 he maintained that it was the office of the heart to maintain this circulation by its alternate diastole 7expansion7 and systole 7contraction7 throughout life4 ,this discovery was1 says ,sir ,john ,simon1 the most important ever made in physiological science4 ,it is recorded that after his publication of it ,harvey lost most of his practice4 ,harvey died on ,june #c1 #afeg4 ,i4--,motions of the ,heart in ,living ,animals ,when first ,i gave my mind to vivisections as a means of discovering the motions and uses of the heart1 ,i found the task so truly arduous that ,i was almost tempted to think1 with ,fracastorius1 that the motion of the heart was only to be comprehended by ,god4 ,for ,i could neither rightly perceive at first when the systole and when the diastole took place1 nor when and where dilation and contraction occurred1 by reason of the rapidity of the motion1 which1 in many animals1 is accomplished in the twinkling of an eye1 coming and going like a flash of lightning4 ,at length it appeared that these things happen together or at the same instant3 the tension of the heart1 the pulse of its apex1 which is felt externally by its striking against the chest1 the thickening of its walls1 and the forcible expulsion of the blood it contains by the constriction of its ventricles4 ,hence the very opposite of the opinions commonly received appears to be true2 inasmuch as it is generally believed that when the heart strikes the breast and the pulse is felt without1 the heart is dilated in its ventricles and is filled with blood4 ,but the contrary of this is the fact2 that is to say1 the heart is in the act of contracting and being emptied4 ,whence the motion1 which is generally regarded as the diastole of the heart1 is in truth its systole4 ,and in like manner the intrinsic motion of the heart is not the diastole but the systole2 neither is it in the diastole that the heart grows firm and tense1 but in the systole2 for then alone when tense is it moved and made vigorous4 ,when it acts and becomes tense the blood is expelled2 when it relaxes and sinks together it receives the blood in the manner and wise which will by and by be explained4 ,from divers facts it is also manifest1 in opposition to commonly received opinions1 that the diastole of the arteries corresponds with the time of the heart's systole2 and that the arteries are filled and distended by the blood forced into them by the contraction of the ventricles4 ,it is in virtue of one and the same cause1 therefore1 that all the arteries of the body pulsate1 viz41 the contraction of the left ventricle in the same way as the pulmonary artery pulsates by the contraction of the right ventricle4 ,i am persuaded it will be found that the motion of the heart is as follows4 ,first of all1 the auricle contracts and throws the blood into the ventricle1 which1 being filled1 the heart raises itself straightway1 makes all its fibres tense1 contracts the ventricles and performs a beat1 by which beat it immediately sends the blood supplied to it by the auricle into the arteries2 the right ventricle sending its charge into the lungs by the vessel called vena arteriosa1 but which1 in structure and function1 and all things else1 is an artery2 the left ventricle sending its charge into the aorta1 and through this by the arteries to the body at large4 ,the grand cause of hesitation and error in this subject appears to me to have been the intimate connection between the heart and the lungs4 ,when men saw both the pulmonary artery and the pulmonary veins losing themselves in the lungs1 of course it became a puzzle to them to know how the right ventricle should distribute the blood to the body1 or the left draw it from the ven cav4 ,or they have hesitated because they did not perceive the route by which the blood is transferred from the veins to the arteries1 in consequence of the intimate connection between the heart and lungs4 ,and that this difficulty puzzled anatomists not a little when in their dissections they found the pulmonary artery and left ventricle full of black and clotted blood1 plainly appears when they felt themselves compelled to affirm that the blood made its way from the right to the left ventricle by sweating through the septum of the heart4 ,had anatomists only been as conversant with the dissection of the lower animals as they are with that of the human body1 the matters that have hitherto kept them in perplexity of doubt would1 in my opinion1 have met them freed from every kind of difficulty4 ,and first in fishes1 in which the heart consists of but a single ventricle1 they having no lungs1 the thing is sufficiently manifest4 ,here the sac1 which is situated at the base of the heart1 and is the part analogous to the auricle in man1 plainly throws the blood into the heart1 and the heart in its turn conspicuously transmits it by a pipe or artery1 or vessel analogous to an artery2 these are facts which are confirmed by simple ocular experiment4 ,i have seen1 farther1 that the same thing obtained most obviously4 ,and since we find that in the greater number of animals1 in all indeed at a certain period of their existence1 the channels for the transmission of the blood through the heart are so conspicuous1 we have still to inquire wherefore in some creatures--those1 namely1 that have warm blood and that have attained to the adult age1 man among the number--we should not conclude that the same thing is accomplished through the substance of the lungs1 which1 in the embryo1 and at a time when the functions of these organs is in abeyance1 ,nature effects by direct passages1 and which indeed she seems compelled to adopt through want of a passage by the lungs2 or wherefore it should be better 7for ,nature always does that which is best7 that she should close up the various open routes which she had formerly made use of in the embryo1 and still uses in all other animals2 not only opening up no new apparent channels for the passage of the blood therefore1 but even entirely shutting up those which formerly existed in the embryos of those animals that have lungs4 ,for while the lungs are yet in a state of inaction1 ,nature uses the two ventricles of the heart as if they formed but one for the transmission of the blood4 ,the condition of the embryos of those animals which have lungs is the same as that of those animals which have no lungs4 ,thus1 by studying the structure of the animals who are nearer to and further from ourselves in their modes of life and in the construction of their bodies1 we can prepare ourselves to understand the nature of the pulmonary circulation in ourselves1 and of the systemic circulation also4 ,,ii4--,systemic ,circulation ,what remains to be said is of so novel and unheard of a character that ,i not only fear injury to myself from the envy of a few1 but ,i tremble lest ,i have mankind at large for my enemies1 so much do wont and custom that become as another nature1 and doctrine once sown that hath struck deep root1 and respect for antiquity1 influence all men4 ,and1 sooth to say1 when ,i surveyed my mass of evidence1 whether derived from vivisections and my previous reflections on them1 or from the ventricles of the heart and the vessels that enter into and issue from them1 the symmetry and size of these conduits--for ,nature1 doing nothing in vain1 would never have given them so large a relative size without a purpose2 or from the arrangement and intimate structure of the valves in particular and of the many other parts of the heart in general1 with many things besides2 and frequently and seriously bethought me and long revolved in my mind what might be the quantity of blood which was transmitted1 in how short a time its passage might be effected and the like2 and not finding it possible that this could be supplied by the juices of the ingested aliment without the veins on the one hand becoming drained1 and the arteries on the other getting ruptured through the excessive charge of blood1 unless the blood should somehow find its way from the arteries into the veins1 and so return to the right side of the heart2 when ,i say1 ,i surveyed all this evidence1 ,i began to think whether there might not be a motion as it were in a circle4 ,now this ,i afterwards found to be true2 and ,i finally saw that the blood1 forced by the action of the left ventricle into the arteries1 was distributed to the body at large1 and its several parts1 in the same manner as it is sent through the lungs1 impelled by the right ventricle into the pulmonary artery2 and that it then passed through the veins and along the vena cava1 and so round to the left ventricle in the manner already indicated2 which motion we may be allowed to call circular1 in the same way as ,aristotle says that the air and the rain emulate the circular motion of the superior bodies4 ,for the moist earth1 warmed by the sun1 evaporates2 the vapours drawn upwards are condensed1 and descending in the form of rain moisten the earth again4 ,and by this arrangement are generations of living things produced2 and in like manner1 too1 are tempests and meteors engendered by the circular motion of the sun4 ,and so in all likelihood does it come to pass in the body through the motion of the blood4 ,the various parts are nourished1 cherished1 quickened by the warmer1 more perfect1 vaporous1 spirituous1 and1 as ,i may say1 alimentive blood2 which1 on the contrary1 in contact with these parts becomes cooled1 coagulated1 and1 so to speak1 effete2 whence it returns to its sovereign1 the heart1 as if to its source1 or to the inmost home of the body1 there to recover its state of excellence or perfection4 ,here it resumes its due fluidity1 and receives an infusion of natural heat--powerful1 fervid1 a kind of treasury of life--and is impregnated with spirits and1 it might be said1 with balsam2 and thence it is again dispersed4 ,and all this depends upon the motion and action of the heart4 ,confirmations of the ,theory ,three points present themselves for confirmation1 which1 being established1 ,i conceive that the truth ,i contend for will follow necessarily and appear as a thing obvious to all4 ,the first point is this4 ,the blood is incessantly transmitted by the action of the heart from the vena cava to the arteries in such quantity that it cannot be supplied from the ingesta1 and in such wise that the whole mass must very quickly pass through the organ4 ,let us assume the quantity of blood which the left ventricle of the heart will contain when distended to be1 say1 two ounces 7in the dead body ,i have found it to contain upwards of two ounces72 and let us suppose1 as approaching the truth1 that the fourth part of its charge is thrown into the artery at each contraction4 ,now1 in the course of half an hour the heart will have made more than one thousand beats4 ,multiplying the number of drachms propelled by the number of pulses1 we shall have one thousand half-ounces sent from this organ into the artery2 a larger quantity than is contained in the whole body4 ,this truth1 indeed1 presents itself obviously before us when we consider what happens in the dissection of living animals4 ,the great artery need not be divided1 but a very small branch only 7as ,galen even proves in regard to man71 to have the whole of the blood in the body1 as well that of the veins as of the arteries1 drained away in the course of no long time--some half hour or less4 ,the second point is this4 ,the blood1 under the influence of the arterial pulse1 enters1 and is impelled in a continuous1 equable1 and incessant stream through every part and member of the body in much larger quantity than were sufficient for nutrition1 or than the whole mass of fluids could supply4 ,i have here to cite certain experiments4 ,ligatures are either very tight or of middling tightness4 ,a ligature ,i designate as tight1 or perfect1 when it is drawn so close about an extremity that no vessel can be felt pulsating beyond it4 ,such ligatures are employed in the removal of tumours2 and in these cases1 all afflux of nutriment and heat being prevented by the ligature1 we see the tumours dwindle and die1 and finally drop off4 ,now let anyone make an experiment upon the arm of a man1 either using such a fillet as is employed in bloodletting1 or grasping the limb tightly with his hand2 let a ligature be thrown about the extremity and drawn as tightly as can be borne4 ,it will first be perceived that beyond the ligature the arteries do not pulsate1 while above it the artery begins to rise higher at each diastole and to swell with a kind of tide as it strove to break through and overcome the obstacle to its current4 ,then let the ligature be brought to that state of middling tightness which is used in bleeding1 and it will be seen that the hand and arm will instantly become deeply suffused and extended1 and the veins show themselves tumid and knotted4 ,which is as much as to say that when the arteries pulsate the blood is flowing through them1 but where they do not pulsate they cease from transmitting anything4 ,the veins again being compressed1 nothing can flow through them2 the certain indication of which is that below the ligature they are much more tumid than above it4 ,whence is this blood8 ,it must needs arrive by the arteries4 ,for that it cannot flow in by the veins appears from the fact that the blood cannot be forced towards the heart unless the ligature be removed4 ,further1 when we see the veins below the ligature instantly swell up and become gorged when from extreme tightness it is somewhat relaxed1 the arteries meanwhile continuing unaffected1 this is an obvious indication that the blood passes from the arteries into the veins1 and not from the veins into the arteries1 and that there is either an anastomosis of the two orders of vessels1 or pores in the flesh and solid parts generally that are permeable to the blood4 ,and now we understand wherefore in phlebotomy we apply our fillet above the part that is punctured1 not below it4 ,did the flow come from above1 not from below1 the bandage in this case would not only be of no service1 but would prove a positive hindrance4 ,and further1 if we calculate how many ounces flow through one arm or how many pass in twenty or thirty pulsations under the medium ligature1 we shall perceive that a circulation is absolutely necessary1 seeing that the quantity cannot be supplied immediately from the ingesta1 and is vastly more than can be requisite for the mere nutrition of the parts4 ,and the third point to be confirmed is this4 ,that the veins return this blood to the heart incessantly from all parts and members of the body4 ,this position will be made sufficiently clear from the valves which are found in the cavities of the veins themselves1 from the uses of these1 and from experiments cognisable by the senses4 ,the celebrated ,hieronymus ,fabricius1 of ,aquapendente1 first gave representations of the valves in the veins1 which consist of raised or loose portions of the inner membranes of these vessels of extreme delicacy and a sigmoid1 or semi-lunar shape4 ,their office is by no means explained when we are told that it is to hinder the blood1 by its weight1 from flowing into inferior parts2 for the edges of the valves in the jugular veins hang downwards1 and are so contrived that they prevent the blood from rising upwards4 ,the valves1 in a word1 do not invariably look upwards1 but always towards the trunks of the veins--towards the seat of the heart4 ,they are solely made and instituted lest1 instead of advancing from the extreme to the central parts of the body1 the blood should rather proceed along the veins from the centre to the extremities2 but the delicate valves1 while they readily open in the right direction1 entirely prevent all such contrary motion1 being so situated and arranged that if anything escapes1 or is less perfectly obstructed by the flaps of the one above1 the fluid passing1 as it were1 by the chinks between the flaps1 it is immediately received on the convexity of the one beneath1 which is placed transversely with reference to the former1 and so is effectually hindered from getting any farther4 ,and this ,i have frequently experienced in my dissections of veins4 ,if ,i attempted to pass a probe from the trunk of the veins into one of the smaller branches1 whatever care ,i took ,i found it impossible to introduce it far any way by reason of the valves2 whilst1 on the contrary1 it was most easy to push it along in the opposite direction1 from without inwards1 or from the branches towards the trunks and roots4 ,and now ,i may be allowed to give in brief my view of the circulation of the blood1 and to propose it for general adoption4 ,the ,conclusion ,since all things1 both argument and ocular demonstration1 show that the blood passes through the lungs and heart by the action of the ventricles2 and is sent for distribution to all parts of the body1 where it makes its way into the veins and pores of the flesh2 and then flows by the veins from the circumference on every side to the centre1 from the lesser to the greater veins2 and is by them finally discharged into the vena cava and right auricle of the heart1 and this in such a quantity or in such a flux and reflux1 thither by the arteries1 hither by the veins1 as cannot possibly be supplied by the ingesta1 and is much greater than can be required for mere purposes of nutrition2 therefore1 it is absolutely necessary to conclude that the blood in the animal body is impelled in a circle and is in a state of ceaseless motion2 and that this is the act1 or function1 which the heart performs by means of its pulse1 and that it is the sole and only end of the motion and contraction of the heart4 ,for it would be very difficult to explain in any other way to what purpose all is constructed and arranged as we have seen it to be4 ,,sir ,,john ,,herschel ,outlines of ,astronomy ,sir ,john ,frederick ,william ,herschel1 only child--and1 as an astronomer1 almost the only rival--of ,sir ,william ,herschel1 was born at ,slough1 in ,ireland1 on ,march #g1 #agib4 ,at first privately educated1 in #ahac he graduated from ,st4 ,john's ,college1 ,cambridge1 as senior wrangler and first ,smith's prizeman4 ,he chose the law as his profession2 but in #ahaf reported that1 under his father's direction1 he was going to take up stargazing4 ,he then began a re-examination of his father's double stars4 ,in #ahbe he wrote that he was going to take nebul under his especial charge4 ,he embarked in #ahcc with his family for the ,cape2 and his work at ,feldhausen1 six miles from ,cape ,town1 marked the beginning of southern sidereal astronomy4 ,the result of his four years' work there was published in #ahdg4 ,from #ahee he devoted himself at ,collingwood to the collection and revival of his father's and his own labours4 ,his ,outlines of ,astronomy1 published in #ahdi1 and founded on an earlier ,treatise on ,astronomy of #ahcc1 was an outstanding success4 ,herschel's long and happy life1 every day of which added its share to his scientific services1 came to an end on ,may #aa1 #ahga4 ,i4--,the ,wonders of the ,milky ,way ,there is no science which draws more largely than does astronomy on that intellectual liberality which is ready to adopt whatever is demonstrated or concede whatever is rendered highly probable1 however new and uncommon the points of view may be in which objects the most familiar may thereby become placed4 ,almost all its conclusions stand in open and striking contradiction with those of superficial and vulgar observation1 and with what appears to everyone the most positive evidence of his senses4 ,there is hardly anything which sets in a stronger light the inherent power of truth over the mind of man1 when opposed by no motives of interest or passion1 than the perfect readiness with which all its conclusions are assented to as soon as their evidence is clearly apprehended1 and the tenacious hold they acquire over our belief when once admitted4 ,if the comparison of the apparent magnitude of the stars with their number leads to no immediately obvious conclusion1 it is otherwise when we view them in connection with their local distribution over the heavens4 ,if indeed we confine ourselves to the three or four brightest classes1 we shall find them distributed with a considerable approach to impartiality over the sphere2 a marked preference1 however1 being observable1 especially in the southern hemisphere1 to a zone or belt passing through epsilon ,orionis and alpha ,crucis4 ,but if we take in the whole amount visible to the naked eye we shall perceive a great increase of numbers as we approach the borders of the ,milky ,way4 ,and when we come to telescopic magnitudes we find them crowded beyond imagination along the extent of that circle and of the branches which it sends off from it2 so that1 in fact1 its whole light is composed of nothing but stars of every magnitude from such as are visible to the naked eye down to the smallest points of light perceptible with the best telescopes4 ,these phenomena agree with the supposition that the stars of our firmament1 instead of being scattered indifferently in all directions through space1 form a stratum of which the thickness is small in comparison with its length and breadth2 and in which the earth occupies a place somewhere about the middle of its thickness and near the point where it subdivides into two principal lamin inclined at a small angle to each other4 ,for it is certain that to an eye so situated the apparent density of the stars1 supposing them pretty equally scattered through the space they occupy1 would be least in the direction of the visual ray perpendicular to the lamina1 and greatest in that of its breadth2 increasing rapidly in passing from one to the other direction1 just as we see a slight haze in the atmosphere thickening into a decided fog-bank near the horizon by the rapid increase of the mere length of the visual ray4 ,such is the view of the construction of the starry firmament taken by ,sir ,william ,herschel1 whose powerful telescopes first effected a complete analysis of this wonderful zone1 and demonstrated the fact of its entirely consisting of stars4 ,so crowded are they in some parts of it that by counting the stars in a single field of his telescope he was led to conclude that #ej1jjj had passed under his review in a zone two degrees in breadth during a single hour's observation4 ,the immense distances at which the remoter regions must be situated will sufficiently account for the vast predominance of small magnitudes which are observed in it4 ,the process of gauging the heavens was devised by ,sir ,william ,herschel for this purpose4 ,it consisted simply in counting the stars of all magnitudes which occur in single fields of view1 of fifteen minutes in diameter1 visible through a reflecting telescope of #ah inches aperture1 and #bj feet focal length1 with a magnifying power of #ahj degrees1 the points of observation being very numerous and taken indiscriminately in every part of the surface of the sphere visible in our latitudes4 ,on a comparison of many hundred such gauges1 or local enumerations1 it appears that the density of starlight 7or the number of stars existing on an average of several such enumerations in any one immediate neighbourhood7 is least in the pole of the ,galactic circle i4e41 the great circle to which the course of the ,milky ,way most nearly conforms3 gala milk1 and increases on all sides down to the ,milky ,way itself1 where it attains its maximum4 ,the progressive rate of increase in proceeding from the pole is at first slow1 but becomes more and more rapid as we approach the plane of that circle1 according to a law from which it appears that the mean density of the stars in the galactic circle exceeds1 in a ratio of very nearly #cj to #a1 that in its pole1 and in a proportion of more than #d to #a that in a direction #ae degrees inclined to its plane4 ,as we ascend from the galactic plane we perceive that the density decreases with great rapidity4 ,so far we can perceive no flaw in this reasoning if only it be granted 7#a7 that the level planes are continuous and of equal density throughout2 and 7#b7 that an absolute and definite limit is set to telescopic vision1 beyond which1 if stars exist1 they elude our sight1 and are to us as if they existed not4 ,it would appear that1 with an almost exactly similar law of apparent density in the two hemispheres1 the southern were somewhat richer in stars than the northern1 which may arise from our situation not being precisely in the middle of its thickness1 but somewhat nearer to its northern surface4 ,,ii4--,penetrating ,infinite ,space ,when examined with powerful telescopes1 the constitution of this wonderful zone is found to be no less various than its aspect to the naked eye is irregular4 ,in some regions the stars of which it is composed are scattered with remarkable uniformity over immense tracts1 while in others the irregularity of their distribution is quite as striking1 exhibiting a rapid succession of closely clustering rich patches separated by comparatively poor intervals1 and indeed in some instances absolutely dark and completely void of any star even of the smallest telescopic magnitude4 ,in some places not more than #dj or #ej stars on an average occur in a gauge field of #ae minutes1 while in others a similar average gives a result of #djj or #ejj4 ,nor is less variety observable in the character of its different regions in respect of the magnitude of the stars they exhibit1 and the proportional numbers of the larger and smaller magnitudes associated together1 than in respect of their aggregate numbers4 ,in some1 for instance1 extremely minute stars1 though never altogether wanting1 occur in numbers so moderate as to lead us irresistibly to the conclusion that in these regions we are fairly through the starry stratum1 since it is impossible otherwise 7supposing their light not intercepted7 that the numbers of the smaller magnitudes should not go on increasing ad infinitum4 ,in such cases1 moreover1 the ground of the heavens1 as seen between the stars1 is for the most part perfectly dark1 which again would not be the case if innumerable multitudes of stars1 too minute to be individually discernible1 existed beyond4 ,in other regions we are presented with the phenomenon of an almost uniform degree of brightness of the individual stars1 accompanied with a very even distribution of them over the ground of the heavens1 both the larger and smaller magnitudes being strikingly deficient4 ,in such cases it is equally impossible not to perceive that we are looking through a sheet of stars nearly of a size and of no great thickness compared with the distance which separates them from us4 ,were it otherwise we should be driven to suppose the more distant stars were uniformly the larger1 so as to compensate by their intrinsic brightness for their greater distance1 a supposition contrary to all probability4 ,in others again1 and that not infrequently1 we are presented with a double phenomenon of the same kind--viz41 a tissue1 as it were1 of large stars spread over another of very small ones1 the intermediate magnitudes being wanting1 and the conclusion here seems equally evident that in such cases we look through two sidereal sheets separated by a starless interval4 ,throughout by far the larger portion of the extent of the ,milky ,way in both hemispheres the general blackness of the ground of the heavens on which its stars are projected1 and the absence of that innumerable multitude and excessive crowding of the smallest visible magnitudes1 and of glare produced by the aggregate light of multitudes too small to affect the eye singly1 which the contrary supposition would appear to necessitate1 must1 we think1 be considered unequivocal indications that its dimensions1 in directions where those conditions obtain1 are not only not infinite1 but that the space-penetrating power of our telescopes suffices fairly to pierce through and beyond it4 ,it is but right1 however1 to warn our readers that this conclusion has been controverted1 and that by an authority not lightly to be put aside1 on the ground of certain views taken by ,olbers as to a defect of perfect transparency in the celestial spaces1 in virtue of which the light of the more distant stars is enfeebled more than in proportion to their distance4 ,the extinction of light thus originating proceeding in geometrical ratio1 while the distance increases in arithmetical1 a limit1 it is argued1 is placed to the space-penetrating power of telescopes far within that which distance alone1 apart from such obscuration1 would assign4 ,it must suffice here to observe that the objection alluded to1 if applicable to any1 is equally so to every part of the galaxy4 ,we are not at liberty to argue that at one part of its circumference our view is limited by this sort of cosmical veil1 which extinguishes the smaller magnitudes1 cuts off the nebulous light of distant masses1 and closes our view in impenetrable darkness2 while at another we are compelled1 by the clearest evidence telescopes can afford1 to believe that star-strewn vistas lie open1 exhausting their powers and stretching out beyond their utmost reach1 as is proved by that very phenomenon which the existence of such a veil would render impossible--viz41 infinite increase of number and diminution of magnitude1 terminating in complete irresolvable nebulosity4 ,such is1 in effect1 the spectacle afforded by a very large portion of the ,milky ,way in that interesting region near its point of bifurcation in ,scorpio1 where1 through the hollows and deep recesses of its complicated structure1 we behold what has all the appearance of a wide and indefinitely prolonged area strewed over with discontinuous masses and clouds of stars1 which the telescope at last refuses to analyse4 ,whatever other conclusions we may draw1 this must anyhow be regarded as the direction of the greatest linear extension of the ground-plan of the galaxy4 ,and it would appear to follow also that in those regions where that zone is clearly resolved into stars well separated and seen projected on a black ground1 and where1 by consequence1 it is certain1 if the foregoing views be correct1 that we look out beyond them into space1 the smallest visible stars appear as such not by reason of excessive distance1 but of inferiority of size or brightness4 ,,iii4--,variable1 ,temporary and ,binary ,stars ,wherever we can trace the law of periodicity we are strongly impressed with the idea of rotatory or orbitual motion4 ,among the stars are several which1 though in no way distinguishable from others by any apparent change of place1 nor by any difference of appearance in telescopes1 yet undergo a more or less regular periodical increase and diminution of lustre1 involving in one or two cases a complete extinction and revival4 ,these are called periodic stars4 ,the longest known1 and one of the most remarkable1 is the star ,omicron in the constellation ,cetus 7sometimes called ,mira ,ceti71 which was first noticed as variable by ,fabricius in #aeif4 ,it appears about twelve times in eleven years1 remains at its greatest brightness about a fortnight1 being then on some occasions equal to a large star of the second magnitude1 decreases during about three months1 till it becomes completely invisible to the naked eye1 in which state it remains about five months1 and continues increasing during the remainder of its period4 ,such is the general course of its phases4 ,but the mean period above assigned would appear to be subject to a cyclical fluctuation embracing eighty-eight such periods1 and having the effect of gradually lengthening and shortening alternately those intervals to the extent of twenty-five days one way and the other4 ,the irregularities in the degree of brightness attained at the maximum are also periodical4 ,such irregularities prepare us for other phenomena of stellar variation which have hitherto been reduced to no law of periodicity--the phenomena of temporary stars which have appeared from time to time in different parts of the heavens blazing forth with extraordinary lustre1 and after remaining awhile1 apparently immovable1 have died away and left no trace4 ,in the years #ide1 #abfd1 and #aegb brilliant stars appeared in the region of the heavens between ,cepheus and ,cassiopeia2 and we may suspect them1 with ,goodricke1 to be one and the same star with a period of #cab1 or perhaps #aef years4 ,the appearance of the star of #aegb was so sudden that ,tycho ,brahe1 a celebrated ,dutch astronomer1 returning one evening from his laboratory to his dwellinghouse1 was surprised to find a group of country people gazing at a star which he was sure did not exist half an hour before4 ,this was the star in question4 ,it was then as bright as ,sirius1 and continued to increase till it surpassed ,jupiter when brightest1 and was visible at midday4 ,it began to diminish in ,december of the same year1 and in ,march #aegd had entirely disappeared4 ,in #ahjc it was announced by ,sir ,william ,herschel that there exist sidereal systems composed of two stars revolving about each other in regular orbits1 and constituting which may be called1 to distinguish them from double stars1 which are only optically double1 binary stars4 ,that which since then has been most assiduously watched1 and has offered phenomena of the greatest interest1 is gamma ,virginis4 ,it is a star of the vulgar third magnitude1 and its component individuals are very nearly equal1 and1 as it would seem1 in some slight degree variable4 ,it has been known to consist of two stars since the beginning of the eighteenth century1 the distance being then between six and seven seconds1 so that any tolerably good telescope would resolve it4 ,when observed by ,herschel in #aghj it was #e4ff seconds1 and continued to decrease gradually and regularly1 till at length1 in #ahcf1 the two stars had approached so closely as to appear perfectly round and single under the highest magnifying power which could be applied to most excellent instruments--the great refractor of ,pulkowa alone1 with a magnifying power of a thousand1 continuing to indicate1 by the wedge-shaped form of the disc of the star1 its composite nature4 ,by estimating the ratio of its length to its breadth1 and measuring the former1 ,m4 ,struve concludes that at this epoch the distance of the two stars1 centre from centre1 might be stated at 4#bb seconds4 ,from that time the star again opened1 and is now again a perfectly easily separable star4 ,this very remarkable diminution1 and subsequent increase1 of distance has been accompanied by a corresponding and equally remarkable increase and subsequent diminution of relative angular motion4 ,thus in #aghc the apparent angular motion hardly amounted to half a degree per annum2 while in #ahcj it had decreased to #e degrees1 in #ahcd to #bj degrees1 in #ahce to #dj degrees1 and about the middle of #ahcf to upwards of #gj degrees per annum1 or at the rate of a degree in five days4 ,this is in entire conformity with the principles of dynamics1 which establish a necessary connection between the angular velocity and the distance1 as well in the apparent as in the real orbit of one body revolving about another under the influence of mutual attraction2 the former varying inversely as the square of the latter1 in both orbits1 whatever be the curve described and whatever the law of the attractive force4 ,it is not with the revolutions of bodies of a planetary or cometary nature round a solar centre that we are concerned2 it is that of sun round sun--each perhaps1 at least in some binary systems1 where the individuals are very remote and their period of revolution very long1 accompanied by its train of planets and their satellites1 closely shrouded from our view by the splendour of their respective suns1 and crowded into a space bearing hardly a greater proportion to the enormous interval which separates them than the distances of the satellites of our planets from their primaries bear to their distances from the sun itself4 ,a less distinctly characterised subordination would be incompatible with the stability of their systems and with the planetary nature of their orbits4 ,unless close under the protecting wing of their immediate superior1 the sweep of their other sun1 in its perihelion passage round their own1 might carry them off or whirl them into orbits utterly incompatible with conditions necessary for the existence of their inhabitants4 ,,iv4--,the ,nebul ,it is to ,sir ,william ,herschel that we owe the most complete analysis of the great variety of those objects which are generally classed as nebul4 ,the great power of his telescopes disclosed the existence of an immense number of these objects before unknown1 and showed them to be distributed over the heavens not by any means uniformly1 but with a marked preference to a certain district extending over the northern pole of the galactic circle4 ,in this region1 occupying about one-eighth of the surface of the sphere1 one-third of the entire nebulous contents of the heavens are situated4 ,the resolvable nebul can1 of course1 only be considered as clusters either too remote1 or consisting of stars intrinsically too faint1 to affect us by their individual light1 unless where two or three happen to be close enough to make a joint impression and give the idea of a point brighter than the rest4 ,they are almost universally round or oval1 their loose appendages and irregularities of form being1 as it were1 extinguished by the distance1 and only the general figure of the condensed parts being discernible4 ,it is under the appearance of objects of this character that all the greater globular clusters exhibit themselves in telescopes of insufficient optical power to show them well4 ,the first impression which ,halley and other early discoverers of nebulous objects received from their peculiar aspect was that of a phosphorescent vapour 7like the matter of a comet's tail71 or a gaseous and1 so to speak1 elementary form of luminous sidereal matter4 ,admitting the