99 99 99 99 99 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,transcrib]'s ,note3 ,inconsi/5t hyph5ation 9 ! orig9al docum5t has be5 pres]v$4 ,ma!matical equations & v>iables are m>k$ ) ,ma?3 to r$uce confusion betwe5 und]scores us$ = italics & und]scores us$ to indicate subscripts4 ,subscripts are indicat$ ) und]scores1 ) ! subscript$ "* m>k$ ) 's1 i4e43 xt ,greek lett]s h be5 translit]at$ & m>k$ ) 's1 i4e43 alpha ,obvi\s typographical errors h be5 correct$4 ,= a complete li/1 please see ! end ( ?is docum5t4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- 99 99 99 99 99 ,,b]tr& ,,russell ,,my/icism ,,& ,,logic ,,& ,,o!r ,,essays ,,london ,,george ,,all5 ,,unw9 ,,ltd ,,rusk9 ,,h\se ,,museum ,,/reet ,,my/icism ,,& ,,logic ,,& ,,o!r ,,essays ,,by ,,b]tr& ,,russell ,! ,,abc ( ,relativity ,! ,analysis ( ,matt] ,human ,society 9 ,e?ics & ,politics ,! ,impact ( ,sci5ce on ,society ,new ,hopes = a ,*ang+ ,_w ,au?ority & ! ,individual ,human ,k ,hi/ory ( ,we/]n ,philosophy ,! ,pr9ciples ( ,ma!matics ,introduction to ,ma!matical ,philosophy ,! ,analysis ( ,m9d ,our ,k ( ! ,ext]nal ,_w ,an ,outl9e ( ,philosophy ,! ,philosophy ( ,leibniz ,an ,inquiry into ,mean+ & ,tru? ,logic & ,k ,! ,problems ( ,philosophy ,pr9cipia ,ma!matica ,common ,s5se & ,nucle> ,w>f>e ,:y ,i am ,n a ,*ri/ian ,portraits f ,memory ,my ,philosophical ,developm5t ,unpopul> ,essays ,p[] ,9 ,praise ( ,idl5ess ,! ,conque/ ( ,happ9ess ,sceptical ,essays ,! ,sci5tific ,outlook ,m>riage & ,morals ,education & ! ,social ,ord] ,on ,education ,fre$om & ,organization ,pr9ciples ( ,social ,recon/ruction ,roads to ,fre$om ,practice & ,!ory ( ,bol%evism ,satan 9 ,! ,suburbs ,nightm>es ( ,em95t ,p]sons ,fir/ publi%$ z ,philosophical ,essays ,octob] #aiaj ,second ,edition z ,my/icism & ,logic ,decemb] #aiag ,?ird ,impression ,april #aiah ,f\r? ,impression ,febru>y #aiai ,fif? ,impression ,octob] #aiba ,six? ,impression ,augu/ #aibe ,sev5? ,impression ,janu>y #aicb ,eigh? ,impression #aidi ,n9? ,impression #aiej ,t5? ,impression #aiea ,elev5? ,impression #aiei ,?is book is copyright "u ! ,b]ne ,conv5tion4 ,ap>t f any fair deal+ = ! purpose ( private /udy1 rese>*1 criticism or review1 z p]mitt$ "u ! ,copyright ,act1 #aief1 no portion may be reproduc$ by any process )\t writt5 p]mission4 ,enquiry %\ld be made to ! publi%]4 ,,pr9t$ ,,9 ,,great ,,brita9 by ,taylor ,g>nett ,evans ,co4 ,ltd41 ,wat=d1 ,h]ts4 ,,preface ,! foll[+ essays h be5 writt5 & publi%$ at v>i\s times1 & my ?anks are due to ! previ\s publi%]s = ! p]mission to repr9t !m4 ,! essay on ,my/icism & ,logic appe>$ 9 ! ,hibb]t ,j\rnal = ,july1 #aiad4 ,! ,place ( ,sci5ce 9 a ,lib]al ,education appe>$ 9 two numb]s ( ,! ,new ,/atesman1 ,may #bd & #ca1 #aiac4 ,! ,free ,man's ,wor%ip & ,! ,/udy ( ,ma!matics 7 includ$ 9 a =m] collection 7n[ out ( pr9t71 ,philosophical ,essays1 also publi%$ by ,messrs4 ,longmans1 ,gre5 ,co4 ,bo? 7 writt5 9 #aijb2 ! fir/ appe>$ orig9ally 9 ! ,indep5d5t ,review = #aijc1 ! second 9 ! ,new ,qu>t]ly1 ,novemb]1 #aijg4 ,9 !oretical ,e?ics1 ! position advocat$ 9 ,! ,free ,man's ,wor%ip is n q id5tical ) t :i* ,i hold n[3 ,i feel less conv9c$ ?an ,i did !n ( ! objectivity ( good & evil4 ,b ! g5]al attitude t[>ds life :i* is sugge/$ 9 t essay /ill seems to me1 9 ! ma91 ! "o :i* mu/ be adopt$ 9 times ( /ress & difficulty by ^? :o h no dogmatic religi\s beliefs1 if inw>d defeat is to be avoid$4 ,! essay on ,ma!matics & ! ,metaphysicians 0 writt5 9 #aija1 & appe>$ 9 an ,am]ican magaz9e1 ,! ,int]national ,mon?ly1 "u ! title ,rec5t ,"w 9 ! ,philosophy ( ,ma!matics4 ,"s po9ts 9 ?is essay require modification 9 view ( lat] "w4 ,^! are indicat$ 9 footnotes4 ,its tone is p>tly expla9$ by ! fact t ! editor begg$ me to make ! article z romantic z possible4 ,all ! above essays are entirely popul>1 b ^? t foll[ are some:at m te*nical4 ,on ,sci5tific ,me?od 9 ,philosophy 0 ! ,h]b]t ,sp5c] lecture at ,ox=d 9 #aiad1 & 0 publi%$ by ! ,cl>5don ,press1 :i* has k9dly all[$ me to include x 9 ?is collection4 ,! ,ultimate ,con/itu5ts ( ,matt] 0 an address to ! ,man*e/] ,philosophical ,society1 e>ly 9 #aiae1 & 0 publi%$ 9 ! ,moni/ 9 ,july ( t ye>4 ,! essay on ,! ,relation ( ,s5se-data to ,physics 0 writt5 9 ,janu>y1 #aiad1 & fir/ appe>$ 9 ,no4 #d ( t ye>'s volume ( ,sci5tia1 an ,int]national ,review ( ,sci5tific ,syn!sis1 edit$ by ,m4 ,eug5io ,rignano1 publi%$ mon?ly by ,messrs4 ,williams & ,norgate1 ,london1 ,nicola ,zani*elli1 ,bologna1 & ,flix ,alcan1 ,p>is4 ,! essay ,on ! ,notion ( ,cause 0 ! presid5tial address to ! ,ari/otelian ,society 9 ,novemb]1 #aiab1 & 0 publi%$ 9 _! ,proce$+s = #aiab-ac4 ,k by ,acqua9tance & ,k by ,description 0 also a pap] read be=e ! ,ari/otelian ,society1 & publi%$ 9 _! ,proce$+s = #aiaj-aa4 ,,london1 ,septemb]1 #aiag ,,cont5ts ,*apt] ,page ,i4 ,my/icism & ,logic #a ,,ii4 ,! ,place ( ,sci5ce 9 a ,lib]al ,education #cc ,,iii4 ,a ,free ,man's ,wor%ip #df ,,iv4 ,! ,/udy ( ,ma!matics #eh ,v4 ,ma!matics & ! ,metaphysicians #gd ,,vi4 ,on ,sci5tific ,me?od 9 ,philosophy #ig ,,vii4 ,! ,ultimate ,con/itu5ts ( ,matt] #abe ,,viii4 ,! ,relation ( ,s5se-data to ,physics #ade ,,ix4 ,on ! ,notion ( ,cause #ahj ,x4 ,k by ,acqua9tance & ,k by ,description #bji ,,my/icism ,,& ,,logic ,,& ,,o!r ,,essays ,i ,,my/icism ,,& ,,logic ,metaphysics1 or ! attempt to conceive ! _w z a :ole by means ( ?\ght1 has be5 develop$1 f ! fir/1 by ! union & conflict ( two v diff]5t human impulses1 ! "o urg+ m5 t[>ds my/icism1 ! o!r urg+ !m t[>ds sci5ce4 ,"s m5 h a*iev$ greatness ?r\gh "o ( ^! impulses alone1 o!rs ?r\gh ! o!r alone3 9 ,hume1 = example1 ! sci5tific impulse reigns q un*eck$1 :ile 9 ,blake a /rong ho/ility to sci5ce co-exi/s ) pr(\nd my/ic insight4 ,b ! greate/ m5 :o h be5 philosoph]s h felt ! ne$ bo? ( sci5ce & ( my/icism3 ! attempt to h>monise ! two 0 :at made _! life1 & :at always mu/1 = all its ardu\s unc]ta9ty1 make philosophy1 to "s m9ds1 a great] ?+ ?an ei!r sci5ce or religion4 ,be=e attempt+ an explicit *>act]isation ( ! sci5tific & ! my/ical impulses1 ,i w illu/rate !m by examples f two philosoph]s ^: greatness lies 9 ! v intimate bl5d+ :i* !y a*iev$4 ,! two philosoph]s ,i mean are ,h]aclitus & ,plato4 ,h]aclitus1 z e "o kn[s1 0 a believ] 9 univ]sal flux3 "t builds & de/roys all ?+s4 ,f ! few fragm5ts t rema91 x is n easy to discov] h[ he arriv$ at 8 op9ions1 b !re are "s say+s t /rongly sugge/ sci5tific obs]vation z ! s\rce4 ,! ?+s t c be se51 he>d1 & le>n$1 he says1 are :at ,i prize ! mo/4 ,?is is ! language ( ! empirici/1 to :om obs]vation is ! sole gu>antee ( tru?4 ,! sun is new e day1 is ano!r fragm5t2 & ?is op9ion1 9 spite ( its p>adoxical "*1 is obvi\sly inspir$ by sci5tific reflection1 & no d\bt seem$ to him to obviate ! difficulty ( und]/&+ h[ ! sun c "w its way und]gr\nd f we/ to ea/ dur+ ! night4 ,actual obs]vation mu/ also h sugge/$ to him 8 c5tral doctr9e1 t ,fire is ! "o p]man5t sub/ance1 ( :i* all visible ?+s are pass+ phases4 ,9 combu/ion we see ?+s *ange utt]ly1 :ile _! flame & heat rise up into ! air & vani%4 ,?is _w1 :i* is ! same = all1 he says1 no "o ( gods or m5 has made2 b x 0 ev]1 is n[1 & ev] %all be1 an ev]-liv+ ,fire1 ) measures k9dl+1 & measures go+ out4 ,! trans=mations ( ,fire are1 fir/ ( all1 sea2 & half ( ! sea is e>?1 half :irlw9d4 ,?is !ory1 ?\gh no long] "o :i* sci5ce c accept1 is nev]!less sci5tific 9 _s4 ,sci5ce1 too1 might h inspir$ ! fam\s say+ to :i* ,plato alludes3 ,y _c /ep twice into ! same riv]s2 = fre% wat]s are ev] fl[+ 9 ^u y4 ,b we f9d also ano!r /atem5t among ! extant fragm5ts3 ,we /ep & d n /ep into ! same riv]s2 we are & are n4 ,! comp>ison ( ?is /atem5t1 :i* is my/ical1 ) ! "o quot$ by ,plato1 :i* is sci5tific1 %[s h[ intimately ! two t5d5cies are bl5d$ 9 ! sy/em ( ,h]aclitus4 ,my/icism is1 9 ess5ce1 little m ?an a c]ta9 int5sity & dep? ( feel+ 9 reg>d to :at is believ$ ab\t ! univ]se2 & ?is k9d ( feel+ leads ,h]aclitus1 on ! basis ( 8 sci5ce1 to /rangely poignant say+s conc]n+ life & ! _w1 su* z3 ,"t is a *ild play+ draughts1 ! k+ly p[] is a *ild's4 ,x is poetic imag9ation1 n sci5ce1 :i* pres5ts ,"t z despotic "l ( ! _w1 ) all ! irresponsible frivolity ( a *ild4 ,x is my/icism1 too1 :i* leads ,h]aclitus to ass]t ! id5tity ( opposites3 ,good & ill are "o1 he says2 & aga93 ,to ,god all ?+s are fair & good & "r1 b m5 hold "s ?+s wrong & "s "r4 ,mu* ( my/icism und]lies ! e?ics ( ,h]aclitus4 ,x is true t a sci5tific det]m9ism alone might h inspir$ ! /atem5t3 ,man's "* is 8 fate2 b only a my/ic w\ld h said3 ,e bea/ is driv5 to ! pa/ure ) bl[s2 & aga93 ,x is h>d to fight ) "o's he>t's desire4 ,:atev] x wi%es to get1 x pur*ases at ! co/ ( s\l2 & aga93 ,wisdom is "o ?+4 ,x is to "k ! ?\ght by :i* all ?+s are /e]$ ?r\gh all ?+s4#a ,examples might be multipli$1 b ^? t h be5 giv5 are en\gh to %[ ! "* ( ! man3 ! facts ( sci5ce1 z !y appe>$ to him1 f$ ! flame 9 8 s\l1 & 9 its light he saw into ! dep?s ( ! _w by ! reflection ( 8 own danc+ swiftly p5etrat+ fire4 ,9 su* a nature we see ! true union ( ! my/ic & ! man ( sci5ce--! highe/ em95ce1 z ,i ?9k1 t x is possible to a*ieve 9 ! _w ( ?\ght4 ,9 ,plato1 ! same tw(old impulse exi/s1 ?\gh ! my/ic impulse is di/9ctly ! /rong] ( ! two1 & secures ultimate victory :5ev] ! conflict is %>p4 ,8 description ( ! cave is ! classical /atem5t ( belief 9 a k & reality tru] & m real ?an t ( ! s5ses3 ,imag9e#b a numb] ( m5 liv+ 9 an und]gr\nd cav]n\s *amb]1 ) an entrance op5 to ! light1 ext5d+ along ! entire l5g? ( ! cav]n1 9 :i* !y h be5 conf9$1 f _! *ildhood1 ) _! legs & necks s %ackl$ t !y are oblig$ to sit /ill & look /raight =w>ds1 because _! *a9s r5d] x impossible = !m to turn _! heads r\nd3 & imag9e a bright fire burn+ "s way (f1 above & beh9d !m1 & an elevat$ roadway pass+ betwe5 ! fire & ! prison]s1 ) a l[ wall built along x1 l ! scre5s :i* conjurors put up 9 front ( _! audi5ce1 & above :i* !y exhibit _! wond]s4 ,i h x1 he repli$4 ,also figure to y\rself a numb] ( p]sons walk+ beh9d ?is wall1 & c>ry+ ) !m /atues ( m51 & images ( o!r animals1 wr\ght 9 wood & /one & all k9ds ( mat]ials1 toge!r ) v>i\s o!r articles1 :i* ov]top ! wall2 &1 z y might expect1 let "s ( ! pass]s-by be talk+1 & o!rs sil5t4 ,y are describ+ a /range sc5e1 & /range prison]s4 ,!y resemble u1 ,i repli$4 ,n[ consid] :at w\ld happ5 if ! c\rse ( nature br\ght !m a release f _! fett]s1 & a rem$y = _! fooli%ness1 9 ! foll[+ mann]4 ,let u suppose t "o ( !m has be5 releas$1 & compell$ sudd5ly to /& up1 & turn 8 neck r\nd & walk ) op5 eyes t[>ds ! light2 & let u suppose t he goes ?r\gh all ^! actions ) pa91 & t ! dazzl+ spl5d\r r5d]s him incapable ( disc]n+ ^? objects ( :i* he us$ =m]ly to see ! %ad[s4 ,:at answ] %\ld y expect him to make1 if "s "o 7 to tell him t 9 ^? days he 0 wat*+ fooli% phantoms1 b t n[ he is some:at ne>] to reality1 & is turn$ t[>ds ?+s m real1 & sees m correctly2 above all1 if he 7 to po9t out to him ! sev]al objects t are pass+ by1 & "q him1 & compel him to answ] :at !y are8 ,%\ld y n expect him to be puzzl$1 & to reg>d 8 old visions z tru] ?an ! objects n[ =c$ ^u 8 notice8 ,yes1 mu* tru]4444 ,h5ce1 ,i suppose1 habit w be necess>y to enable him to p]ceive objects 9 t upp] _w4 ,at fir/ he w be mo/ successful 9 di/+ui%+ %ad[s2 !n he w disc]n ! reflections ( m5 & o!r ?+s 9 wat]1 & aft]w>ds ! realities2 & aft] ?is he w raise 8 eyes to enc\nt] ! light ( ! moon & />s1 f9d+ x less difficult to /udy ! heav5ly bodies & ! heav5 itself by night1 ?an ! sun & ! sun's light by day4 ,d\btless4 ,la/ ( all1 ,i imag9e1 he w be able to obs]ve & contemplate ! nature ( ! sun1 n z x appe>s 9 wat] or on ali5 gr\nd1 b z x is 9 itself 9 its own t]ritory4 ,( c\rse4 ,8 next /ep w be to draw ! conclusion1 t ! sun is ! au?or ( ! seasons & ! ye>s1 & ! gu>dian ( all ?+s 9 ! visible _w1 & 9 a mann] ! cause ( all ^? ?+s :i* he & 8 companions us$ to see4 ,obvi\sly1 ?is w be 8 next /ep4444 ,n[ ?is imag9>y case1 my de> ,glancon1 y mu/ apply 9 all its p>ts to our =m] /atem5ts1 by comp>+ ! region :i* ! eye reveals to ! prison h\se1 & ! light ( ! fire !re9 to ! p[] ( ! sun3 & if1 by ! upw>d asc5t & ! contemplation ( ! upp] _w1 y und]/& ! m\nt+ ( ! s\l into ! intellectual region1 y w hit ! t5d5cy ( my own surmises1 s9ce y desire to be told :at !y are2 ?\gh1 inde$1 ,god only kn[s :e!r !y are correct4 ,b1 be t z x may1 ! view :i* ,i take ( ! subject is to ! foll[+ effect4 ,9 ! _w ( k1 ! ess5tial ,=m ( ,good is ! limit ( our enquiries1 & c b>ely be p]ceiv$2 b1 :5 p]ceiv$1 we _c help conclud+ t x is 9 e case ! s\rce ( all t is bright & beautiful1--9 ! visible _w giv+ bir? to light & its ma/]1 & 9 ! intellectual _w disp5s+1 imm$iately & ) full au?ority1 tru? & reason2--& t :osoev] w\ld act wisely1 ei!r 9 private or 9 public1 mu/ set ?is ,=m ( ,good be=e 8 eyes4 ,b 9 ?is passage1 z ?r\gh\t mo/ ( ,plato's tea*+1 !re is an id5tification ( ! good ) ! truly real1 :i* became embodi$ 9 ! philosophical tradition1 & is /ill l>gely op]ative 9 our own day4 ,9 ?us all[+ a legislative function to ! good1 ,plato produc$ a divorce betwe5 philosophy & sci5ce1 f :i*1 9 my op9ion1 bo? h suff]$ ev] s9ce & are /ill suff]+4 ,! man ( sci5ce1 :atev] 8 hopes may be1 mu/ lay !m aside :ile he /udies nature2 & ! philosoph]1 if he is to a*ieve tru?1 mu/ d ! same4 ,e?ical consid]ations c only legitimately appe> :5 ! tru? has be5 asc]ta9$3 !y c & %\ld appe> z det]m9+ our feel+ t[>ds ! tru?1 & our mann] ( ord]+ our lives 9 view ( ! tru?1 b n z !mselves dictat+ :at ! tru? is to be4 ,!re are passages 9 ,plato--among ^? :i* illu/rate ! sci5tific side ( 8 m9d--:]e he seems cle>ly aw>e ( ?is4 ,! mo/ notewor?y is ! "o 9 :i* ,socrates1 z a "y man1 is expla9+ ! !ory ( ideas to ,p>m5ides4 ,aft] ,socrates has expla9$ t !re is an idea ( ! good1 b n ( su* ?+s z hair & mud & dirt1 ,p>m5ides advises him n to despise ev5 ! meane/ ?+s1 & ?is advice %[s ! g5u9e sci5tific temp]4 ,x is ) ?is imp>tial temp] t ! my/ic's app>5t insight into a high] reality & a hidd5 good has to be comb9$ if philosophy is to realise its greate/ possibilities4 ,& x is failure 9 ?is respect t has made s mu* ( ideali/ic philosophy ?91 lifeless1 & insub/antial4 ,x is only 9 m>riage ) ! _w t our ideals c be> fruit3 divorc$ f x1 !y rema9 b>r54 ,b m>riage ) ! _w is n to be a*iev$ by an ideal :i* %r9ks f fact1 or dem&s 9 advance t ! _w %all con=m to its desires4 ,p>m5ides himself is ! s\rce ( a peculi>ly int]e/+ /ra9 ( my/icism :i* p]vades ,plato's ?\ght--! my/icism :i* may be call$ logical because x is embodi$ 9 !ories on logic4 ,?is =m ( my/icism1 :i* appe>s1 s f> z ! ,we/ is conc]n$1 to h orig9at$ ) ,p>m5ides1 dom9ates ! reason+s ( all ! great my/ical metaphysicians f 8 day to t ( ,hegel & 8 mod]n disciples4 ,reality1 he says1 is uncreat$1 inde/ructible1 un*ang+1 indivisible2 x is immovable 9 ! bonds ( mighty *a9s1 )\t beg9n+ & )\t end2 s9ce com+ into be+ & pass+ away h be5 driv5 af>1 & true belief has ca/ !m away4 ,! fundam5tal pr9ciple ( 8 inquiry is /at$ 9 a s5t5ce :i* w\ld n be out ( place 9 ,hegel3 ,?\ can/ n "k :at is n--t is impossible--nor utt] x2 = x is ! same ?+ t c be ?\ght & t c be4 ,& aga93 ,x ne$s mu/ be t :at c be ?\ght & spok5 ( is2 = x is possible = x to be1 & x is n possible = :at is no?+ to be4 ,! impossibility ( *ange foll[s f ?is pr9ciple2 = :at is pa/ c be spok5 (1 & !re=e1 by ! pr9ciple1 /ill is4 ,my/ical philosophy1 9 all ages & 9 all p>ts ( ! _w1 is *>act]is$ by c]ta9 beliefs :i* are illu/rat$ by ! doctr9es we h be5 consid]+4 ,!re is1 fir/1 ! belief 9 insight z aga9/ discursive analytic k3 ! belief 9 a way ( wisdom1 sudd51 p5etrat+1 co]cive1 :i* is contra/$ ) ! sl[ & fallible /udy ( outw>d appe>ance by a sci5ce rely+ :olly ^u ! s5ses4 ,all :o are capable ( absorption 9 an inw>d passion mu/ h exp]i5c$ at times ! /range feel+ ( unreality 9 common objects1 ! loss ( contact ) daily ?+s1 9 :i* ! solidity ( ! out] _w is lo/1 & ! s\l seems1 9 utt] lonel9ess1 to br+ =?1 out ( its own dep?s1 ! mad dance ( fanta/ic phantoms :i* h hi!rto appe>$ z indep5d5tly real & liv+4 ,?is is ! negative side ( ! my/ic's initiation3 ! d\bt conc]n+ common k1 prep>+ ! way = ! reception ( :at seems a high] wisdom4 ,_m m5 to :om ?is negative exp]i5ce is famili> d n pass beyond x1 b = ! my/ic x is m]ely ! gateway to an ampl] _w4 ,! my/ic insight beg9s ) ! s5se ( a my/]y unveil$1 ( a hidd5 wisdom n[ sudd5ly become c]ta9 beyond ! possibility ( a d\bt4 ,! s5se ( c]ta9ty & revelation comes e>li] ?an any def9ite belief4 ,! def9ite beliefs at :i* my/ics arrive are ! result ( reflection ^u ! in>ticulate exp]i5ce ga9$ 9 ! mom5t ( insight4 ,(t51 beliefs :i* h no real connection ) ?is mom5t become subsequ5tly attract$ into ! c5tral nucleus2 ?us 9 addition to ! convictions :i* all my/ics %>e1 we f9d1 9 _m ( !m1 o!r convictions ( a m local & tempor>y "*1 :i* no d\bt become amalgamat$ ) :at 0 ess5tially my/ical 9 virtue ( _! subjective c]ta9ty4 ,we may ignore su* iness5tial accretions1 & conf9e ourselves to ! beliefs :i* all my/ics %>e4 ,! fir/ & mo/ direct outcome ( ! mom5t ( illum9ation is belief 9 ! possibility ( a way ( k :i* may be call$ revelation or insight or intuition1 z contra/$ ) s5se1 reason1 & analysis1 :i* are reg>d$ z bl9d guides lead+ to ! morass ( illusion4 ,closely connect$ ) ?is belief is ! conception ( a ,reality beh9d ! _w ( appe>ance & utt]ly diff]5t f x4 ,?is ,reality is reg>d$ ) an admiration (t5 am\nt+ to wor%ip2 x is felt to be always & ev]y:]e close at h&1 ?9ly veil$ by ! %[s ( s5se1 ready1 = ! receptive m9d1 to %9e 9 its glory ev5 ?r\gh ! app>5t folly & wick$ness ( ,man4 ,! poet1 ! arti/1 & ! lov] are seek]s aft] t glory3 ! haunt+ beauty t !y pursue is ! fa9t reflection ( its sun4 ,b ! my/ic lives 9 ! full light ( ! vision3 :at o!rs dimly seek he kn[s1 ) a k beside :i* all o!r k is ignorance4 ,! second *>act]i/ic ( my/icism is its belief 9 unity1 & its refusal to admit opposition or division any:]e4 ,we f\nd ,h]aclitus say+ good & ill are "o2 & aga9 he says1 ! way up & ! way d[n is "o & ! same4 ,! same attitude appe>s 9 ! simultane\s ass]tion ( contradictory propositions1 su* z3 ,we /ep & d n /ep into ! same riv]s2 we are & are n4 ,! ass]tion ( ,p>m5ides1 t reality is "o & indivisible1 comes f ! same impulse t[>ds unity4 ,9 ,plato1 ?is impulse is less prom95t1 be+ held 9 *eck by 8 !ory ( ideas2 b x reappe>s1 s f> z 8 logic p]mits1 9 ! doctr9e ( ! primacy ( ! ,good4 ,a ?ird m>k ( almo/ all my/ical metaphysics is ! d5ial ( ! reality ( ,"t4 ,?is is an outcome ( ! d5ial ( division2 if all is "o1 ! di/9ction ( pa/ & future mu/ be illusory4 ,we h se5 ?is doctr9e prom95t 9 ,p>m5ides2 & among mod]ns x is fundam5tal 9 ! sy/ems ( ,sp9oza & ,hegel4 ,! la/ ( ! doctr9es ( my/icism :i* we h to consid] is its belief t all evil is m]e appe>ance1 an illusion produc$ by ! divisions & oppositions ( ! analytic intellect4 ,my/icism does n ma9ta9 t su* ?+s z cruelty1 = example1 are good1 b x d5ies t !y are real3 !y belong to t l[] _w ( phantoms f :i* we are to be lib]at$ by ! insight ( ! vision4 ,sometimes--= example 9 ,hegel1 & at lea/ v]bally 9 ,sp9oza--n only evil1 b good also1 is reg>d$ z illusory1 ?\gh nev]!less ! emotional attitude t[>ds :at is held to be ,reality is su* z w\ld naturally be associat$ ) ! belief t ,reality is good4 ,:at is1 9 all cases1 e?ically *>act]i/ic ( my/icism is abs5ce ( indignation or prote/1 acceptance ) joy1 disbelief 9 ! ultimate tru? ( ! division into two ho/ile camps1 ! good & ! bad4 ,?is attitude is a direct outcome ( ! nature ( ! my/ical exp]i5ce3 ) its s5se ( unity is associat$ a feel+ ( inf9ite peace4 ,inde$ x may be suspect$ t ! feel+ ( peace produces1 z feel+s d 9 dreams1 ! :ole sy/em ( associat$ beliefs :i* make up ! body ( my/ic doctr9e4 ,b ?is is a difficult "q1 & "o on :i* x _c be hop$ t mank9d w rea* agreem5t4 ,f\r que/ions ?us arise 9 consid]+ ! tru? or falsehood ( my/icism1 namely3 ,i4 ,are !re two ways ( kn[+1 :i* may be call$ respectively reason & intuition8 ,& if s1 is ei!r to be pref]r$ to ! o!r8 ,,ii4 ,is all plurality & division illusory8 ,,iii4 ,is "t unreal8 ,,iv4 ,:at k9d ( reality belongs to good & evil8 ,on all f\r ( ^! que/ions1 :ile fully develop$ my/icism seems to me mi/ak51 ,i yet believe t1 by suffici5t re/ra9t1 !re is an elem5t ( wisdom to be le>n$ f ! my/ical way ( feel+1 :i* does n seem to be atta9able 9 any o!r mann]4 ,if ?is is ! tru?1 my/icism is to be comm5d$ z an attitude t[>ds life1 n z a cre$ ab\t ! _w4 ,! meta-physical cre$1 ,i %all ma9ta91 is a mi/ak5 outcome ( ! emotion1 al?\gh ?is emotion1 z col\r+ & in=m+ all o!r ?\ghts & feel+s1 is ! inspir] ( :atev] is be/ 9 ,man4 ,ev5 ! cauti\s & pati5t inve/igation ( tru? by sci5ce1 :i* seems ! v anti!sis ( ! my/ic's swift c]ta9ty1 may be fo/]$ & n\ri%$ by t v _s ( rev]5ce 9 :i* my/icism lives & moves4 ,i4 ,,reason ,,& ,,intuition#c ,( ! reality or unreality ( ! my/ic's _w ,i "k no?+4 ,i h no wi% to d5y x1 nor ev5 to decl>e t ! insight :i* reveals x is n a g5u9e insight4 ,:at ,i d wi% to ma9ta9--& x is "h t ! sci5tific attitude becomes imp]ative--is t insight1 unte/$ & unsupport$1 is an insuffici5t gu>antee ( tru?1 9 spite ( ! fact t mu* ( ! mo/ important tru? is fir/ sugge/$ by its means4 ,x is common to speak ( an opposition betwe5 in/9ct & reason2 9 ! eighte5? c5tury1 ! opposition 0 drawn 9 fav\r ( reason1 b "u ! influ5ce ( ,r\sseau & ! romantic movem5t in/9ct 0 giv5 ! pref]5ce1 fir/ by ^? :o rebell$ aga9/ artificial =ms ( gov]nm5t & ?\ght1 & !n1 z ! purely rationali/ic def5ce ( traditional !ology became increas+ly difficult1 by all :o felt 9 sci5ce a m5ace to cre$s :i* !y associat$ ) a spiritual outlook on life & ! _w4 ,b]gson1 "u ! "n ( intuition1 has rais$ in/9ct to ! position ( sole arbit] ( metaphysical tru?4 ,b 9 fact ! opposition ( in/9ct & reason is ma9ly illusory4 ,in/9ct1 intuition1 or insight is :at fir/ leads to ! beliefs :i* subsequ5t reason confirms or confutes2 b ! confirmation1 :]e x is possible1 consi/s1 9 ! la/ analysis1 ( agreem5t ) o!r beliefs no less in/9ctive4 ,reason is a h>monis+1 controll+ =ce r ?an a creative "o4 ,ev5 9 ! mo/ purely logical realm1 x is insight t fir/ arrives at :at is new4 ,:]e in/9ct & reason d sometimes conflict is 9 reg>d to s+le beliefs1 held in/9ctively1 & held ) su* det]m9ation t no degree ( inconsi/5cy ) o!r beliefs leads to _! ab&onm5t4 ,in/9ct1 l all human faculties1 is liable to error4 ,^? 9 :om reason is weak are (t5 unwill+ to admit ?is z reg>ds !mselves1 ?\gh all admit x 9 reg>d to o!rs4 ,:]e in/9ct is lea/ liable to error is 9 practical matt]s z to :i* "r judgm5t is a help to survival3 fri5d%ip & ho/ility 9 o!rs1 = in/ance1 are (t5 felt ) extraord9>y discrim9ation ?r\gh v c>eful disguises4 ,b ev5 9 su* matt]s a wrong impression may be giv5 by res]ve or flatt]y2 & 9 matt]s less directly practical1 su* z philosophy deals )1 v /rong in/9ctive beliefs are sometimes :olly mi/ak51 z we may come to "k ?r\gh _! p]ceiv$ inconsi/5cy ) o!r equally /rong beliefs4 ,x is su* consid]ations t necessitate ! h>monis+ m$iation ( reason1 :i* te/s our beliefs by _! mutual compatibility1 & exam9es1 9 d\btful cases1 ! possible s\rces ( error on ! "o side & on ! o!r4 ,9 ?is !re is no opposition to in/9ct z a :ole1 b only to bl9d reliance ^u "s "o int]e/+ aspect ( in/9ct to ! exclusion ( o!r m commonplace b n less tru/wor?y aspects4 ,x is su* "o-sid$ness1 n in/9ct itself1 t reason aims at correct+4 ,^! m or less trite maxims may be illu/rat$ by application to ,b]gson's advocacy ( intuition z aga9/ intellect4 ,!re are1 he says1 two pr(\ndly diff]5t ways ( kn[+ a ?+4 ,! fir/ implies t we move r\nd ! object3 ! second t we ent] into x4 ,! fir/ dep5ds on ! po9t ( view at :i* we are plac$ & on ! symbols by :i* we express ourselves4 ,! second nei!r dep5ds on a po9t ( view nor relies on any symbol4 ,! fir/ k9d ( k may be said to /op at ! relative2 ! second1 9 ^? cases :]e x is possible1 to atta9 ! absolute4#d ,! second ( ^!1 :i* is intuition1 is1 he says1 ! k9d ( intellectual sympa?y by :i* "o places oneself )9 an object 9 ord] to co9cide ) :at is unique 9 x & !re=e inexpressible 7p4 #f74 ,9 illu/ration1 he m5tions self-k3 !re is "o reality1 at lea/1 :i* we all seize f )91 by intuition & n by simple analysis4 ,x is our own p]sonality 9 its fl[+ ?r\gh "t--our self :i* endures 7p4 #h74 ,! re/ ( ,b]gson's philosophy consi/s 9 report+1 ?r\gh ! imp]fect m$ium ( words1 ! k ga9$ by intuition1 & ! consequ5t complete condemnation ( all ! pret5d$ k d]iv$ f sci5ce & common s5se4 ,?is proc$ure1 s9ce x takes sides 9 a conflict ( in/9ctive beliefs1 /&s 9 ne$ ( ju/ification by prov+ ! great] tru/wor?9ess ( ! beliefs on "o side ?an ( ^? on ! o!r4 ,b]gson attempts ?is ju/ification 9 two ways1 fir/ by expla9+ t intellect is a purely practical faculty to secure biological success1 secondly by m5tion+ rem>kable feats ( in/9ct 9 animals & by po9t+ out *>act]i/ics ( ! _w :i*1 ?\gh intuition c appreh5d !m1 are baffl+ to intellect z he int]prets x4 ,( ,b]gson's !ory t intellect is a purely practical faculty1 develop$ 9 ! /ruggle = survival1 & n a s\rce ( true beliefs1 we may say1 fir/1 t x is only ?r\gh intellect t we "k ( ! /ruggle = survival & ( ! biological ance/ry ( man3 if ! intellect is mislead+1 ! :ole ( ?is m]ely inf]r$ hi/ory is presumably untrue4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 we agree ) him 9 ?9k+ t evolution took place z ,d>w9 believ$1 !n x is n only intellect1 b all our faculties1 t h be5 develop$ "u ! /ress ( practical utility4 ,intuition is se5 at its be/ :]e x is directly useful1 = example 9 reg>d to o!r p's *>act]s & dispositions4 ,b]gson app>5tly holds t capacity = ?is k9d ( k is less explicable by ! /ruggle = exi/5ce ?an1 = example1 capacity = pure ma!matics4 ,yet ! savage deceiv$ by false fri5d%ip is likely to pay = 8 mi/ake ) 8 life2 :]eas ev5 9 ! mo/ civilis$ societies m5 are n put to dea? = ma!matical incompet5ce4 ,all ! mo/ /rik+ ( 8 in/ances ( intuition 9 animals h a v direct survival value4 ,! fact is1 ( c\rse1 t bo? intuition & intellect h be5 develop$ because !y are useful1 & t1 speak+ broadly1 !y are useful :5 !y give tru? & become h>mful :5 !y give falsehood4 ,intellect1 9 civilis$ man1 l arti/ic capacity1 has occasionally be5 develop$ beyond ! po9t :]e x is useful to ! individual2 intuition1 on ! o!r h&1 seems on ! :ole to dim9i% z civilisation increases4 ,x is great]1 z a rule1 9 *ildr5 ?an 9 adults1 9 ! un$ucat$ ?an 9 ! educat$4 ,probably 9 dogs x exce$s any?+ to be f\nd 9 human be+s4 ,b ^? :o see 9 ^! facts a recomm5dation ( intuition ought to return to runn+ wild 9 ! woods1 dye+ !mselves ) woad & liv+ on hips & haws4 ,let u next exam9e :e!r intuition possesses any su* infallibility z ,b]gson claims = x4 ,! be/ in/ance ( x1 accord+ to him1 is our acqua9tance ) ourselves2 yet self-k is prov]bially r>e & difficult4 ,mo/ m51 = example1 h 9 _! nature meannesses1 vanities1 & envies ( :i* !y are q unconsci\s1 ?\gh ev5 _! be/ fri5ds c p]ceive !m )\t any difficulty4 ,x is true t intuition has a conv9c+ness :i* is lack+ to intellect3 :ile x is pres5t1 x is almo/ impossible to d\bt its tru?4 ,b if x %\ld appe>1 on exam9ation1 to be at lea/ z fallible z intellect1 its great] subjective c]ta9ty becomes a dem]it1 mak+ x only ! m irresi/ibly deceptive4 ,ap>t f self-k1 "o ( ! mo/ notable examples ( intuition is ! k p believe !mselves to possess ( ^? ) :om !y are 9 love3 ! wall betwe5 diff]5t p]sonalities seems to become transp>5t1 & p ?9k !y see into ano!r s\l z into _! own4 ,yet deception 9 su* cases is con/antly practis$ ) success2 & ev5 :]e !re is no int5tional deception1 exp]i5ce gradually proves1 z a rule1 t ! suppos$ insight 0 illusory1 & t ! sl[] m grop+ me?ods ( ! intellect are 9 ! long run m reliable4 ,b]gson ma9ta9s t intellect c only deal ) ?+s 9 s f> z !y resemble :at has be5 exp]i5c$ 9 ! pa/1 :ile intuition has ! p[] ( appreh5d+ ! uniqu5ess & novelty t always belong to ea* fre% mom5t4 ,t !re is some?+ unique & new at e mom5t1 is c]ta9ly true2 x is also true t ?is _c be fully express$ by means ( intellectual concepts4 ,only direct acqua9tance c give k ( :at is unique & new4 ,b direct acqua9tance ( ?is k9d is giv5 fully 9 s5sation1 & does n require1 s f> z ,i c see1 any special faculty ( intuition = its appreh5sion4 ,x is nei!r intellect nor intuition1 b s5sation1 t supplies new data2 b :5 ! data are new 9 any rem>kable mann]1 intellect is mu* m capable ( deal+ ) !m ?an intuition w\ld be4 ,! h5 ) a brood ( duckl+s no d\bt has intuition :i* seems to place h] inside !m1 & n m]ely to "k !m analytically2 b :5 ! duckl+s take to ! wat]1 ! :ole app>5t intuition is se5 to be illusory1 & ! h5 is left helpless on ! %ore4 ,intuition1 9 fact1 is an aspect & developm5t ( in/9ct1 &1 l all in/9ct1 is admirable 9 ^? cu/om>y surr\nd+s :i* h m\ld$ ! habits ( ! animal 9 "q1 b totally incompet5t z soon z ! surr\nd+s are *ang$ 9 a way :i* dem&s "s non-habitual mode ( action4 ,! !oretical und]/&+ ( ! _w1 :i* is ! aim ( philosophy1 is n a matt] ( great practical importance to animals1 or to savages1 or ev5 to mo/ civilis$ m54 ,x is h>dly to be suppos$1 !re=e1 t ! rapid1 r\gh & ready me?ods ( in/9ct or intuition w f9d 9 ?is field a fav\rable gr\nd = _! application4 ,x is ! old] k9ds ( activity1 :i* br+ out our k9%ip ) remote g5]ations ( animal & semi-human ance/ors1 t %[ intuition at its be/4 ,9 su* matt]s z self-pres]vation & love1 intuition w act sometimes 7?\gh n always7 ) a swiftness & precision :i* are a/oni%+ to ! critical intellect4 ,b philosophy is n "o ( ! pursuits :i* illu/rate our aff9ity ) ! pa/3 x is a highly ref9$1 highly civilis$ pursuit1 dem&+1 = its success1 a c]ta9 lib]ation f ! life ( in/9ct1 & ev51 at times1 a c]ta9 alo(ness f all mundane hopes & fe>s4 ,x is n 9 philosophy1 !re=e1 t we c hope to see intuition at its be/4 ,on ! contr>y1 s9ce ! true objects ( philosophy1 & ! habit ( ?\ght dem&$ = _! appreh5sion1 are /range1 unusual1 & remote1 x is "h1 m almo/ ?an any:]e else1 t intellect proves sup]ior to intuition1 & t quick unanalys$ convictions are lea/ des]v+ ( uncritical acceptance4 ,9 advocat+ ! sci5tific re/ra9t & balance1 z aga9/ ! self-ass]tion ( a confid5t reliance ^u intuition1 we are only urg+1 9 ! sph]e ( k1 t l>g5ess ( contemplation1 t imp]sonal dis9t]e/$ness1 & t fre$om f practical preoccupations :i* h be5 inculcat$ by all ! great religions ( ! _w4 ,?us our conclusion1 h[ev] x may conflict ) ! explicit beliefs ( _m my/ics1 is1 9 ess5ce1 n contr>y to ! _s :i* inspires ^? beliefs1 b r ! outcome ( ?is v _s z appli$ 9 ! realm ( ?\ght4 ,,ii4 ,,unity ,,& ,,plurality ,"o ( ! mo/ conv9c+ aspects ( ! my/ic illum9ation is ! app>5t revelation ( ! on5ess ( all ?+s1 giv+ rise to pan!ism 9 religion & to monism 9 philosophy4 ,an elaborate logic1 beg9n+ ) ,p>m5ides1 & culm9at+ 9 ,hegel & 8 foll[]s1 has be5 gradually develop$1 to prove t ! univ]se is "o indivisible ,:ole1 & t :at seem to be its p>ts1 if consid]$ z sub/antial & self-exi/+1 are m]e illusion4 ,! conception ( a ,reality q o!r ?an ! _w ( appe>ance1 a reality "o1 indivisible1 & un*ang+1 0 introduc$ into ,we/]n philosophy by ,p>m5ides1 n1 nom9ally at lea/1 = my/ical or religi\s reasons1 b on ! basis ( a logical argum5t z to ! impossibility ( n-be+1 & mo/ subsequ5t metaphysical sy/ems are ! outcome ( ?is fundam5tal idea4 ,! logic us$ 9 def5ce ( my/icism seems to be faulty z logic1 & op5 to te*nical criticisms1 :i* ,i h expla9$ else:]e4 ,i %all n "h repeat ^! criticisms1 s9ce !y are l5g?y & difficult1 b %all in/ead attempt an analysis ( ! /ate ( m9d f :i* my/ical logic has aris54 ,belief 9 a reality q diff]5t f :at appe>s to ! s5ses arises ) irresi/ible =ce 9 c]ta9 moods1 :i* are ! s\rce ( mo/ my/icism1 & ( mo/ metaphysics4 ,:ile su* a mood is dom9ant1 ! ne$ ( logic is n felt1 & accord+ly ! m ?or\ghgo+ my/ics d n employ logic1 b appeal directly to ! imm$iate deliv]ance ( _! insight4 ,b su* fully develop$ my/icism is r>e 9 ! ,we/4 ,:5 ! int5sity ( emotional conviction subsides1 a man :o is 9 ! habit ( reason+ w se>* = logical gr\nds 9 fav\r ( ! belief :i* he f9ds 9 himself4 ,b s9ce ! belief already exi/s1 he w be v hospitable to any gr\nd t sugge/s itself4 ,! p>adoxes app>5tly prov$ by 8 logic are really ! p>adoxes ( my/icism1 & are ! goal :i* he feels 8 logic mu/ rea* if x is to be 9 accordance ) insight4 ,! result+ logic has r5d]$ mo/ philosoph]s incapable ( giv+ any acc\nt ( ! _w ( sci5ce & daily life4 ,if !y _h be5 anxi\s to give su* an acc\nt1 !y w\ld probably h discov]$ ! errors ( _! logic2 b mo/ ( !m 7 less anxi\s to und]/& ! _w ( sci5ce & daily life ?an to convict x ( unreality 9 ! int]e/s ( a sup]-s5sible real _w4 ,x is 9 ?is way t logic has be5 pursu$ by ^? ( ! great philosoph]s :o 7 my/ics4 ,b s9ce !y usually took = grant$ ! suppos$ insight ( ! my/ic emotion1 _! logical doctr9es 7 pres5t$ ) a c]ta9 dryness1 & 7 believ$ by _! disciples to be q indep5d5t ( ! sudd5 illum9ation f :i* !y sprang4 ,nev]!less _! orig9 clung to !m1 & !y rema9$--to borr[ a useful ^w f ,mr4 ,santayana--malici\s 9 reg>d to ! _w ( sci5ce & common s5se4 ,x is only s t we c acc\nt = ! complac5cy ) :i* philosoph]s h accept$ ! inconsi/5cy ( _! doctr9es ) all ! common & sci5tific facts :i* seem be/ e/abli%$ & mo/ wor?y ( belief4 ,! logic ( my/icism %[s1 z is natural1 ! defects :i* are inh]5t 9 any?+ malici\s4 ,! impulse to logic1 n felt :ile ! my/ic mood is dom9ant1 reass]ts itself z ! mood fades1 b ) a desire to reta9 ! vani%+ insight1 or at lea/ to prove t x 0 insight1 & t :at seems to contradict x is illusion4 ,! logic :i* ?us arises is n q dis9t]e/$ or c&id1 & is inspir$ by a c]ta9 hatr$ ( ! daily _w to :i* x is to be appli$4 ,su* an attitude naturally does n t5d to ! be/ results4 ,ev]yone kn[s t to read an au?or simply 9 ord] to refute him is n ! way to und]/& him2 & to read ! book ( ,nature ) a conviction t x is all illusion is j z unlikely to lead to und]/&+4 ,if our logic is to f9d ! common _w intelligible1 x mu/ n be ho/ile1 b mu/ be inspir$ by a g5u9e acceptance su* z is n usually to be f\nd among metaphysicians4 ,,iii4 ,,"t ,! unreality ( "t is a c>d9al doctr9e ( _m metaphysical sy/ems1 (t5 nom9ally bas$1 z already by ,p>m5ides1 ^u logical argum5ts1 b orig9ally d]iv$1 at any rate 9 ! f\nd]s ( new sy/ems1 f ! c]ta9ty :i* is born 9 ! mom5t ( my/ic insight4 ,z a ,p]sian ,sufi poet says3 ,pa/ & future are :at veil ,god f our sight4 ,burn up bo? ( !m ) fire6 ,h[ long ,wilt ?\ be p>tition$ by ^! segm5ts z a re$8#e ,! belief t :at is ultimately real mu/ be immutable is a v common "o3 x gave rise to ! metaphysical notion ( sub/ance1 & f9ds1 ev5 n[1 a :olly illegitimate satisfaction 9 su* sci5tific doctr9es z ! cons]vation ( en]gy & mass4 ,x is difficult to dis5tangle ! tru? & ! error 9 ?is view4 ,! argum5ts = ! cont5tion t "t is unreal & t ! _w ( s5se is illusory mu/1 ,i ?9k1 be reg>d$ z fallaci\s4 ,nev]!less !re is "s s5se--easi] to feel ?an to /ate--9 :i* "t is an unimportant & sup]ficial *>act]i/ic ( reality4 ,pa/ & future mu/ be ackn[l$g$ to be z real z ! pres5t1 & a c]ta9 emancipation f slav]y to "t is ess5tial to philosophic ?\ght4 ,! importance ( "t is r practical ?an !oretical1 r 9 relation to our desires ?an 9 relation to tru?4 ,a tru] image ( ! _w1 ,i ?9k1 is obta9$ by pictur+ ?+s z ent]+ into ! /ream ( "t f an et]nal _w outside1 ?an f a view :i* reg>ds "t z ! dev\r+ tyrant ( all t is4 ,bo? 9 ?\ght & 9 feel+1 ev5 ?\gh "t be real1 to realise ! unimportance ( "t is ! gate ( wisdom4 ,t ?is is ! case may be se5 at once by ask+ ourselves :y our feel+s t[>ds ! pa/ are s diff]5t f our feel+s t[>ds ! future4 ,! reason = ?is diff]5ce is :olly practical3 our wi%es c affect ! future b n ! pa/1 ! future is to "s ext5t subject to our p[]1 :ile ! pa/ is unalt]ably fix$4 ,b e future w "s day be pa/3 if we see ! pa/ truly n[1 x mu/1 :5 x 0 /ill future1 h be5 j :at we n[ see x to be1 & :at is n[ future mu/ be j :at we %all see x to be :5 x has become pa/4 ,! felt diff]5ce ( quality betwe5 pa/ & future1 !re=e1 is n an intr9sic diff]5ce1 b only a diff]5ce 9 relation to u3 to imp>tial contemplation1 x ceases to exi/4 ,& imp>tiality ( contemplation is1 9 ! intellectual sph]e1 t v same virtue ( dis9t]e/$ness :i*1 9 ! sph]e ( action1 appe>s z ju/ice & unselfi%ness4 ,:oev] wi%es to see ! _w truly1 to rise 9 ?\ght above ! tyranny ( practical desires1 mu/ le>n to ov]come ! diff]5ce ( attitude t[>ds pa/ & future1 & to survey ! :ole /ream ( "t 9 "o compreh5sive vision4 ,! k9d ( way 9 :i*1 z x seems to me1 "t ought n to ent] into our !oretic philosophical ?\ght1 may be illu/rat$ by ! philosophy :i* has become associat$ ) ! idea ( evolution1 & :i* is exemplifi$ by ,nietzs*e1 pragmatism1 & ,b]gson4 ,?is philosophy1 on ! basis ( ! developm5t :i* has l$ f ! l[e/ =ms ( life up to man1 sees 9 progress ! fundam5tal law ( ! univ]se1 & ?us admits ! diff]5ce betwe5 e>li] & lat] into ! v citadel ( its contemplative outlook4 ,) its pa/ & future hi/ory ( ! _w1 conjectural z x is1 ,i d n wi% to qu>rel4 ,b ,i ?9k t1 9 ! intoxication ( a quick success1 mu* t is requir$ = a true und]/&+ ( ! univ]se has be5 =gott54 ,some?+ ( ,hell5ism1 some?+1 too1 ( ,ori5tal resignation1 mu/ be comb9$ ) its hurry+ ,we/]n self-ass]tion be=e x c em]ge f ! ard\r ( y\? into ! mature wisdom ( manhood4 ,9 spite ( its appeals to sci5ce1 ! true sci5tific philosophy1 ,i ?9k1 is some?+ m ardu\s & m alo(1 appeal+ to less mundane hopes1 & requir+ a sev]] discipl9e = its successful practice4 ,d>w9's ,orig9 ( ,species p]suad$ ! _w t ! diff]5ce betwe5 diff]5t species ( animals & plants is n ! fix$ immutable diff]5ce t x appe>s to be4 ,! doctr9e ( natural k9ds1 :i* _h r5d]$ classification easy & def9ite1 :i* 0 en%r9$ 9 ! ,ari/otelian tradition1 & protect$ by its suppos$ necessity = or?odox dogma1 0 sudd5ly swept away = ev] out ( ! biological _w4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 man & ! l[] animals1 :i* to our human conceit appe>s enorm\s1 0 %[n to be a gradual a*ievem5t1 involv+ int]m$iate be+ :o c\ld n ) c]ta9ty be plac$ ei!r )9 or )\t ! human family4 ,! sun & ! planets _h already be5 %[n by ,laplace to be v probably d]iv$ f a primitive m or less undiff]5tiat$ nebula4 ,?us ! old fix$ l&m>ks became wav]+ & indi/9ct1 & all %>p outl9es 7 blurr$4 ,?+s & species lo/ _! b\nd>ies1 & none c\ld say :]e !y began or :]e !y end$4 ,b if human conceit 0 /agg]$ = a mom5t by its k9%ip ) ! ape1 x soon f\nd a way to reass]t itself1 & t way is ! philosophy ( evolution4 ,a process :i* l$ f ! amoeba to ,man appe>$ to ! philosoph]s to be obvi\sly a progress--?\gh :e!r ! amoeba w\ld agree ) ?is op9ion is n kn[n4 ,h5ce ! cycle ( *anges :i* sci5ce _h %[n to be ! probable hi/ory ( ! pa/ 0 welcom$ z reveal+ a law ( developm5t t[>ds good 9 ! univ]se--an evolution or unfold+ ( an idea sl[ly embody+ itself 9 ! actual4 ,b su* a view1 ?\gh x might satisfy ,sp5c] & ^? :om we may call ,hegelian evolutioni/s1 c\ld n be accept$ z adequate by ! m :ole-he>t$ vot>ies ( *ange4 ,an ideal to :i* ! _w cont9u\sly approa*es is1 to ^! m9ds1 too dead & /atic to be inspir+4 ,n only ! aspiration1 b ! ideal too1 mu/ *ange & develop ) ! c\rse ( evolution3 !re mu/ be no fix$ goal1 b a cont9ual fa%ion+ ( fre% ne$s by ! impulse :i* is life & :i* alone gives unity to ! process4 ,life1 9 ?is philosophy1 is a cont9u\s /ream1 9 :i* all divisions are artificial & unreal4 ,sep>ate ?+s1 beg9n+s & end+s1 are m]e conv5i5t fictions3 !re is only smoo? unbrok5 transition4 ,! beliefs ( to-day may c\nt z true to-day1 if !y c>ry u along ! /ream2 b to-morr[ !y w be false1 & mu/ be replac$ by new beliefs to meet ! new situation4 ,all our ?9k+ consi/s ( conv5i5t fictions1 imag9>y congeal+s ( ! /ream3 reality fl[s on 9 spite ( all our fictions1 & ?\gh x c be liv$1 x _c be conceiv$ 9 ?\ght4 ,someh[1 )\t explicit /atem5t1 ! assurance is slipp$ 9 t ! future1 ?\gh we _c =esee x1 w be bett] ?an ! pa/ or ! pres5t3 ! read] is l ! *ild :i* expects a sweet because x has be5 told to op5 its m\? & %ut its eyes4 ,logic1 ma!matics1 physics disappe> 9 ?is philosophy1 because !y are too /atic2 :at is real is no impulse & movem5t t[>ds a goal :i*1 l ! ra9b[1 rec$es z we advance1 & makes e place diff]5t :5 x rea*es x f :at x appe>$ to be at a di/ance4 ,i d n propose to ent] ^u a te*nical exam9ation ( ?is philosophy4 ,i wi% only to ma9ta9 t ! motives & int]e/s :i* inspire x are s exclusively practical1 & ! problems ) :i* x deals are s special1 t x c h>dly be reg>d$ z t\*+ any ( ! que/ions t1 to my m9d1 con/itute g5u9e philosophy4 ,! pr$om9ant int]e/ ( evolutionism is 9 ! "q ( human de/9y1 or at lea/ ( ! de/9y ( ,life4 ,x is m int]e/$ 9 morality & happ9ess ?an 9 k = its own sake4 ,x mu/ be admitt$ t ! same may be said ( _m o!r philosophies1 & t a desire = ! k9d ( k :i* philosophy c give is v r>e4 ,b if philosophy is to atta9 tru?1 x is necess>y fir/ & =emo/ t philosoph]s %\ld acquire ! dis9t]e/$ intellectual curiosity :i* *>act]ises ! g5u9e man ( sci5ce4 ,k conc]n+ ! future--:i* is ! k9d ( k t mu/ be s\ght if we are to "k ab\t human de/9y--is possible )9 c]ta9 n>r[ limits4 ,x is impossible to say h[ mu* ! limits may be enl>g$ ) ! progress ( sci5ce4 ,b :at is evid5t is t any proposition ab\t ! future belongs by its subject-matt] to "s p>ticul> sci5ce1 & is to be asc]ta9$1 if at all1 by ! me?ods ( t sci5ce4 ,philosophy is n a %ort cut to ! same k9d ( results z ^? ( ! o!r sci5ces3 if x is to be a g5u9e /udy1 x mu/ h a prov9ce ( its own1 & aim at results :i* ! o!r sci5ces c nei!r prove nor disprove4 ,evolutionism1 9 bas+ itself ^u ! notion ( progress1 :i* is *ange f ! worse to ! bett]1 all[s ! notion ( "t1 z x seems to me1 to become its tyrant r ?an its s]vant1 & !reby loses t imp>tiality ( contemplation :i* is ! s\rce ( all t is be/ 9 philosophic ?\ght & feel+4 ,metaphysicians1 z we saw1 h frequ5tly d5i$ altoge!r ! reality ( "t4 ,i d n wi% to d ?is2 ,i wi% only to pres]ve ! m5tal outlook :i* inspir$ ! d5ial1 ! attitude :i*1 9 ?\ght1 reg>ds ! pa/ z hav+ ! same reality z ! pres5t & ! same importance z ! future4 ,9 s f>1 says ,sp9oza1#f z ! m9d conceives a ?+ accord+ to ! dictate ( reason1 x w be equally affect$ :e!r ! idea is t ( a future1 pa/1 or pres5t ?+4 ,x is ?is conceiv+ accord+ to ! dictate ( reason t ,i f9d lack+ 9 ! philosophy :i* is bas$ on evolution4 ,,iv4 ,,good ,,& ,,evil ,my/icism ma9ta9s t all evil is illusory1 & sometimes ma9ta9s ! same view z reg>ds good1 b m (t5 holds t all ,reality is good4 ,bo? views are to be f\nd 9 ,h]aclitus3 ,good & ill are "o1 he says1 b aga91 ,to ,god all ?+s are fair & good & "r1 b m5 hold "s ?+s wrong & "s "r4 ,a simil> tw(old position is to be f\nd 9 ,sp9oza1 b he uses ! ^w p]fection :5 he means to speak ( ! good t is n m]ely human4 ,by reality & p]fection ,i mean ! same ?+1 he says2#g b else:]e we f9d ! def9ition3 ,by good ,i %all mean t :i* we c]ta9ly "k to be useful to u4#h ,?us p]fection belongs to ,reality 9 its own nature1 b goodness is relative to ourselves & our ne$s1 & disappe>s 9 an imp>tial survey4 ,"s su* di/9ction1 ,i ?9k1 is necess>y 9 ord] to und]/& ! e?ical outlook ( my/icism3 !re is a l[] mundane k9d ( good & evil1 :i* divides ! _w ( appe>ance into :at seem to be conflict+ p>ts2 b !re is also a high]1 my/ical k9d ( good1 :i* belongs to ,reality & is n oppos$ by any correlative k9d ( evil4 ,x is difficult to give a logically t5able acc\nt ( ?is position )\t recognis+ t good & evil are subjective1 t :at is good is m]ely t t[>ds :i* we h "o k9d ( feel+1 & :at is evil is m]ely t t[>ds :i* we h ano!r k9d ( feel+4 ,9 our active life1 :]e we h to ex]cise *oice1 & to pref] ?is to t ( two possible acts1 x is necess>y to h a di/9ction ( good & evil1 or at lea/ ( bett] & worse4 ,b ?is di/9ction1 l ev]y?+ p]ta9+ to action1 belongs to :at my/icism reg>ds z ! _w ( illusion1 if only because x is ess5tially conc]n$ ) "t4 ,9 our contemplative life1 :]e action is n call$ =1 x is possible to be imp>tial1 & to ov]come ! e?ical dualism :i* action requires4 ,s long z we rema9 m]ely imp>tial1 we may be cont5t to say t bo? ! good & ! evil ( action are illusions4 ,b if1 z we mu/ d if we h ! my/ic vision1 we f9d ! :ole _w wor?y ( love & wor%ip1 if we see ,! e>?1 & e common sight4444 ,app>ell'd 9 cele/ial light1 we %all say t !re is a high] good ?an t ( action1 & t ?is high] good belongs to ! :ole _w z x is 9 reality4 ,9 ?is way ! tw(old attitude & ! app>5t vacillation ( my/icism are expla9$ & ju/ifi$4 ,! possibility ( ?is univ]sal love & joy 9 all t exi/s is ( supreme importance = ! conduct & happ9ess ( life1 & gives ine/imable value to ! my/ic emotion1 ap>t f any cre$s :i* may be built ^u x4 ,b if we are n to be l$ into false beliefs1 x is necess>y to realise exactly :at ! my/ic emotion reveals4 ,x reveals a possibility ( human nature--a possibility ( a nobl]1 happi]1 fre] life ?an any t c be o!rwise a*iev$4 ,b x does n reveal any?