,illu/ration3 ,plato ,,! ,,_w',s ,,greate/ ,,books ,,jo9t ,,editors ,,ar?ur ,,mee ,editor & ,f\nd] ( ! ,book ( ,k ,j4 ,a4 ,,hamm]ton ,editor ( ,h>mswor?'s ,univ]sal ,encyclopa$ia ,,vol4 ,,xiv ,,philosophy 7,,cont9u$7 ,,economics ,,wm4 ,h4 ,,wise ,,co4 ,table ( ,cont5ts ,,portrait ,,( ,,plato ,frontispiece ,,philosophy 7cont9u$7 ,,hegel1 ,g4,w4,f4 ,,page ,! ,philosophy ( ,hi/ory #a ,,hume1 ,,david ,essays1 ,moral & ,political #ac ,,kant1 ,,immanuel ,! ,critique ( ,pure ,reason #bd ,! ,critique ( ,practical ,reason #cd ,,lewes1 ,,george ,,h5ry ,a ,hi/ory ( ,philosophy #de ,,locke1 ,,john ,conc]n+ ! ,human ,und]/&+ #ef ,,montaigne ,essays #fd ,,plato ,! ,apology1 or ,def5ce ( ,socrates #ge ,! ,republic #hd ,,s*op5hau] ,! ,_w z ,w & ,idea #ii ,,s5eca1 ,l4 ,,annaeus ,on ,b5efits #aji ,,sp5c]1 ,,h]b]t ,education #abj ,pr9ciples ( ,biology #acc ,pr9ciples ( ,sociology #ade ,,sp9oza1 ,,b5$ict ,,de ,e?ics #afj ,,economics ,,bellamy1 ,,edw>d ,look+ ,backw>d #agc ,,b5?am1 ,,j]emy ,pr9ciples ( ,morals & ,legislation #ahf ,,blo*1 ,,jean ,! ,future ( ,w> #aii ,,burke1 ,,edmund ,reflections on ! ,revolution 9 ,france #bab ,,comte1 ,,augu/e ,a ,c\rse ( ,positive ,philosophy #bbd ,,george1 ,,h5ry ,progress & ,pov]ty #bch ,,hobbes1 ,,?omas ,! ,levia?an #bdi ,,ma*iavelli1 ,,niccolo ,! ,pr9ce #bfa ,,mal?us1 ,t4,r4 ,on ! ,pr9ciple ( ,population #bgj ,,m>x1 ,,k>l ,capital3 ,a ,critical ,analysis #bhb ,,mill1 ,,john ,,/u>t ,pr9ciples ( ,political ,economy #bid ,,montesquieu ,! ,_s ( ,laws #cjf ,,m1 ,,sir ,,?omas ,utopia ,n[h]e ,l& #cae ,,pa9e1 ,,?omas ,! ,rights ( ,man #cbd ,,r\sseau1 ,,jean ,,jacques ,! ,social ,contract #ccg ,,smi?1 ,,adam ,weal? ( ,nations #cej 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,complete ,index ( ,,! ,,_w',s ,,greate/ ,,books w be f\nd at ! end ( ,volume ,,xx4 ,ackn[l$gm5t ,ackn[l$gm5t & ?anks = p]mission to use ! foll[+ selections are h]e) t5d]$ to ,h\ghton1 ,miffl9 ,company1 ,bo/on1 = ,look+ ,backw>d1 by ,edw>d ,bellamy2 to ,g9n ,company1 ,bo/on1 = ! ,int]national ,s*ool ( ,peace1 = ,! ,future ( ,w>1 by ,jean ,blo*2 & to ,d\bl$ay1 ,page ,company1 ,new ,york1 = ,progress & ,pov]ty1 by ,h5ry ,george4 ,philosophy ,,hegel ,! ,philosophy ( ,hi/ory ,georg ,wilhelm ,fri$ri* ,hegel 0 born on ,augu/ #bg1 #aggj1 at ,/uttg>t1 ! capital ( ,wu]temburg1 9 :i* /ate 8 fa!r occupi$ a humble position 9 gov]nm5t s]vice4 ,he 0 educat$ at ,tueb+5 = ! m9i/ry1 & :ile !re 01 9 private1 a dilig5t /ud5t ( ,kant & ,r\sseau4 ,9 #ahje he 0 ,pr(essor ,extraord9>ius at ! ,univ]sity ( ,j5a1 & 9 #ahjg he gave ! _w ! fir/ ( 8 great works1 ! ,ph5om5ology4 ,x 0 n until #ahaf t ,hegel's gr[+ fame z a writ] secur$ = him a pr(essor%ip at ,heidelb]g1 b1 aft] two ye>s1 he ex*ang$ x = "o at ,b]l91 :]e he rema9$ until 8 dea? on ,novemb] #ad1 #ahca4 ,on ,octob] #bb1 #ahah1 he began 8 fam\s lectures4 ,our bus9ess & vocation1 he rem>k$ to 8 li/5]s1 is to *]i% ! philosophical developm5t ( ! sub/antial f\ndation :i* has r5ew$ its y\? & increas$ its /r5g?4 ,al?\gh ! lectures on ! ,philosophy ( ,hi/ory & on ! ,philosophy ( ,religion 7,vol4 ,,xiii7 7 deliv]$ dur+ ?is p]iod1 !y 7 n publi%$ until a ye> aft] 8 dea?1 :5 8 collect$ works 7 issu$4 ,i4--,9 ! ,ea/ ,began ,hi/ory ,univ]sal or _w-hi/ory travels f ea/ to we/1 = ,europe is absolutely ! end ( hi/ory1 ,asia ! beg9n+4 ,! hi/ory ( ! _w has an ea/ 9 an absolute s5se1 =1 al?\gh ! e>? =ms a sph]e1 hi/ory describes no orbit r\nd x1 b has1 on ! contr>y1 a det]m9ate ori5t--viz41 ,asia4 ,"h rises ! outw>d visible sun1 & 9 ! we/ x s9ks d[n2 "h also rises ! sun ( self-consci\sness4 ,! hi/ory ( ! _w is a discipl9e ( ! uncontroll$ natural w1 br++ x into ob$i5ce to a univ]sal pr9ciple & conf]r+ a subjective fre$om4 ,! ,ea/ knew1 & to ?is day kn[s1 fre$om only = "o2 ! ,greek & ,roman _w knew t "s are free2 ! ,g]man _w kn[s t all are free4 ,! fir/ political =m1 !re=e1 t we see 9 hi/ory is despotism2 ! second democracy & ari/ocracy2 & ! ?ird mon>*y4 ,! fir/ phase--t ) :i* we h to beg9--is ! ,ea/4 ,unreflect$ consci\sness--sub/antial1 objective1 spiritual exi/5ce--=ms ! basis2 to :i* ! subjective w fir/ su/a9s a relation 9 ! =m ( fai?1 confid5ce1 ob$i5ce4 ,9 ! political life ( ! ,ea/ we f9d realis$ national fre$om1 develop+ itself )\t advanc+ to subjective fre$om4 ,x is ! *ildhood ( hi/ory4 ,9 ! gorge\s edifices ( ! ,ori5tal empires we f9d all national ord9ances & arrangem5ts1 b 9 su* a way t individuals rema9 z m]e accid5ts4 ,^! revolve r\nd a c5tre1 r\nd ! sov]eign1 :o z patri>* /&s 7n z despot1 9 ! s5se ( ! ,roman imp]ial con/itution7 at ! head4 ,= he has to en=ce ! moral & sub/antial2 he has to uphold ^? ess5tial ord9ances :i* are already e/abli%$2 s t :at among u belongs entirely to subjective fre$om1 "h proce$s f ! entire & g5]al body ( ! /ate4 ,! glory ( ! ,ori5tal conception is ! "o individual z ! sub/antial be+ to :i* all belongs1 s t no o!r individual has a sep>ate exi/5ce1 or mirrors himself 9 8 subjective fre$om4 ,all ! ri*es ( imag9ation & nature are appropriat$ to t dom9ant exi/5ce 9 :i* subjective fre$om is ess5tially m]g$2 ! latt] looks = its dignity n 9 itself b 9 ! absolute object4 ,all ! elem5ts ( a complete /ate--ev5 subjectivity--may be f\nd !re1 b n yet h>monis$ ) ! gr& sub/antial be+4 ,= outside ! "o p[]--be=e :i* no?+ c ma9ta9 an indep5d5t exi/5ce--!re is only revolt+ caprice1 :i*1 beyond ! limits ( ! c5tral p[]1 moves at w )\t purpose or result4 ,accord+ly we f9d ! wild h]ds break+ out f ! upl&1 fall+ ^u ! c\ntries 9 "q & lay+ !m wa/e1 or settl+ d[n 9 !m & giv+ up _! wild life2 b 9 all cases lo/ resultlessly 9 ! c5tral sub/ance4 ,?is phase ( sub/antiality1 s9ce x has n tak5 up its anti!sis into itself & ov]come x1 directly divides itself into two elem5ts4 ,on ! "o side we see duration1 /ability--empires belong+1 z x 71 to m]e ,space 7z di/+ui%$ f ,"t72 unhi/orical hi/ory1 z1 = example1 9 ,*9a1 ! /ate bas$ on ! family relation4 ,yet ! /ates 9 "q1 )\t und]go+ any *ange 9 !mselves1 or 9 ! pr9ciple ( _! exi/5ce1 are con/antly *ang+ _! op9ion t[>ds ea* o!r4 ,!y are 9 ceaseless conflict1 :i* br+s on rapid de/ruction4 ,! oppos+ pr9ciple ( individuality ent]s into ^! conflict+ relations2 b x is itself z yet only unconsci\s1 m]ely natural univ]sality--light :i* is n yet ! light ( ! p]sonal s\l4 ,?is hi/ory1 too1 is = ! mo/ "p really unhi/orical1 = x is only ! repetition ( ! same maje/ic ru94 ,! new elem5t :i*1 9 ! %ape ( brav]y1 pr[ess1 magnanimity1 occupies ! place ( ! previ\s despotic pomp goes ?r\gh ! same cycle ( decl9e & subsid5ce4 ,& ?is subsid5ce1 !re=e1 is n really su*2 = ?r\gh all ?is re/less *ange no advance has be5 made4 ,hi/ory passes at ?is po9t--& only outw>dly1 t is1 )\t connection ) ! previ\s phase--to ,c5tral ,asia4 ,to c>ry on ! comp>ison ) ! individual man1 ?is w\ld be ! boyhood ( hi/ory1 no long] manife/+ ! repose & tru/fulness ( ! *ild1 b boi/]\s & turbul5t4 ,,ii4--,greece1 ,rome & ,*ri/ianity ,! ,greek _w may1 !n1 be comp>$ to ! season ( adolesc5ce1 = "h we h individualities %ap+ !mselves4 ,?is is ! second ma9 pr9ciple 9 human hi/ory4 ,morality is1 z 9 ,asia1 a pr9ciple1 b x is morality impress$ on individuality1 & consequ5tly d5ot+ ! free volition ( individuals4 ,"h1 !n1 is ! union ( ! moral ) ! subjective w1 or ! k+dom ( beautiful fre$om1 = ! idea is unit$ ) a pla/ic =m4 ,x is n yet reg>d$ ab/ractly1 b intimately b\nd up ) ! real1 z 9 a beautiful "w ( art2 ! s5sible be>s ! /amp & expression ( ! spiritual4 ,! k+dom is consequ5tly true h>mony2 x is a _w ( ! mo/ *>m+ b p]i%able1 or quickly pass+1 bloom2 x is ! natural1 unreflect+ obs]vance ( :at is becom+--n yet true morality4 ,! individual w ( ! subject adopts )\t reflection ! conduct & habit prescrib$ by ju/ice & ! laws4 ,! individual is1 !re=e1 9 unconsci\s unity ) ! idea--! social weal4 ,! ?ird phase is ! realm ( ab/ract univ]sality 79 :i* ! social aim absorbs all individual aims72 x is ! ,roman /ate1 ! sev]e lab\rs ( ! manhood ( hi/ory4 ,= true manhood acts nei!r 9 accordance ) ! caprice ( a despot nor 9 ob$i5ce to a graceful caprice ( its own4 ,x works = a g5]al aim1 "o 9 :i* ! individual p]i%es & realises 8 own private object only 9 t g5]al aim4 ,! /ate beg9s to h an ab/ract exi/5ce & to develop itself = a def9ite object1 9 accompli%+ :i* its memb]s h inde$ a %>e1 b n a complete & concrete "o 7call+ _! :ole be+ into play74 ,free individuals are sacrific$ to ! sev]e dem&s ( ! national ends1 to :i* !y mu/ surr5d] !mselves 9 ?is s]vice ( ab/ract g5]alisation4 ,! ,roman /ate is n a repetition ( su* a /ate ( individuals z 0 ! ,a!nian polis4 ,! g5iality & joy ( s\l t exi/$ !re h giv5 place to h>% & rigor\s toil4 ,! int]e/ ( hi/ory is deta*$ f individuals4 ,b :51 subsequ5tly1 9 ! hi/orical developm5t1 individuality ga9s ! asc5dant1 & ! break+ up ( ! community into its compon5t atoms c be re/ra9$ only by ext]nal compulsion1 !n ! subjective might ( individual despotism comes =w>d to play its "p4 ,! individual is l$ to seek consolation = ! loss ( 8 fre$om 9 ex]cis+ & develop+ 8 private rights4 ,9 ! next place1 ! pa9 inflict$ by despotism beg9s to be felt1 & _s1 driv5 back into its utmo/ dep?s1 leaves ! godless _w1 seeks = a h>mony 9 itself1 & beg9s n[ an inn] life--a complete concrete subjectivity1 :i* at ! same "t possesses a sub/antiality t is n gr\nd$ 9 m]e ext]nal exi/5ce4 ,)9 ! s\l1 !re=e1 arises ! spiritual solution ( ! /ruggle1 9 ! fact t ! individual p]sonality1 in/ead ( foll[+ its own caprici\s *oice1 is purifi$ & elevat$ into univ]sality--a subjectivity t ( its own free w adopts pr9ciples t5d+ to ! good ( all1 rea*es1 9 fact1 a div9e p]sonality4 ,to ! worldly empire ?is spiritual "o we>s a pr$om9ant aspect ( opposition1 z ! empire ( subjectivity t has atta9$ to ! k ( itself--itself 9 its ess5tial nature--! empire ( _s 9 its full s5se4 ,! ,*ri/ian community f\nd itself 9 ! ,roman _w1 b z x 0 seclud$ f ?is /ate1 & did n hold ! emp]or = its absolute sov]eign1 x 0 ! object ( p]secution4 ,!n 0 manife/$ its inw>d lib]ty 9 ! /eadfa/ness ) :i* suff]+s 7 borne4 ,z reg>ds its relation to ! tru?1 ! fa!rs ( ! ,*ur* built up ! dogma1 b a *ief elem5t 0 furni%$ by ! previ\s developm5t ( philosophy4 ,j z ,philo f\nd a deep] import %ad[$ =? 9 ! ,mosaic record & idealis$ :at he consid]$ ! b>e %ell ( ! n>rative1 s also did ! ,*ri/ians treat _! records4 ,x 0 ?r\gh ! ,*ri/ian religion t ! absolute idea ( ,god1 9 if true conception1 atta9$ consci\sness4 ,"h man1 too1 f9ds himself compreh5d$ 9 8 true nature1 giv5 9 ! specific conception ( ! ,son4 ,man1 f9ite :5 reg>d$ = himself1 is yet at ! same "t ! image ( ,god & a f\nta9 ( inf9ity 9 himself4 ,consequ5tly he has 8 true home 9 a sup]-s5su\s _w--an inf9ite subjectivity1 ga9$ only by a rupture ) m]e natural exi/5ce & volition4 ,?is is religi\s self-consci\sness4 ,! fir/ ab/ract pr9ciples are won by ! in/rum5tality ( ! ,*ri/ian religion = ! secul> /ate4 ,fir/1 "u ,*ri/ianity slav]y is impossible2 = man z man--9 ! ab/ract ess5ce ( 8 nature--is contemplat$ 9 ,god2 ea* unit ( mank9d is an object ( ! grace ( ,god & ( ! div9e purpose4 ,utt]ly exclud+ all speciality1 !re=e1 man1 9 & = himself--9 8 simple quality ( man--has inf9ite value2 & ?is inf9ite value aboli%es1 ipso facto1 all p>ticul>ity atta*+ to bir? or c\ntry4 ,! o!r1 ! second pr9ciple1 reg>ds ! subjectivity ( man 9 its be>+ on *ance4 ,humanity has ?is sph]e ( free spirituality 9 & = itself1 & ev]y?+ else mu/ proce$ f x4 ,! place appropriat$ to ! abode & pres5ce ( ! ,div9e ,_s--! sph]e 9 "q--is spiritual subjectivity1 & is con/itut$ ! place 9 :i* all cont+5cy is am5able4 ,x foll[s1 !nce1 t :at we obs]ve among ! ,greeks z a =m ( cu/om>y morality _c ma9ta9 its position 9 ! ,*ri/ian _w4 ,= t morality is spontane\s1 unreflect$ wont2 :ile ! ,*ri/ian pr9ciple is indep5d5t subjectivity--! soil on :i* gr[s ! ,true4 ,n[1 an unreflect$ morality _c cont9ue to hold its gr\nd aga9/ ! pr9ciple ( subjective fre$om4 ,n[ ! pr9ciple ( absolute fre$om 9 ,god makes its appe>ance4 ,man no long] su/a9s ! relation ( dep5d5ce1 b ( love--9 ! consci\sness t he is a p>tak] 9 ! ,div9e exi/5ce4 ,,iii4--,! ,g]manic ,_w ,! ,g]man _w appe>s at ?is po9t ( developm5t--! f\r? phase ( _w hi/ory4 ,! old age ( nature is weakness2 b ?is ( _s is its p]fect maturity & /r5g?1 9 :i* x returns to unity ) itself1 b 9 its fully develop$ "* z _s4 ,! ,greeks & ,romans _h rea*$ maturity )9 ere !y direct$ _! en]gies outw>ds4 ,! ,g]mans1 on ! contr>y1 began ) self-diffusion1 delug+ ! _w1 & break+ d[n 9 _! c\rse ! holl[ political fabrics ( ! civilis$ nations4 ,only !n did _! developm5t beg91 k9dl$ by a =eign culture1 a =eign religion1 polity1 & legislation4 ,! process ( culture !y und]w5t consi/$ 9 tak+ up =eign elem5ts into _! own national life4 ,! ,g]man _w took up ! ,roman culture & religion 9 _! complet$ =m4 ,! ,*ri/ian religion :i* x adopt$ _h receiv$ f c\ncils & fa!rs ( ! ,*ur*--:o possess$ ! :ole culture1 & 9 p>ticul> ! philosophy ( ! ,greek & ,roman _w--a p]fect$ dogmatic sy/em4 ,! ,*ur*1 too1 _h a completely develop$ hi]>*y4 ,to ! native tongue ( ! ,g]mans ! ,*ur* likewise oppos$ "o p]fectly develop$--! ,lat94 ,9 art & philosophy a simil> ali5 influ5ce pr$om9at$4 ,! same pr9ciple holds good 9 reg>d to ! =m ( ! secul> sov]eignty4 ,go?ic & o!r *iefs gave !mselves ! "n ( ,roman patricians4 ,?us1 sup]ficially1 ! ,g]man _w appe>s to be a cont9uation ( ! ,roman4 ,b !re dwelt 9 x an entirely new _s--! free _s :i* reposes on itself4 ,! ?ree p]iods ( ?is _w w h to be treat$ accord+ly4 ,! fir/ p]iod beg9s ) ! appe>ance ( ! ,g]man nations 9 ! ,roman ,empire4 ,! ,*ri/ian _w pres5ts itself z ,*ri/5dom--"o mass ( :i*1 ! spiritual & ! secul>1 =m only diff]5t aspects4 ,?is epo* ext5ds to ,*>lemagne4 ,9 ! second p]iod ! ,*ur* develops = itself a !ocracy & ! /ate a feudal mon>*y4 ,*>lemagne _h =m$ an alliance ) ! ,holy ,see aga9/ ! ,lomb>ds & ! factions ( ! nobles 9 ,rome4 ,a union ?us arose betwe5 ! spiritual & ! secul> p[]1 & a k+dom ( heav5 on e>? promis$ to foll[ 9 ! wake ( ?is conciliation4 ,b j at ?is "t1 in/ead ( a spiritual k+dom ( heav51 ! inw>dness ( ! ,*ri/ian pr9ciple we>s ! appe>ance ( be+ altoge!r direct$ outw>ds1 & leav+ its prop] sph]e4 ,*ri/ian fre$om is p]v]t$ to its v opposite1 bo? 9 a religi\s & secul> respect2 on ! "o h& to ! sev]e/ bondage1 on ! o!r to ! mo/ immoral excess--a b>b>\s int5sity ( e passion4 ,! fir/ half ( ! sixte5? c5tury m>ks ! beg9n+ ( ! ?ird p]iod4 ,secul>ity appe>s n[ z ga9+ a consci\sness ( its intr9sic wor?2 x becomes aw>e t x possesses a value ( its own 9 ! morality1 rectitude1 probity1 & activity ( man4 ,! consci\sness ( indep5d5t validity is ar\s$ ?r\gh ! re/oration ( ,*ri/ian fre$om4 ,! ,*ri/ian pr9ciple has n[ pass$ ?r\gh ! t]rible discipl9e ( culture1 & x fir/ atta9s tru? & reality ?r\gh ! ,re=mation4 ,?is ?ird p]iod ext5ds to our own times4 ,! pr9ciple ( free _s is "h made ! bann] ( ! _w1 & f ?is pr9ciple are evolv$ ! univ]sal axioms ( reason4 ,=mal ?\ght--! und]/&+--_h be5 already develop$1 b ?\ght receiv$ its true mat]ial fir/ ) ! ,re=mation4 ,f t ,epo* ?\ght began to ga9 a culture prop]ly its' own2 pr9ciples 7 d]iv$ f x :i* 7 to be ! norm = ! con/itution ( ! /ate4 ,political life 0 n[ to be consci\sly regulat$ by reason4 ,cu/om>y morality1 traditional usage1 lo/ _! validity2 ! v>i\s claims insi/$ ^u mu/ prove _! legitimacy z bas$ on rational pr9ciples4 ,^! epo*s may be comp>$ ) ! e>li] empires4 ,9 ! ,g]man aeon1 z ! realm ( totality1 we see ! e>li] epo*s resum$4 ,*>lemagne's "t may be comp>$ ) ! ,p]sian ,empire2 x is ! p]iod ( sub/antive unity1 ?is unity hav+ its f\ndation 9 ! inn] man1 ! he>t1 & bo? 9 ! spiritual & ! secul> /ill abid+ 9 its simplicity4 ,to ! ,greek _w & its m]ely ideal unity ! "t prec$+ ,*>les ,v4 answ]s2 :]e real unity no long] exi/s1 because all phases ( p>ticul>ity h become fix$ 9 privileges & peculi> rights ,z1 9 ! int]ior ( ! realms !mselves1 ! diff]5t e/ates ( ! realm1 ) _! sev]al claims1 are isolat$1 s d ! v>i\s /ates 9 _! =eign aspects occupy a m]ely ext]nal relation "o to ano!r4 ,a diplomatic policy arises :i*1 9 ! int]e/ ( a ,european balance ( p[]1 unites !m ) & aga9/ ea* o!r4 ,x is ! "t 9 :i* ! _w becomes cle> & manife/ to all 7discov]y ( ,am]ica74 ,s1 too1 does consci\sness ga9 cle>ness 9 ! sup]-s5su\s _w1 & respect+ x4 ,sub/antial objective religion br+s itself to s5su\s cle>ness 9 ! s5su\s elem5t 7,*ri/ian art71 & also becomes cle> to itself 9 ! elem5t ( inmo/ tru?4 ,we may comp>e ?is "t ) t ( ,p]icles4 ,! introv]sion ( _s beg9s 7,socrates--,lu!r71 ?\gh ,p]icles is want+ 9 ?is epo*4 ,*>les ,v4 possesses enorm\s possibilities 9 po9t ( outw>d appliances1 & appe>s absolute 9 8 p[]2 b ! inn] _s ( ,p]icles1 & !re=e ! absolute means ( e/abli%+ a free sov]eignty1 is n 9 him4 ,?is is ! epo* :5 _s becomes cle> to itself 9 sep>ations occurr+ 9 ! realm ( reality2 n[ ! di/9ct elem5ts ( ! ,g]man _w manife/ _! ess5tial nature4 ,! ?ird epo* may be comp>$ to ! ,roman _w4 ,! au?ority ( national aim is ackn[l$g$1 & privileges melt away be=e ! common object ( ! /ate4 ,,iv4--,mod]n ,times ,_s at la/ p]ceives t nature--! _w--mu/ be an embodim5t ( reason4 ,an int]e/ 9 ! contemplation & compreh5sion ( ! pres5t _w became univ]sal4 ,?us exp]im5tal sci5ce became ! sci5ce ( ! _w2 = exp]im5tal sci5ce involves1 on ! "o h&1 ! obs]vation ( ph5om5a2 on ! o!r h&1 also ! discov]y ( ! law1 ! ess5tial be+1 ! hidd5 =ce1 t causes ^? ph5om5a--?us r$uc+ ! data suppli$ by obs]vation to _! simple pr9ciples4 ,intellectual consci\sness 0 fir/ extricat$ by ,desc>tes f t sophi/ry ( ?\ght :i* unsettles ev]y?+4 ,z x 0 ! purely ,g]man nations among :om ! pr9ciple ( _s fir/ manife/$ itself1 s x 0 by ! ,romanic nations t ! ab/ract idea 0 fir/ compreh5d$4 ,exp]im5tal sci5ce1 !re=e1 v soon made its way among !m1 9 common ) ! ,prote/ant ,engli%1 b especially among ! ,italians4 ,x seem$ to m5 z if ,god _h b j creat$ ! moon & />s1 plants & animals2 z if ! laws ( ! univ]se 7 n[ e/abli%$ = ! fir/ "t2 = only !n did !y feel a real int]e/ 9 ! univ]se :5 !y recognis$ _! own reason 9 ! reason t p]vades x4 ,! human eye became cle>1 p]ception quick1 ?\ght active & int]pretative4 ,! discov]y ( ! laws ( nature enabl$ m5 to cont5d aga9/ ! mon/r\s sup]/ition ( ! "t1 z also aga9/ all notions ( mighty ali5 p[]s :i* magic alone c\ld conqu]4 ,! indep5d5t au?ority ( subjectivity 0 ma9ta9$ aga9/ belief f\nd$ on au?ority1 & ! laws ( nature 7 recognis$ z ! only bond connect+ ph5om5a ) ph5om5a4 ,man is at home 9 nature1 & t alone passes = tru? 9 :i* he f9ds himself at home2 he is free ?r\gh ! acqua9tance he has ga9$ ) nature4 ,nor 0 ?\ght less vigor\sly direct$ to ! spiritual side4 ,"r & social morality came to be look$ ^u z hav+ _! f\ndation 9 ! actual pres5t w ( man1 :]eas =m]ly x 0 ref]r$ only to ! comm& ( ,god enjo9$ ab extra1 writt5 9 ! ,old or ,new ,te/am5t1 or appe>+ 9 ! =m ( p>ticul> "r1 z oppos$ to t bas$ on g5]al pr9ciples1 9 old p>*m5ts z privilegia1 or 9 int]national compacts4 ,lu!r _h secur$ to mank9d spiritual fre$om1 & ! reconciliation ( ! objective & ! subjective 9 ! concrete4 ,he _h triumphantly e/abli%$ ! position t man's et]nal de/9y mu/ be wr\ght out 9 himself4 ,b ! import ( t :i* is to take place 9 him--:at tru? is to become vital to him--0 tak5 = grant$ by ,lu!r1 z some?+ already giv51 some?+ reveal$ by religion4 ,n[ ! pr9ciple 0 set up t ?is import mu/ be capable ( actual inve/igation1 & t to ?is basis ( inw>d demon/ration e dogma mu/ be ref]r$4 ,?is is ! po9t :i* consci\sness has atta9$1 & ^! are ! pr9cipal phases ( t =m 9 :i* ! pr9ciple ( fre$om has realis$ itself1 = ! hi/ory ( ! _w is no?+ b ! developm5t ( ! idea ( fre$om4 ,b objective fre$om--! laws ( real fre$om--dem&s ! subjugation ( ! m]e cont+5t w1 = ?is is 9 its nature =mal4 ,if ! objective is 9 itself rational1 human insight & conviction mu/ correspond ) ! reason :i* x embodies1 & !n we h ! o!r ess5tial elem5t--subjective fre$om--also realis$4 ,we h conf9$ ourselves to ! consid]ation ( t progress ( ! idea :i* has l$ to ?is consummation4 ,philosophy conc]ns itself only ) ! glory ( ! idea mirror+ itself 9 ! hi/ory ( ! _w1 & ) ! developm5t :i* ! idea has pass$ ?r\gh 9 realis+ itself--i4e41 ! idea ( fre$om1 ^: reality is ! consci\sness ( fre$om & no?+ %ort ( x4 ,t ! hi/ory ( ! _w1 ) all ! *ang+ sc5es :i* its annals pres5t1 is ?is true process ( developm5t & ! realisation ( _s--?is is ! true ,!odikaia1 ! ju/ification ( ,god 9 hi/ory4 ,! _s ( man may be reconcil$ ) ! c\rse ( univ]sal hi/ory only by p]ception ( ?is tru?--t all :i* has happ5$1 all t happ5s daily1 is n only n )\t ,god1 b is ess5tially ,8 "w4 ,,david ,,hume ,essays1 ,moral & ,political ,david ,hume1 ! ,scotti% philosoph] & hi/orian1 0 born at ,ed9burgh1 ,april #bf1 #agaa1 & 0 educat$ at ! college !re4 ,he tri$ law & bus9ess )\t lik+ ei!r1 & at ! age ( #bc w5t to ,france1 :]e he w&]$ ab\t = a :ile occupi$ ) dreams ( philosophy4 ,9 #agci he publi%$ ! fir/ "p ( 8 ,treatise on ,human ,nature4 ,! book set an army ( philosoph]s at "w try+ ei!r to refute :at he _h said or cont9ue l9es t he _h sugge/$1 & out ( !m 7 creat$ bo? ! ,scot* & ,g]man s*ools ( metaphysicians4 ,hume's ,essays1 ,moral & ,political1 appe>$ 9 #agda-db1 & foll[$ closely ^u :at he describ$ z ! dead-born ,treatise on ,human ,nature1 ! success ( ! =m] go+ a long way t[>ds comp5sat+ him = ! failure ( ! latt]4 ,9 ! adv]tisem5t to a po/hum\s edition ,hume compla9s t controv]siali/s _h conf9$ _! attacks to ! crude1 e>li] treatise1 & express$ ! desire t = ! future ! ,essays might alone be reg>d$ z conta9+ 8 philosophical s5tim5ts & pr9ciples4 ,9 ! ,essays ,hume br+s to be> ! results ( 8 criticism ^u ! problems ( curr5t speculative discussion4 ,! argum5t aga9/ miracles is /ill (t5 discuss$2 & ! "w is well wor?y ( ! au?or :om _m reg>d z ! greate/ ?9k] ( 8 "t4 ,9 #agea he publi%$ 8 ,inquiry ,into ! ,pr9ciples ( ,morals1 :i* is "o ( ! cle>e/ expositions ( ! lead+ pr9ciples ( :at is t]m$ ! utilit>ian sy/em4 ,hume di$ on ,augu/ #be1 #aggf4 ,i4--,d\bts ,conc]n+ ! ,und]/&+ ,all ! objects ( human reason or inquiry may naturally be divid$ into two k9ds--to wit1 relations ( ideas & matt]s ( fact4 ,( ! fir/ k9d are ! sci5ces ( geometry1 algebra1 & ari?metic1 &1 9 %ort1 e affirmation :i* is ei!r intuitively or demon/ratively c]ta94 ,t ! squ>e ( ! hypot5use is equal to ! squ>es ( ! two sides is a proposition :i* expresses a relation betwe5 ^! figures4 ,t ?ree times five is equal to ! half ( ?irty expresses a relation betwe5 ^! numb]s4 ,propositions ( ?is k9d are discov]able by ! m]e op]ation ( ?\ght1 )\t dep5d5ce on :at is any:]e exi/5t 9 ! univ]se4 ,?\gh !re nev] 7 a circle or triangle 9 nature1 ! tru?s demon/rat$ by ,euclid w\ld = ev] reta9 _! c]ta9ty & evid5ce4 ,matt]s ( fact1 :i* are ! second objects ( human reason1 are n asc]ta9$ 9 ! same mann]2 nor is our evid5ce ( _! tru?1 h[ev] great1 ( a l nature ) ! =ego+4 ,! contr>y ( e matt] ( fact is /ill possible1 because x c nev] imply a contradiction1 & is conceiv$ by ! m9d ) ! same facility & di/9ctness z if ev] s con=mable to reality4 ,t ! sun w n rise to-morr[ is no less intelligible a proposition1 & implies no m contradiction1 ?an ! affirmative t x w rise4 ,we %\ld 9 va91 !re=e1 attempt to demon/rate its falsehood4 ,7 x demon/ratively false1 x w\ld imply a contradiction1 & c\ld nev] be di/9ctly conceiv$ by ! m9d4 ,x may1 !re=e1 be a subject wor?y ( curiosity to inquire :at is ! nature ( t evid5ce :i* assures u ( any real exi/5ce ( matt]s ( fact beyond ! pres5t te/imony ( our s5ses1 or ! records ( our memory4 ,all reason+s conc]n+ matt] ( fact seem to be f\nd$ on ! relation ( cause & effect4 ,if we w\ld satisfy ourselves1 !re=e1 conc]n+ ! nature ( t evid5ce :i* assures u ( matt]s ( fact1 we mu/ inquire h[ we arrive at ! k ( cause & effect4 ,i %all v5ture to affirm1 z a g5]al proposition :i* admits ( no exception1 t ! k ( ?is relation is n1 9 any in/ance1 atta9$ by reason+s a priori1 b arises entirely f exp]i5ce4 ,to conv9ce u t all ! laws ( nature1 & all ! op]ations ( bodies )\t exception1 are kn[n only by exp]i5ce1 ! foll[+ reflections may p]haps suffice4 ,7 any object pres5t$ to u1 & 7 we requir$ to pron\nce conc]n+ ! effect :i* w result f x1 )\t consult+ pa/ obs]vation1 aft] :at mann]1 ,i besee* y1 mu/ ! m9d proce$ 9 ?is op]ation8 ,x mu/ inv5t or imag9e "s ev5t1 :i* x ascribes to ! object z its effect2 & x is pla9 t ?is inv5tion mu/ be entirely arbitr>y4 ,! m9d c nev] possibly f9d ! effect 9 ! suppos$ cause by ! mo/ accurate scrut9y & exam9ation4 ,= ! effect is totally diff]5t f ! cause1 &1 consequ5tly1 c nev] be discov]$ 9 x4 ,a /one or piece ( metal rais$ into ! air & left )\t any support imm$iately falls4 ,b1 to consid] ! matt] a priori1 is !re any?+ we discov] 9 ?is situation :i* c beget ! idea ( a d[nw>d r ?an an upw>d1 or any o!r motion1 9 ! /one or metal8 ,9 a ^w1 !n1 e effect is a di/9ct ev5t f its cause4 ,x c\ld n1 !re=e1 be discov]$ 9 ! cause1 & ! fir/ inv5tion or conception ( x1 a priori1 mu/ be entirely arbitr>y4 ,&1 ev5 aft] x is sugge/$1 ! conjunction ( x ) ! cause mu/ appe> equally arbitr>y1 s9ce !re are always _m o!r effects :i* to reason mu/ seem fully z consi/5t & natural4 ,9 va91 !re=e1 %\ld we pret5d to det]m9e any s+le ev5t1 or inf] any cause or effect1 )\t ! assi/ance ( obs]vation & exp]i5ce4 ,h5ce1 we may discov] ! reason :y no philosoph] :o is rational & mode/ has ev] pret5d$ to assign ! ultimate cause ( any natural op]ation1 or to %[ di/9ctly ! action ( t p[] :i* produces any s+le effect 9 ! univ]se4 ,i say1 !n1 t ev5 aft] we h exp]i5ce ( ! op]ations ( cause & effect1 our conclusions f t exp]i5ce are n f\nd$ on reason+1 or any process ( ! und]/&+4 ,! bread :i* ,i =m]ly ate n\ri%$ me2 t is1 a body ( su* s5sible qualities 0 at t "t endu$ ) su* secret p[]s2 b does x foll[ t o!r bread mu/ also n\ri% me at ano!r "t1 & t l s5sible qualities mu/ always be att5d$ ) l secret p[]s8 ,! consequ5ce seems n[ise necess>y4 ,at lea/1 x mu/ be ackn[l$g$ t !re is "h a consequ5ce drawn by ! m9d1 t !re is a c]ta9 /ep tak52 a process ( ?\ght1 & an inf]5ce :i* wants to be expla9$4 ,^! two propositions are f> f be+ ! same3 ,i h f\nd t su* an object has always be5 att5d$ ) su* an effect1 &3 ,i =esee t o!r objects1 :i* are 9 appe>ance simil>1 w be att5d$ ) simil> effects4 ,i %all all[1 if y please1 t ! "o proposition may ju/ly be inf]r$ f ! o!r2 ,i "k1 9 fact1 t x always is inf]r$4 ,b y mu/ confess t ! inf]5ce is n intuitive2 nei!r is x demon/rative4 ,( :at nature is x1 !n8 ,to say x is exp]im5tal is begg+ ! "q4 ,= all inf]5ces f exp]i5ce suppose1 z _! f\ndation1 t ! future w resemble ! pa/1 & t simil> p[]s w be conjo9$ ) simil> s5sible qualities4 ,if !re be any suspicion t ! c\rse ( nature may *ange1 & t ! pa/ may be no rule = ! future1 all exp]i5ce becomes useless1 & c give rise to no inf]5ce or conclusion4 ,x is impossible1 !re=e1 t any argum5ts f exp]i5ce c prove ?is resemblance ( ! pa/ to ! future1 s9ce all ^! argum5ts are f\nd$ on ! supposition ( t resemblance4 ,let ! c\rse ( ?+s be all[$ hi!rto ev] s regul>1 t alone1 )\t "s new argum5t or inf]5ce1 proves n t = ! future x w cont9ue s4 ,9 va9 d y pret5d to h le>n$ ! nature ( bodies f y\r pa/ exp]i5ce4 ,_! secret nature1 & consequ5tly all _! effects & influ5ce1 may *ange )\t any *ange 9 _! s5sible qualities4 ,?is happ5s sometimes1 & ) reg>d to "s objects4 ,:y may x n happ5 always1 & ) reg>d to all objects8 ,:at logic1 :at process ( argum5t1 secures y aga9/ ?is supposition8 ,my practice1 y say1 refutes my d\bts4 ,b y mi/ake ! purport ( my "q4 ,z an ag5t1 ,i am q satisfi$ on ! po9t2 b z a philosoph]1 :o has "s %>e ( curiosity1 ,i w n say scepticism1 ,i want to le>n ! f\ndation ( ?is inf]5ce4 ,all inf]5ces f exp]i5ce are effects ( cu/om1 n ( reason+4 ,we h already obs]v$ t nature has e/abli%$ connections among p>ticul> ideas1 & t no soon] "o idea occurs to our ?\ghts ?an x introduces its correlative1 & c>ries our att5tion t[>ds x by a g5tle & ins5sible movem5t4 ,^! pr9ciples ( connection or association we h r$uc$ to ?ree--namely1 resemblance1 contiguity1 & causation1 :i* are ! only bonds t unite our ?\ghts toge!r & beget t regul> tra9 ( reflection or disc\rse :i*1 9 a great] or less degree1 takes place among mank9d4 ,n[1 "h arises a "q on :i* ! solution ( ! pres5t difficulty w dep5d4 ,does x happ5 9 all ^! relations t :5 "o ( ! objects is pres5t$ to ! s5ses or memory ! m9d is n only c>ri$ to ! conception ( ! correlative1 b rea*es a /eadi] & /rong] conception ( x ?an o!rwise x w\ld h be5 able to atta98 ,?is seems to be ! case ) t belief :i* arises f ! relation ( cause & effect4 ,& ,i %all add t x is con=mable to ! ord9>y wisdom ( nature to secure s necess>y an act ( ! m9d by "s in/9ct or me*anical t5d5cy1 :i* may be infallible 9 its op]ations1 may discov] itself at ! fir/ appe>ance ( life & ?\ght1 & may be indep5d5t ( all ! lab\r$ d$uctions ( ! und]/&+4 ,,ii4--,on ,miracles ,a wise man proportions 8 belief to ! evid5ce4 ,9 su* conclusions z are f\nd$ on an infallible exp]i5ce he expects ! ev5t ) ! la/ degree ( assurance1 & reg>ds 8 pa/ exp]i5ce z a full pro( ( ! future exi/5ce ( t ev5t4 ,9 o!r cases he proce$s ) m caution4 ,he weighs ! opposite exp]im5ts4 ,he consid]s :i* side is support$ by ! greate/ numb] ( exp]im5ts2 to t side he incl9es ) d\bt & hesitation1 & :5 at la/ he fixes 8 judgm5t1 ! evid5ce exce$s n :at we prop]ly call probability4 ,all probability1 !n1 supposes an opposition ( exp]im5ts & obs]vations1 :]e ! "o side is f\nd to ov]balance ! o!r1 & to produce a degree ( evid5ce proportion$ to ! sup]iority4 ,:5 ! fact atte/$ is su* a "o z has seldom fall5 "u our obs]vation1 "h is a conte/ ( two possible exp]i5ces1 ( :i* ! "o de/roys ! o!r z f> z its =ce goes1 & ! sup]ior c only op]ate on ! m9d by ! =ce :i* rema9s4 ,! v same pr9ciple ( exp]i5ce :i* gives u a c]ta9 degree ( assurance 9 ! te/imony ( witnesses gives u also1 9 ?is case1 ano!r degree ( assurance aga9/ ! fact :i* !y endeav\r to e/abli%1 f :i* consid]ation !re necess>ily arises a c\nt]poise1 & mutual de/ruction ( belief & au?ority4 ,b 9 ord] to increase ! probability aga9/ ! te/imony ( witnesses1 let u suppose t ! fact :i* !y affirm1 in/ead ( be+ only m>vell\s1 is really miracul\s2 & suppose also t ! te/imony1 consid]$ ap>t & 9 itself1 am\nts to an entire pro(1 ( :i* ! /ronge/ mu/ prevail1 b /ill ) a dim9ution ( its =ce 9 proportion to t ( its antagoni/4 ,a miracle is a violation ( ! laws ( nature2 & z a firm & unalt]able exp]i5ce has e/abli%$ ^! laws1 ! pro( aga9/ a miracle1 f ! v nature ( ! fact1 is z entire z any argum5t f exp]i5ce c possibly be imag9$4 ,:y is x m ?an probable t all m5 mu/ die2 t lead _c ( itself rema9 susp5d$ 9 ! air2 t fire consumes wood1 & is ext+ui%$ by wat]2 unless x be t ^! ev5ts are f\nd agreeable to ! laws ( nature1 & !re is requir$ a violation ( ^! laws1 or1 9 o!r words1 a miracle1 to prev5t !m8 ,no?+ is e/eem$ a miracle if x ev] happ5 9 ! common c\rse ( nature4 ,x is no miracle t a man seem+ly 9 good heal? %\ld die on a sudd51 because su* a k9d ( dea?1 ?\gh m unusual ?an any o!r1 has yet be5 frequ5tly obs]v$ to happ54 ,b x is a miracle t a dead man %\ld come to life1 because t has nev] be5 obs]v$ 9 any age or c\ntry4 ,!re mu/1 !re=e1 be a uni=m exp]i5ce aga9/ e miracul\s ev5t1 o!rwise ! ev5t w\ld n m]it t appellation4 ,& z a uni=m exp]i5ce am\nts to a pro(1 !re is "h a direct & full pro(1 f ! nature ( ! fact1 aga9/ ! exi/5ce ( any miracle2 nor c su* a pro( be de/roy$1 or ! miracle r5d]$ cr$ible1 b by an opposite pro( :i* is sup]ior4 ,! pla9 consequ5ce is 7& x is a g5]al maxim wor?y ( our att5tion7 t no te/imony is suffici5t to e/abli% a miracle unless ! te/imony be ( su* a k9d t its falsehood w\ld be m miracul\s ?an ! fact :i* x endeav\rs to e/abli%2 & ev5 9 t case !re is a mutual de/ruction ( argum5ts1 & ! sup]ior only gives u an assurance suitable to t degree ( =ce :i* rema9s aft] d$uct+ ! inf]ior4 ,!re surely nev] 0 a great] numb] ( miracles ascrib$ to "o p]son ?an ^? :i* 7 lately said to h be5 wr\ght 9 ,france ^u ! tomb ( ,abbe ,p>is1 ! fam\s ,jans5i/1 ) ^: sanctity ! p 7 s long delud$4 ,! cur+ ( ! sick1 giv+ he>+ to ! deaf & sight to ! bl9d1 7 ev]y:]e talk$ ( z ! usual effects ( t holy sepul*re4 ,b1 :at is m extraord9>y1 _m ( ! miracles 7 imm$iately prov$ ^u ! spot be=e judges ( unque/ion$ integrity1 atte/$ by witnesses ( cr$it & di/9ction1 9 a le>n$ age1 & 9 ! mo/ em95t !atre t is n[ 9 ! _w4 ,nor is ?is all2 a relation ( !m 0 publi%$ & disp]s$ ev]y:]e2 nor 7 ! ,jesuits--?\gh a le>n$ body1 support$ by ! civil magi/rate & det]m9$ enemies to ^? op9ions 9 ^: fav\r ! miracles 7 said to h be5 wr\ght--ev] able di/9ctly to refute or detect !m4 ,:]e %all we f9d su* a numb] ( circum/ances agree+ to ! corroboration ( "o fact8 ,& :at h we to oppose to su* a cl\d ( witnesses b ! absolute impossibility or miracul\s nature ( ! ev5ts :i* !y relate8 ,& ?is surely1 9 ! eyes ( all reasonable p1 w alone be reg>d$ z a suffici5t refutation4 ,suppose t all ! hi/orians :o treat ( ,engl& %\ld agree t on ,janu>y #a1 #afjj1 ,que5 ,elizabe? di$2 t bo? be=e & aft] h] dea? %e 0 se5 by h] physicians & ! :ole c\rt1 z is usual ) p]sons ( h] rank2 t h] successor 0 ackn[l$g$ & proclaim$ by ! ,p>liam5t2 & t1 aft] be+ int]r$ a mon?1 %e aga9 appe>$1 resum$ ! ?rone1 & gov]n$ ,engl& = ?ree ye>s2 ,i mu/ confess t ,i %\ld be surpris$ at ! concurr5ce ( s _m odd circum/ances1 b %\ld n h ! lea/ incl9ation to believe s miracul\s an ev5t4 ,i %\ld n d\bt ( h] pret5d$ dea?1 & ( ^? o!r public circum/ances t foll[$ x2 ,i %\ld only ass]t x to h be5 pret5d$1 & t x nei!r 01 nor possibly c\ld be1 real4 ,y w\ld 9 va9 object to me ! difficulty & almo/ impossibility ( deceiv+ ! _w 9 an affair ( su* consequ5ce2 ! wisdom & solid judgm5t ( t r5[n$ que52 ) ! little or no advantage :i* %e c\ld reap f s poor an artifice4 ,all ?is might a/oni% me2 b ,i w\ld /ill reply t ! knav]y & folly ( m5 are su* common ph5om5a t ,i %\ld r believe ! mo/ extraord9>y ev5ts to arise f _! concurr5ce ?an admit ( s signal a violation ( ! laws ( nature4 ,our mo/ holy religion is f\nd$ on fai?1 n on reason2 & x is a sure me?od ( expos+ x to put x to su* a trial z x is by no means fitt$ to endure4 ,to make ?is m evid5t1 let u exam9e ^? miracles relat$ 9 ! ,p5tateu*1 :i* we %all exam9e z ! production ( a m]e human writ] & hi/orian4 ,"h1 !n1 we are fir/ to consid] a book1 pres5t$ to u by a b>b>\s & ignorant p1 writt5 9 an age :5 !y 7 /ill m b>b>\s1 & 9 all probability long aft] ! facts :i* x relates1 corroborat$ by no concurr+ te/imony1 & resembl+ ^? fabul\s acc\nts :i* e nation gives ( its orig94 ,^u read+ ?is book we f9d x full ( prodigies & miracles4 ,x gives an acc\nt ( a /ate ( ! _w & ( human nature entirely diff]5t f ! pres5t2 ( our fall f t /ate2 ( ! age ( man ext5d$ to ne> a ?\s& ye>s2 ( ! de/ruction ( ! _w by a deluge2 ( ! arbitr>y *oice ( "o p z ! fav\rites ( ,heav51 & t p ! c\ntrym5 ( ! au?or2 ( _! deliv]ance f bondage by prodigies ! mo/ a/oni%+ imag9able4 ,i desire anyone to lay 8 h& ^u 8 he>t1 &1 aft] a s]i\s consid]ation1 decl>e :e!r he ?9ks t ! falsehood ( su* a book1 support$ by su* a te/imony1 w\ld be m extraord9>y & miracul\s ?an ! miracles x relates1 :i* is1 h[ev]1 necess>y to make x be receiv$ accord+ to ! measures ( probability above e/abli%$4 ,,iii4--,( a ,p>ticul> ,provid5ce & ( a ,future ,/ate ,i 0 lately engag$ 9 conv]sation ) a fri5d :o loves sceptical p>adoxes4 ,to my expression ( ! op9ion t a wise magi/rate c ju/ly be jeal\s ( c]ta9 t5ets ( philosophy su* z ^? ( ,epicurus1 :i*1 d5y+ a div9e exi/5ce1 & consequ5tly a ,provid5ce & a future /ate1 seem to loos5 ! ties ( morality1 he repli$ z foll[s4 ,if ,epicurus _h be5 accus$ be=e ! p he c\ld easily h def5d$ 8 cause & prov$ 8 pr9ciples ( philosophy to be z salut>y z ^? ( 8 adv]s>ies4 ,&1 if y please1 ,i %all suppose myself ,epicurus = a mom5t1 & make y /& = ! ,a!nian p4 ,,epicurus3 ,i come hi!r1 ,o ye ,a!nians1 to ju/ify 9 y\r assembly :at ,i ma9ta9$ 9 my s*ool1 & ,i f9d myself impea*$ by furi\s antagoni/s in/ead ( reason+ ) calm & dispassionate inquir]s4 ,by my accus]s x is ackn[l$g$ t ! *ief or sole argum5t = a div9e exi/5ce 7:i* ,i nev] que/ion$7 is d]iv$ f ! ord] ( nature2 :]e !re appe> su* m>ks ( intellig5ce & design t y ?9k x extravagant to assign = its cause ei!r *ance or ! bl9d & unguid$ =ce ( matt]4 ,y all[ t ?is is an argum5t drawn f effects to causes4 ,f ! ord] ( ! "w y inf] t !re mu/ h be5 project & =e?\ght 9 ! workman4 ,if y _c make out ?is po9t1 y all[ t y\r conclusion fails1 & y pret5d n to e/abli% ! conclusion 9 a great] latitude ?an ! ph5om5a ( nature w ju/ify4 ,^! are y\r concessions4 ,i desire y to m>k ! consequ5ces4 ,:5 we inf] any p>ticul> cause f an effect we mu/ proportion ! "o to ! o!r1 & c nev] be all[$ to ascribe to ! cause any qualities b :at are suffici5t to produce ! effect4 ,a body ( t5 ounces rais$ 9 a scale may s]ve z a pro( t ! c\nt]balanc+ weight exce$s t5 ounces1 b nev] t x exce$s a hundr$4 ,! same rule holds :e!r ! cause assign$ be brute1 unconsci\s matt] or a rational1 intellig5t be+4 ,if ! cause be kn[n only by ! effect1 we nev] ought to ascribe to x any qualities beyond :at are precisely requisite to produce ! effect4 ,nor c we return back f ! cause & inf] o!r effects f x beyond ^? by :i* alone x is kn[n to u4 ,all[+1 !re=e1 ! gods to be ! au?ors ( ! exi/5ce1 or ord]1 ( ! univ]se1 x foll[s t !y possess t precise degree ( p[]1 intellig5ce1 & b5evol5ce :i* appe>s 9 _! workman%ip2 b we c nev] be all[$ to m\nt up f ! univ]se1 ! effect1 to ,jupit]1 ! cause1 & !n desc5d d[nw>ds to inf] any new effect f t cause4 ,! k ( ! cause be+ d]iv$ solely f ! effect1 !y mu/ be exactly adju/$ to ea* o!r2 & ! "o c nev] ref] to any?+ f>!r4 ,i d5y a ,provid5ce1 y say1 & ,supreme ,gov]nor ( ! _w1 :o guides ! c\rse ( ev5ts & puni%es ! vici\s ) infamy & disappo9tm5t1 & rew>ds ! virtu\s ) hon\r & success 9 all _! und]tak+s4 ,b surely ,i d5y n ! c\rse ( ev5ts itself1 :i* lies op5 to ev]yone's inquiry & exam9ation4 ,i ackn[l$ge t1 9 ! pres5t ord] ( ?+s1 virtue is att5d$ ) m peace ( m9d ?an vice1 & meets ) a m fav\rable reception f ! _w4 ,i am s5sible t1 accord+ to ! pa/ exp]i5ce ( mank9d1 fri5d%ip is ! *ief joy ( human life1 & mod]ation ! only s\rce ( tranquillity & happ9ess4 ,i nev] balance betwe5 ! virtu\s & ! vici\s life1 b am s5sible t1 to a well-dispos$ m9d1 e advantage is on ! side ( ! =m]4 ,& :at c y say m1 all[+ all y\r suppositions & reason+s8 ,,immanuel ,,kant ,! ,critique ( ,pure ,reason ,immanuel ,kant1 ! mo/ celebrat$ ( ,g]man metaphysicians1 0 born at ,ko5igsb]g on ,april #bb1 #agbd1 & di$ on ,febru>y #ab1 #ahjd4 ,tak+ 8 degree at ,ko5igsb]g1 he spe$ily ent]$ on a pr(essional c>e]1 :i* he quietly & /r5u\sly pursu$ = ov] ?irty ye>s4 ,?\gh 8 lectures 7 limit$ to ! topics ) :i* he 0 conc]n$ z pr(essor ( logic & philosophy1 8 v]satility is evid5c$ by ! fact t he 0 (f]$ ! *air ( poetry1 :i* he decl9$4 ,8 la/+ reputation began ) ! publication1 9 #agha1 ( 8 wond]ful ,critique ( ,pure ,reason 7,kritik d] re95 ,v]nunft74 ,)9 twelve ye>s ( its appe>ance x 0 exp\nd$ 9 all ! lead+ univ]sities1 & ev5 p5etrat$ into ! s*ools ( ! ,*ur* ( ,rome4 ,kant 0 ! fir/ ,european ?9k] :o def9itely grasp$ ! conception ( a critical philosophy1 ?\gh he 0 d\btless aid$ by ! t5d5cy ( ,locke's psy*ology4 ,he did mu* to c\nt]act ! sceptical influ5ce ( ,hume4 ,! ma9 object ( 8 ,critique ( ,pure ,reason is to sep>ate ! necess>y & univ]sal 9 ! realm ( k f ! m]ely exp]im5tal or empirical4 ,?is little v]sion ( ,kant's celebrat$ "w has be5 prep>$ f ! ,g]man text4 ,i4--,k ,transc5d5tal3 ,a,esthetic ,exp]i5ce is some?+ ( :i* we are consci\s4 ,x is ! fir/ result ( our compreh5sion1 b x is n ! limit ( our und]/&+1 s9ce x /imulates our faculty ( reason1 b does n satisfy its desire = k4 ,:ile all our k may beg9 ) s5sible impressions or exp]i5ce1 !re is an elem5t 9 x :i* does n rise f ?is s\rce1 b transc5ds x4 ,t k is transc5d5tal :i* is occupi$ n s mu* ) m]e outw>d objects z ) our mann] ( kn[+ ^? objects1 t is to say1 ) our a priori concepts ( !m4 ,all our k is ei!r a priori or a po/]iori4 ,t is a po/]iori k :i* is d]iv$ f s5sible exp]i5ce z includ+ s5sible impressions or /ates2 :ile a priori k is t :i* is n ?us ga9$1 b consi/s ( :atev] is univ]sal or necess>y4 ,a complete ,transc5d5tal ,philosophy w\ld be a sy/ematic exposition ( all t is a priori 9 human k1 or ( all ! pr9ciples ( pure reason4 ,b a ,critique ( ,pure ,reason _c include all ?is4 ,x c d little m ?an deal ) ! syn!tic elem5t or quality 9 a priori k1 z di/+ui%$ f ! analytic elem5t4 ,we p]ceive objects ?r\gh our s5sibility :i* furni%es u1 z our faculty ( receptivity1 ) ^? intuitions t become translat$ into ?\ght by means ( ! und]/&+4 ,?is is ! orig9 ( our conceptions1 or ideas4 ,i d5om9ate z matt] t :i* 9 a ph5om5on corresponds to s5sation2 :ile ,i call =m t quality ( matt] :i* pres5ts x 9 a p]ceiv$ ord]4 ,only matt] is pres5t$ to our m9ds a po/]iori2 z to =m1 ?is mu/ inevitably exi/ 9 ! m9d a priori1 & !re=e x c be consid]$ ap>t f all s5sation4 ,pure repres5tation1 entirely ap>t f s5sation1 9 a transc5d5tal signification1 =ms ! pure intuition ( ! m9d1 exi/+ 9 x z a m]e =m ( s5sibility4 ,transc5d5tal ae/hetic is ! sci5ce ( all ! pr9ciples ( s5sibility4 ,b transc5d5tal logic is ! sci5ce ( ! pr9ciples ( pure ?\ght4 ,9 /udy+ ! =m] we %all f9d t !re are two pure =ms ( s5su\s intuition1 namely1 space & "t4 ,are space & "t actual entities8 ,or are !y only relations ( ?+s8 ,space is simply ! =m ( all ! ph5om5a ( ext]nal s5ses2 t is1 x is ! subjective condition ( ! s5sibility "u :i* alone ext]nal intuition is possible4 ,?us1 ! =m ( all ph5om5a may exi/ a priori 9 ! s\l z a pure intuition previ\s to all exp]i5ce4 ,s we c only speak ( space & ( ext5d$ objects f ! /&po9t ( human reason4 ,b :5 we h ab/ract$ all ! =ms p]ceiv$ by our s5sibility1 !re rema9s a pure intuition :i* we call space4 ,!re=e our discussion tea*es u ! objective validity ( space ) reg>d to all t c appe> be=e u ext]nally z an object2 b equally ! subjective ideality ( space1 ) reg>d to ?+s if !y are consid]$ 9 !mselves by our reason1 t is1 )\t tak+ into acc\nt ! nature ( our s5sibility4 ,"t is n empirically conceiv$ (2 t is1 x is n exp]im5tally appreh5d$4 ,"t is a necess>y repres5tation on :i* all intuitions are dep5d5t1 & ! repres5tation ( "t to ! m9d is ?us giv5 a priori4 ,9 x alone c ph5om5a be appreh5d$4 ,^! may vani%1 b "t _c be put aside4 ,"t is n some?+ exi/+ by itself indep5d5tly1 b is ! =mal condition a priori ( all ph5om5a4 ,if we d$uct our own peculi> s5sibility1 !n ! idea ( "t disappe>s inde$1 because x is n inh]5t 9 any object1 b only 9 ! subject :i* p]ceives t object4 ,space & "t are ess5tial a priori ideas1 & !y are ! necess>y conditions ( all p>ticul> p]ceptions4 ,f ! latt] & _! objects we c1 9 imag9ation1 )\t exception1 ab/ract2 f ! =m] we _c4 ,space & "t are !re=e to be reg>d$ z ! necess>y a priori pre-conditions ( ! possibility & reality ( all ph5om5a4 ,x is cle> t transc5d5tal ae/hetic c obta9 only ^! two elem5ts1 space & "t1 because all o!r concepts belong to ! s5ses & pre-suppose exp]i5ce1 & s imply some?+ empirical4 ,= example1 ! concept ( motion pre-supposes some?+ mov+1 b 9 space reg>d$ alone !re is no?+ t moves2 !re=e1 :atev] moves mu/ be recognis$ by exp]i5ce1 & is a purely empirical datum4 ,,ii4--,transc5d5tal ,logic ,our k is d]iv$ f two fundam5tal s\rces ( ! consci\sness4 ,! fir/ is ! faculty ( receptivity ( impressions2 ! second1 ! faculty ( cognition ( an object by means ( ^! impressions or repres5tations1 ?is second p[] be+ sometimes /yl$ spontaneity ( concepts4 ,by ! fir/1 an object is giv5 to u2 by ! second x is ?\ght ( 9 ! m9d4 ,?us intuition & concepts con/itute ! elem5ts ( our entire k1 = nei!r intuition )\t concepts1 nor concepts )\t intuition1 c yield any k :atev]4 ,h5ce arise two bran*es ( sci5ce1 ae/hetic & logic1 ! =m] be+ ! sci5ce ( ! rules ( s5sibility2 ! latt]1 ! sci5ce ( ! rules ( ! und]/&+4 ,logic c be treat$ 9 two directions3 ei!r z logic ( ! g5]al use ( ! und]/&+1 or ( "s p>ticul> use ( x4 ,! =m] includes ! rules ( ?\ght1 )\t :i* !re c be no use ( ! und]/&+2 b x has no reg>d to ! objects to :i* ! und]/&+ is appli$4 ,?is is elem5t>y logic4 ,b logic ( ! und]/&+ 9 "s p>ticul> use includes rules ( correct ?\ght 9 relation to special classes ( objects2 & ?is latt] logic is g5]ally taught 9 s*ools z prelim9>y to ! /udy ( sci5ces4 ,?us1 g5]al logic takes no acc\nt ( any ( ! cont5ts ( k1 b is limit$ simply to ! consid]ation ( ! =ms ( ?\ght4 ,b we are con/ra9$ by anticipation to =m an idea ( a logical sci5ce :i* has to deal n only ) pure ?\ght1 b also has to det]m9e ! orig91 validity1 & ext5t ( ! k to :i* intuitions relate1 & ?is sci5ce might be /yl$ transc5d5tal logic4 ,9 transc5d5tal ae/hetic we isolat$ ! faculty ( s5sibility4 ,s 9 transc5d5tal logic we isolate ! und]/&+1 conc5trat+ our consid]ation on t elem5t ( ?\ght :i* has its s\rce simply 9 ! und]/&+4 ,b transc5d5tal logic mu/ be divid$ into transc5d5tal analytic & transc5d5tal dialectic4 ,! =m] is a logic ( tru?1 & is int5d$ to furni% a canon ( criticism4 ,:5 logic is us$ to judge n analytically1 b to judge syn!tically ( objects 9 g5]al1 x is call$ transc5d5tal dialectic1 :i* s]ves z a protection aga9/ sophi/ical fallacy4 ,,analytic ,,( ,,pure ,,concepts ,! und]/&+ may be def9$ z ! faculty ( judg+4 ,! function ( ?\ght 9 a judgm5t c be br\ght "u f\r heads1 ea* ) ?ree subdivisions4 #a4 ,quantity ( judgm5ts3 ,univ]sal1 p>ticul>1 s+ul>4 #b4 ,quality3 ,affirmative1 negative1 inf9ite4 #c4 ,relation3 ,categorical1 hypo!tical1 disjunctive4 #d4 ,modality3 ,problematical1 ass]tory1 apodictic above contradiction4 ,if we exam9e ea* ( ^! =ms ( judgm5t we discov] t 9 e "o is involv$ "s peculi> idea :i* is its ess5tial *>act]i/ic4 ,?us1 a s+ul> judgm5t1 9 :i* ! subject ( disc\rse is a s+le object1 involves obvi\sly ! special idea ( on5ess1 or unity4 ,a p>ticul> judgm5t1 relat+ to sev]al objects1 implies ! idea ( plurality1 & discrim9ates betwe5 ! sev]al objects4 ,n[1 ! :ole li/ ( ^! ideas w con/itute ! complete classification ( ! fundam5tal conceptions ( ! und]/&+1 reg>d$ z ! faculty :i* judges1 & ^! may be call$ categories4 #a4 ,( ,quantity3 ,unity1 plurality1 totality4 #b4 ,( ,quality3 ,reality1 negation1 limitation4 #c4 ,( ,relation3 ,sub/ance & accid5t1 cause & effect1 action & reaction4 #d4 ,( ,modality3 ,possibility--impossibility1 exi/5ce--non-exi/5ce1 necessity--cont+5ce4 ,^!1 !n1 are ! fundam5tal1 prim>y1 or native conceptions ( ! und]/&+1 :i* fl[ f1 or con/itute ! me*anism (1 its nature2 are insep>able f its activity2 & are h5ce1 = human ?\ght1 univ]sal & necess>y1 or a priori4 ,^! categories are pure conceptions ( ! und]/&+1 inasmu* z !y are indep5d5t ( all t is cont+5t 9 s5se4 ,,transc5d5tal ,,dialectic ,a di/9ction is usually made betwe5 :at is imm$iately kn[n & :at is only inf]r$4 ,x is imm$iately kn[n t 9 a figure b\nd$ by ?ree /raight l9es !re are ?ree angles1 b t ^! angles toge!r are equal to two "r angles is only inf]r$4 ,9 e syllogism is fir/ a fundam5tal proposition2 secondly1 ano!r d$uc$ f x2 &1 ?irdly1 ! consequ5ce4 ,9 ! use ( pure reason its concepts1 or transc5d5tal ideas1 aim at unity ( all conditions ( ?\ght4 ,s all transc5d5tal ideas may be arrang$ 9 ?ree classes2 ! fir/ conta9+ ! unity ( ! ?9k+ subject2 ! second1 ! unity ( ! conditions ( ph5om5a obs]v$2 ! ?ird1 ! unity ( ! objective conditions ( ?\ght4 ,?is classification becomes cle> if we note t ! ?9k+ subject is ! object-matt] ( psy*ology2 :ile ! sy/em ( all ph5om5a 7! _w7 is ! object-matt] ( cosmology2 & ! ,be+ ( all ,be+s 7,god7 is ! object-matt] ( !ology4 ,h5ce we p]ceive t pure reason supplies ?ree transc5d5tal ideas1 namely1 ! idea ( a transc5d5tal sci5ce ( ! s\l 7psy*ologia rationalis72 ( a transc5d5tal sci5ce ( ! _w 7cosmologia rationalis72 &1 la/ly1 ( a transc5d5tal sci5ce ( ,god 7!ologia transc5d5talis74 ,x is ! glory ( transc5d5tal idealism t by x ! m9d asc5ds 9 ! s]ies ( conditions till x rea*es ! uncondition$1 t is1 ! pr9ciples4 ,we ?us progress f our k ( self to a k ( ! _w1 & ?r\gh x to a k ( ! ,supreme ,be+4 ,,iii4--,! ,ant9omies ( ,pure ,reason ,transc5d5tal reason attempts to reconcile conflict+ ass]tions4 ,!re are f\r ( ^! ant9omies1 or conflicts4 ,,fir/ ,,ant9omy4 ,!sis4 ,! _w has a beg9n+ 9 "t1 & is also limit$ 9 reg>d to space4 ,pro(4 ,7 ! _w )\t a "t-beg9n+ we %\ld h to ascribe a pres5t limit to t :i* c h no limit1 :i* is absurd4 ,aga91 7 ! _w n limit$ 9 reg>d to space1 x mu/ be conceiv$ z an inf9ite :ole1 yet x is impossible ?us to conceive x4 ,anti!sis4 ,! _w has nei!r beg9n+ 9 "t1 nor limit 9 space1 b 9 bo? reg>ds is inf9ite4 ,pro(4 ,! _w mu/ h exi/$ f et]nity1 or x c\ld nev] exi/ at all4 ,if we imag9e x _h a beg9n+1 we mu/ imag9e an ant]ior "t :5 no?+ 04 ,b 9 su* "t ! orig9 ( any?+ is impossible4 ,at no mom5t c\ld any cause = su* a beg9n+ exi/4 ,,second ,,ant9omy4 ,!sis4 ,e composite sub/ance 9 ! _w is compos$ ( simple p>ts4 ,?is !sis seems sc>cely to require pro(4 ,no "o c d5y t a composite sub/ance consi/s ( p>ts1 & t ^! p>ts1 if !mselves composite1 mu/ consi/ ( o!rs less composite1 till at l5g? we come1 by compulsion ( ?\ght1 to ! conception ( ! absolutely simple z t :]e9 ! sub/antial consi/s4 ,anti!sis4 ,no composite ?+ 9 ! _w consi/s ( simple p>ts1 & no?+ simple exi/s any:]e 9 ! _w4 ,pro(4 ,ea* simple "p impli$ 9 ! !sis mu/ be 9 space4 ,b ?is condition is a positive dispro( ( _! possibility4 ,a simple sub/ance w\ld h to occupy a simple portion ( space2 b space has no simple p>ts4 ,! supposition ( su* a "p is ! supposition1 n ( space1 b ( ! negation ( space4 ,a simple sub/ance1 9 exi/+ & occupy+ any portion ( space1 mu/ conta9 a real multiplicity ( p>ts ext]nal to ea* o!r1 i4e41 x mu/ contradict its own nature1 :i* is absurd4 ,,?ird ,,ant9omy4 ,!sis4 ,! causality ( natural law is insuffici5t = ! explanation ( all ! ph5om5a ( ! univ]se4 ,= ?is end ano!r k9d ( causality mu/ be assum$1 ^: attribute is fre$om4 ,pro(4 ,all s-call$ natural causes are effects ( prec$+ causes1 =m+ a regressive s]ies ( indef9ite ext5t1 ) no fir/ beg9n+4 ,s we nev] arrive at an adequate cause ( any ph5om5on4 ,yet natural law has = its c5tral dem& t no?+ %all happ5 )\t su* a cause4 ,anti!sis4 ,all ev5ts 9 ! univ]se occur "u ! exclusive op]ation ( natural laws1 & !re is no su* ?+ z fre$om4 ,pro(4 ,! idea ( a free cause is an absurdity4 ,= x contradicts ! v law ( causation itself1 :i* dem&s t e ev5t %all be 9 ord]ly sequ5ce ) "s prec$+ ev5t4 ,n[1 free causation is su* an ev5t1 be+ ! active beg9n+ ( a s]ies ( ph5om5a4 ,yet ! action ( ! suppos$ free cause mu/ be imag9$ z indep5d5t ( all connection ) any previ\s ev5t4 ,x is )\t law or reason1 & w\ld be ! bl9d realisation ( confusion & lawlessness4 ,!re=e transc5d5tal fre$om is a violation ( ! law ( causation1 & is 9 conflict ) all exp]i5ce4 ,we mu/ ( necessity acquiesce 9 ! explanation ( all ph5om5a by ! op]ation ( natural law1 & ?us transc5d5tal fre$om mu/ be pron\nc$ a fallacy4 ,,f\r? ,,ant9omy4 ,!sis4 ,"s =m ( absolutely necess>y exi/5ce belongs to ! _w1 :e!r z its "p or z its cause4 ,pro(4 ,ph5om5al exi/5ce is s]ial1 mutable1 consi/5t4 ,e ev5t is cont+5t ^u a prec$+ condition4 ,! condition$ pre-supposes1 = its complete explanation1 ! uncondition$4 ,! :ole ( pa/ "t1 s9ce x conta9s ! :ole ( all pa/ conditions1 mu/ ( necessity conta9 ! uncondition$ or also absolutely necess>y4 ,anti!sis4 ,!re is no absolutely necess>y exi/5ce1 :e!r 9 ! _w z its "p1 or outside ( x z its cause4 ,pro(4 ,( unconditionally necess>y exi/5ce )9 ! _w !re c be none4 ,! assumption ( a fir/ uncondition$ l9k 9 ! *a9 ( cosmical conditions is self-contradictory4 ,= su* l9k or cause1 be+ 9 "t1 mu/ be subject to ! law ( all temporal exi/5ce1 & s be det]m9$--contr>y to ! orig9al assumption--by ano!r l9k or cause be=e x4 ,! supposition ( an absolutely necess>y cause ( ! _w1 exi/+ )\t ! _w1 also de/roys itself4 ,=1 be+ outside ! _w1 x is n 9 "t4 ,& yet1 to act z a cause1 x mu/ be 9 "t4 ,?is supposition is !re=e absurd4 ,! !ses 9 ^! f\r ant9omies con/itute ! tea*+ ( philosophical dogmatism4 ,! anti!ses con/itute doctr9es ( philosophical empiricism4 ,,iv4--,criticism ( ! ,*ief ,argum5ts = ! ,exi/5ce ( ,god ,! ontological argum5t aims at ass]t+ ! possibility ( conceiv+ ! idea ( an ens realissimum1 ( be+ possess$ ( all reality4 ,b ! idea ( exi/5ce & ! fact ( exi/5ce are two v diff]5t ?+s4 ,:atev] ,i conceive1 or s5sibly imag9e1 ,i necess>ily conceive z ?\gh x 7 exi/+4 ,?\gh my pocket be empty1 ,i may conceive x to conta9 a hundr$ ?al]s4 ,if ,i conceive !m !re1 ,i c only conceive !m z actually exi/+ !re4 ,b1 alas1 ! fact t ,i am "u ?is necessity ( s conceiv+ by no means c>ries ) x a necessity t ! co9s %\ld really be 9 my pocket4 ,t c only be det]m9$ by exp]i5ce4 ,! cosmological argum5t cont5ds t if any?+ exi/s1 !re mu/ also exi/ an absolutely necess>y be+4 ,n[1 at lea/ ,i myself exi/4 ,h5ce !re exi/s an absolutely necess>y be+4 ,! argum5t co9cides ) t by :i* ! !sis ( ! f\r? ant9omy is suppos$4 ,! objections to x are summ$ up 9 ! pro( ( ! anti!sis ( ! f\r? antimony4 ,z soon z we h recognis$ ! true conception ( causality1 we h already transc5d$ ! s5sible _w4 ,! physico-!ological or teleological argum5t is :at is (t5 /yl$ ! argum5t f design4 ,x proce$s n f g5]al1 b p>ticul> exp]i5ce4 ,nature discloses manifold signs ( wise int5tion & h>moni\s ord]1 & ^! are held to betok5 a div9e design]4 ,?is argum5t des]ves always to be treat$ ) respect4 ,x is ! olde/ & cle>e/ ( all pro(s1 & be/ adapt$ to conv9ce ! reason ( ! mass ( mank9d4 ,x animates u 9 our /udy ( nature4 ,& x 7 n only a *e]less1 b an altoge!r va9 task to attempt to detract f ! p]suasive au?ority ( ?is pro(4 ,!re is n\ght to urge aga9/ its rationality & its utility4 ,all argum5ts1 h[ev]1 to prove ! exi/5ce ( ,god mu/1 9 ord] to be !oretically valid1 />t f specifically & exclusively s5sible or ph5om5al data1 mu/ employ only ! conceptions ( pure physical sci5ce1 & mu/ end ) demon/rat+ 9 s5sible exp]i5ce an object congru\s )1 or correspond+ to1 ! idea ( ,god4 ,b ?is requirem5t _c be met1 =1 sci5tifically speak+1 ! exi/5ce ( an absolutely necess>y ,god _c be ei!r prov$ or disprov$4 ,h5ce room is left = fai? 9 any moral pro(s t may pres5t !mselves to u1 ap>t f sci5ce4 ,) ?is subject e?ics1 ! sci5ce ( practice or ( practical reason1 w h to deal4 ,! ,critique ( ,practical ,reason ,kant's ,critique ( ,practical ,reason 7,kritik d] praktis*5 ,v]nunft71 publi%$ 9 #aghh1 is "o ( ! mo/ /rik+ disquisitions 9 ! :ole range ( ,g]man metaphysical lit]ature4 ,"o ( its p>agraphs has alone suffic$ to r5d] x fam\s4 ,! passage conc]n+ ! />ry heav5s & ! moral law z ! two transc5d5tly ov]:elm+ ph5om5a ( ! univ]se is1 p]haps1 m frequ5tly quot$ ?an any o!r writt5 by a ,g]man au?or4 ,?is is ! treatise :i* =ms ! c5tral focus ( ,kant's ?9k+4 ,x /&s midway betwe5 ! ,critique ( ,pure ,reason & ! ,critique ( ,judgm5t4 ,h]e9 ,kant takes up ! position ( a v9dicator ( ! tru? ( ,*ri/ianity1 approa*+ 8 pro( ( its validity & au?ority by fir/ e/abli%+ positive affirmations ( ! immortality ( ! s\l & ! exi/5ce ( ,god4 ,x also includes a !ory ( happ9ess1 & an argum5t conc]n+ ! summum bonum ( life1 ! special aim be+ to demon/rate t man %\ld n simply seek to be happy1 b %\ld1 by absolute ob$i5ce to ! moral law1 seek to become wor?y ( t happ9ess :i* ,god c be/[4 ,i4--,analytic ( ,practical ,reason ,practical pr9ciples are propositions conta9+ a g5]al det]m9ation ( ! w4 ,!y are maxims1 or subjective propositions1 :5 express+ ! w ( an individual2 objective1 :5 !y are valid expressions ( ! w ( rational be+s g5]ally4 ,practical pr9ciples :i* pre-suppose an object ( desire are empirical1 or exp]im5tal1 & supply no practical laws4 ,reason1 9 ! scope ( a practical law1 influ5ces ! w n by ! m$ium ( pleasure or pa94 ,all rational be+s necess>ily wi% = happ9ess1 b !y are n all agre$ ei!r z to ! means to atta9 x1 or z to ! objects ( _! enjoym5t ( x4 ,?us1 subjective practical pr9ciples c only be reckon$ z maxims1 nev] z law4 ,a rational be+ ought n to conceive t 8 individual maxims are calculat$ to con/itute univ]sal laws1 & to become ! basis ( univ]sal legislation4 ,to discov] any law :i* w\ld br+ all m5 into h>mony is absolutely impossible4 ,"o ( ! problems ( practical reason is to f9d ! law :i* c necess>ily det]m9e ! w1 assum+ t ! w is free4 ,! solution ( ?is problem is to be f\nd 9 action accord+ to ! moral law4 ,we %\ld s act t ! maxim ( our w c always be valid z a pr9ciple ( univ]sal legislation4 ,exp]i5ce %[s h[ ! moral consci\sness det]m9es fre$om ( ! w4 ,suppose t someone affirms ( 8 incl9ation = s5sual pleasure t he _c possibly resi/ temptation to indulg5ce4 ,if a gall[s 7 erect$ at ! place :]e he is tempt$1 on :i* he %\ld be hang$ imm$iately aft] satiat+ 8 passions1 w\ld he n be able to control 8 incl9ation8 ,we ne$ n long d\bt :at w\ld be 8 answ]4 ,b ask him1 if 8 sov]eign comm&$ him to be> false witness aga9/ an hon\rable man1 "u p5alty ( dea?1 :e!r he w\ld hold x possible to conqu] 8 love ( life4 ,he might n v5ture to say :at he w\ld *oose1 b he w\ld c]ta9ly admit t x is possible to make *oice4 ,?us1 he judges t he c *oose to d a ?+ because he is consci\s ( moral obligation1 & he ?us recognises = himself a fre$om ( w ( :i*1 b = ! moral law1 he w\ld nev] h be5 consci\s4 ,we obta9 ! exact opposite ( ! pr9ciple ( morality if we adopt ! pr9ciple ( p]sonal private happ9ess z ! det]m9+ motive ( ! w4 ,?is contradiction is n only logical1 b also practical4 ,= morality w\ld be totally de/roy$ 7 n ! voice ( reason z cle> & p5etrat+ 9 relation to ! w1 ev5 to ! mo/ ord9>y m54 ,if "o ( y\r fri5ds1 aft] be>+ false witness aga9/ y1 attempt$ to ju/ify 8 base conduct by enum]at+ ! advantages :i* he _h ?us secur$ = himself & ! happ9ess he _h ga9$1 & by decl>+ t ?us he p]=m$ a true human duty1 y w\ld ei!r laugh him to scorn or turn f him 9 horror4 ,& yet1 if a man acts = 8 own selfi% ends1 y h n ! slighte/ objection to su* behavi\r4 ,,morality ,,& ,,happ9ess ,! maxim ( self-love simply advises2 ! law ( morality comm&s4 ,!re is a va/ diff]5ce betwe5 :at we are advis$ & :at we are oblig$ to d4 ,no practical laws c be bas$ on ! pr9ciple ( happ9ess1 ev5 on t ( univ]sal happ9ess1 = ! k ( ?is happ9ess re/s on m]ely empirical or exp]im5tal data1 e man's ideas ( x be+ condition$ only on 8 individual op9ion4 ,!re=e1 ?is pr9ciple ( happ9ess _c prescribe rules = all rational be+s4 ,b ! moral law dem&s prompt ob$i5ce f ev]yone1 & ?us ev5 ! mo/ ord9>y intellig5ce c disc]n :at %\ld be done4 ,ev]yone has p[] to comply ) ! dictates ( morality1 b ev5 ) reg>d to any s+le aim x is n easy to satisfy ! vague precept ( happ9ess4 ,no?+ c\ld be m absurd ?an a comm& t ev]yone %\ld make himself happy1 = "o nev] comm&s anyone to d :at he inevitably wi%es to d4 ,f9ally1 9 ! idea ( our practical reason1 !re is some?+ :i* accompanies ! violation ( a moral law--namely1 its dem]it1 ) ! consci\sness t puni%m5t is a natural consequ5ce4 ,!re=e1 puni%m5t %\ld be connect$ 9 ! idea ( practical reason ) crime1 z a consequ5ce ( ! crime1 by ! pr9ciples ( moral legislation4 ,,analysis ,,( ,,pr9ciples ,! practical mat]ial pr9ciples ( det]m9ation con/itut+ ! basis ( morality may be ?us classifi$4 #a4 ,subjective ,ext]nal3 ,education2 ! civil con/itution4 ,int]nal3 ,physical feel+2 moral feel+4 #b4 ,objective ,int]nal3 ,p]fection4 ,ext]nal3 ,w ( ,god4 ,! subjective elem5ts are all exp]im5tal1 or empirical1 & _c supply ! univ]sal pr9ciple ( morality1 ?\gh !y are exp\nd$ 9 t s5se by su* writ]s z ,montaigne1 ,m&eville1 ,epicurus1 & ,hut*eson4 ,b ! objective elem5ts1 z enunciat$ & exp\nd$ by ,wolf & ! ,/oics1 & by ,crusius & o!r !ological morali/s1 are f\nd$ on reason1 = absolute p]fection z a quality ( ?+s 7t is1 ,god ,himself7 c only be ?\ght ( by rational concepts4 ,! conception ( p]fection 9 a practical s5se is ! adequacy ( a ?+ = v>i\s ends4 ,z a human quality 7& s int]nal7 ?is is simply tal5t1 & :at completes x is skill4 ,b supreme p]fection 9 sub/ance1 t is1 ,god ,himself1 & !re=e ext]nal 7consid]$ practically71 is ! adequacy ( ?is be+ = all purposes4 ,all ^! pr9ciples above classifi$ are mat]ial1 & s c nev] furni% ! supreme moral law4 ,= ev5 ! ,div9e w c supply a motive 9 ! human m9d because ( ! expectation ( happ9ess f x4 ,!re=e1 ! =mal practical pr9ciple ( ! pure reason insi/s t ! m]e =m ( a univ]sal legislation mu/ con/itute ! ultimate det]m9+ pr9ciple ( ! w4 ,"h is ! only possible practical pr9ciple :i* is suffici5t to furni% categorical imp]atives1 t is1 practical laws :i* make action a duty4 ,x foll[s f ?is analytic t pure reason c be practical4 ,x c det]m9e ! w indep5d5tly ( all m]ely exp]im5tal elem5ts4 ,!re is a rem>kable contra/ betwe5 ! work+ ( ! pure speculative reason & t ( ! pure practical reason4 ,9 ! =m]--z 0 %[n 9 ! treatise on t subject--a pure1 s5sible intuition ( "t & space made k possible1 ?\gh only ( objects ( ! s5ses4 ,on ! contr>y1 ! moral law br+s be=e u a fact absolutely inexplicable f any ( ! data ( ! _w ( s5se4 ,& ! entire range ( our !oretical use ( reason indicates a pure _w ( und]/&+1 :i* ev5 positively det]m9es x1 & enables u to "k some?+ ( x--namely1 a law4 ,we mu/ obs]ve ! di/9ction betwe5 ! laws ( a sy/em ( nature to :i* ! w is subject1 & ( a sy/em ( nature :i* is subject to ! w4 ,9 ! =m]1 ! objects cause ! ideas :i* det]m9e ! w2 9 ! latt]1 ! objects are caus$ by ! w4 ,h5ce1 causality ( ! w has its det]m9+ pr9ciple exclusively 9 ! faculty ( pure reason1 :i* may1 !re=e1 also be call$ a pure practical reason4 ,! moral law is a law ( ! causality ?r\gh fre$om1 & !re=e ( ! possibility ( a sup]-s5sible sy/em ( nature4 ,x det]m9es ! w by impos+ on its maxim ! condition ( a univ]sal legislative =m1 & ?us x is able = ! fir/ "t to imp>t practical reality to reason1 :i* o!rwise w\ld cont9ue to be transc5d5t :5 seek+ to proce$ speculatively ) its ideas4 ,?us ! moral law induces a /up5d\s *ange4 ,x *anges ! transc5d5t use ( reason into ! imman5t use4 ,& 9 result reason itself becomes1 by its ideas1 an effici5t cause 9 ! field ( exp]i5ce4 ,,hume ,,& ,,scepticism ,x may be said ( ,david ,hume t he initiat$ ! attack on pure reason4 ,my own lab\rs 9 ! inve/igation ( ?is subject 7 occasion$ by 8 sceptical tea*+1 = 8 assault made !m necess>y4 ,he argu$ t )\t exp]i5ce x is impossible to "k ! diff]5ce betwe5 "o ?+ & ano!r2 t is1 we c "k a priori1 &1 !re=e1 ! notion ( a cause is fictiti\s & illusory1 aris+ only f ! habit ( obs]v+ c]ta9 ?+s associat$ ) ea* 9 succession ( connections4 ,on su* pr9ciples we c nev] come to any conclusion z to causes & effects4 ,we c nev] pr$ict a consequ5ce f any ( ! kn[n attributes ( ?+s4 ,we c nev] say ( any ev5t t x mu/ necess>ily h foll[$ f ano!r2 t is1 t x mu/ h _h an antec$5t cause4 ,& we c\ld nev] lay d[n a rule d]iv$ ev5 f ! greate/ numb] ( obs]vations4 ,h5ce we mu/ tru/ entirely to bl9d *ance1 aboli%+ all reason1 & su* a surr5d] e/abli%es scepticism 9 an impregnable citadel4 ,ma!matics escap$ ,hume1 because he consid]$ t its propositions 7 analytical1 proce$+ f "o det]m9ation to ano!r1 by reason ( id5tity conta9$ 9 ea*4 ,b ?is is n really s1 =1 on ! contr>y1 !y are syn!tical1 ! results dep5d+ ultimately on ! ass5t ( obs]v]s z witnesses to ! univ]sality ( propositions4 ,s ,hume's empiricism leads inevitably to scepticism ev5 9 ?is realm4 ,my inve/igations l$ me to ! conclusion t ! objects ) :i* we are famili> are by no means ?+s 9 !mselves1 b are simply ph5om5a1 connect$ 9 a c]ta9 way ) exp]i5ce4 ,s t )\t contradiction !y _c be sep>at$ f t connection4 ,only by t exp]i5ce c !y be recognis$4 ,i 0 able to prove ! objective reality ( ! concept ( cause 9 reg>d to objects ( exp]i5ce1 & to demon/rate its orig9 f pure und]/&+1 )\t exp]im5tal or empirical s\rces4 ,?us1 ,i fir/ de/roy$ ! s\rce ( scepticism1 & !n ! result+ scepticism itself4 ,& ?us 0 subv]t$ ! ?or\gh d\bt z to :atev] !oretic reason claims to p]ceive1 z well z ! claim ( ,hume t ! concept ( causality involv$ some?+ absolutely un?9kable4 ,,good ,,& ,,evil ,by a concept ( practical reason1 ,i und]/& ! repres5tation to ! m9d ( an object z an effect possible to be produc$ ?r\gh fre$om4 ,! only objects ( practical reason are good & evil4 ,= by good we und]/& an object necess>ily abhorr$1 ! pr9ciple ( reason actuat+ ! m9d 9 ea* case4 ,9 ! common use ( language we uni=mly di/+ui% betwe5 ! good & ! pleasant1 ! evil & ! unpleasant1 good & evil be+ judg$ by reason alone4 ,! judgm5t on ! relation1 ( means to ends c]ta9ly belongs to reason4 ,b good or evil always implies only a ref]5ce to ! w1 z resolv$ by ! law ( reason1 to make some?+ its object4 ,?us good & evil prop]ly relate to actions1 n to p]sonal s5sations4 ,s1 if any?+ is to be reckon$ simply good or evil1 x c only be s e/imat$ by ! way ( act+4 ,h5ce1 only ! maxim ( ! w1 & consequ5tly ! p]son himself1 c be call$ good or evil1 n ! ?+ itself4 ,! ,/oic 0 "r1 ev5 ?\gh he might be laugh$ at1 :o dur+ viol5t attacks ( g\t exclaim$1 ,pa91 ,i w nev] admit t ?\ art an evil6 ,:at he felt 0 inde$ :at we call a bad ?+2 b he _h no reason to admit t any evil atta*$ !reby to himself1 = ! pa9 did n 9 ! lea/ detract f 8 p]sonal wor?1 b only f t ( 8 condition4 ,if a s+le lie _h be5 on 8 consci5ce x w\ld h humiliat$ 8 s\l2 b pa9 seem$ only to elevate x1 :5 he 0 n consci\s ( hav+ des]v$ x z a puni%m5t = any unju/ de$4 ,! rule ( judgm5t subject to ! laws ( pure practical reason is ?is3 ,ask y\rself :e!r if ! action y propose 7 to happ5 by a natural sy/em ( law1 ( :i* y 7 y\rself a "p1 y c\ld reg>d x z possible by y\r own w8 ,9 fact1 ev]yone does decide by ?is rule :e!r actions are morally good or evil4 ,,ii4--,dialectic ( ,practical ,reason ,,! ,,immortality ,,( ,,! ,,s\l ,pure practical reason po/ulates ! immortality ( ! s\l1 = reason 9 ! pure & practical s5se aims at ! p]fect good 7summum bonum71 & ?is p]fect good is only possible on ! supposition ( ! s\l's immortality4 ,x is ! moral law :i* det]m9es ! w1 &1 9 ?is w1 ! p]fect h>mony ( ! m9d ) ! moral law1 is ! supreme condition ( ! summum bonum4 ,! pr9ciple ( ! moral de/9ation ( our nature--t only by endless progress c we come into full h>mony ) ! moral law--is ( ! greate/ use1 n only = =tify+ ! speculative reason1 b also ) respect to religion4 ,9 default ( ?is1 ei!r ! moral law is degrad$ f its hol9ess1 be+ repres5t$ z indulg+ our conv5i5ce1 or else m5 /ra9 aft] an unatta9able aim1 hop+ to ga9 absolute hol9ess ( w1 ?us los+ !mselves 9 fanatical !osophic dreams utt]ly contradict+ self-k4 ,= a rational1 b f9ite1 be+ ! only possibility is an endless progression f ! l[] to ! high] degrees ( p]fection4 ,! ,inf9ite ,be+1 to :om ! "t-condition is no?+1 sees 9 ?is endless succession ! p]fect h>mony ) ! moral law4 ,,! ,,exi/5ce ,,( ,,god ,! pure practical reason mu/ also po/ulate ! exi/5ce ( ,god z ! necess>y condition ( ! atta9m5t ( ! summum bonum4 ,z ! p]fect good c only be promot$ by accordance ( ! w ) ! moral law1 s also ?is summum bonum is possible only ?r\gh ! supremacy ( an ,inf9ite ,be+ possess$ ( causality h>monis+ ) morality4 ,b ! po/ulate ( ! highe/ d]iv$ good 7sometimes d5om9at$ ! be/ _w7 co9cides ) ! po/ulate ( a highe/ orig9al good1 or ( ! exi/5ce ( ,god4 ,we n[ p]ceive :y ! ,greeks c\ld nev] solve _! problem ( ! possibility ( ! summum bonum1 because !y made ! fre$om ( ! human w ! only & all-suffici5t gr\nd ( happ9ess1 imag9+ !re 0 no ne$ = ! exi/5ce ( ,god = t end4 ,*ri/ianity alone af=ds an idea ( ! summum bonum :i* answ]s fully to ! requirem5t ( practical reason4 ,t idea is ! ,k+dom ( ,god4 ,! hol9ess :i* ! ,*ri/ian law requires makes ess5tial an inf9ite progress4 ,b j = t v reason x ju/ifies 9 man ! hope ( endless exi/5ce4 ,& x is only f an ,inf9ite ,supreme ,be+1 morally p]fect1 holy1 good1 & ) an omnipot5t w1 t we c hope1 by accord ) ,8 w1 to atta9 ! summum bonum1 :i* ! moral law enjo9s on u z our duty to seek ev] to atta94 ,! moral law does n enjo9 on u to r5d] ourselves happy1 b in/ructs u h[ to become wor?y ( happ9ess4 ,morality mu/ nev] be reg>d$ z a doctr9e ( happ9ess1 or direction h[ to become happy1 its prov9ce be+ to inculcate ! rational condition ( happ9ess1 n ! means ( atta9+ x4 ,god's design 9 creat+ ! _w is n prim>ily ! happ9ess ( ! rational be+s 9 x1 b ! summum bonum1 :i* sup]-adds ano!r condition to t desire ( human be+s1 namely1 ! condition ( des]v+ su* happ9ess4 ,t is to say1 ! morality ( rational be+s is a condition :i* alone includes ! rule by obs]v+ :i* !y c hope to p>ticipate 9 happ9ess at ! h& ( an all-wise ,creator4 ,! highe/ happ9ess c only be conceiv$ z possible "u conditions h>monis+ ) ! div9e hol9ess4 ,?us !y are "r :o make ! glory ( ,god ! *ief end ( creation4 ,= beyond all else t c be conceiv$1 t glorifies ,god :i* is ! mo/ e/imable ?