,historical ,literature in ,agriculture 
7,,chla71 ,cornell ,university7         
,right ,use of ,lime ,in ,soil          
,improvement    ,by ,,alva ,,agee       
,illustration3 ,applying ,lime          
,secretary ,new ,jersey ,state          
,department of ,agriculture    ,formerly
 director of agricultural extension in  
the ,pennsylvania ,state   ,college and 
,new ,jersey ,state ,college of         
,agriculture4    ,illustrated    ,,new  
,,york   ,,orange ,,judd ,,company      
,,london   ,,kegan ,,paul1 ,,trench1    
,,trubner  ,,co41 ,,limited    #aiai    
,copyright #aiai1 by   ,,orange ,,judd  
,,company    ,all ,rights ,reserved     
,printed in ,u4 ,s4 ,a4          99     
99       99       99       99           
,,contents     ,,chapter                
,,page     #a4 ,,introduction           
#a     #b4 ,,the ,,lime ,,in ,,soils    
#d     #c4 ,,sour ,,soils               
#aj     #d4 ,,evidences ,,of ,,acidity  
#ae     #e4 ,,tests ,,for ,,acidity     
#bj     #f4 ,,sources ,,of ,,lime       

#bd     #g4 ,,definitions               
#bh     #h4 ,,ground ,,limestone        
#cc     #i4 ,,storing ,,lime ,,in ,,the 
,,soil                                  
#ch     #aj4 ,,fresh ,,burned ,,lime    
#dd     #aa4 ,,burning ,,lime           
#di     #ab4 ,,lime ,,hydrate           
#ec     #ac4 ,,other ,,forms ,,of ,,lime
                                        
#eg     #ad4 ,,magnesian ,,lime         
#fd     #ae4 ,,what ,,shall ,,one ,,buy8
                                        
#fh     #af4 ,,methods ,,of             
,,application                           
#gh     #ag4 ,,amount ,,of ,,lime ,,per 
,,acre                                  
#hb     #ah4 ,,special ,,crop ,,demands 
#hf        ,,illustrations     ,applying
 ,lime      ,frontispiece     ,,facing  
,,page     ,i4 ,clover and ,timothy     
,unfertilized at the ,pennsylvania      
,experiment ,station ,yielded #b1dfj    
pounds per acre                         
#aj     ,,ii4 ,clover and ,timothy with 
,fertilizer alone at    the             

,pennsylvania ,experiment ,station      
,yielded    #c1ijj pounds per acre      
#aa     ,,iii4 ,clover and ,timothy with
 ,lime alone at the    ,pennsylvania    
,experiment ,station ,yielded    #d1ijj 
pounds per acre                         
#ad     ,,iv4 ,clover and ,timothy with 
,fertilizer and ,lime    at the         
,pennsylvania ,experiment ,station      
yielded #f1bij pounds per acre          
#ae     ,v4 ,limed and ,unlimed ,ends of
 a ,plot at the    ,ohio ,experiment    
,station                                
#af     ,,vi4 ,effect of ,finely        
,pulverized ,limestone on ,clover    in 
a ,soil having a ,lime ,requirement of  
#e1bjj ,pounds of ,limestone per ,acre1 
at the    ,pennsylvania ,experiment     
,station                                
#ag     ,,vii4 ,lime ,favors ,clover at 
the ,ohio ,experiment    ,station       
#bd     ,,viii4 ,lime ,affects ,growth  
of ,corn at the ,ohio ,experiment       
,station                                
#be     ,,ix4 ,an ,indiana ,limestone   

,quarry                                 
#cb     ,x4 ,a ,limestone ,plant        
#cc    7,courtesy of the ,michigan      
,limestone ,company47     ,,xi4 ,a      
,limestone ,pulverizer for ,farm ,use   
#ch    7,courtesy of the ,jeffrey       
,manufacturing ,company1    ,columbus1  
,ohio47     ,,xii4 ,a ,lime ,pulver in  
,operation                              
#ci    7,courtesy of the ,jeffrey       
,manufacturing ,company47     ,,xiii4   
,laying ,foundation for a ,lime ,stack  
at the    ,pennsylvania ,experiment     
,station                                
#dh     ,,xiv4 ,a ,stack nearly         
,completed at the ,pennsylvania         
,experiment ,station                    
#di     ,,xv4 ,effect of ,excessive ,use
 of ,burned ,lime without    ,manure at 
the ,pennsylvania ,experiment           
,station                                
#eb     ,,xvi4 ,a ,hydrated ,lime ,plant
                                        
#ec    7,courtesy of the ,palmer ,lime  
and ,cement ,company1    ,york1 ,pa47   

,,xvii4 ,filling the ,lime ,spreader at 
the ,ohio ,experiment    ,station       
#gh     ,,xviii4 ,lime ,distributors    
#gi     ,,xix4 ,remarkable ,effect of   
,lime on ,sweet ,clover at    the ,ohio 
,experiment ,station                    
#hf     ,,xx4 ,sweet ,clover ,thrives   
,when ,lime and ,manure    are          
,supplied1 ,ohio ,experiment ,station   
#hg          99       99       99       
99       99   ,,chapter #a              
,,introduction   ,there is much in the  
action of lime in the soil that is not  
known1 but all that we really need to   
know is simple and easily comprehended4 
,the purpose of this little book is to  
set down the things that we need to know
 in order that we may make and keep our 
land friendly to plant life so far as   
lime is necessarily concerned with such 
an undertaking4 ,intelligent men like to
 reason matters out for themselves so   
far as practicable1 taking the facts and
 testing them in their own thinking by  
some truth they have gained in their own

 experience and observation1 and then   
their convictions stay by them and are  
acted upon4 ,the whole story of the     
right use of lime on land is so simple  
and reasonable1 when we stick only to   
the practical side1 that we should      
easily escape the confusion of thought  
that seems to stand in the way of       
action4 ,the experiment stations have   
been testing the value of lime          
applications to acid soils1 and the     
government has been finding that the    
greater part of our farming lands is    
deficient in lime4 ,tens of thousands of
 farmers have confirmed the results of  
the stations that the application of    
lime is essential to profitable crop    
production on their farms4 ,the         
confusion is due to some results of the 
misuse of lime before the needs of soils
 were understood1 and to the variety of 
forms in which lime comes to us and the 
rather conflicting claims made for these
 various forms4 ,it is unfortunate and  
unnecessary4  ,the soil is a great      

chemical laboratory1 but exact knowledge
 of all its processes doubtless would   
enrich the farmer's vocabulary more than
 his pocketbook4 ,we are concerned in   
knowing that lime's field of usefulness 
is broad in that it is an essential     
plant food and provides the active means
 of keeping the feeding ground of plants
 in sanitary condition4 ,we want to know
 how it comes about that our soils are  
deficient in lime1 and how we may       
determine the fact that they are        
deficient4 ,we wish to know the relative
 values of the various forms of lime and
 how we may choose in the interest of   
our soil and our pocketbook4 ,the time  
and method of application are important 
considerations to us4 ,there are many   
details of knowledge1 it is true1 and   
yet all fit into a rational scheme that 
shows itself to be simple enough when   
the facts arrange themselves in an      
orderly way in our minds4  ,lime cannot 
take the place of nitrogen1 nor         
phosphorus1 nor any other of the        

essential plant foods4 ,it is not a     
substitute for any other essential      
factor in plant growth4 ,it would be    
folly to try to depend upon lime as a   
sole source of soil fertility4 ,on the  
other hand1 we have learned very        
definitely within the last quarter of a 
century that it is foolish to depend    
upon commercial fertilizers and tillage 
and good seeds for full production of   
most crops from great areas of our      
farming country that have a marked lime 
deficiency4 ,the obvious need of our    
soils is the rich organic matter that   
clover and grass sods could furnish1 and
 their fundamental need is lime4 ,most  
farms cannot possibly make full returns 
to their owners until the land's hunger 
for lime has been met4 ,the only        
question is that regarding the best way 
of meeting it4     ,,chapter ,,ii  ,,the
 ,,lime ,,in ,,soils   ,limestone ,land4
 ,soil analyses are serviceable only    
within certain limits1 and in the case  
of the normal soils that comprise the   

very great part of the entire humid     
region of the ,united ,states the       
practical man gives little heed to what 
special analyses might show him when    
deciding upon the purchase of a farm4   
,he does know1 however1 that a limestone
 soil has great natural strength1 and   
recovers from mistreatment more readily 
than land low in lime4 ,it has staying  
powers1 and is dependable1 unless       
through natural processes the lime      
leaches out or loses availability4 ,all 
limestone areas have gained reputation  
for themselves as producers of grain and
 grass4  ,other ,calcareous ,soils4 ,it 
is not only the limestone areas that    
stand high in esteem4 ,there are types  
of soil with every varying percentage of
 lime down to clear sand or to peat1 and
 some of the types are finely           
calcareous1 containing such a high      
percentage of lime that nothing more    
could be desired4  ,the actual          
percentage is not the determining       
factor1 a clay soil needing greater     

richness in this material than a loam1  
and a sandy soil giving a good account  
of itself with an even less total       
content of lime1 but in its way the     
particular soil type must be well       
supplied by nature with lime if its     
trees and other vegetation bear         
evidences of its strength and good      
agricultural value4  ,natural           
,deficiency4 ,it is interesting to note 
the differences in evidences of         
prosperity that are associated with lime
 percentages4 ,the areas that are able  
to produce the vegetation characteristic
 of calcareous soils are obviously the  
most prosperous4 ,the decidedly         
lime-deficient sections1 advertising    
their state by the kind of original     
timber1 and later by unfriendliness to  
the clovers1 do not attract buyers      
except through relatively low prices for
 farms4 ,such areas are extensive and   
have well marked boundaries in places4  
,it does not follow that every farm in  
such limestone valleys as the           

,shenandoah1 ,cumberland1 and ,lebanon1 
or in the great corn belt having a      
naturally calcareous soil1 is           
prosperous1 or that a multitude of      
owners of such lime-deficient areas as  
the belt in a portion of southern ,new  
,york and northern ,pennsylvania1 or the
 sandstone and shale regions of many    
states1 have not overmatched natural    
conditions with fine skill4 ,we treat   
only of averages when saying that a lime
 country shows a prosperity in its farm 
buildings and general appearance that   
does not come naturally and easily to   
any lime-deficient territory4 ,in the   
latter a man rows against the current1  
and if livestock farming is not employed
 to furnish manure1 and if the manure is
 not supplemented by tillage and        
drainage to secure aeration1 or if lime 
is not applied1 the land reaches such a 
degree of acidity that it loses the     
power to yield any profit4  ,nature's   
,short ,supply4 ,the total area of      
lime-deficient soil is large1 comprising

 certainly much more than half of all   
the land east of the semi-arid belt of  
the ,united ,states4 ,no small part of  
this area was not deficient at one time1
 as the nature of the original timber   
indicates1 and it is well within the    
knowledge of practical men that land    
which once produced the walnut and ash  
and shellbark hickory can be brought    
back to productivity with reasonable    
ease after very hard usage4 ,it has a   
good inheritance4 ,it is a disconcerting
 fact in our ,american agriculture that1
 fertile as our country is as a whole1  
very great areas were so deficient in   
lime before they came under man's       
control that the chestnut1 pine1 and the
 oaks of mean growth were fully at home4
 ,the gradation from low lime content to
 high1 and its relation to soil type1   
give us all sorts of mixtures of        
lime-loving and acid-resistant varieties
 of trees in original forests1 but our  
agriculture is hampered by the high     
percentage of land for which nature made

 no great provision of lime1 and on this
 land farming lags4  ,effect of         
,irrational ,farming4 ,interest in      
liming might well have been due to the  
amendment of all this soil1 but the     
rational use of lime that has been the  
subject of much study in the last       
quarter of a century concerns chiefly   
great areas that probably could have    
been kept in alkaline condition and     
friendly to the clovers for a long time 
despite a short natural supply as       
compared with the content of our        
limestone lands4 ,the success of        
individual farmers in areas now         
admittedly acid as a whole is convincing
 on this point4 ,nature tries constantly
 to cure the ills of her soil through   
the addition of vegetable matter4 ,an   
excess of water or a deficiency is      
atoned for in a degree by the leaves and
 rotted wood of her forests4 ,aeration  
is kept possible4 ,the lime in the      
product of the soil goes back to it4 ,a 
system of farming that involves the     