+ ab\t ! non-human1 or ab\t ! nature ( ! univ]se 9 g5]al4 ,good & bad1 & ev5 ! high] good t my/icism f9ds ev]y:]e1 are ! reflections ( our own emotions on o!r ?+s1 n "p ( ! sub/ance ( ?+s z !y are 9 !mselves4 ,& !re=e an imp>tial contemplation1 fre$ f all pre-occupation ) ,self1 w n judge ?+s good or bad1 al?\gh x is v easily comb9$ ) t feel+ ( univ]sal love :i* leads ! my/ic to say t ! :ole _w is good4 ,! philosophy ( evolution1 ?r\gh ! notion ( progress1 is b\nd up ) ! e?ical dualism ( ! worse & ! bett]1 & is ?us %ut out1 n only f ! k9d ( survey :i* disc>ds good & evil altoge!r f its view1 b also f ! my/ical belief 9 ! goodness ( ev]y?+4 ,9 ?is way ! di/9ction ( good & evil1 l "t1 becomes a tyrant 9 ?is philosophy1 & introduces into ?\ght ! re/less selectiv5ess ( action4 ,good & evil1 l "t1 are1 x w\ld seem1 n g5]al or fundam5tal 9 ! _w ( ?\ght1 b late & highly specialis$ memb]s ( ! intellectual hi]>*y4 ,al?\gh1 z we saw1 my/icism c be int]pret$ s z to agree ) ! view t good & evil are n intellectually fundam5tal1 x mu/ be admitt$ t "h we are no long] 9 v]bal agreem5t ) mo/ ( ! great philosoph]s & religi\s tea*]s ( ! pa/4 ,i believe1 h[ev]1 t ! elim9ation ( e?ical consid]ations f philosophy is bo? sci5tifically necess>y &--?\gh ?is may seem a p>adox--an e?ical advance4 ,bo? ^! cont5tions mu/ be briefly def5d$4 ,! hope ( satisfaction to our m human desires--! hope ( demon/rat+ t ! _w has ?is or t desirable e?ical *>act]i/ic--is n "o :i*1 s f> z ,i c see1 a sci5tific philosophy c d any?+ :atev] to satisfy4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 a good _w & a bad "o is a diff]5ce 9 ! p>ticul> *>act]i/ics ( ! p>ticul> ?+s t exi/ 9 ^! worlds3 x is n a suffici5tly ab/ract diff]5ce to come )9 ! prov9ce ( philosophy4 ,love & hate1 = example1 are e?ical opposites1 b to philosophy !y are closely analog\s attitudes t[>ds objects4 ,! g5]al =m & /ructure ( ^? attitudes t[>ds objects :i* con/itute m5tal ph5om5a is a problem = philosophy1 b ! diff]5ce betwe5 love & hate is n a diff]5ce ( =m or /ructure1 & !re=e belongs r to ! special sci5ce ( psy*ology ?an to philosophy4 ,?us ! e?ical int]e/s :i* h (t5 inspir$ philosoph]s mu/ rema9 9 ! backgr\nd3 "s k9d ( e?ical int]e/ may inspire ! :ole /udy1 b none mu/ obtrude 9 ! detail or be expect$ 9 ! special results :i* are s\ght4 ,if ?is view seems at fir/ sight disappo9t+1 we may rem9d ourselves t a simil> *ange has be5 f\nd necess>y 9 all ! o!r sci5ces4 ,! physici/ or *emi/ is n n[ requir$ to prove ! e?ical importance ( 8 ions or atoms2 ! biologi/ is n expect$ to prove ! utility ( ! plants or animals :i* he dissects4 ,9 pre-sci5tific ages ?is 0 n ! case4 ,a/ronomy1 = example1 0 /udi$ because m5 believ$ 9 a/rology3 x 0 ?\ght t ! movem5ts ( ! planets _h ! mo/ direct & important be>+ ^u ! lives ( human be+s4 ,presumably1 :5 ?is belief decay$ & ! dis9t]e/$ /udy ( a/ronomy began1 _m :o _h f\nd a/rology absorb+ly int]e/+ decid$ t a/ronomy _h too little human int]e/ to be wor?y ( /udy4 ,physics1 z x appe>s 9 ,plato's ,timu = example1 is full ( e?ical notions3 x is an ess5tial "p ( its purpose to %[ t ! e>? is wor?y ( admiration4 ,! mod]n physici/1 on ! contr>y1 ?\gh he has no wi% to d5y t ! e>? is admirable1 is n conc]n$1 z physici/1 ) its e?ical attributes3 he is m]ely conc]n$ to f9d out facts1 n to consid] :e!r !y are good or bad4 ,9 psy*ology1 ! sci5tific attitude is ev5 m rec5t & m difficult ?an 9 ! physical sci5ces3 x is natural to consid] t human nature is ei!r good or bad1 & to suppose t ! diff]5ce betwe5 good & bad1 s all-important 9 practice1 mu/ be important 9 !ory also4 ,x is only dur+ ! la/ c5tury t an e?ically neutral psy*ology has gr[n up2 & "h too1 e?ical neutrality has be5 ess5tial to sci5tific success4 ,9 philosophy1 hi!rto1 e?ical neutrality has be5 seldom s\ght & h>dly ev] a*iev$4 ,m5 h rememb]$ _! wi%es1 & h judg$ philosophies 9 relation to _! wi%es4 ,driv5 f ! p>ticul> sci5ces1 ! belief t ! notions ( good & evil mu/ af=d a key to ! und]/&+ ( ! _w has s\ght a refuge 9 philosophy4 ,b ev5 f ?is la/ refuge1 if philosophy is n to rema9 a set ( pleas+ dreams1 ?is belief mu/ be driv5 =?4 ,x is a commonplace t happ9ess is n be/ a*iev$ by ^? :o seek x directly2 & x w\ld seem t ! same is true ( ! good4 ,9 ?\ght1 at any rate1 ^? :o =get good & evil & seek only to "k ! facts are m likely to a*ieve good ?an ^? :o view ! _w ?r\gh ! di/ort+ m$ium ( _! own desires4 ,we are ?us br\ght back to our seem+ p>adox1 t a philosophy :i* does n seek to impose ^u ! _w its own conceptions ( good & evil is n only m likely to a*ieve tru?1 b is also ! outcome ( a high] e?ical /&po9t ?an "o :i*1 l evolutionism & mo/ traditional sy/ems1 is p]petually apprais+ ! univ]se & seek+ to f9d 9 x an embodim5t ( pres5t ideals4 ,9 religion1 & 9 e deeply s]i\s view ( ! _w & ( human de/9y1 !re is an elem5t ( submission1 a realisation ( ! limits ( human p[]1 :i* is some:at lack+ 9 ! mod]n _w1 ) its quick mat]ial successes & its insol5t belief 9 ! b\ndless possibilities ( progress4 ,he t love? 8 life %all lose x2 & !re is dang] le/1 ?r\gh a too confid5t love ( life1 life itself %\ld lose mu* ( :at gives x its highe/ wor?4 ,! submission :i* religion inculcates 9 action is ess5tially ! same 9 _s z t :i* sci5ce tea*es 9 ?\ght2 & ! e?ical neutrality by :i* its victories h be5 a*iev$ is ! outcome ( t submission4 ,! good :i* x conc]ns u to rememb] is ! good :i* x lies 9 our p[] to create--! good 9 our own lives & 9 our attitude t[>ds ! _w4 ,insi/5ce on belief 9 an ext]nal realisation ( ! good is a =m ( self-ass]tion1 :i*1 :ile x _c secure ! ext]nal good :i* x desires1 c s]i\sly impair ! inw>d good :i* lies )9 our p[]1 & de/roy t rev]5ce t[>ds fact :i* con/itutes bo? :at is valuable 9 humility & :at is fruitful 9 ! sci5tific temp]4 ,human be+s _c1 ( c\rse1 :olly transc5d human nature2 some?+ subjective1 if only ! int]e/ t det]m9es ! direction ( our att5tion1 mu/ rema9 9 all our ?\ght4 ,b sci5tific philosophy comes ne>] to objectivity ?an any o!r human pursuit1 & gives u1 !re=e1 ! close/ con/ant & ! mo/ intimate relation ) ! out] _w t x is possible to a*ieve4 ,to ! primitive m9d1 ev]y?+ is ei!r fri5dly or ho/ile2 b exp]i5ce has %[n t fri5dl9ess & ho/ility are n ! conceptions by :i* ! _w is to be und]/ood4 ,sci5tific philosophy ?us repres5ts1 ?\gh z yet only 9 a nasc5t condition1 a high] =m ( ?\ght ?an any pre-sci5tific belief or imag9ation1 &1 l e approa* to self-transc5d5ce1 x br+s ) x a ri* rew>d 9 increase ( scope & bread? & compreh5sion4 ,evolutionism1 9 spite ( its appeals to p>ticul> sci5tific facts1 fails to be a truly sci5tific philosophy because ( its slav]y to "t1 its e?ical preoccupations1 & its pr$om9ant int]e/ 9 our mundane conc]ns & de/9y4 ,a truly sci5tific philosophy w be m humble1 m piecemeal1 m ardu\s1 (f]+ less glitt] ( outw>d mirage to flatt] fallaci\s hopes1 b m indiff]5t to fate1 & m capable ( accept+ ! _w )\t ! tyrann\s imposition ( our human & tempor>y dem&s4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,all ! above quotations are f ,burnet's ,e>ly ,greek ,philosophy1 7#bnd ed41 #aijh71 pp4 #adf-aef4 #b ,republic1 #ead1 translat$ by ,davies & ,vaughan4 #c ,?is section1 & also "o or two pages 9 lat] sections1 h be5 pr9t$ 9 a c\rse ( ,l[ell lectures ,on our k ( ! ext]nal _w1 publi%$ by ! ,op5 ,c\rt ,publi%+ ,company4 ,b ,i h left !m "h1 z ?is is ! context = :i* !y 7 orig9ally writt54 #d ,introduction to ,metaphysics1 p4 #a4 #e ,:9field's translation ( ! ,masnavi 7,trbn]1 #ahhg71 p4 #cd4 #f ,e?ics1 ,bk4 ,,iv1 ,prop4 ,,lxii4 #g ,ib41 ,pt4 ,,iv1 ,df4 ,i4 #h ,e?ics4 ,pt4 ,,ii4 ,df4 ,,vi4 ,,ii ,,! ,,place ,,( ,,sci5ce ,,9 ,a ,,lib]al ,,education ,i ,sci5ce1 to ! ord9>y read] ( newspap]s1 is repres5t$ by a v>y+ selection ( s5sational triumphs1 su* z wireless telegraphy & a]oplanes1 radio-activity & ! m>vels ( mod]n al*emy4 ,x is n ( ?is aspect ( sci5ce t ,i wi% to speak4 ,sci5ce1 9 ?is aspect1 consi/s ( deta*$ up-to-date fragm5ts1 int]e/+ only until !y are replac$ by some?+ new] & m up-to-date1 display+ no?+ ( ! sy/ems ( pati5tly con/ruct$ k out ( :i*1 almo/ z a casual incid5t1 h come ! practically useful results :i* int]e/ ! man 9 ! /reet4 ,! increas$ comm& ov] ! =ces ( nature :i* is d]iv$ f sci5ce is und\bt$ly an amply suffici5t reason = enc\rag+ sci5tific rese>*1 b ?is reason has be5 s (t5 urg$ & is s easily appreciat$ t o!r reasons1 to my m9d q z important1 are apt to be ov]look$4 ,x is ) ^! o!r reasons1 especially ) ! intr9sic value ( a sci5tific habit ( m9d 9 =m+ our outlook on ! _w1 t ,i %all be conc]n$ 9 :at foll[s4 ,! in/ance ( wireless telegraphy w s]ve to illu/rate ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! two po9ts ( view4 ,almo/ all ! s]i\s intellectual lab\r requir$ = ! possibility ( ?is inv5tion is due to ?ree m5--,f>aday1 ,maxwell1 & ,h]tz4 ,9 alt]nat+ lay]s ( exp]im5t & !ory ^! ?ree m5 built up ! mod]n !ory ( electromagnetism1 & demon/rat$ ! id5tity ( light ) electromagnetic waves4 ,! sy/em :i* !y discov]$ is "o ( pr(\nd intellectual int]e/1 br++ toge!r & unify+ an endless v>iety ( app>5tly deta*$ ph5om5a1 & display+ a cumulative m5tal p[] :i* _c b af=d delight to e g5]\s _s4 ,! me*anical details :i* rema9$ to be adju/$ 9 ord] to utilise _! discov]ies = a practical sy/em ( telegraphy dem&$1 no d\bt1 v consid]able +5uity1 b _h n t broad sweep & t univ]sality :i* c\ld give !m intr9sic int]e/ z an object ( dis9t]e/$ contemplation4 ,f ! po9t ( view ( tra9+ ! m9d1 ( giv+ t well-in=m$1 imp]sonal outlook :i* con/itutes culture 9 ! good s5se ( ?is mu*-misus$ ^w1 x seems to be g5]ally held indisputable t a lit]>y education is sup]ior to "o bas$ on sci5ce4 ,ev5 ! w>me/ advocates ( sci5ce are apt to re/ _! claims on ! cont5tion t culture ought to be sacrific$ to utility4 ,^? m5 ( sci5ce :o respect culture1 :5 !y associate ) m5 le>n$ 9 ! classics1 are apt to admit1 n m]ely politely1 b s9c]ely1 a c]ta9 inf]iority on _! side1 comp5sat$ d\btless by ! s]vices :i* sci5ce r5d]s to humanity1 b none ! less real4 ,& s long z ?is attitude exi/s among m5 ( sci5ce1 x t5ds to v]ify itself3 ! intr9sically valuable aspects ( sci5ce t5d to be sacrific$ to ! m]ely useful1 & little attempt is made to pres]ve t leisurely1 sy/ematic survey by :i* ! f9] quality ( m9d is =m$ & n\ri%$4 ,b ev5 if !re be1 9 pres5t fact1 any su* inf]iority z is suppos$ 9 ! educational value ( sci5ce1 ?is is1 ,i believe1 n ! fault ( sci5ce itself1 b ! fault ( ! _s 9 :i* sci5ce is taught4 ,if its full possibilities 7 realis$ by ^? :o tea* x1 ,i believe t its capacity ( produc+ ^? habits ( m9d :i* con/itute ! highe/ m5tal excell5ce w\ld be at lea/ z great z t ( lit]ature1 & m p>ticul>ly ( ,greek & ,lat9 lit]ature4 ,9 say+ ?is ,i h no wi% :atev] to disp>age a classical education4 ,i h n myself enjoy$ its b5efits1 & my k ( ,greek & ,lat9 au?ors is d]iv$ almo/ :olly f translations4 ,b ,i am firmly p]suad$ t ! ,greeks fully des]ve all ! admiration t is be/[$ ^u !m1 & t x is a v great & s]i\s loss to be unacqua9t$ ) _! writ+s4 ,x is n by attack+ !m1 b by draw+ att5tion to neglect$ excell5ces 9 sci5ce1 t ,i wi% to conduct my argum5t4 ,"o defect1 h[ev]1 does seem inh]5t 9 a purely classical education--namely1 a too exclusive emphasis on ! pa/4 ,by ! /udy ( :at is absolutely end$ & c nev] be r5ew$1 a habit ( criticism t[>ds ! pres5t & ! future is eng5d]$4 ,! qualities 9 :i* ! pres5t excels are qualities to :i* ! /udy ( ! pa/ does n direct att5tion1 & to :i*1 !re=e1 ! /ud5t ( ,greek civilisation may easily become bl9d4 ,9 :at is new & gr[+ !re is apt to be some?+ crude1 insol5t1 ev5 a little vulg>1 :i* is %ock+ to ! man ( s5sitive ta/e2 quiv]+ f ! r\gh contact1 he retires to ! trim g>d5s ( a poli%$ pa/1 =gett+ t !y 7 reclaim$ f ! wild]ness by m5 z r\gh & e>?-soil$ z ^? f :om he %r9ks 9 8 own day4 ,! habit ( be+ unable to recognise m]it until x is dead is too apt to be ! result ( a purely booki% life1 & a culture bas$ :olly on ! pa/ w seldom be able to pi]ce ?r\gh ev]yday surr\nd+s to ! ess5tial spl5d\r ( contempor>y ?+s1 or to ! hope ( /ill great] spl5d\r 9 ! future4 ,my eyes saw n ! m5 ( old2 ,& n[ _! age away has roll$4 ,i weep--to ?9k ,i %all n see ,! h]oes ( po/]ity4 ,s says ! ,*9ese poet2 b su* imp>tiality is r>e 9 ! m pugnaci\s atmosph]e ( ! ,we/1 :]e ! *ampions ( pa/ & future fight a nev]-end+ battle1 in/ead ( comb9+ to seek out ! m]its ( bo?4 ,?is consid]ation1 :i* militates n only aga9/ ! exclusive /udy ( ! classics1 b aga9/ e =m ( culture :i* has become /atic1 traditional1 & academic1 leads inevitably to ! fundam5tal "q3 ,:at is ! true end ( education8 ,b be=e attempt+ to answ] ?is "q x w be well to def9e ! s5se 9 :i* we are to use ! ^w education4 ,= ?is purpose ,i %all di/+ui% ! s5se 9 :i* ,i mean to use x f two o!rs1 bo? p]fectly legitimate1 ! "o broad] & ! o!r n>r[] ?an ! s5se 9 :i* ,i mean to use ! ^w4 ,9 ! broad] s5se1 education w include n only :at we le>n ?r\gh in/ruction1 b all t we le>n ?r\gh p]sonal exp]i5ce--! =mation ( "* ?r\gh ! education ( life4 ,( ?is aspect ( education1 vitally important z x is1 ,i w say no?+1 s9ce its consid]ation w\ld introduce topics q =eign to ! "q ) :i* we are conc]n$4 ,9 ! n>r[] s5se1 education may be conf9$ to in/ruction1 ! imp>t+ ( def9ite in=mation on v>i\s subjects1 because su* in=mation1 9 & = itself1 is useful 9 daily life4 ,elem5t>y education--read+1 writ+1 & ari?metic--is almo/ :olly ( ?is k9d4 ,b in/ruction1 necess>y z x is1 does n p] se con/itute education 9 ! s5se 9 :i* ,i wi% to consid] x4 ,education1 9 ! s5se 9 :i* ,i mean x1 may be def9$ z ! =mation1 by means ( in/ruction1 ( c]ta9 m5tal habits & a c]ta9 outlook on life & ! _w4 ,x rema9s to ask ourselves1 :at m5tal habits1 & :at sort ( outlook1 c be hop$ = z ! result ( in/ruction8 ,:5 we h answ]$ ?is "q we c attempt to decide :at sci5ce has to contribute to ! =mation ( ! habits & outlook :i* we desire4 ,our :ole life is built ab\t a c]ta9 numb]--n a v small numb]--( prim>y in/9cts & impulses4 ,only :at is 9 "s way connect$ ) ^! in/9cts & impulses appe>s to u desirable or important2 !re is no faculty1 :e!r reason or virtue or :atev] x may be call$1 t c take our active life & our hopes & fe>s outside ! region controll$ by ^! fir/ mov]s ( all desire4 ,ea* ( !m is l a que5-bee1 aid$ by a hive ( work]s ga!r+ honey2 b :5 ! que5 is gone ! work]s langui% & die1 & ! cells rema9 empty ( _! expect$ sweetness4 ,s ) ea* prim>y impulse 9 civilis$ man3 x is surr\nd$ & protect$ by a busy sw>m ( att5dant d]ivative desires1 :i* /ore up 9 its s]vice :atev] honey ! surr\nd+ _w af=ds4 ,b if ! que5-impulse dies1 ! dea?-deal+ influ5ce1 ?\gh ret>d$ a little by habit1 spreads sl[ly ?r\gh all ! subsidi>y impulses1 & a :ole tract ( life becomes inexplicably col\rless4 ,:at 0 =m]ly full ( ze/1 & s obvi\sly wor? do+ t x rais$ no que/ions1 has n[ gr[n dre>y & purposeless3 ) a s5se ( disillusion we inquire ! mean+ ( life1 & decide1 p]haps1 t all is vanity4 ,! se>* = an outside mean+ t c compel an inn] response mu/ always be disappo9t$3 all mean+ mu/ be at bottom relat$ to our prim>y desires1 & :5 !y are ext9ct no miracle c re/ore to ! _w ! value :i* !y reflect$ ^u x4 ,! purpose ( education1 !re=e1 _c be to create any prim>y impulse :i* is lack+ 9 ! un$ucat$2 ! purpose c only be to enl>ge ! scope ( ^? t human nature provides1 by increas+ ! numb] & v>iety ( att5dant ?\ghts1 & by %[+ :]e ! mo/ p]man5t satisfaction is to be f\nd4 ,"u ! impulse ( a ,calv9i/ic horror ( ! natural man1 ?is obvi\s tru? has be5 too (t5 misconceiv$ 9 ! tra9+ ( ! "y2 nature has be5 falsely reg>d$ z exclud+ all t is be/ 9 :at is natural1 & ! endeav\r to tea* virtue has l$ to ! production ( /unt$ & contort$ hypocrites in/ead ( full-gr[n human be+s4 ,f su* mi/akes 9 education a bett] psy*ology or a k9d] he>t is beg9n+ to pres]ve ! pres5t g5]ation2 we ne$1 !re=e1 wa/e no m words on ! !ory t ! purpose ( education is to ?w>t or eradicate nature4 ,b al?\gh nature mu/ supply ! initial =ce ( desire1 nature is n1 9 ! civilis$ man1 ! spasmodic1 fragm5t>y1 & yet viol5t set ( impulses t x is 9 ! savage4 ,ea* impulse has its con/itutional m9i/ry ( ?\ght & k & reflection1 ?r\gh :i* possible conflicts ( impulses are =ese51 & tempor>y impulses are controll$ by ! unify+ impulse :i* may be call$ wisdom4 ,9 ?is way education de/roys ! crudity ( in/9ct1 & increases ?r\gh k ! weal? & v>iety ( ! individual's contacts ) ! outside _w1 mak+ him no long] an isolat$ fight+ unit1 b a citiz5 ( ! univ]se1 embrac+ di/ant c\ntries1 remote regions ( space1 & va/ /ret*es ( pa/ & future )9 ! circle ( 8 int]e/s4 ,x is ?is simultane\s s(t5+ 9 ! insi/5ce ( desire & enl>gem5t ( its scope t is ! *ief moral end ( education4 ,closely connect$ ) ?is moral end is ! m purely intellectual aim ( education1 ! endeav\r to make u see & imag9e ! _w 9 an objective mann]1 z f> z possible z x is 9 itself1 & n m]ely ?r\gh ! di/ort+ m$ium ( p]sonal desire4 ,! complete atta9m5t ( su* an objective view is no d\bt an ideal1 indef9itely approa*able1 b n actually & fully realisable4 ,education1 consid]$ z a process ( =m+ our m5tal habits & our outlook on ! _w1 is to be judg$ successful 9 proportion z its outcome approximates to ?is ideal2 9 proportion1 t is to say1 z x gives u a true view ( our place 9 society1 ( ! relation ( ! :ole human society to its non-human environm5t1 & ( ! nature ( ! non-human _w z x is 9 itself ap>t f our desires & int]e/s4 ,if ?is /&>d is admitt$1 we c return to ! consid]ation ( sci5ce1 inquir+ h[ f> sci5ce contributes to su* an aim1 & :e!r x is 9 any respect sup]ior to its rivals 9 educational practice4 ,,ii ,two opposite & at fir/ sight conflict+ m]its belong to sci5ce z aga9/ lit]ature & art4 ,! "o1 :i* is n inh]5tly necess>y1 b is c]ta9ly true at ! pres5t day1 is hopefulness z to ! future ( human a*ievem5t1 & 9 p>ticul> z to ! useful "w t may be accompli%$ by any intellig5t /ud5t4 ,?is m]it & ! *e]ful outlook :i* x eng5d]s prev5t :at might o!rwise be ! depress+ effect ( ano!r aspect ( sci5ce1 to my m9d also a m]it1 & p]haps its greate/ m]it--,i mean ! irrelevance ( human passions & ( ! :ole subjective app>atus :]e sci5tific tru? is conc]n$4 ,ea* ( ^! reasons = pref]r+ ! /udy ( sci5ce requires "s amplification4 ,let u beg9 ) ! fir/4 ,9 ! /udy ( lit]ature or art our att5tion is p]petually rivet$ ^u ! pa/3 ! m5 ( ,greece or ( ! ,r5aissance did bett] ?an any m5 d n[2 ! triumphs ( =m] ages1 s f> f facilitat+ fre% triumphs 9 our own age1 actually increase ! difficulty ( fre% triumphs by r5d]+ orig9ality h>d] ( atta9m5t2 n only is arti/ic a*ievem5t n cumulative1 b x seems ev5 to dep5d ^u a c]ta9 fre%ness & navet ( impulse & vision :i* civilisation t5ds to de/roy4 ,h5ce comes1 to ^? :o h be5 n\ri%$ on ! lit]>y & arti/ic productions ( =m] ages1 a c]ta9 peevi%ness & undue fa/idi\sness t[>ds ! pres5t1 f :i* !re seems no escape except into ! delib]ate v&alism :i* ignores tradition & 9 ! se>* aft] orig9ality a*ieves only ! ecc5tric4 ,b 9 su* v&alism !re is none ( ! simplicity & spontaneity out ( :i* great art spr+s3 !ory is /ill ! cank] 9 its core1 & ins9c]ity de/roys ! advantages ( a m]ely pret5d$ ignorance4 ,! despair ?us aris+ f an education :i* sugge/s no pre-em95t m5tal activity except t ( arti/ic creation is :olly abs5t f an education :i* gives ! k ( sci5tific me?od4 ,! discov]y ( sci5tific me?od1 except 9 pure ma!matics1 is a ?+ ( ye/]day2 speak+ broadly1 we may say t x dates f ,galileo4 ,yet already x has trans=m$ ! _w1 & its success proce$s ) ev]-accel]at+ velocity4 ,9 sci5ce m5 h discov]$ an activity ( ! v highe/ value 9 :i* !y are no long]1 z 9 art1 dep5d5t = progress ^u ! appe>ance ( cont9ually great] g5ius1 = 9 sci5ce ! successors /& ^u ! %\ld]s ( _! pr$ecessors2 :]e "o man ( supreme g5ius has inv5t$ a me?od1 a ?\s& less] m5 c apply x4 ,no transc5d5t ability is requir$ 9 ord] to make useful discov]ies 9 sci5ce2 ! edifice ( sci5ce ne$s its masons1 bricklay]s1 & common lab\r]s z well z its =em51 ma/]-build]s1 & ar*itects4 ,9 art no?+ wor? do+ c be done )\t g5ius2 9 sci5ce ev5 a v mod]ate capacity c contribute to a supreme a*ievem5t4 ,9 sci5ce ! man ( real g5ius is ! man :o inv5ts a new me?od4 ,! notable discov]ies are (t5 made by 8 successors1 :o c apply ! me?od ) fre% vig\r1 unimpair$ by ! previ\s lab\r ( p]fect+ x2 b ! m5tal calibre ( ! ?\ght requir$ = _! "w1 h[ev] brilliant1 is n s great z t requir$ by ! fir/ inv5tor ( ! me?od4 ,!re are 9 sci5ce imm5se numb]s ( diff]5t me?ods1 appropriate to diff]5t classes ( problems2 b ov] & above !m all1 !re is some?+ n easily def9able1 :i* may be call$ ! me?od ( sci5ce4 ,x 0 =m]ly cu/om>y to id5tify ?is ) ! inductive me?od1 & to associate x ) ! "n ( ,bacon4 ,b ! true inductive me?od 0 n discov]$ by ,bacon1 & ! true me?od ( sci5ce is some?+ :i* includes d$uction z mu* z induction1 logic & ma!matics z mu* z botany & geology4 ,i %all n attempt ! difficult task ( /at+ :at ! sci5tific me?od is1 b ,i w try to indicate ! temp] ( m9d out ( :i* ! sci5tific me?od gr[s1 :i* is ! second ( ! two m]its t 7 m5tion$ above z belong+ to a sci5tific education4 ,! k]nel ( ! sci5tific outlook is a ?+ s simple1 s obvi\s1 s seem+ly trivial1 t ! m5tion ( x may almo/ excite d]ision4 ,! k]nel ( ! sci5tific outlook is ! refusal to reg>d our own desires1 ta/es1 & int]e/s z af=d+ a key to ! und]/&+ ( ! _w4 ,/at$ ?us baldly1 ?is may seem no m ?an a trite truism4 ,b to rememb] x consi/5tly 9 matt]s ar\s+ our passionate p>tisan%ip is by no means easy1 especially :]e ! available evid5ce is unc]ta9 & inconclusive4 ,a few illu/rations w make ?is cle>4 ,ari/otle1 ,i und]/&1 consid]$ t ! />s mu/ move 9 circles because ! circle is ! mo/ p]fect curve4 ,9 ! abs5ce ( evid5ce to ! contr>y1 he all[$ himself to decide a "q ( fact by an appeal to /hetico-moral consid]ations4 ,9 su* a case x is at once obvi\s to u t ?is appeal 0 unju/ifiable4 ,we "k n[ h[ to asc]ta9 z a fact ! way 9 :i* ! heav5ly bodies move1 & we "k t !y d n move 9 circles1 or ev5 9 accurate ellipses1 or 9 any o!r k9d ( simply describable curve4 ,?is may be pa9ful to a c]ta9 hank]+ aft] simplicity ( patt]n 9 ! univ]se1 b we "k t 9 a/ronomy su* feel+s are irrelevant4 ,easy z ?is k seems n[1 we owe x to ! c\rage & insight ( ! fir/ inv5tors ( sci5tific me?od1 & m especially ( ,galileo4 ,we may take z ano!r illu/ration ,mal?us's doctr9e ( population4 ,?is illu/ration is all ! bett] = ! fact t 8 actual doctr9e is n[ kn[n to be l>gely errone\s4 ,x is n 8 conclusions t are valuable1 b ! temp] & me?od ( 8 inquiry4 ,z ev]yone kn[s1 x 0 to him t ,d>w9 ow$ an ess5tial "p ( 8 !ory ( natural selection1 & ?is 0 only possible because ,mal?us's outlook 0 truly sci5tific4 ,8 great m]it lies 9 consid]+ man n z ! object ( praise or blame1 b z a "p ( nature1 a ?+ ) a c]ta9 *>act]i/ic behavi\r f :i* c]ta9 consequ5ces mu/ foll[4 ,if ! behavi\r is n q :at ,mal?us suppos$1 if ! consequ5ces are n q :at he inf]r$1 t may falsify 8 conclusions1 b does n impair ! value ( 8 me?od4 ,! objections :i* 7 made :5 8 doctr9e 0 new--t x 0 horrible & depress+1 t p ought n to act z he said !y did1 & s on--7 all su* z impli$ an unsci5tific attitude ( m9d2 z aga9/ all ( !m1 8 calm det]m9ation to treat man z a natural ph5om5on m>ks an important advance ov] ! re=m]s ( ! eighte5? c5tury & ! ,revolution4 ,"u ! influ5ce ( ,d>w9ism ! sci5tific attitude t[>ds man has n[ become fairly common1 & is to "s p q natural1 ?\gh to mo/ x is /ill a difficult & artificial intellectual contortion4 ,!re is h[ev]1 "o /udy :i* is z yet almo/ :olly unt\*$ by ! sci5tific _s--,i mean ! /udy ( philosophy4 ,philosoph]s & ! public imag9e t ! sci5tific _s mu/ p]vade pages t bri/le ) allusions to ions1 g]m-plasms1 & ! eyes ( %ell-fi%4 ,b z ! devil c quote ,scripture1 s ! philosoph] c quote sci5ce4 ,! sci5tific _s is n an affair ( quotation1 ( ext]nally acquir$ in=mation1 any m ?an mann]s are an affair ( ! etiquette-book4 ,! sci5tific attitude ( m9d involves a sweep+ away ( all o!r desires 9 ! int]e/s ( ! desire to "k--x involves suppression ( hopes & fe>s1 loves & hates1 & ! :ole subjective emotional life1 until we become subdu$ to ! mat]ial1 able to see x frankly1 )\t preconceptions1 )\t bias1 )\t any wi% except to see x z x is1 & )\t any belief t :at x is mu/ be det]m9$ by "s relation1 positive or negative1 to :at we %\ld l x to be1 or to :at we c easily imag9e x to be4 ,n[ 9 philosophy ?is attitude ( m9d has n z yet be5 a*iev$4 ,a c]ta9 self-absorption1 n p]sonal1 b human1 has m>k$ almo/ all attempts to conceive ! univ]se z a :ole4 ,m9d1 or "s aspect ( x--?\ght or w or s5ti5ce--has be5 reg>d$ z ! patt]n aft] :i* ! univ]se is to be conceiv$1 = no bett] reason1 at bottom1 ?an t su* a univ]se w\ld n seem /range1 & w\ld give u ! cosy feel+ t e place is l home4 ,to conceive ! univ]se z ess5tially progressive or ess5tially det]iorat+1 = example1 is to give to our hopes & fe>s a cosmic importance :i* may1 ( c\rse1 be ju/ifi$1 b :i* we h z yet no reason to suppose ju/ifi$4 ,until we h le>nt to ?9k ( x 9 e?ically neutral t]ms1 we h n arriv$ at a sci5tific attitude 9 philosophy2 & until we h arriv$ at su* an attitude1 x is h>dly to be hop$ t philosophy w a*ieve any solid results4 ,i h spok5 s f> l>gely ( ! negative aspect ( ! sci5tific _s1 b x is f ! positive aspect t its value is d]iv$4 ,! in/9ct ( con/ructiv5ess1 :i* is "o ( ! *ief inc5tives to arti/ic creation1 c f9d 9 sci5tific sy/ems a satisfaction m massive ?an any epic poem4 ,dis9t]e/$ curiosity1 :i* is ! s\rce ( almo/ all intellectual ef=t1 f9ds ) a/oni%$ delight t sci5ce c unveil secrets :i* might well h seem$ = ev] undiscov]able4 ,! desire = a l>g] life & wid] int]e/s1 = an escape f private circum/ances1 & ev5 f ! :ole recurr+ human cycle ( bir? & dea?1 is fulfill$ by ! imp]sonal cosmic outlook ( sci5ce z by no?+ else4 ,to all ^! mu/ be add$1 z contribut+ to ! happ9ess ( ! man ( sci5ce1 ! admiration ( spl5did a*ievem5t1 & ! consci\sness ( ine/imable utility to ! human race4 ,a life devot$ to sci5ce is !re=e a happy life1 & its happ9ess is d]iv$ f ! v be/ s\rces t are op5 to dwell]s on ?is tr\bl$ & passionate planet4 ,,iii ,a ,,free ,,man',s ,,wor%ip#i ,to ,dr4 ,fau/us 9 8 /udy ,mephi/opheles told ! hi/ory ( ! ,creation1 say+3 ,! endless praises ( ! *oirs ( angels _h begun to gr[ we>isome2 =1 aft] all1 did he n des]ve _! praise8 ,_h he n giv5 !m endless joy8 ,w\ld x n be m amus+ to obta9 undes]v$ praise1 to be wor%ipp$ by be+s :om he tortur$8 ,he smil$ inw>dly1 & resolv$ t ! great drama %\ld be p]=m$4 ,= c\ntless ages ! hot nebula :irl$ aimlessly ?r\gh space4 ,at l5g? x began to take %ape1 ! c5tral mass ?rew (f planets1 ! planets cool$1 boil+ seas & burn+ m\nta9s heav$ & toss$1 f black masses ( cl\d hot %eets ( ra9 delug$ ! b>ely solid cru/4 ,& n[ ! fir/ g]m ( life grew 9 ! dep?s ( ! ocean1 & develop$ rapidly 9 ! fructify+ w>m? into va/ =e/ trees1 huge f]ns spr++ f ! damp m\ld1 sea mon/]s bre$+1 fight+1 dev\r+1 & pass+ away4 ,& f ! mon/]s1 z ! play unfold$ itself1 ,man 0 born1 ) ! p[] ( ?\ght1 ! k ( good & evil1 & ! cruel ?ir/ = wor%ip4 ,& ,man saw t all is pass+ 9 ?is mad1 mon/r\s _w1 t all is /ruggl+ to snat*1 at any co/1 a few brief mom5ts ( life be=e ,dea?'s inexorable decree4 ,& ,man said3 ',!re is a hidd5 purpose1 c\ld we b fa?om x1 & ! purpose is good2 = we mu/ rev]5ce some?+1 & 9 ! visible _w !re is no?+ wor?y ( rev]5ce4' ,& ,man /ood aside f ! /ruggle1 resolv+ t ,god int5d$ h>mony to come out ( *aos by human ef=ts4 ,& :5 he foll[$ ! in/9cts :i* ,god _h transmitt$ to him f 8 ance/ry ( bea/s ( prey1 he call$ x ,s91 & ask$ ,god to =give him4 ,b he d\bt$ :e!r he c\ld be ju/ly =giv51 until he inv5t$ a div9e ,plan by :i* ,god's wra? 0 to h be5 appeas$4 ,& see+ ! pres5t 0 bad1 he made x yet worse1 t !reby ! future might be bett]4 ,& he gave ,god ?anks = ! /r5g? t enabl$ him to =go ev5 ! joys t 7 possible4 ,& ,god smil$2 & :5 he saw t ,man _h become p]fect 9 r5unciation & wor%ip1 he s5t ano!r sun ?r\gh ! sky1 :i* cra%$ into ,man's sun2 & all return$ aga9 to nebula4 ',yes1' he murmur$1 'x 0 a good play2 ,i w h x p]=m$ aga94' ,su*1 9 outl9e1 b ev5 m purposeless1 m void ( mean+1 is ! _w :i* ,sci5ce pres5ts = our belief4 ,amid su* a _w1 if any:]e1 our ideals h5ce=w>d mu/ f9d a home4 ,t ,man is ! product ( causes :i* _h no prevision ( ! end !y 7 a*iev+2 t 8 orig91 8 gr[?1 8 hopes & fe>s1 8 loves & 8 beliefs1 are b ! outcome ( accid5tal collocations ( atoms2 t no fire1 no h]oism1 no int5sity ( ?\ght & feel+1 c pres]ve an individual life beyond ! grave2 t all ! lab\rs ( ! ages1 all ! devotion1 all ! inspiration1 all ! noonday brightness ( human g5ius1 are de/9$ to ext9ction 9 ! va/ dea? ( ! sol> sy/em1 & t ! :ole temple ( ,man's a*ievem5t mu/ inevitably be buri$ b5ea? ! dbris ( a univ]se 9 ru9s--all ^! ?+s1 if n q beyond dispute1 are yet s ne>ly c]ta91 t no philosophy :i* rejects !m c hope to /&4 ,only )9 ! scaffold+ ( ^! tru?s1 only on ! firm f\ndation ( unyield+ despair1 c ! s\l's habitation h5ce=? be safely built4 ,h[1 9 su* an ali5 & inhuman _w1 c s p[]less a creature z ,man pres]ve 8 aspirations unt>ni%$8 ,a /range my/]y x is t ,nature1 omnipot5t b bl9d1 9 ! revolutions ( h] secul> hurry+s ?r\gh ! abysses ( space1 has br\ght =? at la/ a *ild1 subject /ill to h] p[]1 b gift$ ) sight1 ) k ( good & evil1 ) ! capacity ( judg+ all ! works ( 8 un?9k+ ,"m4 ,9 spite ( ,dea?1 ! m>k & seal ( ! p>5tal control1 ,man is yet free1 dur+ 8 brief ye>s1 to exam9e1 to criticise1 to "k1 & 9 imag9ation to create4 ,to him alone1 9 ! _w ) :i* he is acqua9t$1 ?is fre$om belongs2 & 9 ?is lies 8 sup]iority to ! resi/less =ces t control 8 outw>d life4 ,! savage1 l ourselves1 feels ! oppression ( 8 impot5ce be=e ! p[]s ( ,nature2 b hav+ 9 himself no?+ t he respects m ?an ,p[]1 he is will+ to pro/rate himself be=e 8 gods1 )\t inquir+ :e!r !y are wor?y ( 8 wor%ip4 ,pa!tic & v t]rible is ! long hi/ory ( cruelty & torture1 ( degradation & human sacrifice1 endur$ 9 ! hope ( placat+ ! jeal\s gods3 surely1 ! trembl+ believ] ?9ks1 :5 :at is mo/ preci\s has be5 freely giv51 _! lu/ = blood mu/ be appeas$1 & m w n be requir$4 ,! religion ( ,molo*--z su* cre$s may be g5]ically call$--is 9 ess5ce ! cr++ submission ( ! slave1 :o d>e n1 ev5 9 8 he>t1 all[ ! ?\ght t 8 ma/] des]ves no adulation4 ,s9ce ! indep5d5ce ( ideals is n yet ackn[l$g$1 ,p[] may be freely wor%ipp$1 & receive an unlimit$ respect1 despite its wanton infliction ( pa94 ,b gradually1 z morality gr[s bold]1 ! claim ( ! ideal _w beg9s to be felt2 & wor%ip1 if x is n to cease1 mu/ be giv5 to gods ( ano!r k9d ?an ^? creat$ by ! savage4 ,"s1 ?\gh !y feel ! dem&s ( ! ideal1 w /ill consci\sly reject !m1 /ill urg+ t nak$ ,p[] is wor?y ( wor%ip4 ,su* is ! attitude inculcat$ 9 ,god's answ] to ,job out ( ! :irlw9d3 ! div9e p[] & k are p>ad$1 b ( ! div9e goodness !re is no h9t4 ,su* also is ! attitude ( ^? :o1 9 our own day1 base _! morality ^u ! /ruggle = survival1 ma9ta9+ t ! survivors are necess>ily ! fitte/4 ,b o!rs1 n cont5t ) an answ] s repugnant to ! moral s5se1 w adopt ! position :i* we h become accu/om$ to reg>d z specially religi\s1 ma9ta9+ t1 9 "s hidd5 mann]1 ! _w ( fact is really h>moni\s ) ! _w ( ideals4 ,?us ,man creates ,god1 all-p[]ful & all-good1 ! my/ic unity ( :at is & :at %\ld be4 ,b ! _w ( fact1 aft] all1 is n good2 &1 9 submitt+ our judgm5t to x1 !re is an elem5t ( slavi%ness f :i* our ?\ghts mu/ be purg$4 ,= 9 all ?+s x is well to exalt ! dignity ( ,man1 by free+ him z f> z possible f ! tyranny ( non-human ,p[]4 ,:5 we h realis$ t ,p[] is l>gely bad1 t man1 ) 8 k ( good & evil1 is b a helpless atom 9 a _w :i* has no su* k1 ! *oice is aga9 pres5t$ to u3 ,%all we wor%ip ,=ce1 or %all we wor%ip ,goodness8 ,%all our ,god exi/ & be evil1 or %all he be recognis$ z ! creation ( our own consci5ce8 ,! answ] to ?is "q is v mom5t\s1 & affects pr(\ndly our :ole morality4 ,! wor%ip ( ,=ce1 to :i* ,c>lyle & ,nietzs*e & ! cre$ ( ,milit>ism h accu/om$ u1 is ! result ( failure to ma9ta9 our own ideals aga9/ a ho/ile univ]se3 x is itself a pro/rate submission to evil1 a sacrifice ( our be/ to ,molo*4 ,if /r5g? inde$ is to be respect$1 let u respect r ! /r5g? ( ^? :o refuse t false recognition ( facts :i* fails to recognise t facts are (t5 bad4 ,let u admit t1 9 ! _w we "k1 !re are _m ?+s t w\ld be bett] o!rwise1 & t ! ideals to :i* we d & mu/ adh]e are n realis$ 9 ! realm ( matt]4 ,let u pres]ve our respect = tru?1 = beauty1 = ! ideal ( p]fection :i* life does n p]mit u to atta91 ?\gh none ( ^! ?+s meet ) ! approval ( ! unconsci\s univ]se4 ,if ,p[] is bad1 z x seems to be1 let u reject x f our he>ts4 ,9 ?is lies ,man's true fre$om3 9 det]m9ation to wor%ip only ! ,god creat$ by our own love ( ! good1 to respect only ! heav5 :i* inspires ! insight ( our be/ mom5ts4 ,9 action1 9 desire1 we mu/ submit p]petually to ! tyranny ( outside =ces2 b 9 ?\ght1 9 aspiration1 we are free1 free f our fell[-m51 free f ! petty planet on :i* our bodies impot5tly crawl1 free ev51 :ile we live1 f ! tyranny ( dea?4 ,let u le>n1 !n1 t en]gy ( fai? :i* enables u to live con/antly 9 ! vision ( ! good2 & let u desc5d1 9 action1 into ! _w ( fact1 ) t vision always be=e u4 ,:5 fir/ ! opposition ( fact & ideal gr[s fully visible1 a _s ( fi]y revolt1 ( fi]ce hatr$ ( ! gods1 seems necess>y to ! ass]tion ( fre$om4 ,to defy ) ,prome!an con/ancy a ho/ile univ]se1 to keep its evil always 9 view1 always actively hat$1 to refuse no pa9 t ! malice ( ,p[] c inv5t1 appe>s to be ! duty ( all :o w n b[ be=e ! inevitable4 ,b indignation is /ill a bondage1 = x compels our ?\ghts to be occupi$ ) an evil _w2 & 9 ! fi]c5ess ( desire f :i* rebellion spr+s !re is a k9d ( self-ass]tion :i* x is necess>y = ! wise to ov]come4 ,indignation is a submission ( our ?\ghts1 b n ( our desires2 ! ,/oic fre$om 9 :i* wisdom consi/s is f\nd 9 ! submission ( our desires1 b n ( our ?\ghts4 ,f ! submission ( our desires spr+s ! virtue ( resignation2 f ! fre$om ( our ?\ghts spr+s ! :ole _w ( art & philosophy1 & ! vision ( beauty by :i*1 at la/1 we half reconqu] ! reluctant _w4 ,b ! vision ( beauty is possible only to unfett]$ contemplation1 to ?\ghts n weight$ by ! load ( eag] wi%es2 & ?us ,fre$om comes only to ^? :o no long] ask ( life t x %all yield !m any ( ^? p]sonal goods t are subject to ! mutations ( ,"t4 ,al?\gh ! necessity ( r5unciation is evid5ce ( ! exi/5ce ( evil1 yet ,*ri/ianity1 9 prea*+ x1 has %[n a wisdom exce$+ t ( ! ,prome!an philosophy ( rebellion4 ,x mu/ be admitt$ t1 ( ! ?+s we desire1 "s1 ?\gh !y prove impossible1 are yet real goods2 o!rs1 h[ev]1 z ard5tly long$ =1 d n =m "p ( a fully purifi$ ideal4 ,! belief t :at mu/ be r5\nc$ is bad1 ?\gh sometimes false1 is f> less (t5 false ?an untam$ passion supposes2 & ! cre$ ( religion1 by provid+ a reason = prov+ t x is nev] false1 has be5 ! means ( purify+ our hopes by ! discov]y ( _m au/]e tru?s4 ,b !re is 9 resignation a fur!r good elem5t3 ev5 real goods1 :5 !y are unatta9able1 ought n to be fretfully desir$4 ,to e man comes1 soon] or lat]1 ! great r5unciation4 ,= ! "y1 !re is no?+ unatta9able2 a good ?+ desir$ ) ! :ole =ce ( a passionate w1 & yet impossible1 is to !m n cr$ible4 ,yet1 by dea?1 by illness1 by pov]ty1 or by ! voice ( duty1 we mu/ le>n1 ea* "o ( u1 t ! _w 0 n made = u1 & t1 h[ev] beautiful may be ! ?+s we crave1 ,fate may nev]!less =bid !m4 ,x is ! "p ( c\rage1 :5 mis=tune comes1 to be> )\t rep9+ ! ru9 ( our hopes1 to turn away our ?\ghts f va9 regrets4 ,?is degree ( submission to ,p[] is n only j & "r3 x is ! v gate ( wisdom4 ,b passive r5unciation is n ! :ole ( wisdom2 = n by r5unciation alone c we build a temple = ! wor%ip ( our own ideals4 ,haunt+ =e%ad[+s ( ! temple appe> 9 ! realm ( imag9ation1 9 music1 9 ar*itecture1 9 ! untr\bl$ k+dom ( reason1 & 9 ! gold5 sunset magic ( lyrics1 :]e beauty %9es & gl[s1 remote f ! t\* ( sorr[1 remote f ! fe> ( *ange1 remote f ! failures & dis5*antm5ts ( ! _w ( fact4 ,9 ! contemplation ( ^! ?+s ! vision ( heav5 w %ape itself 9 our he>ts1 giv+ at once a t\*/one to judge ! _w ab\t u1 & an inspiration by :i* to fa%ion to our ne$s :atev] is n incapable ( s]v+ z a /one 9 ! sacr$ temple4 ,except = ^? r>e spirits t are born )\t s91 !re is a cav]n ( d>kness to be trav]s$ be=e t temple c be ent]$4 ,! gate ( ! cav]n is despair1 & its floor is pav$ ) ! grave/ones ( ab&on$ hopes4 ,!re ,self mu/ die2 !re ! eag]ness1 ! gre$ ( untam$ desire mu/ be sla91 = only s c ! s\l be fre$ f ! empire ( ,fate4 ,b out ( ! cav]n ! ,gate ( ,r5unciation leads aga9 to ! daylight ( wisdom1 by ^: radiance a new insight1 a new joy1 a new t5d]ness1 %9e =? to gladd5 ! pilgrim's he>t4 ,:51 )\t ! bitt]ness ( impot5t rebellion1 we h le>nt bo? to resign ourselves to ! outw>d rule ( ,fate & to recognise t ! non-human _w is unwor?y ( our wor%ip1 x becomes possible at la/ s to trans=m & refa%ion ! unconsci\s univ]se1 s to transmute x 9 ! crucible ( imag9ation1 t a new image ( %9+ gold replaces ! old idol ( clay4 ,9 all ! multi=m facts ( ! _w--9 ! visual %apes ( trees & m\nta9s & cl\ds1 9 ! ev5ts ( ! life ( man1 ev5 9 ! v omnipot5ce ( ,dea?--! insight ( creative idealism c f9d ! reflection ( a beauty :i* its own ?\ghts fir/ made4 ,9 ?is way m9d ass]ts its subtle ma/]y ov] ! ?\ghtless =ces ( ,nature4 ,! m evil ! mat]ial ) :i* x deals1 ! m ?w>t+ to untra9$ desire1 ! great] is its a*ievem5t 9 induc+ ! reluctant rock to yield up its hidd5 treasures1 ! pr\d] its victory 9 compell+ ! oppos+ =ces to swell ! pageant ( its triumph4 ,( all ! arts1 ,trag$y is ! pr\de/1 ! mo/ triumphant2 = x builds its %9+ citadel 9 ! v c5tre ( ! enemy's c\ntry1 on ! v summit ( 8 highe/ m\nta92 f its impregnable wat*t[]s1 8 camps & ars5als1 8 columns & =ts1 are all reveal$2 )9 its walls ! free life cont9ues1 :ile ! legions ( ,dea? & ,pa9 & ,despair1 & all ! s]vile capta9s ( tyrant ,fate1 af=d ! burgh]s ( t dauntless city new spectacles ( beauty4 ,happy ^? sacr$ ramp>ts1 ?rice happy ! dwell]s on t all-see+ em95ce4 ,hon\r to ^? brave w>riors :o1 ?r\gh c\ntless ages ( w>f>e1 h pres]v$ = u ! priceless h]itage ( lib]ty1 & h kept undefil$ by sacrilegi\s invad]s ! home ( ! unsubdu$4 ,b ! beauty ( ,trag$y does b make visible a quality :i*1 9 m or less obvi\s %apes1 is pres5t always & ev]y:]e 9 life4 ,9 ! spectacle ( ,dea?1 9 ! endurance ( intol]able pa91 & 9 ! irrevocabl5ess ( a vani%$ pa/1 !re is a sacr$ness1 an ov]p[]+ awe1 a feel+ ( ! va/ness1 ! dep?1 ! inexhau/ible my/]y ( exi/5ce1 9 :i*1 z by "s /range m>riage ( pa91 ! suff]] is b\nd to ! _w by bonds ( sorr[4 ,9 ^! mom5ts ( insight1 we lose all eag]ness ( tempor>y desire1 all /ruggl+ & /riv+ = petty ends1 all c>e = ! little trivial ?+s t1 to a sup]ficial view1 make up ! common life ( day by day2 we see1 surr\nd+ ! n>r[ raft illum9$ by ! flick]+ light ( human comrade%ip1 ! d>k ocean on ^: roll+ waves we toss = a brief h\r2 f ! great night )\t1 a *ill bla/ breaks 9 ^u our refuge2 all ! lonel9ess ( humanity amid ho/ile =ces is conc5trat$ ^u ! individual s\l1 :i* mu/ /ruggle alone1 ) :at ( c\rage x c comm&1 aga9/ ! :ole weight ( a univ]se t c>es no?+ = its hopes & fe>s4 ,victory1 9 ?is /ruggle ) ! p[]s ( d>kness1 is ! true baptism into ! glori\s company ( h]oes1 ! true initiation into ! ov]ma/]+ beauty ( human exi/5ce4 ,f t awful enc\nt] ( ! s\l ) ! out] _w1 r5unciation1 wisdom1 & *>ity are born2 & ) _! bir? a new life beg9s4 ,to take into ! inmo/ %r9e ( ! s\l ! irresi/ible =ces ^: puppets we seem to be--,dea? & *ange1 ! irrevocabl5ess ( ! pa/1 & ! p[]lessness ( man be=e ! bl9d hurry ( ! univ]se f vanity to vanity--to feel ^! ?+s & "k !m is to conqu] !m4 ,?is is ! reason :y ! ,pa/ has su* magical p[]4 ,! beauty ( its motionless & sil5t pictures is l ! en*ant$ purity ( late autumn1 :5 ! leaves1 ?\gh "o brea? w\ld make !m fall1 /ill gl[ aga9/ ! sky 9 gold5 glory4 ,! ,pa/ does n *ange or /rive2 l ,duncan1 aft] life's fitful fev] x sleeps well2 :at 0 eag] & grasp+1 :at 0 petty & transitory1 has fad$ away1 ! ?+s t 7 beautiful & et]nal %9e out ( x l />s 9 ! night4 ,its beauty1 to a s\l n wor?y ( x1 is un5durable2 b to a s\l :i* has conqu]$ ,fate x is ! key ( religion4 ,! life ( ,man1 view$ outw>dly1 is b a small ?+ 9 comp>ison ) ! =ces ( ,nature4 ,! slave is doom$ to wor%ip ,"t & ,fate & ,dea?1 because !y are great] ?an any?+ he f9ds 9 himself1 & because all 8 ?\ghts are ( ?+s :i* !y dev\r4 ,b1 great z !y are1 to ?9k ( !m greatly1 to feel _! passionless spl5d\r1 is great] /ill4 ,& su* ?\ght makes u free m52 we no long] b[ be=e ! inevitable 9 ,ori5tal subjection1 b we absorb x1 & make x a "p ( ourselves4 ,to ab&on ! /ruggle = private happ9ess1 to expel all eag]ness ( tempor>y desire1 to burn ) passion = et]nal ?+s--?is is emancipation1 & ?is is ! free man's wor%ip4 ,& ?is lib]ation is effect$ by a contemplation ( ,fate2 = ,fate itself is subdu$ by ! m9d :i* leaves no?+ to be purg$ by ! purify+ fire ( ,"t4 ,unit$ ) 8 fell[-m5 by ! /ronge/ ( all ties1 ! tie ( a common doom1 ! free man f9ds t a new vision is ) him always1 %$d+ ov] e daily task ! light ( love4 ,! life ( ,man is a long m>* ?r\gh ! night1 surr\nd$ by invisible foes1 tortur$ by we>9ess & pa91 t[>ds a goal t few c hope to rea*1 & :]e none may t>ry long4 ,"o by "o1 z !y m>*1 our comrades vani% f our sight1 seiz$ by ! sil5t ord]s ( omnipot5t ,dea?4 ,v brief is ! "t 9 :i* we c help !m1 9 :i* _! happ9ess or mis]y is decid$4 ,be x ours to %$ sun%9e on _! pa?1 to light5 _! sorr[s by ! balm ( sympa?y1 to give !m ! pure joy ( a nev]-tir+ affection1 to /r5g!n fail+ c\rage1 to in/il fai? 9 h\rs ( despair4 ,let u n weigh 9 grudg+ scales _! m]its & dem]its1 b let u ?9k only ( _! ne$--( ! sorr[s1 ! difficulties1 p]haps ! bl9dnesses1 t make ! mis]y ( _! lives2 let u rememb] t !y are fell[-suff]]s 9 ! same d>kness1 actors 9 ! same trag$y ) ourselves4 ,& s1 :5 _! day is ov]1 :5 _! good & _! evil h become et]nal by ! immortality ( ! pa/1 be x ours to feel t1 :]e !y suff]$1 :]e !y fail$1 no de$ ( ours 0 ! cause2 b :]ev] a sp>k ( ! div9e fire k9dl$ 9 _! he>ts1 we 7 ready ) enc\ragem5t1 ) sympa?y1 ) brave words 9 :i* high c\rage gl[$4 ,brief & p[]less is ,man's life2 on him & all 8 race ! sl[1 sure doom falls pitiless & d>k4 ,bl9d to good & evil1 reckless ( de/ruction1 omnipot5t matt] rolls on its rel5tless way2 = ,man1 condemn$ to-day to lose 8 de>e/1 to-morr[ himself to pass ?r\gh ! gate ( d>kness1 x rema9s only to *]i%1 ere yet ! bl[ falls1 ! l(ty ?\ghts t ennoble 8 little day2 disda9+ ! c[>d t]rors ( ! slave ( ,fate1 to wor%ip at ! %r9e t 8 own h&s h built2 undismay$ by ! empire ( *ance1 to pres]ve a m9d free f ! wanton tyranny t rules 8 outw>d life2 pr\dly defiant ( ! irresi/ible =ces t tol]ate1 = a mom5t1 8 k & 8 condemnation1 to su/a9 alone1 a we>y b unyield+ ,atlas1 ! _w t 8 own ideals h fa%ion$ despite ! trampl+ m>* ( unconsci\s p[]4 ,,footnotes3 #i ,repr9t$ f ! ,indep5d5t ,review1 ,decemb]1 #aijc4 ,,iv ,,! ,,/udy ,,( ,,ma!matics ,9 reg>d to e =m ( human activity x is necess>y t ! "q %\ld be ask$ f "t to "t1 ,:at is its purpose & ideal8 ,9 :at way does x contribute to ! beauty ( human exi/5ce8 ,z respects ^? pursuits :i* contribute only remotely1 by provid+ ! me*anism ( life1 x is well to be rem9d$ t n ! m]e fact ( liv+ is to be desir$1 b ! art ( liv+ 9 ! contemplation ( great ?+s4 ,/ill m 9 reg>d to ^? avocations :i* h no end outside !mselves1 :i* are to be ju/ifi$1 if at all1 z actually add+ to ! sum ( ! _w's p]man5t possessions1 x is necess>y to keep alive a k ( _! aims1 a cle> prefigur+ vision ( ! temple 9 :i* creative imag9ation is to be embodi$4 ,! fulfilm5t ( ?is ne$1 9 :at conc]ns ! /udies =m+ ! mat]ial ^u :i* cu/om has decid$ to tra9 ! y\?ful m9d1 is inde$ sadly remote--s remote z to make ! m]e /atem5t ( su* a claim appe> prepo/]\s4 ,great m51 fully alive to ! beauty ( ! contemplations to ^: s]vice _! lives are devot$1 desir+ t o!rs may %>e 9 _! joys1 p]suade mank9d to imp>t to ! successive g5]ations ! me*anical k )\t :i* x is impossible to cross ! ?re%old4 ,dry p$ants possess !mselves ( ! privilege ( in/ill+ ?is k3 !y =get t x is to s]ve b z a key to op5 ! doors ( ! temple2 ?