,,! ,,analysis ,,( ,,m9d ,by ,b]tr& ,russell #aiba ,,muirhead ,,libr>y ,,( ,,philosophy ,an admirable /atem5t ( ! aims ( ! ,libr>y ( ,philosophy 0 provid$ by ! fir/ editor1 ! late ,pr(essor ,j4 ,h4 ,muirhead1 9 8 description ( ! orig9al programme pr9t$ 9 ,erdmann's ,hi/ory ( ,philosophy "u ! date #ahij4 ,?is 0 slightly modifi$ 9 subsequ5t volumes to take ! =m ( ! foll[+ /atem5t3 ,! ,muirhead ,libr>y ( ,philosophy 0 design$ z a contribution to ! ,hi/ory ( ,mod]n ,philosophy "u ! heads3 fir/ ( ,diff]5t ,s*ools ( ,?\ght--,s5sationali/1 ,reali/1 ,ideali/1 ,intuitivi/2 secondly ( diff]5t ,subjects--,psy*ology1 ,e?ics1 ,ae/hetics1 ,political ,philosophy1 ,!ology4 ,:ile mu* _h be5 done 9 ,engl& 9 trac+ ! c\rse ( evolution 9 nature1 hi/ory1 economics1 morals & religion1 little _h be5 done 9 trac+ ! developm5t ( ?\ght on ^! subjects4 ,yet '! evolution ( op9ion is "p ( ! :ole evolution'4 ,by ! co-op]ation ( diff]5t writ]s 9 c>ry+ out ?is plan x 0 hop$ t a ?or\ghness & complet5ess ( treatm5t1 o!rwise unatta9able1 might be secur$4 ,x 0 believ$ also t f writ]s ma9ly ,briti% & ,am]ican full] consid]ation ( ,engli% ,philosophy ?an x _h hi!rto receiv$ might be look$ =4 ,9 ! e>li] s]ies ( books conta9+1 among o!rs1 ,bosanquet's ,hi/ory ( ,ae/hetic1 ,pfleid]]'s ,rational ,!ology s9ce ,kant1 ,albee's ,hi/ory ( ,engli% ,utilit>ianism1 ,bon>'s ,philosophy & ,political ,economy1 ,brett's ,hi/ory ( ,psy*ology1 ,rit*ie's ,natural ,rights1 ^! objects 7 to a l>ge ext5t effect$4 ,9 ! meantime orig9al "w ( a high ord] 0 be+ produc$ bo? 9 ,engl& & ,am]ica by su* writ]s z ,bradley1 ,/\t1 ,b]tr& ,russell1 ,baldw91 ,urban1 ,montague1 & o!rs1 & a new int]e/ 9 =eign works1 ,g]man1 ,fr5* & ,italian1 :i* _h ei!r become classical or 7 attract+ public att5tion1 _h develop$4 ,! scope ( ! ,libr>y ?us became ext5d$ into some?+ m int]national1 & x is ent]+ on ! fif? decade ( its exi/5ce 9 ! hope t x may contribute to t mutual und]/&+ betwe5 c\ntries :i* is s press+ a ne$ ( ! pres5t "t4 ,! ne$ :i* ,pr(essor ,muirhead /ress$ is no less press+ to-day1 & few w d5y t philosophy has mu* to d ) enabl+ u to meet x1 al?\gh no "o1 lea/ ( all ,muirhead himself1 w\ld reg>d t z ! sole1 or ev5 ! ma91 object ( philosophy4 ,z ,pr(essor ,muirhead cont9ues to l5d ! di/9ction ( 8 "n to ! ,libr>y ( ,philosophy x seem$ n inappropriate to all[ him to recall u to ^! aims 9 8 own words4 ,! emphasis on ! hi/ory ( ?\ght also seem$ to me v timely2 & ! numb] ( important works promis$ = ! ,libr>y 9 ! v ne> future augur well = ! cont9u$ fulfilm5t1 9 ?is & o!r ways1 ( ! expectations ( ! orig9al editor4 ,h4 ,d4 ,lewis ,,preface ,?is book has gr[n out ( an attempt to h>monize two diff]5t t5d5cies1 "o 9 psy*ology1 ! o!r 9 physics1 ) bo? ( :i* ,i f9d myself 9 sympa?y1 al?\gh at fir/ sight !y might seem inconsi/5t4 ,on ! "o h&1 _m psy*ologi/s1 especially ^? ( ! behavi\ri/ s*ool1 t5d to adopt :at is ess5tially a mat]iali/ic position1 z a matt] ( me?od if n ( metaphysics4 ,!y make psy*ology increas+ly dep5d5t on physiology & ext]nal obs]vation1 & t5d to ?9k ( matt] z some?+ mu* m solid & indubitable ?an m9d4 ,mean:ile ! physici/s1 especially ,e9/e9 & o!r expon5ts ( ! !ory ( relativity1 h be5 mak+ matt] less & less mat]ial4 ,_! _w consi/s ( ev5ts1 f :i* matt] is d]iv$ by a logical con/ruction4 ,:oev] reads1 = example1 ,pr(essor ,edd+ton's ,space1 ,"t & ,gravitation 7,cambridge ,univ]sity ,press1 #aibj71 w see t an old-fa%ion$ mat]ialism c receive no support f mod]n physics4 ,i ?9k t :at has p]man5t value 9 ! outlook ( ! behavi\ri/s is ! feel+ t physics is ! mo/ fundam5tal sci5ce at pres5t 9 exi/5ce4 ,b ?is position _c be call$ mat]iali/ic1 if1 z seems to be ! case1 physics does n assume ! exi/5ce ( matt]4 ,! view t seems to me to reconcile ! mat]iali/ic t5d5cy ( psy*ology ) ! anti-mat]iali/ic t5d5cy ( physics is ! view ( ,william ,james & ! ,am]ican new reali/s1 accord+ to :i* ! /uff ( ! _w is nei!r m5tal nor mat]ial1 b a neutral /uff1 out ( :i* bo? are con/ruct$4 ,i h endeav\r$ 9 ?is "w to develop ?is view 9 "s detail z reg>ds ! ph5om5a ) :i* psy*ology is conc]n$4 ,my ?anks are due to ,pr(essor ,john ,b4 ,watson & to ,dr4 ,t4 ,p4 ,nunn = read+ my ,,mss4 at an e>ly /age & help+ me ) _m valuable sugge/ions2 also to ,mr4 ,a4 ,wohlgemu? = mu* v useful in=mation z reg>ds important lit]ature4 ,i h also to ackn[l$ge ! help ( ! editor ( ?is ,libr>y ( ,philosophy1 ,pr(essor ,muirhead1 = sev]al sugge/ions by :i* ,i h pr(it$4 ,! "w has be5 giv5 9 ! =m ( lectures bo? 9 ,london & ,pek+1 & "o lecture1 t on ,desire1 has be5 publi%$ 9 ! ,a!naeum4 ,!re are a few allusions to ,*9a 9 ?is book1 all ( :i* 7 writt5 be=e ,i _h be5 9 ,*9a1 & are n int5d$ to be tak5 by ! read] z geographically accurate4 ,i h us$ ,*9a m]ely z a synonym = a di/ant c\ntry1 :5 ,i want$ illu/rations ( unfamili> ?+s4 ,pek+1 ,janu>y #aiba4 ,,cont5ts ,i4 ,rec5t ,criticisms ( ,consci\sness ,,ii4 ,in/9ct & ,habit ,,iii4 ,desire & ,feel+ ,,iv4 ,influ5ce ( ,pa/ ,hi/ory on ,pres5t ,occurr5ces 9 ,liv+ ,organisms ,v4 ,psy*ological & ,physical ,causal ,laws ,,vi4 ,introspection ,,vii4 ,! ,def9ition ( ,p]ception ,,viii4,s5sations & ,images ,,ix4 ,memory ,x4 ,words & ,mean+ ,,xi4 ,g5]al ,ideas & ,?\ght ,,xii4 ,belief ,,xiii4,tru? & ,falsehood ,,xiv4 ,emotions & ,w ,,xv4 ,*>act]i/ics ( ,m5tal ,ph5om5a ,,! ,,analysis ,,( ,,m9d ,,lecture ,i4 ,,rec5t ,,criticisms ,,( ,,consci\sness ,!re are c]ta9 occurr5ces :i* we are 9 ! habit ( call+ m5tal4 ,among ^! we may take z typical ,,believ+ & ,,desir+4 ,! exact def9ition ( ! ^w m5tal w1 ,i hope1 em]ge z ! lectures proce$2 = ! pres5t1 ,i %all mean by x :atev] occurr5ces w\ld commonly be call$ m5tal4 ,i wi% 9 ^! lectures to analyse z fully z ,i c :at x is t really takes place :5 we1 e4g4 believe or desire4 ,9 ?is fir/ lecture ,i %all be conc]n$ to refute a !ory :i* is widely held1 & :i* ,i =m]ly held myself3 ! !ory t ! ess5ce ( ev]y?+ m5tal is a c]ta9 q peculi> some?+ call$ consci\sness1 conceiv$ ei!r z a relation to objects1 or z a p]vad+ quality ( psy*ical ph5om5a4 ,! reasons :i* ,i %all give aga9/ ?is !ory w be ma9ly d]iv$ f previ\s au?ors4 ,!re are two sorts ( reasons1 :i* w divide my lecture into two p>ts3 7#a7 ,direct reasons1 d]iv$ f analysis & its difficulties2 7#b7 ,indirect reasons1 d]iv$ f obs]vation ( animals 7comp>ative psy*ology7 & ( ! insane & hy/]ical 7psy*o-analysis74 ,few ?+s are m firmly e/abli%$ 9 popul> philosophy ?an ! di/9ction betwe5 m9d & matt]4 ,^? :o are n pr(essional metaphysicians are will+ to confess t !y d n "k :at m9d actually is1 or h[ matt] is con/itut$2 b !y rema9 conv9c$ t !re is an impassable gulf betwe5 ! two1 & t bo? belong to :at actually exi/s 9 ! _w4 ,philosoph]s1 on ! o!r h&1 h ma9ta9$ (t5 t matt] is a m]e fiction imag9$ by m9d1 & sometimes t m9d is a m]e prop]ty ( a c]ta9 k9d ( matt]4 ,^? :o ma9ta9 t m9d is ! reality & matt] an evil dream are call$ ideali/s--a ^w :i* has a diff]5t mean+ 9 philosophy f t :i* x be>s 9 ord9>y life4 ,^? :o argue t matt] is ! reality & m9d a m]e prop]ty ( protoplasm are call$ mat]iali/s4 ,!y h be5 r>e among philosoph]s1 b common1 at c]ta9 p]iods1 among m5 ( sci5ce4 ,ideali/s1 mat]iali/s1 & ord9>y mortals h be5 9 agreem5t on "o po9t3 t !y knew suffici5tly :at !y meant by ! words m9d & matt] to be able to conduct _! debate intellig5tly4 ,yet x 0 j 9 ?is po9t1 z to :i* !y 7 at "o1 t !y seem to me to h be5 all alike 9 error4 ,! /uff ( :i* ! _w ( our exp]i5ce is compos$ is1 9 my belief1 nei!r m9d nor matt]1 b some?+ m primitive ?an ei!r4 ,bo? m9d & matt] seem to be composite1 & ! /uff ( :i* !y are comp\nd$ lies 9 a s5se betwe5 ! two1 9 a s5se above !m bo?1 l a common ance/or4 ,z reg>ds matt]1 ,i h set =? my reasons = ?is view on =m] occasions199 & ,i %all n n[ repeat !m4 ,b ! "q ( m9d is m difficult1 & x is ?is "q t ,i propose to discuss 9 ^! lectures4 ,a great deal ( :at ,i %all h to say is n orig9al2 inde$1 mu* rec5t "w1 9 v>i\s fields1 has t5d$ to %[ ! necessity ( su* !ories z ^? :i* ,i %all be advocat+4 ,accord+ly 9 ?is fir/ lecture ,i %all try to give a brief description ( ! sy/ems ( ideas )9 :i* our inve/igation is to be c>ri$ on4 99 ,our ,k ( ! ,ext]nal ,_w 7,all5 ,unw971 ,*apt]s ,,iii & ,,iv4 ,also ,my/icism & ,logic1 ,essays ,,vii & ,,viii4 ,if !re is "o ?+ t may be said1 9 ! popul> e/imation1 to *>act]ize m9d1 t "o ?+ is consci\sness4 ,we say t we are consci\s ( :at we see & he>1 ( :at we rememb]1 & ( our own ?\ghts & feel+s4 ,mo/ ( u believe t tables & *airs are n consci\s4 ,we ?9k t :5 we sit 9 a *air1 we are aw>e ( sitt+ 9 x1 b x is n aw>e ( be+ sat 94 ,x _c = a mom5t be d\bt$ t we are "r 9 believ+ t !re is ,,"s diff]5ce betwe5 u & ! *air 9 ?is respect3 s mu* may be tak5 z fact1 & z a datum = our inquiry4 ,b z soon z we try to say :at exactly ! diff]5ce is1 we become involv$ 9 p]plexities4 ,is consci\sness ultimate & simple1 some?+ to be m]ely accept$ & contemplat$8 ,or is x some?+ complex1 p]haps consi/+ 9 our way ( behav+ 9 ! pres5ce ( objects1 or1 alt]natively1 9 ! exi/5ce 9 u ( ?+s call$ ideas1 hav+ a c]ta9 relation to objects1 ?\gh diff]5t f !m1 & only symbolically repres5tative ( !m8 ,su* que/ions are n easy to answ]2 b until !y are answ]$ we _c pr(ess to "k :at we mean by say+ t we are possess$ ( consci\sness4 ,be=e consid]+ mod]n !ories1 let u look fir/ at consci\sness f ! /&po9t ( conv5tional psy*ology1 s9ce ?is embodies views :i* naturally occur :5 we beg9 to reflect ^u ! subject4 ,= ?is purpose1 let u z a prelim9>y consid] diff]5t ways ( be+ consci\s4 ,fir/1 !re is ! way ( ,,p]ception4 ,we p]ceive tables & *airs1 horses & dogs1 our fri5ds1 traffic pass+ 9 ! /reet--9 %ort1 any?+ :i* we recognize ?r\gh ! s5ses4 ,i leave on "o side = ! pres5t ! "q :e!r pure s5sation is to be reg>d$ z a =m ( consci\sness3 :at ,i am speak+ ( n[ is p]ception1 :]e1 accord+ to conv5tional psy*ology1 we g beyond ! s5sation to ! ?+ :i* x repres5ts4 ,:5 y he> a donkey bray1 y n only he> a noise1 b realize t x comes f a donkey4 ,:5 y see a table1 y n only see a col\r$ surface1 b realize t x is h>d4 ,! addition ( ^! elem5ts t g beyond crude s5sation is said to con/itute p]ception4 ,we %all h m to say ab\t ?is at a lat] /age4 ,= ! mom5t1 ,i am m]ely conc]n$ to note t p]ception ( objects is "o ( ! mo/ obvi\s examples ( :at is call$ consci\sness4 ,we are consci\s ( any?+ t we p]ceive4 ,we may take next ! way ( ,,memory4 ,if ,i set to "w to recall :at ,i did ?is morn+1 t is a =m ( consci\sness diff]5t f p]ception1 s9ce x is conc]n$ ) ! pa/4 ,!re are v>i\s problems z to h[ we c be consci\s n[ ( :at no long] exi/s4 ,^! w be dealt ) incid5tally :5 we come to ! analysis ( memory4 ,f memory x is an easy /ep to :at are call$ ideas--n 9 ! ,platonic s5se1 b 9 t ( ,locke1 ,b]keley & ,hume1 9 :i* !y are oppos$ to impressions4 ,y may be consci\s ( a fri5d ei!r by see+ him or by ?9k+ ( him2 & by ?\ght y c be consci\s ( objects :i* _c be se51 su* z ! human race1 or physiology4 ,?\ght 9 ! n>r[] s5se is t =m ( consci\sness :i* consi/s 9 ideas z oppos$ to impressions or m]e memories4 ,we may end our prelim9>y catalogue ) ,,belief1 by :i* ,i mean t way ( be+ consci\s :i* may be ei!r true or false4 ,we say t a man is consci\s ( look+ a fool1 by :i* we mean t he believes he looks a fool1 & is n mi/ak5 9 ?is belief4 ,?is is a diff]5t =m ( consci\sness f any ( ! e>li] ones4 ,x is ! =m :i* gives k 9 ! /rict s5se1 & also error4 ,x is1 at lea/ app>5tly1 m complex ?an our previ\s =ms ( consci\sness2 ?\gh we %all f9d t !y are n s sep>able f x z !y might appe> to be4 ,besides ways ( be+ consci\s !re are o!r ?+s t w\ld ord9>ily be call$ m5tal1 su* z desire & pleasure & pa94 ,^! raise problems ( _! own1 :i* we %all rea* 9 ,lecture ,,iii4 ,b ! h>de/ problems are ^? t arise conc]n+ ways ( be+ consci\s4 ,^! ways1 tak5 toge!r1 are call$ ! cognitive elem5ts 9 m9d1 & x is ^! t w occupy u mo/ dur+ ! foll[+ lectures4 ,!re is "o elem5t :i* ,,seems obvi\sly 9 common among ! diff]5t ways ( be+ consci\s1 & t is1 t !y are all direct$ to ,,objects4 ,we are consci\s ( some?+4 ,! consci\sness1 x seems1 is "o ?+1 & t ( :i* we are consci\s is ano!r ?+4 ,unless we are to acquiesce 9 ! view t we c nev] be consci\s ( any?+ outside our own m9ds1 we mu/ say t ! object ( consci\sness ne$ n be m5tal1 ?\gh ! consci\sness mu/ be4 7,i am speak+ )9 ! circle ( conv5tional doctr9es1 n express+ my own beliefs47 ,?is direction t[>ds an object is commonly reg>d$ z typical ( e =m ( cognition1 & sometimes ( m5tal life altoge!r4 ,we may di/+ui% two diff]5t t5d5cies 9 traditional psy*ology4 ,!re are ^? :o take m5tal ph5om5a naively1 j z !y w\ld physical ph5om5a4 ,?is s*ool ( psy*ologi/s t5ds n to emphasize ! object4 ,on ! o!r h&1 !re are ^? ^: prim>y int]e/ is 9 ! app>5t fact t we h ,,k1 t !re is a _w surr\nd+ u ( :i* we are aw>e4 ,^! m5 are int]e/$ 9 ! m9d because ( its relation to ! _w1 because k1 if x is a fact1 is a v my/]i\s "o4 ,_! int]e/ 9 psy*ology is naturally c5tr$ 9 ! relation ( consci\sness to its object1 a problem :i*1 prop]ly1 belongs r to !ory ( k4 ,we may take z "o ( ! be/ & mo/ typical repres5tatives ( ?is s*ool ! ,au/rian psy*ologi/ ,br5tano1 ^: ,psy*ology f ! ,empirical ,/&po9t199 ?\gh publi%$ 9 #ahgd1 is /ill influ5tial & 0 ! />t+-po9t ( a great deal ( int]e/+ "w4 ,he says 7p4 #aae73 99 ,psy*ologie vom empiris*5 ,/&punkte1 vol4 i1 #ahgd4 7,! second volume 0 nev] publi%$47 ,e psy*ical ph5om5on is *>act]iz$ by :at ! s*ola/ics ( ! ,middle ,ages call$ ! int5tional 7also ! m5tal7 inexi/5ce ( an object1 & :at we1 al?\gh ) n q unambigu\s expressions1 w\ld call relation to a cont5t1 direction t[>ds an object 7:i* is n "h to be und]/ood z a reality71 or imman5t objectivity4 ,ea* conta9s some?+ 9 itself z an object1 ?\gh n ea* 9 ! same way4 ,9 pres5tation some?+ is pres5t$1 9 judgm5t some?+ is ackn[l$g$ or reject$1 9 love some?+ is lov$1 9 hatr$ hat$1 9 desire desir$1 & s on4 ,?is int5tional inexi/5ce is exclusively peculi> to psy*ical ph5om5a4 ,no physical ph5om5on %[s any?+ simil>4 ,& s we c def9e psy*ical ph5om5a by say+ t !y are ph5om5a :i* int5tionally conta9 an object 9 !mselves4 ,! view "h express$1 t relation to an object is an ultimate irr$ucible *>act]i/ic ( m5tal ph5om5a1 is "o :i* ,i %all be conc]n$ to combat4 ,l ,br5tano1 ,i am int]e/$ 9 psy*ology1 n s mu* = its own sake1 z = ! light t x may ?r[ on ! problem ( k4 ,until v lately ,i believ$1 z he did1 t m5tal ph5om5a h ess5tial ref]5ce to objects1 except possibly 9 ! case ( pleasure & pa94 ,n[ ,i no long] believe ?is1 ev5 9 ! case ( k4 ,i %all try to make my reasons = ?is rejection cle> z we proce$4 ,x mu/ be evid5t at fir/ glance t ! analysis ( k is r5d]$ m difficult by ! rejection2 b ! app>5t simplicity ( ,br5tano's view ( k w be f\nd1 if ,i am n mi/ak51 incapable ( ma9ta9+ itself ei!r aga9/ an analytic scrut9y or aga9/ a ho/ ( facts 9 psy*o-analysis & animal psy*ology4 ,i d n wi% to m9imize ! problems4 ,i w m]ely obs]ve1 9 mitigation ( our prospective lab\rs1 t ?9k+1 h[ev] x is to be analys$1 is 9 itself a delightful occupation1 & t !re is no enemy to ?9k+ s deadly z a false simplicity4 ,travell+1 :e!r 9 ! m5tal or ! physical _w1 is a joy1 & x is good to "k t1 9 ! m5tal _w at lea/1 !re are va/ c\ntries /ill v imp]fectly explor$4 ,! view express$ by ,br5tano has be5 held v g5]ally1 & develop$ by _m writ]s4 ,among ^! we may take z an example 8 ,au/rian successor ,me9ong499 ,accord+ to him !re are ?ree elem5ts involv$ 9 ! ?\ght ( an object4 ,^! ?ree he calls ! act1 ! cont5t & ! object4 ,! act is ! same 9 any two cases ( ! same k9d ( consci\sness2 = in/ance1 if ,i ?9k ( ,smi? or ?9k ( ,br[n1 ! act ( ?9k+1 9 itself1 is exactly simil> on bo? occasions4 ,b ! cont5t ( my ?\ght1 ! p>ticul> ev5t t is happ5+ 9 my m9d1 is diff]5t :5 ,i ?9k ( ,smi? & :5 ,i ?9k ( ,br[n4 ,! cont5t1 ,me9ong argues1 mu/ n be conf\nd$ ) ! object1 s9ce ! cont5t mu/ exi/ 9 my m9d at ! mom5t :5 ,i h ! ?\ght1 :]eas ! object ne$ n d s4 ,! object may be some?+ pa/ or future2 x may be physical1 n m5tal2 x may be some?+ ab/ract1 l equality = example2 x may be some?+ imag9>y1 l a gold5 m\nta92 or x may ev5 be some?+ self-contradictory1 l a r\nd squ>e4 ,b 9 all ^! cases1 s he cont5ds1 ! cont5t exi/s :5 ! ?\ght exi/s1 & is :at di/+ui%es x1 z an occurr5ce1 f o!r ?\ghts4 99 ,see1 e4g4 8 article3 ,ueb] ,geg5/&e hoh]] ,ordnung und d]5 ,v]haltniss zur inn]5 ,wahrnehmung1 ,zeits*rift fur ,psy*ologie & ,physiologie d] ,s9nesorgane1 vol4 xxi1 pp4 #ahb-bgb 7#ahii71 especially pp4 #ahe-h4 ,to make ?is !ory concrete1 let u suppose t y are ?9k+ ( ,/4 ,paul's4 ,!n1 accord+ to ,me9ong1 we h to di/+ui% ?ree elem5ts :i* are necess>ily comb9$ 9 con/itut+ ! "o ?\ght4 ,fir/1 !re is ! act ( ?9k+1 :i* w\ld be j ! same :atev] y 7 ?9k+ ab\t4 ,!n !re is :at makes ! "* ( ! ?\ght z contra/$ ) o!r ?\ghts2 ?is is ! cont5t4 ,& f9ally !re is ,/4 ,paul's1 :i* is ! object ( y\r ?\ght4 ,!re mu/ be a diff]5ce betwe5 ! cont5t ( a ?\ght & :at x is ab\t1 s9ce ! ?\ght is "h & n[1 :]eas :at x is ab\t may n be2 h5ce x is cle> t ! ?\ght is n id5tical ) ,/4 ,paul's4 ,?is seems to %[ t we mu/ di/+ui% betwe5 cont5t & object4 ,b if ,me9ong is "r1 !re c be no ?\ght )\t an object3 ! connection ( ! two is ess5tial4 ,! object might exi/ )\t ! ?\ght1 b n ! ?\ght )\t ! object3 ! ?ree elem5ts ( act1 cont5t & object are all requir$ to con/itute ! "o s+le occurr5ce call$ ?9k+ ( ,/4 ,paul's4 ,! above analysis ( a ?\ght1 ?\gh ,i believe x to be mi/ak51 is v useful z af=d+ a s*ema 9 t]ms ( :i* o!r !ories c be /at$4 ,9 ! rema9d] ( ! pres5t lecture ,i %all /ate 9 outl9e ! view :i* ,i advocate1 & %[ h[ v>i\s o!r views out ( :i* m9e has gr[n result f modifications ( ! ?reefold analysis into act1 cont5t & object4 ,! fir/ criticism ,i h to make is t ! ,,act seems unnecess>y & fictiti\s4 ,! occurr5ce ( ! cont5t ( a ?\ght con/itutes ! occurr5ce ( ! ?\ght4 ,empirically1 ,i _c discov] any?+ correspond+ to ! suppos$ act2 & !oretically ,i _c see t x is indisp5sable4 ,we say3 ,i ?9k s-&-s1 & ?is ^w ,i sugge/s t ?9k+ is ! act ( a p]son4 ,me9ong's act is ! gho/ ( ! subject1 or :at once 0 ! full-blood$ s\l4 ,x is suppos$ t ?\ghts _c j come & g1 b ne$ a p]son to ?9k !m4 ,n[1 ( c\rse x is true t ?\ghts c be collect$ into bundles1 s t "o bundle is my ?\ghts1 ano!r is y\r ?\ghts1 & a ?ird is ! ?\ghts ( ,mr4 ,jones4 ,b ,i ?9k ! p]son is n an +r$i5t 9 ! s+le ?\ght3 he is r con/itut$ by relations ( ! ?\ghts to ea* o!r & to ! body4 ,?is is a l>ge "q1 :i* ne$ n1 9 its entirety1 conc]n u at pres5t4 ,all t ,i am conc]n$ ) = ! mom5t is t ! grammatical =ms ,i ?9k1 y ?9k1 & ,mr4 ,jones ?9ks1 are mislead+ if reg>d$ z indicat+ an analysis ( a s+le ?\ght4 ,x w\ld be bett] to say x ?9ks 9 me1 l x ra9s "h2 or bett] /ill1 !re is a ?\ght 9 me4 ,?is is simply on ! gr\nd t :at ,me9ong calls ! act 9 ?9k+ is n empirically discov]able1 or logically d$ucible f :at we c obs]ve4 ,! next po9t ( criticism conc]ns ! relation ( cont5t & object4 ,! ref]5ce ( ?\ghts to objects is n1 ,i believe1 ! simple direct ess5tial ?+ t ,br5tano & ,me9ong repres5t x z be+4 ,x seems to me to be d]ivative1 & to consi/ l>gely 9 ,,beliefs3 beliefs t :at con/itutes ! ?\ght is connect$ ) v>i\s o!r elem5ts :i* toge!r make up ! object4 ,y h1 say1 an image ( ,/4 ,paul's1 or m]ely ! ^w ,/4 ,paul's 9 y\r head4 ,y believe1 h[ev] vaguely & dimly1 t ?is is connect$ ) :at y w\ld see if y w5t to ,/4 ,paul's1 or :at y w\ld feel if y t\*$ its walls2 x is fur!r connect$ ) :at o!r p see & feel1 ) s]vices & ! ,dean & ,*apt] & ,sir ,*ri/oph] ,wr54 ,^! ?+s are n m]e ?\ghts ( y\rs1 b y\r ?\ght /&s 9 a relation to !m ( :i* y are m or less aw>e4 ,! aw>5ess ( ?is relation is a fur!r ?\ght1 & con/itutes y\r feel+ t ! orig9al ?\ght _h an object4 ,b 9 pure imag9ation y c get v simil> ?\ghts )\t ^! accompany+ beliefs2 & 9 ?is case y\r ?\ghts d n h objects or seem to h !m4 ,?us 9 su* in/ances y h cont5t )\t object4 ,on ! o!r h&1 9 see+ or he>+ x w\ld be less mislead+ to say t y h object )\t cont5t1 s9ce :at y see or he> is actually "p ( ! physical _w1 ?\gh n matt] 9 ! s5se ( physics4 ,?us ! :ole "q ( ! relation ( m5tal occurr5ces to objects gr[s v complicat$1 & _c be settl$ by reg>d+ ref]5ce to objects z ( ! ess5ce ( ?\ghts4 ,all ! above rem>ks are m]ely prelim9>y1 & w be exp&$ lat]4 ,speak+ 9 popul> & unphilosophical t]ms1 we may say t ! cont5t ( a ?\ght is suppos$ to be some?+ 9 y\r head :5 y ?9k ! ?\ght1 :ile ! object is usually some?+ 9 ! out] _w4 ,x is held t k ( ! out] _w is con/itut$ by ! relation to ! object1 :ile ! fact t k is diff]5t f :at x kn[s is due to ! fact t k comes by way ( cont5ts4 ,we c beg9 to /ate ! diff]5ce betwe5 realism & idealism 9 t]ms ( ?is opposition ( cont5ts & objects4 ,speak+ q r\ghly & approximately1 we may say t idealism t5ds to suppress ! object1 :ile realism t5ds to suppress ! cont5t4 ,idealism1 accord+ly1 says t no?+ c be kn[n except ?\ghts1 & all ! reality t we "k is m5tal2 :ile realism ma9ta9s t we "k objects directly1 9 s5sation c]ta9ly1 & p]haps also 9 memory & ?\ght4 ,idealism does n say t no?+ c be kn[n beyond ! pres5t ?\ght1 b x ma9ta9s t ! context ( vague belief1 :i* we spoke ( 9 connection ) ! ?\ght ( ,/4 ,paul's1 only takes y to o!r ?\ghts1 nev] to any?+ radically diff]5t f ?\ghts4 ,! difficulty ( ?is view is 9 reg>d to s5sation1 :]e x seems z if we came into direct contact ) ! out] _w4 ,b ! ,b]keleian way ( meet+ ?is difficulty is s famili> t ,i ne$ n enl>ge ^u x n[4 ,i %all return to x 9 a lat] lecture1 & w only obs]ve1 = ! pres5t1 t !re seem to me no valid gr\nds = reg>d+ :at we see & he> z n "p ( ! physical _w4 ,reali/s1 on ! o!r h&1 z a rule1 suppress ! cont5t1 & ma9ta9 t a ?\ght consi/s ei!r ( act & object alone1 or ( object alone4 ,i h be5 9 ! pa/ a reali/1 & ,i rema9 a reali/ z reg>ds s5sation1 b n z reg>ds memory or ?\ght4 ,i w try to expla9 :at seem to me to be ! reasons = & aga9/ v>i\s k9ds ( realism4 ,mod]n idealism pr(esses to be by no means conf9$ to ! pres5t ?\ght or ! pres5t ?9k] 9 reg>d to its k2 inde$1 x cont5ds t ! _w is s organic1 s dove-tail$1 t f any "o portion ! :ole c be inf]r$1 z ! complete skeleton ( an ext9ct animal c be inf]r$ f "o bone4 ,b ! logic by :i* ?is suppos$ organic nature ( ! _w is nom9ally demon/rat$ appe>s to reali/s1 z x does to me1 to be faulty4 ,!y argue t1 if we _c "k ! physical _w directly1 we _c really "k any ?+ outside our own m9ds3 ! re/ ( ! _w may be m]ely our dream4 ,?is is a dre>y view1 & !y !re =e seek ways ( escap+ f x4 ,accord+ly !y ma9ta9 t 9 k we are 9 direct contact ) objects1 :i* may be1 & usually are1 outside our own m9ds4 ,no d\bt !y are prompt$ to ?is view1 9 ! fir/ place1 by bias1 namely1 by ! desire to ?9k t !y c "k ( ! exi/5ce ( a _w outside !mselves4 ,b we h to consid]1 n :at l$ !m to desire ! view1 b :e!r _! argum5ts = x are valid4 ,!re are two diff]5t k9ds ( realism1 accord+ z we make a ?\ght consi/ ( act & object1 or ( object alone4 ,_! difficulties are diff]5t1 b nei!r seems t5able all ?r\gh4 ,take1 = ! sake ( def9it5ess1 ! rememb]+ ( a pa/ ev5t4 ,! rememb]+ occurs n[1 & is !re=e necess>ily n id5tical ) ! pa/ ev5t4 ,s long z we reta9 ! act1 ?is ne$ cause no difficulty4 ,! act ( rememb]+ occurs n[1 & has on ?is view a c]ta9 ess5tial relation to ! pa/ ev5t :i* x rememb]s4 ,!re is no ,,logical objection to ?is !ory1 b !re is ! objection1 :i* we spoke ( e>li]1 t ! act seems my?ical1 & is n to be f\nd by obs]vation4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 we try to con/itute memory )\t ! act1 we are driv5 to a cont5t1 s9ce we mu/ h some?+ t happ5s ,,n[1 z oppos$ to ! ev5t :i* happ5$ 9 ! pa/4 ,?us1 :5 we reject ! act1 :i* ,i ?9k we mu/1 we are driv5 to a !ory ( memory :i* is m ak9 to idealism4 ,^! argum5ts1 h[ev]1 d n apply to s5sation4 ,x is especially s5sation1 ,i ?9k1 :i* is consid]$ by ^? reali/s :o reta9 only ! object499 ,_! views1 :i* are *iefly held 9 ,am]ica1 are 9 l>ge measure d]iv$ f ,william ,james1 & be=e go+ fur!r x w be well to consid] ! revolution>y doctr9e :i* he advocat$4 ,i believe ?is doctr9e conta9s important new tru?1 & :at ,i %all h to say w be 9 a consid]able measure inspir$ by x4 99 ,?is is explicitly ! case ) ,ma*'s ,analysis ( ,s5sations1 a book ( fundam5tal importance 9 ! pres5t connection4 7,translation ( fif? ,g]man edition1 ,op5 ,c\rt ,co41 #aiad4 ,fir/ ,g]man edition1 #ahhf47 ,william ,james's view 0 fir/ set =? 9 an essay call$ ,does 'consci\sness' exi/899 ,9 ?is essay he expla9s h[ :at us$ to be ! s\l has gradually be5 ref9$ d[n to ! transc5d5tal ego1 :i*1 he says1 att5uates itself to a ?or\ghly gho/ly condition1 be+ only a "n = ! fact t ! 'cont5t' ( exp]i5ce ,,is ,,kn[n4 ,x loses p]sonal =m & activity--^! pass+ ov] to ! cont5t--& becomes a b>e ,bewus/heit or ,bewus/se9 ub]haupt1 ( :i* 9 its own "r absolutely no?+ c be said4 ,i believe 7he cont9ues7 t 'consci\sness1' :5 once x has evaporat$ to ?is e/ate ( pure diaphaneity1 is on ! po9t ( disappe>+ altoge!r4 ,x is ! "n ( a non5tity1 & has no "r to a place among fir/ pr9ciples4 ,^? :o /ill cl+ to x are cl++ to a m]e e*o1 ! fa9t rum\r left beh9d by ! disappe>+ 's\l' ^u ! air ( philosophy7p4 #b74 99 ,j\rnal ( ,philosophy1 ,psy*ology & ,sci5tific ,me?ods1 vol4 i1 #aijd4 ,repr9t$ 9 ,essays 9 ,radical ,empiricism 7,longmans1 ,gre5 ,co41 #aiab71 pp4 #a-ch1 to :i* ref]5ces 9 :at foll[s ref]4 ,he expla9s t ?is is no sudd5 *ange 9 8 op9ions4 ,= tw5ty ye>s pa/1 he says1 ,i h mi/ru/$ 'consci\sness' z an entity2 = sev5 or eight ye>s pa/ ,i h sugge/$ its non-exi/5ce to my /ud5ts1 & tri$ to give !m its pragmatic equival5t 9 realities ( exp]i5ce4 ,x seems to me t ! h\r is ripe = x to be op5ly & univ]sally disc>d$7p4 #c74 ,8 next conc]n is to expla9 away ! air ( p>adox1 = ,james 0 nev] wilfully p>adoxical4 ,und5iably1 he says1 '?\ghts' d exi/4 ,i mean only to d5y t ! ^w /&s = an entity1 b to insi/ mo/ emphatically t x does /& = a function4 ,!re is1 ,i mean1 no aborig9al /uff or quality ( be+1 contra/$ ) t ( :i* mat]ial objects are made1 out ( :i* our ?\ghts ( !m are made2 b !re is a function 9 exp]i5ce :i* ?\ghts p]=m1 & = ! p]=mance ( :i* ?is quality ( be+ is invok$4 ,t function is ,,kn[+7pp4 #c-d74 ,james's view is t ! raw mat]ial out ( :i* ! _w is built up is n ( two sorts1 "o matt] & ! o!r m9d1 b t x is arrang$ 9 diff]5t patt]ns by its int]-relations1 & t "s arrangem5ts may be call$ m5tal1 :ile o!rs may be call$ physical4 ,my !sis is1 he says1 t if we />t ) ! supposition t !re is only "o primal /uff or mat]ial 9 ! _w1 a /uff ( :i* ev]y?+ is compos$1 & if we call t /uff 'pure exp]i5ce1' !n kn[+ c easily be expla9$ z a p>ticul> sort ( relation t[>ds "o ano!r into :i* portions ( pure exp]i5ce may ent]4 ,! relation itself is a "p ( pure exp]i5ce2 "o ( its 't]ms' becomes ! subject or be>] ( ! k1 ! kn[]1 ! o!r becomes ! object kn[n7p4 #d74 ,aft] m5tion+ ! duality ( subject & object1 :i* is suppos$ to con/itute consci\sness1 he proce$s 9 italics3 ,,exp]i5ce1 ,i ,,believe1 ,,has ,,no ,,su* ,,inn] ,,duplicity2 ,,& ,,! ,,sep>ation ,,( ,,x ,,into ,,consci\sness ,,& ,,cont5t ,,comes1 ,,n ,,by ,,way ,,( ,,subtraction1 ,,b ,,by ,,way ,,( ,,addition7p4 #i74 ,he illu/rates 8 mean+ by ! analogy ( pa9t z x appe>s 9 a pa9t-%op & z x appe>s 9 a picture3 9 ! "o case x is j saleable matt]1 :ile 9 ! o!r x p]=ms a spiritual function4 ,j s1 ,i ma9ta9 7he cont9ues71 does a giv5 undivid$ portion ( exp]i5ce1 tak5 9 "o context ( associates1 play ! "p ( a kn[]1 ( a /ate ( m9d1 ( 'consci\sness'2 :ile 9 a diff]5t context ! same undivid$ bit ( exp]i5ce plays ! "p ( a ?+ kn[n1 ( an objective 'cont5t4' ,9 a ^w1 9 "o gr\p x figures z a ?\ght1 9 ano!r gr\p z a ?+7pp4 #i-aj74 ,he does n believe 9 ! suppos$ imm$iate c]ta9ty ( ?\ght4 ,let ! case be :at x may 9 o!rs1 he says1 ,i am z confid5t z ,i am ( any?+ t1 9 myself1 ! /ream ( ?9k+ 7:i* ,i recognize emphatically z a ph5om5on7 is only a c>eless "n = :at1 :5 scrut9iz$1 reveals itself to consi/ *iefly ( ! /ream ( my brea?+4 ,! ',i ?9k' :i* ,kant said mu/ be able to accompany all my objects1 is ! ',i brea!' :i* actually does accompany !m7pp4 #cf-cg74 ,! same view ( consci\sness is set =? 9 ! succe$+ essay1 ,a ,_w ( ,pure ,exp]i5ce 7ib41 pp4 #ci-ia74 ,! use ( ! phrase pure exp]i5ce 9 bo? essays po9ts to a l+]+ influ5ce ( idealism4 ,exp]i5ce1 l consci\sness1 mu/ be a product1 n "p ( ! prim>y /uff ( ! _w4 ,x mu/ be possible1 if ,james is "r 9 8 ma9 cont5tions1 t r\ghly ! same /uff1 diff]5tly arrang$1 w\ld n give rise to any?+ t c\ld be call$ exp]i5ce4 ,?is ^w has be5 dropp$ by ! ,am]ican reali/s1 among :om we may m5tion specially ,pr(essor ,r4 ,b4 ,p]ry ( ,h>v>d & ,mr4 ,edw9 ,b4 ,holt4 ,! int]e/s ( ?is s*ool are 9 g5]al philosophy & ! philosophy ( ! sci5ces1 r ?an 9 psy*ology2 !y h d]iv$ a /rong impulsion f ,james1 b h m int]e/ ?an he _h 9 logic & ma!matics & ! ab/ract "p ( philosophy4 ,!y speak ( neutral entities z ! /uff out ( :i* bo? m9d & matt] are con/ruct$4 ,?us ,holt says3 ,if ! t]ms & propositions ( logic mu/ be sub/antializ$1 !y are all /rictly ( "o sub/ance1 = :i* p]haps ! lea/ dang]\s "n is neutral-/uff4 ,! relation ( neutral-/uff to matt] & m9d we %all h pres5tly to consid] at consid]able l5g?4 99 99 ,! ,concept ( ,consci\sness 7,geo4 ,all5 ,co41 #aiad71 p4 #eb4 ,my own belief--= :i* ! reasons w appe> 9 subsequ5t lectures--is t ,james is "r 9 reject+ consci\sness z an entity1 & t ! ,am]ican reali/s are p>tly "r1 ?\gh n :olly1 9 consid]+ t bo? m9d & matt] are compos$ ( a neutral-/uff :i*1 9 isolation1 is nei!r m5tal nor mat]ial4 ,i %\ld admit ?is view z reg>ds s5sations3 :at is he>d or se5 belongs equally to psy*ology & to physics4 ,b ,i %\ld say t images belong only to ! m5tal _w1 :ile ^? occurr5ces 7if any7 :i* d n =m "p ( any exp]i5ce belong only to ! physical _w4 ,!re are1 x seems to me1 prima facie diff]5t k9ds ( causal laws1 "o belong+ to physics & ! o!r to psy*ology4 ,! law ( gravitation1 = example1 is a physical law1 :ile ! law ( association is a psy*ological law4 ,s5sations are subject to bo? k9ds ( laws1 & are !re=e truly neutral 9 ,holt's s5se4 ,b entities subject only to physical laws1 or only to psy*ological laws1 are n neutral1 & may be call$ respectively purely mat]ial & purely m5tal4 ,ev5 ^?1 h[ev]1 :i* are purely m5tal w n h t intr9sic ref]5ce to objects :i* ,br5tano assigns to !m & :i* con/itutes ! ess5ce ( consci\sness z ord9>ily und]/ood4 ,b x is n[ "t to pass on to o!r mod]n t5d5cies1 also ho/ile to consci\sness4 ,!re is a psy*ological s*ool call$ ,behavi\ri/s1 ( :om ! protagoni/ is ,pr(essor ,john ,b4 ,watson199 =m]ly ( ! ,johns ,hopk9s ,univ]sity4 ,to !m also1 on ! :ole1 belongs ,pr(essor ,john ,dewey1 :o1 ) ,james & ,dr4 ,s*ill]1 0 "o ( ! ?ree f\nd]s ( pragmatism4 ,! view ( ! behavi\ri/s is t no?+ c be kn[n except by ext]nal obs]vation4 ,!y d5y altoge!r t !re is a sep>ate s\rce ( k call$ introspection1 by :i* we c "k ?+s ab\t ourselves :i* we c\ld nev] obs]ve 9 o!rs4 ,!y d n by any means d5y t all sorts ( ?+s ,,may g on 9 our m9ds3 !y only say t su* ?+s1 if !y occur1 are n susceptible ( sci5tific obs]vation1 & d n !re=e conc]n psy*ology z a sci5ce4 ,psy*ology z a sci5ce1 !y say1 is only conc]n$ ) ,,behavi\r1 i4e4 ) :at we ,,d2 ?is alone1 !y cont5d1 c be accurately obs]v$4 ,:e!r we ?9k mean:ile1 !y tell u1 _c be kn[n2 9 _! obs]vation ( ! behavi\r ( human be+s1 !y h n s f> f\nd any evid5ce ( ?\ght4 ,true1 we talk a great deal1 & imag9e t 9 s do+ we are %[+ t we c ?9k2 b behavi\ri/s say t ! talk !y h to li/5 to c be expla9$ )\t suppos+ t p ?9k4 ,:]e y might expect a *apt] on ?\ght processes y come in/ead ^u a *apt] on ,! ,language ,habit4 ,x is humiliat+ to f9d h[ t]ribly adequate ?is hypo!sis turns out to be4 99 ,see especially 8 ,behavior3 an ,introduction to ,comp>ative ,psy*ology1 ,new ,york1 #aiad4 ,behavi\rism has n1 h[ev]1 sprung f obs]v+ ! folly ( m54 ,x is ! wisdom ( animals t has sugge/$ ! view4 ,x has always be5 a common topic ( popul> discussion :e!r animals ?9k4 ,on ?is topic p are prep>$ to take sides )\t hav+ ! vague/ idea :at !y mean by ?9k+4 ,^? :o desir$ to inve/igate su* que/ions 7 l$ to obs]ve ! behavi\r ( animals1 9 ! hope t _! behavi\r w\ld ?r[ "s light on _! m5tal faculties4 ,at fir/ sight1 x might seem t ?is is s4 ,p say t a dog kn[s its "n because x comes :5 x is call$1 & t x rememb]s its ma/]1 because x looks sad 9 8 abs5ce1 b wags its tail & b>ks :5 he returns4 ,t ! dog behaves 9 ?is way is matt] ( obs]vation1 b t x kn[s or rememb]s any?+ is an inf]5ce1 & 9 fact a v d\btful "o4 ,! m su* inf]5ces are exam9$1 ! m prec>i\s !y are se5 to be4 ,h5ce ! /udy ( animal behavi\r has be5 gradually l$ to ab&on all attempt at m5tal int]pretation4 ,& x c h>dly be d\bt$ t1 9 _m cases ( complicat$ behavi\r v well adapt$ to its ends1 !re c be no prevision ( ^? ends4 ,! fir/ "t a bird builds a ne/1 we c h>dly suppose x kn[s t !re w be eggs to be laid 9 x1 or t x w sit on ! eggs1 or t !y w hat* into "y birds4 ,x does :at x does at ea* /age because in/9ct gives x an impulse to d j t1 n because x =esees & desires ! result ( its actions499 99 ,an int]e/+ discussion ( ! "q :e!r in/9ctive actions1 :5 fir/ p]=m$1 involve any prevision1 h[ev] vague1 w be f\nd 9 ,lloyd ,morgan's ,in/9ct & ,exp]i5ce 7,me?u51 #aiab71 *ap4 ii4 ,c>eful obs]v]s ( animals1 be+ anxi\s to avoid prec>i\s inf]5ces1 h gradually discov]$ m & m h[ to give an acc\nt ( ! actions ( animals )\t assum+ :at we call consci\sness4 ,x has seem$ to ! behavi\ri/s t simil> me?ods c be appli$ to human behavi\r1 )\t assum+ any?+ n op5 to ext]nal obs]vation4 ,let u give a crude illu/ration1 too crude = ! au?ors 9 "q1 b capable ( af=d+ a r\gh insight into _! mean+4 ,suppose two *ildr5 9 a s*ool1 bo? ( :om are ask$ ,:at is six times n9e8 ,"o says fifty-f\r1 ! o!r says fifty-six4 ,! "o1 we say1 kn[s :at six times n9e is1 ! o!r does n4 ,b all t we c obs]ve is a c]ta9 language-habit4 ,! "o *ild has acquir$ ! habit ( say+ six times n9e is fifty-f\r2 ! o!r has n4 ,!re is no m ne$ ( ?\ght 9 ?is ?an !re is :5 a horse turns into 8 accu/om$ /able2 !re are m]ely m num]\s & complicat$ habits4 ,!re is obvi\sly an obs]vable fact call$ kn[+ su*-&-su* a ?+2 exam9ations are exp]im5ts = discov]+ su* facts4 ,b all t is obs]v$ or discov]$ is a c]ta9 set ( habits 9 ! use ( words4 ,! ?\ghts 7if any7 9 ! m9d ( ! exam9ee are ( no int]e/ to ! exam9]2 nor has ! exam9] any reason to suppose ev5 ! mo/ successful exam9ee capable ( ev5 ! smalle/ am\nt ( ?\ght4 ,?us :at is call$ kn[+1 9 ! s5se 9 :i* we c asc]ta9 :at o!r p "k1 is a ph5om5on exemplifi$ 9 _! physical behavi\r1 includ+ spok5 & writt5 words4 ,!re is no reason--s ,watson argues--to suppose t _! k ,,is any?+ beyond ! habits %[n 9 ?is behavi\r3 ! inf]5ce t o!r p h some?+ nonphysical call$ m9d or ?\ght is !re=e unw>rant$4 ,s f>1 !re is no?+ p>ticul>ly repugnant to our prejudices 9 ! conclusions ( ! behavi\ri/s4 ,we are all will+ to admit t o!r p are ?\ghtless4 ,b :5 x comes to ourselves1 we feel conv9c$ t we c actually p]ceive our own ?9k+4 ,cogito1 ergo sum w\ld be reg>d$ by mo/ p z hav+ a true premiss4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 ! behavi\ri/ d5ies4 ,he ma9ta9s t our k ( ourselves is no diff]5t 9 k9d f our k ( o!r p4 ,we may see ,,m1 because our own body is easi] to obs]ve ?an t ( o!r p2 b we d n see any?+ radically unlike :at we see ( o!rs4 ,introspection1 z a sep>ate s\rce ( k1 is entirely d5i$ by psy*ologi/s ( ?is s*ool4 ,i %all discuss ?is "q at l5g? 9 a lat] lecture2 = ! pres5t ,i w only obs]ve t x is by no means simple1 & t1 ?\gh ,i believe ! behavi\ri/s some:at ov]/ate _! case1 yet !re is an important elem5t ( tru? 9 _! cont5tion1 s9ce ! ?+s :i* we c discov] by introspection d n seem to diff] 9 any v fundam5tal way f ! ?+s :i* we discov] by ext]nal obs]vation4 ,s f>1 we h be5 pr9cipally conc]n$ ) kn[+4 ,b x might well be ma9ta9$ t desir+ is :at is really mo/ *>act]i/ic ( m9d4 ,human be+s are con/antly engag$ 9 a*iev+ "s end !y feel pleasure 9 success & pa9 9 failure4 ,9 a purely mat]ial _w1 x may be said1 !re w\ld be no opposition ( pleasant & unpleasant1 good & bad1 :at is desir$ & :at is fe>$4 ,a man's acts are gov]n$ by purposes4 ,he decides1 let u suppose1 to g to a c]ta9 place1 :]eupon he proce$s to ! /ation1 takes 8 ticket & ent]s ! tra94 ,if ! usual r\te is block$ by an accid5t1 he goes by "s o!r r\te4 ,all t he does is det]m9$--or s x seems--by ! end he has 9 view1 by :at lies 9 front ( him1 r ?an by :at lies beh9d4 ,) dead matt]1 ?is is n ! case4 ,a /one at ! top ( a hill may />t roll+1 b x %[s no p]t9acity 9 try+ to get to ! bottom4 ,any l$ge or ob/acle w /op x1 & x w exhibit no signs ( discont5t if ?is happ5s4 ,x is n attract$ by ! pleasantness ( ! valley1 z a %eep or c[ might be1 b propell$ by ! /eepness ( ! hill at ! place :]e x is4 ,9 all ?is we h *>act]i/ic diff]5ces betwe5 ! behavi\r ( animals & ! behavi\r ( matt] z /udi$ by physics4 ,desire1 l k1 is1 ( c\rse1 9 "o s5se an obs]vable ph5om5on4 ,an elephant w eat a bun1 b n a mutton *op2 a duck w g into ! wat]1 b a h5 w n4 ,b :5 we ?9k ( our own desires1 mo/ p believe t we c "k !m by an imm$iate self-k :i* does n dep5d ^u obs]vation ( our actions4 ,yet if ?is 7 ! case1 x w\ld be odd t p are s (t5 mi/ak5 z to :at !y desire4 ,x is matt] ( common obs]vation t s-&-s does n "k 8 own motives1 or t ,a is envi\s ( ,b & malici\s ab\t him1 b q unconsci\s ( be+ s4 ,su* p are call$ self-deceiv]s1 & are suppos$ to h _h to g ?r\gh "s m or less elaborate process ( conceal+ f !mselves :at w\ld o!rwise h be5 obvi\s4 ,i believe t ?is is an entire mi/ake4 ,i believe t ! discov]y ( our own motives c only be made by ! same process by :i* we discov] o!r p's1 namely1 ! process ( obs]v+ our actions & inf]r+ ! desire :i* c\ld prompt !m4 ,a desire is consci\s :5 we h told ourselves t we h x4 ,a hungry man may say to himself3 ,oh1 ,i d want my lun*4 ,!n 8 desire is consci\s4 ,b x only diff]s f an unconsci\s desire by ! pres5ce ( appropriate words1 :i* is by no means a fundam5tal diff]5ce4 ,! belief t a motive is normally consci\s makes x easi] to be mi/ak5 z to our own motives ?an z to o!r p's4 ,:5 "s desire t we %\ld be a%am$ ( is attribut$ to u1 we notice t we h nev] _h x consci\sly1 9 ! s5se ( say+ to ourselves1 ,i wi% t w\ld happ54 ,we !re=e look = "s o!r int]pretation ( our actions1 & reg>d our fri5ds z v unju/ :5 !y refuse to be conv9c$ by our repudiation ( :at we hold to be a calumny4 ,moral consid]ations greatly increase ! difficulty ( cle> ?9k+ 9 ?is matt]4 ,x is commonly argu$ t p are n to blame = unconsci\s motives1 b only = consci\s ones4 ,9 ord]1 !re=e1 to be :olly virtu\s x is only necess>y to repeat virtu\s =mulas4 ,we say3 ,i desire to be k9d to my fri5ds1 hon\rable 9 bus9ess1 philan?ropic t[>ds ! poor1 public-spirit$ 9 politics4 ,s long z we refuse to all[ ourselves1 ev5 9 ! wat*es ( ! night1 to av[ any contr>y desires1 we may be bullies at home1 %ady 9 ! ,city1 sk9fl9ts 9 pay+ wages & pr(ite]s 9 deal+ ) ! public2 yet1 if only consci\s motives are to c\nt 9 moral valuation1 we %all rema9 model *>act]s4 ,?is is an agreeable doctr9e1 & x is n surpris+ t m5 are un will+ to ab&on x4 ,b moral consid]ations are ! wor/ enemies ( ! sci5tific _s & we mu/ dismiss !m f our m9ds if we wi% to arrive at tru?4 ,i believe--z ,i %all try to prove 9 a lat] lecture--t desire1 l =ce 9 me*anics1 is ( ! nature ( a conv5i5t fiction = describ+ %ortly c]ta9 laws ( behavi\r4 ,a hungry animal is re/less until x f9ds food2 !n x becomes quiesc5t4 ,! ?+ :i* w br+ a re/less condition to an end is said to be :at is desir$4 ,b only exp]i5ce c %[ :at w h ?is s$ative effect1 & x is easy to make mi/akes4 ,we feel dissatisfaction1 & ?9k t su* &-su* a ?+ w\ld remove x2 b 9 ?9k+ ?is1 we are !oriz+1 n obs]v+ a pat5t fact4 ,our !oriz+ is (t5 mi/ak51 & :5 x is mi/ak5 !re is a diff]5ce betwe5 :at we ?9k we desire & :at 9 fact w br+ satisfaction4 ,?is is su* a common ph5om5on t any !ory ( desire :i* fails to acc\nt = x mu/ be wrong4 ,:at h be5 call$ unconsci\s desires h be5 br\ght v mu* to ! =e 9 rec5t ye>s by psy*o-analysis4 ,psy*o-analysis1 z e "o kn[s1 is prim>ily a me?od ( und]/&+ hy/]ia & c]ta9 =ms ( insanity992 b x has be5 f\nd t !re is mu* 9 ! lives ( ord9>y m5 & wom5 :i* be>s a humiliat+ resemblance to ! delusions ( ! insane4 ,! connection ( dreams1 irrational beliefs & fooli% actions ) unconsci\s wi%es has be5 br\ght to light1 ?\gh ) "s exagg]ation1 by ,freud & ,jung & _! foll[]s4 ,z reg>ds ! nature ( ^! unconsci\s wi%es1 x seems to me--?\gh z a layman ,i speak ) diffid5ce--t _m psy*o-analy/s are unduly n>r[2 no d\bt ! wi%es !y emphasize exi/1 b o!rs1 e4g4 = hon\r & p[]1 are equally op]ative & equally liable to concealm5t4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 does n affect ! value ( _! g5]al !ories f ! po9t ( view ( !oretic psy*ology1 & x is f ?is po9t ( view t _! results are important = ! analysis ( m9d4 99 ,!re is a wide field ( unconsci\s ph5om5a :i* does n dep5d ^u psy*o-analytic !ories4 ,su* occurr5ces z automatic writ+ lead ,dr4 ,morton ,pr9ce to say3 ,z ,i view ?is "q ( ! subconsci\s1 f> too mu* weight is giv5 to ! po9t ( aw>5ess or n aw>5ess ( our consci\s processes4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 we f9d entirely id5tical ph5om5a1 t is1 id5tical 9 e respect b "o-t ( aw>5ess 9 :i* sometimes we are aw>e ( ^! consci\s ph5om5a & sometimes n7p4 #hg ( ,subconsci\s ,ph5om5a1 by v>i\s au?ors1 ,rebman74 ,dr4 ,morton ,price conceives t !re may be consci\sness )\t aw>5ess4 ,b ?is is a difficult view1 & "o :i* makes "s def9ition ( consci\sness imp]ative4 ,= nay "p1 ,i _c see h[ to sep>ate consci\sness f aw>5ess4 ,:at1 ,i ?9k1 is cle>ly e/abli%$1 is t a man's actions & beliefs may be :olly dom9at$ by a desire ( :i* he is q unconsci\s1 & :i* he indignantly repudiates :5 x is sugge/$ to him4 ,su* a desire is g5]ally1 9 morbid cases1 ( a sort :i* ! pati5t w\ld consid] wick$2 if he _h to admit t he _h ! desire1 he w\ld loa! himself4 ,yet x is s /rong t x mu/ =ce an outlet = itself2 h5ce x becomes necess>y to ent]ta9 :ole sy/ems ( false beliefs 9 ord] to hide ! nature ( :at is desir$4 ,! result+ delusions 9 v _m cases disappe> if ! hy/]ic or lunatic c be made to face ! facts ab\t himself4 ,! consequ5ce ( ?is is t ! treatm5t ( _m =ms ( insanity has gr[n m psy*ological & less physiological ?an x us$ to be4 ,in/ead ( look+ = a physical defect 9 ! bra91 ^? :o treat delusions look = ! repress$ desire :i* has f\nd ?is contort$ mode ( expression4 ,= ^? :o d n wi% to plunge into ! some:at repulsive & (t5 r wild !ories ( psy*oanalytic pione]s1 x w be wor? :ile to read a little book by ,dr4 ,b]n>d ,h>t on ,! ,psy*ology ( ,insanity499 ,on ?is "q ( ! m5tal z oppos$ to ! physiological /udy ( ! causes ( insanity1 ,dr4 ,h>t says3 99 ,cambridge1 #aiab2 #bnd edition1 #aiad4 ,! foll[+ ref]5ces are to ! second edition4 ,! psy*ological conception ( insanity is bas$ on ! view t m5tal processes c be directly /udi$ )\t any ref]5ce to ! accompany+ *anges :i* are presum$ to take place 9 ! bra91 & t insanity may !re=e be prop]ly attack$ f ! /&po9t ( psy*ology7p4 #i74 ,?is illu/rates a po9t :i* ,i am anxi\s to make cle> f ! outset4 ,any attempt to classify mod]n views1 su* z ,i propose to advocate1 f ! old /&po9t ( mat]ialism & idealism1 is only mislead+4 ,9 c]ta9 respects1 ! views :i* ,i %all be sett+ =? approximate to mat]ialism2 9 c]ta9 o!rs1 !y approximate to its opposite4 ,on ?is "q ( ! /udy ( delusions1 ! practical effect ( ! mod]n !ories1 z ,dr4 ,h>t po9ts out1 is emancipation f ! mat]iali/ me?od4 ,on ! o!r h&1 z he also po9ts out 7pp4 #ch-i71 imbecility & dem5tia /ill h to be consid]$ physiologically1 z caus$ by defects 9 ! bra94 ,!re is no inconsi/5cy 9 ?is ,if1 z we ma9ta91 m9d & matt] are nei!r ( !m ! actual /uff ( reality1 b diff]5t conv5i5t gr\p+s ( an und]ly+ mat]ial1 !n1 cle>ly1 ! "q :e!r1 9 reg>d to a giv5 ph5om5on1 we are to seek a physical or a m5tal cause1 is m]ely "o to be decid$ by trial4 ,metaphysicians h argu$ endlessly z to ! int]action ( m9d & matt]4 ,! foll[]s ( ,desc>tes held t m9d & matt] are s diff]5t z to make any action ( ! "o on ! o!r impossible4 ,:5 ,i w to move my arm1 !y said1 x is n my w t op]ates on my arm1 b ,god1 :o1 by ,8 omnipot5ce1 moves my arm :5ev] ,i want x mov$4 ,! mod]n doctr9e ( psy*ophysical p>allelism is n appreciably diff]5t f ?is !ory ( ! ,c>tesian s*ool4 ,psy*o-physical p>allelism is ! !ory t m5tal & physical ev5ts ea* h causes 9 _! own sph]e1 b run on side by side ow+ to ! fact t e /ate ( ! bra9 coexi/s ) a def9ite /ate ( ! m9d1 & vice v]sa4 ,?is view ( ! reciprocal causal indep5d5ce ( m9d & matt] has no basis except 9 metaphysical !ory499 ,= u1 !re is no necessity to make any su* assumption1 :i* is v difficult to h>monize ) obvi\s facts4 ,i receive a lett] invit+ me to d9n]3 ! lett] is a physical fact1 b my appreh5sion ( its mean+ is m5tal4 ,"h we h an effect ( matt] on m9d4 ,9 consequ5ce ( my appreh5sion ( ! mean+ ( ! lett]1 ,i g to ! "r place at ! "r "t2 "h we h an effect ( m9d on matt]4 ,i %all try to p]suade y1 9 ! c\rse ( ^! lectures1 t matt] is n s mat]ial & m9d n s m5tal z is g5]ally suppos$4 ,:5 we are speak+ ( matt]1 x w seem z if we 7 incl9+ to idealism2 :5 we are speak+ ( m9d1 x w seem z if we 7 incl9+ to mat]ialism4 ,nei!r is ! tru?4 ,our _w is to be con/ruct$ out ( :at ! ,am]ican reali/s call neutral entities1 :i* h nei!r ! h>dness & inde/ructibility ( matt]1 nor ! ref]5ce to objects :i* is suppos$ to *>act]ize m9d4 99 ,x w\ld seem1 h[ev]1 t ,dr4 ,h>t accepts ?is !ory z #h me?odological precept4 ,see 8 contribution to ,subconsci\s ,ph5om5a 7quot$ above71 especially pp4 #aba-b4 ,!re is1 x is true1 "o objection :i* might be felt1 n inde$ to ! action ( matt] on m9d1 b to ! action ( m9d on matt]4 ,! laws ( physics1 x may be urg$1 are app>5tly adequate to expla9 ev]y?+ t happ5s to matt]1 ev5 :5 x is matt] 9 a man's bra94 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is only a hypo!sis1 n an e/abli%$ !ory4 ,!re is no cog5t empirical reason = suppos+ t ! laws det]m9+ ! motions ( liv+ bodies are exactly ! same z ^? t apply to dead matt]4 ,sometimes1 ( c\rse1 !y are cle>ly ! same4 ,:5 a man falls f a precipice or slips on a piece ( orange peel1 8 body behaves z if x 7 devoid ( life4 ,^! are ! occasions t make ,b]gson laugh4 ,b :5 a man's bodily movem5ts are :at we call volunt>y1 !y are1 at any rate prima facie1 v diff]5t 9 _! laws f ! movem5ts ( :at is devoid ( life4 ,i d n wi% to say dogmatically t ! diff]5ce is irr$ucible2 ,i ?9k x highly probable t x is n4 ,i say only t ! /udy ( ! behavi\r ( liv+ bodies1 9 ! pres5t /ate ( our k1 is di/9ct f physics4 ,! /udy ( gases 0 orig9ally q di/9ct f t ( rigid bodies1 & w\ld nev] h advanc$ to its pres5t /ate if x _h n be5 indep5d5tly pursu$4 ,n[adays bo? ! gas & ! rigid body are manufactur$ out ( a m primitive & univ]sal k9d ( matt]4 ,9 l mann]1 z a "q ( me?odology1 ! laws ( liv+ bodies are to be /udi$1 9 ! fir/ place1 )\t any undue ha/e to subord9ate !m to ! laws ( physics4 ,boyle's law & ! re/ _h to be discov]$ be=e ! k9etic !ory ( gases became possible4 ,b 9 psy*ology we are h>dly yet at ! /age ( ,boyle's law4 ,mean:ile we ne$ n be held up by ! bogey ( ! univ]sal rigid exactness ( physics4 ,?is is1 z yet1 a m]e hypo!sis1 to be te/$ empirically )\t any preconceptions4 ,x may be true1 or x may n4 ,s f>1 t is all we c say4 ,return+ f ?is digression to our ma9 topic1 namely1 ! criticism ( consci\sness1 we obs]ve t ,freud & 8 foll[]s1 ?\gh !y h demon/rat$ beyond dispute ! imm5se importance ( unconsci\s desires 9 det]m9+ our actions & beliefs1 h n attempt$ ! task ( tell+ u :at an unconsci\s desire actually is1 & h ?us inve/$ _! doctr9e ) an air ( my/]y & my?ology :i* =ms a l>ge "p ( its popul> attractiv5ess4 ,!y speak always z ?\gh x 7 m normal = a desire to be consci\s1 & z ?\gh a positive cause _h to be assign$ = its be+ unconsci\s4 ,?us ! unconsci\s becomes a sort ( und]gr\nd prison]1 liv+ 9 a dungeon1 break+ 9 at long int]vals ^u our daylight respectability ) d>k groans & mal$ictions & /range atavi/ic lu/s4 ,! ord9>y read]1 almo/ inevitably1 ?9ks ( ?is und]gr\nd p]son z ano!r consci\sness1 prev5t$ by :at ,freud calls ! c5sor f mak+ 8 voice he>d 9 company1 except on r>e & dreadful occasions :5 he %\ts s l\d t e "o he>s him & !re is a sc&al4 ,mo/ ( u l ! idea t we c\ld be desp]ately wick$ if only we let ourselves g4 ,= ?is reason1 ! ,freudian unconsci\s has be5 a consolation to _m quiet & well-behav$ p]sons4 ,i d n ?9k ! tru? is q s picturesque z ?is4 ,i believe an unconsci\s desire is m]ely a causal law ( our behavi\r199 namely1 t we rema9 re/lessly active until a c]ta9 /ate ( affairs is realiz$1 :5 we a*ieve tempor>y equilibrium ,if we "k be=eh& :at ?is /ate ( affairs is1 our desire is consci\s2 if n1 unconsci\s4 ,! unconsci\s desire is n some?+ actually exi/+1 b m]ely a t5d5cy to a c]ta9 behavi\r2 x has exactly ! same /atus z a =ce 9 dynamics4 ,! unconsci\s desire is 9 no way my/]i\s2 x is ! natural primitive =m ( desire1 f :i* ! o!r has develop$ ?r\gh our habit ( obs]v+ & !oriz+ 7(t5 wrongly74 ,x is n necess>y to suppose1 z ,freud seems to d1 t e unconsci\s wi% 0 once consci\s1 & 0 !n1 9 8 t]m9ology1 repress$ because we disapprov$ ( x4 ,on ! contr>y1 we %all suppose t1 al?\gh ,freudian repression und\bt$ly occurs & is important1 x is n ! usual reason = unconsci\sness ( our wi%es4 ,! usual reason is m]ely t wi%es are all1 to beg9 )1 unconsci\s1 & only become kn[n :5 !y are actively notic$4 ,usually1 f laz9ess1 p d n notice1 b accept ! !ory ( human nature :i* !y f9d curr5t1 & attribute to !mselves :atev] wi%es ?is !ory w\ld lead !m to expect4 ,we us$ to be full ( virtu\s wi%es1 b s9ce ,freud our wi%es h become1 9 ! words ( ! ,prophet ,j]emiah1 deceitful above all ?+s & desp]ately wick$4 ,bo? ^! views1 9 mo/ ( ^? :o h held !m1 are ! product ( !ory r ?an obs]vation1 = obs]vation requires ef=t1 :]eas repeat+ phrases does n4 99 ,cf4 ,h>t1 ,! ,psy*ology ( ,insanity1 p4 #ai4 ,! int]pretation ( unconsci\s wi%es :i* ,i h be5 advocat+ has be5 set =? briefly by ,pr(essor ,john ,b4 ,watson 9 an article call$ ,! ,psy*ology ( ,wi% ,fulfilm5t1 :i* appe>$ 9 ,! ,sci5tific ,mon?ly 9 ,novemb]1 #aiaf4 ,two quotations w s]ve to %[ 8 po9t ( view3 ,! ,freudians 7he says7 h made m or less ( a 'metaphysical entity' out ( ! c5sor4 ,!y suppose t :5 wi%es are repress$ !y are repress$ into ! 'unconsci\s1' & t ?is my/]i\s c5sor /&s at ! trapdoor ly+ betwe5 ! consci\s & ! unconsci\s4 ,_m ( u d n believe 9 a _w ( ! unconsci\s 7a few ( u ev5 h grave d\bts ab\t ! usefulness ( ! t]m consci\sness71 h5ce we try to expla9 c5sor%ip along ord9>y biological l9es4 ,we believe t "o gr\p ( habits c 'd[n' ano!r gr\p ( habits--or in/9cts4 ,9 ?is case our ord9>y sy/em ( habits--^? :i* we call expressive ( our 'real selves'--inhibit or qu5* 7keep inactive or p>tially inactive7 ^? habits & in/9ctive t5d5cies :i* belong l>gely 9 ! pa/7p4 #dhc74 ,aga91 aft] speak+ ( ! fru/ration ( "s impulses :i* is involv$ 9 acquir+ ! habits ( a civiliz$ adult1 he cont9ues3 ,x is among ^! fru/rat$ impulses t ,i w\ld f9d ! biological basis ( ! unfulfill$ wi%4 ,su* 'wi%es' ne$ nev] h be5 'consci\s1' & ,,ne$ ,,nev] ,,h ,,be5 ,,suppress$ ,,into ,,freud',s ,,realm ,,( ,,! ,,unconsci\s4 ,x may be inf]r$ f ?is t !re is no p>ticul> reason = apply+ ! t]m 'wi%' to su* t5d5cies7p4 #dhe74 ,"o ( ! m]its ( ! g5]al analysis ( m9d :i* we %all be conc]n$ ) 9 ! foll[+ lectures is t x removes ! atmosph]e ( my/]y f ! ph5om5a br\ght to light by ! psy*o-analy/s4 ,my/]y is delightful1 b unsci5tific1 s9ce x dep5ds ^u ignorance4 ,man has develop$ out ( ! animals1 & !re is no s]i\s gap betwe5 him & ! amoeba4 ,some?+ closely analog\s to k & desire1 z reg>ds its effects on behavi\r1 exi/s among animals1 ev5 :]e :at we call consci\sness is h>d to believe 92 some?+ equally analog\s exi/s 9 ourselves 9 cases :]e no trace ( consci\sness c be f\nd4 ,x is !re=e natural to suppose t1 :at ev] may be ! correct def9ition ( consci\sness1 consci\sness is n ! ess5ce ( life or m9d4 ,9 ! foll[+ lectures1 accord+ly1 ?is t]m w disappe> until we h dealt ) words1 :5 x w re-em]ge z ma9ly a trivial & unimportant outcome ( l+ui/ic habits4 ,,lecture ,,ii4 ,,in/9ct ,,& ,,habit ,9 attempt+ to und]/& ! elem5ts out ( :i* m5tal ph5om5a are comp\nd$1 x is ( ! greate/ importance to rememb] t f ! protozoa to man !re is n[h]e a v wide gap ei!r 9 /ructure or 9 behavi\r4 ,f ?is fact x is a highly probable inf]5ce t !re is also n[h]e a v wide m5tal gap4 ,x is1 ( c\rse1 ,,possible t !re may be1 at c]ta9 /ages 9 evolution1 elem5ts :i* are entirely new f ! /&po9t ( analysis1 ?\gh 9 _! nasc5t =m !y h little influ5ce on behavi\r & no v m>k$ correlatives 9 /ructure4 ,b ! hypo!sis ( cont9uity 9 m5tal developm5t is cle>ly pref]able if no psy*ological facts make x impossible4 ,we %all f9d1 if ,i am n mi/ak51 t !re are no facts :i* refute ! hypo!sis ( m5tal cont9uity1 & t1 on ! o!r h&1 ?is hypo!sis af=ds a useful te/ ( sugge/$ !ories z to ! nature ( m9d4 ,! hypo!sis ( m5tal cont9uity ?r\gh\t organic evolution may be us$ 9 two diff]5t ways4 ,on ! "o h&1 x may be held t we h m k ( our own m9ds ?an ^? ( animals1 & t we %\ld use ?is k to inf] ! exi/5ce ( some?+ simil> to our own m5tal processes 9 animals & ev5 9 plants4 ,on ! o!r h&1 x may be held t animals & plants pres5t simpl] ph5om5a1 m easily analys$ ?an ^? ( human m9ds2 on ?is gr\nd x may be urg$ t explanations :i* are adequate 9 ! case ( animals ought n to be lightly reject$ 9 ! case ( man4 ,! practical effects ( ^! two views are diametrically opposite3 ! fir/ leads u to level up animal intellig5ce ) :at we believe ourselves to "k ab\t our own intellig5ce1 :ile ! second leads u to attempt a levell+ d[n ( our own intellig5ce to some?+ n too remote f :at we c obs]ve 9 animals4 ,x is !re=e important to consid] ! relative ju/ification ( ! two ways ( apply+ ! pr9ciple ( cont9uity4 ,x is cle> t ! "q turns ^u ano!r1 namely1 :i* c we "k be/1 ! psy*ology ( animals or t ( human be+s8 ,if we c "k mo/ ab\t animals1 we %all use ?is k z a basis = inf]5ce ab\t human be+s2 if we c "k mo/ ab\t human be+s1 we %all adopt ! opposite proc$ure4 ,& ! "q :e!r we c "k mo/ ab\t ! psy*ology ( human be+s or ab\t t ( animals turns ^u yet ano!r1 namely3 ,is introspection or ext]nal obs]vation ! sur] me?od 9 psy*ology8 ,?is is a "q :i* ,i propose to discuss at l5g? 9 ,lecture ,,vi2 ,i %all !re=e cont5t myself n[ ) a /atem5t ( ! conclusions to be arriv$ at4 ,we "k a great _m ?