+ 9 ! :ole _w1 hon\r = ,8 comm& & ob$i5ce to ,8 law1 :5 to ?is is add$ ,8 glori\s design to cr[n s beaute\s an ord] ( ?+s ) happ9ess correspond+4 ,,conclusion ,two ?+s fill ! m9d ) ev] new & increas+ wond] & awe--! />ry heav5s above me1 & ! moral law )9 me4 ,i ne$ n se>* = !m1 & vaguely guess conc]n+ !m1 z if !y 7 veil$ 9 d>kness or hidd5 9 ! inf9ite altitude4 ,i see !m be=e me1 & l9k !m imm$iately ) ! consci\sness ( my exi/5ce4 ,! =m] beg9s f ! spot ,i occupy 9 ! out] _w ( s5se1 & enl>ges my connection ) x to a b\ndless ext5t ) worlds ^u worlds & sy/ems ( sy/ems4 ,! second beg9s f my invisible self1 my p]sonality1 & places me 9 a truly inf9ite _w traceable only by ! und]/&+1 ) :i* ,i p]ceive ,i am 9 a univ]sal & necess>y connection1 z ,i am also !reby ) all ^? visible worlds4 ,?is view inf9itely elevates my value z an intellig5ce by my p]sonality1 9 :i* ! moral law reveals to me a life indep5d5t ( ! animal & ev5 ! :ole mat]ial _w1 & rea*+ by de/9y into ! inf9ite4 ,b ?\gh admiration may /imulate inquiry1 x _c comp5sate = ! want ( x4 ,! contemplation ( ! _w1 beg9n+ ) ! mo/ magnific5t spectacle possible1 end$ 9 a/rology2 & morality1 beg9n+ ) ! noble/ attribute ( human nature1 end$ 9 sup]/ition4 ,b aft] reason 0 appli$ to c>eful exam9ation ( ! ph5om5a ( nature a cle> & un*angeable insight 0 secur$ into ! sy/em ( ! _w4 ,we may ent]ta9 ! hope ( a l good result 9 treat+ ( ! moral capacities ( our nature by ! help ( ! moral judgm5t ( reason4 ,,george ,,h5ry ,,lewes ,a ,hi/ory ( ,philosophy ,george ,h5ry ,lewes1 born 9 ,london on ,april #ah1 #ahag1 0 ! gr&son ( a fam\s ,cov5t ,g>d5 com$ian4 ,z an actor1 philosoph]1 noveli/1 critic1 dramati/1 j\rnali/1 man ( sci5ce1 ,lewes play$ _m p>ts 9 ! life ( 8 "t1 & "s ( !m he play$ v well4 ,george ,eliot ow$ him a great deal2 he turn$ h] g5ius away f pure speculation1 & direct$ x to its true prov9ce--fiction4 ,lewes 01 9 fact1 an excell5t critic1 & x is by 8 spl5did critical "w1 ! ,biographical ,hi/ory ( ,philosophy1 t he is n[ be/ rememb]$4 ,9 ?is rem>kable book1 :i* appe>$ 9 #ahde-df1 ,lewes ! noveli/ & ! j\rnali/ collaborates ) ,lewes ! philosoph] & man ( sci5ce4 ,he has ! r>e art ( mak+ an ab/ruse subject cle> & attractive2 he does n give a dry summ>y ( ! ideas ( ! great ?9k]s1 b depicts ! liv+ man & relates 8 way ( life to 8 way ( ?9k+4 ,! result is t 9 8 h&s metaphysic becomes z int]e/+ z hi/ory did 9 ! h&s ( ,macaulay4 ,i4--,! ,e>ly ,?9k]s ,x is ! object ( ! pres5t "w to %[ h[ philosophy became a positive sci5ce2 to indicate by :at me?ods ! human m9d 0 enabl$ to conqu] its pres5t modicum ( c]ta9 k4 ,! bolde/ & ! gr&e/ speculations came fir/4 ,man ne$$ ! /imulus ( "s high] rew>d ?an t ( m]ely trac+ ! laws ( ph5om5a4 ,no?+ b a solution ( ! my/]y ( ! univ]se c\ld cont5t him4 ,a/ronomy 0 d]iv$ f a/rology3 *emi/ry f al*emy1 & physiology f auguries4 ,! position occupi$ by philosophy 9 ! hi/ory ( mank9d is t ( ! great initiative to positive sci5ce4 ,x 0 ! =lorn hope ( mank9d1 & ?\gh x p]i%$ 9 its ef=ts1 x did n p]i% )\t hav+ l$ ! way to victory4 ,?ales1 :o 0 born at ,miletus1 9 ,asia ,m9or1 & fl\ri%$ 9 #ehe ,b4,c41 is ju/ly consid]$ ! fa!r ( ,greek speculation4 ,! /ep he took 0 small b decisive4 ,he op5$ ! physiological inquiry into ! con/itution ( ! univ]se4 ,see+ ar\nd him con/ant trans=mations--bir? & dea?1 *ange ( %ape1 ( size1 & ( mode ( be+1 he c\ld n reg>d any "o ( ^! v>iable /ates ( exi/5ce z exi/5ce itself4 ,he !re=e ask$1 ,:at is ! beg9n+ ( ?+s8 ,f9d+ t all ?+s 7 n\ri%$ by moi/ure1 he decl>$ t moi/ure 0 ! pr9ciple ( ev]y?+4 ,he 0 mi/ak51 ( c\rse1 b he 0 ! fir/ man to furni% a =mula f :i* to reason d$uctively4 ,anaxim5es 7#eej ,b4,c47 pursu$ ! me?od ( ,?ales1 b he 0 n conv9c$ ( ! tru? ( 8 ma/]'s doctr9e4 ,he ?\ght t ! air 0 ! prime1 univ]sal elem5t1 f :i* all ?+s 7 produc$ & into :i* all ?+s 7 resolv$4 ,diog5es ( ,apollonia adopt$ ! idea ( ,anaxim5es1 b gave a deep] significance to x4 ,! old] ?9k] conceiv$ ! vital air z a k9d ( s\l2 ! y\ng] man conceiv$ ! s\l z a k9d ( air--an invisible =ce1 p]meat+ & actuat+ ev]y?+4 ,?is attribution ( intellig5ce to ! primal p[] or matt] 0 c]ta9ly a progress 9 speculation2 b ano!r l9e ( ?\ght 0 /ruck out by ,anaxim&] ( ,miletus1 :o _h be5 a fri5d ( ,?ales4 ,he 0 passionately addict$ to ma!matics1 & a great _m inv5tions are ascrib$ to him2 among o!rs1 ! sun-dial & ! geographical map4 ,9 8 view1 any "o s+le ?+ c\ld n be all ?+s1 & 9 8 fam\s say+1 ,! inf9ite is ! orig9 ( all ?+s1 he introduc$ into metaphysics an ab/ract conception 9 place ( ! inadequate concrete pr9ciples ( ,?ales & 8 disciples4 ,py?agoras 0 a contempor>y ( ,anaxim&]1 &1 l him1 "o ( ! great f\nd]s ( ma!matics4 ,he held t ! only p]man5t reality 9 ! cosmos 0 ! pr9ciple ( ord] & h>mony1 :i* prev5t$ ! univ]se f becom+ a blank1 un9telligible *aos2 & he express$ ?is idea 9 8 my/ic doctr9e3 ,numb]s are ! cause ( ! mat]ial exi/5ce ( ?+s4 ,! movem5t :i* he spread by means ( a va/1 secret confrat]nity end$1 h[ev]1 9 a b>r5 symbolism1 & x is impossible to trace :at relation 8 /range !ories ( ! transmigration ( s\ls & ! music ( ! sph]es h to 8 g5]al sy/em ( ?\ght4 ,f> m influ5ce on ! progress ( speculation 0 ex]cis$ by ,x5ophanes ( ,colophon4 ,driv5 by ! ,p]sian invasion ( #edf ,b4,c4 to e>n 8 liv+ z a w&]+ m9/rel1 he develop$ ! ideas ( ,anaxim&]1 & f\nd$ ! s*ool ( great philosophic poets1 to :i* ,p>m5ides1 ,emp$ocles & ,lucretius belong4 ,he is ! gr& mono!i/1 & he has publi%$ 8 doctr9es 9 8 v]ses3 ,!re is "o ,god alone1 ! greate/ ( spirits & mortals1 ,nei!r 9 body to mank9d resembl+1 nei!r 9 ideas4 ,%elley's l9e3 ,! ,"o rema9s1 ! ,_m *ange & pass1 sums up ! tea*+ ( ! l9e ( ?9k]s :i* culm9at$ 9 ,plato4 ,9 _! view1 k d]iv$ f ! s5ses 0 fallaci\s because x t\*$ only ! div]se & *ang+ appe>ances ( ?+s2 absolute k ( ! "o abid+ spiritual reality c\ld1 !y held1 only be obta9$ by ! ex]cise ( spiritual faculty ( reason1 :i*1 unlike ! animal p[] ( s5se1 is ! same 9 all m54 ,"o ( ! philosoph]s ( ?is s*ool1 ,z5o ( ,elea1 0 ! inv5tor ( ! dialectic me?od ( logic1 :i* ,socrates & ,plato us$ ) s trem5d\s an effect4 ,anaxagoras1 h[ev]1 attempt$ to reconcile ! evid5ce ( ! s5se ) ! dictates ( ! reason4 ,he 0 ! fir/ philosoph] to settle 9 ,a!ns1 & ,p]icles1 ,euripides1 & ,socrates 7 among 8 pupils4 ,he 0 extraord9>ily mod]n 9 _m ( 8 ideas4 ,he held t ! matt] ( k 0 d]iv$ ?r\gh ! s5ses1 b t reason regulat$ & v]ifi$ x1 & he c>ri$ ?is dualism into 8 conception ( ! univ]se1 :i* he repres5t$ z a manife/ation ( a ,div9e intellig5ce1 act+ ?r\gh inv>iable laws1 b 9 no way confus$ ) ! matt] act$ on4 ,8 successor1 ,democritus1 adopt$ 8 !ory ( ! orig9 ( k1 & by apply+ x to ! problem ( ! ,"o & ! ,_m1 produc$ ! mo/ /rik+ ( anci5t anticipations ( mod]n sci5ce4 ,he reg>d$ ! _w z some?+ made up ( invisible p>ticles1 ea* absolutely simil> to ! o!r2 ^! =m$ ! ess5tial unity :i* c\ld be grasp$ only by ! reason1 b by _! v>i\s comb9ations & arrangem5ts !y br\ght ab\t ! app>5t multiplicity ( objects :i* ! s5ses p]ceiv$4 ,su* 0 ! f\ndation ( ! atomic !ory ( ,democritus4 ,he conceiv$ ! atom z a c5tre ( =ce1 & n z a p>ticle hav+ weight & mat]ial qualities4 ,z1 h[ev]1 8 hypo!sis 0 purely a metaphysical "o1 x did n lead to any ( ! discov]ies :i* h foll[$ on ! e/abli%m5t ( ! mod]n sci5tific !ory1 :i* 0 arriv$ at 9 a diff]5t way1 & has a diff]5t signification4 ,democritus also ?rew out 9 vague outl9e ! idea ( gravitation4 ,b ?is 0 n sci5ce3 x 0 guess-"w2 x af=d$ no gr\nd on :i* ! fabric ( v]ifi$ k c\ld be erect$1 & no sure me?od ( obta9+ ?is k4 ,,ii4--,! ,s*ool ( ,socrates ,x 0 aga9/ ! va9 & premature hypo!ses ( ! physiologi/s ( 8 day t ! greate/ & noble/ intellect 9 ,greece revolt$4 ,socrates 0 ! knight-errant ( philosophy4 ,x 0 8 confess$ aim & purpose to )draw ! m9d f ! contemplation ( ! ph5om5a ( nature1 & fix x on its own ph5om5a4 ,i h n leisure = physical speculations1 he said1 ) *>act]i/ic irony1 & ,i w tell y :y3 ,i am n yet able1 accord+ to ! ,delphic inscription1 to "k myself1 & x seems to me v ridicul\s1 :ile ignorant ( myself1 to inquire into :at ,i am n conc]n$ 94 ,we>y ( disputes ab\t ! orig9 ( ! univ]se1 he turn$ to ! "o field 9 :i* ! curr5t me?od ( ab/ract reason+ c\ld be fruitfully appli$--! field ( e?ics4 ,liv+ 9 an age ( wild sophi/ry1 he endeav\r$ to /eady & enlight5 ! consci5ce ( m5 by e/abli%+ "r pr9ciples ( conduct4 ,8 me?od ( proce$+ by def9itions & analogy has be5 misappli$1 b 9 8 h&s x 0 a p[]ful in/rum5t 9 discov]+ & m>k+ out a new field ( inquiry4 ,8 religi\s g5ius1 ! ideal "* ( 8 e?ics1 & ! h]oic "* ( 8 life1 h be5 8 great titles to fame1 b x is 8 me?od :i* gives him 8 high position 9 ! hi/ory ( philosophy4 ,! me?od ( ,socrates 0 adopt$ & enl>g$ by ! mo/ fam\s ( all anci5t writ]s4 ,ari/ocles1 surnam$ ,plato 7! broad-br[$71 0 a brilliant "y ,a!nian ari/ocrat :o turn$ f poetry to philosophy on meet+1 9 8 tw5tie? ye>1 ) ,socrates4 ,aft] travell+ abroad 9 se>* ( k1 he return$ to ,a!ns & f\nd$ 8 _w-r5[n$ ,academy !re 9 #chg ,b4,c4 ,) va/ le>n+ & puissant me?od1 he creat$ an influ5ce :i* is n yet ext9ct ,plato 0 ! culm9at+ po9t ( ,greek philosophy4 ,9 8 works all ! v>i\s & conflict+ t5d5cies ( prec$+ eras 7 collect$ "u "o me?od4 ,?is me?od 0 d\btless ! me?od ( ,socrates1 b mu* ext5d$ & improv$4 ,socrates reli$ on def9itions & analogical reason+ z ! pr9ciples ( inve/igation4 ,plato us$ ^! arts1 b he add$ to !m ! m sci5tific processes ( analysis1 g5]alisation1 & classification4 ,9 reg>d to 8 sy/em ( ?\ght1 ,plato 0 a reali/4 ,he believ$ t ideas h a real exi/5ce1 & t mat]ial ?+s are only copies ( ! realities exi/+ 9 ! ideal _w4 ,he held t beauty1 goodness1 & wisdom are spiritual realities1 f :i* all ?+s beautiful1 good1 & wise d]ive _! exi/5ce4 ,9 8 philosophy ! univ]se is divid$ into ! cele/ial region ( ideas & ! mundane region ( mat]ial ph5om5a1 answ]+ to ! mod]n conception ( heav5 & e>?4 ,z ! ph5om5a ( matt] are b copies ( ideas 7n1 z "s suppose1 ! bodily realisation ( !m71 !re arises a "q3 ,h[ d ideas become matt]8 ,plato gives two diff]5t explanations4 ,9 ! ,republic he says t ,god1 in/ead ( p]petually creat+ individual ?+s1 creat$ a di/9ct type 7idea7 = ea* ?+1 & f ?is type all objects ( ! class are made4 ,b 9 a lat] "w1 ! ,timaeus1 ,plato takes ano!r view ( ! orig9 ( ! _w4 ,types are conceiv$ z hav+ exi/$ f all et]nity1 & ,god1 9 fa%ion+ cosmos out ( *aos1 fa%ion$ x aft] ! model ( ^! et]nal types4 ,plato's conception ( heav5 & e>? z two di/9ct regions is complet$ by 8 conception ( ! d\ble nature ( ! s\l2 or1 r1 ( two s\ls1 "o rational & ! o!r s5sitive4 ,! s5sitive s\l awak5s ! div9e rem9isc5ces ( ! rational s\l2 & ! rational s\l1 by detect+ ! ,"o 9 ! ,_m1 pres]ves man f ! scepticism inevitably result+ f m]e s5se-k4 ,ari/otle1 :o 0 born 9 #chd ,b4,c41 0 ,plato's pupil4 ,he1 h[ev]1 completely broke away f 8 ma/]'s !ory4 ,he ma9ta9$ t individual objects alone exi/4 ,b if only individual objects exi/1 only by ! s5ses c !y be kn[n2 & if we h only s5se-k1 h[ c we arrive at ! g5]al tru?s on :i* bo? philosophy & sci5ce are f\nd$8 ,?is 0 ! problem :i* _h l$ ,plato to claim = ideas1 or types ( g5]al tru?s1 a high] orig9 ?an ! int]mitt5t & v>y+ data ( ! s5ses4 ,ari/otle held t x c\ld be solv$ 9 a natural way )\t ! conception ( an ideal _w4 ,9 8 view1 ideas 7 obta9$ by induction4 ,s5sation is ! basis ( all k4 ,b we h ano!r faculty besides t ( s5sation2 we h memory4 ,hav+ p]ceiv$ _m objects1 we rememb] our p]ceptions1 & ?is enables u to disc]n :]e9 ?+s diff] & :]e9 !y agree4 ,!n1 by means ( ! art ( induction1 we arrive at ideas4 ,ari/otle's !ory ( induction is cle>ly expla9$ by him3 ,exp]i5ce furni%es ! pr9ciples ( e sci5ce4 ,?us a/ronomy is gr\nd$ on obs]vation4 ,= if we 7 to obs]ve prop]ly ! ph5om5a ( ! heav5s1 we might demon/rate ! laws :i* regulate !m4 ,! same applies to o!r sci5ces4 ,_h he always held be=e 8 eyes ?is conception ( sci5ce1 he w\ld h anticipat$ ,bacon--he w\ld h be5 ! ,fa!r ( ,positive ,sci5ce4 ,b he c\ld n conf9e himself to exp]i5ce1 z !re 0 n suffici5t exp]i5ce accumulat$ 9 8 age f :i* to g5]alise ) any effect4 ,s he turn$ to logic z an in/rum5t = inve/igat+ ! my/]y ( exi/5ce1 & by br++ physics & metaphysics toge!r aga91 he pav$ ! way = a new era--! era ( scepticism4 ,all ! wisdom ( ! anci5t _w 0 p[]less aga9/ ! sceptics4 ,fai? 9 tru? 0 ext9ct2 fai? 9 human nature 0 gone2 philosophy 0 impossible4 ,&1 ?\gh ! influ5ce ( ,socrates cont9u$ to be felt 9 ! field ( e?ics1 ! e?ics ( ! ,greeks 7 at be/ n>r[ & egoti/ical4 ,:at a light 0 p\r$ ^u all que/ions ( morality by t "o div9e axiom1 ,love y\r enemy4 ,no ,greek ev] atta9$ ! sublimity ( su* a po9t ( view4 ,/ill1 ! progress made by ! ,greeks 0 imm5se1 & !y mu/ ev] occupy 9 ! hi/ory ( humanity an hon\rable place4 ,,iii4--,philosophy & ,sci5ce ,francis ,bacon is ! fa!r ( exp]im5tal philosophy4 ,he owes 8 title to 8 me?od4 ,_m philosoph]s1 anci5t & mod]n1 _h cursorily ref]r$ to obs]vation & exp]im5t z furni%+ ! mat]ials ( physical k2 b no "o be=e him _h attempt$ to sy/ematise ! true me?od ( discov]y4 ,he beg9s 8 great "w by exam9+ into ! p]man5t causes ( error1 z ^! 7 likely to be op]ative ev5 aft] ! re=mation ( sci5ce4 ,= ?is reason he calls !m idols1 or false appe>ances 7f ! ,greek1 eidolon71 & he divides !m into f\r classes3 ! idols ( ! tribe1 or ! causes ( error due to ! g5]al defects ( ! human m9d2 ! idols ( ! d51 :i* spr+ f weaknesses peculi> to ! "* ( ! individual /ud5t2 ! idols ( ! =um1 :i* arise out ( ! int]c\rse ( society & ! p[] t words sometimes h ( gov]n+ ?\ght2 &1 f9ally1 ! idols ( ! !atre1 :i* m5 ( great le>n+ pursue :5 !y foll[ ! sy/ems ( fam\s b mi/ak5 ?9k]s4 ,aft] ?is prelim9>y discussion1 ,bacon goes on to describe ! me?ods ( inductive sci5ce4 ,! fir/ /ep consi/s 9 prep>+ a hi/ory ( ! ph5om5a to be expla9$ 9 all _! modifications & v>ieties4 ,?is hi/ory mu/ include n m]ely su* facts z spontane\sly (f] !mselves1 b all exp]im5ts in/itut$ = ! sake ( discov]y4 ,x mu/ be compos$ ) great c>e2 ! facts %\ld be accurately relat$ & di/9ctly arrang$1 & _! au!nticity dilig5tly exam9$2 ^? t re/ on d\btful evid5ce %\ld n be reject$1 b not$ z unc]ta91 ) ! gr\nds ( ! judgm5t s =m$4 ,?is la/ "p ( ! me?od1 says ,bacon1 is v necess>y1 = facts (t5 appe> incr$ible only because we are ill-in=m$1 & !y cease to seem m>vell\s :5 our k is fur!r ext5d$4 ,:5 ?is record ( facts1 ?is natural hi/ory1 is complet$1 an attempt may !n be made to discov]1 by a comp>ison ( ! v>i\s facts1 ! cause ( ! ph5om5a4 ,"h x is ( ! utmo/ importance to be> 9 m9d t all facts h n ! same value4 ,!re are1 z ,bacon po9ts out1 tw5ty-sev5 species ( facts1 & he concludes t 9 any sci5ce :]e facts _c be te/$ by exp]im5t !re c be no conclusive evid5ce4 ,?us x w be se5 t ,bacon's me?od 0 a sy/em ( specific rules4 ,he did n m]ely tell m5 to make obs]vations & exp]im5ts2 he taught !m h[ obs]vations & exp]im5ts ought to be made4 ,z ,bacon 0 ! fa!r ( mod]n sci5ce1 s ,r5e ,desc>tes 0 ! fa!r ( mod]n philosophy4 ,born 9 #aeif1 & p]plex$ by ! movem5t ( scepticism produc$ by ! ,r5aissance1 ! ,fr5* ?9k] endeav\r$ to f9d "s gr\nd ( c]ta9ty 9 ! fact t he at lea/ knew ( 8 own exi/5ce4 ,h5ce 8 fam\s say+3 ,cogito1 ergo sum--,i ?9k1 !re=e ,i exi/4 ,consci\sness1 said he1 is ! basis ( all k4 ,! process !n is simple3 exam9e y\r consci\sness1 & its cle> replies w be sci5ce4 ,h5ce ! vital portion ( 8 sy/em lies 9 ?is axiom3 ,all cle> ideas are true4 ,! fallacy 9 8 sy/em c be briefly expos$4 ,consci\sness is1 no d\bt1 ! ultimate gr\nd ( c]ta9ty ( exi/5ce = me4 ,b ?\gh ,i am consci\s ( all t passes )9 myself1 ,i am n consci\s ( :at passes 9 any?+ n myself4 ,all t ,i c possibly "k ( any?+ n myself lies 9 its effects ^u me4 ,any o!r ideas ,i may h 9 reg>d to ! outside _w are f\nd$ only on inf]5ces1 & directly ,i leave ! gr\nd ( consci\sness = ! region ( inf]5ce my k becomes que/ionable4 ,x 0 ?is defect 9 ,c>tesianism :i* ,b>u* ,sp9oza1 ! great ,jewi% ?9k] ( ,am/]dam1 set out to rectify4 ,sp9oza ask$ himself3 ,:at 0 ! reality :i* lies b5ea? all appe>ance8 ,we see ev]y:]e trans=mations p]i%able & p]i%+1 yet !re mu/ be some?+ b5ea? :i* is imp]i%able & immutable4 ,:at is x8 ,9 ,sp9oza's view1 ! absolute exi/5ce is ,god4 ,all t exi/s1 exi/s 9 & by ,god4 ,tak+ ! words ( ,/4 ,paul1 ,9 ,him we live & move & h our be+1 z 8 motto1 he und]took to trace ! relations ( ! _w to ,god & to man1 & ^? ( man to society4 ,to ,john ,locke1 born at ,wr+ton1 9 ,som]set1 9 #afcb1 ! problem pres5t$ itself 9 ano!r way4 ,in/ead ( accept+ ! validity ( cle> ideas1 z ,desc>tes & ,sp9oza did1 he adopt$ ! ,baconian me?od1 & op5$ ! inquiry into ! orig9 & =mation ( ideas4 ,sep>at+ himself f ! philosoph]s :o held t ! m9d 0 capable ( arriv+ at k indep5d5t ( exp]i5ce1 & f ! sceptics :o ma9ta9$ t ! s5ses 7 ! only *annels ( in=mation1 he %[$ t ideas 7 d]iv$ f two s\rces--s5sation & reflection4 ,he 0 succe$$ by ,george ,b]keley1 ,bi%op ( ,cloyne1 born at ,kilcr9 9 ,kilk5ny1 9 #afhd4 ,he defeat$ ! sceptics on _! own gr\nd4 ,!re is no?+ 9 ! _w1 he says1 except our own s5sations & ideas4 ,9 ord] to exi/ = u1 ?+s h to be p]ceiv$ by ! m9d2 !re=e1 ev]y?+1 9 ord] to exi/1 mu/ exi/ 9 ! m9d ( ,god4 ,b :5 ,b]keley _h prov$ t matt] 0 figm5t1 ,david ,hume1 born 9 #agaa1 came =w>d & %[$ t m9d 0 also an illusion4 ,y "k no?+ ( matt]1 said ,b]keley2 y h only p]ceptions & ! ideas bas$ !reon4 ,y "k no?+ ( m9d1 repli$ ,hume2 y h only a succession ( s5sations & ideas4 ,aga9/ ,hume rose up 9 ,g]many a fam\s s*ool ( philosoph]s beg9n+ ) ,immanuel ,kant1 :o 0 born 9 ,prussia 9 #agbd4 ,kant attempt$ to prove t ! human reason 0 n untru/wor?y1 z ,hume assum$1 b limit$1 & t1 )9 c]ta9 b\nds1 x 0 capable ( arriv+ at practical tru?s4 ,kant's disciples1 h[ev]1 7 n cont5t ) ?is mode/ re/atem5t4 ,tak+ x too readily = grant$ t ,hume's objections _h be5 ov]come1 !y proce$$ to revive t unb\nd$ fai? 9 m]e speculation :i* _h be5 ! di/emp] ( ! ,greek m9d4 ,fi*te & ,s*ell+ 7 ! fir/ ?9k]s ( note to attempt aga9 to solve by logic ! my/]y ( ! univ]se4 ,b _! works are n[ obscur$ by ! a*ievem5t ( ,hegel1 :o began to tea* at ,b]l9 9 #ahah4 ,hegel holds t ! real univ]se is a univ]se ( ideas to :i* 8 philosophy is ! key1 b1 z ideas realise !mselves 9 space & "t1 !y come )9 ! scope ( ! man ( sci5ce4 ,x is said t all bad ,g]man sy/ems ( philosophy :5 !y die come to ,engl&4 ,hegelianism has c]ta9ly be5 v fa%ionable 9 ?is c\ntry1 & its influ5ce is /ill obs]vable 9 academic circles4 ,augu/e ,comte is ! ,bacon ( ! n9ete5? c5tury4 ,x has be5 8 object to con/ruct a positive philosophy2 t is to say1 a doctr9e capable ( embrac+ all ! sci5ces1 &1 ) !m1 all ! problems ( social life4 ,he holds t e bran* ( k passes ?r\gh ?ree /ages3 ! sup]natural1 or fictiti\s2 ! metaphysical or ab/ract2 ! positive or sci5tific4 ,:5 ! positive me?od is adopt$1 !n %all we aga9 h "o g5]al doctr9e1 p[]ful because g5]al4 ,! metaphysicians h fail$ to p5etrate to ! causes ( ?+s1 b ! m5 ( sci5ce are succe$+ 9 ! humbl] b f> m useful "w ( trac+ "s ( ! laws t gov]n ! ph5om5a ( nature1 & =esee+ _! op]ations4 ,x is only :]e ! philosoph]s />t$ matt]s capable ( positive treatm5t t any advance has be5 made 9 metaphysics4 ,= ! re/1 philosophy leaves u 9 ! n9ete5? c5tury at precisely ! same po9t at :i* we 7 9 ! fif?4 ,?us is ! circle complet$4 ,,john ,,locke ,conc]n+ ! ,human ,und]/&+ ,john ,locke 0 born at ,wr+ton1 ,som]set%ire1 ,engl&1 ,aug4 #bi1 #afcb4 ,he 0 educat$ at ,we/m9/] & at ,*ri/ ,*ur*1 ,ox=d2 b 8 temp]am5t rebell$ aga9/ ! sy/em ( education /ill 9 vogue & ! public disputations ( ! s*ools1 :i* he ?\ght inv5t$ = wrangl+ & o/5tation r ?an to discov] tru?4 ,x 0 8 /udy ( ,desc>tes t fir/ gave him a reli% ( philosophical ?+s4 ,f #afhc to #afhi he f\nd x prud5t to soj\rn 9 ,holl&4 ,9 ! latt] ye> he return$ to ,engl&1 br++ ) him ! manuscript ( ! ,essay ,conc]n+ ,human ,und]/&+1 :i* appe>$ 9 ! spr+ ( #afij4 ,few works ( philosophy h made _! way m rapidly ?an ! ,essay4 ,tw5ty editions appe>$ be=e #agjj4 ,! design ( ! book1 ,locke expla9s 9 ! introduction1 is to inquire into ! orig91 c]ta9ty1 & ext5t ( human k1 toge!r ) ! gr\nds & degrees ( belief1 op9ion1 & ass5t4 ,locke di$ on ,octob] #bh1 #agjd4 ,i4--,! ,nature ( ,simple ,ideas ,idea be+ t t]m :i*1 ,i ?9k1 s]ves be/ to /& = :atsoev] is ! object ( ! und]/&+4 ,i h us$ x to express :atev] is meant by phantasm1 notion1 species1 or :atev] x is ! m9d c be employ$ ab\t 9 ?9k+4 ,let u1 !n1 suppose ! m9d to be1 z we say1 :ite pap] void ( all *>act]s--)\t any ideas4 ,:5ce comes x by t va/ /ore :i* ! busy & b\ndless fancy ( man has pa9t$ on x ) an almo/ endless v>iety8 ,to ?is1 ,i answ] 9 "o ^w--,exp]i5ce2 9 t all our k is f\nd$1 & f t x ultimately d]ives itself4 ,let anyone exam9e 8 own ?\ghts & ?or\ghly se>* 8 und]/&+1 & !n let him tell me :e!r ( all ! orig9al ideas he has !re are any o!r ?an ( ! objects ( 8 s5ses1 or ( ! obs]vations ( 8 m9d consid]$ z objects ( 8 reflection4 ,?\gh ! qualities t affect our s5ses are1 9 ! ?+s !mselves1 s unit$ & bl5d$ t !re is no sep>ation1 no di/ance betwe5 !m1 yet x is pla9 ! ideas !y produce 9 ! m9d ent] by ! s5ses simple & unmix$4 ,=1 ?\gh ! sight & t\* (t5 take 9 f ! same object at ! same "t diff]5t ideas1 yet ! simple ideas ?us unit$ 9 ! same subject are z p]fectly di/9ct z ^? t come 9 by diff]5t s5ses2 ! coldness & h>dness :i* a man feels 9 a piece ( ice be+ z di/9ct ideas 9 ! m9d z ! smell & :it5ess ( a lily1 & ea* ( !m be+ 9 itself uncomp\nd$1 conta9s no?+ b "o uni=m appe>ance1 or conception1 9 ! m9d1 & is n di/+ui%able into diff]5t ideas4 ,:5 ! und]/&+ is once /or$ ) ^! simple ideas1 x has ! p[] to repeat1 comp>e1 & unite !m ev5 to an almo/ inf9ite v>iety1 & s c make at w new complex ideas4 ,b x is n 9 ! p[] ( any mo/ exalt$ wit or enl>g$ und]/&+1 by any quickness or v>iety ( ?\ght1 to inv5t or frame "o new simple idea 9 ! m9d1 nor to de/roy ^? t are !re4 ,i w\ld h anyone try to fancy any ta/e :i* _h nev] affect$ 8 palate1 or frame ! idea ( a sc5t he _h nev] smelt2 & :5 he c d ?is1 ,i w also conclude t a bl9d man ha? ideas ( col\rs & a deaf man true1 di/9ct notions ( s\nd4 ,!re are "s ideas :i* h admittance only ?r\gh "o s5se :i* is peculi>ly adapt$ to receive !m4 ,?us1 light & col\rs come 9 only by ! eye1 all k9ds ( noises by ! e>1 ! ta/es & smells by ! nose & palate4 ,! mo/ consid]able ( ^? belong+ to ! t\* are heat1 cold1 & solidity--:i* is ! idea t belongs to ! body1 :]eby we conceive x to fill space4 ,simple ideas ( div]s s5ses are ! ideas ( space or ext5sion1 figure1 re/1 & motion1 = ^! make p]ceivable impressions bo? on ! eyes & t\*1 & we c receive & convey into our m9ds ! ideas ( ! ext5sion1 figure1 motion1 & re/ ( bodies bo? by see+ & feel+4 ,! m9d1 receiv+ ! ideas m5tion$ 9 ! =ego+ f )\t1 :5 x turns its view inw>d ^u itself & obs]ves its own actions ab\t ^? ideas x has1 takes f !nce o!r ideas :i* are z capable to be ! objects ( its contemplation z any ( ^? x receiv$ f =eign ?+s4 ,! two great & pr9cipal actions ( ! m9d :i* are mo/ frequ5tly consid]$1 & :i* are s frequ5t t ev]yone t pleases may take notice ( !m 9 himself1 are ^! two--,p]ception or ,?9k+1 & ,volition or ,w4 ,! p[] ( ?9k+ is call$ ! ,und]/&+1 & ! p[] ( volition is call$ ! ,w4 ,& ^! two p[]s1 or abilities1 9 ! m9d are d5om9at$ ,faculties4 ,"s ( ! modes ( ^! simple ideas ( reflection are remembrance1 disc]n+1 reason+1 judg+1 k1 fai?4 ,x has1 fur!r1 pleas$ our wise ,creator to annex to sev]al objects & to ! ideas :i* we receive f !m1 z also to sev]al ( our ?\ghts1 a concomitant pleasure1 & t 9 sev]al objects to sev]al degrees1 t ^? faculties :i* ,he has end[$ u ) might n rema9 :olly idle & unemploy$ by u4 ,pa9 has ! same efficacy & use to set u on "w t pleasure has1 we be+ z ready to employ our faculties to avoid t z to pursue ?is4 ,exi/5ce & unity are two o!r ideas t are sugge/$ to ! und]/&+ by e object )\t & e idea )94 ,p[]1 also1 is ano!r ( ^? simple ideas :i* we receive f s5sation & reflection2 &1 besides ^!1 !re is succession4 ,nor let anyone ?9k ^! too n>r[ b\nds = ! capaci\s m9d ( man to expatiate 91 :i* takes its flight f>!r ?an ! />s & _c be conf9$ by ! limits ( ! _w1 t ext5ds its ?\ghts (t5 ev5 beyond ! utmo/ expansion ( matt] & makes excursions into t incompreh5sible inane4 ,nor w x be s /range to ?9k ^! few simple ideas suffici5t to employ ! quicke/ ?\ght or l>ge/ capacity if we consid] h[ _m words may be made out ( ! v>i\s composition ( tw5ty-f\r lett]s2 or if1 go+ "o /ep f>!r1 we w b reflect on ! v>iety ( comb9ations t may be made ) b>ely "o ( ! above-m5tion$ ideas1 viz41 numb]1 ^: /ock is inexhau/ible4 ,& :at a l>ge & imm5se field do? ext5sion alone af=d ! ma!maticians6 ,,ii4--,( ,idea-,produc+ ,qualities ,! p[] to produce any idea 9 our m9d ,i call ,quality ( ! subject :]e9 t p[] is4 ,qualities are1 fir/1 su* z are utt]ly insep>able f ! body 9 :at /ate soev] x be4 ,^! ,i call orig9al or prim>y qualities1 :i* ,i ?9k we may obs]ve to produce simple ideas 9 u1 viz41 solidity1 ext5sion1 figure1 motion or re/1 & numb]4 ,secondly1 su* qualities :i* 9 tru? are no?+ 9 ! objects !mselves1 b p[]s to produce v>i\s s5sations 9 u by _! prim>y qualities1 i4e41 by ! bulk1 figure1 texture1 & motion ( _! ins5sible p>ts4 ,^! second>y qualities are col\rs1 s\nds1 ta/es1 etc4 ,f :5ce ,i ?9k x is easy to draw ?is obs]vation3 t ! ideas ( prim>y qualities ( bodies are resemblances ( !m1 b ! ideas produc$ 9 u by ! second>y qualities h no resemblance 9 !m at all4 ,if anyone w consid] t ! same fire t at "o di/ance produces 9 u ! s5sation ( w>m? does1 at a ne>] approa*1 produce 9 u ! f> diff]5t s5sation ( pa91 let him be?9k himself :at reason he has to say t 8 idea ( w>m?1 :i* 0 produc$ 9 him by fire1 is actually 9 ! fire2 & 8 idea ( pa9 :i* ! same fire produc$ 9 him 9 ! same way1 is n 9 ! fire4 ,! p>ticul> bulk1 numb]1 figure1 & motion ( ! p>ts ( fire or sn[ are really 9 !m1 :e!r anyone's s5ses p]ceive !m or n2 &1 !re=e1 !y may be call$ real qualities1 because !y really exi/ 9 ^? bodies4 ,b light1 heat1 :it5ess1 or coldness are no m really 9 !m ?an sickness or pa9 is 9 manna4 ,take away ! s5sation ( !m2 let n ! eyes see light or col\rs1 nor ! e>s he> s\nds2 let ! palate n ta/e1 nor ! nose smell2 & all col\rs1 ta/es1 od\rs1 & s\nds1 z !y are su* p>ticul> ideas1 vani% & cease1 & are r$uc$ to _! causes1 i4e41 bulk1 figure1 & motion ( p>ts4 ,,iii4--,v>i\s ,faculties ( ! ,m9d ,:at p]ception is ev]yone w "k bett] by reflect+ on :at he does himself :5 he sees1 he>s1 feels1 etc41 or ?9ks1 ?an by any disc\rse ( m9e4 ,?is is c]ta91 t :atev] alt]ations are made 9 ! body1 if !y rea* n ! m9d1 :atev] impressions are made on ! outw>d p>ts1 if !y are n tak5 notice ( )91 !re is no p]ception4 ,we ought fur!r to consid] conc]n+ p]ception1 t ! ideas we receive by s5sation are (t5 9 gr[n p alt]$ by ! judgm5t )\t our tak+ any notice ( x4 ,:5 we set be=e our eyes a r\nd globe ( any uni=m col\r--e4g41 gold1 alaba/]1 or jet--x is c]ta9 t ! idea !reby impr9t$ 9 our m9d is ( a flat circle v>i\sly %ad[$ ) sev]al degrees ( light & brightness com+ to our eyes4 ,b we hav+ by use be5 accu/om$ to p]ceive :at k9d ( appe>ances convex bodies are wont to make 9 u1 :at alt]ations are made 9 ! reflections ( light by ! diff]5ce ( ! s5sible figures ( bodies1 ! judgm5t pres5tly1 by an habitual cu/om1 alt]s ! appe>ances into _! causes2 s t f t :i* is truly a v>iety ( %ad[ or col\r collect+ ! figure1 x makes x pass = a m>k ( figure1 & frames to itself ! p]ception ( a convex figure & a uni=m col\r1 :5 ! idea we receive f !nce is only a plane v>i\sly col\r$1 z is evid5t 9 pa9t+4 ,p]ception1 !n1 is ! fir/ op]ation ( our intellectual faculties1 & ! inlet ( all k into our m9ds4 ,! next faculty ( ! m9d :]eby x makes a fur!r progress t[>ds k is t :i* ,i call ,ret5tion1 or ! keep+ ( ^? simple ideas :i* f s5sation or reflection x ha? receiv$4 ,?is is done1 fir/1 by keep+ ! idea :i* is br\ght into x = "s "t actually 9 view1 :i* is call$ ,contemplation4 ,! o!r way ( ret5tion is ! p[] to revive aga9 9 our m9ds ^? ideas :i* aft] impr9t+ h disappe>$1 or h be51 z x 71 laid aside out ( sight2 & ?us we d :5 we conceive heat or light1 yell[ or sweet1 ! object be+ remov$4 ,?is is memory1 :i* is1 z x 71 ! /oreh\se ( our ideas4 ,ano!r faculty we may take notice ( 9 our m9ds is t ( ,disc]n+1 & di/+ui%+ betwe5 ! sev]al ideas x has4 ,x is n en\gh to h a confus$ p]ception ( some?+ 9 g5]al4 ,unless ! m9d _h a di/9ct p]ception ( diff]5t objects & _! qualities1 x w\ld be capable ( v little k1 ?\gh ! bodies t affect u 7 z busy ab\t u z !y are n[1 & ! m9d 7 cont9ually employ$ 9 ?9k+4 ,on ?is faculty ( di/+ui%+ "o ?+ f ano!r dep5ds ! evid5ce & c]ta9ty ( sev]al ev5 v g5]al propositions :i* h pass$ = innate tru?s1 because m51 ov]look+ ! true cause :y ^? propositions f9d univ]sal ass5t1 impute x :olly to native uni=m impressions2 :]eas x1 9 tru?1 dep5ds ^u ?is cle> disc]n+ faculty ( ! m9d1 :]eby x p]ceives two ideas to be ! same or diff]5t4 ,! comp>+ ( ideas "o ) ano!r is ! op]ation ( ! m9d ^u :i* dep5ds all t l>ge tribe ( ideas compreh5d$ "u relations4 ,! next op]ation is composition1 :]eby ! m9d puts toge!r sev]al simple ideas & comb9es !m into complex ones4 ,! use ( words be+ to /& z outw>d m>ks ( our int]nal ideas1 & ^? ideas be+ tak5 f p>ticul> ?+s1 if e p>ticul> idea t we take 9 %\ld h a di/9ct "n1 names mu/ be endless4 ,to prev5t ?is1 ! m9d makes ! p>ticul> ideas receiv$ f p>ticul> objects to become g5]al1 :i* is done by consid]+ !m z !y are 9 ! m9d1 & su* appe>ances sep>ate f all o!r exi/5ces1 & f ! circum/ances ( real exi/5ce1 z "t1 place1 or any o!r concomitant ideas4 ,?is is call$ ,ab/raction1 :]eby ideas tak5 f p>ticul> be+ become g5]al repres5tatives ( all ( ! same k9d4 ,?us1 ! same col\r be+ obs]v$ to-day 9 *alk or sn[ :i* ! m9d ye/]day receiv$ f milk1 x consid]s t t appe>ance alone makes x a repres5tative ( all ( t k9d2 & hav+ giv5 x ! "n :it5ess1 x by t s\nd signifies ! same quality :]esoev] imag9$ or met )2 & ?us univ]sals1 :e!r ideas or t]ms1 are made4 ,z ! m9d is :olly passive 9 ! reception ( all its simple ideas1 s x ex]ts sev]al acts ( its own1 :]eby1 out ( its simple ideas1 z ! mat]ials & f\ndations ( ! re/ ! o!rs are fram$4 ,& ,i believe we %all f9d1 if we obs]ve ! orig9als ( our notions1 t ev5 ! mo/ ab/ruse ideas1 h[ remote soev] !y may seem f s5se1 or f any op]ation ( our m9ds1 are yet only su* z ! und]/&+ frames to itself1 by repeat+ & jo9+ toge!r ideas t x _h ei!r f objects ( s5se or f its own op]ations ab\t !m2 s t ev5 ^? l>ge & ab/ract ideas are d]iv$ f s5sation or reflection1 be+ no o!r ?an :at ! m9d may & does atta9 by ! ord9>y use ( its own faculties4 ,,iv4--,k ( ! ,exi/5ce ( ,o!r ,?+s ,x is ! actual receiv+ ( ideas f )\t t gives u notice ( ! exi/5ce ( o!r ?+s1 & makes u "k t some?+ does exi/ at t "t )\t u :i* causes t idea 9 u1 ?\gh p]haps we nei!r "k nor consid] h[ x does x4 ,& ?is1 ?\gh n s c]ta9 z our own intuitive k1 or z ! d$uctions ( our reason employ$ ab\t ! cle> ab/ract ideas ( our own m9ds1 yet des]ves ! "n ( k4 ,x is pla9 t ^? p]ceptions are produc$ by ext]ior causes affect+ our s5ses = ! foll[+ reasons4 ,because ^? t want ! organs ( any s5se nev] c h ! ideas belong+ to t s5se produc$ 9 _! m9ds4 ,because sometimes ,i f9d ,i _c avoid hav+ ^? ideas produc$ 9 my m9d2 = z :5 my eyes are %ut1 or ! w9d[s fa/1 ,i c at pleasure recall to my m9d ! ideas ( light or ! sun :i* =m] s5sations h lodg$ 9 my memory2 s ,i c at pleasure lay by t idea & take into my view t ( a rose or ta/e ( sug>4 ,b if ,i turn my eyes at noon t[>ds ! sun1 ,i _c avoid ! ideas :i* ! light or sun produces 9 me4 ,!re is nobody :o does n p]ceive ! diff]5ce 9 himself contemplat+ ! sun z he has an idea ( x 9 8 memory & actually look+ ^u x2 &1 !re=e1 he has c]ta9 k t !y are n bo? memory or ! actions ( 8 m9d & fancies only )9 him1 b t actual see+ has a cause )\t4 ,add to ?is t _m ( ^? ideas are produc$ ) pa91 :i* aft]w>ds we rememb] )\t ! lea/ (f5ce4 ,la/ly1 our s5ses be> witness to ! tru? ( ea* o!r's report conc]n+ ! exi/5ce ( s5sible ?+s )\t u4 ,,montaigne ,essays ,mi*el ,eyquem1 ,seigneur de ,montaigne1 "o ( ! greate/ ma/]s ( ! essay 9 all lit]ature1 0 born at 8 family's ance/ral *ateau ne> ,bordeaux1 9 ,france1 ,feb4 #bh1 #aecc1 & di$ on ,septemb] #ac1 #aeib4 ,8 life 0 "o ( mu* suff]+ f h]$it>y disease1 :i*1 h[ev]1 he endur$ s philosophically t little trace ( 8 trials is app>5t 9 8 writ+s4 ,8 fa!r1 :o is said to h be5 ( ,engli% desc5t1 took special pa9s ) 8 e>ly education1 hav+ _h him taught ,lat9 by a ,g]man tutor be=e he le>nt ,fr5*1 s t be=e he left 8 nurse's arms he 0 a ma/] ( ! anci5t tongue & knew n a ^w ( 8 own4 ,! fir/ two ( ! ?ree books ( 8 celebrat$ ,essays 7 publi%$ 9 #aeha & ! ?ird 9 #aehh4 ,9 #aehb he visit$ ,italy & 0 made a ,roman citiz51 & ! next ye> he 0 *os5 ,mayor ( ,bordeaux4 ,always a lov] ( books & a /ud5t ( m51 8 writ+s are a ri* m9e ( s*ol>ly wit & worldly wisdom1 consummate 9 ! naturalness t conceals lit]>y art4 ,l mo/ works ( ! "t1 !y conta9 passages :i* mod]n ta/e does n approve1 b1 tak5 z a :ole1 !y are among ! mo/ int]e/+ ( books ( ! k9d4 ,i4--,( ,dea?1 & ,h[ ,x ,f9de? a ,man ,i 0 born betwe5 elev5 ( ! clock & noon1 ! la/ ( ,febru>y1 #aecc1 accord+ to our computation1 ! ye> beg9n+ on ,janu>y #a4 ,x is b a =tnight s9ce ,i 0 ?irty-n9e ye>s old4 ,i want at lea/ z mu* m ( life4 ,if 9 ! meantime ,i %\ld tr\ble my ?\ghts ) a matt] s f> f me z dea?1 x 7 b folly4 ,( ^? r5[n$ 9 life ,i w lay a wag] ,i w f9d m t h di$ be=e !y came to five-&-?irty ye>s ?an aft]4 ,h[ _m means & ways has dea? to surprise u6 ,:o w\ld ev] h imag9$ t a ,duke ( ,brittany %\ld h become /ifl$ to dea? 9 a ?rong ( p1 z :ilom 0 a neighb\r ( m9e at ,lyons :5 ,pope ,clem5t made 8 entrance !re8 ,ha/ ?\ n se5 "o ( our late k+s sla9 9 ! mid/ ( 8 sports8 & "o ( 8 ance/ors die mis]ably by ! ?r[ ( a hog8 ,a,eschylus1 =e-?reat5$ by ! fall ( a h\se1 :5 he 0 mo/ on 8 gu>d1 0 /ruck dead by ! fall ( a tortoise-%ell f ! talons ( a fly+ eagle4 ,ano!r 0 *ok$ by a grape-pip4 ,an emp]or di$ f ! scrat* ( a comb1 ,a,emilius ,lepidus f hitt+ 8 foot aga9/ a door-sill1 ,anfidius f /umbl+ aga9/ ! door z he 0 ent]+ ! c\ncil *amb]4 ,caius ,julius1 a physician1 :ile ano9t+ a pati5t's eyes _h 8 own clos$ by dea?4 ,& if among ^! examples ,i may add "o ( a bro!r ( m9e1 ,capta9 ,/4 ,m>t91 play+ at t5nis1 receiv$ a bl[ ) a ball a little above ! "r e>1 & )\t any appe>ance ( bruise or hurt1 nev] sitt+ or re/+1 di$ )9 six h\rs aft]w>ds ( an apoplexy4 ,^! s frequ5t & ord9>y examples be+ ev] be=e our eyes1 :y %\ld x n cont9ually seem to u t dea? is ev] at h& ready to take u by ! ?roat8 ,:at matt] is x1 w y say unto me1 h[ & 9 :at mann] x is1 s long z a man d n tr\ble & vex himself !re)8 ,x suffice? me to live at my ease1 & ! be/ recreation ,i c h t d ,i ev] take4 ,x is unc]ta9 :]e dea? looks = u3 let u look = h] ev]y:]e4 ,! prem$itation ( dea? is a =e-?9k+ ( lib]ty4 ,he :o has le>n$ to die has unle>n$ to s]ve4 ,!re is no evil 9 life = him :o has well conceiv$ t ! privation ( life is no evil4 ,i am n[1 by ! m]cy ( ,god1 9 su* a tak+ t1 )\t regret or griev+ at any worldly matt]1 ,i am prep>$ to dislodge :5soev] ,he %all please to call me4 ,no man did ev] prep>e himself to quit ! _w m simply & fully4 ,! deade/ dea?s are ! be/4 99 99 99 99 99 ,7 ,i a compos] ( books ,i w\ld keep a regi/] ( div]s dea?s1 :i*1 9 tea*+ me to die1 %\ld aft]w>ds tea* !m to live4 ,my fa!r 9 8 h\sehold ord] _h ?is1 :i* ,i c comm5d1 ?\gh ,i 9 no way foll[4 ,besides ! day-book ( h\sehold affairs1 :]e9 are regi/]$ at lea/ exp5ses1 paym5ts1 gifts1 b>ga9s1 & sales t require n a not>y's h& to !m--( :i* book a receiv] _h ! keep+--he appo9t$ ano!r j\rnal-book to "o ( 8 s]vants1 :o 0 8 cl]k1 :]e9 he %\ld ord]ly set d[n all occur5ces wor?y ( ! not+1 & day by day regi/] ! memories ( ! hi/ory ( 8 h\se--a ?+ v pleasant to read :5 "t began to we> out ! remembrance ( !m1 & fit = u to pass ! "t )al1 & to resolve "s d\bts3 :5 su* & su* a "w 0 begun1 :5 end$2 :at way or c\rse 0 tak51 :at accid5ts happ5$1 h[ long x cont9u$2 all our voyages & j\rneys1 :]e1 & h[ long we 7 away f home2 our m>riages2 :o di$1 & :52 ! receiv+ ( good or bad tid+s2 :o came1 :o w5t2 *ang+ or remov+ ( h\sehold (fic]s1 tak+ ( new or dis*>g+ ( old s]vants1 & su* matt]s4 ,an anci5t cu/om1 & a s\nd "o1 :i* ,i w\ld h all m5 use & br+ into fa%ion aga94 ,,ii4--,9 ,my ,libr>y ,int]c\rse ) books com=ts me 9 age & solaces me 9 solit>9ess1 eases me ( we>9ess & rids me ( t$i\s company4 ,to div]t importunate ?\ghts !re is no bett] way ?an rec\rse to books4 ,& ?\gh !y p]ceive ,i on occasion =sake !m1 !y nev] mut9y or murmur1 b welcome me always ) ! self-same visage4 ,i nev] travel1 :e!r 9 peace or 9 w>1 )\t books4 ,x is wond]ful :at repose ,i f9d 9 ! k t !y are at my elb[ to delight me :5 "t %all s]ve4 ,9 ?is human p]egr9ation ?is is ! be/ munition ,i h f\nd4 ,at home ,i betake me some:at (t5] to my libr>y4 ,x is 9 ! *ief approa* to my h\se1 s t "u my eyes are my g>d51 my base-c\rt1 my y>d1 & ev5 ! be/ rooms ( my h\se4 ,!re1 )\t ord] or me?od1 ,i c turn ov] & ransack n[ "o book & n[ ano!r4 ,sometimes ,i muse1 sometimes save2 & walk+ up & d[n ,i indite & regi/] ^! my hum\rs1 ^! my conceits4 ,x is plac$ 9 a ?ird /orey ( a t[]4 ,! l[]mo/ is my *apel1 ! second a *amb]1 :]e ,i (t5 lie :5 ,i w\ld be alone4 ,above is a clo!s-room4 ,9 ?is libr>y1 =m]ly ! lea/ useful room 9 all my h\se1 ,i pass ! greate/ "p ( my life's days1 & mo/ h\rs ( ! day--,i am nev] !re ( nights4 ,next x is a h&some1 neat /udy1 l>ge en\gh to h a fire 9 w9t]1 & v pleasantly w9d[$4 ,if ,i fe>$ n tr\ble m ?an co/ ,i might easily jo9 a conv5i5t gall]y ( a hundr$ paces long & twelve broad on ea* side ( ?is room1 & ^u ! same floor1 ! walls be+ already ( a conv5i5t height4 ,ea* retir$ place require? a walk4 ,if ,i sit long my ?\ghts are prone to sleep4 ,my m9d goes n alone z if legs mov$ x4 ,^? :o /udy )\t books are all 9 ! same case4 ,my libr>y is circul> 9 %ape1 ) no flat side save t 9 :i* /& my table & *air4 ,?us ar\nd me at "o look x (f]s ! full sight ( all my books1 set r\nd ab\t ^u %elves1 five ranks1 "o above ano!r4 ,x has ?ree bay w9d[s1 ( a f>-ext5d+1 ri*1 & unob/ruct$ prospect4 ,! room is sixte5 paces across4 ,9 w9t] ,i am less con/antly !re1 = my h\se be+ on a hill1 no "p is m subject to all wea!rs ?an ?is4 ,b ?is pleases me only ! m1 bo? = ! b5efit ( ! ex]cise--:i* is a matt] to be tak5 into acc\nt--& because1 be+ remote & ( tr\blesome access1 x enables me ! bett] to seclude myself f company t w\ld encroa* ^u my "t4 ,!re is my seat1 t is my ?rone4 ,my rule !re9 ,i endeav\r to make absolute1 t ,i may seque/] t only corn] f all1 :e!r wife1 *ildr51 or acqua9tances4 ,= else:]e ,i h b a v]bal & qualifi$ au?ority1 & mis]able to my m9d is he :o 9 8 own home has n[h]e to be to himself4 ,,iii4--,( ,inequality ,plut>* some:]e says t he f9ds no su* great diff]5ce betwe5 bea/ & bea/ z betwe5 man & man4 ,he speaks ( ! m9d & int]nal qualities4 ,i c\ld f9d 9 my he>t to say !re is m diff]5ce betwe5 "o man & ano!r ?an betwe5 su* a man & su* a bea/2 & t !re are z _m degrees ( spirits z /eps betwe5 e>? & heav54 ,b conc]n+ ! e/imation ( m51 x is m>vell\s t we ourselves are ! only ?+s n e/eem$ = _! prop] qualities4 ,we comm5d a horse = 8 /r5g? & spe$1 n = 8 trapp+s2 a greyh\nd = 8 swiftness1 n 8 coll>2 a hawk = h] w+1 n = h] bells4 ,:y d we n likewise e/eem a man = t :i* is 8 own8 ,he has a goodly tra9 ( foll[]s1 a /ately palace1 s mu* r5t com+ 91 s mu* cr$it among m54 ,alas1 all t is ab\t him1 n 9 him4 ,if y buy a horse y see him b>e ( saddle & clo?s4 ,:5 y judge ( a man1 :y consid] 8 wrapp+s only8 ,9 a sword x is ! quality ( ! blade1 n ! value ( ! scabb>d1 to :i* y give he$4 ,a man %\ld be judg$ by :at he is himself1 n by 8 appurt5ances4 ,let him lay aside 8 ri*es & ext]nal hon\rs & %[ himself 9 8 %irt4 ,has he a s\nd body8 ,:at m9d has he8 ,is x fair1 capable1 & unpollut$1 & happily equipp$ 9 all its p>ts8 ,is x a m9d to be settl$1 equable1 cont5t$1 & c\rage\s 9 any circum/ances8 ,is he-- ,a wise man1 ( himself comm&] high1 ,:om want1 nor dea?1 nor b&s c t]rify1 ,resolv$ t'affront desires1 hon\rs to scorn1 ,all 9 himself1 close1 r\nd1 & neatly borne1 ,aga9/ ^: front ext]nals idly play1 ,& ev5 =tune makes a lame essay8 ,su* a man is five hundr$ degrees beyond k+doms & pr9cipalities2 himself is a k+dom unto himself4 ,comp>e ) him ! vulg> troop--/upid1 base1 s]vile1 w>r+1 float+ on ! sea ( passions1 dep5d+ :olly on o!rs4 ,!re is m diff]5ce ?an betwe5 heav5 & e>?1 yet 9 a bl9dness ( cu/om we take little or no acc\nt ( x4 ,:]eas1 if we consid] a cottage & a k+1 a noble & a workman1 a ri* man & a poor1 we at once recognise disp>ity1 al?\gh1 z "o might say1 !y diff] 9 no?+ b _! clo!s4 ,an emp]or1 ^: pomp s dazzles u 9 public1 view him beh9d ! curta9 is b an ord9>y man1 & p]adv5ture vil] & silli] ?an ! lea/ ( 8 subjects6 ,c[>dice1 irresolution1 ambition1 spite1 ang]1 envy1 move & "w 9 him z 9 ano!r man4 ,fe>1 c>e1 & suspicion haunt him ev5 9 ! mid/ ( 8 arm$ troops4 ,does ! ague1 ! heada*e1 or ! g\t sp>e him m ?an u8 ,:5 age seizes on 8 %\ld]s1 c ! tall yeoman ( 8 gu>d rid him ( x8 ,8 b$/ead encas$ ) gold & pe>ls _c allay ! p9*+ pangs ( colic6 ,! flatt]]s ( ,alex&] ! ,great assur$ him he 0 ! son ( ,jupit]1 b be+ hurt "o day1 & ! blood gu%+ f ! w\nd1 ,:at ?9k y ( ?is8 said he to !m4 ,is n ?is blood ( a lively r$ hue1 & m]ely human8 ,if a k+ h ! ague or ! g\t :at avail 8 titles ( maje/y8 ,b if he be a man ( wor?1 royalty & glori\s titles w add b little to good =tune4 ,truly1 to see our pr9ces all alone1 sitt+ at _! meat1 ?\gh beleagu]$ ) talk]s1 :isp]]s1 & gaz+ behold]s1 ,i h (t5 r piti$ ?an envi$ !m4 ,! hon\r we receive f ^? :o fe> & /& 9 awe ( u is no true hon\r4 ,s]vice holds few1 ?\gh _m hold s]vice4 ,e man's mann]s & 8 m9d ,8 =tune = him frame & f9d4 ,,iv4--,( ! ,use ( ,app>el ,i 0 devis+ 9 ?is *ill-cold season :e!r ! fa%ion ( ^! late-discov]$ nations to g nak$ be a cu/om =c$ by ! hot temp]ature ( ! air1 z we say ( ! ,indians & ,moors1 or :e!r x be an orig9al mann] ( mank9d4 ,my op9ion is1 t ev5 z all plants1 trees1 liv+ creatures1 are naturally furni%$ ) protection aga9/ all wea!rs1 ev5 s 7 we4 ,b l ^? :o by artificial light qu5* ! brightness ( day1 s we h spoilt our prop] cov]+ by :at we h borr[$4 ,nations "u ! same heav5 & climate z our own1 or ev5 cold]1 h no k ( clo!s4 ,moreov]1 ! t5d]e/ p>ts ( u are ev] b>e & nak$--our eyes1 face1 m\?1 nose1 e>s2 & our c\ntry swa9s1 l _! =efa!rs1 g b>e-brea/$ to _! middles4 ,_h we be5 born ne$+ petticoats & bree*es nature w\ld h arm$ t :i* %e has left to ! batt]y ( ! seasons ) "s ?ick] sk9 or hide1 z %e has our f+] ends & ! soles ( our feet4 ,h[ _m m5 9 ,turkey g nak$ = devotion's sake8 a c]ta9 man dem&$ ( "o ( our loit]+ rogues :om 9 ! dep? ( w9t] he saw w&]+ up & d[n ) no?+ b 8 %irt ab\t him1 yet z bli! & lu/y z ano!r t keeps himself muffl$ up to ! e>s 9 furs4 ,& h n y1 good sir1 answ]$ he1 y\r fate all b>e8 ,imag9e ,i am all face4 ,! ,italians say t :5 ! ,duke ( ,flor5ce ask$ 8 fool h[1 be+ s ill-clad1 he c\ld endure ! cold1 he repli$1 ,ma/]1 use b my receipt1 & put all ! clo!s y h on y1 z ,i d all m9e1 & y %all feel no m cold ?an ,i d4 ,k+ ,mass9issa1 7 x nev] s %>p wea!r1 always w5t b>ehead$4 ,s did ! ,emp]or ,sev]us4 ,9 ! battle ( ! ,egyptians & ,p]sians1 ,h]odotus notic$ t ( ^? sla9 ! ,egyptians _h skulls mu* h>d] ?an ! ,p]sians1 by reason t ^! g ev] ) _! heads cov]$ ) coifs & turbans1 :ile ^? are f infancy %av5 & b>ehead$4 ,k+ ,agesilaus wore 8 clo!s alike w9t] & summ]4 ,suetonius says ,caes> always m>*$ at ! head ( 8 troops1 & mo/ commonly b>ehead$ & on foot1 :e!r ! sun %one or :e!r x ra9$4 ,! l is report$ ( ,hannibal4 ,plato1 = ! bett] heal? & com=t ( ! body1 e>ne/ly p]suades t no man %\ld ev] give feet or head o!r cov] ?an nature _h allott$ !m4 ,we ,fr5*m5 are accu/om$ to array ourselves /rangely 9 p>ti-col\r$ suits 7n ,i1 = ,i seldom we> any b black & :ite1 l my fa!r7 to protect ourselves aga9/ ! cold1 b :at %\ld we d 9 cold l t ,capta9 ,m>tyn du ,bellay describes--fro/s s h>d t ! w9e _h to be *opp$ up ) axes & %>$ to ! soldi]s by weight8 ,v4--,( ,solit>9ess ,let u leave ap>t ! outworn comp>ison betwe5 a solit>y & an active life1 & ask ^? :o engage !mselves = ! public good :e!r :at !y seek 9 ^! public *>ges is n1 aft] all1 private commodity8 ,public or private1 z ,i suppose1 ! end is ! same1 to live bett] at ease4 ,b a man does n always seek ! be/ way to come at x1 & (t5 supposes himself to h quit c>es :5 he has b *ang$ !m4 ,!re is n mu* less vexation 9 ! gov]nm5t ( a private family ?an 9 manag+ a /ate4 ,:]esoev] ! m9d is buri$1 !re lies all4 ,& ?\gh dome/ic occupations may be less important1 !y are n less importunate4 ,moreov]1 ?\gh we h fre$ ourselves f c\rt or f m>ket1 we h /ill ! torm5ts ( ambition1 av>ice1 irresolution1 fe>1 & unsatisfi$ desires4 ,^! foll[ u ev5 into cloi/]s & s*ools ( philosophy4 ,:5 ,socrates 0 told t a c]ta9 man 0 none ! bett] = 8 travels1 ,i believe x well1 said he1 = he took himself ) him4 ,if a man d n fir/ get rid ( :at bur!ns 8 m9d1 mov+ f place to place w n help him4 ,x is n en\gh = a man to seque/] himself f p2 he mu/ seclude himself f himself4 ,we c>ry our fett]s ) u4 ,our evil is root$ 9 our m9d1 & ! m9d _c escape f itself4 ,!re=e mu/ x be r$uc$ & br\ght into itself1 & t is ! true solit>9ess1 :i* may be enjoy$ ev5 9 ! ?rong ( peopl$ cities or k+s' c\rts4 ,a man may1 if he c1 h wife1 *ildr51 goods1 heal?1 b n s tie himself to !m t 8 felicity dep5ds on !m4 ,we %\ld res]ve = ourselves "s place :]e we may1 z x 71 ho>d up our true lib]ty4 ,virtue is cont5t$ ) itself1 )\t discipl9e1 words1 or de$s4 ,%ake we (f ^! viol5t holdfa/s :i* engage u & e/range u f ourselves4 ,! greate/ ?+ is = a man to "k h[ to be 8 own4 ,i e/eem n ,arcesilaus1 ! philosoph]1 less re=m$ because ,i "k him to h us$ h\sehold ut5sils ( gold & silv]1 z ! condition ( 8 =tune p]mitt$4 ,& kn[+ :at sl5d] hold accessory com=ts h1 ,i omit n1 9 enjoy+ !m1 humbly to besee* ,god ( ,8 m]cy to make me cont5t ) myself & ! goods ,i h 9 myself4 ,! wis] sort ( m51 hav+ a /rong & vigor\s m9d1 may frame = !mselves an altoge!r spiritual life4 ,b m9e be+ common1 ,i mu/ help to uphold myself by corporal com=ts4 ,& age hav+ despoil$ me ( "s ( ^!1 ,i %>p5 my appetite = ^? rema9+4 ,glory1 :i* ,pl9y & ,cic]o propose to u1 is f> f my ?\ghts4 ,glory & re/ are ?+s t _c squat on ! same b5*4 ,/ay y\r m9d 9 assur$ & limit$ cogitations1 :]e9 x be/ may please itself1 & hav+ ga9$ k ( true felicities1 enjoy !m1 & re/ satisfi$ )\t wi%+ a fur!r cont9uance ei!r ( life or ( "n4 ,,vi4--,op9ion 9 ,good & ,evil ,m51 sai? an anci5t ,greek1 are torm5t$ by ! op9ion !y h ( ?+s1 & n by ?+s !mselves4 ,x 7 a great conque/ ( our mis]able human condition if any man c\ld e/abli% ev]y:]e ?is true proposition4 ,= if evils lie only 9 our judgm5t1 x is 9 our p[] to condemn !m or to turn !m to good4 ,9 dea?1 :at we pr9cipally fe> is pa92 z also pov]ty has no?+ to be fe>$ = b :at %e ca/s ^u u ?r\gh hung]1 ?ir/1 cold1 & o!r mis]ies4 ,i w will+ly grant t pa9 is ! wor/ accid5t ( our be+2 ,i hate & %un x z mu* z possible4 ,b x is 9 our p[]1 if n to annul1 at lea/ to dim9i% x1 ) pati5ce1 & ?\gh ! body %\ld be mov$1 yet to keep m9d & reason 9 good temp]4 ,if x 7 n s1 :at has br\ght virtue1 val\r1 magnanimity1 =titude1 into cr$it8 ,if a man is n to lie on ! h>d gr\nd1 to endure ! heat ( ! scor*+ sun1 to fe$ hungrily on a horse or an ass1 to see himself mangl$ & cut 9 pieces1 to h a bullet pluck$ out ( 8 bones1 to suff] incisions1 8 fle% to be /it*$ up1 caut]is$1 & se>*$--all incid5t to a m>tial man--h[ %all we pur*ase ! advantage & pre-em95ce we s gre$ily seek ov] ! vulg> sort8 ,moreov]1 ?is ought to com=t u1 t naturally1 if pa9 be viol5t x is also %ort2 if long1 x is easi]4 ,?\ %all n feel x ov]-long2 if ?\ feel x ov]-mu*1 x w ei!r end itself or end !e4 ,ev5 z an enemy becomes m furi\s :5 we fly f him1 s does pa9 gr[ pr\d] if we tremble "u x4 ,x w /oop & yield on bett] t]ms to him :o makes head aga9/ x4 ,9 recoil+ we draw on ! enemy4 ,z ! body is /eadi] & /rong] to a *>ge if x /& /iffly1 s is ! s\l4 ,weak-back$ m51 su* z ,i am1 feel a da% ( a b>b]'s razor m ?an t5 bl[s ) a sword 9 ! heat ( fight4 ,! pa9ful ?roes ( *ildbe>+1 deem$ by physicians & ! ^w ( ,god to be v great1 "s nations make no acc\nt (4 ,i omit to speak ( ! ,lac$aemonian wom52 come we to ! ,switz]s ( our infantry4 ,trudg+ & trott+ aft] _! husb&s1 to-day y see !m c>ry ! *ild ar\nd _! neck :i* b ye/]day !y br\ght into ! _w4 ,h[ _m examples h we n ( contempt ( pa9 & sm>t by t sex6 ,:at c !y n d1 :at w !y n d1 :at fe> !y to d1 s !y may b hope = "s am5dm5t ( _! beauty8 ,to become sl5d] 9 wai/1 & to h a /raight spagnolis$ body1 :at p9*+1 :at gird+1 :at c+l+ w !y n endure6 ,yea1 sometimes ) iron plates1 ) :alebones1 & o!r su* tra%y implem5ts1 t _! v sk9 & quick fle% is eat5 9 & consum$ to ! bones1 :]eby !y sometimes "w _! own dea?4 ,!re is a c]ta9 effem9ate & light op9ion1 & t no m 9 sorr[ ?an x is 9 pleasure1 :]eby we are s da9ty t5d] t we _c abide to be /ung ( a bee1 b mu/ ro> & cry out4 ,?is is ! total sum ( all1 t y be ma/] ( y\rself4 ,,plato ,! ,apology1 or ,def5ce ( ,socrates ,ari/ocles1 ! son ( ,ari/on1 ^: bir? "n is almo/ =gott5 because ! :ole _w kn[s him z ,plato1 0 born at ,a!ns ab\t ! ye> #dbg ,b4,c4 ,z he grew up he became a devot$ disciple ( ,socrates1 & :5 ! ,a!nian p _h put ! ma/] to dea?1 ! disciple gave up 8 life to exp\nd+ ! wisdom ( 8 tea*]4 ,h[ mu* ( t tea*+ 0 really implicitly conta9$ 9 ! doctr9es ( ,socrates1 x is difficult to say1 s9ce v def9ite developm5ts evid5tly took place 9 ,plato's own views4 ,plato himself liv$ to ! age ( eighty1 & di$1 z he _h = ! mo/ "p liv$1 at ,a!ns1 9 #cdg4 ,:5 ,socrates 0 indict$ = corrupt+ ! y\? ( ,a!ns & on o!r correspond+ *>ges1 ,plato 0 himself pres5t at ! trial4 ,we may believe t ! ,apology is sub/antially a reproduction ( ! actual def5ce made by ,socrates4 ,! judges 9 ! ,a!nian c\rt 7 practically ! assembl$ body ( free ,a!nian citiz5s4 ,:5 an adv]se v]dict 0 giv51 ! accus$ c\ld propose a p5alty z an alt]native to t :i* _h be5 nam$ by ! accus]1 & ! c\rt c\ld *oose betwe5 ! two p5alties4 ,socrates 0 f\nd guilty by a small majority ( votes1 & s5t5ce ( dea? 0 pass$1 z set =? 9 ! la/ section ( ! ,apology4 ,i4--,! ,(ficial ,indictm5t1 & ! ,real ,*>ges ,:at my accus]s h said1 ,a!nians1 has be5 mo/ speci\s1 b none ( x is true4 ,! falsehood :i* mo/ a/oni%$ me 0 t y mu/ bew>e ( be+ beguil$ by my consummate eloqu5ce2 = ,i am n eloqu5t at all1 unless speak+ pure tru? be eloqu5ce4 ,y w he> me speak ) adornm5ts & )\t prem$itation 9 my ev]yday language1 :i* _m ( y h he>d4 ,i am sev5ty ye>s old1 yet ?is is my fir/ appe>ance 9 ! c\rts1 & ,i h no exp]i5ce ( =5sic arts4 ,all ,i ask is t y w take he$ :e!r :at ,i say be j4 ,x is j t ,i %\ld beg9 by def5d+ myself aga9/ my accus]s f ( old1 9 priority to ,anytus & ^! o!r latt]-day accus]s4 ,=1 skilful z ^! are1 ,i fe> ^? m--^? :o f y\r y\? h be5 untru?fully w>n+ y aga9/ "o ,socrates1 a wise man1 :o speculates ab\t ev]y?+ 9 heav5 & "u ! e>?1 & tries to make ! worse cause ! bett]4 ,_! *>ge is ! crafti]1 because y ?9k t a man :o does z !y say has no ?\ght = ! gods4 ,i _c "n ^! g5tlem5 precisely1 beyond indicat+ t "o is a writ] ( com$ies2 ,i _c meet & refute !m individually4 ,h[ev]1 ,i mu/ try to ent] a brief def5ce4 ,i ?9k ,i "k :]e my difficulty w lie2 b ! issue w be z ! gods *oose4 ,n[1 :at is ! basis ( ?is *>ge1 on :i* ,meletus also relies8 ,socrates is an evil do]1 a busybody1 :o pries into ?+s 9 heav5 & "u ! e>?1 & tea*es ^! same ?+s to o!rs4 ,y all saw ! ,socrates 9 ! com$y ( ,ari/ophanes engag$ 9 ^! pursuits4 ,i h no?+ to say aga9/ su* inquiries2 b d n let ,meletus *>ge me ) !m1 = ,i h no "p nor lot 9 !m4 ,_m ( y h he>d me talk1 b nev] "o on ^! subjects4 ,witness y y\rselves4 ,f ?is y %\ld be able to gauge ! o!r ?+s t are said aga9/ me4 ,equally untrue is ! *>ge t ,i make a paid bus9ess ( tea*+ my neighb\rs4 ,x is a f9e ?+ to be able to imp>t k1 l ,gorgias1 & ,prodicus1 & ,hippias1 :o c g f city to city & draw to conv]se ) !m "y m5 :o pay = ! privilege in/ead ( enjoy+ _! companions' society = no?+4 ,i am told !re is "o ,ev5us1 a ,p>ian1 practis+ n[1 ^: fee is five m9as4 ,x mu/ be delightful to possess su* valuable k & to imp>t x--if !y d possess x4 ,i %\ld l to d x myself1 b ,i d n possess ! k4 ,:5ce1 !n1 comes ! tr\ble1 ,socrates8 y w say2 if y h be5 do+ no?+ unusual1 h[ h ^! rum\rs & sl&]s aris58 ,i w tell y :at ,i take to be ! explanation4 ,x is due to a c]ta9 wisdom ) :i* ,i seem to be end[$--n sup]human at all l t ( ^! g5tlem54 ,i speak n arrogantly1 b on ! evid5ce ( ! ,oracle ( ,delphi1 :o told ,*a]ephon1 a man kn[n to y1 t !re 0 no wis] man ?an ,socrates4 ,n[1 ,i am n consci\s ( possess+ wisdom2 b ! ,god _c lie4 ,:at did he mean8 ,well1 ,i tri$ to f9d out1 by go+ to a man reput$ wise1 ?9k+ to prove t !re 7 wis] m54 ,b ,i f\nd him n wise at all1 ?\gh he fanci$ himself s4 ,i s\ght to %[ him ?is1 b he 0 only v mu* annoy$4 ,i conclud$ t1 aft] all1 ,i 0 wis] ?an he 9 "o p>ticul>1 because ,i 0 "u no delusion t ,i possess$ k1 z he 04 ,i tri$ all ! m5 reput$ wise1 "o aft] ! o!r1 & made myself v unpopul>1 = ! result 0 always ! same4 ,x 0 ! same ) ! poets z ) ! politicians1 & ) ! craftsm5 z ) ! poets4 ,! la/ did "k some?+ ab\t _! own p>ticul> art1 & !re=e imag9$ t !y knew all ab\t ev]y?+4 ,i w5t on1 tak+ e opportunity ( f9d+ out :e!r p reput$ wise1 & ?9k+ !mselves s1 7 wise 9 reality1 & po9t+ out t !y 7 n4 ,& because ( my expos+ ! ignorance ( o!rs1 ,i h got ?is gr\ndless reputation ( hav+ k myself1 & h be5 made ! object ( _m o!r calumnies4 ,& "y g5tlem5 ( position :o h he>d me foll[ my example1 & annoy p by expos+ _! ignorance2 & ?is is all visit$ on me2 & ,i am call$ an ill-condition$ p]son :o corrupts y\?4 ,to prove :i* my calumniators h to fall back on *>g+ me ) pry+ into all ?+s 9 heav5 & "u ! e>?1 & ! re/ ( x4 ,,ii4--,! ,cross-,exam9+ ( ,meletus ,su* is my answ] to ! *>ges :i* h be5 p\r$ into y\r e>s = a long "t4 ,n[ let me def5d myself aga9/ ^! lat] accusations ( ,meletus & ! re/--! virtu\s patriot ,meletus4 ,i am an evil-do]1 a corrupt] ( y\?1 :o pays no rev]5ce to ! gods :o ! city rev]es1 b to /range daemons4 ,n ,i1 b ,meletus is ! evil-do]1 :o ra%ly makes accusations s frivol\s1 pret5d+ mu* conc]n = matt]s ab\t :i* he has nev] tr\bl$ himself4 ,answ] me1 ,meletus4 ,y ?9k x ( ! utmo/ importance t our y\? %\ld be made z excell5t z possible4 ,,meletus3 ,c]ta9ly4 ,,socrates3 ,tell u1 !n1 :o is x t makes !m bett]2 = ( c\rse1 y "k4 ,y are sil5t4 ,! laws1 y say8 ,! "q 01 ,:o8 ,,meletus3 ,! judges2 all ! judges4 ,,socrates3 ,9 o!r words1 all ! ,a!nian p--ev]yone b me8 ,& ,i alone corrupt !m8 ,truly1 ,i am 9 an ill plight6 ,b 9 ! case ( all o!r animals1 horses1 = in/ance1 !re are only a few p :o are able to improve !m4 ,y\r answ] %[s t y h nev] be/[$ att5tion on ! c>e ( "y p4 ,next1 tell me is x bett] = a man to dwell among good citiz5s or bad8 ,! good1 s9ce ! bad w injure him4 ,i _c1 !n1 set ab\t mak+ bad citiz5s design$ly4 ,my fri5d1 no man design$ly br+s injury ^u himself4 ,if ,i corrupt !m1 x mu/ be undesign$ly--reason good = admoni%+ & in/ruct+ me1 :i* y h n done2 b n = br++ me into c\rt1 :i* y h done6 ,h[ev]1 ,i corrupt !m by tea*+ !m n to believe 9 ! gods 9 :om ! city believes1 b 9 /range deities8 ,d ,i tea* t !re are "s gods1 or t !re are no gods at all8 ,,meletus3 ,i say t y believe 9 no gods4 ,y say ! sun is a /one1 & ! moon e>?4 ,,socrates3 ,mo/ excell5t ,meletus1 ev]yone kn[s t ,anaxagoras says s2 y c buy t in=mation = a dra*ma6 ,d ,i really appe> to y to rev]e no gods8 ,,meletus3 ,no1 no gods at all4 ,,socrates3 ,n[1 t is incr$ible6 ,y mu/ h manufactur$ ?is riddle out ( %e] wantonness1 = 9 ! indictm5t y *>ge me ) rev]5c+ gods6 ,c anyone believe t !re are human affairs1 or equ9e affairs1 or in/rum5tal affairs )\t believ+ t !re are m51 or horses1 or in/rum5ts8 ,y say expressly t ,i believe 9 daemonic affairs1 !re=e 9 daemons2 b daemons are a sort ( gods or ! (fspr+ ( gods4 ,!re=e1 y _c possibly believe t ,i d n believe 9 gods4 ,really1 ,i h suffici5tly answ]$ ! indictm5t4 ,if ,i am condemn$1 x w n be on ! indictm5t ( ,meletus1 b on popul> calumnies2 :i* h condemn$ good m5 be=e me1 & assur$ly ,i %all n be ! la/4 ,,iii4--,! ,def5ce ,x may be sugge/$ t ,i ought to be a%am$ ( practices :i* h br\ght y 9 dang] ( dea?4 ,risk ( dea? is n to be tak5 into acc\nt 9 any action :i* really matt]s at all4 ,if x ought to be1 ! h]oes be=e ,troy 7 bad *>act]s6 ,e man %\ld /& to 8 po/1 come life1 come dea?4 ,%\ld ,i h /ood to my po/ & fac$ dea? :5 on s]vice at ,potidaca1 b h fail$ ?r\gh fe> ( dea? :5 ! deity impos$ on me a c]ta9 c\rse ( action8 ,:e!r to die be evil or good1 ,i "k n1 ?\gh _m ?9k !y "k x to be evil4 ,b to disobey au?ority1 human or div9e1 ,i "k to be evil2 & ,i w n d :at ,i "k to be evil to avoid :at may 9 fact be a good4 ,insomu* t if y n[ (f] to set me free on condition t ,i %\ld cease f ^! pursuits on pa9 ( dea?1 ,i %\ld reply3 ,m5 ( ,a!ns1 ,i love & hon\r y1 b ,i w obey ! god r ?an y2 & :ile ,i brea! & h ! p[] ,i w n cease f ! pursuit ( philosophy1 or f exhort+ & w>n+ y z ,i h done hi!rto1 aga9/ c>+ mu* = ri*es & no?+ = ! p]fect+ ( y\r s\ls4 ,?is is ! bidd+ ( ! god4 ,if to speak ?us be to corrupt y\?1 !n ,i corrupt y\?4 ,b he :o says ,i speak o!r ?+s ?an ?is talks vanity2 & ?is ,i w d1 ?\gh ! p5alty 7 _m dea?s4 ,d n murmur1 b li/51 = y w pr(it4 ,if y put me to dea?1 y w h>m y\rselves m ?an me1 = x is worse to d wrong ?an to suff] x4 ,y w n easily f9d ano!r to s]ve z ! gadfly :i* r\ses a noble horse--z ,i h done1 be+ commission$ !reto by ! god4 ,= t ,i h made no pr(it = myself f ?is c\rse1 my pov]ty proves4 ,if x seems absurd t ,i %\ld m$dle ?us ) ea* man privately1 b take no "p 9 public affairs1 t is because ( ! div9e or daemonic influ5ce ( :i* ,i h spok51 nam$ also 9 mock]y by ,meletus 9 ! indictm5t4 ,?is is a voice :i* *ecks b nev] urges me on4 ,inde$1 _h ,i m$dl$ ) politics1 ,i %\ld h be5 dead long ago4 ,t ,i w prove by facts4 ,:5 y *ose to condemn ! t5 g5]als1 my phyle suppli$ ! ,prytanes1 & ,i alone /ood out aga9/ y4 ,& 9 ! "t ( ! ?irty1 ,i 0 ord]$ ) f\r o!rs to br+ ,leon f ,salamis to be execut$1 & ,i alone w\ld n2 & x may be t my own life 0 sav$ only because t gov]nm5t 0 brok5 up4 ,judge1 !n1 if my life w\ld n h be5 %ort]1 _h ,i tak5 "p 9 public life4 ,b ,i h nev] pos$ z an in/ructor or tak5 money = giv+ in/ruction4 ,anyone :o *ooses c "q me & he> :at ,i h to say4 ,p take pleasure 9 my society1 because !y l to he> ^? expos$ :o deem !mselves wise b are n4 ,?is duty ! god has laid on me by oracles & dreams & e mode ( div9e au?ority4 ,if ,i am corrupt+ or h corrupt$ y\?1 :y d none ( !m be> witness aga9/ me1 or _! fa!rs or bro!rs or o!r k9sm58 ,_m ,i see ar\nd me :o %\ld d s if ?is *>ge 7 true2 yet all are ready to assi/ me4 ,?is1 & ! l1 is :at ,i h to say 9 my def5ce4 ,p]haps "s ( y1 ?9k+ h[1 9 a l case ) m9e b less exig5t1 he has s\ght ! compassion ( ! c\rt ) te>s & plead+s ( 8 *ildr5 & k9sfolk1 w be indignant t ,i d none ( ^! ?+s1 ?\gh ,i h ?ree boys ( my own4 ,t is n out ( disrespect to y1 b because ,i ?9k x w\ld be unbeseem+ to me4 ,su* displays1 z ?\gh dea? 7 some?+ altoge!r t]rify+1 are to me a/oni%+ & degrad+ to our city 9 ! sight ( /rang]s1 = p]sons reput$ to excel 9 any?+1 z 9 "s respects ,i am held to excel ! g5]ality4 ,b ap>t f cr$it1 ,i c\nt t we ought to in=m & conv9ce our judges1 n seek to sway !m by entreaties2 t !y may judge rightly accord+ to ! laws1 & n by favor4 ,= y are sworn4 ,& h[ %\ld ,i p]suade y to break y\r oa?1 :o am *>g$ by ,meletus ) impiety4 ,= by s do+1 ,i %\ld be p]suad+ y to disbelief 9 ! gods1 & mak+ t v *>ge aga9/ myself4 ,to y & to ! god ,i leave x1 t ,i may be judg$ z %all be be/ = y & = me4 ,,iv4--,aft] ! ,v]dict ,y\r condemnation does n grieve me = v>i\s reasons1 "o ( :i* is t ,i fully expect$ x4 ,:at surprises me is ! small majority by :i* x 0 c>ri$4 ,evid5tly ,meletus1 if left to himself1 w\ld h fail$ to w9 ! few votes ne$$ to save him f ! f9e4 ,well1 ! s5t5ce he fixes is dea?1 & ,i h to propose an alt]native--presumably1 ! s5t5ce ,i des]ve4 ,i h neglect$ all ! ord9>y pursuits & ambitions ( m5--:i* w\ld h be5 no good ei!r to me or to y--t ,i might b5efit ea* man privately1 by p]suad+ him to give att5tion to himself fir/--h[ to atta9 8 own be/ & wise/--& 8 m]e affairs aft]w>ds1 & ! city 9 l mann]4 ,! prop] rew>d is t ,i %\ld be ma9ta9$ 9 ! ,prytaneum z a public b5efactor4 ,y may ?9k ?is m]ely a piece ( insol5ce1 b x is n s4 ,i am n consci\s ( hav+ wrong$ any man4 ,"t does n p]mit me to prove my case1 & ,i w n admit guilt by own+ t ,i des]ve puni%m5t by a f9e4 ,:at h ,i to fe>8 ,! p5alty fix$ by ,meletus1 z to :i* ,i d n "k :e!r x is good or bad8 ,%all ,i1 to escape ?is1 *oose some?+ :i* is c]ta9ly bad8 ,imprisonm5t1 to be ! slave ( ! ,elev58 ,a f9e1 to be a prison] till ,i pay x8--:i* comes to ! same ?+1 z ,i _c pay4 ,exile8 ,if my fell[-citiz5s _c put up ) me1 h[ c ,i expect /rang]s to d s8 ,! "y m5 w come to li/5 to me4 ,if ,i repulse !m1 !y w drive me out2 & if ,i d n _! eld]s w drive me out1 & ,i %all live w&]+ f city to city4 ,:y _c ,i g & hold my tongue1 y may ask4 ,t is ! "o ?+ :i* ,i _c d4 ,t w\ld be to disobey ! god1 & ! life w\ld n be wor? liv+1 ?\gh y d n believe me4 ,i might und]take to pay a m9a4 ,h[ev]1 z ,plato & ,crito & ,apollodorus urge me to "n ?irty m9ae1 = :i* !y w be security1 ,i propose ?irty m9ae4 99 99 99 99 99 ,y\r enemies w reproa* y1 ,a!nians1 = hav+ put to dea? t wise man ,socrates4 ,yet y w\ld h _h b a %ort "t to wait1 = ,i am old4 ,i speak to ^? ( y :o h condemn$ me4 ,i am condemn$1 n = lack ( argum5t1 b because ,i h n *os5 to plead aft] ! me?ods t w\ld h be5 pleasant & flatt]+ to y1 b degrad+ to me4 ,!re are ?+s we may n d to escape dea?1 = bas5ess is worse ?an dea?1 & swift]4 ,dea? has ov]tak5 me1 :o am old1 b bas5ess my accus]s1 :o are /rong4 ,tru? condemns !m1 z y h condemn$ me1 & ea* ( u abides s5t5ce1 ,& = y :o h condemn$ me !re w be a p5alty swift & sure1 & s ,i take my leave ( y4 ,b to y1 my true judges1 :o vot$ = my acquittal1 ,i w\ld speak :ile yet we may4 ,i h to tell y t my w>n+ daemon has 9 no way )/ood ! c\rse ,i h tak51 & ! reason1 assur$ly1 is t ,i h done :at is be/1 ga9+ bless+1 dea? be+ no evil at all4 ,= dea? is ei!r only to cease f s5sations altoge!r z 9 a dreamless sleep1 & t is no loss2 or else x is a pass+ to ano!r place :]e all ! dead are--! h]oes1 ! poets1 ! wise m5 ( old4 ,h[ priceless 7 x to hold conv]se ) !m & "q !m6 ,& surely ! judges !re pass no dea?-s5t5ces6 ,b be y hopeful ) reg>d to dea?1 = to ! good man1 nei!r 9 life nor 9 dea? is !re any?+ t c h>m him4 ,& = me1 ,i am confid5t t x is bett] to die ?an to live4 ,!re=e ! daemon did n *eck me1 & ,i h no res5tm5t aga9/ ^? :o h caus$ my dea?4 ,& n[ we g1 ,i to dea? & y to life2 b :i* ( u to ! bett] /ate1 ,god kn[e? alone4 ,! ,republic ,! wond]ful s]ies ( dialogues 9 :i* ,socrates takes ! lead+ "p are at once ! f\ndation & ! cr[n ( all ideali/ic philosophy1 & z lit]>y ma/]pieces rema9 unmat*$4 ,c]ta9 ( ,plato's disciples w\ld claim t 8 highe/ a*ievem5t is ,! ,timaeus2 !re are "s :o set _! affections on ,! ,pha$o2 b a g5]al vote ( all ,platoni/s w\ld probably give ! fir/ position to ,! ,republic1 & ?is is und\bt$ly ! "w :i* has _h ! wide/ g5]al influ5ce4 ,9 ,! ,republic itself ,socrates is1 pr(ess$ly engag$ 9 a disputation1 ( :i* ! object is to discov] :at ,ju/ice means2 & ?is leads to ! description ( ! build+ up ( t ideal /ate or commonweal? f :i* ! dialogue d]ives its title ( ,! ,republic4 ,i4--,h[ ! ,argum5t ,arose ,i _h gone ) ,glaucon to att5d ! celebration ( ! fe/ival ( ,b5dis--! ,?racian ,artemis--a picturesque affair1 & we 7 j leav+1 :5 ,polem>*us insi/$ on c>ry+ u (f by ma9 =ce to ! h\se ( 8 fa!r1 ,cephalus4 ,!re we f\nd a small company assembl$4 ,! old g5tleman receiv$ u ) he>ty g5iality2 he is age+1 b w\ld n see any h>d%ip 9 t1 if y take age good-hum\r$ly4 ,( c\rse1 he own$ t be+ weal?y makes a diff]5ce1 b n all ! diff]5ce4 ,! be/ ( weal? is t y ne$ n d ?+s :i* ang] ! gods & entail puni%m5t 9 ! h]eaft]2 y ne$ n lie1 or be 9 debt to gods or m54 ,& ?is consci\sness ( y\r own ju/ice is a great consolation4 ,b1 said ,i1 :at is ju/ice8 ,is x always to speak ! tru?1 & always to let a man h 8 prop]ty8 ,!re are circum/ances---- ,i mu/ g1 said he4 ,polem>*us %all d ! argu+4 ,?is set u discuss+ ! nature ( ju/ice4 ,glaucon took up ! cudgels1 aft] a prelim9>y skirmi% ) ,?rasyma*us4 ,assum+ ju/ice to be desirable--is x s = itself & by itself1 or only = its results2 or bo?8 ,! _w at l>ge puts x 9 ! second category z an inconv5i5t necessity4 ,to suff] inju/ice is an evil1 & to protect !mselves f t ! weak comb9e to prev5t inju/ice f be+ done4 ,b if anyone _h ! r+ ( ,gyges1 :i* made him invisible1 s t he c\ld g 8 own way )\t let or h9drance1 he w\ld get all ! pleasures he c\ld out ( life )\t tr\bl+ ab\t ! ju/ice ( x4 ,aga91 imag9e on ! "o h& y\r really consummate rogue :o gets cr$it = all ! virtues & is surr\nd$ by all ! mat]ial factors ( happ9ess2 &1 on ! o!r h&1 a man ( utt] rectitude1 on :om circum/ances comb9e to fix ! /igma ( iniquity4 ,he w be reject$1 sc\rg$1 crucifi$2 :ile ! o!r is enjoy+ weal?1 hon\r1 ev]y?+1 & c af=d to make 8 peace ) ! gods into ! b>ga94 ,!n ,adeimantus took ! field 9 support ( 8 bro!r4 ,! poets1 he said1 hold =? ab\t ! rew>ds ( virtue "h & h]eaft]4 ,b we see ! unrighte\s prosp]+ mightily2 & ! religi\s m5dicants come to ri* folks & (f] to sell !m indulg5ces on easy t]ms4 ,a ke5-witt$ lad is b\nd to argue t x is only ! appe>ance ( ju/ice t is ne$$ = prosp]ity2 :ile ! gods c be reconcil$ *eaply4 ,?is dwell+ on ! temporal rew>ds ( ju/ice is fatal4 ,:at we expect ( y is to %[ u ! inh]5t value ( ju/ice--ju/ice itself1 n ! appe>ance ( x4 ,well argu$1 said ,i1 especially z y reject y\r own conclusion4 ,i c b try1 ?\gh ! task be h>d4 ,b my weak sight may enable me to read l>ge *>act]s bett] ?an small4 ,ju/ice is ! virtue ( ! /ate z well z ( ! individual2 f9d+ x 9 ! /ate1 ! great]1 may help u to f9d x 9 ! individual1 ! less4 ,,ii4--,! ,socratic ,utopia ,society arises because diff]5t p are ! bett] skill$ to supply diff]5t wants1 & ! wants ( ea* are suppli$ by mutual arrangem5t & division ( lab\r4 ,wants multiply2 ! community gr[s2 x ex*anges its own =eign products2 m]*ants & m>kets are add$ to ! produc]s2 & :5 folk beg9 to hire s]vants y h a complete city or /ate liv+ a life ( simplicity4 ,a city ( pigs1 said ,glaucon1 ) no ref9em5ts4 ,we w g on & develop e luxury ( civilisation4 ,b !n our city & its neighb\rs w be want+ ea* o!r's l&s4 ,we mu/ h soldi]s4 ,our be/ gu>dians w be a select b&1 ^? :o are ( ! "r temp] & ?or\ghly tra9$2 fi]ce to foes b g5tle to fri5ds1 l t true philosoph]1 ! dog1 to :om k is ! te/4 ,! kn[n are fri5ds1 ! unkn[n foes--k begets g5tl5ess4 ,s our gu>dians mu/ be tra9$ to k2 we mu/ educate !m4 ,music & gymna/ic1 our national intellectual & physical tra9+1 mu/ be taught4 ,lit]ature comes fir/1 & really we tea* ?+s t are n true be=e we tea* ?+s t are true--fables be=e facts4 ,b ov] ^! we mu/ ex]cise a rigid c5sor%ip1 exclud+ :at is ess5tially false4 ,we mu/ h no /ories :i* attribute h>mful do+s to ! gods4 ,god mu/ be repres5t$ z ,he is--! au?or ( good always1 ( evil nev]2 also z hav+ 9 him no v>iabl5ess1 nei!r %ad[ ( turn+4 ,god has no ne$ ( disguises4 ,! lie 9 ! s\l--ess5tial falsehood--is to ,him abhorr5t1 & ,he has no ne$ ( su* deceptions z may be innoc5t or ev5 laudable = m54 ,god mu/ be %[n always z utt]ly true4 ,simil>ly1 we mu/ n h /ories :i* inspire dread ( dea?2 no ,a*illes say+ 9 ! "u-_w t x 7 bett] to be a slave 9 ! fle% ?an ,"l ( ! ,%ades4 ,& aga91 no h]oes--& gods /ill less--giv+ way to frantic lam5tations & uncontroll$ emotions1 ev5 uncontroll$ laught]4 ,tru? mu/ be inculcat$2 m$ic9al untru?s1 s to speak1 are ! pr]ogative ( our rul]s alone1 & mu/ be p]mitt$ to no "o else4 ,temp]ance1 :i* means self-control & ob$i5ce to au?ority1 is ess5tial1 & is n always *>act]i/ic ( ,hom]'s gods & h]oes6 ,we mu/ exclude a long li/ ( mo/ un$ify+ passages on ?is score4 ,z = pictures ( ! afflictions ( ! righte\s & ! prosp]ity ( ! unju/1 we mu/ wait1 z we h n yet def9$ ju/ice4 ,we turn to ! poetical =ms 9 :i* ! /ories %\ld be embodi$4 ,! possible =ms are ! simply descriptive1 ! imitative1 & ! mixture ( ! two3 n>rative drama1 & n>rative mix$ ) dialogue4 ,our gu>dians ought to es*ew imitation altoge!r1 or at lea/ to imitate only ! good & noble4 ,! act ( imitat+ an evil "* is demoralis+1 j z no self-respect+ p]son w imitate ! l[] animals1 & s on4 ,imitation mu/ be re/rict$ )9 ! n>r[e/ practicable limits4 ,b :o are to be our actual rul]s8 ,! be/ ( ! eld]s1 ^: firmness & consi/5cy h /ood ! te/ ( temptation4 ,to !m we transf] ! title ( gu>dians1 call+ ! y\ng] m5 auxili>ies4 ,& we mu/ try to induce ev]yone--gu>dians1 soldi]s1 citiz5s--to believe 9 "o q magnific5t lie3 t !y 7 l ! m5 9 ! ,cadmus my?1 fa%ion$ 9 ! gr\nd1 _! common "m4 ,i don't wond] at y\r blu%+1 said ,glaucon4 ,t !y are bro!rs & si/]s1 b ( diff]5t metals--gold1 silv]1 brass1 iron2 n necess>ily ( ! same metal z _! p>5ts 9 ! fle%2 & mu/ take rank accord+ to ! metal :]e( !y are made4 ,no d\bt x w take a g5]ation or two to get !m to believe x4 ,& n[ our soldi]s mu/ pit* _! camp = ! def5ce ( ! city4 ,soldi]+ is _! bus9ess1 n money-mak+4 ,!y mu/ live 9 common1 support$ effici5tly by ! /ate1 hav+ no private prop]ty4 ,! gold & silv] 9 _! s\ls is ( ,god4 ,= !m1 ?