\gh !y sp5d _! lives on ! /eps lead+ up to ^? sacr$ doors1 !y turn _! backs ^u ! temple s resolutely t its v exi/5ce is =gott51 & ! eag] y\?1 :o w\ld press =w>d to be initiat$ to its domes & ar*es1 is bidd5 to turn back & c\nt ! /eps4 ,ma!matics1 p]haps m ev5 ?an ! /udy ( ,greece & ,rome1 has suff]$ f ?is oblivion ( its due place 9 civilisation4 ,al?\gh tradition has decre$ t ! great bulk ( educat$ m5 %all "k at lea/ ! elem5ts ( ! subject1 ! reasons = :i* ! tradition arose are =gott51 buri$ b5ea? a great rubbi%-heap ( p$antries & trivialities4 ,to ^? :o inquire z to ! purpose ( ma!matics1 ! usual answ] w be t x facilitates ! mak+ ( ma*9es1 ! travell+ f place to place1 & ! victory ov] =eign nations1 :e!r 9 w> or comm]ce4 ,if x be object$ t ^! ends--all ( :i* are ( d\btful value--are n fur!r$ by ! m]ely elem5t>y /udy impos$ ^u ^? :o d n become exp]t ma!maticians1 ! reply1 x is true1 w probably be t ma!matics tra9s ! reason+ faculties4 ,yet ! v m5 :o make ?is reply are1 = ! mo/ "p1 unwill+ to ab&on ! tea*+ ( def9ite fallacies1 kn[n to be su*1 & in/9ctively reject$ by ! unsophi/icat$ m9d ( e intellig5t le>n]4 ,& ! reason+ faculty itself is g5]ally conceiv$1 by ^? :o urge its cultivation1 z m]ely a means = ! avoidance ( pitfalls & a help 9 ! discov]y ( rules = ! guidance ( practical life4 ,all ^! are und5iably important a*ievem5ts to ! cr$it ( ma!matics2 yet x is none ( ^! t entitles ma!matics to a place 9 e lib]al education4 ,plato1 we "k1 reg>d$ ! contemplation ( ma!matical tru?s z wor?y ( ! ,deity2 & ,plato realis$1 m p]haps ?an any o!r s+le man1 :at ^? elem5ts are 9 human life :i* m]it a place 9 heav54 ,!re is 9 ma!matics1 he says1 some?+ :i* is necess>y & _c be set aside 444 &1 if ,i mi/ake n1 ( div9e necessity2 = z to ! human necessities ( :i* ! ,_m talk 9 ?is connection1 no?+ c be m ridicul\s ?an su* an application ( ! words4 ,cle9ias4 ,& :at are ^! necessities ( k1 ,/rang]1 :i* are div9e & n human8 ,a!nian4 ,^? ?+s )\t "s use or k ( :i* a man _c become a ,god to ! _w1 nor a _s1 nor yet a h]o1 nor able e>ne/ly to ?9k & c>e = man 7,laws1 p4 #hah74aj ,su* 0 ,plato's judgm5t ( ma!matics2 b ! ma!maticians d n read ,plato1 :ile ^? :o read him "k no ma!matics1 & reg>d 8 op9ion ^u ?is "q z m]ely a curi\s ab]ration4 ,ma!matics1 rightly view$1 possesses n only tru?1 b supreme beauty--a beauty cold & au/]e1 l t ( sculpture1 )\t appeal to any "p ( our weak] nature1 )\t ! gorge\s trapp+s ( pa9t+ or music1 yet sublimely pure1 & capable ( a /]n p]fection su* z only ! greate/ art c %[4 ,! true _s ( delight1 ! exaltation1 ! s5se ( be+ m ?an man1 :i* is ! t\*/one ( ! highe/ excell5ce1 is to be f\nd 9 ma!matics z surely z 9 poetry4 ,:at is be/ 9 ma!matics des]ves n m]ely to be le>nt z a task1 b to be assimilat$ z a "p ( daily ?\ght1 & br\ght aga9 & aga9 be=e ! m9d ) ev]-r5ew$ enc\ragem5t4 ,real life is1 to mo/ m51 a long second-be/1 a p]petual compromise betwe5 ! ideal & ! possible2 b ! _w ( pure reason kn[s no compromise1 no practical limitations1 no b>ri] to ! creative activity embody+ 9 spl5did edifices ! passionate aspiration aft] ! p]fect f :i* all great "w spr+s4 ,remote f human passions1 remote ev5 f ! pitiful facts ( nature1 ! g5]ations h gradually creat$ an ord]$ cosmos1 :]e pure ?\ght c dwell z 9 its natural home1 & :]e "o1 at lea/1 ( our nobl] impulses c escape f ! dre>y exile ( ! actual _w4 ,s little1 h[ev]1 h ma!maticians aim$ at beauty1 t h>dly any?+ 9 _! "w has _h ?is consci\s purpose4 ,mu*1 ow+ to irrepressible in/9cts1 :i* 7 bett] ?an av[$ beliefs1 has be5 m\ld$ by an unconsci\s ta/e2 b mu* also has be5 spoilt by false notions ( :at 0 fitt+4 ,! *>act]i/ic excell5ce ( ma!matics is only to be f\nd :]e ! reason+ is rigidly logical3 ! rules ( logic are to ma!matics :at ^? ( /ructure are to ar*itecture4 ,9 ! mo/ beautiful "w1 a *a9 ( argum5t is pres5t$ 9 :i* e l9k is important on its own acc\nt1 9 :i* !re is an air ( ease & lucidity ?r\gh\t1 & ! premises a*ieve m ?an w\ld h be5 ?\ght possible1 by means :i* appe> natural & inevitable4 ,lit]ature embodies :at is g5]al 9 p>ticul> circum/ances ^: univ]sal significance %9es ?r\gh _! individual dress2 b ma!matics endeav\rs to pres5t :atev] is mo/ g5]al 9 its purity1 )\t any irrelevant trapp+s4 ,h[ %\ld ! tea*+ ( ma!matics be conduct$ s z to communicate to ! le>n] z mu* z possible ( ?is high ideal8 ,"h exp]i5ce mu/1 9 a great measure1 be our guide2 b "s maxims may result f our consid]ation ( ! ultimate purpose to be a*iev$4 ,"o ( ! *ief ends s]v$ by ma!matics1 :5 rightly taught1 is to awak5 ! le>n]'s belief 9 reason1 8 confid5ce 9 ! tru? ( :at has be5 demon/rat$1 & 9 ! value ( demon/ration4 ,?is purpose is n s]v$ by exi/+ in/ruction2 b x is easy to see ways 9 :i* x might be s]v$4 ,at pres5t1 9 :at conc]ns ari?metic1 ! boy or girl is giv5 a set ( rules1 :i* pres5t !mselves z nei!r true nor false1 b z m]ely ! w ( ! tea*]1 ! way 9 :i*1 = "s unfa?omable reason1 ! tea*] pref]s to h ! game play$4 ,to "s degree1 9 a /udy ( su* def9ite practical utility1 ?is is no d\bt unavoidable2 b z soon z possible1 ! reasons ( rules %\ld be set =? by :atev] means mo/ readily appeal to ! *ildi% m9d4 ,9 geometry1 in/ead ( ! t$i\s app>atus ( fallaci\s pro(s = obvi\s truisms :i* con/itutes ! beg9n+ ( ,euclid1 ! le>n] %\ld be all[$ at fir/ to assume ! tru? ( ev]y?+ obvi\s1 & %\ld be in/ruct$ 9 ! demon/rations ( !orems :i* are at once />tl+ & easily v]ifiable by actual draw+1 su* z ^? 9 :i* x is %[n t ?ree or m l9es meet 9 a po9t4 ,9 ?is way belief is g5]at$2 x is se5 t reason+ may lead to />tl+ conclusions1 :i* nev]!less ! facts w v]ify2 & ?us ! in/9ctive di/ru/ ( :atev] is ab/ract or rational is gradually ov]come4 ,:]e !orems are difficult1 !y %\ld be fir/ taught z ex]cises 9 geometrical draw+1 until ! figure has become ?or\ghly famili>2 x w !n be an agreeable advance to be taught ! logical connections ( ! v>i\s l9es or circles t occur4 ,x is desirable also t ! figure illu/rat+ a !orem %\ld be drawn 9 all possible cases & %apes1 t s ! ab/ract relations ) :i* geometry is conc]n$ may ( !mselves em]ge z ! residue ( simil>ity amid su* great app>5t div]sity4 ,9 ?is way ! ab/ract demon/rations %\ld =m b a small "p ( ! in/ruction1 & %\ld be giv5 :51 by famili>ity ) concrete illu/rations1 !y h come to be felt z ! natural embodim5t ( visible fact4 ,9 ?is e>ly /age pro(s %\ld n be giv5 ) p$antic fullness2 def9itely fallaci\s me?ods1 su* z t ( sup]position1 %\ld be rigidly exclud$ f ! fir/1 b :]e1 )\t su* me?ods1 ! pro( w\ld be v difficult1 ! result %\ld be r5d]$ acceptable by argum5ts & illu/rations :i* are explicitly contra/$ ) demon/rations4 ,9 ! beg9n+ ( algebra1 ev5 ! mo/ intellig5t *ild f9ds1 z a rule1 v great difficulty4 ,! use ( lett]s is a my/]y1 :i* seems to h no purpose except my/ification4 ,x is almo/ impossible1 at fir/1 n to ?9k t e lett] /&s = "s p>ticul> numb]1 if only ! tea*] w\ld reveal :at numb] x /&s =4 ,! fact is1 t 9 algebra ! m9d is fir/ taught to consid] g5]al tru?s1 tru?s :i* are n ass]t$ to hold only ( ?is or t p>ticul> ?+1 b ( any "o ( a :ole gr\p ( ?+s4 ,x is 9 ! p[] ( und]/&+ & discov]+ su* tru?s t ! ma/]y ( ! intellect ov] ! :ole _w ( ?+s actual & possible resides2 & ability to deal ) ! g5]al z su* is "o ( ! gifts t a ma!matical education %\ld be/[4 ,b h[ little1 z a rule1 is ! tea*] ( algebra able to expla9 ! *asm :i* divides x f ari?metic1 & h[ little is ! le>n] assi/$ 9 8 grop+ ef=ts at compreh5sion6 ,usually ! me?od t has be5 adopt$ 9 ari?metic is cont9u$3 rules are set =?1 ) no adequate explanation ( _! gr\nds2 ! pupil le>ns to use ! rules bl9dly1 & pres5tly1 :5 he is able to obta9 ! answ] t ! tea*] desires1 he feels t he has ma/]$ ! difficulties ( ! subject4 ,b ( inn] compreh5sion ( ! processes employ$ he has probably acquir$ almo/ no?+4 ,:5 algebra has be5 le>nt1 all goes smoo?ly until we rea* ^? /udies 9 :i* ! notion ( inf9ity is employ$--! inf9itesimal calculus & ! :ole ( high] ma!matics4 ,! solution ( ! difficulties :i* =m]ly surr\nd$ ! ma!matical inf9ite is probably ! greate/ a*ievem5t ( :i* our own age has to boa/4 ,s9ce ! beg9n+s ( ,greek ?\ght ^! difficulties h be5 kn[n2 9 e age ! f9e/ intellects h va9ly endeav\r$ to answ] ! app>5tly unansw]able que/ions t _h be5 ask$ by ,z5o ! ,eleatic4 ,at la/ ,georg ,cantor has f\nd ! answ]1 & has conqu]$ = ! intellect a new & va/ prov9ce :i* _h be5 giv5 ov] to ,*aos & old ,night4 ,x 0 assum$ z self-evid5t1 until ,cantor & ,d$ek9d e/abli%$ ! opposite1 t if1 f any collection ( ?+s1 "s 7 tak5 away1 ! numb] ( ?+s left mu/ always be less ?an ! orig9al numb] ( ?+s4 ,?is assumption1 z a matt] ( fact1 holds only ( f9ite collections2 & ! rejection ( x1 :]e ! inf9ite is conc]n$1 has be5 %[n to remove all ! difficulties t _h hi!rto baffl$ human reason 9 ?is matt]1 & to r5d] possible ! creation ( an exact sci5ce ( ! inf9ite4 ,?is /up5d\s fact ought to produce a revolution 9 ! high] tea*+ ( ma!matics2 x has itself add$ immeasurably to ! educational value ( ! subject1 & x has at la/ giv5 ! means ( treat+ ) logical precision _m /udies :i*1 until lately1 7 wrapp$ 9 fallacy & obscurity4 ,by ^? :o 7 educat$ on ! old l9es1 ! new "w is consid]$ to be appall+ly difficult1 ab/ruse1 & obscure2 & x mu/ be confess$ t ! discov]]1 z is s (t5 ! case1 has h>dly himself em]g$ f ! mi/s :i* ! light ( 8 intellect is dispell+4 ,b inh]5tly1 ! new doctr9e ( ! inf9ite1 to all c&id & inquir+ m9ds1 has facilitat$ ! ma/]y ( high] ma!matics2 = hi!rto1 x has be5 necess>y to le>n1 by a long process ( sophi/ication1 to give ass5t to argum5ts :i*1 on fir/ acqua9tance1 7 rightly judg$ to be confus$ & errone\s4 ,s f> f produc+ a fe>less belief 9 reason1 a bold rejection ( :atev] fail$ to fulfil ! /ricte/ requirem5ts ( logic1 a ma!matical tra9+1 dur+ ! pa/ two c5turies1 enc\rag$ ! belief t _m ?+s1 :i* a rigid inquiry w\ld reject z fallaci\s1 mu/ yet be accept$ because !y "w 9 :at ! ma!matician calls practice4 ,by ?is means1 a timid1 compromis+ _s1 or else a sac]dotal belief 9 my/]ies n intelligible to ! pr(ane1 has be5 br$ :]e reason alone %\ld h rul$4 ,all ?is x is n[ "t to sweep away2 let ^? :o wi% to p5etrate into ! arcana ( ma!matics be taught at once ! true !ory 9 all its logical purity1 & 9 ! concat5ation e/abli%$ by ! v ess5ce ( ! entities conc]n$4 ,if we are consid]+ ma!matics z an end 9 itself1 & n z a te*nical tra9+ = eng9e]s1 x is v desirable to pres]ve ! purity & /rictness ( its reason+4 ,accord+ly ^? :o h atta9$ a suffici5t famili>ity ) its easi] portions %\ld be l$ backw>d f propositions to :i* !y h ass5t$ z self-evid5t to m & m fundam5tal pr9ciples f :i* :at _h previ\sly appe>$ z premises c be d$uc$4 ,!y %\ld be taught--:at ! !ory ( inf9ity v aptly illu/rates--t _m propositions seem self-evid5t to ! untra9$ m9d :i*1 nev]!less1 a ne>] scrut9y %[s to be false4 ,by ?is means !y w be l$ to a sceptical inquiry into fir/ pr9ciples1 an exam9ation ( ! f\ndations ^u :i* ! :ole edifice ( reason+ is built1 or1 to take p]haps a m fitt+ metaphor1 ! great trunk f :i* ! spread+ bran*es spr+4 ,at ?is /age1 x is well to /udy afre% ! elem5t>y portions ( ma!matics1 ask+ no long] m]ely :e!r a giv5 proposition is true1 b also h[ x gr[s out ( ! c5tral pr9ciples ( logic4 ,que/ions ( ?is nature c n[ be answ]$ ) a precision & c]ta9ty :i* 7 =m]ly q impossible2 & 9 ! *a9s ( reason+ t ! answ] requires ! unity ( all ma!matical /udies at la/ unfolds itself4 ,9 ! great majority ( ma!matical text-books !re is a total lack ( unity 9 me?od & ( sy/ematic developm5t ( a c5tral !me4 ,propositions ( v div]se k9ds are prov$ by :atev] means are ?\ght mo/ easily intelligible1 & mu* space is devot$ to m]e curiosities :i* 9 no way contribute to ! ma9 argum5t4 ,b 9 ! greate/ works1 unity & inevitability are felt z 9 ! unfold+ ( a drama2 9 ! premisses a subject is propos$ = consid]ation1 & 9 e subsequ5t /ep "s def9ite advance is made t[>ds ma/]y ( its nature4 ,! love ( sy/em1 ( int]connection1 :i* is p]haps ! inmo/ ess5ce ( ! intellectual impulse1 c f9d free play 9 ma!matics z n[h]e else4 ,! le>n] :o feels ?is impulse mu/ n be repell$ by an array ( mean+less examples or di/ract$ by amus+ oddities1 b mu/ be enc\rag$ to dwell ^u c5tral pr9ciples1 to become famili> ) ! /ructure ( ! v>i\s subjects :i* are put be=e him1 to travel easily ov] ! /eps ( ! m important d$uctions4 ,9 ?is way a good tone ( m9d is cultivat$1 & selective att5tion is taught to dwell by pref]5ce ^u :at is weighty & ess5tial4 ,:5 ! sep>ate /udies into :i* ma!matics is divid$ h ea* be5 view$ z a logical :ole1 z a natural gr[? f ! propositions :i* con/itute _! pr9ciples1 ! le>n] w be able to und]/& ! fundam5tal sci5ce :i* unifies & sy/ematises ! :ole ( d$uctive reason+4 ,?is is symbolic logic--a /udy :i*1 ?\gh x owes its inception to ,ari/otle1 is yet1 9 its wid] developm5ts1 a product1 almo/ :olly1 ( ! n9ete5? c5tury1 & is inde$1 9 ! pres5t day1 /ill gr[+ ) great rapidity4 ,! true me?od ( discov]y 9 symbolic logic1 & probably also ! be/ me?od = introduc+ ! /udy to a le>n] acqua9t$ ) o!r p>ts ( ma!matics1 is ! analysis ( actual examples ( d$uctive reason+1 ) a view to ! discov]y ( ! pr9ciples employ$4 ,^! pr9ciples1 = ! mo/ "p1 are s emb$d$ 9 our ratioc9ative in/9cts1 t !y are employ$ q unconsci\sly1 & c be dragg$ to light only by mu* pati5t ef=t4 ,b :5 at la/ !y h be5 f\nd1 !y are se5 to be few 9 numb]1 & to be ! sole s\rce ( ev]y?+ 9 pure ma!matics4 ,! discov]y t all ma!matics foll[s inevitably f a small collection ( fundam5tal laws is "o :i* immeasurably enhances ! intellectual beauty ( ! :ole2 to ^? :o h be5 oppress$ by ! fragm5t>y & incomplete nature ( mo/ exi/+ *a9s ( d$uction ?is discov]y comes ) all ! ov]:elm+ =ce ( a revelation2 l a palace em]g+ f ! autumn mi/ z ! travell] asc5ds an ,italian hill-side1 ! /ately /oreys ( ! ma!matical edifice appe> 9 _! due ord] & proportion1 ) a new p]fection 9 e "p4 ,until symbolic logic _h acquir$ its pres5t developm5t1 ! pr9ciples ^u :i* ma!matics dep5ds 7 always suppos$ to be philosophical1 & discov]able only by ! unc]ta91 unprogressive me?ods hi!rto employ$ by philosoph]s4 ,s long z ?is 0 ?\ght1 ma!matics seem$ to be n autonom\s1 b dep5d5t ^u a /udy :i* _h q o!r me?ods ?an its own4 ,moreov]1 s9ce ! nature ( ! po/ulates f :i* ari?metic1 analysis1 & geometry are to be d$uc$ 0 wrapp$ 9 all ! traditional obscurities ( metaphysical discussion1 ! edifice built ^u su* dubi\s f\ndations began to be view$ z no bett] ?an a ca/le 9 ! air4 ,9 ?is respect1 ! discov]y t ! true pr9ciples are z mu* a "p ( ma!matics z any ( _! consequ5ces has v greatly increas$ ! intellectual satisfaction to be obta9$4 ,?is satisfaction ought n to be refus$ to le>n]s capable ( enjoy+ x1 = x is ( a k9d to increase our respect = human p[]s & our k ( ! beauties belong+ to ! ab/ract _w4 ,philosoph]s h commonly held t ! laws ( logic1 :i* und]lie ma!matics1 are laws ( ?\ght1 laws regulat+ ! op]ations ( our m9ds4 ,by ?is op9ion ! true dignity ( reason is v greatly l[]$3 x ceases to be an inve/igation into ! v he>t & immutable ess5ce ( all ?+s actual & possible1 becom+1 in/ead1 an inquiry into some?+ m or less human & subject to our limitations4 ,! contemplation ( :at is non-human1 ! discov]y t our m9ds are capable ( deal+ ) mat]ial n creat$ by !m1 above all1 ! realisation t beauty belongs to ! out] _w z to ! inn]1 are ! *ief means ( ov]com+ ! t]rible s5se ( impot5ce1 ( weakness1 ( exile amid ho/ile p[]s1 :i* is too apt to result f ackn[l$g+ ! all-b omnipot5ce ( ali5 =ces4 ,to reconcile u1 by ! exhibition ( its awful beauty1 to ! reign ( ,fate--:i* is m]ely ! lit]>y p]sonification ( ^! =ces--is ! task ( trag$y4 ,b ma!matics takes u /ill fur!r f :at is human1 into ! region ( absolute necessity1 to :i* n only ! actual _w1 b e possible _w1 mu/ con=m2 & ev5 "h x builds a habitation1 or r f9ds a habitation et]nally /&+1 :]e our ideals are fully satisfi$ & our be/ hopes are n ?w>t$4 ,x is only :5 we ?or\ghly und]/& ! entire indep5d5ce ( ourselves1 :i* belongs to ?is _w t reason f9ds1 t we c adequately realise ! pr(\nd importance ( its beauty4 ,n only is ma!matics indep5d5t ( u & our ?\ghts1 b 9 ano!r s5se we & ! :ole univ]se ( exi/+ ?+s are indep5d5t ( ma!matics4 ,! appreh5sion ( ?is purely ideal "* is indisp5sable1 if we are to und]/& rightly ! place ( ma!matics z "o among ! arts4 ,x 0 =m]ly suppos$ t pure reason c\ld decide1 9 "s respects1 z to ! nature ( ! actual _w3 geometry1 at lea/1 0 ?\ght to deal ) ! space 9 :i* we live4 ,b we n[ "k t pure ma!matics c nev] pron\nce ^u que/ions ( actual exi/5ce3 ! _w ( reason1 9 a s5se1 controls ! _w ( fact1 b x is n at any po9t creative ( fact1 & 9 ! application ( its results to ! _w 9 "t & space1 its c]ta9ty & precision are lo/ among approximations & work+ hypo!ses4 ,! objects consid]$ by ma!maticians h1 9 ! pa/1 be5 ma9ly ( a k9d sugge/$ by ph5om5a2 b f su* re/rictions ! ab/ract imag9ation %\ld be :olly free4 ,a reciprocal lib]ty mu/ ?us be accord$3 reason _c dictate to ! _w ( facts1 b ! facts _c re/rict reason's privilege ( deal+ ) :atev] objects its love ( beauty may cause to seem wor?y ( consid]ation4 ,"h1 z else:]e1 we build up our own ideals out ( ! fragm5ts to be f\nd 9 ! _w2 & 9 ! end x is h>d to say :e!r ! result is a creation or a discov]y4 ,x is v desirable1 9 in/ruction1 n m]ely to p]suade ! /ud5t ( ! accuracy ( important !orems1 b to p]suade him 9 ! way :i* itself has1 ( all possible ways1 ! mo/ beauty4 ,! true int]e/ ( a demon/ration is n1 z traditional modes ( exposition sugge/1 conc5trat$ :olly 9 ! result2 :]e ?is does occur1 x mu/ be view$ z a defect1 to be rem$i$1 if possible1 by s g5]alis+ ! /eps ( ! pro( t ea* becomes important 9 & = itself4 ,an argum5t :i* s]ves only to prove a conclusion is l a /ory subord9at$ to "s moral :i* x is meant to tea*3 = /hetic p]fection no "p ( ! :ole %\ld be m]ely a means4 ,a c]ta9 practical _s1 a desire = rapid progress1 = conque/ ( new realms1 is responsible = ! undue emphasis ^u results :i* prevails 9 ma!matical in/ruction4 ,! bett] way is to propose "s !me = consid]ation--9 geometry1 a figure hav+ important prop]ties2 9 analysis1 a function ( :i* ! /udy is illum9at+1 & s on4 ,:5ev] pro(s dep5d ^u "s only ( ! m>ks by :i* we def9e ! object to be /udi$1 ^! m>ks %\ld be isolat$ & inve/igat$ on _! own acc\nt4 ,= x is a defect1 9 an argum5t1 to employ m premisses ?an ! conclusion dem&s3 :at ma!maticians call elegance results f employ+ only ! ess5tial pr9ciples 9 virtue ( :i* ! !sis is true4 ,x is a m]it 9 ,euclid t he advances z f> z he is able to g )\t employ+ ! axiom ( p>allels--n1 z is (t5 said1 because ?is axiom is inh]5tly objectionable1 b because1 9 ma!matics1 e new axiom dim9i%es ! g5]ality ( ! result+ !orems1 & ! greate/ possible g5]ality is be=e all ?+s to be s\ght4 ,( ! effects ( ma!matics outside its own sph]e m has be5 writt5 ?an on ! subject ( its own prop] ideal4 ,! effect ^u philosophy has1 9 ! pa/1 be5 mo/ notable1 b mo/ v>i$2 9 ! sev5te5? c5tury1 idealism & rationalism1 9 ! eighte5?1 mat]ialism & s5sationalism1 seem$ equally its (fspr+4 ,( ! effect :i* x is likely to h 9 ! future x w\ld be v ra% to say mu*2 b 9 "o respect a good result appe>s probable4 ,aga9/ t k9d ( scepticism :i* ab&ons ! pursuit ( ideals because ! road is ardu\s & ! goal n c]ta9ly atta9able1 ma!matics1 )9 its own sph]e1 is a complete answ]4 ,too (t5 x is said t !re is no absolute tru?1 b only op9ion & private judgm5t2 t ea* ( u is condition$1 9 8 view ( ! _w1 by 8 own peculi>ities1 8 own ta/e & bias2 t !re is no ext]nal k+dom ( tru? to :i*1 by pati5ce & discipl9e1 we may at la/ obta9 admittance1 b only tru? = me1 = y1 = e sep>ate p]son4 ,by ?is habit ( m9d "o ( ! *ief ends ( human ef=t is d5i$1 & ! supreme virtue ( c&\r1 ( fe>less ackn[l$gm5t ( :at is1 disappe>s f our moral vision4 ,( su* scepticism ma!matics is a p]petual repro(2 = its edifice ( tru?s /&s un%akable & inexpungable to all ! weapons ( d\bt+ cynicism4 ,! effects ( ma!matics ^u practical life1 ?\gh !y %\ld n be reg>d$ z ! motive ( our /udies1 may be us$ to answ] a d\bt to :i* ! solit>y /ud5t mu/ always be liable4 ,9 a _w s full ( evil & suff]+1 retirem5t into ! cloi/] ( contemplation1 to ! enjoym5t ( delights :i*1 h[ev] noble1 mu/ always be = ! few only1 _c b appe> z a some:at selfi% refusal to %>e ! burd5 impos$ ^u o!rs by accid5ts 9 :i* ju/ice plays no "p4 ,h any ( u ! "r1 we ask1 to )draw f pres5t evils1 to leave our fell[-m5 unaid$1 :ile we live a life :i*1 ?\gh ardu\s & au/]e1 is yet pla9ly good 9 its own nature8 ,:5 ^! que/ions arise1 ! true answ] is1 no d\bt1 t "s mu/ keep alive ! sacr$ fire1 "s mu/ pres]ve1 9 e g5]ation1 ! haunt+ vision :i* %ad[s =? ! goal ( s mu* /riv+4 ,b :51 z mu/ sometimes occur1 ?is answ] seems too cold1 :5 we are almo/ madd5$ by ! spectacle ( sorr[s to :i* we br+ no help1 !n we may reflect t indirectly ! ma!matician (t5 does m = human happ9ess ?an any ( 8 m practically active contempor>ies4 ,! hi/ory ( sci5ce abundantly proves t a body ( ab/ract propositions--ev5 if1 z 9 ! case ( conic sections1 x rema9s two ?\s& ye>s )\t effect ^u daily life--may yet1 at any mom5t1 be us$ to cause a revolution 9 ! habitual ?\ghts & occupations ( e citiz54 ,! use ( /eam & electricity--to take /rik+ in/ances--is r5d]$ possible only by ma!matics4 ,9 ! results ( ab/ract ?\ght ! _w possesses a capital ( :i* ! employm5t 9 enri*+ ! common r\nd has no hi!rto discov]able limits4 ,nor does exp]i5ce give any means ( decid+ :at p>ts ( ma!matics w be f\nd useful4 ,utility1 !re=e1 c be only a consolation 9 mom5ts ( disc\ragem5t1 n a guide 9 direct+ our /udies4 ,= ! heal? ( ! moral life1 = ennobl+ ! tone ( an age or a nation1 ! au/]] virtues h a /range p[]1 exce$+ ! p[] ( ^? n in=m$ & purifi$ by ?\ght4 ,( ^! au/]] virtues ! love ( tru? is ! *ief1 & 9 ma!matics1 m ?an else:]e1 ! love ( tru? may f9d enc\ragem5t = wan+ fai?4 ,e great /udy is n only an end 9 itself1 b also a means ( creat+ & su/a9+ a l(ty habit ( m9d2 & ?is purpose %\ld be kept always 9 view ?r\gh\t ! tea*+ & le>n+ ( ma!matics4 ,,footnotes3 #aj ,?is passage 0 po9t$ out to me by ,pr(essor ,gilb]t ,murray4 ,v ,,ma!matics ,,& ,,! ,,metaphysicians ,! n9ete5? c5tury1 :i* prid$ itself ^u ! inv5tion ( /eam & evolution1 might h d]iv$ a m legitimate title to fame f ! discov]y ( pure ma!matics4 ,?is sci5ce1 l mo/ o!rs1 0 baptis$ long be=e x 0 born2 & ?us we f9d writ]s be=e ! n9ete5? c5tury allud+ to :at !y call$ pure ma!matics4 ,b if !y _h be5 ask$ :at ?is subject 01 !y w\ld only h be5 able to say t x consi/$ ( ,ari?metic1 ,algebra1 ,geometry1 & s on4 ,z to :at ^! /udies _h 9 common1 & z to :at di/+ui%$ !m f appli$ ma!matics1 our ance/ors 7 completely 9 ! d>k4 ,pure ma!matics 0 discov]$ by ,boole1 9 a "w :i* he call$ ! ,laws ( ,?\ght 7#ahed74 ,?is "w ab\nds 9 assev]ations t x is n ma!matical1 ! fact be+ t ,boole 0 too mode/ to suppose 8 book ! fir/ ev] writt5 on ma!matics4 ,he 0 also mi/ak5 9 suppos+ t he 0 deal+ ) ! laws ( ?\ght3 ! "q h[ p actually ?9k 0 q irrelevant to him1 & if 8 book _h really conta9$ ! laws ( ?\ght1 x 0 curi\s t no "o %\ld ev] h ?\ght 9 su* a way be=e4 ,8 book 0 9 fact conc]n$ ) =mal logic1 & ?is is ! same ?+ z ma!matics4 ,pure ma!matics consi/s entirely ( ass]tions to ! effect t1 if su* & su* a proposition is true ( any?+1 !n su* & su* ano!r proposition is true ( t ?+4 ,x is ess5tial n to discuss :e!r ! fir/ proposition is really true1 & n to m5tion :at ! any?+ is1 ( :i* x is suppos$ to be true4 ,bo? ^! po9ts w\ld belong to appli$ ma!matics4 ,we />t1 9 pure ma!matics1 f c]ta9 rules ( inf]5ce1 by :i* we c inf] t if "o proposition is true1 !n s is "s o!r proposition4 ,^! rules ( inf]5ce con/itute ! major "p ( ! pr9ciples ( =mal logic4 ,we !n take any hypo!sis t seems amus+1 & d$uce its consequ5ces4 ,if our hypo!sis is ab\t any?+1 & n ab\t "s "o or m p>ticul> ?+s1 !n our d$uctions con/itute ma!matics4 ,?us ma!matics may be def9$ z ! subject 9 :i* we nev] "k :at we are talk+ ab\t1 nor :e!r :at we are say+ is true4 ,p :o h be5 puzzl$ by ! beg9n+s ( ma!matics w1 ,i hope1 f9d com=t 9 ?is def9ition1 & w probably agree t x is accurate4 ,z "o ( ! *ief triumphs ( mod]n ma!matics consi/s 9 hav+ discov]$ :at ma!matics really is1 a few m words on ?is subject may n be amiss4 ,x is common to />t any bran* ( ma!matics--= in/ance1 ,geometry--) a c]ta9 numb] ( primitive ideas1 suppos$ incapable ( def9ition1 & a c]ta9 numb] ( primitive propositions or axioms1 suppos$ incapable ( pro(4 ,n[ ! fact is t1 ?\gh !re are indef9ables & indemon/rables 9 e bran* ( appli$ ma!matics1 !re are none 9 pure ma!matics except su* z belong to g5]al logic4 ,logic1 broadly speak+1 is di/+ui%$ by ! fact t its propositions c be put into a =m 9 :i* !y apply to any?+ :atev]4 ,all pure ma!matics--,ari?metic1 ,analysis1 & ,geometry--is built up by comb9ations ( ! primitive ideas ( logic1 & its propositions are d$uc$ f ! g5]al axioms ( logic1 su* z ! syllogism & ! o!r rules ( inf]5ce4 ,& ?is is no long] a dream or an aspiration4 ,on ! contr>y1 ov] ! great] & m difficult "p ( ! doma9 ( ma!matics1 x has be5 already accompli%$2 9 ! few rema9+ cases1 !re is no special difficulty1 & x is n[ be+ rapidly a*iev$4 ,philosoph]s h disput$ = ages :e!r su* d$uction 0 possible2 ma!maticians h sat d[n & made ! d$uction4 ,= ! philosoph]s !re is n[ no?+ left b graceful ackn[l$gm5ts4 ,! subject ( =mal logic1 :i* has ?us at la/ %[n itself to be id5tical ) ma!matics1 01 z e "o kn[s1 inv5t$ by ,ari/otle1 & =m$ ! *ief /udy 7o!r ?an !ology7 ( ! ,middle ,ages4 ,b ,ari/otle nev] got beyond ! syllogism1 :i* is a v small "p ( ! subject1 & ! s*oolm5 nev] got beyond ,ari/otle4 ,if any pro( 7 requir$ ( our sup]iority to ! m$ival doctors1 x might be f\nd 9 ?is4 ,?r\gh\t ! ,middle ,ages1 almo/ all ! be/ intellects devot$ !mselves to =mal logic1 :]eas 9 ! n9ete5? c5tury only an inf9itesimal proportion ( ! _w's ?\ght w5t into ?is subject4 ,nev]!less1 9 ea* decade s9ce #ahej m has be5 done to advance ! subject ?an 9 ! :ole p]iod f ,ari/otle to ,leibniz4 ,p h discov]$ h[ to make reason+ symbolic1 z x is 9 ,algebra1 s t d$uctions are effect$ by ma!matical rules4 ,!y h discov]$ _m rules besides ! syllogism1 & a new bran* ( logic1 call$ ! ,logic ( ,relatives1#aa has be5 inv5t$ to deal ) topics t :olly surpass$ ! p[]s ( ! old logic1 ?\gh !y =m ! *ief cont5ts ( ma!matics4 ,x is n easy = ! lay m9d to realise ! importance ( symbolism 9 discuss+ ! f\ndations ( ma!matics1 & ! explanation may p]haps seem /rangely p>adoxical4 ,! fact is t symbolism is useful because x makes ?+s difficult4 7,?is is n true ( ! advanc$ p>ts ( ma!matics1 b only ( ! beg9n+s47 ,:at we wi% to "k is1 :at c be d$uc$ f :at4 ,n[1 9 ! beg9n+s1 ev]y?+ is self-evid5t2 & x is v h>d to see :e!r "o self-evid5t proposition foll[s f ano!r or n4 ,obvi\sness is always ! enemy to correctness4 ,h5ce we inv5t "s new & difficult symbolism1 9 :i* no?+ seems obvi\s4 ,!n we set up c]ta9 rules = op]at+ on ! symbols1 & ! :ole ?+ becomes me*anical4 ,9 ?is way we f9d out :at mu/ be tak5 z premiss & :at c be demon/rat$ or def9$4 ,= in/ance1 ! :ole ( ,ari?metic & ,algebra has be5 %[n to require ?ree indef9able notions & five indemon/rable propositions4 ,b )\t a symbolism x w\ld h be5 v h>d to f9d ?is out4 ,x is s obvi\s t two & two are f\r1 t we c h>dly make ourselves suffici5tly sceptical to d\bt :e!r x c be prov$4 ,& ! same holds 9 o!r cases :]e self-evid5t ?+s are to be prov$4 ,b ! pro( ( self-evid5t propositions may seem1 to ! un9itiat$1 a some:at frivol\s occupation4 ,to ?is we might reply t x is (t5 by no means self-evid5t t "o obvi\s proposition foll[s f ano!r obvi\s proposition2 s t we are really discov]+ new tru?s :5 we prove :at is evid5t by a me?od :i* is n evid5t4 ,b a m int]e/+ retort is1 t s9ce p h tri$ to prove obvi\s propositions1 !y h f\nd t _m ( !m are false4 ,self-evid5ce is (t5 a m]e w-o'-!-wisp1 :i* is sure to lead u a/ray if we take x z our guide4 ,= in/ance1 no?+ is pla9] ?an t a :ole always has m t]ms ?an a "p1 or t a numb] is increas$ by add+ "o to x4 ,b ^! propositions are n[ kn[n to be usually false4 ,mo/ numb]s are inf9ite1 & if a numb] is inf9ite y may add ones to x z long z y l )\t di/urb+ x 9 ! lea/4 ,"o ( ! m]its ( a pro( is t x in/ils a c]ta9 d\bt z to ! result prov$2 & :5 :at is obvi\s c be prov$ 9 "s cases1 b n 9 o!rs1 x becomes possible to suppose t 9 ^! o!r cases x is false4 ,! great ma/] ( ! art ( =mal reason+1 among ! m5 ( our own day1 is an ,italian1 ,pr(essor ,peano1 ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,tur94#ab ,he has r$uc$ ! great] "p ( ma!matics 7& he or 8 foll[]s w1 9 "t1 h r$uc$ ! :ole7 to /rict symbolic =m1 9 :i* !re are no words at all4 ,9 ! ord9>y ma!matical books1 !re are no d\bt few] words ?an mo/ read]s w\ld wi%4 ,/ill1 little phrases occur1 su* z !re=e1 let u assume1 consid]1 or h5ce x foll[s4 ,all ^!1 h[ev]1 are a concession1 & are swept away by ,pr(essor ,peano4 ,= in/ance1 if we wi% to le>n ! :ole ( ,ari?metic1 ,algebra1 ! ,calculus1 & inde$ all t is usually call$ pure ma!matics 7except ,geometry71 we mu/ />t ) a diction>y ( ?ree words4 ,"o symbol /&s = z]o1 ano!r = numb]1 & a ?ird = next aft]4 ,:at ^! ideas mean1 x is necess>y to "k if y wi% to become an ari?metician4 ,b aft] symbols h be5 inv5t$ = ^! ?ree ideas1 n ano!r ^w is requir$ 9 ! :ole developm5t4 ,all future symbols are symbolically expla9$ by means ( ^! ?ree4 ,ev5 ^! ?ree c be expla9$ by means ( ! notions ( relation & class2 b ?is requires ! ,logic ( ,relations1 :i* ,pr(essor ,peano has nev] tak5 up4 ,x mu/ be admitt$ t :at a ma!matician has to "k to beg9 ) is n mu*4 ,!re are at mo/ a doz5 notions out ( :i* all ! notions 9 all pure ma!matics 7includ+ ,geometry7 are comp\nd$4 ,pr(essor ,peano1 :o is assi/$ by a v able s*ool ( "y ,italian disciples1 has %[n h[ ?is may be done2 & al?\gh ! me?od :i* he has inv5t$ is capable ( be+ c>ri$ a good deal fur!r ?an he has c>ri$ x1 ! hon\r ( ! pione] mu/ belong to him4 ,two hundr$ ye>s ago1 ,leibniz =esaw ! sci5ce :i* ,peano has p]fect$1 & endeav\r$ to create x4 ,he 0 prev5t$ f succe$+ by respect = ! au?ority ( ,ari/otle1 :om he c\ld n believe guilty ( def9ite1 =mal fallacies2 b ! subject :i* he desir$ to create n[ exi/s1 9 spite ( ! patronis+ contempt ) :i* 8 s*emes h be5 treat$ by all sup]ior p]sons4 ,f ?is ,univ]sal ,*>act]i/ic1 z he call$ x1 he hop$ = a solution ( all problems1 & an end to all disputes4 ,if controv]sies 7 to arise1 he says1 !re w\ld be no m ne$ ( disputation betwe5 two philosoph]s ?an betwe5 two acc\ntants4 ,= x w\ld suffice to take _! p5s 9 _! h&s1 to sit d[n to _! desks1 & to say to ea* o!r 7) a fri5d z witness1 if !y lik$71 ',let u calculate4' ,?is optimism has n[ appe>$ to be some:at excessive2 !re /ill are problems ^: solution is d\btful1 & disputes :i* calculation _c decide4 ,b ov] an enorm\s field ( :at 0 =m]ly controv]sial1 ,leibniz's dream has become sob] fact4 ,9 ! :ole philosophy ( ma!matics1 :i* us$ to be at lea/ z full ( d\bt z any o!r "p ( philosophy1 ord] & c]ta9ty h replac$ ! confusion & hesitation :i* =m]ly reign$4 ,philosoph]s1 ( c\rse1 h n yet discov]$ ?is fact1 & cont9ue to write on su* subjects 9 ! old way4 ,b ma!maticians1 at lea/ 9 ,italy1 h n[ ! p[] ( treat+ ! pr9ciples ( ma!matics 9 an exact & ma/]ly mann]1 by means ( :i* ! c]ta9ty ( ma!matics ext5ds also to ma!matical philosophy4 ,h5ce _m ( ! topics :i* us$ to be plac$ among ! great my/]ies--= example1 ! natures ( inf9ity1 ( cont9uity1 ( space1 "t & motion--are n[ no long] 9 any degree op5 to d\bt or discussion4 ,^? :o wi% to "k ! nature ( ^! ?+s ne$ only read ! works ( su* m5 z ,peano or ,georg ,cantor2 !y w !re f9d exact & indubitable expositions ( all ^! quondam my/]ies4 ,9 ?is caprici\s _w1 no?+ is m caprici\s ?an po/hum\s fame4 ,"o ( ! mo/ notable examples ( po/]ity's lack ( judgm5t is ! ,eleatic ,z5o4 ,?is man1 :o may be reg>d$ z ! f\nd] ( ! philosophy ( inf9ity1 appe>s 9 ,plato's ,p>m5ides 9 ! privileg$ position ( in/ructor to ,socrates4 ,he inv5t$ f\r argum5ts1 all immeasurably subtle & pr(\nd1 to prove t motion is impossible1 t ,a*illes c nev] ov]take ! tortoise1 & t an arr[ 9 flight is really at re/4 ,aft] be+ refut$ by ,ari/otle1 & by e subsequ5t philosoph] f t day to our own1 ^! argum5ts 7 re9/at$1 & made ! basis ( a ma!matical r5aissance1 by a ,g]man pr(essor1 :o probably nev] dream$ ( any connection betwe5 himself & ,z5o4 ,wei]/rass1#ac by /rictly bani%+ f ma!matics ! use ( inf9itesimals1 has at la/ %[n t we live 9 an un*ang+ _w1 & t ! arr[ 9 its flight is truly at re/4 ,z5o's only error lay 9 inf]r+ 7if he did inf]7 t1 because !re is no su* ?+ z a /ate ( *ange1 !re=e ! _w is 9 ! same /ate at any "o "t z at any o!r4 ,?is is a consequ5ce :i* by no means foll[s2 & 9 ?is respect1 ! ,g]man ma!matician is m con/ructive ?an ! +5i\s ,greek4 ,wei]/rass has be5 able1 by embody+ 8 views 9 ma!matics1 :]e famili>ity ) tru? elim9ates ! vulg> prejudices ( common s5se1 to inve/ ,z5o's p>adoxes ) ! respectable air ( platitudes2 & if ! result is less delightful to ! lov] ( reason ?an ,z5o's bold defiance1 x is at any rate m calculat$ to appease ! mass ( academic mank9d4 ,z5o 0 conc]n$1 z a matt] ( fact1 ) ?ree problems1 ea* pres5t$ by motion1 b ea* m ab/ract ?an motion1 & capable ( a purely ari?metical treatm5t4 ,^! are ! problems ( ! inf9itesimal1 ! inf9ite1 & cont9uity4 ,to /ate cle>ly ! difficulties involv$1 0 to accompli% p]haps ! h>de/ "p ( ! philosoph]'s task4 ,?is 0 done by ,z5o4 ,f him to our own day1 ! f9e/ intellects ( ea* g5]ation 9 turn attack$ ! problems1 b a*iev$1 broadly speak+1 no?+4 ,9 our own "t1 h[ev]1 ?ree m5--,wei]/rass1 ,d$ek9d1 & ,cantor--h n m]ely advanc$ ! ?ree problems1 b h completely solv$ !m4 ,! solutions1 = ^? acqua9t$ ) ma!matics1 are s cle> z to leave no long] ! slighte/ d\bt or difficulty4 ,?is a*ievem5t is probably ! greate/ ( :i* our age has to boa/2 & ,i "k ( no age 7except p]haps ! gold5 age ( ,greece7 :i* has a m conv9c+ pro( to (f] ( ! transc5d5t g5ius ( its great m54 ,( ! ?ree problems1 t ( ! inf9itesimal 0 solv$ by ,wei]/rass2 ! solution ( ! o!r two 0 begun by ,d$ek9d1 & def9itively accompli%$ by ,cantor4 ,! inf9itesimal play$ =m]ly a great "p 9 ma!matics4 ,x 0 introduc$ by ! ,greeks1 :o reg>d$ a circle z diff]+ inf9itesimally f a polygon ) a v l>ge numb] ( v small equal sides4 ,x gradually grew 9 importance1 until1 :5 ,leibniz inv5t$ ! ,inf9itesimal ,calculus1 x seem$ to become ! fundam5tal notion ( all high] ma!matics4 ,c>lyle tells1 9 8 ,fr$]ick ! ,great1 h[ ,leibniz us$ to disc\rse to ,que5 ,sophia ,*>lotte ( ,prussia conc]n+ ! inf9itely little1 & h[ %e w\ld reply t on t subject %e ne$$ no in/ruction--! behavi\r ( c\rti]s _h made h] ?or\ghly famili> ) x4 ,b philosoph]s & ma!maticians--:o = ! mo/ "p _h less acqua9tance ) c\rts--cont9u$ to discuss ?is topic1 ?\gh )\t mak+ any advance4 ,! ,calculus requir$ cont9uity1 & cont9uity 0 suppos$ to require ! inf9itely little2 b nobody c\ld discov] :at ! inf9itely little might be4 ,x 0 pla9ly n q z]o1 because a suffici5tly l>ge numb] ( inf9itesimals1 add$ toge!r1 7 se5 to make up a f9ite :ole4 ,b nobody c\ld po9t out any fraction :i* 0 n z]o1 & yet n f9ite4 ,?us !re 0 a deadlock4 ,b at la/ ,wei]/rass discov]$ t ! inf9itesimal 0 n ne$$ at all1 & t ev]y?+ c\ld be accompli%$ )\t x4 ,?us !re 0 no long] any ne$ to suppose t !re 0 su* a ?+4 ,n[adays1 !re=e1 ma!maticians are m dignifi$ ?an ,leibniz3 in/ead ( talk+ ab\t ! inf9itely small1 !y talk ab\t ! inf9itely great--a subject :i*1 h[ev] appropriate to mon>*s1 seems1 un=tunately1 to int]e/ !m ev5 less ?an ! inf9itely little int]e/$ ! mon>*s to :om ,leibniz disc\rs$4 ,! bani%m5t ( ! inf9itesimal has all sorts ( odd consequ5ces1 to :i* "o has to become gradually accu/om$4 ,= example1 !re is no su* ?+ z ! next mom5t4 ,! int]val betwe5 "o mom5t & ! next w\ld h to be inf9itesimal1 s9ce1 if we take two mom5ts ) a f9ite int]val betwe5 !m1 !re are always o!r mom5ts 9 ! int]val4 ,?us if !re are to be no inf9itesimals1 no two mom5ts are q consecutive1 b !re are always o!r mom5ts betwe5 any two4 ,h5ce !re mu/ be an inf9ite numb] ( mom5ts betwe5 any two2 because if !re 7 a f9ite numb] "o w\ld be ne>e/ ! fir/ ( ! two mom5ts1 & !re=e next to x4 ,?is might be ?\ght to be a difficulty2 b1 z a matt] ( fact1 x is "h t ! philosophy ( ! inf9ite comes 91 & makes all /raight4 ,! same sort ( ?+ happ5s 9 space4 ,if any piece ( matt] be cut 9 two1 & !n ea* "p be halv$1 & s on1 ! bits w become small] & small]1 & c !oretically be made z small z we please4 ,h[ev] small !y may be1 !y c /ill be cut up & made small] /ill4 ,b !y w always h "s f9ite size1 h[ev] small !y may be4 ,we nev] rea* ! inf9itesimal 9 ?is way1 & no f9ite numb] ( divisions w br+ u to po9ts4 ,nev]!less !re are po9ts1 only ^! are n to be rea*$ by successive divisions4 ,"h aga91 ! philosophy ( ! inf9ite %[s u h[ ?is is possible1 & :y po9ts are n inf9itesimal l5g?s4 ,z reg>ds motion & *ange1 we get simil>ly curi\s results4 ,p us$ to ?9k t :5 a ?+ *anges1 x mu/ be 9 a /ate ( *ange1 & t :5 a ?+ moves1 x is 9 a /ate ( motion4 ,?is is n[ kn[n to be a mi/ake4 ,:5 a body moves1 all t c be said is t x is 9 "o place at "o "t & 9 ano!r at ano!r4 ,we mu/ n say t x w be 9 a neighb\r+ place at ! next in/ant1 s9ce !re is no next in/ant4 ,philosoph]s (t5 tell u t :5 a body is 9 motion1 x *anges its position )9 ! in/ant4 ,to ?is view ,z5o long ago made ! fatal retort t e body always is :]e x is2 b a retort s simple & brief 0 n ( ! k9d to :i* philosoph]s are accu/om$ to give weight1 & !y h cont9u$ d[n to our own day to repeat ! same phrases :i* r\s$ ! ,eleatic's de/ructive ard\r4 ,x 0 only rec5tly t x became possible to expla9 motion 9 detail 9 accordance ) ,z5o's platitude1 & 9 opposition to ! philosoph]'s p>adox4 ,we may n[ at la/ indulge ! com=table belief t a body 9 motion is j z truly :]e x is z a body at re/4 ,motion consi/s m]ely 9 ! fact t bodies are sometimes 9 "o place & sometimes 9 ano!r1 & t !y are at int]m$iate places at int]m$iate times4 ,only ^? :o h wad$ ?r\gh ! quagmire ( philosophic speculation on ?is subject c realise :at a lib]ation f antique prejudices is involv$ 9 ?is simple & /raight=w>d commonplace4 ,! philosophy ( ! inf9itesimal1 z we h j se51 is ma9ly negative4 ,p us$ to believe 9 x1 & n[ !y h f\nd out _! mi/ake4 ,! philosophy ( ! inf9ite1 on ! o!r h&1 is :olly positive4 ,x 0 =m]ly suppos$ t inf9ite numb]s1 & ! ma!matical inf9ite g5]ally1 7 self-contradictory4 ,b z x 0 obvi\s t !re 7 inf9ities--= example1 ! numb] ( numb]s--! contradictions ( inf9ity seem$ unavoidable1 & philosophy seem$ to h w&]$ into a cul-de-sac4 ,?is difficulty l$ to ,kant's ant9omies1 & h5ce1 m or less indirectly1 to mu* ( ,hegel's dialectic me?od4 ,almo/ all curr5t philosophy is upset by ! fact 7( :i* v few philosoph]s are z yet aw>e7 t all ! anci5t & respectable contradictions 9 ! notion ( ! inf9ite h be5 once = all dispos$ (4 ,! me?od by :i* ?is has be5 done is mo/ int]e/+ & in/ructive4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ?\gh p _h talk$ glibly ab\t inf9ity ev] s9ce ! beg9n+s ( ,greek ?\ght1 nobody _h ev] ?\ght ( ask+1 ,:at is inf9ity8 ,if any philosoph] _h be5 ask$ = a def9ition ( inf9ity1 he might h produc$ "s un9telligible rigm>ole1 b he w\ld c]ta9ly n h be5 able to give a def9ition t _h any mean+ at all4 ,tw5ty ye>s ago1 r\ghly speak+1 ,d$ek9d & ,cantor ask$ ?is "q1 &1 :at is m rem>kable1 !y answ]$ x4 ,!y f\nd1 t is to say1 a p]fectly precise def9ition ( an inf9ite numb] or an inf9ite collection ( ?+s4 ,?is 0 ! fir/ & p]haps ! greate/ /ep4 ,x !n rema9$ to exam9e ! suppos$ contradictions 9 ?is notion4 ,"h ,cantor proce$$ 9 ! only prop] way4 ,he took pairs ( contradictory propositions1 9 :i* bo? sides ( ! contradiction w\ld be usually reg>d$ z demon/rable1 & he /rictly exam9$ ! suppos$ pro(s4 ,he f\nd t all pro(s adv]se to inf9ity involv$ a c]ta9 pr9ciple1 at fir/ sight obvi\sly true1 b de/ructive1 9 its consequ5ces1 ( almo/ all ma!matics4 ,! pro(s fav\rable to inf9ity1 on ! o!r h&1 involv$ no pr9ciple t _h evil consequ5ces4 ,x ?us appe>$ t common s5se _h all[$ itself to be tak5 9 by a speci\s maxim1 & t1 :5 once ?is maxim 0 reject$1 all w5t well4 ,! maxim 9 "q is1 t if "o collection is "p ( ano!r1 ! "o :i* is a "p has few] t]ms ?an ! "o ( :i* x is a "p4 ,?is maxim is true ( f9ite numb]s4 ,= example1 ,engli%m5 are only "s among ,europeans1 & !re are few] ,engli%m5 ?an ,europeans4 ,b :5 we come to inf9ite numb]s1 ?is is no long] true4 ,?is breakd[n ( ! maxim gives u ! precise def9ition ( inf9ity4 ,a collection ( t]ms is inf9ite :5 x conta9s z p>ts o!r collections :i* h j z _m t]ms z x has4 ,if y c take away "s ( ! t]ms ( a collection1 )\t dim9i%+ ! numb] ( t]ms1 !n !re are an inf9ite numb] ( t]ms 9 ! collection4 ,= example1 !re are j z _m ev5 numb]s z !re are numb]s altoge!r1 s9ce e numb] c be d\bl$4 ,?is may be se5 by putt+ odd & ev5 numb]s toge!r 9 "o r[1 & ev5 numb]s alone 9 a r[ bel[3-- #a1 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 ad inf9itum4 #b1 #d1 #f1 #h1 #aj1 ad inf9itum4 ,!re are obvi\sly j z _m numb]s 9 ! r[ bel[ z 9 ! r[ above1 because !re is "o bel[ = ea* "o above4 ,?is prop]ty1 :i* 0 =m]ly ?\ght to be a contradiction1 is n[ trans=m$ into a h>mless def9ition ( inf9ity1 & %[s1 9 ! above case1 t ! numb] ( f9ite numb]s is inf9ite4 ,b ! un9itiat$ may wond] h[ x is possible to deal ) a numb] :i* _c be c\nt$4 ,x is impossible to c\nt up all ! numb]s1 "o by "o1 because1 h[ev] _m we may c\nt1 !re are always m to foll[4 ,! fact is t c\nt+ is a v vulg> & elem5t>y way ( f9d+ out h[ _m t]ms !re are 9 a collection4 ,& 9 any case1 c\nt+ gives u :at ma!maticians call ! ord9al numb] ( our t]ms2 t is to say1 x arranges our t]ms 9 an ord] or s]ies1 & its result tells u :at type ( s]ies results f ?is arrangem5t4 ,9 o!r words1 x is impossible to c\nt ?+s )\t c\nt+ "s fir/ & o!rs aft]w>ds1 s t c\nt+ always has to d ) ord]4 ,n[ :5 !re are only a f9ite numb] ( t]ms1 we c c\nt !m 9 any ord] we l2 b :5 !re are an inf9ite numb]1 :at corresponds to c\nt+ w give u q diff]5t results accord+ to ! way 9 :i* we c>ry out ! op]ation4 ,?us ! ord9al numb]1 :i* results f :at1 9 a g5]al s5se may be call$ c\nt+1 dep5ds n only ^u h[ _m t]ms we h1 b also 7:]e ! numb] ( t]ms is inf9ite7 ^u ! way 9 :i* ! t]ms are arrang$4 ,! fundam5tal inf9ite numb]s are n ord9al1 b are :at is call$ c>d9al4 ,!y are n obta9$ by putt+ our t]ms 9 ord] & c\nt+ !m1 b by a diff]5t me?od1 :i* tells u1 to beg9 )1 :e!r two collections h ! same numb] ( t]ms1 or1 if n1 :i* is ! great]4#ad ,x does n tell u1 9 ! way 9 :i* c\nt+ does1 :at numb] ( t]ms a collection has2 b if we def9e a numb] z ! numb] ( t]ms 9 su* & su* a collection1 !n ?is me?od enables u to discov] :e!r "s o!r collection t may be m5tion$ has m or few] t]ms4 ,an illu/ration w %[ h[ ?is is done4 ,if !re exi/$ "s c\ntry 9 :i*1 = "o reason or ano!r1 x 0 impossible to take a c5sus1 b 9 :i* x 0 kn[n t e man _h a wife & e woman a husb&1 !n 7provid$ polygamy 0 n a national in/itution7 we %\ld "k1 )\t c\nt+1 t !re 7 exactly z _m m5 z !re 7 wom5 9 t c\ntry1 nei!r m nor less4 ,?is me?od c be appli$ g5]ally4 ,if !re is "s relation :i*1 l m>riage1 connects ! ?+s 9 "o collection ea* ) "o ( ! ?+s 9 ano!r collection1 & vice v]sa1 !n ! two collections h ! same numb] ( t]ms4 ,?is 0 ! way 9 :i* we f\nd t !re are z _m ev5 numb]s z !re are numb]s4 ,e numb] c be d\bl$1 & e ev5 numb] c be halv$1 & ea* process gives j "o numb] correspond+ to ! "o t is d\bl$ or halv$4 ,& 9 ?is way we c f9d any numb] ( collections ea* ( :i* has j z _m t]ms z !re are f9ite numb]s4 ,if e t]m ( a collection c be hook$ on to a numb]1 & all ! f9ite numb]s are us$ once1 & only once1 9 ! process1 !n our collection mu/ h j z _m t]ms z !re are f9ite numb]s4 ,?is is ! g5]al me?od by :i* ! numb]s ( inf9ite collections are def9$4 ,b x mu/ n be suppos$ t all inf9ite numb]s are equal4 ,on ! contr>y1 !re are inf9itely m inf9ite numb]s ?an f9ite ones4 ,!re are m ways ( arrang+ ! f9ite numb]s 9 diff]5t types ( s]ies ?an !re are f9ite numb]s4 ,!re are probably m po9ts 9 space & m mom5ts 9 "t ?an !re are f9ite numb]s4 ,!re are exactly z _m fractions z :ole numb]s1 al?