application of manure1 thorough tillage1
 drainage where needed1 and the free use
 of sods in some way1 has kept portions 
of these non-calcareous soils out of the
 distinctly acid class4 ,clover grows   
satisfactorily1 grass sods are heavy1   
and there is no acute lime problem4     
,such farms are relatively few in the   
great stretches of land now classed as  
acid soil1 and probably the most of the 
lime that is being applied goes only on 
ground that once was sufficiently       
alkaline to grow the clovers4 ,the loss 
of organic matter through failure to use
 the best methods of farming is         
responsible for no small part of the    
widespread need of lime today4 ,this    
subtracts nothing from the urgency of   
its use to restore a condition favoring 
clover and grass sods1 but it does teach
 a lesson of the highest value4 ,the day
 of destructive soil acidity can be     
retarded by good farming1 but in the    
long run the inevitable losses of lime  
from most soils must be met by          

applications4  ,limestone ,soils4 ,the  
old-time practice of making heavy       
applications of fresh burned lime to    
stiff limestone soils to make them      
friable1 and to make their plant food   
available1 led to disuse of all lime in 
some sections on account of the         
exhaustion that followed dependence upon
 these large amounts as a manure4       
,queerly enough1 these original         
limestone soils have latterly been going
 into the acid class through loss of    
their distinctive elements1 and they1   
too1 have become dependent upon means   
for the correction of acidity4          
,,chapter ,,iii  ,,sour ,,soils   ,loss 
of ,lime4 ,nature made the value of land
 as a producer of food utterly dependent
 upon the activity of lime1 and at the  
same time gave it some power to shirk   
its work4 ,in a normal soil is a        
percentage of lime that came from the   
disintegration of rock of the region or 
was transported by action of water on a 
huge scale4 ,possibly rarely would it be

 in insufficient amount to keep a soil  
in a condition friendly to plant life1  
and to feed the plant1 if it stayed     
where nature placed it and kept in form 
available for the needs it was intended 
to meet4 ,there is land that always was 
notably deficient in this material1 and 
there is land that was known in the     
early history of the world's agriculture
 to be sour1 but the troubles of our    
present day in the case of the farming  
country in the humid region of the      
,united ,states is less due to any      
natural absolute shortage than to       
combination that destroys value and to  
escape by action of water4              
,illustration3 ,clover and ,timothy     
,unfertilized at the ,pennsylvania      
,experiment ,station ,yielded #bdfj     
,pounds per ,acre  ,illustration3       
,clover and ,timothy with ,fertilizer   
alone at the ,pennsylvania ,experiment  
,station ,yielded #cijj ,pounds per     
,acre  ,prevalence of ,acidity4 ,the    
results of experiment station and farm  

tests are conclusive that the soils of  
the greater part of all the humid region
 of the ,united ,states show lime       
deficiency4 ,formerly1 acidity was      
associated in our minds with wet1       
low-lying land1 but within the last     
twenty years we have learned that it    
prevails in light seashore sands along  
the ,atlantic shore1 in clays1 loams and
 shales stretching to the ,appalachian  
system of mountains1 on top of mountain 
ranges and across foothills to our      
central states1 and through them in     
stretches to the semi-arid lands of the 
west4 ,while not all this land has      
fallen into the lime-deficient class1   
and the great part of some states       
remains alkaline1 the tendency toward   
acidity is continuous4  ,crop production
 in great portions of the ,mississippi  
valley is restricted by lack of lime in 
the soil1 and some states to the        
eastward have one-half to nine-tenths of
 their acreage too low in lime for the  
best results4 ,calcareous soils have    

been losing their distinctive feature1  
and the immense areas of land naturally 
low in lime have remained hampered in   
ability to make full returns for labor1 
fertilizer and seed4 ,it is this        
situation that brings the right use of  
lime on land to the front as a matter of
 fundamental importance to the farmer4  
,causes of ,soil ,acidity4 ,if any      
discussion of the causes of soil acidity
 would delay a decision to apply lime   
where needed1 the time given to such    
discussion would be worse than wasted4  
,it is much more important to be able to
 detect the presence of harmful acids   
and to neutralize them than it is to    
know why the soil should be in such     
plight that it could not supply the     
required lime and had become dependent  
upon its owner for assistance4 ,on the  
other hand1 some of us find it difficult
 to accept a fact without seeing a      
reason for it1 and we may do well to    
consider several causes that may be at  
work to put a soil out of the alkaline  

class4  ,leaching4 ,one cause that      
appears obvious and easy of acceptance  
is leaching4 ,in the case of one        
,pennsylvania farm1 lying in a limestone
 valley1 the lime had been washed out by
 action of water so freely that caverns 
formed under the surface1 and a test    
showed a marked deficiency in the top   
soil4 ,this land ceased to grow clover1 
and plantain and sorrel abounded4 ,this 
case1 which is not an isolated one1     
showed an unusually rapid loss1 but we  
always expect to find the water from    
wells and springs in a limestone country
 strongly impregnated with lime4        
,drainage waters contain it4 ,the draft 
by action of water is continuous1 and in
 some types could easily account for    
sufficient loss to change the nature of 
the soil4 ,we may place undue emphasis  
upon this factor1 as other causes are at
 work1 but leaching is a leading source 
of loss4  ,chemical ,compounds4 ,a      
serious cause of lime exhaustion that is
 being studied by soil chemists is the  

presence of compounds in the soil that  
combine with the lime and rob it of     
ability to serve the soil when new acids
 form4 ,the practical farmer accepts the
 statements of the chemists on this     
point1 and probably would not have his  
interests served by any exact knowledge 
of the nature of these agents4          
,decaying ,vegetation4 ,a cause of acid 
conditions that is widely known and     
accepted1 and that may therefore stand  
out in our thinking with undue          
prominence1 is connected with the decay 
of green vegetable matter in the soil4  
,many of us have seen fields rendered   
temporarily unproductive by the plowing 
down of a mass of immature plants in    
midsummer4 ,all organic matter1 indeed1 
in its decay makes a draft upon the lime
 content of the soil in which it may be 
buried4  ,removal in ,crops4 ,lime is   
taken out of land by plants1 and the    
loss is a considerable item1 but our    
interest is in the form of lime that can
 correct soil acidity1 and we know that 

compounds of lime that are worthless for
 this purpose may be the chief source of
 the lime in our crops4 ,a determination
 of the lime in the ash of a crop does  
not give data of much practical value4  
,illustration3 ,clover and ,timothy with
 ,lime ,alone at the ,pennsylvania      
,experiment ,station ,yielded #dijj     
,pounds per ,acre  ,illustration3       
,clover and ,timothy with ,fertilizer   
and ,lime at the ,pennsylvania          
,experiment ,station ,yielded #fbij     
,pounds per ,acre     ,,chapter ,,iv    
,,evidences ,,of ,,acidity   ,character 
of ,vegetation4 ,the character of the   
original forests is determined much by  
the lime-content1 and the practical man1
 when buying a farm1 rates its          
productive power by the kinds of timber 
it has produced4 ,the black walnut1 ash1
 shellbark hickory1 black and white oak1
 sturdily grown1 evidence a soil rich in
 lime1 while the pines1 small blackjack 
and post oaks1 and the chestnut are at  
home in non-calcareous soils4 ,the      

latter class of lands gains nothing in  
lime as time passes1 and the timber     
continues to be a sure index1 but in the
 former class the surface soil may have 
lost enough lime to limit crop          
production materially while the trees   
continue to find in the subsoil all that
 they need4 ,it does not follow that the
 land has gone down in value to the     
naturally lime-deficient class1 but its 
power to produce is impaired1 and will  
remain so until there has been          
restoration of its original alkaline    
state4  ,sorrel and ,plantain4 ,we      
determine quite surely the state of the 
soil by observance of the vegetation    
that roots in the surface soil and the  
immediate subsoil4 ,sorrel is a plant   
popularly associated with soil acidity1 
but this is not through any dislike for 
lime4 ,it has been observed growing in  
the edge of a heap4 ,its presence       
suggests acidity because it can thrive  
in a sour soil that will not produce    
plants of value which on even terms     

could crowd the sorrel out4 ,there is   
constant competition among plants for   
food and water and space1 and some of   
our worst weeds are not strong          
competitors of clover and grass where   
soil conditions are not unfavorable to  
the latter4  ,blue grass1 the clovers   
and timothy give a good account of      
themselves in a contest with sorrel and 
plantain where lime is abundant4 ,this  
does not mean that the seeds of these   
weeds may not be so numerous that an    
application of lime cannot cause the    
clover and grasses immediately to take  
the ground to the exclusion of other    
plants1 but it is true that the crowding
 process will continue until the time   
comes in the crop rotation that these   
weeds cease to be feared1 and clean sods
 can be made4 ,it is the absence of lime
 that permits such weeds to maintain    
their reputation for good fighting      
qualities4   ,illustration3 ,limed and  
,unlimed ,ends of a ,plot at the ,ohio  
,experiment ,station  ,illustration3    

,effect of ,finely ,pulverised          
,limestone on ,clover in a ,soil ,having
 a ,lime ,requirement of #ebjj ,pounds  
of ,limestone per ,acre at the          
,pennsylvania ,experiment ,station  ,the
 ,clovers4 ,red clover can make growth  
in some soils that have a lime          
deficiency4 ,if all other conditions are
 favorable1 the lime requirement may    
exceed one-half a ton per acre of fresh 
burned lime and not affect the clover   
adversely1 but farm experience          
throughout the country has demonstrated 
that when soil acidity is only slight   
and clover grows with difficulty1 an    
application rarely fails to favor the   
clover in a marked degree4 ,experience  
has taught the land owners to fear soil 
acidity when red clover does not thrive 
where formerly it made good growth4     
,the prevalence of alsike clover in a   
farming region is indicative of lack of 
lime4 ,this clover thrives in a         
calcareous soil1 but is more indifferent
 to a small lime supply than is the red 

clover4 ,as red clover seedings begin to
 fail1 the alsike gains in popularity1  
and where a soil is decidedly sour the  
alsike is most in evidence4 ,the latter 
has less value to the farmer1 rooting   
nearer the surface of the soil1 and     
making less growth of top1 but it has   
gained in favor with farmers as soil    
acidity has increased4  ,the ,grasses4  
,timothy is more resistant to acidity   
than red clover1 but often fails to make
 a heavy sod where the deficiency in    
lime is marked4 ,rhode ,island ,bent1   
known as redtop1 is less exacting1 and  
where it thrives to the exclusion of    
timothy1 or is in evidence in grass     
lands1 the inference is fairly safe that
 a test would show that the soil is     
sour4  ,when ,production ,decreases4 ,it
 is not a matter of any moment to the   
owner of a productive soil whether or   
not his soil would give an acid or an   
alkaline reaction under test4 ,returns  
from his labor are satisfactory4 ,some  
land in this class is not strictly      

alkaline4 ,the man most interested in   
the effects of lime applications is the 
one who is not satisfied with yields4   
,the tests for acidity have been so many
 throughout our eastern and central     
states that the owner of land which is  
not productive has reason for the       
presumption that its percentage of lime 
is too low4 ,there is danger of error1  
and a scientific test is surer1 but in  
most cases the land which has been      
reduced from a fertile to an            
unproductive state has lost its alkaline
 nature4  ,naturally ,thin ,soils4      
,nature may be prodigal in supplies of  
nearly all the elements of plant food to
 land and yet skimp its supply of lime1 
but naturally poor soils are quite      
surely in the acid class4 ,the          
exceptions in our humid region are not  
extensive4 ,when improvement is planned 
for1 involving additions of organic     
matter and plant food1 the application  
of lime to correct acidity is the first 
requirement4 ,if such land could be     

given the characteristics of a limestone
 soil so far only as the lime factor is 
concerned1 the building up of fertility 
would be relatively easy4 ,liming must  
form the foundation of a new order of   
things4 ,the ability to grow the clovers
 and to furnish rich vegetable matter to
 the soil1 which naturally is poor in   
humus1 rests upon lime application      
first1 and then upon any supply of plant
 food that may continue to be lacking4  
,,chapter ,v  ,,tests ,,for ,,acidity   
,the ,litmus ,paper ,test4 ,a method of 
testing soils for acidity1 which has    
been in use for many years1 is the      
simple litmus paper method4 ,because of 
its simplicity and fair degree of       
accuracy1 the litmus paper test is still
 used to a considerable extent in       
estimating the degree of acidity of     
certain soils4 ,the best manner of using
 litmus is to place a strip of the blue 
paper in the bottom of a glass saucer1  
covering it with filter paper or other  
paper which is neutral--that is1 paper  

