,,line ,,form ,,by ,,walter ,,crane ,illustration ,,london3 ,g4 ,,bell ,,sons1 ,,ltd4 ,first published1 medium #hvo1 #aijj4 ,reprinted1 crown #hvo1 #aijb1 #aijd1 #aijh1 #aiab1 #aiad4 ,,chiswick ,,press3 ,,charles ,,whittingham ,,and ,,co4 ,,tooks ,,court1 ,,chancery ,,lane1 ,,london ,,transcriber',s ,,notes ,in the original of this work1 most pages are headed by a topic phrase so that a topic can be located quickly by riffling the pages of the book4 ,in this etext1 the same topic phrases can be found right-aligned above the paragraph that begins that topic4 ,thus a topic can be found by scrolling the text and scanning the right margin4 ,the original of this work is copiously illustrated4 ,although this etext cannot include the figures1 it does include their caption as lines like the following3 ,illustration 7f#jjb73 ,the ,origin of ,outline ,here f#jjb is a numeric label for the figure4 ,because an etext of this type does not have page numbers1 in references to a figure in the ,list of ,illustrations and in the ,index these figure labels are used instead of page number4 ,in the body text1 references to figures by page number have been supplemented with the figure labels4 ,the illustrations f#jjf1 f#jjg1 f#jjh and f#jaf do not have captions in the original and descriptive captions have been added4 ,the caret is used to indicate superscripts1 for example ,,edwd indicates ,,ed followed by a small superscript wd4 ,two minor typographical errors were corrected3 thing to think on page #aj and intregal to integral on page #aig4 ,,preface ,as in the case of ,the ,bases of ,design1 to which this is intended to form a companion volume1 the substance of the following chapters on ,line and ,form originally formed a series of lectures delivered to the students of the ,manchester ,municipal ,school of ,art4 ,there is no pretension to an exhaustive treatment of a subject it would be difficult enough to exhaust1 and it is dealt with in a way intended to bear rather upon the practical work of an art school1 and to be suggestive and helpful to those face to face with the current problems of drawing and design4 ,these have been approached from a personal point of view1 as the results of conclusions arrived at in the course of a busy working life which has left but few intervals for the elaboration of theories apart from practice1 and such as they are1 these papers are now offered to the wider circle of students and workers in the arts of design as from one of themselves4 ,they were illustrated largely by means of rough sketching in line before my student audience1 as well as by photographs and drawings4 ,the rough diagrams have been re-drawn1 and the other illustrations reproduced1 so that both line and tone blocks are used1 uniformity being sacrificed to fidelity4 ,,walter ,,crane4 ,kensington1 ,july1 #aijj4 ,,contents ,,chapter ,i ,origin and ,function of ,outline--,silhouette--,definition of ,boundaries by--,power of ,characterization by--,formation of ,letters--,methods of ,drawing in ,line--,the ,progressive ,method--,the ,calligraphic ,method--,the ,tentative ,method--,the ,japanese ,direct ,brush ,method--,the ,oval ,method-- ,the ,rectangular ,method--,quality of ,line--,linear ,expression of ,movement--,textures--,emotion--,scale of ,linear ,expression #a ,,chapter ,,ii ,the ,language of ,line--,dialects--,comparison of the ,style of ,various ,artists in ,line--,scale of ,degrees in ,line--,picture ,writing--,relation of ,line to ,form--,two ,paths--,the ,graphic ,purpose--,aspect--,the ,ornamental ,purpose--,typical ,treatment or ,convention--,rhythm--,linear ,plans in ,pattern ,designing--,wall-paper ,design--,controlling ,forms--,memory--,evolution in ,design--,variety in ,unity-- ,counterbalance--,linear ,logic--,recurring ,line and ,form--,principle of ,radiation--,range and ,use of ,line #bc ,,chapter ,,iii ,of the ,choice and ,use of ,line--,degree and ,emphasis--,influence of the ,photograph--,the ,value of ,emphasis--,the ,technical ,influence--,the ,artistic ,purpose--,influence of ,material and ,tools--,brushwork-- ,charcoal--,pencil--,pen #ea ,,chapter ,,iv ,of the ,choice of ,form--,elementary ,forms--,space-filling--,grouping-- ,analogies of ,form--,typical ,forms of ,ornament--,ornamental ,units-- ,equivalents in ,form--,quantities in ,design--,contrast--,value of ,variations of ,similar or ,allied ,forms--,use of the ,human ,figure and ,animal ,forms in ,ornamental ,design #gc ,,chapter ,v ,of the ,influence of ,controlling ,lines1 ,boundaries ,spaces1 and ,plans in ,designing--,origin of ,geometric ,decorative ,spaces and ,panels in ,architecture--,value of ,recurring ,line--,tradition--,extension-- ,adaptability--,geometric ,structural ,plans--,frieze and ,field-- ,ceiling ,decoration--,co-operative ,relation #ajh ,,chapter ,,vi ,of the ,fundamental ,essentials of ,design3 ,line1 ,form1 ,space--,principles of ,structural and ,ornamental ,line in ,organic ,forms--,form and ,mass in ,foliage--,roofs--,the ,mediaeval ,city--,organic and ,accidental ,beauty--,composition3 ,formal and ,informal--,power of ,linear ,expression--,relation of ,masses and ,lines--,principles of ,harmonious ,composition #ach ,,chapter ,,vii ,of the ,relief of ,form--,three ,methods--,contrast--,light and ,shade1 and ,modelling--,the ,use of ,contrast and ,planes in ,pattern ,designing--,decorative ,relief--,simple ,linear ,contrast--,relief by ,linear ,shading--,different ,emphasis in relieving ,form by ,shading ,lines--,relief by means of ,light and ,shade alone without ,outline--,photographic ,projection--,relief by different ,planes and ,contrasts of ,concave and ,convex ,surfaces in ,architectural ,mouldings--,modelled ,relief-- ,decorative ,use of ,light and ,shade1 and different ,planes in ,modelling and ,carving--,egyptian ,system of ,relief ,sculpture--,greek and ,gothic ,architectural ,sculpture1 influenced by ,structural and ,ornamental ,feeling--,sculptural ,tombs1 ,medals1 ,coins1 ,gems--,florentine ,fifteenth-century ,reliefs--,desiderio di ,settignano #afe ,,chapter ,,viii ,of the ,expression of ,relief in ,line-drawing--,graphic ,aim and ,ornamental ,aim--,superficial ,appearance and ,constructive ,reality--,accidents and ,essentials--,representation and ,suggestion of ,natural ,form in ,design--,the ,outward ,vision and the ,inner ,vision #bjd ,,chapter ,,ix ,of the ,adaptation of ,line and ,form in ,design1 in various materials and methods--,mural ,decoration--,fresco-work of the ,italian ,painters-- ,modern ,mural ,work--,mural ,spacing and ,pattern ,plans--,scale--,the ,skirting--,the ,dado--,field of the ,wall--,the ,frieze--,panelling-- ,tapestry--,textile ,design--,persian ,carpets--,effect of ,texture on ,colour--,prints--,wall-paper--,stained ,glass #bbd ,,chapter ,x ,of the ,expression and ,relief of ,line and ,form by ,colour--,effect of same ,colour upon different ,grounds--,radiation of ,colour--,white ,outline to clear ,colours--,quality of ,tints relieved upon other ,tints-- ,complementaries--,harmony--,the ,colour ,sense--,colour ,proportions-- ,importance of ,pure ,tints--,tones and ,planes--,the ,tone of ,time-- ,pattern and ,picture--,a ,pattern not necessarily a ,picture1 but a ,picture in principle a ,pattern--,chiaroscuro--,examples of ,pattern-work and ,picture-work--,picture-patterns and ,pattern-pictures #bef ,,index #bhc ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ,the ,origin of ,outline f#jjb ,silhouettes f#jjc ,coast and ,mountain ,lines--,gulf of ,nauplia f#jjd ,proportions of ,roman ,capital ,letters and of lower-case f#jje;a ,german text4 ,from ,durer's ,geometrica ,the ,progressive ,method of ,drawing in ,line f#jjf;a ,the ,calligraphic ,method f#jjg;a ,the ,tentative ,method f#jjg;b ,the ,oval and ,rectangular ,methods f#jjh ,lines of ,characterization in the ,form and ,feature of f#jji ,flowers3 ,lily and ,poppy ,silhouette of ,beech ,leaves and ,line ,rendering of the same f#jaj;a ,lines of ,movement f#jaj;b ,effect of ,wind upon ,trees f#jaa ,line ,arrangement in ribbed ,sea-sand f#jab ,lines of different ,textures1 ,structures1 and ,services f#jac ,lines of ,exaltation and ,rejoicing in ,unison4 ,the ,morning f#jad ,stars1 after ,william ,blake ,lines of ,grief and ,dejection3 ,designs from ,flaxman's ,homer f#jae ,landscape f#jaf ,scale of various ,degrees of ,linear ,weight and ,emphasis f#jag ,curvilinear ,scale of ,direction f#jah ,rectangular ,scale of ,direction f#jah ,picture ,writing f#jai ,olive ,branch1 from ,nature f#jbj ,olive ,branch1 simplified in ,decorative ,treatment f#jba ,study of ,horned ,poppy f#jbb ,adaptation of ,horned ,poppy in ,design3 ,vertical ,panel for f#jbc ,needlework ,question and ,answer in ,line f#jbd1 f#jbe ,diagram showing the ,use of a ,geometric ,basis in ,designing a f#jbf ,repeating ,pattern ,use of ,controlling ,boundaries in ,designing ,sprays f#jbg ,method of ,testing a ,repeating ,pattern f#jbh ,sketch to show how a ,pattern of ,diverse ,elements may be f#jbi harmonized by ,unity of ,inclosing and ,intermediary ,lines ,the ,principle of ,counterbalance in different ,systems of f#jcj ,design ,border ,units and ,border ,motive f#jca ,recurring ,line and ,form in ,border ,motives f#jcb ,radiating ,principle of ,line in ,natural ,form f#jcc ,radiating ,lines of the ,pectoral ,muscles and ,ribs f#jcd ,vaulting of ,chapter ,house1 ,westminster f#jce ,lines of ,characterization of ,feathers and ,shells f#jcf ,pen ,drawing of ,fruit f#jcg ,effect of different ,emphasis in ,treatment of the same f#jch1 f#jci ,designs ,effect of different ,emphasis in the ,drawing of ,landscape f#jdj ,example of ,page ,treatment to show ,ornamental ,relation f#jda;a between ,text and ,pictures ,suggestion for a ,carpet ,pattern and ,abstract ,treatment of f#jda;b the same on ,point ,paper as detail of ,brussels ,carpet ,brush ,forms f#jdb ,direct ,brush ,expression of ,animal ,form f#jdc ,japanese ,drawing of a ,bird4 ,from ,the ,hundred ,birds of ,bari f#jdd ,elementary ,geometrical ,forms f#jde;a ,use of the same ,forms in ,architecture f#jde;b ,poppy-heads f#jdf ,apple cut to show ,position of ,seeds f#jdg ,cube and ,sphere in ,architectural ,ornament f#jdh;a ,filling of ,square ,space f#jdi;a ,filling of ,circular ,space f#jdi;b ,inlay ,design3 ,pattern ,units and ,motives f#jej ,grouping of ,allied ,forms3 ,composition of ,curves f#jea;a ,grouping of ,allied ,forms3 ,composition of ,angles f#jea;b ,still-life ,group illustrative of ,wood-engraving f#jeb ,japanese ,diagonal ,pattern f#jec ,treatment of ,fruit and ,leaf ,forms3 ,corresponding ,curvature f#jed ,correspondence in ,general ,contour between ,leaf and ,tree f#jee;a ,some ,analogies in ,form f#jee;b ,tree of ,typical ,pattern ,forms1 ,units and ,systems f#jef ,sketches to show ,use of ,counterbalance1 ,quantity1 and f#jeg ,equivalents in ,designing ,quantities and ,counterchange of ,border and ,field in ,carpet f#jeh ,motives ,sketches to illustrate ,value of different ,quantities in f#jeh-;f#jfa ,persian ,rugs ,recurrence and ,contrast in ,border ,motives f#jfb ,use of inclosing ,boundaries in ,designing ,animal ,forms in f#jfc;a ,decorative ,pattern ,decorative ,spacing of ,figures within ,geometric ,boundaries f#jfc;b ,simple ,linear ,motives and ,pattern ,bases f#jfd ,use of ,intervals in ,repeating the same ,ornamental ,units f#jfe ,designs of ,floral1 ,human1 and ,animal ,forms1 governed by f#jff ,shape of inclosing ,boundary ,the ,parthenon3 ,sketch to show ,spaces used for ,decorative f#jfg ,sculpture in ,greek ,architecture ,the ,tower of the ,winds1 ,athens f#jfh ,sketch of part of the ,arch of ,constantine to show spaces for f#jfi ,decorative ,sculpture in ,roman ,architecture ,byzantine 7,mosaic7 ,treatment of ,architectural ,structural f#jgj ,features3 ,apse1 ,s4 ,vitale1 ,ravenna ,detail of ,canopy of ,tomb of ,gervaise-,alard1 ,winchelsea f#jga ,walberswick ,church3 ,west ,door f#jgb ,miserere in ,st4 ,david's ,cathedral f#jgc ,recessed ,panel from the ,tomb of ,bishop ,john ,morgan1 ,st4 f#jgd ,david's ,cathedral ,corbel from ,bishop ,vaughan's ,chapel1 ,st4 ,david's ,cathedral f#jge ,gothic ,tile ,pattern1 ,st4 ,david's ,cathedral f#jgf ,surface ,pattern ,motives derived from ,lines of ,structure f#jgg;a ,repeating ,patterns built upon ,square and ,circular ,bases f#jgg;b ,plan of a ,drop ,repeat f#jgh ,sketch ,designs to show ,relation between ,frieze and ,field in f#jgi ,wall-paper ,principles of ,structural and ,ornamental ,line in ,natural f#jhj ,forms ,radiating1 ,recurring and ,counterbalancing ,lines in the f#jha;a ,structure of the ,skeleton and the ,muscles ,general ,principles of ,line and ,form in the ,branching and f#jha;b ,foliage ,masses of ,trees ,principles of ,structure in ,foliage ,masses f#jhb ,albert ,durer3 ,detail from ,the ,prodigal ,son f#jhc ,albert ,durer3 ,st4 ,anthony f#jhd ,roof-lines3 ,rothenburg f#jhe ,st4 ,margaret ,street1 ,canterbury f#jhf ,figure ,designs controlled by ,geometric ,boundaries f#jhg1 f#jhh ,expression of ,storm and ,calm in ,landscape f#jhi ,expression of ,repose and ,action f#jij ,controlling ,lines of ,movement3 ,movement in a ,procession f#jia;a ,lines left by a ,watercourse--,lines governing fallen ,debris f#jia;b from a ,quarry ,relief of ,form1 7#a7 by ,outline1 7#b7 by ,contrast1 7#c7 by f#jib ,light and ,shade ,relief of ,form and ,line in ,pattern ,design by means of f#jic ,contrast and the ,use of ,planes ,treatment of ,mantling 7#adth-#afth centuries7 f#jid;a1 f#jid;b ,brass of ,martin de ,visch1 ,bruges1 #adeb f#jie ,relief in ,pattern ,design by means of ,simple ,linear ,contrasts f#jif;a ,relief by adding ,shading ,lines to ,outline f#jig;a ,relief by ,diagonal ,shading f#jig;b ,different ,method and different ,emphasis in ,relieving ,form by f#jih ,shading ,lines ,albert ,durer's ,principle in the ,treatment of ,drapery3 ,from f#jii the ,woodcut in the ,life of the ,virgin ,series ,albert ,durer3 ,pen-drawing f#ajj ,filippino ,lippi3 ,study of ,drapery f#aja ,raphael3 ,studies of ,drapery f#ajb ,relief by means of ,light and ,shade alone1 in ,pen-drawing f#ajc;a without ,outline ,relief by means of ,white ,line on a ,dark ,ground and vice f#ajc;b versa ,relief in ,architectural ,mouldings f#ajd ,roman ,treatment of ,corinthian ,order1 ,forum of ,nerva1 ,rome f#aje ,egyptian ,relief ,sculpture3 ,thebes f#ajf ,greek ,relief3 ,eleusis f#ajg ,egyptian ,relief3 ,denderah f#ajg ,chartres ,cathedral3 ,carving on ,west ,front f#ajh ,chartres ,cathedral3 ,tympanum of ,central ,door of ,west ,front f#aji ,medals of the ,lords of ,mantua1 ,cesena1 and ,ferrara1 by f#aaj ,vittore ,pisano ,treatment of ,draped ,figure in ,black on ,white ,ground and f#aaa;a vice versa ,treatment of the same ,figure in ,light and ,shade f#aaa;b ,the ,graphic ,principle of the ,expression of ,form by ,light and f#aab ,shade2 with and without ,outline ,linear ,expression of ,features1 ,feathers and ,fur3 ,notes from f#aac ,nature ,sketches to illustrate the ,graphic and the ,decorative f#aad ,treatment of ,draped ,figures ,decorative ,treatment of ,birds f#aae ,floral ,designs upon ,typical ,inclosing ,shapes of ,indian and f#aaf ,persian ,ornament ,dancing ,figure with the ,governing ,lines of the ,movement f#aag;a ,lines of ,floral ,growth and ,structure3 ,lily and ,rose f#aag;b ,coast-lines1 ,gulf of ,nauplia f#aah;a ,lines of ,movement in ,water1 ,shallow ,stream over ,sand f#aah;b ,giotto3 ,chastity 7,lower ,church1 ,assisi7 f#aai ,pinturicchio3 ,mural ,painting 7,piccolomini ,chapel1 ,siena7 f#abj ,diagram showing the ,principal ,fundamental ,plans or ,systems f#aba of ,line governing ,mural ,spacing and ,decorative ,distribution ,diagram to show how the apparent ,depth of a ,space is f#abb increased by the ,use of ,vertical ,lines1 and its apparent ,width by the ,use of ,horizontal ,lines ,decorative ,spacing of the ,wall3 ,sketches 7to half-inch f#abc scale7 to show different ,treatment and ,proportions ,figure of ,laura1 from the ,burgundian ,tapestries3 ,the f#abd ,triumphs of ,petrarch1 in the ,south ,kensington ,museum ,pinturicchio3 ,fresco in the ,appartimenti ,borgia f#abe ,portion of ,detail of the ,holy ,carpet of the ,mosque of f#abf ,ardebil3 ,persian1 sixteenth century ,sketch to illustrate ,treatment of ,borders in a ,persian ,rug f#abg ,arras ,tapestry3 ,diagrams to show the ,principle of ,working f#abh and ,surface ,effect ,contrasting ,surfaces in ,warp and ,weft in ,woven ,silk ,hanging f#abi ,indian printed ,cotton ,cover3 ,south ,kensington ,museum f#acj ,stained ,glass ,treatment3 ,inclosure of ,form and ,colour by f#aca ,lead ,lines ,sketch to show ,effect of the same ,colour and ,form upon f#acb different ,coloured ,grounds ,principle of the ,effect of the ,blending or ,blurring of f#acc ,colours at their ,edges ,use of ,black and ,white ,outline to clear the ,edges of f#acc ,coloured ,forms upon different ,coloured ,grounds ,j4 ,van ,eyck3 ,portrait of ,j4 ,arnolfini and his ,wife f#acd ,ver ,meer of ,delft3 ,lady at a ,spinet f#ace ,botticelli3 ,the ,nativity f#acf ,holbein3 ,the ,ambassadors f#acg ,botticelli3 ,madonna and ,child f#ach ,crivelli3 ,the ,annunciation f#aci ,perugino3 ,the ,virgin in ,adoration with ,st4 ,michael and ,st4 f#adj ,raphael1 and ,tobias ,titian3 ,bacchus and ,ariadne f#ada ,madox ,brown3 ,christ ,washing ,st4 ,peter's ,feet f#adb ,illustration 7f#jjb73 ,the ,origin of ,outline4 ,,of ,,line ,,and ,,form ,,chapter ,i ,origin and ,function of ,outline--,silhouette--,definition of ,boundaries by--,power of ,characterization by--,formation of ,letters--,methods of ,drawing in ,line--,the ,progressive ,method--,the ,calligraphic ,method--,the ,tentative ,method--,the ,japanese ,direct ,brush ,method--,the ,oval ,method--,the ,rectangular ,method--,quality of ,line--,linear ,expression of ,movement--,textures--,emotion--,scale of ,linear ,expression4 ,outline1 one might say1 is the ,alpha and ,omega of ,art4 ,it is the earliest mode of expression among primitive peoples1 as it is with the individual child1 and it has been cultivated for its power of characterization and expression1 and as an ultimate test of draughtsmanship1 by the most accomplished artists of all time4 ,the old fanciful story of its origin in the work of a lover who traced in charcoal the boundary of the shadow of the head of his sweetheart as cast upon the wall by the sun1 and thus obtained the first profile portrait1 is probably more true in substance than in fact1 but it certainly illustrates the function of outline as the definition of the boundaries of form4 ,silhouette ,as children we probably perceive forms in nature defined as flat shapes of colour relieved upon other colours1 or flat fields of light on dark1 as a white horse is defined upon the green grass of a field1 or a black figure upon a background of snow4 ,illustration 7f#jjc;a73 ,silhouette ,illustration 7f#jjc;b73 ,silhouette ,definition of ,boundaries ,to define the boundaries of such forms becomes the main object in early attempts at artistic expression4 ,the attention is caught by the edges--the shape of the silhouette which remains the paramount means of distinction of form when details and secondary characteristics are lost2 as the outlines of mountains remain1 or are even more clearly seen1 when distance subdues the details of their structure1 and evening mists throw them into flat planes one behind the other1 and leave nothing but the delicate lines of their edges to tell their character4 ,we feel the beauty and simplicity of such effects in nature4 ,we feel that the mind1 through the eye resting upon these quiet planes and delicate lines1 receives a sense of repose and poetic suggestion which is lost in the bright noontide1 with all its wealth of glittering detail1 sharp cut in light and shade4 ,there is no doubt that this typical power of outline and the value of simplicity of mass were perceived by the ancients1 notably the ,ancient ,egyptians and the ,greeks1 who both1 in their own ways1 in their art show a wonderful power of characterization by means of line and mass1 and a delicate sense of the ornamental value and quality of line4 ,illustration 7f#jjd73 ,coast and ,mountain ,lines--,gulf of ,nauplia ,formation of ,letters ,regarding line--the use of outline from the point of view of its value as a means of definition of form and fact--its power is really only limited by the power of draughtsmanship at the command of the artist4 ,from the archaic potters' primitive figures or the rudimentary attempts of children at human or animal forms up to the most refined outlines of a ,greek vase-painter1 or say the artist of the ,dream of ,poliphilus1 the difference is one of degree4 ,the tyro with the pen1 learning to write1 splotches and scratches1 and painfully forms trembling1 limping ,o's and ,a's1 till with practice and habitude1 almost unconsciously1 the power to form firm letters is acquired4 ,writing1 after all1 is but a simpler form of drawing1 and we know that the letters of our alphabet were originally pictures or symbols4 ,the main difference is that writing stops short with the acquisition of the purely useful power of forming letters and words1 and is seldom pursued for the sake of its beauty or artistic qualities as formerly2 while drawing continually leads on to new difficulties to be conquered1 to new subtleties of line1 and fresh fascinations in the pursuit of distinction and style4 ,illustration 7f#jje;a73 ,proportions of ,roman ,capital ,letters and ,method of ,drawing ,them 7,from ,albert ,durer's ,geometrica74 ,illustration 7f#jje;b73 ,proportions of ,lower-,case ,german ,text and ,method of ,drawing the ,letters 7,from ,albert ,durer's ,geometrica74 ,the practice of forming letters with the pen or brush1 from good types1 ,roman and ,gothic1 however1 would afford very good preliminary practice to a student of line and form4 ,the hand would acquire directness of stroke and touch1 while the eye would grow accustomed to good lines of composition and simple constructive forms4 ,the progressive nature of writing--the gradual building up of the forms of the letters--and the necessity of dealing with recurring forms and lines1 also1 would bear usefully upon after work in actual design4 ,albert ,durer in his ,geometrica gives methods on which to draw the ,roman capitals1 and also the black letters1 building the former upon the square and its proportions1 the thickness of the down strokes being one-eighth of square1 the thin strokes being one-sixteenth1 and the serifs being turned by circles of one-fourth and one-eighth diameter4 ,the capital ,o1 it will be noted1 is formed of two circles struck diagonally4 ,methods of ,drawing in ,line ,letters may be taken as the simplest form of definition by means of line4 ,they have been reduced through centuries of use from their primitive hieroglyphic forms to their present arbitrary and fixed types1 though even these fixed types are subject to the variation produced by changes of taste and fancy4 ,but when we come to unformulated nature--to the vast world of complex forms1 ever changing their aspect1 full of life and movement1 trees1 flowers1 woods and waters1 birds1 beasts1 fishes1 the human form--the problem how to represent any of these forms1 to express and characterize them by means of so abstract a method as line-drawing1 seems at first difficult enough4 ,but since the growth of perception1 like the power of graphic representation1 is gradual and partial1 though progressive1 the eye and the mind are generally first impressed with the salient features and leading characteristics of natural forms1 just as the child's first idea of a human form is that of a body with four straight limbs1 with a preponderating head4 ,that is the first impression1 and it is unhesitatingly recorded in infantine outline4 ,the first aim1 then1 in drawing anything in line is to grasp the general truths of form1 character1 and expression4 ,the ,progressive ,method ,there are various methods of proceeding in getting an outline of any object or figure4 ,to begin with1 the student might begin progressively defining the form by a series of stages in this way4 ,take the profile of a bird1 for instance2 the form might be gradually built up by the combination of a series of lines3 ,illustration 7f#jjf;a73 7bird forms7 or take the simpler form of a flask bottle3 ,illustration 7f#jjf;b73 7bottle forms7 or a jar on the same principle3 ,illustration 7f#jjf;c73 7jar forms7 or1 simpler still1 a leaf form1 putting in the stem first with one stroke 7#a73 ,illustration 7f#jjf;d73 7leaf forms7 and building the form around it 7#b1 #c74 ,the ,calligraphic ,method ,illustration 7f#jjg;a73 7calligraphic forms7 ,this might be termed the calligraphic method of drawing2 and in this method facility of hand might be further practised by attempting the definition of forms by continuous strokes1 or building it up by as few strokes as possible4 ,the simpler types of ornament consisting of meandering and flowing lines can all be produced in this way1 i4e41 by continuous line1 as well as natural forms treated in a certain abstract or conventional way1 which adapts them to decoration4 ,the ,tentative ,method ,illustration 7f#jjg;b73 7jar forms7 ,another method is to sketch in lightly guide lines for main masses1 building a sort of scaffolding of light lines to assist the eye in getting the correct outline in its place1 using vertical centre lines for symmetrical forms to get the poise right4 ,this is the method very generally in use1 but ,i think it very desirable to practise direct drawing as well1 to acquire certainty of eye and facility of hand2 and one must not mind failure at first1 as this kind of power and facility is so much a matter of practice4 ,illustration 7f#jjg;c73 7birdbath sketch7 ,the ,japanese ,direct ,brush ,method ,the ,japanese1 who draw with the brush1 have accustomed themselves to draw in a direct manner without any preliminary sketching1 and the charm of their work is largely owing to that crisp freshness of touch only possible to their direct method4 ,the great object is to establish a perfectly intimate correspondence between eye and hand1 so that the latter will record what the former perceives4 ,abundant specimens of the freedom and naturalism of the modern school of ,japanese artists in this direct brush method may be found in the work of ,bari1 ,hiroshigi1 and ,hokusai1 and in the numerous prints and books of designs from their hands4 ,to all draughtsmen and designers they are most valuable to study for their direct method and simple means of expression of form and fact4 ,accidental as they frequently seem in composition1 the placing of the drawing upon the paper is carefully considered before starting1 and this1 of course1 is always a very important point4 ,yet another method of drawing1 more especially in relation to the drawing of the human figure and animal forms1 ,i may mention as a help to those who do not feel strong enough for the direct method4 ,at the same time it must be borne in mind that we can accustom ourselves to any method2 and the more dependent we become upon a single method1 the less facility we shall have for working in any other4 ,but for all that it is desirable to master one method--that is1 to be able to draw in line freely in one way or another--and experience and practice alone will enable us to find the method most satisfactory4 ,the ,oval and ,rectangular ,methods ,illustration 7f#jjh73 7human and horse forms7 ,the ,rectangular ,method ,this other method is to block in the principal masses of the forms we desire to represent by means of a series of ovals1 as shown in the illustration1 and when we have got the masses in their proper relations1 to proceed to draw in the careful outline of the figure1 or whatever it may be1 upon this substructure of guiding lines1 correcting as we go along4 ,it would be quite possible to work on the same principle1 but upon a structure of more or less rectangular masses4 ,the real use of the method is to assist the student to get a grasp of the relation of the masses of a figure and a sense of structure in drawing2 whether square or oval blocking in is used may be a matter of choice4 ,it may be said for the oval forms that they resemble the contours of the structure in human and animal forms4 ,if one had a tendency to round one's forms too much1 it would be well to try the rectangular method to correct this1 and vice versa4 ,after a certain facility has been acquired in rendering form by means of line1 we shall perceive further capacities of expression in its use1 and begin to note how different characteristics of form and natural fact may be expressed by varying the quality of our outline4 ,if we are drawing a plant or a flower1 for instance1 we should endeavour to show by the quality of our line the difference between the fine springing curves in the structure of the lily1 the solid seed-centre and stiff radiation of the petals of the daisy1 and the delicate silky folds of the poppy4 ,quality of ,line ,illustration 7f#jji73 ,lines of ,characterization in the ,form and ,feature of ,flowers3 ,lily and ,poppy4 ,but1 as leaves come before flowers1 it would be best to begin with leaf forms and try to express the character of oak and beech1 lime and chestnut leaves1 for instance1 by means of outline4 ,probably at first we shall feel dissatisfied with our outline as not being full enough3 it may look meagre in quality and small in definition of form4 ,this probably arises from not allowing enough space--from setting the outline too much within the boundary of the form4 ,to correct this one cannot do better than block in the form of the object we are drawing 7leaf1 flower1 or figure7 with a full brush in black silhouette1 placing the object against the light or white paper1 so that its true boundary may be seen uninterfered with by surface markings or shadows1 and1 concentrating our attention upon the edge1 follow it as carefully as possible with the solid black4 ,then1 if we compare the result with our outline1 it will help to show where it has failed2 and the practice of thus blocking in with the brush in solid silhouette will tend to encourage a larger style of drawing1 since good outline means good perception of mass2 and as a general principle in drawing1 it may be recommended to place one's outline outside the silhouette boundary of the form rather than within it2 that is to say1 when the figure or object is relieved in light against dark1 as the line in that case defines the edge against the background4 ,when the figure or object appears as dark upon a light ground1 however1 the outline should be within the silhouette1 obviously1 or its delicate boundary is lost4 ,illustration 7f#jaj;a73 ,silhouette of ,beech ,leaves and ,line ,rendering of the ,same4 ,linear ,expression of ,movement ,another important attribute of line is its power of expressing or suggesting movement4 ,by a law of inseparable association1 undulating lines approaching the horizontal1 or leading down to it1 are connected with the sense of repose2 whereas broken curves and rectangular lines always suggest action and unrest1 or the resistance to force of some kind4 ,illustration 7f#jaj;b73 ,lines of ,movement ,the recurrence of a series of lines in the same direction in a kind of crescendo or wave-like movement suggests continuous pressure of force in the same direction1 as in this series of instantaneous actions of a man bowling1 where the line drawn through or touching the highest points in each figure takes the line of the curve of a wave4 ,the wave-line1 indeed1 may be said not only to suggest movement1 but also to describe its direction and force4 ,it is1 in fact1 the line of movement4 ,the principle may be seen in a simpler way1 as ,hogarth points out in his ,analysis of ,beauty1 by observing the line described along a wall by the head of a man walking along the street4 ,or1 as we may see sometimes near the coast1 trees exposed to the constant pressure of the wind illustrate this recurrence of lines in the same direction governing their general shape2 and as each tree is forced to spread in the direction away from the wind1 the effect is that of their being always struggling against its pressure even in the calmest weather2 and this is entirely due to our association of wind-movement with this peculiar linear expression4 ,illustration 7f#jaa73 ,lines ,expressive of ,movement3 ,effect of ,wind ,upon ,trees ,flowing water1 again1 is expressed by certain recurring wave-lines1 which remind us of the ancient linear symbols of the zigzag and meander used from the earliest times to express water4 ,in the streams that channel the sands of the sea-shore when the tide recedes we may see beautiful flowing lines1 sometimes crossing like a network1 and sometimes running into a series of shell-like waves2 while the sands themselves are ribbed and channelled and modelled by the recurring movement of the waves1 which leave upon them the impress and the expression of their motion 7much as in a more delicate medium the air-currents impress the fields of cloud1 and give them their characteristic forms74 ,illustration 7f#jab73 ,line ,arrangement in ,ribbed ,sea ,sand ,linear ,expression of ,textures ,textures and surfaces1 too1 fall within the range of linear expression4 ,one would naturally use lines of totally different consistency and character to express rough or smooth surfaces3 to express the difference of value1 for instance1 between the ivory-like smoothness of an egg and the scaly surface of a pine-cone1 entirely different qualities of line are obviously wanted4 ,the firm-set yet soft feathers of the plumage of a bird must be rendered by a very different touch from the shining scales of a fish4 ,the hair and horns of animals1 delicate human features1 flowers1 the sinuous lines of thin drapery1 or the broad massive folds of heavy robes1 all demand from the designer and draughtsman in line different kinds of suggestive expression1 a translation or rendering of natural fact subordinate to the artistic purpose of his work1 and in relation to the material and purpose for which he works4 ,linear ,expression of ,emotion ,illustration 7f#jac73 ,lines of ,different ,textures1 ,structures1 and ,surfaces4 ,then1 again1 when we come to the expression of ideas--of thought and sentiment--we find in line an abstract but direct medium for their illustration2 and this again1 too1 by means of that law of inseparable association which connects the idea of praise or aspiration and ascension1 for instance1 with long lines inclining towards the severe vertical1 as when we draw a figure with upraised hands2 while the feeling might be increased if led up to or re-echoed by other groups and objects in the composition1 forming a kind of vertical crescendo on the same principle which we were considering in regard to the expression of lateral movement4 ,few things in design are finer or more elevated in feeling than ,william ,blake's design of the ,morning ,stars singing