,illustration3 ,paul ,renaud4 ,,contemplation ,,astronomy ,,for ,,amateurs ,,by ,,camille ,,flammarion ,,author ,,of ,,popular ,,astronomy ,,authorized ,,translation ,,by ,,frances ,a4 ,,welby ,,illustrated ,illustration ,,new ,,york ,,and ,,london ,d4 ,,appleton ,,and ,,company #aiaj ,,copyright1 #aijd1 ,,by ,d4 ,,appleton ,,and ,,company ,published ,october1 #aijd ,,to ,,madame ,c4,r4 ,,cavare ,,original ,,member ,,of ,,the ,,astronomical ,,society ,,of ,,france ,,chateau ,,de ,,mauperthuis ,,madame3 ,i have dedicated none of my works1 save ,stella--offered to the liberal-minded1 the free and generous friend of progress1 and patron of the sciences1 ,james ,gordon ,bennett1 editor of the ,new ,york ,herald4 ,in this volume1 ,madame1 ,i make another exception1 and ask your permission to offer it to the first woman who consented to be enrolled in the list of members of the ,astronomical ,society of ,france1 as foundress of this splendid work1 from the very beginning of our vast association 7#ahhg72 and who also desired to take part in the permanent organization of the ,observatory at ,juvisy1 a task of private enterprise1 emancipated from administrative routine4 ,an ,astronomy for ,women#a can not be better placed than upon the table of a lady whose erudition is equal to her virtues1 and who has consecrated her long career to the pursuit and service of the ,beautiful1 the ,good1 and the ,true4 ,,camille ,,flammarion4 ,,observatory ,,of ,,juvisy1 ,november1 #aijc4 ,,contents ,,chapter ,,page ,,introduction #a ,i4 ,,the ,,contemplation ,,of ,,the ,,heavens #aj ,,ii4 ,,the ,,constellations #bh ,,iii4 ,,the ,,stars1 ,,suns ,,of ,,the ,,infinite4 ,a ,,journey ,,through ,,space #ef ,,iv4 ,,our ,,star ,,the ,,sun #hh ,v4 ,,the ,,planets4 ,a4 ,,mercury1 ,,venus1 ,,the ,,earth1 ,,mars #aac ,,vi4 ,,the ,,planets4 ,b4 ,,jupiter1 ,,saturn1 ,,uranus1 ,,neptune #adf ,,vii4 ,,the ,,comets #agb ,,viii4 ,,the ,,earth #bje ,,ix4 ,,the ,,moon #bcb ,x4 ,,the ,,eclipses #bei ,,xi4 ,,on ,,methods4 ,,how ,,celestial ,,distances ,,are ,,determined1 ,,and ,,how ,,the ,,sun ,,is ,,weighed #bhg ,,xii4 ,,life1 ,,universal ,,and ,,eternal #cag ,,index #cda ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ,contemplation ,frontispiece ,from a painting by ,paul ,renaud ,,fig4 ,,page #a4 ,the great ,book of the ,heavens is open to all eyes #ae #b4 ,the earth in space4 ,june solstice1 midday #bj #c4 ,the ,great ,bear 7or ,dipper7 and the ,pole ,star #cd #d4 ,to find the ,pole ,star #ce #e4 ,to find ,cassiopeia #cg #f4 ,to find ,pegasus and ,andromeda #cg #g4 ,perseus1 the ,pleiades1 ,capella #ch #h4 ,to find ,arcturus1 the ,herdsman1 and the ,northern ,crown #dj #i4 ,the ,swan1 ,vega1 the ,eagle #da #aj4 ,the ,constellations of the ,zodiac3 summer and autumn2 ,capricorn1 ,archer1 ,scorpion1 ,balance1 ,virgin1 ,lion #df #aa4 ,the ,constellations of the ,zodiac3 winter and spring2 ,crab1 ,twins1 ,bull1 ,ram1 ,fishes1 ,water-,carrier #dg #ab4 ,orion and his celestial companions #dh #ac4 ,winter ,constellations #ea #ad4 ,spring ,constellations #eb #ae4 ,summer ,constellations #ec #af4 ,autumn ,constellations #ed #ag4 ,the double star ,mizar #fi #ah4 ,triple star xi in ,cancer #gb #ai4 ,quadruple star epsilon of the ,lyre #gc #bj4 ,sextuple star theta in the ,nebula of ,orion #gd #ba4 ,the ,star-,cluster in ,hercules #gi #bb4 ,the ,star-,cluster in the ,centaur #hj #bc4 ,the ,nebula in ,andromeda #ha #bd4 ,nebula in the ,greyhounds #hb #be4 ,the ,pleiades #hc #bf4 ,occultation of the ,pleiades by the ,moon #he #bg4 ,stellar dial of the double star gamma of the ,virgin #hf #bh4 ,comparative sizes of the ,sun and ,earth #ic #bi4 ,direct photograph of the ,sun #if #cj4 ,telescopic aspect of a ,sun-,spot #ig #ca4 ,rose-colored solar flames #bbh1jjj kilometers 7#ada1ejj miles7 in height1 i4e41 #ah times the diameter of the ,earth #ajc #cb4 ,orbits of the four ,planets nearest to the ,sun #aae #cc4 ,orbits of the four ,planets farthest from the ,sun #aaf #cd4 ,mercury near quadrature #aag #ce4 ,the ,earth viewed from ,mercury #aai #cf4 ,the ,evening ,star #abc #cg4 ,successive phases of ,venus #abd #ch4 ,venus at greatest brilliancy #abf #ci4 ,the ,earth viewed from ,venus #acj #dj4 ,diminution of the polar snows of ,mars during the summer #acf #da4 ,telescopic aspect of the planet ,mars 7,feb41 #aija7 #acg #db4 ,telescopic aspect of the planet ,mars 7,feb41 #aija7 #ach #dc4 ,chart of ,mars #adj #dd4 ,the ,earth viewed from ,mars #add #de4 ,telescopic aspect of ,jupiter #aej #df4 ,jupiter and his four principal satellites #aee #dg4 ,saturn #aei #dh4 ,varying perspective of ,saturn's ,rings1 as seen from the ,earth #afa #di4 ,the ,great ,comet of #aheh #agd #ej4 ,what our ,ancestors saw in a ,comet #agg ,after ,ambroise ,pare 7#aheh7 #ea4 ,prodigies seen in the ,heavens by our ,forefathers #agh #eb4 ,the orbit of a ,periodic ,comet #ahb #ec4 ,the tails of ,comets are opposed to the ,sun #ahe #ed4 ,a ,meteor #aia #ee4 ,shooting ,stars of ,november #ab1 #agii #aif ,from a contemporary drawing #ef4 ,fire-,ball seen from the ,observatory at ,juvisy1 ,august #aj1 #ahii #aii #eg4 ,explosion of a ,fire-,ball above ,madrid1 ,february #aj1 #ahif #bjj #eh4 ,raphael's ,fire-,ball 7,the ,madonna of ,foligno7 #bjb #ei4 ,a ,uranolith #bjc #fj4 ,motion of the ,earth round the ,sun #bbb #fa4 ,inclination of the ,earth #bbd #fb4 ,the divisions of the globe4 ,longitudes and latitudes #bbf #fc4 ,to find the long and short months #bcj #fd4 ,the ,full ,moon slowly rises #bcd #fe4 ,the ,moon viewed with the unaided eye #bcf #ff4 ,the ,man's head in the ,moon #bcg #fg4 ,woman's head in the ,moon #bch #fh4 ,the kiss in the ,moon #bci #fi4 ,photograph of the ,moon #bdj #gj4 ,the ,moon's ,phases #bda #ga4 ,map of the ,moon #bdg #gb4 ,the ,lunar ,apennines #bea #gc4 ,flammarion's ,lunar ,ring #bec #gd4 ,lunar landscape with the ,earth in the sky #bed #ge4 ,battle between the ,medes and ,lydians arrested by an ,eclipse of the ,sun #bff #gf4 ,eclipse of the ,moon at ,laos 7,february #bg1 #ahgg7 #bfi #gg4 ,the path of the ,eclipse of ,may #bh1 #aijj #bgc #gh4 ,total eclipse of the ,sun1 ,may #bh1 #aijj1 as observed from ,elche 7,spain7 #bha #gi4 ,the ,eclipse of ,may #bh1 #aijj1 as photographed by ,king ,alfonso ,,xiii1 at ,madrid #bhe #hj4 ,measurement of ,angles #bhi #ha4 ,division of the ,circumference into #cfj degrees #bia #hb4 ,measurement of the distance of the ,moon #bib #hc4 ,measurement of the distance of the ,sun #big #hd4 ,small apparent ellipses described by the stars as a result of the annual displacement of the ,earth #cjf ,,introduction ,the ,science of ,astronomy is sublime and beautiful4 ,noble1 elevating1 consoling1 divine1 it gives us wings1 and bears us through ,infinitude4 ,in these ethereal regions all is pure1 luminous1 and splendid4 ,dreams of the ,ideal1 even of the ,inaccessible1 weave their subtle spells upon us4 ,the imagination soars aloft1 and aspires to the sources of ,eternal ,beauty4 ,what greater delight can be conceived1 on a fine spring evening1 at the hour when the crescent moon is shining in the ,west amid the last glimmer of twilight1 than the contemplation of that grand and silent spectacle of the stars stepping forth in sequence in the vast ,heavens8 ,all sounds of life die out upon the earth1 the last notes of the sleepy birds have sunk away1 the ,angelus of the church hard by has rung the close of day4 ,but if life is arrested around us1 we may seek it in the ,heavens4 ,these incandescing orbs are so many points of interrogation suspended above our heads in the inaccessible depths of space4444 ,gradually they multiply4 ,there is ,venus1 the white star of the shepherd4 ,there ,mars1 the little celestial world so near our own4 ,there the giant ,jupiter4 ,the seven stars of the ,great ,bear seem to point out the pole1 while they slowly revolve around it4444 ,what is this nebulous light that blanches the darkness of the heavens1 and traverses the constellations like a celestial path8 ,it is the ,galaxy1 the ,milky ,way1 composed of millions on millions of suns6444 ,the darkness is profound1 the abyss immense4444 ,see6 ,yonder a shooting star glides silently across the sky1 and disappears6444 ,who can remain insensible to this magic spectacle of the starry ,heavens8 ,where is the mind that is not attracted to these enigmas8 ,the intelligence of the amateur1 the feminine1 no less than the more material and prosaic masculine mind1 is well adapted to the consideration of astronomical problems4 ,women1 indeed1 are naturally predisposed to these contemplative studies4 ,and the part they are called to play in the education of our children is so vast1 and so important1 that the elements of ,astronomy might well be taught by the young mother herself to the budding minds that are curious about every issue--whose first impressions are so keen and so enduring4 ,throughout the ages women have occupied themselves successfully with ,astronomy1 not merely in its contemplative and descriptive1 but also in its mathematical aspects4 ,of such1 the most illustrious was the beautiful and learned ,hypatia of ,alexandria1 born in the year #cge of our era1 public lecturer on geometry1 algebra1 and astronomy1 and author of three works of great importance4 ,then1 in that age of ignorance and fanaticism1 she fell a victim to human stupidity and malice1 was dragged from her chariot while crossing the ,cathedral ,square1 in ,march1 #dae1 stripped of her garments1 stoned to death1 and burned as a dishonored witch6 ,among the women inspired with a passion for the ,heavens may be cited ,st4 ,catherine of ,alexandria1 admired for her learning1 her beauty and her virtue4 ,she was martyred in the reign of ,maximinus ,daza1 about the year #cab1 and has given her name to one of the lunar rings4 ,another celebrated female mathematician was ,madame ,hortense ,lepaute1 born in #agbc1 who collaborated with ,clairaut in the immense calculations by which he predicted the return of ,halley's ,comet4 ,madame ,lepaute1 wrote ,lalande1 gave us such immense assistance that1 without her1 we should never have ventured to undertake this enormous labor1 in which it was necessary to calculate for every degree1 and for a hundred and fifty years1 the distances and forces of the planets acting by their attraction on the comet4 ,during more than six months1 we calculated from morning to night1 sometimes even at table1 and as the result of this forced labor ,i contracted an illness that has changed my constitution for life2 but it was important to publish the result before the arrival of the comet4 ,this extract will suffice for the appreciation of the scientific ardor of ,madame ,lepaute4 ,we are indebted to her for some considerable works4 ,her husband was clock-maker to the ,king4 ,to her intellectual talents1 says one of her biographers1 were joined all the qualities of the heart4 ,she was charming to a degree1 with an elegant figure1 a dainty foot1 and such a beautiful hand that ,voiriot1 the ,king's painter1 who had made a portrait of her1 asked permission to copy it1 in order to preserve a model of the best in ,nature4 ,and then we are told that learned women can not be good-looking6444 ,the ,marquise du ,chatelet was no less renowned4 ,she was predestined to her career1 if the following anecdote be credible4 ,gabrielle-,emilie de ,breteuil1 born in #agjf 7who1 in #agbe1 was to marry the ,marquis du ,chatelet1 becoming1 in #agcc1 the most celebrated friend of ,voltaire71 was four or five years old when she was given an old compass1 dressed up as a doll1 for a plaything4 ,after examining this object for some time1 the child began angrily and impatiently to strip off the silly draperies the toy was wrapped in1 and after turning it over several times in her little hands1 she divined its uses1 and traced a circle with it on a sheet of paper4 ,to her1 among other things1 we owe a precious1 and indeed the only ,french1 translation of ,newton's great work on universal gravitation1 the famous ,principia1 and she was1 with ,voltaire1 an eloquent propagator of the theory of attraction1 rejected at that time by the ,academie des ,sciences4 ,numbers of other women astronomers might be cited1 all showing how accessible this highly abstract science is to the feminine intellect4 ,president des ,brosses1 in his charming ,voyage en ,italie1 tells of the visit he paid in ,milan to the young ,italian1 ,marie ,agnesi1 who delivered harangues in ,latin1 and was acquainted with seven languages1 and for whom mathematics held no secrets4 ,she was devoted to algebra and geometry1 which1 she said1 are the only provinces of thought wherein peace reigns4 ,madame de ,charriere expressed herself in an aphorism of the same order3 ,an hour or two of mathematics sets my mind at liberty1 and puts me in good spirits2 ,i feel that ,i can eat and sleep better when ,i have seen obvious and indisputable truths4 ,this consoles me for the obscurities of religion and metaphysics1 or rather makes me forget them2 ,i am thankful there is something positive in this world4 ,and did not ,madame de ,blocqueville1 last surviving daughter of ,marshal ,davout1 who died in #ahib1 exclaim in her turn3 ,astronomy1 science of sciences6 by which ,i am attracted1 and terrified1 and which ,i adore6 ,by it my soul is detached from the things of this world1 for it draws me to those unknown spheres that evoked from ,newton the triumphant cry3 ',coeli enarrant gloriam ,dei6' ,nor must we omit ,miss ,caroline ,herschel1 sister of the greatest observer of the ,heavens1 the grandest discoverer of the stars1 that has ever lived4 ,astronomy gave her a long career2 she discovered no less than seven comets herself1 and her patient labors preserved her to the age of ninety-eight4--,and ,mrs4 ,somerville1 to whom we owe the ,english translation of ,laplace's ,mecanique celeste1 of whom ,humboldt said1 ,in pure mathematics1 ,mrs4 ,somerville is absolutely superior4 ,like ,caroline ,herschel1 she was almost a centenarian1 appearing always much younger than her years3 she died at ,naples1 in #ahgb1 at the age of ninety-two4--,so1 too1 the ,russian ,sophie ,kovalevsky1 descendant of ,mathias ,corvinus1 ,king of ,hungary1 who1 an accomplished mathematician at sixteen1 married at eighteen1 in order to follow the curriculum at the ,university 7then forbidden to unmarried women72 arranging with her young husband to live as brother and sister until their studies should be completed4 ,in #ahhh the ,prix ,bordin of the ,institut was conferred on her4--,and ,maria ,mitchell of the ,united ,states1 for whom ,le ,verrier gave a fete at the ,observatory of ,paris1 and who was exceptionally authorized by ,pope ,pius ,,ix to visit the ,observatory of the ,roman ,college1 at that time an ecclesiastical establishment1 closed to women4--,and ,madame ,scarpellini1 the ,roman astronomer1 renowned for her works on shooting stars1 whom the author had the honor of visiting1 in company with ,father ,secchi1 ,director of the ,observatory mentioned above4 ,at the present time1 ,astronomy is proud to reckon among its most famous workers ,miss ,agnes ,clerke1 the learned ,irishwoman1 to whom we owe1 inter alia1 an excellent ,history of ,astronomy in the ,nineteenth ,century2--,mrs4 ,isaac ,roberts1 who1 under the familiar name of ,miss ,klumpke1 sat on the ,council of the ,astronomical ,society of ,france1 and is ,d4 ,sc4 of the ,faculty of ,paris and head of the ,bureau for measuring star photographs at the ,observatory of ,paris 7an ,american who became ,english by her marriage with the astronomer ,roberts1 but is not forgotten in ,france72--,mrs4 ,fleming1 one of the astronomers of the ,observatory at ,harvard ,college1 ,u4,s4,a41 to whom we owe the discovery of a great number of variable stars by the examination of photographic records1 and by spectral photography2--,lady ,huggins1 who in ,england is the learned collaborator of her illustrious husband2--and many others4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the following chapters1 which aim at summing up the essentials of ,astronomy in twelve lessons for amateurs1 will not make astronomers or mathematicians of my readers--much less prigs or pedants4 ,they are designed to show the constitution of the ,universe1 in its grandeur and its beauty1 so that1 inhabiting this world1 we may know where we are living1 may realize our position in the ,cosmos1 appreciate ,creation as it is1 and enjoy it to better advantage4 ,this sun by which we live1 this succession of months and years1 of days and nights1 the apparent motions of the heavens1 these starry skies1 the divine rays of the moon1 the whole totality of things1 constitutes in some sort the tissue of our existence1 and it is indeed extraordinary that the inhabitants of our planet should almost all have lived till now without knowing where they are1 without suspecting the marvels of the ,universe4 99 99 99 99 99 ,for the rest1 my little book is dedicated to a woman1 muse and goddess--the charming enchantress ,urania1 fit companion of ,venus1 ranking even above her in the choir of celestial beauties1 as purer and more noble1 dominating with her clear glance the immensities of the universe4 ,urania1 be it noted1 is feminine1 and never would the poetry of the ancients have imagined a masculine symbol to personify the pageant of the heavens4 ,not ,uranus1 nor ,saturn1 nor ,jupiter can compare with the ideal beauty of ,urania4 ,moreover1 ,i have before me two delightful books1 in breviary binding1 dated the one from the year #afhf1 the other from a century later1 #aghf4 ,the first was written by ,fontenelle for a ,marquise1 and is entitled ,entretiens sur la ,pluralite des ,mondes4 ,in this1 banter is pleasantly married with science1 the author declaring that he only demands from his fair readers the amount of application they would concede to a novel4 ,the second is written by ,lalande1 and is called ,astronomie des ,dames4 ,in addressing myself to both sexes1 ,i am in honorable company with these two sponsors and esteem myself the better for it4 ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,contemplation ,,of ,,the ,,heavens ,the crimson disk of the ,sun has plunged beneath the ,ocean4 ,the sea has decked itself with the burning colors of the orb1 reflected from the ,heavens in a mirror of turquoise and emerald4 ,the rolling waves are gold and silver1 and break noisily on a shore already darkened by the disappearance of the celestial luminary4 ,we gaze regretfully after the star of day1 that poured its cheerful rays anon so generously over many who were intoxicated with gaiety and happiness4 ,we dream1 contemplating the magnificent spectacle1 and in dreaming forget the moments that are rapidly flying by4 ,yet the darkness gradually increases1 and twilight gives way to night4 ,the most indifferent spectator of the setting ,sun as it descends beneath the waves at the far horizon1 could hardly be unmoved by the pageant of ,nature at such an impressive moment4 ,the light of the ,crescent ,moon1 like some fairy boat suspended in the sky1 is bright enough to cast changing and dancing sparkles of silver upon the ocean4 ,the ,evening ,star declines slowly in its turn toward the western horizon4 ,our gaze is held by a shining world that dominates the whole of the occidental heavens4 ,this is the ,shepherd's ,star1 ,venus of rays translucent4 ,little by little1 one by one1 the more brilliant stars shine out4 ,here are the white ,vega of the ,lyre1 the burning ,arcturus1 the seven stars of the ,great ,bear1 a whole sidereal population catching fire1 like innumerable eyes that open on the ,infinite4 ,it is a new life that is revealed to our imagination1 inviting us to soar into these mysterious regions4 ,o ,night1 diapered with fires innumerable6 hast thou not written in flaming letters on these ,constellations the syllables of the great enigma of ,eternity8 ,the contemplation of thee is a wonder and a charm4 ,how rapidly canst thou efface the regrets we suffered on the departure of our beloved ,sun6 ,what wealth1 what beauty hast thou not reserved for our enraptured souls6 ,where is the man that can remain blind to such a pageant and deaf to its language6 ,to whatever quarter of the ,heavens we look1 the splendors of the night are revealed to our astonished gaze4 ,these celestial eyes seem in their turn to gaze at1 and to question us4 ,thus indeed have they questioned every thinking soul1 so long as ,humanity has existed on our ,earth4 ,homer saw and sung these self-same stars4 ,they shone upon the slow succession of civilizations that have disappeared1 from ,egypt of the period of the ,pyramids1 ,greece at the time of the ,trojan ,war1 ,rome and ,carthage1 ,constantine and ,charlemagne1 down to the ,twentieth ,century4 ,the generations are buried with the dust of their ancient temples4 ,the ,stars are still there1 symbols of ,eternity4 ,the silence of the vast and starry ,heavens may terrify us2 its immensity may seem to overwhelm us4 ,but our inquiring thought flies curiously on the wings of dream1 toward the remotest regions of the visible4 ,it rests on one star and another1 like the butterfly on the flower4 ,it seeks what will best respond to its aspirations3 and thus a kind of communication is established1 and1 as it were1 protected by all ,nature in these silent appeals4 ,our sense of solitude has disappeared4 ,we feel that1 if only as infinitesimal atoms1 we form part of that immense universe1 and this dumb language of the starry night is more eloquent than any speech4 ,each star becomes a friend1 a discreet confidant1 often indeed a precious counsellor1 for all the thoughts it suggests to us are pure and holy4 ,is any poem finer than the book written in letters of fire upon the tablets of the firmament8 ,nothing could be more ideal4 ,and yet1 the poetic sentiment that the beauty of ,heaven awakens in our soul ought not to veil its reality from us4 ,that is no less marvelous than the mystery by which we were enchanted4 ,and here we may ask ourselves how many there are1 even among thinking human beings1 who ever raise their eyes to the starry heavens8 ,how many men and women are sincerely1 and with unfeigned curiosity1 interested in these shining specks1 and inaccessible luminaries1 and really desirous of a better acquaintance with them8 ,seek1 talk1 ask in the intercourse of daily life4 ,you1 who read these pages1 who already love the ,heavens1 and comprehend them1 who desire to account for our existence in this world1 who seek to know what the ,earth is1 and what ,heaven--you shall witness that the number of those inquiring after truth is so limited that no one dares to speak of it1 so disgraceful is it to the so-called intelligence of our race4 ,and yet6 the great ,book of the ,heavens is open to all eyes4 ,what pleasures await us in the study of the ,universe6 ,nothing could speak more eloquently to our heart and intellect6 ,astronomy is the science par excellence4 ,it is the most beautiful and most ancient of all1 inasmuch as it dates back to the indeterminate times of highest antiquity4 ,its mission is not only to make us acquainted with the innumerable orbs by which our nights are illuminated1 but it is1 moreover1 thanks to it that we know where and what we are4 ,without it we should live as the blind1 in eternal ignorance of the very conditions of our terrestrial existence4 ,without it we should still be penetrated with the naive error that reduced the entire ,universe to our minute globule1 making our ,humanity the goal of the ,creation1 and should have no exact notion of the immense reality4 ,to-day1 thanks to the intellectual labor of so many centuries1 thanks also to the immortal genius of the men of science who have devoted their lives to searching after ,truth--men such as ,copernicus1 ,galileo1 ,kepler1 ,newton--the veil of ignorance has been rent1 and glimpses of the marvels of creation are perceptible in their splendid truth to the dazzled eye of the thinker4 ,the study of ,astronomy is not1 as many suppose1 the sacrifice of oneself in a cerebral torture that obliterates all the beauty1 the fascination1 and the grandeur of the pageant of ,nature4 ,figures1 and naught but figures1 would not be entertaining1 even to those most desirous of instruction4 ,let the reader take courage6 ,we do not propose that he shall decipher the hieroglyphics of algebra and geometry4 ,perish the thought6 ,for the rest1 figures are but the scaffolding1 the method1 and do not exist in ,nature4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,the great ,book of the ,heavens is open to all eyes4 ,we simply beg of you to open your eyes1 to see where you are1 so that you may not stray from the path of truth1 which is also the path of happiness4 ,once you have entered upon it1 no persuasion will be needed to make you persevere4 ,and you will have the profound satisfaction of knowing that you are thinking correctly1 and that it is infinitely better to be educated than to be ignorant4 ,the reality is far beyond all dreams1 beyond the most fantastic imagination4 ,the most fairy-like transformations of our theaters1 the most resplendent pageants of our military reviews1 the most sumptuous marvels on which the human race can pride itself--all that we admire1 all that we envy on the ,earth--is as nothing compared with the unheard-of wonders scattered through ,infinitude4 ,there are so many that one does not know how to see them4 ,the fascinated eye would fain grasp all at once4 ,if you will yield yourselves to the pleasure of gazing upon the sparkling fires of ,space1 you will never regret the moments passed all too rapidly in the contemplation of the ,heavens4 ,diamonds1 turquoises1 rubies1 emeralds1 all the precious stones with which women love to deck themselves1 are to be found in greater perfection1 more beautiful1 and more splendid1 set in the immensity of ,heaven6 ,in the telescopic field1 we may watch the progress of armies of majestic and powerful suns1 from whose attacks there is naught to fear4 ,and these vagabond comets and shooting stars and stellar nebulae1 do they not make up a prodigious panorama8 ,what are our romances in comparison with the ,history of ,nature8 ,soaring toward the ,infinite1 we purify our souls from all the baseness of this world1 we strive to become better and more intelligent4 99 99 99 99 99 ,but in the first place1 you ask1 what are the ,heavens8 ,this vault oppresses us4 ,we can not venture to investigate it4 ,heaven1 we reply1 is no vault1 it is a limitless immensity1 inconceivable1 unfathomable1 that surrounds us on all sides1 and in the midst of which our globe is floating4 ,,the ,,heavens ,,are ,,all ,,that ,,exists1 all that we see1 and all that we do not see3 the ,earth on which we are1 that bears us onward in her rapid flight2 the ,moon that accompanies us1 and sheds her soft beams upon our silent nights2 the good ,sun to which we owe our existence2 the ,stars1 suns of ,infinitude2 in a word--the whole of ,creation4 ,yes1 our ,earth is an orb of the ,heavens3 the sky is her domain1 and our ,sun1 shining above our heads1 and fertilizing our seasons1 is as much a star as the pretty sparkling points that scintillate up there1 in the far distance1 and embellish the calm of our nights with their brilliancy4 ,all are in the ,heavens1 you as well as ,i1 for the ,earth1 in her course through ,space1 bears us with herself into the depths of ,infinitude4 ,in the ,heavens there is neither above nor below4 ,these words do not exist in celestial speech1 because their significance is relative to the surface of this planet only4 ,in reality1 for the inhabitants of the ,earth1 low is the inside1 the center of the globe1 and high is what is above our heads1 all round the ,earth4 ,the ,heavens are what surround us on all sides1 to ,infinity4 ,the ,earth is1 like her fellows1 ,mercury1 ,venus1 ,mars1 ,jupiter1 ,saturn1 ,uranus1 ,neptune1 one of the planets of the great solar family4 ,the ,sun1 her father1 protects her1 and directs all her actions4 ,she1 as the grateful daughter1 obeys him blindly4 ,all float in perfect harmony over the celestial ocean4 ,but1 you may say1 on what does the ,earth rest in her ethereal navigation8 ,on nothing4 ,the ,earth turns round the colossal ,sun1 a little globe of relatively light weight1 isolated on all sides in ,space1 like a soap-bubble blown by some careless child4 ,above1 below1 on all sides1 millions of similar globes are grouped into families1 and form other systems of worlds revolving round the numerous and distant stars that people ,infinitude2 suns more or less analogous to that by which we are illuminated1 and generally speaking of larger bulk1 although our ,sun is a million times larger than our planet4 ,among the ancients1 before the isolation of our globe in ,space and the motions that incessantly alter its position were recognized1 the ,earth was supposed to be the immobile lower half of the ,universe4 ,the sky was regarded as the upper half4 ,the ancients supplied our world with fantastic supports that penetrated to the ,infernal ,regions4 ,they could not admit the notion of the ,earth's isolation1 because they had a false idea of its weight4 ,to-day1 however1 we know positively that the ,earth is based on nothing4 ,the innumerable journeys accomplished round it in all directions give definite proof of this4 ,it is attached to nothing4 ,as we said before1 there is neither above nor below in the ,universe4 ,what we call below is the center of the ,earth4 ,for the rest the ,earth turns upon its own axis in twenty-four hours4 ,night is only a partial phenomenon1 due to the rotary motion of the planet1 a motion that could not exist under conditions other than that of the absolute isolation of our globe in space4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--,the earth in space4 ,june solstice1 midday4 ,since the ,sun can only illuminate one side of our globe at one moment1 that is to say one hemisphere1 it follows that ,night is nothing but the state of the part that is not illuminated4 ,as the ,earth revolves upon itself1 all the parts successively exposed to the ,sun are in the day1 while the parts situated opposite to the ,sun1 in the cone of shadow produced by the ,earth itself1 are in night4 ,but whether it be noon or midnight1 the stars always occupy the same position in the ,heavens1 even when1 dazzled by the ardent light of the orb of day1 we can no longer see them2 and when we are plunged into the darkness of the night1 the god ,phoebus still continues to pour his beneficent rays upon the countries turned toward him4 ,the sequence of day and night is a phenomenon belonging1 properly speaking1 to the ,earth1 in which the rest of the ,universe does not participate4 ,the same occurs for every world that is illuminated by a sun1 and endowed with a rotary movement4 ,in absolute space1 there is no succession of nights and days4 ,upheld in space by forces that will be explained at a later point1 our planet glides in the open heavens round our ,sun4 ,imagine a magnificent aerostat1 lightly and rapidly cleaving space4 ,surround it with eight little balloons of different sizes1 the smallest like those sold on the streets for children to play with1 the larger1 such as are distributed for a bonus in large stores4 ,imagine this group sailing through the air1 and you have the system of our worlds in miniature4 ,still1 this is only an image1 a comparison4 ,the balloons are held up by the atmosphere1 in which they float at equilibrium4 ,the ,earth is sustained by nothing material4 ,what maintains her in equilibrium is the ethereal void2 an immaterial force2 gravitation4 ,the ,sun attracts her1 and if she did not revolve1 she would drop into him2 but rotating round him1 at a speed of #ajg1jjj kilometers#b 7about #ff1jjj miles7 per hour1 she produces a centrifugal force1 like that of a stone in a sling1 that is precisely equivalent1 and of contrary sign1 to its gravitation toward the central orb1 and these two equilibrated forces keep her at the same medium distance4 ,this solar and planetary group does not exist solitary in the immense void that extends indefinitely around us4 ,as we said above1 each star that we admire in the depths of the sky1 and to which we lift up our eyes and thoughts during the charmed hours of the night1 is another sun burning with its own light1 the chief of a more or less numerous family1 such as are multiplied through all space to infinity4 ,notwithstanding the immense distances between the sun-stars1 ,space is so vast1 and the number of these so great1 that by an effect of perspective due solely to the distance1 appearances would lead us to believe that the stars were touching4 ,and under certain telescopic aspects1 and in some of the astral photographs1 they really do appear to be contiguous4 ,the ,universe is infinite4 ,space is limitless4 ,if our love for the ,heavens should incite in us the impulse1 and provide us with the means of undertaking a journey directed to the ends of ,heaven as its goal1 we should be astonished1 on arriving at the confines of the ,milky ,way1 to see the grandiose and phenomenal spectacle of a new ,universe unfold before our dazzled eyes2 and if in our mad career we crossed this new archipelago of worlds to seek the barriers of ,heaven beyond them1 we should still find universe eternally succeeding to universe before us4 ,millions of suns roll on in the immensities of ,space4 ,everywhere1 on all sides1 ,creation renews itself in an infinite variety4 ,according to all the probabilities1 universal life is distributed there as well as here1 and has sown the germ of intelligence upon those distant worlds that we divine in the vicinity of the innumerable suns that plow the ether1 for everything upon the ,earth tends to show that ,life is the goal of ,nature4 ,burning foci1 inextinguishable sources of warmth and light1 these various1 multi-colored suns shed their rays upon the worlds that belong to them and which they fertilize4 ,our globe is no exception in the ,universe4 ,as we have seen1 it is one of the celestial orbs1 nourished1 warmed1 lighted1 quickened by the ,sun1 which in its turn again is but a star4 ,innumerable ,worlds6 ,we dream of them4 ,who can say that their unknown inhabitants do not think of us in their turn1 and that ,space may not be traversed by waves of thought1 as it is by the vibrations of light and universal gravitation8 ,may not an immense solidarity1 hardly guessed at by our imperfect senses1 exist between the ,celestial ,humanities1 our ,earth being only a modest planet4 ,let us meditate on this ,infinity6 ,let us lose no opportunity of employing the best of our hours1 those of the silence and peace of the bewitching nights1 in contemplating1 admiring1 spelling out the words of the ,great ,book of the ,heavens4 ,let our freed souls fly swift and rapt toward those marvelous countries where indescribable joys are prepared for us1 and let us do homage to the first and most splendid of the sciences1 to ,astronomy1 which diffuses the light of ,truth within us4 ,to poetical souls1 the contemplation of the ,heavens carries thought away to higher regions than it attains in any other meditation4 ,who does not remember the beautiful lines of ,victor ,hugo in the ,orientales8 ,who has not heard or read them8 ,the poem is called ,ecstasy1 and it is a fitting title4 ,the words are sometimes set to music1 and the melody seems to complete their pure beauty3 ,j'etais seul pres des flots par une nuit d'etoiles4 ,pas un nuage aux cieux1 sur les mers pas de voiles2 ,mes yeux plongeaient plus loin que le monde reel1 ,et les bois et les monts et toute la nature ,semblaient interroger1 dans un confus murmure1 ,les flots des mers1 les feux du ciel4 ,et les etoiles d'or1 legions infinies1 ,a voix haute1 a voix basse1 avec mille harmonies ,disaient1 en inclinant leurs couronnes de feu2 ,et les flots bleus1 que rien ne gouverne et n'arrete1 ,disaient en recourbant l'ecume de leur crete3 444 ,c'est le ,seigneur1 le ,seigneur ,dieu6 ,note3 ,free ,translation ,i was alone on the waves1 on a starry night1 ,not a cloud in the sky1 not a sail in sight1 ,my eyes pierced beyond the natural world444 ,and the woods1 and the hills1 and the voice of ,nature ,seemed to question in a confused murmur1 ,the waves of the ,sea1 and ,heaven's fires4 ,and the golden stars in infinite legion1 ,sang loudly1 and softly1 in glad recognition1 ,inclining their crowns of fire2444 ,and the waves that naught can check nor arrest ,sang1 bowing the foam of their haughty crest444 ,behold the ,lord ,god--,jehovah6 ,the immortal poet of ,france was an astronomer4 ,the author more than once had the honor of conversing with him on the problems of the starry sky--and reflected that astronomers might well be poets4 ,it is indeed difficult to resist a sense of profound emotion before the abysses of infinite ,space1 when we behold the innumerable multitude of worlds suspended above our heads4 ,we feel in this solitary contemplation of the ,heavens that there is more in the ,universe than tangible and visible matter3 that there are forces1 laws1 destinies4 ,our ants' brains may know themselves microscopic1 and yet recognize that there is something greater than the ,earth1 the ,heavens2--more absolute than the ,visible1 the ,invisible2--beyond the more or less vulgar affairs of life1 the sense of the ,true1 the ,good1 the ,beautiful4 ,we feel that an immense mystery broods over ,nature1--over ,being1 over created things4 ,and it is here again that ,astronomy surpasses all the other sciences1 that it becomes our sovereign teacher1 that it is the pharos of modern philosophy4 ,o ,night1 mysterious1 sublime1 and infinite6 withdrawing from our eyes the veil spread above us by the light of day1 giving back transparency to the ,heavens1 showing us the prodigious reality1 the shining casket of the celestial diamonds1 the innumerable stars that succeed each other interminably in immeasurable space6 ,without ,night we should know nothing4 ,without it our eyes would never have divined the sidereal population1 our intellects would never have pierced the harmony of the ,heavens1 and we should have remained the blind1 deaf parasites of a world isolated from the rest of the universe4 ,o ,sacred ,night6 ,if on the one hand it rests upon the heights of ,truth beyond the day's illusions1 on the other its invisible urns pour down a silent and tranquil peace1 a penetrating calm1 upon our souls that weary of ,life's fever4 ,it makes us forget the struggles1 perfidies1 intrigues1 the miseries of the hours of toil and noisy activity1 all the conventionalities of civilization4 ,its domain is that of rest and dreams4 ,we love it for its peace and calm tranquillity4 ,we love it because it is true4 ,we love it because it places us in communication with the other worlds1 because it gives us the presage of ,life1 ,universal and ,eternal1 because it brings us ,hope1 because it proclaims us citizens of ,heaven4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,constellations ,in ,chapter ,i we saw the ,earth hanging in space1 like a globe isolated on all sides1 and surrounded at vast distances by a multitude of stars4 ,these fiery orbs are suns like that which illuminates ourselves4 ,they shine by their own light4 ,we know this for a fact1 because they are so far off that they could neither be illuminated by the ,sun1 nor1 still more1 reflect his rays back upon us3 and because1 on the other hand1 we have been able to measure and analyze their light4 ,many of these distant suns are simple and isolated2 others are double1 triple1 or multiple2 others appear to be the centers of systems analogous to that which gravitates round our own ,sun1 and of which we form part4 ,but these celestial tribes are situated at such remote distances from us that it is impossible to distinguish all the individuals of each particular family4 ,the most delicate observations have only revealed a few of them4 ,we must content ourselves here with admiring the principals1--the sun-stars1--prodigious globes1 flaming torches1 scattered profusely through the firmament4 ,how1 then1 is one to distinguish them8 ,how can they be readily found and named8 ,there are so many of them6 ,do not fear2 it is quite a simple matter4 ,in studying the surface of the ,earth we make use of geographical maps on which the continents and seas of which it consists are drawn with the utmost care4 ,each country of our planet is subdivided into states1 each of which has its proper name4 ,we shall pursue the same plan in regard to the ,heavens1 and it will be all the easier since the ,great ,book of the ,firmament is constantly open to our gaze4 ,our globe1 moreover1 actually revolves upon itself so that we read the whole in due sequence4 ,given a clear atmosphere1 and a little stimulus to the will from our love of truth and science1 and the geography of the ,heavens1 or uranography1 will soon be as familiar to us as the geography of our terrestrial atom4 ,on a beautiful summer's night1 when we look toward the starry sky1 we are at first aware only of a number of shining specks4 ,the stars seem to be scattered almost accidentally through ,space2 they are so numerous and so close to one another that it would appear rash to attempt to name them separately4 ,yet some of the brighter ones particularly attract and excite our attention4 ,after a little observation we notice a certain regularity in the arrangement of these distant suns1 and take pleasure in drawing imaginary figures round the celestial groups4 ,that is what the ancients did from a practical point of view4 ,in order to guide themselves across the trackless ocean1 the earliest ,phenician navigators noted certain fixed bearings in the sky1 by which they mapped out their routes4 ,in this way they discovered the position of the immovable ,pole1 and acquired empire over the sea4 ,the ,chaldean pastors1 too1 the nomad people of the ,east1 invoked the ,heavens to assist in their migrations4 ,they grouped the more brilliant of the stars into ,constellations with simple outlines1 and gave to each of these celestial provinces a name derived from mythology1 history1 or from the natural kingdoms4 ,it is impossible to determine the exact epoch of this primitive celestial geography4 ,the ,centaur ,chiron1 ,jason's tutor1 was reputed the first to divide the ,heavens upon the sphere of the ,argonauts4 ,but this origin is a little mythical6 ,in the ,bible we have the ,prophet ,job1 who names ,orion1 the ,pleiades1 and the ,hyades1 #c1cjj years ago4 ,the ,babylonian ,tables1 and the hieroglyphs of ,egypt1 witness to an astronomy that had made considerable advance even in those remote epochs4 ,our actual constellations1 which are doubtless of ,babylonian origin1 appear to have been arranged in their present form by the learned philosopher ,eudoxus of ,cnidus1 about the year #cfj ,b4,c4 ,aratus sang of them in a didactic poem toward #bgj4 ,hipparchus of ,rhodes was the first to note the astronomical positions with any precision1 one hundred and thirty years before our era4 ,he classified the stars in order of magnitude1 according to their apparent brightness2 and his catalogue1 preserved in the ,almagest of ,ptolemy1 contains #a1abb stars distributed into forty-eight ,constellations4 ,the figures of the constellations1 taken almost entirely from fable1 are visible only to the eyes of the imagination1 and where the ancients placed such and such a person or animal1 we may see1 with a little good-will1 anything we choose to fancy4 ,there is nothing real about these figures4 ,and yet it is indispensable to be able to recognize the constellations in order to find our way among the innumerable army of the stars1 and we shall commence this study with the description of the most popular and best known of them all1 the one that circles every night through our ,northern ,heavens4 ,needless to name it2 it is familiar to every one4 ,you have already exclaimed--the ,great ,bear6 ,this vast and splendid association of suns1 which is also known as the ,chariot of ,david1 the ,plow or ,charles's ,wain1 and the ,dipper1 is one of the finest constellations in the ,heavens1 and one of the oldest--seeing that the ,chinese hailed it as the divinity of the ,north1 over three thousand years ago4 ,if any of my readers should happen to forget its position in the sky1 the following is a very simple expedient for finding it4 ,turn to the ,north--that is1 opposite to the point where the sun is to be found at midday4 ,whatever the season of the year1 day of the month1 or hour of the night1 you will always see1 high up in the firmament1 seven magnificent stars1 arranged in a quadrilateral1 followed by a tail1 or handle1 of three stars4 ,this magnificent constellation never sinks below our horizon4 ,night and day it watches above us1 turning in twenty-four hours round a very famous star that we shall shortly become acquainted with4 ,in the figure of the ,great ,bear1 the four stars of the quadrilateral are found in the body1 and the three at the extremity make the tail4 ,as ,david's ,chariot1 the four stars represent the wheels1 and the three others the horses4 ,sometimes our ancestors called them the ,seven ,oxen1 the oxen of the celestial pastures1 from which the word septentrion 7septem triones1 seven oxen of labor7 is derived4 ,some see a ,plowshare2 others more familiarly call this figure the ,dipper4 ,as it rotates round the pole1 its outline varies with the different positions4 ,it is not easy to guess why this constellation should have been called the ,bear4 ,yet the name has had a certain influence4 ,from the ,greek word arctos 7bear7 has come arctic1 and for its antithesis1 antarctic4 ,from the ,latin word trio 7ox of labor7 has come septentrion1 the seven oxen4 ,etymology is not always logical4 ,is not the word venerate derived from ,venus8 ,in order to distinguish one star from another1 the convention of denoting them by the letters of the ,greek ,alphabet has been adopted1 for it would be impossible to give a name to each1 so considerable is their number4#c alpha and beta denote the front wheels of the ,chariot generally known as the pointers2 gamma and delta the hind wheels2 epsilon1 zeta1 eta the three horses4 ,all these stars are of the second order of magnitude 7the specific meaning of this expression will be explained in the next chapter71 except the last 7delta7 of the quadrilateral1 which is of the third order4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--,the ,great ,bear 7or ,dipper71 and the ,pole-,star4 ,figure #c gives the outline of this primitive constellation4 ,in revolving in twenty-four hours round the ,pole1 which is situated at the prolongation of a line drawn from beta to alpha1 it occupies every conceivable position1--as if this page were turned in all directions4 ,but the relative arrangement of the seven stars remains unaltered4 ,in contemplating these seven stars it must never be forgotten that each is a dazzling sun1 a center of force and life4 ,one of them is especially remarkable3 zeta1 known as ,mizar to the ,arabs4 ,those who have good sight will distinguish near it a minute star1 ,alcor1 or the ,cavalier1 also called ,saidak by the ,arabs--that is1 the ,test1 because it can be used as a test of vision4 ,but further1 if you have a small telescope at your disposal1 direct it upon the fine star ,mizar3 you will be astonished at discovering two of the finest diamonds you could wish to see1 with which no brilliant is comparable4 ,there are several double stars2 these we shall become acquainted with later on4 ,meantime1 we must not forget our celestial geography4 ,the ,great ,bear will help us to find all the adjacent constellations4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4--,to find the ,pole-,star4 ,if a straight line is drawn 7,fig4 #d7 from beta through alpha1 which forms the extremity of the square1 and is prolonged by a quantity equal to the distance of alpha from the tip of the handle1 we come on a star of second magnitude1 which marks the extremity of a figure perfectly comparable with the ,great ,bear1 but smaller1 less brilliant1 and pointing in the contrary direction4 ,this is the ,little ,bear1 composed1 like its big brother1 of seven stars2 the one situated at the end of the line by which we have found it is the ,pole-,star4 ,immovable in the region of the ,north ,pole1 the ,pole-,star has captivated all eyes by its position in the firmament4 ,it is the providence of mariners who have gone astray on the ocean1 for it points them to the ,north1 while it is the pivot of the immense rotation accomplished round it by all the stars in twenty-four hours4 ,hence it is a very important factor1 and we must hasten to find it1 and render it due homage4 ,it should be added that its special immobility1 in the prolongation of the ,earth's axis1 is merely an effect caused by the diurnal movements of our planet4 ,our readers are of course aware that it is the earth that turns and not the sky4 ,but evidence of this will be given later on4 ,in looking at the ,pole-,star1 the ,south is behind one1 the ,east to the right1 and the ,west to the left4 ,between the ,great and the ,little ,bear1 we can distinguish a winding procession of smaller stars4 ,these constitute the ,dragon4 ,we will continue our journey by way of ,cassiopeia1 a fine constellation placed on the opposite side of the ,pole-,star in relation to the ,great ,bear1 and shaped somewhat like the open limbs of the letter ,w4 ,it is also called the ,chair4 ,and1 in