which is neither acid nor alkaline4  ,a 
small quantity of the soil to be tested 
is moistened with rain or distilled     
water and placed on this paper4 ,if the 
acid is present the blue paper will be  
changed to a reddish color1 varying in  
intensity according to the degree of    
acidity in the soil4 ,two objections to 
the use of litmus paper are to be noted3
 ,one of these is that the red color may
 be produced by carbonic acid gas       
without a trace of more powerful acids  
being present1 and this may give a wrong
 impression to the operator4 ,another   
objection to the use of litmus is that  
the degree of acidity is not accurately 
indicated1 and therefore the farmer is  
sometimes at a loss to know just how    
much lime should be applied to make soil
 conditions favorable for growing crops4
  ,a ,more ,accurate ,method4 ,within   
the last few years improved methods for 
determining the presence of acidity in  
soil have been developed4 ,some of these
 are suitable only for the chemist with 

his complete laboratory equipment1 while
 others are more simple and can be used 
by anyone willing to exercise reasonable
 care4  ,one of the simplest and most   
accurate tests to date is that devised  
by ,professor ,e4 ,truog of the         
agricultural experiment station of the  
,university of ,wisconsin4 ,this test   
not only detects positively the presence
 of soil acidity1 but also gives        
definite information as to the degree of
 acidity4 ,the test is based upon the   
principle that when zinc sulfid comes in
 contact with the acid1 hydrogen sulfid 
gas is formed1 and when this gas comes  
in contact with lead acetate1 lead      
sulfid1 a black chemical1 is formed4    
,the method of making this test is      
simple1 and consists in placing a       
measured quantity of soil in a flask1 to
 which is added a solution composed of  
#bj calcium chlorid and #b zinc sulfid4 
,the mixture of soil and chemical       
solution is heated to the boiling point 
by means of an alcohol lamp1 and the    

boiling continued for a minute for the  
purpose of driving off the carbonic acid
 gas1 which is liberated first4 ,the    
boiling is continued and a piece of     
moistened paper1 previously impregnated 
with lead acetate1 is placed over the   
mouth of the flask4 ,if the soil        
contains acid1 a chemical reaction      
occurs between it and zinc sulfid1 and  
hydrogen sulfid gas is liberated4 ,the  
quantity of acidity in the soil         
determines the quantity of gas which    
comes in contact with the lead acetate  
paper1 and this determines the depth of 
color produced on the paper4 ,a slight  
brownish color indicates the presence of
 very little acidity1 while an intense  
black signifies the presence of         
injurious amounts of acidity4 ,there are
 various degrees of coloration between  
these two extremes1 and each gives an   
accurate indication as to the quantity  
of lime required to correct the acidity4
  ,this test is simple and inexpensive1 
and at the present time most county     

agent offices are equipped with this    
apparatus or a similar one for testing  
soils for farmers4 ,some newer methods  
are being devised1 and doubtless this   
method will be improved upon as time    
passes1 but the ,truog test has         
qualities of accuracy and simplicity    
which will always make it valuable4     
,,chapter ,,vi  ,,sources ,,of ,,lime   
,nature's ,provision4 ,soils are        
composed of pulverized stone and organic
 matter4 ,much of the original stone    
contained little lime1 and the human    
race would become nearly helpless if    
there were no stores of supply in the   
form of limestone1 chalk1 marl1 etc4    
,the day would come when the surface    
soil could not produce our staple crops 
if its loss of lime continued1 and a    
means of replenishing the stock were not
 at hand4 ,the huge deposits of         
limestone that have not been            
disintegrated by processes of weathering
 are assurance that the soil's need can 
be met forever4 ,the calcium and        

magnesium in the stone are in chemical  
combination with carbonic acid forming  
carbonates1 and there is an additional  
mixture of other earthy material that   
was deposited by the water when the     
stone was being formed1 but much        
limestone possesses an excellent degree 
of purity4  ,illustration3 ,lime ,favors
 ,clover at the ,ohio ,experiment       
,station  ,illustration3 ,lime ,affects 
,growth of ,corn at the ,ohio           
,experiment ,station  ,confusion        
,respecting ,forms4 ,in the public mind 
there is much confusion respecting the  
sources and forms of lime most to be    
desired4 ,wood ashes appealed to people1
 especially in an early day in our      
agriculture1 partly because the ashes   
were so universally present that tests  
had been made voluntarily and otherwise 
in millions of instances4 ,the value of 
such tests had been obscured by the fact
 that the ashes contained potash1 and   
much of the credit of any good effect   
was attributed to that fact4 ,it has    

been generally known1 however1 that lime
 in peculiarly effective form is in wood
 ashes1 and the favor in which ashes    
have been held rested not a little upon 
the curious preference for an organic   
source of all soil amendments4 ,this is 
seen in the case of direct fertilizers4 
,dealers' ,interests4 ,the doubts       
regarding the wisdom of selecting any   
one form of lime for the betterment of  
soil conditions have been promoted very 
naturally by the conflicting interests  
of men who would furnish the supply4    
,some dealers in fresh burned lime have 
asserted that it was folly to expect any
 appreciable result from the use of     
unburned limestone4 ,the manufacturer of
 ground limestone has pointed out the   
possibility of injuring a soil by the   
use of caustic lime1 and oftentimes has 
so emphasized his point that farmers    
have become unwilling to apply fresh or 
water-slaked lime to their land4        
,manufacturers of hydrated lime in some 
instances have made a confused situation

 worse by insisting upon the claim that 
there was a fertilizing quality in their
 goods4 ,some dealers in lime marls have
 been unwilling to have the value of    
their goods rated according to the      
content of carbonate of lime1 and have  
emphasized the value of fine division of
 the particles and the absence of any   
caustic properties4 ,the presence of    
shells1 evidencing an organic source of 
the material1 has helped in the appeal  
to buyers4  ,the rightful place of      
magnesia1 and the possible danger of    
injury from its use1 have been a        
fruitful cause of perplexity1 making    
price per ton only a secondary          
consideration to the man wanting to     
supply his soil's needs4  ,scientists'  
,failure to ,agree4 ,it is only fair to 
say that much of the doubt and          
indecision on the part of the public is 
directly attributable to the conflicting
 statements of our scientists4 ,it      
should be borne in mind that careful    
investigation in respect to the relative

 values of the various forms and sources
 of lime has been confined largely to   
the short period of time that has       
elapsed since recognition of the lime   
deficiency of our country's soils4 ,our 
agricultural literature contained little
 about soil acidity #bj years ago1 and  
our experiment station tests afford only
 relatively recent results4 ,some       
knowledge of sour soils and the efficacy
 of lime in their amendment is nearly as
 old as the history of agriculture1 it  
is true1 but answers to the questions   
uppermost in the minds of men wanting to
 apply lime to land have been sought    
only within recent years4 ,the variation
 in soil types1 and in sources of lime1 
and in preconceived ideas of men drawing
 conclusions from incomplete data may   
easily account for failure of our soil  
scientists to be in the close agreement 
in statement that would remove all      
confusion in the public mind4 ,however1 
the agreement respecting the facts is   
becoming better assured with every added

 year of investigation1 as a study of   
station bulletins shows4     ,,chapter  
,,vii  ,,definitions   ,technical       
,terms4 ,the practical man uses a great 
number of technical terms in his own    
field of labor1 and often fails to      
recognize the fact that they are        
technical1 and may be puzzling to many  
other people4 ,he uses such terms for   
the sake of accuracy1 desiring to       
express to his fellow-workmen exactly   
what he means4 ,the farmer1 stockman1   
carpenter1 banker--all have command of  
such terms1 and need them1 but the      
chemist who1 in a way1 must come even   
nearer to accuracy in expression1 finds 
that many people who want his assistance
 do not care to master and use any of   
his terms4 ,failure to do so compels    
misunderstanding4 ,anyone who is        
interested in the right use of lime     
should be willing to add a few of the   
chemists' technical terms to the scores 
in his own line of work that he uses    
constantly1 and thus let the whole      

matter of liming land come to appear    
more simple to him4 ,acquaintance with a
 few terms is necessary to any          
understanding of statements of analyses 
upon which purchase should be made4  ,an
 ,element is a substance that cannot be 
divided into simpler substances4 ,the   
number of elements necessary to the     
growth of plants is small1 and of this  
number calcium is one and magnesium is  
another4  ,compounds4 ,we do not find   
these elements merely mixed with other  
elements to form a soil4 ,they unite in 
definite proportions by weight to form  
chemical compounds4 ,as conditions      
change1 many of these compounds undergo 
change1 giving up one element1 or group 
of elements1 and uniting with another   
element or group from a different       
compound4 ,heat1 moisture and the action
 of bacteria are factors in promoting   
the changes4 ,there is no more restless 
activity than may be found among the    
elements composing a productive soil4   
,calcium is an element which will unite 

with oxygen and carbon dioxide to form a
 compound known as calcium carbonate4   
,the chemist's symbol for calcium is    
,ca4  ,calcium ,oxide is a compound left
 after the burning of limestone1 and is 
known as fresh burned lime1 or quick    
lime4 ,its formula is ,ca,o4 ,it        
contains1 when pure1 #dj parts of       
calcium and #af parts oxygen by weight4 
,carbon ,dioxide is a compound whose    
formula is ,,co#b4  ,calcium ,carbonate1
 known also as carbonate of lime1 has a 
definite composition1 containing1 when  
pure1 #ef parts ,ca,o and #dd parts     
,,co#b4 ,it is known to the chemist as  
,ca,c,o#c1 and forms practically all of 
very pure limestones4 ,impure limestones
 contain some earthy materials that     
became mixed with the lime carbonate    
when the rock was being formed4         
,calcium ,hydroxide is a compound made  
by permitting calcium oxide to combine  
with water1 and is known as lime        
hydrate4 ,it contains #ef parts by      
weight ,ca,o and #ah parts water1 and   

has the formula ,ca7,,oh7#b4  ,magnesium
 is an element1 and is found in         
magnesium carbonate1 a compound that is 
effective in correcting soil acidity4   
,magnesian ,limestone4 ,magnesium       
carbonate is usually found in           
combination with calcium carbonate1 and 
when about #dg per cent of the total    
carbonates is magnesium carbonate1 the  
limestone is known as dolomite4  ,ground
 ,limestone is the stone pulverized so  
that it can be distributed4 ,it is      
carbonate of lime 7,ca,c,o#c71 or a     
combination of calcium and magnesium    
carbonate1 and in a way has a right to  
be designated as lime1 but such use     
leads to confusion4  ,fresh ,burned     
,lime4 ,calcium oxide 7,ca,o7 formerly  
was accurately designated as lime1 but  
the words fresh burned are often        
prefixed to prevent confusion with lime 
carbonate or the hydrate4 ,it is known  
as lump lime1 caustic lime and stone    
lime4  ,ground or ,pulverized ,lime4    
,fresh burned lime may be ground fine1  

so that it can be spread on land without
 slaking4 ,this product should not be   
confused with ground limestone or       
hydrated lime4 ,fresh ground lime is    
worth nearly twice as much per ton as   
ground limestone1 but some of the       
product on the market is far from pure4 
,there is opportunity to grind up       
unburned and waste material with the    
caustic lime1 and this form of lime     
usually contains some hydrated material4
  ,hydrated ,lime is the compound formed
 by the action of water or steam on     
fresh burned lime4  ,air-,slaked ,lime  
is a compound formed by the action of   
carbon dioxide from the air on hydrated 
lime1 and its formula is ,ca,c,o#c1     
which is that of pure limestone4        
,illustration3 ,an ,indiana ,limestone  
,quarry  ,illustration3 ,a ,limestone   
,plant 7,courtesy of the ,michigan      
,limestone ,company7     ,,chapter      
,,viii  ,,ground ,,limestone            
,variation in ,quality4 ,limestones vary
 widely in purity4 ,they were formed    

under water1 and clay and sand were laid
 down with the lime in such quantity in 
some cases that the resulting stone is  
not worth handling for soil improvement4
 ,a stone that is practically all       
carbonate of calcium1 or a combination  
of calcium and magnesium1 is wanted     
because it is these two elements that   
give value to the material4 ,if a poor  
stone is used1 too much waste matter    
must be handled4 ,twenty-five per cent  
more ground limestone of #hj purity must
 be applied than would be required in   
the case of an absolutely pure          
limestone4 ,any stone above #ij pure in 
carbonate of lime and magnesia is rated 
as good1 but the best stone runs from   
#if to #ii4  ,limestones vary greatly in
 ability to resist disintegration1 and  
this variation is a big factor in       
determining the agricultural value of   
ground limestone that has not been      
reduced to a fine powder4 ,particles of 
a hard limestone may lie inert in the   
soil for many years4 ,hardness also     