existence of such a medium1 ,sir ,w4 ,herschel was led to speculate on its gradual subsidence and condensation1 by the effect of its own gravity1 into more or less regular spherical or spheroidal forms1 denser 7as they must in that case be7 towards the centre4 ,assuming that in the progress of this subsidence local centres of condensation subordinate to the general tendency would not be wanting1 he conceived that in this way solid nuclei might arise whose local gravitation still further condensing1 and so absorbing the nebulous matter each in its immediate neighbourhood1 might ultimately become stars1 and the whole nebula finally take on the state of a cluster of stars4 ,among the multitude of nebul revealed by his telescope every stage of this process might be considered as displayed to our eyes1 and in every modification of form to which the general principle might be conceived to apply4 ,the more or less advanced state of a nebula towards its segregation into discrete stars1 and of these stars themselves towards a denser state of aggregation round a central nucleus1 would thus be in some sort an indication of age4 ,,alexander ,,von ,,humboldt ,cosmos1 a ,sketch of the ,universe ,frederick ,henry ,alexander von ,humboldt was born in ,berlin on ,september #ad1 #agfi4 ,in #aghh he made the acquaintance of ,george ,forster1 one of ,captain ,cook's companions1 and geological excursions made with him were the occasion of his first publications1 a book on the nature of basalt4 ,his work in the administration of mines in the principalities of ,bayreuth and ,anspach furnished materials for a treatise on fossil flora2 and in #ahbg1 when he was residing in ,paris1 he gave to the world his ,voyage to the ,equinoctial ,regions of the ,new ,continent1 which embodies the results of his investigations in ,south ,america4 ,two years later he organised an expedition to ,asiatic ,russia1 charging himself with all the scientific observations4 ,but his principal interest lay in the accomplishment of that physical description of the universe for which all his previous studies had been a preparation1 and which during the years #ahde to #ahdh appeared under the comprehensive title of ,cosmos1 or ,sketch of a ,physical ,description of the ,universe4 ,humboldt died on ,may #f1 #ahei4 ,i4--,the ,physical ,study of the ,world ,the natural world may be opposed to the intellectual1 or nature to art taking the latter term in its higher sense as embracing the manifestations of the intellectual power of man2 but these distinctions--which are indicated in most cultivated languages--must not be suffered to lead to such a separation of the domain of physics from that of the intellect as would reduce the physics of the universe to a mere assemblage of empirical specialities4 ,science only begins for man from the moment when his mind lays hold of matter--when he tries to subject the mass accumulated by experience to rational combinations4 ,science is mind applied to nature4 ,the external world only exists for us so far as we conceive it within ourselves1 and as it shapes itself within us into the form of a contemplation of nature4 ,as intelligence and language1 thought and the signs of thought1 are united by secret and indissoluble links1 so1 and almost without our being conscious of it1 the external world and our ideas and feelings melt into each other4 ,external phenomena are translated1 as ,hegel expresses it in his ,philosophy of ,history1 in our internal representation of them4 ,the objective world1 thought by us1 reflected in us1 is subjected to the unchanging1 necessary1 and all-conditioning forms of our intellectual being4 ,the activity of the mind exerts itself on the elements furnished to it by the perceptions of the senses4 ,thus1 in the youth of nations there manifests itself in the simplest intuition of natural facts1 in the first efforts made to comprehend them1 the germ of the philosophy of nature4 ,if the study of physical phenomena be regarded in its bearings not on the material wants of man1 but on his general intellectual progress1 its highest result is found in the knowledge of those mutual relations which link together the general forces of nature4 ,it is the intuitive and intimate persuasion of the existence of these relations which at once enlarges and elevates our views and enhances our enjoyment4 ,such extended views are the growth of observation1 of meditation1 and of the spirit of the age1 which is ever reflected in the operations of the human mind whatever may be their direction4 ,from the time when man1 in interrogating nature1 began to experiment or to produce phenomena under definite conditions1 and to collect and record the fruits of his experience--so that investigation might no longer be restricted by the short limits of a single life--the philosophy of nature laid aside the vague and poetic forms with which she had at first been clothed1 and has adopted a more severe character4 ,the history of science teaches us how inexact and incomplete observations have led1 through false inductions1 to that great number of erroneous physical views which have been perpetuated as popular prejudices among all classes of society4 ,thus1 side by side with a solid and scientific knowledge of phenomena1 there has been preserved a system of pretended results of observation1 the more difficult to shake because it takes no account of any of the facts by which it is overturned4 ,this empiricism--melancholy inheritance of earlier times--invariably maintains whatever axioms it has laid down2 it is arrogant1 as is everything that is narrow-minded2 while true physical philosophy1 founded on science1 doubts because it seeks to investigate thoroughly--distinguishes between that which is certain and that which is simply probable--and labours incessantly to bring its theories nearer to perfection by extending the circle of observation4 ,this assemblage of incomplete dogmas bequeathed from one century to another1 this system of physics made up of popular prejudices1 is not only injurious because it perpetuates error with all the obstinacy of ill-observed facts1 but also because it hinders the understanding from rising to the level of great views of nature4 ,instead of seeking to discover the mean state around which1 in the midst of apparent independence and irregularity1 the phenomena really and invariably oscillate1 this false science delights in multiplying apparent exceptions to the dominion of fixed laws1 and seeks1 in organic forms and the phenomena of nature1 other marvels than those presented by internal progressive development1 and by regular order and succession4 ,ever disinclined to recognise in the present the analogy of the past1 it is always disposed to believe the order of nature suspended by perturbations1 of which it places the seat1 as if by chance1 sometimes in the interior of the earth1 sometimes in the remote regions of space4 ,,ii4--,the ,inductive ,method ,the generalisation of laws which were first applied to smaller groups of phenomena advances by successive gradations1 and their empire is extended1 and their evidence strengthened1 so long as the reasoning process is directed to really analogous phenomena4 ,empirical investigation begins by single perceptions1 which are afterwards classed according to their analogy or dissimilarity4 ,observation is succeeded at a much later epoch by experiment1 in which phenomena are made to arise under conditions previously determined on by the experimentalist1 guided by preliminary hypotheses1 or a more or less just intuition of the connection of natural objects and forces4 ,the results obtained by observation and experiment lead by the path of induction and analogy to the discovery of empirical laws1 and these successive phases in the application of human intellect have marked different epochs in the life of nations4 ,it has been by adhering closely to this inductive path that the great mass of facts has been accumulated which now forms the solid foundation of the natural sciences4 ,two forms of abstraction govern the whole of this class of knowledge--viz41 the determination of quantitative relations1 according to number and magnitude2 and relations of quality1 embracing the specific properties of heterogeneous matter4 ,the first of these forms1 more accessible to the exercise of thought1 belongs to the domain of mathematics2 the other1 more difficult to seize1 and apparently more mysterious1 to that of chemistry4 ,in order to submit phenomena to calculation1 recourse is had to a hypothetical construction of matter by a combination of molecules and atoms whose number1 form1 position1 and polarity determine1 modify1 and vary the phenomena4 ,we are yet very far from the time when a reasonable hope could be entertained of reducing all that is perceived by our senses to the unity of a single principle2 but the partial solution of the problem--the tendency towards a general comprehension of the phenomena of the universe--does not the less continue to be the high and enduring aim of all natural investigation4 ,,iii4--,distribution of ,matter in ,space ,a physical cosmography1 or picture of the universe1 should begin1 not with the earth1 but with the regions of space--the distribution of matter in the universe4 ,we see matter existing in space partly in the form of rotating and revolving spheroids1 differing greatly in density and magnitude1 and partly in the form of self-luminous vapour dispersed in shining nebulous spots or patches4 ,the nebul present themselves to the eye in the form of round1 or nebulous discs1 of small apparent magnitude1 either single or in pairs1 which are sometimes connected by a thread of light2 when their diameters are greater their forms vary--some are elongated1 others have several branches1 some are fan-shaped1 some annular1 the ring being well defined and the interior dark4 ,they are supposed to be undergoing various and progressive changes of form1 as condensation proceeds around one or more nuclei in conformity with the laws of gravitation4 ,between two and three thousand of such unresolvable nebul have already been counted1 and their positions determined4 ,if we leave the consideration of the attenuated vaporous matter of the immeasurable regions of space1 whether existing in a dispersed state as a cosmical ether without form or limits1 or in the shape of nebul1 and pass to those portions of the universe which are condensed into solid spheres or spheroids1 we approach a class of phenomena exclusively designated as stars or as the sidereal universe4 ,here1 too1 we find different degrees of solidity or density in the agglomerated matter4 ,if we compare the regions of space to one of the island-studded seas of our planet1 we may imagine we see matter distributed in groups1 whether of unresolvable nebul of different ages condensed around one or more nuclei1 or in clusters of stars1 or in stars scattered singly4 ,our cluster of stars1 or the island in space to which we belong1 forms a lens-shaped1 flattened1 and everywhere detached stratum1 whose major axis is estimated at seven or eight hundred1 and its minor axis at a hundred and fifty times1 the distance of ,sirius4 ,if we assume that the parallax of ,sirius does not exceed that accurately determined for the brightest stars in ,centaur 7#j4iabh sec471 it will follow that light traverses one distance of ,sirius in three years1 while nine years and a quarter are required for the transmission of the light of the star #fa ,cygni1 whose considerable proper motion might lead to the inference of great proximity4 ,our cluster of stars is a disc of comparatively small thickness divided1 at about a third its length1 into two branches2 we are supposed to be near this division1 and nearer to the region of ,sirius than to that of the constellation of the ,eagle2 almost in the middle of the starry stratum in the direction of its thickness4 ,the place of our solar system and the form of the whole lens are inferred from a kind of scale--i4e41 from the different number of stars seen in equal telescopic fields of view4 ,the greater or less number of stars measures the relative depth of the stratum in different directions2 giving in each case1 like the marks on a sounding-line1 the comparative length of visual ray required to reach the bottom2 or1 more properly1 as above and below do not here apply1 the outer limit of the sidereal stratum4 ,in the direction of the major axis1 where the greater number of stars are placed behind each other1 the remoter ones appear closely crowded together1 and1 as it were1 united by a milky radiance1 and present a zone or belt projected on the visible celestial vault4 ,this narrow belt is divided into branches2 and its beautiful1 but not uniform brightness1 is interrupted by some dark places4 ,as seen by us on the apparent concave celestial sphere1 it deviates only a few degrees from a great circle1 we being near the middle of the entire starry cluster1 and almost in the plane of the ,milky ,way4 ,if out planetary system were far outside the cluster1 the ,milky ,way would appear to telescopic vision as a ring1 and at a still greater distance as a resolvable disc-shaped nebula4 ,,iv4--,on ,earth ,history ,the succession and relative age of different geological formations are traced partly by the order of superposition of sedimentary strata1 of metamorphic beds1 and of conglomerates1 but most securely by the presence of organic remains and their diversities of structure4 ,in the fossiliferous strata are inhumed the remains of the floras and faunas of past ages4 ,as we descend from stratum to stratum to study the relations of superposition1 we ascend in the order of time1 and new worlds of animal and vegetable existence present themselves to the view4 ,in our ignorance of the laws under which new organic forms appear from time to time upon the surface of the globe1 we employ the expression new creations when we desire to refer to the historical phenomena of the variations which have taken place at intervals in the animals and plants that have inhabited the basins of the primitive seas and the uplifted continents4 ,it has sometimes happened that extinct species have been preserved entire1 even to the minutest details of their tissues and articulations4 ,in the lower beds of the ,secondary ,period1 the lias of ,lyme ,regis1 a sepia has been found so wonderfully preserved that a part of the black fluid with which the animal was provided myriads of years ago to conceal itself from its enemies has actually served at the present time to draw its picture4 ,in other cases such traces alone remain as the impression which the feet of animals have left on wet sand or mud over which they passed when alive1 or the remains of their undigested food 7coprolites74 ,the analytical study of the animal and vegetable kingdoms of the primitive world has given rise to two distinct branches of science2 one purely morphological1 which occupies itself in natural and physiological descriptions1 and in the endeavour to fill up from extinct forms the chasms which present themselves in the series of existing species2 the other branch1 more especially geological considers the relations of the fossil remains to the superposition and relative age of the sedimentary beds in which they are found4 ,the first long predominated2 and the superficial manner which then prevailed of comparing fossil and existing species led to errors of which traces still remain in the strange denominations which were given to certain natural objects4 ,writers attempted to identify all extinct forms with living species1 as1 in the sixteenth century1 the animals of the ,new ,world were confounded by false analogies with those of the ,old4 ,in studying the relative age of fossils by the order of superposition of the strata in which they are found1 important relations have been discovered between families and species 7the latter always few in numbers7 which have disappeared and those which are still living4 ,all observations concur in showing that the fossil floras and faunas differ from the present animal and vegetable forms the more widely in proportion as the sedimentary beds to which they belong are lower1 or more ancient4 ,thus great variations have successively taken place in the general types of organic life1 and these grand phenomena1 which were first pointed out by ,cuvier1 offer numerical relations which ,deshayes and ,lyell have made the object of researches by which they have been conducted to important results1 especially as regards the numerous and well-preserved fossils of the ,tertiary formation4 ,agassiz1 who has examined #a1gjj species of fossil fishes1 and who estimates at #h1jjj the number of living species which have been described1 or which are preserved in our collections1 affirms that1 with the exception of one small fossil fish peculiar to the argillaceous geodes of ,greenland1 he has never met in the ,transition1 ,secondary1 or ,tertiary strata with any example of this class specifically identical with any living fish2 and he adds the important remark that even in the lower ,tertiary formations a third of the fossil fishes of the calcaire grossier and of the ,london clay belong to extinct families4 ,we have seen that fishes1 which are the oldest vertebrates1 first appear in the ,silurian strata1 and are found in all the succeeding formations up to the birds of the ,tertiary ,period4 ,reptiles begin in like manner in the magnesian limestone1 and if we now add that the first mammalia are met with in ,oolite1 the ,stonefield slate2 and that the first remains of birds have been found in the deposits of the cretaceous period1 we shall have indicated the inferior limits1 according to our present knowledge1 of the four great divisions of the vertebrates4 ,in regard to invertebrate animals1 we find corals and some shells associated in the oldest formations with very highly organised cephalopodes and crustaceans1 so that widely different orders of this part of the animal kingdom appear intermingled2 there are1 nevertheless1 many isolated groups belonging to the same order in which determinate laws are discoverable4 ,whole mountains are sometimes found to consist of a single species of fossil goniatites1 trilobites1 or nummulites4 ,where different genera are intermingled1 there often exists a systematic relation between the series of organic forms and the superposition of the formations2 and it has been remarked that the association of certain families and species follows a regular law in the superimposed strata of which the whole constitutes one formation4 ,it has been found that the waters in the most distant parts of the globe were inhabited at the same epochs by testaceous animals corresponding1 at least in generic character1 with ,european fossils4 ,strata defined by their fossil contents1 or by the fragments of other rocks which they include1 form a geological horizon by which the geologist may recognise his position1 and obtain safe conclusions in regard to the identity or relative antiquity of formations1 the periodical repetition of certain strata--their parallelism--or their entire suppression4 ,if we would thus comprehend in its greatest simplicity the general type of the sedentary formations1 we find in proceeding successively from below upwards3 7#a7 ,the ,transition group1 including the ,silurian and ,devonian 7,old ,red ,sandstone7 systems2 7#b7 the ,lower ,trias1 comprising mountain limestone1 the coal measures1 the lower new red sandstone1 and the magnesian limestone2 7#c7 the ,upper ,trias1 composing the bunter1 or variegated sandstone1 the muschelkalk1 and the ,keuper sandstone2 7#d7 the ,oolitic1 or ,jurassic series1 including ,lias2 7#e7 the ,cretaceous series2 7#f7 the ,tertiary group1 as represented in its three stages by the calcaire grossier and other beds of the ,paris basin1 the lignites1 or brown coal of ,germany1 and the sub-,apennine group of ,italy4 ,to these succeed transported soils 7alluvium71 containing the gigantic bones of ancient mammalia1 such as the mastodons1 the dinotherium1 and the megatheroid animals1 among which is the mylodon of ,owen1 an animal upwards of eleven feet in length1 allied to the sloth4 ,associated with these extinct species are found the fossil remains of animals still living3 elephants1 rhinoceroses1 oxen1 horses1 and deer4 ,near ,bogota1 at an elevation of #h1bjj ,french feet above the level of the sea1 there is a field filled with the bones of mastodon 7,campo de ,gigantes71 in which ,i have had careful excavations made4 ,the bones found on the table-lands of ,mexico belong to the true elephants of extinct species4 ,the minor range of the ,himalaya1 the ,sewalik hills1 contain1 besides numerous mastodons1 the sivatherium and the gigantic land-tortoise 7,colossochelys71 more than twelve feet in length and six in height1 as well as remains belonging to still existing species of elephants1 rhinoceroses1 and giraffes4 ,it is worthy of notice that these fossils are found in a zone which enjoys the tropical climate supposed to have prevailed at the period of the mastodons4 ,v4--,the ,permanence of ,science ,it has sometimes been regarded as a discouraging consideration that1 while works of literature being fast-rooted in the depths of human feeling1 imagination and reason suffer little from the lapse of time1 it is otherwise with works which treat of subjects dependent on the progress of experimental knowledge4 ,the improvement of instruments1 and the continued enlargement of the field of observation1 render investigations into natural phenomena and physical laws liable to become antiquated1 to lose their interest1 and to cease to be read4 ,let none who are deeply penetrated with a true and genuine love of nature1 and with a lively appreciation of the true charm and dignity of the study of her laws1 ever view with discouragement or regret that which is connected with the enlargement of the boundaries of our knowledge4 ,many and important portions of this knowledge1 both as regards the phenomena of the celestial spaces and those belonging to our own planet1 are already based on foundations too firm to be lightly shaken2 although in other portions general laws will doubtless take the place of those which are more limited in their application1 new forces will be discovered1 and substances considered as simple will be decomposed1 while others will become known4 ,,james ,,hutton ,the ,theory of the ,earth ,james ,hutton1 the notable ,scotch geologist1 was born at ,edinburgh on ,june #c1 #agbf4 ,in #agdc he was apprenticed to a ,writer to the ,signet2 but his apprenticeship was of short duration and in the following year he began to study medicine at ,edinburgh ,university1 and in #agdi graduated as an ,m4,d4 ,later he determined to study agriculture1 and went1 in #ageb1 to live with a ,norfolk farmer to learn practical farming4 ,he did not devote himself entirely to agriculture1 but gave a considerable amount of his time to chemical and geological researches4 ,his geological researches culminated in his great work1 ,the ,theory of the ,earth1 published at ,edinburgh in #agie4 ,in this work he propounds the theory that the present continents have been formed at the bottom of the sea by the precipitation of the detritus of former continents1 and that the precipitate had been hardened by heat and elevated above the sea by the expansive power of heat4 ,he died on ,march #bf1 #agig4 ,other works are his ,theory of ,rain1 ,elements of ,agriculture1 ,natural ,philosophy1 and ,nature of ,coal4 ,i4--,origin and ,consolidation of the ,land ,the solid surface of the earth is mainly composed of gravel1 of calcareous1 and argillaceous strata4 ,sand is separated by streams and currents1 gravel is formed by the attrition of stones agitated in water1 and argillaceous strata are deposited by water containing argillaceous material4 ,accordingly1 the solid earth would seem to have been mainly produced by water1 wind1 and tides1 and this theory is confirmed by the discovery that all the masses of marble and limestone are composed of the calcareous matter of marine bodies4 ,all these materials were1 in the first place1 deposited at the bottom of the sea1 and we have to consider1 firstly1 how they were consolidated2 and secondly1 how they came to be dry land1 elevated above the sea4 ,it is plain that consolidation may have been effected either through the concretion of substances dissolved in water or through fusion by fire4 ,consolidation through the concretion of substances dissolved in the sea is unlikely1 for1 in the first place1 there are strata1 such as siliceous matter1 which are insoluble1 and which could not therefore have been in solution2 and1 in the second place1 the appearance of the strata is contrary to this supposition4 ,consolidation was probably effected by heat and fusion4 ,all the substances in the earth may be rendered fluid by heat1 and all the appearances in the earth's crust are consistent with the consolidation and crystallisation of fused substances4 ,not only so1 but we find rents and separations and veins in the strata1 such as would naturally occur in strata consolidated by the cooling of fused masses1 and other phenomena pointing to fusion by heat4 ,we may conclude1 then1 that all the solid strata of the globe have been hardened from a state of fusion4 ,but how were these strata raised up from the bottom of the sea and transformed into dry land8 ,even as heat was the consolidating power1 so heat was also probably the elevating power4 ,the power of heat for the expansion of bodies is1 as we know1 unlimited1 and the expansive power of heat was certainly competent to raise the strata above the sea4 ,heat was certainly competent1 and if we examine the crust of the earth we find evidence that heat was used4 ,if the strata cemented by the heat of fusion were created by the expansive power of heat acting from below1 we should expect to find every species of fracture1 dislocation1 and contortion in those bodies1 and every degree of departure from a horizontal towards a vertical position4 ,and this is just what we do find4 ,from horizontal1 the strata are frequently found vertical2 from continuous1 broken1 and separated in every possible direction2 and from a plane1 bent and doubled4 ,the theory is confirmed by an examination of the veins and fissures of the earth which contain matter foreign to the strata they traverse1 and evidently forced into them as a fluid under great pressure4 ,active volcanoes1 and extinct volcanoes1 and the marks everywhere of volcanic action likewise support the theory of expansion and elevation by heat4 ,a volcano is not made on purpose to frighten superstitious people into fits of piety and devotion2 it is to be considered as a spiracle of a subterranean furnace4 ,such being the manner of the formation of the crust of the world1 can we form any judgment of its duration and durability8 ,if we could measure the rate of the attrition of the present continents1 we might estimate the duration of the older continents whose attrition supplied the material for the present dry land4 ,but as we cannot measure the wearing-away of the land1 we can merely state generally1 first1 that the present dry land required an indefinitely long period for its formation2 second1 that the previous dry land which supplied material for its formation required equal time to make2 third1 that there is at present land forming at the bottom of the sea which in time will appear above the surface2 fourth1 that we find no vestige of a beginning1 or of an end4 ,granite has in its own nature no claim to originality1 for it is found to vary greatly in its composition4 ,but1 further1 it is certain that granite1 or a species of the same kind of stone1 is found stratified4 ,it is the granit feuillete of ,m4 de ,sauffure1 and1 if ,i mistake not1 is called gneiss by the ,germans4 ,granite being thus found stratified1 the masses of this stone cannot be allowed to any right of priority over the schistus1 its companion in ,alpine countries4 ,lack of stratification1 then1 cannot be considered a proof of primitive rock4 ,nor can lack of organized bodies1 such as shells1 in these rocks1 be considered a proof2 for the traces of organized bodies may be obliterated by the many subsequent operations of the mineral region4 ,in any case1 signs of organized bodies are sometimes found in primitive mountains4 ,nor can metallic veins1 found plentifully in primitive mountains1 prove anything1 for mineral veins are found in various strata4 ,we maintain that all the land was produced from fused substances elevated from the bottom of the sea4 ,but we do not hold that all parts of the earth have undergone exactly similar and simultaneous vicissitudes2 and in respect to the changes which various parts of the land have undergone we may distinguish between primary and secondary strata4 ,nothing is more certain than that there have been several repeated operations of the mineralising power exerted upon the strata in particular places1 and all those mineral operations tend to consolidation4 ,it is quite possible that primitive masses which differ from the ordinary strata of the globe have been twice subjected to mineral operations1 having been first consolidated and raised as land1 and then submerged in order to be again fused and elevated4 ,,ii4--,the ,nature of ,mineral ,coal ,mineral1 or fossil1 coal is a species of stratum distinguished by its inflammable and combustible nature4 ,we find that it differs in respect to its purity1 and also in respect to its inflammability4 ,as is well known1 some coals have almost no earthy ash1 some a great deal2 and1 again1 some coals burn with much smoke and fire1 while others burn like coke4 ,where1 then1 did coal come from1 and how can we account for its different species8 ,a substance proper for the formation of coaly matter is found in vegetable bodies4 ,but how did it become mixed with earthy matter8 ,vegetable bodies may be resolved into bituminous or coaly matter either by means of fire or by means of water4 ,both may be used by nature in the formation of coal4 ,by the force of subterranean heat vegetable matter may have been charred at the bottom of the sea1 and the oleaginous1 bituminous1 and fuliginous substances diffused through the sea as a result of the burning may have been deposited at the bottom of the sea as coal4 ,further1 the bituminous matter from the smoke of vegetable substances burned on land would ultimately be deposited from the atmosphere and settle at the bottom of the sea4 ,many of the rivers contain in solution an immense quantity of inflammable vegetable substance1 and this is carried into the sea1 and precipitated there4 ,from these two sources1 then1 the sea gets bituminous material1 and this material1 condensed and consolidated by compression and by heat1 at the bottom of the sea1 would form a black body of a most uniform structure1 breaking with a polished surface1 and burning with more or less smoke or flame in proportion as it be distilled less or more by subterranean heat4 ,and such a body exactly represents our purest fossil coal1 which gives the most heat and leaves the least ash4 ,in some cases the bituminous material in suspension in the sea would be mixed more or less with argillaceous1 calcareous1 and other earthy substances2 and these being precipitated along with the bituminous matter would form layers of impure coal with a considerable amount of ash4 ,but there is still a third source of coal4 ,vegetable bodies macerated in water1 and consolidated by compression1 form a body almost indistinguishable from some species of coal1 as is seen in peat compressed under a great load of earth2 and there can be no doubt that coal sometimes originates in this way1 for much fossil coal shows abundance of vegetable bodies in its composition4 ,there remains only to consider the change in the disposition of coal strata4 ,coal strata1 which had been originally in a horizontal position1 are now found sometimes standing erect1 even perpendicular4 ,this1 also1 is consistent with our theory of the earth4 ,indeed1 there is not a substance in the mineral kingdom in which the action of subterranean heat is better shown4 ,these strata are evidently a deposit of inflammable substances which all come originally from vegetable bodies4 ,in this stage of their formation they must all contain volatile oleaginous constituents4 ,but some coal strata contain no volatile constituents1 and the disappearance of the volatile oleaginous substances must have been produced by distillation1 proceeding perhaps under the restraining force of immense compression4 ,we cannot doubt that such distillation does take place in the mineral regions1 when we consider that in most places of the earth we find the evident effects of such distillation in the naphtha and petroleum that are constantly emitted along with water in certain springs4 ,we have1 therefore1 sufficient proof of this operation of distillation4 ,,iii4--,the ,disintegration and ,dissolution of ,land ,whether we examine the mountain or the plain1 whether we consider the disintegration of the rocks or the softer strata of the earth1 whether we regard the shores of seas or the central plains of continents1 whether we contemplate fertile lands or deserts1 we find evidence of a general dissolution and decay of the solid surface of the globe4 ,every great river and deep valley gives evidence of the attrition of the land4 ,the purpose of the dry land is to sustain a system of plants and animals2 and for this purpose a soil is required1 and to make a soil the solid strata must be crumbled down4 ,the earth is nothing more than an indefinite number of soils and situations suitable for various animals and plants1 and it must consist of both solid rock and tender earth1 of both moist and dry districts2 for all these are requisite for the world we inhabit4 ,but not only is the solid rock crumbling into soil by the action of air and water1 but the soil gradually progresses towards the sea1 and sooner or later the sea must swallow up the land4 ,vegetation and masses of solid rock retard the seaward flow of the soil2 but they merely retard1 they cannot wholly prevent4 ,in proportion as the mountains are diminished1 the haugh1 or plain1 between them grows more wide1 and also on a lower level2 but while there is a river running on a plain1 and floods produced in the seasons of rain1 there is nothing stable in the constitution of the surface of the land4 ,the theory of the earth which ,i propound is founded upon the great catastrophes that can happen to the earth4 ,it supposes strata raised from the bottom of the sea and elevated into mountainous continents4 ,but1 between the catastrophes1 it requires nothing further than the ordinary everyday effects of air and water4 ,every shower of rain1 every stream1 participates in the dissolution of the land1 and helps to transport to the sea the material for future continents4 ,the prodigious waste of the land we see in places has seemed to some to require some other explanation2 but ,i maintain that the natural operations of air and water would suffice in time to produce the effects observed4 ,it is true that the wastage would be slow2 but slow destruction of rock with gradual formation of soil is just what is required in the economy of nature4 ,a world sustaining plants and animals requires continents which endure for more than a day4 ,if this continent of land1 first collected in the sea1 is to remain a habitable earth1 and to resist the moving waters of the globe1 certain degrees of solidity or consolidation must be given to that collection of loose materials2 and certain degrees of hardness must be given to bodies which are soft and incoherent1 and consequently so extremely perishable in the situation in which they are now placed4 ,but1 at the same time that this earth must have solidity and hardness to resist the sudden changes which its moving fluids would occasion1 it must be made subject to decay and waste upon the surface exposed to the atmosphere2 for such an earth as were made incapable of change1 or not subject to decay1 would not afford that fertile soil which is required in the system of this world--a soil on which depends the growth of plants and life of animals--the end of its intention4 ,now1 we find this earth endued precisely with such degree of hardness and consolidation as qualifies it at the same time to be a fruitful earth1 and to maintain its station with all the permanency compatible with the nature of things1 which are not formed to remain unchangeable4 ,thus we have a view of the most perfect wisdom in the contrivance of that constitution by which the earth is made to answer1 in the best manner possible1 the purpose of its intention1 that is1 to maintain and perpetuate a system of vegetation1 or the various races of useful plants1 or a system of living animals1 which are in their turn subservient to a system still infinitely more important--,i mean a system of intellect4 ,without fertility in the earth1 many races of plants and animals would soon perish1 or be extinct2 and with permanency in our land it were impossible for the various tribes of plants and animals to be dispersed over the surface of a changing earth4 ,the fact is that fertility1 adequate to the various ends in view1 is found in all the quarters of the world1 or in every country of the earth2 and the permanency of our land is such as to make it appear unalterable to mankind in general and even to impose upon men of science1 who have endeavoured to persuade us that this earth is not to change4 ,nothing but supreme power and wisdom could have reconciled those two opposite ends of intention1 so as both to be equally pursued in the system of nature1 and so equally attained as to be imperceptible to common observation1 and at the same time a proper object of the human understanding4 ,,lamarck ,zoological ,philosophy ,jean ,baptiste de ,monet1 ,chevalier de ,lamarck1 was born in ,picardy1 ,france1 ,aug4 ,i1 #agdd1 the cadet of an ancient but impoverished house4 ,it was his father's desire that he should enter the ,church1 but his inclination was for a military life2 and having1 at the age of seventeen1 joined the ,french army under ,de ,broglie1 he had within twenty-four hours the good fortune so to distinguish himself as to win his commission4 ,when the ,museum of ,natural ,history was brought into existence in #agid he was sufficiently well-known as a naturalist to be entrusted with the care of the collections of invertebrates1 comprising insects1 molluscs1 polyps1 and worms4 ,here he continued to lecture until his death in #ahbi4 ,haeckel1 classifying him in the front rank with ,goethe and ,darwin1 attributes to him the imperishable glory of having been the first to raise the theory of descent to the rank of an independent scientific theory4 ,the form of his theory was announced in #ahja1 but was not given in detail to the world until #ahji1 by the publication of his ,zoological ,philosophy 7,philosophie ,zoologique74 ,the ,lamarckian theory of the hereditary transmission of characters acquired by use1 disuse1 etc41 has still a following1 though it is controverted by the schools of ,darwin and ,weissmann4 ,lamarck died on ,december #ah1 #ahbi4 ,i4--,the ,ladder of ,life ,if we look backwards down the ladder of animal forms we find a progressive degradation in the organisation of the creatures comprised2 the organisation of their bodies becomes simpler1 the number of their faculties less4 ,this well-recognised fact throws a light upon the order in which nature has produced the animals2 but it leaves unexplained the fact that this gradation1 though sustained1 is irregular4 ,the reason will become clear if we consider the effects produced by the infinite diversity of conditions in different parts of the globe upon the general form1 the limbs1 and the very organisation of the animals in question4 ,it will1 in fact1 be evident that the state in which we find all animals is the product1 on the one hand1 of the growing composition of the organisation which tends to form a regular gradation2 and that1 for the rest1 it results from a multitude of circumstances which tend continually to destroy the regularity of the gradation in the increasingly composite nature of the organism4 ,not that circumstances can effect any modification directly4 ,but changed circumstances produce changed wants1 changed wants changed actions4 ,if the new wants become constant the animals acquire new habits1 which are no less constant than the wants which gave rise to them4 ,and such new habits will necessitate the use of one member rather than another1 or even the cessation of the use of a member which has lost its utility4 ,we will look at some familiar examples of either case4 ,among vegetables1 which have no actions1 and therefore no habits properly so called1 great differences in the development of the parts do none the less arise as a consequence of changed circumstances2 and these differences cause the development of certain of them1 while they attenuate others and cause them to disappear4 ,but all this is caused by changes in the nutrition of the plant1 in its absorptions and transpirations1 in the quantity of heat and light1 of air and moisture1 which it habitually receives2 and1 lastly1 by the superiority which certain of its vital movements may assert over the others4 ,there may arise between individuals of the same species1 of which some are placed in favourable1 others amid unfavourable1 conditions1 a difference which by degrees becomes very notable4 ,suppose that circumstances keep certain individuals in an ill-nourished or languid state4 ,their internal organisation will at length be modified1 and these individuals will engender offspring which will perpetuate the modifications thus acquired1 and thus will in the end give place to a race quite distinct from that of which the individual members come together always under circumstances favourable to their development4 ,for instance1 if a seed of some meadow flower is carried to dry and stony ground1 where it is exposed to the winds and there germinates1 the consequence will be that the plant and its immediate offspring1 being always ill-nourished1 will give rise to a race really different from that which lives in the field2 yet this1 none the less1 will be its progenitor4 ,the individuals of this race will be dwarfed2 and their organs1 some being increased at the expense of the rest1 will show distinctive proportions4 ,what nature does in a long time we do every day ourselves4 ,every botanist knows that the vegetables transplanted to our gardens out of their native soil undergo such changes as render them at last unrecognisable4 ,consider1 again1 the varieties among our domestic fowls and pigeons1 all of them brought into existence by being raised in diverse circumstances and different countries1 and such as might be sought in vain in a state of nature4 ,it is matter of common knowledge that if we raise a bird in a cage1 and keep it there for five or six years1 it will be unable to fly if restored to liberty4 ,there has1 indeed1 been no change as yet in the form of its members2 but if for a long series of generations individuals of the same race had been kept caged for a considerable time1 there is no room for doubt that the very form of their limbs would little by little have undergone notable alteration4 ,much more would this be the case if their captivity had been accompanied by a marked change of climate1 and if these individuals had by degrees accustomed themselves to other sorts of food and to other measures for acquiring it4 ,such circumstances1 taken constantly together1 would have formed insensibly a new and clearly denned race4 ,the following example shows1 in regard to plants1 how the change of some important circumstance may tend to change the various parts of these living bodies4 ,so long as the ranunculus aquatilis1 the water buttercup1 is under water its leaves are all finely indented1 and the divisions are furnished with capillaries2 but as soon as the stalk of the plant reaches the surface the leaves1 which develop in the air1 are broadened out1 rounded1 and simply lobed4 ,if the plant manages to spring up in a soil that is merely moist1 and not covered with water1 the stems will be short1 and none of the leaves will show these indentations and capillaries4 ,you have then the ranunculus hederaceus1 which botanists regard as a distinct species4 ,among animals changes take place more slowly1 and it is therefore more difficult to determine their cause4 ,the strongest influence1 no doubt1 is that of environment4 ,places far apart are different1 and--which is too commonly ignored--a given place changes its climate and quality with time1 though so slowly in respect of human life that we attribute to it perfect stability4 ,hence it arises that we have not only extreme changes1 but also shadowy ones between the extremes4 ,everywhere the order of things changes so gradually that man cannot observe the change directly1 and the animal tribes in every place preserve their habits for a long time2 whence arises the apparent constancy of what we call species--a constancy which has given birth in us to the idea that these races are as old as nature4 ,but the surface of the habitable globe varies in nature1 situation1 and climate1 in every variety of degrees4 ,the naturalist will perceive that just in proportion as the environment is notably changed will the species change their characters4 ,it must always be recognised3 7#a7 ,that every considerable and constant change in the environment of a race of animals works a real change in their wants4 7#b7 ,that every change in their wants necessitates new actions to supply them1 and consequently new habits4 7#c7 ,that every new want calling for new actions for its satisfaction affects the animal in one of two ways4 ,either it has to make more frequent use of some particular member1 and this will develop the part and cause it to increase in size2 or it must employ new members which will grow in the animal insensibly in response to the inward yearning to satisfy these wants4 ,and this ,i will presently prove from known facts4 ,how the new wants have been able to attain satisfaction1 and how the new habits have been acquired1 it will be easy to see if regard be had to the two following laws1 which observation has always confirmed4 ,,first ,,law4--,in every animal which has not arrived at the term of its developments1 the more frequent and sustained use of any organ strengthens1 develops1 and enlarges that organ1 and gives it a power commensurate with the duration of this employment of it4 ,on the other hand1 constant disuse of such organ weakens it by degrees1 causes it to deteriorate1 and progressively diminishes its faculties1 so that in the end it disappears4 ,,second ,,law4--,all qualities naturally acquired by individuals as the result of circumstances to which their race is exposed for a considerable time1 or as a consequence of a predominant employment or the disuse of a certain organ1 nature preserves to individual offspring2 provided that the acquired modifications are common to the two sexes1 or1 at least1 to both parents of the individual offspring4 ,naturalists have observed that the members of animals are adapted to their use1 and thence have concluded hitherto that the formation of the members has led to their appropriate employment4 ,now1 this is an error4 ,for observation plainly shows that1 on the contrary1 the development of the members has been caused by their need and use2 that these have caused them to come into existence where they were wanting4 ,but let us examine the facts which bear upon the effects of employment or disuse of organs resulting from the habits which a race has been compelled to form4 ,,ii4--,the ,penalties of ,disuse ,permanent disuse of an organ as a consequence of acquired habits gradually impoverishes it1 and in the end causes it to disappear1 or even annihilates it altogether4 ,thus vertebrates1 which1 in spite of innumerable particular distinctions1 are alike in the plan of their organisation1 are generally armed with teeth4 ,yet those of them which by circumstances have acquired the habit of swallowing their prey without mastication have been liable to leave their teeth undeveloped4 ,consequently1 the teeth have either remained hidden between the bony plates of the jaws1 or have even been1 in the course of time1 annihilated4 ,the whale was supposed to have no teeth at all till ,m4 ,geoffrey found them hidden in the jaws of the foetus4 ,he has also found in birds the groove in which teeth might be placed1 but without any trace of the teeth themselves4 ,a similar case to that of the whale is the ant-eater 7nyomecophaga71 which has long given up the practice of mastication4 ,eyes in the head are an essential part of the organisation of vertebrates4 ,yet the mole1 which habitually makes no use of the sense of sight1 has eyes so small that they can hardly be seen2 and the aspalax1 whose habits-resemble a mole's1 has totally lost its sight1 and shows but vestiges of eyes4 ,so also the proteus1 which inhabits dark caves under water4 ,in such cases1 since the animals in question belong to a type of which eyes are an essential part1 it is clear that the impoverishment1 and even the total disappearance1 of these organs are the results of long continued disuse4 ,with hearing1 the case is otherwise4 ,sound traverses everything4 ,therefore1 wherever an animal dwells it may exercise this faculty4 ,and so no vertebrate lacks it1 and we never find it re-appearing in any of the lower ranges4 ,sight disappears1 re-appears1 and disappears again1 according as circumstances deny or permit its exercise4 ,four legs attached to its skeleton are part of the reptile type2 and serpents1 particularly as between them and the fishes come the batrachians--frogs1 etc4--ought to have four legs4 ,but serpents1 having acquired the habit of gliding along the ground1 and concealing themselves amid the grass1 their bodies1 as a consequence of constantly repeated efforts to lengthen themselves out in order to pass through narrow passages1 have acquired considerable length of body which is out of all proportion to their breadth4 ,now1 feet would have been useless to these animals1 and consequently would have remained unemployed2 for long legs would have interfered with their desire to go on their bellies2 and short legs1 being limited in number to four1 would have been incapable of moving their bodies4 ,thus total disuse among these races of animals has caused the parts which have fallen into disuse totally to disappear4 ,many insects1 which by their order and genus should have wings1 lack them more or less completely for similar reasons4 ,,iii4--,the ,advantages of ,use ,the frequent use of an organ1 if constant and habitual1 increases its powers1 develops it1 and makes it acquire dimensions and potency such as are not found among animals which use it less4 ,of this principle1 the web-feet of some birds1 the long legs and neck of the stork1 are examples4 ,similarly1 the elongated tongue of the ant-eater1 and those of lizards and serpents4 ,such wants1 and the sustained efforts to satisfy them1 have also resulted in the displacement of organs4 ,fishes which swim habitually in great masses of water1 since they need to see right and left of them1 have the eyes one upon either side of the head4 ,their bodies1 more or less flat1 according to species1 have their edges perpendicular to the plane of the water2 and their eyes are so placed as to be one on either side of the flattened body4 ,but those whose habits bring them constantly to the banks1 especially sloping banks1 have been obliged to lie over upon the flattened surface in order to approach more nearly4 ,in this position1 in which more light falls on the upper than on the under surface1 and their attention is more particularly fixed upon what is going on above than on what is going on below them1 this want has forced one of the eyes to undergo a kind of displacement1 and to keep the strange position which it occupies in the head of a sole or a turbot4 ,the situation is not symmetrical because the mutation is not complete4 ,in the case of the skate1 however1 it is complete2 for in these fish the transverse flattening of the body is quite horizontal1 no less than that of the head4 ,and so the eyes of a skate are not only placed both of them on the upper surface1 but have become symmetrical4 ,serpents need principally to see things above them1 and1 in response to this need1 the eyes are placed so high up at the sides of the head that they can see easily what is above them on either side1 while they can see in front of them but a very little distance4 ,to compensate for this1 the tongue1 with which they test bodies in their line of march1 has been rendered by this habit thin1 long1 and very contractile1 and even1 in most species1 has been split so as to be able to test more than one object at a time4 ,the same custom has resulted similarly in the formation of an opening at the end of the muzzle by which the tongue may be protruded without any necessity for the opening of the jaws4 ,the effect of use is curiously illustrated in the form and figure of the giraffe4 ,this animal1 the largest of mammals1 is found in the interior of ,africa1 where the ground is scorched and destitute of grass1 and has to browse on the foliage of trees4 ,from the continual stretching thus necessitated over a great space of time in all the individuals of the race1 it has resulted that the fore legs have become longer than the hind legs1 and that the neck has become so elongated that the giraffe1 without standing on its hind legs1 can raise its head to a height of nearly twenty feet4 ,observation of all animals will furnish similar examples4 ,none1 perhaps1 is more striking than that of the kangaroo4 ,this animal1 which carries its young in an abdominal pouch1 has acquired the habit of carrying itself upright upon its hind legs and tail1 and of moving from place to place in a series of leaps1 during which1 in order not to hurt its little ones1 it preserves its upright posture4 ,observe the result4 7#a7 ,its front limbs1 which it uses very little1 resting on them only in the instant during which it quits its erect posture1 have never acquired a development in proportion to the other parts2 they have remained thin1 little1 and weak4 7#b7 ,the hind legs1 almost continually in action1 whether to bear the weight of the whole body or to execute its leaps1 have1 on the contrary1 obtained a considerable development2 they are very big and very strong4 7#c7 ,finally1 the tail1 which we observe to be actively employed1 both to support the animal's weight and to execute its principal movements1 has acquired at its base a thickness and a strength that are extremely remarkable4 ,when the will determines an animal to a certain action1 the organs concerned are forthwith stimulated by a flow of subtle fluids1 which are the determining cause of organic changes and developments4 ,and multiplied repetitions of such acts strengthen1 extend1 and even call into being the organs necessary to them4 ,now1 every change in an organ which has been acquired by habitual use sufficient to originate it is reproduced in the offspring if it is common to both the individuals which have come together for the reproduction of their species4 ,in the end1 this change is propagated and passes to all the individuals which come after and are submitted to the same conditions1 without its being necessary that they should acquire it in the original manner4 ,for the rest1 in the union of disparate couples1 the disparity is necessarily opposed to the constant propagation of such qualities and outward forms4 ,this is why man1 who is exposed to such diversity of conditions1 does not preserve and propagate the qualities or the accidental defects which he has been in the way of acquiring4 ,such peculiarities will be produced only in case two individuals who share them unite2 these will produce offspring bearing similar characteristics1 and1 if successive generations restrict themselves to similar unions1 a distinct race will then be formed4 ,but perpetual intermixture will cause all characters acquired through particular circumstances to disappear4 ,if it were not for the distances which separate the races of men1 such intermixture would quickly obliterate all national distinctions4 ,,iv4--,the ,conclusion ,here1 then1 is the conclusion to which we have come4 ,it is a fact that every genus and species of animal has its characteristic habits combined with an organisation perfectly in harmony with them4 ,from the consideration of this fact one of two conclusions must follow1 and that though neither of them can be proved4 7#a7 ,the conclusion admitted hitherto--that nature 7or its ,author7 in creating the animals has foreseen all the possible sets of circumstances in which they would have to live1 has given to each species a constant organisation1 and has shaped its parts in a determined and invariable way so that every species is compelled to live in the districts and the climates where it is actually formed1 and to keep the habits by which it is actually known4 7#b7 ,my own conclusion--that nature has produced in succession all the animal species1 beginning with the more imperfect1 or the simpler1 and ending with the more perfect2 that in so doing it has gradually complicated their organisation2 and that of these animals1 dispersed over the habitable globe1 every species has acquired1 under the influence of the circumstances amid which it is found1 the habits and modifications of form which we associate with it4 ,to prove that the second of these hypotheses is unfounded1 it will be necessary1 first1 to prove that the surface of the globe never varies in character1 in exposure1 situation1 whether elevated or sheltered1 climate1 etc42 and1 secondly1 to prove that no part of the animal world undergoes1 even in the course of long periods of time1 any modification through change of circumstances1 or as a consequence of a changed manner of life and action4 ,now1 a single fact which establishes that an animal1 after a long period of domestication1 differs from the wild stock from which it derives1 and that among the various domesticated members of a species may be found differences no less marked between individuals which1 have been subjected to one use and those which have been subjected to another1 makes it certain that the former conclusion is not consistent with the laws of nature1 and that the second is4 ,everything1 therefore1 concurs to prove my assertion1 to wit--that it is not form1 whether of the body or of the parts1 which gives rise to the habits of animals and their manner of life2 but that1 on the contrary1 in the habits1 the manner of living1 and all the other circumstances of environment1 we have those things which in the course of time have built up animal bodies with all their members4 ,with new forms new faculties have been acquired1 and little by little nature has come to shape animals and all living things in their present forms4 ,,johann ,,lavater ,physiognomical ,fragments ,johann ,caspar ,lavater1 the ,swiss theologian1 poet1 and physiognomist1 was born at ,zrich on ,november #ae1 #agda4 ,he began his public life at the age of twenty-one as a political reformer4 ,five years later he appeared as a poet1 and published a volume of poetry which was very favourably received4 ,during the next five years he produced a religious work1 which was considered heretical1 although its mystic1 religious enthusiasm appealed to a considerable audience4 ,his fame1 however1 rests neither on his poetry nor on his theology1 but on his physiognomical studies1 published in four volumes between #agge-gh under the title ,physiognomical ,fragments for the ,advancement of ,human ,knowledge and ,human ,life 7,physiognomische ,fragmente zur ,befrderung des ,menschenkenntniss und ,menschenliebe74 ,the book is diffuse and inconsequent1 but it contains many shrewd observations with respect to physiognomy and has had no little influence on popular opinion in this matter4 ,lavater died on ,january #b1 #ahja4 ,i4--,the ,truth of ,physiognomy ,there can be no doubt of the truth of physiognomy4 ,all countenances1 all forms1 all created beings1 are not only different from each other in their classes1 races1 kinds1 but are also individually distinct4 ,it is indisputable that all men estimate all things whatever by their external temporary superficies--that is to say1 by their physiognomy4 ,is not all nature physiognomy1 superficies and contents1 body and spirit1 external effect and internal power8 ,there is not a man who does not judge of all things that pass through his hands by their physiognomy--there is not a man who does not more or less1 the first time he is in company with a stranger1 observe1 estimate1 compare1 judge him according to appearances4 ,when each apple1 each apricot1 has a physiognomy peculiar to itself1 shall man1 the lord of the earth1 have none8 ,man is the most perfect of all earthly creatures4 ,in no other creature are so wonderfully united the animal1 the intellectual1 and the moral4 ,and man's organisation peculiarly distinguishes him from all other beings1 and shows him to be infinitely superior to all those other visible organisms by which he is surrounded4 ,his head1 especially his face1 convinces the accurate observer1 who is capable of investigating truth1 of the greatness and superiority of his intellectual qualities4 ,the eye1 the expression1 the cheeks1 the mouth1 the forehead1 whether considered in a state of entire rest1 or during their innumerable varieties of motion--in fine1 whatever is understood by physiognomy--are the most expressive1 the most convincing picture of interior sensations1 desires1 passions1 will1 and of all those properties which so much exalt moral above animal life4 ,although the physiological1 intellectual1 and moral are united in man1 yet it is plain that each of these has its peculiar station where it more especially unfolds itself and acts4 ,it is1 beyond contradiction1 evident that1 though physiological or animal life displays itself through all the body1 and especially through all the animal parts1 yet it acts more conspicuously in the arm1 from the shoulder to the ends of the fingers4 ,it is not less evident that intellectual life1 or the powers of the understanding and the mind1 make themselves most apparent in the circumference and form of the solid parts of the head1 especially the forehead2 though they will discover themselves to the attentive and accurate eye in every part and point of the human body1 by the congeniality and harmony of the various parts4 ,is there any occasion to prove that the power of thinking resides not in the foot1 nor in the hand1 nor in the back1 but in the head and its internal parts8 ,the moral life of man particularly reveals itself in the lines1 marks1 and transitions of the countenance4 ,his moral powers and desires1 his irritability1 sympathy1 and antipathy1 his facility of attracting or repelling the objects that surround him--these are all summed up in1 and painted upon1 his countenance when at rest4 ,not only do mental and moral traits evince themselves in the physiognomy1 but also health and sickness2 and ,i believe that by repeatedly examining the firm parts and outlines of the bodies and countenances of the sick1 disease might be diagnosed1 and even that liability to disease might be predicted in particular cases4 ,the same vital powers that make the heart beat and the fingers move1 roof the skull and arch the finger-nails4 ,from the head to the back1 from the shoulder to the arm1 from the arm to the hand1 from the hand to the finger1 each depends on the other1 and all on a determinate effect of a determinate power4 ,through all nature each determinate power is productive of only such and such determinate effects4 ,the finger of one body is not adapted to the hand of another body4 ,the blood in the extremity of the finger has the character of the blood in the heart4 ,the same congeniality is found in the nerves and in the bones4 ,one spirit lives in all4 ,each member of the body1 too1 is in proportion to the whole of which it is a part4 ,as from the length of the smallest member1 the smallest joint of the finger1 the proportion of the whole1 the length and breadth of the body may be found2 so also may the form of the whole be found from the form of each single part4 ,when the head is long1 all is long2 when the head is round1 all is round2 when the head is square1 all is square4 ,one form1 one mind1 one root appertain to all4 ,each organised body is so much a whole that1 without discord1 destruction1 or deformity1 nothing can be added or subtracted4 ,those1 therefore1 who maintain that conclusion cannot be drawn from a part to the whole labour under error1 failing to comprehend the harmony of nature4 ,,ii4--,physiognomy and the ,features ,the ,forehead4 ,the form1 height1 arching1 proportion1 obliquity1 and position of the skull1 or bone of the forehead1 show the propensity of thought1 power of thought1 and sensibility of man4 ,the position1 colour1 wrinkles1 tension of the skin of the forehead1 show the passions and present state of the mind4 ,the bones indicate the power1 the skin the application of power4 ,i consider the outline and position of the forehead to be the most important feature in physiognomy4 ,we may divide foreheads into three principal classes--the retreating1 the perpendicular1 and the projecting1 and each of these classes has a multitude of variations4 ,a few facts with respect to foreheads may now be given4 ,the higher the forehead1 the more comprehension and the less activity4 ,the more compressed1 short1 and firm the forehead1 the more compression and firmness1 and the less volatility in the man4 ,the more curved and cornerless the outline1 the more tender and flexible the character2 and the more rectilinear1 the more pertinacious and severe the character4 ,perfect perpendicularity implies lack of understanding1 but gently arched at top1 capacity for cold1 tranquil1 profound thought4 ,a projecting forehead indicates imbecility1 immaturity1 weakness1 stupidity4 ,a retreating forehead1 in general1 denotes superior imagination1 wit1 acuteness4 ,a forehead round and prominent above1 straight below1 and1 on the whole1 perpendicular1 shows much understanding1 life1 sensibility1 ardour4 ,an oblique1 rectilinear forehead is ardent and vigorous4 ,arched foreheads appear properly to be feminine4 ,a forehead neither too perpendicular nor too retreating1 but a happy mean1 indicates the post-perfect character of wisdom4 ,i might also state it as an axiom that straight lines considered as such1 and curves considered as such1 are related as power and weakness1 obstinacy and flexibility1 understanding and sensation4 ,i have seen no man with sharp1 projecting eyebones who was not inclined to vigorous thinking and wise planning4 ,yet1 even lacking sharpness1 a head may be excellent if the forehead sink like a perpendicular wall upon horizontal eyebrows1 and be greatly rounded towards the temples4 ,perpendicular foreheads1 projecting so as not to rest immediately upon the nose1 and small1 wrinkled1 short1 and shining1 indicate little imagination1 little understanding1 little sensation4 ,foreheads with many angular1 knotty protuberances denote perseverance and much vigorous1 firm1 harsh1 oppressive1 ardent activity4 ,it is a sure sign of a clear1 sound understanding and a good temperament when the profile of the forehead has two proportionate arches1 the lower of which projects4 ,eyebones with well-marked1 firm arches ,i never saw but in noble and great men4 ,square foreheads with extensive temples and firm eyebones show circumspection and steadiness of character4 ,perpendicular wrinkles1 if natural1 denote application and power4 ,horizontal wrinkles and those broken in the middle or at the extremities generally denote negligence or want of power4 ,perpendicular1 deep indentings in the forehead between the eyebrows1 ,i never met save in men of sound understanding and free and noble minds1 unless there were some positively contradictory feature4 ,a blue frontal vein1 in the form of a ,y1 when in an open1 smooth1 well-arched forehead1 ,i have only found in men of extraordinary talents and of ardent and generous character4 ,the following are the traits of a perfectly beautiful1 intelligent1 and noble forehead4 ,in length it must equal the nose1 or the under part of the face4 ,in breadth it must be either oval at the top-like the foreheads of most of the great men of ,england--or nearly square4 ,it must be free from unevenness and wrinkles1 yet be able to wrinkle when deep in thought1 afflicted by pain1 or moved by indignation4 ,it must retreat above and project beneath4 ,the eyebones must be simple1 horizontal1 and1 if seen from above1 must present a simple curve4 ,there should be a small cavity in the centre1 from above to below1 and traversing the forehead so as to separate it into four divisions perceptible in a clear descending light4 ,the skin must be more clear on the forehead than in other parts of the countenance4 ,foreheads short1 wrinkled1 and knotty1 are incapable of durable friendship4 ,be not discouraged though a friend1 an enemy1 a child1 or a brother transgress1 for so long as he have a good1 well-proportioned1 open forehead there is still hope of improvement4 ,,the ,,eyes ,,and ,,eyebrows4 ,blue eyes are generally more indicative of weakness and effeminacy than brown or black4 ,certainly there are many powerful men with blue eyes1 but ,i find more strength1 manhood1 thought with brown4 ,choleric men have eyes of every colour1 but rather brown or greenish than blue4 ,a propensity to green is an almost decisive token of ardour1 fire1 and courage4 ,wide open eyes1 with the white visible1 ,i have often observed both in the timid and phlegmatic1 and in the courageous and rash4 ,meeting eyebrows were supposed to be the mark of craft1 but ,i do not believe them to have this significance4 ,angular1 strong1 interrupted eyebrows denote fire and productive activity4 ,the nearer the eyebrows to the eyes1 the more earnest1 deep1 and firm the character4 ,eyebrows remote from each other denote warm1 open1 quick sensations4 ,white eyebrows signify weakness2 and dark brown1 firmness4 ,the motion of the eyebrows contains numerous expressions1 especially of ignoble passions4 ,,the ,,nose4 ,i have generally considered the nose the foundation or abutment of the brain1 for upon this the whole power of the arch of the forehead rests4 ,a beautiful nose will never be found accompanying an ugly countenance4 ,an ugly person may have fine eyes1 but not a handsome nose4 ,i have never seen a nose with a broad back1 whether arched or rectilinear1 that did not belong to an extraordinary man4 ,such a nose was possessed by ,swift1 ,csar ,borgia1 ,titian1 etc4 ,small nostrils are usually an indubitable sign of unenterprising timidity4 ,the open1 breathing nostril is as certain a token of sensibility4 ,,the ,,mouth ,,and ,,lips4 ,the contents of the mind are communicated to the mouth4 ,how full of character is the mouth6 ,as are the lips1 so is the character4 ,firm lips1 firm character2 weak lips1 weak character4 ,well-defined1 large1 and proportionate lips1 the middle line of which is equally serpentine on both sides1 and easy to be drawn1 are never seen in a bad1 mean1 common1 false1 vicious countenance4 ,a lipless mouth1 resembling a single line1 denotes coldness1 industry1 a love of order1 precision1 house-wifery1 and1 if it be drawn upwards at the two ends1 affectation1 pretension1 vanity1 malice4 ,very fleshy lips have always to contend with sensuality and indolence4 ,calm lips1 well closed1 without constraint1 and well delineated1 certainly betoken consideration1 discretion1 and firmness4 ,openness of mouth speaks complaint1 and closeness1 endurance4 ,,the ,,chin4 ,from numerous experiments1 ,i am convinced that the projecting chin ever denotes something positive1 and the retreating something negative4 ,the presence or absence of strength in man is often signified by the chin4 ,i have never seen sharp indentings in the middle of the chin save in men of cool understanding1 unless when something evidently contradictory appeared in the countenance4 ,the soft1 fat1 double chin generally points out the epicure2 and the angular chin is seldom found save in discreet1 well-disposed1 firm men4 ,flatness of chin speaks the cold and dry2 smallness1 fear2 and roundness1 with a dimple1 benevolence4 ,,skulls4 ,,how much may the anatomist see in the mere skull of man6 ,how much more the physiognomist6 ,and how much more still the anatomist who is a physiognomist6 ,if shown the bald head of ,csar1 as painted by ,rubens or ,titian or ,michael ,angelo1 what man would fail to notice the rocky capacity which characterises it1 and to realise that more ardour and energy must be expected than from a smooth1 round1 flat head8 ,how characteristic is the skull of ,charles ,,xii46 ,how different from the skull of his biographer ,voltaire6 ,compare the skull of ,judas with the skull of ,christ1 after ,holbein1 and ,i doubt whether anyone would fail to guess which is the skull of the wicked betrayer and which the skull of the innocent betrayed4 ,and who is unacquainted with the statement in ,herodotus that it was possible on the field of battle to distinguish the skulls of the effeminate ,medes from the skulls of the manly ,persians8 ,each nation1 indeed1 has its own characteristic skull4 ,,iii4--,nation1 ,sex1 and ,family ,,national ,,physiognomy4 ,it is undeniable that there is a national physiognomy as well as national character4 ,compare a negro and an ,englishman1 a native of ,lapland and an ,italian1 a ,frenchman and an inhabitant of ,tierra del ,fuego4 ,examine their forms1 countenances1 characters1 and minds4 ,this difference will be easily seen1 though it will sometimes be very difficult to describe it scientifically4 ,the following infinitely little is what ,i have hitherto observed in the foreigners with whom ,i have conversed4 ,i am least able to characterise the ,french1 ,they have no traits so bold as the ,english1 nor so minute as the ,germans4 ,i know them chiefly by their teeth and their laugh4 ,the ,italians ,i discover by the nose1 small eyes1 and projecting chin4 ,the ,english by their foreheads and eyebrows4 ,the ,dutch by the rotundity of their heads and the weakness of the hair4 ,the ,germans by the angles and wrinkles round the eyes and in the cheeks4 ,the ,russians by the snub nose and their light-coloured or black hair4 ,i shall now say a word concerning ,englishmen in particular4 ,englishmen have the shortest and best-arched foreheads--that is to say1 they are arched only upwards1 and1 towards the eyebrows1 either gently recline or are rectilinear4 ,they seldom have pointed1 usually round1 full noses4 ,their lips are usually large1 well defined1 beautifully curved4 ,their chins are round and full4 ,the outline of their faces is in general large1 and they never have those numerous angles and wrinkles by which the ,germans are so especially distinguished4 ,their complexion is fairer than that of the ,germans4 ,all ,englishwomen whom ,i have known personally1 or by portrait1 appear to be composed of marrow and nerve4 ,they are inclined to be tall1 slender1 soft1 and as distant from all that is harsh1 rigorous1 or stubborn as heaven is from earth4 ,the ,swiss have generally no common physiognomy or national character1 the aspect of fidelity excepted4 ,they are as different from each other as nations the most remote4 ,,the ,,physiognomical ,,relation ,,of ,,the ,,sexes4 ,generally speaking1 how much more pure1 tender1 delicate1 irritable1 affectionate1 flexible1 and patient is woman than man4 ,the primary matter of which woman is constituted appears to account for this difference4 ,all her organs are tender1 yielding1 easily wounded1 sensible1 and receptive2 they are made for maternity and affection4 ,among a thousand women1 there is hardly one without these feminine characteristics4 ,this