,riverside ,educational ,monographs     
,,edited ,,by ,,henry ,,suzzallo        
,,sometime ,,professor ,,of ,,the       
,,philosophy ,,of ,,education ,,teachers
 ,,college1 ,,columbia ,,university1    
,,and ,,president ,,of ,,the            
,,university ,,of ,,washington          
,,moral ,,principles ,,in ,,education   
,,by  ,,john ,,dewey   ,,professor ,,of 
,,philosophy ,,in ,,columbia            
,,university   ,,houghton ,,mifflin     
,,company  ,,boston 4 ,,new ,,york 4    
,,chicago 4 ,,dallas 4 ,,san ,,francisco
  ,the ,riverside ,press ,cambridge     
,,copyright1 #aiji1 ,,by ,,john ,,dewey 
,,all ,,rights ,,reserved  ,the author  
has drawn freely upon his essay on      
,ethical ,principles ,underlying        
,education1 published in the ,third     
,year-,book of ,the ,national ,herbart  
,society for the ,study of ,education4  
,he is indebted to the ,society for     
permission to use this material4  ,the  
,riverside ,press ,,cambridge1          
,,massachusetts ,,printed ,,in ,,the    

,u4,s4,a4     ,,contents                
,,introduction     ,i4 ,,the ,,moral    
,,purpose ,,of ,,the ,,school    ,,ii4  
,,the ,,moral ,,training ,,given ,,by   
,,the ,,school ,,community   ,,iii4     
,,the ,,moral ,,training ,,from         
,,methods ,,of ,,instruction    ,,iv4   
,,the ,,social ,,nature ,,of ,,the      
,,course ,,of ,,study     ,v4 ,,the     
,,psychological ,,aspect ,,of ,,moral   
,,education        ,,outline            
,,introduction   ,education as a public 
business  ,it is one of the complaints  
of the schoolmaster that the public does
 not defer to his professional opinion  
as completely as it does to that of     
practitioners in other professions4 ,at 
first sight it might seem as though this
 indicated a defect either in the public
 or in the profession2 and yet a wider  
view of the situation would suggest that
 such a conclusion is not a necessary   
one4 ,the relations of education to the 
public are different from those of any  
other professional work4 ,education is a

 public business with us1 in a sense    
that the protection and restoration of  
personal health or legal rights are not4
 ,to an extent characteristic of no     
other institution1 save that of the     
state itself1 the school has power to   
modify the social order4 ,and under our 
political system1 it is the right of    
each individual to have a voice in the  
making of social policies as1 indeed1 he
 has a vote in the determination of     
political affairs4 ,if this be true1    
education is primarily a public         
business1 and only secondarily a        
specialized vocation4 ,the layman1 then1
 will always have his right to some     
utterance on the operation of the public
 schools4   ,education as expert service
  ,i have said some utterance1 but not  
all2 for school-mastering has its own   
special mysteries1 its own knowledge and
 skill into which the untrained layman  
cannot penetrate4 ,we are just beginning
 to recognize that the school and the   
government have a common problem in this

 respect4 ,education and politics are   
two functions fundamentally controlled  
by public opinion4 ,yet the conspicuous 
lack of efficiency and economy in the   
school and in the state has quickened   
our recognition of a larger need for    
expert service4 ,but just where shall   
public opinion justly express itself1   
and what shall properly be left to      
expert judgment8   ,the relations of    
expert opinion and public opinion  ,in  
so far as broad policies and ultimate   
ends affecting the welfare of all are to
 be determined1 the public may well     
claim its right to settle issues by the 
vote or voice of majorities4 ,but the   
selection and prosecution of the        
detailed ways and means by which the    
public will is to be executed           
efficiently must remain largely a matter
 of specialized and expert service4 ,to 
the superior knowledge and technique    
required here1 the public may well      
defer4  ,in the conduct of the schools1 
it is well for the citizens to determine

 the ends proper to them1 and it is     
their privilege to judge of the efficacy
 of results4 ,upon questions that       
concern all the manifold details by     
which children are to be converted into 
desirable types of men and women1 the   
expert schoolmaster should be           
authoritative1 at least to a degree     
commensurate with his superior knowledge
 of this very complex problem4 ,the     
administration of the schools1 the      
making of the course of study1 the      
selection of texts1 the prescription of 
methods of teaching1 these are matters  
with which the people1 or their         
representatives upon boards of          
education1 cannot deal save with danger 
of becoming mere meddlers4   ,the       
discussion of moral education an        
illustration of mistaken views of laymen
  ,nowhere is the validity of this      
distinction between education as a      
public business and education as an     
expert professional service brought out 
more clearly than in an analysis of the 

public discussion of the moral work of  
the school4 ,how frequently of late have
 those unacquainted with the special    
nature of the school proclaimed the     
moral ends of education and at the same 
time demanded direct ethical instruction
 as the particular method by which they 
were to be realized6 ,this1 too1 in     
spite of the fact that those who know   
best the powers and limitations of      
instruction as an instrument have       
repeatedly pointed out the futility of  
assuming that knowledge of right        
constitutes a guarantee of right doing4 
,how common it is for those who assert  
that education is for social efficiency 
to assume that the school should return 
to the barren discipline of the         
traditional formal subjects1 reading1   
writing1 and the rest6 ,this1 too1      
regardless of the fact that it has taken
 a century of educational evolution to  
make the course of study varied and rich
 enough to call for those impulses and  
activities of social life which need    

training in the child4 ,and how many who
 speak glowingly of the large services  
of the public schools to a democracy of 
free and self-reliant men affect a      
cynical and even vehement opposition to 
the self-government of schools6 ,these  
would not have the children learn to    
govern themselves and one another1 but  
would have the masters rule them1       
ignoring the fact that this common      
practice in childhood may be a          
foundation for that evil condition in   
adult society where the citizens are    
arbitrarily ruled by political bosses4  
,one need not cite further cases of the 
incompetence of the lay public to deal  
with technical questions of school      
methods4 ,instances are plentiful to    
show that well-meaning people1 competent
 enough to judge of the aims and results
 of school work1 make a mistake in      
insisting upon the prerogative of       
directing the technical aspects of      
education with a dogmatism that would   
not characterize their statements       

regarding any other special field of    
knowledge or action4   ,a fundamental   
understanding of moral principles in    
education  ,nothing can be more useful  
than for the public and the teaching    
profession to understand their          
respective functions4 ,the teacher needs
 to understand public opinion and the   
social order1 as much as the public     
needs to comprehend the nature of expert
 educational service4 ,it will take time
 to draw the boundary lines that will be
 conducive to respect1 restraint1 and   
efficiency in those concerned2 but a    
beginning can be made upon fundamental  
matters1 and nothing so touches the     
foundations of our educational thought  
as a discussion of the moral principles 
in education4  ,it is our pleasure to   
present a treatment of them by a thinker
 whose vital influence upon the reform  
of school methods is greater than that  
of any of his contemporaries4 ,in his   
discussion of the social and            
psychological factors in moral          

education1 there is much that will      
suggest what social opinion should      
determine1 and much that will indicate  
what must be left to the trained teacher
 and school official4     ,,the ,,moral 
,,purpose ,,of ,,the ,,school     ,i    
,,the ,,moral ,,purpose ,,of ,,the      
,,school   ,an ,english contemporary    
philosopher has called attention to the 
difference between moral ideas and ideas
 about morality4 ,moral ideas are ideas 
of any sort whatsoever which take effect
 in conduct and improve it1 make it     
better than it otherwise would be4      
,similarly1 one may say1 immoral ideas  
are ideas of whatever sort 7whether     
arithmetical or geographical or         
physiological7 which show themselves in 
making behavior worse than it would     
otherwise be2 and non-moral ideas1 one  
may say1 are such ideas and pieces of   
information as leave conduct            
uninfluenced for either the better or   
the worse4 ,now ideas about morality may
 be morally indifferent or immoral or   