together1 in the series of the ,book of ,job1 yet it is little more than a vertical arrangement of figures with uplifted and intercrossing arms4 ,the linear plan gives the main impetus to the expressiveness of the design1 and is the basis of the beauty1 which culminates in the rapture of the fresh youthful faces4 ,illustration 7f#jad73 ,expression of ,emotion3 ,lines of ,exaltation and ,rejoicing in ,unison4 ,the ,morning ,stars1 ,after ,william ,blake4 7,from the ,book of ,job47 ,scale of ,linear ,expression ,bowed and bent lines tending downwards1 on the other hand1 convey the opposite ideas of dejection and despair4 ,this is illustrated in these figures of ,flaxman's1 who was a great master of style in outline4 ,illustration 7f#jae73 ,lines of ,grief and ,dejection4 ,flaxman3 ,designs to ,homer4 ,capacity of ,line ,we seem here to discover a kind of scale of linear expression--the two extremes at either end3 the horizontal and the vertical1 with every degree and modulation between them2 the undulating curve giving way to the springing energetic spiral1 the meandering1 flowing line sinking to the horizontal3 or the sharp opposition and thrust of rectangular1 the nervous resistance of broken curves1 the flame-like1 triumphant1 ascending verticals4 ,truly the designer may find a great range of expression within the dominion of pure line4 ,line is1 indeed1 as ,i have before termed it1 a language1 a most sensitive and vigorous speech of many dialects2 which can adapt itself to all purposes1 and is1 indeed1 indispensable to all the provinces of design in line4 ,line may be regarded simply as a means of record1 a method of registering the facts of nature1 of graphically portraying the characteristics of plants and animals1 or the features of humanity3 the smooth features of youth1 the rugged lines of age4 ,it is capable of this1 and more also1 since it can appeal to our emotions and evoke our passionate and poetic sympathies with both the life of humanity and wild nature1 as in the hands of the great masters it lifts us to the heavens or bows us down to earth3 we may stand on the sea-shore and see the movement of the falling waves1 the fierce energy of the storm and its rolling armament of clouds1 glittering with the sudden zigzag of the lightning2 or we may sink into the profound calm of a summer day1 when the mountains1 defined only by their edges1 wrapped in soft planes of mist1 seem to recline upon the level meadows like ,titans and dream of the golden age4 ,illustration 7f#jaf73 7landscape7 ,,chapter ,,ii ,the ,language of ,line--,dialects--,comparison of the ,style of various ,artists in ,line--,scale of ,degrees in ,line--,picture ,writing--,relation of ,line to ,form--,two ,paths--,the ,graphic ,purpose--,aspect--,the ,ornamental ,purpose--,typical ,treatment or ,convention--,rhythm--,linear ,plans in ,pattern ,designing--,wall-paper ,design--,controlling ,forms--,memory--,evolution in ,design--,variety in ,unity--,counterbalance--,linear ,logic--,recurring ,line and ,form--,principle of ,radiation--,range and ,use of ,line4 ,i spoke of ,line as a ,language1 and gave some illustrations of its power and range of expression1 showing that line is capable not only of recording natural fact and defining character1 but also of conveying the idea of movement and force1 of action and repose2 and1 further1 of appealing to our emotions and thoughts by variations and changes in its direction1 the degree of its emphasis1 and other qualities4 ,dialects ,yet every designer and draughtsman uses line in a different way1 and of a different quality1 according to his preference1 habit1 training1 or personality4 ,the endless variations which result ,i should--to pursue the analogy of speech further--term dialects4 ,we might collect abundant examples of these from the work of line-designers since the world began1 or compare the methods of any of the popular illustrators of to-day to find constant variations and individual differences occurring even among those which might be said1 under the influence of a prevailing mode1 to be variations of one type4 ,compare a ,greek vase-painter's delicate brush line-drawing with the bold pen-line of ,albert ,durer 7to get a contrast in historic style74 ,compare 7to take two masters of different schools1 but of the same country7 the line-treatment of ,mantegna with the line-treatment of ,raphael2 or1 to take another jump1 compare the line-work of ,blake and ,flaxman2 or1 to take a modern instance1 and to come to our own contemporary artists1 compare a drawing by ,burne-,jones and one by ,phil ,may4 ,we might construct a sort of scale of the degrees and qualities of line4 ,there is1 for instance1 outline of every degree of boldness or fineness1 from the strong black half-inch outline and upwards used in mosaic-work and stained-glass leading2 the outline of the pattern designer for block-printing2 the outline of the pen draughtsman for process-work or woodcut2 and so on1 down to the hair-line of the drypoint etcher4 ,scale of ,degrees in ,line ,there are the qualities of line in different degrees of firmness1 roughness1 raggedness1 or smooth and flowing4 ,there are the degrees of direction of line1 curvilinear or angular4 ,on the angular side all variations from the perpendicular and horizontal1 or rectangle1 within which we may find all these degrees1 and on the curvilinear side1 all the variations from spiral to circle3 so that we might say that the rectangle was the cradle of all angular variations of line1 while the semicircle was the cradle of all curvilinear variations4 7,see the diagrams on p4 #bf4;f#jah7 ,illustration 7f#jag73 ,scale of ,various ,degrees of ,linear ,weight and ,emphasis4 ,every artist1 sooner or later1 by means of his selective adaptive sense1 finds a method in the use of line to suit his own personality--to suit his own individual aim in artistic expression--and in course of time it becomes a characteristic manner1 by which his work is instantly known1 like a friend's handwriting4 ,illustration 7f#jah73 ,curvilinear and ,rectangular ,scales of ,direction4 ,now what determines this choice1 this personal selection1 over and above necessities of method and material1 it would be difficult to say1 unless we had more minute knowledge of the natural history of a human being than we are likely to possess4 ,we can only say that from practice are evolved certain methods or principles1 consciously or unconsciously2 and it is only these general methods or principles that can be explained and tested for the benefit of those essaying to follow the arduous and difficult path of art4 ,relation of ,line to ,form ,at the outset we see that we need a means of definition in drawing1 just as a child needs a word to express a thing it wants4 ,line1 at the point of the pencil1 pen1 or brush1 places this possibility of definition within our reach2 but before we can grasp it we need some knowledge1 however rudimentary1 of its inseparable companion1 ,form4 ,i recall two innocent and entertaining methods from the traditions of the nursery1 which appeal at once in a curious way to both the oral and graphic senses1 and unite story and picture in one4 ,these are illustrated on p4 #bh4;f#jai ,by such devices a child learns to associate line and form1 unconsciously and step by step defining form in the use of1 or pursuit of1 line4 ,illustration 7f#jai73 ,modern ,picture-writing ,according to ,nursery ,tradition ,it would be very entertaining and agreeable if we could carry the principle further1 and get a passable study from the antique1 for instance1 by a similar process4 ,in line-drawing we may1 however1 always tell some story or fact1 or character1 phase1 or idea4 ,the ,graphic ,purpose ,but supposing we have mounted our steed ,form1 and taken our bridle ,line in hand1 and have started riding at large in the vast domain of nature1 with the primary object of finding and hunting down truth at last2 we soon perceive that there are so many truths1 or rather that truth1 even of natural fact1 has so many sides1 that it is difficult to make up our mind which one to pursue4 ,thought1 however1 will soon discover that in this pursuit of truth we strike a road that naturally divides itself1 or branches out1 into two main paths distinct in aim4 ,these two paths in art have been called by many names2 they occasionally cross each other1 or overlap1 and are sometimes blended1 or even confused2 but it will be useful for our present purpose to keep them very distinct4 ,i will term them1 for convenience3 #a4 ,the ,graphic ,purpose4 7,accidental form47 #b4 ,the ,ornamental ,purpose4 7,typical form47 ,our use of line will largely depend upon which of these two it is our object to pursue4 ,now when we look at anything with intent to draw--say a leafy bough as it grows in the sunshine--we see great complexity of form and surface-lighting4 ,the leaves1 perhaps1 take all manner of variations of the typical form1 and are set at all sorts of angles4 ,in making a rapid sketch with the object of getting the appearance of the bough1 we naturally dwell upon these accidents and superficial facts4 ,at the same time1 with nothing but line to express them1 we are compelled to use a kind of convention1 though our aim be purely naturalistic1 to get a faithful portrait of the bough4 ,we must make our line as descriptive as possible1 defining the main forms boldly1 and blocking in broadly the main masses of form and light and shade4 ,we are now aiming at the general look of the thing4 ,we are striving to grasp the facts of ,aspect4 ,we are concerned with the purely graphic purpose1 to make a picture upon paper4 ,illustration 7f#jbj73 ,olive ,branch ,from ,nature ,we cannot1 however1 even under these simple conditions1 altogether leave out of account considerations which1 strictly speaking1 must be termed decorative4 ,for instance1 there is the question of placing the study well upon the paper1 a very important point to start with2 and then the question of beauty must arise1 not only in the selection of our point of view1 but in the choice of method1 in the treatment of line we adopt2 and it does not follow that the most apparently forcible way of getting bold projection by means of black shadows1 at the cost of the more delicate characteristics of our subject1 is the best4 ,on the contrary1 the finest draughtsmanship is always the most subtle and delicate1 and one cannot get subtle and delicate draughtsmanship without faithful study and careful constant practice--knowledge of form1 in short--and ,i am afraid there is no short cut to it4 ,the ,ornamental ,purpose ,illustration 7f#jba73 ,olive ,branch ,simplified in ,decorative ,treatment ,now supposing we make our study of leaves1 not as an end in itself1 and for its simple pictorial values or qualities only1 but with an ornamental or decorative purpose in view1 intending to make use of its form and character in some more or less systematic design or pattern-work--adapted to special methods and materials--intended to decorate a wall-surface or a textile1 for instance2 we might certainly start with a general sketch of its appearance as before1 but we should find that we should want to understand it in its detail2 the law of its growth and construction2 we should want to dwell upon its typical character and form1 the controlling lines of its masses1 rather than on its accidental aspects1 because it would really be only with these that we could successfully deal in adapting anything in nature to the conditions and limitations of a design4 ,to do this requires as much art as to make a clever graphic sketch1 perhaps more2 but it is certainly not so easily understood and appreciated1 as a rule4 ,pattern-work is taken so much for granted1 except by those technically interested1 whereas a graphic sketch may bring the drama of nature1 and of human character and incident1 before our eyes4 ,it does not require us to stop and think out the less obvious meaning1 or trace the invention or grace of line1 to appreciate the rhythmic1 silent music which the more formalized and abstract decorative design may contain1 quite apart from the forms it actually represents4 ,illustration 7f#jbb73 ,study of ,horned ,poppy ,illustration 7f#jbc73 ,adaptation of the ,horned ,poppy in ,design3 ,vertical ,panel ,for ,needlework4 ,question and ,answer in ,line ,here we discover another function of line4 ,for1 directly we endeavour to construct a decorative design--that is1 a design intended to adorn or to express an object or surface--we find that we must build it upon some sort of a plan1 or geometric controlling network or scaffolding1 so as to give it unity1 rhythm1 and coherence--especially so in the case of repeating designs4 ,even in an isolated panel or picture the necessity of this linear basis will be felt1 since one cannot draw a line or define a form without demanding an answer--that is1 a corresponding1 re-echoing line or mass4 ,illustration 7f#jbd73 ,curves #a4,q and #b4;,a ,the curve 7#a4 ,q7 is a proposition or question4 ,it is answered or balanced by the corresponding curve 7#b4 ,a71 and forms the basis for a scroll design4 ,illustration 7f#jbe73 ,curves #a and #b ,the five radiating lines 7#a7 are obviously incomplete by themselves1 but if we add another four1 in reverse order1 7#b7 we get a centred and symmetric motive of an anthemion character4 ,wall-,paper ,design ,take1 however1 a wall-paper4 ,the problem is to construct a design pleasant to the eye in line1 form1 colour1 and suggestion2 which will be interesting in detail1 and yet repeat upon a wall-surface without flaw1 and without becoming wearisome4 ,moreover1 one which will lend itself to being cut upon wood1 if for block-printing1 and which may be reproduced with a due regard to economy of means4 ,the designer may have a square of twenty-one inches in which to make his design4 ,illustration 7f#jbf73 ,diagram ,showing the ,use of a ,geometric ,basis in ,designing ,repeating ,pattern4 ,a useful way to begin with is to rule out a sheet of paper into squares1 say on the scale of #a-a_/b inch to the foot1 and upon this jot down your first ideas of linear arrangement and colour motive1 and get the general effect1 and test the plan of repeats4 ,when you are satisfied with one1 enlarge it to full size1 correct and amplify it1 and improve it in form and detail4 ,changes will probably be found necessary in drawing it upon the larger scale1 sometimes additions1 sometimes omissions4 ,now in sketching out the general plan1 one builds1 as before said1 upon some basis or plan1 however simple1 since one cannot put a simple spot1 sprig1 or spray upon paper intending to repeat1 without some system of connection to put them into relation4 ,controlling ,forms ,in designing one's sprig1 too1 the best plan to secure good decorative effect is to see that its general form is inclosed or bounded by an agreeable linear shape1 although itself not actually visible4 ,simple leaf and flower forms are generally the best to use for these controlling boundaries4 ,sprays designed on this principle may be relied upon for repeating pleasantly and safely when they are placed upon1 and connected by1 the controlling geometric plan4 ,a good practical test of the truth and completeness of your square repeat is1 when the design is done1 or even in progress1 to cut it into four equal parts 7supposing it to be a twenty-one inch square74 ,this will enable you to get the joints true1 and also1 by altering the position of the squares1 to give you a very good idea of the effect of the repeat full size4 7,see the diagrams on p4 #da4;f#jbh7 ,these things must be considered1 of course1 merely as practical aids to invention3 not by any means as substitutes for it4 ,one cannot give any recipe for designing1 and no rules1 principles1 or methods can supply the place of imagination and fancy4 ,he who would bring back health from the ,indies1 says an old proverb1 must take it out with him4 ,at the same time the imagination can be enfeebled by starvation and neglect4 ,it can be depressed by dull and sordid surroundings4 ,it is apt to grow1 like other living things1 by what it feeds on1 and is stronger for exercise and development4 ,illustration 7f#jbg73 ,use of ,controlling ,boundaries in ,designing ,sprays ,memory ,memory1 too1 is an important and serviceable thing in designing1 and this1 again1 can be cultivated to an almost unlimited extent4 ,i mean that selective kind of memory which1 by constant and close observation1 extracts and stores up the essential serviceable kind of facts for the designer3 facts of form1 of structure1 of movement of figures1 expressive lines1 momentary or transitory effects of colour--all those rare and precious visual moments which will not wait1 and which happen unexpectedly4 ,they should be captured like rare butterflies and carefully stored in the mind's museum of suggestions1 as well as1 as far as is possible1 pinned down in the hieroglyphics of the note-book4 ,evolution in ,design ,as regards procedure in working out a design1 one generally thinks of some leading feature1 some central mass or form or curve--of a figure or a flower1 say--and one thinks of its capacity in repeat2 and1 since one form or line should inevitably suggest or necessitate--as by a kind of logic--another1 one adds other forms until the design is complete4 ,for it must never be forgotten that design is a growth which has its own stages of evolution in the mind1 answering to the evolution of the living forms of nature--first the blade1 then the ear1 after that the full corn in the ear4 ,experience teaches us that the most harmonious arrangements of form and line are those in which the leading lines and forms through all sorts of variations1 continually recur4 ,we cannot place a number of sharply contrasting and contradictory forms together in design satisfactorily-- at least we cannot do so without recourse to other elements to harmonize and to bring them into relation4 ,for instance1 we might get a great deal of ornamental variety by means of a number of heraldic devices upon shields1 full in themselves of quaintness and contrasts1 but brought into harmony by the boundary lines of the shields and the divisions2 or1 still further1 by throwing them upon a background of leaves and stems1 the meandering lines and recurring forms of which would answer as a kind of warp upon which to weave the heraldic spots into a connected and harmonious pattern4 ,illustration 7f#jbh73 ,method of ,testing a ,repeating ,pattern4 ,variety in ,unity ,but even in the ornamental treatment of diverse forms1 as the mediaeval heraldic designers were well aware1 they can be brought into decorative harmony by following a similar principle to the one already laid down in regard to the designing of sprigs and sprays3 that is to say1 that in designing an animal or figure for heraldry or introduction into a pattern1 one should arrange it so that it should fall within the boundary of some geometric or foliated form1 square1 circular1 elliptical or otherwise1 as might be desirable4 ,to this1 however1 ,i hope to return in a future chapter4 ,illustration 7f#jbi73 ,sketch to ,show ,how a ,pattern of ,diverse ,elements ,may ,be ,harmonized by ,unity of ,inclosing and ,intermediary ,lines4 ,counterbalance ,we may here consider another important principle in designing with line and mass1 that of counterbalance4 ,illustration 7f#jcj73 ,the ,principle of ,counterbalance in ,different ,systems of ,design4 ,take any defined space as a panel1 tile1 or border to be filled with design3 you place your principal mass1 and instantly feel that it must be balanced by a corresponding mass1 or some equivalent4 ,its place will be determined by the principle upon which the design is built4 ,if on a symmetrical arrangement1 you find your centre 7say of a panel71 and you may either throw the chief weight and mass of the design upon the central feature 7as a tree71 and balance it by smaller forms or wings each side1 or vice versa2 or1 adopting a diagonal plan1 you place your principal mass 7say it is a tile7 near the top left-hand corner 7suppose it is a pomegranate71 connecting it with a spiral diagonal line 7the stem72 the place of the counterbalancing mass 7the second pomegranate7 is obviously near the bottom right-hand corner of the square4 ,you may then feel the necessity for additional smaller forms1 and so add to it 7the leaves71 completing the design4 7,see preceding page47 ,linear ,logic ,on the same principle one may design upon various other plans4 ,the exact choice of the distribution of the counterbalancing masses must always be a matter of personal feeling1 judgment1 and taste1 controlled by the perception of certain logical necessities3 as it seems to me that designing is a species of linear reasoning199 and might almost be worked in its elementary stages on the principle of the syllogism1 consisting of two propositions and a conclusion4 ,a spiral curve is a harmonious line1 says the designer3 repeat it1 reversed1 and you prolong the harmony2 repeat it again1 with variations1 and you complete the harmony4 ,or1 harmonious effect is produced by recurring form and line4 ,here is a circular form2 here is a meandering line3 combine and repeat them1 and you get a logical and harmonious border motive4 99 ,i recall here a saying of ,sir ,e4 ,burne-,jones1 that a bad line can only be answered by a good line4 ,illustration 7f#jca73 ,border ,units and ,border ,motive4 ,recurring ,line and ,form ,the everlastingly recurring egg and dart moulding and the volute are instances of the harmonious effect of very simple arrangements of recurring line and form4 ,we also get illustrated in these another linear quality in design--that up-and-down movement which gives a pleasant rhythm to the simplest border1 and is of especial consequence in all repeating border and frieze designs4 ,the borders of early1 ancient1 and classical art might be said to be little besides rhythmical and logical arrangements of line4 ,the same rhythmical principle is found in the designs of the classical frieze in all its varieties1 culminating in the rhythmic movement of the great ,pan-,athenaic procession in that master-frieze of the ,parthenon1 which1 though full of infinite variety and delicate sculptured detail1 is yet controlled by a strictly ornamental motive1 and constructed upon the rhythmic recurrence of pure line4 ,illustration 7f#jcb73 ,recurring ,line and ,form in ,border ,motives4 ,the ,principle of ,radiation ,another great linear principle in design is what is known as the radiating principle1 which gives vitality and vigour alike to both arrangements of line and delineations of form4 ,it is emphatically and abundantly illustrated in natural forms1 from the scallop shell upon the sea-shore to the sun himself that radiates his light upon it4 ,the palm-leaf in all its graceful varieties demonstrates its beauty1 its constructive strength combined with extraordinary lightness1 which becomes domesticated in that fragile sceptre of social influence and festivity1 the fan1 and which again spreads its silken1 or gossamer1 wing as a suggestive field for the designer4 ,we find the principle springing to life again in the fountain jet1 and symbolical of life as it has ever been2 by means of the same principle applied to construction the ,gothic architects raised their beautiful vaults1 and emphasized the structural principle and the beauty of recurring line by moulding the edges of their ribs2 while we have but to look at the structure of the human frame to find the same principle there also1 in the fibres of the muscles1 for instance1 the radiation of the ribs1 and of the fingers and toes4 ,illustration 7f#jcc73 ,radiating ,principle of ,line in ,natural ,form4 ,in truth1 as ,i have said1 if there can be said to be one principle more than another1 the perception and expression of which gives to an artist's work in design peculiar vitality1 it is this principle of radiating line4 ,one may follow it through all stages and forms of drawing and design1 and it is equally important in the design of the figure1 in the structure of a flower1 in the folds of drapery1 and alike in the controlling lines of pictorial composition and decorative plan1 whether the lines radiate from seen or from hidden centres1 which in all kinds of informal design are perhaps the most important4 ,illustration 7f#jcd73 ,radiating ,lines of the ,pectoral ,muscles ,ribs ,range and ,use of ,line ,we see1 therefore1 that line possesses a constructive and controlling function1 in addition to its power of graphic expression and decorative definition4 ,it is the beginning and the end of art4 ,by means of its help we guide our first tottering steps in the wide world of design2 and1 as we gain facility of hand and travel further afield1 we discover that we have a key to unlock the wonders of art and nature1 a method of conjuring up all forms at will3 a sensitive language capable of recording and revealing impressions and beauties of form and structure hidden from the careless eye3 a delicate instrument which may catch and perpetuate in imperishable notation unheard harmonies3 a staff to lean upon through the journey of life3 a candid friend who never deceives us3 perchance a divining rod1 which may ultimately reveal to us that ,beauty and ,truth are one--as they certainly are1 or ought to be1 in the world of art4 ,illustration 7f#jce73 ,radiating ,line in ,architectural ,construction3 ,vaulting of ,chapter ,house1 ,westminster4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,of the ,choice and ,use of ,line--,degree and ,emphasis--,influence of the ,photograph--,the ,value of ,emphasis--,the ,technical ,influence--,the ,artistic ,purpose--,influence of ,material and ,tools--,brush-work--,charcoal--,pencil- -,pen4 ,recognizing the great range and capacity of line as a means of expression1 and also the range of choice it presents to the designer and draughtsman1 the actual exercise of this choice of line1 with a view to the most expressive and effective use in practice1 becomes1 of course1 of the first consequence4 ,in this matter of choice we are helped by natural bias1 by personal character and preferences1 for which it would1 as ,i have said1 be difficult fully to account2 but beyond this a kind of evolution goes on1 arising out of actual practice1 which controls and is controlled by it4 ,draw simply a succession of strokes with any point upon paper1 and we find that we are gradually led to repeat a particular kind of stroke1 a particular degree of line1 partly perhaps because it seems to be produced with more ease1 and partly because it appears to have the pleasantest effect4 ,choice of ,line ,by a kind of natural selection1 therefore1 influenced no doubt by many small secondary causes1 such as the relation of the particular angle of the hand and pencil-point to the surface--the nature of the point itself and the nature of the surface--we finally arrive at a choice of line4 ,this choice1 again1 will be liable to constant variation1 owing to the nature of the object we are about to draw1 or the kind of design we want to make4 ,use of ,line ,the kind of line which seems appropriate to representing the delicate edges of a piece of low-relief sculpture1 for instance1 would require greater force and firmness if we wanted to draw an antique cast in the round1 and in strong light and shade4 ,the character of our line should be sympathetic with the character of our subject as far as possible1 and sensitive to its differences of character and surface1 since it is in this sensitiveness that the expressive power and peculiar virtue of line-drawing consists4 ,illustration 7f#jcf73 ,lines of ,characterization4 ,a feather1 a lily1 a scallop shell1 all show as an essential principle of their form and construction the radiating line2 but what a different quality of line would be necessary to express the differences of each3 for the soft1 yet firm1 smooth flowing curves of the feather fibres no line would be too delicate2 and the lily would demand no less delicacy1 and even greater precision and firmness of curve1 while a slight waviness1 or quiver1 in the lines might express the silken or waxy surface of the petals2 while a crustier1 more rugged1 though equally firm line would be wanted to follow the rigid furrows and serrated surface of the shell4 ,the leaves of trees and plants of all kinds1 which perhaps afford the best sort of practice in line-drawing at first1 present in their varieties of structure1 character1 and surfaces continual opportunities for the exercise of artistic judgment in the choice and use of line4 ,the forms and surfaces of fruits1 again1 are excellent tests of line draughtsmanship1 and their study is a good preparation for the more subtle and delicate contours of the human form--the greatest test of all4 ,here we see firmness of fundamental structure 7in the bones7 and surface curve 7of sinew and muscle71 with a mobile and constantly changing surface 7of flesh and sensitive skin74 ,to render such characteristics without tending to overdo either the firmness or the mobility1 and so to become too rigid on the one hand1 or too loose and indefinite on the other1 requires extraordinary skill1 knowledge1 and practice in the use of line4 ,i do not suppose the greatest master ever satisfied himself yet in this direction4 ,illustration 7f#jcg73 ,pen ,drawing of ,fruit4 ,degree and ,emphasis ,when we have settled upon our quality of line and its degree--thick or thin1 bold or fine--we shall be met with the question of emphasis1 for upon this the ultimate effect and expression of our drawing or design must largely depend4 ,in the selection of any subject we should naturally be influenced by the attractiveness of particular parts1 characters1 or qualities it might possess1 and we should direct our efforts towards bringing these out1 as the things which impress us most4 ,that is the difference between the mind and hand working together harmoniously and the sensitized plate in the photographic camera1 which1 uncontrolled in any way by human choice 7and even under that control as it always is to some extent71 mechanically registers the action of the light rays which define the impress of natural forms and scenes through the lens focussed upon the plate4 ,so that1 as we often see in a photograph1 some unimportant or insignificant detail is reproduced with as much distinctness 7or more7 as are the leading figures or whatever form the interesting features or the motive of the subject4 ,the picture suffers from want of emphasis1 or from emphasis in the wrong place4 ,it is1 of course1 here that the art of the photographer comes in2 and1 although he can by careful selection1 arrangement1 and the regulation of exposure1 largely counteract the mechanical tendency1 a photograph by its very nature can never take the place of a work of art--the first-hand expression1 more or less abstract1 of a human mind1 or the creative inner vision recorded by a human hand4 ,influence of the ,photograph ,photography does wonders1 and for certain qualities of light and shade1 and form and effect without colour1 no painting or drawing can approach it2 but it has the value and interest of science rather than of art4 ,it is invaluable to the student of natural fact1 surface effect1 and momentary action1 and is often in its very failures most interesting and suggestive to artists--who indeed have not been slow to avail themselves of the help of photography in all sorts of ways4 ,indeed the wonder is1 considering its services to art in all directions1 how the world could ever have done without it4 ,but a photograph cannot do everything4 ,it cannot make original designs1 and it cannot draw in line4 ,you can design in the solid1 and make your groups in the studio or the open air2 you can select your point of view1 and the photograph will reproduce4 ,you can make your drawing in line1 and it will copy it2 and we know its sphere of usefulness in this direction is enormous1 since it can bring before our eyes the whole range of ancient art4 ,in short1 photography is an excellent servant and friend1 but a dangerous master4 ,it may easily beguile us by its seductive reproductions of surface relief and lighting to think more of these qualities than any other1 and to endeavour to put them in the wrong places--in places where we want colour planes rather than shadow planes1 flatness and repose rather than relief1 for instance1 as mostly in surface decoration4 ,but one way of learning the value of emphasis is to draw from a photograph1 and it will soon be discovered what a difference in expression is produced by dwelling a little more here1 or a little less there4 ,the ,value of ,emphasis ,in designing1 the use of emphasis is very important2 and it may be said that drawing or designing without emphasis is like reading without stops1 while awkward emphasis is like putting your stops in the wrong place4 ,by a difference in emphasis the same design may be given quite a different effect and expression4 ,illustration 7f#jch73 ,effect of ,different ,emphasis in the ,treatment of the ,same ,design4 ,suppose1 for instance1 we were designing a vertical pattern of stem1 leaves1 and fruit in one colour4 ,by throwing the emphasis upon the leaves1 as in ,no4 #a1 we should gain one kind of effect or decorative expression4 ,by throwing the emphasis upon the fruit1 and leaving the leaves in outline1 we should get quite a different effect out of the same elements1 as in ,no4 #b4 ,while by leaving stem1 leaves1 and fruit all in outline1 and throwing the emphasis upon the ground1 we should get1 again1 a totally distinct kind of effect and expression4 ,similar differences of effect and expression1 owing to differences of emphasis1 might be studied in the drawing and treatment of a head 7as in ,a1 ,b1 and ,c74 ,the possibilities of such variations of emphasis in drawing are practically unlimited and co-extensive with the variations of expression we see in nature herself4 ,the pictorial artist is free to translate or represent them in his work1 controlled solely by the conditions and purpose of his work4 ,illustration 7f#jci73 ,different ,emphasis in the ,treatment of a ,head examples ,a1 ,b1 ,c4 ,it is these conditions and purposes which really control both choice and treatment1 and determine the emphasis1 and therefore the expression of the work4 ,no kind of art can be said to be unconditioned1 and the simplest and freest of all1 the art of the point and the surface1 which covers all the graphic art and flat designing1 is still subject to certain technical influences1 and it may be said that it is very much in so far as these technical influences or conditions are acknowledged and utilized that the work gains in artistic character4 ,the ,technical ,influence ,the draughtsman in line who draws for surface printing1 for the book or newspaper1 should be able to stand the test of the peculiar conditions2 and1 so far from attempting to