\gh n = ! o!r citiz5s1 ! e>?ly dross call$ gold is ! accurs$ ?+4 ,once let !m possess x1 & !y w cease to be gu>dians1 & become oppressors & tyrants4 ,,iii4--,( ,ju/ice & ,communism ,b n[ we h to look = ju/ice4 ,f9d ! o!r ?ree c>d9al virtues fir/1 & !n ju/ice w be di/+ui%able4 ,wisdom is 9 ! gu>dians2 if !y be wise1 ! :ole /ate w be wise4 ,c\rage we f9d 9 ! soldi]s2 c\rage is ! true e/imate ( dang]1 & t has be5 +ra9$ 9 !m by _! education4 ,temp]ance1 call$ ma/]y ( self1 is really ! ma/]y ( ! bett] ov] ! bas] qualities2 z 9 our /ate ! bett] class controls ! inf]ior4 ,temp]ance w\ld seem to lie 9 ! h>moni\s int]-relation ( ! diff]5t classes4 ,obvi\sly1 ! rema9+ virtue ( ! /ate is ! con/ant p]=mance ( 8 own p>ticul> function 9 ! /ate1 & n 8 neighb\r's1 by ea* memb] ( ! /ate4 ,let u see h[ t works out 9 ! individual4 ,%all we n f9d t !re are ?ree sev]al qualities 9 ! individual1 ea* ( :i* mu/ 9 l mann] d its own bus9ess1 ! intellectual1 ! passionate or spirit$1 & ! lu/ful8 ,!y mu/ be sep>ate1 because "o "p ( a ?+ _c be do+ contradictory ?+s at ! same "t2 y\r lu/s bid y d :at y\r intellig5ce =bids2 & ! emotional quality is di/9ct f bo? desire & reason1 ?\gh 9 alliance ) reason4 ,well1 "h y h wisdom & c\rage 9 ! intellectual & spiritual p>ts1 temp]ance 9 _! ma/]y ov] desire2 & ju/ice is ! virtue ( ! s\l z a :ole2 ( ea* "p nev] fail+ to p]=m its own function & t alone4 ,to ask1 n[1 :e!r ju/ice or inju/ice is ! m pr(itable becomes ridicul\s4 ,n[ we %all f9d t virtue is "o1 b t vice has sev]al =ms2 z !re is b "o =m ( p]fect /ate--ours--:e!r x happ5s to be call$ a mon>*y if !re be b "o gu>dian1 or an ari/ocracy if !re be m2 &1 z x has f\r pr9cipal imp]fect =ms1 s !re are f\r ma9 vices4 ,"h ,glaucon & ,adeimantus refus$ to let me g on2 ,i _h %irk$ a s]i\s difficulty4 ,:at ab\t wom5 & *ildr58 ,my say+ t ! soldi]s 7 to live 9 common might mean any?+4 ,:at k9d ( communism 0 ,i dem&+8 ,well1 !re are two diff]5t que/ions3 ,:at is desirable8 ,&1 ,:at is possible8 ,fir/1 !n1 our def5d]s are our wat*-dogs4 ,glaucon kn[s all ab\t dogs2 we don't diff]5tiate 9 ! case ( males & females2 ! latt] hunt ) ! pack4 ,if wom5 are simil>ly to h ! same employm5ts z m51 !y mu/ h ! same education 9 music & gymna/ic4 ,we mu/ n m9d ribald comm5ts4 ,b %\ld !y %>e mascul9e employm5ts8 ,d !y diff] f m5 9 su* a way t !y %\ld n8 ,wom5 be> *ildr51 & m5 beget !m2 b ap>t f t ! diff]5ces are really only 9 degrees ( capacity1 n ess5tial di/9ctions ( quality2 ev5 z m5 diff] among !mselves4 ,! natures be+ ! same1 ! education mu/ be ! same1 & ! same c>e]s mu/ be op54 ,b a second & m al>m+ wave ?reat5s u3 ,community ( wives & *ildr54 ,y mu/ prove bo? ! possibility & desirability ( t4 ,m5 & wom5 mu/ be tra9$ toge!r & live toge!r1 b n 9 lic5ti\sness4 ,!y mu/ be mat$ ) ! utmo/ c>e = procreation1 ! be/ be+ pair$ at due seasons1 nom9ally by lot1 & = ! occasion4 ,! (fspr+ ( ! select$ w h a common nurs]y2 ! mo!rs w n "k :i* 7 _! own *ildr54 ,p>5tage w be p]missible only betwe5 tw5ty-five & fifty-five1 & betwe5 tw5ty & =ty4 ,! *ildr5 begott5 9 ! same bat* ( esp\sals w be bro!rs & si/]s4 ,! abs5ce ( m9e & ?9e w ensure unity1 because x aboli%es ! prim>y cause ( discord2 common ma9t5ance by ! /ate removes all temptation ei!r to meanness or cr++4 ,our gu>dians w be uncommonly happy4 ,z to practicability3 communism is suitable = w>4 ,! y\ng/]s w be tak5 to wat* any fight+2 c[>ds w be degrad$2 val\r w be hon\r$1 & dea? on ! field1 ) o!r supreme s]vices to ! /ate1 w rank ! h]o among demigods4 ,aga9/ ,greeks w> mu/ be conduct$ z aga9/ our own ki? & k94 ,b z to ! possibility ( all ?is--?is ?ird ?reat5+ wave is ! mo/ t]rific ( all4 ,,iv4--,( ,philosophy 9 ,rul]s ,x w be possible !n1 & only !n1 :5 k+s are philosoph]s or philosoph]s k+s4 ,y w be mobb$ & pelt$ = su* a proposition4 ,/ill1 x is ! fact4 ,! philosoph] desires all k4 ,y "k t ju/ice1 beauty1 good1 & s on1 are s+le1 ?\gh _! pres5tation is multiplex & v>iable4 ,curiosity ab\t ! multiplex p>ticul>s is n desire ( k1 :i* is ( ! "o con/ant idea--( t :i* is1 z ignorance is ( t :i* is n4 ,:at nei!r is nor is n1 t :i* fluctuates & *anges1 is ! subject matt] ( op9ion1 a /ate betwe5 k & ignorance4 ,beauty is beauty always & ev]y:]e2 ! ?+s t look beautiful may be ugly f ano!r po9t ( view4 ,exp]i5ce ( beautiful ?+s1 curiosity ab\t !m1 mu/ be di/+ui%$ f k ( beauty2 ! philosoph] is n to be conf\nd$ ) ! connoisseur1 n k ) op9ion4 ,! philosoph] is he :o has 9 8 m9d ! p]fect patt]n ( ju/ice1 beauty1 tru?2 8 is ! k ( ! et]nal2 he contemplates all "t & all exi/5ce2 no praises are too high = 8 "*4 ,no d\bt2 /ill1 if t is s1 :y d pr(ess$ philosoph]s always %[ !mselves ei!r fools or knaves 9 ord9>y affairs8 ,a %ip's crew :i* does n und]/& t ! art ( navigation dem&s a k ( ! />s1 w /igmatise a prop]ly qualifi$ pilot z a />-gaz+ idiot1 & w prev5t him f navigat+4 ,! _w assumes t ! philosoph]'s ab/ractions are folly1 & rejects 8 guidance4 ,! philosoph] is ! be/ k9d ( man2 ! corrupt$ philosoph] is ! wor/2 & ! corrupt$ influ5ces br\ght to be> are irresi/ible to all b ! v /ronge/ natures4 ,! pr(essional tea*]s ( philosophy live n by lead+ popul> op9ion1 b by p&]+ to x2 a ba/>d brood trick !mselves out z philosoph]s1 :ile ! true philosoph] )draws himself f s gross a _w4 ,small wond] t philosophy gets discr$it$6 ,n 9 ! soil ( any exi/+ /ate c philosophy gr[ naturally2 plant$ 9 a suitable /ate1 h] div9ity w be app>5t4 ,i ne$ no long] hesitate to say t we mu/ make our gu>dians philosoph]s4 ,! necess>y comb9ation ( qualities is extremely r>e4 ,our te/ mu/ be ?or\gh1 = ! s\l mu/ be tra9$ up by ! pursuit ( all k9ds ( k to ! capacity = ! pursuit ( ! highe/--high] ?an ju/ice & wisdom--! idea ( ! good4 ,b :at is ! good--pleasure1 k8 ,no4 ,to see & di/+ui% mat]ial ?+s1 ! faculty ( sight requires ! m$ium ( light1 ^: s\rce is ! sun4 ,! good is to ! intellectual faculty :at ! sun is to t ( vision3 x is ! s\rce & cause ( tru?1 :i* is ! light :]eby we p]ceive ideas2 x is n tru? nor ! ideas1 b above !m2 _! cause1 z ! sun is ! s\rce ( light & ! cause ( gr[?4 ,aga91 z ! mat]ial ?+s ) :i* ! eye is conc]n$ are 9 two categories--! copies1 reflections or %ad[s ( ?+s1 & actual ?+s--correspond+ly ! ?+s p]ceiv$ by ! intellect are 9 a second>y region--z ! ma!matical--:]e ev]y?+ is d]iv$ f hypo!ses :i* are assum$ to be fir/ pr9ciples2 or 9 a supreme region1 9 :i* hypo!ses are orly ! /eps by :i* we asc5d to ! real ultimate fir/ pr9ciples !mselves4 ,& x w foll[ fur!r t ! m9d has f\r faculties appropriate to ^! f\r divisions1 :i* we call respectively pure reason 7! highe/71 und]/&+1 conviction1 & p]ception ( %ad[s2 ! fir/ pair be+ conc]n$ ) be+1 ! field ( ! intellect2 ! second pair ) becom+1 ! field ( op9ion4 ,v4--,( ,%ad[s & ,realities ,let me speak a p>able4 ,humanity--ourselves--are z p dwell+ ev] b\nd & fett]$ 9 a twilit cave1 ) our backs to ! light4 ,beh9d u is a p>apet1 & beyond ! p>apet a fire2 all t we see is ! %ad[s ?r[n on ! wall t faces u by figures pass+ along ! p>apet beh9d u2 all we he> is ! e*o ( _! voices4 ,n[1 if "s ( u are turn$ r\nd to face ! light & look on ! real figures1 !y w be dazzl$ at fir/1 & mu* m if !y are tak5 out into ! light1 & up to face ! sun himself2 b pres5tly !y w see p]fectly1 & h all ! joy !re(4 ,n[ s5d !m back into ! cave1 & !y w be app>5tly mu* bl9d] ?an ! folk :o h be5 !re all ! "t1 & _! talk ( :at !y h se5 w be tak5 = ! babbl+ ( fools1 or worse4 ,small wond] t ^? :o h beheld ! light h b little m9d to return to ! twilight cave :i* is ! common _w4 ,b rememb]--ev]yone 9 ! cave possesses ! faculty ( sight if only 8 eyes be turn$ to ! light4 ,loose ! fett]s ( c>nal desires :i* hold him ) 8 back to ! light1 & e man may be conv]t$ & live4 ,s we mu/ select ^? :o are mo/ capable ( fac+ ! light1 & see to x t !y return to ! cave1 to give ! cave-dwell]s ! b5efit ( _! k4 ,& if ?is be = !m a h>d%ip1 we mu/ be> 9 m9d z be=e1 t ! good ( ! :ole is :at matt]s1 n :e!r "o or ano!r may suff] h>d%ip = ! sake ( ! :ole4 ,h[1 !n1 %all we tra9 !m to ! passage f d>kness to light8 ,= ?is1 our education 9 music & gymna/ic is :olly inadequate4 ,we mu/ proce$ fir/ to ! sci5ce ( numb]s1 !n ( geometry1 !n ( a/ronomy4 ,& aft] a/ronomy1 !re is ! si/] sci5ce ( ab/ract h>monics--n ( audible s\nds4 ,all ( :i* are b ! prelude to ! ultimate supreme sci5ce ( dialectic1 :i* c>ries ! intellig5ce to ! contemplation ( ! idea ( ! good1 ! ultimate goal4 ,& "h to attempt fur!r explanation w\ld be vanity4 ,?is is ! sci5ce ( ! pure reason1 ! cop+-/one ( k4 ,we saw long ago t our rul]s mu/ possess e end[m5t ( m9d & body1 all cultivat$ to ! highe/ degree4 ,f ! select we mu/ aga9 select1 at tw5ty1 ^? :o are mo/ fit = ! next t5 ye>s' c\rse ( education2 & f !m1 at ?irty1 we %all *oose ^? :o c1 ) confid5ce1 be tak5 to face ! light2 :o h be5 te/$ & f\nd absolutely /eadfa/1 n %ak5 by hav+ got beyond ! conv5tional view ( ?+s4 ,we w give !m five or six ye>s ( philosophy2 !n fifte5 ye>s ( responsible (fice 9 ! /ate2 & at fifty !y %all return to philosophy1 subject to ! call ^u !m to take up ! duties ( rul]%ip & ( educat+ _! successors4 ,,vi4--,( ,/ate ,types & ,individual ,types ,be=e ?is digression we 7 on ! po9t ( discuss+ ! f\r vitiat$ =ms ( ! /ate1 & ! correspond+ individual types4 ,! f\r types ( /ate z we "k !m 9 ,hellas1 are3 ! ,sp>tan1 :]e p]sonal ambition & hon\r rule1 :i* we call timocracy2 ! olig>*ical1 :]e weal? rules2 ! democratic2 & ! arbitr>y rule ( ! individual1 :i* we call tyranny4 ,! comp>ison ( ?is la/--! supremely unju/--) our own--! supremely j--w %[ :e!r ju/ice or inju/ice be ! m desirable4 ,! p]fect /ate deg5]ates to timocracy :5 ! /ate's num]ical law ( g5]ation an unsolv$ riddle has n be5 prop]ly obs]v$1 & inf]ior (fspr+ h ent]$ 9 consequ5ce into ! rul+ body4 ,! introduction ( private prop]ty w cause !m to assume t[>ds ! commonalty ! attitude1 n ( gu>dians1 b ( ma/]s1 & to be at odds among !mselves2 also1 9 _! education gymna/ic w acquire pr$om9ance ov] music4 ,ambition & p>ty _s become ! *>act]i/ic features4 ,:51 9 an ill-ord]$ /ate a great man )draws f ! corruption ( politics into private life1 we see ! correspond+ individual type 9 ! son ( su* a "o1 egg$ on by 8 "m & flatt]+ companions1 to w9 back = himself at all co/s ! pre/ige :i* 8 fa!r _h resign$2 p]sonal ambition becomes 8 dom9ant *>act]i/ic4 ,olig>*y is ! next outcome ( ! introduction ( private prop]ty2 ri*es outweigh virtue1 love ( money ! love ( hon\r1 & ! ri* procure = !mselves ! legal monopoly ( political p[]4 ,"h ! /ate becomes divid$ aga9/ itself--!re is "o /ate ( ! ri* & ano!r ( ! poor--& ! poor w be divid$ into ! m]ely incompet5t & ! actively dang]\s or pr$atory4 ,& y\r correspond+ individual is he ^: fa!r _h won hon\rs :i* _h n sav$ him f ultimate ru92 s t ! son rejects ambition & makes money 8 goal1 till1 = ! sake ( money1 he w compass any bas5ess1 ?\gh /ill only "u a cloak ( respectability4 ,9 ! olig>*y ! av>ici\s enc\rage & fo/] extravagance 9 _! neighb\rs4 ,m51 ru9$ by money-l5d]s1 turn on _! money$ rul]s1 ov]?r[ !m1 & give ev]yone a %>e 9 ! gov]nm5t4 ,! result is t ! /ate is n "o1 nor two1 b div]se4 ,folk say :at !y l & d :at !y l1 & anyone is a /atesman :o w wave ! national flag4 ,t is democracy4 ,su* is ! son ( y\r mis]ly olig>*2 depriv$ ( unnecess>y pleasures1 he is tempt$ to wild dissipation4 ,he has no education to help him to di/+ui%1 & ! vices ( dissipation assume ! aspect & titles ( virtue4 ,he fluctuates f "o po9t ( view to ano!r--is "o ?+ to-day & ano!r to-morr[4 ,& la/ we come to tyranny & ! tyrannical man4 ,democratic lic5se develops into %e] an>*y4 ,jack is z good z 8 ma/]4 ,! pr$atory population becomes demagogues2 !y squeeze ! dec5t citiz5s1 & drive !m to adopt olig>*ical me?ods2 !n ! fri5d ( ! p appe>s2 ! protector1 *ampion1 & h]o1 by a famili> process becomes a milit>y autocrat1 :o himself batt5s1 z mu/ also 8 m]c5>y soldi]y1 on ! citiz5s2 & our unhappy ,demos f9ds t x has jump$ out ( ! reek into ! fire4 ,n[ our democratical man 0 sway$ by ! devices & moods ( ! mom5t2 8 son w be sway$ by ! mo/ irrational & mo/ be/ial ( 8 appetites2 be bully & tyrant1 :ile slave ( 8 own lu/s4 ,y\r ?or\gh blackgu>d ( e species comes ( ?is type1 & ! wor/ ( all is he :o a*ieves ! tyranny ( a /ate4 ,see1 !n1 h[1 ev5 z ! tyrannic /ate is ! mo/ utt]ly enslav$1 s ! tyrannic man is ( all m5 ! lea/ free2 &1 beyond all o!rs1 ! tyrant ( a /ate4 ,he is l a slave-own]1 :o is at ! m]cy ( 8 slaves--! passions :i* he mu/ pamp]1 or die1 yet _c satisfy4 ,surely su* an "o is ! v]ie/ slave--yea1 ! mo/ wret*$ ( m54 ,x foll[s t he :o is ! mo/ complete opposite ( ! tyrant is ! happie/--! individual :o corresponds to our /ate4 ,proclaim x1 !n1 son ( ,ari/on1 t ! mo/ j ( m5 is he :o is ma/] ( himself1 & is ( all m5 ! mo/ mis]able1 :e!r gods & m5 recognise him or no4 ,,vii4--,( ! ,happ9ess ( ! ,j ,n[ = a second pro(4 ,?ree k9ds ( pleasure correspond to ! ?ree elem5ts ( ! s\l--reason1 _s1 desire4 ,9 ea* man "o ( ! ?ree is 9 ! asc5dant4 ,"o c\nts k va9 9 comp>ison ) ! advantages ( ri*es1 ano!r ) ^? ( hon\r2 to ! philosoph] only tru? c\nts4 ,b he is ! only "o ( !m :o makes 8 *oice f exp]i5ce ( all ?ree k9ds4 ,& he1 ! only qualifi$ judge1 places ! satisfaction ( ! _s second1 & ( desire l[e/4 ,& yet a ?ird pro(3 ,i fancy ! only q real pleasures are ^? ( ! philosoph]4 ,!re is an int]m$iate /ate betwe5 pleasure & pa94 ,to pass into ?is f pleasure is pa9ful1 & f pa9 is pleasurable4 ,n[1 ! pleasures ( ! body are really no?+ m ?an reliefs f pa9s ( "o k9d or ano!r4 ,&1 next1 ! pleasures ( ! s\l1 be+ ( ! et]nal ord]1 are necess>ily m real ?an ^? ( ! body1 :i* are fleet+--9 fact1 m]e %ad[s ( pleasure4 ,mu* z ,i love & admire ,hom]1 ,i ?9k our regulations z to poetry 7 p>ticul>ly s\nd2 b we mu/ inquire fur!r into ! mean+ ( imitation4 ,we saw be=e t all p>ticul> ?+s are ! pres5tations ( "s univ]sal idea4 ,!re is "o ultimate idea ( b$1 or *air1 or table4 ,:at ! jo9] makes is a copy ( t4 ,all ideas are ! creation ( ! ma/] artific]1 ! demiurge2 ( 8 creations all mat]ial ?+s are copies4 ,we c all create ?+s 9 a way by cat*+ reflections ( !m 9 a mirror4 ,b ^! are only copies ( p>ticul> ?+s f "o po9t ( view1 p>tial copies ( copies ( ! idea4 ,su* precisely are ! creations ( ! pa9t]1 & 9 l mann] ( ! poet4 ,:at !y "k & depict is n ! realities1 b m]e appe>ances4 ,if ! poets knew ! realities !y w\ld h left u some?+ o!r ?an imitations ( copies4 ,moreov]1 :at !y imitate is n ! highe/ b ! l[]2 n ! tru? ( reason1 b emotions ( all sorts1 :i* x %\ld be our bus9ess n to excite b to control & allay4 ,s we cont9ue to prohibit ! poetry :i* is imitation1 h[ev] supreme1 & all[ only hymns to ! gods1 & praises ( great m54 ,we mu/ no m admit ! allurem5ts ( poesy ?an ! attractions ( ambition or ( ri*es4 ,great] f> are ! rew>ds ( virtue ?an all we h yet %[n2 = an immortal s\l %\ld he$ no?+ t is less ?an et]nal4 ,:at1 is ! s\l !n immortal8 ,c y prove t8 ,yes1 ( a surety4 ,9 all ?+s !re is good & evil2 a ?+ p]i%es ( its own corruption1 n ( ! corruption ( aught ext]nal to x4 ,if disease or injury ( ! body _c corrupt ! s\l1 a =tiori !y _c slay x2 b inju/ice1 ! corruption ( ! s\l1 is n induc$ by injury to ! body4 ,if1 !n1 ! s\l be n de/roy$ by s91 no?+ else c de/roy x1 & x is immortal4 ,! numb] ( exi/+ s\ls mu/ !n be con/ant2 none p]i%1 none are add$1 = additional immortal s\ls w\ld h to come out ( :at is mortal1 :i* is absurd4 ,n[1 hi!rto we h %[n only t ju/ice is 9 itself be/ = ! s\l1 b n[ we see t its rew>ds1 too1 are unspeakably great4 ,! gods1 to :om ! j are kn[n1 w rew>d !m h]eaft]1 if n "h2 & ev5 9 ?is _w !y h ! bett] lot 9 ! long run4 ,b ( ?is no?+ is comp>able to _! rew>ds 9 ! h]eaft]1 reveal$ to u 9 ! my?os ( ,er1 call$ ! ,arm5ian1 ^: body be+ sla9 9 battle1 8 s\l 0 said to h return$ to x f ! "u-_w--r5ew+ its life--a mess5g] to m5 ( :at he _h !re beheld4 ,= a ?\s& ye>s ! s\ls1 be+ judg$1 enjoy$ or suff]$ a t5fold retribution = all !y _h done ( good or evil 9 ?is life1 & "s = a second t]m1 or x might be = t]ms )\t end4 ,!n = ! mo/ "p !y 7 giv5 aga91 aft] ! ?\s& ye>s1 a *oice ( ano!r lot on ! e>?1 be+ guid$ !re9 by _! exp]i5ce 9 _! la/ life2 & s1 hav+ drunk ( ! wat]s ( =getfulness1 came back to e>? once m1 unconsci\s ( _! pa/4 ,let u1 !n1 believ+ t ! s\l is inde$ immortal1 hold fa/ to k & ju/ice1 t x may be well ) u bo? "h & h]eaft]4 ,,ar?ur ,,s*op5hau] ,! ,_w z ,w & ,idea ,ar?ur ,s*op5hau]1 :o 0 born at ,dantzig1 9 ,g]many1 ,feb4 #bb1 #aghh1 & di$ ,septemb] #ba1 #ahfj1 came ( highly intellectual antec$5ts1 8 "m1 ,johanna ,s*op5hau]1 be+ a not$ ,g]man au?oress4 ,z an indefatigable /ud5t he migrat$1 accord+ to ! fa%ion ( 8 ,fa!rl&1 f "o univ]sity to ano!r1 9 ord] to sit at ! feet ( v>i\s pr(essors1 & ?us he att5d$ c\rses at ,gott+51 ,b]l91 & ,j5a successively1 f9ally graduat+ at ,j5a 9 #ahac4 ,! w9t] ( t ye> he sp5t at ,weim>1 revell+ 9 ! society ( ,goe!1 & also enjoy+ int]c\rse ) ,mai]1 ! pr(\nd ,ori5tali/1 :o indoctr9at$ him ) ^? views ( ,indian my/icism :i* greatly influ5c$ 8 future philosophic disquisitions4 ,aft] writ+ & publi%+ a few slight treatises ,s*op5hau] s5t =? 8 great "w1 ,! ,_w z ,w & ,idea1 :i* has immortaliz$ him4 ,x appe>$ 9 #ahai4 ,dur+ subsequ5t ye>s1 :5 he resid$ 9 ,frank=t1 he wrote 8 volumes on ,w 9 ,nature1 ,! ,fre$om ( ! ,w1 ,! ,basis ( ,morals1 & ,p>]ga & ,p>alipom5a4 ,! keynote ( ,s*op5hau]'s philosophy is t ! sole ess5tial reality 9 ! univ]se is ! w1 & t all visible & tangible ph5om5a are m]ely subjective repres5tations1 or =mal manife/ations ( t w :i* is ! only ?+-9-itself t actually subsi/s4 ,?us he /&s among philosoph]s z ! uncompromis+ antagoni/ ( ,hegel1 ,fi*te1 ,s*ell+ & all ! *ampions ( ! !ory ( consci\sness & absolute reason z ! ess5tial f\ndation ( ! faculty ( ?\ght4 ,! defect ( 8 sy/em is its t5d5cy to a sombre pessimism1 b 8 lit]>y /yle is magnific5t & 8 p[] ( reason+ is exceptional4 ,! epitome "h giv5 has be5 prep>$ f ! orig9al ,g]man4 ,i4--,! ,_w z ,idea ,! _w is my idea1 is a tru? valid = e liv+ creature1 ?\gh only man c consci\sly contemplate x4 ,9 do+ s he atta9s philosophical wisdom4 ,no tru? is m absolutely c]ta9 ?an t all t exi/s = k1 & !re=e ?is :ole _w1 is only object 9 relation to subject1 p]ception ( a p]ceiv]1 9 a ^w1 idea4 ,! _w is idea4 ,?is tru? is by no means new2 x lay by implication 9 ! reflections ( ,desc>tes2 b ,b]keley fir/ di/9ctly enunciat$ x2 :ile ,kant err$ by ignor+ x4 ,s anci5t is x t x 0 ! fundam5tal pr9ciple ( ! ,indian ,v$anta1 z ,sir ,william ,jones po9ts out4 ,9 "o aspect ! _w is idea2 9 ! o!r aspect1 ! _w is w4 ,t :i* kn[s all ?+s & is kn[n by none is ! subject2 & = ?is subject all exi/s4 ,b ! _w z idea consi/s ( two ess5tial & insep>able halves4 ,"o half is ! object1 ^: =m consi/s ( "t & space1 & ?r\gh ^! ( multiplicity2 b ! o!r half is ! subject1 ly+ n 9 space & "t1 = x subsi/s :ole & undivid$ 9 e reflect+ be+4 ,?us any s+le individual end[$ ) ! faculty ( p]ception ( ! object1 con/itutes ! :ole _w ( idea z completely z ! millions 9 exi/5ce2 b let ?is s+le individual vani%1 & ! :ole _w z idea w\ld disappe>4 ,ea* ( ^! halves possesses mean+ & exi/5ce only 9 & ?r\gh ! o!r1 appe>+ ) & vani%+ ) x4 ,:]e ! object beg9s ! subject ends4 ,"o ( ,kant's great m]its is t he discov]$ t ! ess5tial & univ]sal =ms ( all objects--space1 "t1 causality--lie a priori 9 our consci\sness1 = !y may be discov]$ & fully kn[n f a consid]ation ( ! subject1 )\t any k ( ! object4 ,ideas ( p]ception are di/9ct f ab/ract ideas4 ,! =m] compreh5d ! :ole _w ( exp]i5ce2 ! latt] are concepts1 & are possess$ by man alone among/ all creatures on e>?2 & ! capacity = ^!1 di/+ui%+ him f ! l[] animals1 is call$ reason4 ,"t & space c ea* be m5tally pres5t$ sep>ately f matt]1 b matt] _c be ?\ght ( ap>t f "t & space4 ,! comb9ation ( "t & space 9 connection ) matt] con/itutes action1 t is1 causation4 ,! law ( causation arises f *ange1 t is f ! fact t at ! same "p ( space !re is n[ "o ?+ & !n ano!r1 & ?is succession mu/ be ! result ( "s law ( causality1 see+ t !re mu/ be a det]m9$ "p ( space & a det]m9$ "p ( space = ! *ange4 ,causality ?us comb9es space ) "t4 ,mu* va9 controv]sy has aris5 conc]n+ ! reality ( ! ext]nal univ]se1 ow+ to ! fallaci\s notion t because p]ception arises ?r\gh ! k ( causality1 ! relation ( subject & object is t ( cause & effect4 ,= ?is relation only subsi/s betwe5 objects1 t is betwe5 ! imm$iate object & objects kn[n indirectly4 ,! object always pre-supposes ! subject1 & s !re c be betwe5 ^? two no relation ( reason & consequ5t4 ,!re=e ! controv]sy betwe5 reali/ic dogmatism & doctr9al scepticism is fooli%4 ,! =m] seeks to sep>ate object & idea z cause & effect1 :]eas ^! two are really "o2 ! latt] supposes t 9 ! idea we h only ! effect1 nev] ! cause1 & nev] "k ! real be+1 b m]ely its action4 ,! correction ( bo? ^! fallacies is ! same1 t object & idea are id5tical4 ,"o ( ! mo/ press+ ( que/ions is1 h[ c]ta9ty is to be rea*$1 h[ judgm5ts are to be e/abli%$1 & :]e9 k & sci5ce consi/4 ,reason is fem99e 9 nature2 x c only give aft] x has receiv$4 ,( ,itself x possesses only ! empty =ms ( its op]ation4 ,k is ! result ( reason1 s t we _c accurately say t ! l[] animals "k any?+1 b only t !y appreh5d ?r\gh ! faculty ( p]ception4 ,! greate/ value ( k is t x c be communicat$ & reta9$4 ,?is makes x ine/imably important = practice4 ,rational or ab/ract k is t k :i* is peculi> to ! reason z di/+ui%$ f ! und]/&+4 ,! use ( reason is t x sub/itutes ab/ract concepts = ideas ( p]ception1 & adopts !m z ! guide ( action4 ,! _m-sid$ view ( life :i* man1 z di/+ui%$ f ! l[] animals1 possesses ?r\gh reason1 makes him /& to !m z ! capta91 equipp$ ) *>t1 compass & quadrant1 & ) a k ( navigation ( ! ocean1 /&s to ! ignorant sailors "u 8 comm&4 ,man lives two lives4 ,besides 8 life 9 ! concrete is 8 life 9 ! ab/ract4 ,9 ! =m] he /ruggles1 suff]s1 & dies z d ! m]e animal creatures4 ,b 9 ! ab/ract he quietly reflects on ! plan ( ! univ]se z does a capta9 ( a %ip on ! *>t4 ,he becomes 9 ?is ab/ract life ( calm reason+ a delib]ate obs]v] ( ^? elem5ts :i* previ\sly mov$ & agitat$ 8 emotions4 ,)draw+ into ?is s]5e contemplation he is l an actor :o has play$ a "p on ! /age & !n )draws & z "o ( ! audi5ce quietly looks on at o!r actors en]getically p]=m+4 ,! result ( ?is d\ble life is t human s]5ity :i* furni%es s vivid a contra/ to ! lack ( reason 9 ! brutes4 ,reason has won to a wond]ful ext5t ! ma/]y ov] ! animal nature4 ,! climact]ic /age ( ! m]e ex]cise ( reason is display$ 9 ,/oicism1 an e?ical sy/em :i* aims prim>ily n at virtue b at happ9ess1 al?\gh ?is !ory inculcates t happ9ess c be atta9$ only ?r\gh at>axia 7inw>d quietness or peace ( m9d71 :ile ?is c only be ga9$ by virtue4 ,9 o!r words1 ,z5o1 ! f\nd] ( ! ,/oic !ory1 s\ght to lift man up above ! rea* ( pa9 & mis]y4 ,b ?is use ( pure reason involves a pa9ful p>adox1 see+ t = an ultimate way ( escape ,/oicism is con/ra9$ to prescribe suicide4 ,:5 comp>$ ) ! ,/oic1 h[ diff]5t appe> ! holy conqu]ors ( ! _w 9 ,*ri/ianity1 t sublime =m ( life :i* pres5ts to u a picture :]e9 we see bl5d$ p]fect virtue & supreme suff]+4 ,,ii4--,! ,_w z ,w ,we are compell$ to fur!r inquiry1 because we _c be satisfi$ ) kn[+ t we h ideas1 & t ^! are associat$ ) c]ta9 laws1 ! g5]al expression ( :i* is ! pr9ciple ( suffici5t reason4 ,we wi% to "k ! significance ( our ideas4 ,we ask :e!r ?is _w is no?+ m ?an a m]e idea1 n wor?y ( our notice if x is to pass by u l an empty dream or an airy vision1 or :e!r x is some?+ m sub/antial4 ,we c surely nev] arrive at ! nature ( ?+s f )\t4 ,no matt] h[ assidu\s our rese>*es may be1 we c nev] rea* any?+ beyond images & names4 ,we resemble a man go+ r\nd a ca/le seek+ va9ly = an entrance & sometimes sket*+ ! facades4 ,& yet ?is is ! me?od foll[$ by all philosoph]s be=e me4 ,! tru? ab\t man is t he is n a pure kn[+ subject1 n a w+$ *]ub )\t a mat]ial body1 contemplat+ ! _w f )\t4 ,= he is himself root$ 9 t _w4 ,t is to say1 he f9ds himself 9 ! _w z an individual ^: k1 :i* is ! ess5tial basis ( ! :ole _w z idea1 is yet ev] communicat$ ?r\gh ! m$ium ( ! body1 ^: s5sations are ! />t+ po9t ( ! und]/&+ ( t _w4 ,8 body is = him an idea l e o!r idea1 an object among objects4 ,he only kn[s its actions z he kn[s ! *anges 9 all o!r objects1 & b = "o aid to 8 und]/&+ ( himself he w\ld f9d ?is idea & object z /range & incompreh5sible z all o!rs4 ,t aid is w1 :i* alone furni%es ! key to ! riddle ( himself1 solves ! problem ( 8 own exi/5ce1 reveals to him ! inn] /ructure & significance ( 8 be+1 8 action1 & 8 movem5ts4 ,! body is ! imm$iate object ( w2 x may be call$ ! objectivity ( w4 ,e true act ( w is also in/antly a visible act ( ! body1 & e impression on ! body is also at once an impression on ! w4 ,:5 x is oppos$ to ! w x is call$ pa91 & :5 consonant ) ! w x is call$ pleasure4 ,! ess5tial id5tity ( body & w is %[n by ! fact t e viol5t movem5t ( ! w1 t is to say1 e emotion1 directly agitates ! body & int]f]es ) its vital functions4 ,s we may legitimately say1 ,my body is ! objectivity ( my w4 ,x is simply ow+ to ?is special relation to "o body t ! kn[+ subject is an individual4 ,our kn[+1 be+ b\nd to individuality1 necessitates t ea* ( u c only be "o1 & yet ea* ( u c "k all4 ,h5ce arises ! ne$ = philosophy4 ,! d\ble k :i* ea* ( u possesses ( 8 own body is ! key to ! nature ( e ph5om5on 9 ! _w4 ,no?+ is ei!r kn[n to u or ?9kable by u except w & idea4 ,if we exam9e ! reality ( ! body & its actions1 we discov] no?+ beyond ! fact t x is an idea1 except ! w4 ,) ?is d\ble discov]y reality is exhau/$4 ,we c ascribe no o!r k9d ( reality to ! mat]ial _w4 ,if we ma9ta9 t x is some?+ m ?an m]ely our idea1 we mu/ say t 9 its inmo/ nature x is t :i* we discov] 9 ourselves z w4 ,b ! acts ( w h always a gr\nd or reason outside !mselves 9 motives1 :i*1 h[ev]1 nev] det]m9e m ?an h[ we %all act at any giv5 "t or place "u any giv5 conditions or circum/ances4 ,! w mu/ h "s manife/ation1 & ! body is t manife/ation4 ,by ! movem5ts ( ! body ! w becomes visible1 & ?us ! body may be said to be ! objectification ( ! w4 ,! p]fect adaptation ( ! human & animal body to ! human & animal w resembles1 ?\gh x f> exce$s1 ! correspond5ce betwe5 an in/rum5t & its mak]4 ,,iii4--,! ,_w z ,idea4 ,second ,aspect ,we h look$ at ! _w z idea1 object = a subject1 & next at ! _w z w4 ,all /ud5ts ( ,plato "k t ! diff]5t grades ( objectification ( w :i* are manife/$ 9 c\ntless individuals1 & exi/ z _! unrealiz$ types or z ! et]nal =ms ( ?+s1 are ! ,platonic ,ideas4 ,?us ^! v>i\s grades are relat$ to individual ?+s z _! et]nal =ms or prototypes4 ,?us ! _w 9 :i* we live is 9 its :ole nature ?r\gh & ?r\gh w1 & at ! same "t ?r\gh & ?r\gh idea4 ,?is idea always pre-supposes a =m1 object & subject4 ,if we take away ?is =m & ask :at !n rema9s1 ! answ] mu/ be t ?is c be no?+ b w1 :i*1 prop]ly speak+1 is ! ?+ 9 itself4 ,e human be+ discov]s t he himself is ?is w1 & t ! _w exi/s only = him does s 9 relation to 8 consci\sness4 ,?us ea* human be+ is himself 9 a d\ble aspect ! :ole _w1 ! microcosm4 ,& t :i* he realizes z 8 own real be+ exhau/s ! be+ ( ! :ole _w1 ! macrocosm4 ,s1 l man1 ! _w is ?r\gh & ?r\gh w1 & ?r\gh & ?r\gh idea4 ,plato w\ld say t an animal has no true be+1 b m]ely an app>5t be+1 a con/ant becom+4 ,! only true be+ is ! ,idea :i* embodies itself 9 t animal4 ,t is to say1 ! ,idea ( ! animal alone has true be+1 & is ! object ( real k4 ,kant1 ) 8 !ory ( ! ?+-9-itself z ! only reality1 w\ld say t ! animal is only a ph5om5on 9 "t1 space1 & causality1 :i* are conditions ( our p]ception1 n ! ?+-9-itself4 ,s ! individual z we see x at ?is p>ticul> mom5t w pass away1 )\t any possibility ( our kn[+ ! ?+-9-itself1 = ! k ( t is beyond our faculties1 & w\ld require ano!r k9d ( k ?an t :i* is possible = u ?r\gh our und]/&+4 ,?us d ^! two greate/ philosoph]s ( ! ,we/ diff]4 ,! ?+-9-itself mu/1 accord+ to ,kant1 be free f all =ms associat$ ) kn[+4 ,on ! contr>y1 ! ,platonic idea is necess>ily object1 some?+ kn[n & ?us diff]5t f ! ?+-9-itself1 :i* _c be appreh5d$4 ,yet ,kant & ,plato t5d to agree1 because ! ?+-9-itself is1 aft] all1 t :i* lays aside all ! subord9ate =ms ( ph5om5a1 & has reta9$ ! fir/ & mo/ univ]sal =m1 t ( ! idea 9 g5]al1 ! =m ( be+ object = a subject4 ,plato attributes actual be+ only to ! ,ideas1 & conc$es only an illusive1 dream-l exi/5ce to ?+s 9 space & "t1 ! real _w = ! individual4 ,,iv4--,! ,_w z ,w4 ,second ,aspect ,! la/ & mo/ s]i\s "p ( our consid]ation relates to human action & is ( univ]sal importance4 ,human nature t5ds to relate ev]y?+ else to action4 ,! _w z idea is ! p]fect mirror ( ! w1 9 :i* x recognizes itself 9 graduat+ scales ( di/9ctness & complet5ess4 ,! highe/ degree ( ?is consci\sness is man1 ^: nature only completely expresses itself 9 ! :ole connect$ s]ies ( 8 actions4 ,w is ! ?+-9-itself1 ! ess5ce ( ! _w4 ,life is only ! mirror ( ! w4 ,life accompanies ! w z ! %ad[ ! body4 ,if w exi/s1 s w life4 ,s long z we are actuat$ by ! w to live1 we ne$ h no fe> ( ceas+ to live1 ev5 9 ! pres5ce ( dea?4 ,true1 we see ! individual born & pass+ away2 b ! individual is m]ely ph5om5al4 ,nei!r ! w1 nor ! subject ( cognition1 is at all affect$ by bir? or dea?4 ,x is n ! individual1 b only ! species1 t ,nature c>es =4 ,%e provides = ! species ) b\ndless prodigality ?r\gh ! incalculable pr(usion ( se$ & ! great /r5g? ( fructification4 ,%e is ev] ready to let ! individual fall :5 x _h s]v$ its end ( p]petuat+ ! species4 ,?us does ,nature artlessly express ! great tru? t only ! ,ideas1 n ! individuals1 h actual reality & are complete objectivity ( ! w4 ,man is ,nature himself1 b ,nature is only ! objectifi$ w to live4 ,s ! man :o has compreh5d$ ?is po9t ( view may well console himself :5 contemplat+ dea? = himself or 8 fri5ds1 by turn+ 8 eyes to ! immortal life ( ,nature1 :i* he himself is4 ,& ?us we see t bir? & dea? bo? really belong to life & t !y take "p 9 t con/ant mutation ( matt] :i* is consi/5t ) ! p]man5ce ( ! species1 not)/&+ ! transitor9ess ( ! individual4 ,v4--,! ,w z ,relat$ to ,"t ,above all1 we mu/ n =get t ! =m ( ! ph5om5on ( ! w1 ! =m ( life 9 reality1 is really only ! pres5t1 n ! future nor ! pa/4 ,no man ev] liv$ 9 ! pa/1 no man w live 9 ! future4 ,! pres5t is ! sole =m ( life 9 sure possession4 ,! pres5t exi/s always1 toge!r ) its cont5t1 & bo? are fix$ l ! ra9b[ on ! wat]fall4 ,n[ all object is ! w s f> z x has become idea1 & ! subject is ! necess>y correlative ( ! object4 ,b real objects are 9 ! pres5t only4 ,s no?+ b conceptions & fancies are includ$ 9 ! pa/1 :ile ! pres5t is ! ess5tial =m ( ! ph5om5on ( ! w1 & insep>able f x4 ,! pres5t alone is p]petual & immovable4 ,! f\nta9 & support ( x is ! w to live1 or ! ?+-9-itself1 :i* we are4 ,life is c]ta9 to ! w1 & ! pres5t is c]ta9 to life4 ,"t is l a p]petually revolv+ globe4 ,! hemisph]e :i* is s9k+ is l ! pa/1 t :i* is ris+ is l ! future1 :ile ! indivisible po9t at ! top is l ! actionless pres5t4 ,or1 "t is l a runn+ riv] & ! pres5t is a rock on :i* x breaks b :i* x _c remove ) itself4 ,!re=e we are n conc]n$ to inve/igate ! pa/ antec$5t to life1 nor to speculate on ! future subsequ5t to dea?4 ,we %\ld simply seek to "k ! pres5t1 t be+ ! sole =m 9 :i* ! w manife/s itself4 ,!re=e1 if we are satisfi$ ) life z x is1 we may confid5tly reg>d x z endless & bani% ! fe> ( dea? z illusive4 ,our _s is ( a totally inde/ructible nature1 & its en]gy endures f et]nity to et]nity4 ,x is l ! sun1 :i* seems to set only to our e>?ly eyes1 b :i*1 9 reality1 nev] sets1 b %9es on unceas+ly4 ,! problem ( ! fre$om ( ! w is solv$ by ! consid]ations :i* h be5 ?us outl9$4 ,s9ce ! w is n ph5om5on1 is n idea or object1 b ?+-9-itself1 is n det]m9$ z a consequ5t ?r\gh any reason1 & kn[s no necessity1 !re=e x is free4 ,b ! p]son is nev] free1 al?\gh he is ! ph5om5on ( a free w1 = ?is indisputable reason1 t he is already ! det]m9$ ph5om5on ( ! free volition ( ?is w1 & is con/ra9$ to embody ! direction ( t volition 9 a multiplicity ( actions4 ,rep5tance nev] results f a *ange ( w1 = ?is is impossible1 b f a *ange ( k4 ,! ess5tial 9 :at ,i h will$ ,i mu/ cont9ue to w1 = ,i am id5tical ) ?is w :i* lies outside "t & *ange4 ,!re=e ,i _c rep5t ( :at ,i h will$1 ?\gh ,i c rep5t ( :at ,i h done2 because1 con/ra9$ by false notions1 ,i 0 l$ to d :at did n accord ) my w4 ,rep5tance is simply ! discov]y ( ?is full] & m correct k4 ,,s5eca ,on ,b5efits ,! m fam\s son ( a fam\s rhetorician1 ! ,roman philosoph] ,l4 ,annaeus ,s5eca 0 born at ,corduba 7,cordova71 9 ,spa91 ab\t ! beg9n+ ( ! ,*ri/ian era4 ,:ile ! date ( 8 bir? is a matt] = conjecture1 ! circum/ances ( 8 dea? are notori\s4 ,he 0 a victim ( ,n]o's jeal\sy & +ratitude 9 #fe ,a4,d41 :5 ! emp]or seiz$ ^u a plot aga9/ himself z ! pretext = s5t5c+ ,s5eca to en=c$ suicide4 ,9 ! vivid pages ( ! hi/orian ,tacitus1 !re are few m pa!tic descriptions ?an t rec\nt+ ! sl[ ebb+ ( ! old philosoph]'s life aft] 8 ve9s _h be5 op5$4 ,s5eca _h kn[n _m vicissitudes ( =tune4 ,he 0 bani%$ f ,rome 9 #da ,a4,d41 b1 aft] 8 recall1 rose to great p[] & afflu5ce z tutor & advis] to ,n]o4 ,8 works1 _m ( :i* are lo/1 include trag$ies1 lett]s1 & treatises on philosophy4 ,! high e?ical /&>d ma9ta9$ by ,s5eca fav\r$ ! leg5d t he 0 influ5c$ by ! ,apo/le ,paul1 & a spuri\s correspond5ce betwe5 !m 0 long accept$ z g5u9e4 ,( ! moral works !re is1 = insight into human nature & = g5]osity ( impulse1 no bett] repres5tative ?an t ,on ,b5efits4 ,i4--,b5efits are to be ,be/[$1 ,n ,l5t ,among ! _m diff]5t mi/akes made by ^? :o take life z x comes1 & d n pause to consid]1 ,i %\ld say t sc>cely any?+ is s detrim5tal z ?is1 t we d n "k ei!r h[ to conf] or h[ to receive a b5efit4 ,! consequ5ce is t b5efits are bad inve/m5ts1 & turn out bad debts2 & 9 ! cases :]e !re is no return1 x is too late to compla91 = !y 7 lo/ :5 we conf]r$ !m4 ,i %\ld f9d x h>d to say :e!r x is mean] = a receiv] to repudiate a b5efit1 or = a giv] to press = its repaym5t1 inasmu* z a b5efit is a sort ( loan1 ^: return absolutely dep5ds on ! spontane\s action ( ! debtor4 ,we f9d _m m5 ungrateful2 yet we make m m5 s1 because at "o "t we are insi/5t & h>% 9 our claims = return2 at ano!r "t we are fickle en\gh to regret our g5]osity4 ,by su* conduct we spoil ! :ole fav\r1 n m]ely aft] giv+1 b at ! v mom5t ( giv+4 ,no "o is glad to owe :at he has n s mu* receiv$ z wrung out ( 8 b5efactor4 ,c anyone be grateful to a man :o has contemptu\sly toss$ him a fav\r1 or flung x at him 9 vexation1 or out ( %e] we>9ess giv5 simply to rid himself ( tr\ble8 ,a b5efit is felt to be a debt 9 ! same _s 9 :i* x is be/[$1 & x ought n1 !re=e1 to be be/[$ recklessly1 = a man ?anks himself = :at he obta9s f an undisc]n+ giv]4 ,let u be/[ b5efits1 n l5d !m on int]e/4 ,he :o1 9 ! act ( giv+1 has ?\ghts ab\t repaym5t1 des]ves to be deceiv$4 ,well1 !n1 :at if ! b5efit has turn$ out ill8 ,:y1 *ildr5 or wives (t5 disappo9t our expectations1 b we br+ *ildr5 up1 we m>ry all ! same2 & s det]m9$ are we 9 ! tee? ( exp]i5ce1 t :5 baffl$ we fight bett]1 :5 %ipwreck$ we take to sea aga94 ,h[ mu* m seemly x is to be p]si/5t 9 be/[+ b5efits6 ,if a man does n give because he does n receive1 he mu/ h giv5 9 ord] to receive1 & t ju/ifies +ratitude4 ,h[ _m are !re :o are unwor?y ( ! light ( day1 & nev]!less ! sun rises4 ,?is is ! prop]ty ( a great & good m9d1 to seek n ! fruit ( good de$s b good de$s !mselves1 & to se>* = a good man ev5 aft] hav+ met ) bad m54 ,if !re 7 no *eats1 :at nobility w\ld !re be 9 %[+ b\nty to _m8 ,z x is1 goodness lies 9 giv+ b5efits = :i* we are n sure ( recomp5se1 b ( :i* ! fruit is at once enjoy$ by a noble m9d4 ,! book-keep+ ( b5efits is simple3 s mu* is exp5diture2 if !re is any return1 t is cle> ga92 if !re is no return1 t is n a loss4 ,i gave x = ! sake ( giv+4 ,no "o regi/]s 8 b5efits 9 a l$g]1 or1 l an exact+ usur]1 presses to ! day & h\r = repaym5t4 ,an hon\rable man nev] ?9ks ( su* matt]s1 unless rem9d$ by someone return+ a fav\r2 o!rwise !y assume ! =m ( a debt4 ,d n hesitate1 !n2 p]sev]e 9 y\r g5]\s "w4 ,assi/ "o ) y\r means1 ano!r ) cr$it1 ano!r ) y\r fav\r1 or y\r advice1 or a ^w 9 season4 ,is he ungrateful = "o b5efit8 ,aft] receiv+ a second1 p]haps he w n be s4 ,has he =gott5 two8 ,p]haps ! ?ird k9dness w br+ back ! recollection ( ^? t slipp$ 8 m9d4 ,! subject we h to treat is t ( b5efits4 ,we h to lay d[n an ord]$ acc\nt ( :at is ! *ief bond ( human society3 we h to prescribe a rule ( life1 su* t inconsid]ate op5-h&$ness may n comm5d itself "u ! guise ( k9dness1 b also t our caution1 :ile x controls1 may n /rangle g5]osity1 :i* ought to be nei!r defective nor excessive4 ,p mu/ be in/ruct$ to receive *e]fully & to repay *e]fully1 sett+ be=e !mselves ! high aim ( n m]ely equall+ b surpass+ ^? to :om !y are oblig$1 & ?is bo? 9 act & 9 feel+4 ,x is necess>y to po9t out t ! fir/ po9t :i* we h to le>n is :at we owe = a k9dness receiv$4 ,"o says he owes ! money :i* he got1 ano!r a consul%ip1 ano!r a prov9ce4 ,^!1 h[ev]1 are b ! outw>d tok5s ( good s]vices1 n ! s]vices !mselves4 ,a b5efit is to ! h& some?+ intangible2 x is a process 9 ! m9d4 ,!re is a _w ( diff]5ce betwe5 ! mat]ial ( a b5efit & ! b5efit itself4 ,h5ce ! reality ( a b5efit lies n 9 gold1 nor silv]1 b 9 ! good w ( ! giv]4 ,! ?+s :i* we hold 9 our h&s1 :i* we look at1 & on :i* our desire is set1 are p]i%able2 mis=tune or inju/ice may rob u ( !m2 b a k9dness la/s ev5 aft] ! loss ( :at 0 giv54 ,:at1 !n1 is a b5efit8 ,x is ! do+ ( a k9dness :i* gives pleasure & 9 ! giv+ gets pleasure1 be+ incl9$ & spontane\sly ready = t :i* x does4 ,consequ5tly1 x is n ! ?+ done or ! ?+ giv5 t matt]s1 x is ! int5tion4 ,! _s animat+ ! act is :at exalts trivial ?+s1 ?r[s lu/re on mean ?+s1 :ile x c discr$it great & highly valu$ ones4 ,! b5efit itself does n consi/ 9 :at is paid or h&$ ov]1 j z ! wor%ip ( ! gods lies n 9 ! victims (f]$ b 9 ! dutiful & upright feel+s ( ! wor%ipp]s4 ,if b5efits consi/$ 9 ?+s1 & n 9 ! actual wi% to b5efit1 !n ! m ?+s we got1 ! great] w\ld ! b5efit be4 ,b ?is is incorrect1 = sometimes ! man :o has giv5 a little 9 a noble way obliges u m deeply2 ! man1 t is1 :o has =gott5 8 own pov]ty 9 8 reg>d = m9e4 ,:at comes f a will+ h& is f> m acceptable ?an :at comes f a full h&4 ,x 0 a small fav\r = him to d2 yes1 b he c\ld d no m4 ,b x is a great ?+ :i* ?is o!r gave2 yes1 b he hesitat$1 delay$1 grumbl$ 9 ! giv+1 gave disda9fully1 or he made a %[ ( x & _h no m9d to please ! p]son on :om he be/[$ x4 ,:y1 su* a man made a pres5t to 8 own pride1 n to me6 ,,ii4--,on ,k9ds ( ,b5efits & ! ,mann] ( ,giv+ ,let u give1 9 ! fir/ place1 :at is necess>y2 secondly1 :at is useful2 next1 :at is pleasant1 & "o %\ld add1 :at is likely to la/4 ,we mu/ beg9 ) :at is necess>y2 = a matt] involv+ life appeals to ! m9d diff]5tly f m]e adornm5t & equipm5t4 ,a man may be a fa/idi\s critic 9 ! case ( a ?+ :i* he c d )\t4 ,b necess>y ?+s are ^? )\t :i* we _c live1 or )\t :i* we ought n to live1 or )\t :i* we d n want to live4 ,examples ( ! fir/ gr\p are1 to be rescu$ f ! h&s ( ! enemy1 f a tyrant's ang]1 & ! o!r *equ]$ p]ils t beset human life4 ,:i*soev] ( ^! we av]t1 we %all e>n gratitude proportionate to ! t]rible magnitude ( ! dang]4 ,next come ?+s )\t :i*1 x is true1 we c live1 yet only 9 su* plight t dea? 7 bett]2 su* ?+s are fre$om1 *a/ity1 & good consci5ce4 ,aft] ^! we %all rank ?+s de> to u f association1 blood-ties1 use1 & cu/om2 su* z *ildr51 wife1 home1 & all else r\nd :i* affection has s entw9$ itself t x views sev]ance f !m z m s]i\s ?an sev]ance f life4 ,!re is ! subsequ5t class ( ?+s useful1 a wide & v>i$ class1 includ+ money1 n sup]abundant1 b suit$ to a s5sible mode ( liv+2 & public (fice1 ) advancem5t = ^? :o look high4 ,aga91 we ought to consid] :at gift w af=d ! greate/ pleasure2 & p>ticul>ly ought we to take c>e n to s5d useless pres5ts1 su* z weapons ( ! *ase to a woman or an old man1 or books to a block-head1 or hunt+ nets to a p]son engross$ 9 lit]>y pursuits4 ,we %all be equally c>eful1 on ! o!r h&1 :ile we wi% to s5d :at w please1 n to insult fri5ds 9 ! matt] ( _! individual fail+2 n to s5d w9es to a top]1 = in/ance1 or drugs to a valetud9>ian4 ,fur!r1 if free *oice 9 giv+ lies 9 our p[]1 we %all beyond ev]y?+ select la/+ gifts1 9 ord] t ! pres5t may be z little p]i%able z possible2 = few are s grateful z to ?9k ( :at !y h receiv$ :5 !y d n see x4 ,ev5 ! ungrateful h fla%es ( recollection :5 a gift is be=e _! eyes4 ,9 a b5efit !re %\ld be common s5se4 ,"o %\ld ?9k ( "t1 place1 individuals2 on ^! factors turn ! welcome or unwelcome quality ( gifts4 ,h[ mu* m acceptable x is if we give :at "o does n possess1 ?an if we give t ( :i* he has abundance & to sp>e6 ,or ! ?+ ( :i* he has be5 long 9 que/ )\t f9d+ x1 r ?an :at he is likely to see ev]y:]e6 ,a b5efit be/[$ ^u all & sundry is acceptable to none4 ,:at y wi% p to feel grateful =1 d seldom4 ,let no "o miscon/rue ?is z an attempt to *eck g5]osity3 by all means let h] g any l5g? %e w2 b %e mu/ g /eady1 n gad ab\t4 ,s let e recipi5t h "s special m>k ab\t 8 gifts :i* may lead him to tru/ t he has be5 admitt$ to p>ticul> fav\r4 ,let him say3 ,i got ! same z t man1 b my gift came unask$2 or1 ,i got :at t man did2 b ,i secur$ x )9 a %ort p]iod1 :]eas he _h e>n$ x by long wait+2 or1 ,!re are o!rs :o h ! same2 b x 0 n giv5 ) ! same words1 nor ! same c\rtesy on ! "p ( ! giv]4 ,yet let discretion wait on b\nty2 = no delight c come ( r&om gifts4 ,i object to g5]osity becom+ extravagance4 ,z to ?is "q ( h[ to give1 ,i ?9k ,i c po9t out ! %orte/ way3 let u give 9 ! mann] 9 :i* we %\ld l to receive2 above all1 let x be done will+ly1 promptly1 )\t ! lea/ hesitation4 ,! mo/ welcome b5efits are ^? :i* are at h& = ! tak+1 :i* come to meet u1 :]e ! "o delay lies 9 ! recipi5t's mode/y4 ,! be/ c\rse is to =e/all a man's wi%es2 next be/1 to foll[ !m4 ,he :o has got aft] ask+1 has n secur$ ! fav\r = no?+2 s9ce no?+ co/s s mu* z t :i* is b\ght by pray]s4 ,i beg y is a pa9ful phrase2 x is irksome1 & has to be said ) humble looks4 ,sp>e y\r fri5d1 sp>e anyone y hope to make y\r fri5d1 ?is necessity4 ,h[ev] prompt1 a b5efactor gives too late :5 he gives by reque/4 ,all philosoph]s c\nsel t "s b5efits be giv5 9 public 7l milit>y decorations71 o!rs 9 secret 7l ^? t succ\r weakness1 want1 or disgrace74 ,sometimes ! v p]son help$ mu/ be deceiv$ into tak+ our b\nty )\t kn[+ its orig94 ,"o may insi/1 ,i wi% him to "k2 b on t pr9ciple w y refuse to save a man's life 9 ! d>k8 ,:y %\ld ,i n ab/a9 f %[+ him t ,i h giv5 him any?+1 :5 x is "o ( ! c>d9al rules nev] to reproa* a man ) :at y h done = him1 & n ev5 to rem9d him ( x8 ,= ?is is ! law ( b5efits z betwe5 ! two p>ties2 ! "o mu/ at once =get :at he has giv51 ! o!r mu/ nev] =get :at he has receiv$4 ,,iii4--,on ! ,receiv+ ( ,b5efits ,n[1 let u cross to ! o!r side1 to treat ( ! behavi\r :i* becomes m5 9 receiv+ b5efits4 ,f :o are we to receive8 ,to answ] y briefly1 ,i %\ld say1 ,f ^? to :om we %\ld h lik$ to give4 ,x is a sev]e torm5t to be indebt$ to anyone aga9/1 y\r w2 on ! o!r h&1 x is m delightful to h receiv$ a b5efit f "o :om y c\ld love ev5 aft] he has done y a wrong4 ,! tru? is t m c>e mu/ be tak5 9 ! *oice ( a cr$itor = a b5efit ?an = money2 = ! latt] mu/ h back only z mu* z ,i receiv$1 b ! =m] mu/ h m paid to him4 ,& ev5 aft] repaym5t ( ! fav\r1 we nev]!less rema9 b\nd to ea* o!r4 ,?us an unwor?y p]son is n to be admitt$ into t mo/ sacr$ bond ( k9dnesses be/[$ :5ce fri5d%ip arises4 ,b1 x is plead$1 ,i _c always say ',no4' ,suppose ! (f] is f a cruel & hot-temp]$ despot1 :o w int]pret y\r rejection ( 8 b\nty z an insult8 ,well1 :5 ,i say y ought to *oose1 ,i except sup]ior =ce & intimidation2 = ^! are factors :i* de/roy *oice4 ,b aft] we h decid$ on acceptance1 let u accept ) *e]fulness1 %[+ our gratification1 & let x be evid5t to ! giv]1 s t he may h "s imm$iate return4 ,!re are "s :o l to receive b5efits only 9 private1 = !y object to a witness & confidant4 ,"o may conclude t su* p]sons h no good int5tions4 ,o!r m5 speak mo/ (f5sively ( _! greate/ b5efactors4 ,!re are "s p :om x is saf] to affront ?an to s]ve1 s9ce by _! dislike !y seek to give ! impression ( be+ "u no obligation4 ,"o ought to accept )\t fa/idi\s affectation1 & )\t cr++ humility2 = if a man %[s small c>e at ! "t ( be/[al1 :5 e newly-conf]r$ b5efit %\ld please1 :at w he d :5 ! fir/ gl[ ( pleasure has cool$ d[n8 ,,iv4--,+ratitude ,we mu/ n[ inve/igate ! ma9 cause ( +ratitude4 ,x is caus$ by excessive self-e/eem1 ! fault inh]5t 9 mortality ( p>tiality to ourselves & all t conc]ns u2 or x is caus$ by gre$2 or by jeal\sy4 ,let u beg9 ) ! fir/ ( ^!4 ,ev]ybody is a fav\rable judge ( 8 own int]e/2 h5ce x comes t he believes himself to h e>n$ all he has receiv$1 & views a b5efit z paym5t = s]vices4 ,nor does gre$ all[ anyone to be grateful1 = a gift is nev] suffici5t = its exorbitant expectations4 ,( all ^! h9drances to gratitude1 ! mo/ viol5t & di/ress+ vice is jeal\sy1 :i* torm5ts u ) comp>isons ( ?is nature3 ,he be/[$ ?is on me1 b m ^u him1 & he gave x him e>li]4 ,!re is no k9dness s complete t malignity _c pull x to pieces1 & none s paltry t a fri5dly int]pret] may n enl>ge x4 ,y %all nev] fail ( an excuse = grumbl+ if y look at b5efits on _! wrong side4 ,see h[ c]ta9 m5--yes1 ev5 "s :o make a pr(ession ( _! philosophy--pass unfair c5sures ^u ! gifts ( heav54 ,!y compla9 because we d n equal elephants 9 bulk ( body1 h>ts 9 swiftness1 birds 9 lightness1 bulls 9 vig\r4 ,b :at has be5 d5i$ to mank9d c\ld n h be5 giv54 ,:]e=e1 :osoev] ?\ art t und]value/ human =tune1 be?9k !e :at bless+s our ,fa!r has be/[$ ^u u1 h[ _m bea/s m p[]ful ?an ourselves we h tam$ to ! yoke1 h[ _m swift] creatures we ov]take1 & h[ no?+ mortal is plac$ beyond ! rea* ( our weapons4 ,n to return gratitude = b5efits is base 9 itself1 & is held base 9 all m5's op9ion4 ,!re=e1 ev5 ! ungrateful m5 compla9 ( ! ungrateful1 & yet all ! "t ?is fail+1 :i* none comm5d1 is firmly plant$ 9 all2 s p]v]se is human nature t we f9d "s become our deadlie/ enemies1 n m]ely aft] b5efits receiv$1 b = ^? v fav\rs4 ,i _c d5y b t ?is befalls "s f a k9k 9 _! disposition2 yet m act s because ! int]position ( "t has ext+ui%$ ! remembrance4 ,ungrateful is ! man :o d5ies t he has receiv$ a good turn :i* has be5 done him2 ungrateful is he :o pret5ds he has n receiv$ x2 ungrateful is he :o makes no return2 b ! mo/ ungrateful ( all is he :o has =gott54 ,!re is a "q rais$ :e!r s hateful a vice ought to g unpuni%$4 ,n[1 ) ! exception ( ,mac$onia1 !re is no c\ntry :]e an action at law is possible = +ratitude4 ,& ?is is a /rong argum5t t no su* action %\ld be grant$4 ,?is mo/ frequ5t crime is n[h]e puni%$1 al?\gh ev]y:]e condemn$4 ,_m reasons occur to me :]eby x mu/ ne$s foll[ t ?is fault ought n to come "u ! purview ( law4 ,fir/ ( all1 ! be/ "p ( a b5efit is lo/ if a lawsuit is all[able1 z 9 ! case ( a def9ite loan4 ,aga91 :]eas x is a mo/ hon\rable ?+ to %[ gratitude1 x ceases to be hon\rable if x be =c$4 ,by su* co]cion we %\ld spoil two ( ! f9e/ ?+s 9 human life--a grateful man & a b\ntiful giv]4 ,:at1 !n8 ,%all ! ungrateful man be left un*a/is$8 ,my answ] is3 ,:at1 !n8 ,%all ! undutiful man be left un*a/is$--! malignant man1 or ! av>ici\s1 or ! man ) no self-control1 or ! cruel8 ,do/ ?\ ?9k t goes unpuni%$ :i* is loa!d8 ,do/ ?\ n call him unhappy :o has lo/ 8 eyesight1 or ^: he>+ has be5 impair$ by disease8 ,& do/ ?\ n call him mis]able :o has lo/ ! s5se ( feel+ b5efits8 ,v4--,div9e ,b5efits to ,man ,:o is !re s wret*$1 s totally =lorn1 :o has be5 born "u s h>d a fate & to su* travail z nev] to h felt ! va/ness ( ! ,div9e g5]osity8 ,look ev5 at ^? :o compla9 ( & live malcont5t ) _! lot1 & y w f9d !y are n altoge!r )\t a portion 9 ! cele/ial g5]osity2 & !re is none on :om "s drops h n fall5 f t mo/ graci\s f\nta94 ,god n give b5efits6 ,:5ce1 !n1 all y possess1 all y give1 or refuse or keep or seize8 ,:5ce comes ! inf9ity ( delights = eye1 e>1 & und]/&+8 ,:5ce t abundance t ev5 furni%es our luxury8 ,?9k ( all ! trees 9 _! ri* v>iety1 ! _m :olesome h]bs1 & su* div]sity ( foods apportion$ among ! seasons t ev5 ! slugg>d might f9d su/5ance f ! casual b\nty ( e>?4 ,:5ce come liv+ creatures ( e k9d1 "s br$ on solid dry l&1 "s 9 wat]1 o!rs spe$+ ?r\gh ! air1 to ! end t e "p ( nature may yield u "s tribute8 ,^? riv]s1 too1 t1 ) _! pretty b5ds1 environ ! pla9s1 or af=d a passage = m]*&ise z !y fl[ d[n _! broad1 navigable *annel8 ,:at ( ! spr+s ( m$ic9al wat]s8 ,:at ( ! bubbl+ =? ( hot wells ^u ! v sea%ore8 ,& :at ( !e1 ,o mighty ,l>ian ,lake8 ,& !e1 ,b5acus1 :om wild waves %ake8 ,nature1 rem>ks my critic1 gives all ?is4 ,d y n realise t 9 say+ ?is y simply *ange ! "n ( ,god8 ,= :at else is nature b ,god & ,div9e ,reason p]vad+ ! :ole univ]se & all its p>ts8 ,x is a "q :e!r "o :o has done all 9 8 p[] to return a b5efit has return$ x4 ,our oppon5t urges t ! fact t he tri$ ev]y?+ proves t he did n 9 fact succe$ 9 return+ x2 &1 !re=e1 evid5tly t he c\ld n h done a ?+ = :i* he f\nd no opportunity4 ,b if a physician has done all 9 8 p[] to effect a cure1 he has p]=m$ 8 duty4 ,s y\r fri5d did all 9 8 p[] to repay y a good turn1 only y\r good =tune /ood 9 8 way4 ,he c\ld n give money to ! weal?y1 nurse "o 9 good heal?1 or run to y\r aid :5 all 0 prosp]\s4 ,on ! o!r h&1 if he _h =gott5 a b5efit receiv$1 if he _h n ev5 tri$ to be grateful1 y w\ld say he _h n %[n gratitude2 b z x 01 he lab\r$ day & night1 to ! neglect ( o!r claims1 to let no *ance ( prov+ 8 ?ankfulness escape him4 ,,h]b]t ,,sp5c] ,education ,h]b]t ,sp5c] 0 born at ,d]by1 9 ,engl&1 9 #ahbj4 ,he 0 taught by 8 fa!r :o 0 a tea*]1 & by 8 uncle1 a cl]gyman4 ,at ! age ( sev5te5 he became a civil eng9e]1 b ab\t eight ye>s lat] ab&on$ ! pr(ession because he believ$ x to be ov]cr[d$4 ,9 #ahdh he 0 engag$ on ! ,economi/1 & five ye>s lat] he began to write = ! qu>t]ly reviews4 ,sp5c]'s little book on ,education dates f #ahfa1 & has probably be5 m widely read ?an all 8 o!r works put toge!r1 hav+ be5 translat$ into almo/ all civilis$1 & sev]al primitive languages4 ,x is g5]ally recognis$ z hav+ effect$ ! greate/ educational re=m ( ! n9ete5? c5tury4 ,x 0 c]ta9ly ! mo/ p[]ful ( s+le ag5ts 9 effect+ ! lib]ation ( girlhood f its unnatural trammels4 ,x plac$ ! :ole !ory ( education ^u a s\nd biological basis 9 ! nature ( ! *ild & ! natural c\rse ( its evolution z a liv+ creature4 ,sp5c] /ruck a fatal bl[ at ! morbid asceticism by proxy :i* adults us$ to practice ^u _! *ildr51 & s great has be5 ! influ5ce ( 8 "w = ! amelioration ( *ildhood t he is c]ta9ly to be c\nt$ ) ! philan?ropic on ?is gr\nd4 ,! fir/ *apt] has no equal 9 lit]ature 9 its spl5didly sob] praise ( natural k4 ,! wide k :i* ,sp5c]'s writ+s display ( physical sci5ce1 & 8 con/ant endeavor to illu/rate & support 8 sy/em by connect+ its position ) sci5tific facts & laws h giv5 8 philosophy great curr5cy among m5 ( sci5ce--m s1 inde$1 ?an among philosophical exp]ts4 ,sp5c] di$ ,decemb] #h1 #aijc4 ,i4--,:at ,k is ( ,mo/ ,wor?8 ,x has be5 truly rem>k$ t 9 ord] ( "t decoration prec$es dress1 ! idea ( ornam5t pr$om9ates ov] t ( use4 ,x is curi\s t ! l relations hold ) ! m9d4 ,among m5tal1 z among bodily acquisitions1 ! ornam5tal comes be=e ! useful4 ,alike 9 ! ,greek s*ools z 9 our own1 ?is is ! case4 ,m5 dress _! *ildr5's m9ds z !y d _! bodies 9 ! prevail+ fa%ion2 & 9 ! treatm5t ( bo? m9d & body1 ! decorative elem5t has cont9u$ to pr$om9ate 9 an ev5 great] degree among wom5 ?an among m54 ,! bir?s1 dea?s1 & m>riages ( k+s1 & o!r l hi/oric trivialities are committ$ to memory1 n because ( any direct b5efit t c possibly result f kn[+ !m1 b because society consid]s !m p>ts ( a good education--because ! abs5ce ( su* k may br+ ! contempt ( o!rs4 ,n :at k is ( ! mo/ real wor? is ! consid]ation2 b :at w br+ mo/ applause1 hon\r1 respect--:at w be ! mo/ impos+4 ,z ?r\gh\t life n :at we are b :at we %all be ?\ght is ! "q1 s 9 education ! "q is n ! intr9sic value ( k s mu* z its extr9sic effect on o!rs2 & ?is be+ our dom9ant idea1 direct utility is sc>cely m reg>d$ ?an by ! b>b>ian :5 fil+ 8 tee? & /a9+ 8 nails4 ,! comp>ative wor?s ( diff]5t k9ds ( k h be5 z yet sc>cely ev5 discuss$4 ,b be=e !re c be a curriculum1 we mu/ det]m9e1 z ,bacon w\ld h said1 ! relative value ( kn[l$ges4 ,to ?is end a measure ( value is ! fir/ requisite1 & "h !re c happily be no dispute4 ,h[ to live8--t is ! ess5tial "q = u4 ,to prep>e u = complete liv+ is ! function :i* education is to dis*>ge4 ,we mu/ !re=e classify ! lead+ k9ds ( activity :i* con/itute human life4 ,9 ord] ( importance !y are 7#a7 ^? :i* directly m9i/] to self-pres]vation1 7#b7 ^? :i* by secur+ ! necess>ies ( life indirectly m9i/] to self-pres]vation1 7#c7 ^? :i* h = _! end ! re>+ & discipl9e ( (fspr+1 7#d7 ^? :i* are involv$ 9 ! ma9t5ance ( prop] social & political relations1 7#e7 ^? miscellane\s activities :i* fill up ! leisure "p ( life1 devot$ to ! gratification ( ! ta/es & feel+s4 ,x c easily be %[n t ^! /& 9 some?+ l _! true ord] ( subord9ation1 & su* %\ld be ! ord] ( education4 ,x mu/ give att5tion to all ( ^!2 greate/ :]e ! value is greate/2 less :]e ! value is less2 lea/ :]e ! value is lea/4 ,happily t all-important "p ( education :i* goes to secure direct self-pres]vation is 9 great "p already provid$ =4 ,too mom5t\s to be left to our blund]+1 nature takes x into h] own h&s1 b !re mu/ be no su* ?w>t+ ( nature z t by :i* /upid s*ool-mi/resses commonly prev5t ! girls 9 _! *>ge f ! spontane\s physical activities !y w\ld indulge 92 & s r5d] !m comp>atively incapable ( tak+ c>e ( !mselves 9 circum/ances ( p]il4 ,b m is ne$$1 & x is t we %\ld le>n ! laws ( life & ( heal?4 ,?is dep5ds ^u sci5ce1 yet t increas+ acqua9tance ) ! laws ( ph5om5a :i* has ?r\gh successive ages enabl$ u to subjugate nature to our ne$s1 & 9 ^! days gives ! common lab\r] com=ts :i* a few c5turies ago k+s c\ld n pur*ase1 is sc>cely 9 any degree old to ! appo9t$ means ( in/ruct+ our y\?4 ,! vital k--t by :i* we h gr[n z a nation to :at we are1 & :i* und]lies our :ole exi/5ce--is a k t has got itself taught 9 nooks & corn]s1 :ile ! orda9$ ag5cies = tea*+ h be5 mumbl+ little else ?an dead =mulas4 ,hi!rto we h made no prep>ation :atev] = ! ?ird great division ( human activities--! c>e ( (fspr+1 on :i* no ^w ( in/ruction is ev] giv5 to ^? :o w by & by be p>5ts4 ,yet t p>5ts %\ld beg9 ! difficult task ( re>+ *ildr51 )\t ev] hav+ giv5 a ?\ght to ! pr9ciples1 physical1 moral1 or intellectual1 :i* ought to guide !m1 excites nei!r surprise at ! actors nor pity = _! victims4 ,to t5s ( ?\s&s t are kill$1 & hundr$s ( ?\s&s t survive ) feeble con/itutions1 add millions t gr[ up ) con/itutions n s /rong z !y %\ld be1 & y w h "s idea ( ! curse inflict$ on _! (fspr+ by p>5ts ignorant ( ! laws ( life4 ,ar*itecture1 sculpture1 pa9t+1 music1 & poetry may truly be call$ ! effloresc5ce ( civilis$ life1 b ! production ( a heal?y civilis$ life mu/ be ! fir/ condition4 ,! vice ( our educational sy/em is t x neglects ! plant = ! sake ( ! fl[]4 ,9 anxiety = elegance x =gets sub/ance1 prep>+ n at all = ! dis*>ge ( p>5tal functions & = ! duties ( citiz5%ip1 by imp>t+ a mass ( facts mo/ ( :i* are irrelevant1 & ! re/ )\t a key4 ,b ! accompli%m5t ( all ^? ?+s :i* con/itute ! effloresc5ce ( civilisation %\ld be :olly subord9ate to t in/ruction & discipl9e on :i* civilisation re/s4 ,z !y occupy ! leisure "p ( life1 s %\ld !y occupy ! leisure "p ( education4 ,yet 9 ?is rema9+ sph]e ( activity1 also1 sci5tific k is fundam5tal1 & only :5 g5ius is m>ri$ to sci5ce c ! highe/ results be produc$2 inde$1 n only does sci5ce und]lie ! arts1 b sci5ce is itself poetic4 ,! curr5t op9ion t sci5ce & poetry are oppos$ is a delusion4 ,on ! contr>y1 sci5ce op5s up realms ( poetry :]e to ! unsci5tific all is blank4 ,?9k y t ! r\nd$ rock m>k$ ) p>allel scrat*es calls up z mu* poetry 9 an ignorant m9d z 9 ! m9d ( a geologi/1 :o kn[s t ov] ?is rock a glaci] slid a million ye>s ago8 ,! tru? is t ^? :o h nev] ent]$ ^u sci5tific pursuits are bl9d to mo/ ( ! poetry by :i* !y are surr\nd$4 ,sad inde$ is x to see h[ _m m5 occupy !mselves ) trivialities1 & are indiff]5t to ! gr&e/ ph5om5a--c>e n to und]/& ! ar*itecture ( ! heav5s1 b are deeply int]e/$ 9 "s contemptible controv]sy ab\t ! intrigues ( ,m>y ,que5 ( ,scots are le>n$ly critical ov] a ,greek ode1 & pass by )\t a glance t gr& epic writt5 by ! f+] ( ,god ^u ! /rata ( ! e>?6 ,if we exam9e ! value ( sci5ce z discipl9e1 its priority is /ill assur$1 :e!r = discipl9e ( memory1 or ( judgm5t1 or = moral discipl9e4 ,also1 ! discipl9e ( sci5ce is sup]ior to t ( our ord9>y education because ( ! religi\s culture t x gives4 ,d\btless1 to ! sup]/itions t pass "u ! "n ( religion1 sci5ce is antagoni/ic2 b n to ! ess5tial religion :i* ^! sup]/itions m]ely hide2 d\btless1 too1 9 mu* ( ! sci5ce t is curr5t !re is a p]vad+ _s ( irreligion1 b n 9 t true sci5ce :i* has pass$ beyond ! sup]ficial into ! pr(\nd4 ,n sci5ce1 b ! neglect ( sci5ce1 is irreligi\s2 devotion to sci5ce is a tacit wor%ip--a tacit recognition ( wor? 9 ! ?+s /udi$2 & by implication 9 _! ,cause4 ,only ! g5u9e man ( sci5ce c truly "k h[ utt]ly beyond n only human k1 b human conception1 is ! ,univ]sal ,p[] ( :i* ,nature & ,life & ,?\ght are manife/ations4 ,,ii4--,intellectual ,education ,:ile believe & ask no que/ions 0 ! maxim ( ! *ur*1 x 0 fitly ! maxim ( ! s*ools4 ,9 t age m5 also believ$ t a *ild's m9d c\ld be made to ord]1 t its p[]s 7 to be imp>t$ by ! s*oolma/]2 t x 0 a receptacle into :i* k 0 to be put & !re built up aft] ! tea*]'s idea4 ,b n[ we are le>n+ t !re is a natural process ( m5tal evolution :i* is n to be di/urb$ )\t injury2 t we may n =ce on ! unfold+ m9d our artificial =ms1 b t psy*ology1 l economics1 discloses to u a law ( supply & dem&1 to :i*1 if we w\ld n d h>m1 we mu/ con=m4 ,! =c+ sy/em has be5 by _m giv5 up1 & precocity is disc\rag$4 ,p are beg9n+ to see t ! fir/ requisite to success 9 life is to be a good animal4 ,! once univ]sal practice ( le>n+ by rote is daily fall+ into discr$it4 ,we are sub/itut+ pr9ciples = rules1 z is exemplifi$ 9 ! ab&onm5t ( t int5sely /upid cu/om1 ! tea*+ ( gramm> to *ildr54 ,b ( all ! *anges tak+ place1 ! mo/ significant is ! gr[+ desire to make ! acquirem5t ( k pleasurable r ?an pa9ful--a desire bas$ on ! m or less di/9ct p]ception t at ea* age ! intellectual action :i* a *ild likes is a heal?y "o = x2 & conv]sely4 ,we are on ! highway t[>ds ! doctr9e long ago enunciat$ by ,pe/alozzi t alike 9 its ord] & its me?ods1 education mu/ con=m to ! natural process ( m5tal evolution4 ,education %\ld be a repetition ( civilisation 9 little4 ,*ildr5 %\ld be told z little z possible & induc$ to discov] z mu* z possible4 ,! ne$ = p]petual tell+ results f our /upidity1 n f ! *ild's4 ,we drag x away f ! facts 9 :i* x is int]e/$1 & :i* x is actively assimilat+ ( itself4 ,we put be=e x facts f> too complex = x to und]/&1 & !re=e di/a/eful to x4 ,by d5y+ ! k x craves1 & cramm+ x ) k x _c dige/1 we produce a morbid /ate ( its faculties2 & a consequ5t disgu/ = k 9 g5]al4 ,& hav+ by our me?od induc$ helplessness1 we make ! helplessness a reason = our me?od4 ,education ( "s k9d %\ld beg9 f ! cradle4 ,:oev] has wat*$ ) any disc]nm5t ! wide-ey$ gaze ( ! infant at surr\nd+ objects1 kn[s v well t education does beg9 ?us e>ly1 :e!r we int5d x or n2 & t ^! f+]+s & suck+s ( ev]y?+ x c lay hold (1 ^! op5-m\!d li/5+s to e s\nd1 are fir/ /eps 9 ! s]ies :i* ends 9 ! discov]y ( unse5 planets1 ! inv5tion ( calculat+ eng9es1 ! production ( great pa9t+s1 or ! composition ( symphonies & op]as4 ,?is activity ( ! faculties f ! v fir/1 be+ spontane\s & inevitable1 ! "q is :e!r we %all supply 9 due v>iety ! mat]ials on :i* !y may ex]cise !mselves2 & to ! "q s put1 none b an affirmative answ] c be giv54 ,"h we mu/ take ! c\rse :i* psy*ology dictates4 ,:at c be m manife/ ?an ! desire ( *ildr5 = intellectual sympa?y8 ,m>k h[ ! infant sitt+ on y\r knee ?ru/s into y\r face ! toy x holds1 t y may look at x4 ,see :5 x makes a creak ) its wet f+] on ! table1 h[ x turns & looks at y2 does x aga91 & aga9 looks at y2 ?us say+ z cle>ly z x c--,he> ?is new s\nd4 ,wat* ! eld] *ildr5 com+ into ! room exclaim+--,mamma1 see :at a curi\s ?+2 ,mamma1 look at ?is2 ,mamma1 look at t2 a habit :i* !y w\ld cont9ue did n ! silly mamma tell !m n to tease h]4 ,does n ! induction lie on ! surface8 ,is x n cle> t we mu/ con=m our c\rse to ^! intellectual in/9cts--t we mu/ j sy/ematise ! natural process--t we mu/ li/5 to all ! *ild has to tell u ab\t ea* object1 & !nce proce$8 ,to tell a *ild ?is1 & to %[ x ! o!r1 is n to tea* x h[ to obs]ve1 b to make x a m]e recipi5t ( ano!r's obs]vations2 a proce$+ :i* weak5s r ?an /r5g!ns its p[] ( self-in/ruction4 ,object lessons %\ld be arrang$ to ext5d to ?+s f> wid] & cont9ue to a p]iod f> lat] ?an n[2 !y %\ld n be limit$ to ! cont5ts ( ! h\se1 b %\ld include ^? ( ! fields & h$ges1 ! qu>ry & ! sea%ore2 !y %\ld n cease ) e>ly *ildhood1 b %\ld be s kept up dur+ y\? z ins5sibly to m]ge into ! inve/igation ( ! naturali/ & ! man ( sci5ce4 ,we are q prep>$ to he> f _m t all ?is is ?r[+ away "t & en]gy2 & t *ildr5 w\ld be mu* bett] occupi$ 9 writ+ _! copies & le>n+ _! p5ce tables1 & s fitt+ !mselves = ! bus9ess ( life4 ,we regret t su* crude ideas ( :at con/itutes education1 & su* a n>r[ conception ( utility1 %\ld /ill be preval5t4 ,b ?is gross utilit>ianism :i* is cont5t to come into ! _w & quit x aga9 )\t kn[+ :at k9d ( a _w x is1 or :at x conta9s1 may be met on its own gr\nd4 ,x w by & by be f\nd t a k ( ! laws ( life is m important ?an any o!r k :atev]--t ! laws ( life und]lie n only all bodily & m5tal processes1 b by implication all ! transactions ( ! h\se & ! /reet1 all comm]ce1 all politics1 all morals--& t !re=e )\t a compreh5sion ( !m1 nei!r p]sonal nor social conduct c be rightly regulat$4 ,x w ev5tually be se51 too1 t ! laws ( life are ess5tially ! same ?r\gh\t ! :ole organic creation4 ,no "o c comp>e ! faces & mann]s ( two boys--! "o made happy by ma/]+ int]e/+ subjects1 & ! o!r made mis]able by disgu/ ) 8 /udies1 by consequ5t inability1 by cold looks1 by ?reats1 by puni%m5t--)\t see+ t ! disposition ( "o is be+ b5efit$ & t ( ! o!r injur$4 ,:oev] has m>k$ ! effects ( success & failure ^u ! m9d & ! p[] ( ! m9d ov] ! body1 w see t 9 ! "o case bo? temp] & heal? are fav\rably affect$1 :ile 9 ! o!r !re is dang] ( p]man5t moros5ess1 ( p]man5t timidity1 & ev5 ( p]man5t con/itutional depression4 ,z sugge/+ a f9al reason = mak+ education a process ( self-in/ruction1 & by consequ5ce a process ( pleasurable in/ruction1 we may adv]t to ! fact t1 9 proportion z x is made s1 !re is a probability t x w n cease :5 s*ooldays end4 ,z long z ! acquisition ( k is r5d]$ habitually repugnant1 s long w !re be a prevail+ t5d5cy to discont9ue x :5 free f ! co]cion ( p>5ts & ma/]s4 ,& :5 ! acquisition ( k has be5 r5d]$ habitually gratify+1 !n !re w be z prevail+ a t5d5cy to cont9ue1 )\t sup]9t5d5ce1 t self-culture previ\sly c>ri$ on "u sup]9t5d5ce4 ,,iii4--,moral ,education ,! greate/ defect 9 our programmes ( education is entirely ov]look$4 ,?\gh "s c>e is tak5 to fit y\?s ( bo? sexes = society & citiz5%ip1 no c>e :atev] is tak5 to fit !m = ! position ( p>5ts4 ,:ile x is se5 t = ! purpose ( ga9+ a livelihood1 an elaborate prep>ation is ne$$1 x appe>s to be ?\ght t = ! br++ up ( *ildr5 no prep>ation :atev] is ne$$4 ,:ile _m ye>s are sp5t by a boy 9 ga9+ k ( :i* ! *ief value is t x con/itutes ! education ( a g5tleman1 & :ile _m ye>s are sp5t by a girl 9 ^? decorative acquirem5ts :i* fit h] = ev5+ p>ties1 n an h\r is sp5t by ei!r 9 prep>ation = a family4 ,is x t ?is responsibility is b a remote cont+5cy8 ,on ! contr>y1 x is sure to devolve on n9e out ( t54 ,is x t ! dis*>ge ( x is easy8 ,c]ta9ly n3 ( all functions :i* ! adult has to fulfil1 ?is is ! mo/ difficult4 ,is x t ea* may be tru/$ by self-in/ruction to fit himself1 or h]self1 = ! (fice ( p>5t8 ,no3 n only is ! ne$ = su* self-in/ruction unrecognis$1 b ! complexity ( ! subject r5d]s x ! "o ( all o!rs 9 :i* self-in/ruction is lea/ likely to succe$4 ,no rational plea c be put =w>d = leav+ ! art ( education out ( our curriculum4 ,:e!r z be>+ on ! happ9ess ( p>5ts !mselves1 or :e!r z affect+ ! *>act]s & lives ( _! *ildr5 & remote desc5dants1 we mu/ admit t a k ( ! "r me?od ( juv5ile culture1 physical1 intellectual & moral1 is a k ( extreme importance4 ,?is topic %\ld be ! f9al "o 9 ! c\rse ( in/ruction pass$ ?r\gh by ea* man & woman4 ,z physical maturity is m>k$ by ! ability to produce (fspr+1 s m5tal maturity is m>k$ by ! ability to tra9 ^? (fspr+4 ,! subject :i* involves all o!r subjects1 & !re=e ! subject 9 :i* education %\ld culm9ate1 is ! ,,!ory ,,& ,,practice ,,( ,,education4 ,our sy/em ( moral control mu/ aga9 be bas$ ^u nature1 :o illu/rates to u 9 ! simple/ way ! true !ory & practice ( moral discipl9e4 ,! natural reactions :i* foll[ ! *ild's wrong-do+s are con/ant1 direct1 unhesitat+1 & n to be escap$4 ,no ?reats2 b a sil5t rigor\s p]=mance4 ,if a *ild runs a p9 into its f+]1 pa9 foll[s2 if x does x aga91 !re is aga9 ! same result2 & s on p]petually4 ,9 all its deal+s ) inorganic nature x f9ds ?is unsw]v+ p]si/5ce1 :i* li/5s to no excuse1 & f :i* !re is no appeal2 & v soon recognis+ ?is /]n ?\gh b5efic5t discipl9e1 x soon becomes extremely c>eful n to transgress4 ,^! g5]al tru?s hold ?r\gh\t adult life z well z ?r\gh\t infantile life4 ,if fur!r pro( be ne$$ t ! natural reaction is n only ! mo/ effici5t p5alty1 b t no humanly devis$ p5alty c replace x1 we h su* fur!r pro( 9 ! notori\s ill-success ( our v>i\s p5al sy/ems4 ,out ( ! _m me?ods ( crim9al discipl9e t h be5 propos$ & legally en=c$1 none h answ]$ ! expectations ( _! advocates4 ,artificial puni%m5ts h fail$ to produce re=mation2 & h 9 _m cases increas$ ! crim9ality4 ,! only successful re=matories are ^? privately e/abli%$ ones :i* approximate _! regime to ! me?od ( nature--:i* d little m ?an adm9i/] ! natural consequ5ces ( crim9al conduct3 dim9i%+ ! crim9al's lib]ty ( action z mu* z is ne$ful = ! safety ( society1 & requir+ him to ma9ta9 himself :ile liv+ "u ?is re/ra9t4 ,?us we see1 bo? t ! discipl9e by :i* ! "y *ild is taught to regulate its movem5ts is ! discipl9e by :i* ! great mass ( adults are kept 9 ord]1 & m or less improv$2 & t ! discipl9e humanly devis$ = ! wor/ adults fails :5 x div]ges f ?is div9ely-orda9$ discipl9e1 & beg9s to succe$ on approximat+ to x4 ,n only is x unwise to set up a high /&>d ( good conduct = *ildr51 b x is ev5 unwise to use v urg5t incitem5ts to good conduct4 ,already mo/ p recognise ! detrim5tal results ( intellectual precocity2 b !re rema9s to be recognis$ ! fact t moral precocity also has detrim5tal results4 ,be sp>+ ( comm&s1 b :5ev] y d comm&1 comm& ) decision & con/ancy4 ,rememb] t ! aid ( y\r discipl9e %\ld be to produce a self-gov]n+ be+2 n to produce a be+ to be gov]n$ by o!rs4 ,la/ly1 always rememb] t to educate rightly is n a simple & easy ?+1 b a complex & extremely difficult ?+2 ! h>de/ task :i* devolves on adult life4 ,y w h to c>ry on y\r own moral education at ! same "t t y are educat+ y\r *ildr54 ,! la/ /age 9 ! m5tal developm5t ( ea* man & woman is to be rea*$ only ?r\gh a prop] dis*>ge ( ! p>5tal duties2 & :5 ?is tru? is recognis$ x w be se5 h[ admirable is ! arrangem5t ?r\gh :i* human be+s are l$ by _! /ronge/ affections to subject !mselves to a discipl9e t !y w\ld else elude2 & we %all see t :ile 9 its injuri\s effects on bo? p>5ts & *ild a bad sy/em is twice curs$1 a good sy/em is twice bless$--x blesses him t tra9s & him t is tra9$4 ,,iv4--,physical ,education ,! sy/em ( re/riction 9 reg>d to food :i* _m p>5ts ?9k s necess>y is bas$ ^u inadequate obs]vation1 & errone\s reason+4 ,!re is an ov]-legislation 9 ! nurs]y z well z ov]-legislation 9 ! /ate2 & "o ( ! mo/ injuri\s =ms ( x is ?is limitation 9 ! quantity ( food4 ,we cont5d t1 z appetite is a good guide to all ! l[] creation--z x is a good guide to ! infant--z x is a good guide to ! invalid--z x is a good guide to ! diff]5tly-plac$ races ( man--& z x is a good guide = e adult :o leads a heal?ful life1 x may safely be inf]r$ t x is a good guide to *ildhood4 ,x w\ld be /range inde$ 7 x "h alone untru/wor?y4 ,) clo?