tenderness and sensibility1 the light texture of their fibres and organs1 render them easy to tempt and to subdue1 and yet their charms are more potent than the strength of man4 ,truly sensible of purity1 beauty and symmetry1 woman does not always take time to reflect on spiritual life1 spiritual death1 spiritual corruption4 ,the woman does not think profoundly2 profound thought is the prerogative of the man2 but women feel more4 ,they rule with tender looks1 tears1 and sighs1 but not with passion and threats1 unless they are monstrosities4 ,they are capable of the sweetest sensibility1 the deepest emotion1 the utmost humility1 and ardent enthusiasm4 ,in their faces are signs of sanctity which every man honours4 ,owing to their extreme sensibility and their incapacity for accurate inquiry and firm decision1 they may easily become fanatics4 ,the love of women1 strong as it is1 is very changeable2 but their hatred is almost incurable1 and is only to be overcome by persistent and artful flattery4 ,men usually see things as a whole1 whereas women take more interest in details4 ,women have less physical courage than men4 ,man hears the bursting thunders1 views the destructive bolt with serene aspect1 and stands erect amid the fearful majesty of the torrent4 ,but woman trembles at the lightning and thunder1 and seeks refuge in the arms of man4 ,woman is formed for pity and religion2 and a woman without religion is monstrous2 and a woman who is a freethinker is more disgusting than a woman with a beard4 ,woman is not a foundation on which to build4 ,she is the gold1 silver1 precious stones1 wood1 hay1 stubble--the materials for building on the male foundation4 ,she is the leaven1 or1 more expressly1 she is oil to the vinegar of man4 ,man singly is but half a man1 only half human--a king without a kingdom4 ,woman must rest upon the man1 and man can be what he ought to be only in conjunction with the woman4 ,some of the principal physiognomical contrasts may be summarised here4 ,man is the most firm2 woman the most flexible4 ,man is the straightest2 woman the most bending4 ,man stands steadfast2 woman gently retreats4 ,man surveys and observes2 woman glances and feels4 ,man is serious2 woman is gay4 ,man is the tallest and broadest2 woman the smallest and weakest4 ,man is rough and hard2 woman is smooth and soft4 ,man is brown2 woman is fair4 ,the hair of the man is strong and short2 the hair of woman is pliant and long4 ,man has most straight lines2 woman most curved4 ,the countenance of man1 taken in profile1 is not so often perpendicular as that of woman4 ,,family ,,physiognomy4 ,the resemblance between parents and children is very commonly remarkable4 ,family physiognomical resemblance is as undeniable as national physiognomical resemblance4 ,to doubt this is to doubt what is self-evident4 ,when children1 as they increase in years1 visibly increase in their physical resemblance to their parents1 we cannot doubt that resemblance in character also increases4 ,howsoever much the character of children may seem to differ from that of their parents1 yet this difference will be found to be due to great difference in external circumstances4 ,,justus ,,von ,,liebig ,animal ,chemistry ,baron ,freiherr ,justus von ,liebig1 one of the most illustrious chemists of his age1 was born on ,may #ab1 #ahjc1 at ,darmstadt1 ,germany1 the son of a drysalter4 ,it was in his father's business that his interest in chemistry first awoke1 and at fifteen he became an apothecary's assistant4 ,subsequently1 he went to ,erlangen1 where he took his doctorate in #ahbb2 and afterwards1 in ,paris1 was admitted to the laboratory of ,gay-,lussac as a private pupil4 ,in #ahbd he was appointed a teacher of chemistry in the ,university of ,giessen in his native state4 ,here he lived for twenty-eight years a quiet life of incessant industry1 while his fame spread throughout ,europe4 ,in #ahde he was raised to the hereditary rank of baron1 and seven years later was appointed by the ,bavarian government to the professorship of chemistry in the ,university of ,munich4 ,here he died on ,april #ah1 #ahgc4 ,the treatise on ,animal ,chemistry1 or ,organic ,chemistry in its ,relations to ,physiology and ,pathology1 published in #ahdb1 sums up the results of ,liebig's investigations into the immediate products of animal life4 ,he was the first to demonstrate that the only source of animal heat is that produced by the oxidation of the tissues4 ,i4--,chemical ,needs of ,life ,animals1 unlike plants1 require highly organised atoms for nutriment2 they can subsist only upon parts of an organism4 ,all parts of the animal body are produced from the fluid circulating within its organism4 ,a destruction of the animal body is constantly proceeding1 every motion is the result of a transformation of its structure2 every thought1 every sensation is accompanied by a change in the composition of the substance of the brain4 ,food is applied either in the increase of the mass of a structure 7nutrition7 or in the replacement of a structure wasted 7reproduction74 ,equally important is the continual absorption of oxygen from the atmosphere4 ,all vital activity results from the mutual action of the oxygen of the atmosphere and the elements of food4 ,according to ,lavoisier1 an adult man takes into his system every year #hbg lb4 of oxygen1 and yet he does not increase in weight4 ,what1 then1 becomes of this oxygen8--for no part of it is again expired as oxygen4 ,the carbon and hydrogen of certain parts of the body have entered into combination with the oxygen introduced through the lungs and through the skin1 and have been given out in the form of carbonic acid and the vapour of water4 ,now1 an adult inspires #cb-a_/b oz4 of oxygen daily2 this will convert the carbon of #bd lb4 of blood 7#hj per cent4 water7 into carbonic acid4 ,he must1 therefore1 take as much nutriment as will supply the daily loss4 ,and1 in fact1 it is found that he does so2 for the average amount of carbon in the daily food of an adult man is #ad oz41 which requires #cg oz4 of oxygen for its conversion into carbonic acid4 ,the amount of food necessary for the support of the animal body must be in direct ratio to the quantity of oxygen taken into the system4 ,a bird deprived of food dies on the third day2 while a serpent1 which inspires a mere trace of oxygen1 can live without food for three months4 ,the number of respirations is less in a state of rest than in exercise1 and the amount of food necessary in both conditions must vary also4 ,the capacity of the chest being a constant quantity1 we inspire the same volume of air whether at the pole or at the equator2 but the weight of air1 and consequently of oxygen1 varies with the temperature4 ,thus1 an adult man takes into the system daily #df1jjj cubic inches of oxygen1 which1 if the temperature be #gg ,f41 weighs #cb-a_/b oz41 but when the temperature sinks to freezing-point will weigh #ce oz4 ,it is obvious1 also1 that in an equal number of respirations we consume more oxygen at the level of the sea than on a mountain4 ,the quantity of oxygen inspired and carbonic acid expired must1 therefore1 vary with the height of the barometer4 ,in our climate the difference between summer and winter in the carbon expired1 and therefore necessary for food1 is as much as one-eighth4 ,,ii4--,the ,cause of ,animal ,heat ,now1 the mutual action between the elements of food and the oxygen of the air is the source of animal heat4 ,this heat is wholly due to the combustion of the carbon and hydrogen in the food consumed4 ,animal heat exists only in those parts of the body through which arterial blood 7and with it oxygen in solution7 circulates2 hair1 wool1 or feathers1 do not possess an elevated temperature4 ,as animal heat depends upon respired oxygen1 it will vary according to the respiratory apparatus of the animal4 ,thus the temperature of a child is #ajb ,f41 while that of an adult is #ii-a_/b ,f4 ,that of birds is higher than that of quadrupeds or that of fishes or amphibia1 whose proper temperature is #c ,f higher than the medium in which they live4 ,all animals1 strictly speaking1 are warm-blooded2 but in those only which possess lungs is their temperature quite independent of the surrounding medium4 ,the temperature of the human body is the same in the torrid as in the frigid zone2 but the colder the surrounding medium the greater the quantity of fuel necessary to maintain its heat4 ,the human body may be aptly compared to the furnace of a laboratory destined to effect certain operations4 ,it signifies nothing what intermediate forms the food1 or fuel1 of the furnace may assume2 it is finally converted into carbonic acid and water4 ,but in order to sustain a fixed temperature in the furnace we must vary the quantity of fuel according to the external temperature4 ,in the animal body the food is the fuel2 with a proper supply of oxygen we obtain the heat given out during its oxidation or combustion4 ,in winter1 when we take exercise in a cold atmosphere1 and when consequently the amount of inspired oxygen increases1 the necessity for food containing carbon and hydrogen increases in the same ratio2 and by gratifying the appetite thus excited1 we obtain the most efficient protection against the most piercing cold4 ,a starving man is soon frozen to death2 and everyone knows that the animals of prey in the ,arctic regions far exceed in voracity those in the torrid zone4 ,in cold and temperate climates1 the air1 which incessantly strives to consume the body1 urges man to laborious efforts in order to furnish the means of resistance to its action1 while in hot climates the necessity of labour to provide food is far less urgent4 ,our clothing is merely the equivalent for a certain amount of food4 ,the more warmly we are clothed the less food we require4 ,if in hunting or fishing we were exposed to the same degree of cold as the ,samoyedes we could with ease consume ten pounds of flesh1 and perhaps half a dozen tallow candles into the bargain4 ,the macaroni of the ,italian1 and the train oil of the ,greenlander and the ,russian1 are fitted to administer to their comfort in the climate in which they have been born4 ,the whole process of respiration appears most clearly developed in the case of a man exposed to starvation4 ,currie mentions the case of an individual who was unable to swallow1 and whose body lost #ajj lb4 in one month4 ,the more fat an animal contains the longer will it be able to exist without food1 for the fat will be consumed before the oxygen of the air acts upon the other parts of the body4 ,there are various causes by which force or motion may be produced4 ,but in the animal body we recognise as the ultimate cause of all force only one cause1 the chemical action which the elements of the food and the oxygen of the air mutually exercise on each other4 ,the only known ultimate cause of vital force1 either in animals or in plants1 is a chemical process4 ,if this be prevented1 the phenomena of life do not manifest themselves1 or they cease to be recognisable by our senses4 ,if the chemical action be impeded1 the vital phenomena must take new forms4 ,the heat evolved by the combustion of carbon in the body is sufficient to account for all the phenomena of animal heat4 ,the #ad oz4 of carbon which in an adult are daily converted into carbonic acid disengage a quantity of heat which would convert #bd lb4 of water1 at the temperature of the body1 into vapour4 ,and if we assume that the quantity of water vaporised through the skin and lungs amounts to #c lb41 then we have still a large quantity of heat to sustain the temperature of the body4 ,,iii4--,the ,chemistry of ,blood-,making ,physiologists conceive that the various organs in the body have originally been formed from blood4 ,if this be admitted1 it is obvious that those substances alone can be considered nutritious that are capable of being transformed into blood4 ,when blood is allowed to stand1 it coagulates and separates into a watery fluid called serum1 and into the clot1 which consists principally of fibrine4 ,these two bodies contain1 in all1 seven elements1 among which sulphur1 phosphorus1 and nitrogen are found2 they contain also the earth of bones4 ,the serum holds in solution common salt and other salts of potash and soda1 of which the acids are carbonic1 phosphoric1 and sulphuric acids4 ,serum1 when heated1 coagulates into a white mass called albumen4 ,this substance1 along with the fibrine and a red colouring matter in which iron is a constituent1 constitute the globules of blood4 ,analysis has shown that fibrine and albumen are perfectly identical in chemical composition4 ,they may be mutually converted into each other4 ,in the process of nutrition both may be converted into muscular fibre1 and muscular fibre is capable of being reconverted into blood4 ,all parts of the animal body which form parts of organs contain nitrogen4 ,the principal ingredients of blood contain #ag per cent4 of nitrogen1 and there is no part of an active organ that contains less than #ag per cent4 of this element4 ,the nutritive process is simplest in the case of the carnivora1 for their nutriment is chemically identical in composition with their own tissues4 ,the digestive apparatus of graminivorous animals is less simple1 and their food contains very little nitrogen4 ,from what constituents of vegetables is their blood produced8 ,chemical researches have shown that all such parts of vegetables as can afford nutriment to animals contain certain constituents which are rich in nitrogen2 and experience proves that animals require for their nutrition less of these parts of plants in proportion as they abound in the nitrogenised constituents4 ,these important products are specially abundant in the seeds of the different kinds of grain1 and of peas1 beans1 and lentils4 ,they exist1 however1 in all plants1 without exception1 and in every part of plants in larger or smaller quantity4 ,the nitrogenised compounds of vegetables are called vegetable fibrine1 vegetable albumen1 and vegetable casein4 ,all other nitrogenised compounds occurring in plants are either rejected by animals or else they occur in the food in such very small proportion that they cannot possibly contribute to the increase of mass in the animal body4 ,the chemical analysis of these three substances has led to the interesting result that they contain the same organic elements1 united in the same proportion by weight2 and--which is more remarkable--that they are identical in composition with the chief constituents of blood--animal fibrine and animal albumen4 ,by identity1 be it remarked1 is not here meant merely similarity1 but that even in regard to the presence and relative amounts of sulphur1 phosphorus1 and phosphate of lime no difference can be observed4 ,how beautifully simple then1 by the aid of these discoveries1 appears the process of nutrition in animals1 the formation of their organs1 in which vitality chiefly resides4 ,those vegetable constituents which are used by animals to form blood contain the essential ingredients of blood ready formed4 ,in point of fact1 vegetables produce in their organism the blood of all animals2 for the carnivora1 in consuming the blood and flesh of the graminivora1 consume1 strictly speaking1 the vegetable principles which have served for the nourishment of the latter4 ,in this sense we may say the animal organism gives to blood only its form2 and1 further1 that it is incapable of forming blood out of other compounds which do not contain the chief ingredients of that fluid4 ,animal and vegetable life are1 therefore1 closely related1 for the first substance capable of affording nutriment to animals is the last product of the creative energy of vegetables4 ,the seemingly miraculous in the nutritive power of vegetables disappears in a great degree1 for the production of the constituents of blood cannot appear more surprising than the occurrence of the principal ingredient of butter in palm-oil and of horse-fat and train-oil in certain of the oily seeds4 ,,iv4--,food the ,fuel of ,life ,we have still to account for the use in food of substances which are destitute of nitrogen but are known to be necessary to animal life4 ,such substances are starch1 sugar1 gum1 and pectine4 ,in all of these we find a great excess of carbon1 with oxygen and hydrogen in the same proportion as water4 ,they therefore add an excess of carbon to the nitrogenised constituents of food1 and they cannot possibly be employed in the production of blood1 because the nitrogenised compounds contained in the food already contain exactly the amount of carbon which is required for the production of fibrine and albumen4 ,now1 it can be shown that very little of the excess of this carbon is ever expelled in the form either of solid or liquid compounds2 it must be expelled1 therefore1 in the gaseous state4 ,in short1 these compounds are solely expended in the production of animal heat1 being converted by the oxygen of the air into carbonic acid and water4 ,the food of carnivorous animals does not contain non-nitrogenised matters1 so that the carbon and hydrogen necessary for the production of animal heat are furnished in them from the waste of their tissues4 ,the transformed matters of the organs are obviously unfit for the further nourishment of the body--that is1 for the increase or reproduction of the mass4 ,they pass through the absorbent and lymphatic vessels into the veins1 and their accumulation in these would soon put a stop to the nutritive process were it not that the blood has to pass through a filtering apparatus1 as it were1 before reaching the heart4 ,the venous blood1 before returning to the heart1 is made to pass through the liver and the kidneys1 which separate from it all substances incapable of contributing to nutrition4 ,the new compounds containing the nitrogen of the transformed organs1 being utterly incapable of further application in the system1 are expelled from the body4 ,those which contain the carbon of the transformed tissues are collected in the gall-bladder as bile1 a compound of soda which1 being mixed with water1 passes through the duodenum and mixes with chyme4 ,all the soda of the bile1 and ninety-nine-hundredths of the carbonaceous matter which it contains1 retain the capacity of re-absorption by the absorbents of the small and large intestines--a capacity which has been proved by direct experiment4 ,the globules of the blood1 which in themselves can be shown to take no share in the nutritive process1 serve to transport the oxygen which they give up in their passage through the capillary vessels4 ,here the current of oxygen meets with the carbonaceous substances of the transformed tissues1 and converts their carbon into carbonic acid1 their hydrogen into water4 ,every portion of these substances which escapes this process of oxidation is sent back into the circulation in the form of bile1 which by degrees completely disappears4 ,it is obvious that in the system of the graminivora1 whose food contains relatively so small a proportion of the constituents of blood1 the process of metamorphosis in existing tissues1 and consequently their restoration or reproduction1 must go on far less rapidly than in the carnivora4 ,otherwise1 a vegetation a thousand times as luxuriant would not suffice for their sustenance4 ,sugar1 gum1 and starch1 which form so large a proportion of their food1 would then be no longer necessary to support life in these animals1 because in that case the products of waste1 or metamorphosis of organised tissues1 would contain enough carbon to support the respiratory process4 ,when exercise is denied to graminivorous and omnivorous animals this is tantamount to a deficient supply of oxygen4 ,the carbon of the food1 not meeting with a sufficient supply of oxygen to consume it1 passes into other compounds containing a large excess of carbon--or1 in other words1 fat is produced4 ,fat is thus an abnormal production1 resulting from a disproportion of carbon in the food to that of the oxygen respired by the lungs or absorbed by the skin4 ,wild animals in a state of nature do not contain fat4 ,the production of fat is always a consequence of a deficient supply of oxygen1 for oxygen is absolutely indispensable for the dissipation of excess of carbon in the food4 ,v4--,animal ,life-,chemistry ,the substances of which the food of man is composed may be divided into two classes--into nitrogenised and non-nitrogenised4 ,the former are capable of conversion into blood1 the latter incapable of this transformation4 ,out of those substances which are adapted to the formation of blood are formed all the organised tissues4 ,the other class of substances in the normal state of health serve to support the process of respiration4 ,the former may be called the plastic elements of nutrition2 the latter1 elements of respiration4 ,among the former we may reckon--vegetable fibrine1 vegetable albumen1 vegetable casein1 animal flesh1 animal blood4 ,among the elements of respiration in our food are--fat1 starch1 gum1 cane sugar1 grape-sugar1 sugar of milk1 pectine1 bassorine1 wine1 beer1 spirits4 ,the nitrogenised constituents of vegetable food have a composition identical with that of the constituents of the blood4 ,no nitrogenised compound the composition of which differs from that of fibrine1 albumen1 and casein1 is capable of supporting the vital process in animals4 ,the animal organism undoubtedly possesses the power of forming from the constituents of its blood the substance of its membranes and cellular tissue1 of the nerves and brain1 of the organic part of cartilages and bones4 ,but the blood must be supplied to it ready in everything but its form--that is1 in its chemical composition4 ,if this is not done1 a period is put to the formation of blood1 and1 consequently1 to life4 ,the whole life of animals consists of a conflict between chemical forces and the vital power4 ,in the normal state of the body of an adult these stand in equilibrium3 that is1 there is equilibrium between the manifestations of the causes of waste and the causes of supply4 ,every mechanical or chemical agency which disturbs the restoration of this equilibrium is a cause of disease4 ,death is that condition in which chemical or mechanical powers gain the ascendancy1 and all resistance on the part of the vital force ceases4 ,this resistance never entirely departs from living tissues during life4 ,such deficiency in resistance is1 in fact1 a deficiency in resistance to the action of the oxygen of the atmosphere4 ,disease occurs when the sum of vital force1 which tends to neutralise all causes of disturbance1 is weaker than the acting cause of disturbance4 ,should there be formed in the diseased parts1 in consequence of the change of matter1 from the elements of the blood or of the tissue1 new products which the neighbouring parts cannot employ for their own vital functions2 should the surrounding parts1 moreover1 be unable to convey these products to other parts where they may undergo transformation1 then these new products will suffer1 at the place where they have been formed1 a process of decomposition analogous to putrefaction4 ,in certain cases1 medicine removes these diseased conditions by exciting in the vicinity of the diseased part1 or in any convenient situation1 an artificial diseased state 7as by blisters71 thus diminishing by means of artificial disturbance the resistance offered to the external causes of change in these parts by the vital force4 ,the physician succeeds in putting an end to the original diseased condition when the disturbance artificially excited 7or the diminution of resistance in another part7 exceeds in amount the diseased state to be overcome4 ,the accelerated change of matter and the elevated temperature in the diseased part show that the resistance offered by the vital force to the action of oxygen is feebler than in the healthy state4 ,but this resistance only ceases entirely when death takes place4 ,by the artificial diminution of resistance in another part1 the resistance in the diseased organ is not1 indeed1 directly strengthened2 but the chemical action1 the cause of the change of matter1 is diminished in the diseased part1 being directed to another part1 where the physician has succeeded in producing a still more feeble resistance to the change of matter1 to the action of oxygen4 ,,sir ,,charles ,,lyell ,the ,principles of ,geology ,sir ,charles ,lyell1 the distinguished geologist1 was born at ,kinnordy1 ,forfarshire1 ,scotland1 ,nov4 #ad1 #agig4 ,it was at ,oxford that his scientific interest was first aroused1 and after taking an ,m4,a4 degree in #ahba he continued his scientific studies1 becoming an active member of the ,geological and ,linnan ,societies of ,london4 ,in #ahbf he was elected a fellow of the ,royal ,society1 and two years later went with ,sir ,roderick ,murchison on a tour of ,europe1 and gathered evidence for the theory of geological uniformity which he afterwards promulgated4 ,in #ahcj he published his great work1 ,principles of ,geology3 ,being an ,attempt to ,explain the ,former ,changes of the ,earth's ,surface by ,references to ,causes now in ,action1 which converted almost the whole geological world to the doctrine of uniformitarianism1 and may be considered the foundation of modern geology4 ,lyell died in ,london on ,february #bb1 #ahge4 ,besides his great work1 he also published ,the ,elements of ,geology1 ,the ,antiquity of ,man1 ,travels in ,north ,america1 and ,the ,student's ,elements of ,geology4 ,i4--,uniformity in ,geological ,development ,according to the speculations of some writers1 there have been in the past history of the planet alternate periods of tranquillity and convulsion1 the former enduring for ages1 and resembling the state of things now experienced by man2 the other brief1 transient1 and paroxysmal1 giving rise to new mountains1 seas1 and valleys1 annihilating one set of organic beings1 and ushering in the creation of another4 ,these theories1 however1 are not borne out by a fair interpretation of geological monuments2 but1 on the contrary1 nature indicates no such cataclysms1 but rather progressive uniformity4 ,igneous rocks have been supposed to afford evidence of ancient paroxysms of nature1 but we cannot consider igneous rocks proof of any exceptional paroxysms4 ,rather1 we find ourselves compelled to regard igneous rocks as an aggregate effect of innumerable eruptions1 of various degrees of violence1 at various times1 and to consider mountain chains as the accumulative results of these eruptions4 ,the incumbent crust of the earth is never allowed to attain that strength and coherence which would be necessary in order to allow the volcanic force to accumulate and form an explosive charge capable of producing a grand paroxysmal eruption4 ,the subterranean power1 on the contrary1 displays1 even in its most energetic efforts1 an intermittent and mitigated intensity4 ,there are no proofs that the igneous rocks were produced more abundantly at remote periods4 ,nor can we find proof of catastrophic discontinuity when we examine fossil plants and fossil animals4 ,on the contrary1 we find a progressive development of organic life at successive geological periods4 ,in ,palozoic strata the entire want of plants of the most complex organisation is very striking1 for not a single dicotyledonous angiosperm has yet been found1 and only one undoubted monocotyledon4 ,in ,secondary1 or ,mesozoic1 times1 palms and some other monocotyledons appeared2 but not till the ,upper ,cretaceous era do we meet with the principal classes and orders of the vegetable kingdom as now known4 ,through the ,tertiary ages the forms were perpetually changing1 but always becoming more and more like1 generically and specifically1 to those now in being4 ,on the whole1 therefore1 we find progressive development of plant life in the course of the ages4 ,in the case of animal life1 progression is equally evident4 ,palontological research leads to the conclusion that the invertebrate animals flourished before the vertebrate1 and that in the latter class fish1 reptiles1 birds1 and mammalia made their appearance in a chronological order analogous to that in which they would be arranged zoologically according to an advancing scale of perfection in their organisation4 ,in regard to the mammalia themselves1 they have been divided by ,professor ,owen into four sub-classes by reference to modifications of their brain4 ,the two lowest are met with in the ,secondary strata4 ,the next in grade is found in ,tertiary strata4 ,and the highest of all1 of which man is the sole representative1 has not yet been detected in deposits older than the ,post-,tertiary4 ,it is true that in passing from the older to the newer members of the ,tertiary system we meet with many chasms1 but none which separate entirely1 by a broad line of demarcation1 one state of the organic world from another4 ,there are no signs of an abrupt termination of one fauna and flora1 and the starting into life of new and wholly distinct forms4 ,although we are far from being able to demonstrate geologically an insensible transition from the ,eocene to the ,miocene1 or even from the latter to the recent fauna1 yet the more we enlarge and perfect our general survey the more nearly do we approximate to such a continuous series1 and the more gradually are we conducted from times when many of the genera and nearly all the species were extinct to those in which scarcely a single species flourished which we do not know to exist at present4 ,we must remember1 too1 that many gaps in animal and floral life were due to ordinary climatic and geological factors4 ,we could1 under no circumstances1 expect to meet with a complete ascending series4 ,the great vicissitudes in climate which the earth undoubtedly experienced1 as shown by geological records1 have been held to be themselves proof of sudden violent revolutions in the life-history of the world4 ,but all the great climatic vicissitudes can be accounted for by the action of factors still1 in operation--subsidences and elevations of land1 alterations in the relative proportions and position of land and water1 variations in the relative position of our planet to the sun and other heavenly bodies4 ,altogether1 the conclusion is inevitable that from the remotest period there has been one uniform and continuous system of change in the animate and inanimate world1 and accordingly every fact collected respecting the factors at present at work in forming and changing the world1 affords a key to the interpretation of its part4 ,and thus1 although we are mere sojourners on the surface of the planet1 chained to a mere point in space1 enduring but for a moment of time1 the human mind is enabled not only to number worlds beyond the unassisted ken of mortal eye1 but to trace the events of indefinite ages before the creation of our race1 and to penetrate into the dark secrets of the ocean and the heart of the solid globe4 ,,ii4--,changes in the ,inorganic ,world now in ,progress ,the great agents of change in the inorganic world may be divided into two principal classes--the aqueous and the igneous4 ,to the aqueous belong rain1 rivers1 springs1 currents1 and tides1 and the action of frost and snow2 to the igneous1 volcanoes and earthquakes4 ,both these classes are instruments of degradation as well as of reproduction4 ,but they may also be regarded as antagonist forces1 since the aqueous agents are incessantly labouring to reduce the inequalities of the earth's surface to a level2 while the igneous are equally active in restoring the unevenness of the external crust1 partly by heaping up new matter in certain localities1 and partly by depressing one portion of the earth's envelope and forcing out another4 ,we will treat in the first place of the aqueous agents4 ,,rain ,,and ,,rivers4 ,when one considers that in some parts of the world as much as #ejj or #fjj inches of rain may fall annually1 it is easy to believe that rain qua rain may be a denuding and plastic agent1 and in some parts of the world we find evidence of its action in earth pillars or pyramids4 ,the best example of earth pillars is seen near ,botzen1 in the ,tyrol1 where there are hundreds of columns of indurated mud1 varying in height from #bj feet to #ajj feet4 ,these columns are usually capped by a single stone1 and have been separated by rain from the terrace of which they once formed a part4 ,as a rule1 however1 rain acts through rivers4 ,the power of rivers to denude and transport is exemplified daily4 ,even a comparatively small stream when swollen by rain may move rocks tons in weight1 and may transport thousands of tons of gravel4 ,the greatest damage is done when rivers are dammed by landslips or by ice4 ,in #ahah the ,river ,dranse was blocked by ice1 and its upper part became a lake4 ,in the hot season the barrier of ice gave way1 and the torrent swept before it rocks1 forests1 houses1 bridges1 and cultivated land4 ,for the greater part of its course the flood resembled a moving mass of rock and mud rather than of water4 ,some fragments of granite rock of enormous size1 which might be compared to houses1 were torn out and borne down for a quarter of a mile4 ,the rivers of unmelted ice called the glaciers act more slowly1 but they also have the power of transporting gravel1 sand1 and boulders to great distances1 and of polishing and scoring their rocky channels4 ,icebergs1 too1 are potent geological agents4 ,many of them are loaded with #ej1jjj to #ajj1jjj tons of rock and earth1 which they may carry great distances4 ,also in their course they must break1 and polish1 and scratch the peaks and points of submarine mountains4 ,coast ice1 likewise1 may transport rocks and earth4 ,springs also must be considered as geological agents affecting the face of the globe4 ,but running water not only denudes it1 but also creates land1 for lakes1 seas1 rivers are seen to form deltas4 ,that ,egypt was the gift of the ,nile was the opinion of the ,egyptian priests1 and there can be no doubt that the fertility of the alluvial plain above ,cairo1 and the very existence of the delta below that city1 are due to the action of that great river1 and to its power of transporting mud from the interior of ,africa and depositing it on its inundated plains as well as on that space which has been reclaimed from the ,mediterranean and converted into land4 ,the delta of the ,ganges and ,brahmapootra is more than double that of the ,nile4 ,even larger is the delta of the ,mississippi1 which has been calculated to be #ab1cjj square miles in area4 ,,tides ,,and ,,currents4 ,the transporting and destroying and constructive power of tides and currents is1 in many respects1 analogous to that of rivers1 but extends to wider areas1 and is1 therefore1 of more geological importance4 ,the chief influence of the ocean is exerted at moderate depths below the surface on all areas which are slowly rising1 or attempting1 as it were1 to rise above the sea2 but its influence is also seen round the coast of every continent and island4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we shall now consider the igneous agents that act on the earth's surface4 ,these agents are chiefly volcanoes and earthquakes1 and we find that both usually occur in particular parts of the world4 ,at various times and at various places within historical times volcanic eruptions and earthquakes have both proved their potency to alter the face of the earth4 ,the principal geological facts and theories with regard to volcanoes and earthquakes are as follows4 ,the primary causes of the volcano and the earthquake are to a great extent the same1 and connected with the development of heat and chemical action at various depths in the interior of the globe4 ,volcanic heat has been supposed to be the result of the original high temperature of the molten planet1 and the planet has been supposed to lose heat by radiation4 ,recent inquiries1 however1 suggest that the apparent loss of heat may arise from the excessive local development of volcanic action4 ,whatever the original shape of our planet1 it must in time have become spheroidal by the gradual operation of centrifugal force acting on yielding materials brought successively within its action by aqueous and igneous causes4 ,the heat in mines and artesian wells increases as we descend1 but not in uniform ratio in different regions4 ,increase at a uniform ratio would imply such heat in the central nucleus as must instantly fuse the crust4 ,assuming that there are good astronomical grounds for inferring the original fluidity of the planet1 yet such pristine fluidity need not affect the question of volcanic heat1 for the volcanic action of successive periods belongs to a much more modern state of the globe1 and implies the melting of different parts of the solid crust one after the other4 ,the supposed great energy of the volcanic forces in the remoter periods is by no means borne out by geological observations on the quantity of lava produced by single eruptions in those several periods4 ,the old notion that the crystalline rocks1 whether stratified or unstratified1 such as granite and gneiss1 were produced in the lower parts of the earth's crust at the expense of a central nucleus slowly cooling from a state of fusion by heat has now had to be given up1 now that granite is found to be of all ages1 and now that we know the metamorphic rocks to be altered sedimentary strata1 implying the denudation of a previously solidified crust4 ,the powerful agency of steam or aqueous vapour in volcanic eruptions leads us to compare its power of propelling lava to the surface with that which it exerts in driving water up the pipe of an ,icelandic geyser4 ,various gases also1 rendered liquid by pressure at great depths1 may aid in causing volcanic outbursts1 and in fissuring and convulsing the rocks during earthquakes4 ,the chemical character of the products of recent eruptions suggests that large bodies of salt water gain access to the volcanic foci4 ,although this may not be the primary cause of volcanic