fact1 when the figure is represented with the line alpha beta below1 the line chi gamma forms the seat1 and gamma delta epsilon its back4 ,if a straight line is drawn from delta of the ,great ,bear1 and prolonged beyond the ,pole-,star in a quantity equal to the distance which separates these two stars1 it is easy to find this constellation 7,fig4 #e74 ,this group1 like the preceding1 never sets1 and is always visible1 opposite to the ,great ,bear4 ,it revolves in twenty-four hours round the ,pole-,star1 and is to be seen1 now above1 now below1 now to the right1 now to the left4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4--,to find ,cassiopeia4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4--,to ,find ,pegasus and ,andromeda4 ,if in the next place1 starting from the stars alpha and delta in the ,great ,bear1 we draw two lines which join at ,polaris and are prolonged beyond ,cassiopeia1 we arrive at the ,square of ,pegasus 7,fig4 #f71 a vast constellation that terminates on one side in a prolongation formed of three stars4 ,these three last stars belong to ,andromeda1 and themselves abut on ,perseus4 ,the last star in the ,square of ,pegasus is also the first in ,andromeda4 gamma of ,andromeda is a magnificent double orb1 to which we shall return in the next chapter1 i4e41 the telescope resolves it into two marvelous suns1 one of which is topaz-yellow1 and the other emerald-green4 ,three stars1 indeed1 are visible with more powerful instruments4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4--,perseus1 the ,pleiades1 ,capella4 ,above beta and near a small star1 is visible a faint1 whitish1 luminous trail3 this is the oblong nebula of ,andromeda1 the first mentioned in the history of astronomy1 and one of the most beautiful in the ,heavens1 perceptible to the unaided eye on very clear nights4 ,the stars alpha1 beta and gamma of ,perseus form a concave bow which will serve in a new orientation4 ,if it is prolonged in the direction of delta1 we find a very brilliant star of the first magnitude4 ,this is ,capella1 the ,goat1 in the constellation of the ,charioteer 7,fig4 #g74 ,if coming back to delta in ,perseus1 a line is drawn toward the ,south1 we reach the ,pleiades1 a gorgeous cluster of stars1 scintillating like the finest dust of diamonds1 on the shoulder of the ,bull1 to which we shall come shortly1 in studying the ,constellations of the ,zodiac4 ,not far off is a very curious star1 beta of ,perseus1 or ,algol1 which forms a little triangle with two others smaller than itself4 ,this star is peculiar in that1 instead of shining with a fixed light1 it varies in intensity1 and is sometimes pale1 sometimes brilliant4 ,it belongs to the category of variable stars which we shall study later on4 ,all the observations made on it for more than two hundred years go to prove that a dark star revolves round this sun1 almost in the plane of our line of sight1 producing as it passes in front of it a partial eclipse that reduces it from the second to the fourth magnitude1 every other two days1 twenty hours1 and forty-nine minutes4 ,and now1 let us return to the ,great ,bear1 which aided us so beneficently to start for these distant shores1 and whence we shall set out afresh in search of other constellations4 ,if we produce the curved line of the tail1 or handle1 we encounter a magnificent golden-yellow star1 a splendid sun of dazzling brilliancy3 let us make our bow to ,arcturus1 alpha of the ,herdsman1 which is at the extremity of this pentagonal constellation4 ,the principal stars of this asterism are of the third magnitude1 with the exception of alpha1 which is of the first4 ,alongside of the ,herdsman is a circle consisting of five stars of the third and fourth magnitude1 save the third1 alpha1 or the ,pearl1 which is of the second magnitude4 ,this is the ,corona ,borealis4 ,it is very easily recognized 7,fig4 #h74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4--,to find ,arcturus1 the ,herdsman1 and the ,northern ,crown4 ,a line drawn from the ,pole-,star to ,arcturus forms the base of an equilateral triangle1 the apex of which1 situated opposite the ,great ,bear1 is occupied by ,vega1 or alpha of the ,lyre1 a splendid diamond of ideal purity scintillating through the ether4 ,this magnificent star1 of first magnitude1 is1 with ,arcturus1 the most luminous in our ,heavens4 ,it burns with a white light1 in the proximity of the ,milky ,way1 not far from a constellation that is very easily recognized by the arrangement of its principal stars in the form of a cross4 ,it is named ,cygnus1 the ,bird1 or the ,swan 7,fig4 #i71 and is easy to find by the ,square of ,pegasus1 and the ,milky ,way4 ,this figure1 the brilliancy of whose constituents 7of the third and fourth magnitudes7 contrasts strongly with the pallor of the ,milky ,way1 includes at its extremity at the foot of the ,cross1 a superb double star1 beta or ,albirio3 alpha of ,cygnus is also called ,deneb4 ,the first star of which the distance was calculated is in this constellation4 ,this little orb of fifth magnitude1 which hangs #fi1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj kilometers 7#db1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj miles7 above our ,earth1 is the nearest of all the stars to the skies of ,europe4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4--,the ,swan1 ,vega1 the ,eagle4 ,not far off is the fine ,eagle1 which spreads its wings in the ,milky ,way1 and in which the star ,altair1 alpha1 of first magnitude1 is situated between its two satellites1 beta and gamma4 ,the ,constellation of ,hercules1 toward which the motions of the ,sun are impelling us1 with all the planets of its system1 is near the ,lyre4 ,its principal stars can be recognized inside the triangle formed by the ,pole-,star1 ,arcturus1 and ,vega4 ,all the ,constellations described above belong to the ,northern ,hemisphere4 ,those nearest the pole are called circumpolar4 ,they revolve round the pole in twenty-four hours4 ,having now learned the ,northern ,heavens1 we must come back to the ,sun1 which we have left behind us4 ,the ,earth revolves round him in a year1 and in consequence he seems to revolve round us1 sweeping through a vast circle of the celestial sphere4 ,in each year1 at the same period1 he passes the same points of the ,heavens1 in front of the same constellations1 which are rendered invisible by his light4 ,we know that the stars are at a fixed position from the ,earth1 whatever their distance1 and that if we do not see them at noon as at midnight1 it is simply because they are extinguished by the dazzling light of the orb of day4 ,with the aid of a telescope it is always possible to see the more brilliant of them4 ,the ,zodiac is the zone of stars traversed by the ,sun in the course of a year4 ,this word is derived from the ,greek ,zodiakos1 which signifies animal1 and this etymology arose because most of the figures traced on this belt of stars represent animals4 ,the belt is divided into twelve parts that are called the twelve ,signs of the ,zodiac1 also named by the ancients the ,houses of the ,sun1 since the ,sun visits one of them in each month4 ,these are the signs1 with the primitive characters that distinguish them3 the ,ram ,aries1 the ,bull ,taurus1 the ,twins ,gemini1 the ,crab ,cancer1 the ,lion ,leo1 the ,virgin ,virgo1 the ,balance ,libra1 the ,scorpion ,scorpio1 the ,archer ,sagittarius1 the ,goat ,capricorn1 the ,water-,carrier ,aquarius1 the ,fishes ,pisces4 ,the sign ,aries represents the horns of the ,ram1 ,taurus the head of the ,bull1 and so on4 ,if you will now follow me into the ,houses of the ,sun you will readily recognize them again1 provided you have a clear picture of the principal stars of the ,northern ,heavens4 ,first1 you see the ,ram1 the initial sign of the ,zodiac2 because at the epoch at which the actual ,zodiac was fixed1 the ,sun entered this sign at the vernal equinox1 and the equator crossed the ecliptic at this point4 ,this constellation1 in which the horns of the ,ram 7third magnitude7 are the brightest1 is situated between ,andromeda and the ,pleiades4 ,two thousand years ago1 the ,ram was regarded as the symbol of spring2 but owing to the secular movement of the precession of the equinoxes1 the ,sun is no longer there on ,march #ba3 he is in the ,fishes4 ,to the left1 or east of the ,ram1 we find the ,bull1 the head of which forms a triangle in which burns ,aldebaran1 of first magnitude1 a magnificent red star that marks the right eye2 and the ,hyades1 scintillating pale and trembling1 on its forehead4 ,the timid ,pleiades1 as we have seen1 veil themselves on the shoulder of the ,bull--a captivating cluster1 of which six stars can be counted with the unaided eye1 while several hundred are discovered with the telescope4 ,next the ,twins4 ,they are easily recognized by the two fine stars1 alpha and beta1 of first magnitude1 which mark their heads1 and immortalize ,castor and ,pollux1 the sons of ,jupiter1 celebrated for their indissoluble friendship4 ,cancer1 the ,crab1 is the least important sign of the ,zodiac4 ,it is distinguished only by five stars of fourth and fifth magnitudes1 situated below the line of ,castor and ,pollux1 and by a pale cluster called ,praesepe1 the ,beehive4 ,the ,lion next approaches1 superb in his majesty4 ,at his heart is a gorgeous star of first magnitude1 alpha or ,regulus4 ,this figure forms a grand trapezium of four stars on the celestial sphere4 ,the ,virgin exhibits a splendid star of first magnitude2 this is ,spica1 which with ,regulus and ,arcturus1 form a triangle by which this constellation can be recognized4 ,the ,balance follows the ,virgin4 ,its scales1 marked by two stars of second magnitude1 are situated a little to the ,east of ,spica4 ,we next come to the eighth constellation of the ,zodiac1 which is one of the most beautiful of this belt of stars4 ,antares1 a red star of first magnitude1 occupies the heart of the venomous and accursed ,scorpion4 ,it is situated on the prolongation of a line joining ,regulus to ,spica1 and forms with ,vega of the ,lyre1 and ,arcturus of the ,herdsman1 a great isosceles triangle1 of which this latter star is the apex4 ,the ,scorpion1 held to be a sign of ill luck1 has been prejudicial to the ,archer1 which follows it1 and traces an oblique trapezium in the sky1 a little to the east of ,antares4 ,these two southernmost constellations never rise much above the horizon for ,france and ,england4 ,in fable1 the ,archer is ,chiron1 the preceptor of ,jason1 ,achilles and ,a,esculapius4 ,capricorn lies to the south of ,altair1 on the prolongation of a line from the ,lyre to the ,eagle4 ,it is hardly noticeable save for the stars alpha and beta of third magnitude1 which scintillate on its forehead4 ,the ,water-,carrier pours his streams toward the horizon4 ,he is not rich in stars1 exhibiting only three of third magnitude that form a very flattened triangle4 ,lastly the ,fishes1 concluding sign of the ,zodiac1 are found to the south of ,andromeda and ,pegasus4 ,save for alpha1 of third magnitude1 this constellation consists of small stars that are hardly visible4 ,these twelve zodiacal constellations will be recognized on examining the chart 7,figs4 #aj-aa74 ,we must now visit the stars of the ,southern ,heavens1 some of which are equally deserving of admiration4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4--,the ,constellations of the ,zodiac3 summer and autumn2 ,capricorn1 ,archer1 ,scorpion1 ,balance1 ,virgin1 ,lion4 ,it should in the first place be noted that the signs of the ,zodiac and the ,southern ,constellations are not1 like those which are circumpolar1 perpetually visible at all periods of the year4 ,their visibility depends on the time of year and the hour of the night4#d ,in order to admire the fine constellations of the ,north1 as described above1 we have only to open our windows on a clear summer's evening1 or walk round the garden in the mysterious light of these inaccessible suns1 while we look up at the immense fields in which each star is like the head of a celestial spear4 ,but the summer is over1 autumn is upon us1 and then1 too soon1 comes winter clothed in hoar-frost4 ,the days are short and cold1 dark and dreary2 but as a compensation the night is much longer1 and adorns herself with her most beautiful jewels1 offering us the contemplation of her inexhaustible treasures4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4--,the ,constellations of the ,zodiac3 winter and spring2 ,crab1 ,twins1 ,bull1 ,ram1 ,fishes1 ,water-,carrier4 ,first1 let us do homage to the magnificent ,orion1 most splendid of all the constellations3 he advances like a colossal giant1 and confronts the ,bull4 ,this constellation appears about midnight in ,november1 in the south-eastern ,heavens2 toward eleven o'clock in ,december and ,january1 due south2 about ten in ,february1 in the south-east2 about nine in ,march1 and about eight in ,april1 in the west2 and then sets below our horizon4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4--,orion and his celestial companions4 ,it is indisputably the most striking figure in the sky1 and with the ,great ,bear1 the most ancient in history1 the first that was noticed3 both are referred to in the ancient texts of ,china1 ,chaldea1 and ,egypt4 ,eight principal stars delineate its outline2 two are of the first magnitude1 five of the second1 and one of the third 7,fig4 #ab74 ,the most brilliant are ,betelgeuse 7alpha7 and ,rigel 7beta73 the former marking the right shoulder of the ,colossus as it faces us2 the second the left foot4 ,the star on the left shoulder is gamma or ,bellatrix1 of second magnitude2 that of the right foot1 chi1 is almost of the third4 ,three stars of second magnitude placed obliquely at equal distances from each other1 the first or highest of which marks the position of the equatorial line1 indicate the ,belt or ,girdle4 ,these stars1 known as the ,three ,kings1 and by country people as the ,rake1 assist greatly in the recognition of this fine constellation4 ,a little below the second star of the ,belt1 a large white patch1 like a band of fog1 the apparent dimensions of which are equal to that of the lunar disk1 is visible to the unaided eye3 this is the ,nebula of ,orion1 one of the most magnificent in the entire ,heavens4 ,it was discovered in #afef by ,huyghens1 who counted twelve stars in the pale cloud4 ,since that date it has been constantly studied and photographed by its many admirers1 while the giant eye of the telescope discovers in it to-day an innumerable multitude of little stars which reveal the existence of an entire universe in this region4 ,orion is not merely the most imposing of the celestial figures2 it is also the richest in sidereal wonders4 ,among these1 it exhibits the most complex of all the multiple systems known to us3 that of the star theta situated in the celebrated nebula just mentioned4 ,this marvelous star1 viewed through a powerful telescope1 breaks up into six suns1 forming a most remarkable stellar group4 ,this region is altogether one of the most brilliant in the entire firmament4 ,we must no longer postpone our homage to the brightest star in the sky1 the magnificent ,sirius1 which shines on the left below ,orion3 it returns every year toward the end of ,november4 ,this marvelous star1 of dazzling brilliancy1 is the first1 alpha1 in the constellation of the ,great ,dog1 which forms a quadrilateral1 the base of which is adjacent to a triangle erected from the horizon4 ,when astronomers first endeavored to determine the distance of the stars1 ,sirius1 which attracted all eyes to its burning fires1 was the particular object of attention4 ,after long observation1 they succeeded in determining its distance as #ib trillion kilometers 7#eg trillion miles74 ,light1 that radiates through space at a velocity of #cjj1jjj kilometers 7#ahf1jjj miles7 per second1 takes no less than ten years to reach us from this sun1 which1 nevertheless1 is one of our neighbors4 ,the ,little ,dog1 in which ,procyon 7alpha1 of first magnitude7 shines out1 is above its big brother4 ,with the exception of alpha1 it has no bright stars4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4--,winter ,constellations4 ,lastly1 toward the southern horizon1 we must notice the ,hydra1 ,eridanus1 the ,whale1 the ,southern ,fish1 the ,ship1 and the ,centaur4 ,this last constellation1 while invisible to our latitudes1 contains the star that is nearest to the ,earth1 alpha1 of first magnitude1 the distance of which is #dj trillion kilometers 7#be trillion miles74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4--,spring ,constellations4 ,the feet of the ,centaur touch the ,southern ,cross1 which is always invisible to us1 and a little farther down the ,southern ,pole reigns over the icy desert of the antarctic regions4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4--,summer ,constellations4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4--;,autumn ,constellations4 ,in order to complete the preceding descriptions1 we subjoin four charts representing the aspect of the starry heavens during the evenings of winter1 spring1 summer1 and autumn4 ,to make use of these1 we must suppose them to be placed above our heads1 the center marking the zenith1 and the sky descending all round to the horizon4 ,the horizon1 therefore1 bounds these panoramas4 ,turning the chart in any direction1 and looking at it from north1 south1 east1 or west1 we find all the principal stars4 ,the first map 7,fig4 #ac7 represents the sky in winter 7,january7 at #h ,p4,m42 the second1 in spring 7,april7 at #i ,p4,m42 the third1 in summer 7,july7 at the same hour2 the fourth1 the sky in autumn 7,october7 at the same time4 ,and so1 at little cost1 we have made one of the grandest and most beautiful journeys conceivable4 ,we now have a new country1 or1 better1 have learned to see and know our own country1 for since the ,earth is a planet we must all be citizens of the ,heavens before we can belong to such or such a nation of our lilliputian world4 ,we must now study this sublime spectacle of the ,heavens in detail4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,stars1 ,,suns ,,of ,,the ,,infinite ,a ,,journey ,,through ,,space ,we have seen from the foregoing summary of the principal ,constellations that there is great diversity in the brightness of the stars1 and that while our eyes are dazzled with the brilliancy of certain orbs1 others1 on the contrary1 sparkle modestly in the azure depths of the night1 and are hardly perceptible to the eye that seeks to plumb the abysses of ,immensity4 ,we have appended the word magnitude to the names of certain stars1 and the reader might imagine this to bear some relation to the volume of the orb4 ,but this is not the case4 ,to facilitate the observation of stars of varying brilliancy1 they have been classified in order of magnitude1 according to their apparent brightness1 and since the dimensions of these distant suns are almost wholly unknown to us1 the most luminous stars were naturally denoted as of first magnitude1 those which were a little less bright of the second1 and so on4 ,but in reality this word magnitude is quite erroneous1 for it bears no relation to the mass of the stars1 divided thus at an epoch when it was supposed that the most brilliant must be the largest4 ,it simply indicates the apparent brightness of a star1 the real brilliancy depending on its dimensions1 its intrinsic light1 and its distance from our planet4 ,and now to make some comparison between the different orders4 ,throughout the entire firmament1 only nineteen stars of first magnitude are discoverable4 ,and1 strictly speaking1 the last of this series might just as well be noted of second magnitude1 while the first of the second series might be added to the list of stars of the first order4 ,but in order to form classes distinct from one another1 some limit has to be adopted1 and it was determined that the first series should include only the following stars1 the most luminous in the ,heavens1 which are subjoined in order of decreasing brilliancy4 ,,stars ,,of ,,the ,,first ,,magnitude #a4 ,sirius1 or alpha of the ,great ,dog4 #b4 ,canopus1 or alpha of the ,ship4 #c4 ,capella1 or alpha of the ,charioteer4 #d4 ,arcturus1 or alpha of the ,herdsman4 #e4 ,vega1 or alpha of the ,lyre4 #f4 ,proxima1 or alpha of the ,centaur4 #g4 ,rigel1 or beta of ,orion4 #h4 ,achernar1 or alpha of ,eridanus4 #i4 ,procyon1 or alpha of the ,little ,dog4 #aj4 beta of the ,centaur4 #aa4 ,betelgeuse1 or alpha of ,orion4 #ab4 ,altair1 or alpha of the ,eagle4 #ac4 alpha of the ,southern ,cross4 #ad4 ,aldebaran1 or alpha of the ,bull4 #ae4 ,spica1 or alpha of the ,virgin4 #af4 ,antares1 or alpha of the ,scorpion4 #ag4 ,pollux1 or beta of the ,twins4 #ah4 ,regulus1 or alpha of the ,lion4 #ai4 ,fomalhaut1 or alpha of the ,southern ,fish4 ,,the ,,stars ,,of ,,the ,,second ,,magnitude ,then come the stars of the second magnitude1 of which there are fifty-nine4 ,the stars of the ,great ,bear 7with the exception of delta1 which is of third magnitude71 the ,pole-,star1 the chief stars in ,orion 7after ,rigel and ,betelgeuse71 of the ,lion1 of ,pegasus1 of ,andromeda1 of ,cassiopeia1 are of this order4 ,these1 with the former1 constitute the principal outlines of the constellations visible to us4 ,then follow the third and fourth magnitudes1 and so on4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the following table gives a summary of the series1 down to the sixth magnitude1 which is the limit of visibility for the unaided human eye3 #ai stars of first magnitude4 #ei of second magnitude4 #ahb of third magnitude4 #ecj of fourth magnitude4 #a1fjj of fifth magnitude4 #d1hjj of sixth magnitude4 ,this makes a total of some seven thousand stars visible to the unaided eye4 ,it will be seen that each series is1 roughly speaking1 three times as populated as that preceding it2 consequently1 if we multiply the number of any class by three1 we obtain the approximate number of stars that make up the class succeeding it4 ,seven thousand stars6 ,it is an imposing figure1 when one reflects that all these lucid points are suns1 as enormous as they are potent1 as incandescent as our own 7which exceeds the volume of the ,earth by more than a million times71 distant centers of light and heat1 exerting their attraction on unknown systems4 ,and yet it is generally imagined that millions of stars are visible in the firmament4 ,this is an illusion2 even the best vision is unable to distinguish stars below the sixth magnitude1 and ordinary sight is far from discovering all of these4 ,again1 seven thousand stars for the whole ,heavens makes only three thousand five hundred for half the sky4 ,and we can only see one celestial hemisphere at a time4 ,moreover1 toward the horizon1 the vapor of the atmosphere veils the little stars of sixth magnitude4 ,in reality1 we never see at a given moment more than three thousand stars4 ,this number is below that of the population of a small town4 99 99 99 99 99 ,but celestial space is unlimited1 and we must not suppose that these seven thousand stars that fascinate our eyes and enrich our ,heavens1 without which our nights would be black1 dark1 and empty1#e comprise the whole of ,creation4 ,they only represent the vestibule of the temple4 ,where our vision is arrested1 a larger1 more powerful eye1 that is developing from century to century1 plunges its analyzing gaze into the abysses1 and reflects back to the insatiable curiosity of science the light of the innumerable suns that it discovers4 ,this eye is the lens of the optical instruments4 ,even opera-glasses disclose stars of the seventh magnitude4 ,a small astronomical objective penetrates to the eighth and ninth orders4 ,more powerful instruments attain the tenth4 ,the ,heavens are progressively transformed to the eye of the astronomer1 and soon he is able to reckon hundreds of thousands of orbs in the night4 ,the evolution continues1 the power of the instrument is developed2 and the stars of the eleventh and twelfth magnitudes are discovered successively1 and together number four millions4 ,then follow the thirteenth1 fourteenth1 and fifteenth magnitudes4 ,this is the sequence3 #gth magnitude #ac1jjj4 #hth #dj1jjj4 #ith #abj1jjj4 #ajth #chj1jjj4 #aath #a1jjj1jjj4 #abth #c1jjj1jjj4 #acth #i1jjj1jjj4 #adth #bg1jjj1jjj4 #aeth #hj1jjj1jjj4 ,accordingly1 the most powerful telescopes of the day1 reenforced by celestial photography1 can bring a stream of more than #abj millions of stars into the scope of our vision4 ,the photographic map of the ,heavens now being executed comprises the first fourteen magnitudes1 and will give the precise position of some #dj1jjj1jjj stars1 distributed over #bb1jed sheets1 forming a sphere #c meters #dd centimeters in diameter4 ,the boldest imagination is overwhelmed by these figures1 and fails to picture such millions of suns--formidable and burning globes that roll through space1 sweeping their systems along with them4 ,what furnaces are there6 what unknown lives6 what vast immensities6 ,and again1 what enormous distances must separate the stars1 to admit of their free revolution in the ether6 ,in what abysses1 at what a distance from our terrestrial atom1 must these magnificent and dazzling ,suns pursue the paths traced for them by ,destiny6 99 99 99 99 99 ,if all the stars radiated an equal light1 their distances might be calculated on the principle that an object appears smaller in proportion to its distance4 ,but this equality does not exist4 ,the suns were not all cast in the same mold4 ,indeed1 the stars differ widely in size and brightness1 and the distances that have been measured show that the most brilliant are not the nearest4 ,they are scattered through ,space at all distances4 ,among the nearer stars of which it has been found possible to calculate the distance1 some are found to be of the fourth1 fifth1 sixth1 seventh1 eighth1 and even ninth magnitudes1 proving that the most brilliant are not always the least distant4 ,for the rest1 among the beautiful and shining stars with which we made acquaintance in the last chapter may be cited ,sirius1 which at a distance of #ib trillion kilometers 7#eg trillion miles7 from here still dazzles us with its burning fires2 ,procyon or alpha of the ,little ,dog1 as remote as #aab trillion kilometers 7#fi-a_/b trillion miles72 ,altair of the ,eagle1 at #afj trillion kilometers 7#ii trillion miles72 the white ,vega1 at #bjd trillion kilometers 7#abf-a_/b trillion miles72 ,capella1 at #bgf trillion kilometers 7#aga trillion miles72 and the ,pole-,star at #cdd trillion kilometers 7#bac-a_/b trillion miles74 ,the light that flies through ,space at a velocity of #cjj1jjj kilometers 7#ahf1jjj miles7 per second1 takes thirty-six years and a half to reach us from this distant sun3 i4e41 the luminous ray we are now receiving from ,polaris has been traveling for more than the third of a century4 ,when you1 gentle reader1 were born1 the ray that arrives to-day from the ,pole-,star was already speeding on its way4 ,in the first second after it had started it traveled #cjj1jjj kilometers2 in the second it added another #cjj1jjj which at once makes #fjj1jjj kilometers2 add another #cjj1jjj kilometers for the third second1 and so on during the thirty-six years and a half4 ,if we tried to arrange the number #cjj1jjj 7which represents the distance accomplished in one second7 in superposed rows1 as if for an addition sum1 as many times as is necessary to obtain the distance that separates the ,pole-,star from our ,earth1 the necessary operation would comprise #a1aea1jfd1jjj rows1 and the sheet of paper required for the setting out of such a sum would measure approximately #aa1eaj kilometers 7about #g1jjj miles71 i4e41 almost the diameter of our terrestrial globe1 or about four times the distance from ,paris to ,moscow6 ,is it not impossible to realize that our ,sun1 with its entire system1 is lost in the ,heavens at such a distance from his peers in ,space8 ,at the distance of the least remote of the stars he would appear as one of the smallest4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the nearest star to us is alpha of the ,centaur1 of first magnitude1 a neighbor of the ,south ,pole1 invisible in our latitudes4 ,its distance is #bge1jjj radii of the terrestrial orbit1 i4e41 #bge1jjj times #adi million kilometers1 which gives #da trillions1 or #da1jjj milliards of kilometers 7 #be-a_/b trillion miles74 ,a milliard #a1jjj millions1 the ,french billion4 ,a trillion #a1jjj milliards1 or a million millions1 the ,english billion4 ,the ,french nomenclature has been retained by the translator4 ,at a speed of #cjj1jjj kilometers 7#ahf1jjj miles7 per second the light takes four years to come from thence4 ,it is a fine double star4 ,the next nearest star after this is a little orb invisible to the unaided eye4 ,it has no name1 and stands as ,no4 #ba1ahe in the ,catalogue of ,lalande4 ,it almost attains the seventh magnitude 7#f4h74 ,its distance is #fd trillion kilometers 7#ci-a_/b trillion miles74 ,the third of which the distance has been measured is the small star in ,cygnus1 already referred to in ,chapter ,,ii1 in describing the ,constellations4 ,its distance is #fi trillion kilometers 7#db-a_/b trillion miles74 ,this1 too1 is a double star4 ,the light takes seven years to reach us4 ,as we have seen1 the fine stars ,sirius1 ,procyon1 ,aldebaran1 ,altair1 ,vega1 and ,capella are more remote4 ,our solar system is thus very isolated in the vastness of ,infinitude4 ,the latest known planet of our system1 ,neptune1 performs its revolutions in space at #d milliards1 #dgj million kilometers 7#b1gga1djj1jjj miles7 from our ,sun4 ,even this is a respectable distance6 ,but beyond this world1 an immense gulf1 almost a void abyss1 extends to the nearest star1 alpha of the ,centaur4 ,between ,neptune and ,centauris there is no star to cheer the black and cold solitude of the immense vacuum4 ,one or two unknown planets1 some wandering comets1 and swarms of meteors1 doubtless traverse those unknown spaces1 but all invisible to us4 ,later on we will discuss the methods that have been employed in measuring these distances4 ,let us now continue our description4 99 99 99 99 99 ,now that we have some notion of the distance of the stars we must approach them with the telescope1 and compare them one with another4 ,let us1 for example1 get close to ,sirius3 in this star we admire a sun that is several times heavier than our own1 and of much greater mass1 accompanied by a second sun that revolves round it in fifty years4 ,its light is exceedingly white1 and it notably burns with hydrogen flames1 like ,vega and ,altair4 ,now let us approach ,arcturus1 ,capella1 ,aldebaran3 these are yellow stars with golden rays1 like our ,sun1 and the vapor of iron1 of sodium1 and of many other metals can be identified in their spectrum4 ,these stars are older than the first1 and the ruddy ones1 such as ,antares1 ,betelgeuse1 alpha of ,hercules1 are still older2 several of them are variable1 and are on their way to final extinction4 ,the ,heavens afford us a perennial store of treasure1 wherein the thinker1 poet or artist can find inexhaustible subjects of contemplation4 ,you have heard of the celestial jewels1 the diamonds1 rubies1 emeralds1 sapphires1 topazes1 and other precious stones of the sidereal casket4 ,these marvels are met with especially among the double stars4 ,our ,sun1 white and solitary1 gives no idea of the real aspect of some of its brothers in ,infinitude4 ,there are as many different types as there are suns6 ,stars1 you will think1 are like individuals3 each has its distinct characteristics3 no two are comparable4 ,and indeed this reflection is justified4 ,while human vanity does homage to ,phoebus1 divine ,king of the ,heavens1 other suns of still greater magnificence form groups of two or three splendid orbs1 which roll the prodigious combinations of their double1 triple1 or multiple systems through space1 pouring on to the worlds that accompany them a flood of changing light1 now blue1 now red1 now violet1 etc4 ,in the inexhaustible variety of ,creation there exist ,suns that are united in pairs1 bound by a common destiny1 cradled in the same attraction1 and often colored in the most delicate and entrancing shades conceivable4 ,here will be a dazzling ruby1 its glowing color shedding joy2 there a deep blue sapphire of tender tone2 beyond1 the finest emeralds1 hue of hope4 ,diamonds of translucent purity and whiteness sparkle from the abyss1 and shed their penetrating light into the vast space4 ,what splendors are scattered broadcast over the sky6 what profusion6 ,to the naked eye1 the groups appear like ordinary stars1 mere luminous points of greater or less brilliancy2 but the telescope soon discovers the beauty of these systems2 the star is duplicated into two distinct suns1 in close proximity4 ,these groups of two or several suns are not merely due to an effect of perspective--i4e41 the presence of two or more stars in our line of sight2 as a rule they constitute real physical systems1 and these suns1 associated in a common lot1 rotate round one another in a more or less rapid period1 that varies for each system4 ,one of the most splendid of these double stars1 and at the same time one of the easiest to perceive1 is zeta in the ,great ,bear1 or ,mizar1 mentioned above in describing this constellation4 ,it has no contrasting colors1 but exactly resembles twin diamonds of the finest water1 which fascinate the gaze1 even through a small objective4 ,its components are of the second and fourth magnitudes1 their distance #adf4 ,some idea of their appearance in a small telescope may be obtained from the subjoined figure 7,fig4 #ag74 ,another very brilliant pair is ,castor4 ,magnitudes second and third4 ,distance #e4f4 ,very easy to observe4 gamma in the ,virgin resolves into two splendid diamonds of third magnitude4 ,distance1 #e4j4 ,another double star is gamma of the ,ram1 of fourth magnitude4 ,distance1 #h4i4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4--,the double star ,mizar4 ,and here are two that are even more curious by reason of their coloring3 gamma in ,andromeda1 composed of a fine orange star1 and one emerald-green1 which again is accompanied by a tiny comrade of the deepest blue4 ,this group in a good telescope is most attractive4 ,magnitudes1 second and fifth4 ,distance1 #aj4 beta of the ,swan1 or ,albireo1 referred to in the last chapter1 has been analyzed into two stars3 one golden-yellow1 the other sapphire4 ,magnitudes1 third and fifth4 ,distance1 #cd4 alpha of the ,greyhounds1 known also as the ,heart of ,charles ,,ii1 is golden-yellow and lilac4 ,magnitudes1 third and fifth4 ,distance #bj4g alpha of ,hercules revolves a splendid emerald and a ruby in the skies2 zeta of the ,lyre exhibits a yellow and a green star2 ,rigel1 an electric sun1 and a small sapphire2 ,antares is ruddy and emerald-green2 eta of ,perseus resolves into a burning red star1 and one smaller that is deep blue1 and so on4 99 99 99 99 99 ,these exquisite double stars revolve in gracious and splendid couples around one another1 as in some majestic valse1 marrying their multi-colored fires in the midst of the starry firmament4 ,here1 we constantly receive a pure and dazzling white light from our burning luminary4 ,its ray1 indeed1 contains the potentiality of every conceivable color1 but picture the fantastic illumination of the worlds that gravitate round these multiple and colored suns as they shed floods of blue and roseate1 red1 or orange light around them6 ,what a fairy spectacle must life present upon these distant universes6 ,let us suppose that we inhabit a planet illuminated by two suns1 one blue1 the other red4 ,it is morning4 ,the sapphire sun climbs slowly up the ,heavens1 coloring the atmosphere with a somber and almost melancholy hue4 ,the blue disk attains the zenith1 and is beginning its descent toward the ,west1 when the ,east lights up with the flames of a scarlet sun1 which in its turn ascends the heights of the firmament4 ,the ,west is plunged in the penumbra of the rays of the blue sun1 while the ,east is illuminated with the purple and burning rays of the ruby orb4 ,the first sun is setting when the second noon shines for the inhabitants of this strange world4 ,but the red sun1 too1 accomplishes the law of its destiny4 ,hardly has it disappeared in the conflagration of its last rays1 with which the ,west is flushed1 when the blue orb reappears on the opposite side1 shedding a pale azure light upon the world it illuminates1 which knows no night4 ,and thus these two suns fraternize in the ,heavens over the common task of renewing a thousand effects of extra-terrestrial light for the globes that are subject to their variations4 ,scarlet1 indigo1 green1 and golden suns2 pearly and multi-colored ,moons2 are these not fairy visions1 dazzling to our poor sight1 condemned while here below to see and know but one white ,sun8 ,as we have learned1 there are not only double1 but triple1 and also multiple stars4 ,one of the finest ternary systems is that of gamma in ,andromeda1 above mentioned4 ,its large star is orange1 its second green1 its third blue1 but the two last are in close juxtaposition1 and a powerful telescope is needed to separate them4 ,a triple star more easy to observe is zeta of ,cancer1 composed of three orbs of fifth magnitude1 at a distance of #a and #e2 the first two revolve round their common center of gravity in fifty-nine years1 the third takes over three hundred years4 ,the preceding figure shows this system in a fairly powerful objective 7,fig4 #ah74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah4--,triple star zeta in ,cancer4 ,in the ,lyre1 a little above the dazzling ,vega1 epsilon is of fourth magnitude1 which seems a little elongated to the unaided eye1 and can even be analyzed into two contiguous stars by very sharp sight4 ,but on examining this attractive pair with a small glass1 it is further obvious that each of these stars is double2 so that they form a splendid quadruple system of two couples 7,fig4 #ai73 one of fifth and a half and sixth magnitudes1 at a distance of #b4d1 the other of sixth and seventh1 #c4b distant4 ,the distance between the two pairs is #bjg4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai4--,quadruple star epsilon of the ,lyre4 ,in speaking of ,orion1 we referred to the marvelous star theta situated in the no less famous ,nebula1 below the ,belt2 this star forms a dazzling sextuple system1 in the very heart of the nebula 7,fig4 #bj74 ,how different to our ,sun1 sailing through ,space in modest isolation6 ,be it noted that all these stars are animated by prodigious motions that impel them in every direction4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj4--,sextuple star theta in the ,nebula of ,orion4 ,there are no fixed stars4 ,on every side throughout ,infinity1 the burning suns--enormous globes1 blazing centers of light and heat--are flying at giddy speed toward an unknown goal1 traversing millions of miles each day1 crossing century by century such vast spaces as are inconceivable to the human intellect4 ,if the stars appear motionless to us1 it is because they are so remote1 their secular movements being only manifested on the celestial sphere by imperceptible displacements4 ,but in reality these suns are in perpetual commotion in the abysses of the ,heavens1 which they quicken with an extraordinary animation4 ,these perpetual and cumulative motions must eventually modify the aspect of the ,constellations3 but these changes will only take effect very slowly2 and for thousands and thousands of years longer the heroes and heroines of mythology will keep their respective places in the ,heavens1 and reign undisturbed beneath the starry vault4 ,examination of these star motions reveals the fact that our ,sun is plunging with all his system 7the ,earth included7 toward the ,constellation of ,hercules4 ,we are changing our position every moment3 in an hour we shall be #gj1jjj kilometers 7#dc1ejj miles7 farther than we are at present4 ,the ,sun and the ,earth will never again traverse the space they have just left1 and which they have deserted forever4 ,and here let us pause for an instant to consider the variable stars4 ,our ,sun1 which is constant and uniform in its light1 does not set the type of all the stars4 ,a great number of them are variable--either periodically1 in regular cycles--or irregularly4 ,we are already acquainted with the variations of ,algol1 in ,perseus1 due to its partial eclipse by a dark globe gravitating in the line of our vision4 ,there are several others of the same type3 these are not1 properly speaking1 variable stars4 ,but there are many others the intrinsic light of which undergoes actual variations4 ,in order to realize this1 let us imagine that our ,earth belongs to such a sun1 for example1 to a star in the southern constellation of the ,whale1 indicated by the letter omicron1 which has been named the wonderful 7,mira ,ceti74 ,our new sun is shining to-day with a dazzling light1 shedding the gladness of his joyous beams upon nature and in our hearts4 ,for two months we admire the superb orb1 sparkling in the azure illuminated with its radiance4 ,then of a sudden1 its light fades1 and diminishes in intensity1 though the sky remains clear4 ,imperceptibly1 our fine sun darkens2 the atmosphere becomes sad and dull1 there is an anticipation of universal death4 ,for five long months our world is plunged in a kind of penumbra2 all nature is saddened in the general woe4 ,but while we are bewailing the cruelty of our lot1 our cherished luminary revives4 ,the intensity of its light increases slowly4 ,its brilliancy augments1 and finally1 at the end of three months1 it has recovered its former splendors1 and showers its bright beams upon our world1 flooding it with joy4 ,but--we must not rejoice too quickly6 ,this splendid blaze will not endure4 ,the flaming star will pale once more2 fade back to its minimum2 and then again revive4 ,such is the nature of this capricious sun4 ,it varies in three hundred and thirty-one days1 and from yellow at the maximum1 turns red at the minimum4 ,this star1 ,mira ,ceti1 which is one of the most curious of its type1 varies from the second to the ninth magnitudes3 we cite it as one example2 hundreds of others might be instanced4 ,thus the sky is no black curtain dotted with brilliant points1 no empty desert1 silent and monotonous4 ,it is a prodigious theater on which the most fantastic plays are continually being acted4 ,only--there are no spectators4 ,again1 we must note the temporary stars1 which shine for a certain time1 and then die out rapidly4 ,such was the star in ,cassiopeia1 in #aegb1 the light of which exceeded ,sirius in its visibility in full daylight1 burning for five months with unparalleled splendor1 dominating all other stars of first magnitude2 after which it died out gradually1 disappearing at the end of seventeen months1 to the terror of the peoples1 who saw in it the harbinger of the world's end3 that of #afjd1 in the ,constellation of the ,serpent1 which shone for a year2 of #ahff1 of second magnitude1 in the ,northern ,crown1 which appeared for a few weeks only2 of #ahgf1 in the ,swan2 of #ahhe1 in the ,nebula of ,andromeda2 of #ahia1 in the ,charioteer2 and quite recently1 of #aija1 in ,perseus4 ,these temporary stars1 which appear spontaneously to the observers on the ,earth1 and quickly vanish again1 are doubtless due to collisions1 conflagrations1 or celestial cataclysms4 ,but we only see them long after the epoch at which the phenomena occurred1 years upon years1 and centuries ago4 ,for instance1 the conflagration photographed by the author in #aija1 in ,perseus1 must have occurred in the time of ,queen ,elizabeth4 ,it has taken all this time for the rays of light to reach us4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,heavens are full of surprises1 on which we can bestow but a fleeting glance within these limits4 ,they present a field of infinite variety4 ,who has not noticed the ,milky ,way1 the pale belt that traverses the entire firmament and is so luminous on clear evenings in the ,constellations of the ,swan and the ,lyre8 ,it is indeed a swarm of stars4 ,each is individually too small to excite our retina1 but as a whole1 curiously enough1 they are perfectly visible4 ,with opera-glasses we divine the starry constitution3 a small telescope shows us marvels4 ,eighteen millions of stars were counted there with the gauges of ,william ,herschel4 ,now this ,milky ,way is a symbol1 not of the ,universe1 but of the ,universes that succeed each other through the vast spaces to ,infinity4 ,our ,sun is a star of the ,milky ,way4 ,it surrounds us like a great circle1 and if the ,earth were transparent1 we should see it pass beneath our feet as well as over our heads4 ,it consists of a very considerable mass of star-clusters1 varying greatly in extent and number1 some projected in front of others1 while the whole forms an agglomeration4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba4--,the ,star-,cluster in ,hercules4 ,among this mass of star-groups1 several thousands of which are already known to us1 we will select one of the most curious1 the ,cluster in ,hercules1 which can be distinguished with the unaided eye1 between the stars eta and zeta of that constellation4 ,many photographs of it have been taken in the author's observatory at ,juvisy1 showing some thousands of stars2 and one of these is reproduced in the accompanying figure 7,fig4 #ba74 ,is it not a veritable universe8 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb4--,the ,star-,cluster in the ,centaur4 ,another of the most beautiful1 on account of its regularity1 is that of the ,centaur 7,fig4 #bb74 ,these groups often assume the most extraordinary shapes in the telescope1 such as crowns1 fishes1 crabs1 open mouths1 birds with outspread wings1 etc4 ,we must also note the gaseous nebulae1 universes in the making1 e4g41 the famous ,nebula in ,orion1 of which we obtained some notion a while ago in connection with its sextuple star3 and also that in ,andromeda 7,fig4 #bc74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bc4--,the ,nebula in ,andromeda4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd4--,nebula in the ,greyhounds4 ,perhaps the most marvelous of all is that of the ,greyhounds1 which evolves in gigantic spirals round a dazzling focus1 and then loses itself far off in the recesses of space4 ,fig4 #bd gives a picture of it4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #be4--,the ,pleiades4 ,without going thus far1 and penetrating into telescopic depths1 my readers can get some notion of these star-clusters with the help of a small telescope or opera-glasses1 or even with the unaided eye1 by looking at the beautiful group of the ,pleiades1 already familiar to us on another page1 and using it as a test of vision4 ,the little map subjoined 7,fig4 #be7 will be an assistance in recognizing them1 and in estimating their magnitudes1 which are in the following order3 ,alcyone #c4j4 ,electra #d4e4 ,atlas #d4f4 ,maia #e4j4 ,merope #e4e4 ,taygeta #e4h4 ,pleione #f4c4 ,celaeno #f4e4 ,asterope #f4h4 ,good eyes distinguish the first six1 sharp sight detects the three others4 ,in the times of the ancient ,greeks1 seven were accounted of equal brilliancy1 and the poets related that the seventh star had fled at the time of the ,trojan ,war4 ,ovid adds that she was mortified at not being embraced by a god1 as were her six sisters4 ,it is probable that only the best sight could then distinguish ,pleione1 as in our own day4 ,the angular distance from ,atlas to ,pleione is #e'4 ,the length of this republic1 from ,atlas and ,pleione to ,celaeno1 is #d'_/bc of time1 or #a deg4 #f' of arc2 the breadth1 from ,merope to ,asterope1 is #cf'4h ,in the quadrilateral1 the length from ,alcyone to ,electra is #cf'1 and the breadth from ,merope to ,maia #be'4 ,to us it appears as though1 if the ,full ,moon were placed in front of this group of nine stars1 she would cover it entirely1 for to the naked eye she appears much larger than all the ,pleiades together4 ,but this is not so4 ,she only measures #ca'1 less than half the distance from ,atlas to ,celaeno2 she is hardly broader than the distance from ,alcyone to ,atlas1 and could pass between ,merope and ,taygeta without touching either of these stars4 ,this is a perennial and very curious optical illusion4 ,when the ,moon passes in front of the ,pleiades1 and occults them successively1 it is hard to believe one's eyes4 ,the fact occurred1 e4g41 on ,july #bc1 #ahig1 during a fine occultation observed at the author's laboratory of ,juvisy 7,fig4 #bf74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bf4--,occultation of the ,pleiades by the ,moon4 ,photography here discovers to us1 not #f1 #i1 #ab1 #ae1 or #bj stars1 but hundreds and millions4 ,these are the most brilliant flowers of the celestial garden4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bg4--,stellar dial of the double star gamma of the ,virgin4 ,we1 alas1 can but glance at them rapidly4 ,in contemplating them we are transported into immensities both of space and time1 for the stellar periods measured by these distant universes often overpower in their magnitude the rapid years in which our terrestrial days are estimated4 ,for instance1 one of the double stars we spoke of above1 gamma of