+1 z ) food1 ! usual t5d5cy is t[>ds an improp] scant9ess4 ,"h1 too1 asceticism creeps out4 ,yet x is n ob$i5ce to ! s5sations1 b disob$i5ce to !m :i* is ! habitual cause ( bodily evils4 ,x is n ! eat+ :5 hungry1 b ! eat+ 9 ! abs5ce ( hung]1 :i* is bad2 x is n dr9k+ :5 ?ir/y1 b cont9u+ to dr9k :5 ?ir/ has ceas$1 t is ! vice4 ,aga91 h>m does n result f tak+ t active ex]cise :i*1 z e *ild %[s u1 nature /rongly prompts1 b f a p]si/5t disreg>d ( nature's prompt+s2 b ! natural spontane\s ex]cise hav+ be5 =bidd51 & ! bad consequ5ces ( no ex]cise hav+ become conspicu\s1 !re has be5 adopt$ a sy/em ( factiti\s ex]cise--gymna/ics4 ,t ?is is bett] ?an no?+ we admit2 b t x is an adequate sub/itute = play we d5y4 ,! tru? is t happ9ess is ! mo/ p[]ful ( tonics4 ,by accel]at+ ! circulation ( ! blood1 x facilitates ! p]=mance ( e function2 & s t5ds alike to increase heal? :]e x exi/s1 & to re/ore x :5 x has be5 lo/4 ,h5ce ! intr9sic sup]iority ( play to gymna/ics4 ,! extreme int]e/ felt by *ildr5 9 _! games1 & ! riot\s glee ) :i* !y c>ry on _! r\gh] frolics1 are ( z mu* importance z ! accompany+ ex]tion2 & z n supply+ ^! m5tal /imuli gymna/ics mu/ be radically defective1 & c nev] s]ve 9 place ( ! ex]cises prompt$ by nature4 ,= girls z well z boys ! sportive activities to :i* ! in/9cts impel are ess5tial to bodily welf>e4 ,:oev] =bids !m1 =bids ! div9ely-appo9t$ means to physical developm5t4 ,we suff] at pres5t f a v pot5t detrim5tal influ5ce1 :i* is excess ( m5tal application1 =gett+ t nature is a /rict acc\ntant1 & if y dem& ( h] 9 "o direction m ?an %e is prep>$ to lay out1 %e balances ! acc\nt by mak+ a r$uction else:]e4 ,we =get t x is n k :i* is /or$ up z intellectual fat t is ( value1 b t :i* is turn$ into intellectual muscle4 ,worse /ill1 our sy/em is fatal to t vig\r ( physique ne$ful to make intellectual tra9+ available 9 ! /ruggle ( life4 ,yet a good dige/ion1 a b\nd+ pulse1 & high spirits are elem5ts ( happ9ess :i* no ext]nal advantages c outbalance4 ,p]haps no?+ w s mu* ha/5 ! "t :5 body & m9d w bo? be adequately c>$ =1 z a diffusion ( ! belief t ! pres]vation ( heal? is a duty4 ,few seem consci\s t !re is su* a ?+ z physical morality4 ,m5's habitual words & acts imply ! idea t !y are at lib]ty to treat _! bodies z !y please4 ,disord]s entail$ by disob$i5ce to nature's dictates1 !y reg>d simply z grievances2 n z ! effects ( a conduct m or less flagiti\s4 ,?\gh ! evil consequ5ces inflict$ on _! dep5d5ts1 & on future g5]ations1 are (t5 z great z ^? caus$ by "t1 yet !y d n ?9k !mselves 9 any degree crim9al4 ,x is true t1 9 ! case ( drunk5ness1 ! vici\sness ( a bodily transgression is recognis$2 b none appe> to inf] t1 if ?is bodily transgression is vici\s1 s1 too1 is e bodily transgression4 ,! fact is1 t all brea*es ( ! laws ( heal? are physical s9s4 ,:5 ?is is g5]ally se51 !n1 & p]haps n till !n1 w ! physical tra9+ ( ! "y receive ! att5tion :i* x des]ves4 ,pr9ciples ( ,biology ,9 #ahfj ,sp5c] comm5c$ a connect$ s]ies ( philosophical works1 design$ to unfold 9 _! natural ord] ! pr9ciples ( biology1 psy*ology1 sociology & morality4 ,pr9ciples ( ,biology 0 publi%$ 9 #ahfd1 & aims to set =?1 ! g5]al tru?s ( biology z illu/rative (1 & z int]pret$ by ! laws ( evolution4 ,x 0 revis$ 9 #ahii4 ,proximate ,def9ition ( ,life ,to ^? :o accept ! g5]al doctr9e ( evolution1 x ne$s sc>cely to be po9t$ out t classifications are subjective conceptions :i* h no absolute dem>cations 9 nature correspond+ to !m4 ,consequ5tly 9 attempt+ to def9e any?+ complex we c sc>cely ev] avoid includ+ m ?an 0 int5d$1 or leav+ out some?+ t %\ld be tak5 94 ,?us x happ5s t on seek+ a def9ition ( life !re is great difficulty 9 f9d+ "o t is nei!r m nor less ?an suffici5t4 ,z ! be/ mode ( det]m9+ ! g5]al *>act]i/ics ( vitality1 let u comp>e its two mo/ unlike k9ds & see 9 :at !y agree4 ,*oos+ assimilation1 !n1 = our example ( bodily life1 & reason+ = our example ( ! life kn[n z intellig5ce1 x is fir/ to be obs]v$ t !y are bo? processes ( *ange4 ,)\t *ange food _c be tak5 into ! blood nor trans=m$ into tissue3 nei!r c conclusions be obta9$ f premises4 ,?is conspicu\s manife/ation ( *ange =ms ! sub/ratum ( our idea ( life 9 g5]al4 ,comp>ison %[s ?is *ange to diff] f non-vital *anges 9 be+ made up ( successive *anges4 ,! food mu/ und]go ma/ication1 dige/ion1 etc41 :ile an argum5t necessitates a long *a9 ( /ates ( consci\sness1 ea* imply+ a *ange ( ! prec$+ /ate4 ,vital *ange is fur!r made up ( _m simultane\s *anges4 ,assimilation & argum5t bo? include _m actions go+ on toge!r4 ,vital *anges1 bo? visc]al & c]ebral1 also diff] f o!r *anges 9 _! het]og5eity2 nei!r ! simultane\s nor ! s]ial acts ( dige/ion or ( ratioc9ation are at all alike4 ,!y are aga9 di/+ui%$ by ! comb9ation subsi/+ among _! con/itu5t *anges4 ,! acts t make up dige/ion are mutually dep5d5t2 z are ^? :i* compose a tra9 ( reason+4 ,once m1 !y diff] 9 be+ *>act]is$ by def9it5ess4 ,assimilation1 respiration1 & circulation1 are def9itely int]dep5d5t4 ,^! *>act]isations n only m>k (f ! vital f ! non-vital1 b also creatures ( high vitality f ^? ( l[ vitality4 ,h5ce our =mula reads ?us3--,life is ! def9ite comb9ation ( het]og5e\s *anges1 bo? simultane\s & successive4 ,n a def9ite comb9ation1 all[+ t !re may be o!rs1 b ! def9ite comb9ation4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 omits its mo/ di/9ctive peculi>ity4 ,correspond5ce ,betwe5 ,life & ,its ,circum/ances ,we habitually di/+ui% betwe5 a live object & a dead "o by obs]v+ :e!r a *ange 9 ! surr\nd+ conditions is or is n foll[$ by "s p]ceptible & appropriate *ange 9 ! object4 ,add+ ?is all-important *>act]i/ic1 our conception ( life becomes--! def9ite comb9ation ( het]og5e\s *anges1 bo? simultane\s & successive1 9 correspond5ce ) ext]nal coexi/5ces & sequ5ces4 ,"s illu/rations may s]ve to %[ ! significance ( ?is addition4 ,e act ( locomotion implies ! exp5diture ( c]ta9 int]nal me*anical =ces1 adapt$ 9 am\nts & directions to balance or outbalance c]ta9 ext]nal ones4 ,! recognition ( an object is impossible )\t a h>mony betwe5 ! *anges con/itut+ p]ception & p>ticul> prop]ties coexi/+ 9 ! environm5t4 ,escape f enemies supposes motions )9 ! organism relat$ 9 k9d & rapidity to motions )\t x4 ,de/ruction ( prey requires a p>ticul> comb9ation ( subjective actions1 fitt$ 9 degree & succession to ov]come a gr\p ( objective ones4 ,! diff]5ce ( ?is correspond5ce 9 inanimate & animate bodies may be express$ by symbols4 ,let ,a be a *ange 9 ! environm5t2 & ,b "s result+ *ange 9 an inorganic mass4 ,!n ,a hav+ produc$ ,b1 ! action ceases4 ,b take a suffici5tly organis$ liv+ body1 & let ! *ange ,a impress on x "s *ange ,c2 !n1 :ile ! environm5t ,a is occasion+ a1 9 ! liv+ body1 ,c w be occasion+ c3 ( :i* a & c w %[ a c]ta9 concord 9 "t1 place1 or int5sity4 ,& :ile x is 9 ! cont9u\s production ( su* concords or correspond5ces t life consi/s1 x is by ! cont9u\s production ( !m t life is ma9ta9$4 ,z1 9 all cases1 we may consid] ! ext]nal ph5om5a z simply 9 relation1 & ! int]nal ph5om5a also z simply 9 relation1 ! broade/ & mo/ complete def9ition ( life w be3--! cont9u\s adju/m5t ( int]nal relations to ext]nal relations4 ,x w be be/1 h[ev]1 commonly to employ its m concrete equival5t--to consid] ! int]nal relations z def9ite comb9ations ( simultane\s & successive *anges2 ! ext]nal relations z coexi/5ces & sequ5ces1 & ! connection betwe5 !m z a correspond5ce4 ,! ,degree ( ,life ,v>ies z ! ,degree ( ,correspond5ce ,x is n[ to be rem>k$ t ! life is high 9 proportion z ?is correspond5ce betwe5 int]nal & ext]nal relations is well-fulfill$4 ,ea* /ep upw>d mu/ consi/ 9 add+ to ! previ\sly adju/$ relations :i* ! organism exhibits "s fur!r relation1 p>allel to a fur!r relation 9 ! environm5t4 ,& ! great] correspond5ce ?us e/abli%$ mu/1 o!r ?+s be+ equal1 %[ itself bo? 9 great] complexity ( life & great] l5g? ( life--a tru? :i* w be duly realis$ on rememb]+ ! enorm\s mortality :i* prevails among l[ly-organiz$ creatures1 & ! gradual increase ( longevity & dim9ution ( f]tility :i* is met ) 9 asc5d+ to creatures ( high] & high] developm5t4 ,^? relations 9 ! environm5t to :i* relations 9 ! organism mu/ correspond increase 9 numb] & int5sity z ! life assumes a high] =m4 ,p]fect correspond5ce w\ld be p]fect life4 ,gr[?1 or ,increase ( ,bulk ,p]haps ! wide/ & mo/ famili> induction ( biology is t organisms gr[4 ,"u appropriate conditions increase ( size takes place 9 inorganic aggregates z well z 9 organic aggregates4 ,cry/als gr[4 ,gr[? is inde$ a concomitant ( evolution4 ,! sev]al conditions by :i* ! ph5om5a ( organic gr[? are gov]n$1 conspir+ & conflict+ 9 endless ways & degrees1 qualify m or less diff]5tly ea* o!rs' effects4 ,h5ce ! foll[+ g5]alisations mu/ be tak5 z true on ! av]age1 or o!r ?+s equal3-- ,fir/1 t gr[? be+ an integration ) ! organism ( su* environ+ matt]s z are ( l nature ) ! matt]s compos+ ! organism1 its gr[? is dep5d5t on ! available supply ( su* matt]s4 ,second1 t ! available supply ( assimilable matt]s be+ ! same1 & o!r conditions n dissimil>1 ! degree ( gr[? v>ies accord+ to ! surplus ( nutrition ov] exp5diture4 ,?ird1 t 9 ! same organism ! surplus ( nutrition ov] exp5diture is a v>iable quantity2 & t gr[? is unlimit$ or has a def9ite limit accord+ z ! surplus does or does n progressively decrease1--a proposition exemplifi$ by ! increas+ gr[? ( organisms t d n exp5d =ce1 & by ! def9itely limit$ gr[? ( organisms t exp5d mu* =ce4 ,f\r?1 t among organisms t are l>ge exp5d]s ( =ce1 ! size ultimately atta9$ is1 o!r ?+s equal1 det]m9$ by ! initial size4 ,fif?1 t :]e ! lik5ess ( o!r circum/ances p]mits a comp>ison1 ! possible degree ( gr[? dep5ds ^u ! degree ( organisation3 an inf]5ce te/ifi$ to by ! l>g] =ms among ! v>i\s divisions & subdivisions ( organisms4 ,:y ,d ,organisms ,cease to ,gr[ ,:y %\ld n all organisms1 :5 suppli$ ) suffici5t mat]ial1 cont9ue to gr[ z long z !y live8 ,we h f\nd t organisms are mo/ly built up ( comp\nds :i* are /ores ( =ce4 ,^! sub/ances be+ at once ! mat]ials = organic gr[? & ! s\rces ( organic =ce1 x foll[s1 f ! p]si/5ce ( =ce1 t gr[? is sub/antially equival5t to ! absorb$ nutrim5t m9us ! nutrim5t us$ up 9 action4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 does n acc\nt = ! fact t 9 e dome/ic animal ! increm5ts ( gr[? be> cont9ually decreas+ ratios to ! mass1 & f9ally come to an end4 ,nev]!less1 x is demon/rable t ! excess ( absorb$ ov] exp5d$ nutrim5t mu/ decrease z ! size increases4 ,s9ce 9 simil> bodies ! areas v>y z ! squ>es ( ! dim5sions & ! masses v>y z ! cubes1 x foll[s t1 h[ev] great ! excess ( assimilation ov] wa/e may be dur+ ! e>ly life ( an active organism1 !re mu/ be rea*$1 if ! organism lives long en\gh1 a po9t at :i* ! surplus assimilation is br\ght to no?+--a po9t at :i* exp5diture balances nutrition1 a /ate ( mov+ equilibrium4 ,obvi\sly1 ?is antagonism betwe5 assimilation & exp5diture mu/ be a lead+ cause ( ! contra/ 9 size betwe5 alli$ organisms t are 9 _m respects simil>ly condition$4 ,developm5t1 or ,increase ( ,/ructure ,9 ea* ( ! organic sub-k+doms ! *ange f an incoh]5t1 indef9ite homog5eity to a coh]5t def9ite het]og5eity is illu/rat$ 9 a quadruple way4 ,! orig9ally-l units or cells become unlike1 9 v>i\s ways1 & 9 ways m num]\sly m>k$ z ! developm5t goes on4 ,! sev]al tissues :i* ^! sev]al classes or cells =m by aggregation1 gr[ little by little di/9ct f ea* o!r2 & little by little become /ructurally complex4 ,9 ! %oot z 9 ! limb1 ! ext]nal =m1 orig9ally v simple & hav+ mu* 9 common ) c\ntless simple =ms1 organic & inorganic1 gradually acquires an increas+ complexity1 & an increas+ unlik5ess to o!r =ms1 & mean:ile1 ! rema9+ p>ts ( ! organism1 hav+ be5 develop$ sev]ally1 assum+ /ructures div]g+ f ea* o!r & f t ( ?is p>ticul> %oot or limb1 !re has aris5 a great] het]og5eity 9 ! organism z a :ole4 ,! mo/ rem>kable induction ( von ,ba] comes next 9 ord]4 ,x is t 9 its e>lie/ /age e organism has ! greate/ numb] ( *>act]s 9 common ) all o!r organisms 9 _! e>lie/ /ages2 t at ea* subsequ5t /age traits are acquir$ :i* successively di/+ui% ! develop+ embryo f gr\ps ( embryos t x previ\sly resembl$--?us /ep by /ep dim9i%+ ! gr\p ( embryos :i* x /ill resembles2 & t ?us ! class ( simil> =ms is f9ally n>r[$ to ! species ( :i* x is a memb]4 ,= example1 ! human g]m1 prim>ily simil> to all o!rs1 fir/ diff]5tiates f vegetal g]ms1 !n f inv]tebrate g]ms1 & subsequ5tly assumes ! mammalian1 plac5tal unguiculate1 & la/ly ! human *>act]s4 ,! developm5t ( an individual organism is at ! same "t a diff]5tiation ( its p>ts f ea* o!r & a diff]5tiation ( ! consolidat$ :ole f ! environm5t2 & 9 ! la/ z 9 ! fir/ respect !re is a g5]al analogy betwe5 ! progression ( an individual organism & ! progression ( ! l[e/ ord]s ( organisms to ! highe/ ord]s4 ,! ,laws ( ,multiplication ,e liv+ aggregate be+ "o ( :i* ! inn] actions are adju/$ to balance out] actions1 x foll[s t ! ma9t5ance ( its mov+ equilibrium dep5ds on its exposure to ! "r am\nts ( ^! actions4 ,its mov+ equilibrium may be ov]turn$ if "o ( ^! actions is ei!r too great or too small 9 am\nt3 ei!r by excess or defect ( "s inorganic or organic ag5cy 9 its environm5t4 ,our inquiry resolves itself into ?is3--9 races t cont9ue to exi/ :at laws ( num]ical v>iation result f ^! v>iable conflict+ =ces8 ,! =ces pres]vative ( a race are two--ability 9 ea* memb] ( ! race to pres]ve itself1 & ability to produce o!r memb]s4 ,^! mu/ v>y inv]sely--"o mu/ decrease z ! o!r increases4 ,we h to ask 9 :at way ?is adju/m5t comes ab\t z a result ( evolution4 ,includ+ "u individuation all ^? processes complet+ & ma9ta9+ individual life1 & "u g5esis all ^? aid+ ! =mation & p]fect+ ( new individuals1 ! two are necess>ily antagoni/ic4 ,e high] degree ( individual evolution is foll[$ by a l[] degree ( race multiplication1 & vice v]sa4 ,progress 9 bulk1 complexity or activity involves retrogress 9 f]tility2 & progress 9 f]tility involves retrogress 9 bulk1 complexity1 or activity4 ,! same quantity ( matt] may be divid$ into _m small :oles or few l>ge :oles2 b numb] negatives l>g5ess1 & l>g5ess negatives numb]4 ,x is a g5]al physiological tru? t :ile ! build+-up ( ! individual is go+ on rapidly1 ! reproductive organs rema9 imp]fectly develop$ & inactive2 & t ! comm5cem5t ( reproduction at once indicates a decl9+ rate ( gr[? & becomes a cause ( arre/ 9 gr[?4 ,x has n[ to be notic$ h[ complexity ( organisation is h9d]$ by reproductive activity & conv]sely4 ,! hydra's p[] to produce "y ones f ne>ly all p>ts ( its body is due to ! comp>ative homog5eity ( its body1 :ile x is n improbable t ! smallness ( human f]tility1 comp>$ ) ! f]tility ( l>ge fel9e animals1 is due to ! great] complexity ( ! human organisation--m especially ! organisation ( ! n]v\s sy/em4 ,( ! inv]se v>iation betwe5 activity & g5esis we h examples 9 ! contra/ betwe5 ! f]tility ( birds & ! f]tility ( mammals4 ,comp>+ ! l>ge ) ! l>ge & ! small ) ! small1 we see t creatures :i* cont9ually g ?r\gh ! muscul> ex]tion ( su/a9+ !mselves 9 ! air & propell+ !mselves rapidly ?r\gh x are less prolific ?an creatures ( equal weights :i* g ?r\gh ! small] ex]tion ( mov+ ab\t ov] solid surfaces4 ,! extreme inf]tility ( ! bat is mo/ /rik+ :5 comp>$ ) ! /ructurally simil> b v prolific m\se2 a diff]5ce 9 ! rate ( multiplication :i* may fairly be ascrib$ to ! diff]5ce 9 ! rate ( exp5diture4 ,int]pretation & ,qualification ,d]iv$ z ! self-su/a9+ & wa/e-su/a9+ =ces are f a common /ock ( =ce1 x necess>ily happ5s t1 o!r ?+s be+ equal1 increase ( ! "o involves decrease ( ! o!r4 ,x may !re=e be set d[n z a law t e high] degree ( organic evolution has = its concomitant a l[] degree ( ! peculi> organic dissolution :i* is se5 9 ! production ( new organisms4 ,h[ is ! ratio betwe5 individuation & g5esis e/abli%$ 9 ea* case8 ,all specialties ( ! reproductive process are due to ! natural selection ( fav\rable v>iations4 ,giv5 a c]ta9 surplus available = race pres]vation1 & x is cle> t by indirect equilibration only c !re be e/abli%$ t peculi> di/ribution ( ?is surplus :i* is se5 9 ea* case4 ,"h a qualification mu/ be made4 ,recognis+ ! tru? t e increase ( evolution :i* is appropriate to ! circum/ances ( an organism br+s an advantage some:at 9 excess ( its co/1 ! g5]al law1 m /rictly /at$1 is t g5esis decreases n q s fa/ z individuation increases4 ,! result ( great] individuation--:e!r x takes ! =m ( great] /r5g? or high] spe$1 facilitates "s habitual movem5t or utilises bett] ! absorb$ alim5t--is a great] surplus ( vital capital2 "p ( :i* goes to ! aggr&isem5t ( ! individual & "p to ! =mation ( new individuals4 ,h5ce e type t is be/ adapt$ to its conditions has a rate ( multiplication t insures a t5d5cy to pr$om9ate4 ,survival ( ! fitte/1 act+ alone1 is ev] replac+ inf]ior species by sup]ior species4 ,b beyond ! long] survival1 & !re=e great] *ance ( leav+ (fspr+1 :i* sup]iority gives1 we see "h ano!r way 9 :i* ! spread ( ! sup]ior is insur$4 ,?\gh ! m evolv$ organism is ! less f]tile absolutely1 x is ! m f]tile relatively4 ,multiplication ( ! ,human ,race ,:at causes increase or decrease ( g5esis 9 o!r creatures causes increase or decrease ( g5esis 9 man4 ,x is true t1 ev5 m ?an hi!rto1 our reason+s are "h beset ) difficulties4 ,s num]\s are ! inequalities 9 ! conditions t b few unobjectionable comp>isons c be made4 ,! human races diff] n only 9 _! sizes & foods1 & 9 ! climates !y inhabit1 b also _! exp5ditures 9 bodily & m5tal action are extremely unequal4 ,! increase ( f]tility caus$ by nutrition t is greatly 9 excess ( exp5diture is to be detect$ by comp>+ populations ( ! same race or ( alli$ races "o ( :i* obta9s good & abundant su/5ance mu* m easily ?an ! o!r4 ,on c>ry+ out su* comp>isons x is se5 t 9 ! human race1 z 9 all o!r races1 su* absolute or relative abundance ( nutrim5t z leaves a l>ge excess aft] defray+ ! co/ ( c>ry+ on p>5tal life1 is accompani$ by a high rate ( g5esis4 ,x is also app>5t t relative increase ( exp5diture1 leav+ a dim9i%$ surplus1 r$uces f]tility4 ,t inf]tility is g5]ally produc$ 9 wom5 by m5tal lab\r c>ri$ to excess is %[n 9 ! fact t mo/ ( ! flat-*e/$ girls :o survive _! high-pressure education are incompet5t to be> a well-develop$ infant & to supply x ) ! natural food = ! natural p]iod4 ,x is a matt] ( common rem>k h[ frequ5tly m5 ( unusual m5tal activity leave no (fspr+4 ,x is likely to be urg$ t s9ce ! civilis$ races are on ! av]age l>g] ?an _m ( ! uncivilis$ races1 & s9ce !y are also some:at m complex z well z m active1 !y ought1 9 accordance ) ! alleg$ g5]al law1 & o!r ?+s be+ equal1 to be less prolific4 ,b o!r ?+s are n equal2 & x is to ! inequality ( ! o!r ?+s t ?is app>5t anomaly is attributable4 ,"o m objection has to be met4 ,cases may be nam$ ( m5 conspicu\s = activity1 bodily & m5tal1 :o 7 also not$1 n = less g5]ative p[] ?an usual1 b = m4 ,! cases are analog\s to "s be=e-nam$ 9 :i* m abundant food simultane\sly aggr&ises ! individual & adds to ! production ( new individuals--! diff]5ces betwe5 cases be+ t in/ead ( a bett] ext]nal supply ( mat]ial !re is a bett] int]nal utilisation ( mat]ials4 ,"s peculi>ity ( organic balance1 "s pot5cy ( ! dige/ive juices1 gives to ! sy/em a p]petual high tide ( ri* blood t s]ves at once to enhance ! vital activities & to raise ! p[] ( propagation4 ,! proportion betwe5 individuation & g5esis rema9s ! same3 bo? are increas$ by ! increase ( ! common /ock ( mat]ials4 ,human ,population 9 ! ,future ,any fur!r evolution 9 ! mo/ highly-evolv$ ( t]re/rial be+s--man--mu/ be ( ! same nature z evolution 9 g5]al4 ,x mu/ be an advance t[>ds completion ( t cont9u\s adju/m5t ( int]nal to ext]nal relations :i* 0 %[n to con/itute life4 ,look+ at ! sev]al possibilities1 & ask+ :at direction ?is fur!r evolution1 ?is m complete mov+ equilibrium1 ?is bett] adju/m5t ( inn] to out] relations1 ?is m p]fect co-ord9ation ( action is likely to take3--! conclusion is t x mu/ take ma9ly ! direction ( a high] intellectual & emotional developm5t4 ,!re is abundant scope = developm5t 9 asc]ta9+ ! conditions ( exi/5ce to :i* we mu/ con=m2 & 9 acquir+ a great] p[] ( self-regulation4 ,:at are ^? *anges 9 ! environm5t to :i*1 by direct or indirect equilibration ! human organism has be5 adju/+ itself1 is adju/+ itself n[1 & w cont9ue to adju/ itself8 ,& h[ d !y necessitate a high] evolution ( ! organism8 ,9 all cases pressure ( population is ! orig9al cause4 ,7 x n = ! competition ?is entails1 s mu* ?\ght & en]gy w\ld n be sp5t on ! bus9ess ( life2 & gr[? ( m5tal p[] w\ld n take place4 ,difficulty 9 gett+ a liv+ is alike ! inc5tive to a high] education ( *ildr51 & to a m int5se & long-cont9u$ application 9 adults4 ,no?+ b necessity c\ld make m5 submit to ?is discipl9e2 & no?+ b ?is discipl9e c\ld produce a cont9u$ progression4 ,excess ( f]tility is !n ! cause ( man's fur!r evolution4 ,& ! obvi\s coroll>y is t man's fur!r evolution itself necessitates a decl9e 9 8 f]tility4 ,! fur!r progress ( civilisation w be accompani$ by an enhanc$ co/ ( individuation3 :e!r x be 9 great] gr[? ( ! organs :i* subs]ve self-ma9t5ance1 9 _! add$ complexity ( /ructure1 or 9 _! high] activity1 ! ab/raction ( ! requir$ mat]ial1 implies a dim9i%$ res]ve ( mat]ials = race ma9t5ance4 ,?is great] emotional & intellectual developm5t does n necess>ily mean a m5tally labori\s life--=1 z ! goal becomes organic1 x w become spontane\s & pleasurable4 ,! necess>y antagonism ( individuation & g5esis n only fulfils ! a priori law ( ma9t5ance ( ! race f ! monad up to man1 b insures f9al atta9m5t ( ! highe/ =m ( ?is ma9t5ance--a =m 9 :i* ! am\nt ( life %all be ! greate/ possible & ! bir?s & dea?s z few z possible4 ,f ! beg9n+ pressure ( population has be5 ! proximate cause ( progress4 ,aft] hav+ duly /ock$ ! globe ) inhabitants2 rais$ all its habitable p>ts into ! highe/ /ate ( culture2 br\ght all processes = ! satisfaction ( human wants to p]fection2 develop$ ! intellect into complete compet5cy = its "w1 & ! feel+s into complete fitness = social life2 ! pressure ( population z x gradually f9i%$ its "w1 mu/ gradually br+ itself to an end4 ,*anges1 num]ical1 social1 organic1 mu/ by _! mutual influ5ces "w unceas+ly t[>ds a /ate ( h>mony--a /ate 9 :i* ea* ( ! factors is j equal to its "w4 ,& ?is highe/ conceivable result mu/ be wr\ght out by ! same univ]sal process :i* ! simple/ inorganic action illu/rates4 ,pr9ciples ( ,sociology ,pr9ciples ( ,sociology 0 publi%$ 9 f\r p>ts f #ahgf to #ahhj4 ,x =ms "p ( a connect$ s]ies4 ,9 ,fir/ ,pr9ciples inorganic evolution--t ( ! />s & ( ! sol> sy/em--0 outl9$2 organic evolution 0 dealt ) 9 ,pr9ciples ( ,biology2 & 9 ! pres5t treatise1 ,pr9ciples ( ,sociology1 we approa* sup]-organic evolution1 & are introduc$ to ! sci5ce ( society "u its ,comti/ title ,sociology4 ,sup]-organic evolution may be m>k$ (f f1 organic by tak+ x to include all ^? processes & products :i* imply ! co-ord9at$ action ( _m individuals4 ,comm5c+ ) ! developm5t ( ! family1 sociology has next to describe & expla9 ! rise & developm5t ( political organisation2 ! evolution ( ! ecclesia/ical /ructures & functions2 ! control embodi$ 9 c]emonial obs]vances2 & ! relations betwe5 ! regulative & op]ative divisions ( e society4 ,i4--,dome/ic ,t evolution decreases ! sacrifice ( individual life to ! life ( ! species1 we may see on glanc+ upw>ds f ! microscopic protozoa1 :]e ! brief p>5tal life disappe>s absolutely 9 ! lives ( ! prog5y1 to ! mammalia1 :]e ! greate/ conciliation ( ! int]e/s ( ! species1 ! p>5ts & ! "y1 is display$4 ,! highe/ con/itution ( ! family is rea*$ :]e !re is su* conciliation betwe5 ! ne$s ( ! society & ^? ( its memb]s1 old & "y1 t ! mortality betwe5 bir? & ! reproductive age falls to a m9imum1 :ile ! lives ( adults h _! subord9ation to ! re>+ ( *ildr5 r$uc$ to ! smalle/ possible4 ,! dim9ution ( ?is subord9ation takes place 9 ?ree ways3 ,fir/1 by elongation ( t p]iod :i* prec$es reproduction2 second1 by few] (fspr+ born1 z well z by increase ( ! pleasure tak5 9 ! c>e ( !m2 & ?ird1 by l5g!n+ ( ! life :i* foll[s cessation ( reproduction4 ,let u be> 9 m9d t ! dome/ic relations :i* are e?ically ! highe/1 are also biologically & sociologically ! highe/4 ,,m>riage ,! propriety ( sett+ out ) ! =ego+ purely natural-hi/ory view w be evid5t ^u le>n+ t among l[ savages ! relations ( ! sexes are sub/antially l ^? common among inf]ior creatures4 ,! effect ( promiscuity1 h[ev]1 be+ to h9d] social evolution1 :]ev] x 0 accompani$ by unions hav+ "s duration1 ! product ( su* unions 7 likely to be sup]ior to o!rs1 & f ?is primitive /age dome/ic evolution takes place 9 sev]al directions by increase ( coh]5ce & def9it5ess4 ,f promiscuity we pass to t =m ( poly&ry 9 :i* ! unrelat$ husb&s h b "o wife2 !nce to ! =m 9 :i* ! husb&s are relat$2 & f9ally to ! =m 9 :i* !y are bro!rs only1 z 9 ! frat]nal poly&ry ( ! anci5t ,britons4 ,x is almo/ ne$less to po9t out t1 z 9 pass+ f promiscuity to poly&ry ! dome/ic relations become m coh]5t & def9ite1 s d !y 9 pass+ f ! l[] =ms ( poly&ry to ! high]4 ,t polygyny is bett] ?an poly&ry may be conclud$ f its effects4 ,x conduces 9 a high] degree to social self-pres]vation ?an ! inf]ioi types ( m>ital relations by mak+ possible m rapid replacem5t ( m5 lo/ 9 w>1 & s increases ! *ance ( social survival4 ,by e/abli%m5t ( desc5t 9 ! male l9e x conduces to political /ability2 &1 by mak+ possible a develop$ =m ( ance/or-wor%ip1 x consolidates society4 ,,monogamy ,societies :i* f g5]ation to g5]ation produce 9 due abundance individuals :o relatively to ! requirem5ts are ! be/ physically1 morally1 & intellectually1 mu/ become ! pr$om9ant societies1 & mu/ t5d ?r\gh ! quiet process ( indu/rial competition to replace o!r societies4 ,consequ5tly1 m>ital relations :i* fav\r ?is result 9 ! highe/ degree mu/ spread2 :ile ! prevail+ s5tim5ts & ideas mu/ become s m\ld$ into h>mony ) !m t o!r relations w be condemn$ z immoral4 ,! monogamic =m ( ! sexual relations is manife/ly ! ultimate =m2 & any *anges to be anticipat$ mu/ be 9 ! direction ( completion & ext5sion ( x4 ,,ii4--,political ,organisation ,a society is =m$ only :51 besides juxtaposition !re is co-op]ation4 ,co-op]ation is made possible by society & makes society possible4 ,x pre-supposes associative m52 & m5 rema9 associat$ only because ( ! b5efits co-op]ation yields !m4 ,b !re _c be conc]t$ actions )\t ag5cies by :i* actions are adju/$ 9 _! times1 am\nts1 & k9ds2 & ! actions _c be ( diff]5t k9ds )\t ! co-op]ators und]tak+ diff]5t duties4 ,t is to say1 ! co-op]ators mu/ become organis$1 ei!r volunt>ily or involunt>ily4 ,,aggregation ,! political evolution manife/$ by increase ( mass is political aggregation4 ,"o ( ! laws ( evolution at l>ge is t integration results :5 l units are subject to ! same =ce or ! l =ces2 & f ! fir/ /ages ( political integration to ! la/ ?is law is illu/rat$4 ,lik5ess 9 ! units =m+ a social gr\p be+ "o condition$ to _! integration1 a fur!r condition is _! jo9t reaction aga9/ ext]nal action3 co-op]ation 9 w> is ! *ief cause ( social integration4 ,! tempor>y unions ( savages = (f5ce & def5ce %[ ! initiatory /eps4 ,:5 _m tribes unite aga9/ a common enemy1 long cont9uance ( _! comb9$ action makes !m coh]5t "u "s common control4 ,& s x is subsequ5tly ) /ill l>g] aggregates4 ,,diff]5tiation ,! /ate ( homog5eity 9 ! social aggregate is an un/able "o4 ,! prim>y political diff]5tiation orig9ates f ! prim>y family diff]5tiation4 ,m5 & wom5 v e>ly respectively =m ! two political classes ( rul]s & rul$4 ,! slave class acquires sep>at5ess only z fa/ z !re arrives "s re/rictions on ! p[]s ( ! own]s2 slaves beg9 to =m a division ( ! body politic :5 _! p]sonal claims beg9 to be di/+ui%$ z limit+ ! claims ( _! ma/]s4 ,:]e m5 h pass$ into ! agricultural or settl$ /ate x becomes possible = "o community to take possession bodily ( ano!r community1 along ) ! t]ritory x occupies4 ,:5 ?is happ5s1 !re arise additional class divisions4 ,! class diff]5tiation ( :i* militancy is ! actual cause is fur!r$ by ! e/abli%m5t ( def9ite desc5t1 especially male desc5t1 & by ! transmission ( position & prop]ty to ! elde/ son ( ! elde/ cont9ually4 ,inequalities ( position & weal? once initiat$ t5d to increase & to e/abli% physical diff]5ces2 & beyond ^! !re are produc$ by ! respective habits ( life m5tal diff]5ces1 emotional & intellectual1 /r5g!n+ ! g5]al contra/ ( nature4 ,:5 !re come conque/s :i* produce comp\nd societies & d\bly comp\nd ones !re result sup]positions ( ranks3 :ile ! ranks ( ! conqu]+ society become respectively high] ?an ^? :i* h exi/$ be=e1 ! ranks ( ! conqu]$ society become respectively l[]4 ,! political diff]5tiations :i* militancy orig9ates & :i* = a long "t increase 9 def9it5ess1 are at lat] /ages & "u o!r conditions int]f]$ )1 trav]s$1 & p>tially or :olly de/roy$4 ,:ile ! high] political evolution ( l>ge social aggregates t5ds to break d[n ! divisions ( rank :i* grew up 9 ! small compon5t social aggregates1 by sub/itut+ o!r divisions1 ^! orig9al divisions are /ill m brok5 d[n by gr[+ indu/rialism4 ,g5]at+ a weal? t is n connect$ ) rank1 ?is initiates a compell+ p[]2 & at ! same "t1 by e/abli%+ ! equal positions ( citiz5s be=e ! law 9 respect ( trad+ transactions1 x weak5s ^? divisions :i* at ! outset express$ inequality ( position be=e ! law4 ,,political ,,=ms ,,& ,,=ces ,9 its primitive =m political p[] is ! feel+ ( ! community act+ ?r\gh an ag5cy :i* x has ei!r in=mally or =mally e/abli%$2 & ?is public feel+1 :ile x is to "s ext5t ! feel+ spontane\sly =m$ by ^? conc]n$1 x is to a mu* l>g] ext5t ! accumulat$ & organis$ s5tim5t ( ! pa/4 ,ev]y:]e we are %[n t ! rul]'s function z regulator is ma9ly t ( en=c+ ! inh]it$ rules ( conduct :i* embody ance/ral s5tim5ts & ideas4 ,,*iefs ,,& ,,k+s ,at ! outset ! pr9ciple ( effici5cy 0 ! sole pr9ciple ( organisation1 b evid5tly supremacy :i* dep5ds exclusively on p]sonal attributes is b transitory4 ,only :5 ! *ief's place is =?) fill$ by "o ^: claim is admitt$ does !re beg9 a diff]5tiation :i* survives ?r\gh successive g5]ations4 ,! cu/om ( reckon+ desc5t ?r\gh females1 x may be not$1 is less fav\rable to ! e/abli%m5t ( p]man5t political head%ip ?an is ! sy/em ( k9%ip ?r\gh males1 :i* conduces to a m coh]5t family1 to a great] culture ( subord9ation & to a m probable union ( inh]it$ position & inh]it$ capacity4 ,9 sundry semi-civilis$ societies di/+ui%$ by p]man5t political head%ips1 inh]itance ?r\gh males has be5 e/abli%$ 9 ! rul+ h\se :ile inh]itance ?r\gh females survives 9 ! society at l>ge4 ,desc5t ?r\gh males also fo/]s ance/or-wor%ip1 & ! consequ5t re9=c+ ( natural au?ority by sup]natural au?ority--a v p[]ful factor4 ,developm5t ( ! gho/ !ory1 lead+ z x does to special fe> ( ! gho/s ( p[]ful m51 until1 :]e _m tribes h be5 weld$ toge!r by a conqu]or1 8 gho/ acquires 9 tradition ! pre-em95ce ( a god1 produces two effects4 ,9 ! fir/ place 8 desc5dant is suppos$ to p>take ( 8 div9e nature2 & 9 ! second place1 by propitiatory sacrifices to him is suppos$ to obta9 8 aid4 ,f ! evolution-/&po9t we are enabl$ to disc]n ! relative b5efic5ce ( in/itutions :i*1 consid]$ absolutely1 are n b5efic5t2 & we are taught to approve z tempor>y t :i* z p]man5t we abhor4 ,! evid5ce %[s t subjection to despots has be5 l>gely in/rum5tal 9 advanc+ civilis$ life4 ,,comp\nd ,,political ,,heads ,an exam9ation ( fact %[s t :]e gr\ps ( ! patri>*al type fall into regions p]mitt+ consid]able gr[?s ( population1 b hav+ physical /ructures :i* imp$e ! c5tralisation ( p[]1 comp\nd political heads w arise & = a "t su/a9 !mselves ?r\gh co-op]ation ( ! two factors1 indep5d5ce ( local gr\ps1 & ne$ = union 9 w>4 ,?us1 z ,momms5 says1 primitive ,rome 0 r an aggregate ( urban settlem5ts ?an a s+le city4 ,n only d conditions det]m9e ! v>i\s =ms :i* comp\nd heads assume1 b conditions det]m9e ! v>i\s *anges !y und]go4 ,!y may be n>r[$ by militancy1 or !y may be wid5$ by indu/rialism4 ,,consultative ,,bodies ,! c\ncil ( w> is ! g]m out ( :i* ! consultative body arises4 ,)9 ! w>rior class1 :i* 0 ( necessity ! l&-own+ class1 w> produces increas+ diff]5ces ( weal?1 z well z increas+ diff]5ces ( /atus2 s t milit>y lead]s come to be di/+ui%$ z l>ge l&[n]s & local rul]s4 ,h5ce memb]s ( a consultative body become contra/$ ) ! freem5 at l>ge--n only z lead+ w>riors are contra/$ ) _! foll[]s1 b /ill m z m5 ( weal? & au?ority4 ,if ! k+ atta9s or acquires ! reputation ( sup]natural desc5t or au?ority1 & ! law ( h]$it>y succession is s settl$ z to exclude election1 ^? :o might o!rwise h =m$ a consultative body hav+ co-ord9ate p[] become simply appo9t$ advis]s4 ,b if ! k+ has n ! pre/ige ( suppos$ sacr$ orig9 or commission ! consultative body reta9s p[]2 & if ! k+ cont9ues to be elect$ x is liable to become an olig>*y4 ,,repres5tative ,,bodies ,h[ is ! gov]nm5tal influ5ce ( ! p acquir$8 ,! prim>y purpose = :i* *ief m5 & repres5tatives are assembl$ is t ( vot+ money4 ,! rev5ues ( rul]s are d]iv$ at fir/ :olly & aft]w>ds p>tly f pres5ts4 ,?is prim>y obligation to r5d] money & s]vice to ! head ( ! ,/ate1 (t5 reluctantly compli$ )1 is resi/$ :5 ! exactions are great1 & resi/ance causes conciliatory measures4 ,f ability to prescribe conditions "u :i* money w be vot$ gr[s ! ability1 & f9ally ! "r1 to jo9 9 legislation4 ,,laws ,law is ma9ly an embodim5t ( ance/ral injunctions4 ,! liv+ rul] able to legislate only 9 respect ( matt]s unprovid$ =1 is b\nd by ! transmitt$ comm& ( ! unkn[n & ! kn[n :o h pass$ away4 ,h5ce ! trait common to societies 9 e>ly /ages t ! prescrib$ rules ( conduct1 ( :atev] k9d1 h a religi\s sanction4 ,9 societies t become l>ge & complex1 !re arise =ms ( activity & int]c\rse n provid$ = 9 ! sacr$ code2 & 9 respect ( ^! ! rul] is free to make regulations4 ,?us !re comes into exi/5ce a body ( laws ( kn[n human orig91 :i* has n ! sacr$ness ( ! god-desc5d$ body ( laws3 human law diff]5tiates f div9e law4 ,& 9 proportion z ! pr9ciple ( volunt>y co-op]ation m & m *>act]ises ! social type1 fulfilm5t ( contracts & impli$ ass]tion ( equality 9 m5's rights become ! fundam5tal requirem5ts1 & ! cons5sus ( individual int]e/s ! *ief s\rce ( law2 su* au?ority z law o!rwise d]iv$ cont9ues to h be+ recognis$ z second>y1 & insi/$ ^u only because ma9t5ance ( law = its own sake indirectly fur!rs ! g5]al welf>e4 ,! !ories at pres5t curr5t adapt$ to ! exi/+ compromise betwe5 militancy & indu/rialism are /eps t[>ds ! ultimate !ory 9 con=mity ) :i* law w h no o!r ju/ification ?an t ga9$ by x z ma9ta9] ( ! conditions to complete life 9 ! associat$ /ate4 ,,prop]ty ,! desire to appropriate lies deep 9 animal nature1 be+1 inde$1 a condition to survival4 ,! consci\sness t conflict & consequ5t injury may probably result f ! endeav\r to take t :i* is held by ano!r t5ds to e/abli% ! cu/om ( leav+ ea* 9 possession ( :atev] he has obta9$ by lab\r4 ,) ! passage f a nomadic to a settl$ /ate1 own]%ip ( l& by ! community becomes qualifi$ by individual own]%ip2 b only to ! ext5t t ^? :o cle> & cultivate portions ( ! surface h undi/urb$ enjoym5t ( its produce4 ,habitually ! public claim survives1 qualifi$ by v>i\s =ms ( private own]%ip mo/ly tempor>y2 b w> und]m9es communal proprietor%ip ( l&1 & p>tly or :olly sub/itutes = x ei!r ! unqualifi$ proprietor%ip ( an absolute conqu]or1 or proprietor%ip by a conqu]or1 qualifi$ by ! claims ( vassals hold+ x "u c]ta9 conditions1 :ile _! claims are 9 turn qualifi$ by ^? ( dep5d5ts atta*$ to ! soil4 ,! individualisation ( own]%ip ext5d$ & made m def9ite by trad+ transactions "u contract1 ev5tually affects ! own]%ip ( l&4 ,b\ght & sold by measure & = money1 l& is assimilat$ 9 ?is respect to ! p]sonal prop]ty produc$ by lab\r1 b !re is reason to suspect t :ile possession ( su* ?+s w gr[ m sacr$1 ! inhabit$ area :i* _c be produc$ by lab\r w ev5tually be di/+ui%$ z some?+ :i* may n be privately possess$4 ,,! ,,indu/rial ,,type ,,( ,,society ,! traits ( ! indu/rial type ( society are s hidd5 by ^? ( ! /ill dom9ant militant type t its nature is n[h]e m ?an v p>tially exemplifi$4 ,! indu/rial type is di/+ui%$ f ! militant type z be+ n bo? positively regulat$ & negatively regulat$1 b z be+ negatively regulat$ only4 ,to ! memb] ( ! indu/rial community au?ority says ,?\ %alt n1 & n ,?\ %alt4 ,on turn+ to ! civilis$ to obs]ve ! =m ( individual "* :i* accompanies ! indu/rial =m ( society1 we enc\nt] ! difficulty t ! p]sonal traits prop] to indu/rialism are1 l ! social traits1 m+l$ ) ^? prop] to militancy4 ,nev]!less1 on contra/+ ! *>act]s ( our ance/ors dur+ m w>like p]iods ) our own *>act]s1 we see t1 ) an increas+ ratio ( indu/rialism to militancy1 h come a gr[+ indep5d5ce1 a less m>k$ loyalty1 a small] fai? 9 gov]nm5ts1 & a m qualifi$ patriotism2 & :ile !re has be5 %[n a /r5g!n+ ass]tion ( individuality !re has accompani$ x a gr[+ respect = ! individualities ( o!rs1 z is impli$ by ! dim9ution ( aggressions ^u !m1 & ! multiplication ( ef=ts = _! welf>e4 ,x seems ne$ful to expla9 t x is n s mu* t a social life pass$ 9 peaceful occupations is positively moralis+1 z t a social life pass$ 9 w> is positively demoralis+4 ,! sacrifice ( o!rs to self is 9 ! "o incid5tal only2 :ile 9 ! o!r x is necess>y4 ,,political ,,prospect ,x appe>s to be an unavoidable inf]5ce t ! ultimate executive ag5cy mu/ become 9 "s way or o!r elective4 ,f su* evid5ce z exi/+ society w af=d u1 x is to be inf]r$ t ! highe/ ,/ate-(fice 9 :atev] way fill$ w cont9ue to decl9e 9 importance4 ,no speculations conc]n+ ultimate political =ms c1 h[ev]1 be reg>d$ z any?+ b t5tative4 ,!re w probably be consid]able v>iety 9 ! special =ms ( ! political in/itutions ( indu/rial society2 all ( !m be>+ traces ( pa/ in/itutions :i* h be5 br\ght into congruity ) ! repres5tative pr9ciple4 ,to turn to political functions1 :5 corporate action is no long] ne$$ = pres]v+ a society z a :ole f de/ruction or injury by o!r societies1 ! end :i* rema9s = x is t ( pres]v+ ! compon5t memb]s ( society f injury by "o ano!r4 ,) ?is limitation ( ! /ate function x is probable t !re w be simultane\sly c>ri$ fur!r t trait :i* already *>act]ises ! mo/ indu/rially-organis$ society--! p]=mance ( increas+ly-num]\s & increas+ly-important functions by o!r organisations ?an ^? :i* =m dep>tm5ts ( ! gov]nm5t4 ,already private ent]prise1 work+ ?r\gh incorporat$ bodies ( citiz5s1 a*ieves ends undream$ ( z s a*ievable 9 primitive societies2 & 9 ! future o!r ends undream$ ( n[ z s a*ievable w be a*iev$4 ,! conclusion ( pr(\nde/ mom5t to :i* l9es ( argum5t conv]ge is t ! possibility ( a high social /ate political z well z g5]al1 fundam5tally dep5ds on ! cessation ( w>4 ,p]si/5t militancy1 ma9ta9+ adapt$ in/itutions1 mu/ inevitably prev5t1 or else neutralise1 *anges 9 ! direction ( m equitable in/itutions & laws2 :ile p]man5t peace w ( necessity be foll[$ by social ameliorations ( e k9d4 ,,iii4--,ecclesia/ical ,in/itutions ,rightly to trace ! evolution ( ecclesia/ical in/itutions1 we mu/ "k :5ce came ! ideas & s5tim5ts impli$ by !m4 ,are ^! innate or are !y d]iv$8 ,!y are d]iv$4 ,& "h x may be rem>k$ t :]e among ,african savages !re exi/$ no belief 9 a d\ble :i* goes away dur+ sleep1 !re 0 f\nd to exi/ no belief 9 a d\ble :i* surviv$ aft] dea?4 ,f ! ord9>y abs5ce ( ! o!r self 9 sleep1 & its extraord9>y abs5ces 9 swoons1 apoplexy1 & s =?1 ! transition is to its unlimit$ abs5ce at dea?2 :5 aft] an int]val ( wait+ ! expectation ( imm$iate return is giv5 up4 ,commonly ! _s is suppos$ to l+] ne> ! body or to revisit x4 ,h5ce ! univ]sality ( m9i/rations to ! d\ble ( ! deceas$ habitually made at fun]als4 ,! habitat ( ! o!r self is v>i\sly conceiv$2 ?\gh ev]y:]e !re is an approa* to p>allelism betwe5 ! life "h & ! imag9$ life h]eaft]4 ,along ) ! developm5t ( grave-heaps into alt>s1 grave-%$s into religi\s edifices1 & food = ! gho/ into sacrifices1 !re goes on ! developm5t ( praise & pray]4 ,turn+ to c]ta9 m indirect results ( ! gho/ !ory1 we f9d t1 di/+ui%+ b confus$ly betwe5 semblance & reality1 ! savage ?9ks t ! repres5tation ( a ?+ p>takes ( ! prop]ties ( a ?+4 ,h5ce ! effigy ( a dead man becomes a habitation = 8 gho/2 & idols1 because ( ! indwell+ d\bles ( ! dead1 are propitiat$4 ,id5tification ( ! d\bles ( ! dead ) animals--n[ ) ^? :i* frequ5t h\ses or places :i* ! d\bles are suppos$ to haunt & n[ ) ^? :i* are l c]ta9 ( ! dead 9 _! malici\s or b5evol5t natures--is 9 o!r cases traceable to mis9t]pretation ( names2 ?is latt] lead+ to ! id5tification ( />s ) p]sons & h5ce to /> & sun wor%ip4 ,9 _! normal =ms1 z 9 _! abnormal =ms1 all gods arise by apo!osis4 ,orig9ally ! god is ! sup]ior liv+ man ^: p[] is conceiv$ z sup]human4 ,z 9 primitive ?\ght div9ity is synonym\s ) sup]iority1 & z at fir/ a god may be ei!r a p[]ful liv+ p]son or a dead p]son :o has acquir$ sup]natural p[] z a gho/1 !re come two orig9s = semi-div9e be+s--! "o by unions betwe5 a conqu]+ god race & ! conqu]$ race di/+ui%$ z m51 & ! o!r by suppos$ int]c\rse betwe5 liv+ p]sons & spirits4 ,:]e ! evid5ce is exam9$ comp>ative sociology discloses a common orig9 = ea* lead+ elem5t ( religi\s belief4 ,,m$ic9e ,,m5 ,,& ,,prie/s ,9 ! primitive belief t ! d\bles ( ! dead may be induc$ to yield b5efits or desi/ f inflict+ evil by brib+ or cajol+ or else by ?reat5+ or co]c+1 we see t ! modes ( deal+ ) gho/s broadly contra/$ z antagoni/ic & sympa!tic1 initiate ! di/9ction betwe5 m$ic9e man & prie/4 ,prompt$ z (f]+s on graves orig9ally are by affection = ! deceas$1 x naturally happ5s t su* propitiations are made m by relatives ?an o!rs4 ,! family cult next acquires a m def9ite =m by ! devolution ( its functions on "o memb] ( ! family4 ,h5ce 9 anci5t ,egypt x 0 mo/ important t a man %\ld h a son e/abli%$ 9 8 seat aft] him :o %\ld p]=m ! due rites ( sacrifice to 8 ka or d\ble4 ,facts also %[ t ! devolution ( ! sacrificial (fice accompanies devolution ( prop]ty1 = ?is has to be> ! co/s ( ! sacrifices2 & by a natural coroll>y ! head ( ! village-community comb9es ! *>act]s ( prie/ & rul]4 ,) ! increase ( a *ief's t]ritory !re comes an accumulation ( bus9ess :i* necessitates ! employm5t ( assi/ants1 & among ! functions deput$ is t ( prie/1 at fir/ p]haps tempor>ily assum$ by a bro!r4 ,su* is ! usual orig9 ( prie/hood4 ,_m facts make x cle> t1 n only ! g5esis ( poly!ism b ! long survival ( x are sequ5ces ( primitive ance/or-wor%ip4 ,ev5tually !re result "u fav\r+ conditions a gravitation t[>ds mono!ism2 & ) ?is an advance t[>ds unification ( prie/hood4 ,! (ficial proprietors ( ! deity :o has come to be reg>d$ z ! mo/ p[]ful or z ! possessor ( all p[] becomes e/abli%$ ev]y:]e4 ,lik5ess betwe5 ecclesia/ical & political organisations :5 !y h div]g$ is l>gely due to _! community ( orig94 ,!re results a hi]>*y ( sac]dotal function>ies analog\s to ! graduat$ sy/em ( political function>ies2 !n ! ag5cies = c>ry+ on cele/ial rule & t]re/rial rule ev5tually beg9 to compete = supremacy2 & !re are reasons = ?9k+ t ! *ange f an orig9al pr$om9ance ( a spiritual p[] ov] ! temporal p[] to ultimate subjugation ( x is ma9ly due to ! developm5t ( indu/rialism ) ! moral & intellectual *anges involv$4 ,,prospect ,:at may we inf] w be ! evolution ( religi\s ideas & s5tim5ts ?r\gh\t ! future8 ,! developm5t ( ^? high] s5tim5ts :i* no long] tol]ate ! ascription ( inf]ior s5tim5ts to a div9ity1 & ! intellectual developm5t :i* causes dissatisfaction ) ! crude int]pretations previ\sly accept$1 mu/ =ce m5 h]eaft] to drop ! high] an?ropomorphic *>act]s giv5 to ! ,fir/ ,cause z !y h long s9ce dropp$ ! l[]4 ,^?1 h[ev]1 :o ?9k t sci5ce is dissipat+ religi\s beliefs & s5tim5ts seem unaw>e t :atev] ( my/]y is tak5 f ! old int]pretation is add$ to ! new4 ,or r we may say t transf]5ce f "o to ! o!r is accompani$ by increase2 s9ce = an explanation :i* has a seem+ feasibility1 sci5ce sub/itutes an explanation :i*1 c>ry+ u back only a c]ta9 di/ance1 !n leaves u 9 ! pres5ce ( ! av[$ly inexplicable4 ,! tru? mu/ gr[ ev] cle>]--! tru? t !re is an inscrutable exi/5ce ev]y:]e manife/$ to :i* ! man ( sci5ce c nei!r f9d nor conceive ei!r beg9n+ or end4 ,amid ! my/]ies :i* become ! m my/]i\s ! m !y are ?\ght ab\t1 !re w rema9 ! "o absolute c]ta9ty1 t he is ev] 9 ! pres5ce ( ,,an ,,inf9ite ,,& ,,et]nal ,,en]gy1 f :i* all ?+s proce$4 ,,b5$ict ,,de ,,sp9oza ,e?ics ,b>u* 7,lat4 ,b5$ict7 ,sp9oza1 or de ,sp9oza1 z he aft]w>ds sign$ himself1 son ( a weal?y ,portuguese ,jew1 0 born at ,am/]dam1 ,novemb] #bd1 #afcb1 & di$ at ! e>ly age ( =ty-f\r1 on ,febru>y #ba1 #afgg4 ,he 0 educat$ to ! highe/ pit* ( atta9m5t 9 ,hebrew & ,talmudi/ le>n+1 & ?r\gh delicacy ( physical con/itution devot$ himself entirely to /udy1 cultivat+ assidu\sly philosophy z well z !ology1 :ile n neglect+ ! physical sci5ces4 ,imbib+ unor?odox views he 0 =mally excommunicat$ f ! synagogue1 & philosophy h5ce=? became ! sole pursuit ( 8 m9d4 ,he 0 able1 h[ev]1 ?r\gh 8 great sci5tific accompli%m5ts & me*anical skill1 to ga9 a suffici5cy = 8 subsi/5ce by poli%+ l5ses4 ,?is accompli%$ man 0 also no mean arti/1 especially 9 design+4 ,he 0 "o ( ! f9e/ ,lat9i/s ( 8 "t4 ,he 0 fill$ ) ! _s ( religion1 & liv$ ! simple/ life1 on a few p5ce a day1 9 a p]iod ( voluptu\s epicureanism4 ,! philosophical sy/em ( ,sp9oza 0 evolv$ f t ( ,desc>tes1 :o _h s\ght to inaugurate a new era 9 ?\ght4 ,b he s\ght m cle>ly to demon/rate ! exi/5ce ( ,god ?an did 8 great ,fr5* ma/]4 ,no philosoph] has be5 m malign$ on ! "o h&1 or m adulat$ on ! o!r1 ?an ?is great ,jewi% g5ius4 ,sp9oza has be5 by "s nicknam$ ,pan!i/ or ,a!i/2 :ile ,s*lei]ma*] & o!r !ologians h n hesitat$ to describe him z pi\s1 virtu\s1 ,god-intoxicat$4 ,i4--,conc]n+ ,god ,by ,god ,i und]/& absolutely inf9ite ,be+1 t is1 sub/ance consi/+ ( inf9ite attributes1 ea* express+ et]nal & def9ite ess5ce4 ,if ?is be d5i$1 conceive1 if x be possible1 t ,god does n exi/4 ,!n x foll[s t ,8 ess5ce does n involve exi/5ce1 :i* is absurd4 ,!re=e ,god necess>ily exi/s4 ,god is absolutely ! fir/ cause4 ,he acts f ! laws ( ,8 own nature only1 & is compell$ by no "o4 ,= outside ( ,himself !re c be no?+ by :i* ,he may be det]m9$ to act4 ,!re=e ,he acts solely f ! laws ( ,8 own nature4 ,& !re=e also ,god alone is a free cause4 ,! omnipot5ce ( ,god has be5 actual f et]nity & w be actual f et]nity4 ,! ,div9e intellect is ! cause ( ?+s1 bo? ( _! ess5ce & ( _! exi/5ce4 ,?us x is ! cause bo? ( ! ess5ce & ( ! exi/5ce ( ! human intellect1 b x diff]s f our intellect bo? 9 ess5ce & 9 exi/5ce4 ,! same may be said ( ! ,div9e w & ! human w4 ,! w _c be call$ a free cause1 b c only be t]m$ necess>y4 ,! w is only a c]ta9 mode ( ?\ght1 l ! intellect4 ,x requires a cause to det]m9e x to action1 & !re=e _c be call$ a free cause1 b only a necess>y cause4 ,h5ce x foll[s t ,god does n act f fre$om ( ! w4 ,= ! w1 l all o!r ?+s1 ne$s a cause to det]m9e x to act 9 a c]ta9 mann]4 ,?+s c\ld h be5 produc$ by ,god 9 no o!r mann] or ord] ?an t 9 :i* !y h be54 ,?+s h be5 creat$ by ,god 9 absolute p]fection1 because !y h necess>ily foll[$ f ,8 absolutely p]fect nature4 ,! ,div9e ,p[] & ,decree ,s9ce 9 et]nity !re is no :51 nor be=e1 nor aft]1 ,god _c decree nor c\ld ,he h ev] decre$ any?+ o!r ?an ,he has decre$ 9 ! p]fection ( ,8 nature4 ,= if ,he _h decre$ some?+ else ab\t creation1 ,he w\ld necess>ily h _h an intellect & a w diff]5t f ^? ,he n[ has4 ,c\ld su* a supposition be all[$1 :y _c ,he n[ *ange ,8 decree ab\t creation yet rema9 p]fect8 ,all ?+s dep5d on ! ,div9e p[]2 b ,god's w1 because ( 8 p]fection1 _c be o!r ?an x is1 & !re=e ?+s _c be diff]5tly con/itut$4 ,= to suppose o!rwise is to subject ,god to fate1 an absurdity :i* is n wor? wa/e ( "t to refute4 ,! sum ( ! matt] is t ,god necess>ily exi/s2 t ,he is "o ,god2 t ,he acts f ! necessity ( ,8 nature2 t ,he is ! free cause ( all ?+s2 t all ?+s dep5d on ,him2 & t all ?+s h be5 pr$e/9$ by ,him4 ,,ii4--,conc]n+ ,m9d ,i pass on to ^? ?+s :i* mu/ necess>ily foll[ f ! ess5ce ( ! et]nal & inf9ite ,god4 ,?\ght is ! attribute ( ,god4 ,individual ?\ghts are modes express+ ! nature ( ,god 9 a c]ta9 & det]m9ate mann]4 ,! ord] & connection ( ^! ideas co9cides ) ! ord] & connection ( ?+s1 !re=e ,god's p[] ( ?9k+ is equal to ,8 p[] ( act+4 ,! circle exi/+ 9 nature & ! idea ( an exi/+ circle :i* is also 9 ,god1 are "o & ! same ?+1 exhibit$ ?r\gh diff]5t attributes4 ,god is truly ! cause ( ?+s z !y are 9 !mselves1 9 s f> z ,he consi/s ( inf9ite attributes4 ,! fir/ ?+ :i* =ms ! actual ,be+ ( ! human m9d is no?+ else ?an ! idea ( an individual actually exi/+4 ,! ess5ce ( man is =m$ by c]ta9 modes ( ! ,div9e attributes1 t is to say1 modes ( ?\ght4 ,! idea is ! fir/ ?+ :i* =ms ! ,be+ ( ! human m9d4 ,x mu/ be an idea ( an individual ?+ actually exi/+4 ,h5ce ! human m9d is "p ( ! inf9ite intellect ( ,god4 ,! k ( ev]y?+ :i* happ5s necess>ily exi/s 9 ,god1 9 s f> z ,he =ms ! nature ( ! human m9d4 ,man ?9ks4 ,modes ( ?\ght1 su* z love1 desire1 or affections ( ! m9d "u :atev] designation1 d n exi/1 unless 9 ! same individual exi/s an idea ( a ?+ lov$1 desir$1 etc4 ,b ! idea may exi/ ?\gh no o!r mode ( ?9k+ exi/s4 ,!re=e ! ess5ce ( man does n necess>ily involve exi/5ce4 ,we p]ceive t a body is affect$ 9 c]ta9 ways4 ,no individual ?+s are felt or p]ceiv$ by u except bodies & modes ( ?\ght4 ,! object ( ! idea con/itut+ ! human m9d is a body1 or a c]ta9 mode ( actually exi/+ ext5sion1 & no?+ else4 ,= if ! body 7 n ! object ( ! human m9d1 ! ideas ( ! affections ( ! body w\ld n be 9 ,god1 9 s f> z ,he has creat$ our m9d1 b w\ld be 9 ,him 9 s f> z ,he has =m$ ! m9d ( ano!r ?+4 ,b we h ideas ( ! affections ( ! body2 !re=e ! object ( ! idea con/itut+ ! human m9d is ! body actually exi/+4 ,x foll[s t man consi/s ( m9d & body1 & t ! human body exi/s z we p]ceive x4 ,m9d & ,body ,h5ce we p]ceive n only t ! human m9d is unit$ to ! body1 b also :at is to be und]/ood by ! union ( m9d & body4 ,b no "o c adequately compreh5d x )\t previ\sly possess+ adequate k ( ! body4 ,9 proportion z "o body is bett] adapt$ ?an ano!r to act or suff]1 ! m9d w at ! same "t be bett] adapt$ = p]ception4 ,& ! m indep5d5t a body may be ( o!r bodies1 ! /rong] w be ! und]/&+ ( ! m9d4 ,?us we c det]m9e ! sup]iority ( "o m9d ov] ano!r4 ,all bodies are ei!r mov+ or re/+4 ,e body moves sometimes sl[ly1 sometimes quickly4 ,bodies are di/+ui%$ f ea* o!r by degrees ( motion & quiesc5ce1 n ) reg>d to sub/ance4 ,all bodies agree 9 "s aspects4 ,bodies affect ea* o!r 9 motion & re/4 ,ea* individual ?+ mu/ necess>ily be det]m9$ z to motion or re/ by "s o!r ?+4 ,! human body ne$s = its pres]vation _m o!r bodies by :i* x is1 z x 71 reg5]at$4 ,! human m9d increases its aptitude 9 proportion to ! numb] ( ways 9 :i* ! body c be dispos$4 ,! idea con/itut+ a =mal be+ ( ! human m9d is n simple1 b is highly complex4 ,an idea ( ea* compon5t "p ( ! body mu/ necess>ily exi/ 9 ,god4 ,! human m9d does n "k ! human body itself1 nor does x "k t ! human body exi/s1 except ?r\gh ! ideas & affections by :i* ! body is affect$4 ,inde$1 ! human m9d is ! v idea or k ( ! human body4 ,^! ideas are 9 ,god4 ,?\ght is an attribute ( ,god1 & s ! ?\ght ( ! m9d orig9ates ( necessity 9 ,him4 ,all ! ideas :i* are 9 ,god always agree ) ^? ?+s ( :i* !y are ideas1 & !re=e !y are all true4 ,falsity consi/s 9 privation ( k1 involv$ 9 confusion & mutilation ( ideas4 ,= in/ance1 because !y ?9k !mselves to be free1 & ! sole reason = ?is op9ion is t !y are consci\s ( _! own actions1 & ignorant ( ! causes det]m9+ ^? actions4 ,nobody kn[s :at ! w is & h[ x moves to-day4 ,^? :o pret5d o!rwise & inv5t locations ( ! s\l1 usually excite d]ision & disgu/4 ,:5 we look at ! sun & imag9e x to be imm5sely ne>] to u ?an x really is1 ! error arises f ! mann] 9 :i* ! ess5ce ( ! sun affects ! body1 n m]ely f ! ex]cise ( ! imag9ation4 ,mutual ,influ5ces ,! m ?+s ! body possesses 9 common ) o!r bodies1 ! m ?+s w ! m9d be adapt$ to p]ceive4 ,! human m9d possesses an adequate k ( ! et]nal & inf9ite ess5ce ( ,god4 ,b ! reason :y m5 h n a k ( ,god z cle> z t :i* !y h ( common notions is t !y _c imag9e ,god z !y c imag9e bodies1 & because !y h atta*$ ! "n ( ,god to ! images ( ?+s !y are accu/om$ to see4 ,?is !y c h>dly avoid1 because !y are con/antly affect$ by ext]nal bodies4 ,&1 inde$ mo/ errors arise f our application to ! wrong names ( ?+s4 ,= if "s "o says t ! l9es drawn f ! c5tre to ! circumf]5ce ( a circle are unequal1 x is because he und]/&s by a circle some?+ diff]5t f :at we und]/& by ! ma!maticians4 ,i did n reckon a man to be 9 error :om ,i rec5tly he>d compla9+ t 8 c\rt has fl[n into "o ( 8 neighb\r's f[ls = ,i und]/& :at he meant4 ,9 ! m9d !re is no absolutely free w4 ,! m9d is det]m9$ to ?is or t volition by a cause1 :i* is det]m9$ by ano!r cause1 & s on ad inf9itum4 ,! w & intellect are "o & ! same4 ,we are p>tak]s ( ! div9e nature 9 proportion z we m & m und]/& ,god & con=m our actions to 8 w4 ,our highe/ happ9ess consi/s 9 ?is con=mity1 by :i* alone ! s\l f9ds repose4 ,^? greatly err f ! true e/imate ( virtue :o expect to be rew>d$ = x1 z ?\gh virtue & ! s]vice ( ,god 7 our felicity itself & ! highe/ lib]ty4 ,,iii4--,conc]n+ ,m5tal ,affections ,! actions ( ! m9d arise f adequate ideas alone2 b ! passions dep5d on ^? alone :i* are inadequate4 ,! ess5ce ( ! m9d is compos$ ( adequate & inadequate ideas4 ,joy is a passion by :i* ! m9d passes to a great] degree ( p]fection2 sorr[ is a passion by :i* x passes to a less] degree4 ,accid5tally any?+ may be ! cause ( joy1 sorr[1 or desire4 ,we love or hate c]ta9 ?+s n f any kn[n cause1 b m]ely f sympa?y or antipa?y4 ,if we hate a ?+1 we seek to affirm conc]n+ x ev]y?+ t we ?9k c affect x ) sorr[1 :ile we d5y ev]y?+ t we ?9k c affect x ) joy4 ,f ?is we see h[ easily a man may ?9k too mu* ( himself1 & ( ! object :i* he loves1 & on ! o!r h&1 may ?9k too little ( :at he hates4 ,:5 a man ?9ks too mu* ( himself ?is imag9ation is t]m$ pride1 & is a species ( delirium1 because he dreams ) 8 eyes op51 t he c d all ^? ?+s to :i* he atta9s 9 imag9ation alone1 reg>d+ !m ?us z realities1 & rejoic+ 9 !m s long z he _c imag9e any?+ to exclude _! exi/5ce & limit 8 p[] ( action4 ,if we imag9e t a p]son loves1 desires1 or hates a ?+ :i* we love1 desire1 or hate1 we %all on t acc\nt love1 desire1 or hate ! ?+ m int5sely4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 we imag9e t he is av]se to ! ?+ we love1 or loves ! ?+ to :i* we are av]se1 !n we %all suff] vacillation ( m9d4 ,h5ce e "o /rives to ! utmo/ to induce o!rs to love :at he loves & to hate :at he hates4 ,?is ef=t is call$ ambition1 :i* prompts ea* p]son to desire t o!rs %\ld live accord+ to 8 way ( ?9k+4 ,b if all ?us act1 !n all h9d] ea* o!r4 ,& if all wi% to be prais$ or lov$ by all1 !n all hate "o ano!r4 ,joy is a man's passage f a less to a great] p]fection2 sorr[ is a man's passage f a great] to a less p]fection4 ,i say passage1 = joy is n p]fection itself4 ,if a man 7 born ) ! p]fection to :i* he passes1 he w\ld possess x )\t ! affection ( joy--a tru? ! m vividly app>5t f ! affection ( sorr[ :i* is ! contr>y ( joy4 ,=1 t sorr[ consi/s 9 ! passage to a less p]fection1 b n 9 ! less p]fection itself1 no "o c d5y1 s9ce 9 s f> z a man p>takes ( any p]fection1 he _c be sad4 ,nor c we say t sorr[ consi/s 9 ! passage to a less p]fection1 = privation is no?+4 ,b ! affection ( sorr[ is actual1 & s c be no?+ else ?an ! passage to a less] p]fection1 t is1 ! reality by :i* ! p[] ( act+ is limit$ or dim9i%$4 ,z = ! def9itions ( *e]fulness1 pleasurable excitem5t1 melan*oly1 or grief1 ,i omit ^!1 because !y are relat$ r to ! body ?an to ! m9d1 & are m]ely diff]5t species ( joy & sorr[4 ,love is joy ) ! accompany+ idea ( an ext]nal cause4 ,hatr$ is sorr[ ) ! accompany+ idea ( an ext]nal cause4 ,devotion is love t[>ds an object :i* we admire & wond] at4 ,d]ision is joy aris+ f ! imag9ation t some?+ we despise is pres5t 9 ! object we hate4 ,hope is a joy n con/ant1 aris+ f ! idea ( some?+ future or pa/1 ab\t ! issue ( :i* we are d\btful4 ,fe> is sorr[ n con/ant1 aris+ 9 l mann]4 ,confid5ce is joy aris+ f ! idea ( a pa/ or future object f :i* ! cause = d\bt+ has be5 remov$4 ,despair is sorr[ aris+ f a l cause4 ,confid5ce spr+s f hope1 despair f fe>4 ,pride is ?9k+ too highly ( ourselves f self-love4 ,despond5cy is ?9k+ too little ( ourselves ?r\gh sorr[4 ,,iv4--,conc]n+ ,human ,bondage & ,human ,lib]ty ,good is t :i* is useful to u2 evil1 t :i* imp$es ! possession ( good4 ,b ! t]ms good & evil are n positive1 b are only modes ( ?\ght1 by :i* we comp>e "o ?+ ) ano!r4 ,?us1 music is good to a melan*oly m9d1 bad to a m\rn+ m9d1 b nei!r bad nor good to a deaf man4 ,we suff] because we =m a "p ( nature4 ,! p[] by :i* we pres]ve our be+ is ! p[] ( ,god1 t is "p ( ,8 ess5ce4 ,b man is subject to passions because he foll[s ! ord] ( nature4 ,an affection c only be ov]come by a /rong] affection4 ,t :i* t5ds to cons]ve our exi/5ce we d5om9ate good4 ,t :i* h9d]s ?is cons]vation we /yle evil4 ,desire spr++ f ! k ( good & evil c be re/ra9$ by desires orig9at+ 9 ! affections by :i* we are agitat$4 ,?us ! effect ( ext]nal causes on ! m9d may be f> great] ?an t ( ! k ( good & evil4 ,! desire spr++ f a k ( good & evil may be easily re/ra9$ by ! desire ( pres5t objects4 ,op9ion ex]cises a m pot5t influ5ce ?an reason4 ,h5ce ! say+ ( ! poet1 ,i approve ! bett]1 b foll[ ! worse4 ,& h5ce also ! prea*] says ,he t increase? k increase? sorr[4 ,we ought to "k bo? ! /r5g? & ! weakness ( our nature1 t we may judge :at reason c & _c d 9 controll+ our affections4 ,desire spr++ f joy prepond]ates ov] t spr++ f sorr[4 ,man is useful to man because two individuals ( ! same nature :5 9 sympa?y are /rong] ?an "o4 ,no?+ c\ld be s good = m5 z t all %\ld s agree 9 ev]y?+ z to =m z x 7 a s+le body & m9d1 all seek+ ! good ( all4 ,h5ce1 m5 act+ 9 accord ) ! dictates ( reason desire no?+ = !mselves b :at !y desire = all4 ,?is r5d]s !m j1 fai?ful1 & hon\rable4 ,! k ( ,god is ! supreme m5tal good1 & to "k ,god is ! supreme m5tal virtue4 ,= ,god is ! supreme subject ( ! und]/&+1 & !re=e to "k or und]/& ,god is ! supreme virtue ( ! m9d4 ,b to u no?+ c be ei!r good or evil unless x has some?+ 9 common ) u4 ,an object ^: nature is absolutely =eign to our own _c be ei!r good or evil to u1 = ?is reason1 t we only call a ?+ good or evil :5 x is ! cause ( joy or sorr[1 ?is is to say1 :5 x increases or dim9i%es our p[] to act4 ,no?+ c be reckon$ good except t :i* is 9 h>mony ) our nature1 & no?+ c be reckon$ evil expect :at is contr>y to our nature1 b m5 _c be said to agree 9 nature :5 !y are subject to passion4 ,we only act 9 h>mony ) ! dictates ( reason :5 we agree 9 nature ) o!rs4 ,m5 are mo/ useful to ea* o!r :o are mutually rul$ by ! laws ( reason4 ,b r>ely d m5 live ?us 9 h>mony ) reason1 & ?us x comes to pass t !y are commonly envi\s ( ea* o!r4 ,yet m5 are seldom dispos$ to solitude1 b answ] g5]ally to ! famili> description ( man z a social animal1 = !y "k t ! advantages prepond]ate ov] ! advantages ( social life4 ,!y f9d by exp]i5ce t by mutual aid & co-op]ation !y c1 on ! "o h& ! m easily secure :at !y ne$1 & on ! o!r h& ! bett] def5d !mselves f dang]4 ,a man :o seeks aft] virtue w desire o!rs to d s1 & ?is desire w increase 9 proportion to ?is increase ( 8 k ( ,god4 ,! good t a man seeks by ! que/ ( virtue he w wi% o!rs to obta9 also4 ,?is is 9 accordance ) reason1 :i* is ! op]ation ( ! m9d accord+ to ! ess5ce ( ! m9d1 t ess5ce ( ! m9d be+ k1 :i* involves ! k ( ,god4 ,! great] ! k ( ,god involv$ 9 ! ess5ce ( ! m9d1 ! great] w be ! desire t o!rs may seek aft] ! same virtue :i* ! man seeks = himself4 ,economics ,,edw>d ,,bellamy ,look+ ,backw>d ,edw>d ,bellamy1 ,am]ican social re=m]1 :o sprang into fame 9 ! la/ decade ( ! n9ete5? c5tury by 8 book1 ,look+ ,backw>d1 0 born 9 ,massa*usetts1 on ,m>* #be1 #ahej4 ,tra9$ = ! ,b>1 he became a j\rnali/1 & devot$ 8 p5 to ! propag&a ( socialism4 ,aft] ! unprec$5t$ success ( 8 sociali/ novel1 9 :i* he describes a suppositi\s tw5tie? c5tury revolution f ! /&po9t ( a hypnotis$ sleep] awak5$ 9 #bjjj ,a4,d41 8 mode/ home at ,*icopee ,falls became a recognis$ c5tre ( ! sociali/ movem5t 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,look+ ,backw>d 0 publi%$ 9 #ahhh1 & 0 foll[$ by ,equality1 9 :i* he exp\nd$ 8 political doctr9es 9 dialogue =m1 ! /ory be+ treat$ m]ely z a sequel to ! e>li] book1 & entirely subord9at$ to ! m s]i\s aim4 ,we h "h pref]r$ to classify ,look+ ,backw>d z a "w ( philosophy1 & n z fiction4 ,bellamy's *ampion%ip ( ! rights ( ! dis9h]it$1 & 8 enlight5$ ideas1 convey$ 9 a by no means unimag9ative /yle1 ga9$ him _m fri5ds & sympa?is]s4 ,bellamy di$ on ,may #bb1 #ahih4 ,i4--,! ,great ,*ange ,i fir/ saw ! light 9 ! city ( ,bo/on1 9 ! ye> #aheg4 ,:at6 y say1 eighte5-fifty-sev58 ,t is an odd slip4 ,he means n9ete5-fifty-sev51 ( c\rse4 ,i beg p>don1 b !re is no mi/ake4 ,x 0 ab\t f\r 9 ! aft]noon ( ,decemb] #bf1 "o day aft] ,*ri/mas1 9 ! ye> #aheg1 n #aieg1 t ,i1 ,julian ,we/1 fir/ brea!d ! ea/ w9d ( ,bo/on1 :i*1 ,i assure ! read]1 0 at t remote p]iod m>k$ by ! same p5etrat+ quality *>act]is+ x 9 ! pres5t ye> ( grace1 #bjjj4 ,liv+ 9 luxury1 & occupi$ only ) ! pursuit ( ! pleasures & ref9em5ts ( life1 ,i d]iv$ ! means ( my support f ! lab\r ( o!rs1 r5d]+ no sort ( s]vice 9 return4 ,:y1 y ask1 %\ld ! _w h support$ 9 utt] idl5ess "o :o 0 able to r5d] s]vice8 ,! answ] is1 t my great-gr&fa!r _h accumulat$ a sum ( money1 on ! yield ( :i* 8 desc5dants _h ev] s9ce liv$4 ,int]e/ on inve/m5ts 0 a species ( tax on indu/ry :i* a p]son possess+ or inh]it+ money 0 !n able to levy1 9 spite ( all ! ef=ts to put d[n usury4 ,i _c d bett] ?an comp>e society z x !n 0 to a prodigi\s coa* to :i* ! masses 7 h>ness$ & dragg$ toilsomely along a v hilly & s&y road1 ) ,hung] = driv]4 ,! pass5g]s com=tably seat$ on ! top w\ld call d[n enc\rag+ly to ! toil]s at ! rope1 exhort+ !m to pati5ce2 b always expect$ to be drawn & n to pull1 because1 z !y ?\ght1 !y 7 n l _! bro!rs :o pull$ at ! rope1 b ( f9] clay1 9 "s way belong+ to a high] ord] ( be+s4 ,9 #ahhg1 ,i 0 engag$ to w$ ,edi? ,b>tlett4 ,%e1 l myself1 rode on ! top ( ! coa*4 ,our m>riage only await$ ! completion ( a h\se1 :i*1 h[ev]1 0 delay$ by a s]ies ( /rikes4 ,i rememb] ,mr4 ,b>tlett say+3 ,! work+ classes all ov] ! _w seem to be go+ crazy at once4 ,9 ,europe x is f> worse ev5 ?an "h4 ,! family mansion1 9 :i* ,i liv$ alone ) a fai?ful col\r$ s]vant by ! "n ( ,sawy]1 0 n a h\se to :i* ,i c\ld ?9k ( br++ a bride1 mu* less s da9ty a "o z ,edi? ,b>tlett4 ,be+ a suff]] f insomnia1 ,i _h caus$ a secret sleep+ *amb] to be built ( /one b5ea? ! f\ndation1 & :5 ev5 ! sil5ce ( ?is retreat fail$ to br+ slumb]1 ,i sometimes call$ 9 a pr(essional mesm]is] to put me into a hypnotic sleep1 f :i* ,sawy] knew h[ to ar\se me at a giv5 "t4 ,on ! night ( ,may #cj1 #ahhg1 ,i 0 put to sleep z usual4 ,t night ! h\se 0 :olly de/roy$ by fire2 & x 0 n until a hundr$ & ?irte5 ye>s lat]1 9 ,septemb] #bjjj ,a4,d41 t ! subt]ranean *amb] 0 discov]$1 & myself1 ! sleep]1 ar\s$ by ,dr4 ,leete1 a physician ( ,bo/on on ! retir$ li/4 ,my companion1 ,dr4 ,leete1 l$ ! way to a belv$]e on ! h\se-top4 ,be pleas$ to look ar\nd y1 he said1 & tell me :e!r ?is is ! ,bo/on ( ! n9ete5? c5tury4 ,at my feet lay a great city4 ,miles ( broad /reets1 %ad$ by trees1 & l9$ ) f9e build+s1 = ! mo/ "p n 9 cont9u\s blocks1 b set 9 l>g] or small] enclosures1 /ret*$ 9 e direction4 ,e qu>t] conta9$ l>ge op5 squ>es fill$ ) trees1 among :i* /atues gli/5$ & f\nta9s fla%$ 9 ! late aft]noon sun4 ,public build+s ( a colossal size & an ar*itectural gr&eur unp>allel$ 9 my day rais$ _! /ately piles on e side4 ,surely1 ,i _h nev] be=e se5 ?is city1 nor "o comp>able to x4 ,rais+ my eyes at la/ t[>ds ! horizon1 ,i look$ we/w>d4 ,t blue ribbon w9d+ away to ! sunset1 0 x n ! s9u\s ,*>les8 ,i look$ ea/3 ,bo/on h>b\r /ret*$ be=e me ) its headl&s1 n "o ( its gre5 islets miss+4 ,if y _h told me1 ,i said1 pr(\ndly aw$1 t a ?\s& ye>s in/ead ( a hundr$ _h elaps$ s9ce ,i la/ look$ on ?is city1 ,i %\ld n[ believe y4 ,only a c5tury has pass$1 he answ]$2 b _m a mill5nium 9 ! _w's hi/ory has se5 *anges less extraord9>y4 ,,ii4--,h[ ! ,great ,*ange ,came ,ab\t ,aft] ,dr4 ,leete _h respond$ to num]\s que/ions on my "p1 he ask$ 9 :at po9t ! contra/ betwe5 ! new & ! old city /ruck me mo/ =cibly4 ,to speak ( small ?+s be=e great1 ,i repli$1 ,i really ?9k t ! complete abs5ce ( *imneys & _! smoke is ! detail t fir/ impress$ me4 ,ah6 ejaculat$ my companion4 ,i _h =gott5 ! *imneys1 x is s long s9ce !y w5t out ( use4 ,x is ne>ly a c5tury s9ce ! crude me?od ( combu/ion1 on :i* y dep5d$ = heat1 became obsolete4 ,9 g5]al1 ,i said1 :at impresses me mo/ ab\t ! city is ! mat]ial prosp]ity on ! "p ( ! p :i* its magnific5ce implies4 ,i w\ld give a great deal = j "o glimpse ( ! ,bo/on ( y\r day1 repli$ ,dr4 ,leete4 ,no d\bt ! cities ( t p]iod 7 r %abby affairs4 ,if y _h ! ta/e to make !m spl5did1 :i* ,i w\ld n be s rude z to "q1 ! g5]al pov]ty result+ f y\r extraord9>y indu/rial sy/em w\ld n h giv5 y ! means4 ,moreov]1 ! excessive individualism 0 inconsi/5t ) mu* public _s4 ,n[adays1 !re is no de/9ation ( ! surplus weal? s popul> z ! adornm5t ( ! city1 :i* all enjoy 9 equal degree4 ,x is gr[+ d>k1 he add$4 ,let u desc5d into ! h\se2 ,i want to introduce my wife & daught] to y4 ,! ap>tm5t 9 :i* we f\nd ! ladies1 z well z ! entire int]ior ( ! h\se1 0 fill$ ) a mell[ light1 :i* ,i knew mu/ be artificial1 al?\gh ,i c\ld n discov] ! s\rce f :i* x 0 diffus$4 ,mrs4 ,leete 0 an exceptionally f9e-look+ & well-pres]v$ woman1 :ile h] daught]1 9 ! fir/ blu% ( womanhood1 0 ! mo/ beautiful girl ,i _h ev] se54 ,9 ?is lovely creature fem99e s(tness & delicacy 7 delici\sly comb9$ ) an appe>ance ( heal? & ab\nd+ physical vitality too (t5 lack+ 9 ! maid5s ) :om alone ,i c\ld comp>e h]4 ,! ev5+ :i* foll[$ 0 c]ta9ly unique 9 ! hi/ory ( social int]c\rse4 ,:5 ! ladies retir$1 ,dr4 ,leete s\nd$ me z to my disposition = sleep1 b gladly bore me company :5 ,i confess$ ,i 0 afraid ( x4 ,i 0 curi\s1 too1 z to ! *anges4 ,to make a beg9n+ some:]e1 said ,i1 :at solution1 if any1 h y f\nd = ! lab\r "q8 ,x 0 ! ,sph9x's riddle ( ! n9ete5? c5tury1 & :5 ,i dropp$ out ! ,sph9x 0 ?reat5+ to dev\r society because ! answ] 0 n =?com+4 ,! riddle may be said to h solv$ itself1 repli$ ,dr4 ,leete4 ,! solution came z ! result ( a process ( indu/rial evolution :i* c\ld n h t]m9at$ o!rwise4 ,! movem5t t[>d ! conduct ( bus9ess by l>g] & l>g] aggregations ( capital--! t5d5cy t[>d monopolies1 :i* _h be5 desp]ately & va9ly resi/$--0 recognis$ at la/ z a process to a gold5 future4 ,e>ly 9 ! la/ c5tury ! evolution 0 complet$ by ! f9al consolidation ( ! entire capital ( ! nation4 ,! indu/ry & comm]ce ( ! c\ntry1 ceas+ to be conduct$ by a set ( irresponsible corporations & syndicates ( private p]sons at _! caprice & = _! pr(it1 7 entru/$ to a s+le syndicate repres5t+ ! p1 to be conduct$ = ! common pr(it4 ,t is to say1 ! nation organis$ itself z "o great bus9ess corporation 9 :i* all o!r corporations 7 absorb$4 ,x became ! "o capitali/1 ! sole employ]1 ! f9al monopoly1 9 ! pr(its & economies ( :i* all citiz5s %>$4 ,! epo* ( tru/s end$ 9 ! ,great ,tru/4 ,9 a ^w1 ! p ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates conclud$ to assume ! conduct ( _! own bus9ess1 j z a hundr$ odd ye>s e>li] !y _h assum$ ! conduct ( _! own gov]nm5t4 ,/rangely late 9 ! _w's hi/ory1 ! obvi\s fact 0 p]ceiv$ t no bus9ess is s ess5tially ! public bus9ess z ! indu/ry & comm]ce on :i* ! p's livelihood dep5ds1 & t to entru/ x to private p]sons to be manag$ = private pr(it is a folly simil> 9 k9d1 ?\gh va/ly great] 9 magnitude1 to t ( surr5d]+ ! functions ( political gov]nm5t to k+s & nobles to be conduct$ = _! p]sonal glorification4 ,s /up5d\s a *ange1 said ,i1 did n1 ( c\rse1 take place )\t blood%$ & t]rible convulsions8 ,on ! contr>y1 !re 0 absolutely no viol5ce4 ,! great corporations _h taught an entirely new set ( ideas4 ,! p _h se5 syndicates h&l+ rev5ues2 great] ?an ^? ( /ates1 & direct+ ! lab\rs ( hundr$s ( ?\s&s ( m5 ) an effici5cy unatta9able 9 small] op]ations4 ,x _h come to be recognis$ z an axiom t ! l>g] ! bus9ess ! simpl] ! pr9ciples t c be appli$ to x2 t1 z ! ma*9e is tru] ?an ! h&1 s ! sy/em1 :i* 9 a great conc]n does ! "w ( ! ma/]'s eye1 9 a small bus9ess turns out m accurate results4 ,?us1 ?anks to ! corporations !mselves1 :5 x 0 propos$ t ! nation %\ld assume _! functions1 ! sugge/ion impli$ no?