eruptions1 which are probably due to the aqueous vapour intimately mixed with molten rock1 yet once the crust is shattered through1 the force and frequency of eruptions may depend in some measure on the proximity of large bodies of water4 ,the permanent elevation and subsidence of land now observed1 and which may have been going on through past ages1 may be connected with the expansion and contraction of parts of the solid crust1 some of which have been cooling from time to time1 while others have been gaining heat4 ,in the preservation of the average proportion of land and sea1 the igneous agents exert a conservative power1 restoring the unevenness of the surface which the levelling power of water in motion would tend to destroy4 ,if the diameter of the planet remains always the same1 the downward movements of the crust must be somewhat in excess1 to counterbalance the effects of volcanoes and mineral springs1 which are always ejecting material so as to raise the level of the surface of the earth4 ,subterranean movements1 therefore1 however destructive they may be during great earthquakes1 are essential to the well-being of the habitable surface1 and even to the very existence of terrestrial and aquatic species4 ,,iii4--,changes of the ,organic ,world now in ,progress ,in #ahji ,lamarck introduced the idea of transmutation of species1 suggesting that by changes in habitat1 climate1 and manner of living one species may1 in the course of generations1 be transformed into a new and distinct species4 ,in ,england1 however1 the idea remained dormant till in #ahdd a work entitled the ,vestiges of ,creation reinforced it with many new facts4 ,in this work the unity of plan exhibited by the whole organic creation1 fossil and recent1 and the mutual affinities of all the different classes of the animal and vegetable kingdoms1 were declared to be in harmony with the idea of new forms having proceeded from older ones by the gradually modifying influence of environment4 ,in #aheh the theory was put on a new and sound basis by ,wallace and ,darwin1 who added the conception of natural selection1 suggesting that variations in species are naturally produced1 and that the variety fittest to survive in the severe struggle for existence must survive1 and transmit the advantageous variation1 implying the gradual evolution of new species4 ,further1 ,darwin showed that other varieties may be perpetuated by sexual selection4 ,on investigating the geographical distribution of animals and plants we find that the extent to which the species of mammalia1 birds1 insects1 landshells1 and plants 7whether flowering or cryptogamous7 agree with continental species2 or the degree in which those of different islands of the same group agree with each other has an unmistakable relation to the known facilities enjoyed by each class of crossing the ocean4 ,such a relationship accords well with the theory of variation and natural selection1 but with no other hypothesis yet suggested for explaining the origin of species4 ,from what has been said of the changes which are always going on in the habitable surface of the world1 and the manner in which some species are constantly extending their range at the expense of others1 it is evident that the species existing at any particular period may1 in the course of ages1 become extinct one after the other4 ,if such1 then1 be the law of the organic world1 if every species is continually losing some of its varieties1 and every genus some of its species1 it follows that the transitional links which once1 according to the doctrine of transmutation1 must have existed1 will1 in the great majority of cases1 be missing4 ,we learn from geological investigations that throughout an indefinite lapse of ages the whole animate creation has been decimated again and again4 ,sometimes a single representative alone remains of a type once dominant1 or of which the fossil species may be reckoned by hundreds4 ,we rarely find that whole orders have disappeared1 yet this is notably the case in the class of reptiles1 which has lost some orders characterised by a higher organisation than any now surviving in that class4 ,certain genera of plants and animals which seem to have been wholly wanting1 and others which were feebly represented in the ,tertiary period1 are now rich in species1 and appear to be in such perfect harmony with the present conditions of existence that they present us with countless varieties1 confounding the zoologist or botanist who undertakes to describe or classify them4 ,we have only to reflect on the causes of extinction1 and we at once foresee the time when even in these genera so many gaps will occur1 so many transitional forms will be lost1 that there will no longer be any difficulty in assigning definite limits to each surviving species4 ,the blending1 therefore1 of one generic or specific form into another must be an exception to the general rule1 whether in our own time or in any period of the past1 because the forms surviving at any given moment will have been exposed for a long succession of antecedent periods to those powerful causes of extinction which are slowly but incessantly at work in the organic and inorganic worlds4 ,they who imagine that1 if the theory of transmutation be true1 we ought to discover in a fossil state all the intermediate links by which the most dissimilar types have been formerly connected together1 expect a permanence and completeness of records such as is never found4 ,we do not find even that all recently extinct plants have left memorials of their existence in the crust of the earth2 and ancient archives are certainly extremely defective4 ,to one who is aware of the extreme imperfection of the geological record1 the discovery of one or two missing links is a fact of small significance2 but each new form rescued from oblivion is an earnest of the former existence of hundreds of species1 the greater part of which are irrevocably lost4 ,a somewhat serious cause of disquiet and alarm arises out of the supposed bearing of this doctrine of the origin of species by transmutation on the origin of man1 and his place in nature4 ,it is clearly seen that there is such a close affinity1 such an identity in all essential points1 in our corporeal structure1 and in many of our instincts and passions with those of the lower animals--that man is so completely subjected to the same general laws of reproduction1 increase1 growth1 disease1 and death--that if progressive development1 spontaneous variation1 and natural selection have for millions of years directed the changes of the rest of the organic world1 we cannot expect to find that the human race has been exempted from the same continuous process of evolution4 ,such a near bond of connection between man and the rest of the animate creation is regarded by many as derogatory to our dignity4 ,but we have already had to exchange the pleasing conceptions indulged in by poets and theologians as to the high position in the scale of being held by our early progenitors for humble and more lowly beginnings1 the joint labours of the geologist and archologist having left us in no doubt of the ignorance and barbarism of ,palolithic man4 ,it is well1 too1 to remember that the high place we have reached in the scale of being has been gained step by step1 by a conscientious study of natural phenomena1 and by fearlessly teaching the doctrines to which they point4 ,it is by faithfully weighing evidence without regard to preconceived notions1 by earnestly and patiently searching for what is true1 not what we wish to be true1 that we have attained to that dignity1 which we may in vain hope to claim through the rank of an ideal parentage4 ,,james ,,clerk ,,maxwell ,a ,treatise on ,electricity and ,magnetism ,james ,clerk ,maxwell1 the first professor of experimental physics at ,cambridge1 was born at ,edinburgh on ,november #ac1 #ahca1 and before he was fifteen was already famous as a writer of scientific papers4 ,in #ahed he graduated at ,cambridge as second wrangler4 ,two years later he became professor of natural philosophy at ,marischal ,college1 ,aberdeen4 ,vacating his chair in #ahfj for one at ,king's ,college1 ,london1 ,maxwell contributed largely to scientific literature4 ,his great lifework1 however1 is his famous ,treatise on ,electricity and ,magnetism1 which was published in #ahgc1 and is1 in the words of a critic1 one of the most splendid monuments ever raised by the genius of a single individual4 ,it was in this work that he constructed his famous theory if electricity in which action at a distance should be replaced by action through a medium1 and first enunciated the principles of an electro-magnetic theory of light which has formed the basis of nearly all modern physical science4 ,he died on ,november #e1 #ahgi4 ,i4--,the ,nature of ,electricity ,let a piece of glass and a piece of resin be rubbed together4 ,they will be found to attract each other4 ,if a second piece of glass be rubbed with a second piece of resin1 it will be found that the two pieces of glass repel each other and that the two pieces of resin are also repelled from one another1 while each piece of glass attracts each piece of resin4 ,these phenomena of attraction and repulsion are called electrical phenomena1 and the bodies which exhibit them are said to be electrified1 or to be charged with electricity4 ,bodies may be electrified in many other ways1 as well as by friction4 ,when bodies not previously electrified are observed to be acted on by an electrified body1 it is because they have become electrified by induction4 ,if a metal vessel be electrified by induction1 and a second metallic body be suspended by silk threads near it1 and a metal wire be brought to touch simultaneously the electrified body and the second body1 this latter body will be found to be electrified4 ,electricity has been transferred from one body to the other by means of the wire4 ,there are many other manifestations of electricity1 all of which have been more or less studied1 and they lead to the formation of theories of its nature1 theories which fit in1 to a greater or less extent1 with the observed facts4 ,the electrification of a body is a physical quantity capable of measurement1 and two or more electrifications can be combined experimentally with a result of the same kind as when two quantities are added algebraically4 ,we1 therefore1 are entitled to use language fitted to deal with electrification as a quantity as well as a quality1 and to speak of any electrified body as charged with a certain quantity of positive or negative electricity4 ,while admitting electricity to the rank of a physical quantity1 we must not too hastily assume that it is1 or is not1 a substance1 or that it is1 or is not1 a form of energy1 or that it belongs to any known category of physical quantities4 ,all that we have proved is that it cannot be created or annihilated1 so that if the total quantity of electricity within a closed surface is increased or diminished1 the increase or diminution must have passed in or out through the closed surface4 ,this is true of matter1 but it is not true of heat1 for heat may be increased or diminished within a closed surface1 without passing in or out through the surface1 by the transformation of some form of energy into heat1 or of heat into some other form of energy4 ,it is not true even of energy in general if we admit the immediate action of bodies at a distance4 ,there is1 however1 another reason which warrants us in asserting that electricity1 as a physical quantity1 synonymous with the total electrification of a body1 is not1 like heat1 a form of energy4 ,an electrified system has a certain amount of energy1 and this energy can be calculated4 ,the physical qualities1 electricity and potential1 when multiplied together1 produce the quantity1 energy4 ,it is impossible1 therefore1 that electricity and energy should be quantities of the same category1 for electricity is only one of the factors of energy1 the other factor being potential4 ,electricity is treated as a substance in most theories of the subject1 but as there are two kinds of electrification1 which1 being combined1 annul each other1 a distinction has to be drawn between free electricity and combined electricity1 for we cannot conceive of two substances annulling each other4 ,in the two-fluid theory1 all bodies1 in their unelectrified state1 are supposed to be charged with equal quantities of positive and negative electricity4 ,these quantities are supposed to be so great than no process of electrification has ever yet deprived a body of all the electricity of either kind4 ,the two electricities are called fluids because they are capable of being transferred from one body to another1 and are1 within conducting bodies1 extremely mobile4 ,in the one-fluid theory everything is the same as in the theory of two fluids1 except that1 instead of supposing the two substances equal and opposite in all respects1 one of them1 generally the negative one1 has been endowed with the properties and name of ordinary matter1 while the other retains the name of the electric fluid4 ,the particles of the fluid are supposed to repel each other according to the law of the inverse square of the distance1 and to attract those of matter according to the same law4 ,those of matter are supposed to repel each other and attract those of electricity4 ,this theory requires us1 however1 to suppose the mass of the electric fluid so small that no attainable positive or negative electrification has yet perceptibly increased or diminished the mass or the weight of a body1 and it has not yet been able to assign sufficient reasons why the positive rather than the negative electrification should be supposed due to an excess quantity of electricity4 ,for my own part1 ,i look for additional light on the nature of electricity from a study of what takes place in the space intervening between the electrified bodies4 ,some of the phenomena are explained equally by all the theories1 while others merely indicate the peculiar difficulties of each theory4 ,we may conceive the relation into which the electrified bodies are thrown1 either as the result of the state of the intervening medium1 or as the result of a direct action between the electrified bodies at a distance4 ,if we adopt the latter conception1 we may determine the law of the action1 but we can go no further in speculating on its cause4 ,if1 on the other hand1 we adopt the conception of action through a medium1 we are led to inquire into the nature of that action in each part of the medium4 ,if we calculate on this hypothesis the total energy residing in the medium1 we shall find it equal to the energy due to the electrification of the conductors on the hypothesis of direct action at a distance4 ,hence1 the two hypotheses are mathematically equivalent4 ,on the hypothesis that the mechanical action observed between electrified bodies is exerted through and by means of the medium1 as the action of one body on another by means of the tension of a rope or the pressure of a rod1 we find that the medium must be in a state of mechanical stress4 ,the nature of the stress is1 as ,faraday pointed out1 a tension along the lines of force combined with an equal pressure in all directions at right angles to these lines4 ,this distribution of stress is the only one consistent with the observed mechanical action on the electrified bodies1 and also with the observed equilibrium of the fluid dielectric which surrounds them4 ,i have1 therefore1 assumed the actual existence of this state of stress4 ,every case of electrification or discharge may be considered as a motion in a closed circuit1 such that at every section of the circuit the same quantity of electricity crosses in the same time2 and this is the case1 not only in the voltaic current1 where it has always been recognised1 but in those cases in which electricity has been generally supposed to be accumulated in certain places4 ,we are thus led to a very remarkable consequence of the theory which we are examining1 namely1 that the motions of electricity are like those of an incompressible fluid1 so that the total quantity within an imaginary fixed closed surface remains always the same4 ,the peculiar features of the theory as developed in this book are as follows4 ,that the energy of electrification resides in the dielectric medium1 whether that medium be solid or gaseous1 dense or rare1 or even deprived of ordinary gross matter1 provided that it be still capable of transmitting electrical action4 ,that the energy in any part of the medium is stored up in the form of a constraint called polarisation1 dependent on the resultant electromotive force 7the difference of potentials between two conductors7 at the place4 ,that electromotive force acting on a dielectric produces what we call electric displacement4 ,that in fluid dielectrics the electric polarisation is accompanied by a tension in the direction of the lines of force combined with an equal pressure in all directions at right angles to the lines of force4 ,that the surfaces of any elementary portion into which we may conceive the volume of the dielectric divided must be conceived to be electrified1 so that the surface density at any point of the surface is equal in magnitude to the displacement through that point of the surface reckoned inwards4 ,that1 whatever electricity may be1 the phenomena which we have called electric displacement is a movement of electricity in the same sense as the transference of a definite quantity of electricity through a wire4 ,,ii4--,theories of ,magnetism ,certain bodies--as1 for instance1 the iron ore called loadstone1 the earth itself1 and pieces of steel which have been subjected to certain treatment--are found to possess the following properties1 and are called magnets4 ,if a magnet be suspended so as to turn freely about a vertical axis1 it will in general tend to set itself in a certain azimuth1 and1 if disturbed from this position1 it will oscillate about it4 ,it is found that the force which acts on the body tends to cause a certain line in the body--called the axis of the magnet--to become parallel to a certain line in space1 called the direction of the magnetic force4 ,the ends of a long thin magnet are commonly called its poles1 and like poles repel each other2 while unlike poles attract each other4 ,the repulsion between the two magnetic poles is in the straight line joining them1 and is numerically equal to the products of the strength of the poles divided by the square of the distance between them2 that is1 it varies as the inverse square of the distance4 ,since the form of the law of magnetic action is identical with that of electric action1 the same reasons which can be given for attributing electric phenomena to the action of one fluid1 or two fluids can also be used in favour of the existence of a magnetic matter1 fluid or otherwise1 provided new laws are introduced to account for the actual facts4 ,at all parts of the earth's surface1 except some parts of the polar regions1 one end of a magnet points in a northerly direction and the other in a southerly one4 ,now a bar of iron held parallel to the direction of the earth's magnetic force is found to become magnetic4 ,any piece of soft iron placed in a magnetic field is found to exhibit magnetic properties4 ,these are phenomena of induced magnetism4 ,poisson supposes the magnetism of iron to consist in a separation of the magnetic fluids within each magnetic molecule4 ,weber's theory differs from this in assuming that the molecules of the iron are always magnets1 even before the application of the magnetising force1 but that in ordinary iron the magnetic axes of the molecules are turned indifferently in every direction1 so that the iron as a whole exhibits no magnetic properties2 and this theory agrees very well with what is observed4 ,the theories establish the fact that magnetisation is a phenomenon1 not of large masses of iron1 but of molecules2 that is to say1 of portions of the substance so small that we cannot by any mechanical method cut them in two1 so as to obtain a north pole separate from the south pole4 ,we have arrived at no explanation1 however1 of the nature of a magnetic molecule1 and we have therefore to consider the hypothesis of ,ampre--that the magnetism of the molecule is due to an electric current constantly circulating in some closed path within it4 ,ampre concluded that if magnetism is to be explained by means of electric currents1 these currents must circulate within the molecules of the magnet1 and cannot flow from one molecule to another4 ,as we cannot experimentally measure the magnetic action at a point within the molecule1 this hypothesis cannot be disproved in the same way that we can disprove the hypothesis of sensible currents within the magnet4 ,in spite of its apparent complexity1 ,ampre's theory greatly extends our mathematical vision into the interior of the molecules4 ,,iii4--,the ,electro-,magnetic ,theory of ,light ,we explain electro-magnetic phenomena by means of mechanical action transmitted from one body to another by means of a medium occupying the space between them4 ,the undulatory theory of light also assumes the existence of a medium4 ,we have to show that the properties of the electro-magnetic medium are identical with those of the luminiferous medium4 ,to fill all space with a new medium whenever any new phenomena are to be explained is by no means philosophical1 but if the study of two different branches of science has independently suggested the idea of a medium2 and if the properties which must be attributed to the medium in order to account for electro-magnetic phenomena are of the same kind as those which we attribute to the luminiferous medium in order to account for the phenomena of light1 the evidence for the physical existence of the medium is considerably strengthened4 ,according to the theory of emission1 the transmission of light energy is effected by the actual transference of light-corpuscles from the luminous to the illuminated body4 ,according to the theory of undulation there is a material medium which fills the space between the two bodies1 and it is by the action of contiguous parts of this medium that the energy is passed on1 from one portion to the next1 till it reaches the illuminated body4 ,the luminiferous medium is therefore1 during the passage of light through it1 a receptacle of energy4 ,this energy is supposed to be partly potential and partly kinetic1 and our theory agrees with the undulatory theory in assuming the existence of a medium capable of becoming a receptacle for two forms of energy4 ,now1 the properties of bodies are capable of quantitative measurement4 ,we therefore obtain the numerical value of some property of the medium--such as the velocity with which a disturbance is propagated in it1 which can be calculated from experiments1 and also observed directly in the case of light4 ,if it be found that the velocity of propagation of electro-magnetic disturbance is the same as the velocity of light1 we have strong reasons for believing that light is an electro-magnetic phenomenon4 ,it is1 in fact1 found that the velocity of light and the velocity of propagation of electro-magnetic disturbance are quantities of the same order of magnitude4 ,neither of them can be said to have been determined accurately enough to say that one is greater than the other4 ,in the meantime1 our theory asserts that the quantities are equal1 and assigns a physical reason for this equality1 and it is not contradicted by the comparison of the results1 such as they are4 ,lorenz has deduced from ,kirchoff's equations of electric currents a new set of equations1 indicating that the distribution of force in the electro-magnetic field may be considered as arising from the mutual action of contiguous elements1 and that waves1 consisting of transverse electric currents1 may be propagated1 with a velocity comparable with that of light1 in non-conducting media4 ,these conclusions are similar to my own1 though obtained by an entirely different method4 ,the most important step in establishing a relation between electric and magnetic phenomena and those of light must be the discovery of some instance in which one set of phenomena is affected by the other4 ,faraday succeeded in establishing such a relation1 and the experiments by which he did so are described in the nineteen series of his ,experimental ,researches4 ,suffice it to state here that he showed that in the case of aray of plane-polarised light the effect of the magnetic force is to turn the plane of polarisation round the direction of the ray as an axis1 through a certain angle4 ,the action of magnetism on polarised light leads to the conclusion that in a medium under the action of a magnetic force1 something belonging to the same mathematical class as an angular velocity1 whose axis is in the direction of the magnetic force1 forms part of the phenomenon4 ,this angular velocity cannot be any portion of the medium of sensible dimensions rotating as a whole4 ,we must1 therefore1 conceive the rotation to be that of very small portions of the medium1 each rotating on its own axis4 ,this is the hypothesis of molecular vortices4 ,the displacements of the medium during the propagation of light will produce a disturbance of the vortices1 and the vortices1 when so disturbed1 may react on the medium so as to affect the propagation of the ray4 ,the theory proposed is of a provisional kind1 resting as it does on unproved hypotheses relating to the nature of molecular vortices1 and the mode in which they are affected by the displacement of the medium4 ,,iv4--,action at a ,distance ,there appears to be some prejudice1 or a priori objection1 against the hypothesis of a medium in which the phenomena of radiation of light and heat1 and the electric actions at a distance1 take place4 ,it is true that at one time those who speculated as to the cause of physical phenomena were in the habit of accounting for each kind of action at a distance by means of a special thereal fluid1 whose function and property it was to produce these actions4 ,they filled all space three and four times over with thers of different kinds1 the properties of which consisted merely to save appearances1 so that more rational inquirers were willing to accept not only ,newton's definite law of attraction at a distance1 but even the dogma of ,cotes that action at a distance is one of the primary properties of matter1 and that no explanation can be more intelligible than this fact4 ,hence the undulatory theory of light has met with much opposition1 directed not against its failure to explain the phenomena1 but against its assumption of the existence of a medium in which light is propagated4 ,the mathematical expression for electro-dynamic action led1 in the mind of ,gauss1 to the conviction that a theory of the propagation of electric action would in time be found to be the very keystone of electro-dynamics4 ,now1 we are unable to conceive of propagation in time1 except either as the flight of a material substance through space or as the propagation of a condition of motion or stress in a medium already existing in space4 ,in the theory of ,neumann1 the mathematical conception called potential1 which we are unable to conceive as a material substance1 is supposed to be projected from one particle to another1 in a manner which is quite independent of a medium1 and which1 as ,neumann has himself pointed out1 is extremely different from that of the propagation of light4 ,in other theories it would appear that the action is supposed to be propagated in a manner somewhat more similar to that of light4 ,but in all these theories the question naturally occurs3 ,if something is transmitted from one particle to another at a distance1 what is its condition after it had left the one particle1 and before it reached the other8 ,if this something is the potential energy of the two particles1 as in ,neumann's theory1 how are we to conceive this energy as existing in a point of space coinciding neither with the one particle nor with the other8 ,in fact1 whenever energy is transmitted from one body to another in time1 there must be a medium or substance in which the energy exists after it leaves one body1 and before it reaches the other1 for energy1 as ,torricelli remarked1 is a quintessence of so subtile a nature that it cannot be contained in any vessel except the inmost substance of material things4 ,hence all these theories lead to the conception of a medium in which the propagation takes place1 and if we admit this medium as an hypothesis1 ,i think we ought to endeavour to construct a mental representation of all the details of its action1 and this has been my constant aim in this treatise4 ,,elie ,,metchnikoff ,the ,nature of ,man ,elie ,metchnikoff1 ,sub-,director of the ,pasteur ,institute in ,paris1 was born ,may #ae1 #ahde1 in the province of ,kharkov1 ,russia1 and has worked at the ,pasteur ,institute since #ahhh4 ,the greater part of ,metchnikoff's work is concerned with the most intimate processes of the body1 and notably the means by which it defends itself from the living agents of disease4 ,he is1 indeed1 the author of a standard treatise entitled ,immunity in ,infective ,diseases4 ,his early work in zoology led him to study the water-flea1 and thence to discover that the white cells of the human blood oppose1 consume1 and destroy invading microbes4 ,latterly1 ,metchnikoff has devoted himself in some measure to more general and especially philosophical studies1 the outcome of which is best represented by the notable volume on ,the ,nature of ,man1 which was published at ,paris in #aijc4 ,i4--,disharmonies in ,nature ,notwithstanding the real advance made by science1 it cannot be disputed that a general uneasiness disturbs the whole world to-day1 and the frequency of suicide is increased greatly among civilised peoples4 ,yet if science turns to study human nature1 there may be grounds for hope4 ,the ,greeks held human nature and the human body in high esteem1 and among the ,romans such a philosopher as ,seneca said1 ,take nature as your guide1 for so reason bids you and advises you2 to live happily is to live naturally4 ,in our own day ,herbert ,spencer has expressed again the ,greek ideal1 seeking the foundation of morality in human nature itself4 ,but it has often been taught that human nature is composed of two hostile elements1 a body and a soul4 ,the soul alone was to be honoured1 while the body was regarded as the vile source of evils4 ,this doctrine has had many disastrous consequences1 and it is not surprising that in consequence of it celibacy should have been regarded as the ideal state4 ,art fell from the ,greek ideal until the ,renaissance1 with its return to that ideal1 brought new vigour4 ,when the ancient spirit was born again its influence reached science and even religion1 and the ,reformation was a defence of human nature4 ,the ,lutheran doctrines resumed the principle of a development as complete as possible of all the natural powers of man1 and compulsory celibacy was abolished4 ,the historical diversity of opinion regarding human nature is what has led me to the attempt to give an exposition of human nature in its strength and in its weakness4 ,but1 before dealing with the man himself1 we must survey the lower forms of life4 ,the facts of the organised world1 before the appearnace of man1 teach us that though we find change and development1 development does not always take a progressive march4 ,we are bound to believe1 for instance1 that the latest products of evolution are not human beings1 but certain parasites which live only upon1 or in1 the human body4 ,the law in nature is not of constant progress1 but of constant tendency towards adaptation4 ,exquisite adaptations1 or harmonies1 in nature are constantly met with in the world of living beings4 ,but1 on the other hand1 any close investigation of organisation and life reveals that beside many most perfect harmonies1 there are facts which prove the existence of incomplete harmony1 or even absolute disharmony4 ,rudimentary and useless organs are widely distributed4 ,many insects are exquisitely adapted for sucking the nectar of flowers2 many others would wish to do the same1 but their want of adaptation baffles them4 ,it is plain that an instinct1 or any other form of disharmony1 leading to destruction1 cannot increase or even endure very long4 ,the perversion of the maternal instinct1 tending to abandonment of the young1 is destructive to the stock4 ,in consequence1 individuals affected by it do not have the opportunity of transmitting the perversion4 ,if all rabbits1 or a majority of them1 left their young to die through neglect1 it is evident that the species would soon die out4 ,on the contrary1 mothers guided by their instinct to nourish and foster their offspring will produce a vigorous generation capable of transmitting the healthy maternal instinct so essential for the preservation of the species4 ,for such a reason harmonious characters are more abundant in nature than injurious peculiarities4 ,the latter1 because they are injurious to the individual and to the species1 cannot perpetuate themselves indefinitely4 ,in this way there comes about a constant selection of characters4 ,the useful qualities are handed down and preserved1 while noxious characters perish and so disappear4 ,although disharmonies tend to the destruction of a species1 they may themselves disappear without having destroyed the race in which they occur4 ,this continuous process of natural selection1 which offers so good an explanation of the transmutation and origin of species by means of preservation of useful and destruction of harmful characters1 was discovered by ,darwin and ,wallace1 and was established by the splendid researches of the former of these4 ,long before the appearance of man on the face of the earth1 there were some happy beings well adapted to their environment1 and some unhappy creatures that followed disharmonious instincts so as to imperil or to destroy their lives4 ,were such creatures capable of reflection and communication1 plainly the fortunate among them1 such as orchids and certain wasps1 would be on the side of the optimists2 they would declare this the best of all possible worlds1 and insist that to secure happiness it is necessary only to follow natural instincts4 ,on the other hand1 the disharmonious creatures1 those ill adapted to the conditions of life1 would be pessimistic philosophers4 ,consider the case of the ladybird1 driven by hunger and with a preference for honey1 which searches for it on flowers and meets only with failure1 or of insects driven by their instincts into the flames1 only to lose their wings and their lives2 such creatures1 plainly1 would express as their idea of the world that it was fashioned abominably1 and that existence was a mistake4 ,,ii4--,disharmonies in ,man ,as for man1 the creature most interesting to us1 in what category does he fall8 ,is he a being whose nature is in harmony with the conditions in which he has to live1 or is he out of harmony with his environment8 ,a critical examination is needed to answer these questions1 and to such an examination the pages to follow are devoted4 ,science has proved that man is closely akin to the higher monkeys or anthropoid apes--a fact which we must reckon with if we are to understand human nature4 ,the details of anatomy which show the kinship between man and the apes are numerous and astonishing4 ,all the facts brought to light during the last forty years have supported this truth1 and no single fact has been brought against it4 ,quite lately it has been shown that there are remarkable characters in the blood1 such that1 though by certain tests the fluid part of human blood can be readily distinguished from that of any other creature1 the anthropoid apes1 and they alone1 furnish an exception to this rule4 ,there is thus verily a close blood-relationship between the human species and the anthropoid apes4 ,but how man arose we do not know4 ,it is probable that he owes his origin to a mutation--a sudden change comparable with that which ,de ,vries observed in the case of the evening primrose4 ,the new creature possessed a brain of abnormal size placed in a spacious cranium which allowed a rapid development of intellectual faculties4 ,this peculiarity would be transmitted to the descendants1 and as it was a very considerable advantage in the struggle for existence1 the new race would hold its own1 propagate1 and prevail4 ,although he is a recent arrival on the earth1 man has already made great progress1 as compared with his ancestors the anthropoid apes1 and we learn the same if we compare the higher and lower races of mankind4 ,yet there remain many disharmonies in the organisation of man1 as1 for instance1 in his digestive system4 ,a simple instance of this kind is furnished by the wisdom teeth4 ,the complete absence of all four wisdom teeth has no influence on mastication1 and their presence is very frequently the source of illness and danger4 ,in man they are indeed rudimentary organs1 providing another proof of our simian origin4 ,the vermiform appendix1 so frequently the cause of illness and death1 is another rudimentary organ in the human body1 together with the part of the digestive canal to which it is attached4 ,the organ is a very old part of the constitution of mammals1 and it is because it has been preserved long after its function has disappeared that we find it occurring in the body of man4 ,i believe that not only the appendix1 but a very large part of the alimentary canal is superfluous1 and worse than superfluous4 ,it is1 of course1 of great importance to the horse1 the rabbit1 and some other mammals that live exclusively on grain and herbage4 ,the latter part of the alimentary canal1 however1 must be regarded as one of the organs possessed by man and yet harmful to his health and life4 ,it is the cause of a series of misfortunes4 ,the human stomach also is of little value1 and