escape them1 and seeking something more than they will bear1 should welcome them as incentives to a distinct artistic treatment with a value and character of its own1 which indeed all the best work has4 ,it is1 for instance1 important in all design associated with type for surface printing1 that there should be a certain harmonious relation between lettering or type and printer's ornament or picture4 ,illustration 7f#jdj73 ,sketches to ,illustrate ,effect of ,different ,emphasis in the ,treatment of the ,same ,elements in ,landscape4 ,illustration 7f#jda;a73 ,example of ,page ,treatment to ,show ,ornamental ,relation ,between ,text and ,pictures4 ,illustration 7f#jda;b73 ,i4 ,textile ,motive3 ,suggestion for a ,carpet ,pattern4 ,illustration 7f#jda;c73 ,,ii4 ,an ,abstract ,treatment of the ,same on ,point ,paper1 as ,detail of ,brussels ,carpet4 ,a firm and open quality of line1 with bright black and white effects1 not only has the most attractive decorative effect with type1 but lends itself to the processes of reproduction for surface printing best1 whether woodcut or one of the numerous forms of so-called automatic photo-engraving1 as well as to the conditions of the printing press4 ,in all design-work which has to be subjected to processes of engraving and printing1 clearness and definiteness of line is very necessary4 ,designs for textile printing of all kinds1 for wall-papers1 especially1 require good firm drawing and definite colour planes4 ,this does not1 however1 mean hardness of effect4 ,a design should be clear and intelligible without being hard4 ,for weaving1 again1 definiteness in pattern designing is very necessary1 since the design must be capable of being rendered upon the severe conditions of the point paper1 by which it is only possible to produce curves by small successive angles 7which sounds like a contradiction in terms74 ,the size of these angles or points1 of course1 varies very much in the different kinds of textile with which pattern is incorporated1 from the fine silk fabric1 in which they are almost inappreciable1 to carpets of all kinds1 where they are emphatic2 so that a certain squareness of mass becomes a desirable and characteristic feature in designs for these purposes1 and1 indeed1 ,i think it should be more or less acknowledged in all textile design1 in order to preserve its distinctive beauty and character4 ,the ,artistic ,purpose ,beauty and character4--,in these lies the gist of all design4 ,while the technical conditions1 if fully understood1 fairly met1 and frankly acknowledged1 are sure to give character to a design1 for whatever purpose1 beauty is not so easy to command4 ,it is so delicate a quality1 so complex in its elements1 a question often of such nice balance and judgment--depending perhaps upon a hair's-breadth difference in the poise of a mass here1 or the sweep of a curve there--that we cannot weave technical nets fine enough to catch so sensitive a butterfly4 ,she is indeed a ,psyche in art1 both seeking and sought1 to be finally won only by devotion and love4 ,this search for beauty--this ,psyche of art--is the purely inspiring artistic purpose1 as distinct from the technical and useful one1 which should1 perfectly reconciled and united with it1 determine the form of our work4 ,in drawing or design we may seek particular qualities in line and form either of representation or of ornament4 ,we may desire to dwell upon particular beauties either of object or subject4 ,say1 in drawing from a cast or from natural form of any kind1 we desire to dwell upon beauty of line or quality of surface4 ,well1 since it is most difficult1 if not impossible1 to get everything at once1 and nothing without some kind of sacrifice1 we shall find that to give prominence to--to bring out--the particular quality in our subject 7say beauty of line71 it becomes necessary to subordinate other qualities to this4 ,a drawing in pure outline of a figure may be a perfect thing in itself4 ,the moment we begin to superadd shading1 or lines expressive of relief of any kind1 we introduce another element2 we are aiming at another kind of truth or beauty2 and unless we have also a distinctly ideal aim in this1 we shall mar the simplicity of the outline without gaining any compensating advantage1 or really adding to the truth or beauty of the drawing4 ,in designing1 too1 unless we can so contrive the essential characteristics of our pattern that they shall be adaptable to the method and material of its production1 and make its reproduction quite practicable1 it is sure to reappear more or less marred and incomplete4 ,the thing is to discover what kind of character and beauty the method will allow of--whether beauty or quality of line1 or surface1 or colour1 or material2 and if to be reproduced in a particular method or material1 the design should be thought out in the method or material for which it is destined1 rather than as a drawing on paper1 and worked out accordingly1 using every opportunity to secure the particular kind of beauty naturally belonging to such work in its completed form4 ,thus we should naturally think of planes of surface in modelled work1 and the delicate play of light and shade1 getting our equivalent for colour in the design and contrast of varied surfaces4 ,in stained glass we should think of a pattern in lead lines inclosing one of translucent colour1 each being interdependent and united to form a harmonious whole4 ,in textile design we should be influenced by the thought of the difference of use1 plan1 and purpose of the finished material2 as the difference between a rich vertical pattern in silk1 velvet1 or tapestry1 to be broken by folds as in curtains or hangings1 and a rich carpet pattern1 to be spread upon the unbroken level surface of a floor4 ,the idea of the wall and floor should here influence us as well as the actual technical necessities of the loom4 ,it would be part of the artistic purpose affecting the imagination and artistic motive1 and working with the strictly technical conditions4 ,the mind must project itself1 and see with the inner eye the effect of the design as it would appear in actual use1 as far as possible4 ,invention1 knowledge1 and experience will do the rest4 ,brush-,work ,keeping1 however1 to strictly pictorial or graphic conditions--to the art of the point and the surface--with which1 as designers and draughtsmen1 we are more immediately concerned1 we cannot forget certain technical considerations strictly belonging to the varieties of point and of surface1 and their relations one to another4 ,the flexible point of the brush1 for instance1 dipped in ink1 or colour1 has its own peculiar capacity1 its own range of treatment1 one might say1 its own forms4 ,the management admits of immense variation of use and touch1 and its range of depicting and ornamental power are very great3 from the simpler leaf forms1 which seem to be almost a reflection or shadow of the moist pointed brush itself1 to the elaborate graphic drawing in line or light and shade4 ,illustration 7f#jdb73 ,brush ,forms4 ,in forming the leaf shape one begins with a light pressure1 if at the point1 and proceeds to increase it for the middle and broader end4 ,on the same principle of regulation of pressure any brush forms may be built up4 ,it is essential for freedom in working with the brush not to starve or stint it in moisture or colour4 ,for ornamental forms a full brush should be used3 otherwise they are apt to look dragged and meagre4 ,for a rich and flowing line also a full brush1 however fine1 is necessary4 ,it is quite possible1 however1 to use it with a different aim1 and to produce a sort of crumbling line when half dry1 and also in colour-work for what is called dragging1 by which tone1 texture1 or quality may be given to parts of a drawing4 ,one should never lose sight1 in using the brush as a drawing tool1 of its distinctive quality and character1 and impart it to all work done by its means4 ,illustration 7f#jdc73 ,direct ,brush ,expression of ,animal ,form4 ,the direct touch with the full brush--to cultivate this is of enormous advantage to all artists1 whatever particular line of art they may follow1 since it may be said to be of no less value in design than it is in painting pure and simple4 ,we can all feel the charm of the broad brush washes and emphatic brush touches of a master of water-colour landscape such as ,de ,wint4 ,this is mastery of brush and colour in one direction--tone and effect4 ,a ,japanese drawing of a bird or a fish may show it equally in another--character and form4 ,a bit of ,oriental porcelain or ,persian tile may show the same dexterous charm and full-brush feeling exercised in a strictly decorative direction4 ,illustration 7f#jdd73 ,japanese ,drawing of a ,bird4 ,from ,the ,hundred ,birds of ,bari4 ,the empire of the brush1 if we think of it in all its various forms and directions1 is very large2 and it commands1 in skilled hands1 both line and form1 in all their varieties1 and leaves its impress in all the departments of art1 from the humble but dexterous craftsman who puts the line of gold or colour round the edges of our cups and saucers1 to the highly skilled and specialized painter of easel pictures--say the academician who writes cheques with his paint-brush6 ,charcoal and ,pencil ,then we have the ordinary varieties of the firm point3 charcoal1 pencil1 pen4 ,charcoal1 being halfway between hard and soft--a sort of halfway house or bridge for one passing from the flexible brush to the firm and hard points of pencil and pen--is first favourite with painters when they take to drawing4 ,its softness and removability adapts it as a tool for preliminary and preparatory sketching in for all purposes1 and both for designer and painter2 but it lends itself to both line and tone drawing1 or to a mixture of both4 ,it is therefore a very good material for rapid studies 7say from the life7 and the seizing of any effect of light and shade rapidly1 since the masses can be laid in readily1 and greater richness and depth can be obtained in shorter time1 perhaps1 than by any other kind of pencil4 ,charcoal is also very serviceable for large cartoon-work1 since it is capable of both delicacy and force1 and bears working up to any extent4 ,a slight rubbing of the finger gives half tones when wanted1 and is often serviceable in giving greater solidity and finish to the work4 ,then there is the lead pencil--the point-of-all-work1 as it might be called--more generally serviceable than any other1 whether for rapid sketches and jottings in the note-book1 or careful and detailed drawings1 or sketching in for the smaller kinds of design-work4 ,it is also1 of course1 used for drawings which are afterwards inked in4 ,i do not think1 however1 that pen-work done in this way is so free or characteristic as when done direct1 or at any rate quite freely1 upon a mere scaffolding of preliminary lines1 used only to make the plans for the chief masses and forms4 ,pencil drawing is capable of being carried to a greater pitch of delicacy and finish1 and has a silvery quality all its own4 ,it has not the force or range of charcoal1 but in its own technical range it possesses many advantages4 ,its gray and soft line1 however charming in itself1 does not fit it for work where sharpness and precision of line and touch are required1 as may be said to be the case with all work intended to be reproduced by some process of handicraft or manufacture1 except some sorts of photo-engraving or lithography4 ,we must therefore look to another implement to enable us to obtain these qualities1 namely1 the brush1 the use and qualities of which ,i have already touched upon4 ,the ,pen ,there remains yet another point of the firm and decisive order1 the pen1 which enables us to get firmness and sharpness of line and precise definition1 as well as considerable range of treatment and freedom of touch4 ,the pen seems to bear much the same relation to the brush as the lead pencil does to charcoal--not capable of such full and rich effects or such flowing freedom of line1 but yet possessing its own beauty and characteristic kinds of expression4 ,its true province is in comparatively small scale work1 and its natural association is with its sister-pen of literature in the domain of book-design and decoration1 and black and white drawing for the press4 ,its varieties are endless1 and the ingenuity of manufacturers continually places before us fresh choice of pen-points to work with2 but though one occasionally meets with a good steel pen1 ,i have found it too often fails one just when it is sufficiently worn to the right degree of flexibility4 ,one returns to the quill1 which can be cut to suit the particular requirements of one's work4 ,for large bold drawing the reed-pen has advantages1 and a pleasant rich quality of line4 ,but with whatever point we may work1 the great object is to be perfectly at ease with it in drawing--to thoroughly master its use and capacities1 so that in our search for that other command1 of line and form1 we may feel that we have in our hands a tool upon which we can rely1 a trusty spear to bear down the many difficulties and discouragements that beset1 like threatening dragons1 the path of the art-student4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,of the ,choice of ,form--,elementary ,forms--,space-filling--,grouping-- ,analogies of ,form--,typical ,forms of ,ornament--,ornamental ,units-- ,equivalents in ,form--,quantities in ,design--,contrast--,value of ,variations of ,similar or ,allied ,forms--,use of the ,human ,figure and ,animal ,forms in ,ornamental ,design4 ,we were considering the choice and use of ,line in the last chapter3 its expressive characters and various methods4 ,we now come to the no less important question to the designer and draughtsman--,the ,choice of ,form4 ,if ,line may be said to be the bone and sinew of design1 ,form is the substance and the flesh1 and both are obviously essential to its free life and development4 ,elementary ,forms ,the cube and the sphere give us the fundamental elements1 or primal types from which are derived the multifarious1 ever varying1 and complex forms1 the products of the forces and conditions of nature1 or the necessitous inventiveness of art1 just as we may take the square and the circle to be the parents of linear and geometric design4 ,illustration 7f#jde;a73 ,elementary ,forms3 ,pyramid1 ,sphere1 ,cube1 ,hexagon1 ,cone4 ,the cube and the sphere1 the ellipse1 the cone1 and the pyramid1 with other comparatively simple forms of solid geometry1 present themselves to the student as elementary tests of draughtsmanship--of the power1 that is1 of representing solid bodies upon a plane surface4 ,such forms being more simple and regular than any natural forms1 they are supposed to reduce the problem of drawing to its simplest conditions4 ,they certainly afford very close tests of correctness of eye1 making any fault in perspective or projection at once apparent4 ,illustration 7f#jde;b73 ,use of ,elementary ,forms in ,architecture4 ,to avoid1 however1 falling into mechanical ways1 and to maintain the interest and give vitality to such studies1 the relation of such forms to forms in nature and art should be borne in mind1 and no opportunity missed of comparing them1 or of seeking out their counterparts1 corresponding principles1 and variations1 as well as their practical bearing1 both functional and constructive2 as in the case of the typical forms of flowers1 buds1 and seed-vessels1 for instance1 where the cone and the funnel1 and the spherical1 cylindrical1 and tubular principles are constantly met with1 as essential parts of the characters and organic necessities of the plant3 the cone and the funnel mostly in buds and flower-petals for protection and inclosure of the pollen and seed germs1 the tube for conducting the juices2 the spherical form to resist moisture externally1 or to hold it internally1 or to avoid friction1 and facilitate close storage1 as in the case of seeds in pods4 ,the seed-vessel of the poppy1 for instance1 has a curious little pent-house roof to shield the interstices 7like windows in a tower7 till the seed is ripe and the time comes for it to be shaken out of the shell or pod4 ,a further practical reason for the prevalence of spherical form in seeds is that they may1 when the outer covering or husk perishes1 more readily roll out and fall into the interstices of the ground2 or when1 as in the case of various fruits1 such as the apple and orange1 the envelope itself is spherical and intended to carry their flat or pointed seeds to the ground1 where it falls and rolls when ripe4 ,illustration 7f#jdf73 ,poppyheads4 ,the cube and the various multiple forms may be found in crystals and basaltic rocks1 as well as in organic nature1 as1 for instance1 in the honeycomb of bees1 where choice of form is a constructive necessity3 the cube is in every sense of the word the corner-stone in architecture1 and without squaring and plumbing no building could be constructed1 while the cylindrical and conical principles of form are illustrated in towers and roofs1 spires and pinnacles4 ,in architectural ornament and carved decoration the cube and sphere again form the basis1 both forming ornaments themselves by mere recurrence and repetition1 and also forming constructional bases of ornament4 ,illustration 7f#jdg73 ,apple ,cut to ,show ,position of ,seeds4 ,dog-,tooth ,ornament ,illustration 7f#jdh;b73 ,dog-tooth ,formed ,from ,cube4 ,a very simple but effective form of carved ornament characteristic of early ,gothic work is what is known as the dog-tooth4 ,this is formed simply by cutting a cube of stone into a pyramid1 depressing the sides1 and cutting them into geometric leaves1 leaving the sharp angles of the pyramid from the base to the apex standing out in bold relief4 ,in ground-plan this is simply composed geometrically of a rectangle divided diagonally into four equal parts1 and by striking four semicircles from the centres of the four sides of the rectangle4 ,here we get a form of ornament in the flat which appears to have been very widely used1 and reappears in the early art of nearly all races so far as ,i am aware4 ,we find it1 for instance1 in ,assyrian carving and in early ,greek decoration1 in ,china and ,japan1 and in ,european mediaeval work of all kinds4 ,its charm perhaps lies in its simplicity of construction yet rich ornamental effect1 either as carved work or as a flat painted diaper4 ,it might also be used as the geometric basis of an elaborate repeating wall-pattern over a large surface4 ,illustration 7f#jdh;a73 ,cube and ,sphere in ,architectural ,ornament3 ,brick ,dental1 ,ball ,flower ,moulding1 and ,dog-tooth ,moulding4 ,filling of ,spaces ,when it comes to the choice of form1 when we are face to face with a particular problem in design1 ornament1 or decoration 7say1 as most frequently happens1 it is to fill a panel of a given shape and size71 we are bound to consider form in relation to that particular panel1 to the subject we propose to treat1 and the method by which the design is to be produced1 or the object and position for which it is intended4 ,this generally narrows the range of possible choice4 ,firstly1 there is the shape of the panel itself4 ,a well-known exercise for the ,teacher's ,certificate under the ,department of ,science and ,art is to give a drawing of a plant adapted to design in a square and a circle4 ,now in the abstract one would be inclined to select for a circular fitting different forms from those one might select for a square filling1 since ,i always consider that the shape of the space must influence the character of the filling in line and form4 ,still1 if the problem is to fill a square and a circle by the same forms1 or an adaptation of them1 we must rely more and more upon difference of treatment of these forms1 and not try to squeeze round forms into rectangular space1 or rectangular forms into circular space4 ,in a rose1 for instance1 it would be possible to dwell on its angular side for the square1 and on its curvilinear side for the circle4 ,anyway1 we should seek in the first place a good and appropriate motive4 ,illustration 7f#jdi;a73 ,filling of ,square ,space4 ,supposing the design is for wood inlay1 we should have to select forms that would not cause unnecessary difficulty in cutting1 since every form in the design would have to be cut out in thin wood and inserted in the corresponding hollow cut in the panel or plank to receive it4 ,complex or complicated forms would therefore be ruled out1 as being not only difficult or impossible to reproduce in the material1 but ineffective4 ,illustration 7f#jdi;b73 ,filling of ,circular ,space4 ,inlay ,design ,a true feeling for the particular effect and decorative charm of inlaid work should lead us to limit ourselves to comparatively few and simple forms1 treating those forms in an emphatic but abstract way1 and making use of recurring line and form as far as possible4 ,we might make an effective panel1 say1 for a casket1 or a clock-case1 or a floor1 by strictly limiting ourselves to very few and simple forms--say1 for instance1 a stem1 a leaf1 a berry1 or disc1 and a bird form1 or fruit and leaf forms4 ,it would be possible to build up a design with such elements both pleasant in effect and well adapted to the work4 ,an excellent plan would be to cut out all one's forms with knife or scissors in stiff paper1 as a test of the practicability of an inlay design4 ,this is actually done with the working drawing by the inlay cutter4 ,illustration 7f#jej73 #a4 ,units of ,simple ,inlay ,pattern2 #b4 ,motive for ,inlaid ,pattern ,built of the ,same ,units2 #c4 ,treatment of ,form as ,pattern ,units for ,inlaid ,work2 #d4 ,pattern ,motive for ,inlaid ,work ,i once designed an inlaid floor for the centre of a picture gallery4 ,the scale was rather large1 and the work was bold4 ,one kept to large1 bold1 and simple forms--water-lilies and broad leaves1 swans1 scallop shells1 and zigzag borders4 ,forms which can be readily produced by the brush would generally answer well for inlay1 since they would have simple and sweeping boundaries and flat silhouette4 ,and for inlay one is practically designing in black1 white1 or tinted silhouette4 ,this makes it very good practice for all designers1 both for the invention it tends to call out1 owing to the limited resources and restriction as to forms1 and also as giving facility and readiness in blocking in the masses of pattern4 ,the water-colour painter1 too1 would find that blocking in in flat local colour all his forms and the colours of his background was an excellent method of preparatory work1 and afforded good practice in direct painting1 since he could add his secondary shades and tints in the same manner until the work was brought to completion1 while preserving that fresh effect of the undisturbed washes which is the great charm of water-colour4 ,grouping of ,allied ,forms ,in seeking forms to group together harmoniously--which is the whole object of composition--we shall find that much the same kind of principle holds good whether we are arranging a still-life group or designing a wall-paper or textile4 ,it is only a difference of degree and scale4 ,in the one case we are designing in the solid with the actual objects1 before drawing or painting them as a harmonious pictorial composition2 in the other we are arranging forms upon the flat with a view to harmonious composition with a strictly decorative purpose in view4 ,in the first we are dealing with concrete form in the round2 in the second1 generally speaking1 with abstract form in the flat4 ,illustration 7f#jea;a73 ,grouping of ,allied ,forms3 ,composition of ,curves4 ,but in either case we want harmony4 ,we cannot1 therefore1 throw together a number of forms unrelated to each in line1 contour1 or meaning4 ,we seek in composing or designing not contradictions1 but correspondences of form1 with just an element of contrast to give flavour and point4 ,in grouping pottery1 for instance1 we should not place big and little or squat and slender forms close together without connecting links of some kind4 ,we want a series of good lines that help one another and lead up to one another in a kind of friendly co-operation4 ,broad smooth forms and rounded surfaces1 again1 require relief and a certain amount of contrast4 ,we feel the need of crisp leaves or flowers1 perhaps1 with our pottery form4 ,we may safely go far1 however1 on the principle of grouping similar or allied forms1 giving our composition as a whole either a curvilinear or angular character in its general lines1 masses1 and forms1 on the principle of like to like4 ,this will entirely depend upon our choice of grouping of form2 but the more by our selection we make our composition tend distinctly in the one direction or the other1 the more character it will be likely to possess4 ,illustration 7f#jea;b73 ,grouping of ,allied ,forms3 ,composition of ,angles4 ,grouping ,illustration 7f#jeb73 ,still-life ,group ,illustrative of ,wood-,engraving4 ,in selecting forms for still-life grouping and painting1 ,i think increased interest might be gained by arranging significant objects1 accessories bearing upon particular pursuits1 for instance1 in natural relationship and surrounding4 ,groups suggesting certain handicrafts1 for instance1 such as the clear glass globe of the wood-engraver1 the sand-bag1 the block upon it1 the tools1 gravers lying around1 the eye-glass1 an old book of woodcuts1 and so forth4 ,other groups suggestive of various arts and industries could be arranged--such motives as metal-work1 pottery1 literature1 painting1 music1 embroidery1 spring1 summer1 autumn1 and winter1 might all be suggestively illustrated by well-selected groups of still life4 ,even different historic periods might be emblematically suggested--,i should like to see more done in this way4 ,illustration 7f#jec73 ,japanese ,diagonal ,pattern4 ,to return to design in the flat4 ,if we start with a motive of circular masses1 we cannot suddenly associate them with sharp angles--,i mean in our leading forms4 ,of course we can make a network or trellis or diaper of the angles1 to form a mat1 ground1 or a framework on which to place our broad masses1 as we may see effectively done by the ,chinese and ,japanese4 ,corresponding ,forms ,illustration 7f#jed73 ,treatment of ,fruit and ,leaf ,forms3 ,corresponding ,curvature ,if the principal group of forms in our pattern1 say1 are fruit forms--apples1 pomegranates1 or oranges--we must re-echo or carry out the curves in a lesser degree in the connecting stems and leaves4 ,change the form of the fruit1 say1 to lemons1 and a further variation of connecting or subsidiary curve in stems and leaves will naturally suggest itself1 and at the same time in following such principles we shall be expressing in an abstract way more of the character of the tree or plant itself4 ,in looking at the leaf of a tree one may often see a suggestion of the general character and contour of the tree itself1 and we know the line3 ,just as the twig is bent the tree's inclined4 ,in dealing with angular motives the same principle would be followed1 but corresponding to the difference of motive4 ,let the form of your detail be reflected in the character of your mass4 ,i have spoken of the necessity in designing of seeking correspondences in form1 and although1 could we place every form in proper sequence and supply all the intermediary links to unite them harmoniously1 forms of extreme diversity might thus be associated1 given great extension of space 7as in wall decoration1 for instance71 even then we should want these forms to correspond and recur4 ,yet1 as a rule1 having to deal in design with what are really parts rather than wholes1 we can only endeavour by making the design of these parts simple and harmonious in line and form1 and true to their special conditions1 to render their association decoratively possible4 ,illustration 7f#jee;a73 ,correspondence in ,general ,contour ,between ,leaf and ,tree4 ,illustration 7f#jee;b73 ,some ,analogies in ,form4 ,certain forms seem to lend themselves to design in ornament better than others1 because they give the designer certain lines and masses which can be harmoniously repeated or combined with other allied forms or lines4 ,design from this point of view becomes a search for analogies of form4 ,analogies of ,form ,i mentioned certain simple geometric forms common to nature and art4 ,early ornament consists in the repetition of such forms4 ,the next step was to connect them by lines3 and so form and line1 through endless vicissitudes and complexities1 became united1 to live happily in the world of decorative motive ever after4 ,but long after the primitive unadorned geometric forms themselves have ceased to be the chief forms in ornament1 their controlling influence is asserted over the boundaries of the more complicated masses introduced4 ,typical ,forms of ,ornament ,the simple rectangle is disguised under the fret1 the circle and spiral assert their sway over the boundaries of the palmette1 or circle and semicircle unite to form the oval so frequently used both as a unit in ,greek ornament and as a controlling boundary4 ,these are typical border forms3 for extension and repetition in fields of pattern we find the same geometric plans at work in combination and subdivision1 forming at first the ornament itself1 and afterwards furnishing the plan and controlling boundaries only4 ,even in later stages in the evolution of surface decoration1 in what are called naturalistic floral patterns1 amid apparent carelessness and freedom1 by the exigencies of repetition the ghost of buried geometric connection reappears1 and compels the most naturalistic roses on a wall-paper to acknowledge themselves artificial after all1 as they nod to their counterparts from the masked angles of the inevitable diaper repeat4 ,illustration 7f#jef73 ,tree of ,typical ,pattern ,forms1 ,units1 and ,systems4 ,we find in the historical forms of decorative art constantly recurring types of form and line1 such as the lotus of the ,egyptians1 the anthemia of the ,greeks1 the pineapple-like flower and palmette of the ,persians1 the peony of the ,chinese4 ,these forms1 at first valued solely for their symbolical and heraldic significance1 and continually demanded1 became to the designer important elements or units in ornament4 ,they gave him fine sweeping curves1 radiating lines1 and bold masses1 without which a designer cannot live1 any more than a poet without words4 ,they were capable1 too1 of infinite variation in treatment1 a variation which has been continued ever since1 as by importation to different countries 7the movement going on from east to west7 the same forms were treated by designers of different races1 and became mixed with other native elements1 or consciously imitated as they are now by ,manchester designers and manufacturers1 to be sold again in textile form to their original owners1 as it were1 in the far ,east4 ,truly1 a strange turn of the wheel4 ,ornamental ,units ,the range of choice in ornamental units is1 indeed1 embarrassingly large for the modern designer1 and a careful and tasteful selection becomes of more and more importance4 ,it is not the number of forms you can combine1 or because they are of ,persian or ,chinese origin1 that your work will be artistic1 but the judicious and inventive use made of the elements of your design4 ,ready-made units1 such as the ,oriental forms ,i have mentioned1 are no doubt easier to combine1 to make an effect with1 because a certain amount of selection has already been done4 ,in fact1 with such forms as the ,persian or ,indian palmette1 we are dealing with the results of centuries of ornamental evolution1 and with emblems immemorially treasured by ancient races4 ,it behoves us1 if we are called upon to recombine them1 to treat them with sympathy1 refinement1 and respect1 and to let them deteriorate as little as possible1 for the spirit of an important ornamental form is like a gathered flower--it soon withers and becomes limp4 ,illustration 7f#jeg73 ,sketches to ,show ,use of ,counterbalance1 ,quantity1 and ,equivalents in ,designing4 ,equivalents in ,form ,it is the spirit1 after all1 that is the important thing to preserve1 in decorative design1 however widely we may depart from the letter sometimes4 ,this is a difficult quality to define1 but ,i should say it chiefly consists in a nice attention to the character of form1 the elastic spring of curves1 an understanding of the construction and proportions1 and grasp of the effect4 ,in designing we constantly feel the need of repeating certain masses with variations or balancing them by equivalents1 or the necessity of leading up to certain main forms by subsidiary forms1 and to carry out their lines in other parts of the composition4 ,in designing figures or emblems1 for instance1 within inclosed spaces1 such as shields or cartouche shapes1 forming leading elements in a design1 it requires much invention and ornamental feeling so to arrange them that1 while different in subject or meaning1 and differently spaced1 they shall yet properly counterbalance each other1 and1 though varied in detail1 shall yet be equivalent in quantity4 ,the same sort of feeling would govern the case of designing two masses of fruit and foliage1 say1 forming two halves of an oblong panel1 which1 though starting on the symmetric plan from the centre1 are not intended to be alike in detail2 or in a frieze composed of a series of formalized trees1 where it was desired to have each different1 say1 to express the progression of the seasons1 it would be the sense of the necessity of equivalents which would govern the decorative effect4 ,illustration 7f#jeh73 ,quantities and ,counterchange of ,border and ,field in ,carpet ,motives4 ,quantities in ,design ,illustration 7f#jei73 ,sketch to ,illustrate ,value of ,different ,quantities in ,persian ,rugs4 ,such considerations naturally lead us to the question of the use of quantities in design--the ornamental proportions of ornament1 or the contrasting distribution of form and line4 ,for the mere repetition of ornamental forms over surfaces and objects without reference to proportion or structure is not decoration4 ,the perception of appropriate quantities in design is really the decorative gauge or measure of effect4 ,illustration 7f#jfj73 ,sketch to ,illustrate ,value of ,different ,quantities in ,persian ,rugs4 ,in designing a bordered panel--or say a carpet--we might decide to throw the weight of pattern1 colour1 or emphasis upon either the field or border4 ,supposing the field had a dark ground upon which the arabesque or floral design was relieved1 in the border it would be most effective to transpose this arrangement1 making the ground light1 and bringing out the border design dark upon it4 ,or1 if the motive were reversed1 giving a light ground to the centre1 with the