the ,virgin1 sees its two components1 translucent diamonds1 revolve around their common center of gravity1 in one hundred and eighty years4 ,how many events took place in ,france1 let us say1 in a single year of this star6--,the ,regency1 ,louis ,,xv1 ,louis ,,xvi1 the ,revolution1 ,napoleon1 ,louis ,,xviii1 ,louis ,philippe1 the ,second ,republic1 ,napoleon ,,iii1 the ,franco-,german ,war1 the ,third ,republic4444 ,what revolutions here1 during a single year of this radiant pair6 7,fig4 #bg47 ,but the pageant of the ,heavens is too vast1 too overwhelming4 ,we must end our survey4 ,our ,milky ,way1 with its millions of stars1 represents for us only a portion of the ,creation4 ,the illimitable abysses of ,infinitude are peopled by other universes as vast1 as imposing1 as our own1 which are renewed in all directions through the depths of ,space to endless distance4 ,where is our little ,earth8 ,where our ,solar ,system8 ,we are fain to fold our wings1 and return from the ,immense and ,infinite to our floating island4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,our ,,star ,,the ,,sun ,in the incessant agitation of daily life in which we are involved by the thousand superfluous wants of modern civilization1 one is prone to assume that existence is complete only when it reckons to the good an incalculable number of petty incidents1 each more insignificant than the last4 ,why lose time in thinking or dreaming8 ,we must live at fever heat1 must agitate1 and be infatuated for inanities1 must create imaginary desires and torments4 ,the thoughtful mind1 prone to contemplation and admiration of the beauties of ,nature1 is ill at ease in this perpetual vortex that swallows everything--satisfaction1 in a life that one has not time to relish2 love of the beautiful1 that one views with indifference2 it is a whirlpool that perpetually hides ,truth from us1 forgotten forever at the bottom of her well4 ,and why are our lives thus absorbed in merely material interests8 ,to satisfy our pride and vanity6 ,to make ourselves slaves to chimeras6 ,if the ,moon were inhabited1 and if her denizens could see us plainly enough to note and analyze the details of human existence on the surface of our planet1 it would be curious and perhaps a little humiliating for us1 to see their statistics4 ,what6 we should say1 is this the sum of our lives8 ,is it for this that we struggle1 and suffer1 and die8 ,truly it is futile to give ourselves such trouble4 ,and yet the remedy is simple1 within the power of every one2 but one does not think of it just because it is too easy1 although it has the immense advantage of lifting us out of the miseries of this weary world toward the inexpressible happiness that must always awaken in us with the knowledge of the ,truth3 we need only open our eyes to see1 and to look out4 ,only--one hardly ever thinks of it1 and it is easier to let one's self be blinded by the illusion and false glamor of appearances4 ,think what it would be to consecrate an hour each day to voluntary participation in the harmonious ,choir of ,nature1 to raise one's eyes toward the ,heavens1 to share the lessons taught by the ,pageant of the ,universe6 ,but1 no3 there is no time1 no time for the intellectual life1 no time to become attached to real interests1 no time to pursue them4 ,among the objects marshaled for us in the immense spectacle of ,nature1 nothing without exception has struck the admiration and attention of man as much as the ,sun1 the ,god of ,light1 the fecundating orb1 without which our planet and its life would never have issued from nonentity1 the visible image of the invisible god1 as said ,cicero1 and the poets of antiquity4 ,and yet how many beyond the circle of those likely to read these pages know that this ,sun is a star in the ,milky ,way1 and that every star is a sun8 ,how many take any account of the reality and grandeur of the ,universe8 ,inquire1 and you will find that the number of people who have any notion1 however rudimentary1 of its construction1 is singularly restricted4 ,humanity is content to vegetate1 much after the fashion of a race of moles4 ,henceforward1 you will know that you are living in the rays of a star1 which1 from its proximity1 we term a sun4 ,to the inhabitants of other systems of worlds1 our splendid ,sun is only a more or less brilliant1 luminous point1 according as the spot from which it is observed is nearer or farther off4 ,but to us its terrestrial importance renders it particularly precious2 we forget all the sister stars on its account1 and even the most ignorant hail it with enthusiasm without exactly knowing what its role in the universe may be1 simply because they feel that they depend on it1 and that without it life would become extinct on this globe4 ,yes1 it is the beneficent rays of the ,sun that shed upon our ,earth the floods of light and heat to which ,life owes its existence and its perpetual propagation4 ,hail1 vast ,sun6 a little star in ,infinitude1 but for us a colossal and portentous luminary4 ,hail1 divine ,benefactor6 ,how should we not adore1 when we owe him the glow of the warm and cheery days of summer1 the gentle caresses by which his rays touch the undulating ears1 and gild them with the touch8 ,the ,sun sustains our globe in ,space1 and keeps it within his rays by the mysteriously powerful and delicate cords of attraction4 ,it is the ,sun that we inhale from the embalmed corollas of the flowers that uplift their gracious heads toward his light1 and reflect his splendors back to us4 ,it is the ,sun that sparkles in the foam of the merry wine2 that charms our gaze in those first days of spring1 when the home of the human race is adorned with all the charms of verdant and flowering youth4 ,everywhere we find the ,sun2 everywhere we recognize his work1 extending from the infinitely great to the infinitely little4 ,we bow to his might1 and admire his power4 ,when in the sad winter day he disappears behind the snowy eaves1 we think his fiery globe will never rise to mitigate the short ,december days which are alleviated with his languid beams4 ,april restores him to superb majesty1 and our hearts are filled with hope in the illumination of those beauteous1 sunny hours4 99 99 99 99 99 ,our celestial journey carried us far indeed from our own ,solar ,system4 ,guided by the penetrating eye of the telescope1 we reached such distant creations that we lost sight of our cherished luminary4 ,but we remember that he burns yonder1 in the midst of the pale cosmic cloud we term the ,milky ,way4 ,let us approach him1 now that we have visited the ,isles of ,light in the ,celestial ,ocean2 let us traverse the vast plains strewn with the burning gold of the ,suns of the ,infinite4 ,we embark upon a ray of light1 and glide rapidly to the portals of our ,universe4 ,soon we perceive a tiny speck1 scintillating feebly in the depths of ,space1 and recognize it as our own celestial quarters4 ,this little star shines like the head of a gold pin1 and increases in size as we advance toward it4 ,we traverse a few more trillion miles in our rapid course1 and it shines out like a fine star of the first magnitude4 ,it grows larger and larger4 ,soon we divine that it is our humble ,earth that is shining before us1 and gladly alight upon her4 ,in future we shall not quit our own province of the ,celestial ,kingdom1 but will enter into relations with this solar family1 which interests us the more in that it affects us so closely4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bh4--;,comparative sizes of the ,sun and ,earth4 ,the ,sun1 which is manifested to us as a fine white disk at noon1 while it is fiery red in the evening1 at its setting1 is an immense globe1 whose colossal dimensions surpass those of our terrestrial atom beyond all conceivable proportion4 ,in diameter1 it is1 in effect1 #ajh-a_/b times as large as the ,earth2 that is to say1 if our planet be represented by a globe #a meter in diameter1 the ,sun would figure as a sphere #ajh-a_/b meters across4 ,this is shown on the accompanying figure 7,fig4 #bh71 which is in exact proportion4 ,if our world were set down upon the ,sun1 with all its magnificence1 all its wealth1 its mountains1 its seas1 its monuments1 and its inhabitants1 it would only be an imperceptible speck4 ,it would occupy less space in the central orb than one grain in a grenade4 ,if the ,earth were placed in the center of the ,sun1 with the ,moon still revolving round it at her proper distance of #chd1jjj kilometers 7#bch1ejj miles71 only half the solar surface would be covered4 ,in volume the ,sun is #a1bhj1jjj times vaster than our abode1 and #cbd1jjj times heavier in mass4 ,that the giant only appears to us as a small though very brilliant disk1 is solely on account of its distance4 ,its apparent dimensions by no means reveal its majestic proportions to us4 ,when observed with astronomical instruments1 or photographed1 we discover that its surface is not smooth1 as might be supposed1 but granulated1 presenting a number of luminous points dispersed over a more somber background4 ,these granulations are somewhat like the pores of a fruit1 e4g41 a fine orange1 the color of which recalls the hue of the ,sun when it sinks in the evening1 and prepares to plunge us into darkness4 ,at times these pores open under the influence of disturbances that arise upon the solar surface1 and give birth to a ,sun-,spot4 ,for centuries scientists and lay people alike refused to admit the existence of these spots1 regarding them as so many blemishes upon the ,king of the ,heavens4 ,was not the ,sun the emblem of inviolable purity8 ,to find any defect in him were to do him grievous injury4 ,since the orb of day was incorruptible1 those who threw doubt on his immaculate splendor were fools and idiots4 ,and so when ,scheiner1 one of the first who studied the solar spots with the telescope1 published the result of his experiments in #afaj1 no one would believe his statements4 ,yet1 from the observations of ,galileo and other astronomers1 it became necessary to accept the evidence1 and stranger still to recognize that it is by these very spots that we are enabled to study the physical constitution of the ,sun4 ,they are generally rounded or oval in shape1 and exhibit two distinct parts2 first1 the central portion1 which is black1 and is called the nucleus1 or umbra2 second1 a clearer region1 half shaded1 which has received the name of penumbra4 ,these parts are sharply defined in outline2 the penumbra is gray1 the nucleus looks black in relation to the dazzling brilliancy of the solar surface2 but as a matter of fact it radiates a light #b1jjj times superior in intensity to that of the full moon4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bi4--;,direct photograph of the ,sun4 ,some idea of the aspect of these spots may be obtained from the accompanying reproduction of a photograph of the ,sun 7taken ,september #h1 #ahih1 at the author's observatory at ,juvisy71 and from the detailed drawing of the large spot that broke out some days later 7,september #ac71 crossed by a bridge1 and furrowed with flames4 ,as a rule1 the spots undergo rapid transformations4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cj4--,telescopic aspect of a ,sun-,spot4 ,these spots1 which appear of insignificant dimensions to the observers on the ,earth1 are in reality absolutely gigantic4 ,some that have been measured are ten times as large as the ,earth's diameter1 i4e41 #abj1jjj kilometers 7#gd1ejj miles74 ,sometimes the spots are so large that they can be seen with the unaided eye 7protected with black or dark-blue glasses74 ,they are not formed instantaneously1 but are heralded by a vast commotion on the solar surface1 exhibiting1 as it were1 luminous waves or faculae4 ,out of this agitation arises a little spot1 that is usually round1 and enlarges progressively to reach a maximum1 after which it diminishes1 with frequent segmentation and shrinkage4 ,some are visible only for a few days2 others last for months4 ,some appear1 only to be instantly swallowed in the boiling turmoil of the flaming orb4 ,sometimes1 again1 white incandescent waves emerge1 and seem to throw luminous bridges across the central umbra4 ,as a rule the spots are not very profound4 ,they are funnel-shaped depressions1 inferior in depth to the diameter of the ,earth1 which1 as we have seen1 is #ajh times smaller than that of the ,sun4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the ,sun-,spots are not devoid of motion1 and from their movements we learn that the radiant orb revolves upon itself in about twenty-five days4 ,this rotation was determined in #afaa1 by ,galileo1 who1 while observing the spots1 saw that they traversed the solar disk from east to west1 following lines that are oblique to the plane of the ecliptic1 and that they disappear at the western border fourteen days after their arrival at the eastern edge4 ,sometimes the same spot1 after being invisible for fourteen days1 reappears upon the eastern edge1 where it was observed twenty-eight days previously4 ,it progresses toward the center of the ,sun1 which is reached in seven days1 disappears anew in the west1 and continues its journey on the hemisphere opposed to us1 to reappear under observation two weeks later1 if it has not meantime been extinguished4 ,this observation proves that the ,sun revolves upon itself4 ,the reappearance of the spots occurs in about twenty-seven days1 because the ,earth is not stationary1 and in its movement round the burning focus1 a motion effected in the same direction as the solar rotation1 the spots are still visible two and a half days after they disappeared from the point at which they had been twenty-five days previously4 ,in reality1 the rotation of the ,sun occupies twenty-five and a half days1 but strangely enough this globe does not rotate in one uniform period1 like the ,earth2 the rotation periods1 or movements of the different parts of the solar surface1 diminish from the ,sun's equator toward its poles4 ,the period is twenty-five days at the equator1 twenty-six at the twenty-fourth degree of latitude1 north or south1 twenty-seven at the thirty-seventh degree1 twenty-eight at the forty-eighth4 ,the spots are usually formed between the equator and this latitude1 more especially between the tenth and thirtieth degrees4 ,they have never been seen round the poles4 ,toward the edges of the ,sun1 again1 are very brilliant and highly luminous regions1 which generally surround the spots1 and have been termed faculae 7facula1 a little torch74 ,these faculae1 which frequently occupy a very extensive surface1 seem to be the seat of formidable commotions that incessantly revolutionize the face of our monarch1 often1 as we said1 preceding the spots4 ,they can be detected right up to the poles4 ,our ,sun1 that appears so calm and majestic1 is in reality the seat of fierce conflagrations4 ,volcanic eruptions1 the most appalling storms1 the worst cataclysms that sometimes disturb our little world1 are gentle zephyrs compared with the solar tempests that engender clouds of fire capable at one burst of engulfing globes of the dimensions of our planet4 ,to compare terrestrial volcanoes with solar eruptions is like comparing the modest night-light that consumes a midge with the flames of the fire that destroys a town4 ,the solar spots vary in a fairly regular period of eleven to twelve years4 ,in certain years1 e4g41 #ahic1 they are vast1 numerous and frequent2 in other years1 e4g41 #aija1 they are few and insignificant4 ,the statistics are very carefully preserved4 ,here1 for instance1 is the surface showing sun-spots expressed in millionths of the extent of the visible solar surface3 #ahhi #gh #ahij #ii #ahia #efi #ahib #a1bad #ahic #a1dfd #ahie #igd #ahif #edc #ahig #ead #ahih #cge #ahii #aaa #aijj #ge #aija #bi #aijb #fb ,the years #ahhi and #aija were minima2 the year #ahic a maximum4 ,it is a curious fact that terrestrial magnetism and the boreal auroras exhibit an oscillation parallel to that of the solar spots1 and apparently the same occurs with regard to temperature4 ,we must regard our sun as a globe of gas in a state of combustion1 burning at high temperature1 and giving off a prodigious amount of heat and light4 ,the dazzling surface of this globe is called a photosphere 7light sphere74 ,it is in perpetual motion1 like the waves of an ocean of fire1 whose roseate and transparent flames measure some #ae1jjj kilometers 7#i1cjj miles7 in height4 ,this stratum of rose-colored flames has received the name of chromosphere 7color sphere74 ,it is transparent2 it is not directly visible1 but is seen only during the total eclipses of the ,sun1 when the dazzling disk of that luminary is entirely concealed by the ,moon2 or with the aid of the spectroscope4 ,the part of the ,sun that we see is its luminous surface1 or photosphere4 ,from this agitated surface there is a constant ejection of gigantic eruptions1 immense jets of flame1 geysers of fire1 projected at a terrific speed to prodigious heights4 ,for years astronomers were greatly perplexed as to the nature of these incandescent masses1 known as prominences1 which shot out like fireworks1 and were only visible during the total eclipses of the ,sun4 ,but now1 thanks to an ingenious invention of ,janssen and ,lockyer1 these eruptions can be observed every day in the spectroscope1 and have been registered since #ahfh1 more particularly in ,rome and in ,catania1 where the ,society of ,spectroscopists was founded with this especial object1 and publishes monthly bulletins in statistics of the health of the ,sun4 ,these prominences assume all imaginable forms1 and often resemble our own storm-clouds2 they rise above the chromosphere with incredible velocity1 often exceeding #bjj kilometers 7#abd miles7 per second1 and are carried up to the amazing height of #cjj1jjj kilometers 7#ahf1jjj miles74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ca4--,rose-colored solar flames #bbh1jjj kilometers 7#ada1ejj miles7 in height1 i4e41 #ah times the diameter of the ,earth4 ,the ,sun is surrounded with these enormous flames on every side2 sometimes they shoot out into space like splendid curving roseate plumes2 at others they rear their luminous heads in the ,heavens1 like the cleft and waving leaves of giant palm-trees4 ,having illustrated a remarkable type of solar spot1 it is interesting to submit to the reader a precise observation of these curious solar flames4 ,that reproduced here was observed in ,rome1 ,january #cj1 #ahhe4 ,it measured #bbh1jjj kilometers 7#ada1ejj miles7 in height1 eighteen times the diameter of the earth 7represented alongside in its relative magnitude74 7,fig4 #ca47 ,solar eruptions have been seen to reach1 in a few minutes1 a height of more than #ajj1jjj kilometers 7#fb1jjj miles71 and then to fall back in a flaming torrent into that burning and inextinguishable ocean4 ,observation1 in conjunction with spectral analysis1 shows these prominences to be due to formidable explosions produced within the actual substance of the ,sun1 and projecting masses of incandescent hydrogen into space with considerable force4 ,nor is this all4 ,during an eclipse one sees around the black disk of the ,moon as it passes in front of the ,sun and intercepts its light1 a brilliant and rosy aureole with long1 luminous1 branching feathers streaming out1 like aigrettes1 which extend a very considerable distance from the solar surface4 ,this aureole1 the nature of which is still unknown to us1 has received the name of corona4 ,it is a sort of immense atmosphere1 extremely rarefied4 ,our superb torch1 accordingly1 is a brazier of unparalleled activity--a globe of gas1 agitated by phenomenal tempests whose flaming streamers extend afar4 ,the smallest of these flames is so potent that it would swallow up our world at a single breath1 like the bombs shot out by ,vesuvius1 that fall back within the crater4 ,what now is the real heat of this incandescent focus8 ,the most accurate researches estimate the temperature of the surface of the ,sun at #g1jjj deg4,c4 ,the internal temperature must be considerably higher4 ,a crucible of molten iron poured out upon the ,sun would be as a stream of ice and snow4 ,we can form some idea of this calorific force by making certain comparisons4 ,thus1 the heat given out appears to be equal to that which would be emitted by a colossal globe of the same dimensions 7that is1 as voluminous as twelve hundred and eighty thousand terrestrial globes71 entirely covered with a layer of incandescent coal #bh kilometers 7#ah miles7 in depth1 all burning at equal combustion4 ,the heat emitted by the ,sun1 at each second1 is equal to that which would result from the combustion of eleven quadrillions six hundred thousand milliards of tons of coal1 all burning together4 ,this same heat would bring to the boil in an hour1 two trillions nine hundred milliards of cubic kilometers of water at freezing-point4 ,our little planet1 gravitating at #adi1jjj1jjj kilometers 7#ic1jjj1jjj miles7 from the ,sun1 arrests on the way1 and utilizes1 only the half of a milliard part of this total radiation4 ,how is this heat maintained8 ,one of the principal causes of the heat of the ,sun is its condensation4 ,according to all probabilities1 the solar globe represents for us the nucleus of a vast nebula1 that extended in primitive times beyond the orbit of ,neptune1 and which in its contraction has finally produced this central focus4 ,in virtue of the law of transformation of motion into heat1 this condensation1 which has not yet reached its limit1 suffices to raise this colossal globe to its level of temperature1 and to maintain it there for millions of years4 ,in addition1 a substantial number of meteors is forever falling into it4 ,this furnace is a true pandemonium4 ,the ,sun weighs three hundred and twenty-four thousand times more than the ,earth--that is to say1 eighteen hundred and seventy octillions of kilograms3 #a1hgj1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj1j jj 7#a1hdb1cfd1ecb1jai1gjd1dcc1dig1ecf1ide tons74 ,in ,chapter ,,xi we shall explain the methods by which it has been found possible to weigh the ,sun and determine its exact distance4 99 99 99 99 99 ,i trust these figures will convey some notion of the importance and nature of the ,sun1 the stupendous orb on whose rays our very existence depends4 ,its apparent dimension 7which is only half a degree1 #cb'1 and would be hidden from sight1 like that of the full moon1 which is about the same1 by the tip of the little finger held out at arm's length71 represents1 as we have seen1 a real dimension that is colossal1 i4e41 #a1chc1jjj kilometers 7more than #heg1jjj miles71 and this is owing to the enormous distance that separates us from it4 ,this distance of #adi1jjj1jjj kilometers 7#ic1jjj1jjj miles7 is sufficiently hard to appreciate4 ,let us say that #aa1fdj terrestrial globes would be required to throw a bridge from here to the ,sun1 while #cj would suffice from the ,earth to the ,moon4 ,the ,moon is #chh times nearer to us than the ,sun4 ,we may perhaps conceive of this distance by calculating that a train1 moving at constant speed of #a kilometer 7#j4fbad mile7 a minute1 would take #adi1jjj1jjj minutes1 that is to say #ajc1dgb days1 or #bhc years1 to cross the distance that separates us from this orb4 ,given the normal duration of life1 neither the travelers who set out for the ,sun1 nor their children1 nor their grandchildren1 would arrive there3 only the seventh generation would reach the goal1 and only the fourteenth could bring us back news of it4 ,children often cry for the ,moon4 ,if one of these inquisitive little beings could stretch out its arms to touch the ,sun1 and burn its fingers there1 it would not feel the burn for one hundred and sixty-seven years 7when it would no longer be an infant71 for the nervous impulse of sensation can only be transmitted from the ends of the fingers to the brain at a velocity of #bh meters per second4 ',tis long4 ,a cannon-ball would reach the ,sun in ten years4 ,light1 that rapid arrow that flies through space at a velocity of #cjj1jjj kilometers 7#ahf1jjj miles per second71 takes only eight minutes seventeen seconds to traverse this distance4 99 99 99 99 99 ,this brilliant ,sun is not only sovereign of the ,earth2 he is also the head of a vast planetary system4 ,the orbs that circle round the ,sun are opaque bodies1 spherical in shape1 receiving their light and heat from the central star1 on which they absolutely depend4 ,the name of planets given to them signifies wandering stars4 ,if you observe the ,heavens on a fine starry night1 and are sufficiently acquainted with the principal stars of the ,zodiac as described in a preceding chapter1 you may be surprised on certain evenings to see the figure of some zodiacal constellation slightly modified by the temporary presence of a brilliant orb perhaps surpassing in its luminosity the finest stars of the first magnitude4 ,if you watch this apparition for some weeks1 and examine its position carefully in regard to the adjacent stars1 you will observe that it changes its position more or less slowly in the ,heavens4 ,these wandering orbs1 or planets1 do not shine with intrinsic light2 they are illuminated by the ,sun4 ,the planets1 in effect1 are bodies as opaque as the ,earth1 traveling round the ,god of ,day at a speed proportional to their distance4 ,they number eight principal orbs1 and may be divided into two quite distinct groups by which we may recognize them3 the first comprises four planets1 of relatively small dimensions in comparison with those of the second group1 which are so voluminous that the least important of them is larger than the other four put together4 ,in order of distance from the ,sun1 we first encounter3 ,,mercury1 ,,venus1 ,,the ,,earth1 ,,and ,,mars ,these are the worlds that are nearest to the orb of day4 ,the four following1 and much more remote1 are1 still in order of distance3 ,,jupiter1 ,,saturn1 ,,uranus1 ,,and ,,neptune ,this second group is separated from the first by a vast space occupied by quite a little army of minute planets1 tiny cosmic bodies1 the largest of which measures little more than #ajj kilometers 7#fb miles7 in diameter1 and the smallest some few miles only4 ,the planets which form these three groups represent the principal members of the solar family4 ,but the ,sun is a patriarch1 and each of his daughters has her own children who1 while obeying the paternal influence of the fiery orb1 are also obedient to the world that governs them4 ,these secondary asters1 or satellites1 follow the planets in their course1 and revolve round them in an ellipse1 just as the others rotate round the ,sun4 ,every one knows the satellite of the ,earth1 the ,moon4 ,all the other planets of our system have their own moons1 some being even more favored than ourselves in this respect1 and having several4 ,mars has two2 ,jupiter1 five2 ,saturn1 eight2 ,uranus1 four2 and ,neptune1 one 7at least as yet discovered74 ,in order to realize the relations between these worlds1 we must appreciate their distances by arranging them in a little table3 ,distance in ,distance in ,millions of ,millions of ,kilometers4 ,miles4 ,mercury #eg #ce ,venus #ajh #fg ,the ,earth #adi #ic ,mars #bbf #adj ,jupiter #gge #dha ,saturn #a1dba #hhb ,uranus #b1hca #a1gee ,neptune #d1dgj #b1gga ,the ,sun is at the center 7or1 more properly speaking1 at the focus1 for the planets describe an ellipse7 of this system1 and controls them4 ,neptune is thirty times farther from the ,sun than the ,earth4 ,these disparities of distance produce a vast difference in the periods of the planetary revolutions2 for while the ,earth revolves round the ,sun in a year1 ,venus in #bbd days1 and ,mercury in #hh1 ,mars takes nearly #b years to accomplish his journey1 ,jupiter #ab years1 ,saturn #bi1 ,uranus #hd1 and ,neptune #afe4 ,even the planets and their moons do not represent the ,sun's complete paternity4 ,there are further1 in the solar republic1 certain vagabond and irregular orbs that travel at a speed that is often most immoderate1 occasionally approaching the ,sun1 not to be consumed therein1 but1 as it appears1 to draw from its radiant source the provision of forces necessary for their perigrinations through space4 ,these are the ,comets1 which pursue an extremely elongated orbit round the ,sun1 to which at times they approximate very closely1 at other times being excessively distant4 ,and now to recapitulate our knowledge of the ,solar ,empire4 ,in the first place1 we see a colossal globe of fire dominating and governing the worlds that belong to him4 ,around him are grouped planets1 in number eight principal1 formed of solid and obscure matter1 gravitating round the central orb4 ,other secondary orbs1 the satellites1 revolve round the planets1 which keep them within the sphere of their attraction4 ,and lastly1 the comets1 irregular celestial bodies1 track the whole extent of the great solar province4 ,to these might be added the whirlwinds of meteors1 as it were disaggregated comets1 which also circle round the ,sun1 and give origin to shooting stars1 when they come into collision with the ,earth4 ,having now a general idea of our celestial family1 and an appreciation of the potent focus that controls it1 let us make direct acquaintance with the several members of which it is composed4 ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,planets ,a4--,,mercury1 ,,venus1 ,,the ,,earth1 ,,mars ,and now we are in the ,solar ,system1 at the center1 or1 better1 at the focus of which burns the immense and dazzling orb4 ,we have appreciated the grandeur and potency of the solar globe1 whose rays spread out in active waves that bear a fecundating illumination to the worlds that gravitate round him2 we have appreciated the distance that separates the ,sun from the ,earth1 the third of the planets retained within his domain1 or at least ,i trust that the comparisons of the times required by certain moving objects to traverse this distance have enabled us to conceive it4 ,we said that the four planets nearest to the ,sun are ,mercury1 at a distance of #eg million kilometers 7#ce1jjj1jjj miles72 ,venus1 at #ajh million 7#fg1jjj1jjj miles72 the ,earth1 at #adi million 7#ic1jjj1jjj miles72 and ,mars at #bbf million 7#adj1jjj1jjj miles74 ,let us begin our planetary journey with these four stations4 ,,mercury ,a little above the ,sun one sometimes sees1 now in the ,west1 in the lingering shimmer of the twilight1 now in the ,east1 when the tender roseate dawn announces the advent of a clear day1 a small star of the first magnitude which remains but a very short time above the horizon1 and then plunges back into the flaming sun4 ,this is ,mercury1 the agile and active messenger of ,olympus1 the god of eloquence1 of medicine1 of commerce1 and of thieves4 ,one only sees him furtively1 from time to time1 at the periods of his greatest elongations1 either after the setting or before the rising of the radiant orb1 when he presents the aspect of a somewhat reddish star4 ,this planet1 like the others1 shines only by the reflection of the ,sun whose illumination he receives1 and as he is in close juxtaposition with it1 his light is bright enough1 though his volume is inconsiderable4 ,he is smaller than the ,earth4 ,his revolution round the ,sun being accomplished in about three months1 he passes rapidly1 in a month and a half1 from one side to the other of the orb of day1 and is alternately a morning and an evening star4 ,the ancients originally regarded it as two separate planets2 but with attentive observation1 they soon perceived its identity4 ,in our somewhat foggy climates1 it can only be discovered once or twice a year1 and then only by looking for it according to the indications given in the astronomic almanacs4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cb4--,orbits of the four ,planets nearest to the ,sun4 ,mercury courses round the ,sun at a distance of #eg1jjj1jjj kilometers 7#ce1jjj1jjj miles71 and accomplishes his revolution in #hg days1 #bc hours1 #ae minutes2 i4e41 #b months1 #bg days1 #bc hours1 or a little less than three of our months4 ,if the conditions of life are the same there as here1 the existence of the ,mercurians must be four times as short as our own4 ,a youth of twenty1 awaking to the promise of the life he is just beginning in this world1 is an octogenarian in ,mercury4 ,there the fair sex would indeed be justified in bewailing the transitory nature of life1 and might regret the years that pass too quickly away4 ,perhaps1 however1 they are more philosophic than with us4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cc4--,orbits of the four ,planets farthest from the ,sun4 ,the orbit of ,mercury1 which of course is within that of the ,earth1 is not circular1 but elliptical1 and very eccentric1 so elongated that at certain times of the year this planet is extremely remote from the solar focus1 and receives only half as much heat and light as at the opposite period2 and1 in consequence1 his distance from the ,earth varies considerably4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cd4--,mercury near quadrature4 ,this globe exhibits phases1 discovered in the seventeenth century by ,galileo1 which recall those of the ,moon4 ,they are due to the motions of the planet round the ,sun1 and are invisible to the unaided eye1 but with even a small instrument1 one can follow the gradations and study ,mercury under every aspect4 ,sometimes1 again1 he passes exactly in front of the ,sun1 and his disk is projected like a black point upon the luminous surface of the flaming orb4 ,this occurred1 notably1 on ,may #aj1 #ahia1 and ,november #aj1 #ahid2 and the phenomenon will recur on ,november #ab1 #aijg1 and ,november #f1 #aiad4 ,mercury is the least of all the worlds in our system 7with the exception of the cosmic fragments that circulate between the orbit of ,mars and that of ,jupiter74 ,his volume equals only #e_/ajj that of the ,earth4 ,his diameter1 in comparison with that of our planet1 is in the ratio of #cgc to #a1jjj 7a little more than #a_/c7 and measures #d1gej kilometers 7#b1idf miles74 ,his density is the highest of all the worlds in the great solar family1 and exceeds that of our ,earth by about #a_/c2 but weight there is less by almost #a_/b4 ,mercury is enveloped in a very dense1 thick atmosphere1 which doubtless sensibly tempers the solar heat1 for the ,sun exhibits to the ,mercurians a luminous disk about seven times more extensive than that with which we are familiar on the ,earth1 and when ,mercury is at perihelion 7that is1 nearest to the ,sun71 his inhabitants receive ten times more light and heat than we obtain at midsummer4 ,in all probability1 it would be impossible for us to set foot on this planet without being shattered by a sunstroke4 ,yet we may well imagine that ,nature's fecundity can have engendered beings there of an organization different from our own1 adapted to an existence in the proximity of fire4 ,what magnificent landscapes may there be adorned with the luxuriant vegetation that develops rapidly under an ardent and generous sun8 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ce4--,the ,earth viewed from ,mercury4 ,observations of ,mercury are taken under great difficulties1 just because of the immediate proximity of the solar furnace2 yet some have detected patches that might be seas4 ,in any case1 these observations are contradictory and uncertain4 ,up to the present it has been impossible to determine the duration of the rotation4 ,some astronomers even think that the ,sun's close proximity must have produced strong tides1 that would1 as it were1 have immobilized the globe of ,mercury1 just as the ,earth has immobilized the ,moon1 forcing it perpetually to present the same side to the ,sun4 ,from the point of view of habitation1 this situation would be somewhat peculiar2 perpetual day upon the illumined half1 perpetual night upon the other hemisphere1 and a fairly large zone of twilight between the two4 ,such a condition would indeed be different from the succession of terrestrial days and nights4 ,as seen from ,mercury1 the ,earth we inhabit would shine out in the starry sky#i as a magnificent orb of first magnitude1 with the ,moon alongside1 a faithful little companion4 ,they should form a fine double star1 the ,earth being a brilliant orb of first magnitude1 and the ,moon of third1 a charming couple1 and admired doubtless as an enchanted and privileged abode4 ,it is at midnight during the oppositions of the ,earth with the ,sun that our planet is the most beautiful and brilliant1 as is ,jupiter for ourselves4 ,the constellations are the same1 viewed from ,mercury or from the ,earth4 ,but is this little solar planet inhabited8 ,we do not yet know4 ,we can only reply3 why not8 ,,venus ,when the sunset atmosphere is crimson with the glorious rays of the ,king of ,orbs1 and all ,nature assumes the brooding veil of twilight1 the most indifferent eyes are often attracted and captivated by the presence of a star that is almost dazzling1 and illuminates with its white and limpid light the heavens darkened by the disappearance of the ,god of ,day4 ,hail1 ,venus1 ,queen of the ,heavens6 the ,shepherd's ,star1 gentle mother of the loves1 goddess of beauty1 eternally adored and cherished1 sung and immortalized upon ,earth1 by poets and artists4 ,her splendid brilliancy attracted notice from earliest antiquity1 and we find her1 radiant and charming1 in the works of the ancients1 who erected altars to her and adorned their poetry with her grace and beauty4 ,homer calls her ,callisto the ,beautiful2 ,cicero names her ,vesper1 the evening star1 and ,lucifer1 the star of the morning--for it was with this divinity as with ,mercury4 ,for a long while she was regarded as two separate planets1 and it was only when it came to be observed that the evening and the morning star were always in periodic succession1 that the identity of the orb was recognized4 ,her radiant splendor created her mythological personality1 just as the agility of ,mercury created that of the messenger of the gods4 ,we do not see her aerial chariot in the ,heavens drawn by a flight of doves with white and fluttering wings1 but we follow the lustrous orb led on through space by solar attraction4 ,and in the beautiful evenings when she is at her greatest distance from our ,sun1 the whole world admires this white and dazzling ,venus reigning as sovereign over our twilight#aj for hours after sunset1 and in addition to the savants who are practically occupied with astronomy1 millions of eyes are raised to this celestial splendor1 and for a moment millions of human beings feel some curiosity about the mysteries of the ,infinite4 ,the brutalities of daily life would fain petrify our dreams1 but thought is not yet stifled to the point of checking all aspirations after eternal truth1 and when we gaze at the starry sky it is hard not to ask ourselves the nature of those other worlds1 and the place occupied by our own planet in the vast concert of sidereal harmony4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cf4--,the ,evening ,star4 ,even through a small telescope1 ,venus offers remarkable phases4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cg4--,successive phases of ,venus4 ,fig4 #cg gives some notion of the succession of these1 and of the planet's variations in magnitude during its journey round the ,sun4 ,imagine it to be rotating in a year of #bbd days1 #af hours1 #di minutes1 #h seconds at a distance of #ajh million kilometers 7#fg1jjj1jjj miles71 the ,earth being at #adi million kilometers 7#ic1jjj1jjj miles74 ,like ,mercury1 at certain periods it passes between the ,sun and ourselves1 and as its illuminated hemisphere is of course turned toward the orb of day1 we at those times perceive only a sharp and very luminous crescent4 ,at such periods ,venus is entirely1 so to say1 against the ,sun1 and presents to us her greatest apparent dimension 7,fig4 #ch74 ,sometimes1 again1 like ,mercury1 she passes immediately in front of the ,sun1 forming a perfectly round black spot2 this happened on ,december #h1 #ahgd1 and ,december #f1 #ahhb2 and will recur on ,june #g1 #bjjd1 and ,june #e1 #bjab4 ,these transits have been utilized in celestial geometry in measuring the distance of the ,sun4 ,you will readily divine that the distance of ,venus varies considerably according to her position in relation to the ,earth3 when she is between the ,sun and ourselves she is nearest to our world2 but it is just at those times that we see least of her surface1 because she exhibits to us only a slender crescent4 ,terrestrial astronomers are accordingly very badly placed for the study of her physical constitution4 ,the best observations can be made when she is situated to right or left of the ,sun1 and shows us about half her illuminated disk--during the day for choice1 because at night there is too much irradiation from her dazzling light4 ,these phases were discovered by ,galileo1 in #afaj4 ,his observations were among the first that confirmed the veracity of the system of ,copernicus1 affording an evident example of the movement of the planets round the sun4 ,they are often visible to the unaided eye with good sight1 either at dusk1 or through light clouds4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ch4--,venus at greatest brilliancy4 ,venus1 surrounded by a highly dense and rarefied atmosphere1 which increases the difficulties of observing her surface1 might be called the twin sister of the ,earth1 so similar are the dimensions of the two worlds4 ,but1 strange as it may seem to the many admirers1 who are ready to hail in her an abode of joy and happiness1 it is most probable that this planet1 attractive as she is at a distance1 would be a less desirable habitation than our floating island4 ,in fact1 the atmosphere of ,venus is perpetually covered with cloud1 so that the weather there must be always foggy4 ,no definite geographical configuration can be discovered on her1 despite the hopes of the eighteenth-century astronomers4 ,we are not even sure that she rotates upon herself1 so contradictory are the observations1 and so hard is it to distinguish anything clearly upon her surface4 ,a single night of observation suffices to show the rotation of ,mars or of ,jupiter2 but the beautiful ,evening ,star remains obstinately veiled from our curiosity4 ,several astronomers1 and not the least considerable1 think that the tides produced by the ,sun upon her seas1 or globe in its state of pristine fluidity1 must have been strong enough to seize and fix her1 as the ,earth did for the ,moon1 thus obliging her to present always the same face to the ,sun4 ,certain telescopic observations would even seem to confirm this theoretical deduction from the calculations of celestial mechanics4 ,the author ventures to disagree with this opinion1 its apparent probability notwithstanding1 because he has invariably received a contrary impression from all his telescopic observations4 ,he has quite recently 7spring of #aijc7 repeated these observations4 ,choosing a remarkably clear and perfectly calm atmosphere1 he examined the splendid planet several times with great attention in the field of the telescope4 ,the right or eastern border 7reversed image7 was dulled by the atmosphere of ,venus2 this is the line of separation between day and night4 ,beneath1 at the extreme northern edge1 he was attracted on each occasion by a small white patch1 a little whiter than the rest of the surface of the planet1 surrounded by a light-gray penumbra1 giving the exact effect of a polar snow1 very analogous to that observed at the poles of ,mars4 ,to the author this white spot on the boreal horn of ,venus does not appear to be due to an effect of contrast1 as has sometimes been supposed4 ,now1 if the globe of ,venus has poles1 it must turn upon itself4 ,unfortunately it has proved impossible to distinguish any sign upon the disk1 indicative of the direction and speed of its rotary movement1 although these observations were made1 with others1 under excellent conditions4--,three o'clock in the afternoon1 brilliant sun1 sky clear blue1 the planet but little removed from the meridian--at which time it is less dazzling than in the evening4 ,there is merely the impression2 but it is so definite as to prevent the author from adopting the new hypothesis1 in virtue of which the planet1 as it gravitates round the ,sun1 presents always the same hemisphere4 ,if this hypothesis were a reality1 ,venus would certainly be a very peculiar world4 ,eternal day on the one side2 eternal night on the other4 ,maximum light and heat at the center of the hemisphere perpetually turned to the ,sun2 maximum cold and center of night at the antipodes4 ,this icy hemisphere would possibly be uninhabitable1 but the resources of ,nature are so prodigious1 and the law of ,life is so imperious1 so persistent1 under the most disadvantageous and deplorable terrestrial conditions1 that it would be transcending our rights to declare an impossibility of existence1 even in this eternal night4 ,the currents of the atmosphere would no doubt suffice to set up perpetual changes of temperature between the two hemispheres1 in comparison with which our trade-winds would be the lightest of breezes4 ,yes1 mystery still reigns upon this adjacent earth1 and the most powerful instruments of the observatories of the whole world have been unable to solve it4 ,all we know is that the diameter1 surface1 volume and mass of this planet1 and its weight at the surface1 do not differ sensibly from those that characterize our own globe3 that this planet is sister to our own1 and of the same order1 hence probably formed of the same elements4 ,we further know that1 as seen from ,venus 7,fig4 #ci71 the ,earth on which we live is a magnificent star1 a double orb more brilliant even than when viewed from ,mercury4 ,it is a dazzling orb of first magnitude1 accompanied by its moon1 a star of the second and a half magnitude4 ,and thus the worlds float on in space1 distant symbols of hopes not realized on any one of them1 all at different stages of their degree of evolution1 representing an ever-growing progress in the sequence of the ages4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ci4--,the ,earth viewed from ,venus4 ,when we contemplate this radiant ,venus1 it is difficult1 even if we can not form any definite idea as to her actual state as regards habitation1 to assume that she must be a dreary desert1 and not1 on the contrary1 to hail in her a celestial land1 differing more or less from our own dwelling-place1 travailing with her sisters in the accomplishment of the general plan of ,nature4 ,such are the characteristic features of our celestial neighbor4 ,in quitting her1 we reach the ,earth1 which comes immediately next her in order of distance1 #adi million kilometers 7#ic1jjj1jjj miles7 from the ,sun1 but as we shall devote an entire chapter to our own planet1 we will not halt at this point1 but cross in one step the distance that separates ,mars from ,venus4 ,let us only remark in passing1 that our planet is the largest of the four spheres adjacent to the ,sun4 ,here are their comparative diameters3 ,the ,earth #a4 ,in ,kilometers4 ,in ,miles4 ,mercury #j4cgc #d1gej #b1idf ,venus #j4iii #ab1gcj #g1hid ,earth #a4jjj #ab1gdb #g1ibf ,mars #j4ebh #f1gbh #d1agb ,it will be seen that ,venus is almost identical with the ,earth4 ,,mars ,two hundred and twenty-six millions of kilometers 7#adj1jjj1jjj miles7 from the ,sun is the planet ,mars1 gravitating in an orbit exterior to that which the ,earth takes annually round the same center4 ,unfortunate ,mars6 ,what evil fairy presided at his birth8 ,from antiquity1 all curses seem to have fallen upon him4 ,he is the god of war and of carnage1 the protector of armies1 the inspirer of hatred among the peoples1 it is he who pours out the blood of ,humanity in international hecatombs4 ,here1 again1 as in the case of ,mercury and ,venus1 the appearance has originated the idea4 ,mars1 in fact1 burns like a drop of blood in the depths of the firmament1 and it is this ruddy color that inspired its name and attributes1 just as the dazzling whiteness of ,venus made her the goddess of love and beauty4 ,why1 indeed1 should the origins of mythology be sought elsewhere than in astronomy8 ,while ,humanity was attributing to the presumptive influence of ,mars the defects inherent in its own terrestrial nature1 this world1 unwitting of our sorrows1 pursued the celestial path marked out for it in space by destiny4 ,this planet is1 as we have said1 the first encountered after the ,earth4 ,its orbit is very elongated1 very eccentric4 ,mars accomplishes it in a period of #a year1 #cba days1 #bb hours1 i4e41 #a year1 #aj months1 #ba days1 or #fhg days4 ,the velocity of its transit is #bc kilometers 7#ad4e miles7 per second2 that of the ,earth is #cj 7#ai miles74 ,our planet1 traveling through space at an average distance of #adi million kilometers 7#ic1jjj1jjj miles7 from the central focus1 is separated from ,mars by an average distance of #gf million kilometers 7#dg1jjj1jjj miles72 but as its orbit is equally elliptic and elongated it follows that at certain epochs the two planets approach one another by something less than #fj million kilometers 7#cg1jjj1jjj miles74 ,these are the periods selected for making the best observations upon our neighbor of the ruddy rays4 ,the oppositions of ,mars arrive