moral4 ,there is nothing in the nature  
of ideas about morality1 of information 
about honesty or purity or kindness     
which automatically transmutes such     
ideas into good character or good       
conduct4  ,this distinction between     
moral ideas1 ideas of any sort          
whatsoever that have become a part of   
character and hence a part of the       
working motives of behavior1 and ideas  
about moral action that may remain as   
inert and ineffective as if they were so
 much knowledge about ,egyptian         
archaeology1 is fundamental to the      
discussion of moral education4 ,the     
business of the educator--whether parent
 or teacher--is to see to it that the   
greatest possible number of ideas       
acquired by children and youth are      
acquired in such a vital way that they  
become moving ideas1 motive-forces in   
the guidance of conduct4 ,this demand   
and this opportunity make the moral     
purpose universal and dominant in all   
instruction--whatsoever the topic4 ,were

 it not for this possibility1 the       
familiar statement that the ultimate    
purpose of all education is             
character-forming would be hypocritical 
pretense2 for as every one knows1 the   
direct and immediate attention of       
teachers and pupils must be1 for the    
greater part of the time1 upon          
intellectual matters4 ,it is out of the 
question to keep direct moral           
considerations constantly uppermost4    
,but it is not out of the question to   
aim at making the methods of learning1  
of acquiring intellectual power1 and of 
assimilating subject-matter1 such that  
they will render behavior more          
enlightened1 more consistent1 more      
vigorous than it otherwise would be4    
,the same distinction between moral     
ideas and ideas about morality explains 
for us a source of continual            
misunderstanding between teachers in the
 schools and critics of education       
outside of the schools4 ,the latter look
 through the school programmes1 the     

school courses of study1 and do not find
 any place set apart for instruction in 
ethics or for moral teaching4 ,then they
 assert that the schools are doing      
nothing1 or next to nothing1 for        
character-training2 they become         
emphatic1 even vehement1 about the moral
 deficiencies of public education4 ,the 
schoolteachers1 on the other hand1      
resent these criticisms as an injustice1
 and hold not only that they do teach   
morals1 but that they teach them every  
moment of the day1 five days in the     
week4 ,in this contention the teachers  
in principle are in the right2 if they  
are in the wrong1 it is not because     
special periods are not set aside for   
what after all can only be teaching     
about morals1 but because their own     
characters1 or their school atmosphere  
and ideals1 or their methods of         
teaching1 or the subject-matter which   
they teach1 are not such in detail as to
 bring intellectual results into vital  
union with character so that they become

 working forces in behavior4 ,without   
discussing1 therefore1 the limits or the
 value of so-called direct moral        
instruction 7or1 better1 instruction    
about morals71 it may be laid down as   
fundamental that the influence of direct
 moral instruction1 even at its very    
best1 is comparatively small in amount  
and slight in influence1 when the whole 
field of moral growth through education 
is taken into account4 ,this larger     
field of indirect and vital moral       
education1 the development of character 
through all the agencies1               
instrumentalities1 and materials of     
school life is1 therefore1 the subject  
of our present discussion4     ,,the    
,,moral ,,training ,,given ,,by ,,the   
,,school ,,community     ,,ii  ,,the    
,,moral ,,training ,,given ,,by ,,the   
,,school ,,community   ,there cannot be 
two sets of ethical principles1 one for 
life in the school1 and the other for   
life outside of the school4 ,as conduct 
is one1 so also the principles of       

conduct are one4 ,the tendency to       
discuss the morals of the school as if  
the school were an institution by itself
 is highly unfortunate4 ,the moral      
responsibility of the school1 and of    
those who conduct it1 is to society4    
,the school is fundamentally an         
institution erected by society to do a  
certain specific work1--to exercise a   
certain specific function in maintaining
 the life and advancing the welfare of  
society4 ,the educational system which  
does not recognize that this fact       
entails upon it an ethical              
responsibility is derelict and a        
defaulter4 ,it is not doing what it was 
called into existence to do1 and what it
 pretends to do4 ,hence the entire      
structure of the school in general and  
its concrete workings in particular need
 to be considered from time to time with
 reference to the social position and   
function of the school4  ,the idea that 
the moral work and worth of the public  
school system as a whole are to be      

measured by its social value is1 indeed1
 a familiar notion4 ,however1 it is     
frequently taken in too limited and     
rigid a way4 ,the social work of the    
school is often limited to training for 
citizenship1 and citizenship is then    
interpreted in a narrow sense as meaning
 capacity to vote intelligently1        
disposition to obey laws1 etc4 ,but it  
is futile to contract and cramp the     
ethical responsibility of the school in 
this way4 ,the child is one1 and he must
 either live his social life as an      
integral unified being1 or suffer loss  
and create friction4 ,to pick out one of
 the many social relations which the    
child bears1 and to define the work of  
the school by that alone1 is like       
instituting a vast and complicated      
system of physical exercise which would 
have for its object simply the          
development of the lungs and the power  
of breathing1 independent of other      
organs and functions4 ,the child is an  
organic whole1 intellectually1 socially1

 and morally1 as well as physically4 ,we
 must take the child as a member of     
society in the broadest sense1 and      
demand for and from the schools whatever
 is necessary to enable the child       
intelligently to recognize all his      
social relations and take his part in   
sustaining them4  ,to isolate the formal
 relationship of citizenship from the   
whole system of relations with which it 
is actually interwoven2 to suppose that 
there is some one particular study or   
mode of treatment which can make the    
child a good citizen2 to suppose1 in    
other words1 that a good citizen is     
anything more than a thoroughly         
efficient and serviceable member of     
society1 one with all his powers of body
 and mind under control1 is a hampering 
superstition which it is hoped may soon 
disappear from educational discussion4  
,the child is to be not only a voter and
 a subject of law2 he is also to be a   
member of a family1 himself in turn     
responsible1 in all probability1 for    

rearing and training of future children1
 thereby maintaining the continuity of  
society4 ,he is to be a worker1 engaged 
in some occupation which will be of use 
to society1 and which will maintain his 
own independence and self-respect4 ,he  
is to be a member of some particular    
neighborhood and community1 and must    
contribute to the values of life1 add to
 the decencies and graces of            
civilization wherever he is4 ,these are 
bare and formal statements1 but if we   
let our imagination translate them into 
their concrete details1 we have a wide  
and varied scene4 ,for the child        
properly to take his place in reference 
to these various functions means        
training in science1 in art1 in history2
 means command of the fundamental       
methods of inquiry and the fundamental  
tools of intercourse and communication2 
means a trained and sound body1 skillful
 eye and hand2 means habits of industry1
 perseverance2 in short1 habits of      
serviceableness4  ,moreover1 the society

 of which the child is to be a member   
is1 in the ,united ,states1 a democratic
 and progressive society4 ,the child    
must be educated for leadership as well 
as for obedience4 ,he must have power of
 self-direction and power of directing  
others1 power of administration1 ability
 to assume positions of responsibility4 
,this necessity of educating for        
leadership is as great on the industrial
 as on the political side4  ,new        
inventions1 new machines1 new methods of
 transportation and intercourse are     
making over the whole scene of action   
year by year4 ,it is an absolute        
impossibility to educate the child for  
any fixed station in life4 ,so far as   
education is conducted unconsciously or 
consciously on this basis1 it results in
 fitting the future citizen for no      
station in life1 but makes him a drone1 
a hanger-on1 or an actual retarding     
influence in the onward movement4       
,instead of caring for himself and for  
others1 he becomes one who has himself  