affects the cost of grinding4  ,a       
,matter of ,distribution4 ,nature has   
used various agencies in reducing       
limestone for the making of soils4 ,the 
stone contained its lime in carbonate   
form1 and when reduced to good physical 
condition for distribution it helped to 
make highly productive land4 ,we know   
that lime carbonate does the needed work
 in the soil so far as correction of    
acidity is concerned1 but in the form of
 blocks of limestone it has no          
particular value to the land4 ,burning  
and slaking afforded to man a natural   
means of putting it into form for       
distribution1 and it is only within     
recent years that the pulverization of  
limestone for land has become a business
 of considerable magnitude4 ,the ground 
limestone used on land continues to be  
in part a by-product of the preparation 
of limestone for the manufacture of     
steel1 glass1 etc41 and the making of   
roads1 the fine dust being screened out 
for agricultural purposes4 ,these       

sources of supply are very inadequate1  
and too remote from much land that      
requires treatment4 ,large plants have  
been established in various parts of the
 country for the purpose of crushing    
limestone for use on land1 and quite    
recently low-priced pulverizers for farm
 use have come upon the market and are  
meeting a wide need4  ,low-,priced      
,pulverizers4 ,a serious drawback to the
 liming of land is the transportation   
charge that must be paid where no       
available stone can be found in the     
region4 ,great areas do have some beds  
that should be used1 and a low-priced   
machine for pulverizing it is the       
solution of the problem4 ,such a machine
 must be durable1 have ability to crush 
the stone to the desired fineness and be
 offered at a price that does not seem  
prohibitive to a farmer who would meet  
the demands of a small farming          
community4 ,in this way freight charges 
are escaped1 and a long and costly haul 
from a railway point is made            

unnecessary4 ,the limestone of the      
locality will be made available more and
 more by means of this type of machine1 
and the inducement to correct the       
acidity of soils will be given to tens  
of thousands of land-owners who would   
not find it feasible to pay freight and 
cartage on supplies coming a long       
distance4 ,there should be a market many
 times greater than now exists for the  
product of all large plants1 while the  
number of small pulverizers multiplies  
rapidly4 ,the very large areas that have
 no limestone at hand must continue to  
buy from manufacturers equipped to      
supply them1 and farmers within a zone  
of small freight charges should be able 
to buy from such manufacturers more     
cheaply than they could pulverize stone 
on their own farms4  ,an individual1 or 
a group of farmers1 will buy a machine  
for pulverizing limestone at a cost of a
 few hundred dollars when costly        
equipment would be out of the question4 
,if he has a bed of limestone of fair   

quality1 and the soil of the region is  
lacking in lime1 an efficient grinder or
 pulverizer solves the problem and makes
 prosperity possible to the region4     
,within the last few years much headway 
has been made in perfecting such        
machines1 and their manufacturers have  
them on the market4 ,any type should be 
bought only after a test that shows     
capacity per hour and degree of fineness
 of the product4 ,as a high degree of   
fineness is at the expense of power or  
time1 and as the transportation charge  
on the product to the farm is small1    
there is no requirement for the fineness
 wanted in a high-priced article that   
must be used sparingly4  ,the aim should
 be to store in the soil for a term of  
years1 and the coarse portion is        
preferable to the fine for this purpose 
because it will not leach out4 ,the     
heavy application will furnish enough   
fine stuff to take care of present      
acidity4 ,if nearly all the product of  
such a pulverizer will pass through a   

#aj-mesh screen1 and the amount applied 
is double that of very fine limestone1  
it should give immediate results and    
continue effective nearly twice as long 
as the half amount of finer material4   
,there could hardly be a practical      
solution of the liming problem for many 
regions without the development of such 
devices for preparing limestone for     
distribution1 and it is a matter of     
congratulation that some manufacturers  
have awakened to the market             
possibilities our country affords4      
,,chapter ,,ix  ,,storing ,,lime ,,in   
,,the ,,soil   ,liberal ,use of         
,limestone4 ,land never does its best   
when skimped in any way4 ,as we raise   
the percentage of carbonate of lime in  
land that naturally is deficient1 we    
give increasing ability to such land to 
take on some of the desirable           
characteristics of a limestone soil4 ,it
 is poor business to be making a        
hand-to-mouth fight against a state of  
actual acidity unless the cost of more  

liberal treatment is prohibitive4 ,the  
most satisfactory liming is done where  
the expense is light enough to justify  
the free use of material4 ,when this is 
the case1 extreme fineness of all the   
stone is undesirable4 ,there is the     
added cost due to such fineness and no  
gain if the finer portion is sufficient 
to correct the acidity1 and the coarser 
particles disintegrate as rapidly as    
needed in later years4  ,loss by        
,leaching4 ,another valid argument      
against extreme fineness of the stone   
used in liberal applications is the     
danger of loss by leaching4 ,soils are  
so variable in their ability to hold    
what may be given them that it is idle  
to offer any estimate on this point4    
,the amount of lime found in the        
drainage waters of limestone land       
teaches no lesson of value for other    
land1 the excessive loss in the former  
case being due oftentimes to erosion    
that creates channels through the       
subsoil1 through which soil and lime    

pass4  ,illustration3 ,a ,limestone     
,pulverizer for ,farm ,use 7,courtesy of
 the ,jeffrey ,manufacturing ,company1  
,columbus1 ,ohio7  ,illustration3 ,a    
,lime ,pulver in ,operation 7,courtesy  
of the ,jeffrey ,manufacturing ,company7
  ,but we do know the tendency of lime  
to get away1 and the use of several tons
 of fine stone per acre may easily be   
followed by loss in many types of soil4 
,it is wholly reasonable to believe that
 some portion of such an application    
should be coarse enough to stay where   
put until needed by exhaustion of the   
finer portion4 ,it is upon this theory  
that coarser material often is preferred
 to the very finest4  ,what ,degree of  
,fineness8 ,assuming that the farmer is 
in a position to store some carbonate of
 lime in his land for future use1 giving
 the soil an alkaline character for five
 or #aj years1 the degree of fineness of
 the stone is important1 partly because 
there will be distinct loss by leaching 
from many types of soils if all the     

material is fine as dust1 and specially 
because less finely pulverized material 
can be supplied him at a lower price per
 ton4 ,much by-product in the           
manufacture of coarse limestone for     
other purposes contains a considerable  
percentage of material that would not   
pass through a #fj-1 or #dj-1 or        
#aj-mesh screen1 but it does contain a  
big percentage of immediately available 
lime1 and a more complete pulverization 
of this by-product would add greatly to 
its cost4  ,it is quite possible that a 
ton of such stone may be bought at a    
price that would cover the value only of
 the fine portion1 estimated on the     
basis of the prevailing price of finely 
ground material1 the coarse material    
being obtained without any cost at all4 
,it is this situation1 or an approach to
 it1 that leads some authorities to     
become strenuous advocates of the use of
 coarsely pulverized stone4 ,the advice 
is right for those who are in a position
 to accept it4 ,if the money available  

for liming an acre of land can buy all  
the fine stone needed for the present   
and some coarser stone mixed with it for
 later use by the soil1 the purchase is 
much more rational than the investment  
of the same amount of money in very fine
 stone that has no admixture of coarser 
material4 ,if the investment in the     
former case is larger than in the       
latter1 it continues to be good business
 up to a certain point1 and the room for
 some uncertainty is wide enough to     
provide for much difference in judgment4
  ,quality of the ,stone4 ,another      
factor of uncertainty is the hardness of
 the stone4 ,a limestone may have such  
flinty characteristics that a piece     
barely able to pass through a #aj-mesh  
screen will not disintegrate in the soil
 for years1 and there are other types of
 limestone that go into pieces rapidly4 
,the variation in quality of stone      
accounts for no little difference in    
opinion that is based upon limited      
observation4  ,using ,one's ,judgment4  

,it is evident that no hard and fast    
rule respecting fineness may be laid    
down1 and yet a rather definite basis   
for judgment is needed4 ,there is much  
good experience to justify the          
requirement that when all ground lime is
 high-priced in any section for any     
reason1 and the amount applied per acre 
is thereby restricted1 the material     
should be able to pass through a screen 
having #fj wires to the linear inch1 and
 that the greater part should be much   
finer4 ,usually some part of such stone 
will pass through a #bjj-mesh screen4   
,when a limestone on the market will not
 meet this test1 some concession in     
price should be expected4 ,if the stone 
is not very flinty1 a #dj-mesh screen   
may be regarded as affording a          
reasonably satisfactory test4  ,an      
increasing percentage of coarser        
material makes necessary an increase in 
amount to meet the lime deficiency1 and 
a distinct concession in price is to be 
expected when a #aj-mesh screen is used 

in testing4 ,at the same time a careful 
buyer will use a #fj-mesh screen to     
determine the percentage that probably  
has availability for the immediate      
future4 ,a coarsely ground article1     
containing any considerable percentage  
that will not pass through a #aj-mesh   
screen1 must sell at a price justifying 
an application sufficient to meet the   
need of the soil for a long term of     
years1 as the greater part has no       
immediate availability1 and only a heavy
 application can provide a good supply  
for immediate need4  ,new ,york ,state  
,experience4 ,a bulletin of the ,new    
,york agricultural experiment station1  
published early in #aiag1 calls         
attention to the rapid increase in      
demand for ground limestone in ,new     
,york4 ,within the last five years the  
number of grinding plants within the    
state had increased from one to #ef1 and
 more than a dozen outside plants are   
shipping extensively into the state4    
,the bulletin says3 ,farmers who have   

had experience with the use of ground   
limestone are as a rule satisfied with  
only a reasonable degree of fineness1   
and are able to judge the material by   
inspection4 ,when limestone is ground so
 the entire product will pass a #aj-mesh
 7or #b mm47 sieve1 the greater part of 
it will be finer than a #dj-mesh 7or    
#a_/b mm47 sieve4444 ,there are now in  
operation in this ,state more than a    
dozen small portable community grinders2
 they are doing much to help solve the  
ground limestone problem and their use  
is rapidly increasing4 ,in the practical
 operation of these machines they grind 
only to medium fineness 7#b mm474 ,to   
insist upon extreme fineness is to      
discourage their use4  ,this ,state     
experiment station is only one of many  
scientific authorities approving the use
 of limestone reduced only to such      
fineness that it will pass through a    
#aj-mesh screen1 the cost of the        
grinding being sufficiently small to    
permit heavy applications4     ,,chapter

 ,x  ,,fresh ,,burned ,,lime   ,an ,old 
,practice4 ,the beneficial effect of    
caustic lime on land is mentioned in    
some ancient writings4 ,burning and     
slaking afforded the only known method  
of reducing stone for use in sour soils4
 ,lime in this form not only is an      
effective agent for correcting soil     
acidity1 but it improves the physical   
condition of tough and intractable      
clays1 rendering them more friable and  
easy of tillage4 ,caustic lime also     
renders the organic matter in the soil  
more quickly available1 an increase in  
yield quickly following an application4 
,these three effects of burned lime     
brought it into favor1 and a rational   
use would have continued it in favor4   
,irrational ,use4 ,the ability of       
caustic lime to improve the physical    
condition of land and to make inert     
plant food available has led many       
farmers to treat it as a substitute for 
manure1 sods and commercial fertilizers4
 ,immoderate use gave increased crop    

yields for a time1 and the inference was
 easy that lime could displace the old  
sources of plant food supplies4 ,it     
became the custom in some regions to    
apply #bjj to #cjj bushels per acre to  
stiff limestone soils that had no lime  
deficiency1 as a test for acidity would 
have shown4 ,the lime not only made some
 mineral plant available1 but it        
attacked the organic matter of the soil1
 making it ready for immediate use and  
leaving the land deficient in humus4    
,wherever stable manure and clover sods 
were not freely used1 the heavy         
application of caustic lime was followed
 ultimately by decline in productive    
power4 ,such practice has come under the
 condemnation of people who have not    
seen that the ill results have no       
relation to the rational use of lime4   
,what ,lime ,is4 ,there is abundant     
evidence that pulverized limestone1 or  
lime marl1 or oystershell1 or any other 
form of carbonate of lime1 corrects soil
 acidity and helps to make a soil       