about every twenty-six months1 but the periods of its greatest proximity1 when this planet approaches to within #ef million kilometers 7#cd1gjj1jjj miles7 of the ,earth1 occur only every fifteen years4 ,mars is then passing perihelion1 while our world is at aphelion 7or greatest distance from the ,sun74 ,at such epochs this globe presents to us an apparent diameter #fc times smaller than that of the ,moon1 i4e41 a telescope that magnifies #fc times would show him to us of the same magnitude as our satellite viewed with the unaided eye1 and an instrument that magnified #fcj times would show him ten times larger in diameter4 ,in dimensions he differs considerably from our world1 being almost half the size of the ,earth4 ,in diameter he measures only #f1gbh kilometers 7#d1agb miles71 and his circumference is #ba1abe kilometers 7#ac1jjj miles74 ,his surface is only #bi_/ajj of the terrestrial surface1 and his volume only #ae_/ajj of our own4 ,this difference in volume causes ,mars to be an earth in miniature4 ,when we study his aspects1 his geography1 his meteorology1 we seem to see in space a reduction of our own abode1 with certain dissimilarities that excite our curiosity1 and make him even more interesting to us4 ,the ,martian world weighs nine times and a half less than our own4 ,if we represent the weight of the ,earth by #a1jjj1 that of ,mars would be represented by #aje4 ,his density is much less than our own2 it is only #g_/aj that of the ,earth4 ,a man weighing #gj kilograms1 transported to the adjacent globe1 would weigh only #bf kilograms4 ,the earliest telescopic observations revealed the existence of more or less accentuated markings upon the surface of ,mars4 ,the progress of optics1 admitting of greater magnifications1 exhibited the form of these patches more clearly1 while the study of their motions enabled the astronomers to determine with remarkable precision the diurnal rotation of this planet4 ,it occurs in #bd hours1 #cg minutes1 #bc4fe seconds4 ,day and night are accordingly a little longer on ,mars than on the ,earth1 but the difference is obviously inconsiderable4 ,the year of ,mars consists of #ffh ,martian days4 ,the inclination of the axis of rotation of this globe upon the plane of its orbit is much the same as our own4 ,in consequence1 its seasons are analogous to ours in intensity1 while twice the length1 the ,martian year being almost equal to two of our years4 ,the intensity of the seasons is indeed more accentuated than upon the ,earth1 since the orbit of ,mars is very elongated4 ,but there1 as here1 are three quite distinct zones3 the torrid1 the temperate1 and the glacial4 ,by means of the telescope we can follow the variations of the ,martian seasons1 especially in what concerns the polar snows1 which regularly aggregate during the winter1 and melt no less regularly during the heat of the summer4 ,these snows are very easily observed1 and stand out clearly with dazzling whiteness4 ,the reader can judge of them by the accompanying figure1 which sums up the author's observations during one of the recent oppositions of ,mars 7#aijj-aija74 ,the size of the polar cap diminished from #d1fhj kilometers to #hdj4 ,the solstice of the ,martian summer was on ,april #aath4 ,the snows were still melting on ,july #fth4 ,sometimes they disappear almost entirely during the ,martian month that corresponds to our month of ,august1 as never happens with our polar ice4 ,hence1 though this planet is farther away from the ,sun than ourselves1 it does not appear to be colder1 or1 at any rate1 it is certain that the polar snows are much less thick4 ,on the other hand1 there are hardly ever clouds on ,mars2 the ,martian atmosphere is almost always limpid1 and one can say that fine weather is the chronic state of the planet4 ,at times1 light fogs or a little vapor will appear in certain regions1 but they are soon dissipated1 and the sky clears up again4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dj4--;,diminution of the polar snows of ,mars during the summer4 ,since the invention of the telescope1 a considerable number of drawings have been made1 depicting ,mars under every aspect1 and the agreement between these numerous observations gives us a sufficient acquaintance with the planet to admit of our indicating the characteristic features of its geography1 and of drawing out areographic maps 7,ares1 ,mars74 ,its appearance can be judged of from the two drawings here reproduced1 as made 7,february1 #aija7 at the ,observatory of ,juvisy1 and from the general chart drawn from the total sum of observations 7,figs4 #da1 #db and #dc74 ,it will be seen at the first glance that the geography of ,mars is very different from that of our own globe3 while three-quarters of the ,earth are covered with the liquid element1 ,mars seems to be more evenly divided1 and must indeed have rather more land than water4 ,we find no immense oceans surrounding the continents1 and separating them like islands2 on the contrary1 the seas are reduced to long gulfs compressed between the shores1 like the ,mediterranean for example1 nor is it even certain that these gray spots do all represent true seas4 ,it has been agreed to term sea the parts that are lightly tinged with green1 and to give the name of continent to the spots colored yellow4 ,that is the hue of the ,martian soil1 due either to the soil itself1 which would resemble that of the ,sahara1 or1 to take a less arid region1 that seen on the line between ,marseilles and ,nice1 in the vicinity of the ,esterels2 or perhaps to some peculiar vegetation4 ,during ascents in a balloon1 the author has often remarked that the hue of the ripe corn1 with the ,sun shining on it1 is precisely that presented to us by the continents of ,mars in the best hours for observation4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #da4--,telescopic aspect of the planet ,mars 7,feb41 #aija74 ,as to the seas1 it is pretty certain that there must be water1 or some kind of liquid1 deriving above all from the melting of the polar snows in spring and summer2 but it may possibly be in conjunction with some vegetation1 aquatic plants1 or perhaps vast meadows1 which appear to us from here to be the more considerable in proportion as the water that nourishes them has been more abundant4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #db4--,telescopic aspect of the planet ,mars 7,feb41 #aija74 ,mars1 like our globe1 is surrounded with a protective atmosphere1 which retains the rays of the ,sun1 and must preserve a medium temperature favorable to the conservation of life upon the surface of the planet4 ,but the circulation of the water1 so important to terrestrial life1 whether animal or vegetable1 which is effected upon our planet by the evaporation of the seas1 clouds1 winds1 rains1 wells1 rivers and streams1 comes about quite differently on ,mars2 for1 as was remarked above1 it is rarely that any clouds are observed there4 ,instead of being vertical1 as here1 this circulation is horizontal3 the water coming from the source of the polar snows finds its way into the canals and seas1 and returns to be condensed at the poles by a light drift of invisible vapors directed from the equator to the poles4 ,there is never any rain4 ,we have spoken of canals4 ,one of the great puzzles of the ,martian world is incontestably the appearance of straight lines that furrow its surface in all directions1 and seem to connect the seas4 ,m4 ,schiaparelli1 the distinguished ,director of the ,observatory of ,milan1 who discovered them in #ahgg1 called them canals1 without1 however1 postulating anything as to their real nature4 ,are they indeed canals8 ,these straight lines1 measuring sometimes #fjj kilometers 7#cgb miles7 in length1 and more than #ajj kilometers 7#fb miles7 in breadth1 have much the same hue as the seas on which they open4 ,for a quarter of a century they have been surveyed by the greater number of our observers4 ,but it must be confessed that1 even with the best instruments1 we only approach ,mars at a distance of #fj1jjj kilometers 7#cg1bjj miles71 which is still a little far off1 and we may be sure that we do not distinguish the true details of the surface4#aa ,these details at the limits of visibility produce the appearance of canals to our eyes4 ,they may possibly be lines of lakes1 or oases4 ,the future will no doubt clear up this mystery for us4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dc4--;,chart of ,mars4 ,as to the inhabitants of ,mars1 this world is in a situation as favorable as our ,earth for habitation1 and it would be difficult to discover any reason for perpetual sterility there4 ,it appears to us1 on the contrary1 by its rapid and frequent variations of aspect1 to be a very living world4 ,its atmosphere1 which is always clear1 has not the density of our own1 and resembles that of the highest mountains4 ,the conditions of existence there vary from ours1 and appear to be more delicate1 more ethereal4 ,there as here1 day succeeds to night1 spring softens the rigors of winter2 the seasons unfold1 less disparate than our own1 of which we have such frequent reason to complain4 ,the sky is perpetually clear4 ,there are never tempests1 hurricanes1 nor cyclones1 the wind never gets up any force there1 on account of the rarity of the atmosphere1 and the low intensity of weight4 ,differing from ours1 this world may well be a more congenial habitation4 ,it is more ancient than the ,earth1 smaller1 less massive4 ,it has run more quickly through the phases of its evolution4 ,its astral life is more advanced1 and its ,humanity should be superior to our own1 just as our successors a million years hence1 for example1 will be less coarse and barbarous than we are at present3 the law of progress governs all the worlds1 and1 moreover1 the physical constitution of the planet ,mars is less dense than our own4 ,there is no need to despair of entering some day into communication with these unknown beings4 ,the luminous points that have been observed are no signals1 but high summits or light clouds illuminated by the rising or setting sun4 ,but the idea of communication with them in the future is no more audacious and no less scientific than the invention of spectral analysis1 ,x-rays1 or wireless telegraphy4 ,we may suppose that the study of astronomy is further advanced in ,mars than on the ,earth1 because humanity itself has advanced further1 and because the starry sky is far finer there1 far easier to study1 owing to the limpidity of its pure1 clear atmosphere4 ,two small moons 7hardly larger than the city of ,paris7 revolve rapidly round ,mars2 they are called ,phobos and ,deimos4 ,the former1 at a distance of #f1jjj kilometers 7#c1gcj miles7 from the surface1 accomplishes its revolution rapidly1 in seven hours1 thirty-nine minutes1 and thus makes the entire circle of the ,heavens three times a day4 ,the second gravitates at #bj1jjj kilometers 7#ab1djj miles71 and turns round its center of attraction in thirty hours and eighteen minutes4 ,these two satellites were discovered by ,mr4 ,hall1 at the ,university of ,washington1 in the month of ,august1 #ahgg4 99 99 99 99 99 ,among the finest and most interesting of the celestial phenomena admired by the ,martians1 at certain epochs of the year1--now at night when the ,sun has plunged into his fiery bed1 now in the morning1 a little before the aurora1--is a magnificent star of first magnitude1 never far removed from the orb of day1 which presents to them the same aspects as does ,venus to ourselves4 ,this splendid orb1 which has doubtless received the most flattering names from those who contemplate it1 this radiant star of a beautiful greenish blue1 courses in space accompanied by a little satellite1 sparkling like some splendid diamond1 after sunset1 in the clear sky of ,mars4 ,this superb orb is the ,earth1 and the little star accompanying it is the ,moon4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dd4--,the ,earth viewed from ,mars4 ,yes1 to the ,martians our ,earth is a star of the morning and evening2 doubtless they have determined her phases4 ,many a vow1 and many a hope must have been wafted toward her1 more than one broken heart must have permitted its unrealized dreams to wander forth to our planet as to an abode of happiness where all who have suffered in their native world might find a haven4 ,but our planet1 alas6 is not as perfect as they imagine4 ,we must not dally upon ,mars1 but hasten our celestial excursion toward ,jupiter4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,the ,,planets ,b4--,,jupiter1 ,,saturn1 ,,uranus1 ,,neptune4 ,before we attack the giant world of our system1 we must halt for a few moments upon the minor planets which circulate between the orbit of ,mars and that of ,jupiter4 ,these minute asters1 little worlds1 the largest of which measures scarcely more than #ajj kilometers 7#fb miles7 in diameter1 are fragments of cosmic matter that once belonged to a vast ring1 formed at the time when the solar system was only an immense nebula2 and which1 instead of condensing into a single globe coursing between ,mars and ,jupiter1 split up into a considerable quantity of particles constituting at the present time the curious and highly interesting ,republic of the ,asteroids4 ,these lilliputian worlds at first received the names of the more celebrated of the minor mythological divinities--,ceres1 ,pallas1 ,juno1 ,vesta1 etc41 but as they rapidly increased in number1 it was found necessary to call them by modern1 terrestrial names1 and more than one daughter of ,eve1 the ,egeria of some astronomer1 now has her name inscribed in the ,heavens4 ,the first minor planet was discovered on the first day of the nineteenth century1 ,january #a1 #ahja1 by ,piazzi1 astronomer at ,palermo4 ,while he was observing the small stars in the constellation of the ,bull beneath the clear ,sicilian skies1 this famous astronomer noticed one that he had never seen before4 ,the next night1 directing his telescope to the same part of the ,heavens1 he perceived that the fair unknown had moved her station1 and the observations of the following days left him no doubt as to the nature of the visitor3 she was a planet1 a wandering star among the constellations1 revolving round the ,sun4 ,this newcomer was registered under the name of ,ceres4 ,since that epoch several hundreds of them have been discovered1 occupying a zone that extends over a space of more than #djj million kilometers 7#bdi1jjj1jjj miles74 ,these celestial globules are invisible to the naked eye1 but no year passes without new and numerous recruits being added to the already important catalogue of these minute asters by the patient observers of the ,heavens4 ,to-day1 they are most frequently discovered by the photographic method of following the displacement of the tiny moving points upon an exposed sensitive plate4 ,,jupiter ,and now let us bow respectfully before ,jupiter1 the giant of the worlds4 ,this glorious planet is indeed ,king of the ,solar ,system4 ,while ,mercury measures only #d1gej kilometers 7#b1idf miles7 in diameter1 and ,mars #f1gbh kilometers 7#d1agb71 ,jupiter is no less than #adj1ibj kilometers 7#hg1djj miles7 in breadth2 that is to say1 eleven times larger than the ,earth4 ,he is #ddb1ejj kilometers 7#bgd1ceg miles7 in circumference4 ,in volume he is equivalent to #a1bgi terrestrial globes2 hence he is only a million times smaller than the ,sun4 ,the previously described planets of our system1 ,mercury1 ,venus1 the ,earth1 and ,mars combined1 would form only an insignificant mass in comparison with this colossus4 ,a hundred and twenty-six ,earths joined into one group would present a surface whose extent would still not be quite as vast as the superficies of this titanic world4 ,this immense globe weighs #caj times more than that which we inhabit4 ,its density is only the quarter of our own2 but weight is twice and a half times as great there as here4 ,the constituents of things and beings are thus composed of materials lighter than those upon the ,earth2 but1 as the planet exerts a force of attraction twice and a half times as powerful1 they are in reality heavier and weigh more4 ,a graceful maiden weighing fifty kilograms would if transported to ,jupiter immediately be included in the imposing society of the ,hundred ,kilos4 ,jupiter rotates upon himself with prodigious rapidity4 ,he accomplishes his diurnal revolution in less than ten hours6 ,there the day lasts half as long as here1 and while we reckoned fifteen days upon our calendar1 the ,jovian would count thirty-six4 ,as ,jupiter's year equals nearly twelve of ours1 the almanac of that planet would contain #aj1dee days6 ,obviously1 our pretty little pocket calendars would never serve to enumerate all the dates in this vast world4 ,this splendid globe courses in space at a distance of #gge1jjj1jjj kilometers 7#dhj1ejj1jjj miles7 from the ,sun4 ,hence it is five times 7#e4b7 as remote from the orb of day as our ,earth1 and its orbit is five times vaster than our own4 ,at that distance the ,sun subtends a diameter five times smaller than that which we see1 and its surface is twenty-seven times less extensive2 accordingly this planetary abode receives on an average twenty-seven times less light and heat than we obtain4 ,in the telescope ,jupiter presents an aspect analogous to that likely to be exhibited by a world covered with clouds1 and enveloped in dense vapors 7,fig4 #de74 ,it is1 in fact1 the seat of formidable perturbations1 of strange revolutions by which it is perpetually convulsed1 for although of more ancient formation than the ,earth1 this celestial giant has not yet arrived at the stable condition of our dwelling-place4 ,owing to its considerable volume1 this globe has probably preserved its original heat1 revolving in space as an obscure ,sun1 but perhaps still burning4 ,in it we see what our own planet must have been in its primordial epoch1 in the pristine times of terrestrial genesis4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #de4--,telescopic aspect of ,jupiter4 ,since its orbital revolution occupies nearly twelve years1 ,jupiter comes back into opposition with the ,sun every #cii days1 i4e41 #a year1 #cd days1 that is with one month and four days' delay each year4 ,at these periods it is located at the extremity of a straight line which1 passing by the ,earth1 is prolonged to the ,sun4 ,these are the epochs to be selected for observation4 ,it shines then1 all night1 like some dazzling star of the first magnitude1 of excessive whiteness3 nor can it be confounded either with ,venus1 more luminous still 7for she is never visible at midnight1 in the full ,south1 but is ,south-west in the evening1 or ,south-east in the morning71 nor with ,mars1 whose fires are ruddy4 ,in the telescope1 the immense planet presents a superb disk that an enlargement of forty times shows us to be the same size to all appearance as that of the ,moon seen with the unaided eye4 ,its shape is not absolutely spherical1 but spheroid--that is1 flattened at the poles4 ,the flattening is #a_/ag4 ,we know that the ,earth's axis dips a certain quantity on the plane of her orbit1 and that it is this inclination that produces the seasons4 ,now it is not the same for ,jupiter4 ,his axis of rotation remains almost vertical throughout the course of his year1 and results in the complete absence of climates and seasons4 ,there is neither glacial zone1 nor tropic zone2 the position of ,jupiter is eternally that of the ,earth at the season of the equinox1 and the vast world enjoys1 as it were1 perpetual spring4 ,it knows neither the hoar-frost nor the snows of winter4 ,the heat received from the ,sun diminishes gradually from the equator to the poles without abrupt transitions1 and the duration of day and night is equal there throughout the entire year1 under every latitude4 ,a privileged world1 indeed6 ,it is surrounded by a very dense1 thick atmosphere1 which undergoes more extensive variations than could be produced by the ,sun at such a distance4 ,spectral analysis detects a large amount of water-vapor1 showing that this planet still possesses a very considerable quantity of intrinsic heat4 ,most conspicuous upon this globe are the larger or smaller bands or markings 7gray and white1 sometimes tinted yellow1 or of a maroon or chocolate hue7 by which its surface is streaked1 particularly in the vicinity of the equator4 ,these different belts vary1 and are constantly modified1 either in form or color4 ,sometimes1 they are irregular1 and cut up2 at others they are interspersed with more or less brilliant patches4 ,these patches are not affixed to the surface of the globe1 like the seas and continents of the ,earth2 nor do they circulate round the planet like the satellites1 in more or less elongated and regular revolutions1 but are relatively mobile1 like our clouds in the atmosphere1 while observation of their motion does not give the exact period of the rotation of ,jupiter4 ,some only appear upon the agitated disk to vanish very quickly2 others subsist for a considerable period4 ,one has been observed for over a quarter of a century1 and appears to be almost immobile upon this colossal globe4 ,this spot1 which was red at its first appearance1 is now pale and ghostly4 ,it is oval 7vide ,fig4 #de7 and measures #db1jjj kilometers 7#bf1jdj miles7 in length by #ae1jjj kilometers 7#i1cjj miles7 in width4 ,hence it is about four times as long as the diameter of our ,earth2 that is1 relatively to the size of ,jupiter1 as are the dimensions of ,australia in proportion to our globe4 ,the discussion of a larger number of observations leads us to see in it a sort of continent in the making1 a scoria recently ejected from the mobile and still liquid and heated surface of the giant ,jupiter4 ,the patch1 however1 oscillates perceptibly1 and appears to be a floating island4 ,we must add that this vast world1 like the ,sun1 does not rotate all in one period4 ,eight different currents can be perceived upon its surface4 ,the most rapid is that of the equatorial zone1 which accomplishes its revolution in #i hours1 #ej minutes1 #bi seconds4 ,a point situated on the equator is therefore carried forward at a speed of #ab1ejj meters 7#g miles7 per second1 and it is this giddy velocity of ,jupiter that has produced the flattening of the poles4 ,from the equator to the poles1 the swiftness of the currents diminishes irregularly1 and the difference amounts to about five minutes between the movement of the equatorial stream1 and that of the northern and southern currents4 ,but what is more curious still is that the velocity of one and the same stream is subject to certain fluctuations2 thus1 in the last quarter of a century1 the speed of the equatorial current has progressively diminished4 ,in #ahgi1 the velocity was #i hours1 #di minutes1 #ei seconds1 and now it is1 as we have already seen1 #i hours1 #ej minutes1 #bi seconds1 which represents a substantial reduction4 ,the rotation of the red patch1 at #be degrees of the southern latitude1 is effected in #i hours1 #ee minutes1 #dj seconds4 ,we are confronted with a strange and mysterious world4 ,it is the world of the future4 ,this giant gravitates in space accompanied by a suite of five satellites4 ,these are3 ,names4 ,distance from surface of ,jupiter4 ,time of revolution4 ,kilometers4 ,miles4 ,days4 ,hours4 #e4 #bjj1jjj #abd1jjj #aa #a4 ,io #dcj1jjj #bff1jjj #a #ah #b4 ,europa #fhb1jjj #dbb1hdj #c #ac #c4 ,ganymede #a1jhh1jjj #fgd1efj #g #d #d4 ,callisto #a1iad1jjj #a1ahf1fhj #af #af ,the four principal satellites of ,jupiter were discovered at the same time1 on the same evenings 7,january #g and #h1 #afaj71 by the two astronomers who were pointing their telescopes at ,jupiter3 ,galileo in ,italy1 and ,simon ,marius in ,germany4 ,on ,september #i1 #ahib1 ,mr4 ,barnard1 astronomer of the ,lick ,observatory1 ,california1 discovered a new satellite1 extremely minute1 and very near the enormous planet4 ,it has so far received no name1 and is known as the fifth1 although the four principal are numbered in the order of their distances4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #df4--;,jupiter and his four principal satellites4 ,the four classical satellites are visible in the smallest instruments 7,fig4 #df73 the third is the most voluminous4 ,such is the splendid system of the mighty ,jupiter4 ,once1 doubtless1 this fine planet illuminated the troop of worlds that derived their treasure of vitality from him with his intrinsic light3 to-day1 however1 these moons in their turn shed upon the extinct central globe the pale soft light which they receive from our solar focus1 illuminating the brief ,jovian nights 7which last less than five hours1 on account of the twilight7 with their variable brilliancy4 ,at the distance of the first satellite1 ,jupiter exhibits a disk fourteen hundred times vaster than that of the ,full ,moon6 ,what a dazzling spectacle1 what a fairy scene must the enormous star afford to the inhabitants of that tiny world6 ,and what a shabby figure must our ,earth and ,moon present in the face of such a body1 a real miniature of the great solar system6 ,our ancestors were well inspired when they attributed the sovereignty of ,olympus to this majestic planet4 ,his brilliancy corresponds with his real grandeur4 ,his dominion in the midnight ,heavens is unique4 ,here again1 as for ,venus1 ,mars1 and ,mercury1 astronomy has created the legend of the fables of mythology4 ,let us repeat in conclusion that our ,earth becomes practically invisible for the inhabitants of the other worlds beyond the distance of ,jupiter4 ,,saturn ,turn back now for a moment to the plan of the ,solar ,system4 ,we had to cross #gge million kilometers 7#dhj1jjj1jjj miles7 when we left the ,sun1 in order to reach the immense orb of ,jupiter1 which courses in space at #fbf million kilometers 7#chh1jjj1jjj miles7 from the terrestrial orbit4 ,from ,jupiter we had to traverse a distance of #fdf million kilometers 7#djj1jjj1jjj miles7 in order to reach the marvelous system of ,saturn1 where our eyes and thoughts must next alight4 ,son of ,uranus and ,vesta1 ,saturn was the ,god of ,time and ,fate4 ,he is generally represented as an aged man bearing a scythe4 ,his mythological character is only the expression of his celestial aspect1 as we have seen for the brilliant ,jupiter1 for the pale ,venus1 the ruddy ,mars1 and the agile ,mercury4 ,the revolution of ,saturn is the slowest of any among the planets known to the ancients4 ,it takes almost thirty years for its accomplishment1 and at that distance the ,saturnian world1 though it still shines with the brilliancy of a star of the first magnitude1 exhibits to our eyes a pale and leaden hue4 ,here is1 indeed1 the god of ,time1 with slow and almost funereal gait4 ,poor ,saturn won no favor with the poets and astrologers4 ,he bore the horrid reputation of being the inexhaustible source of misfortune and evil fates1--whereof he is wholly innocent1 troubling himself not at all with our world nor its inhabitants4 ,this world travels in the vastness of the ,heavens at a distance of #a1dba million kilometers 7#hha1jjj1jjj miles7 from the ,sun4 ,hence it is ten times farther from the orb of day than the ,earth1 though still illuminated and governed by the ,sun-,god4 ,its gigantic orbit is ten times larger than our own4 ,its revolution round the ,sun is accomplished in #aj1gei days1 i4e41 #bi years1 #afg days1 and as this strange planet rotates upon itself with great rapidity in #aj hours1 #ae minutes1 its year comprises no less than #be1bag days4 ,what a calendar6 ,the ,saturnians must needs have a prodigious memory not to get hopelessly involved in this interminable number of days4 ,a curious world1 where each year stands for almost thirty of our own1 and where the day is more than half as short again as ours4 ,but we shall presently find other and more extraordinary differences on this planet4 ,in the first place it is nearly nine and a half times larger than our world4 ,it is a globe1 not spherical1 but spheroidal1 and the flattening of its poles1 which is one-tenth1 exceeds that of all the other planets1 even ,jupiter4 ,it follows that its equatorial diameter is #aab1ejj kilometers 7#fi1gej miles71 while its polar diameter measures only #aaj1jjj kilometers 7#fh1bjj74 ,in volume1 ,saturn is #gai times larger than the ,earth1 but its density is only #abh_/ajjj of our own2 i4e41 the materials of which it is composed are much less heavy1 so that it weighs only #ib times more than our ,earth4 ,its surface is #he times vaster than that of the ,earth1 no insignificant proportion4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dg4--,saturn4 ,the dipping of ,saturn's axis of rotation is much the same as our own4 ,hence we conclude that the seasons of this planet are analogous to ours in relative intensity4 ,only upon this far-off world each season lasts for seven years4 ,at the distance at which it gravitates in space1 the heat and light which it receives from the ,sun are #ij times less active than such as reach our selves2 but it apparently possesses an atmosphere of great density1 which may be constituted so that the heat is preserved1 and the planet maintained in a calorific condition but little inferior to our own4 ,in the telescope1 the disk of ,saturn exhibits large belts that recall those of ,jupiter1 though they are broader and less accentuated 7,fig4 #dg74 ,there are doubtless zones of clouds or rapid currents circulating in the atmosphere4 ,spots are also visible whose displacement assists in calculating the diurnal motions of this globe4 ,the most extraordinary characteristic of this strange world is1 however1 the existence of a vast ring1 which is almost flat and very large1 and entirely envelops the body of the planet4 ,it is suspended in the ,saturnian sky1 like a gigantic triumphal arch1 at a height of some #bj1jjj kilometers 7#ab1djj miles7 above the equator4 ,this splendid arch is circular1 like an immense crown illuminated by the ,sun4 ,from here we only see it obliquely1 and it appears to us elliptical2 a part of the ring seems to pass in front of ,saturn1 and its shadow is visible on the planet1 while the opposite part passes behind4 ,this ring1 which measures #bhd1jjj kilometers 7#agf1jhj miles7 in diameter1 and less than #ajj kilometers 7#fb miles7 in breadth1 is divided into three distinct zones3 the exterior is less luminous than the center1 which is always brighter than the planet itself2 the interior is very dark1 and spreads out like a dusky and faintly transparent veil1 through which ,saturn can be distinguished4 ,what is the nature of these vast concentric circles that surround the planet with a luminous halo8 ,they are composed of an innumerable number of particles1 of a quantity of cosmic fragments1 which are swept off in a rapid revolution1 and gravitate round the planet at variable speed and distance4 ,the nearer particles must accomplish their revolution in #e hours1 #ej minutes1 and the most distant in about #ab hours1 #e minutes1 to prevent them from being merged in the surface of ,saturn3 their own centrifugal force sustains them in space4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dh4 ,varying perspective of ,saturn's ,rings1 as seen from the ,earth4 ,with a good glass the effect of these rings is most striking1 and one can not refrain from emotion on contemplating this marvel1 whereby one of the brothers of our terrestrial country is crowned with a golden diadem4 ,its aspects vary with its perspective relative to the ,earth1 as may be seen from the subjoined figure 7,fig4 #dh74 ,we must not quit the ,saturnian province without mentioning the eight satellites that form his splendid suite3 ,names4 ,distance from the planet4 ,time of revolution4 ,kilometers4 ,miles4 ,days4 ,hours4 ,minutes4 #a4 ,mimas #bjg1jjj #abh1cdj #bb #cg #b4 ,enceladus #beg1fjj #aei1gab #a #h #ec #c4 ,tethys #cbh1hjj #bjc1hef #a #ba #ah #d4 ,dione #dba1bjj #bfa1add #b #ag #da #e4 ,rhea #ehh1djj #cfd1hjh #d #ab #be #f4 ,titan #a1cfd1jjj #hde1fhj #ae #bb #da #g4 ,hyperion #a1fej1jjj #a1jbc1jjj #ba #f #ci #h4 ,japhet #c1ifd1jjj #b1deg1fhj #gi #g #ed ,here is a marvelous system1 with1 what is more1 eight different kinds of months for the inhabitants of ,saturn2 eight moons with constantly varying phases juggling above the rings6 ,now we shall cross at a bound the #a1djj million kilometers 7#hfh1jjj1jjj miles7 that separate us from the last station but one of the immense solar system4 ,,uranus ,on ,march #ac1 #agha1 ,william ,herschel1 a ,hanoverian astronomer who had emigrated to ,england1 having abandoned the study of music to devote himself to the sublime science of the ,heavens1 was observing the vast fields with their constellations of golden stars1 when he perceived a luminous point that appeared to him to exceed that of the other celestial luminaries in diameter4 ,he replaced the magnification of his telescope by more powerful eye-pieces1 and found that the apparent diameter of the orb increased proportionately with the amplification of the power1 which does not happen in the case of stars at infinite distance4 ,his observations on the following evenings enabled him to note the slow and imperceptible movement of this star upon the celestial sphere1 and left him in no further doubt3 there was no star1 but some much nearer orb1 in all probability a comet1 for the great astronomer dared not predict the discovery of a new planet4 ,and it was thus1 under the name of cometary orb1 that the seventh child of the ,sun was announced4 ,the astronomers sought to determine the motions of the new arrival1 to discover for it an elliptical orbit such as most comets have4 ,but their efforts were vain1 and after several months' study the conclusion was reached that here was a new planet1 throwing back the limits of the solar system to a point far beyond that of the ,saturnian frontier1 as admitted from antiquity4 ,this new world received the name of ,uranus1 father of ,saturn1 his nearest neighbor in the solar empire4 ,uranus shines in the firmament as a small star of sixth magnitude1 invisible to the unaided eye for normal sight1 at a distance of #b1hca1jjj1jjj kilometers 7#a1gee1jjj1jjj miles7 from the ,sun4 ,smaller than ,jupiter and ,saturn1 this planet is yet larger than ,mercury1 ,venus1 ,mars1 and the ,earth together1 thus presenting proportions that claim our respect and admiration4 ,his diameter may be taken at about #ee1jjj kilometers 7#cd1bjj miles71 that is1 rather more than four times the breadth of the terrestrial diameter4 ,sixty-nine times more voluminous than the ,earth1 and seventeen times more extensive in surface1 this new world is much less than our own in density4 ,the matter of which it is composed is nearly five times lighter than that of our globe4 ,spectral analysis shows that this distant planet is surrounded with an atmosphere very different from that which we breathe1 enclosing gases that do not exist in ours4 ,the ,uranian globe courses over the fields of infinity in a vast orbit seventeen times larger than our own1 and its revolution lasts #cf1fhh days1 i4e41 #hd years1 #h days4 ,it travels slowly and sadly under the pale and languishing rays of the ,sun1 which sends it nearly three hundred times less of light and heat than we receive4 ,at this distance the solar disk would present a diameter seventeen times smaller than that which we admire1 and a surface three hundred times less vast4 ,a dull world indeed6 ,and what an interminable year6 ,the idle people who are in the habit of being bored must find time even longer upon ,uranus than upon our little ,earth1 where the days pass so rapidly4 ,and if matters are arranged there as here1 a babe of a year old1 beginning to babble in its nurse's arms1 would already have lived as long as an old man of eighty-four in this world4 ,but what most seriously complicates the ,calendar of the ,uranians is the fact that the four moons which accompany the planet accomplish their revolution in four different kinds of months1 in two1 four1 eight1 and thirteen days1 as is shown in the following table3 ,distance from the planet4 ,time of revolution4 ,kilometers4 ,miles4 ,days4 ,hours4 ,minutes4 #a4 ,ariel #aif1jjj #aba1ebj #b #ab #bi #b4 ,umbriel #bgf1jjj #aga1abj #d #c #bg #c4 ,titania #dej1jjj #bgi1jjj #h #af #ef #d4 ,oberon #fjj1jjj #cgb1jjj #ac #aa #g ,the most curious fact is that these satellites do not rotate like those of the other planets4 ,while the moons of the ,earth1 ,mars1 ,jupiter1 and ,saturn accomplish their revolution from east to west1 the satellites of ,uranus rotate in a plane almost perpendicular to the ecliptic1 and it is doubtless the same for the rotation of the planet4 ,if we had to quit the ,earth1 and fixate ourselves upon another world1 we should prefer ,mars to ,uranus1 where everything must be so different from terrestrial arrangements8 ,but who knows8 ,perhaps1 after all1 this planet might afford us some agreeable surprises4 ,il ne faut jurer de rien4 ,,neptune ,and here we reach the frontier of the ,solar ,system1 as actually known to us4 ,in landing on the world of ,neptune1 which circles through the ,heavens in eternal twilight at a distance of more than four milliard kilometers 7#b1dhj1jjj1jjj miles7 from the common center of attraction of the planetary orbs1 we once again admire the prodigies of science4 ,uranus was discovered with the telescope1 ,neptune by calculation4 ,in addition to the solar influence1 the worlds exert a mutual attraction upon each other that slightly deranges the harmony ordered by the ,sun4 ,the stronger act upon the weaker1 and the colossal ,jupiter alone causes many of the perturbations in our great solar family4 ,now during regular observations of the position of ,uranus in space1 some inexplicable irregularities were soon perceived4 ,the astronomers having full faith in the universality of the law of attraction1 could not do otherwise than attribute these irregularities to the influence of some unknown planet situated even farther off4 ,but at what distance8 ,a very simple proportion1 known as ,bode's law1 has been observed1 which indicates approximately the relative distances of the planets from the ,sun4 ,it is as follows3 ,starting from #j1 write the number #c1 and double successively1 #j #c #f #ab #bd #dh #if #aib #chd4 ,then1 add the number #d to each of the preceding figures1 which gives the following series3 #d #g #aj #af #bh #eb #ajj #aif #chh4 ,now it is a very curious fact that if the distance between the ,earth and the ,sun be represented by #aj1 the figure #d represents the orbit of ,mercury1 #g that of ,venus1 #af of ,mars2 the figure #bh stands for the medium distance of the minor planets2 the distances of ,jupiter1 ,saturn1 and ,uranus agree with #eb1 #ajj1 and #aif4 ,the immortal ,french mathematician ,le ,verrier1 who pursued the solution of the ,uranian problem1 supposed naturally that the disturbing planet must be at the distance of #chh1 and made his calculations accordingly4 ,its direction in the ,heavens was indicated by the form of the disturbances2 the orbit of ,uranus bulging1 as it were1 on the side of the disturbing factor4 ,on ,august #ca1 #ahdf1 ,le ,verrier announced the position of the ultra-,uranian planet1 and on ,september #bc;d following1 a ,german astronomer1 ,galle1 at the ,observatory of ,berlin1 who had just received this intelligence1 pointed his telescope toward the quarter of the ,heavens designated1 and1 in fact1 attested the presence of the new orb4 ,without quitting his study table1 ,le ,verrier1 by the sole use of mathematics1 had detected1 and1 as it were1 touched at pen's point the mysterious stranger4 ,only1 it is proved by observation and calculation that it is less remote than was expected from the preceding law1 for it gravitates at a distance of #cjj1 given that from the ,earth to the ,sun as #aj4 ,this planet was called ,neptune1 god of the seas1 son of ,saturn1 brother of ,jupiter4 ,the name is well chosen1 since the ,king of the ,ocean lives in darkness in the depths of the sea1 and ,le ,verrier's orb is also plunged in the semi-obscurity of the depths of the celestial element4 ,but it was primarily selected to do justice to an ,english astronomer1 ,adams1 who had simultaneously made the same calculations as ,le ,verrier1 and obtained the same results--without publishing them4 ,his work remained in the records of the ,greenwich ,observatory4 ,the ,english command the seas1 and wherever they dip their finger into the water and find it salt1 they feel themselves at home1 and know that ,neptune's trident is the scepter of the world1 hence this complimentary nomenclature4 ,neptune is separated by a distance of four milliards1 four hundred million kilometers from the solar center4 ,at such a distance1 thirty times greater than that which exists between the ,sun and our world1 ,neptune receives nine hundred times less light and heat than ourselves2 i4e41 ,spitzbergen and the polar regions of our globe are furnaces compared with what must be the ,neptunian temperature4 ,absolutely invisible to the unaided eye1 this world presents in the telescope the aspect of a star of the eighth magnitude4 ,with powerful magnifications it is possible to measure its disk1 which appears to be slightly tinged with blue4 ,its diameter is four times larger than our own1 and measures about #dh1jjj kilometers 7#bi1ijj miles71 its surface is sixteen times vaster than that of the ,earth1 and to attain its volume we should have to put together fifty-five globes similar to our own4 ,weight at its surface must be about the same as here1 but its medium density is only #a_/c that of the ,earth4 ,it gravitates slowly1 dragging itself along an orbit thirty times vaster than that of our globe1 and its revolution takes #afd years1 #bha days1 i4e41 #afd years1 #i months4 ,a single year of ,neptune thus covers several generations of terrestrial life4 ,existence must1 indeed1 be strange in that tortoise-footed world6 ,while in their rotation period1 ,mercury accomplishes #dg kilometers 7#bi-c_/h miles7 per second1 and the ,earth #bi-a_/b 7#ah-a_/h miles71 ,neptune rolls along his immense orbit at a rate of only #e-a_/b kilometers 7about #c-a_/d miles7 per second4 ,the vast distance that separates us prevents our distinguishing any details of his surface1 but spectral analysis reveals the presence of an absorbent atmosphere in which are gases unknown to the air of our planet1 and of which the chemical composition resembles that of the atmosphere of ,uranus4 ,one satellite has been discovered for ,neptune4 ,it has a considerable inclination1 and rotates from east to west4 99 99 99 99 99 ,and here we have reached the goal of our interplanetary journey4 ,after visiting the vast provinces of the solar republic1 we feel yet greater admiration and gratitude toward the luminary that governs1 warms1 and illuminates the worlds of his system4 ,in conclusion1 let us again insist that the ,earth1--a splendid orb as viewed from ,mercury1 ,venus1 and ,mars1--begins to disappear from ,jupiter1 where she becomes no more than a tiny spark oscillating from side to side of the ,sun1 and occasionally passing in front of him as a small black dot4 ,from ,saturn the visibility of our planet is even more reduced4 ,as to ,uranus and ,neptune1 we are invisible there1 at least to eyes constructed like our own4 ,we do not possess in the ,universe the importance with which we would endow ourselves4 ,neptune up to the present guards the portals of our celestial system2 we will leave him to watch over the distant frontier2 but before returning to the ,earth1 we must glance at certain eccentric orbs1 at the mad1 capricious comets1 which imprint their airy flight upon the realms of space4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,the ,,comets ,,shooting ,,stars1 ,,bolides1 ,,uranoliths ,,or ,,meteoric ,,stones ,what marvels have been reviewed by our dazzled eyes since the outset of these discussions6 ,we first surveyed the magnificent host of stars that people the vast firmament of ,heaven2 next we admired and wondered at suns very differently constituted from our own2 then returning from the depths of space1 crossing at a bound the abyss that separates us from these mysterious luminaries1 the distant torches of our somber night1 terrible suns of infinity1 we landed on our own beloved orb1 the superb and brilliant day-star4 ,thence we visited his celestial family1 his system1 in which our ,earth is a floating island4 ,but the journey would be incomplete if we omitted certain more or less vagabond orbs1 that occasionally approach the ,sun and ,earth1 some of which may even collide with us upon their celestial path4 ,these are in the first place the comets1 then the shooting stars1 the fire-balls1 and meteorites4 ,glittering1 swift-footed heralds of ,immensity1 these comets with golden wings glide lightly through ,space1 shedding a momentary illumination by their presence4 ,whence come they8 ,whither are they bound8 ,what problems they propound to us1 when1 as in some beautiful display of pyrotechnics1 the arch of ,heaven is illuminated with their fantastic light6 ,but first of all--what is a ,comet8 ,if instead of living in these days of the telescope1 of spectrum analysis1 and of astral photography1 we were anterior to ,galileo1 and to the liberation of the human spirit by ,astronomy1 we should reply that the comet is an object of terror1 a dangerous menace that appears to mortals in the purity of the immaculate ,heavens1 to announce the most fatal misfortunes to the inhabitants of our planet4 ,is a comet visible in the ,heavens8 ,the reigning prince may make his testament and prepare to die4 ,another apparition in the firmament bodes war1 famine1 the advent of grievous pestilence4 ,the astrologers had an open field1 and their fertile imagination might hazard every possible conjecture1 seeing that misfortunes1 great or small1 are not altogether rare in this sublunar world4 ,how many intellects1 and those not the most vulgar1 from antiquity to the middle of the last century cursed the apparition of these hirsute stars1 which brought desolation to the heart of man1 and poured their fatal effluvia upon the head of poor ,humanity4 ,the history of the superstitions and fears that they inspired of old would furnish matter for the most thrilling of romances4 ,but1 on the other hand1 the volume would be little flattering to the common-sense of our ancestors4 ,despite the respect we owe our forefathers1 let us recall for a moment the prejudices attaching to the most famous comets whose passage1 as observed from the ,earth1 has been preserved to us in history4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #di4--;,great ,comet of #aheh4 99 99 99 99 99 ,without going back to the ,deluge1 we note that the ,romans established a relation between the ,great ,comet of #dc ,b4,c4 and the death of ,caesar1 who had been assassinated a few months previously4 ,it was1 they asserted1 the soul of their great ,captain1 transported to ,heaven to reign in the empyrean after ruling here below4 ,were not the ,emperors ,lords of both ,earth and ,heaven8 ,we must in justice recognize that certain more independent spirits emancipated themselves from these superstitions1 and we may cite the reply of ,vespasian to his friends1 who were alarmed at the evil presage of a flaming comet3 ,fear nothing1 he said1 this bearded star concerns me not2 rather should it threaten my neighbor the ,king of the ,parthians1 since he is hairy and ,i am bald4 ,in the year #hcg one of these mysterious visitants appeared in the ,heavens4 ,it was in the reign of ,lewis the ,debonair4 ,directly the ,king perceived the comet1 he sent for an astrologer1 and asked what he was to conclude from the apparition4 ,as the answers were unsatisfactory he tried to avert the augury by prayers to ,heaven1 by ordaining a general fast to all his ,court1 and by building churches4 ,notwithstanding1 he died three years later1 and the historians profited by this slender coincidence to set up a correlation between the fatal star and the death of the ,sovereign4 ,this comet1 famous in history1 is no other than that of ,halley1 in one of its appearances4 ,this comet returned to explore the realms near the ,sun in #ajff1 at the moment when ,william of ,normandy was undertaking the ,conquest of ,england1 and was misguided enough to go across and reign in ,london1 instead of staying at home and annexing ,england1 thus by his action founding the everlasting rivalry between ,france and this island4 ,a beneficial influence was attributed to the comet in the ,battle of ,hastings4 ,a few centuries later it again came into sight from the ,earth1 in #adef1 three years after the capture of ,constantinople by the ,turks4 ,feeling ran high in ,europe1 and this celestial omen was taken for a proof of the anger of the ,almighty4 ,the moment was decisive2 the ,christians had to be rescued from a struggle in which they were being worsted4 ,at this conjuncture1 ,pope ,calixtus resuscitated a prayer that had fallen into disuse1 the ,angelus2 and ordered that the bells of the churches should be rung each day at noon1 that the ,faithful might join at the same hour in prayer against the ,turks and the ,comet4 ,this custom has lasted down to our own day4 ,again1 to the comet of #aejj was attributed the tempest that caused the death of ,bartholomew ,diaz1 a celebrated ,portuguese navigator1 who discovered the ,cape of ,good ,hope4 ,in #aebh a bearded star of terrific aspect alarmed the world1 and the more serious spirits were influenced by this menacing comet1 which burned in the ,heavens like a great and gory sword4 ,in a chapter on ,celestial ,monsters the celebrated surgeon ,ambroise ,pare describes this awful phenomenon in terms anything but seductive1 or reassuring1 showing us the menacing sword surrounded by the heads it had cut off 7,fig4 #ej74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ej4--,what our ,ancestors saw in a ,comet4 ,after ,ambroise ,pare 7#aebh74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ea4--,prodigies seen in the ,heavens by our ,forefathers4 ,omens of battle1 #aedg4 ,deer and warriors1 ,july #ai1 #aeej4 ,cavalry1 and a bloody branch crossing the sun1 ,june #aa1 #aeed4 ,our fathers saw many other prodigies in the skies2 their descendants1 less credulous1 can study the facsimile reproduced in ,fig4 #ea1 of the drawings published in the year #aeeg by ,conrad ,lycosthenes in his curious ,book of ,prodigies4 ,so1 too1 it is asserted that ,charles ,v renounced the jurisdiction of his ,estates1 which were so vast that the ,sun never slept upon them1 because he was terrified by the comet of #aeef which burned in the skies with an alarming brilliancy1 into passing the rest of his days in prayer and devotion4 ,it is certain that comets often exhibit very strange characteristics1 but the imagination that sees in them such dramatic figures must indeed be lively4 ,in the ,middle ,ages and the ,renaissance these were swords of fire1 bloody crosses1 flaming daggers1 etc41 all horrible objects ready to destroy our poor human race6 ,at the time of the ,romans1 ,pliny made some curious distinctions between them3 ,the ,bearded ,ones let loose their hair like a majestic beard2 the ,javelin darts forth like an arrow2 if the tail is shorter and ends in a point1 it is called the ,sword2 this is the palest of all the ,comets2 it shines like a sword1 without rays2 the ,plate or ,disk is named in conformity with its figure2 its color is amber1 the ,barrel is actually shaped like a barrel1 as it might be in smoke1 with light streaming through it2 the ,horn imitates the figure of a horn erected in the sky1 and the ,lamp that of a burning flame2 the ,equine represents a horse's mane1 shaken violently with a circular motion4 ,there are bristled comets2 these resemble the skins of beasts with the fur on them1 and are surrounded by a nebulosity4 ,lastly1 the tails of certain comets have been seen to menace the sky in the form of a lance4 ,these hairy orbs that appear in all directions1 and whose trajectories are sometimes actually perpendicular to the plane of the ecliptic1 appear to obey no regular law4 ,even in the seventeenth century the perspicacious ,kepler had not divined their true character1 seeing in them1 like most of his contemporaries1 emanations from the earth1 a sort of vapor1 losing itself in space4 ,these erratic orbs could not be assimilated with the other members of our grand solar family where1 generally speaking1 everything goes on in regular order4 ,and even in our own times1 have we not seen the people terrified at the sight of a flaming comet8 ,has not the end of the world by the agency of comets been often enough predicted8 ,these predictions are so to speak periodic2 they crop up each time that the return of these cosmical formations is announced by the astronomers1 and always meet with a certain number of timid souls who are troubled as to our destinies4 99 99 99 99 99 ,to-day we know that these wanderers are subject to the general laws that govern the universe4 ,the great ,newton announced that1 like the planets1 they were obedient to universal attraction2 that they must follow an extremely elongated curve1 and return periodically to the focus of the ellipse4 ,from the basis of these data ,halley calculated the progress of the comet of #afhb1 and ascertained that its motions presented such similarity with the apparitions of #aeca and #afjg1 that he believed himself justified in identifying them and in announcing its return about the year #agei4 ,faithful to the call made upon it1 irresistibly attracted by the ,orb of ,day1 the comet1 at first pale1 then ardent and incandescent1 returned at the date assigned to it by calculation1 three years after the death of the illustrious astronomer4 ,shining upon his grave it bore witness to the might of human thought1 able to snatch the profoundest secrets from the ,heavens6 ,this fine comet returns every seventy-six years1 to be visible from the ,earth1 and has already been seen twenty-four times by the astonished eyes of man4 ,it appears1 however1 to be diminishing in magnitude4 ,its last appearance was in #ahce1 and we shall see it again in #aiaj1 a little sooner than its average period1 the attraction of ,jupiter having this time slightly accelerated its course1 while in #agei it retarded it4 ,the comets thus follow a very elongated orbit1 either elliptic1 turning round the ,sun1 or parabolic1 dashing out into space4 ,in the first case1 they are periodic 7,fig4 #eb71 and their return can be calculated4 ,in the second they surprise us unannounced1 and return to the abysses of eternity to reappear no more4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eb4--,the orbit of a ,periodic ,comet4 ,their speed is even greater than that of the planets1 it is equivalent to this1 multiplied by the square root of #b1 that is to say by #a4dad4 ,thus at the distance of the ,earth from the ,sun this velocity #bi1ejj meters 7#ah miles7 per second1 multiplied by the above number1 that is1 #da1gjj meters 7over #be miles74 ,at the distance of ,mercury it #dg x #a4dad or #ff1djj meters 7over #dj miles7 per second4 ,among the numerous comets observed1 we do not as yet know more than some twenty of which the orbit has been determined4 ,periodicity in these bearded orbs is thus exceptional1 if we think of the innumerable multitude of comets that circle through the ,heavens4 ,kepler did not exaggerate when he said there are as many comets in the skies as there are fishes in the sea4 ,these scouts of the sidereal world constitute a regular army1 and if we are only acquainted with the dazzling generals clad in gold1 it is because the more modest privates can only be detected in the telescope4 ,long before the invention of the latter1 these wanderers in the firmament roamed through space as in our own day1 but they defied the human eye1 too weak to detect them4 ,then they were regarded as rare and terrible objects that no one dared to contemplate4 ,to-day they may be counted by hundreds4 ,they have lost in prestige and in originality2 but science is the gainer1 since she has thus endowed the solar system with new members4 ,no year passes without the announcement of three or four new arrivals4 ,but the fine apparitions that attract general attention by their splendor are rare enough4 ,these eccentric visitors do not resemble the planets1 for they have no opaque body like the ,earth1 ,venus1 ,mars1 or any of the rest4 ,they are transparent nebulosities1 of extreme lightness1 without mass nor density4 ,we have just photographed the comet of the moment1 ,july1 #aijc3 the smallest stars are visible through its tail1 and even through the nucleus4 ,they arrive in every direction from the depths of space1 as though to reanimate themselves in the burning1 luminous1 electric solar center4 ,attracted by some potent charm toward this dazzling focus1 they come inquisitive and ardent1 to warm themselves at its furnace4 ,at first pale and feeble1 they are born again when the ,sun caresses them with his fervid heat4 ,their motions accelerate1 they haste to plunge wholly into the radiant light4 ,at length they burst out luminous and superb1 when the day-star penetrates them with his burning splendor1 illuminates them with a marvelous radiance1 and crowns them with glory4 ,but the ,sun is generous4 ,having showered benefits upon these gorgeous celestial butterflies that flutter round him as round some altar of the gods1 he grants them liberty to visit other heavens1 to seek fresh universes4444 ,the original parabola is converted into an ellipse1 if the imprudent adventurer in returning to the ,sun passes near some great planet1 such as ,jupiter1 ,saturn1 ,uranus1 or ,neptune1 and suffers its attraction4 ,it is then imprisoned by our system1 and can no longer escape from it4 ,after reenforcement at the solar focus1 it must return to the identical point at which it felt the first pangs of a new destiny4 ,henceforward1 it belongs to our celestial family1 and circles in a closed curve4 ,otherwise1 it is free to continue its rapid course toward other suns and other systems4 99 99 99 99 99 ,as a rule1 the telescope shows three distinct parts in a comet4 ,there is first the more brilliant central point1 or nucleus1 surrounded by a nebulosity called the hair1 or brush1 and prolonged in a luminous appendix stretching out into the tail4 ,the head of the comet is the brush and the nucleus combined4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ec4--,the tails of ,comets are opposed to the ,sun4 ,it is usually supposed that the tail of a comet follows it throughout the course of its peregrinations4 ,nothing of the kind4 ,the appendix may even precede the nucleus2 it is always opposite the ,sun1--that is to say1 it is situated on the prolongation of a straight line1 starting from the ,sun1 and passing through the nucleus 7,fig4 #ec74 ,the tail does not exist1 so long as the comet is at a distance from the orb of day2 but in approaching the ,sun1 the nebulosity is heated and dilates1 giving birth to those mysterious tails and fantastic streamers whose dimensions vary considerably for each comet4 ,the dilations and transformations undergone by the tail suggest that they may be due to a repulsive force emanating from the ,sun1 an electric charge transmitted doubtless through the ether4 ,it is as though ,phoebus blew upon them with unprecedented force4 ,telescopic comets are usually devoid of tail1 even when they reach the vicinity of the ,sun4 ,they appear as pale nebulosities1 rounded or oval1 more condensed toward the center1 without1 however1 showing any distinct nucleus4 ,these stars are only visible for a minute fraction of their course1 when they reach a point not far from the ,sun and the terrestrial orbit4 ,the finest comets of the last century were those of #ahaa1 #ahdc1 #aheh1 #ahfa1 #ahgd1 #ahhj1 #ahha1 and #ahhb4 ,the ,great ,comet of #ahaa1 after spreading terror over certain peoples1 notably in ,russia1 became the providence of the vine-growers4 ,as the wine was particularly good and abundant that year1 the peasants attributed this happy result to the influence of the celestial visitant4 ,in #ahdc one of these strange messengers from the ,infinite appeared in our ,heavens4 ,it was so brilliant that it was visible in full daylight on ,february #bhth1 alongside of the ,sun4 ,this splendid comet was accompanied by a marvelous rectilinear tail measuring #cjj1jjj1jjj kilometers 7#ahf1jjj1jjj miles7 in length1 and its flight was so rapid that it turned the solar hemisphere at perihelion in two hours1 representing a speed of #eej kilometers 7#cdb miles7 a second4 ,but the most curious fact is that this radiant apparition passed so near the ,sun that it must have traversed its flames1 and yet emerged from them safe and sound4 ,noteworthy also was the comet of #aheh 7,fig4 #di71 discovered at ,florence by ,donati4 ,its tail extended to a length of #ij1jjj1jjj kilometers 7#ee1ijj1jjj miles71 and its nucleus had a diameter of at least #ijj kilometers 7#eei miles74 ,it is a curious coincidence that the wine was remarkably excellent and abundant in that year also4 ,the comet of #ahfa almost rivaled the preceding4 ,coggia's ,comet1 in #ahgd1 was also remarkable for its brilliancy1 but was very inferior to the last two4 ,finally1 the latest worthy of mention appeared in #ahhb4 ,this magnificent comet also touched the ,sun1 traveling at a speed of #dhj kilometers 7#bii miles7 per second4 ,it crossed the gaseous atmosphere of the orb of day1 and then continued its course through infinity4 ,on the day of1 and that following1 its perihelion1 it could be detected with the unaided eye in full daylight1 enthroned in the ,heavens beside the dazzling solar luminary4 ,for the rest1 it was neither that of #aheh nor of #ahfa4 ,since #ahhb we have not been favored with a visit from any fine comet2 but we are prepared to give any such a reception worthy of their magnificence3 first1 because now that we have fathomed them we are no longer awestruck2 second1 because we would gladly study them more closely4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in short1 these hirsute stars1 whose fantastic appearance impressed the imagination of our ancestors so vividly1 are no longer formidable4 ,their mass is inconsiderable2 they seem to consist mainly of the lightest of gases4 ,analysis of their incandescence reveals a spectrum closely resembling that of many nebulae2 the presence of carbon is more particularly obvious4 ,even the nucleus is not solid1 and is often transparent4 ,it is fair to say that the action of a comet might be deleterious if one of these orbs were to arrive directly upon us4 ,the transformation of motion into heat1 and the combination of the cometary gases with the oxygen of our atmosphere might produce a conflagration1 or a general poisoning of the atmosphere4 ,but the collision of a comet with a planet is almost an impossibility4 ,this phenomenon could only occur if the comet crossed the planetary orbit at the exact moment at which the planet was passing4 ,when we think of the immensity of space1 of the extraordinary length of way traversed by a world in its annual journey round the ,sun1 and the speed of its rotation1 we see why this coincidence is hardly likely to occur4 ,thus1 among the hundreds of comets catalogued1 a few only cut the terrestrial orbit4 ,one of them1 that of #ahcb1 traversed the path of our globe in the nights of ,october #bi and #cj in that year2 but the ,earth only passed the same point thirty days later1 and at the critical period was more than #hj1jjj1jjj kilometers 7#ej1jjj1jjj miles7 away from the comet4 ,on ,june #cj1 #ahfa1 however1 the ,earth passed through the extremity of the tail of the ,great ,comet of that year4 ,no one even noticed it4 ,the effects were doubtless quite immaterial4 ,in #ahgb we were to collide with ,biela's ,comet1 lost since #aheb2 now1 as we shall presently see1 we came with flying colors out of that disagreeable situation1 because the comet had disintegrated1 and was reduced to powder4 ,so we may sleep in peace as regards future danger likely to come to us from comets4 ,there is little fear of the destruction of humanity by these windy bags4 ,these ethereal beauties whose blond locks float carelessly upon the azure night are not concerned with us2 they seem to have no other preoccupation than to race from sun to sun1 visiting new ,heavens1 indifferent to the astonishment they produce in us4 ,they speed restlessly and tirelessly through infinity2 they are the ,amazons of space4 ,what suns1 what worlds must they have visited since the moment of their birth6 ,if these splendid fugitives could relate the story of their wanderings1 how gladly should we listen to the enchanting descriptions of the various abodes they have journeyed to6 ,but alas6 these mysterious explorers are dumb2 they tell none of their secrets1 and we must needs respect their enigmatic silence4 ,yet1 some of them have left us a modest token of remembrance1 an almost impalpable nothing1 sufficient1 however1 to enable us to address our thanks to the considerate messenger4 99 99 99 99 99 ,can there be any one upon the ,earth who has not been struck by the phosphorescent lights that glide through the somber night1 leaving a brilliant silver or golden track--the luminous1 ephemeral trail of a meteor8 ,sometimes1 when ,night has silently spread the immensity of her wings above the weary ,earth1 a shining speck is seen to detach itself in the shades of evening from the starry vault1 shooting lightly through the constellations to lose itself in the infinitude of space4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ed4--;,a ,meteor4 ,these bewitching sparks attract our eyes and chain our senses4 ,fascinating celestial fireflies1 their dainty flames dart in every direction through space1 sowing the fine dust of their gilded wings upon the fields of ,heaven4 ,they are born to die2 their life is only a breath2 yet the impression which they make upon the imagination of mortals is of the profoundest4 ,the young girl dreaming in the delicious tranquillity of the transparent night smiles at this charming sister in the ,heavens 7,fig4 #ed74 ,what can not this adorable star announce to the tender and loving heart8 ,is it the shy messenger of the happiness so long desired8 ,its unpremeditated appearance fills the soul with a ray of hope and makes it tremble4 ,it is a golden beam that glides into the heart1 expanding it in the thrills of a sudden and ephemeral pleasure4444 ,the radiant meteor seems to quit the velvet of the deep blue sky to respond to the appeal of the imploring voice that seeks its succor4 ,what secrets has it not surprised6 ,and who bears malice against it8 ,it is the friend of the betrothed who invoke its passage to confide their wishes1 and associate it with their dreams4 ,tradition holds that if a wish be formulated during the visible passage of a meteor it will certainly be fulfilled before the year is out4 ,between ourselves1 however1 this is but a surviving figment of the ancestral imagination1 for this celestial jewel takes no such active part in the doings of ,humanity4444 ,besides1 try to express a wish distinctly in a second6 ,it is a curious fact that while comets have so often spread terror on the ,earth1 shooting stars should on the contrary have been regarded with benevolent feelings at all times4 ,and what is a shooting star8 ,these dainty excursionists from the celestial shores are not1 as is supposed1 true stars4 ,they are atoms1 nothings1 minute fragments deriving in general from the disintegration of comets4 ,they come to us from a vast distance1 from millions on millions of miles1 and circle in swarms around the ,sun1 following a very elongated ellipse which closely resembles that of the cometary orbit4 ,their flight is extremely rapid1 reaching sometimes more than #dj kilometers 7#be miles7 per second1 a cometary speed that is1 as we have seen1 greatly above that of our terrestrial vehicle1 which amounts to #bi to #cj kilometers 7about #ai miles74 ,these little corpuscles are not intrinsically luminous2 but when the orbit of a swarm of meteors crosses our planet1 a violent shock arises1 the speed of which may be as great as #gb kilometers 7#de miles7 in the first second if we meet the star shower directly2 the average rate1 however1 does not exceed #cj to #dj kilometers 7#ai to #be miles71 for these meteors nearly always cross our path obliquely4 ,the height at which they arrive is usually #aaj kilometers 7#fh miles71 and #hj kilometers 7#ej miles7 at the moment of disappearance of the meteor2 but shooting stars have been observed at #cjj kilometers 7#ahf miles74 ,the friction caused by this collision high up in the atmosphere transforms the motion into heat4 ,the molecules incandesce1 and burn like true stars with a brilliancy that is often magnificent4 ,but their glory is of short duration4 ,the excessive heat resulting from the shock consumes the poor firefly2 its remains evaporate1 and drop slowly to the ,earth1 where they are deposited on the surface of the soil in a sort of ferruginous dust mixed with carbon and nickel4 ,some one hundred and forty-six milliards of them reach us annually1 as seen by the unaided eye1 and many more in the telescope2 the effect of these showers of meteoric matter is an insensible increase in the mass of our globe1 a slight lessening of its rotary motion1 and the acceleration of the lunar movements of revolution4 ,although the appearance of shooting stars is a common enough phenomenon1 visible every night of the year1 there are certain times when they arrive in swarms1 from different quarters of the sky4 ,the most remarkable dates in this connection are the night of ,august #ajth and the morning of ,november #adth4 ,every one knows the shooting stars of ,august #ajth1 because they arrive in the fine warm summer evenings so favorable to general contemplation of the ,heavens4 ,the phenomenon lasts till the #abth1 and even beyond1 but the maximum is on the #ajth4 ,when the sky is very clear1 and there is no moon1 hundreds of shooting stars can be counted on those three nights1 sometimes thousands4 ,they all seem to come from the same quarter of the ,heavens1 which is called the radiant1 and is situated for the ,august swarm in the constellation of ,perseus1 whence they have received the name of ,perseids4 ,our forefathers also called them the tears of ,st4 ,lawrence1 because the feast of that saint is on the same date4 ,these shooting stars describe a very elongated ellipse1 and their orbit has been identified with that of the ,great ,comet of #ahfb4 ,the shower of incandescent asteroids on ,november #adth is often much more abundant than the preceding4 ,in #agii1 #ahcc1 and #ahff1 the meteors were so numerous that they were described as showers of rain1 especially on the first two dates4 ,for several hours the sky was furrowed with falling stars4 ,an ,english mariner1 ,andrew ,ellicot1 who made the drawing we reproduce 7,fig4 #ee71 described the phenomenon as stupendous and alarming 7,november #ab1 #agii1 #c ,a4,m474 ,the same occurred on ,november #ac1 #ahcc4 ,the meteors that scarred the ,heavens on that night were reckoned at #bdj1jjj4 ,these shooting stars received the name of ,leonids1 because their radiant is situated in the constellation of the ,lion4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ee4--,shooting ,stars of ,november #ab1 #agii4 ,from a contemporary drawing4 ,this swarm follows the same orbit as the comet of #ahff1 which travels as far as ,uranus1 and comes back to the vicinity of the ,sun every thirty-three years4 ,hence we were entitled to expect another splendid apparition in #ahii1 but the expectations of the astronomers were disappointed4 ,all the preparations for the appropriate reception of these celestial visitors failed to bring about the desired result4 ,the notes made in observatories1 or in balloons1 admitted of the registration of only a very small number of meteors4 ,the maximum was thirteen4 ,during that night1 some #bjj shooting stars were counted4 ,there were more in #aijj1 #aija1 and1 above all1 in #aijb4 ,this swarm has become displaced4 ,the night of ,november #bgth again is visited by a number of shooting stars that are the disaggregated remains of the ,comet of ,biela4 ,this comet1 discovered by ,biela in #ahbg1 accomplished its revolution in six and a half years1 and down to #ahdf it responded punctually to the astronomers who expected its return as fixed by calculation4 ,but on ,january #ac1 #ahdf1 the celestial wanderer broke in half3 each fragment went its own way1 side by side1 to return within sight from the ,earth in #aheb4 ,it was their last appearance4 ,that year the twin comets could still be seen1 though pale and insignificant4 ,soon they vanished into the depths of night1 and never appeared again4 ,they were looked for in vain1 and were despaired of1 when on ,november #bg1 #ahgb1 instead of the shattered comet1 came a magnificent rain of shooting stars4 ,they fell through the ,heavens1 numerous as the flakes of a shower of snow4 ,the same phenomenon recurred on ,november #bg1 #ahhe1 and confirmed the hypothesis of the demolition and disaggregation of ,biela's ,comet into shooting stars4 99 99 99 99 99 ,there is an immense variety in the brilliancy of the shooting stars1 from the weak telescopic sparks that vanish like a flash of lightning1 to the incandescent bolides or fire-balls that explode in the atmosphere4 ,fig4 #ef shows an example of these1 and it represents a fire-ball observed at the ,observatory of ,juvisy on the night of ,august #aj1 #ahii4 ,it arrived from ,cassiopeia1 and burst in ,cepheus4 ,this phenomenon may occur by day as well as by night4 ,it is often accompanied by one or several explosions1 the report of which is sometimes perceptible to a considerable distance1 and by a shower of meteorites4 ,the globe of fire bursts1 and splits up into luminous fragments1 scattered in all directions4 ,the different parts of the fire-ball fall to the surface of the ,earth1 under the name of aerolites1 or rather of uranoliths1 since they arrive from the depths of space1 and not from our atmosphere4 ,from the most ancient times we hear of showers of uranoliths to which popular superstitions were attached2 and the ,greeks even gave the name of ,sideros to iron1 the first iron used having been sidereal4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ef4--;,fire-,ball seen from the ,observatory at ,juvisy1 ,august #aj1 #ahii4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eg4--;,explosion of a ,fire-,ball above ,madrid1 ,february #aj1 #ahif4 ,no year passes without the announcement of several showers of uranoliths1 and the phenomenon sometimes causes great alarm to those who witness it4 ,one of the most remarkable explosions is that which occurred above ,madrid1 ,february #aj1 #ahif1 a fragment from which1 sent me by ,m4 ,arcimis1 ,director of the ,meteorological ,institute1 fell immediately in front of the ,national ,museum 7,fig4 #eg74 ,the phenomenon occurred at #i4cj ,a4,m41 in brilliant sunshine4 ,the flash of the explosion was so dazzling that it even illuminated the interior of the houses2 an alarming clap of thunder was heard seventy seconds after1 and it was believed that an explosion of dynamite had occurred4 ,the fire-ball burst at a height of fourteen miles1 and was seen as far as #dce miles from ,madrid6 ,in one of ,raphael's finest pictures 7,the ,madonna of ,foligno7 a fire-ball may be seen beneath a rainbow 7,fig4 #eh71 the painter wishing to preserve the remembrance of it1 as it fell near ,milan1 on ,september #d1 #aeaa4 ,this picture dates from #aeab4 ,the dimensions of these meteorites vary considerably2 they are of all sizes1 from the impalpable dust that floats in the air1 to the enormous blocks exposed in the ,museum of ,natural ,history in ,paris4 ,many of them weigh several million pounds4 ,that represented below fell in ,mexico during the shower of meteors of ,november #bg1 #ahhe4 ,it weighed about four pounds4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eh4--,raphael's ,fire-,ball 7,the ,madonna of ,foligno74 ,these bolides and uranoliths come to us from the depths of space2 but they do not appear to have the same origin as the shooting stars4 ,they may arise from worlds destroyed by explosion or shock1 or even from planetary volcanoes4 ,the lightest of them may have been expelled from the volcanoes of the ,moon4 ,some of the most massive1 in which iron predominates1 may even have issued from the bowels of the ,earth1 projected into space by some volcanic explosion1 at an epoch when our globe was perpetually convulsed by cataclysms of extraordinary violence4 ,they return to us to-day after being removed from the ,earth to distances proportional to the initial speed imparted to them4 ,this origin seems the more admissible as the stones that fall from the skies exhibit a mineral composition identical with that of the terrestrial materials4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ei4--;,a ,uranolith4 ,in any case1 these uranoliths bring us back at least by their fall to our ,earth1 and from henceforward we will remain upon it1 to study its position in space1 and to take account of the place it fills in the ,universe1 and of the astronomical laws that govern our destiny4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,the ,,earth ,our grand celestial journey lands us upon our own little planet1 on this globe that gravitates between ,mars and ,venus 7between ,war and ,love71 circulating like her brothers of the solar system1 around the colossal ,sun4 ,the ,earth6 ,the name evokes in us the image of ,life1 and calls up the theater of our activities1 our ambitions1 our joys and sorrows4 ,does it not1 in fact1 to ignorant eyes1 represent the whole of the universe8 ,and yet1 what is the ,earth8 ,the ,earth is a star in the ,heavens4 ,we learned this much in our first lesson4 ,it is a globe of opaque material1 similar to the planets ,mercury1 ,venus1 ,mars1 ,jupiter1 etc41 as previously described4 ,isolated on all sides in space1 it revolves round the ,sun1 along a vast orbit that it accomplishes in a year4 ,and while it thus glides along the lines of solar attraction1 the terrestrial ball rotates rapidly upon itself in twenty-four hours4 ,these statements may appear dubious at first sight1 and contradictory to the evidence of our senses4 ,now that the surface of the ,earth has been explored in all directions1 there is no longer room to doubt that it is a globe1 a sort of ball that we adhere to4 ,a journey round the world is common enough to-day1 and always yields the most complete evidence of the spherical nature of the ,earth4 ,on the other hand1 the curvature of the seas is a no less certain proof4 ,when a ship reaches the dark-blue line that appears to separate the sky from the ocean1 it seems to be hanging on the horizon4 ,little by little1 however1 as it recedes1 it drops below the horizon line2 the tops of the masts being the last to disappear4 ,the observer on board ship witnesses the same phenomenon4 ,the low shores are first to disappear1 while the high coasts and mountains are much longer visible4 ,the aspect of the ,heavens gives another proof of the ,earth's rotundity4 ,as one travels ,north or ,south1 new stars rise higher and higher above the horizon in the one direction or the other1 and those which shine in the latitude one is leaving1 gradually disappear4 ,if the surface of the ,earth were flat1 the ships on the sea would be visible as long as our sight could pierce the distance1 and all the stars of the ,heavens would be equally visible from the different quarters of the world4 ,lastly1 during the eclipses of the ,moon1 the shadow projected by the ,earth upon our satellite is always round4 ,this is another proof of the spherical nature of the terrestrial globe4 ,we described the ,earth as an orb in the ,heavens1 similar to all the other planets of the great solar family4 ,we see these sister planets of our world circulating under the starry vault1 like luminous points whose brilliancy is sometimes dazzling4 ,for us they are marvelous celestial birds hovering in the ether1 upheld by invisible wings4 ,the ,earth is just the same4 ,it is supported by nothing4 ,like the soap-bubble that assumes a lovely iridescence in the rays of the ,sun1 or1 better1 like the balloon rapidly cleaving the air1 it is isolated from every kind of support4 ,some minds have difficulty in conceiving this isolation1 because they form a false notion of weight4 ,the astronomers of antiquity1 who divined it1 knew not how to prevent the ,earth from falling4 ,they asked anxiously what the strong bands capable of holding up this block of no inconsiderable weight could be4 ,at first they thought it floated on the waters like an island4 ,then they postulated solid pillars1 or even supposed it might turn on pivots placed at the poles4 ,but on what would all these imaginary supports have rested8 ,all these fanciful foundations of the ,earth had to be given up1 and it was recognized as a globe1 isolated in every part4 ,this illusion of the ancients1 which still obtains for a great many citizens of our globule1 arises1 as we said1 from a false conception of weight4 ,weight and attraction are one and the same force4 ,a body can only fall when it is attracted1 drawn by a more important body4 ,now1 in whatever direction we may wander upon the globe1 our feet are always downward4 ,down is therefore the center of the ,earth4 ,the terrestrial globe may be regarded as an immense ball of magnet1 and its attraction holds us at its surface4 ,we weigh toward the center4 ,we may travel over this surface in all directions2 our feet will always be below1 whatever the direction of our steps4 ,for us1 below is the inside of our planet1 and above is the immensity of the ,heavens that extend above our heads1 right round the globe4 ,this once understood1 where could the ,earth fall to8 ,the question is an absurdity4 ,below being toward the center1 it would have to fall out of itself4 ,let us then picture the ,earth as a vast sphere1 detached from all that exists around it1 in the infinity of the ,heavens4 ,a point diametrically opposed to another is called its antipodes4 ,new ,zealand is approximately the antipodes to ,france4 ,well1 for the inhabitants of ,new ,zealand and of ,france the top is reciprocally opposed1 and the bottom1 or the feet1 are diametrically in opposition4 ,and yet1 for one as for the other1 the bottom is the soil they are held to1 and the top is space above their heads4 ,the ,earth turns on itself in twenty-four hours4 ,whatever is above us1 e4g41 at midday1 we call high2 twelve hours later1 at midnight1 we give the same qualification to the part of space that was under our feet at noon4 ,what is in the sky1 and over our heads1 at a given hour1 is under our feet1 and yet always in the sky1 twelve hours later4 ,our position1 in relation to the space that surrounds us1 changes from hour to hour1 and top and bottom vary also1 relatively to our position4 ,our planet is thus a ball1 slightly flattened at the poles 7by about #a_/bib74 ,its diameter1 at the equator1 is #ab1gdb kilometers 7#g1ibf miles72 from one pole to the other is a little less1 owing to the flattening of the polar caps4 ,the difference is some #dc kilometers 7about #bg miles74 ,its circumference is #dj1jjj kilometers 7#bd1ijj miles74 ,this ball is surrounded by an aerial envelope1 the atmosphere1 the height of which can not be less than #cjj kilometers 7#ahf miles71 according to the observations made on certain shooting stars4 ,we all know that this layer of air1 at the bottom of which we live1 is a beautiful azure blue that seems to separate us from the sidereal abyss1 spreading over our heads in a kind of vault that is often filled with clouds1 and giving the illusion of resting far off on the circle of the horizon4 ,but this is only an illusion4 ,in reality1 there is neither vault nor horizon2 space is open in all directions4 ,if the atmosphere did not exist1 or if it were completely transparent1 we should see the stars by day as by night1 for they are continually round us1 at noon as at midnight1 and we can see them in the full daylight1 with the help of astronomical instruments4 ,in fact1 certain stars 7the radiant ,venus and the dazzling ,jupiter7 pierce the veil of the atmosphere1 and are visible with the unaided eye in full daylight4 ,the terrestrial surface is #eaj1jjj1jjj square kilometers 7#bjj1jjj1jjj square miles74 ,the waters of the ocean cover three-quarters of this surface1 i4e41 #chc1bjj1jjj square kilometers 7#aej1jjj1jjj square miles71 and the continents only occupy #acf1fjj1jjj square kilometers 7#ee1jjj square miles74 ,france represents about the thousandth part of the total superficies of the globe4 ,despite the asperities of mountain ranges1 and the abysses hollowed out by the waters1 the terrestrial globe is fairly regular1 and in relation to its volume its surface is smoother than that of an orange4 ,the highest summits of the ,himalaya1 the profoundest depths of the somber ocean1 do not attain to the millionth part of its diameter4 ,in weight1 the ,earth is five and a half times heavier than would be a globe of water of the same dimensions4 ,that is to say3 #f1ieg1icj1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj kilograms 7#f1hcc1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj tons74 ,the atmospheric atmosphere with which it is surrounded represents4 #f1bfc1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj kilograms 7#f1aea1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj tons74 ,each of us carries an average weight of some #ag1jjj kilograms 7#af tons7 upon his shoulders4 ,perhaps some one will ask how it is that we are not crushed by this weight1 which is out of all proportion with our strength1 but to which1 nevertheless1 we appear insensible4 ,it is because the aerial fluid enclosed within our bodies exerts a pressure equal and opposite to the external atmospheric pressure1 and these pressures are at equilibrium4 ,the ,earth is characterized by no essential or particular differences relatively to the other worlds of our system4 ,like ,venus of the limpid rays1 like the dazzling ,jupiter1 like all the planets1 she courses through space1 carrying into ,infinitude our hopes and destinies4 ,bigger than ,mercury1 ,venus1 and ,mars1 she presents a very modest figure in comparison with the enormous ,jupiter1 the strange system of ,saturn1 of ,uranus1 and even of ,neptune4 ,for us her greatest interest is that she serves as our residence1 and if she were not our habitation we should scarcely notice her4 ,dark in herself1 she burns at a distance like a star1 returning to space the light she receives from the ,sun4 ,at the distance of our satellite1 she shines like an enormous moon1 fourteen times larger and more luminous than our gentle ,phoebe4 ,observed from ,mercury or ,venus1 she embellishes the midnight sky with her sparkling purity as ,jupiter does for us4 ,seen from ,mars1 she is a brilliant morning and evening star1 presenting phases similar to those which ,mars and ,venus show from here4 ,from ,jupiter1 the terrestrial globe is little more than an insignificant point1 nearly always swallowed up in the solar rays4 ,as to the ,saturnians1 ,uranians1 and ,neptunians1 if such people exist1 they probably ignore our existence altogether4 ,and in all likelihood it is the same for the rest of the universe4 ,we must cherish no illusions as to the importance of our natal world4 ,it is true that the ,earth is not wanting in charm1 with its verdant plains enameled in the delicious tones of a robust and varied vegetation1 its plants and flowers1 its spring-time and its birds1 its limpid rivers winding through the meadows1 its mountains covered with forests1 its vast and profound seas animated with an infinite variety of living creatures4 ,the spectacle of ,nature is magnificent1 superb1 admirable and marvelous1 and we imagine that this ,earth fills the universe1 and suffices for it4 ,the ,sun1 the ,moon1 the stars1 the boundless ,heavens1 seem to have been created for us1 to charm our eyes and thoughts1 to illumine our days1 and shed a gentle radiance upon our nights4 ,this is an agreeable illusion of our senses4 ,if our ,humanity were extinguished1 the other worlds of the ,heavens1 ,venus1 ,mars1 etc41 would none the less continue to gravitate in the ,heavens along with our defunct planet1 and the close of human life 7for which everything seems to us to have been created7 would not even be perceived by those other worlds1 that nevertheless are our neighbors4 ,there would be no revolution1 no cataclysm4 ,the stars would go on shining in the firmament1 just as they do to-day1 shedding their divine light over the immensity of the ,heavens4 ,nothing would be changed in the general aspect of the ,universe4 ,the ,earth is only a modest atom1 lost in the innumerable army of the worlds and suns that people the universe4 99 99 99 99 99 ,every morning the ,sun rises in the ,east1 setting fire with his ardent rays to the sky1 which is dazzling with his splendor4 ,he ascends through space1 reaches a culminating point at noon1 and then descends toward the ,west1 to sink at night into the purple of the sunset4 ,and then the stars1 grand lighthouses of the ,heavens1 in their turn incandesce4 ,they too rise in the ,east1 ascend the vault of ,heaven1 and then descend to the ,west1 and vanish4 ,all the orbs1 ,sun1 ,moon1 planets1 stars1 appear to revolve round us in twenty-four hours4 ,this journey of the orbs around us is only an illusion of the senses4 ,whether the ,earth be at rest1 and the sky animated with a rotary movement round her1 or whether1 on the contrary1 the stars are fixed1 and the ,earth in motion1 in either case1 for us appearances are the same4 ,if the ,earth turns1 carrying all that pertains to it in its motion--the seas1 the atmosphere1 the clouds1 and ourselves1--we are unable to perceive it1 because all the objects that surround us keep their respective positions among themselves4 ,hence we must resort to logic1 and reason out the two hypotheses4 ,for the accomplishment of this rapid journey of the ,sun and stars around the ,earth1 it would be necessary that all the orbs of the sky should be in some way attached to a vault1 or to circles1 as was formerly supposed4 ,this conception is childish4 ,the peoples of antiquity had no notion of the size of the universe1 and their error is almost excusable4 ,the distance separating ,heaven from the ,infernal ,regions has been measured1 according to ,hesiod1 by ,vulcan's anvil1 which fell from the skies to the ,earth in nine days and nine nights1 and it would have taken as long again to continue its journey from the surface of the ,earth to the bowels of ,hades4 ,to-day we have a more exact notion of the grandeur of the ,universe4 ,we know that millions and trillions of miles separate the stars from one another4 ,and by representing these distances1 we can form some idea of the difficulty there would be in admitting the rotation of the universe round the ,earth4 ,the distance from here to the ,sun is #adi1jjj1jjj kilometers 7#ic1jjj1jjj miles74 ,in order to turn in twenty-four hours round the ,earth1 that orb would have to fly through ,space at a velocity of more than #aj1jjj kilometers 7#f1bjj miles7 a second4 ,yes6 the ,sun1 splendid orb1 source of our existence and of that of all the planets1 a colossal globe1 over a million times more voluminous than the ,earth1 and #cbd thousand times heavier1 would have to accomplish this immense revolution in order to turn round the minute point that is our lilliputian world6 ,this in itself would suffice to convince us of the want of logic in such an argument4 ,but the ,sun is not alone in the ,heavens4 ,we should have to suppose that all the planets and all the stars were engaged in the same fantastic motions4 ,jupiter is about five times as far off as the ,sun2 his velocity would have to be #ec1jjj kilometers 7#cb1hfj miles7 per second4 ,neptune1 thirty times farther off1 would have to execute #cbj1jjj kilometers 7#aih1jjj miles7 per second4 ,the nearest star1 alpha of the ,centaur1 situated at a distance #bge1jjj times that of the ,sun1 would have to run1 to fly through space1 at a rate of #b1ida1jjj1jjj kilometers 7#a1hbc1dbj1jjj miles7 per second4 ,all the other stars are incomparably farther off1 at infinity4 ,and this fantastic rotation would all be accomplished round a minute point6 ,to put the problem in this way is to solve it4 ,unless we deny the astronomic measures1 and the most convincing geometric operations1 the ,earth's diurnal motion of rotation is a certainty4 ,to suppose that the stars revolve round the ,earth is to suppose1 as one author humorously suggests1 that in order to roast a pheasant the chimney1 the kitchen1 the house1 and all the countryside must needs turn round it4 ,if the ,earth turns in twenty-four hours upon itself1 a point upon the equator would simply travel at a rate of #dfe meters 7#a1ebe feet7 per second4 ,this speed1 while considerable in comparison with the movements observed upon the surface of our planet1 is as nothing compared with the fantastic rapidity at which the ,sun and stars would have to move1 in order to rotate round our globe4 ,thus we have to choose between these two hypotheses3 either to make the entire ,heavens turn round us in twenty-four hours1 or to suppose our globe to be animated by a motion of rotation upon itself4 ,for us1 the impression is the same1 and as we are insensible to the motion of the ,earth1 its immobility would seem almost natural to us4 ,so that1 in last resort1 here as in many other instances1 the decision must be made by simple common sense4 ,science long ago made its choice4 ,moreover1 all the progress of ,astronomy has confirmed the rotary movement of the ,earth in twenty-four hours1 and its movement of revolution round the ,sun in a year2 while at the same time a great number of other motions have been discovered for our wandering planet4 ,the learned philosophers of antiquity divined the double movement of our planet4 ,the disciples of ,pythagoras taught it more than two thousand years ago1 and the ancient authors quote among others ,nicetas of ,syracuse1 and ,aristarchus of ,samos1 as being among the first to promote the doctrine of the ,earth's movement4 ,but at that remote period no one had any idea of the real distances of the stars1 and the argument did not seem to be based on any adequate evidence4 ,ptolemy1 after a long discussion of the diurnal motion of our planet1 refutes it1 giving as his principal reason that if the ,earth turned1 the objects that were not fixed to its surface would appear to move in a contrary direction1 and that a body shot into the air would fall back to the ,west of its starting-point1 the ,earth having turned meantime from ,west to ,east4 ,this objection has no weight1 because the ,earth controls not only all the objects fixed to the soil1 but also the atmosphere1 and the clouds that surround it like a light veil1 and all that exists upon its surface4 ,the atmosphere1 the clouds1 the waters of the ocean1 things and beings1 all are adherent to it and make one body with it1 participating in its movement1 as sometimes happens to ourselves in the compartment of a train1 or the car of an aerostat4 ,when1 for instance1 we drop an object out of such a car1 this object1 animated with the acquired velocity1 does not fall to a point below the aerostat1 but follows the balloon1 as though it were gliding along a thread4 ,the author has made this experiment more than once in aerial journeys4 ,thus1 the hypothesis of the ,earth's motion has become a certainty4 ,but in addition to reasoning1 direct proof is not wanting4 #a4 ,the spheroidal shape of the ,earth1 slightly flattened at the poles and swollen at the equator1 has been produced by the rotary motion1 by the centrifugal force that it engenders4 #b4 ,in virtue of this centrifugal force1 which is at its maximum at the equator1 objects lose a little of their weight in proportion as they are farther removed from the polar regions where centrifugal force is almost nil4 #c4 ,in virtue of this same centrifugal force1 the length of the pendulum in seconds is shorter at the equator than in ,paris1 and the difference is one of #c millimeters4 #d4 ,a weight abandoned to itself and falling from a certain height1 should follow the vertical if the ,earth were motionless4 ,experiment1 frequently repeated1 shows a slight deviation to the ,east1 of the plumb-line that marks the vertical4 ,we more especially observed this at the ,pantheon during the recent experiments4 #e4 ,the magnificent experiment of ,foucault at the ,pantheon1 just renewed under the auspices of the ,astronomical ,society of ,france1 demonstrates the rotary motion of the ,earth to all beholders4 ,a sufficiently heavy ball 7#bh kilograms1 about #fj pounds7 is suspended from the dome of the edifice by an excessively fine steel thread4 ,when the pendulum is in motion1 a point attached to the bottom of the ball marks its passage upon two little heaps of sand arranged some yards away from the center4 ,at each oscillation this point cuts the sand1 and the furrow gets gradually longer to the right hand of an observer placed at the center of the pendulum4 ,the plane of the oscillations remains fixed1 but the ,earth revolves beneath1 from ,west to ,east4 ,the fundamental principle of this experiment is that the plane in which any pendulum is made to oscillate remains invariable even when the point of suspension is turned4 ,this demonstration enables us in some measure to see the ,earth turning under our feet4 ,the annual displacements of the stars are again confirmatory of the ,earth's motion round the ,sun4 ,during the course of the year1 the stars that are least remote from our solar province appear to describe minute ellipses1 in perspective1 in the ,heavens4 ,these small apparent variations in the position of the nearest stars reproduce the annual rotation of the ,earth round the ,sun1 in perspective4 ,we could adduce further observations in favor of this double movement1 but the proofs just given are sufficiently convincing to leave no doubt in the mind of the reader4 ,nor are these two the only motions by which our globe is rocked in space4 ,to its diurnal rotation and its annual rotation we may add another series of ten more motions3 some very slow1 fulfilling themselves in thousands of years1 others1 more rapid1 being constantly renewed4 ,it is1 however1 impossible in these restricted pages to enter into the detail reserved for more complete works4 ,we must not forget that our present aim is to sum up the essentials of astronomical knowledge as simply as possible1 and to offer our readers only the best of the