can easily be dispensed with1 as surgery has proved4 ,it is because we inherit our alimentary canal from creatures of different dietetic habits that it is impossible for us to take our nutriment in the most perfect form4 ,if we were only to eat substances that could be almost completely absorbed1 serious complications would be produced4 ,a satisfactory system of diet has to make allowance for this1 and in consequence of the structure of the alimentary canal has to include in the food bulky and indigestible materials1 such as vegetables4 ,lastly1 it may be noted that the instinct of appetite in man is largely aberrant4 ,the widespread results of alcoholism show plainly the prevalent existence in man of a want of harmony between the instinct for choosing food and the instinct of preservation4 ,far stronger than the social instinct1 and far older1 is the love of life and the instinct of self-preservation4 ,devices for the protection of life were developed long before the evolution of mankind1 and it is quite certain that animals1 even those highest in the scale of life1 are unconscious of the inevitability of death and the ultimate fate of all living things4 ,this knowledge is a human acquisition4 ,it has long been recognised that the old attach a higher value to life than do the young4 ,the instinctive love of life and fear of death are of importance in the study of human nature1 impossible to over-estimate4 ,the instinctive love of life is preserved in the aged in its strongest form4 ,i have carefully studied the aged to make certain on this point4 ,it is a terrible disharmony that the instinctive love of life should manifest itself so strongly when death is felt to be so near at hand4 ,hence the religions of all times have been concerned with the problem of death4 ,,iii4--,science the ,only ,remedy for ,human ,disharmonies ,in religion and in philosophy throughout their whole history we find attempts to combat the ills arising from the disharmonies of the human constitution4 ,ancient and modern philosophies1 like ancient and modern religions1 have concerned themselves with the attempt to remedy the ills of human existence1 and instinctive fear of death has always ensured that great attention has been paid to the doctrine of immortality4 ,science1 the youngest daughter of knowledge1 has begun to investigate the great problems affecting humanity4 ,her first steps1 taken along the lines first clearly laid down by ,bacon1 were slow and halting4 ,but medical science has lately made great progress1 and has gone very far to control disease1 especially in consequence of the work of ,pasteur4 ,it is said that science has failed because1 for instance1 tuberculosis persists1 but tuberculosis is propagated not because of the failure of science1 but because of the ignorance and stupidity of the population4 ,to diminish the spread of tuberculosis1 of typhoid fever1 of dysentery1 and of many other diseases1 it is necessary only to follow the rules of scientific hygiene without waiting for specific remedies4 ,science offers us much hope also when it is directed to the study of old age and the phenomena which lead to death4 ,man1 who is the descendant of some anthropoid ape1 has inherited a constitution adapted to an environment very different from that which now surrounds him4 ,he is possessed of a brain very much more highly developed than that of his ancestors1 and has entered on a new path in the evolution of the higher organisms4 ,the sudden change in his natural conditions has brought about a large series of organic disharmonies1 which become more and more acutely felt as he becomes more intelligent and more sensitive2 and thus there has arisen a number of sorrows which poor humanity has tried to relieve by all the means in its power4 ,humanity in its misery has put question after question to science1 and has lost patience at the slowness of the advance of knowledge4 ,it has declared that the answers already found by science are futile and of little interest4 ,but science1 confident of its methods1 has quietly continued to work4 ,little by little the answers to some of the questions that have been set have begun to appear4 ,man1 because of the fundamental disharmonies in his constitution1 does not develop normally4 ,the earlier phases of his development are passed through with little trouble2 but after maturity greater or lesser abnormality begins1 and ends in old age and death that are premature and pathological4 ,is not the goal of existence the accomplishment of a complete and physiological cycle in which occurs a normal old age1 ending in the loss of the instinct of life and the appearance of the instinct of death8 ,but before attaining the normal end1 coming after the appearance of the instinct of death1 a normal life must be lived2 a life filled all through with the feeling that comes from the accomplishment of function4 ,science has been able to tell us that man1 the descendant of animals1 has good and evil qualities in his nature1 and that his life is made unhappy by the evil qualities4 ,but the constitution of man is not immutable1 and perhaps it may be changed for the better4 ,morality should be based not on human nature in its existing condition1 but on ideal human nature1 as it may be in the future4 ,before all things1 it is necessary to try to amend the evolution of human life1 that is to say1 to transform its disharmonies into harmonies4 ,this task can be undertaken only by science1 and to science the opportunity of accomplishing it must be given4 ,before it is possible to reach the goal mankind must be persuaded that science is all-powerful and that the deeply-rooted existing superstitions are pernicious4 ,it will be necessary to reform many customs and many institutions that now seem to rest on enduring foundations4 ,the abandonment of much that is habitual1 and a revolution in the mode of education1 will require long and painful effort4 ,but the conviction that science alone is able to redress the disharmonies of the human constitution will lead directly to the improvement of education and to the solidarity of mankind4 ,the ,prolongation of ,life ,professor ,metchnikoff's volume1 on ,the ,prolongation of ,life3 ,studies in ,optimistic ,philosophy1 was published in #aijg1 and is in some respects the most original of his works4 ,in it he carries much further the arguments and the studies to which he made brief allusion in ,the ,nature of ,man1 and he lays down certain principles for the prolongation of life which have been put into practice by a large number of people during the last two or three years1 and are steadily gaining more attention4 ,sour milk as an article of diet appears to have a peculiar value in arresting the supposed senile changes which are largely due to auto-intoxication or self-poisoning4 ,i4--,senile ,debility ,when we study old age in man and the lower animals1 we observe certain features common to both4 ,but often among vertebrates there are found animals whose bodies withstand the ravages of time much better than that of man4 ,i think it a fair inference that senility1 that precocious senescence which is one of the greatest sorrows of humanity1 is not so profoundly seated in the constitution of the higher animals as has generally been supposed4 ,the first facts which we must accept are that human beings who reach extreme old age may preserve their mental qualities1 notwithstanding serious physical decay1 and that certain of the higher animals can resist the influence of time much longer than is the case with man under present conditions4 ,many theories have been advanced regarding the cause of senility4 ,it is certain that many parts of the body continue to thrive and grow even in old age1 as1 for instance1 the nails and hair4 ,but ,i believe that ,i have proved that in many parts of the body1 especially the higher elements1 such as nervous and muscular cells1 there is a destruction due to the activity of the white cells of the blood4 ,i have shown also that the blanching of the hair in old age is due to the activity of these white cells1 which destroy the hair pigment4 ,progressive muscular debility is an accompaniment of old age2 physical work is seldom given to men over sixty years of age1 as it is notorious that they are less capable of it4 ,their muscular movements are feebler1 and soon bring on fatigue2 their actions are slow and painful4 ,even old men whose mental vigour is unimpaired admit their muscular weakness4 ,the physical correlate of this condition is an actual atrophy of the muscles1 and has for long been known to observers4 ,i have found that the cause of this atrophy is the consumption of the muscle fibres by what ,i call phagocytes1 or eating cells1 a certain kind of white blood cells4 ,in the case of certain diseases we find symptoms1 which look like precocious senility1 due to the poison of the disease4 ,it is no mere analogy to suppose that human senescence is the result of a slow but chronic poisoning of the organism4 ,such poisons1 if not completely destroyed or got rid of1 weaken the tissues1 the functions of which become altered or enfeebled in which the latter have the advantage4 ,but we must make further studies before we can answer the question whether our senescence can be ameliorated4 ,the duration of the life of animals varies within very wide limits4 ,as a general rule1 small animals do not live so long as large ones1 but there is no absolute relation between size and longevity1 since parrots1 ravens1 and geese live much longer than many mammals1 and than some much larger birds4 ,buffon long ago argued that the total duration of life bore some definite relation to the length of the period of growth1 but further inquiry shows that such a relation cannot be established4 ,nevertheless1 there is something intrinsic in each kind of animal which sets a definite limit to the length of years it can attain4 ,the purely physiological conditions which determine this limit leave room for a considerable amount of variation in longevity4 ,duration of life1 therefore1 is a character which can be influenced by the environment4 ,the duration of life in mammals is relatively shorter than in birds1 and in the so-called cold-blooded vertebrates4 ,no indication as to the cause of this difference can be found elsewhere than in the organs of digestion4 ,mammals are the only group of vertebrate animals in which the large intestine is much developed4 ,this part of the alimentary canal is not important1 for it fulfils no notable digestive function4 ,on the other hand1 it accommodates among the intestinal flora many microbes which damage health by poisoning the body with their products4 ,among the intestinal flora there are many microbes which are inoffensive1 but others are known to have pernicious properties1 and auto-intoxication1 or self-poisoning1 is the cause of the ill-health which may be traced to their activity4 ,it is indubitable that the intestinal microbes or their poisons may reach the system generally1 and bring harm to it4 ,i infer from the facts that the more the digestive tract is charged with microbes1 the more it is a source of harm capable of shortening life4 ,as the large intestine not only is that part of the digestive tube most richly charged with microbes1 but is relatively more capacious in mammals than in any other vertebrates1 it is a just inference that the duration of life of mammals has been notably shortened as the result of chronic poisoning from an abundant intestinal flora4 ,when we come to study the duration of human life1 it is impossible to accept the view that the high mortality between the ages of seventy and seventy-five indicates a natural limit to human life4 ,the fact that many men from seventy to seventy-five years old are well preserved1 both physically and intellectually1 makes it impossible to regard that age as the natural limit of human life4 ,philosophers such as ,plato1 poets such as ,goethe and ,victor ,hugo1 artists such as ,michael ,angelo1 ,titian1 and ,franz ,hals1 produced some of their most important works when they had passed what some regard as the limit of life4 ,moreover1 deaths of people at that age are rarely due to senile debility4 ,centenarians are really not rare4 ,in ,france1 for instance1 nearly #aej centenarians die every year1 and extreme longevity is not limited to the white races4 ,women more frequently become centenarians than men--a fact which supports the general proposition that male mortality is always greater than that of the other sex4 ,it has been noticed that most centenarians have been people who were poor or in humble circumstances1 and whose life has been extremely simple4 ,it may well be said that great riches do not bring a very long life4 ,poverty generally brings with it sobriety1 especially in old age1 and sobriety is certainly favourable to long life4 ,,ii4--,the ,study of ,natural ,death ,it is surprising to find how little science really knows about death4 ,by natural death ,i mean to denote death due to the nature of the organism1 and not to disease4 ,we may ask whether natural death really occurs1 since death so frequently comes by accident or by disease2 and certainly the longevity of many plants is amazing4 ,such ages as three1 four1 and five thousand years are attributed to the baobab at ,cape ,verd1 certain cypresses1 and the sequoias of ,california4 ,it is plain that among the lower and higher plants there are cases where natural death does not exist2 and1 further1 so far as ,i can ascertain1 it looks as if poisons produced by their own bodies were the cause of natural death among the higher plants where it does occur4 ,in the human race cases of what may be called natural death are extremely rare2 the death of old people is usually due to infectious disease1 particularly pneumonia1 or to apoplexy4 ,the close analogy between natural death and sleep supports my view that it is due to an auto-intoxication of the organism1 since it is very probable that sleep is due to poisoning by the products of organic activity4 ,although the duration of the life of man is one of the longest amongst mammals1 men find it too short4 ,ought we to listen to the cry of humanity that life is too short1 and that it will be well to prolong it8 ,if the question were merely one of prolonging the life of old people1 without modifying old age itself1 the answer would be doubtful4 ,it must be understood1 however1 that the prolongation of life will be associated with the preservation of intelligence and of the power to work4 ,when we have reduced or abolished such causes of precocious senility as intemperance and disease1 it will no longer be necessary to give pensions at the age of sixty or seventy years4 ,the cost of supporting the old1 instead of increasing1 will diminish progressively4 ,we must use all our endeavors to allow men to complete their normal course of life1 and to make it possible for old men to play their parts as advisers and judges1 endowed with their long experience of life4 ,from time immemorial suggestions have been made for the prolongation of life4 ,many elixirs have been sought and supposed to have been found1 but general hygienic measures have been the most successful in prolonging life and in lessening the ills of old age4 ,that is the teaching of ,sir ,herman ,weber1 himself of very great age1 who advises general hygienic principles1 and especially moderation in all respects4 ,he advises us to avoid alcohol and other stimulants1 as well as narcotics and soothing drugs4 ,certainly the prolongation of life which has come to pass in recent centuries must be attributed to the advance of hygiene2 and if hygiene was able to prolong life when little developed1 as was the case until recently1 we may well believe that with our greater knowledge a much better result will be obtained4 ,,iii4--,the ,use of ,lactic ,acid ,the general measures of hygiene directed against infectious diseases play a part in prolonging the lives of old people2 but1 in addition to the microbes which invade the body from outside1 there is a rich source of harm in microbes which inhabit the body4 ,the most important of these belong to the intestinal flora which is abundant and varied4 ,now the attempt to destroy the intestinal microbes by the use of chemical agents has little chance of success1 and the intestine itself may be harmed more than the microbes4 ,if1 however1 we observe the new-born child we find that1 when suckled by its mother1 its intestinal microbes are very different and much fewer than if it be fed with cows' milk4 ,i am strongly convinced that it is advantageous to protect ourselves by cooking all kinds of food which1 like cows' milk1 are exposed to the air4 ,it is well-known that other means--as1 for instance1 the use of lactic acid--will prevent food outside the body from going bad4 ,now as lactic fermentation serves so well to arrest putrefaction in general1 why should it not be used for the same purpose within the digestive tube8 ,it has been clearly proved that the microbes which produce lactic acid can1 and do1 control the growth of other microbes within the body1 and that the lactic microbe is so much at home in the human body that it is to be found there several weeks after it has been swallowed4 ,from time immemorial human beings have absorbed quantities of lactic microbes by consuming in the uncooked condition substances such as soured milk1 kephir1 sauerkraut1 or salted cucumbers1 which have undergone lactic fermentation4 ,by these means they have unknowingly lessened the evil consequences of intestinal putrefaction4 ,the fact that so many races make soured milk and use it copiously is an excellent testimony to its usefulness1 and critical inquiry shows that longevity1 with few traces of senility1 is conspicuous amongst peoples who use sour milk extensively4 ,a reader who has little knowledge of such matters may be surprised by my recommendation to absorb large quantities of microbes1 as the general belief is that microbes are all harmful4 ,this belief1 however1 is erroneous4 ,there are many useful microbes1 amongst which the lactic bacilli have an honourable place4 ,if it be true that our precocious and unhappy old age is due to poisoning of the tissues1 the greater part of the poison coming from the large intestine1 inhabited by numberless microbes1 it is clear that agents which arrest intestinal putrefaction must at the same time postpone and ameliorate old age4 ,this theoretical view is confirmed by the collection of facts regarding races which live chiefly on soured milk1 and amongst which great ages are common4 ,,iv4--,an ,ideal ,old ,age ,as ,i have shown in the ,nature of ,man1 the human constitution as it exists to-day1 being the result of a long evolution and containing a large animal element1 cannot furnish the basis of rational morality4 ,the conception which has come down from antiquity to modern times1 of a harmonious activity of all the organs1 is no longer appropriate to mankind4 ,organs which are in course of atrophy must not be re-awakened1 and many natural characters which1 perhaps1 were useful in the case of animals1 must be made to disappear in men4 ,human nature which1 like the constitutions of other organisms1 is subject to evolution1 must be modified according to a definite ideal4 ,just as a gardener or stock-raiser is not content with the existing nature of the plants and animals with which he is occupied1 but modifies them to suit his purposes1 so also the scientific philosopher must not think of existing human nature as immutable1 but must try to modify it for the advantage of mankind4 ,as bread is the chief article in the human food1 attempts to improve cereals have been made for a very long time1 but in order to obtain results much knowledge is necessary4 ,to modify the nature of plants1 it is necessary to understand them well1 and it is necessary to have an ideal to be aimed at4 ,in the case of mankind the ideal of human nature1 towards which we ought to press1 may be formed4 ,in my opinion this ideal is orthobiosis--that is to say1 the development of human life1 so that it passes through a long period of old age in active and vigorous health1 leading to a final period in which there shall be present a sense of satiety of life1 and a wish for death4 ,just as we must study the nature of plants before trying to realise our ideal1 so also varied and profound knowledge is the first requisite for the ideal of moral conduct4 ,it is necessary not only to know the structure and functions of the human organism1 but to have exact ideas on human life as it is in society4 ,scientific knowledge is so indispensable for moral conduct that ignorance must be placed among the most immoral acts4 ,a mother who rears her child in defiance of good hygiene1 from want of knowledge1 is acting immorally towards her offspring1 notwithstanding her feeling of sympathy4 ,and this also is true of a government which remains in ignorance of the laws which regulate human life and human society4 ,if the human race come to adopt the principles of orthobiosis1 a considerable change in the qualities of men of different ages will follow4 ,old age will be postponed so much that men of from sixty to seventy years of age will retain their vigour1 and will not require to ask assistance in the fashion now necessary4 ,on the other hand1 young men of twenty-one years of age will no longer be thought mature or ready to fulfil functions so difficult as taking a share in public affairs4 ,the view which ,i set forth in the ,nature of ,man regarding the danger which comes from the present interference of young men in political affairs has since then been confirmed in the most striking fashion4 ,it is easily intelligible that in the new conditions such modern idols as universal suffrage1 public opinion1 and the referendum1 in which the ignorant masses are called on to decide questions which demand varied and profound knowledge1 will last no longer than the old idols4 ,the progress of human knowledge will bring about the replacement of such institutions by others1 in which applied morality will be controlled by the really competent persons4 ,i permit myself to suppose that in these times scientific training will be much more general than it is just now1 and that it will occupy the place which it deserves in education and in life4 ,our intelligence informs us that man is capable of much1 and1 therefore1 we hope that he may be able to modify his own nature and transform his disharmonies into harmonies4 ,it is only human will that can attain this ideal4 ,,hugh ,,miller ,the ,old ,red ,sandstone ,hugh ,miller was born in ,cromarty1 in the ,north of ,scotland1 ,october #aj1 #ahjb4 ,from the time he was seventeen until he was thirty-four1 he worked as a common stone-mason1 although devoting his leisure hours to independent researches in natural history1 for which he formed a taste early in life4 ,he became interested in journalism1 and was editor of the ,edinburgh ,witness1 when1 in #ahdj1 he published the contents of the volume issued a year later as ,the ,old ,red ,sandstone4 ,the book deals with its author's most distinctive work1 namely1 finding fossils that tell much of the history of the ,lower ,old ,red ,sandstone1 and fixing in the geological scale the place to which the larger beds of remains found in the system belong4 ,besides being a practical and original geologist1 ,miller had a fine imaginative power1 which enabled him to reconstruct the past from its ruinous relics4 ,the fact that he unfortunately set himself the task of combating the theory of evolution1 which was fast gaining ground in his day1 should not blind us to the high value of his geological experiences4 ,the results of his observations provide some of the most cogent proofs of the theory he disputed4 ,late in life ,miller's mind gave way1 and he put an end to his own life on ,december #bd1 #ahef4 ,i4--,a ,stone-mason's ,researches ,my advice to young working men desirous of bettering their circumstances1 and adding to the amount of their enjoyment1 is to seek happiness in study4 ,learn to make a right use of your eyes2 the commonest things are worth looking at--even stones1 weeds1 and the most familiar animals4 ,there are none of the intellectual or moral faculties1 the exercise of which does not lead to enjoyment2 hence it is that happiness bears so little reference to station4 ,twenty years ago ,i made my first acquaintance with a life of labour and restraint4 ,i was but a slim1 loose-jointed boy at the time1 fond of the pretty intangibilities of romance1 and of dreaming when broad awake2 and1 woful change6 ,i was now going to work in a quarry4 ,i was going to exchange all my day-dreams for the kind of life in which men toil every day that they may be enabled to eat1 and eat every day that they may be enabled to toil6 ,that first day was no very formidable beginning of the course of life ,i had so much dreaded4 ,to be sure1 my hands were a little sore1 and ,i felt nearly as much fatigued as if ,i had been climbing among the rocks2 but ,i had wrought and been useful1 and had yet enjoyed the day fully as much as usual4 ,i was as light of heart next morning as any of my brother-workmen4 ,that night1 arising out of my employment1 ,i found ,i had food enough for thought without once thinking of the unhappiness of a life of labour4 ,in the course of the day ,i picked up a nodular mass of blue limestone1 and laid it open by a stroke of the hammer4 ,wonderful to relate1 it contained inside a beautifully finished piece of sculpture1 one of the volutes1 apparently1 of an ,ionic capital4 ,was there another such curiosity in the whole world8 ,i broke open a few other nodules of similar appearance1 and found that there might be4 ,in one of these there were what seemed to be scales of fishes and the impressions of a few minute bivalves1 prettily striated2 in the centre of another there was actually a piece of decayed wood4 ,of all nature's riddles these seemed to me to be at once the most interesting and the most difficult to expound4 ,i treasured them carefully up1 and was told by one of the workmen to whom ,i showed them that there was a part of the shore1 about two miles further to the west1 where curiously shaped stones1 somewhat like the heads of boarding-pikes1 were occasionally picked up1 and that in his father's day the country people called them thunderbolts4 ,our first half-holiday ,i employed in visiting the place where the thunderbolts had fallen so thickly1 and found it a richer scene of wonder than ,i could have fancied even in my dreams4 ,my first year of labour came to a close1 and ,i found that the amount of my happiness had not been less than in the last of my boyhood4 ,my knowledge had increased in more than the ratio of former seasons2 and as ,i had acquired the skill of at least the common mechanic1 ,i had fitted myself for independence4 ,my curiosity1 once fully awakened1 remained awake1 and my opportunities of gratifying it have been tolerably ample4 ,i have been an explorer of caves and ravines1 a loiterer along sea-shores1 a climber among rocks1 a labourer in quarries4 ,my profession was a wandering one4 ,i remember passing direct1 on one occasion1 from the wild western coast of ,ross-shire1 where the ,old ,red ,sandstone leans at a high angle against the prevailing quartz of the district1 to where1 on the southern skirts of ,midlothian1 the ,mountain ,limestone rises amid the coal4 ,i have resided one season on a raised beach of the ,moray ,firth4 ,i have spent the season immediately following amid the ancient granite and contorted schists of the central ,highlands4 ,in the north ,i have laid open by thousands the shells and lignites of the oolite2 in the south ,i have disinterred from their matrices of stone or of shale the huge reds and tree ferns of the carboniferous period4 ,i advise the stone-mason to acquaint himself with geology4 ,much of his time must be spent amid the rocks and quarries of widely separated localities1 and so1 in the course of a few years he may pass over the whole geological scale1 and this1 too1 with opportunities of observation at every stage which can be shared with him by only the gentleman of fortune who devotes his whole time to study4 ,nay1 in some respects1 his advantages are superior to those of the amateur1 for the man whose employments have to be carried on in the same formation for months1 perhaps years1 enjoys better opportunities of arriving at just conclusions4 ,there are formations which yield their organisms slowly to the discoverer1 and the proofs which establish their place in the geological scale more tardily still4 ,i was acquainted with the ,old ,red ,sandstone of ,ross and ,cromarty for nearly ten years ere ,i ascertained that it is richly fossiliferous2 ,i was acquainted with it for nearly ten years more ere ,i could assign its fossils to their exact place in the scale4 ,nature is vast and knowledge limited1 and no individual need despair of adding to the general fund4 ,,ii4--,bridging ,life's ,gaps ,the ,old ,red ,sandstone1 says a ,scottish geologist in a digest of some recent geological discoveries1 has hitherto been considered as remarkably barren of fossils4 ,only a few years have gone by since men of no low standing in the science disputed the very existence of this formation--or system1 rather1 for it contains at least three distinct formations4 ,there are some of our ,british geologists who still regard it as a sort of debatable tract1 entitled to no independent status1 a sort of common which should be divided4 ,it will be found1 however1 that this hitherto neglected system yields in importance to none of the others1 whether we take into account its amazing depth1 the great extent to which it is developed both at home and abroad1 the interesting links which it furnishes in the geological scale1 or the vast period of time which it represents4 ,there are localities in which the depth of the ,old ,red ,sandstone fully equals the elevation of ,mount ,etna over the level of the sea1 and in which it contains three distinct groups of organic remains1 the one rising in beautiful progression over the other4 ,my first statement regarding the system must be much the reverse of the one just quoted1 for the fossils are remarkably numerous and in a state of high preservation4 ,i have a hundred solid proofs by which to establish the truth of the assertion within less than a yard of me4 ,half my closet walls are covered with the peculiar fossils of the ,lower ,old ,red ,sandstone2 and certainly a stranger assemblage of forms has rarely been grouped together--creatures whose very type is lost1 fantastic and uncouth1 which puzzle the naturalist to assign them even to their class2 boat-like animals1 furnished with oars and a rudder2 fish1 plated over1 like the tortoise1 above and below1 with a strong armour of bone1 and furnished with but one solitary rudder-like fin2 other fish with the membranes of their fins thickly covered with scales2 creatures bristling over with thorns2 others glistening in an enamelled coat1 as if beautifully japanned2 the tail in every instance among the less equivocal shapes formed not equally1 as in existing fish1 on each side the central vertebral column1 but chiefly on the lower side--the column sending out its diminished vertebr to the extreme termination of the fin4 ,all the forms testify of a remote antiquity4 ,the figures on a ,chinese vase or an ,egyptian obelisk are scarce more unlike what now exists in nature than are the fossils of the ,lower ,old ,red ,sandstone4 ,lamarck1 on the strength of a few striking facts which prove that to a certain extent the instincts of species may be improved and heightened1 has concluded that there is a natural progress from the inferior orders of being towards the superior1 and that the offspring of creatures low in the scale may belong to a different and nobler species a few thousand years hence4 ,never was there a fancy so wild and extravagant4 ,the principle of adaptation still leaves the vegetable a vegetable1 and the dog a dog4 ,it is true that it is a law of nature that the chain of being is in some degree a continuous chain1 and the various classes of existence shade into each other4 ,all the animal families have their connecting links4 ,geology abounds with creatures of the intermediate class4 ,fishes seem to have been the master existences of two great geological systems1 mayhap of three1 ere the age of reptiles began4 ,now1 fishes differ very much among themselves1 some ranking nearly as low as worms1 some nearly as high as reptiles2 and we find in the ,old ,red ,sandstone series of links which are wanting in the present creation1 and the absence of which occasions a wide gap between the two grand divisions of fishes1 the bony and the cartilaginous4 ,of all the organisms of the system one of the most extraordinary is the pterichthys1 or winged fish1 which the writer had the pleasure of introducing to the acquaintance of geologists4 ,had ,lamarck been the discoverer he would unquestionably have held that he had caught a fish almost in the act of wishing itself into a bird4 ,there are wings which want only feathers1 a body which seems to have been as well adapted for passing through the air as through water1 and a tail with which to steer4 ,my first idea regarding it was that ,i had discovered a connecting link-between the tortoise and the fish4 ,i submitted some of my specimens to ,mr4 ,murchison1 and they furnished him with additional data by which to construct the calculations he was then making respecting fossils1 and they added a new and very singular link to the chain of existence in its relation to human knowledge4 ,agassiz confirmed the conclusions of ,murchison in almost every particular1 deciding at once that the creature must have been a fish4 ,next to the pterichthys of the ,lower ,old ,red ,sandstone ,i shall place its contemporary the coccosteus of ,agassiz--a fish which in some respects must have resembled it4 ,both were covered with an armour of thickly tubercled bony plates1 and both furnished with a vertebrated tail4 ,the coccosteus seems to have been most abundant4 ,another of the families of the ichthyolites of the ,old ,red ,sandstone--the cephalaspis--seems almost to constitute a connecting link between fishes and crustaceans4 ,in the present creation fishes are either osseous or cartilaginous1 that is1 with bony skeletons1 or with a framework of elastic1 semi-transparent animal matter1 like the shark2 and the ichthyolites of the ,old ,red ,sandstone unite these characteristics1 resembling in some respects the osseous and in others the cartilaginous tribes4 ,agassiz at once confirmed my suspicion that the ichthyolites of the ,old ,red ,sandstone were intermediate4 ,though it required skill to determine the place of the pterichthys and coccosteus there could be no mistaking the osteolepis--it must have been a fish1 and a handsome one1 too4 ,but while its head resembled the heads of the bony fishes1 its tail differed in no respects from the tails of the cartilaginous ones4 ,and so through the discovery of extinct species the gaps between existing species have been bridged4 ,,iii4--,place-,fixing in the ,dim ,past ,the next step was to fix the exact place of the ichthyolites in the geological scale1 and this ,i was enabled to do by finding a large and complete bed in situ4 ,its true place is a little more than a hundred feet above the top1 and not much more than a hundred yards above the base of the great conglomerate4 ,the ,old ,red ,sandstone in ,scotland and in ,england has its lower1 middle1 and upper groups--three distinct formations4 ,as the pterichthys and coccosteus are the characteristic ichthyolites of the ,lower ,old ,red formation1 so the cephalaspis distinguishes the middle or coronstone division of the system in ,england4 ,when we pass to the upper formation1 we find the holoptychius the most characteristic fossil4 ,these fossils are found in a degree of entireness which depends less on their age than on the nature of the rock in which they occur4 ,limestone is the preserving salt of the geological world1 and the conservative qualities of the shales and stratified clays of the ,lower ,old ,red ,sandstone are not much inferior to limestone itself2 while in the ,upper ,old ,red the beds of consolidated sand are much less conservative of organic remains4 ,the older fossils1 therefore1 can be described almost as minutely as the existence of the present creation1 whereas the newer fossils exist1 except in a few rare cases1 as fragments1 and demand the powers of a ,cuvier or an ,agassiz to restore them to their original combinations4 ,on the other hand1 while the organisms of the ,lower ,old ,red are numerous and well preserved1 those of the ,upper ,old ,red are much greater in individual size4 ,in short1 the fish of the lower ocean must have ranged in size between a stickleback and a cod2 whereas some of the fish of the ocean of the ,upper ,sandstone were covered with scales as large as oyster shells1 and were armed with teeth that rivalled in size those of the crocodile4 ,,iv4--,fish as ,nature's ,last ,word ,i will now attempt to present to the reader the ,old ,red ,sandstone as it existed in time--during the succeeding periods of its formation1 and when its existences lived and moved as the denizens of primeval oceans4 ,we pass from the cemetery with its heaps of bones to the ancient city full of life and animation in all its streets and dwellings4 ,before we commence our picture1 two great geological periods have come to their close1 and the floor of the widely spread ocean is occupied to the depth of many thousand feet by the remains of bygone existences4 ,the rocks of these two earlier periods are those of the ,cambrian and ,silurian groups4 ,the lower--,cambrian1 representative of the first glimmering twilight of being--must be regarded as a period of uncertainty4 ,it remains for future discoverers to determine regarding the shapes of life that burrowed in its ooze or careered through the incumbent waters4 ,there is less doubt respecting the existences of the ,silurian rocks4 ,four distinct platforms of being range in it1 the one over the other1 like the stories of a building4 ,life abounded on all these platforms1 and in shapes the most wonderful4 ,in the period of the ,upper ,silurian fish1 properly so called1 and of a very perfect organisation1 had taken precedence of the crustacean4 ,these most ancient beings of their class were cartilaginous fishes1 and they appear to have been introduced by myriads4 ,such are the remains of what seem to have been the first vertebrata4 ,the history of the period represented by the ,old ,red ,sandstone seems1 in what now forms the northern half of ,scotland1 to have opened amid confusion and turmoil4 ,the finely laminated ,tilestones of ,england were deposited evidently in a calm sea4 ,during the contemporary period the space which now includes ,orkney1 ,lochness1 ,dingwall1 ,gamrie1 and many a thousand square miles besides1 was the scene of a shallow ocean1 perplexed by powerful currents and agitated by waves4 ,a vast stratum of water-rolled pebbles1 varying in depth from a hundred feet to a hundred yards1 remains1 in a thousand different localities1 to testify to the disturbing agencies of this time of commotion1 though it is difficult to conceive how the bottom of any sea could have been so violently and equally agitated for so greatly extended a space4 ,the period of this shallow and stormy ocean passed1 and the bottom1 composed of the identical conglomerate which now forms the summit of some of our loftiest mountains1 sank to a depth so profound as to be little affected by tides and tempests4 ,during this second period there took place a vast deposit of coarse sandstone strata1 and the subsidence continued until fully ninety feet had overlaid the conglomerate in waters perfectly undisturbed4 ,and here we find the first proof that this ancient ocean literally swarmed with life--that its bottom was covered with miniature forests of algae1 and its waters darkened by immense shoals of fish4 ,i have seen the ichthyolite bed where they were as thickly covered with fossil remains as ,i have ever seen a fishing-bank covered with herrings4 ,at this period some terrible catastrophe involved in sudden destruction the fish of an area at least a hundred miles from boundary to boundary1 perhaps much more4 ,the same platform in ,orkney as in ,cromarty is strewn thick with remains which exhibit unequivocally the marks of violent death4 ,in what could it have originated8 ,by what quiet but potent agency of destruction could the innumerable existences of an area perhaps ten thousand miles in extent be annihilated at once1 and yet the medium in which they lived be left undisturbed by its operations8 ,the thought has often struck me that calcined lime1 cast out as ashes from some distant crater and carried by the winds1 might have been the cause of the widely spread destruction to which the fossil organisms testify4 ,i have seen the fish of a small trouting stream1 over which a bridge was in the course of building1 destroyed in a single hour1 for a full mile below the erection1 by a few troughfuls of lime that fell into the water when the centring was removed4 ,the period of death passed1 and over the innumerable dead there settled a soft muddy sediment4 ,for an unknown space of time1 represented in the formation by a deposit about fifty feet in thickness1 the waters of the depopulated area seem to have remained devoid of life4 ,a few scales and plates then begin to appear4 ,the fish that had existed outside the chasm seem to have gradually gained upon it as their numbers increased4 ,the work of deposition went on and sandstone was overlaid by stratified clay4 ,this upper bed had also its organisms1 but the circumstances were less favourable to the preservation of entire ichthyolites than those in which the organisms were wrapped up in their stony coverings4 ,age followed age1 generations were entombed in ever-growing depositions4 ,vast periods passed1 and it seemed as if the power of the ,creator had reached its extreme limit when fishes had been called into existence1 and our planet was destined to be the dwelling-place of no nobler inhabitants4 ,the curtain rises1 and the scene is new4 ,the myriads of the lower formation have disappeared1 and we are surrounded on an upper platform by the existences of a later creation4 ,shoals of cephalaspides1 feathered with fins1 sweep past4 ,we see the distant gleam of scales1 that some of the coats glitter with enamel1 that others bristle over with minute thorny points4 ,a huge crustacean1 of uncouth proportions1 stalks over the weedy bottoms1 or burrows in the hollows of the banks4 ,ages and centuries pass--who can sum up their number8--for the depth of this middle formation greatly exceeds that of the other two4 ,the curtain rises4 ,a last day had at length come to the period of the middle formation1 and in an ocean roughened by waves and agitated by currents we find new races of existences4 ,we may mark the clumsy bulk of the ,holoptychius conspicuous in the group4 ,the shark family have their representative as before2 a new variety of the pterichthys spreads out its spear-like wings at every alarm1 like its predecessor of the lower formation4 ,fish still remained the lords of creation1 and their bulk1 at least1 had become immensely more great4 ,we began with an age of dwarfs1 we end with an age of giants1 which is carried on into the lower coal measures4 ,we pursue our history no further8 ,has the last scene in the series arisen8 ,cuvier asked the question1 hesitated1 and then decided in the negative1 for he was too intimately acquainted with the works of the ,creator to think of limiting ,his power1 and he could anticipate a coming period in which man would have to resign his post of honour to some nobler and wiser creature1 the monarch of a better and happier world4 ,,sir ,,isaac ,,newton ,principia ,sir ,isaac ,newton was born at ,woolsthorpe1 ,lincolnshire1 ,england1 ,dec4 #be1 #afdb1 the son of a small landed proprietor4 ,for the famous episode of the falling apple1 ,voltaire1 who admirably explained his system for his countrymen1 is responsible4 ,it was in #afhj that ,newton discovered how to calculate the orbit of a body moving under a central force1 and showed that if the force varied as the inverse square of the distance1 the orbit would be an ellipse with the centre of force in one focus4 ,the great discovery1 which made the writing of his ,philosophi ,naturalis ,principia ,mathematica possible1 was that the attraction between two spheres is the same as it would be if we supposed each sphere condensed to a point at its centre4 ,the book was published as a whole in #afhg4 ,of its author it was said by ,lagrange that not only was he the greatest genius that ever existed1 but also the most fortunate1 for we cannot find more than once a system of the world to establish4 ,newton died on ,march #bj1 #agbg4 ,our design 7writes ,newton in his preface7 not respecting arts but philosophy1 and our subject not manual but natural powers1 we consider those things which relate to gravity1 levity1 elastic force1 the resistance of fluids and the like forces1 whether attractive or impulsive2 and1 therefore1 we offer this work as the mathematical principles of philosophy1 for all the difficulty of philosophy seems to consist in this--from the phenomena of motions to investigate the forces of nature1 and from these forces to demonstrate the other phenomena1 and to this end the general propositions in the first and second book are directed4 ,in the third book1 we give an example of this in the explication of the system of the world2 for by the propositions mathematically demonstrated in the former books1 we in the third derive from the celestial phenomena the forces of gravity with which bodies tend to the sun and the several planets4 ,then from these forces1 by other propositions which are also mathematical1 we deduce the motions of the planets1 the comets1 the moon1 and the sea4 ,upon this subject ,i had 7he says7 composed the third book in a popular method1 that it might be read by many1 but afterward1 considering that such as had not sufficiently entered into the principles could not easily discern the strength of the consequences1 nor lay aside the prejudices to which they had been many years accustomed1 therefore1 to prevent the disputes which might be raised upon such accounts1 ,i chose to reduce the substance of this book into the form of ,propositions 7in the mathematical way74 ,so that this third book is composed both in popular method and in the form of mathematical propositions4 ,books ,i and ,,ii ,the principle of universal gravitation1 namely1 ,that every particle of matter is attracted by or gravitates to every other particle of matter with a force inversely proportional to the squares of their distances1 is the discovery which characterises the ,principia4 ,this principle the author deduced from the motion of the moon and the three laws of ,kepler2 and these laws in turn ,newton1 by his greater law1 demonstrated to be true4 ,from the first law of ,kepler1 namely1 the proportionality of the areas to the times of their description1 ,newton inferred that the force which retained the planet in its orbit was always directed to the sun4 ,from the second1 namely1 that every planet moves in an ellipse with the sun as one of foci1 he drew the more general inference that the force by which the planet moves round that focus varies inversely as the square of its distance therefrom4 ,he demonstrated that a planet acted upon by such a force could not move in any other curve than a conic section2 and he showed when the moving body would describe a circular1 an elliptical1 a parabolic1 or hyperbolic orbit4 ,he demonstrated1 too1 that this force or attracting1 gravitating power resided in even the least particle2 but that in spherical masses it operates as if confined to their centres1 so that one sphere or body will act upon another sphere or body with a force directly proportional to the quantity of matter and inversely as the square of the distance between their centres1 and that their velocities of mutual approach will be in the inverse ratio of their quantities of matter4 ,thus he outlined the universal law4 ,the ,system of the ,world ,it was the ancient opinion of not a few 7writes ,newton in ,book ,,iii47 in the earliest ages of philosophy that the fixed stars stood immovable in the highest parts of the world2 that under the fixed stars the planets were carried about the sun2 that the earth1 as one of the planets1 described an annual course about the sun1 while1 by a diurnal motion1 it was in the meantime revolved about its own axis2 and that the sun1 as the common fire which served to warm the whole1 was fixed in the centre of the universe4 ,it was from the ,egyptians that the ,greeks derived their first1 as well as their soundest notions of philosophy4 ,it is not to be denied that ,anaxagoras1 ,democritus and others would have it that the earth possessed the centre of the world1 but it was agreed on both sides that the motions of the celestial bodies were performed in spaces altogether free and void of resistance4 ,the whim of solid orbs was#a of later date1 introduced by ,endoxus1 ,calippus and ,aristotle1 when the ancient philosophy began to decline4 ,as it was the unavoidable consequence of the hypothesis of solid orbs while it prevailed that the comets must be thrust down below the moon1 so no sooner had the late observations of astronomers restored the comets to their ancient places in the higher heavens than these celestial spaces were at once cleared of the encumbrance of solid orbs1 which by these observations were broken to pieces and discarded for ever4 ,whence it was that the planets came to be retained within any certain bounds in these free spaces1 and to be drawn off from the rectilinear courses1 which1 left to themselves1 they should have pursued1 into regular revolutions in curvilinear orbits1 are questions which we do not know how the ancients explained2 and probably it was to give some sort of satisfaction to this difficulty that solid orbs were introduced4 ,the later philosophers pretend to account for it either by the action of certain vortices1 as ,kepler and ,descartes1 or by some other principle of impulse or attraction1 for it is most certain that these effects must proceed from the action of some force or other4 ,this we will call by the general name of a centripetal force1 as it is a force which is directed to some centre2 and1 as it regards more particularly a body in that centre1 we call it circum-solar1 circum-terrestrial1 circum-jovial4 ,centre-,seeking ,forces ,that by means of centripetal forces the planets may be retained in certain orbits we may easily understand if we consider the motions of projectiles1 for a stone projected is by the pressure of its own weight forced out of the rectilinear path1 which1 by the projection alone1 it should have pursued1 and made to describe a curve line in the air2 and through that crooked way is at last brought down to the ground1 and the greater the velocity is with which it is projected the further it goes before it falls to earth4 ,we can1 therefore1 suppose the velocity to be so increased that it would describe an arc of #a1 #b1 #e1 #aj1 #ajj1 #a1jjj miles before it arrived at the earth1 till1 at last1 exceeding the limits of the earth1 it should pass quite by it without touching it4 ,and because the celestial motions are scarcely retarded by the little or no resistance of the spaces in which they are performed1 to keep up the parity of cases1 let us suppose either that there is no air about the earth or1 at least1 that it is endowed with little or no power of resisting4 ,and since the areas which by this motion it describes by a radius drawn to the centre of the earth have previously been shown to be proportional to the times in which they are described1 its velocity when it returns to the point from which it started will be no less than at first2 and1 retaining the same velocity1 it will describe the same curve over and over by the same law4 ,but if we now imagine bodies to be projected in the directions of lines parallel to the horizon from greater heights1 as from #e1 #aj1 #ajj1 #a1jjj or more miles1 or1 rather1 as many semi-diameters of the earth1 those bodies1 according to their different velocity and the different force of gravity in different heights1 will describe arcs either concentric with the earth or variously eccentric1 and go on revolving through the heavens in those trajectories just as the planets do in their orbs4 ,as when a stone is projected obliquely1 the perpetual deflection thereof towards the earth is a proof of its gravitation to the earth no less certain than its direct descent when suffered to fall freely from rest1 so the deviation of bodies moving in free spaces from rectilinear paths and perpetual deflection therefrom towards any place1 is a sure indication of the existence of some force which from all quarters impels those bodies towards that place4 ,that there are centripetal forces actually directed to the bodies of the sun1 of the earth1 and other planets1 ,i thus infer4 ,the moon revolves about our earth1 and by radii drawn to its centre describes areas nearly proportional to the times in which they are described1 as is evident from its velocity compared with its apparent diameter2 for its motion is slower when its diameter is less 7and therefore its distance greater71 and its motion is swifter when its diameter is greater4 ,the revolutions of the satellites of ,jupiter about the planet are more regular2 for they describe circles concentric with ,jupiter by equable motions1 as exactly as our senses can distinguish4 ,and so the satellites of ,saturn are revolved about this planet with motions nearly circular and equable1 scarcely disturbed by any eccentricity hitherto observed4 ,that ,venus and ,mercury are revolved about the sun is demonstrable from their moon-like appearances4 ,and ,venus1 with a motion almost uniform1 describes an orb nearly circular and concentric with the sun4 ,but ,mercury1 with a more eccentric motion1 makes remarkable approaches to the sun and goes off again by turns2 but it is always swifter as it is near to the sun1 and therefore by a radius drawn to the sun still describes areas proportional to the times4 ,lastly1 that the earth describes about the sun1 or the sun about the earth1 by a radius from one to the other1 areas exactly proportional to the times is demonstrable from the apparent diameter of the sun compared with its apparent motion4 ,these are astronomical experiments2 from which it follows that there are centripetal forces actually directed to the centres of the earth1 of ,jupiter1 of ,saturn1 and of the sun4#b ,that these forces decrease in the duplicate proportion of the distances from the centre of every planet appears by ,cor4 vi41 ,prop4 iv41 ,book ,i4#c for the periodic times of the satellites of ,jupiter are one to another in the sesquiplicate proportion of their distances from the centre of this planet4 ,cassini assures us that the same proportion is observed in the circum-,saturnal planets4 ,in the circum-solar planets ,mercury and ,venus1 the same proportional holds with great accuracy4 ,that ,mars is revolved about the sun is demonstrated from the phases which it shows and the proportion of its apparent diameters2 for from its appearing full near conjunction with the sun and gibbous in its quadratures1#d it is certain that it travels round the sun4 ,and since its diameter appears about five times greater when in opposition to the sun than when in conjunction therewith1 and its distance from the earth is reciprocally as its apparent diameter1 that distance will be about five times less when in opposition to than when in conjunction with the sun2 but in both cases its distance from the sun will be nearly about the same with the distance which is inferred from its gibbous appearance in the quadratures4 ,and as it encompasses the sun at almost equal distances1 but in respect of the earth is very unequally distant1 so by radii drawn to the sun it describes areas nearly uniform2 but by radii drawn to the earth it is sometimes swift1 sometimes stationary1 and sometimes retrograde4 ,that ,jupiter in a higher orbit than ,mars is likewise revolved about the sun with a motion nearly equable as well in distance as in the areas described1 ,i infer from ,mr4 ,flamsted's observations of the eclipses of the innermost satellite2 and the same thing may be concluded of ,saturn from his satellite by the observations of ,mr4 ,huyghens and ,mr4 ,halley4 ,if ,jupiter was viewed from the sun it would never appear retrograde or stationary1 as it is seen sometimes from the earth1 but always to go forward with a motion nearly uniform4 ,and from the very great inequality of its apparent geocentric motion we infer--as it has been previously shown that we may infer--that the force by which ,jupiter is turned out of a rectilinear course and made to revolve in an orbit is not directed to the centre of the earth4 ,and the same argument holds good in ,mars and in ,saturn4 ,another centre of these forces is1 therefore1 to be looked for1 about which the areas described by radii intervening may be equable2 and that this is the sun1 we have proved already in ,mars and ,saturn nearly1 but accurately enough in ,jupiter4 ,the distances of the planets from the sun come out the same whether1 with ,tycho1 we place the earth in the centre of the system1 or the sun with ,copernicus2 and we have already proved that1 these distances are true in ,jupiter4 ,kepler and ,bullialdus have with great care determined the distances of the planets from the sun1 and hence it is that their tables agree best with the heavens4 ,and in all the planets1 in ,jupiter and ,mars1 in ,saturn and the earth1 as well as in ,venus and ,mercury1 the cubes of their distances are as the squares of their periodic times2 and1 therefore1 the centripetal circum-solar force throughout all the planetary regions decreases in the duplicate proportion of the distances from the sun4 ,neglecting those little fractions which may have arisen from insensible errors of observation1 we shall always find the said proportion to hold exactly2 for the distances of ,saturn1 ,jupiter1 ,mars1 the ,earth1 ,venus1 and ,mercury from the sun1 drawn from the observations of astronomers1 are 7,kepler7 as the numbers #iea1jjj1 #eai1fej1 #aeb1cej1 #ajj1jjj1 #gj1jjj1 #ch1hjf2 or 7,bullialdus7 as the numbers #ied1aih1 #ebb1ebj1 #aeb1cej1 #ajj1jjj1 #gb1cih1 #ch1ehe2 and from the periodic times they come out #iec1hjf1 #ebj1aaf1 #aeb1cii1 #ajj1jjj1 #gb1ccc1 #ch1gaj4 ,their distances1 according to ,kepler and ,bullialdus1 scarcely differ by any sensible quantity1 and where they differ most the differences drawn from the periodic times fall in between them4 ,earth as a ,centre ,that the circum-terrestrial force likewise decreases in the duplicate proportion of the distances1 ,i infer thus3 ,the mean distance of the moon from the centre of the earth is1 we may assume1 sixty semi-diameters of the earth2 and its periodic time in respect of the fixed stars #bg days #g hr4 #dc min4 ,now1 it has been shown in a previous book that a body revolved in our air1 near the surface of the earth supposed at rest1 by means of a centripetal force which should be to the same force at the distance of the moon in the reciprocal duplicate proportion of the distances from the centre of the earth1 that is1 as #c1fjj to #a1 would 7secluding the resistance of the air7 complete a revolution in #a hr4 #bd min4 #bg sec4 ,suppose the circumference of the earth to be #abc1bdi1fjj ,paris feet1 then the same body deprived of its circular motion and falling by the impulse of the same centripetal force as before would in one second of time describe #ae-a_/ab ,paris feet4 ,this we infer by a calculus formed upon ,prop4 xxxvi4 7,to determine the times of the descent of a body falling from a given place71 and it agrees with the results of ,mr4 ,huyghens's experiments of pendulums1 by which he demonstrated that bodies falling by all the centripetal force with which 7of whatever nature it is7 they are impelled near the surface of the earth do in one second of time describe #ae-a_/ab ,paris feet4 ,but if the earth is supposed to move1 the earth and moon together will be revolved about their common centre of gravity4 ,and the moon 7by ,prop1 lx47 will in the same periodic time1 #bg days #g hr4 #dc min41 with the same circum-terrestrial force diminished in the duplicate proportion of the distance1 describe an orbit whose semi-diameter is to the semi-diameter of the former orbit1 that is1 to the sixty semi-diameters of the earth1 as the sum of both the bodies of the earth and moon to the first of two mean proportionals between this sum and the body of the earth2 that is1 if we suppose the moon 7on account of its mean apparent diameter #ca-a_/b min47 to be about #a_/db of the earth1 as #dc to 7#db #dbb7a_/c or as about #abh to #abg4 ,and1 therefore1 the semi-diameter of the orbit--that is1 the distance of the centres of the moon and earth--will in this case be #fj-a_/b semi-diameters of the earth1 almost the same with that assigned by ,copernicus2 and1 therefore1 the duplicate proportion of the decrement of the force holds good in this distance4 7,the action of the sun is here disregarded as inconsiderable47 ,this proportion of the decrement of the forces is confirmed from the eccentricity of the planets1 and the very slow motion of their apsides2 for in no other proportion1 it has been established1 could the circum-solar planets once in every revolution descend to their least1 and once ascend to their greatest distance from the sun1 and the places of those distances remain immovable4 ,a small error from the duplicate proportion would produce a motion of the apsides considerable in every revolution1 but in many enormous4 ,the ,tides ,while the planets are thus revolved in orbits about remote centres1 in the meantime they make their several rotations about their proper axes3 the sun in #bf days1 ,jupiter in #i hr4 #ef min41 ,mars in #bd-b_/c hr41 ,venus in #bc hr41 and in like manner is the moon revolved about its axis in #bg days #g hr4 #dc min42 so that this diurnal motion is equal to the mean motion of the moon in its orbit2 upon which account the same face of the moon always respects the centre about which this mean motion is performed--that is1 the exterior focus of the moon's orbit nearly4 ,by reason of the diurnal revolutions of the planets the matter which they contain endeavours to recede from the axis of this motion2 and hence the fluid parts1 rising higher towards the equator than about the poles1 would lay the solid parts about the equator under water if those parts did not rise also2 upon which account the planets are something thicker about the equator than about the poles4 ,and from the diurnal motion and the attractions of the sun and moon our sea ought twice to rise and twice to fall every day1 as well lunar as solar4 ,but the two motions which the two luminaries raise will not appear distinguished but will make a certain mixed motion4 ,in the conjunction or opposition of the luminaries their forces will be conjoined and bring on the greatest flood and ebb4 ,in the quadratures the sun will raise the waters which the moon depresseth and depress the waters which the moon raiseth2 and from the difference of their forces the smallest of all tides will follow4 ,but the effects of the lumniaries depend upon their distances from the earth1 for when they are less distant their effects are greater and when more distant their effects are less1 and that in the triplicate proportion of their apparent diameters4 ,therefore it is that the sun in winter time1 being then in its perigee1 has a greater effect1 whether added to or subtracted from that of the moon1 than in the summer season1 and every month the moon1 while in the perigee raiseth higher tides than at the distance of fifteen days before or after when it is in its apogee4 ,the fixed stars being at such vast distances from one another1 can neither attract each other sensibly nor be attracted by our sun4 ,comets ,there are three hypotheses about comets4 ,for some will have it that they are generated and perish as often as they appear and vanish2 others that they come from the regions of the fixed stars1 and are near by us in their passage through the sytem of our planets2 and1 lastly1 others that they are bodies perpetually revolving about the sun in very eccentric orbits4 ,in the first case1 the comets1 according to their different velocities1 will move in conic sections of all sorts2 in the second they will describe hyperbolas2 and in either of the two will frequent indifferently all quarters of the heavens1 as well those about the poles as those towards the ecliptic2 in the third their motions will be performed in eclipses very eccentric and very nearly approaching to parabolas4 ,but 7if the law of the planets is observed7 their orbits will not much decline from the plane of the ecliptic2 and1 so far as ,i could hitherto observe1 the third case obtains2 for the comets do indeed chiefly frequent the zodiac1 and scarcely ever attain to a heliocentric latitude of #dj degrees4 ,and that they move in orbits very nearly parabolical1 ,i infer from their velocity2 for the velocity with which a parabola is described is everywhere to the velocity with which a comet or planet may be revolved about the sun in a circle at the same distance in the subduplicate ratio of #b to #a2 and1 by my computation1 the velocity of comets is found to be much about the same4 ,i examined the thing by inferring nearly the velocities from the distances1 and the distances both from the parallaxes and the phenomena of the tails1 and never found the errors of excess or defect in the velocities greater than what might have arisen from the errors in the distances collected after that manner4 ,,sir ,,richard ,,owen ,anatomy of ,vertebrates ,sir ,richard ,owen1 the great naturalist1 was born ,july #bj1 #ahjd1 at ,lancaster1 ,england1 and received his early education at the grammar school of that town4 ,thence he went to ,edinburgh ,university4 ,in #ahbf he was admitted a member of the ,english ,college of ,surgeons1 and in #ahbi was lecturing at ,st4 ,bartholomew's ,hospital1 ,london1 where he had completed his studies4 ,his ,memoir on the ,pearly ,nautillus1 published in #ahcb1 placed him1 says ,huxley1 at a bound in the front rank of anatomical monographers1 and for sixty-two years the flow of his contributions to scientific literature never ceased4 ,in #ahef he was appointed to take charge of the natural history departments of the ,british ,museum1 and before long set forth views as to the inadequacy of the existing accommodation1 which led ultimately to the foundation of the buildings now devoted to this purpose in ,south ,kensington4 ,owen died on ,december #ah1 #ahib4 ,his great book1 ,comparative ,anatomy and ,physiology of the ,vertebrates1 was completed in #ahfh1 and since ,cuvier's ,comparative ,anatomy1 is the most monumental treatise on the subject by any one man4 ,although much of the classification adopted by ,owen has not been accepted by other zoologists1 yet the work contains an immense amount of information1 most of which was gained from ,owen's own personal observations and dissections4 ,i4--,biological ,questions of #ahcj ,at the close of my studies at the ,jardin des ,plantes1 ,paris1 in #ahca1 ,i returned strongly moved to lines of research bearing upon the then prevailing phases of thought on some biological questions4 ,the great master in whose dissecting rooms ,i was privileged to work held that species were not permanent as a fact established inductively on a wide basis of observation1 by which comparative osteology had been created4 ,camper and ,hunter suspected the species might be transitory2 but ,cuvier1 in defining the characters of his anaplotherium and palotherium1 etc41 proved the fact4 ,of the relation of past to present species1 ,cuvier had not an adequate basis for a decided opinion4 ,observation of changes in the relative position of land and sea suggested to him one condition of the advent of new species on an island or continent where old species had died out4 ,this view he illustrates by a hypothetical case of such succession1 but expressly states3 ,i do not assert that a new creation was necessary to produce the species now existing1 but only that they did not exist in the same regions1 and must have come from elsewhere4 ,geoffrey ,saint ,hilaire opposed to ,cuvier's inductive treatment of the question the following expression of belief3 ,i have no doubt that existing animals are directly descended from the animals of the antediluvian world1 but added1 it is my belief that the season has not yet arrived for a really satisfying knowledge of geology4 ,the main collateral questions argued in their debates appeared to me to be the following3 ,unity of plan or final purpose1 as a governing condition of organic development8 ,series of species1 uninterrupted or broken by intervals8 ,extinction1 cataclysmal or regulated8 ,development1 by epigenesis or evolution8 ,primary life1 by miracle or secondary law8 ,cuvier held the work of organisation to be guided and governed by final purpose or adaptation4 ,geoffrey denied the evidence of design and contended for the principle which he called unity of composition1 as the law of organisation4 ,most of his illustrations were open to the demonstration of inaccuracy2 and the language by which disciples of the kindred school of ,schelling illustrated in the animal structure the transcendental idea of the whole in every part seemed little better than mystical jargon4 ,with ,cuvier1 answerable parts occurred in the zoological scale because they had to perform similar functions4 ,as1 however1 my observations and comparisons accumulated1 they enforced a reconsideration of ,cuvier's conclusions4 ,to demonstrate the evidence of the community of organisation ,i found the artifice of an archetype vertebrate animal essential2 and from the demonstration of its principle1 which ,i then satisfied myself was associated with and dominated by that of adaptation to purpose1 the step was inevitable to the conception of the operation of a secondary cause of the entire series of species1 such cause being the servant of predetermining intelligent will4 ,but besides derivation or filiation another principle influencing organisation became recognisable1 to which ,i gave the name of irrelative repetition1 or vegetative repetition4 ,the demonstrated constitution of the vertebrate endoskeleton as a series of essentially similar segments appeared to me to illustrate the law of irrelative repetition4 ,these results of inductive research swayed me in rejecting direct or miraculous creation1 and in recognising a natural law or secondary cause as operative in the production of species in orderly succession and progression4 ,,ii4--,succession of ,species1 ,broken or ,linked8 ,to the hypothesis that existing are modifications of extinct species1 ,cuvier replied that traces of modification were due from the fossil world4 ,you ought1 he said1 to be able to show the intermediate forms between the palotherium and existing hoofed quadrupeds4 ,the progress of palontology since #ahcj has brought to light many missing links unknown to the founder of the science4 ,the discovery of the remains of the hipparion supplied one of the links required by ,cuvier1 and it is significant that the remains of such three-toed horses are found only in deposits of that tertiary period which intervene between the older palotherian one and the newer strata in which the modern horse first appears to have lost its lateral hooflets4 ,the molar series of the horse includes six large complex grinders individually recognisable by developmental characters4 ,the representative of the first premolar is minute and soon shod4 ,its homologue in palotherium is functionally developed and retained1 that type-dentition being adhered to4 ,in hipparion this tooth is smaller than in palotherium1 but functional and permanent4 ,the transitory and singularly small and simple denticle in the horse exemplifies the rudiment of an ancestral structure in the same degree as do the hoofless splint-bones2 just as the spurious hoofs dangling therefrom in hipparion are retained rudiments of the functionally developed lateral hoofs in the broader foot of palotherium4 ,other missing links of this series of species have also been supplied4 ,how then is the origin of these intermediate gradations to be interpreted8 ,if the alternative--species by miracle or by law--be applied to palotherium1 paloplotherium1 anchitherium1 hipparion1 equus1 ,i accept the latter without misgiving1 and recognise such law as continuously operative throughout tertiary time4 ,in respect to its law of operation we may suppose ,lamarck to say1 as the surface of the earth consolidated1 the larger and more produced mid-hoof of the old three-toed pachyderius took a greater share in sustaining the animal's weight2 and more blood being required to meet the greater demand of the more active mid-toe1 it grew2 whilst1 the side-toes1 losing their share of nourishment and becoming more and more withdrawn from use1 shrank--and so on4 ,mr4 ,darwin1 ,i conceive1 would modify this by saying that some individuals of palotherium happening to be born with a larger and longer middle toe1 and with shorter and smaller side-toes1 such variety was better adapted to prevailing altered conditions of the earth's surface than the parental form2 and so on1 until finally the extreme equine modifications of foot came to be naturally selected4 ,but the hypothesis of appetency and volition1 as of natural selection1 are less applicable1 less intelligible1 in connection with the changes in the teeth4 ,i must further observe that to say the palotherium has graduated into equus by natural selection is an explanation of the process of the same kind and value as that by which the secretion of bile was attributed to the appetency of the liver for the elements of bile4 ,one's surprise is that such explanatory devices should not have died out with the archeus faber1 the nisus formations1 and other self-deceiving1 world-beguiling simulacra of science1 with the last century2 and that a resuscitation should have had any success in the present4 ,what1 then1 are the facts on which any reasonable or intelligible conception can be formed of the mode of operation of the derivative law exemplified in the series linking on palotherium to equus8 ,a very significant one is the following4 ,a modern horse occasionally comes into the world with the supplementary ancestral hoofs4 ,from ,valerius ,maximus1 who attributes the variety to ,bucephalus downwards1 such polydactyle horses have been noted as monsters and marvels4 ,in one of the latest examples1 the inner splint-bone1 answering to the second metacarpal of the pentadactyle foot1 supported phalanges and a terminal hoof resembling the corresponding one in hipparion4 ,and the pairing of horses with the meterpodials bearing1 according to type1 phalanges and hoofs might restore the race of hipparions4 ,now1 the fact suggesting such possibility teaches that the change would be sudden and considerable2 it opposes the idea that species are transmuted by minute and slow degrees4 ,it also shows that a species might originate independently of the operation of any external influence2 that change of structure would precede that of use and habit2 that appetency1 impulse1 ambient medium1 fortuitous fitness of surrounding circumstances1 or a personified selecting nature would have had no share in the transmutative act4 ,thus ,i have been led to recognise species as exemplifying the continuous operation of natural law1 or secondary cause2 and that not only successively but progressively2 from the first embodiment of the vertebrate idea under its old ichthyic vestment until it became arrayed in the glorious garb of the human