productive4 ,it is good1 no matter      
whether nature mixed the lime carbonate 
with clay1 etc41 to make a choice       
limestone soil1 or man applied it4      
,fresh burned lime is only the stone    
after some worthless matter has been    
driven off by use of heat4 ,the         
limestone1 carbonate of lime1 is        
represented by the formula ,ca,c,o#c4   
,when heat is applied under right       
conditions the carbon dioxide1 ,,co#b1  
is driven off1 and there remains ,ca,o1 
which is calcium oxide1 called fresh    
burned lime4  ,if there were #ajj pounds
 of the stone1 and it was absolutely    
pure1 #dd pounds would escape in form of
 the carbon dioxide1 which had no value1
 and #ef pounds would remain4 ,the #ef  
pounds calcium oxide1 or fresh burned   
lime1 have the same power to correct    
acidity as this same material had when  
it was bound up in the #ajj pounds of   
limestone4 ,the #dd pounds were driven  
off by heat1 while if the limestone had 
not been burned the #dd would have      

separated from the #ef pounds in an acid
 soil1 leaving the actual lime to do the
 needed work of correcting acidity4     
,affecting ,physical ,condition4 ,while 
burning the stone does not affect the   
ability to correct acidity1 it does     
increase the power to make a stiff soil 
friable and to bind a sandy soil4 ,no   
one may say how much this power to      
influence soil texture is increased1 but
 it is marked1 and when improved        
physical condition is the chief reason  
for applying lime1 there is no question 
that fresh burned material is to be     
preferred to pulverized stone or marl1  
or any other carbonate form4 ,a light   
application is not markedly effective in
 this respect1 and the chief use for    
this purpose has been in limestone areas
 that may not have had any lime         
deficiency1 but did have a stiff soil4  
,the presence of the stone in great     
quantity for burning on the farm made   
heavy applications possible4  ,using ,up
 ,organic ,matter4 ,the presence of     

carbonate of lime in the form of        
pulverized limestone or marl favors the 
disintegration of any organic matter1   
but the action is so slow that it may   
not be observed4 ,while the use of      
limestone in manure piles is inadvisable
 for this reason1 the loss is not       
comparable to that resulting from mixing
 caustic lime with manure4 ,the caustic 
lime in a soil hastens decay of         
vegetable matter in a degree impossible 
to the limestone or marl4 ,irrational   
use of the former has produced such     
destructive action in many instances    
that the failure to add manure or heavy 
sods for a long term of years has led to
 heavy decline in producing power4  ,we 
are naturally so lacking in judicial    
temper that opinion has swung violently 
from favor to disfavor4 ,as most soils  
need organic matter1 we seize upon the  
thought that anything evidently inclined
 to use it up is an evil4 ,the purpose  
of tillage is in no small degree to     
bring about disintegration and resulting

 exhaustion of vegetable matter4 ,the   
latter is a storehouse of plant food1   
and some of it is needed to feed the    
crop desired4 ,tillage is no more to be 
commended for this purpose than a       
quantity of lime equivalent in power to 
do the needed work4 ,excepting the case 
of raw soils rich in the remains of     
plants1 most land hardly needs lime for 
this purpose1 it may be1 the tillage    
required for making a seed bed retentive
 of moisture and for control of weeds   
being effective1 but the point is       
emphasized that the disintegration of   
organic matter into available plant food
 is one of the chief aims of a good     
farmer4 ,it is only the excessive use of
 caustic lime that causes loss4  ,the   
use of caustic lime in sufficient amount
 to correct all acidity1 and the use of 
such material to free plant food in     
humus sufficiently to produce heavy     
sods1 are just as good farm practices as
 drainage and the application of manure4
  ,illustration3 ,laying ,foundation for

 a ,lime ,stack at the ,pennsylvania    
,experiment ,station  ,illustration3 ,a 
,stack ,nearly ,completed at the        
,pennsylvania ,experiment ,station      
,,chapter ,,xi  ,,burning ,,lime        
,methods of ,burning4 ,limestone        
contains the calcium and magnesium that 
must be the chief source of supply of   
,american soils1 though marls1 ashes1   
etc41 have their place4 ,the burning of 
the stone has been the leading means of 
bringing it to a condition of           
availability to the soil1 excepting1 of 
course1 the vast work of disintegration 
carried on through all the ages by      
nature4 ,pulverization of the rock by   
machinery for use on land is recent4    
,the devices for burning are various1 a 
modern lime plant containing immense    
kilns1 cylindrical in form1 the stone   
being fed into them at the top          
continuously1 and the lime removed at   
the bottom4 ,a large part of the lime   
that is sold for use on land is made in 
plants of this kind4 ,some is burned in 

kilns of cheap construction1 but a      
traveler through a limestone country    
finds few such kilns now in use4  ,the  
,farm ,lime ,heap4 ,a common method of  
producing lime for farm use has been1   
and continues to be1 a simple and       
inexpensive one1 involving the use only 
of wood1 coal and limestone1 with earth 
as a covering4 ,dr4 ,wm4 ,frear1 chemist
 of the ,pennsylvania station1 in       
,bulletin #bfa of the ,pennsylvania     
department of agriculture1 describes a  
method of burning lime on the farm as   
follows3 ,a convenient oblong piece of  
ground is cleared1 and leveled if need  
be1 to secure a fit platform4 ,upon this
 level is placed a layer or two of good 
cord wood1 better well seasoned1        
arranged in such manner as to afford    
horizontal draught passages into the    
interior of the heap4 ,between the      
chinks in the cord wood1 shavings1 straw
 or other light kindling is placed4 ,the
 stone having been reduced to the size  
of a double fist1 sometimes not so      

small1 is laid upon the cord wood1 care 
being taken to leave chinks between the 
stones just as between the bricks in a  
brick kiln4 ,it is preferred that this  
layer of stone should not exceed six to 
ten inches in thickness4  ,in some      
cases1 temporary wooden flues1 filled   
with straw1 are erected1 either one at  
the center or1 if the heap is           
elliptical1 one near each end1 and the  
stone and coal are built up around them2
 thus1 when they are burned out1 a      
chimney or two is secured1 which may be 
damped by pieces of stone or sod4 ,upon 
this first layer of stone is spread a   
layer of coal1 and upon that a thicker  
layer of stone 7#ab inches71 and so on1 
coal and stone alternating until the    
heap is topped with smaller stone4 ,the 
largest stones should be placed near the
 top of the heap1 but not near the      
outside1 so that they may be exposed to 
the highest heat4 ,the proportion of    
coal is diminished in the upper layers1 
the effort being to distribute one-half 

of the total coal employed in the two   
lower layers1 so as to secure the       
highest economy possible in the use of  
the fuel4  ,fire is then kindled in the 
straw or shavings2 when the flames have 
communicated themselves to the cord wood
 and lowermost layer of coal1 and       
tongues of flame shoot out from the     
crevices in the sides of the heap1      
earth1 previously loosened by a few     
turns of the plow about the heap1 is    
rapidly spread over the entire heap1    
thus damping the drafts and retarding   
the combustion4 ,steam and smoke slowly 
escape during the first hours1 but later
 the entire heap1 including the outer   
covering of earth1 is heated to a dull  
red glow4 ,the burning goes on slowly   
for several days1 the interior often    
being hot for several weeks4 ,when the  
lower portion of the heap has reached an
 advanced stage of calcination1 a       
portion of the outer layer of lime      
sometimes slips down2 if so1 a fresh    
covering of earth must promptly be      

applied at the exposed point2 otherwise 
it will serve as a vent for the heat1   
and the top and other sides will fail of
 proper calcination4  ,illustration3    
,effect of ,excessive ,use of ,burned   
,lime ,without ,manure at the           
,pennsylvania ,experiment ,station      
,illustration3 ,a ,hydrated ,lime ,plant
  7,courtesy of the ,palmer ,lime and   
,cement ,company1 ,york1 ,pa47          
,,chapter ,,xii  ,,lime ,,hydrate       
,slaking ,lime4 ,the usual means of     
reducing fresh burned stone lime to a   
condition that makes even distribution  
upon land possible is by slaking4 ,a few
 years ago considerable effort was made 
to create a market for lime pulverized  
by machinery1 but the difficulty in     
excluding the moisture of the air so    
that packages would not burst has been  
in the way of developing a market4      
,slaking1 by the addition of water to   
the fresh burned lime1 is the common    
method of getting the required physical 
condition4 ,when the slaking is done on 

the farm1 the custom has been to        
distribute the lime in small piles in   
the field1 placing the piles at such    
convenient distance apart that the lime1
 after slaking1 could be spread easily  
with a shovel4  ,the water for slaking  
comes from rains1 or from moisture in   
the air and earth4 ,the method is       
wasteful and can be justified1 if ever1 
only where farm-burned lime costs little
 per ton1 and the nature of the soil is 
such that a relatively heavy application
 can be safely made4 ,the distribution  
is necessarily uneven1 and if the       
required amount goes upon all the       
surface1 a great excess is sure to go   
upon a portion of it4 ,very often an    
excess of water puddles much of the lime
 in the pile1 and lumps may be seen     
lying in ineffective form in the soil   
for years4 ,the practice is responsible 
for much of the excessive application   
that brought the use of caustic lime    
into disrepute4  ,slaking in ,large     
,heaps4 ,a preferable method is to put  

the lime in flat heaps of large size and
 about four feet deep1 so that water may
 be applied or advantage be taken of    
rainfall4 ,the value of the lime is so  
great that one can well afford to draw  
water and apply with a hose so that the 
quantity can be controlled with         
exactness4 ,when fresh burned lime is   
perfectly slaked1 each #ef pounds of    
pure lime becomes #gd pounds of hydrated
 lime1 water furnishing the added       
weight4  ,hydrated ,lime on the ,market4
 ,a popular form of lime on the market  
is the hydrate4 ,manufacturers first    
burn the stone1 and in the case of a    
pure limestone they drive off #dd pounds
 of each #ajj pounds of the weight in   
burning4 ,then1 they combine enough     
water with the lime to change it to     
hydrate form1 and that adds #ah pounds  
weight4 ,it is run through a sieve to   
remove any coarse material1 and then    
packed in bags which help to exclude the
 air4 ,the small packages in which it   
comes upon the market make handling     

easy1 and this helps to bring it into   
demand4 ,its good physical condition    
makes even distribution possible1 and   
thus permits maximum effectiveness to be
 obtained4 ,it is only slaked lime1     
identical in composition and value with 
lime of the same purity slaked on the   
farm1 but some dealers have been able to
 create the impression that it has some 
added quality and peculiar power4 ,this 
does no credit to the public            
intelligence1 but the hunger of soils   
for lime is so great that investment at 
a price wholly out of proportion to the 
price of farm-slaked lime has rarely    
failed to yield some profit4  ,degree of
 ,purity4 ,it is always a reasonable    
assumption that hydrated lime has been  
made from stone of a good degree of     
purity4 ,a local stone1 burned on the   
farm1 may be of low grade1 but no man of
 business judgment would erect a costly 
plant for burning and hydrating lime    
where the purity of the stone would not 
afford a good advertisement in itself4  