\gh !re are an inf9ite numb] ( fractions betwe5 any two :ole numb]s4 ,b !re are m irrational numb]s ?an !re are :ole numb]s or fractions4 ,!re are probably exactly z _m po9ts 9 space z !re are irrational numb]s1 & exactly z _m po9ts on a l9e a million? ( an in* long z 9 ! :ole ( inf9ite space4 ,!re is a greate/ ( all inf9ite numb]s1 :i* is ! numb] ( ?+s altoge!r1 ( e sort & k9d4 ,x is obvi\s t !re _c be a great] numb] ?an ?is1 because1 if ev]y?+ has be5 tak51 !re is no?+ left to add4 ,cantor has a pro( t !re is no greate/ numb]1 & if ?is pro( 7 valid1 ! contradictions ( inf9ity w\ld reappe> 9 a sublimat$ =m4 ,b 9 ?is "o po9t1 ! ma/] has be5 guilty ( a v subtle fallacy1 :i* ,i hope to expla9 9 "s future "w4#ae ,we c n[ und]/& :y ,z5o believ$ t ,a*illes _c ov]take ! tortoise & :y z a matt] ( fact he c ov]take x4 ,we %all see t all ! p :o disagre$ ) ,z5o _h no "r to d s1 because !y all accept$ premises f :i* 8 conclusion foll[$4 ,! argum5t is ?is3 ,let ,a*illes & ! tortoise />t along a road at ! same "t1 ! tortoise 7z is only fair7 be+ all[$ a h&icap4 ,let ,a*illes g twice z fa/ z ! tortoise1 or t5 times or a hundr$ times z fa/4 ,!n he w nev] rea* ! tortoise4 ,= at e mom5t ! tortoise is some:]e & ,a*illes is some:]e2 & nei!r is ev] twice 9 ! same place :ile ! race is go+ on4 ,?us ! tortoise goes to j z _m places z ,a*illes does1 because ea* is 9 "o place at "o mom5t1 & 9 ano!r at any o!r mom5t4 ,b if ,a*illes 7 to cat* up ) ! tortoise1 ! places :]e ! tortoise w\ld h be5 w\ld be only "p ( ! places :]e ,a*illes w\ld h be54 ,"h1 we mu/ suppose1 ,z5o appeal$ to ! maxim t ! :ole has m t]ms ?an ! "p4#af ,?us if ,a*illes 7 to ov]take ! tortoise1 he w\ld h be5 9 m places ?an ! tortoise2 b we saw t he mu/1 9 any p]iod1 be 9 exactly z _m places z ! tortoise4 ,h5ce we inf] t he c nev] cat* ! tortoise4 ,?is argum5t is /rictly correct1 if we all[ ! axiom t ! :ole has m t]ms ?an ! "p4 ,z ! conclusion is absurd1 ! axiom mu/ be reject$1 & !n all goes well4 ,b !re is no good ^w to be said = ! philosoph]s ( ! pa/ two ?\s& ye>s & m1 :o h all all[$ ! axiom & d5i$ ! conclusion4 ,! ret5tion ( ?is axiom leads to absolute contradictions1 :ile its rejection leads only to oddities4 ,"s ( ^! oddities1 x mu/ be confess$1 are v odd4 ,"o ( !m1 :i* ,i call ! p>adox ( ,tri/ram ,%&y1 is ! conv]se ( ! ,a*illes1 & %[s t ! tortoise1 if y give him "t1 w g j z f> z ,a*illes4 ,tri/ram ,%&y1 z we "k1 employ$ two ye>s 9 *ronicl+ ! fir/ two days ( 8 life1 & lam5t$ t1 at ?is rate1 mat]ial w\ld accumulate fa/] ?an he c\ld deal ) x1 s t1 z ye>s w5t by1 he w\ld be f>!r & f>!r f ! end ( 8 hi/ory4 ,n[ ,i ma9ta9 t1 if he _h liv$ = ev]1 & _h n we>i$ ( 8 task1 !n1 ev5 if 8 life _h cont9u$ z ev5t fully z x began1 no "p ( 8 biography w\ld h rema9$ unwritt54 ,= consid]3 ! hundr$? day w be describ$ 9 ! hundr$? ye>1 ! ?\s&? 9 ! ?\s&? ye>1 & s on4 ,:atev] day we may *oose z s f> on t he _c hope to rea* x1 t day w be describ$ 9 ! correspond+ ye>4 ,?us any day t may be m5tion$ w be writt5 up soon] or lat]1 & !re=e no "p ( ! biography w rema9 p]man5tly unwritt54 ,?is p>adoxical b p]fectly true proposition dep5ds ^u ! fact t ! numb] ( days 9 all "t is no great] ?an ! numb] ( ye>s4 ,?us on ! subject ( inf9ity x is impossible to avoid conclusions :i* at fir/ sight appe> p>adoxical1 & ?is is ! reason :y s _m philosoph]s h suppos$ t !re 7 inh]5t contradictions 9 ! inf9ite4 ,b a little practice enables "o to grasp ! true pr9ciples ( ,cantor's doctr9e1 & to acquire new & bett] in/9cts z to ! true & ! false4 ,! oddities !n become no odd] ?an ! p at ! antipodes1 :o us$ to be ?\ght impossible because !y w\ld f9d x s inconv5i5t to /& on _! heads4 ,! solution ( ! problems conc]n+ inf9ity has enabl$ ,cantor to solve also ! problems ( cont9uity4 ,( ?is1 z ( inf9ity1 he has giv5 a p]fectly precise def9ition1 & has %[n t !re are no contradictions 9 ! notion s def9$4 ,b ?is subject is s te*nical t x is impossible to give any acc\nt ( x "h4 ,! notion ( cont9uity dep5ds ^u t ( ord]1 s9ce cont9uity is m]ely a p>ticul> type ( ord]4 ,ma!matics has1 9 mod]n times1 br\ght ord] into great] & great] prom95ce4 ,9 =m] days1 x 0 suppos$ 7& philosoph]s are /ill apt to suppose7 t quantity 0 ! fundam5tal notion ( ma!matics4 ,b n[adays1 quantity is bani%$ altoge!r1 except f "o little corn] ( ,geometry1 :ile ord] m & m reigns supreme4 ,! inve/igation ( diff]5t k9ds ( s]ies & _! relations is n[ a v l>ge "p ( ma!matics1 & x has be5 f\nd t ?is inve/igation c be conduct$ )\t any ref]5ce to quantity1 &1 = ! mo/ "p1 )\t any ref]5ce to numb]4 ,all types ( s]ies are capable ( =mal def9ition1 & _! prop]ties c be d$uc$ f ! pr9ciples ( symbolic logic by means ( ! ,algebra ( ,relatives4 ,! notion ( a limit1 :i* is fundam5tal 9 ! great] "p ( high] ma!matics1 us$ to be def9$ by means ( quantity1 z a t]m to :i* ! t]ms ( "s s]ies approximate z ne>ly z we please4 ,b n[adays ! limit is def9$ q diff]5tly1 & ! s]ies :i* x limits may n approximate to x at all4 ,?is improvem5t also is due to ,cantor1 & x is "o :i* has revolutionis$ ma!matics4 ,only ord] is n[ relevant to limits4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 ! smalle/ ( ! inf9ite integ]s is ! limit ( ! f9ite integ]s1 ?\gh all f9ite integ]s are at an inf9ite di/ance f x4 ,! /udy ( diff]5t types ( s]ies is a g5]al subject ( :i* ! /udy ( ord9al numb]s 7m5tion$ above7 is a special & v int]e/+ bran*4 ,b ! unavoidable te*nicalities ( ?is subject r5d] x impossible to expla9 to any b pr(ess$ ma!maticians4 ,geometry1 l ,ari?metic1 has be5 subsum$1 9 rec5t times1 "u ! g5]al /udy ( ord]4 ,x 0 =m]ly suppos$ t ,geometry 0 ! /udy ( ! nature ( ! space 9 :i* we live1 & accord+ly x 0 urg$1 by ^? :o held t :at exi/s c only be kn[n empirically1 t ,geometry %\ld really be reg>d$ z belong+ to appli$ ma!matics4 ,b x has gradually appe>$1 by ! increase ( non-,euclidean sy/ems1 t ,geometry ?r[s no m light ^u ! nature ( space ?an ,ari?metic ?r[s ^u ! population ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,geometry is a :ole collection ( d$uctive sci5ces bas$ on a correspond+ collection ( sets ( axioms4 ,"o set ( axioms is ,euclid's2 o!r equally good sets ( axioms lead to o!r results4 ,:e!r ,euclid's axioms are true1 is a "q z to :i* ! pure ma!matician is indiff]5t2 &1 :at is m1 x is a "q :i* x is !oretically impossible to answ] ) c]ta9ty 9 ! affirmative4 ,x might possibly be %[n1 by v c>eful measurem5ts1 t ,euclid's axioms are false2 b no measurem5ts c\ld ev] assure u 7ow+ to ! errors ( obs]vation7 t !y are exactly true4 ,?us ! geomet] leaves to ! man ( sci5ce to decide1 z be/ he may1 :at axioms are mo/ ne>ly true 9 ! actual _w4 ,! geomet] takes any set ( axioms t seem int]e/+1 & d$uces _! consequ5ces4 ,:at def9es ,geometry1 9 ?is s5se1 is t ! axioms mu/ give rise to a s]ies ( m ?an "o dim5sion4 ,& x is ?us t ,geometry becomes a dep>tm5t 9 ! /udy ( ord]4 ,9 ,geometry1 z 9 o!r p>ts ( ma!matics1 ,peano & 8 disciples h done "w ( ! v greate/ m]it z reg>ds pr9ciples4 ,=m]ly1 x 0 held by philosoph]s & ma!maticians alike t ! pro(s 9 ,geometry dep5d$ on ! figure2 n[adays1 ?is is kn[n to be false4 ,9 ! be/ books !re are no figures at all4 ,! reason+ proce$s by ! /rict rules ( =mal logic f a set ( axioms laid d[n to beg9 )4 ,if a figure is us$1 all sorts ( ?+s seem obvi\sly to foll[1 :i* no =mal reason+ c prove f ! explicit axioms1 & :i*1 z a matt] ( fact1 are only accept$ because !y are obvi\s4 ,by bani%+ ! figure1 x becomes possible to discov] all ! axioms t are ne$$2 & 9 ?is way all sorts ( possibilities1 :i* w\ld h o!rwise rema9$ undetect$1 are br\ght to light4 ,"o great advance1 f ! po9t ( view ( correctness1 has be5 made by introduc+ po9ts z !y are requir$1 & n />t+1 z 0 =m]ly done1 by assum+ ! :ole ( space4 ,?is me?od is due p>tly to ,peano1 p>tly to ano!r ,italian nam$ ,fano4 ,to ^? unaccu/om$ to x1 x has an air ( some:at wilful p$antry4 ,9 ?is way1 we beg9 ) ! foll[+ axioms3 7#a7 ,!re is a class ( entities call$ po9ts4 7#b7 ,!re is at lea/ "o po9t4 7#c7 ,if a be a po9t1 !re is at lea/ "o o!r po9t besides a4 ,!n we br+ 9 ! /raight l9e jo9+ two po9ts1 & beg9 aga9 ) 7#d71 namely1 on ! /raight l9e jo9+ a & b1 !re is at lea/ "o o!r po9t besides a & b4 7#e7 ,!re is at lea/ "o po9t n on ! l9e ab4 ,& s we g on1 till we h ! means ( obta9+ z _m po9ts z we require4 ,b ! ^w space1 z ,peano humor\sly rem>ks1 is "o = :i* ,geometry has no use at all4 ,! rigid me?ods employ$ by mod]n geomet]s h depos$ ,euclid f 8 p9nacle ( correctness4 ,x 0 ?\ght1 until rec5t times1 t1 z ,sir ,h5ry ,savile rem>k$ 9 #afba1 !re 7 only two blemi%es 9 ,euclid1 ! !ory ( p>allels & ! !ory ( proportion4 ,x is n[ kn[n t ^! are almo/ ! only po9ts 9 :i* ,euclid is free f blemi%4 ,c\ntless errors are involv$ 9 8 fir/ eight propositions4 ,t is to say1 n only is x d\btful :e!r 8 axioms are true1 :i* is a comp>atively trivial matt]1 b x is c]ta9 t 8 propositions d n foll[ f ! axioms :i* he enunciates4 ,a va/ly great] numb] ( axioms1 :i* ,euclid unconsci\sly employs1 are requir$ = ! pro( ( 8 propositions4 ,ev5 9 ! fir/ proposition ( all1 :]e he con/ructs an equilat]al triangle on a giv5 base1 he uses two circles :i* are assum$ to int]sect4 ,b no explicit axiom assures u t !y d s1 & 9 "s k9ds ( spaces !y d n always int]sect4 ,x is q d\btful :e!r our space belongs to "o ( ^! k9ds or n4 ,?us ,euclid fails entirely to prove 8 po9t 9 ! v fir/ proposition4 ,z he is c]ta9ly n an easy au?or1 & is t]ribly long-w9d$1 he has no long] any b an hi/orical int]e/4 ,"u ^! circum/ances1 x is no?+ less ?an a sc&al t he %\ld /ill be taught to boys 9 ,engl&4#ag ,a book %\ld h ei!r intelligibility or correctness2 to comb9e ! two is impossible1 b to lack bo? is to be unwor?y ( su* a place z ,euclid has occupi$ 9 education4 ,! mo/ rem>kable result ( mod]n me?ods 9 ma!matics is ! importance ( symbolic logic & ( rigid =malism4 ,ma!maticians1 "u ! influ5ce ( ,wei]/rass1 h %[n 9 mod]n times a c>e = accuracy1 & an av]sion to slip%od reason+1 su* z _h n be5 kn[n among !m previ\sly s9ce ! "t ( ! ,greeks4 ,! great inv5tions ( ! sev5te5? c5tury--,analytical ,geometry & ! ,inf9itesimal ,calculus--7 s fruitful 9 new results t ma!maticians _h nei!r "t nor incl9ation to exam9e _! f\ndations4 ,philosoph]s1 :o %\ld h tak5 up ! task1 _h too little ma!matical ability to inv5t ! new bran*es ( ma!matics :i* h n[ be5 f\nd necess>y = any adequate discussion4 ,?us ma!maticians 7 only awak5$ f _! dogmatic slumb]s :5 ,wei]/rass & 8 foll[]s %[$ t _m ( _! mo/ *]i%$ propositions are 9 g5]al false4 ,macaulay1 contra/+ ! c]ta9ty ( ma!matics ) ! unc]ta9ty ( philosophy1 asks :o ev] he>d ( a reaction aga9/ ,taylor's !orem8 ,if he _h liv$ n[1 he himself might h he>d ( su* a reaction1 = ?is is precisely "o ( ! !orems :i* mod]n inve/igations h ov]?r[n4 ,su* rude %ocks to ma!matical fai? h produc$ t love ( =malism :i* appe>s1 to ^? :o are ignorant ( its motive1 to be m]e outrage\s p$antry4 ,! pro( t all pure ma!matics1 includ+ ,geometry1 is no?+ b =mal logic1 is a fatal bl[ to ! ,kantian philosophy4 ,kant1 rightly p]ceiv+ t ,euclid's propositions c\ld n be d$uc$ f ,euclid's axioms )\t ! help ( ! figures1 inv5t$ a !ory ( k to acc\nt = ?is fact2 & x acc\nt$ s successfully t1 :5 ! fact is %[n to be a m]e defect 9 ,euclid1 & n a result ( ! nature ( geometrical reason+1 ,kant's !ory also has to be ab&on$4 ,! :ole doctr9e ( a priori intuitions1 by :i* ,kant expla9$ ! possibility ( pure ma!matics1 is :olly inapplicable to ma!matics 9 its pres5t =m4 ,! ,ari/otelian doctr9es ( ! s*oolm5 come ne>] 9 _s to ! doctr9es :i* mod]n ma!matics inspire2 b ! s*oolm5 7 hamp]$ by ! fact t _! =mal logic 0 v defective1 & t ! philosophical logic bas$ ^u ! syllogism %[$ a correspond+ n>r[ness4 ,:at is n[ requir$ is to give ! greate/ possible developm5t to ma!matical logic1 to all[ to ! full ! importance ( relations1 & !n to f\nd ^u ?is secure basis a new philosophical logic1 :i* may hope to borr[ "s ( ! exactitude & c]ta9ty ( its ma!matical f\ndation4 ,if ?is c be successfully accompli%$1 !re is e reason to hope t ! ne> future w be z great an epo* 9 pure philosophy z ! imm$iate pa/ has be5 9 ! pr9ciples ( ma!matics4 ,great triumphs inspire great hopes2 & pure ?\ght may a*ieve1 )9 our g5]ation1 su* results z w place our "t1 9 ?is respect1 on a level ) ! greate/ age ( ,greece4#ah ,,footnotes3 #aa ,?is subject is due 9 ! ma9 to ,mr4 ,c4,s4 ,peirce4 #ab ,i ought to h add$ ,frege1 b 8 writ+s 7 unkn[n to me :5 ?is article 0 writt54 ,note add$ 9 #aiag4 #ac ,pr(essor ( ,ma!matics 9 ! ,univ]sity ( ,b]l94 ,he di$ 9 #ahig4 #ad ,note add$ 9 #aiag4 ,al?\gh "s inf9ite numb]s are great] ?an "s o!rs1 x _c be prov$ t ( any two inf9ite numb]s "o mu/ be ! great]4 #ae ,cantor 0 n guilty ( a fallacy on ?is po9t4 ,8 pro( t !re is no greate/ numb] is valid4 ,! solution ( ! puzzle is complicat$ & dep5ds ^u ! !ory ( types1 :i* is expla9$ 9 ,pr9cipia ,ma!matica1 ,vol4 ,i 7,camb4 ,univ4 ,press1 #aiaj74 ,note add$ 9 #aiag4 #af ,?is mu/ n be reg>d$ z a hi/orically correct acc\nt ( :at ,z5o actually _h 9 m9d4 ,x is a new argum5t = 8 conclusion1 n ! argum5t :i* influ5c$ him4 ,on ?is po9t1 see e4g4 ,c4,d4 ,broad1 ,note on ,a*illes & ! ,tortoise1 ,m9d1 ,n4,s41 ,vol4 ,,xxii1 pp4 #cah-ai4 ,mu* valuable "w on ! int]pretation ( ,z5o has be5 done s9ce ?is article 0 writt54 ,note add$ 9 #aiag4 #ag ,s9ce ! above 0 writt51 he has ceas$ to be us$ z a textbook4 ,b ,i fe> _m ( ! books n[ us$ are s bad t ! *ange is no great improvem5t4 ,note add$ 9 #aiag4 #ah ,! greate/ age ( ,greece 0 br\ght to an end by ! ,peloponnesian ,w>4 ,note add$ 9 #aiag4 ,,vi ,,on ,,sci5tific ,,me?od ,,9 ,,philosophy ,:5 we try to asc]ta9 ! motives :i* h l$ m5 to ! inve/igation ( philosophical que/ions1 we f9d t1 broadly speak+1 !y c be divid$ into two gr\ps1 (t5 antagoni/ic1 & lead+ to v div]g5t sy/ems4 ,^! two gr\ps ( motives are1 on ! "o h&1 ^? d]iv$ f religion & e?ics1 &1 on ! o!r h&1 ^? d]iv$ f sci5ce4 ,plato1 ,sp9oza1 & ,hegel may be tak5 z typical ( ! philosoph]s ^: int]e/s are ma9ly religi\s & e?ical1 :ile ,leibniz1 ,locke1 & ,hume may be tak5 z repres5tatives ( ! sci5tific w+4 ,9 ,ari/otle1 ,desc>tes1 ,b]keley1 & ,kant we f9d bo? gr\ps ( motives /rongly pres5t4 ,h]b]t ,sp5c]1 9 ^: hon\r we are assembl$ to-day1 w\ld naturally be class$ among sci5tific philosoph]s3 x 0 ma9ly f sci5ce t he drew 8 data1 8 =mulation ( problems1 & 8 conception ( me?od4 ,b 8 /rong religi\s s5se is obvi\s 9 mu* ( 8 writ+1 & 8 e?ical pre-occupations are :at make him value ! conception ( evolution--t conception 9 :i*1 z a :ole g5]ation has believ$1 sci5ce & morals are to be unit$ 9 fruitful & indissoluble m>riage4 ,x is my belief t ! e?ical & religi\s motives 9 spite ( ! spl5didly imag9ative sy/ems to :i* !y h giv5 rise1 h be5 on ! :ole a h9drance to ! progress ( philosophy1 & ought n[ to be consci\sly ?ru/ aside by ^? :o wi% to discov] philosophical tru?4 ,sci5ce1 orig9ally1 0 entangl$ 9 simil> motives1 & 0 !reby h9d]$ 9 its advances4 ,x is1 ,i ma9ta91 f sci5ce1 r ?an f e?ics & religion1 t philosophy %\ld draw its inspiration4 ,b !re are two diff]5t ways 9 :i* a philosophy may seek to base itself ^u sci5ce4 ,x may emphasise ! mo/ g5]al results ( sci5ce1 & seek to give ev5 great] g5]ality & unity to ^! results4 ,or x may /udy ! me?ods ( sci5ce1 & seek to apply ^! me?ods1 ) ! necess>y adaptations1 to its own peculi> prov9ce4 ,mu* philosophy inspir$ by sci5ce has gone a/ray ?r\gh preoccupation ) ! results mom5t>ily suppos$ to h be5 a*iev$4 ,x is n results1 b me?ods t c be transf]r$ ) pr(it f ! sph]e ( ! special sci5ces to ! sph]e ( philosophy4 ,:at ,i wi% to br+ to y\r notice is ! possibility & importance ( apply+ to philosophical problems c]ta9 broad pr9ciples ( me?od :i* h be5 f\nd successful 9 ! /udy ( sci5tific que/ions4 ,! opposition betwe5 a philosophy guid$ by sci5tific me?od & a philosophy dom9at$ by religi\s & e?ical ideas may be illu/rat$ by two notions :i* are v preval5t 9 ! works ( philosoph]s1 namely ! notion ( ! univ]se1 & ! notion ( good & evil4 ,a philosoph] is expect$ to tell u some?+ ab\t ! nature ( ! univ]se z a :ole1 & to give gr\nds = ei!r optimism or pessimism4 ,bo? ^! expectations seem to me mi/ak54 ,i believe ! conception ( ! univ]se to be1 z its etymology indicates1 a m]e relic ( pre-,cop]nican a/ronomy3 & ,i believe ! "q ( optimism & pessimism to be "o :i* ! philosoph] w reg>d z outside 8 scope1 except1 possibly1 to ! ext5t ( ma9ta9+ t x is insoluble4 ,9 ! days be=e ,cop]nicus1 ! conception ( ! univ]se 0 def5sible on sci5tific gr\nds3 ! diurnal revolution ( ! heav5ly bodies b\nd !m toge!r z all p>ts ( "o sy/em1 ( :i* ! e>? 0 ! c5tre4 ,r\nd ?is app>5t sci5tific fact1 _m human desires ralli$3 ! wi% to believe ,man important 9 ! s*eme ( ?+s1 ! !oretical desire = a compreh5sive und]/&+ ( ! ,:ole1 ! hope t ! c\rse ( nature might be guid$ by "s sympa?y ) our wi%es4 ,9 ?is way1 an e?ically inspir$ sy/em ( metaphysics grew up1 ^: an?ropoc5trism 0 app>5tly w>rant$ by ! geoc5trism ( a/ronomy4 ,:5 ,cop]nicus swept away ! a/ronomical basis ( ?is sy/em ( ?\ght1 x _h gr[n s famili>1 & _h associat$ itself s intimately ) m5's aspirations1 t x surviv$ ) sc>cely dim9i%$ =ce--surviv$ ev5 ,kant's ,cop]nican revolution1 & is /ill n[ ! unconsci\s premiss ( mo/ metaphysical sy/ems4 ,! on5ess ( ! _w is an almo/ undiscuss$ po/ulate ( mo/ metaphysics4 ,reality is n m]ely "o & self-consi/5t1 b is a sy/em ( reciprocally det]m9ate p>ts#ai--su* a /atem5t w\ld pass almo/ unnotic$ z a m]e truism4 ,yet ,i believe t x embodies a failure to effect ?or\ghly ! ,cop]nican revolution1 & t ! app>5t on5ess ( ! _w is m]ely ! on5ess ( :at is se5 by a s+le spectator or appreh5d$ by a s+le m9d4 ,! ,critical ,philosophy1 al?\gh x int5d$ to emphasise ! subjective elem5t 9 _m app>5t *>act]i/ics ( ! _w1 yet1 by reg>d+ ! _w 9 itself z unkn[able1 s conc5trat$ att5tion ^u ! subjective repres5tation t its subjectivity 0 soon =gott54 ,hav+ recognis$ ! categories z ! "w ( ! m9d1 x 0 p>alys$ by its own recognition1 & ab&on$ 9 despair ! attempt to undo ! "w ( subjective falsification4 ,9 "p1 no d\bt1 its despair 0 well f\nd$1 b n1 ,i ?9k1 9 any absolute or ultimate s5se4 ,/ill less 0 x a gr\nd = rejoic+1 or = suppos+ t ! nesci5ce to :i* x ought to h giv5 rise c\ld be legitimately ex*ang$ = a metaphysical dogmatism4 ,i ,z reg>ds our pres5t "q1 namely1 ! "q ( ! unity ( ! _w1 ! "r me?od1 z ,i ?9k1 has be5 indicat$ by ,william ,james4#bj ,let u n[ turn our backs ^u ineffable or un9telligible ways ( acc\nt+ = ! _w's on5ess1 & inquire :e!r1 in/ead ( be+ a pr9ciple1 ! 'on5ess' affirm$ may n m]ely be a "n l 'sub/ance' descriptive ( ! fact t c]ta9 specific & v]ifiable connections are f\nd among ! p>ts ( ! exp]i5tial flux4444 ,we c easily conceive ( ?+s t %all h no connection :atev] ) ea* o!r4 ,we may assume !m to inhabit diff]5t times & spaces1 z ! dreams ( diff]5t p]sons d ev5 n[4 ,!y may be s unlike & incomm5surable1 & s in]t t[>ds "o ano!r1 z nev] to jo/le or int]f]e4 ,ev5 n[ !re may actually be :ole univ]ses s disp>ate f ours t we :o "k ours h no means ( p]ceiv+ t !y exi/4 ,we conceive _! div]sity1 h[ev]2 & by t fact ! :ole lot ( !m =m :at is kn[n 9 logic z 'a univ]se ( disc\rse4' ,to =m a univ]se ( disc\rse argues1 z ?is example %[s1 no fur!r k9d ( connexion4 ,! importance atta*$ by c]ta9 moni/ic writ]s to ! fact t any *aos may become a univ]se by m]ely be+ nam$1 is to me incompreh5sible4 ,we are ?us left ) two k9ds ( unity 9 ! exp]i5c$ _w2 ! "o :at we may call ! epi/emological unity1 due m]ely to ! fact t my exp]i5c$ _w is :at "o exp]i5ce selects f ! sum total ( exi/5ce3 ! o!r t t5tative & p>tial unity exhibit$ 9 ! preval5ce ( sci5tific laws 9 ^? portions ( ! _w :i* sci5ce has hi!rto ma/]$4 ,n[ a g5]alisation bas$ ^u ei!r ( ^! k9ds ( unity w\ld be fallaci\s4 ,t ! ?+s :i* we exp]i5ce h ! common prop]ty ( be+ exp]i5c$ by u is a truism f :i* obvi\sly no?+ ( importance c be d$ucible3 x is cle>ly fallaci\s to draw f ! fact t :atev] we exp]i5ce is exp]i5c$ ! conclusion t !re=e ev]y?+ mu/ be exp]i5c$4 ,! g5]alisation ( ! second k9d ( unity1 namely1 t d]iv$ f sci5tific laws1 w\ld be equally fallaci\s1 ?\gh ! fallacy is a trifle less elem5t>y4 ,9 ord] to expla9 x let u consid] = a mom5t :at is call$ ! reign ( law4 ,p (t5 speak z ?\gh x 7 a rem>kable fact t ! physical _w is subject to inv>iable laws4 ,9 fact1 h[ev]1 x is n easy to see h[ su* a _w c\ld fail to obey g5]al laws4 ,tak+ any arbitr>y set ( po9ts 9 space1 !re is a function ( ! "t correspond+ to ^! po9ts1 i4e4 express+ ! motion ( a p>ticle :i* trav]ses ^! po9ts3 ?is function may be reg>d$ z a g5]al law to :i* ! behavi\r ( su* a p>ticle is subject4 ,tak+ all su* functions = all ! p>ticles 9 ! univ]se1 !re w be !oretically "s "o =mula embrac+ !m all1 & ?is =mula may be reg>d$ z ! s+le & supreme law ( ! spatio-temporal _w4 ,?us :at is surpris+ 9 physics is n ! exi/5ce ( g5]al laws1 b _! extreme simplicity4 ,x is n ! uni=mity ( nature t %\ld surprise u1 =1 by suffici5t analytic +5uity1 any conceivable c\rse ( nature might be %[n to exhibit uni=mity4 ,:at %\ld surprise u is ! fact t ! uni=mity is simple en\gh = u to be able to discov] x4 ,b x is j ?is *>act]i/ic ( simplicity 9 ! laws ( nature hi!rto discov]$ :i* x w\ld be fallaci\s to g5]alise1 = x is obvi\s t simplicity has be5 a "p cause ( _! discov]y1 & c1 !re=e1 give no gr\nd = ! supposition t o!r undiscov]$ laws are equally simple4 ,! fallacies to :i* ^! two k9ds ( unity h giv5 rise sugge/ a caution z reg>ds all use 9 philosophy ( g5]al results t sci5ce is suppos$ to h a*iev$4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 9 g5]alis+ ^! results beyond pa/ exp]i5ce1 x is necess>y to exam9e v c>efully :e!r !re is n "s reason mak+ x m probable t ^! results %\ld hold ( all t has be5 exp]i5c$ ?an t !y %\ld hold ( ?+s univ]sally4 ,! sum total ( :at is exp]i5c$ by mank9d is a selection f ! sum total ( :at exi/s1 & any g5]al "* exhibit$ by ?is selection may be due to ! mann] ( select+ r ?an to ! g5]al "* ( t f :i* exp]i5ce selects4 ,9 ! second place1 ! mo/ g5]al results ( sci5ce are ! lea/ c]ta9 & ! mo/ liable to be upset by subsequ5t rese>*4 ,9 utiliz+ ^! results z ! basis ( a philosophy1 we sacrifice ! mo/ valuable & rem>kable *>act]i/ic ( sci5tific me?od1 namely1 t1 al?\gh almo/ ev]y?+ 9 sci5ce is f\nd soon] or lat] to require "s correction1 yet ?is correction is almo/ always su* z to leave unt\*$1 or only slightly modifi$1 ! great] "p ( ! results :i* h be5 d$uc$ f ! premiss subsequ5tly discov]$ to be faulty4 ,! prud5t man ( sci5ce acquires a c]ta9 in/9ct z to ! k9d ( uses :i* may be made ( pres5t sci5tific beliefs )\t incurr+ ! dang] ( complete & utt] refutation f ! modifications likely to be introduc$ by subsequ5t discov]ies4 ,un=tunately ! use ( sci5tific g5]alisations ( a sweep+ k9d z ! basis ( philosophy is j t k9d ( use :i* an in/9ct ( sci5tific caution w\ld avoid1 s9ce1 z a rule1 x w\ld only lead to true results if ! g5]alisation ^u :i* x is bas$ /ood 9 no ne$ ( correction4 ,we may illu/rate ^! g5]al consid]ations by means ( two examples1 namely1 ! cons]vation ( en]gy & ! pr9ciple ( evolution4 7#a7 ,let u beg9 ) ! cons]vation ( en]gy1 or1 z ,h]b]t ,sp5c] us$ to call x1 ! p]si/5ce ( =ce4 ,he says3#ba ,be=e tak+ a fir/ /ep 9 ! rational int]pretation ( ,evolution1 x is ne$ful to recognise1 n only ! facts t ,matt] is inde/ructible & ,motion cont9u\s1 b also ! fact t ,=ce p]si/s4 ,an attempt to assign ! causes ( ,evolution w\ld manife/ly be absurd if t ag5cy to :i* ! metamorphosis 9 g5]al & 9 detail is due1 c\ld ei!r come into exi/5ce or cease to exi/4 ,! succession ( ph5om5a w\ld 9 su* case be altoge!r arbitr>y1 & d$uctive ,sci5ce impossible4 ,?is p>agraph illu/rates ! k9d ( way 9 :i* ! philosoph] is tempt$ to give an air ( absolut5ess & necessity to empirical g5]alisations1 ( :i* only ! approximate tru? 9 ! regions hi!rto inve/igat$ c be gu>ante$ by ! unaid$ me?ods ( sci5ce4 ,x is v (t5 said t ! p]si/5ce ( some?+ or o!r is a necess>y presupposition ( all sci5tific inve/igation1 & ?is presupposition is !n ?\ght to be exemplifi$ 9 "s quantity :i* physics decl>es to be con/ant4 ,!re are "h1 z x seems to me1 ?ree di/9ct errors4 ,fir/1 ! detail$ sci5tific inve/igation ( nature does n presuppose any su* g5]al laws z its results are f\nd to v]ify4 ,ap>t f p>ticul> obs]vations1 sci5ce ne$ presuppose no?+ except ! g5]al pr9ciples ( logic1 & ^! pr9ciples are n laws ( nature1 = !y are m]ely hypo!tical1 & apply n only to ! actual _w b to :atev] is possible4 ,! second error consi/s 9 ! id5tification ( a con/ant quantity ) a p]si/5t entity4 ,en]gy is a c]ta9 function ( a physical sy/em1 b is n a ?+ or sub/ance p]si/+ ?r\gh\t ! *anges ( ! sy/em4 ,! same is true ( mass1 9 spite ( ! fact t mass has (t5 be5 def9$ z quantity ( matt]4 ,! :ole conception ( quantity1 involv+1 z x does1 num]ical measurem5t bas$ l>gely ^u conv5tions1 is f> m artificial1 f> m an embodim5t ( ma!matical conv5i5ce1 ?an is commonly believ$ by ^? :o philosophise on physics4 ,?us ev5 if 7:i* ,i _c = a mom5t admit7 ! p]si/5ce ( "s entity 7 among ! necess>y po/ulates ( sci5ce1 x w\ld be a %e] error to inf] f ?is ! con/ancy ( any physical quantity1 or ! a priori necessity ( any su* con/ancy :i* may be empirically discov]$4 ,9 ! ?ird place1 x has become m & m evid5t ) ! progress ( physics t l>ge g5]alisations1 su* z ! cons]vation ( en]gy or mass1 are f> f c]ta9 & are v likely only approximate4 ,mass1 :i* us$ to be reg>d$ z ! mo/ indubitable ( physical quantities1 is n[ g5]ally believ$ to v>y accord+ to velocity1 & to be1 9 fact1 a vector quantity :i* at a giv5 mom5t is diff]5t 9 diff]5t directions4 ,! detail$ conclusions d$uc$ f ! suppos$ con/ancy ( mass = su* motions z us$ to be /udi$ 9 physics w rema9 v ne>ly exact1 & !re=e ov] ! field ( ! old] inve/igations v little modification ( ! old] results is requir$4 ,b z soon z su* a pr9ciple z ! cons]vation ( mass or ( en]gy is erect$ into a univ]sal a priori law1 ! slighte/ failure 9 absolute exactness is fatal1 & ! :ole philosophic /ructure rais$ ^u ?is f\ndation is necess>ily ru9$4 ,! prud5t philosoph]1 !re=e1 ?\gh he may ) advantage /udy ! me?ods ( physics1 w be v *>y ( bas+ any?+ ^u :at happ5 at ! mom5t to be ! mo/ g5]al results app>5tly obta9$ by ^? me?ods4 7#b7 ,! philosophy ( evolution1 :i* 0 to be our second example1 illu/rates ! same t5d5cy to ha/y g5]alisation1 & also ano!r sort1 namely1 ! undue preoccupation ) e?ical notions4 ,!re are two k9ds ( evolutioni/ philosophy1 ( :i* bo? ,hegel & ,sp5c] repres5t ! old] & less radical k9d1 :ile ,pragmatism & ,b]gson repres5t ! m mod]n & revolution>y v>iety4 ,b bo? ^! sorts ( evolutionism h 9 common ! emphasis on progress1 t is1 ^u a cont9ual *ange f ! worse to ! bett]1 or f ! simpl] to ! m complex4 ,x w\ld be unfair to attribute to ,hegel any sci5tific motive or f\ndation1 b all ! o!r evolutioni/s1 includ+ ,hegel's mod]n disciples1 h d]iv$ _! impetus v l>gely f ! hi/ory ( biological developm5t4 ,to a philosophy :i* d]ives a law ( univ]sal progress f ?is hi/ory !re are two objections4 ,fir/1 t ?is hi/ory itself is conc]n$ ) a v small selection ( facts conf9$ to an inf9itesimal fragm5t ( space & "t1 & ev5 on sci5tific gr\nds probably n an av]age sample ( ev5ts 9 ! _w at l>ge4 ,= we "k t decay z well z gr[? is a normal occurr5ce 9 ! _w4 ,an extra-t]re/rial philosoph]1 :o _h wat*$ a s+le y\? up to ! age ( tw5ty-"o & _h nev] come across any o!r human be+1 might conclude t x is ! nature ( human be+s to gr[ cont9ually tall] & wis] 9 an indef9ite progress t[>ds p]fection2 & ?is g5]alisation w\ld be j z well f\nd$ z ! g5]alisation :i* evolutioni/s base ^u ! previ\s hi/ory ( ?is planet4 ,ap>t1 h[ev]1 f ?is sci5tific objection to evolutionism1 !re is ano!r1 d]iv$ f ! undue admixture ( e?ical notions 9 ! v idea ( progress f :i* evolutionism d]ives its *>m4 ,organic life1 we are told1 has develop$ gradually f ! protozoon to ! philosoph]1 & ?is developm5t1 we are assur$1 is indubitably an advance4 ,un=tunately x is ! philosoph]1 n ! protozoon1 :o gives u ?is assurance1 & we c h no security t ! imp>tial outsid] w\ld agree ) ! philosoph]'s self-complac5t assumption4 ,?is po9t has be5 illu/rat$ by ! philosoph] ,*uang ,tz7u 9 ! foll[+ in/ructive anecdote3 ,! ,gr& ,augur1 9 8 c]emonial robes1 approa*$ ! %ambles & ?us address$ ! pigs3 ',h[ c y object to die8 ,i %all fatt5 y = ?ree mon?s4 ,i %all discipl9e myself = t5 days & fa/ = ?ree4 ,i %all /rew f9e grass1 & place y bodily ^u a c>v$ sacrificial di%4 ,does n ?is satisfy y8' ,!n1 speak+ f ! pigs' po9t ( view1 he cont9u$3 ',x is bett]1 p]haps1 aft] all1 to live on bran & escape ! %ambles4444' ',b !n1' add$ he1 speak+ f 8 own po9t ( view1 'to enjoy hon\r :5 alive "o w\ld readily die on a w>-%ield or 9 ! headsman's basket4' ,s he reject$ ! pigs' po9t ( view & adopt$ 8 own po9t ( view4 ,9 :at s5se1 !n1 0 he diff]5t f ! pigs8 ,i mu* fe> t ! evolutioni/s too (t5 resemble ! ,gr& ,augur & ! pigs4 ,! e?ical elem5t :i* has be5 prom95t 9 _m ( ! mo/ fam\s sy/ems ( philosophy is1 9 my op9ion1 "o ( ! mo/ s]i\s ob/acles to ! victory ( sci5tific me?od 9 ! inve/igation ( philosophical que/ions4 ,human e?ical notions1 z ,*uang ,tz7u p]ceiv$1 are ess5tially an?ropoc5tric1 & involve1 :5 us$ 9 metaphysics1 an attempt1 h[ev] veil$1 to legislate = ! univ]se on ! basis ( ! pres5t desires ( m54 ,9 ?is way !y int]f]e ) t receptivity to fact :i* is ! ess5ce ( ! sci5tific attitude t[>ds ! _w4 ,to reg>d e?ical notions z a key to ! und]/&+ ( ! _w is ess5tially pre-,cop]nican4 ,x is to make man1 ) ! hopes & ideals :i* he happ5s to h at ! pres5t mom5t1 ! c5tre ( ! univ]se & ! int]pret] ( its suppos$ aims & purposes4 ,e?ical metaphysics is fundam5tally an attempt1 h[ev] disguis$1 to give legislative =ce to our own wi%es4 ,?is may1 ( c\rse1 be que/ion$1 b ,i ?9k t x is confirm$ by a consid]ation ( ! way 9 :i* e?ical notions arise4 ,e?ics is ess5tially a product ( ! greg>i\s in/9ct1 t is to say1 ( ! in/9ct to co-op]ate ) ^? :o are to =m our own gr\p aga9/ ^? :o belong to o!r gr\ps4 ,^? :o belong to our own gr\p are good2 ^? :o belong to ho/ile gr\ps are wick$4 ,! ends :i* are pursu$ by our own gr\p are desirable ends1 ! ends pursu$ by ho/ile gr\ps are nef>i\s4 ,! subjectivity ( ?is situation is n app>5t to ! greg>i\s animal1 :i* feels t ! g5]al pr9ciples ( ju/ice are on ! side ( its own h]d4 ,:5 ! animal has arriv$ at ! dignity ( ! metaphysician1 x inv5ts e?ics z ! embodim5t ( its belief 9 ! ju/ice ( its own h]d4 ,s ! ,gr& ,augur invokes e?ics z ! ju/ification ( ,augurs 9 _! conflicts ) pigs4 ,b1 x may be said1 ?is view ( e?ics takes no acc\nt ( su* truly e?ical notions z t ( self-sacrifice4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 w\ld be a mi/ake4 ,! success ( greg>i\s animals 9 ! /ruggle = exi/5ce dep5ds ^u co-op]ation )9 ! h]d1 & co-op]ation requires sacrifice1 to "s ext5t1 ( :at w\ld o!rwise be ! int]e/ ( ! individual4 ,h5ce arises a conflict ( desires & in/9cts1 s9ce bo? self-pres]vation & ! pres]vation ( ! h]d are biological ends to ! individual4 ,e?ics is 9 orig9 ! art ( recomm5d+ to o!rs ! sacrifices requir$ = co-op]ation ) oneself4 ,h5ce1 by reflexion1 x comes1 ?r\gh ! op]ation ( social ju/ice1 to recomm5d sacrifices by oneself1 b all e?ics1 h[ev] ref9$1 rema9s m or less subjective4 ,ev5 veget>ians d n hesitate1 = example1 to save ! life ( a man 9 a fev]1 al?\gh 9 do+ s !y de/roy ! lives ( _m millions ( microbes4 ,! view ( ! _w tak5 by ! philosophy d]iv$ f e?ical notions is ?us nev] imp>tial & !re=e nev] fully sci5tific4 ,z comp>$ ) sci5ce1 x fails to a*ieve ! imag9ative lib]ation f self :i* is necess>y to su* und]/&+ ( ! _w z man c hope to a*ieve1 & ! philosophy :i* x inspires is always m or less p>o*ial1 m or less infect$ ) ! prejudices ( a "t & a place4 ,i d n d5y ! importance or value1 )9 its own sph]e1 ( ! k9d ( philosophy :i* is inspir$ by e?ical notions4 ,! e?ical "w ( ,sp9oza1 = example1 appe>s to me ( ! v highe/ significance1 b :at is valuable 9 su* "w is n any metaphysical !ory z to ! nature ( ! _w to :i* x may give rise1 nor inde$ any?+ :i* c be prov$ or disprov$ by argum5t4 ,:at is valuable is ! indication ( "s new way ( feel+ t[>ds life & ! _w1 "s way ( feel+ by :i* our own exi/5ce c acquire m ( ! *>act]i/ics :i* we mu/ deeply desire4 ,! value ( su* "w1 h[ev] immeasurable x is1 belongs ) practice & n ) !ory4 ,su* !oretic importance z x may possess is only 9 relation to human nature1 n 9 relation to ! _w at l>ge4 ,! sci5tific philosophy1 !re=e1 :i* aims only at und]/&+ ! _w & n directly at any o!r improvem5t ( human life1 _c take acc\nt ( e?ical notions )\t be+ turn$ aside f t submission to fact :i* is ! ess5ce ( ! sci5tific temp]4 ,,ii ,if ! notion ( ! univ]se & ! notion ( good & evil are extrud$ f sci5tific philosophy1 x may be ask$ :at specific problems rema9 = ! philosoph] z oppos$ to ! man ( sci5ce8 ,x w\ld be difficult to give a precise answ] to ?is "q1 b c]ta9 *>act]i/ics may be not$ z di/+ui%+ ! prov9ce ( philosophy f t ( ! special sci5ces4 ,9 ! fir/ place a philosophical proposition mu/ be g5]al4 ,x mu/ n deal specially ) ?+s on ! surface ( ! e>?1 or ) ! sol> sy/em1 or ) any o!r portion ( space & "t4 ,x is ?is ne$ ( g5]ality :i* has l$ to ! belief t philosophy deals ) ! univ]se z a :ole4 ,i d n believe t ?is belief is ju/ifi$1 b ,i d believe t a philosophical proposition mu/ be applicable to ev]y?+ t exi/s or may exi/4 ,x might be suppos$ t ?is admission w\ld be sc>cely di/+ui%able f ! view :i* ,i wi% to reject4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 w\ld be an error1 & an important "o4 ,! traditional view w\ld make ! univ]se itself ! subject ( v>i\s pr$icates :i* c\ld n be appli$ to any p>ticul> ?+ 9 ! univ]se1 & ! ascription ( su* peculi> pr$icates to ! univ]se w\ld be ! special bus9ess ( philosophy4 ,i ma9ta91 on ! contr>y1 t !re are no propositions ( :i* ! univ]se is ! subject2 9 o!r words1 t !re is no su* ?+ z ! univ]se4 ,:at ,i d ma9ta9 is t !re are g5]al propositions :i* may be ass]t$ ( ea* individual ?+1 su* z ! propositions ( logic4 ,?is does n involve t all ! ?+s !re are =m a :ole :i* c\ld be reg>d$ z ano!r ?+ & be made ! subject ( pr$icates4 ,x involves only ! ass]tion t !re are prop]ties :i* belong to ea* sep>ate ?+1 n t !re are prop]ties belong+ to ! :ole ( ?+s collectively4 ,! philosophy :i* ,i wi% to advocate may be call$ logical atomism or absolute pluralism1 because1 :ile ma9ta9+ t !re are _m ?+s1 x d5ies t !re is a :ole compos$ ( ^? ?+s4 ,we %all see1 !re=e1 t philosophical propositions1 in/ead ( be+ conc]n$ ) ! :ole ( ?+s collectively1 are conc]n$ ) all ?+s di/ributively2 & n only mu/ !y be conc]n$ ) all ?+s1 b !y mu/ be conc]n$ ) su* prop]ties ( all ?+s z d n dep5d ^u ! accid5tal nature ( ! ?+s t !re happ5 to be1 b are true ( any possible _w1 indep5d5tly ( su* facts z c only be discov]$ by our s5ses4 ,?is br+s u to a second *>act]i/ic ( philosophical propositions1 namely1 t !y mu/ be a priori4 ,a philosophical proposition mu/ be su* z c be nei!r prov$ nor disprov$ by empirical evid5ce4 ,too (t5 we f9d 9 philosophical books argum5ts bas$ ^u ! c\rse ( hi/ory1 or ! convolutions ( ! bra91 or ! eyes ( %ell-fi%4 ,special & accid5tal facts ( ?is k9d are irrelevant to philosophy1 :i* mu/ make only su* ass]tions z w\ld be equally true h[ev] ! actual _w 7 con/itut$4 ,we may sum up ^! two *>act]i/ics ( philosophical propositions by say+ t philosophy is ! sci5ce ( ! possible4 ,b ?is /atem5t unexpla9$ is liable to be mislead+1 s9ce x may be ?\ght t ! possible is some?+ o!r ?an ! g5]al1 :]eas 9 fact ! two are indi/+ui%able4 ,philosophy1 if :at has be5 said is correct1 becomes indi/+ui%able f logic z t ^w has n[ come to be us$4 ,! /udy ( logic consi/s1 broadly speak+1 ( two n v %>ply di/+ui%$ portions4 ,on ! "o h& x is conc]n$ ) ^? g5]al /atem5ts :i* c be made conc]n+ ev]y?+ )\t m5tion+ any "o ?+ or pr$icate or relation1 su* = example z if x is a memb] ( ! class alpha & e memb] ( alpha is a memb] ( beta1 !n x is a memb] ( ! class beta1 :atev] x1 alpha1 & beta may be4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x is conc]n$ ) ! analysis & enum]ation ( logical =ms1 i4e4 ) ! k9ds ( propositions t may occur1 ) ! v>i\s types ( facts1 & ) ! classification ( ! con/itu5ts ( facts4 ,9 ?is way logic provides an inv5tory ( possibilities1 a rep]tory ( ab/ractly t5able hypo!ses4 ,x might be ?\ght t su* a /udy w\ld be too vague & too g5]al to be ( any v great importance1 & t1 if its problems became at any po9t suffici5tly def9ite1 !y w\ld be m]g$ 9 ! problems ( "s special sci5ce4 ,x appe>s1 h[ev]1 t ?is is n ! case4 ,9 "s problems1 = example1 ! analysis ( space & "t1 ! nature ( p]ception1 or ! !ory ( judgm5t1 ! discov]y ( ! logical =m ( ! facts involv$ is ! h>de/ "p ( ! "w & ! "p ^: p]=mance has be5 mo/ lack+ hi!rto4 ,x is *iefly = want ( ! "r logical hypo!sis t su* problems h hi!rto be5 treat$ 9 su* an unsatisfactory mann]1 & h giv5 rise to ^? contradictions or ant9omies 9 :i* ! enemies ( reason among philosoph]s h at all times delight$4 ,by conc5trat+ att5tion ^u ! inve/igation ( logical =ms1 x becomes possible at la/ = philosophy to deal ) its problems piecemeal1 & to obta91 z ! sci5ces d1 su* p>tial & probably n :olly correct results z subsequ5t inve/igation c utilise ev5 :ile x supplem5ts & improves !m4 ,mo/ philosophies hi!rto h be5 con/ruct$ all 9 "o block1 9 su* a way t1 if !y 7 n :olly correct1 !y 7 :olly incorrect1 & c\ld n be us$ z a basis = fur!r inve/igations4 ,x is *iefly ow+ to ?is fact t philosophy1 unlike sci5ce1 has hi!rto be5 unprogressive1 because ea* orig9al philosoph] has _h to beg9 ! "w aga9 f ! beg9n+1 )\t be+ able to accept any?+ def9ite f ! "w ( 8 pr$ecessors4 ,a sci5tific philosophy su* z ,i wi% to recomm5d w be piecemeal & t5tative l o!r sci5ces2 above all1 x w be able to inv5t hypo!ses :i*1 ev5 if !y are n :olly true1 w yet rema9 fruitful aft] ! necess>y corrections h be5 made4 ,?is possibility ( successive approximations to ! tru? is1 m ?an any?+ else1 ! s\rce ( ! triumphs ( sci5ce1 & to transf] ?is possibility to philosophy is to ensure a progress 9 me?od ^: importance x w\ld be almo/ impossible to exagg]ate4 ,! ess5ce ( philosophy z ?us conceiv$ is analysis1 n syn!sis4 ,to build up sy/ems ( ! _w1 l ,he9e's ,g]man pr(essor :o knit toge!r fragm5ts ( life & made an intelligible sy/em out ( !m1 is n1 ,i believe1 any m feasible ?an ! discov]y ( ! philosoph]'s /one4 ,:at is feasible is ! und]/&+ ( g5]al =ms1 & ! division ( traditional problems into a numb] ( sep>ate & less baffl+ que/ions4 ,divide & conqu] is ! maxim ( success "h z else:]e4 ,let u illu/rate ^! some:at g5]al maxims by exam9+ _! application to ! philosophy ( space1 = x is only 9 application t ! mean+ or importance ( a me?od c be und]/ood4 ,suppose we are confront$ ) ! problem ( space z pres5t$ 9 ,kant's ,transc5d5tal /hetic1 & suppose we wi% to discov] :at are ! elem5ts ( ! problem & :at hope !re is ( obta9+ a solution ( !m4 ,x w soon appe> t ?ree entirely di/9ct problems1 belong+ to diff]5t /udies1 & requir+ diff]5t me?ods = _! solution1 h be5 confus$ly comb9$ 9 ! suppos$ s+le problem ) :i* ,kant is conc]n$4 ,!re is a problem ( logic1 a problem ( physics1 & a problem ( !ory ( k4 ,( ^! ?ree1 ! problem ( logic c be solv$ exactly & p]fectly2 ! problem ( physics c probably be solv$ ) z great a degree ( c]ta9ty & z great an approa* to exactness z c be hop$ 9 an empirical region2 ! problem ( !ory ( k1 h[ev]1 rema9s v obscure & v difficult to deal )4 ,let u see h[ ^! ?ree problems arise4 7#a7 ,! logical problem has aris5 ?r\gh ! sugge/ions ( non-,euclidean geometry4 ,giv5 a body ( geometrical propositions1 x is n difficult to f9d a m9imum /atem5t ( ! axioms f :i* ?is body ( propositions c be d$uc$4 ,x is also n difficult1 by dropp+ or alt]+ "s ( ^! axioms1 to obta9 a m g5]al or a diff]5t geometry1 hav+1 f ! po9t ( view ( pure ma!matics1 ! same logical coh]5ce & ! same title to respect z ! m famili> ,euclidean geometry4 ,! ,euclidean geometry itself is true p]haps ( actual space 7?\gh ?is is d\btful71 b c]ta9ly ( an inf9ite numb] ( purely ari?metical sy/ems1 ea* ( :i*1 f ! po9t ( view ( ab/ract logic1 has an equal & indefeasible "r to be call$ a ,euclidean space4 ,?us space z an object ( logical or ma!matical /udy loses its uniqu5ess2 n only are !re _m k9ds ( spaces1 b !re are an inf9ity ( examples ( ea* k9d1 ?\gh x is difficult to f9d any k9d ( :i* ! space ( physics may be an example1 & x is impossible to f9d any k9d ( :i* ! space ( physics is c]ta9ly an example4 ,z an illu/ration ( "o possible logical sy/em ( geometry we may consid] all relations ( ?ree t]ms :i* are analog\s 9 c]ta9 =mal respects to ! relation betwe5 z x appe>s to be 9 actual space4 ,a space is !n def9$ by means ( "o su* ?ree-t]m relation4 ,! po9ts ( ! space are all ! t]ms :i* h ?is relation to some?+ or o!r1 & _! ord] 9 ! space 9 "q is det]m9$ by ?is relation4 ,! po9ts ( "o space are necess>ily also po9ts ( o!r spaces1 s9ce !re are necess>ily o!r ?ree-t]m relations hav+ ^? same po9ts = _! field4 ,! space 9 fact is n det]m9$ by ! class ( its po9ts1 b by ! ord]+ ?ree-t]m relation4 ,:5 en\gh ab/ract logical prop]ties ( su* relations h be5 enum]at$ to det]m9e ! result+ k9d ( geometry1 say1 = example1 ,euclidean geometry1 x becomes unnecess>y = ! pure geomet] 9 8 ab/ract capacity to di/+ui% betwe5 ! v>i\s relations :i* h all ^! prop]ties4 ,he consid]s ! :ole class ( su* relations1 n any s+le "o among !m4 ,?us 9 /udy+ a giv5 k9d ( geometry ! pure ma!matician is /udy+ a c]ta9 class ( relations def9$ by means ( c]ta9 ab/ract logical prop]ties :i* take ! place ( :at us$ to be call$ axioms4 ,! nature ( geometrical reason+ !re=e is purely d$uctive & purely logical2 if any special epi/emological peculi>ities are to be f\nd 9 geometry1 x mu/ n be 9 ! reason+1 b 9 our k conc]n+ ! axioms 9 "s giv5 space4 7#b7 ,! physical problem ( space is bo? m int]e/+ & m difficult ?an ! logical problem4 ,! physical problem may be /at$ z foll[s3 to f9d 9 ! physical _w1 or to con/ruct f physical mat]ials1 a space ( "o ( ! k9ds enum]at$ by ! logical treatm5t ( geometry4 ,?is problem d]ives its difficulty f ! attempt to accommodate to ! r\ghness & vagu5ess ( ! real _w "s sy/em possess+ ! logical cle>ness & exactitude ( pure ma!matics4 ,t ?is c be done ) a c]ta9 degree ( approximation is fairly evid5t ,if ,i see ?ree p ,a1 ,b1 & ,c sitt+ 9 a r[1 ,i become aw>e ( ! fact :i* may be express$ by say+ t ,b is betwe5 ,a & ,c r ?an t ,a is betwe5 ,b & ,c1 or ,c is betwe5 ,a & ,b4 ,?is relation ( betwe5 :i* is ?us p]ceiv$ to hold has "s ( ! ab/ract logical prop]ties ( ^? ?ree-t]m relations :i*1 we saw1 give rise to a geometry1 b its prop]ties fail to be exact1 & are n1 z empirically giv51 am5able to ! k9d ( treatm5t at :i* geometry aims4 ,9 ab/ract geometry we deal ) po9ts1 /raight l9es1 & planes2 b ! ?ree p ,a1 ,b1 & ,c :om ,i see sitt+ 9 a r[ are n exactly po9ts1 nor is ! r[ exactly a /raight l9e4 ,nev]!less physics1 :i* =mally assumes a space conta9+ po9ts1 /raight l9es1 & planes1 is f\nd empirically to give results applicable to ! s5sible _w4 ,x mu/ !re=e be possible to f9d an int]pretation ( ! po9ts1 /raight l9es1 & planes ( physics 9 t]ms ( physical data1 or at any rate 9 t]ms ( data toge!r ) su* hypo!tical additions z seem lea/ op5 to "q4 ,s9ce all data suff] f a lack ( ma!matical precision ?r\gh be+ ( a c]ta9 size & some:at vague 9 outl9e1 x is pla9 t if su* a notion z t ( a po9t is to f9d any application to empirical mat]ial1 ! po9t mu/ be nei!r a datum nor a hypo!tical addition to data1 b a con/ruction by means ( data ) _! hypo!tical additions4 ,x is obvi\s t any hypo!tical fill+ out ( data is less dubi\s & unsatisfactory :5 ! additions are closely analog\s to data ?an :5 !y are ( a radically diff]5t sort4 ,to assume1 = example1 t objects :i* we see cont9ue1 aft] we h turn$ away our eyes1 to be m or less analog\s to :at !y 7 :ile we 7 look+1 is a less viol5t assumption ?an to assume t su* objects are compos$ ( an inf9ite numb] ( ma!matical po9ts4 ,h5ce 9 ! physical /udy ( ! geometry ( physical space1 po9ts mu/ n be assum$ ab initio z !y are 9 ! logical treatm5t ( geometry1 b mu/ be con/ruct$ z sy/ems compos$ ( data & hypo!tical analogues ( data4 ,we are ?us l$ naturally to def9e a physical po9t z a c]ta9 class ( ^? objects :i* are ! ultimate con/itu5ts ( ! physical _w4 ,x w be ! class ( all ^? objects :i*1 z "o w\ld naturally say1 conta9 ! po9t4 ,to secure a def9ition giv+ ?is result1 )\t previ\sly assum+ t physical objects are compos$ ( po9ts1 is an agreeable problem 9 ma!matical logic4 ,! solution ( ?is problem & ! p]ception ( its importance are due to my fri5d ,dr4 ,:itehead4 ,! oddity ( reg>d+ a po9t z a class ( physical entities we>s (f ) famili>ity1 & ought 9 any case n to be felt by ^? :o ma9ta91 z practically e "o does1 t po9ts are ma!matical fictions4 ,! ^w fiction is us$ glibly 9 su* connexions by _m m5 :o seem n to feel ! necessity ( expla9+ h[ x c come ab\t t a fiction c be s useful 9 ! /udy ( ! actual _w z ! po9ts ( ma!matical physics h be5 f\nd to be4 ,by our def9ition1 :i* reg>ds a po9t z a class ( physical objects1 x is expla9$ bo? h[ ! use ( po9ts c lead to important physical results1 & h[ we c nev]!less avoid ! assumption t po9ts are !mselves entities 9 ! physical _w4 ,_m ( ! ma!matically conv5i5t prop]ties ( ab/ract logical spaces _c be ei!r kn[n to belong or kn[n n to belong to ! space ( physics4 ,su* are all ! prop]ties connect$ ) cont9uity4 ,= to "k t actual space has ^! prop]ties w\ld require an inf9ite exactness ( s5se-p]ception4 ,if actual space is cont9u\s1 !re are nev]!less _m possible non-cont9u\s spaces :i* w be empirically indi/+ui%able f x2 &1 conv]sely1 actual space may be non-cont9u\s & yet empirically indi/+ui%able f a possible cont9u\s space4 ,cont9uity1 !re=e1 ?