pattern dark1 the border might be brought out on a dark field4 ,or1 again1 for a less emphatic treatment the quantities of the pattern itself might be almost infinitely varied1 massive forms and close fillings contrasting with open borders and united with intermediary bands4 ,illustration 7f#jfa73 ,sketch to ,illustrate ,value of ,different ,quantities in ,persian ,rugs4 ,these intermediary bands or subsidiary borders are very important in ,eastern rugs and carpets1 and their quantities very carefully considered4 ,a ,persian designer1 for instance1 would never leave a blank unbroken strip of colour to surround his field2 his object is not to isolate the quantities of his pattern1 but to distinguish and unite them3 so he makes use of the subsidiary borders as additional quantities4 ,a usual arrangement which always looks well is to have the border proper inclosed in two bands of about the same width and quantity in pattern--or they might be a repeat of each other--and to inclose the field or centre within another narrow subsidiary border4 ,but the variations to be observed in any chance selection of ,persian rugs or carpets are constant1 and the amount of subtle variety and invention in these subsidiary borders is endless4 ,very excellent examples of the treatment and distribution of quantities may also be studied in the older ,indian printed cottons1 such as maybe seen at ,south ,kensington4 ,contrast ,the consideration of quantities in form and design involves the question of contrast1 which1 indeed1 can hardly be separated from it4 ,there is the contrast of form and line1 and the contrast of colour and plane4 ,it is with the first kind we are dealing now4 ,take the simplest linear border1 such as the type common in ,greek work4 ,we should easily weary of the continual repetition of such a form alone and unassisted1 but add a vertical with an alternative dark filling1 and we get a certain richness and solidity which is a relief at once4 ,add another quantity1 and we get the rich effect of the egg and tongue or egg and dart moulding4 ,a still simpler instance of the use of contrast1 however1 is the chequer1 or the principle of equal alternation of dark and light masses2 but this touches colour contrast rather than form4 ,illustration 7f#jfb73 ,recurrence and ,contrast in ,border ,motives4 ,the love of contrast makes the ,chinese porcelain-painter break the blue borders of his plates with small cartouche-like forms inclosing the light ground1 varied with a spray or device of some light kind2 or the diagonal1 closely-filled field of his woven silk by broad discs or cartouches of another plane of ornament4 ,but the love of sharp or very violent contrasts1 more especially of form1 may easily lead one astray and be destructive of ornamental effect4 ,like all decorative considerations1 the artistic use of contrast depends much upon the particular case and the conditions of the work1 and one cannot lay down any unvarying rules4 ,there are agreeable and disagreeable contrasts1 and their choice and use must depend upon the individual artist4 ,variation of ,allied ,forms ,the most beautiful kinds of design rather seem to depend upon the harmonious variation in association of similar or allied forms than on sharp contrasts4 ,in compositions of figures the association of the delicate curves and angles of the human form1 and the lines of drapery1 with the emphatic verticals and horizontals1 the semicircles and rectangles of architectural form1 for instance1 are always delightful in competent hands2 as also compositions of figure and landscape1 with its possibilities of undulating line corrected by the severe horizon1 or sea-line1 and contrasted with the vertical lines of trees1 stems1 and the rich forms of foliage masses4 ,for the same reasons both of correspondence and contrast1 masses of type or lettering of good form are admirable as foils to figure designs1 in which commemorative monuments of all kinds and book designs afford abundant opportunities to the designer4 ,use ,of ,human ,figure and ,animal ,forms ,in surface or textile decoration of all kinds nothing gives so much relief and vitality as the judicious use of animal forms and the human figure1 although they are not much favoured at present4 ,the forms of birds and animals1 if designed in relation to the rest of the pattern1 will give a pleasant variety of form and line1 and in their forms and lines we find just those elements both of correspondence and contrast1 in their relation to geometric or to floral design1 which are so valuable4 ,illustration 7f#jfc;a73 ,use of ,inclosing ,boundaries in ,designing ,animal ,forms in ,decorative ,pattern4 ,in order to combine such forms successfully1 however1 great care in designing is necessary2 and a good sound principle to follow as a general guide is to make the boundaries of the bird or animal touch the limits of an imaginary inclosing form of some simple geometric or floral or leaf shape 7see p4 #ajd;f#jfc;a74 ,this would at once control the form and render it available in a pattern as a decorative mass or unit4 ,the particular shape of the controlling form must1 of course1 depend upon the general character of the design1 whether free and flowing or square and restricted1 the nature of the repeat1 the ultimate position of the work1 and so on4 ,a study of ,gothic heraldry and the early ,sicilian silk patterns would be very instructive in this connection1 since it is rather the heraldic ideal than that of the natural history book which is decoratively appropriate4 ,at the same time it is quite possible to combine ornamental treatment with a great deal of natural truth in structure and character4 ,illustration 7f#jfc;b73 ,decorative ,spacing of ,figures ,within ,geometric ,boundaries4 ,much the same principles apply to the treatment of the human figure as an element in ornament2 they should be designed1 whether singly or in groups1 under the control of imaginary boundaries1 and care must be taken that in line and mass they re-echo 7or are re-echoed by7 other lines which connect them with the rest of the design1 if they occur as incidents in repeating wall-paper or hanging design1 for instance4 ,it is1 however1 quite possible to imagine a decorative effect produced by the use of figures alone 7see p4 #aje;f#jfc;b71 with something very subsidiary in the way of connecting links of linear or floral pattern1 much as figures were used by the ancient ,greek vase-painters1 beautifully distributed as ornament over the concave or convex surfaces of the vases and vessels of the potter1 the forms of which1 as all good decoration should do1 they helped to express as well as to adorn4 ,,chapter ,v ,of the ,influence of ,controlling ,lines1 ,boundaries1 ,spaces1 and ,plans in ,designing--,origin of ,geometric ,decorative ,spaces and ,panels in ,architecture--,value of ,recurring ,line--,tradition-- ,extension--,adaptability--,geometric ,structural ,plans--,frieze and ,field--,ceiling ,decoration--,co-operative ,relation4 ,the function of line considered from the point of view of its controlling influence as a boundary1 or inclosure1 of design1 upon which ,i touched in the last chapter1 is a very important one1 and deserves most attentive study4 ,the usual problem a designer in the flat has to solve is to fill harmoniously a given space or panel defined by a line--some simple geometric form--such as a square or a circle1 a parallelogram1 a diamond1 a lunette4 ,influence of ,controlling ,lines1 etc4 ,now it is possible to regard such spaces or panels as more or less unrelated1 and simply as the boundaries of an individual composition or picture of some kind4 ,yet even so considered a certain sense of geometric control would come in in the selection of our lines and masses1 both in regard to each other and in regard to the shape of the inclosing boundary4 ,we seem to feel the need of some answering line or re-echo in the character of the composition to the shape of its boundary1 to give it its distinctive reason for existence in that particular form--just as we should expect a shell-fish to conform to the shape of its shell4 ,such a re-echo or acknowledgment might be ever so slight1 or might be quite emphatic and dominate as the leading motive1 but for perfectly harmonious effect it must be there4 ,illustration 7f#jfd73 ,relation of ,design to ,boundary3 ,simple ,linear ,motives and ,pattern ,bases4 ,a strictly simple and logical linear filling of such spaces might be expressed in the most primitive way1 as in the illustration on p4 #aji;f#jfd4 ,by these means certain primitive types of ornament are evolved1 such as the ,greek volute and the ,greek key or fret1 the logical ornament of a logical people4 ,such arrangements of line form simple linear patterns1 and a decorative effect of surface is produced simply by their repetition1 especially if the principle of alternation be observed4 ,this principle may be expressed by taking1 say1 a series of squares or circles1 and placing them either in a line as for a border arrangement1 or for extension vertically and laterally over a surface1 and filling only the alternate square or circle1 leaving the alternate ones1 or dropping them out altogether 7see illustration1 p4 #aaa;f#jfe74 ,illustration 7f#jfe73 ,use of ,intervals in ,repeating the ,same ,ornamental ,units4 ,when we desire to go beyond such primitive linear ornaments1 however1 and introduce natural form1 we should still be guided by the same principles1 if we desire to produce a strictly decorative effect1 while varying them in application to any extent4 ,it matters not what forms we deal with1 floral1 animal1 human2 directly we come to combine them in a design1 to control them by a boundary1 to inclose them in a space1 we shall feel this necessity of controlling line1 which1 however concealed1 is yet essential to bring them into that harmonious relation which is the essence of all design 7see illustration1 p4 #aab;f#jff74 ,illustration 7f#jff73 ,designs of ,floral1 ,human1 and ,animal ,forms1 ,governed by ,shape of ,inclosing ,boundary4 ,we may take it as a general rule that the more purely ornamental the purpose of our design1 and the more abstract in form it is1 the more emphatically we may carry out the principle of correspondence of line between that of the inclosing boundary and that of the design itself2 and1 vice versa1 as the design becomes more pictorial in its appeal and more complex and varied in its elements1 the more we may combine the leading motive or principle of line with secondary ones1 or with variations1 since every fresh element1 every new direction of line1 every new form introduced1 demands some kind of re-echo to bring it into relation with the other elements of the design1 or parts of the composition1 whatever may be its nature and purpose4 ,now1 if we seek further the meaning and origin of this necessity of the control of geometric lines and spaces in design1 ,i think we shall find it in the constructive necessities of architecture3 for it is certainly from architecture that we derive those typical spaces and panels the designer is so often called upon to fill4 ,illustration 7f#jfg73 ,the ,parthenon3 ,sketch to ,show ,spaces ,used for ,decorative ,sculpture in ,greek ,architecture4 ,origin of ,geometric ,decorative ,spaces ,lintel architecture--the ,egyptian and the ,greek--gave us the frieze1 both continuous1 as in that of the ,cella of the ,parthenon1 or divided by triglyphs1 which represented the ends of the beams of the primitive timber construction2 and the interstices left between these determined the shape of the sculptured panel or slab inserted1 and influenced the character of its masses and the lines of its design1 which was under the necessity of harmonizing with the whole building 7see illustration1 p4 #aad;f#jfg74 ,illustration 7f#jfh73 ,tower of the ,winds ,athens ,,bc #ej ,the same may be said of the pediments4 ,the angle of the low-pitched roof left another interstice for the sculptor at each end of the building2 and ,i have elsewhere99 pointed out the influence of the inclosing space and the angles of the pediment of the ,parthenon upon the arrangement of the groups within it1 and even upon the lines taken by some of the figures1 especially the reclining figures near the acute angles4 99 ,see ,bases of ,design4 ,certain lines become inseparably associated with constructive expression1 and are used to emphasize it1 as the vertical flutings of the ,doric column1 by repeating the lines of the column itself1 emphasize its constructive expression of supporting the weight of the horizontal lintels1 the lines of which1 repeated in the mouldings of the frieze and cornice1 are associated with level restfulness and secure repose4 ,as examples of design which1 while meeting the structural necessities and acknowledging the control of space and general conditions1 as the form of the slabs upon which they are sculptured1 yet expresses independent movement1 the figures of the octagonal tower of the winds at ,athens are interesting 7see illustration1 p4 #aae;f#jfh74 ,quite a different feeling1 corresponding to differences in conception and spirit in design1 comes in with the ,roman round arch its allied forms of spandril and vault1 lunette and medallion1 presenting new spaces for the surface designer1 and new suggestions of ornamental line 7see illustration1 p4 #aag;f#jfi74 ,it is noticeable how1 with the round-arched architecture under ,roman1 ,byzantine 7see illustration1 p4 #aah;f#jgj71 and ,renaissance forms1 the scroll form of ornament developed1 the reason being1 ,i think1 that it gave the necessary element of recurring line1 whether used in the horizontal frieze in association with round arches1 or in spandrils of vaults and arcades1 and on marble mosaic pavements4 ,illustration 7f#jfi73 ,sketch of ,part of the ,arch of ,constantine to ,show ,spaces for ,decorative ,sculpture in ,roman ,architecture4 ,illustration 7f#jgj73 ,byzantine 7,mosaic7 ,treatment of ,architectural ,structural ,features3 ,apse1 ,s4 ,vitale ,ravenna4 ,value of the ,recurring ,line ,the development of ,gothic architecture1 with its new constructive features and the greater variety of geometric spaces1 forms1 and interstices which1 as a consequence1 were available for the designer of associated ornament1 whether carved work1 mosaic1 stained glass1 or painting1 naturally led to a corresponding variety in invention and decorative adaptation2 and we may trace the same principle at work in other forms--,i mean the principle of corresponding1 counterbalancing1 and recurring line--,gothic ornament being indeed generally an essential part of the structure1 and architectural features being constantly repeated and utilized for their ornamental value1 as in the case of canopies and tabernacle work4 ,we see1 for instance1 in the ,decorated period the acute gable moulding over the arched recess1 niche1 doorway1 or tomb1 lightened and vivified by a floriated finial springing into vigorous curves from a vertical stem1 forming an emphatic ogee outline which re-echoes the ogee line of the arch below1 and is taken up in variations by the crockets carved upon the sides of the gable2 and their spiral ascending lines lead the eye up to the finial which completes the composition4 ,we may trace the same principle in the carved fillings of the subsidiary parts1 such as the trefoiled panels1 the secondary mouldings1 and the cusps of the arches1 which continue the line-motive or decorative harmony to the last point 7see illustration1 p4 #abj;f#jga74 ,the elegance and lightness of the pinnacles is increased in the same way1 and further emphasized by the long vertical lines of the sunk panels upon their sides4 ,illustration 7f#jga73 ,from ,canopy of ,tomb of ,gervaise-,alard #acjc4 ,temp ,,edwd ,ist ,winchelsea ,in church doorways we may see certain voussoirs of the arch allowed to project from the hollow of the concave moulding1 and their surfaces carved into bosses of ornament2 while1 again1 the doorway is emphasized by the recurring lines of the mouldings1 with their contrasting planes of light and shadow1 and the point of their spring is marked by a carved lion1 controlled in the design of its contour by the squareness of the block of stone upon which it is carved 7see illustration1 p4 #aba;f#jgb74 ,illustration 7f#jgb73 ,structural ,control of ,line in ,architectural ,enrichments ,west ,door ,walberswick ,ch4 ,suffolk ,the carvings of miserere seats in our cathedral choirs often afford instances of ingenious design and arrangement of elements difficult to combine1 yet always showing the instinct of following the control of the dominating form and peculiar lines of the seat itself4 ,there is an instance of one from ,st4 ,david's ,cathedral--apparently a humorous satire--a goose-headed woman offering a cake to a man-headed gull 7871 or perhaps they are both geese6 ,i won't pretend to say1 but it evidently is intended to suggest cupboard love1 and there is a portentously large pitcher of ale in reserve on the bench4 ,but note the clever arrangement of the masses and lines1 and how the lines of the seat and the curves of the terminating scroll are re-echoed in the lines of the figures and accessories4 ,illustration 7f#jgc73 ,c4 #adfj-adhj ,wood ,carving ,miserere ,seat ,choir ,stalls ,st4 ,david's ,cathedral4 ,controlling ,line in ,design of ,subsidiary ,architectural ,decoration4 ,a stone-carving from the end of a tomb in the same cathedral--that of ,bishop ,john ,morgan1 #aejd--of a griffin with a shield shows an emphatic repetition of the inclosing line of the arched recess in the curves of the wings which follow it4 ,illustration 7f#jgd73 ,recessed ,panel ,carved ,stone ,from the ,tomb of ,bishop ,john ,morgan ,d4 #aejd1 ,st4 ,david's ,cathedral4 ,there is also a charming corbel of a half-figure of an angel1 which1 though somewhat defaced1 shows the architectural sense very strongly in its design--the vertical droop of the wing-feathers inclosing the figure repeating and continuing the vertical lines of the shafts and the subsidiary mouldings of the arrangement of the drapery1 and its termination in crisp foliated forms1 which pleasantly counterbalance the set of the scale feathers of the wings and break the semicircular mouldings of the base of the corbel1 repeating those of the shafts above4 ,illustration 7f#jge73 ,constructive ,line ,reechoed in ,architectural ,ornament4 ,corbel1 ,bishop ,vaughan's ,chapel1 ,st4 ,david's #aeji- ,adaptability in ,design ,illustration 7f#jgf73 ,gothic ,tile ,pattern ,s4 ,david's ,cathl4 ,adaptation to spaces upon a flat surface is also illustrated in some tile patterns from the same place4 ,they are simple and rude but very effective bits of spacing1 and show a thorough grasp of the principles we have been considering--if1 indeed1 it is so far conscious work at all4 ,but whether or not the outcome of a tradition which seemed to be almost instinctive with mediaeval workmen--a tradition which yet left the individual free1 and under which design was a thing of life and growth1 ever adapting itself to new conditions1 and grafting freely new inventions to flower in fresh phantasy upon the ancient stock--the movement in art in the ,middle ,ages1 exhibiting as it does a gradual growth and a constant vitality1 always accompanying and adapting itself to structural changes1 to life and habit1 was really more analogous to the development of mechanical science in our own day1 where each new machine is allied to its predecessors1 though it supplants them4 ,the one law being adaptability1 the one aim to apply means to ends1 and more and more perfectly1 inessentials and superfluities are shed1 and invention triumphs4 ,it is1 too1 a collective advance1 since each engineer1 each inventor1 builds upon the experience of both his forerunners and his fellow-workers1 and everything is brought to an immediately practical test4 ,we are not yet in the same healthy condition as regards art1 and art can never be on the same plane as science1 though art may learn much from science1 chiefly perhaps in the direction of the inventive adaptation of analogous principles4 ,but in art the question is complicated by human feeling and association1 and her strongest appeal is to these1 and by these1 and as yet we do not seem to have any terms or equivalents precise enough to describe1 or any analysis fine enough to discover them4 ,extension ,the next consideration in spacing we may term extension4 ,this bears upon all surface design1 but more especially upon the design of patterns intended to repeat over a large surface1 and not specially designed for particular spaces4 ,it is a great question whether any design can be entirely satisfactory unless it has been thought out in relation to some particular extent of surface or as adapted to some particular wall or room4 ,modern industrial conditions preclude this possibility as a rule1 and so the only sure ground1 beyond individual taste and preference1 is technical adaptability to process or material4 ,we should naturally want to give a different character to a textile pattern1 whether printed or woven1 and intended to hang in folds1 from one for flat extension as a wall-paper2 and a different character again to such designs intended for extension horizontally from those intended for vertical space alone4 ,floor patterns1 parquets and carpets1 for instance1 naturally demand different treatment from wall patterns1 as those orders of plants in nature which cling and spread on the flat ground differ from those which grow high and maintain themselves in the air1 or climb upon trees4 ,the rule of life--adaptability--obtains in art as in nature1 and1 beneath individual preference and passing fashion1 works the silent but real law of relation to conditions4 ,this again bears upon the choice of scale1 and differentiates the design of dress textiles from furniture textiles1 and the design of varied surfaces and objects1 which1 while demanding their own particular treatment1 are brought into general relation by their association with use and the wants of humanity4 ,illustration 7f#jgg;a73 ,extension3 ,surface ,pattern ,motives ,derived from ,lines of ,structure4 ,geometric ,structural ,plans1 etc4 ,the law governing extension of design over surface is again geometric1 and our primal circle and square are again the factors and progenitors of the leading systems which have governed the design of diapers and wall patterns and hangings of all kinds4 ,nay1 the first weaver of the wattled fence discovered the principle of extension in design1 and showed its inseparable association with construction2 and the builder with brick or stone emphasizes it1 producing the elements of linear surface pattern1 from the mechanical necessity of the position of the joints of his structure4 ,at a ,german railway station waiting-room ,i noticed an effective adaptation of this principle as a wall decoration in two blues upon a stone colour 7see illustration1 p4 #abh;fig#jgg;a74 ,we may build upon such emphatic structural lines1 either incorporating them with the design motive1 as in all rectangular wall diapers1 or we may suppress or conceal the actual constructive lines by placing the principal parts or connections of our pattern over them1 but one cannot construct a satisfactory pattern to repeat and extend without them2 for these constructive lines or plans give the necessary organic life and vigour to such designs1 and are as needful to them as the trellis to the tendrils of the vine 7see illustration1 p4 #abi;f#jgg;b74 ,illustration 7f#jgg;b73 ,surface ,extension3 ,repeating ,patterns ,built ,upon 7#a7 ,square and 7#b7 ,circular ,basis4 ,the same principle is true of designs upon the curvilinear plan4 ,the mere repetition of the circle by itself gives us a simple geometric pattern1 and we are at liberty to emphasize this circular plan as the main motive2 or1 as in the case of the rectangular plans1 to treat it merely as a basis1 and develop free scroll motives upon it2 or follow it through its principal variations1 as in the ogee1 formed by dropping out two intermediate semicircles2 or the various forms of the scale arrangement4 ,these simple geometric plans are the most generally useful as plans of designs intended for repetition and extension over space1 and they are always safe and sound systems to build upon1 since a geometric plan is certain to join comfortably if our measurements are right4 ,illustration 7f#jgh73 ,surface ,extension3 ,plan of a ,drop ,repeat4 ,we may1 however1 often feel that we want something bolder and freer1 and start with a motive of sweeping-curves1 non-geometric1 but even then a certain geometric relation will be necessary1 or an equivalent for it1 since each curve must be counterbalanced in some way1 though not necessarily symmetrically1 of course2 and even where a square of pattern--say to a wall-paper repeat of twenty-one inches--has been designed1 not consciously upon a geometric base1 but simply as a composition of lines and masses to repeat1 the mechanical conditions of the work when it comes to be printed will supply a certain geometric control1 since it necessarily begins in the process of repetition a series of squares of pattern in which the curves are bound to recur in corresponding places4 ,without a geometric plan of some sort1 however1 we may easily get into difficulties with awkward leading lines1 gaps1 or masses1 that tumble down1 and are only perceived when the paper is printed and hung4 ,the designer should not feel at all restricted or cramped by his geometric plan1 but treat it as an aid and a scaffolding1 working in as much variety and richness of detail as he likes1 bound only by the necessity of repeating or counterbalancing his forms and lines4 ,in the diagram 7p4 #aca;f#jgh7 the plan of making a repeat less obvious by means of what is termed a drop is given1 and this system also increases the apparent width of a pattern4 ,frieze and ,field ,the feeling which demands some kind of contrast or relief to a field of repeating pattern1 however interesting in itself1 seems now almost instinctive4 ,it is felt1 too1 in the case of plain surfaces1 where the eye seeks a moulding to give a little variety or pattern-equivalent in play of light and shadow upon different planes1 lines1 or concavities and convexities4 ,the common plaster cornice placed to unite walls and ceiling1 in our ordinary houses1 is a concession 7on the part even of the jerriest of builders7 to the aesthetic sense4 ,we get the decorated frieze in architecture in obedience to the same demand1 though originally a necessary feature of lintel construction1 as we have seen1 from the days of the festal garland hung around the eaves of the classic house1 to its perpetuation in stone in so many varieties499 ,the carved garland depending in a series of graceful curves1 or contrasted with pendants1 or their rhythm punctuated1 as it were1 by ox-heads1 as on the temple of the ,sibyls1 ,tivoli1 formed the needed contrast to the plane masonry of the wall below4 ,sculptured figures1 with the added interest of story1 as on the choragic monument of ,lysicrates1 fulfilled the same decorative function in a more complex and elaborate way4 99 ,bases of ,design4 ,to satisfy the same feeling we place a frieze above the patterned field of our modern wall-papers4 ,such a frieze may be considered as a contrasting border to the pattern of the field1 much as the border of a carpet1 allowing for difference of material and position2 or the frieze may assert itself as the dominant decoration of the room4 ,in this case it would be greater in depth than the simpler bordering type4 ,the interest of the field filling would then be subsidiary1 and lead up to the frieze4 ,in wall-paper friezes the difficulty in designing is to think of a motive which will not tire the eye in the necessarily frequent repeats of twenty-one inches4 ,longer ones have occasionally been produced1 the limit being sixty inches4 ,it is often a good plan to recur in the main lines or forms of the frieze to some variation of the lines or forms of the field4 ,if1 for instance1 the main motive in the field was a vertical scroll design1 a horizontal scroll design upon a large scale used for the frieze would answer1 the field being kept flat and quiet2 or the fan1 or radiating shell form1 used as a frieze1 above a pattern on the scale plan1 would be quite harmonious4 ,relation and balance of line and mass1 and arrangement of quantities in such designs1 are the chief considerations4 ,with painting or modelling an artist is freer1 as he is at liberty to design a continuous frieze of figures1 and introduce as much variety as he chooses4 ,a painted frieze of figures above plain oak-panelling has a good effect in a large and well-proportioned room1 and is perhaps one of the pleasantest ways of treating interior walls4 ,illustration 7f#jgi73 ,sketch ,designs to ,show ,relation ,between ,frieze and ,field in ,wall-paper4 ,ceiling ,decoration ,ceiling decoration1 again1 presents problems of extension in designing1 and the large flat plaster ceilings of modern rooms are by no means easy to deal with satisfactorily4 ,the simplest way is to resort to wall-paper1 and here1 restricted in size of repeat and the usual technical requirements of the work1 the designer must further consider appropriateness of scale1 and position in regard to eye1 relation to the wall1 and so forth4 ,the natural demand is for something simpler in treatment than the walls--a re-echo1 in some sort1 of plans agreeable to the floor1 yet with a suggestion of something lighter and freer3 here we may safely come back to rectangular and circular plans again for our leading lines and forms4 ,painting and modelling1 again1 offer more elaborate treatment and possibilities1 and we know that beautiful works have been done in both ways2 but art of this kind seems more appropriate to lofty vaulted chambers and churches1 such as one sees in the palaces of ,italy1 at ,genoa and ,venice1 at ,florence and ,rome4 ,i remember a very striking and bold treatment of a flat-beamed ceiling in the ,castle of ,nuremberg1 where a huge black ,german eagle was painted so as to occupy nearly the whole field of the ceiling1 but treated in an extremely flat and heraldic way1 the long feathers of the wings following the lines of the beams and falling parallel upon them and between them2 and upon the black wings and body of the eagle different shields of arms were displayed in gold and colours1 the eagle itself being painted upon the natural unpainted wood--oak1 ,i think4 ,the work belonged to the thirteenth or fourteenth century1 ,i believe4 ,it seemed the very antithesis of ,italian finesse and fancy1 but the fitness of such decoration entirely depends upon its relation to its surroundings1 which in this case were perfectly appropriate4 ,co-operative ,relation ,that is the great point to bear in mind in all design--the sense of relation2 nothing stands alone in art4 ,lines and forms must harmonize with other forms and lines3 the elements of any design must meet in friendly co-operation2 it is not a blind struggle for existence1 a fierce competition1 or a strife for ascendency between one motive and another1 one form and another1 or a war of conflicting efforts4 ,there may be a struggle outside the design1 in the mind of the designer4 ,he may have tried hard against difficulties to express what he felt1 and have only reached harmony through discord and strife1 but the work itself should be serene2 we should feel that1 however various its elements1 they are not without their purpose and relation one to another1 that all is ordered and organized in harmonious lines1 that everything has its use and place1 that1 in short1 it illustrates that excellent motto1 whether for art or life3 ,each for all1 and all for each4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,of the ,fundamental ,essentials of ,design3 ,line1 ,form1 ,space--,principles of ,structural and ,ornamental ,line in ,organic ,forms--,form and ,mass in ,foliage--,roofs--,the ,mediaeval ,city--,organic and ,accidental ,beauty--,composition3 ,formal and ,informal--,power of ,linear ,expression--,relation of ,masses and ,lines--,principles of ,harmonious ,composition4 ,we may take it1 then1 from the principles and examples ,i have endeavoured to put before you in the previous chapters1 that there are three fundamental elements or essentials of ,design--,line1 ,form1 ,space4 ,fundamental ,essentials of ,design ,line we need1 not only for our ground-plan and framework1 but also to define or express our forms4 ,form we need to give substance and mass1 interest and variety2 and it is obvious that ,space is required to contain all these elements1 while ,space asserts its influence1 as we have seen1 upon both ,line and ,form in combination upon it1 whether object or surface1 by the shape of its boundary1 the extension of its plane1 and the angle and position of its plane in regard to the eye1 as well as from the point of view of material and use4 ,questions of the character of line and form1 and their combination and disposition in or over spaces1 are questions of composition4 ,they demand the most careful solution1 whatever our subject and purpose may be1 from the simplest linear border up to the most elaborate figure design4 ,but although the three essentials to composition must be always present1 it is always possible to rely more upon the qualities of one of them for our main motive and interest1 keeping the other two subsidiary4 ,we might centralize the chief interest of our composition upon ,line1 for instance1 and make harmonious relation or combination of lines our principal object 7as in line-design and ornament71 or we might rather dwell upon the contours1 masses1 and contrasts and relationships of ,form3 as in pictorial design1 figure compositions of all kinds1 and modelling and sculpture3 or1 again1 we might choose that the peculiar character given by the control of certain inclosing spaces should determine the interest of our design1 as the due filling of particular panels and geometric shapes2 or seek the interest of aerial perspective in the pictorial and atmospheric expression of space4 ,taking combinations of ,line first1 and bearing in mind what has been said regarding its capacities for expression1 whether of emotion1 direction of force1 movement1 rest1 as well as of facts of structure and surface1 let us see if we can trace the principle of harmonious composition1 of which these things may be considered as parts4 ,line in ,organic ,forms ,look at any of the systems of line in the organic structures of nature3 the radiating ribs of the scallop shell1 or the spiral of many other varieties2 the set of the feathers upon the expanded wing of a bird2 the radiation of the sun's rays2 the flowing line of the wave movement2 the lines of structure in flowers and leaves2 the scales of a fish2 the scales of a pine-cone or an artichoke4 ,we feel that any