,on the other hand1 we find very little 
hydrated lime on the market that has not
 had sufficient exposure to the air to  
become changed in some part to an       
air-slaked condition1 or has had refuse 
mixed with it4 ,air-slaked lime is not  
worth as much per ton as the hydrate    
because it cannot correct as much soil  
acidity1 and the percentage of the      
former cannot be determined by the      
buyer4 ,its presence may not be due to  
any wrong-doing of the manufacturer1    
and1 on the other hand1 the increase in 
weight that attends air-slaking may be  
welcomed in some degree by a dishonest  
manufacturer before the goods are       
shipped4 ,the difficulty in preventing  
hydrated lime from adding to its weight 
by becoming air-slaked is a point to be 
taken into consideration4  ,the         
percentages of air-slaked material in   
hydrated limes are widely variable1 and 
no manufacturer can standardize his     
product on the market surely for the    
benefit of the farmer4 ,in some         

instances the product is adulterated    
with refuse material in finely          
pulverized condition4     ,,chapter     
,,xiii  ,,other ,,forms ,,of ,,lime     
,air-,slaked ,lime4 ,a pure limestone is
 a carbonate1 and the chemical formula  
is ,ca,c,o#c4 ,when it is burned1 the   
carbon dioxide 7,,co#b7 is driven off1  
leaving ,ca,o1 which is calcium oxide1  
called fresh burned lime4 ,in this      
process #dd pounds of a stone weighing  
#ajj pounds passes into the air1 and    
there remain #ef pounds of lime4 ,when  
it air-slakes1 it takes back the carbon 
dioxide from the air1 and the new       
product becomes ,ca,c,o#c1 or carbonate 
of lime1 and regains its original weight
 of #ajj pounds4 ,this is what would    
happen if the process were complete1 and
 it is nearly so when the exposure to   
the air is as perfect as possible4      
,fifty-six pounds of valuable material  
are in the #ajj pounds of air-slaked    
lime1 just as is the case with          
limestone1 and there is no difference in

 effectiveness except in so far as the  
air-slaked material is absolutely fine  
and available1 while most pulverized    
limestone is less so4 ,in making        
purchase for use of land the buyer      
cannot afford to make any appreciable   
difference in price in favor of         
air-slaked lime1 as compared with a fine
 stone4  ,air-,slaking a ,slow ,process4
 ,lime changes to an air-slaked         
condition slowly unless it has full     
exposure4 ,old heaps will remain in     
hydrate form for many years1 excepting  
the outside coat1 which excludes the    
air4 ,complete air-slaking would not    
reduce ability to correct soil acidity1 
the total amount of calcium and         
magnesium remaining constant1 but weight
 would be added in the slaking1 and     
therefore the value per ton would be    
reduced4 ,the slowness with which       
air-slaking proceeds gives reason to    
expect that any bulk of old lime may    
contain a considerable percentage of the
 hydrate1 and therefore have greater    

strength than a true carbonate like     
limestone4 ,this is a consideration of  
value to a buyer4  ,agricultural ,lime4 
,some manufacturers have found in the   
demand for lime by farmers an           
opportunity of disposing of much        
material that would not be satisfactory 
to manufacturers and builders4 ,in some 
cases this so-called agricultural lime  
is sold at a price that is not beyond   
value1 but it varies much in its content
 of pure lime4 ,if the unburned cores of
 kilns are ground up1 the material      
simply retains the value of unburned    
stone4 ,any air-slaked material put into
 it has like value4 ,forkings1 ground   
up1 have less value1 and sometimes no   
value at all4 ,some better material may 
go into this mixture that is given the  
name agricultural lime1 and the product 
cannot be standardized or have a        
valuation given it that would be true   
for another lot4  ,some manufacturers   
are marketing limes of fair values under
 this designation1 but the values change

 as the material changes4 ,there are    
other manufacturers who are putting poor
 stuff on the market4 ,unless one knows 
the manufacturer and his processes1 he  
should not pay a great deal for         
agricultural lime4 ,it is much better to
 buy a high-grade lime or limestone that
 is more nearly constant in composition4
 ,when the word agricultural is part of 
the brand1 there is assurance that the  
percentage of waste stuff in it is      
relatively high4 ,unless one knows to   
the contrary1 he should assume that a   
ton of finely pulverized limestone is   
worth more per ton than agricultural    
lime4  ,marl4 ,marls vary in            
composition1 as limestones do1 but there
 are beds of chalky marl that contain   
very little clay and sand and are nearly
 a pure carbonate4 ,it is only marls of 
high degree of purity that can be put on
 the market with profit1 but beds of    
less pure marl furnish dressings for    
farms of the locality in many sections  
of the country4 ,some of these inferior 

marls have had so much clay and sand    
mixed with the lime carbonate that      
dressings must be heavy4 ,the best lime 
marls provide excellent material for the
 correction of soil acidity1 the actual 
value per ton being practically the same
 as that of the finest pulverized       
limestone4 ,some dealers in marl make   
extravagant claims for their goods1 but 
any farmer may easily put these claims  
to the test and learn that he should not
 expect more than a fairly good         
carbonate of lime can do4  ,marl        
improves the physical condition of stiff
 soils only when used in large amount   
per acre1 and this is true of any       
carbonate form1 such as limestone4      
,little effect upon physical condition  
should be expected from the light       
application usually given when marl is  
purchased and transported some distance 
to the farm4 ,the chalk marl on the     
market is used to correct soil acidity1 
and at the best it is worth only what   
good lime carbonate is worth4 ,it has no

 hidden virtues1 and cannot take the    
place of fertilizers4 ,it is an         
excellent means of meeting the          
lime-requirement of land when bought    
right1 and its fine division makes it   
distinctly superior to coarse stone4    
,there should be no confusion of a lime 
marl with the so-called green sand marl4
 ,the latter is low in lime1 and may be 
acid1 the value of the marl being in a  
considerable percentage of plant food   
contained4  ,oyster ,shell4 ,ground     
oyster shell is a good source of        
carbonate of lime4 ,the percentage falls
 below that of limestone1 but in        
addition there is a little nitrogen and 
phosphoric acid4 ,an analysis of a good 
quality of oyster shell1 as found on the
 market1 will show #ij carbonate of     
lime4  ,burned oyster shell has         
something near the same composition as  
lime made from stone1 but it goes back  
to hydrate and air-slaked forms rapidly4
 ,there is no large amount of burned    
shell lime on the market1 the material  

known as shell lime being the ground    
shell1 or lime carbonate4  ,wood ,ashes4
 ,a large supply of lime in excellent   
form was afforded by hardwood ashes1 but
 this product has ceased to have any    
important value to our agriculture4 ,the
 chief supply on the market is low in   
quality1 containing moisture and dirt in
 considerable amount1 the form of lime  
being changed from an oxide to the      
hydrate and carbonate4  ,gas ,lime4     
,prof4 ,e4 ,b4 ,voorhees1 in ,first     
,principles of ,agriculture1 says3 ,gas 
lime is also frequently used as manure2 
in gas works1 quicklime is used for     
removing the impurities from the gas4   
,gas lime1 therefore1 varies            
considerably in composition1 and        
consists really of a mixture of slaked  
lime1 or calcium hydrate1 and carbonate 
of lime1 together with sulfites and     
sulfides of lime4 ,these last are       
injurious to young plant life1 and gas  
lime should be applied long before the  
crop is planted1 or at least exposed to 

the air some time before its            
application4 ,the action of air converts
 the poisonous substances in it into    
non-injurious products4 ,gas lime       
contains on an average #dj of calcium   
oxide1 and usually a small percentage of
 nitrogen4  ,lime ,after ,magnesium     
,removal4 ,a by-product in the removal  
of magnesium from a magnesian limestone 
is an excellent material for correction 
of soil acidity1 on account of its      
physical condition4 ,its exposure to the
 air causes much of the hydrate to      
change to an air-slaked form1 and its   
value per ton lies somewhere between    
that of very finely pulverized limestone
 and hydrated lime4     ,,chapter ,,xiv 
,,magnesian ,,lime   ,magnesium4 ,as an 
element of plant food1 magnesium is as  
essential as calcium4 ,it leaches out of
 the soil less readily1 and there may be
 even less need of its application as a 
plant food1 though the need of calcium  
applications for this purpose is assumed
 to be small4 ,in the correction of soil

 acidity magnesium is more effective    
than calcium1 #hd pounds of the         
carbonate being equal to #ajj pounds of 
calcium carbonate4 ,it is a curious     
fact1 however1 that there is widespread 
fear of magnesium as a soil amendment4  
,this is not traceable to any           
considerable experience by practical    
farmers that inspires caution in its    
use1 although immense quantities of     
magnesian limestone and lime have been  
used4 ,neither is it due to any weight  
of evidence against it in the experience
 or teachings of soil chemists and      
experiments4 ,the facts of the case     
appear to be as follows3  #a4 ,an       
investigator found in his laboratory    
that a plant growing in a water solution
 was injured when magnesium was added1  
and that the injury was checked when    
calcium in equal amount was added to the
 water4 ,the theory was worked out that 
a soil should not contain a greater     
total amount of magnesium than of       
calcium1 and as the soil's supply of    

calcium tends to leach out more readily 
than the supply of magnesium1 it was    
best to use a high-calcium lime4 ,if    
this discovery of the laboratory had    
been carried into the field1 its        
significance would have dwindled to zero
 in the case of normal soils1 and a lot 
of exploitation would have been rendered
 impossible4 ,as it was1 the discussion 
went merrily along until it occurred to 
some one to test the matter in the soils
 where plants grow1 and one would now   
hear little of it if commercial         
interests were not at stake4  #b4 ,very 
much of our limestone supply is high in 
magnesium1 and some men who have        
limestone very low in magnesium and high
 in calcium have done a good stroke of  
business for themselves by deepening the
 public's impression1 due to laboratory 
tests with water cultures1 that         
magnesium in lime is injurious4  #c4    
,many people knew lime1 but had no      
knowledge of magnesia1 and if it was an 
impurity like clay or sand1 cutting down

 value per ton1 and if it was worse     
because harmful1 they wanted none of it4
  ,the ,fact's ,importance4 ,if every   
farm could get its supply of pure       
calcium lime as cheaply as it can have  
magnesian lime1 the truth respecting the
 value of the latter would have small   
agricultural importance1 but as a great 
bulk of farm and commercial supplies of 
lime is magnesian1 financial injury has 
been done consumers who have paid more  
than should have been paid for          
relatively pure calcium lime and        
limestone1 being afraid to use goods    
whose content of magnesium was not      
small4 ,it is poor policy to use either 
kind of burned lime in great excess1 but
 when rationally used on all soils      
except sandy ones1 there is no          
preference to be exercised that can be  
based upon performance4 ,a magnesian    
lime corrects as much acidity as a high 
calcium lime1 and a little more1 and its
 use is to be recommended if there is   
any advantage in the matter of price1   

except in the case of distinctly sandy  
soils4  ,magnesian ,limestone4 ,leading 
scientists making tests of limestone for
 normal soils1 use magnesian limestone  
freely4 ,they recommend its use to      
farmers wherever there is advantage in  
point of price4 ,the advice is safe that
 the limestone of a given fineness      
should be chosen whose total percentage 
of carbonates of calcium and magnesium  
is the highest4 ,the example of these   
scientists1 buying pulverized limestone 
for agricultural colleges and experiment
 farms1 and for their own farms1 should 
loosen the curious hold that the early  
warnings of a laboratory experimenter   
took upon public imagination4 ,the      
farmer should buy limestone on a basis  
of ability to correct soil acidity1 and 
make each dollar do the most possible   
toward that end4  ,most limestones      
contain some percentage of magnesium1   
and in the case of a pure dolomite over 
#de carbonate is present in combination 
with calcium carbonate4 ,a stone rich in

 magnesium slakes less readily than one 
high in calcium1 and therefore is       
preferred by manufacturers shipping     
pulverized burnt lime to reach its      
destination before slaking4             
,,chapter ,,xv  ,,what ,,shall ,,one    
,,buy8   ,relative ,values4 ,the        
relative strengths of the various       
materials containing lime may be known  
and yet doubt continue respecting the   
choice to be made4 ,the conflicting     
claims of dealers1 and inaccurate       
deductions from a single test made by   
some individual1 aid the confusion4 ,if 
there were always the single purpose of 
correcting soil acidity1 and if there   
were the same ease of application in    
case of all the materials1 the choice   
would present much less difficulty4     
,notwithstanding this1 most land now has
 a lime requirement1 or will have one as
 leaching1 crop removal and chemical    
change within the soil continue1 and the
 puzzle is no worse than a score of     
others that present themselves          

continuously in farming4  ,destroying   
,acids4 ,the cost of liming to improve  
the physical condition of land is       
prohibitive for most farms remote from  
supplies of stone that can be burned and
 put upon the land at a low price per   
ton4 ,where stone is at hand1 and soils 
are intractable1 lime burned on the farm
 should be used4 ,some slight benefit to
 a stiff soil may be obtained from the  
light application that is deemed        
practicable where all forms are costly1 
but this benefit is not usually marked  
in case of an application of a ton or   
less of burned lime4 ,it is a safe      
statement that most buyers of lime in   
some form or other will profit chiefly  
through the correction of soil acidity  
and promotion of bacterial life4 ,this  
renders the situation more simple as any
 carbonate1 hydrate or oxide of lime    
will accomplish these purposes4         
,composition4 ,the first consideration  
is the actual content of calcium and    
magnesium4 ,a guaranteed analysis is the

 only safe basis of purchase4 ,the      
unstable nature of fresh burned and     
hydrated forms makes an exact statement 
of percentages impossible for goods not 
wholly fresh1 but at least the purity of
 the original limestone can be judged4  
,equivalents4 ,one ton of fresh burned  
lime1 made from pure stone1 is          
equivalent to #bfdj pounds of the       
hydrate1 and to #cegj pounds of         
pulverized limestone or of air-slaked   
lime4 ,it is easy to carry in mind the  
proportions expressed by #a1 #a-a_/c and
 #a-c_/d4 ,if there were no other       
considerations1 such as convenience in  
handling1 evenness of distribution1     
etc41 to take into account1 one ton of  
fresh burned lime1 one and a third tons 
hydrated and one and three-quarters tons
 finely pulverized limestone would have 
the same value when delivered in the    
field4 ,lime fully air-slaked1          
high-grade marl1 and finely pulverized  
limestone would have the same value1 ton
 for ton4  ,even ,distribution4 ,the    