to be cared for4 ,here1 too1 the ethical
 responsibility of the school on the    
social side must be interpreted in the  
broadest and freest spirit2 it is       
equivalent to that training of the child
 which will give him such possession of 
himself that he may take charge of      
himself2 may not only adapt himself to  
the changes that are going on1 but have 
power to shape and direct them4  ,apart 
from participation in social life1 the  
school has no moral end nor aim4 ,as    
long as we confine ourselves to the     
school as an isolated institution1 we   
have no directing principles1 because we
 have no object4 ,for example1 the end  
of education is said to be the          
harmonious development of all the powers
 of the individual4 ,here no reference  
to social life or membership is         
apparent1 and yet many think we have in 
it an adequate and thoroughgoing        
definition of the goal of education4    
,but if this definition be taken        
independently of social relationship we 

have no way of telling what is meant by 
any one of the terms employed4 ,we do   
not know what a power is2 we do not know
 what development is2 we do not know    
what harmony is4 ,a power is a power    
only with reference to the use to which 
it is put1 the function it has to serve4
 ,if we leave out the uses supplied by  
social life we have nothing but the old 
faculty psychology to tell what is meant
 by power and what the specific powers  
are4 ,the principle reduces itself to   
enumerating a lot of faculties like     
perception1 memory1 reasoning1 etc41 and
 then stating that each one of these    
powers needs to be developed4           
,education then becomes a gymnastic     
exercise4 ,acute powers of observation  
and memory might be developed by        
studying ,chinese characters2 acuteness 
in reasoning might be got by discussing 
the scholastic subtleties of the ,middle
 ,ages4 ,the simple fact is that there  
is no isolated faculty of observation1  
or memory1 or reasoning any more than   

there is an original faculty of         
blacksmithing1 carpentering1 or steam   
engineering4 ,faculties mean simply that
 particular impulses and habits have    
been coordinated or framed with         
reference to accomplishing certain      
definite kinds of work4 ,we need to know
 the social situations in which the     
individual will have to use ability to  
observe1 recollect1 imagine1 and reason1
 in order to have any way of telling    
what a training of mental powers        
actually means4  ,what holds in the     
illustration of this particular         
definition of education holds good from 
whatever point of view we approach the  
matter4 ,only as we interpret school    
activities with reference to the larger 
circle of social activities to which    
they relate do we find any standard for 
judging their moral significance4  ,the 
school itself must be a vital social    
institution to a much greater extent    
than obtains at present4 ,i am told that
 there is a swimming school in a certain

 city where youth are taught to swim    
without going into the water1 being     
repeatedly drilled in the various       
movements which are necessary for       
swimming4 ,when one of the young men so 
trained was asked what he did when he   
got into the water1 he laconically      
replied1 ,sunk4 ,the story happens to be
 true2 were it not1 it would seem to be 
a fable made expressly for the purpose  
of typifying the ethical relationship of
 school to society4 ,the school cannot  
be a preparation for social life        
excepting as it reproduces1 within      
itself1 typical conditions of social    
life4 ,at present it is largely engaged 
in the futile task of ,sisyphus4 ,it is 
endeavoring to form habits in children  
for use in a social life which1 it would
 almost seem1 is carefully and purposely
 kept away from vital contact with the  
child undergoing training4 ,the only way
 to prepare for social life is to engage
 in social life4 ,to form habits of     
social usefulness and serviceableness   

apart from any direct social need and   
motive1 apart from any existing social  
situation1 is1 to the letter1 teaching  
the child to swim by going through      
motions outside of the water4 ,the most 
indispensable condition is left out of  
account1 and the results are            
correspondingly partial4  ,the much     
lamented separation in the schools of   
intellectual and moral training1 of     
acquiring information and growing in    
character1 is simply one expression of  
the failure to conceive and construct   
the school as a social institution1     
having social life and value within     
itself4 ,except so far as the school is 
an embryonic typical community life1    
moral training must be partly           
pathological and partly formal4         
,training is pathological when stress is
 laid upon correcting wrong-doing       
instead of upon forming habits of       
positive service4 ,too often the        
teacher's concern with the moral life of
 pupils takes the form of alertness for 

failures to conform to school rules and 
routine4 ,these regulations1 judged from
 the standpoint of the development of   
the child at the time1 are more or less 
conventional and arbitrary4 ,they are   
rules which have to be made in order    
that the existing modes of school work  
may go on2 but the lack of inherent     
necessity in these school modes reflects
 itself in a feeling1 on the part of the
 child1 that the moral discipline of the
 school is arbitrary4 ,any conditions   
that compel the teacher to take note of 
failures rather than of healthy growth  
give false standards and result in      
distortion and perversion4 ,attending to
 wrong-doing ought to be an incident    
rather than a principle4 ,the child     
ought to have a positive consciousness  
of what he is about1 so as to judge his 
acts from the standpoint of reference to
 the work which he has to do4 ,only in  
this way does he have a vital standard1 
one that enables him to turn failures to
 account for the future4  ,by saying    

that the moral training of the school is
 formal1 ,i mean that the moral habits  
currently emphasized by the school are  
habits which are created1 as it were1 ad
 hoc4 ,even the habits of promptness1   
regularity1 industry1 non-interference  
with the work of others1 faithfulness to
 tasks imposed1 which are specially     
inculcated in the school1 are habits    
that are necessary simply because the   
school system is what it is1 and must be
 preserved intact4 ,if we grant the     
inviolability of the school system as it
 is1 these habits represent permanent   
and necessary moral ideas2 but just in  
so far as the school system is itself   
isolated and mechanical1 insistence upon
 these moral habits is more or less     
unreal1 because the ideal to which they 
relate is not itself necessary4 ,the    
duties1 in other words1 are distinctly  
school duties1 not life duties4 ,if we  
compare this condition with that of the 
well-ordered home1 we find that the     
duties and responsibilities that the    

child has there to recognize do not     
belong to the family as a specialized   
and isolated institution1 but flow from 
the very nature of the social life in   
which the family participates and to    
which it contributes4 ,the child ought  
to have the same motives for right doing
 and to be judged by the same standards 
in the school1 as the adult in the wider
 social life to which he belongs4       
,interest in community welfare1 an      
interest that is intellectual and       
practical1 as well as emotional--an     
interest1 that is to say1 in perceiving 
whatever makes for social order and     
progress1 and in carrying these         
principles into execution--is the moral 
habit to which all the special school   
habits must be related if they are to be
 animated by the breath of life4        
,,the ,,moral ,,training ,,from         
,,methods ,,of ,,instruction     ,,iii  
,,the ,,moral ,,training ,,from         
,,methods ,,of ,,instruction   ,the     
principle of the social character of the

 school as the basic factor in the moral
 education given may be also applied to 
the question of methods of              
instruction1--not in their details1 but 
their general spirit4 ,the emphasis then
 falls upon construction and giving out1
 rather than upon absorption and mere   
learning4 ,we fail to recognize how     
essentially individualistic the latter  
methods are1 and how unconsciously1 yet 
certainly and effectively1 they react   
into the child's ways of judging and of 
acting4 ,imagine forty children all     
engaged in reading the same books1 and  
in preparing and reciting the same      
lessons day after day4 ,suppose this    
process constitutes by far the larger   
part of their work1 and that they are   
continually judged from the standpoint  
of what they are able to take in in a   
study hour and reproduce in a recitation
 hour4 ,there is next to no opportunity 
for any social division of labor4 ,there
 is no opportunity for each child to    
work out something specifically his own1