+s conc]n+ ourselves :i* we _c "k ne>ly s directly conc]n+ animals or ev5 o!r p4 ,we "k :5 we h a too?a*e1 :at we are ?9k+ (1 :at dreams we h :5 we are asleep1 & a ho/ ( o!r occurr5ces :i* we only "k ab\t o!rs :5 !y tell u ( !m1 or o!rwise make !m inf]able by _! behavi\r4 ,?us1 s f> z k ( deta*$ facts is conc]n$1 ! advantage is on ! side ( self-k z aga9/ ext]nal obs]vation4 ,b :5 we come to ! analysis & sci5tific und]/&+ ( ! facts1 ! advantages on ! side ( self-k become f> less cle>4 ,we "k1 = example1 t we h desires & beliefs1 b we d n "k :at con/itutes a desire or a belief4 ,! ph5om5a are s famili> t x is difficult to realize h[ little we really "k ab\t !m4 ,we see 9 animals1 & to a less] ext5t 9 plants1 behavi\r m or less simil> to t :i*1 9 u1 is prompt$ by desires & beliefs1 & we f9d t1 z we desc5d 9 ! scale ( evolution1 behavi\r becomes simpl]1 m easily r$ucible to rule1 m sci5tifically analysable & pr$ictable4 ,& j because we are n misl$ by famili>ity we f9d x easi] to be cauti\s 9 int]pret+ behavi\r :5 we are deal+ ) ph5om5a remote f ^? ( our own m9ds3 ,moreov]1 introspection1 z psy*oanalysis has demon/rat$1 is extraord9>ily fallible ev5 9 cases :]e we feel a high degree ( c]ta9ty4 ,! net result seems to be t1 ?\gh self-k has a def9ite & important contribution to make to psy*ology1 x is exce$+ly mislead+ unless x is con/antly *eck$ & controll$ by ! te/ ( ext]nal obs]vation1 & by ! !ories :i* su* obs]vation sugge/s :5 appli$ to animal behavi\r4 ,on ! :ole1 !re=e1 !re is probably m to be le>nt ab\t human psy*ology f animals ?an ab\t animal psy*ology f human be+s2 b ?is conclusion is "o ( degree1 & mu/ n be press$ beyond a po9t4 ,x is only bodily ph5om5a t c be directly obs]v$ 9 animals1 or ev51 /rictly speak+1 9 o!r human be+s4 ,we c obs]ve su* ?+s z _! movem5ts1 _! physiological processes1 & ! s\nds !y emit4 ,su* ?+s z desires & beliefs1 :i* seem obvi\s to introspection1 are n visible directly to ext]nal obs]vation4 ,accord+ly1 if we beg9 our /udy ( psy*ology by ext]nal obs]vation1 we mu/ n beg9 by assum+ su* ?+s z desires & beliefs1 b only su* ?+s z ext]nal obs]vation c reveal1 :i* w be *>act]i/ics ( ! movem5ts & physiological processes ( animals4 ,"s animals1 = example1 always run away f light & hide !mselves 9 d>k places4 ,if y pick up a mossy /one :i* is lightly emb$d$ 9 ! e>?1 y w see a numb] ( small animals scuttl+ away f ! unwont$ daylight & seek+ aga9 ! d>kness ( :i* y h depriv$ !m4 ,su* animals are s5sitive to light1 9 ! s5se t _! movem5ts are affect$ by x2 b x w\ld be ra% to inf] t !y h s5sations 9 any way analog\s to our s5sations ( sight4 ,su* inf]5ces1 :i* g beyond ! obs]vable facts1 are to be avoid$ ) ! utmo/ c>e4 ,x is cu/om>y to divide human movem5ts into ?ree classes1 volunt>y1 reflex & me*anical4 ,we may illu/rate ! di/9ction by a quotation f ,william ,james 7,psy*ology1 i1 #ab73 ,if ,i he> ! conductor call+ 'all abo>d' z ,i ent] ! depot1 my he>t fir/ /ops1 !n palpitates1 & my legs respond to ! air-waves fall+ on my tympanum by quick5+ _! movem5ts4 ,if ,i /umble z ,i run1 ! s5sation ( fall+ provokes a movem5t ( ! h&s t[>ds ! direction ( ! fall1 ! effect ( :i* is to %ield ! body f too sudd5 a %ock4 ,if a c9d] ent] my eye1 its lids close =cibly & a copi\s fl[ ( te>s t5ds to wa% x out4 ,^! ?ree responses to a s5sational /imulus diff]1 h[ev]1 9 _m respects4 ,! closure ( ! eye & ! la*rymation are q involunt>y1 & s is ! di/urbance ( ! he>t4 ,su* involunt>y responses we "k z 'reflex' acts4 ,! motion ( ! arms to break ! %ock ( fall+ may also be call$ reflex1 s9ce x occurs too quickly to be delib]ately int5d$4 ,:e!r x be in/9ctive or :e!r x result f ! p$e/rian education ( *ildhood may be d\btful2 x is1 at any rate1 less automatic ?an ! previ\s acts1 = a man might by consci\s ef=t le>n to p]=m x m skilfully1 or ev5 to suppress x altoge!r4 ,actions ( ?is k9d1 ) :i* in/9ct & volition ent] ^u equal t]ms1 h be5 call$ 'semi-reflex4' ,! act ( runn+ t[>ds ! tra91 on ! o!r h&1 has no in/9ctive elem5t ab\t x4 ,x is purely ! result ( education1 & is prec$$ by a consci\sness ( ! purpose to be atta9$ & a di/9ct m&ate ( ! w4 ,x is a 'volunt>y act4' ,?us ! animal's reflex & volunt>y p]=mances %ade into ea* o!r gradually1 be+ connect$ by acts :i* may (t5 occur automatically1 b may also be modifi$ by consci\s intellig5ce4 ,an outside obs]v]1 unable to p]ceive ! accompany+ consci\sness1 might be :olly at a loss to discrim9ate betwe5 ! automatic acts & ^? :i* volition escort$4 ,b if ! crit]ion ( m9d's exi/5ce be ! *oice ( ! prop] means = ! atta9m5t ( a suppos$ end1 all ! acts alike seem to be inspir$ by intellig5ce1 = ,,appropriat5ess *>act]izes !m all alike4 ,!re is "o movem5t1 among ^? t ,james m5tions at fir/1 :i* is n subsequ5tly classifi$1 namely1 ! /umbl+4 ,?is is ! k9d ( movem5t :i* may be call$ me*anical2 x is evid5tly ( a diff]5t k9d f ei!r reflex or volunt>y movem5ts1 & m ak9 to ! movem5ts ( dead matt]4 ,we may def9e a movem5t ( an animal's body z me*anical :5 x proce$s z if only dead matt] 7 involv$4 ,= example1 if y fall ov] a cliff1 y move "u ! influ5ce ( gravitation1 & y\r c5tre ( gravity describes j z correct a p>abola z if y 7 already dead4 ,me*anical movem5ts h n ! *>act]i/ic ( appropriat5ess1 unless by accid5t1 z :5 a drunk5 man falls into a wat]butt & is sob]$4 ,b reflex & volunt>y movem5ts are n ,,always appropriate1 unless 9 "s v recondite s5se4 ,a mo? fly+ into a lamp is n act+ s5sibly2 no m is a man :o is 9 su* a hurry to get 8 ticket t he _c rememb] ! "n ( 8 de/9ation4 ,appropriat5ess is a complicat$ & m]ely approximate idea1 & = ! pres5t we %all d well to dismiss x f our ?\ghts4 ,z ,james /ates1 !re is no diff]5ce1 f ! po9t ( view ( ! outside obs]v]1 betwe5 volunt>y & reflex movem5ts4 ,! physiologi/ c discov] t bo? dep5d ^u ! n]v\s sy/em1 & he may f9d t ! movem5ts :i* we call volunt>y dep5d ^u high] c5tres 9 ! bra9 ?an ^? t are reflex4 ,b he _c discov] any?+ z to ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( w or consci\sness1 = ^! ?+s c only be se5 f )91 if at all4 ,= ! pres5t1 we wi% to place ourselves resolutely 9 ! position ( outside obs]v]s2 we w !re=e ignore ! di/9ction betwe5 volunt>y & reflex movem5ts4 ,we w call ! two toge!r vital movem5ts4 ,we may !n di/+ui% vital f me*anical movem5ts by ! fact t vital movem5ts dep5d = _! causation ^u ! special prop]ties ( ! n]v\s sy/em1 :ile me*anical movem5ts dep5d only ^u ! prop]ties :i* animal bodies %>e ) matt] 9 g5]al4 ,!re is ne$ = "s c>e if ! di/9ction betwe5 me*anical & vital movem5ts is to be made precise4 ,x is q likely t1 if we knew m ab\t animal bodies1 we c\ld d$uce all _! movem5ts f ! laws ( *emi/ry & physics4 ,x is already fairly easy to see h[ *emi/ry r$uces to physics1 i4e4 h[ ! diff]5ces betwe5 diff]5t *emical elem5ts c be acc\nt$ = by diff]5ces ( physical /ructure1 ! con/itu5ts ( ! /ructure be+ electrons :i* are exactly alike 9 all k9ds ( matt]4 ,we only "k 9 "p h[ to r$uce physiology to *emi/ry1 b we "k en\gh to make x likely t ! r$uction is possible4 ,if we suppose x effect$1 :at w\ld become ( ! diff]5ce betwe5 vital & me*anical movem5ts8 ,"s analogies w make ! diff]5ce cle>4 ,a %ock to a mass ( dynamite produces q diff]5t effects f an equal %ock to a mass ( /eel3 9 ! "o case !re is a va/ explosion1 :ile 9 ! o!r case !re is h>dly any noticeable di/urbance4 ,simil>ly1 y may sometimes f9d on a m\nta9-side a l>ge rock pois$ s delicately t a t\* w set x cra%+ d[n into ! valley1 :ile ! rocks all r\nd are s firm t only a consid]able =ce c dislodge !m ,:at is analog\s 9 ^! two cases is ! exi/5ce ( a great /ore ( en]gy 9 un/able equilibrium ready to bur/ into viol5t motion by ! addition ( a v slight di/urbance4 ,simil>ly1 x requires only a v slight exp5diture ( en]gy to s5d a po/-c>d ) ! words ,all is discov]$2 fly6 b ! effect 9 g5]at+ k9etic en]gy is said to be amaz+4 ,a human body1 l a mass ( dynamite1 conta9s a /ore ( en]gy 9 un/able equilibrium1 ready to be direct$ 9 ?is direction or t by a di/urbance :i* is physically v small1 su* z a spok5 ^w4 ,9 all su* cases ! r$uction ( behavi\r to physical laws c only be effect$ by ent]+ into great m9ut5ess2 s long z we conf9e ourselves to ! obs]vation ( comp>atively l>ge masses1 ! way 9 :i* ! equilibrium w be upset _c be det]m9$4 ,physici/s di/+ui% betwe5 macroscopic & microscopic equations3 ! =m] det]m9e ! visible movem5ts ( bodies ( ord9>y size1 ! latt] ! m9ute occurr5ces 9 ! smalle/ p>ts4 ,x is only ! microscopic equations t are suppos$ to be ! same = all sorts ( matt]4 ,! macroscopic equations result f a process ( av]ag+ out1 & may be diff]5t 9 diff]5t cases4 ,s1 9 our in/ance1 ! laws ( macroscopic ph5om5a are diff]5t = me*anical & vital movem5ts1 ?\gh ! laws ( microscopic ph5om5a may be ! same4 ,we may say1 speak+ some:at r\ghly1 t a /imulus appli$ to ! n]v\s sy/em1 l a sp>k to dynamite1 is able to take advantage ( ! /or$ en]gy 9 un/able equilibrium1 & ?us to produce movem5ts out ( proportion to ! proximate cause4 ,movem5ts produc$ 9 ?is way are vital movem5ts1 :ile me*anical movem5ts are ^? 9 :i* ! /or$ en]gy ( a liv+ body is n involv$4 ,simil>ly dynamite may be explod$1 !reby display+ its *>act]i/ic prop]ties1 or may 7) due precautions7 be c>t$ ab\t l any o!r m9]al4 ,! explosion is analog\s to vital movem5ts1 ! c>t+ ab\t to me*anical movem5ts4 ,me*anical movem5ts are ( no int]e/ to ! psy*ologi/1 & x has only be5 necess>y to def9e !m 9 ord] to be able to exclude !m4 ,:5 a psy*ologi/ /udies behavi\r1 x is only vital movem5ts t conc]n him4 ,we %all1 !re=e1 proce$ to ignore me*anical movem5ts1 & /udy only ! prop]ties ( ! rema9d]4 ,! next po9t is to di/+ui% betwe5 movem5ts t are in/9ctive & movem5ts t are acquir$ by exp]i5ce4 ,?is di/9ction also is to "s ext5t "o ( degree4 ,pr(essor ,lloyd ,morgan gives ! foll[+ def9ition ( in/9ctive behavi\r3 ,t :i* is1 on its fir/ occurr5ce1 indep5d5t ( prior exp]i5ce2 :i* t5ds to ! well-be+ ( ! individual & ! pres]vation ( ! race2 :i* is simil>ly p]=m$ by all memb]s ( ! same m or less re/rict$ gr\p ( animals2 & :i* may be subject to subsequ5t modification "u ! guidance ( exp]i5ce4 99 99 ,in/9ct & ,exp]i5ce 7,me?u51 #aiab7 p4 #e4 ,?is def9ition is fram$ = ! purposes ( biology1 & is 9 "s respects unsuit$ to ! ne$s ( psy*ology4 ,?\gh p]haps unavoidable1 allusion to ! same m or less re/rict$ gr\p ( animals makes x impossible to judge :at is in/9ctive 9 ! behavi\r ( an isolat$ individual4 ,moreov]1 ! well-be+ ( ! individual & ! pres]vation ( ! race is only a usual *>act]i/ic1 n a univ]sal "o1 ( ! sort ( movem5ts t1 f our po9t ( view1 are to be call$ in/9ctive2 in/ances ( h>mful in/9cts w be giv5 %ortly4 ,! ess5tial po9t ( ! def9ition1 f our po9t ( view1 is t an in/9ctive movem5t is 9 dep5d5t ( prior exp]i5ce4 ,we may say t an in/9ctive movem5t is a vital movem5t p]=m$ by an animal ! fir/ "t t x f9ds itself 9 a novel situation2 or1 m correctly1 "o :i* x w\ld p]=m if ! situation 7 novel499 ,! in/9cts ( an animal are diff]5t at diff]5t p]iods ( its gr[?1 & ?is fact may cause *anges ( behavi\r :i* are n due to le>n+4 ,! matur+ & seasonal fluctuation ( ! sex-in/9ct af=ds a good illu/ration4 ,:5 ! sex-in/9ct fir/ matures1 ! behavi\r ( an animal 9 ! pres5ce ( a mate is diff]5t f its previ\s behavi\r 9 simil> circum/ances1 b is n le>nt1 s9ce x is j ! same if ! animal has nev] previ\sly be5 9 ! pres5ce ( a mate4 99 ,?\gh ?is c only be decid$ by comp>ison ) o!r memb]s ( ! species1 & ?us exposes u to ! ne$ ( comp>ison :i* we ?\ght an objection to ,pr(essor ,lloyd ,morgan's def9ition4 ,on ! o!r h&1 a movem5t is le>nt1 or embodies a habit1 if x is due to previ\s exp]i5ce ( simil> situations1 & is n :at x w\ld be if ! animal _h _h no su* exp]i5ce4 ,!re are v>i\s complications :i* blur ! %>pness ( ?is di/9ction 9 practice4 ,to beg9 )1 _m in/9cts mature gradually1 & :ile !y are immature an animal may act 9 a fumbl+ mann] :i* is v difficult to di/+ui% f le>n+4 ,james 7,psy*ology1 ii1 #djg7 ma9ta9s t *ildr5 walk by in/9ct1 & t ! awkw>dness ( _! fir/ attempts is only due to ! fact t ! in/9ct has n yet rip5$4 ,he hopes t "s sci5tific wid[]1 left alone ) 8 (fspr+ at ! critical mom5t1 may ere long te/ ?is sugge/ion on ! liv+ subject4 ,h[ev] ?is may be1 he quotes evid5ce to %[ t birds d n ,,le>n to fly1 b fly by in/9ct :5 !y rea* ! appropriate age 7ib41 p4 #djf74 ,9 ! second place1 in/9ct (t5 gives only a r\gh outl9e ( ! sort ( ?+ to d1 9 :i* case le>n+ is necess>y 9 ord] to acquire c]ta9ty & precision 9 action4 ,9 ! ?ird place1 ev5 9 ! cle>e/ cases ( acquir$ habit1 su* z speak+1 "s in/9ct is requir$ to set 9 motion ! process ( le>n+4 ,9 ! case ( speak+1 ! *ief in/9ct involv$ is commonly suppos$ to be t ( imitation1 b ?is may be que/ion$4 7,see ,?orndike's ,animal ,intellig5ce1 p4 #bec ff47 ,9 spite ( ^! qualifications1 ! broad di/9ction betwe5 in/9ct & habit is und5iable4 ,to take extreme cases1 e animal at bir? c take food by in/9ct1 be=e x has _h opportunity to le>n2 on ! o!r h&1 no "o c ride a bicycle by in/9ct1 ?\gh1 aft] le>n+1 ! necess>y movem5ts become j z automatic z if !y 7 in/9ctive4 ,! process ( le>n+1 :i* consi/s 9 ! acquisition ( habits1 has be5 mu* /udi$ 9 v>i\s animals499 ,= example3 y put a hungry animal1 say a cat1 9 a cage :i* has a door t c be op5$ by lift+ a lat*2 outside ! cage y put food4 ,! cat at fir/ da%es all r\nd ! cage1 mak+ frantic ef=ts to =ce a way out4 ,at la/1 by accid5t1 ! lat* is lift$ & ! cat p\nces on ! food4 ,next day y repeat ! exp]im5t1 & y f9d t ! cat gets out mu* m quickly ?an ! fir/ "t1 al?\gh x /ill makes "s r&om movem5ts4 ,! ?ird day x gets out /ill m quickly1 & be=e long x goes /raight to ! lat* & lifts x at once4 ,or y make a model ( ! ,hampton ,c\rt maze1 & put a rat 9 ! middle1 assault$ by ! smell ( food on ! outside4 ,! rat />ts runn+ d[n ! passages1 & is con/antly /opp$ by bl9d alleys1 b at la/1 by p]si/5t attempts1 x gets out4 ,y repeat ?is exp]im5t day aft] day2 y measure ! "t tak5 by ! rat 9 rea*+ ! food2 y f9d t ! "t rapidly dim9i%es1 & t aft] a :ile ! rat ceases to make any wrong turn+s4 ,x is by ess5tially simil> processes t we le>n speak+1 writ+1 ma!matics1 or ! gov]nm5t ( an empire4 99 ,! sci5tific /udy ( ?is subject may almo/ be said to beg9 ) ,?orndike's ,animal ,intellig5ce 7,macmillan1 #aiaa74 ,pr(essor ,watson 7,behavior1 pp4 #bfb-c7 has an +5i\s !ory z to ! way 9 :i* habit arises out ( r&om movem5ts4 ,i ?9k !re is a reason :y 8 !ory _c be reg>d$ z alone suffici5t1 b x seems n unlikely t x is p>tly correct4 ,suppose1 = ! sake ( simplicity1 t !re are j t5 r&om movem5ts :i* may be made by ! animal--say1 t5 pa?s d[n :i* x may g--& t only "o ( ^! leads to food1 or :atev] else repres5ts success 9 ! case 9 "q4 ,!n ! successful movem5t always occurs dur+ ! animal's attempts1 :]eas ea* ( ! o!rs1 on ! av]age1 occurs 9 only half ! attempts4 ,?us ! t5d5cy to repeat a previ\s p]=mance 7:i* is easily explicable )\t ! int]v5tion ( consci\sness7 leads to a great] emphasis on ! successful movem5t ?an on any o!r1 & 9 "t causes x alone to be p]=m$4 ,! objection to ?is view1 if tak5 z ! sole explanation1 is t on improvem5t ought to set 9 till aft] ! ,,second trial1 :]eas exp]im5t %[s t already at ! second attempt ! animal does bett] ?an ! fir/ "t4 ,some?+ fur!r is1 !re=e1 requir$ to acc\nt = ! g5esis ( habit f r&om movem5ts2 b ,i see no reason to suppose t :at is fur!r requir$ involves consci\sness4 ,mr4 ,?orndike 7op4 cit41 p4 #bdd7 =mulates two provisional laws ( acquir$ behavi\r or le>n+1 z foll[s3 ,! ,law ( ,effect is t3 ,( sev]al responses made to ! same situation1 ^? :i* are accompani$ or closely foll[$ by satisfaction to ! animal w1 o!r ?+s be+ equal1 be m firmly connect$ ) ! situation1 s t1 :5 x recurs1 !y w be m likely to recur2 ^? :i* are accompani$ or closely foll[$ by discom=t to ! animal w1 o!r ?+s be+ equal1 h _! connections ) t situation weak5$1 s t1 :5 x recurs1 !y w be less likely to occur4 ,! great] ! satisfaction or discom=t1 ! great] ! /r5g!n+ or weak5+ ( ! bond4 ,! ,law ( ,ex]cise is t3 ,any response to a situation w1 o!r ?+s be+ equal1 be m /rongly connect$ ) ! situation 9 proportion to ! numb] ( times x has be5 connect$ ) t situation & to ! av]age vig\r & duration ( ! connections4 ,) ! explanation to be pres5tly giv5 ( ! mean+ ( satisfaction & discom=t1 !re seems e reason to accept ^! two laws4 ,:at is true ( animals1 z reg>ds in/9ct & habit1 is equally true ( m54 ,b ! high] we rise 9 ! evolution>y scale1 broadly speak+1 ! great] becomes ! p[] ( le>n+1 & ! few] are ! occasions :5 pure in/9ct is exhibit$ unmodifi$ 9 adult life4 ,?is applies ) great =ce to man1 s mu* s t "s h ?\ght in/9ct less important 9 ! life ( man ?an 9 t ( animals4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 w\ld be a mi/ake4 ,le>n+ is only possible :5 in/9ct supplies ! driv+-=ce4 ,! animals 9 cages1 :i* gradually le>n to get out1 p]=m r&om movem5ts at fir/1 :i* are purely in/9ctive4 ,b = ^! r&om movem5ts1 !y w\ld nev] acquire ! exp]i5ce :i* aft]w>ds enables !m to produce ! "r movem5t4 7,?is is p>tly que/ion$ by ,hobh\se99--wrongly1 ,i ?9k47 ,simil>ly1 *ildr5 le>n+ to talk make all sorts ( s\nds1 until "o day ! "r s\nd comes by accid5t4 ,x is cle> t ! orig9al mak+ ( r&om s\nds1 )\t :i* spee* w\ld nev] be le>nt1 is in/9ctive4 ,i ?9k we may say ! same ( all ! habits & aptitudes t we acquire 9 all ( !m !re has be5 pres5t ?r\gh\t "s in/9ctive activity1 prompt+ at fir/ r ineffici5t movem5ts1 b supply+ ! driv+ =ce :ile m & m effective me?ods are be+ acquir$4 ,a cat :i* is hungry smells fi%1 & goes to ! l>d]4 ,?is is a ?or\ghly effici5t me?od :5 !re is fi% 9 ! l>d]1 & x is (t5 successfully practis$ by *ildr54 ,b 9 lat] life x is f\nd t m]ely go+ to ! l>d] does n cause fi% to be !re2 aft] a s]ies ( r&om movem5ts x is f\nd t ?is result is to be caus$ by go+ to ! ,city 9 ! morn+ & com+ back 9 ! ev5+4 ,no "o w\ld h guess$ a priori t ?is movem5t ( a middle-ag$ man's body w\ld cause fi% to come out ( ! sea into 8 l>d]1 b exp]i5ce %[s t x does1 & ! middle-ag$ man !re=e cont9ues to g to ! ,city1 j z ! cat 9 ! cage cont9ues to lift ! lat* :5 x has once f\nd x4 ,( c\rse1 9 actual fact1 human le>n+ is r5d]$ easi]1 ?\gh psy*ologically m complex1 ?r\gh language2 b at bottom language does n alt] ! ess5tial "* ( le>n+1 or ( ! "p play$ by in/9ct 9 promot+ le>n+4 ,language1 h[ev]1 is a subject ^u :i* ,i d n wi% to speak until a lat] lecture4 99 ,m9d 9 ,evolution 7,macmillan1 #aiae71 pp4 #bcf-bcg4 ,! popul> conception ( in/9ct errs by imag9+ x to be infallible & pret]naturally wise1 z well z incapable ( modification4 ,?is is a complete delusion4 ,in/9ct1 z a rule1 is v r\gh & ready1 able to a*ieve its result "u ord9>y circum/ances1 b easily misl$ by any?+ unusual4 ,*icks foll[ _! "m by in/9ct1 b :5 !y are q "y !y w foll[ ) equal read9ess any mov+ object remotely resembl+ _! "m1 or ev5 a human be+ 7,james1 ,psy*ology1 ii1 #cif74 ,b]gson1 quot+ ,fabre1 has made play ) ! suppos$ extraord9>y accuracy ( ! solit>y wasp ,ammophila1 :i* lays its eggs 9 a cat]pill>4 ,on ?is subject ,i w quote f ,drev]'s ,in/9ct 9 ,man1 p4 #ib3 ,accord+ to ,fabre's obs]vations1 :i* ,b]gson accepts1 ! ,ammophila /+s its prey ,,exactly & ,,un]r+ly 9 ,,ea* ( ! n]v\s c5tres4 ,! result is t ! cat]pill> is p>alyz$1 b n imm$iately kill$1 ! advantage ( ?is be+ t ! l>va _c be injur$ by any movem5t ( ! cat]pill>1 ^u :i* ! egg is deposit$1 & is provid$ ) fre% meat :5 ! "t comes4 ,n[ ,dr4 & ,mrs4 ,peckham h %[n t ! /+ ( ! wasp is ,,n ,,un]r+1 z ,fabre alleges1 t ! numb] ( /+s is ,,n ,,con/ant1 t sometimes ! cat]pill> is ,,n ,,p>alyz$1 & sometimes x is ,,kill$ ,,outright1 & t ,,! ,,diff]5t ,,circum/ances ,,d ,,n ,,app>5tly ,,make ,,any ,,diff]5ce ,,to ,,! ,,l>va1 :i* is n injur$ by slight movem5ts ( ! cat]pill>1 nor by consum+ food decompos$ r ?an fre% cat]pill>4 ,?is illu/rates h[ love ( ! m>vell\s may mislead ev5 s c>eful an obs]v] z ,fabre & s em95t a philosoph] z ,b]gson4 ,9 ! same *apt] ( ,dr4 ,drev]'s book !re are "s int]e/+ examples ( ! mi/akes made by in/9ct4 ,i w quote "o z a sample3 ,! l>va ( ! ,lome*usa beetle eats ! "y ( ! ants1 9 ^: ne/ x is re>$4 ,nev]!less1 ! ants t5d ! ,lome*usa l>vae ) ! same c>e !y be/[ on _! own "y4 ,n only s1 b !y app>5tly discov] t ! me?ods ( fe$+1 :i* suit _! own l>vae1 w\ld prove fatal to ! gue/s1 & accord+ly !y *ange _! :ole sy/em ( nurs+ 7loc4 cit41 p4 #ajf74 ,semon 7,die ,mneme1 pp4 #bjg-i7 gives a good illu/ration ( an in/9ct gr[+ wis] ?r\gh exp]i5ce4 ,he relates h[ hunt]s attract /ags by imitat+ ! s\nds ( o!r memb]s ( _! species1 male or female1 b f9d t ! old] a /ag becomes ! m difficult x is to deceive him1 & ! m accurate ! imitation has to be4 ,! lit]ature ( in/9ct is va/1 & illu/rations might be multipli$ indef9itely4 ,! ma9 po9ts z reg>ds in/9ct1 :i* ne$ to be emphasiz$ z aga9/ ! popul> conceptions ( x1 are3 7#a7 ,t in/9ct requires no prevision ( ! biological end :i* x s]ves2 7#b7 ,t in/9ct is only adapt$ to a*ieve ?is end 9 ! usual circum/ances ( ! animal 9 "q1 & has no m precision ?an is necess>y = success ,,z ,a ,,rule2 7#c7 ,t processes initiat$ by in/9ct (t5 come to be p]=m$ bett] aft] exp]i5ce2 7#d7 ,t in/9ct supplies ! impulses to exp]im5tal movem5ts :i* are requir$ = ! process ( le>n+2 7#e7 ,t in/9cts 9 _! nasc5t /ages are easily modifiable1 & capable ( be+ atta*$ to v>i\s sorts ( objects4 ,all ! above *>act]i/ics ( in/9ct c be e/abli%$ by purely ext]nal obs]vation1 except ! fact t in/9ct does n require prevision4 ,?is1 ?\gh n /rictly capable ( be+ ,,prov$ by obs]vation1 is irresi/ibly sugge/$ by ! mo/ obvi\s ph5om5a4 ,:o c believe1 = example1 t a new-born baby is aw>e ( ! necessity ( food = pres]v+ life8 ,or t insects1 9 lay+ eggs1 are conc]n$ = ! pres]vation ( _! species8 ,! ess5ce ( in/9ct1 "o might say1 is t x provides a me*anism = act+ )\t =esight 9 a mann] :i* is usually advantage\s biologically4 ,x is p>tly = ?is reason t x is s important to und]/& ! fundam5tal position ( in/9ct 9 prompt+ bo? animal & human behavi\r4 ,,lecture ,,iii4 ,,desire ,,& ,,feel+ ,desire is a subject ^u :i*1 if ,i am n mi/ak51 true views c only be arriv$ at by an almo/ complete rev]sal ( ! ord9>y unreflect+ op9ion4 ,x is natural to reg>d desire z 9 its ess5ce an attitude t[>ds some?+ :i* is imag9$1 n actual2 ?is some?+ is call$ ! ,,end or ,,object ( ! desire1 & is said to be ! ,,purpose ( any action result+ f ! desire4 ,we ?9k ( ! cont5t ( ! desire z be+ j l ! cont5t ( a belief1 :ile ! attitude tak5 up t[>ds ! cont5t is diff]5t4 ,accord+ to ?is !ory1 :5 we say3 ,i hope x w ra91 or ,i expect x w ra91 we express1 9 ! fir/ case1 a desire1 & 9 ! second1 a belief1 ) an id5tical cont5t1 namely1 ! image ( ra94 ,x w\ld be easy to say t1 j z belief is "o k9d ( feel+ 9 relation to ?is cont5t1 s desire is ano!r k9d4 ,accord+ to ?is view1 :at comes fir/ 9 desire is some?+ imag9$1 ) a specific feel+ relat$ to x1 namely1 t specific feel+ :i* we call desir+ x4 ,! discom=t associat$ ) unsatisfi$ desire1 & ! actions :i* aim at satisfy+ desire1 are1 9 ?is view1 bo? ( !m effects ( ! desire4 ,i ?9k x is fair to say t ?is is a view aga9/ :i* common s5se w\ld n rebel2 nev]!less1 ,i believe x to be radically mi/ak54 ,x _c be refut$ logically1 b v>i\s facts c be adduc$ :i* make x gradually less simple & plausible1 until at la/ x turns out to be easi] to ab&on x :olly & look at ! matt] 9 a totally diff]5t way4 ,! fir/ set ( facts to be adduc$ aga9/ ! common s5se view ( desire are ^? /udi$ by psy*o-analysis4 ,9 all human be+s1 b mo/ m>k$ly 9 ^? suff]+ f hy/]ia & c]ta9 =ms ( insanity1 we f9d :at are call$ unconsci\s desires1 :i* are commonly reg>d$ z %[+ self-deception4 ,mo/ psy*o-analy/s pay little att5tion to ! analysis ( desire1 be+ int]e/$ 9 discov]+ by obs]vation :at x is t p desire1 r ?an 9 discov]+ :at actually con/itutes desire4 ,i ?9k ! /rang5ess ( :at !y report w\ld be greatly dim9i%$ if x 7 express$ 9 ! language ( a behavi\ri/ !ory ( desire1 r ?an 9 ! language ( e-day beliefs4 ,! g5]al description ( ! sort ( ph5om5a t be> on our pres5t "q is z foll[s3 ,a p]son /ates t 8 desires are s-&-s1 & t x is ^! desires t inspire 8 actions2 b ! outside obs]v] p]ceives t 8 actions are su* z to realize q diff]5t ends f ^? :i* he av[s1 & t ^! diff]5t ends are su* z he might be expect$ to desire4 ,g5]ally !y are less virtu\s ?an 8 pr(ess$ desires1 & are !re=e less agreeable to pr(ess ?an ^! are4 ,x is accord+ly suppos$ t !y really exi/ z desires = ends1 b 9 a subconsci\s "p ( ! m9d1 :i* ! pati5t refuses to admit into consci\sness = fe> ( hav+ to ?9k ill ( himself4 ,!re are no d\bt _m cases to :i* su* a supposition is applicable )\t obvi\s artificiality4 ,b ! deep] ! ,freudians delve into ! und]gr\nd regions ( in/9ct1 ! fur!r !y travel f any?+ resembl+ consci\s desire1 & ! less possible x becomes to believe t only positive self-deception conceals f u t we really wi% = ?+s :i* are abhorr5t to our explicit life4 ,9 ! cases 9 "q we h a conflict betwe5 ! outside obs]v] & ! pati5t's consci\sness4 ,! :ole t5d5cy ( psy*o-analysis is to tru/ ! outside obs]v] r ?an ! te/imony ( introspection4 ,i believe ?is t5d5cy to be entirely "r1 b to dem& a re-/atem5t ( :at con/itutes desire1 exhibit+ x z a causal law ( our actions1 n z some?+ actually exi/+ 9 our m9ds4 ,b let u fir/ get a cle>] /atem5t ( ! ess5tial *>act]i/ic ( ! ph5om5a4 ,a p]son1 we f9d1 /ates t he desires a c]ta9 end ,a1 & t he is act+ ) a view to a*iev+ x4 ,we obs]ve1 h[ev]1 t 8 actions are su* z are likely to a*ieve a q diff]5t end ,b1 & t ,b is ! sort ( end t (t5 seems to be aim$ at by animals & savages1 ?\gh civiliz$ p are suppos$ to h disc>d$ x4 ,we sometimes f9d also a :ole set ( false beliefs1 ( su* a k9d z to p]suade ! pati5t t 8 actions are really a means to ,a1 :5 9 fact !y are a means to ,b4 ,= example1 we h an impulse to inflict pa9 ^u ^? :om we hate2 we !re=e believe t !y are wick$1 & t puni%m5t w re=m !m4 ,?is belief enables u to act ^u ! impulse to inflict pa91 :ile believ+ t we are act+ ^u ! desire to lead s9n]s to rep5tance4 ,x is = ?is reason t ! crim9al law has be5 9 all ages m sev]e ?an x w\ld h be5 if ! impulse to ameliorate ! crim9al _h be5 :at really inspir$ x4 ,x seems simple to expla9 su* a /ate ( affairs z due to self-deception1 b ?is explanation is (t5 my?ical4 ,mo/ p1 9 ?9k+ ab\t puni%m5t1 h _h no m ne$ to hide _! v9dictive impulses f !mselves ?an !y h _h to hide ! expon5tial !orem4 ,our impulses are n pat5t to a casual obs]vation1 b are only to be discov]$ by a sci5tific /udy ( our actions1 9 ! c\rse ( :i* we mu/ reg>d ourselves z objectively z we %\ld ! motions ( ! planets or ! *emical reactions ( a new elem5t4 ,! /udy ( animals re9=ces ?is conclusion1 & is 9 _m ways ! be/ prep>ation = ! analysis ( desire4 ,9 animals we are n tr\bl$ by ! di/urb+ influ5ce ( e?ical consid]ations4 ,9 deal+ ) human be+s1 we are p]petually di/ract$ by be+ told t su*-&-su* a view is gloomy or cynical or pessimi/ic3 ages ( human conceit h built up su* a va/ my? z to our wisdom & virtue t any intrusion ( ! m]e sci5tific desire to "k ! facts is in/antly res5t$ by ^? :o cl+ to com=table illusions4 ,b no "o c>es :e!r animals are virtu\s or n1 & no "o is "u ! delusion t !y are rational4 ,moreov]1 we d n expect !m to be s consci\s1 & are prep>$ to admit t _! in/9cts prompt useful actions )\t any prevision ( ! ends :i* !y a*ieve4 ,= all ^! reasons1 !re is mu* 9 ! analysis ( m9d :i* is m easily discov]$ by ! /udy ( animals ?an by ! obs]vation ( human be+s4 ,we all ?9k t1 by wat*+ ! behavi\r ( animals1 we c discov] m or less :at !y desire4 ,if ?is is ! case--& ,i fully agree t x is--desire mu/ be capable ( be+ exhibit$ 9 actions1 = x is only ! actions ( animals t we c obs]ve4 ,!y ,,may h m9ds 9 :i* all sorts ( ?+s take place1 b we c "k no?+ ab\t _! m9ds except by means ( inf]5ces f _! actions2 & ! m su* inf]5ces are exam9$1 ! m dubi\s !y appe>4 ,x w\ld seem1 !re=e1 t actions alone mu/ be ! te/ ( ! desires ( animals4 ,f ?is x is an easy /ep to ! conclusion t an animal's desire is no?+ b a *>act]i/ic ( a c]ta9 s]ies ( actions1 namely1 ^? :i* w\ld be commonly reg>d$ z inspir$ by ! desire 9 "q4 ,& :5 x has be5 %[n t ?is view af=ds a satisfactory acc\nt ( animal desires1 x is n difficult to see t ! same explanation is applicable to ! desires ( human be+s4 ,we judge easily f ! behavi\r ( an animal ( a famili> k9d :e!r x is hungry or ?ir/y1 or pleas$ or displeas$1 or inquisitive or t]rifi$4 ,! v]ification ( our judgm5t1 s f> z v]ification is possible1 mu/ be d]iv$ f ! imm$iately succe$+ actions ( ! animal4 ,mo/ p w\ld say t !y inf] fir/ some?+ ab\t ! animal's /ate ( m9d--:e!r x is hungry or ?ir/y & s on--& !nce d]ive _! expectations z to its subsequ5t conduct4 ,b ?is det\r ?r\gh ! animal's suppos$ m9d is :olly unnecess>y4 ,we c say simply3 ,! animal's behavi\r dur+ ! la/ m9ute has _h ^? *>act]i/ics :i* di/+ui% :at is call$ hung]1 & x is likely t its actions dur+ ! next m9ute w be simil> 9 ?is respect1 unless x f9ds food1 or is int]rupt$ by a /rong] impulse1 su* z fe>4 ,an animal :i* is hungry is re/less1 x goes to ! places :]e food is (t5 to be f\nd1 x sniffs ) its nose or pe]s ) its eyes or o!rwise increases ! s5sitiv5ess ( its s5se-organs2 z soon z x is ne> en\gh to food = its s5se-organs to be affect$1 x goes to x ) all spe$ & proce$s to eat2 aft] :i*1 if ! quantity ( food has be5 suffici5t1 its :ole demean\r *anges x may v likely lie d[n & g to sleep4 ,^! ?+s & o!rs l !m are obs]vable ph5om5a di/+ui%+ a hungry animal f "o :i* is n hungry4 ,! *>act]i/ic m>k by :i* we recognize a s]ies ( actions :i* display hung] is n ! animal's m5tal /ate1 :i* we _c obs]ve1 b some?+ 9 its bodily behavi\r2 x is ?is obs]vable trait 9 ! bodily behavi\r t ,i am propos+ to call hung]1 n "s possibly my?ical & c]ta9ly unkn[able +r$i5t ( ! animal's m9d4 ,g5]aliz+ :at occurs 9 ! case ( hung]1 we may say t :at we call a desire 9 an animal is always display$ 9 a cycle ( actions hav+ c]ta9 fairly well m>k$ *>act]i/ics4 ,!re is fir/ a /ate ( activity1 consi/+1 ) qualifications to be m5tion$ pres5tly1 ( movem5ts likely to h a c]ta9 result2 ^! movem5ts1 unless int]rupt$1 cont9ue until ! result is a*iev$1 aft] :i* !re is usually a p]iod ( comp>ative quiesc5ce4 ,a cycle ( actions ( ?is sort has m>ks by :i* x is broadly di/+ui%$ f ! motions ( dead matt]4 ,! mo/ notable ( ^! m>ks are--7#a7 ! appropriat5ess ( ! actions = ! realization ( a c]ta9 result2 7#b7 ! cont9uance ( action until t result has be5 a*iev$4 ,nei!r ( ^! c be press$ beyond a po9t4 ,ei!r may be 7a7 to "s ext5t pres5t 9 dead matt]1 & 7b7 to a consid]able ext5t abs5t 9 animals1 :ile vegetable are int]m$iate1 & display only a mu* fa9t] =m ( ! behavi\r :i* leads u to attribute desire to animals4 7a7 ,"o might say riv]s desire ! sea wat]1 r\ghly speak+1 rema9s 9 re/less motion until x rea*es ei!r ! sea or a place f :i* x _c issue )\t go+ uphill1 & !re=e we might say t ?is is :at x wi%es :ile x is fl[+4 ,we d n say s1 because we c acc\nt = ! behavi\r ( wat] by ! laws ( physics2 & if we knew m ab\t animals1 we might equally cease to attribute desires to !m1 s9ce we might f9d physical & *emical reactions suffici5t to acc\nt = _! behavi\r4 7b7 ,_m ( ! movem5ts ( animals d n exhibit ! *>act]i/ics ( ! cycles :i* seem to embody desire4 ,!re are fir/ ( all ! movem5ts :i* are me*anical1 su* z slipp+ & fall+1 :]e ord9>y physical =ces op]ate ^u ! animal's body almo/ z if x 7 dead matt]4 ,an animal :i* falls ov] a cliff may make a numb] ( desp]ate /ruggles :ile x is 9 ! air1 b its c5tre ( gravity w move exactly z x w\ld if ! animal 7 dead4 ,9 ?is case1 if ! animal is kill$ at ! end ( ! fall1 we h1 at fir/ sight1 j ! *>act]i/ics ( a cycle ( actions embody+ desire1 namely1 re/less movem5t until ! gr\nd is rea*$1 & !n quiesc5ce4 ,nev]!less1 we feel no temptation to say t ! animal desir$ :at occurr$1 p>tly because ( ! obvi\sly me*anical nature ( ! :ole occurr5ce1 p>tly because1 :5 an animal survives a fall1 x t5ds n to repeat ! exp]i5ce4 ,!re may be o!r reasons also1 b ( !m ,i d n wi% to speak yet4 ,besides me*anical movem5ts1 !re are int]rupt$ movem5ts1 z :5 a bird1 on its way to eat y\r be/ peas1 is fright5$ away by ! boy :om y are employ+ = t purpose4 ,if int]ruptions are frequ5t & completion ( cycles r>e1 ! *>act]i/ics by :i* cycles are obs]v$ may become s blurr$ z to be almo/ unrecognizable4 ,! result ( ^! v>i\s consid]ations is t ! diff]5ces betwe5 animals & dead matt]1 :5 we conf9e ourselves to ext]nal unsci5tific obs]vation ( integral behavi\r1 are a matt] ( degree & n v precise4 ,x is = ?is reason t x has always be5 possible = fanciful p to ma9ta9 t ev5 /ocks & /ones h "s vague k9d ( s\l4 ,! evid5ce t animals h s\ls is s v %aky t1 if x is assum$ to be conclusive1 "o might j z well g a /ep fur!r & ext5d ! argum5t by analogy to all matt]4 ,nev]!less1 9 spite ( vagu5ess & d\btful cases1 ! exi/5ce ( cycles 9 ! behavi\r ( animals is a broad *>act]i/ic by :i* !y are prima facie di/+ui%$ f ord9>y matt]2 & ,i ?9k x is ?is *>act]i/ic :i* leads u to attribute desires to animals1 s9ce x makes _! behavi\r resemble :at we d :5 7z we say7 we are act+ f desire4 ,i %all adopt ! foll[+ def9itions = describ+ ! behavi\r ( animals3 ,a behavi\r-cycle is a s]ies ( volunt>y or reflex movem5ts ( an animal1 t5d+ to cause a c]ta9 result1 & cont9u+ until t result is caus$1 unless !y are int]rupt$ by dea?1 accid5t1 or "s new behavi\r-cycle4 7,"h accid5t may be def9$ z ! int]v5tion ( purely physical laws caus+ me*anical movem5ts47 ,! purpose ( a behavi\r-cycle is ! result :i* br+s x to an end1 normally by a condition ( tempor>y quiesc5ce-provid$ !re is no int]ruption4 ,an animal is said to desire ! purpose ( a behavi\r cycle :ile ! behavi\r-cycle is 9 progress4 ,i believe ^! def9itions to be adequate also to human purposes & desires1 b = ! pres5t ,i am only occupi$ ) animals & ) :at c be le>nt by ext]nal obs]vation4 ,i am v anxi\s t no ideas %\ld be atta*$ to ! words purpose & desire beyond ^? involv$ 9 ! above def9itions4 ,we h n s f> consid]$ :at is ! nature ( ! initial /imulus to a behavi\r-cycle4 ,yet x is "h t ! usual view ( desire seems on ! /ronge/ gr\nd4 ,! hungry animal goes on mak+ movem5ts until x gets food2 x seems natural1 !re=e1 to suppose t ! idea ( food is pres5t ?r\gh\t ! process1 & t ! ?\ght ( ! end to be a*iev$ sets ! :ole process 9 motion4 ,su* a view1 h[ev]1 is obvi\sly unt5able 9 _m cases1 especially :]e in/9ct is conc]n$4 ,take1 = example1 reproduction & ! re>+ ( ! "y4 ,birds mate1 build a ne/1 lay eggs 9 x1 sit on ! eggs1 fe$ ! "y birds1 & c>e = !m until !y are fully gr[n4 ,x is totally impossible to suppose t ?is s]ies ( actions1 :i* con/itutes "o behavi\r-cycle1 is inspir$ by any prevision ( ! end1 at any rate ! fir/ "t x is p]=m$499 ,we mu/ suppose t ! /imulus to ! p]=mance ( ea* act is an impulsion f beh9d1 n an attraction f ! future4 ,! bird does :at x does1 at ea* /age1 because x has an impulse to t p>ticul> action1 n because x p]ceives t ! :ole cycle ( actions w contribute to ! pres]vation ( ! species4 ,! same consid]ations apply to o!r in/9cts4 ,a hungry animal feels re/less1 & is l$ by in/9ctive impulses to p]=m ! movem5ts :i* give x n\ri%m5t2 b ! act ( seek+ food is n suffici5t evid5ce f :i* to conclude t ! animal has ! ?\ght ( food 9 its m9d4 99 ,= evid5ce z to birds' ne/s1 cf4 ,semon1 ,die ,mneme1 pp4 #bji1 #baj4 ,com+ n[ to human be+s1 & to :at we "k ab\t our own actions1 x seems cle> t :at1 ) u1 sets a behavi\r-cycle 9 motion is "s s5sation ( ! sort :i* we call disagreeable4 ,take ! case ( hung]3 we h fir/ an uncom=table feel+ inside1 produc+ a dis9cl9ation to sit /ill1 a s5sitiv5ess to sav\ry smells1 & an attraction t[>ds any food t !re may be 9 our neighb\rhood4 ,at any mom5t dur+ ?is process we may become aw>e t we are hungry1 9 ! s5se ( say+ to ourselves1 ,i am hungry2 b we may h be5 act+ ) ref]5ce to food = "s "t be=e ?is mom5t4 ,:ile we are talk+ or read+1 we may eat 9 complete unconsci\sness2 b we p]=m ! actions ( eat+ j z we %\ld if we 7 consci\s1 & !y cease :5 our hung] is appeas$4 ,:at we call consci\sness seems to be a m]e spectator ( ! process2 ev5 :5 x issues ord]s1 !y are usually1 l ^? ( a wise p>5t1 j su* z w\ld h be5 obey$ ev5 if !y _h n be5 giv54 ,?is view may seem at fir/ exagg]at$1 b ! m our s-call$ volitions & _! causes are exam9$1 ! m x is =c$ ^u u4 ,! "p play$ by words 9 all ?is is complicat$1 & a pot5t s\rce ( confusions2 ,i %all return to x lat]4 ,= ! pres5t1 ,i am /ill conc]n$ ) primitive desire1 z x exi/s 9 man1 b 9 ! =m 9 :i* man %[s 8 aff9ity to 8 animal ance/ors4 ,consci\s desire is made up p>tly ( :at is ess5tial to desire1 p>tly ( beliefs z to :at we want4 ,x is important to be cle> z to ! "p :i* does n consi/ ( beliefs4 ,! primitive non-cognitive elem5t 9 desire seems to be a pu%1 n a pull1 an impulsion away f ! actual1 r ?an an attraction t[>ds ! ideal4 ,c]ta9 s5sations & o!r m5tal occurr5ces h a prop]ty :i* we call discom=t2 ^! cause su* bodily movem5ts z are likely to lead to _! cessation4 ,:5 ! discom=t ceases1 or ev5 :5 x appreciably dim9i%es1 we h s5sations possess+ a prop]ty :i* we call ,,pleasure4 ,pleasurable s5sations ei!r /imulate no action at all1 or at mo/ /imulate su* action z is likely to prolong !m4 ,i %all return %ortly to ! consid]ation ( :at discom=t & pleasure are 9 !mselves2 = ! pres5t1 x is _! connection ) action & desire t conc]ns u4 ,ab&on+ mom5t>ily ! /&po9t ( behavi\rism1 we may presume t hungry animals exp]i5ce s5sations involv+ discom=t1 & /imulat+ su* movem5ts z seem likely to br+ !m to ! food :i* is outside ! cages4 ,:5 !y h rea*$ ! food & eat5 x1 _! discom=t ceases & _! s5sations become pleasurable4 ,x ,,seems1 mi/ak5ly1 z if ! animals _h _h ?is situation 9 m9d ?r\gh\t1 :5 9 fact !y h be5 cont9ually pu%$ by discom=t4 ,& :5 an animal is reflective1 l "s m51 x comes to ?9k t x _h ! f9al situation 9 m9d ?r\gh\t2 sometimes x comes to "k :at situation w br+ satisfaction1 s t 9 fact ! discom=t does br+ ! ?\ght ( :at w allay x4 ,nev]!less ! s5sation involv+ discom=t rema9s ! prime mov]4 ,?is br+s u to ! "q ( ! nature ( discom=t & pleasure4 ,s9ce ,kant x has be5 cu/om>y to recognize ?ree great divisions ( m5tal ph5om5a1 :i* are typifi$ by k1 desire & feel+1 :]e feel+ is us$ to mean pleasure & discom=t4 ,( c\rse1 k is too def9ite a ^w3 ! /ates ( m9d conc]n$ are gr\p$ toge!r z cognitive1 & are to embrace n only beliefs1 b p]ceptions1 d\bts1 & ! und]/&+ ( concepts4 ,desire1 also1 is n>r[] ?an :at is int5d$3 = example1 ,,w is to be includ$ 9 ?is category1 & 9 fact e ?+ t involves any k9d ( /riv+1 or conation z x is te*nically call$4 ,i d n myself believe t !re is any value 9 ?is ?reefold division ( ! cont5ts ( m9d4 ,i believe t s5sations 7includ+ images7 supply all ! /uff ( ! m9d1 & t ev]y?+ else c be analys$ into gr\ps ( s5sations relat$ 9 v>i\s ways1 or *>act]i/ics ( s5sations or ( gr\ps ( s5sations4 ,z reg>ds belief1 ,i %all give gr\nds = ?is view 9 lat] lectures4 ,z reg>ds desires1 ,i h giv5 "s gr\nds 9 ?is lecture4 ,= ! pres5t1 x is pleasure & discom=t t conc]n u4 ,!re are broadly ?ree !ories t might be held 9 reg>d to !m4 ,we may reg>d !m z sep>ate exi/+ items 9 ^? :o exp]i5ce !m1 or we may reg>d !m z intr9sic qualities ( s5sations & o!r m5tal occurr5ces1 or we may reg>d !m z m]e names = ! causal *>act]i/ics ( ! occurr5ces :i* are uncom=table or pleasant4 ,! fir/ ( ^! !ories1 namely1 t :i* reg>ds discom=t & pleasure z actual cont5ts 9 ^? :o exp]i5ce !m1 has1 ,i ?9k1 no?+ conclusive to be said 9 its fav\r499 ,x is sugge/$ *iefly by an ambiguity 9 ! ^w pa91 :i* has misl$ _m p1 includ+ ,b]keley1 :om x suppli$ ) "o ( 8 argum5ts = subjective idealism4 ,we may use pa9 z ! opposite ( pleasure1 & pa9ful z ! opposite ( pleasant1 or we may use pa9 to mean a c]ta9 sort ( s5sation1 on a level ) ! s5sations ( heat & cold & t\*4 ,! latt] use ( ! ^w has prevail$ 9 psy*ological lit]ature1 & x is n[ no long] us$ z ! opposite ( pleasure4 ,dr4 ,h4 ,head1 9 a rec5t publication1 has /at$ ?is di/9ction z foll[s39999 99 ,v>i\s argum5ts 9 its fav\r are advanc$ by ,a4 ,wohlgemu?1 ,on ! feel+s & _! neural correlate1 ) an exam9ation ( ! nature ( pa91 ,briti% ,j\rnal ( ,psy*ology1 viii1 #d4 7#aiag74 ,b z ^! argum5ts are l>gely a r$uctio ad absurdum ( o!r !ories1 among :i* t :i* ,i am advocat+ is n includ$1 ,i _c reg>d !m z e/abli%+ _! cont5tion4 9999 ,s5sation & ! ,c]ebral ,cortex1 ,bra91 vol4 xli1 "p ii 7,septemb]1 #aiah71 p4 #ij4 ,cf4 also ,wohlgemu?1 loc4 cit4 pp4 #dcg1 #dej4 ,x is necess>y at ! outset to di/+ui% cle>ly betwe5 'discom=t' & 'pa94' ,pa9 is a di/9ct s5sory quality equival5t to heat & cold1 & its int5sity c be r\ghly grad$ accord+ to ! =ce exp5d$ 9 /imulation4 ,discom=t1 on ! o!r h&1 is t feel+-tone :i* is directly oppos$ to pleasure4 ,x may accompany s5sations n 9 !mselves ess5tially pa9ful2 z = in/ance t produc$ by tickl+ ! sole ( ! foot4 ,! reaction produc$ by repeat$ prick+ conta9s bo? ^! elem5ts2 = x evokes t s5sory quality kn[n z pa91 accompani$ by a disagreeable feel+-tone1 :i* we h call$ discom=t4 ,on ! o!r h&1 excessive pressure1 except :5 appli$ directly ov] "s n]ve-trunk1 t5ds to excite m discom=t ?an pa94 ,! confusion betwe5 discom=t & pa9 has made p reg>d discom=t z a m sub/antial ?+ ?an x is1 & ?is 9 turn has react$ ^u ! view tak5 ( pleasure1 s9ce discom=t & pleasure are evid5tly on a level 9 ?is respect4 ,z soon z discom=t is cle>ly di/+ui%$ f ! s5sation ( pa91 x becomes m natural to reg>d discom=t & pleasure z prop]ties ( m5tal occurr5ces ?an to reg>d !m z sep>ate m5tal occurr5ces on _! own acc\nt4 ,i %all !re=e dismiss ! view t !y are sep>ate m5tal occurr5ces1 & reg>d !m z prop]ties ( su* exp]i5ces z w\ld be call$ respectively uncom=table & pleasant4 ,x rema9s to be exam9$ :e!r !y are actual qualities ( su* occurr5ces1 or are m]ely diff]5ces z to causal prop]ties4 ,i d n myself see any way ( decid+ ?is "q2 ei!r view seems equally capable ( acc\nt+ = ! facts4 ,if ?is is true1 x is saf] to avoid ! assumption t !re are su* intr9sic qualities ( m5tal occurr5ces z are 9 "q1 & to assume only ! causal diff]5ces :i* are und5iable4 ,)\t condemn+ ! intr9sic !ory1 we c def9e discom=t & pleasure z consi/+ 9 causal prop]ties1 & say only :at w hold on ei!r ( ! two !ories4 ,foll[+ ?is c\rse1 we %all say3 ,discom=t is a prop]ty ( a s5sation or o!r m5tal occurr5ce1 consi/+ 9 ! fact t ! occurr5ce 9 "q /imulates volunt>y or reflex movem5ts t5d+ to produce "s m or less def9ite *ange involv+ ! cessation ( ! occurr5ce4 ,pleasure is a prop]ty ( a s5sation or o!r m5tal occurr5ce1 consi/+ 9 ! fact t ! occurr5ce 9 "q ei!r does n /imulate any volunt>y or reflex movem5t1 or1 if x does1 /imulates only su* z t5d to prolong ! occurr5ce 9 "q499 99 ,cf4 ,?orndike1 op4 cit41 p4 #bdc4 ,consci\s desire1 :i* we h n[ to consid]1 consi/s ( desire 9 ! s5se hi!rto discuss$1 toge!r ) a true belief z to its purpose1 i4e4 z to ! /ate ( affairs t w br+ quiesc5ce ) cessation ( ! discom=t4 ,if our !ory ( desire is correct1 a belief z to its purpose may v well be errone\s1 s9ce only exp]i5ce c %[ :at causes a discom=t to cease4 ,:5 ! exp]i5ce ne$$ is common & simple1 z 9 ! case ( hung]1 a mi/ake is n v probable4 ,b 9 o!r cases--e4g4 erotic desire 9 ^? :o h _h little or no exp]i5ce ( its satisfaction--mi/akes are to be expect$1 & d 9 fact v (t5 occur4 ,! practice ( inhibit+ impulses1 :i* is to a great ext5t necess>y to civiliz$ life1 makes mi/akes easi]1 by prev5t+ exp]i5ce ( ! actions to :i* a desire w\ld o!rwise lead1 & by (t5 caus+ ! inhibit$ impulses !mselves to be unnotic$ or quickly =gott54 ,! p]fectly natural mi/akes :i* ?us arise con/itute a l>ge proportion ( :at is1 mi/ak5ly 9 "p1 call$ self-deception1 & attribut$ by ,freud to ! c5sor4 ,b !re is a fur!r po9t :i* ne$s emphasiz+1 namely1 t a belief t some?+ is desir$ has (t5 a t5d5cy to cause ! v desire t is believ$ 94 ,x is ?is fact t makes ! effect ( consci\sness on desire s complicat$4 ,:5 we believe t we desire a c]ta9 /ate ( affairs1 t (t5 t5ds to cause a real desire = x4 ,?is is due p>tly to ! influ5ce ( words ^u our emotions1 9 rhetoric = example1 & p>tly to ! g5]al fact t discom=t normally belongs to ! belief t we desire su*-&-su* a ?+ t we d n possess4 ,?us :at 0 orig9ally a false op9ion z to ! object ( a desire acquires a c]ta9 tru?3 ! false op9ion g5]ates a second>y subsidi>y desire1 :i* nev]!less becomes real4 ,let u take an illu/ration4 ,suppose y h be5 jilt$ 9 a way :i* w\nds y\r vanity4 ,y\r natural impulsive desire w be ( ! sort express$ 9 ,donne's poem3 ,:5 by ?y scorn1 ,o ,murd]ess1 ,i am dead1 9 :i* he expla9s h[ he w haunt ! poor lady z a gho/1 & prev5t h] f enjoy+ a mom5t's peace4 ,b two ?+s /& 9 ! way ( y\r express+ y\rself s naturally3 on ! "o h&1 y\r vanity1 :i* w n ackn[l$ge h[ h>d y are hit2 on ! o!r h&1 y\r conviction t y are a civiliz$ & humane p]son1 :o c\ld n possibly indulge s crude a desire z rev5ge4 ,y w !re=e exp]i5ce a re/lessness :i* w at fir/ seem q aimless1 b w f9ally resolve itself 9 a consci\s desire to *ange y\r pr(ession1 or g r\nd ! _w1 or conceal y\r id5tity & live 9 ,putney1 l ,arnold ,b5nett's h]o4 ,al?\gh ! prime cause ( ?is desire is a false judgm5t z to y\r previ\s unconsci\s desire1 yet ! new consci\s desire has its own d]ivative g5u95ess1 & may influ5ce y\r actions to ! ext5t ( s5d+ y r\nd ! _w4 ,! initial mi/ake1 h[ev]1 w h effects ( two k9ds4 ,fir/1 9 uncontroll$ mom5ts1 "u ! influ5ce ( sleep9ess or dr9k or delirium1 y w say ?+s calculat$ to injure ! fai?less deceiv]4 ,secondly1 y w f9d travel disappo9t+1 & ! ,ea/ less fasc9at+ ?an y _h hop$--unless1 "s day1 y he> t ! wick$ "o has 9 turn be5 jilt$4 ,if ?is happ5s1 y w believe t y feel s9c]e sympa?y1 b y w sudd5ly be mu* m delight$ ?an be=e ) ! beauties ( tropical isl&s or ! wond]s ( ,*9ese art4 ,a second>y desire1 d]iv$ f a false judgm5t z to a prim>y desire1 has its own p[] ( influ5c+ action1 & is !re=e a real desire accord+ to our def9ition4 ,b x has n ! same p[] z a prim>y desire ( br++ ?or\gh satisfaction :5 x is realiz$2 s long z ! prim>y desire rema9s unsatisfi$1 re/lessness cont9ues 9 spite ( ! second>y desire's success4 ,h5ce arises a belief 9 ! vanity ( human wi%es3 ! va9 wi%es are ^? t are second>y1 b mi/ak5 beliefs prev5t u f realiz+ t !y are second>y4 ,:at may1 ) "s propriety1 be call$ self-deception arises ?r\gh ! op]ation ( desires = beliefs4 ,we desire _m ?+s :i* x is n 9 our p[] to a*ieve3 t we %\ld be univ]sally popul> & admir$1 t our "w %\ld be ! wond] ( ! age1 & t ! univ]se %\ld be s ord]$ z to br+ ultimate happ9ess to all1 ?\gh n to our enemies until !y h rep5t$ & be5 purifi$ by suff]+4 ,su* desires are too l>ge to be a*iev$ ?r\gh our own ef=ts4 ,b x is f\nd t a consid]able portion ( ! satisfaction :i* ^! ?+s w\ld br+ u if !y 7 realiz$ is to be a*iev$ by ! mu* easi] op]ation ( believ+ t !y are or w be realiz$4 ,?is desire = beliefs1 z oppos$ to desire = ! actual facts1 is a p>ticul> case ( second>y desire1 &1 l all second>y desire its satisfaction does n lead to a complete cessation ( ! initial discom=t4 ,nev]!less1 desire = beliefs1 z oppos$ to desire = facts1 is exce$+ly pot5t bo? individually & socially4 ,accord+ to ! =m ( belief desir$1 x is call$ vanity1 optimism1 or religion4 ,^? :o h suffici5t p[] usually imprison or put to dea? any "o :o tries to %ake _! fai? 9 _! own excell5ce or 9 t ( ! univ]se2 x is = ?is reason t s$iti\s libel & blasphemy h always be51 & /ill are1 crim9al (f5ces4 ,x is v l>gely ?r\gh desires = beliefs t ! primitive nature ( desire has become s hidd51 & t ! "p play$ by consci\sness has be5 s confus+ & s exagg]at$4 ,we may n[ summ>ize our analysis ( desire & feel+4 ,a m5tal occurr5ce ( any k9d--s5sation1 image1 belief1 or emotion--may be a cause ( a s]ies ( actions1 cont9u+1 unless int]rupt$1 until "s m or less def9ite /ate ( affairs is realiz$4 ,su* a s]ies ( actions we call a behavi\r-cycle4 ,! degree ( def9it5ess may v>y greatly3 hung] requires only food 9 g5]al1 :]eas ! sight ( a p>ticul> piece ( food raises a desire :i* requires ! eat+ ( t piece ( food4 ,! prop]ty ( caus+ su* a cycle ( occurr5ces is call$ discom=t2 ! prop]ty ( ! m5tal occurr5ces 9 :i* ! cycle ends is call$ pleasure4 ,! actions con/itut+ ! cycle mu/ n be purely me*anical1 i4e4 !y mu/ be bodily movem5ts 9 ^: causation ! special prop]ties ( n]v\s tissue are involv$4 ,! cycle ends 9 a condition ( quiesc5ce1 or ( su* action z t5ds only to pres]ve ! /atus quo4 ,! /ate ( affairs 9 :i* ?is condition ( quiesc5ce is a*iev$ is call$ ! purpose ( ! cycle1 & ! initial m5tal occurr5ce involv+ discom=t is call$ a desire = ! /ate ( affairs t br+s quiesc5ce4 ,a desire is call$ consci\s :5 x is accompani$ by a true belief z to ! /ate ( affairs t w br+ quiesc5ce2 o!rwise x is call$ unconsci\s4 ,all primitive desire is unconsci\s1 & 9 human be+s beliefs z to ! purposes ( desires are (t5 mi/ak54 ,^! mi/ak5 beliefs g5]ate second>y desires1 :i* cause v>i\s int]e/+ complications 9 ! psy*ology ( human desire1 )\t fundam5tally alt]+ ! "* :i* x %>es ) animal desire4 ,,lecture ,,iv4 ,,influ5ce ,,( ,,pa/ ,,hi/ory ,,on ,,pres5t ,,occurr5ces ,,9 ,,liv+ ,,organisms ,9 ?is lecture we %all be conc]n$ ) a v g5]al *>act]i/ic :i* broadly1 ?\gh n absolutely1 di/+ui%es ! behavi\r ( liv+ organisms f t ( dead matt]4 ,! *>act]i/ic 9 "q is ?is3 ,! response ( an organism to a giv5 /imulus is v (t5 dep5d5t ^u ! pa/ hi/ory ( ! organism1 & n m]ely ^u ! /imulus & ! ,,hi!rto ,,discov]able pres5t /ate ( ! organism4 ,?is *>act]i/ic is embodi$ 9 ! say+ a burnt *ild fe>s ! fire4 ,! burn may h left no visible traces1 yet x modifies ! reaction ( ! *ild 9 ! pres5ce ( fire4 ,x is cu/om>y to assume t1 9 su* cases1 ! pa/ op]ates by modify+ ! /ructure ( ! bra91 n directly4 ,i h no wi% to sugge/ t ?is hypo!sis is false2 ,i wi% only to po9t out t x is a hypo!sis4 ,at ! end ( ! pres5t lecture ,i %all exam9e ! gr\nds 9 its fav\r4 ,if we conf9e ourselves to facts :i* h be5 actually obs]v$1 we mu/ say t pa/ occurr5ces1 9 addition to ! pres5t /imulus & ! pres5t asc]ta9able condition ( ! organism1 ent] into ! causation ( ! response4 ,! *>act]i/ic is n :olly conf9$ to liv+ organisms4 ,= example1 magnetiz$ /eel looks j l /eel :i* has n be5 magnetiz$1 b its behavi\r is 9 "s ways diff]5t4 ,9 ! case ( dead matt]1 h[ev]1 su* ph5om5a are less frequ5t & important ?an 9 ! case ( liv+ organisms1 & x is f> less difficult to inv5t satisfactory hypo!ses z to ! microscopic *anges ( /ructure :i* m$iate betwe5 ! pa/ occurr5ce & ! pres5t *ang$ response4 ,9 ! case ( liv+ organisms1 practically ev]y?+ t is di/9ctive bo? ( _! physical & ( _! m5tal behavi\r is b\nd up ) ?is p]si/5t influ5ce ( ! pa/4 ,fur!r1 speak+ broadly1 ! *ange 9 response is usually ( a k9d t is biologically advantage\s to ! organism4 ,foll[+ a sugge/ion d]iv$ f ,semon 7,die ,mneme1 ,leipzig1 #aijd2 #bnd edition1 #aijh1 ,engli% translation1 ,all5 ,unw91 #aiba2 ,die mnemis*5 ,empf9dung51 ,leipzig1 #aiji71 we w give ! "n ( mnemic ph5om5a to ^? responses ( an organism :i*1 s f> z hi!rto obs]v$ facts are conc]n$1 c only be br\ght "u causal laws by includ+ pa/ occurr5ces 9 ! hi/ory ( ! organism z "p ( ! causes ( ! pres5t response4 ,i d n mean m]ely--:at w\ld always be ! case--t pa/ occurr5ces are "p ( a ,,*a9 ( causes lead+ to ! pres5t ev5t4 ,i mean t1 9 attempt+ to /ate ! ,,proximate cause ( ! pres5t ev5t1 "s pa/ ev5t or ev5ts mu/ be includ$1 unless we take refuge 9 hypo!tical modifications ( bra9 /ructure4 ,= example3 y smell peat-smoke1 & y recall "s occasion :5 y smelt x be=e4 ,! cause ( y\r recollection1 s f> z hi!rto obs]vable ph5om5a are conc]n$1 consi/s bo? ( ! peat smoke 7pres5t /imulus7 & ( ! =m] occasion 7pa/ exp]i5ce74 ,! same /imulus w n produce ! same recollection 9 ano!r man :o did n %>e y\r =m] exp]i5ce1 al?\gh ! =m] exp]i5ce left no ,,obs]vable traces 9 ! /ructure ( ! bra94 ,accord+ to ! maxim same cause1 same effect1 we _c !re=e reg>d ! peat-smoke alone z ! cause ( y\r recollection1 s9ce x does n h ! same effect 9 o!r cases4 ,! cause ( y\r recollection mu/ be bo? ! peat-smoke & ! pa/ occurr5ce4 ,accord+ly y\r recollection is an in/ance ( :at we are call+ mnemic ph5om5a4 ,be=e go+ fur!r1 x w be well to give illu/rations ( diff]5t classes ( mnemic ph5om5a4 7a7 ,,acquir$ ,,habits4--,9 ,lecture ,,ii we saw h[ animals c le>n by exp]i5ce h[ to get out ( cages or mazes1 or p]=m o!r actions :i* are useful to !m b n provid$ = by _! in/9cts alone4 ,a cat :i* is put into a cage ( :i* x has _h exp]i5ce behaves diff]5tly f ! way 9 :i* x behav$ at fir/4 ,we c easily inv5t hypo!ses1 :i* are q likely to be true1 z to connections 9 ! bra9 caus$ by pa/ exp]i5ce1 & !mselves caus+ ! diff]5t response4 ,b ! obs]vable fact is t ! /imulus ( be+ 9 ! cage produces diff]+ results ) repetition1 & t ! asc]ta9able cause ( ! cat's behavi\r is n m]ely ! cage & its own asc]ta9able organization1 b also its pa/ hi/ory 9 reg>d to ! cage4 ,f our pres5t po9t ( view1 ! matt] is indep5d5t ( ! "q :e!r ! cat's behavi\r is due to "s m5tal fact call$ k1 or displays a m]ely bodily habit4 ,our habitual k is n always 9 our m9ds1 b is call$ up by ! appropriate /imuli4 ,if we are ask$ ,:at is ! capital ( ,france8 we answ] ,p>is1 because ( pa/ exp]i5ce2 ! pa/ exp]i5ce is z ess5tial z ! pres5t "q 9 ! causation ( our response4 ,?us all our habitual k consi/s ( acquir$ habits1 & comes "u ! head ( mnemic ph5om5a4 7b7 ,,images4--,i %all h mu* to say ab\t images 9 a lat] lecture2 = ! pres5t ,i am m]ely conc]n$ ) !m 9 s f> z !y are copies ( pa/ s5sations4 ,:5 y he> ,new ,york spok5 (1 "s image probably comes into y\r m9d1 ei!r ( ! place itself 7if y h be5 !re71 or ( "s picture ( x 7if y h n74 ,! image is due to y\r pa/ exp]i5ce1 z well z to ! pres5t /imulus ( ! words ,new ,york4 ,simil>ly1 ! images y h 9 dreams are all dep5d5t ^u y\r pa/ exp]i5ce1 z well z ^u ! pres5t /imulus to dream+4 ,x is g5]ally believ$ t all images1 9 _! simpl] p>ts1 are copies ( s5sations2 if s1 _! mnemic "* is evid5t4 ,?is is important1 n only on its own acc\nt1 b also because1 z we %all see lat]1 images play an ess5tial "p 9 :at is call$ ?9k+4 7c7 ,,association4--,! broad fact ( association1 on ! m5tal side1 is t :5 we exp]i5ce some?+ :i* we h exp]i5c$ be=e1 x t5ds to call up ! context ( ! =m] exp]i5ce4 ,! smell ( peat-smoke recall+ a =m] sc5e is an in/ance :i* we discuss$ a mom5t ago4 ,?is is obvi\sly a mnemic ph5om5on4 ,!re is also a m purely physical association1 :i* is indi/+ui%able f physical habit4 ,?is is ! k9d /udi$ by ,mr4 ,?orndike 9 animals1 :]e a c]ta9 /imulus is associat$ ) a c]ta9 act4 ,?is is ! sort :i* is taught to soldi]s 9 drill+1 = example4 ,9 su* a case !re ne$ n be any?+ m5tal1 b m]ely a habit ( ! body4 ,!re is no ess5tial di/9ction betwe5 association & habit1 & ! obs]vations :i* we made conc]n+ habit z a mnemic ph5om5on are equally applicable to association4 7d7 ,,non-,,s5sational ,,elem5ts ,,9 ,,p]ception4--,:5 we p]ceive any object ( a famili> k9d1 mu* ( :at appe>s subjectively to be imm$iately giv5 is really d]iv$ f pa/ exp]i5ce4 ,:5 we see an object1 say a p5ny1 we seem to be aw>e ( its real %ape we h ! impression ( some?