of these combinations of lines are harmonious and beautiful1 and we know that they are essential to the character and structure4 ,they are organic lines1 in short4 ,they mean life and growth4 ,in principle they are radiating and recurring lines2 in each form they repeat each other in varying degrees of direction and declension of curve4 ,no two lines are alike1 yet there is no contradiction and no unnecessary line1 and variety is combined with unity4 ,each affords a perfect instance of harmonious composition of line1 and gives us definite principles upon which to work 7see illustration1 p4 #adj;f#jhj74 ,illustration 7f#jhj73 ,principles of ,structural and ,ornamental ,line in ,natural ,forms4 ,these systems of line in organic nature have been adopted and adapted by art1 and are found throughout the historical forms of ornament which1 as we have good reason to believe1 were often derived from mechanical structures1 illustrating the same principles2 which1 again1 the logic of geometry enforces in drawing on plane surfaces4 ,all organic structures teach us the same lesson of relation and recurrence of line4 ,the bones of all vertebrate animals1 from fish to man1 illustrate the constant repetition in different degrees of the same character and direction of line4 ,the vertebral column itself is an instance1 and the recurring spring of the ribs from it1 like the branches from the stem of a tree1 further expressed in the ramification of the jointed bones of the limbs and extremities4 ,the principle may be followed out in the structure of the muscles in their radiating fibres1 which the delicate contours and flowing lines of the surface of the body only combine in a greater degree of subtlety 7see illustration1 p4 #adb;f#jha;a74 ,illustration 7f#jha;a73 ,radiating1 ,recurring and ,counterbalancing ,lines in the ,structure of the ,skeleton and the ,muscles4 ,look at the anatomy of any tree1 as it is disclosed to us in its wintry leaflessness1 a beautiful composition of line rather than of form 7see illustration1 p4 #adc;f#jha;b74 ,illustration 7f#jha;b73 ,general ,principles of ,line and ,form in the ,branching and ,foliage ,masses of ,trees4 ,here we see organic life and structure expressed in the vigorous spring of inter-dependent and corresponding curves1 from the rigid sinuous column of the main stem springing from the ground1 presently divided into the main forks of the branches1 which again subdivide and subdivide into smaller forks1 so that the tree may sustain and spread its life in the air and the sun1 both supporting and continuing its existence by this wonderful economic system of co-operative1 subdivided1 and graduated helpfulness4 ,the massive green pavilion of summer1 which this delicate vaulting of branch-work sustains1 gives us another1 more sumptuous1 but perhaps not a greater beauty in the combination or substitution of form and mass for line composition4 ,form and ,mass in ,foliage ,we might express1 in an abstract way1 the principle of the line-structure of the ramifying tree by super-imposing vertically fork upon fork in gradually diminishing scale1 either curvilinear or rectangular2 and the principle of the mass-structure in the formation of the foliage might be expressed by a series of overlapping curves1 suggestive of scales or cloud masses3 to both of which indeed they correspond in principle1 illustrating the scale principle in detail and the cloud principle in the mass2 thus repeating the same general law of natural roofing1 or covering1 in different materials 7see illustration1 p4 #ade;f#jhb74 ,illustration 7f#jhb73 ,principles of ,structure in ,foliage ,masses4 ,in a mass of foliage each leaf falls partly over the one below it1 as by the system of their growth and suspension upon the stem they are of course bound to do1 whether symmetric or alternate in their arrangement1 the gaps caused by decay or accident being generally filled by new shoots4 ,each shoot1 eager to expand its leaves in the light1 ever spreading1 forms mass after mass of the beautiful green panoply--the coat armour of the forest1 arboreal man's first form of domestic architecture4 ,illustration 7f#jhc73 ,albert ,durer3 ,detail from ',the ,prodigal ,son4' ,the principle of structure here is just the same as the overlapping principle of the tiles and slates upon our ordinary house-roofs2 but each leafy tile is different1 being alive1 and in the mass infinitely varied and beautiful in form and colour1 instead of being mechanical and uniform1 as we try to make our artificial roofs4 ,german ,roofs ,very pretty and varied effects are produced in the old roofs of southern ,germany by the use of different coloured glazed tiles--red1 green1 and yellow--arranged in simple patterns4 ,one of the old towers at ,lindau has such a roof1 and the colour effect is very rich and striking4 ,but ,i must not be led into a disquisition upon roofs further than in so far as they illustrate the subject of composition of line and form1 and from the painter's point of view they frequently do in a very delightful and instructive way4 ,illustration 7f#jhd73 ,albert ,durer3 ,st4 ,anthony4 ,what1 for instance1 can be more varied and charming than the compositions we constantly meet with in the rich backgrounds of ,albert ,durer8 ,those steep barn roofs1 and those quaint ,german towns inclosed in walls with protecting towers--nests of steep tiled gables of every imaginable degree--which give so much character and interest to his designs1 as in the background of his copper-plates ,the ,prodigal ,son and ,st4 ,anthony here given4 ,their prototypes still exist here and there in ,germany1 in such towns as ,rothenburg1 practically unchanged since the sixteenth century1 and give one an excellent idea of what such houses were like4 ,a visit there is like a leap back into the ,middle ,ages4 ,every street is a varied and interesting composition4 ,no two houses are alike4 ,they were built by the citizens to really pass their lives in4 ,the town is strongly placed upon the crest of a hill1 with a river at its foot1 and well fortified and protected by massive encircling walls and towers and deep gates1 which give it so strong and picturesque a character1 while the timber and tile-roofed gallery for the warders still exists along the inside of the walls4 ,such cities arose by the strength of the social bond among men--the necessity for mutual help in the maintenance of a higher standard of life1 and mutual protection against the ravages of sinister powers4 ,the ,mediaeval ,city ,strong externally1 internally they were made as home-like and full of the varied delight of the eyes1 as if the people had reasoned1 ,since we must live close together in a small place1 let us make it as delightful and romantic as we can4 ,we know that the idea of ,paradise and the ,new ,jerusalem to the imagination of the ,middle ,ages was always the fair walled garden and the fenced city4 ,the painters embodied the idea of security and protection from the savage and destructive forces of nature and man--a sanctuary of peace1 a garden of delight4 ,illustration 7f#jhe73 ,roof-lines3 ,rothenburg4 ,we have in modern times turned rather from the city as a complete and beautiful thing1 to the individual home1 and to the interior of that1 and1 in the modern competitive search for the necessary straws and sticks to make our individualist-domestic composition of comfort and artistic completeness1 bowers are too often built upon the ruins of others1 or are fair by reason of surrounding degradation4 ,the common collective comfort and delight of the eyes is too often ignored1 so that it comes about that1 if our modern cities possess any elements of beauty or picturesqueness1 it is rather owing to accidents and to the transfiguring effects of atmosphere than to the beauty or variety of architectural form and colour4 ,we have to seek inspiration among the fragments of the dead past in monuments and art schools4 ,organic and ,accidental ,beauty ,the modern development of the municipality and extension of its functions may1 indeed1 do something1 as it has done1 and is doing1 something to protect public health and further public education2 but we have yet to wait for the full results1 and everything must finally depend upon the public spirit and disinterestedness of the citizens1 and in matters of art upon a very decided but somewhat rare and peculiar sympathy and taste1 as well as enthusiasm4 ,the absence of beauty of line1 form1 and proportion from the external aspects of daily life in towns has probably a greater effect than we are apt to realize in deadening the imagination1 and it certainly seems to produce a certain insensibility to beauty of line and composition1 since the perception must necessarily be blunted by being inured to the commonplace and sordid4 ,the instinct for harmony of line and form becomes weakened1 and can only be slowly revived by long and careful study in art1 instead of finding its constant and most vital stimulus in every street4 ,for all that1 however1 an eye trained to observe and select may1 even in the dullest and dingiest street1 find artistic suggestions1 if not in the buildings1 then in the life4 ,and where there is life1 movement1 humanity1 there is sure to be character and interest4 ,groups of children playing will give us plenty of suggestions for figure composition4 ,workpeople going to and from their work1 the common works going on in the street1 the waggons and horses1 the shoal of faces1 the ceaseless stream of life--all these things1 whether we are able to reproduce them as direct illustrations of the life of our time1 or are moved only to select from them vivid suggestions to give force to ideal conceptions1 should all be noted--photographed1 as it were1 instantaneously upon the sensitive plate of the mind's vision4 ,we can only learn the laws of movement by observing movement--the swing and poise of the figure1 the relation of the lines of limbs and drapery to the direction of force and centre of gravity1 so important in composition4 ,we must constantly supplement our school and studio work by these direct impressions of vivid life and movement1 and neglect no opportunity or despise no source or suggestion4 ,there are still in ,england to be found such old-world corners as the quaint street of ,canterbury 7p4 #aec;f#jhf71 which forms an excellent study in the composition of angular and vertical lines4 ,illustration 7f#jhf73 ,st4 ,margaret ,st ,canterbury ,aug3 #bg #ahid ,formal ,composition ,we may perceive that there are at least two kinds of composition1 which may be distinguished as3 ,i4 ,formal4 ,,ii4 ,informal4 ,i4 ,under the head of ,formal may be classed all those systems of structural line with which ,i started1 and which are found either as leading motives or fundamental plans and bases throughout ornamental design4 ,yet even these may be used in composition of figures and other forms where the object is more or less formal and decorative1 as governing plans or controlling lines4 ,the radiating ribs of a fan1 for instance1 might be utilized as the natural boundaries and inclosing lines of a series of vertical figures following the radiating lines4 ,a strictly logical design of the kind would be a series of figures with uplifted arms1 forming radiating lines from the shoulders1 somewhat in the position of ,blake's well-known and beautiful composition of the ,morning ,stars in the ,book of ,job1 already illustrated4 ,using the overlapping vertical scale plan we should get relative positions for a formal composition of three figures1 although they need not necessarily be formal in detail4 ,a typical design of three associated ideas treated emblematically would be the most natural use of such an arrangement--as ,faith1 ,hope1 and ,charity2 ,liberty1 ,equality1 ,fraternity2 ,science1 ,art1 and ,industry2 or the three goddesses ,here1 ,pallas1 and ,aphrodite1 as choice and purpose might decide4 ,a semicircular scale plan would not only repeat in a safe and sound manner1 but would afford suggestive shapes in which to throw designs of figures1 and could be effectively utilized either for a wall or ceiling repeat4 ,the inclosure formed by two spiral lines gives a graceful ornamental shape for a half-reclining figure2 while a series of floating or flying figures linking their hands would be appropriately governed by similar spiral lines1 uniting them with the meandering wave line 7see illustration1 p4 #aee;f#jhg74 ,illustration 7f#jhg73 ,formal ,composition3 ,figure ,designs ,controlled by ,geometric ,boundaries4 ,upon a series of semicircles or ellipses1 alternating horizontally1 might be arranged a little frieze of children with skipping ropes1 or ,amorini with pendent garlands2 the up-and-down movement in the former case being conveyed by a variation1 each alternate semicircle being struck upwards4 ,this would restore the emphatic wave or spiral line1 which always conveys the sense of rhythmic movement in a design4 ,such a line1 vertically employed1 will give again a good plan for a series of seated figures1 say emblematic of the ,hours1 where similarity of attitude and type would be appropriate1 while the emblems and accessories might be varied4 ,a severer treatment would be suggested by making the controlling line angular 7see illustration1 p4 #aef;f#jhh74 ,illustration 7f#jhh73 ,formal ,composition3 ,figure ,designs ,controlled by ,geometric ,boundaries4 ,such are a few illustrations of what ,i have termed formal composition1 in which the geometric and structural plans of pure ornament or ornamental line maybe utilized to combine1 control1 or even suggest figure designs4 ,informal ,composition ,,ii4 ,while formal compositions1 though naturally falling into classes and types1 may be varied to a very great extent1 when we come to informal compositions the variations are unlimited1 and a vista of extraordinary and apparently endless choice1 invention1 and selection opens out before the designer1 co-extensive with the variety of nature herself4 ,in seeking harmonious and expressive composition in the pictorial direction the guides are much less definite and secure4 ,individual feeling and instinct1 which must have an important influence in all kinds of designing1 are in this direction paramount4 ,yet even here1 if we look beneath the apparent freedom and informality1 we find certain laws at work which seem to differ only in degree from the more definite and constructive control of line which we have been considering4 ,in the first place1 there are our direct impressions from nature2 and1 secondly1 our conscious aims and efforts to express an idea in our minds4 ,we have the same restricted and definite forms of language and materials in each case--line1 form1 space1 brushes1 pencil1 colour1 paper1 canvas1 or clay4 ,we are taken by some particular scene3 the composition of line and form at a particular spot attracts us more than another4 ,we do not stop as a rule to ask why1 since it usually takes all our time and our best skill to get into shape what we are seeking--and carry away with us an artistic record of the place4 ,we have seen that in the case of certain natural structures1 shells1 leaves1 flowers1 the fundamental structural lines are so beautiful that they not only form ornament in themselves1 but furnish the basis for whole types and families of ornament4 ,when we look at a landscape1 putting aside for the moment all the surface charms of colour and effect1 and concentrating our attention upon its lines of structures1 we shall find that it owes a great part of its beauty to the harmonious relation of its leading lines1 or to certain pleasant contrasts1 or a certain impressiveness of form and mass1 and at the same time we shall perceive that this linear expression is inseparable from the sentiment or emotion suggested by that particular scene4 ,a gentle southern landscape--undulating downs1 and wandering sheep-walks2 the soft rounded masses of the sheep upon smooth cropped turf--all these are so many notes or words in the language of line and form which go to express the idea of pastoral life4 ,they are inextricably bound up with inseparable associations conveyed by such lines and forms4 ,the undulating lines of resting or dancing figures would only give point1 true emphasis1 and variety1 and a note of contrast in the forms would serve to bring out the general sentiment more strongly4 ,substitute rugged rocks1 swollen torrents1 wind-tossed trees and stormy skies1 and all is changed4 ,such things cannot be expressed without much more emphatic lines and masses1 and the use of opposing angles and energetic curves of movement which would be destructive of the sentiment of peace1 in other cases4 ,yet even then to convey the expression of energy and rapid movement1 concerted groups of lines are none the less necessary 7see illustration1 p4 #aei;f#jhi74 ,illustration 7f#jhi73 ,informal ,composition3 ,expression of 7#a7 ,storm and 7#b7 ,calm ,in ,landscape4 ,such comparisons indicate not only that there is a necessary association of ideas with certain lines and forms1 but also that certain relations and associations of line of a similar character are necessary to produce a harmonious composition1 and one which conveys a definite and pervading sentiment or emotion1 just as we saw that the controlling lines of structural curves1 spirals1 and angles require to be in relation1 and to be re-echoed by the character of the design they inclose or which is built upon them4 ,the same law holds true in figure composition4 ,the sense of repose and restfulness necessary to sitting or reclining groups depends upon the gentle declivities of the curves and their gradual descent to the horizontal4 ,illustration 7f#jij73 ,informal ,composition3 ,expression of ,repose and ,action4 ,draw a figure sitting rigid1 tense1 and alert1 and you destroy the sense of repose at once1 and you are obliged also to resort to angles1 still more emphatic where strong action is to be expressed2 while to express continual or progressive movement1 a choice of associated lines of action in different stages of progress leading up to the crescendo of the final one 7as in a group of mowers7 would be necessary 7see illustrations1 p4 #afa;f#jij74 ,we cannot1 then1 in any composition have too definite a conception4 ,we must1 at any sacrifice of detail1 bring out the main expression and meaning4 ,every group of figures must be in the strictest relation to each other and to the central interest or expression of the design4 ,you cannot1 for instance1 in a procession of figures1 make your faces turn all sorts of ways without stopping the onward movement which is essential to the idea of a procession4 ,this would not preclude variety1 but the general tendency must be in one direction4 ,every line in a composition must lead up to the central idea1 and be subordinated or contributory to it 7see illustration1 ,nos4 #a and #b1 p4 #afc;f#jia;a74 ,illustration 7f#jia;a73 7#a7 and 7#b7 ,movement in a ,procession ,the same with masses3 you cannot put a number of forms together without some sort of relation1 either of general character and contour or some uniting line4 ,we may learn this principle from nature also4 ,look at a heap of broken stones and debris1 which in detail may contain all sorts of varieties of form1 as we find them tumbled down a steep place1 as the rocky bed of a mountain stream1 a heap of boulders upon a hillside1 or the debris from a quarry or mine2 in each case the law of gravity and the persistence of force working together arrange the diverse forms in masses controlled by the lines1 which express the direction and degree of descent1 and the pressure of force4 ,the same thing may be seen on any hilly ground after heavy rain2 the scattered pebbles are arranged in related groups1 combined and composed by the flow of miniature streams1 which channel the face of the ground and form hollows for their reception 7see ,nos4 #c and #d1 p4 #afc;f#jia;b74 ,the force of the tides and currents upon the sea-shore illustrates the same principle and affords us magnificent lessons in composition1 not only in the delicate lines taken by the sculptured sand1 but in the harmonious grouping of masses of shingle and shells1 weeds and drift1 arranged by the movement of the waves4 ,illustration 7f#jia;b73 7#c7 ,lines ,left by a ,watercourse1 7#d7 ,lines ,governing ,fallen ,debris from a ,quarry4 ,principles of ,harmonious ,composition ,so that we may see that the principles of harmonious composition are not the outcome of merely capricious fancy or pedantic rule1 but are illustrated throughout the visible world by the laws and forces of the material universe4 ,it is for the artist to observe and apply them in his own work of re-creation4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,of the ,relief of ,form--,three ,methods--,contrast--,light and ,shade1 and ,modelling--,the ,use of ,contrast and ,planes in ,pattern ,designing--,decorative ,relief--,simple ,linear ,contrast--,relief by ,linear ,shading--,different ,emphasis in relieving ,form by ,shading ,lines--,relief by means of ,light and ,shade alone without ,outline--,photographic ,projection--,relief by different ,planes and ,contrasts of ,concave and ,convex ,surfaces in ,architectural ,mouldings--,modelled ,relief--,decorative ,use of ,light and ,shade1 and different ,planes in ,modelling and ,carving--,egyptian ,system of ,relief ,sculpture--,greek and ,gothic ,architectural ,sculpture1 influenced by ,structural and ,ornamental ,feeling--,sculptural ,tombs1 ,medals1 ,coins1 ,gems--,florentine ,fifteenth-century ,reliefs--,desideriodi ,settignano4 ,we come now to the consideration of the various means and methods of expressing relief in line and form4 ,we may define a form in outline and give it different qualities of expression by altering the quality and consistency of our outline1 and we may obtain very different kinds of decorative effect by the use of lines of various degrees of thickness or thinness2 but if we want to give it force and colour1 and to distinguish it from its background more emphatically1 we must add to our outline4 ,three ,methods of ,expressing ,relief ,there are three principal methods or systems of giving relief by adding to our outline4 ,one is the method of giving relief to form by contrasts of tone1 colour1 or tint4 ,another by means of the expression of light and shade3 and the third by means of modelling in relief4 ,now1 still keeping to expression by means of line1 the three arms ,i have sketched 7p4 #afg;f#jib7 illustrate3 7#a7 the form in outline alone2 7#b7 the contrast method2 and 7#c7 the light and shade method4 ,the three pots underneath illustrate the same three stages in a simpler manner4 ,in number one we see the outline defining the form pure and simple3 in number two the form is relieved by a half-tone formed of diagonal lines1 forming a plane or background behind it4 ,the arm is still further relieved by the dark drapery4 ,number three shows the relief carried further by lines expressive of the modelling of the arm and the rounding of the pot1 and also by cast shadows from the forms4 ,illustration 7f#jib73 ,the ,relief of ,form3 7#a7 ,by ,outline1 7#b7 ,by ,contrast1 7#c7 ,by ,light and ,shade4 ,the system of expressing relief ,i have termed relief by contrast includes two kinds of contrast3 there are the contrasts of line and form1 and there are the contrasts of planes of tone or tint and local colour4 ,we may consider that the contrast method covers generally all forms of pattern and certain kinds of pictorial design4 ,the method of expressing relief by means of line covers generally all forms of design in black and white1 graphic sketching1 pen-drawing1 and work with the point of all kinds4 ,of the ,use of ,contrast and ,planes ,taking the principle of contrast as applied to pattern design1 we can1 even within the limited range of black and white and half-tint 7as expressed by lines71 get a considerable amount of decorative effect4 ,in the first place by bringing out our pattern1 previously outlined1 upon a black ground 7as in ,nos4 #a and #b1 p4 #afi;f#jic71 increasing the richness of effect1 and getting a second plane by treating the lower part in an open tint of line4 ,simple contrasts of dark upon light or light upon dark are effective1 and sufficient for many purposes1 such as borders 7as in ,nos4 #b and #c1 p4 #afi;f#jic74 ,when a lighter kind of relief and effect is required1 the recurring forms in a border are often sufficiently emphasized by a tint of open lines3 movement and variety being given by making them follow the minor curves of the successive forms1 as in this instance 7,no #d1 p4 #afi;f#jic7 the movement of the water is suggested behind the fish4 ,the relation of the plain ground-work to the figure of the pattern is also an important point2 indeed the plain parts of the pattern1 or the interstices and intervals of the pattern1 are as essential to the pattern as the figured parts4 ,in designs intended for various processes of manufacture1 such as printed or woven textiles1 wall-papers1 etc41 where blocks or rollers are used to repeat the pattern1 the extent of plain in proportion to figured parts must be governed in some measure by the practicable size of the repeat3 but within certain limits great variety of proportion is possible4 ,a simple but essentially decorative principle is to preserve a certain equality between the figured masses and the ground masses4 ,the leaf patterns 7,nos4 #f and #g1 p4 #afi;f#jic7 consist simply of the repetition and reversal of a single element4 ,an emphatic effect is obtained by bringing the leaves out black upon a white ground 7as in ,no4 #f71 while a flatter and softer effect is the result of throwing them upon a plane of half-tint expressed by horizontal lines1 with a similar effect of relief to that which would be given by the warp1 if the pattern were woven4 ,for larger surfaces1 greater repose and dignity in pattern may be obtained by a greater proportion of the repeat being occupied by the ground 7as in ,no4 #e1 p4 #afi;f#jic74 ,illustration 7f#jic73 ,relief of ,form and ,line in ,pattern ,design by ,means of ,contrast and the ,use of ,planes4 ,indeed we may consider as a general principle that the larger the interspaces of the ground1 plane1 or field of the pattern1 the lighter in tint they should be1 or the necessary flatness is apt to be lost4 ,relief in pattern design may be said to be adding interest and richness without losing the flatness and repose of the design as a whole4 ,when pattern and ground are fairly equally balanced in quantity the ground may be rich and dark1 and darkest as the interstices1 where the ground is shown1 become less4 ,the figure of a pattern relieved as light upon a dark plane1 as a rule1 requires to be fuller in form than dark-figuring upon a light ground4 ,decorative ,relief ,in decorative work the use of contrast in the relief of parts of a design is often useful and effective1 as1 for instance1 the dark shading or treatment in black or flat tone of the alternating under side of a turn-over leaf border4 ,the decorative value of this principle is recognized by heraldic designers in the treatment of the mantling of the helmet1 which in earlier times is treated simply as a hanging or flying strip of drapery with a lining of a different colour1 by which it is relieved as it hangs in simple spiral folds4 ,this ornamental element became developed by the designers of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries into elaborate scroll designs springing from the circlet of the helmet and surrounding the shield3 but the principle of the turned-up lining remained1 often variegated and enriched with heraldic patterns 7see illustrations1 pp4 #agb;f#jid;a1 #agc;f#jid;b7499 99 ,the increased importance given to the mantling in later times may have been due to the disappearance of the housings of the knight's horse and his surcoat1 which originally displayed his arms and colours4 ,the mantling of later times displayed the heraldic colours of the knight1 when1 being clad in plate armour1 there was no other means of displaying them except on the shield4 ,decoratively1 of course1 the mantling is of great value to the heraldic designer1 enabling him to form much more graceful compositions1 to combine diverse and rigid elements with free and flowing lines and masses1 and to fill panels with greater richness and effect1 whether carved or painted1 or both4 ,illustration 7f#jid;a73 ,decorative ,relief3 ,counterchange1 ,treatment of ,mantling1 ,fourteenth and ,sixteenth ,centuries4 ,illustration 7f#jid;b73 ,decorative ,relief3 ,treatment of ,mantling4 ,use of ,diapered ,backgrounds ,the principle1 too1 of counterchange in heraldry answers to our principle of relief by contrast1 and though its chief charm lies in its ornamental range of form and colour combinations1 it can be expressed in black and white1 and it remains a universal principle throughout decorative art4 ,the decorative effect and charm of the relief of large and bold forms upon rich and delicate diapers is also an important resource of the designer4 ,the monumental art of the ,middle ,ages affords multitudes of examples of this principle in ornamental treatment4 ,the miniaturist of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries constantly relieved his groups of figures upon a diapered ground4 ,the architectural sculptor relieved the broad masses of flowing drapery and the bold projection of his effigies and recumbent figures by delicately chiselled diapers upon the surface of the wall behind them4 ,this treatment may frequently be seen in the recessed tombs of the fourteenth century4 ,the incisor of memorial brasses1 again1 more especially in continental examples1 shows a fondness for the same principle4 ,the long vertical lines of drapery of ladies and ecclesiastics1 the broad masses of the heraldic surcoat1 or armour of the knights1 the rich and heavy furred gowns of the burghers1 are often relieved upon beautiful diapered or arabesque grounds1 generally embodying some heraldic device1 motto1 or emblem of the person or family whose tomb it ornaments4 ,such decoration is strictly linear1 yet within its own limits1 and perhaps because of them1 we find in this province of design extremely admirable work1 no less for delineation of character and decorative treatment than for ornamental invention controlled by strict economy of line4 ,illustration 7f#jie73 ,relief ,upon a ,diapered ,ground3 ,brass of ,martin ,de ,visch1 ,bruges1 #adeb4 ,relief of ,form by ,linear ,shading ,this brings us to the consideration of our second method of relief by means of line4 ,take any simple allied elements to form a repeating pattern1 say spiral shells1 place them at certain rhythmic intervals1 and we can unite and at the same time give them relief by filling in the ground by a series of waved lines to suggest the ribbed sand4 ,add a few dots to soften and vary the effect1 and we get a pattern of a certain balance and consistency 7,no4 #a1 p4 #agg;f#jif;a74 ,illustration 7f#jif;a73 ,relief in ,pattern ,design by ,means of ,simple ,linear ,contrasts 7#a7 ,with the more varied and complex floral form1 but treated in a very abstract way1 placing the daisies in a line1 horizontally1 and reversing the sprig for the alternate row1 we have another motive1 which is connected and steadied as well as relieved by the suggestion of grass blades in groups of three slightly radiated vertical strokes 7,no4 #b1 p4 #agg;f#jif;b74 ,a pattern of two elements1 again1 may be formed in a still more simple way by linear contrast1 as in ,no4 #c1 where the pyramidal trees are formed by a continuous serpentine stroke of the pen terminating in a spiral stem4 ,the diagonal arrangement of the trees produces a chequer1 the intervals of which can be varied by the contrasting black masses of the birds4 ,illustration 7f#jif;b73 ,relief in ,pattern ,design by ,means of ,simple ,linear ,contrasts 7#b71 7#c7 ,in graphic drawing1 lines to express forms in the relief of light and shade are often needed to give additional force even where no great degree of realism is desired4 ,a tint formed by horizontal lines is sufficient to relieve a face from the background and give it solidity1 while local colour may be given to the hair1 and at the same time serve to relieve the leaves of a wreath encircling the head 7see illustration1 p4 #agh;f#jig;a74 ,illustration 7f#jig;a73 ,relief by ,adding ,shading ,lines to ,outline4 ,the rich effect of clustered apples growing among their leaves could hardly be suggested without the use of lines expressive of light and shade1 the interstices of the deepest shade running into solid black 7p4 #agh;f#jig;a74 ,in adding lines in this kind of way to give relief or extra richness or force1 the draughtsman is really designing a system of lines upon his outline basis1 which may have quite as decorative a quality as the outline itself4 ,at the same time nothing is more characteristic of the artist than the way in which such lines are used1 and of course the choice of direction and arrangement of such lines will make all the difference in the effect of the drawing4 ,diagonal ,shading ,where the object is to express the figure in broad masses of light and shade1 the use of a series of diagonal lines is an effective1 and probably the most ready and rapid1 method when working with the pen 7see p4 #agi;f#jig;b74 ,this system of expressing the broad surfaces of shade was much used by the ,italian masters of the ,renaissance in their rapid pen sketches and studies of figures1 and a certain breadth and style is given to their drawings owing in part to the simplicity of this linear treatment4 ,illustration 7f#jig;b73 ,relief of ,form by ,diagonal ,shading4 ,emphasis ,no doubt the simpler the system of line adopted in giving relief to figures the better1 if the particular expression aimed at is accomplished1 and1 as a general rule1 we should endeavour to get the necessary force and depth without the use of cross-line1 or many different directions of line in shading a figure3 but1 given any power of draughtsmanship1 the individuality of the artist is bound to come in1 and it is not likely1 nor is it to be desired1 that any two artists in line should give exactly the same account of natural fact1 or reproduce the images in their minds in the same forms1 any more than we should expect two writers to express their ideas in the same terms4 ,the kind and degree of emphasis upon different parts1 the selection of moment or fact1 would all naturally make considerable differences in the treatment4 ,the three sketches of the skirt dancer are given as instances of the different effects and expression to be obtained in rendering the same subject 7p4 #aha;f#jih74 ,illustration 7f#jih73 ,different ,method and ,different ,emphasis in ,relieving ,form by ,shading ,lines4,a1 ,b1 ,c ,in ,a the broad relief of the white dress against the tones of the floor and background1 