 which he may contribute to the common  
stock1 while he1 in turn1 participates  
in the productions of others4 ,all are  
set to do exactly the same work and turn
 out the same products4 ,the social     
spirit is not cultivated1--in fact1 in  
so far as the purely individualistic    
method gets in its work1 it atrophies   
for lack of use4 ,one reason why reading
 aloud in school is poor is that the    
real motive for the use of language--the
 desire to communicate and to learn--is 
not utilized4 ,the child knows perfectly
 well that the teacher and all his      
fellow pupils have exactly the same     
facts and ideas before them that he has2
 he is not giving them anything at all4 
,and it may be questioned whether the   
moral lack is not as great as the       
intellectual4 ,the child is born with a 
natural desire to give out1 to do1 to   
serve4 ,when this tendency is not used1 
when conditions are such that other     
motives are substituted1 the            
accumulation of an influence working    

against the social spirit is much larger
 than we have any idea of1--especially  
when the burden of work1 week after     
week1 and year after year1 falls upon   
this side4  ,but lack of cultivation of 
the social spirit is not all4           
,positively individualistic motives and 
standards are inculcated4 ,some stimulus
 must be found to keep the child at his 
studies4 ,at the best this will be his  
affection for his teacher1 together with
 a feeling that he is not violating     
school rules1 and thus negatively1 if   
not positively1 is contributing to the  
good of the school4 ,i have nothing to  
say against these motives so far as they
 go1 but they are inadequate4 ,the      
relation between the piece of work to be
 done and affection for a third person  
is external1 not intrinsic4 ,it is      
therefore liable to break down whenever 
the external conditions are changed4    
,moreover1 this attachment to a         
particular person1 while in a way       
social1 may become so isolated and      

exclusive as to be selfish in quality4  
,in any case1 the child should gradually
 grow out of this relatively external   
motive into an appreciation1 for its own
 sake1 of the social value of what he   
has to do1 because of its larger        
relations to life1 not pinned down to   
two or three persons4  ,but1            
unfortunately1 the motive is not always 
at this relative best1 but mixed with   
lower motives which are distinctly      
egoistic4 ,fear is a motive which is    
almost sure to enter in1--not           
necessarily physical fear1 or fear of   
punishment1 but fear of losing the      
approbation of others2 or fear of       
failure1 so extreme as to be morbid and 
paralyzing4 ,on the other side1         
emulation and rivalry enter in4 ,just   
because all are doing the same work1 and
 are judged 7either in recitation or    
examination with reference to grading   
and to promotion7 not from the          
standpoint of their personal            
contribution1 but from that of          

comparative success1 the feeling of     
superiority over others is unduly       
appealed to1 while timid children are   
depressed4 ,children are judged with    
reference to their capacity to realize  
the same external standard4 ,the weaker 
gradually lose their sense of power1 and
 accept a position of continuous and    
persistent inferiority4 ,the effect upon
 both self-respect and respect for work 
need not be dwelt upon4 ,the strong     
learn to glory1 not in their strength1  
but in the fact that they are stronger4 
,the child is prematurely launched into 
the region of individualistic           
competition1 and this in a direction    
where competition is least applicable1  
namely1 in intellectual and artistic    
matters1 whose law is cooperation and   
participation4  ,next1 perhaps1 to the  
evils of passive absorption and of      
competition for external standing come1 
perhaps1 those which result from the    
eternal emphasis upon preparation for a 
remote future4 ,i do not refer here to  

the waste of energy and vitality that   
accrues when children1 who live so      
largely in the immediate present1 are   
appealed to in the name of a dim and    
uncertain future which means little or  
nothing to them4 ,i have in mind rather 
the habitual procrastination that       
develops when the motive for work is    
future1 not present2 and the false      
standards of judgment that are created  
when work is estimated1 not on the basis
 of present need and present            
responsibility1 but by reference to an  
external result1 like passing an        
examination1 getting promoted1 entering 
high school1 getting into college1 etc4 
,who can reckon up the loss of moral    
power that arises from the constant     
impression that nothing is worth doing  
in itself1 but only as a preparation for
 something else1 which in turn is only a
 getting ready for some genuinely       
serious end beyond8 ,moreover1 as a     
rule1 it will be found that remote      
success is an end which appeals most to 

those in whom egoistic desire to get    
ahead--to get ahead of others--is       
already only too strong a motive4 ,those
 in whom personal ambition is already so
 strong that it paints glowing pictures 
of future victories may be touched2     
others of a more generous nature do not 
respond4  ,i cannot stop to paint the   
other side4 ,i can only say that the    
introduction of every method that       
appeals to the child's active powers1 to
 his capacities in construction1        
production1 and creation1 marks an      
opportunity to shift the centre of      
ethical gravity from an absorption which
 is selfish to a service which is       
social4 ,manual training is more than   
manual2 it is more than intellectual2 in
 the hands of any good teacher it lends 
itself easily1 and almost as a matter of
 course1 to development of social       
habits4 ,ever since the philosophy of   
,kant1 it has been a commonplace of     
aesthetic theory1 that art is universal2
 that it is not the product of purely   

personal desire or appetite1 or capable 
of merely individual appropriation1 but 
has a value participated in by all who  
perceive it4 ,even in the schools where 
most conscious attention is paid to     
moral considerations1 the methods of    
study and recitation may be such as to  
emphasize appreciation rather than      
power1 an emotional readiness to        
assimilate the experiences of others1   
rather than enlightened and trained     
capacity to carry forward those values  
which in other conditions and past times
 made those experiences worth having4   
,at all events1 separation between      
instruction and character continues in  
our schools 7in spite of the efforts of 
individual teachers7 as a result of     
divorce between learning and doing4 ,the
 attempt to attach genuine moral        
effectiveness to the mere processes of  
learning1 and to the habits which go    
along with learning1 can result only in 
a training infected with formality1     
arbitrariness1 and an undue emphasis    

upon failure to conform4 ,that there is 
as much accomplished as there is shows  
the possibilities involved in methods of
 school activity which afford           
opportunity for reciprocity1            
cooperation1 and positive personal      
achievement4     ,,the ,,social ,,nature
 ,,of ,,the ,,course ,,of ,,study       
,,iv  ,,the ,,social ,,nature ,,of ,,the
 ,,course ,,of ,,study   ,in many       
respects1 it is the subject-matter used 
in school life which decides both the   
general atmosphere of the school and the
 methods of instruction and discipline  
which rule4 ,a barren course of study1  
that is to say1 a meagre and narrow     
field of school activities1 cannot      
possibly lend itself to the development 
of a vital social spirit or to methods  
that appeal to sympathy and cooperation 
instead of to absorption1 exclusiveness1
 and competition4 ,hence it becomes an  
all important matter to know how we     
shall apply our social standard of moral
 value to the subject-matter of school  

work1 to what we call1 traditionally1   
the studies that occupy pupils4  ,a     
study is to be considered as a means of 
bringing the child to realize the social
 scene of action4 ,thus considered it   
gives a criterion for selection of      
material and for judgment of values4 ,we
 have at present three independent      
values set up3 one of culture1 another  
of information1 and another of          
discipline4 ,in reality1 these refer    
only to three phases of social          
interpretation4 ,information is genuine 
or educative only in so far as it       
presents definite images and conceptions
 of materials placed in a context of    
social life4 ,discipline is genuinely   
educative only as it represents a       
reaction of information into the        
individual's own powers so that he      
brings them under control for social    
ends4 ,culture1 if it is to be genuinely
 educative and not an external polish or
 factitious varnish1 represents the     
vital union of information and          