+ circul>1 n ( some?+ elliptical4 ,9 le>n+ to draw1 x is necess>y to acquire ! art ( repres5t+ ?+s accord+ to ! s5sation1 n accord+ to ! p]ception4 ,& ! visual appe>ance is fill$ out ) feel+ ( :at ! object w\ld be l to t\*1 & s on4 ,?is fill+ out & supply+ ( ! real %ape & s on consi/s ( ! mo/ usual correlates ( ! s5sational core 9 our p]ception4 ,x may happ5 t1 9 ! p>ticul> case1 ! real correlates are unusual2 = example1 if :at we are see+ is a c>pet made to look l tiles4 ,if s1 ! non-s5sational "p ( our p]ception w be illusory1 i4e4 x w supply qualities :i* ! object 9 "q does n 9 fact h4 ,b z a rule objects d h ! qualities add$ by p]ception1 :i* is to be expect$1 s9ce exp]i5ce ( :at is usual is ! cause ( ! addition4 ,if our exp]i5ce _h be5 diff]5t1 we %\ld n fill out s5sation 9 ! same way1 except 9 s f> z ! fill+ out is in/9ctive1 n acquir$4 ,x w\ld seem t1 9 man1 all t makes up space p]ception1 includ+ ! correlation ( sight & t\* & s on1 is almo/ entirely acquir$4 ,9 t case !re is a l>ge mnemic elem5t 9 all ! common p]ceptions by means ( :i* we h&le common objects4 ,&1 to take ano!r k9d ( in/ance1 imag9e :at our a/oni%m5t w\ld be if we 7 to he> a cat b>k or a dog mew4 ,?is emotion w\ld be dep5d5t ^u pa/ exp]i5ce1 & w\ld !re=e be a mnemic ph5om5on accord+ to ! def9ition4 7e7 ,,memory ,,z ,,k4--,! k9d ( memory ( :i* ,i am n[ speak+ is def9ite k ( "s pa/ ev5t 9 "o's own exp]i5ce4 ,f "t to "t we rememb] ?+s t h happ5$ to u1 because some?+ 9 ! pres5t rem9ds u ( !m4 ,exactly ! same pres5t fact w\ld n call up ! same memory if our pa/ exp]i5ce _h be5 diff]5t4 ,?us our rememb]+ is caus$ by-- 7#a7 ,! pres5t /imulus1 7#b7 ,! pa/ occurr5ce4 ,x is !re=e a mnemic ph5om5on accord+ to our def9ition4 ,a def9ition ( mnemic ph5om5a :i* did n include memory w\ld1 ( c\rse1 be a bad "o4 ,! po9t ( ! def9ition is n t x includes memory1 b t x includes x z "o ( a class ( ph5om5a :i* embrace all t is *>act]i/ic 9 ! subject matt] ( psy*ology4 7f7 ,,exp]i5ce4--,! ^w exp]i5ce is (t5 us$ v vaguely4 ,james1 z we saw1 uses x to cov] ! :ole primal /uff ( ! _w1 b ?is usage seems objection able1 s9ce1 9 a purely physical _w1 ?+s w\ld happ5 )\t !re be+ any exp]i5ce4 ,x is only mnemic ph5om5a t embody exp]i5ce4 ,we may say t an animal exp]i5ces an occurr5ce :5 ?is occurr5ce modifies ! animal's subsequ5t behavi\r1 i4e4 :5 x is ! mnemic portion ( ! cause ( future occurr5ces 9 ! animal's life4 ,! burnt *ild t fe>s ! fire has exp]i5c$ ! fire1 :]eas a /ick t has be5 ?r[n on & tak5 (f aga9 has n exp]i5c$ any?+1 s9ce x (f]s no m resi/ance ?an be=e to be+ ?r[n on4 ,! ess5ce ( exp]i5ce is ! modification ( behavi\r produc$ by :at is exp]i5c$4 ,we might1 9 fact1 def9e "o *a9 ( exp]i5ce1 or "o biography1 z a s]ies ( occurr5ces l9k$ by mnemic causation4 ,i ?9k x is ?is *>act]i/ic1 m ?an any o!r1 t di/+ui%es sci5ces deal+ ) liv+ organisms f physics4 ,! be/ writ] on mnemic ph5om5a kn[n to me is ,ri*>d ,semon1 ! fundam5tal "p ( ^: !ory ,i %all endeav\r to summ>ize be=e go+ fur!r3 ,:5 an organism1 ei!r animal or plant1 is subject$ to a /imulus1 produc+ 9 x "s /ate ( excitem5t1 ! removal ( ! /imulus all[s x to return to a condition ( equilibrium4 ,b ! new /ate ( equilibrium is diff]5t f ! old1 z may be se5 by ! *ang$ capacity = reaction4 ,! /ate ( equilibrium be=e ! /imulus may be call$ ! prim>y indiff]5ce-/ate2 t aft] ! cessation ( ! /imulus1 ! second>y indiff]5ce-/ate4 ,we def9e ! engraphic effect ( a /imulus z ! effect 9 mak+ a diff]5ce betwe5 ! prim>y & second>y indiff]5ce-/ates1 & ?is diff]5ce itself we def9e z ! engram due to ! /imulus4 ,mnemic ph5om5a are def9$ z ^? due to engrams2 9 animals1 !y are specially associat$ ) ! n]v\s sy/em1 b n exclusively1 ev5 9 man4 ,:5 two /imuli occur toge!r1 "o ( !m1 occurr+ aft]w>ds1 may call out ! reaction = ! o!r also4 ,we call ?is an ekphoric influ5ce1 & /imuli hav+ ?is "* are call$ ekphoric /imuli4 ,9 su* a case we call ! engrams ( ! two /imuli associat$4 ,all simultane\sly g5]at$ engrams are associat$2 !re is also association ( successively ar\s$ engrams1 ?\gh ?is is r$ucible to simultane\s association4 ,9 fact1 x is n an isolat$ /imulus t leaves an engram1 b ! totality ( ! /imuli at any mom5t2 consequ5tly any portion ( ?is totality t5ds1 if x recurs1 to ar\se ! :ole reaction :i* 0 ar\s$ be=e4 ,semon holds t engrams c be inh]it$1 & t an animal's innate habits may be due to ! exp]i5ce ( its ance/ors2 on ?is subject he ref]s to ,samuel ,butl]4 ,semon =mulates two mnemic pr9ciples4 ,! fir/1 or ,law ( ,engraphy1 is z foll[s3 ,all simultane\s excitem5ts 9 an organism =m a connect$ simultane\s excitem5t-complex1 :i* z su* works engraphically1 i4e4 leaves beh9d a connect$ engram-complex1 :i* 9 s f> =ms a :ole 7,die mnemis*5 ,empf9dung51 p4 #adf74 ,! second mnemic pr9ciple1 or ,law ( ,ekphory1 is z foll[s3 ,! p>tial return ( ! en]getic situation :i* =m]ly work$ engraphically op]ates ekphorically on a simultane\s engram-complex 7ib41 p4 #agc74 ,^! two laws toge!r repres5t 9 "p a hypo!sis 7! engram71 & 9 "p an obs]vable fact4 ,! obs]vable fact is t1 :5 a c]ta9 complex ( /imuli has orig9ally caus$ a c]ta9 complex ( reactions1 ! recurr5ce ( "p ( ! /imuli t5ds to cause ! recurr5ce ( ! :ole ( ! reactions4 ,semon's applications ( 8 fundam5tal ideas 9 v>i\s directions are int]e/+ & +5i\s4 ,"s ( !m w conc]n u lat]1 b = ! pres5t x is ! fundam5tal "* ( mnemic ph5om5a t is 9 "q4 ,conc]n+ ! nature ( an engram1 ,semon confesses t at pres5t x is impossible to say m ?an t x mu/ consi/ 9 "s mat]ial alt]ation 9 ! body ( ! organism 7,die mnemis*5 ,empf9dung51 p4 #cgf74 ,x is1 9 fact1 hypo!tical1 invok$ = !oretical uses1 & n an outcome ( direct obs]vation4 ,no d\bt physiology1 especially ! di/urbances ( memory ?r\gh lesions 9 ! bra91 af=ds gr\nds = ?is hypo!sis2 nev]!less x does rema9 a hypo!sis1 ! validity ( :i* w be discuss$ at ! end ( ?is lecture4 ,i am incl9$ to ?9k t1 9 ! pres5t /ate ( physiology1 ! introduction ( ! engram does n s]ve to simplify ! acc\nt ( mnemic ph5om5a4 ,we c1 ,i ?9k1 =mulate ! kn[n laws ( su* ph5om5a 9 t]ms1 :olly1 ( obs]vable facts1 by recogniz+ provisionally :at we may call mnemic causation4 ,by ?is ,i mean t k9d ( causation ( :i* ,i spoke at ! beg9n+ ( ?is lecture1 t k9d1 namely1 9 :i* ! proximate cause consi/s n m]ely ( a pres5t ev5t1 b ( ?is toge!r ) a pa/ ev5t4 ,i d n wi% to urge t ?is =m ( causation is ultimate1 b t1 9 ! pres5t /ate ( our k1 x af=ds a simplification1 & enables u to /ate laws ( behavi\r 9 less hypo!tical t]ms ?an we %\ld o!rwise h to employ4 ,! cle>e/ in/ance ( :at ,i mean is recollection ( a pa/ ev5t4 ,:at we obs]ve is t c]ta9 pres5t /imuli lead u to recollect c]ta9 occurr5ces1 b t at times :5 we are n recollect+ !m1 !re is no?+ discov]able 9 our m9ds t c\ld be call$ memory ( !m4 ,memories1 z m5tal facts1 arise f "t to "t1 b d n1 s f> z we c see1 exi/ 9 any %ape :ile !y are lat5t4 ,9 fact1 :5 we say t !y are lat5t1 we mean m]ely t !y w exi/ "u c]ta9 circum/ances4 ,if1 !n1 !re is to be "s /&+ diff]5ce betwe5 ! p]son :o c rememb] a c]ta9 fact & ! p]son :o _c1 t /&+ diff]5ce mu/ be1 n 9 any?+ m5tal1 b 9 ! bra94 ,x is q probable t !re is su* a diff]5ce 9 ! bra91 b its nature is unkn[n & x rema9s hypo!tical4 ,ev]y?+ t has1 s f>1 be5 made matt] ( obs]vation z reg>ds ?is "q c be put toge!r 9 ! /atem5t3 ,:5 a c]ta9 complex ( s5sations has occurr$ to a man1 ! recurr5ce ( "p ( ! complex t5ds to ar\se ! recollection ( ! :ole4 ,9 l mann]1 we c collect all mnemic ph5om5a 9 liv+ organisms "u a s+le law1 :i* conta9s :at is hi!rto v]ifiable 9 ,semon's two laws4 ,?is s+le law is3 ,,if ,a ,,complex ,,/imulus ,a ,,has ,,caus$ ,a ,,complex ,,reaction ,b ,,9 ,,an ,,organism1 ,,! ,,occurr5ce ,,( ,a ,,"p ,,( ,a ,,on ,a ,,future ,,occasion ,,t5ds ,,to ,,cause ,,! ,,:ole ,,reaction ,b4 ,?is law w\ld ne$ to be supplem5t$ by "s acc\nt ( ! influ5ce ( frequ5cy1 & s on2 b x seems to conta9 ! ess5tial *>act]i/ic ( mnemic ph5om5a1 )\t admixture ( any?+ hypo!tical4 ,:5ev] ! effect result+ f a /imulus to an organism diff]s accord+ to ! pa/ hi/ory ( ! organism1 )\t our be+ able actually to detect any relevant diff]5ce 9 its pres5t /ructure1 we w speak ( mnemic causation1 provid$ we c discov] laws embody+ ! influ5ce ( ! pa/4 ,9 ord9>y physical causation1 z x appe>s to common s5se1 we h approximate uni=mities ( sequ5ce1 su* z lightn+ is foll[$ by ?und]1 drunk5ness is foll[$ by heada*e1 & s on4 ,none ( ^! sequ5ces are !oretically inv>iable1 s9ce some?+ may int]v5e to di/urb !m4 ,9 ord] to obta9 inv>iable physical laws1 we h to proce$ to diff]5tial equations1 %[+ ! direction ( *ange at ea* mom5t1 n ! integral *ange aft] a f9ite int]val1 h[ev] %ort4 ,b = ! purposes ( daily life _m sequ5ces are to all 9 t5ts & purposes inv>iable4 ,) ! behavi\r ( human be+s1 h[ev]1 ?is is by no means ! case4 ,if y say to an ,engli%man1 ,y h a smut on y\r nose1 he w proce$ to remove x1 b !re w be no su* effect if y say ! same ?+ to a ,fr5*man :o kn[s no ,engli%4 ,! effect ( words ^u ! he>] is a mnemic ph5om5a1 s9ce x dep5ds ^u ! pa/ exp]i5ce :i* gave him und]/&+ ( ! words4 ,if !re are to be purely psy*ological causal laws1 tak+ no acc\nt ( ! bra9 & ! re/ ( ! body1 !y w h to be ( ! =m1 n ,x n[ causes ,y n[1 b-- ,a1 ,b1 ,c1444 9 ! pa/1 toge!r ) ,x n[1 cause ,y n[4 ,= x _c be successfully ma9ta9$ t our und]/&+ ( a ^w1 = example1 is an actual exi/5t cont5t ( ! m9d at times :5 we are n ?9k+ ( ! ^w4 ,x is m]ely :at may be call$ a disposition1 i4e4 x is capable ( be+ ar\s$ :5ev] we he> ! ^w or happ5 to ?9k ( x4 ,a disposition is n some?+ actual1 b m]ely ! mnemic portion ( a mnemic causal law4 ,9 su* a law z ,a1 ,b1 ,c1444 9 ! pa/1 toge!r ) ,x n[1 cause ,y n[1 we w call ,a1 ,b1 ,c1444 ! mnemic cause1 ,x ! occasion or /imulus1 & ,y ! reaction4 ,all cases 9 :i* exp]i5ce influ5ces behavi\r are in/ances ( mnemic causation4 ,believ]s 9 psy*o-physical p>allelism hold t psy*ology c !oretically be fre$ entirely f all dep5d5ce on physiology or physics4 ,t is to say1 !y believe t e psy*ical ev5t has a psy*ical cause & a physical concomitant4 ,if !re is to be p>allelism1 x is easy to prove by ma!matical logic t ! causation 9 physical & psy*ical matt]s mu/ be ( ! same sort1 & x is impossible t mnemic causation %\ld exi/ 9 psy*ology b n 9 physics4 ,b if psy*ology is to be indep5d5t ( physiology1 & if physiology c be r$uc$ to physics1 x w\ld seem t mnemic causation is ess5tial 9 psy*ology4 ,o!rwise we %all be compell$ to believe t all our k1 all our /ore ( images & memories1 all our m5tal habits1 are at all times exi/+ 9 "s lat5t m5tal =m1 & are n m]ely ar\s$ by ! /imuli :i* lead to _! display4 ,?is is a v difficult hypo!sis4 ,x seems to me t if1 z a matt] ( me?od r ?an metaphysics1 we desire to obta9 z mu* indep5d5ce = psy*ology z is practically feasible1 we %all d bett] to accept mnemic causation 9 psy*ology protem1 & !re=e reject p>allelism1 s9ce !re is no good gr\nd = admitt+ mnemic causation 9 physics4 ,x is p]haps wor? :ile to obs]ve t mnemic causation is :at l$ ,b]gson to d5y t !re is causation at all 9 ! psy*ical sph]e4 ,he po9ts out1 v truly1 t ! same /imulus1 repeat$1 does n h ! same consequ5ces1 & he argues t ?is is contr>y to ! maxim1 same cause1 same effect4 ,x is only necess>y1 h[ev]1 to take acc\nt ( pa/ occurr5ces & include !m ) ! cause1 9 ord] to re-e/abli% ! maxim1 & ! possibility ( psy*ological causal laws4 ,! metaphysical conception ( a cause l+]s 9 our mann] ( view+ causal laws3 we want to be able to ,,feel a connection betwe5 cause & effect1 & to be able to imag9e ! cause z op]at+4 ,?is makes u unwill+ to reg>d causal laws z ,,m]ely obs]v$ uni=mities ( sequ5ce2 yet t is all t sci5ce has to (f]4 ,to ask :y su*-&-su* a k9d ( sequ5ce occurs is ei!r to ask a mean+less "q1 or to dem& "s m g5]al k9d ( sequ5ce :i* includes ! "o 9 "q4 ,! wide/ empirical laws ( sequ5ce kn[n at any "t c only be expla9$ 9 ! s5se ( be+ subsum$ by lat] discov]ies "u wid] laws2 b ^! wid] laws1 until !y 9 turn are subsum$1 w rema9 brute facts1 re/+ solely ^u obs]vation1 n ^u "s suppos$ inh]5t rationality4 ,!re is !re=e no a priori objection to a causal law 9 :i* "p ( ! cause has ceas$ to exi/4 ,to argue aga9/ su* a law on ! gr\nd t :at is pa/ _c op]ate n[1 is to introduce ! old metaphysical notion ( cause1 = :i* sci5ce c f9d no place4 ,! only reason t c\ld be validly alleg$ aga9/ mnemic causation w\ld be t1 9 fact1 all ! ph5om5a c be expla9$ )\t x4 ,!y are expla9$ )\t x by ,semon's engram1 or by any !ory :i* reg>ds ! results ( exp]i5ce z embodi$ 9 modifications ( ! bra9 & n]ves4 ,b !y are n expla9$1 unless ) extreme artificiality1 by any !ory :i* reg>ds ! lat5t effects ( exp]i5ce z psy*ical r ?an physical4 ,^? :o desire to make psy*ology z f> z possible indep5d5t ( physiology w\ld d well1 x seems to me1 if !y adopt$ mnemic causation4 ,= my "p1 h[ev]1 ,i h no su* desire1 & ,i %all !re=e endeav\r to /ate ! gr\nds :i* occur to me 9 fav\r ( "s su* view z t ( ! engram4 ,"o ( ! fir/ po9ts to be urg$ is t mnemic ph5om5a are j z mu* to be f\nd 9 physiology z 9 psy*ology4 ,!y are ev5 to be f\nd 9 plants1 z ,sir ,francis ,d>w9 po9t$ out 7cf4 ,semon1 ,die ,mneme1 #bnd edition1 p4 #bh n474 ,habit is a *>act]i/ic ( ! body at lea/ z mu* z ( ! m9d4 ,we %\ld1 !re=e1 be compell$ to all[ ! intrusion ( mnemic causation1 if admitt$ at all1 into non-psy*ological regions1 :i* ought1 "o feels1 to be subject only to causation ( ! ord9>y physical sort4 ,! fact is t a great deal ( :at1 at fir/ sight1 di/+ui%es psy*ology f physics is f\nd1 on exam9ation1 to be common to psy*ology & physiology2 ?is :ole "q ( ! influ5ce ( exp]i5ce is a case 9 po9t4 ,n[ x is possible1 ( c\rse1 to take ! view advocat$ by ,pr(essor ,j4 ,s4 ,haldane1 :o cont5ds t physiology is n !oretically r$ucible to physics & *emi/ry499 ,b ! weight ( op9ion among physiologi/s appe>s to be aga9/ him on ?is po9t2 & we ought c]ta9ly to require v /rong evid5ce be=e admitt+ any su* brea* ( cont9uity z betwe5 liv+ & dead matt]4 ,! argum5t f ! exi/5ce ( mnemic ph5om5a 9 physiology mu/ !re=e be all[$ a c]ta9 weight aga9/ ! hypo!sis t mnemic causation is ultimate4 99 ,see 8 ,! ,new ,physiology & ,o!r ,addresses1 ,griff91 #aiai1 also ! symposium1 ,are ,physical1 ,biological & ,psy*ological ,categories ,irr$ucible8 9 ,life & ,f9ite ,individuality1 edit$ = ! ,ari/otelian ,society1 ) an ,introduction4 ,by ,h4 ,wildon ,c>r1 ,williams ,norgate1 #aiah4 ,! argum5t f ! connection ( bra9-lesions ) loss ( memory is n s /rong z x looks1 ?\gh x has also1 "s weight4 ,:at we "k is t memory1 & mnemic ph5om5a g5]ally1 c be di/urb$ or de/roy$ by *anges 9 ! bra94 ,?is c]ta9ly proves t ! bra9 plays an ess5tial "p 9 ! causation ( memory1 b does n prove t a c]ta9 /ate ( ! bra9 is1 by itself1 a suffici5t condition = ! exi/5ce ( memory4 ,yet x is ?is la/ t has to be prov$4 ,! !ory ( ! engram1 or any simil> !ory1 has to ma9ta9 t1 giv5 a body & bra9 9 a suitable /ate1 a man w h a c]ta9 memory1 )\t ! ne$ ( any fur!r conditions4 ,:at is kn[n1 h[ev]1 is only t he w n h memories if 8 body & bra9 are n 9 a suitable /ate4 ,t is to say1 ! appropriate /ate ( body & bra9 is prov$ to be necess>y = memory1 b n to be suffici5t4 ,s f>1 !re=e1 z our def9ite k goes1 memory may require = its causation a pa/ occurr5ce z well z a c]ta9 pres5t /ate ( ! bra94 ,9 ord] to prove conclusively t mnemic ph5om5a arise :5ev] c]ta9 physiological conditions are fulfill$1 we ought to be able actually to see diff]5ces betwe5 ! bra9 ( a man :o speaks ,engli% & t ( a man :o speaks ,fr5*1 betwe5 ! bra9 ( a man :o has se5 ,new ,york & c recall x1 & t ( a man :o has nev] se5 t city4 ,x may be t ! "t w come :5 ?is w be possible1 b at pres5t we are v f> remov$ f x4 ,at pres5t1 !re is1 s f> z ,i am aw>e1 no good evid5ce t e diff]5ce betwe5 ! k possess$ by ,a & t possess$ by ,b is p>allel$ by "s diff]5ce 9 _! bra9s4 ,we may believe t ?is is ! case1 b if we d1 our belief is bas$ ^u analogies & g5]al sci5tific maxims1 n ^u any f\ndation ( detail$ obs]vation4 ,i am myself incl9$1 z a work+ hypo!sis1 to adopt ! belief 9 "q1 & to hold t pa/ exp]i5ce only affects pres5t behavi\r ?r\gh modifications ( physiological /ructure4 ,b ! evid5ce seems n q conclusive1 s t ,i d n ?9k we ought to =get ! o!r hypo!sis1 or to reject entirely ! possibility t mnemic causation may be ! ultimate explanation ( mnemic ph5om5a4 ,i say ?is1 n because ,i ?9k x ,,likely t mnemic causation is ultimate1 b m]ely because ,i ?9k x ,,possible1 & because x (t5 turns out important to ! progress ( sci5ce to rememb] hypo!ses :i* h previ\sly seem$ improbable4 ,,lecture ,v4 ,,psy*ological ,,& ,,physical ,,causal ,,laws ,! traditional conception ( cause & effect is "o :i* mod]n sci5ce %[s to be fundam5tally errone\s1 & requir+ to be replac$ by a q diff]5t notion1 t ( ,,laws ,,( ,,*ange4 ,9 ! traditional conception1 a p>ticul> ev5t ,a caus$ a p>ticul> ev5t ,b1 & by ?is x 0 impli$ t1 giv5 any ev5t ,b1 "s e>li] ev5t ,a c\ld be discov]$ :i* _h a relation to x1 su* t-- 7#a7 ,:5ev] ,a occurr$1 x 0 foll[$ by ,b2 7#b7 ,9 ?is sequ5ce1 !re 0 some?+ necess>y1 n a m]e de facto occurr5ce ( ,a fir/ & !n ,b4 ,! second po9t is illu/rat$ by ! old discussion z to :e!r x c be said t day causes night1 on ! gr\nd t day is always foll[$ by night4 ,! or?odox answ] 0 t day c\ld n be call$ ! cause ( night1 because x w\ld n be foll[$ by night if ! e>?'s rotation 7 to cease1 or r to gr[ s sl[ t "o complete rotation w\ld take a ye>4 ,a cause1 x 0 held1 mu/ be su* t "u no conceivable circum/ances c\ld x fail to be foll[$ by its effect4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 su* sequ5ces z 7 s\ght by believ]s 9 ! traditional =m ( causation h n s f> be5 f\nd 9 nature4 ,ev]y?+ 9 nature is app>5tly 9 a /ate ( cont9u\s *ange199 s t :at we call "o ev5t turns out to be really a process4 ,if ?is ev5t is to cause ano!r ev5t1 ! two w h to be contigu\s 9 "t2 = if !re is any int]val betwe5 !m1 some?+ may happ5 dur+ t int]val to prev5t ! expect$ effect4 ,cause & effect1 !re=e1 w h to be temporally contigu\s processes4 ,x is difficult to believe1 at any rate :]e physical laws are conc]n$1 t ! e>li] "p ( ! process :i* is ! cause c make any diff]5ce to ! effect1 s long z ! lat] "p ( ! process :i* is ! cause rema9s un*ang$4 ,suppose1 = example1 t a man dies ( ars5ic poison+1 we say t 8 tak+ ars5ic 0 ! cause ( dea?4 ,b cle>ly ! process by :i* he acquir$ ! ars5ic is irrelevant3 ev]y?+ t happ5$ be=e he swall[$ x may be ignor$1 s9ce x _c alt] ! effect except 9 s f> z x alt]s 8 condition at ! mom5t ( tak+ ! dose4 ,b we may g fur!r3 swall[+ ars5ic is n really ! proximate cause ( dea?1 s9ce a man might be %ot ?r\gh ! head imm$iately aft] tak+ ! dose1 & !n x w\ld n be ( ars5ic t he w\ld die4 ,! ars5ic produces c]ta9 physiological *anges1 :i* take a f9ite "t be=e !y end 9 dea?4 ,! e>li] p>ts ( ^! *anges c be rul$ out 9 ! same way z we c rule out ! process by :i* ! ars5ic 0 acquir$4 ,proce$+ 9 ?is way1 we c %ort5 ! process :i* we are call+ ! cause m & m4 ,simil>ly we %all h to %ort5 ! effect4 ,x may happ5 t imm$iately aft] ! man's dea? 8 body is bl[n to pieces by a bomb4 ,we _c say :at w happ5 aft] ! man's dea?1 ?r\gh m]ely kn[+ t he has di$ z ! result ( ars5ic poison+4 ,?us1 if we are to take ! cause z "o ev5t & ! effect z ano!r1 bo? mu/ be %ort5$ indef9itely4 ,! result is t we m]ely h1 z ! embodim5t ( our causal law1 a c]ta9 direction ( *ange at ea* mom5t4 ,h5ce we are br\ght to diff]5tial equations z embody+ causal laws4 ,a physical law does n say ,a w be foll[$ by ,b1 b tells u :at accel]ation a p>ticle w h "u giv5 circum/ances1 i4e4 x tells u h[ ! p>ticle's motion is *ang+ at ea* mom5t1 n :]e ! p>ticle w be at "s future mom5t4 99 ,! !ory ( quanta sugge/s t ! cont9uity is only app>5t4 ,if s1 we %all be able !oretically to rea* ev5ts :i* are n processes4 ,b 9 :at is directly obs]vable !re is /ill app>5t cont9uity1 :i* ju/ifies ! above rem>ks = ! prev5t4 ,laws embodi$ 9 diff]5tial equations may possibly be exact1 b _c be kn[n to be s4 ,all t we c "k empirically is approximate & liable to exceptions2 ! exact laws t are assum$ 9 physics are kn[n to be some:]e ne> ! tru?1 b are n kn[n to be true j z !y /&4 ,! laws t we actually "k empirically h ! =m ( ! traditional causal laws1 except t !y are n to be reg>d$ z univ]sal or necess>y4 ,tak+ ars5ic is foll[$ by dea? is a good empirical g5]alization2 x may h exceptions1 b !y w be r>e4 ,z aga9/ ! pr(ess$ly exact laws ( physics1 su* empirical g5]alizations h ! advantage t !y deal ) obs]vable ph5om5a4 ,we _c obs]ve inf9itesimals1 :e!r 9 "t or space2 we d n ev5 "k :e!r "t & space are inf9itely divisible4 ,!re=e r\gh empirical g5]alizations h a def9ite place 9 sci5ce1 9 spite ( n be+ exact ( univ]sal4 ,!y are ! data = m exact laws1 & ! gr\nds = believ+ t !y are ,,usually true are /rong] ?an ! gr\nds = believ+ t ! m exact laws are ,,always true4 ,sci5ce />ts1 !re=e1 f g5]alizations ( ! =m1 ,a is usually foll[$ by ,b4 ,?is is ! ne>e/ approa* t c be made to a causal law ( ! traditional sort4 ,x may happ5 9 any p>ticul> in/ance t ,a is ,,always foll[$ by ,b1 b we _c "k ?is1 s9ce we _c =esee all ! p]fectly possible circum/ances t might make ! sequ5ce fail1 or "k t none ( !m w actually occur4 ,if1 h[ev]1 we "k ( a v l>ge numb] ( cases 9 :i* ,a is foll[$ by ,b1 & few or none 9 :i* ! sequ5ce fails1 we %all 9 ,,practice be ju/ifi$ 9 say+ ,a causes ,b1 provid$ we d n atta* to ! notion ( cause any ( ! metaphysical sup]/itions t h ga!r$ ab\t ! ^w4 ,!re is ano!r po9t1 besides lack ( univ]sality & necessity1 :i* x is important to realize z reg>ds causes 9 ! above s5se1 & t is ! lack ( uniqu5ess4 ,x is g5]ally assum$ t1 giv5 any ev5t1 !re is "s "o ph5om5on :i* is ,,! cause ( ! ev5t 9 "q4 ,?is seems to be a m]e mi/ake4 ,cause1 9 ! only s5se 9 :i* x c be practically appli$1 means ne>ly inv>iable antec$5t4 ,we _c 9 practice obta9 an antec$5t :i* is ,,q inv>iable1 = ?is w\ld require u to take acc\nt ( ! :ole univ]se1 s9ce some?+ n tak5 acc\nt ( may prev5t ! expect$ effect4 ,we _c di/+ui%1 among ne>ly inv>iable antec$5ts1 "o z ,,! cause1 & ! o!rs z m]ely its concomitants3 ! attempt to d ?is dep5ds ^u a notion ( cause :i* is d]iv$ f w1 & w 7z we %all see lat]7 is n at all ! sort ( ?+ t x is g5]ally suppos$ to be1 nor is !re any reason to ?9k t 9 ! physical _w !re is any?+ ev5 remotely analog\s to :at w is suppos$ to be4 ,if we c\ld f9d "o antec$5t1 & only "o1 t 0 ,,q inv>iable1 we c\ld call t "o ,,! cause )\t introduc+ any notion d]iv$ f mi/ak5 ideas ab\t w4 ,b 9 fact we _c f9d any antec$5t t we "k to be q inv>iable1 & we c f9d _m t are ne>ly s4 ,= example1 m5 leave a factory = d9n] :5 ! hoot] s\nds at twelve o'clock4 ,y may say ! hoot] is ,,! cause ( _! leav+4 ,b innum]able o!r hoot]s 9 o!r factories1 :i* also always s\nd at twelve o'clock1 h j z good a "r to be call$ ! cause4 ,?us e ev5t has _m ne>ly inv>iable antec$5ts1 & !re=e _m antec$5ts :i* may be call$ its cause4 ,! laws ( traditional physics1 9 ! =m 9 :i* !y deal ) movem5ts ( matt] or electricity1 h an app>5t simplicity :i* some:at conceals ! empirical "* ( :at !y ass]t4 ,a piece ( matt]1 z x is kn[n empirically1 is n a s+le exi/+ ?+1 b a sy/em ( exi/+ ?+s4 ,:5 sev]al p simultane\sly see ! same table1 !y all see some?+ diff]5t2 !re=e ! table1 :i* !y are suppos$ all to see1 mu/ be ei!r a hypo!sis or a con/ruction4 ,! table is to be neutral z betwe5 diff]5t obs]v]s3 x does n fav\r ! aspect se5 by "o man at ! exp5se ( t se5 by ano!r4 ,x 0 natural1 ?\gh to my m9d mi/ak51 to reg>d ! real table z ! common cause ( all ! appe>ances :i* ! table pres5ts 7z we say7 to diff]5t obs]v]s4 ,b :y %\ld we suppose t !re is "s "o common cause ( all ^! appe>ances8 ,z we h j se51 ! notion ( cause is n s reliable z to all[ u to inf] ! exi/5ce ( some?+ t1 by its v nature1 c nev] be obs]v$4 ,in/ead ( look+ = an imp>tial s\rce1 we c secure neutrality by ! equal repres5tation ( all p>ties4 ,in/ead ( suppos+ t !re is "s unkn[n cause1 ! real table1 beh9d ! diff]5t s5sations ( ^? :o are said to be look+ at ! table1 we may take ! :ole set ( ^! s5sations 7toge!r possibly ) c]ta9 o!r p>ticul>s7 z actually ,,be+ ! table4 ,t is to say1 ! table :i* is neutral z betwe5 diff]5t obs]v]s 7actual & possible7 is ! set ( all ^? p>ticul>s :i* w\ld naturally be call$ aspects ( ! table f diff]5t po9ts ( view4 7,?is is a fir/ approximation1 modifi$ lat]47 ,x may be said3 ,if !re is no s+le exi/5t :i* is ! s\rce ( all ^! aspects1 h[ are !y collect$ toge!r8 ,! answ] is simple3 ,j z !y w\ld be if !re 7 su* a s+le exi/5t4 ,! suppos$ real table und]ly+ its appe>ances is1 9 any case1 n itself p]ceiv$1 b inf]r$1 & ! "q :e!r su*-&-su* a p>ticul> is an aspect ( ?is table is only to be settl$ by ! connection ( ! p>ticul> 9 "q ) ! "o or m p>ticul>s by :i* ! table is def9$4 ,t is to say1 ev5 if we assume a real table1 ! p>ticul>s :i* are its aspects h to be collect$ toge!r by _! relations to ea* o!r1 n to x1 s9ce x is m]ely inf]r$ f !m4 ,we h only1 !re=e1 to notice h[ !y are collect$ toge!r1 & we c !n keep ! collection )\t assum+ any real table z di/9ct f ! collection4 ,:5 diff]5t p see :at !y call ! same table1 !y see ?+s :i* are n exactly ! same1 ow+ to diff]5ce ( po9t ( view1 b :i* are suffici5tly alike to be describ$ 9 ! same words1 s long z no great accuracy or m9ut5ess is s\ght4 ,^! closely simil> p>ticul>s are collect$ toge!r by _! simil>ity prim>ily &1 m correctly1 by ! fact t !y are relat$ to ea* o!r approximately accord+ to ! laws ( p]spective & ( reflection & diffraction ( light4 ,i sugge/1 z a fir/ approximation1 t ^! p>ticul>s1 toge!r ) su* correlat$ o!rs z are unp]ceiv$1 jo9tly ,,are ! table2 & t a simil> def9ition applies to all physical objects499 99,see ,our ,k ( ! ,ext]nal ,_w 7,all5 ,unw971 *aps4 iii & iv4 ,9 ord] to elim9ate ! ref]5ce to our p]ceptions1 :i* introduces an irrelevant psy*ological sugge/ion1 ,i w take a diff]5t illu/ration1 namely1 /ell> photography4 ,a photographic plate expos$ on a cle> night reproduces ! appe>ance ( ! portion ( ! sky conc]n$1 ) m or few] />s accord+ to ! p[] ( ! telescope t is be+ us$4 ,ea* sep>ate /> :i* is photograph$ produces its sep>ate effect on ! plate1 j z x w\ld ^u ourselves if we 7 look+ at ! sky4 ,if we assume1 z sci5ce normally does1 ! cont9uity ( physical processes1 we are =c$ to conclude t1 at ! place :]e ! plate is1 & at all places betwe5 x & a /> :i* x photographs1 ,,some?+ is happ5+ :i* is specially connect$ ) t />4 ,9 ! days :5 ! ae!r 0 less 9 d\bt1 we %\ld h said t :at 0 happ5+ 0 a c]ta9 k9d ( transv]se vibration 9 ! ae!r4 ,b x is n necess>y or desirable to be s explicit3 all t we ne$ say is t ,,some?+ happ5s :i* is specially connect$ ) ! /> 9 "q4 ,x mu/ be some?+ specially connect$ ) t />1 s9ce t /> produces its own special effect ^u ! plate4 ,:atev] x is mu/ be ! end ( a process :i* />ts f ! /> & radiates outw>ds1 p>tly on g5]al gr\nds ( cont9uity1 p>tly to acc\nt = ! fact t light is transmitt$ ) a c]ta9 def9ite velocity4 ,we ?us arrive at ! conclusion t1 if a c]ta9 /> is visible at a c]ta9 place1 or c\ld be photograph$ by a suffici5tly s5sitive plate at t place1 some?+ is happ5+ !re :i* is specially connect$ ) t />4 ,!re=e 9 e place at all times a va/ multitude ( ?+s mu/ be happ5+1 namely1 at lea/ "o = e physical object :i* c be se5 or photograph$ f t place4 ,we c classify su* happ5+s on ei!r ( two pr9ciples3 7#a7 ,we c collect toge!r all ! happ5+s 9 "o place1 z is done by photography s f> z light is conc]n$2 7#b7 ,we c collect toge!r all ! happ5+s1 9 diff]5t places1 :i* are connect$ 9 ! way t common s5se reg>ds z be+ due to _! emanat+ f "o object4 ,?us1 to return to ! />s1 we c collect toge!r ei!r-- 7#a7 ,all ! appe>ances ( diff]5t />s 9 a giv5 place1 or1 7#b7 ,all ! appe>ances ( a giv5 /> 9 diff]5t places4 ,b :5 ,i speak ( appe>ances1 ,i d s only = brevity3 ,i d n mean any?+ t mu/ appe> to somebody1 b only t happ5+1 :atev] x may be1 :i* is connect$1 at ! place 9 "q1 ) a giv5 physical object--accord+ to ! old or?odox !ory1 x w\ld be a transv]se vibration 9 ! ae!r4 ,l ! diff]5t appe>ances ( ! table to a numb] ( simultane\s obs]v]s1 ! diff]5t p>ticul>s t belong to "o physical object are to be collect$ toge!r by cont9uity & inh]5t laws ( correlation1 n by _! suppos$ causal connection ) an unkn[n assum$ exi/5t call$ a piece ( matt]1 :i* w\ld be a m]e unnecess>y metaphysical ?+ 9 itself4 ,a piece ( matt]1 accord+ to ! def9ition t ,i propose1 is1 z a fir/ approximation199 ! collection ( all ^? correlat$ p>ticul>s :i* w\ld normally be reg>d$ z its appe>ances or effects 9 diff]5t places4 ,"s fur!r elaborations are desirable1 b we c ignore !m = ! pres5t4 ,i %all return to !m at ! end ( ?is lecture4 99,! exact def9ition ( a piece ( matt] z a con/ruction w be giv5 lat]4 ,accord+ to ! view t ,i am sugge/+1 a physical object or piece ( matt] is ! collection ( all ^? correlat$ p>ticul>s :i* w\ld be reg>d$ by common s5se z its effects or appe>ances 9 diff]5t places4 ,on ! o!r h&1 all ! happ5+s 9 a giv5 place repres5t :at common s5se w\ld reg>d z ! appe>ances ( a numb] ( diff]5t objects z view$ f t place4 ,all ! happ5+s 9 "o place may be reg>d$ z ! view ( ! _w f t place4 ,i %all call ! view ( ! _w f a giv5 place a p]spective4 ,a photograph repres5ts a p]spective4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if photographs ( ! />s 7 tak5 9 all po9ts ?r\gh\t space1 & 9 all su* photographs a c]ta9 />1 say ,sirius1 7 pick$ out :5ev] x appe>$1 all ! diff]5t appe>ances ( ,sirius1 tak5 toge!r1 w\ld repres5t ,sirius4 ,= ! und]/&+ ( ! diff]5ce betwe5 psy*ology & physics x is vital to und]/& ^! two ways ( classify+ p>ticul>s1 namely3 7#a7 ,accord+ to ! place :]e !y occur2 7#b7 ,accord+ to ! sy/em ( correlat$ p>ticul>s 9 diff]5t places to :i* !y belong1 su* sy/em be+ def9$ z a physical object4 ,giv5 a sy/em ( p>ticul>s :i* is a physical object1 ,i %all def9e t "o ( ! sy/em :i* is 9 a giv5 place 7if any7 z ! appe>ance ( t object 9 t place4 ,:5 ! appe>ance ( an object 9 a giv5 place *anges1 x is f\nd t "o or o!r ( two ?+s occurs4 ,! two possibilities may be illu/rat$ by an example4 ,y are 9 a room ) a man1 :om y see3 y may cease to see him ei!r by %utt+ y\r eyes or by 8 go+ out ( ! room4 ,9 ! fir/ case1 8 appe>ance to o!r p rema9s un*ang$2 9 ! second1 8 appe>ance *anges f all places4 ,9 ! fir/ case1 y say t x is n he :o has *ang$1 b y\r eyes2 9 ! second1 y say t he has *ang$4 ,g5]aliz+1 we di/+ui%-- 7#a7 ,cases 9 :i* only c]ta9 appe>ances ( ! object *ange1 :ile o!rs1 & especially appe>ances f places v ne> to ! object1 d n *ange2 7#b7 ,cases :]e all1 or almo/ all1 ! appe>ances ( ! object und]go a connect$ *ange4 ,9 ! fir/ case1 ! *ange is attribut$ to ! m$ium betwe5 ! object & ! place2 9 ! second1 x is attribut$ to ! object itself499 99 ,! application ( ?is di/9ction to motion raises complications due to relativity1 b we may ignore ^! = our pres5t purposes4 ,x is ! frequ5cy ( ! latt] k9d ( *ange1 & ! comp>atively simple nature ( ! laws gov]n+ ! simultane\s alt]ations ( appe>ances 9 su* cases1 t h made x possible to treat a physical object z "o ?+1 & to ov]look ! fact t x is a sy/em ( p>ticul>s4 ,:5 a numb] ( p at a !atre wat* an actor1 ! *anges 9 _! sev]al p]spectives are s simil> & s closely correlat$ t all are popul>ly reg>d$ z id5tical ) ea* o!r & ) ! *anges ( ! actor himself4 ,s long z all ! *anges 9 ! appe>ances ( a body are ?us correlat$ !re is no press+ prima facie ne$ to break up ! sy/em ( appe>ances1 or to realize t ! body 9 "q is n really "o ?+ b a set ( correlat$ p>ticul>s4 ,x is especially & prim>ily su* *anges t physics deals )1 i4e4 x deals prim>ily ) processes 9 :i* ! unity ( a physical object ne$ n be brok5 up because all its appe>ances *ange simultane\sly accord+ to ! same law--or1 if n all1 at any rate all f places suffici5tly ne> to ! object1 ) 9 creas+ accuracy z we approa* ! object4 ,! *anges 9 appe>ances ( an object :i* are due to *anges 9 ! int]v5+ m$ium w n affect1 or w affect only v slightly1 ! appe>ances f places close to ! object4 ,if ! appe>ances f suffici5tly neighb\r+ places are ei!r :olly un *ang$1 or *ang$ to a dim9i%+ ext5t :i* has z]o = its limit1 x is usually f\nd t ! *anges c be acc\nt$ = by *anges 9 objects :i* are betwe5 ! object 9 "q & ! places f :i* its appe>ance has *ang$ appreciably4 ,?us physics is able to r$uce ! laws ( mo/ *anges ) :i* x deals to *anges 9 physical objects1 & to /ate mo/ ( its fundam5tal laws 9 t]ms ( matt]4 ,x is only 9 ^? cases 9 :i* ! unity ( ! sy/em ( appe>ances con/itut+ a piece ( matt] has to be brok5 up1 t ! /atem5t ( :at is happ5+ _c be made exclusively 9 t]ms ( matt]4 ,! :ole ( psy*ology1 we %all f9d1 is includ$ among su* cases2 h5ce _! importance = our purposes4 ,we c n[ beg9 to und]/& "o ( ! fundam5tal diff]5ces betwe5 physics & psy*ology4 ,physics treats z a unit ! :ole sy/em ( appe>ances ( a piece ( matt]1 :]eas psy*ology is int]e/$ 9 c]ta9 ( ^! appe>ances !mselves4 ,conf9+ ourselves = ! mom5t to ! psy*ology ( p]ceptions1 we obs]ve t p]ceptions are c]ta9 ( ! appe>ances ( physical objects4 ,f ! po9t ( view t we h be5 hi!rto adopt+1 we might def9e !m z ! appe>ances ( objects at places f :i* s5se-organs & ! suitable p>ts ( ! n]v\s sy/em =m "p ( ! int]v5+ m$ium4 ,j z a photographic plate receives a diff]5t impression ( a clu/] ( />s :5 a telescope is "p ( ! int]v5+ m$ium1 s a bra9 receives a diff]5t impression :5 an eye & an optic n]ve are "p ( ! int]v5+ m$ium4 ,an impression due to ?is sort ( int]v5+ m$ium is call$ a p]ception1 & is int]e/+ to psy*ology on its own acc\nt1 n m]ely z "o ( ! set ( correlat$ p>ticul>s :i* is ! physical object ( :i* 7z we say7 we are hav+ a p]ception4 ,we spoke e>li] ( two ways ( classify+ p>ticul>s4 ,"o way collects toge!r ! appe>ances commonly reg>d$ z a giv5 object f diff]5t places2 ?is is1 broadly speak+1 ! way ( physics1 lead+ to ! con/ruction ( physical objects z sets ( su* appe>ances4 ,! o!r way collects toge!r ! appe>ances ( diff]5t objects f a giv5 place1 ! result be+ :at we call a p]spective4 ,9 ! p>ticul> case :]e ! place conc]n$ is a human bra91 ! p]spective belong+ to ! place consi/s ( all ! p]ceptions ( a c]ta9 man at a giv5 "t4 ,?us classification by p]spectives is relevant to psy*ology1 & is ess5tial 9 def9+ :at we mean by "o m9d4 ,i d n wi% to sugge/ t ! way 9 :i* ,i h be5 def9+ p]ceptions is ! only possible way1 or ev5 ! be/ way4 ,x is ! way t arose naturally out ( our pres5t topic4 ,b :5 we approa* psy*ology f a m introspective /&po9t1 we h to di/+ui% s5sations & p]ceptions1 if possible1 f o!r m5tal occurr5ces1 if any4 ,we h also to consid] ! psy*ological effects ( s5sations1 z oppos$ to _! physical causes & correlates4 ,^! problems are q di/9ct f ^? ) :i* we h be5 conc]n$ 9 ! pres5t lecture1 & ,i %all n deal ) !m until a lat] /age4 ,x is cle> t psy*ology is conc]n$ ess5tially ) actual p>ticul>s1 n m]ely ) sy/ems ( p>ticul>s4 ,9 ?is x diff]s f physics1 :i*1 broadly speak+1 is conc]n$ ) ! cases 9 :i* all ! p>ticul>s :i* make up "o physical object c be treat$ z a s+le causal unit1 or r ! p>ticul>s :i* are suffici5tly ne> to ! object ( :i* !y are appe>ances c be s treat$4 ,! laws :i* physics seeks c1 broadly speak+1 be /at$ by treat+ su* sy/ems ( p>ticul>s z causal units4 ,! laws :i* psy*ology seeks _c be s /at$1 s9ce ! p>ticul>s !mselves are :at int]e/s ! psy*ologi/4 ,?is is "o ( ! fundam5tal diff]5ces betwe5 physics & psy*ology2 & to make x cle> has be5 ! ma9 purpose ( ?is lecture4 ,i w conclude ) an attempt to give a m precise def9ition ( a piece ( matt]4 ,! appe>ances ( a piece ( matt] f diff]5t places *ange p>tly accord+ to intr9sic laws 7! laws ( p]spective1 9 ! case ( visual %ape71 p>tly accord+ to ! nature ( ! int]v5+ m$ium--fog1 blue spectacles1 telescopes1 microscopes1 s5se-organs1 etc4 ,z we approa* ne>] to ! object1 ! effect ( ! int]v5+ m$ium gr[s less4 ,9 a g5]aliz$ s5se1 all ! intr9sic laws ( *ange ( appe>ance may be call$ laws ( p]spective4 ,giv5 any appe>ance ( an object1 we c con/ruct hypo!tically a c]ta9 sy/em ( appe>ances to :i* ! appe>ance 9 "q w\ld belong if ! laws ( p]spective alone 7 conc]n$4 ,if we con/ruct ?is hypo!tical sy/em = ea* appe>ance ( ! object 9 turn1 ! sy/em correspond+ to a giv5 appe>ance x w be indep5d5t ( any di/ortion due to ! m$ium beyond x1 & w only embody su* di/ortion z is due to ! m$ium betwe5 x & ! object4 ,?us1 z ! appe>ance by :i* our hypo!tical sy/em is def9$ is mov$ ne>] & ne>] to ! object1 ! hypo!tical sy/em ( appe>ances def9$ by its means embodies less & less ( ! effect ( ! m$ium4 ,! diff]5t sets ( appe>ances result+ f mov+ x ne>] & ne>] to ! object w approa* to a limit+ set1 & ?is limit+ set w be t sy/em ( appe>ances :i* ! object w\ld pres5t if ! laws ( p]spective alone 7 op]ative & ! m$ium ex]cis$ no di/ort+ effect4 ,?is limit+ set ( appe>ances may be def9$1 = purposes ( physics1 z ! piece ( matt] conc]n$4 ,,lecture ,,vi4 ,,introspection ,"o ( ! ma9 purposes ( ^! lectures is to give gr\nds = ! belief t ! di/9ction betwe5 m9d & matt] is n s fundam5tal z is commonly suppos$4 ,9 ! prec$+ lecture ,i dealt 9 outl9e ) ! physical side ( ?is problem4 ,i attempt$ to %[ t :at we call a mat]ial object is n itself a sub/ance1 b is a sy/em ( p>ticul>s analog\s 9 _! nature to s5sations1 & 9 fact (t5 includ+ actual s5sations among _! numb]4 ,9 ?is way ! /uff ( :i* physical objects are compos$ is br\ght into relation ) ! /uff ( :i* "p1 at lea/1 ( our m5tal life is compos$4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 a conv]se task :i* is equally necess>y = our !sis1 & t is1 to %[ t ! /uff ( our m5tal life is devoid ( _m qualities :i* x is commonly suppos$ to h1 & is n possess$ ( any attributes :i* make x incapable ( =m+ "p ( ! _w ( matt]4 ,9 ! pres5t lecture ,i %all beg9 ! argum5ts = ?is view4 ,correspond+ to ! suppos$ duality ( matt] & m9d1 !re are1 9 or?odox psy*ology1 two ways ( kn[+ :at exi/s4 ,"o ( ^!1 ! way ( s5sation & ext]nal p]ception1 is suppos$ to furni% data = our k ( matt]1 ! o!r1 call$ introspection1 is suppos$ to furni% data = k ( our m5tal processes4 ,to common s5se1 ?is di/9ction seems cle> & easy4 ,:5 y see a fri5d com+ along ! /reet1 y acquire k ( an ext]nal1 physical fact2 :5 y realize t y are glad to meet him1 y acquire k ( a m5tal fact4 ,y\r dreams & memories & ?\ghts1 ( :i* y are (t5 consci\s1 are m5tal facts1 & ! process by :i* y become aw>e ( !m ,,seems to be diff]5t f s5sation4 ,kant calls x ! inn] s5se2 sometimes x is spok5 ( z consci\sness ( self2 b its commone/ "n 9 mod]n ,engli% psy*ology is introspection4 ,x is ?is suppos$ me?od ( acquir+ k ( our m5tal processes t ,i wi% to analyse & exam9e 9 ?is lecture4 ,i w /ate at ! outset ! view :i* ,i %all aim at e/abli%+4 ,i believe t ! /uff ( our m5tal life1 z oppos$ to its relations & /ructure1 consi/s :olly ( s5sations & images4 ,s5sations are connect$ ) matt] 9 ! way t ,i tri$ to expla9 9 ,lecture ,v1 i4e4 ea* is a memb] ( a sy/em :i* is a c]ta9 physical object4 ,images1 ?\gh !y ,,usually h c]ta9 *>act]i/ics1 especially lack ( vividness1 t di/+ui% !m f s5sations1 are n ,,inv>iably s di/+ui%$1 & _c !re=e be def9$ by ^! *>act]i/ics4 ,images1 z oppos$ to s5sations1 c only be def9$ by _! diff]5t causation3 !y are caus$ by association ) a s5sation1 n by a /imulus ext]nal to ! n]v\s sy/em--or p]haps "o %\ld say ext]nal to ! bra91 :]e ! high] animals are conc]n$4 ,! occurr5ce ( a s5sation or image does n 9 itself con/itute k b any s5sation or image may come to be kn[n if ! conditions are suitable4 ,:5 a s5sation--l ! he>+ ( a clap ( ?und]--is normally correlat$ ) closely simil> s5sations 9 our neighb\rs1 we reg>d x z giv+ k ( ! ext]nal _w1 s9ce we reg>d ! :ole set ( simil> s5sations z due to a common ext]nal cause4 ,b images & bodily s5sations are n s correlat$4 ,bodily s5sations c be br\ght into a correlation by physiology1 & ?us take _! place ultimately among s\rces ( k ( ! physical _w4 ,b images _c be made to fit 9 ) ! simultane\s s5sations & images ( o!rs4 ,ap>t f _! hypo!tical causes 9 ! bra91 !y h a causal connection ) physical objects1 ?r\gh ! fact t !y are copies ( pa/ s5sations2 b ! physical objects ) :i* !y are ?us connect$ are 9 ! pa/1 n 9 ! pres5t4 ,^! images rema9 private 9 a s5se 9 :i* s5sations are n4 ,a s5sation ,,seems to give u k ( a pres5t physical object1 :ile an image does n1 except :5 x am\nts to a halluc9ation1 & 9 ?is case ! seem+ is deceptive4 ,?us ! :ole context ( ! two occurr5ces is diff]5t4 ,b 9 !mselves !y d n diff] pr(\ndly1 & !re is no reason to invoke two diff]5t ways ( kn[+ = ! "o & = ! o!r4 ,consequ5tly introspection z a sep>ate k9d ( k disappe>s4 ,! criticism ( introspection has be5 9 ! ma9 ! "w ( ,am]ican psy*ologi/s4 ,i w beg9 by summ>iz+ an article :i* seems to me to af=d a good specim5 ( _! argum5ts1 namely1 ,! ,case aga9/ ,introspection1 by ,knight ,dunlap 7,psy*ological ,review1 vol xix1 ,no4 #e1 pp4 #djd-dac1 ,septemb]1 #aiab74 ,aft] a few hi/orical quotations1 he comes to two mod]n def5d]s ( introspection1 ,/\t & ,james4 ,he quotes f ,/\t su* /atem5ts z ! foll[+3 ,psy*ical /ates z su* become objects only :5 we att5d to !m 9 an introspective way4 ,o!rwise !y are n !mselves objects1 b only con/itu5ts ( ! process by :i* objects are recogniz$ 7,manual1 #bnd edition1 p4 #acd4 ,! ^w recogniz$ 9 ,dunlap's quotation %\ld be cogniz$47 ,! object itself c nev] be id5tifi$ ) ! pres5t modification ( ! individual's consci\sness by :i* x is cogniz$ 7ib4 p4 #fj74 ,?is is to be true ev5 :5 we are ?9k+ ab\t modifications ( our own consci\sness2 su* modifications are to be always at lea/ p>tially di/9ct f ! consci\s exp]i5ce 9 :i* we ?9k ( !m4 ,at ?is po9t ,i wi% to int]rupt ! acc\nt ( ,knight ,dunlap's article 9 ord] to make "s obs]vations on my own acc\nt ) ref]5ce to ! above quotations f ,/\t4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ! conception ( psy*ical /ates seems to me "o :i* dem&s analysis ( a some:at de/ructive "*4 ,?is analysis ,i %all give 9 lat] lectures z reg>ds cognition2 ,i h already giv5 x z reg>ds desire4 ,9 ! second place1 ! conception ( objects dep5ds ^u a c]ta9 view z to cognition :i* ,i believe to be :olly mi/ak51 namely1 ! view :i* ,i discuss$ 9 my fir/ lecture 9 connection ) ,br5tano4 ,9 ?is view a s+le cognitive occurr5ce conta9s bo? cont5t & object1 ! cont5t be+ ess5tially m5tal1 :ile ! object is physical except 9 introspection & ab/ract ?\ght4 ,i h already criticiz$ ?is view1 & w n dwell ^u x n[1 beyond say+ t ! process by :i* objects are cogniz$ appe>s to be a v slipp]y phrase4 ,:5 we see a table1 z common s5se w\ld say1 ! table z a physical object is n ! object 79 ! psy*ological s5se7 ( our p]ception4 ,our p]ception is made up ( s5sations1 images & beliefs1 b ! suppos$ object is some?+ inf]5tial1 ext]nally relat$1 n logically b\nd up ) :at is occurr+ 9 u4 ,?is "q ( ! nature ( ! object also affects ! view we take ( self-consci\sness4 ,obvi\sly1 a consci\s exp]i5ce is diff]5t f a physical object2 !re=e x is natural to assume t a ?\ght or p]ception ^: object is a consci\s exp]i5ce mu/ be diff]5t f a ?\ght or p]ception ^: object is a physical object4 ,b if ! relation to ! object is inf]5tial & ext]nal1 z ,i ma9ta91 ! diff]5ce betwe5 two ?\ghts may be> v little relation to ! diff]5ce betwe5 _! objects4 ,& to speak ( ! pres5t modification ( ! individual's consci\sness by :i* an object is cogniz$ is to sugge/ t ! cognition ( objects is a f> m direct process1 f> m intimately b\nd up ) ! objects1 ?an ,i believe x to be4 ,all ^! po9ts w be amplifi$ :5 we come to ! analysis ( k1 b x is necess>y briefly to /ate !m n[ 9 ord] to sugge/ ! atmosph]e 9 :i* our analysis ( introspection is to be c>ri$ on4 ,ano!r po9t 9 :i* ,/\t's rem>ks seem to me to sugge/ :at ,i reg>d z mi/akes is 8 use ( consci\sness4 ,!re is a view :i* is preval5t among psy*ologi/s1 to ! effect t "o c speak ( a consci\s exp]i5ce 9 a curi\s dual s5se1 mean+1 on ! "o h&1 an exp]i5ce :i* is consci\s ( some?+1 &1 on ! o!r h&1 an exp]i5ce :i* has "s intr9sic nature *>act]i/ic ( :at is call$ consci\sness4 ,t is to say1 a consci\s exp]i5ce is *>act]iz$ on ! "o h& by relation to its object & on ! o!r h& by be+ compos$ ( a c]ta9 peculi> /uff1 ! /uff ( consci\sness4 ,& 9 _m au?ors !re is yet a ?ird confusion3 a consci\s exp]i5ce1 9 ?is ?ird s5se1 is an exp]i5ce ( :i* we are consci\s4 ,all ^!1 x seems to me1 ne$ to be cle>ly sep>at$4 ,to say t "o occurr5ce is consci\s ( ano!r is1 to my m9d1 to ass]t an ext]nal & r remote relation betwe5 !m4 ,i might illu/rate x by ! relation ( uncle & nephew a man becomes an uncle ?r\gh no ef=t ( 8 own1 m]ely ?r\gh an occurr5ce else:]e4 ,simil>ly1 :5 y are said to be consci\s ( a table1 ! "q :e!r ?is is really ! case _c be decid$ by exam9+ only y\r /ate ( m9d3 x is necess>y also to asc]ta9 :e!r y\r s5sation is hav+ ^? correlates :i* pa/ exp]i5ce causes y to assume1 or :e!r ! table happ5s1 9 ?is case1 to be a mirage4 ,&1 z ,i expla9$ 9 my fir/ lecture1 ,i d n believe t !re is any /uff ( consci\sness1 s t !re is no intr9sic "* by :i* a consci\s exp]i5ce c\ld be di/+ui%$ f any o!r4 ,aft] ^! prelim9>ies1 we c return to ,knight ,dunlap's article4 ,8 criticism ( ,/\t turns on ! difficulty ( giv+ any empirical mean+ to su* notions z ! m9d or ! subject2 he quotes f ,/\t ! s5t5ce3 ,! mo/ important drawback is t ! m9d1 9 wat*+ its own work+s1 mu/ necess>ily h its att5tion divid$ betwe5 two objects1 & he concludes3 ,)\t "q1 ,/\t is br++ 9 "h illicitly ! concept ( a s+le obs]v]1 & 8 introspection does n provide = ! obs]vation ( ?is obs]v]2 = ! process obs]v$ & ! obs]v] are di/9ct 7p4 #djg74 ,! objections to any !ory :i* br+s 9 ! s+le obs]v] 7 consid]$ 9 ,lecture ,i1 & 7 ackn[l$g$ to be cog5t4 ,9 s f>1 !re=e1 z ,/\t's !ory ( introspection re/s ^u ?is assumption1 we are compell$ to reject x4 ,b x is p]fectly possible to believe 9 introspection )\t suppos+ t !re is a s+le obs]v]4 ,william ,james's !ory ( introspection1 :i* ,dunlap next exam9es1 does n assume a s+le obs]v]4 ,x *ang$ aft] ! publication ( 8 ,psy*ology1 9 consequ5ce ( 8 ab&on+ ! dualism ( ?\ght & ?+s4 ,dunlap summ>izes 8 !ory z foll[s3 ,! ess5tial po9ts 9 ,james's s*eme ( consci\sness are ,,subject1 ,,object1 & a ,,kn[+ ( ! object by ! subject4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 ,james's s*eme & o!r s*emes involv+ ! same t]ms is t ,james consid]s subject & object to be ! same ?+1 b at diff]5t times ,9 ord] to satisfy ?is requirem5t ,james supposes a realm ( exi/5ce :i* he at fir/ call$ '/ates ( consci\sness' or '?\ghts1' & lat]1 'pure exp]i5ce1' ! latt] t]m includ+ bo? ! '?\ghts' & ! 'kn[+4' ,?is s*eme1 ) all its magnific5t artificiality1 ,james held on to until ! end1 simply dropp+ ! t]m consci\sness & ! dualism betwe5 ! ?\ght & an ext]nal reality7p4 #dji74 ,he adds3 ,all t ,james's sy/em really am\nts to is ! ackn[l$gm5t t a succession ( ?+s are kn[n1 & t !y are kn[n by some?+4 ,?is is all any "o c claim1 except = ! fact t ! ?+s are kn[n toge!r1 & t ! kn[] = ! diff]5t items is "o & ! same 7ib474 ,9 ?is /atem5t1 to my m9d1 ,dunlap conc$es f> m ?an ,james did 9 8 lat] !ory4 ,i see no reason to suppose t ! kn[] = diff]5t items is "o & ! same1 & ,i am conv9c$ t ?is proposition c\ld n possibly be asc]ta9$ except by introspection ( ! sort t ,dunlap rejects4 ,! fir/ ( ^! po9ts mu/ wait until we come to ! analysis ( belief3 ! second mu/ be consid]$ n[4 ,dunlap's view is t !re is a dualism ( subject & object1 b t ! subject c nev] become object1 & !re=e !re is no aw>5ess ( an aw>5ess4 ,he says 9 discuss+ ! view t introspection reveals ! occurr5ce ( k3 ,!re c be no d5ial ( ! exi/5ce ( ! ?+ 7kn[+7 :i* is alleg$ to be kn[n or obs]v$ 9 ?is sort ( 'introspection4' ,! allegation t ! kn[+ is obs]v$ is t :i* may be d5i$4 ,kn[+ !re c]ta9ly is2 kn[n1 ! kn[+ c]ta9ly is n7p4 #daj74 ,& aga93 ,i am nev] aw>e ( an aw>5ess 7ib474 ,& on ! next page3 ,x may s\nd p>adoxical to say t "o _c obs]ve ! process 7or relation7 ( obs]vation1 & yet may be c]ta9 t !re is su* a process3 b !re is really no inconsi/5cy 9 ! say+4 ,h[ d ,i "k t !re is aw>5ess8 ,by be+ aw>e ( some?+4 ,!re is no mean+ 9 ! t]m 'aw>5ess' :i* is n express$ 9 ! /atem5t ',i am aw>e ( a col\r 7or :at-n74' ,b ! p>adox _c be s lightly dispos$ (4 ,! /atem5t ,i am aw>e ( a col\r is assum$ by ,knight ,dunlap to be kn[n to be true1 b he does n expla9 h[ x comes to be kn[n4 ,! argum5t aga9/ him is n conclusive1 s9ce he may be able to %[ "s valid way ( inf]r+ our aw>5ess4 ,b he does n sugge/ any su* way4 ,!re is no?+ odd 9 ! hypo!sis ( be+s :i* are aw>e ( objects1 b n ( _! own aw>5ess2 x is1 inde$1 highly probable t "y *ildr5 & ! high] animals are su* be+s4 ,b su* be+s _c make ! /atem5t ,i am aw>e ( a col\r1 :i* ,,we c make4 ,we h1 !re=e1 "s k :i* !y lack4 ,x is necess>y to ,knight ,dunlap's position to ma9ta9 t ?is additional k is purely inf]5tial1 b he makes no attempt to %[ h[ ! inf]5ce is possible4 ,x may1 ( c\rse1 be possible1 b ,i _c see h[4 ,to my m9d ! fact 7:i* he admits7 t we "k !re is aw>5ess1 is ,,all ,,b decisive aga9/ 8 !ory1 & 9 fav\r ( ! view t we c be aw>e ( an aw>5ess4 ,dunlap ass]ts 7to return to ,james7 t ! real gr\nd = ,james's orig9al belief 9 introspection 0 8 belief 9 two sorts ( objects1 namely1 ?\ghts & ?+s4 ,he sugge/s t x 0 a m]e inconsi/5cy on ,james's "p to adh]e to introspection aft] ab&on+ ! dualism ( ?\ghts & ?+s4 ,i d n :olly agree ) ?is view1 b x is difficult to dis5tangle ! diff]5ce z to introspection f ! diff]5ce z to ! nature ( kn[+4 ,dunlap sugge/s 7p4 #daa7 t :at is call$ introspection really consi/s ( aw>5ess ( images1 visc]al s5sations1 & s on4 ,?is view1 9 ess5ce1 seems to me s\nd4 ,b !n ,i hold t kn[+ itself consi/s ( su* con/itu5ts suitably relat$1 & t 9 be+ aw>e ( !m we are sometimes be+ aw>e ( in/ances ( kn[+4 ,= ?is reason1 mu* z ,i agree ) 8 view z to :at are ! objects ( :i* !re is aw>5ess1 ,i _c :olly agree ) 8 conclusion z to ! impossibility ( introspection4 ,! behavi\ri/s h *all5g$ introspection ev5 m vigor\sly ?an ,knight ,dunlap1 & h gone s f> z to d5y ! exi/5ce ( images4 ,b ,i ?9k t !y h confus$ v>i\s ?+s :i* are v commonly confus$1 & t x is necess>y to make sev]al di/9ctions be=e we c arrive at :at is true & :at false 9 ! criticism ( introspection4 ,i wi% to di/+ui% ?ree di/9ct que/ions1 any "o ( :i* may be meant :5 we ask :e!r introspection is a s\rce ( k4 ,! ?ree que/ions are z foll[s3 7#a7 ,c we obs]ve any?+ ab\t ourselves :i* we _c obs]ve ab\t o!r p1 or is ev]y?+ we c obs]ve ,,public1 9 ! s5se t ano!r c\ld also obs]ve x if suitably plac$8 7#b7 ,does ev]y?+ t we c obs]ve obey ! laws ( physics & =m "p ( ! physical _w1 or c we obs]ve c]ta9 ?+s t lie outside physics8 7#c7 ,c we obs]ve any?+ :i* diff]s 9 its intr9sic nature f ! con/itu5ts ( ! physical _w1 or is ev]y?+ t we c obs]ve compos$ ( elem5ts intr9sically simil> to ! con/itu5ts ( :at is call$ matt]8 ,any "o ( ^! ?ree que/ions may be us$ to def9e introspection4 ,i %\ld fav\r introspection 9 ! s5se ( ! fir/ "q1 i4e4 ,i ?9k t "s ( ! ?+s we obs]ve _c1 ev5 !oretically1 be obs]v$ by any "o else4 ,! second "q1 t5tatively & = ! pres5t1 ,i %\ld answ] 9 fav\r ( introspection2 ,i ?9k t images1 9 ! actual condition ( sci5ce1 _c be br\ght "u ! causal laws ( physics1 ?\gh p]haps ultimately !y may be4 ,! ?ird "q ,i %\ld answ] adv]sely to introspection ,i ?9k t obs]vation %[s u no?+ t is n compos$ ( s5sations & images1 & t images diff] f s5sations 9 _! causal laws1 n intr9sically4 ,i %all deal ) ! ?ree que/ions successively4 7#a7 ,,publicity ,,or ,,privacy ,,( ,,:at ,,is ,,obs]v$4 ,conf9+ ourselves1 = ! mom5t1 to s5sations1 we f9d t !re are diff]5t degrees ( publicity atta*+ to diff]5t sorts ( s5sations4 ,if y feel a too?a*e :5 ! o!r p 9 ! room d n1 y are 9 no way surpris$2 b if y he> a clap ( ?und] :5 !y d n1 y beg9 to be al>m$ z to y\r m5tal condition4 ,sight & he>+ are ! mo/ public ( ! s5ses2 smell only a trifle less s2 t\*1 aga91 a trifle less1 s9ce two p c only t\* ! same spot successively1 n simultane\sly4 ,ta/e has a sort ( semi-publicity1 s9ce p seem to exp]i5ce simil> ta/e-s5sations :5 !y eat simil> foods2 b ! publicity is incomplete1 s9ce two p _c eat actually ! same piece ( food4 ,b :5 we pass on to bodily s5sations--heada*e1 too?a*e1 hung]1 ?ir/1 ! feel+ ( fatigue1 & s on--we get q away f publicity1 into a region :]e o!r p c tell u :at !y feel1 b we _c directly obs]ve _! feel+4 ,z a natural result ( ?is /ate ( affairs1 x has come to be ?\ght t ! public s5ses give u k ( ! out] _w1 :ile ! private s5ses only give u k z to our own bodies4 ,z reg>ds privacy1 all images1 ( :atev] sort1 belong ) ! s5sations :i* only give k ( our own bodies1 i4e4 ea* is only obs]vable by "o obs]v]4 ,?is is ! reason :y images ( sight & he>+ are m obvi\sly diff]5t f s5sations ( sight & he>+ ?an images ( bodily s5sations are f bodily s5sations2 & t is :y ! argum5t 9 fav\r ( images is m conclusive 9 su* cases z sight & he>+ ?an 9 su* cases z inn] spee*4 ,! :ole di/9ction ( privacy & publicity1 h[ev]1 s long z we conf9e ourselves to s5sations1 is "o ( degree1 n ( k9d4 ,no two p1 !re is good empirical reason to ?9k1 ev] h exactly simil> s5sations relat$ to ! same physical object at ! same mom5t2 on ! o!r h&1 ev5 ! mo/ private s5sation has correlations :i* w\ld !oretically enable ano!r obs]v] to inf] x4 ,t no s5sation is ev] completely public1 results f diff]5ces ( po9t ( view4 ,two p look+ at ! same table d n get ! same s5sation1 because ( p]spective & ! way ! light falls4 ,!y get only correlat$ s5sations4 ,two p li/5+ to ! same s\nd d n he> exactly ! same ?+1 because "o is ne>] to ! s\rce ( ! s\nd ?an ! o!r1 "o has bett] he>+ ?an ! o!r1 & s on4 ,?us publicity 9 s5sations consi/s1 n 9 hav+ ,,precisely simil> s5sations1 b 9 hav+ m or less simil> s5sations correlat$ accord+ to asc]ta9able laws4 ,! s5sations :i* /rike u z public are ^? :]e ! correlat$ s5sations are v simil> & ! correlations are v easy to discov]4 ,b ev5 ! mo/ private s5sations h correlations ) ?+s t o!rs c obs]ve4 ,! d5ti/ does n obs]ve y\r a*e1 b he c see ! cavity :i* causes x1 & c\ld guess t y are suff]+ ev5 if y did n tell him4 ,?is fact1 h[ev]1 _c be us$1 z ,watson w\ld app>5tly wi%1 to extrude f sci5ce obs]vations :i* are private to "o obs]v]1 s9ce x is by means ( _m su* obs]vations t correlations are e/abli%$1 e4g4 betwe5 too?a*es & cavities4 ,privacy1 !re=e does n by itself make a datum unam5able to sci5tific treatm5t4 ,on ?is po9t1 ! argum5t aga9/ introspection mu/ be reject$4 7#b7 ,,does ,,ev]y?+ ,,obs]vable ,,obey ,,! ,,laws ,,( ,,physics8 ,we come n[ to ! second gr\nd ( objection to introspection1 namely1 t its data d n obey ! laws ( physics4 ,?is1 ?