\gh obta9able 9 ! a priori region ( ari?metic1 is n ) c]ta9ty obta9able 9 ! space or "t ( ! physical _w3 :e!r ^! are cont9u\s or n w\ld seem to be a "q n only unansw]$ b = ev] unansw]able4 ,f ! po9t ( view ( philosophy1 h[ev]1 ! discov]y t a "q is unansw]able is z complete an answ] z any t c\ld possibly be obta9$4 ,& f ! po9t ( view ( physics1 :]e no empirical means ( di/9ction c be f\nd1 !re c be no empirical objection to ! ma!matically simple/ assumption1 :i* is t ( cont9uity4 ,! subject ( ! physical !ory ( space is a v l>ge "o1 hi!rto little explor$4 ,x is associat$ ) a simil> !ory ( "t1 & bo? h be5 =c$ ^u ! att5tion ( philosophically m9d$ physici/s by ! discussions :i* h rag$ conc]n+ ! !ory ( relativity4 7#c7 ,! problem ) :i* ,kant is conc]n$ 9 ! ,transc5d5tal /hetic is prim>ily ! epi/emological problem3 ,h[ d we come to h k ( geometry a priori8 ,by ! di/9ction betwe5 ! logical & physical problems ( geometry1 ! be>+ & scope ( ?is "q are greatly alt]$4 ,our k ( pure geometry is a priori b is :olly logical4 ,our k ( physical geometry is syn!tic1 b is n a priori4 ,our k ( pure geometry is hypo!tical1 & does n enable u to ass]t1 = example1 t ! axiom ( p>allels is true 9 ! physical _w4 ,our k ( physical geometry1 :ile x does enable u to ass]t t ?is axiom is approximately v]ifi$1 does n1 ow+ to ! inevitable inexactitude ( obs]vation1 enable u to ass]t t x is v]ifi$ exactly4 ,?us1 ) ! sep>ation :i* we h made betwe5 pure geometry & ! geometry ( physics1 ! ,kantian problem collapses4 ,to ! "q1 ,h[ is syn!tic a priori k possible8 we c n[ reply1 at any rate s f> z geometry is conc]n$1 ,x is n possible1 if syn!tic means n d$ucible f logic alone4 ,our k ( geometry1 l ! re/ ( our k1 is d]iv$ p>tly f logic1 p>tly f s5se1 & ! peculi> position :i* 9 ,kant's day geometry appe>$ to occupy is se5 n[ to be a delusion4 ,!re are /ill "s philosoph]s1 x is true1 :o ma9ta9 t our k t ! axiom ( p>allels1 = example1 is true ( actual space1 is n to be acc\nt$ = empirically1 b is z ,kant ma9ta9$ d]iv$ f an a priori intuition4 ,?is position is n logically refutable1 b ,i ?9k x loses all plausibility z soon z we realise h[ complicat$ & d]ivative is ! notion ( physical space4 ,z we h se51 ! application ( geometry to ! physical _w 9 no way dem&s t !re %\ld really be po9ts & /raight l9es among physical entities4 ,! pr9ciple ( economy1 !re=e1 dem&s t we %\ld ab/a9 f assum+ ! exi/5ce ( po9ts & /raight l9es4 ,z soon1 h[ev]1 z we accept ! view t po9ts & /raight l9es are complicat$ con/ructions by means ( classes ( physical entities1 ! hypo!sis t we h an a priori intuition enabl+ u to "k :at happ5s to /raight l9es :5 !y are produc$ indef9itely becomes extremely /ra9$ & h>%2 nor d ,i ?9k t su* an hypo!sis w\ld ev] h aris5 9 ! m9d ( a philosoph] :o _h grasp$ ! nature ( physical space4 ,kant1 "u ! influ5ce ( ,newton1 adopt$1 ?\gh ) "s vacillation1 ! hypo!sis ( absolute space1 & ?is hypo!sis1 ?\gh logically unobjectionable1 is remov$ by ,occam's razor1 s9ce absolute space is an unnecess>y entity 9 ! explanation ( ! physical _w4 ,al?\gh1 !re=e1 we _c refute ! ,kantian !ory ( an a priori intuition1 we c remove its gr\nds "o by "o ?r\gh an analysis ( ! problem4 ,?us1 "h z 9 _m o!r philosophical que/ions1 ! analytic me?od1 :ile n capable ( arriv+ at a demon/rative result1 is nev]!less capable ( %[+ t all ! positive gr\nds 9 fav\r ( a c]ta9 !ory are fallaci\s & t a less unnatural !ory is capable ( acc\nt+ = ! facts4 ,ano!r "q by :i* ! capacity ( ! analytic me?od c be %[n is ! "q ( realism4 ,bo? ^? :o advocate & ^? :o combat realism seem to me to be f> f cle> z to ! nature ( ! problem :i* !y are discuss+4 ,if we ask3 ,are our objects ( p]ception real & are !y indep5d5t ( ! p]cipi5t8 x mu/ be suppos$ t we atta* "s mean+ to ! words real & indep5d5t1 & yet1 if ei!r side 9 ! controv]sy ( realism is ask$ to def9e ^! two words1 _! answ] is pretty sure to embody confusions su* z logical analysis w reveal4 ,let u beg9 ) ! ^w real4 ,!re c]ta9ly are objects ( p]ception1 & !re=e1 if ! "q :e!r ^! objects are real is to be a sub/antial "q1 !re mu/ be 9 ! _w two sorts ( objects1 namely1 ! real & ! unreal1 & yet ! unreal is suppos$ to be ess5tially :at !re is n4 ,! "q :at prop]ties mu/ belong to an object 9 ord] to make x real is "o to :i* an adequate answ] is seldom if ev] =?com+4 ,!re is ( c\rse ! ,hegelian answ]1 t ! real is ! self-consi/5t & t no?+ is self-consi/5t except ! ,:ole2 b ?is answ]1 true or false1 is n relevant 9 our pres5t discussion1 :i* moves on a l[] plane & is conc]n$ ) ! /atus ( objects ( p]ception among o!r objects ( equal fragm5t>9ess4 ,objects ( p]ception are contra/$1 9 ! discussions conc]n+ realism1 r ) psy*ical /ates on ! "o h& & matt] on ! o!r h& ?an ) ! all-inclusive :ole ( ?+s4 ,! "q we h !re=e to consid] is ! "q z to :at c be meant by assign+ reality to "s b n all ( ! entities t make up ! _w4 ,two elem5ts1 ,i ?9k1 make up :at is felt r ?an ?\ght :5 ! ^w reality is us$ 9 ?is s5se4 ,a ?+ is real if x p]si/s at times :5 x is n p]ceiv$2 or aga91 a ?+ is real :5 x is correlat$ ) o!r ?+s 9 a way :i* exp]i5ce has l$ u to expect4 ,x w be se5 t reality 9 ei!r ( ^! s5ses is by no means necess>y to a ?+1 & t 9 fact !re might be a :ole _w 9 :i* no?+ 0 real 9 ei!r ( ^! s5ses4 ,x might turn out t ! objects ( p]ception fail$ ( reality 9 "o or bo? ( ^! respects1 )\t its be+ 9 any way d$ucible t !y are n p>ts ( ! ext]nal _w ) :i* physics deals4 ,simil> rem>ks w apply to ! ^w indep5d5t4 ,mo/ ( ! associations ( ?is ^w are b\nd up ) ideas z to causation :i* x is n n[ possible to ma9ta94 ,a is indep5d5t ( ,b :5 ,b is n an indisp5sable "p ( ! cause ( ,a4 ,b :5 x is recognis$ t causation is no?+ m ?an correlation1 & t !re are correlations ( simultaneity z well z ( succession1 x becomes evid5t t !re is no uniqu5ess 9 a s]ies ( casual antec$5ts ( a giv5 ev5t1 b t1 at any po9t :]e !re is a correlation ( simultaneity1 we c pass f "o l9e ( antec$5ts to ano!r 9 ord] to obta9 a new s]ies ( causal antec$5ts4 ,x w be necess>y to specify ! causal law accord+ to :i* ! antec$5ts are to be consid]$4 ,i receiv$ a lett] ! o!r day f a correspond5t :o _h be5 puzzl$ by v>i\s philosophical que/ions4 ,aft] enum]at+ !m he says3 ,^! que/ions l$ me f ,bonn to ,/rassburg1 :]e ,i f\nd ,pr(essor ,simmel4 ,n[1 x w\ld be absurd to d5y t ^! que/ions caus$ 8 body to move f ,bonn to ,/rassburg1 & yet x mu/ be suppos$ t a set ( purely me*anical antec$5ts c\ld also be f\nd :i* w\ld acc\nt = ?is transf] ( matt] f "o place to ano!r4 ,ow+ to ?is plurality ( causal s]ies antec$5t to a giv5 ev5t1 ! notion ( ! cause becomes indef9ite1 & ! "q ( indep5d5ce becomes correspond+ly ambigu\s4 ,?us1 in/ead ( ask+ simply :e!r ,a is indep5d5t ( ,b1 we ought to ask :e!r !re is a s]ies det]m9$ by su* & su* causal laws lead+ f ,b to ,a4 ,?is po9t is important 9 connexion ) ! p>ticul> "q ( objects ( p]ception4 ,x may be t no objects q l ^? :i* we p]ceive ev] exi/ unp]ceiv$2 9 ?is case !re w be a causal law accord+ to :i* objects ( p]ception are n indep5d5t ( be+ p]ceiv$4 ,b ev5 if ?is be ! case1 x may nev]!less also happ5 t !re are purely physical causal laws det]m9+ ! occurr5ce ( objects :i* are p]ceiv$ by means ( o!r objects :i* p]haps are n p]ceiv$4 ,9 t case1 9 reg>d to su* causal laws objects ( p]ception w be indep5d5t ( be+ p]ceiv$4 ,?us ! "q :e!r objects ( p]ception are indep5d5t ( be+ p]ceiv$ is1 z x /&s1 indet]m9ate1 & ! answ] w be yes or no accord+ to ! me?od adopt$ ( mak+ x det]m9ate4 ,i believe t ?is confusion has borne a v l>ge "p 9 prolong+ ! controv]sies on ?is subject1 :i* might well h seem$ capable ( rema9+ = ev] undecid$4 ,! view :i* ,i %\ld wi% to advocate is t objects ( p]ception d n p]si/ un*ang$ at times :5 !y are n p]ceiv$1 al?\gh probably objects m or less resembl+ !m d exi/ at su* times2 t objects ( p]ception are "p1 & ! only empirically kn[able "p1 ( ! actual subject-matt] ( physics1 & are !mselves prop]ly to be call$ physical2 t purely physical laws exi/ det]m9+ ! "* & duration ( objects ( p]ception )\t any ref]5ce to ! fact t !y are p]ceiv$2 & t 9 ! e/abli%m5t ( su* laws ! propositions ( physics d n presuppose any propositions ( psy*ology or ev5 ! exi/5ce ( m9d4 ,i d n "k :e!r reali/s w\ld recognise su* a view z realism4 ,all t ,i %\ld claim = x is1 t x avoids difficulties :i* seem to me to beset bo? realism & idealism z hi!rto advocat$1 & t x avoids ! appeal :i* !y h made to ideas :i* logical analysis %[s to be ambigu\s4 ,a fur!r def5ce & elaboration ( ! positions :i* ,i advocate1 b = :i* "t is lack+ n[1 w be f\nd indicat$ 9 my book on ,our ,k ( ! ,ext]nal ,_w4#bb ,! adoption ( sci5tific me?od 9 philosophy1 if ,i am n mi/ak51 compels u to ab&on ! hope ( solv+ _m ( ! m ambiti\s & humanly int]e/+ problems ( traditional philosophy4 ,"s ( ^! x relegates1 ?\gh ) little expectation ( a successful solution1 to special sci5ces1 o!rs x %[s to be su* z our capacities are ess5tially incapable ( solv+4 ,b !re rema9 a l>ge numb] ( ! recognis$ problems ( philosophy 9 reg>d to :i* ! me?od advocat$ gives all ^? advantages ( division into di/9ct que/ions1 ( t5tative1 p>tial1 & progressive advance1 & ( appeal to pr9ciples ) :i*1 indep5d5tly ( temp]am5t1 all compet5t /ud5ts mu/ agree4 ,! failure ( philosophy hi!rto has be5 due 9 ! ma9 to ha/e & ambition3 pati5ce & mode/y1 "h z 9 o!r sci5ces1 w op5 ! road to solid & durable progress4 ,,footnotes3 #ai ,bosanquet1 ,logic1 ii1 p4 #baa4 #bj ,"s ,problems ( ,philosophy1 p #abd4 #ba ,fir/ ,pr9ciples 7#ahfb71 ,"p ,,ii1 beg9n+ ( *ap4 viii4 #bb ,op5 ,c\rt ,company1 #aiad4 ,,vii ,,! ,,ultimate ,,con/itu5ts ,,( ,,matt]#bc ,i wi% to discuss 9 ?is article no less a "q ?an ! anci5t metaphysical qu]y1 ,:at is matt]8 ,! "q1 ,:at is matt]8 9 s f> z x conc]ns philosophy1 is1 ,i ?9k1 already capable ( an answ] :i* 9 pr9ciple w be z complete z an answ] c hope to be2 t is to say1 we c sep>ate ! problem into an ess5tially soluble & an ess5tially insoluble portion1 & we c n[ see h[ to solve ! ess5tially soluble portion1 at lea/ z reg>ds its ma9 outl9es4 ,x is ^! outl9es :i* ,i wi% to sugge/ 9 ! pres5t article4 ,my ma9 position1 :i* is reali/ic1 is1 ,i hope & believe1 n remote f t ( ,pr(essor ,alex&]1 by ^: writ+s on ?is subject ,i h pr(it$ greatly4#bd ,x is also 9 close accord ) t ( ,dr4 ,nunn4#be ,common s5se is accu/om$ to ! division ( ! _w into m9d & matt]4 ,x is suppos$ by all :o h nev] /udi$ philosophy t ! di/9ction betwe5 m9d & matt] is p]fectly cle> & easy1 t ! two d n at any po9t ov]lap1 & t only a fool or a philosoph] c\ld be 9 d\bt z to :e!r any giv5 entity is m5tal or mat]ial4 ,?is simple fai? survives 9 ,desc>tes & 9 a some:at modifi$ =m 9 ,sp9oza1 b ) ,leibniz x beg9s to disappe>1 & f 8 day to our own almo/ e philosoph] ( note has criticis$ & reject$ ! dualism ( common s5se4 ,x is my int5tion 9 ?is article to def5d ?is dualism2 b be=e def5d+ x we mu/ sp5d a few mom5ts on ! reasons :i* h prompt$ its rejection4 ,our k ( ! mat]ial _w is obta9$ by means ( ! s5ses1 ( sight & t\* & s on4 ,at fir/ x is suppos$ t ?+s are j z !y seem1 b two opposite sophi/ications soon de/roy ?is nave belief4 ,on ! "o h& ! physici/s cut up matt] into molecules1 atoms1 corpuscles1 & z _m m su* subdivisions z _! future ne$s may make !m po/ulate1 & ! units at :i* !y arrive are uncommonly diff]5t f ! visible1 tangible objects ( daily life4 ,a unit ( matt] t5ds m & m to be some?+ l an electromagnetic field fill+ all space1 ?\gh hav+ its greate/ int5sity 9 a small region4 ,matt] consi/+ ( su* elem5ts is z remote f daily life z any metaphysical !ory4 ,x diff]s f ! !ories ( metaphysicians only 9 ! fact t its practical efficacy proves t x conta9s "s measure ( tru? & induces bus9ess m5 to inve/ money on ! /r5g? ( x2 b1 9 spite ( its connection ) ! money m>ket1 x rema9s a metaphysical !ory none ! less4 ,! second k9d ( sophi/ication to :i* ! _w ( common s5se has be5 subject$ is d]iv$ f ! psy*ologi/s & physiologi/s4 ,! physiologi/s po9t out t :at we see dep5ds ^u ! eye1 t :at we he> dep5ds ^u ! e>1 & t all our s5ses are liable to be affect$ by any?+ :i* affects ! bra91 l alcohol or ha%ee%4 ,psy*ologi/s po9t out h[ mu* ( :at we ?9k we see is suppli$ by association or unconsci\s inf]5ce1 h[ mu* is m5tal int]pretation1 & h[ d\btful is ! residuum :i* c be reg>d$ z crude datum4 ,f ^! facts x is argu$ by ! psy*ologi/s t ! notion ( a datum passively receiv$ by ! m9d is a delusion1 & x is argu$ by ! physiologi/s t ev5 if a pure datum ( s5se c\ld be obta9$ by ! analysis ( exp]i5ce1 /ill ?is datum c\ld n belong1 z common s5se supposes1 to ! out] _w1 s9ce its :ole nature is condition$ by our n]ves & s5se organs1 *ang+ z !y *ange 9 ways :i* x is ?\ght impossible to connect ) any *ange 9 ! matt] suppos$ to be p]ceiv$4 ,?is physiologi/'s argum5t is expos$ to ! rejo9d]1 m speci\s ?an solid1 t our k ( ! exi/5ce ( ! s5se organs & n]ves is obta9$ by t v process :i* ! physiologi/ has be5 engag$ 9 discr$it+1 s9ce ! exi/5ce ( ! n]ves & s5se organs is only kn[n ?r\gh ! evid5ce ( ! s5ses !mselves4 ,?is argum5t may prove t "s re9t]pretation ( ! results ( physiology is necess>y be=e !y c acquire metaphysical validity4 ,b x does n upset ! physiological argum5t 9 s f> z ?is con/itutes m]ely a r$uctio ad absurdum ( nave realism4 ,^! v>i\s l9es ( argum5t prove1 ,i ?9k1 t "s "p ( ! beliefs ( common s5se mu/ be ab&on$4 ,!y prove t1 if we take ^! beliefs z a :ole1 we are =c$ into conclusions :i* are 9 "p self-contradictory2 b su* argum5ts _c ( !mselves decide :at portion ( our common-s5se beliefs is 9 ne$ ( correction4 ,common s5se believes t :at we see is physical1 outside ! m9d1 & cont9u+ to exi/ if we %ut our eyes or turn !m 9 ano!r direction4 ,i believe t common s5se is "r 9 reg>d+ :at we see z physical & 79 "o ( sev]al possible s5ses7 outside ! m9d1 b is probably wrong 9 suppos+ t x cont9ues to exi/ :5 we are no long] look+ at x4 ,x seems to me t ! :ole discussion ( matt] has be5 obscur$ by two errors :i* support ea* o!r4 ,! fir/ ( ^! is ! error t :at we see1 or p]ceive ?r\gh any ( our o!r s5ses1 is subjective3 ! second is ! belief t :at is physical mu/ be p]si/5t4 ,:atev] physics may reg>d z ! ultimate con/itu5ts ( matt]1 x always supposes ^! con/itu5ts to be inde/ructible4 ,s9ce ! imm$iate data ( s5se are n inde/ructible b 9 a /ate ( p]petual flux1 x is argu$ t ^! data !mselves _c be among ! ultimate con/itu5ts ( matt]4 ,i believe ?is to be a %e] mi/ake4 ,! p]si/5t p>ticles ( ma!matical physics ,i reg>d z logical con/ructions1 symbolic fictions enabl+ u to express comp5di\sly v complicat$ assemblages ( facts2 &1 on ! o!r h&1 ,i believe t ! actual data 9 s5sation1 ! imm$iate objects ( sight or t\* or he>+1 are extra-m5tal1 purely physical1 & among ! ultimate con/itu5ts ( matt]4 ,my mean+ 9 reg>d to ! imp]man5ce ( physical entities may p]haps be made cle>] by ! use ( ,b]gson's fav\rite illu/ration ( ! c9ematograph4 ,:5 ,i fir/ read ,b]gson's /atem5t t ! ma!matician conceives ! _w aft] ! analogy ( a c9ematograph1 ,i _h nev] se5 a c9ematograph1 & my fir/ visit to "o 0 det]m9$ by ! desire to v]ify ,b]gson's /atem5t1 :i* ,i f\nd to be completely true1 at lea/ s f> z ,i am conc]n$4 ,:51 9 a picture palace1 we see a man roll+ d[n hill1 or runn+ away f ! police1 or fall+ into a riv]1 or do+ any ( ^? o!r ?+s to :i* m5 9 su* places are addict$1 we "k t !re is n really only "o man mov+1 b a succession ( films1 ea* ) a diff]5t mom5t>y man4 ,! illusion ( p]si/5ce arises only ?r\gh ! approa* to cont9uity 9 ! s]ies ( mom5t>y m54 ,n[ :at ,i wi% to sugge/ is t 9 ?is respect ! c9ema is a bett] metaphysician ?an common s5se1 physics1 or philosophy4 ,! real man too1 ,i believe1 h[ev] ! police may swe> to 8 id5tity1 is really a s]ies ( mom5t>y m51 ea* diff]5t "o f ! o!r1 & b\nd toge!r1 n by a num]ical id5tity1 b by cont9uity & c]ta9 intr9sic causal laws4 ,& :at applies to m5 applies equally to tables & *airs1 ! sun1 moon & />s4 ,ea* ( ^! is to be reg>d$1 n z "o s+le p]si/5t entity1 b z a s]ies ( entities succe$+ ea* o!r 9 "t1 ea* la/+ = a v brief p]iod1 ?\gh probably n = a m]e ma!matical in/ant4 ,9 say+ ?is ,i am only urg+ ! same k9d ( division 9 "t z we are accu/om$ to ackn[l$ge 9 ! case ( space4 ,a body :i* fills a cubic foot w be admitt$ to consi/ ( _m small] bodies1 ea* occupy+ only a v t9y volume2 simil>ly a ?+ :i* p]si/s = an h\r is to be reg>d$ z compos$ ( _m ?+s ( less duration4 ,a true !ory ( matt] requires a division ( ?+s into "t-corpuscles z well z into space-corpuscles4 ,! _w may be conceiv$ z consi/+ ( a multitude ( entities arrang$ 9 a c]ta9 patt]n4 ,! entities :i* are arrang$ ,i %all call p>ticul>s4 ,! arrangem5t or patt]n results f relations among p>ticul>s4 ,classes or s]ies ( p>ticul>s1 collect$ toge!r on acc\nt ( "s prop]ty :i* makes x conv5i5t to be able to speak ( !m z :oles1 are :at ,i call logical con/ructions or symbolic fictions4 ,! p>ticul>s are to be conceiv$1 n on ! analogy ( bricks 9 a build+1 b r on ! analogy ( notes 9 a symphony4 ,! ultimate con/itu5ts ( a symphony 7ap>t f relations7 are ! notes1 ea* ( :i* la/s only = a v %ort "t4 ,we may collect toge!r all ! notes play$ by "o in/rum5t3 ^! may be reg>d$ z ! analogues ( ! successive p>ticul>s :i* common s5se w\ld reg>d z successive /ates ( "o ?+4 ,b ! ?+ ought to be reg>d$ z no m real or sub/antial ?an1 = example1 ! rle ( ! trombone4 ,z soon z ?+s are conceiv$ 9 ?is mann] x w be f\nd t ! difficulties 9 ! way ( reg>d+ imm$iate objects ( s5se z physical h l>gely disappe>$4 ,:5 p ask1 ,is ! object ( s5se m5tal or physical8 !y seldom h any cle> idea ei!r :at is meant by m5tal or physical1 or :at crit]ia are to be appli$ = decid+ :e!r a giv5 entity belongs to "o class or ! o!r4 ,i d n "k h[ to give a %>p def9ition ( ! ^w m5tal1 b some?+ may be done by enum]at+ occurr5ces :i* are indubitably m5tal3 believ+1 d\bt+1 wi%+1 will+1 be+ pleas$ or pa9$1 are c]ta9ly m5tal occurr5ces2 s are :at we may call exp]i5ces1 see+1 he>+1 smell+1 p]ceiv+ g5]ally4 ,b x does n foll[ f ?is t :at is se51 :at is he>d1 :at is smelt1 :at is p]ceiv$1 mu/ be m5tal4 ,:5 ,i see a fla% ( lightn+1 my see+ ( x is m5tal1 b :at ,i see1 al?\gh x is n q ! same z :at anybody else sees at ! same mom5t1 & al?\gh x seems v unlike :at ! physici/ w\ld describe z a fla% ( lightn+1 is n m5tal4 ,i ma9ta91 9 fact1 t if ! physici/ c\ld describe truly & fully all t occurs 9 ! physical _w :5 !re is a fla% ( lightn+1 x w\ld conta9 z a con/itu5t :at ,i see1 & also :at is se5 by anybody else :o w\ld commonly be said to see ! same fla%4 ,:at ,i mean may p]haps be made pla9] by say+ t if my body c\ld rema9 9 exactly ! same /ate 9 :i* x is1 al?\gh my m9d _h ceas$ to exi/1 precisely t object :i* ,i n[ see :5 ,i see ! fla% w\ld exi/1 al?\gh ( c\rse ,i %\ld n see x1 s9ce my see+ is m5tal4 ,! pr9cipal reasons :i* h l$ p to reject ?is view h1 ,i ?9k1 be5 two3 fir/1 t !y did n adequately di/+ui% betwe5 my see+ & :at ,i see2 secondly1 t ! causal dep5d5ce ( :at ,i see ^u my body has made p suppose t :at ,i see _c be outside me4 ,! fir/ ( ^! reasons ne$ n deta9 u1 s9ce ! confusion only ne$s to be po9t$ out 9 ord] to be obviat$2 b ! second requires "s discussion1 s9ce x c only be answ]$ by remov+ curr5t misconceptions1 on ! "o h& z to ! nature ( space1 & on ! o!r1 z to ! mean+ ( causal dep5d5ce4 ,:5 p ask :e!r col\rs1 = example1 or o!r second>y qualities are inside or outside ! m9d1 !y seem to suppose t _! mean+ mu/ be cle>1 & t x ought to be possible to say yes or no )\t any fur!r discussion ( ! t]ms involv$4 ,9 fact1 h[ev]1 su* t]ms z inside or outside are v ambigu\s4 ,:at is meant by ask+ :e!r ?is or t is 9 ! m9d8 ,! m9d is n l a bag or a pie2 x does n occupy a c]ta9 region 9 space1 or1 if 79 a s5se7 x does1 :at is 9 t region is presumably "p ( ! bra91 :i* w\ld n be said to be 9 ! m9d4 ,:5 p say t s5sible qualities are 9 ! m9d1 !y d n mean spatially conta9$ 9 9 ! s5se 9 :i* ! blackbirds 7 9 ! pie4 ,we might reg>d ! m9d z an assemblage ( p>ticul>s1 namely1 :at w\ld be call$ /ates ( m9d1 :i* w\ld belong toge!r 9 virtue ( "s specific common quality4 ,! common quality ( all /ates ( m9d w\ld be ! quality designat$ by ! ^w m5tal2 & besides ?is we %\ld h to suppose t ea* sep>ate p]son's /ates ( m9d h "s common *>act]i/ic di/+ui%+ !m f ! /ates ( m9d ( o!r p4 ,ignor+ ?is latt] po9t1 let u ask ourselves :e!r ! quality designat$ by ! ^w m5tal does1 z a matt] ( obs]vation1 actually belong to objects ( s5se1 su* z col\rs or noises4 ,i ?9k any c&id p]son mu/ reply t1 h[ev] difficult x may be to "k :at we mean by m5tal1 x is n difficult to see t col\rs & noises are n m5tal 9 ! s5se ( hav+ t intr9sic peculi>ity :i* belongs to beliefs & wi%es & volitions1 b n to ! physical _w4 ,b]keley advances on ?is subject a plausible argum5t#bf :i* seems to me to re/ ^u an ambiguity 9 ! ^w pa94 ,he argues t ! reali/ supposes ! heat :i* he feels 9 approa*+ a fire to be some?+ outside 8 m9d1 b t z he approa*es ne>] & ne>] to ! fire ! s5sation ( heat passes imp]ceptibly into pa91 & t no "o c\ld reg>d pa9 z some?+ outside ! m9d4 ,9 reply to ?is argum5t1 x %\ld be obs]v$ 9 ! fir/ place t ! heat ( :i* we are imm$iately aw>e is n 9 ! fire b 9 our own body4 ,x is only by inf]5ce t ! fire is judg$ to be ! cause ( ! heat :i* we feel 9 our body4 ,9 ! second place 7& ?is is ! m important po9t71 :5 we speak ( pa9 we may mean "o ( two ?+s3 we may mean ! object ( ! s5sation or o!r exp]i5ce :i* has ! quality ( be+ pa9ful1 or we may mean ! quality ( pa9fulness itself4 ,:5 a man says he has a pa9 9 8 great toe1 :at he means is t he has a s5sation associat$ ) 8 great toe & hav+ ! quality ( pa9fulness4 ,! s5sation itself1 l e s5sation1 consi/s 9 exp]i5c+ a s5sible object1 & ! exp]i5c+ has t quality ( pa9fulness :i* only m5tal occurr5ces c h1 b :i* may belong to ?\ghts or desires1 z well z to s5sations4 ,b 9 common language we speak ( ! s5sible object exp]i5c$ 9 a pa9ful s5sation z a pa91 & x is ?is way ( speak+ :i* causes ! confusion ^u :i* ! plausibility ( ,b]keley's argum5t dep5ds4 ,x w\ld be absurd to attribute ! quality ( pa9fulness to any?+ non-m5tal1 & h5ce x comes to be ?\ght t :at we call a pa9 9 ! toe mu/ be m5tal4 ,9 fact1 h[ev]1 x is n ! s5sible object 9 su* a case :i* is pa9ful1 b ! s5sation1 t is to say1 ! exp]i5ce ( ! s5sible object4 ,z ! heat :i* we exp]i5ce f ! fire gr[s great]1 ! exp]i5ce passes gradually f be+ pleasant to be+ pa9ful1 b nei!r ! pleasure nor ! pa9 is a quality ( ! object exp]i5c$ z oppos$ to ! exp]i5ce1 & x is !re=e a fallacy to argue t ?is object mu/ be m5tal on ! gr\nd t pa9fulness c only be attribut$ to :at is m5tal4 ,if1 !n1 :5 we say t some?+ is 9 ! m9d we mean t x has a c]ta9 recognisable intr9sic *>act]i/ic su* z belongs to ?\ghts & desires1 x mu/ be ma9ta9$ on gr\nds ( imm$iate inspection t objects ( s5se are n 9 any m9d4 ,a diff]5t mean+ ( 9 ! m9d is1 h[ev]1 to be inf]r$ f ! argum5ts advanc$ by ^? :o reg>d s5sible objects z be+ 9 ! m9d4 ,! argum5ts us$ are1 9 ! ma91 su* z w\ld prove ! causal dep5d5ce ( objects ( s5se ^u ! p]cipi5t4 ,n[ ! notion ( causal dep5d5ce is v obscure & difficult1 mu* m s 9 fact ?an is g5]ally realis$ by philosoph]s4 ,i %all return to ?is po9t 9 a mom5t4 ,= ! pres5t1 h[ev]1 accept+ ! notion ( causal dep5d5ce )\t criticism1 ,i wi% to urge t ! dep5d5ce 9 "q is r ^u our bodies ?an ^u our m9ds4 ,! visual appe>ance ( an object is alt]$ if we %ut "o eye1 or squ9t1 or look previ\sly at some?+ dazzl+2 b all ^! are bodily acts1 & ! alt]ations :i* !y effect are to be expla9$ by physiology & optics1 n by psy*ology4#bg ,!y are 9 fact ( exactly ! same k9d z ! alt]ations effect$ by spectacles or a microscope4 ,!y belong !re=e to ! !ory ( ! physical _w1 & c h no be>+ ^u ! "q :e!r :at we see is causally dep5d5t ^u ! m9d4 ,:at !y d t5d to prove1 & :at ,i = my "p h no wi% to d5y1 is t :at we see is causally dep5d5t ^u our body & is n1 z crude common s5se w\ld suppose1 some?+ :i* w\ld exi/ equally if our eyes & n]ves & bra9 7 abs5t1 any m ?an ! visual appe>ance pres5t$ by an object se5 ?r\gh a microscope w\ld rema9 if ! microscope 7 remov$4 ,s long z x is suppos$ t ! physical _w is compos$ ( /able & m or less p]man5t con/itu5ts1 ! fact t :at we see is *ang$ by *anges 9 our body appe>s to af=d reason = reg>d+ :at we see z n an ultimate con/itu5t ( matt]4 ,b if x is recognis$ t ! ultimate con/itu5ts ( matt] are z circumscrib$ 9 duration z 9 spatial ext5t1 ! :ole ( ?is difficulty vani%es4 ,!re rema9s1 h[ev]1 ano!r difficulty1 connect$ ) space4 ,:5 we look at ! sun we wi% to "k some?+ ab\t ! sun itself1 :i* is n9ety-?ree million miles away2 b :at we see is dep5d5t ^u our eyes1 & x is difficult to suppose t our eyes c affect :at happ5s at a di/ance ( n9ety-?ree million miles4 ,physics tells u t c]ta9 electromagnetic waves />t f ! sun1 & rea* our eyes aft] ab\t eight m9utes4 ,!y !re produce di/urbances 9 ! rods & cones1 !nce 9 ! optic n]ve1 !nce 9 ! bra94 ,at ! end ( ?is purely physical s]ies1 by "s odd miracle1 comes ! exp]i5ce :i* we call see+ ! sun1 & x is su* exp]i5ces :i* =m ! :ole & sole reason = our belief 9 ! optic n]ve1 ! rods & cones1 ! n9ety-?ree million miles1 ! electromagnetic waves1 & ! sun itself4 ,x is ?is curi\s opposit5ess ( direction betwe5 ! ord] ( causation z affirm$ by physics1 & ! ord] ( evid5ce z reveal$ by !ory ( k1 t causes ! mo/ s]i\s p]plexities 9 reg>d to ! nature ( physical reality4 ,any?+ t invalidates our see+1 z a s\rce ( k conc]n+ physical reality1 invalidates also ! :ole ( physics & physiology4 ,& yet1 />t+ f a common-s5se acceptance ( our see+1 physics has be5 l$ /ep by /ep to ! con/ruction ( ! causal *a9 9 :i* our see+ is ! la/ l9k1 & ! imm$iate object :i* we see _c be reg>d$ z t initial cause :i* we believe to be n9ety-?ree million miles away1 & :i* we are incl9$ to reg>d z ! real sun4 ,i h /at$ ?is difficulty z =cibly z ,i c1 because ,i believe t x c only be answ]$ by a radical analysis & recon/ruction ( all ! conceptions ^u ^: employm5t x dep5ds4 ,space1 "t1 matt] & cause1 are ! *ief ( ^! conceptions4 ,let u beg9 ) ! conception ( cause4 ,causal dep5d5ce1 z ,i obs]v$ a mom5t ago1 is a conception :i* x is v dang]\s to accept at its face value4 ,!re exi/s a notion t 9 reg>d to any ev5t !re is some?+ :i* may be call$ ! cause ( t ev5t--"s "o def9ite occurr5ce1 )\t :i* ! ev5t w\ld h be5 impossible & ) :i* x becomes necess>y4 ,an ev5t is suppos$ to be dep5d5t ^u its cause 9 "s way :i* 9 x is n dep5d5t ^u o!r ?+s4 ,?us m5 w urge t ! m9d is dep5d5t ^u ! bra91 or1 ) equal plausibility1 t ! bra9 is dep5d5t ^u ! m9d4 ,x seems n improbable t if we _h suffici5t k we c\ld inf] ! /ate ( a man's m9d f ! /ate ( 8 bra91 or ! /ate ( 8 bra9 f ! /ate ( 8 m9d4 ,s long z ! usual conception ( causal dep5d5ce is reta9$1 ?is /ate ( affairs c be us$ by ! mat]iali/ to urge t ! /ate ( our bra9 causes our ?\ghts1 & by ! ideali/ to urge t our ?\ghts cause ! /ate ( our bra94 ,ei!r cont5tion is equally valid or equally invalid4 ,! fact seems to be t !re are _m correlations ( ! sort :i* may be call$ causal1 & t1 = example1 ei!r a physical or a m5tal ev5t c be pr$ict$1 !oretically1 ei!r f a suffici5t numb] ( physical antec$5ts or f a suffici5t numb] ( m5tal antec$5ts4 ,to speak ( ! cause ( an ev5t is !re=e mislead+4 ,any set ( antec$5ts f :i* ! ev5t c !oretically be inf]r$ by means ( correlations might be call$ a cause ( ! ev5t4 ,b to speak ( ! cause is to imply a uniqu5ess :i* does n exi/4 ,! relevance ( ?is to ! exp]i5ce :i* we call see+ ! sun is obvi\s4 ,! fact t !re exi/s a *a9 ( antec$5ts :i* makes our see+ dep5d5t ^u ! eyes & n]ves & bra9 does n ev5 t5d to %[ t !re is n ano!r *a9 ( antec$5ts 9 :i* ! eyes & n]ves & bra9 z physical ?+s are ignor$4 ,if we are to escape f ! dilemma :i* seem$ to arise out ( ! physiological causation ( :at we see :5 we say we see ! sun1 we mu/ f9d1 at lea/ 9 !ory1 a way ( /at+ causal laws = ! physical _w1 9 :i* ! units are n mat]ial ?+s1 su* z ! eyes & n]ves & bra91 b mom5t>y p>ticul>s ( ! same sort z our mom5t>y visual object :5 we look at ! sun4 ,! sun itself & ! eyes & n]ves & bra9 mu/ be reg>d$ z assemblages ( mom5t>y p>ticul>s4 ,in/ead ( suppos+1 z we naturally d :5 we />t f an uncritical acceptance ( ! app>5t dicta ( physics1 t matt] is :at is really real 9 ! physical _w1 & t ! imm$iate objects ( s5se are m]e phantasms1 we mu/ reg>d matt] z a logical con/ruction1 ( :i* ! con/itu5ts w be j su* evanesc5t p>ticul>s z may1 :5 an obs]v] happ5s to be pres5t1 become data ( s5se to t obs]v]4 ,:at physics reg>ds z ! sun ( eight m9utes ago w be a :ole assemblage ( p>ticul>s1 exi/+ at diff]5t times1 spread+ out f a c5tre ) ! velocity ( light1 & conta9+ among _! numb] all ^? visual data :i* are se5 by p :o are n[ look+ at ! sun4 ,?us ! sun ( eight m9utes ago is a class ( p>ticul>s1 & :at ,i see :5 ,i n[ look at ! sun is "o memb] ( ?is class4 ,! v>i\s p>ticul>s con/itut+ ?is class w be correlat$ ) ea* o!r by a c]ta9 cont9uity & c]ta9 intr9sic laws ( v>iation z we pass outw>ds f ! c5tre1 toge!r ) c]ta9 modifications correlat$ extr9sically ) o!r p>ticul>s :i* are n memb]s ( ?is class4 ,x is ^! extr9sic modifications :i* repres5t ! sort ( facts t1 9 our =m] acc\nt1 appe>$ z ! influ5ce ( ! eyes & n]ves 9 modify+ ! appe>ance ( ! sun4#bh ,! prima facie difficulties 9 ! way ( ?is view are *iefly d]iv$ f an unduly conv5tional !ory ( space4 ,x might seem at fir/ sight z if we _h pack$ ! _w mu* full] ?an x c\ld possibly hold4 ,at e place betwe5 u & ! sun1 we said1 !re is to be a p>ticul> :i* is to be a memb] ( ! sun z x 0 a few m9utes ago4 ,!re w also1 ( c\rse1 h to be a p>ticul> :i* is a memb] ( any planet or fix$ /> t may happ5 to be visible f t place4 ,at ! place :]e ,i am1 !re w be p>ticul>s :i* w be memb]s sev]ally ( all ! ?+s ,i am n[ said to be p]ceiv+4 ,?us ?r\gh\t ! _w1 ev]y:]e1 !re w be an enorm\s numb] ( p>ticul>s coexi/+ 9 ! same place4 ,b ^! tr\bles result f cont5t+ ourselves too readily ) ! m]ely ?ree-dim5sional space to :i* s*oolma/]s h accu/om$ u4 ,! space ( ! real _w is a space ( six dim5sions1 & z soon z we realise ?is we see t !re is pl5ty ( room = all ! p>ticul>s = :i* we want to f9d positions4 ,9 ord] to realise ?is we h only to return = a mom5t f ! poli%$ space ( physics to ! r\gh & untidy space ( our imm$iate s5sible exp]i5ce4 ,! space ( "o man's s5sible objects is a ?ree-dim5sional space4 ,x does n appe> probable t two m5 ev] bo? p]ceive at ! same "t any "o s5sible object2 :5 !y are said to see ! same ?+ or he> ! same noise1 !re w always be "s diff]5ce1 h[ev] slight1 betwe5 ! actual %apes se5 or ! actual s\nds he>d4 ,if ?is is s1 & if1 z is g5]ally assum$1 position 9 space is purely relative1 x foll[s t ! space ( "o man's objects & ! space ( ano!r man's objects h no place 9 common1 t !y are 9 fact diff]5t spaces1 & n m]ely diff]5t p>ts ( "o space4 ,i mean by ?is t su* imm$iate spatial relations z are p]ceiv$ to hold betwe5 ! diff]5t p>ts ( ! s5sible space p]ceiv$ by "o man1 d n hold betwe5 p>ts ( s5sible spaces p]ceiv$ by diff]5t m54 ,!re are !re=e a multitude ( ?ree-dim5sional spaces 9 ! _w3 !re are all ^? p]ceiv$ by obs]v]s1 & presumably also ^? :i* are n p]ceiv$1 m]ely because no obs]v] is suitably situat$ = p]ceiv+ !m4 ,b al?\gh ^! spaces d n h to "o ano!r ! same k9d ( spatial relations z obta9 betwe5 ! p>ts ( "o ( !m1 x is nev]!less possible to arrange ^! spaces !mselves 9 a ?ree-dim5sional ord]4 ,?is is done by means ( ! correlat$ p>ticul>s :i* we reg>d z memb]s 7or aspects7 ( "o physical ?+4 ,:5 a numb] ( p are said to see ! same object1 ^? :o w\ld be said to be ne> to ! object see a p>ticul> occupy+ a l>g] "p ( _! field ( vision ?an is occupi$ by ! correspond+ p>ticul> se5 by p :o w\ld be said to be f>!r f ! ?+4 ,by means ( su* consid]ations x is possible1 9 ways :i* ne$ n n[ be fur!r specifi$1 to arrange all ! diff]5t spaces 9 a ?ree-dim5sional s]ies4 ,s9ce ea* ( ! spaces is itself ?ree-dim5sional1 ! :ole _w ( p>ticul>s is ?us arrang$ 9 a six-dim5sional space1 t is to say1 six co-ord9ates w be requir$ to assign completely ! position ( any giv5 p>ticul>1 namely1 ?ree to assign its position 9 its own space & ?ree m to assign ! position ( its space among ! o!r spaces4 ,!re are two ways ( classify+ p>ticul>s3 we may take toge!r all ^? t belong to a giv5 p]spective1 or all ^? t are1 z common s5se w\ld say1 diff]5t aspects ( ! same ?+4 ,= example1 if ,i am 7z is said7 see+ ! sun1 :at ,i see belongs to two assemblages3 7#a7 ! assemblage ( all my pres5t objects ( s5se1 :i* is :at ,i call a p]spective2 7#b7 ! assemblage ( all ! diff]5t p>ticul>s :i* w\ld be call$ aspects ( ! sun ( eight m9utes ago--?is assemblage is :at ,i def9e z be+ ! sun ( eight m9utes ago4 ,?us p]spectives & ?+s are m]ely two diff]5t ways ( classify+ p>ticul>s4 ,x is to be obs]v$ t !re is no a priori necessity = p>ticul>s to be susceptible ( ?is d\ble classification4 ,!re may be :at might be call$ wild p>ticul>s1 n hav+ ! usual relations by :i* ! classification is effect$2 p]haps dreams & halluc9ations are compos$ ( p>ticul>s :i* are wild 9 ?is s5se4 ,! exact def9ition ( :at is meant by a p]spective is n q easy4 ,s long z we conf9e ourselves to visible objects or to objects ( t\* we might def9e ! p]spective ( a giv5 p>ticul> z all p>ticul>s :i* h a simple 7direct7 spatial relation to ! giv5 p>ticul>4 ,betwe5 two pat*es ( col\r :i* ,i see n[1 !re is a direct spatial relation :i* ,i equally see4 ,b betwe5 pat*es ( col\r se5 by diff]5t m5 !re is only an indirect con/ruct$ spatial relation by means ( ! plac+ ( ?+s 9 physical space 7:i* is ! same z ! space compos$ ( p]spectives74 ,^? p>ticul>s :i* h direct spatial relations to a giv5 p>ticul> w belong to ! same p]spective4 ,b if1 = example1 ! s\nds :i* ,i he> are to belong to ! same p]spective ) ! pat*es ( col\r :i* ,i see1 !re mu/ be p>ticul>s :i* h no direct spatial relation & yet belong to ! same p]spective4 ,we _c def9e a p]spective z all ! data ( "o p]cipi5t at "o "t1 because we wi% to all[ ! possibility ( p]spectives :i* are n p]ceiv$ by any "o4 ,!re w be ne$1 !re=e1 9 def9+ a p]spective1 ( "s pr9ciple d]iv$ nei!r f psy*ology nor f space4 ,su* a pr9ciple may be obta9$ f ! consid]ation ( "t4 ,! "o all-embrac+ "t1 l ! "o all-embrac+ space1 is a con/ruction2 !re is no direct "t-relation betwe5 p>ticul>s belong+ to my p]spective & p>ticul>s belong+ to ano!r man's4 ,on ! o!r h&1 any two p>ticul>s ( :i* ,i am aw>e are ei!r simultane\s or successive1 & _! simultaneity or successiv5ess is sometimes itself a datum to me4 ,we may !re=e def9e ! p]spective to :i* a giv5 p>ticul> belongs z all p>ticul>s simultane\s ) ! giv5 p>ticul>1 :]e simultane\s is to be und]/ood z a direct simple relation1 n ! d]ivative con/ruct$ relation ( physics4 ,x may be obs]v$ t ! introduction ( local "t sugge/$ by ! pr9ciple ( relativity has effect$1 = purely sci5tific reasons1 mu* ! same multiplication ( times z we h j be5 advocat+4 ,! sum-total ( all ! p>ticul>s t are 7directly7 ei!r simultane\s ) or be=e or aft] a giv5 p>ticul> may be def9$ z ! biography to :i* t p>ticul> belongs4 ,x w be obs]v$ t1 j z a p]spective ne$ n be actually p]ceiv$ by any "o1 s a biography ne$ n be actually liv$ by any "o4 ,^? biographies t are liv$ by no "o are call$ (ficial4 ,! def9ition ( a ?+ is effect$ by means ( cont9uity & ( correlations :i* h a c]ta9 diff]5tial indep5d5ce ( o!r ?+s4 ,t is to say1 giv5 a p>ticul> 9 "o p]spective1 !re w usually 9 a neighb\r+ p]spective be a v simil> p>ticul>1 diff]+ f ! giv5 p>ticul>1 to ! fir/ ord] ( small quantities1 accord+ to a law involv+ only ! diff]5ce ( position ( ! two p]spectives 9 p]spective space1 & n any ( ! o!r ?+s 9 ! univ]se4 ,x is ?is cont9uity & diff]5tial indep5d5ce 9 ! law ( *ange z we pass f "o p]spective to ano!r t def9es ! class ( p>ticul>s :i* is to be call$ "o ?+4 ,broadly speak+1 we may say t ! physici/ f9ds x conv5i5t to classify p>ticul>s into ?+s1 :ile ! psy*ologi/ f9ds x conv5i5t to classify !m into p]spectives & biographies1 s9ce "o p]spective may con/itute ! mom5t>y data ( "o p]cipi5t1 & "o biography may con/itute ! :ole ( ! data ( "o p]cipi5t ?r\gh\t 8 life4 ,we may n[ sum up our discussion4 ,our object has be5 to discov] z f> z possible ! nature ( ! ultimate con/itu5ts ( ! physical _w4 ,:5 ,i speak ( ! physical _w1 ,i mean1 to beg9 )1 ! _w dealt ) by physics4 ,x is obvi\s t physics is an empirical sci5ce1 giv+ u a c]ta9 am\nt ( k & bas$ ^u evid5ce obta9$ ?r\gh ! s5ses4 ,b p>tly ?r\gh ! developm5t ( physics itself1 p>tly ?r\gh argum5ts d]iv$ f physiology1 psy*ology or metaphysics1 x has come to be ?\ght t ! imm$iate data ( s5se c\ld n !mselves =m "p ( ! ultimate con/itu5ts ( ! physical _w1 b 7 9 "s s5se m5tal1 9 ! m9d1 or subjective4 ,! gr\nds = ?is view1 9 s f> z !y dep5d ^u physics1 c only be adequately dealt ) by r elaborate con/ructions dep5d+ ^u symbolic logic1 %[+ t out ( su* mat]ials z are provid$ by ! s5ses x is possible to con/ruct classes & s]ies hav+ ! prop]ties :i* physics assigns to matt]4 ,s9ce ?is argum5t is difficult & te*nical1 ,i h n emb>k$ ^u x 9 ?is article4 ,b 9 s f> z ! view t s5se-data are m5tal re/s ^u physiology1 psy*ology1 or metaphysics1 ,i h tri$ to %[ t x re/s ^u confusions & prejudices--prejudices 9 fav\r ( p]man5ce 9 ! ultimate con/itu5ts ( matt]1 & confusions d]iv$ f unduly simple notions z to space1 f ! causal correlation ( s5se-data ) s5se-organs1 & f failure to di/+ui% betwe5 s5se-data & s5sations4 ,if :at we h said on ^! subjects is valid1 ! exi/5ce ( s5se-data is logically indep5d5t ( ! exi/5ce ( m9d1 & is causally dep5d5t ^u ! body ( ! p]cipi5t r ?an ^u 8 m9d4 ,! causal dep5d5ce ^u ! body ( ! p]cipi5t1 we f\nd1 is a m complicat$ matt] ?an x appe>s to be1 &1 l all causal dep5d5ce1 is apt to give rise to errone\s beliefs ?r\gh misconceptions z to ! nature ( causal correlation4 ,if we h be5 "r 9 our cont5tions1 s5se-data are m]ely ^? among ! ultimate con/itu5ts ( ! physical _w1 ( :i* we happ5 to be imm$iately aw>e2 !y !mselves are purely physical1 & all t is m5tal 9 connection ) !m is our aw>5ess ( !m1 :i* is irrelevant to _! nature & to _! place 9 physics4 ,unduly simple notions z to space h be5 a great /umbl+-block to reali/s4 ,:5 two m5 look at ! same table1 x is suppos$ t :at ! "o sees & :at ! o!r sees are 9 ! same place4 ,s9ce ! %ape & col\r are n q ! same = ! two m51 ?is raises a difficulty1 ha/ily solv$1 or r cov]$ up1 by decl>+ :at ea* sees to be purely subjective--?\gh x w\ld puzzle ^? :o use ?is glib ^w to say :at !y mean by x4 ,! tru? seems to be t space--& "t also--is mu* m complicat$ ?an x w\ld appe> to be f ! f9i%$ /ructure ( physics1 & t ! "o all-embrac+ ?ree-dim5sional space is a logical con/ruction1 obta9$ by means ( correlations f a crude space ( six dim5sions4 ,! p>ticul>s occupy+ ?is six-dim5sional space1 classifi$ 9 "o way1 =m ?+s1 f :i* ) c]ta9 fur!r manipulations we c obta9 :at physics c reg>d z matt]2 classifi$ 9 ano!r way1 !y =m p]spectives & biographies1 :i* may1 if a suitable p]cipi5t happ5s to exi/1 =m respectively ! s5se-data ( a mom5t>y or ( a total exp]i5ce4 ,x is only :5 physical ?+s h be5 dissect$ into s]ies ( classes ( p>ticul>s1 z we h done1 t ! conflict betwe5 ! po9t ( view ( physics & ! po9t ( view ( psy*ology c be ov]come4 ,?is conflict1 if :at has be5 said is n mi/ak51 fl[s f diff]5t me?ods ( classification1 & vani%es z soon z its s\rce is discov]$4 ,9 fav\r ( ! !ory :i* ,i h briefly outl9$1 ,i d n claim t x is c]ta9ly true4 ,ap>t f ! likelihood ( mi/akes1 mu* ( x is av[$ly hypo!tical4 ,:at ,i d claim = ! !ory is t x may be true1 & t ?is is m ?an c be said = any o!r !ory except ! closely analog\s !ory ( ,leibniz4 ,! difficulties besett+ realism1 ! confusions ob/ruct+ any philosophical acc\nt ( physics1 ! dilemma result+ f discr$it+ s5se-data1 :i* yet rema9 ! sole s\rce ( our k ( ! out] _w--all ^! are avoid$ by ! !ory :i* ,i advocate4 ,?is does n prove ! !ory to be true1 s9ce probably _m o!r !ories might be inv5t$ :i* w\ld h ! same m]its4 ,b x does prove t ! !ory has a bett] *ance ( be+ true ?an any ( its pres5t competitors1 & x sugge/s t :at c be kn[n ) c]ta9ty is likely to be discov]able by tak+ our !ory z a />t+-po9t1 & gradually free+ x f all su* assumptions z seem irrelevant1 unnecess>y1 or unf\nd$4 ,on ^! gr\nds1 ,i recomm5d x to att5tion z a hypo!sis & a basis = fur!r "w1 ?\gh n z itself a f9i%$ or adequate solution ( ! problem ) :i* x deals4 ,,footnotes3 #bc ,an address deliv]$ to ! ,philosophical ,society ( ,man*e/] 9 ,febru>y1 #aiae4 ,repr9t$ f ,! ,moni/1 ,july1 #aiae4 #bd ,cf4 especially ,samuel ,alex&]1 ,! ,basis ( ,realism1 ,briti% ,academy1 ,vol4 ,,vi4 #be ,are ,second>y ,qualities ,indep5d5t ( ,p]ception8 ,proc4 ,ari/4 ,soc41 #aiji-aj1 pp4 #aia-bah4 #bf ,fir/ dialogue betwe5 ,hylas & ,philon\s1 ,works 7,fras]'s edition #aija74 ,i4 p4 #chd4 #bg ,?is po9t has be5 well urg$ by ! ,am]ican reali/s4 #bh ,cf4 ,t4,p4 ,nunn1 ,are ,second>y ,qualities ,indep5d5t ( ,p]ception8 ,proc4 ,ari/4 ,soc41 #aiji-aiaj4 ,,viii ,,! ,,relation ,,( ,,s5se-,,data ,,to ,,physics ,i4 ,,! ,,problem ,,/at$ ,physics is said to be an empirical sci5ce1 bas$ ^u obs]vation & exp]im5t4 ,x is suppos$ to be v]ifiable1 i4e4 capable ( calculat+ be=eh& results subsequ5tly confirm$ by obs]vation & exp]im5t4 ,:at c we le>n by obs]vation & exp]im5t8 ,no?+1 s f> z physics is conc]n$1 except imm$iate data ( s5se3 c]ta9 pat*es ( col\r1 s\nds1 ta/es1 smells1 etc41 ) c]ta9 spatio-temporal relations4 ,! suppos$ cont5ts ( ! physical _w are prima facie v diff]5t f ^!3 molecules h no col\r1 atoms make no noise1 electrons h no ta/e1 & corpuscles d n ev5 smell4 ,if su* objects are to be v]ifi$1 x mu/ be solely ?r\gh _! relation to s5se-data3 !y mu/ h "s k9d ( correlation ) s5se-data1 & mu/ be v]ifiable ?r\gh _! correlation alone4 ,b h[ is ! correlation itself asc]ta9$8 ,a correlation c only be asc]ta9$ empirically by ! correlat$ objects be+ con/antly f\nd toge!r4 ,b 9 our case1 only "o t]m ( ! correlation1 namely1 ! s5sible t]m1 is ev] f\nd3 ! o!r t]m seems ess5tially incapable ( be+ f\nd4 ,!re=e1 x w\ld seem1 ! correlation ) objects ( s5se1 by :i* physics 0 to be v]ifi$1 is itself utt]ly & = ev] unv]ifiable4 ,!re are two ways ( avoid+ ?is result4 7#a7 ,we may say t we "k "s pr9ciple a priori1 )\t ! ne$ ( empirical v]ification1 e4g4 t our s5se-data h causes o!r ?an !mselves1 & t some?