discipline4 ,it marks the socialization 
of the individual in his outlook upon   
life4  ,this point may be illustrated by
 brief reference to a few of the school 
studies4 ,in the first place1 there is  
no line of demarkation within facts     
themselves which classifies them as     
belonging to science1 history1 or       
geography1 respectively4 ,the           
pigeon-hole classification which is so  
prevalent at present 7fostered by       
introducing the pupil at the outset into
 a number of different studies contained
 in different text-books7 gives an      
utterly erroneous idea of the relations 
of studies to one another and to the    
intellectual whole to which all belong4 
,in fact1 these subjects have to do with
 the same ultimate reality1 namely1 the 
conscious experience of man4 ,it is only
 because we have different interests1 or
 different ends1 that we sort out the   
material and label part of it science1  
part of it history1 part geography1 and 
so on4 ,each sorting represents         

materials arranged with reference to    
some one dominant typical aim or process
 of the social life4  ,this social      
criterion is necessary1 not only to mark
 off studies from one another1 but also 
to grasp the reasons for each           
study1--the motives in connection with  
which it shall be presented4 ,how1 for  
example1 should we define geography8    
,what is the unity in the different     
so-called divisions of                  
geography1--mathematical geography1     
physical geography1 political geography1
 commercial geography8 ,are they purely 
empirical classifications dependent upon
 the brute fact that we run across a lot
 of different facts8 ,or is there some  
intrinsic principle through which the   
material is distributed under these     
various heads1--something in the        
interest and attitude of the human mind 
towards them8 ,i should say that        
geography has to do with all those      
aspects of social life which are        
concerned with the interaction of the   

life of man and nature2 or1 that it has 
to do with the world considered as the  
scene of social interaction4 ,any fact1 
then1 will be geographical in so far as 
it has to do with the dependence of man 
upon his natural environment1 or with   
changes introduced in this environment  
through the life of man4  ,the four     
forms of geography referred to above    
represent1 then1 four increasing stages 
of abstraction in discussing the mutual 
relation of human life and nature4 ,the 
beginning must be social geography1 the 
frank recognition of the earth as the   
home of men acting in relations to one  
another4 ,i mean by this that the       
essence of any geographical fact is the 
consciousness of two persons1 or two    
groups of persons1 who are at once      
separated and connected by their        
physical environment1 and that the      
interest is in seeing how these people  
are at once kept apart and brought      
together in their actions by the        
instrumentality of the physical         

environment4 ,the ultimate significance 
of lake1 river1 mountain1 and plain is  
not physical but social2 it is the part 
which it plays in modifying and         
directing human relationships4 ,this    
evidently involves an extension of the  
term commercial4 ,it has to do not      
simply with business1 in the narrow     
sense1 but with whatever relates to     
human intercourse and intercommunication
 as affected by natural forms and       
properties4 ,political geography        
represents this same social interaction 
taken in a static instead of in a       
dynamic way2 taken1 that is1 as         
temporarily crystallized and fixed in   
certain forms4 ,physical geography      
7including under this not simply        
physiography1 but also the study of     
flora and fauna7 represents a further   
analysis or abstraction4 ,it studies the
 conditions which determine human       
action1 leaving out of account1         
temporarily1 the ways in which they     
concretely do this4 ,mathematical       

geography carries the analysis back to  
more ultimate and remote conditions1    
showing that the physical conditions of 
the earth are not ultimate1 but depend  
upon the place which the world occupies 
in a larger system4 ,here1 in other     
words1 are traced1 step by step1 the    
links which connect the immediate social
 occupations and groupings of men with  
the whole natural system which          
ultimately conditions them4 ,step by    
step the scene is enlarged and the image
 of what enters into the make-up of     
social action is widened and broadened2 
at no time is the chain of connection to
 be broken4  ,it is out of the question 
to take up the studies one by one and   
show that their meaning is similarly    
controlled by social considerations4    
,but ,i cannot forbear saying a word or 
two upon history4 ,history is vital or  
dead to the child according as it is1 or
 is not1 presented from the sociological
 standpoint4 ,when treated simply as a  
record of what has passed and gone1 it  

must be mechanical1 because the past1 as
 the past1 is remote4 ,simply as the    
past there is no motive for attending to
 it4 ,the ethical value of history      
teaching will be measured by the extent 
to which past events are made the means 
of understanding the present1--affording
 insight into what makes up the         
structure and working of society to-day4
 ,existing social structure is          
exceedingly complex4 ,it is practically 
impossible for the child to attack it en
 masse and get any definite mental image
 of it4 ,but type phases of historical  
development may be selected which will  
exhibit1 as through a telescope1 the    
essential constituents of the existing  
order4 ,greece1 for example1 represents 
what art and growing power of individual
 expression stand for2 ,rome exhibits   
the elements and forces of political    
life on a tremendous scale4 ,or1 as     
these civilizations are themselves      
relatively complex1 a study of still    
simpler forms of hunting1 nomadic1 and  

agricultural life in the beginnings of  
civilization1 a study of the effects of 
the introduction of iron1 and iron      
tools1 reduces the complexity to simpler
 elements4  ,one reason historical      
teaching is usually not more effective  
is that the student is set to acquire   
information in such a way that no epochs
 or factors stand out in his mind as    
typical2 everything is reduced to the   
same dead level4 ,the way to secure the 
necessary perspective is to treat the   
past as if it were a projected present  
with some of its elements enlarged4     
,the principle of contrast is as        
important as that of similarity4        
,because the present life is so close to
 us1 touching us at every point1 we     
cannot get away from it to see it as it 
really is4 ,nothing stands out clearly  
or sharply as characteristic4 ,in the   
study of past periods1 attention        
necessarily attaches itself to striking 
differences4 ,thus the child gets a     
locus of imagination1 through which he  

can remove himself from the pressure of 
present surrounding circumstances and   
define them4  ,history is equally       
available in teaching the methods of    
social progress4 ,it is commonly stated 
that history must be studied from the   
standpoint of cause and effect4 ,the    
truth of this statement depends upon its
 interpretation4 ,social life is so     
complex and the various parts of it are 
so organically related to one another   
and to the natural environment1 that it 
is impossible to say that this or that  
thing is the cause of some other        
particular thing4 ,but the study of     
history can reveal the main instruments 
in the discoveries1 inventions1 new     
modes of life1 etc41 which have         
initiated the great epochs of social    
advance2 and it can present to the child
 types of the main lines of social      
progress1 and can set before him what   
have been the chief difficulties and    
obstructions in the way of progress4    
,once more this can be done only in so  

far as it is recognized that social     
forces in themselves are always the     
same1--that the same kind of influences 
were at work one hundred and one        
thousand years ago that are now         
working1--and that particular historical
 epochs afford illustration of the way  
in which the fundamental forces work4   
,everything depends1 then1 upon history 
being treated from a social standpoint2 
as manifesting the agencies which have  
influenced social development and as    
presenting the typical institutions in  
which social life has expressed itself4 
,the culture-epoch theory1 while working
 in the right direction1 has failed to  
recognize the importance of treating    
past periods with relation to the       
present1--as affording insight into the 
representative factors of its structure2
 it has treated these periods too much  
as if they had some meaning or value in 
themselves4 ,the way in which the       
biographical method is handled          
illustrates the same point4 ,it is often

 treated in such a way as to exclude    
from the child's consciousness 7or at   
least not sufficiently to emphasize7 the
 social forces and principles involved  
in the association of the masses of men4
 ,it is quite true that the child is    
easily interested in history from the   
biographical standpoint2 but unless the 
hero is treated in relation to the      
community life behind him that he sums  
up and directs1 there is danger that    
history will reduce itself to a mere    
exciting story4 ,then moral instruction 
reduces itself to drawing certain       
lessons from the life of the particular 
personalities concerned1 instead of     
widening and deepening the child's      
imagination of social relations1 ideals1
 and means4  ,it will be remembered that
 ,i am not making these points for their
 own sake1 but with reference to the    
general principle that when a study is  
taught as a mode of understanding social
 life it has positive ethical import4   
,what the normal child continuously     