picking4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the two principal motions of which we have just spoken give us the measure of time1 the day of twenty-four hours1 and the year of #cfe-a_/d days4 ,the ,earth turning upon itself in twenty-four hours from ,west to ,east1 presents all its parts in succession to the ,sun fixed in space4 ,illuminated countries have the day1 those opposite1 in the shadow of the ,earth1 are plunged into night4 ,the countries carried by the ,earth toward the ,sun have morning1 those borne toward his shadow1 evening4 ,those which receive the rays of the day-star directly have noon2 those which are just opposite have midnight4 ,the rotation of our planet in this way gives us the measure of time2 it has been divided arbitrarily into twenty-four periods called hours2 each hour into sixty minutes2 each minute into sixty seconds4 ,in consequence1 each country turns in twenty-four hours round the axis of the ,earth4 ,the difference in hours between the different regions of the globe is therefore regulated by the difference of geographical position4 ,the countries situated to the ,west are behind us2 the ,sun only gets there after it has shone upon our meridian4 ,when it is midday in ,paris1 it is only #aa4ea ,a4,m4 in ,london2 #aa4cf ,a4,m4 in ,madrid2 #aa4ad ,a4,m4 at ,lisbon2 #aa4ab ,a4,m4 at ,mogador2 #g4jf ,a4,m4 at ,quebec2 #f4ee ,a4,m4 at ,new ,york2 #e4ad ,a4,m4 in ,mexico2 and so on4 ,the countries situated to the ,east are1 on the contrary1 ahead of us4 ,when it is noon in ,paris1 it is already #ef minutes after midday at ,vienna2 #a4be ,p4,m4 at ,athens2 #b4ba ,p4,m4 at ,moscow2 #c4af ,p4,m4 at ,teheran2 #d4db ,p4,m4 at ,bombay2 and so on4 ,we are here speaking of real times1 and not of the conventional times4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fj4--,motion of the ,earth round the ,sun4 ,if we could make the tour of the world in twenty-four hours1 starting at midday from some place to go round the globe1 and traveling westward with the ,sun1 we should have him always over our heads4 ,in traveling round the world from ,west to ,east1 one goes in front of the ,sun1 and gains by one day2 in taking the opposite direction1 from ,east to ,west1 one loses a day4 ,in reality1 the exact duration of the ,earth's diurnal rotation is twenty-three hours1 fifty-six minutes1 four seconds4 ,that is the sidereal day4 ,but1 while turning upon itself1 the ,earth circulates upon its orbit1 and at the end of a diurnal rotation it is still obliged to turn during three minutes1 fifty-six seconds in order to present exactly the same meridian to the fixed ,sun which1 in consequence of the rotary period of our planet1 is a little behind4 ,the solar day is thus one of twenty-four hours4 ,there are #cff rotations in the year4 ,and now let us come back to the consequences of the ,earth's motion4 ,in the first place our planet does not turn vertically nor on its side1 but is tipped or inclined a certain quantity3 #bc deg4 #bg'4 ,now1 throughout its annual journey round the ,sun1 the inclination remains the same4 ,that is what produces the seasons and climates4 ,the countries which have a larger circle to travel over in the hemisphere of the solar illumination have the longer days1 those which have a smaller circle1 shorter days4 ,at the equator there is constantly1 and all through the year1 a twelve-hour day1 and a night of twelve hours4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fa4--;,inclination of the ,earth4 ,in summer1 the pole dips toward the ,sun1 and the rays of the orb of day cover the corresponding hemisphere with their light4 ,six months later this same hemisphere is in winter1 and the opposite hemisphere is in its turn presented to the ,sun4 ,june #ba is the summer solstice for the northern hemisphere1 and is at the same time winter for the southern pole4 ,six months later1 on ,december #ba1 we have winter1 while the southern hemisphere is completely exposed to the ,sun4 ,between these two epochs1 when the radiant orb shines exactly upon the equator1 that is on ,march #ba1 we have the spring equinox1 that delicious flowering season when all nature is enchanting and enchanted2 on ,september #ba we have the autumn equinox1 melancholy1 but not devoid of charm4 ,the terrestrial sphere has been divided into different zones1 with which the different climates are in relation3 #a4 ,the tropical zone1 which extends #bc deg4 #bg' from one part to the other of the equator4 ,this is the hottest region4 ,it is limited by the circle of the tropics4 #b4 ,the temperate zones1 which extend from #bc deg4 #bg' to #ff deg4 #bc' of latitude1 and where the ,sun sets every day4 #c4 ,the glacial zones1 drawn round the poles1 at #ff deg4 #cc' latitude1 where the ,sun remains constantly above or below the horizon for several days1 or even several months4 ,these glacial zones are limited by the polar circles4 ,we must add that the axis of the ,earth is a straight line that is supposed to pass through the center of the globe and come out at two diametrically opposite points called the poles4 ,the diurnal rotation of the ,earth is effected round this axis4 ,the name equator is given to a great circle situated between the two poles1 at equal distance1 which divides the globe into two hemispheres4 ,the equator is divided into #cfj parts or degrees1 by other circles that go from one pole to the other4 ,these are the longitudes or meridians 7see ,fig4 #fb74 ,the distance between the equator and the pole is divided into larger or smaller circles1 which have received the name of latitudes1 #ij degrees are reckoned on the one side and the other of the equator1 in the direction of the ,north and ,south poles1 respectively4 ,the longitudes are reckoned from some point either to ,east or ,west3 the latitudes are reckoned ,north and ,south1 from the equator4 ,in going from ,east to ,west1 or inversely1 the longitude changes1 but in passing from ,north to ,south of any spot1 it is the latitude that alters4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fb4--,the divisions of the globe4 ,longitudes and latitudes4 ,the circles of latitude are smaller in proportion as one approaches the poles4 ,the circumference of the world is #dj1jgf1fjj meters at the equator4 ,at the latitude of ,paris 7#dh deg4 #ej'7 it is only #bf1dca1ijj meters4 ,a point situated at the equator has more ground to travel over in order to accomplish its rotation in twenty-four hours than a point nearer the pole4 ,we have already stated that this velocity of rotation is #dfe meters per second at the equator4 ,at the latitude of ,paris it is not more than #cje meters4 ,at the poles it is nil4 ,the longitudes1 or meridians1 are great circles of equal length1 dividing the ,earth into quarters1 like the parts of an orange or a melon4 ,these circumvent the globe1 and measure some #dj1jjj1jjj 7#dj1jjh1jcb7 meters4 ,we may remember in passing that the length of the meter has been determined as1 by definition1 the ten-millionth part of the quarter of a celestial meridian4 ,thus1 while rotating upon itself1 the ,earth spins round the ,sun1 along a vast orbit traced at #adi1jjj1jjj kilometers 7#ic1jjj1jjj miles7 from the central focus1 a sensibly elliptical orbit1 as we have already pointed out4 ,it is a little nearer the ,sun on ,january #ast than on ,july #ast1 at its perihelion 7peri1 near1 helios1 ,sun71 than at its aphelion 7apo1 far1 helios1 ,sun74 ,the difference #f1jjj1jjj kilometers 7#c1gbj1jjj miles71 and its velocity is a little greater at perihelion than at aphelion4 ,this second motion produces the year4 ,it is accomplished in three hundred and sixty-five days1 six hours1 nine minutes1 nine seconds4 ,such is the complete revolution of our planet round the orb of day4 ,it has received the name of sidereal year4 ,but this is not how we calculate the year in practical life4 ,the civil year1 known also as the tropical year1 is not equivalent to the ,earth's revolution1 because a very slow gyratory motion1 called the precession of the equinoxes1 the cycle of which occupies #be1gfe years1 drags the spring equinox back some twenty minutes in each year4 ,the civil year is1 accordingly1 three hundred and sixty-five days1 five hours1 forty-eight minutes1 forty-six seconds4 ,in order to simplify the calendar1 this accumulating fraction of five hours1 forty-eight minutes1 forty-six seconds 7about a quarter day7 is added every four years to a bissextile year 7leap-year71 and thus we have uneven years of three hundred and sixty-five1 and three hundred and sixty-six days4 ,every year of which the figure is divisible by four is a leap-year4 ,by adding a quarter day to each year1 there is a surplus of eleven minutes1 fourteen seconds4 ,these are subtracted every hundred years by not taking as bissextile those secular years of which the radical is not divisible by four4 ,the year #afjj was leap-year3 #agjj1 #ahjj1 and #aijj were not2 #bjjj will be4 ,the agreement between the calendar and nature has thus been fairly perfect1 since the establishment of the ,gregorian ,calendar in #aehb4 ,since the terrestrial orbit measures not less than #icj1jjj1jjj kilometers 7#egf1fjj1jjj miles71 which must be traversed in a year1 the ,earth flies through ,space at #b1edd1jjj kilometers 7#a1egg1bhj miles7 a day1 or #ajf1jjj kilometers 7#fe1gbj miles7 an hour1 or #bi1ejj meters 7#ah miles7 per second on an average1 a little faster at perihelion1 a little slower at aphelion4 ,this giddy course1 a thousand times more rapid than the speed of an express-train1 is effected without commotion1 shock1 or noise4 ,reasoning alone enables us to divine the prodigious movement that carries us along in the vast fields of the ,infinite1 in mid-heaven4 ,returning to the calendar1 it must be remarked in conclusion1 that the human race has not exhibited great sense in fixing the ,new ,year on ,january #a4 ,no more disagreeable season could have been selected4 ,and further1 as the ancient ,roman names of the months have been preserved1 which in the time of ,romulus began with ,march1 the seventh month1 ,september1 is our ninth month2 ,october 7the eighth7 is the tenth2 ,november 7the ninth7 has become the eleventh2 and ,december 7the tenth7 has taken the place of the twelfth4 ,verily1 we are not hard to please6 ,these months1 again1 are unequal1 as every one knows4 ,witness the simple expedient of remembering the long and short months1 by closing the left hand and counting the knobs and hollows of the fist1 the former corresponding to the long months1 the latter to the short3 first knob ,january2 first hollow1 ,february2 second knob1 ,march2 and so on4#ab ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fc4--,to find the long and short months4 ,should not the real renewal of the year coincide with the awakening of ,nature1 with the spring on the terrestrial hemisphere occupied by the greater portion of ,humanity1 with the date of ,march #bast8 ,should not the months be equalized1 and their names modified8 ,why should we not follow the beautiful evolution dictated by the ,sun and by the movement of our planet8 ,but our poor ,earth may roll on a long time yet before its inhabitants will become reasonable4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,the ,,moon ,it is the delightful hour when all ,nature pauses in the tranquil calm of the silent night4 ,the ,sun has cast his farewell gleams upon the weary ,earth4 ,all sound is hushed4 ,and soon the stars will shine out one by one in the bosom of the somber firmament4 ,opposite to the sunset1 in the east1 the ,full ,moon rises slowly1 as it were calling our thoughts toward the mysteries of eternity1 while her limpid night spreads over space like a dew from ,heaven4 ,in the odorous woods1 the trees are silhouetted strangely upon the sky1 seeming to stretch their knotted arms toward this celestial beauty4 ,on the river1 smooth as a mirror1 wherein the pale ,phoebe reflects her splendor1 the maidens go to seek the floating image of their future spouse4 ,and in response to their prayers1 she rends the veil of cloud that hides her from their eyes1 and pours the reflection of her gentle beams upon the sleeping waters4 ,from all time the ,moon has had the privilege of charming the gaze1 and attracting the particular attention of mortals4 ,what thoughts have not been wafted to her pale1 yet luminous disk8 ,orb of mystery and of solitude1 brooding over our silent nights1 this celestial luminary is at once sad and splendid in her glacial purity1 and her limpid rays provoke a reverie full of charm and melancholy4 ,mute witness of terrestrial destinies1 her nocturnal flame watches over our planet1 following it in its course as a faithful satellite4 ,the human eye first uplifted to the ,heavens was struck1 above all1 with the brilliancy of this solitary globe1 straying among the stars4 ,the ,moon first suggested an easy division of time into months and weeks1 and the first astronomical observations were limited to the study of her phases4 ,daughter of the ,earth1 the ,moon was born at the limits of the terrestrial nebula1 when our world was still no more than a vast gaseous sphere1 and was detached from her at some critical period of colossal solar tide4 ,separating with regret from her cradle1 but attached to the ,earth by indissoluble ties of attraction1 she rotates round us in a month1 from west to east1 and this movement keeps her back a little each day in relation to the stars4 ,if we watch1 evening by evening1 beginning from the new moon1 we shall observe that she is each night a little farther to the left1 or east1 than on the preceding evening4 ,this revolution of the ,moon around our planet produces the phases1 and gives the measure of our months4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fd4--,the ,full ,moon slowly rises4 ,during her monthly journey she always presents the same face to us4 ,one might think that the fear of losing us had immobilized her globe1 and prevented her from turning4 ,and so we only know of her the vague sketch of a human face that has been observed through all the ages4 ,it seems1 in fact1 as though she were looking down upon us from the ,heavens1 the more so as the principal spots of her disk vaguely recall the aspect of a face4 ,if we try to draw it without the aid of instruments we observe dark regions and clear regions that each interprets in his own fashion4 ,to the author1 for instance1 the full ,moon has the appearance represented in the following figure4 ,the spots resemble two eyes and the sketch of a nose2 resulting in a vague human figure1 as indicated on the lower disk4 ,others see a man carrying a bundle of wood1 a hare1 a lion1 a dog1 a kangaroo1 a sickle1 two heads embracing1 etc4#ac ,but generally speaking1 there is a tendency to see a human figure in it4 ,if this appearance is helped a little by drawing1 it gives the profile of a man's head fairly well sketched1 and furnished with an abundant crop of hair 7,fig4 #ff74 ,others go much more into detail1 and draw a woman's head that is certainly too definite1 like this of ,m4 ,jean ,sardou 7,fig4 #fg74 ,others1 again1 like ,m4 ,zamboni1 see behind the man's profile the likeness of a young girl being embraced by him 7,fig4 #fh74 ,there is certainly some imagination about these4 ,and yet1 on the first suitable occasion1 look at the ,moon through an opera-glass1 a few days after the first quarter1 and you will not fail to see the masculine profile just described1 and even to imagine the kiss in the ,moon4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fe4--,the ,moon viewed with the unaided eye4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ff4--,the ,man's head in the ,moon4 ,these vague aspects disappear as soon as the ,moon is examined with even the least powerful instruments3 the spots are better defined1 and the illusions of indistinct vision vanish4 ,compare this direct photograph of the ,moon1 taken by the author some years ago 7,fig4 #fi73 here is neither a human figure1 man1 dog1 hare1 nor faggot2 simply deep geographical configurations1 and in the lower region1 a luminous point whence certain light bands spread out1 some being prolonged to a considerable distance4 ,and yet1 from a little way off1 does it not form the man's face above indicated8 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fg4--,woman's head in the ,moon4 ,from the earliest astronomical observations made with the aid of instruments by ,galileo1 in #afji1 people tried to find out what the dark spots could represent1 and they were called seas1 because water absorbs light1 and reflects it less than terra firma4 ,the ,moon of itself possesses no intrinsic light1 any more than our planet1 and only shines by the light of the ,sun that illuminates it4 ,as it rotates round the ,earth1 and constantly changes its position with respect to the ,sun1 we see more or less of its illuminated hemisphere1 and the result is the phases that every one knows so well4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fh4--,the kiss in the ,moon4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fi4--,photograph of the ,moon4 ,at the commencement of each lunation1 the ,moon is between the ,sun and the ,earth1 and its non-illuminated hemisphere is turned toward us4 ,this is the ,new ,moon1 invisible to us2 but two days later1 the slim crescent of ,diana sheds a gentle radiance upon the ,earth4 ,gradually the crescent enlarges4 ,when the ,moon arrives at right angles with ourselves and with the ,sun1 half the illuminated hemisphere is presented to us4 ,this is the first quarter4 ,at the time of ,full ,moon1 it is opposite the ,sun1 and we see the whole of the hemisphere illuminated4 ,then comes the decline3 the brilliant disk is slightly corroded at first2 it diminishes from day to day1 and about a week before the ,new ,moon our fair friend only shows her profile before she once more passes in front of the ,sun3 this is the last quarter4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gj4--,the ,moon's ,phases4 ,when the ,moon is crescent1 in the first evenings of the lunation1 and after the last quarter1 the rest of the disk is visible1 illuminated feebly by a pale luminosity4 ,this is known as the ashy light4 ,it is due to the shine of the ,earth1 reflecting the light received from the ,sun into space4 ,accordingly the ashy light is the reflection of our own sent back to us by the ,moon4 ,it is the reflection of a reflection4 ,this rotation of the ,moon round the ,earth is accomplished in twenty-seven days1 seven hours1 forty-three minutes1 eleven seconds2 but as the ,earth is simultaneously revolving round the ,sun1 when the ,moon returns to the same point 7the ,earth having become displaced relatively to the ,sun71 the ,moon has to travel two days longer to recover its position between the ,sun and the ,earth1 so that the lunar month is longer than the sidereal revolution of the ,moon1 and takes twenty-nine days1 twelve hours1 forty-four minutes1 three seconds4 ,this is the duration of the sequence of phases4 ,this revolution is accomplished at a distance of #chd1jjj kilometers 7#bch1jjj miles74 ,the velocity of the ,moon in its orbit is more than #a kilometer 7#j4fbad mile7 per second4 ,but our planet sweeps it through space at a velocity almost thirty times greater4 ,the diameter of the ,moon represents #bgc_/ajjj that of the ,earth1 i4e41 #c1dhj kilometers 7#b1aeg miles74 ,its surface #ch1jjj1jjj square kilometers 7#ae1jjj1jjj square miles71 a little more than the thirteenth part of the terrestrial surface1 which #eaj1jjj1jjj 7#bjj1jjj1jjj square miles74 ,in volume1 the ,moon is fifty times less than the ,earth4 ,its mass or weight is only #a_/ha that of the terrestrial globe4 ,its density #j4fae1 relatively to that of the ,earth1 i4e41 a little more than three times that of water4 ,weight at its surface is very little3 #j4agd4 ,a kilogram transported thither would only weigh #agd grams4 99 99 99 99 99 ,at the meager distance of #chd1jjj kilometers 7#bch1jjj miles7 that separates us from it 7about thirty times the diameter of the ,earth71 the ,moon is a suburb of our terrestrial habitation4 ,what does this small distance amount to8 ,it is a mere step in the universe4 ,a telegraphic message would get there in one and a half second2 a projectile fired from a gun would arrive in eight days1 five hours2 an express-train would be due in eight months1 twenty-two days4 ,it is only the #a_/chh part of the distance that separates us from the ,sun1 and only the #ajj_/a1jjj1jjj part of the distance of the stars nearest to us4 ,many men have tramped the distance that separates us from the ,moon4 ,a bridge of thirty terrestrial globes would suffice to unite the two worlds4 ,owing to this great proximity1 the ,moon is the best known of all the celestial spheres4 ,its geographical 7or more correctly1 selenographical1 ,selene1 moon7 map was drawn out more than two centuries ago1 at first in a vague sketch1 and afterward with more details1 until to-day it is as precise and accurate as any of our terrestrial maps of geography4 ,before the invention of the telescope1 from antiquity to the seventeenth century1 people lost themselves in conjectures as to the nature of this strange lunar figure4 ,it was held to be a mysterious world1 the more extraordinary in that it always presented the same face to us4 ,some compared it to an immense mirror reflecting the image of the ,earth4 ,others pictured it as a silver star1 an enchanted abode where all was wealth and happiness4 ,for many a long day it was the fashion to think1 quite irrationally1 that the inhabitants of the ,moon were fifteen times bigger than ourselves4 ,the invention of telescopes1 however1 brought a little order and a grain of truth into these fantastic assumptions4 ,the first observations of ,galileo revolutionized science1 and his discoveries filled the best-ordered minds with enthusiasm4 ,thenceforward1 the ,moon became our property1 a terrestrial suburb1 where the whole world would gladly have installed itself1 had the means of getting there been as swift as the wings of the imagination4 ,it became easy enough to invent a thousand enchanting descriptions of the charms of our fair sister1 and no one scrupled to do so4 ,soon1 it was observed that the ,moon closely resembled the ,earth in its geological features2 its surface bristles with sharp mountain peaks that light up in so many luminous points beneath the rays of the ,sun4 ,alongside1 dark and shaded parts indicate the plains2 moreover1 there are large gray patches that were supposed to be seas because they reflect the solar light less perfectly than the adjacent countries4 ,at that epoch hardly anything was known of the physical constitution of the ,moon1 and it was figured as enveloped with an atmospheric layer1 analogous to that at the bottom of which we carry on our respiration4 ,to-day we know that these seas are destitute of water1 and that if the lunar globe possesses an atmosphere1 it must be excessively light4 ,the ,moon became the favorite object of astronomers1 and the numerous observations made of it authorized the delineation of very interesting selenographic charts4 ,in order to find one's way among the seas1 plains1 and mountains that make up the lunar territory1 it was necessary to name them4 ,the seas were the first to be baptized1 in accordance with their reputed astrological influences4 ,accordingly1 we find on the ,moon1 the ,sea of ,fecundity1 the ,lake of ,death1 the ,sea of ,humors1 the ,ocean of ,tempests1 the ,sea of ,tranquillity1 the ,marsh of ,mists1 the ,lake of ,dreams1 the ,sea of ,putrefaction1 the ,peninsula of ,reverie1 the ,sea of ,rains1 etc4 ,with regard to the luminous parts and the mountains1 it was at first proposed to call them after the most illustrious astronomers1 but the fear of giving offense acted as a check on ,hevelius and ,riccioli1 authors of the first lunar maps 7#afdg1 #afea71 and they judged it more prudent to transfer the names of the terrestrial mountains to the ,moon4 ,the ,alps1 the ,apennines1 the ,pyrenees1 the ,carpathians1 are all to be found up there2 then1 as the vocabulary of the mountains was not adequate1 the scientists reasserted their rights1 and we meet in the ,moon1 ,aristotle1 ,plato1 ,hipparchus1 ,ptolemy1 ,copernicus1 ,kepler1 ,newton1 as well as other more modern and even contemporaneous celebrities4 ,we have not space to reproduce the general chart of the ,moon 7that published by the author measures not less than a meter1 with the nomenclature72 but the figure subjoined gives a summary sufficient for the limits of this little book4 ,here are the names of the principal lunar mountains1 with the numbers corresponding to them upon the map4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ga4--,map of the ,moon4 7,from ,fowler's ,telescopic ,astronomy47 #a ,furnerius #b ,petavius #c ,langrenus #d ,macrobius #e ,cleomedes #f ,endymion #g ,altas #h ,hercules #i ,romer #aj ,posidonius #aa ,fracastorius #ab ,theophilus #ac ,piccolomini #ad ,albategnius #ae ,hipparchus #af ,manilius #ag ,eudoxus #ah ,aristotle #ai ,cassini #bj ,aristillus #ba ,plato #bb ,archimedes #bc ,eratosthenes #bd ,copernicus #be ,ptolemy #bf ,alphonsus #bg ,arzachel #bh ,walter #bi ,clavius #cj ,tycho #ca ,bullialdus #cb ,schiller #cc ,schickard #cd ,gassendi #ce ,kepler #cf ,grimaldi #cg ,aristarchus ,a ,mare ,crisum ,b ,mare ,fercunditatis ,c ,mare ,nectaris ,d ,mare ,tranquilitatis ,e ,mare ,serenitatis ,f ,mare ,imbrium ,g ,sinus ,iridum ,h ,oceanus ,procellarum ,i ,mare ,humorum ,k ,mare ,nubium ,v ,altai ,mountains ,w ,mare ,vaporum ,x ,apennine ,mountains ,y ,caucasus ,mountains ,z ,alps ,the constantly growing progress of optics leads to perpetual new discoveries in science1 and at the present time we can say that we know the geography of the ,moon as well as1 and even better than1 that of our own planet4 ,the heights of all the mountains of the ,moon are measured to within a few feet4 7,one cannot say as much for the mountains of the ,earth47 ,the highest are over #g1jjj meters 7nearly #be1jjj feet74 ,relatively to its proportions1 the satellite is much more mountainous than the planet1 and the plutonian giants are much more numerous there than here4 ,if we have peaks1 like the ,gaorisankar1 the highest of the ,himalayas and of the whole ,earth1 whose elevation of #h1hdj meters 7#bi1jjj feet7 is equivalent to #a_/aadj the diameter of our globe1 there are peaks on the ,moon of #g1gjj meters 7#be1bfd feet71 e4g41 those of ,doerfel and ,leibniz1 the height of which is equivalent to #a_/dgj the lunar diameter4 ,tycho's ,mountain is one of the finest upon our satellite4 ,it is visible with the naked eye 7and perfectly with opera-glasses7 as a white point shining like a kind of star upon the lower portion of the disk4 ,at the time of full moon it is dazzling1 and projects long rays from afar upon the lunar globe4 ,so1 too1 ,mount ,copernicus1 whose brilliant whiteness sparkles in space4 ,but the strangest thing about these lunar mountains is that they are all hollow1 and can be measured as well in depth as in height4 ,a type of mountain as strange to us as are the seas without water6 ,in effect1 these mountains of the moon are ancient volcanic craters1 with no summits1 nor covers4 ,at the top of the highest peaks1 there is a large circular depression1 prolonged into the heart of the mountain1 sometimes far below the level of the surrounding plains1 and as these craters often measure several hundred kilometers1 one is obliged1 if one does not want to go all round them in crossing the mountain1 to descend almost perpendicularly into the depths and cross there1 to reascend the opposite side1 and return to the plain4 ,these alpine excursions incontestably deserve the name of perilous ascents6 ,no country on the ,earth can give us any notion of the state of the lunar soil3 never was ground so tormented2 never globe so profoundly shattered to its very bowels4 ,the mountains are accumulations of enormous rocks tumbled one upon the other1 and round the awful labyrinth of craters one sees nothing but dismantled ramparts1 or columns of pointed rocks like cathedral spires issuing from the chaos4 ,as we said1 there is no atmosphere1 or at least so little at the bottom of the valleys that it is imperceptible4 ,no clouds1 no fog1 no rain nor snow4 ,the sky is an eternally black space1 vaultless1 jeweled with stars by day as by night4 ,let us suppose that we arrive among these savage steppes at daybreak3 the lunar day is fifteen times longer than our own1 because the ,sun takes a month to illuminate the entire circuit of the ,moon2 there are no less than #ced hours from the rising to the setting of the ,sun4 ,if we arrive before the sunrise1 there is no aurora to herald it1 for in the absence of atmosphere there can be no sort of twilight4 ,of a sudden on the dark horizon come flashes of the solar light1 striking the summits of the mountains1 while the plains and valleys are still in darkness4 ,the light spreads slowly1 for while on the ,earth in central latitudes the ,sun takes only two minutes and a quarter to rise1 on the ,moon it takes nearly an hour1 and in consequence the light it sends out is very weak for some minutes1 and increases excessively slowly4 ,it is a kind of aurora1 but lasts a very short time1 for when at the end of half an hour1 the solar disk has half risen1 the light appears as intense to the eye as when it is entirely above the horizon2 the radiant orb is seen with its protuberances and its burning atmosphere4 ,it rises slowly1 like a luminous god1 in the depths of the black sky1 a profound and formless sky in which the stars shine all day1 since they are not hidden by any atmospheric veil such as conceals them from us during the daylight4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gb4--,the ,lunar ,apennines4 ,the absence of sensible atmosphere must produce an effect on the temperature of the ,moon analogous to that perceived on the high mountains of our globe1 where the rarefaction of the air does not permit the solar heat to concentrate itself upon the surface of the soil1 as it does below the atmosphere1 which acts as a forcing-house3 the ,sun's heat is not kept in by anything1 and incessantly radiates out toward space4 ,in all probability the cold is extremely and constantly rigorous1 not only during the nights1 which are fifteen times longer than our own1 but even during the long days of sunshine4 ,we give two different drawings to represent these curious aspects of lunar topography4 ,the first 7,fig4 #gb7 is taken in the neighborhood of the ,apennines1 and shows a long chain of mountains beneath which are three deep rings1 ,archimedes1 ,aristillus1 and ,autolycus3 the second 7,fig4 #gc7 depicts the lunar ring of ,flammarion1#ad whose outline is constructed of dismantled ramparts1 and whose depths are sprinkled with little craters4 ,the first of these two drawings was made in ,england by ,nasmyth1 the second in ,germany by ,krieger3 they both give an exact idea of what one sees in the telescope with different modes of solar illumination4 ,in the ,moon's always black and starry sky a majestic star that is not visible from the ,earth1 and exhibits this peculiarity that it is stationary in the ,heavens1 while all the others pass behind it1 may constantly be admired1 by day as well as by night2 and it is also of considerable apparent magnitude4 ,this orb1 some four times as large as the ,moon in diameter1 and thirteen to fourteen times more extensive in surface1 is our ,earth1 which presents to the ,moon a sequence of phases similar to those which our satellite presents to us1 but in the inverse direction4 ,at the moment of ,new ,moon1 the ,sun fully illuminates the terrestrial hemisphere turned toward our satellite1 and we get ,full ,earth2 at the time of ,full ,moon1 on the contrary1 the non-illuminated hemisphere of the ,earth is turned toward the satellite1 and we get ,new ,earth3 when the ,moon shows us first quarter1 the ,earth is in last quarter1 and so on4 ,the drawing subjoined gives an idea of these aspects4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gc4--;,flammarion's ,lunar ,ring4 ,what a curious sight our globe must be during this long night of fourteen times twenty-four hours6 ,independent of its phases1 which bring it from first quarter to full earth for the middle of the night1 and from full earth to last quarter for sunrise1 how interested we should be to see it thus stationary in the sky1 and turning on itself in twenty-four hours4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gd4--,lunar landscape with the ,earth in the sky4 ,yes1 thanks to us1 the inhabitants of the lunar hemisphere turned toward us are gratified by the sight of a splendid nocturnal torch1 doubtless less white than our own despite the clouds with which the terrestrial globe is studded1 and shaded in a tender tone of bluish emerald-green4 ,the royal orb of their long nights1 the ,earth1 gives them moonlight of unparalleled beauty1 and we may say without false modesty that our presence in the lunar sky must produce marvelous and absolutely fairy-like effects4 ,maybe1 they envy us our globe1 a dazzling dwelling-place whose splendor radiates through space2 they see its greenish clarity varying with the extent of cloud that veils its seas and continents1 and they observe its motion of rotation1 by which all the countries of our planet are revealed in succession to its admirers4 ,we are talking of these pageants seen from the ,moon1 and of the inhabitants of our satellite as if they really existed4 ,the sterile and desolate aspect of the lunar world1 however1 rather brings us to the conclusion that such inhabitants are non-existent1 although we have no authorization for affirming this4 ,that they have existed seems to me beyond doubt4 ,the lunar volcanoes had a considerable activity1 in an atmosphere that allowed the white volcanic ashes to be carried a long way by the winds1 figuring round the craters the stellar rays that are still so striking4 ,these cinders were spread over the soil1 preserving all its asperities of outline1 a little heaped up on the side to which they were impelled4 ,the magnificent photographs recently made at the ,paris ,observatory by ,,mm4 ,loewy and ,puiseux are splendid evidence of these projections4 ,in this era of planetary activity there were liquids and gases on the surface of the lunar globe1 which appear subsequently to have been entirely absorbed4 ,now the teaching of our own planet is that ,nature nowhere remains infertile1 and that the production of ,life is a law so general and so imperious that life develops at its own expense1 sooner than abstain from developing4 ,accordingly1 it is difficult to suppose that the lunar elements can have remained inactive1 when only next door they exhibited such fecundity upon our globe4 ,yes1 the ,moon has been inhabited by beings doubtless very different from ourselves1 and perhaps may still be1 although this globe has run through the phases of its astral life more rapidly than our own1 and the daughter is relatively older than the mother4 ,the duration of the life of the worlds appears to have been in proportion with their masses4 ,the ,moon cooled and mineralized more quickly than the ,earth4 ,jupiter is still fluid4 ,the progress of optics brings us already very close to this neighboring province4 ',tis a pity we can not get a little nearer6 ,a telescopic magnification of #b1jjj puts the ,moon at #chd1jjj_/bjjj or #aib kilometers 7some #abj miles7 from our eye4 ,practically we can obtain no more1 either from the most powerful instruments1 or from photographic enlargements4 ,sometimes1 exceptionally1 enlargements of #c1jjj can be used4 ,this #chdjjj_/cjjj or #abh kilometers 7some #hj miles74 ,undoubtedly1 this is an admirable result1 which does the greatest honor to human intelligence4 ,but it is still too far to enable us to determine anything in regard to lunar life4 ,any one who likes to be impressed by grand and magnificent sights may turn even a modest field-glass upon our luminous satellite1 at about first quarter1 when the relief of its surface1 illuminated obliquely by the ,sun1 is at its greatest value4 ,if you examine our neighbor world at this period1 for choice at the hour of sunset1 you will be astonished at its brilliancy and beauty4 ,its outlines1 its laces1 and embroideries1 give the image of a jewel of shining silver1 translucent1 fluid1 palpitating in the ether4 ,nothing could be more beautiful1 nothing purer1 and more celestial1 than this lunar globe floating in the silence of space1 and sending back to us as in some fairy dream the solar illumination that floods it4 ,but yesterday ,i received the same impression1 watching a great ring half standing out1 and following the progress of the ,sun as it mounted the lunar horizon to touch these silvered peaks4 ,and ,i reflected that it is indeed inconceivable that #iii1iii_/a1jjj1jjj of the inhabitants of our planet should pass their lives without ever having attended to this pageant1 nor to any of those others which the divine ,urania scatters so profusely beneath the wondering gaze of the observers of the ,heavens4 ,,chapter ,x ,,the ,,eclipses ,among all the celestial phenomena at which it may be our lot to assist during our contemplation of the universe1 one of the most magnificent and imposing is undoubtedly that which we are now going to consider4 ,the hirsute comets1 and shooting stars with their graceful flight1 captivate us with a mysterious and sometimes fantastic attraction4 ,we gladly allow our thoughts1 mute questioners of the mysteries of the firmament1 to rest upon the brilliant1 golden trail they leave behind them4 ,these unknown travelers bring a message from eternity2 they tell us the tale of their distant journeys4 ,children of space1 their ethereal beauty speaks of the immensity of the universe4 ,the eclipses1 on the other hand1 are phenomena that touch us more nearly1 and take place in our vicinity4 ,in treating of them1 we remain between the ,earth and the ,moon1 in our little province1 and witness the picturesque effects of the combined movements of our satellite around us4 ,have you ever seen a total eclipse of the ,sun8 ,the sky is absolutely clear3 no fraction of cloud shadows the solar rays4 ,the azure vault of the firmament crowns the ,earth with a dome of dazzling light4 ,the fires of the orb of day shed their beneficent influence generally upon the world4 ,yet1 see6 ,the radiance diminishes4 ,the luminous disk of the ,sun is gradually corroded4 ,another disk1 as black as ink1 creeps in front of it1 and little by little invades it entirely4 ,the atmosphere takes on a wan1 sepulchral hue2 astonished nature is hushed in profound silence2 an immense veil of sadness spreads over the world4 ,night comes on suddenly1 and the stars shine out in the ,heavens4 ,it seems as though by some mysterious cataclysm the ,sun had disappeared forever4 ,but this tribulation is soon over4 ,the divine orb is not extinct4 ,a flaming jet emerges from the shadow1 announcing his return1 and when he reappears we see that he has lost nothing in splendor or beauty4 ,he is still the radiant ,apollo1 ,king of ,day1 watching over the life of the planetary worlds4 ,this sudden night1 darkening the ,heavens in the midst of a fine day1 can not fail to produce a vivid impression upon the spectators of the superb phenomenon4 ,the eclipse lasts only for a few moments1 but long enough to make a deep impression upon our minds1 and indeed to inspire anxious spirits with terror and agitation--even at this epoch1 when we know that there is nothing supernatural or formidable about it4 ,in former days1 ,humanity would have trembled1 in uneasy consternation4 ,was it a judgment from ,heaven8 ,must it not be the work of some invisible hand throwing the somber veil of night over the celestial torch8 ,had not the ,earth strayed off her appointed path1 and were we not all to be deprived eternally of the light of our good ,sun8 ,was some monstrous dragon perhaps preparing to devour the orb of day8 ,the fable of the dragon devouring the ,sun or ,moon during the eclipses is universal in ,asia as in ,africa1 and still finds acceptance under more than one latitude4 ,but our readers already know that we may identify the terrible celestial dragon with our gentle friend the ,moon1 who would not be greatly flattered by the comparison4 ,we saw in the preceding lesson that the ,moon revolves round us1 describing an almost circular orbit that she travels over in about a month4 ,in consequence of this motion1 the nocturnal orb is sometimes between the ,sun and the ,earth1 sometimes behind us1 sometimes at a right angle in relation to the ,sun and the ,earth4 ,now1 the eclipses of the ,sun occur invariably at the time of ,new ,moon1 when our satellite passes between the ,sun and ourselves1 and the eclipses of the ,moon1 at the moment of ,full ,moon1 when the latter is opposite to the ,sun1 and behind us4 ,this fact soon enabled the astronomers of antiquity to discover the causes to which eclipses are due4 ,the ,moon1 passing at the beginning of its revolution between the ,sun and the ,earth1 may conceal a greater or lesser portion of the orb of day4 ,in this case there is an eclipse of the ,sun4 ,on the other hand1 when it is on the other side of the ,earth in relation to the ,sun1 at the moment of ,full ,moon1 our planet may intercept the solar rays1 and prevent them from reaching our satellite4 ,the ,moon is plunged into the shadow of the ,earth1 and is then eclipsed4 ,such is the very simple explanation of the phenomenon4 ,but why is there not an eclipse of the ,sun at each ,new ,moon1 and an eclipse of the ,moon at each ,full ,moon8 ,if the ,moon revolved round us in the same plane as the ,earth round the ,sun1 it would eclipse the ,sun at each ,new ,moon1 and would be itself eclipsed in our shadow at each ,full ,moon4 ,but the plane of the lunar orbit dips a little upon the plane of the terrestrial orbit1 and the eclipses can only be produced when the ,new ,moon or the ,full ,moon occur at the line of intersection of these two planes1 i4e41 when the ,sun1 the ,moon1 and the ,earth are upon the same straight line4 ,in the majority of cases1 instead of interposing itself directly in front of the sovereign of our system1 our satellite passes a little above or a little below him1 just as its passage behind us is nearly always effected a little above or below the cone of shadow that accompanies our planet1 opposite the ,sun4 ,when the ,moon intervenes directly in front of the ,sun1 she arrests the light of the radiant orb1 and conceals a greater or less portion of the solar disk4 ,the eclipse is partial if the ,moon covers only a portion of the ,sun2 total if she covers it entirely2 annular1 if the solar disk is visible all round the lunar disk1 as appears when the ,moon1 in her elliptical orbit1 is beyond medium distance1 toward the apogee4 ,on the other hand1 when the ,moon arrives immediately within the cone of shadow that the ,earth projects behind it1 it is her turn to be eclipsed4 ,she no longer receives the rays of the ,sun1 and this deprivation is the more marked in that she owes all her brilliancy to the light of the orb of day4 ,the ,moon's obscurity is complete if she is entirely plunged into the cone of shadow4 ,in this case1 the eclipse is total4 ,but if a portion of her disk emerges from the cone1 that part remains illuminated while the light of the other dies out4 ,in that case there is a partial eclipse1 and the rounded form of the ,earth's shadow can be seen projected upon our satellite1 a celestial witness to the spherical nature of our globe4 ,under certain conditions1 then1 the ,moon can deprive us of the luminous rays of the ,sun1 by concealing the orb of day1 and in other cases is herself effaced in crossing our shadow4 ,despite the fables1 fears1 and anxieties it has engendered1 this phenomenon is perfectly natural3 the ,moon is only playing hide-and-seek with us--a very harmless amusement1 as regards the safety of our planet4 ,but as we said just now1 these phenomena formerly had the power of terrifying ignorant mortals1 either when the orb of light and life seemed on the verge of extinction1 or when the beautiful ,phoebus was covered with a veil of crape and woe1 or took on a deep coppery hue4 ,it would take a volume to describe all the notable events which have been influenced by eclipses1 sometimes for good1 more often with disastrous consequences4 ,the recital of these tragic stories would not be devoid of interest2 it would illustrate the possibilities of ignorance and superstition1 and the power man gains from intellectual culture and scientific study4 ,herodotus records that the ,scythians1 having some grievance against ,cyaxarus1 ,king of the ,medes1 revenged themselves by serving up the limbs of one of his children1 whom they had murdered1 at a banquet as rare game4 ,the scoundrels who committed this atrocious crime took refuge at the ,court of the ,king of ,lydia1 who was ill judged enough to protect them4 ,war was accordingly declared between the ,medes and ,lydians1 but a total eclipse of the ,sun occurring just when the battle was imminent1 had the happy effect of disarming the combatants1 who prudently retired each to their own country4 ,this eclipse1 which seems to have occurred on ,may #bh1 #ehd ,b4,c41 had been predicted by ,thales4 ,the ,french painter ,rochegrosse has painted a striking picture of the scene 7,fig4 #ge74 ,in the year #dac ,b4,c4 the ,athenian ,general ,nicias prepared to return to ,greece after an expedition to ,sicily4 ,but1 terrified by an eclipse of the ,moon1 and fearing the malign influence of the phenomenon1 he put off his departure1 and lost the chance of retreat4 ,this superstition cost him his life4 ,the ,greek army was destroyed1 and this event marks the commencement of the decadence of ,athens4 ,in #cca ,b4,c4 an eclipse of the ,moon disorganized the troops of ,alexander1 near ,arbela1 and the great ,macedonian ,captain had need of all his address to reassure his panic-stricken soldiers4 ,agathocles1 ,king of ,syracuse1 blocked by the ,carthaginians in the port of this city1 had the good fortune to escape1 but was disturbed on the second day of his flight by the arrival of a total eclipse of the ,sun which alarmed his companions4 ,what are you afraid of8 said he1 spreading his cloak in front of the ,sun4 ,are you alarmed at a shadow8 7,this eclipse seems to be that of ,august #ae1 #cji1 rather than that of ,march #b1 #caj47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ge4--;,battle between the ,medes and ,lydians arrested by an ,eclipse of the ,sun4 ,on ,june #bi1 #ajcc1 an epoch at which the approaching end of the world struck terror into all hearts1 an annular eclipse of the ,sun occurring about midday frustrated the designs of a band of conspirators who intended to strangle the ,pope at the altar4 ,this ,pope was ,benedict ,,ix1 a youth of less than twenty1 whose conduct is said to have been anything but exemplary4 ,the assassins1 terrified at the darkening of the ,sun1 dared not touch the ,pontiff1 and he reigned till #ajdd4ae ,on ,march #a1 #aejd1 a lunar eclipse saved the life of ,christopher ,columbus4 ,he was threatened with death by starvation in ,jamaica1 where the contumacious savages refused to give him provisions4 ,forewarned of the arrival of this eclipse by the astronomical almanacs1 he threatened to deprive the ,caribs of the light of the ,moon--and kept his word4 ,the eclipse had hardly begun when the terrified ,indians flung themselves at his feet1 and brought him all that he required4 ,in all times and among all people we find traces of popular superstitions connected with eclipses4 ,here1 the abnormal absence of the ,moon's light is regarded as a sign of divine anger3 the humble penitents betake themselves to prayer to ward off the divine anger4 ,there1 the cruelty of the dread dragon is to be averted3 he must be chased away by cries and threats1 and the sky is bombarded with shots to deliver the victim from his monstrous oppressor4 ,in ,france the announcement of a solar eclipse for ,august #ba1 #aefj1 so greatly disturbed our ancestors' peace of mind as to make them idiotic4 ,preparations were made for assisting at an alarming phenomenon that threatened ,humanity with deadly consequences6 ,the unhappy eclipse had been preceded by a multitude of ill omens6 ,some expected a great revolution in the provinces and in ,rome1 others predicted a new universal deluge1 or1 on the other hand1 the conflagration of the world2 the most optimistic thought the air would be contaminated4 ,to preserve themselves from so many dangers1 and in accordance with the physicians' orders1 numbers of frightened people shut themselves up in tightly closed and perfumed cellars1 where they awaited the decrees of ,fate4 ,the approach of the phenomenon increased the panic1 and it is said that one village cure1 being unable to hear the confessions of all his flock1 who wanted to discharge their souls of sin before taking flight for a better world1 was fain to tell them there was no hurry1 because the eclipse had been put off a fortnight on account of the number of penitents6 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gf4--;,eclipse of the ,moon at ,laos 7,february #bg1 #ahgg74 ,these fears and terrors are still extant among ignorant peoples4 ,in the night of ,february #bg1 #ahgg1 an eclipse of the ,moon produced an