and the darker note of the hair1 are the facts chiefly dwelt upon4 ,in ,b the form of the figure is brought out in broad light and shade and cast shadow1 and the dress relieved by radiating folds4 ,in ,c quicker movement is given1 the lines of the successive wave-shaped folds radiating spirally from the shoulders being the chief means of conveying this1 while the head and arms are thrown into strong relief against a dark background1 the cast shadow being of a lighter tone4 ,the direction of line used in relieving forms1 and expressing modelling and details1 must depend much upon individual taste and feeling as well as knowledge of form4 ,the element of beauty of design also comes in1 and the question between this and force or literalness--the difference between a study or direct transcript from nature1 and a design with a purely ornamental aim1 or a composition directed mainly to the expression of a particular idea or emotion4 ,such considerations will ultimately determine the choice and use of line1 the degree of relief and emphasis1 for these and the direction of the line itself are the syllables and the words which will convey the purport of the work to the mind of the beholder4 ,study of the masters of line--,durer1 ,titian1 ,mantegna1 ,holbein--will inform us as to its capacities and limitations4 ,the limitations1 too1 of method and material will be a powerful factor in the determination of style in the use of line and in the economy of its use4 ,the bold firm line suitable to the facsimile woodcut1 the broad and simple treatment of line with solid black useful in the plank-cut line block to be used with colour blocks1 the comparatively free and unconditioned pen-drawing for the surface-printed process block--all these will finally give a certain character to our work beyond our own idiosyncrasies in the use of the pen or the brush4 ,illustration 7f#jii73 ,albert ,durer's ,principle in the ,treatment of ,drapery3 ,from the ,woodcut in the ,life of the ,virgin ,series4 ,useful things may be learned by the way1 such as ,albert ,durer's principle of giving substance to his figures and details1 more especially seen in his treatment of drapery1 when the lines run into solid black and express the deeper folds and give emphasis and solidity to the figure 7p4 #ahc;f#jii74 ,the reproductions here given of sketches of drapery by ,filippino ,lippi and ,raphael also show the same principle4 ,illustration 7f#ajj73 ,albert ,durer3 ,pen-,drawing4 ,a figure or object of any kind1 seen in full light and shade1 is relieved at any of its edges either as dark against light1 or as light against dark1 and we recognize it as a solid form in this way2 the boundaries of natural light and shade defining it1 and projecting it from the background upon the vision4 ,there may be infinite modulations1 of course1 between the light part1 the half-tones1 and the darkest parts2 but this broad principle governs all work representing light and shade4 ,illustration 7f#aja73 ,filippino ,lippi3 ,study of ,drapery4 ,it is1 in fact1 the principle of the relief of form represented upon a plane surface4 ,illustration 7f#ajb73 ,raphael3 ,studies of ,drapery4 ,relief by ,light and ,shade ,alone ,if the draughtsman's object be to represent the appearance of a figure or any object in full natural light and shade with the pen or other point1 he could do so without using outline at all1 but by simply observing this principle and defining the boundaries of light on dark or half-tone in their proper masses and relations4 ,the pen sketch of the man with the hoe 7p4 #ahh;f#ajc;a7 is intended to illustrate this method4 ,illustration 7f#ajc;a73 ,relief by ,means of ,light and ,shade ,alone1 in ,pen-drawing ,without ,outline4 ,there is also the method of representing form in relief by means of working with white line only upon a dark ground1 the modelling and planes of surface being entirely expressed in this way 7as in ,a1 p4 #ahi;f#ajc;b74 ,this may be termed drawing by means of light1 and may be contrasted with the opposite method of working by means of black line only on a light ground1 or drawing by means of shade 7as in ,b1 p4 #ahi;f#ajc;b74 ,illustration 7f#ajc;b73 ,relief of ,form3 7,a7 ,by ,white ,line ,only on ,dark ,ground1 and 7,b7 ,by ,black ,line ,only on ,light ,ground4 ,yet another method1 and one in which the effect of relief can be obtained more readily and rapidly1 perhaps1 is by working on a half-toned paper1 drawing in the form with pencil1 chalk1 or brush1 blocking in the darker shadows and heightening the highest lights with touches of white4 ,these white touches1 however1 should be strictly limited to the highest lights4 ,this method is represented by the half-tone blocks used in this book1 those which were taken from drawings made on brown paper and touched with white4 ,the ,principle of the ,photograph ,the definition of form by means of light is strictly the principle of the photograph1 which comprehends and illustrates its complementary of relief by means of shade1 and ,i think it is due to the influence of the photograph that modern black-and-white artists have so often worked on these principles4 ,the drawings of ,frederick ,walker and ,charles ,keene may be referred to as examples4 ,i shall1 however1 hope to return to this branch of the subject later4 ,relief in ,architectural ,mouldings ,so far we have been considering the relief of form by means of line4 ,we now come to what may be termed the relief of form by actual form and plane1 or modelling in actual light and shade1 as in architecture and sculptors' and carvers' work4 ,then relief is gained by the contrast of actually different planes1 forms1 surfaces1 and textures4 ,the simplest illustrations of the principles of modelled relief are to be found in architectural mouldings1 by means of which buildings are relieved and enriched1 and important structural or functional parts are emphasized1 as in cornices and ribs of vaults1 arches1 and openings4 ,place a concave moulding side by side with a convex one either horizontally or vertically1 and a certain pleasant effect of contrasting light and shade is the result1 reminding one of the recurring concave and convex of the rolling waves of the sea 7,a1 p4 #aia;f#ajd74 ,a series of flat planes of different widths and at different levels also produces a pleasant kind of relief useful in a picture frame or the jamb of a door 7,b74 ,all architectural mouldings might be said to be modifications or combinations of the principles illustrated by these two4 ,very different feeling may be expressed in mouldings1 and if we compare the two types1 the classical and the ,gothic1 the comparatively broad and simple effect of the former 7,c1 ,d1 ,e1 ,f1 ,g7 contrasts with the richness and variety and the stronger effect of light and shade1 produced by deep undercutting1 in the latter 7,h1 ,i1 ,j1 ,k74 ,illustration 7f#ajd73 ,relief in ,architectural ,mouldings4 ,the ,romans1 however1 produced rich and highly ornate effects in the use of these types of mouldings1 as they reappeared in the ,corinthian order1 the ovolo cut into the egg and dart1 with the ,astralagus beneath1 the ,cyma recta above the brackets of the cornice casting a bold shadow1 and both in the cornice and the hollow beneath the dentils enriched with carving1 as seen in the splendid fragment of the ,forum of ,nerva4 ,illustration 7f#aje73 ,roman ,treatment of ,corinthian ,order1 ,forum of ,nerva1 ,rome4 ,when we pass to the more complex problems of figure modelling and sculpture1 it is but carrying on and developing the same principle of the contrast of planes1 of the relief of plane upon plane1 of forms upon one plane1 to forms upon forms in many planes4 ,from the contrast of bead and hollow we come to consider the contrast between the rounded limb and the sinuous folds of drapery2 from the rhythm of the acanthus scroll we turn to the less obvious but none the less existing rhythm of the sculptural frieze4 ,line1 we may say1 controls the modeller's and sculptor's composition1 but form and its treatment in light and shade give him his means of ornament4 ,the delicate contours of faces and limbs contrasted with the spiral and radiating folds of drapery1 or rich clusters of leaves and fruits1 the forms of animals and the wings of birds--these are his decorative resources4 ,egyptian ,reliefs ,the early stages of sculpture in relief may be seen in the monumental work of ancient ,egypt4 ,simple incised work appears to have been the first stage1 and the forms afterwards slightly modelled or rounded at the edges into the hollow of the sunk outline4 ,large figures and tables of hieroglyphic inscription were thus cut upon vast mural surfaces1 and carried across the joints of the masonry1 without disturbing the flatness and repose of the wall surface 7p4 #aie;f#ajf74 ,the ,egyptians1 indeed1 seem to have treated their walls more as if they were books for record and statement1 symbol and hieroglyphic4 ,illustration 7f#ajf73 ,egyptian ,system of ,sculptured ,relief3 ,thebes4 ,messrs4 ,perrot and ,chipiez1 in their ,history of ,ancient ,art in ,egypt1 speak of three processes in the treatment of ,egyptian reliefs 7vol4 ii41 p4 #bhd73 #a4 ,that followed by the ,greeks1 in which the figures are left standing out from a smooth bed1 sometimes slightly hollowed near the contours 7see illustration1 p4 #aif;fig#ajf74 #b4 ,where the figures are modelled in relief in a sunk hollow1 from an inch to one and a half inch deep4 #c4 ,where the surface of the figures and the bed or field of relief are kept on one level 7see illustration1 p4 #aif;f#ajg71 the contours indicated by hollow lines cut into the stone2 very little modelling1 little more than silhouette1 in which the outline is shown by a hollow instead of by the stroke of a pencil or brush4 ,one would be inclined to reverse the order of these three processes1 on the supposition that ,no4 #c was the earliest process1 and that it arose1 as ,i have conjectured1 from the practice of representing forms by incised lines only4 ,there is certainly a strong family likeness as to method between the ,egyptian reliefs and the ,assyrian1 the ,persian1 and the archaic ,greek2 and there is a far greater difference in treatment between archaic ,greek relief sculpture and the work of the ,phidian period than between the archaic work of the three races named4 ,the strictly mural and decorative conditions which governed ancient sculpture no doubt gave to ,greek sculpture in its perfection a certain dignity1 simplicity1 and restraint1 and also accounted in a great measure for that rhythmic control of invisible structural and ornamental line which asserts itself in such works as the ,pan-,athenaic frieze4 ,it was strictly slab sculpture1 and became part of the surface of the wall4 ,illustration 7f#ajg73 ,greek ,relief4 ,eleusis4 ,egyptian ,relief4 ,denderah4 ,gothic ,sculpture ,the structural and ornamental feeling also asserts itself strongly in ,gothic sculpture1 owing to its close association with architecture1 as1 when it was not an integral part of the structure1 it was always an essential part of the expression of the building1 and it was this which controlled its treatment decoratively1 in its scale and its system and degree of relief4 ,in the porches of the ,gallo-,roman churches of ,france of the twelfth century1 the figures occupying the place of shafts became columnar in treatment1 the sinuous formalized draperies wrapped around the elongated figures1 or falling in vertical folds1 as in the figures in the western door of ,chartres ,cathedral 7p4 #aii;f#ajh74 ,the lines of the design of the sculptured tympanum were strictly related to the space1 and the degree and treatment of the relief clearly felt in regard to the architectural effect 7p4 #bja;f#aji74 ,illustration 7f#ajh73 ,chartres ,cathedral3 ,carving on the ,west ,front4 ,illustration 7f#aji73 ,chartres ,cathedral3 ,tympanum of the ,central ,door of the ,west ,front4 ,architectural ,influence ,in the sculptured tombs of the ,middle ,ages1 with their recumbent figures and heraldic enrichments1 again1 we see this architectonic sense influencing the treatment of form and relief1 as these monuments were strictly architectural decorations1 often incorporating its forms and details1 and often built into the structure of the church or cathedral itself1 as in the case of the recessed and canopied tombs of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries4 ,as sculptures became detached from the building and wall1 and appeared in full relief in the round1 though still1 as it were1 carrying a reminiscence of their origin with them in the shape of the moulded pedestal1 architectural control became less and less felt1 statues in consequence being less and less related to their surroundings4 ,the individual feeling of the sculptor or the traditions of his school and training alone influenced his treatment1 until we get the incidental and dramatic or sentimental isolated figure or group of modern days4 ,medals and ,coins ,it is noteworthy1 however1 that even in the smaller works of the modeller1 carver1 or sculptor of the ,middle ,ages or the early ,renaissance1 a sense of decorative fitness and structural sense is always present4 ,we see it in the carved ornaments of seats and furniture1 in the design and treatment of coins and seals and gems and medals4 ,these latter from the time of the ancient ,greeks afford beautiful examples of the decorative treatment of relief in strict relation to the object and purpose4 ,the skill and taste of the ,greeks seemed to have been largely inherited by the artists of the earlier ,italian ,renaissance1 such as ,pisano1 whose famous medal of the ,malatesta of ,rimini affords a splendid instance not only of the treatment of the portrait and subject on the reverse perfectly adapted to its method and purpose1 but also of the artistic use of lettering as a decorative feature 7see p4 #bjc;f#aaj74 ,illustration 7f#aaj73 ,medals of the ,lords of ,mantua1 ,cesena1 and ,ferrara1 by ,vittore ,pisano of ,verona 7,middle of the ,fifteenth ,century74 ,the treatment and relief of figures and heads upon the plane surfaces of metals and coins1 the composition controlled by the circular form1 have always been a fine test of both modelling and decorative skill and taste4 ,breadth is given by a flatness in the treatment of successive planes of low relief1 which rise to their highest projection from the ground1 in the case of a head in profile1 about its centre4 ,the delicate perception of the relation of the planes of surface is important1 as well as the decorative effect to be obtained by arrangement of the light and shade masses and the contrast of textures1 such as hair and the folds of drapery1 to the smooth contours of faces and figures1 and the rectangular forms of lettering4 ,in gems we see the use made of the concave ground1 which gives an effective relief to the figure design in convex upon it4 ,bolder projection of prominent parts are here necessary in contrast to the retiring planes1 the work being on so small a scale1 and also in view of its seal-like character2 for1 of course1 it is the method of producing form by incision1 and modelling by cutting and hollowing out1 that gives the peculiar character to gems and seals2 and it is in forming human figures that the building up of the form by a series of ovals1 spoken of in a previous chapter1 becomes really of practical value3 the method of hollowing the stone or metal in cutting the gem or making a die and the character of the tool leading naturally in that direction4 ,desiderio di ,settignano ,perhaps the most delicate and beautiful kind of sculptured or modelled relief is to be found in the work of the ,florentine school of the fifteenth century1 more especially that of ,donatello and ,desiderio di ,settignano1 who seem indeed to have caught the feeling and spirit of the best ,greek period1 with fresh inspiration and suggestion from nature and the life around them1 as well as an added charm of grace and sweetness4 ,it is difficult to imagine that marble carving in low relief can be carried to greater perfection than it is in the well-known small relief by ,desiderio di ,settignano of the ,madonna and ,child1 now in the ,italian ,court of the ,south ,kensington ,museum4 ,the delicate yet firmly chiselled faces and hands1 the smooth surfaces of the flesh1 and the folds of drapery1 emerging from1 or sinking into1 the varied planes of the ground1 for refinement of feeling and treatment seem almost akin to the art of the painter in the tenderness of their expression4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,of the ,expression of ,relief in ,line-drawing--,graphic ,aim and ,ornamental ,aim--,superficial ,appearance and ,constructive ,reality--,accidents and ,essentials--,representation and ,suggestion of ,natural ,form in ,design--,the ,outward ,vision and the ,inner ,vision4 ,i have already said that when we add lines or tints of shadow1 local colour or surface1 to an outline drawing1 we are seeking to express form in a more complete way than can be done in outline alone4 ,these added lines or tints give what we call relief4 ,that is their purpose and function1 whether by that added relief we wish to produce an ornamental effect or simply to approach nearer to the full relief of nature1 for of course the degrees of relief are many4 ,relief in ,line-,drawing ,what may be called the natural principle of relief--that system of light and shade by which a figure or any solid object is perceived as such by the eye--consists in each part of the form being thrown into more or less contrast by appearing as dark on light upon its background1 more especially at its edges4 ,a figure wholly dark1 say in black drapery1 appearing against a light ground1 might be supposed to be flat if no cast shadow was seen2 the same with the reverse--a light figure upon a dark ground--except that in this latter case1 unless the light was very level and flat1 a certain concentration of light upon the highest parts1 or indicating a modulation of shadow in interstices1 might betray its solidity 7see p4 #bjf;f#aaa;a74 ,illustration 7f#aaa;a73 ,the ,two ,principles of ,contrast in ,black and ,white4 ,but if we place a figure so that the light falls from one side1 we perceive that it at once stands out in bold relief in broad planes of light and shade1 further emphasized by cast shadows 7p4 #bjg;f#aaa;b74 ,illustration 7f#aaa;b73 ,treatment of the ,same ,figure in ,light and ,shade4 ,it would be possible to represent or to express a figure or object so lighted by means of laying in the modulations and planes of shadow only1 or by means of adding the light only on a toned ground4 ,in sketching in black and white1 it is a good plan to accustom oneself to complete as one goes along1 as far as may be1 putting in outline and shadow together2 but this needs a power of direct drawing and a correctness of eye only to be gained by continual practice4 ,a slight preliminary basis of light lines to indicate the position and proportions1 and yet not strong enough to need rubbing out1 is also a good method for those who do not feel certain enough for the absolutely direct method of drawing4 ,illustration 7f#aab73 ,expression of ,form by ,light and ,shade3 7#a7 ,light and ,shade ,without ,outline2 7#b7 ,light and ,shade ,enforced by ,outline4 ,now in drawing1 as ,i think ,i have pointed out before1 no less than in all art1 there are two main governing principles of working which may be distinguished4 ,i4 ,the graphic aim4 ,,ii4 ,the ornamental or decorative aim4 ,the ,graphic ,aim ,the graphic aim--the endeavour to represent a form exactly as it appears--a power always valuable to acquire whatever may be our ultimate purpose1 leaves the draughtsman great freedom in the choice and use of line1 or other means of obtaining relief1 local tint1 and tone4 ,in line-work the broad relief of the flat tones of shadow may be expressed in lines approaching the straight1 diagonally sloping from right to left1 or from left to right1 as seems most natural to the action of the hand4 ,the quality of our lines will depend upon the quality we are seeking to express4 ,we shall be led to vary them in seeking to express other characteristics1 such as textures and surfaces4 ,in drawing fur or feathers1 for instance1 we should naturally vary the quality and direction of line1 using broken lines and dots for the former1 and flowing smooth fine lines for the latter1 while extra force and relief would be gained by throwing them up upon solid black grounds4 ,solid black1 also1 to represent local colour1 or material such as velvet1 is often valuable as a contrast in black and white line-drawing1 giving a richness of effect not to be obtained in any other way 7see ,no4 #b1 p4 #bac;f#aad74 ,its value was appreciated by the early ,german and ,italian book-illustrators1 and in our own time has been used almost to excess by some of our younger designers1 who have been largely influenced by ,hokusai and other ,japanese artists1 who are always skilful in the use of solid blacks4 ,illustration 7f#aac73 ,linear ,expression of ,features1 ,feathers and ,fur3 ,notes from ,nature4 ,in line-drawing a very useful principle to observe1 to give solidity to figures and objects1 is to let one's lines--say of drapery or shadow--run into solid blacks in the deepest interstices of the forms1 as when folds of drapery are wrapped about a figure1 or in the deeper folds themselves 7,no4 #a1 p4 #bac;f#aad74 ,illustration 7f#aad73 ,sketches to ,illustrate 7#a7 ,the ,graphic and 7#b7 ,the ,decorative ,treatment of ,draped ,figures4 ,the ,ornamental ,aim ,i have spoken of the graphic and the ornamental aims as distinct1 and so they may for practical purposes be regarded2 although in some cases it is possible to combine a considerable amount of graphic force with decorative effect1 and even in purely graphic art there should always be the controlling influence of the sense of composition which must be felt throughout all forms of art4 ,for the simplest ornamental function1 however1 very little graphic drawing is needed1 over and above the very essential power of definition by pure outline1 and feeling for silhouette2 but a sense for the relief of masses upon a ground or field1 and of the proportions and relations of lines and masses or distribution of quantities1 is essential4 ,now an ornamental effect may be produced by the simple repetition of some form defined in outline arranged so as to fall into a rhythmic series of lines4 ,a series of birds upon a plan of this kind1 for instance1 would form a frieze on simple bordering in abstract line alone1 and might be quite sufficient for some purposes4 ,the same thing would be capable of more elaborate treatment and different effect by relieving the birds upon a darker ground1 by defining the details of their forms more1 or by alternating them in black or white1 or by adopting the simple principle of counterchange 7see p4 #bae;f#aae74 ,illustration 7f#aae73 ,decorative ,treatment of ,birds4 ,flowers or figures would be capable of the same simple and abstract treatment2 and almost any form in nature1 reduced to its simplest elements of recurring line and mass1 and rhythmically disposed1 would give us distinct decorative motives4 ,the ,ornamental ,aim ,it is quite open to the designer to select his lines and forms straight from nature1 and1 bearing in mind the necessity for selection of the best ornamental elements1 for a certain simplification1 and the rhythmical treatment before mentioned1 it is good to do so1 as the work is more likely to have a certain freshness than if some of the well-known historic forms of ornament are used again4 ,we may1 however1 learn much from the ornamental use of these forms1 and use similar forms as the boundaries of the shape of our pattern units and masses4 ,it is good practice to take a typical shape such as the ,persian radiating flower or pine-apple1 and use it as the plan for quite a different structure in detail1 taking some familiar ,english flower as our motive4 ,the same with the ,indian and ,persian palmette type4 ,it is also desirable1 as before pointed out1 to draw sprays within formal boundaries for ornamental use4 ,by such methods we may not only learn to appreciate the ornamental value of such forms1 but by such adaptation and re-combination produce new varieties of ornament 7see p4 #bag;f#aaf74 ,illustration 7f#aaf73 ,floral ,designs ,upon ,typical ,inclosing ,shapes of ,indian and ,persian ,ornament4 ,we may perceive how distinct are the two aims as between simple graphic drawing1 or delineation1 and what we call design1 or conscious arrangements of line or form4 ,while planes of relief1 varied form and surface1 values of light and shade1 and accidental characteristics are rather the object with the graphic draughtsman1 typical form and structure1 and recurring line and mass1 are sought for by the ornamentist4 ,both series of facts1 or qualities1 or characteristics1 are in nature4 ,selection ,judicious selection1 however1 is the test of artistic treatment2 selection1 that is1 with a view to the aim and scope of the work4 ,the truth of superficial appearance or accidental aspect is one sort of truth3 the truth of the actual constructive characteristics--be they of figure1 flower1 or landscape--is another4 ,both belong to the thing we see--to the object we are drawing2 but we shall dwell upon one truth or set of truths rather than the other1 in accordance with our particular artistic aim1 though1 whatever this may be1 and in whatever direction it may lead us1 we shall find that selection of some sort will be necessary4 ,in making studies1 however pure and simple1 the object of which is to discover facts and to learn mastery of form1 our aim should be to get as much truth as we can1 truth of structure as well as of aspect4 ,but these 7as far as we can make them7 exhaustive studies should be accompanied or followed by analytical studies made from different points of view and for different purposes4 ,studies1 for instance1 made with a view to arrangements of line only--to get the characteristic and beautiful lines of a figure1 a momentary attitude1 the lines of a flower1 or a landscape3 studies with a view1 solely1 to the understanding of structure and form1 or again1 with the object of seizing the broad relations of light and shade1 or tone and colour--all are necessary to a complete artistic education of the eye4 ,accidents and ,essentials ,if we are drawn as students rather towards the picturesque and graphic side of art1 we shall probably look for accidents of line and form more than what ,i should call the essentials1 or typical line and form1 which are the most valuable to the decorative designer4 ,in both directions some compact or compromise with nature is necessary in any really artistic re-presentation4 ,the painter and the sculptor often seek as complete representation as possible1 and what may be called complete representation is within the range of their resources4 ,yet unless some individual choice or feeling impresses the work of either kind it is not a re-presentation1 but becomes an imitation1 and therefore inartistic4 ,the decorative designer and ornamentist seek to suggest rather than to re-present1 though the decorator's suggestion of natural form1 taking only enough to suit or express the particular ornamental purpose1 must be considered also as a re-presentation4 ,how much1 or how little1 he will take of actual nature must depend largely upon his resources1 his object1 and the limitations of his material--the conditions of his work in short2 but his range may be as wide as from the flat silhouetted forms of stencils or simple inlays to the highly-wrought mural painting4 ,design motive1 individual conception and sentiment1 apart from material1 must1 of course1 always affect the question of the choice and degree of representation of nature4 ,the painter will sometimes feel that he only wants to suggest forms1 such as figures or buildings1 half veiled in light and atmosphere1 colours and forms in twilight1 or half lost in luminous depths of shadow4 ,illustration 7f#aag;a73 ,dancing ,figure with the ,governing ,lines of the ,movement4 ,illustration 7f#aag;b73 ,lines of ,floral ,growth and ,structure3 ,lily and ,rose4 ,the ,outward ,vision and ,inner ,vision ,the decorative designer will sometimes want to emphasize forms with the utmost force and realism at his command1 as in some crisp bit of carving or emphatic pattern1 to give point and relief in his scheme of quantities4 ,there is no hard-and-fast rule in art1 only general principles1 constantly varied in practice1 from which all principles spring1 and into which1 if vital1 they ought to be capable of being again resolved4 ,but a design once started upon some principle--some particular motive of line or form--then1 in following this out1 it will seem to develop almost a life or law of growth of its own1 which as a matter of logical necessity will demand a particular treatment--a certain natural consistency or harmony--from its main features down to the smallest detail as a necessity of its existence4 ,we might further differentiate art as1 on the one hand1 the image of the outward vision1 and1 on the other1 as the outcome or image of the inner vision4 ,the first kind would include all portraiture1 by which ,i mean faithful portrayal or transcript whether of animate or inanimate nature2 while the second would include all imaginative conceptions1 decorative designs1 and pattern inventions4 ,the outward vision obviously relies upon what the eye perceives in nature4 ,its virtue consists in the faithfulness and truth of its graphic record1 in the penetrating force of observation of fact1 and the representative power by which they are reproduced on paper or canvas1 clay or marble4 ,illustration 7f#aah;a73 #a and #b1 ,mountain and ,crag ,sculpture3 ,coast ,lines1 ,gulf of ,nauplia4 ,illustration 7f#aah;b73 ,lines of ,movement in ,water3 ,shallow ,stream ,over ,sand4 ,the image of the inner vision is also a record1 but of a different order of fact4 ,it may be often of unconscious impressions and memories which are retained and recur with all or more than the vividness of actuality--the tangible forms of external nature calling up answering1 but not identical1 images in the mind1 like reflections in a mirror or in still water1 which are similar but never the same as the objects they reflect4 ,but the inner vision is not bound by the appearances of the particular moment4 ,it is the record of the sum of many moments1 and retains the typical impress of multitudinous and successive impressions--like the composite photograph1 where faces may be printed one over another until the result is a more typical image than any individual one taken separately4 ,the inner vision sees the results of time rather than the impressions of the moment4 ,it sees space rather than landscape3 race rather than men3 spirits rather than mortals3 types rather than individuals4 ,the inner vision hangs the mind's house with a mysterious tapestry of figurative thoughts1 a rich and fantastic imagery1 a world where the elements are personified1 where every tree has its dryad1 and where the wings of the winds actually brush the cheek4 ,the inner vision re-creates rather than represents1 and its virtue consists in the vividness and beauty with which1 in the language of line1 form1 and colour1 these visions of the mind are recorded and presented to the outward eye4 ,there is often fusion here again between two different tendencies1 habits of mind1 or ways of regarding things4 ,in all art the mind must work through the eye1 whether its force appears in closeness of observation or in vivid imaginings4 ,the very vividness of realization even of the most faithful portraiture is a testimony to mental powers4 ,the difference lies really in the focus of the mental force2 and1 in any case1 the language of line and form we use will neither be forcible or convincing1 neither faithful to natural fact nor true to the imagination1 without close and constant study of external form and of its structure as well as its aspect4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,of the ,adaptation of ,line and ,form in ,design1 in various materials and methods--,mural ,decoration--,fresco-work of the ,italian ,painters--,modern ,mural ,work--,mural ,spacing and pattern ,plans--,scale--,the ,skirting--,the ,dado--,field of the ,wall--,the ,frieze--,panelling--,tapestry--,textile ,design--,persian ,carpets-- ,effect of ,texture on ,colour--,prints--,wall-paper--,stained ,glass4 ,we have been considering hitherto the choice and use of line and form1 and various methods of their representation in drawing1 both from the point of view of the graphic draughtsman and that of the ornamental designer4 ,we now come to consider the subject solely from the latter standpoint 7the point of view of ornamental design72 and it will be useful to endeavour to trace the principles governing the selection of form and use of line as influenced by some of the different methods and conditions of craftsmanship1 and as adapted to various decorative purposes4 ,mural ,decoration ,the most important branch of decorative art may be said to be mural decoration1 allied as it is with the fundamental constructive art of all--architecture1 from which it obtains its determining conditions and natural limitations4 ,its history in the past is one of splendour and dignity1 and its record includes some of the finest art ever produced4 ,the ancient ,asiatic nations were well aware of its value not only as decoration but as a record4 ,illustration 7f#aai73 ,giotto3 ,chastity 7,lower ,church1 ,assisi74 ,the palace and temple and tomb-walls of ancient ,egypt1 ,persia1 and ,assyria vividly illustrate the life and ideas of those peoples1 while they conform to mural conditions4 ,the painted council halls and churches of the ,middle ,ages fulfil the same purpose in a different spirit2 but mural decoration in its richest1 most imaginative and complete form was developed in ,italy1 from the time of ,giotto1 whose famous works at the ,arena ,chapel at ,padua and ,assisi are well known1 to the time of ,michael ,angelo1 who in the sublime ceiling of the ,sistine ,chapel seemed to touch the extreme limits of mural work1 and in fact might be said to have almost defied them1 painting mouldings in relief and in perspective to form the framework of pictures where figures on different scales are used4 ,in the ,sistine ,chapel the series of earlier frescoes on the lower wall by ,botticelli1 ,lorenzo di ,credi1 ,ghirlandajo1 ,pinturicchio1 and other ,florentine painters of the fifteenth century are really more strictly mural in feeling1 and safer as guides in general treatment1 than the work of the great master himself4 ,they have much of the repose and richness as well as the quiet decorative effect of tapestry4 ,fresco-,work of ,italian ,painters ,the