+ t seem$ impracticable4 ,9 my day1 said ,i1 x 0 consid]$ t ! prop] functions ( gov]nm5t1 /rictly speak+1 7 limit$ to keep+ ! peace & def5d+ ! p aga9/ ! public enemy4 ,&1 9 heav5's "n1 :o are ! public enemies8 exclaim$ ,dr4 ,leete4 ,are !y ,france1 ,engl&1 ,g]many8 or ,hung]1 ,cold1 ,nak$ness8 ,9 y\r day gov]nm5ts 7 accu/om$1 on ! slighte/ int]national misund]/&+1 to seize ^u ! bodies ( citiz5s & deliv] !m ov] by hundr$s ( ?\s&s to dea? & mutilation1 wa/+ _! treasures ! :ile l wat]2 & all ?is (t5e/ = no imag9able pr(it to ! victims4 ,we h no w>s n[1 & our gov]nm5ts no w> p[]s2 b 9 ord] to protect e citiz5 aga9/ hung]1 cold1 & nak$ness1 & provide = all 8 physical & m5tal ne$s1 ! function is assum$ ( direct+ 8 indu/ry = a t]m ( ye>s4 ,n ev5 = ! be/ ends w\ld m5 n[ all[ _! gov]nm5ts su* p[]s z 7 !n us$ = ! mo/ malefic5t4 ,leav+ comp>isons aside1 ,i said1 ! demagogu]y & corruption ( our public m5 w\ld h be5 consid]$1 9 my day1 insup]able objections to gov]nm5t assum+ *>ge ( ! national indu/ries4 ,no d\bt y 7 "r1 rejo9$ ,dr4 ,leete2 b all t is *ang$4 ,we h no p>ties or politicians4 ,human nature itself mu/ h *ang$ v mu*4 ,n at all2 b ! conditions ( human life h *ang$1 & ) !m ! motives ( human action4 ,! organisation ( society ) y 0 su* t (ficials 7 "u a con/ant temptation to misuse _! p[] = ! private pr(it ( !mselves or o!rs4 ,n[ society is s con/itut$ t !re is absolutely no way 9 :i* an (ficial c\ld possibly make any pr(it = himself or anyone else by a misuse ( 8 p[]4 ,,iii4--,lab\r's ,new ,regime ,b y h n yet told me h[ y h settl$ ! lab\r problem4 ,:5 ! nation became ! sole employ]1 said ,dr4 ,leete1 all ! citiz5s became employees1 to be di/ribut$ accord+ to ! ne$s ( indu/ry4 ,t is1 y h simply appli$ ! pr9ciple ( univ]sal milit>y s]vice1 z und]/ood 9 our day1 to ! lab\r "q4 ,yes4 ,nev]!less1 to speak ( s]vice be+ compulsory w\ld be a weak way to /ate its absolute inevitabl5ess4 ,if x 7 conceivable t a man c\ld escape x1 he w\ld be left ) no possible way to provide = 8 exi/5ce4 ,! p]iod ( indu/rial s]vice is tw5ty-f\r ye>s1 beg9n+ at ! close ( ! c\rse ( education at tw5ty-"o1 & t]m9at+ at =ty-five4 ,aft] =ty-five1 ! citiz5 is liable to special calls = lab\r em]g5cies till fifty-five4 ,b :at adm9i/rative tal5t c be equal to det]m9+ wisely :at trade or bus9ess e individual 9 a great nation %all pursue8 ,! adm9i/ration has no?+ to d ) det]m9+ t po9t4 ,e man det]m9es x = himself 9 accordance ) 8 natural aptitude1 ! utmo/ pa9s be+ tak5 to enable him to f9d out :at 8 natural aptitude really is4 ,usually1 long be=e he is mu/]$ into s]vice1 a "y man has f\nd out ! pursuit he wants to foll[1 has acquir$ a great deal ( k ab\t x1 & is await+ impati5tly ! "t :5 he c enli/ 9 its ranks4 ,surely1 x c h>dly be t ! numb] ( volunte]s = any trade is exactly ! numb] ne$$8 ,! supply is always expect$ to equal fully ! dem&4 ,! rate ( volunte]+ is closely wat*$4 ,x is ! bus9ess ( ! adm9i/ration to equalise ! attractions ( ! trades1 s t ! lighte/ trades h ! longe/ h\rs1 :ile an ardu\s trade1 su* z m9+1 has v %ort h\rs4 ,h[ is ! class ( common lab\r]s recruit$8 ,x is ! grade to :i* all new recruits belong = ! fir/ ?ree ye>s4 ,if a man 7 s /upid z to h no *oice z to occupation1 he w\ld simply rema9 a common lab\r]4 ,hav+ once elect$ & ent]$ on a trade or occupation1 ,i suppose he has to /ick to x ! re/ ( 8 life8 ,n necess>ily1 repli$ ,dr4 ,leete2 :ile frequ5t & m]ely caprici\s *anges ( occupation are net p]mitt$1 e work] is all[$1 ( c\rse "u regulations & 9 accordance ) ! exig5cies ( ! s]vice1 to volunte] = ano!r indu/ry :i* he ?9ks w\ld suit him bett] ?an 8 fir/ *oice4 ,x is only ! poor] sort ( workm5 :o desire to *ange4 ,( c\rse1 transf]s or dis*>ges are always giv5 :5 heal? dem&s !m4 ,h[ are ! bra9-work]s select$8 ,t mu/ require a v delicate sort ( sift+ process8 ,s x does1 ! mo/ delicate possible te/2 s we leave ! "q :e!r a man %all be a bra9 or h&work] entirely to him to settle4 ,at ! end ( ! ?ree ye>s ( common lab\r1 if a man feels he c d bett] "w ) 8 bra9 ?an 8 muscles1 ! s*ools ( te*nology1 m$ic9e1 art1 music1 hi/rionics1 & high] lib]al le>n+ are op5 to him )\t condition4 ,b anyone )\t ! special aptitude w\ld f9d x easi] to d d\ble h\rs at 8 trade ?an try to keep up ) ! classes4 ,?is opportunity = a pr(essional tra9+ rema9s op5 to e man till ! age ( ?irty4 ,,iv4--,! ,new ,plan ,dr4 & ,mrs4 ,leete 7 />tl$ to le>n ,i _h be5 all ov] ! city alone4 ,y mu/ h se5 a good _m new ?+s1 said ,mrs4 ,leete1 z we sat d[n to table4 ,i ?9k :at surpris$ me z mu* z any?+ 0 n to f9d any /ores 9 ,wa%+ton ,/reet1 or any banks ( ,/ate4 ,:at h y done ) ! m]*ants & bank]s8 ,_! functions are obsolete 9 ! mod]n _w4 ,!re is nei!r sell+ nor buy+1 & we h no money4 ,z soon z ! nation became ! produc] ( all sorts ( commodities1 !re 0 no ne$ ( ex*anges betwe5 individuals4 ,ev]y?+ 0 procurable f "o s\rce1 & t only4 ,a sy/em ( direct di/ribution f ! national /oreh\ses took ! place ( trade1 & = ?is money 0 unnecess>y4 ,h[ is ?is di/ribution manag$8 ,a cr$it1 correspond+ to 8 %>e ( ! annual product ( ! nation1 is giv5 to e citiz5 on ! public books at ! beg9n+ ( ea* ye>1 & a cr$it-c>d issu$ him1 ) :i* he procures at ! public /ores1 f\nd 9 e community1 :atev] he desires1 :5ev] he desires x4 ,y obs]ve1 he pursu$1 z ,i 0 curi\sly exam9+ ! piece ( pa/ebo>d he gave me1 t ?is cr$it-c>d is issu$ = a c]ta9 numb] ( doll>s4 ,we keep ! old t]m doll>s z an algebraical symbol = comp>+ ! values ( products ) "o ano!r4 ,all are pric$ 9 doll>s & c5ts1 j z 9 y\r day4 ,! value ( :at ,i procure on ?is c>d is *eck$ (f by ! cl]k1 :o pricks out ( ^! ti]s ( squ>es ! price ( :at ,i ord]4 ,if y want$ to buy some?+ ( y\r neighb\r1 c\ld y transf] "p ( y\r cr$it to him8 ,our neighb\rs h no?+ to sell u2 b1 9 any ev5t1 "o's cr$it w\ld n be transf]able1 be+ /rictly p]sonal4 ,be=e ! nation c\ld ev5 ?9k ( hon\r+ any su* transf]1 x w\ld be b\nd to inquire into its equity4 ,x w\ld h be5 reason en\gh1 _h !re be5 no o!r1 = aboli%+ money1 t its possession 0 no indication ( rightful title to x4 ,9 ! h&s ( ! man :o _h /ol5 x1 x 0 z good z if e>n$ by indu/ry4 ,p n[adays int]*ange gifts1 b buy+ & sell+ is consid]$ absolutely inconsi/5t ) ! mutual b5evol5ce & dis9t]e/$ness :i* %\ld prevail betwe5 citiz5s4 ,accord+ to our ideas1 ! practice ( buy+ & sell+ is ess5tially anti-social 9 all its t5d5cies4 ,x is an education 9 self-seek+ at ! exp5se ( o!rs1 & no society ^: citiz5s are tra9$ 9 su* a s*ool c possibly rise above a v l[ grade ( civilisation4 ,:at if y h to sp5d m ?an y\r c>d all[s 9 any "o ye>8 ,if extraord9>y exp5ses %\ld exhau/ x we c obta9 a limit$ advance on next ye>'s cr$it at a heavy disc\nt4 ,if a man %[$ himself a reckless sp5d?rift he w\ld receive 8 all[ance mon?ly or weekly in/ead ( ye>ly1 or1 if necess>y1 n be p]mitt$ to h&le x at all4 ,if y don't sp5d y\r all[ance1 ,i suppose x accumulates8 ,t is also p]mitt$ to a c]ta9 ext5t :5 a special outlay is anticipat$4 ,b unless notice is giv51 x is presum$ t ! citiz5 :o does n fully exp5d 8 cr$it did n h occasion to d s1 & ! balance is turn$ into ! g5]al surplus4 ,su* a sy/em does n enc\rage sav+ habits4 ,x is n int5d$ to4 ,no man has c>e = ! morr[1 ei!r = himself or 8 *ildr51 = ! nation gu>antees ! nurture1 education1 & ma9t5ance ( e citiz5 f ! cradle to ! grave4 ,b :at inducem5t c a man h to put =? 8 be/ endeav\rs :51 h[ev] mu* or little he accompli%es1 8 income rema9s ! same8 ,does x !n really seem to y t human nature is ins5sible to any motives save fe> ( want & love ( luxury1 t y expect security & equality ( livelihood to leave m5 )\t inc5tives to ef=t8 ,y\r contempor>ies did n really ?9k s4 ,:5 x 0 a "q ( ! gr&e/ class ( ef=ts1 ! mo/ absolute self-devotion1 !y dep5d$ on q o!r motives4 ,n high] wages1 b hon\r & ! hope ( m5's gratitude1 patriotism1 & ! inspiration ( duty 7 ! motives !y set be=e _! soldi]s4 ,n[ t indu/ry ( :atev] sort is no long] self-s]vice1 b s]vice ( ! nation1 patriotism--passion = humanity--impels ! work] z 9 y\r day x did ! soldi]4 ,dur+ ! next few days ,i inve/igat$ _m o!r ( ! social & dome/ic arrangem5ts ( ,bo/onians ( ! tw5ty-fir/ c5tury1 & f :at ,i saw myself & he>d f my ho/s1 ,i ga9$ "s tol]ably cle> ideas ( mod]n organisation1 & ! sy/em ( di/ribution4 ,b x seem$ to me t ! sy/em ( production & ! direction ( ! indu/rial army mu/ be wond]fully complex & difficult4 ,i assure y t x is no?+ ( ! k9d1 said ,dr4 ,leete4 ,! entire field ( production & con/ructive indu/ry is divid$ into t5 great dep>tm5ts1 ea* repres5t+ a gr\p ( alli$ indu/ries1 ea* indu/ry be+ 9 turn repres5t$ by a subord9ate bureau1 :i* has a complete record ( ! plant & =ce "u its control1 ( ! pres5t output1 & means ( increas+ x4 ,! e/imates ( ! di/ributive dep>tm5t1 aft] adoption by ! adm9i/ration1 are s5t z m&ates to ! t5 great dep>tm5ts1 :i* allot !m to ! subord9ate bureaus repres5t+ ! p>ticul> indu/ries1 & ^! set ! m5 at "w4 ,ea* bureau is responsible = ! task giv5 x4 ,ev5 if 9 ! h&s ( ! consum] an article turns out unfit1 ! sy/em enables ! fault to be trac$ back to ! orig9al workman4 ,aft] ! necess>y cont+5ts ( lab\r h be5 detail$ = ! v>i\s indu/ries1 ! am\nt ( lab\r left = o!r employm5t is exp5d$ 9 creat+ fix$ capital1 su* z build+s1 ma*9]y1 eng9e]+ works1 & s =?4 ,t ev5+ & ! next foll[+ ,i sat up late talk+ ) ,dr4 ,leete ( ! *anges ( ! la/ hundr$ & ?irte5 ye>s2 b on ! ,sunday1 my fir/ 9 ! tw5ty-fir/ c5tury1 ,i fell into a /ate ( pr(\nd depression1 acc5tuat$ by consid]ation ( ! va/ moral gap betwe5 ! c5tury to :i* ,i belong$ & t 9 :i* ,i f\nd myself4 ,!re 0 no place any:]e = me4 ,i 0 nei!r dead nor prop]ly alive4 ,n[ ,i realis$ ! m+l$ pity1 curiosity1 & av]sion :i* ,i1 z a repres5tative ( an abhorr$ epo*1 mu/ excite 9 all ar\nd me2 b t ,edi? ,leete mu/ %>e _! feel+s 0 m ?an ,i c\ld be>4 ,t[>ds nightfall ,i ent]$ ! subt]ranean *amb] & sat d[n !re1 feel+ utt]ly alone4 ,pres5tly ,edi? /ood 9 ! door4 ,has x nev] occurr$ to y1 ,i said1 t my position is m utt]ly alone ?an any human be+'s ev] 0 be=e8 ,oh1 y mu/ n talk 9 t way4 ,y don't "k h[ x makes me feel to see y s =lorn1 %e exclaim$4 ,i caught h] h&s 9 my own4 ,are y s bl9d z n to see :y su* k9dness z y h all %[n me is n en\gh to make me happy8 ,are y sure x is n y :o are bl9d8 %e said4 ,t 0 all2 b x 0 en\gh1 = x told me t ?is radiant daught] ( a gold5 age _h be/[$ ^u me n alone h] pity1 b h] love4 ,& n[ ,i fir/ knew :at 0 p]haps ! /range/ feature ( my /range exp]i5ce3 ,edi? 0 ! great gr&-daught] ( no o!r ?an my lo/ love ,edi? ,b>tlett4 ,,j]emy ,,b5?am ,pr9ciples ( ,morals & ,legislation ,j]emy ,b5?am1 ! son & gr&son ( attorneys1 0 born 9 ,london on ,febru>y #ae1 #agdh4 ,he 0 call$ to ! ,b>1 b did n practise4 ,8 fame re/s on 8 "w 9 ! fields ( jurisprud5ce1 political sci5ce1 & e?ics4 ,he is acc\nt$ ! f\nd] ( ! utilit>ian s*ool ( philosophy1 ( :i* ! !ory is t ! production ( ! greate/ happ9ess ( ! greate/ numb] is ! crit]ion ( morals & ! aim ( politics4 ,dy+ on ,june #f1 #ahcb1 8 body1 9 accordance ) 8 own wi%es1 0 dissect$1 & 8 skeleton dress$ 9 8 cu/om>y g>b & pres]v$ 9 ! ,univ]sity ,college1 ,london4 ,b5?am's failure at ! ,b> caus$ him no small disappo9tm5t1 & x 0 n until ! publication ( a ,fragm5t on ,gov]nm5t 9 #aggf t he felt himself r$eem$ ) public op9ion4 ,! ,pr9ciples ( ,morals & ,legislation 0 fir/ publi%$ 9 #aghi1 b 0 actually 9 pr9t n9e ye>s e>li]4 ,x 0 prim>ily int5d$ z ! introductory volume ( a complete "w design$ to cov] ! :ole field ( ! pr9ciples ( legislation--pr9ciples :i*1 z we h se51 7 bas$ on t doctr9e ( utility :i* ! au?or reg>d$ z equally ! basis ( e?ics4 ,i4--,calculation ( ,pleasures & ,pa9s ,mank9d is gov]n$ by pa9 & pleasure4 ,utility is t prop]ty 9 any?+ :i* t5ds to produce happ9ess 9 ! p>ty conc]n$1 :e!r an individual or a community4 ,! pr9ciple ( utility makes utility ! crit]ion = approval or disapproval ( e k9d ( action4 ,an act :i* con=ms to ?is pr9ciple is "o :i* ought to be done1 or is n "o :i* ought n to be done2 is "r1 or1 at lea/1 n wrong4 ,!re is no o!r crit]ion possible :i* _c ultimately be r$uc$ to ! p]sonal s5tim5t ( ! individual4 ,! s\rces or sanctions ( pleasure & pa9 are f\r--! physical1 9 ! ord9>y c\rse ( nature2 political1 (ficially impos$2 moral or popul>1 impos$ by public op9ion2 & religion4 ,pa9s "u ! fir/ head are calamities2 "u ! o!r ?ree are puni%m5ts4 ,"u ! fir/ ?ree heads1 !y conc]n ! pres5t life only4 ,! second1 ?ird1 & ! f\r?1 z conc]ns ?is life1 op]ate ?r\gh ! fir/2 b ! fir/ op]ates indep5d5tly ( ! o!rs4 ,pleasures & pa9s1 !n1 are ! in/rum5ts ) :i* ! legislator has to "w2 he mu/1 !re=e1 be able to gauge _! relative values4 ,^! dep5d prim>ily & simply on f\r ?+s--int5sity1 duration1 c]ta9ty or unc]ta9ty1 prop9quity or remot5ess4 ,second>ily1 on fecundity1 ! consequ5t probable multiplication ( ! l s5sations2 & purity1 ! improbability ( consequ5t contr>y s5sations4 ,f9ally1 on ext5t--! numb] ( p]sons pleasurably or pa9fully affect$4 ,all ^! be+ weigh$ toge!r1 if ! pleasurable t5d5cy pr$om9ates1 ! act is good2 if ! pa9ful1 bad4 ,pleasures & pa9s are ei!r simple or complex--i4e41 resolvable into sev]al simple pleasures1 & may be enum]at$2 z ^? ( ! s5ses1 ( weal?1 ( piety1 ( b5evol5ce1 ( malevol5ce1 ( association1 ( imag9ation4 ,diff]5t p]sons are s5sible to ! same pleasure 9 diff]5t degrees1 & ! s5sibility ( ! individual v>ies "u diff]5t circum/ances4 ,circum/ances affect+ s5sibility are v>i\s--su* z heal?1 /r5g?1 sex1 age1 education2 !y may be circum/ances ( ! body1 ( ! m9d1 ( ! incl9ations4 ,_! influ5ce c be reckon$ approximately1 b %\ld be tak5 into consid]ation s f> z is practicable4 ,! legislator & ! judge are conc]n$ ) ! exi/+ causes ( pleasure & pa91 b ( pa9 r ?an pleasure--! mis*iefs :i* x is desir$ to prev5t1 & ! puni%m5ts by :i* x is s\ght to prev5t !m--& = ! due apportionm5t ( ! latt] !y %\ld h be=e !m ! complete li/ ( puni%m5ts & ( circum/ances affect+ s5sibility4 ,by tak+ ! two toge!r--) "o li/ or ! o!r = basis1 pref]ably ! puni%m5t li/--a classification ( appropriate p5alties is atta9able4 ,an analytical summ>y ( ! circum/ances affect+ s5sibility w di/+ui% z second>y--i4e41 z act+ n imm$iately b m$iately ?r\gh ! prim>y--sex1 age1 /ation 9 life1 education1 climate1 religion4 ,! o!rs1 all prim>y1 are connate--viz41 radical frame ( m9d & body--or adv5titi\s4 ,! adv5titi\s are p]sonal or ext]ior4 ,! p]sonal conc]n a man's disposition ( body or m9d1 or 8 actions2 ! ext]ior ! ?+s or ! p]sons he is conc]n$ )4 ,,ii4--,human ,actions ,analys$ ,! bus9ess ( gov]nm5t is to promote ! happ9ess ( society by rew>d+ & puni%+1 especially by puni%+ acts t5d+ to dim9i% happ9ess4 ,an act dem&s puni%m5t 9 proportion to its t5d5cy to dim9i% happ9ess--i4e41 z ! sum ( its consequ5ces does s4 ,only su* consequ5ces are ref]r$ to z influ5ce ! production ( pa9 or pleasure4 ,! int5tion1 z involv+ o!r consequ5ces1 mu/ also be tak5 into consid]ation4 ,& ! int5tion dep5ds on ! /ate bo? ( ! w & ( ! und]/&+ z to ! circum/ances--consci\sness1 unconsci\sness1 or false consci\sness reg>d+ !m4 ,h5ce ) reg>d to ea* action we h to consid] 7#a7 ! act itself1 7#b7 ! circum/ances1 7#c7 ! int5tionality1 7#d7 ! att5dant consci\sness1 & also 7#e7 ! motive1 & 7#f7 ! g5]al disposition indicat$4 ,acts are positive & negative--i4e41 ( commission & omission1 or =be>ance2 ext]nal or corporal1 & int]nal or m5tal2 transitive1 affect+ "s body o!r ?an ! ag5t's1 or intransitive2 transi5t or cont9u$ 7m]e repetition is n ! same z habit74 ,circum/ances are mat]ial :5 visibly relat$ to ! consequ5ces 9 po9t ( casuality1 directly or indirectly4 ,!y may be crim9ative1 or exculpative1 or aggravative1 or evid5tial4 ,! int5tion may reg>d ! act itself only1 or its consequ5ces also--= in/ance1 y may t\* a man int5tionally1 & by do+ s cause 8 dea? un9t5tionally4 ,b y _c int5d ! consequ5ces--?\gh y may h desir$ !m--)\t int5d+ ! action4 ,! consequ5ces may be int5d$ directly or indirectly1 & may or may n be ! only ?+ int5d$4 ,! int5tion is good or bad z ! consequ5ces int5d$ are good or bad4 ,b ^! actually dep5d on ! circum/ances :i* are indep5d5t ( ! int5tion2 "h ! important po9t is ! man's consci\sness ( ! circum/ances1 :i* are objects n ( ! w1 b ( ! und]/&+4 ,if he is consci\s ( ! circum/ances & ( _! mat]iality1 ! act is advis$2 if n1 unadvis$4 ,unadvis$ness may be due ei!r to he$lessness or to misappreh5sion4 ,& "h we may rem>k t we may speak ( a bad int5tion1 ?\gh ! motive 0 good1 if ! consequ5ces int5d$ 7 bad1 & vice v]sa4 ,9 ?is s5se also1 ! int5tion may be innoc5t--t is1 n bad1 )\t be+ positively good4 ,( motives1 we are conc]n$ ) practical motives only1 n ^? :i* are purely speculative4 ,^! are ei!r int]nal or ext]nal2 ei!r ev5ts 9 esse1 or ev5ts 9 prospect4 ,! imm$iate motive is an int]nal motive 9 esse--an awak5$ pleasure or pa9 at ! prospect ( pleasure or pa94 ,all o!rs are comp>atively remote4 ,n[1 s9ce ! motive is always prim>ily to produce "s pleasure or prev5t "s pa91 & s9ce pleasure is id5tical ) good1 & pa9 ) evil1 x foll[s t no motive is 9 itself bad4 ,! motive is good if x t5ds to produce a balance ( pleasure2 bad1 if a balance ( pa94 ,?us any & e motive may produce actions good1 indiff]5t1 or bad4 ,h5ce1 9 catalogu+ motives1 we mu/ employ only neutral t]ms1 i4e41 n su* z are associat$ ) goodness z--piety1 hon\r--or ) badness--z lu/1 av>ice4 ,! motives1 ( c\rse1 correspond to ! v>i\s pleasures z previ\sly enum]at$4 ,!y may be classifi$ z good1 bad1 or indiff]5t1 accord+ z _! consequ5ces are m commonly good1 bad1 or indiff]5t2 b ! dang]s ( su* classification are obvi\s4 ,9 fact1 we _c affirm goodness1 badness1 or indiff]5ce ( motive1 except 9 ! p>ticul> in/ance4 ,a bett] classification is into ! social--includ+ goodwill1 love ( reputation1 desire ( amity1 religion2 dissocial--displeasure2 self-reg>d+--physical desire1 pecuni>y int]e/1 love ( p[]1 self-pres]vation4 ,( all ^!1 ! dictates ( goodwill are ! sure/ ( co9cid+ ) utility1 s9ce utility corresponds precisely to ! wide/ & be/-advis$ goodwill4 ,ev5 "h1 h[ev]1 !re may be failure1 s9ce b5evol5ce t[>ds "o gr\p may cla% ) b5evol5ce t[>ds ano!r4 ,next /&s love ( reputation1 :i* is less secure1 s9ce x may lead to asceticism & hypocrisy4 ,?ird comes ! desire ( amity1 valuable z ! sph]e 9 :i* amity is s\ght is ext5d$1 b also liable to bre$ ins9c]ity4 ,religion w\ld /& fir/ ( all if we all _h a correct p]ception ( ! div9e goodness2 b n :5 we conceive ( ,god z malevol5t or caprici\s2 &1 z a matt] ( fact1 our conception ( ! ,deity is controll$ by our p]sonal biases4 ,! self-reg>d+ motives are1 ex hypo!si1 n s closely relat$ to utility z ! social motives1 & ! dissocial motives manife/ly /& at ! bottom ( ! scale4 ,9 respect to any p>ticul> action !re may be a conflict ( motives1 "s impell+ t[>ds x1 o!rs re/ra9+ f x2 & any motive may come 9 conflict ) any o!r motive4 ,x w be f\nd h]eaft] t 9 ! case ( "s (f5ces ! motive is mat]ial 9 ! highe/ degree1 & 9 o!rs :olly immat]ial2 9 "s cases easy1 & 9 o!rs impossible to gauge4 ,,iii4--,! ,pr9ciples ( ,puni%m5t ,goodness or badness1 !n1 _c be pr$icat$ ( ! motive4 ,:at is good or bad 9 ! man :5 actuat$ by "o motive or ano!r is 8 disposition1 or p]man5t attitude ( m9d1 :i* is good or bad z t5d+ to produce effects b5eficial to ! community4 ,x is to be consid]$ 9 reg>d to its influ5ce on 7#a7 8 own happ9ess2 7#b7 o!r p's4 ,! legislator is conc]n$ ) x s f> z x is mis*iev\s to o!rs4 ,a man is held to be ( a mis*iev\s disposition :5 x is presum$--= x is a m]e presumption--t he incl9es to acts :i* appe> to him mis*iev\s4 ,"h x is t int5tionality & consci\sness come 94 ,:]e ! t5d5cy ( ! act is good1 & ! motive is a social "o1 a good disposition is indicat$2 :]e ! t5d5cy is bad1 & ! motive is self-reg>d+1 a bad disposition is indicat$4 ,o!rwise1 ! indication ( good or bad disposition may be v dubi\s or non-exi/5t2 z may easily be se5 by con/ruct+ examples4 ,n[1 our problem is to measure ! depravity ( a man's disposition1 :i* may be def9$ z ! sum ( 8 int5tions4 ,! causes ( int5tions are motives4 ,! social motives may be call$ tutel>y1 z t5d+ to re/ra9 f mis*iev\s int5tions2 b any motive may become tutel>y on occasion4 ,love ( ease1 & desire ( self-pres]vation1 9 ! =m ( fe> ( puni%m5t1 are apt to be tutel>y motives4 ,n[ we c see t ! /r5g? ( a temptation equals ! sum ( ! impell+ motives1 m9us ! sum ( ! tutel>y motives4 ,h5ce1 ! m susceptible a man is to ! /&+ tutel>y motives1 ! less likely is he to yield to temptation2 9 o!r words1 ! less deprav$ is 8 disposition4 ,h5ce1 giv5 ! /r5g? ( ! temptation1 ! mis*iev\sness ( ! disposition is z ! app>5t mis*iev\sness ( ! act4 ,giv5 ! app>5t mis*iev\sness ( ! act1 ! less ! temptation yield$ to1 ! great] ! depravity ( disposition2 b ! /rong] ! temptation1 ! less conclusive is ! evid5ce ( depravity4 ,x foll[s t ! p5alty %\ld be increas$--i4e41 ! fe> ( puni%m5t %\ld be artificially int5sifi$1 9 proportion z1 ap>t f t fe>1 ! temptation is /rong]4 ,we n[ come to consequ5ces4 ,! mis*ief ( ! act is ! sum ( its mis*iev\s consequ5ces1 prim>y & second>y4 ,! prim>y mis*ief subdivides into orig9al1 i4e41 to ! suff]] 9 ! fir/ in/ance2 & d]ivative1 to ! def9ite p]sons :o suff] z a direct consequ5ce1 :e!r ?r\gh _! int]e/1 or m]ely ?r\gh sympa?y4 ,! second>y mis*iefs1 affect+ n specific p]sons b ! community1 are actual dang]1 or al>m--! appreh5sion ( pa94 ,= ! occurr5ce ( ! act po9ts to ! possibility ( its repetition2 weak5+ ! influ5ce bo? ( ! political & ( ! moral sanction4 ,an act ( :i* ! prim>y consequ5ces are mis*iev\s may h second>y b5eficial consequ5ces1 :i* altoge!r outweigh ! prim>y mis*ief--e4g41 ! legal puni%m5t ( crime4 ,! circum/ances influ5c+ ! second>y mis*iefs ( al>m & dang] are ! int5tionality1 ! consci\sness1 ! motive1 & ! disposition2 dang] dep5d+ on ! real1 & al>m on ! app>5t1 /ate ( m9d1 ?\gh ! real & ! app>5t co9cide m commonly ?an n4 ,betwe5 ! completely int5tional & completely un9t5tional act !re are v>i\s /ages1 dep5d+ on ! degree ( consci\sness1 z expla9$ above4 ,! excell5ce ( ! motive does n oblit]ate ! mis*iev\sness ( ! act2 nor vice v]sa2 b ! mis*ief may be aggravat$ by a bad motive1 z po9t+ to great] likelihood ( repetition4 ,?is is less ! case1 h[ev]1 :5 ! motive is dissocial1 su* motives be+ g5]ally less con/ant1 z hav+ ref]5ce to a p>ticul>1 n a g5]al1 object2 ! religi\s motive1 z be+ m con/ant1 is m p]nici\s :5 x has a mis*iev\s issue4 ,puni%m5t1 be+ prim>ily mis*iev\s1 is out ( place :5 gr\ndless1 inefficaci\s1 unpr(itable1 or ne$less4 ,puni%m5t is ineffici\s :5 x is ex po/ facto1 or extra-legal1 or secret2 or 9 ! case ( irresponsible 7includ+ intoxicat$7 p]sons2 & also s f> z ! int5tion ( ! act 0 incomplete1 or :]e ! act 0 actually or practically "u compulsion4 ,x is unpr(itable :5 "u ord9>y circum/ances ! evils ( ! puni%m5t outweigh ^? ( ! (f5ce2 ?is subject1 h[ev]1 w be m fully dealt ) lat]4 ,x is ne$less :5 ! end 9 view c be z well or bett] atta9$ o!rwise4 ,n[1 ! aim ( ! legislator is 7#a7 to prev5t mis*ief altoge!r2 7#b7 to m9imise ! incl9ation to d mis*ief2 7#c7 to make ! prev5tion *eap4 ,h5ce1 7#a7 ! puni%m5t mu/ outweigh ! pr(it ( ! (f5ce to ! do]2 7#b7 ! great] ! mis*ief1 ! great] ! exp5se wor? incurr+ to prev5t x2 7#c7 alt]native (f5ces :i* are n equally mis*iev\s1 z robb]y & robb]y ) murd]1 mu/ n be equally puni%$2 7#d7 ! puni%m5t mu/ n be excessive1 & !re=e %\ld take into acc\nt ! circum/ances influ5c+ s5sibility2 7#e7 s also mu/ ! weakness ( ! puni%m5t due to its remot5ess1 & ! impell+ =ce ( habit4 ,! prop]ties ( puni%m5t necess>y to its adju/m5t to a p>ticul> (f5ce are ^!3 7#a7 v>iability 9 po9t ( quantity1 s t x %all be nei!r excessive nor defici5t2 7#b7 equality1 s t :5 appli$ 9 equal degree1 x %all cause equal pa9--e4g41 bani%m5t may mean mu* to "o man1 little to ano!r2 7#c7 comm5surability ) o!r puni%m5ts2 7#d7 *>act]i/icalness1 or appropriat5ess2 7#e7 exempl>ity--x mu/ n seem less ?an x is 9 fact2 7#f7 frugality--none ( ! pa9 x causes is to be wa/$4 ,m9or desirable qualities are 7#g7 subs]vi5cy to re=mation ( "*2 7#h7 effici5cy 9 disabl+ f mis*ief2 7#i7 subs]vi5cy to comp5sation2 7#aj7 popul>ity1 i4e41 accordant to common approbation2 7#aa7 remissibility4 ,,iv4--,division ( ,(f5ces ,an (f5ce--a puni%able act--is con/itut$ su* by ! community2 ?\gh x ought n to be an (f5se unless contr>y to utility1 x may be s4 ,x is assum$ to be a detrim5tal act2 detrim5tal !re=e to "s p]son or p]sons1 :e!r ! (f5d] himself or o!r assignable p]sons1 or to p]sons n assignable4 ,(f5ces aga9/ assignable p]sons o!r ?an ! (f5d] =m ! fir/ class2 (f5ces aga9/ individuals1 or private (f5ces1 or private extra-reg>d+ (f5ces4 ,! second class is =m$ by semi-public (f5ces1 i4e41 n aga9/ assignable individuals1 nor ! community at l>ge1 b a sep>able gr\p 9 ! community1 e4g41 a class or a locality4 ,! ?ird class are ^? :i* are simply self-reg>d+2 ! f\r?1 aga9/ ! community at l>ge2 ! fif?1 multi=m or het]og5e\s1 compris+ falsehood & brea*es ( tru/4 ,! fir/ class may be subdivid$ into (f5ces aga9/ 7#a7 ! p]son1 7#b7 reputation1 7#c7 prop]ty1 7#d7 condition--i4e41 ! s]viceabl5ess to ! individual ( o!r p]sons1 7#e7 p]son & prop]ty toge!r1 7#f7 p]son & reputation toge!r4 ,! second1 semi-public1 class1 be+ acts :i* endang] a portion ( ! community1 are ^? op]at+ ?r\gh calamity1 or ( m]e del9qu5cy4 ,! latt] are subdivid$ on ! same l9es z private (f5ces4 ,s ) ! ?ird or self-reg>d+ class4 ,9 class f\r1 public (f5ces fall "u elev5 divisions3 7#a7 (f5ces aga9/ ext]nal security--i4e41 f =eign foes2 7#b7 aga9/ ju/ice--i4e41 ! execution ( ju/ice2 7#c7 aga9/ ! prev5tive bran* ( police2 7#d7 aga9/ ! public =ce--i4e41 milit>y control2 7#e7 aga9/ increase ( national felicity2 7#f7 aga9/ public weal?--i4e41 ! ex*equ]2 7#g7 aga9/ population2 7#h7 aga9/ national weal?--i4e41 enri*m5t ( ! population2 7#i7 aga9/ sov]eignty2 7#aj7 aga9/ religion2 7#aa7 aga9/ national int]e/s 9 g5]al4 ,9 class five1 falsehood comprises simple falsehoods1 =g]y1 p]sonation1 & p]jury2 aga9 di/ributable l ! private (f5ces4 ,9 ! case ( tru/s1 !re are two p>ties--! tru/ee & ! b5efici>y4 ,(f5ces "u ?is head _c1 = v>i\s reasons1 be conv5i5tly ref]r$ to (f5ces aga9/ prop]ty or condition1 :i* also mu/ be kept sep>ate f ea* o!r4 ,z reg>ds ! exi/5ce ( a tru/3 z aga9/ ! tru/ee1 (f5ces are 7#a7 wrongful non-inve/m5t ( tru/1 & wrongful int]ception ( tru/1 :]e ! tru/ee%ip is to 8 b5efit2 or 7#b7 :]e x is tr\blesome1 wrongful imposition ( tru/4 ,bo? may simil>ly be (f5ces aga9/ ! b5efici>y4 ,z reg>ds ! ex]cise ( ! tru/1 we h negative brea* ( tru/1 positive brea* ( tru/1 abuse ( tru/1 di/urbance ( tru/1 & brib]y4 ,we may n[ di/ribute class "o--(f5ces aga9/ ! individual--into g5]a2 to d s ) ! o!r classes w\ld be sup]flu\s4 ,simple (f5ces aga9/ ! p]son are actions ref]r+ to 8 actual p]son1 body or m9d1 or ext]nal objects affect+ 8 happ9ess4 ,^! mu/ take effect ei!r ?r\gh 8 w1 or n4 ,9 ! =m] case1 ei!r by con/ra9t1 or re/ra9t1 conf9em5t1 or bani%m5t4 ,9 any case ! effect w be mortal or n mortal2 if n mortal1 rep>able or irrep>able injury :5 corporal1 actual1 or appreh5d$1 suff]ance :5 m5tal4 ,s ! li/ /&s--simple & irrep>able corporal injuries1 simple injuri\s re/ra9t or con/ra9t1 wrongful conf9em5t or bani%m5t1 homicide or m5acem5t1 actual or appreh5d$ m5tal injuries4 ,aga9/ reputation ! g5]a ( (f5ces are 7i7 defamation1 7#b7 vilification4 ,( (f5ces aga9/ prop]ty1 simple 9 _! effects1 :e!r by brea* ( tru/ or o!rwise1 ! g5]a are3 wrongful non-inve/m5t1 int]ception1 dive/m5t1 usurpation1 inve/m5t1 ( prop]ty2 wrongful )hold+ ( s]vices1 de/ruction1 occupation1 or deta9m5t1 embezzlem5t1 !ft1 defraudm5t1 extortion4 ,( complex (f5ces aga9/ p]son & reputation toge!r3 corporal insults1 insult+ m5acem5t1 s$uction1 & =cible s$uction1 simple lascivi\s injuries4 ,aga9/ p]son & prop]ty toge!r3 =cible int]ception1 dive/m5t1 usurpation1 inve/m5t1 or de/ruction ( prop]ty1 =cible occupation or deta9m5t ( movables1 =cible entry1 =cible deta9m5t ( immovables1 robb]y4 ,z to (f5ces aga9/ condition3 conditions are ei!r dome/ic or civil2 dome/ic relations are ei!r purely natural1 purely in/itut$1 or mix$4 ,( ! fir/1 we are conc]n$ only ) ! m>ital1 p>5tal1 & filial relations4 ,"u ! second head are ! relations ( ma/] & s]vant1 gu>dian & w>d4 ,9 ! case ( ma/] & s]vants1 ! head+s ( (f5ces are mu* l ^? aga9/ prop]ty4 ,gu>dian%ip is requir$ 9 ! cases ( infancy & insanity2 aga9 ! li/ ( (f5ces is simil>4 ,! p>5tal & filial relations1 s f> z !y are affect$ by in/itutions1 comprise ^? bo? ( ma/] & s]vant1 & ( gu>dian & w>d2 s t ! (f5ces are correspond5t4 ,! relation ( husb& & wife also comprises ^? ( ma/] & gu>dian to s]vant & w>d4 ,b !re are fur!r c]ta9 reciprocal s]vices :i* are ! subject ( ! m>ital contract1 by :i* polygamy & adult]y are con/itut$ (f5ces 9 ,*ri/ian c\ntries1 & also ! refusal ( conjugal rights4 ,f dome/ic conditions we pass to civil4 ,elim9at+ all ^? :i* c be br\ght "u ! categories ( tru/s & dome/ic conditions1 !re rema9 conditions1 con/itut$ by b5eficial p[]s ov] ?+s1 b5eficial rights to ?+s1 rights to s]vices1 & by correspond+ duties2 & betwe5 ^! & prop]ty !re is no cle> l9e ( dem>cation1 yet we c hit ^u "s su* conditions z sep>able4 ,su* are rank & pr(ession :i* entail specific obligations & rights--^! are n prop]ty b conditions2 z di/+ui%$ f o!r exclusive rights be/[$ by ! law1 conc]n$ ) saleable articles 7e4g41 copyright71 :i* convey n conditions1 b prop]ty4 ,s1 naturalisation conveys ! conditions ( a natural born subject4 ,public (f5ces are to be catalogu$ 9 a mann] simil> to private (f5ces4 ,my object has be5 to comb9e intelligibility ) precision2 te*nical t]ms lack ! =m] quality1 popul> t]ms ! latt]4 ,h5ce ! plan ( ! =ego+ analysis has be5 to take ! logical :ole con/itut$ by ! sum ( possible (f5ces1 dissect x 9 z _m directions z 7 necess>y1 & c>ry ! process d[n to ! po9t :]e ea* idea c\ld be express$ 9 curr5t phraseology4 ,?us x becomes equally applicable to ! legal conc]ns ( all c\ntries or sy/ems4 ,! advantages ( ?is me?od are3 x is conv5i5t = ! memory1 gives room = g5]al propositions1 po9ts out ! reason ( ! law1 & is applicable to ! laws ( all nations4 ,h5ce we are able to *>act]ise ! five classes ( (f5ces4 ,?us1 ( private (f5ces1 we note t !y are prim>ily aga9/ assignable individuals1 admit ( comp5sation & retaliation1 & s on2 ( semi-public (f5ces1 t !y are n aga9/ assignable individuals1 &1 ) self-reg>d+ (f5ces1 admit ( nei!r comp5sation nor retaliation2 to :i* a s]ies ( g5]alisations respect+ ea* class c be add$4 ,! relation betwe5 p5al jurisprud5ce & private e?ics mu/ be cl>ifi$4 ,bo? are conc]n$ ) ! production ( happ9ess4 ,a man's private e?ics are conc]n$ ) 8 duty to himself & to 8 neighb\r2 prud5ce1 probity1 & b5efic5ce4 ,^? cases describ$ z unmeet = puni%m5t are all )9 ! e?ical1 b outside ! legislative1 sph]e1 except ! gr\ndless cases1 :i* are outside bo?4 ,! special field ( private e?ics is among ! cases :]e puni%m5t is unpr(itable or inefficaci\s1 notably ^? :i* are ! conc]n ( prud5ce4 ,s ) ! rules ( b5efic5ce2 b b5efic5ce might well be made compulsory 9 a great] degree ?an x is4 ,! special sph]e ( legislation1 h[ev]1 lies 9 ! field ( probity4 ,a "w ( jurisprud5ce is ei!r expository ( :at ! law is1 or c5sorial1 %[+ :at x %\ld be4 ,x may relate to ei!r local or univ]sal jurisprud5ce2 b if expository c h>dly be m ?an local4 ,x may be int]nal1 or int]national1 ?\gh !re is v little law 9 int]national proc$ure2 if int]nal1 x may be national or prov9cial1 x may be hi/orical or liv+2 x may be divid$ into /atutory & cu/om>y1 into civil & p5al or crim9al4 ,,jean ,,blo* ,! ,future ( ,w> ,! son ( humble ,poli% ,jews1 ,jean ,blo*1 :o 0 born 9 #ahcf1 amass$ a l>ge =tune out ( ,russian railways4 ,at ! age ( fifty he retir$ f bus9ess1 & devot$ himself to an exhau/ive /udy ( ! conditions & possibilities ( mod]n w>f>e4 ,to ?is lab\r he gave eight ye>s1 &1 9 #ahih1 ! fruits ( x 7 publi%$ 9 a "w ( six volumes1 9 :i* he s\ght to prove t1 ow+ to ! imm5sity ( mod]n armies1 ! deadl9ess ( mod]n weapons1 & ! economic conditions t prevail$ 9 ! l>g] /ates1 a great ,european w> 0 rapidly becom+ a physical impossibility4 ,m4 ,blo* di$ on ,janu>y #g1 #aijb1 n be=e sev]al ( 8 !ories _h be5 te/$ by actual campaign+4 ,8 ma9 argum5t1 h[ev]1 conc]ns a w> on ,european fronti]s betwe5 ,european p[]s1 & su* a w> he did n live to witness4 ,i4--,! ,problem ,/at$ ,9 ! public & private life ( mod]n ,europe a pres5tim5t is felt t ! pres5t incessant gr[? ( armam5ts mu/ ei!r call =? a w>1 ru9\s bo? = conqu]or & = conqu]$1 & end+ p]haps 9 g5]al an>*y2 or mu/ r$uce ! p to ! mo/ lam5table condition4 ,is ?is unique /ate ( m9d ju/ifi$ by possible cont+5cies8 ,x is true t ! ru9\sness ( w> "u mod]n conditions is app>5t to all4 ,b ?is gives no suffici5t gu>antee t w> w n break =? sudd5ly1 ev5 9 opposition to ! wi%es ( ^? :o take "p 9 x4 ,involunt>ily we call to m9d ! words ( ! great ,bacon1 t 9 ! vanity ( ! _w a great] field ( action is op5 = folly ?an = reason1 & frivolity always enjoys m influ5ce ?an judgm5t4 ,w>1 x w\ld appe> f an analysis ( ! hi/ory ( mank9d1 has 9 ! pa/ be5 a normal attribute ( human life4 ,! position n[ has *ang$ 9 mu*1 b /ill ! new cont9ues to cont5d ) ! old4 ,) ! innum]able voices :i* are n[ b\nd up 9 our public op9ion1 & ! _m diff]5t repres5tatives ( its int]e/s1 naturally appe> v diff]5t views on milit>ism & its object--w>4 ,! prop]ti$ classes are incl9$ to confuse ev5 ! intellectual movem5t aga9/ milit>ism ) aspirations = ! subv]sion ( social ord]2 on ! o!r h&1 agitators1 seek+ influ5ce on ! m9ds ( ! masses1 d5y all exi/+ rights1 & promise to ! masses m ?an ! mo/ p]fect in/itutions c\ld give !m4 ,& al?\gh ! masses are sl[ to surr5d] !mselves to ab/ract reason+1 & act usually only "u ! influ5ce ( passion1 !re c be no d\bt t ?is agitation p5etrates ! p m & m deeply4 ,) su* a position ( affairs1 x is necess>y t influ5tial & educat$ m5 %\ld s]i\sly attempt to give !mselves a cle> acc\nt ( ! effect ( w> "u mod]n conditions2 :e!r x w be possible to realise ! aims ( w>1 & :e!r ! ext]m9ation ( millions ( m5 w n be :olly )\t result4 ,if1 aft] consid]ation ( all circum/ances1 we answ] ourselves3 ,w> ) su* conditions is impossible2 armies c\ld n su/a9 ^? cataclysms :i* a future w> w\ld call =?2 ! civil population c\ld n be> ! fam9e & int]ruption ( indu/ry2 !n we might ask ! g5]al "q3 ,:y d ! peoples m & m exhau/ _! /r5g? 9 accumulat+ means ( de/ruction :i* are valueless ev5 to accompli% ! ends = :i* !y are prep>$8 ,9 rec5t times w> has become ev5 m t]rible ?an be=e 9 consequ5ce ( p]fect$ weapons ( de/ruction & sy/ems ( equipm5t & tra9+ utt]ly unkn[n 9 ! pa/4 ,infantry & artill]y fire w h unprec$5t$ =ce2 smoke w no long] conceal f ! survivors ! t]rible consequ5ces ( ! battle4 ,f ?is1 & f ! fact t ! mass ( soldi]s w h b rec5tly be5 call$ f ! field1 ! factory1 & ! work%op1 x w appe> t ev5 ! psy*ical conditions ( w> h *ang$4 ,! ?\ght ( ! convulsions :i* w be call$ =? by a w>1 & ( ! t]rible means prep>$ = x1 w h9d] milit>y ent]prise4 ,b1 on ! o!r h&1 ! pres5t conditions _c cont9ue to exi/ = ev]4 ,! peoples groan "u ! burd5s ( milit>ism4 ,we are compell$ to ask3 ,c ! pres5t incessant dem&s = money = armam5ts cont9ue = ev] )\t social outbreaks8 ,! position ( ! ,european _w1 ! organic /r5g? ( :i* is wa/$1 on ! "o h&1 9 ! sacrifice ( millions on prep>ations = w>1 &1 on ! o!r1 9 a de/ructive agitation1 :i* f9ds 9 milit>ism its apology & a fit in/rum5t = act+ on ! m9ds ( ! p1 mu/ be admitt$ to be abnormal & ev5 sickly4 ,is x possible t !re c be no recov]y f ?is8 ,we are deeply p]suad$ t a means ( recov]y exi/s if ! ,european /ates w\ld b set !mselves ! "q--9 :at w result ^! armam5ts & ?is exhau/ion8 ,:at w be ! nature ( a future w>8 ,c rec\rse be _h to w> ev5 n[ = ! decision ( que/ions 9 dispute1 & is x possible to conceive ! settlem5t ( su* que/ions by means ( ! cataclysm :i*1 ) mod]n means ( de/ruction1 a w> betwe5 five great p[]s ) t5 millions ( soldi]s w\ld cause8 ,t w> w become impossible 9 "t is indicat$ by all4 ,! m apposite "q is--:5 w ! recognition ( ?is inevitable tru? be spread among ,european gov]nm5ts & peoples8 ,:5 ! impossibility ( resort+ to w> = ! decision ( int]national qu>rels is evid5t to all1 o!r means w be devis$4 ,,ii4--,h[ ,w> ,w ,be ,wag$ on ,l& ,! bullet ( ! pres5t day c kill at a va/ly great] di/ance ?an ! bullets fir$ dur+ ! ,franco-,g]man & ,russo-,turki% campaigns4 ,! p[d] n[ 9 use has n only f> m explosive =ce ?an ! old-fa%ion$ p[d]1 b is almo/ smokeless4 ,! introduction ( ! magaz9e rifle has imm5sely increas$ ! spe$ ( fir+4 ,moreov]1 ! rifle is und]go+ con/ant improvem5t1 & becom+ a m & m deadly weapon4 ,x is easy1 !n1 to see ! foll[+ consequ5ces f ^! *anges3 7#a7 ,! op5+ ( battles f mu* great] di/ances ?an =m]ly2 7#b7 ! necessity ( loose =mation 9 attack2 7#c7 ! /r5g!n+ ( ! def5ce2 7#d7 ! increase 9 ! area ( ! battlefield2 & 7#e7 ! increase 9 casualties4 ,if we take rifle %oot+ alone into acc\nt1 ! l5g? ( range1 ! spe$ ( fire1 ! bett] tra9+ ( troops 9 ! use ( ! rifle1 & ! inv5tion ( contrivances to aid m>kman%ip1 cause su* effectiv5ess ( fire t x w\ld be q possible = rival armies totally to annihilate ea* o!r4 ,b a simil> improvem5t has tak5 place 9 artill]y4 ,! introduction ( ! quick-fir+ gun has multipli$ ! spe$ ( artill]y fire _m times ov]4 ,! range has be5 increas$ by ! p]fect+ ( ! /ructure ( ! guns1 ! use ( nickel /eel 9 ! manufacture ( projectiles1 & ! employm5t ( smokeless p[d] ( imm5se explosive =ce4 ,artill]y fire w n[ n only be employ$ aga9/ attack+ troops1 b ev5 m aga9/ support+ bodies1 :i* mu/ necess>ily advance 9 clos] ord]1 & among :om1 !re=e1 ! action ( artill]y w be ev5 m deadly4 ,we may well ask ! "q :e!r ! n]ves ( %ort-s]vice soldi]s w /& ! t]rible de/ructiv5ess ( artill]y fire4 ,z a necess>y consequ5ce ( ! increase 9 ! p[] ( fire1 we f9d ! m frequ5t & m ext5d$ adoption ( def5ces1 & ( cov] = protection 9 attack & hamp]+ ! enemy4 ,9 addition1 e body ( m5 appo9t$ = def5ce1 & ev5 = attack--if x is n to attack at once--mu/ imm$iately entr5* itself4 ,! def5d]s1 ?us %elt]$1 & only requir+ to expose _! heads & h&s1 h an enorm\s advantage ov] ! attack+ p>ty1 :i* is expos$ to an un9t]rupt$ fire to :i* x c h>dly reply4 ,9 ! op9ion ( compet5t milit>y writ]s1 ! w> ( ! future w consi/ prim>ily ( a s]ies ( battles = ! possession ( =tifi$ positions1 :i* w fur!r be protect$ by wire ob/ructions1 pitfalls1 etc41 to ov]come :i* great sacrifices mu/ be made4 ,z infantry1 ev5 if weak 9 numb]s1 _c be driv5 f an entr5*$ position )\t artill]y fire1 armies 9 future mu/ f9d !mselves ma9ly dep5d5t ^u artill]y4 ,if ! def5d+ artill]y be equal 9 /r5g? to t ( ! attack]s1 !n ! attack+ artill]y w be wip$ out4 ,if x be n equal 9 /r5g?1 !n bo? may be wip$ out4 ,! losses w be s great t ! artill]y ( bo? armies w be p>alys$1 or x might be t ! artill]y w\ld inflict su* heavy losses on ! troops t ! w> w\ld become impossible4 ,ow+ to smokeless p[d]1 batt]ies ( artill]y are m expos$ to ! fire bo? ( ! enemy's artill]y & ( %>p%oot]s4 ,a hundr$ %>p%oot]s at a di/ance ( half a mile c1 x is e/imat$1 put a batt]y out ( action 9 less ?an two m9utes & a half4 ,let x be add$ t ! high explosives us$ by mod]n artill]y are extremely liable to explode1 ow+ to be+ /ruck by ! enemy1 or ow+ to concussion caus$ by an enemy's %ell1 or to mi%&l+4 ,= ^! reasons1 ! prospect be=e an artill]y batt]y ent]+ into a mod]n ,european battle is a prospect ( demolition4 ,! ,european infantry ( ! future w be compos$ l>gely ( imp]fectly tra9$ %ort-s]vice soldi]s & ( res]ves :o h =gott5 _! tra9+4 ,infantry soldi]s are liable to be kill$ by bullets f enemies :om !y _c see1 ^: rifles1 ow+ to ! di/ance1 !y may n ev5 be able to he>4 ,_! (fic]s w be pick$ (f 9 great numb]s by %>p%oot]s1 & !y w be left )\t lead]s4 ,x is calculat$ t an av]age army is compos$ "o-?ird ( brave m51 "o-?ird ( c[>ds1 & "o-?ird ( m5 :o w be brave if prop]ly l$4 ,! loss ( ! (fic]s mu/ t5d to cause ?is latt] section to jo9 ! c[>ds4 ,fur!rmore1 ! enorm\s area ( mod]n battlefields involves great dem&s ^u ! endurance ( ! foot soldi]s1 & troops ma9ly drawn f indu/rial c5tres c h>dly be expect$ to meet su* dem&s4 ,unless ! attack+ artill]y is ov]:elm+ly /rong] ?an ! def5d+ artill]y1 def5sive infantry 9 an entr5*$ position _c be ou/$ f its position unless ! attack]s outnumb] _! oppon5ts by six or sev5 to "o1 & are prep>$ to lose heavily4 ,! murd]\s zone ( a ?\s& y>ds ly+ betwe5 ! armies _c be cross$ save at fe>ful sacrifice1 & ! bayonet z a weapon ( attack is n[ altoge!r obsolete4 ,c any comm&] be f\nd :o w possess ! extraord9>y qualities ne$$ = ! control ( a mod]n ,european army--a :ole p possess$ ( weapons ( trem5d\s p[] & deadl9ess1 spread ov] an area ( va/ ext5t1 engag$ ^u battles t w necess>ily la/ = days1 subject$ to a n]v\s /ra9 su* z has nev] be5 exp]i5c$ 9 w>f>e8 ,! responsibility ( subord9ate (fic]s mu/1 "u su* circum/ances1 be f> great] ?an x us$ to be2 ! comm&] _c keep ev]y?+ "u 8 eye4 ,&1 z already said1 ! (fic]s w be especially pick$ out = dea?4 ,"u all ^! conditions1 x is likely t aft] battles ) enorm\s slaught]1 victory w be claim$ by bo? sides4 ,we mu/ fur!r take into acc\nt ! influ5ce ( a mod]n w> ^u populations4 ,:at w be ! effect on ! temp] ( mod]n armies if w> %\ld be prolong$8 ,h[ w ! civil population receive ! news f ! front8 ,:at convulsions mu/ we expect :51 aft] ! conclusion ( peace1 ! soldi]s return to _! de/roy$ & desolat$ homes8 ,a great ,european w> ( ! future w1 x may be assum$1 be f\ght on "o or ! o!r fronti] ( ,g]many--9 ! ,franco-,g]man area on ! we/]n side2 or ! ,g]man-,au/ro-,russian area on ! ea/]n--or on bo?4 ,s9ce x w\ld be impossible "u mod]n conditions = ,g]many1 ) or )\t ,au/rian co-op]ation1 to invade bo? ,france & ,russia1 %e w\ld be oblig$ to def5d "o fronti] :ile cross+ ! o!r4 ,an attack ^u ,france w\ld involve ! trav]s+ ( a difficult /ret* ( c\ntry 9 :i* elaborate arrangem5ts h be5 made = def5ce2 & al?\gh ! ,fr5* army is n s /rong z t ( ,g]many1 x w\ld h ! enorm\s advantage ( /&+ on ! def5sive4 ,ev5 if ,g]many 7 to ga9 initial successes ?r\gh h] sup]ior swiftness 9 mobilization1 ! difficulties ( mod]n w>f>e are su* t %e c\ld n hope1 ev5 "u abnormally fav\rable circum/ances1 to capture ,p>is 9 less ?an two ye>s1 & long be=e !n %e w\ld be r$uc$ to a /ate ( entire economic exhau/ion4 ,x is to be borne 9 m9d t ! invad+ army w\ld con/antly gr[ weak]1 :ile ! def5d]s w\ld be able to en=ce ! sup]iority n[ belong+ to def5ce by br++ up all _! res]ves4 ,difficulties :i* w\ld be1 if possible1 ev5 h>d] to surm\nt w\ld att5d a ,fr5* attempt to invade ,g]many4 ,! elaborate plans t h be5 drawn up = an ,au/ro-,g]man invasion ( ,russia w\ld1 9 all probability1 be doom$ to failure4 ,! def5sive sy/em ( ,russian ,pol& is reg>d$ z almo/ p]fect4 ,ev5 if ! ,g]man & ,au/rian =ces c\ld evade ! ,poli% def5ces1 !y w\ld wa/e _! /r5g? aga9/ ! second ,russian =tifi$ l9e2 & ev5 if t 7 brok5 ?r\gh1 ,/4 ,pet]sburg & ,mosc[ w\ld /ill be f> di/ant1 & ,russia's imm5se res\rces 9 m5 w\ld enable h] to br+ up body aft] body ( res]ves aga9/ ! dw9dl+ invad+ =ce4 ,a ,russian invasion ( ,prussia w\ld h to enc\nt] an elaborately sci5tific def5sive sy/em1 & w\ld be liable to all ! o!r difficulties to :i* an invasion is expos$--p>ticul>ly1 9 ?is case1 ! difficulty ( fe$+ a va/ ho/ ( m5 on ho/ile t]ritory4 ,! weakness ( ,au/ria's ,galician fronti] seems tempt+2 b ,russia w\ld h to /rike at ,g]many--an invasion ( ,au/ria :i* left ,g]many unt\*$ w\ld be m]e wa/e ( en]gy4 ,! g5]al conclusion is t invasion ( an enemy's c\ntry1 9 a great ,european /ruggle1 w\ld1 9 all probability1 lead to ! de/ruction ( ! invad]s & ! entire exhau/ion ( bo? combatants4 ,,iii4--,mod]n ,w> at ,sea ,! mod]n w>%ip is a float+ =tress equipp$ ) complex ma*9]y1 & ! rivalry 9 naval inv5tion has l$ to a t]rible exp5diture ^u :i* ! p[]s h emb>k$ 9 utt] he$lessness ( ! w>n+s ( economi/s4 ,s prodigi\s is ! de/ructive p[] ( mod]n naval weapons t1 9 ! op9ion ( mo/ speciali/s1 vessels :i* take "p 9 great battles w issue f !m damag$ to su* an ext5t t1 dur+ ! re/ ( ! w>1 !y w n ne$ to be tak5 into acc\nt4 ,9 w> ! /ronge/ nation w be t :i* possesses ! greate/ numb] ( ars5als & ready /ores ( ammunition1 & coal at po9ts select$ 9 times ( peace2 &1 9 addition to ^!1 a fleet 9 res]ve1 ev5 a fleet ( old type1 b equipp$ ) mod]n artill]y4 ,) su* a fleet x w be possible to /rike deadly bl[s at ! enemy :5 ! fleets ( ! fir/ l9e h be5 incapacitat$4 ,to cruis]s & torp$o-boats w be allott$ ! f]oci\s duty ( pursu+ m]*ant %ips1 fall+ ^u !m at night1 & s9k+ !m1 ) ! object ( cutt+ ! communications & p>alys+ ! trade ( ! enemy4 ,! effect ( naval w>s on trade w 9 future be incomp>ably m disa/r\s ?an x has ev] be5 be=e4 ,calculations %[ t ,engl& alone 9 a prolong$ w> c\ld ga9 ! ma/]y ( ! sea1 =c+ ! o!r naval p[]s to give way ev]y:]e4 ,b ! int]ruption ( communications at sea w\ld cause ! ,engli% su* losses t a prolong$ w> w\ld be impossible = !m4 ,?us1 9 cont9u+ to increase _! fleets & to p]fect _! armam5ts at imm5se co/1 ! ,european p[]s are /riv+ at aims undef9$ & unatta9able4 ,b ! f9ancial & social difficulties :i* ye>ly increase may result 9 su* dang]s t gov]nm5ts mu/ be compell$ aft] imm5se sacrifices to d :at x w\ld be wis] to d to-day--namely1 to ab&on a fruitless competition4 ,su* is a brief picture ( :at ,europe may expect f a future w>4 ,b ov] & above ! direct sacrifices & mat]ial losses by slaught]1 fire1 hung]1 & disease1 a w> w cause to humanity a great moral evil 9 consequ5ce ( ! =ms :i* a /ruggle on sea w assume1 & ( ! examples ( savag]y :i* x w pres5t at a mom5t :5 ! civil ord] w be ?reat5$ by new !ories ( social revolution4 ,:at we>isome lab\r w be ne$$ to repair ! losses1 to cure ! w\nds :i* a w> ( a s+le ye> w cause6 ,h[ _m fl\ri%+ c\ntries w be turn$ into wild]nesses & ri* cities into ru9s6 ,h[ _m te>s w be %$1 h[ _m w be left 9 begg>y6 ,h[ long w x be be=e ! voices ( ! be/ m51 aft] su* a t]rible example1 w prea* to humanity a high] pr9ciple ?an might is "r8 ,,iv4--,! ,w>n+s ( ! ,economi/s ,! conditions ( mod]n w> are b\nd to be ! cause ( huge exp5diture4 ,fir/ ( all1 milit>y /ores mu/ be drawn by e c\ntry f its own res\rces4 ,artill]y1 rifles1 & ammunition are all f> m co/ly ?an !y us$ to be1 & ! am\nt ( ammunition consum$ 9 a mod]n ,european campaign w be prodigi\s4 ,! va/ness ( armies1 & ! deadl9ess ( mod]n weapons1 w add imm5sely to ! requirem5ts ( ! sick & w\nd$4 ,! dem& = provisions mu/ va/ly increase1 & ! increase w be foll[$ by a great rise 9 prices4 ,t an imm5se army _c exi/ on ! res\rces ( an enemy's t]ritory is pla91 especially :5 ! sl[ness ( advance 9 a /ruggle = =tifi$ positions is tak5 into acc\nt4 ,communications by sea w be int]rupt$ at ! v outbreak ( w>4 ,9 ?is respect ,engl& is 9 incomp>ably ! wor/ position4 ,!re are s]i\s reasons = d\bt+ ! proposition t a future w> w\ld be %ort4 ,?anks to railways1 ! p]iod ( prep>atory op]ations w\ld be consid]ably %ort5$2 b 9 m>*es1 manoeuvres1 & battles railways c be employ$ only 9 v r>e cases1 & z l9es ( op]ation !y _c s]ve4 ,! "q naturally arises3 ,w x be possible to raise = w> purposes rev5ues va/ly exce$+ ! normal rev5ues ( ,european /ates8 ,& :at results mu/ we expect f su* extraord9>y t5sion8 ,a c>eful & ?or\gh inquiry %[s t no great p[] is economically capable ( be>+ ! /ra9 ( a great w>4 ,russia has 9 ?is respect an important advantage 9 t h] work]s1 :o are h] fight]s1 are mo/ly agricultural2 ! memb]s ( _! families c cont9ue _! lab\rs :5 ! summons to w> is issu$4 ,b1 on ! o!r h&1 ! ,russian rural population is extremely poor1 & h] res\rces w\ld quickly be exhau/$4 ,z = ,engl&1 ! int]ruption ( m>itime communications w\ld affect disa/r\sly1 if n fatally1 ! indu/ries ( ! c\ntry & ! fe$+ ( h] population4 ,engl& dep5ds to s great an ext5t ^u import$ :eat t a w> w\ld ?reat5 ! :ole population ) fam9e4 ,! v l>ge indu/rial portion ( ! ,g]man community w\ld be hit mo/ sev]ely4 ,! /oppage ( "w & ! rise 9 prices w\ld cause int5se suff]+ & viol5t discont5t4 ,al?\gh ,france surviv$ ! economic /ra9 ( ! w> ( #ahgj1 x does n foll[ t %e c\ld endure ! f> great] /ra9 ( a campaign "u ! new conditions4 ,h] indu/rial population1 l t ( ,g]many1 w\ld be ru9$1 & ! result+ mis]y might well lead to revolution4 ,a great ,european w>1 !n1 w\ld br+ ab\t ! economic pro/ration ( e nation engag$ 9 x1 & w\ld be a cause ( viol5t dang] to ! fabric ( society4 ,ano!r problem ( mod]n w> rema9s to be consid]$--! condition & c>e ( ! w\nd$4 ,mod]n weapons ( precision c n only kill or w\nd m accurately & at great] di/ances ?an ! old] weapons1 b h m p5etrative p[]4 ,a rifle bullet ( to-day w pass ?r\gh ?ree or f\r bodies1 %att]+ & spl9t]+ any bones x may enc\nt] 9 its c\rse4 ,h5ce w\nds w be m num]\s ?an !y h ev] be52 &1 ow+ to ! unwieldly size ( armies & ! poor physical condition ( _m ( ! m51 sickness w be m common z well4 ,nev]!less1 ! assi/ance ( ! w\nd$ & sick w be mu* m difficult ?an x has be5 9 ! pa/4 ,:ile ! fight+ organisation ( armies has be5 improv$1 _! heal+ organisation has be5 neglect$4 ,x w1 besides1 be almo/ impossible to give aid to ! w\nd$4 ,_! removal w h to be conduct$ "u fire1 & bo? ! w\nd$ man & 8 rescu] w run a con/ant risk ( dea?4 ,_m w\nd$ w h to lie on ! field1 expos$ to a hail ( bullets & fragm5ts ( %ells1 until ! end ( ! battle--& ! battle may la/ = days4 ,?is _c b h an evil effect on ! morale ( an army4 ,if a soldi] 7 conv9c$ t he _h a good *ance ( be+ tak5 c>e ( if w\nd$1 he w\ld fight ) a bett] _s ?an if he fe>$ t1 if he fell1 he w\ld be left to prolong$ hung] & agony4 ,x is evid5t t a va/ diff]5ce exi/s betwe5 w> z x has be5 9 ! pa/ & w> z x w be 9 ! future4 ,w>s =m]ly 7 c>ri$ on by /&+ armies consi/+ ma9ly ( long-s]vice soldi]s4 ,armies 9 future w>s w be compos$ ma9ly ( soldi]s tak5 direct f peaceful occupations2 _m ( ! old] ones w be heads ( families torn f _! homes1 _! families1 & _! "w4 ,! economic life ( :ole peoples w /& /ill1 communications w be cut1 & if w> be prolong$ ov] ! great] "p ( a ye>1 g5]al bankruptcy1 ) fam9e & all its wor/ consequ5ces1 w ensue4 ,x is to be expect$1 !re=e1 t popul> discont5t ) milit>ism w cont9ue to gr[4 ,! imm5se exp5diture on milit>y aims1 & ! consequ5t gr[? ( taxation1 are ! fav\rite argum5ts ( agitators1 :o decl>e t ! in/itutions ( ! ,middle ,ages 7 less burd5some ?an mod]n prep>ations = w>4 ,! "q is naturally ask$3 ,:at w be giv5 to ! p aft] w> z comp5sation = _! imm5se losses8 ,! conqu]$ c]ta9ly w be too exhau/$ to pay any money indemnity1 & comp5sation mu/ be tak5 by ! ret5tion ( fronti] t]ritories1 :i* w be s impov]i%$ by w> t _! acquisition w be a loss r ?an a ga94 ,) su* conditions1 c we hope = good s5se among millions ( m5 :5 b a h&ful ( _! (fic]s rema98 ,w ! armies ( ,we/]n ,europe1 :]e ! sociali/ propag&a has already spread among ! masses1 all[ !mselves to be dis>m$2 &1 if n1 mu/ we n expect ev5 great] disa/]s ?an ^? :i* m>k$ ! %ort-liv$ triumph ( ! ,p>is ,commune8 ,! long] ! pres5t position ( affairs cont9ues1 ! great] is ! probability ( su* convulsions aft] ! close ( a great w>4 ,?us1 ) ! gr[? ( milit>y burd5s rise waves ( popul> discont5t1 ?reat5+ a social revolution4 ,su* are ! consequ5ces ( ! arm$ peace ( ,europe--sl[ de/ruction 9 consequ5ce ( exp5diture on prep>ations = w>1 or swift de/ruction 9 ! ev5t ( w>--9 bo? ev5ts convulsions 9 ! social ord]4 ,,edmund ,,burke ,reflections on ! ,revolution 9 ,france ,edmund ,burke1 born on ,jan4 #ab1 #agbi1 at ,dubl91 ,irel&1 0 educat$ at ,tr9ity ,college !re1 & proce$$ 9 #agej to ! ,middle ,temple1 ,london1 b =sook law = ! pursuit ( lit]ature & politics4 ,8 e>lie/ s]i\s "w 0 ! essay on ,! ,sublime & ,beautiful1 publi%$ 9 #agef1 ( :i* ! full title is ,a ,philosophical ,inquiry into ! ,orig9 ( ,our ,ideas ( ! ,sublime & ,beautiful4 ,9 #agfa he became private secret>y to ,hamilton1 ! ,secret>y ( ,irel&1 & f\r ye>s lat] to ! ,premi]1 ! ,m>quis ( ,rock+ham1 :5 he also became ,m4,p4 = ,w5dov]1 &1 9 #aggd1 = ,bri/ol4 ,he di$ on ,july #i1 #agig4 ,burke's magnific5t treatise on ! ,fr5* ,revolution1 ( :i* ! full title is ,reflections on ! ,revolution 9 ,france1 & on ! ,proce$+s ( ,c]ta9 ,societies 9 ,london relative to t ,ev5t2 ,9 a ,lett] ,int5d$ to ,h ,be5 ,s5t to a ,g5tleman 9 ,p>is1 0 publi%$ 9 #agij1 & 0 read all ov] ,europe1 p[]fully enc\rag+ /r5u\s resi/ance to ! ,revolution4 ,x is1 p]haps1 9 all lit]ature1 ! noble/ expression ( all t is noble 9 cons]vatism4 ,8 treatise is z pr(\nd 9 its p5etration into political pr9ciples z x is magnific5t 9 conception & 9 language4 ,z ,burke _h /ood = a true lib]ty 9 ,am]ica1 s he took 8 /& aga9/ a false lib]ty 9 ,europe4 ,b hi/ory has n ju/ifi$ him s completely 9 ! latt] case z 9 ! =m]4 ,revolutionism 0 n only1 or *iefly1 lib]t9ism2 & ! wond]ful mod]n ,france has l>gely disappo9t$ 8 pr$ictions4 ,i4--,! ,mean+ ( ,fre$om ,de> ,sir1 ,y are pleas$ to call aga91 & ) "s e>ne/ness1 = my ?\ghts on ! late proce$+s 9 ,france4 ,y w see1 sir1 t ?\gh ,i d mo/ he>tily wi% t ,france may be animat$ by a _s ( rational lib]ty1 x is my mis=tune to ent]ta9 great d\bts conc]n+ sev]al mat]ial po9ts 9 y\r late transactions4 ,i love a manly1 moral1 regulat$ lib]ty z well z anyone2 b ,i _c /& =w>d & give praise or blame to any?+ :i* relates to human actions & human conc]ns1 on a simple view ( ! subject1 z x /&s /ripp$ ( e relation1 9 all ! nak$ness & solitude ( metaphysical ab/raction4 ,i %\ld1 !re=e1 susp5d my congratulations on ! new lib]ty ( ,france until ,i 0 in=m$ h[ x _h be5 comb9$ ) gov]nm5t2 ) public =ce2 ) ! discipl9e & ob$i5ce ( armies2 ) ! collection ( an effective & well-di/ribut$ rev5ue2 ) morality & religion2 ) ! solidity ( prop]ty2 ) peace & ord]2 ) civil & social mann]s4 ,all ^!1 9 _! way1 are good ?+s1 too2 &1 )\t !m1 lib]ty is n a b5efit :ile x la/s1 & is n likely to cont9ue long4 ,! effect ( lib]ty to individuals is t !y may d :at !y please2 we ought to see :at x w please !m to d be=e we risk congratulations4 ,x appe>s to me z if ,i 7 9 a great crisis1 n ( ! affairs ( ,france alone1 b ( all ,europe1 p]haps ( m ?an ,europe4 ,all circum/ances tak5 toge!r1 ! ,fr5* ,revolution is ! mo/ a/oni%+ t has hi!rto happ5$ 9 ! _w4 ,ev]y?+ seems out ( nature 9 ?is *aos ( levity & f]ocity1 & ( all sorts ( crimes jumbl$ toge!r ) all sorts ( follies4 ,9 view+ ?is mon/r\s tragi-comic sc5e1 ! mo/ opposite passions succe$1 & sometimes mix ) ea* o!r 9 ! m9d2 alt]nate contempt & indignation2 laught] & te>s2 scorn & horror4 ,y w obs]ve t f ,magna ,*>ta to ! ,decl>ation ( ,"r x has be5 ! uni=m policy ( our con/itution to claim & ass]t our lib]ties z an entail$ inh]itance d]iv$ to u f our =efa!rs & to be transmitt$ to our po/]ity4 ,our political sy/em is plac$ 9 a j symmetry ) ! ord] ( ! _w2 :]e91 by ! disposition ( a /up5d\s wisdom1 m\ld+ toge!r ! great1 my/]i\s incorporation ( ! human race1 ! :ole1 at "o "t1 is nev] old1 or middle-ag$1 or "y1 b1 9 a condition ( un*angeable con/ancy1 moves on ?r\gh ! v>i$ t5or ( p]petual decay1 fall1 r5ovation1 & progression4 ,we h giv5 to our frame ( polity ! image ( a relation 9 blood2 b9d+ up ! con/itution ( our c\ntry ) our de>e/ dome/icities2 keep+ insep>able1 & *]i%+ ) ! w>m? ( all _! comb9$ & mutually reflect$ *>ities1 our /ate1 our he>?s1 our sepul*res1 & our alt>s4 ,always act+ z if 9 ! pres5ce ( canonis$ =efa!rs1 ! _s ( fre$om1 lead+ 9 itself to misrule & excess1 is temp]$ ) an awful gravity4 ,all y\r sophi/]s _c produce any?+ bett] adapt$ to pres]ve a manly fre$om ?an ! c\rse t we h pursu$1 :o h *os5 our nature r ?an our speculations = ! great cons]vatories & magaz9es ( our rights & privileges4 ,,ii4--,a ,lo/ ,opportunity ,y might1 if y pleas$1 h pr(it$ ( our example1 & h giv5 to y\r recov]$ fre$om a correspond5t dignity4 ,y possess$ 9 "s p>ts ! walls1 &1 9 all1 ! f\ndations1 ( a noble & v5]able ca/le4 ,y might h repair$ ^? walls1 y might h built on ^? old f\ndations4 ,b y began ill1 because y began by despis+ ev]y?+ t belong$ to y4 ,respect+ y\r =efa!rs1 y w\ld h be5 taught to respect y\rselves4 ,by foll[+ wise examples y w\ld h %am$ despotism f ! e>? by %[+ t fre$om is n only reconcilable1 b auxili>y to law4 ,y w\ld h _h a free con/itution4 ,y w\ld h _h a protect$1 satisfi$1 labori\s1 & ob$i5t p1 taught to seek ! happ9ess t is to be f\nd by virtue 9 all conditions2 9 :i* consi/s ! true moral equality ( mank9d1 & n 9 t mon/r\s fiction :i*1 by inspir+ false ideas & va9 expectations into m5 de/9$ to travel 9 ! obscure walk ( labori\s life1 s]ves only to aggravate & embitt] t real inequality :i* x nev] c remove1 & :i* ! ord] ( civil life e/abli%es z mu* = ! b5efit ( ^? :om x mu/ leave 9 an humble /ate z ^? :om x is able to exalt to a condition m spl5did b n m happy4 ,compute y\r ga9s2 see :at is got by ^? extravagant & presumptu\s speculations :i* h taught y\r lead]s to despise all _! pr$ecessors & all _! contempor>ies1 & ev5 to despise !mselves1 until ! mom5t 9 :i* !y became truly despicable4 ,by foll[+ ^? false lights1 ,france has b\ght undisguis$ calamities at a high] price ?an any nation has pur*as$ ! mo/ unequivocal bless+s4 ,%e has ab&on$ h] int]e/ t %e might pro/itute h] virtue4 ,all o!r nations h begun ! fabric ( a new gov]nm5t1 or ! re=mation ( an old1 by e/abli%+1 or by en=c+ ) great] exactness1 "s rites or o!r ( religion4 ,all o!r p h laid ! f\ndations ( civil fre$om 9 sev]] mann]s1 & a sy/em ( a m au/]e & mascul9e morality4 ,france1 :5 %e let loose ! re9s ( regal au?ority1 d\bl$ ! lic5se ( a f]oci\s dissolut5ess 9 mann]s1 & ( an insol5t irreligion 9 op9ions & practices2 & has ext5d$ ?r\gh all ranks ( life1 z if %e 7 communicat+ "s privilege1 or lay+ op5 "s seclud$ b5efit1 all ! unhappy corruptions t usually 7 ! disease ( weal? & p[]4 ,?is is "o ( ! new pr9ciples ( equality 9 ,france4 ,france1 by ! p]fidy ( h] lead]s1 has utt]ly disgrac$ ! tone ( l5i5t c\nsel 9 ! cab9ets ( pr9ces1 & has taught k+s to tremble at :at w h]eaft] be call$ ! delusive plausibilities ( moral politicians4 ,sov]eigns w consid] ^? :o advise !m to place an unlimit$ confid5ce 9 _! p z subv]t]s ( _! ?rones4 ,?is alone is an irrep>able calamity to y & to mank9d4 ,! ,fr5* h rebell$ aga9/ a mild & lawful mon>* ) m fury1 outrage1 & insult ?an ev] any p has be5 kn[n to rise aga9/ ! mo/ illegal usurp] or ! mo/ sangu9>y tyrant4 ,_! resi/ance 0 made to concession2 _! revolt 0 f protection2 _! bl[ 0 aim$ at a h& hold+ out graces1 fav\rs1 & immunities4 ,!y h f\nd _! puni%m5t 9 _! success4 ,laws ov]turn$2 tribunals subv]t$2 indu/ry )\t vig\r2 comm]ce expir+2 ! rev5ue unpaid1 yet ! p impov]i%$2 a ,*ur* pillag$ & a /ate unreliev$2 ev]y?+ human & div9e sacrific$ to ! idol ( public cr$it1 & national bankruptcy ! consequ5ce4 ,,iii4--,! ,m5 9 ,p[] ,?is un=c$ *oice1 ?is fond election ( evil1 w\ld appe> p]fectly unacc\ntable if we did n consid] ! composition ( ! national assembly4 ,if we 7 to "k no?+ ( ?is assembly b its title & function1 no col\rs c\ld pa9t to ! imag9ation any?+ m v5]able4 ,b no artificial in/itution :atev] c make ! m5 ( :om any sy/em ( au?ority is compos$ any o!r ?an ,god1 & nature1 & education1 & _! habits ( life h made !m4 ,capacities beyond ^! ! p h n to give4 ,virtue & wisdom may be ! objects ( _! *oice2 b _! *oice conf]s nei!r ! "o nor ! o!r on ^? ^u :om !y lay _! orda9+ h&s4 ,!y h n ! engagem5t ( nature1 !y h n ! promise ( revelation1 = any su* p[]s4 ,judge1 sir1 ( my surprise :5 ,i f\nd t a v great proportion ( ! assembly 0 compos$ ( practition]s 9 ! law4 ,x 0 compos$1 n ( di/+ui%$ magi/rates1 n ( lead+ advocates1 n ( r5[n$ pr(essors2 ! g5]al composition 0 ( obscure prov9cial advocates1 ( /ew>ds ( petty local jurisdictions1 c\ntry attorneys1 not>ies1 & ! :ole tra9 ( ! m9i/]s ( municipal litigation1 ! fom5t]s & conductors ( ! petty w> ( village vexation4 ,f ! mom5t ,i read ! li/ ,i saw di/9ctly1 & v ne>ly z x happ5$1 all t 0 to foll[4 ,:o c\ld b conceive t m5 :o are habitually m$dl+1 d>+1 subtle1 active1 ( litigi\s dispositions & unquiet m9ds1 w\ld easily fall back into _! old condition ( l[ & unpr(itable *icane8 ,:o c\ld d\bt b t1 at any exp5se to ! /ate1 ( :i* !y und]/ood no?+1 !y mu/ pursue _! private int]e/s1 :i* !y und]/ood b too well8 ,x 0 inevitable2 x 0 plant$ 9 ! nature ( ?+s4 ,o!r revolutions h be5 conduct$ by p]sons :o1 :il/ !y attempt$ *anges 9 ! commonweal?1 sanctifi$ _! ambition by advanc+ ! dignity ( ! p ^: peace !y tr\bl$4 ,su* 0 our ,cromwell1 "o ( ! great bad m5 ( ! old /amp4 ,su* 7 y\r :ole race ( ,guises1 ,condes1 ,colignys1 & ,ri*elieus4 ,^! m51 among all _! massacres1 did n slay ! m9d 9 _! c\ntry4 ,a consci\s dignity1 a noble pride1 a g5]\s s5se ( glory & emulation1 0 n ext+ui%$4 ,b y\r pres5t confusion1 l a palsy1 has attack$ ! f\nta9 ( life itself4 ,e p]son 9 y\r c\ntry 9 a situation to be actuat$ by pr9ciples ( hon\r is disgrac$ & degrad$4 ,prop]ty is de/roy$1 & rational lib]ty has no exi/5ce4 ,if ?is be y\r actual situation1 z comp>$ to ! situation to :i* y 7 call$1 z x 7 by ! voice ( ,god & man1 ,i _c f9d x 9 my he>t to congratulate y on ! *oice y h made1 or ! success :i* has att5d$ y\r endeav\rs4 ,f> am ,i f d5y+ 9 !ory1 full z f> z my he>t f )hold+ 9 practice1 ! real rights ( man4 ,gov]nm5t is n made 9 virtue ( natural rights1 :i* may & d exi/ 9 total indep5d5ce ( x1 & exi/ 9 mu* great] cle>ness1 & 9 a mu* great] degree ( ab/ract p]fection2 b _! ab/ract p]fection is _! practical defect4 ,gov]nm5t is a contrivance ( human wisdom to provide = human wants4 ,m5 h a "r t ^! wants %\ld be provid$ = by ?is wisdom4 ,among ^! wants is to be reckon$ ! want1 out ( civil society1 ( a suffici5t re/ra9t ^u _! passions4 ,9 ?is s5se ! re/ra9ts on m51 z well z _! lib]ties1 are to be reckon$ among _! rights4 ,b z ! lib]ties & ! re/rictions v>y ) times & circum/ances1 & admit ( inf9ite modifications1 !y _c be settl$ ^u any ab/ract rule2 & no?+ is s fooli% z to discuss !m ^u t pr9ciple4 ,! mom5t y abate any?+ f ! full rights ( m51 ea* to gov]n himself1 & suff] any artificial1 positive limitation ^u ^? rights1 f t mom5t ! :ole organisation ( gov]nm5t becomes a consid]ation ( conv5i5ce4 ,?is x is :i* makes ! con/itution ( a /ate1 & ! due di/ribution ( p[]s1 a matt] ( ! mo/ delicate & complicat$ skill4 ,:5 ,i he> ! simplicity ( contrivance aim$ at & boa/$ ( 9 any new political con/itutions1 ,i am at no loss to decide t ! artific]s are grossly ignorant ( _! trade1 or neglig5t ( _! duty4 ,! pret5d$ rights ( ^! !ori/s are all extremes1 & 9 proportion z !y are metaphysically true !y are morally & politically false4 ,! rights ( m5 are 9 a sort ( middle1 incapable ( def9ition1 b n impossible to be disc]n$4 ,b ?is sort ( p are s tak5 up ) _! !ories ab\t ! rights ( man t !y h totally =gott5 8 nature4 ,)\t op5+ "o new av5ue to ! und]/&+1 !y h /opp$ up ^? t lead to ! he>t4 ,,iv4--,! ,dea? ( ,*ivalry ,z = ! ,national ,assembly1 a majority1 sometimes real1 sometimes pret5d$1 captive itself1 compels a captive k+ to issue z royal edicts1 at ?ird h&1 ! pollut$ nons5se ( _! mo/ lic5ti\s & giddy c(fee-h\ses4 ,x is notori\s t all _! measures are decid$ be=e !y are debat$4 ,amid/ assass9ation1 massacre1 & confiscation1 p]petrat$ or m$itat$1 !y are =m+ plans = ! good ord] ( future society4 ,:o is x t admires1 & f ! he>t is atta*$ to1 national repres5tative assemblies1 b mu/ turn ) horror & disgu/ f su* a pr(ane burlesque & abom9able p]v]sion ( t sacr$ in/itute8 ,mis]able k+1 mis]able assembly6 ,hi/ory1 :o ex]cises h] awful c5sure ov] ! proce$+s ( all sorts ( sov]eigns1 w n =get h[ ! k+1 & 8 que51 & _! infant *ildr51 :o once w\ld h be5 ! pride & hope ( a great & g5]\s p1 7 =c$ to ab&on ! sanctu>y ( ! mo/ spl5did palace 9 ! _w1 :i* !y left pollut$ by massacre & /rewn ) mutilat$ c>cases1 & 7 made to ta/e1 drop by drop1 m ?an ! bitt]ness ( dea?4 ,is ?is a triumph to be consecrat$ at alt>s8 ,i rejoice to he> t ! great lady1 an object ( t triumph1 has borne t day--"o is int]e/$ t be+s made = suff]+ %\ld suff] well--& t %e be>s ! :ole weight ( h] accumulat$ wrongs ) a s]5e pati5ce1 9 a mann] suit$ to h] rank & race2 t %e feels ) ! dignity ( a ,roman matron2 t 9 ! la/ extremity %e w save h]self f ! la/ disgrace2 & t1 if %e mu/ fall1 %e w fall by no ignoble h&4 ,x is n[ sixte5 ye>s s9ce ,i saw ! ,que5 ( ,france1 !n ! dauph9ess1 at ,v]sailles1 & surely nev] light$ on ?is orb a m delightful vision4 ,i saw h] glitt]+ l ! morn+ />1 full ( life1 & spl5d\r1 & joy4 ,oh6 :at a revolution6 ,little did ,i dream t ,i %\ld h liv$ to see su* disa/]s fall5 ^u h] 9 a nation ( gallant m51 9 a nation ( m5 ( hon\r1 & ( cavali]s4 ,i ?\ght t5 ?\s& swords mu/ h leap$ f _! scabb>ds to av5ge ev5 a look t ?reat5$ h] ) insult4 ,b ! age ( *ivalry is gone4 ,t ( sophi/]s1 economi/s1 & calculators has succe$$2 & ! glory ( ,europe is ext+ui%$ = ev]4 ,nev]1 nev] m %all we behold t g5]\s loyalty to rank & sex1 t pr\d submission1 t dignifi$ ob$i5ce1 t subord9ation ( ! he>t1 :i* kept alive1 ev5 9 s]vitude itself1 ! _s ( an exalt$ fre$om4 ,x is gone1 t s5sibility ( pr9ciple1 t *a/ity ( hon\r1 :i* felt a /a9 l a w\nd1 :i* inspir$ c\rage :il/ x mitigat$ f]ocity1 :i* ennobl$ :atev] x t\*$1 & "u :i* vice itself lo/ half its evil by los+ all its grossness4 ,if ! k+ & que5 ( ,france & _! *ildr5 7 to fall into our h&s by ! *ance ( w>1 !y w\ld be treat$ ) ano!r sort ( triumphal entry into ,london4 ,we =m]ly h _h a k+ ( ,france 9 t situation2 y h read h[ he 0 receiv$ 9 ,engl&4 ,f\r hundr$ ye>s h gone ov] u2 b ,i believe we are n mat]ially *ang$ s9ce t p]iod4 ,we h n lo/ ! g5]osity & dignity ( ?9k+ ( ! f\rte5? c5tury2 nor z yet h we subtilis$ ourselves into savages4 ,we h n be5 drawn & truss$1 9 ord] t we may be fill$1 l /uff$ birds 9 a museum1 ) *aff & rags & paltry blurr$ %r$s ( pap] ab\t ! rights ( man4 ,we h real he>ts ( fle% & blood beat+ 9 our bosoms4 ,we fe> ,god2 we look up ) awe to k+s1 ) affection to p>liam5ts1 ) duty to magi/rates1 ) rev]5ce to prie/s1 & ) respect to nobility4 ,:y8 ,because :5 su* ideas are br\ght be=e our m9ds x is natural to be s affect$2 because all o!r feel+s are false & spuri\s1 & t5d to corrupt our m9ds1 to vitiate our prim>y morals1 to r5d] u unfit = rational lib]ty2 & by tea*+ u a s]vile insol5ce1 to be our l[ sport = a few holidays1 to make u p]fectly fit =1 & ju/ly des]v+ (1 slav]y ?r\gh ! :ole c\rse ( our lives4 ,v4--,pr9ciples ( ,/atesman%ip ,"o ( ! fir/ pr9ciples on :i* ! commonweal? & ! laws are consecrat$ is le/ ! tempor>y possessors & life-r5t]s 9 x %\ld act z x !y 7 ! entire ma/]s1 haz>d+ to leave to ^? :o come aft] !m a ru9 in/ead ( an habitation4 ,by ?is unpr9cipl$ facility ( *ang+ ! /ate z (t51 & 9 z _m ways z !re are float+ fancies or fa%ions1 ! :ole cont9uity ( ! commonweal? w\ld be brok54 ,m5 w\ld become little bett] ?an ! flies 9 summ]4 ,fir/ ( all1 ! sci5ce ( jurisprud5ce1 ! pride ( ! human intellect1 :i*1 ) all its defects1 r$undances1 & errors1 is ! collect$ reason ( ages1 comb9+ ! pr9ciples ( orig9al ju/ice ) ! inf9ite v>iety ( human conc]ns1 w\ld be no long] /udi$4 ,no c]ta9 laws1 e/abli%+ inv>iable gr\nds ( hope & fe>1 w\ld keep ! actions ( m5 9 a c]ta9 c\rse4 ,no pr9ciples w\ld be e>ly work$ into ! habits4 ,:o w\ld ensure a t5d] & delicate s5se ( hon\r1 to beat almo/ ) ! fir/ pulses ( ! he>t1 :5 no man c\ld "k :at w\ld be ! te/ ( hon\r 9 a nation cont9ually v>y+ ! /&>d ( its co98 ,to avoid1 !re=e1 ! evils ( incon/ancy & v]satility1 t5 ?\s& times worse ?an ^? ( ob/9acy & ! bl9de/ prejudice1 we h consecrat$ ! /ate1 t no man %\ld approa* to look into its defects or corruptions b ) due caution2 t he %\ld nev] dream ( beg9n+ its re=mation by its subv]sion2 t he %\ld approa* to ! faults ( ! /ate z to ! w\nds ( a fa!r1 ) pi\s awe & trembl+ solicitude4 ,society is inde$ a contract4 ,b x is n a p>tn]%ip 9 ?+s subs]vi5t only to ! gross animal exi/5ce ( a tempor>y & p]i%able nature4 ,x is a p>tn]%ip 9 all sci5ce2 a p>tn]%ip 9 all art1 a p>tn]%ip 9 e virtue & 9 all p]fection4 ,z ! ends ( su* a p>tn]%ip _c be obta9$ 9 _m g5]ations1 x becomes a p>tn]%ip n only betwe5 ^? :o are liv+1 b betwe5 ^? :o are liv+1 ^? :o are dead1 & ^? :o are to be born4 ,ea* contract ( ea* p>ticul> /ate is b a clause 9 ! great primeval contract ( et]nal society1 l9k+ ! l[] ) ! high] natures1 connect+ ! visible & invisible _w1 accord+ to a fix$ compact sanction$ by ! inviolable oa? :i* holds all physical & all moral natures1 ea* 9 _! appo9t$ place4 ,^!1 my de> sir1 are1 71 &1 ,i ?9k1 long w be1 ! s5tim5ts ( n ! lea/ le>n$ & reflect+ "p ( ?is k+dom4 ,!y conceive t ,he ,:o gave our nature to be p]fect$ by our virtue will$ also ! necess>y means ( its p]fection4 ,he will$1 !re=e1 ! /ate--,he will$ its connection ) ! s\rce & orig9al ar*etype ( all p]fection4 ,!y :o are conv9c$ ( ,8 w1 :i* is ! law ( laws1 & ! sov]eign ( sov]eigns1 _c ?9k x repreh5sible t ?is1 our corporate realty & homage1 t ?is our recognition ( a signiory p>am\nt--,i _h almo/ said ?is oblation ( ! /ate itself--z a wor?y (f]+ on ! high alt> ( univ]sal praise1 %\ld be p]=m$ ) mode/ spl5d\r & unassum+ /ate4 ,= ^? purposes !y ?9k "s "p ( ! weal? ( ! c\ntry is z usefully employ$ z x c be 9 fom5t+ ! luxury ( individuals4 ,x is on "s su* pr9ciples t ! majority ( ! p ( ,engl&1 f> f ?9k+ a religi\s national e/abli%m5t unlawful1 h>dly ?9k x lawful to be )\t "o4 ,! commons ( ,great ,brita91 9 ! national em]g5cies1 w nev] seek _! res\rce f ! confiscation ( ! e/ates ( ! *ur* & poor4 ,sacrilege & proscription are n among ! ways & means ( our committee ( supply4 ,!re is n "o public man 9 ?is k+dom1 ( any p>ty or description1 :o does n reprobate ! di%one/1 p]fidi\s1 & cruel confiscation :i* ! national assembly h be5 compell$ to make ( t prop]ty :i* x 0 _! fir/ duty to protect4 ,b to :at end %\ld we discuss all ^! ?