needs is not so much isolated moral     
lessons upon the importance of          
truthfulness and honesty1 or the        
beneficent results that follow from a   
particular act of patriotism1 as the    
formation of habits of social           
imagination and conception4  ,i take one
 more illustration1 namely1 mathematics4
 ,this does1 or does not1 accomplish its
 full purpose according as it is1 or is 
not1 presented as a social tool4 ,the   
prevailing divorce between information  
and character1 between knowledge and    
social action1 stalks upon the scene    
here4 ,the moment mathematical study is 
severed from the place which it occupies
 with reference to use in social life1  
it becomes unduly abstract1 even upon   
the purely intellectual side4 ,it is    
presented as a matter of technical      
relations and formulae apart from any   
end or use4 ,what the study of number   
suffers from in elementary education is 
lack of motivation4 ,back of this and   
that and the other particular bad method

 is the radical mistake of treating     
number as if it were an end in itself1  
instead of the means of accomplishing   
some end4 ,let the child get a          
consciousness of what is the use of     
number1 of what it really is for1 and   
half the battle is won4 ,now this       
consciousness of the use of reason      
implies some end which is implicitly    
social4  ,one of the absurd things in   
the more advanced study of arithmetic is
 the extent to which the child is       
introduced to numerical operations which
 have no distinctive mathematical       
principles characterizing them1 but     
which represent certain general         
principles found in business            
relationships4 ,to train the child in   
these operations1 while paying no       
attention to the business realities in  
which they are of use1 or to the        
conditions of social life which make    
these business activities necessary1 is 
neither arithmetic nor common sense4    
,the child is called upon to do examples

 in interest1 partnership1 banking1     
brokerage1 and so on through a long     
string1 and no pains are taken to see   
that1 in connection with the arithmetic1
 he has any sense of the social         
realities involved4 ,this part of       
arithmetic is essentially sociological  
in its nature4 ,it ought either to be   
omitted entirely1 or else be taught in  
connection with a study of the relevant 
social realities4 ,as we now manage the 
study1 it is the old case of learning to
 swim apart from the water over again1  
with correspondingly bad results on the 
practical side4  ,in concluding this    
portion of the discussion1 we may say   
that our conceptions of moral education 
have been too narrow1 too formal1 and   
too pathological4 ,we have associated   
the term ethical with certain special   
acts which are labeled virtues and are  
set off from the mass of other acts1 and
 are still more divorced from the       
habitual images and motives of the      
children performing them4 ,moral        

instruction is thus associated with     
teaching about these particular virtues1
 or with instilling certain sentiments  
in regard to them4 ,the moral has been  
conceived in too goody-goody a way4     
,ultimate moral motives and forces are  
nothing more or less than social        
intelligence--the power of observing and
 comprehending social situations1--and  
social power--trained capacities of     
control--at work in the service of      
social interest and aims4 ,there is no  
fact which throws light upon the        
constitution of society1 there is no    
power whose training adds to social     
resourcefulness that is not moral4  ,i  
sum up1 then1 this part of the          
discussion by asking your attention to  
the moral trinity of the school4 ,the   
demand is for social intelligence1      
social power1 and social interests4 ,our
 resources are 7#a7 the life of the     
school as a social institution in       
itself2 7#b7 methods of learning and of 
doing work2 and 7#c7 the school studies 

or curriculum4 ,in so far as the school 
represents1 in its own spirit1 a genuine
 community life2 in so far as what are  
called school discipline1 government1   
order1 etc41 are the expressions of this
 inherent social spirit2 in so far as   
the methods used are those that appeal  
to the active and constructive powers1  
permitting the child to give out and    
thus to serve2 in so far as the         
curriculum is so selected and organized 
as to provide the material for affording
 the child a consciousness of the world 
in which he has to play a part1 and the 
demands he has to meet2 so far as these 
ends are met1 the school is organized on
 an ethical basis4 ,so far as general   
principles are concerned1 all the basic 
ethical requirements are met4 ,the rest 
remains between the individual teacher  
and the individual child4     ,,the     
,,psychological ,,aspect ,,of ,,moral   
,,education     ,v  ,,the               
,,psychological ,,aspect ,,of ,,moral   
,,education   ,so far we have been      

considering the make-up of purposes and 
results that constitute conduct--its    
what4 ,but conduct has a certain method 
and spirit also--its how4 ,conduct may  
be looked upon as expressing the        
attitudes and dispositions of an        
individual1 as well as realizing social 
results and maintaining the social      
fabric4 ,a consideration of conduct as a
 mode of individual performance1        
personal doing1 takes us from the social
 to the psychological side of morals4   
,in the first place1 all conduct springs
 ultimately and radically out of native 
instincts and impulses4 ,we must know   
what these instincts and impulses are1  
and what they are at each particular    
stage of the child's development1 in    
order to know what to appeal to and what
 to build upon4 ,neglect of this        
principle may give a mechanical         
imitation of moral conduct1 but the     
imitation will be ethically dead1       
because it is external and has its      
centre without1 not within1 the         

individual4 ,we must study the child1 in
 other words1 to get our indications1   
our symptoms1 our suggestions4 ,the more
 or less spontaneous acts of the child  
are not to be thought of as setting     
moral forms to which the efforts of the 
educator must conform--this would result
 simply in spoiling the child2 but they 
are symptoms which require to be        
interpreted3 stimuli which need to be   
responded to in directed ways2 material 
which1 in however transformed a shape1  
is the only ultimate constituent of     
future moral conduct and character4     
,then1 secondly1 our ethical principles 
need to be stated in psychological terms
 because the child supplies us with the 
only means or instruments by which to   
realize moral ideals4 ,the              
subject-matter of the curriculum1       
however important1 however judiciously  
selected1 is empty of conclusive moral  
content until it is made over into terms
 of the individual's own activities1    
habits1 and desires4 ,we must know what 

history1 geography1 and mathematics mean
 in psychological terms1 that is1 as    
modes of personal experiencing1 before  
we can get out of them their moral      
potentialities4  ,the psychological side
 of education sums itself up1 of course1
 in a consideration of character4 ,it is
 a commonplace to say that the          
development of character is the end of  
all school work4 ,the difficulty lies in
 the execution of the idea4 ,and an     
underlying difficulty in this execution 
is the lack of a clear conception of    
what character means4 ,this may seem an 
extreme statement4 ,if so1 the idea may 
be conveyed by saying that we generally 
conceive of character simply in terms of
 results2 we have no clear conception of
 it in psychological terms--that is1 as 
a process1 as working or dynamic4 ,we   
know what character means in terms of   
the actions which proceed from it1 but  
we have not a definite conception of it 
on its inner side1 as a system of       
working forces4  7#a7 ,force1 efficiency

 in execution1 or overt action1 is one  
necessary constituent of character4 ,in 
our moral books and lectures we may lay 
the stress upon good intentions1 etc4   
,but we know practically that the kind  
of character we hope to build up through
 our education is one that not only has 
good intentions1 but that insists upon  
carrying them out4 ,any other character 
is wishy-washy2 it is goody1 not good4  
,the individual must have the power to  
stand up and count for something in the 
actual conflicts of life4 ,he must have 
initiative1 insistence1 persistence1    
courage1 and industry4 ,he must1 in a   
word1 have all that goes under the name 
force of character4 ,undoubtedly1       
individuals differ greatly in their     
native endowment in this respect4 ,none 
the less1 each has a certain primary    
equipment of impulse1 of tendency       
forward1 of innate urgency to do4 ,the  
problem of education on this side is    
that of discovering what this native    
fund of power is1 and then of utilizing 