\gh less emphasiz$1 is1 ,i ?9k1 an objection :i* is really m /rongly felt ?an ! objection ( privacy4 ,& we obta9 a def9ition ( introspection m 9 h>mony ) usage if we def9e x z obs]vation ( data n subject to physical laws ?an if we def9e x by means ( privacy4 ,no "o w\ld reg>d a man z introspective because he 0 consci\s ( hav+ a /oma* a*e4 ,oppon5ts ( introspection d n mean to d5y ! obvi\s fact t we c obs]ve bodily s5sations :i* o!rs _c obs]ve4 ,= example1 ,knight ,dunlap cont5ds t images are really muscul> contractions199 & evid5tly reg>ds our aw>5ess ( muscul> contractions z n com+ "u ! head ( introspection4 ,i ?9k x w be f\nd t ! ess5tial *>act]i/ic ( introspective data1 9 ! s5se :i* n[ conc]ns u1 has to d ) ,,localization3 ei!r !y are n localiz$ at all1 or !y are localiz$1 l visual images1 9 a place already physically occupi$ by some?+ :i* w\ld be inconsi/5t ) !m if !y 7 reg>d$ z "p ( ! physical _w4 ,if y h a visual image ( y\r fri5d sitt+ 9 a *air :i* 9 fact is empty1 y _c locate ! image 9 y\r body1 because x is visual1 nor 7z a physical ph5om5on7 9 ! *air1 because ! *air1 z a physical object1 is empty4 ,?us x seems to foll[ t ! physical _w does n include all t we are aw>e (1 & t images1 :i* are introspective data1 h to be reg>d$1 = ! pres5t1 z n obey+ ! laws ( physics2 ?is is1 ,i ?9k1 "o ( ! *ief reasons :y an attempt is made to reject !m4 ,i %all try to %[ 9 ,lecture ,,viii t ! purely empirical reasons = accept+ images are ov]:elm+4 ,b we _c be ne>ly s c]ta9 t !y w n ultimately be br\ght "u ! laws ( physics4 ,ev5 if ?is %\ld happ51 h[ev]1 !y w\ld /ill be di/+ui%able f s5sations by _! proximate causal laws1 z gases rema9 di/+ui%able f solids4 99 ,psy*ological ,review1 #aiaf1 ,?\ght-,cont5t & ,feel+1 p4 #ei4 ,see also ib41 #aiab1 ,! ,nature ( ,p]ceiv$ ,relations1 :]e he says3 ',introspection1' dive/$ ( its my?ological sugge/ion ( ! obs]v+ ( consci\sness1 is really ! obs]vation ( bodily s5sations 7s5sibles7 & feel+s 7feelables77p4 #dbg n474 7#c7 ,,c ,,we ,,obs]ve ,,any?+ ,,intr9sically ,,diff]5t ,,f ,,s5sations8 ,we come n[ to our ?ird "q conc]n+ introspection4 ,x is commonly ?\ght t by look+ )9 we c obs]ve all sorts ( ?+s t are radically diff]5t f ! con/itu5ts ( ! physical _w1 e4g4 ?\ghts1 beliefs1 desires1 pleasures1 pa9s & emotions4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 m9d & matt] is increas$ p>tly by emphasiz+ ^! suppos$ introspective data1 p>tly by ! supposition t matt] is compos$ ( atoms or electrons or :atev] units physics may at ! mom5t pref]4 ,z aga9/ ?is latt] supposition1 ,i cont5d t ! ultimate con/itu5ts ( matt] are n atoms or electrons1 b s5sations1 & o!r ?+s simil> to s5sations z reg>ds ext5t & duration4 ,z aga9/ ! view t introspection reveals a m5tal _w radically diff]5t f s5sations1 ,i propose to argue t ?\ghts1 beliefs1 desires1 pleasures1 pa9s & emotions are all built up out ( s5sations & images alone1 & t !re is reason to ?9k t images d n diff] f s5sations 9 _! intr9sic "*4 ,we ?us effect a mutual rappro*em5t ( m9d & matt]1 & r$uce ! ultimate data ( introspection 79 our second s5se7 to images alone4 ,on ?is ?ird view ( ! mean+ ( introspection1 !re=e1 our decision is :olly aga9/ x4 ,!re rema9 two po9ts to be consid]$ conc]n+ introspection4 ,! fir/ is z to h[ f> x is tru/wor?y2 ! second is z to :e!r1 ev5 grant+ t x reveals no radically diff]5t ,,/uff f t reveal$ by :at might be call$ ext]nal p]ception1 x may n reveal diff]5t ,,relations1 & ?us acquire almo/ z mu* importance z is traditionally assign$ to x4 ,to beg9 ) ! tru/wor?9ess ( introspection4 ,x is common among c]ta9 s*ools to reg>d ! k ( our own m5tal processes z incomp>ably m c]ta9 ?an our k ( ! ext]nal _w2 ?is view is to be f\nd 9 ! ,briti% philosophy :i* desc5ds f ,hume1 & is pres5t1 some:at veil$1 9 ,kant & 8 foll[]s4 ,!re seems no reason :atev] to accept ?is view4 ,our spontane\s1 unsophi/icat$ beliefs1 :e!r z to ourselves or z to ! out] _w1 are always extremely ra% & v liable to error4 ,! acquisition ( caution is equally necess>y & equally difficult 9 bo? directions4 ,n only are we (t5 un aw>e ( ent]ta9+ a belief or desire :i* exi/s 9 u2 we are (t5 actually mi/ak54 ,! fallibility ( introspection z reg>ds :at we desire is made evid5t by psy*o-analysis2 its fallibility z to :at we "k is easily demon/rat$4 ,an autobiography1 :5 confront$ by a c>eful editor ) docum5t>y evid5ce1 is usually f\nd to be full ( obvi\sly inadv]t5t errors4 ,any ( u confront$ by a =gott5 lett] writt5 "s ye>s ago w be a/oni%$ to f9d h[ mu* m fooli% our op9ions 7 ?an we _h rememb]$ !m z be+4 ,& z to ! analysis ( our m5tal op]ations--believ+1 desir+1 will+1 or :at n--introspection unaid$ gives v little help3 x is necess>y to con/ruct hypo!ses & te/ !m by _! consequ5ces1 j z we d 9 physical sci5ce4 ,introspection1 !re=e1 ?\gh x is "o among our s\rces ( k1 is n1 9 isolation1 9 any degree m tru/wor?y ?an ext]nal p]ception4 ,i come n[ to our second "q3 ,does introspection give u mat]ials = ! k ( relations o!r ?an ^? arriv$ at by reflect+ ^u ext]nal p]ception8 ,x might be cont5d$ t ! ess5ce ( :at is m5tal consi/s ( relations1 su* z kn[+ = example1 & t our k conc]n+ ^! ess5tially m5tal relations is entirely d]iv$ f introspection4 ,if kn[+ 7 an unanalysable relation1 ?is view w\ld be incontrov]tible1 s9ce cle>ly no su* relation =ms "p ( ! subject matt] ( physics4 ,b x w\ld seem t kn[+ is really v>i\s relations1 all ( !m complex4 ,!re=e1 until !y h be5 analys$1 our pres5t "q mu/ rema9 unansw]$ ,i %all return to x at ! end ( ! pres5t c\rse ( lectures4 ,,lecture ,,vii4 ,,! ,,def9ition ,,( ,,p]ception ,9 ,lecture ,v we f\nd reason to ?9k t ! ultimate con/itu5ts99 ( ! _w d n h ! *>act]i/ics ( ei!r m9d or matt] z ord9>ily und]/ood3 !y are n solid p]si/5t objects mov+ ?r\gh space1 nor are !y fragm5ts ( consci\sness4 ,b we f\nd two ways ( gr\p+ p>ticul>s1 "o into ?+s or pieces ( matt]1 ! o!r into s]ies ( p]spectives1 ea* s]ies be+ :at may be call$ a biography4 ,be=e we c def9e ei!r s5sations or images1 x is necess>y to consid] ?is tw(old classification 9 some:at great] detail1 & to d]ive f x a def9ition ( p]ception4 ,x %\ld be said t1 9 s f> z ! classification assumes ! :ole _w ( physics 7includ+ its unp]ceiv$ portions71 x conta9s hypo!tical elem5ts4 ,b we w n l+] on ! gr\nds = admitt+ ^!1 :i* belong to ! philosophy ( physics r ?an ( psy*ology4 99 ,:5 ,i speak ( ultimate con/itu5ts1 ,i d n mean necess>ily su* z are !oretically incapable ( analysis1 b only su* z1 at pres5t1 we c see no means ( analys+4 ,i speak ( su* con/itu5ts z p>ticul>s1 or z ,,relative p>ticul>s :5 ,i wi% to emphasize ! fact t !y may be !mselves complex4 ,! physical classification ( p>ticul>s collects toge!r all ^? t are aspects ( "o ?+4 ,giv5 any "o p>ticul>1 x is f\nd (t5 7we d n say always7 t !re are a numb] ( o!r p>ticul>s diff]+ f ?is "o 9 gradually increas+ degrees4 ,^? 7or "s ( ^?7 t diff] f x only v slightly w be f\nd to diff] approximately accord+ to c]ta9 laws :i* may be call$1 9 a g5]aliz$ s5se1 ! laws ( p]spective2 !y include ! ord9>y laws ( p]spective z a special case4 ,?is approximation gr[s m & m ne>ly exact z ! diff]5ce gr[s less2 9 te*nical language1 ! laws ( p]spective acc\nt = ! diff]5ces to ! fir/ ord] ( small quantities1 & o!r laws are only requir$ to acc\nt = second-ord] diff]5ces4 ,t is to say1 z ! diff]5ce dim9i%es1 ! "p ( ! diff]5ce :i* is n accord+ to ! laws ( p]spective dim9i%es mu* m rapidly1 & be>s to ! total diff]5ce a ratio :i* t5ds t[>ds z]o z bo? are made small] & small]4 ,by ?is means we c !oretically collect toge!r a numb] ( p>ticul>s :i* may be def9$ z ! aspects or appe>ances ( "o ?+ at "o "t4 ,if ! laws ( p]spective 7 suffici5tly kn[n1 ! connection betwe5 diff]5t aspects w\ld be express$ 9 diff]5tial equations4 ,?is gives u1 s f>1 only ^? p>ticul>s :i* con/itute "o ?+ at "o "t4 ,?is set ( p>ticul>s may be call$ a mom5t>y ?+4 ,to def9e t s]ies ( mom5t>y ?+s t con/itute ! successive /ates ( "o ?+ is a problem involv+ ! laws ( dynamics4 ,^! give ! laws gov]n+ ! *anges ( aspects f "o "t to a slightly lat] "t1 ) ! same sort ( diff]5tial approximation to exactness z we obta9$ = spatially neighb\r+ aspects ?r\gh ! laws ( p]spective4 ,?us a mom5t>y ?+ is a set ( p>ticul>s1 :ile a ?+ 7:i* may be id5tifi$ ) ! :ole hi/ory ( ! ?+7 is a s]ies ( su* sets ( p>ticul>s4 ,! p>ticul>s 9 "o set are collect$ toge!r by ! laws ( p]spective2 ! successive sets are collect$ toge!r by ! laws ( dynamics4 ,?is is ! view ( ! _w :i* is appropriate to traditional physics4 ,! def9ition ( a mom5t>y ?+ involves problems conc]n+ "t1 s9ce ! p>ticul>s con/itut+ a mom5t>y ?+ w n be all simultane\s1 b w travel outw>d f ! ?+ ) ! velocity ( light 79 case ! ?+ is 9 vacuo74 ,!re are complications connect$ ) relativity1 b = our pres5t purpose !y are n vital1 & ,i %all ignore !m4 ,in/ead ( fir/ collect+ toge!r all ! p>ticul>s con/itut+ a mom5t>y ?+1 & !n =m+ ! s]ies ( successive sets1 we might h fir/ collect$ toge!r a s]ies ( successive aspects relat$ by ! laws ( dynamics1 & !n h =m$ ! set ( su* s]ies relat$ by ! laws ( p]spective4 ,to illu/rate by ! case ( an actor on ! /age3 our fir/ plan 0 to collect toge!r all ! aspects :i* he pres5ts to diff]5t spectators at "o "t1 & !n to =m ! s]ies ( su* sets4 ,our second plan is fir/ to collect toge!r all ! aspects :i* he pres5ts successively to a giv5 spectator1 & !n to d ! same ?+ = ! o!r spectators1 ?us =m+ a set ( s]ies in/ead ( a s]ies ( sets4 ,! fir/ plan tells u :at he does2 ! second ! impressions he produces4 ,?is second way ( classify+ p>ticul>s is "o :i* obvi\sly has m relevance to psy*ology ?an ! o!r4 ,x is p>tly by ?is second me?od ( classification t we obta9 def9itions ( "o exp]i5ce or biography or p]son4 ,?is me?od ( classification is also ess5tial to ! def9ition ( s5sations & images1 z ,i %all endeav\r to prove lat] on4 ,b we mu/ fir/ amplify ! def9ition ( p]spectives & biographies4 ,9 our illu/ration ( ! actor1 we spoke1 = ! mom5t1 z ?\gh ea* spectator's m9d 7 :olly occupi$ by ! "o actor4 ,if ?is 7 ! case1 x might be possible to def9e ! biography ( "o spectator z a s]ies ( successive aspects ( ! actor relat$ accord+ to ! laws ( dynamics4 ,b 9 fact ?is is n ! case4 ,we are at all times dur+ our wak+ life receiv+ a v>iety ( impressions1 :i* are aspects ( a v>iety ( ?+s4 ,we h to consid] :at b9ds toge!r two simultane\s s5sations 9 "o p]son1 or1 m g5]ally1 any two occurr5ces :i* =te "p ( "o exp]i5ce4 ,we might say1 adh]+ to ! /&po9t ( physics1 t two aspects ( diff]5t ?+s belong to ! same p]spective :5 !y are 9 ! same place4 ,b ?is w\ld n really help u1 s9ce a place has n yet be5 def9$4 ,c we def9e :at is meant by say+ t two aspects are 9 ! same place1 )\t introduc+ any?+ beyond ! laws ( p]spective & dynamics8 ,i d n feel sure :e!r x is possible to frame su* a def9ition or n2 accord+ly ,i %all n assume t x is possible1 b %all seek o!r *>act]i/ics by :i* a p]spective or biography may be def9$4 ,:5 7= example7 we see "o man & he> ano!r speak+ at ! same "t1 :at we see & :at we he> h a relation :i* we c p]ceive1 :i* makes ! two toge!r =m1 9 "s s5se1 "o exp]i5ce4 ,x is :5 ?is relation exi/s t two occurr5ces become associat$4 ,semon's engram is =m$ by all t we exp]i5ce at "o "t4 ,he speaks ( two p>ts ( ?is total z hav+ ! relation ( ,neb5e9&] 7,m4 #aah2 ,m4,e4 #cc ff471 :i* is rem9isc5t ( ,h]b>t's ,zusamm54 ,i ?9k ! relation may be call$ simply simultaneity4 ,x might be said t at any mom5t all sorts ( ?+s t are n "p ( my exp]i5ce are happ5+ 9 ! _w1 & t !re=e ! relation we are seek+ to def9e _c be m]ely simultaneity4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 w\ld be an error--! sort ( error t ! !ory ( relativity avoids4 ,!re is n "o univ]sal "t1 except by an elaborate con/ruction2 !re are only local times1 ea* ( :i* may be tak5 to be ! "t )9 "o biography4 ,accord+ly1 if ,i am 7say7 he>+ a s\nd1 ! only occurr5ces t are1 9 any simple s5se1 simultane\s ) my s5sation are ev5ts 9 my private _w1 i4e4 9 my biography4 ,we may !re=e def9e ! p]spective to :i* ! s5sation 9 "q belongs z ! set ( p>ticul>s t are simultane\s ) ?is s5sation4 ,& simil>ly we may def9e ! biography to :i* ! s5sation belongs z ! set ( p>ticul>s t are e>li] or lat] ?an1 or simultane\s )1 ! giv5 s5sation4 ,moreov]1 ! v same def9itions c be appli$ to p>ticul>s :i* are n s5sations4 ,!y are actually requir$ = ! !ory ( relativity1 if we are to give a philosophical explanation ( :at is meant by local "t 9 t !ory ,! relations ( simultaneity & succession are kn[n to u 9 our own exp]i5ce2 !y may be analysable1 b t does n affect _! suitability = def9+ p]spectives & biographies4 ,su* "t-relations z c be con/ruct$ betwe5 ev5ts 9 diff]5t biographies are ( a diff]5t k9d3 !y are n exp]i5c$1 & are m]ely logical1 be+ design$ to af=d conv5i5t ways ( /at+ ! correlations betwe5 diff]5t biographies4 ,x is n only by "t-relations t ! p>ts ( "o biography are collect$ toge!r 9 ! case ( liv+ be+s4 ,9 ?is case !re are ! mnemic ph5om5a :i* con/itute ! unity ( "o exp]i5ce1 & trans=m m]e occurr5ces into exp]i5ces4 ,i h already dwelt ^u ! importance ( mnemic ph5om5a = psy*ology1 & %all n enl>ge ^u !m n[1 beyond obs]v+ t !y are :at trans=ms a biography 79 our te*nical s5se7 into a life4 ,x is !y t give ! cont9uity ( a p]son or a m9d4 ,b !re is no reason to suppose t mnemic ph5om5a are associat$ ) biographies except 9 ! case ( animals & plants4 ,our two-fold classification ( p>ticul>s gives rise to ! dualism ( body & biography 9 reg>d to ev]y?+ 9 ! univ]se1 & n only 9 reg>d to liv+ ?+s4 ,?is arises z foll[s4 ,e p>ticul> ( ! sort consid]$ by physics is a memb] ( two gr\ps 7#a7 ,! gr\p ( p>ticul>s con/itut+ ! o!r aspects ( ! same physical object2 7#b7 ,! gr\p ( p>ticul>s t h direct "t-relations to ! giv5 p>ticul>4 ,ea* ( ^! is associat$ ) a place4 ,:5 ,i look at a />1 my s5sation is 7#a7 ,a memb] ( ! gr\p ( p>ticul>s :i* is ! />1 & :i* is associat$ ) ! place :]e ! /> is2 7#b7 ,a memb] ( ! gr\p ( p>ticul>s :i* is my biography1 & :i* is associat$ ) ! place :]e ,i am499 99,i h expla9$ else:]e ! mann] 9 :i* space is con/ruct$ on ?is !ory1 & 9 :i* ! position ( a p]spective is br\ght into relation ) ! position ( a physical object 7,our ,k ( ! ,ext]nal ,_w1 ,lecture ,,iii1 pp4 #ij1 #ia74 ,! result is t e p>ticul> ( ! k9d relevant to physics is associat$ ) ,,two places2 e4g4 my s5sation ( ! /> is associat$ ) ! place :]e ,i am & ) ! place :]e ! /> is4 ,?is dualism has no?+ to d ) any m9d t ,i may be suppos$ to possess2 x exi/s 9 exactly ! same s5se if ,i am replac$ by a photographic plate4 ,we may call ! two places ! active & passive places respectively499 ,?us 9 ! case ( a p]ception or photograph ( a />1 ! active place is ! place :]e ! /> is1 :ile ! passive place is ! place :]e ! p]cipi5t or photographic plate is4 99 ,i use ^! z m]e names2 ,i d n want to introduce any notion ( activity4 ,we c ?us1 )\t dep>t+ f physics1 collect toge!r all ! p>ticul>s actively at a giv5 place1 or all ! p>ticul>s passively at a giv5 place4 ,9 our own case1 ! "o gr\p is our body 7or our bra971 :ile ! o!r is our m9d1 9 s f> z x consi/s ( p]ceptions4 ,9 ! case ( ! photographic plate1 ! fir/ gr\p is ! plate z dealt ) by physics1 ! second ! aspect ( ! heav5s :i* x photographs4 7,= ! sake ( s*ematic simplicity1 ,i am ignor+ v>i\s complications connect$ ) "t1 :i* require "s t$i\s b p]fectly feasible elaborations47 ,?us :at may be call$ subjectivity 9 ! po9t ( view is n a di/9ctive peculi>ity ( m9d3 x is pres5t j z mu* 9 ! photographic plate4 ,& ! photographic plate has its biography z well z its matt]4 ,b ?is biography is an affair ( physics1 & has none ( ! peculi> *>act]i/ics by :i* m5tal ph5om5a are di/+ui%$1 ) ! sole exception ( subjectivity4 ,adh]+1 = ! mom5t1 to ! /&po9t ( physics1 we may def9e a p]ception ( an object z ! appe>ance ( ! object f a place :]e !re is a bra9 7or1 9 l[] animals1 "s suitable n]v\s /ructure71 ) s5se-organs & n]ves =m+ "p ( ! int]v5+ m$ium4 ,su* appe>ances ( objects are di/+ui%$ f appe>ances 9 o!r places by c]ta9 peculi>ities1 namely3 7#a7 ,!y give rise to mnemic ph5om5a2 7#b7 ,!y are !mselves affect$ by mnemic ph5om5a4 ,t is to say1 !y may be rememb]$ & associat$ or influ5ce our habits1 or give rise to images1 etc41 & !y are !mselves diff]5t f :at !y w\ld h be5 if our pa/ exp]i5ce _h be5 diff]5t--= example1 ! effect ( a spok5 s5t5ce ^u ! he>] dep5ds ^u :e!r ! he>] kn[s ! language or n1 :i* is a "q ( pa/ exp]i5ce4 ,x is ^! two *>act]i/ics1 bo? connect$ ) mnemic ph5om5a1 t di/+ui% p]ceptions f ! appe>ances ( objects 9 places :]e !re is no liv+ be+4 ,!oretically1 ?\gh (t5 n practically1 we c1 9 our p]ception ( an object1 sep>ate ! "p :i* is due to pa/ exp]i5ce f ! "p :i* proce$s )\t mnemic influ5ces out ( ! "* ( ! object4 ,we may def9e z s5sation t "p :i* proce$s 9 ?is way1 :ile ! rema9d]1 :i* is a mnemic ph5om5on1 w h to be add$ to ! s5sation to make up :at is call$ ! p]ception4 ,accord+ to ?is def9ition1 ! s5sation is a !oretical core 9 ! actual exp]i5ce2 ! actual exp]i5ce is ! p]ception4 ,x is obvi\s t !re are grave difficulties 9 c>ry+ out ^! def9itions1 b we w n l+] ov] !m4 ,we h to pass1 z soon z we c1 f ! physical /&po9t1 :i* we h be5 hi!rto adopt+1 to ! /&po9t ( psy*ology1 9 :i* we make m use ( introspection 9 ! fir/ ( ! ?ree s5ses discuss$ 9 ! prec$+ lecture4 ,b be=e mak+ ! transition1 !re are two po9ts :i* mu/ be made cle>4 ,fir/3 ,ev]y?+ outside my own p]sonal biography is outside my exp]i5ce2 !re=e if any?+ c be kn[n by me outside my biography1 x c only be kn[n 9 "o ( two ways3 7#a7 ,by inf]5ce f ?+s )9 my biography1 or 7#b7 ,by "s a priori pr9ciple indep5d5t ( exp]i5ce4 ,i d n myself believe t any?+ approa*+ c]ta9ty is to be atta9$ by ei!r ( ^! me?ods1 & !re=e :atev] lies outside my p]sonal biography mu/ be reg>d$1 !oretically1 z hypo!sis4 ,! !oretical argum5t = adopt+ ! hypo!sis is t x simplifies ! /atem5t ( ! laws accord+ to :i* ev5ts happ5 9 our exp]i5ce4 ,b !re is no v good gr\nd = suppos+ t a simple law is m likely to be true ?an a complicat$ law1 ?\gh !re is good gr\nd = assum+ a simple law 9 sci5tific practice1 z a work+ hypo!sis1 if x expla9s ! facts z well z ano!r :i* is less simple4 ,belief 9 ! exi/5ce ( ?+s outside my own biography exi/s antec$5tly to evid5ce1 & c only be de/roy$1 if at all1 by a long c\rse ( philosophic d\bt4 ,= purposes ( sci5ce1 x is ju/ifi$ practically by ! simplification :i* x introduces into ! laws ( physics4 ,b f ! /&po9t ( !oretical logic x mu/ be reg>d$ z a prejudice1 n z a well-gr\nd$ !ory4 ,) ?is proviso1 ,i propose to cont9ue yield+ to ! prejudice4 ,! second po9t conc]ns ! relat+ ( our po9t ( view to t :i* reg>ds s5sations z caus$ by /imuli ext]nal to ! n]v\s sy/em 7or at lea/ to ! bra971 & di/+ui%es images z c5trally excit$1 i4e4 due to causes 9 ! bra9 :i* _c be trac$ back to any?+ affect+ ! s5se-organs4 ,x is cle> t1 if our analysis ( physical objects has be5 valid1 ?is way ( def9+ s5sations ne$s re9t]pretation4 ,x is also cle> t we mu/ be able to f9d su* a new int]pretation if our !ory is to be admissible4 ,to make ! matt] cle>1 we w take ! simple/ possible illu/ration4 ,consid] a c]ta9 />1 & suppose = ! mom5t t its size is negligible4 ,t is to say1 we w reg>d x z1 = practical purposes1 a lum9\s po9t4 ,let u fur!r suppose t x exi/s only = a v brief "t1 say a second4 ,!n1 accord+ to physics1 :at happ5s is t a sph]ical wave ( light travels outw>d f ! /> ?r\gh space1 j z1 :5 y drop a /one into a /agnant pond1 ripples travel outw>d f ! place :]e ! /one hit ! wat]4 ,! wave ( light travels ) a c]ta9 v ne>ly con/ant velocity1 r\ghly #cjj1jjj kilometres p] second4 ,?is velocity may be asc]ta9$ by s5d+ a fla% ( light to a mirror1 & obs]v+ h[ long x takes be=e ! reflect$ fla% rea*es y1 j z ! velocity ( s\nd may be asc]ta9$ by means ( an e*o4 ,:at x is t happ5s :5 a wave ( light rea*es a giv5 place we _c tell1 except 9 ! sole case :5 ! place 9 "q is a bra9 connect$ ) an eye :i* is turn$ 9 ! "r direction4 ,9 ?is "o v special case we "k :at happ5s3 we h ! s5sation call$ see+ ! />4 ,9 all o!r cases1 ?\gh we "k 7m or less hypo!tically7 "s ( ! correlations & ab/ract prop]ties ( ! appe>ance ( ! />1 we d n "k ! appe>ance itself4 ,n[ y may1 = ! sake ( illu/ration1 comp>e ! diff]5t appe>ances ( ! /> to ! conjugation ( a ,greek v]b1 except t ! numb] ( its p>ts is really inf9ite1 & n only app>5tly s to ! despair+ s*oolboy4 ,9 vacuo1 ! p>ts are regul>1 & c be d]iv$ f ! 7imag9>y7 root accord+ to ! laws ( gramm>1 i4e4 ( p]spective4 ,! /> be+ situat$ 9 empty space1 x may be def9$1 = purposes ( physics1 z consi/+ ( all ^? appe>ances :i* x pres5ts 9 vacuo1 toge!r ) ^? :i*1 accord+ to ! laws ( p]spective1 x w\ld pres5t else:]e if its appe>ances else:]e 7 regul>4 ,?is is m]ely ! adaptation ( ! def9ition ( matt] :i* ,i gave 9 an e>li] lecture4 ,! appe>ance ( a /> at a c]ta9 place1 if x is regul>1 does n require any cause or explanation beyond ! exi/5ce ( ! />4 ,e regul> appe>ance is an actual memb] ( ! sy/em :i* is ! />1 & its causation is entirely int]nal to t sy/em4 ,we may express ?is by say+ t a regul> appe>ance is due to ! /> alone1 & is actually "p ( ! />1 9 ! s5se 9 :i* a man is "p ( ! human race4 ,b pres5tly ! light ( ! /> rea*es our atmosph]e4 ,x beg9s to be refract$1 & dimm$ by mi/1 & its velocity is slightly dim9i%$4 ,at la/ x rea*es a human eye1 :]e a complicat$ process takes place1 end+ 9 a s5sation :i* gives u our gr\nds = believ+ 9 all t has gone be=e4 ,n[1 ! irregul> appe>ances ( ! /> are n1 /rictly speak+1 memb]s ( ! sy/em :i* is ! />1 accord+ to our def9ition ( matt]4 ,! irregul> appe>ances1 h[ev]1 are n m]ely irregul>3 !y proce$ accord+ to laws :i* c be /at$ 9 t]ms ( ! matt] ?r\gh :i* ! light has pass$ on its way4 ,! s\rces ( an irregul> appe>ance are !re=e tw(old3 7#a7 ,! object :i* is appe>+ irregul>ly2 #b7 ,! int]v5+ m$ium4 ,x %\ld be obs]v$ t1 :ile ! conception ( a regul> appe>ance is p]fectly precise1 ! conception ( an irregul> appe>ance is "o capable ( any degree ( vagu5ess4 ,:5 ! di/ort+ influ5ce ( ! m$ium is suffici5tly great1 ! result+ p>ticul> c no long] be reg>d$ z an appe>ance ( an object1 b mu/ be treat$ on its own acc\nt4 ,?is happ5s especially :5 ! p>ticul> 9 "q _c be trac$ back to "o object1 b is a bl5d ( two or m4 ,?is case is normal 9 p]ception3 we see z "o :at ! microscope or telescope reveals to be _m diff]5t objects4 ,! notion ( p]ception is !re=e n a precise "o3 we p]ceive ?+s m or less1 b always ) a v consid]able am\nt ( vagu5ess & confusion4 ,9 consid]+ irregul> appe>ances1 !re are c]ta9 v natural mi/akes :i* mu/ be avoid$4 ,9 ord] t a p>ticul> may c\nt z an irregul> appe>ance ( a c]ta9 object1 x is n necess>y t x %\ld be> any resemblance to ! regul> appe>ances z reg>d its intr9sic qualities4 ,all t is necess>y is t x %\ld be d]ivable f ! regul> appe>ances by ! laws :i* express ! di/ort+ influ5ce ( ! m$ium4 ,:5 x is s d]ivable1 ! p>ticul> 9 "q may be reg>d$ z caus$ by ! regul> appe>ances1 & !re=e by ! object itself1 toge!r ) ! modifications result+ f ! m$ium4 ,9 o!r cases1 ! p>ticul> 9 "q may1 9 ! same s5se1 be reg>d$ z caus$ by sev]al objects toge!r ) ! m$ium2 9 ?is case1 x may be call$ a confus$ appe>ance ( sev]al objects4 ,if x happ5s to be 9 a bra91 x may be call$ a confus$ p]ception ( ^! objects4 ,all actual p]ception is confus$ to a great] or less ext5t4 ,we c n[ int]pret 9 t]ms ( our !ory ! di/9ction betwe5 ^? m5tal occurr5ces :i* are said to h an ext]nal /imulus1 & ^? :i* are said to be c5trally excit$1 i4e4 to h no /imulus ext]nal to ! bra94 ,:5 a m5tal occurr5ce c be reg>d$ z an appe>ance ( an object ext]nal to ! bra91 h[ev] irregul>1 or ev5 z a confus$ appe>ance ( sev]al su* objects1 !n we may reg>d x z hav+ = its /imulus ! object or objects 9 "q1 or _! appe>ances at ! s5se-organ conc]n$4 ,:51 on ! o!r h&1 a m5tal occurr5ce has n suffici5t connection ) objects ext]nal to ! bra9 to be reg>d$ z an appe>ance ( su* objects1 !n its physical causation 7if any7 w h to be s\ght 9 ! bra94 ,9 ! =m] case x c be call$ a p]ception2 9 ! latt] x _c be s call$4 ,b ! di/9ction is "o ( degree1 n ( k9d4 ,until ?is is realiz$1 no satisfactory !ory ( p]ception1 s5sation1 or imag9ation is possible4 ,,lecture ,,viii4 ,,s5sations ,,& ,,images ,! dualism ( m9d & matt]1 if we h be5 "r s f>1 _c be all[$ z metaphysically valid4 ,nev]!less1 we seem to f9d a c]ta9 dualism1 p]haps n ultimate1 )9 ! _w z we obs]ve x4 ,! dualism is n prim>ily z to ! /uff ( ! _w1 b z to causal laws4 ,on ?is subject we may aga9 quote ,william ,james4 ,he po9ts out t :51 z we say1 we m]ely imag9e ?+s1 !re are no su* effects z w\ld ensue if ! ?+s 7 :at we call real4 ,he takes ! case ( imag9+ a fire4 ,i make = myself an exp]i5ce ( blaz+ fire2 ,i place x ne> my body2 b x does n w>m me 9 ! lea/4 ,i lay a /ick ^u x & ! /ick ei!r burns or rema9s gre51 z ,i please4 ,i call up wat]1 & p\r x on ! fire1 & absolutely no diff]5ce ensues4 ,i acc\nt = all su* facts by call+ ?is :ole tra9 ( exp]i5ces unreal1 a m5tal tra94 ,m5tal fire is :at won't burn real /icks2 m5tal wat] is :at won't necess>ily 7?\gh ( c\rse x may7 put out ev5 a m5tal fire4444 ,) 'real' objects1 on ! contr>y1 consequ5ces always accrue2 & ?us ! real exp]i5ces get sift$ f ! m5tal ones1 ! ?+s f our ?\ghts ( !m1 fanciful or true1 & precipitat$ toge!r z ! /able "p ( ! :ole exp]i5ce--*aos1 "u ! "n ( ! physical _w499 99 ,essays 9 ,radical ,empiricism1 pp4 #cb-c4 ,9 ?is passage ,james speaks1 by m]e inadv]t5ce1 z ?\gh ! ph5om5a :i* he is describ+ z m5tal _h ,,no effects4 ,?is is1 ( c\rse1 n ! case3 !y h _! effects1 j z mu* z physical ph5om5a d1 b _! effects foll[ diff]5t laws4 ,= example1 dreams1 z ,freud has %[n1 are j z mu* subject to laws z are ! motions ( ! planets4 ,b ! laws are diff]5t3 9 a dream y may be transport$ f "o place to ano!r 9 a mom5t1 or "o p]son may turn into ano!r "u y\r eyes4 ,su* diff]5ces compel y to di/+ui% ! _w ( dreams f ! physical _w4 ,if ! two sorts ( causal laws c\ld be %>ply di/+ui%$1 we c\ld call an occurr5ce physical :5 x obeys causal laws appropriate to ! physical _w1 & m5tal :5 x obeys causal laws appropriate to ! m5tal _w4 ,s9ce ! m5tal _w & ! physical _w int]act1 !re w\ld be a b\nd>y betwe5 ! two3 !re w\ld be ev5ts :i* w\ld h physical causes & m5tal effects1 :ile !re w\ld be o!rs :i* w\ld h m5tal causes & physical effects4 ,^? t h physical causes & m5tal effects we %\ld def9e z s5sations4 ,^? t h m5tal causes & physical effects might p]haps be id5tifi$ ) :at we call volunt>y movem5ts2 b !y d n conc]n u at pres5t4 ,^! def9itions w\ld h all ! precision t c\ld be desir$ if ! di/9ction betwe5 physical & psy*ological causation 7 cle> & %>p4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 h[ev]1 ?is di/9ction is1 z yet1 by no means %>p4 ,x is possible t1 ) full] k1 x w be f\nd to be no m ultimate ?an ! di/9ction betwe5 ! laws ( gases & ! laws ( rigid bodies4 ,x also suff]s f ! fact t an ev5t may be an effect ( sev]al causes accord+ to sev]al causal laws we _c1 9 g5]al1 po9t to any?+ unique z ,,! cause ( su*-&-su* an ev5t4 ,& f9ally x is by no means c]ta9 t ! peculi> causal laws :i* gov]n m5tal ev5ts are n really physiological4 ,! law ( habit1 :i* is "o ( ! mo/ di/9ctive1 may be fully explicable 9 t]ms ( ! peculi>ities ( n]v\s tissue1 & ^! peculi>ities1 9 turn1 may be explicable by ! laws ( physics4 ,x seems1 !re=e1 t we are driv5 to a diff]5t k9d ( def9ition4 ,x is = ?is reason t x 0 necess>y to develop ! def9ition ( p]ception4 ,) ?is def9ition1 we c def9e a s5sation z ! non-mnemic elem5ts 9 a p]ception4 ,:51 foll[+ our def9ition1 we try to decide :at elem5ts 9 our exp]i5ce are ( ! nature ( s5sations1 we f9d m difficulty ?an might h be5 expect$4 ,prima facie1 ev]y?+ is s5sation t comes to u ?r\gh ! s5ses3 ! sights we see1 ! s\nds we he>1 ! smells we smell1 & s on2 also su* ?+s z heada*e or ! feel+ ( muscul> /ra94 ,b 9 actual fact s mu* int]pretation1 s mu* ( habitual correlation1 is mix$ ) all su* exp]i5ces1 t ! core ( pure s5sation is only to be extract$ by c>eful inve/igation4 ,to take a simple illu/ration3 if y g to ! !atre 9 y\r own c\ntry1 y seem to he> equally well 9 ! /alls or ! dress circle2 9 ei!r case y ?9k y miss no?+4 ,b if y g 9 a =eign c\ntry :]e y h a fair k ( ! language1 y w seem to h gr[n p>tially deaf1 & y w f9d x necess>y to be mu* ne>] ! /age ?an y w\ld ne$ to be 9 y\r own c\ntry4 ,! reason is t1 9 he>+ our own language spok51 we quickly & unconsci\sly fill out :at we really he> ) inf]5ces to :at ! man mu/ be say+1 & we nev] realize t we h n he>d ! words we h m]ely inf]r$4 ,9 a =eign language1 ^! inf]5ces are m difficult1 & we are m dep5d5t ^u actual s5sation4 ,if we f\nd ourselves 9 a =eign _w1 :]e tables look$ l cu%ions & cu%ions l tables1 we %\ld simil>ly discov] h[ mu* ( :at we ?9k we see is really inf]5ce4 ,e fairly famili> s5sation is to u a sign ( ! ?+s t usually g ) x1 & _m ( ^! ?+s w seem to =m "p ( ! s5sation4 ,i rememb] 9 ! e>ly days ( motor-c>s be+ ) a fri5d :5 a tyre bur/ ) a l\d report4 ,he ?\ght x 0 a pi/ol1 & support$ 8 op9ion by ma9ta9+ t he _h se5 ! fla%4 ,b ( c\rse !re _h be5 no fla%4 ,n[adays no "o sees a fla% :5 a tyre bur/s4 ,9 ord]1 !re=e1 to arrive at :at really is s5sation 9 an occurr5ce :i*1 at fir/ sight1 seems to conta9 no?+ else1 we h to p>e away all t is due to habit or expectation or int]pretation4 ,?is is a matt] = ! psy*ologi/1 & by no means an easy matt]4 ,= our purposes1 x is n important to det]m9e :at exactly is ! s5sational core 9 any case2 x is only important to notice t !re c]ta9ly is a s5sational core1 s9ce habit1 expectation & int]pretation are div]sely ar\s$ on div]se occasions1 & ! div]sity is cle>ly due to diff]5ces 9 :at is pres5t$ to ! s5ses4 ,:5 y op5 y\r newspap] 9 ! morn+1 ! actual s5sations ( see+ ! pr9t =m a v m9ute "p ( :at goes on 9 y1 b !y are ! />t+-po9t ( all ! re/1 & x is ?r\gh !m t ! newspap] is a means ( in=mation or mis-in=mation4 ,?us1 al?\gh x may be difficult to det]m9e :at exactly is s5sation 9 any giv5 exp]i5ce1 x is cle> t !re is s5sation1 unless1 l ,leibniz1 we d5y all action ( ! out] _w ^u u4 ,s5sations are obvi\sly ! s\rce ( our k ( ! _w1 includ+ our own body4 ,x might seem natural to reg>d a s5sation z itself a cognition1 & until lately ,i did s reg>d x4 ,:51 say1 ,i see a p]son ,i "k com+ t[>ds me 9 ! /reet1 x ,,seems z ?\gh ! m]e see+ 7 k4 ,x is ( c\rse und5iable t k comes ,,?r\gh ! see+1 b ,i ?9k x is a mi/ake to reg>d ! m]e see+ itself z k4 ,if we are s to reg>d x1 we mu/ di/+ui% ! see+ f :at is se53 we mu/ say t1 :5 we see a pat* ( col\r ( a c]ta9 %ape1 ! pat* ( col\r is "o ?+ & our see+ ( x is ano!r4 ,?is view1 h[ev]1 dem&s ! admission ( ! subject1 or act1 9 ! s5se discuss$ 9 our fir/ lecture4 ,if !re is a subject1 x c h a relation to ! pat* ( col\r1 namely1 ! sort ( relation :i* we might call aw>5ess4 ,9 t case ! s5sation1 z a m5tal ev5t1 w consi/ ( aw>5ess ( ! col\r1 :ile ! col\r itself w rema9 :olly physical1 & may be call$ ! s5se-datum1 to di/+ui% x f ! s5sation4 ,! subject1 h[ev]1 appe>s to be a logical fiction1 l ma!matical po9ts & in/ants4 ,x is introduc$1 n because obs]vation reveals x1 b because x is l+ui/ically conv5i5t & app>5tly dem&$ by gramm>4 ,nom9al entities ( ?is sort may or may n exi/1 b !re is no good gr\nd = assum+ t !y d4 ,! functions t !y appe> to p]=m c always be p]=m$ by classes or s]ies or o!r logical con/ructions1 consi/+ ( less dubi\s entities4 ,if we are to avoid a p]fectly gratuit\s assumption1 we mu/ disp5se ) ! subject z "o ( ! actual +r$i5ts ( ! _w4 ,b :5 we d ?is1 ! possibility ( di/+ui%+ ! s5sation f ! s5se-datum vani%es2 at lea/ ,i see no way ( pres]v+ ! di/9ction4 ,accord+ly ! s5sation t we h :5 we see a pat* ( col\r simply is t pat* ( col\r1 an actual con/itu5t ( ! physical _w1 & "p ( :at physics is conc]n$ )4 ,a pat* ( col\r is c]ta9ly n k1 & !re=e we _c say t pure s5sation is cognitive4 ,?r\gh its psy*ological effects1 x is ! cause ( cognitions1 p>tly by be+ itself a sign ( ?+s t are correlat$ ) x1 z e4g4 s5sations ( sight & t\* are correlat$1 & p>tly by giv+ rise to images & memories aft] ! s5sation is fad$4 ,b 9 itself ! pure s5sation is n cognitive4 ,9 ! fir/ lecture we consid]$ ! view ( ,br5tano1 t we may def9e psy*ical ph5om5a by say+ t !y are ph5om5a :i* int5tionally conta9 an object4 ,we saw reasons to reject ?is view 9 g5]al2 we are n[ conc]n$ to %[ t x mu/ be reject$ 9 ! p>ticul> case ( s5sations4 ,! k9d ( argum5t :i* =m]ly made me accept ,br5tano's view 9 ?is case 0 exce$+ly simple4 ,:5 ,i see a pat* ( col\r1 x seem$ to me t ! col\r is n psy*ical1 b physical1 :ile my see+ is n physical1 b psy*ical4 ,h5ce ,i conclud$ t ! col\r is some?+ o!r ?an my see+ ( ! col\r4 ,?is argum5t1 to me hi/orically1 0 direct$ aga9/ idealism3 ! emphatic "p ( x 0 ! ass]tion t ! col\r is physical1 n psy*ical4 ,i %all n tr\ble y n[ ) ! gr\nds = hold+ z aga9/ ,b]keley t ! pat* ( col\r is physical2 ,i h set !m =? be=e1 & ,i see no reason to modify !m4 ,b x does n foll[ t ! pat* ( col\r is n also psy*ical1 unless we assume t ! physical & ! psy*ical _c ov]lap1 :i* ,i no long] consid] a valid assumption4 ,if we admit--z ,i ?9k we %\ld--t ! pat* ( col\r may be bo? physical & psy*ical1 ! reason = di/+ui%+ ! s5se-datum f ! s5sation disappe>s1 & we may say t ! pat* ( col\r & our s5sation 9 see+ x are id5tical4 ,?is is ! view ( ,william ,james1 ,pr(essor ,dewey1 & ! ,am]ican reali/s4 ,p]ceptions1 says ,pr(essor ,dewey1 are n p] se cases ( k1 b simply natural ev5ts ) no m k /atus ?an 7say7 a %[]4 ,let !m ! reali/s try ! exp]im5t ( conceiv+ p]ceptions z pure natural ev5ts1 n cases ( aw>5ess or appreh5sion1 & !y w be surpris$ to see h[ little !y miss499 ,i ?9k he is "r 9 ?is1 except 9 suppos+ t ! reali/s w be surpris$4 ,_m ( !m already hold ! view he is advocat+1 & o!rs are v sympa!tic to x4 ,at any rate1 x is ! view :i* ,i %all adopt 9 ^! lectures4 99 ,dewey1 ,essays 9 ,exp]im5tal ,logic1 pp4 #bec1 #bfb4 ,! /uff ( ! _w1 s f> z we h exp]i5ce ( x1 consi/s1 on ! view t ,i am advocat+1 ( innum]able transi5t p>ticul>s su* z occur 9 see+1 he>+1 etc41 toge!r ) images m or less resembl+ ^!1 ( :i* ,i %all speak %ortly4 ,if physics is true1 !re are1 besides ! p>ticul>s t we exp]i5ce1 o!rs1 probably equally 7or almo/ equally7 transi5t1 :i* make up t "p ( ! mat]ial _w t does n come into ! sort ( contact ) a liv+ body t is requir$ to turn x into a s5sation4 ,b ?is topic belongs to ! philosophy ( physics1 & ne$ n conc]n u 9 our pres5t inquiry4 ,s5sations are :at is common to ! m5tal & physical worlds2 !y may be def9$ z ! int]section ( m9d & matt]4 ,?is is by no means a new view2 x is advocat$1 n only by ! ,am]ican au?ors ,i h m5tion$1 b by ,ma* 9 8 ,analysis ( ,s5sations1 :i* 0 publi%$ 9 #ahhf4 ,! ess5ce ( s5sation1 accord+ to ! view ,i am advocat+1 is its indep5d5ce ( pa/ exp]i5ce4 ,x is a core 9 our actual exp]i5ces1 nev] exi/+ 9 isolation except possibly 9 v "y infants4 ,x is n itself k1 b x supplies ! data = our k ( ! physical _w1 includ+ our own bodies4 ,!re are "s :o believe t our m5tal life is built up out ( s5sations alone4 ,?is may be true2 b 9 any case ,i ?9k ! only +r$i5ts requir$ 9 addition to s5sations are images4 ,:at images are1 & h[ !y are to be def9$1 we h n[ to inquire4 ,! di/9ction betwe5 images & s5sations might seem at fir/ sight by no means difficult4 ,:5 we %ut our eyes & call up pictures ( famili> sc5es1 we usually h no difficulty1 s long z we rema9 awake1 9 discrim9at+ betwe5 :at we are imag9+ & :at is really se54 ,if we imag9e "s piece ( music t we "k1 we c g ?r\gh x 9 our m9d f beg9n+ to end )\t any discov]able t5d5cy to suppose t we are really he>+ x4 ,b al?\gh su* cases are s cle> t no confusion seems possible1 !re are _m o!rs t are f> m difficult1 & ! def9ition ( images is by no means an easy problem4 ,to beg9 )3 we d n always "k :e!r :at we are exp]i5c+ is a s5sation or an image4 ,! ?+s we see 9 dreams :5 our eyes are %ut mu/ c\nt z images1 yet :ile we are dream+ !y seem l s5sations4 ,halluc9ations (t5 beg9 z p]si/5t images1 & only gradually acquire t influ5ce ov] belief t makes ! pati5t reg>d !m z s5sations4 ,:5 we are li/5+ = a fa9t s\nd--! /rik+ ( a di/ant clock1 or a horse's ho(s on ! road--we ?9k we he> x _m times be=e we really d1 because expectation br+s u ! image1 & we mi/ake x = s5sation4 ,! di/9ction betwe5 images & s5sations is1 !re=e1 by no means always obvi\s to inspection499 99 ,on ! di/9ction betwe5 images & s5sation1 cf4 ,semon1 ,die mnemis*5 ,empf9dung51 pp4 #ai-bj4 ,we may consid] ?ree diff]5t ways 9 :i* x has be5 s\ght to di/+ui% images f s5sations1 namely3 7#a7 ,by ! less degree ( vividness 9 images2 7#b7 ,by our abs5ce ( belief 9 _! physical reality2 7#c7 ,by ! fact t _! causes & effects are diff]5t f ^? ( s5sations4 ,i believe ! ?ird ( ^! to be ! only univ]sally applicable crit]ion4 ,! o!r two are applicable 9 v _m cases1 b _c be us$ = purposes ( def9ition because !y are liable to exceptions4 ,nev]!less1 !y bo? des]ve to be c>efully consid]$4 7#a7 ,hume1 :o gives ! names impressions & ideas to :at may1 = pres5t purposes1 be id5tifi$ ) our s5sations & images1 speaks ( impressions z ^? p]ceptions :i* ent] ) mo/ =ce & viol5ce :ile he def9es ideas z ! fa9t images ( ^! 7i4e4 ( impressions7 9 ?9k+ & reason+4 ,8 imm$iately foll[+ obs]vations1 h[ev]1 %[ ! inadequacy ( 8 crit]ia ( =ce & fa9tness4 ,he says3 ,i believe x w n be v necess>y to employ _m words 9 expla9+ ?is di/9ction4 ,e "o ( himself w readily p]ceive ! diff]5ce betwixt feel+ & ?9k+4 ,! common degrees ( ^! are easily di/+ui%$1 ?\gh x is n impossible b 9 p>ticul> in/ances !y may v ne>ly approa* to ea* o!r4 ,?us 9 sleep1 9 a fev]1 9 madness1 or 9 any v viol5t emotions ( s\l1 our ideas may approa* to our impressions2 z1 on ! o!r h&1 x sometimes happ5s1 t our impressions are s fa9t & l[ t we _c di/+ui% !m f our ideas4 ,b not)/&+ ?is ne> resemblance 9 a few in/ances1 !y are 9 g5]al s v diff]5t1 t no "o c make a scruple to rank !m "u di/9ct heads1 & assign to ea* a peculi> "n to m>k ! diff]5ce 7,treatise ( ,human ,nature1 ,"p ,i1 ,section ,i74 ,i ?9k ,hume is "r 9 hold+ t !y %\ld be rank$ "u di/9ct heads1 ) a peculi> "n = ea*4 ,b by 8 own confession 9 ! above passage1 8 crit]ion = di/+ui%+ !m is n always adequate4 ,a def9ition is n s\nd if x only applies 9 cases :]e ! diff]5ce is gl>+3 ! ess5tial purpose ( a def9ition is to provide a m>k :i* is applicable ev5 9 m>g9al cases--except1 ( c\rse1 :5 we are deal+ ) a conception1 l1 e4g4 baldness1 :i* is "o ( degree & has no %>p b\nd>ies4 ,b s f> we h se5 no reason to ?9k t ! diff]5ce betwe5 s5sations & images is only "o ( degree4 ,pr(essor ,/\t1 9 8 ,manual ( ,psy*ology1 aft] discuss+ v>i\s ways ( di/+ui%+ s5sations & images1 arrives at a view :i* is a modification ( ,hume's4 ,he says 7,i quote f ! second edition73 ,our conclusion is t at bottom ! di/9ction betwe5 image & p]cept1 z respectively fa9t & vivid /ates1 is bas$ on a diff]5ce ( quality4 ,! p]cept has an aggressiv5ess :i* does n belong to ! image4 ,x /rikes ! m9d ) v>y+ degrees ( =ce or livel9ess accord+ to ! v>y+ int5sity ( ! /imulus4 ,?is degree ( =ce or livel9ess is "p ( :at we ord9>ily mean by ! int5sity ( a s5sation4 ,b ?is con/itu5t ( ! int5sity ( s5sations is abs5t 9 m5tal imag]y7p4 #dai74 ,?is view all[s = ! fact t s5sations may rea* any degree ( fa9tness--e4g4 9 ! case ( a j visible /> or a j audible s\nd--)\t becom+ images1 & t !re=e m]e fa9tness _c be ! *>act]i/ic m>k ( images4 ,aft] expla9+ ! sudd5 %ock ( a fla% ( lightn+ or a /eam-:i/le1 ,/\t says t no m]e image ev] does /rike ! m9d 9 ?is mann]7p4 #dag74 ,b ,i believe t ?is crit]ion fails 9 v mu* ! same in/ances z ^? 9 :i* ,hume's crit]ion fails 9 its orig9al =m4 ,macbe? speaks (-- t sugge/ion ,^: horrid image do? unfix my hair ,& make my seat$ he>t knock at my ribs ,aga9/ ! use ( nature4 ,! :i/le ( a /eam-eng9e c\ld h>dly h a /rong] effect ?an ?is4 ,a v int5se emotion w (t5 br+ ) x--especially :]e "s future action or "s undecid$ issue is involv$--p[]ful compell+ images :i* may det]m9e ! :ole c\rse ( life1 sweep+ aside all contr>y solicitations to ! w by _! capacity = exclusively possess+ ! m9d4 ,& 9 all cases :]e images1 orig9ally recogniz$ z su*1 gradually pass into halluc9ations1 !re mu/ be j t =ce or livel9ess :i* is suppos$ to be always abs5t f images4 ,! cases ( dreams & fev]-delirium are z h>d to adju/ to ,pr(essor ,/\t's modifi$ crit]ion z to ,hume's4 ,i conclude !re=e t ! te/ ( livel9ess1 h[ev] applicable 9 ord9>y in/ances1 _c be us$ to def9e ! diff]5ces betwe5 s5sations & images4 7#b7 ,we might attempt to di/+ui% images f s5sations by our abs5ce ( belief 9 ! physical reality ( images4 ,:5 we are aw>e t :at we are exp]i5c+ is an image1 we d n give x ! k9d ( belief t we %\ld give to a s5sation3 we d n ?9k t x has ! same p[] ( produc+ k ( ! ext]nal _w4 ,images are imag9>y2 9 ,,"s s5se !y are unreal4 ,b ?is diff]5ce is h>d to analyse or /ate correctly4 ,:at we call ! unreality ( images requires int]pretation x _c mean :at w\ld be express$ by say+ !re's no su* ?+4 ,images are j z truly "p ( ! actual _w z s5sations are4 ,all t we really mean by call+ an image unreal is t x does n h ! concomitants :i* x w\ld h if x 7 a s5sation4 ,:5 we call up a visual image ( a *air1 we d n attempt to sit 9 x1 because we "k t1 l ,macbe?'s dagg]1 x is n s5sible to feel+ z to sight--i4e4 x does n h ! correlations ) tactile s5sations :i* x w\ld h if x 7 a visual s5sation & n m]ely a visual image4 ,b ?is means t ! s-call$ unreality ( images consi/s m]ely 9 _! n obey+ ! laws ( physics1 & ?us br+s u back to ! causal di/9ction betwe5 images & s5sations4 ,?is view is confirm$ by ! fact t we only feel images to be unreal :5 we already "k !m to be images4 ,images _c be def9$ by ! ,,feel+ ( unreality1 because :5 we falsely believe an image to be a s5sation1 z 9 ! case ( dreams1 x ,,feels j z real z if x 7 a s5sation4 ,our feel+ ( unreality results f our hav+ already realiz$ t we are deal+ ) an image1 & _c !re=e be ! def9ition ( :at we mean by an image4 ,z soon z an image beg9s to deceive u z to its /atus1 x also deceives u z to its correlations1 :i* are :at we mean by its reality4 7#c7 ,?is br+s u to ! ?ird mode ( di/+ui%+ images f s5sations1 namely1 by _! causes & effects4 ,i believe ?is to be ! only valid gr\nd ( di/9ction4 ,james1 9 ! passage ab\t ! m5tal fire :i* won't burn real /icks1 di/+ui%es images by _! effects1 b ,i ?9k ! m reliable di/9ction is by _! causes4 ,pr(essor ,/\t 7loc4 cit41 p4 #abg7 says3 ,"o *>act]i/ic m>k ( :at we agree 9 call+ s5sation is its mode ( production4 ,x is caus$ by :at we call a ,,/imulus4 ,a /imulus is always "s condition ext]nal to ! n]v\s sy/em itself & op]at+ ^u x4 ,i ?9k t ?is is ! correct view1 & t ! di/9ction betwe5 images & s5sations c only be made by tak+ acc\nt ( _! causation4 ,s5sations come ?r\gh s5se-organs1 :ile images d n4 ,we _c h visual s5sations 9 ! d>k1 or ) our eyes %ut1 b we c v well h visual images "u ^! circum/ances4 ,accord+ly images h be5 def9$ z c5trally excit$ s5sations1 i4e4 s5sations :i* h _! physiological cause 9 ! bra9 only1 n also 9 ! s5se-organs & ! n]ves t run f ! s5se-organs to ! bra94 ,i ?9k ! phrase c5trally excit$ s5sations assumes m ?an is necess>y1 s9ce x takes x = grant$ t an image mu/ h a proximate physiological cause4 ,?is is probably true1 b x is an hypo!sis1 & = our purposes an unnecess>y "o4 ,x w\ld seem to fit bett] ) :at we c imm$iately obs]ve if we 7 to say t an image is occasion$1 ?r\gh association1 by a s5sation or ano!r image1 9 o!r words t x has a mnemic cause--:i* does n prev5t x f also hav+ a physical cause4 ,& ,i ?9k x w be f\nd t ! causation ( an image always proce$s accord+ to mnemic laws1 i4e4 t x is gov]n$ by habit & pa/ exp]i5ce4 ,if y li/5 to a man play+ ! pianola )\t look+ at him1 y w h images ( 8 h&s on ! keys z if he 7 play+ ! piano2 if y sudd5ly look at him :ile y are absorb$ 9 ! music1 y w exp]i5ce a %ock ( surprise :5 y notice t 8 h&s are n t\*+ ! notes4 ,y\r image ( 8 h&s is due to ! _m times t y h he>d simil> s\nds & at ! same "t se5 ! play]'s h&s on ! piano4 ,:5 habit & pa/ exp]i5ce play ?is "p1 we are 9 ! region ( mnemic z oppos$ to ord9>y physical causation4 ,& ,i ?9k t1 if we c\ld reg>d z ultimately valid ! diff]5ce betwe5 physical & mnemic causation1 we c\ld di/+ui% images f s5sations z hav+ mnemic causes1 ?\gh !y may also h physical causes4 ,s5sations1 on ! o!r h&1 w only h physical causes4 ,h[ev] ?is may be1 ! practically effective di/9ction betwe5 s5sations & images is t 9 ! causation ( s5sations1 b n ( images1 ! /imulation ( n]ves c>ry+ an effect into ! bra91 usually f ! surface ( ! body1 plays an ess5tial "p4 ,& ?is acc\nts = ! fact t images & s5sations _c always be di/+ui%$ by _! intr9sic nature4 ,images also diff] f s5sations z reg>ds _! effects4 ,s5sations1 z a rule1 h bo? physical & m5tal effects4 ,z y wat* ! tra9 y meant to cat* leav+ ! /ation1 !re are bo? ! successive positions ( ! tra9 7physical effects7 & ! successive waves ( fury & disappo9tm5t 7m5tal effects74 ,images1 on ! contr>y1 ?\gh !y ,,may produce bodily movem5ts1 d s accord+ to mnemic laws1 n accord+ to ! laws ( physics4 ,all _! effects1 ( :atev] nature1 foll[ mnemic laws4 ,b ?is diff]5ce is less suitable = def9ition ?an ! diff]5ce z to causes4 ,pr(essor ,watson1 z a logical c>ry+-out ( 8 behavi\ri/ !ory1 d5ies altoge!r t !re are any obs]vable ph5om5a su* z images are suppos$ to be4 ,he replaces !m all by fa9t s5sations1 & especially by pronunciation ( words sotto voce4 ,:5 we ?9k ( a table 7say71 z oppos$ to see+ x1 :at happ5s1 accord+ to him1 is usually t we are mak+ small movem5ts ( ! ?roat & tongue su* z w\ld lead to our utt]+ ! ^w table if !y 7 m pron\nc$4 ,i %all consid] 8 view aga9 9 connection ) words2 = ! pres5t ,i am only conc]n$ to combat 8 d5ial ( images4 ,?is d5ial is set =? bo? 9 8 book on ,behavior & 9 an article call$ ,image & ,affection 9 ,behavior 9 ! ,j\rnal ( ,philosophy1 ,psy*ology & ,sci5tific ,me?ods1 vol4 x 7,july1 #aiac74 ,x seems to me t 9 ?is matt] he has be5 betray$ into d5y+ pla9 facts 9 ! int]e/s ( a !ory1 namely1 ! suppos$ impossibility ( introspection4 ,i dealt ) ! !ory 9 ,lecture ,,vi2 = ! pres5t ,i wi% to re9=ce ! view t ! facts are und5iable4 ,images are ( v>i\s sorts1 accord+ to ! nature ( ! s5sations :i* !y copy4 ,images ( bodily movem5ts1 su* z we h :5 we imag9e mov+ an arm or1 on a small] scale1 pron\nc+ a ^w1 might possibly be expla9$ away on ,pr(essor ,watson's l9es1 z really consi/+ 9 small incipi5t movem5ts su* z1 if magnifi$ & prolong$1 w\ld be ! movem5ts we are said to be imag9+4 ,:e!r ?is is ! case or n might ev5 be decid$ exp]im5tally4 ,if !re 7 a delicate in/rum5t = record+ small movem5ts 9 ! m\? & ?roat1 we might place su* an in/rum5t 9 a p]son's m\? & !n tell him to recite a poem to himself1 z f> z possible only 9 imag9ation4 ,i %\ld n be at all surpris$ if x 7 f\nd t actual small movem5ts take place :ile he is m5tally say+ ov] ! v]ses4 ,! po9t is important1 because :at is call$ ?\ght consi/s ma9ly 7?\gh ,i ?9k n :olly7 ( inn] spee*4 ,if ,pr(essor ,watson is "r z reg>ds inn] spee*1 ?is :ole region is transf]r$ f imag9ation to s5sation4 ,b s9ce ! "q is capable ( exp]im5tal decision1 x w\ld be gratuit\s ra%ness to (f] an op9ion :ile t decision is lack+4 ,b visual & auditory images are mu* m difficult to deal ) 9 ?is way1 because !y lack ! connection ) physical ev5ts 9 ! out] _w :i* belongs to visual & auditory s5sations4 ,suppose1 = example1 t ,i am sitt+ 9 my room1 9 :i* !re is an empty arm-*air4 ,i %ut my eyes1 & call up a visual image ( a fri5d sitt+ 9 ! arm-*air4 ,if ,i ?ru/ my image into ! _w ( physics1 x contradicts all ! usual physical laws4 ,my fri5d rea*$ ! *air )\t com+ 9 at ! door 9 ! usual way2 subsequ5t inquiry w %[ t he 0 some:]e else at ! mom5t4 ,if reg>d$ z a s5sation1 my image has all ! m>ks ( ! sup]natural4 ,my image1 !re=e1 is reg>d$ z an ev5t 9 me1 n z hav+ t position 9 ! ord]ly happ5+s ( ! public _w t belongs to s5sations4 ,by say+ t x is an ev5t 9 me1 we leave x possible t x may be ,,physiologically caus$3 its privacy may be only due to its connection ) my body4 ,b 9 any case x is n a public ev5t1 l an actual p]son walk+ 9 at ! door & sitt+ d[n 9 my *air4 ,& x _c1 l inn] spee*1 be reg>d$ z a ,,small s5sation1 s9ce x occupies j z l>ge an area 9 my visual field z ! actual s5sation w\ld d4 ,pr(essor ,watson says3 ,i %\ld ?r[ out imag]y altoge!r & attempt to %[ t all natural ?\ght goes on 9 t]ms ( s5sori-motor processes 9 ! l>ynx4 ,?is view seems to me flatly to contradict exp]i5ce4 ,if y try to p]suade any un$ucat$ p]son t %e _c call up a visual picture ( a fri5d sitt+ 9 a *air1 b c only use words describ+ :at su* an occurr5ce w\ld be l1 %e w conclude t y are mad4 7,?is /atem5t is bas$ ^u exp]im5t47 ,galton1 z e "o kn[s1 inve/igat$ visual imag]y1 & f\nd t education t5ds to kill x3 ! ,fell[s ( ! ,royal ,society turn$ out to h mu* less ( x ?an _! wives4 ,i see no reason to d\bt 8 conclusion t ! habit ( ab/ract pursuits makes le>n$ m5 mu* inf]ior to ! av]age 9 p[] ( visualiz+1 & mu* m exclusively occupi$ ) words 9 _! ?9k+4 ,& ,pr(essor ,watson is a v le>n$ man4 ,i %all h5ce=? assume t ! exi/5ce ( images is admitt$1 & t !y are to be di/+ui%$ f s5sations by _! causes1 z well z1 9 a less] degree1 by _! effects4 ,9 _! intr9sic nature1 ?\gh !y (t5 diff] f s5sations by be+ m dim or vague or fa9t1 yet !y d n always or univ]sally diff] f s5sations 9 any way t c be us$ = def9+ !m4 ,_! privacy ne$ =m no b> to ! sci5tific /udy ( !m1 any m ?an ! privacy ( bodily s5sations does4 ,bodily s5sations are admitt$ by ev5 ! mo/ sev]e critics ( introspection1 al?\gh1 l images1 !y c only be obs]v$ by "o obs]v]4 ,x mu/ be admitt$1 h[ev]1 t ! laws ( ! appe>ance & disappe>ance ( images are little kn[n & difficult to discov]1 because we are n assi/$1 z 9 ! case ( s5sations1 by our k ( ! physical _w4 ,!re rema9s "o v important po9t conc]n+ images1 :i* w occupy u mu* h]eaft]1 & t is1 _! resemblance to previ\s s5sations4 ,!y are said to be copies ( s5sations1 always z reg>ds ! simple qualities t ent] into !m1 ?\gh n always z reg>ds ! mann] 9 :i* ^! are put toge!r4 ,x is g5]ally believ$ t we _c imag9e a %ade ( col\r t we h nev] se51 or a s\nd t we h nev] he>d4 ,on ?is subject ,hume is ! classic4 ,he says1 9 ! def9itions already quot$3 ,^? p]ceptions1 :i* ent] ) mo/ =ce & viol5ce1 we may "n ,,impressions2 & "u ?is "n ,i compreh5d all our s5sations1 passions & emotions1 z !y make _! fir/ appe>ance 9 ! s\l4 ,by ,,ideas ,i mean ! fa9t images ( ^! 9 ?9k+ & reason+4 ,he next expla9s ! diff]5ce betwe5 simple & complex ideas1 & expla9s t a complex idea may occur )\t any simil> complex impression4 ,b z reg>ds simple ideas1 he /ates t e simple idea has a simple impression1 :i* resembles x1 & e simple impression a correspond5t idea4 ,he goes on to enunciate ! g5]al pr9ciple t all our simple ideas 9 _! fir/ appe>ance are d]iv$ f simple impressions1 :i* are correspond5t to !m1 & :i* !y exactly repres5t 7,treatise ( ,human ,nature1 ,"p ,i1 ,section ,i74 ,x is ?is fact1 t images resemble antec$5t s5sations1 :i* enables u to call !m images ( ?is or t4 ,= ! und]/&+ ( memory1 & ( k g5]ally1 ! recognizable resemblance ( images & s5sations is ( fundam5tal importance4 ,!re are difficulties 9 e/abli%+ ,hume's pr9ciples1 & d\bts z to :e!r x is exactly true4 ,inde$1 he himself signaliz$ an exception imm$iately aft] /at+ 8 maxim4 ,nev]!less1 x is impossible to d\bt t 9 ! ma9 simple images are copies ( simil> simple s5sations :i* h occurr$ e>li]1 & t ! same is true ( complex images 9 all cases ( memory z oppos$ to m]e imag9ation4 ,our p[] ( act+ ) ref]5ce to :at is s5sibly abs5t is l>gely due to ?is *>act]i/ic ( images1 al?\gh1 z education advances1 images t5d to be m & m replac$ by words4 ,we %all h mu* to say 9 ! next two lectures on ! subject ( images z copies ( s5sations4 ,:at has be5 said n[ is m]ely by way ( rem9d] t ?is is _! mo/ notable *>act]i/ic4 ,i am by no means confid5t t ! di/9ction betwe5 images & s5sations is ultimately valid1 & ,i %\ld be glad to be conv9c$ t images c be r$uc$ to s5sations ( a peculi> k9d4 ,i ?9k x is cle>1 h[ev]1 t1 at any rate 9 ! case ( auditory & visual images1 !y d diff] f ord9>y auditory & visual s5sations1 & !re=e =m a recognizable class ( occurr5ces1 ev5 if x %\ld prove t !y c be reg>d$ z a sub-class ( s5sations4 ,?is is all t is necess>y to validate ! use ( images to be made 9 ! sequel4 ,,lecture ,,ix4 ,,memory ,memory1 :i* we are to consid] to-day1 introduces u to k 9 "o ( its =ms4 ,! analysis ( k w occupy u until ! end ( ! ?irte5? lecture1 & is ! mo/ difficult "p ( our :ole ent]prise4 ,i d n myself believe t ! analysis ( k c be effect$ entirely by means ( purely ext]nal obs]vation1 su* z behavi\ri/s employ4 ,i %all discuss ?is "q 9 lat] lectures4 ,9 ! pres5t lecture ,i %all attempt ! analysis ( memory-k1 bo? z an introduction to ! problem ( k 9 g5]al1 & because memory1 9 "s =m1 is presuppos$ 9 almo/ all o!r k4 ,s5sation1 we decid$1 is n a =m ( k4 ,x might1 h[ev]1 h be5 expect$ t we %\ld beg9 our discussion ( k ) ,,p]ception1 i4e4 ) t integral exp]i5ce ( ?+s 9 ! environm5t1 out ( :i* s5sation is extract$ by psy*ological analysis4 ,:at is call$ p]ception diff]s f s5sation by ! fact t ! s5sational +r$i5ts br+ up habitual associates--images & expectations ( _! usual correlates--all ( :i* are subjectively indi/+ui%able f ! s5sation4 ,! ,,fact ( pa/ exp]i5ce is ess5tial 9 produc+ ?is fill+-out ( s5sation1 b n ! ,,recollection ( pa/ exp]i5ce4 ,! non-s5sational elem5ts 9 p]ception c be :olly expla9$ z ! result ( habit1 produc$ by frequ5t correlations4 ,p]ception1 accord+ to our def9ition 9 ,lecture ,,vii1 is no m a =m ( k ?an s5sation is1 except 9 s f> z x involves expectations4 ,! purely psy*ological problems :i* x raises are n v difficult1 ?\gh !y h sometimes be5 r5d]$ artificially obscure by unwill+ness to admit ! fallibility ( ! non-s5sational elem5ts ( p]ception4 ,on ! o!r h&1 memory raises _m difficult & v important problems1 :i* x is necess>y to consid] at ! fir/ possible mom5t4 ,"o reason = treat+ memory at ?is e>ly /age is t x seems to be involv$ 9 ! fact t images are recogniz$ z copies ( pa/ s5sible exp]i5ce4 ,9 ! prec$+ lecture ,i allud$ to ,hume's pr9ciple t all our simple ideas 9 _! fir/ appe>ance are d]iv$ f simple impressions1 :i* are correspond5t to !m1 & :i* !y exactly repres5t4 ,:e!r or n ?is pr9ciple is liable to exceptions1 ev]yone w\ld agree t is has a broad measure ( tru?1 ?