frescoes in the ,palazzo ,publico at ,siena1 ,pinturicchio's work in the ,piccolomini ,chapel and the ,appartimenti ,borgia1 the ,campo ,santo at ,pisa and the ,riccardi ,chapel of ,benozzo ,gozzoli at ,florence1 may be mentioned as among the gems of mural painting4 ,modern ,mural ,work ,we have but little important mural painting in this country4 ,doubtless1 from various traces discovered under ,puritan whitewash1 the walls of our mediaeval churches were painted as frequently as in continental countries1 but so completely did artistic tradition and religious sentiment change after the ,reformation that the opportunities have been few and the encouragement less for mural painting4 ,an attempt to revive fresco-painting was made in our ,houses of ,parliament1 and various scenes from our national history have been rendered with varying degrees of merit2 but they have chiefly demonstrated the need of continuous practice in such work on the part of our painters and the absence of a true decorative instinct4 ,illustration 7f#abj73 ,pinturicchio3 ,mural ,painting 7,piccolomini ,chapel1 ,siena74 ,it is to the honour of ,manchester that her ,town ,hall contains one of the most important and interesting pieces of mural painting by one of the most original of modern ,english artists--,ford ,madox ,brown--a work conceived in the true spirit of mural work1 being a record of local history1 as well as a decoration1 while distinctly modern in sentiment and showing strong dramatic feeling1 as well as historical knowledge4 ,the chapel on which ,mr4 ,f4 ,j4 ,shields is engaged in ,london will probably be unique in its way as a complete piece of mural decoration by an ,english artist of singular individuality1 sincerity1 and power1 as well as decorative ability4 ,but unfortunately opportunities for important mural decoration of this kind are very rare in ,england4 ,the art is not popularized3 we have no school of trained mural designers1 and we have no public really interested4 ,our commercial system and system of house tenure are against it4 ,our only chance is in public buildings1 which indeed have always been its best field4 ,yet we neglect1 ,i think1 a most important educational influence4 ,the painted churches and public halls of the ,middle ,ages filled in a great measure the place of public libraries4 ,a painted history1 a portrait1 a dramatic or romantic incident told in the vivid language of line1 form1 and colour1 is stamped upon the memory never to be forgotten4 ,it would be possible1 ,i think1 to impart a tolerably exact knowledge of the sequence of history1 of the conditions of life at different epochs1 of great men and their work1 from a well-imagined series of mural paintings1 without the aid of books2 and in this direction1 perhaps1 our school walls would present an appropriate field4 ,modern opportunities of mural decoration are chiefly domestic4 ,the country mansion1 or the modest home of the suburban citizen1 affords the principal field in our time for the exercise of the taste or ingenuity of the wall-decorator4 ,in this comparatively restricted field1 taste is perhaps of more consequence than any other quality4 ,a sense of appropriateness1 a harmonizing faculty1 a power of arrangement of simple materials--these are invaluable1 for1 more than any others1 they go to the making of a livable interior4 ,mural ,spacing and ,pattern ,plans ,on first thought it would almost seem as if the designer was less technically restricted in this direction of mural work than any other2 yet he will soon feel that he cannot produce an artistic and thoughtful scheme without taking many things into consideration which really belong to the conditions or natural limitations of his work4 ,there is1 firstly1 the idea of the wall itself--part of the house-structure--a shelter and protection or boundary4 ,it is no part of a designer's business to put anything upon the wall in the way of decoration which will induce anyone to forget that it is a wall--nothing to disturb the flatness and repose4 ,the four walls of a room inclose a space to dwell in1 in comfort and security4 ,the windows show us outward real life and nature4 ,the walls should not compete with the windows4 ,nature must be translated into the terms of line and form and colour1 and invention and fancy may be pleasantly suggestive in the harmonious metre and rhythm of pattern4 ,a wall surface extends horizontally and vertically1 but the vertical extension seems to assert itself most to the eye4 ,any arrangement of lines of the trellis or diaper order logically covers a wall surface1 and may be appropriately used as a basis for a wall pattern1 whether merely to mark the positions of a simple spray or formal sprig pattern1 or as a ground-plan for a completely filled field of repeating ornament1 whether painted1 stencilled1 or in the form of wall-paper or textile hanging4 ,in the simple geometric net of squares or diamonds or circles1 however1 there is nothing that emphatically marks adaptability to a vertical position4 ,such plans in themselves are equally appropriate to the floor in the form of paving and parquet4 ,the ogee plan1 however1 and its variant1 the vertical serpentine or spiral plan1 at once suggest vertical extension1 the former perhaps by its leaf-like points arranging themselves scale-wise1 and the latter by its suggestion of ascending movement4 ,it is noteworthy that in the course of the historic evolution of mural decoration1 designs based upon these systems constantly recur4 ,they are part of the pattern-designer's vocabulary of line1 and among the principal1 though simplest1 terms by which he is able to express vertical extension4 ,the question of scale in designing mural decoration of any sort is very important4 ,this demands a certain power of realizing the effect of certain lines and masses if carried out1 and the relation of one part to another as well as to the dimensions of the walls and the room itself4 ,here1 as indeed throughout art1 a reference to the human figure will give us our key1 since after all decoration goes to form a background for humanity4 ,with natural flowers and leaves it is always right to design for mural purposes on the same scale as nature4 ,illustration 7f#aba73 ,diagram ,showing the ,principal ,fundamental ,plans or ,systems of ,line ,governing ,mural ,spacing and ,decorative ,distribution4 ,scale ,scale in design should be also considered in relation to the general character of a building and its purpose1 the use and lighting of a living room3 its dimensions and proportions1 and relation to other rooms4 ,there is great range for individual taste and fancy4 ,the artist would naturally look to the capacity of the space which he had to decorate1 and what it suggested to his mind4 ,he might want to emphasize a long1 low room by horizontal lines1 or to accentuate a lofty one by verticals4 ,illustration 7f#abb73 ,diagram to ,show 7#a7 ,how the ,apparent ,depth of a ,space ,is ,increased by the ,use of ,vertical ,lines1 and 7#b7 ,how the ,apparent ,width ,is ,increased by the ,use of ,horizontal ,lines4 ,by the judicious use of line and scale in design1 the designer holds a certain power of transformation in his hands1 not to speak of the transforming effect of colour of different keys and tones1 the apparent contraction or expansion of surfaces by patterns of different character and scale4 ,it would obviously not do to regard any wall merely as so much expanse of surface available for sketching unrelated groups and figures upon1 as they might be jotted down in a sketch-book1 and to offer it as decoration4 ,in an interior thus treated1 we should lose all sense of repose1 dignity1 and proportion4 ,use and custom1 which fix and determine so many things in social life without written laws1 have also prescribed certain divisions of the wall1 which1 in regard to the exigencies of life and habit and modern conditions generally1 seem natural enough4 ,the ,skirting ,the lower parts of the walls of most modern dwellings being generally occupied by furniture placed against them1 and liable to be soiled or injured1 it would be out of place to put important and elaborate ornament or figure designs extending to the skirting4 ,the wooden skirting1 of about nine inches or a foot in depth1 which is placed along the foot of the wall in our modern rooms1 is the armour-plating to protect the plaster1 which otherwise might be chipped and litter the floor4 ,it is perhaps the last relic of the more substantial and extensive wood panelling and wainscotting which1 up to the latter part of the last century1 covered the lower walls of the more comfortable houses1 and has been revived in our own day4 ,the decorator may use panelling1 or wainscotting1 or a simple chair-rail above plain painting1 wall-paper1 dado1 or stencilling1 or a dado of matting1 as methods of covering1 and at the same time decorating1 the lower walls of rooms4 ,the use of the dado of a darker colour and of wainscot is1 no doubt1 due to considerations of wear and tear1 and so1 like the origin of much ornamental art1 may be traced to actual use and constructive necessity4 ,when the wood-work of a room--the doors and window frames--is of the same colour and character as the dado1 a certain agreeable unity is preserved1 and it forms a useful plain framing to set off the patterned parts of the wall4 ,this wainscot or dado framing with the wood-work should be as to colour arranged to suit the general scheme adopted4 ,where paint is used1 white for the wood-work usually has the best effect4 ,field of the ,wall ,the largest space of wall occurs above the chair-rail1 or dado1 and1 according to modern habits and usage1 portable property in the shape of framed pictures1 etc41 is usually placed here along the eye-line1 so that any decoration on this--the main field of the wall--is regarded as subsidiary to what is placed upon it2 but1 of course1 pictures can be used as the central points of a decorative scheme4 ,on the upper part of a wall1 below the plaster cornice1 the mural designer has the chance of putting a frieze1 and a frieze usually gives the effect of additional height to a room1 besides enriching the wall4 ,illustration 7f#abc73 ,decorative ,spacing of the ,wall3 ,sketches 7to #a_/b-;in4 ,scale7 to ,show ,different ,treatment and ,proportions4 ,an effective treatment of a large room1 and one which is more reposeful than cutting up the wall into these portions1 as in dado1 field1 and frieze1 is to carry up wood panelling to the frieze1 and let this 7the frieze7 be the important decorative feature4 ,supposing the room was twelve feet high1 one could afford to have eight feet of panelling1 and then a frieze of four feet deep4 ,in this case one would look for an interesting painted frieze of figures--some legend or story to run along the four sides of the room1 and in such a case it might be marked with considerable pictorial freedom4 ,more formal figure design or ornamental work in coloured plaster-work1 stucco1 and gesso could also be appropriately used in such a position1 as also on the ceiling4 ,now as regards choice of line and form in their relation to the decoration of such mural spaces4 ,taking the lower wall1 dado1 or panelling1 one reason why panelling has so agreeable an effect is1 ,i think1 that the series of vertical and horizontal lines seem to express the proportions1 while they emphasize the flatness and repose of the wall1 and when used beneath a painted frieze they lead the eye upwards1 forming a quiet framing of rectangular lines below to the ornate and varied design of the frieze4 ,where we are limited to decorating a wall by means of plain painting1 stencils1 or wall-paper1 this idea of reposeful constructive lines and forms on the lower wall should still dominate upon the field4 ,subject to our repeating plan we may be freer both in line and form1 using free scrolls1 branch-work1 fruit1 and flower masses at pleasure1 because the space is more extended1 and we shall feel the necessity in a repeating pattern of spreading adequately over it2 but such designs1 however fine in detail1 should be constructed upon a more or less geometric base or plan4 ,we are1 as regards the main field of the wall1 still unavoidably1 though not disadvantageously1 influenced by the tradition of the textile hanging or arras tapestry1 no doubt2 and certainly there is no more rich and comfortable lining for living rooms than tapestry1 or1 at the same time1 more reposeful and decoratively satisfying4 ,but1 of course1 where we can afford arras tapestry 7such as the superb work of ,william ,morris and his weavers71 we ought not to allow anything to compete with it upon the same wall4 ,it is sufficient in itself4 ,illustration 7f#abh73 ,arras ,tapestry3 ,diagrams to ,show the ,principle of ,working and ,surface ,effect3 7#a7 ,vertical ,position of ,warp as ,worked in the ,loom and ,relief ,effect of the ,wefts2 7#b7 ,enlarged ,section of ,warp as ,hung 7,horizontal72 7#c7 ,single ,threads of ,warp and ,weft2 7#d7 ,warp and ,weft as in the ,loom 7,vertical74 ,tapestry ,of what splendour of colour and wealth of decorative and symbolical invention tapestry was capable in the past may be seen in magnificent ,burgundian specimens of the fifteenth century1 now in the ,south ,kensington ,museum4 ,tapestry hangings of a repeating pattern and quiet colour could be used appropriately beneath painted upper walls1 or a frieze1 as no doubt frequently was the custom in great houses in the ,middle ,ages4 ,appartimenti ,borgia ,in the ,appartimenti ,borgia in the ,vatican1 for instance1 which consists of lofty vaulted rooms with frescoes by ,pinturicchio upon the upper walls between the spans of the vaulting1 and upon the vaulting itself1 we may see1 about eleven feet from the floor1 along the moulding1 the hooks left for the tapestry hangings1 which completed the decoration of the room4 ,the lower walls are now largely occupied by book-shelves2 but books themselves may form a pleasant background1 as one may often observe in libraries1 especially when the bindings are rich and good in tone3 and here1 too1 we get our verticals and horizontals again4 ,illustration 7f#abe73 ,pinturicchio3 ,fresco in the ,appartimenti ,borgia4 ,so long as the feeling for the repose and flatness of the wall surface is preserved1 there are no special limitations in the choice of form4 ,it becomes far more a matter of treatment of form and subject in perfectly appropriate mural design4 ,there is one principle1 however1 which seems to hold good in the treatment of important figure subjects to occupy the main wall surfaces as panels3 while pictorial realization of a kind may be carried quite far1 it is desirable to avoid large masses of light sky1 or to attempt much in the way of atmospheric effect4 ,it is well to keep the horizon high1 and1 if sky is shown1 to break it with architecture and trees4 ,still more important is it to observe this in tapestry4 ,it is very noticeable how tapestry design declined after the fifteenth century or early years of the sixteenth1 when perspective and pictorial planes were introduced1 and sky effects to emulate painting1 and thus the peculiarly mural feeling was lost1 with its peculiar beauty1 richness1 and repose4 ,illustration 7f#abd73 ,figure of ,laura1 from the ,burgundian ,tapestries3 ,the ,triumphs of ,petrarch 7,south ,kensington ,museum74 ,in the translation into tapestry even of so tapestry-like a picture as that of ,botticelli's ,primavera1 it is noteworthy how ,mr4 ,morris has felt the necessity of reducing the different planes1 and the chiaroscuro of the painting1 by more leafy and floral detail2 making it1 in short1 more of a pattern than a picture4 ,the ,frieze ,a frieze is susceptible of a much more open1 lighter1 and freer treatment than a field4 ,a frieze is one of the mural decorator's principal means of giving lightness and relief to his wall4 ,in purely floral and ornamental design the field of close pattern1 formal diaper1 or sprigs at regular intervals may be appropriately relieved by bolder lines and masses1 and a more open treatment in the frieze4 ,the frieze1 too1 affords a means of contrast in line to the line system of the field of the wall1 its horizontal expression usefully opposing the verticals or diagonals of the wall pattern below4 ,the frieze may be regarded as a horizontal border1 and in border designs the principle of transposition of the relation of pattern to ground is a useful one to bear in mind1 as leading always to an effective result4 ,i mean1 supposing our field shows a pattern mainly of light upon dark1 the frieze might be on the reverse plan1 a dark pattern on a light ground4 ,and whereas1 as ,i have said1 one would exclude wide light spaces from our mural field1 in the frieze one might effectively show a light sky ground throughout1 and arrange a figure or floral design upon that4 ,the principle governing the treatment of main and lower wall spaces or fields1 which teaches the designer to preserve the repose of the surface1 may be said to rule also in all textile design1 and textile design has1 as we have seen in the form of tapestry1 and hangings of all kinds1 a very close association with mural decoration4 ,textile ,design ,any textile may be considered1 from the designer's point of view1 as presenting so much surface for pattern1 whether that surface is hung upon a wall1 or curtains a door or a window1 or is spread in the form of carpets or rugs upon floors1 or over the cushions of furniture1 or adapts itself to the variety of curve surface and movement of the human form in dress materials and costume4 ,textile beauty is beauty of material and surface1 and unless the pattern or design upon it or woven with it enhances that beauty of material and surface1 and becomes a part of the expression of that material and surface1 it is better without pattern4 ,illustration 7f#abf73 ,portion of ,detail of the ,holy ,carpet of the ,mosque of ,ardebil3 ,persian1 ,sixteenth ,century4 ,to place informal shaded flowers and leaves upon a carpet1 for instance1 where the warp is very emphatic1 and the process of weaving necessitates a stepped or rectangularly broken outline1 is to mistake appropriate decorative effect1 capacity of material1 and position in regard to the eye4 ,we cannot get away1 in a carpet1 from the idea of a flat field starred with more or less formal flowers1 and colour arrangements which owe their richness and beauty1 not to the relief of shading1 but to the heraldic principle of relieving one tint or colour upon another4 ,the rich inlay of colour which a ,persian or any ,eastern carpet presents is owing to its being designed upon this principle2 and in ,persian work that peculiarly rich effect of colour1 apart from fine material1 is owing to the principle of the use of outlines of different colours defining and relieving the different forms in the pattern upon different grounds4 ,the rectangular influence arising from the technical conditions of the work gives a definite textile character to the design which is very agreeable2 besides1 as a question of line and form1 in a carpet or rug which is rectangular in shape and laid usually upon rectangular floors1 the squareness of form harmonizes with the conditions and surroundings of the work in use4 ,the ,persian designer1 indeed1 appears to be so impressed with this feeling1 that he uses a succession of borders around the central field of his carpet or rug1 still further emphasizing the rectangularity2 while he avoids the too rigid effect of a series of straight lines which the crossing of the threads of the weft at right angles to the warp might cause1 by changing the widths of his subsidiary borders and breaking them with a constant variety of small patterns1 and inserting narrow white lines between the black lines of the border4 ,illustration 7f#abg73 ,sketch to ,illustrate ,treatment of ,borders in a ,persian ,rug4 ,effect of ,texture on ,colour ,in tapestry the effect of the emphatic warp worked vertically in the loom1 but hung horizontally1 has a very important influence upon the effect4 ,if we took a piece of paper coloured with a flat even tint1 and folded it in ridges1 the quality of the tint would be at once changed1 and so in tapestry the passing of the wool of the wefts1 which form the pattern or picture1 over the strong lines of the warp--which are broad enough to take the outlines of the cartoon upon them--produces that soft and varied play of colour--really colour in light and shade--which1 over and above the actual dyes and artistic selection of tints1 gives the peculiar charm and effect in tapestry4 ,this sheen and variety are more or less evident in all textiles1 and a good textile pattern only adds to the variety and richness of the surface4 ,the different thicknesses or planes of surface and the difference of their texture caused by the different wefts being brought to the surface of the cloth or silk 7from the simplest contrast of line presented by the simplest arrangements of warp and weft1 to the complexities of many-coloured silk stuffs and brocade7 alone give a value to the surface pattern4 ,in cut velvet the same principle of contrast of surface is emphasized still further1 the rich deep nap of the less raised parts contrasting pleasantly with the mat effect of the ground4 ,in designs for such material one should aim at boldly blocked-out patterns in silhouette--bold leaf and fruit forms say--designed on the principle of the stencil4 ,prints ,with prints the range is of course freer1 the material itself suggesting something lighter and more temporary4 ,it seems highly probable that printed cotton was originally a substitute for embroidered linen or more sumptuous materials4 ,there are certainly instances of very similar patterns in ,indian and ,persian work in silk embroidery1 and also in printed cotton4 ,in some cases the print is partly embroidered1 which seems to mark a transitional stage1 and recalls the lingering use of illumination in the early days of the printing press1 in another department of art4 ,anything that will repeat as a pattern in what can be produced by line1 dot1 and tints of colour1 and engraved upon wood-blocks or copper rollers1 can be printed of course2 and1 as is generally the case with an art which has no very obvious technical limitations1 it is liable to be caught by the imitative spirit1 and cheap and rapid production and demand for novelties 7so-called7 generally end in loss of taste and deterioration of quality1 especially in design4 ,from the artistic point of view we can only correct this by bearing in mind similar considerations to those which hold good as general principles and guides in designing for textiles generally1 having regard to the object1 purpose1 and position--to the ultimate use of the material1 and differentiating our designs1 as in the case of other textile design accordingly4 ,thus in the matter of plan and direction of line and character of form we shall at once find natural distinctions and divisions1 as our design is for hanging1 or spreading horizontally1 or wearing2 and these different functions will also determine scale and choice and treatment of form and colour4 ,there is no doubt that with patterns printed more range may be allowed than with patterns to be woven1 where line and form are both controlled by the necessities of being reproduced by so many points to the inch4 ,at the same time the object of all design and pattern work being the greatest beauty compatible with the material and conditions1 one should seek1 not such effects as merely test the capacity or ingenuity of the machine1 but rather such as appear to be most decoratively appropriate and effective4 ,there appears to be no mechanical reason why cotton should not be printed all over with landscapes and graphic sketches1 and people clothe themselves with them as with ,christmas numbers1 or turn their couches1 chairs1 and curtains into scrap albums1 but there is every reason on the score of taste why these things should not be done4 ,illustration 7f#abi73 7#a7 ,contrasting ,surfaces of ,warp and ,weft in ,woven ,silk ,hanging2 7#b7 ,stencil ,principle4 ,with any textile1 as ,i have said1 we are as designers dealing with surface4 ,it is surface ornament that is wanted also in printed cotton4 ,now good line and form and pure tints have the best effect1 because they do not break the surface into holes1 and give a ragged or tumbled appearance1 which accidental bunches of darkly-shaded flowers in high relief undoubtedly do4 ,if small rich detail and variety are wanted1 we should seek it in the inventive spirit of the ,persian and ,indian1 and break our solid colours with mordants or arabesques in colour of delicate subsidiary pattern instead of using coarse planes of light and shadow1 or showing up ragged and unrelated forms upon violent grounds4 ,illustration 7f#acj73 ,indian ,printed ,cotton ,cover3 ,south ,kensington ,museum4 ,the true idea of a print pattern is of something gay and fanciful3 bright and fresh in colour1 and clear in line and form3 a certain quaintness is allowable1 and in purely floral designs there is room for a considerable degree of what might be called naturalism1 so far as good line-drawing and understanding of flower form goes1 emphasis of colour being sought by means of planes of colour1 rather than by planes of shadow4 ,i had intended to touch upon other provinces of design1 but ,i have taken up so much space with those ,i have been discussing already that ,i can only now briefly allude to these4 ,wall-,paper ,of wall-paper1 which may be regarded in the light of more or less of a substitute for mural painting1 and also textile wall-hangings1 much the same general principles and many of the same remarks apply as have been already used in regard to mural decoration4 ,the designer has much freedom as to motive1 and his ingenuity is only bounded by or concentrated in a square of twenty-one inches4 ,if he has succeeded in making an agreeable pattern which will repeat not too obviously over an indefinite space1 to form a not obtrusive background1 and which can be printed and sold to the ordinary citizen1 he is supposed to have satisfied the conditions4 ,but he may be induced to go further and attempt the design of a complete decoration as far as dado1 field1 frieze1 and ceiling go2 and this would involve all the thought necessary to the mural painter1 narrowed down to the exigencies of mechanical repeat4 ,allied to the wall is the window1 and in glazing and the art of the glass-painter we have another very distinct and beautiful sphere of line design4 ,in plain leading the same law of covering vertical surface holds good as to selection of plan and system of line3 almost any simple geometric net is appropriate1 if not too complex or small in form to hold glass or to permit lead to follow its lines4 ,leaded panels of roundels 7or bull's eyes7 of plain glass have a good effect in casements where a sparkle of light rather than outward view is sought for4 ,stained ,glass ,when we come to designing for stained glass we should still bear in mind the fundamental net of lead lines which forms the basis of our pattern1 or glass picture1 as it were3 and the designer's object should be to make it good as an arrangement of line independently of the colour1 while practical to the glazier4 ,illustration 7f#aca73 7#a7 ,stained ,glass ,treatment3 ,inclosure of ,form and ,colour by ,lead ,lines2 7#b7 ,sections4 ,although lead is very pliable1 too much must not be expected of it in the way of small depressions and angles3 the boundary lines of the figures1 which should be the boldest of all1 should be kept as simple as possible1 not only on this account1 but because complex outlines cannot well be cut in glass4 ,a head1 for instance1 is inclosed in sweeping line1 and the profile defined within the lead line by means of painting4 ,a hand would be defined on the same principle4 ,each different colour demands a different inclosure of lead1 although in the choice of glass much variation of tint can be obtained1 as in the case of pot metal running from thin to thick glass1 which intensifies the colour1 and many kinds of what is called flashed4 ,yet to the designer1 from the point of view of line1 glass design is a kind of translucent mosaic1 in which the primal technical necessity of the leading which holds the glory of the coloured light together1 really enhances its splendour1 and in affording opportunities for decoration and expressive linear composition imparts to the whole work its particular character and beauty4 ,this after all is the principle to cling to in all designing1 to adapt our designs to the particular distinctive character and beauty of the material for which they are destined1 to endeavour to think them out in those materials1 and not only on paper4 ,whatever the work may be--carving1 inlays1 modelling1 mosaic1 textiles--through the whole range of surface decoration1 we should think out our designs1 not only in relation to the limitations of their material1 but also in their relation to each other1 to their effect in actual use1 and even to their possible use in association together1 which1 of course1 is of paramount importance in designing a complete room or any comprehensive piece of decoration4 ,and when we leave plane surfaces and seek to invent appropriate1 that is to say1 expressive ornament allied to concave and convex surfaces1 to the varied forms of pottery for instance1 metal-work1 and glass vessels1 furniture1 and accessories of all kinds1 we shall find the same laws and principles hold good which should guide us in all design--to adapt design to the characteristics and conditions of the material1 to its structural capacity1 its use and purpose1 as well as to use or invention in line1 both as a controlling plan or base of ornament1 as well as a means of the association and expression of form4 ,,chapter ,x ,of the ,expression and ,relief of ,line and ,form by ,colour--,effect of same ,colour upon different ,grounds--,radiation of ,colour--,white ,outline to clear ,colours--,quality of ,tints relieved upon other ,tints--,complementaries--,harmony--,the ,colour ,sense--,colour ,proportions--,importance of ,pure ,tints--,tones and ,planes--,the ,tone of ,time--,pattern and ,picture--,a ,pattern not necessarily a ,picture1 but a ,picture in principle a ,pattern--,chiaroscuro--,examples of ,pattern-work and ,picture-work--,picture-patterns and ,pattern-pictures4 ,perhaps the most striking means of the expression of relief of line and form1 certainly the most attractive1 is by colour4 ,by colour we obtain the most complete and beautiful means of expression in art4 ,relief of ,line and ,form by ,colour ,our earliest ideas of form are probably derived through the different colours of objects around us1 by which they are thrown into relief upon the background1 or against other objects2 and1 as ,i mentioned in the first chapter1 we reach outline by observing the edges of different masses relieved as dark or light upon light or dark grounds1 so now1 in my last1 we come again to the consideration of the definition of line and form by colour1 and their relief and expression upon different planes or fields of colour4 ,there is first the colour of the object itself--the local colour--and then the colour of the ground upon which it is relieved1 both of which in their action and reaction upon each other will greatly affect the value of the local colour and the degree of relief of the form upon it4 ,one of the best and simplest ways to ascertain the real value of a colour and its effect upon different grounds or fields is to take a flower--say a red poppy1 and place it against a white paper ground1 blocking in the local colour as relieved upon white1 as near as may be to its full strength1 with a brush1 and defining the form as we go along4 ,then try the same flower upon grounds of different tints--green1 blue1 yellow--and it will be at once perceived what a different value and expression the same form in the same colour has upon different tinted grounds4 ,a scarlet poppy would appear clearest and darkest upon white2 it would show a tendency upon a blue ground to blend or blur at its edges1 and also on yellow and green to a less extent4 ,illustration 7f#acb73 ,sketch to ,show ,effect of the ,same ,colour and ,form upon ,different ,coloured ,grounds4 ,it is this tendency to lose the edges of forms owing to the radiation of colours1 and to mingle with the colour of the background1 which makes a strong outline so constantly a necessity in decorative work4 ,one may use a black on a white1 a brown1 or a gold outline 7as in cloisonne71 the nature of the outline being generally determined by the nature of the work4 ,in stained glass the outline must be black1 and this black is of the greatest value in enhancing by opposition the brilliance of the colours of the glass it incloses1 stopping out the light around it as it does in solid lead when placed in the window4 ,illustration 7f#acc73 7#a7 ,principle of the ,effect of the ,blending or ,blurring of ,colours at ,their ,edges2 7#b7 ,use of ,black and ,white ,outline to ,clear the ,edges of ,coloured ,forms upon ,different ,coloured ,grounds4 ,clearing ,coloured ,forms ,a white outline produced by a resist or a mordant in a printed textile1 where the colours used are full and rich1 often has a good effect1 lightening the effect while giving point and definition to certain leading forms4 ,instances of the use of white outlines may be found in ,eastern carpets1 where the main colours1 being dark blue and yellows on rich red1 are relieved in parts by a dull white outline4 ,also in ,persian carpets of the sixteenth or seventeenth century1 the scrollwork in red is often relieved by an ivory white outline on blue4 ,it is always a good practice in blocking in flowers1 either from nature or as parts of a design1 to leave a white outline at the junctions--that is to say1 where one petal overlaps another1 or where there is a joint in the stem1 or a fold in the leaf--and to show the ribbings1 markings1 and divisions of flower and leaf4 ,by judiciously changing the quality of our tints it is possible to make different colours in a pattern tell clearly4 ,to relieve red upon blue1 for instance1 one would use an orange red upon greenish blue1 or scarlet upon a gray blue--the general principle being apparently a kind of compensating balance between colours1 so that in taking from one you give to another4 ,a full red and blue used together1 as we have seen1 would show a tendency to purple1 unless separated by outlines2 so that if the blue was full and rich1 the red would have to approach brown or russet2 or if the red was a full one--a crimson red--the blue would have to approach green4 ,harmony ,this may be because of the necessary complements in colours1 which we see in nature1 and which prepossess the eye1 and make it demand these modifications to satisfy the sense of harmony4 ,when