indescribable panic among the inhabitants of ,laos 7,indo-,china74 ,in order to frighten off the ,black ,dragon1 the natives fired shots at the half-devoured orb1 accompanying their volley with the most appalling yells4 ,dr4 ,harmand has memorialized the scene in the lively sketch given on p4 #bfi4 ,during the solar eclipse of ,march #ae1 #ahgg1 an analogous scene occurred among the ,turks1 who for the moment forgot their preparations for war with ,russia1 in order to shoot at the ,sun1 and deliver him from the toils of the ,dragon4 ,the lunar eclipse of ,december #af1 #ahhj1 was not unnoticed at ,tackhent 7,russian ,turkestan71 where it was received with a terrific din of saucepans1 samovars and various implements struck together again and again by willing hands that sought to deliver the ,moon from the demon ,tchaitan who was devouring her4 ,in ,china1 eclipses are the object of imposing ceremonies1 whose object is to reestablish the regularity of the celestial motions4 ,since the ,emperor is regarded as the ,son of ,heaven1 his government must in some sort be a reflection of the immutable order of the sidereal harmonies4 ,as eclipses were regarded by astrologers as disturbances of the divine order1 their appearance indicates some irregularity in the government of the ,celestial ,empire4 ,accordingly1 they are received with all kinds of expiatory ceremonies prescribed thousands of years ago1 and still in force to-day4 ,in the twentieth century1 as in the nineteenth1 the eighteenth1 or in ancient epochs1 the same awe and terror operates upon the ignorant populations who abound upon the surface of our planet4 ,to return to astronomical realities4 ,we said above that these phenomena were produced when the ,full ,moon and the ,new ,moon reached the line of intersection1 known as the line of nodes1 when the plane of the lunar orbit cuts the plane of the ecliptic4 ,as this line turns and comes back in the same direction relatively to the ,sun at the end of eighteen years1 eleven days1 we have only to register the eclipses observed during this period in order to know all that will occur in the future1 and to find such as happened in the past4 ,this period was known to the ,greeks under the name of the ,metonic ,cycle1 and the ,chaldeans employed it three thousand years ago under the name of ,saros4 ,on examining this cycle1 composed of #bbc lunations1 we see that there can not be more than seven eclipses in one year1 nor less than two4 ,when there are only two1 they are eclipses of the ,sun4 ,the totality of a solar eclipse can not last more than seven minutes1 fifty-eight seconds at the equator1 and six minutes1 ten seconds in the latitude of ,paris4 ,the ,moon1 on the contrary1 may be entirely eclipsed for nearly two hours4 ,eclipses of the ,sun are very rare for a definite spot4 ,thus not one occurred for ,paris during the whole of the nineteenth century1 the last which happened exactly above the capital of ,france having been on ,may #bb1 #agbd4 ,i have calculated all those for the twentieth century1 and find that two will take place close to ,paris1 on ,april #ag1 #aiab1 at eighteen minutes past noon 7total for ,choisy-le-,roi1 ,longjumeau1 and ,dourdan1 but very brief3 seven seconds71 and ,august #aa1 #aiii1 at #aj4bh ,a4,m4 7total for ,beauvais1 ,compiegne1 ,amiens1 ,st4 ,quentin1 fairly long3 two minutes1 seventeen seconds74 ,paris itself will not be favored before ,august #ab1 #bjbf4 ,in order to witness the phenomenon1 one must go and look for it4 ,this the author did on ,may #bh1 #aijj1 in ,spain4 ,the progress of the lunar shadow upon the surface of the ,earth is traced beforehand on maps that serve to show the favored countries for which our satellite will dispense her ephemeral night4 ,the above figure shows the trajectory of the total phase of the #aijj eclipse in ,portugal1 ,spain1 ,algeria1 and ,tunis4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gg4--,the path of the ,eclipse of ,may #bh1 #aijj4 ,the immutable splendor of the celestial motions had never struck the author so impressively as during the observation of this grandiose phenomenon4 ,with the absolute precision of astronomical calculations1 our satellite1 gravitating round the ,earth1 arrived upon the theoretical line drawn from the orb of day to our planet1 and interposed itself gradually1 slowly1 and exactly1 in front of it4 ,the eclipse was total1 and occurred at the moment predicted by calculation4 ,then the obscure globe of the ,moon pursued its regular course1 discovered the radiant orb behind1 and gradually and slowly completed its transit in front of him4 ,here1 to all observers1 was a double philosophical lesson1 a twofold impression3 that of the greatness1 the omnipotence of the inexorable forces that govern the universe1 and that of the inexorable valor of man1 of this thinking atom straying upon another atom1 who by the travail of his feeble intelligence has arrived at the knowledge of the laws by which he1 like the rest of the world1 is borne away through space1 through time1 and through eternity4 ,the line of centrality passed through ,elche1 a picturesque city of #cj1jjj inhabitants1 not far from ,alicante1 and we had chosen this for our station on account of the probability of fine weather4 ,from the terrace of the country house of the hospitable ,mayor1 a farm transformed into an observatory by our learned friend1 ,count de la ,baume ,pluvinel1 there were no obstacles between ourselves and any part of the sky or landscape4 ,the whole horizon lay before us4 ,in front was a town of ,arab aspect framed in a lovely oasis of palm-trees2 a little farther off1 the blue sea beyond the shores of ,alicante and ,murcia3 on the other side a belt of low mountains1 and near us fields and gardens4 ,a ,company of the ,civic ,guard kept order1 and prevented the entrance of too many curious visitors1 of whom over ten thousand had arrived4 ,at the moment when the first contact of the lunar disk with the solar disk was observed in the telescope1 we fired a gun1 in order to announce the precise commencement of the occultation to the #dj1jjj persons who were awaiting the phenomenon1 and to discover what difference would exist between this telescopic observation and those made with the unaided eyes 7protected simply by a bit of smoked glass7 of so many improvised spectators4 ,this had already been done by ,arago at ,perpignan in #ahdb4 ,the verification was almost immediate for the majority of eyes1 and may be estimated at eight or ten seconds4 ,so that the commencement of the eclipse was confirmed almost as promptly for the eye as with the astronomical instruments4 ,the sky was splendidly clear2 no cloud1 no mist1 deep blue2 blazing ,sun4 ,the first period of the eclipse showed nothing particular4 ,it is only from the moment when more than half the solar disk is covered by the lunar disk that the phenomenon is imposing in its grandeur4 ,at this phase1 ,i called the attention of the people standing in the court to the visibility of the stars1 and indicating the place of ,venus in the sky asked if any with long sight could perceive her4 ,eight at once responded in the affirmative4 ,it should be said that the planet was at that time at its period of maximum brilliancy1 when for observers blessed with good sight1 it is always visible to the unaided eye4 ,when some three-quarters of the ,sun were eclipsed1 the pigeons which had flown back to the farm huddled into a corner1 and made no further movement4 ,they told me that evening that the fowls had done the same a little later1 returning to the hen-house as though it had been night1 and that the small children 7who were very numerous at ,elche1 where the population is certainly not diminishing7 left off their games1 and came back to their mothers' skirts4 ,the birds flew anxiously to their nests4 ,the ants in one garden were excessively agitated1 no doubt disconcerted in their strategics4 ,the bats came out4 ,a few days before the eclipse ,i had prepared the inhabitants of this part of ,spain for the observation of the phenomenon by the following description1 which sums up the previous accounts of the astronomers3 ,the spectacle of a total eclipse of the ,sun is one of the most magnificent and imposing that it is possible to see in nature4 ,at the exact moment indicated by calculation1 the ,moon arrives in front of the ,sun1 eats into it gradually1 and at last entirely covers it4 ,the light of the day lessens and is transformed4 ,a sense of oppression is felt by all nature1 the birds are hushed1 the dog takes refuge with his master1 the chickens hide beneath their mother's wing1 the wind drops1 the temperature falls1 an appalling stillness is everywhere perceptible1 as though the universe were on the verge of some imminent catastrophe4 ,men's faces assume a cadaverous hue similar to that given at night by the flame of spirits of wine and salt1 a livid funereal light1 the sinister illumination of the world's last hour4 ,at the moment when the last line of the solar crescent disappears1 we see1 instead of the ,sun1 a black disk surrounded with a splendid luminous aureole shooting immense jets into space1 with roseate flames burning at the base4 ,a sudden night has fallen on us1 a weird1 wan night in which the brightest of the stars are visible in the ,heavens4 ,the spectacle is splendid1 grandiose1 solemn1 and sublime4 ,this impression was actually felt by us all1 as may be seen from the following notes1 written in my schedule of observation during the event1 or immediately after3 #c4ej ,p4,m4 ,light very weak1 sky leaden gray1 mountains standing out with remarkable clearness from the horizon1 and seeming to approach us4 #c4ee ,p4,m4 ,fall of temperature very apparent4 ,cold wind blowing through the atmosphere4 #c4ef ,p4,m4 ,profound silence through nature1 which seems to participate in the celestial phenomenon4 ,silence in all the groups4 #c4eg ,p4,m4 ,light considerably diminished1 becoming wan1 strange1 and sinister4 ,landscape leaden gray1 sea looks black4 ,this diminution of light is not that of every day after the sunset4 ,there is1 as it were1 a tint of sadness spread over the whole of nature4 ,one becomes accustomed to it1 and yet while we know that the occultation of the ,sun by the ,moon is a natural phenomenon1 we can not escape a certain sense of uneasiness4 ,the approach of some extraordinary spectacle is imminent4 ,at this point we examined the effects of the solar light upon the seven colors of the spectrum4 ,in order to determine as accurately as possible the tonality of the light of the eclipse1 ,i had prepared seven great sheets1 each painted boldly in the colors of the spectrum1 violet1 indigo1 blue1 green1 yellow1 orange1 red2 and a similar series in pieces of silk4 ,these colors were laid at our feet upon the terrace where my wife1 as well as ,countess de la ,baume1 were watching with me4 ,we then saw the first four disappear successively and entirely and turn black in a few seconds1 in the following order3 violet1 indigo1 blue1 green4 ,the three other colors were considerably attenuated by the darkness1 but remained visible4 ,it should be noted that in the normal order of things--that is1 every evening--the contrary appears2 violet remains visible after the red4 ,this experiment shows that the last light emitted by the eclipsed ,sun belongs to the least refrangible rays1 to the greatest wave-lengths1 to the slowest vibrations1 to the yellow and red rays4 ,such therefore is the predominating color of the solar atmosphere4 ,this experiment completed1 we turn back to the ,sun4 ,magical and splendid spectacle6 ,totality has commenced1 the ,sun has disappeared1 the black disk of the ,moon covers it entirely1 leaving all round it a magnificent corona of dazzling light4 ,one would suppose it to be an annular eclipse1 with the difference that this can be observed with the naked eye1 without fatigue to the retina1 and drawn quietly4 ,this luminous coronal atmosphere entirely surrounds the solar disk1 at a pretty equal depth1 equivalent to about the third of half the solar diameter4 ,it may be regarded as the ,sun's atmosphere4 ,beyond this corona is an aureole1 of vaster glory but less luminous1 which sends out long plumes1 principally in the direction of the equatorial zone of the ,sun1 and of the belt of activity of the spots and prominences4 ,at the summit of the disk it is conical in shape4 ,below it is double1 and its right-hand portion ends in a point1 not far from ,mercury1 which shines like a dazzling star of first magnitude1 and seems placed there expressly to give us the extent and direction of the solar aureole4 ,i draw these various aspects 7which1 moreover1 change with the movement of the ,moon71 and what strikes me most is the distinction in light between this aureole and the coronal atmosphere2 the latter appears to be a brilliant silvery white1 the former is grayer and certainly less dense4 ,my impression is that there are two solar envelopes of entirely different nature1 the corona belonging to the globe of the ,sun1 and forming its atmosphere properly so-called1 very luminous2 the aureole formed of particles that circulate independently round it1 probably arising from eruptions1 their form as a whole being possibly due to electric or magnetic forces1 counterbalanced by resistances of various natures4 ,in our own atmosphere the volcanic eruptions are distinct from the aerial envelope4 ,the general configuration of this external halo1 spreading more particularly in the equatorial zone1 is sufficiently like that of the eclipse of #ahhi1 published in my ,popular ,astronomy1 which also corresponded with a minimum of solar energy4 ,the year #aijj is in fact close upon the minimum of the eleven-year period4 ,this equatorial form is1 moreover1 what all the astronomers were expecting4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gh4--,total eclipse of the ,sun1 ,may #bh1 #aijj1 as observed from ,elche 7,spain74 ,there can no longer be the slightest doubt that the solar envelope varies with the activity of the ,sun4444 ,but the total eclipse lasted a much shorter time than ,i have taken to write these lines4 ,the seventy-nine seconds of totality are over4 ,a dazzling light bursts from the ,sun1 and tells that the ,moon pursuing its orbit has left it4 ,the splendid sight is over4 ,it has gone like a shadow4 ,already over6 ,it is almost a disillusion4 ,nothing beautiful lasts in this world4 ,too sad6 ,if only the celestial spectacle could have lasted two1 three1 or four minutes6 ,it was too short4444 ,alas6 we are forced to take things as they are4 ,the surprise1 the oppression1 the terror of some1 the universal silence are over4 ,the ,sun reappears in his splendor1 and the life of nature resumes its momentarily suspended course4 ,while ,i was making my drawing1 ,m4 l',abbe ,moreux1 my colleague from the ,astronomical ,society of ,france1 who accompanied me to ,spain for this observation1 was taking one of his own1 without any reciprocal communication4 ,these two sketches are alike1 and confirmatory4 ,the differential thermometers that ,i exposed to the ,sun1 hanging freely1 and protected from reflection from the ground1 were read every five minutes4 ,the black thermometer went down from #cc4a deg4 to #bj4g deg41 that is #ab4d deg42 the white from #bi deg4 to #bj4b deg4--that is1 #h4h deg4 ,the temperature in the shade only varied three degrees4 ,the light received during totality was due3 first1 to the luminous envelope of the ,sun2 second1 to that of the terrestrial atmosphere1 illuminated at forty kilometers 7twenty-five miles7 on the one side and the other of the line of centrality4 ,it appeared to be inferior to that of the ,full ,moon1 on account of the almost sudden transition4 ,but1 in reality1 it was more intense1 for only first-magnitude stars were visible in the sky1 whereas on a night of full moon1 stars of second1 and even of third magnitude are visible4 ,we recognized1 among others1 ,venus1 ,mercury1 ,sirius1 ,procyon1 ,capella1 ,rigel1 ,betelgeuse4 99 99 99 99 99 ,from these notes1 taken on the spot1 it is evident that the contemplation of a total eclipse of the ,sun is one of the most marvelous spectacles that can be admired upon our planet4 ,some persons assured me that they saw the shadow of the ,moon flying rapidly over the landscape4 ,my attention was otherwise occupied1 and ,i was unable to verify this interesting observation4 ,the shadow of the ,moon in effect took only eleven minutes 7#c4dg ,p4,m4 to #c4eh ,p4,m47 to traverse the ,iberian ,peninsula from ,porto to ,alicante1 i4e41 a distance of #gff kilometers 7#dge miles74 ,it must therefore have passed over the ground at a velocity of sixty-nine kilometers per minute1 or #a1aej meters per second1 a speed higher than that of a bullet4 ,it can easily be watched from afar1 on the mountains4 ,some weeks previous to this fine eclipse1 when ,i informed the ,spaniards of the belt along which it could be observed1 ,i had invited them to note all the interesting phenomena they might witness1 including the effects produced by the eclipse upon animals4 ,birds returned hurriedly to their nests1 swallows lost themselves1 sheep huddled into compact packs1 partridges were hypnotized1 frogs croaked as if it were night1 fowls took refuge in the hen-house1 and cocks crowed1 bats came out1 and were surprised by the sun1 chicks gathered under their mothers' wing1 cage-birds ceased their songs1 some dogs howled1 others crept shivering to their masters' feet1 ants returned to the antheap1 grasshoppers chirped as at sunset1 pigeons sank to the ground1 a swarm of bees went silently back to their hive1 and so on4 ,these creatures behaved as though the night had come1 but there were also signs of fear1 surprise1 even of terror1 differing only in degree from those manifested during the grandiose phenomenon of a total eclipse by human beings unenlightened by a scientific education4 ,at ,madrid the eclipse was only partial4 ,the young ,king of ,spain1 ,alfonso ,,xiii1 took care to photograph it1 and ,i offer the photograph to my readers 7,fig4 #gi71 as this amiable sovereign did me the honor to give it me a few days after the eclipse4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gi4--,the ,eclipse of ,may #bh1 #aijj1 as photographed by ,king ,alfonso ,,xiii1 at ,madrid4 ,the technical results of these observations of solar eclipses relate more especially to the elucidation of the grand problem of the physical constitution of the ,sun4 ,we alluded to them in the chapter devoted to this orb4 ,the last great total eclipses have been of immense value to science4 ,the eclipses of the ,moon are less important1 less interesting1 than the eclipses of the ,sun4 ,yet their aspect must not be neglected on this account1 and it may be said to vary for each eclipse4 ,generally speaking1 our satellite does not disappear entirely in the ,earth's cone of shadow2 the solar rays are refracted round our globe by our atmosphere1 and curving inward1 illumine the lunar globe with a rosy tint that reminds one of the sunset4 ,sometimes1 indeed1 this refraction does not occur1 owing doubtless to lack of transparency in the atmosphere1 and the ,moon becomes invisible4 ,this happened recently1 on ,april #aa1 #aijc4 ,for any spot1 eclipses of the ,moon are incomparably more frequent than eclipses of the ,sun1 because the cone of lunar shadow that produces the solar eclipses is not very broad at its contact with the surface of the globe 7#aj1 #bj1 #cj1 #ej1 #ajj kilometers1 according to the distance of the ,moon71 whereas all the countries of the ,earth for which the ,moon is above the horizon at the hour of the lunar eclipse are able to see it4 ,it is at all times a remarkable spectacle that uplifts our thoughts to the ,heavens1 and ,i strongly advise my readers on no account to forego it4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,on ,,methods ,,how ,,celestial ,,distances ,,are ,,determined1 ,,and ,,how ,,the ,,sun ,,is ,,weighed ,i will not do my readers the injustice to suppose that they will be alarmed at the title of this ,lesson1 and that they do not employ some method in their own lives4 ,i even assume that if they have been good enough to take me on faith when ,i have spoken of the distances of the ,sun and ,moon1 and ,stars1 or of the weight of bodies at the surface of ,mars1 they retain some curiosity as to how the astronomers solve these problems4 ,hence it will be as interesting as it is useful to complete the preceding statements by a brief summary of the methods employed for acquiring these bold conclusions4 ,the ,sun seems to touch the ,earth when it disappears in the purple mists of twilight3 an immense abyss separates us from it4 ,the stars go hand in hand down the constellated sky2 and yet one can not think of their inconceivable distance without a shiver4 ,our neighbor1 ,moon1 floats in space1 a stone's throw from us3 but without calculation we should never know the distance1 which remains an impassable desert to us4 ,the best educated persons sometimes find it difficult to admit that these distances of ,sun and ,moon are better determined and more precise than those of certain points on our minute planet4 ,hence1 it is of particular moment for us to give an exact account of the means employed in determining them4 ,the calculation of these distances is made by triangulation4 ,this process is the same that surveyors use in the measurement of terrestrial distances4 ,there is nothing very alarming about it4 ,if the word repels us a little at first1 it is from its appearance only4 ,when the distance of an object is unknown1 the only means of expressing its apparent size is by measurement of the angle which it subtends before our eyes4 ,we all know that an object appears smaller1 in proposition with its distance from us4 ,this diminution is not a matter of chance4 ,it is geometric1 and proportional to the distance4 ,every object removed to a distance of #eg times its diameter measures an angle of #a degree1 whatever its real dimensions4 ,thus a sphere #a meter in diameter measures exactly #a degree1 if we see it at a distance of #eg meters4 ,a statue measuring #a4hj meters 7about #e ft4 #h in47 will be equal to an angle of #a degree1 if distant #eg times its height1 that is to say1 at #ajb4fj meters4 ,a sheet of paper1 size #a decimeter1 seen at #e4gj meters1 represents the same magnitude4 ,in length1 a degree is the #egth part of the radius of a circle1 i4e41 from the circumference to the center4 ,the measurement of an angle is expressed in parts of the circumference4 ,now1 what is an angle of a degree8 ,it is the #cfjth part of any circumference4 ,on a table #c4fj meters round1 an angle of one degree is a centimeter1 seen from the center of the table4 ,trace on a sheet of paper a circle #j4cfj meters round--an angle of #a degree is a millimeter4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hj4--,measurement of ,angles4 ,if the circumference of a circus measuring #ahj meters be divided into #cfj places1 each measuring #j4ej meters in width1 then when the circus is full a person placed at the center will see each spectator occupying an angle of #a degree4 ,the angle does not alter with the distance1 and whether it be measured at #a meter1 #aj meters1 #ajj kilometers1 or in the infinite spaces of ,heaven1 it is always the same angle4 ,whether a degree be represented by a meter or a kilometer1 it always remains a degree4 ,as angles measuring less than a degree often have to be calculated1 this angle has been subdivided into #fj parts1 to which the name of minutes has been given1 and each minute into #fj parts or seconds4 ,written short1 the degree is indicated by a little zero 7deg47 placed above the figure2 the minute by an apostrophe 7'71 and the second by two 774 ,these minutes and seconds of arc have no relation with the same terms as employed for the division of the duration of time4 ,these latter ought never to be written with the signs of abbreviation just indicated1 though journalists nowadays set a somewhat pedantic example1 by writing1 e4g41 for an automobile race1 #d;h4 #ah' #cj1 instead of #d;h4 #ahm4 #cjs4 ,this makes clear the distinction between the relative measure of an angle and the absolute measures1 such1 for instance1 as the meter4 ,thus1 a degree may be measured on this page1 while a second 7the #c1fjjth part of a degree7 measured in the sky may correspond to millions of kilometers4 ,now the measure of the ,moon's diameter gives us an angle of a little more than half a degree4 ,if it were exactly half a degree1 we should know by that that it was #aad times the breadth of its disk away from us4 ,but it is a little less1 since we have more than half a degree 7#ca'71 and the geometric ratio tells us that the distance of our satellite is #aaj times its diameter4 ,hence we have very simply obtained a first idea of the distance of the ,moon by the measure of its diameter4 ,nothing could be simpler than this method4 ,the first step is made4 ,let us continue4 ,this approximation tells us nothing as yet of the real distance of the orb of night4 ,in order to know this distance in miles1 we need to know the width in miles of the lunar disk4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ha4--;,division of the ,circumference into #cfj degrees4 ,this problem has been solved1 as follows3 ,two observers go as far as possible from each other1 and observe the ,moon simultaneously1 from two stations situated on the same meridian1 but having a wide difference of latitude4 ,the distance that separates the two points of observation forms the base of a triangle1 of which the two long sides come together on the ,moon4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hb4--,measurement of the distance of the ,moon4 ,it is by this proceeding that the distance of our satellite was finally established1 in #agea and #ageb1 by two ,french astronomers1 ,lalande and ,lacaille2 the former observing at ,berlin1 the latter at the ,cape of ,good ,hope4 ,the result of their combined observations showed that the angle formed at the center of the lunar disk by the half-diameter of the ,earth is #eg minutes of arc 7a little less than a degree74 ,this is known as the parallax of the ,moon4 ,here is a more or less alarming word2 yet it is one that we can not dispense with in discussing the distance of the stars4 ,this astronomical term will soon become familiar in the course of the present lesson1 where it will frequently recur1 and always in connection with the measurement of celestial distances4 ,do not let us fear1 wrote ,lalande in his ,astronomie des ,dames1 do not let us fear to use the term parallax1 despite its scientific aspect2 it is convenient1 and this term explains a very simple and very familiar effect4 ,if one is at the play1 he continues1 behind a woman whose hat is too large1 and prevents one from seeing the stage written a hundred years ago61 one leans to the left or right1 one rises or stoops3 all this is a parallax1 a diversity of aspect1 in virtue of which the hat appears to correspond with another part of the theater from that in which are the actors4 ,it is thus1 he adds1 that there may be an eclipse of the ,sun in ,africa and none for us1 and that we see the ,sun perfectly1 because we are high enough to prevent the ,moon's hiding it from us4 ,see how simple it is4 ,this parallax of #eg minutes proves that the ,earth is removed from the ,moon at a distance of about #fj times its half-diameter 7precisely1 #fj4bg74 ,from this to the distance of the ,moon in kilometers is only a step1 because it suffices to multiply the half-diameter of the ,earth1 which is #f1cga kilometers 7#c1iej miles7 by this number4 ,the distance of our satellite1 accordingly1 is #f1cga kilometers1 multiplied by #fj4bg--that is1 #chd1jjj kilometers 7#bch1jjj miles74 ,the parallax of the ,moon not only tells us definitely the distance of our planet1 but also permits us to calculate its real volume by the measure of its apparent volume4 ,as the diameter of the ,moon seen from the ,earth subtends an angle of #ca'1 while that of the ,earth seen from the ,moon is #aad'1 the real diameter of the orb of night must be to that of the terrestrial globe in the relation of #bgc to #a1jjj4 ,that is a little more than a quarter1 or #c1dhj kilometers 7#b1aeg miles71 the diameter of our planet being #ab1gdb kilometers 7#g1ijj miles74 ,this distance1 calculated thus by geometry1 is positively determined with greater precision than that employed in the ordinary measurements of terrestrial distances1 such as the length of a road1 or of a railway4 ,this statement may seem to be a romance to many1 but it is undeniable that the distance separating the ,earth from the ,moon is measured with greater care than1 for instance1 the length of the road from ,paris to ,marseilles1 or the weight of a pound of sugar at the grocer's4 7,and we may add without comment1 that the astronomers are incomparably more conscientious in their measurements than the most scrupulous shop-keepers47 ,had we conveyed ourselves to the ,moon in order to determine its distance and its diameter directly1 we should have arrived at no greater precision1 and we should1 moreover1 have had to plan out a journey which in itself is the most insurmountable of all the problems4 ,the ,moon is at the frontier of our little terrestrial province3 one might say that it traces the limits of our domain in space4 ,and yet1 a distance of #chd1jjj kilometers 7#bch1jjj miles7 separates the planet from the satellite4 ,this space is insignificant in the immeasurable distances of ,heaven3 for the ,saturnians 7if such exist67 the ,earth and the ,moon are confounded in one tiny star2 but for the inhabitants of our globe1 the distance is beyond all to which we are accustomed4 ,let us try1 however1 to span it in thought4 ,a cannon-ball at constant speed of #ejj meters 7#edg yards7 per second would travel #h days1 #e hours to reach the ,moon4 ,a train started at a speed of one kilometer per minute1 would arrive at the end of an uninterrupted journey in #chd1jjj minutes1 or #f1djj hours1 or #bff days1 #af hours4 ,and in less than the time it takes to write the name of the ,queen of ,night1 a telegraphic message would convey our news to the ,moon in one and a quarter seconds4 ,long-distance travelers who have been round the world some dozen times have journeyed a greater distance4 ,the other stars 7beginning with the ,sun7 are incomparably farther from us4 ,yet it has been found possible to determine their distances1 and the same method has been employed4 ,but it will at once be seen that different measures are required in calculating the distance of the ,sun1 #chh times farther from us than the ,moon1 for from here to the orb of day is #ab1jjj times the breadth of our planet4 ,here we must not think of erecting a triangle with the diameter of the ,earth for its base3 the two ideal lines drawn from the extremities of this diameter would come together between the ,earth and the ,sun2 there would be no triangle1 and the measurement would be absurd4 ,in order to measure the distance which separates the ,earth from the ,sun1 we have recourse to the fine planet ,venus1 whose orbit is situated inside the terrestrial orbit4 ,owing to the combination of the ,earth's motion with that of the ,star of the ,morning and ,evening1 the capricious ,venus passes in front of the ,sun at the curious intervals of #h years1 #aac-a_/b years less #h years1 #h years1 #aac-a_/b years plus #h years4 ,thus there was a transit in ,june1 #agfa1 then another #h years after1 in ,june1 #agfi4 ,the next occurred #aac-a_/b years less #h years1 i4e41 #aje-a_/b years after the preceding1 in ,december1 #ahgd2 the next in ,december1 #ahhb4 ,the next will be in ,june1 #bjjd1 and ,june1 #bjab4 ,at these eagerly anticipated epochs1 astronomers watch the transit of ,venus across the ,sun at two terrestrial stations as far as possible removed from each other1 marking the two points at which the planet1 seen from their respective stations1 appears to be projected at the same moment on the solar disk4 ,this measure gives the width of an angle formed by two lines1 which starting from two diametrically opposite points of the ,earth1 cross upon ,venus1 and form an identical angle upon the ,sun4 ,venus is thus at the apex of two equal triangles1 the bases of which rest1 respectively1 upon the ,earth and on the ,sun4 ,the measurement of this angle gives what is called the parallax of the ,sun--that is1 the angular dimension at which the ,earth would be seen at the distance of the ,sun4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hc4--,measurement of the distance of the ,sun4 ,thus1 it has been found that the half-diameter of the ,earth viewed from the ,sun measures #h4hb4 ,now1 we know that an object presenting an angle of one degree is at a distance of #eg times its length4 ,the same object1 if it subtends an angle of a minute1 or the sixtieth part of a degree1 indicates by the measurement of its angle that it is #fj times more distant1 i4e41 #c1dch times4 ,finally1 an object that measures one second1 or the sixtieth part of a minute1 is at a distance of #bjf1bfe times its length4 ,hence we find that the ,earth is at a distance from the ,sun of #bjf1bfe_/h4hb--that is1 #bc1chf times its half-diameter1 that is1 #adi1jjj1jjj kilometers 7#ic1jjj1jjj miles74 ,this measurement again is as precise and certain as that of the ,moon4 ,i hope my readers will easily grasp this simple method of triangulation1 the result of which indicates to us with absolute certainty the distance of the two great celestial torches to which we owe the radiant light of day and the gentle illumination of our nights4 ,the distance of the ,sun has1 moreover1 been confirmed by other means1 whose results agree perfectly with the preceding4 ,the two principal are based on the velocity of light4 ,the propagation of light is not instantaneous1 and notwithstanding the extreme rapidity of its movements1 a certain time is required for its transmission from one point to another4 ,on the ,earth1 this velocity has been measured as #cjj1jjj kilometers 7#ahf1jjj miles7 per second4 ,to come from ,jupiter to the ,earth1 it requires thirty to forty minutes1 according to the distance of the planet4 ,now1 in examining the eclipses of ,jupiter's satellites1 it has been discovered that there is a difference of #af minutes1 #cd seconds in the moment of their occurrence1 according as ,jupiter is on one side or on the other of the ,sun1 relatively to the ,earth1 at the minimum and maximum distance4 ,if the light takes #af minutes1 #cd seconds to traverse the terrestrial orbit1 it must take less than that time1 or #h minutes1 #ag seconds1 to come to us from the ,sun1 which is situated at the center4 ,knowing the velocity of light1 the distance of the ,sun is easily found by multiplying #cjj1jjj by #h minutes1 #ag seconds1 or #dig seconds1 which gives about #adi1jjj1jjj kilometers 7#ic1jjj1jjj miles74 ,another method founded upon the velocity of light again gives a confirmatory result4 ,a familiar example will explain it3 ,let us imagine ourselves exposed to a vertical rain2 the degree of inclination of our umbrella will depend on the relation between our speed and that of the drops of rain4 ,the more quickly we run1 the more we need to dip our umbrella in order not to meet the drops of water4 ,now the same thing occurs for light4 ,the stars1 disseminated in space1 shed floods of light upon the ,heavens4 ,if the ,earth were motionless1 the luminous rays would reach us directly4 ,but our planet is spinning1 racing1 with the utmost speed1 and in our astronomical observations we are forced to follow its movements1 and to incline our telescopes in the direction of its advance4 ,this phenomenon1 known under the name of aberration of light1 is the result of the combined effects of the velocity of light and of the ,earth's motion4 ,it shows that the speed of our globe is equivalent to #a_/ajjjj that of light1 i4e41 about #cj kilometers 7#ai miles7 per second4 ,our planet accordingly accomplishes her revolution round the ,sun along an orbit which she traverses at a speed of #cj kilometers 7better #bi-a_/b7 per second1 or #a1ggj kilometers per minute1 or #ajf1jjj kilometers per hour1 or #b1eib1jjj kilometers per day1 or #idf1jhj1jjj kilometers 7#ehf1efi1fjj miles7 in the year4 ,this is the length of the elliptical path described by the ,earth in her annual translation4 ,the length of orbit being thus discovered1 one can calculate its diameter1 the half of which is exactly the distance of the ,sun4 ,we may cite one last method1 whose data1 based upon attraction1 are provided by the motions of our satellite4 ,the ,moon is a little disturbed in the regularity of her course round the ,earth by the influence of the powerful ,sun4 ,as the attraction varies inversely with the square of the distance1 the distance may be determined by analyzing the effect it has upon the ,moon4 ,other means1 on which we will not enlarge in this summary of the methods employed for determinations1 confirm the precisions of these measurements with certainty4 ,our readers must forgive us for dwelling at some length upon the distance of the orb of day1 since this measurement is of the highest importance2 it serves as the base for the valuation of all stellar distances1 and may be considered as the meter of the universe4 ,this radiant ,sun to which we owe so much is therefore enthroned in space at a distance of #adi1jjj1jjj kilometers 7#ic1jjj1jjj miles7 from here4 ,its vast brazier must indeed be powerful for its influence to be exerted upon us to such a manifest extent1 it being the very condition of our existence1 and reaching out as far as ,neptune1 thirty times more remote than ourselves from the solar focus4 ,it is on account of its great distance that the ,sun appears to us no larger than the ,moon1 which is only #chd1jjj kilometers 7#bch1jjj miles7 from here1 and is itself illuminated by the brilliancy of this splendid orb4 ,no terrestrial distance admits of our conceiving of this distance4 ,yet1 if we associate the idea of space with the idea of time1 as we have already done for the ,moon1 we may attempt to picture this abyss4 ,the train cited just now would1 if started at a speed of a kilometer a minute1 arrive at the ,sun after an uninterrupted course of #bhc years1 and taking as long to return to the ,earth the total would be #eff years4 ,fourteen generations of stokers would be employed on this celestial excursion before the bold travelers could bring back news of the expedition to us4 ,sound is transmitted through the air at a velocity of #cdj meters 7#a1aae feet7 per second4 ,if our atmosphere reached to the ,sun1 the noise of an explosion sufficiently formidable to be heard here would only reach us at the end of #ac years1 #i months4 ,but the more rapid carriers1 such as the telegraph1 would leap across to the orb of day in #h minutes1 #ag seconds4 ,our imagination is confounded before this gulf of #ic1jjj1jjj miles1 across which we see our dazzling ,sun1 whose burning rays fly rapidly through space in order to reach us4 99 99 99 99 99 ,and now let us see how the distances of the planets were determined4 ,we will leave aside the method of which we have been speaking2 that now to be employed is quite different1 but equally precise in its results4 ,it is obvious that the revolution of a planet round the ,sun will be longer in proportion as the distance is greater1 and the orbit that has to be traveled vaster4 ,this is simple4 ,but the most curious thing is that there is a geometric proportion in the relations between the duration of the revolutions of the planets and their distances4 ,this proportion was discovered by ,kepler1 after thirty years of research1 and embodied in the following formula3 ,the squares of the times of revolution of the planets round the ,sun 7the periodic times7 are proportional to the cubes of their mean distances from the ,sun4 ,this is enough to alarm the boldest reader4 ,and yet1 if we unravel this somewhat incomprehensible phrase1 we are struck with its simplicity4 ,what is a square8 ,we all know this much2 it is taught to children of ten years old4 ,but lest it has slipped your memory3 a square is simply a number multiplied by itself4 ,thus3 #b x #b #d2 #d is the square of #b4 ,four times #d is #af2 #af is the square of #d4 ,and so on1 indefinitely4 ,now1 what is a cube8 ,it is no more difficult4 ,it is a number multiplied twice by itself4 ,for instance3 #b multiplied by #b and again by #b equals #h4 ,so #h is the cube of #b4 #c x #c x #c #bg2 #bg is the cube of #c1 and so on4 ,now let us take an example that will show the simplicity and precision of the formula enunciated above4 ,let us choose a planet1 no matter which4 ,say1 ,jupiter1 the giant of the worlds4 ,he is the ,lord of our planetary group4 ,this colossal star is five times 7precisely1 #e4b7 as far from us as the ,sun4 ,multiply this number twice by itself #e4b x #e4b x #e4b #adj4 ,on the other hand1 the revolution of ,jupiter takes almost twelve years 7#aa4he74 ,this number multiplied by itself also equals #adj4 ,the square of the number #aa4he is equal to the cube of the number #e4b4 ,this very simple law regulates all the heavenly bodies4 ,thus1 to find the distance of a planet1 it is sufficient to observe the time of its revolution1 then to discover the square of the given number by multiplying it into itself4 ,the result of the operation gives simultaneously the cube of the number that represents the distance4 ,to express this distance in kilometers 7or miles71 it is sufficient to multiply it by #adi1jjj1jjj 7in miles #ic1jjj1jjj71 the key to the system of the world4 ,nothing1 then1 could be less complicated than the definition of these methods4 ,a few moments of attention reveal to us in their majestic simplicity the immutable laws that preside over the immense harmony of the ,heavens4 99 99 99 99 99 ,but we must not confine ourselves to our own solar province4 ,we have yet to speak of the stars that reign in infinite space far beyond our radiant ,sun4 ,strange and audacious as it may appear1 the human mind is able to cross these heights1 to rise on the wings of genius to these distant suns1 and to plumb the depths of the abyss that separates us from these celestial kingdoms4 ,here1 we return to our first method1 that of triangulation4 ,and the distance that separates us from the ,sun must serve in calculating the distances of the stars4 ,the ,earth1 spinning round the ,sun at a distance of #adi1jjj1jjj kilometers 7#ic1jjj1jjj miles71 describes a circumference1 or rather an ellipse1 of #icf1jjj1jjj kilometers 7#ehj1cbj1jjj miles71 which it travels over in a year4 ,the distance of any point of the terrestrial orbit from the diametrically opposite point which it passes six months later is #bih1jjj1jjj kilometers 7#ahd1gfj1jjj miles71 i4e41 the diameter of this orbit4 ,this immense distance 7in comparison with those with which we are familiar7 serves as the base of a triangle of which the apex is a star4 ,the difficulty in exact measurements of the distance of a star consists in observing the little luminous point persistently for a whole year1 to see if this star is stationary1 or if it describes a minute ellipse reproducing in perspective the annual revolution of the ,earth4 ,if it remains fixed1 it is lost in such depths of space that it is impossible to gage the distance1 and our #bih1jjj1jjj kilometers have no meaning in view of such an abyss4 ,if1 on the contrary1 it is displaced1 it will in the year describe a minute ellipse1 which is only the reflection1 the perspective in miniature1 of the revolution of our planet round the ,sun4 ,the annual parallax of a star is the angle under which one would see the radius1 or half-diameter1 of the terrestrial orbit from it4 ,this radius of #adi1jjj1jjj kilometers 7#ic1jjj1jjj miles7 is indeed1 as previously observed1 the unit1 the meter of celestial measures4 ,the angle is of course smaller in proportion as the star is more distant1 and the apparent motion of the star diminishes in the same proportion4 ,but the stars are all so distant that their annual displacement of perspective is almost imperceptible1 and very exact instruments are required for its detection4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hd4--,small apparent ellipses described by the stars as a result of the annual displacement of the ,earth4 ,the researches of the astronomers have proved that there is not one star for which the parallax is equal to that of another4 ,the minuteness of this angle1 and the extraordinary difficulties experienced in measuring the distance of the stars1 will be appreciated from the fact that the value of a second is so small that the displacement of any star corresponding with it could be covered by a spider's thread4 ,a second of arc corresponds to the size of an object at a distance of #bjf1bfe times its diameter2 to a millimeter seen at #bjf meters' distance2 to a hair1 #a_/aj of a millimeter in thickness1 at #bj meters' distance 7more invisible to the naked eye74 ,and yet this value is in excess of those actually obtained4 ,in fact3--the apparent displacement of the nearest star is calculated at #ge_/ajj of a second 7#j4ge71 i4e41 from this star1 alpha of ,centaur1 the half-diameter of the terrestrial orbit is reduced to this infinitesimal dimension4 ,now in order that the length of any straight line seen from the front be reduced until it appear to subtend no more than an angle of #j4ge1 it must be removed to a distance #bge1jjj times its length4 ,as the radius of the terrestrial orbit is #adi1jjj1jjj kilometers 7#ic1jjj1jjj miles71 the distance which separates alpha of ,centaur from our world must therefore #da1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj kilometers 7#be1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj miles74 ,and that is the nearest star4 ,we saw in ,chapter ,,ii that it shines in the southern hemisphere4 ,the next1 and one that can be seen in our latitudes1 is #fa of ,cygnus1 which floats in the ,heavens #fh1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj kilometers 7#db1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj miles7 from here4 ,this little star1 of fifth magnitude1 was the first of which the distance was determined 7by ,bessel1 #ahcg-ahdj74 ,all the rest are much more remote1 and the procession is extended to infinity4 ,we can not conceive directly of such distances1 and in order to imagine them we must again measure space by time4 ,in order to cover the distance that separates us from our neighbor1 alpha of ,centaur1 light1 the most rapid of all couriers1 takes #d years1 #abh days4 ,if we would follow it1 we must not jump from start to finish1 for that would not give us the faintest idea of the distance3 we must take the trouble to think out the direct advance of the ray of light1 and associate ourselves with its progress4 ,we must see it traverse #cjj1jjj kilometers 7#ahf1jjj miles7 during the first second of the journey2 then #cjj1jjj more in the second1 which makes #fjj1jjj kilometers2 then once more #cjj1jjj kilometers during the third1 and so on without stopping for four years and four months4 ,if we take this trouble we may realize the value of the figure2 otherwise1 as this number surpasses all that we are in the habit of realizing1 it will have no significance for us1 and will be a dead letter4 ,if some appalling explosion occurred in this star1 and the sound in its flight of #cdj meters 7#a1aae feet7 per second were able to cross the void that separates us from it1 the noise of this explosion would only reach us in #c1jjj1jjj years4 ,a train started at a speed of #ajf kilometers 7#fe miles7 per hour would have to run for #df1jjj1jjj years1 in order to reach this star1 our neighbor in the celestial kingdom4 ,the distance of some thirty of the stars has been determined1 but the results are dubious4 ,the dazzling ,sirius reigns #ib1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj kilometers 7#eg1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj miles71 the pale ,vega at #bjd1jjj1jjj1jjj1jjj4 ,each of these magnificent stars must be a huge sun to burn at such a distance with such luminosity4 ,some are millions of times larger than the ,earth4 ,most of them are more voluminous than our ,sun4 ,on all sides they scintillate at inaccessible distances1 and their light strays a long while in space before it encounters the ,earth4 ,the luminous ray that we receive to-day from some pale star hardly perceptible to our eyes--so enormous is its distance--may perhaps bring us the last emanation of a sun that expired thousands of years ago4 99 99 99 99 99 ,if these methods have been clear to my readers1 they may also be interested perhaps in knowing the means employed in weighing the worlds4 ,the process is as simple and as clear as those of which we have been speaking4 ,weighing the stars6 ,such a pretension seems ,utopian1 and one asks oneself curiously what sort of balance the astronomers must have adopted in order to calculate the weight of ,sun1 ,moon1 planets or stars4 ,here1 figures replace weights4 ,ladies proverbially dislike figures3 yet it would be easier for some society dame to weigh the ,sun at the point of her pen1 by writing down a few columns of figures with a little care1 than to weigh a #ab kilogram case of fruit1 or a dress-basket of #ce kilos1 by direct methods4 ,weighing the ,sun is an amusement like any