+ c be kn[n ab\t ^! causes by inf]5ce f _! effects4 ,?is way has be5 (t5 adopt$ by philosoph]s4 ,x may be necess>y to adopt ?is way to "s ext5t1 b 9 s f> z x is adopt$ physics ceases to be empirical or bas$ ^u exp]im5t & obs]vation alone4 ,!re=e ?is way is to be avoid$ z mu* z possible4 7#b7 ,we may succe$ 9 actually def9+ ! objects ( physics z functions ( s5se-data4 ,j 9 s f> z physics leads to expectations1 ?is mu/ be possible1 s9ce we c only expect :at c be exp]i5c$4 ,& 9 s f> z ! physical /ate ( affairs is inf]r$ f s5se-data1 x mu/ be capable ( expression z a function ( s5se-data4 ,! problem ( accompli%+ ?is expression leads to mu* int]e/+ logico-ma!matical "w4 ,9 physics z commonly set =?1 s5se-data appe> z functions ( physical objects3 :5 su*-&-su* waves imp+e ^u ! eye1 we see su*-&-su* col\rs1 & s on4 ,b ! waves are 9 fact inf]r$ f ! col\rs1 n vice v]sa4 ,physics _c be reg>d$ z validly bas$ ^u empirical data until ! waves h be5 express$ z functions ( ! col\rs & o!r s5se-data4 ,?us if physics is to be v]ifiable we are fac$ ) ! foll[+ problem3 ,physics exhibits s5se-data z functions ( physical objects1 b v]ification is only possible if physical objects c be exhibit$ z functions ( s5se-data4 ,we h !re=e to solve ! equations giv+ s5se-data 9 t]ms ( physical objects1 s z to make !m in/ead give physical objects 9 t]ms ( s5se-data4 ,,ii4 ,,*>act]i/ics ,,( ,,s5se-,,data ,:5 ,i speak ( a s5se-datum1 ,i d n mean ! :ole ( :at is giv5 9 s5se at "o "t4 ,i mean r su* a "p ( ! :ole z might be s+l$ out by att5tion3 p>ticul> pat*es ( col\r1 p>ticul> noises1 & s on4 ,!re is "s difficulty 9 decid+ :at is to be consid]$ "o s5se-datum3 (t5 att5tion causes divisions to appe> :]e1 s f> z c be discov]$1 !re 7 no divisions be=e4 ,an obs]v$ complex fact1 su* z t ?is pat* ( r$ is to ! left ( t pat* ( blue1 is also to be reg>d$ z a datum f our pres5t po9t ( view3 epi/emologically1 x does n diff] greatly f a simple s5se-datum z reg>ds its function 9 giv+ k4 ,its logical /ructure is v diff]5t1 h[ev]1 f t ( s5se3 s5se gives acqua9tance ) p>ticul>s1 & is ?us a two-t]m relation 9 :i* ! object c be nam$ b n ass]t$1 & is inh]5tly incapable ( tru? or falsehood1 :]eas ! obs]vation ( a complex fact1 :i* may be suitably call$ p]ception1 is n a two-t]m relation1 b involves ! propositional =m on ! object-side1 & gives k ( a tru?1 n m]e acqua9tance ) a p>ticul>4 ,?is logical diff]5ce1 important z x is1 is n v relevant to our pres5t problem2 & x w be conv5i5t to reg>d data ( p]ception z includ$ among s5se-data = ! purposes ( ?is pap]4 ,x is to be obs]v$ t ! p>ticul>s :i* are con/itu5ts ( a datum ( p]ception are always s5se-data 9 ! /rict s5se4 ,conc]n+ s5se-data1 we "k t !y are !re :ile !y are data1 & ?is is ! epi/emological basis ( all our k ( ext]nal p>ticul>s4 7,! mean+ ( ! ^w ext]nal ( c\rse raises problems :i* w conc]n u lat]47 ,we d n "k1 except by means ( m or less prec>i\s inf]5ces1 :e!r ! objects :i* are at "o "t s5se-data cont9ue to exi/ at times :5 !y are n data4 ,s5se-data at ! times :5 !y are data are all t we directly & primitively "k ( ! ext]nal _w2 h5ce 9 epi/emology ! fact t !y are data is all-important4 ,b ! fact t !y are all t we directly "k gives1 ( c\rse1 no presumption t !y are all t !re is4 ,if we c\ld con/ruct an imp]sonal metaphysic1 indep5d5t ( ! accid5ts ( our k & ignorance1 ! privileg$ position ( ! actual data w\ld probably disappe>1 & !y w\ld probably appe> z a r haphaz>d selection f a mass ( objects m or less l !m4 ,9 say+ ?is1 ,i assume only t x is probable t !re are p>ticul>s ) :i* we are n acqua9t$4 ,?us ! special importance ( s5se-data is 9 relation to epi/emology1 n to metaphysics4 ,9 ?is respect1 physics is to be reckon$ z metaphysics3 x is imp]sonal1 & nom9ally pays no special att5tion to s5se-data4 ,x is only :5 we ask h[ physics c be kn[n t ! importance ( s5se-data re-em]ges4 ,,iii4 ,,s5sibilia ,i %all give ! "n s5sibilia to ^? objects :i* h ! same metaphysical & physical /atus z s5se-data1 )\t necess>ily be+ data to any m9d4 ,?us ! relation ( a s5sibile to a s5se-datum is l t ( a man to a husb&3 a man becomes a husb& by ent]+ into ! relation ( m>riage1 & simil>ly a s5sibile becomes a s5se-datum by ent]+ into ! relation ( acqua9tance4 ,x is important to h bo? t]ms2 = we wi% to discuss :e!r an object :i* is at "o "t a s5se-datum c /ill exi/ at a "t :5 x is n a s5se-datum4 ,we _c ask ,c s5se-data exi/ )\t be+ giv58 = t is l ask+ ,c husb&s exi/ )\t be+ m>ri$8 ,we mu/ ask ,c s5sibilia exi/ )\t be+ giv58 & also ,c a p>ticul> s5sibile be at "o "t a s5se-datum1 & at ano!r n8 ,unless we h ! ^w s5sibile z well z ! ^w s5se-datum1 su* que/ions are apt to entangle u 9 trivial logical puzzles4 ,x w be se5 t all s5se-data are s5sibilia4 ,x is a metaphysical "q :e!r all s5sibilia are s5se-data1 & an epi/emological "q :e!r !re exi/ means ( inf]r+ s5sibilia :i* are n data f ^? t are4 ,a few prelim9>y rem>ks1 to be amplifi$ z we proce$1 w s]ve to elucidate ! use :i* ,i propose to make ( s5sibilia4 ,i reg>d s5se-data z n m5tal1 & z be+1 9 fact1 "p ( ! actual subject-matt] ( physics4 ,!re are argum5ts1 %ortly to be exam9$1 = _! subjectivity1 b ^! argum5ts seem to me only to prove physiological subjectivity1 i4e4 causal dep5d5ce on ! s5se-organs1 n]ves1 & bra94 ,! appe>ance :i* a ?+ pres5ts to u is causally dep5d5t ^u ^!1 9 exactly ! same way z x is dep5d5t ^u int]v5+ fog or smoke or col\r$ glass4 ,bo? dep5d5ces are conta9$ 9 ! /atem5t t ! appe>ance :i* a piece ( matt] pres5ts :5 view$ f a giv5 place is a function n only ( ! piece ( matt]1 b also ( ! int]v5+ m$ium4 7,! t]ms us$ 9 ?is /atem5t--matt]1 view f a giv5 place1 appe>ance1 int]v5+ m$ium--w all be def9$ 9 ! c\rse ( ! pres5t pap]47 ,we h n ! means ( asc]ta9+ h[ ?+s appe> f places n surr\nd$ by bra9 & n]ves & s5se-organs1 because we _c leave ! body2 b cont9uity makes x n unreasonable to suppose t !y pres5t "s appe>ance at su* places4 ,any su* appe>ance w\ld be includ$ among s5sibilia4 ,if--p] impossibile--!re 7 a complete human body ) no m9d inside x1 all ^? s5sibilia w\ld exi/1 9 relation to t body1 :i* w\ld be s5se-data if !re 7 a m9d 9 ! body4 ,:at ! m9d adds to s5sibilia1 9 fact1 is m]ely aw>5ess3 ev]y?+ else is physical or physiological4 ,,iv4 ,,s5se-,,data ,,are ,,physical ,be=e discuss+ ?is "q x w be well to def9e ! s5se 9 :i* ! t]ms m5tal & physical are to be us$4 ,! ^w physical1 9 all prelim9>y discussions1 is to be und]/ood z mean+ :at is dealt ) by physics4 ,physics1 x is pla91 tells u some?+ ab\t "s ( ! con/itu5ts ( ! actual _w2 :at ^! con/itu5ts are may be d\btful1 b x is !y t are to be call$ physical1 :atev] _! nature may prove to be4 ,! def9ition ( ! t]m m5tal is m difficult1 & c only be satisfactorily giv5 aft] _m difficult controv]sies h be5 discuss$ & decid$4 ,= pres5t purposes !re=e ,i mu/ cont5t myself ) assum+ a dogmatic answ] to ^! controv]sies4 ,i %all call a p>ticul> m5tal :5 x is aw>e ( some?+1 & ,i %all call a fact m5tal :5 x conta9s a m5tal p>ticul> z a con/itu5t4 ,x w be se5 t ! m5tal & ! physical are n necess>ily mutually exclusive1 al?\gh ,i "k ( no reason to suppose t !y ov]lap4 ,! d\bt z to ! correctness ( our def9ition ( ! m5tal is ( little importance 9 our pres5t discussion4 ,= :at ,i am conc]n$ to ma9ta9 is t s5se-data are physical1 & ?is be+ grant$ x is a matt] ( indiff]5ce 9 our pres5t inquiry :e!r or n !y are also m5tal4 ,al?\gh ,i d n hold1 ) ,ma* & ,james & ! new reali/s1 t ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! m5tal & ! physical is m]ely "o ( arrangem5t1 yet :at ,i h to say 9 ! pres5t pap] is compatible ) _! doctr9e & might h be5 rea*$ f _! /&po9t4 ,9 discussions on s5se-data1 two que/ions are commonly confus$1 namely3 7#a7 ,d s5sible objects p]si/ :5 we are n s5sible ( !m8 9 o!r words1 d s5sibilia :i* are data at a c]ta9 "t sometimes cont9ue to exi/ at times :5 !y are n data8 ,& 7#b7 are s5se-data m5tal or physical8 ,i propose to ass]t t s5se-data are physical1 :ile yet ma9ta9+ t !y probably nev] p]si/ un*ang$ aft] ceas+ to be data4 ,! view t !y d n p]si/ is (t5 ?\ght1 q errone\sly 9 my op9ion1 to imply t !y are m5tal2 & ?is has1 ,i believe1 be5 a pot5t s\rce ( confusion 9 reg>d to our pres5t problem4 ,if !re 71 z "s h held1 a logical impossibility 9 s5se-data p]si/+ aft] ceas+ to be data1 t c]ta9ly w\ld t5d to %[ t !y 7 m5tal2 b if1 z ,i cont5d1 _! non-p]si/5ce is m]ely a probable inf]5ce f empirically asc]ta9$ causal laws1 !n x c>ries no su* implication ) x1 & we are q free to treat !m z "p ( ! subject-matt] ( physics4 ,logically a s5se-datum is an object1 a p>ticul> ( :i* ! subject is aw>e4 ,x does n conta9 ! subject z a "p1 z = example beliefs & volitions d4 ,! exi/5ce ( ! s5se-datum is !re=e n logically dep5d5t ^u t ( ! subject2 = ! only way1 s f> z ,i "k1 9 :i* ! exi/5ce ( ,a c be logically dep5d5t ^u ! exi/5ce ( ,b is :5 ,b is "p ( ,a4 ,!re is !re=e no a priori reason :y a p>ticul> :i* is a s5se-datum %\ld n p]si/ aft] x has ceas$ to be a datum1 nor :y o!r simil> p>ticul>s %\ld n exi/ )\t ev] be+ data4 ,! view t s5se-data are m5tal is d]iv$1 no d\bt1 9 "p f _! physiological subjectivity1 b 9 "p also f a failure to di/+ui% betwe5 s5se-data & s5sations4 ,by a s5sation ,i mean ! fact consi/+ 9 ! subject's aw>5ess ( ! s5se-datum4 ,?us a s5sation is a complex ( :i* ! subject is a con/itu5t & :i* !re=e is m5tal4 ,! s5se-datum1 on ! o!r h&1 /&s ov] aga9/ ! subject z t ext]nal object ( :i* 9 s5sation ! subject is aw>e4 ,x is true t ! s5se-datum is 9 _m cases 9 ! subject's body1 b ! subject's body is z di/9ct f ! subject z tables & *airs are1 & is 9 fact m]ely a "p ( ! mat]ial _w4 ,s soon1 !re=e1 z s5se-data are cle>ly di/+ui%$ f s5sations1 & z _! subjectivity is recognis$ to be physiological n psy*ical1 ! *ief ob/acles 9 ! way ( reg>d+ !m z physical are remov$4 ,v4 ,,s5sibilia ,,& ,,?+s ,b if s5sibilia are to be recognis$ z ! ultimate con/itu5ts ( ! physical _w1 a long & difficult j\rney is to be p]=m$ be=e we c arrive ei!r at ! ?+ ( common s5se or at ! matt] ( physics4 ,! suppos$ impossibility ( comb9+ ! diff]5t s5se-data :i* are reg>d$ z appe>ances ( ! same ?+ to diff]5t p has made x seem z ?\gh ^! s5sibilia mu/ be reg>d$ z m]e subjective phantasms4 ,a giv5 table w pres5t to "o man a rectangul> appe>ance1 :ile to ano!r x appe>s to h two acute angles & two obtuse angles2 to "o man x appe>s br[n1 :ile to ano!r1 t[>ds :om x reflects ! light1 x appe>s :ite & %9y4 ,x is said1 n :olly )\t plausibility1 t ^! diff]5t %apes & diff]5t col\rs _c co-exi/ simultane\sly 9 ! same place1 & _c !re=e bo? be con/itu5ts ( ! physical _w4 ,?is argum5t ,i mu/ confess appe>$ to me until rec5tly to be irrefutable4 ,! contr>y op9ion has1 h[ev]1 be5 ably ma9ta9$ by ,dr4 ,t4,p4 ,nunn 9 an article entitl$3 ,are ,second>y ,qualities ,indep5d5t ( ,p]ception8#bi ,! suppos$ impossibility d]ives its app>5t =ce f ! phrase3 9 ! same place1 & x is precisely 9 ?is phrase t its weakness lies4 ,! conception ( space is too (t5 treat$ 9 philosophy--ev5 by ^? :o on reflection w\ld n def5d su* treatm5t--z ?\gh x 7 z giv51 simple1 & unambigu\s z ,kant1 9 8 psy*ological innoc5ce1 suppos$4 ,x is ! unp]ceiv$ ambiguity ( ! ^w place :i*1 z we %all %ortly see1 has caus$ ! difficulties to reali/s & giv5 an undes]v$ advantage to _! oppon5ts4 ,two places ( diff]5t k9ds are involv$ 9 e s5se-datum1 namely ! place at :i* x appe>s & ! place f :i* x appe>s4 ,^! belong to diff]5t spaces1 al?\gh1 z we %all see1 x is possible1 ) c]ta9 limitations1 to e/abli% a correlation betwe5 !m4 ,:at we call ! diff]5t appe>ances ( ! same ?+ to diff]5t obs]v]s are ea* 9 a space private to ! obs]v] conc]n$4 ,no place 9 ! private _w ( "o obs]v] is id5tical ) a place 9 ! private _w ( ano!r obs]v]4 ,!re is !re=e no "q ( comb9+ ! diff]5t appe>ances 9 ! "o place2 & ! fact t !y _c all exi/ 9 "o place af=ds accord+ly no gr\nd :atev] = que/ion+ _! physical reality4 ,! ?+ ( common s5se may 9 fact be id5tifi$ ) ! :ole class ( its appe>ances--:]e1 h[ev]1 we mu/ include among appe>ances n only ^? :i* are actual s5se-data1 b also ^? s5sibilia1 if any1 :i*1 on gr\nds ( cont9uity & resemblance1 are to be reg>d$ z belong+ to ! same sy/em ( appe>ances1 al?\gh !re happ5 to be no obs]v]s to :om !y are data4 ,an example may make ?is cle>]4 ,suppose !re are a numb] ( p 9 a room1 all see+1 z !y say1 ! same tables & *airs1 walls & pictures4 ,no two ( ^! p h exactly ! same s5se-data1 yet !re is suffici5t simil>ity among _! data to enable !m to gr\p toge!r c]ta9 ( ^! data z appe>ances ( "o ?+ to ! sev]al spectators1 & o!rs z appe>ances ( ano!r ?+4 ,besides ! appe>ances :i* a giv5 ?+ 9 ! room pres5ts to ! actual spectators1 !re are1 we may suppose1 o!r appe>ances :i* x w\ld pres5t to o!r possible spectators4 ,if a man 7 to sit d[n betwe5 two o!rs1 ! appe>ance :i* ! room w\ld pres5t to him w\ld be int]m$iate betwe5 ! appe>ances :i* x pres5ts to ! two o!rs3 & al?\gh ?is appe>ance w\ld n exi/ z x is )\t ! s5se organs1 n]ves & bra91 ( ! newly arriv$ spectator1 /ill x is n unnatural to suppose t1 f ! position :i* he n[ occupies1 "s appe>ance ( ! room exi/$ be=e 8 arrival4 ,?is supposition1 h[ev]1 ne$ m]ely be notic$ & n insi/$ ^u4 ,s9ce ! ?+ _c1 )\t indef5sible p>tiality1 be id5tifi$ ) any s+le "o ( its appe>ances1 x came to be ?\ght ( z some?+ di/9ct f all ( !m & und]ly+ !m4 ,b by ! pr9ciple ( ,occam's razor1 if ! class ( appe>ances w fulfil ! purposes = ! sake ( :i* ! ?+ 0 inv5t$ by ! prehi/oric metaphysicians to :om common s5se is due1 economy dem&s t we %\ld id5tify ! ?+ ) ! class ( its appe>ances4 ,x is n necess>y to d5y a sub/ance or sub/ratum und]ly+ ^! appe>ances2 x is m]ely exp$i5t to ab/a9 f ass]t+ ?is unnecess>y entity4 ,our proc$ure "h is precisely analog\s to t :i* has swept away f ! philosophy ( ma!matics ! useless m5ag]ie ( metaphysical mon/]s ) :i* x us$ to be infe/$4 ,,vi4 ,,con/ructions ,,v]sus ,,inf]5ces ,be=e proce$+ to analyse & expla9 ! ambiguities ( ! ^w place1 a few g5]al rem>ks on me?od are desirable4 ,! supreme maxim 9 sci5tific philosophis+ is ?is3 ,:]ev] possible1 logical con/ructions are to be sub/itut$ = inf]r$ entities4 ,"s examples ( ! sub/itution ( con/ruction = inf]5ce 9 ! realm ( ma!matical philosophy may s]ve to elucidate ! uses ( ?is maxim4 ,take fir/ ! case ( irrationals4 ,9 old days1 irrationals 7 inf]r$ z ! suppos$ limits ( s]ies ( rationals :i* _h no rational limit2 b ! objection to ?is proc$ure 0 t x left ! exi/5ce ( irrationals m]ely optative1 & = ?is reason ! /rict] me?ods ( ! pres5t day no long] tol]ate su* a def9ition4 ,we n[ def9e an irrational numb] z a c]ta9 class ( ratios1 ?us con/ruct+ x logically by means ( ratios1 in/ead ( arriv+ at x by a d\btful inf]5ce f !m4 ,take aga9 ! case ( c>d9al numb]s4 ,two equally num]\s collections appe> to h some?+ 9 common3 ?is some?+ is suppos$ to be _! c>d9al numb]4 ,b s long z ! c>d9al numb] is inf]r$ f ! collections1 n con/ruct$ 9 t]ms ( !m1 its exi/5ce mu/ rema9 9 d\bt1 unless 9 virtue ( a metaphysical po/ulate ad hoc4 ,by def9+ ! c>d9al numb] ( a giv5 collection z ! class ( all equally num]\s collections1 we avoid ! necessity ( ?is metaphysical po/ulate1 & !reby remove a ne$less elem5t ( d\bt f ! philosophy ( ari?metic4 ,a simil> me?od1 z ,i h %[n else:]e1 c be appli$ to classes !mselves1 :i* ne$ n be suppos$ to h any metaphysical reality1 b c be reg>d$ z symbolically con/ruct$ fictions4 ,! me?od by :i* ! con/ruction proce$s is closely analog\s 9 ^! & all simil> cases4 ,giv5 a set ( propositions nom9ally deal+ ) ! suppos$ inf]r$ entities1 we obs]ve ! prop]ties :i* are requir$ ( ! suppos$ entities 9 ord] to make ^! propositions true4 ,by d9t ( a little logical +5uity1 we !n con/ruct "s logical function ( less hypo!tical entities :i* has ! requisite prop]ties4 ,?is con/ruct$ function we sub/itute = ! suppos$ inf]r$ entities1 & !reby obta9 a new & less d\btful int]pretation ( ! body ( propositions 9 "q4 ,?is me?od1 s fruitful 9 ! philosophy ( ma!matics1 w be f\nd equally applicable 9 ! philosophy ( physics1 :]e1 ,i d n d\bt1 x w\ld h be5 appli$ long ago b = ! fact t all :o h /udi$ ?is subject hi!rto h be5 completely ignorant ( ma!matical logic4 ,i myself _c claim orig9ality 9 ! application ( ?is me?od to physics1 s9ce ,i owe ! sugge/ion & ! /imulus = its application entirely to my fri5d & collaborator ,dr4 ,:itehead1 :o is engag$ 9 apply+ x to ! m ma!matical portions ( ! region int]m$iate betwe5 s5se-data & ! po9ts1 in/ants & p>ticles ( physics4 ,a complete application ( ! me?od :i* sub/itutes con/ructions = inf]5ces w\ld exhibit matt] :olly 9 t]ms ( s5se-data1 & ev51 we may add1 ( ! s5se-data ( a s+le p]son1 s9ce ! s5se-data ( o!rs _c be kn[n )\t "s elem5t ( inf]5ce4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 mu/ rema9 = ! pres5t an ideal1 to be approa*$ z ne>ly z possible1 b to be rea*$1 if at all1 only aft] a long prelim9>y lab\r ( :i* z yet we c only see ! v beg9n+4 ,! inf]5ces :i* are unavoidable c1 h[ev]1 be subject$ to c]ta9 guid+ pr9ciples4 ,9 ! fir/ place !y %\ld always be made p]fectly explicit1 & %\ld be =mulat$ 9 ! mo/ g5]al mann] possible4 ,9 ! second place ! inf]r$ entities %\ld1 :5ev] ?is c be done1 be simil> to ^? ^: exi/5ce is giv51 r ?an1 l ! ,kantian ,d+ an si*1 some?+ :olly remote f ! data :i* nom9ally support ! inf]5ce4 ,! inf]r$ entities :i* ,i %all all[ myself are ( two k9ds3 7a7 ! s5se-data ( o!r p1 9 fav\r ( :i* !re is ! evid5ce ( te/imony1 re/+ ultimately ^u ! analogical argum5t 9 fav\r ( m9ds o!r ?an my own2 7b7 ! s5sibilia :i* w\ld appe> f places :]e !re happ5 to be no m9ds1 & :i* ,i suppose to be real al?\gh !y are no "o's data4 ,( ^! two classes ( inf]r$ entities1 ! fir/ w probably be all[$ to pass un*all5g$4 ,x w\ld give me ! greate/ satisfaction to be able to disp5se ) x1 & ?us e/abli% physics ^u a solipsi/ic basis2 b ^?--& ,i fe> !y are ! majority--9 :om ! human affections are /rong] ?an ! desire = logical economy1 w1 no d\bt1 n %>e my desire to r5d] solipsism sci5tifically satisfactory4 ,! second class ( inf]r$ entities raises mu* m s]i\s que/ions4 ,x may be ?\ght mon/r\s to ma9ta9 t a ?+ c pres5t any appe>ance at all 9 a place :]e no s5se organs & n]v\s /ructure exi/ ?r\gh :i* x c\ld appe>4 ,i d n myself feel ! mon/rosity2 nev]!less ,i %\ld reg>d ^! suppos$ appe>ances only 9 ! light ( a hypo!tical scaffold+1 to be us$ :ile ! edifice ( physics is be+ rais$1 ?\gh possibly capable ( be+ remov$ z soon z ! edifice is complet$4 ,^! s5sibilia :i* are n data to anyone are !re=e to be tak5 r z an illu/rative hypo!sis & z an aid 9 prelim9>y /atem5t ?an z a dogmatic "p ( ! philosophy ( physics 9 its f9al =m4 ,,vii4 ,,private ,,space ,,& ,,! ,,space ,,( ,,p]spectives ,we h n[ to expla9 ! ambiguity 9 ! ^w place1 & h[ x comes t two places ( diff]5t sorts are associat$ ) e s5se-datum1 namely ! place at :i* x is & ! place f :i* x is p]ceiv$4 ,! !ory to be advocat$ is closely analog\s to ,leibniz's monadology1 f :i* x diff]s *iefly 9 be+ less smoo? & tidy4 ,! fir/ fact to notice is t1 s f> z c be discov]$1 no s5sibile is ev] a datum to two p at once4 ,! ?+s se5 by two diff]5t p are (t5 closely simil>1 s simil> t ! same words c be us$ to d5ote !m1 )\t :i* communication ) o!rs conc]n+ s5sible objects w\ld be impossible4 ,b1 9 spite ( ?is simil>ity1 x w\ld seem t "s diff]5ce always arises f diff]5ce 9 ! po9t ( view4 ,?us ea* p]son1 s f> z 8 s5se-data are conc]n$1 lives 9 a private _w4 ,?is private _w conta9s its own space1 or r spaces1 = x w\ld seem t only exp]i5ce tea*es u to correlate ! space ( sight ) ! space ( t\* & ) ! v>i\s o!r spaces ( o!r s5ses4 ,?is multiplicity ( private spaces1 h[ev]1 ?\gh int]e/+ to ! psy*ologi/1 is ( no great importance 9 reg>d to our pres5t problem1 s9ce a m]ely solipsi/ic exp]i5ce enables u to correlate !m into ! "o private space :i* embraces all our own s5se-data4 ,! place at :i* a s5se-datum is1 is a place 9 private space4 ,?is place !re=e is diff]5t f any place 9 ! private space ( ano!r p]cipi5t4 ,= if we assume1 z logical economy dem&s1 t all position is relative1 a place is only def9able by ! ?+s 9 or ar\nd x1 & !re=e ! same place _c occur 9 two private worlds :i* h no common con/itu5t4 ,! "q1 !re=e1 ( comb9+ :at we call diff]5t appe>ances ( ! same ?+ 9 ! same place does n arise1 & ! fact t a giv5 object appe>s to diff]5t spectators to h diff]5t %apes & col\rs af=ds no argum5t aga9/ ! physical reality ( all ^! %apes & col\rs4 ,9 addition to ! private spaces belong+ to ! private worlds ( diff]5t p]cipi5ts1 !re is1 h[ev]1 ano!r space1 9 :i* "o :ole private _w c\nts z a po9t1 or at lea/ z a spatial unit4 ,?is might be describ$ z ! space ( po9ts ( view1 s9ce ea* private _w may be reg>d$ z ! appe>ance :i* ! univ]se pres5ts f a c]ta9 po9t ( view4 ,i pref]1 h[ev]1 to speak ( x z ! space ( p]spectives1 9 ord] to obviate ! sugge/ion t a private _w is only real :5 someone views x4 ,& = ! same reason1 :5 ,i wi% to speak ( a private _w )\t assum+ a p]cipi5t1 ,i %all call x a p]spective4 ,we h n[ to expla9 h[ ! diff]5t p]spectives are ord]$ 9 "o space4 ,?is is effect$ by means ( ! correlat$ s5sibilia :i* are reg>d$ z ! appe>ances1 9 diff]5t p]spectives1 ( "o & ! same ?+4 ,by mov+1 & by te/imony1 we discov] t two diff]5t p]spectives1 ?\gh !y _c bo? conta9 ! same s5sibilia1 may nev]!less conta9 v simil> ones2 & ! spatial ord] ( a c]ta9 gr\p ( s5sibilia 9 a private space ( "o p]spective is f\nd to be id5tical )1 or v simil> to1 ! spatial ord] ( ! correlat$ s5sibilia 9 ! private space ( ano!r p]spective4 ,9 ?is way "o s5sibile 9 "o p]spective is correlat$ ) "o s5sibile 9 ano!r4 ,su* correlat$ s5sibilia w be call$ appe>ances ( "o ?+4 ,9 ,leibniz's monadology1 s9ce ea* monad mirror$ ! :ole univ]se1 !re 0 9 ea* p]spective a s5sibile :i* 0 an appe>ance ( ea* ?+4 ,9 our sy/em ( p]spectives1 we make no su* assumption ( complet5ess4 ,a giv5 ?+ w h appe>ances 9 "s p]spectives1 b presumably n 9 c]ta9 o!rs4 ,! ?+ be+ def9$ z ! class ( its appe>ances1 if kappa is ! class ( p]spectives 9 :i* a c]ta9 ?+ !ta appe>s1 !n !ta is a memb] ( ! multiplicative class ( kappa1 kappa be+ a class ( mutually exclusive classes ( s5sibilia4 ,& simil>ly a p]spective is a memb] ( ! multiplicative class ( ! ?+s :i* appe> 9 x4 ,! arrangem5t ( p]spectives 9 a space is effect$ by means ( ! diff]5ces betwe5 ! appe>ances ( a giv5 ?+ 9 ! v>i\s p]spectives4 ,suppose1 say1 t a c]ta9 p5ny appe>s 9 a numb] ( diff]5t p]spectives2 9 "s x looks l>g] & 9 "s small]1 9 "s x looks circul>1 9 o!rs x pres5ts ! appe>ance ( an ellipse ( v>y+ ecc5tricity4 ,we may collect toge!r all ^? p]spectives 9 :i* ! appe>ance ( ! p5ny is circul>4 ,^! we w place on "o /raight l9e1 ord]+ !m 9 a s]ies by ! v>iations 9 ! app>5t size ( ! p5ny4 ,^? p]spectives 9 :i* ! p5ny appe>s z a /raight l9e ( a c]ta9 ?ickness w simil>ly be plac$ ^u a plane 7?\gh 9 ?is case !re w be _m diff]5t p]spectives 9 :i* ! p5ny is ( ! same size2 :5 "o arrangem5t is complet$ ^! w =m a circle conc5tric ) ! p5ny71 & ord]$ z be=e by ! app>5t size ( ! p5ny4 ,by su* means1 all ^? p]spectives 9 :i* ! p5ny pres5ts a visual appe>ance c be arrang$ 9 a ?ree-dim5sional spatial ord]4 ,exp]i5ce %[s t ! same spatial ord] ( p]spectives w\ld h result$ if1 in/ead ( ! p5ny1 we _h *os5 any o!r ?+ :i* appe>$ 9 all ! p]spectives 9 "q1 or any o!r me?od ( utilis+ ! diff]5ces betwe5 ! appe>ances ( ! same ?+s 9 diff]5t p]spectives4 ,x is ?is empirical fact :i* has made x possible to con/ruct ! "o all-embrac+ space ( physics4 ,! space ^: con/ruction has j be5 expla9$1 & ^: elem5ts are :ole p]spectives1 w be call$ p]spective-space4 ,,viii4 ,,! ,,plac+ ,,( ,,?+s ,,& ,,s5sibilia ,,9 ,,p]spective ,,space ,! _w :i* we h s f> con/ruct$ is a _w ( six dim5sions1 s9ce x is a ?ree-dim5sional s]ies ( p]spectives1 ea* ( :i* is itself ?ree-dim5sional4 ,we h n[ to expla9 ! correlation betwe5 ! p]spective space & ! v>i\s private spaces conta9$ )9 ! v>i\s p]spectives sev]ally4 ,x is by means ( ?is correlation t ! "o ?ree-dim5sional space ( physics is con/ruct$2 & x is because ( ! unconsci\s p]=mance ( ?is correlation t ! di/9ction betwe5 p]spective space & ! p]cipi5t's private space has be5 blurr$1 ) disa/r\s results = ! philosophy ( physics4 ,let u rev]t to our p5ny3 ! p]spectives 9 :i* ! p5ny appe>s l>g] are reg>d$ z be+ ne>] to ! p5ny ?an ^? 9 :i* x appe>s small]1 b z f> z exp]i5ce goes ! app>5t size ( ! p5ny w n gr[ beyond a c]ta9 limit1 namely1 t :]e 7z we say7 ! p5ny is s ne> ! eye t if x 7 any ne>] x c\ld n be se54 ,by t\* we may prolong ! s]ies until ! p5ny t\*es ! eye1 b no fur!r4 ,if we h be5 travell+ along a l9e ( p]spectives 9 ! previ\sly def9$ s5se1 we may1 h[ev]1 by imag9+ ! p5ny remov$1 prolong ! l9e ( p]spectives by means1 say1 ( ano!r p5ny2 & ! same may be done ) any o!r l9e ( p]spectives def9$ by means ( ! p5ny4 ,all ^! l9es meet 9 a c]ta9 place1 t is1 9 a c]ta9 p]spective4 ,?is p]spective w be def9$ z ! place :]e ! p5ny is4 ,x is n[ evid5t 9 :at s5se two places 9 con/ruct$ physical space are associat$ ) a giv5 s5sibile4 ,!re is fir/ ! place :i* is ! p]spective ( :i* ! s5sibile is a memb]4 ,?is is ! place f :i* ! s5sibile appe>s4 ,secondly !re is ! place :]e ! ?+ is ( :i* ! s5sibile is a memb]1 9 o!r words an appe>ance2 ?is is ! place at :i* ! s5sibile appe>s4 ,! s5sibile :i* is a memb] ( "o p]spective is correlat$ ) ano!r p]spective1 namely1 t :i* is ! place :]e ! ?+ is ( :i* ! s5sibile is an appe>ance4 ,to ! psy*ologi/ ! place f :i* is ! m int]e/+1 & ! s5sibile accord+ly appe>s to him subjective & :]e ! p]cipi5t is4 ,to ! physici/ ! place at :i* is ! m int]e/+1 & ! s5sibile accord+ly appe>s to him physical & ext]nal4 ,! causes1 limits & p>tial ju/ification ( ea* ( ^! two app>5tly incompatible views are evid5t f ! above duplicity ( places associat$ ) a giv5 s5sibile4 ,we h se5 t we c assign to a physical ?+ a place 9 ! p]spective space4 ,9 ?is way diff]5t p>ts ( our body acquire positions 9 p]spective space1 & !re=e !re is a mean+ 7:e!r true or false ne$ n mu* conc]n u7 9 say+ t ! p]spective to :i* our s5se-data belong is inside our head4 ,s9ce our m9d is correlat$ ) ! p]spective to :i* our s5se-data belong1 we may reg>d ?is p]spective z be+ ! position ( our m9d 9 p]spective space4 ,if1 !re=e1 ?is p]spective is1 9 ! above def9$ s5se1 inside our head1 !re is a good mean+ = ! /atem5t t ! m9d is 9 ! head4 ,we c n[ say ( ! v>i\s appe>ances ( a giv5 ?+ t "s ( !m are ne>] to ! ?+ ?an o!rs2 ^? are ne>] :i* belong to p]spectives t are ne>] to ! place :]e ! ?+ is4 ,we c ?us f9d a mean+1 true or false1 = ! /atem5t t m is to be le>nt ab\t a ?+ by exam9+ x close to ?an by view+ x f a di/ance4 ,we c also f9d a mean+ = ! phrase ! ?+s :i* int]v5e betwe5 ! subject & a ?+ ( :i* an appe>ance is a datum to him4 ,"o reason (t5 alleg$ = ! subjectivity ( s5se-data is t ! appe>ance ( a ?+ may *ange :5 we f9d x h>d to suppose t ! ?+ itself has *ang$--= example1 :5 ! *ange is due to our %utt+ our eyes1 or to our screw+ !m up s z to make ! ?+ look d\ble4 ,if ! ?+ is def9$ z ! class ( its appe>ances 7:i* is ! def9ition adopt$ above71 !re is ( c\rse necess>ily "s *ange 9 ! ?+ :5ev] any "o ( its appe>ances *anges4 ,nev]!less !re is a v important di/9ction betwe5 two diff]5t ways 9 :i* ! appe>ances may *ange4 ,if aft] look+ at a ?+ ,i %ut my eyes1 ! appe>ance ( my eyes *anges 9 e p]spective 9 :i* !re is su* an appe>ance1 :]eas mo/ ( ! appe>ances ( ! ?+ w rema9 un*ang$4 ,we may say1 z a matt] ( def9ition1 t a ?+ *anges :51 h[ev] ne> to ! ?+ an appe>ance ( x may be1 !re are *anges 9 appe>ances z ne> z1 or /ill ne>] to1 ! ?+4 ,on ! o!r h& we %all say t ! *ange is 9 "s o!r ?+ if all appe>ances ( ! ?+ :i* are at n m ?an a c]ta9 di/ance f ! ?+ rema9 un*ang$1 :ile only comp>atively di/ant appe>ances ( ! ?+ are alt]$4 ,f ?is consid]ation we are naturally l$ to ! consid]ation ( matt]1 :i* mu/ be our next topic4 ,,ix4 ,,! ,,def9ition ,,( ,,matt] ,we def9$ ! physical ?+ z ! class ( its appe>ances1 b ?is c h>dly be tak5 z a def9ition ( matt]4 ,we want to be able to express ! fact t ! appe>ance ( a ?+ 9 a giv5 p]spective is causally affect$ by ! matt] betwe5 ! ?+ & ! p]spective4 ,we h f\nd a mean+ = betwe5 a ?+ & a p]spective4 ,b we want matt] to be some?+ o!r ?an ! :ole class ( appe>ances ( a ?+1 9 ord] to /ate ! influ5ce ( matt] on appe>ances4 ,we commonly assume t ! in=mation we get ab\t a ?+ is m accurate :5 ! ?+ is ne>]4 ,f> (f1 we see x is a man2 !n we see x is ,jones2 !n we see he is smil+4 ,complete accuracy w\ld only be atta9able z a limit3 if ! appe>ances ( ,jones z we approa* him t5d t[>ds a limit1 t limit may be tak5 to be :at ,jones really is4 ,x is obvi\s t f ! po9t ( view ( physics ! appe>ances ( a ?+ close to c\nt m ?an ! appe>ances f> (f4 ,we may !re=e set up ! foll[+ t5tative def9ition3 ,! matt] ( a giv5 ?+ is ! limit ( its appe>ances z _! di/ance f ! ?+ dim9i%es4 ,x seems probable t !re is some?+ 9 ?is def9ition1 b x is n q satisfactory1 because empirically !re is no su* limit to be obta9$ f s5se-data4 ,! def9ition w h to be ek$ out by con/ructions & def9itions4 ,b probably x sugge/s ! "r direction 9 :i* to look4 ,we are n[ 9 a position to und]/& 9 outl9e ! rev]se j\rney f matt] to s5se-data :i* is p]=m$ by physics4 ,! appe>ance ( a ?+ 9 a giv5 p]spective is a function ( ! matt] compos+ ! ?+ & ( ! int]v5+ matt]4 ,! appe>ance ( a ?+ is alt]$ by int]v5+ smoke or mi/1 by blue spectacles or by alt]ations 9 ! s5se-organs or n]ves ( ! p]cipi5t 7:i* also mu/ be reckon$ z "p ( ! int]v5+ m$ium74 ,! ne>] we approa* to ! ?+1 ! less its appe>ance is affect$ by ! int]v5+ matt]4 ,z we travel fur!r & fur!r f ! ?+1 its appe>ances div]ge m & m f _! initial "*2 & ! causal laws ( _! div]g5ce are to be /at$ 9 t]ms ( ! matt] :i* lies betwe5 !m & ! ?+4 ,s9ce ! appe>ances at v small di/ances are less affect$ by causes o!r ?an ! ?+ itself1 we come to ?9k t ! limit t[>ds :i* ^! appe>ances t5d z ! di/ance dim9i%es is :at ! ?+ really is1 z oppos$ to :at x m]ely seems to be4 ,?is1 toge!r ) its necessity = ! /atem5t ( causal laws1 seems to be ! s\rce ( ! entirely errone\s feel+ t matt] is m real ?an s5se-data4 ,consid] = example ! inf9ite divisibility ( matt]4 ,9 look+ at a giv5 ?+ & approa*+ x1 "o s5se-datum w become sev]al1 & ea* ( ^! w aga9 divide4 ,?us "o appe>ance may repres5t _m ?+s1 & to ?is process !re seems no end4 ,h5ce 9 ! limit1 :5 we approa* indef9itely ne> to ! ?+ !re w be an indef9ite numb] ( units ( matt] correspond+ to :at1 at a f9ite di/ance1 is only "o appe>ance4 ,?is is h[ inf9ite divisibility arises4 ,! :ole causal efficacy ( a ?+ resides 9 its matt]4 ,?is is 9 "s s5se an empirical fact1 b x w\ld be h>d to /ate x precisely1 because causal efficacy is difficult to def9e4 ,:at c be kn[n empirically ab\t ! matt] ( a ?+ is only approximate1 because we _c get to "k ! appe>ances ( ! ?+ f v small di/ances1 & _c accurately inf] ! limit ( ^! appe>ances4 ,b x is inf]r$ approximately by means ( ! appe>ances we c obs]ve4 ,x !n turns out t ^! appe>ances c be exhibit$ by physics z a function ( ! matt] 9 our imm$iate neighb\rhood2 e4g4 ! visual appe>ance ( a di/ant object is a function ( ! light-waves t rea* ! eyes4 ,?is leads to confusions ( ?\ght1 b (f]s no real difficulty4 ,"o appe>ance1 ( a visible object = example1 is n suffici5t to det]m9e its o!r simultane\s appe>ances1 al?\gh x goes a c]ta9 di/ance t[>ds det]m9+ !m4 ,! det]m9ation ( ! hidd5 /ructure ( a ?+1 s f> z x is possible at all1 c only be effect$ by means ( elaborate dynamical inf]5ces4 ,x4 ,,"t#cj ,x seems t ! "o all-embrac+ "t is a con/ruction1 l ! "o all-embrac+ space4 ,physics itself has become consci\s ( ?is fact ?r\gh ! discussions connect$ ) relativity4 ,betwe5 two p]spectives :i* bo? belong to "o p]son's exp]i5ce1 !re w be a direct "t-relation ( be=e & aft]4 ,?is sugge/s a way ( divid+ hi/ory 9 ! same sort ( way z x is divid$ by diff]5t exp]i5ces1 b )\t introduc+ exp]i5ce or any?+ m5tal3 we may def9e a biography z ev]y?+ t is 7directly7 e>li] or lat] ?an1 or simultane\s )1 a giv5 s5sibile4 ,?is w give a s]ies ( p]spectives1 :i* might all =m p>ts ( "o p]son's exp]i5ce1 ?\gh x is n necess>y t all or any ( !m %\ld actually d s4 ,by ?is means1 ! hi/ory ( ! _w is divid$ into a numb] ( mutually exclusive biographies4 ,we h n[ to correlate ! times 9 ! diff]5t biographies4 ,! natural ?+ w\ld be to say t ! appe>ances ( a giv5 7mom5t>y7 ?+ 9 two diff]5t p]spectives belong+ to diff]5t biographies are to be tak5 z simultane\s2 b ?is is n conv5i5t4 ,suppose ,a %\ts to ,b1 & ,b replies z soon z he he>s ,a's %\t4 ,!n betwe5 ,a's he>+ ( 8 own %\t & 8 he>+ ( ,b's !re is an int]val2 ?us if we made ,a's & ,b's he>+ ( ! same %\t exactly simultane\s ) ea* o!r1 we %\ld h ev5ts exactly simultane\s ) a giv5 ev5t b n ) ea* o!r4 ,to obviate ?is1 we assume a velocity ( s\nd4 ,t is1 we assume t ! "t :5 ,b he>s ,a's %\t is half-way betwe5 ! "t :5 ,a he>s 8 own %\t & ! "t :5 he he>s ,b's4 ,9 ?is way ! correlation is effect$4 ,:at has be5 said ab\t s\nd applies ( c\rse equally to light4 ,! g5]al pr9ciple is t ! appe>ances1 9 diff]5t p]spectives1 :i* are to be gr\p$ toge!r z con/itut+ :at a c]ta9 ?+ is at a c]ta9 mom5t1 are n to be all reg>d$ z be+ at t mom5t4 ,on ! contr>y !y spread outw>d f ! ?+ ) v>i\s velocities accord+ to ! nature ( ! appe>ances4 ,s9ce no direct means exi/ ( correlat+ ! "t 9 "o biography ) ! "t 9 ano!r1 ?is temporal gr\p+ ( ! appe>ances belong+ to a giv5 ?+ at a giv5 mom5t is 9 "p conv5tional4 ,its motive is p>tly to secure ! v]ification ( su* maxims z t ev5ts :i* are exactly simultane\s ) ! same ev5t are exactly simultane\s ) "o ano!r1 p>tly to secure conv5i5ce 9 ! =mulation ( causal laws4 ,,xi4 ,,! ,,p]si/5ce ,,( ,,?+s ,,& ,,matt] ,ap>t f any ( ! fluctuat+ hypo!ses ( physics1 ?ree ma9 problems arise 9 connect+ ! _w ( physics ) ! _w ( s5se1 namely3 #a4 ! con/ruction ( a s+le space2 #b4 ! con/ruction ( a s+le "t2 #c4 ! con/ruction ( p]man5t ?+s or matt]4 ,we h already consid]$ ! fir/ & second ( ^! problems2 x rema9s to consid] ! ?ird4 ,we h se5 h[ correlat$ appe>ances 9 diff]5t p]spectives are comb9$ to =m "o ?+ at "o mom5t 9 ! all-embrac+ "t ( physics4 ,we h n[ to consid] h[ appe>ances at diff]5t times are comb9$ z belong+ to "o ?+1 & h[ we arrive at ! p]si/5t matt] ( physics4 ,! assumption ( p]man5t sub/ance1 :i* te*nically und]lies ! proc$ure ( physics1 _c ( c\rse be reg>d$ z metaphysically legitimate3 j z ! "o ?+ simultane\sly se5 by _m p is a con/ruction1 s ! "o ?+ se5 at diff]5t times by ! same or diff]5t p mu/ be a con/ruction1 be+ 9 fact no?+ b a c]ta9 gr\p+ ( c]ta9 s5sibilia4 ,we h se5 t ! mom5t>y /ate ( a ?+ is an assemblage ( s5sibilia1 9 diff]5t p]spectives1 n all simultane\s 9 ! "o con/ruct$ "t1 b spread+ out f ! place :]e ! ?+ is ) velocities dep5d+ ^u ! nature ( ! s5sibilia4 ,! "t at :i* ! ?+ is 9 ?is /ate is ! l[] limit ( ! times at :i* ^! appe>ances occur4 ,we h n[ to consid] :at leads u to speak ( ano!r set ( appe>ances z belong+ to ! same ?+ at a diff]5t "t4 ,= ?is purpose1 we may1 at lea/ to beg9 )1 conf9e ourselves )9 a s+le biography4 ,if we c always say :5 two s5sibilia 9 a giv5 biography are appe>ances ( "o ?+1 !n1 s9ce we h se5 h[ to connect s5sibilia 9 diff]5t biographies z appe>ances ( ! same mom5t>y /ate ( a ?+1 we %all h all t is necess>y = ! complete con/ruction ( ! hi/ory ( a ?+4 ,x is to be obs]v$1 to beg9 )1 t ! id5tity ( a ?+ = common s5se is n always correlat$ ) ! id5tity ( matt] = physics4 ,a human body is "o p]si/+ ?+ = common s5se1 b = physics its matt] is con/antly *ang+4 ,we may say1 broadly1 t ! common-s5se conception is bas$ ^u cont9uity 9 appe>ances at ! ord9>y di/ances ( s5se-data1 :ile ! physical conception is bas$ ^u ! cont9uity ( appe>ances at v small di/ances f ! ?+4 ,x is probable t ! common-s5se conception is n capable ( complete precision4 ,let u !re=e conc5trate our att5tion ^u ! conception ( ! p]si/5ce ( matt] 9 physics4 ,! fir/ *>act]i/ic ( two appe>ances ( ! same piece ( matt] at diff]5t times is cont9uity4 ,! two appe>ances mu/ be connect$ by a s]ies ( int]m$i>ies1 :i*1 if "t & space =m compact s]ies1 mu/ !mselves =m a compact s]ies4 ,! col\r ( ! leaves is diff]5t 9 autumn f :at x is 9 summ]2 b we believe t ! *ange occurs gradually1 & t1 if ! col\rs are diff]5t at two giv5 times1 !re are int]m$iate times at :i* ! col\rs are int]m$iate betwe5 ^? at ! giv5 times4 ,b !re are two consid]ations t are important z reg>ds cont9uity4 ,fir/1 x is l>gely hypo!tical4 ,we d n obs]ve any "o ?+ cont9u\sly1 & x is m]ely a hypo!sis to assume t1 :ile we are n obs]v+ x1 x passes ?r\gh conditions int]m$iate betwe5 ^? 9 :i* x is p]ceiv$4 ,dur+ un9t]rupt$ obs]vation1 x is true1 cont9uity is ne>ly v]ifi$2 b ev5 "h1 :5 motions are v rapid1 z 9 ! case ( explosions1 ! cont9uity is n actually capable ( direct v]ification4 ,?us we c only say t ! s5se-data are f\nd to p]mit a hypo!tical complem5t ( s5sibilia su* z w pres]ve cont9uity1 & t !re=e !re may be su* a complem5t4 ,s9ce1 h[ev]1 we h already made su* use ( hypo!tical s5sibilia1 we w let ?is po9t pass1 & admit su* s5sibilia z are requir$ to pres]ve cont9uity4 ,secondly1 cont9uity is n a suffici5t crit]ion ( mat]ial id5tity4 ,x is true t 9 _m cases1 su* z rocks1 m\nta9s1 tables1 *airs1 etc41 :]e ! appe>ances *ange sl[ly1 cont9uity is suffici5t1 b 9 o!r cases1 su* z ! p>ts ( an approximately homog5e\s fluid1 x fails u utt]ly4 ,we c travel by s5sibly cont9u\s gradations f any "o drop ( ! sea at any "o "t to any o!r drop at any o!r "t4 ,we inf] ! motions ( sea-wat] f ! effects ( ! curr5t1 b !y _c be inf]r$ f direct s5sible obs]vation toge!r ) ! assumption ( cont9uity4 ,! *>act]i/ic requir$ 9 addition to cont9uity is con=mity ) ! laws ( dynamics4 ,/>t+ f :at common s5se reg>ds z p]si/5t ?+s1 & mak+ only su* modifications z f "t to "t seem reasonable1 we arrive at assemblages ( s5sibilia :i* are f\nd to obey c]ta9 simple laws1 namely ^? ( dynamics4 ,by reg>d+ s5sibilia at diff]5t times z belong+ to ! same piece ( matt]1 we are able to def9e motion1 :i* presupposes ! assumption or con/ruction ( some?+ p]si/+ ?r\gh\t ! "t ( ! motion4 ,! motions :i* are reg>d$ z occurr+1 dur+ a p]iod 9 :i* all ! s5sibilia & ! times ( _! appe>ance are giv51 w be diff]5t accord+ to ! mann] 9 :i* we comb9e s5sibilia at diff]5t times z belong+ to ! same piece ( matt]4 ,?us ev5 :5 ! :ole hi/ory ( ! _w is giv5 9 e p>ticul>1 ! "q :at motions take place is /ill to a c]ta9 ext5t arbitr>y ev5 aft] ! assumption ( cont9uity4 ,exp]i5ce %[s t x is possible to det]m9e motions 9 su* a way z to satisfy ! laws ( dynamics1 & t ?is det]m9ation1 r\ghly & on ! :ole1 is fairly 9 agreem5t ) ! common-s5se op9ions ab\t p]si/5t ?+s4 ,?is det]m9ation1 !re=e1 is adopt$1 & leads to a crit]ion by :i* we c det]m9e1 sometimes practically1 sometimes only !oretically1 :e!r two appe>ances at diff]5t times are to be reg>d$ z belong+ to ! same piece ( matt]4 ,! p]si/5ce ( all matt] ?r\gh\t all "t c1 ,i imag9e1 be secur$ by def9ition4 ,to recomm5d ?is conclusion1 we mu/ consid] :at x is t is prov$ by ! empirical success ( physics4 ,:at is prov$ is t its hypo!ses1 ?\gh unv]ifiable :]e !y g beyond s5se-data1 are at no po9t 9 contradiction ) s5se-data1 b1 on ! contr>y1 are ideally su* z to r5d] all s5se-data calculable :5 a suffici5t collection ( s5sibilia is giv54 ,n[ physics has f\nd x empirically possible to collect s5se-data into s]ies1 ea* s]ies be+ reg>d$ z belong+ to "o ?+1 & behav+1 ) reg>d to ! laws ( physics1 9 a way 9 :i* s]ies n belong+ to "o ?+ w\ld 9 g5]al n behave4 ,if x is to be unambigu\s :e!r two appe>ances belong to ! same ?+ or n1 !re mu/ be only "o way ( gr\p+ appe>ances s t ! result+ ?+s obey ! laws ( physics4 ,x w\ld be v difficult to prove t ?is is ! case1 b = our pres5t purposes we may let ?is po9t pass1 & assume t !re is only "o way4 ,?us we may lay d[n ! foll[+ def9ition3 ,physical ?+s are ^? s]ies ( appe>ances ^: matt] obeys ! laws ( physics4 ,t su* s]ies exi/ is an empirical fact1 :i* con/itutes ! v]ifiability ( physics4 ,,xii4 ,,illusions1 ,,halluc9ations1 ,,& ,,dreams ,x rema9s to ask h[1 9 our sy/em1 we are to f9d a place = s5se-data :i* app>5tly fail to h ! usual connection ) ! _w ( physics4 ,su* s5se-data are ( v>i\s k9ds1 requir+ some:at diff]5t treatm5t4 ,b all are ( ! sort t w\ld be call$ unreal1 & !re=e1 be=e emb>k+ ^u ! discussion1 c]ta9 logical rem>ks mu/ be made ^u ! conceptions ( reality & unreality4 ,mr4 ,a4 ,wolf#ca says3 ,! conception ( m9d z a sy/em ( transp>5t activities is1 ,i ?9k1 also unt5able because ( its failure to acc\nt = ! v possibility ( dreams & halluc9ations4 ,x seems impossible to realise h[ a b>e1 transp>5t activity c be direct$ to :at is n !re1 to appreh5d :at is n giv54 ,?is /atem5t is "o :i*1 probably1 mo/ p w\ld endorse4 ,b x is op5 to two objections4 ,fir/ x is difficult to see h[ an activity1 h[ev] un-transp>5t1 c be direct$ t[>ds a no?+3 a t]m ( a relation _c be a m]e non5tity4 ,secondly1 no reason is giv51 & ,i am conv9c$ t none c be giv51 = ! ass]tion t dream-objects are n !re & n giv54 ,let u take ! second po9t fir/4 7#a7 ,! belief t dream-objects are n giv5 comes1 ,i ?9k1 f failure to di/+ui%1 z reg>ds wak+ life1 betwe5 ! s5se-datum & ! correspond+ ?+4 ,9 dreams1 !re is no su* correspond+ ?+ z ! dream] supposes2 if1 !re=e1 ! ?+ 7 giv5 9 wak+ life1 z e4g4 ,me9ong ma9ta9s1#cb !n !re w\ld be a diff]5ce 9 respect ( giv5ness betwe5 dreams & wak+ life4 ,b if1 z we h ma9ta9$1 :at is giv5 is nev] ! ?+1 b m]ely "o ( ! s5sibilia :i* compose ! ?+1 !n :at we appreh5d 9 a dream is j z mu* giv5 z :at we appreh5d 9 wak+ life4 ,exactly ! same argum5t applies z to ! dream-objects be+ !re4 ,!y h _! position 9 ! private space ( ! p]spective ( ! dream]2 :]e !y fail is 9 _! correlation ) o!r private spaces & !re=e ) p]spective space4 ,b 9 ! only s5se 9 :i* !re c be a datum1 !y are !re j z truly z any ( ! s5se-data ( wak+ life4 7#b7 ,! conception ( illusion or unreality1 & ! correlative conception ( reality1 are g5]ally us$ 9 a way :i* embodies pr(\nd logical confusions4 ,words t g 9 pairs1 su* z real & unreal1 exi/5t & non-exi/5t1 valid & invalid1 etc41 are all d]iv$ f ! "o fundam5tal pair1 true & false4 ,n[ true & false are applicable only--except 9 d]ivative significations--to propositions4 ,?us :]ev] ! above pairs c be significantly appli$1 we mu/ be deal+ ei!r ) propositions or ) su* incomplete phrases z only acquire mean+ :5 put into a context :i*1 ) !m1 =ms a proposition4 ,?us su* pairs ( words c be appli$ to descriptions1#cc b n to prop] names3 9 o!r words1 !y h no application :atev] to data1 b only to entities or non-entities describ$ 9 t]ms ( data4 ,let u illu/rate by ! t]ms exi/5ce & non-exi/5ce4 ,giv5 any datum x1 x is mean+less ei!r to ass]t or to d5y t x exi/s4 ,we might be tempt$ to say3 ,( c\rse x exi/s1 = o!rwise x c\ld n be a datum4 ,b su* a /atem5t is really mean+less1 al?\gh x is significant & true to say ,my pres5t s5se-datum exi/s1 & x may also be true t x is my pres5t s5se-datum4 ,! inf]5ce f ^! two propositions to x exi/s is "o :i* seems irresi/ible to p unaccu/om$ to logic2 yet ! app>5t proposition inf]r$ is n m]ely false1 b /rictly mean+less4 ,to say ,my pres5t s5se-datum exi/s is to say 7r\ghly73 ,!re is an object ( :i* 'my pres5t s5se-datum' is a description4 ,b we _c say3 ,!re is an object ( :i* 'x' is a description1 because 'x' is 79 ! case we are suppos+7 a "n1 n a description4 ,dr4 ,:itehead & ,i h expla9$ ?is po9t fully else:]e 7loc4 cit47 ) ! help ( symbols1 )\t :i* x is h>d to und]/&2 ,i %all n !re=e "h repeat ! demon/ration ( ! above propositions1 b %all proce$ ) _! application to our pres5t problem4 ,! fact t exi/5ce is only applicable to descriptions is conceal$ by ! use ( :at are grammatically prop] names 9 a way :i* really trans=ms !m into descriptions4 ,x is1 = example1 a legitimate "q :e!r ,hom] exi/$2 b "h ,hom] means ! au?or ( ! ,hom]ic poems1 & is a description4 ,simil>ly we may ask :e!r ,god exi/s2 b !n ,god means ! ,supreme ,be+ or ! ens realissimum or :atev] o!r description we may pref]4 ,if ,god 7 a prop] "n1 ,god w\ld h to be a datum2 & !n no "q c\ld arise z to ,8 exi/5ce4 ,! di/9ction betwe5 exi/5ce & o!r pr$icates1 :i* ,kant obscurely felt1 is br\ght to light by ! !ory ( descriptions1 & is se5 to remove exi/5ce altoge!r f ! fundam5tal notions ( metaphysics4 ,:at has be5 said ab\t exi/5ce applies equally to reality1 :i* may1 9 fact1 be tak5 z synonym\s ) exi/5ce4 ,conc]n+ ! imm$iate objects 9 illusions1 halluc9ations1 & dreams1 x is mean+less to ask :e!r !y exi/ or are real4 ,!re !y are1 & t ends ! matt]4 ,b we may legitimately inquire z to ! exi/5ce or reality ( ?