\gh ! ^w exactly might seem an ov]/atem5t1 & x might seem m correct to say t ideas ,,approximately repres5t impressions4 ,su* modifications ( ,hume's pr9ciple1 h[ev]1 d n affect ! problem :i* ,i wi% to pres5t = y\r consid]ation1 namely3 ,:y d we believe t images are1 sometimes or always1 approximately or exactly1 copies ( s5sations8 ,:at sort ( evid5ce is !re8 ,& :at sort ( evid5ce is logically possible8 ,! difficulty ( ?is "q arises ?r\gh ! fact t ! s5sation :i* an image is suppos$ to copy is 9 ! pa/ :5 ! image exi/s1 & c !re=e only be kn[n by memory1 :ile1 on ! o!r h&1 memory ( pa/ s5sations seems only possible by means ( pres5t images4 ,h[1 !n1 are we to f9d any way ( comp>+ ! pres5t image & ! pa/ s5sation8 ,! problem is j z acute if we say t images diff] f _! prototypes z if we say t !y resemble !m2 x is ! v possibility ( comp>ison t is h>d to und]/&499 ,we ?9k we c "k t !y are alike or diff]5t1 b we _c br+ !m toge!r 9 "o exp]i5ce & comp>e !m4 ,to deal ) ?is problem1 we mu/ h a !ory ( memory4 ,9 ?is way ! :ole /atus ( images z copies is b\nd up ) ! analysis ( memory4 99 ,h[1 = example1 c we obta9 su* k z ! foll[+3 ,if we look at1 say1 a r$ nose & p]ceive x1 & aft] a little :ile ekphore1 its memory-image1 we note imm$iately h[ unlike1 9 its lik5ess1 ?is memory-image is to ! orig9al p]ception 7,a4 ,wohlgemu?1 ,on ! ,feel+s & _! ,neural ,correlate ) an ,exam9ation ( ! ,nature ( ,pa91 ,j\rnal ( ,psy*ology1 vol4 viii1 "p iv1 ,june1 #aiag74 ,9 inve/igat+ memory-beliefs1 !re are c]ta9 po9ts :i* mu/ be borne 9 m9d4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ev]y?+ con/itut+ a memory-belief is happ5+ n[1 n 9 t pa/ "t to :i* ! belief is said to ref]4 ,x is n logically necess>y to ! exi/5ce ( a memory-belief t ! ev5t rememb]$ %\ld h occurr$1 or ev5 t ! pa/ %\ld h exi/$ at all4 ,!re is no logical impossibility 9 ! hypo!sis t ! _w sprang into be+ five m9utes ago1 exactly z x !n 01 ) a population t rememb]$ a :olly unreal pa/4 ,!re is no logically necess>y connection betwe5 ev5ts at diff]5t times2 !re=e no?+ t is happ5+ n[ or w happ5 9 ! future c disprove ! hypo!sis t ! _w began five m9utes ago4 ,h5ce ! occurr5ces :i* are ,,call$ k ( ! pa/ are logically indep5d5t ( ! pa/2 !y are :olly analysable into pres5t cont5ts1 :i* might1 !oretically1 be j :at !y are ev5 if no pa/ _h exi/$4 ,i am n sugge/+ t ! non-exi/5ce ( ! pa/ %\ld be ent]ta9$ z a s]i\s hypo!sis4 ,l all sceptical hypo!ses1 x is logically t5able1 b un9t]e/+4 ,all t ,i am do+ is to use its logical t5ability z a help 9 ! analysis ( :at occurs :5 we rememb]4 ,9 ! second place1 images )\t beliefs are insuffici5t to con/itute memory2 & habits are /ill m insuffici5t4 ,! behavi\ri/1 :o attempts to make psy*ology a record ( behavi\r1 has to tru/ 8 memory 9 mak+ ! record4 ,habit is a concept involv+ ! occurr5ce ( simil> ev5ts at diff]5t times2 if ! behavi\ri/ feels confid5t t !re is su* a ph5om5on z habit1 t c only be because he tru/s 8 memory1 :5 x assures him t !re h be5 o!r times4 ,& ! same applies to images4 ,if we are to "k z x is suppos$ we d--t images are copies1 accurate or inaccurate1 ( pa/ ev5ts1 some?+ m ?an ! m]e occurr5ce ( images mu/ g to con/itute ?is k4 ,= _! m]e occurr5ce1 by itself1 w\ld n sugge/ any connection ) any?+ t _h happ5$ be=e4 ,c we con/itute memory out ( images toge!r ) suitable beliefs8 ,we may take x t memory-images1 :5 !y occur 9 true memory1 are 7a7 kn[n to be copies1 7b7 sometimes kn[n to be imp]fect copies 7cf4 footnote on previ\s page74 ,h[ is x possible to "k t a memory-image is an imp]fect copy1 )\t hav+ a m accurate copy by :i* to replace x8 ,?is w\ld ,,seem to sugge/ t we h a way ( kn[+ ! pa/ :i* is indep5d5t ( images1 by means ( :i* we c criticize image-memories4 ,b ,i d n ?9k su* an inf]5ce is w>rant$4 ,:at results1 =mally1 f our k ( ! pa/ ?r\gh images ( :i* we recognize ! inaccuracy1 is t su* images mu/ h two *>act]i/ics by :i* we c arrange !m 9 two s]ies1 ( :i* "o corresponds to ! m or less remote p]iod 9 ! pa/ to :i* !y ref]1 & ! o!r to our great] or less confid5ce 9 _! accuracy4 ,we w take ! second ( ^! po9ts fir/4 ,our confid5ce or lack ( confid5ce 9 ! accuracy ( a memory-image mu/1 9 fundam5tal cases1 be bas$ ^u a *>act]i/ic ( ! image itself1 s9ce we _c evoke ! pa/ bodily & comp>e x ) ! pres5t image4 ,x might be sugge/$ t vagu5ess is ! requir$ *>act]i/ic1 b ,i d n ?9k ?is is ! case4 ,we sometimes h images t are by no means peculi>ly vague1 :i* yet we d n tru/--= example1 "u ! influ5ce ( fatigue we may see a fri5d's face vividly & cle>ly1 b horribly di/ort$4 ,9 su* a case we di/ru/ our image 9 spite ( its be+ unusually cle>4 ,i ?9k ! *>act]i/ic by :i* we di/+ui% ! images we tru/ is ! feel+ ( ,,famili>ity t accompanies !m4 ,"s images1 l "s s5sations1 feel v famili>1 :ile o!rs feel /range4 ,famili>ity is a feel+ capable ( degrees4 ,9 an image ( a well-kn[n face1 = example1 "s p>ts may feel m famili> ?an o!rs2 :5 ?is happ5s1 we h m belief 9 ! accuracy ( ! famili> p>ts ?an 9 t ( ! unfamili> p>ts4 ,i ?9k x is by ?is means t we become critical ( images1 n by "s imageless memory ) :i* we comp>e !m4 ,i %all return to ! consid]ation ( famili>ity %ortly4 ,i come n[ to ! o!r *>act]i/ic :i* memory-images mu/ h 9 ord] to acc\nt = our k ( ! pa/4 ,!y mu/ h "s *>act]i/ic :i* makes u reg>d !m z ref]r+ to m or less remote portions ( ! pa/4 ,t is to say if we suppose t ,a is ! ev5t rememb]$1 ,b ! rememb]+1 & t ! int]val ( "t betwe5 ,a & ,b1 !re mu/ be "s *>act]i/ic ( ,b :i* is capable ( degrees1 & :i*1 9 accurately dat$ memories1 v>ies z t v>ies4 ,x may increase z t increases1 or dim9i% z t increases4 ,! "q :i* ( ^! occurs is n ( any importance = ! !oretic s]viceability ( ! *>act]i/ic 9 "q4 ,9 actual fact1 !re are d\btless v>i\s factors t concur 9 giv+ u ! feel+ ( great] or less remot5ess 9 "s rememb]$ ev5t4 ,!re may be a specific feel+ :i* c\ld be call$ ! feel+ ( pa/ness1 especially :]e imm$iate memory is conc]n$4 ,b ap>t f ?is1 !re are o!r m>ks4 ,"o ( ^! is context4 ,a rec5t memory has1 usually1 m context ?an a m di/ant "o4 ,:5 a rememb]$ ev5t has a rememb]$ context1 ?is may occur 9 two ways1 ei!r 7a7 by successive images 9 ! same ord] z _! prototypes1 or 7b7 by rememb]+ a :ole process simultane\sly1 9 ! same way 9 :i* a pres5t process may be appreh5d$1 ?r\gh akolu?ic s5sations :i*1 by fad+1 acquire ! m>k ( j-pa/ness 9 an increas+ degree z !y fade1 & are ?us plac$ 9 a s]ies :ile all s5sibly pres5t4 ,x w be context 9 ?is second s5se1 m specially1 t w give u a s5se ( ! ne>ness or remot5ess ( a rememb]$ ev5t4 ,!re is1 ( c\rse1 a diff]5ce betwe5 kn[+ ! temporal relation ( a rememb]$ ev5t to ! pres5t1 & kn[+ ! "t-ord] ( two rememb]$ ev5ts4 ,v (t5 our k ( ! temporal relation ( a rememb]$ ev5t to ! pres5t is inf]r$ f its temporal relations to o!r rememb]$ ev5ts4 ,x w\ld seem t only r rec5t ev5ts c be plac$ at all accurately by means ( feel+s giv+ _! temporal relation to ! pres5t1 b x is cle> t su* feel+s mu/ play an ess5tial "p 9 ! process ( dat+ rememb]$ ev5ts4 ,we may say1 !n1 t images are reg>d$ by u z m or less accurate copies ( pa/ occurr5ces because !y come to u ) two sorts ( feel+s3 7#a7 ,^? t may be call$ feel+s ( famili>ity2 7#b7 ^? t may be collect$ toge!r z feel+s giv+ a s5se ( pa/ness4 ,! fir/ lead u to tru/ our memories1 ! second to assign places to !m 9 ! "t-ord]4 ,we h n[ to analyse ! memory-belief1 z oppos$ to ! *>act]i/ics ( images :i* lead u to base memory-beliefs ^u !m4 ,if we _h reta9$ ! subject or act 9 k1 ! :ole problem ( memory w\ld h be5 comp>atively simple4 ,we c\ld !n h said t rememb]+ is a direct relation betwe5 ! pres5t act or subject & ! pa/ occurr5ce rememb]$3 ! act ( rememb]+ is pres5t1 ?\gh its object is pa/4 ,b ! rejection ( ! subject r5d]s "s m complicat$ !ory necess>y4 ,rememb]+ has to be a pres5t occurr5ce 9 "s way resembl+1 or relat$ to1 :at is rememb]$4 ,& x is difficult to f9d any gr\nd1 except a pragmatic "o1 = suppos+ t memory is n %e] delusion1 if1 z seems to be ! case1 !re is n1 ap>t f memory1 any way ( asc]ta9+ t !re really 0 a pa/ occurr5ce hav+ ! requir$ relation to our pres5t rememb]+4 ,:at1 if we foll[$ ,me9ong's t]m9ology1 we %\ld call ! object 9 memory1 i4e4 ! pa/ ev5t :i* we are said to be rememb]+1 is unpleasantly remote f ! cont5t1 i4e4 ! pres5t m5tal occurr5ce 9 rememb]+4 ,!re is an awkw>d gulf betwe5 ! two1 :i* raises difficulties = ! !ory ( k4 ,b we mu/ n falsify obs]vation to avoid !oretical difficulties4 ,= ! pres5t1 !re=e1 let u =get ^! problems1 & try to discov] :at actually occurs 9 memory4 ,"s po9ts may be tak5 z fix$1 & su* z any !ory ( memory mu/ arrive at4 ,9 ?is case1 z 9 mo/ o!rs1 :at may be tak5 z c]ta9 9 advance is r vague4 ,! /udy ( any topic is l ! cont9u$ obs]vation ( an object :i* is approa*+ u along a road3 :at is c]ta9 to beg9 ) is ! q vague k t !re is ,,"s object on ! road4 ,if y attempt to be less vague1 & to ass]t t ! object is an elephant1 or a man1 or a mad dog1 y run a risk ( error2 b ! purpose ( cont9u$ obs]vation is to enable y to arrive at su* m precise k4 ,9 l mann]1 9 ! /udy ( memory1 ! c]ta9ties ) :i* y beg9 are v vague1 & ! m precise propositions at :i* y try to arrive are less c]ta9 ?an ! hazy data f :i* y set out4 ,nev]!less1 9 spite ( ! risk ( error1 precision is ! goal at :i* we mu/ aim4 ,! fir/ ( our vague b indubitable data is t !re is k ( ! pa/4 ,we d n yet "k ) any precision :at we mean by k1 & we mu/ admit t 9 any giv5 in/ance our memory may be at fault4 ,nev]!less1 :atev] a sceptic might urge 9 !ory1 we _c practically d\bt t we got up ?is morn+1 t we did v>i\s ?+s ye/]day1 t a great w> has be5 tak+ place1 & s on4 ,h[ f> our k ( ! pa/ is due to memory1 & h[ f> to o!r s\rces1 is ( c\rse a matt] to be inve/igat$1 b !re c be no d\bt t memory =ms an indisp5sable "p ( our k ( ! pa/4 ,! second datum is t we c]ta9ly h m capacity = kn[+ ! pa/ ?an = kn[+ ! future4 ,we "k "s ?+s ab\t ! future1 = example :at eclipses !re w be2 b ?is k is a matt] ( elaborate calculation & inf]5ce1 :]eas "s ( our k ( ! pa/ comes to u )\t ef=t1 9 ! same sort ( imm$iate way 9 :i* we acquire k ( occurr5ces 9 our pres5t environm5t4 ,we might provisionally1 ?\gh p]haps n q correctly1 def9e memory z t way ( kn[+ ab\t ! pa/ :i* has no analogue 9 our k ( ! future2 su* a def9ition w\ld at lea/ s]ve to m>k ! problem ) :i* we are conc]n$1 ?\gh "s expectations may des]ve to rank ) memory z reg>ds imm$iacy4 ,a ?ird po9t1 p]haps n q s c]ta9 z our previ\s two1 is t ! tru? ( memory _c be :olly practical1 z pragmati/s wi% all tru? to be4 ,x seems cle> t "s ( ! ?+s ,i rememb] are trivial & )\t any visible importance = ! future1 b t my memory is true 7or false7 9 virtue ( a pa/ ev5t1 n 9 virtue ( any future consequ5ces ( my belief4 ,! def9ition ( tru? z ! correspond5ce betwe5 beliefs & facts seems peculi>ly evid5t 9 ! case ( memory1 z aga9/ n only ! pragmati/ def9ition b also ! ideali/ def9ition by means ( coh]5ce4 ,^! consid]ations1 h[ev]1 are tak+ u away f psy*ology1 to :i* we mu/ n[ return4 ,x is important n to confuse ! two =ms ( memory :i* ,b]gson di/+ui%es 9 ! second *apt] ( 8 ,matt] & ,memory1 namely ! sort t consi/s ( habit1 & ! sort t consi/s ( indep5d5t recollection4 ,he gives ! in/ance ( le>n+ a lesson by he>t3 :5 ,i "k x by he>t ,i am said to rememb] x1 b ?is m]ely means t ,i h acquir$ c]ta9 habits2 on ! o!r h&1 my recollection ( 7say7 ! second "t ,i read ! lesson :ile ,i 0 le>n+ x is ! recollection ( a unique ev5t1 :i* occurr$ only once4 ,! recollection ( a unique ev5t _c1 s ,b]gson cont5ds1 be :olly con/itut$ by habit1 & is 9 fact some?+ radically diff]5t f ! memory :i* is habit4 ,! recollection alone is true memory4 ,?is di/9ction is vital to ! und]/&+ ( memory4 ,b x is n s easy to c>ry out 9 practice z x is to draw 9 !ory4 ,habit is a v intrusive feature ( our m5tal life1 & is (t5 pres5t :]e at fir/ sight x seems n to be4 ,!re is1 = example1 a habit ( rememb]+ a unique ev5t4 ,:5 we h once describ$ ! ev5t1 ! words we h us$ easily become habitual4 ,we may ev5 h us$ words to describe x to ourselves :ile x 0 happ5+2 9 t case1 ! habit ( ^! words may fulfil ! function ( ,b]gson's true memory1 :ile 9 reality x is no?+ b habit-memory4 ,a gramophone1 by ! help ( suitable records1 might relate to u ! incid5ts ( its pa/2 & p are n s diff]5t f gramophones z !y l to believe4 ,9 spite1 h[ev]1 ( a difficulty 9 di/+ui%+ ! two =ms ( memory 9 practice1 !re c be no d\bt t bo? =ms exi/4 ,i c set to "w n[ to rememb] ?+s ,i nev] rememb]$ be=e1 su* z :at ,i _h to eat = breakfa/ ?is morn+1 & x c h>dly be :olly habit t enables me to d ?is4 ,x is ?is sort ( occurr5ce t con/itutes ! ess5ce ( memory ,until we h analys$ :at happ5s 9 su* a case z ?is1 we h n succe$$ 9 und]/&+ memory4 ,! sort ( memory ) :i* we are "h conc]n$ is ! sort :i* is a =m ( k4 ,:e!r k itself is r$ucible to habit is a "q to :i* ,i %all return 9 a lat] lecture2 = ! pres5t ,i am only anxi\s to po9t out t1 :atev] ! true analysis ( k may be1 k ( pa/ occurr5ces is n prov$ by behavi\r :i* is due to pa/ exp]i5ce4 ,! fact t a man c recite a poem does n %[ t he rememb]s any previ\s occasion on :i* he has recit$ or read x4 ,simil>ly1 ! p]=mances ( animals 9 gett+ out ( cages or mazes to :i* !y are accu/om$ d n prove t !y rememb] hav+ be5 9 ! same situation be=e4 ,argum5ts 9 fav\r ( 7= example7 memory 9 plants are only argum5ts 9 fav\r ( habit-memory1 n ( k-memory4 ,samuel ,butl]'s argum5ts 9 fav\r ( ! view t an animal rememb]s some?+ ( ! lives ( its ance/ors99 are1 :5 exam9$1 only argum5ts 9 fav\r ( habit-memory4 ,semon's two books1 m5tion$ 9 an e>li] lecture1 d n t\* k-memory at all closely4 ,!y give laws accord+ to :i* images ( pa/ occurr5ces come into our m9ds1 b d n discuss our belief t ^! images ref] to pa/ occurr5ces1 :i* is :at con/itutes k-memory4 ,x is ?is t is ( int]e/ to !ory ( k4 ,i %all speak ( x z true memory1 to di/+ui% x f m]e habit acquir$ ?r\gh pa/ exp]i5ce4 ,be=e consid]+ true memory1 x w be well to consid] two ?+s :i* are on ! way t[>ds memory1 namely ! feel+ ( famili>ity & recognition4 99 ,see 8 ,life & ,habit & ,unconsci\s ,memory4 ,we (t5 feel t some?+ 9 our s5sible environm5t is famili>1 )\t hav+ any def9ite recollection ( previ\s occasions on :i* we h se5 x4 ,we h ?is feel+ normally 9 places :]e we h (t5 be5 be=e--at home1 or 9 well-kn[n /reets4 ,mo/ p & animals f9d x ess5tial to _! happ9ess to sp5d a good deal ( _! "t 9 famili> surr\nd+s1 :i* are especially com=t+ :5 any dang] ?reat5s4 ,! feel+ ( famili>ity has all sorts ( degrees1 d[n to ! /age :]e we dimly feel t we h se5 a p]son be=e4 ,x is by no means always reliable2 almo/ ev]ybody has at "s "t exp]i5c$ ! well-kn[n illusion t all t is happ5+ n[ happ5$ be=e at "s "t4 ,!re are occasions :5 famili>ity does n atta* itself to any def9ite object1 :5 !re is m]ely a vague feel+ t ,,some?+ is famili>4 ,?is is illu/rat$ by ,turg5ev's ,smoke1 :]e ! h]o is long puzzl$ by a haunt+ s5se t some?+ 9 8 pres5t is recall+ some?+ 9 8 pa/1 & at la/ traces x to ! smell ( heliotrope4 ,:5ev] ! s5se ( famili>ity occurs )\t a def9ite object1 x leads u to se>* ! environm5t until we are satisfi$ t we h f\nd ! appropriate object1 :i* leads u to ! judgm5t3 ,,?is is famili>4 ,i ?9k we may reg>d famili>ity z a def9ite feel+1 capable ( exi/+ )\t an object1 b normally /&+ 9 a specific relation to "s feature ( ! environm5t1 ! relation be+ t :i* we express 9 words by say+ t ! feature 9 "q is famili>4 ,! judgm5t t :at is famili> has be5 exp]i5c$ be=e is a product ( reflection1 & is no "p ( ! feel+ ( famili>ity1 su* z a horse may be suppos$ to h :5 he returns to 8 /able4 ,?us no k z to ! pa/ is to be d]iv$ f ! feel+ ( famili>ity alone4 ,a fur!r /age is ,,recognition4 ,?is may be tak5 9 two s5ses1 ! fir/ :5 a ?+ n m]ely feels famili>1 b we "k x is su*-&-su*4 ,we recognize our fri5d ,jones1 we "k cats & dogs :5 we see !m1 & s on4 ,"h we h a def9ite influ5ce ( pa/ exp]i5ce1 b n necess>ily any actual k ( ! pa/4 ,:5 we see a cat1 we "k x is a cat because ( previ\s cats we h se51 b we d n1 z a rule1 recollect at ! mom5t any p>ticul> occasion :5 we h se5 a cat4 ,recognition 9 ?is s5se does n necess>ily involve m ?an a habit ( association3 ! k9d ( object we are see+ at ! mom5t is associat$ ) ! ^w cat1 or ) an auditory image ( purr+1 or :atev] o!r *>act]i/ic we may happ5 to recognize 9 ! cat ( ! mom5t4 ,we are1 ( c\rse1 9 fact able to judge1 :5 we recognize an object1 t we h se5 x be=e1 b ?is judgm5t is some?+ ov] & above recognition 9 ?is fir/ s5se1 & may v probably be impossible to animals t nev]!less h ! exp]i5ce ( recognition 9 ?is fir/ s5se ( ! ^w4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 ano!r s5se ( ! ^w1 9 :i* we mean by recognition1 n kn[+ ! "n ( a ?+ or "s o!r prop]ty ( x1 b kn[+ t we h se5 x be=e ,9 ?is s5se recognition does involve k ab\t ! ,fa/4 ,?is k is memory 9 "o s5se1 ?\gh 9 ano!r x is n4 ,x does n involve a def9ite memory ( a def9ite pa/ ev5t1 b only ! k t some?+ happ5+ n[ is simil> to some?+ t happ5$ be=e4 ,x diff]s f ! s5se ( famili>ity by be+ cognitive2 x is a belief or judgm5t1 :i* ! s5se ( famili>ity is n4 ,i d n wi% to und]take ! analysis ( belief at pres5t1 s9ce x w be ! subject ( ! twelf? lecture2 = ! pres5t ,i m]ely wi% to emphasize ! fact t recognition1 9 our second s5se1 consi/s 9 a belief1 :i* we may express approximately 9 ! words3 ,?is has exi/$ be=e4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 sev]al po9ts 9 :i* su* an acc\nt ( recognition is inadequate4 ,to beg9 )1 x might seem at fir/ sight m correct to def9e recognition z ,i h se5 ?is be=e ?an z ?is has exi/$ be=e4 ,we recognize a ?+ 7x may be urg$7 z hav+ be5 9 our exp]i5ce be=e1 :atev] t may mean2 we d n recognize x z m]ely hav+ be5 9 ! _w be=e4 ,i am n sure t !re is any?+ sub/antial 9 ?is po9t4 ,! def9ition ( my exp]i5ce is difficult2 broadly speak+1 x is ev]y?+ t is connect$ ) :at ,i am exp]i5c+ n[ by c]ta9 l9ks1 ( :i* ! v>i\s =ms ( memory are among ! mo/ important4 ,?us1 if ,i recognize a ?+1 ! occasion ( its previ\s exi/5ce 9 virtue ( :i* ,i recognize x =ms "p ( my exp]i5ce by ,,def9ition3 recognition w be "o ( ! m>ks by :i* my exp]i5ce is s+l$ out f ! re/ ( ! _w4 ,( c\rse1 ! words ?is has exi/$ be=e are a v inadequate translation ( :at actually happ5s :5 we =m a judgm5t ( recognition1 b t is unavoidable3 words are fram$ to express a level ( ?\ght :i* is by no means primitive1 & are q incapable ( express+ su* an elem5t>y occurr5ce z recognition4 ,i %all return to :at is virtually ! same "q 9 connection ) true memory1 :i* raises exactly simil> problems4 ,a second po9t is t1 :5 we recognize some?+1 x 0 n 9 fact ! v same ?+1 b only some?+ simil>1 t we exp]i5c$ on a =m] occasion4 ,suppose ! object 9 "q is a fri5d's face4 ,a p]son's face is always *ang+1 & is n exactly ! same on any two occasions4 ,common s5se treats x z "o face ) v>y+ expressions2 b ! v>y+ expressions actually exi/1 ea* at its prop] "t1 :ile ! "o face is m]ely a logical con/ruction4 ,we reg>d two objects z ! same1 = common-s5se purposes1 :5 ! reaction !y call = is practically ! same4 ,two visual appe>ances1 to bo? ( :i* x is appropriate to say3 ,hullo1 ,jones6 are treat$ z appe>ances ( "o id5tical object1 namely ,jones4 ,! "n ,jones is applicable to bo?1 & x is only reflection t %[s u t _m div]se p>ticul>s are collect$ toge!r to =m ! mean+ ( ! "n ,jones4 ,:at we see on any "o occasion is n ! :ole s]ies ( p>ticul>s t make up ,jones1 b only "o ( !m 7or a few 9 quick succession74 ,on ano!r occasion we see ano!r memb] ( ! s]ies1 b x is suffici5tly simil> to c\nt z ! same f ! /&po9t ( common s5se4 ,accord+ly1 :5 we judge ,i h se5 ,,?is be=e1 we judge falsely if ?is is tak5 z apply+ to ! actual con/itu5t ( ! _w t we are see+ at ! mom5t4 ,! ^w ?is mu/ be int]pret$ vaguely s z to include any?+ suffici5tly l :at we are see+ at ! mom5t4 ,"h1 aga91 we %all f9d a simil> po9t z reg>ds true memory2 & 9 connection ) true memory we w consid] ! po9t aga94 ,x is sometimes sugge/$1 by ^? :o fav\r behavi\ri/ views1 t recognition consi/s 9 behav+ 9 ! same way :5 a /imulus is repeat$ z we behav$ on ! fir/ occasion :5 x occurr$4 ,?is seems to be ! exact opposite ( ! tru?4 ,! ess5ce ( recognition is 9 ! ,,diff]5ce betwe5 a repeat$ /imulus & a new "o4 ,on ! fir/ occasion !re is no recognition2 on ! second occasion !re is4 ,9 fact1 recognition is ano!r in/ance ( ! peculi>ity ( causal laws 9 psy*ology1 namely1 t ! causal unit is n a s+le ev5t1 b two or m ev5ts ,habit is ! great in/ance ( ?is1 b recognition is ano!r4 ,a /imulus occurr+ once has a c]ta9 effect2 occurr+ twice1 x has ! fur!r effect ( recognition4 ,?us ! ph5om5on ( recognition has z its cause ! two occasions :5 ! /imulus has occurr$2 ei!r alone is insuffici5t4 ,?is complexity ( causes 9 psy*ology might be connect$ ) ,b]gson's argum5ts aga9/ repetition 9 ! m5tal _w4 ,x does n prove t !re are no causal laws 9 psy*ology1 z ,b]gson sugge/s2 b x does prove t ! causal laws ( psy*ology are ,prima facie v diff]5t f ^? ( physics4 ,on ! possibility ( expla9+ away ! diff]5ce z due to ! peculi>ities ( n]v\s tissue ,i h spok5 be=e1 b ?is possibility mu/ n be =gott5 if we are tempt$ to draw unw>rant$ metaphysical d$uctions4 ,true memory1 :i* we mu/ n[ endeav\r to und]/&1 consi/s ( k ( pa/ ev5ts1 b n ( all su* k4 ,"s k ( pa/ ev5ts1 = example :at we le>n ?r\gh read+ hi/ory1 is on a p> ) ! k we c acquire conc]n+ ! future3 x is obta9$ by inf]5ce1 n 7s to speak7 spontane\sly4 ,!re is a simil> di/9ction 9 our k ( ! pres5t3 "s ( x is obta9$ ?r\gh ! s5ses1 "s 9 m indirect ways4 ,i "k t !re are at ?is mom5t a numb] ( p 9 ! /reets ( ,new ,york1 b ,i d n "k ?is 9 ! imm$iate way 9 :i* ,i "k ( ! p :om ,i see by look+ out ( my w9d[4 ,x is n easy to /ate precisely :]e9 ! diff]5ce betwe5 ^! two sorts ( k consi/s1 b x is easy to feel ! diff]5ce4 ,= ! mom5t1 ,i %all n /op to analyse x1 b %all cont5t myself ) say+ t1 9 ?is respect1 memory resembles ! k d]iv$ f ! s5ses4 ,x is imm$iate1 n inf]r$1 n ab/ract2 x diff]s f p]ception ma9ly by be+ ref]r$ to ! pa/4 ,9 reg>d to memory1 z ?r\gh\t ! analysis ( k1 !re are two v di/9ct problems1 namely 7#a7 z to ! nature ( ! pres5t occurr5ce 9 kn[+2 7#b7 z to ! relation ( ?is occurr5ce to :at is kn[n4 ,:5 we rememb]1 ! kn[+ is n[1 :ile :at is kn[n is 9 ! pa/4 ,our two que/ions are1 9 ! case ( memory3 7#a7 ,:at is ! pres5t occurr5ce :5 we rememb]8 7#b7 ,:at is ! relation ( ?is pres5t occurr5ce to ! pa/ ev5t :i* is rememb]$8 ,( ^! two que/ions1 only ! fir/ conc]ns ! psy*ologi/2 ! second belongs to !ory ( k4 ,at ! same "t1 if we accept ! vague datum ) :i* we began1 to ! effect t1 9 "s s5se1 !re is k ( ! pa/1 we %all h to f9d1 if we c1 su* an acc\nt ( ! pres5t occurr5ce 9 rememb]+ z w make x n impossible = rememb]+ to give u k ( ! pa/4 ,= ! pres5t1 h[ev]1 we %all d well to =get ! problems conc]n+ !ory ( k1 & conc5trate ^u ! purely psy*ological problem ( memory4 ,betwe5 memory-image & s5sation !re is an int]m$iate exp]i5ce conc]n+ ! imm$iate pa/4 ,= example1 a s\nd t we h j he>d is pres5t to u 9 a way :i* diff]s bo? f ! s5sation :ile we are he>+ ! s\nd & f ! memory-image ( some?+ he>d days or weeks ago4 ,james /ates t x is ?is way ( appreh5d+ ! imm$iate pa/ t is ! ,,orig9al ( our exp]i5ce ( pa/ness1 f :5ce we get ! mean+ ( ! t]m7,psy*ology1 i1 p4 #fjd74 ,ev]yone kn[s ! exp]i5ce ( notic+ 7say7 t ! clock ,,has ,,be5 /rik+1 :5 we did n notice x :ile x 0 /rik+4 ,& :5 we he> a rem>k spok51 we are consci\s ( ! e>li] words :ile ! lat] ones are be+ utt]$1 & ?is ret5tion feels diff]5t f recollection ( some?+ def9itely pa/4 ,a s5sation fades gradually1 pass+ by cont9u\s gradations to ! /atus ( an image4 ,?is ret5tion ( ! imm$iate pa/ 9 a condition int]m$iate betwe5 s5sation & image may be call$ imm$iate memory4 ,ev]y?+ belong+ to x is includ$ ) s5sation 9 :at is call$ ! speci\s pres5t4 ,! speci\s pres5t includes elem5ts at all /ages on ! j\rney f s5sation to image4 ,x is ?is fact t enables u to appreh5d su* ?+s z movem5ts1 or ! ord] ( ! words 9 a spok5 s5t5ce4 ,succession c occur )9 ! speci\s pres5t1 ( :i* we c di/+ui% "s p>ts z e>li] & o!rs z lat]4 ,x is to be suppos$ t ! e>lie/ p>ts are ^? t h fad$ mo/ f _! orig9al =ce1 :ile ! late/ p>ts are ^? t reta9 _! full s5sational "*4 ,at ! beg9n+ ( a /imulus we h a s5sation2 !n a gradual transition2 & at ! end an image4 ,s5sations :ile !y are fad+ are call$ akolu?ic s5sations499 ,:5 ! process ( fad+ is complet$ 7:i* happ5s v quickly71 we arrive at ! image1 :i* is capable ( be+ reviv$ on subsequ5t occasions ) v little *ange4 ,true memory1 z oppos$ to imm$iate memory1 applies only to ev5ts suffici5tly di/ant to h come to an end ( ! p]iod ( fad+4 ,su* ev5ts1 if !y are repres5t$ by any?+ pres5t1 c only be repres5t$ by images1 n by ^? int]m$iate /ages1 betwe5 s5sations & images1 :i* occur dur+ ! p]iod ( fad+4 99 ,see ,semon1 ,die mnemis*5 ,empf9dung51 *ap4 vi4 ,imm$iate memory is important bo? because x provides exp]i5ce ( succession1 & because x bridges ! gulf betwe5 s5sations & ! images :i* are _! copies4 ,b x is n[ "t to resume ! consid]ation ( true memory4 ,suppose y ask me :at ,i ate = breakfa/ ?is morn+4 ,suppose1 fur!r1 t ,i h n ?\ght ab\t my breakfa/ 9 ! meantime1 & t ,i did n1 :ile ,i 0 eat+ x1 put into words :at x consi/$ (4 ,9 ?is case my recollection w be true memory1 n habit-memory4 ,! process ( rememb]+ w consi/ ( call+ up images ( my breakfa/1 :i* w come to me ) a feel+ ( belief su* z di/+ui%es memory-images f m]e imag9ation-images4 ,or sometimes words may come )\t ! int]m$i>y ( images2 b 9 ?is case equally ! feel+ ( belief is ess5tial4 ,let u omit f our consid]ation1 = ! pres5t1 ! memories 9 :i* words replace images4 ,^! are always1 ,i ?9k1 really habit-memories1 ! memories t use images be+ ! typical true memories4 ,memory-images & imag9ation-images d n diff] 9 _! intr9sic qualities1 s f> z we c discov]4 ,!y diff] by ! fact t ! images t con/itute memories1 unlike ^? t con/itute imag9ation1 are accompani$ by a feel+ ( belief :i* may be express$ 9 ! words ?is happ5$4 ,! m]e occurr5ce ( images1 )\t ?is feel+ ( belief1 con/itutes imag9ation2 x is ! elem5t ( belief t is ! di/9ctive ?+ 9 memory499 99 ,= belief ( a specific k9d1 cf4 ,doro?y ,wr9* ,on ! ,nature ( ,memory1 ,m9d1 ,janu>y1 #aibj4 ,!re are1 if ,i am n mi/ak51 at lea/ ?ree diff]5t k9ds ( belief-feel+1 :i* we may call respectively memory1 expectation & b>e ass5t4 ,9 :at ,i call b>e ass5t1 !re is no "t-elem5t 9 ! feel+ ( belief1 ?\gh !re may be 9 ! cont5t ( :at is believ$4 ,if ,i believe t ,caes> l&$ 9 ,brita9 9 ,b4,c4 #ee1 ! "t-det]m9ation lies1 n 9 ! feel+ ( belief1 b 9 :at is believ$4 ,i d n rememb] ! occurr5ce1 b h ! same feel+ t[>ds x z t[>ds ! ann\ncem5t ( an eclipse next ye>4 ,b :5 ,i h se5 a fla% ( lightn+ & am wait+ = ! ?und]1 ,i h a belief-feel+ analog\s to memory1 except t x ref]s to ! future3 ,i h an image ( ?und]1 comb9$ ) a feel+ :i* may be express$ 9 ! words3 ?is w happ54 ,s1 9 memory1 ! pa/ness lies1 n 9 ! cont5t ( :at is believ$1 b 9 ! nature ( ! belief-feel+4 ,i might h j ! same images & expect _! realization2 ,i might ent]ta9 !m )\t any belief1 z 9 read+ a novel2 or ,i might ent]ta9 !m toge!r ) a "t-det]m9ation1 & give b>e ass5t1 z 9 read+ hi/ory4 ,i %all return to ?is subject 9 a lat] lecture1 :5 we come to ! analysis ( belief4 ,= ! pres5t1 ,i wi% to make x cle> t a c]ta9 special k9d ( belief is ! di/9ctive *>act]i/ic ( memory4 ,! problem z to :e!r memory c be expla9$ z habit or association requires to be consid]$ afre% 9 connection ) ! causes ( our rememb]+ some?+4 ,let u take aga9 ! case ( my be+ ask$ :at ,i _h = breakfa/ ?is morn+4 ,9 ?is case ! "q leads to my sett+ to "w to recollect4 ,x is a little /range t ! "q %\ld in/ruct me z to :at x is t ,i am to recall4 ,?is has to d ) und]/&+ words1 :i* w be ! topic ( ! next lecture2 b some?+ mu/ be said ab\t x n[4 ,our und]/&+ ( ! words breakfa/ ?is morn+ is a habit1 9 spite ( ! fact t on ea* fre% day !y po9t to a diff]5t occasion4 ,?is morn+ does n1 :5ev] x is us$1 mean ! same ?+1 z ,john or ,/4 ,paul's does2 x means a diff]5t p]iod ( "t on ea* diff]5t day4 ,x foll[s t ! habit :i* con/itutes our und]/&+ ( ! words ?is morn+ is n ! habit ( associat+ ! words ) a fix$ object1 b ! habit ( associat+ !m ) some?+ hav+ a fix$ "t-relation to our pres5t4 ,?is morn+ has1 to-day1 ! same "t-relation to my pres5t t ye/]day morn+ _h ye/]day4 ,9 ord] to und]/& ! phrase ?is morn+ x is necess>y t we %\ld h a way ( feel+ "t-int]vals1 & t ?is feel+ %\ld give :at is con/ant 9 ! mean+ ( ! words ?is morn+4 ,?is appreciation ( "t-int]vals is1 h[ev]1 obvi\sly a product ( memory1 n a presupposition ( x4 ,x w be bett]1 !re=e1 if we wi% to analyse ! causation ( memory by some?+ n presuppos+ memory1 to take "s o!r in/ance ?an t ( a "q ab\t ?is morn+4 ,let u take ! case ( com+ into a famili> room :]e some?+ has be5 *ang$--say a new picture hung on ! wall4 ,we may at fir/ h only a s5se t ,,some?+ is unfamili>1 b pres5tly we %all rememb]1 & say t picture 0 n on ! wall be=e4 ,9 ord] to make ! case def9ite1 we w suppose t we 7 only 9 ! room on "o =m] occasion4 ,9 ?is case x seems fairly cle> :at happ5s4 ,! o!r objects 9 ! room are associat$1 ?r\gh ! =m] occasion1 ) a blank space ( wall :]e n[ !re is a picture4 ,!y call up an image ( a blank wall1 :i* cla%es ) p]ception ( ! picture4 ,! image is associat$ ) ! belief-feel+ :i* we f\nd to be di/9ctive ( memory1 s9ce x c nei!r be aboli%$ nor h>moniz$ ) p]ception4 ,if ! room _h rema9$ un*ang$1 we might h _h only ! feel+ ( famili>ity )\t ! def9ite rememb]+2 x is ! *ange t drives u f ! pres5t to memory ( ! pa/4 ,we may g5]alize ?is in/ance s z to cov] ! causes ( _m memories4 ,"s pres5t feature ( ! environm5t is associat$1 ?r\gh pa/ exp]i5ces1 ) some?+ n[ abs5t2 ?is abs5t some?+ comes be=e u z an image1 & is contra/$ ) pres5t s5sation4 ,9 cases ( ?is sort1 habit 7or association7 expla9s :y ! pres5t feature ( ! environm5t br+s up ! memory-image1 b x does n expla9 ! memory-belief4 ,p]haps a m complete analysis c\ld expla9 ! memory-belief also on l9es ( association & habit1 b ! causes ( beliefs are obscure1 & we _c inve/igate !m yet4 ,= ! pres5t we mu/ cont5t ourselves ) ! fact t ! memory-image c be expla9$ by habit4 ,z reg>ds ! memory-belief1 we mu/1 at lea/ provisionally1 accept ,b]gson's view t x _c be br\ght "u ! head ( habit1 at any rate :5 x fir/ occurs1 i4e4 :5 we rememb] some?+ we nev] rememb]$ be=e4 ,we mu/ n[ consid] some:at m closely ! cont5t ( a memory-belief4 ,! memory-belief conf]s ^u ! memory-image some?+ :i* we may call mean+2 x makes u feel t ! image po9ts to an object :i* exi/$ 9 ! pa/4 ,9 ord] to deal ) ?is topic we mu/ consid] ! v]bal expression ( ! memory-belief4 ,we might be tempt$ to put ! memory-belief into ! words3 ,some?+ l ?is image occurr$4 ,b su* words w\ld be v f> f an accurate translation ( ! simple/ k9d ( memory-belief4 ,some?+ l ?is image is a v complicat$ conception4 ,9 ! simple/ k9d ( memory we are n aw>e ( ! diff]5ce betwe5 an image & ! s5sation :i* x copies1 :i* may be call$ its prototype4 ,:5 ! image is be=e u1 we judge r ?is occurr$4 ,! image is n di/+ui%$ f ! object :i* exi/$ 9 ! pa/3 ! ^w ?is cov]s bo?1 & enables u to h a memory-belief :i* does n introduce ! complicat$ notion some?+ l ?is4 ,x might be object$ t1 if we judge ?is occurr$ :5 9 fact ?is is a pres5t image1 we judge falsely1 & ! memory-belief1 s int]pret$1 becomes deceptive4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 w\ld be a mi/ake1 produc$ by attempt+ to give to words a precision :i* !y d n possess :5 us$ by unsophi/icat$ p4 ,x is true t ! image is n absolutely id5tical ) its prototype1 & if ! ^w ?is meant ! image to ! exclusion ( ev]y?+ else1 ! judgm5t ?is occurr$ w\ld be false4 ,b id5tity is a precise conception1 & no ^w1 9 ord9>y spee*1 /&s = any?+ precise4 ,ord9>y spee* does n di/+ui% betwe5 id5tity & close simil>ity4 ,a ^w always applies1 n only to "o p>ticul>1 b to a gr\p ( associat$ p>ticul>s1 :i* are n recogniz$ z multiple 9 common ?\ght or spee*4 ,?us primitive memory1 :5 x judges t ?is occurr$1 is vague1 b n false4 ,vague id5tity1 :i* is really close simil>ity1 has be5 a s\rce ( _m ( ! confusions by :i* philosophy has liv$4 ,( a vague subject1 su* z a ?is1 :i* is bo? an image & its prototype1 contradictory pr$icates are true simultane\sly3 ?is exi/$ & does n exi/1 s9ce x is a ?+ rememb]$1 b also ?is exi/s & did n exi/1 s9ce x is a pres5t image4 ,h5ce ,b]gson's int]p5etration ( ! pres5t by ! pa/1 ,hegelian cont9uity & id5tity-9-div]sity1 & a ho/ ( o!r notions :i* are ?\ght to be pr(\nd because !y are obscure & confus$4 ,! contradictions result+ f conf\nd+ image & prototype 9 memory =ce u to precision4 ,b :5 we become precise1 our rememb]+ becomes diff]5t f t ( ord9>y life1 & if we =get ?is we %all g wrong 9 ! analysis ( ord9>y memory4 ,vagu5ess & accuracy are important notions1 :i* x is v necess>y to und]/&4 ,bo? are a matt] ( degree4 ,all ?9k+ is vague to "s ext5t1 & complete accuracy is a !oretical ideal n practically atta9able4 ,to und]/& :at is meant by accuracy1 x w be well to consid] fir/ in/rum5ts ( measurem5t1 su* z a balance or a !rmomet]4 ,^! are said to be accurate :5 !y give diff]5t results = v slightly diff]5t /imuli499 ,a cl9ical !rmomet] is accurate :5 x enables u to detect v slight diff]5ces 9 ! temp]ature ( ! blood4 ,we may say g5]ally t an in/rum5t is accurate 9 proportion z x reacts diff]5tly to v slightly diff]5t /imuli4 ,:5 a small diff]5ce ( /imulus produces a great diff]5ce ( reaction1 ! in/rum5t is accurate2 9 ! contr>y case x is n4 99 ,?is is a necess>y b n a suffici5t condition4 ,! subject ( accuracy & vagu5ess w be consid]$ aga9 9 ,lecture ,,xiii4 ,exactly ! same ?+ applies 9 def9+ accuracy ( ?\ght or p]ception4 ,a musician w respond diff]5tly to v m9ute diff]5ces 9 play+ :i* w\ld be q imp]ceptible to ! ord9>y mortal4 ,a negro c see ! diff]5ce betwe5 "o negro & ano!r "o is 8 fri5d1 ano!r 8 enemy4 ,b to u su* diff]5t responses are impossible3 we c m]ely apply ! ^w negro indiscrim9ately4 ,accuracy ( response 9 reg>d to any p>ticul> k9d ( /imulus is improv$ by practice4 ,und]/&+ a language is a case 9 po9t4 ,few ,fr5*m5 c he> any diff]5ce betwe5 ! s\nds hall & hole1 :i* produce q diff]5t impressions ^u u4 ,! two /atem5ts ! hall is full ( wat] & ! hole is full ( wat] call = diff]5t responses1 & a he>+ :i* _c di/+ui% betwe5 !m is inaccurate or vague 9 ?is respect4 ,precision & vagu5ess 9 ?\ght1 z 9 p]ception1 dep5d ^u ! degree ( diff]5ce betwe5 responses to m or less simil> /imuli4 ,9 ! case ( ?\ght1 ! response does n foll[ imm$iately ^u ! s5sational /imulus1 b t makes no diff]5ce z reg>ds our pres5t "q4 ,?us to rev]t to memory3 ,a memory is vague :5 x is appropriate to _m diff]5t occurr5ces3 = in/ance1 ,i met a man is vague1 s9ce any man w\ld v]ify x4 ,a memory is precise :5 ! occurr5ces t w\ld v]ify x are n>r[ly circumscrib$3 = in/ance1 ,i met ,jones is precise z comp>$ to ,i met a man4 ,a memory is accurate :5 x is bo? precise & true1 i4e4 9 ! above in/ance1 if x 0 ,jones ,i met4 ,x is precise ev5 if x is false1 provid$ "s v def9ite occurr5ce w\ld h be5 requir$ to make x true4 ,x foll[s f :at has be5 said t a vague ?\ght has m likelihood ( be+ true ?an a precise "o4 ,to try & hit an object ) a vague ?\ght is l try+ to hit ! bull's eye ) a lump ( putty3 :5 ! putty rea*es ! t>get1 x flatt5s out all ov] x1 & probably cov]s ! bull's eye along ) ! re/4 ,to try & hit an object ) a precise ?\ght is l try+ to hit ! bull's eye ) a bullet4 ,! advantage ( ! precise ?\ght is t x di/+ui%es betwe5 ! bull's eye & ! re/ ( ! t>get4 ,= example1 if ! :ole t>get is repres5t$ by ! fungus family & ! bull's eye by mu%rooms1 a vague ?\ght :i* c only hit ! t>get z a :ole is n mu* use f a cul9>y po9t ( view4 ,& :5 ,i m]ely rememb] t ,i met a man1 my memory may be v inadequate to my practical requirem5ts1 s9ce x may make a great diff]5ce :e!r ,i met ,br[n or ,jones4 ,! memory ,i met ,jones is relatively precise4 ,x is accurate if ,i met ,jones1 inaccurate if ,i met ,br[n1 b precise 9 ei!r case z aga9/ ! m]e recollection t ,i met a man4 ,! di/9ction betwe5 accuracy & precision is h[ev]1 n fundam5tal4 ,we may omit precision f out ?\ghts & conf9e ourselves to ! di/9ction betwe5 accuracy & vagu5ess4 ,we may !n set up ! foll[+ def9itions3 ,an in/rum5t is reliable ) respect to a giv5 set ( /imuli :5 to /imuli :i* are n relevantly diff]5t x gives always responses :i* are n relevantly diff]5t4 ,an in/rum5t is a measure ( a set ( /imuli :i* are s]ially ord]$ :5 its responses1 9 all cases :]e !y are relevantly diff]5t1 are arrang$ 9 a s]ies 9 ! same ord]4 ,! degree ( accuracy ( an in/rum5t :i* is a reliable measur] is ! ratio ( ! diff]5ce ( response to ! diff]5ce ( /imulus 9 cases :]e ! diff]5ce ( /imulus is small499 ,t is to say1 if a small diff]5ce ( /imulus produces a great diff]5ce ( response1 ! in/rum5t is v accurate2 9 ! contr>y case1 v inaccurate4 99 ,/rictly speak+1 ! limit ( ?is1 i4e4 ! d]ivative ( ! response ) respect to ! /imulus4 ,a m5tal response is call$ vague 9 proportion to its lack ( accuracy1 or r precision4 ,^! def9itions w be f\nd useful1 n only 9 ! case ( memory1 b 9 almo/ all que/ions conc]n$ ) k4 ,x %\ld be obs]v$ t vague beliefs1 s f> f be+ necess>ily false1 h a bett] *ance ( tru? ?an precise ones1 ?\gh _! tru? is less valuable ?an t ( precise beliefs1 s9ce !y d n di/+ui% betwe5 occurr5ces :i* may diff] 9 important ways4 ,! :ole ( ! above discussion ( vagu5ess & accuracy 0 occasion$ by ! attempt to int]pret ! ^w ?is :5 we judge 9 v]bal memory t ?is occurr$4 ,! ^w ?is1 9 su* a judgm5t1 is a vague ^w1 equally applicable to ! pres5t memory-image & to ! pa/ occurr5ce :i* is its prototype4 ,a vague ^w is n to be id5tifi$ ) a g5]al ^w1 ?\gh 9 practice ! di/9ction may (t5 be blurr$4 ,a ^w is g5]al :5 x is und]/ood to be applicable to a numb] ( diff]5t objects 9 virtue ( "s common prop]ty4 ,a ^w is vague :5 x is 9 fact applicable to a numb] ( diff]5t objects because1 9 virtue ( "s common prop]ty1 !y h n appe>$1 to ! p]son us+ ! ^w1 to be di/9ct4 ,i emphatically d n mean t he has judg$ !m to be id5tical1 b m]ely t he has made ! same response to !m all & has n judg$ !m to be diff]5t4 ,we may comp>e a vague ^w to a jelly & a g5]al ^w to a heap ( %ot4 ,vague words prec$e judgm5ts ( id5tity & diff]5ce2 bo? g5]al & p>ticul> words are subsequ5t to su* judgm5ts4 ,! ^w ?is 9 ! primitive memory-belief is a vague ^w1 n a g5]al ^w2 x cov]s bo? ! image & its prototype because ! two are n di/+ui%$499 99 ,on ! vague & ! g5]al cf4 ,ribot3 ,evolution ( ,g5]al ,ideas1 ,op5 ,c\rt ,co41 #ahii1 p4 #cb3 ,! sole p]missible =mula is ?is3 ,intellig5ce progresses f ! indef9ite to ! def9ite4 ,if 'indef9ite' is tak5 z synonym\s ) g5]al1 x may be said t ! p>ticul> does n appe> at ! outset1 b nei!r does ! g5]al 9 any exact s5se3 ! vague w\ld be m appropriate4 ,9 o!r words1 no soon] has ! intellect progress$ beyond ! mom5t ( p]ception & ( its imm$iate reproduction 9 memory1 ?an ! g5]ic image makes its appe>ance1 i4e4 a /ate int]m$iate betwe5 ! p>ticul> & ! g5]al1 p>ticipat+ 9 ! nature ( ! "o & ( ! o!r--a confus$ simplification4 ,b we h n yet f9i%$ our analysis ( ! memory-belief4 ,! t5se 9 ! belief t ?is occurr$ is provid$ by ! nature ( ! belief-feel+ involv$ 9 memory2 ! ^w ?is1 z we h se51 has a vagu5ess :i* we h tri$ to describe4 ,b we mu/ /ill ask :at we mean by occurr$4 ,! image is1 9 "o s5se1 occurr+ n[2 & !re=e we mu/ f9d "s o!r s5se 9 :i* ! pa/ ev5t occurr$ b ! image does n occur4 ,!re are two di/9ct que/ions to be ask$3 7#a7 ,:at causes u to say t a ?+ occurs8 7#b7 ,:at are we feel+ :5 we say ?is8 ,z to ! fir/ "q1 9 ! crude use ( ! ^w1 :i* is :at conc]ns u1 memory-images w\ld n be said to occur2 !y w\ld n be notic$ 9 !mselves1 b m]ely us$ z signs ( ! pa/ ev5t4 ,images are m]ely imag9>y2 !y h n1 9 crude ?\ght1 ! sort ( reality t belongs to outside bodies4 ,r\ghly speak+1 real ?+s w\ld be ^? t c cause s5sations1 ^? t h correlations ( ! sort t con/itute physical objects4 ,a ?+ is said to be real or to occur :5 x fits into a context ( su* correlations4 ,! prototype ( our memory-image did fit into a physical context1 :ile our memory-image does n4 ,?is causes u to feel t ! prototype 0 real1 :ile ! image is imag9>y4 ,b ! answ] to our second "q1 namely z to :at we are feel+ :5 we say a ?+ occurs or is real1 mu/ be some:at diff]5t4 ,we d n1 unless we are unusually reflective1 ?9k ab\t ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( correlations3 we m]ely h diff]5t feel+s :i*1 intellectualiz$1 may be repres5t$ z expectations ( ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( correlations4 ,a ?+ :i* feels real inspires u ) hopes or fe>s1 expectations or curiosities1 :i* are :olly abs5t :5 a ?+ feels imag9>y4 ,! feel+ ( reality is a feel+ ak9 to respect3 x belongs ,,prim>ily to :atev] c d ?+s to u )\t our volunt>y co-op]ation4 ,?is feel+ ( reality1 relat$ to ! memory-image1 & ref]r$ to ! pa/ by ! specific k9d ( belief-feel+ t is *>act]i/ic ( memory1 seems to be :at con/itutes ! act ( rememb]+ 9 its pure =m4 ,we may n[ summ>ize our analysis ( pure memory4 ,memory dem&s 7a7 an image1 7b7 a belief 9 pa/ exi/5ce4 ,! belief may be express$ 9 ! words ?is exi/$4 ,! belief1 l e o!r1 may be analys$ into 7#a7 ! believ+1 7#b7 :at is believ$4 ,! believ+ is a specific feel+ or s5sation or complex ( s5sations1 diff]5t f expectation or b>e ass5t 9 a way t makes ! belief ref] to ! pa/2 ! ref]5ce to ! pa/ lies 9 ! belief-feel+1 n 9 ! cont5t believ$4 ,!re is a relation betwe5 ! belief-feel+ & ! cont5t1 mak+ ! belief-feel+ ref] to ! cont5t1 & express$ by say+ t ! cont5t is :at is believ$4 ,! cont5t believ$ may or may n be express$ 9 words4 ,let u take fir/ ! case :5 x is n4 ,9 t case1 if we are m]ely rememb]+ t some?+ ( :i* we n[ h an image occurr$1 ! cont5t consi/s ( 7a7 ! image1 7b7 ! feel+1 analog\s to respect1 :i* we translate by say+ t some?+ is real z oppos$ to imag9>y1 7c7 a relation betwe5 ! image & ! feel+ ( reality1 ( ! sort express$ :5 we say t ! feel+ ref]s to ! image4 ,?is cont5t does n conta9 9 itself any "t-det]m9ation4 ,! "t-det]m9ation lies 9 ! nature ( ! belief feel+1 :i* is t call$ rememb]+ or 7bett]7 recollect+4 ,x is only subsequ5t reflection ^u ?is ref]5ce to ! pa/ t makes u realize ! di/9ction betwe5 ! image & ! ev5t recollect$4 ,:5 we h made ?is di/9ction1 we c say t ! image means ! pa/ ev5t4 ,! cont5t express$ 9 words is be/ repres5t$ by ! words ! exi/5ce ( ?is1 s9ce ^! words d n involve t5se1 :i* belongs to ! belief-feel+1 n to ! cont5t4 ,"h ?is is a vague t]m1 cov]+ ! memory-image & any?+ v l x1 includ+ its prototype4 ,exi/5ce expresses ! feel+ ( a reality ar\s$ prim>ily by :atev] c h effects ^u u )\t our volunt>y co-op]ation4 ,! ^w ( 9 ! phrase ! exi/5ce ( ?is repres5ts ! relation :i* subsi/s betwe5 ! feel+ ( reality & ! ?is4 ,?is analysis ( memory is probably extremely faulty1 b ,i d n "k h[ to improve x4 ,,note4-,:5 ,i speak ( a ,,feel+ ( belief1 ,i use ! ^w feel+ 9 a popul> s5se1 to cov] a s5sation or an image or a complex ( s5sations or images or bo?2 ,i use ?is ^w because ,i d n wi% to commit myself to any special analysis ( ! belief-feel+4 ,,lecture ,x4 ,,words ,,& ,,mean+ ,! problem ) :i* we %all be conc]n$ 9 ?is lecture is ! problem ( det]m9+ :at is ! relation call$ mean+4 ,! ^w ,napoleon1 we say1 means a c]ta9 p]son4 ,9 say+ ?is1 we are ass]t+ a relation betwe5 ! ^w ,napoleon & ! p]son s designat$4 ,x is ?is relation t we mu/ n[ inve/igate4 ,let u fir/ consid] :at sort ( object a ^w is :5 consid]$ simply z a physical ?+1 ap>t f its mean+4 ,to beg9 )1 !re are _m in/ances ( a ^w1 namely all ! diff]5t occasions :5 x is employ$4 ,?us a ^w is n some?+ unique & p>ticul>1 b a set ( occurr5ces4 ,if we conf9e ourselves to spok5 words1 a ^w has two aspects1 accord+ z we reg>d x f ! po9t ( view ( ! speak] or f t ( ! he>]4 ,f ! po9t ( view ( ! speak]1 a s+le in/ance ( ! use ( a ^w consi/s ( a c]ta9 set ( movem5ts 9 ! ?roat & m\?1 comb9$ ) brea?4 ,f ! po9t ( view ( ! he>]1 a s+le in/ance ( ! use ( a ^w consi/s ( a c]ta9 s]ies ( s\nds1 ea* be+ approximately repres5t$ by a s+le lett] 9 writ+1 ?\gh 9 practice a lett] may repres5t sev]al s\nds1 or sev]al lett]s may repres5t "o s\nd4 ,! connection betwe5 ! spok5 ^w & ! ^w z x rea*es ! he>] is causal4 ,let u conf9e ourselves to ! spok5 ^w1 :i* is ! m important = ! analysis ( :at is call$ ?\ght4 ,!n we may say t a s+le in/ance ( ! spok5 ^w consi/s ( a s]ies ( movem5ts1 & ! ^w consi/s ( a :ole set ( su* s]ies1 ea* memb] ( ! set be+ v simil> to ea* o!r memb]4 ,t is to say1 any two in/ances ( ! ^w ,napoleon are v simil>1 & ea* in/ance consi/s ( a s]ies ( movem5ts 9 ! m\?4 ,a s+le ^w1 accord+ly1 is by no means simple x is a class ( simil> s]ies ( movem5ts 7conf9+ ourselves /ill to ! spok5 ^w74 ,! degree ( simil>ity requir$ _c be precisely def9$3 a man may pron\nce ! ^w ,napoleon s badly t x c h>dly be det]m9$ :e!r he has really pron\nc$ x or n4 ,! in/ances ( a ^w %ade (f into o!r movem5ts by imp]ceptible degrees4 ,& exactly analog\s obs]vations apply to words he>d or writt5 or read4 ,b 9 :at has be5 said s f> we h n ev5 broa*$ ! "q ( ! ,,def9ition ( a ^w1 s9ce mean+ is cle>ly :at di/+ui%es a ^w f o!r sets ( simil> movem5ts1 & mean+ rema9s to be def9$4 ,x is natural to ?9k ( ! mean+ ( a ^w z some?+ conv5tional4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is only true ) great limitations4 ,a new ^w c be add$ to an exi/+ language by a m]e conv5tion1 z is done1 = in/ance1 ) new sci5tific t]ms4 ,b ! basis ( a language is n conv5tional1 ei!r f ! po9t ( view ( ! individual or f t ( ! community4 ,a *ild le>n+ to speak is le>n+ habits & associations :i* are j z mu* det]m9$ by ! environm5t z ! habit ( expect+ dogs to b>k & cocks to cr[4 ,! community t speaks a language has le>nt x1 & modifi$ x by processes almo/ all ( :i* are n delib]ate1 b ! results ( causes op]at+ accord+ to m or less asc]ta9able laws4 ,if we trace any ,indo-,european language back f> en\gh1 we arrive hypo!tically 7at any rate accord+ to "s au?orities7 at ! /age :5 language consi/$ only ( ! roots out ( :i* subsequ5t words h gr[n4 ,h[ ^! roots acquir$ _! mean+s is n kn[n1 b a conv5tional orig9 is cle>ly j z my?ical z ! social contract by :i* ,hobbes & ,r\sseau suppos$ civil gov]nm5t to h be5 e/abli%$4 ,we c h>dly suppose a p>liam5t ( hi!rto spee*less eld]s meet+ toge!r & agree+ to call a c[ a c[ & a wolf a wolf4 ,! association ( words ) _! mean+s mu/ h gr[n up by "s natural process1 ?\gh at pres5t ! nature ( ! process is unkn[n4 ,spok5 & writt5 words are1 ( c\rse1 n ! only way ( convey+ mean+4 ,a l>ge "p ( "o ( ,wundt's two va/ volumes on language 9 8 ,volk]psy*ologie is conc]n$ ) ge/ure-language4 ,ants appe> to be able to communicate a c]ta9 am\nt ( in=mation by means ( _! ant5nae4 ,probably writ+ itself1 :i* we n[ reg>d z m]ely a way ( repres5t+ spee*1 0 orig9ally an indep5d5t language1 z x has rema9$ to ?is day 9 ,*9a4 ,writ+ seems to h consi/$ orig9ally ( pictures1 :i* gradually became conv5tionaliz$1 com+ 9 "t to repres5t syllables1 & f9ally lett]s on ! telephone pr9ciple ( ,t = ,tommy4 ,b x w\ld seem t writ+ n[h]e began z an attempt to repres5t spee* x began z a direct pictorial repres5tation ( :at 0 to be express$4 ,! ess5ce ( language lies1 n 9 ! use ( ?is or t special means ( communication1 b 9 ! employm5t ( fix$ associations 7h[ev] ^! may h orig9at$7 9 ord] t some?+ n[ s5sible--a spok5 ^w1 a picture1 a ge/ure1 or :at n--may call up ! idea ( some?+ else4 ,:5ev] ?is is done1 :at is n[ s5sible may be call$ a sign or symbol1 & t ( :i* x is int5d$ to call up ! idea may be call$ its mean+4 ,?is is a r\gh outl9e ( :at con/itutes mean+4 ,b we mu/ fill 9 ! outl9e 9 v>i\s ways4 ,&1 s9ce we are conc]n$ ) :at is call$ ?\ght1 we mu/ pay m att5tion ?an we o!rwise %\ld d to ! private z oppos$ to ! social use ( language4 ,language pr(\ndly affects our ?\ghts1 & x is ?is aspect ( language t is ( mo/ importance to u 9 our pres5t inquiry4 ,we are almo/ m conc]n$ ) ! int]nal spee* t is nev] utt]$ ?an we are ) ! ?+s said out l\d to o!r p4 ,:5 we ask :at con/itutes mean+1 we are n ask+ :at is ! mean+ ( ?is or t p>ticul> ^w4 ,! ^w ,napoleon means a c]ta9 individual2 b we are ask+1 n :o is ! individual meant1 b :at is ! relation ( ! ^w to ! individual :i* makes ! "o mean ! o!r4 ,b j z x is useful to realize ! nature ( a ^w z "p ( ! physical _w1 s x is useful to realize ! sort ( ?+ t a ^w may mean4 ,:5 we are cle> bo? z to :at a ^w is 9 its physical aspect1 & z to :at sort ( ?+ x c mean1 we are 9 a bett] position to discov] ! relation ( ! two :i* is mean+4 ,! ?+s t words mean diff] m ?an words d4 ,!re are diff]5t sorts ( words1 di/+ui%$ by ! gramm>ians2 & !re are logical di/9ctions1 :i* are connect$ to "s ext5t1 ?\gh n s closely z 0 =m]ly suppos$1 ) ! grammatical di/9ctions ( p>ts ( spee*4 ,x is easy1 h[ev]1 to be misl$ by gramm>1 p>ticul>ly if all ! languages we "k belong to "o family4 ,9 "s languages1 accord+ to "s au?orities1 ! di/9ction ( p>ts ( spee* does n exi/2 9 _m languages x is widely diff]5t f t to :i* we are accu/om$ 9 ! ,indo-,european languages4 ,^! facts h to be borne 9 m9d if we are to avoid giv+ metaphysical importance to m]e accid5ts ( our own spee*4 ,9 consid]+ :at words mean1 x is natural to />t ) prop] names1 & we w aga9 take ,napoleon z our in/ance4 ,we commonly imag9e1 :5 we use a prop] "n1 t we mean "o def9ite entity1 ! p>ticul> individual :o 0 call$ ,napoleon4 ,b :at we "k z a p]son is n simple4 ,!re ,,may be a s+le simple ego :i* 0 ,napoleon1 & rema9$ /rictly id5tical f 8 bir? to 8 dea?4 ,!re is no way ( prov+ t ?is _c be ! case1 b !re is also n ! slighte/ reason to suppose t x is ! case4 ,napoleon z he 0 empirically kn[n consi/$ ( a s]ies ( gradually *ang+ appe>ances3 fir/ a squall+ baby1 !n a boy1 !n a slim & beautiful y\?1 !n a fat & slo?ful p]son v magnific5tly dress$ ,?is s]ies ( appe>ances1 & v>i\s occurr5ces hav+ c]ta9 k9ds ( causal connections ) !m1 con/itute ,napoleon z empirically kn[n1 & !re=e are ,napoleon 9 s f> z he =ms "p ( ! exp]i5c$ _w4 ,napoleon is a complicat$ s]ies ( occurr5ces1 b\nd toge!r by causal laws1 n1 l in/ances ( a ^w1 by simil>ities4 ,= al?\gh a p]son *anges gradually1 & pres5ts simil> appe>ances on two ne>ly contemporane\s occasions1 x is n ^! simil>ities t con/itute ! p]son1 z appe>s f ! ,com$y ( ,errors = example4 ,?us 9 ! case ( a prop] "n1 :ile ! ^w is a set ( simil> s]ies ( movem5ts1 :at x means is a s]ies ( occurr5ces b\nd toge!r by causal laws ( t special k9d t makes ! occurr5ces tak5 toge!r con/itute :at we call "o p]son1 or "o animal or ?+1 9 case ! "n applies to an animal or ?+ in/ead ( to a p]son4 ,nei!r ! ^w nor :at x names is "o ( ! ultimate indivisible con/itu5ts ( ! _w4 ,9 language !re is no direct way ( designat+ "o ( ! ultimate brief exi/5ts t g to make up ! collections we call ?+s or p]sons4 ,if we want to speak ( su* exi/5ts--:i* h>dly happ5s except 9 philosophy--we h to d x by means ( "s elaborate phrase1 su* z ! visual s5sation :i* occupi$ ! c5tre ( my field ( vision at noon on ,janu>y #a1 #aiai4 ,su* ultimate simples ,i call p>ticul>s4 ,p>ticul>s ,,might h prop] names1 & no d\bt w\ld h if language _h be5 inv5t$ by sci5tifically tra9$ obs]v]s = purposes ( philosophy & logic4 ,b z language 0 inv5t$ = practical ends1 p>ticul>s h rema9$ "o & all )\t a "n4 ,we are n1 9 practice1 mu* conc]n$ ) ! actual p>ticul>s t come into our exp]i5ce 9 s5sation2 we are conc]n$ r ) :ole sy/ems to :i* ! p>ticul>s belong & ( :i* !y are signs4 ,:at we see makes u say ,hullo1 !re's ,jones1 & ! fact t :at we see is a sign ( ,jones 7:i* is ! case because x is "o ( ! p>ticul>s t make up ,jones7 is m int]e/+ to u ?an ! actual p>ticul> itself4 ,h5ce we give ! "n ,jones to ! :ole set ( p>ticul>s1 b d n tr\ble to give sep>ate names to ! sep>ate p>ticul>s t make up ! set4 ,pass+ on f prop] names1 we come next to g5]al names1 su* z man1 cat1 triangle4 ,a ^w su* z man means a :ole class ( su* collections ( p>ticul>s z h prop] names4 ,! sev]al memb]s ( ! class are assembl$ toge!r 9 virtue ( "s simil>ity or common prop]ty4 ,all m5 resemble ea* o!r 9 c]ta9 important respects2 h5ce we want a ^w :i* %all be equally applicable to all ( !m4 ,we only give prop] names to ! individuals ( a species :5 !y diff] int] se 9 practically important respects4 ,9 o!r cases we d n d ?is4 ,a pok]1 = in/ance1 is j a pok]2 we d n call "o ,john & ano!r ,pet]4 ,!re is a l>ge class ( words1 su* z eat+1 walk+1 speak+1 :i* mean a set ( simil> occurr5ces4 ,two in/ances ( walk+ h ! same "n because !y resemble ea* o!r1 :]eas two in/ances ( ,jones h ! same "n because !y are causally connect$4 ,9 practice1 h[ev]1 x is difficult to make any precise di/9ction betwe5 a ^w su* z walk+ & a g5]al "n su* z man4 ,"o in/ance ( walk+ _c be conc5trat$ into an in/ant3 x is a process 9 "t1 9 :i* !re is a causal connection betwe5 ! e>li] & lat] p>ts1 z betwe5 ! e>li] & lat] p>ts ( ,jones4 ,?us an in/ance ( walk+ diff]s f an in/ance ( man solely by ! fact t x has a %ort] life4 ,!re is a notion t an in/ance ( walk+1 z comp>$ ) ,jones1 is unsub/antial1 b ?is seems to be a mi/ake4 ,we ?9k t ,jones walks1 & t !re c\ld n be any walk+ unless !re 7 somebody l ,jones to p]=m ! walk+4 ,b x is equally true t !re c\ld be no ,jones unless !re 7 some?+ l walk+ = him to d4 ,! notion t actions are p]=m$ by an ag5t is liable to ! same k9d ( criticism z ! notion t ?9k+ ne$s a subject or ego1 :i* we reject$ 9 ,lecture ,i4 ,to say t x is ,jones :o is walk+ is m]ely to say t ! walk+ 9 "q is "p ( ! :ole s]ies ( occurr5ces :i* is ,jones4 ,!re is no ,,logical impossibility 9 walk+ occurr+ z an isolat$ ph5om5on1 n =m+ "p ( any su* s]ies z we call a p]son4 ,we may !re=e class ) eat+1 walk+1 speak+ words su* z ra91 sunrise1 lightn+1 :i* d n d5ote :at w\ld commonly be call$ actions4 ,^! words illu/rate1 incid5tally1 h[ little we c tru/ to ! grammatical di/9ction ( p>ts ( spee*1 s9ce ! sub/antive ra9 & ! v]b to ra9 d5ote precisely ! same class ( meteorological occurr5ces4 ,! di/9ction betwe5 ! class ( objects d5ot$ by su* a ^w & ! class ( objects d5ot$ by a g5]al "n su* z man1 vegetable1 or planet1 is t ! sort ( object :i* is an in/ance ( 7say7 lightn+ is mu* simpl] ?an 7say7 an individual man4 7,i am speak+ ( lightn+ z a s5sible ph5om5on1 n z x is describ$ 9 physics47 ,! di/9ction is "o ( degree1 n ( k9d4 ,b !re is1 f ! po9t ( view ( ord9>y ?\ght1 a great diff]5ce betwe5 a process :i*1 l a fla% ( lightn+1 c be :olly compris$ )9 "o speci\s pres5t & a process :i*1 l ! life ( a man1 has to be piec$ toge!r by obs]vation & memory & ! appreh5sion ( causal connections4 ,we may say broadly1 !re=e1 t a ^w ( ! k9d we h be5 discuss+ d5otes a set ( simil> occurr5ces1 ea* 7z a rule7 mu* m brief & less complex ?an a p]son or ?