value of even distribution is not easily
 overestimated4 ,if lime in proper      
amount does not go into each square foot
 of an acid soil1 some of the soil will 
remain sour unless mixing is done by    
implements of tillage4 ,lime is diffused
 laterally through the soil in a very   
slight degree4 ,if a strip of sour land 
is protected by canvas1 so that no dust 
from lime applied to uncovered land can 
blow upon it1 a seeding to clover will  
show that plants a few inches from the  
edge of the limed area will fail to     
start thriftily and may die before their
 roots reach the lime4 ,full            
effectiveness of an application is      
possible only through even distribution4
  ,using ,lump ,lime4 ,lump lime1 slaked
 on the farm1 is difficult to apply     
satisfactorily4 ,spreading with a shovel
 from small heaps is bad practice1 and  
when the lime is slaked in a large heap1
 it cannot be handled as well as        
pulverized stone or commercial hydrated 
lime4 ,the latter two are in condition  

for application by means of a lime      
distributor1 or even a fertilizer       
attachment of a grain drill4 ,the       
farm-slaked lime contains impurities    
that interfere with distribution4  ,an  
,estimate4 ,it is always hazardous to   
attempt an estimate of cost of labor    
without knowing the particular farm     
conditions1 but the expense and         
discomfort attending the slaking and use
 of lime bought in lump state justify a 
willingness to pay as much for a ton of 
hydrated lime as lump lime would cost1  
although the former has only            
three-fourths as much strength as the   
latter4 ,some farmers pay nearly twice  
as much for the hydrated1 partly to     
escape the inconvenience and partly     
because they hope that the extraordinary
 claims for superiority made by some    
dealers may prove true4 ,they should    
know that it is only fresh burned lime  
slaked1 but incline to credit a claim   
that special treatment enhances value in
 some mysterious way4  ,comparing lump  

lime with finely pulverized limestone1  
the factors of expense and discomfort   
and final lack of perfect distribution  
of the former remain important4 ,the    
stone is relatively easy to handle1     
being slightly granular and passing     
through a distributor without trouble4  
,the fact that it is not caustic1 like  
the hydrated1 is in its favor4 ,when    
everything is taken into account1 one is
 justified in using limestone or        
air-slaked lime at a cost per ton       
three-fourths as great as that of lump  
lime4 ,it is to be borne in mind that in
 these estimates the cost per ton is not
 that at the factory or at one's own    
railway station1 but on the farm4 ,the  
freight and cartage to the farm are     
based on weight of material1 and more   
material per acre is required when the  
worthless portion has not been driven   
off by burning4 ,if one must use one and
 three-quarters tons of limestone to    
have the equivalent of one ton of fresh 
burned lime1 it is evident that the cost

 of freight and cartage of the worthless
 portion might make cost prohibitive if 
distances were very great4 ,farms lying 
a long distance from a railway station  
may easily find that fresh burned lime  
is the only form of lime they can       
afford4 ,the basis for correct estimate 
is cost delivered in the field4         
,storage4 ,one advantage possessed by   
the limestone is ease of storage4 ,there
 is no inconvenience or loss4 ,the stone
 may be ordered at any time of the year 
when teams are least busy upon other    
work1 and it can be held till wanted4   
,in this way the cost of cartage to the 
farm may be kept relatively low1 and the
 material is at hand when wanted1       
regardless of rush of work or delays of 
railroads4 ,this advantage is partial   
counterbalance to the cost of freight on
 the worthless portion of unburned      
stone4  ,valuing ,limestone4 ,the       
estimates1 so far as labor and          
convenience are concerned1 are merely   
suggestive1 and rest upon the           

presumption that the stone is           
satisfactorily fine4 ,it has been urged 
in another chapter that immediate       
effectiveness is determined by fineness1
 but as a working basis we assumed that 
when all the stone would pass through a 
screen having sixty wires to the inch it
 would give the desired results4 ,the   
coarsest portion would not be available 
at once1 but when an application is     
heavy enough to serve for a year or     
more1 we have enough very fine material 
in such a grade of stone to meet        
immediate need4 ,when estimating values 
of such a grade and coarser grades1 the 
amount per acre to be used is a factor4 
,the coarse is unsatisfactory if the    
price is not low enough to permit an    
application sufficient for a            
considerable term of years1 so that it  
will contain all the fine material      
needed at once4 ,in that case the       
coarser material may be expected to meet
 later need1 and may be even more       
desirable for such purpose1 as it would 

not be subject to leaching4  ,coarse    
grinding costs much less than fine      
grinding1 and it is the resulting low   
price that permits the heavy            
application4 ,as stone varies in        
hardness and ability of the small       
particles to withstand disintegrating   
forces in the soil1 an estimate of the  
difference in price between a #fj-mesh  
limestone and a #aj-mesh one could not  
serve as a safe guide4 ,the buyer should
 know the percentages of a limestone    
passing through screens of various sizes
 before he makes a purchase1 and should 
demand part of the saving in cost of    
production that attends coarse grinding4
  ,oyster ,shell4 ,ground oyster shell  
should be given about the same valuation
 as limestone4 ,it is a lime carbonate1 
and the percentage of worthless material
 in it varies somewhat ,it is coarsely  
ground1 but the large pieces            
disintegrate in the soil much more      
rapidly than limestone would do4 ,it    
contains a little nitrogen and          

phosphoric acid1 partially available1 as
 an offset to coarseness and some lack  
of purity1 as compared with the highest 
grade of fine stone4 ,it is profitable  
to buy oyster shell at limestone prices 
if used liberally enough to furnish a   
supply for a term of years4 ,the oxide1 
or burned shell lime1 would be nearly   
the equivalent of burned stone if it did
 not change to hydrate and air-slaked   
forms so rapidly that it rarely is on   
the market in the full strength of fresh
 burned lime4  ,hardwood ,ashes4 ,as a  
source of lime1 ashes have become far   
too expensive4 ,the composition of ashes
 on the market is widely variable1 dirt 
and moisture often accounting for much  
of the weight4 ,the lime in fresh burned
 ashes is peculiarly effective1 being   
finely divided and in oxide form1 but   
the ashes on the market have much of the
 lime water-slaked and air-slaked4      
,unless analysis is made at time of     
purchase1 a buyer should not estimate   
the content of lime in a ton at a value 

greater than assigned to one-half of a  
ton of limestone4 ,the additional value 
of the ashes1 due to the potash content1
 is wholly another consideration4       
,marl4 ,no more should be paid for a ton
 of good chalk marl than an equal weight
 of fine limestone would cost4 ,each is 
a good carbonate of lime1 with the same 
capacity for destruction of acids4      
,agricultural ,lime4 ,this variable     
product should not be bought unless     
actual composition is known1 or the cost
 is as low as that of pulverized        
limestone1 and even then it may be a bad
 purchase1 the methods of the           
manufacturer being the determining      
factor4 ,if such lime is chiefly a      
dumping place for low-grade stone and   
forkings1 it has small agricultural     
value4  ,land ,plaster4 ,the soil wants 
lime in carbonate form4 ,the oxide and  
hydrate change to carbonate1 and        
therefore are good4 ,land plaster is a  
sulphate1 and its tendency is to make a 
soil sour4 ,it should not be considered 

as a means of correcting soil acidity4  
,basic ,slag4 ,the amount of effective  
lime in basic slag1 as made by modern   
methods1 is so small that its value is  
nearly negligible4 ,basic slag is a good
 source of phosphorus1 and in addition  
has a tendency toward correction of soil
 acidity1 but such tendency has little  
cash value for land that requires a     
considerable dressing of lime to furnish
 a base with which soil acids may       
combine4  ,an expression of opinion was 
obtained recently from some leading soil
 chemists of this country1 and upon such
 expression we base the estimate that   
when pulverized limestone costs three   
dollars a ton1 the value of the lime in 
a ton of basic slag should not be placed
 higher than #ej cents1 and some        
chemists believe that the lime content  
is entirely negligible as an agent in   
soil amendment4  ,lime in ,other        
,fertilizers4 ,the demand for lime is   
leading some men to state a lime content
 for their goods that is designed to    

mislead4 ,such lime is not in a form to 
combine with soil acids1 and is as      
valueless as the very large amount of   
lime in acid soils that is in compounds 
having no power to affect free acids4   
,,chapter ,,xvi  ,,methods ,,of         
,,application   ,a ,controlling         
,principle4 ,the chief purpose of liming
 land is to provide a base with which   
acid may combine1 so that the soil may  
be friendly to plant life4 ,lime has    
little power to distribute itself       
through a soil1 and harmful acid may    
remain only a few inches distant from   
the point where lime has been placed4   
,in a general way1 the tendency of lime 
is downward1 especially when the        
application at the surface is heavy4    
,economical use demands even            
distribution through the soil so that a 
sufficient amount is in every part4     
,means to that end are good means of    
distribution4  ,spreading on ,grass4    
,where lime is burned on the farm1 and  
little account of labor is taken1 it has

 been a common custom to spread the lime
 on grass sods the year previous to     
breaking the sod for corn1 using #ajj to
 #cjj bushels per acre4 ,rains carried  
some of the lime through the soil1 and  
the increased yields for a few years    
were due to the improved physical       
condition of a stiff soil that a heavy  
application of caustic lime produces1   
and to the disintegration of organic    
matter and to change in compounds of    
mineral plant food4 ,the practice is    
rightly going into disrepute1 being     
wasteful and harmful4  ,illustration3   
,filling the ,lime ,spreader at the     
,ohio ,experiment ,station              
,illustration3 ,lime ,distributors  ,the
 smaller application of any form of lime
 to correct soil acidity may be made on 
grass land that should not be plowed1   
but the full effectiveness of an        
application is not secured in           
top-dressings4 ,if the land is under a  
crop rotation1 it is better practice not
 to apply the lime on grass1 but to     

defer application until the sod has been
 broken1 when the lime can be intimately
 mixed with the soil by use of harrows4 
,it is the rule that it should go on    
plowed land1 and should be mixed with   
the soil before rain puddles it4 ,in no 
case should it be plowed down4  ,when   
clover or alfalfa shows a lime          
deficiency1 it is advisable to make an  
application1 either in the spring or    
after a cutting1 obtaining whatever     
degree of effectiveness may be possible 
to this way1 but the fact remains that  
full return from an application is      
secured only after intimate mixture with
 the soil particles4 ,on the other hand1
 if land needs lime1 and there is not   
time or labor for the application when  
the soil can be stirred1 it is far      
better to apply on the surface during   
any idle time than to leave the soil    
deficient in lime4  ,distributors4 ,the 
most satisfactory means of distribution 
is a machine made for the purpose4 ,a   
number of good distributors are on the  

market4 ,they are designed to handle a  
large quantity of material after the    
fashion of a fertilizer distributor     
ordinarily attached to a grain drill4 ,a
 ,v-shaped box1 with openings at the    
bottom1 and a device to regulate the    
quantity per acre1 enables the workman  
to cover the surface of the ground with 
an even coat1 and the mixing with the   
soil is done by harrows4  ,light        
applications can be made with a drill   
having a fertilizer attachment4 ,some   
makes of drill have much more capacity  
than others4 ,granular lime1 such as    
limestone1 is handled more              
satisfactorily than a floury slaked     
lime4  ,farm-,slaked ,lime4 ,lime slaked
 on the farm must continue to be a      
leading source of supply to land4 ,if   
there is stone on the farm1 and labor in
 the winter is available1 it is not a   
costly source of supply4 ,the chief     
drawback to the use of farm-slaked lime 
is the difficulty in securing even      
distribution4 ,the loss from spreading  

with shovels from small piles slaked in 
the field is heavy4 ,the quantity per   
acre must be large to insure sufficient 
material for every square foot of       
surface4 ,the lime slaked in a large    
heap can be put through distributors    
only after screening to remove pieces of
 stone1 unless they are made with a     
screening device1 and the caustic       
character and floury condition make     
handling disagreeable1 but no other     
method is as economical when lime is    
high in price4  ,use of the ,manure     
,spreader4 ,the next best device is the 
manure spreader4 ,the makes on the      
market vary in ability to do            
satisfactory work with lime1 and none   
does even work with a small quantity per
 acre4 ,an addition to the bulk to be   
handled by placing a layer of other     
material in the spreader before filling 
with lime helps1 but some spreaders do  
fair work in spreading as little as     
#cjjj pounds of slaked lime per acre1   
and certainly far better work than      