it in such a way 7affording conditions  
which both stimulate and control7 as to 
organize it into definite conserved     
modes of action--habits4  7#b7 ,but     
something more is required than sheer   
force4 ,sheer force may be brutal2 it   
may override the interests of others4   
,even when aiming at right ends it may  
go at them in such a way as to violate  
the rights of others4 ,more than this1  
in sheer force there is no guarantee for
 the right end4 ,efficiency may be      
directed towards mistaken ends and      
result in positive mischief and         
destruction4 ,power1 as already         
suggested1 must be directed4 ,it must be
 organized along social channels2 it    
must be attached to valuable ends4      
,this involves training on both the     
intellectual and emotional side4 ,on the
 intellectual side we must have         
judgment--what is ordinarily called good
 sense4 ,the difference between mere    
knowledge1 or information1 and judgment 
is that the former is simply held1 not  

used2 judgment is knowledge directed    
with reference to the accomplishment of 
ends4 ,good judgment is a sense of      
respective or proportionate values4 ,the
 one who has judgment is the one who has
 ability to size up a situation4 ,he is 
the one who can grasp the scene or      
situation before him1 ignoring what is  
irrelevant1 or what for the time being  
is unimportant1 who can seize upon the  
factors which demand attention1 and     
grade them according to their respective
 claims4 ,mere knowledge of what the    
right is1 in the abstract1 mere         
intentions of following the right in    
general1 however praiseworthy in        
themselves1 are never a substitute for  
this power of trained judgment4 ,action 
is always in the concrete4 ,it is       
definite and individualized4 ,except1   
therefore1 as it is backed and          
controlled by a knowledge of the actual 
concrete factors in the situation in    
which it occurs1 it must be relatively  
futile and waste4  7#c7 ,but the        

consciousness of ends must be more than 
merely intellectual4 ,we can imagine a  
person with most excellent judgment1 who
 yet does not act upon his judgment4    
,there must not only be force to ensure 
effort in execution against obstacles1  
but there must also be a delicate       
personal responsiveness1--there must be 
an emotional reaction4 ,indeed1 good    
judgment is impossible without this     
susceptibility4 ,unless there is a      
prompt and almost instinctive           
sensitiveness to conditions1 to the ends
 and interests of others1 the           
intellectual side of judgment will not  
have proper material to work upon4 ,just
 as the material of knowledge is        
supplied through the senses1 so the     
material of ethical knowledge is        
supplied by emotional responsiveness4   
,it is difficult to put this quality    
into words1 but we all know the         
difference between the character which  
is hard and formal1 and one which is    
sympathetic1 flexible1 and open4 ,in the

 abstract the former may be as sincerely
 devoted to moral ideas as is the       
latter1 but as a practical matter we    
prefer to live with the latter4 ,we     
count upon it to accomplish more by     
tact1 by instinctive recognition of the 
claims of others1 by skill in adjusting1
 than the former can accomplish by mere 
attachment to rules4  ,here1 then1 is   
the moral standard1 by which to test the
 work of the school upon the side of    
what it does directly for individuals4  
7a7 ,does the school as a system1 at    
present1 attach sufficient importance to
 the spontaneous instincts and impulses8
 ,does it afford sufficient opportunity 
for these to assert themselves and work 
out their own results8 ,can we even say 
that the school in principle attaches   
itself1 at present1 to the active       
constructive powers rather than to      
processes of absorption and learning8   
,does not our talk about self-activity  
largely render itself meaningless       
because the self-activity we have in    

mind is purely intellectual1 out of     
relation to those impulses which work   
through hand and eye8  ,just in so far  
as the present school methods fail to   
meet the test of such questions moral   
results must be unsatisfactory4 ,we     
cannot secure the development of        
positive force of character unless we   
are willing to pay its price4 ,we cannot
 smother and repress the child's powers1
 or gradually abort them 7from failure  
of opportunity for exercise71 and then  
expect a character with initiative and  
consecutive industry4 ,i am aware of the
 importance attaching to inhibition1 but
 mere inhibition is valueless4 ,the only
 restraint1 the only holding-in1 that is
 of any worth is that which comes       
through holding powers concentrated upon
 a positive end4 ,an end cannot be      
attained excepting as instincts and     
impulses are kept from discharging at   
random and from running off on side     
tracks4 ,in keeping powers at work upon 
their relevant ends1 there is sufficient

 opportunity for genuine inhibition4 ,to
 say that inhibition is higher than     
power1 is like saying that death is more
 than life1 negation more than          
affirmation1 sacrifice more than        
service4  7b7 ,we must also test our    
school work by finding whether it       
affords the conditions necessary for the
 formation of good judgment4 ,judgment  
as the sense of relative values involves
 ability to select1 to discriminate4    
,acquiring information can never develop
 the power of judgment4 ,development of 
judgment is in spite of1 not because of1
 methods of instruction that emphasize  
simple learning4 ,the test comes only   
when the information acquired has to be 
put to use4 ,will it do what we expect  
of it8 ,i have heard an educator of     
large experience say that in her        
judgment the greatest defect of         
instruction to-day1 on the intellectual 
side1 is found in the fact that children
 leave school without a mental          
perspective4 ,facts seem to them all of 

the same importance4 ,there is no       
foreground or background4 ,there is no  
instinctive habit of sorting out facts  
upon a scale of worth and of grading    
them4  ,the child cannot get power of   
judgment excepting as he is continually 
exercised in forming and testing        
judgments4 ,he must have an opportunity 
to select for himself1 and to attempt to
 put his selections into execution1 that
 he may submit them to the final test1  
that of action4 ,only thus can he learn 
to discriminate that which promises     
success from that which promises        
failure2 only thus can he form the habit
 of relating his purposes and notions to
 the conditions that determine their    
value4 ,does the school1 as a system1   
afford at present sufficient opportunity
 for this sort of experimentation8      
,except so far as the emphasis of the   
school work is upon intelligent doing1  
upon active investigation1 it does not  
furnish the conditions necessary for    
that exercise of judgment which is an   

integral factor in good character4  7c7 
,i shall be brief with respect to the   
other point1 the need of susceptibility 
and responsiveness4 ,the informally     
social side of education1 the aesthetic 
environment and influences1 are         
all-important4 ,in so far as the work is
 laid out in regular and formulated     
ways1 so far as there are lacking       
opportunities for casual and free social
 intercourse between pupils and between 
the pupils and the teacher1 this side of
 the child's nature is either starved1  
or else left to find haphazard          
expression along more or less secret    
channels4 ,when the school system1 under
 plea of the practical 7meaning by the  
practical the narrowly utilitarian71    
confines the child to the three ,r's and
 the formal studies connected with them1
 shuts him out from the vital in        
literature and history1 and deprives him
 of his right to contact with what is   
best in architecture1 music1 sculpture1 
and picture1 it is hopeless to expect   

definite results in the training of     
sympathetic openness and responsiveness4
         99       99       99       99  
99  ,what we need in education is a     
genuine faith in the existence of moral 
principles which are capable of         
effective application4 ,we believe1 so  
far as the mass of children are         
concerned1 that if we keep at them long 
enough we can teach reading and writing 
and figuring4 ,we are practically1 even 
if unconsciously1 skeptical as to the   
possibility of anything like the same   
assurance in morals4 ,we believe in     
moral laws and rules1 to be sure1 but   
they are in the air4 ,they are something
 set off by themselves4 ,they are so    
very moral that they have no working    
contact with the average affairs of     
every-day life4 ,these moral principles 
need to be brought down to the ground   
through their statement in social and in
 psychological terms4 ,we need to see   
that moral principles are not arbitrary1
 that they are not transcendental2 that 