+s8 ,h[ %all we discuss ! limitations ( royal p[]8 ,y\r k+ is 9 prison4 ,:y speculate on ! measure & /&>d ( lib]ty8 ,i d\bt v mu* inde$ :e!r ,france is at all ripe = lib]ty on any /&>d4 ,society _c exi/ unless a controll+ p[] ^u w & appetite be plac$ some:]e1 & ! less ( x !re is )91 ! m !re mu/ be )\t4 ,x is orda9$ 9 ! et]nal con/itution ( ?+s t m5 ( intemp]ate m9ds _c be free4 ,_! passions =ge _! fett]s4 ,,augu/e ,,comte ,a ,c\rse ( ,positive ,philosophy ,isidore ,augu/e ,m>ie ,francois ,xavi] ,comte1 ! f\nd] ( ! ,positive philosophy1 0 born at ,montpelli]1 9 ,france1 ,jan4 #ai1 #agih4 ,ent]+ ! ,ecole ,polyte*nique at ,p>is 9 8 sev5te5? ye>1 he %[$ ma!matical tal5t1 b 0 expell$ = insubord9ation4 ,9 #ahah he met ,/4 ,simon1 & = six ye>s he rema9$ "u ! influ5ce ( t philosoph]2 b 9 #ahbd he broke away & ent]$ on an indep5d5t philosophical c>e]4 ,9 #ahbf he exp\nd$ to a di/+ui%$ audi5ce 8 sy/em ( ,positive philosophy1 b dur+ ! c\rse _h an attack ( insanity :i* la/$ = a few mon?s4 ,betwe5 #ahcj & #ahdb he publi%$ 8 ,c\rs de ,philosophie ,positive4 ,f #ahce to #ahde he act$ z exam9] at ! ,ecole ,polyte*nique1 b aft] #ahde he 0 support$ by a subsidy f 8 admir]s4 ,comte m>ri$ 9 #ahbe1 b 8 m>riage 0 n happy1 & end$ 9 a sep>ation 9 #ahdb4 ,he di$ on ,septemb] #e1 #aheg4 ,8 o!r important works are ,! ,sy/em ( ,positive ,politics & ! ,positivi/ ,cate*ism4 ,i4--,positive ,classification ( ! ,sci5ces ,on /udy+ ! developm5t ( human intellig5ce1 x is f\nd t x passes ?r\gh ?ree /ages3 7#a7 ,! !ological1 7#b7 ! metaphysical1 7#c7 ! sci5tific or positive4 ,9 ! !ological /age x seeks to acc\nt = ! _w by sup]natural be+s4 ,9 ! metaphysical /age x seeks an explanation 9 ab/ract =ces4 ,9 ! sci5tific1 or positive1 /age x applies itself to ! /udy ( ! relation ( ph5om5a to ea* o!r4 ,diff]5t sci5ces h pass$ ?r\gh ^! /ages at diff]5t rates4 ,a/ronomy rea*$ ! positive /age fir/1 !n t]re/rial physics1 !n *emi/ry1 !n physiology1 :ile sociology has n ev5 yet rea*$ x4 ,to put social ph5om5a ^u a positive basis is ! ma9 object ( ?is "w2 its second>y object is to %[ t all bran*es ( k spr+ f ! same trunk4 ,an integration ( ! sci5ces on a positive basis %\ld lead to ! discov]y ( ! laws :i* rule ! intellect 9 ! inve/igation ( facts1 %\ld reg5]ate sci5ce & reorganise society4 ,at pres5t ! !ological1 ! metaphysical1 & ! positive conflict1 & cause intellectual disord] & confusion4 ,! fir/ /ep to be tak5 9 =m+ a positive philosophy is to classify ! sci5ces4 ,! fir/ great division we notice 9 natural ph5om5a is ! division into inorganic & organic ph5om5a4 ,"u ! inorganic we may include ! sci5ces a/ronomy1 physics1 *emi/ry2 & "u ! organic we include ! sci5ces physiology & sociology4 ,^! five sci5ces1 a/ronomy1 physics1 *emi/ry1 physiology1 & sociology1 we may consid] ! five fundam5tal sci5ces4 ,?is classification foll[s ! ord] ( ! developm5t ( ! sci5ces1 & indicates _! social relation & relative p]fection4 ,9 ord] to rea* effective k1 ! sci5ces mu/ be /udi$ 9 ! ord] nam$2 sociology _c be und]/ood )\t k ( ! ant]ior sci5ces4 ,beh9d & be=e all ^! sci5ces1 h[ev]1 lies ! great sci5ce ( ma!matics--! mo/ p[]ful in/rum5t ! m9d c employ 9 ! inve/igation ( natural law--& ! sci5ce ( ma!matics mu/ be divid$ into ab/ract ma!matics or ! calculus1 & concrete ma!matics embrac+ g5]al geometry & rational me*anics4 ,we h ?us really six great sci5ces4 ,,ma!matics4 ,ma!matics may be def9$ briefly z ! indirect measurem5t ( magnitudes & ! det]m9ation ( magnitudes by ea* o!r4 ,x is ! bus9ess ( concrete ma!matics to discov] ! equations ( ph5om5a2 x is ! bus9ess ( ab/ract ma!matics to educe results f ! equations4 ,?us concrete ma!matics discov]s by actual exp]im5t ! accel]ation :i* takes place p] second 9 a fall+ body1 & ab/ract ma!matics educes results f ! equations s discov]$1 & obta9s unkn[n quantities f kn[n4 ,,a/ronomy4 ,a/ronomy may be def9$ z ! sci5ce by :i* we discov] ! laws ( ! geometrical & me*anical ph5om5a pres5t$ by heav5ly bodies4 ,to discov] ^! laws we c use only our s5se ( sight & our reason+ p[]1 & reason+ be>s a great] proportion to obs]vation "h ?an 9 any o!r sci5ce4 ,sight alone w\ld nev] tea* u ! figure ( ! e>? or ! pa? ( a planet1 & only by ! measurem5t ( angles & computation ( times c we discov] a/ronomical laws4 ,! obs]vation ( ^! inv>iable laws frees man f s]vitude to ! !ological & metaphysical conceptions ( ! univ]se4 ,,physics4 ,physics may be def9$ briefly z ! /udy ( ! laws :i* regulate ! g5]al prop]ties ( bodies reg>d$ en masse1 _! molecules rema9+ unalt]$ & usually 9 a /ate ( aggregation4 ,9 ! obs]vations ( physics all ! s5ses are employ$1 & ma!matical analysis & exp]im5t assi/ obs]vation4 ,9 ! ph5om5a ( a/ronomy human int]v5tion 0 impossible2 9 ! ph5om5a ( physics man beg9s to modify natural ph5om5a4 ,physics includes ! subdivisions /atics1 dynamics1 !rmology1 ac\/ics1 optics1 & electrology4 ,physics is /ill h&icapp$ by metaphysical conceptions ( ! prim>y causes ( ph5om5a4 ,,*emi/ry4 ,*emi/ry may be briefly def9$ z ! /udy ( ! laws ( ! ph5om5a ( composition & decomposition1 :i* result f ! molecul> & specific mutual action ( diff]5t sub/ances1 natural or artificial4 ,9 ! obs]vations ( *emi/ry ! s5ses are /ill m employ$1 & exp]im5t is ( /ill m utility4 ,ev5 9 *emi/ry metaphysical conceptions1 su* z aff9ity1 l+]4 ,,physiology4 ,physiology may be def9$ z ! /udy ( ! laws ( organic dynamics 9 relation to /ructure & environm5t4 ,plac$ 9 a giv5 environm5t1 a def9ite organism mu/ always act 9 a def9ite way1 & physiology inve/igates ! reciprocal relations betwe5 organism1 environm5t1 & function4 ,9 physiology obs]vation & exp]im5t are ( ! greate/ value1 & app>atus ( all k9ds is us$ to assi/ bo? obs]vation & exp]im5t4 ,physiology is mo/ closely connect$ ) *emi/ry1 s9ce all ! ph5om5a ( life are associat$ ) compositions & decompositions ( a *emical "*4 ,,ii4--,social ,physics ,to place social physics on a sci5tific basis is a task ( great difficulty1 s9ce social !ories are /ill p]v]t$ by !ological & metaphysical doctr9es4 ,all ,i c hope to d is to po9t out g5]al pr9ciples :i* may s]ve to correct ! intellectual an>*y :i* is ! cause ( ! moral & political an>*y ( ! pres5t day4 ,i propose to /ate fir/ h[ ! in/itution ( a sci5ce ( social physics be>s ^u ! pr9cipal ne$s & grievances ( society1 s t m5 wor?y ( ! "n ( /atesm5 may realise t su* lab\rs are ( real utility4 ,s f>1 positive philosophy has work$ timidly & t5tatively1 & has n be5 bold & broad & g5]al en\gh to cope ) intellectual an>*y 9 social que/ions2 b x is necess>y n[ t x play a m dom9ant "p 9 life1 & lead society out ( ! turmoil 9 :i* x has toss$ = ?ree c5turies4 ,at pres5t1 society is di/ract$ by two conflict+ influ5ces1 :i* may be call$ ! !ological polity & ! metaphysical polity4 ,! !ological polity at "o "t ex]cis$ a b5efic5t influ5ce on society2 b = ?ree c5turies pa/ its influ5ce has be5 ess5tially retrograde1 & has gradually1 b radically1 decay$4 ,! causes ( its decl9e are v>i\s2 b ! *ief pres5t-day antagoni/ to ! !ological polity is ! sci5tific _s1 & ! sci5tific _s c n[ nev] be repress$4 ,! metaphysical polity is progressive1 b progressive ma9ly 9 a negative way4 ,s f>1 x has made = progress2 b x has made = progress *iefly by remov+ imp$im5ts to progress1 by de/roy+ ! !ological conceptions :i* ret>d$ ! developm5t ( human intellig5ce & human society4 ,?\gh dang]\s & revolution>y1 x has be5 necess>y2 = mu* requir$ to be demoli%$ to p]mit p]man5t recon/ruction4 ,! metaphysical polity 0 requir$ to combat ! !ological2 b n[ x has s]v$ its de/ructive purpose1 & t5ds to become ob/ructive1 =1 hav+ de/roy$ ! old1 x w n p]mit ! new4 ,its *ief dogma has always be5 lib]ty ( consci5ce ) ! lib]ty ( press & spee* :i* t implies2 b lib]ty ( consci5ce really means little m ?an abs5ce ( intellectual regulation2 & ev5 z lib]ty ( consci5ce is out ( ! "q 9 a/ronomy & *emi/ry1 s x is out ( ! "q 9 social physics4 ,lib]ty ( consci5ce & inquiry c only be tempor>y & transitional1 & mu/ be foll[$ by positive decision on ! "p ( ^? qualifi$ to decide4 ,x _c be held t e man is compet5t to =m op9ions 9 social & political que/ions2 x _c be ma9ta9$ t intellects ( weak capacity c judge obscure & complex que/ions1 & t all op9ions are equally valuable4 ,all society is bas$ on fai? 9 ! op9ion ( o!rs & 9 reciprocal confid5ce4 ,cont9ual discussion ( ! f\ndations ( society mu/ r5d] x impossible to lay sure f\ndations firm1 & ! disord] produc$ by free op9ions on all po9ts by all p is se5 9 ! fi]ce & feeble sect>ianism ( ,prote/antism4 ,:at are ! limits ( free inquiry we %all see lat]2 meantime1 we may note t f9e motto ( ! ,ca?olic ,*ur*3 ,9 necess>y ?+s1 unity2 9 d\btful ?+s1 lib]ty2 & 9 all ?+s1 *>ity4 ,! second dogma ( ! metaphysical polity is equality1 &1 l ! o!r dogma1 x mu/ be consid]$ ! tempor>y expression ( a tempor>y ne$4 ,x is inde$ a coroll>y ( ! dogma ( lib]ty ( consci5ce2 = to assume lib]ty ( consci5ce )\t equality ( intellig5ce w\ld be to /ultify ! assumption4 ,hav+ a*iev$ its purpose1 x also became an ob/acle 9 ! pa? ( progress4 ,equality suffici5t to p]mit a man to use 8 faculties aright is all[$ by all2 b m5 _c be made equal physically1 & mu* less c !y be made equal intellectually & morally4 ,! dogma ( lib]ty ( consci5ce & equality result$ naturally 9 a ?ird dogma1 ! sov]eignty ( ! p4 ,?is also 0 provisionally useful1 9 t x p]mitt$ a s]ies ( political exp]im5ts2 b x is 9 ess5ce revolution>y1 condemn+ ! sup]ior to be rul$ by ! inf]ior4 ,a f\r? dogma1 ! dogma ( national indep5d5ce1 has also be5 s]viceable 9 sep>at+ ! nations 9 prep>ation = a new union4 ,! metaphysical polity fails utt]ly 9 con/ructive capacity4 ,dur+ ! fir/ ,fr5* revolution x successfully de/roy$ ! old social sy/em2 b its attempts to reorganise society 7 retrogressive4 ,in/ead ( ,ca?olicism x propos$ poly!ism2 & 9 ! "n ( virtue & simplicity x condemn$ indu/ry & art4 ,ev5 sci5ce 0 condemn$ z ari/ocracy ( k4 ,nor c ^! blund]s be consid]$ accid5tal2 !y 7 inh]5t 9 ! polity4 ,x is evid5t t a polity t admits on ! "o h& ! ne$ = a !ological f\ndation1 & on ! o!r h& de/roys ! f\ndations ( !ology mu/ end 9 intellectual an>*y4 ,satisfi$ ) nei!r ! !ological nor ! metaphysical polities1 society has wav]$ betwe5 !m1 & ! "o t5d5cy has s]v$ *iefly to c\nt]act ! o!r4 ,out ( ^! oscillations a ?ird s*ool ( political op9ion1 :i* we may call ! /ation>y s*ool1 has aris54 ,?is s*ool w\ld fix society 9 a contradictory position betwe5 retrogression & progress1 su* z is se5 9 ! p>liam5t>y mon>*y ( ,engl&4 ,?is is a la/ phase ( ! metaphysical polity1 & is only a k9d ( placebo4 ,! result ( all ?is is to produce a mo/ un=tunate position4 ,! !ological polity w\ld rev]t to old1 worn-out pr9ciples2 ! metaphysical polity has no def9ite pr9ciples at all2 & ! /ation>y s*ool m]ely (f]s tempor>y compromises4 ,ev]y:]e !re is intellectual an>*y1 & 9 ,prote/ant c\ntries ! disord] is increas$ by sect>ian discord4 ,s complex are all social que/ions t few are able to see !m /eadily1 & see !m :ole1 & :]e individual op9ion is unhamp]$1 individual prejudice & individual ignorance mu/ be rampant4 ,intellectual an>*y & unsettl$ convictions1 moreov]1 t5d to political corruption4 ,if !re are no convictions & no pr9ciples to :i* to appeal1 appeal mu/ be made to self-int]e/ or to fe>4 ,a gr[+ t5d5cy to take a %ortsight$ & mat]ial view ( political que/ions is also a di/urb+ sign ( ! times4 ,?is is due to ! fact t :51 ?ree c5turies ago1 spiritual p[] 0 aboli%$1 all social que/ions 7 giv5 ov] to m5 occupi$ ) practical affairs & influ5c$ *iefly by mat]ial consid]ations4 ,mat]ial views ( political que/ions n only imp$e progress1 b are also dang]\s to ord]1 = ! view t disord]s h a mat]ial cause leads to con/ant int]f]5ce ) in/itutions & ) prop]ty4 ,grant$ !re are abuses 9 connection bo? ) prop]ty & in/itutions1 :at is requir$ is n mat]ial *anges b g5]al moral & intellectual re=m4 ,an inadequate & mat]ial view ( social physics naturally fav\rs m$iocrity1 attracts political *>latans1 :ile ! mo/ em95t m9ds devote _! att5tion to sci5ce4 ,! !ological & metaphysical philosophies hav+ fail$1 :at rema9s8 ,no?+ rema9s b ! positive philosophy1 :i* is ! only ag5t able to reorganise society4 ,! positive philosophy w reg>d social ph5om5a z x reg>ds o!r ph5om5a1 & w apply to ! r5ovation ( society ! same sci5tific _s f\nd effective 9 o!r dep>tm5ts ( human k4 ,x w br+ to politics ! conception ( natural laws1 & deal ) delicate social que/ions on imp>tial sci5tific pr9ciples4 ,x w %[ t c]ta9 wrongs are inevitable1 & o!rs curable2 & t x is z fooli% to try to cure ! incurable 9 social z 9 biological & *emical matt]s4 ,a _s ( ?is k9d w enc\rage re=m1 & yet obviate va9 attempts to r$ress necess>y evils4 ,x w ?us make = intellectual ord]4 ,x w likewise make = progress & = true lib]ty by sub/itut+ g5u9e convictions f\nd$ on sci5tific pr9ciples = con/itutional artifices & ! laws ( arbitr>y wills2 x w reconcile ! antagonism ( class int]e/s by moral & sci5tific consid]ations4 ,revolution>y outbur/s !re /ill w be1 b !y w m]ely cle> ! gr\nd = positive recon/ruction on a moral & intellectual basis4 ,/rangely en\gh1 ! sci5tific class are n likely to assi/ 9 ! positive recon/ruction ( society4 ,!y %r9k f ! irrational me?ods ( mod]n polities1 &1 fur!r1 !y are s re/rict$ 9 _! n>r[ horizons t !y are unable to grasp ! wide g5]alisations ( positive philosophy4 ,,iii4--,social ,/atics ,!re c be no d\bt t society orig9at$ 9 social in/9cts1 & 0 n m]ely ! result ( utilit>ian consid]ations4 ,inde$1 ! social /ate c\ld manife/ its ability only :5 well develop$1 & 9 ! e>ly ages ( humanity ! advantages to ! individual ( association w\ld n be obvi\s4 ,:at1 !n1 are ! human in/9cts & requirem5ts :i* give society its fundam5tal *>act]s8 ,9 ! fir/ place1 x mu/ be not$ t 9 man ! intellectual is subord9ate to ! affective4 ,9 mo/ m5 ! intellectual faculties are easily fatigu$1 & require a /rong & con/ant /imulus to keep !m at "w4 ,9 ! majority ( cases ! /imulus is d]iv$ f ! ne$s ( organic life2 b 9 m highly end[$ individuals ! incitem5t may proce$ f high] affective impulses4 ,?is subord9ation ( ! intellectual to ! affective faculties is b5efic5t 9 t x gives a p]man5t end & aim to ! intellectual activity4 ,9 ! second place x mu/ be not$ t ! p]sonal affections are /rong] ?an ! social affections1 & t p]sonal affections give aim & direction to our social actions4 ,?is is necess>y1 = all ideas ( public good mu/ be inf]r$ f ! ideas ( private advantage1 & if x 7 possible to repress our p]sonal affections1 our social affections1 depriv$ ( necess>y inspiration & direction1 w\ld become vague & ineffective4 ,9 ! precept t bids u love our neighb\rs z ourselves ! p]sonal in/9ct is sugge/$ z ! patt]n = ! social4 ,! only ?+ to be regrett$ is t ! p]sonal affections are apt to ov]ride1 in/ead ( /imulat+1 ! social affections4 ,increase ( intellig5ce mu/ mean great] capacity = social affection1 because ( ! discipl9e x imposes on ! p]sonal affections2 & = ! same reason increase ( ! social in/9ct is fav\rable to intellig5ce4 ,to /r5g!n ?is reciprocal action ( ! intellect & ! social affections is ! fir/ task ( univ]sal morals4 ,& ! d\ble opposition betwe5 man's moral & mat]ial ne$ ( intellectual toil & 8 dislike ( x1 & aga9 betwe5 man's moral & mat]ial ne$ ( ! social affections1 & ! subjection ( ^! to 8 p]sonal in/9cts1 discloses ! sci5tific g]m ( ! /ruggle :i* we %all h to review1 betwe5 ! cons]vative & ! re=m+ _s2 ! fir/ ( :i* is animat$ by purely p]sonal in/9cts1 & ! o!r by ! spontane\s comb9ation ( intellectual activity ) ! v>i\s social in/9cts4 ,society1 h[ev]1 _c be reg>d$ z compos$ ( individuals4 ,! true social unit is ! family2 x is ess5tially on ! plan ( ! family t society is con/ruct$4 ,9 a family ! social & ! p]sonal in/9cts are bl5d$ & reconcil$2 9 a family1 too1 ! pr9ciple ( subord9ation & mutual co-op]ation is exemplifi$4 ,! dome/ic is ! basis ( all social life4 ,! mod]n t5d5cy1 !re=e1 to attack ! in/itution ( ! family is an al>m+ symptom ( social disorganisation4 ,! sociological basis ( ! family dep5ds on subord9ation ( sexes & ( ages4 ,m>riage at once satisfies1 discipl9es1 & h>monises ! /ronge/ & mo/ disord]ly in/9ct ( our animal nature2 & ?\gh x may be attack$ by ! revolution>y _s because ( its !ological implications1 yet ! in/itution is bas$ on true pr9ciples1 & mu/ survive4 ,no d\bt m>riage has be5 modifi$1 b to modify is n to ov]?r[1 & its fundam5tal pr9ciple rema9s intact4 ,! fundam5tal pr9ciple ( ! in/itution ( m>riage is ! natural subord9ation ( ! woman--a pr9ciple :i* has reappe>$ "u all =ms ( m>riage4 ,biology tea*es t radical diff]5ces1 physical & moral1 di/+ui% ! sexes1 & sociology w prove t ! mu*-adv]tis$ equality ( sexes is a fiction1 & t equality ( ! sexes w\ld be incompatible ) all social exi/5ce4 ,ea* sex has special functions x mu/ p]=m 9 ! family1 & ! necess>y subord9ation ( "o sex is 9 no wise injuri\s1 s9ce ! happ9ess ( e be+ dep5ds on ! wise developm5t ( its prop] nature4 ,our social sy/em dep5ds on intellectual activity "u affective /imulus1 & 9 p[] ( m5tal lab\r ! woman is inconte/ably inf]ior to ! man1 ei!r because h] m5tal p[]s are weak]1 or because h] lively moral & physical s5sibility is unfav\rable to m5tal conc5tration4 ,besides ! bond ( m>riage1 :i* holds toge!r society1 !re is ! bond betwe5 p>5ts & *ildr54 ,"h aga9 we f9d ! pr9ciple ( subord9ation 9 =ce1 & ev5 z we f9d wild revolution>ies :o *all5ge ! pr9ciple ( subord9ation 9 wom51 s !re are "s :o w\ld *all5ge ! same pr9ciple 9 ! case ( *ildr54 ,=tunately1 popul> good s5se & ! prim>y in/9cts resi/ su* absurdities4 ,! spontane\s subord9ation 9 ! human family is ! be/ model = society4 ,on ! o!r h&1 we see ob$i5ce & due subord9ation alli$ to gratitude1 & unassociat$ ) %ame2 &1 on ! o!r h&1 we see absolute au?ority comb9$ ) affection & g5iality4 ,!re are ^? :o w\ld take *ildr5 f _! p>5ts' c>e1 & h& !m ov] to society1 & !re are ^? :o w\ld prev5t ! transmission ( prop]ty f p>5ts to *ildr52 b su* extravagances ne$ n be exam9$ "h4 ,com+ n[ to ! consid]ation ( society z con/ruct$ out ( ! family units1 we see unity ( aim associat$ ) div]sity ( functions4 ,x is a m>vell\s spectacle to see h[ 9 a society ! individuals pursu+ ea* _! own end yet unconsci\sly co-op]ate2 & ?is co-op]ation is ! ma9spr+ ( society4 ,9 ! family1 co-op]ation is mu* less m>k$2 = ! family is f\nd$ *iefly on affection1 & 9 affection f9ds its ju/ification1 q ap>t f co-op]ation t[>ds any end4 ,9 society ! in/9ct ( co-op]ation prepond]ates1 & ! in/9ct ( affection plays only a second>y "p4 ,!re are exceptional m5 9 :om ! affective side ( ! social in/9ct is dom9ant2 b su* m5 9 mo/ cases give _! affection to ! race at l>ge simply f lack ( dome/ic sympa?y4 ,! pr9ciple ( co-op]ation1 spontane\s or conc]t$1 is ! basis ( society1 & ! object ( society mu/ ev] be to f9d ! "r place = its individual memb]s 9 its great co-op]ative s*eme4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 a dang] ( exagg]at$ specialism2 x conc5trates ! att5tion ( individuals on small p>ts ( ! social ma*9e1 & ?us n>r[s _! s5se ( ! social community1 & produces an indiff]5ce to ! l>g] int]e/s ( humanity4 ,x is lam5table to f9d an artisan sp5d+ 8 life mak+ p9-heads1 & x is equally lam5table to f9d a man ) m9d employ+ 8 m9d only 9 ! solution ( equations4 ,to gu>d aga9/ su* social & intellectual dis9tegration mu/ be ! duty ( gov]nm5t4 ,x mu/ fo/] ! feel+ ( int]connection betwe5 individuals2 & su* a bond ( feel+ mu/ be intellectual & moral r ?an mat]ial1 & w always imply subord9ation4 ,! social in/9ct ( man spontane\sly produces gov]nm5t1 & !re is a mu* /rong] in/9ct ( ob$i5ce 9 man ?an is commonly suppos$4 ,:o has n felt x good to resign ! responsibility ( conduct to wise & tru/wor?y guidance8 ,ev5 9 revolution>y times ! p feel ! ne$ ( prepond]ant au?ority1 & political subord9ation is z inevitable z x is indisp5sable4 ,,iv4--,social ,dynamics ,human progress consi/s ess5tially 9 ! evolution ( ! moral & intellectual qualities prop] to man4 ,mo/ ( ! occupations ( civilisation :i* deal ) mat]ial ?+s relieve man f mat]ial c>es & discom=ts1 & p]mit him to use 8 high] faculties4 ,dea?1 too1 may be consid]$ a promot] ( human progress4 ,y\? is ess5tially progressive1 age ess5tially cons]vative & oppos$ to progress1 & dea? x is t prev5ts old age f too s]i\sly imp$+ ! progress ( ! _w4 ,if life 7 t5 times z long1 progress w\ld be greatly ret>d$4 ,on ! o!r h&1 dea? int]f]es ) cont9uity ( "w1 & by int]rupt+ a man's "w (t5 delays its fruition4 ,x is probable t if life 7 twice or ?rice z long1 progress w\ld be m rapid4 ,human progress is direct$ by ! reason1 & ! hi/ory ( ! progress ( society is l>gely ! hi/ory ( ! human m9d 9 its progress ?r\gh its ?ree /ages--! !ological1 metaphysical1 & positive4 ,! necessity ( ^! /ages c be %[n4 ,at fir/ man kn[s no?+ b himself1 & x 0 inevitable t he %\ld expla9 ?+s z produc$ by a be+ l himself4 ,! !ological philosophy gave a basis = obs]vation by its hypo!ses t ph5om5a 7 products ( actions l human acts1 & t all bodies _h life l human life1 & t !re 0 an invisible _w ) invisible ag5ts4 ,^! hypo!ses 7 n only intellectually necess>y2 !y 7 also morally necess>y1 = !y gave man confid5ce to act1 & hope t he c\ld modify any?+ unsatisfactory 9 ! univ]se by appeals to its mak]4 ,n only did ! !ological philosophy su/a9 man's c\rage1 & k9dle 8 hope1 & increase 8 s5se ( p[]1 b x gave an intellectual unanimity ( great social & political value2 &1 produc+ a special speculative class1 made ! fir/ effective division betwe5 ?+s ( matt] & ?+s ( m9d4 ,except = ! !ological speculative class1 man might h rema9$ m]ely a sup]ior monkey4 ,/ill1 ! !ological philosophy 0 obvi\sly only tempor>y1 & c\ld n satisfy ! ne$s ( m highly develop$ intellig5ce1 & x soon came into conflict ) positive philosophy4 ,inde$1 at all times !re _h be5 glimm]+s ( positive belief1 = at all times ! simple/ ph5om5a _h be5 consid]$ subject to natural laws1 & all _h be5 compell$ to act 9 ev]yday affairs on ! assumption ( ! inv>iability ( natural law4 ,! positive philosophy1 !re=e1 0 inevitable f ! fir/1 & its op5 antagonism to ! !ological philosophy 0 m]ely a "q ( "t4 ,betwe5 ! !ological & positive philosophy naturally & necess>ily has int]v5$ ! metaphysical1 :i* has sub/itut$ entities = a deity4 ,?is philosophy has nev] _h ! social p[] or ! consi/5cy ( ! !ological philosophy2 its entities h be5 m]e ab/ractions4 ,x has & has _h su* political p[] simply because s elusive4 ,mat]ial progress has gone ?r\gh simil> /ages4 ,! primitive t5d5cy ( mank9d 0 to a milit>y life4 ,at fir/ ! milit>y life af=d$ man1 ap>t f cannibalism1 ! easy means ( mak+ a liv+2 & 9 no o!r s*ool 9 ^! days c\ld ord] h be5 taught1 & 9 no o!r way c\ld political consolidation be s quickly effect$4 ,necess>y z ! milit>y /age 01 x 0 m]ely provisional1 x mu/ be succe$$ by ! indu/rial /age4 ,meantime1 we are 9 ! transitional /age betwe5 ! two1 = we h def5sive in/ead ( (f5sive milit>y organisation1 :i* is becom+ m & m subord9ate to indu/rial production4 ,! milit>y /age correspond$ ) ! !ological /age1 belong$ to ! same regime1 _h common antipa?ies & sympa?ies z well z g5]al int]e/s1 & c\ld n h work$ )\t ! aid ( !ological convictions to give bl9d confid5ce 9 milit>y sup]iors4 ,! indu/rial /age corresponds ) ! positive /age2 x is ak9 9 _s1 9 orig91 & 9 de/9ation4 ,! transitional /age1 aga91 corresponds ) ! metaphysical /age4 ,only on ^! ?ree dualisms :i* ,i h e/abli%$ c a s\nd hi/orical philosophy be bas$4 ,,h5ry ,,george ,progress & ,pov]ty ,h5ry ,george 0 born at ,philadelphia on ,septemb] #b1 #ahci4 ,aft] sp5d+ "s ye>s at sea1 he rea*$ ,cali=nia 9 #aheh1 became a pr9t]1 & lat] a j\rnali/ & director ( ! public libr>y 9 ,san ,francisco4 ,9 #ahga he publi%$ ,our ,l& ,policy1 & ?is 0 aft]w>ds develop$ into ,progress & ,pov]ty3 an ,inquiry into ! ,causes ( ,indu/rial ,depressions1 & ( ,increase ( ,want ) ,increase ( ,weal?1 issu$ 9 #ahgi4 ,! book soon acquir$ a _w-wide reputation1 n only f ! eloqu5ce & beauty ( its diction1 b f ! au?or's novel !ory ( l& taxation4 ,9 #ahhj ,george remov$ to ,new ,york1 publi%$ a book on ! ,iri% l& "q1 & = "s ye>s aft]w>ds und]took a succession ( mission>y j\rneys to ,great ,brita91 ,au/ralia1 & ,new ,zeal&1 ! result ( :i* 0 ! f\ndation ( ! ,engli% ,l& ,re=m ,union1 ! ,scotti% ,l& ,re/oration ,league1 & ! legislative adoption by ! diff]5t ,au/ralasian colonies ( 8 s*eme ( ! taxation ( l& values4 ,among o!r economic works he issu$ 7 ,protection or ,free ,trade1 ,! ,condition ( ,lab\r1 & ,a ,p]plex$ ,philosoph]4 ,george di$ on ,octob] #bi1 #ahig4 ,i4--,wages1 ,capital1 & ,weal?-,di/ribution ,! pa/ c5tury has be5 m>k$ by a prodigi\s increase 9 weal?-produc+ p[]4 ,x 0 naturally expect$ t lab\r-sav+ inv5tions w\ld make real pov]ty a ?+ ( ! pa/4 ,disappo9tm5t1 h[ev]1 aft] disappo9tm5t has foll[$4 ,discov]y ^u discov]y1 inv5tion aft] inv5tion1 h nei!r less5$ ! toil ( ^? :o mo/ ne$ respite nor br\ght pl5ty to ! poor4 ,! association ( pov]ty ) progress is ! great enigma ( our "t4 ,i propose to attempt to solve by ! me?ods ( political economy ! great problem2 to seek ! law :i* associates pov]ty ) progress & increases want ) advanc+ weal?4 ,! inquiry is--:y1 9 spite ( increase 9 productive p[]1 d wages t5d to a m9imum :i* w give b a b>e liv+8 ,! answ] ( curr5t political economy is t wages are fix$ by ! ratio betwe5 ! numb] ( lab\r]s & ! am\nt ( capital devot$ to ! employm5t ( lab\r1 & con/antly t5d to ! l[e/ am\nt on :i* lab\r]s w cons5t to live & reproduce2 because ! increase 9 ! numb] ( lab\r]s t5ds naturally to foll[ & ov]take any increase 9 capital4 ,?is argum5t is inconsi/5t ) ! g5]al fact t wages & int]e/ d n rise inv]sely1 b conjo9tly4 ,my proposition is t wages1 in/ead ( be+ drawn f capital1 are 9 reality drawn f ! product ( ! lab\r = :i* !y are paid4 ,! ?ree ag5ts or factors 9 production are l&1 lab\r & capital1 & t "p ( ! produce :i* goes to ! second ( ^! factors is wages4 ,l& embraces all natural mat]ials1 =ces1 & opportunities1 & !re=e no?+ t is freely suppli$ by nature c be prop]ly class$ z capital4 ,lab\r includes all human ex]tion1 & h5ce human p[]s1 :e!r natural or acquir$1 c nev] be prop]ly class$ z capital4 ,we exclude f ! category ( capital ev]y?+ :i* mu/ be includ$ ei!r z l& or lab\r1 & !re=e capital consi/s ( ^? ?+s :i* are nei!r l& nor lab\r1 b :i* h result$ f ! union ( ^! two orig9al factors ( production4 ,no?+ c be capital :i* is n weal?2 only su* ?+s c be weal? ! production ( :i* increases1 ! de/ruction ( :i* decreases1 ! aggregate ( weal?4 ,increase 9 l& values does n repres5t any increase 9 ! common weal?1 = :at l&[n]s ga9 by high] prices ! t5ants or pur*as]s w lose4 ,all weal? is n capital4 ,capital is only t "p ( weal? :i* is devot$ to ! aid ( production4 ,x is weal? 9 ! c\rse ( ex*ange1 = production includes n m]ely ! mak+ ( ?+s1 b ! br++ ( !m to ! consum]4 ,:]ev] we analyse ! facts we f9d t )\t production wages w\ld n1 & c\ld n1 be4 ,z ! r5d]+ ( lab\r prec$es ! paym5t ( wages1 & z ! r5d]+ ( lab\r 9 production implies ! creation ( value1 ! employ] receives value be=e he pays out value--he b ex*anges capital ( "o =m = capital ( ano!r =m4 ,h5ce ! paym5t ( wages 9 production nev] involves ! advance ( capital or ev] tempor>ily less5s capital4 ,nor is x true t ! ma9t5ance ( lab\r is drawn f capital1 & t !re=e population regulates itself by ! funds :i* are to employ x1 = t w\ld involve ! idea t lab\r _c be ex]t$ until ! products ( lab\r are sav$1 ?us putt+ ! product be=e ! produc]1 :i* is absurd4 ,capital1 !re=e1 does n limit indu/ry1 ! only limit to indu/ry be+ ! access to natural mat]ial4 ,capital may limit ! =m ( indu/ry1 & ! productiv5ess ( indu/ry1 by limit+ ! use ( tools & ! division ( lab\r4 ,! functions ( capital are to assi/ lab\r 9 production ) tools1 se$s1 etc41 & ) ! weal? requir$ to c>ry on ex*anges4 ,all rem$ies1 :e!r propos$ by pr(essors ( political economy or work+ m51 :i* look to ! alleviation ( pov]ty ei!r by ! increase ( capital1 or ! re/riction ( ! numb] ( lab\r]s1 or ! effici5cy ( _! "w1 mu/ be condemn$4 ,! argum5t t wages are det]m9$ by ! ratio betwe5 capital & lab\r f9ds its /ronge/ support 9 ! ,mal?usian doctr9e1 & on bo? is bas$ ! !ory t pa/ a c]ta9 po9t ! application ( capital & lab\r yields a dim9i%+ return4 ,! ,mal?usian doctr9e is t ! t5d5cy to increase 9 ! numb] ( lab\r]s mu/ always t5d to r$uce wages to ! m9imum on :i* lab\r]s c reproduce4 ,:5 ?is !ory is subject$ to ! te/ ( /raight=w>d analysis1 x is utt]ly unt5able4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ! facts m>%all$ 9 support ( x d n prove x1 & ! analogies drawn f ! animal & vegetable _w d n c\nt5ance x2 &1 9 ! second place1 !re are facts :i* conclusively disprove x4 ,!re are on e h& ! mo/ /rik+ & conclusive evid5ces t ! production & consumption ( weal? h increas$ ) ev5 great] rapidity ?an ! increase ( population1 & t if any class obta9s less ?an its due %>e1 x is solely because ( ! great] inequality ( di/ribution4 ,! d5s] ! population1 ! m m9ute becomes ! subdivision ( lab\r1 ! great] economies ( production & di/ribution1 & h5ce1 ! v rev]se ( ! ,mal?usian doctr9e is true4 ,,ii4--,! ,law ( ,wages ,to discov] ! cause :i*1 z population increases1 & ! productive arts advance1 deep5s ! pov]ty ( ! l[e/ class1 we mu/ f9d ! law :i* det]m9es :at "p ( ! produce is di/ribut$ to lab\r z wages1 :at "p to capital z int]e/1 & :at "p to l&[n]s z r5t4 ,r5t is ! price ( monopoly aris+ f ! r$uction to individual own]%ip ( natural elem5ts :i* human ex]tion c nei!r produce nor increase4 ,int]e/ is n prop]ly a paym5t made = ! use ( capital4 ,x spr+s f ! p[] ( increase :i* ! reproductive =ces ( nature & ! 79 effect7 analog\s capacity = ex*ange give to capital4 ,! pr9ciple t m5 w seek to gratify _! desires ) ! lea/ ex]tion op]ates to e/abli% an equilibrium betwe5 wages & int]e/4 ,?is relation fix$1 x is evid5t t int]e/ _c be increas$ )\t increas+ wages nor wages l[]$ )\t depress+ int]e/4 ,! law ( int]e/ is t ! relation betwe5 wages & int]e/ is det]m9$ by ! av]age p[] ( increase :i* atta*es to capital f its use 9 its reproductive modes4 ,! law ( wages is t !y dep5d ^u ! m>g9 ( production1 or ^u ! produce :i* lab\r c obta9 at ! highe/ po9t ( natural productiv5ess op5 to x )\t ! paym5t ( r5t4 ,?is law ( wages accords ) & expla9s univ]sal facts1 & %[s t :]e l& is free1 & lab\r is unassi/$ by capital1 ! :ole produce w g to lab\r z wages4 ,:]e l& is free1 & lab\r is assi/$ by capital1 wages w consi/ ( ! :ole produce1 less t "p necess>y to induce ! /or+ up ( lab\r z capital4 ,:]e l& is subject to own]%ip & r5t arises1 wages w be fix$ by :at lab\r c secure f ! highe/ natural opportunities op5 to x )\t ! paym5t ( r5t4 ,:]e natural opportunities are all monopolis$1 wages mu/ be =c$ by ! competition among lab\r]s to ! m9imum at :i* lab\r]s w cons5t to reproduce4 ,no?+ c be cle>] ?an ! proposition t ! failure ( wages to increase ) increas+ productive p[] is due to ! increase ( r5t4 ,! value ( l& dep5d+ :olly ^u ! p[] :i* its own]%ip gives ( appropriat+ weal? creat$ by lab\r1 ! increase ( l& values is always at ! exp5se ( ! value ( lab\r4 ,&1 h5ce1 t ! increase ( productive p[] does n increase wages is because x does increase ! value ( l&4 ,x is ! univ]sal fact t :]e ! value ( ! l& is highe/ civilisation exhibits ! greate/ luxury side by side ) ! mo/ pite\s de/itution4 ,! *anges :i* con/itute or contribute to mat]ial progress are ?ree3 increase 9 population1 improvem5t 9 ! arts ( production & ex*ange1 & improvem5t 9 k1 gov]nm5t1 & morals4 ,! effect ( increase ( population ^u ! di/ribution ( weal? is to increase r5t1 & consequ5tly to dim9i% ! proportion ( ! produce :i* goes to capital & lab\r 9 two ways4 ,fir/1 by l[]+ ! m>g9 ( cultivation2 & second1 & m important1 by br++ out 9 l& special capabilities o!rwise lat5t1 & by atta*+ special capabilities to p>ticul> l&4 ,! effect ( inv5tions & improvem5ts 9 ! productive arts1 includ+ division ( lab\r betwe5 individuals1 is to save lab\r--t is1 to enable ! same result to be secur$ ) less lab\r1 or a great] result ) ! same lab\r1 & h5ce to ! production ( weal?4 ,)\t any increase 9 population1 ! progress ( inv5tion con/antly t5ds to give a l>g] & l>g] proportion ( ! produce to ! own]s ( l&1 & a small] proportion to lab\r & capital2 &1 !re=e1 to decrease wages & int]e/4 ,&1 z we c assign no limit to ! progress ( inv5tion1 nei!r c we assign any limits to ! increase ( r5t %ort ( ! :ole produce4 ,ano!r cause ( ! influ5ce ( mat]ial progress ^u ! di/ribution ( weal? is ! confid5t expectation ( ! future enhancem5t ( l& values :i* arises 9 all progressive c\ntries f ! /eady increase ( r5t4 ,?is leads to speculation1 or ! hold+ ( l& = a high] price ?an x w\ld o!rwise br+4 ,x is a =ce :i* con/antly t5ds to increase r5t 9 a great] ratio ?an progress increases production1 & t5ds to r$uce wages1 n m]ely relatively b absolutely4 ,,iii4--,! ,common ,"r to ,l& ,! fact t ! speculative advance 9 l& values cuts d[n ! e>n+s ( lab\r & capital1 & *ecks production1 leads irresi/ibly to ! conclusion t ?is is ! ma9 cause ( ^? p]iodical indu/rial depressions to :i* e civilis$ c\ntry seems increas+ly liable4 ,robb$ ( all ! b5efits ( ! increase ( productive p[]1 lab\r is expos$ to c]ta9 effects ( advanc+ civilisation :i*1 )\t ! advantages t naturally accompany !m1 are positive evils1 & ( !mselves t5d to r$uce ! free lab\r] to ! helpless & degrad$ condition ( ! slave4 ,z l& is necess>y to ! ex]tion ( lab\r 9 ! production ( weal?1 to comm& ! l& is to comm& all ! fruits ( lab\r save en\gh to enable lab\r to exi/4 ,b !re is also an active1 en]getic p[]--a p[] t 9 e c\ntry1 be its political =m :at x may1 writes laws & m\lds ?\ght--! p[] ( a va/ & dom9ant pecuni>y int]e/4 ,! great cause 9 ! inequality ( ! di/ribution ( weal? is ! inequality 9 ! own]%ip ( l&4 ,! own]%ip ( l& is ! great fundam5tal fact :i* ultimately det]m9es ! social & political1 & consequ5tly1 ! intellectual & moral condition ( a p4 ,! t5d5cies & measures at pres5t reli$ on or advocat$ z calculat$ to relieve pov]ty & di/ress among ! masses are insuffici5t4 ,! true rem$y is to sub/itute = individual ! common own]%ip ( l&4 ,z man belongs to himself1 s 8 lab\r :5 put 9 concrete =m belongs to him4 ,z nature gives only to lab\r1 ! ex]tion ( lab\r 9 production is ! only title to exclusive possession4 ,:5 non-produc]s c claim z r5t a portion ( ! weal? creat$ by produc]s1 ! "r ( ! produc]s to ! fruits ( _! lab\r is to t ext5t d5i$4 ,! equal "r ( all m5 to ! use ( l& is z cle> z _! equal "r to brea! ! air--x is a "r proclaim$ by ! fact ( _! exi/5ce4 ,! "r ( individual proprietor%ip ( l& is ! d5ial ( ! natural rights ( o!r individuals--x is a wrong :i* mu/ %[ itself 9 ! inequitable division ( weal?4 ,aga91 ! own]%ip ( l& w always give ! own]%ip ( m51 to a degree measur$ by ! necessity1 real or artificial1 = ! use ( l&4 ,& :5 t necessity is absolute1 :5 />vation is ! alt]native to ! use ( l&1 !n does ! own]%ip ( m5 involv$ 9 ! own]%ip ( l& become absolute4 ,private own]%ip ( l& is ! ne!r mill/one4 ,mat]ial progress is ! upp] mill/one4 ,betwe5 !m1 ) an increas+ pressure1 ! work+ classes are be+ gr\nd4 ,hi/orically1 z e?ically1 private prop]ty 9 l& is robb]y4 ,x has ev]y:]e _h its bir? 9 w> & conque/1 & 9 ! selfi% use :i* ! cunn+ h made ( sup]/ition & law4 ,,iv4--,! ,rem$y = ,social ,ills ,private prop]ty 9 l& is inconsi/5t ) ! be/ use ( l&4 ,:at is necess>y = t is security = improvem5ts4 ,:]e l& is treat$ z public prop]ty x w be us$ & improv$ z soon z !re is ne$ = its use & improvem5t1 b1 be+ treat$ z private prop]ty1 ! individual own] is p]mitt$ to prev5t o!rs f us+1 or improv+1 :at he _c1 or w n1 use or improve himself4 ,i d n propose to pur*ase or to confiscate private prop]ty 9 l&4 ,! fir/ w\ld be ne$less1 ! second unju/4 ,x is only necess>y to confiscate r5t4 ,! sov]eign rem$y :i* w raise wages1 increase ! e>n+s ( capital1 extirpate paup]ism1 aboli% pov]ty1 give remun]ative employm5t to :oev] wi%es x1 af=d free scope to human p[]s1 less5 crime1 elevate morals & ta/e & intellig5ce1 purify gov]nm5t1 & c>ry civilisation to yet nobl] heights1 is to appropriate r5t by taxation1 & to aboli% all taxation save t ^u l& values4 ,! great class ( taxes f :i* rev5ue may be d]iv$ )\t int]f]5ce ) production are ^? ^u monopolies1 tempor>y or on]\s4 ,b all o!r monopolies are trivial 9 ext5t z comp>$ ) ! monopoly ( l&4 ,taxes on ! value ( l& n only d n *eck production b t5d to increase x by de/roy+ speculative r5t4 ,! :ole value ( l& may be tak5 9 taxation1 & ! only effect w be to /imulate indu/ry1 to op5 new opportunities to capital1 & to increase ! production ( weal?4 ,a tax on l& values does n add to prices1 & is ?us paid directly by ! p]sons on :om x falls4 ,l& is n a ?+ ( human production1 & taxes ^u r5t _c *eck supply4 ,on ! contr>y1 by compell+ ^? :o hold l& on speculation to sell or let = :at !y c get1 a tax on l& values t5ds to increase ! competition betwe5 own]s1 & ?us to r$uce ! price ( l&4 ,a tax on l& values1 :ile ! lea/ arbitr>y ( taxes1 possesses 9 ! highe/ degree ! elem5t ( c]ta9ty4 ,x may be assess$ & collect$ ) a def9it5ess t p>takes ( ! immovable & unconcealable "* ( ! l& itself4 ,x is ! mo/ j & equal ( all taxes1 because x falls only on ^? :o receive f society a peculi> & valuable b5efit1 & ^u !m 9 proportion to ! b5efit !y receive4 ,! division ( l& n[ held on speculation w\ld mu* increase ! numb] ( l&[n]s4 ,a s+le tax on ! value ( l& w\ld s equalise ! di/ribution ( weal? z to raise ev5 ! poore/ above t abject pov]ty 9 :i* public consid]ations h no weight1 :ile x w\ld at ! same "t cut d[n ^? ov]gr[n =tunes :i* raise _! possessors above conc]n 9 gov]nm5t4 ,v4--,effects ( ! ,rem$y ,! effects ( ! rem$y w\ld be to lift ! :ole enorm\s weight ( taxation f productive indu/ry4 ,x w\ld op5 new opportunities1 = no "o w\ld c>e to hold l& unless to use x1 & l& n[ )held f use w\ld ev]y:]e be ?r[n op5 to improvem5t4 ,! sell+ price ( n m]ely agricultural1 b all l&1 w\ld fall4 ,! bonus t :]ev] lab\r is mo/ productive mu/ n be paid be=e lab\r c be ex]t$ w\ld disappe>4 ,competition 9 ! lab\r m>ket w\ld no long] be "o-sid$4 ,r5t1 in/ead ( caus+ inequality1 w\ld promote equality4 ,lab\r & capital w\ld receive ! :ole produce1 m9us t portion tak5 by ! /ate 9 ! taxation ( l& values1 :i*1 be+ appli$ to public purposes1 w\ld be equally di/ribut$ 9 public b5efits4 ,! equalisation 9 ! di/ribution ( weal? w\ld react ^u production1 ev]y:]e prev5t+ wa/e1 ev]y:]e increas+ p[]4 ,simplicity 9 ! legislative & executive functions ( gov]nm5t w\ld become possible4 ,x w\ld at ! same "t & 9 ! same degree become possible = x to realise ! dream ( socialism1 n ?r\gh gov]nm5tal repression1 b because gov]nm5t w\ld become ! adm9i/ration ( a great co-op]ative society1 m]ely ! ag5cy by :i* ! common prop]ty 0 adm9i/]$ = ! common b5efit4 ,give lab\r a free field & its full e>n+s1 take = ! b5efit ( ! :ole community t fund :i* ! gr[? ( ! community creates1 & want1 & ! fe> ( want1 w\ld be gone4 ,if ! conclusions at :i* we h arriv$ are correct1 !y w fall "u a l>g] g5]alisation4 ,h[ev] man may h orig9at$1 man1 z man1 no matt] h[ l[ 9 ! scale ( humanity1 has nev] yet be5 f\nd de/itute ( ! p[] ( improvem5t4 ,ev]y:]e & at all times he has made "s use ( ?is p[]4 ,! v>y+ degrees 9 :i* ! faculty is us$ _c be ascrib$ to diff]5ces 9 orig9al capacity4 ,^! are evid5tly connect$ ) social developm5t4 ,a survey ( hi/ory %[s div]sities 9 improvem5t1 halts1 & retrogression2 & ! law :i* w expla9 all ^! is t m5 t5d to progress j z !y come clos] toge!r1 & by co-op]ation ) ea* o!r1 increase ! m5tal p[] t may be devot$ to improvem5t4 ,b j z conflict is provok$1 or association develops inequality ( condition & p[]1 ?is t5d5cy to progression is less5$1 *eck$1 & f9ally rev]s$4 ,z society develops !re arise t5d5cies :i* *eck developm5t4 ,! process ( integration1 ( ! specialisation ( functions & p[]s1 is accompani$ by a con/ant liability to inequality1 & to lodge collective p[] & weal? 9 ! h&s ( a few1 :i* t5ds to produce great] inequality1 s9ce aggression gr[s on :at x fe$s4 ,! re=m ,i h propos$ accords ) all t is politically1 socially1 or morally desirable4 ,x has ! qualities ( a true re=m1 = x w make all o!r re=ms easi]4 ,beh9d ! problems ( social life lies ! problem ( individual life4 ,prop]ly und]/ood1 ! laws :i* gov]n ! production & di/ribution ( weal? %[ t ! want & inju/ice ( ! pres5t social /ate are n necess>y1 b t1 on ! contr>y1 a social /ate is possible 9 :i* pov]ty is unkn[n1 & all ! bett] qualities & high] p[]s ( human nature w\ld h opportunity = full developm5t4 ,fur!r ?an ?is1 :5 we see t social developm5t is gov]n$ nei!r by a special provid5ce1 nor by a m]ciless fate1 b by law at once un*angeable & b5efic5t1 a flood ( light breaks 9 ^u ! problem ( individual life4 ,if we look m]ely at individual life we _c see t ! laws ( ! univ]se h ! slighte/ relation to good or bad1 to "r or wrong1 to j or unju/4 ,by a fundam5tal law ( our m9ds we _c conceive ( a means )\t an end4 ,b unless man himself may rise to1 or br+ =? some?+ high]1 8 exi/5ce is un9telligible4 ,= x is z c]ta9 t ! race mu/ die z x is t ! individual mu/ die4 ,:at1 !n1 is ! mean+ ( life absolutely & inevitably b\nd$ by dea?8 ,to me x only seems intelligible z ! av5ue & ve/ibule to ano!r life4 ,,?omas ,,hobbes ,! ,levia?an ,?omas ,hobbes 0 born at ,malmesbury1 ,wilt%ire1 ,engl&1 ,april #e1 #aehh1 & di$ at ,h>dwick ,dec4 #d1 #afgi4 ,:5 comp>atively a "y man he 0 secret>y to ,francis ,bacon4 ,he sp5t _m ye>s abroad1 met ,galileo1 & correspond$ ) ,desc>tes4 ,b he did n beg9 to produce until 9 advanc$ middle age4 ,levia?an1 or ! ,matt]1 ,=m1 & ,p[] ( a ,commonweal?1 ,ecclesia/ical & ,civil1 appe>$ 9 #afea4 ,8 special impulse to ! con/ruction ( a sci5ce ( politics came f ! ,great ,rebellion1 8 dete/ation ( ! pr9ciples on :i* x 0 bas$1 & 8 dissatisfaction ) ! !ory ( div9e "r z a bafis = ! absolutism :i* he c\nt$ a necessity4 ,! ,levia?an is ! commonweal?1 or /ate1 conceiv$ z an artificial man1 & ?is gives ! title to ?is fam\s "w4 ,b ?is essay t[>ds a sci5ce ( politics 0 only a fragm5t ( t complete & all-inclusive /ructure :i* he contemplat$4 ,al?\gh 9 ?is s5se only a fragm5t1 x has l>gely influ5c$ all political !oris+ s9ce 8 day3 & x conta9s ! mo/ def9ite enunciation ( ! doctr9e ( ! social contract1 :i* took s diff]5t & s revolution>y a %ape 9 ! h&s ( ,r\sseau4 ,i4--,( ,man ,nature1 ! art :]eby ,god ha? made & gov]ns ! _w1 is by ! art ( man s imitat$ t he c make an artificial animal4 ,= by art is creat$ t great levia?an call$ a commonweal? or /ate1 :i* is b an artificial man2 9 :i* ! sov]eignty is an artificial s\l1 z giv+ life & motion2 ! magi/rates & o!r (fic]s ! jo9ts2 rew>d & puni%m5t ! n]ves2 concord1 heal?2 discord1 sickness2 la/ly1 ! pacts or cov5ants by :i* ! p>ts 7 fir/ set toge!r resemble ! fiat ( ,god at ! ,creation4 ,to describe ?is artificial man1 ,i w consid]3 ,fir/1 ! matt] & ! artific]1 bo? :i* is man2 secondly1 h[ x is made2 ?irdly1 :at is a ,*ri/ian commonweal?2 la/ly1 :at is ! k+dom ( d>kness4 ,& fir/1 ( man4 ,! ?\ghts ( man are1 s+ly1 e "o a repres5tation ( "s quality or accid5t ( a body )\t u1 call$ an object4 ,!re is no conception 9 ! m9d :i* has n fir/ be5 begott5 ^u ! organs ( s5se4 ,! cause ( s5se is ! et]nal object :i* presse? ^u ! prop] organ2 n t1 z ha? be5 taught 9 ! s*ools1 ! ?+1 s5de? =? a visible or audible species4 ,imag9ation is ! cont9uity ( an image aft] ! object is remov$4 ,:5 we w\ld express t ! image is decay+1 we call x memory2 9 sleep1 we call x dreams4 ,a tra9 ( ?\ght is ! succession 9 ! m9d ( images :i* h succe$$ ea* o!r 9 exp]i5ce4 ,( all inv5tions ! mo/ notable is t ( spee*1 names1 ! regi/] ( ?\ghts2 :i* are notes = remembrance1 or signs1 = transf]5ce4 ,tru? consi/e? 9 ! "r ord]+ ( names 9 our affirmations4 ,words are wise m5's c\nt]s1 b ! money ( fools4 ,reason+ is ! reckon+1 ! addition & subtraction ( ! sequ5ces ( words1 ! sum be+ ! conclusion4 ,:i* conclusions may be absurd1 because m5 d n />t--except 9 geometry--f ! def9itions ( ! words4 ,reason1 !re=e1 implies spee*4 ,9 animals !re are two sorts ( motions--vital & volunt>y4 ,! beg9n+s ( motion )9 man are call$ endeav\r4 ,appetite is a motion t[>ds2 av]sion a motion fromw>ds4 ,"s are born 9 u1 "s are products ( exp]i5ce4 ,! object ( a man's appetite he calls good2 ( 8 av]sion1 evil2 :e!r 9 promise 7beautiful & ugly71 9 effect 7pleasant1 pa9ful71 or z means 7useful1 hurtful74 ,pleasures & pa9s arise f an object pres5t1 ( ! s5ses2 or 9 expectation1 ( ! m9d4 ,?us pity is ! imag9+ ( a l calamity befall+ oneself4 ,delib]ation is ! sum ( ! successive appetites or av]sions :i* are conclud$ by ! do+ or n do+ ( ! p>ticul> ?+4 ,w is ! la/ appetite 9 delib]at+4 ,s1 9 ! inquiry ( ! tru?1 op9ions correspond to appetites1 & ! f9al judgm5t1 ! la/ op9ion1 to ! w4 ,!re are two k9ds ( k2 ( fact1 & ( ! consequ5ce ( "o affirmation to ano!r4 ,! =m] is no?+ else b s5se & memory1 & is absolute2 ! latt] is call$ sci5ce1 & is conditional4 ,! regi/] ( ! fir/ is call$ hi/ory1 natural or civil2 t ( ! second is conta9$ 9 books ( philosophy1 9 correspond+ gr\ps--natural philosophy1 & civil philosophy1 or politics4 ,natural philosophy breaks up into a numb] ( gr\ps1 includ+ m5tal & moral sci5ce4 ,p[] is pres5t means1 :5cesoev] d]iv$1 to atta9 "s future app>5t good4 ,value is ! price t w be giv5 = ! use ( a man's p[]4 ,to hon\r a man is to ackn[l$ge 8 p[]2 to di%on\r him is to depreciate x4 ,! public wor? ( a man is ! value set on him by ! commonweal?4 ,by mann]s1 ,i mean ^? qualities ( mank9d :i* are conc]n$ ) _! liv+ toge!r 9 peace & unity4 ,desire ( p[] t5ds to produce /rife2 o!r desires1 z = ease1 or = k1 incl9e m5 to obey a common p[]4 ,to receive b5efits1 or to d injuries1 great] ?an c be repaid or expiat$1 t5ds to make u hate ! b5efactor or ! injur$ p>ty4 ,,ii4--,( ,contract & ,sov]eignty ,nature ha? made m5 s equal1 9 ! faculties ( body & m9d t are born 9 !m1 t "o man _c 9 respect ( ^! claim to himself any b5efit to :i* ano!r may n pret5d4 ,f ?is equality arise? equality ( hope 9 ! atta9+ ( our ends4 ,!re=e1 if two m5 desire ! same ?+ :i* !y _c bo? enjoy !y become enemies1 & seek ea* ! de/ruction ( ! o!r1 ea* mi/ru/+ ! o!r4 ,s m5 invade ea* o!r1 fir/ = ga91 second = safety1 & ?ird = reputation4 ,h5ce1 :ile m5 live )\t a common p[] to keep !m all 9 awe1 !y are 9 a /ate ( w>1 e man aga9/ e man4 ,9 ?is /ate1 notions ( "r & wrong1 ju/ice & inju/ice1 h no place4 ,probably !re nev] 0 actually su* a univ]sal condition2 b we see x n[ among savage races & 9 ! mutual relations ( sov]eigns4 ,9 ?is /ate ( w>1 reason sugge/e? articles ( peace ^u :i* m5 may agree2 :i* articles are o!rwise call$ ! laws ( nature4 ,! "r ( nature is ! "r ( self-pres]vation4 ,lib]ty is ! abs5ce ( imp$im5ts to ! ex]cise ( p[]4 ,a law ( nature is a precept ( reason =bidd+ a man to d :at is de/ructive ( 8 own life4 ,9 ! /ate ( nature e man has a "r to ev]y?+4 ,?us security comes only ( ! fir/ fundam5tal law3 ,to seek peace & foll[ x1 & by all means we c to def5d ourselves4 ,! second law foll[s3 ,to lay d[n ! "r to ev]y?+1 claim+ only s mu* aga9/ o!rs z we conc$e to o!rs aga9/ ourselves4 ,?is "r be+ r5\nc$ or transf]r$1 inju/ice is ! revocation ( t act4 ,b s9ce ! object ( a volunt>y act is good to oneself1 su* r5unciation is n valid if n good = oneself2 h5ce a man _c r5\nce ! "r ( self-pres]vation4 ,! transf]r+ ( "r1 if n mutual1 is free gift2 if mutual1 x is contract4 ,:5 ?is is n simultane\s !re is a cov5ant or pact4 ,! cov5ant c become void only ?r\gh "s new fact aris+ aft] x 0 made4 ,a cov5ant n to def5d oneself aga9/ =ce by =ce is void p] se4 ,! ?ird law is3 ,t m5 p]=m _! cov5ants made1 )\t :i* cov5ants are va91 & ! /ate ( w> cont9ues4 ,! def9ition ( inju/ice is ! n-p]=mance ( a cov5ant4 ,no cov5ant is valid until !re exi/s "s p[] t c en=ce ! p]=mance ( x by p5alties2 t is1 until !re is a commonweal?4 ,:at is done to a man con=mable to 8 own w signifi$ to ! do] is no injury to him4 ,! f\r? law is t ( gratitude2 t a man receiv+ a free gift endeav\r t ! giv] may n suff] !reby4 ,a fif? is complaisance--t e man /rive to accommodate himself to ! re/4 ,o!rs are p>don on rep5tance1 & non-v9dictiv5ess ( puni%m5t2 & ! common enjoym5t--or1 fail+ t1 di/ribution by lot--( :at _c be equally divid$4 ,obs]vance ( ^! laws is virtue4 ,p]sons are ei!r natural & actual1 or fictiti\s & artificial1 i4e41 repres5t+ someone else1 or ev5 some?+ else3 z a *ur*1 a hospital1 a bridge4 ,:5 ! repres5tative has au?ority f ! repres5t$1 we call ! =m] ! actor1 & ! latt] ! au?or4 ,"o p]son may artificially repres5t a multitude4 ,n[1 m5 be+ 9 ! /ate ( nature may agree toge!r2 b !re is no security1 unless !re be a p[] to en=ce ! cov5ant4 ,su* a p[] c be creat$ only if !y agree toge!r to conf] all _! own p[] on "o man or "o assembly2 s t all ! acts ( su* p]son or assembly h au?ority z f ea* "o ( !m1 & ea* "o ( !m submits 8 individual w to t ( su* p]son or assembly4 ,! multitude s unit$ 9 "o p]son is a commonweal?4 ,?is is ! g5]ation ( t levia?an or mortal god to :i*1 "u ! ,immortal ,god1 we owe our peace & def5ce4 ,he t c>rie? ?is p]son is call$ sov]eign1 & ev]yone beside is 8 subject4 ,?is sov]eign p[] may be atta9$ ei!r by natural =ce1 acquisition1 or by volunt>y transf]5ce1 in/itution4 ,& fir/ ( a commonweal? by in/itution4 ,!y t h in/itut$ a commonweal? by cov5ant _c make a new cov5ant contr>y !reto )\t p]mission ( ! sov]eign1 s9ce ?is is a break+ ( _! cov5ant ) ea* o!r4 ,on 8 "p !re is no cov5ant1 s t brea* ( cov5ant by him _c be plead$ z w>rant+ abrogation ( ! cov5ant made4 ,! sov]eign _c d ! subjects inju/ice because1 s9ce he has _! au?ority1 :at he does to !m is done by _! own w2 s also !y _c puni% him4 ,s9ce ! sov]eign 0 in/itut$ = peace & def5ce1 he controls ! means to w> & peace1 & judges ( op9ions z conduc+ to peace or endang]+ x4 ,he prescribes ! rules ( prop]ty1 s9ce 9 ! /ate ( nature !re is no prop]ty2 he has ! "r ( judicature2 ( mak+ w> & peace ) o!r commonweal?s2 ( *oos+ all c\nsellors 9 peace & w>2 ( rew>d+ & puni%+1 accord+ to ! law he has made1 & ( be/[+ hon\r4 ,nay1 if he grants away any ( ^! p[]s ! grant is null4 ,! sov]eignty may be 9 "o man1 or 9 a limit$ assembly1 or 9 an assembly ( all--mon>*y1 ari/ocracy1 democracy2 ^! ?ree =ms only1 ?\gh :5 !y are mislik$ !y are call$ o!r names4 ,9 any case1 ! p[] ( ! sov]eign is absolute1 :e!r a mon>* or an assembly4 ,he is ! repres5tative ( ! commonweal?1 n deputies :o may be *os5 to t5d] petitions4 ,! ?ree =ms diff] n 9 ! p[] ( ! sov]eign1 b 9 _! advantage\sness4 ,9 mon>*y1 ! private int]e/ ( ! sov]eign mu/ co9cide ) t ( ! commonweal? z a :ole2 mu* m s ?an 9 ari/ocracy or democracy4 ,an assembly _c receive c\nsel secretly2 a mon>*y has ! b5efit ( a s+le w in/ead ( conflict+ wills4 ,!re is no gov]nm5t by a mixture ( ! types1 e4g41 an elective k+ is n sov]eign1 b a m9i/]2 & )9 8 prov9ce a ,roman pro-consul 0 an absolute mon>*4 ,m5 submit !mselves to an in/itut$ sov]eign1 = fe> ( ea* o!r2 to an acquir$ sov]eignty1 = fe> ( ! sov]eign4 ,acquir$ sov]eignty or dom9ion is ei!r by g5]ation 7pat]nal7 or by conque/4 ,a family1 h[ev]1 does n am\nt to a commonweal?1 unless x be s great t x may n be subdu$ b by w>4 ,acquir$ sov]eignty is absolute1 = ! same reasons z in/itut$ sov]eignty4 ,,iii4--,! ,natural ,commonweal? ,lib]ty is abs5ce ( imp$im5ts to motion4 ,x is consi/5t ) fe>1 also ) necessity2 = a volunt>y act is yet necess>y z hav+ a cause :i* is a l9k 9 a *a9 ( causes up to ! ,fir/ ,cause1 :i* is ,god4 ,b m5 h creat$ artificial imp$im5ts or bonds call$ laws4 ,! lib]ty ( ! subject lies only 9 su* ?+s z ! sov]eign has pret]mitt$1 = he ha? p[] to regulate all1 ev5 life & dea?1 at 8 own w4 ,! lib]ty prais$ 9 ,rome & ,a!ns 0 ! lib]ty ( ! commonweal? z aga9/ o!r commonweal?s4 ,! subject has lib]ty to disobey ! sov]eign's comm& if x contrav5e ! law t ! "r ( self-pres]vation _c be abrogat$1 unless x be to endang] himself = ! pres]vation ( ! commonweal?1 z ) soldi]s4 ,! subjects' obligation ( ob$i5ce la/s s long z ! sov]eign's p[] ( def5d+ !m1 t be+ ! purpose ( 8 be+ made sov]eign4 ,by sy/ems ,i mean numb]s ( m5 jo9$ 9 "o int]e/4 ,^! are political1 con/itut$ by law2 & private1 p]mitt$ or =bidd5 by law4 ,all1 except a commonweal?1 are subord9ate to ! commonweal?1 & h n ! "* ( sov]eignty4 ,! rights ( gov]n+ bodies are only ^? expressly conc$$ by law1 ei!r g5]ally or to !m specifically4 ,sy/ems 9 ! commonweal? correspond to muscles 9 ! natural body4 ,! n\ri%m5t ( ! commonweal? is its commodities or products1 ! di/ribution ( :i* mu/ be lit ! w ( ! sov]eign1 :e!r ( l& or ( commodities1 ex*ang$ int]nally or traffick$ abroad4 ,! procreation1 or *ildr51 ( a commonweal? are its plantations1 or colonies1 :i* may ei!r be commonweal?s !mselves1 z *ildr5 emancipat$1 or rema9 p>ts ( ! commonweal?4 ,by civil laws ,i mean ^? laws t m5 are b\nd to obey z memb]s ( any commonweal?4 ,! sov]eign is ! sole legislator1 & is n subject to ! laws :i* he c repeal at pleasure4 ,! civil laws are ! laws ( nature express$ z comm&s ( ! commonweal?1 or ! w ( ! sov]eign s express$2 :atev] is n ! law ( nature mu/ be expressly made kn[n & publi%$4 ,bo? ! law ( nature & writt5 law require int]pretation1 :i* is by s5t5ce ( ! judge con/itut$ by sov]eign au?ority4 ,an int5tion ( break+ ! law is a s92 issu+ 9 a brea* ( ! law x is crime4 ,violation ( ! laws ( nature is always & ev]y:]e s92 x is crime only :5 a violation ( ! laws ( a commonweal?4 ,unavoidable ignorance ( a law is a complete excuse = break+ x1 b ignorance due to lack ( dilig5ce is n unavoidable4 ,t]ror ( pres5t dea?1 or ! ord] ( ! sov]eign1 are a complete excuse4 ,& _m circum/ances may s]ve z ext5uation4 ,a puni%m5t is an evil inflict$ by public au?ority on him t ha? done or omitt$ t :i* is said to be by ! same au?ority a transgression ( ! law1 to ! end t ! w ( m5 may !reby be ! bett] dispos$ to ob$i5ce4 ,n[1 ?is "r ( puni%m5t is n transf]r$ by ! subjects to ! sov]eign s9ce !y _c surr5d] _! "r ( self-def5ce aga9/ viol5ce4 ,b z all be=e _h ! natural "r ( hurt+ o!rs1 t "r is left by ! cov5ant to ! sov]eign alone1 /r5g!n$ by ! resignation !re( by ! re/4 ,puni%m5ts inflict$ by man are corporal1 or pecuni>y1 or ignom9y1 or imprisonm5t1 or exile1 or mix$ ( ^!4 ,corporal are capital1 ) or )\t torm5t1 & less ?an capital4 ,pecuni>y includes deprivation n only ( money1 b also ( l&s or o!r salable goods2 b su* deprivation1 if x is by way ( comp5sation to ! p]son injur$1 is n really puni%m5t4 ,imprisonm5t1 :5 x is only = ! cu/ody ( a p]son accus$1 is n puni%m5t4 ,exile is n s mu* a puni%m5t z a comm& or p]mission to escape puni%m5t1 except :5 accompani$ by deprivation ( goods4 ,infirmities ( a commonweal? arise--f ! fir/ in/itution1 :5 ! sov]eign has n assum$ suffici5t p[]2 f su* doctr9es z t ea* man privately is ! judge ( good or evil actions1 or s9s if he obey ! commonweal? aga9/ 8 consci5ce2 t ! sov]eign is subject to ! civil laws2 t private prop]ty excludes sov]eign rights2 t sov]eign p[] may be divid$1 :i* is ! wor/ ( all2 & f o!r causes1 z ( money grudg$ = w>s1 monopolies1 ov]-pot5t subjects or corporations1 insatiable desire ( dom9ion4 ,b :5 a c\ntry is conqu]$1 t is ! dissolution ( ! commonweal?4 ,( ! sov]eign's duties ! fir/ is to surr5d] none ( 8 p[]s1 & ! second to see t !y be kn[n1 to :i* end1 & ! und]/&+ ( x1 ! p mu/ be rightly in/ruct$4 ,fur!r1 t he adm9i/] ju/ice equally to all p1 & impose equal taxes1 & make good laws 7,i say good1 n j1 s9ce no law c be unju/71 & *oose good c\nsellors4 ,subjects owe simple ob$i5ce to ! sov]eign 9 all ?+s :atsoev]1 except :at is contr>y to ! laws ( ,god4 ,!re=e1 x rema9s "h to speak ( ! k+dom ( ,god1 ,^: subjects are !y t believe 9 ,him4 ,god decl>e? ,8 laws ei!r by natural reason1 or by revelation1 or by ! voice ( prophets4 ,he is necess>ily sov]eign1 = ! "o reason t ,he is omnipot5t4 ,,iv4--,( a ,*ri/ian ,commonweal? & ! ,k+dom ( ,d>kness ,( ,god speak+ by ! voice ( a prophet are two signs3 t ! prophet worke? miracles1 & t he tea*e? no o!r religion ?an t e/abli%$4 ,^! two mu/ g toge!r4 ,& s9ce miracles h ceas$1 x is cle> t ,god no long] speaks by prophets4 ,b ,he ha? reveal$ ,himself 9 ,scripture--t is1 9 ^? books :i* are 9 ! canon orda9$4 ,b :e!r _! au?ority be d]iv$ f ! civil sov]eignty or is ( a univ]sal *ur* to :i* all sov]eigns are subord9ate is ano!r "q4 ,x may be se51 h[ev]1 f ,scripture t ! k+dom ( ,god !re9 spok5 ( is a civil k+dom1 = ! re/oration :]e( we pray daily1 :i* is t k+dom ( ,god by ,*ri/ :i* 0 int]rupt$ by ! revolt ( ! ,israelites & ! election ( ,saul4 ,a *ur* is a t]m us$ 9 _m s5ses1 b 9 "o only c x be treat$ z a p]son hav+ p[] to w1 comm&1 or d any action :atev]4 ,& accord+ to ?is s5se ,i def9e a *ur* to be a company ( m5 pr(ess+ ,*ri/ian religion1 unit$ 9 ! p]son ( "o sov]eign1 at ^: comm& !y ought to assemble1 & )\t ^: au?ority !y ought n to assemble4 ,x foll[s t a *ur* t is assembl$ 9 any commonweal? t ha? =bidd5 !m to assemble is an unlawful assembly4 ,!re are ,*ri/ians 9 ! dom9ions ( sev]al pr9ces & /ates2 b e "o ( !m is subject to t commonweal? ( :i* he is himself a memb]1 & consequ5tly _c be subject to ! comm&s ( any o!r p]son4 ,!re is !re=e no su* univ]sal *ur* z all are b\nd to obey4 ,! orig9al cov5ant ) ,abraham gave him ! sole "r1 :i* is ! inh]itance ( e sov]eign1 to puni% any subject :o %\ld pret5d to a private vision = ! c\nt5anc+ ( any doctr9e :i* ,abraham %\ld =bid4 ,?is cov5ant e/abli%$ t k+dom ( ,god :i* 0 int]rupt$ by ! secul> k+dom ( ,saul4 ,! com+ ( ,*ri/ 0 to re/ore t k+dom by a new cov5ant2 :i* k+dom 0 to be 9 ano!r _w aft] ! ,resurrection4 ,! p[] ecclesia/ical 0 left by ,him to ! apo/les1 b ?is is manife/ly n a co]cive p[] on e>?1 z ,*ri/'s own p[] on e>? 0 n4 ,*ri/1 !re=e1 by ,8 com+ did n )draw any ( ! p[] f civil sov]eigns1 & if !y d commit ! gov]nm5t ( _! subjects 9 matt] ( religion to ! ,pope1 he holde? t *>ge n z be+ above ! civil sov]eign1 b by 8 au?ority4 ,b z = disagreem5t betwe5 ! laws ( ,god & ! civil laws ( ! sov]eign1 ! laws ( ,god1 :i* mu/ 9 no wise be disobey$1 are ^? :i* are necess>y to salvation2 & ^! are summ$ up 9 ! w to obey ! law ( ,god & ! belief t ,jesus is ! ,*ri/4 ,b ! private man may n set up to judge :e!r ! ord9ance ( ! sov]eign be aga9/ ! law ( ,god1 or :e!r ! doctr9e :i* he impose? consi/ ) ! belief t ,jesus is ! ,*ri/4 ,b 9 ! ,scripture !re is m5tion also ( ano!r p[]1 ! k+dom ( ,satan1 ! pr9ce ( ! p[]s ( ! air1 :i* is a conf$]acy ( deceiv]s t1 to obta9 dom9ion ov] m5 9 ?is pres5t _w1 endeav\rs by d>k & errone\s doctr9es to ext+ui% 9 !m ! light bo? ( nature & ( ! ,gospel1 & s to disprep>e !m = ! k+dom ( ,god to come4 ,& su* d>kness is wr\ght fir/ by abus+ ! light ( ! ,scriptures s t we "k !m n2 secondly by introduc+ ! demonology ( ! hea!n poets2 ?irdly1 by mix+ ) ! ,scripture div]s relics ( ! religion & mu* ( ! va9 & errone\s philosophy ( ! ,greeks1 especially ( ,ari/otle2 &1 f\r?ly1 by m+l+ ) ^! false or unc]ta9 traditions & feign$ or unc]ta9 hi/ory4 ,,niccolo ,,ma*iavelli ,! ,pr9ce ,niccolo di ,b]n>do dei ,ma*iavelli 0 born at ,flor5ce1 9 ,italy1 ,may #c1 #adfi1 & di$ ,june #bb1 #aebg4 ,at any e>ly age he took an active "p 9 ,flor5t9e politics1 & 0 employ$ on num]\s diplomatic missions4 ,a ke5 /ud5t ( ! politics ( 8 "t1 he 0 also an ard5t patriot4 ,! exig5cies ( p>ty w>f>e drove him into tempor>y retirem5t1 dur+ :i* he produc$ a numb] ( brilliant plays & hi/orical /udies2 b ! mo/ notable ( 8 a*ievem5ts is ,! ,pr9ce4 ,! ,pr9ce may be reg>d$ z ! fir/ mod]n "w treat+ ( politics z a sci5ce4 ,! "o "q to :i* ! au?or devotes himself is3 ,h[ a pr9ce may e/abli% & ma9ta9 ! /ronge/ possible gov]nm5t4 ,moral pr9ciples1 !re=e1 mu/ yield entirely to ! dictates ( pure exp$i5cy4 ,x foll[s t ! rul] :o acts on ! doctr9es laid d[n w pay no respect to "r & wrong z su*4 ,h5ce ! book has be5 m]cilessly condemn$4 ,x 0 writt5 probably ab\t #aead1 & n publi%$ till #aecb4 ,i4--,( ,pr9c$oms ,won by ,m]it ,all /ates & gov]nm5ts are ei!r republics or pr9c$oms4 ,pr9c$oms are ei!r h]$it>y or new4 ,h]$it>y /ates are ma9ta9$ ) f> less difficulty ?an new /ates1 b 9 new pr9c$oms difficulties ab\nd4 ,& fir/ if ! pr9c$om be jo9$ on to anci5t dom9ions ( ! pr9ce1 s z to =m a mix$ pr9c$om1 rebellion is a dang]2 = m5 are always ready to *ange ma/]s4 ,:5 a /ate rebels & is aga9 got "u x w n aft]w>ds be lo/ s easily2 = ! pr9ce w use ! rebellion z a pretext to make himself m secure4 ,su* new /ates :5 !y are ( ! same prov9ce & tongue z ! anci5t dom9ions ( ! pr9ce are easily reta9$4 ,x is en\gh to h root$ out ! l9e ( ! reign+ pr9ce4 ,b :]e ! language & usages diff] ! difficulty is multipli$4 ,"o exp$i5t is = ! pr9ce himself to dwell 9 ! new /ate1 z ! ,turk has done 9 ,greece4 ,ano!r is to s5d colonies into "o or two places :i* may become keys to ! prov9ce2 = ! co/ ( troops is f> great]4 ,9 su* prov9ces1 moreov]1 ! pr9ce %\ld always make himself ! protector ( 8 weak] neighb\rs1 )\t add+ to _! /r5g?2 b %\ld humble ! great1 & nev] suff] a =midable /rang] to acquire influ5ce1 z 0 ! rule ) ! ,romans4 ,:]eas ,k+ ,l\is ( ,france has 9 ,italy done ! direct opposite 9 e s+le respect4 ,9 especial we may draw f ! ,fr5* k+'s actions ! g5]al axiom1 :i* nev] or r>ely errs1 t he :o is ! cause ( ano!r's greatness is himself undone4 ,n[1 all pr9c$oms are gov]n$ 9 "o or two ways3 ei!r by a sole pr9ce s]v$ by m9i/]s1 or by a pr9ce ) b>ons :o hold _! rank n by fav\r b by "r ( desc5t4 ,! ,turk is an example ( ! fir/1 ! ,fr5* k+ ( ! second4 ,a /ate ( ! fir/ k9d is difficult to w91 b :5 won is easily held1 s9ce ! pr9ce's family may be easily root$ out2 b 9 su* a /ate z ,france y may ga9 an entry1 b to hold y\r gr\nd aft]w>ds is difficult1 s9ce y _c root out ! b>ons4 ,h5ce we ne$ n wond] at ! ease :]e) ,alex&] 0 able to lay a firm hold on ,asia1 albeit he di$ be=e he _h well ent]$ on possession2 s9ce ! dom9ion ( ,d>ius 0 ( ! same "* z t ( ! ,turk4 ,:5 ! newly acquir$ /ate has hi!rto liv$ "u its own laws & 9 fre$om !re are ?ree ways ( hold+ x4 ,! fir/ is to de/roy x2 ! second to reside 9 x2 ! ?ird to leave x "u its own laws1 *oos+ = its gov]nors f ! inhabitants su* z w be fri5dly to y4 ,b ! safe/ c\rse is ei!r to de/roy x or to g & live 9 x4 ,:]e ! pr9ce himself is new1 ei!r m]it or good =tune is impli$1 & if we consid] ! mo/ excell5t examples1 su* z ,moses1 ,cyrus1 ,romulus1 & ! l1 we %all see t !y ow$ to =tune no?+ beyond ! opportunity :i* !y seiz$4 ,^? :o1 l ^!1 come to ! pr9c$om by virtu\s pa?s acquire ) difficulty1 b keep ) ease4 ,_! difficulties arise because !y are ( necessity innovators4 ,if1 !n1 !y h =ce ( _! own to employ !y seldom fail4 ,h5ce x comes t all arm$ prophets h be5 victori\s & all un>m$ prophets h be5 de/roy$2 z 0 ! case ) ,savon>ola4 ,,ii4--,( ,pr9c$oms ,won ,o!rwise ?an by ,m]it ,^? :o rise to pr9c$om by m]e good =tune h mu* tr\ble to ma9ta9 !mselves2 "s lack bo? ! k & ! p[] to d s4 ,yet ev5 if su* a "o be ( great p>ts1 he may lose :at he has won1 l ,ces>e ,borgia4 ,x 0 impossible = ! duke to aggr&ise himself unless ! /ates ( ,italy 7 ?r[n into confusion s t he might safely make himself ma/] ( "s "p ( !m4 ,?is 0 made easy = him z conc]n$ ,romagna by ! conduct ( ! ,fr5* & ,v5etians4 ,! next /ep 0 to weak5 ! factions ( ! ,ors9i & ! ,colonnesi4 ,hav+ scatt]$ ! ,colonnesi1 ! ,ors9i 7 s won ov] z to be drawn 9 _! simplicity into 8 h&s at ,s9igaglia4 ,hav+ ?us dispos$ ( ! lead]s1 he set ab\t +ratiat+ himself ) ! population ( ,romagna & ,urb9o4 ,he fir/ set ov] ! c\ntry a /]n rul] to re/ore ord]4 ,?is end be+ accompli%$1 t /]n b unpopul> rul] 0 behead$4 ,next1 z a new pope might be dang]\s1 he set himself to ext]m9ate ! k9dr$ ( ^? lords :om he _h despoil$ ( _! possessions1 to w9 ov] ! ,roman nobility1 & to secure a majority among ! c>d9als4 ,b be=e ! duke _h completely consolidat$ 8 p[] 8 fa!r1 ,pope ,alex&] ,,vi41 di$4 ,ev5 s1 ! skill ) :i* he _h laid ! f\ndations ( 8 p[] mu/ h result$ 9 success _h he n himself be5 almo/ at dea?'s door at t critical mom5t4 ,! "o mi/ake he made 0 9 ! *oice ( ! new pope1 ,julius ,,ii41 & ?is error 0 ! cause ( 8 ultimate d[nfall4 ,a man may rise1 h[ev]1 to a pr9c$om by pa?s ( wick$ness & crime2 t is1 n precisely by ei!r m]it or =tune4 ,we may take z example fir/ ,aga?ocles ! ,sicilian4 ,to slaught] fell[ citiz5s1 to betray fri5ds1 to be devoid ( hon\r1 pity1 & religion _c be c\nt$ z m]it4 ,b ! a*ievem5ts ( ,aga?ocles c c]ta9ly n be ascrib$ to =tune4 ,we _c1 !re=e1 attribute ei!r to =tune or to m]it :at he accompli%$ )\t ei!r4 ,= a mod]n in/ance we may consid] ,oliv]otto ( ,f]mo1 :o seiz$ ^u t t[n by a piece ( mon/r\s trea*]y & m]ciless but*]y2 yet he e/abli%$ himself s firmly & s =midably t he c\ld n h be5 unseat$ _h he n let himself be ov]-rea*$ by ,ces>e ,borgia4 ,our lesson f ^! examples is t on seiz+ a /ate ! usurp] %\ld make ha/e to inflict :at injuries he mu/ at "o /roke1 & aft]w>ds w9 m5 ov] by b5efits4 ,next is ! case ( ^? :o are made pr9ces by ! fav\r ( _! c\ntrym51 :i* !y owe to :at may be t]m$ a =tunate a/ut5ess4 ,if he be e/abli%$ by ! fav\r ( ! p1 to secure !m aga9/ ! oppression ( ! nobles 8 position is /rong] ?an if he owe x to ! nobles2 b 9 ei!r case x is ! p :om he mu/ conciliate1 & ?is ,i affirm 9 spite ( ! old saw1 ,he :o builds on ! p builds on mire4 ,a pr9ce :o _c get toge!r an army fit to take ! field aga9/ any assailant %\ld keep 8 city /rongly =tifi$1 tak+ no he$ ( ! c\ntry outside1 = !n he w n be readily attack$1 & if he be x w be difficult to ma9ta9 a siege long] ?an x may be resi/$4 ,m]it1 or good =tune1 are ne$$ to acquire ecclesia/ical pr9c$oms1 b n to ma9ta9 !m1 = !y are upheld by ! au?ority ( religion4 ,x is due to ! policy ( ! ,popes ,alex&] ,,vi4 & ,julius ,,ii4 t ! temporal p[] ( ! pope has become s great2 & f 8 hol9ess ,pope ,leo we may hope t z 8 pr$ecessors made ! papacy great ) arms he w r5d] x /ill great] & m v5]able by 8 b5ignity & o!r c\ntless virtues4 ,,iii4--,( ,ma9ta9+ a ,pr9c$om ,a pr9ce mu/ def5d 8 /ate ) ei!r 8 own subjects or m]c5>ies1 or auxili>ies4 ,m]c5>ies are utt]ly untru/wor?y2 if _! capta9 be n an able man ! pr9ce w probably be ru9$1 :]eas if he be an able man he w be seek+ a goal ( 8 own4 ,?is has be5 p]petually exemplifi$ among ! cities & /ates ( ,italy :i* h s\ght to ma9ta9 !mselves by tak+ =eign]s into _! pay4 ,b he :o w\ld deprive himself ( e *ance ( success %\ld h rec\rse to auxili>ies2 t is1 to ! troops ( a =eign pot5tate4 ,= ^! are f> m dang]\s ?an m]c5>y arms1 br++ ru9 ) !m ready made4 ,! bett] su* troops are ! m dang]\s !y are4 ,f ,hi]o ( ,syracuse to ,ces>e ,borgia1 pr9ces h become p[]ful 9 proportion z !y c\ld disp5se ) su* aid & place _! dep5d5ce ^u national troops4 ,a pr9ce1 !n1 :o w\ld be p[]ful %\ld h no c>e or ?\ght b = w>1 le/ he lose 8 dom9ions ,if he be ignorant ( milit>y affairs he c nei!r be respect$ by ! soldi]s nor tru/ !m4 ,!re=e1 he mu/ bo? practise & /udy ?is art4 ,= ! practise1 ! *ase 9 _m respects provides an excell5t tra9+ bo? 9 k ( ! c\ntry & 9 vig\r ( ! body4 ,z to /udy1 a pr9ce %\ld read hi/ories1 note ! actions ( great m51 & exam9e ! causes ( _! victories & defeats2 seek+ to imitate ^? :o h be5 r5[n$4 ,anyone :o w\ld act up to a p]fect /&>d ( goodness 9 ev]y?+ mu/ be ru9$ among s _m :o are n good4 ,x is ess5tial !re=e = a pr9ce to h le>nt h[ to be o!r ?an good1 & to use1 or n to use1 8 goodness z necessity requires4 ,x may be a good ?+ to be reput$ lib]al1 b lib]ality )\t ! reputation ( x is hurtful4 ,display necessitates ! imposition ( taxes1 :]eby ! pr9ce becomes hateful2 :]eas ?r\gh p>simony 8 rev5ue w be suffici5t4 ,h5ce we h se5 no pr9ces accompli% great results save ^? :o h be5 acc\nt$ mis]ly4 ,e pr9ce %\ld desire to be acc\nt$ m]ciful1 n cruel2 b a new pr9ce _c escape a "n = cruelty1 = he :o quells disord] by a few signal examples w1 9 ! end1 be ! m m]ciful4 ,m5 are less c>eful h[ !y (f5d him :o makes himself lov$ ?an him :o makes himself fe>$2 yet %\ld a pr9ce inspire fe> 9 su* a fa%ion t1 if he d n w9 love1 he may escape hate2 rememb]+ t m5 w soon] =get ! slay+ ( _! fa!r ?an ! loss ( _! patrimony4 ,pr9ces :o set little /ore by _! ^w1 b h kn[n h[ to ov]rea* m5 by _! cunn+1 h accompli%$ great ?