usually is done with shovels from a     
wagon4     ,,chapter ,,xvii  ,,amount   
,,of ,,lime ,,per ,,acre   ,soils ,vary 
in ,requirement4 ,there is always the   
insistent question respecting the amount
 of lime that should be used on a       
particular field4 ,usually no definite  
reply can be safely made4 ,the          
requirement of the present1 and probably
 of the next few years1 should be met by
 one application4 ,the existing degree  
of acidity is an unknown quantity until 
a careful test has been made4 ,there are
 soils so sour that several tons of     
fresh burned lime per acre would only   
meet present requirement1 and there are 
soils so soundly alkaline that they need
 none at all4 ,this uncertainty         
regarding amount required is responsible
 for much failure to do anything1 even  
when some acidity is indicated by       
general appearance4  ,a ,working ,basis4
 ,if land has once been productive and  
in later years clover has ceased to grow
 and grass sods are thin1 there is a    

strong probability that liming will pay1
 and the experience of farmers on normal
 soils1 and the tests of experiment     
stations1 justify the estimate that two 
tons of fine stone1 or one and a quarter
 tons of fresh burned lime per acre1 can
 be used with profit4 ,this amount      
probably will permit fertilizers and    
tillage to make their full return in    
heavy sods that will provide humus4 ,it 
is a reasonable expectation that the    
application will serve through a crop   
rotation of four or five years4  ,if the
 soil was not very sour1 the second     
application at the end of four or five  
years may be reduced somewhat1 and even 
a ton of stone given once in the crop   
rotation may fully meet the requirement4
  ,in the case of the normal soil that  
has ceased to grow clover1 and does grow
 plants that are acid-resistant1 it is  
better practice to secure a relatively  
low-priced supply of coarsely pulverized
 stone and apply three or four tons per 
acre1 and thus lengthen the interval    

between applications to eight or #aj    
years4 ,the fine material in the heavy  
application will take care of present   
need1 and the coarser particles will    
disintegrate later on4  ,the quantities 
suggested may not be the most economical
 for the reader1 but their use cannot be
 attended by loss if a soil is sour1 and
 there is reason to believe that it is  
much better to use such quantities      
without question than to defer liming   
for a year in the hope that some more   
definite knowledge of a particular      
field's needs may be secured4  ,small   
,amounts ,per ,acre4 ,there is much     
experience as a basis for the claim that
 a few hundred pounds of burned lime per
 acre may have marked results4 ,fields  
that indicated an actual lime           
requirement of a ton of fresh lime per  
acre have had a test of #ejj pounds per 
acre made in strips1 and the clover     
later on was so superior to that which  
was struggling to live in the untreated 
portion that the light application      

appeared almost to be adequate4 ,in such
 land there cannot be full bacterial    
activity or continuing friendliness to  
plants unless the need is met fully4 ,a 
larger application would have paid      
better4 ,it is the soil rich in lime    
that can make the best response to      
tillage and fertilization4  ,a ,heavy   
,soil4 ,when burned lime is not high in 
price1 an application of two tons per   
acre may be more profitable than a      
smaller one4 ,a heavy soil needs to be  
richer in lime than a light one for best
 results1 and physical condition also is
 improved by the larger quantity4 ,a    
correspondingly heavy coat of stone will
 give quite satisfactory results1 but   
effect upon the texture of the soil is  
less marked4  ,sandy ,soils4 ,it is     
inadvisable to apply any large quantity 
of caustic lime to a light soil4 ,such a
 soil does not need as high a percentage
 in it as a heavy soil requires for good
 results1 and caustic lime can easily   
injure physical condition4 ,limestone is

 safe for use1 and is to be advised for 
all quite sandy land4 ,acidity rarely   
runs high in a light soil1 and the      
opinion is hazarded here that one ton of
 stone per acre meets the needs of a    
light soil about as surely as two tons  
supply a heavy soil4 ,in case of each   
type of soil there are wide exceptions1 
and yet these estimates form a basis for
 the judgment of the individual farmer4 
,,chapter ,,viii  ,,special ,,crop      
,,demands   ,lime-,loving ,crops4 ,there
 are plants which are acid-resistant1   
giving a good return for fertilization  
and care when the soil is sour4 ,there  
are a few kinds of cultivated plants    
that seem to prefer an acid soil1 and to
 resent lime applications4 ,most staple 
crops prefer an alkaline soil1 or at    
least one that has no large requirement1
 and there are plants that thrive best  
only in land rich in lime4 ,not all such
 plants require more as a component part
 of their structure1 but do have a high 
percentage in their ash4  ,liming for   

,alfalfa4 ,when all other conditions are
 right1 alfalfa thrives or fails        
according as a soil is rich in lime or  
is distinctly deficient4 ,it is entirely
 possible to get fair yields of this    
legume for a short time from land that  
is not fully alkaline1 but full yields  
and ability to last for a term of years 
depend upon a liberal lime supply4      
,alfalfa is at home only in a naturally 
calcareous soil1 or one that has been   
given some of the characteristics of    
such land by free use of lime4 ,in the  
case of neutral or slightly acid ground 
it is good practice to mix four tons of 
limestone per acre thoroughly with the  
soil4 ,such treatment gives greater     
permanence to the seeding1 enabling the 
plants to compete successfully with the 
wild grasses and other weeds that are   
the chief obstacle to success in the    
humid climate of our ,mississippi valley
 and eastern states4 ,when this amount  
of stone is used1 the finest grade may  
not be preferred to material having a   

considerable percentage of slightly     
coarser grains4  ,illustration3         
,remarkable ,effect of ,lime on ,sweet  
,clover at the ,ohio ,experiment        
,station  ,illustration3 ,sweet ,clover 
,thrives ,when ,lime and ,manure ,are   
,supplied1 ,ohio ,experiment ,station   
,red ,clover4 ,when land is in excellent
 tilth1 it may grow red clover          
satisfactorily while showing a decided  
lime deficiency4 ,on the other hand1    
much slightly acid land fails to grow   
clover1 and an application of lime is   
followed by heavy growths4 ,red clover  
is most at home in calcareous soils1 and
 lack of lime is a leading cause of     
clover failure in this country4 ,other  
causes may be important ones in the     
absence of lime and be overcome when it 
is present4  ,alsike ,clover4 ,most     
legumes like lime1 and alsike clover is 
not an exception1 but is far more       
acid-resistant than the red4 ,it is less
 valuable1 both for soil improvement and
 for forage1 having an inferior root    

system1 but has proved a boon to farmers
 in areas that have been losing the     
power to grow red clover4 ,the custom of
 mixing red and alsike seed has become  
widespread1 and distinctly acid soils   
are marked in the clover flowering      
season by the profusion of the          
distinctive alsike bloom to the         
exclusion of the red4 ,while there is   
acid-resistant power1 this clover       
responds to liming4  ,crimson ,clover4  
,among lime-loving plants crimson clover
 has a rightful place1 but it makes     
fairly good growth where the lack of    
lime is marked4  ,bluegrass4 ,the       
heaviest bluegrass sods are found where 
lime is abundant in the soil4 ,this most
 valuable pasture grass may withstand   
the encroachments of weeds for a long   
time when lime is not abundant1 if plant
 food is not in scant supply1 but       
dependable sods of this grass are made  
only in an alkaline soil4 ,heavy liming 
of an acid soil pays when a seeding to  
permanent pasture is made1 and old sods 

on land unfit for tillage may be given a
 new life by a dressing4  ,crops        
,favored by ,lime4 ,nearly all staple   
farm crops respond to applications given
 acid soils4 ,corn1 oats1 timothy1      
potatoes and many other crops have      
considerable power of resistance to     
acids1 but give increased yields when   
lime is present4 ,liming is not         
recommended for potatoes because it     
furnishes conditions favorable to a     
disease which attacks this crop4 ,when  
clover is wanted in a crop rotation with
 potatoes1 it is advisable to apply the 
lime immediately after the potato crop  
has been grown1 and to use limestone    
rather than burned lime4 ,most kinds of 
vegetables thrive best in an alkaline   
soil4     ,,index      ,page            
,air-slaked lime1 composition and       
relative value of1 #ca1 #eg             
,agricultural lime1 composition and     
relative value of1 #eh1 #gf     ,amount 
of lime per acre1 #hb     ,basic slag1  
#gf     ,burning lime1 methods of1 #di  

,calcium1 #bi      carbonate1 #cj       
hydroxide1 #cj      oxide1 #bi          
,carbon dioxide1 #cj     ,causes of soil
 acidity1 #aj1 #ab1 #ac1 #ad            
,caustic lime affects physical          
condition1 #dd1 #df      acts on humus1 
#dd1 #dg      frees inert plant food1   
#dd      compared with limestone1 #de   
irrational use of1 #dd      may injure a
 sandy soil1 #ff1 #he      right use of1
 #dh     ,caustic magnesian lime on     
sandy land1 #ff     ,chemical changes   
produce acidity1 #ac     ,clover1 #ag1  
#ai1 #hg     ,composition of limestone1 
#bd1 #cj1 #ca1 #df     ,distribution of 
lime1 #gj1 #gh     ,distributors1 #hj1  
#ha     ,dolomite1 #cj1 #fg             
,equivalents in value1 #fi     ,extent  
of soil acidity1 #f1 #aa     ,fineness  
of limestone1 #ci1 #gc     ,frear1 ,dr4 
,wm41 #ej     ,fresh burned lime1 #dd   
composition and relative value of1 #bi1 
#ca1 #de1 #fi1 #ga     ,gas lime1 #fb   
,ground limestone1 composition and      
relative value of1 #cj1 #cc1 #fi1 #gb   

,hydrated lime1 composition and relative
 value of #cj1 #ca1 #ec1 #ga            
,indications of soil acidity1 #e1 #ae1  
#ag1 #ah     ,irrational use of lime1   
#i1 #dd     ,land plaster1 #gf          
,leaching1 #ab1 #ch     ,lime for       
alfalfa1 #hf      alsike clover1 #hg    
bluegrass1 #hh      crimson clover1 #hh 
potatoes1 #hi      red clover1 #hg      
most staple crops1 #hh      in          
fertilizers1 #gg      is unstable1 #aj  
necessary content variable1 #e      on  
sandy soils1 #he     ,limestone burned  
to effect distribution1 #cd      land1  
value of1 #d1 #f      varies in         
composition1 #cc     ,litmus paper test1
 #bj     ,low-priced pulverizers1 #ce   
,lump lime and hydrate compared1 #ga    
limestone compared1 #gb     ,magnesian  
lime1 #fd      limestone1 #ff           
,magnesium1 #cj1 #fd     ,marl1         
composition and relative value of1 #ei1 
#gf     ,new ,york experiment station1  
#db     ,old heaps of burned lime1 #eh  
,oyster shells1 composition and relative

 value of1 #fa1 #ge     ,redtop1 #ah    
,relative values of lime1 #fh1 #ga1 #gb 
,removal of lime in crops1 #ad          
,slaking lime1 #ec     ,small           
applications may pay1 #hd     ,soil     
acidity1 cause of1 #aj1 #ab1 #ac1 #ad   
extent of1 #f1 #aa      indications of1 
#e1 #ae1 #ag1 #ah      tests for1 #bj1  
#ba     ,soils vary in lime requirement1
 #hb     ,sorrel and plantain1 #ae      
,spreading farm-burned lime1 #gj1 #hj   
,storing lime in the soil1 #ch          
,storing limestone1 #gc     ,source of  
lime1 as3      agricultural lime1 #eh1  
#gf      air-slaked lime1 #ca1 #eg      
fresh-burned lime1 #bi1 #ca1 #dd        
gas lime1 #fb      ground lime1 #ca     
ground limestone1 #cj1 #cc      hydrated
 or slaked lime1 #ca1 #ec      magnesian
 limestone1 #cj      marl1 #ei          
oyster shells1 #fa1 #ge      wood ashes1
 #fa1 #ge     ,source of lime in soils1 
#aj1 #bd     ,technical terms1 #bh      
,tests for soil acidity1 #bj1 #ba       
,thin soils usually acid1 #ah           

,timber as an index1 #g1 #ae            
,timothy1 #ag1 #hh     ,truog1 ,prof4   
,e41 #ba     ,truog test1 #ba     ,value
 of lime after magnesium removal1 #fb   
,voorhees1 ,dr4 ,e4 ,b41 #fb            
,warding off soil acidity1 #g     ,when 
production decreases1 #ah     ,wood     
ashes1 composition and relative value   
of1 #be1 #fa1 #ge