+4 ,words !mselves1 z we h se51 are sets ( simil> occurr5ces ( ?is k9d4 ,?us !re is m logical aff9ity betwe5 a ^w & :at x means 9 ! case ( words ( our pres5t sort ?an 9 any o!r case4 ,!re is no v great diff]5ce betwe5 su* words z we h j be5 consid]+ & words d5ot+ qualities1 su* z :ite or r\nd4 ,! *ief diff]5ce is t words ( ?is latt] sort d n d5ote processes1 h[ev] brief1 b /atic features ( ! _w4 ,sn[ falls1 & is :ite2 ! fall+ is a process1 ! :it5ess is n4 ,:e!r !re is a univ]sal1 call$ :it5ess1 or :e!r :ite ?+s are to be def9$ z ^? hav+ a c]ta9 k9d ( simil>ity to a /&>d ?+1 say fre%ly fall5 sn[1 is a "q :i* ne$ n conc]n u1 & :i* ,i believe to be /rictly insoluble4 ,= our purposes1 we may take ! ^w :ite z d5ot+ a c]ta9 set ( simil> p>ticul>s or collections ( p>ticul>s1 ! simil>ity be+ 9 respect ( a /atic quality1 n ( a process4 ,f ! logical po9t ( view1 a v important class ( words are ^? t express relations1 su* z 91 above1 be=e1 great]1 & s on4 ,! mean+ ( "o ( ^! words diff]s v fundam5tally f ! mean+ ( "o ( any ( our previ\s classes1 be+ m ab/ract & logically simpl] ?an any ( !m4 ,if our bus9ess 7 logic1 we %\ld h to sp5d mu* "t on ^! words4 ,b z x is psy*ology t conc]ns u1 we w m]ely note _! special "* & pass on1 s9ce ! logical classification ( words is n our ma9 bus9ess4 ,we w consid] next ! "q :at is impli$ by say+ t a p]son und]/&s a ^w1 9 ! s5se 9 :i* "o und]/&s a ^w 9 "o's own language1 b n 9 a language ( :i* "o is ignorant4 ,we may say t a p]son und]/&s a ^w :5 7a7 suitable circum/ances make him use x1 7b7 ! he>+ ( x causes suitable behavi\r 9 him4 ,we may call ^! two active & passive und]/&+ respectively4 ,dogs (t5 h passive und]/&+ ( "s words1 b n active und]/&+1 s9ce !y _c use words4 ,x is n necess>y1 9 ord] t a man %\ld und]/& a ^w1 t he %\ld "k :at x means1 9 ! s5se ( be+ able to say ?is ^w means s-&-s4 ,und]/&+ words does n consi/ 9 kn[+ _! diction>y def9itions1 or 9 be+ able to specify ! objects to :i* !y are appropriate4 ,su* und]/&+ z ?is may belong to lexicograph]s & /ud5ts1 b n to ord9>y mortals 9 ord9>y life4 ,und]/&+ language is m l und]/&+ cricket993 x is a matt] ( habits1 acquir$ 9 oneself & rightly presum$ 9 o!rs4 ,to say t a ^w has a mean+ is n to say t ^? :o use ! ^w correctly h ev] ?\ght out :at ! mean+ is3 ! use ( ! ^w comes fir/1 & ! mean+ is to be di/ill$ out ( x by obs]vation & analysis4 ,moreov]1 ! mean+ ( a ^w is n absolutely def9ite3 !re is always a great] or less degree ( vagu5ess4 ,! mean+ is an area1 l a t>get3 x may h a bull's eye1 b ! outly+ p>ts ( ! t>get are /ill m or less )9 ! mean+1 9 a gradually dim9i%+ degree z we travel fur!r f ! bull's eye4 ,z language gr[s m precise1 !re is less & less ( ! t>get outside ! bull's eye1 & ! bull's eye itself gr[s small] & small]2 b ! bull's eye nev] %r9ks to a po9t1 & !re is always a d\btful region1 h[ev] small1 surr\nd+ x49999 99 ,?is po9t ( view1 ext5d$ to ! analysis ( ?\ght is urg$ ) great =ce by ,j4 ,b4 ,watson1 bo? 9 8 ,behavior1 & 9 ,psy*ology f ! ,/&po9t ( a ,behaviori/ 7,lipp9cott4 #aiai71 *ap4 ix4 9999 ,on ! und]/&+ ( words1 a v admirable little book is ,ribot's ,evolution ( ,g5]al ,ideas1 ,op5 ,c\rt ,co41 #ahii4 ,ribot says 7p4 #aca73 ,we le>n to und]/& a concept z we le>n to walk1 dance1 f5ce or play a musical in/rum5t3 x is a habit1 i4e4 an organiz$ memory4 ,g5]al t]ms cov] an organiz$1 lat5t k :i* is ! hidd5 capital )\t :i* we %\ld be 9 a /ate ( bankruptcy1 manipulat+ false money or pap] ( no value4 ,g5]al ideas are habits 9 ! intellectual ord]4 ,a ^w is us$ correctly :5 ! av]age he>] w be affect$ by x 9 ! way int5d$4 ,?is is a psy*ological1 n a lit]>y1 def9ition ( correctness4 ,! lit]>y def9ition w\ld sub/itute1 = ! av]age he>]1 a p]son ( high education liv+ a long "t ago2 ! purpose ( ?is def9ition is to make x difficult to speak or write correctly4 ,! relation ( a ^w to its mean+ is ( ! nature ( a causal law gov]n+ our use ( ! ^w & our actions :5 we he> x us$4 ,!re is no m reason :y a p]son :o uses a ^w correctly %\ld be able to tell :at x means ?an !re is :y a planet :i* is mov+ correctly %\ld "k ,kepl]'s laws4 ,to illu/rate :at is meant by und]/&+ words & s5t5ces1 let u take in/ances ( v>i\s situations4 ,suppose y are walk+ 9 ,london ) an abs5t-m9d$ fri5d1 & :ile cross+ a /reet y say1 ,look out1 !re's a motor com+4 ,he w glance r\nd & jump aside )\t ! ne$ ( any m5tal int]m$i>y4 ,!re ne$ be no ideas1 b only a /iff5+ ( ! muscles1 foll[$ quickly by action4 ,he und]/&s ! words1 because he does ! "r ?+4 ,su* und]/&+ may be tak5 to belong to ! n]ves & bra91 be+ habits :i* !y h acquir$ :ile ! language 0 be+ le>nt4 ,?us und]/&+ 9 ?is s5se may be r$uc$ to m]e physiological causal laws4 ,if y say ! same ?+ to a ,fr5*man ) a slight k ( ,engli% he w g ?r\gh "s inn] spee* :i* may be repres5t$ by ,que dit-il8 ,ah1 oui1 une automobile6 ,aft] ?is1 ! re/ foll[s z ) ! ,engli%man4 ,watson w\ld cont5d t ! inn] spee* mu/ be incipi5tly pron\nc$2 we %\ld argue t x ,,might be m]ely imag$4 ,b ?is po9t is n important 9 ! pres5t connection4 ,if y say ! same ?+ to a *ild :o does n yet "k ! ^w motor1 b does "k ! o!r words y are us+1 y produce a feel+ ( anxiety & d\bt y w h to po9t & say1 ,!re1 t's a motor4 ,aft] t ! *ild w r\ghly und]/& ! ^w motor1 ?\gh he may include tra9s & /eam-roll]s ,if ?is is ! fir/ "t ! *ild has he>d ! ^w motor1 he may = a long "t cont9ue to recall ?is sc5e :5 he he>s ! ^w4 ,s f> we h f\nd f\r ways ( und]/&+ words3 7#a7 ,on suitable occasions y use ! ^w prop]ly4 7#b7 ,:5 y he> x y act appropriately4 7#c7 ,y associate ! ^w ) ano!r ^w 7say 9 a diff]5t language7 :i* has ! appropriate effect on behavi\r4 7#d7 ,:5 ! ^w is be+ fir/ le>nt1 y may associate x ) an object1 :i* is :at x means1 or a repres5tative ( v>i\s objects t x means4 ,9 ! f\r? case1 ! ^w acquires1 ?r\gh association1 "s ( ! same causal efficacy z ! object4 ,! ^w motor c make y leap aside1 j z ! motor c1 b x _c break y\r bones4 ,! effects :i* a ^w c %>e ) its object are ^? :i* proce$ accord+ to laws o!r ?an ! g5]al laws ( physics1 i4e4 ^? :i*1 accord+ to our t]m9ology1 involve vital movem5ts z oppos$ to m]ely me*anical movem5ts4 ,! effects ( a ^w t we und]/& are always mnemic ph5om5a 9 ! s5se expla9$ 9 ,lecture ,,iv1 9 s f> z !y are id5tical )1 or simil> to1 ! effects :i* ! object itself might h4 ,s f>1 all ! uses ( words t we h consid]$ c be acc\nt$ = on ! l9es ( behavi\rism4 ,b s f> we h only consid]$ :at may be call$ ! demon/rative use ( language1 to po9t out "s feature 9 ! pres5t environm5t4 ,?is is only "o ( ! ways 9 :i* language may be us$4 ,!re are also its n>rative & imag9ative uses1 z 9 hi/ory & novels4 ,let u take z an in/ance ! tell+ ( "s rememb]$ ev5t4 ,we spoke a mom5t ago ( a *ild :o he>s ! ^w motor = ! fir/ "t :5 cross+ a /reet along :i* a motor-c> is approa*+4 ,on a lat] occasion1 we w suppose1 ! *ild rememb]s ! incid5t & relates x to someone else4 ,9 ?is case1 bo? ! active & passive und]/&+ ( words is diff]5t f :at x is :5 words are us$ demon/ratively4 ,! *ild is n see+ a motor1 b only rememb]+ "o2 ! he>] does n look r\nd 9 expectation ( see+ a motor com+1 b und]/&s t a motor came at "s e>li] "t4 ,! :ole ( ?is occurr5ce is mu* m difficult to acc\nt = on behavi\ri/ l9es4 ,x is cle> t1 9 s f> z ! *ild is g5u9ely rememb]+1 he has a picture ( ! pa/ occurr5ce1 & 8 words are *os5 s z to describe ! picture2 & 9 s f> z ! he>] is g5u9ely appreh5d+ :at is said1 ! he>] is acquir+ a picture m or less l t ( ! *ild4 ,x is true t ?is process may be telescop$ ?r\gh ! op]ation ( ! ^w-habit4 ,! *ild may n g5u9ely rememb] ! incid5t1 b only h ! habit ( ! appropriate words1 z 9 ! case ( a poem :i* we "k by he>t1 ?\gh we _c rememb] le>n+ x4 ,& ! he>] also may only pay att5tion to ! words1 & n call up any correspond+ picture4 ,b x is1 nev]!less1 ! possibility ( a memory-image 9 ! *ild & an imag9ation-image 9 ! he>] t makes ! ess5ce ( ! n>rative mean+ ( ! words4 ,9 s f> z ?is is abs5t1 ! words are m]e c\nt]s1 capable ( mean+1 b n at ! mom5t possess+ x4 ,yet ?is might p]haps be reg>d$ z some?+ ( an ov]/atem5t4 ,! words alone1 )\t ! use ( images1 may cause appropriate emotions & appropriate behavi\r4 ,! words h be5 us$ 9 an environm5t :i* produc$ c]ta9 emotions2 by a telescop$ process1 ! words alone are n[ capable ( produc+ simil> emotions4 ,on ^! l9es x might be s\ght to %[ t images are unnecess>y4 ,i d n believe1 h[ev]1 t we c\ld acc\nt on ^! l9es = ! entirely diff]5t response produc$ by a n>rative & by a description ( pres5t facts4 ,images1 z contra/$ ) s5sations1 are ! response expect$ dur+ a n>rative2 x is und]/ood t pres5t action is n call$ =4 ,?us x seems t we mu/ ma9ta9 our di/9ction words us$ demon/ratively describe & are int5d$ to lead to s5sations1 :ile ! same words us$ 9 n>rative describe & are only int5d$ to lead to images4 ,we h ?us1 9 addition to our f\r previ\s ways 9 :i* words c mean1 two new ways1 namely ! way ( memory & ! way ( imag9ation4 ,t is to say3 7#e7 ,words may be us$ to describe or recall a memory-image3 to describe x :5 x already exi/s1 or to recall x :5 ! words exi/ z a habit & are kn[n to be descriptive ( "s pa/ exp]i5ce4 7#f7 ,words may be us$ to describe or create an imag9ation-image3 to describe x1 = example1 9 ! case ( a poet or noveli/1 or to create x 9 ! ord9>y case = giv+ in=mation-?\gh1 9 ! latt] case1 x is int5d$ t ! imag9ation-image1 :5 creat$1 %all be accompani$ by belief t some?+ ( ! sort occurr$4 ,^! two ways ( us+ words1 includ+ _! occurr5ce 9 inn] spee*1 may be spok5 ( toge!r z ! use ( words 9 ?9k+4 ,if we are "r1 ! use ( words 9 ?9k+ dep5ds1 at lea/ 9 its orig91 ^u images1 & _c be fully dealt ) on behavi\ri/ l9es4 ,& ?is is really ! mo/ ess5tial function ( words1 namely t1 orig9ally ?r\gh _! connection ) images1 !y br+ u into t\* ) :at is remote 9 "t or space4 ,:5 !y op]ate )\t ! m$ium ( images1 ?is seems to be a telescop$ process4 ,?us ! problem ( ! mean+ ( words is br\ght into connection ) ! problem ( ! mean+ ( images4 ,to und]/& ! function t words p]=m 9 :at is call$ ?9k+1 we mu/ und]/& bo? ! causes & ! effects ( _! occurr5ce4 ,! causes ( ! occurr5ce ( words require some:at diff]5t treatm5t accord+ z ! object designat$ by ! ^w is s5sibly pres5t or abs5t4 ,:5 ! object is pres5t1 x may itself be tak5 z ! cause ( ! ^w1 ?r\gh association4 ,b :5 x is abs5t !re is m difficulty 9 obta9+ a behavi\ri/ !ory ( ! occurr5ce ( ! ^w4 ,! language-habit consi/s n m]ely 9 ! use ( words demon/ratively1 b also 9 _! use to express n>rative or desire4 ,pr(essor ,watson1 9 8 acc\nt ( ! acquisition ( ! language-habit1 pays v little att5tion to ! use ( words 9 n>rative & desire4 ,he says 7,behavior1 pp4 #cbi-ccj73 ,! /imulus 7object7 to :i* ! *ild (t5 responds1 a box1 e4g4 by movem5ts su* z op5+ & clos+ & putt+ objects into x1 may s]ve to illu/rate our argum5t4 ,! nurse1 obs]v+ t ! *ild reacts ) 8 h&s1 feet1 etc41 to ! box1 beg9s to say 'box' :5 ! *ild is h&$ ! box1 'op5 box' :5 ! *ild op5s x1 'close box' :5 he closes x1 & 'put doll 9 box' :5 t act is execut$4 ,?is is repeat$ ov] & ov] aga94 ,9 ! process ( "t x comes ab\t t )\t any o!r /imulus ?an t ( ! box :i* orig9ally call$ out ! bodily habits1 he beg9s to say 'box' :5 he sees x1 'op5 box' :5 he op5s x1 etc4 ,! visible box n[ becomes a /imulus capable ( releas+ ei!r ! bodily habits or ! ^w-habit1 i4e4 developm5t has br\ght ab\t two ?+s3 7#a7 a s]ies ( functional connections among arcs :i* run f visual receptor to muscles ( ?roat1 & 7#b7 a s]ies ( already e>li] connect$ arcs :i* run f ! same receptor to ! bodily muscles4444 ,! object meets ! *ild's vision4 ,he runs to x & tries to rea* x & says 'box4'444 ,f9ally ! ^w is utt]$ )\t ! movem5t ( go+ t[>ds ! box be+ execut$4444 ,habits are =m$ ( go+ to ! box :5 ! arms are full ( toys4 ,! *ild has be5 taught to deposit !m !re4 ,:5 8 arms are lad5 ) toys & no box is !re1 ! ^w-habit arises & he calls 'box'2 x is h&$ to him1 & he op5s x & deposits ! toys !re94 ,?is r\ghly m>ks :at we w\ld call ! g5esis ( a true language-habit47pp4 #cbi-ccj7499 99 ,j ! same acc\nt ( language is giv5 9 ,pr(essor ,watson's m rec5t book 7ref]5ce above74 ,we ne$ n l+] ov] :at is said 9 ! above passage z to ! use ( ! ^w box 9 ! pres5ce ( ! box4 ,b z to its use 9 ! abs5ce ( ! box1 !re is only "o brief s5t5ce1 namely3 ,:5 8 arms are lad5 ) toys & no box is !re1 ! ^w-habit arises & he calls 'box4' ,?is is inadequate z x /&s1 s9ce ! habit has be5 to use ! ^w :5 ! box is pres5t1 & we h to expla9 its ext5sion to cases 9 :i* ! box is abs5t4 ,hav+ admitt$ images1 we may say t ! ^w box1 9 ! abs5ce ( ! box1 is caus$ by an image ( ! box4 ,?is may or may n be true--9 fact1 x is true 9 "s cases b n 9 o!rs4 ,ev51 h[ev]1 if x 7 true 9 all cases1 x w\ld only slightly %ift our problem3 we %\ld n[ h to ask :at causes an image ( ! box to arise4 ,we might be incl9$ to say t desire = ! box is ! cause4 ,b :5 ?is view is inve/igat$1 x is f\nd t x compels u to suppose t ! box c be desir$ )\t ! *ild's hav+ ei!r an image ( ! box or ! ^w box4 ,?is w require a !ory ( desire :i* may be1 & ,i ?9k is1 9 ! ma9 true1 b :i* removes desire f among ?+s t actually occur1 & makes x m]ely a conv5i5t fiction1 l =ce 9 me*anics499 ,) su* a view1 desire is no long] a true cause1 b m]ely a %ort way ( describ+ c]ta9 processes4 99 ,see ,lecture ,,iii1 above4 ,9 ord] to expla9 ! occurr5ce ( ei!r ! ^w or ! image 9 ! abs5ce ( ! box1 we h to assume t !re is some?+1 ei!r 9 ! environm5t or 9 our own s5sations1 :i* has frequ5tly occurr$ at ab\t ! same "t z ! ^w box4 ,"o ( ! laws :i* di/+ui% psy*ology 7or n]ve-physiology87 f physics is ! law t1 :5 two ?+s h frequ5tly exi/$ 9 close temporal contiguity1 ei!r comes 9 "t to cause ! o!r499 ,?is is ! basis bo? ( habit & ( association4 ,?us1 9 our case1 ! arms full ( toys h frequ5tly be5 foll[$ quickly by ! box1 & ! box 9 turn by ! ^w box4 ,! box itself is subject to physical laws1 & does n t5d to be caus$ by ! arms full ( toys1 h[ev] (t5 x may 9 ! pa/ h foll[$ !m--always provid$ t1 9 ! case 9 "q1 its physical position is su* t volunt>y movem5ts _c lead to x4 ,b ! ^w box & ! image ( ! box are subject to ! law ( habit2 h5ce x is possible = ei!r to be caus$ by ! arms full ( toys4 ,& we may lay x d[n g5]ally t1 :5ev] we use a ^w1 ei!r al\d or 9 inn] spee*1 !re is "s s5sation or image 7ei!r ( :i* may be itself a ^w7 :i* has frequ5tly occurr$ at ab\t ! same "t z ! ^w1 & n[1 ?r\gh habit1 causes ! ^w4 ,x foll[s t ! law ( habit is adequate to acc\nt = ! use ( words 9 ! abs5ce ( _! objects2 moreov]1 x w\ld be adequate ev5 )\t introduc+ images4 ,al?\gh1 !re=e1 images seem und5iable1 we _c d]ive an additional argum5t 9 _! fav\r f ! use ( words1 :i* c\ld1 !oretically1 be expla9$ )\t introduc+ images4 99,= a m exact /atem5t ( ?is law1 ) ! limitations sugge/$ by exp]im5t1 see ,a4 ,wohlgemu?1 ,on ,memory & ! ,direction ( ,associations1 ,briti% ,j\rnal ( ,psy*ology1 vol4 v1 "p iv 7,m>*1 #aiac74 ,:5 we und]/& a ^w1 !re is a reciprocal association betwe5 x & ! images ( :at x means4 ,images may cause u to use words :i* mean !m1 & ^! words1 he>d or read1 may 9 turn cause ! appropriate images4 ,?us spee* is a means ( produc+ 9 our he>]s ! images :i* are 9 u4 ,also1 by a telescop$ process1 words come 9 "t to produce directly ! effects :i* w\ld h be5 produc$ by ! images ) :i* !y 7 associat$4 ,! g5]al law ( telescop$ processes is t1 if ,a causes ,b & ,b causes ,c1 x w happ5 9 "t t ,a w cause ,c directly1 )\t ! int]m$i>y ( ,b4 ,?is is a *>act]i/ic ( psy*ological & neural causation4 ,9 virtue ( ?is law1 ! effects ( images ^u our actions come to be produc$ by words1 ev5 :5 ! words d n call up appropriate images4 ,! m famili> we are ) words1 ! m our ?9k+ goes on 9 words in/ead ( images4 ,we may1 = example1 be able to describe a p]son's appe>ance correctly )\t hav+ at any "t _h any image ( him1 provid$1 :5 we saw him1 we ?\ght ( words :i* fitt$ him2 ! words alone may rema9 ) u z a habit1 & enable u to speak z if we c\ld recall a visual image ( ! man4 ,9 ?is & o!r ways ! und]/&+ ( a ^w (t5 comes to be q free f imag]y2 b 9 fir/ le>n+ ! use ( language x w\ld seem t imag]y always plays a v important "p4 ,images z well z words may be said to h mean+2 inde$1 ! mean+ ( images seems m primitive ?an ! mean+ ( words4 ,:at we call 7say7 an image ( ,/4 ,paul's may be said to mean ,/4 ,paul's4 ,b x is n at all easy to say exactly :at con/itutes ! mean+ ( an image4 ,a memory-image ( a p>ticul> occurr5ce1 :5 accompani$ by a memory-belief1 may be said to mean ! occurr5ce ( :i* x is an image4 ,b mo/ actual images d n h ?is degree ( def9it5ess4 ,if we call up an image ( a dog1 we are v likely to h a vague image1 :i* is n repres5tative ( "s "o special dog1 b ( dogs 9 g5]al4 ,:5 we call up an image ( a fri5d's face1 we are n likely to reproduce ! expression he _h on "s "o p>ticul> occasion1 b r a compromise expression d]iv$ f _m occasions4 ,& !re is h>dly any limit to ! vagu5ess ( :i* images are capable4 ,9 su* cases1 ! mean+ ( ! image1 if def9$ by relation to ! prototype1 is vague3 !re is n "o def9ite prototype1 b a numb]1 none ( :i* is copi$ exactly499 99 ,cf4 ,semon1 ,mnemis*e ,empf9dung51 *ap4 xvi1 especially pp4 #cja-cjh4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 ano!r way ( approa*+ ! mean+ ( images1 namely ?r\gh _! causal efficacy4 ,:at is call$ an image ( "s def9ite object1 say ,/4 ,paul's1 has "s ( ! effects :i* ! object w\ld h4 ,?is applies especially to ! effects t dep5d ^u association4 ,! emotional effects1 also1 are (t5 simil>3 images may /imulate desire almo/ z /rongly z d ! objects !y repres5t4 ,& conv]sely desire may cause images993 a hungry man w h images ( food1 & s on4 ,9 all ^! ways ! causal laws conc]n+ images are connect$ ) ! causal laws conc]n+ ! objects :i* ! images mean4 ,an image may ?us come to fulfil ! function ( a g5]al idea4 ,! vague image ( a dog1 :i* we spoke ( a mom5t ago1 w h effects :i* are only connect$ ) dogs 9 g5]al1 n ! m special effects :i* w\ld be produc$ by "s dogs b n by o!rs4 ,b]keley & ,hume1 9 _! attack on g5]al ideas1 d n all[ = ! vagu5ess ( images3 !y assume t e image has ! def9it5ess t a physical object w\ld h ,?is is n ! case1 & a vague image may well h a mean+ :i* is g5]al4 99 ,?is phrase is 9 ne$ ( int]pretation1 z appe>s f ! analysis ( desire4 ,b ! read] c easily supply ! int]pretation = himself4 ,9 ord] to def9e ! mean+ ( an image1 we h to take acc\nt bo? ( its resemblance to "o or m prototypes1 & ( its causal efficacy4 ,if !re 7 su* a ?+ z a pure imag9ation-image1 )\t any prototype :atev]1 x w\ld be de/itute ( mean+4 ,b accord+ to ,hume's pr9ciple1 ! simple elem5ts 9 an image1 at lea/1 are d]iv$ f prototypes-except possibly 9 v r>e exceptional cases4 ,(t51 9 su* in/ances z our image ( a fri5d's face or ( a nondescript dog1 an image is n d]iv$ f "o prototype1 b f _m2 :5 ?is happ5s1 ! image is vague1 & blurs ! features 9 :i* ! v>i\s prototypes diff]4 ,to arrive at ! mean+ ( ! image 9 su* a case1 we obs]ve t !re are c]ta9 respects1 notably associations1 9 :i* ! effects ( images resemble ^? ( _! prototypes4 ,if we f9d1 9 a giv5 case1 t our vague image1 say1 ( a nondescript dog1 has ^? associative effects :i* all dogs w\ld h1 b n ^? belong+ to any special dog or k9d ( dog1 we may say t our image means dog 9 g5]al4 ,if x has all ! associations appropriate to spaniels b no o!rs1 we %all say x means spaniel2 :ile if x has all ! associations appropriate to "o p>ticul> dog1 x w mean t dog1 h[ev] vague x may be z a picture4 ,! mean+ ( an image1 accord+ to ?is analysis1 is con/itut$ by a comb9ation ( lik5ess & associations4 ,x is n a %>p or def9ite conception1 & 9 _m cases x w be impossible to decide ) any c]ta9ty :at an image means4 ,i ?9k ?is lies 9 ! nature ( ?+s1 & n 9 defective analysis4 ,we may give some:at m precision to ! above acc\nt ( ! mean+ ( images1 & ext5d x to mean+ 9 g5]al4 ,we f9d sometimes t1 ,,9 ,,mnemic ,,causation1 an image or ^w1 z /imulus1 has ! same effect 7or v ne>ly ! same effect7 z w\ld belong to "s object1 say1 a c]ta9 dog4 ,9 t case we say t ! image or ^w means t object4 ,9 o!r cases ! mnemic effects are n all ^? ( "o object1 b only ^? %>$ by objects ( a c]ta9 k9d1 e4g4 by all dogs4 ,9 ?is case ! mean+ ( ! image or ^w is g5]al3 x means ! :ole k9d4 ,g5]ality & p>ticul>ity are a matt] ( degree4 ,if two p>ticul>s diff] suffici5tly little1 _! mnemic effects w be ! same2 !re=e no image or ^w c mean ! "o z oppos$ to ! o!r2 ?is sets a b\nd to ! p>ticul>ity ( mean+4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! mnemic effects ( a numb] ( suffici5tly dissimil> objects w h no?+ discov]able 9 common2 h5ce a ^w :i* aims at complete g5]ality1 su* z entity = example1 w h to be devoid ( mnemic effects1 & !re=e ( mean+4 ,9 practice1 ?is is n ! case3 su* words h ,,v]bal associations1 ! le>n+ ( :i* con/itutes ! /udy ( metaphysics4 ,! mean+ ( a ^w1 unlike t ( an image1 is :olly con/itut$ by mnemic causal laws1 & n 9 any degree by lik5ess 7except 9 exceptional cases74 ,! ^w dog be>s no resemblance to a dog1 b its effects1 l ^? ( an image ( a dog1 resemble ! effects ( an actual dog 9 c]ta9 respects4 ,x is mu* easi] to say def9itely :at a ^w means ?an :at an image means1 s9ce words1 h[ev] !y orig9at$1 h be5 fram$ 9 lat] times = ! purpose ( hav+ mean+1 & m5 h be5 engag$ = ages 9 giv+ increas$ precision to ! mean+s ( words4 ,b al?\gh x is easi] to say :at a ^w means ?an :at an image means1 ! relation :i* con/itutes mean+ is mu* ! same 9 bo? cases4 ,a ^w1 l an image1 has ! same associations z its mean+ has4 ,9 addition to o!r associations1 x is associat$ ) images ( its mean+1 s t ! ^w t5ds to call up ! image & ! image t5ds to call up ! ^w41 ,b ?is association is n ess5tial to ! intellig5t use ( words4 ,if a ^w has ! "r associations ) o!r objects1 we %all be able to use x correctly1 & und]/& its use by o!rs1 ev5 if x evokes no image4 ,! !oretical und]/&+ ( words involves only ! p[] ( associat+ !m correctly ) o!r words2 ! practical und]/&+ involves associations ) o!r bodily movem5ts4 ,! use ( words is1 ( c\rse1 prim>ily social1 = ! purpose ( sugge/+ to o!rs ideas :i* we ent]ta9 or at lea/ wi% !m to ent]ta94 ,b ! aspect ( words t specially conc]ns u is _! p[] ( promot+ our own ?\ght4 ,almo/ all high] intellectual activity is a matt] ( words1 to ! ne>ly total exclusion ( ev]y?+ else4 ,! advantages ( words = purposes ( ?\ght are s great t ,i %\ld nev] end if ,i 7 to enum]ate !m4 ,b a few ( !m des]ve to be m5tion$4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 !re is no difficulty 9 produc+ a ^w1 :]eas an image _c always be br\ght into exi/5ce at w1 & :5 x comes x (t5 conta9s mu* irrelevant detail4 ,9 ! second place1 mu* ( our ?9k+ is conc]n$ ) ab/ract matt]s :i* d n readily l5d !mselves to imag]y1 & are apt to be falsely conceiv$ if we insi/ ^u f9d+ images t may be suppos$ to repres5t !m4 ,! ^w is always concrete & s5sible1 h[ev] ab/ract its mean+ may be1 & ?us by ! help ( words we are able to dwell on ab/ractions 9 a way :i* w\ld o!rwise be impossible4 ,9 ! ?ird place1 two in/ances ( ! same ^w are s simil> t nei!r has associations n capable ( be+ %>$ by ! o!r4 ,two in/ances ( ! ^w dog are mu* m alike ?an 7say7 a pug & a great dane2 h5ce ! ^w dog makes x mu* easi] to ?9k ab\t dogs 9 g5]al4 ,:5 a numb] ( objects h a common prop]ty :i* is important b n obvi\s1 ! inv5tion ( a "n = ! common prop]ty helps u to rememb] x & to ?9k ( ! :ole set ( objects t possess x4 ,b x is unnecess>y to prolong ! catalogue ( ! uses ( language 9 ?\ght4 ,at ! same "t1 x is possible to conduct rudim5t>y ?\ght by means ( images1 & x is important1 sometimes1 to *eck purely v]bal ?\ght by ref]5ce to :at x means4 ,9 philosophy especially ! tyranny ( traditional words is dang]\s1 & we h to be on our gu>d aga9/ assum+ t gramm> is ! key to metaphysics1 or t ! /ructure ( a s5t5ce corresponds at all accurately ) ! /ructure ( ! fact t x ass]ts4 ,sayce ma9ta9$ t all ,european philosophy s9ce ,ari/otle has be5 dom9at$ by ! fact t ! philosoph]s spoke ,indo-,european languages1 & !re=e suppos$ ! _w1 l ! s5t5ces !y 7 us$ to1 necess>ily divisible into subjects & pr$icates4 ,:5 we come to ! consid]ation ( tru? & falsehood1 we %all see h[ necess>y x is to avoid assum+ too close a p>allelism betwe5 facts & ! s5t5ces :i* ass]t !m4 ,aga9/ su* errors1 ! only safegu>d is to be able1 once 9 a way1 to disc>d words = a mom5t & contemplate facts m directly ?r\gh images4 ,mo/ s]i\s advances 9 philosophic ?\ght result f "s su* comp>atively direct contemplation ( facts4 ,b ! outcome has to be express$ 9 words if x is to be communicable4 ,^? :o h a relatively direct vision ( facts are (t5 incapable ( translat+ _! vision into words1 :ile ^? :o possess ! words h usually lo/ ! vision4 ,x is p>tly = ?is reason t ! highe/ philosophical capacity is s r>e3 x requires a comb9ation ( vision ) ab/ract words :i* is h>d to a*ieve1 & too quickly lo/ 9 ! few :o h = a mom5t a*iev$ x4 ,,lecture ,,xi4 ,,g5]al ,,ideas ,,& ,,?\ght ,x is said to be "o ( ! m]its ( ! human m9d t x is capable ( fram+ ab/ract ideas1 & ( conduct+ nons5sational ?\ght4 ,9 ?is x is suppos$ to diff] f ! m9d ( animals4 ,f ,plato onw>d ! idea has play$ a great "p 9 ! sy/ems ( idealiz+ philosoph]s4 ,! idea has be51 9 _! h&s1 always some?+ noble & ab/ract1 ! appreh5sion & use ( :i* by man conf]s ^u him a q special dignity4 ,! ?+ we h to consid] to-day is ?is3 see+ t !re c]ta9ly are words ( :i* ! mean+ is ab/ract1 & see+ t we c use ^! words intellig5tly1 :at mu/ be assum$ or inf]r$1 or :at c be discov]$ by obs]vation1 9 ! way ( m5tal cont5t to acc\nt = ! intellig5t use ( ab/ract words8 ,tak5 z a problem 9 logic1 ! answ] is1 ( c\rse1 t absolutely no?+ 9 ! way ( ab/ract m5tal cont5t is inf]able f ! m]e fact t we c use intellig5tly words ( :i* ! mean+ is ab/ract4 ,x is cle> t a suffici5tly +5i\s p]son c\ld manufacture a ma*9e mov$ by olfactory /imuli :i*1 :5ev] a dog appe>$ 9 its neighb\rhood1 w\ld say1 ,!re is a dog1 & :5 a cat appe>$ w\ld ?r[ /ones at x4 ,! act ( say+ ,!re is a dog1 & ! act ( ?r[+ /ones1 w\ld 9 su* a case be equally me*anical4 ,correct spee* does n ( itself af=d any bett] evid5ce ( m5tal cont5t ?an ! p]=mance ( any o!r set ( biologically useful movem5ts1 su* z ^? ( flight or combat4 ,all t is inf]able f language is t two in/ances ( a univ]sal1 ev5 :5 !y diff] v greatly1 may cause ! utt]ance ( two in/ances ( ! same ^w :i* only diff] v slightly4 ,z we saw 9 ! prec$+ lecture1 ! ^w dog is useful1 p>tly1 because two in/ances ( ?is ^w are mu* m simil> ?an 7say7 a pug & a great dane4 ,! use ( words is ?us a me?od ( sub/itut+ = two p>ticul>s :i* diff] widely1 9 spite ( be+ in/ances ( ! same univ]sal1 two o!r p>ticul>s :i* diff] v little1 & :i* are also in/ances ( a univ]sal1 namely ! "n ( ! previ\s univ]sal4 ,?us1 s f> z logic is conc]n$1 we are entirely free to adopt any !ory z to g5]al ideas :i* empirical obs]vation may recomm5d4 ,b]keley & ,hume made a vigor\s onslaught on ab/ract ideas4 ,!y meant by an idea approximately :at we %\ld call an image4 ,locke hav+ ma9ta9$ t he c\ld =m an idea ( triangle 9 g5]al1 )\t decid+ :at sort ( triangle x 0 to be1 ,b]keley cont5d$ t ?is 0 impossible4 ,he says3 ,:e!r o!rs1 h ?is wond]ful faculty ( ab/ract+ _! ideas1 !y be/ c tell3 = myself1 ,i d>e be confid5t ,i h x n4 ,i f9d1 inde$1 ,i h inde$ a faculty ( imag9+1 or repres5t+ to myself1 ! ideas ( ^? p>ticul> ?+s ,i h p]ceiv$1 & ( v>i\sly comp\nd+ & divid+ !m4 ,i c imag9e a man ) two heads1 or ! upp] p>ts ( a man jo9$ to ! body ( a horse4 ,i c consid] ! h&1 ! eye1 ! nose1 ea* by itself ab/ract$ or sep>at$ f ! re/ ( ! body4 ,b1 !n1 :atev] h& or eye ,i imag9e1 x mu/ h "s p>ticul> %ape & col\r4 ,likewise ! idea ( a man t ,i frame to myself mu/ be ei!r ( a :ite1 or a black1 or a tawny1 a /raight1 or a crook$1 a tall1 or a l[1 or a middle-siz$ man4 ,i _c by any ef=t ( ?\ght conceive ! ab/ract idea above describ$4 ,& x is equally impossible = me to =m ! ab/ract idea ( motion di/9ct f ! body mov+1 & :i* is nei!r swift nor sl[1 curvil9e> nor rectil9e>2 & ! l may be said ( all o!r ab/ract g5]al ideas :atsoev]4 ,to be pla91 ,i own myself able to ab/ract 9 "o s5se1 z :5 ,i consid] "s p>ticul> p>ts ( qualities sep>at$ f o!rs1 ) :i*1 ?\gh !y are unit$ 9 "s object1 yet x is possible !y may really exi/ )\t !m4 ,b ,i d5y t ,i c ab/ract f "o ano!r1 or conceive sep>ately1 ^? qualities :i* x is impossible %\ld exi/ s sep>at$2 or t ,i c frame a g5]al notion1 by ab/ract+ f p>ticul>s 9 ! mann] a=esaid--:i* la/ are ! two prop] acceptations ( ,,ab/raction4 ,& !re is gr\nd to ?9k mo/ m5 w ackn[l$ge !mselves to be 9 my case4 ,! g5]ality ( m5 :i* are simple & illit]ate nev] pret5d to ,,ab/ract ,,notions4 ,x is said !y are difficult & n to be atta9$ )\t pa9s & /udy2 we may !re=e reasonably conclude t1 if su* !re be1 !y are conf9$ only to ! le>n$4 ,i proce$ to exam9e :at c be alleg$ 9 def5ce ( ! doctr9e ( ab/raction1 & try if ,i c discov] :at x is t incl9es ! m5 ( speculation to embrace an op9ion s remote f common s5se z t seems to be4 ,!re has be5 a late excell5t & des]v$ly e/eem$ philosoph] :o1 no d\bt1 has giv5 x v mu* c\nt5ance1 by seem+ to ?9k ! hav+ ab/ract g5]al ideas is :at puts ! wide/ diff]5ce 9 po9t ( und]/&+ betwixt man & bea/4 ',! hav+ ( g5]al ideas1' sai? he1 'is t :i* puts a p]fect di/9ction betwixt man & brutes1 & is an excell5cy :i* ! faculties ( brutes d by no means atta9 unto4 ,=1 x is evid5t we obs]ve no foot/eps 9 !m ( mak+ use ( g5]al signs = univ]sal ideas2 f :i* we h reason to imag9e t !y h n ! faculty ( ab/ract+1 or mak+ g5]al ideas1 s9ce !y h no use ( words or any o!r g5]al signs4' ,& a little aft]3 ',!re=e1 ,i ?9k1 we may suppose t x is 9 ?is t ! species ( brutes are discrim9at$ f m51 & x is t prop] diff]5ce :]e9 !y are :olly sep>at$1 & :i* at la/ wid5s to s wide a di/ance4 ,=1 if !y h any ideas at all1 & are n b>e ma*9es 7z "s w\ld h !m71 we _c d5y !m to h "s reason4 ,x seems z evid5t to me t !y d1 "s ( !m1 9 c]ta9 in/ances reason z t !y h s5se2 b x is only 9 p>ticul> ideas1 j z !y receive !m f _! s5ses4 ,!y are ! be/ ( !m ti$ up )9 ^? n>r[ b\nds1 & h n 7z ,i ?9k7 ! faculty to enl>ge !m by any k9d ( ab/raction499 7,essay on ,human ,und]/&+1 ,bk4 ,,ii1 *ap4 xi1 p>agraphs #aj & #aa47 ,i readily agree ) ?is le>n$ au?or1 t ! faculties ( brutes c by no means atta9 to ab/raction4 ,b1 !n1 if ?is be made ! di/+ui%+ prop]ty ( t sort ( animals1 ,i fe> a great _m ( ^? t pass = m5 mu/ be reckon$ into _! numb]4 ,! reason t is "h assign$ :y we h no gr\nds to ?9k brutes h ab/ract g5]al ideas is1 t we obs]ve 9 !m no use ( words or any o!r g5]al signs2 :i* is built on ?is supposition-t ! mak+ use ( words implies ! hav+ g5]al ideas4 ,f :i* x foll[s t m5 :o use language are able to ab/ract or g5]alize _! ideas4 ,t ?is is ! s5se & argu+ ( ! au?or w fur!r appe> by 8 answ]+ ! "q he 9 ano!r place puts3 ',s9ce all ?+s t exi/ are only p>ticul>s1 h[ come we by g5]al t]ms8' ,8 answ] is3 ',words become g5]al by be+ made ! signs ( g5]al ideas4' 7,essay on ,human ,und]/&+1 ,bk4 ,,iii1 *ap4 ,,iii1 p>agraph #f47 ,b x seems t a ^w becomes g5]al by be+ made ! sign1 n ( an ab/ract g5]al idea1 b ( sev]al p>ticul> ideas1 any "o ( :i* x indiff]5tly sugge/s to ! m9d4 ,= example1 :5 x is said '! *ange ( motion is proportional to ! impress$ =ce1' or t ':atev] has ext5sion is divisible1' ^! propositions are to be und]/ood ( motion & ext5sion 9 g5]al2 & nev]!less x w n foll[ t !y sugge/ to my ?\ghts an idea ( motion )\t a body mov$1 or any det]m9ate direction & velocity1 or t ,i mu/ conceive an ab/ract g5]al idea ( ext5sion1 :i* is nei!r l9e1 surface1 nor solid1 nei!r great nor small1 black1 :ite1 nor r$1 nor ( any o!r det]m9ate col\r4 ,x is only impli$ t :atev] p>ticul> motion ,i consid]1 :e!r x be swift or sl[1 p]p5dicul>1 horizontal1 or oblique1 or 9 :atev] object1 ! axiom conc]n+ x holds equally true4 ,z does ! o!r ( e p>ticul> ext5sion1 x matt]s n :e!r l9e1 surface1 or solid1 :e!r ( ?is or t magnitude or figure4 ,by obs]v+ h[ ideas become g5]al1 we may ! bett] judge h[ words are made s4 ,& "h x is to be not$ t ,i d n d5y absolutely !re are g5]al ideas1 b only t !re are any ,,ab/ract g5]al ideas2 =1 9 ! passages we h quot$ :]e9 !re is m5tion ( g5]al ideas1 x is always suppos$ t !y are =m$ by ab/raction1 aft] ! mann] set =? 9 sections #h & #i4 ,n[1 if we w annex a mean+ to our words1 & speak only ( :at we c conceive1 ,i believe we %all ackn[l$ge t an idea :i*1 consid]$ 9 itself1 is p>ticul>1 becomes g5]al by be+ made to repres5t or /& = all o!r p>ticul> ideas ( ! same sort4 ,to make ?is pla9 by an example1 suppose a geometrician is demon/rat+ ! me?od ( cutt+ a l9e 9 two equal p>ts4 ,he draws1 = in/ance1 a black l9e ( an in* 9 l5g?3 ?is1 :i* 9 itself is a p>ticul> l9e1 is nev]!less ) reg>d to its signification g5]al1 s9ce1 z x is !re us$1 x repres5ts all p>ticul> l9es :atsoev]2 s t :at is demon/rat$ ( x is demon/rat$ ( all l9es1 or1 9 o!r words1 ( a l9e 9 g5]al4 ,&1 z ,,t ,,p>ticul> ,,l9e becomes g5]al by be+ made a sign1 s ! ,,"n 'l9e1' :i* tak5 absolutely is p>ticul>1 by be+ a sign is made g5]al4 ,& z ! =m] owes its g5]ality n to its be+ ! sign ( an ab/ract or g5]al l9e1 b ( all p>ticul> "r l9es t may possibly exi/1 s ! latt] mu/ be ?\ght to d]ive its g5]ality f ! same cause1 namely1 ! v>i\s p>ticul> l9es :i* x indiff]5tly d5otes4 99 99 ,introduction to ,a ,treatise conc]n+ ! ,pr9ciples ( ,human ,k1 p>agraphs #aj1 #aa1 & #ab4 ,b]keley's view 9 ! above passage1 :i* is ess5tially ! same z ,hume's1 does n :olly agree ) mod]n psy*ology1 al?\gh x comes ne>] to agreem5t ?an does ! view ( ^? :o believe t !re are 9 ! m9d s+le cont5ts :i* c be call$ ab/ract ideas4 ,! way 9 :i* ,b]keley's view is inadequate is *iefly 9 ! fact t images are z a rule n ( "o def9ite prototype1 b ( a numb] ( relat$ simil> prototypes4 ,on ?is subject ,semon has writt5 well4 ,9 ,die ,mneme1 pp4 #bag ff41 discuss+ ! effect ( repeat$ simil> /imuli 9 produc+ & modify+ our images1 he says3 ,we *oose a case ( mnemic excitem5t ^: exi/5ce we c p]ceive = ourselves by introspection1 & seek to ekphore ! bodily picture ( our ne>e/ relation 9 8 abs5ce1 & h ?us a pure mnemic excitem5t be=e u4 ,at fir/ x may seem to u t a det]m9ate q concrete picture becomes manife/ 9 u1 b j :5 we are conc]n$ ) a p]son ) :om we are 9 con/ant contact1 we %all f9d t ! ekphor$ picture has some?+ s to speak g5]aliz$4 ,x is some?+ l ^? ,am]ican photographs :i* seek to display :at is g5]al ab\t a type by comb9+ a great numb] ( photographs ( diff]5t heads ov] ea* o!r on "o plate4 ,9 our op9ion1 ! g5]alizations happ5 by ! homophonic work+ ( diff]5t pictures ( ! same face :i* we h come across 9 ! mo/ diff]5t conditions & situations1 once pale1 once r$d5$1 once *e]ful1 once e>ne/1 once 9 ?is light1 & once 9 t4 ,z soon z we d n let ! :ole s]ies ( repetitions res\nd 9 u uni=mly1 b give our att5tion to "o p>ticul> mom5t out ( ! _m444 ?is p>ticul> mnemic /imulus at once ov]balances its simultane\sly r\s$ pr$ecessors & successors1 & we p]ceive ! face 9 "q ) concrete def9it5ess 9 t p>ticul> situation4 ,a little lat] he says3 ,! result is--at lea/ 9 man1 b probably also 9 ! high] animals--! developm5t ( a sort ( ,,physiological ab/raction4 ,mnemic homophony gives u1 )\t ! addition ( o!r processes ( ?\ght1 a picture ( our fri5d ,x :i* is 9 a c]ta9 s5se ab/ract1 n ! concrete 9 any "o situation1 b ,x cut loose f any p>ticul> po9t ( "t4 ,if ! circle ( ekphor$ engrams is drawn ev5 m widely1 ab/ract pictures ( a high] ord] appe>3 = in/ance1 a :ite man or a negro4 ,9 my op9ion1 ! fir/ =m ( ab/ract concepts 9 g5]al is bas$ ^u su* ab/ract pictures4 ,! physiological ab/raction :i* takes place 9 ! above describ$ mann] is a pr$ecessor ( purely logical ab/raction4 ,x is by no means a monopoly ( ! human race1 b %[s itself 9 v>i\s ways also among ! m highly organiz$ animals4 ,! same subject is treat$ 9 m detail 9 ,*apt] xvi ( ,die mnemis*5 ,empf9dung51 b :at is said !re adds no?+ vital to :at is conta9$ 9 ! above quotations4 ,x is necess>y1 h[ev]1 to di/+ui% betwe5 ! vague & ! g5]al4 ,s long z we are cont5t ) ,semon's composite image1 we ,,may get no f>!r ?an ! vague4 ,! "q :e!r ?is image takes u to ! g5]al or n dep5ds1 ,i ?9k1 ^u ! "q :e!r1 9 addition to ! g5]aliz$ image1 we h also p>ticul> images ( "s ( ! in/ances out ( :i* x is comp\nd$4 ,suppose1 = example1 t on a numb] ( occasions y _h se5 "o negro1 & t y did n "k :e!r ?is "o 0 ! same or diff]5t on ! diff]5t occasions4 ,suppose t 9 ! end y _h an ab/ract memory-image ( ! diff]5t appe>ances pres5t$ by ! negro on diff]5t occasions1 b no memory-image ( any "o ( ! s+le appe>ances4 ,9 t case y\r image w\ld be vague4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 y h1 9 addition to ! g5]aliz$ image1 p>ticul> images ( ! sev]al appe>ances1 suffici5tly cle> to be recogniz$ z diff]5t1 & z in/ances ( ! g5]aliz$ picture1 y w !n n feel ! g5]aliz$ picture to be adequate to any "o p>ticul> appe>ance1 & y w be able to make x function z a g5]al idea r ?an a vague idea4 ,if ?is view is correct1 no new g5]al cont5t ne$s to be add$ to ! g5]aliz$ image4 ,:at ne$s to be add$ is p>ticul> images comp>$ & contra/$ ) ! g5]aliz$ image4 ,s f> z ,i c judge by introspection1 ?is does occur 9 practice4 ,take = example ,semon's in/ance ( a fri5d's face4 ,unless we make "s special ef=t ( recollection1 ! face is likely to come be=e u ) an av]age expression1 v blurr$ & vague1 b we c at w recall h[ our fri5d look$ on "s special occasion :5 he 0 pleas$ or angry or unhappy1 & ?is enables u to realize ! g5]aliz$ "* ( ! vague image4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 ano!r way ( di/+ui%+ betwe5 ! vague1 ! p>ticul> & ! g5]al1 & ?is is n by _! cont5t1 b by ! reaction :i* !y produce4 ,a ^w1 = example1 may be said to be vague :5 x is applicable to a numb] ( diff]5t individuals1 b to ea* z individuals2 ! "n ,smi?1 = example1 is vague3 x is always meant to apply to "o man1 b !re are _m m5 to ea* ( :om x applies499 ,! ^w man1 on ! o!r h&1 is g5]al4 ,we say1 ,?is is ,smi?1 b we d n say ,?is is man1 b ,?is is a man4 ,?us we may say t a ^w embodies a vague idea :5 its effects are appropriate to an individual1 b are ! same = v>i\s simil> individuals1 :ile a ^w embodies a g5]al idea :5 its effects are diff]5t f ^? appropriate to individuals4 ,9 :at ?is diff]5ce consi/s x is1 h[ev]1 n easy to say4 ,i am incl9$ to ?9k t x consi/s m]ely 9 ! k t no "o individual is repres5t$1 s t :at di/+ui%es a g5]al idea f a vague idea is m]ely ! pres5ce ( a c]ta9 accompany+ belief4 ,if ?is view is correct1 a g5]al idea diff]s f a vague "o 9 a way analog\s to t 9 :i* a memory-image diff]s f an imag9ation-image4 ,!re also we f\nd t ! diff]5ce consi/s m]ely ( ! fact t a memory-image is accompani$ by a belief1 9 ?is case z to ! pa/4 99 ,smi? w\ld only be a q satisfactory repres5tation ( vague words if we fail$ to discrim9ate betwe5 diff]5t p call$ ,smi?4 ,x %\ld also be said t our images ev5 ( q p>ticul> occurr5ces h always a great] or a less degree ( vagu5ess4 ,t is to say1 ! occurr5ce might h v>i$ )9 c]ta9 limits )\t caus+ our image to v>y recognizably4 ,to arrive at ! g5]al x is necess>y t we %\ld be able to contra/ x ) a numb] ( relatively precise images or words = p>ticul> occurr5ces2 s long z all our images & words are vague1 we _c arrive at ! contra/ by :i* ! g5]al is def9$4 ,?is is ! ju/ification = ! view :i* ,i quot$ on p4 #ahd f ,ribot 7op4 cit41 p4 #cb71 viz4 t intellig5ce progresses f ! indef9ite to ! def9ite1 & t ! vague appe>s e>li] ?an ei!r ! p>ticul> or ! g5]al4 ,i ?9k ! view :i* ,i h be5 advocat+1 to ! effect t a g5]al idea is di/+ui%$ f a vague "o by ! pres5ce ( a judgm5t1 is also t int5d$ by ,ribot :5 he says 7op4 cit41 p4 #ib73 ,! g5]ic image is nev]1 ! concept is always1 a judgm5t4 ,we "k t = logicians 7=m]ly at any rate7 ! concept is ! simple & primitive elem5t2 next comes ! judgm5t1 unit+ two or sev]al concepts2 !n ratioc9ation1 comb9+ two or sev]al judgm5ts4 ,= ! psy*ologi/s1 on ! contr>y1 affirmation is ! fundam5tal act2 ! concept is ! result ( judgm5t 7explicit or implicit71 ( simil>ities ) exclusion ( diff]5ces4 ,a great deal ( "w pr(ess+ to be exp]im5tal has be5 done 9 rec5t ye>s on ! psy*ology ( ?\ght4 ,a good summ>y ( su* "w up to ! ye> agog is conta9$ 9 ,tit*5]'s ,lectures on ! ,exp]im5tal ,psy*ology ( ! ,?\ght ,processes 7#aiji74 ,?ree articles 9 ! ,ar*iv fur die gesammte ,psy*ologie by ,watt199 ,mess]9999 & ,buhl]999999 conta9 a great deal ( ! mat]ial amass$ by ! me?ods :i* ,tit*5] calls exp]im5tal4 99 ,h5ry ,j4 ,watt1 ,exp]im5telle ,beitrage zu e9] ,!orie des ,d5k5s1 vol4 iv 7#aije7 pp4 #bhi-dcf4 9999 ,augu/ ,mess]1 ,exp]im5tell-psy*ologis*e ,unt]su*u g5 ub] das ,d5k51 vol4 iii 7#aijf71 pp4 #a-bbd4 999999 ,k>l ,buhl]1 ,ub] ,g$ank51 vol4 ix 7#aijg71 pp4 #big-cfe4 ,= my "p ,i am unable to atta* z mu* importance to ?is "w z _m psy*ologi/s d4 ,! me?od employ$ appe>s to me h>dly to fulfil ! conditions ( sci5tific exp]im5t4 ,broadly speak+1 :at is done is1 t a set ( que/ions are ask$ ( v>i\s p1 _! answ]s are record$1 & likewise _! own acc\nts1 bas$ ^u introspection1 ( ! processes ( ?\ght :i* l$ !m to give ^? answ]s4 ,mu* too mu* reliance seems to me to be plac$ ^u ! correctness ( _! introspection4 ,on introspection z a me?od ,i h spok5 e>li] 7,lecture ,,vi74 ,i am n prep>$1 l ,pr(essor ,watson1 to reject x :olly1 b ,i d consid] t x is exce$+ly fallible & q peculi>ly liable to falsification 9 accordance ) preconceiv$ !ory4 ,x is l dep5d+ ^u ! report ( a %ortsight$ p]son z to :om he sees com+ along ! road at a mom5t :5 he is firmly conv9c$ t ,jones is sure to come4 ,if ev]ybody 7 %ortsight$ & obsess$ ) beliefs z to :at 0 go+ to be visible1 we might h to make ! be/ ( su* te/imony1 b we %\ld ne$ to correct its errors by tak+ c>e to collect ! simultane\s evid5ce ( p ) ! mo/ div]g5t expectations4 ,!re is no evid5ce t ?is 0 done 9 ! exp]im5ts 9 "q1 nor inde$ t ! influ5ce ( !ory 9 falsify+ ! introspection 0 at all adequately recogniz$4 ,i feel conv9c$ t if ,pr(essor ,watson _h be5 "o ( ! subjects ( ! que/ionnaires1 he w\ld h giv5 answ]s totally diff]5t f ^? record$ 9 ! articles 9 "q4 ,tit*5] quotes an op9ion ( ,wundt on ^! inve/igations1 :i* appe>s to me ?or\ghly ju/ifi$4 ,^! exp]im5ts1 he says1 are n exp]im5ts at all 9 ! s5se ( a sci5tific me?odology2 !y are c\nt]feit exp]im5ts1 t seem me?odical simply because !y are ord9>ily p]=m$ 9 a psy*ological laboratory1 & involve ! co-op]ation ( two p]sons1 :o purport to be exp]im5t] & obs]v]4 ,9 reality1 !y are z unme?odical z possible2 !y possess none ( ! special features by :i* we di/+ui% ! introspections ( exp]im5tal psy*ology f ! casual introspections ( ev]yday life499 ,tit*5]1 ( c\rse1 diss5ts f ?is op9ion1 b ,i _c see t 8 reasons = diss5t are adequate4 ,my d\bts are only increas$ by ! fact t ,buhl] at any rate us$ tra9$ psy*ologi/s z 8 subjects4 ,a tra9$ psy*ologi/ is1 ( c\rse1 suppos$ to h acquir$ ! habit ( obs]vation1 b he is at lea/ equally likely to h acquir$ a habit ( see+ :at 8 !ories require4 ,we may take ,buhl]'s ,ub] ,g$ank5 to illu/rate ! k9d ( results arriv$ at by su* me?ods4 ,buhl] says 7p4 #cjc73 ,we ask ourselves ! g5]al "q3 ',,:at ,,d ,,we ,,exp]i5ce ,,:5 ,,we ,,?9k8' ,!n we d n at all attempt a prelim9>y det]m9ation ( ! concept '?\ght1' b *oose = analysis only su* processes z ev]yone w\ld describe z processes ( ?\ght4 ,! mo/ important ?+ 9 ?9k+1 he says1 is aw>5ess t444 7,bewus/heit dass71 :i* he calls a ?\ght4 ,x is1 he says1 ?\ghts 9 ?is s5se t are ess5tial to ?9k+4 ,?9k+1 he ma9ta9s1 does n ne$ language or s5su\s pres5tations4 ,i ass]t r t 9 pr9ciple e object c be ?\ght 7meant7 di/9ctly1 )\t any help f s5su\s pres5tation 7,ans*auung%ilf574 ,e individual %ade ( blue col\r on ! picture t hangs 9 my room ,i c ?9k ) complete di/9ctness uns5su\sly 7unans*auli*71 provid$ x is possible t ! object %\ld be giv5 to me 9 ano!r mann] ?an by ! help ( s5sations4 ,h[ t is possible we %all see lat]4 ,:at he calls a ?\ght 7,g$anke7 _c be r$uc$1 accord+ to him1 to o!r psy*ic occurr5ces4 ,he ma9ta9s t ?\ghts consi/ = ! mo/ "p ( kn[n rules 7p4 #cdb74 ,x is cle>ly ess5tial to ! int]e/ ( ?is !ory t ! ?\ght or rule allud$ to by ,buhl] %\ld n ne$ to be express$ 9 words1 = if x is express$ 9 words x is imm$iately capable ( be+ dealt ) on ! l9es ) :i* ! behavi\ri/s h famili>iz$ u4 ,x is cle> also t ! suppos$ abs5ce ( words re/s solely ^u ! introspective te/imony ( ! p]sons exp]im5t$ ^u4 ,i _c ?9k t !re is suffici5t c]ta9ty ( _! reliability 9 ?is negative obs]vation to make u accept a difficult & revolution>y view ( ?\ght1 m]ely because !y h fail$ to obs]ve ! pres5ce ( words or _! equival5t 9 _! ?9k+4 ,i ?9k x f> m likely1 especially 9 view ( ! fact t ! p]sons conc]n$ 7 highly educat$1 t we are conc]n$ ) telescop$ processes1 9 :i* habit has caus$ a great _m int]m$iate t]ms to be elid$ or to be pass$ ov] s quickly z to escape obs]vation4 99 ,tit*5]1 op4 cit41 p4 #gi4 ,i am incl9$ to ?9k t simil> rem>ks apply to ! g5]al idea ( imageless ?9k+1 conc]n+ :i* !re has be5 mu* controv]sy4 ,! advocates ( imageless ?9k+ are n cont5d+ m]ely t !re c be ?9k+ :i* is purely v]bal2 !y are cont5d+ t !re c be ?9k+ :i* proce$s nei!r 9 words nor 9 images4 ,my own feel+ is t !y h ra%ly assum$ ! pres5ce ( ?9k+ 9 cases :]e habit has r5d]$ ?9k+ unnecess>y4 ,:5 ,?orndike exp]im5t$ ) animals 9 cages1 he f\nd t ! associations e/abli%$ 7 betwe5 a s5sory /imulus & a bodily movem5t 7n ! idea ( x71 )\t ! ne$ ( suppos+ any non-physiological int]m$i>y 7op4 cit41 p4 #ajj ff474 ,! same ?+1 x seems to me1 applies to ourselves4 ,a c]ta9 s5sory situation produces 9 u a c]ta9 bodily movem5t4 ,sometimes ?is movem5t consi/s 9 utt]+ words4 ,prejudice leads u to suppose t betwe5 ! s5sory /imulus & ! utt]ance ( ! words a process ( ?\ght mu/ h int]v5$1 b !re seems no good reason = su* a supposition4 ,any habitual action1 su* z eat+ or dress+1 may be p]=m$ on ! appropriate occasion1 )\t any ne$ ( ?\ght1 & ! same seems to be true ( a pa9fully l>ge proportion ( our talk4 ,:at applies to utt]$ spee* applies ( c\rse equally to ! int]nal spee* :i* is n utt]$4 ,i rema91 !re=e1 entirely unconv9c$ t !re is any su* ph5om5on z ?9k+ :i* consi/s nei!r ( images nor ( words1 or t ideas h to be add$ to s5sations & images z "p ( ! mat]ial out ( :i* m5tal ph5om5a are built4 ,! "q ( ! nature ( our consci\sness ( ! univ]sal is mu* affect$ by our view z to ! g5]al nature ( ! relation ( consci\sness to its object4 ,if we adopt ! view ( ,br5tano1 accord+ to :i* all m5tal cont5t has ess5tial ref]5ce to an object1 x is !n natural to suppose t !re is "s peculi> k9d ( m5tal cont5t ( :i* ! object is a univ]sal1 z oppose to a p>ticul>4 ,accord+ to ?is view1 a p>ticul> cat c be ,p,e,rceived or imag9$1 :ile ! univ]sal cat is ,c,o,nceived4 ,b ?is :ole mann] ( view+ our deal+s ) univ]sals has to be ab&on$ :5 ! relation ( a m5tal occurr5ce to its object is reg>d$ z m]ely indirect & causal1 :i* is ! view t we h adopt$4 ,! m5tal cont5t is1 ( c\rse1 always p>ticul>1 & ! "q z to :at x means 79 case x means any?+7 is "o :i* _c be settl$ by m]ely exam9+ ! intr9sic "* ( ! m5tal cont5t1 b only by kn[+ its causal connections 9 ! case ( ! p]son conc]n$4 ,to say t a c]ta9 ?\ght means a univ]sal z oppos$ to ei!r a vague or a p>ticul>1 is to say some?+ exce$+ly complex4 ,a horse w behave 9 a c]ta9 mann] :5ev] he smells a be>1 ev5 if ! smell is d]iv$ f a be>sk94 ,t is to say1 any environm5t conta9+ an in/ance ( ! univ]sal smell ( a be> produces closely simil> behavi\r 9 ! horse1 b we d n say t ! horse is consci\s ( ?is univ]sal4 ,!re is equally little reason to reg>d a man z consci\s ( ! same univ]sal1 because "u ! same circum/ances he c react by say+1 ,i smell a be>4 ,?is reaction1 l t ( ! horse1 is m]ely closely simil> on diff]5t occasions :]e ! environm5t af=ds in/ances ( ! same univ]sal4 ,words ( :i* ! logical mean+ is univ]sal c !re=e be employ$ correctly1 )\t any?+ t c\ld be call$ consci\sness ( univ]sals4 ,su* consci\sness 9 ! only s5se 9 :i* x c be said to exi/ is a matt] ( reflective judgm5t consi/+ 9 ! obs]vation ( simil>ities & diff]5ces4 ,a univ]sal nev] appe>s be=e ! m9d z a s+le object 9 ! sort ( way 9 :i* some?+ p]ceiv$ appe>s4 ,i ,,?9k a logical argum5t c\ld be produc$ to %[ t univ]sals are "p ( ! /ructure ( ! _w1 b !y are an inf]r$ "p1 n a "p ( our data4 ,:at exi/s 9 u consi/s ( v>i\s factors1 "s op5 to ext]nal obs]vation1 o!rs only visible to introspection4 ,! factors op5 to ext]nal obs]vation are prim>ily habits1 hav+ ! peculi>ity t v simil> reactions are produc$ by /imuli :i* are 9 _m respects v diff]5t f ea* o!r4 ,( ?is ! reaction ( ! horse to ! smell ( ! be> is an in/ance1 & s is ! reaction ( ! man :o says be> "u ! same circum/ances4 ,! v]bal reaction is1 ( c\rse1 ! mo/ important f ! po9t ( view ( :at may be call$ k ( univ]sals4 ,a man :o c always use ! ^w dog :5 he sees a dog may be said1 9 a c]ta9 s5se1 to "k ! mean+ ( ! ^w dog1 & ,,9 ,,t ,,s5se to h k ( ! univ]sal dog4 ,b !re is1 ( c\rse1 a fur!r /age rea*$ by ! logician 9 :i* he n m]ely reacts ) ! ^w dog1 b sets to "w to discov] :at x is 9 ! environm5t t causes 9 him ?is almo/ id5tical reaction on diff]5t occasions4 ,?is fur!r /age consi/s 9 k ( simil>ities & diff]5ces3 simil>ities :i* are necess>y to ! applicability ( ! ^w dog1 & diff]5ces :i* are compatible ) x4 ,our k ( ^! simil>ities & diff]5ces is nev] exhau/ive1 & !re=e our k ( ! mean+ ( a univ]sal is nev] complete4 ,9 addition to ext]nal obs]vable habits 7includ+ ! habit ( words71 !re is also ! g5]ic image produc$ by ! sup]position1 or1 9 ,semon's phrase1 homophony1 ( a numb] ( simil> p]ceptions4 ,?is image is vague s long z ! multiplicity ( its prototypes is n recogniz$1 b becomes univ]sal :5 x exi/s alongside ( ! m specific images ( its in/ances1 & is kn[+ly contra/$ ) !m4 ,9 ?is case we f9d aga91 z we f\nd :5 we 7 discuss+ words 9 g5]al 9 ! prec$+ lecture1 t images are n logically necess>y 9 ord] to acc\nt = obs]vable behavi\r1 i4e4 9 ?is case intellig5t spee*4 ,intellig5t spee* c\ld exi/ z a motor habit1 )\t any accompanim5t ( images1 & ?is conclusion applies to words ( :i* ! mean+ is univ]sal1 j z mu* z to words ( :i* ! mean+ is relatively p>ticul>4 ,if ?is conclusion is valid1 x foll[s t behavi\ri/ psy*ology1 :i* es*ews introspective data1 is capable ( be+ an indep5d5t sci5ce1 & ( acc\nt+ = all t "p ( ! behavi\r ( o!r p :i* is commonly reg>d$ z evid5ce t !y ?9k4 ,x mu/ be admitt$ t ?is conclusion consid]ably weak5s ! reliance :i* c be plac$ ^u introspective data4 ,!y mu/ be accept$ simply on acc\nt ( ! fact t we seem to p]ceive !m1 n on acc\nt ( _! suppos$ necessity = expla9+ ! data ( ext]nal obs]vation4 ,?is1 at any rate1 is ! conclusion to :i* we are =c$1 s long z1 ) ! behavi\ri/s1 we accept common-s5se views ( ! physical _w4 ,b if1 z ,i h urg$1 ! physical _w itself1 z kn[n1 is infect$ ?r\gh & ?r\gh ) subjectivity1 if1 z ! !ory ( relativity sugge/s1 ! physical univ]se conta9s ! div]sity ( po9ts ( view :i* we h be5 accu/om$ to reg>d z di/9ctively psy*ological1 !n we are br\ght back by ?is diff]5t road to ! necessity = tru/+ obs]vations :i* are 9 an important s5se private4 ,& x is ! privacy ( introspective data :i* causes mu* ( ! behavi\ri/s' objection to !m4 ,?is is an example ( ! difficulty ( con/ruct+ an adequate philosophy ( any "o sci5ce )\t tak+ acc\nt ( o!r sci5ces4 ,! behavi\ri/ philosophy ( psy*ology1 ?\gh 9 _m respects admirable f ! po9t ( view ( me?od1 appe>s to me to fail 9 ! la/ analysis because x is bas$ ^u an inadequate philosophy ( physics4 ,9 spite1 !re=e1 ( ! fact t ! evid5ce = images1 :e!r g5]ic or p>ticul>1 is m]ely introspective1 ,i _c admit t images %\ld be reject$1 or t we %\ld m9imize _! function 9 our k ( :at is remote 9 "t or space4 ,,lecture ,,xii4 ,,belief ,belief1 :i* is our subject to-day1 is ! c5tral problem 9 ! analysis ( m9d4 ,believ+ seems ! mo/ m5tal ?+ we d1 ! ?+ mo/ remote f :at is done by m]e matt]4 ,! :ole intellectual life consi/s ( beliefs1 & ( ! passage f "o belief to ano!r by :at is call$ reason+4 ,beliefs give k & error2 !y are ! vehicles ( tru? & falsehood4 ,psy*ology1 !ory ( k & metaphysics revolve ab\t belief1 & on ! view we take ( belief our philosophical outlook l>gely dep5ds4 ,be=e emb>k+ ^u ! detail$ analysis ( belief1 we %all d well to note c]ta9 requisites :i* any !ory mu/ fulfil4 7#a7 ,j z words are *>act]iz$ by mean+1 s beliefs are *>act]iz$ by tru? or falsehood4 ,& j z mean+ consi/s 9 relation to ! object meant1 s tru? & falsehood consi/ 9 relation to some?+ t lies outside ! belief4 ,y may believe t su*-&-su* a horse w w9 ! ,d]by4 ,! "t comes1 & y\r horse w9s or does n w92 accord+ to ! outcome1 y\r belief 0 true or false4 ,y may believe t six times n9e is fifty-six2 9 ?is case also !re is a fact :i* makes y\r belief false4 ,y may believe t ,am]ica 0 discov]$ 9 #adib1 or t x 0 discov]$ 9 #ajff4 ,9 ! "o case y\r belief is true1 9 ! o!r false2 9 ei!r case its tru? or falsehood dep5ds ^u ! actions ( ,columbus1 n ^u any?+ pres5t or "u y\r control4 ,:at makes a belief true or false ,i call a fact4 ,! p>ticul> fact t makes a giv5 belief true or false ,i call its objective199 & ! relation ( ! belief to its objective ,i call ! ref]5ce or ! objective ref]5ce ( ! belief4 ,?us1 if ,i believe t ,columbus cross$ ! ,atlantic 9 #adib1 ! objective ( my belief is ,columbus's actual voyage1 & ! ref]5ce ( my belief is ! relation betwe5 my belief & ! voyage--t relation1 namely1 9 virtue ( :i* ! voyage makes my belief true 7or1 9 ano!r case1 false74 ,ref]5ce ( beliefs diff]s f mean+ ( words 9 v>i\s ways1 b especially 9 ! fact t x is ( two k9ds1 true ref]5ce & false ref]5ce4 ,! tru? or falsehood ( a belief does n dep5d ^u any?+ intr9sic to ! belief1 b ^u ! nature ( its relation to its objective4 ,! intr9sic nature ( belief c be treat$ )\t ref]5ce to :at makes x true or false4 ,9 ! rema9d] ( ! pres5t lecture ,i %all ignore tru? & falsehood1 :i* w be ! subject ( ,lecture ,,xiii4 ,x is ! intr9sic nature ( belief t w conc]n u to-day4 99 ,?is t]m9ology is sugge/$ by ,me9ong1 b is n exactly ! same z 84 7#b7 ,we mu/ di/+ui% betwe5 believ+ & :at is believ$4 ,i may believe t ,columbus cross$ ! ,atlantic1 t all ,cretans are li>s1 t two & two are f\r1 or t n9e times six is fifty-six2 9 all ^! cases ! believ+ is j ! same1 & only ! cont5ts believ$ are diff]5t4 ,i may rememb] my breakfa/ ?is morn+1 my lecture la/ week1 or my fir/ sight ( ,new ,york4 ,9 all ^! cases ! feel+ ( memory-belief is j ! same1 & only :at is rememb]$ diff]s4 ,exactly simil> rem>ks apply to expectations4 ,b>e ass5t1 memory & expectation are =ms ( belief2 all ?ree are diff]5t f :at is believ$1 & ea* has a con/ant "* :i* is indep5d5t ( :at is believ$4 ,9 ,lecture ,i we criticiz$ ! analysis ( a pres5tation into act1 cont5t & object4 ,b our analysis ( belief conta9s ?ree v simil> elem5ts1 namely ! believ+1 :at is believ$ & ! objective4 ,! objections to ! act 79 ! case ( pres5tations7 are n valid aga9/ ! believ+ 9 ! case ( beliefs1 because ! believ+ is an actual exp]i5c$ feel+1 n some?