+s1 & 9 ! end got ! bett] ( ^? :o tru/$ to hone/ deal+4 ,! pr9ce mu/ be a lion1 b he mu/ also "k h[ to play ! fox4 ,he :o wi%es to deceive w nev] fail to f9d will+ dupes4 ,! pr9ce1 9 %ort1 ought n to quit good c\rses if he c help x1 b %\ld "k h[ to foll[ evil c\rses if he mu/4 ,a pr9ce mu/ avoid be+ despis$ z well z be+ hat$2 !re=e c\rage1 wisdom1 & /r5g? mu/ be app>5t 9 all 8 actions4 ,aga9/ su* a "o conspiracy is difficult4 ,t pr9ce is wise :o devolves on o!rs ^? matt]s t entail responsibility1 & may !re=e make him odi\s ei!r to ! nobles or to ! commons1 b res]ves to himself ! matt]s t relate to grace & fav\r4 ,:at ,i h said is n contradict$ by ! hi/ory ( ! ,roman emp]ors2 = !y _h to *oose betwe5 satisfy+ ! soldi]s & satisfy+ ! p4 ,x 0 imp]ative t at any co/ !y %\ld ma9ta9 control ( ! soldi]y1 :i* sc>ce any ( !m c\ld d )\t inju/ice to ! p4 ,if we exam9e _! hi/ories 9 detail we %all f9d t !y fully be> out ! pr9ciples ,i h laid d[n4 ,b 9 our "t ! /&+ armies ( pr9ces h n ! same p[] z ! armies ( ! ,roman empire1 & except "u ! ,turk & ! ,soldan x is m ne$ful to satisfy ! p ?an ! soldi]y4 ,,iv4--,( ,artifices ,a new pr9ce w nev] dis>m 8 subjects1 b w r arm !m1 at lea/ 9 "p4 ,= ?us !y become 8 p>tisans1 :]eas )\t !m he mu/ dep5d on m]c5>ies4 ,b a pr9ce :o adds a new /ate to 8 old possessions %\ld dis>m its inhabitants1 rely+ on ! soldi]s ( 8 own anci5t dom9ions4 ,"s h fo/]$ feuds among _! new subjects 9 ord] to keep !m weak1 b su* a policy r>ely proves useful 9 ! end4 ,! pr9ce :o acquires a new /ate w ga9 m /r5g? by w9n+ ov] & tru/+ ^? :o 7 at fir/ oppos$ to him ?an by rely+ on ^? :o 7 at fir/ 8 fri5ds4 ,! pr9ce :o is m afraid ( 8 subjects ?an ( /rang]s ought to build =tresses1 :ile he :o is m afraid ( /rang]s ?an ( 8 subjects %\ld leave !m alone4 ,on ! :ole1 ! be/ =tress y c h is 9 n be+ hat$ by y\r subjects4 ,no?+ makes a pr9ce s well ?\ght ( z to und]take great ent]prises & give /rik+ pro(s ( 8 capacity4 ,f]d9& ( ,aragon1 9 our own "t1 has become ! =emo/ k+ 9 ,*ri/5dom4 ,if y consid] 8 a*ievem5ts1 y w f9d !m all great & "s extraord9>y4 ,fir/ he made w> on ,gr5ada1 & ?is 0 ! f\ndation ( 8 p[]4 ,"u ! cloak ( religion1 ) :at may be call$ pi\s cruelty1 he cle>$ 8 k+dom ( ! ,moors2 "u ! same pretext he made w> on ,africa1 invad$ ,italy1 & f9ally attack$ ,france2 :ile 8 subjects1 occupi$ ) ^! great actions1 _h nei!r "t nor opportunity to oppose !m4 ,! pr9ce ^: m9i/]s are at once capable & fai?ful may always be acc\nt$ wise1 s9ce he mu/ be "o :o c disc]n ! m]its & dem]its ( 8 s]vant4 ,= :i* disc]nm5t ?is unfail+ rule may be laid d[n3 ,:5 y see a m9i/] ?9k+ m ( himself ?an ( y1 & 9 all 8 actions seek+ 8 own ends1 t man c nev] be a m9i/] y c tru/4 ,to reta9 a good m9i/] ! pr9ce w b9d him to himself by b5efits4 ,above all1 he w avoid be+ deceiv$ by flatt]]s1 & :ile he consults 8 c\nsellors %\ld reflect & judge = himself4 ,a pr9ce :o is n wise himself _c be well advis$ by o!rs4 ,! ,italian pr9ces :o 9 our own times h lo/ _! dom9ions h ei!r be5 defici5t 9 respect ( arms1 or h _h ! p aga9/ !m1 or h n kn[n h[ to secure !mselves aga9/ ! nobles4 ,z to ! influ5ce ( =tune1 x may be ! case t %e is ! mi/ress ( "o half ( our actions1 b leaves ! control ( ! o!r half to ourselves4 ,t pr9ce w prosp] mo/ ^: mode ( act+ be/ adapts itself to ! "* ( ! times2 s t at "o "t a cauti\s temp]am5t1 & at ano!r an impetu\s temp]am5t1 w be ! m successful4 ,n[1 at ?is "t ! :ole l& ( ,italy is )\t a head1 )\t ord]1 beat51 spoil$1 torn 9 pieces1 ov]run1 & ab&on$ to de/ruction 9 e %ape4 ,%e prays ,god to s5d someone to rescue h] f ^! b>b>\s cruelties2 %e is eag] to foll[ anyone :o c\ld und]take ! "p ( a deliv]]2 nor does ?is seem too h>d a task = y1 ! ,magnific5t ,lor5zo ( ! illu/ri\s h\se ( ,m$ici4 ,! cause is j2 we h be=e u unexampl$ pro(s ( ,div9e fav\r4 ,ev]y?+ has concurr$ to promote y\r greatness4 ,:at rema9s to be done mu/ be done by y1 = ,god w n d ev]y?+ ,himself4 ,t4,r4 ,,mal?us ,on ! ,pr9ciple ( ,population ,?omas ,rob]t ,mal?us 0 born ne> ,dork+1 ,surrey1 ,engl&1 ,feb4 #ag1 #agff1 & aft] pass+ ?r\gh ! ,univ]sity ( ,cambridge 0 orda9$1 & travell$ on ! ,cont95t4 ,8 great "w1 ,an ,essay on ! ,pr9ciple ( ,population z x ,affects ! ,future ,improvem5t ( ,society1 0 fir/ publi%$ ,anonym\sly 9 #agih1 & five ye>s lat] x appe>$1 "u ! title ( ,an ,essay on ! ,pr9ciple ( ,population1 or a ,view ( its ,pa/ & ,pres5t ,effect on ,human ,happ9ess1 ) an ,enquiry into our ,prospects ,respect+ ! ,future ,removal or ,mitigation ( ! ,evils :i* x ,occasions1 "u ! au?or's "n4 ,mal?us is "o ( ! mo/ p]si/5tly misrepres5t$ ( great ?9k]s1 8 c5tral doctr9e be+ no?+ less moral ?an t "y m5 %\ld po/pone m>riage until !y h ! means ( support+ a family4 ,x is ( ! fir/ int]e/ 9 ! hi/ory ( ?\ght t ! read+ ( ?is great essay ( ,mal?us %\ld h indep5d5tly sugge/$1 fir/ to ,*>les ,d>w91 & lat] to ,alfr$ ,russel ,wallace1 ! idea ( natural selection z a necess>y consequ5ce ( t /ruggle = life s spl5didly demon/rat$ by ,mal?us 9 ! case ( mank9d4 ,x is to be wond]$ t ,mal?us1 hav+ provid$ himself ) ! key to ! great problem ( organic evolution1 %\ld h left its use to o!rs4 ,"o explanation is1 d\btless1 t 8 survey 0 n comp>ative1 cov]+ ! :ole range ( life1 b 0 practically conf9$ to "o liv+ =m4 ,mal?us di$ on ,decemb] #bc1 #ahcd4 ,i4--,g5]al ,survey ( ! ,*ecks to ,population ,s9ce population is capable ( d\bl+ itself at lea/ once 9 e tw5ty-five ye>s1 & s9ce ! supply ( food c increase 9 only ari?metical ratio1 x foll[s t increase ( population mu/ always be *eck$ by lack ( food4 ,b1 except 9 cases ( fam9e1 ?is *eck is nev] op]ative1 & ! *ief *ecks to increase ( population are moral re/ra9t1 vice1 & mis]y4 ,9 spite ( ^! *ecks1 :i* are always m or less 9 op]ation1 !re is a con/ant t5d5cy = ! population to increase beyond ! means ( subsi/5ce4 ,su* increase is foll[$ by l[]$ wages1 de>] food1 & ?us a l[]$ m>riage-rate & bir?-rate2 & ! l[]$ wages1 9 turn1 induce m agricultural ent]prise1 & ?us means ( subsi/5ce become m abundant aga94 ,m abundant & *eap] food1 9 turn1 promotes m>riage1 & increases ! population1 until aga9 !re is a %ortage ( food2 & ?is oscillation1 ?\gh irregul>1 w always be f\nd1 & !re w always be a t5d5cy = ! population to oscillate ar\nd ! food limit4 ,ev5 among savages1 :]e ! degradation ( wom51 infanticide1 vice1 fam9e1 w>1 & disease are active in/rum5ts ( decimation1 x w be f\nd t ! av]age population1 g5]ally speak+1 presses h>d aga9/ ! limits ( ! av]age food4 ,among mod]n pa/oral nations ! pr9cipal *ecks :i* keep ! population d[n to ! level ( ! means ( subsi/5ce are3 re/ra9t f inability to obta9 a wife1 vici\s habits ) respect to wom51 epidemics1 w>1 fam9e1 & ! diseases aris+ f extreme pov]ty4 ,9 mod]n ,europe we f9d simil> prev5tive & positive *ecks1 9 v>y+ proportions1 to undue increase ( population4 ,9 ,engl& & ,scotl& ! prev5tive *eck to population prevails 9 a consid]able degree4 ,a man ( lib]al education1 ) an income only j suffici5t to enable him to associate 9 ! rank ( g5tlem51 mu/ feel absolutely c]ta9 t if he m>ry & h a family he %all be oblig$ to give up all 8 =m] connections4 ,! woman :om a man ( education w\ld naturally *oose is "o br\ght up 9 simil> ref9$ surr\nd+s4 ,c a man easily cons5t to place ! object ( 8 affections on a l[] social plane8 ,su* consid]ations c]ta9ly prev5t _m ( ! bett] classes f e>ly m>riage2 & ^? :o m>ry 9 ! face ( su* consid]ations too frequ5tly ju/ify ! =ebod+s ( ! prud5t4 ,! sons ( tradesm5 & f>m]s are exhort$ n to m>ry till !y h a suffici5t sure income to support a family1 & (t5 accord+ly po/pone m>riage till !y are f> advanc$ 9 life4 ,! lab\r] :o e>ns eighte5p5ce or two %ill+s a day1 z a s+le man1 w hesitate to divide t pittance among f\r or five1 see+ ! risks su* pov]ty involves4 ,! s]vants :o live 9 ! families ( ! ri* h yet /rong] inducem5ts to =ego matrimony4 ,!y live 9 comp>ative com=t & luxury1 :i* z m>ri$ m5 !y c\ld n enjoy4 ,! prolific p[] ( nature is v f> f be+ call$ fully into action 9 ,great ,brita94 ,& yet1 :5 we contemplate ! insuffici5cy ( ! price ( lab\r to ma9ta9 a l>ge family1 & ! am\nt ( mortality :i* arises directly & indirectly f pov]ty1 & add to ?is ! cr[ds ( *ildr5 prematurely cut (f 9 l>ge t[ns1 we %all be compell$ to ackn[l$ge t1 if ! numb] born annually 7 n greatly ?9n$ by ?is premature mortality1 ! funds = ! ma9t5ance ( lab\r mu/ increase ) mu* great] rapidity ?an !y h ev] hi!rto done 9 ord] to f9d "w & food = ! additional numb]s t w\ld !n gr[ up to manhood4 ,^?1 !re=e1 :o live s+le1 or m>ry late1 d n by su* conduct contribute 9 any degree to dim9i% ! actual population1 b m]ely to dim9i% ! proportion ( premature mortality1 :i* w\ld o!rwise be excessive2 & consequ5tly1 f ?is po9t ( view1 d n seem to des]ve any v sev]e reprobation or puni%m5t4 ,x has be5 usual to consid] a great proportion ( bir?s z ! sure/ sign ( a vigor\s & fl\ri%+ /ate4 ,b ?is is errone\s4 ,only aft] great mortality1 or "u v especial social conditions1 is a l>ge proportion ( bir?s a fav\rable symptom4 ,9 ! av]age /ate ( a well-peopl$ t]ritory !re _c be a worse sign ?an a l>ge proportion ( bir?s1 nor a bett] sign ?an a small proportion4 ,a small proportion ( bir?s is a decid$ pro( ( a v small mortality1 s9ce ! supply always equals ! dem& = population4 ,9 despotic1 mis]able1 or naturally unheal?y c\ntries1 ! proportion ( bir?s to ! :ole population w g5]ally be f\nd v great4 ,9 ,scotl& emigration is a pot5t cause ( depopulation1 b any ?9n+ out f ?is cause is quickly neutralis$ by an increas$ proportion ( bir?s4 ,9 ,irel& ! details ( population fluctuations are little kn[n2 b ! *eapness ( potatoes1 & ! ignorance & depress$1 indiff]5t /ate ( ! p1 h enc\rag$ m>riage to su* a degree t ! population is pu%$ mu* beyond ! res\rces ( ! c\ntry1 & ! consequ5ce1 naturally1 is t ! l[] classes ( ! p are 9 ! mo/ impov]i%$ & mis]able /ate4 ,! *ecks to ! population are1 ( c\rse1 *iefly ( ! positive k9d1 & arise f ! diseases caus$ by squalid pov]ty4 ,to ^! positive *ecks h ( late ye>s be5 add$ ! vice & mis]y ( civil w>1 & ( m>tial law4 ,,ii4--,population & ! ,subsi/5ce ,level ,t ! *ecks :i* h be5 m5tion$ are ! imm$iate causes ( ! sl[ increase ( population1 & t ^! *ecks result pr9cipally f an insuffici5cy ( subsi/5ce w be evid5t f ! comp>ative rapid increase :i* has inv>iably tak5 place :5ev]1 by "s sudd5 enl>gem5t 9 ! means ( subsi/5ce1 ^! *ecks h be5 9 any consid]able degree remov$4 ,pl5ty ( ri* l& to be _h = little or no?+ is s p[]ful a cause ( population z g5]ally to ov]come all ob/acles4 ,! abundance ( *eap & pr(itable l& obta9$ by ! coloni/s 9 ,engli% ,nor? ,am]ica result$ 9 a rapid increase ( population almo/ )\t p>allel 9 hi/ory4 ,su* an increase does n occur 9 ,brita91 & ! reason to be assign$ is want ( food4 ,want ( food is c]ta9ly ! mo/ effici5t ( ! ?ree imm$iate *ecks to population4 ,population soon increases aft] w> & disease & convulsions ( nature1 because ! food supply is m ?an adequate = ! dim9i%$ numb]s2 b :]e food is defici5t no increase ( population c occur4 ,s9ce ! _w began ! causes ( population & depopulation h be5 probably z con/ant z any ( ! laws ( nature ) :i* we are acqua9t$4 ,! passion betwe5 ! sexes has appe>$ 9 e age to be s ne>ly ! same t x may always be consid]$ 9 algebraic language z a giv5 quantity4 ,! great law ( necessity1 :i* prev5ts population f increas+ 9 any c\ntry beyond ! food :i* x c ei!r produce or acquire1 is a law s obvi\s & evid5t to our und]/&+s t we _c d\bt x4 ,! diff]5t modes :i* nature takes to repress a r$undant population d n1 inde$1 appe> to u s c]ta9 & regul>2 b ?\gh we _c always pr$ict ! mode1 we may ) c]ta9ty pr$ict ! fact4 ,if ! proportion ( ! bir?s to ! dea?s = a few ye>s indicates an increase ( numb]s mu* beyond ! proportional increas$ or acquir$ food ( ! c\ntry1 we may be p]fectly c]ta9 t1 unless an emigration takes place1 ! dea?s w %ortly exce$ ! bir?s1 & t ! increase :i* has be5 obs]v$ = a few ye>s _c be ! real av]age increase ( ! population ( ! c\ntry4 ,if !re 7 no o!r depopulat+ causes1 & if ! prev5tive *eck did n op]ate v /rongly1 e c\ntry w\ld1 )\t d\bt1 be subject to p]iodical plagues & fam9es4 ,! only true crit]ion ( a real & p]man5t increase 9 ! population ( any c\ntry is ! increase ( ! means ( subsi/5ce1 & ev5 ?is crit]ion is subject to "s slight v>iations4 ,o!r circum/ances be+ ! same1 x may be affirm$ t c\ntries are popul\s accord+ to ! quantity ( human food :i* !y produce or c acquire2 & happy accord+ to ! lib]ality ) :i* ?is food is divid$1 or ! quantity :i* a day's lab\r w pur*ase4 ,?is happ9ess does n dep5d ei!r ^u _! be+ ?9ly or fully inhabit$1 ^u _! pov]ty or _! ri*es1 _! y\? or age1 b on ! proportion :i* ! population & ! food be> to ea* o!r4 ,9 mod]n ,europe ! positive *ecks to population prevail less1 & ! prev5tive *ecks m1 ?an 9 pa/ times1 & 9 ! m uncivilis$ p>ts ( ! _w1 s9ce w>s1 plagues1 acute diseases1 & fam9es h become less frequ5t4 ,) reg>d to ! prev5tive *ecks to population1 ?\gh x mu/ be ackn[l$g$ t ! prev5tive *eck ( moral re/ra9t does n1 at pres5t1 l>gely prevail1 yet x is becom+ m preval5t1 & if we consid] only ! g5]al t]m1 :i* implies pr9cipally a delay ( m>riage f prud5tial consid]ations1 x may be consid]$ z ! mo/ pot5t ( ! *ecks :i* 9 mod]n ,europe keep d[n ! population to ! level ( ! means ( subsi/5ce4 ,,iii4--,rem$ies o!r ?an ,moral ,re/ra9t = ,evils ( ,ov]-population ,all sy/ems ( equality :i* h be5 propos$ are b\nd to fail1 because ! motive to ! prev5tive *eck ( moral re/ra9t is de/roy$ by equality & community ( goods4 ,z all w\ld be equal & 9 simil> circum/ances1 !re w\ld be no reason :y "o p]son %\ld ?9k himself oblig$ to practise ! duty ( re/ra9t m ?an ano!r4 ,& h[ c\ld a man be compell$ to su* re/ra9t8 ,! op]ation ( ?is natural *eck ( moral re/ra9t dep5ds exclusively ^u ! exi/5ce ( ! laws ( prop]ty & succession2 & 9 a /ate ( equality & community ( prop]ty c\ld only be replac$ by "s artificial regulation ( a v diff]5t /amp1 & a mu* m unnatural "*4 ,no s*eme ( equality1 !n1 c ov]come ! population difficulty2 emigration is only a palliative1 & poor-law relief only a no/rum :i* ev5tually aggravates ! evils ( ov]-population4 ,! poor laws ( ,engl& t5d to depress ! g5]al condition ( ! poor 9 two ways4 ,_! fir/ obnoxi\s t5d5cy is to increase population )\t increas+ ! food = its support4 ,a poor man may m>ry ) little or no prospect ( be+ able to support a family )\t p>i% assi/ance4 ,! poor laws may be said1 !re=e1 to create ! poor :i* !y ma9ta91 & z ! provisions mu/ be di/ribut$ to ! great] numb]s 9 small] proportions1 ! lab\rs ( ^? :o are n support$ by p>i% assi/ance w pur*ase a small] quantity ( provisions ?an be=e1 & consequ5tly m ( !m w require assi/ance4 ,secondly1 ! quantity ( provisions consum$ 9 workh\ses by ! lea/ wor?y memb]s ( ! community dim9i%es ! food ( ! m wor?y memb]s1 :o are ?us driv5 to obta9 relief4 ,=tunately = ,engl& a _s ( indep5d5ce /ill rema9s among ! peasantry4 ,! poor laws1 ?\gh calculat$ to eradicate ?is _s1 h only p>tially succe$$4 ,h>d z x may appe> 9 individual in/ances1 dep5d5t pov]ty ought to be deem$ disgraceful4 ,su* a /igma seems necess>y to promote ! g5]al happ9ess ( mank9d4 ,if m5 be induc$ to m>ry f ! m]e prospect ( p>i% provision1 !y are n only unju/ly tempt$ to br+ unhapp9ess & dep5d5ce ^u !mselves & _! *ildr51 b !y are tempt$ unwitt+ly to injure all 9 ! same class z !mselves4 ,fur!r1 ! poor laws disc\rage frugality1 & dim9i% ! p[] & ! w ( ! common p to save1 & !y live f h& to m\? )\t ?\ght ( ! future4 ,a man :o might n be det]r$ f go+ to ! ale-h\se by ! k t 8 dea? & sickness mu/ ?r[ 8 wife & family ^u ! p>i%1 might fe> to wa/e 8 e>n+s if ! only provisions = 8 family 7 casual *>ity4 ,! mass ( unhapp9ess among common p mu/ be dim9i%$ :5 "o ( ! /ronge/ *ecks to idl5ess & dissipation is ?us remov$2 & :5 in/itutions :i* r5d] dep5d5t pov]ty s less5 ! disgrace :i* %\ld be atta*$ to x4 ,i feel p]suad$ t if ! poor-laws _h nev] exi/$ 9 ?is c\ntry1 ?\gh !re might h be5 a few m in/ances ( v sev]e di/ress1 ! aggregate mass ( happ9ess among ! common p w\ld h be5 mu* great] ?an x is at pres5t4 ,9 view ( all ^! facts ,i d n propose a law to prev5t ! poor f m>ry+1 b ,i propose a v gradual abolition ( ! poor laws4 ,by means ( an ext5d+ comm]ce a c\ntry may be able to pur*ase an increas+ quantity ( food1 & to support an increas+ population2 b ext5sion ( comm]ce _c cont9ue indef9itely2 x mu/ be *eck$ by competition & o!r economic int]f]5ce2 & z soon z funds = ! ma9t5ance ( lab\r become /ation>y1 or beg9 to decl9e1 !re w be no means ( obta9+ food = an increas+ population4 ,x is ! union ( ! agricultural & comm]cial sy/ems1 & n ei!r ( !m tak5 sep>ately1 t is calculat$ to produce ! greate/ national prosp]ity4 ,a c\ntry ) an ext5sive & ri* t]ritory1 ! cultivation ( :i* is /imulat$ by improvem5ts 9 agriculture1 manufactures1 & =eign comm]ce1 has su* v>i\s & abundant res\rces t x is extremely difficult to say :5 !y w rea* _! limits4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 limits to ! capital population ( a c\ntry--limits :i* !y mu/ ultimately rea* & _c pass4 ,to secure a m abundant1 &1 at ! same "t1 a /eadi] supply ( gra91 a sy/em ( corn laws has be5 recomm5d$1 ! object ( :i* is to disc\rage1 by duties or prohibitions1 ! importation ( =eign corn1 & to enc\rage by b\nties ! exportation ( corn ( home gr[?4 ,laws :i* prohibit ! importation ( =eign gra91 ?\gh by no means unobjectionable1 are n op5 to ! same objections z b\nties1 & mu/ be all[$ to be adequate to ! object !y h 9 view1 ! ma9t5ance ( an indep5d5t supply4 ,moreov]1 x is obvi\sly possible1 by re/rictions ^u ! importation ( =eign corn1 to ma9ta9 a balance betwe5 ! agricultural & comm]cial classes4 ,! "q is n a "q ( ! effici5cy or ineffici5cy ( ! measure propos$1 b ( its policy or impolicy4 ,9 c]ta9 cases !re c be no d\bt ( ! impolicy ( attempt+ to ma9ta9 an unnatural balance betwe5 ! agricultural & comm]cial classes2 b 9 o!r cases ! impolicy is by no means s cle>4 ,re/rictions ^u ! importation ( =eign corn 9 a c\ntry :i* has great l&$ res\rces t5d n only to spread e comm]cial & manufactur+ advantage possess$1 :e!r p]man5t or tempor>y1 on ! soil1 b t5d also to prev5t ^! great oscillations 9 ! progress ( agriculture & comm]ce :i* are seldom unatt5d$ ) evil4 ,,iv4--,moral ,re/ra9t & ,discrim9ate ,*>ity ,z x appe>s t 9 ! actual /ate ( e society :i* has come )9 our view ! natural progress ( population has be5 con/antly & p[]fully *eck$1 & z x seems evid5t t no improv$ =m ( gov]nm5t1 no plans ( emigration1 no direction ( natural indu/ry c prev5t ! cont9u$ action ( a great *eck to population 9 "s =m or o!r1 x foll[s t we mu/ submit to x z an inevitable law ( nature1 & ! only inquiry t rema9s is h[ x may take place ) ! lea/ possible prejudice to ! virtue & happ9ess ( human society4 ,all ! imm$iate *ecks to population :i* h be5 obs]v$ to prevail 9 ! same & diff]5t c\ntries seem to be resolvable into moral re/ra9t1 vice1 & mis]y2 & if our *oice be conf9$ to ^? ?ree1 we _c long hesitate 9 our decision4 ,x seems c]ta9 t moral re/ra9t is ! only virtu\s & satisfactory mode ( escape f ! evils ( ov]-population4 ,)\t su* moral re/ra9t1 & if x 7 ! cu/om to m>ry at ! age ( pub]ty1 no virtue1 h[ev] great1 c\ld rescue society f a mo/ wret*$ & desp]ate /ate ( want1 ) its concomitant diseases & fam9es4 ,prud5tial re/ra9t1 if x 7 g5]ally adopt$1 w\ld soon raise ! price ( lab\r by n>r[+ its supply1 & ^? practis+ x w\ld save money & acquire habits ( sobriety1 indu/ry1 & economy su* z %\ld ensure happy m>ri$ life4 ,fur!r1 po/ponem5t ( m>riage w\ld give bo? sexes a bett] opportunity to *oose life-p>tn]s wisely & well2 & ! passion1 in/ead ( be+ ext+ui%$ by e>ly s5suality1 w\ld burn ! m brightly because repress$ = a "t1 & atta9$ z ! prize ( indu/ry & virtue1 & z ! rew>d ( a g5u9e atta*m5t4 ,moral re/ra9t 9 ?is matt] is a ,*ri/ian duty4 ,!re are1 p]haps1 few actions t t5d s directly to dim9i% ! g5]al happ9ess z to m>ry )\t ! means ( support+ *ildr54 ,he :o commits ?is act cle>ly (f5ds aga9/ ! w ( ,god1 = he violates 8 duty to 8 neighb\rs & to himself1 & li/5s to ! voice ( passion r ?an fulfils 8 high] obligations4 ,! duty is intelligible to ! meane/ capacity4 ,x is simply t he mu/ n br+ be+s into ! _w :om he _c support4 ,:5 once ?is subject is cle>$ f ! obscurity ?r[n ov] x by p>o*ial laws & private b5evol5ce1 e man mu/ see 8 obligation4 ,if he _c support 8 *ildr5 !y mu/ />ve2 & if he m>ry 9 ! face ( a fair probability t he %all n be able to support 8 *ildr51 he is guilty ( all ! evils :i* he ?us br+s ^u himself1 8 wife1 & 8 (fspr+4 ,:5 ! wages ( lab\r are b>ely suffici5t to support two *ildr51 a man m>ries & has five or six1 & f9ds himself 9 di/ress4 ,he blames ! l[ price ( lab\r4 ,he blames ! p>i% & ! ri* & social in/itutions2 b he nev] blames himself4 ,he may wi% he _h nev] m>ri$2 b x nev] ent]s into 8 head t he has done any?+ wrong4 ,inde$1 he has always be5 told t to raise up *ildr5 = 8 k+ & c\ntry is a v m]itori\s act4 ,! common p mu/ be taught t !y !mselves 9 su* a case are to blame1 & t no "o has p[] to help !m if !y act ?us contr>y to ! w ( ,god4 ,^? :o wi% to help ! poor mu/ try to raise ! relative proportion betwe5 ! price ( lab\r & ! price ( provisions1 in/ead ( enc\rag+ ! poor to m>ry & ov]/ock ! lab\r m>ket4 ,a m>ket ov]/ock$ ) lab\r & an ample remun]ation to ea* lab\r] are objects p]fectly incompatible ) ea* o!r4 ,x is n en\gh1 h[ev]1 to aboli% all ! positive in/itutions :i* enc\rage population1 b we mu/ endeav\r at ! same "t to correct ! prevail+ op9ions :i* h ! same effect4 ,! public mu/ be made to und]/& t !y h no "r to assi/ance1 & t x is ! duty ( man n only to propagate 8 species b to propagate virtue & happ9ess4 ,our private *>ity mu/ also be discrim9ate4 ,if we insi/ t a man %all eat ev5 if he d n "w1 & t 8 family %all be support$ ev5 if he m>ry )\t prospect ( support+ a family1 we m]ely enc\rage wor?less pov]ty4 ,we mu/ n put a premium on idl5ess & reckless m>riages1 & we mu/ on no acc\nt d any?+ :i* t5ds to remove 9 any regul> mann] t inequality ( circum/ances :i* ought always to exi/ betwe5 ! s+le man & ! man ) a family4 ,,k>l ,,m>x ,capital3 ,a ,critical ,analysis ,he9ri* ,k>l ,m>x 0 born at ,treves1 9 ,rh5i% ,prussia1 ,may #e1 #ahah1 & di$ 9 ,london1 ,m>* #ad1 #ahhc4 ,"o ( ! mo/ advanc$ lead]s ( ! mod]n sociali/ movem5t 9 ,g]many1 he 0 a brilliant univ]sity graduate bo? at ,b]l9 & ,bonn4 ,go+ at once into j\rnalism1 ,m>x f ! outset ( 8 c>e] 0 kn[n z a pron\nc$ sociali/4 ,he became celebrat$ z collaborator ) ,he9e 9 conduct+ ! j\rnal :i* has s9ce become ! mo/ influ5tial organ 9 ! _w ( socialism1 ,vorwa]ts4 ,he 0 expell$ successively f ,g]many1 ,france1 & ,belgium1 b f\nd a refuge 9 ,engl&1 :]e he liv$ f #ahdi till ! close ( 8 life4 ,! keynote ( ,m>xi/ economy is ! advocacy ( ! claims ( lab\r aga9/ ^? ( capitalism4 ,m>x 0 a skill$ l+ui/1 & 8 philological tal5t enabl$ him to propagate 8 views ) special facility1 s t he 0 ! real f\nd] ( int]national socialism4 ,8 fam\s social "w1 ,capital3 ,a ,critical ,analysis ( ,capitali/ ,production 7,das ,kapital71 :i* 0 orig9ally entitl$ ,a ,criticism ( ,political ,economy1 appe>$ 9 #ahfg1 & has influ5c$ ! lab\r movem5t m ?an any o!r composition 9 lit]ature4 ,a ke5 hi/orical survey ( capital & also a vivid =eca/1 ,m>x's analysis ( ! economic developm5t ( mod]n society has be5 ju/ifi$ 9 _m respects by subsequ5t ev5ts4 ,i4--,! ,g5esis ( ,capitali/ ,production ,money & commodities are n capital1 any m ?an are ! means ( production & ( subsi/5ce4 ,!y ne$ to be trans=m$ into capital4 ,?is trans=mation c only take place "u conditions t sep>ate lab\r]s f all prop]ty1 & f ! means by :i* !y c realise ! pr(its ( _! lab\r2 t is to say1 f ! possession ( _! means ( production4 ,! process ( ?is sep>ation cle>s ! way = ! capitali/ sy/em4 ,! economic /ructure ( capitali/ic society has develop$ f ! economic /ructure ( feudal society4 ,! dissolution ( ! latt] set free ! elem5ts ( ! =m]4 ,! imm$iate produc]1 ! lab\r]1 c\ld only dispose ( 8 own p]son aft] he _h ceas$ to be atta*$ z a s]f to ! soil4 ,!n1 to be able to sell 8 lab\r :]ev] he c\ld f9d a m>ket1 he mu/ fur!r h escap$ f ! m$iaeval guilds & _! rules & regulations1 z f s _m fett]s on lab\r4 ,b ^! new fre$m51 on ! o!r h&1 only ?us made m]*&ise ( _! lab\r aft] !y _h be5 depriv$ ( _! own means ( production1 & ( all ! gu>antees ( exi/5ce furni%$ "u ! old feudalism4 ,& ! hi/ory ( ?is1 _! expropriation1 is writt5 9 hi/ory 9 *>act]s ( blood & fire4 ,! indu/rial capitali/s1 ! new pot5tates1 _h to displace n only ! guild-ma/]s ( h&icrafts1 b also ! feudal lords1 :o 7 9 possession ( ! s\rces ( weal?4 ,b ?\gh ! conqu]ors ?us triumph$1 !y h ris5 by means z opprobri\s z ^? by :i*1 long be=e1 ! ,roman fre$man ov]came 8 patronus4 ,! s]vitude ( ! lab\r] 0 ! />t+ po9t ( ! developm5t :i* involv$ ! rise ( ! lab\r] & ! g5esis ( ! capitali/4 ,! =m ( ?is s]vitude 0 *ang$ by ! trans=mation ( feudal exploitation into capitali/ exploitation4 ,! inauguration ( ! capitali/ era dates f ! sixte5? c5tury4 ,! process consi/$ 9 ! te>+ ( masses ( m5 f _! means ( subsi/5ce1 to be hurl$ z free prolet>ians on ! lab\r m>ket4 ,! basis ( ! :ole process is ! expropriation ( ! peasant f ! soil4 ,! hi/ory ( ?is expropriation1 diff]+ 9 v>i\s c\ntries1 has ! classic =m only 9 ,engl&4 ,! prelude ( ! revolution :i* f\nd$ ! capitali/ mode ( production 0 play$ at ! beg9n+ ( ! sixte5? c5tury by ! break+ up ( ! b&s ( feudal reta9]s1 :o1 z ,sir ,james ,/eu>t well says1 ev]y:]e uselessly fill$ h\se & ca/le4 ,! old nobility _h be5 dev\r$ by ! great feudal w>s2 ! new 0 a *ild ( its "t1 = :i* money 0 ! p[] ( all p[]s4 ,trans=mation ( arable l& into %eepwalks 0 !re=e its cry1 & an expropriation ( small peasants 0 initiat$ :i* ?reat5$ ! ru9 ( ! c\ntry4 ,?ornton decl>es t ! ,engli% work+-class 0 precipitat$ )\t any transition f its gold5 into its iron age4 ,to ! evictions a direct impulse _h be5 giv5 by ! rapid increase ( ! ,flemi% wool manufactur]s & ! correspond+ rise 9 ! price ( wool 9 ,engl&4 ,at l5g? su* a det]ioration ensu$ 9 ! condition ( ! common p t ,que5 ,elizabe?1 on a j\rney ?r\gh ! l&1 exclaim$1 ,paup] ubique jacet1 & 9 ! =ty-?ird ye> ( h] reign ! nation 0 con/ra9$ to ackn[l$ge ! t]rible paup]ism t _h aris5 by ! introduction ( ! poor-rate4 ,ev5 9 ! la/ decade ( ! sev5te5? c5tury1 ! yeomanry1 or indep5d5t peasants1 outnumb]$ ! f>m]s1 & !y =m$ ! ma9 /r5g? ( ,cromwell's army4 ,ab\t #agej ! yeom5 _h vani%$1 & n long aft]w>ds 0 lo/ ! common l& ( ! agricultural lab\r]4 ,communal prop]ty 0 an old in/itution :i* _h liv$ on "u ! aegis ( feudalism4 ,"u ! glori\s revolution :i* br\ght ,william ( ,orange to ,engl&1 ! l&lord & capitali/ appropriators ( surplus value inaugurat$ ! new era by !fts ( l& on a colossal scale4 ,?us 0 =m$ ! f\ndation ( ! pr9cely doma9s ( ! ,engli% olig>*y4 ,9 ! eighte5? c5tury ! law itself became ! in/rum5t ( ! !ft ( ! p's l&1 & ! trans=mation ( communal l& into private prop]ty _h = its sequel ! p>liam5t>y =m ( robb]y 9 %ape ( ! ,acts = ! ,enclosure ( ,commons4 ,imm5se numb]s ( ! agricultural population 7 by ?is trans=mation set free z prolet>ians = ! manufactur+ indu/ry4 ,aft] ! =ego+ consid]ation ( ! =cible creation ( a class ( outlaw$ prolet>ians1 conv]t$ into wage-lab\r]s1 ! "q rema9s1--,:5ce came ! capitali/s orig9ally8 ,! capitali/ f>m] develop$ v gradually1 fir/ z a bailiff1 some:at correspond+ to ! old ,roman villicus2 !n z a metav]1 or semi-f>m]1 divid+ /ock & product ) ! l&[n]2 next z ! f>m] prop]1 mak+ 8 own capital increase by employ+ wage-lab\r]s1 & pay+ "p ( ! pr(it to ! l&lord z r5t4 ,! agricultural revolution ( ! sixte5? c5tury enri*$ ! f>m] 9 proportion z x impov]i%$ ! mass ( ! agricultural p4 ,! cont9u\s rise 9 ! price ( commodities swell$ ! money capital ( ! f>m] automatically1 & he grew ri* at ! exp5se bo? ( l&lord & lab\r]4 ,x is ?us n surpris+ t at ! close ( ! sixte5? c5tury ,engl& _h a class ( capitali/ f>m]s :o 7 weal?y1 consid]+ ! conditions ( ! age4 ,,ii4--,! ,g5esis ( ! ,indu/rial ,capitali/ ,by degrees ! agricultural population 0 trans=m$ into mat]ial elem5ts ( v>iable capital4 ,= ! peasants 7 con/ra9$1 n[ t !y _h be5 expropriat$ & ca/ adrift1 to pur*ase _! value 9 ! =m ( wages f _! new ma/]s1 ! indu/rial capitali/s4 ,s !y 7 trans=m$ into an elem5t ( con/ant capital4 ,consid] ! case ( ,we/phalian peasants :o1 9 ! "t ( ,fr$]ic ,,ii41 7 all sp9n]s ( flax1 & 7 =cibly expropriat$ f ! soil !y _h own$ "u feudal t5ure4 ,"s1 h[ev]1 rema9$ & 7 conv]t$ into day-lab\r]s = l>ge f>m]s4 ,at ! same "t arose l>ge flax-sp9n+ & weav+ factories 9 :i* w\ld "w m5 :o _h be5 set free f ! soil4 ,! flax looks j ! same z be=e1 b a new social s\l has ent]$ its body1 = x n[ =ms a "p ( ! con/ant capital ( ! ma/] manufactur]4 ,! flax :i* 0 =m]ly produc$ by a numb] ( families1 :o also spun x 9 retail fa%ion aft] gr[+ x1 is n[ conc5trat$ 9 ! e/abli%m5t ( a s+le capitali/1 :o employs o!rs to sp9 & weave x = him4 ,s ! extra lab\r :i* =m]ly realis$ extra income to _m peasant families n[ br+s pr(it to a few capitali/s4 ,! sp9dles & ! looms =m]ly scatt]$ ov] ! c\ntry are n[ cr[d$ into great lab\r b>racks4 ,! ma*9es & raw mat]ial are n[ trans=m$ f means ( indep5d5t livelihood = ! peasant sp9n]s & weav]s into means = ma/]+ !m & extract+ out ( !m badly-paid lab\r4 ,! g5esis ( ! indu/rial capitali/ did n proce$ 9 su* a gradual way z t ( ! f>m]1 = x 0 accel]at$ by ! comm]cial dem&s ( ! new _w-m>ket creat$ by ! great discov]ies ( ! end ( ! fifte5? c5tury4 ,! ,middle ,ages _h h&$ d[n two di/9ct =ms ( capital--! usur]'s capital & ! m]*ant's capital4 ,= a "t ! money capital =m$ by means ( usury & comm]ce 0 prev5t$ f conv]sion into indu/rial capital1 9 ! c\ntry by feudalism1 9 ! t[ns by ! guilds4 ,^! h9drances vani%$ ) ! disappe>ance ( feudal society & ! expropriation & p>tial eviction ( ! rural population4 ,! new manufactures 7 e/abli%$ at seaports1 or at inl& po9ts beyond ! control ( ! old municipalities & _! guilds4 ,h5ce1 9 ,engl& arose an embitt]$ /ruggle ( ! corporate t[ns aga9/ ^! new indu/rial nurs]ies4 ,! p[] ( ! /ate1 conc5trat+ & organis+ ! =ce ( society1 ha/5$ ! transition1 %ort5+ ! process ( trans=mation ( ! feudal mode ( production into ! capitali/ mode4 ,! next developm5t ( ! capitali/ era 0 ! rise ( ! /ock ex*ange & ! great banks4 ,! latt] 7 at fir/ m]ely associations ( private speculators1 :o1 9 ex*ange = privileges be/[$ on !m1 advanc$ money to help ! gov]nm5ts4 ,! ,bank ( ,engl&1 f\nd$ 9 #afhd1 began by l5d+ money to ! gov]nm5t at eight p] c5t4 ,at ! same "t x 0 emp[]$ by p>liam5t to co9 money out ( ! same capital1 by l5d+ x aga9 to ! public 9 ! =m ( bank-notes4 ,by degrees ! ,bank ( ,engl& became ! et]nal cr$itor ( ! nation1 & s arose ! national debt1 toge!r ) an int]national cr$it sy/em1 :i* has (t5 conceal$ "o or o!r ( ! s\rces ( primitive accumulation ( ?is or t p4 ,"o ( ! ma9 l9es ( int]national bus9ess is ! l5d+ out ( enorm\s am\nts ( capital by "o c\ntry to ano!r4 ,mu* capital :i* to-day appe>s 9 ,am]ica )\t any c]tificate ( bir?1 0 ye/]day 9 ,engl&1 ! capitalis$ blood ( h] *ildr54 ,t]rible cruelty *>act]is$ mu* ( ! developm5t ( indu/rial capitalism1 bo? on ! ,cont95t & 9 ,engl&4 ,! bir? ( mod]n indu/ry is h]ald$ by a great slaught] ( ! innoc5ts4 ,l ! royal navy1 ! factories 7 recruit$ by ! press-gang4 ,cottages & workh\ses 7 ransack$ = poor *ildr5 to recruit ! factory /affs1 & ^! 7 =c$ to "w by turns dur+ ! great] "p ( ! night4 ,z ,lanca%ire 0 ?9ly populat$ & great numb]s ( h&s 7 sudd5ly want$1 ?\s&s ( little hapless creatures1 ^: nimble little f+]s 7 especially want$1 7 s5t d[n to ! nor? f ! workh\ses ( ,london1 ,birm+ham1 & o!r t[ns4 ,^! appr5tices 7 flogg$1 tortur$1 & fett]$4 ,! pr(its ( manufactur]s 7 enorm\s4 ,at l5g? ,sir ,rob]t ,peel br\ght 9 8 bill = ! protection ( *ildr54 ,) ! gr[? ( capitali/ production dur+ ! manufactur+ p]iod ! public consci5ce ( ,europe _h lo/ ! la/ remnant ( %ame1 & ! nations cynically boa/$ ( e infamy t re9=c$ capitali/ic accumulation4 ,liv]pool wax$ fat on ! slave trade4 ,! *ild-slav]y 9 ! ,european manufactories ne$$ = its p$e/al ! slav]y1 pure & simple1 ( ! negroes import$ into ,am]ica4 ,if money1 accord+ to ,m>ie ,augi]1 comes into ! _w ) a cong5ital blood/a9 on "o *eek1 capital comes dripp+ f head to foot1 f e pore1 ) blood & dirt4 ,,iii4--,commodities1 ,ex*ange & ,capital ,a commodity is an object1 ext]nal to ourselves1 :i* by its prop]ties 9 "s way satisfies human wants4 ,! utility ( a ?+ con/itutes its use-value4 ,use-values ( commodities =m ! sub/ance ( all weal?1 & also become ! mat]ial repositories ( ex*ange-value4 ,! magnitude ( ! value ( any article is det]m9$ by ! lab\r-"t socially necess>y = its production4 ,s ! value ( a commodity w\ld rema9 con/ant if ! lab\r-"t requir$ = its production also rema9$ con/ant4 ,b ! latt] v>ies ) e v>iation 9 ! productiv5ess ( lab\r4 ,an article may h use-value1 & yet be )\t value1 if its utility is n due to lab\r1 z 9 ! case ( air1 or virg9 soil1 or natural mead[s4 ,if a ?+ be useless1 s is ! lab\r conta9$ 9 x1 =1 z ! lab\r does n c\nt z su*1 x !re=e creates no value4 ,a coat is wor? twice z mu* z t5 y>ds ( l951 because ! l95 conta9s only half z mu* lab\r z ! coat4 ,all lab\r is ! exp5diture ( human lab\r-p[] 9 a special =m & ) a def9ite aim1 & 9 ?is1 its "* ( concrete useful lab\r1 x produces use-values4 ,ev]yone kn[s1 if he kn[s no?+ else1 t commodities h a value =m common to !m all1 & pres5t+ a m>k$ contra/ ) ! v>i$ bodily =ms ( _! use-values4 ,i mean _! money =m4 ,e own] ( a commodity wi%es to "p ) x 9 ex*ange = o!r commodities1 b only ^? ^: use-value satisfies "s want ( 84 ,to ! own] ( a commodity1 e o!r commodity is1 9 reg>d to 8 own1 a p>ticul> equival5t4 ,consequ5tly 8 own commodity is ! univ]sal equival5t = all o!rs4 ,b1 s9ce ?is applies to e own]1 !re is1 9 fact1 no commodity act+ z a univ]sal equival5t4 ,x 0 soon se5 t a p>ticul> commodity w\ld n become ! univ]sal equival5t except by a social act4 ,! social action1 !re=e1 has set ap>t ! p>ticul> commodity 9 :i* all values are repres5t$1 & ! bodily =m ( ?is commodity has become ! =m ( ! socially recognis$ univ]sal equival5t--money4 ,! fir/ *ief function ( money is to supply commodities ) ! mat]ial = ! expression ( _! values4 ,x ?us s]ves z a univ]sal measure ( value1 & only by virtue ( ?is function does gold1 ! commodity p> excell5ce1 become money4 ,b money itself has no price4 ,z ! measure ( value & ! /&>d ( price1 money has two di/9ct functions to p]=m4 ,x is ! measure ( value inasmu* z x is ! socially recognis$ inc>nation1 ( human lab\r2 x is ! /&>d ( price inasmu* z x is a fix$ weight ( metal4 ,z ! measure ( value x s]ves to conv]t ! values ( all ! v>i\s commodities into prices or imag9>y quantities ( gold4 ,z ! /&>d ( price x measures ^? quantities ( gold4 ,! ^w p\nd 0 ! money-"n giv5 to an actual p\nd weight ( silv]4 ,:51 z a measure ( value1 gold sup]s$$ silv]1 ! ^w p\nd became1 z a money-"n1 diff]5tiat$ f ! same ^w z a weight-"n4 ,! prices1 or quantities ( gold1 into :i* ! values ( commodities are ideally *ang$ are n[ express$ 9 ! names ( co9s1 or 9 ! legally valid names ( ! subdivisions ( ! gold /&>d4 ,h5ce1 in/ead ( say+1 ,a qu>t] ( :eat is wor? an ounce ( gold1 ! ,engli% w\ld say1 ,x is wor? ,l#c #ags4 #aj-a_/b;d4 ,9 ?is fa%ion commodities express by _! prices h[ mu* !y are wor?1 & money s]ves z money ( acc\nt :5ev] x is a "q ( fix+ ! value ( an article 9 its money-=m4 ,:5 ,an>*>sis 0 ask$ = :at purpose ! ,greeks us$ money1 he repli$1 ,= reckon+4 ,e lab\r] 9 add+ new lab\r also adds new value4 ,9 :at way8 ,evid5tly1 only by lab\r+ productively 9 a p>ticul> way3 ! sp9n] by 8 sp9n+1 ! weav] by 8 weav+1 ! smi? by 8 =g+4 ,ea* use-value disappe>s1 only to reappe> "u a new =m 9 "s new use-value4 ,by virtue ( its g5]al "*1 z be+ exp5diture ( human lab\r-p[] 9 ! ab/ract1 sp9n+ adds a new value to ! values ( cotton & sp9dle4 ,on ! o!r h&1 by virtue ( its special "*1 z be+ a concrete1 useful process1 ! same lab\r ( sp9n+ bo? transf]s ! values ( ! means ( production to ! product & pres]ves !m 9 ! product4 ,h5ce at "o & ! same "t !re is produc$ a tw(old result4 ,by ! simple addition ( a c]ta9 quantity ( lab\r1 new value is add$1 & by ! quality ( ?is add$ lab\r ! orig9al values ( ! means ( production are pres]v$ 9 ! product4 ,t "p ( capital :i* is repres5t$ by means ( production1 by ! raw mat]ial1 auxili>y mat]ial1 & ! in/rum5ts ( lab\r1 does n1 9 ! process ( production1 und]go any quantitative alt]ation ( value4 ,i !re=e call x ! con/ant "p ( capital1 or1 m briefly1 con/ant capital4 ,on ! o!r h&1 t "p ( capital repres5t$ by lab\r-p[] does1 9 ! process ( production1 und]go an alt]ation ( value4 ,x bo? reproduces ! equival5t ( its own value1 & also produces an excess1 a surplus value1 :i* may itself v>y4 ,?is "p ( capital is cont9ually be+ trans=m$ f a con/ant into a v>iable magnitude4 ,i !re=e call x ! v>iable "p ( capital1 or1 %ortly1 v>iable capital4 ,,iv4--,accumulation ( ,capital ,! fir/ condition ( ! accumulation ( capital is t ! capitali/ mu/ h contriv$ to sell 8 commodities1 & to re-conv]t ! great] portion ( ! money ?us receiv$ into capital4 ,:atev] be ! proportion ( surplus-value :i* ! indu/rial capitali/ reta9s = himself or yields up to o!rs1 he is ! "o :o1 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 appropriates x4 ,! process ( production incessantly conv]ts mat]ial weal? into capital1 into means ( creat+ m weal? & means ( enjoym5t = ! capitali/4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! lab\r]1 on quitt+ ! process1 is no?+ m ?an he 0 :5 he began x4 ,he is a s\rce ( weal?1 b has n ! slighte/ means ( mak+ weal? 8 own4 ,! product ( ! lab\r] is incessantly conv]t$ n only into commodities1 b into capital1 into means ( subsi/5ce t buy ! lab\r]1 & into means ( production t comm& ! produc]s4 ,! capitali/ z con/antly produces lab\r-p[]2 9 %ort1 he produces ! lab\r]1 b z a wage-lab\r]4 ,?is incessant reproduction1 ?is p]petuation ( ! lab\r]1 is ! s9e qua non ( capitali/ production4 ,f a social po9t ( view1 ! work+-class is j z mu* an app5dage ( capital z ! ord9>y in/rum5ts ( lab\r4 ,! appe>ance ( indep5d5ce is kept up by means ( a con/ant *ange ( employ]s1 & by ! legal fiction ( a contract4 ,9 =m] times capital legislatively en=c$ its propriet>y rights ov] ! free lab\r]4 ,capitali/ production reproduces & p]petuates ! condition = exploit+ ! lab\r]4 ,! economical bondage ( ! lab\r] is bo? caus$ & hidd5 by ! p]iodic sale ( himself to *ang+ ma/]s4 ,capitali/ production1 "u its aspect ( a cont9u\s connect$ process1 produces n only commodities1 n only surplus value1 b x also produces & reproduces ! capitali/ relation2 on ! "o side ! capitali/1 on ! o!r ! wage-lab\r]4 ,capital pre-supposes wage-lab\r1 & wage-lab\r pre-supposes capital4 ,"o is a necess>y condition to ! exi/5ce ( ! o!r4 ,! two mutually call ea* o!r into exi/5ce4 ,does an op]ative 9 a cotton-factory produce no?+ b cotton goods8 ,no1 he produces capital4 ,he produces values t give fre% comm& ov] 8 lab\r1 & t1 by means ( su* comm&1 create fre% values4 ,e individual capital is a l>g] or small] conc5tration ( means ( production1 ) a correspond+ comm& ov] a l>g] or small] lab\r-army4 ,e accumulation becomes ! means ( new accumulation4 ,! gr[? ( social capital is affect$ by ! gr[? ( _m individual capitals4 ,) ! accumulation ( capital1 !re=e1 ! numb] ( capitali/s gr[s to a great] or less ext5t4 ,two po9ts *>act]ise ?is k9d ( conc5tration :i* gr[s directly out (1 or r is id5tical )1 accumulation4 ,fir/1 ! increas+ conc5tration ( ! social means ( production 9 ! h&s ( individual capitali/s is1 o!r ?+s rema9+ equal1 limit$ by ! degree ( increase ( social weal?4 ,secondly1 ! "p ( social capital domicil$ 9 ea* p>ticul> sph]e ( production is divid$ among _m capitali/s :o face "o ano!r z indep5d5t commodity-produc]s compet+ ) ea* o!r4 ,accumulation & ! conc5tration accompany+ x are1 !re=e1 n only scatt]$1 b ! increase ( ea* function+ capital is ?w>t$ by ! =mation ( new & ! subdivision ( old capitals4 ,accumulation1 !re=e1 pres5ts itself on ! "o h& z increas+ conc5tration ( ! means ( production & ( ! comm& ov] lab\r2 on ! o!r1 z repulsion ( _m individual capitali/s "o f ano!r4 ,,john ,,/u>t ,,mill ,pr9ciples ( ,political ,economy ,john ,/u>t ,mill1 ! elde/ son ( ! philosoph]1 ,james ,mill1 0 born 9 ,london on ,may #bj1 #ahjf4 ,8 e>ly education 0 rem>kable4 ,at ! age ( f\rte5 he _h an ext5sive k ( ,greek1 ,lat91 & ma!matics1 & _h begun to /udy logic & political economy4 ,9 #ahbc he receiv$ an appo9tm5t at ! ,india ,(fice1 & 9 ! same ye> he became a memb] ( a small ,utilit>ian society :i* met at ,j]emy ,b5?am's h\se1 & soon became ! lead] ( ! ,utilit>ian s*ool4 ,mill's great "w on ! ,pr9ciples ( ,political ,economy1 ) "s ( _! ,applications to ,social ,philosophy1 embodies ! results ( _m ye>s ( /udy1 disputation & ?\ght4 ,x is built ^u f\ndations laid by ,ric>do & ,mal?us1 & has itself =m$ ! basis ( all subsequ5t "w 9 ,engl&4 ,?r\gh\t1 x manife/s a belief 9 ! possibility ( great social improvem5t to be a*iev$ ^u individuali/ic l9es4 ,x 0 begun late 9 #ahde1 & sup]s$$ a contemplat$ "w to be call$ ,e?nology4 ,mill's ext5sive famili>ity ) ! problems ( political economy enabl$ him to compose ! "w ) rapidity unusual 9 8 production4 ,?us1 be=e ! end ( #ahdg1 ! la/ %eet ( ! manuscript 0 9 ! h&s ( ! pr9t]1 & e>ly 9 ! foll[+ ye> ! treatise 0 publi%$4 ,mill di$ at ,avignon on ,may #h1 #ahgc4 ,i4--,! ,production ( ,weal? ,9 e dep>tm5t ( human affairs1 practice long prec$es sci5ce4 ,! conception1 accord+ly1 ( political economy z a bran* ( sci5ce is extremely mod]n2 b ! subject ) :i* its inquiries are conv]sant--weal?--has1 9 all ages1 con/itut$ "o ( ! *ief practical int]e/s ( mank9d4 ,ev]yone has a notion1 suffici5tly correct = common purposes1 ( :at is meant by weal?4 ,money1 be+ ! in/rum5t ( an important public & private purpose1 is rightly reg>d$ z weal?2 b ev]y?+ else :i* s]ves any human purpose1 & :i* nature does n supply gratuit\sly1 is weal? also4 ,weal? may be def9$ z all useful or agreeable ?+s :i* possess ex*angeable value4 ,! production ( weal?--! extraction ( ! in/rum5ts ( human subsi/5ce & enjoym5t f ! mat]ials ( ! globe--is evid5tly n an arbitr>y ?+4 ,x has its necess>y conditions4 ,! requisites ( production are two--lab\r & appropriate natural objects4 ,lab\r is ei!r bodily or m5tal4 ,( ! o!r requisite x is to be rem>k$ t ! objects suppli$ by nature are1 except 9 a few unimportant cases1 only in/rum5tal to human wants aft] hav+ und]gone "s trans=mations by human ex]tion4 ,nature does m1 h[ev]1 ?an supply mat]ials2 %e also supplies p[]s4 ,( natural p[]s1 "s are practically unlimit$1 o!rs limit$ 9 quantity1 & mu* ( ! economy ( society dep5ds on ! limit$ quantity 9 :i* "s ( ! mo/ important natural ag5ts exi/1 & m p>ticul>ly l&4 ,z soon z !re is n s mu* ( a natural ag5t to be _h z w\ld be us$ if x c\ld be obta9$ = ! ask+1 ! own]%ip or use ( x acquires an ex*angeable value4 ,:]e !re is m l& want$ = cultivation ?an a place possesses ( a c]ta9 quality & advantages ( situation1 l& ( t quality & situation may be sold = a price1 or let = an annual r5t4 ,lab\r employ$ on ext]nal nature 9 modes subs]vi5t to production is employ$ ei!r directly1 or indirectly1 9 previ\s or concomitant op]ations design$ to facilitate1 p]haps ess5tial to ! possibilities (1 ! actual production4 ,"o ( ! modes 9 :i* lab\r is employ$ indirectly requires p>ticul> notice1 namely1 :5 x is employ$ 9 produc+ subsi/5ce to ma9ta9 ! lab\r]s :ile !y are engag$ 9 ! production4 ,?is previ\s employm5t ( lab\r is an indisp5sable condition to e productive op]ation4 ,9 ord] to raise any product !re are ne$$ lab\r1 tools1 & mat]ials1 & food to fe$ ! lab\r]s4 ,b ! tools & mat]ials c be remun]at$ only f ! product :5 obta9$4 ,! food1 on ! contr>y1 is intr9sically useful1 & ! lab\r exp5d$ 9 produc+ x1 & recomp5s$ by x1 ne$s n to be remun]at$ ov] aga9 f ! produce ( ! subsequ5t lab\r :i* x has f$4 ,! claim to remun]ation f\nd$ on ! possession ( food is remun]ation = ab/95ce1 n = lab\r4 ,if a p]son has a /ore ( food1 he has x 9 8 p[] to consume x himself 9 idl5ess4 ,if1 in/ead1 he gives x to productive lab\r]s to support !m dur+ _! "w1 he c claim a remun]ation f ! produce4 ,he w1 9 fact1 expect 8 advance ( food to come back to him ) an increase1 call$1 9 ! language ( bus9ess1 a pr(it4 ,?us1 !re is necess>y to productive op]ations1 besides lab\r & natural ag5ts1 a /ock1 previ\sly accumulat$1 ( ! products ( lab\r4 ,?is accumulat$ /ock is t]m$ capital4 ,capital is frequ5tly suppos$ to be synonym\s ) money1 b money c af=d no assi/ance to production4 ,to d ?is x mu/ be ex*ang$ = o!r ?+s capable ( contribut+ to production4 ,:at capital does = production is to af=d ! %elt]1 tools1 & mat]ials :i* ! "w requires1 & to fe$ & o!rwise ma9ta9 ! lab\r]s dur+ ! process4 ,:atev] ?+s are de/9$ = ?is use are capital4 ,t indu/ry is limit$ by capital is self-evid5t4 ,!re c be no m indu/ry ?an is suppli$ ) mat]ials to "w up & food to eat4 ,nev]!less1 x is (t5 =gott5 t ! p ( a c\ntry are ma9ta9$ & h _! wants suppli$1 n by ! produce ( pres5t lab\r1 b ( pa/1 & x long cont9u$ to be believ$ t laws & gov]nm5ts1 )\t creat+ capital1 c\ld create indu/ry4 ,all capital is ! result ( sav+4 ,somebody mu/ h produc$ x1 & =borne to consume x1 or x is ! result ( an excess ( production ov] consumption4 ,al?\gh sav$1 & ! result ( sav+1 x is nev]!less consum$--ex*ang$ p>tly = tools :i* are worn out by use1 p>tly = mat]ials de/roy$ 9 ! us+1 & by consumption ( ! ultimate product2 &1 f9ally1 paid 9 wages to productive lab\r]s :o consume x = _! daily wants4 ,! great] "p1 9 value1 ( ! weal? n[ exi/+ 9 ,engl& has be5 produc$ by human h&s )9 ! la/ twelve mon?s4 ,a v small proportion1 inde$1 0 9 exi/5ce t5 ye>s ago4 ,! l& subsi/s1 & is almo/ ! only ?+ t subsi/s4 ,capital is kept 9 exi/5ce1 n by pres]vation1 b by p]petual reproduction4 ,,ii4--,! ,di/ribution ( ,weal? ,! laws & conditions ( ! production ( weal? p>take ( ! "* ( physical tru?s4 ,!re is no?+ optional or arbitr>y ab\t !m4 ,x is n s ) ! di/ribution ( weal?4 ,t is a matt] ( human in/itution solely4 ,among ! diff]5t modes ( di/ribut+ ! produce ( l& & lab\r :i* h be5 adopt$1 att5tion is fir/ claim$ by ! prim>y in/itution on :i* ! economical arrangem5ts ( society h always re/$--private prop]ty4 ,! in/itution ( prop]ty consi/s 9 ! recognition1 9 ea* p]son1 ( a "r to ! exclusive disposal ( ! fruits ( _! own lab\r & ab/95ce1 & implies ! "r ( ! possessor ( ! fruits ( previ\s lab\r to :at has be5 produc$ by o!rs by ! co-op]ation betwe5 pres5t lab\r & ^? fruits ( pa/ lab\r--t is1 ! fre$om ( acquir+ by contract4 ,we n[ proce$ to ! hypo!sis ( a ?reefold division ( ! produce1 among lab\r]s1 l&lords1 & capitali/s1 beg9n+ ) ! subject ( wages4 ,wages dep5d ma9ly ^u ! dem& & supply ( lab\r1 or1 r\ghly1 on ! proportion betwe5 population & capital4 ,x is a common say+ t wages are high :5 trade is good4 ,capital :i* 0 ly+ idle is br\ght into complete effici5cy1 & wages1 9 ! p>ticul> occupation conc]n$1 rise4 ,b ?is is b a tempor>y fluctuation1 & no?+ c p]man5tly alt] g5]al wages except an increase or dim9ution ( capital itself comp>$ ) ! quantity ( lab\r (f]+ itself to be hir$4 ,aga91 high prices c only raise wages if ! produc]s & deal]s1 receiv+ m1 are induc$ to add to _! capital or1 at lea/1 to _! pur*ases ( lab\r4 ,b high prices ( ?is sort1 if !y b5efit "o class ( lab\r]s1 c only d s at ! exp5se ( o!rs1 s9ce all o!r p1 by pay+ ^? high prices1 h _! pur*as+ p[] r$uc$ by an equal degree4 ,ano!r common op9ion1 :i* is only p>tially true1 is t wages v>y ) ! price ( food1 ris+ :5 x rises & fall+ :5 x falls4 ,9 times ( sc>city1 p g5]ally compete m viol5tly = employm5t1 & l[] ! lab\r m>ket aga9/ !mselves4 ,b de>ness or *eapness ( food1 :5 ( a p]man5t "*1 may affect wages4 ,if food gr[s p]man5tly de>] )\t a rise ( wages1 a great] numb] ( *ildr5 w prematurely die1 & ?us wages w ultimately be high]2 b only because ! numb] ( p w be small] ?an if food _h rema9$ *eap4 ,c]ta9 r>e circum/ances except$1 high wages imply re/ra9ts on population4 ,z ! wages ( ! lab\r] are ! remun]ation ( lab\r1 s ! pr(its ( ! capitali/ are prop]ly ! remun]ation ( ab/95ce4 ,!y are :at he ga9s by =be>+ to consume 8 capital = 8 own uses & all[+ x to be consum$ by productive lab\r]s = _! uses4 ,( ^! ga9s1 h[ev]1 a "p only is prop]ly an equival5t = ! use ( ! capital itself2 namely1 s mu* z a solv5t p]son w\ld be will+ to pay = ! loan ( x4 ,?is1 z ev]ybody kn[s1 is call$ int]e/4 ,:at a p]son expects to ga9 :o sup]9t5ds ! employm5t ( 8 own capital is always m ?an ?is4 ,! rate ( pr(it greatly exce$s ! rate ( int]e/4 ,! surplus is p>tly comp5sation = risk & p>tly remun]ation = ! devotion ( 8 "t & lab\r4 ,?us1 ! ?ree p>ts into :i* pr(it may be reg>d$ z resolv+ itself1 may be describ$1 respectively1 z int]e/1 insurance1 & wages ( sup]9t5d5ce4 ,! requisites ( production be+ lab\r1 capital1 & natural ag5ts1 ! only p]son besides ! lab\r] & ! capitali/ ^: cons5t is necess>y to production is he :o possesses exclusive p[] ov] "s natural ag5t4 ,! l& is ! pr9cipal natural ag5t capable ( be+ s appropriat$1 & ! consid]ation paid = its use is call$ r5t4 ,x is at once evid5t t r5t is ! effect ( a monopoly4 ,if all ! l& ( ! c\ntry belong$ to "o p]son he c\ld fix ! r5t at 8 pleasure4 ,! :ole p w\ld be dep5d5t on 8 w = ! necess>ies ( life4 ,b ev5 :5 monopolis$--9 ! s5se ( be+ limit$ 9 quantity--l& w comm& a price only if x exi/s 9 less quantity ?an ! dem&1 & no l& ev] pays r5t unless1 9 po9t ( f]tility & situation1 x belongs to ^? sup]ior k9ds :i* exi/ 9 less quantity ?an ! dem&4 ,any l& yields j s mu* m ?an ! ord9>y pr(its ( /ock z x yields m ?an :at is return$ by ! wor/ l& 9 cultivation4 ,! surplus is :at is paid z r5t to ! l&lord4 ,! /&>d ( r5t1 !re=e1 is ! excess ( ! produce ( any l& beyond :at w\ld be return$ to ! same capital if employ$ on ! wor/ l& 9 cultivation1 or1 g5]ally1 9 ! lea/ advantage\s circum/ances4 ,,iii4--,( ,ex*ange & ,value ,( ! two great dep>tm5ts ( political economy1 ! production ( weal? & its di/ribution1 value has to d ) ! latt] alone4 ,! conditions & laws ( production w\ld be unalt]$ if ! arrangem5ts ( society did n dep5d on1 or admit (1 ex*ange4 ,value always means 9 political economy value 9 ex*ange1 ! comm& :i* its possession gives ov] pur*asable commodities 9 g5]al2 :]eas1 by ! price ( a ?+ is und]/ood its value 9 money4 ,t a ?+ may h value 9 ex*ange two conditions are necess>y4 ,x mu/ be ( "s use--t is1 x mu/ conduce to "s purpose1 & secondly1 !re mu/ be "s difficulty 9 its atta9m5t4 ,?is difficulty is ( ?ree k9ds4 ,x may consi/ 9 an absolute limitation ( supply1 z 9 ! case ( w9es :i* c be gr[n only 9 peculi> circum/ances ( soil1 climate1 & exposure2 9 ! lab\r & exp5se requisite to produce ! commodity2 or1 ?irdly1 ! limitation ( ! quantity :i* c be produc$ at a giv5 co/1 to :i* class agricultural produce belongs1 increas$ production beyond a c]ta9 limit entail+ increas$ co/4 ,:5 ! production ( a commodity is ! effect ( lab\r & exp5diture1 !re is a m9imum value1 :i* is ! ess5tial condition ( its p]man5t production1 & mu/ be suffici5t to repay ! co/ ( production1 &1 besides1 ! ord9>y expectation ( pr(it4 ,?is may be call$ ! necess>y value4 ,:5 ! commodity c be made 9 indef9ite quantity1 ?is necess>y value is also ! maximum :i* ! produc]s c expect4 ,if x is su* t x br+s a rate ( pr(it high] ?an is cu/om>y1 capital ru%es 9 to %>e 9 ?is extra ga91 &1 by increas+ ! supply1 r$uces ! value4 ,accord+ly1 by ! op]ation ( supply & dem& ! values ( ?+s are made to con=m 9 ! long run to ! co/ ( production4 ,! introduction ( money does n int]f]e ) ! op]ation ( any ( ! laws ( value4 ,?+s :i* by b>t] w\ld ex*ange = "o ano!r w1 if sold = money1 sell = an equal am\nt ( x1 & s w ex*ange = "o ano!r1 /ill ?r\gh ! process ( ex*ang+ !m w consi/ ( two op]ations in/ead ( "o4 ,money is a commodity1 & its value is det]m9$ l t ( o!r commodities1 tempor>ily by dem& & supply & p]man5tly by co/ ( production4 ,cr$it1 z a sub/itute = money1 is b a transf] ( capital f h& to h&1 g5]ally f p]sons unable to employ x to h&s m compet5t to employ x effici5tly 9 production4 ,cr$it is n a productive p[] 9 itself1 ?\gh )\t x ! productive p[]s already exi/+ c\ld n be br\ght into complete employm5t4 ,9 int]national trade we f9d t ! law t p]man5t value is proportion$ to co/ ( production does n hold good betwe5 commodities produc$ 9 di/ant places z x does 9 ^? produc$ 9 adjac5t places4 ,betwe5 di/ant places1 & especially betwe5 diff]5t c\ntries1 pr(its may cont9ue diff]5t1 because p]sons d n usually remove !mselves or _! capital to a di/ant place )\t a v /rong motive4 ,if capital remov$ to remote p>ts ( ! _w z readily1 & = z small an inducem5t1 z x moves to ano!r qu>t] ( ! same t[n1 pr(its w\ld be equival5t all ov] ! _w1 & all ?+s w\ld be produc$ 9 ! places :]e ! same lab\r & capital w\ld produce !m 9 greate/ quantity & ( be/ quality4 ,a t5d5cy may ev5 n[ be obs]v$ t[>ds su* a /ate ( ?+s2 capital is becom+ m & m cosmopolitan4 ,x is n a diff]5ce 9 ! absolute co/ ( production :i* det]m9es ! int]*ange betwe5 di/ant places1 b a diff]5ce 9 ! comp>ative co/4 ,we may (t5 by trad+ ) =eign]s obta9 _! commodities at a small] exp5se ( lab\r & capital ?an !y co/ to ! =eign]s !mselves4 ,! b>ga9 is advantage\s to ! =eign] because ! commodity :i* he receives 9 ex*ange1 ?\gh x has co/ u less1 w\ld probably h co/ him m4 ,! value ( a commodity br\ght f a di/ant place does n dep5d on ! co/ ( production 9 ! place f :5ce x comes1 b on ! co/ ( its acquisition 9 t place2 :i* 9 ! case ( an import$ article means ! co/ ( production ( ! ?+ :i* is export$ to pay = x4 ,9 o!r words1 ! values ( =eign commodities dep5d on ! t]ms ( int]national ex*ange1 :i*1 9 turn1 dep5d on supply & dem&4 ,x may be e/abli%$ t :5 two c\ntries trade toge!r 9 two commodities ! ex*ange value ( ^! commodities relatively to ea* o!r w adju/ itself to ! incl9ations & circum/ances ( ! consum]s on bo? sides 9 su* mann] t ! quantities requir$ by ea* c\ntry ( ! article :i* x imports f its neighb\r %all be exactly suffici5t to pay = "o ano!r1 a law :i* holds ( any great] numb] ( commodities4 ,int]national values dep5d also on ! means ( production available 9 ea* c\ntry = ! supply ( =eign m>kets1 b ! practical result is little affect$ !reby4 ,,iv4--,on ! ,influ5ce ( ,gov]nm5t ,"o ( ! mo/ disput$ que/ions 9 political sci5ce & 9 practical /atesman%ip relates to ! prop] limits ( ! functions & ag5cy ( gov]nm5ts4 ,x may be agre$ t !y fall into two classes3 functions :i* are ei!r insep>able f ! idea ( gov]nm5t or are ex]cis$ habitually by all gov]nm5ts2 & ^? respect+ :i* x has be5 consid]$ que/ionable :e!r gov]nm5ts %\ld ex]cise !m or n4 ,! =m] may be t]m$ ! necess>y1 ! latt] ! optional1 functions ( gov]nm5t4 ,x may readily be %[n t ! admitt$ functions ( gov]nm5t embrace a mu* wid] field ?an c easily be includ$ )9 ! r+-f5ce ( any re/rictive def9ition1 & t x is h>dly possible to f9d any gr\nd ( ju/ification common to !m all1 except ! compreh5sive "o ( g5]al exp$i5cy2 nor to limit ! int]f]5ce ( gov]nm5t by any univ]sal rule1 save ! simple & vague "o t x %\ld nev] be admitt$ b :5 ! case ( exp$i5cy is /rong4 ,a mo/ important consid]ation 9 view+ ! economical effects aris+ f p]=mance ( necess>y gov]nm5t functions is ! means adopt$ by gov]nm5t to raise ! rev5ue :i* is ! condition ( _! exi/5ce4 ,! qualities desirable 9 a sy/em ( taxation h be5 embodi$ by ,adam ,smi? 9 f\r maxims or pr9ciples1 :i* may be said to h become classical3 7#a7 ,! subjects ( e /ate ought to contribute to ! support ( ! gov]nm5t z ne>ly z possible 9 proportion to _! respective abilities2 t is1 9 proportion to ! rev5ue :i* !y respectively enjoy "u ! protection ( ! /ate4 7#b7 ,! tax :i* ea* individual has to pay ought to be c]ta91 & n arbitr>y4 ,a great degree ( inequality is n ne>ly s great an evil z a small degree ( unc]ta9ty4 7#c7 ,e tax ought to be levi$ at ! "t or 9 ! mann] 9 :i* x is mo/ likely to be conv5i5t = ! contributor to pay x4 ,taxes ^u su* consumable goods z are articles ( luxury are all f9ally paid by ! consum]1 & g5]ally 9 a mann] t is v conv5i5t to him4 7#d7 ,e tax ought to be s contriv$ z to take out & keep out ( ! pockets ( ! p z little z possible ov] & above :at x br+s into ! public treasury4 ,taxes on commodities may be consid]$ 9 ! foll[+ way4 ,suppose t a commodity is capable ( be+ made by two diff]5t processes4 ,x is ! int]e/ ( ! community t ( ! two me?ods produc]s %\ld adopt t :i* produces ! be/ article at ! l[e/ price4 ,suppose1 h[ev]1 t a tax is laid on "o ( ! processes1 & no tax at all1 or "o ( less] am\nt1 on ! o!r4 ,if ! tax falls1 z x is1 ( c\rse1 int5d$ to d1 ^u ! process :i* ! produc]s w\ld h adopt$1 x creates an artificial motive = pref]r+ ! untax$ process ?\gh ! inf]ior ( ! two4 ,if1 !re=e1 x has any effect at all x causes ! commodity to be produc$ ( worse quality1 or at a great] exp5se ( lab\r2 x causes s mu* ( ! lab\r ( ! community to be wa/$1 & ! capital employ$ 9 support+ & remun]at+ ! lab\r to be exp5d$ z uselessly z if x 7 sp5t 9 hir+ m5 to dig holes & fill !m up aga94 ,! loss falls on ! consum]s1 ?\gh ! capital ( ! c\ntry is also ev5tually dim9i%$ by ! dim9ution ( _! means ( sav+1 & 9 "s degree ( _! inducem5ts to save4 ,taxes on =eign trade are ( two k9ds3 taxes on imports & on exports4 ,on ! fir/ aspect ( ! matt] x w\ld seem t bo? ^! taxes are paid by ! consum]s ( ! commodity4 ,! true /ate ( ! case1 h[ev]1 is mu* m complicat$4 ,by tax+ exports we may draw into our c(f]s1 at ! exp5se ( =eign]s1 n only ! :ole tax1 b m ?an ! tax2 9 o!r cases we %all ga9 exactly ! tax2 9 o!rs less ?an ! tax4 ,9 ?is la/ case1 a "p ( ! tax is borne by ourselves1 possibly ! :ole1 ev5 m ?an ! :ole4 ,if ! imposition ( ! tax does n dim9i% ! dem& x w leave ! trade exactly z x 0 be=e4 ,we %all import z mu* & export z mu*2 ! :ole ( ! tax w be paid out ( our own pockets4 ,b ! imposition ( a tax almo/ always dim9i%es ! dem& m or less4 ,x may !re=e be laid d[n z a pr9ciple t a tax on import$ commodities1 :5 x really op]ates z a tax1 & n z a prohibition1 ei!r total or p>tial1 almo/ always falls 9 "p ^u ! =eign]s :o consume our goods4 ,x is n1 h[ev]1 on ! p]son f :om we buy1 b on ^? :o buy f u t a portion ( our cu/om duties spontane\sly falls4 ,x is ! =eign consum] ( our export$ commodities :o is oblig$ to pay a high] price = !m because we ma9ta9 rev5ue duties on =eign goods4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we n[ rea* ! consid]ation ( ! gr\nds & limits ( ! pr9ciple ( laiss]-faire1 or non-int]f]5ce by gov]nm5t4 ,:atev] !ory we adopt respect+ ! f\ndation ( ! social union !re is a circle r\nd e human be+ :i* no gov]nm5t ought to be p]mitt$ to ov]/ep2 !re is a "p ( ! life ( e p]son ( ye>s ( discretion )9 :i* ! individuality ( t p]son ought to reign uncontroll$ ei!r by any o!r individual or by ! public collectively4 ,sc>cely any degree ( utility %ort ( absolute necessity w ju/ify prohibitory regulation1 unless x c also be made to recomm5d itself to ! g5]al consci5ce4 ,a g5]al objection to gov]nm5t ag5cy is t e increase ( ! functions devolv+ on ! gov]nm5t is an increase ( its p[] bo? 9 ! =m ( au?ority &1 /ill m1 9 ! indirect =m ( influ5ce4 ,?\gh a bett] organisation ( gov]nm5ts w\ld greatly dim9i% ! =ce ( ! objection to ! m]e multiplication ( _! duties1 x w\ld /ill rema9 true t 9 all ! advanc$ communities ! great majority ( ?+s are worse done by ! int]v5tion ( gov]nm5t ?an ! individuals mo/ int]e/$ 9 ! matt] w\ld d !m if left to !mselves4 ,lett+ alone1 9 %ort1 %\ld be ! practice2 e dep>ture f x1 unless requir$ by "s great good1 is a c]ta9 evil4 ,,montesquieu ,! ,_s ( ,laws ,*>les ,l\is de ,secondat1 ,b>on de ,la ,br$e et de ,montesquieu1 0 born ne> ,bordeaux1 9 ,france1 ,jan4 #ah1 #afhi4 ,= t5 ye>s he 0 presid5t ( ! ,bordeaux c\rt ( ju/ice1 b x 0 ! philosophy ( laws t int]e/$ him r ?an ! adm9i/ration ( !m4 ,he travell$ ov] ,europe & /udi$ ! political sy/ems ( ! v>i\s c\ntries1 & f\nd at la/ 9 ,engl& ! =m ( free gov]nm5t :i*1 x seem$ to him1 ought to be introduc$ into ,france4 ,= tw5ty ye>s he work$ at 8 ma/]piece1 ,! ,_s ( ,laws 7,de l',esprit des ,lois71 :i* 0 publi%$ anonym\sly 9 #agdh1 & 9 :i* he surveys e political sy/em1 anci5t & mod]n1 & aft] exam9+ _! pr9ciples & defects1 proposes ! ,engli% con/itution z a model = ! univ]se4 ,x may be d\bt$ if any book has produc$ su* f>-rea*+ effects4 ,n only did x help on ! movem5t t end$ 9 ! ,fr5* ,revolution1 b x induc$ ^? nations :o s\ght = "s mean betwe5 despotism & mob-rule to adopt ! ,engli% sy/em ( p>liam5t>y gov]nm5t4 ,! ,_s ( ,laws is r h>d read+1 b x /ill rema9s ! f9e/ & ! s\nde/ introduction to ! philosophical /udy ( hi/ory4 ,montesquieu di$ on ,febru>y #aj1 #agee4 ,i4--,on a ,republic ,!re are ?ree k9ds ( gov]nm5ts3 ! republican1 ! mon>*ical1 & ! despotic4 ,"u a republic1 ! p1 or a "p ( ! p1 has ! sov]eign p[]2 "u a mon>*y1 "o man alone rules1 b by fix$ & e/abli%$ laws2 "u a despotism1 a s+le man1 )\t law or regulation1 impels ev]y?+ accord+ to 8 w or 8 caprice4 ,:51 9 a republic1 ! :ole p possesses sov]eign p[]1 x is a democracy4 ,:5 ?is p[] is 9 ! h&s ( only a "p ( ! p x is an ari/ocracy4 ,9 a democracy ! p is 9 c]ta9 respects ! mon>*1 9 o!rs x is ! subject4 ,x _c reign except by its votes1 & ! laws :i* e/abli% ! "r ( vot+ are ?us fundam5tal 9 ?is =m ( gov]nm5t4 ,a p possess+ sov]eign p[] ought to d itself ev]y?+ t x c d well2 :at x _c d well x mu/ leave to its m9i/]s4 ,its m9i/]s1 h[ev]1 are n its own unless x nom9ates !m2 x is1 !re=e1 a fundam5tal maxim ( ?is gov]nm5t t ! p %\ld nom9ate its m9i/]s4 ,! p is admirably fitt$ to *oose ^? :om x mu/ entru/ ) "s "p ( its au?ority4 ,x kn[s v well t a man has (t5 be5 to w>1 & t he has ga9$ su* & su* victories1 & x is !re=e v capable ( elect+ a g5]al4 ,x kn[s if a judge is h>dwork+ & if ! g5]ality ( suitors are cont5t ) 8 decisions1 & x kn[s if he has n be5 condemn$ = corruption2 ?is is suffici5t to enable a p to elect its praetors4 ,all ^! ?+s are facts ab\t :i* a p c le>n m 9 a m>ket-place ?an a mon>* c 9 a palace4 ,b does a p "k h[ to conduct an affair ( /ate1 to /udy situations1 opportunities1 & pr(it by !m8 ,no4 ,! g5]ality ( citiz5s h suffici5t ability to be electors1 b n en\gh to be elect$1 & ! p1 ?\gh x is capable ( =m+ a judgm5t on ! adm9i/ration ( o!rs1 is n compet5t to und]take ! adm9i/ration itself4 ,! p h always too mu* action or too little4 ,sometimes ) a hundr$ ?\s& arms x ov]takes ev]y?+2 sometimes ) a hundr$ ?\s& feet x moves z sl[ly z a c5tip$e4 ,9 a popul> /ate ! p are divid$ into c]ta9 classes1 & on ! way 9 :i* ?is division is c>ri$ out dep5d ! duration ( a democracy & its prosp]ity4 ,election by lot is ! democratic me?od2 election by *oice ! ari/ocratic me?od4 ,det]m9ation by lot all[s e citiz5 a reasonable hope ( s]v+ 8 c\ntry2 b x is a defective measure1 & x is by regulat+ & correct+ x t great legislators h di/+ui%$ !mselves4 ,solon1 = in/ance1 e/abli%$ at ,a!ns ! me?od ( nom9at+ by *oice all ! milit>y po/s1 & ( elect+ by lot ! s5ators & ! judges2 moreov]1 he orda9$ t ! c&idates = election by lot %\ld fir/ be exam9$1 & t ^? :o 7 adjudg$ unwor?y %\ld be exclud$2 9 t mann] he comb9$ ! me?od ( *ance & ! me?od ( *oice4 ,x does n require mu* probity = a mon>*y or a despotism to ma9ta9 itself4 ,! =ce ( ! laws 9 "o1 & ! uplift$ sword ( ! tyrant 9 ! o!r1 regulates & curbs ev]y?+4 ,9 a democracy1 h[ev]1 ev]y?+ dep5ds ^u ! political virtues ( ! p4 ,:5 a democracy loses its patriotism1 its frugality1 & its passion = equality1 x is soon de/roy$ by av>ice & ambition4 ,! pr9ciple ( democracy gr[s corrupt1 n only :5 a p loses its _s ( equality1 b :5 ?is _s ( equality becomes excessive1 & ea* man wi%es to be ! equal ( ^? :om he has *os5 to rule ov] him4 ,great successes1 & especially ^? to :i* ! p h l>gely contribut$1 give x s mu* pride t x is no long] possible to direct x4 ,?us x 0 t ! victory ov] ! ,p]sians corrupt$ ! republic ( ,a!ns2 ?us x 0 t ! victory ov] ! ,a!nians ru9$ ! republic ( ,syracuse4 ,!re are two excesses :i* a democracy mu/ avoid3 ! _s ( inequality1 :i* leads to an ari/ocracy or to ! gov]nm5t by "o man2 & ! _s ( excessive equality1 :i* ends 9 despotism4 ,,ii4--,on an ,ari/ocracy ,9 an ari/ocracy ! sov]eign p[] is 9 ! h&s ( a gr\p ( p]sons4 ,x is !y :o make ! laws & see t !y are c>ri$ out1 & ! re/ ( ! p are ! subjects ( ! nobility4 ,:5 !re is a great numb] ( nobles1 a s5ate is necess>y to regulate ! affairs :i* ! nobles !mselves are too num]\s to deal )1 & to prep>e ^? :i* !y are able to decide on4 ,9 ?is case ! ari/ocracy exi/s 9 ! s5ate1 ! democracy 9 ! noble class1 & ! p c\nt = no?+4 ,! be/ ari/ocracy is t 9 :i* ! popul> p>ty1 :i* has no %>e ( ! p[]1 is s small & s poor t ! gov]n+ class has no reason = oppress+ x4 ,?us :5 ,antipat] made a law at ,a!ns t ^? :o _h n two ?\s& dra*mas %\ld be exclud$ f vot+1 he =m$ ! be/ ari/ocracy possible--= ?is qualification 0 s slight t x exclud$ v few p1 & no "o :o _h any consid]ation 9 ! city4 ,ari/ocratic families %\ld belong to ! p z mu* z possible4 ,! m an ari/ocracy resembles a democracy1 ! m p]fect x is4 ,! mo/ imp]fect ( all is t 9 :i* ! l[] classes are gr\nd d[n by ! upp] classes4 ,an ari/ocracy has by itself m =ce ?an a democracy4 ,! nobles =m a corporation :i*1 by its pr]ogative & = its p>ticul> int]e/1 re/ra9s ! p2 b x is v difficult = ?is corporation to re/ra9 its own memb]s z easily z x re/ra9s ! populace4 ,public crimes c1 no d\bt1 be puni%$1 z x is 9 ! g5]al int]e/s ( an ari/ocracy t ?is %\ld be done2 b1 z a rule1 private misde$s 9 ! nobility w be ov]look$4 ,a corporation ( ?is sort c only curb itself 9 two ways--ei!r by a great political virtue1 :i* leads ! nobles to reg>d ! p z _! equals & makes = ! =mation ( l>ge republic1 or by ! less] virtue ( mod]ation1 :i* enables !m to cons]ve _! p[]4 ,an ari/ocracy gr[s corrupt :5 ! p[] ( ! nobles becomes arbitr>y4 ,:5 ! gov]n+ families obs]ve ! laws !y =m a mon>*y :i* has sev]al mon>*ies2 ?is is a v good ?+ 9 its nature1 because all ^! mon>*ies are b\nd toge!r by ! laws4 ,b :5 !y no long] obs]ve !m1 !y =m a despotic /ate :i* has _m despots4 ,! extreme corruption comes ab\t :5 ! nobility becomes h]$it>y2 x c no long] be mod]ate 9 ! ex]cise ( its p[]s4 ,if ! nobles are small 9 numb] _! p[] increases1 b _! surety dim9i%es2 if !y are great 9 numb]1 _! p[] is less1 b _! surety m c]ta91 = p[] goes on increas+1 & surety goes on dim9i%+ up to ! despot ^: p[] is z excessive z 8 p]il4 ,a multitude ( nobles 9 an h]$it>y ari/ocracy ?us makes ! gov]nm5t less viol5t2 b z !y w h b little political virtue1 !y w gr[ non*alant1 idle1 & irresponsible1 s t ! /ate at la/ w h no long] any =ce or resili5ce4 ,an ari/ocracy is able to ma9ta9 its =ce if its laws are su* t !y make ! nobility feel m ! dang]s & fatigues ( gov]nm5t ?an ! pleasures ( x1 & if ! /ate is 9 su* a situation t x has some?+ to dread1 & t its surety comes f )91 & its dang] ?reat5s f )\t4 ,a c]ta9 confid5ce =ms ! glory & ! safety ( a mon>*y1 b a republic lives on its p]ils4 ,! fe> ( ! ,p]sians kept ! ,greek /ates 9 /rict ob$i5ce to republican laws4 ,c>?age & ,rome intimidat$ & /r5g!n$ ea* o!r4 ,x is a /range ?+1 b democracies & ari/ocracies are l wat]1 :i* gr[s corrupt only :5 x is too long unmov$ & untr\bl$4 ,,iii4--,on ! ,mon>*y ,int]m$i>y1 subord9ate1 & dep5d5t p[]s con/itute ! nature ( a mon>*ical gov]nm5t1 9 :i* a s+le man gov]ns by means ( fundam5tal laws4 ,! mo/ natural ( int]m$i>y1 subord9ate p[]s is t ( a nobility4 ,?is is inde$ an ess5tial "p ( a mon>*y1 ( :i* ! maxim is3 ,no k+1 no nobility2 no nobility1 no k+4 ,!re are "s p]sons 9 c]ta9 c\ntries ( ,europe :o wi% to aboli% all ! rights ( ! nobility4 ,!y d n see t !y want to d :at ! ,engli% p>liam5t did 9 ! sev5te5? c5tury4 ,aboli% 9 a mon>*y ! pr]ogatives ( ! lords1 ( ! cl]gy1 ( ! g5try1 & ( ! t[ns1 & y w soon h ei!r a purely popul> gov]nm5t or a despotism4 ,i am n greatly prepossess$ 9 fav\r ( ! privileges ( ! cl]gy1 b ,i %\ld l to see _! jurisdiction cle>ly fix$ once = all4 ,x is n a "q ( discuss+ if x be "r to e/abli% x1 b ( see+ if x is e/abli%$1 & if x =ms "p ( ! laws ( ! c\ntry1 & ( decid+ if a loyal subject is n )9 8 rights 9 uphold+ bo? ! p[]s ( 8 k+ & ! limits :i* h f "t immemorial be5 set to t p[]4 ,! p[] ( ! cl]gy is dang]\s 9 a republic1 b conv5i5t 9 a mon>*y1 & especially 9 a mon>*y t5d+ to despotism4 ,:]e w\ld ,spa9 & ,portugal be1 s9ce !y h lo/ _! laws1 )\t ?is p[] :i* alone arre/s ! arbitr>y =ce ( _! k+s8 ,9 ord] to advance lib]ty1 ! ,engli% h de/roy$ all ! int]m$i>y p[]s t =m _! mon>*y4 ,!y h good reason to gu>d & *]i% ?is lib]ty4 ,if ev] !y lose x1 !y w be "o ( ! mo/ enslav$ races on e>?4 ,x is n suffici5t t !re %\ld be int]m$i>y ranks 9 ! mon>*y2 !re mu/ also be a depository ( laws4 ,?is depository _c be f\nd any:]e save 9 political corporations1 :i* ann\nce laws :5 !y are made1 & recall !m :5 !y are =gott54 ,! ignorance natural to nobility1 its inatt5tion1 its contempt = civil gov]nm5t1 require t !re %\ld be a corporation :i* unceas+ly recov]s laws f ! du/ 9 :i* !y are buri$4 ,z democracies are ru9$ by ! populace /ripp+ ! s5ate1 ! magi/rates1 & ! judges ( _! functions1 s mon>*ies decay :5 ! pr]ogatives ( ! high] classes & ! privileges ( t[ns are little by little de/roy$4 ,9 ! fir/ case1 ?