+s or o!r s5sibilia inf]r$ f su* objects4 ,x is ! unreality ( ^! ?+s & o!r s5sibilia1 toge!r ) a failure to notice t !y are n data1 :i* has l$ to ! view t ! objects ( dreams are unreal4 ,we may n[ apply ^! consid]ations 9 detail to ! /ock argum5ts aga9/ realism1 ?\gh :at is to be said w be ma9ly a repetition ( :at o!rs h said be=e4 7#a7 ,we h fir/ ! v>iety ( normal appe>ances1 suppos$ to be incompatible4 ,?is is ! case ( ! diff]5t %apes & col\rs :i* a giv5 ?+ pres5ts to diff]5t spectators4 ,locke's wat] :i* seems bo? hot & cold belongs to ?is class ( cases4 ,our sy/em ( diff]5t p]spectives fully acc\nts = ^! cases1 & %[s t !y af=d no argum5t aga9/ realism4 7#b7 ,we h cases :]e ! correlation betwe5 diff]5t s5ses is unusual4 ,! b5t /ick 9 wat] belongs "h4 ,p say x looks b5t b is /raight3 ?is only means t x is /raight to ! t\*1 ?\gh b5t to sight4 ,!re is no illusion1 b only a false inf]5ce1 if we ?9k t ! /ick w\ld feel b5t to ! t\*4 ,! /ick w\ld look j z b5t 9 a photograph1 &1 z ,mr4 ,glad/one us$ to say1 ! photograph _c lie4#cd ,! case ( see+ d\ble also belongs "h1 ?\gh 9 ?is case ! cause ( ! unusual correlation is physiological1 & w\ld !re=e n op]ate 9 a photograph4 ,x is a mi/ake to ask :e!r ! ?+ is duplicat$ :5 we see x d\ble4 ,! ?+ is a :ole sy/em ( s5sibilia1 & x is only ^? visual s5sibilia :i* are data to ! p]cipi5t t are duplicat$4 ,! ph5om5on has a purely physiological explanation2 inde$1 9 view ( our hav+ two eyes1 x is 9 less ne$ ( explanation ?an ! s+le visual s5se-datum :i* we normally obta9 f ! ?+s on :i* we focus4 7#c7 ,we come n[ to cases l dreams1 :i* may1 at ! mom5t ( dream+1 conta9 no?+ to ar\se suspicion1 b are condemn$ on ! gr\nd ( _! suppos$ incompatibility ) e>li] & lat] data4 ,( c\rse x (t5 happ5s t dream-objects fail to behave 9 ! accu/om$ mann]3 heavy objects fly1 solid objects melt1 babies turn into pigs or und]go ev5 great] *anges4 ,b none ( ^! unusual occurr5ces ne$ happ5 9 a dream1 & x is n on acc\nt ( su* occurr5ces t dream-objects are call$ unreal4 ,x is _! lack ( cont9uity ) ! dream]'s pa/ & future t makes him1 :5 he wakes1 condemn !m2 & x is _! lack ( correlation ) o!r private worlds t makes o!rs condemn !m4 ,omitt+ ! latt] gr\nd1 our reason = condemn+ !m is t ! ?+s :i* we inf] f !m _c be comb9$ accord+ to ! laws ( physics ) ! ?+s inf]r$ f wak+ s5se-data4 ,?is might be us$ to condemn ! ?+s inf]r$ f ! data ( dreams4 ,dream-data are no d\bt appe>ances ( ?+s1 b n ( su* ?+s z ! dream] supposes4 ,i h no wi% to combat psy*ological !ories ( dreams1 su* z ^? ( ! psy*o-analy/s4 ,b !re c]ta9ly are cases :]e 7:atev] psy*ological causes may contribute7 ! pres5ce ( physical causes also is v evid5t4 ,= in/ance1 a door bang+ may produce a dream ( a naval engagem5t1 ) images ( battle%ips & sea & smoke4 ,! :ole dream w be an appe>ance ( ! door bang+1 b ow+ to ! peculi> condition ( ! body 7especially ! bra97 dur+ sleep1 ?is appe>ance is n t expect$ to be produc$ by a door bang+1 & ?us ! dream] is l$ to ent]ta9 false beliefs4 ,b 8 s5se-data are /ill physical1 & are su* z a complet$ physics w\ld include & calculate4 7#d7 ,! la/ class ( illusions are ^? :i* _c be discov]$ )9 "o p]son's exp]i5ce1 except ?r\gh ! discov]y ( discrepancies ) ! exp]i5ces ( o!rs4 ,dreams might conceivably belong to ?is class1 if !y 7 jo9t$ suffici5tly neatly into wak+ life2 b ! *ief in/ances are recurr5t s5sory halluc9ations ( ! k9d t lead to insanity4 ,:at makes ! pati5t1 9 su* cases1 become :at o!rs call insane is ! fact t1 )9 8 own exp]i5ce1 !re is no?+ to %[ t ! halluc9atory s5se-data d n h ! usual k9d ( connection ) s5sibilia 9 o!r p]spectives4 ,( c\rse he may le>n ?is ?r\gh te/imony1 b he probably f9ds x simpl] to suppose t ! te/imony is untrue & t he is be+ wilfully deceiv$4 ,!re is1 s f> z ,i c see1 no !oretical crit]ion by :i* ! pati5t c decide1 9 su* a case1 betwe5 ! two equally satisfactory hypo!ses ( 8 madness & ( 8 fri5ds' m5dacity4 ,f ! above in/ances x w\ld appe> t abnormal s5se-data1 ( ! k9d :i* we reg>d z deceptive1 h intr9sically j ! same /atus z any o!rs1 b diff] z reg>ds _! correlations or causal connections ) o!r s5sibilia & ) ?+s4 ,s9ce ! usual correlations & connections become "p ( our unreflective expectations1 & ev5 seem1 except to ! psy*ologi/1 to =m "p ( our data1 x comes to be ?\ght1 mi/ak5ly1 t 9 su* cases ! data are unreal1 :]eas !y are m]ely ! causes ( false inf]5ces4 ,! fact t correlations & connections ( unusual k9ds occur adds to ! difficulty ( inf]r+ ?+s f s5se & ( express+ physics 9 t]ms ( s5se-data4 ,b ! unusualness w\ld seem to be always physically or physiologically explicable1 & !re=e raises only a complication1 n a philosophical objection4 ,i conclude1 !re=e1 t no valid objection exi/s to ! view :i* reg>ds s5se-data z "p ( ! actual sub/ance ( ! physical _w1 & t1 on ! o!r h&1 ?is view is ! only "o :i* acc\nts = ! empirical v]ifiability ( physics4 ,9 ! pres5t pap]1 ,i h giv5 only a r\gh prelim9>y sket*4 ,9 p>ticul>1 ! "p play$ by "t 9 ! con/ruction ( ! physical _w is1 ,i ?9k1 m fundam5tal ?an w\ld appe> f ! above acc\nt4 ,i %\ld hope t1 ) fur!r elaboration1 ! "p play$ by unp]ceiv$ s5sibilia c\ld be indef9itely dim9i%$1 probably by invok+ ! hi/ory ( a ?+ to eke out ! inf]5ces d]ivable f its mom5t>y appe>ance4 ,,footnotes3 #bi ,proc4 ,ari/4 ,soc41 #aiji-aiaj1 pp4 #aia-bah4 #cj ,on ?is subject1 comp>e ,a ,!ory ( ,"t & ,space1 by ,mr4 ,a4,a4 ,robb 7,camb4 ,univ4 ,press71 :i* fir/ sugge/$ to me ! views advocat$ "h1 ?\gh ,i h1 = pres5t purposes1 omitt$ :at is mo/ int]e/+ & novel 9 8 !ory4 ,mr4 ,robb has giv5 a sket* ( 8 !ory 9 a pamphlet ) ! same title 7,heff] & ,sons1 ,cambridge1 #aiac74 #ca ,natural ,realism & ,pres5t ,t5d5cies 9 ,philosophy1 ,proc4 ,ari/4 ,soc41 #aijh-aiji1 p4 #afe4 #cb ,die ,erfahrungsgrundlag5 uns]es ,wiss5s1 p4 #bh4 #cc ,cf4 ,pr9cipia ,ma!matica1 ,vol4 ,i1 99 #ad1 & ,introduction1 ,*ap4 ,,iii4 ,= ! def9ition ( exi/5ce1 cf4 99 #ad4 #jb4 #cd ,cf4 ,edw9 ,b4 ,holt1 ,! ,place ( ,illusory ,exp]i5ce 9 a ,reali/ic ,_w4 ,! ,new ,realism1 p4 #cjc1 bo? on ?is po9t & z reg>ds see+ d\ble4 ,,ix ,,on ,,! ,,notion ,,( ,,cause ,9 ! foll[+ pap] ,i wi%1 fir/1 to ma9ta9 t ! ^w cause is s inextricably b\nd up ) mislead+ associations z to make its complete extrusion f ! philosophical vocabul>y desirable2 secondly1 to inquire :at pr9ciple1 if any1 is employ$ 9 sci5ce 9 place ( ! suppos$ law ( causality :i* philosoph]s imag9e to be employ$2 ?irdly1 to exhibit c]ta9 confusions1 especially 9 reg>d to teleology & det]m9ism1 :i* appe> to me to be connect$ ) errone\s notions z to causality4 ,all philosoph]s1 ( e s*ool1 imag9e t causation is "o ( ! fundam5tal axioms or po/ulates ( sci5ce1 yet1 oddly en\gh1 9 advanc$ sci5ces su* z gravitational a/ronomy1 ! ^w cause nev] occurs4 ,dr4 ,james ,w>d1 9 8 ,naturalism & ,agno/icism1 makes ?is a gr\nd ( compla9t aga9/ physics3 ! bus9ess ( ^? :o wi% to asc]ta9 ! ultimate tru? ab\t ! _w1 he app>5tly ?9ks1 %\ld be ! discov]y ( causes1 yet physics nev] ev5 seeks !m4 ,to me x seems t philosophy ought n to assume su* legislative functions1 & t ! reason :y physics has ceas$ to look = causes is t1 9 fact1 !re are no su* ?+s4 ,! law ( causality1 ,i believe1 l mu* t passes mu/] among philosoph]s1 is a relic ( a bygone age1 surviv+1 l ! mon>*y1 only because x is errone\sly suppos$ to d no h>m4 ,9 ord] to f9d out :at philosoph]s commonly und]/& by cause1 ,i consult$ ,baldw9's ,diction>y1 & 0 rew>d$ beyond my expectations1 = ,i f\nd ! foll[+ ?ree mutually incompatible def9itions3-- ,,causality4 7#a7 ,! necess>y connection ( ev5ts 9 ! "t-s]ies4444 ,,cause 7notion (74 ,:atev] may be includ$ 9 ! ?\ght or p]ception ( a process z tak+ place 9 consequ5ce ( ano!r process4444 ,,cause ,,& ,,effect4 7#a7 ,cause & effect 444 are correlative t]ms d5ot+ any two di/+ui%able ?+s1 phases1 or aspects ( reality1 :i* are s relat$ to ea* o!r t :5ev] ! fir/ ceases to exi/ ! second comes into exi/5ce imm$iately aft]1 & :5ev] ! second comes into exi/5ce ! fir/ has ceas$ to exi/ imm$iately be=e4 ,let u consid] ^! ?ree def9itions 9 turn4 ,! fir/1 obvi\sly1 is un9telligible )\t a def9ition ( necess>y4 ,"u ?is head1 ,baldw9's ,diction>y gives ! foll[+3-- ,,necess>y4 ,t is necess>y :i* n only is true1 b w\ld be true "u all circum/ances4 ,some?+ m ?an brute compulsion is1 !re=e1 involv$ 9 ! conception2 !re is a g5]al law "u :i* ! ?+ takes place4 ,! notion ( cause is s intimately connect$ ) t ( necessity t x w be no digression to l+] ov] ! above def9ition1 ) a view to discov]+1 if possible1 "s mean+ ( :i* x is capable2 =1 z x /&s1 x is v f> f hav+ any def9ite signification4 ,! fir/ po9t to notice is t1 if any mean+ is to be giv5 to ! phrase w\ld be true "u all circum/ances1 ! subject ( x mu/ be a propositional function1 n a proposition4#ce ,a proposition is simply true or false1 & t ends ! matt]3 !re c be no "q ( circum/ances4 ,*>les ,i's head 0 cut (f is j z true 9 summ] z 9 w9t]1 on ,sundays z on ,mondays4 ,?us :5 x is wor? say+ t some?+ w\ld be true "u all circum/ances1 ! some?+ 9 "q mu/ be a propositional function1 i4e4 an expression conta9+ a v>iable1 & becom+ a proposition :5 a value is assign$ to ! v>iable2 ! v>y+ circum/ances allud$ to are !n ! diff]5t values ( :i* ! v>iable is capable4 ,?us if necess>y means :at is true "u all circum/ances1 !n if x is a man1 x is mortal is necess>y1 because x is true = any possible value ( x4 ,?us we %\ld be l$ to ! foll[+ def9ition3-- ,,necess>y is a pr$icate ( a propositional function1 mean+ t x is true = all possible values ( its argum5t or argum5ts4 ,un=tunately1 h[ev]1 ! def9ition 9 ,baldw9's ,diction>y says t :at is necess>y is n only true "u all circum/ances b is also true4 ,n[ ^! two are incompatible4 ,only propositions c be true1 & only propositional functions c be true "u all circum/ances4 ,h5ce ! def9ition z x /&s is nons5se4 ,:at is meant seems to be ?is3 ,a proposition is necess>y :5 x is a value ( a propositional function :i* is true "u all circum/ances1 i4e4 = all values ( its argum5t or argum5ts4 ,b if we adopt ?is def9ition1 ! same proposition w be necess>y or cont+5t accord+ z we *oose "o or o!r ( its t]ms z ! argum5t to our propositional function4 ,= example1 if ,socrates is a man1 ,socrates is mortal1 is necess>y if ,socrates is *os5 z argum5t1 b n if man or mortal is *os54 ,aga91 if ,socrates is a man1 ,plato is mortal1 w be necess>y if ei!r ,socrates or man is *os5 z argum5t1 b n if ,plato or mortal is *os54 ,h[ev]1 ?is difficulty c be ov]come by specify+ ! con/itu5t :i* is to be reg>d$ z argum5t1 & we ?us arrive at ! foll[+ def9ition3 ,a proposition is necess>y ) respect to a giv5 con/itu5t if x rema9s true :5 t con/itu5t is alt]$ 9 any way compatible ) ! proposition rema9+ significant4 ,we may n[ apply ?is def9ition to ! def9ition ( causality quot$ above4 ,x is obvi\s t ! argum5t mu/ be ! "t at :i* ! e>li] ev5t occurs4 ,?us an in/ance ( causality w be su* z3 ,if ! ev5t ,ma?3 e#a occurs at ! "t ,ma?3 t#a1 x w be foll[$ by ! ev5t ,ma?3 e#b4 ,?is proposition is int5d$ to be necess>y ) respect to ,ma?3 t#a1 i4e4 to rema9 true h[ev] ,ma?3 t#a may be v>i$4 ,causality1 z a univ]sal law1 w !n be ! foll[+3 ,giv5 any ev5t ,ma?3 t#a1 !re is an ev5t ,ma?3 e#b su* t1 :5ev] ,ma?3 t#a occurs1 ,ma?3 e#b occurs lat]4 ,b be=e ?is c be consid]$ precise1 we mu/ specify h[ mu* lat] ,ma?3 e#b is to occur4 ,?us ! pr9ciple becomes3-- ,giv5 any ev5t ,ma?3 e#a1 !re is an ev5t ,ma?3 e#b & a "t-int]val tau su* t1 :5ev] ,ma?3 e#a occurs1 ,ma?3 e#b foll[s aft] an int]val tau4 ,i am n conc]n$ z yet to consid] :e!r ?is law is true or false4 ,= ! pres5t1 ,i am m]ely conc]n$ to discov] :at ! law ( causality is suppos$ to be4 ,i pass1 !re=e1 to ! o!r def9itions quot$ above4 ,! second def9ition ne$ n deta9 u long1 = two reasons4 ,fir/1 because x is psy*ological3 n ! ?\ght or p]ception ( a process1 b ! process itself1 mu/ be :at conc]ns u 9 consid]+ causality4 ,secondly1 because x is circul>3 9 speak+ ( a process z tak+ place 9 consequ5ce ( ano!r process1 x introduces ! v notion ( cause :i* 0 to be def9$4 ,! ?ird def9ition is by f> ! mo/ precise2 inde$ z reg>ds cle>ness x leaves no?+ to be desir$4 ,b a great difficulty is caus$ by ! temporal contiguity ( cause & effect :i* ! def9ition ass]ts4 ,no two in/ants are contigu\s1 s9ce ! "t-s]ies is compact2 h5ce ei!r ! cause or ! effect or bo? mu/1 if ! def9ition is correct1 endure = a f9ite "t2 inde$1 by ! word+ ( ! def9ition x is pla9 t bo? are assum$ to endure = a f9ite "t4 ,b !n we are fac$ ) a dilemma3 if ! cause is a process involv+ *ange )9 itself1 we %all require 7if causality is univ]sal7 causal relations betwe5 its e>li] & lat] p>ts2 moreov]1 x w\ld seem t only ! lat] p>ts c be relevant to ! effect1 s9ce ! e>li] p>ts are n contigu\s to ! effect1 & !re=e 7by ! def9ition7 _c influ5ce ! effect4 ,?us we %all be l$ to dim9i% ! duration ( ! cause )\t limit1 & h[ev] mu* we may dim9i% x1 !re w /ill rema9 an e>li] "p :i* might be alt]$ )\t alt]+ ! effect1 s t ! true cause1 z def9$1 w n h be5 rea*$1 = x w be obs]v$ t ! def9ition excludes plurality ( causes4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 ! cause is purely /atic1 involv+ no *ange )9 itself1 !n1 9 ! fir/ place1 no su* cause is to be f\nd 9 nature1 & 9 ! second place1 x seems /range--too /range to be accept$1 9 spite ( b>e logical possibility--t ! cause1 aft] exi/+ placidly = "s "t1 %\ld sudd5ly explode into ! effect1 :5 x might j z well h done s at any e>li] "t1 or h gone on un*ang$ )\t produc+ its effect4 ,?is dilemma1 !re=e1 is fatal to ! view t cause & effect c be contigu\s 9 "t2 if !re are causes & effects1 !y mu/ be sep>at$ by a f9ite "t-int]val tau1 z 0 assum$ 9 ! above int]pretation ( ! fir/ def9ition4 ,:at is ess5tially ! same /atem5t ( ! law ( causality z ! "o elicit$ above f ! fir/ ( ,baldw9's def9itions is giv5 by o!r philosoph]s4 ,?us ,john ,/u>t ,mill says3-- ,! ,law ( ,causation1 ! recognition ( :i* is ! ma9 pill> ( inductive sci5ce1 is b ! famili> tru?1 t inv>iability ( succession is f\nd by obs]vation to obta9 betwe5 e fact 9 nature & "s o!r fact :i* has prec$$ x4#cf ,& ,b]gson1 :o has rightly p]ceiv$ t ! law z /at$ by philosoph]s is wor?less1 nev]!less cont9ues to suppose t x is us$ 9 sci5ce4 ,?us he says3-- ,n[1 x is argu$1 ?is law ! law ( causality means t e ph5om5on is det]m9$ by its conditions1 or1 9 o!r words1 t ! same causes produce ! same effects4#cg ,& aga93-- ,we p]ceive physical ph5om5a1 & ^! ph5om5a obey laws4 ,?is means3 7#a7 ,t ph5om5a a1 b1 c1 d1 previ\sly p]ceiv$1 c occur aga9 9 ! same %ape2 7#b7 t a c]ta9 ph5om5on ,p1 :i* appe>$ aft] ! conditions a1 b1 c1 d1 & aft] ^! conditions only1 w n fail to recur z soon z ! same conditions are aga9 pres5t4#ch ,a great "p ( ,b]gson's attack on sci5ce re/s on ! assumption t x employs ?is pr9ciple4 ,9 fact1 x employs no su* pr9ciple1 b philosoph]s--ev5 ,b]gson--are too apt to take _! views on sci5ce f ea* o!r1 n f sci5ce4 ,z to :at ! pr9ciple is1 !re is a fair cons5sus among philosoph]s ( diff]5t s*ools4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 a numb] ( difficulties :i* at once arise4 ,i omit ! "q ( plurality ( causes = ! pres5t1 s9ce o!r grav] que/ions h to be consid]$4 ,two ( ^!1 :i* are =c$ on our att5tion by ! above /atem5t ( ! law1 are ! foll[+3-- 7#a7 ,:at is meant by an ev5t8 7#b7 ,h[ long may ! "t-int]val be betwe5 cause & effect8 7#a7 ,an ev5t1 9 ! /atem5t ( ! law1 is obvi\sly int5d$ to be some?+ t is likely to recur s9ce o!rwise ! law becomes trivial4 ,x foll[s t an ev5t is n a p>ticul>1 b "s univ]sal ( :i* !re may be _m in/ances4 ,x foll[s also t an ev5t mu/ be some?+ %ort ( ! :ole /ate ( ! univ]se1 s9ce x is highly improbable t ?is w recur4 ,:at is meant by an ev5t is some?+ l /rik+ a mat*1 or dropp+ a p5ny into ! slot ( an automatic ma*9e4 ,if su* an ev5t is to recur1 x mu/ n be def9$ too n>r[ly3 we mu/ n /ate ) :at degree ( =ce ! mat* is to be /ruck1 nor :at is to be ! temp]ature ( ! p5ny4 ,= if su* consid]ations 7 relevant1 our ev5t w\ld occur at mo/ once1 & ! law w\ld cease to give in=mation4 ,an ev5t1 !n1 is a univ]sal def9$ suffici5tly widely to admit ( _m p>ticul> occurr5ces 9 "t be+ in/ances ( x4 7#b7 ,! next "q conc]ns ! "t-int]val4 ,philosoph]s1 no d\bt1 ?9k ( cause & effect z contigu\s 9 "t1 b ?is1 = reasons already giv51 is impossible4 ,h5ce1 s9ce !re are no inf9itesimal "t-int]vals1 !re mu/ be "s f9ite lapse ( "t tau betwe5 cause & effect4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 at once raises insup]able difficulties4 ,h[ev] %ort we make ! int]val tau1 some?+ may happ5 dur+ ?is int]val :i* prev5ts ! expect$ result4 ,i put my p5ny 9 ! slot1 b be=e ,i c draw out my ticket !re is an e>?quake :i* upsets ! ma*9e & my calculations4 ,9 ord] to be sure ( ! expect$ effect1 we mu/ "k t !re is no?+ 9 ! environm5t to int]f]e ) x4 ,b ?is means t ! suppos$ cause is n1 by itself1 adequate to insure ! effect4 ,& z soon z we include ! environm5t1 ! probability ( repetition is dim9i%$1 until at la/1 :5 ! :ole environm5t is includ$1 ! probability ( repetition becomes almo/ nil4 ,9 spite ( ^! difficulties1 x mu/1 ( c\rse1 be admitt$ t _m fairly dep5dable regul>ities ( sequ5ce occur 9 daily life4 ,x is ^! regul>ities t h sugge/$ ! suppos$ law ( causality2 :]e !y are f\nd to fail1 x is ?\ght t a bett] =mulation c\ld h be5 f\nd :i* w\ld h nev] fail$4 ,i am f> f d5y+ t !re may be su* sequ5ces :i* 9 fact nev] d fail4 ,x may be t !re w nev] be an exception to ! rule t :5 a /one ( m ?an a c]ta9 mass1 mov+ ) m ?an a c]ta9 velocity1 comes 9 contact ) a pane ( glass ( less ?an a c]ta9 ?ickness1 ! glass breaks4 ,i also d n d5y t ! obs]vation ( su* regul>ities1 ev5 :5 !y are n )\t exceptions1 is useful 9 ! infancy ( a sci5ce3 ! obs]vation t unsupport$ bodies 9 air usually fall 0 a /age on ! way to ! law ( gravitation4 ,:at ,i d5y is t sci5ce assumes ! exi/5ce ( inv>iable uni=mities ( sequ5ce ( ?is k9d1 or t x aims at discov]+ !m4 ,all su* uni=mities1 z we saw1 dep5d ^u a c]ta9 vagu5ess 9 ! def9ition ( ! ev5ts4 ,t bodies fall is a vague qualitative /atem5t2 sci5ce wi%es to "k h[ fa/ !y fall4 ,?is dep5ds ^u ! %ape ( ! bodies & ! d5sity ( ! air4 ,x is true t !re is m ne>ly uni=mity :5 !y fall 9 a vacuum2 s f> z ,galileo c\ld obs]ve1 ! uni=mity is !n complete4 ,b lat] x appe>$ t ev5 !re ! latitude made a diff]5ce1 & ! altitude4 ,!oretically1 ! position ( ! sun & moon mu/ make a diff]5ce4 ,9 %ort1 e advance 9 a sci5ce takes u f>!r away f ! crude uni=mities :i* are fir/ obs]v$1 into great] diff]5tiation ( antec$5t & consequ5t1 & into a cont9ually wid] circle ( antec$5ts recognis$ z relevant4 ,! pr9ciple same cause1 same effect1 :i* philosoph]s imag9e to be vital to sci5ce1 is !re=e utt]ly otiose4 ,z soon z ! antec$5ts h be5 giv5 suffici5tly fully to enable ! consequ5t to be calculat$ ) "s exactitude1 ! antec$5ts h become s complicat$ t x is v unlikely !y w ev] recur4 ,h5ce1 if ?is 7 ! pr9ciple involv$1 sci5ce w\ld rema9 utt]ly /]ile4 ,! importance ( ^! consid]ations lies p>tly 9 ! fact t !y lead to a m correct acc\nt ( sci5tific proc$ure1 p>tly 9 ! fact t !y remove ! analogy ) human volition :i* makes ! conception ( cause su* a fruitful s\rce ( fallacies4 ,! latt] po9t w become cle>] by ! help ( "s illu/rations4 ,= ?is purpose ,i %all consid] a few maxims :i* h play$ a great "p 9 ! hi/ory ( philosophy4 7#a7 ,cause & effect mu/ m or less resemble ea* o!r4 ,?is pr9ciple 0 prom95t 9 ! philosophy ( occasionalism1 & is /ill by no means ext9ct4 ,x is /ill (t5 ?\ght1 = example1 t m9d c\ld n h gr[n up 9 a univ]se :i* previ\sly conta9$ no?+ m5tal1 & "o gr\nd = ?is belief is t matt] is too dissimil> f m9d to h be5 able to cause x4 ,or1 m p>ticul>ly1 :at are t]m$ ! nobl] p>ts ( our nature are suppos$ to be inexplicable1 unless ! univ]se always conta9$ some?+ at lea/ equally noble :i* c\ld cause !m4 ,all su* views seem to dep5d ^u assum+ "s unduly simplifi$ law ( causality2 =1 9 any legitimate s5se ( cause & effect1 sci5ce seems to %[ t !y are usually v widely dissimil>1 ! cause be+1 9 fact1 two /ates ( ! :ole univ]se1 & ! effect "s p>ticul> ev5t4 7#b7 ,cause is analog\s to volition1 s9ce !re mu/ be an intelligible nexus betwe5 cause & effect4 ,?is maxim is1 ,i ?9k1 (t5 unconsci\sly 9 ! imag9ations ( philosoph]s :o w\ld reject x :5 explicitly /at$4 ,x is probably op]ative 9 ! view we h j be5 consid]+1 t m9d c\ld n h result$ f a purely mat]ial _w4 ,i d n pr(ess to "k :at is meant by intelligible2 x seems to mean famili> to imag9ation4 ,no?+ is less intelligible1 9 any o!r s5se1 ?an ! connection betwe5 an act ( w & its fulfilm5t4 ,b obvi\sly ! sort ( nexus desir$ betwe5 cause & effect is su* z c\ld only hold betwe5 ! ev5ts :i* ! suppos$ law ( causality contemplates2 ! laws :i* replace causality 9 su* a sci5ce z physics leave no room = any two ev5ts betwe5 :i* a nexus c\ld be s\ght4 7#c7 ,! cause compels ! effect 9 "s s5se 9 :i* ! effect does n compel ! cause4 ,?is belief seems l>gely op]ative 9 ! dislike ( det]m9ism2 b1 z a matt] ( fact1 x is connect$ ) our second maxim1 & falls z soon z t is ab&on$4 ,we may def9e compulsion z foll[s3 ,any set ( circum/ances is said to compel ,a :5 ,a desires to d some?+ :i* ! circum/ances prev5t1 or to ab/a9 f some?+ :i* ! circum/ances cause4 ,?is presupposes t "s mean+ has be5 f\nd = ! ^w cause--a po9t to :i* ,i %all return lat]4 ,:at ,i want to make cle> at pres5t is t compulsion is a v complex notion1 involv+ ?w>t$ desire4 ,s long z a p]son does :at he wi%es to d1 !re is no compulsion1 h[ev] mu* 8 wi%es may be calculable by ! help ( e>li] ev5ts4 ,& :]e desire does n come 91 !re c be no "q ( compulsion4 ,h5ce x is1 9 g5]al1 mislead+ to reg>d ! cause z compell+ ! effect4 ,a vagu] =m ( ! same maxim sub/itutes ! ^w det]m9e = ! ^w compel2 we are told t ! cause det]m9es ! effect 9 a s5se 9 :i* ! effect does n det]m9e ! cause4 ,x is n q cle> :at is meant by det]m9+2 ! only precise s5se1 s f> z ,i "k1 is t ( a function or "o-_m relation4 ,if we admit plurality ( causes1 b n ( effects1 t is1 if we suppose t1 giv5 ! cause1 ! effect mu/ be su* & su*1 b1 giv5 ! effect1 ! cause may h be5 "o ( _m alt]natives1 !n we may say t ! cause det]m9es ! effect1 b n ! effect ! cause4 ,plurality ( causes1 h[ev]1 results only f conceiv+ ! effect vaguely & n>r[ly & ! cause precisely & widely4 ,_m antec$5ts may cause a man's dea?1 because 8 dea? is vague & n>r[4 ,b if we adopt ! opposite c\rse1 tak+ z ! cause ! dr9k+ ( a dose ( ars5ic1 & z ! effect ! :ole /ate ( ! _w five m9utes lat]1 we %all h plurality ( effects in/ead ( plurality ( causes4 ,?us ! suppos$ lack ( symmetry betwe5 cause & effect is illusory4 7#d7 ,a cause _c op]ate :5 x has ceas$ to exi/1 because :at has ceas$ to exi/ is no?+4 ,?is is a common maxim1 & a /ill m common unexpress$ prejudice4 ,x has1 ,i fancy1 a good deal to d ) ! attractiv5ess ( ,b]gson's dure3 s9ce ! pa/ has effects n[1 x mu/ /ill exi/ 9 "s s5se4 ,! mi/ake 9 ?is maxim consi/s 9 ! supposition t causes op]ate at all4 ,a volition op]ates :5 :at x wills takes place2 b no?+ c op]ate except a volition4 ,! belief t causes op]ate results f assimilat+ !m1 consci\sly or unconsci\sly1 to volitions4 ,we h already se5 t1 if !re are causes at all1 !y mu/ be sep>at$ by a f9ite int]val ( "t f _! effects1 & ?us cause _! effects aft] !y h ceas$ to exi/4 ,x may be object$ to ! above def9ition ( a volition op]at+ t x only op]ates :5 x causes :at x wills1 n :5 x m]ely happ5s to be foll[$ by :at x wills4 ,?is c]ta9ly repres5ts ! usual view ( :at is meant by a volition op]at+1 b z x involves ! v view ( causation :i* we are engag$ 9 combat+1 x is n op5 to u z a def9ition4 ,we may say t a volition op]ates :5 !re is "s law 9 virtue ( :i* a simil> volition 9 r simil> circum/ances w usually be foll[$ by :at x wills4 ,b ?is is a vague conception1 & introduces ideas :i* we h n yet consid]$4 ,:at is *iefly important to notice is t ! usual notion ( op]at+ is n op5 to u if we reject1 z ,i cont5d t we %\ld1 ! usual notion ( causation4 7#e7 ,a cause _c op]ate except :]e x is4 ,?is maxim is v widespread2 x 0 urg$ aga9/ ,newton1 & has rema9$ a s\rce ( prejudice aga9/ action at a di/ance4 ,9 philosophy x has l$ to a d5ial ( transi5t action1 & !nce to monism or ,leibnizian monadism4 ,l ! analog\s maxim conc]n+ temporal contiguity1 x re/s ^u ! assumption t causes op]ate1 i4e4 t !y are 9 "s obscure way analog\s to volitions4 ,&1 z 9 ! case ( temporal contiguity1 ! inf]5ces drawn f ?is maxim are :olly gr\ndless4 ,i return n[ to ! "q1 ,:at law or laws c be f\nd to take ! place ( ! suppos$ law ( causality8 ,fir/1 )\t pass+ beyond su* uni=mities ( sequ5ce z are contemplat$ by ! traditional law1 we may admit t1 if any su* sequ5ce has be5 obs]v$ 9 a great _m cases1 & has nev] be5 f\nd to fail1 !re is an inductive probability t x w be f\nd to hold 9 future cases4 ,if /ones h hi!rto be5 f\nd to break w9d[s1 x is probable t !y w cont9ue to d s4 ,?is1 ( c\rse1 assumes ! inductive pr9ciple1 ( :i* ! tru? may reasonably be que/ion$2 b z ?is pr9ciple is n our pres5t conc]n1 ,i %all 9 ?is discussion treat x z indubitable4 ,we may !n say1 9 ! case ( any su* frequ5tly obs]v$ sequ5ce1 t ! e>li] ev5t is ! cause & ! lat] ev5t ! effect4 ,sev]al consid]ations1 h[ev]1 make su* special sequ5ces v diff]5t f ! traditional relation ( cause & effect4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ! sequ5ce1 9 any hi!rto unobs]v$ in/ance1 is no m ?an probable1 :]eas ! relation ( cause & effect 0 suppos$ to be necess>y4 ,i d n mean by ?is m]ely t we are n sure ( hav+ discov]$ a true case ( cause & effect2 ,i mean t1 ev5 :5 we h a case ( cause & effect 9 our pres5t s5se1 all t is meant is t on gr\nds ( obs]vation1 x is probable t :5 "o occurs ! o!r w also occur4 ,?us 9 our pres5t s5se1 ,a may be ! cause ( ,b ev5 if !re actually are cases :]e ,b does n foll[ ,a4 ,/rik+ a mat* w be ! cause ( its ignit+1 9 spite ( ! fact t "s mat*es are damp & fail to ignite4 ,9 ! second place1 x w n be assum$ t e ev5t has "s antec$5t :i* is its cause 9 ?is s5se2 we %all only believe 9 causal sequ5ces :]e we f9d !m1 )\t any presumption t !y always are to be f\nd4 ,9 ! ?ird place1 any case ( suffici5tly frequ5t sequ5ce w be causal 9 our pres5t s5se2 = example1 we %all n refuse to say t night is ! cause ( day4 ,our repugnance to say+ ?is arises f ! ease ) :i* we c imag9e ! sequ5ce to fail1 b ow+ to ! fact t cause & effect mu/ be sep>at$ by a f9ite int]val ( "t1 any su* sequ5ce might fail ?r\gh ! int]position ( o!r circum/ances 9 ! int]val4 ,mill1 discuss+ ?is in/ance ( night & day1 says3-- ,x is necess>y to our us+ ! ^w cause1 t we %\ld believe n only t ! antec$5t always has be5 foll[$ by ! consequ5t1 b t z long z ! pres5t con/itution ( ?+s endures1 x always w be s4#ci ,9 ?is s5se1 we %all h to give up ! hope ( f9d+ causal laws su* z ,mill contemplat$2 any causal sequ5ce :i* we h obs]v$ may at any mom5t be falsifi$ )\t a falsification ( any laws ( ! k9d t ! m advanc$ sci5ces aim at e/abli%+4 ,9 ! f\r? place1 su* laws ( probable sequ5ce1 ?\gh useful 9 daily life & 9 ! infancy ( a sci5ce1 t5d to be displac$ by q diff]5t laws z soon z a sci5ce is successful4 ,! law ( gravitation w illu/rate :at occurs 9 any advanc$ sci5ce4 ,9 ! motions ( mutually gravitat+ bodies1 !re is no?+ t c be call$ a cause1 & no?+ t c be call$ an effect2 !re is m]ely a =mula4 ,c]ta9 diff]5tial equations c be f\nd1 :i* hold at e in/ant = e p>ticle ( ! sy/em1 & :i*1 giv5 ! configuration & velocities at "o in/ant1 or ! configurations at two in/ants1 r5d] ! configuration at any o!r e>li] or lat] in/ant !oretically calculable4 ,t is to say1 ! configuration at any in/ant is a function ( t in/ant & ! configurations at two giv5 in/ants4 ,?is /atem5t holds ?r\gh\t physics1 & n only 9 ! special case ( gravitation4 ,b !re is no?+ t c\ld be prop]ly call$ cause & no?+ t c\ld be prop]ly call$ effect 9 su* a sy/em4 ,no d\bt ! reason :y ! old law ( causality has s long cont9u$ to p]vade ! books ( philosoph]s is simply t ! idea ( a function is unfamili> to mo/ ( !m1 & !re=e !y seek an unduly simplifi$ /atem5t4 ,!re is no "q ( repetitions ( ! same cause produc+ ! same effect2 x is n 9 any sam5ess ( causes & effects t ! con/ancy ( sci5tific law consi/s1 b 9 sam5ess ( relations4 ,& ev5 sam5ess ( relations is too simple a phrase2 sam5ess ( diff]5tial equations is ! only correct phrase4 ,x is impossible to /ate ?is accurately 9 non-ma!matical language2 ! ne>e/ approa* w\ld be z foll[s3 ,!re is a con/ant relation betwe5 ! /ate ( ! univ]se at any in/ant & ! rate ( *ange 9 ! rate at :i* any "p ( ! univ]se is *ang+ at t in/ant1 & ?is relation is _m-"o1 i4e4 su* t ! rate ( *ange 9 ! rate ( *ange is det]m9ate :5 ! /ate ( ! univ]se is giv54 ,if ! law ( causality is to be some?+ actually discov]able 9 ! practice ( sci5ce1 ! above proposition has a bett] "r to ! "n ?an any law ( causality to be f\nd 9 ! books ( philosoph]s4 ,9 reg>d to ! above pr9ciple1 sev]al obs]vations mu/ be made-- 7#a7 ,no "o c pret5d t ! above pr9ciple is a priori or self-evid5t or a necessity ( ?\ght4 ,nor is x1 9 any s5se1 a premiss ( sci5ce3 x is an empirical g5]alisation f a numb] ( laws :i* are !mselves empirical g5]alisations4 7#b7 ,! law makes no diff]5ce betwe5 pa/ & future3 ! future det]m9es ! pa/ 9 exactly ! same s5se 9 :i* ! pa/ det]m9es ! future4 ,! ^w det]m9e1 "h1 has a purely logical significance3 a c]ta9 numb] ( v>iables det]m9e ano!r v>iable if t o!r v>iable is a function ( !m4 7#c7 ,! law w n be empirically v]ifiable unless ! c\rse ( ev5ts )9 "s suffici5tly small volume w be approximately ! same 9 any two /ates ( ! univ]se :i* only diff] 9 reg>d to :at is at a consid]able di/ance f ! small volume 9 "q4 ,= example1 motions ( planets 9 ! sol> sy/em mu/ be approximately ! same h[ev] ! fix$ />s may be di/ribut$1 provid$ t all ! fix$ />s are v mu* f>!r f ! sun ?an ! planets are4 ,if gravitation v>i$ directly z ! di/ance1 s t ! mo/ remote />s made ! mo/ diff]5ce to ! motions ( ! planets1 ! _w might be j z regul> & j z mu* subject to ma!matical laws z x is at pres5t1 b we c\ld nev] discov] ! fact4 7#d7 ,al?\gh ! old law ( causality is n assum$ by sci5ce1 some?+ :i* we may call ! uni=mity ( nature is assum$1 or r is accept$ on inductive gr\nds4 ,! uni=mity ( nature does n ass]t ! trivial pr9ciple same cause1 same effect1 b ! pr9ciple ( ! p]man5ce ( laws4 ,t is to say1 :5 a law exhibit+1 e4g4 an accel]ation z a function ( ! configuration has be5 f\nd to hold ?r\gh\t ! obs]vable pa/1 x is expect$ t x w cont9ue to hold 9 ! future1 or t1 if x does n itself hold1 !re is "s o!r law1 agree+ ) ! suppos$ law z reg>ds ! pa/1 :i* w hold = ! future4 ,! gr\nd ( ?is pr9ciple is simply ! inductive gr\nd t x has be5 f\nd to be true 9 v _m in/ances2 h5ce ! pr9ciple _c be consid]$ c]ta91 b only probable to a degree :i* _c be accurately e/imat$4 ,! uni=mity ( nature1 9 ! above s5se1 al?\gh x is assum$ 9 ! practice ( sci5ce1 mu/ n1 9 its g5]ality1 be reg>d$ z a k9d ( major premiss1 )\t :i* all sci5tific reason+ w\ld be 9 error4 ,! assumption t all laws ( nature are p]man5t has1 ( c\rse1 less probability ?an ! assumption t ?is or t p>ticul> law is p]man5t2 & ! assumption t a p>ticul> law is p]man5t = all "t has less probability ?an ! assumption t x w be valid up to su* & su* a date4 ,sci5ce1 9 any giv5 case1 w assume :at ! case requires1 b no m4 ,9 con/ruct+ ! ,nautical ,almanac = #aiae x w assume t ! law ( gravitation w rema9 true up to ! end ( t ye>2 b x w make no assumption z to #aiaf until x comes to ! next volume ( ! almanac4 ,?is proc$ure is1 ( c\rse1 dictat$ by ! fact t ! uni=mity ( nature is n kn[n a priori1 b is an empirical g5]alisation1 l all m5 are mortal4 ,9 all su* cases1 x is bett] to argue imm$iately f ! giv5 p>ticul> in/ances to ! new in/ance1 ?an to argue by way ( a major premiss2 ! conclusion is only probable 9 ei!r case1 b acquires a high] probability by ! =m] me?od ?an by ! latt]4 ,9 all sci5ce we h to di/+ui% two sorts ( laws3 fir/1 ^? t are empirically v]ifiable b probably only approximate2 secondly1 ^? t are n v]ifiable1 b may be exact4 ,! law ( gravitation1 = example1 9 its applications to ! sol> sy/em1 is only empirically v]ifiable :5 x is assum$ t matt] outside ! sol> sy/em may be ignor$ = su* purposes2 we believe ?is to be only approximately true1 b we _c empirically v]ify ! law ( univ]sal gravitation :i* we believe to be exact4 ,?is po9t is v important 9 connection ) :at we may call relatively isolat$ sy/ems4 ,^! may be def9$ z foll[s3-- ,a sy/em relatively isolat$ dur+ a giv5 p]iod is "o :i*1 )9 "s assignable m>g9 ( error1 w behave 9 ! same way ?r\gh\t t p]iod1 h[ev] ! re/ ( ! univ]se may be con/itut$4 ,a sy/em may be call$ practically isolat$ dur+ a giv5 p]iod if1 al?\gh !re might be /ates ( ! re/ ( ! univ]se :i* w\ld produce m ?an ! assign$ m>g9 ( error1 !re is reason to believe t su* /ates d n 9 fact occur4 ,/rictly speak+1 we ought to specify ! respect 9 :i* ! sy/em is relatively isolat$4 ,= example1 ! e>? is relatively isolat$ z reg>ds fall+ bodies1 b n z reg>ds tides2 x is practically isolat$ z reg>ds economic ph5om5a1 al?\gh1 if ,jevons' sunspot !ory ( comm]cial crises _h be5 true1 x w\ld n h be5 ev5 practically isolat$ 9 ?is respect4 ,x w be obs]v$ t we _c prove 9 advance t a sy/em is isolat$4 ,?is w be inf]r$ f ! obs]v$ fact t approximate uni=mities c be /at$ = ?is sy/em alone4 ,if ! complete laws = ! :ole univ]se 7 kn[n1 ! isolation ( a sy/em c\ld be d$uc$ f !m2 assum+1 = example1 ! law ( univ]sal gravitation1 ! practical isolation ( ! sol> sy/em 9 ?is respect c be d$uc$ by ! help ( ! fact t !re is v little matt] 9 its neighb\rhood4 ,b x %\ld be obs]v$ t isolat$ sy/ems are only important z provid+ a possibility ( discov]+ sci5tific laws2 !y h no !oretical importance 9 ! f9i%$ /ructure ( a sci5ce4 ,! case :]e "o ev5t ,a is said to cause ano!r ev5t ,b1 :i* philosoph]s take z fundam5tal1 is really only ! mo/ simplifi$ in/ance ( a practically isolat$ sy/em4 ,x may happ5 t1 z a result ( g5]al sci5tific laws1 :5ev] ,a occurs ?r\gh\t a c]ta9 p]iod1 x is foll[$ by ,b2 9 t case1 ,a & ,b =m a sy/em :i* is practically isolat$ ?r\gh\t t p]iod4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 to be reg>d$ z a piece ( good =tune if ?is occurs2 x w always be due to special circum/ances1 & w\ld n h be5 true if ! re/ ( ! univ]se _h be5 diff]5t ?\gh subject to ! same laws4 ,! ess5tial function :i* causality has be5 suppos$ to p]=m is ! possibility ( inf]r+ ! future f ! pa/1 or1 m g5]ally1 ev5ts at any "t f ev5ts at c]ta9 assign$ times4 ,any sy/em 9 :i* su* inf]5ce is possible may be call$ a det]m9i/ic sy/em4 ,we may def9e a det]m9i/ic sy/em z foll[s3-- ,a sy/em is said to be det]m9i/ic :51 giv5 c]ta9 data1 ,ma?3 e#a1 e#b1 4441 en1 at times t#a1 t#b1 4441 tn respectively1 conc]n+ ?is sy/em1 if ,ma?3 ,et is ! /ate ( ! sy/em at any "t t1 !re is a functional relation ( ! =m ,ma?3 ,et f 7e#a1 t#a1 e#b1 t#b1 4441 en1 tn1 t74 7,a7 ,! sy/em w be det]m9i/ic ?r\gh\t a giv5 p]iod if t1 9 ! above =mula1 may be any "t )9 t p]iod1 ?\gh outside t p]iod ! =mula may be no long] true4 ,if ! univ]se1 z a :ole1 is su* a sy/em1 det]m9ism is true ( ! univ]se2 if n1 n4 ,a sy/em :i* is "p ( a det]m9i/ic sy/em ,i %all call det]m9$2 "o :i* is n "p ( any su* sy/em ,i %all call caprici\s4 ,! ev5ts ,ma?3 e#a1 e#b1 4441 en ,i %all call det]m9ants ( ! sy/em4 ,x is to be obs]v$ t a sy/em :i* has "o set ( det]m9ants w 9 g5]al h _m4 ,9 ! case ( ! motions ( ! planets1 = example1 ! configurations ( ! sol> sy/em at any two giv5 times w be det]m9ants4 ,we may take ano!r illu/ration f ! hypo!sis ( psy*o-physical p>allelism4 ,let u assume1 = ! purposes ( ?is illu/ration1 t to a giv5 /ate ( bra9 a giv5 /ate ( m9d always corresponds1 & vice v]sa1 i4e4 t !re is a "o-"o relation betwe5 !m1 s t ea* is a function ( ! o!r4 ,we may also assume1 :at is practically c]ta91 t to a giv5 /ate ( a c]ta9 bra9 a giv5 /ate ( ! :ole mat]ial univ]se corresponds1 s9ce x is highly improbable t a giv5 bra9 is ev] twice 9 exactly ! same /ate4 ,h5ce !re w be a "o-"o relation betwe5 ! /ate ( a giv5 p]son's m9d & ! /ate ( ! :ole mat]ial univ]se4 ,x foll[s t1 if n /ates ( ! mat]ial univ]se are det]m9ants ( ! mat]ial univ]se1 !n n /ates ( a giv5 man's m9d are det]m9ants ( ! :ole mat]ial & m5tal univ]se--assum+1 t is to say1 t psy*o-physical p>allelism is true4 ,! above illu/ration is important 9 connection ) a c]ta9 confusion :i* seems to h beset ^? :o h philosophis$ on ! relation ( m9d & matt]4 ,x is (t5 ?\ght t1 if ! /ate ( ! m9d is det]m9ate :5 ! /ate ( ! bra9 is giv51 & if ! mat]ial _w =ms a det]m9i/ic sy/em1 !n m9d is subject to matt] 9 "s s5se 9 :i* matt] is n subject to m9d4 ,b if ! /ate ( ! bra9 is also det]m9ate :5 ! /ate ( ! m9d is giv51 x mu/ be exactly z true to reg>d matt] z subject to m9d z x w\ld be to reg>d m9d z subject to matt]4 ,we c\ld1 !oretically1 "w out ! hi/ory ( m9d )\t ev] m5tion+ matt]1 & !n1 at ! end1 d$uce t matt] mu/ mean:ile h gone ?r\gh ! correspond+ hi/ory4 ,x is true t if ! relation ( bra9 to m9d 7 _m-"o1 n "o-"o1 !re w\ld be a "o-sid$ dep5d5ce ( m9d on bra91 :ile conv]sely1 if ! relation 7 "o-_m1 z ,b]gson supposes1 !re w\ld be a "o-aid$ dep5d5ce ( bra9 on m9d4 ,b ! dep5d5ce involv$ is1 9 any case1 only logical2 x does n mean t we %all be compell$ to d ?+s we desire n to d1 :i* is :at p in/9ctively imag9e x to mean4 ,z ano!r illu/ration we may take ! case ( me*anism & teleology4 ,a sy/em may be def9$ z me*anical :5 x has a set ( det]m9ants t are purely mat]ial1 su* z ! positions ( c]ta9 pieces ( matt] at c]ta9 times4 ,x is an op5 "q :e!r ! _w ( m9d & matt]1 z we "k x1 is a me*anical sy/em or n2 let u suppose1 = ! sake ( argum5t1 t x is a me*anical sy/em4 ,?is supposition--s ,i cont5d--?r[s no light :atev] on ! "q :e!r ! univ]se is or is n a teleological sy/em4 ,x is difficult to def9e accurately :at is meant by a teleological sy/em1 b ! argum5t is n mu* affect$ by ! p>ticul> def9ition we adopt4 ,broadly1 a teleological sy/em is "o 9 :i* purposes are realis$1 i4e4 9 :i* c]ta9 desires--^? t are deep] or nobl] or m fundam5tal or m univ]sal or :at n--are foll[$ by _! realisation4 ,n[ ! fact--if x be a fact--t ! univ]se is me*anical has no be>+ :atev] on ! "q :e!r x is teleological 9 ! above s5se4 ,!re might be a me*anical sy/em 9 :i* all wi%es 7 realis$1 & !re might be "o 9 :i* all wi%es 7 ?w>t$4 ,! "q :e!r1 or h[ f>1 our actual _w is teleological1 _c1 !re=e1 be settl$ by prov+ t x is me*anical1 & ! desire t x %\ld be teleological is no gr\nd = wi%+ x to be n me*anical4 ,!re is1 9 all ^! que/ions1 a v great difficulty 9 avoid+ confusion betwe5 :at we c inf] & :at is 9 fact det]m9$4 ,let u consid]1 = a mom5t1 ! v>i\s s5ses 9 :i* ! future may be det]m9$4 ,!re is "o s5se--& a v important "o--9 :i* x is det]m9$ q indep5d5tly ( sci5tific laws1 namely1 ! s5se t x w be :at x w be4 ,we all reg>d ! pa/ z det]m9$ simply by ! fact t x has happ5$2 b = ! accid5t t memory works backw>d & n =w>d1 we %\ld reg>d ! future z equally det]m9$ by ! fact t x w happ54 ,b1 we are told1 y _c alt] ! pa/1 :ile y c to "s ext5t alt] ! future4 ,?is view seems to me to re/ ^u j ^? errors 9 reg>d to causation :i* x has be5 my object to remove4 ,y _c make ! pa/ o!r ?an x 0--true1 b ?is is a m]e application ( ! law ( contradiction4 ,if y already "k :at ! pa/ 01 obvi\sly x is useless to wi% x diff]5t4 ,b also y _c make ! future o!r ?an x w be2 ?is aga9 is an application ( ! law ( contradiction4 ,& if y happ5 to "k ! future--e4g4 9 ! case ( a =?com+ eclipse--x is j z useless to wi% x diff]5t z to wi% ! pa/ diff]5t4 ,b1 x w be rejo9$1 our wi%es c cause ! future1 sometimes1 to be diff]5t f :at x w\ld be if !y did n exi/1 & !y c h no su* effect ^u ! pa/4 ,?is1 aga91 is a m]e tautology4 ,an effect be+ def9$ z some?+ subsequ5t to its cause1 obvi\sly we c h no effect ^u ! pa/4 ,b t does n mean t ! pa/ w\ld n h be5 diff]5t if our pres5t wi%es _h be5 diff]5t4 ,obvi\sly1 our pres5t wi%es are condition$ by ! pa/1 & !re=e c\ld n h be5 diff]5t unless ! pa/ _h be5 diff]5t2 !re=e1 if our pres5t wi%es 7 diff]5t1 ! pa/ w\ld be diff]5t4 ,( c\rse1 ! pa/ _c be diff]5t f :at x 01 b no m c our pres5t wi%es be diff]5t f :at !y are2 ?is aga9 is m]ely ! law ( contradiction4 ,! facts seem to be m]ely 7#a7 t wi%+ g5]ally dep5ds ^u ignorance1 & is !re=e common] 9 reg>d to ! future ?an 9 reg>d to ! pa/2 7#b7 t :]e a wi% conc]ns ! future1 x & its realisation v (t5 =m a practically indep5d5t sy/em1 i4e4 _m wi%es reg>d+ ! future are realis$4 ,b !re seems no d\bt t ! ma9 diff]5ce 9 our feel+s arises f ! accid5tal fact t ! pa/ b n ! future c be kn[n by memory4 ,al?\gh ! s5se ( det]m9$ 9 :i* ! future is det]m9$ by ! m]e fact t x w be :at x w be is suffici5t 7at lea/ s x seems to me7 to refute "s oppon5ts ( det]m9ism1 notably ,m4 ,b]gson & ! pragmati/s1 yet x is n :at mo/ p h 9 m9d :5 !y speak ( ! future z det]m9$4 ,:at !y h 9 m9d is a =mula by means ( :i* ! future c be exhibit$1 & at lea/ !oretically calculat$1 z a function ( ! pa/4 ,b at ?is po9t we meet ) a great difficulty1 :i* besets :at has be5 said above ab\t det]m9i/ic sy/ems1 z well z :at is said by o!rs4 ,if =mul ( any degree ( complexity1 h[ev] great1 are admitt$1 x w\ld seem t any sy/em1 ^: /ate at a giv5 mom5t is a function ( c]ta9 measurable quantities1 mu/ be a det]m9i/ic sy/em4 ,let u consid]1 9 illu/ration1 a s+le mat]ial p>ticle1 ^: co-ord9ates at "t t are ,ma?3 xt1 yt1 zt4 ,!n1 h[ev]1 ! p>ticle moves1 !re mu/ be1 !oretically1 functions ,ma?3 f#a1 f#b1 f#c1 su* t ,ma?3 xt ft7t71 yt f#b7t71 zt f#c7t74 ,x foll[s t1 !oretically1 ! :ole /ate ( ! mat]ial univ]se at "t t mu/ be capable ( be+ exhibit$ z a function ( t4 ,h5ce our univ]se w be det]m9i/ic 9 ! s5se def9$ above4 ,b if ?is be true1 no in=mation is convey$ ab\t ! univ]se 9 /at+ t x is det]m9i/ic4 ,x is true t ! =mul involv$ may be ( /rictly inf9ite complexity1 & !re=e n practically capable ( be+ writt5 d[n or appreh5d$4 ,b except f ! po9t ( view ( our k1 ?is might seem to be a detail3 9 itself1 if ! above consid]ations are s\nd1 ! mat]ial univ]se mu/ be det]m9i/ic1 mu/ be subject to laws4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is pla9ly n :at 0 int5d$4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ?is view & ! view int5d$ may be se5 z foll[s4 ,giv5 "s =mula :i* fits ! facts hi!rto--say ! law ( gravitation--!re w be an inf9ite numb] ( o!r =mul1 n empirically di/+ui%able f x 9 ! pa/1 b div]g+ f x m & m 9 ! future4 ,h5ce1 ev5 assum+ t !re are p]si/5t laws1 we %all h no reason = assum+ t ! law ( ! inv]se squ>e w hold 9 future2 x may be "s o!r hi!rto indi/+ui%able law t w hold4 ,we _c say t e law :i* has held hi!rto mu/ hold 9 ! future1 because pa/ facts :i* obey "o law w also obey o!rs1 hi!rto indi/+ui%able b div]g+ 9 future4 ,h5ce !re mu/1 at e mom5t1 be laws hi!rto unbrok5 :i* are n[ brok5 = ! fir/ "t4 ,:at sci5ce does1 9 fact1 is to select ! simple/ =mula t w fit ! facts4 ,b ?is1 q obvi\sly1 is m]ely a me?odological precept1 n a law ( ,nature4 ,if ! simple/ =mula ceases1 aft] a "t1 to be applicable1 ! simple/ =mula t rema9s applicable is select$1 & sci5ce has no s5se t an axiom has be5 falsifi$4 ,we are ?us left ) ! brute fact t1 9 _m dep>tm5ts ( sci5ce1 q simple laws h hi!rto be5 f\nd to hold4 ,?is fact _c be reg>d$ z hav+ any a priori gr\nd1 nor c x be us$ to support inductively ! op9ion t ! same laws w cont9ue2 = at e mom5t laws hi!rto true are be+ falsifi$1 ?\gh 9 ! advanc$ sci5ces ^! laws are less simple ?an ^? t h rema9$ true4 ,moreov] x w\ld be fallaci\s to argue inductively f ! /ate ( ! advanc$ sci5ces to ! future /ate ( ! o!rs1 = x may well be t ! advanc$ sci5ces are advanc$ simply because1 hi!rto1 _! subject-matt] has obey$ simple & easily asc]ta9able laws1 :ile ! subject-matt] ( o!r sci5ces has n done s4 ,! difficulty we h be5 consid]+ seems to be met p>tly1 if n :olly1 by ! pr9ciple t ! "t mu/ n ent] explicitly into our =mul4 ,all me*anical laws exhibit accel]ation z a function ( configuration1 n ( configuration & "t jo9tly2 & ?is pr9ciple ( ! irrelevance ( ! "t may be ext5d$ to all sci5tific laws4 ,9 fact we might int]pret ! uni=mity ( nature z mean+ j ?is1 t no sci5tific law involves ! "t z an argum5t1 unless1 ( c\rse1 x is giv5 9 an integrat$ =m1 9 :i* case lapse ( "t1 ?