daylight struggles with candle- or lamp-light1 one may notice that upon the white cloth of a dinner-table the light is blue and the shadows yellow or orange--the orange deepening as with the fading daylight the blue grows deeper1 until the colour of the light and the shadow change places4 ,the same principle may be noticed in firelight1 but the redder the flame the greener will be the shadows4 ,harmony in colour may be said to consist--apart from the general acknowledgment of the law of complementaries1 in giving quality to the raw pigments by gradation1 by a certain admixture or infusion of other colours4 ,to begin with the negatives--white and black--white may be creamy or silvery2 black may be of a greenish or a bluish or brownish tone2 then the primaries--red1 blue1 yellow1 or red1 green1 violet--red may range from crimson to orange and russet2 yellow may approach green or gold2 green may be first cousin to blue2 blue may be turquoise on the one hand1 and touch purple upon the other2 and so on through infinite variations of half tints and tones4 ,no doubt it is an easier matter to harmonize half tints than full bright colours1 which may account for the prevalence of the former in decorative work4 ,nature's pattern-book1 too1 is full of half tones and mixed tints4 ,the ,colour ,sense ,we may not all see colour precisely in the same way1 and the same colour may appear to be of a different tint to different eyes2 and it seems certain that climate and surroundings affect the colour sense3 light and colour will stimulate the delight in colour2 while1 where grayness and dullness characterize the surroundings of life1 the colour sense will grow weak1 or1 if it is manifested at all1 it will show a tendency to grayness and heaviness of tint4 ,the art of the different peoples of the world illustrates this1 and1 as we may see by turning from east to west1 or from north to south1 or even from winter to summer1 in the main the love of colour follows the sun1 like the rainbow4 ,we can all do something to cultivate our sense of colour1 however1 and there is no better way than studying the harmonies and varieties of nature4 ,even the town-dweller is not altogether deprived of the sight of the sky1 which constantly unfolds the most beautiful compositions both of form and colour4 ,as to the choice of colours in decorative design1 so far as that is not narrowed by the particular conditions of the work1 we must be guided by much the same considerations as would serve us in designing generally1 and must1 of course1 think of appropriateness to position and purpose4 ,much depends1 too1 upon proportions of colour1 and a beautiful and harmonious effect may be produced in a room by keeping the colour in a particular key1 or even delicately varying the designs and tints of one or two colours4 ,the same might be said in arranging a scheme of colouring for any particular piece of design--say1 a painted panel or a textile pattern2 although such things must ultimately be governed by their relation to other parts in any general scheme--circumstances necessitate their being often designed apart4 ,still1 if the colour of a pattern has been carefully thought out1 or rather harmoniously felt1 as a real organic thing1 it is sure to fit into its place when its time comes4 ,in arranging our design of colour we can have no better guide1 as to proportions and quality1 than nature1 and should do well1 as a matter of practice1 to take a flower1 or the plumage of a bird1 or the colours of a landscape1 and adapt them to some particular pattern or scheme of decoration1 following the relative degrees of tint and their quantities as nearly as possible4 ,to do this successfully requires some invention and taste2 but successful1 or unsuccessful1 one could hardly fail to learn something positive and valuable about colour1 if the attempt was conscientiously made2 and fresher motives and sweeter colour would be more likely to result from such study4 ,importance of ,pure ,tints ,i think it is a very important thing in all decorative work to keep one's colours pure in quality1 and to avoid muddy or heavy tints4 ,brown is an especially difficult colour to use1 because of its generally heavy effect as a pigment1 and the difficulty of harmonizing it with other colours except as an outline2 and even here it makes all the difference whether it is a cool or a hot shade4 ,a hot brown is most destructive of harmony in colours4 ,it is safe1 as a rule1 to make it lean to green1 or bronze1 or gold4 ,as a general rule it is well to work either in a range of cool tints--a cool key of colour1 or the reverse--a warm and rich one4 ,few cool harmonies can be better than ultramarine and turquoise on greenish white1 of which the ,persians and ,indians are so fond in tile-work4 ,they are delightful to the eye1 while peculiarly adapted to the work1 owing their quality to the oxide of copper1 which the firing brings out so well4 ,blues and greens and grays1 relieved with white and yellow and orange3 or1 reds and yellows1 relieved with white and opposed by blacks1 generally answer3 or a range of reds together1 or range of blues1 or of yellows1 with black and white for contrast and accent4 ,blue and white1 too1 can be modified in quality2 black may be greenish in tone1 or brownish1 bluish1 or purplish according to the harmony aimed at4 ,white may be pure or ivory-toned1 cream-coloured or influenced by other colours1 and should vary in degree according to the strength of the harmony4 ,this brings us to the question of tone4 ,tones and ,planes ,now the ornamentist1 the designer of patterns1 relies for his effect upon the use of certain planes and oppositions of tints to relieve and express his design1 to emphasize its main motive1 to bring out or to subdue its lines and forms4 ,he knows that cool flat tints--blues1 greens1 grays--will make forms and surfaces retire1 and he makes use of them for flat and reposeful effects1 such as wall and ceiling surfaces1 adopting the natural principle of colour in landscape and sky4 ,he uses richer and more varied colour in textile hangings and carpets1 furniture1 and accessories--reds1 yellows1 greens1 crimson1 russets1 orange1 gold--which answer to the brighter flowers and parterres of our gardens1 as things to be near the eye and touch1 and to occur as lesser quantities in a scheme of interior colour design4 ,in the colour design of patterns1 harmonious and rich effects can be produced by the use of pure colour alone1 no doubt1 if carefully proportioned1 and separated by outline2 though harmony is more difficult to attain in pure colours used in their full strength2 and for their due effect1 and to avoid harshness1 such a treatment really requires out-door light or special conditions of lighting1 or the strong light of eastern or southern countries1 to soften the effect4 ,and since we have to adapt our designs to their probable surroundings1 we usually consciously select certain tones or shades of a colour1 rather than use it absolutely pure or in its full strength4 ,the beautiful tone which time gives to all colour-work is difficult to rival1 but no conscious imitation of it is tolerable4 ,but so long as our aim is strictly to make a colour scheme of any kind in relation to itself1 or in harmony with its conditions1 we are on a safe and sound path4 ,it is this relativity which is the important thing in all decorative art1 and which1 more distinctly than any other quality1 distinguishes it from pictorial art2 although pictorial art is under the necessity of the same law in regard to itself2 and in its highest forms1 as in mural work1 is certainly subject to relativity in its widest sense4 ,pattern and ,picture ,at first sight it might appear as if there were an essential fundamental natural difference between a pattern and a picture1 but when we come to consider it1 it appears to be rather a distinction than a difference4 ,a pattern may be an arrangement of lines1 forms1 and a harmony of planes and tones of colour4 ,but these words would describe in general terms a picture also4 ,certain recurrences of line and form2 certain re-echoing notes of the same1 or allied colour1 are necessary to both pattern and picture4 ,the abstract ingredients appear to be the same in both cases4 ,a picture indeed may be considered as a pattern of another sort1 and the real difference is that whereas a pattern is not necessarily a picture1 a picture is bound to be a pattern--a pattern having its quantities1 its balance of masses1 its connecting lines1 its various planes1 its key of colour1 its play of contrasts1 its harmony of tones4 ,technically1 a picture may be considered as an informal pattern1 mainly of tone and values2 while a pattern may be considered as a formal pattern1 mainly of planes of colour4 ,the ancient art of the ,east was all frankly pattern-work1 whatever the subject pictured4 ,egyptian1 ,persian1 ,indian1 ,chinese1 ,moorish and ,arabian art1 in all their varieties1 show the dominating sense of pattern1 and the invention of the instinctive decorators in the use of colour4 ,the ,japanese1 also1 are instinctive decorators1 though in a less formal and more impressionistic way1 and with much more naturalistic feeling4 ,their pictures printed from colour blocks1 as well as their kakimonos1 painted on silk1 are frankly pattern-pictures1 the pattern motive being quite as strong or stronger than the graphic or representative motive4 ,mediaeval and early ,renaissance painting in ,europe was frankly more or less formal and of the nature of ornament1 and even in its freest and fullest development1 in the works of the great masters of the sixteenth century of ,venice and ,florence1 a certain decorative or architectural feeling was never forgotten4 ,painting was still in close association with architecture1 and was the chief adornment of churches and palaces2 thus it preserved a peculiar distinction and dignity of style4 ,the ,dutch school did more perhaps to break these old decorative and architectural traditions than any other1 with their domestic and purely naturalistic motives1 their pursuit of realism1 atmospheric effect1 and chiaroscuro--that fascinating goal of painting4 ,chiaroscuro ,yet there were some of the seventeenth-century masters1 and of the best1 such as ,de ,hooghe and ,ver ,meer of ,delft1 who showed themselves very much alive to decorative effect1 which their power of chiaroscuro--the power of painting things in their proper atmosphere1 as lost in transparent depths of shadow1 or found in luminous mystery--only seemed to enhance4 ,as a wonderful instance of ornamental and dignified design carried into every detail with most careful draughtsmanship1 and yet beautiful in chiaroscuro and grave colour1 there is no finer example than ,j4 ,van ,eyck's portrait-picture of ,jan ,arnolfini and his ,wife in our ,national ,gallery4 ,such pictures as these would tell as rich and precious gems upon the wall1 and would form the centres to which the surrounding colour patterns and decoration would lead up1 as in the picture the little mirror reflecting the figures shines upon the wall1 a picture within a picture4 ,illustration 7f#acd73 ,j4 van ,eyck3 ,portrait of ,jan ,arnolfini and ,his ,wife4 7,national ,gallery47 ,it is instructive from any point of view to study the quantities and relations of colour1 and their tones and values1 in such works4 ,ver ,meer of ,delft ,take ,ver ,meer's ,lady at a ,spinet in our ,national ,gallery4 ,illustration 7f#ace73 ,ver ,meer of ,delft3 ,lady at a ,spinet4 7,national ,gallery47 ,we have a plain white wall1 exquisite in tone1 upon which the crisp gold of the small picture inclosing a brownish landscape with a blue and white sky1 and the broad black frame of the picture of ,cupid tell strongly1 yet fall into plane behind the figure in white satin--quite a different quality of white1 and warmer and brighter than the wall4 ,the bodice is a steely blue silk1 which is repeated in the velvet seat of the chair2 while the blue and white landscape upon the open lid of the spinet repeats the blue and white landscape on the wall1 and the blue and white motive is subtly re-echoed in a subdued key in the little tiles lining the base of the wall4 ,the floor is a chequer of black and white 7mottled7 marble1 which gives a fine relief to the dress and repeats the emphatic black of the picture frame2 the stand of the spinet is also black striated marble4 ,quiet daylight falls through the greenish white of the leaded panes4 ,the pink-brown woodwork of the spinet and chair prevent the colour scheme from being cold4 ,the flesh is very pale and ivory-like in tone1 but the dress is enlivened by little crisp scarlet and gold touches in the narrow laces which tie the sleeves4 ,the little picture is a gem of painting and truth of tone1 and at the same time might well suggest a charming scheme of colour to an ornamentist4 ,van ,eyck ,examine the ,van ,eyck in the same way1 and we shall find a very rich but quiet scheme of colour in a lower key1 highly decorative1 yet presented with extraordinary realistic force1 united with extreme refinement and exquisite chiaroscuro1 and truth of tone and value1 as a portrait-picture1 and piece of interior lighting4 ,it is like taking an actual peep into the inner life of a ,flemish burgher of the fifteenth century4 ,one seems to breathe the still air of the quiet room1 the gray daylight falling through the leaded casements1 one of which stands open1 and shows a narrow strip of luminous sky and suggestion of a garden with scarlet blossoms in green leaves4 ,the man is clad in a long mantle of claret-brown velvet edged with fur1 over black tunic and hose4 ,he wears a quaint black hat upon his head1 which almost foreshadows the tall hat of the modern citizen4 ,the pale strange face looks paler and stranger beneath it1 but is in character with the long thin hands4 ,the figure gives one the impression of legal precision and dryness1 and a touch of clerical formality4 ,the wife is of a buxom and characteristic ,flemish type1 in a grass-green robe edged with white fur1 over peacock blue2 a crisp silvery white head-dress2 a dark red leather belt with silver stitching4 ,her figure is relieved upon the subdued red of the bed hangings1 continued in the cover of the settle and the red clogs4 ,the wall of the room1 much lost in transparent shade1 is of a greenish gray tone1 and in the centre1 between the figures1 a circular convex mirror sparkles on the wall reflecting the backs of the figures4 ,thin lines delicately repeat the red in the mirror frame1 which has a black and red inner moulding4 ,a string of amber beads hangs on the wall1 and repeats the shimmer of the bright brass candelabra which hangs aloft1 and which is drawn carefully enough for a craftsman to reproduce4 ,pattern-,pictures ,both designer and painter may find abundant suggestion in this picture1 which1 with ,ver ,meer's ,lady at the ,spinet1 ,i should describe as pattern-pictures--that is to say1 while they are thoroughly painter's pictures1 and give all the peculiar qualities of oil-painting in the rendering of tone and values1 they yet show in their colour scheme the decorative quality1 and might be translated into patterns of the same proportions and keys of colours4 ,as examples of what might be termed picture-patterns we might recur to the wall paintings1 as ,i have said1 of ancient ,egypt and early art generally1 for their simplest forms2 but to take a much later instance1 and from the art of ,florence in the fifteenth century1 look at ,botticelli's charming little picture of ,the ,nativity1 in the ,national ,gallery4 ,it has all the intentional1 or perhaps instinctive1 ornamental aim of ,italian art1 and its colour scheme shows a most dainty and delicate invention in the strictest relation to the subject and sentiment1 and is arranged with the utmost subtlety and the nicest art4 ,botticelli ,the ring of angels above1 for instance1 is partly relieved upon a gilded ground--to represent the dome of heaven4 ,they bear olive branches1 and the colour of their robes alternates in the following order3 rose1 olive 7shot with gold71 and white4 ,the rose-coloured angels have olive and white wings2 the white angels1 rose and olive wings2 and the olive angels1 white and rose wings4 ,this part of the picture by itself forms a most beautiful pattern motive1 while it expresses the idea of peace and goodwill4 ,then on the brown and gold thatch of the stable occur three more angels in white1 rose1 and green1 respectively4 ,against a pale sky rise rich olive-green trees1 forming the background4 ,illustration 7f#acf73 ,botticelli3 ,the ,nativity 7,national ,gallery74 ,the ,virgin strikes the brightest ray of colour in red under-robe and sky-blue mantle4 ,there is a gray white ass and a pale brown cow behind her4 ,st4 ,joseph is in steel gray with a golden orange mantle over4 ,the brightest white occurs in the drapery upon which the infant ,christ lies4 ,an angel with a group of men appears1 kneeling on the left relieved against white rocks2 their colours are--the angel's wings--peacock blue and green1 and a pale rose robe4 ,the next figure is in scarlet2 the next yellow2 and the third man wears pale rose over rich grass-green4 ,of the shepherds on the right the first one is in russet and white1 the next steely gray1 and the angel is in white with rose and pale green wings4 ,the ground is generally warm white and brown1 with dark olive-coloured grass and foliage1 so that the pattern of the picture is mainly a ground of olive1 gold1 and white1 relieved by spots of rose1 white1 blue1 yellow1 and rose-red and scarlet--the colour in the groups of angels embracing men in front being the deepest in tone4 ,the first angel in this group 7on the left7 wears green shot with gold1 with shot green and gold wings1 the human being in dark olive and rich crimson red4 ,next is a white angel with pale rose wings2 the man in gray with a red mantle over4 ,last is an angel in rose1 with rose and red wings1 the man being in scarlet with gray mantle over4 ,all the men hold olive branches1 and the group emphatically illustrates the idea of on earth peace and goodwill towards men1 thus ending on the keynote both of colour and idea given in the ring of angels above4 ,thus it is not only a lovely picture1 but an exquisite pattern4 ,holbein ,another instance of a picture-pattern extremely strong and brilliant in its realization of the full force and value of bright colour opposed by the strongest black and white1 may be found in ,holbein's splendid ,ambassadors1 also in our ,national ,collection4 ,illustration 7f#acg73 ,holbein3 ,the ,ambassadors 7,national ,gallery74 ,botticelli ,the circular picture of the ,madonna and ,child1 with ,st4 ,john and an angel1 by ,botticelli1 is also another beautiful instance of pictorial pattern1 and of design well adapted and adequately filling its space1 while full of delicate draughtsmanship1 poetic sentiment1 and extremely ornate in its colour4 ,illustration 7f#ach73 ,botticelli3 ,madonna and ,child 7,national ,gallery74 ,carlo ,crivelli ,still more strictly ornamental in character and aim is ,carlo ,crivelli's ,annunciation4 ,amazingly rich in invention1 and beautifully designed detail1 and magnificently decorative in its colour scheme of brick reds and whites1 and pale pinks and steel grays1 and yellows1 varied with scarlet and black1 green1 blue and gold1 in the costumes and draperies1 sparkling with jewels1 and brightened with rays and patterns of gold4 ,illustration 7f#aci73 ,carlo ,crivelli3 ,the ,annunciation 7,national ,gallery74 ,perugino ,hardly less ornamental in its more conscious grace and ,renaissance feeling is ,perugino's triptych of the ,virgin adoring1 with ,st4 ,michael on one wing and ,st4 ,raphael and ,tobias on the other4 ,it is a splendid deep-toned harmony of blues1 and warm flesh tones and golden hair1 varied by opals1 rose red1 bronze1 green1 white1 and purple and orange4 ,illustration 7f#adj73 ,perugino3 ,the ,virgin in ,adoration1 with ,st4 ,michael and ,st4 ,raphael and ,tobias 7,national ,gallery74 ,titian ,titian's ,bacchus and ,ariadne is1 perhaps1 more what ,i have described as a pattern-picture1 and is of a much later type4 ,the full flush of colour and pagan joy of the ,renaissance is here paramount1 expressed with the masterly freedom of drawing and magnificent colour sense of the great ,venetian master4 ,yet1 looking through the life1 the movement1 the swing and vitality of the figures1 and the power and poetry by which the story is conveyed1 we shall find a fine ornate design1 sustaining an extremely rich and sumptuous pattern of colour4 ,we have a spread of deep-toned blue sky barred with silvery white and gray clouds1 great masses of brown and green foliage swaying against it1 above a band of deep blue sea1 and a field of rich golden brown earth4 ,warm flesh tones1 deep and pale1 break upon this with a gorgeous pattern of flying rose1 blue1 scarlet1 orange1 and white draperies1 varied with the spotted coats of the leopards1 the black of the dog1 and the copper vessel and warm white of tumbled drapery4 ,illustration 7f#ada73 ,titian3 ,bacchus and ,ariadne 7,national ,gallery74 ,keats might have had this picture in his mind when he wrote the song in ,endymion3 ,and as ,i sat1 over the light blue hills ,there came a noise of revellers3 the rills ,into the wide stream came of purple hue4 ',twas ,bacchus and his crew6 ,the earnest trumpet speaks1 and silver thrills ,from kissing cymbals made a merry din-- ',twas ,bacchus and his kin6 ,like to a moving vintage down they came1 ,crowned with green leaves1 and faces all on flame2 ,all madly dancing through the pleasant valley1 ,to scare thee1 ,melancholy6 ,the ,sacred and ,profane ,love of the same painter1 in the ,borghese ,gallery at ,rome1 is an even more splendid example of colour and tone1 and is probably the finest of all ,titian's works4 ,paul ,veronese ,in ,paul ,veronese we find a cooler key of colour generally1 with a fondness for compositions of figures with classical architecture1 the rich patterned robes and varied heads contrasting pleasantly with the severe verticals and smooth surfaces of the marble columns--a sumptuous and dignified kind of picture-pattern1 and fully adapted to the decoration of ,venetian churches and palaces of the ,renaissance4 ,f4 ,madox ,brown ,madox ,brown's ,christ washing ,st4 ,peter's ,feet1 now in the ,tate ,gallery1 is a modern picture-pattern1 and an extremely fine one4 ,these are but a few instances out of many1 and the subject of colour and pattern1 like the expression of line and form1 of which it is a part1 is so large and its sides so multitudinous that to deal with the subject fully and illustrate it adequately would need1 not ten chapters1 but ten hundred1 and could only be compassed by the history of art itself4 ,illustration 7f#adb73 ,madox ,brown3 ,christ ,washing ,st4 ,peter's ,feet 7,tate ,gallery74 ,conclusion ,if anything ,i have said on the subject1 or have been able to show by way of illustration1 has served in any way to clear away obscurities1 or to lighten the labours of students1 or to suggest fresh ideas to the minds of any of my readers in the theory1 history1 or practice of art1 ,i shall feel that my work has not been in vain1 and1 at all events1 ,i can only say that ,i have endeavoured to give here the results of my own thoughts and experience in art4 ,some may look upon art as a means of livelihood only1 a handmaid of commerce1 or as a branch of knowledge1 to be acquired only so far as to enable one to impart it to others2 others may regard it as a polite amusement2 others1 again1 as an absorbing pursuit and passion1 demanding the closest devotion3 but from whatever point of view we may regard it1 do not let us forget that the pursuit of beauty in art offers the best of educations for the faculties1 that its interest continually increases1 and its pleasures and successes are the most refined and satisfying4 ,,index ,adaptability in design1 #abd-abf4 ,animal forms1 use of in design1 #ajf2 governed by inclosing boundaries1 #ajd-ajf1 #aaj-aab4 ,architectural mouldings1 relief in1 #aij4 ,architecture1 spaces for sculpture in1 #aac-aaf4 ,ardebil1 holy carpet of the mosque of1 f#abf4 ,athens1 the ,tower of the ,winds1 #aae-aaf4 ,bari1 #aj2 the ,hundred ,birds of1 f#jdd4 ,birds1 ,japanese drawing of1 #fh1 f#jdd2 decorative treatment of1 f#aae4 ,blake's ,book of ,job1 ,the ,morning ,stars1 #ai1 f#jad1 #aeb4 ,border motives1 recurrence in1 f#jca1 f#jcb1 f#jfb4 ,book decoration1 #eh1 #ei1 #fb2 example of page treatment1 f#jda4 ,botticelli1 frescoes in the ,sistine ,chapel1 #bbf2 rendering of the ,primavera in tapestry1 #bdj2 his ,nativity1 #bgb-bge2 ,madonna and ,child1 #bge-bgf4 ,boundaries1 definition of1 #b1 #c2 use of in designing sprays1 #ch1 f#jbg2 in designing animal forms1 f#jfc;a2 influence of1 #ajh2 relation of design to1 f#jfd2 decorative spacing of figures in geometric1 f#jfc;b1 #aeb-aef4 ,brush-work1 #fe-fh4 ,canterbury1 ,st4 ,margaret ,street1 f#jhf4 ,ceiling decoration1 #acf4 ,charcoal drawing1 #fh1 #gj4 ,chartres1 carving on the ,cathedral1 #aig1 f#ajh1 f#aji4 ,chiaroscuro1 #bfg-bfi4 ,chinese porcelain1 #aja4 ,colour1 effect of texture on1 #bdd2 in stained glass1 #beb2 expression of relief in line and form by1 #bef1 #beh2 radiation of1 #beh2 complements in1 #bfj2 harmony in1 #bfa2 colour sense1 #bfa1 #bfb2 colour proportions1 #bfb2 importance of pure colour1 #bfc4 ,composition1 formal1 #aeb-aef2 informal1 #aeg-afd4 ,constantine1 ,arch of1 sketch of1 f#jfi4 ,contrast in design1 #aja2 use of1 in pattern design1 #aff1 et seq42 principles of1 in black and white1 f#aaa;a4 ,corinthian order1 ,roman treatment of1 #aib1 f#aje4 ,counterbalance1 #dc1 #dd1 #ie1 f#jeg1 f#jeh1 #acj4 ,counterchange1 in heraldry1 #aga-agd4 ,crivelli1 ,the ,annunciation1 #bgf-bgh4 ,cube1 the1 #gc2 use of in architecture1 f#jde;b1 #gg1 f#jdh;a2 in nature1 #gf4 ,dado1 use of the1 #bcd4 ,de ,hooghe1 ,peter1 #bfg4 ,desiderio di ,settignano1 relief work of1 #bjb2 ,madonna and ,child1 at ,south ,kensington1 by1 #bjb4 ,design1 linear basis of1 #ce2 technical influence on1 #eh1 #ei1 #fb2 beauty in1 #fb1 #fc2 influence of material on1 #fd2 quantities in1 #if-aja2 contrast in1 #aja2 living tradition in1 #abf2 adaptability in1 #abd-abf2 extension in1 #abf-aca2 geometric structural plans in1 #acj2 essentials of1 #ach-aci4 ,de ,wint1 brush-work of1 #fh4 ,diaper1 use of in ,middle ,ages1 #aga1 #agd-age4 ,donatello1 relief work of1 #bjb4 ,drapery1 treatment of by the old masters1 f#jii-ahf4 ,drawing in line1 methods of1 #f1 #g2 calligraphic method1 #h2 tentative method1 #i2 ,japanese method1 #aj2 oval and rectangular methods1 f#jjh1 #ab4 ,durer1 ,albert1 his ,geometrica1 #e2 roofs in his engravings1 #adh2 ,the ,prodigal ,son1 f#jhc2 ,st4 ,anthony1 f#jhd2 principle in the treatment of drapery1 f#jii1 f#ajj4 ,egyptian sculpture1 #aib1 #aid-aif4 ,emotion1 linear expression of1 #ah-ba4 ,emphasis1 #ed2 value of1 #ef2 effects of different emphasis1 f#jch1 f#jci1 f#jdj2 in relief of form1 #ahj4 ,equivalents in form1 value of1 #ie1 f#jeg4 ,extension in design1 #abf-aca4 ,figure composition1 #afj2 expression of repose and action in1 f#jij4 ,figure design1 relief in1 #bjd-bjg2 graphic and decorative treatment of1 f#aad4 ,figure designs1 controlled by geometric boundaries1 #aeb-aef4 ,flaxman's ,homer1 designs from1 f#jae4 ,flowers1 lines of characterization in design of1 #ab1 #ac2 forms controlled by inclosing boundaries1 #aaj-aab4 ,foliage1 principles of structure in1 #adc-adf4 ,form1 its relation to line1 #bg2 importance of knowledge of1 #ca2 choice of1 #gc1 #gi2 elementary forms and their relation to forms in nature and art1 #gc-gg2 grouping of1 #hc-hg2 analogies of1 #hi-ia2 typical forms of ornament1 #ib-ie2 equivalents in1 #ie1 f#jeg2 variation of allied forms1 #ajc2 governed by shape of inclosing boundary1 f#jfc;b1 #ajf1 f#jff2 relief of1 #afe1 et seq42 expression of1 by light and shade1 #bje1 f#aab4 ,frieze1 origin of the1 #aac1 #acc2 and field1 #acc-ace2 use of the1 #bcf2 treatment of1 #bdj4 ,fruit forms1 treatment of1 f#jed1 #hi4 ,gems1 engraved1 #bjj4 ,geometric forms1 elementary1 #gc2 structural plans in surface design1 #abh-acc4 ,ghirlandajo1 #bbf4 ,giotto1 ,chastity1 f#aai4 ,gozzoli1 ,benozzo1 #bbf4 ,graphic aim1 the1 in drawing1 #bi-ca1 #bje1 #bjh-baa4 ,grouping of forms1 #hc-hg4 ,holbein1 ,the ,ambassadors1 f#acg4 ,human figure1 use of the1 in design1 #ajd-ajg2 decorative spacing of within geometric boundaries1 #aje-ajf1 #ajg2 governed by inclosing boundaries1 #aaj1 f#jff2 principles of line in1 f#jha;a4 ,indian ornament1 typical1 #bab1 #baf2 printed cotton designs1 #bdf1 f#acj4 ,inlay work1 choice of forms for1 #ha-hc4 ,japanese method of drawing with the brush1 #aj1 #fh2 diagonal pattern1 f#jec2 colour prints1 #bff4 ,keene1 ,charles1 #aij4 ,landscape1 expression of storm and calm in1 #aeh1 f#jhi4 ,lead pencil1 #gj4 ,letters1 formation of1 #d2 ,durer's method1 f#jje;a4 ,line1 methods of drawing in1 #f-ab2 quality of1 #ab-ad2 the language of1 #bc2 comparison of style in1 #bd2 scale of degrees and qualities of1 #bd1 #be2 its relation to form1 #bg2 question and answer in1 #ce1 f#jbe2 recurring1 f#jca1 f#jcb2 radiating principle of1 #df-ej2 range and use of1 #dg-di2 choice of1 #ea2 degree and emphasis of1 #ed2 influence of technical conditions on1 #eh-fb2 controlling influence of1 as a boundary of design1 #ajf1 #ajh-aac2 value of recurring1 #aai-abd2 combinations of1 #aci2 principles of structural and ornamental line1 #adj-ade2 selection of1 f#aag;a1 f#aag;b4 ,linear expression1 of movement1 #ae1 #af1 #ag2 of textures and surfaces1 #ah1 #ai2 of emotion1 #ai1 #bj1 f#jae2 scale of1 #ba2 power of1 #aeh1 #afj2 of fur and feathers1 #bjh1 f#aac4 ,linear motives and pattern bases1 simple1 #aji-aaa4 ,lippi1 ,filippino1 study of drapery by1 f#aja4 ,lorenzo di ,credi1 #bbf4 ,lysicrates1 monument of1 #acc4 ,madox ,brown1 ,ford1 mural painting at ,manchester1 #bbf1 #bbg2 ,christ washing ,peter's feet1 #bhj1 f#adb4 ,mantling1 treatment of1 #agj-agc4 ,medals1 #bjj1 f#aaj4 ,memory1 importance of1 in design1 #ci4 ,michael ,angelo1 ceiling of the ,sistine ,chapel1 #bbe4 ,modelling1 principle of relief in1 #aib4 ,montague1 mantling from ,garter plate of1 f#jid;b4 ,morris1 ,william1 tapestry of1 #bcf1 #bdj4 ,movement1 linear expression of1 #ae-ag2 lines of1 in a procession1 f#jia;a2 in a dancing figure1 f#aag;a2 in water1 f#aah;b4 ,mural decoration1 #bbd1 #bbe2 diagram of systems of line governing1 f#aba2 scale in1 #bcj2 choice of line and form in1 #bcf4 ,nauplia1 ,gulf of1 coast and mountain lines1 f#jjd1 f#aah;a4 ,nerva1 ,forum of1 #aib1 f#aje4 ,nuremberg1 ceiling in the ,castle of1 #acf1 #acg4 ,olive branch1 study of from nature1 f#jbj2 decorative treatment of1 f#jba4 ,ornament1 typical forms of1 #ib-id4 ,ornamental purpose1 the1 in drawing1 #bi1 #ca-cc1 #baj1 et seq4 ,ornamental units1 #id2 use of intervals in repeating1 f#jfe4 ,outline1 origin and function of1 #a4 ,parthenon1 the frieze of the1 #df2 sketch of1 f#jfg4 ,pattern and picture1 difference between1 #bfe2 pattern-pictures1 #bgb4 ,pen1 the1 compared with brush and pencil1 #ga4 ,pencil drawing1 #gj1 #ga4 ,persian carpets1 principle of design in1 #bdb2 treatment of borders in1 f#abg2 white outline in1 #bfj4 ,persian ornament1 typical1 #bab1 f#aaf4 ,persian rugs1 value of different quantities in1 #ih-aja4 ,perugino1 ,national ,gallery triptych1 f#adj4 ,photograph1 influence of the1 #ee1 #ef2 principle of the1 #ahg1 #aij4 ,picture writing1 #bg1 f#jai4 ,pinturicchio1 frescoes in the ,sistine ,chapel1 #bbf2 mural painting at ,siena1 #bbf1 f#abj2 frescoes in the ,appartimenti ,borgia1 #bch1 f#abe4 ,pisano1 ,vittore1 medals of1 #aih1 f#aaj4 ,poppy1 horned study of1 f#jbb2 adaptation of for needlework1 f#jbc2 sketch of on different coloured grounds1 f#acb1 #beh4 ,prints1 principles of design for1 #bdf-bea4 ,procession1 lines of movement in a1 #afj1 #afb-afc4 ,pyramid1 the1 #gc2 use of in architecture1 f#jde;b1 f#jdh;a4 ,radiating principle of line1 the1 #df-ej4 ,raphael1 study of drapery by1 f#ajb4 ,ravenna1 ,s4 ,vitale1 sketch of apse1 f#jgj4 ,recurring line and form1 f#jca1 f#jcb2 value of in architecture1 #aai1 #abd4 ,relief1 methods of expressing1 #afe2 use of contrast1 #aff2 decorative relief1 #aga2 on diapered ground1 #agd-age2 by simple linear contrasts1 #agd1 #agf-agh2 by linear shading1 #agf1 #agh2 by diagonal shading1 #agf1 #agh-ahj2 value of emphasis in1 #ahj2 by light and shade alone1 #ahg-aij2 principle of in architectural mouldings1 #aij2 modelled1 #aib2 in sculpture1 #aib-aii1 f#aji2 ,florentine fifteenth-century work1 #bjb2 natural principle of1 #bjd1 f#aaa;b2 by colour1 #bef1 #beh4 ,repeating patterns1 #cf1 f#jbf1 f#jgg;b1 f#jgh2 method of testing1 #ch1 f#jbh4 ,rhythm of design1 the1 #cb4 ,roofs1 ,german1 #adf-adh4 ,rothenburg1 roof-lines in1 f#jhe4 ,st4 ,david's ,cathedral1 carvings in1 #abb-abd2 ,gothic tile pattern in1 f#jgd1 f#jgf4 ,scale1 importance of in mural decoration1 #bcj1 #bcb4 ,sculpture1 relief in1 #aib2 ,egyptian1 #aib1 #aid2 ,grecian1 #aid1 f#ajg1 #aig2 ,gothics1 #aig2 on mediaeval tombs1 #aih4 ,selection1 the test of artistic treatment1 #bad4 ,shields1 ,f4 ,j41 mural decoration1 #bbh4 ,silhouette1 #b1 f#jaj;a4 ,skirting1 the1 #bcd4 ,spaces1 decorative1 in design1 #aac2 apparent depth or width increased by use of vertical or horizontal lines1 #bcb1 f#abb4 ,spacing1 mural1 #bcj1 f#aba1 f#abc4 ,sphere1 the1 #gc2 use of in architecture1 f#jde;b1 f#jdh;a2 in nature1 #gf4 ,stained glass1 principles of design for1 #beb1 #bee4 ,surfaces1 linear expression of1 #ah4 ,tapestry1 #bcg2 ,burgundian1 #bcg1 f#abd2 effect of texture on colour in1 #bdd1 f#abh4 ,technical influence1 the1 #eh-fb4 ,textile designing1 #fb2 examples of1 f#jda;b2 value of different qualities in1 #ig-aja2 principles of1 #bda1 #bdb2 colour in1 #bdd4 ,textures1 linear expression of1 #ah4 ,thebes1 sculptured relief at1 f#ajf4 ,titian1 ,bacchus and ,ariadne1 #bgh-bhj2 ,sacred and ,profane ,love1 #bhj4 ,tivoli1 ,temple of the ,sibyls at1 #acc4 ,trees1 effect of wind upon1 f#jaa2 general principles of line and form in foliage1 etc41 #adc-ade4 ,typical treatment1 #ca2 ornament1 #ib-ie4 ,valence1 ,aymer de1 tomb of1 f#jid;a4 ,van ,eyck1 ,jan ,arnolfini and his ,wife1 #bfg1 f#acd1 #bgj1 #bga4 ,variation of allied forms1 #ajc4 ,variety in design1 #dj4 ,ver ,meer1 ,lady at ,spinet1 f#ace1 #bgj1 #bgb4 ,veronese1 ,paul1 #bhj4 ,visch1 ,martin de1 brass of1 f#jid;b1 f#jie4 ,walberswick ,church1 f#jgb4 ,walker1 ,frederick1 #aij4 ,wall1 decorative spacing of the1 #bcd1 f#abc4 ,wall-paper1 principles of design for1 #cf1 f#jbf1 #bdf2 relation between frieze and field in1 #acc1 #acd4 ,water1 lines of movement in1 f#aah;b4 ,watercourse1 lines left by a1 f#jia;b4 ,wave lines1 f#jaa1 f#jab4 ,westminster1 vaulting of chapter house1 f#jce4 ,winchelsea1 tomb of ,gervaise-,alard1 f#jga4 ,,chiswick ,,press3 ,,printed ,,by ,,charles ,,whittingham ,,and ,,co4 ,,tooks ,,court1 ,,chancery ,,lane1 ,,london4