form4 ,,iii4--,extinction--,cataclysmal or ,regulated ,if the species of palothere1 paloplothere1 anchithere1 hipparion1 and horse be severally deemed due to remotely and successively repeated acts of creation2 the successive going out of such species must have been as miraculous as their coming in4 ,accordingly1 in ,cuvier's ,discourse on ,revolutions of the ,earth's ,surface we have a section of ,proofs that these revolutions have been numerous1 and another of ,proofs that these revolutions have been sudden4 ,but as the discoveries of palontologists have supplied the links between the species held to have perished by the cataclysms1 so each successive parcel of geological truth has tended to dissipate the belief in the unusually sudden and violent nature of the changes recognisable in the earth's surface4 ,in specially directing my attention to this moot point1 whilst engaged in investigations of fossil remains1 ,i was led to recognise one cause of extinction as being due to defeat in the contest which the individual of each species had to maintain against the surrounding agencies which might militate against its existence4 ,this principle has received a large and most instructive accession of illustrations from the labours of ,charles ,darwin2 but he aims to apply it not only to the extinction but to the origin of species4 ,although ,i fail to recognise proof of the latter bearing of the battle of life1 the concurrence of so much evidence in favour of extinction by law is1 in like measure1 corroborative of the truth of the ascription of the origin of species to a secondary cause4 ,what spectacle can be more beautiful than that of the inhabitants of the calm expanse of water of an atoll encircled by its ring of coral rock6 ,leaving locomotive frequenters of the calcarious basin out of the question1 we may ask1 ,was direct creation after the dying out of its result as a rugose coral repeated to constitute the succeeding and superseding tabulate coral8 ,must we also invoke the miraculous power to initiate every distinct species of both rugosa and tabulata8 ,these grand old groups have had their day and are utterly gone4 ,when we endeavour to conceive or realise such mode of origin1 not of them only but of their manifold successors1 the miracle1 by the very multiplication of its manifestations1 becomes incredible--inconsistent with any worthy conception of an all-seeing1 all-provident ,omnipotence4 ,being unable to accept the volitional hypothesis 7of ,lamarck7 or the selective force exerted by outward circumstances 7,darwin71 ,i deem an innate tendency to deviate from parental type1 operating through periods of adequate duration1 to be the most probable way of operation of the secondary law whereby species have been derived one from another4 ,according to my derivative hypothesis a change takes place first in the structure of the animal1 and this1 when sufficiently advanced1 may lead to modifications of habits4 ,but species owe as little to the accidental concurrence of environing circumstances as kosmos depends upon a fortuitous concourse of atoms4 ,a purposive route of development and change of correlation and inter-dependence1 manifesting intelligent will1 is as determinable in the succession of races as in the development and organisation of the individual4 ,derivation holds that every species changes in time1 by virtue of inherent tendencies thereto4 ,natural selection holds that no such change can take place without the influence of altered external circumstances educing or eliciting such change4 ,derivation sees among the effects of the innate tendency to change1 irrespective of altered surrounding circumstances1 a manifestation of creative power in the variety and beauty of the results2 and1 in the ultimate forthcoming of a being susceptible of appreciating such beauty1 evidence of the preordaining of such relation of power to the appreciation4 ,natural selection acknowledges that if power or beauty1 in itself1 should be a purpose in creation1 it would be absolutely fatal to it as a hypothesis4 ,natural selection sees grandeur in the view of life1 with its several powers1 having been originally breathed by the ,creator into a few forms or into one4 ,derivation sees1 therein1 a narrow invocation of a special miracle and an unworthy limitation of creative power1 the grandeur of which is manifested daily1 hourly1 in calling into life many forms1 by conversion of physical and chemical into vital modes of force1 under as many diversified conditions of the requisite elements to be so combined4 ,natural selection leaves the subsequent origin and succession of species to the fortuitous concurrence of outward conditions2 derivation recognises a purpose in the defined and preordained course1 due to innate capacity or power of change1 by which homogeneously-created protozoa have risen to the higher forms of plants and animals4 ,the hypothesis of derivation rests upon conclusions from four great series of inductively established facts1 together with a probable result of facts of a fifth class2 the hypothesis of natural selection totters on the extension of a conjectural condition explanatory of extinction to the origination of species1 inapplicable in that extension to the majority of organisms1 and not known or observed to apply to the origin of any species4 ,,iv4--,epigenesis or ,evolution8 ,the derivative origin of species1 then1 being at present the most admissible one1 and the retrospective survey of such species showing convergence1 as time recedes1 to more simplified or generalised organisations1 the result to which the suggested train of thought inevitably leads is very analogous in each instance4 ,if to kosmos or the mundane system have been allotted powers equivalent to the development of the several grades of life1 may not the demonstrated series of conversions of force have also included that into the vital form8 ,in the last century1 physiologists were divided as to the principle guiding the work of organic development4 ,the evolutionists contended that the new being preexisted in a complete state of formation1 needing only to be vivified by impregnation in order to commence the series of expansions or disencasings1 culminating in the independent individual4 ,the epigenesists held that both the germ and its subsequent organs were built up of juxtaposed molecules according to the operation of a developmental force1 or nisus formations4 ,at the present day the question may seem hardly worth the paper on which it is referred to4 ,nevertheless1 pre-existence of germs and evolution are logically inseparable from the idea of species by primary miraculously-created individuals4 ,cuvier1 therefore1 maintained both as firmly as did ,haller4 ,in the debates of #ahcj ,i remained the thrall of that dogma in regard to the origin of single-celled organisms whether in or out of body4 ,every result of formfaction1 ,i believed1 with most physiologists1 to be the genetic outcome of a pre-existing cell4 ,the first was due to miraculous interposition and suspension of ordinary laws2 it contained potentially all future possible cells4 ,cell-development exemplified evolution of pre-existing germs1 the progeny of the primary cell4 ,they progagated themselves by self-division1 or by proliferation of minutes granules or atoms1 which1 when properly nourished1 again multiplied by self-division1 and grew to the likeness of the parent cells4 ,it seems to me more consistent with the present phase of dynamical science and the observed graduations of living things to suppose the sarcode or the protogenal jelly-speck should be formable through the concurrence of conditions favouring such combination of their elements1 and involving a change of force productive of their contractions and extensions1 molecular attractions1 and repulsions--and the sarcode has so become1 from the period when its irrelative repetitions resulted in the vast indefinite masses of the eozoon1 exemplifying the earliest process of formification or organic crystallisation--than that all existing sarcodes or protogenes are the result of genetic descent from a germ or cell due to a primary act of miraculous interposition4 ,i prefer1 while indulging in such speculations1 to consider the various daily nomogeneously developed forms of protozoal or protistal jellies1 sarcodes1 and single-celled organisms1 to have been as many roots from which the higher grades have ramified than that the origin of the whole organic creation is to be referred1 as the ,egyptian priests did that of the universe1 to a single egg4 ,amber or steel1 when magnetised1 seem to exercise selection2 they do not attract all substances alike4 ,a speck of protogenal jelly or sarcode1 if alive1 shows analogous relations to certain substances2 but the soft yielding tissue allows the part next the attractive matter to move thereto1 and then1 by retraction1 to draw such matter into the sarcodal mass1 which overspreads1 dissolves1 and assimilates it4 ,the term living in the one case is correlative with the term magnetic in the other4 ,a man perceives ripe fruit2 he stretches out his hand1 plucks1 masticates1 swallows1 and digests it4 ,the question then arises whether the difference between such series of actions in the man and the attractive and assimilative movement of the amba be greater or less than the difference between these acts of the amba and the attracting and retaining acts of the magnet4 ,the question1 ,i think1 may be put with some confidence as to the quality of the ultimate reply whether the ambal phenomena are so much more different1 or so essentially different1 from the magnetic phenomena than they are from the mammalian phenomena1 as to necessitate the invocation of a special miracle for their manifestation4 ,it is analogically conceivable that the same cause which has endowed ,his world with power convertible into magnetic1 electric1 thermotic and other forms or modes of force1 has also added the conditions of conversion into the vital force4 ,from protozoa or protista to plants and animals the graduation is closer than from magnetised iron to vitalised sarcode4 ,from reflex acts of the nervous system animals rise to sentient and volitional ones4 ,and with the ascent are associated brain-cells progressively increasing in size and complexity4 ,thought relates to the brain of man as does electricity to the nervous battery of the torpedo2 both are forms of force and the results of action of their respective organs4 ,each sensation affects a cerebral fibre1 and1 in so affecting it1 gives it the faculty of repeating the action1 wherein memory consists and sensation in a dream4 ,if the hypothesis of an abstract entity produces psychological phenomena by playing upon the brain as a musician upon his instrument be rejected1 and these phenomena be held to be the result of cerebral actions1 an objection is made that the latter view is materialistic and adverse to the notion of an independent1 indivisible1 immaterial1 mental principle or soul4 ,but in the endeavour to comprehend clearly and explain the functions of the combination of forces called brain1 the physiologist is hindered and troubled by the views of the nature of those cerebral forces which the needs of dogmatic theology have imposed on mankind4 ,how long physiologists would have entertained the notion of a life1 or vital principle1 as a distinct entity if freed from this baneful influence may be questioned2 but it can be truly affirmed that physiology has now established and does accept the truth of that statement of ,locke--the life1 whether of a material or immaterial substance1 is not the substance itself1 but an affection of it4 ,,rudolf ,,virchow ,cellular ,pathology ,rudolf ,virchow1 the son of a small farmer and shopkeeper1 was born at ,schivelbein1 in ,pomerania1 on ,october #ac1 #ahba4 ,he graduated in medicine at ,berlin1 and was appointed lecturer at the ,university1 but his political enthusiasm brought him into disfavour4 ,in #ahdi he was removed to ,wurzburg1 where he was made professor of pathology1 but in #ahef he returned to ,berlin as ,professor and ,director of the ,pathological ,institute1 and there acquired world-wide fame4 ,his celebrated work1 ,cellular ,pathology as based on ,histology1 published in #ahef1 marks a distinct epoch in the science4 ,virchow established what ,lord ,lister describes as the true and fertile doctrine that every morbid structure consists of cells which have been derived from pre-existing cells as a progeny4 ,virchow was not only distinguished as a pathologist1 he also gained considerable fame as an archologist and anthropologist4 ,during the wars of #ahff and #ahgj-ga1 he equipped and drilled hospital corps and ambulance squads1 and superintended hospital trains and the ,berlin military hospital4 ,war over1 he directed his attention to sanitation and the sewage problems of ,berlin4 ,virchow was a voluminous author on a variety of subjects1 perhaps his most well-known works being ,famine ,fever and ,freedom of ,science4 ,he died on ,september #e1 #aijb4 ,the ,cell and the ,tissues ,the chief point in the application of ,histology to ,pathology is to obtain recognition of the fact that the cell is really the ultimate morphological element in which there is any manifestation of life4 ,in certain respects animal cells differ from vegetable cells2 but in essentials they are the same2 both consist of matter of a nitrogenous nature4 ,when we examine a simple cell1 we find we can distinguish morphological parts4 ,in the first place1 we find in the cell a round or oval body known as the nucleus4 ,occasionally the nucleus is stallate or angular2 but as a rule1 so long as cells have vital power1 the nucleus maintains a nearly constant round or oval shape4 ,the nucleus in its turn1 in completely developed cells1 very constantly encloses another structure within itself--the so-called nucleolus4 ,with regard to the question of vital form1 it cannot be said of the nucleolus that it appears to be an absolute essential1 and in a considerable number of young cells it has as yet escaped detection4 ,on the other hand1 we regularly meet with it in fully-developed1 older forms1 and it therefore seems to mark a higher degree of development in the cell4 ,according to the view which was put forward in the first instance by ,schleiden1 and accepted by ,schwann1 the connection between the three co-existent cell-constituents was long thought to be of this nature3 that the nucleolus was the first to show itself in the development of tissues1 by separating out of a formative fluid 7blastema1 cyto-blastema71 that it quickly attained a certain size1 that then fine granules were precipitated out of the blastema and settled around it1 and that about these there condensed a membrane4 ,in this way a nucleus was formed about which new matter gradually gathered1 and in due time produced a little membrane4 ,this theory of the formation of the cell is designated the theory of free cell formation--a theory which has been now almost entirely abandoned4 ,it is highly probable that the nucleus plays an extremely important part within the cell--a part less connected with the function and specific office of the cell1 than with its maintenance and multiplication as a living part4 ,the specific 7animal7 function is most distinctly manifested in muscles1 nerves1 and gland cells1 the peculiar actions of which--contraction1 sensation1 and secretion--appear to be connected in no direct manner with the nuclei4 ,but the permanency of the cell as an element seems to depend on nucleus1 for all cells which lose their nuclei quickly die1 and break up1 and disappear4 ,every organism1 whether vegetable or animal1 must be regarded as a progressive total1 made up of a larger or smaller number of similar or dissimilar cells4 ,just as a tree constitutes a mass arranged in a definite manner in which1 in every single part1 in the leaves as in the root1 in the trunk as in the blossom1 cells are discovered to be the ultimate elements1 so it is with the forms of animal life4 ,every animal presents itself as a sum of vital unities1 every one of which manifests all the characteristics of life4 ,the characteristics and unity of life cannot be limited to any one particular spot in an organism 7for instance1 to the brain of a man7 but are to be found only in the definite1 constantly recurring structure1 which every individual element displays4 ,a so-called individual always represents an arrangement of a social kind1 in which a number of individual existences are mutually dependent1 but in such a way that every element has its own special action1 and even though it derive its stimulus to activity from other parts1 yet alone affects the actual performance of its duties4 ,between cells there is a greater or less amount of a homogeneous substance--the intercellular substance4 ,according to ,schwann1 the intercellular substance was cyto-blastema destined for the development of new cells2 ,i believe this is not so1 ,i believe that the intercellular substance is dependent in a certain definite manner upon the cells1 and that certain parts of it belong to one cell and parts to another4 ,at various times1 fibres1 globules1 and elementary granules1 have been regarded as histological starting-points4 ,now1 however1 we have established the general principle that no development of any kind begins de novo and that as spontaneous generation is impossible in the case of entire organisms1 so also it is impossible in the case of individual parts4 ,no cell can build itself up out of non-cellular material4 ,where a cell arises1 there a cell must have previously existed 7omnis cellula e cellula71 just as an animal can spring only from an animal1 and a plant only from a plant4 ,no developed tissues can be traced back to anything but a cell4 ,if we wish to classify tissues1 a very simple division offers itself4 ,we have 7a7 tissues which consist exclusively of cells1 where cell lies close to cell4 7b7 ,tissues in which the cells are separated by a certain amount of intercellular substance4 7c7 ,tissues of a high or peculiar type1 such as the nervous and muscular systems and vessels4 ,an example of the first class is seen in the epithelial tissues4 ,in these1 cell lies close to cell1 with nothing between4 ,the second class is exemplified in the connective tissues--tissues composed of intercellular substance in which at certain intervals cells lie embedded4 ,muscles1 nerves1 and vessels form a somewhat heterogeneous group4 ,the idea suggests itself that we have in all three structures to deal with real tubes filled with more or less movable contents4 ,this view is1 however1 inadequate1 since we cannot regard the blood as analogous to the medullary substance of the nerve1 or contractile substance of a muscular fasciculus4 ,the elements of muscle have generally been regarded as the most simple4 ,if we examine an ordinary red muscle1 we find it to be composed of a number of cylindrical fibres1 marked with transverse and longitudinal stri4 ,if1 now1 we add acetic acid1 we discover also tolerably large nuclei with nucleoli4 ,thus we obtain an appearance like an elongated cell1 and there is a tendency to regard the primitive fasciculus as having sprung from a single cell4 ,to this view ,i am much inclined4 ,pathological tissues arise from normal tissues2 and there is no form of morbid growth which cannot in its elements be traced back to some model which had previously maintained an independent existence in the economy4 ,a classification1 also1 of pathological growths may be made on exactly the same plan as that which we have suggested in the case of the normal tissues4 ,nutrition1 ,blood1 and ,lymph4 ,pus ,nutritive material is carried to the tissues by the blood2 but the material is accepted by the tissues only in accordance with their requirements for the moment1 and is conveyed to the individual districts in suitable quantities4 ,the muscular elements of the arteries have the most important influence upon the quantity of the blood distributed1 and their elastic elements ensure an equable stream2 but it is chiefly the simple homogeneous membrane of the capillaries that influences the permeation of the fluids4 ,not all the peculiarities1 however1 in the interchange of nutritive material are to be attributed to the capillary wall1 for no doubt there are chemical affinities which enable certain parts specially to attract certain substances from the blood4 ,we know1 for example1 that a number of substances are introduced into the body which have special affinities for the nerve tissues1 and that certain materials are excreted by certain organs4 ,we are therefore compelled to consider the individual elements as active agents of the attraction4 ,if the living element be altered by disease1 then it loses its power of specific attraction4 ,i do not regard the blood as the cause of chronic dyscrasi2 for ,i do not regard the blood as a permanent tissue independently regenerating and propagating itself1 but as a fluid in a state of constant dependence upon other parts4 ,i consider that every dyscrasia is dependent upon a permanent supply of noxious ingredients from certain sources4 ,as a continual ingestion of injurious food is capable of vitiating the blood1 in like manner persistent disease in a definite organ is able to furnish the blood with a continual supply of morbid materials4 ,the essential point1 therefore1 is to search for the local sources of the different dyscrasi which cause disorders of the blood1 for every permanent change which takes place in the condition of the circulating juices must be derived from definite organs or tissues4 ,the blood contains certain morphological elements4 ,it contains a substance1 fibrine1 which appears as fibrillac when the blood clots1 and red and colourless blood corpuscles4 ,the red blood corpuscles contain no nuclei except at certain periods of the development of the embyro4 ,they are lighter or darker red according to the oxygen they contain4 ,when treated with concentrated fluids they shrivel2 when treated with diluted fluids they swell4 ,they are rather coin-shaped1 and when a drop of blood is quiet they are usually found aggregated in rows1 like rouleaux of money4 ,the colourless corpuscles are much less numerous than the red corpuscles--only one to #cjj--;but they are larger1 and contain nuclei4 ,when blood coagulates the white corpuscles sink more slowly and appear as a lighter coloured layer on the top of the clot4 ,pus cells are very like colourless corpuscles1 and the relation between the two has been much debated4 ,a pus cell can be distinguished from a colourless blood cell only by its mode of origin4 ,if it have an origin external to the blood1 it must be pus2 if it originate in the blood1 it must be considered to be a blood cell4 ,in the early stages of its development1 a white blood corpuscle is seen to modify by division2 but in fully-developed blood such division is never seen4 ,it is probable that colourless white corpuscles are given to the adult blood by the lymphatic glands4 ,every irritation of a part which is freely connected with lymphatic glands increases the number of colourless cells in the blood4 ,any excessive increase from this source ,i have designated leucocytosis4 ,in the first months of the embryo the red cell multiplies by division4 ,in adult life the mode of its multiplication is unknown4 ,they1 also1 are probably formed in the lymphatic glands and spleen4 ,in a disease ,i have named leukmia1 the colourless blood cells increase in number enormously4 ,in such cases there is always disease of the spleen1 and very often of the lymphatic glands4 ,these facts can hardly1 ,i think1 be interpreted in any other manner than by supposing that the spleen and lymphatic glands are intimately concerned in the production of the formed elements of the blood4 ,by pymia is meant pus corpuscles in the blood4 ,but most cases of so-called pymia are really cases in which there is an increase of white blood corpuscles1 and it is doubtful whether such a condition as pus in the blood does ever occur4 ,in the extremely rare cases1 in which pus breaks through into the veins1 purulent ingredients may1 without doubt1 be conveyed into the blood1 but in such cases the introduction of pus occurs for the most part but once1 and there is no persistent pymia4 ,even when clots in veins break down and form matter like pus1 it will be found that the matter is not really pus1 and contains no pus cells4 ,chlorosis is a condition in which there is a diminution of the cellular elements of the blood1 due probably to their deficient formation in the spleen and lymphatic glands4 ,the ,vital ,processes and ,their ,relation to ,disease4 ,inflammation ,the study of the histology of the nervous system shows that in all parts of the body a splitting up into a number of small centres takes place1 and that nowhere does a single central point susceptible of anatomical demonstration exist from which the operations of the body are directed4 ,we find in the nervous systems definite little cells which serve as centres of motion1 but we do not find any single ganglion cell in which alone all movement in the end originates4 ,the most various individual motor apparatuses are connected with the most various individual motor ganglion cells4 ,sensations are certainly collected in definite ganglion cells4 ,still1 among them1 too1 we do not find any single ganglion cell which can be in any way designated the centre of all sensation1 but we again meet with a great number of very minute centres4 ,all the operations which have their source in the nervous system1 and there certainly are a very great number of them1 do not allow us to recognise a unity anywhere else than in our own consciousness4 ,an anatomical or physiological unity has at least as yet been nowhere demonstrated4 ,when we talk of life we mean vital activity4 ,now1 every vital action supposes an excitation or irritation4 ,the irritability of the part is the criterion by which we judge whether it be alive or not4 ,our notion of the death of a part is based upon nothing more or less than this--that we can no longer detect any irritability in it4 ,if we now proceed with our analysis of what is to be included in the notion of excitability1 we at once discover1 that the different actions which can be provoked by the influence of any external agency are essentially of three kinds4 ,the result of an excitation or irritation may1 according to circumstances1 be either a merely functional process1 or a more or less increased nutrition of the part1 or a formative process giving rise to a greater or less number of new elements4 ,these differences manifest themselves more or less distinctly according as the particular tissues are more or less capable of responding to the one or other kinds of excitation4 ,it certainly cannot be denied that the processes may not be distinctly defined1 and that between the nutritive and formative processes1 and also between the functional and nutritive ones there are transitional stages2 still1 when they are typically performed1 there is a very marked difference between them1 and considerable differences in the internal changes undergone by the excited parts4 ,in inflammation all three irritative processes occur side by side4 ,indeed1 we may frequently see that when the organ itself is made up of different parts1 one part of the tissue undergoes functional or nutritive1 another formative1 changes4 ,if we consider what happens in a muscle we see that a chemical or traumatic stimulus produces a functional irritation of the primitive fasciculi1 with contraction of the muscle followed by nutritive changes4 ,on the other hand1 in the interstitial connective tissue which binds the individual fasciculi of the muscle together1 real new formations are readily produced1 commonly pus4 ,in this manner the three forms of irritation may be distinguished in one part4 ,the formative process is always preceded by nutritive enlargement due to irritation of the part1 and has no connection with irritation of the nerves4 ,of course there may be also an irritation of the nerves1 but this1 if we do not take function into account1 has no causal connection with the processes going on in the tissue proper1 but is merely a collateral effect of the original disturbance4 ,besides these active processes of function1 nutrition1 and new formation1 there occur passive processes4 ,passive processes are called those changes in cells whereby they either lose a portion of their substance1 or are so completely destroyed1 that a loss of substance1 a diminution of the sum total of the constituents of the body is produced4 ,to this class belong fatty degeneration of cells1 affection of arteries1 calcification1 and ossification of arteries1 amyloid degeneration1 and so forth4 ,it will now be necessary to consider inflammation at more length4 ,the theory of inflammation has passed through various stages4 ,at first heat was considered as its essential and dominant feature1 then redness1 then exudative swelling2 while the speculative neuropathologists consider pain the fons et origo of the condition4 ,personally1 ,i believe that irritation must be taken as the starting-point in the consideration of inflammation4 ,we cannot conceive of inflammation without an irritating stimulus1 and the first question is1 what conception we are to form of such a stimulus4 ,an inflammatory stimulus is a stimulus which acts either directly or through the medium of the blood upon the composition and constitution of a part in such a way as to enable it to attract to itself a larger quantity of matter than usual and to transform it according to circumstances4 ,every form of inflammation with which we are acquainted may be explained in this way4 ,it may be assumed that inflammation begins from the moment that this increased absorption of matters into the tissue takes place1 and the further transformation of these matters commences4 ,it must be noticed that hypermia is not the essential feature of inflammation1 for inflammation occurs in non-vascular as well as in vascular parts1 and the inflammatory processes are practically the same in both instances4 ,nor is inflammatory exudation the essential feature of inflammation4 ,i am of the opinion that there is no specific inflammatory exudation at all1 but that the exudation we meet with is composed essentially of the material which has been generated in the inflamed part itself1 through the change in its condition1 and of the transuded fluid derived from the vessels4 ,if1 therefore1 a part possess a great number of vessels1 and particularly if they are superficial1 it will be able to furnish an exudation1 since the fluid which transudes from the blood conveys the special product of the tissue along with it to the surface4 ,if this is not the case1 there will be no exudation1 but the whole process will be limited to the occurrence in the real substance of the tissue of the special changes which have been induced by the inflammatory stimulus4 ,in this manner1 two forms of inflammation can be distinguished1 the purely parenchymatous inflammation1 where the process runs its course in the interior of the tissue1 without our being able to detect the presence of any free fluid which has escaped from the blood2 and the secretory 7exudative7 inflammation1 where an increased escape of fluid takes place from the blood1 and conveys the peculiar parenchymatous matters along with it to the surface of the organs4 ,that there are two kinds of inflammation is shown by the fact that they occur for the most part in different organs4 ,every parenchymatous inflammation tends to alter the histological and functional character of an organ4 ,every inflammation with free exudation generally affords a certain relief to the parts by conveying away from it a great part of the noxious matters with which it is clogged4 ,new ,formations ,i at present entirely reject the blastema doctrine in its original form1 and in its place ,i put the doctrine of the continuous development of tissues out of one another4 ,my first doubts of the blastema doctrine date from my researches on tubercle4 ,i found the tubercles never exhibited a discernible exudation2 but always organised elements unpreceded by amorphous matter4 ,i also found that the discharge from scrofulous glands and from inflamed lymphatic glands is not an exudation capable of organisation but merely dbris1 developed from the ordinary cells of the glands4 ,until1 however1 the cellular nature of the body had been demonstrated1 it seemed necessary in some instances to postulate a blastema or exudation to account for certain new formations4 ,but the moment ,i could show the universality of cells--the moment ,i could show that bone corpuscles were real cells1 and that connective tissues contained cells--from that moment cellular material for the building of new formations was apparent4 ,in fact1 the more observers increased the more distinctly was it shown that by far the greater number of new formations arise from the connective tissue4 ,in almost all cases new formations may be seen to be formed by a process of ordinary cell division from previously existing cells4 ,in some cases the cells continue to resemble the parent cells2 in other cases they become different4 ,all new formations built of cells which continue true to the parent type we may call homologous new formations2 while those which depart from the parent type or undergo degenerative changes we may designate heterologous4 ,in a narrower sense of the word heterologous new formations are alone destructive4 ,the homologous ones may accidentally become very injurious1 but still they do not possess what can properly be called a destructive or malignant character4 ,on the other hand1 every kind of heterologous formation whenever it has not its seat in entirely superficial parts1 has a certain degree of malignity1 and even superficial affections1 though entirely confined to the most external layers of epidermis1 may gradually exercise a very detrimental effect4 ,indeed1 suppuration is of this nature1 for suppuration is simply a process of proliferation by means of which cells are produced which do not acquire that degree of consolidation or permanent connection with each other which is necessary for the existence of the body4 ,pus is not the solvent of cells3 but is itself dissolved tissues4 ,a part becomes soft and liquefies1 while suppurating1 but it is not the pus which causes this softening2 on the contrary1 it is the pus which is produced as the result of the proliferation of tissues4 ,a suppurative change of this nature takes place in all heterologous new formations4 ,the form of ulceration which is presented by cancer in its latest stages bears so great a resemblance to suppurative ulceration that the two things have long since been compared4 ,the difference between suppuration and suppuration lies in the differing duration of the life of different cells4 ,a cancer cell is capable of existing longer than a pus corpuscle1 and a cancerous tumour may last for months yet still contain the whole of its elements intact4 ,we are as yet able in the case of very few elements to state with absolute certainty the average length of their life4 ,but among all pathological new formations with fluid intercellular substance there is not a single one which is able to preserve its existence for any length of time--not a single one whose elements can become permanent constituents of the body1 or exist as long as the individual4 ,the tumour as a whole may last2 but its individual elements perish4 ,if we examine a tumour after it has existed for perhaps a year1 we usually find that the elements first formed no longer exist in the centre2 but that in the centre they are disintegrating1 dissolved by fatty changes4 ,if a tumour be seated on a surface1 it often presents in the centre of its most prominent part a navel-like depression1 and the parts under this display a dense cicatrix which no longer bears the original character of the new formation4 ,heterologous new formations must be considered parasitical in their nature1 since every one of their elements will withdraw matters from the body which might be used for better purposes1 and since even its first development implies the destruction of its parent structures4 ,in view of origin of new formations it were well to create a nomenclature showing their histological basis2 but new names must not be introduced too suddenly1 and it must be noted that there are certain tumours whose histological pedigree is still uncertain4 ,printed in the ,united ,states of ,america ,,footnotes3 #a ,azure transparent spheres conceived by the ancients to surround the earth one within another1 and to carry the heavenly bodies in their revolutions4 #b ,book ,i41 ,prop4 i4 ,the areas which revolving bodies describe by radii drawn to an immovable centre of force do lie in the same immovable planes and are proportional to the times in which they are described4 ,prop4 ii4 ,every body that moves in any curve line described in a plane and by a radius drawn to a point either immovable or moving forward with a uniform rectilinear motion describes about that point areas proportional to the times is urged by a centripetal force directed to that point4 ,prop4 iii4 ,every body that1 by a radius drawn to another body1 howsoever moved1 describes areas about that centre proportional to the times is urged by a force compounded out of the centripetal force tending to that other body and of all the accelerative force by which that other body is impelled4 #c ,if the periodic times are in the sesquiplicate ratio of the radii1 and therefore the velocities reciprocally in the subduplicate ratio of the radii1 the centripetal forces will be in the duplicate ratio of the radii inversely2 and the converse4 #d i4e41 showing convexity when in such a position as that1 to an observer on the earth1 a line drawn between it and the sun would subtend an angle of #ij or thereabouts4 ,,transcriber ,,note3 ,variant spelling and punctuation have been preserved4