\gh n absolute "t1 may appe> 9 our =mul4 ,:e!r ?is consid]ation suffices to ov]come our difficulty completely1 ,i d n "k2 b 9 any case x does mu* to dim9i% x4 ,x w s]ve to illu/rate :at has be5 said if we apply x to ! "q ( free w4 7#a7 ,det]m9ism 9 reg>d to ! w is ! doctr9e t our volitions belong to "s det]m9i/ic sy/em1 i4e4 are det]m9$ 9 ! s5se def9$ above4 ,:e!r ?is doctr9e is true or false1 is a m]e "q ( fact2 no a priori consid]ations 7if our previ\s discussions h be5 correct7 c exi/ on ei!r side4 ,on ! "o h&1 !re is no a priori category ( causality1 b m]ely c]ta9 obs]v$ uni=mities4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 !re are obs]v$ uni=mities 9 reg>d to volitions2 ?us !re is "s empirical evid5ce t volitions are det]m9$4 ,b x w\ld be v ra% to ma9ta9 t ! evid5ce is ov]:elm+1 & x is q possible t "s volitions1 z well z "s o!r ?+s1 are n det]m9$1 except 9 ! s5se 9 :i* we f\nd t ev]y?+ mu/ be det]m9$4 7#b7 ,b1 on ! o!r h&1 ! subjective s5se ( fre$om1 sometimes alleg$ aga9/ det]m9ism1 has no be>+ on ! "q :atev]4 ,! view t x has a be>+ re/s ^u ! belief t causes compel _! effects1 or t nature en=ces ob$i5ce to its laws z gov]nm5ts d4 ,^! are m]e an?ropomorphic sup]/itions1 due to assimilation ( causes ) volitions & ( natural laws ) human edicts4 ,we feel t our w is n compell$1 b t only means t x is n o!r ?an we *oose x to be4 ,x is "o ( ! dem]its ( ! traditional !ory ( causality t x has creat$ an artificial opposition betwe5 det]m9ism & ! fre$om ( :i* we are introspectively consci\s4 7#c7 ,besides ! g5]al "q :e!r volitions are det]m9$1 !re is ! fur!r "q :e!r !y are me*anically det]m9$1 i4e4 :e!r !y are "p ( :at 0 above def9$ z a me*anical sy/em4 ,?is is ! "q :e!r !y =m "p ( a sy/em ) purely mat]ial det]m9ants1 i4e4 :e!r !re are laws :i*1 giv5 c]ta9 mat]ial data1 make all volitions functions ( ^? data4 ,"h aga91 !re is empirical evid5ce up to a po9t1 b x is n conclusive 9 reg>d to all volitions4 ,x is important to obs]ve1 h[ev] t ev5 if volitions are "p ( a me*anical sy/em1 ?is by no means implies any supremacy ( matt] ov] m9d4 ,x may well be t ! same sy/em :i* is susceptible ( mat]ial det]m9ants is also susceptible ( m5tal det]m9ants2 ?us a me*anical sy/em may be det]m9$ by sets ( volitions1 z well z by sets ( mat]ial facts4 ,x w\ld seem1 !re=e1 t ! reasons :i* make p dislike ! view t volitions are me*anically det]m9$ are fallaci\s4 7#d7 ,! notion ( necessity1 :i* is (t5 associat$ ) det]m9ism1 is a confus$ notion n legitimately d$ucible f det]m9ism4 ,?ree mean+s are commonly conf\nd$ :5 necessity is spok5 (3-- 7alpha7 ,an action is necess>y :5 x w be p]=m$ h[ev] mu* ! ag5t may wi% to d o!rwise4 ,det]m9ism does n imply t actions are necess>y 9 ?is s5se4 7beta7 ,a propositional function is necess>y :5 all its values are true4 ,?is s5se is n relevant to our pres5t discussion4 7gamma7 ,a proposition is necess>y ) respect to a giv5 con/itu5t :5 x is ! value1 ) t con/itu5t z argum5t1 ( a necess>y propositional function1 9 o!r words1 :5 x rema9s true h[ev] t con/itu5t may be v>i$4 ,9 ?is s5se1 9 a det]m9i/ic sy/em1 ! connection ( a volition ) its det]m9ants is necess>y1 if ! "t at :i* ! det]m9ants occur be tak5 z ! con/itu5t to be v>i$1 ! "t-int]val betwe5 ! det]m9ants & ! volition be+ kept con/ant4 ,b ?is s5se ( necessity is purely logical1 & has no emotional importance4 ,we may n[ sum up our discussion ( causality4 ,we f\nd fir/ t ! law ( causality1 z usually /at$ by philosoph]s1 is false1 & is n employ$ 9 sci5ce4 ,we !n consid]$ ! nature ( sci5tific laws1 & f\nd t1 in/ead ( /at+ t "o ev5t ,a is always foll[$ by ano!r ev5t ,b1 !y /at$ functional relations betwe5 c]ta9 ev5ts at c]ta9 times1 :i* we call$ det]m9ants1 & o!r ev5ts at e>li] or lat] times or at ! same "t4 ,we 7 unable to f9d any a priori category involv$3 ! exi/5ce ( sci5tific laws appe>$ z a purely empirical fact1 n necess>ily univ]sal1 except 9 a trivial & sci5tifically useless =m4 ,we f\nd t a sy/em ) "o set ( det]m9ants may v likely h o!r sets ( a q diff]5t k9d1 t1 = example1 a me*anically det]m9$ sy/em may also be teleologically or volitionally det]m9$4 ,f9ally we consid]$ ! problem ( free w3 "h we f\nd t ! reasons = suppos+ volitions to be det]m9$ are /rong b n conclusive1 & we decid$ t ev5 if volitions are me*anically det]m9$1 t is no reason = d5y+ fre$om 9 ! s5se reveal$ by introspection1 or = suppos+ t me*anical ev5ts are n det]m9$ by volitions4 ,! problem ( free w v]sus det]m9ism is !re=e1 if we 7 "r1 ma9ly illusory1 b 9 "p n yet capable ( be+ decisively solv$4 ,,footnotes3 #ce ,a propositional function is an expression conta9+ a v>iable1 or undet]m9$ con/itu5t1 & becom+ a proposition z soon z a def9ite value is assign$ to ! v>iable4 ,examples are3 ,a is ,a1 x is a numb]4 ,! v>iable is call$ ! argum5t ( ! function4 #cf ,logic1 ,bk4 ,,iii1 ,*ap4 ,v1 #b4 #cg ,"t & ,free ,w1 p4 #aii4 #ch ,"t & ,free ,w4 p4 #bjb4 #ci ,loc4 cit41 #f ,x ,,k ,,by ,,acqua9tance ,,& ,,k ,,by ,,description ,! object ( ! foll[+ pap] is to consid] :at x is t we "k 9 cases :]e we "k propositions ab\t ! s-&-s )\t kn[+ :o or :at ! s-&-s is4 ,= example1 ,i "k t ! c&idate :o gets mo/ votes w be elect$1 ?\gh ,i d n "k :o is ! c&idate :o w get mo/ votes4 ,! problem ,i wi% to consid] is3 ,:at d we "k 9 ^! cases1 :]e ! subject is m]ely describ$8 ,i h consid]$ ?is problem else:]e#dj f a purely logical po9t ( view2 b 9 :at foll[s ,i wi% to consid] ! "q 9 relation to !ory ( k z well z 9 relation to logic1 & 9 view ( ! above-m5tion$ logical discussions1 ,i %all 9 ?is pap] make ! logical portion z brief z possible4 ,9 ord] to make cle> ! anti!sis betwe5 acqua9tance & description1 ,i %all fir/ ( all try to expla9 :at ,i mean by acqua9tance4 ,i say t ,i am acqua9t$ ) an object :5 ,i h a direct cognitive relation to t object1 i4e4 :5 ,i am directly aw>e ( ! object itself4 ,:5 ,i speak ( a cognitive relation "h1 ,i d n mean ! sort ( relation :i* con/itutes judgm5t1 b ! sort :i* con/itutes pres5tation4 ,9 fact1 ,i ?9k ! relation ( subject & object :i* ,i call acqua9tance is simply ! conv]se ( ! relation ( object & subject :i* con/itutes pres5tation4 ,t is1 to say t ,s has acqua9tance ) ,o is ess5tially ! same ?+ z to say t ,o is pres5t$ to ,s4 ,b ! associations & natural ext5sions ( ! ^w acqua9tance are diff]5t f ^? ( ! ^w pres5tation4 ,to beg9 )1 z 9 mo/ cognitive words1 x is natural to say t ,i am acqua9t$ ) an object ev5 at mom5ts :5 x is n actually be=e my m9d1 provid$ x has be5 be=e my m9d1 & w be aga9 :5ev] occasion arises4 ,?is is ! same s5se 9 :i* ,i am said to "k t #bbd ev5 :5 ,i am ?9k+ ( some?+ else4 ,9 ! second place1 ! ^w acqua9tance is design$ to emphasise1 m ?an ! ^w pres5tation1 ! relational "* ( ! fact ) :i* we are conc]n$4 ,!re is1 to my m9d1 a dang] t1 9 speak+ ( pres5tation1 we may s emphasise ! object z to lose sight ( ! subject4 ,! result ( ?is is ei!r to lead to ! view t !re is no subject1 :5ce we arrive at mat]ialism2 or to lead to ! view t :at is pres5t$ is "p ( ! subject1 :5ce we arrive at idealism1 & %\ld arrive at solipsism b = ! mo/ desp]ate contortions4 ,n[ ,i wi% to pres]ve ! dualism ( subject & object 9 my t]m9ology1 because ?is dualism seems to me a fundam5tal fact conc]n+ cognition4 ,h5ce ,i pref] ! ^w acqua9tance because x emphasises ! ne$ ( a subject :i* is acqua9t$4 ,:5 we ask :at are ! k9ds ( objects ) :i* we are acqua9t$1 ! fir/ & mo/ obvi\s example is s5se-data4 ,:5 ,i see a col\r or he> a noise1 ,i h direct acqua9tance ) ! col\r or ! noise4 ,! s5se-datum ) :i* ,i am acqua9t$ 9 ^! cases is g5]ally1 if n always1 complex4 ,?is is p>ticul>ly obvi\s 9 ! case ( sight4 ,i d n mean1 ( c\rse1 m]ely t ! suppos$ physical object is complex1 b t ! direct s5sible object is complex & conta9s p>ts ) spatial relations4 ,:e!r x is possible to be aw>e ( a complex )\t be+ aw>e ( its con/itu5ts is n an easy "q1 b on ! :ole x w\ld seem t !re is no reason :y x %\ld n be possible4 ,?is "q arises 9 an acute =m 9 connection ) self-consci\sness1 :i* we mu/ n[ briefly consid]4 ,9 introspection1 we seem to be imm$iately aw>e ( v>y+ complexes1 consi/+ ( objects 9 v>i\s cognitive & conative relations to ourselves4 ,:5 ,i see ! sun1 x (t5 happ5s t ,i am aw>e ( my see+ ! sun1 9 addition to be+ aw>e ( ! sun2 & :5 ,i desire food1 x (t5 happ5s t ,i am aw>e ( my desire = food4 ,b x is h>d to discov] any /ate ( m9d 9 :i* ,i am aw>e ( myself alone1 z oppos$ to a complex ( :i* ,i am a con/itu5t4 ,! "q ( ! nature ( self-consci\sness is too l>ge & too slightly connect$ ) our subject1 to be argu$ at l5g? "h4 ,x is difficult1 b probably n impossible1 to acc\nt = pla9 facts if we assume t we d n h acqua9tance ) ourselves4 ,x is pla9 t we are n only acqua9t$ ) ! complex ,self-acqua9t$-)-,a1 b we also "k ! proposition ,i am acqua9t$ ) ,a4 ,n[ "h ! complex has be5 analys$1 & if ,i does n /& = some?+ :i* is a direct object ( acqua9tance1 we %all h to suppose t ,i is some?+ kn[n by description4 ,if we wi%$ to ma9ta9 ! view t !re is no acqua9tance ) ,self1 we might argue z foll[s3 ,we are acqua9t$ ) acqua9tance1 & we "k t x is a relation4 ,also we are acqua9t$ ) a complex 9 :i* we p]ceive t acqua9tance is ! relat+ relation4 ,h5ce we "k t ?is complex mu/ h a con/itu5t :i* is t :i* is acqua9t$1 i4e4 mu/ h a subject-t]m z well z an object-t]m4 ,?is subject-t]m we def9e z ,i4 ,?us ,i means ! subject-t]m 9 aw>5esses ( :i* ,i am aw>e4 ,b z a def9ition ?is _c be reg>d$ z a happy ef=t4 ,x w\ld seem necess>y1 !re=e1 ei!r to suppose t ,i am acqua9t$ ) myself1 & t ,i1 !re=e1 requires no def9ition1 be+ m]ely ! prop] "n ( a c]ta9 object1 or to f9d "s o!r analysis ( self-consci\sness4 ,?us self-consci\sness _c be reg>d$ z ?r[+ light on ! "q :e!r we c "k a complex )\t kn[+ its con/itu5ts4 ,?is "q1 h[ev]1 is n important = our pres5t purposes1 & ,i %all !re=e n discuss x fur!r4 ,! aw>5esses we h consid]$ s f> h all be5 aw>5esses ( p>ticul> exi/5ts1 & might all 9 a l>ge s5se be call$ s5se-data4 ,=1 f ! po9t ( view ( !ory ( k1 introspective k is exactly on a level ) k d]iv$ f sight or he>+4 ,b1 9 addition to aw>5ess ( ! above k9d ( objects1 :i* may be call$ aw>5ess ( p>ticul>s2 we h also 7?\gh n q 9 ! same s5se7 :at may be call$ aw>5ess ( univ]sals4 ,aw>5ess ( univ]sals is call$ conceiv+1 & a univ]sal ( :i* we are aw>e is call$ a concept4 ,n only are we aw>e ( p>ticul> yell[s1 b if we h se5 a suffici5t numb] ( yell[s & h suffici5t intellig5ce1 we are aw>e ( ! univ]sal yell[2 ?is univ]sal is ! subject 9 su* judgm5ts z yell[ diff]s f blue or yell[ resembles blue less ?an gre5 does4 ,& ! univ]sal yell[ is ! pr$icate 9 su* judgm5ts z ?is is yell[1 :]e ?is is a p>ticul> s5se-datum4 ,& univ]sal relations1 too1 are objects ( aw>5esses2 up & d[n1 be=e & aft]1 resemblance1 desire1 aw>5ess itself1 & s on1 w\ld seem to be all ( !m objects ( :i* we c be aw>e4 ,9 reg>d to relations1 x might be urg$ t we are nev] aw>e ( ! univ]sal relation itself1 b only ( complexes 9 :i* x is a con/itu5t4 ,= example1 x may be said t we d n "k directly su* a relation z be=e1 ?\gh we und]/& su* a proposition z ?is is be=e t1 & may be directly aw>e ( su* a complex z ?is be+ be=e t4 ,?is view1 h[ev]1 is difficult to reconcile ) ! fact t we (t5 "k propositions 9 :i* ! relation is ! subject1 or 9 :i* ! relata are n def9ite giv5 objects1 b any?+4 ,= example1 we "k t if "o ?+ is be=e ano!r1 & ! o!r be=e a ?ird1 !n ! fir/ is be=e ! ?ird2 & "h ! ?+s conc]n$ are n def9ite ?+s1 b any?+4 ,x is h>d to see h[ we c\ld "k su* a fact ab\t be=e unless we 7 acqua9t$ ) be=e1 & n m]ely ) actual p>ticul> cases ( "o giv5 object be+ be=e ano!r giv5 object4 ,& m directly3 ,a judgm5t su* z ?is is be=e t1 :]e ?is judgm5t is d]iv$ f aw>5ess ( a complex1 con/itutes an analysis1 & we %\ld n und]/& ! analysis if we 7 n acqua9t$ ) ! mean+ ( ! t]ms employ$4 ,?us we mu/ suppose t we are acqua9t$ ) ! mean+ ( be=e1 & n m]ely ) in/ances ( x4 ,!re are ?us at lea/ two sorts ( objects ( :i* we are aw>e1 namely1 p>ticul>s & univ]sals4 ,among p>ticul>s ,i include all exi/5ts1 & all complexes ( :i* "o or m con/itu5ts are exi/5ts1 su* z ?is-be=e-t1 ?is-above-t1 !-yell[ness-(-?is4 ,among univ]sals ,i include all objects ( :i* no p>ticul> is a con/itu5t4 ,?us ! disjunction univ]sal-p>ticul> includes all objects4 ,we might also call x ! disjunction ab/ract-concrete4 ,x is n q p>allel ) ! opposition concept-p]cept1 because ?+s rememb]$ or imag9$ belong ) p>ticul>s1 b c h>dly be call$ p]cepts4 7,on ! o!r h&1 univ]sals ) :i* we are acqua9t$ may be id5tifi$ ) concepts47 ,x w be se5 t among ! objects ) :i* we are acqua9t$ are n includ$ physical objects 7z oppos$ to s5se-data71 nor o!r p's m9ds4 ,^! ?+s are kn[n to u by :at ,i call k by description1 :i* we mu/ n[ consid]4 ,by a description ,i mean any phrase ( ! =m a s-&-s or ! s-&-s4 ,a phrase ( ! =m a s-&-s ,i %all call an ambigu\s description2 a phrase ( ! =m ! s-&-s 79 ! s+ul>7 ,i %all call a def9ite description4 ,?us a man is an ambigu\s description1 & ! man ) ! iron mask is a def9ite description4 ,!re are v>i\s problems connect$ ) ambigu\s descriptions1 b ,i pass !m by1 s9ce !y d n directly conc]n ! matt] ,i wi% to discuss4 ,:at ,i wi% to discuss is ! nature ( our k conc]n+ objects 9 cases :]e we "k t !re is an object answ]+ to a def9ite description1 ?\gh we are n acqua9t$ ) any su* object4 ,?is is a matt] :i* is conc]n$ exclusively ) def9ite descriptions4 ,i %all1 !re=e1 9 ! sequel1 speak simply ( descriptions :5 ,i mean def9ite descriptions4 ,?us a description w mean any phrase ( ! =m ! s-&-s 9 ! s+ul>4 ,i %all say t an object is kn[n by description :5 we "k t x is ! s-&-s1 i4e4 :5 we "k t !re is "o object1 & no m1 hav+ a c]ta9 prop]ty2 & x w g5]ally be impli$ t we d n h k ( ! same object by acqua9tance4 ,we "k t ! man ) ! iron mask exi/$1 & _m propositions are kn[n ab\t him2 b we d n "k :o he 04 ,we "k t ! c&idate :o gets mo/ votes w be elect$1 & 9 ?is case we are v likely also acqua9t$ 79 ! only s5se 9 :i* "o c be acqua9t$ ) "s "o else7 ) ! man :o is1 9 fact1 ! c&idate :o w get mo/ votes1 b we d n "k :i* ( ! c&idates he is1 i4e4 we d n "k any proposition ( ! =m ,a is ! c&idate :o w get mo/ votes :]e ,a is "o ( ! c&idates by "n4 ,we %all say t we h m]ely descriptive k ( ! s-&-s :51 al?\gh we "k t ! s-&-s exi/s1 & al?\gh we may possibly be acqua9t$ ) ! object :i* is1 9 fact1 ! s-&-s1 yet we d n "k any proposition a is ! s-&-s1 :]e a is some?+ ) :i* we are acqua9t$4 ,:5 we say ! s-&-s exi/s1 we mean t !re is j "o object :i* is ! s-&-s4 ,! proposition a is ! s-&-s means t a has ! prop]ty s-&-s1 & no?+ else has4 ,sir ,joseph ,l>mor is ! ,unioni/ c&idate means ,sir ,joseph ,l>mor is a ,unioni/ c&idate1 & no "o else is4 ,! ,unioni/ c&idate exi/s means "s "o is a ,unioni/ c&idate1 & no "o else is4 ,?us1 :5 we are acqua9t$ ) an object :i* we "k to be ! s-&-s1 we "k t ! s-&-s exi/s b we may "k t ! s-&-s exi/s :5 we are n acqua9t$ ) any object :i* we "k to be ! s-&-s1 & ev5 :5 we are n acqua9t$ ) any object :i*1 9 fact1 is ! s-&-s4 ,common words1 ev5 prop] names1 are usually really descriptions4 ,t is to say1 ! ?\ght 9 ! m9d ( a p]son us+ a prop] "n correctly c g5]ally only be express$ explicitly if we replace ! prop] "n by a description4 ,moreov]1 ! description requir$ to express ! ?\ght w v>y = diff]5t p1 or = ! same p]son at diff]5t times4 ,! only ?+ con/ant 7s long z ! "n is rightly us$7 is ! object to :i* ! "n applies4 ,b s long z ?is rema9s con/ant1 ! p>ticul> description involv$ usually makes no diff]5ce to ! tru? or falsehood ( ! proposition 9 :i* ! "n appe>s4 ,let u take "s illu/rations4 ,suppose "s /atem5t made ab\t ,bism>ck4 ,assum+ t !re is su* a ?+ z direct acqua9tance ) oneself1 ,bism>ck himself might h us$ 8 "n directly to designate ! p>ticul> p]son ) :om he 0 acqua9t$4 ,9 ?is case1 if he made a judgm5t ab\t himself1 he himself might be a con/itu5t ( ! judgm5t4 ,"h ! prop] "n has ! direct use :i* x always wi%es to h1 z simply /&+ = a c]ta9 object1 & n = a description ( ! object4 ,b if a p]son :o knew ,bism>ck made a judgm5t ab\t him1 ! case is diff]5t4 ,:at ?is p]son 0 acqua9t$ ) 7 c]ta9 s5se-data :i* he connect$ 7rightly1 we w suppose7 ) ,bism>ck's body4 ,8 body z a physical object1 & /ill m 8 m9d1 7 only kn[n z ! body & ! m9d connect$ ) ^! s5se-data4 ,t is1 !y 7 kn[n by description4 ,x is1 ( c\rse1 v mu* a matt] ( *ance :i* *>act]i/ics ( a man's appe>ance w come into a fri5d's m9d :5 he ?9ks ( him2 ?us ! description actually 9 ! fri5d's m9d is accid5tal4 ,! ess5tial po9t is t he kn[s t ! v>i\s descriptions all apply to ! same entity1 9 spite ( n be+ acqua9t$ ) ! entity 9 "q4 ,:5 we1 :o did n "k ,bism>ck1 make a judgm5t ab\t him1 ! description 9 our m9ds w probably be "s m or less vague mass ( hi/orical k--f> m1 9 mo/ cases1 ?an is requir$ to id5tify him4 ,b1 = ! sake ( illu/ration1 let u assume t we ?9k ( him z ! fir/ ,*ancellor ( ! ,g]man ,empire4 ,"h all ! words are ab/ract except ,g]man4 ,! ^w ,g]man w aga9 h diff]5t mean+s = diff]5t p4 ,to "s x w recall travels 9 ,g]many1 to "s ! look ( ,g]many on ! map1 & s on4 ,b if we are to obta9 a description :i* we "k to be applicable1 we %all be compell$1 at "s po9t1 to br+ 9 a ref]5ce to a p>ticul> ) :i* we are acqua9t$4 ,su* ref]5ce is involv$ 9 any m5tion ( pa/1 pres5t1 & future 7z oppos$ to def9ite dates71 or ( "h & !re1 or ( :at o!rs h told u4 ,?us x w\ld seem t1 9 "s way or o!r1 a description kn[n to be applicable to a p>ticul> mu/ involve "s ref]5ce to a p>ticul> ) :i* we are acqua9t$1 if our k ab\t ! ?+ describ$ is n to be m]ely :at foll[s logically f ! description4 ,= example1 ! mo/ long-liv$ ( m5 is a description :i* mu/ apply to "s man1 b we c make no judgm5ts conc]n+ ?is man :i* involve k ab\t him beyond :at ! description gives4 ,if1 h[ev]1 we say1 ! fir/ ,*ancellor ( ! ,g]man ,empire 0 an a/ute diplomati/1 we c only be assur$ ( ! tru? ( our judgm5t 9 virtue ( some?+ ) :i* we are acqua9t$--usually a te/imony he>d or read4 ,consid]$ psy*ologically1 ap>t f ! in=mation we convey to o!rs1 ap>t f ! fact ab\t ! actual ,bism>ck1 :i* gives importance to our judgm5t1 ! ?\ght we really h conta9s ! "o or m p>ticul>s involv$1 & o!rwise consi/s :olly ( concepts4 ,all names ( places--,london1 ,engl&1 ,europe1 ! e>?1 ! ,sol> ,sy/em--simil>ly involve1 :5 us$1 descriptions :i* />t f "s "o or m p>ticul>s ) :i* we are acqua9t$4 ,i suspect t ev5 ! ,univ]se1 z consid]$ by metaphysics1 involves su* a connection ) p>ticul>s4 ,9 logic1 on ! contr>y1 :]e we are conc]n$ n m]ely ) :at does exi/1 b ) :atev] might or c\ld exi/ or be1 no ref]5ce to actual p>ticul>s is involv$4 ,x w\ld seem t1 :5 we make a /atem5t ab\t some?+ only kn[n by description1 we (t5 int5d to make our /atem5t1 n 9 ! =m involv+ ! description1 b ab\t ! actual ?+ describ$4 ,t is to say1 :5 we say any?+ ab\t ,bism>ck1 we %\ld l1 if we c\ld1 to make ! judgm5t :i* ,bism>ck alone c make1 namely1 ! judgm5t ( :i* he himself is a con/itu5t4 ,9 ?is we are necess>ily defeat$1 s9ce ! actual ,bism>ck is unkn[n to u4 ,b we "k t !re is an object ,b call$ ,bism>ck1 & t ,b 0 an a/ute diplomati/4 ,we c ?us describe ! proposition we %\ld l to affirm1 namely1 ,b 0 an a/ute diplomati/1 :]e ,b is ! object :i* 0 ,bism>ck4 ,:at enables u to communicate 9 spite ( ! v>y+ descriptions we employ is t we "k !re is a true proposition conc]n+ ! actual ,bism>ck1 & t1 h[ev] we may v>y ! description 7s long z ! description is correct71 ! proposition describ$ is /ill ! same4 ,?is proposition1 :i* is describ$ & is kn[n to be true1 is :at int]e/s u2 b we are n acqua9t$ ) ! proposition itself1 & d n "k x1 ?\gh we "k x is true4 ,x w be se5 t !re are v>i\s /ages 9 ! removal f acqua9tance ) p>ticul>s3 !re is ,bism>ck to p :o knew him1 ,bism>ck to ^? :o only "k ( him ?r\gh hi/ory1 ! man ) ! iron mask1 ! longe/-liv$ ( m54 ,^! are progressively fur!r remov$ f acqua9tance ) p>ticul>s1 & !re is a simil> hi]>*y 9 ! region ( univ]sals4 ,_m univ]sals1 l _m p>ticul>s1 are only kn[n to u by description4 ,b "h1 z 9 ! case ( p>ticul>s1 k conc]n+ :at is kn[n by description is ultimately r$ucible to k conc]n+ :at is kn[n by acqua9tance4 ,! fundam5tal epi/emological pr9ciple 9 ! analysis ( propositions conta9+ descriptions is ?is3 ,e proposition :i* we c und]/& mu/ be compos$ :olly ( con/itu5ts ) :i* we are acqua9t$4 ,f :at has be5 said already1 x w be pla9 :y ,i advocate ?is pr9ciple1 & h[ ,i propose to meet ! case ( propositions :i* at fir/ sight contrav5e x4 ,let u beg9 ) ! reasons = suppos+ ! pr9ciple true4 ,! *ief reason = suppos+ ! pr9ciple true is t x seems sc>cely possible to believe t we c make a judgm5t or ent]ta9 a supposition )\t kn[+ :at x is t we are judg+ or suppos+ ab\t4 ,if we make a judgm5t ab\t 7say7 ,julius ,cs>1 x is pla9 t ! actual p]son :o 0 ,julius ,cs> is n a con/itu5t ( ! judgm5t4 ,b be=e go+ fur!r1 x may be well to expla9 :at ,i mean :5 ,i say t ?is or t is a con/itu5t ( a judgm5t1 or ( a proposition :i* we und]/&4 ,to beg9 ) judgm5ts3 a judgm5t1 z an occurr5ce1 ,i take to be a relation ( a m9d to sev]al entities1 namely1 ! entities :i* compose :at is judg$4 ,if1 e4g4 ,i judge t ,a loves ,b1 ! judgm5t z an ev5t consi/s 9 ! exi/5ce1 at a c]ta9 mom5t1 ( a specific f\r-t]m relation1 call$ judg+1 betwe5 me & ,a & love & ,b4 ,t is to say1 at ! "t :5 ,i judge1 !re is a c]ta9 complex ^: t]ms are myself & ,a & love & ,b1 & ^: relat+ relation is judg+4 ,my reasons = ?is view h be5 set =? else:]e1#da & ,i %all n repeat !m "h4 ,assum+ ?is view ( judgm5t1 ! con/itu5ts ( ! judgm5t are simply ! con/itu5ts ( ! complex :i* is ! judgm5t4 ,?us1 9 ! above case1 ! con/itu5ts are myself & ,a & love & ,b & judg+4 ,b myself & judg+ are con/itu5ts %>$ by all my judgm5ts2 ?us ! di/9ctive con/itu5ts ( ! p>ticul> judgm5t 9 "q are ,a & love & ,b4 ,com+ n[ to :at is meant by und]/&+ a proposition1 ,i %\ld say t !re is ano!r relation possible betwe5 me & ,a & love & ,b1 :i* is call$ my suppos+ t ,a loves ,b4#db ,:5 we c suppose t ,a loves ,b1 we und]/& ! proposition ,a loves ,b4 ,?us we (t5 und]/& a proposition 9 cases :]e we h n en\gh k to make a judgm5t4 ,suppos+1 l judg+1 is a _m-t]m relation1 ( :i* a m9d is "o t]m4 ,! o!r t]ms ( ! relation are call$ ! con/itu5ts ( ! proposition suppos$4 ,?us ! pr9ciple :i* ,i enunciat$ may be re-/at$ z foll[s3 ,:5ev] a relation ( suppos+ or judg+ occurs1 ! t]ms to :i* ! suppos+ or judg+ m9d is relat$ by ! relation ( suppos+ or judg+ mu/ be t]ms ) :i* ! m9d 9 "q is acqua9t$4 ,?is is m]ely to say t we _c make a judgm5t or a supposition )\t kn[+ :at x is t we are mak+ our judgm5t or supposition ab\t4 ,x seems to me t ! tru? ( ?is pr9ciple is evid5t z soon z ! pr9ciple is und]/ood2 ,i %all1 !re=e1 9 :at foll[s1 assume ! pr9ciple1 & use x z a guide 9 analys+ judgm5ts t conta9 descriptions4 ,return+ n[ to ,julius ,cs>1 ,i assume t x w be admitt$ t he himself is n a con/itu5t ( any judgm5t :i* ,i c make4 ,b at ?is po9t x is necess>y to exam9e ! view t judgm5ts are compos$ ( some?+ call$ ideas1 & t x is ! idea ( ,julius ,cs> t is a con/itu5t ( my judgm5t4 ,i believe ! plausibility ( ?is view re/s ^u a failure to =m a "r !ory ( descriptions4 ,we may mean by my idea ( ,julius ,cs> ! ?+s t ,i "k ab\t him1 e4g4 t he conqu]$ ,gaul1 0 assass9at$ on ! ,ides ( ,m>*1 & is a plague to s*oolboys4 ,n[ ,i am admitt+1 & inde$ cont5d+1 t 9 ord] to discov] :at is actually 9 my m9d :5 ,i judge ab\t ,julius ,cs>1 we mu/ sub/itute = ! prop] "n a description made up ( "s ( ! ?+s ,i "k ab\t him4 7,a description :i* w (t5 s]ve to express my ?\ght is ! man ^: "n 0 ,julius ,cs>4 ,= :atev] else ,i may h =gott5 ab\t him1 x is pla9 t :5 ,i m5tion him ,i h n =gott5 t t 0 8 "n47 ,b al?\gh ,i ?9k ! !ory t judgm5ts consi/ ( ideas may h be5 sugge/$ 9 "s su* way1 yet ,i ?9k ! !ory itself is fundam5tally mi/ak54 ,! view seems to be t !re is "s m5tal exi/5t :i* may be call$ ! idea ( some?+ outside ! m9d ( ! p]son :o has ! idea1 & t1 s9ce judgm5t is a m5tal ev5t1 its con/itu5ts mu/ be con/itu5ts ( ! m9d ( ! p]son judg+4 ,b 9 ?is view ideas become a veil betwe5 u & outside ?+s--we nev] really1 9 k1 atta9 to ! ?+s we are suppos$ to be kn[+ ab\t1 b only to ! ideas ( ^? ?+s4 ,! relation ( m9d1 idea1 & object1 on ?is view1 is utt]ly obscure1 &1 s f> z ,i c see1 no?+ discov]able by inspection w>rants ! intrusion ( ! idea betwe5 ! m9d & ! object4 ,i suspect t ! view is fo/]$ by ! dislike ( relations1 & t x is felt ! m9d c\ld n "k objects unless !re 7 some?+ 9 ! m9d :i* c\ld be call$ ! /ate ( kn[+ ! object4 ,su* a view1 h[ev]1 leads at once to a vici\s endless regress1 s9ce ! relation ( idea to object w h to be expla9$ by suppos+ t ! idea itself has an idea ( ! object1 & s on ad inf9itum4 ,i !re=e see no reason to believe t1 :5 we are acqua9t$ ) an object1 !re is 9 u some?+ :i* c be call$ ! idea ( ! object4 ,on ! contr>y1 ,i hold t acqua9tance is :olly a relation1 n dem&+ any su* con/itu5t ( ! m9d z is suppos$ by advocates ( ideas4 ,?is is1 ( c\rse1 a l>ge "q1 & "o :i* w\ld take u f> f our subject if x 7 adequately discuss$4 ,i !re=e cont5t myself ) ! above indications1 & ) ! coroll>y t1 9 judg+1 ! actual objects conc]n+ :i* we judge1 r ?an any suppos$ purely m5tal entities1 are con/itu5ts ( ! complex :i* is ! judgm5t4 ,:51 !re=e1 ,i say t we mu/ sub/itute = ,julius ,cs> "s description ( ,julius ,cs>1 9 ord] to discov] ! mean+ ( a judgm5t nom9ally ab\t him1 ,i am n say+ t we mu/ sub/itute an idea4 ,suppose our description is ! man ^: "n 0 ,julius ,cs>4 ,let our judgm5t be ,julius ,cs> 0 assass9at$4 ,!n x becomes ! man ^: "n 0 ,julius ,cs> 0 assass9at$4 ,"h ,julius ,cs> is a noise or %ape ) :i* we are acqua9t$1 & all ! o!r con/itu5ts ( ! judgm5t 7neglect+ ! t5se 9 07 are concepts ) :i* we are acqua9t$4 ,?us our judgm5t is :olly r$uc$ to con/itu5ts ) :i* we are acqua9t$1 b ,julius ,cs> himself has ceas$ to be a con/itu5t ( our judgm5t4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 requires a proviso1 to be fur!r expla9$ %ortly1 namely t ! man ^: "n 0 ,julius ,cs> mu/ n1 z a :ole1 be a con/itu5t ( our judgm5t1 t is to say1 ?is phrase mu/ n1 z a :ole1 h a mean+ :i* ent]s into ! judgm5t4 ,any "r analysis ( ! judgm5t1 !re=e1 mu/ break up ?is phrase1 & n treat x z a subord9ate complex :i* is "p ( ! judgm5t4 ,! judgm5t ! man ^: "n 0 ,julius ,cs> 0 assass9at$ may be int]pret$ z mean+ "o & only "o man 0 call$ ,julius ,cs>1 & t "o 0 assass9at$4 ,"h x is pla9 t !re is no con/itu5t correspond+ to ! phrase ! man ^: "n 0 ,julius ,cs>4 ,?us !re is no reason to reg>d ?is phrase z express+ a con/itu5t ( ! judgm5t1 & we h se5 t ?is phrase mu/ be brok5 up if we are to be acqua9t$ ) all ! con/itu5ts ( ! judgm5t4 ,?is conclusion1 :i* we h rea*$ f consid]ations conc]n$ ) ! !ory ( k1 is also =c$ ^u u by logical consid]ations1 :i* mu/ n[ be briefly review$4 ,x is common to di/+ui% two aspects1 mean+ & d5otation1 su* phrases z ! au?or ( ,wav]ley4 ,! mean+ w be a c]ta9 complex1 consi/+ 7at lea/7 ( au?or%ip & ,wav]ley ) "s relation2 ! d5otation w be ,scott4 ,simil>ly fea!rless bip$s w h a complex mean+1 conta9+ z con/itu5ts ! pres5ce ( two feet & ! abs5ce ( fea!rs1 :ile its d5otation w be ! class ( m54 ,?us :5 we say ,scott is ! au?or ( ,wav]ley or m5 are ! same z fea!rless bip$s1 we are ass]t+ an id5tity ( d5otation1 & ?is ass]tion is wor? mak+ because ( ! div]sity ( mean+4#dc ,i believe t ! duality ( mean+ & d5otation1 ?\gh capable ( a true int]pretation1 is mislead+ if tak5 z fundam5tal4 ,! d5otation1 ,i believe1 is n a con/itu5t ( ! proposition1 except 9 ! case ( prop] names1 i4e4 ( words :i* d n assign a prop]ty to an object1 b m]ely & solely "n x4 ,& ,i %\ld hold fur!r t1 9 ?is s5se1 !re are only two words :i* are /rictly prop] names ( p>ticul>s1 namely1 ,i & ?is4#dd ,"o reason = n believ+ ! d5otation to be a con/itu5t ( ! proposition is t we may "k ! proposition ev5 :5 we are n acqua9t$ ) ! d5otation4 ,! proposition ! au?or ( ,wav]ley is a noveli/ 0 kn[n to p :o did n "k t ! au?or ( ,wav]ley d5ot$ ,scott4 ,?is reason has be5 already suffici5tly emphasis$4 ,a second reason is t propositions conc]n+ ! s-&-s are possible ev5 :5 ! s-&-s has no d5otation4 ,take1 e4g4 ! gold5 m\nta9 does n exi/ or ! r\nd squ>e is self-contradictory4 ,if we are to pres]ve ! duality ( mean+ & d5otation1 we h to say1 ) ,me9ong1 t !re are su* objects z ! gold5 m\nta9 & ! r\nd squ>e1 al?\gh ^! objects d n h be+4 ,we ev5 h to admit t ! exi/5t r\nd squ>e is exi/5t1 b does n exi/4#de ,me9ong does n reg>d ?is z a contradiction1 b ,i fail to see t x is n "o4 ,inde$1 x seems to me evid5t t ! judgm5t !re is no su* object z ! r\nd squ>e does n presuppose t !re is su* an object4 ,if ?is is admitt$1 h[ev]1 we are l$ to ! conclusion t1 by p>ity ( =m1 no judgm5t conc]n+ ! s-&-s actually involves ! s-&-s z a con/itu5t4 ,miss ,jones#df cont5ds t !re is no difficulty 9 admitt+ contradictory pr$icates conc]n+ su* an object z ! pres5t ,k+ ( ,france1 on ! gr\nd t ?is object is 9 itself contradictory4 ,n[ x might1 ( c\rse1 be argu$ t ?is object1 unlike ! r\nd squ>e1 is n self-contradictory1 b m]ely non-exi/5t4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 w\ld n g to ! root ( ! matt]4 ,! real objection to su* an argum5t is t ! law ( contradiction ought n to be /at$ 9 ! traditional =m ,a is n bo? ,b & n ,b1 b 9 ! =m no proposition is bo? true & false4 ,! traditional =m only applies to c]ta9 propositions1 namely1 to ^? :i* attribute a pr$icate to a subject4 ,:5 ! law is /at$ ( propositions1 in/ead ( be+ /at$ conc]n+ subjects & pr$icates1 x is at once evid5t t propositions ab\t ! pres5t ,k+ ( ,france or ! r\nd squ>e c =m no exception1 b are j z incapable ( be+ bo? true & false z o!r propositions4 ,miss ,jones#dg argues t ,scott is ! au?or ( ,wav]ley ass]ts id5tity ( d5otation betwe5 ,scott & ! au?or ( ,wav]ley4 ,b !re is "s difficulty 9 *oos+ among alt]native mean+s ( ?is cont5tion4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 x %\ld be obs]v$ t ! au?or ( ,wav]ley is n a m]e "n1 l ,scott4 ,scott is m]ely a noise or %ape conv5tionally us$ to designate a c]ta9 p]son2 x gives u no in=mation ab\t t p]son1 & has no?+ t c be call$ mean+ z oppos$ to d5otation4 7,i neglect ! fact1 consid]$ above1 t ev5 prop] names1 z a rule1 really /& = descriptions47 ,b ! au?or ( ,wav]ley is n m]ely conv5tionally a "n = ,scott2 ! elem5t ( m]e conv5tion belongs "h to ! sep>ate words1 ! & au?or & ( & ,wav]ley4 ,giv5 :at ^! words /& =1 ! au?or ( ,wav]ley is no long] arbitr>y4 ,:5 x is said t ,scott is ! au?or ( ,wav]ley1 we are n /at+ t ^! are two names = "o man1 z we %\ld be if we said ,scott is ,sir ,walt]4 ,a man's "n is :at he is call$1 b h[ev] mu* ,scott _h be5 call$ ! au?or ( ,wav]ley1 t w\ld n h made him be ! au?or2 x 0 necess>y = him actually to write ,wav]ley1 :i* 0 a fact hav+ no?+ to d ) names4 ,if1 !n1 we are ass]t+ id5tity ( d5otation1 we mu/ n mean by d5otation ! m]e relation ( a "n to ! ?+ nam$4 ,9 fact1 x w\ld be ne>] to ! tru? to say t ! mean+ ( ,scott is ! d5otation ( ! au?or ( ,wav]ley4 ,! relation ( ,scott to ,scott is t ,scott means ,scott1 j z ! relation ( au?or to ! concept :i* is s call$ is t au?or means ?is concept4 ,?us if we di/+ui% mean+ & d5otation 9 ! au?or ( ,wav]ley1 we %all h to say t ,scott has mean+ b n d5otation4 ,also :5 we say ,scott is ! au?or ( ,wav]ley1 ! mean+ ( ! au?or ( ,wav]ley is relevant to our ass]tion4 ,= if ! d5otation alone 7 relevant1 any o!r phrase ) ! same d5otation w\ld give ! same proposition4 ,?us ,scott is ! au?or ( ,m>mion w\ld be ! same proposition z ,scott is ! au?or ( ,wav]ley4 ,b ?is is pla9ly n ! case1 s9ce f ! fir/ we le>n t ,scott wrote ,m>mion & f ! second we le>n t he wrote ,wav]ley1 b ! fir/ tells u no?+ ab\t ,wav]ley & ! second no?+ ab\t ,m>mion4 ,h5ce ! mean+ ( ! au?or ( ,wav]ley1 z oppos$ to ! d5otation1 is c]ta9ly relevant to ,scott is ! au?or ( ,wav]ley4 ,we h ?us agre$ t ! au?or ( ,wav]ley is n a m]e "n1 & t its mean+ is relevant 9 propositions 9 :i* x occurs4 ,?us if we are to say1 z ,miss ,jones does1 t ,scott is ! au?or ( ,wav]ley ass]ts an id5tity ( d5otation1 we mu/ reg>d ! d5otation ( ! au?or ( ,wav]ley z ! d5otation ( :at is meant by ! au?or ( ,wav]ley4 ,let u call ! mean+ ( ! au?or ( ,wav]ley ,m4 ,?us ,m is :at ! au?or ( ,wav]ley means4 ,!n we are to suppose t ,scott is ! au?or ( ,wav]ley means ,scott is ! d5otation ( ,m4 ,b "h we are expla9+ our proposition by ano!r ( ! same =m1 & ?us we h made no progress t[>ds a real explanation4 ,! d5otation ( ,m1 l ! au?or ( ,wav]ley1 has bo? mean+ & d5otation1 on ! !ory we are exam9+4 ,if we call its mean+ ,m'1 our proposition becomes ,scott is ! d5otation ( ,m'4 ,b ?is leads at once to an endless regress4 ,?us ! attempt to reg>d our proposition z ass]t+ id5tity ( d5otation breaks d[n1 & x becomes imp]ative to f9d "s o!r analysis4 ,:5 ?is analysis has be5 complet$1 we %all be able to re9t]pret ! phrase id5tity ( d5otation1 :i* rema9s obscure s long z x is tak5 z fundam5tal4 ,! fir/ po9t to obs]ve is t1 9 any proposition ab\t ! au?or ( ,wav]ley1 provid$ ,scott is n explicitly m5tion$1 ! d5otation itself1 i4e4 ,scott1 does n occur1 b only ! concept ( d5otation1 :i* w be repres5t$ by a v>iable4 ,suppose we say ! au?or ( ,wav]ley 0 ! au?or ( ,m>mion1 we are c]ta9ly n say+ t bo? 7 ,scott--we may h =gott5 t !re 0 su* a p]son z ,scott4 ,we are say+ t !re is "s man :o 0 ! au?or ( ,wav]ley & ! au?or ( ,m>mion4 ,t is to say1 !re is "s "o :o wrote ,wav]ley & ,m>mion1 & no "o else wrote !m4 ,?us ! id5tity is t ( a v>iable1 i4e4 ( an indef9ite subject1 "s "o4 ,?is is :y we c und]/& propositions ab\t ! au?or ( ,wav]ley1 )\t kn[+ :o he 04 ,:5 we say ! au?or ( ,wav]ley 0 a poet1 we mean "o & only "o man wrote ,wav]ley1 & he 0 a poet2 :5 we say ! au?or ( ,wav]ley 0 ,scott we mean "o & only "o man wrote ,wav]ley1 & he 0 ,scott4 ,"h ! id5tity is betwe5 a v>iable1 i4e4 an indet]m9ate subject 7he71 & ,scott2 ! au?or ( ,wav]ley has be5 analys$ away1 & no long] appe>s z a con/itu5t ( ! proposition4#dh ,! reason :y x is imp]ative to analyse away ! phrase ! au?or ( ,wav]ley may be /at$ z foll[s4 ,x is pla9 t :5 we say ! au?or ( ,wav]ley is ! au?or ( ,m>mion1 ! is expresses id5tity4 ,we h se5 also t ! common d5otation1 namely ,scott1 is n a con/itu5t ( ?is proposition1 :ile ! mean+s 7if any7 ( ! au?or ( ,wav]ley & ! au?or ( ,m>mion are n id5tical4 ,we h se5 also t1 9 any s5se 9 :i* ! mean+ ( a ^w is a con/itu5t ( a proposition 9 ^: v]bal expression ! ^w occurs1 ,scott means ! actual man ,scott1 9 ! same s5se 7s f> z conc]ns our pres5t discussion7 9 :i* au?or means a c]ta9 univ]sal4 ,?us1 if ! au?or ( ,wav]ley 7 a subord9ate complex 9 ! above proposition1 its mean+ w\ld h to be :at 0 said to be id5tical ) ! mean+ ( ! au?or ( ,m>mion4 ,?is is pla9ly n ! case2 & ! only escape is to say t ! au?or ( ,wav]ley does n1 by itself1 h a mean+1 ?\gh phrases ( :i* x is "p d h a mean+4 ,t is1 9 a "r analysis ( ! above proposition1 ! au?or ( ,wav]ley mu/ disappe>4 ,?is is effect$ :5 ! above proposition is analys$ z mean+3 ,"s "o wrote ,wav]ley & no "o else did1 & t "s "o also wrote ,m>mion & no "o else did4 ,?is may be m simply express$ by say+ t ! propositional function x wrote ,wav]ley & ,m>mion1 & no "o else did is capable ( tru?1 i4e4 "s value ( x makes x true1 b no o!r value does4 ,?us ! true subject ( our judgm5t is a propositional function1 i4e4 a complex conta9+ an undet]m9$ con/itu5t1 & becom+ a proposition z soon z ?is con/itu5t is det]m9$4 ,we may n[ def9e ! d5otation ( a phrase4 ,if we "k t ! proposition a is ! s-&-s is true1 i4e4 t a is s-&-s & no?+ else is1 we call a ! d5otation ( ! phrase ! s-&-s4 ,a v great _m ( ! propositions we naturally make ab\t ! s-&-s w rema9 true or rema9 false if we sub/itute a = ! s-&-s1 :]e a is ! d5otation ( ! s-&-s4 ,su* propositions w also rema9 true or rema9 false if we sub/itute = ! s-&-s any o!r phrase hav+ ! same d5otation4 ,h5ce1 z practical m51 we become int]e/$ 9 ! d5otation m ?an 9 ! description1 s9ce ! d5otation decides z to ! tru? or falsehood ( s _m /atem5ts 9 :i* ! description occurs4 ,moreov]1 z we saw e>li] 9 consid]+ ! relations ( description & acqua9tance1 we (t5 wi% to rea* ! d5otation1 & are only h9d]$ by lack ( acqua9tance3 9 su* cases ! description is m]ely ! means we employ to get z ne> z possible to ! d5otation4 ,h5ce x naturally comes to be suppos$ t ! d5otation is "p ( ! proposition 9 :i* ! description occurs4 ,b we h se51 bo? on logical & on epi/emological gr\nds1 t ?is is an error4 ,! actual object 7if any7 :i* is ! d5otation is n 7unless x is explicitly m5tion$7 a con/itu5t ( propositions 9 :i* descriptions occur2 & ?is is ! reason :y1 9 ord] to und]/& su* propositions1 we ne$ acqua9tance ) ! con/itu5ts ( ! description1 b d n ne$ acqua9tance ) its d5otation4 ,! fir/ result ( analysis1 :5 appli$ to propositions ^: grammatical subject is ! s-&-s1 is to sub/itute a v>iable z subject2 i4e4 we obta9 a proposition ( ! =m3 ,!re is some?+ :i* alone is s-&-s1 & t some?+ is su*-&-su*4 ,! fur!r analysis ( propositions conc]n+ ! s-&-s is ?us m]g$ 9 ! problem ( ! nature ( ! v>iable1 i4e4 ( ! mean+s ( "s1 any1 & all4 ,?is is a difficult problem1 conc]n+ :i* ,i d n int5d to say any?+ at pres5t4 ,to sum up our :ole discussion4 ,we began by di/+ui%+ two sorts ( k ( objects1 namely1 k by acqua9tance & k by description4 ,( ^! x is only ! =m] t br+s ! object itself be=e ! m9d4 ,we h acqua9tance ) s5se-data1 ) _m univ]sals1 & possibly ) ourselves1 b n ) physical objects or o!r m9ds4 ,we h descriptive k ( an object :5 we "k t x is ! object hav+ "s prop]ty or prop]ties ) :i* we are acqua9t$2 t is to say1 :5 we "k t ! prop]ty or prop]ties 9 "q belong to "o object & no m1 we are said to h k ( t "o object by description1 :e!r or n we are acqua9t$ ) ! object4 ,our k ( physical objects & ( o!r m9ds is only k by description1 ! descriptions involv$ be+ usually su* z involve s5se-data4 ,all propositions intelligible to u1 :e!r or n !y prim>ily conc]n ?+s only kn[n to u by description1 are compos$ :olly ( con/itu5ts ) :i* we are acqua9t$1 = a con/itu5t ) :i* we are n acqua9t$ is un9telligible to u4 ,a judgm5t1 we f\nd1 is n compos$ ( m5tal con/itu5ts call$ ideas1 b consi/s ( an occurr5ce ^: con/itu5ts are a m9d#di & c]ta9 objects1 p>ticul>s or univ]sals4 7,"o at lea/ mu/ be a univ]sal47 ,:5 a judgm5t is rightly analys$1 ! objects :i* are con/itu5ts ( x mu/ all be objects ) :i* ! m9d :i* is a con/itu5t ( x is acqua9t$4 ,?is conclusion =ces u to analyse descriptive phrases occurr+ 9 propositions1 & to say t ! objects d5ot$ by su* phrases are n con/itu5ts ( judgm5ts 9 :i* su* phrases occur 7unless ^! objects are explicitly m5tion$74 ,?is leads u to ! view 7recomm5d$ also on purely logical gr\nds7 t :5 we say ! au?or ( ,m>mion 0 ! au?or ( ,wav]ley1 ,scott himself is n a con/itu5t ( our judgm5t1 & t ! judgm5t _c be expla9$ by say+ t x affirms id5tity ( d5otation ) div]sity ( mean+4 ,x also1 pla9ly1 does n ass]t id5tity ( mean+4 ,su* judgm5ts1 !re=e1 c only be analys$ by break+ up ! descriptive phrases1 introduc+ a v>iable1 & mak+ propositional functions ! ultimate subjects4 ,9 fact1 ! s-&-s is su*-&-su* w mean t x is s-&-s & no?+ else is1 & x is su*-&-su* is capable ( tru?4 ,! analysis ( su* judgm5ts involves _m fre% problems1 b ! discussion ( ^! problems is n und]tak5 9 ! pres5t pap]4 ,,footnotes3 #dj ,see ref]5ces lat]4 #da ,philosophical ,essays1 ,! ,nature ( ,tru?4 ,i h be5 p]suad$ by ,mr4 ,wittg5/e9 t ?is !ory is some:at unduly simple1 b ! modification :i* ,i believe x to require does n affect ! above argum5t #aiag4 #db ,cf4 ,me9ong1 ,ueb] ,annahm51 passim4 ,i =m]ly suppos$1 contr>y to ,me9ong's view1 t ! relation%ip ( suppos+ might be m]ely t ( pres5tation4 ,9 ?is view ,i n[ ?9k ,i 0 mi/ak51 & ,me9ong is "r4 ,b my pres5t view dep5ds ^u ! !ory t bo? 9 judgm5t & 9 assumption !re is no s+le ,objective1 b ! sev]al con/itu5ts ( ! judgm5t or assumption are 9 a _m-t]m relation to ! m9d4 #dc ,?is view has be5 rec5tly advocat$ by ,miss ,e4,e4,c4 ,jones4 ,a ,new ,law ( ,?\ght & its ,implications1 ,m9d1 ,janu>y1 #aiaa4 #dd ,i %\ld n[ exclude ,i f prop] names 9 ! /rict s5se1 & reta9 only ?is #aiag4 #de ,me9ong1 ,ueb] ,annahm51 #bnd ed41 ,leipzig1 #aiaj1 p4 #ada4 #df ,m9d1 ,july1 #aiaj1 p4 #chj4 #dg ,m9d1 ,july1 #aiaj1 p4 #cgi4 #dh ,! !ory :i* ,i am advocat+ is set =? fully1 ) ! logical gr\nds 9 its fav\r1 9 ,pr9cipia ,ma!matica1 ,vol4 ,i4 ,introduction1 ,*ap4 ,,iii2 also1 less fully1 9 ,m9d1 ,octob]1 #aije4 #di ,i use ?is phrase m]ely to d5ote ! some?+ psy*ological :i* ent]s into judgm5t1 )\t int5d+ to prejudge ! "q z to :at ?is some?+ is4 ,,index ,a*illes & ! tortoise1 #hj ff1 #hi ff ,acqua9tance1 ! relation (1 #bji ff ,alex&]1 #abe ,am]ican ,reali/s1 !1 #acd ,ari/otle1 #db1 #gf1 #ig ,bacon1 #da ,b]gson1 #ad ff1 #bb1 #aje1 #abh1 #ahe ff1 #bjc ,b]keley1 #ig1 #acb ,blake1 #a ,bosanquet1 #ii ,broad1 #hi n ,calculus1 !1 #hb ,cantor1 ,georg1 #fd1 #ha ff1 #he1 #ia ,c>lyle1 #ej1 #hb ,cause1 ! conception (1 #ace n1 #ahj ff ,*ri/ianity & r5unciation1 #ea ,*uang ,tz7u1 #ajf ,con/ruction ( p]man5t ?+s & matt]1 #afi ff ,con/ructions1 logical1 #aee ff ,d>w91 #ae1 #bc1 #dc ,d$ek9d1 #fd1 #ha ff1 #he ,desc>tes1 #ig1 #abf ,descriptions1 #age1 #bad ff ,education1 #cg ff ,euclid1 #fb1 #ib1 #id ,evolutionism1 #bc ff1 #bh ,fano1 #ic ,f>aday1 #cd ,free w1 #bje ff ,frege1 #gh n ,galileo1 #db ,glad/one1 #agg ,good & evil1 #bf ff ,hegel1 #h1 #aj1 #ah1 #he1 #ig1 #aje ff ,he9e1 #aac ,h]aclitus1 #a ff1 #aj ,h]tz1 #cd ,holt1 #agg n ,hume1 #a1 #ig ,inf9ite1 ! ma!matical1 #hd ff ,james1 ,william1 #ajj ,jones1 ,miss ,e4,e4,c41 #bbd n1 #bbe ,judgm5t1 #bai ff ,kant1 #he1 #if1 #ig1 #ii1 #aah ff ,k by acqua9tance1 #bji ff2 by description1 #bad ff ,laplace1 #bc ,leibniz1 #gf1 #gi1 #hb ff1 #ig1 #abf1 #add1 #afj ,locke1 #ig ,logic1 ! laws (1 #fh ff ,macaulay & ,taylor's !orem1 #ie ,mal?us1 #dc ,ma!matics1 #eh ff2 & ! ,metaphysicians1 #gd ff2 & logic1 #ge ff2 & ! inf9itesimal1 #hb ff ,matt]1 ! nature (1 #abe ff2 def9ition (1 #afd ff ,maxwell1 #cd ,mean+ & d5otation1 #bbc ff ,me9ong1 #agd1 #bbj n1 #bbe ,milit>ism1 #ej ,mill1 #ahe1 #aic ff ,my/icism & logic1 #a ff ,necessity1 ! notion (1 #bjg ff ,nietzs*e1 #bb1 #ej ,nunn1 #abe1 #acg n1 #aec ,p>m5ides1 #g ff1 #ah1 #ba ,p>ticul>s1 aw>5ess (1 #baj ff ,peano1 #gh ff1 #ic ff ,p]spectives1 #aci ff2 ! space (1 #aeh ff ,philosophy & logic1 #aaa ,physics1 s5se-data &1 #ade ff ,pi]ce1 #gf n ,plato1 #a ff1 #aj1 #cj1 #fj1 #ig ,pragmatism1 #bb1 #aje ,realism & ! analytic me?od1 #abj ff ,reason & intuition1 #ab ff ,relatives1 ! logic (1 #gf ,robb1 #afg n ,santayana1 #bj ,s5se-data1 #adg1 #baj ff2 & physics1 #ade ff ,s5sibilia1 #adh ff ,space1 #ach ff2 private1 #aeh ff2 ! logical problem1 #aad ff2 ! problem 9 physics1 #aae ff2 ! epi/emological problem1 #aah ff ,sy/ems1 det]m9i/ic1 #aii2 practically isolat$1 #aih2 relatively isolat$1 #aig2 me*anical1 #bja ,"t1 #aj1 #ba ff1 #ada ff1 #afg ff ,tri/ram ,%&y1 ! p>adox (1 #ij ff ,unity & ,plurality1 #ah ff ,univ]sals1 aw>5ess (1 #bab ff ,w>d1 #ahj ,wei]/rass1 #hj1 #hb1 #ie ,:itehead1 #aag1 #aeg1 #age ,wolf1 #agc ,z5o ! ,eleatic1 #fd1 #hj1 #hd1 #hi ff ,illu/ration ,,george ,,all5 ,,unw9 ,,ltd ,london3 #dj ,museum ,/reet1 ,w4,c4 #a ,auckl&3 #bd ,wyndham ,/reet ,bombay3 #ae ,graham ,road1 ,ball>d ,e/ate1 ,bombay #a ,calcutta3 #ag ,*itt>anjan ,av5ue1 ,calcutta #ac ,cape ,t[n3 #aji ,long ,/reet ,k>a*i3 ,me!rson's ,e/ate1 ,wood ,/reet1 ,k>a*i #b ,new ,delhi3 #ac-ad ,ajm]i ,gate ,ext5sion1 ,new ,delhi #a ,so ,paulo3 ,av5ida #i de ,julho #aach--;,ap4 #ea ,s+apore1 ,s\? ,ea/ ,asia & ,f> ,ea/1 #cf;c1 ,pr9sep ,/reet ,sydney1 ,n4,s4,w43 ,bradbury ,h\se1 #ee ,york ,/reet ,toronto3 #ia ,well+ton ,/reet ,we/ 99 99 99 99 99 ---------------------------------------- ------------------- ,typographical errors correct$ 9 text3 ,page #aaa3 *>at]i/ic replac$ ) *>act]i/ic ,page #ga3 inexpugnable replac$ ) inexpungable ---------------------------------------- ------------------- 99 99 99 99 99