other1 and a change of occupation4 ,if the ,moon were not attracted by the ,earth1 she would glide through the ,heavens along an indefinite straight line1 escaping at the tangent4 ,but in virtue of the attraction that governs the movements of all the ,heavenly bodies1 our satellite at a distance of #fj times the terrestrial half-diameter revolves round us in #bg days1 #g hours1 #dc minutes1 #aa-a_/b seconds1 continually leaving the straight line to approach the ,earth1 and describing an almost circular orbit in space4 ,if at any moment we trace an arc of the lunar orbit1 and if a tangent is taken to this arc1 the deviation from the straight line caused by the attraction of our planet is found to be #a-a_/c millimeter per second4 ,this is the quantity by which the ,moon drops toward us in each second1 during which she accomplishes #a1jag meters of her orbit4 ,on the other hand1 no body can fall unless it be attracted1 drawn by another body of a more powerful mass4 ,beings1 animals1 objects1 adhere to the soil1 and weigh upon the ,earth1 because they are constantly attracted to it by an irresistible force4 ,weight and universal attraction are one and the same force4 ,on the other hand1 it can be determined that if an object is left to itself upon the surface of the ,earth1 it drops #d4ij meters during the first second of its fall4 ,we also know that attraction diminishes with the square of the distance1 and that if we could raise a stone to the height of the ,moon1 and then abandon it to the attraction of our planet1 it would in the first second fall #d4ij meters divided by the square of #fj1 or #c1fjj--that is1 of #a-a_/c millimeters1 exactly the quantity by which the ,moon deviates from the straight line she would pursue if the ,earth were not influencing her4 ,the reasoning just stated for the ,moon is equally applicable to the ,sun4 ,the distance of the ,sun is #bc1chf times the radius of the ,earth4 ,in order to know how much the intensity of terrestrial weight would be diminished at such a distance1 we should look1 in the first place1 for the square of the number representing the distance--that is1 #bc1chf multiplied by itself1 #edf1ije1jjj4 ,if we divide #d4ij meters1 which represents the attractive force of our planet1 by this number1 we get #i_/ajjjjjj of a millimeter1 and we see that at the distance of the ,sun1 the ,earth's attraction would really be almost nil4 ,now let us do for our planet what we did for its satellite4 ,let us trace the annual orbit of the terrestrial globe round the central orb1 and we shall find that the ,earth falls in each second #b4i millimeters toward the ,sun4 ,this proportion gives the attractive force of the ,sun in relation to that of the ,earth1 and proves that the ,sun is #cbd1jjj times more powerful than our world1 for #b4i millimeters divided by #j4jjj1jji equals #cbd1jjj1 if worked out into the ultimate fractions neglected here for the sake of simplicity4 ,a great number of stars have been weighed by the same method4 ,their mass is estimated by the movement of a satellite round them1 and it is by this method that we are able to affirm that ,jupiter is #caj times heavier than the ,earth1 ,saturn #ib times1 ,neptune #af times1 ,uranus #ad times1 while ,mars is much less heavy1 its weight being only two-thirds that of our own4 ,the planets which have no satellites have been weighed by the perturbations which they cause in other stars1 or in the imprudent comets that sometimes tarry in their vicinity4 ,mercury weighs very much less than the ,earth 7only #f_/ajj7 and ,venus about #h_/aj4 ,so the beautiful star of the evening and morning is not so light as her name might imply1 and there is no great difference between her weight and our own4 ,as the ,moon has no secondary body submitted to her influence1 her weight has been calculated by reckoning the amount of water she attracts at each tide in the ocean1 or by observing the effects of her attraction on the terrestrial globe4 ,when the ,moon is before us1 in the last quarter1 she makes us travel faster1 whereas in the first quarter1 when she is behind1 she delays us4 ,all the calculations agree in showing us that the orb of night is #ha times less heavy than our planet4 ,there is nearly as much difference in weight between the ,earth and the ,moon as between an orange and a grape4 99 99 99 99 99 ,not content with weighing the planets of our system1 astronomers have investigated the weight of the stars4 ,how have they been enabled to ascertain the quantity of matter which constitutes these distant ,suns--incandescent globes of fire scattered in the depths of space8 ,they have resorted to the same method1 and it is by the study of the attractive influence of a sun upon some other contiguous neighboring star1 that the weight of a few of these has been calculated4 ,of course this method can only be applied to those double stars of which the distance is known4 ,it has been discovered that some of the tiny stars that we can hardly see twinkling in the depths of the azure sky are enormous suns1 larger and heavier than our own1 and millions of times more voluminous than the ,earth4 ,our planet is only a grain of dust floating in the immensity of ,heaven4 ,yet this atom of infinity is the cradle of an immense creation incessantly renewed1 and perpetually transformed by the accumulated centuries4 ,and what diversity exists in this army of worlds and suns1 whose regular harmonious march obeys a mute order4444 ,but we have as yet said nothing about weight on the surface of the worlds1 and ,i see signs of impatience in my readers1 for after so much simple if unpoetical demonstration1 they will certainly ask me for the explanation that will prove to them that a kilogram transported to ,jupiter or ,mars would weigh more or less than here4 ,give me your attention five minutes longer1 and ,i will restore your faith in the astronomers4 ,it must not be supposed that objects at the surface of a world like ,jupiter1 #caj times heavier than our own1 weigh #caj times more4 ,that would be a serious error4 ,in that case we should have to assume that a kilogram transported to the surface of the ,sun would there weigh #cbd1jjj times more1 or #cbd1jjj kilograms4 ,that would be correct if these orbs were of the same dimensions as the ,earth4 ,but to speak1 for instance1 only of the divine ,sun1 we know that he is #ajh times larger than our little planet4 ,now1 weight at the surface of a celestial body depends not only on its mass1 but also on its diameter4 ,in order to know the weight of any body upon the surface of the ,sun1 we must argue as follows3 ,since a body placed upon the surface of the ,sun is #ajh times farther from its center than it is upon a globe of the dimensions of the ,earth1 and since1 on the other hand1 attraction diminishes with the square of the distance1 the intensity of the weight would there be #ajh multiplied by #ajh1 or #aa1gjj times weaker4 ,now divide the number representing the mass1 i4e41 #cbd1jjj1 by this number #aa1gjj1 and it results that bodies at the surface of the ,sun are #bh times heavier than here4 ,a woman whose weight was #fj kilos would weigh #a1fhj kilograms there if organized in the same way as on the ,earth1 and would find walking very difficult1 for at each step she would lift up a shoe that weighed at least ten kilograms4 ,this reasoning as just stated for the ,sun may be applied to the other stars4 ,we know that on the surface of ,jupiter the intensity of weight is twice and a third times as great as here1 while on ,mars it only equals #cg_/ajj4 ,on the surface of ,mercury1 weight is nearly twice as small again as here4 ,on ,neptune it is approximately equal to our own4 ,with deference to the ,selenites1 everything is at its lightest on the ,moon3 a man weighing #gj kilograms on the ,earth would not weigh more than #ab kilos there4 ,so all tastes can be provided for3 the only thing to be regretted is that one can not choose one's planet with the same facility as one's residence upon the ,earth4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,life1 ,,universal ,,and ,,eternal ,and now1 while thanking my readers for having followed me so far in this descriptive account of the marvels of the ,cosmos1 ,i must inquire what philosophical impression has been produced on their minds by these celestial excursions to the other worlds8 ,are you left indifferent to the pageant of the ,heavens8 ,when your imagination was borne away to these distant stars1 suns of the infinite1 these innumerable stellar systems disseminated through a boundless eternity1 did you ask what existed there1 what purpose was served by those dazzling spheres1 what effects resulted from these forces1 radiations1 energies8 ,did you reflect that the elements which upon our little ,earth determined a vital activity so prodigious and so varied must needs have spread the waves of an incomparably vaster and more diversified existence throughout the immensities of the ,universe8 ,have you felt that all can not be dead and deserted1 as we are tempted by the illusions of our terrestrial senses and of our isolation to believe in the silence of the night3 that on the contrary1 the real aim of ,astronomy1 instead of ending with statements of the positions and movements of the stars1 is to enable us to penetrate to them1 to make us divine1 and know1 and appreciate their physical constitution1 their degree of life and intellectuality in the universal order8 ,on the ,earth1 it is ,life and ,thought that flourish2 and it is ,life and ,thought that we seek again in these starry constellations strewn to ,infinitude amid the immeasurable fields of ,heaven4 ,the humble little planet that we inhabit presents itself to us as a brimming cup1 overflowing at every outlet4 ,life is everywhere4 ,from the bottom of the seas1 from the valleys to the mountains1 from the vegetation that carpets the soil1 from the mold in the fields and woods1 from the air we breathe1 arises an immense1 prodigious1 and perpetual murmur4 ,listen6 it is the great voice of ,nature1 the sum of all the unknown and mysterious voices that are forever calling to us1 from the ocean waves1 from the forest winds1 from the #cjj1jjj kinds of insects that are redundant everywhere1 and make a lively community on the surface of our globe4 ,a drop of water contains thousands of curious and agile creatures4 ,a grain of dust from the streets of ,paris is the home of #acj1jjj bacteria4 ,if we turn over the soil of a garden1 field1 or meadow1 we find the earthworms working to produce assimilable slime4 ,if we lift a stone in the path1 we discover a crawling population4 ,if we gather a flower1 detach a leaf1 we everywhere find little insects living a parasitic existence4 ,swarms of midges fly in the sun1 the trees of the wood are peopled with nests1 the birds sing1 and chase each other at play1 the lizards dart away at our approach1 we trample down the antheaps and the molehills4 ,life enwraps us in an inexorable encroachment of which we are at once the heroes and the victims1 perpetuating itself to its own detriment1 as imposed upon it by an eternal reproduction4 ,and this from all time1 for the very stones of which we build our houses are full of fossils so prodigiously multiplied that one gram of such stone will often contain millions of shells1 marvels of geometrical perfection4 ,the infinitely little is equal to the infinitely great4 ,life appears to us as a fatal law1 an imperious force which all obey1 as the result and the aim of the association of atoms4 ,this is illustrated for us upon the ,earth1 our only field of direct observation4 ,we must be blind not to see this spectacle1 deaf not to hear its reaching4 ,on what pretext could one suppose that our little globe which1 as we have seen1 has received no privileges from ,nature1 is the exception2 and that the entire ,universe1 save for one insignificant isle1 is devoted to vacancy1 solitude1 and death8 ,we have a tendency to imagine that ,life can not exist under conditions other than terrestrial1 and that the other worlds can only be inhabited on the condition of being similar to our own4 ,but terrestrial nature itself demonstrates to us the error of this way of thinking4 ,we die in the water3 fishes die out of the water4 ,again1 short-sighted naturalists affirm categorically that ,life is impossible at the bottom of the sea3 #a1 because it is in complete darkness2 #b1 because the terrible pressure would burst any organism2 #c1 because all motion would be impossible there1 and so on4 ,some inquisitive person sends down a dredge1 and brings up lovely creatures1 so delicate in structure that the daintiest touch must proceed with circumspection4 ,there is no light in these depths3 they make it with their own phosphorescence4 ,other inquirers visit subterranean caverns1 and discover animals and plants whose organs have been transformed by adaptation to their gloomy environment4 ,what right have we to say to the vital energy that radiates round every ,sun of the ,universe3 ,thus far shalt thou come1 and no further8 ,in the name of ,science8 ,an absolute mistake4 ,the ,known is an infinitesimal island in the midst of the vast ocean of the ,unknown4 ,the deep seas which seemed to be a barrier are1 as we have seen1 peopled with special life4 ,some one objects3 ,but after all1 there is air there1 there is oxygen3 oxygen is indispensable3 a world without oxygen would be a world of death1 an eternally sterile desert4 ,why8 ,because we have not yet come across beings that can breathe without air1 and live without oxygen8 ,another mistake4 ,even if we did not know of any1 it would not prove that they do not exist4 ,but as it happens1 we do know of such3 the anaerobia4 ,these beings live without air1 without oxygen4 ,better still3 oxygen kills them6 ,all the evidence goes to show that in interpreting as we ought the spectacle of terrestrial life1 and the positive facts acquired by ,science1 we should enlarge the circle of our conceptions and our judgments1 and not limit extra-terrestrial existence to the servile image of what is in existence here below4 ,terrestrial organic forms are due to local causes upon our planet4 ,the chemical constitution of water and of the atmosphere1 temperature1 light1 density1 weight1 are so many elements that have gone to form our bodies4 ,our flesh is composed of carbon1 nitrogen1 hydrogen1 and oxygen combined in the state of water1 and of some other elements1 among which we may instance sodium chloride 7salt74 ,the flesh of animals is not chemically different from our own4 ,all this comes from the water and the air1 and returns to them again4 ,the same elements1 in very minute quantities1 make up all living bodies4 ,the ox that browses on the grass is formed of the same flesh as the man who eats the beef4 ,all organized terrestrial matter is only carbon combined in variable proportions with hydrogen1 nitrogen1 oxygen1 etc4 ,but we have no right to forbid ,nature to act differently in worlds from which carbon is absent4 ,a world1 for example1 in which silica replaces carbon1 silicic acid carbonic acid1 might be inhabited by organisms absolutely different from those which exist on the ,earth1 different not only in form1 but also in substance4 ,we already know stars and suns for which spectral analysis reveals a predominance of silica1 e4g41 ,rigel and ,deneb4 ,in a world where chlorine predominated1 we might expect to find hydrochloric acid1 and all the fecund family of chlorides1 playing an important part in the phenomena of life4 ,might not bromine be associated in other formations8 ,why1 indeed1 should we draw the line at terrestrial chemistry8 ,what is to prove that these elements are really simple8 ,may not hydrogen1 carbon1 oxygen1 nitrogen1 and sulphur all be compounds8 ,their equivalents are multiples of the first3 #a1 #f1 #h1 #ad1 #af4 ,and is even hydrogen the most simple of the elements8 ,is not its molecule composed of atoms1 and may there not exist a single species of primitive atom1 whose geometric arrangement and various associations might constitute the molecules of the so-called simple elements8 ,in our own solar system we discover the essential differences between certain planets4 ,in the spectrum of ,jupiter1 for instance1 we are aware of the action of an unknown substance that manifests itself by a marked absorption of certain red rays4 ,this gas1 which does not exist upon the ,earth1 is seen still more obviously in the atmospheres of ,saturn and ,uranus4 ,indeed1 upon this last planet the atmosphere appears1 apart from its water vapor1 to have no sort of analogy with our own4 ,and in the solar spectrum itself1 many of the lines have not yet been identified with terrestrial substances4 ,the interrelation of the planets is of course incontrovertible1 since they are all children of the same parent4 ,but they differ among themselves1 not merely in respect of situation1 position1 volume1 mass1 density1 temperature1 atmosphere1 but again in physical and chemical constitution4 ,and the point we would now accent is that this diversity should not be regarded as an obstacle to the manifestations of life1 but1 on the contrary1 as a new field open to the infinite fecundity of the universal mother4 ,when our thoughts take wing1 not only to our neighbors1 ,moon1 ,venus1 ,mars1 ,jupiter1 or ,saturn1 but still more toward the myriads of unknown worlds that gravitate round the suns disseminated in space1 we have no plausible reason for imagining that the inhabitants of these other worlds of ,heaven resemble us in any way1 whether in form1 or even in organic substance4 ,the substance of the terrestrial human body is due to the elements of our planet1 and notably to carbon4 ,the terrestrial human form derives from the ancestral animal forms to which it has gradually raised itself by the continuous progress of the transformation of species4 ,to us it seems obvious that we are man or woman1 because we have a head1 a heart1 lungs1 two legs1 two arms1 and so on4 ,nothing is less a matter of course4 ,that we are constituted as we are1 is simply the result of our pro-simian ancestors having also had a head1 a heart1 lungs1 legs1 and arms--less elegant than your own1 it is true1 ,madam1 but still of the same anatomy4 ,and more and more1 by the progress of paleontology1 we are delving down to the origin of beings4 ,as certain as it is that the bird derives from the reptile by a process of organic evolution1 so certain is it that terrestrial ,humanity represents the topmost branches of the huge genealogical tree1 whereof all the limbs are brothers1 and the roots of which are plunged into the very rudiments of the most elementary and primitive organisms4 ,the multitude of worlds is surely peopled by every imaginable and unimaginable form4 ,terrestrial man is endowed with five senses1 or perhaps it is better to say six4 ,why should ,nature stop at this point8 ,why1 for instance1 may she not have given to certain beings an electrical sense1 a magnetic sense1 a sense of orientation1 an organ able to perceive the ethereal vibrations of the infra-red or ultra-violet1 or permitted them to hear at a distance1 or to see through walls8 ,we eat and digest like coarse animals1 we are slaves to our digestive tube3 may there not be worlds in which a nutritive atmosphere enables its fortunate inhabitants to dispense with this absurd process8 ,the least sparrow1 even the dusky bat1 has an advantage over us in that it can fly through the air4 ,think how inferior are our conditions1 since the man of greatest genius1 the most exquisite woman1 are nailed to the soil like any vulgar caterpillar before its metamorphosis6 ,would it be a disadvantage to inhabit a world in which we might fly whither we would2 a world of scented luxury1 full of animated flowers2 a world where the winds would be incapable of exciting a tempest1 where several suns of different colors--the diamond glowing with the ruby1 or the emerald with the sapphire--would burn night and day 7azure nights and scarlet days7 in the glory of an eternal spring2 with multi-colored moons sleeping in the mirror of the waters1 phosphorescent mountains1 aerial inhabitants1--men1 women1 or perhaps of other sexes1--perfect in their forms1 gifted with multiple sensibilities1 luminous at will1 incombustible as asbestos1 perhaps immortal1 unless they commit suicide out of curiosity8 ,lilliputian atoms as we are1 let us once for all be convinced that our imagination is but sterility1 in the midst of an infinitude hardly glimpsed by the telescope4 ,one important point seems always to be ignored expressly by those who blindly deny the doctrine of the plurality of worlds4 ,it is that this doctrine does not apply more particularly to the present epoch than to any other4 ,our time is of no importance1 no absolute value4 ,eternity is the field of the ,eternal ,sower4 ,there is no reason why the other worlds should be inhabited now more than at any other epoch4 ,what1 indeed1 is the ,present ,moment8 ,it is an open trap through which the ,future falls incessantly into the gulf of the ,past4 ,the immensity of ,heaven bears in its bosom cradles as well as tombs1 worlds to come and perished worlds4 ,it abounds in extinct suns1 and cemeteries4 ,in all probability ,jupiter is not yet inhabited4 ,what does this prove8 ,the ,earth was not inhabited during its primordial period3 what did that prove to the inhabitants of ,mars or of the ,moon1 who were perhaps observing it at that epoch1 a few million years ago8 ,to pretend that our globe must be the only inhabited world because the others do not resemble it1 is to reason1 not like a philosopher1 but1 as we remarked before1 like a fish4 ,every rational fish ought to assume that it is impossible to live out of water1 since its outlook and its philosophy do not extend beyond its daily life4 ,there is no answer to this order of reasoning1 except to advise a little wider perception1 and extension of the too narrow horizon of habitual ideas4 ,for us the resources of ,nature may be considered infinite1 and positive science1 founded upon our senses only1 is altogether inadequate1 although it is the only possible basis of our reasoning4 ,we must learn to see with the eyes of our spirit4 ,as to the planetary systems other than our own1 we are no longer reduced to hypotheses4 ,we already know with certainty that our ,sun is no exception1 as was suggested1 and is still maintained1 by some theorists4 ,the discovery in itself is curious enough4 ,it is surely an exceptional situation that1 given a sidereal system composed of a central sun1 and of one or more stars gravitating round him1 the plane of such a system should fall just within our line of vision1 and that it should revolve in such a way that the globes of which it is composed pass exactly between this sun and ourselves in turning round him1 eclipsing him more or less during this transit4 ,as1 on the other hand1 the eclipses would be our only means of determining the existence of these unknown planets 7save indeed from perturbation1 as in the case of ,sirius and ,procyon71 it might have seemed quixotic to hope for like conditions in order to discover solar systems other than our own4 ,but these exceptional circumstances have reproduced themselves at different parts of the ,heavens4 ,thus1 for instance1 we have seen that the variable star ,algol owes its variations in brilliancy1 which reduce it from second to fourth magnitude every sixty-nine hours1 to the interposition of a body between itself and the ,earth1 and celestial mechanics has already been able to determine accurately the orbit of this body1 its dimensions and its mass1 and even the flattening of the sun ,algol4 ,here1 then1 is a system in which we know the sun and an enormous planet1 whose revolution is effected in sixty-nine hours with extreme rapidity1 as measured by the spectroscope4 ,the star delta of ,cepheus is in the same case3 it is an orb eclipsed in a period of #abi hours1 and its eclipsing planet also revolves in the plane of our vision4 ,the variable star in ,ophiuchus has an analogous system1 and observation has already revealed a great number of others4 ,since1 then1 a certain number of solar systems differing from our own have been revealed1 as it were in section1 to terrestrial observation1 this affords us sufficient evidence of the existence of an innumerable quantity of solar systems scattered through the immensities of space1 and we are no longer reduced to conjecture4 ,on the other hand1 analysis of the motions of several stars1 such as ,sirius1 ,procyon1 ,altair1 proves that these distant orbs have companions1--planets not yet discovered by the telescope1 and that perhaps never will be discovered1 because they are obscure1 and lost in the radiation of the star4 99 99 99 99 99 ,some savants have asserted that ,life can not germinate if the conditions of the environment differ too much from terrestrial conditions4 ,this hypothesis is purely gratuitous1 and we will now discuss it4 ,in order to examine what is happening on the ,earth1 let us mount the ladder of time for a moment1 to follow the evolutions of ,nature4 ,there was an epoch when the ,earth did not exist4 ,our planet1 the future world of our habitation1 slept in the bosom of the solar nebula4 ,at last it came to birth1 this cherished ,earth1 a gaseous1 luminous ball1 poor reflection of the ,king of ,orbs1 its parent4 ,millions of years rolled by before the condensation and cooling of this new globe were sufficiently transformed to permit life to manifest itself in its most rudimentary aspects4 ,the first organic forms of the protoplasm1 the first aggregations of cells1 the protozoons1 the zoophytes or plant-animals1 the gelatinous mussels of the still warm seas1 were succeeded by the fishes1 then by the reptiles1 the birds1 the mammals1 and lastly man1 who at present occupies the top of the genealogical tree1 and crowns the animal kingdom4 ,humanity is comparatively young upon the ,earth4 ,we may attribute some thousands of centuries of existence to it 444 and some five years of reason6 ,the terrestrial organisms1 from the lowest up to man1 are the resultant of the forces in action at the surface of our planet4 ,the earliest seem to have been produced by the combinations of carbon with hydrogen and nitrogen2 they were1 so to speak1 without animation1 save for some very rudimentary sensibility2 the sponges1 corals1 polyps1 and medusae1 give us a notion of these primitive beings4 ,they were formed in the tepid waters of the primary epoch4 ,as long as there were no continents1 no islands emerging from the level of the universal ocean1 there were no beings breathing in the air4 ,the first aquatic creatures were succeeded by the amphibia1 the reptiles4 ,later on were developed the mammals and the birds4 ,what1 again1 do we not owe to the plant-world of the primary epoch1 of the secondary epoch1 of the tertiary epoch1 which slowly prepared the good nutritious soil of to-day1 in which the roses flourish1 and the peach and strawberry ripen8 ,before it gave birth to a ,helen or a ,cleopatra1 life manifested itself under the roughest forms1 and in the most varied conditions4 ,a long-period comet passing in sight of the ,earth from time to time would have seen modifications of existence in each of its transits1 in accordance with a slow evolution1 corresponding to the variation of the conditions of existence1 and progressing incessantly1 for if ,life is the goal of nature1 ,progress is the supreme law4 ,the history of our planet is the history of life1 with all its metamorphoses4 ,it is the same for all the worlds1 with some exceptions of orbs arrested in their development4 ,the constitution of living beings is in absolute relation with the substances of which they are composed1 the environment in which they move1 temperature1 light1 weight1 density1 the length of day and night1 the seasons1 etc4--in a word1 with all the cosmographic elements of a world4 ,if1 for example1 we compare between themselves two worlds such as the ,earth and ,neptune1 utterly different from the point of view of distance from the ,sun1 we could not for an instant suppose that organic structures could have followed a parallel development on these planets4 ,the average temperature must be much lower on ,neptune than on the ,earth1 and the same holds for intensity of light4 ,the years and seasons there are #afe times longer than with us1 the density of matter is three times as weak1 and weight is1 on the contrary1 a little greater4 ,under conditions so different from our own1 the activities of ,nature would have to translate themselves under other forms4 ,and doubtless the elementary bodies would not be found there in the same proportions4 ,consequently we have to conclude that organs and senses would not be the same there as here4 ,the optic nerve1 for instance1 which has formed and developed here from the rudimentary organ of the trilobite to the marvels of the human eye1 must be incomparably more sensitive upon ,neptune than in our dazzling solar luminosity1 in order to perceive radiations that we do not perceive here4 ,in all probability1 it is replaced there by some other organ4 ,the lungs1 functioning there in another atmosphere1 are different from our own4 ,so1 too1 for the stomach and digestive organs4 ,corporeal forms1 animal and human1 can not resemble those which exist upon the ,earth4 ,certain savants contend that if the conditions differed too much from terrestrial conditions1 life could not be produced there at all4 ,yet we have no right to limit the powers of ,nature to the narrow bounds of our sphere of observation1 and to pretend that our planet and our ,humanity are the type of all the worlds4 ,that is a hypothesis as ridiculous as it is childish4 ,do not let us be personal1 like children1 and old people who never see beyond their room4 ,let us learn to live in the ,infinite and the ,eternal4 ,from this larger point of view1 the doctrine of the plurality of worlds is the complement and the natural crown of ,astronomy4 ,what interests us most in the study of the ,universe is surely to know what goes on there4 99 99 99 99 99 ,these considerations show that1 in all the ages1 what really constitutes a planet is not its skeleton but the life that vibrates upon its surface4 ,and again1 if we analyze things1 we see that for the ,procession of ,nature1 life is all1 and matter nothing4 ,what has become of our ancestors1 the millions of human beings who preceded us upon this globe8 ,where are their bodies8 ,what is left of them8 ,search everywhere4 ,nothing is left but the molecules of air1 water1 dust1 atoms of hydrogen1 nitrogen1 oxygen1 carbon1 etc41 which are incorporated in turn in the organism of every living being4 ,the whole ,earth is a vast cemetery1 and its finest cities are rooted in the catacombs4 ,but now1 in crossing ,paris1 ,i passed for at least the thousandth time near the ,church of ,st4 ,germain-l',auxerrois1 and was obliged to turn out of the direct way1 on account of excavations4 ,i looked down1 and saw that immediately below the pavement1 they had just uncovered some stone coffins still containing the skeletons that had reposed there for ten centuries4 ,from time immemorial the passers-by had trampled them unwittingly under foot4 ,and ,i reflected that it is much the same in every quarter of ,paris4 ,only yesterday1 some ,roman tombs and a coin with the effigy of ,nero were found in a garden near the ,observatory4 ,and from the most general standpoint of ,life1 the whole world is in the same case1 and even more so1 seeing that all that exists1 all that lives1 is formed of elements that have already been incorporated in other beings1 no longer living4 ,the roses that adorn the bosom of the fair 444 but ,i will not enlarge upon this topic4 ,and you1 so strong and virile1 of what elements is your splendid body formed8 ,where have the elements you absorb to-day in respiration and assimilation been drawn from1 what lugubrious adventures have they been subject to8 ,think away from it3 do not insist on this point3 on no account consider it4444 ,and yet1 let us dwell on it1 since this reality is the most evident demonstration of the ideal2 since what exists is you1 is all of us1 is ,life2 and matter is only its substance1 like the materials of a house1 and even less so1 since its particles only pass rapidly through the framework of our bodies4 ,a heap of stones does not make a house4 ,quintillions of tons of materials would not represent the ,earth or any other world4 ,yes1 what really exists1 what constitutes a complete orb1 is the city of ,life4 ,let us recognize that the flower of life flourishes on the surface of our planet1 embellishing it with its perfume2 that it is just this life that we see and admire1--of which we form part1--and which is the raison d'etre of things2 that matter floats1 and crosses1 and crosses back again1 in the web of living beings1--and the reality1 the goal1 is not matter--it is the life matter is employed upon4 ,yes1 matter passes1 and being also1 after sharing in the concerted symphony of life4 ,and indeed everything passes rapidly6 ,what irrepressible grief1 what deep melancholy1 what ineffaceable regrets we feel1 when as age comes on we look back1 when we see our friends fallen upon the road one after the other1 above all when we visit the beloved scenes of our childhood1 those homes of other years1 that witnessed our first start in terrestrial existence1 our first games1 our first affections--those affections of childhood that seemed eternal--when we wander over those fields and valleys and hills1 when we see again the landscape whose aspect has hardly changed1 and whose image is so intimately linked with our first impressions4 ,there near this fireside the grandfather danced us on his knee1 and told us blood-curdling stories2 here the kind grandmother came to see if we were comfortably tucked in1 and not likely to fall out of the big bed2 in this little wood1 along these alleys that seemed endless1 we spread our nets for birds2 in this stream we fished for crayfish2 there on the path we played at soldiers with our elders1 who were always captains2 on these slopes we found rare stones and fossils1 and mysterious petrifactions2 on this hill we admired the fine sunsets1 the appearance of the stars1 the form of the constellations4 ,there we began to live1 to think1 to love1 to form attachments1 to dream1 to question every problem1 to breathe intellectually and physically4 ,and now1 where is this beloved grandfather8 the good grandmother8 where are all whom we knew in infancy8 where are our dreams of childhood8 ,winged thoughts still seem to flutter in the air1 and that is all4 ,people1 caresses1 voices1 all have gone and vanished4 ,the cemetery has closed over them all4 ,there is a silent void4 ,were all those fine and sunny hours an illusion8 ,was it only to weep one day over this negation that our childish hearts were so tenderly attached to these fleeting shadows8 ,is there nothing1 down the long length of human history1 but eternal delusion8 ,it is here1 above all1 that we find ourselves in presence of the greatest problems4 ,life is the goal1 it is ,life that produces the conditions of ,thought4 ,without ,thought1 where would be the ,universe8 ,we feel that without life and thought1 the ,universe would be an empty theater1 and ,astronomy itself1 sublime science1 a vain research4 ,we feel that this is the truth1 veiled as yet to actual science1 and that human races kindred with our own exist there in the immensities of space4 ,yes1 we feel that this is truth4 ,but we would fain go a little further in our knowledge of the universe1 and penetrate in some measure the secret of our destinies4 ,we would know if these distant and unknown ,humanities are not attached to us by mysterious cords1 if our life1 which will assuredly be extinguished at some definite moment here below1 will not be prolonged into the regions of ,eternity4 ,a moment ago we said that nothing is left of the body4 ,millions of organisms have lived1 there are no remains of them4 ,air1 water1 smoke1 dust4 ,memento1 homo1 quia pulvis es et in pulverem revertebis4 ,remember oh man6 that dust thou art1 and unto dust thou shalt return1 says the priest to the faithful1 when he scatters the ashes on the day after the carnival4 ,the body disappears entirely4 ,it goes where the corpse of ,caesar went an hour after the extinction of his pyre4 ,nor will there be more remains of any of us4 ,and the whole of ,humanity1 and the ,earth itself1 will also disappear one day4 ,let no one talk of the ,progress of ,humanity as an end6 ,that would be too gross a decoy4 ,if the soul were also to disappear in smoke1 what would be left of the vital and intellectual organization of the world8 ,nothing4 ,on this hypothesis1 all would be reduced to nothing4 ,our reason is not immense1 our terrestrial faculties are sufficiently limited1 but this reason and these faculties suffice none the less to make us feel the improbability1 the absurdity1 of this hypothesis1 and we reject it as incompatible with the sublime grandeur of the spectacle of the universe4 ,undoubtedly1 ,creation does not seem to concern itself with us4 ,it proceeds on its inexorable course without consulting our sensations4 ,with the poet we regret the implacable serenity of ,nature1 opposing the irony of its smiling splendor to our mourning1 our revolts1 and our despair4 ,que peu de temps suffit pour changer toutes choses6 ,nature au front serein1 comme vous oubliez6 ,et comme vous brisez dans vos metamorphoses ,les fils mysterieux ou nos coeurs sont lies4 ,d'autres vont maintenant passer ou nous passames2 ,nous y sommes venus1 d'autres vont y venir1 ,et le songe qu'avaient ebauche nos deux ames1 ,ils le continueront sans pouvoir le finir4 ,car personne ici-bas ne termine et n'acheve2 ,les pires des humains sont comme les meilleurs2 ,nous nous eveillons tous au meme endroit du reve3 ,tout commence en ce monde et tout finit ailleurs4 ,repondez1 vallon pur1 repondez1 solitude6 ,o ,nature1 abritee en ce desert si beau1 ,quand nous serons couches tous deux1 dans l'attitude ,que donne aux morts pensifs la forme du tombeau1 ,est-ce que vous serez a ce point insensible1 ,de nous savoir perdus1 morts avec nos amours1 ,et de continuer votre fete paisible ,et de toujours sourire et de chanter toujours8#af ,note4--,free ,translation4 ,how brief a time suffices for all things to change6 ,serene-fronted ,nature1 too soon you will forget6444 in your metamorphoses ruthlessly snapping the cords that bind our hearts together6 ,others will pass where we pass2 we have arrived1 and others will arrive after us3 the thought sketched out by our souls will be pursued by theirs 444 and they will not find the solution of it4 ,for no one here begins or finishes3 the worst are as the best of humans2 we all awake at the same moment of the dream3 we all begin in this world1 and end otherwhere4 ,reply1 sweet valley1 reply1 solitude2 ,o ,nature1 sheltering in this splendid desert1 when we are both asleep1 and cast by the tomb into the attitude of pensive death4 ,will you to the last verge be so insensible1 that1 knowing us lost1 and dead with our loves1 you will pursue your cheerful feast1 and smile1 and sing always8 ,yes1 mortals may say that when they are sleeping in the grave1 spring and summer will still smile and sing2 husband and wife may ask themselves if they will meet again some day1 in another sphere2 but do we not feel that our destinies can not be terminated here1 and that short of absolute and final nonentity for everything1 they must be renewed beyond1 in that starry ,heaven to which every dream has flown instinctively since the first origins of ,humanity8 ,as our planet is only a province of the ,infinite ,heavens1 so our actual existence is only a stage in ,eternal ,life4 ,astronomy1 by giving us wings1 conducts us to the sanctuary of truth4 ,the specter of death has departed from our ,heaven4 ,the beams of every star shed a ray of hope into our hearts4 ,on each sphere ,nature chants the paean of ,life ,eternal4 ,,the ,,end ,,index ,a ,aberration1 #cjj ,adams1 #afh ,agnesi1 ,marie1 #e ,alcar1 #cd ,aldebaran1 #dd1 #ff ,alexandria1 #c ,algol1 #ci ,ancients1 views of1 #cj ,andrew ,ellicot1 #aie ,andromeda1 #cg1 #ch ,angles1 #bhi ,antares1 #de1 #ff1 #gj ,antipodes1 #bjh ,arago1 #bge ,arcturus1 #ci1 #ff ,asteroids1 #adf1 #aie ,astronomie des ,dames1 #i ,attraction1 #bjh ,aureole1 #bgi ,autumn ,constellations1 #ed ,axis1 #bbe ,b ,babylonian ,tables1 #cj ,bartholomew ,diaz1 #agf ,bear1 ,little1 #ce ,great1 #cb1 #cd1 #ce ,betelgeuse1 #di1 #ff ,biela's ,comet1 #ahi1 #aih ,bode's law1 #afg ,bolides1 #bja ,c ,cancer1 #gb ,capella1 #ch1 #ff ,cassiopeia1 #cf ,castor1 #dd1 #fh ,catalogue of ,lalande1 #fe ,catharine of ,alexandria1 #c ,centaur1 #eb1 #fd1 #fe1 #hj ,ceres1 #adg ,chaldean pastors1 #cj ,chaldeans1 #bga ,chariot of ,david1 #cb ,charioteer1 #ch ,chart of ,mars1 #adj ,chatelet1 ,marquise du1 #d ,chiron1 ,the ,centaur1 #cj1 #ea ,chromosphere1 #ajb ,clairaut1 #c ,clerke1 ,agnes1 #g ,cnidus1 #ca ,coggia's ,comet1 #ahg ,comet of ,biela1 #aig of #ahaa1 #ahf of #aheh1 #agd ,comets1 #aaa1 #ahe ,constellations1 #bh figures of1 #ca ,autumn1 #ed ,constellations1 ,spring1 #eb ,summer1 #ec ,winter1 #ea ,copernicus1 #abe ,corona ,borealis1 #dj ,corona of the ,sun1 #ajd ,cygnus1 #dj ,d de ,blocqueville1 ,madame1 #e de ,breteuil1 ,gabrielle-,emilie1 #d de ,charriere1 ,madame1 #e ,deneb1 #da des ,brosses1 #e ,diaz1 ,bartholomew1 #agf ,dipper1 #cb1 #cd ,donati1 #ahg ,double star1 stellar dial of1 #hf ,double stars1 #fh1 #gj ,dragon1 #cf du ,chatelet1 ,marquise1 #d ,e ,eagle1 #da ,earth1 #bje ancient notions of1 #ai distance from the sun1 #bae how sustained1 #ba inclination1 #bbd in space1 #bj motion of1 round the ,sun1 #bbb movement of1 #bag rotundity of1 #bjf viewed from ,mars1 #add viewed from ,mercury1 #aai viewed from ,venus1 #acj weight1 #baj ,eclipse of ,sun1 ,may1 #aijj1 #bgc ,eclipses1 #bei ,ellicot1 ,andrew1 #aie ,entretiens sur la ,pluralite des mondes1 #i ,equator1 #bbe ,eudoxus1 #ca ,evening ,star1 #abc ,f ,faculae1 #ih1 #ajj ,fire-balls1 #aih ,flammarion's ,lunar ,ring1 #bec ,fleming1 ,mrs41 #g ,fontenelle1 #i ,foucault1 #bai ,g ,galileo1 #ie1 #ih1 #abe1 #bdd ,galle1 #afh ,globe1 divisions of1 #bbf ,great ,bear1 #cb1 #cd1 #ce ,great ,dog1 #ej ,grecian ,calendar1 #bbi ,greek alphabet1 #cc ,h ,hall1 ,mr41 #adc ,halley1 #aha ,halley's ,comet1 #c1 #age ,heavens1 map of1 #fa ,hercules1 #da1 #ff1 #gi ,herdsman1 #ci ,herschel1 ,caroline1 #f ,hevelius1 #bdf ,hipparchus1 #ca ,houses of the ,sun1 #dc ,huggins1 ,lady1 #h ,huyghens1 #di ,hyades1 #dd ,hypatia1 #c ,j ,janssen1 #ajb ,jupiter1 #adh satellites1 #aee telescopic aspect of1 #aej ,k ,klumpke1 ,miss1 #g ,kovalevsky1 ,sophie1 #f ,l ,lacaille1 #bib ,lalande1 #c1 #i1 #fe1 #bib ,latitudes1 #bbf ,leonids1 #aie ,lepaute1 ,madame ,hortense1 #c1 #d ,le ,verrier1 #afg ,little ,bear1 #ce ,little ,dog1 #ej ,lockyer1 #ajb ,longitudes1 #bbf ,lucifer1 #abb ,lunar ,apennines1 #bea landscape1 #bed topography1 #beb ,lyre1 #dj ,m ,mars1 #aca chart of1 #adj ,measurement1 #bhi ,medes and ,lydians1 #bff ,mercury1 #aad ,meteorites1 #bja ,meteors1 #aij1 #aia ,metonic ,cycle1 #bga ,milky ,way1 #gh1 #hg ,mira ,ceti1 #gg ,mitchell1 ,maria1 #g ,mizar1 #cd1 #fi ,moon1 #bcb diameter of1 #bdb distance of1 #bib geological features of1 #bde map of1 #bdg mountains of1 #bdf phases of1 #bda photograph of1 #bdj revolution of1 #bcd rotation of1 #bdb size of1 #bdb temperature of1 #bej total eclipse of1 #bfc ,n ,nebula1 in ,andromeda1 #ha in ,orion1 #ha in the ,greyhounds1 #hb ,neptune1 #fe1 #aff revolution of1 #afi ,newton1 #aha ,nucleus1 #ie1 #ahe ,o ,orion1 #dh1 #di1 #ha ,p ,parallax1 #bib1 #bic annual1 #cjf ,pearl1 #dj ,pegasus1 #ch ,penumbra1 #if ,periodic ,comet1 orbit of1 #ahb ,perseids1 #aie ,perseus1 #ch1 #gj1 #gh ,phenician navigators1 #cj ,phoebus1 #fg ,photosphere1 #aja ,piazzi1 #adg ,planets1 #aji1 #aac1 #adf distances1 #aaj1 #cjb orbits of1 #aae orbits of1 #aaf ,pleiades1 #ch1 #ci1 #dd1 #hc occultation of1 #he ,pleione1 #hd ,polaris1 #fc ,pole-star1 #cd1 #fc ,poles1 #bbe ,pollux1 #dd ,pope ,calixtus1 #agf ,prodigies in the heavens1 #agh ,ptolemy1 #ca1 #bag ,r ,radiant1 #aie ,riccioli1 #bdf ,rigel1 #di1 #gj ,roberts1 ,mrs4 ,isaac1 #g ,s ,saidak1 #cd ,saros1 #bga ,satellites1 #aaj ,saturn1 #aef revolution of1 #aeg satellites1 #afb1 #afe volume1 #aeh ,saturn's rings1 #afa ,scarpellini1 ,madame1 #g ,scheiner1 #ie ,schiaparelli1 #aci ,secchi1 ,father1 #g ,seven ,oxen1 #cb ,sextuple star1 #gd ,shepherd's ,star1 #aa ,shooting stars1 #aic1 #aid1 #aif ,sirius1 #ff1 #cji ,solar storms1 #ajj flames1 #aje system1 #fe ,somerville1 ,mrs41 #f ,spring constellations1 #eb ,stars1 distances1 #fb double1 #fh1 #gj first magnitude1 #eg number of1 #fj quadruple1 #gc second magnitude1 #eh shooting1 #aic1 #aid temporary1 #gg ,stars1 triple1 #gb variable1 #ge weight of1 #cac ,star cluster in ,hercules1 #gi in the ,centaur1 #hj ,st4 ,catherine1 #c ,summer constellations1 #ec ,sun1 #hh houses of the1 #dc measurement of distance1 #big photograph of1 #if rotation1 #ii temperature of1 #aje total eclipse of1 #bgf weight1 #ajf ,sun and ,earth1 comparative sizes of1 #ic ,sun-spots1 #ie1 #aja telescopic aspect of1 #ig ,t ,temporary stars1 #gg1 #gh ,three ,kings1 #di ,total eclipse of the moon1 #bfc of sun1 #bgf ,triangulation1 #bhh ,triple ,star1 #gb ,u ,umbra1 #ie ,universe1 #bb1 #bc1 #ij ,urania1 #h1 #i ,uranoliths1 #bja1 #bjd ,uranus1 #afb ,v ,variable stars1 #ge ,vega1 #dj ,venus1 #aba1 #bif phases of1 #abd ,vesper1 #abb ,victor ,hugo1 #bd ,w ,weighing worlds1 #cji ,winter constellations1 #ea ,z ,zodiac1 constellations of1 #df1 #dg ,zones1 #bbe ,,footnotes3 #a ,the ,french edition of this book is entitled ,astronomy for ,women4--,,translator4 #b #a kilometer #j4fbad mile2 #ajj kilometers may be taken as #fb miles4 #a kilogram is about #b4b lb42 #e kilograms #aa lb4--,,translator4 #c ,it is useful to know the letters of the ,greek ,alphabet4 ,they are easily learned1 as follows3 alpha ,alpha beta ,beta gamma ,gamma delta ,delta epsilon ,epsilon zeta ,zeta eta ,eta theta ,theta iota ,iota kappa ,kappa lambda ,lambda mu ,mu nu ,nu xi ,xi omicron ,omicron pi ,pi rho ,rho sigma or sigma ,sigma tau ,tau upsilon ,upsilon phi ,phi chi ,chi psi ,psi omega ,omega #d ,all the stars visible at any hour during the year can easily be found with the help of the author's ,planisphere mobile4 #e ,let it be remarked in passing that the stars might be much farther off than they are1 and invisible to our eyes2 the ,heavens would then assume the aspect of an absolutely empty space1 the moon and planets alone remaining4 #f #ad #ad seconds of arc4 ,one second of the circle is an exceedingly minute quantity4 ,it is #a millimeter seen at a distance of #bjf meters4 ,one millimeter seen at a distance of #bj m4 #fb #aj secs4 ,these values are invisible to the unaided eye4 #g ,these fine double stars can be observed with the help of the smallest telescope4 #h ,for the explanation of the angular distances of degrees1 minutes1 and seconds1 see ,chapter ,,xi1 on ,methods of ,measurement4 #i ,the author has endeavored on the plates to represent the aspect of the ,earth in the starry sky of ,mercury1 ,venus1 and ,mars2 but in all representations of this kind the stars are necessarily made too large4 ,by calculation the diameters of the ,earth and ,moon as seen from the planets1 and their distances1 are as follows3 ,diameter of ,diameter of ,distance the ,earth4 the ,moon4 ,earth-,moon4 ,of ,mercury 7opposition7 #bj #h #hga ,of ,venus 7opposition7 #fd #ag #a1ibh ,of ,mars 7quadrature7 #ae #d #dfd ,of ,jupiter 7quadrature7 #c4e #j4a #aje ,these aspects will be appreciated if we remember that the distance of the components of epsilon ,lyre #bjg1 that of ,atlas in ,pleione #cja1 and that of the stars ,mizar and ,alcor #gjh4 #aj ,a few evenings ago1 after observing ,venus in the calm and silent ,heavens at the close of day1 my eyes fell upon a drawing sent me by my friend ,gustave ,dore1 which is included in the illustrations of his wonderful edition of ,dante's ,divina ,commedia4 ,this drawing seems to be in place here1 and ,i offer my readers a poor reproduction of it1 taken from the fine engraving in the book4 ,dante and ,virgil1 in the peaceful evening1 are contemplating lo bel pianeta ch'ad amar conforta 7the beautiful planet that incites to love74 #aa ,strictly speaking1 #a kilometer #j4fbad mile4 ,here1 as throughout1 the equivalents are only given in round numbers4--,,translator4 #ab ,translator3 ,compare the well-known ,english rhyme3 ,thirty days hath ,september1 ,april1 ,june1 and ,november4 ,while all the rest have thirty-one1 ,excepting ,february alone1 ,in which but twenty-eight appear ,and twenty-nine when comes ,leap ,year4 #ac ,fifty-eight different pictures of the aspect of the ,moon to the unaided eye will be found in the ,monthly ,bulletins of the ,astronomical ,society of ,france1 for the year #aijj1 in pursuance of an investigation made by the author among the different members of the ,society4 #ad ,my readers are charged not to speak of this property 7which is fairly extensive71 lest the ,budget ,commission1 at the end of its resources1 should be tempted to put on an unexpected tax4 ,this ring1 which the astronomers presented to me in the year #ahhg1 is almost in the center of the lunar disk1 to the north of ,ptolemy and ,herschel4 #ae ,la fin du ,monde4 ,flammarion1 p4 #ahf4 #af ,victor ,hugo4 ,tristesse d',olympia4