+ po/ulat$1 l ! act4 ,b x is necess>y fir/ to complete our prelim9>y requisites1 & !n to exam9e ! cont5t ( a belief4 ,aft] t1 we %all be 9 a position to return to ! "q z to :at con/itutes believ+4 7#c7 ,:at is believ$1 & ! believ+1 mu/ bo? consi/ ( pres5t occurr5ces 9 ! believ]1 no matt] :at may be ! objective ( ! belief4 ,suppose ,i believe1 = example1 t ,caes> cross$ ! ,rubicon4 ,! objective ( my belief is an ev5t :i* happ5$ long ago1 :i* ,i nev] saw & d n rememb]4 ,?is ev5t itself is n 9 my m9d :5 ,i believe t x happ5$4 ,x is n correct to say t ,i am believ+ ! actual ev5t2 :at ,i am believ+ is some?+ n[ 9 my m9d1 some?+ relat$ to ! ev5t 79 a way :i* we %all inve/igate 9 ,lecture ,,xiii71 b obvi\sly n to be conf\nd$ ) ! ev5t1 s9ce ! ev5t is n occurr+ n[ b ! believ+ is4 ,:at a man is believ+ at a giv5 mom5t is :olly det]m9ate if we "k ! cont5ts ( 8 m9d at t mom5t2 b ,caes>'s cross+ ( ! ,rubicon 0 an hi/orical physical ev5t1 :i* is di/9ct f ! pres5t cont5ts ( e pres5t m9d4 ,:at is believ$1 h[ev] true x may be1 is n ! actual fact t makes ! belief true1 b a pres5t ev5t relat$ to ! fact4 ,?is pres5t ev5t1 :i* is :at is believ$1 ,i %all call ! cont5t ( ! belief4 ,we h already _h occasion to notice ! di/9ction betwe5 cont5t & objective 9 ! case ( memory-beliefs1 :]e ! cont5t is ?is occurr$ & ! objective is ! pa/ ev5t4 7#d7 ,betwe5 cont5t & objective !re is sometimes a v wide gulf1 = example 9 ! case ( ,caes> cross$ ! ,rubicon4 ,?is gulf may1 :5 x is fir/ p]ceiv$1 give u a feel+ t we _c really "k any?+ ab\t ! out] _w4 ,all we c "k1 x may be said1 is :at is n[ 9 our ?\ghts4 ,if ,caes> & ! ,rubicon _c be bodily 9 our ?\ghts1 x might seem z ?\gh we mu/ rema9 cut (f f k ( !m4 ,i %all n n[ deal at l5g? ) ?is feel+1 s9ce x is necess>y fir/ to def9e kn[+1 :i* _c be done yet4 ,b ,i w say1 z a prelim9>y answ]1 t ! feel+ assumes an ideal ( kn[+ :i* ,i believe to be q mi/ak54 ,x assumes1 if x is ?\ght out1 some?+ l ! my/ic unity ( kn[] & kn[n4 ,^! two are (t5 said to be comb9$ into a unity by ! fact ( cognition2 h5ce :5 ?is unity is pla9ly abs5t1 x may seem z if !re 7 no g5u9e cognition4 ,= my "p1 ,i ?9k su* !ories & feel+s :olly mi/ak53 ,i believe kn[+ to be a v ext]nal & complicat$ relation1 incapable ( exact def9ition1 dep5d5t ^u causal laws1 & involv+ no m unity ?an !re is betwe5 a signpo/ & ! t[n to :i* x po9ts4 ,i %all return to ?is "q on a lat] occasion2 = ! mom5t ^! provisional rem>ks mu/ suffice4 7#e7 ,! objective ref]5ce ( a belief is connect$ ) ! fact t all or "s ( ! con/itu5ts ( its cont5t h mean+4 ,if ,i say ,caes> conqu]$ ,gaul1 a p]son :o kn[s ! mean+ ( ! ?ree words compos+ my /atem5t kn[s z mu* z c be kn[n ab\t ! nature ( ! objective :i* w\ld make my /atem5t true4 ,x is cle> t ! objective ref]5ce ( a belief is1 9 g5]al1 9 "s way d]ivative f ! mean+s ( ! words or images t occur 9 its cont5t4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 c]ta9 complications :i* mu/ be borne 9 m9d4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 x might be cont5d$ t a memory-image acquires mean+ only ?r\gh ! memory-belief1 :i* w\ld seem1 at lea/ 9 ! case ( memory1 to make belief m primitive ?an ! mean+ ( images4 ,9 ! second place1 x is a v s+ul> ?+ t mean+1 :i* is s+le1 %\ld g5]ate objective ref]5ce1 :i* is dual1 namely true & false4 ,?is is "o ( ! facts :i* any !ory ( belief mu/ expla9 if x is to be satisfactory4 ,x is n[ "t to leave ^! prelim9>y requisites1 & attempt ! analysis ( ! cont5ts ( beliefs4 ,! fir/ ?+ to notice ab\t :at is believ$1 i4e4 ab\t ! cont5t ( a belief1 is t x is always complex3 ,we believe t a c]ta9 ?+ has a c]ta9 prop]ty1 or a c]ta9 relation to some?+ else1 or t x occurr$ or w occur 79 ! s5se discuss$ at ! end ( ,lecture ,,ix72 or we may believe t all ! memb]s ( a c]ta9 class h a c]ta9 prop]ty1 or t a c]ta9 prop]ty sometimes occurs among ! memb]s ( a class2 or we may believe t if "o ?+ happ5s1 ano!r w happ5 7= example1 if x ra9s ,i %all br+ my umbrella71 or we may believe t some?+ does n happ51 or did n or w n happ5 7= example1 x won't ra972 or t "o ( two ?+s mu/ happ5 7= example1 ei!r y )draw y\r accusation1 or ,i %all br+ a libel action74 ,! catalogue ( ! sorts ( ?+s we may believe is inf9ite1 b all ( !m are complex4 ,language sometimes conceals ! complexity ( a belief4 ,we say t a p]son believes 9 ,god1 & x might seem z if ,god =m$ ! :ole cont5t ( ! belief4 ,b :at is really believ$ is t ,god exi/s1 :i* is v f> f be+ simple4 ,simil>ly1 :5 a p]son has a memory-image ) a memory-belief1 ! belief is ?is occurr$1 9 ! s5se expla9$ 9 ,lecture ,,ix2 & ?is occurr$ is n simple4 ,9 l mann] all cases :]e ! cont5t ( a belief seems simple at fir/ sight w be f\nd1 on exam9ation1 to confirm ! view t ! cont5t is always complex4 ,! cont5t ( a belief involves n m]ely a plurality ( con/itu5ts1 b def9ite relations betwe5 !m2 x is n det]m9ate :5 its con/itu5ts alone are giv54 ,= example1 ,plato prec$$ ,ari/otle & ,ari/otle prec$$ ,plato are bo? cont5ts :i* may be believ$1 b1 al?\gh !y consi/ ( exactly ! same con/itu5ts1 !y are diff]5t1 & ev5 incompatible4 ,! cont5t ( a belief may consi/ ( words only1 or ( images only1 or ( a mixture ( ! two1 or ( ei!r or bo? toge!r ) "o or m s5sations4 ,x mu/ conta9 at lea/ "o con/itu5t :i* is a ^w or an image1 & x may or may n conta9 "o or m s5sations z con/itu5ts4 ,"s examples w make ^! v>i\s possibilities cle>4 ,we may take fir/ recognition1 9 ei!r ( ! =ms ?is is ( su*-&-su* a k9d or ?is has occurr$ be=e4 ,9 ei!r case1 pres5t s5sation is a con/itu5t4 ,= example1 y he> a noise1 & y say to y\rself tram4 ,"h ! noise & ! ^w tram are bo? con/itu5ts ( y\r belief2 !re is also a relation betwe5 !m1 express$ by is 9 ! proposition t is a tram4 ,z soon z y\r act ( recognition is complet$ by ! occurr5ce ( ! ^w tram1 y\r actions are affect$3 y hurry if y want ! tram1 or cease to hurry if y want a bus4 ,9 ?is case ! cont5t ( y\r belief is a s5sation 7! noise7 & a ^w 7tram7 relat$ 9 a way :i* may be call$ pr$ication4 ,! same noise may br+ into y\r m9d ! visual image ( a tram1 in/ead ( ! ^w tram4 ,9 ?is case y\r belief consi/s ( a s5sation & an image suitable relat$4 ,beliefs ( ?is class are :at are call$ judgm5ts ( p]ception4 ,z we saw 9 ,lecture ,,viii1 ! images associat$ ) a s5sation (t5 come ) su* spontaneity & =ce t ! unsophi/icat$ d n di/+ui% !m f ! s5sation2 x is only ! psy*ologi/ or ! skill$ obs]v] :o is aw>e ( ! l>ge mnemic elem5t t is add$ to s5sation to make p]ception4 ,x may be object$ t :at is add$ consi/s m]ely ( images )\t belief4 ,?is is no d\bt sometimes ! case1 b is c]ta9ly sometimes n ! case4 ,t belief always occurs 9 p]ception z oppos$ to s5sation x is n necess>y = u to ma9ta92 x is en\gh = our purposes to note t x sometimes occurs1 & t :5 x does1 ! cont5t ( our belief consi/s ( a s5sation & an image suitably relat$4 ,9 a ,,pure memory-belief only images occur4 ,b a mixture ( words & images is v common 9 memory4 ,y h an image ( ! pa/ occurr5ce1 & y say to y\rself3 ,yes1 t's h[ x 04 ,"h ! image & ! words toge!r make up ! cont5t ( ! belief4 ,& :5 ! rememb]+ ( an incid5t has become a habit1 x may be purely v]bal1 & ! memory-belief may consi/ ( words alone4 ,! m complicat$ =ms ( belief t5d to consi/ only ( words4 ,(t5 images ( v>i\s k9ds accompany !m1 b !y are apt to be irrelevant1 & to =m no "p ( :at is actually believ$4 ,= example1 9 ?9k+ ( ! ,sol> ,sy/em1 y are likely to h vague images ( pictures y h se5 ( ! e>? surr\nd$ by cl\ds1 ,saturn & 8 r+s1 ! sun dur+ an eclipse1 & s on2 b none ( ^! =m "p ( y\r belief t ! planets revolve r\nd ! sun 9 elliptical orbits4 ,! only images t =m an actual "p ( su* beliefs are1 z a rule1 images ( words4 ,& images ( words1 = ! reasons consid]$ 9 ,lecture ,,viii1 _c be di/+ui%$ ) any c]ta9ty f s5sations1 :51 z is (t51 if n usually1 ! case1 !y are k9ae/hetic images ( pron\nc+ ! words4 ,x is impossible = a belief to consi/ ( s5sations alone1 except :51 z 9 ! case ( words1 ! s5sations h associations :i* make !m signs possess$ ( mean+4 ,! reason is t objective ref]5ce is ( ! ess5ce ( belief1 & objective ref]5ce is d]iv$ f mean+4 ,:5 ,i speak ( a belief consi/+ p>tly ( s5sations & p>tly ( words1 ,i d n mean to d5y t ! words1 :5 !y are n m]e images1 are s5sational1 b t !y occur z signs1 n 7s to speak7 9 _! own "r4 ,to rev]t to ! noise ( ! tram1 :5 y he> x & say tram1 ! noise & ! ^w are bo? s5sations 7if y actually pron\nce ! ^w71 b ! noise is "p ( ! fact :i* makes y\r belief true1 :]eas ! ^w is n "p ( ?is fact4 ,x is ! ,,mean+ ( ! ^w tram1 n ! actual ^w1 t =ms "p ( ! fact :i* is ! objective ( y\r belief4 ,?us ! ^w occurs 9 ! belief z a symbol1 9 virtue ( its mean+1 :]eas ! noise ent]s into bo? ! belief & its objective4 ,x is ?is t di/+ui%es ! occurr5ce ( words z symbols f ! occurr5ce ( s5sations 9 _! own "r3 ! objective conta9s ! s5sations t occur 9 _! own "r1 b conta9s only ! mean+s ( ! words t occur z symbols4 ,= ! sake ( simplicity1 we may ignore ! cases 9 :i* s5sations 9 _! own "r =m "p ( ! cont5t ( a belief1 & conf9e ourselves to images & words4 ,we may also omit ! cases 9 :i* bo? images & words occur 9 ! cont5t ( a belief4 ,?us we become conf9$ to two cases3 7a7 :5 ! cont5t consi/s :olly ( images1 7b7 :5 x consi/s :olly ( words4 ,! case ( mix$ images & words has no special importance1 & its omission w d no h>m4 ,let u take 9 illu/ration a case ( memory4 ,suppose y are ?9k+ ( "s famili> room4 ,y may call up an image ( x1 & 9 y\r image ! w9d[ may be to ! left ( ! door4 ,)\t any intrusion ( words1 y may believe 9 ! correctness ( y\r image4 ,y !n h a belief1 consi/+ :olly ( images1 :i* becomes1 :5 put into words1 ! w9d[ is to ! left ( ! door4 ,y may y\rself use ^! words & proce$ to believe !m4 ,y ?us pass f an image-cont5t to ! correspond+ ^w-cont5t4 ,! cont5t is diff]5t 9 ! two cases1 b its objective ref]5ce is ! same4 ,?is %[s ! relation ( image-beliefs to ^w-beliefs 9 a v simple case4 ,9 m elaborate cases ! relation becomes mu* less simple4 ,x may be said t ev5 9 ?is v simple case ! objective ref]5ce ( ! ^w-cont5t is n q ! same z t ( ! image-cont5t1 t images h a weal? ( concrete features :i* are lo/ :5 words are sub/itut$1 t ! w9d[ 9 ! image is n a m]e w9d[ 9 ! ab/ract1 b a w9d[ ( a c]ta9 %ape & size1 n m]ely to ! left ( ! door1 b a c]ta9 di/ance to ! left1 & s on4 ,9 reply1 x may be admitt$ at once t !re is1 z a rule1 a c]ta9 am\nt ( tru? 9 ! objection4 ,b two po9ts may be urg$ to m9imize its =ce4 ,fir/1 images d n1 z a rule1 h t weal? ( concrete detail t w\ld make x ,,impossible to express !m fully 9 words4 ,!y are vague & fragm5t>y3 a f9ite numb] ( words1 ?\gh p]haps a l>ge numb]1 w\ld exhau/ at lea/ _! ,,significant features4 ,=--& ?is is our second po9t--images ent] into ! cont5t ( a belief ?r\gh ! fact t !y are capable ( mean+1 & _! mean+ does n1 z a rule1 h z mu* complexity z !y h3 "s ( _! *>act]i/ics are usually devoid ( mean+4 ,?us x may well be possible to extract 9 words all t has mean+ 9 an image-cont5t2 9 t case ! ^w-cont5t & ! image-cont5t w h exactly ! same objective ref]5ce4 ,! cont5t ( a belief1 :5 express$ 9 words1 is ! same ?+ 7or v ne>ly ! same ?+7 z :at 9 logic is call$ a proposition4 ,a proposition is a s]ies ( words 7or sometimes a s+le ^w7 express+ ! k9d ( ?+ t c be ass]t$ or d5i$4 ,t all m5 are mortal1 t ,columbus discov]$ ,am]ica1 t ,*>les ,i di$ 9 8 b$1 t all philosoph]s are wise1 are propositions4 ,n any s]ies ( words is a proposition1 b only su* s]ies ( words z h mean+1 or1 9 our phraseology1 objective ref]5ce4 ,giv5 ! mean+s ( sep>ate words1 & ! rules ( syntax1 ! mean+ ( a proposition is det]m9ate4 ,?is is ! reason :y we c und]/& a s5t5ce we nev] he>d be=e4 ,y probably nev] he>d be=e ! proposition t ! inhabitants ( ! ,&aman ,isl&s habitually eat /ew$ hippopotamus = d9n]1 b !re is no difficulty 9 und]/&+ ! proposition4 ,! "q ( ! relation betwe5 ! mean+ ( a s5t5ce & ! mean+s ( ! sep>ate words is difficult1 & ,i %all n pursue x n[2 ,i br\ght x up solely z be+ illu/rative ( ! nature ( propositions4 ,we may ext5d ! t]m proposition s z to cov] ! image-cont5ts ( beliefs consi/+ ( images4 ,?us1 9 ! case ( rememb]+ a room 9 :i* ! w9d[ is to ! left ( ! door1 :5 we believe ! image-cont5t ! proposition w consi/ ( ! image ( ! w9d[ on ! left toge!r ) ! image ( ! door on ! "r4 ,we w di/+ui% propositions ( ?is k9d z image-propositions & propositions 9 words z ^w-propositions4 ,we may id5tify propositions 9 g5]al ) ! cont5ts ( actual & possible beliefs1 & we may say t x is propositions t are true or false4 ,9 logic we are conc]n$ ) propositions r ?an beliefs1 s9ce logic is n int]e/$ 9 :at p d 9 fact believe1 b only 9 ! conditions :i* det]m9e ! tru? or falsehood ( possible beliefs4 ,:5ev] possible1 except :5 actual beliefs are 9 "q1 x is g5]ally a simplification to deal ) propositions4 ,x w\ld seem t image-propositions are m primitive ?an ^w-propositions1 & may well ante-date language4 ,!re is no reason :y memory-images1 accompani$ by t v simple belief-feel+ :i* we decid$ to be ! ess5ce ( memory1 %\ld n h occurr$ be=e language arose2 inde$1 x w\ld be ra% to ass]t positively t memory ( ?is sort does n occur among ! high] animals4 ,our m elem5t>y beliefs1 notably ^? t are add$ to s5sation to make p]ception1 (t5 rema9 at ! level ( images4 ,= example1 mo/ ( ! visual objects 9 our neighb\rhood r\se tactile images3 we h a diff]5t feel+ 9 look+ at a s(a f :at we h 9 look+ at a block ( m>ble1 & ! diff]5ce consi/s *iefly 9 diff]5t /imulation ( our tactile imag9ation4 ,x may be said t ! tactile images are m]ely pres5t1 )\t any accompany+ belief2 b ,i ?9k ?is view1 ?\gh sometimes correct1 d]ives its plausibility z a g5]al proposition f our ?9k+ ( explicit consci\s belief only4 ,mo/ ( our beliefs1 l mo/ ( our wi%es1 are unconsci\s1 9 ! s5se t we h nev] told ourselves t we h !m4 ,su* beliefs display !mselves :5 ! expectations t !y ar\se fail 9 any way4 ,= example1 if someone puts tea 7)\t milk7 into a glass1 & y dr9k x "u ! impression t x is go+ to be be]2 or if y walk on :at appe>s to be a til$ floor1 & x turns out to be a s(t c>pet made to look l tiles4 ,! %ock ( surprise on an occasion ( ?is k9d makes u aw>e ( ! expectations t habitually ent] into our p]ceptions2 & su* expectations mu/ be class$ z beliefs1 9 spite ( ! fact t we d n normally take note ( !m or put !m into words4 ,i rememb] once wat*+ a cock pigeon runn+ ov] & ov] aga9 to ! edge ( a look+-glass to try to wreak v5geance on ! p>ticul>ly obnoxi\s bird :om he expect$ to f9d !re1 judg+ by :at he saw 9 ! glass4 ,he mu/ h exp]i5c$ ea* "t ! sort ( surprise on f9d+ no?+1 :i* is calculat$ to lead 9 "t to ! adoption ( ,b]keley's !ory t objects ( s5se are only 9 ! m9d4 ,8 expectation1 ?\gh n express$ 9 words1 des]v$1 ,i ?9k1 to be call$ a belief4 ,i come n[ to ! "q :at con/itutes believ+1 z oppos$ to ! cont5t believ$4 ,to beg9 )1 !re are v>i\s diff]5t attitudes t may be tak5 t[>ds ! same cont5t4 ,let u suppose1 = ! sake ( argum5t1 t y h a visual image ( y\r breakfa/-table4 ,y may expect x :ile y are dress+ 9 ! morn+2 rememb] x z y g to y\r "w2 feel d\bt z to its correctness :5 que/ion$ z to y\r p[]s ( visualiz+2 m]ely ent]ta9 ! image1 )\t connect+ x ) any?+ ext]nal1 :5 y are go+ to sleep2 desire x if y are hungry1 or feel av]sion = x if y are ill4 ,suppose1 = ! sake ( def9it5ess1 t ! cont5t is an egg = breakfa/4 ,!n y h ! foll[+ attitudes ,i expect !re w be an egg = breakfa/2 ,i rememb] !re 0 an egg = breakfa/2 ,0 !re an egg = breakfa/8 ,an egg = breakfa/3 well1 :at ( x8 ,i hope !re w be an egg = breakfa/2 ,i am afraid !re w be an egg = breakfa/ & x is sure to be bad4 ,i d n sugge/ t ?is is a li/ ( all possible attitudes on ! subject2 ,i say only t !y are diff]5t attitudes1 all conc]n$ ) ! "o cont5t an egg = breakfa/4 ,^! attitudes are n all equally ultimate4 ,^? t involve desire & av]sion h occupi$ u 9 ,lecture ,,iii4 ,= ! pres5t1 we are only conc]n$ ) su* z are cognitive4 ,9 speak+ ( memory1 we di/+ui%$ ?ree k9ds ( belief direct$ t[>ds ! same cont5t1 namely memory1 expectation & b>e ass5t )\t any "t-det]m9ation 9 ! belief-feel+4 ,b be=e develop+ ?is view1 we mu/ exam9e two o!r !ories :i* might be held conc]n+ belief1 & :i*1 9 "s ways1 w\ld be m 9 h>mony ) a behavi\ri/ outlook ?an ! !ory ,i wi% to advocate4 7#a7 ,! fir/ !ory to be exam9$ is ! view t ! diff]5tia ( belief consi/s 9 its causal efficacy ,i d n wi% to make any au?or responsible = ?is !ory3 ,i wi% m]ely to develop x hypo!tically s t we may judge ( its t5ability4 ,we def9$ ! mean+ ( an image or ^w by causal efficacy1 namely by associations3 an image or ^w acquires mean+1 we said1 ?r\gh hav+ ! same associations z :at x means4 ,we propose hypo!tically to def9e belief by a diff]5t k9d ( causal efficacy1 namely efficacy 9 caus+ volunt>y movem5ts4 7,volunt>y movem5ts are def9$ z ^? vital movem5ts :i* are di/+ui%$ f reflex movem5ts z involv+ ! high] n]v\s c5tres4 ,i d n l to di/+ui% !m by means ( su* notions z consci\sness or w1 because ,i d n ?9k ^! notions1 9 any def9able s5se1 are always applicable4 ,moreov]1 ! purpose ( ! !ory we are exam9+ is to be1 z f> z possible1 physiological & behavi\ri/1 & ?is purpose is n a*iev$ if we introduce su* a conception z consci\sness or w4 ,nev]!less1 x is necess>y = our purpose to f9d "s way ( di/+ui%+ betwe5 volunt>y & reflex movem5ts1 s9ce ! results w\ld be too p>adoxical1 if we 7 to say t reflex movem5ts also involve beliefs47 ,accord+ to ?is def9ition1 a cont5t is said to be believ$ :5 x causes u to move4 ,! images ar\s$ are ! same if y say to me1 ,suppose !re 7 an escap$ tig] com+ along ! /reet1 & if y say to me1 ,!re is an escap$ tig] com+ along ! /reet4 ,b my actions w be v diff]5t 9 ! two cases3 9 ! fir/1 ,i %all rema9 calm2 9 ! second1 x is possible t ,i may n4 ,x is sugge/$1 by ! !ory we are consid]+1 t ?is diff]5ce ( effects con/itutes :at is meant by say+ t 9 ! second case ,i believe ! proposition sugge/$1 :ile 9 ! fir/ case ,i d n4 ,accord+ to ?is view1 images or words are believ$ :5 !y cause bodily movem5ts4 ,i d n ?9k ?is !ory is adequate1 b ,i ?9k x is sugge/ive ( tru?1 & n s easily refutable z x might appe> to be at fir/ sight4 ,x might be object$ to ! !ory t _m ?+s :i* we c]ta9ly believe d n call = any bodily movem5ts4 ,i believe t ,great ,brita9 is an isl&1 t :ales are mammals1 t ,*>les ,i 0 execut$1 & s on2 & at fir/ sight x seems obvi\s t su* beliefs1 z a rule1 d n call = any action on my "p4 ,b :5 we inve/igate ! matt] m closely1 x becomes m d\btful4 ,to beg9 )1 we mu/ di/+ui% belief z a m]e ,,disposition f actual active belief4 ,we speak z if we always believ$ t ,*>les ,i 0 execut$1 b t only means t we are always ready to believe x :5 ! subject comes up4 ,! ph5om5on we are conc]n$ to analyse is ! active belief1 n ! p]man5t disposition4 ,n[1 :at are ! occasions :51 we actively believe t ,*>les ,i 0 execut$8 ,prim>ily3 exam9ations1 :5 we p]=m ! bodily movem5t ( writ+ x d[n2 conv]sation1 :5 we ass]t x to display our hi/orical erudition2 & political disc\rses1 :5 we are engag$ 9 %[+ :at ,soviet gov]nm5t leads to4 ,9 all ^! cases bodily movem5ts 7writ+ or speak+7 result f our belief4 ,b !re rema9s ! belief :i* m]ely occurs 9 ?9k+4 ,"o may set to "w to recall "s piece ( hi/ory "o has be5 read+1 & :at "o recalls is believ$1 al?\gh x probably does n cause any bodily movem5t :atev]4 ,x is true t :at we believe always ,,may influ5ce action4 ,suppose ,i am invit$ to become ,k+ ( ,georgia3 ,i f9d ! prospect attractive1 & g to ,cook's to buy a ?ird-class ticket to my new realm4 ,at ! la/ mom5t ,i rememb] ,*>les ,i & all ! o!r mon>*s :o h come to a bad end2 ,i *ange my m9d1 & walk out )\t complet+ ! transaction4 ,b su* incid5ts are r>e1 & _c con/itute ! :ole ( my belief t ,*>les ,i 0 execut$4 ,! conclusion seems to be t1 al?\gh a belief always ,,may influ5ce action if x becomes relevant to a practical issue1 x (t5 exi/s actively 7n z a m]e disposition7 )\t produc+ any volunt>y movem5t :atev]4 ,if ?is is true1 we _c def9e belief by ! effect on volunt>y movem5ts4 ,!re is ano!r1 m !oretical1 gr\nd = reject+ ! view we are exam9+4 ,x is cle> t a proposition c be ei!r believ$ or m]ely consid]$1 & t ! cont5t is ! same 9 bo? cases4 ,we c expect an egg = breakfa/1 or m]ely ent]ta9 ! supposition t !re may be an egg = breakfa/4 ,a mom5t ago ,i consid]$ ! possibility ( be+ invit$ to become ,k+ ( ,georgia1 b ,i d n believe t ?is w happ54 ,n[1 x seems cle> t1 s9ce believ+ & consid]+ h diff]5t effects if "o produces bodily movem5ts :ile ! o!r does n1 !re mu/ be "s intr9sic diff]5ce betwe5 believ+ & consid]+992 = if !y 7 precisely simil>1 _! effects also w\ld be precisely simil>4 ,we h se5 t ! diff]5ce betwe5 believ+ a giv5 proposition & m]ely consid]+ x does n lie 9 ! cont5t2 !re=e !re mu/ be1 9 "o case or 9 bo?1 some?+ additional to ! cont5t :i* di/+ui%es ! occurr5ce ( a belief f ! occurr5ce ( a m]e consid]ation ( ! same cont5t4 ,s f> z ! !oretical argum5t goes1 ?is additional elem5t may exi/ only 9 belief1 or only 9 consid]ation1 or !re may be "o sort ( additional elem5t 9 ! case ( belief1 & ano!r 9 ! case ( consid]ation4 ,?is br+s u to ! second view :i* we h to exam9e4 99 ,cf4 ,br5tano1 ,psy*ologie vom empiris*5 ,/&punkte1 p4 #bfh 7criticiz+ ,ba91 ,! ,emotions & ! ,w74 7#a7 ,! !ory :i* we h n[ to consid] reg>ds belief z belong+ to e idea :i* is ent]ta9$1 except 9 s f> z "s positive c\nt]act+ =ce int]f]es4 ,9 ?is view belief is n a positive ph5om5on1 ?\gh d\bt & disbelief are s4 ,:at we call belief1 accord+ to ?is hypo!sis1 involves only ! appropriate cont5t1 :i* w h ! effects *>act]i/ic ( belief unless some?+ else op]at+ simultane\sly inhibits !m4 ,james 7,psy*ology1 vol4 ii1 p4 #bhh7 quotes ) approval1 ?\gh inaccurately1 a passage f ,sp9oza embody+ ?is view3 ,let u conceive a boy imag9+ to himself a horse1 & tak+ note ( no?+ else4 ,z ?is imag9ation involves ! exi/5ce ( ! horse1 ,,& ,,! ,,boy ,,has ,,no ,,p]ception ,,:i* ,,annuls ,,its ,,exi/5ce ,james's italics1 he w necess>ily contemplate ! horse z pres5t1 nor w he be able to d\bt ( its exi/5ce1 h[ev] little c]ta9 ( x he may be4 ,i d5y t a man 9 s f> z he imag9es p]cipit affirms no?+4 ,= :at is x to imag9e a w+$ horse b to affirm t ! horse t horse1 namely has w+s8 ,= if ! m9d _h no?+ be=e x b ! w+$ horse1 x w\ld contemplate ! same z pres5t1 w\ld h no cause to d\bt ( its exi/5ce1 nor any p[] ( diss5t+ f its exi/5ce1 unless ! imag9ation ( ! w+$ horse 7 jo9$ to an idea :i* contradict$ tollit its exi/5ce 7,e?ics1 vol4 ii1 p4 #di1 ,s*olium74 ,to ?is doctr9e ,james entirely ass5ts1 add+ 9 italics3 ,,any ,,object ,,:i* ,,rema9s ,,uncontradict$ ,,is ,,ipso ,,facto ,,believ$ ,,& ,,posit$ ,,z ,,absolute ,,reality4 ,if ?is view is correct1 x foll[s 7?\gh ,james does n draw ! inf]5ce7 t !re is no ne$ ( any specific feel+ call$ belief1 & t ! m]e exi/5ce ( images yields all t is requir$4 ,! /ate ( m9d 9 :i* we m]ely consid] a proposition1 )\t believ+ or disbeliev+ x1 w !n appe> z a sophi/icat$ product1 ! result ( "s rival =ce add+ to ! image-proposition a positive feel+ :i* may be call$ susp5se or non-belief--a feel+ :i* may be comp>$ to t ( a man ab\t to run a race wait+ = ! signal4 ,su* a man1 ?\gh n mov+1 is 9 a v diff]5t condition f t ( a man quietly at re/ ,& s ! man :o is consid]+ a proposition )\t believ+ x w be 9 a /ate ( t5sion1 re/ra9+ ! natural t5d5cy to act ^u ! proposition :i* he w\ld display if no?+ int]f]$4 ,9 ?is view belief prim>ily consi/s m]ely 9 ! exi/5ce ( ! appropriate images )\t any c\nt]act+ =ces4 ,!re is a great deal to be said 9 fav\r ( ?is view1 & ,i h "s hesitation 9 reg>d+ x z inadequate4 ,x fits admirably ) ! ph5om5a ( dreams & halluc9atory images1 & x is recomm5d$ by ! way 9 :i* x accords ) m5tal developm5t4 ,d\bt1 susp5se ( judgm5t & disbelief all seem lat] & m complex ?an a :olly unreflect+ ass5t4 ,belief z a positive ph5om5on1 if x exi/s1 may be reg>d$1 9 ?is view1 z a product ( d\bt1 a decision aft] debate1 an acceptance1 n m]ely ( ,,?is1 b ( ,,?is-,,r-,,?an-,,t4 ,x is n difficult to suppose t a dog has images 7possible olfactory7 ( 8 abs5t ma/]1 or ( ! rabbit t he dreams ( hunt+4 ,b x is v difficult to suppose t he c ent]ta9 m]e imag9ation-images to :i* no ass5t is giv54 ,i ?9k x mu/ be conc$$ t a m]e image1 )\t ! addition ( any positive feel+ t c\ld be call$ belief1 is apt to h a c]ta9 dynamic p[]1 & 9 ?is s5se an uncombat$ image has ! =ce ( a belief4 ,b al?\gh ?is may be true1 x acc\nts only = "s ( ! simple/ ph5om5a 9 ! region ( belief4 ,x w n1 = example1 expla9 memory4 ,nor c x expla9 beliefs :i* d n issue 9 any proximate action1 su* z ^? ( ma!matics4 ,i conclude1 !re=e1 t !re mu/ be belief-feel+s ( ! same ord] z ^? ( d\bt or disbelief1 al?\gh ph5om5a closely analog\s to ^? ( belief c be produc$ by m]e uncontradict$ images4 7#c7 ,i come n[ to ! view ( belief :i* ,i wi% to advocate4 ,x seems to me t !re are at lea/ ?ree k9ds ( belief1 namely memory1 expectation & b>e ass5t4 ,ea* ( ^! ,i reg>d z con/itut$ by a c]ta9 feel+ or complex ( s5sations1 atta*$ to ! cont5t believ$4 ,we may illu/rate by an example4 ,suppose ,i am believ+1 by means ( images1 n words1 t x w ra94 ,we h "h two int]relat$ elem5ts1 namely ! cont5t & ! expectation4 ,! cont5t consi/s ( images ( 7say7 ! visual appe>ance ( ra91 ! feel+ ( wetness1 ! patt] ( drops1 int]relat$1 r\ghly1 z ! s5sations w\ld be if x 7 ra9+4 ,?us ! cont5t is a complex fact compos$ ( images4 ,exactly ! same cont5t may ent] into ! memory x 0 ra9+ or ! ass5t ra9 occurs4 ,! diff]5ce ( ^! cases f ea* o!r & f expectation does n lie 9 ! cont5t4 ,! diff]5ce lies 9 ! nature ( ! belief-feel+4 ,i1 p]sonally1 d n pr(ess to be able to analyse ! s5sations con/itut+ respectively memory1 expectation & ass5t2 b ,i am n prep>$ to say t !y _c be analys$4 ,!re may be o!r belief-feel+s1 = example 9 disjunction & implication2 also a disbelief-feel+4 ,x is n en\gh t ! cont5t & ! belief-feel+ %\ld coexi/3 x is necess>y t !re %\ld be a specific relation betwe5 !m1 ( ! sort express$ by say+ t ! cont5t is :at is believ$4 ,if ?is 7 n obvi\s1 x c\ld be made pla9 by an argum5t4 ,if ! m]e co-exi/5ce ( ! cont5t & ! belief-feel+ suffic$1 :5ev] we 7 hav+ 7say7 a memory-feel+ we %\ld be rememb]+ any proposition :i* came into our m9ds at ! same "t4 ,b ?is is n ! case1 s9ce we may simultane\sly rememb] "o proposition & m]ely consid] ano!r4 ,we may sum up our analysis1 9 ! case ( b>e ass5t to a proposition n express$ 9 words1 z foll[s3 7a7 ,we h a proposition1 consi/+ ( int]relat$ images1 & possibly p>tly ( s5sations2 7b7 we h ! feel+ ( ass5t1 :i* is presumably a complex s5sation dem&+ analysis2 7c7 we h a relation1 actually subsi/+1 betwe5 ! ass5t & ! proposition1 su* z is express$ by say+ t ! proposition 9 "q is :at is ass5t$ to4 ,= o!r =ms ( belief-feel+ or ( cont5t1 we h only to make ! necess>y sub/itutions 9 ?is analysis4 ,if we are "r 9 our analysis ( belief1 ! use ( words 9 express+ beliefs is apt to be mislead+4 ,!re is no way ( di/+ui%+1 9 words1 betwe5 a memory & an ass5t to a proposition ab\t ! pa/3 ,i ate my breakfa/ & ,caes> conqu]$ ,gaul h ! same v]bal =m1 ?\gh 7assum+ t ,i rememb] my breakfa/7 !y express occurr5ces :i* are psy*ologically v diff]5t4 ,9 ! "o case1 :at happ5s is t ,i rememb] ! cont5t eat+ my breakfa/2 9 ! o!r case1 ,i ass5t to ! cont5t ,caes>'s conque/ ( ,gaul occurr$4 ,9 ! latt] case1 b n 9 ! =m]1 ! pa/ness is "p ( ! cont5t believ$4 ,exactly simil> rem>ks apply to ! diff]5ce betwe5 expectation1 su* z we h :5 wait+ = ! ?und] aft] a fla% ( lightn+1 & ass5t to a proposition ab\t ! future1 su* z we h 9 all ! usual cases ( inf]5tial k z to :at w occur4 ,i ?9k ?is difficulty 9 ! v]bal expression ( ! temporal aspects ( beliefs is "o among ! causes :i* h hamp]$ philosophy 9 ! consid]ation ( "t4 ,! view ( belief :i* ,i h be5 advocat+ conta9s little t is novel except ! di/9ction ( k9ds ( belief-feel+--su* z memory & expectation4 ,?us ,james says3 ,ev]yone kn[s ! diff]5ce betwe5 imag9+ a ?+ & believ+ 9 its exi/5ce1 betwe5 suppos+ a proposition & acquiesc+ 9 its tru?444,,9 ,,its ,,inn] ,,nature1 ,,belief1 ,,or ,,! ,,s5se ,,( ,,reality1 ,,is ,a ,,sort ,,( ,,feel+ ,,m ,,alli$ ,,to ,,! ,,emotions ,,?an ,,to ,,any?+ ,,else 7,psy*ology1 vol4 ii1 p4 #bhc4 ,james's italics74 ,he proce$s to po9t out t drunk5ness1 &1 /ill m1 nitr\s-oxide intoxication1 w height5 ! s5se ( belief3 9 ! latt] case1 he says1 a man's v s\l may sweat ) conviction1 & he be all ! "t utt]ly unable to say :at he is conv9c$ (4 ,x w\ld seem t1 9 su* cases1 ! feel+ ( belief exi/s unatta*$1 )\t its usual relation to a cont5t believ$1 j z ! feel+ ( famili>ity may sometimes occur )\t be+ relat$ to any def9ite famili> object4 ,! feel+ ( belief1 :5 x occurs 9 ?is sep>at$ height5$ =m1 g5]ally leads u to look = a cont5t to :i* to atta* x4 ,mu* ( :at passes = revelation or my/ic insight probably comes 9 ?is way3 ! belief-feel+1 9 abnormal /r5g?1 atta*es itself1 m or less accid5tally1 to "s cont5t :i* we happ5 to ?9k ( at ! appropriate mom5t4 ,b ?is is only a speculation1 ^u :i* ,i d n wi% to lay too mu* /ress4 ,,lecture ,,xiii4 ,,tru? ,,& ,,falsehood ,! def9ition ( tru? & falsehood1 :i* is our topic to-day1 lies /rictly outside our g5]al subject1 namely ! analysis ( m9d4 ,f ! psy*ological /&po9t1 !re may be diff]5t k9ds ( belief1 & diff]5t degrees ( c]ta9ty1 b !re _c be any purely psy*ological means ( di/+ui%+ betwe5 true & false beliefs4 ,a belief is r5d]$ true or false by relation to a fact1 :i* may lie outside ! exp]i5ce ( ! p]son ent]ta9+ ! belief4 ,tru? & falsehood1 except 9 ! case ( beliefs ab\t our own m9ds1 dep5d ^u ! relations ( m5tal occurr5ces to outside ?+s1 & ?us take u beyond ! analysis ( m5tal occurr5ces z !y are 9 !mselves4 ,nev]!less1 we c h>dly avoid ! consid]ation ( tru? & falsehood4 ,we wi% to believe t our beliefs1 sometimes at lea/1 yield ,,k1 & a belief does n yield k unless x is true4 ,! "q :e!r our m9ds are in/rum5ts ( k1 &1 if s1 9 :at s5se1 is s vital t any sugge/$ analysis ( m9d mu/ be exam9$ 9 relation to ?is "q4 ,to ignore ?is "q w\ld be l describ+ a *ronomet] )\t reg>d to its accuracy z a "t-keep]1 or a !rmomet] )\t m5tion+ ! fact t x measures temp]ature4 ,_m difficult que/ions arise 9 connection ) k4 ,x is difficult to def9e k1 difficult to decide :e!r we h any k1 & difficult1 ev5 if x is conc$$ t we sometimes h k to discov] :e!r we c ev] "k t we h k 9 ?is or t p>ticul> case4 ,i %all divide ! discussion into f\r p>ts3 ,i4 ,we may reg>d k1 f a behavi\ri/ /&po9t1 z exhibit$ 9 a c]ta9 k9d ( response to ! environm5t4 ,?is response mu/ h "s *>act]i/ics :i* x %>es ) ^? ( sci5tific in/rum5ts1 b mu/ also h o!rs t are peculi> to k4 ,we %all f9d t ?is po9t ( view is important1 b n exhau/ive ( ! nature ( k4 ,,ii4 ,we may hold t ! beliefs t con/itute k are di/+ui%$ f su* z are errone\s or unc]ta9 by prop]ties :i* are intr9sic ei!r to s+le beliefs or to sy/ems ( beliefs1 be+ 9 ei!r case discov]able )\t ref]5ce to outside fact4 ,views ( ?is k9d h be5 widely held among philosoph]s1 b we %all f9d no reason to accept !m4 ,,iii4 ,we believe t "s beliefs are true1 & "s false4 ,?is raises ! problem ( ,,v]ifiability3 are !re any circum/ances :i* c ju/ifiably give u an unusual degree ( c]ta9ty t su* & su* a belief is true8 ,x is obvi\s t !re are circum/ances :i* 9 fact cause a c]ta9ty ( ?is sort1 & we wi% to le>n :at we c f exam9+ ^! circum/ances4 ,,iv4 ,f9ally1 !re is ! =mal problem ( def9+ tru? & falsehood1 & d]iv+ ! objective ref]5ce ( a proposition f ! mean+s ( its compon5t words4 ,we w consid] ^! f\r problems 9 succession4 ,i4 ,we may reg>d a human be+ z an in/rum5t1 :i* makes v>i\s responses to v>i\s /imuli4 ,if we obs]ve ^! responses f outside1 we %all reg>d !m z %[+ k :5 !y display two *>act]i/ics1 ,,accuracy & ,,appropriat5ess4 ,^! two are q di/9ct1 & ev5 sometimes incompatible4 ,if ,i am be+ pursu$ by a tig]1 accuracy is fur!r$ by turn+ r\nd to look at him1 b appropriat5ess by runn+ away )\t mak+ any se>* = fur!r k ( ! bea/4 ,i %all return to ! "q ( appropriat5ess lat]2 = ! pres5t x is accuracy t ,i wi% to consid]4 ,:5 we are view+ a man f ! outside1 x is n 8 beliefs1 b 8 bodily movem5ts1 t we c obs]ve4 ,8 k mu/ be inf]r$ f 8 bodily movem5ts1 & especially f :at he says & writes4 ,= ! pres5t we may ignore beliefs1 & reg>d a man's k z actually consi/+ 9 :at he says & does4 ,t is to say1 we w con/ruct1 z f> z possible1 a purely behavi\ri/ic acc\nt ( tru? & falsehood4 ,if y ask a boy ,:at is twice two8 & ! boy says f\r1 y take t z prima facie evid5ce t ! boy kn[s :at twice two is4 ,b if y g on to ask :at is twice ?ree1 twice f\r1 twice five1 & s on1 & ! boy always answ]s f\r1 y come to ! conclusion t he kn[s no?+ ab\t x4 ,exactly simil> rem>ks apply to sci5tific in/rum5ts4 ,i "k a c]ta9 wea!r-cock :i* has ! pessimi/ic habit ( always po9t+ to ! nor?-ea/4 ,if y 7 to see x fir/ on a cold ,m>* day1 y w\ld ?9k x an excell5t wea!r-cock2 b ) ! fir/ w>m day ( spr+ y\r confid5ce w\ld be %ak54 ,! boy & ! wea!r-cock h ! same defect3 !y d n v>y _! response :5 ! /imulus is v>i$4 ,a good in/rum5t1 or a p]son ) mu* k1 w give diff]5t responses to /imuli :i* diff] 9 relevant ways4 ,?is is ! fir/ po9t 9 def9+ accuracy ( response4 ,we w n[ assume ano!r boy1 :o also1 :5 y fir/ "q him1 ass]ts t twice two is f\r4 ,b ) ?is boy1 in/ead ( ask+ him diff]5t que/ions1 y make a practice ( ask+ him ! same "q e day at breakfa/4 ,y f9d t he says five1 or six1 or sev51 or any o!r numb] at r&om1 & y conclude t he also does n "k :at twice two is1 ?\gh by good luck he answ]$ "r ! fir/ "t4 ,?is boy is l a wea!r-cock :i*1 in/ead ( be+ /uck fa/1 is always go+ r\nd & r\nd1 *ang+ )\t any *ange ( w9d4 ,?is boy & wea!r-cock h ! opposite defect to t ( ! previ\s pair3 !y give diff]5t responses to /imuli :i* d n diff] 9 any relevant way4 ,9 connection ) vagu5ess 9 memory1 we already _h occasion to consid] ! def9ition ( accuracy4 ,omitt+ "s ( ! niceties ( our previ\s discussion1 we may say t an in/rum5t is ,,accurate :5 x avoids ! defects ( ! two boys & wea!r-cocks1 t is to say1 :5-- 7a7 ,x gives diff]5t responses to /imuli :i* diff] 9 relevant ways2 7b7 ,x gives ! same response to /imuli :i* d n diff] 9 relevant ways4 ,:at are relevant ways dep5ds ^u ! nature & purpose ( ! in/rum5t4 ,9 ! case ( a wea!r-cock1 ! direction ( ! w9d is relevant1 b n its /r5g?2 9 ! case ( ! boy1 ! mean+ ( ! words ( y\r "q is relevant1 b n ! l\dness ( y\r voice1 or :e!r y are 8 fa!r or 8 s*oolma/] ,if1 h[ev]1 y 7 a boy ( 8 own age1 t w\ld be relevant1 & ! appropriate response w\ld be diff]5t4 ,x is cle> t k is display$ by accuracy ( response to c]ta9 k9ds ( /imuli1 e4g4 exam9ations4 ,c we say1 conv]sely1 t x consi/s :olly ( su* accuracy ( response8 ,i d n ?9k we c2 b we c g a c]ta9 di/ance 9 ?is direction4 ,= ?is purpose we mu/ def9e m c>efully ! k9d ( accuracy & ! k9d ( response t may be expect$ :]e !re is k4 ,f our pres5t po9t ( view1 x is difficult to exclude p]ception f k2 at any rate1 k is display$ by actions bas$ ^u p]ception4 ,a bird fly+ among trees avoids bump+ into _! bran*es2 its avoidance is a response to visual s5sations4 ,?is response has ! *>act]i/ic ( accuracy1 9 ! ma91 & leads u to say t ! bird kn[s1 by sight1 :at objects are 9 its neighb\rhood4 ,= a behavi\ri/1 ?is mu/ c]ta9ly c\nt z k1 h[ev] x may be view$ by analytic psy*ology4 ,9 ?is case1 :at is kn[n1 r\ghly1 is ! /imulus2 b 9 m advanc$ k ! /imulus & :at is kn[n become diff]5t4 ,= example1 y look 9 y\r cal5d> & f9d t ,ea/] w be e>ly next ye>4 ,"h ! /imulus is ! cal5d>1 :]eas ! response conc]ns ! future4 ,ev5 ?is c be p>allel$ among in/rum5ts3 ! behavi\r ( ! b>omet] has a pres5t /imulus b =etells ! future1 s t ! b>omet] might be said1 9 a s5se1 to "k ! future4 ,h[ev] t may be1 ! po9t ,i am emphasiz+ z reg>ds k is t :at is kn[n may be q diff]5t f ! /imulus1 & no "p ( ! cause ( ! k-response4 ,x is only 9 s5se-k t ! /imulus & :at is kn[n are1 ) qualifications1 id5tifiable4 ,9 k ( ! future1 x is obvi\s t !y are totally di/9ct1 s9ce o!rwise ! response w\ld prec$e ! /imulus4 ,9 ab/ract k also !y are di/9ct1 s9ce ab/ract facts h no date4 ,9 k ( ! pa/ !re are complications1 :i* we mu/ briefly exam9e4 ,e =m ( memory w be1 f our pres5t po9t ( view1 9 "o s5se a delay$ response4 ,b ?is phrase does n q cle>ly express :at is meant4 ,if y light a fuse & connect x ) a heap ( dynamite1 ! explosion ( ! dynamite may be spok5 (1 9 a s5se1 z a delay$ response to y\r light+ ( ! fuse4 ,b t only means t x is a some:at late portion ( a cont9u\s process ( :i* ! e>li] p>ts h less emotional int]e/4 ,?is is n ! case ) habit4 ,a display ( habit has two sorts ( causes3 7a7 ! pa/ occurr5ces :i* g5]at$ ! habit1 7b7 ! pres5t occurr5ce :i* br+s x into play4 ,:5 y drop a weight on y\r toe1 & say :at y d say1 ! habit has be5 caus$ by imitation ( y\r undesirable associates1 :]eas x is br\ght into play by ! dropp+ ( ! weight4 ,! great bulk ( our k is a habit 9 ?is s5se3 :5ev] ,i am ask$ :5 ,i 0 born1 ,i reply correctly by m]e habit4 ,x w\ld h>dly be correct to say t gett+ born 0 ! /imulus1 & t my reply is a delay$ response ,b 9 cases ( memory ?is way ( speak+ w\ld h an elem5t ( tru?4 ,9 an habitual memory1 ! ev5t rememb]$ 0 cle>ly an ess5tial "p ( ! /imulus to ! =mation ( ! habit4 ,! pres5t /imulus :i* br+s ! habit into play produces a diff]5t response f t :i* x w\ld produce if ! habit did n exi/4 ,!re=e ! habit ent]s into ! causation ( ! response1 & s d1 at "o remove1 ! causes ( ! habit4 ,x foll[s t an ev5t rememb]$ is an ess5tial "p ( ! causes ( our rememb]+4 ,9 spite1 h[ev]1 ( ! fact t :at is kn[n is ,,sometimes an indisp5sable "p ( ! cause ( ! k1 ?is circum/ance is1 ,i ?9k1 irrelevant to ! g5]al "q ) :i* we are conc]n$1 namely ,:at sort ( response to :at sort ( /imulus c be reg>d$ z display+ k8 ,!re is "o *>act]i/ic :i* ! response mu/ h1 namely1 x mu/ consi/ ( volunt>y movem5ts4 ,! ne$ ( ?is *>act]i/ic is connect$ ) ! *>act]i/ic ( ,,appropriat5ess1 :i* ,i d n wi% to consid] z yet4 ,= ! pres5t ,i wi% only to obta9 a cle>] idea ( ! sort ( ,,accuracy t a k-response mu/ h4 ,x is cle> f _m in/ances t accuracy1 9 o!r cases1 may be purely me*anical4 ,! mo/ complete =m ( accuracy consi/s 9 giv+ correct answ]s to que/ions1 an a*ievem5t 9 :i* calculat+ ma*9es f> surpass human be+s4 ,9 ask+ a "q ( a calculat+ ma*9e1 y mu/ use its language3 y mu/ n address x 9 ,engli%1 any m ?an y w\ld address an ,engli%man 9 ,*9ese4 ,b if y address x 9 ! language x und]/&s1 x w tell y :at is #cdeba times #aiihg1 )\t a mom5t's hesitation or a h9t ( inaccuracy4 ,we d n say ! ma*9e ,,kn[s ! answ]1 because x has no purpose ( its own 9 giv+ ! answ]3 x does n wi% to impress y ) its clev]ness1 or feel pr\d ( be+ su* a good ma*9e4 ,b z f> z m]e accuracy goes1 ! ma*9e leaves no?+ to be desir$4 ,accuracy ( response is a p]fectly cle> notion 9 ! case ( answ]s to que/ions1 b 9 o!r cases x is mu* m obscure4 ,we may say g5]ally t an object :e!r animate or inanimate1 is s5sitive to a c]ta9 feature ( ! environm5t if x behaves diff]5tly accord+ to ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( t feature4 ,?us iron is s5sitive to any?+ magnetic4 ,b s5sitiv5ess does n con/itute k1 & k ( a fact :i* is n s5sible is n s5sitiv5ess to t fact1 z we h se5 9 di/+ui%+ ! fact kn[n f ! /imulus4 ,z soon z we pass beyond ! simple case ( "q & answ]1 ! def9ition ( k by means ( behavi\r dem&s ! consid]ation ( purpose4 ,a c>ri] pigeon flies home1 & s we say x kn[s ! way4 ,b if x m]ely flew to "s place at r&om1 we %\ld n say t x knew ! way to t place1 any m ?an a /one roll+ d[n hill kn[s ! way to ! valley4 ,on ! features :i* di/+ui% k f accuracy ( response 9 g5]al1 n mu* c be said f a behavi\ri/ po9t ( view )\t ref]r+ to purpose4 ,b ! necessity ( ,,some?+ besides accuracy ( response may be br\ght out by ! foll[+ consid]ation3 ,suppose two p]sons1 ( :om "o believ$ :atev] ! o!r disbeliev$1 & disbeliev$ :atev] ! o!r believ$4 ,s f> z accuracy & s5sitiv5ess ( response alone are conc]n$1 !re w\ld be no?+ to *oose betwe5 ^! two p]sons4 ,a !rmomet] :i* w5t d[n = w>m wea!r & up = cold might be j z accurate z ! usual k9d2 & a p]son :o always believes falsely is j z s5sitive an in/rum5t z a p]son :o always believes truly4 ,! obs]vable & practical diff]5ce betwe5 !m w\ld be t ! "o :o always believ$ falsely w\ld quickly come to a bad end4 ,?is illu/rates once m t accuracy ( response to /imulus does n alone %[ k1 b mu/ be re9=c$ by appropriat5ess1 i4e4 suitability = realiz+ "o's purpose4 ,?is applies ev5 9 ! app>5tly simple case ( answ]+ que/ions3 if ! purpose ( ! answ]s is to deceive1 _! falsehood1 n _! tru?1 w be evid5ce ( k4 ,! proportion ( ! comb9ation ( appropriat5ess ) accuracy 9 ! def9ition ( k is difficult2 x seems t bo? ent] 91 b t appropriat5ess is only requir$ z reg>ds ! g5]al type ( response1 n z reg>ds ea* individual in/ance4 ,,ii4 ,i h s f> assum$ z unque/ionable ! view t ! tru? or falsehood ( a belief consi/s 9 a relation to a c]ta9 fact1 namely ! objective ( ! belief4 ,?is view has1 h[ev]1 be5 (t5 que/ion$4 ,philosoph]s h s\ght "s intr9sic crit]ion by :i* true & false beliefs c\ld be di/+ui%$499 ,i am afraid _! *ief reason = ?is se>* has be5 ! wi% to feel m c]ta9ty ?an seems o!rwise possible z to :at is true & :at is false4 ,if we c\ld discov] ! tru? ( a belief by exam9+ its intr9sic *>act]i/ics1 or ^? ( "s collection ( beliefs ( :i* x =ms "p1 ! pursuit ( tru?1 x is ?\ght1 w\ld be a less ardu\s bus9ess ?an x o!rwise appe>s to be4 ,b ! attempts :i* h be5 made 9 ?is direction are n enc\rag+4 ,i w take two crit]ia :i* h be5 sugge/$1 namely1 7#a7 self-evid5ce1 7#b7 mutual coh]5ce4 ,if we c %[ t ^! are inadequate1 we may feel fairly c]ta9 t no intr9sic crit]ion hi!rto sugge/$ w suffice to di/+ui% true f false beliefs4 99 ,! view t su* a crit]ion exi/s is g5]ally held by ^? ^: views are 9 any degree d]iv$ f ,hegel4 ,x may be illu/rat$ by ! foll[+ passage f ,lossky1 ,! ,intuitive ,basis ( ,k 7,macmillan1 #aiai71 p4 #bfh3 ,/rictly speak+1 a false judgm5t is n a judgm5t at all4 ,! pr$icate does n foll[ f ! subject ,s alone1 b f ! subject plus a c]ta9 addition ,c1 ,,:i* ,,9 ,,no ,,s5se ,,belongs ,,to ,,! ,,cont5t ,,( ,,! ,,judgm5t4 ,:at takes place may be a process ( association ( ideas1 ( imag9+1 or ! l1 b is n a process ( judg+4 ,an exp]i5c$ psy*ologi/ w be able by c>eful obs]vation to detect t 9 ?is process !re is want+ j ! specific elem5t ( ! objective dep5d5ce ( ! pr$icate ^u ! subject :i* is *>act]i/ic ( a judgm5t4 ,x mu/ be admitt$1 h[ev]1 t an exceptional p[] ( obs]vation is ne$$ 9 ord] to di/+ui%1 by means ( introspection1 m]e comb9ation ( ideas f judgm5ts4 7#a7 ,self-evid5ce4--,"s ( our beliefs seem to be peculi>ly indubitable4 ,"o might in/ance ! belief t two & two are f\r1 t two ?+s _c be 9 ! same place at ! same "t1 nor "o ?+ 9 two places1 or t a p>ticul> butt]cup t we are see+ is yell[4 ,! sugge/ion we are to exam9e is t su*3 beliefs h "s recognizable quality :i* secures _! tru?1 & ! tru? ( :atev] is d$uc$ f !m accord+ to self-evid5t pr9ciples ( inf]5ce4 ,?is !ory is set =?1 = example1 by ,me9ong 9 8 book1 ,ueb] die ,erfahrungsgrundlag5 uns]es ,wiss5s4 ,if ?is !ory is to be logically t5able1 self-evid5ce mu/ n consi/ m]ely 9 ! fact t we believe a proposition4 ,we believe t our beliefs are sometimes errone\s1 & we wi% to be able to select a c]ta9 class ( beliefs :i* are nev] errone\s4 ,if we are to d ?is1 x mu/ be by "s m>k :i* belongs only to c]ta9 beliefs1 n to all2 & among ^? to :i* x belongs !re mu/ be none t are mutually inconsi/5t4 ,if1 = example1 two propositions p & q 7 self-evid5t1 & x 7 also self-evid5t t p & q c\ld n bo? be true1 t w\ld condemn self-evid5ce z a gu>antee ( tru?4 ,aga91 self-evid5ce mu/ n be ! same ?+ z ! abs5ce ( d\bt or ! pres5ce ( complete c]ta9ty4 ,if we are completely c]ta9 ( a proposition1 we d n seek a gr\nd to support our belief4 ,if self-evid5ce is alleg$ z a gr\nd ( belief1 t implies t d\bt has crept 91 & t our self-evid5t proposition has n :olly resi/$ ! assaults ( scepticism4 ,to say t any giv5 p]son believes "s ?+s s firmly t he _c be made to d\bt !m is no d\bt true4 ,su* beliefs he w be will+ to use z premisses 9 reason+1 & to him p]sonally !y w seem to h z mu* evid5ce z any belief c ne$4 ,b among ! propositions :i* "o man f9ds indubitable !re w be "s t ano!r man f9ds x q possible to d\bt4 ,x us$ to seem self-evid5t t !re c\ld n be m5 at ! ,antipodes1 because !y w\ld fall (f1 or at be/ gr[ giddy f /&+ on _! heads4 ,b ,new ,zeal&]s f9d ! falsehood ( ?is proposition self-evid5t4 ,!re=e1 if self-evid5ce is a gu>antee ( tru?1 our ance/ors mu/ h be5 mi/ak5 9 ?9k+ _! beliefs ab\t ! ,antipodes self-evid5t4 ,me9ong meets ?is difficulty by say+ t "s beliefs are falsely ?\ght to be self-evid5t1 b 9 ! case ( o!rs x is self-evid5t t !y are self-evid5t1 & ^! are :olly reliable4 ,ev5 ?is1 h[ev]1 does n remove ! practical risk ( error1 s9ce we may mi/ak5ly believe x self-evid5t t a c]ta9 belief is self-evid5t4 ,to remove all risk ( error1 we %all ne$ an endless s]ies ( m & m complicat$ self-evid5t beliefs1 :i* _c possibly be realiz$ 9 practice4 ,x w\ld seem1 !re=e1 t self-evid5ce is useless z a practical crit]ion = insur+ tru?4 ,! same result foll[s f exam9+ in/ances4 ,if we take ! f\r in/ances m5tion$ at ! beg9n+ ( ?is discussion1 we %all f9d t ?ree ( !m are logical1 :ile ! f\r? is a judgm5t ( p]ception4 ,! proposition t two & two are f\r foll[s by purely logical d$uction f def9itions3 t means t its tru? results1 n f ! prop]ties ( objects1 b f ! mean+s ( symbols4 ,n[ symbols1 9 ma!matics1 mean :at we *oose2 ?us ! feel+ ( self-evid5ce1 9 ?is case1 seems explicable by ! fact t ! :ole matt] is )9 our control4 ,i d n wi% to ass]t t ?is is ! :ole tru? ab\t ma!matical propositions1 = ! "q is complicat$1 & ,i d n "k :at ! :ole tru? is4 ,b ,i d wi% to sugge/ t ! feel+ ( self-evid5ce 9 ma!matical propositions has to d ) ! fact t !y are conc]n$ ) ! mean+s ( symbols1 n ) prop]ties ( ! _w su* z ext]nal obs]vation might reveal4 ,simil> consid]ations apply to ! impossibility ( a ?+ be+ 9 two places at once1 or ( two ?+s be+ 9 "o place at ! same "t4 ,^! impossibilities result logically1 if ,i am n mi/ak51 f ! def9itions ( "o ?+ & "o place4 ,t is to say1 !y are n laws ( physics1 b only "p ( ! intellectual app>atus :i* we h manufactur$ = manipulat+ physics4 ,_! self-evid5ce1 if ?is is s1 lies m]ely 9 ! fact t !y repres5t our decision z to ! use ( words1 n a prop]ty ( physical objects4 ,judgm5ts ( p]ception1 su* z ?is butt]cup is yell[1 are 9 a q diff]5t position f judgm5ts ( logic1 & _! self-evid5ce mu/ h a diff]5t explanation4 ,9 ord] to arrive at ! nucleus ( su* a judgm5t1 we w elim9ate1 z f> z possible1 ! use ( words :i* take u beyond ! pres5t fact1 su* z butt]cup & yell[4 ,! simple/ k9d ( judgm5t und]ly+ ! p]ception t a butt]cup is yell[ w\ld seem to be ! p]ception ( simil>ity 9 two col\rs se5 simultane\sly4 ,suppose we are see+ two butt]cups1 & we p]ceive t _! col\rs are simil>4 ,?is simil>ity is a physical fact1 n a matt] ( symbols or words2 & x c]ta9ly seems to be indubitable 9 a way t _m judgm5ts are n4 ,! fir/ ?+ to obs]ve1 9 reg>d to su* judgm5ts1 is t z !y /& !y are vague4 ,! ^w simil> is a vague ^w1 s9ce !re are degrees ( simil>ity1 & no "o c say :]e simil>ity ends & dissimil>ity beg9s4 ,x is unlikely t our two butt]cups h ,,exactly ! same col\r1 & if we judg$ t !y _h we %\ld h pass$ altoge!r outside ! region ( self-evid5ce4 ,to make our proposition m precise1 let u suppose t we are also see+ a r$ rose at ! same "t4 ,!n we may judge t ! col\rs ( ! butt]cups are m simil> to ea* o!r ?an to ! col\r ( ! rose4 ,?is judgm5t seems m complicat$1 b has c]ta9ly ga9$ 9 precision4 ,ev5 n[1 h[ev]1 x falls %ort ( complete precision1 s9ce simil>ity is n prima facie measurable1 & x w\ld require mu* discussion to decide :at we mean by great] or less simil>ity4 ,to ?is process ( ! pursuit ( precision !re is /rictly no limit4 ,! next ?+ to obs]ve 7al?\gh ,i d n p]sonally d\bt t mo/ ( our judgm5ts ( p]ception are true7 is t x is v difficult to def9e any class ( su* judgm5ts :i* c be kn[n1 by its intr9sic quality1 to be always exempt f error4 ,mo/ ( our judgm5ts ( p]ception involve correlations1 z :5 we judge t a c]ta9 noise is t ( a pass+ c>t4 ,su* judgm5ts are all obvi\sly liable to error1 s9ce !re is no correlation ( :i* we h a "r to be c]ta9 t x is inv>iable4 ,o!r judgm5ts ( p]ception are d]iv$ f recognition1 z :5 we say ?is is a butt]cup1 or ev5 m]ely ?is is yell[4 ,all su* judgm5ts entail "s risk ( error1 ?\gh sometimes p]haps a v small "o2 "s fl[]s t look l butt]cups are m>igolds1 & col\rs t "s w\ld call yell[ o!rs might call orange4 ,our subjective c]ta9ty is usually a result ( habit1 & may lead u a/ray 9 circum/ances :i* are unusual 9 ways ( :i* we are unaw>e4 ,= su* reasons1 no =m ( self-evid5ce seems to af=d an absolute crit]ion ( tru?4 ,nev]!less1 x is p]haps true t judgm5ts hav+ a high degree ( subjective c]ta9ty are m apt to be true ?an o!r judgm5ts4 ,b if ?is be ! case1 x is a result to be demon/rat$1 n a premiss f :i* to />t 9 def9+ tru? & falsehood4 ,z an initial gu>antee1 !re=e1 nei!r self-evid5ce nor subjective c]ta9ty c be accept$ z adequate4 7#b7 ,coh]5ce4--,coh]5ce z ! def9ition ( tru? is advocat$ by ideali/s1 p>ticul>ly by ^? :o 9 ! ma9 foll[ ,hegel4 ,x is set =? ably 9 ,mr4 ,joa*im's book1 ,! ,nature ( ,tru? 7,ox=d1 #aijf74 ,accord+ to ?is view1 any set ( propositions o!r ?an ! :ole ( tru? c be condemn$ on purely logical gr\nds1 z int]nally inconsi/5t2 a s+le proposition1 if x is :at we %\ld ord9>ily call false1 contradicts itself irrem$iably1 :ile if x is :at we %\ld ord9>ily call true1 x has implications :i* compel u to admit o!r propositions1 :i* 9 turn lead to o!rs1 & s on1 until we f9d ourselves committ$ to ! :ole ( tru?4 ,"o might illu/rate by a v simple example3 if ,i say s-&-s is a m>ri$ man1 t is n a self-subsi/5t proposition4 ,we _c logically conceive ( a univ]se 9 :i* ?is proposition con/itut$ ! :ole ( tru?4 ,!re mu/ be also someone :o is a m>ri$ woman1 & :o is m>ri$ to ! p>ticul> man 9 "q4 ,! view we are consid]+ reg>ds ev]y?+ t c be said ab\t any "o object z relative 9 ! same sort ( way z s-&-s is a m>ri$ man4 ,b ev]y?+1 accord+ to ?is view1 is relative1 n to "o or two o!r ?+s1 b to all o!r ?+s1 s t f "o bit ( tru? ! :ole c be inf]r$4 ,! fundam5tal objection to ?is view is logical1 & consi/s 9 a criticism ( its doctr9e z to relations4 ,i %all omit ?is l9e ( argum5t1 :i* ,i h develop$ else:]e499 ,= ! mom5t ,i w cont5t myself ) say+ t ! p[]s ( logic seem to me v mu* less ?an ?is !ory supposes4 ,if x 7 tak5 s]i\sly1 its advocates ought to pr(ess t any "o tru? is logically inf]able f any o!r1 & t1 = example1 ! fact t ,caes> conqu]$ ,gaul1 if adequately consid]$1 w\ld enable u to discov] :at ! wea!r w be to-morr[4 ,no su* claim is put =w>d 9 practice1 & ! necessity ( empirical obs]vation is n d5i$2 b accord+ to ! !ory x ought to be4 99 ,9 ! article on ,! ,moni/ic ,!ory ( ,tru? 9 ,philosophical ,essays 7,longmans1 #aiaj71 repr9t$ f ! ,proce$+s ( ! ,ari/otelian ,society1 #aijf-g4 ,ano!r objection is t no endeav\r is made to %[ t we _c =m a consi/5t :ole compos$ p>tly or :olly ( false propositions1 z 9 a novel4 ,leibniz's conception ( _m possible worlds seems to accord mu* bett] ) mod]n logic & ) ! practical empiricism :i* is n[ univ]sal4 ,! attempt to d$uce ! _w by pure ?\ght is attractive1 & 9 =m] times 0 l>gely suppos$ capable ( success4 ,b n[adays mo/ m5 admit t beliefs mu/ be te/$ by obs]vation1 & n m]ely by ! fact t !y h>monize ) o!r beliefs4 ,a consi/5t fairy-tale is a diff]5t ?+ f tru?1 h[ev] elaborate x may be4 ,b to pursue ?is topic w\ld lead u into difficult te*nicalities2 ,i %all !re=e assume1 )\t fur!r argum5t1 t coh]5ce is n suffici5t z a def9ition ( tru?4 ,,iii4 ,_m difficult problems arise z reg>ds ! v]ifiability ( beliefs4 ,we believe v>i\s ?+s1 & :ile we believe !m we ?9k we "k !m4 ,b x sometimes turns out t we 7 mi/ak51 or at any rate we come to ?9k we 74 ,we mu/ be mi/ak5 ei!r 9 our previ\s op9ion or 9 our subsequ5t recantation2 !re=e our beliefs are n all correct1 & !re are cases ( belief :i* are n cases ( k4 ,! "q ( v]ifiability is 9 ess5ce ?is3 c we discov] any set ( beliefs :i* are nev] mi/ak5 or any te/ :i*1 :5 applicable1 w always enable u to discrim9ate betwe5 true & false beliefs8 ,put ?us broadly & ab/ractly1 ! answ] mu/ be negative4 ,!re is no way hi!rto discov]$ ( :olly elim9at+ ! risk ( error1 & no infallible crit]ion4 ,if we believe we h f\nd a crit]ion1 ?is belief itself may be mi/ak52 we %\ld be begg+ ! "q if we tri$ to te/ ! crit]ion by apply+ ! crit]ion to itself4 ,b al?\gh ! notion ( an absolute crit]ion is *im]ical1 !re may be relative crit]ia1 :i* increase ! probability ( tru?4 ,common s5se & sci5ce hold t !re are4 ,let u see :at !y h to say4 ,"o ( ! pla9e/ cases ( v]ification1 p]haps ultimately ! only case1 consi/s 9 ! happ5+ ( some?+ expect$4 ,y g to ! /ation believ+ t !re w be a tra9 at a c]ta9 "t2 y f9d ! tra91 y get into x1 & x />ts at ! expect$ "t ,?is con/itutes v]ification1 & is a p]fectly def9ite exp]i5ce4 ,x is1 9 a s5se1 ! conv]se ( memory in/ead ( hav+ fir/ s5sations & !n images accompani$ by belief1 we h fir/ images accompani$ by belief & !n s5sations4 ,ap>t f diff]5ces z to ! "t-ord] & ! accompany+ feel+s1 ! relation betwe5 image & s5sation is closely simil> 9 ! two cases ( memory & expectation2 x is a relation ( simil>ity1 ) diff]5ce z to causal efficacy--broadly1 ! image has ! psy*ological b n ! physical effects t ! s5sation w\ld h4 ,:5 an image accompani$ by an expectation-belief is ?us succe$$ by a s5sation :i* is ! mean+ ( ! image1 we say t ! expectation-belief has be5 v]ifi$4 ,! exp]i5ce ( v]ification 9 ?is s5se is exce$+ly famili>2 x happ5s e "t t accu/om$ activities h results t are n surpris+1 9 eat+ & walk+ & talk+ & all our daily pursuits4 ,b al?