the term moral does not designate a     
special region or portion of life4 ,we  
need to translate the moral into the    
conditions and forces of our community  
life1 and into the impulses and habits  
of the individual4  ,all the rest is    
mint1 anise1 and cummin4 ,the one thing 
needful is that we recognize that moral 
principles are real in the same sense in
 which other forces are real2 that they 
are inherent in community life1 and in  
the working structure of the individual4
 ,if we can secure a genuine faith in   
this fact1 we shall have secured the    
condition which alone is necessary to   
get from our educational system all the 
effectiveness there is in it4 ,the      
teacher who operates in this faith will 
find every subject1 every method of     
instruction1 every incident of school   
life pregnant with moral possibility4   
,,outline     ,i4 ,,the ,,moral         
,,purpose ,,of ,,the ,,school     #a4   
,moral ideas and ideas about morality   
#b4 ,moral education and direct moral   

instruction    ,,ii4 ,,the ,,moral      
,,training ,,given ,,by ,,the ,,school  
,,community     #a4 ,the unity of social
 ethics and school ethics     #b4 ,a    
narrow and formal training for          
citizenship     #c4 ,school life should 
train for many social relations     #d4 
,it should train for self-direction and 
leadership     #e4 ,there is no         
harmonious development of powers apart  
from social        situations     #f4   
,school activities should be typical of 
social life     #g4 ,moral training in  
the schools tends to be pathological and
 formal    ,,iii4 ,,the ,,moral         
,,training ,,from ,,methods ,,of        
,,instruction     #a4 ,active social    
service as opposed to passive individual
 absorption     #b4 ,the positive       
inculcation of individualistic motives  
and standards     #c4 ,the evils of     
competition for external standing       
#d4 ,the moral waste of remote success  
as an end     #e4 ,the worth of active  
and social modes of learning    ,,iv4   

,,the ,,social ,,nature ,,of ,,the      
,,course ,,of ,,study     #a4 ,the      
nature of the course of study influences
 the conduct of the        school       
#b4 ,school studies as means of         
realizing social situations     #c4     
,school subjects are merely phases of a 
unified social life     #d4 ,the meaning
 of subjects is controlled by social    
considerations     #e4 ,geography deals 
with the scenes of social interaction   
#f4 ,its various forms represent        
increasing stages of abstraction     #g4
 ,history is a means for interpreting   
existing social relations     #h4 ,it   
presents type phases of social          
development     #i4 ,it offers          
contrasts1 and consequently perspective 
#aj4 ,it teaches the methods of social  
progress    #aa4 ,the failure of certain
 methods of teaching history    #ab4    
,mathematics is a means to social ends  
#ac4 ,the sociological nature of        
business arithmetic    #ad4 ,summary3   
,the moral trinity of the school    ,v4 

,,the ,,psychological ,,aspect ,,of     
,,moral ,,education     #a4 ,conduct as 
a mode of individual performance     #b4
 ,native instincts and impulses are the 
sources of conduct     #c4 ,moral ideals
 must be realized in persons     #d4    
,character as a system of working forces
     #e4 ,force as a necessary          
constituent of character     #f4 ,the   
importance of intellectual judgment or  
good sense     #g4 ,the capacity for    
delicate emotional responsiveness       
#h4 ,summary3 ,the ethical standards for
 testing the school     #i4 ,conclusion3
 ,the practicality of moral principles  
,,riverside ,,educational ,,monographs  
,general ,educational ,theory           
,,coolidge',s ,america's ,need for      
,education4   ,,dewey',s ,interest and  
,effort in ,education4   ,,dewey',s     
,moral ,principles in ,education4       
,,eliot',s ,education for ,efficiency4  
,,eliot',s ,the ,tendency to the        
,concrete and ,practical in ,modern     
,education4   ,,emerson',s ,education   

and other ,selections4   ,,fiske',s ,the
 ,meaning of ,infancy4   ,,horne',s ,the
 ,teacher as ,artist4   ,,hyde',s ,the  
,teacher's ,philosophy in and out of    
,school4   ,,judd',s ,the ,evolution of 
a ,democratic ,school ,system4          
,,meredith',s ,the ,educational         
,bearings of ,modern ,psychology4       
,,palmer',s ,the ,ideal ,teacher4       
,,palmer',s ,trades and ,professions4   
,,palmer',s ,ethical and ,moral         
,instruction in ,schools4   ,,prosser',s
 ,the ,teacher and ,old ,age4           
,,stockton',s ,project ,work in         
,education4   ,,stratton',s ,developing 
,mental ,power4   ,,terman',s ,the      
,teacher's ,health4   ,,thorndike',s    
,individuality4   ,,trow',s ,scientific 
,method in ,education4   ,administration
 and ,supervision    ,,bett',s ,new     
,ideals in ,rural ,schools4             
,,bloomfield',s ,the ,vocational        
,guidance of ,youth4   ,,cabot',s       
,volunteer ,help to the ,schools4       
,,cole',s ,industrial ,education in the 

,elementary ,school4   ,,cubberley',s   
,changing ,conceptions of ,education4   
,,cubberley',s ,the ,improvement of     
,rural ,schools4   ,,dooley',s ,the     
,education of the ,ne'er-,do-,well4     
,,gates',s ,the ,management of ,smaller 
,schools4   ,,hines',s ,measuring       
,intelligence4   ,,koos',s ,the         
,high-,school ,principal4   ,,lewis',s  
,democracy's ,high ,school4             
,,maxwell',s ,the ,observation of       
,teaching4   ,,maxwell',s ,the          
,selection of ,textbooks4   ,,miller and
 ,,charles',s ,publicity and the ,public
 ,school4   ,,perry',s ,the ,status of  
the ,teacher4   ,,russell',s ,economy in
 ,secondary ,education4   ,,smith',s    
,establishing ,industrial ,schools4     
,,snedden',s ,the ,problem of           
,vocational ,guidance4   ,,weeks',s ,the
 ,people's ,school4   ,method           
,,andress',s ,the ,teaching of ,hygiene 
in the ,grades4  ,,atwood',s ,the       
,theory and ,practice of the            
,kindergarten4  ,,bailey',s ,art        

,education4  ,,betts',s ,the            
,recitation4  ,,cooley',s ,language     
,teaching in the ,grades4               
,,dougherty',s ,how to ,teach ,phonics4 
,,earhart',s ,teaching ,children to     
,study4  ,,evans',s ,the ,teaching of   
,high ,school ,mathematics4             
,,fairchild',s ,the ,teaching of ,poetry
 in the ,high ,school4  ,,freeman',s    
,the ,teaching of ,handwriting4         
,,haliburton and ,,smith',s ,teaching   
,poetry in the ,grades4  ,,hartwell',s  
,the ,teaching of ,history4  ,,hawley',s
 ,teaching ,english in ,junior ,high    
,schools4  ,,haynes',s ,economics in the
 ,secondary ,school4  ,,hill',s ,the    
,teaching of ,civics4  ,,jenkins',s     
,reading in the ,primary ,grades4       
,,kendall and ,,stryker',s ,history in  
the ,elementary ,school4                
,,kilpatrick',s ,the ,montessori ,system
 ,examined4  ,,leonard',s ,english      
,composition as a ,social ,problem4     
,,losh and ,,weeks',s ,primary ,number  
,projects4  ,,palmer',s                 

,self-,cultivation in ,english4         
,,ridgley',s ,geographic ,principles4   
,,ruediger',s ,vitalized ,teaching4     
,,sharp',s ,teaching ,english in ,high  
,schools4  ,,stockton',s ,project ,work 
in ,education4  ,,suzzallo',s ,the      
,teaching of ,primary ,arithmetic4      
,,suzzallo',s ,the ,teaching of         
,spelling4  ,,swift',s ,speech ,defects 
in ,school ,children4  ,,tuell',s ,the  
,study of ,nations4  ,,wilson's ,what   
,arithmetic ,shall ,we ,teach8          
,,houghton ,,mifflin ,,company