\gh ! exp]i5ce 9 "q is common1 x is n :olly easy to give a !oretical acc\nt ( x4 ,h[ d we "k t ! s5sation resembles ! previ\s image8 ,does ! image p]si/ 9 pres5ce ( ! s5sation1 s t we c comp>e ! two8 ,& ev5 if ,,"s image does p]si/1 h[ d we "k t x is ! previ\s image un*ang$8 ,x does n seem z if ?is l9e ( inquiry (f]$ mu* hope ( a successful issue4 ,x is bett]1 ,i ?9k1 to take a m ext]nal & causal view ( ! relation ( expectation to expect$ occurr5ce4 ,if ! occurr5ce1 :5 x comes1 gives u ! feel+ ( expect$ness1 & if ! expectation1 be=eh&1 enabl$ u to act 9 a way :i* proves appropriate to ! occurr5ce1 t mu/ be held to con/itute ! maximum ( v]ification4 ,we h fir/ an expectation1 !n a s5sation ) ! feel+ ( expect$ness relat$ to memory ( ! expectation4 ,?is :ole exp]i5ce1 :5 x occurs1 may be def9$ z v]ification1 & z con/itut+ ! tru? ( ! expectation4 ,appropriate action1 dur+ ! p]iod ( expectation1 may be reg>d$ z additional v]ification1 b is n ess5tial4 ,! :ole process may be illu/rat$ by look+ up a famili> quotation1 f9d+ x 9 ! expect$ words1 & 9 ! expect$ "p ( ! book4 ,9 ?is case we c /r5g!n ! v]ification by writ+ d[n be=eh& ! words :i* we expect to f9d4 ,i ?9k all v]ification is ultimately ( ! above sort4 ,we v]ify a sci5tific hypo!sis indirectly1 by d$uc+ consequ5ces z to ! future1 :i* subsequ5t exp]i5ce confirms4 ,if somebody 7 to d\bt :e!r ,caes> _h cross$ ! ,rubicon1 v]ification c\ld only be obta9$ f ! future4 ,we c\ld proce$ to display manuscripts to our hi/orical sceptic1 9 :i* x 0 said t ,caes> _h behav$ 9 ?is way4 ,we c\ld advance argum5ts1 v]ifiable by future exp]i5ce1 to prove ! antiquity ( ! manuscript f its texture1 col\r1 etc4 ,we c\ld f9d inscriptions agree+ ) ! hi/orian on o!r po9ts1 & t5d+ to %[ 8 g5]al accuracy4 ,! causal laws :i* our argum5ts w\ld assume c\ld be v]ifi$ by ! future occurr5ce ( ev5ts inf]r$ by means ( !m4 ,! exi/5ce & p]si/5ce ( causal laws1 x is true1 mu/ be reg>d$ z a =tunate accid5t1 & h[ long x w cont9ue we _c tell4 ,mean:ile v]ification rema9s (t5 practically possible4 ,& s9ce x is sometimes possible1 we c gradually discov] :at k9ds ( beliefs t5d to be v]ifi$ by exp]i5ce1 & :at k9ds t5d to be falsifi$2 to ! =m] k9ds we give an increas$ degree ( ass5t1 to ! latt] k9ds a dim9i%$ degree4 ,! process is n absolute or infallible1 b x has be5 f\nd capable ( sift+ beliefs & build+ up sci5ce4 ,x af=ds no !oretical refutation ( ! sceptic1 ^: position mu/ rema9 logically unassailable2 b if complete scepticism is reject$1 x gives ! practical me?od by :i* ! sy/em ( our beliefs gr[s gradually t[>ds ! unatta9able ideal ( impeccable k4 ,,iv4 ,i come n[ to ! purely =mal def9ition ( ! tru? or falsehood ( a belief4 ,= ?is def9ition x is necess>y fir/ ( all to consid] ! d]ivation ( ! objective ref]5ce ( a proposition f ! mean+s ( its compon5t words or images4 ,j z a ^w has mean+1 s a proposition has an objective ref]5ce4 ,! objective ref]5ce ( a proposition is a function 79 ! ma!matical s5se7 ( ! mean+s ( its compon5t words4 ,b ! objective ref]5ce diff]s f ! mean+ ( a ^w ?r\gh ! duality ( tru? & falsehood4 ,y may believe ! proposition to-day is ,tuesday bo? :51 9 fact1 to-day is ,tuesday1 & :5 to-day is n ,tuesday4 ,if to-day is n ,tuesday1 ?is fact is ! objective ( y\r belief t to-day is ,tuesday4 ,b obvi\sly ! relation ( y\r belief to ! fact is diff]5t 9 ?is case f :at x is 9 ! case :5 to-day is ,tuesday4 ,we may say1 metaphorically1 t :5 to-day is ,tuesday1 y\r belief t x is ,tuesday po9ts ,,t[>ds ! fact1 :]eas :5 to-day is n ,tuesday y\r belief po9ts ,,away ,,f ! fact4 ,?us ! objective ref]5ce ( a belief is n det]m9$ by ! fact alone1 b by ! direction ( ! belief t[>ds or away f ! fact499 ,if1 on a ,tuesday1 "o man believes t x is ,tuesday :ile ano!r believes t x is n ,tuesday1 _! beliefs h ! same objective1 namely ! fact t x is ,tuesday b ! true belief po9ts t[>ds ! fact :ile ! false "o po9ts away f x4 ,?us1 9 ord] to def9e ! ref]5ce ( a proposition we h to take acc\nt n only ( ! objective1 b also ( ! direction ( po9t+1 t[>ds ! objective 9 ! case ( a true proposition & away f x 9 ! case ( a false "o4 99 ,i owe ?is way ( look+ at ! matt] to my fri5d ,ludwig ,wittg5/e94 ,?is mode ( /at+ ! nature ( ! objective ref]5ce ( a proposition is necessitat$ by ! circum/ance t !re are true & false propositions1 b n true & false facts4 ,if to-day is ,tuesday1 !re is n a false objective to-day is n ,tuesday1 :i* c\ld be ! objective ( ! false belief to-day is n ,tuesday4 ,?is is ! reason :y two beliefs :i* are ea* o!r's contradictories h ! same objective4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 a practical inconv5i5ce1 namely t we _c det]m9e ! objective ref]5ce ( a proposition1 accord+ to ?is def9ition1 unless we "k :e!r ! proposition is true or false4 ,to avoid ?is inconv5i5ce1 x is bett] to adopt a slightly diff]5t phraseology1 & say3 ,! mean+ ( ! proposition to-day is ,tuesday consi/s 9 po9t+ to ! fact to-day is ,tuesday if t is a fact1 or away f ! fact to-day is n ,tuesday if t is a fact4 ,! mean+ ( ! proposition to-day is n ,tuesday w be exactly ! opposite4 ,by ?is hypo!tical =m we are able to speak ( ! mean+ ( a proposition )\t kn[+ :e!r x is true or false4 ,accord+ to ?is def9ition1 we "k ! mean+ ( a proposition :5 we "k :at w\ld make x true & :at w\ld make x false1 ev5 if we d n "k :e!r x is 9 fact true or false4 ,! mean+ ( a proposition is d]ivative f ! mean+s ( its con/itu5t words4 ,propositions occur 9 pairs1 di/+ui%$ 79 simple cases7 by ! abs5ce or pres5ce ( ! ^w n4 ,two su* propositions h ! same objective1 b opposite mean+s3 :5 "o is true1 ! o!r is false1 & :5 "o is false1 ! o!r is true4 ,! purely =mal def9ition ( tru? & falsehood (f]s little difficulty4 ,:at is requir$ is a =mal expression ( ! fact t a proposition is true :5 x po9ts t[>ds its objective1 & false :5 x po9ts away f x1 ,9 v simple cases we c give a v simple acc\nt ( ?is3 we c say t true propositions actually resemble _! objectives 9 a way 9 :i* false propositions d n4 ,b = ?is purpose x is necess>y to rev]t to image-propositions in/ead ( ^w-propositions4 ,let u take aga9 ! illu/ration ( a memory-image ( a famili> room1 & let u suppose t 9 ! image ! w9d[ is to ! left ( ! door4 ,if 9 fact ! w9d[ is to ! left ( ! door1 !re is a correspond5ce betwe5 ! image & ! objective2 !re is ! same relation betwe5 ! w9d[ & ! door z betwe5 ! images ( !m4 ,! image-memory consi/s ( ! image ( ! w9d[ to ! left ( ! image ( ! door4 ,:5 ?is is true1 ! v same relation relates ! t]ms ( ! objective 7namely ! w9d[ & ! door7 z relates ! images :i* mean !m4 ,9 ?is case ! correspond5ce :i* con/itutes tru? is v simple4 ,9 ! case we h j be5 consid]+ ! objective consi/s ( two p>ts ) a c]ta9 relation 7t ( left-to-"r71 & ! proposition consi/s ( images ( ^! p>ts ) ! v same relation4 ,! same proposition1 if x 7 false1 w\ld h a less simple =mal relation to its objective4 ,if ! image-proposition consi/s ( an image ( ! w9d[ to ! left ( an image ( ! door1 :ile 9 fact ! w9d[ is n to ! left ( ! door1 ! proposition does n result f ! objective by ! m]e sub/itution ( images = _! prototypes4 ,?us 9 ?is unusually simple case we c say t a true proposition corresponds to its objective 9 a =mal s5se 9 :i* a false proposition does n4 ,p]haps x may be possible to modify ?is notion ( =mal correspond5ce 9 su* a way z to be m widely applicable1 b if s1 ! modifications requir$ w be by no means slight4 ,! reasons = ?is mu/ n[ be consid]$4 ,to beg9 )1 ! simple type ( correspond5ce we h be5 exhibit+ c h>dly occur :5 words are sub/itut$ = images1 because1 9 ^w-propositions1 relations are usually express$ by words1 :i* are n !mselves relations4 ,take su* a proposition z ,socrates prec$es ,plato4 ,"h ! ^w prec$es is j z solid z ! words ,socrates & ,plato2 x ,,means a relation1 b is n a relation4 ,?us ! objective :i* makes our proposition true consi/s ( ,,two t]ms ) a relation betwe5 !m1 :]eas our proposition consi/s ( ,,?ree t]ms ) a relation ( ord] betwe5 !m4 ,( c\rse1 x w\ld be p]fectly possible1 !oretically1 to indicate a few *os5 relations1 n by words1 b by relations betwe5 ! o!r words4 ,socrates-,plato might be us$ to mean ,socrates prec$es ,plato2 ,plato-,socrates might be us$ to mean ,plato 0 born be=e ,socrates & di$ aft] him2 & s on4 ,b ! possibilities ( su* a me?od w\ld be v limit$4 ,= aught ,i "k1 !re may be languages t use x1 b !y are n among ! languages ) :i* ,i am acqua9t$4 ,& 9 any case1 9 view ( ! multiplicity ( relations t we wi% to express1 no language c\ld advance f> )\t words = relations4 ,b z soon z we h words = relations1 ^w-propositions h necess>ily m t]ms ?an ! facts to :i* !y ref]1 & _c !re=e correspond s simply ) _! objectives z "s image-propositions c4 ,! consid]ation ( negative propositions & negative facts introduces fur!r complications4 ,an image-proposition is necess>ily positive3 we c image ! w9d[ to ! left ( ! door1 or to ! "r ( ! door1 b we c =m no image ( ! b>e negative ! w9d[ n to ! left ( ! door4 ,we c ,,disbelieve ! image-proposition express$ by ! w9d[ to ! left ( ! door1 & our disbelief w be true if ! w9d[ is n to ! left ( ! door4 ,b we c =m no image ( ! fact t ! w9d[ is n to ! left ( ! door4 ,attempts h (t5 be5 made to d5y su* negative facts1 b1 = reasons :i* ,i h giv5 else:]e199 ,i believe ^! attempts to be mi/ak51 & ,i %all assume t !re are negative facts4 99 ,moni/1 ,janu>y1 #aiai1 p4 #db ff4 ,^w-propositions1 l image-propositions1 are always positive facts4 ,! fact t ,socrates prec$es ,plato is symboliz$ 9 ,engli% by ! fact t ! ^w prec$es occurs betwe5 ! words ,socrates & ,plato4 ,b we _c symbolize ! fact t ,plato does n prec$e ,socrates by n putt+ ! ^w prec$es betwe5 ,plato & ,socrates4 ,a negative fact is n s5sible1 & language1 be+ int5d$ = communication1 has to be s5sible4 ,!re=e we symbolize ! fact t ,plato does n prec$e ,socrates by putt+ ! words does n prec$e betwe5 ,plato & ,socrates4 ,we ?us obta9 a s]ies ( words :i* is j z positive a fact z ! s]ies ,socrates prec$es ,plato4 ,! propositions ass]t+ negative facts are !mselves positive facts2 !y are m]ely diff]5t positive facts f ^? ass]t+ positive facts4 ,we h ?us1 z reg>ds ! opposition ( positive & negative1 ?ree diff]5t sorts ( duality1 accord+ z we are deal+ ) facts1 image-propositions1 or ^w-propositions4 ,we h1 namely3 7#a7 ,positive & negative facts2 7#b7 ,image-propositions1 :i* may be believ$ or disbeliev$1 b d n all[ any duality ( cont5t correspond+ to positive & negative facts2 7#c7 ,^w-propositions1 :i* are always positive facts1 b are ( two k9ds3 "o v]ifi$ by a positive objective1 ! o!r by a negative objective4 ,ow+ to ^! complications1 ! simple/ type ( correspond5ce is impossible :5 ei!r negative facts or negative propositions are involv$4 ,ev5 :5 we conf9e ourselves to relations betwe5 two t]ms :i* are bo? imag$1 x may be impossible to =m an image-proposition 9 :i* ! relation ( ! t]ms is repres5t$ by ! same relation ( ! images4 ,suppose we say ,caes> 0 #b1jjj ye>s be=e ,fo*1 we express a c]ta9 temporal relation betwe5 ,caes> & ,fo*2 b we _c all[ #b1jjj ye>s to elapse betwe5 our image ( ,caes> & our image ( ,fo*4 ,?is is p]haps n a fair example1 s9ce #b1jjj ye>s be=e is n a direct relation4 ,b take a case :]e ! relation is direct1 say1 ! sun is bright] ?an ! moon4 ,we c =m visual images ( sun%9e & moon%9e1 & x may happ5 t our image ( ! sun%9e is ! bright] ( ! two1 b ?is is by no means ei!r necess>y or suffici5t4 ,! act ( comp>ison1 impli$ 9 our judgm5t1 is some?+ m ?an ! m]e coexi/5ce ( two images1 "o ( :i* is 9 fact bright] ?an ! o!r4 ,x w\ld take u too f> f our ma9 topic if we 7 to g into ! "q :at actually occurs :5 we make ?is judgm5t4 ,en\gh has be5 said to %[ t ! correspond5ce betwe5 ! belief & its objective is m complicat$ 9 ?is case ?an 9 t ( ! w9d[ to ! left ( ! door1 & ?is 0 all t _h to be prov$4 ,9 spite ( ^! complications1 ! g5]al nature ( ! =mal correspond5ce :i* makes tru? is cle> f our in/ances4 ,9 ! case ( ! simpl] k9d ( propositions1 namely ^? t ,i call atomic propositions1 :]e !re is only "o ^w express+ a relation1 ! objective :i* w\ld v]ify our proposition1 assum+ t ! ^w n is abs5t1 is obta9$ by replac+ ea* ^w by :at x means1 ! ^w mean+ a relation be+ replac$ by ?is relation among ! mean+s ( ! o!r words4 ,= example1 if ! proposition is ,socrates prec$es ,plato1 ! objective :i* v]ifies x results f replac+ ! ^w ,socrates by ,socrates1 ! ^w ,plato by ,plato1 & ! ^w prec$es by ! relation ( prec$+ betwe5 ,socrates & ,plato4 ,if ! result ( ?is process is a fact1 ! proposition is true2 if n1 x is false4 ,:5 our proposition is ,socrates does n prec$e ,plato1 ! conditions ( tru? & falsehood are exactly rev]s$4 ,m complicat$ propositions c be dealt ) on ! same l9es4 ,9 fact1 ! purely =mal "q1 :i* has occupi$ u 9 ?is la/ section1 (f]s no v =midable difficulties4 ,i d n believe t ! above =mal !ory is untrue1 b ,i d believe t x is inadequate4 ,x does n1 = example1 ?r[ any light ^u our pref]5ce = true beliefs r ?an false ones4 ,?is pref]5ce is only explicable by tak+ acc\nt ( ! causal efficacy ( beliefs1 & ( ! great] appropriat5ess ( ! responses result+ f true beliefs4 ,b appropriat5ess dep5ds ^u purpose1 & purpose ?us becomes a vital "p ( !ory ( k4 ,,lecture ,,xiv4 ,,emotions ,,& ,,w ,on ! two subjects ( ! pres5t lecture ,i h no?+ orig9al to say1 & ,i am treat+ !m only 9 ord] to complete ! discussion ( my ma9 !sis1 namely t all psy*ic ph5om5a are built up out ( s5sations & images alone4 ,emotions are traditionally reg>d$ by psy*ologi/s z a sep>ate class ( m5tal occurr5ces3 ,i am1 ( c\rse1 n conc]n$ to d5y ! obvi\s fact t !y h *>act]i/ics :i* make a special inve/igation ( !m necess>y4 ,:at ,i am conc]n$ ) is ! analysis ( emotions4 ,x is cle> t an emotion is ess5tially complex1 & we h to inquire :e!r x ev] conta9s any non-physiological mat]ial n r$ucible to s5sations & images & _! relations4 ,al?\gh :at specially conc]ns u is ! analysis ( emotions1 we %all f9d t ! m important topic is ! physiological causation ( emotions4 ,?is is a subject ^u :i* mu* valuable & exce$+ly int]e/+ "w has be5 done1 :]eas ! b>e analysis ( emotions has prov$ some:at b>r54 ,9 view ( ! fact t we h def9$ p]ceptions1 s5sations1 & images by _! physiological causation1 x is evid5t t our problem ( ! analysis ( ! emotions is b\nd up ) ! problem ( _! physiological causation4 ,mod]n views on ! causation ( emotions beg9 ) :at is call$ ! ,james-,lange !ory4 ,james /ates ?is view 9 ! foll[+ t]ms 7,psy*ology1 vol4 ii1 p4 #ddi73 ,our natural way ( ?9k+ ab\t ^! co>s] emotions1 grief1 fe>1 rage1 love1 is t ! m5tal p]ception ( "s fact excites ! m5tal affection call$ ! emotion1 & t ?is latt] /ate ( m9d gives rise to ! bodily expression4 ,my !ory1 on ! contr>y1 is t ,,! ,,bodily ,,*anges ,,foll[ ,,directly ,,! ,,p]ception ,,( ,,! ,,excit+ ,,fact1 ,,& ,,t ,,our ,,feel+ ,,( ,,! ,,same ,,*anges ,,z ,,!y ,,occur ,,is ,,! ,,emotion 7,james's italics74 ,common s5se says3 we lose our =tune1 are sorry & weep2 we meet a be>1 are fright5$ & run2 we are insult$ by a rival1 are angry & /rike4 ,! hypo!sis "h to be def5d$ says t ?is ord] ( sequ5ce is incorrect1 t ! "o m5tal /ate is n imm$iately induc$ by ! o!r1 t ! bodily manife/ations mu/ fir/ be int]pos$ betwe51 & t ! m rational /atem5t is t we feel sorry because we cry1 angry because we /rike1 afraid because we tremble1 & n t we cry1 /rike1 or tremble1 because we are sorry1 angry1 or fe>ful1 z ! case may be4 ,)\t ! bodily /ates foll[+ on ! p]ception1 ! latt] w\ld be purely cognitive 9 =m1 pale1 col\rless1 de/itute ( emotional w>m?4 ,r\nd ?is hypo!sis a v volum9\s lit]ature has gr[n up4 ,! hi/ory ( its victory ov] e>li] criticism1 & its difficulties ) ! mod]n exp]im5tal "w ( ,%]r+ton & ,cannon1 is well told by ,james ,r4 ,angell 9 an article call$ ,a ,reconsid]ation ( ,james's ,!ory ( ,emotion 9 ! ,light ( ,rec5t ,criticisms499 ,9 ?is article ,angell def5ds ,james's !ory & to me--?\gh ,i speak ) diffid5ce on a "q z to :i* ,i h little compet5ce--x appe>s t 8 def5ce is on ! :ole successful4 99 ,psy*ological ,review1 #aiaf4 ,%]r+ton1 by exp]im5ts on dogs1 %[$ t _m ( ! usual m>ks ( emotion 7 pres5t 9 _! behavi\r ev5 :51 by sev]+ ! sp9al cord 9 ! l[] c]vical region1 ! visc]a 7 cut (f f all communication ) ! bra91 except t exi/+ ?r\gh c]ta9 cranial n]ves4 ,he m5tions ! v>i\s signs :i* contribut$ to indicate ! exi/5ce ( an emotion z lively z ! animal _h ev] %[n u be=e ! sp9al op]ation _h be5 made499 ,he inf]s t ! physiological condition ( ! visc]a _c be ! cause ( ! emotion display$ "u su* circum/ances1 & concludes3 ,we are =c$ back t[>d ! likelihood t ! visc]al expression ( emotion is ,,second>y to ! c]ebral action occurr+ ) ! psy*ical /ate4444 ,we may ) ,james accept visc]al & organic s5sations & ! memories & associations ( !m z contributory to primitive emotion1 b we mu/ reg>d !m z re-en=c+ r ?an z initiat+ ! psy*osis499 99 ,quot$ by ,angell1 loc4 cit4 ,angell sugge/s t ! display ( emotion 9 su* cases may be due to pa/ exp]i5ce1 g5]at+ habits :i* w\ld require only ! /imulation ( c]ebral reflex arcs4 ,rage & "s =ms ( fe>1 h[ev]1 may1 he ?9ks1 ga9 expression )\t ! bra94 ,rage & fe> h be5 especially /udi$ by ,cannon1 ^: "w is ( ! greate/ importance4 ,8 results are giv5 9 8 book1 ,bodily ,*anges 9 ,pa91 ,hung]1 ,fe> & ,rage 7,d4 ,appleton & ,co41 #aiaf74 ,! mo/ int]e/+ "p ( ,cannon's book consi/s 9 ! inve/igation ( ! effects produc$ by secretion ( adr594 ,adr59 is a sub/ance secret$ into ! blood by ! adr5al gl&s4 ,^! are among ! ductless gl&s1 ! functions ( :i*1 bo? 9 physiology & 9 connection ) ! emotions1 h only come to be kn[n dur+ rec5t ye>s4 ,cannon f\nd t pa91 fe> & rage occurr$ 9 circum/ances :i* affect$ ! supply ( adr591 & t an artificial injection ( adr59 c\ld1 = example1 produce all ! symptoms ( fe>4 ,he /udi$ ! effects ( adr59 on v>i\s p>ts ( ! body2 he f\nd t x causes ! pupils to dilate1 hairs to /& erect1 blood vessels to be con/rict$1 & s on4 ,^! effects 7 /ill produc$ if ! p>ts 9 "q 7 remov$ f ! body & kept alive artificially499 99 ,cannon's "w is n unconnect$ ) t ( ,mosso1 :o ma9ta9s1 z ! result ( mu* exp]im5tal "w1 t ! seat ( ! emotions lies 9 ! sympa!tic n]v\s sy/em4 ,an acc\nt ( ! "w ( bo? ^! m5 w be f\nd 9 ,godd>d's ,psy*ology ( ! ,normal & ,sub-normal 7,kegan ,paul1 #aiai71 *ap4 vii & ,app5dix4 ,cannon's *ief argum5t aga9/ ,james is1 if ,i und]/& him rightly1 t simil> affections ( ! visc]a may accompany dissimil> emotions1 especially fe> & rage4 ,v>i\s diff]5t emotions make u cry1 & !re=e x _c be true to say1 z ,james does1 t we feel sorry because we cry1 s9ce sometimes we cry :5 we feel glad4 ,?is argum5t1 h[ev]1 is by no means conclusive aga9/ ,james1 because x _c be %[n t !re are no visc]al diff]5ces = diff]5t emotions1 & inde$ x is unlikely t ?is is ! case4 ,z ,angell says 7loc4 cit473 ,fe> & joy may bo? cause c>diac palpitation1 b 9 "o case we f9d high tonus ( ! skeletal muscles1 9 ! o!r case relaxation & ! g5]al s5se ( weakness4 ,angell's conclusion1 aft] discuss+ ! exp]im5ts ( ,%]r+ton & ,cannon1 is3 ,i w\ld !re=e submit t1 s f> z conc]ns ! critical sugge/ions by ^! two psy*ologi/s1 ,james's ess5tial cont5tions are n mat]ially affect$4 ,if x 7 necess>y = me to take sides on ?is "q1 ,i %\ld agree ) ?is conclusion2 b ,i ?9k my !sis z to ! analysis ( emotion c be ma9ta9$ )\t com+ to a probably premature conclusion ^u ! d\btful p>ts ( ! physiological problem4 ,accord+ to our def9itions1 if ,james is "r1 an emotion may be reg>d$ z involv+ a confus$ p]ception ( ! visc]a conc]n$ 9 its causation1 :ile if ,cannon & ,%]r+ton are "r1 an emotion involves a confus$ p]ception ( its ext]nal /imulus4 ,?is foll[s f :at 0 said 9 ,lecture ,,vii4 ,we !re def9$ a p]ception z an appe>ance1 h[ev] irregul>1 ( "o or m objects ext]nal to ! bra94 ,& 9 ord] to be an appe>ance ( "o or m objects1 x is only necess>y t ! occurr5ce 9 "q %\ld be connect$ ) !m by a cont9u\s *a91 & %\ld v>y :5 !y are v>i$ suffici5tly4 ,?us ! "q :e!r a m5tal occurr5ce c be call$ a p]ception turns ^u ! "q :e!r any?+ c be inf]r$ f x z to its causes outside ! bra93 if su* inf]5ce is possible1 ! occurr5ce 9 "q w come )9 our def9ition ( a p]ception4 ,& 9 t case1 accord+ to ! def9ition 9 ,lecture ,,viii1 its non-mnemic elem5ts w be s5sations4 ,accord+ly1 :e!r emotions are caus$ by *anges 9 ! visc]a or by s5sible objects1 !y conta9 elem5ts :i* are s5sations accord+ to our def9ition4 ,an emotion 9 its entirety is1 ( c\rse1 some?+ mu* m complex ?an a p]ception4 ,an emotion is ess5tially a process1 & x w be only :at "o may call a cross-section ( ! emotion t w be a p]ception1 ( a bodily condition accord+ to ,james1 or 79 c]ta9 cases7 ( an ext]nal object accord+ to 8 oppon5ts4 ,an emotion 9 its entirety conta9s dynamic elem5ts1 su* z motor impulses1 desires1 pleasures & pa9s4 ,desires & pleasures & pa9s1 accord+ to ! !ory adopt$ 9 ,lecture ,,iii1 are *>act]i/ics ( processes1 n sep>ate +r$i5ts4 ,an emotion--rage1 = example--w be a c]ta9 k9d ( process1 consi/+ ( p]ceptions & 79 g5]al7 bodily movem5ts4 ,! desires & pleasures & pa9s involv$ are prop]ties ( ?is process1 n sep>ate items 9 ! /uff ( :i* ! emotion is compos$4 ,! dynamic elem5ts 9 an emotion1 if we are "r 9 our analysis1 conta91 f our po9t ( view1 no +r$i5ts beyond ^? conta9$ 9 ! processes consid]$ 9 ,lecture ,,iii4 ,! +r$i5ts ( an emotion are only s5sations & images & bodily movem5ts succe$+ ea* o!r accord+ to a c]ta9 patt]n4 ,) ?is conclusion we may leave ! emotions & pass to ! consid]ation ( ! w4 ,! fir/ ?+ to be def9$ :5 we are deal+ ) ,w is a ,,volunt>y ,,movem5t4 ,we h already def9$ vital movem5ts1 & we h ma9ta9$ t1 f a behavi\ri/ /&po9t1 x is impossible to di/+ui% :i* among su* movem5ts are reflex & :i* volunt>y4 ,nev]!less1 !re c]ta9ly is a di/9ction4 ,:5 we decide 9 ! morn+ t x is "t to get up1 our consequ5t movem5t is volunt>y4 ,! beat+ ( ! he>t1 on ! o!r h&1 is involunt>y3 we c nei!r cause x nor prev5t x by any decision ( our own1 except indirectly1 z e4g4 by drugs4 ,brea?+ is int]m$iate betwe5 ! two3 we normally brea! )\t ! help ( ! w1 b we c alt] or /op our brea?+ if we *oose4 ,james 7,psy*ology1 *ap4 xxvi7 ma9ta9s t ! only di/9ctive *>act]i/ic ( a volunt>y act is t x involves an idea ( ! movem5t to be p]=m$1 made up ( memory-images ( ! k9ae/hetic s5sations :i* we _h :5 ! same movem5t occurr$ on "s =m] occasion4 ,he po9ts out t1 on ?is view1 no movem5t c be made volunt>ily unless x has previ\sly occurr$ involunt>ily499 99 ,psy*ology1 ,vol4 ii1 pp4 #dib-c4 ,i see no reason to d\bt ! correctness ( ?is view4 ,we %all say1 !n1 t movem5ts :i* are accompani$ by k9ae/hetic s5sations t5d to be caus$ by ! images ( ^? s5sations1 & :5 s caus$ are call$ ,,volunt>y4 ,volition1 9 ! emphatic s5se1 involves some?+ m ?an volunt>y movem5t4 ,! sort ( case ,i am ?9k+ ( is decision aft] delib]ation4 ,volunt>y movem5ts are a "p ( ?is1 b n ! :ole4 ,!re is1 9 addition to !m1 a judgm5t3 ,?is is :at ,i %all d2 !re is also a s5sation ( t5sion dur+ d\bt1 foll[$ by a diff]5t s5sation at ! mom5t ( decid+4 ,i see no reason :atev] to suppose t !re is any specifically new +r$i5t2 s5sations & images1 ) _! relations & causal laws1 yield all t seems to be want$ = ! analysis ( ! w1 toge!r ) ! fact t k9ae/hetic images t5d to cause ! movem5ts ) :i* !y are connect$4 ,conflict ( desires is ( c\rse ess5tial 9 ! causation ( ! emphatic k9d ( w3 !re w be = a "t k9ae/hetic images ( incompatible movem5ts1 foll[$ by ! exclusive image ( ! movem5t :i* is said to be will$4 ,?us w seems to add no new irr$ucible +r$i5t to ! analysis ( ! m9d4 ,,lecture ,,xv4 ,,*>act]i/ics ,,( ,,m5tal ,,ph5om5a ,at ! end ( our j\rney x is "t to return to ! "q f :i* we set out1 namely3 ,:at is x t *>act]izes m9d z oppos$ to matt]8 ,or1 to /ate ! same "q 9 o!r t]ms3 ,h[ is psy*ology to be di/+ui%$ f physics8 ,! answ] provisionally sugge/$ at ! outset ( our inquiry 0 t psy*ology & physics are di/+ui%$ by ! nature ( _! causal laws1 n by _! subject matt]4 ,at ! same "t we held t !re is a c]ta9 subject matt]1 namely images1 to :i* only psy*ological causal laws are applicable2 ?is subject matt]1 !re=e1 we assign$ exclusively to psy*ology4 ,b we f\nd no way ( def9+ images except ?r\gh _! causation2 9 _! intr9sic "* !y appe>$ to h no univ]sal m>k by :i* !y c\ld be di/+ui%$ f s5sations4 ,9 ?is la/ lecture ,i propose to pass 9 review v>i\s sugge/$ me?ods ( di/+ui%+ m9d f matt]4 ,i %all !n briefly sket* ! nature ( t fundam5tal sci5ce :i* ,i believe to be ! true metaphysic1 9 :i* m9d & matt] alike are se5 to be con/ruct$ out ( a neutral /uff1 ^: causal laws h no su* duality z t ( psy*ology1 b =m ! basis ^u :i* bo? physics & psy*ology are built4 ,9 se>* = ! def9ition ( m5tal ph5om5a1 let u beg9 ) consci\sness1 :i* is (t5 ?\ght to be ! ess5ce ( m9d4 ,9 ! fir/ lecture ,i gave v>i\s argum5ts aga9/ ! view t consci\sness is fundam5tal1 b ,i did n attempt to say :at consci\sness is4 ,we mu/ f9d a def9ition ( x1 if we are to feel secure 9 decid+ t x is n fundam5tal4 ,x is = ! sake ( ! pro( t x is n fundam5tal t we mu/ n[ endeav\r to decide :at x is4 ,consci\sness1 by ^? :o reg>d x z fundam5tal1 is tak5 to be a "* diffus$ ?r\gh\t our m5tal life1 di/9ct f s5sations & images1 memories1 beliefs & desires1 b pres5t 9 all ( !m499 ,dr4 ,h5ry ,head1 9 an article :i* ,i quot$ 9 ,lecture ,,iii1 di/+ui%+ s5sations f purely physiological occurr5ces1 says3 ,s5sation1 9 ! /rict s5se ( ! t]m1 dem&s ! exi/5ce ( consci\sness4 ,?is /atem5t1 at fir/ sight1 is "o to :i* we feel incl9$ to ass5t1 b ,i believe we are mi/ak5 if we d s4 ,s5sation is ! sort ( ?+ ( :i* we ,,may be consci\s1 b n a ?+ ( :i* we ,,mu/ be consci\s4 ,we h be5 l$1 9 ! c\rse ( our inquiry1 to admit unconsci\s beliefs & unconsci\s desires4 ,!re is1 s f> z ,i c see1 no class ( m5tal or o!r occurr5ces ( :i* we are always consci\s :5ev] !y happ54 99 ,cf4 ,lecture ,,vi4 ,! fir/ ?+ to notice is t consci\sness mu/ be ( some?+4 ,9 view ( ?is1 ,i %\ld def9e consci\sness 9 t]ms ( t relation ( an image ( a ^w to an object :i* we def9$1 9 ,lecture ,,xi1 z mean+4 ,:5 a s5sation is foll[$ by an image :i* is a copy ( x1 ,i ?9k x may be said t ! exi/5ce ( ! image con/itutes consci\sness ( ! s5sation1 provid$ x is accompani$ by t sort ( belief :i*1 :5 we reflect ^u x1 makes u feel t ! image is a sign ( some?+ o!r ?an itself4 ,?is is ! sort ( belief :i*1 9 ! case ( memory1 we express$ 9 ! words ?is occurr$2 or :i*1 9 ! case ( a judgm5t ( p]ception1 makes u believe 9 qualities correlat$ ) pres5t s5sations1 z e4g41 tactile & visual qualities are correlat$4 ,! addition ( "s elem5t ( belief seems requir$1 s9ce m]e imag9ation does n involve consci\sness ( any?+1 & !re c be no consci\sness :i* is n ( some?+4 ,if images alone con/itut$ consci\sness ( _! prototypes1 su* imag9ation-images z 9 fact h prototypes w\ld involve consci\sness ( !m2 s9ce ?is is n ! case1 an elem5t ( belief mu/ be add$ to ! images 9 def9+ consci\sness4 ,! belief mu/ be ( t sort t con/itutes objective ref]5ce1 pa/ or pres5t4 ,an image1 toge!r ) a belief ( ?is sort conc]n+ x1 con/itutes1 accord+ to our def9ition1 consci\sness ( ! prototype ( ! image4 ,b :5 we pass f consci\sness ( s5sations to consci\sness ( objects ( p]ception1 c]ta9 fur!r po9ts arise :i* dem& an addition to our def9ition4 ,a judgm5t ( p]ception1 we may say1 consi/s ( a core ( s5sation1 toge!r ) associat$ images1 ) belief 9 ! pres5t exi/5ce ( an object to :i* s5sation & images are ref]r$ 9 a way :i* is difficult to analyse4 ,p]haps we might say t ! belief is n fundam5tally 9 any ,,pres5t exi/5ce1 b is ( ! nature ( an expectation3 = example1 :5 we see an object1 we expect c]ta9 s5sations to result if we proce$ to t\* x4 ,p]ception1 !n1 w consi/ ( a pres5t s5sation toge!r ) expectations ( future s5sations4 7,?is1 ( c\rse1 is a reflective analysis1 n an acc\nt ( ! way p]ception appe>s to un*eck$ introspection47 ,b all su* expectations are liable to be errone\s1 s9ce !y are bas$ ^u correlations :i* are usual b n inv>iable4 ,any su* correlation may mislead u 9 a p>ticul> case1 = example1 if we try to t\* a reflection 9 a look+-glass "u ! impression t x is real4 ,s9ce memory is fallible1 a simil> difficulty arises z reg>ds consci\sness ( pa/ objects4 ,x w\ld seem odd to say t we c be consci\s ( a ?+ :i* does n or did n exi/4 ,! only way to avoid ?is awkw>dness is to add to our def9ition ! proviso t ! beliefs involv$ 9 consci\sness mu/ be ,,true4 ,9 ! second place1 ! "q arises z to :e!r we c be consci\s ( images4 ,if we apply our def9ition to ?is case1 x seems to dem& images ( images4 ,9 ord]1 = example1 to be consci\s ( an image ( a cat1 we %all require1 accord+ to ! lett] ( ! def9ition1 an image :i* is a copy ( our image ( ! cat1 & has ?is image = its prototype4 ,n[1 x h>dly seems probable1 z a matt] ( obs]vation1 t !re are images ( images1 z oppos$ to images ( s5sations4 ,we may meet ?is difficulty 9 two ways1 ei!r by boldly d5y+ consci\sness ( images1 or by f9d+ a s5se 9 :i*1 by means ( a diff]5t accompany+ belief1 an image1 in/ead ( mean+ its prototype1 c mean ano!r image ( ! same prototype4 ,! fir/ alt]native1 :i* d5ies consci\sness ( images1 has already be5 discuss$ :5 we 7 deal+ ) ,introspection 9 ,lecture ,,vi4 ,we !n decid$ t !re mu/ be1 9 "s s5se1 consci\sness ( images4 ,we are !re=e left ) ! second sugge/$ way ( deal+ ) k ( images4 ,accord+ to ?is second hypo!sis1 !re may be two images ( ! same prototype1 su* t "o ( !m means ! o!r1 in/ead ( mean+ ! prototype4 ,x w be rememb]$ t we def9$ mean+ by association a ^w or image means an object1 we said1 :5 x has ! same associations z ! object4 ,b ?is def9ition mu/ n be int]pret$ too absolutely3 a ^w or image w n h ,,all ! same associations z ! object :i* x means4 ,! ^w cat may be associat$ ) ! ^w mat1 b x w\ld n happ5 except by accid5t t a cat w\ld be associat$ ) a mat4 ,& 9 l mann] an image may h c]ta9 associations :i* its prototype w n h1 e4g4 an association ) ! ^w image4 ,:5 ^! associations are active1 an image means an image1 in/ead ( mean+ its prototype4 ,if ,i h _h images ( a giv5 prototype _m times1 ,i c mean "o ( ^!1 z oppos$ to ! re/1 by recollect+ ! "t & place or any o!r di/9ctive association ( t "o occasion4 ,?is happ5s1 = example1 :5 a place recalls to u "s ?\ght we previ\sly _h 9 t place1 s t we rememb] a ?\ght z oppos$ to ! occurr5ce to :i* x ref]r$4 ,?us we may say t we ?9k ( an image ,a :5 we h a simil> image ,b associat$ ) recollections ( circum/ances connect$ ) ,a1 b n ) its prototype or ) o!r images ( ! same prototype4 ,9 ?is way we become aw>e ( images )\t ! ne$ ( any new /ore ( m5tal cont5ts1 m]ely by ! help ( new associations4 ,?is !ory1 s f> z ,i c see1 solves ! problems ( introspective k1 )\t requir+ h]oic measures su* z ^? propos$ by ,knight ,dunlap1 ^: views we discuss$ 9 ,lecture ,,vi4 ,accord+ to :at we h be5 say+1 s5sation itself is n an in/ance ( consci\sness1 ?\gh ! imm$iate memory by :i* x is apt to be succe$$ is s4 ,a s5sation :i* is rememb]$ becomes an object ( consci\sness z soon z x beg9s to be rememb]$1 :i* w normally be almo/ imm$iately aft] its occurr5ce 7if at all72 b :ile x exi/s x is n an object ( consci\sness4 ,if1 h[ev]1 x is "p ( a p]ception1 say ( "s famili> p]son1 we may say t ! p]son p]ceiv$ is an object ( consci\sness4 ,= 9 ?is case ! s5sation is a ,,sign ( ! p]ceiv$ object 9 mu* ! same way 9 :i* a memory-image is a sign ( a rememb]$ object4 ,! ess5tial practical function ( consci\sness & ?\ght is t !y enable u to act ) ref]5ce to :at is di/ant 9 "t or space1 ev5 ?\gh x is n at pres5t /imulat+ our s5ses4 ,?is ref]5ce to abs5t objects is possible ?r\gh association & habit4 ,actual s5sations1 9 !mselves1 are n cases ( consci\sness1 because !y d n br+ 9 ?is ref]5ce to :at is abs5t4 ,b _! connection ) consci\sness is v close1 bo? ?r\gh imm$iate memory1 & ?r\gh ! correlations :i* turn s5sations into p]ceptions4 ,en\gh has1 ,i hope1 be5 said to %[ t consci\sness is f> too complex & accid5tal to be tak5 z ! fundam5tal *>act]i/ic ( m9d4 ,we h se5 t belief & images bo? ent] into x4 ,belief itself1 z we saw 9 an e>li] lecture1 is complex4 ,!re=e1 if any def9ition ( m9d is sugge/$ by our analysis ( consci\sness1 images are :at w\ld naturally sugge/ !mselves4 ,b s9ce we f\nd t images c only be def9$ causally1 we _c deal ) ?is sugge/ion1 except 9 connection ) ! diff]5ce betwe5 physical & psy*ological causal laws4 ,i come next to ^? *>act]i/ics ( m5tal ph5om5a :i* arise out ( mnemic causation4 ,! possibility ( action ) ref]5ce to :at is n s5sibly pres5t is "o ( ! ?+s t might be held to *>act]ize m9d4 ,let u take fir/ a v elem5t>y example4 ,suppose y are 9 a famili> room at night1 & sudd5ly ! light goes out4 ,y w be able to f9d y\r way to ! door )\t mu* difficulty by means ( ! picture ( ! room :i* y h 9 y\r m9d4 ,9 ?is case visual images s]ve1 some:at imp]fectly x is true1 ! purpose :i* visual s5sations w\ld o!rwise s]ve4 ,! /imulus to ! production ( visual images is ! desire to get out ( ! room1 :i*1 accord+ to :at we f\nd 9 ,lecture ,,iii1 consi/s ess5tially ( pres5t s5sations & motor impulses caus$ by !m4 ,aga91 words he>d or read enable y to act ) ref]5ce to ! matt]s ab\t :i* !y give in=mation2 "h1 aga91 a pres5t s5sible /imulus1 9 virtue ( habits =m$ 9 ! pa/1 enables y to act 9 a mann] appropriate to an object :i* is n s5sibly pres5t4 ,! :ole ess5ce ( ! practical effici5cy ( ?\ght consi/s 9 s5sitiv5ess to signs3 ! s5sible pres5ce ( ,a1 :i* is a sign ( ! pres5t or future exi/5ce ( ,b1 enables u to act 9 a mann] appropriate to ,b4 ,( ?is1 words are ! supreme example1 s9ce _! effects z signs are prodigi\s1 :ile _! intr9sic int]e/ z s5sible occurr5ces on _! own acc\nt is usually v slight4 ,! op]ation ( signs may or may n be accompani$ by consci\sness4 ,if a s5sible /imulus ,a calls up an image ( ,b1 & we !n act ) ref]5ce to ,b1 we h :at may be call$ consci\sness ( ,b4 ,b habit may enable u to act 9 a mann] appropriate to ,b z soon z ,a appe>s1 )\t ev] hav+ an image ( ,b4 ,9 t case1 al?\gh ,a op]ates z a sign1 x op]ates )\t ! help ( consci\sness4 ,broadly speak+1 a v famili> sign t5ds to op]ate directly 9 ?is mann]1 & ! int]v5tion ( consci\sness m>ks an imp]fectly e/abli%$ habit4 ,! p[] ( acquir+ exp]i5ce1 :i* *>act]izes m5 & animals1 is an example ( ! g5]al law t1 9 mnemic causation1 ! causal unit is n "o ev5t at "o "t1 b two or m ev5ts at two or m times4 ,a burnt *ild fe>s ! fire1 t is to say1 ! neighb\rhood ( fire has a diff]5t effect ^u a *ild :i* has _h ! s5sations ( burn+ ?an ^u "o :i* has n4 ,m correctly1 ! obs]v$ effect1 :5 a *ild :i* has be5 burnt is put ne> a fire1 has = its cause1 n m]ely ! neighb\rhood ( ! fire1 b ?is toge!r ) ! previ\s burn+4 ,! g5]al =mula1 :5 an animal has acquir$ exp]i5ce ?r\gh "s ev5t ,a1 is t1 :5 ,b occurs at "s future "t1 ! animal to :i* ,a has happ5$ acts diff]5tly f an animal :i* ,a has n happ5$4 ,?us ,a & ,b toge!r1 n ei!r sep>ately1 mu/ be reg>d$ z ! cause ( ! animal's behavi\r1 unless we take acc\nt ( ! effect :i* ,a has _h 9 alt]+ ! animal's n]v\s tissue1 :i* is a matt] n pat5t to ext]nal obs]vation except "u v special circum/ances4 ,) ?is possibility1 we are br\ght back to causal laws1 & to ! sugge/ion t _m ?+s :i* seem ess5tially m5tal are really neural4 ,p]haps x is ! n]ves t acquire exp]i5ce r ?an ! m9d4 ,if s1 ! possibility ( acquir+ exp]i5ce _c be us$ to def9e m9d499 99 ,cf4 ,lecture ,,iv4 ,v simil> consid]ations apply to memory1 if tak5 z ! ess5ce ( m9d4 ,a recollection is ar\s$ by some?+ :i* is happ5+ n[1 b is diff]5t f ! effect :i* ! pres5t occurr5ce w\ld h produc$ if ! recollect$ ev5t _h n occurr$4 ,?is may be acc\nt$ = by ! physical effect ( ! pa/ ev5t on ! bra91 mak+ x a diff]5t in/rum5t f t :i* w\ld h result$ f a diff]5t exp]i5ce4 ,! causal peculi>ities ( memory may1 !re=e1 h a physiological explanation4 ,) e special class ( m5tal ph5om5a ?is possibility meets u afre%4 ,if psy*ology is to be a sep>ate sci5ce at all1 we mu/ seek a wid] gr\nd = its sep>at5ess ?an any t we h be5 consid]+ hi!rto4 ,we h f\nd t consci\sness is too n>r[ to *>act]ize m5tal ph5om5a1 & t mnemic causation is too wide4 ,i come n[ to a *>act]i/ic :i*1 ?\gh difficult to def9e1 comes mu* ne>] to :at we require1 namely subjectivity4 ,subjectivity1 z a *>act]i/ic ( m5tal ph5om5a1 0 consid]$ 9 ,lecture ,,vii1 9 connection ) ! def9ition ( p]ception4 ,we !re decid$ t ^? p>ticul>s :i* con/itute ! physical _w c be collect$ into sets 9 two ways1 "o ( :i* makes a bundle ( all ^? p>ticul>s t are appe>ances ( a giv5 ?+ f diff]5t places1 :ile ! o!r makes a bundle ( all ^? p>ticul>s :i* are appe>ances ( diff]5t ?+s f a giv5 place4 ,a bundle ( ?is latt] sort1 at a giv5 "t1 is call$ a p]spective2 tak5 ?r\gh\t a p]iod ( "t1 x is call$ a biography4 ,subjectivity is ! *>act]i/ic ( p]spectives & biographies1 ! *>act]i/ic ( giv+ ! view ( ! _w f a c]ta9 place4 ,we saw 9 ,lecture ,,vii t ?is *>act]i/ic involves none ( ! o!r *>act]i/ics t are commonly associat$ ) m5tal ph5om5a1 su* z consci\sness1 exp]i5ce & memory4 ,we f\nd 9 fact t x is exhibit$ by a photographic plate1 &1 /rictly speak+1 by any p>ticul> tak5 9 conjunction ) ^? :i* h ! same passive place 9 ! s5se def9$ 9 ,lecture ,,vii4 ,! p>ticul>s =m+ "o p]spective are connect$ toge!r prim>ily by simultaneity2 ^? =m+ "o biography1 prim>ily by ! exi/5ce ( direct "t-relations betwe5 !m4 ,to ^! are to be add$ relations d]ivable f ! laws ( p]spective4 ,9 all ?is we are cle>ly n 9 ! region ( psy*ology1 z commonly und]/ood2 yet we are also h>dly 9 ! region ( physics4 ,& ! def9ition ( p]spectives & biographies1 ?\gh x does n yet yield any?+ t w\ld be commonly call$ m5tal1 is presuppos$ 9 m5tal ph5om5a1 = example 9 mnemic causation3 ! causal unit 9 mnemic causation1 :i* gives rise to ,semon's engram1 is ! :ole ( "o p]spective--n ( any p]spective1 b ( a p]spective 9 a place :]e !re is n]v\s tissue1 or at any rate liv+ tissue ( "s sort4 ,p]ception also1 z we saw1 c only be def9$ 9 t]ms ( p]spectives4 ,?us ! conception ( subjectivity1 i4e4 ( ! passive place ( a p>ticul>1 ?\gh n alone suffici5t to def9e m9d1 is cle>ly an ess5tial elem5t 9 ! def9ition4 ,i h ma9ta9$ ?r\gh\t ^! lectures t ! data ( psy*ology d n diff] 91 _! intr9sic "* f ! data ( physics4 ,i h ma9ta9$ t s5sations are data = psy*ology & physics equally1 :ile images1 :i* may be 9 "s s5se exclusively psy*ological data1 c only be di/+ui%$ f s5sations by _! correlations1 n by :at !y are 9 !mselves4 ,x is n[ necess>y1 h[ev]1 to exam9e ! notion ( a datum1 & to obta91 if possible1 a def9ition ( ?is notion4 ,! notion ( data is famili> ?r\gh\t sci5ce1 & is usually treat$ by m5 ( sci5ce z ?\gh x 7 p]fectly cle>4 ,psy*ologi/s1 on ! o!r h&1 f9d great difficulty 9 ! conception4 ,data are naturally def9$ 9 t]ms ( !ory ( k3 !y are ^? propositions ( :i* ! tru? is kn[n )\t demon/ration1 s t !y may be us$ z premisses 9 prov+ o!r propositions4 ,fur!r1 :5 a proposition :i* is a datum ass]ts ! exi/5ce ( some?+1 we say t ! some?+ is a datum1 z well z ! proposition ass]t+ its exi/5ce4 ,?us ^? objects ( ^: exi/5ce we become c]ta9 ?r\gh p]ception are said to be data4 ,!re is "s difficulty 9 connect+ ?is epi/emological def9ition ( data ) our psy*ological analysis ( k2 b until su* a connection has be5 effect$1 we h no "r to use ! conception data4 ,x is cle>1 9 ! fir/ place1 t !re c be no datum ap>t f a belief4 ,a s5sation :i* m]ely comes & goes is n a datum2 x only becomes a datum :5 x is rememb]$4 ,simil>ly1 9 p]ception1 we d n h a datum unless we h a ,,judgm5t ( p]ception4 ,9 ! s5se 9 :i* objects 7z oppos$ to propositions7 are data1 x w\ld seem natural to say t ^? objects ( :i* we are consci\s are data4 ,b consci\sness1 z we h se51 is a complex notion1 involv+ beliefs1 z well z mnemic ph5om5a su* z are requir$ = p]ception & memory4 ,x foll[s t no datum is !oretically indubitable1 s9ce no belief is infallible2 x foll[s also t e datum has a great] or less degree ( vagu5ess1 s9ce !re is always "s vagu5ess 9 memory & ! mean+ ( images4 ,data are n ^? ?+s ( :i* our consci\sness is e>lie/ 9 "t4 ,at e p]iod ( life1 aft] we h become capable ( ?\ght1 "s ( our beliefs are obta9$ by inf]5ce1 :ile o!rs are n4 ,a belief may pass f ei!r ( ^! classes into ! o!r1 & may !re=e become1 or cease to be1 a belief giv+ a datum4 ,:51 9 :at foll[s1 ,i speak ( data1 ,i d n mean ! ?+s ( :i* we feel sure be=e sci5tific /udy beg9s1 b ! ?+s :i*1 :5 a sci5ce is well advanc$1 appe> z af=d+ gr\nds = o!r p>ts ( ! sci5ce1 )\t !mselves be+ believ$ on any gr\nd except obs]vation4 ,i assume1 t is to say1 a tra9$ obs]v]1 ) an analytic att5tion1 kn[+ ! sort ( ?+ to look =1 & ! sort ( ?+ t w be important4 ,:at he obs]ves is1 at ! /age ( sci5ce :i* he has rea*$1 a datum = 8 sci5ce4 ,x is j z sophi/icat$ & elaborate z ! !ories :i* he bases ^u x1 s9ce only tra9$ habits & mu* practice enable a man to make ! k9d ( obs]vation t w be sci5tifically illum9at+4 ,nev]!less1 :5 once x has be5 obs]v$1 belief 9 x is n bas$ on inf]5ce & reason+1 b m]ely ^u its hav+ be5 se54 ,9 ?is way its logical /atus diff]s f t ( ! !ories :i* are prov$ by its means4 ,9 any sci5ce o!r ?an psy*ology ! datum is prim>ily a p]ception1 9 :i* only ! s5sational core is ultimately & !oretically a datum1 ?\gh "s su* accretions z turn ! s5sation into a p]ception are practically unavoidable4 ,b if we po/ulate an ideal obs]v]1 he w be able to isolate ! s5sation1 & treat ?is alone z datum4 ,!re is1 !re=e1 an important s5se 9 :i* we may say t1 if we analyse z mu* z we ought1 our data1 outside psy*ology1 consi/ ( s5sations1 :i* include )9 !mselves c]ta9 spatial & temporal relations4 ,apply+ ?is rem>k to physiology1 we see t ! n]ves & bra9 z physical objects are n truly data2 !y are to be replac$1 9 ! ideal /ructure ( sci5ce1 by ! s5sations ?r\gh :i* ! physiologi/ is said to p]ceive !m4 ,! passage f ^! s5sations to n]ves & bra9 z physical objects belongs really to ! initial /age 9 ! !ory ( physics1 & ought to be plac$ 9 ! reason$ "p1 n 9 ! "p suppos$ to be obs]v$4 ,to say we see ! n]ves is l say+ we he> ! night+ale2 bo? are conv5i5t b inaccurate expressions4 ,we he> a s\nd :i* we believe to be causally connect$ ) ! night+ale1 & we see a sight :i* we believe to be causally connect$ ) a n]ve4 ,b 9 ea* case x is only ! s5sation t ought1 9 /rictness1 to be call$ a datum4 ,n[1 s5sations are c]ta9ly among ! data ( psy*ology4 ,!re=e all ! data ( ! physical sci5ces are also psy*ological data4 ,x rema9s to inquire :e!r all ! data ( psy*ology are also data ( physical sci5ce1 & especially ( physiology4 ,if we h be5 "r 9 our analysis ( m9d1 ! ultimate data ( psy*ology are only s5sations & images & _! relations4 ,beliefs1 desires1 volitions1 & s on1 appe>$ to u to be complex ph5om5a consi/+ ( s5sations & images v>i\sly int]relat$4 ,?us 7ap>t f c]ta9 relations7 ! occurr5ces :i* seem mo/ di/9ctively m5tal1 & fur!/ remov$ f physics1 are1 l physical objects1 con/ruct$ or inf]r$1 n "p ( ! orig9al /ock ( data 9 ! p]fect$ sci5ce4 ,f bo? ends1 !re=e1 ! diff]5ce betwe5 physical & psy*ological data is dim9i%$4 ,is !re ultimately no diff]5ce1 or d images rema9 z irr$ucibly & exclusively psy*ological8 ,9 view ( ! causal def9ition ( ! diff]5ce betwe5 images & s5sations1 ?is br+s u to a new "q1 namely3 ,are ! causal laws ( psy*ology diff]5t f ^? ( any o!r sci5ce1 or are !y really physiological8 ,c]ta9 ambiguities mu/ be remov$ be=e ?is "q c be adequately discuss$4 ,fir/1 !re is ! di/9ction betwe5 r\gh approximate laws & su* z appe> to be precise & g5]al4 ,i %all return to ! =m] pres5tly2 x is ! latt] t ,i wi% to discuss n[4 ,matt]1 z def9$ at ! end ( ,lecture ,v1 is a logical fiction1 inv5t$ because x gives a conv5i5t way ( /at+ causal laws4 ,except 9 cases ( p]fect regul>ity 9 appe>ances 7( :i* we c h no exp]i5ce71 ! actual appe>ances ( a piece ( matt] are n memb]s ( t ideal sy/em ( regul> appe>ances :i* is def9$ z be+ ! matt] 9 "q4 ,b ! matt] is1 aft] all1 inf]r$ f its appe>ances1 :i* are us$ to ,,v]ify physical laws4 ,?us1 9 s f> z physics is an empirical & v]ifiable sci5ce1 x mu/ assume or prove t ! inf]5ce f appe>ances to matt] is1 9 g5]al1 legitimate1 & x mu/ be able to tell u1 m or less1 :at appe>ances to expect4 ,x is ?r\gh ?is "q ( v]ifiability & empirical applicability to exp]i5ce t we are l$ to a !ory ( matt] su* z ,i advocate4 ,f ! consid]ation ( ?is "q x results t physics1 9 s f> z x is an empirical sci5ce1 n a logical phantasy1 is conc]n$ ) p>ticul>s ( j ! same sort z ^? :i* psy*ology consid]s "u ! "n ( s5sations4 ,! causal laws ( physics1 s int]pret$1 diff] f ^? ( psy*ology only by ! fact t !y connect a p>ticul> ) o!r appe>ances 9 ! same piece ( matt]1 r ?an ) o!r appe>ances 9 ! same p]spective4 ,t is to say1 !y gr\p toge!r p>ticul>s hav+ ! same active place1 :ile psy*ology gr\ps toge!r ^? hav+ ! same passive place4 ,"s p>ticul>s1 su* z images1 h no active place1 & !re=e belong exclusively to psy*ology4 ,we c n[ und]/& ! di/9ction betwe5 physics & psy*ology4 ,! n]ves & bra9 are matt]3 our visual s5sations :5 we look at !m may be1 & ,i ?9k are1 memb]s ( ! sy/em con/itut+ irregul> appe>ances ( ?is matt]1 b are n ! :ole ( ! sy/em4 ,psy*ology is conc]n$1 int] alia1 ) our s5sations :5 we see a piece ( matt]1 z oppos$ to ! matt] :i* we see4 ,assum+1 z we mu/1 t our s5sations h physical causes1 _! causal laws are nev]!less radically diff]5t f ! laws ( physics1 s9ce ! consid]ation ( a s+le s5sation requires ! break+ up ( ! gr\p ( :i* x is a memb]4 ,:5 a s5sation is us$ to v]ify physics1 x is us$ m]ely z a sign ( a c]ta9 mat]ial ph5om5on1 i4e4 ( a gr\p ( p>ticul>s ( :i* x is a memb]4 ,b :5 x is /udi$ by psy*ology1 x is tak5 away f t gr\p & put into q a diff]5t context1 :]e x causes images or volunt>y movem5ts4 ,x is prim>ily ?is diff]5t gr\p+ t is *>act]i/ic ( psy*ology z oppos$ to all ! physical sci5ces1 includ+ physiology2 a second>y diff]5ce is t images1 :i* belong to psy*ology1 are n easily to be includ$ among ! aspects :i* con/itute a physical ?+ or piece ( matt]4 ,!re rema9s1 h[ev]1 an important "q1 namely3 ,are m5tal ev5ts causally dep5d5t ^u physical ev5ts 9 a s5se 9 :i* ! conv]se dep5d5ce does n hold8 ,be=e we c discuss ! answ] to ?is "q1 we mu/ fir/ be cle> z to :at our "q means4 ,:51 giv5 ,a1 x is possible to inf] ,b1 b giv5 ,b1 x is n possible to inf] ,a1 we say t ,b is dep5d5t ^u ,a 9 a s5se 9 :i* ,a is n dep5d5t ^u ,b4 ,/at$ 9 logical t]ms1 ?is am\nts to say+ t1 :5 we "k a _m-"o relation ( ,a to ,b1 ,b is dep5d5t ^u ,a 9 respect ( ?is relation4 ,if ! relation is a causal law1 we say t ,b is causally dep5d5t ^u ,a4 ,! illu/ration t *iefly conc]ns u is ! sy/em ( appe>ances ( a physical object4 ,we c1 broadly speak+1 inf] di/ant appe>ances f ne> ones1 b n vice v]sa4 ,all m5 look alike :5 !y are a mile away1 h5ce :5 we see a man a mile (f we _c tell :at he w look l :5 he is only a y>d away4 ,b :5 we see him a y>d away1 we c tell :at he w look l a mile away4 ,?us ! ne>] view gives u m valuable in=mation1 & ! di/ant view is causally dep5d5t ^u x 9 a s5se 9 :i* x is n causally dep5d5t ^u ! di/ant view4 ,x is ?is great] causal pot5cy ( ! ne> appe>ance t leads physics to /ate its causal laws 9 t]ms ( t sy/em ( regul> appe>ances to :i* ! ne>e/ appe>ances increas+ly approximate1 & t makes x value in=mation d]iv$ f ! microscope or telescope4 ,x is cle> t our s5sations1 consid]$ z irregul> appe>ances ( physical objects1 %>e ! causal dep5d5ce belong+ to comp>atively di/ant appe>ances2 !re=e 9 our s5sational life we are 9 causal dep5d5ce ^u physical laws4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is n ! mo/ important or int]e/+ "p ( our "q4 ,x is ! causation ( images t is ! vital problem4 ,we h se5 t !y are subject to mn5ic causation1 & t mn5ic causation may be r$ucible to ord9>y physical causation 9 n]v\s tissue4 ,?is is ! "q ^u :i* our attitude mu/ turn t[>ds :at may be call$ mat]ialism4 ,"o s5se ( mat]ialism is ! view t all m5tal ph5om5a are causally dep5d5t ^u physical ph5om5a 9 ! above-def9$ s5se ( causal dep5d5ce4 ,:e!r ?is is ! case or n1 ,i d n pr(ess to "k4 ,! "q seems to me ! same z ! "q :e!r mnemic causation is ultimate1 :i* we consid]$ )\t decid+ 9 ,lecture ,,iv4 ,b ,i ?9k ! bulk ( ! evid5ce po9ts to ! mat]iali/ic answ] z ! m probable4 ,9 consid]+ ! causal laws ( psy*ology1 ! di/9ction betwe5 r\gh g5]alizations & exact laws is important4 ,!re are _m r\gh g5]alizations 9 psy*ology1 n only ( ! sort by :i* we gov]n our ord9>y behavi\r to ea* o!r1 b also ( a m ne>ly sci5tific k9d4 ,habit & association belong among su* laws4 ,i w give an illu/ration ( ! k9d ( law t c be obta9$4 ,suppose a p]son has frequ5tly exp]i5c$ ,a & ,b 9 close temporal contiguity1 an association w be e/abli%$1 s t ,a1 or an image ( ,a1 t5ds to cause an image ( ,b4 ,! "q arises3 w ! association "w 9 ei!r direction1 or only f ! "o :i* has occurr$ e>li] to ! "o :i* has occurr$ lat]8 ,9 an article by ,mr4 ,wohlgemu?1 call$ ,! ,direction ( ,associations 7,briti% ,j\rnal ( ,psy*ology1 vol4 v1 "p iv1 ,m>*1 #aiac71 x is claim$ to be prov$ by exp]im5t t1 9 s f> z motor memory 7i4e4 memory ( movem5ts7 is conc]n$1 association works only f e>li] to lat]1 :ile 9 visual & auditory memory ?is is n ! case1 b ! lat] ( two neighb\r+ exp]i5ces may recall ! e>li] z well z ! e>li] ! lat]4 ,x is sugge/$ t motor memory is physiological1 :ile visual & auditory memory are m truly psy*ological4 ,b t is n ! po9t :i* conc]ns u 9 ! illu/ration4 ,! po9t :i* conc]ns u is t a law ( association1 e/abli%$ by purely psy*ological obs]vation1 is a purely psy*ological law1 & may s]ve z a sample ( :at is possible 9 ! way ( discov]+ su* laws4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 /ill no m ?an a r\gh g5]alization1 a /ati/ical av]age4 ,x _c tell u :at w result f a giv5 cause on a giv5 occasion4 ,x is a law ( t5d5cy1 n a precise & inv>iable law su* z ^? ( physics aim at be+4 ,if we wi% to pass f ! law ( habit1 /at$ z a t5d5cy or av]age1 to some?+ m precise & inv>iable1 we seem driv5 to ! n]v\s sy/em4 ,we c m or less guess h[ an occurr5ce produces a *ange 9 ! bra91 & h[ its repetition gradually produces some?+ analog\s to ! *annel ( a riv]1 along :i* curr5ts fl[ m easily ?an 9 neighb\r+ pa?s4 ,we c p]ceive t 9 ?is way1 if we _h m k1 ! t5d5cy to habit ?r\gh repetition might be replac$ by a precise acc\nt ( ! effect ( ea* occurr5ce 9 br++ ab\t a modification ( ! sort f :i* habit w\ld ultimately result4 ,x is su* consid]ations t make /ud5ts ( psy*ophysiology mat]iali/ic 9 _! me?ods1 :atev] !y may be 9 _! metaphysics4 ,!re are1 ( c\rse1 exceptions1 su* z ,pr(essor ,j4 ,s4 ,haldane199 :o ma9ta9s t x is !oretically impossible to obta9 physiological explanations ( psy*ical ph5om5a1 or physical explanations ( physiological ph5om5a4 ,b ,i ?9k ! bulk ( exp]t op9ion1 9 practice1 is on ! o!r side4 99,see 8 book1 ,! ,new ,physiology & ,o!r ,addresses 7,*>les ,griff9 ,co41 #aiai74 ,! "q :e!r x is possible to obta9 precise causal laws 9 :i* ! causes are psy*ological1 n mat]ial1 is "o ( detail$ inve/igation4 ,i h done :at ,i c\ld to make cle> ! nature ( ! "q1 b ,i d n believe t x is possible z yet to answ] x ) any confid5ce4 ,x seems to be by no means an insoluble "q1 & we may hope t sci5ce w be able to produce suffici5t gr\nds = reg>d+ "o answ] z mu* m probable ?an ! o!r4 ,b = ! mom5t ,i d n see h[ we c come to a decision4 ,i ?9k1 h[ev]1 on gr\nds ( ! !ory ( matt] expla9$ 9 ,lectures ,v & ,,vii1 t an ultimate sci5tific acc\nt ( :at goes on 9 ! _w1 if x 7 asc]ta9able1 w\ld resemble psy*ology r ?an physics 9 :at we f\nd to be ! decisive diff]5ce betwe5 !m4 ,i ?9k1 t is to say1 t su* an acc\nt w\ld n be cont5t to speak1 ev5 =mally1 z ?\gh matt]1 :i* is a logical fiction1 7 ! ultimate reality4 ,i ?9k t1 if our sci5tific k 7 adequate to ! task1 :i* x nei!r is nor is likely to become1 x w\ld exhibit ! laws ( correlation ( ! p>ticul>s con/itut+ a mom5t>y condition ( a mat]ial unit1 & w\ld /ate ! causal laws99 ( ! _w 9 t]ms ( ^! p>ticul>s1 n 9 t]ms ( matt]4 ,causal laws s /at$ w\ld1 ,i believe1 be applicable to psy*ology & physics equally2 ! sci5ce 9 :i* !y 7 /at$ w\ld succe$ 9 a*iev+ :at metaphysics has va9ly attempt$1 namely a unifi$ acc\nt ( :at really happ5s1 :olly true ev5 if n ! :ole ( tru?1 & free f all conv5i5t fictions or unw>rantable assumptions ( metaphysical entities4 ,a causal law applicable to p>ticul>s w\ld c\nt z a law ( physics if x c\ld be /at$ 9 t]ms ( ^? fictiti\s sy/ems ( regul> appe>ances :i* are matt]2 if ?is 7 n ! case1 x w\ld c\nt z a law ( psy*ology if "o ( ! p>ticul>s 7 a s5sation or an image1 i4e4 7 subject to mnemic causation4 ,i believe t ! realization ( ! complexity ( a mat]ial unit1 & its analysis into con/itu5ts analog\s to s5sations1 is ( ! utmo/ importance to philosophy1 & vital = any und]/&+ ( ! relations betwe5 m9d & matt]1 betwe5 our p]ceptions & ! _w :i* !y p]ceive4 ,x is 9 ?is direction1 ,i am conv9c$1 t we mu/ look = ! solution ( _m anci5t p]plexities4 99 ,9 a p]fect$ sci5ce1 causal laws w take ! =m ( diff]5tial equations--or ( f9ite-diff]5ce equations1 if ! !ory ( quanta %\ld prove correct4 ,x is probable t ! :ole sci5ce ( m5tal occurr5ces1 especially :]e its initial def9itions are conc]n$1 c\ld be simplifi$ by ! developm5t ( ! fundam5tal unify+ sci5ce 9 :i* ! causal laws ( p>ticul>s are s\ght1 r ?an ! causal laws ( ^? sy/ems ( p>ticul>s t con/itute ! mat]ial units ( physics4 ,?is fundam5tal sci5ce w\ld cause physics to become d]ivative1 9 ! sort ( way 9 :i* !ories ( ! con/itution ( ! atom make *emi/ry d]ivative f physics2 x w\ld also cause psy*ology to appe> less s+ul> & isolat$ among sci5ces4 ,if we are "r 9 ?is1 x is a wrong philosophy ( matt] :i* has caus$ _m ( ! difficulties 9 ! philosophy ( m9d--difficulties :i* a "r philosophy ( matt] w\ld cause to disappe>4 ,! conclusions at :i* we h arriv$ may be summ$ up z foll[s3 ,i4 ,physics & psy*ology are n di/+ui%$ by _! mat]ial4 ,m9d & matt] alike are logical con/ructions2 ! p>ticul>s out ( :i* !y are con/ruct$1 or f :i* !y are inf]r$1 h v>i\s relations1 "s ( :i* are /udi$ by physics1 o!rs by psy*ology4 ,broadly speak+1 physics gr\p p>ticul>s by _! active places1 psy*ology by _! passive places4 ,,ii4 ,! two mo/ ess5tial *>act]i/ics ( ! causal laws :i* w\ld naturally be call$ psy*ological are ,,subjectivity & ,,mnemic ,,causation2 ^! are n unconnect$1 s9ce ! causal unit 9 mnemic causation is ! gr\p ( p>ticul>s hav+ a giv5 passive place at a giv5 "t1 & x is by ?is mann] ( gr\p+ t subjectivity is def9$4 ,,iii4 ,habit1 memory & ?\ght are all developm5ts ( mnemic causation4 ,x is probable1 ?\gh n c]ta91 t mnemic causation is d]ivative f ord9>y physical causation 9 n]v\s 7& o!r7 tissue4 ,,iv4 ,consci\sness is a complex & f> f univ]sal *>act]i/ic ( m5tal ph5om5a4 ,v4 ,m9d is a matt] ( degree1 *iefly exemplifi$ 9 numb] & complexity ( habits4 ,,vi4 ,all our data1 bo? 9 physics & psy*ology1 are subject to psy*ological causal laws2 b physical causal laws1 at lea/ 9 traditional physics1 c only be /at$ 9 t]ms ( matt]1 :i* is bo? inf]r$ & con/ruct$1 nev] a datum4 ,9 ?is respect psy*ology is ne>] to :at actually exi/s4