+s end 9 a despotism ( ! multitude2 9 ! o!r1 9 ! despotism ( a s+le man4 ,! p ( ! anci5t _w _h no k ( a mon>*y f\nd$ on a nobility1 & /ill less k ( a mon>*y f\nd$ on a legislative corporation =m$1 z 9 ,engl&1 by ! repres5tatives ( ! p4 ,on read+ ! admirable "w ( ,tacitus on ! anci5t ,g]mans1 "o sees t x is f !m t ! ,engli% h d]iv$ ! idea ( _! political sy/em4 ,?is f9e =m ( gov]nm5t 0 discov]$ 9 ! =e/s4 ,x is bas$ on a sep>ation ( ! ?ree p[]s f\nd 9 e /ate--! legislative p[]1 ! executive p[]1 & ! judicial p[]4 ,! fir/ is 9 ! h&s ( ! p>liam5t1 ! second is 9 ! h&s ( ! mon>*1 & ! ?ird 9 ! h&s ( ! magi/racy4 ,! ,engli% p w\ld lose _! lib]ty if ! same man1 or ! same corporation1 or ! lords1 or ! p !mselves1 7 possess$ ( ^! ?ree p[]s4 ,by _! repres5tative sy/em ! ,engli% h avoid$ ! great defect ( ! anci5t republics1 9 :i* ! populace 7 all[$ to take an active "p 9 ! gov]nm5t4 ,!re is 9 e /ate a numb] ( p]sons di/+ui%$ by bir?1 weal?1 or hon\r4 ,if !y 7 conf\nd$ among ! p1 & _h !re only "o vote l ! re/1 ! common lib]ty w\ld be to !m a slav]y1 & !y w\ld h no int]e/ 9 def5d+ x1 because mo/ ( ! laws w\ld be direct$ aga9/ !m4 ,! "p !y play 9 legislation %\ld1 !re=e1 be proportionate to ! o!r advantages :i* !y h 9 ! /ate4 ,9 ,engl& !y rightly =m a legislative body1 :i* has ! p[] ( arre/+ ! ent]prises ( ! p1 9 ! same way z ! p h ! p[] ( arre/+ !irs4 ,a h\se ( lords mu/ be h]$it>y4 ,x is s naturally1 &1 besides1 ?is gives x a v great int]e/ 9 ! pres]vation ( its pr]ogatives1 :i*1 9 a free c\ntry1 mu/ always be 9 dang]4 ,b z an h]$it>y p[] might be tempt$ to foll[ its private int]e/s to ! neglect ( ! public welf>e1 x is necess>y t 9 matt]s 9 :i* corruption c easily arise1 su* z matt]s relat+ to money bills1 ! ,h\se ( ,lords %\ld h nei!r any initiat+ nor any correct+ faculty2 x %\ld h only a p[] ( veto & a p[] ( approv+1 l ! tribunes ( anci5t ,rome4 ,! cab9et %\ld n wield ! executive p[] z well z ! legislative p[]4 ,unless ! mon>* himself reta9s ! executive p[]1 !re is no lib]ty1 = lib]ty dep5ds ^u ea* ( ! ?ree p[]s be+ kept entirely sep>ate4 ,x is 9 ?is way t ! balance ( ! con/itution is pres]v$4 ,z all human ?+s h an end1 ,engl& w "o day lose its lib]ty1 & p]i%4 ,rome1 ,sp>ta1 & ,c>?age h n be5 able to la/4 ,engl& w p]i% :5 ! legislative p[] gr[s m corrupt ?an ! executive p[]4 ,,iv4--,on ,despotism ,f ! nature ( despotism x foll[s t a despot gives ! gov]nm5t into ! h&s ( ano!r man4 ,a creature ^: five s5ses are always tell+ him t he is ev]y?+ & t o!r m5 are no?+ is naturally idle1 ignorant1 & pleasure-seek+4 ,he !re=e ab&ons ! control ( affairs4 ,b if he entru/$ !m to sev]al p]sons !re w\ld be disputes among !m1 & ! despot w\ld be put to ! tr\ble ( int]f]+ 9 _! intrigues4 ,! easi] way1 !re=e1 is = him to surr5d] all adm9i/ration to a vizi]1 & give him full p[]4 ,! e/abli%m5t ( a vizi] is a fundam5tal law ( despotism4 ,! m p a despot has to gov]n1 ! less he ?9ks ( gov]n+ !m2 ! great] ! bus9ess ( ! /ate becomes1 ! less tr\ble he takes to delib]ate ^u x4 ,a despotic /ate cont9ually gr[s corrupt because x is corrupt 9 its nature4 ,o!r =ms ( gov]nm5t p]i% ?r\gh p>ticul> accid5ts2 a despotism p]i%es inw>dly1 ev5 :5 sev]al accid5tal causes seem to support x4 ,x is only ma9ta9$ :5 c]ta9 circum/ances d]iv$ f ! climate1 ! religion1 ! situation1 or ! g5ius ( a p compel x to obs]ve "s ord] & submit to "s regulation4 ,^! ?+s compel x1 b d n *ange its nature2 its f]ocity rema9s1 ?\gh = a "t x is tam$4 ,,sir ,,?omas ,,m ,utopia3 ,n[h]e ,l& ,?omas ,m 0 born 9 ,london on ,febru>y #g1 #adgh2 8 fa!r1 ,sir ,john1 0 a magi/rate4 ,! boy 0 plac$ 9 ! h\sehold ( ! ,*ancellor1 ,c>d9al ,morton1 & w5t to ,ox=d4 ,! "y man _h ?\ghts ( ent]+ ! religi\s life1 b f9ally *ose ! law4 ,8 mo/ intimate fri5d 0 ! great ,dean ,colet1 & 8 relations ) ,erasmus1 ! *ief ( ! ,humani/s1 7 ( ! mo/ affectionate k9d4 ,he /ood ) ^! two 9 ! =efront ( ! great ef=t = ! intellectual & moral re=m ( ! ,*ur*1 :i* 0 soon to be ov]:elm$ 9 ! political & !ological ,re=mation4 ,drawn into public life by ,h5ry ,,viii41 he became ,*ancellor aft] ! fall ( ,wolsey1 lat] resign$ on a po9t ( consci5ce1 & 0 f9ally behead$ on a *>ge ( treason on ,july #g1 #aece1 ) ,bi%op ,fi%]1 virtually = refus+ to ackn[l$ge ! secul> supremacy ov] ! ,*ur*4 ,9 #ahhf he 0 beatifi$4 ,! ,utopia3 ,n[h]e ,l&1 0 writt5 9 #aeaf1 9 ,lat94 ,! ,engli% v]sion is ! r5d]+ ( ,ralphe ,robynson1 publi%$ 9 #aeea4 ,! ?ree factors 9 its production 71 ! discov]ies 9 ! ,new ,_w1 ,plato's ,republic1 & ,m's obs]vation ( ,european affairs4 ,i4--,h[ ,ma/] ,m ,met ,ma/] ,raphael ,hy?loday ,! mo/ victori\s & triumphant k+ ( ,engl&1 ,h5ry ,,viii41 ( t "t1 = ! debatem5t ( c]ta9 weighty matt]s s5t me ambassador into ,fl&]s1 jo9$ 9 commission ) ,cu?b]t ,tun/all1 ^: virtue & le>n+ be ( m excell5cy ?an t ,i am able to praise !m4 ,& :iles ,i 0 abid+ at ,antw]p1 (t5times among o!r did visit me "o ,pet] ,gyles1 a citiz5 !re(1 :om "o day ,i *anc$ to espy talk+ ) a /rang]1 ) :om he br\ght me to spee*4 ,:i* ,raphael ,hy?loday _h voyag$ ) ,ma/] ,am]igo ,vespucci1 b p>t+ f him _h se5 _m l&s1 & s return$ home by way ( ,taprobane & ,calicut4 ,n[1 z he told u1 he _h f\nd great & wide des]ts & wild]nesses inhabit$ ) wild bea/s & s]p5ts1 b also t[ns & cities & weal-publiques full ( p gov]n$ by good & :olesome laws1 beside _m o!r t 7 fond & fooli%4 ,!n ,i urg+ him t1 bo? by le>n+ & exp]i5ce1 he might be any k+'s c\nsellor = ! weal-publique---- ,y be deceiv$1 quo? he4 ,= ! mo/ "p all pr9ces h m delights 9 w>like matt]s & feats ( *ivalry ?an 9 ! good feats ( peace4 ,!n he speak+ ( ,engl&1 ,h y be5 9 our c\ntry1 sir8 quo? ,i4 ,yea1 =soo?1 quo? he1 & !re 0 ,i mu* b\nd & behold5 to ,john ,norton1 at t "t c>d9al1 ar*bi%op1 & ,"l ,*ancellor1 9 ^: c\nsel ! k+ put mu* tru/4 ,n[1 quo? he1 "o day z ,i sat at 8 table1 !re 0 a layman cunn+ 9 ! law :o began to praise ! rigor\s ju/ice t 0 done ^u felons1 & to m>vel h[ ?ieves 7 nev]!less s rife4 ',nay1 sir1' said ,i2 'b ! puni%m5t passe? ! limits ( ju/ice4 ,= simple !ft is n s great an (f5ce t x ought to be puni%$ ) dea?1 nor do? t refra9 !m1 s9ce !y _c live b by ?iev+4 ,!re be _m s]vitors ( idle g5tlem51 :o1 :5 _! ma/] is dead1 & !y be ?ru/ =?1 h no craft :]eby to e>n _! bread1 nor c f9d o!r s]vice1 :o mu/ ei!r />ve = hung] or manfully play ! ?ieves4 ',moreov]1 look h[ y\r %eep d consume & dev\r :ole fields1 h\ses1 & cities4 ,= noblem5 & g5tlem51 yea1 & c]ta9 abbots1 holy m51 ,god wot1 :]e gr[e? ! f9e/ wool1 d enclose all 9 pa/ures1 pluck d[n t[ns1 & leave n\ght /&+ b only ! *ur*1 to make x a %eep-h\se4 ,:]eby ! husb&m5 are ?ru/ out ( _! own6 & !n :at c !y d else b /eal1 & !n ju/ly1 ,god wot1 be hang$8 ,fur!rmore1 victuals & o!r matt]s are de>]1 see+ ri* m5 buy up all1 & ) _! monopoly keep ! m>ket z x please !m4 ,unless y f9d a rem$y = ^! enormities1 y %all 9 va9 vaunt y\rselves ( execut+ ju/ice ^u felons4 ',beside1 x is a p]nici\s ?+ t a ?ief & a murd]] %\ld suff] ! l puni%m5t1 see+ t !reby ! ?ief is r provok$ to kill4 ,b among ! polyl]ytes 9 ,p]sia !re is a cu/om t !y :i* be convict ( felony are condemn$ to be common lab\r]s1 yet n h>%ly entreat$1 b condemn$ to dea? if !y seek to run away4 ,= !y are also app>ell$ all alike1 & to aid !m is s]vitude = a free man4' ,n[ ! c>d9al pron\nc$ t ?is 7 a good ord] to take ) vagabonds4 ,b a c]ta9 p>asite saye? 9 je/ t ?is 7 !n an excell5t ord] to take ) ! fri>s1 see+ t !y 7 ! v]ie/ vagabonds t be2 a fri> !reupon took ! je/ 9 v ill "p1 & c\ld n refra9 himself f call+ ! fell[ ribald1 villa91 & ! son ( p]dition2 :]eat ! je/] became a sc(f] inde$1 = he c\ld play a "p 9 t play1 no man bett]1 mak+ ! fri> m fooli%ly wra? ?an be=e4 ,n[1 none ( !m w\ld h h>k5$ to my c\nsel until ! c>d9al did approve x4 ,s t if ,i 7 sitt+ 9 c\nsel ) ! ,fr5* k+1 ^: c\nsellors 7 all urg+ him to w>2 & %\ld ,i c\nsel him n to m$dle ) ,italy1 b r to t>ry /ill at home2 & %\ld propose to him ! decrees ( ! ,a*oricus :i* dwell ov] aga9/ ! ,isl& ( ,utopia1 :o hav+ by w> conqu]$ a new k+dom = _! pr9ce1 con/ra9$ him to be cont5t ) 8 old k+dom1 & give ov] ! new "o to "o ( 8 fri5ds2 ?is1 m9e advice1 ,ma/] ,m1 h[ ?9k y x w\ld be he>d & tak58 ,s ,god help me1 n v ?ankfully1 quo? ,i4 ,h[beit1 ,ma/] ,m1 quo? he1 d\btless :]esoev] possessions be private1 :]e money be>e? all ! /roke1 x is almo/ impossible t ! weal-publique may be ju/ly gov]n$ & prosp]\sly fl\ri%4 ,& :5 ,i consid] ! wise & goodly ord9ances ( ! ,utopians1 among :om all ?+s be+ 9 common1 e man ha? abundance ( ev]y?+1 yet are !re v few laws2 ,i d fully p]suade myself t until ?is prop]ty be exil$ & bani%$1 p]fect weal? %all nev] be among m54 ,:i* if y _h liv$ ) me 9 ,utopia1 y w\ld d\btless grant4 ,!re=e1 ,ma/] ,raphael1 quo? ,i1 pray y describe unto u ?is l&4 ,,ii4--,( ! ,isl& ( ,utopia1 & ! ,cu/oms ( ,its ,p ,! ,isl& ( ,utopia is %ap$ l a new moon1 9 bread? at ! middle #bjj miles1 n>r[+ to ! tips1 :i* fet* ab\t a compass ( #ejj miles1 & are sund]$ by elev5 miles1 hav+ 9 ! space betwe5 !m a high rock2 s t t :ole coa/ is a great hav51 b ! way into x is securely gu>d$ by hidd5 rocks1 ( :i* only ! ,utopians h ! secret4 ,x ha? fifty-f\r l>ge & fair cities1 all built 9 "o fa%ion1 & hav+ l mann]s1 in/itutions & laws4 ,! *ief & head is ,amaurote1 be+ ! midmo/4 ,e city ha? an equal %ire1 ) f>ms !reon2 & ( ! husb&m51 half return ea* ye> to ! city1 _! place be+ tak5 by a l numb]4 ,! city ,amaurote /&e? f\r squ>e1 ^u ! ,riv] ,anyd]1 & ano!r less] riv] fl[e? ?r\gh x4 ,! h\ses be fair & gorge\s1 & ! /reets tw5ty foot broad2 & at ! back ( ea* h\se a g>d51 :]eby !y set great /ore4 ,ea* ?irty families *oose an (fic]1 call$ a ,siphogrant1 & ov] e t5? ,siphogrant is a ,tranibore4 ,! pr9ce is *os5 = life by ! ,siphogrants4 ,all o!r (fices are ye>ly1 b ! ,tranibores are n lightly *ang$4 ,! pr9ce & ! ,tranibores hold c\ncil e ?ird day1 ea* day ) two diff]5t ,siphogrants4 ,!y discuss no matt] on ! day t x is fir/ br\ght =w>d4 ,all ! p are exp]t 9 husb&ry1 b ea* ha? !reto 8 own prop] craft ( masonry or clo?-work+1 or "s o!r2 &1 = ! mo/ "p1 t ( 8 fa!r4 ,!y "w only six h\rs1 :i* is en\gh--yea1 & m = ! /ore & abundance ( ?+s requisite1 because all d "w4 ,!re be none t are idle or busi$ ab\t unpr(itable occupations4 ,9 all t city & %ire !re be sc>ce #ejj p]sons t be lic5s$ f lab\r1 t be nei!r too old nor too weak to "w4 ,su* be !y t h lic5se to le>n+ 9 place ( "w4 ,out ( :i* le>n$ ord] be *os5 ambassadors1 prie/s1 tranibores1 & ! pr9ce4 ,= _! clo?+1 !y we> g>m5ts ( sk9s = "w1 & wooll5 cloaks ( "o fa%ion & ( ! natural col\r2 & = ! l951 !y c>e only = ! :it5ess1 & n ! f95ess2 :]e=e _! app>el is ( small co/4 ,! city consi/e? ( families2 & = ea* family ! law is !re be n few] ?an t5 *ildr51 nor m ?an sixte5 ( ab\t ?irte5 ye>s4 ,:i* numb]s !y ma9ta9 by tak+ f "o family & add+ to ano!r1 or "o city & ano!r1 or by _! =eign cities :i* !y h 9 ! wa/e places ( neighb\r l&s4 ,! elde/ citiz5 rule? ! family4 ,9 ea* qu>t] ( ! city is a m>ket-place1 :i!r is br\ght ! "w ( ea* family1 & ea* take? away t he ne$e?1 )\t money or ex*ange4 ,to e ?irty families !re is a hall1 :i!r come? ! :ole ,siphogranty at ! set h\r ( d9n] or supp]2 & a nurs]y !reto4 ,b 9 ! c\ntry !y d9e & sup 9 _! own h\ses4 ,if any desire to visit ano!r city1 ! pr9ce give? lett]s ( lic5ce4 ,b :]ev] he goe? he mu/ "w ! allott$ task4 ,all be p>tn]s1 s t none may be poor or ne$y2 & all ! cities d s5d to ! common c\ncil at ,amaurote1 s t :at "o lacke? ano!r make? good out ( its abundance4 ,_! sup]fluities !y ex*ange ) o!r l&s = :at !y !mselves lack1 :i* is little b iron2 or = money1 :i* !y use b seldom1 & t = ! hir+ ( soldi]s4 ,( gold & silv] !y make n ri* vessels1 b mean ut5sils1 fett]s1 & gyves2 & jewels & preci\s /ones !y make toys = *ildr54 ,al?\gh !re be n _m t are appo9t$ only to le>n+1 yet all 9 *ildhood be in/ruct$ !re92 & ! m "p d be/[ 9 le>n+ _! sp>e h\rs4 ,9 ! c\rse ( ! />s & mov+s ( ! heav5ly sph]e !y be exp]t1 b = ! deceitful div9ation !re( !y nev] dream$ ( x4 ,!y dispute ( ! qualities ( ! s\l & reason ( virtue1 & ( pleasure :]e9 !y ?9k ! felicity ( man to re/2 b t ! s\l is immortal1 & by ! b\ntiful goodness ( ,god orda9$ to felicity1 & to our virtues & good de$s rew>ds be appo9t$ h]eaft]1 & to evil de$s puni%m5ts4 ,:i* pr9ciples1 if !y 7 disannull$1 !re is no man b w\ld dilig5tly pursue pleasure by "r or wrong4 ,b n[ felicity re/e? only 9 t pleasure t is good & hone/4 ,virtue !y def9e to be life accord+ to nature1 :i* prescribe? u a joyful life4 ,b ( :at !y call c\nt]feit pleasures !y make naught2 z ( pride 9 app>el & gems1 or 9 va9 hon\rs2 or ( dic+2 or hunt+1 :i* !y deem ! mo/ abject k9d ( but*]y4 ,b ( true pleasures !y give to ! s\l intellig5ce & t pleasure t come? ( contemplation ( ! tru?1 & ! pleasant remembrance ( ! good life pa/4 ,( pleasures ( ! body !y c\nt fir/ ^? t be s5sibly felt & p]ceiv$1 & !reto ! body's heal?1 :i* lack+1 !re is no place = any pleasure4 ,b *iefe/ !y hold ! pleasures ( ! m9d1 ! consci\sness ( virtue & ! good life4 ,mak+ little ( ! pleasures ( appetite1 !y yet c\nt x madness to reject ! same = a va9 %ad[ ( virtue4 ,= bondm51 !y h malefactors ( _! own p1 crim9als condemn$ to dea? 9 o!r l&s1 or poor lab\r]s ( o!r l&s :o1 ( _! own free w1 *oose r to be 9 bondage ) !m4 ,! sick !y t5d ) great affection2 b1 if ! disease be n only incurable b full ( angui%1 ! prie/s exhort !m t !y %\ld will+ly die1 b cause him n to die aga9/ 8 w4 ,! wom5 m>ry n be=e eighte5 ye>s1 & ! m5 f\r ye>s lat]4 ,b if "o h (f5d$ be=e m>riage1 he or %e :e!r x be1 is %>ply puni%$4 ,& be=e m>riage ! man & ! woman are %[$ ea* to ! o!r by discreet p]sons4 ,to mock a man = 8 de=mity is c\nt$ great di%one/y & reproa*4 ,!y d n only fe> _! p f do+ evil by puni%m5ts1 b also allure !m to virtue ) rew>ds ( hon\r4 ,!y h b few laws1 reprov+ o!r nations t innum]able books ( laws & expositions ^u ! same be n suffici5t4 ,fur!rmore1 !y bani% all su* z d craftily h&le ! laws1 b ?9k x meet t e man %\ld plead 8 own matt]4 ,,iii4--,( ! ,w>s & ! ,religion ( ! ,utopians ,z t\*+ leagues !y nev] make "o ) any nation1 putt+ no tru/ !re92 see+ ! m & holi] c]emonies ! league is knit up )1 ! soon] x is brok54 ,:o p]*ance w\ld *ange _! m9ds if !y liv$ "h8 ,b !y be ( op9ion t no man %\ld be c\nt$ an enemy :o ha? done no injury1 & t ! fell[%ip ( nature is a /rong league4 ,!y c\nt no?+ s mu* aga9/ glory z glory gott5 9 w>4 ,& ?\gh !y d daily practise !mselves 9 ! discipl9e ( w>1 !y g n to battle b 9 def5ce ( _! own c\ntry or _! fri5ds1 or to "r "s assur$ wrong4 ,!y are a%am$ to w9 ! victory ) mu* blood%$1 b rejoice if !y vanqui% _! enemies by craft4 ,!y set a great price ^u ! life or p]son ( ! enemy's pr9ce & ( o!r *ief adv]s>ies1 c\nt+ t !y !reby save ! lives ( _m ( bo? p>ts t _h o!rwise be5 sla92 & /ir up neighb\r peoples aga9/ !m4 ,!y lure soldi]s out ( all c\ntries to d battle ) !m1 & especially savage & fi]ce p call$ ! ,zapoletes1 giv+ !m great] wages ?an any o!r nation w4 ,b ( _! own p !y ?ru/ n =? to battle any aga9/ 8 w2 yet if wom5 be will+1 !y d 9 set field /& e "o by h] husb&'s side1 & ea* man is compass$ ab\t by 8 own k9sfolk2 & !y be !mselves /\t & h>dy & disda9ful to be conqu]$4 ,x is h>d to say :e!r !y be crafti] 9 lay+ ambu%1 or witti] 9 avoid+ ! same4 ,_! weapons be arr[s1 & at h&/rokes n swords b pole-axes2 & eng9es = w> !y devise & inv5t wondr\s wittily4 ,!re be div]s k9ds ( religion4 ,"s wor%ip = ,god ! sun1 "s ! moon2 !re be t give wor%ip to a man t 0 once ( ! mo/ excell5t virtue2 "s believe t !re is a c]ta9 godly p[] unkn[n1 ev]la/+1 incompreh5sible2 b all believe t !re is "o ,god1 ,mak] & ,rul] ( ! :ole _w4 ,b aft] !y he>d u speak ( ,*ri/1 ) glad m9ds !y agre$ unto ! same4 ,& ?is is "o ( _! anci5te/ laws1 t no man %all be blam$ = reason+ 9 ! ma9t5ance ( 8 own religion1 giv+ to e man free lib]ty to believe :at he w\ld4 ,sav+ t none %\ld conceive s base & vile an op9ion z to ?9k t s\ls d p]i% ) ! body1 or t ! _w runne? at all adv5tures1 gov]n$ by no div9e provid5ce4 ,!y h prie/s ( exce$+ hol9ess1 & !re=e v few4 ,bo? *ildhood & y\? are in/ruct$ ( !m1 n m 9 le>n+ ?an 9 good mann]s4 ,?is is t ord] ( ! commonweal? :i*1 9 my judgm5t1 is n only ! be/1 b also t :i* alone ( good "r may claim & take ^u x ! "n ( a commonweal? or weal-publique1 quo? he4 ,b1 9 ! meantime1 ,i1 ,?omas ,m1 z ,i _c agree & cons5t to all ?+s t he said1 s mu/ ,i ne$s confess & grant t _m ?+s be 9 ! ,utopian weal-publique :i* 9 our cities ,i may r wi% = ?an hope aft]4 ,,?omas ,,pa9e ,! ,rights ( ,man ,! ,rights ( ,man by ,?omas ,pa9e 7see ,,religion1 ,vol4 ,,xiii7 0 an answ] to ,burke's attack on ! ,fr5* ,revolution4 ,x 0 publi%$ 9 two p>ts 9 #agij & #agib1 & is an e>ne/ & c\rage\s exposition ( ,pa9e's revolution>y op9ions1 & f t day to ?is has play$ no small "p 9 m\ld+ public ?\ght4 ,! extreme c&\r ( 8 obs]vations on mon>*y l$ to a prosecution1 & he _h to fly to ,france4 ,!re he plead$ = ! life ( ,l\is ,,xvi41 & 0 imprison$ = t5 mon?s dur+ ! ,t]ror4 ,he left ,france bitt]ly disappo9t$ ) ! failure ( ! republic1 & pass$ ! re/ ( 8 days 9 ,am]ica4 ,pa9e's ignorance1 says ,sir ,leslie ,/eph51 0 va/1 & 8 language brutal2 b he _h ! gift ( a true demagogue--! p[] ( wield+ a f9e1 vigor\s ,engli%4 ,i4--,natural & ,civil ,rights ,among ! incivilities by :i* nations or individuals provoke or irritate ea* o!r1 ,mr4 ,burke's pamphlet 9 ! ,fr5* revolution is an extraord9>y in/ance4 ,!re is sc>cely an epi!t ( abuse 9 ! ,engli% language ) :i* he has n load$ ! ,fr5* nation & ! ,national ,assembly4 ,consid]$ z an attempt at political argum5t1 8 "w is a pa?less wild]ness ( rhapsodies1 9 :i* he ass]ts :atev] he pleases )\t (f]+ ei!r evid5ce or reasons = s do+4 ,) 8 usual outrage1 he abuses ! ,decl>ation ( ! ,rights ( ,man publi%$ by ! ,national ,assembly z ! basis ( ! ,fr5* con/itution4 ,b does he mean to d5y t man has any rights8 ,if he does1 !n he mu/ mean t !re are no su* ?+s z rights any:]e2 = :o is !re 9 ! _w b man8 ,b if ,mr4 ,burke means to admit t man has rights1 ! "q !n w be3 ,:at are ^? rights & h[ came man by !m orig9ally8 ,! error ( ^? :o reason by prec$5ts drawn f antiquity respect+ ! rights ( man is t !y d n g f> en\gh into antiquity2 !y /op 9 "s ( ! int]m$iate /ages1 & produce :at 0 !n done z a rule = ! pres5t day4 ,mr4 ,burke1 = example1 w\ld h ! ,engli% nation submit !mselves to _! mon>*s = ev]1 because an ,engli% ,p>liam5t did make su* a submission to ,william & ,m>y1 n only on behalf ( ! p !n liv+1 b on behalf ( _! heirs & po/]ities--z if any p>liam5t _h ! "r ( b9d+ & controll+ po/]ity1 or ( comm&+ = ev] h[ ! _w %\ld be gov]n$4 ,if antiquity is to be au?ority1 a ?\s& su* au?orities may be produc$1 successively contradict+ ea* o!r2 b if we proce$ on1 we %all at la/ come out "r2 we %all come to ! "t :5 man came f ! h& ( 8 ,mak]4 ,:at 0 he !n8 ,man6 ,man 0 8 high & only title1 & a high] _c be giv5 him4 ,all hi/ories ( creation agree 9 e/abli%+ "o po9t1 ! unity ( man1 by :i* ,i mean t m5 are all ( "o degree1 & t all m5 are born equal1 & ) equal natural rights4 ,^! natural rights are ! f\ndation ( all _! civil rights4 ,a few words w expla9 ?is3 ,natural rights are ^? :i* app]ta9 to man 9 "r ( 8 exi/5ce4 ,( ?is k9d are ! rights ( ! m9d1 & also ^? rights ( act+ z an individual = 8 own happ9ess1 :i* are n injuri\s to ! natural rights ( o!rs4 ,civil rights are ^? :i* app]ta9 to man 9 "r ( 8 be+ a memb] ( society4 ,e civil "r has = its f\ndation "s natural "r pre-exi/+ 9 ! individual1 b to ! enjoym5t ( :i* 8 individual p[] is n1 9 all cases1 suffici5tly compet5t4 ,( ?is k9d are all ^? :i* relate to security & protection4 ,x foll[s1 !n1 t ! p[] produc$ f ! aggregate ( natural rights1 imp]fect 9 p[] 9 ! individual1 _c be appli$ to invade ! natural rights :i* are reta9$ 9 ! individual1 & 9 :i* ! p[] to execute is z p]fect z ! "r itself4 ,let u n[ apply ^! pr9ciples to gov]nm5ts4 ,^! may all be compreh5d$ "u ?ree heads3 ,fir/1 sup]/ition2 secondly1 p[]2 ?irdly1 ! common int]e/ ( society & ! common rights ( man4 ,:5 a set ( artful m5 pret5d$ to hold int]c\rse ) ! ,deity1 z famili>ly z !y n[ m>* up ! back /airs 9 ,european c\rts1 ! _w 0 completely "u ! gov]nm5t ( sup]/ition4 ,?is sort ( gov]nm5t la/$ z long z ?is sort ( sup]/ition la/$4 ,aft] ^!1 a race ( conqu]ors arose1 ^: gov]nm5t1 l t ( ,william ! ,conqu]or1 0 f\nd$ 9 p[]4 ,gov]nm5ts ?us e/abli%$ la/ z long z ! p[] to support !m la/s2 b1 t !y might avail !mselves ( e eng9e 9 _! fav\r1 !y unit$ fraud to =ce1 & set up an idol :i* !y call$ ,div9e ,"r1 & :i* twi/$ itself aft]w>ds into an idol ( ano!r %ape1 call$ ,*ur* & ,/ate4 ,! key ( ,/4 ,pet] & ! key ( ! treasury became qu>t]$ on "o ano!r1 & ! wond]+ *eat$ multitude wor%ipp$ ! inv5tion4 ,we h n[ to review ! gov]nm5ts :i* arise out ( society4 ,if we trace gov]nm5t to its orig91 we discov] t gov]nm5ts mu/ h aris5 ei!r out ( ! p or ov] ! p4 ,9 ^? :i* h aris5 out ( ! p1 ! individuals !mselves1 ea* 9 8 own p]sonal & sov]eign "r1 h ent]$ into a compact ) ea* o!r to produce a gov]nm5t2 & ?is is ! only mode 9 :i* gov]nm5ts h a "r to arise4 ,?is compact is ! con/itution1 & a con/itution is n a ?+ 9 "n only1 b 9 fact4 ,:]ev] x _c be produc$ 9 a visible =m1 !re is none4 ,a con/itution is a ?+ antec$5t to gov]nm5t1 & a gov]nm5t is only its creature4 ,! con/itution ( a c\ntry is n ! act ( its gov]nm5t1 b ( ! p con/itut+ its gov]nm5t4 ,c1 !n1 ,mr4 ,burke produce ! ,engli% con/itution8 ,he _c1 = no su* ?+ exi/s1 nor ev] did exi/4 ,! ,engli% gov]nm5t is "o ( ^? :i* arose out ( a conque/1 & n out ( society1 & consequ5tly x arose ov] ! p2 & ?\gh x has be5 mu* modifi$ s9ce ! "t ( ,william ! ,conqu]or1 ! c\ntry has nev] yet reg5]at$ itself1 & is !re=e )\t a con/itution4 ,,ii4--,france & ,engl& ,comp>$ ,i n[ proce$ to draw "s comp>isons betwe5 ! ,fr5* con/itution & ! gov]nm5tal usages 9 ,engl&4 ,! ,fr5* con/itution says t e man :o pays a tax ( sixty s\s p] annum 7#bs4 #f;d41 ,engli%7 is an elector4 ,:at w ,mr4 ,burke place aga9/ ?is8 ,c any?+ be m limit$1 & at ! same "t m caprici\s1 ?an ! qualifications ( electors are 9 ,engl&8 ,! ,fr5* con/itution says t ! ,national ,assembly %all be elect$ e two ye>s4 ,:at w ,mr4 ,burke place aga9/ ?is8 ,:y1 t ! nation has no "r at all 9 ! case1 & t ! gov]nm5t is p]fectly arbitr>y ) respect to ?is po9t4 ,! ,fr5* con/itution says !re %all be no game laws1 & no monopolies ( any k9d4 ,:at w ,mr4 ,burke say to ?is8 ,9 ,engl&1 game is made ! prop]ty ( ^? at ^: exp5se x is n f$2 & ) respect to monopolies1 e *>t]$ t[n is an ari/ocratical monopoly 9 itself1 & ! qualification ( electors proce$s out ( ^! monopolies4 ,is ?is fre$om8 ,is ?is :at ,mr4 ,burke means by a con/itution8 ,! ,fr5* con/itution says t to pres]ve ! national repres5tation f be+ corrupt no memb] ( ! ,national ,assembly %all be an (fic] ( ! gov]nm5t1 a placeman1 or a p5sion]4 ,:at w ,mr4 ,burke place aga9/ ?is8 ,i w :isp] 8 answ]3 ,loaves & ,fi%es4 ,ah6 ?is gov]nm5t ( loaves & fi%es has m mis*ief 9 x ?an p h yet reflect$ on4 ,! ,engli% ,p>liam5t is suppos$ to hold ! national purse 9 tru/ = ! nation4 ,b if ^? :o vote ! supplies are ! same p]sons :o receive ! supplies :5 vot$1 & are to acc\nt = ! exp5diture ( ^? supplies to ^? :o vot$ !m1 x is !mselves acc\ntable to !mselves1 & ! com$y ( errors concludes ) ! pantomime ( hu%4 ,nei!r ! m9i/]ial p>ty nor ! opposition w t\* ^u ?is case4 ,! national purse is ! common hack :i* ea* m\nts ^u4 ,!y ord] ^! ?+s bett] 9 ,france4 ,! ,fr5* con/itution says t ! "r ( w> & peace is 9 ! nation4 ,:]e else %\ld x reside b 9 ^? :o are to pay ! exp5se8 ,9 ,engl& ?is "r is said to reside 9 a metaphor %[n at ! ,t[] = sixp5ce or a %ill+ a head4 ,x may ) reason be said t 9 ! mann] ! ,engli% nation is repres5t$ x signifies n :]e ! "r resides1 :e!r 9 ! cr[n or 9 ! p>liam5t4 ,w> is ! common h>ve/ ( all ^? :o p>ticipate 9 ! division & exp5diture ( public money 9 all c\ntries4 ,9 review+ ! hi/ory ( ! ,engli% ,gov]nm5t1 an imp>tial by/&] w\ld decl>e t taxes 7 n rais$ to c>ry on w>s1 b t w>s 7 rais$ to c>ry on taxes4 ,! ,fr5* con/itution says1 ,!re %all be no titles2 &1 ( consequ5ce1 nobility is done away1 & ! pe] is exalt$ into man4 ,titles are b nicknames1 & e nickname is a title4 ,! ?+ is p]fectly h>mless 9 itself1 b x m>ks a sort ( fopp]y 9 ! human "* :i* degrades x4 ,if no mis*ief _h annex$ itself to ! folly ( titles1 !y w\ld n h be5 wor? a s]i\s & =mal de/ruction4 ,let u1 !n1 exam9e ! gr\nds ^u :i* ! ,fr5* con/itution has resolv$ aga9/ hav+ a h\se ( pe]s 9 ,france4 ,because1 9 ! fir/ place1 ari/ocracy is kept up by family tyranny & inju/ice1 due to ! unnatural & iniquit\s law ( primog5iture4 ,secondly1 because ! idea ( h]$it>y legislators is z inconsi/5t z t ( h]$it>y judges or h]$it>y juries2 & z absurd z an h]$it>y ma!matician1 or an h]$it>y wise man2 & z ridicul\s z an h]$it>y poet-laureate4 ,?irdly1 because a body ( m51 hold+ !mselves acc\ntable to nobody1 ought n to be tru/$ by anybody4 ,f\r?ly1 because x is cont9u+ ! uncivilis$ pr9ciple ( gov]nm5t f\nd$ 9 conque/1 & ! base idea ( man hav+ prop]ty 9 man1 & gov]n+ him by p]sonal "r4 ,! ,fr5* con/itution ha? aboli%$ or r5\nc$ tol]ation & intol]ance also1 & ha? e/abli%$ univ]sal "r ( consci5ce4 ,tol]ation is n ! opposite ( intol]ance1 b is ! c\nt]feit ( x4 ,bo? are despotisms4 ,! "o assumes to itself ! "r ( )hold+ lib]ty ( consci5ce1 & ! o!r ( grant+ x4 ,:o art ?\1 va9 du/ & a%es6 by :atev] "n ?\ art call$1 :e!r a k+1 a bi%op1 a *ur*1 or a /ate1 a p>liam5t1 or any?+ else1 t obtrude/ ?9e insignificance betwe5 ! s\l ( man & its ,mak]8 ,m9d ?9e own conc]ns4 ,if he believes n z ?\ believe/1 x is a pro( t ?\ believe/ n z he believes1 & !re is no e>?ly p[] c det]m9e betwe5 y4 ,! op9ions ( m5 ) respect to gov]nm5t are *ang+ fa/ 9 all c\ntries4 ,! revolutions ( ,am]ica & ,france h ?r[n a beam ( light ov] ! _w1 :i* rea*es into m54 ,ignorance is ( a peculi> nature2 once dispell$1 x is impossible to re-e/abli% x4 ,x is n orig9ally a ?+ ( itself1 b is only ! abs5ce ( k2 & ?\gh man may be kept ignorant1 he _c be made ignorant4 ,:5 we survey ! wret*$ condition ( man1 "u ! mon>*ical & h]$it>y sy/ems ( gov]nm5t1 dragg$ f 8 home by "o p[]1 or driv5 by ano!r1 & impov]i%$ by taxes m ?an by enemies1 x becomes evid5t t ^! sy/ems are bad1 & t a g5]al revolution 9 ! pr9ciple & con/ruction ( gov]nm5ts is necess>y4 ,& x is n difficult to p]ceive1 f ! enlight5$ /ate ( mank9d1 t h]$it>y gov]nm5ts are v]g+ to _! decl9e1 & t revolutions on ! broad basis ( national sov]eignty & gov]nm5t by repres5tation are mak+ _! way 9 ,europe2 x w\ld be an act ( wisdom to anticipate _! approa* & produce revolutions by reason & accommodation1 r ?an commit !m to ! issue ( convulsions4 ,,iii4--,! ,old & ,new ,sy/ems ,! dang] to :i* ! success ( revolutions is mo/ expos$ is 9 attempt+ !m be=e ! pr9ciples on :i* !y proce$1 & ! advantages to result f !m are suffici5tly und]/ood4 ,almo/ ev]y?+ app]ta9+ to ! circum/ances ( a nation has be5 absorb$ & conf\nd$ "u ! g5]al & my/]i\s ^w gov]nm5t4 ,x may1 !re=e1 be ( use 9 ?is day ( revolutions to discrim9ate betwe5 ^? ?+s :i* are ! effect ( gov]nm5t1 & ^? :i* are n4 ,great "p ( t ord] :i* reigns among mank9d is n ! effect ( gov]nm5t4 ,x has its orig9 9 ! pr9ciples ( society & ! natural con/itution ( man4 ,! mutual dep5d5ce & reciprocal int]e/ :i* man has ^u man1 & all ! p>ts ( civilis$ community ^u ea* o!r1 create t great *a9 ( connection :i* holds x toge!r4 ,9 f9e1 society p]=ms = itself almo/ ev]y?+ :i* is ascrib$ to gov]nm5t1 :i* is no f>!r necess>y ?an to supply ! few cases to :i* society & civilisation are n conv5i5tly compet5t4 ,! m p]fect civilisation is1 ! less occasion has x = gov]nm5t1 because ! m does x regulate its own affairs1 & gov]n itself4 ,all ! great laws ( society are laws ( nature4 ,!y are foll[$ & obey$ because x is ! int]e/ ( ! p>ties to d s1 & n on acc\nt ( any =mal laws _! gov]nm5ts may impose4 ,b h[ (t5 is ! natural prop5sity to society di/urb$ or de/roy$ by ! op]ations ( gov]nm5t6 ,:5 ! latt]1 in/ead ( be+ +raft$ on ! pr9ciples ( ! =m]1 assumes to exi/ = itself1 & acts by p>tialities ( fav\r & oppression1 x becomes ! cause ( ! mis*iefs x ought to prev5t4 ,x is impossible t su* gov]nm5ts z h hi!rto exi/$ 9 ! _w w\ld h comm5c$ by any o!r means ?an a total violation ( e pr9ciple1 sacr$ & moral4 ,! obscurity 9 :i* ! orig9 ( all ! pres5t old gov]nm5ts is buri$ implies ! iniquity & disgrace ) :i* !y began4 ,:at sc5es ( horror pres5t !mselves 9 contemplat+ ! "* & review+ ! hi/ory ( su* gov]nm5ts6 ,if we w\ld del9eate human nature ) a bas5ess ( he>t & hypocrisy ( c\nt5ance t reflection w\ld %udd] at & humanity dis[n1 !y are k+s1 c\rts1 & cab9ets t mu/ sit = ! portrait4 ,man1 naturally z he is1 ) all 8 faults ab\t him1 is n up to ! "*4 ,gov]nm5t on ! old sy/em is an assumption ( p[]1 = ! aggr&isem5t ( itself2 on ! new a delegation ( p[] = ! common b5efit ( society4 ,! "o n[ call$ ! old is h]$it>y1 ei!r 9 :ole or 9 "p1 & ! new is entirely repres5tative4 ,x rejects all h]$it>y gov]nm5t3 ,fir/1 z be+ an imposition on mank9d4 ,secondly1 z inadequate to ! purposes = :i* gov]nm5t is necess>y4 ,all h]$it>y gov]nm5t is 9 its nature tyranny4 ,to inh]it a gov]nm5t is to inh]it ! p1 z if !y 7 flocks & h]ds4 ,k+s succe$ ea* o!r1 n z rationals1 b z animals4 ,x signifies n :at _! m5tal or moral *>act]s are4 ,mon>*ical gov]nm5t appe>s "u all ! v>i\s *>act]s ( *ildhood1 decrepitude1 dotage2 a ?+ at nurse1 9 lead+-/r+s1 or 9 crut*es4 ,9 %ort1 we _c conceive a m ridicul\s figure ( gov]nm5t ?an h]$it>y succession4 ,by cont9u+ ?is absurdity1 man is p]petually 9 contradiction ) himself2 he may accept = a k+1 or a *ief magi/rate1 or a legislator a p]son :om he w\ld n elect = a con/able4 ,! repres5tative sy/em takes society & civilisation = its basis2 nature1 reason1 & exp]i5ce = its guide4 ,! orig9al simple democracy 0 society gov]n+ itself )\t ! aid ( second>y means4 ,by +raft+ repres5tation ^u democracy we arrive at a sy/em ( gov]nm5t capable ( embrac+ & conf$]at+ all ! v>i\s int]e/s & e ext5t ( t]ritory & population2 & t also ) advantages z mu* inf]ior to h]$it>y gov]nm5t1 z ! republic ( lett]s is to h]$it>y lit]ature4 ,consid]+ gov]nm5t 9 ! only light 9 :i* x %\ld be consid]$1 t ( a national association1 x ought to be con/ruct$ z n to be disord]$ by any accid5t happ5+ among ! p>ts1 &1 !re=e1 no extraord9>y p[] %\ld be lodg$ 9 ! h&s ( any individual4 ,mon>*y w\ld n h cont9u$ s _m ages 9 ! _w _h x n be5 = ! abuses x protects4 ,x is ! ma/]-fraud :i* %elt]s all o!rs4 ,by admitt+ a p>ticipation ( ! spoil1 x makes itself fri5ds2 & :5 x ceases to d ?is x w cease to be ! idol ( c\rti]s4 ,"o ( ! greate/ improvem5ts t h be5 made = ! p]petual security & progress ( con/itutional lib]ty1 is ! provision :i* ! new con/itutions make = occasionally revis+1 alt]+1 & am5d+ !m4 ,! be/ con/itutions t c\ld n[ be devis$ consi/5tly ) ! condition ( ! pres5t mom5t1 may be f> %ort ( t excell5ce :i* a few ye>s may af=d4 ,!re is a morn+ ( reason ris+ ^u man on ! subject ( gov]nm5ts t has n appe>$ be=e4 ,j em]g+ f su* a b>b>\s condition1 x is too soon to det]m9e to :at ext5t ( improvem5t gov]nm5t may yet be c>ri$4 ,= :at we c =esee1 all ,europe may =m b "o great republic1 & man be free ( ! :ole4 ,,iv4--,! ,re=m ( ,engl& ,z x is necess>y to include ,engl& 9 ! prospect ( g5]al re=mation1 x is prop] to inquire into ! defects ( its gov]nm5t4 ,x is only by ea* nation re=m+ its own1 t ! :ole c be improv$ & ! full b5efit ( re=mation enjoy$4 ,:5 9 c\ntries t are call$ civilis$ we see age go+ to ! workh\se & y\? to ! gall[s some?+ mu/ be wrong 9 ! sy/em ( gov]nm5t4 ,:y is x t sc>cely any are execut$ b ! poor8 ,! fact is a pro(1 among o!r ?+s1 ( a wret*$ness 9 _! condition4 ,br$ up )\t morals1 & ca/ ^u ! _w )\t a prospect1 !y are ! expos$ sacrifice ( vice & legal b>b>ity4 ,! fir/ defect ( ,engli% gov]nm5t ,i %all m5tion is ! evil ( ^? ,go?ic in/itutions1 ! corporation t[ns4 ,z "o ( ! h\ses ( ! ,engli% ,p>liam5t is1 9 a great measure1 made up ( elections f ^! corporations1 & z x is unnatural t a pure /ream %\ld fl[ f a f\l f\nta91 its vices are b a cont9uation ( ! vices ( its orig94 ,a man ( moral hon\r & good political pr9ciples _c submit to ! mean drudg]y & disgraceful arts by :i* su* elections are c>ri$4 ,i proce$ 9 ! next place to ! ari/ocracy4 ,! h\se ( pe]s is simply a comb9ation ( p]sons 9 "o common int]e/4 ,no bett] reason c be giv5 :y a h\se ( legislation %\ld be compos$ entirely ( m5 ^: occupation consi/s 9 lett+ l&$ prop]ty1 ?an :y x %\ld be compos$ ( brew]s1 ( bak]s1 or any o!r sep>ate class ( m54 ,:at "r has ! l&$ int]e/ to a di/9ct repres5tation f ! g5]al int]e/ ( ! nation8 ,! only use to be made ( its p[] is to w>d (f ! taxes f itself1 & to ?r[ ! burd5 ^u su* articles ( consumption by :i* itself w\ld be lea/ affect$4 ,i proce$ to :at is call$ ! cr[n4 ,x signifies a nom9al (fice ( a million /]l+ a ye>1 ! bus9ess ( :i* consi/s 9 receiv+ ! money4 ,:e!r ! p]son be wise or fooli%1 sane or insane1 a native or a =eign]1 matt]s n4 ,! haz>d to :i* ?is (fice is expos$ 9 all c\ntries is n f any?+ t c happ5 to ! man1 b f :at may happ5 to ! nation--! dang] ( its com+ to its s5ses4 ,i %all n[ turn to ! matt] ( less5+ ! burd5 ( taxes4 ,! am\nt ( taxation n[ levi$ may be tak5 9 r\nd numb]s at ,l#ag1jjj1jjj1 n9e millions ( :i* are appropriat$ to ! paym5t ( int]e/ on ! national debt1 & eight millions to ! curr5t exp5ses ( ea* ye>4 ,all circum/ances tak5 toge!r1 aris+ f ! ,fr5* revolution1 f ! approa*+ h>mony ( ! two nations1 ! abolition ( c\rt intrigue on bo? sides1 & ! progress ( k 9 ! sci5ce ( gov]n+1 ! annual exp5diture might be put back to "o million & a half--half a million ea* = ,navy1 ,army1 & exp5ses ( gov]nm5t4 ,?ree hundr$ repres5tatives fairly elect$ are suffici5t = all ! purposes to :i* legislation c apply4 ,!y may be divid$ into two or ?ree h\ses1 or meet 9 "o1 z 9 ,france4 ,if an all[ance ( ,l#ejj p] annum 7 made to ea* repres5tative1 ! ye>ly co/ w\ld be ,l#ae1jjj4 ,! exp5se ( ! (ficial dep>tm5ts c\ld n reasonably exce$ ,l#dbe1jjj4 ,all rev5ue (fic]s are paid out ( ! monies !y collect1 & !re=e are n 9 ?is e/imation4 ,tak+ "o million & a half z a suffici5t peace e/abli%m5t = all ! hone/ purposes ( gov]nm5t1 !re w rema9 a surplus ( upw>ds ( six millions out ( ! pres5t curr5t exp5ses4 ,h[ is ?is surplus to be dispos$ (8 ,! fir/ /ep w\ld be to aboli% ! poor rates entirely1 & 9 lieu !re( to make a remission ( taxes to ! poor ( d\ble ! am\nt ( ! pres5t poor rates--viz41 f\r millions annually out ( ! surplus taxes4 ,?is money c\ld be di/ribut$ s z to provide ,l#d annually p] head = ! support ( *ildr5 ( poor families1 & to provide also = ! co/ ( education ( ov] a million *ildr52 to give annuities ( ,l#aj ea* = ! ag$ poor ov] sixty1 & ( ,l#f ea* = ! poor ov] fifty2 to give donations ( ,l#a ea* on occasions ( bir?s 9 poor families1 & m>riages ( ! poor2 to make all[ances = fun]al exp5ses ( p]sons travell+ = "w1 & dy+ at a di/ance f _! fri5ds2 & to furni% employm5t = ! casual poor ( ! metropolis1 :]e modes ( relief are necess>y t are n requir$ 9 ! c\ntry4 ,( ! sum rema9+ aft] ^! d$uctions1 half a million %\ld be sp5t 9 p5sion+ disb&$ soldi]s & 9 increas+ ! pay ( ! soldi]s :o %all rema94 ,! burd5some h\se & w9d[ tax1 am\nt+ to ov] half a million annually1 %\ld be tak5 (f4 ,!re yet rema9s ov] a million surplus1 :i* might be us$ = special purposes1 or appli$ to relief ( taxation z circum/ances require4 ,= ! commutation tax !re %\ld be sub/itut$ an e/ate tax ris+ f #c;d4 9 ! p\nd on ! fir/ ,l#ejj to #bjs4 9 ! p\nd on ! tw5ty-?ird ,l#a1jjj4 ,e ?\s& beyond ! tw5ty-?ird w\ld ?us produce no pr(it b by divid+ ! e/ate1 & !reby w\ld be extirpat$ ! ov]gr[n influ5ce aris+ f ! unnatural law ( primog5iture4 ,( all nations 9 ,europe !re is none s mu* int]e/$ 9 ! ,fr5* revolution z ,engl&4 ,enemies = ages1 ! opportunity n[ pres5ts itself ( amicably clos+ ! sc5e & jo9+ _! ef=ts to re=m ! re/ ( ,europe4 ,su* an alliance1 toge!r ) t ( ,holl&1 c\ld propose ) effect a g5]al dismantl+ ( all ! navies 9 ,europe1 to a c]ta9 proportion to be agre$ ^u4 ,?is w save to ,france & ,engl& at lea/ two million /]l+ annually to ea*1 & _! relative =ce w\ld be 9 ! same proportion z x is n[4 ,peace1 :i* co/s no?+1 is att5d$ ) inf9itely m advantage ?an any victory ) all its exp5se4 ,nev] did s great an opportunity (f] itself to ,engl&1 & to all ,europe1 z is produc$ by ! two revolutions ( ,am]ica & ,france4 ,by ! =m]1 fre$om has a national *ampion 9 ! we/]n _w1 & by ! latt] 9 ,europe4 ,:5 ano!r nation %all jo9 ,france1 despotism & bad gov]nm5t w sc>cely d>e to appe>4 ,! pres5t age w h]eaft] m]it to be call$ ! ,age ( ,reason1 & ! pres5t g5]ation w appe> to ! future z ! ,adam ( a new _w4 ,,jean ,,jacques ,,r\sseau ,! ,social ,contract ,r\sseau's ,social ,contract 7,contrat ,social7 is ! mo/ influ5tial treatise on politics writt5 9 mod]n times4 ,z its title implies1 ! "w is an endeav\r to place all gov]nm5t on ! cons5t1 direct or impli$1 ( ! gov]n$2 h[1 ?r\gh ! re>rangem5t ( society1 man may1 9 a s5se1 return to ! law ( nature4 ,man is born free1 & yet is ev]y:]e 9 *a9s4 ,logically1 ! ,social ,contract is full ( gap+ flaws4 ,l its au?or's o!r books 7see vol4 vii1 p4 #agf71 x is an outp\r+ ( ! he>t v imp]fectly regulat$ by a brilliant b ecc5tric bra94 ,z a political essay x is a tissue ( fanta/ic argum5ts1 bas$ on unreal hypo!ses4 ,b x set m5's m9ds on fire2 x 0 ! lit]>y inspiration ( "o ( ! mo/ trem5d\s ev5ts 9 hi/ory1 & ^? :o w\ld compreh5d ! ,fr5* ,revolution c unravel _m ( its p]plexities by /udy+ ! ,social ,contract4 ,aft] its publication ,r\sseau _h to fly to ,engl&1 :]e he %[$ m>k$ symptoms ( insanity4 ,! ,t]ms ( ! ,contract ,my object is to discov] :e!r1 9 civil polity1 !re is any legitimate & def9ite canon ( gov]nm5t1 tak+ m5 z !y are1 & laws z !y might be4 ,9 ?is enquiry ,i %all uni=mly try to reconcile t :i* is p]mitt$ by "r ) t :i* is prescrib$ by int]e/ s z to avoid ! cla% ( ju/ice ) utility4 ,man is born free1 & yet is ev]y:]e 9 fett]s4 ,he is gov]n$1 oblig$ to obey laws4 ,:at is x t legitimises ! subjection ( m5 to gov]nm5t8 ,i ?9k ,i c solve ! problem4 ,x is n m]ely a matt] ( =ce2 =ce is only ! p[] ( ! /ronge/1 & mu/ yield :5 a great] /r5g? arises2 !re is "h no "q ( "r1 b simply ( might4 ,b social ord] is a sacr$ "r t s]ves z a base = all o!rs4 ,?is "r1 h[ev]1 does n arise f nature2 x is f\nd$1 !re=e1 ^u conv5tions4 ,x is necess>y1 !n1 to "k :at ^! conv5tions are4 ,! explanation ( social ord] is n to be f\nd 9 ! family tie1 s9ce1 :5 a *ild gr[s up x escapes f tutelage2 ! p>5ts' "r to ex]cise au?ority is only tempor>y4 ,nor c gov]nm5t be bas$ on s]vitude4 ,an individual man may sell 8 lib]ty to ano!r = su/5ance2 b a nation _c sell its lib]ty--x does n receive su/5ance f its rul]1 b on ! contr>y su/a9s him4 ,a b>ga9 9 :i* "o p>ty ga9s ev]y?+ & ! o!r loses ev]y?+ is pla9ly no b>ga9 at all1 & no claim ( "r c be f\nd$ on x4 ,b ev5 suppos+ t a p c\ld ?us give up its lib]ty to a rul]1 x mu/ be a p be=e x does s4 ,! gift is a civil act1 :i* pre-supposes a public delib]ation4 ,be=e1 !n1 we exam9e ! act by :i* a p *ooses a k+1 x w\ld be well to exam9e ! act by :i* a p becomes a p2 = ?is act1 :i* necess>ily prec$es ! o!r1 mu/ be ! true f\ndation ( society4 ,let x be assum$ t ! ob/acles :i* prejudice ! cons]vation ( man 9 a /ate ( nature h prevail$ by _! resi/ance ov] ! =ces :i* ea* individual is able to employ to keep himself 9 t /ate4 ,! primitive condition c !n no long] exi/2 mank9d mu/ *ange x or p]i%4 ,! problem ) :i* m5 are confront$ "u ^! circum/ances may be /at$ z foll[s--,to f9d a =m ( association t def5ds & protects ) all ! common =ce ! p]son & prop]ty ( ea* p>tn]1 & by :i* ea* p>tn]1 unit+ himself ) all ! re/1 nev]!less obeys only himself1 & rema9s z free z h]et(ore4 ,?is is ! fundam5tal problem to :i* ! ,social ,contract af=ds a solution4 ,! clauses ( ?is contract are det]m9$ by ! nature ( ! act 9 su* a mann] t ! lea/ modification r5d]s !m ( no effect2 s t1 ev5 :5 !y h n be5 =mally /at$1 !y are ev]y:]e ! same1 ev]y:]e tacitly ackn[l$g$2 & if ! compact is violat$1 ev]yone returns =?) to 8 natural lib]ty4 ,! ess5ce ( ! pact is ! total & unres]v$ ali5ation by ea* p>tn] ( all 8 rights to ! community z a :ole4 ,no individual c reta9 any rights t are n possess$ equally by all o!r individuals )\t ! contract be+ !reby violat$4 ,aga91 ea* p>tn]1 by yield+ 8 rights to ! community1 yields !m to no individual1 & ?us 9 8 relations ) individuals he rega9s all ! rights he has sacrific$4 ,! compact1 !re=e1 may be r$uc$ to ! foll[+ t]ms--ea* ( u places 9 common 8 p]son & all 8 p[] "u ! supreme direction ( ! g5]al w2 & we receive ea* memb] z an indivisible "p ( ! :ole4 ,by ?is act is creat$ a moral & collective body1 compos$ ( z _m memb]s z ! society has voices1 receiv+ f ?is same act its unity1 its common ,i1 its life1 & its w4 ,?is body is ! ,republic1 call$ by its memb]s ! /ate1 ! /ate :5 passive1 ! sov]eign :5 active1 a p[] 9 its relations ) simil> bodies4 ,! p>tn]s are collectively call$ ! p2 !y are citiz5s1 z p>ticipants 9 ! sov]eign au?ority1 & subjects z "u obligation to ! laws ( ! /ate4 ,! sov]eign1 !n1 is ! g5]al w2 & ea* individual f9ds himself engag$ 9 a d\ble relation%ip--z a memb] ( ! sov]eign4 ,to ! g5]al w ea* p>tn] mu/1 by ! t]ms ( ! contract1 submit himself1 )\t respect to 8 private incl9ations4 ,if he refuses to submit1 ! sov]eign w compel him to d s2 :i* is z mu* z to say1 t x w =ce him to be free2 = 9 ! supremacy ( ! g5]al w lies ! only gu>antee to ea* citiz5 ( fre$om f p]sonal dep5d5ce4 ,by pass+1 ?r\gh ! compact1 f ! /ate ( nature to ! civil /ate1 man sub/itutes ju/ice = in/9ct 9 8 conduct1 & gives to 8 actions a morality ( :i* !y 7 =m]ly devoid4 ,:at man loses by ! contract is 8 natural lib]ty1 & an illimitable "r to all t tempts him & t he c obta92 :at he ga9s is civil lib]ty1 & a "r ( secure prop]ty 9 all t he possesses4 ,i %all conclude ?is *apt] ) a rem>k :i* %\ld s]ve z a basis = ! :ole social sy/em2 x is t 9 place ( de/roy+ natural lib]ty1 ! fundam5tal pact sub/itutes a moral & legitimate equality = ! natural physical inequality betwe5 m51 & t1 :ile m5 may be unequal 9 /r5g? & tal5t1 !y are all made equal by conv5tion & "r4 ,! ,sov]eign & ! ,laws ,! fir/ & mo/ important consequ5ce ( ! pr9ciples above e/abli%$ is t only ! g5]al w c direct ! =ces ( ! /ate t[>ds ! aim ( its in/itutions1 :i* is ! common good2 = if ! antagonism ( p>ticul> int]e/s has r5d]$ necess>y ! e/abli%m5t ( political societies1 x is ! accord ( ^! int]e/s t has r5d]$ su* societies possible4 ,i ma9ta91 !n1 t sov]eignty1 be+ ! ex]cise ( ! g5]al w1 _c be ali5at$1 & t ! sov]eign1 :i* is simply a collective be+1 _c be repres5t$ save by itself2 x may transf] its p[]1 b n its w4 ,= ! same reason t sov]eignty is inali5able1 x is indivisible4 ,= ! w is ei!r g5]al or x is n4 ,if x is g5]al1 x is1 :5 decl>$1 an act ( ! p1 & becomes law2 if x is n g5]al1 x is1 :5 decl>$1 m]ely an act ( a p>ticul> p]son or p]sons1 n ( ! sov]eign4 ,! g5]al w is infallible2 b ! delib]ations ( ! p are n necess>ily s4 ,! p may be1 & (t5 are1 deceiv$4 ,p>ticul> int]e/s may ga9 an advantage ov] g5]al int]e/s1 & 9 t case ! rival p>ticul> int]e/s %\ld be all[$ to de/roy ea* o!r1 s t ! true g5]al int]e/ may prevail4 ,9 ord] to secure ! cle> expression ( ! g5]al w1 !re %\ld be no p>ties or gr\ps )9 ! /ate2 if su* gr\ps exi/1 !y %\ld be multipli$ 9 numb]1 s t no "o p>ty %\ld get ! upp] h&4 ,:ile1 "u ! contract1 ea* p]son ali5ates 8 p[]1 8 goods1 & 8 lib]ty1 he only ali5ates s mu* ( ^! z are ( conc]n to ! community2 b x belongs to ! sov]eign to det]m9e :at is ( conc]n to ! community & :at is n4 ,:atsoev] s]vices a citiz5 owes to ! /ate1 he owes !m directly ! sov]eign dem&s !m2 b ! sov]eign1 on its "p1 mu/ n *>ge its citiz5s ) any obligations useless to ! community2 =1 "u ! law ( reason1 no?+ is done )\t cause1 any m ?an "u ! law ( nature4 ,! g5]al w1 let x be repeat$1 t5ds always to public utility1 & is intr9sically incapable ( dem&+ s]vices n useful to ! public4 ,a law is an expression ( a g5]al w1 & mu/ be g5]al 9 its t]ms & import4 ,! sov]eign _c legislate = "p ( ! individuals compos+ ! /ate1 = if x did s ! g5]al w w\ld ent] into a p>ticul> relation ) p>ticul> p1 & t is contr>y to its nature4 ,! law may ?us conf] privileges1 b mu/ n "n ! p]sons to :om ! privileges are to belong4 ,x may e/abli% a royal gov]nm5t1 b mu/ n nom9ate a k+4 ,any function relat+ to an individual object does n app]ta9 to ! legislative p[]4 ,z a popul> assembly is n always enlight5$1 ?\gh ! g5]al w :5 prop]ly asc]ta9$1 mu/ be "r--! s]vice ( a wise legislator is necess>y to draw up laws ) ! sov]eign's approval4 ,! legislator1 if he be truly wise1 w n beg9 by writ+ d[n laws v good 9 ! ab/ract1 b w fir/ look ab\t to see :e!r ! p = :om he int5ds !m is capable ( uphold+ !m4 ,he mu/ be> 9 m9d _m consid]ations--! situation ( ! c\ntry--! nature ( ! soil--! d5sity ( ! population--! national hi/ory1 occupations1 & aptitudes4 ,among ^! consid]ations "o ( ! mo/ important is ! area ( ! /ate4 ,z nature has giv5 limits to ! /ature ( a normal man1 beyond %e makes only giants or dw>fs1 !re are also limits beyond :i* a /ate is1 9 ! "o direction1 too l>ge to be well-gov]n$1 &1 9 ! o!r1 too small to ma9ta9 itself4 ,!re is 9 e body politic a maximum ( =ce :i* _c be exce$$1 & f :i* ! /ate (t5 falls away by ! process ( enl>g+ itself4 ,! fur!r ! social bond is ext5d$1 ! slack] x becomes2 &1 9 g5]al1 a small /ate is proportionately /rong] ?an a l>ge "o4 ,x is true t a /ate mu/ h a c]ta9 bread? ( base = ! sake ( solidity1 & 9 ord] to resi/ viol5t %ocks f )\t4 ,b1 on ! o!r h&1 adm9i/ration becomes m tr\blesome ) di/ance4 ,x increases 9 burd5som5ess1 moreov]1 ) ! multiplication ( degrees4 ,ea* t[n1 di/rict1 & prov9ce1 has its adm9i/ration1 = :i* ! p mu/ pay4 ,f9ally1 ov]:elm+ ev]y?+1 is ! remote c5tral adm9i/ration4 ,aga9 ! gov]nm5t 9 a l>ge /ate has less vig\r & swiftness ?an 9 a small] "o2 ! p h less affection = _! *iefs1 _! c\ntry1 & = ea* o!r--s9ce !y are1 = ! mo/ "p1 /rang]s to ea* o!r4 ,uni=m laws are n suitable = div]se prov9ces4 ,yet div]se laws among p belong+ to ! same /ate1 bre$ weakness & confusion1 = a heal?y & well-knit con/itution1 9 brief1 x is wis] to c\nt ^u ! vig\r t is born ( good gov]nm5t ?an ^u ! res\rces suppli$ by greatness ( t]ritory4 ,! greate/ good ( all1 :i* %\ld be ! aim ( e sy/em ( legislation1 may1 on inve/igation1 be r$uc$ to two ma9 objects1 lib]ty & equality3 lib]ty1 because all dep5d5ce ( individuals on o!r individuals is s mu* =ce tak5 away f ! body ( ! /ate2 equality1 because )\t x lib]ty _c exi/4 ,b ^! g5]al objects ( e good in/itution %\ld be regulat$ 9 e c\ntry 9 accord ) its situation & ! "* ( its inhabitants4 ,nations ) ri* t]ritories1 = example1 %\ld be l$ to devote !mselves to agriculture2 manufactur+ indu/ry %\ld be left to /]ile l&s4 ,t :i* r5d]s ! con/itution ( ! /ate g5u9ely solid & endurable is ! judici\s adaptation ( laws to natural conditions4 ,a conflict betwe5 ! two t5ds to de/ruction2 b :5 ! laws are 9 sympa?y ) ! natural conditions1 :5 !y keep 9 t\* ) !m1 & improve !m1 ! /ate %\ld prosp]4 ,! ,gov]nm5t ,e free action has two causes :i* concur to produce x3 "o ( !m ! w t det]m9es ^u ! act1 ! o!r ! p[] t p]=ms x4 ,9 ! political body1 "o mu/ di/+ui% betwe5 ^! two--! legislative p[] & ! executive p[]4 ,! executive p[] _c belong to ! sov]eign1 inasmu* z executive acts are p>ticul> acts1 aim$ at individuals1 & !re=e1 z already expla9$1 outside ! sov]eign's sph]e4 ,public =ce1 !n1 requires an ag5t to apply x1 accord+ to ! direction ( ! g5]al w4 ,?is is ! gov]nm5t1 errone\sly conf\nd$ ) ! sov]eign1 ( :i* x is only ! m9i/]4 ,x is an int]m$i>y body1 e/abli%$ betwe5 subject & sov]eign = _! mutual correspond5ce1 *>g$ ) ! execution ( ! laws & ! ma9t5ance ( civil & political lib]ty4 ,! magi/rates :o =m ! gov]nm5t may be num]\s1 or may be few2 &1 g5]ally speak+1 ! few] ! magi/rates ! /rong] ! gov]nm5t4 ,a magi/rate has ?ree wills3 8 p]sonal w1 8 w z "o ( ! gov]nors1 & 8 w z a memb] ( ! sov]eign4 ,! la/ nam$ is ! weake/1 ! fir/ nam$ ! mo/ p[]ful4 ,if !re is only "o gov]nor1 ! two /rong] wills are conc5trat$ 9 "o man2 ) a few gov]nors1 !y are conc5trat$ 9 few m52 :5 ! gov]nm5t is 9 ! h&s ( all ! citiz5s1 ! second w is oblit]at$1 & ! fir/ widely di/ribut$1 & ! gov]nm5t is consequ5tly weak4 ,on ! o!r h&1 :]e !re are _m gov]nors1 ! gov]nm5t w be m readily kept 9 correspond5ce ) ! g5]al w4 ,! duty ( ! legislator is to hit ! happy m$ium at :i* ! gov]nm5t1 :ile n fail+ 9 /r5g?1 is yet prop]ly submissive to ! sov]eign4 ,! sov]eign may1 9 ! fir/ place1 entru/ ! gov]nm5t to ! :ole p1 or ! great] "p ( !m2 ?is =m is call$ democracy4 ,or x may be plac$ 9 ! h&s ( a m9ority1 9 :i* case x is call$ ! ari/ocracy4 ,or x may be conc5trat$ 9 ! h&s ( a s+le magi/rate1 f :om all ! o!rs d]ive _! p[]2 ?is is call$ mon>*y4 ,x may be urg$1 on behalf ( democracy1 t ^? :o make ! laws "k bett] ?an anybody h[ !y %\ld be int]pret$ & adm9i/]$4 ,b x is n "r t ! mak]s ( ! laws %\ld execute !m1 nor t ! ma9 body ( ! p %\ld turn its att5tion f g5]al views to p>ticul> objects4 ,no?+ is m dang]\s ?an ! influ5ce ( private int]e/s on public affairs4 ,a true democracy1 9 ! rigor\s s5se ( ! t]m1 nev] has exi/$ & nev] w4 ,a p compos$ ( gods w\ld gov]n itself democratically4 ,a gov]nm5t s p]fect is unsuit$ to m54 ,!re are ?ree =ms ( ari/ocracy3 natural1 elective1 & h]$it>y4 ,! fir/ is only adapt$ to simple p2 ! ?ird is ! wor/ ( all gov]nm5ts2 ! second is ! be/ ( all4 ,by ! elective me?od1 probity1 sagacity1 exp]i5ce1 & all o!r s\rces ( pref]5ce & public e/eem af=d gu>antees t ! community w be wisely gov]n$4 ,! fir/ defect ( mon>*y is t x is to ! int]e/s ( ! mon>* to keep ! p 9 a /ate ( mis]y & weakness1 s t !y may be unable to resi/ 8 p[]4 ,ano!r is t "u a mon>*y ! po/s ( hon\r are occupi$ by bungl]s & rascals :o w9 _! promotion by petty c\rt intrigue4 ,aga91 an elective mon>*y is a cause ( disord] :5ev] a k+ dies2 & a h]$it>y mon>*y leaves ! "* ( ! k+ to *ance1 :i*1 z ev]y?+ t5ds to deprive ( ju/ice & reason a man tra9$ to supreme rule1 g5]ally goes a/ray4 ,! "q z to :e!r !re is any sign by :i* we c tell :e!r a p is well or ill gov]n$ readily admits ( a solution4 ,:at is ! sure/ tok5 ( ! pres]vation & prosp]ity ( a political community8 ,x is to be f\nd 9 ! population4 ,o!r ?+s be+ equal1 ! gov]nm5t "u :i*1 )\t extr9sic devices1 )\t naturalisation1 )\t colonies1 ! citiz5s increase & multiply1 is infallibly ! be/4 ,calculators1 x is !re=e y\r affair2 c\nt1 measure1 comp>e4 ,z p>ticul> wills /rive unceas+ly aga9/ ! g5]al w1 s ! gov]nm5t makes a cont9ual attack ^u ! sov]eign4 ,if ! gov]nm5t is able1 by its ef=ts1 to usurp ! sov]eignty1 !n ! social contract is brok52 ! citiz5s1 :o h by "r be5 !reby re/or$ to _! natural lib]ty1 may be =c$ to obey ! usurp]1 b are "u no o!r obligation to d s4 ,s9ce ! sov]eign has no p[] except its legislative au?ority1 x only acts by laws2 & s9ce ! laws are simply ! au!ntic acts ( ! g5]al w1 ! sov]eign _c act save :5 ! p are assembl$4 ,x is ess5tial t !re %\ld be def9itely fix$ p]iodic assemblies ( ! p t _c be aboli%$ or delay$1 s t on ! appo9t$ day ! p w\ld be legitimately convok$ by ! law1 )\t ne$ ( any =mal summons4 ,i may be ask$1 h[ are ! citiz5s ( a l>ge /ate1 compos$ ( _m communities1 to hold frequ5t meet+s8 ,i reply t x is useless to quote ! disadvantages ( l>ge /ates to "o :o consid]s t all /ates ought to be small4 ,b h[ are small /ates to def5d !mselves aga9/ l>ge ones8 ,by conf$]ation1 aft] ! mann] ( ! ,greek & anci5t times1 & ! ,dut* & ,swiss 9 times m mod]n4 ,b betwe5 ! sov]eign au?ority & arbitr>y gov]nm5t !re is sometimes introduc$ a middle p[] ( :i* ,i ought to speak4 ,z soon z ! public s]vice ceases to be ! ma9 int]e/ ( ! citiz5s1 z soon z !y pref] to s]ve _! purses r ?an !mselves1 ! /ate is ne>+ its ru94 ,! weak5+ ( patriotism1 ! activity ( private int]e/s1 ! imm5sity ( /ates1 conque/s1 & ! abuse ( gov]nm5t1 h l$ to ! device ( deputies or repres5tatives ( ! p 9 ! national assemblies4 ,b sov]eignty _c be repres5t$1 ev5 z x _c be ali5at$2 x consi/s ess5tially 9 ! g5]al w1 & ! w is n asc]ta9able by repres5tation2 x is ei!r itself1 or some?+ else2 !re is no middle c\rse4 ,a law n ratifi$ by ! p 9 p]son is no law at all4 ,! ,engli% p believes itself free1 b x greatly deceives itself2 x is n s1 except dur+ ! election ( memb]s ( p>liam5t4 ,z soon z !y are elect$1 x is enslav$1 x is no?+4 ,h[ are we to conceive ! act by :i* ! gov]nm5t is in/itut$8 ,! fir/ process is ! det]m9ation ( ! sov]eign1 t ! gov]nm5t %all assume su* & su* a =m2 ?is is ! e/abli%m5t ( a law4 ,! second process is ! nom9ation by ! p ( ^? to :om ! gov]nm5t is to be entru/$2 ?is is n a law1 b a p>ticul> act1 a function ( gov]nm5t4 ,h[1 !n1 c we h an act ( gov]nm5t be=e ! gov]nm5t exi/s8 ,h[ c ! p1 :o are only sov]eigns or subjects1 become magi/rates "u c]ta9 circum/ances8 ,"h we discov] "o ( ^? a/oni%+ prop]ties ( ! body politic1 by :i* x reconciles op]ations app>5tly contradictory2 = ! process is accompli%$ by a sudd5 conv]sion f sov]eignty to democracy1 s t1 ) no s5sible *ange1 & simply by a new relation ( all to all1 ! citiz5s become magi/rates1 pass f g5]al to p>tiacts1 & f ! law to its execution4 ,9 ?is mann] ! ,engli% ,h\se ( ,commons resolves itself into committee1 & ?us becomes a simple commission ( ! sov]eign c\rt :i* x 0 a mom5t be=e2 aft]w>ds report+ to itself1 z ,h\se ( ,commons1 z to its proce$+s 9 ! =m ( a committee4 ,x is a logical sequ5ce ( ! ,social ,contract t 9 ! assemblies ( ! p ! voice ( ! majority prevails4 ,! only law requir+ unanimity is ! contract itself4 ,b h[ c a man be free & at ! same "t compell$ to submit to laws to :i* he has n cons5t$8 ,i reply t :5 a law is propos$ 9 ! popul> assembly1 ! "q put is n precisely :e!r ! citiz5s approve or disapprove ( x1 b :e!r x con=ms or n to ! g5]al w4 ,! m9ority1 !n1 simply h x prov$ to !m t !y e/imat$ ! g5]al w wrongly4 ,once x is decl>$1 !y are z citiz5s p>ticipants 9 x1 & z subjects !y mu/ obey x4 ,civil ,religion ,religion1 9 its relation to society1 c be divid$ into two k9ds--! religion ( ! man1 & t ( ! citiz54 ,! fir/1 )\t temples1 )\t alt>s1 )\t rites1 limit$ to ! inn] & private wor%ip ( ! ,supreme ,god1 & to ! et]nal duties ( morality1 is ! pure & simple religion ( ! ,evangel1 ! true !ism4 ,! o!r1 e/abli%$ 9 "o c\ntry only1 gives t c\ntry its own gods1 its own tutel>y patrons2 x has its own dogmas & ritual1 & all =eign]s are deem$ to be infidels4 ,su* 7 all ! religions ( ! primitive peoples4 ,!re is a ?ird & m ecc5tric k9d ( religion1 :i*1 giv+ m5 two legislations1 two *iefs1 two c\ntries1 imposes ^u !m contradictory duties1 & =bids !m f be+ at ! same "t devotees & patriots4 ,su* is ! religion ( ! ,llamas2 su* is ! religion ( ! ,japanese2 su* is ,roman ,*ri/ianity4 ,politically consid]$1 all ^! k9ds h _! defects4 ,! ?ird is s manife/ly bad t "o ne$ wa/e no "t ^u x4 ,t :i* breaks social unity is wor?less4 ,! second is good1 9 t x inculcates patriotism1 makes x a religi\s duty to s]ve ! /ate4 ,b x is f\nd$ on error & falsehood1 & r5d]s its adh]5ts sup]/iti\s1 intol]ant1 & cruel4 ,! fir/1 ! religion ( man1 or ,*ri/ianity1 is a sublime & true religion by :i* m51 *ildr5 ( "o god1 ackn[l$ge ea* o!r z bre?r51 & ! society t unites !m does n dissolve ev5 ) dea?4 ,b ,*ri/ianity ( itself is n calculat$ to /r5g!n a nation2 x tea*es submissiv5ess1 & disc\rages patriotic pride4 ,n[ x is ( prime importance to ! /ate t ea* citiz5 %\ld h a religion :i* tea*es him to love 8 duty2 b ! /ate is only conc]n$ ) religion s f> z x tea*es morality & ! duty ( man t[>ds 8 neighb\r4 ,beyond t1 ! sov]eign has no?+ to d ) a man's religi\s op9ions4 ,!re %\ld1 !re=e1 be a purely civil pr(ession ( fai?1 ! articles ( :i* are to be fix$ by ! sov]eign1 n precisely z religi\s dogmas1 b z s5tim5ts ( sociability1 )\t :i* x is impossible = a man to be a good citiz5 or a fai?ful subject4 ,)\t be+ able to compel anybody to believe ! articles1 ! sov]eign c\ld bani% f ! /ate anybody :o did n believe !m2 x c bani% him1 n z impi\s1 b z unsociable1 z incapable ( s9c]ely lov+ laws & ju/ice4 ,if anyone1 hav+ publicly accept$ ^! dogmas1 %\ld act z if he did n believe !m1 he %\ld be puni%$ ) dea?2 he w\ld h committ$ ! greate/ ( crimes1 t ( ly+ aga9/ ! laws4 ,! dogmas ( ! civil religion %\ld be simple1 few1 precise1 )\t explanations or comm5t>ies4 ,! exi/5ce ( a p[]ful1 wise1 b5evol5t1 provid5t1 & b\ntiful ,deity1 ! life to come1 ! happ9ess ( ! j1 ! puni%m5t ( ! wick$1 ! sanctity ( ! social contract1 & ! laws2 ^! are ! positive dogmas4 ,z = negative dogmas1 ,i limit !m to "o2 ,i w\ld h e good citiz5 =swe> intol]ance 9 religion4 ,aft] hav+ laid d[n ! true pr9ciples ( political rights1 & s\ght to place ! /ate ^u its prop] basis1 x %\ld rema9 to support x by its ext]nal relations--int]national law1 comm]ce1 & s on4 ,b ?is =ms a new aim too va/ = my limit$ view2 ,i h _h to fix my eyes on objects ne>] at h&4 ,,adam ,,smi? ,weal? ( ,nations ,adam ,smi?1 greate/ ( discov]]s 9 ! sci5ce ( ,political ,economy1 0 born at ,kirkcaldy1 ,scotl&1 on ,june #e1 #agbc1 aft] ! dea? ( 8 fa!r1 :o _h be5 ,comptroll] ( ,cu/oms at t port4 ,he 0 educat$ at ,kirkcaldy ,gramm> ,s*ool1 !n at ,glasg[ ,univ]sity1 & f9ally at ,balliol ,college1 ,ox=d1 :]e he /udi$ = sev5 ye>s4 ,f #agdh he resid$ 9 ,ed9burgh1 :]e he made a close fri5d%ip ) ,david ,hume1 & gave a c\rse ( lectures on lit]ature2 9 #agea he became pr(essor ( ,logic 9 ,glasg[ ,univ]sity1 & 9 ! foll[+ ye> pr(essor ( ,moral ,philosophy4 ,a philosophical treatise entitl$ ,a ,!ory ( ,moral ,s5tim5ts1 publi%$ 9 #agei1 has no long] any int]e/2 b x 0 dur+ 8 ?irte5 ye>s' resid5ce 9 ,glasg[ t ,smi? arriv$ at ! pr9ciples =mulat$ 9 8 immortal ,inquiry into ! ,nature & ,causes ( ! ,weal? ( ,nations4 ,he left ,glasg[ 9 #agfc to become ! tutor ( ! y\?ful ,duke ( ,buccleu*1 ) :om he liv$ at ,t\l\se1 ,g5eva & ,p>is1 /udy+ ! politics & economics ( ,france on ! eve ( ! ,revolution4 ,9 #agff ,adam ,smi? retir$ to ,kirkcaldy1 ) an annuity f ! ,buccleu* family2 devot$ himself to 8 life's "w2 & 9 #aggf publi%$ ! ,weal? ( ,nations1 :i* at once a*iev$ a p]man5t reputation4 ,! au?or 0 appo9t$1 9 #aggh1 ,commission] ( ,cu/oms = ,scotl&1 & di$ on ,july #ag1 #agij4 ,adam ,smi? 0 a man ( va/ le>n+ & ( great simplicity & k9dl9ess ( "*4 ,8 reason+s h _h va/ influ5ce n only on ! sci5ce ( ,economics b also on practical politics2 8 p[]ful def5ce ( free trade1 & 8 indictm5t ( ! ,ea/ ,india ,company h especially modifi$ ! hi/ory ( 8 c\ntry4 ,i4--,lab\r & ,its ,produce ,! division ( lab\r has be5 ! *ief cause ( improvem5t 9 ! productiv5ess ( lab\r4 ,= in/ance1 ! mak+ ( a s+le p9 involves eighte5 sep>ate op]ations1 :i* are entru/$ to eighte5 sep>ate workm52 & ! result is1 t :]eas "o man work+ alone c\ld only make p]haps tw5ty p9s 9 a day1 sev]al m5 work+ toge!r1 on ! pr9ciple ( division ( lab\r1 c make sev]al ?\s&s ( p9s p] man 9 "o day4 ,division ( lab\r1 9 a highly develop$ /ate ( society1 is c>ri$ into almo/ e practical art2 & its great b5efits dep5d ^u ! increase ( dext]ity 9 ea* workman1 ^u ! sav+ ( "t o!rwise lo/ 9 pass+ f "o k9d ( "w to ano!r1 & f9ally1 ^u ! use ( _m lab\r-sav+ ma*9es1 :i* is made possible by ! division ( lab\r4 ,?is division ( lab\r1 f :i* s _m advantages are d]iv$1 is n orig9ally ! effect ( any human wisdom :i* =esees & int5ds ! opul5ce to :i* x gives rise2 x is r ! gradual result ( ! prop5sity1 9 human nature1 to b>t] & ex*ange "o ?+ = ano!r4 ,! p[] ( ex*ang+ _! respective produce makes x possible = "o man to produce only bread1 & = ano!r to produce only clo?+4 ,! ext5t to :i* ! division ( lab\r c be c>ri$ is !re=e limit$ by ! ext5t ( ! m>ket4 ,!re are "s sorts ( indu/ry1 ev5 ( ! l[e/ k9d1 :i* c be c>ri$ on n[h]e b 9 a great t[n2 a port]1 = example1 _c f9d employm5t & subsi/5ce 9 a village4 ,9 ! highl&s ( ,scotl& e f>m] mu/ be but*]1 bak]1 & brew] = 8 own family4 ,z wat]-c>riage op5s a m ext5sive m>ket to e k9d ( indu/ry ?an is af=d$ by l&-c>riage1 x is on ! sea coa/ & on ! banks ( navigable riv]s1 t indu/ry beg9s to subdivide & improve itself1 & x is riot till long aft]w>ds t ^! improvem5ts ext5d to ! inl& p>ts4 ,x 0 ?us t ! e>lie/ civilis$ nations 7 gr\p$ r\nd ! coa/s ( ! ,m$it]ranean ,sea2 & ! ext5t & eas9ess ( its inl& navigation 0 probably ! *ief cause ( ! e>ly improvem5t ( ,egypt4 ,z soon z ! division ( lab\r is well e/abli%$1 e man becomes 9 "s measure a m]*ant1 & ! society becomes a comm]cial society2 & ! cont9ual process ( ex*ange leads inevitably to ! orig9 ( money4 ,9 ! abs5ce ( money or a g5]al m$ium ( ex*ange1 society w\ld be re/rict$ to ! cumb]some me?od ( b>t]4 ,e man !re=e w\ld e>ly endeav\r to keep by him1 besides ! produce ( 8 own indu/ry1 a c]ta9 quantity ( "s commodity su* z o!r p w be likely to take 9 ex*ange = ! produce ( _! p>ticul> indu/ries4 ,cattle1 = example1 h be5 widely us$ = ?is purpose 9 primitive societies1 & ,hom] speaks ( a suit ( arm\r co/+ a hundr$ ox54 ,b ! durability ( metals1 z well z ! facility ) :i* !y c be subdivid$1 has l$ to _! employm5t1 9 all c\ntries1 z ! means ( ex*ange2 & 9 ord] to obviate ! necessity ( weigh+ portions ( ! metals at e pur*ase1 z well z to prev5t fraud1 x has be5 f\nd necess>y to affix a public /amp ^u c]ta9 quantities ( ! metals commonly us$ to pur*ase goods4 ,! value ( commodities ?us comes to be express$ 9 t]ms ( co9age4 ,b lab\r is ! real measure ( ! ex*angeable value ( all commodities2 ! value ( any commodity to ! p]son :o possesses x is equal to ! quantity ( lab\r :i* x enables him to pur*ase or to comm&4 ,:at is b\ght ) money or ) goods is pur*as$ by lab\r z mu* z :at we acquire by ! toil ( our own body4 ,lab\r alone1 nev] v>y+ 9 its own value1 is alone ! ultimate & real /&>d by :i* ! value ( all commodities c at all times & 9 all places be e/imat$ & comp>$4 ,x is _! real price2 money is _! nom9al price only4 ,equal quantities ( lab\r w at di/ant times be pur*as$ m ne>ly ) equal quantities ( corn1 ! subsi/5ce ( ! lab\r]1 ?an ) equal quantities ( gold1 or ( any o!r commodity4 ,sev]al elem5ts ent] into ! price ( commodities4 ,9 a nation ( hunt]s1 if x co/s twice ! lab\r to kill a beav] :i* x co/s to kill a de]1 "o beav] w be wor? two de]4 ,b if ! "o k9d ( lab\r be m sev]e ?an ! o!r1 "s all[ance w naturally be made = ?is sup]ior h>d%ip2 & ?irdly1 if "o k9d ( lab\r requires an uncommon degree ( dext]ity & +5uity1 x w comm& a high] value ?an t :i* w\ld be due to ! "t employ$ 9 x4 ,s f>1 ! :ole produce ( lab\r belongs to ! lab\r]4 ,b z soon z /ock has accumulat$ 9 ! h&s ( p>ticul> p]sons1 "s ( !m w employ x 9 sett+ to "w indu/ri\s workm51 :om !y w supply ) mat]ials & subsi/5ce1 9 ord] to make a pr(it by ! sale ( _! "w4 ,! pr(its ( /ock are n to be reg>d$ z ! wages ( a p>ticul> sort ( lab\r1 ! lab\r ( inspection & direction2 = !y are regulat$ altoge!r by ! value ( ! /ock employ$1 & are great] or small] 9 proportion to ! ext5t ( ?is /ock4 ,!re is 9 e society or neighb\rhood an ord9>y or av]age rate bo? ( wages & pr(it 9 e diff]5t employm5t ( lab\r & /ock2 & ?is rate is regulat$ p>tly by ! g5]al circum/ances ( ! society1 its ri*ness or pov]ty1 & p>tly by ! peculi> nature ( ea* employm5t4 ,!re is also 9 e society or neighb\rhood an ord9>y or av]age rate ( r5t1 :i* is regulat$ too by ! g5]al circum/ances ( ! society or neighb\rhood 9 :i* ! l& is situat$1 & p>tly by ! natural or improv$ f]tility ( ! l&4 ,:at we may call ! natural price ( any commodity dep5ds ^u ^! natural rates ( wages1 pr(it & r5t1 at ! place :]e x is produc$4 ,b its m>ket price may be above1 bel[1 or id5tical ) its natural price1 & dep5ds ^u ! proportion betwe5 ! supply & ! dem&4 ,,ii4--,nature1 ,accumulation1 & ,employm5t ( ,/ock ,:5 ! /ock :i* a man possesses is no m ?an suffici5t to ma9ta9 him = a few days or weeks1 he seldom ?9ks ( d]iv+ any rev5ue f x2 b :5 he possesses en\gh to ma9ta9 him = mon?s or ye>s1 he endeav\rs to d]ive a rev5ue f ! great] "p ( x4 ,! "p ( 8 /ock f :i* he expects to d]ive rev5ue is call$ 8 capital4 ,!re are two ways 9 :i* capital may be employ$ s z to yield a pr(it to its employ]4 ,fir/1 x may be employ$ 9 rais+1 manufactur+1 or pur*as+ goods1 & sell+ !m aga9 ) a pr(it2 ?is is circulat+ capital4 ,secondly1 x may be employ$ 9 ! improvem5t ( l&1 or 9 ! pur*ase ( ma*9es & in/rum5ts2 & ?is capital1 :i* yields a pr(it f objects :i* d n *ange ma/]s1 is call$ fix$ capital4 ,! g5]al /ock ( any c\ntry or society is ! same z t ( all its inhabitants or memb]s1 & is !re=e divid$ into ! same ?ree portions1 ea* ( :i* has a diff]5t function4 ,! fir/ is ! portion :i* is res]v$ = imm$iate consumption1 & s af=ds no rev5ue or pr(it4 ,! second is ! fix$ capital1 :i* consi/s ( 7a7 all useful ma*9es & in/rum5ts ( trade :i* facilitate & abridge lab\r2 7b7 all pr(itable build+s1 :i* procure a rev5ue1 n only to _! own]1 b also to ! p]son :o r5ts !m1 su* z %ops1 w>eh\ses1 f>mh\ses1 factories1 c42 7c7 ! improvem5ts ( l&1 & all t has be5 laid out 9 cle>+1 dra9+1 enclos+1 manur+1 & r$uc+ x into ! condition mo/ prop] = culture2 & 7d7 ! acquir$ & useful abilities ( all ! inhabitants or memb]s ( ! society1 = ! acquisition ( su* tal5ts1 by ! ma9t5ance ( ! le>n] dur+ 8 education or appr5tice%ip1 co/s a real exp5se1 :i* is a capital fix$ 9 8 p]son4 ,! ?ird & la/ ( ! ?ree portions into :i* ! g5]al /ock ( ! society naturally divides itself is ! circulat+ capital1 :i* af=ds a rev5ue only by *ang+ ma/]s4 ,x includes 7a7 all ! money by means ( :i* all ! o!r ?ree are circulat$ & di/ribut$ to _! prop] consum]s2 7b7 all ! /ock ( provisions :i* are 9 ! possession ( ! but*]1 f>m]1 corn-m]*ant1 c41 & f ! sale ( :i* !y expect to d]ive a pr(it2 7c7 all ! mat]ials1 :e!r altoge!r rude1 or m or less manufactur$1 = clo!s1 furniture & build+1 :i* are n yet made up into any ( ^! %apes1 b rema9 9 ! h&s ( ! gr[]s1 manufactur]s & m]*ants2 & 7d7 all ! "w :i* is made up & complet$1 b is n yet dispos$ ( to ! prop] consum]s4 ,! sub/itution ( pap] 9 ! place ( gold & silv] money replaces a v exp5sive in/rum5t ( comm]ce by "o mu* less co/ly1 & sometimes equally conv5i5t4 ,circulation comes to be c>ri$ on by a new :eel1 :i* x co/s less bo? to erect & to ma9ta9 ?an ! old "o4 ,! effect ( ! issue ( l>ge quantities ( bank-notes 9 any c\ntry is to s5d abroad ! gold1 :i* is no long] ne$$ at home1 9 ord] t x may seek pr(itable employm5t4 ,x is n s5t abroad = no?+1 b is ex*ang$ = =eign goods ( v>i\s k9ds 9 su* a way z to add to ! rev5ue & pr(its ( ! c\ntry f :i* x is s5t2 unless1 inde$1 x is sp5t abroad on su* goods z are likely to be consum$ by idle p :o produce no?+4 ,,iii4--,! ,progress ( ,opul5ce 9 ,diff]5t ,nations ,! greate/ comm]ce ( e civilis$ society is t c>ri$ on betwe5 ! inhabitants ( ! t[n & ^? ( ! c\ntry4 ,x consi/s 9 ! ex*ange ( rude = manufactur$ produce1 ei!r imm$iately1 or by ! int]v5tion ( money1 or ( "s sort ( pap] :i* repres5ts money4 ,! c\ntry supplies ! t[n ) ! means ( subsi/5ce1 & ! mat]ials = manufacture4 ,! t[n repays ?is supply by s5d+ back a "p ( ! manufactur$ produce to ! inhabitants ( ! c\ntry4 ,! t[n1 9 :i* !re nei!r is nor c be any reproduction ( sub/ances1 may v prop]ly be said to ga9 its :ole subsi/5ce f ! c\ntry4 ,& 9 h[ great a degree ! c\ntry is b5efit$ by ! comm]ce ( ! t[n may be se5 f a comp>ison ( ! cultivation ( ! l&s 9 ! neighb\rhood ( any consid]able t[n ) t ( ^? :i* ,he at "s di/ance f x4 ,z subsi/5ce is1 9 ! nature ( ?+s1 prior to conv5i5cy & luxury1 s ! rural indu/ries :i* procure ! =m] mu/ be prior to ! urban indu/ries :i* m9i/] to ! latt]4 ,! great] "p ( ! capital ( e gr[+ society is !re=e fir/ direct$ to agriculture1 aft]w>ds to manufactures1 & la/ ( all to =eign comm]ce4 ,b ?is natural ord] ( ?+s has1 9 all ! mod]n /ates ( ,europe1 be5 9 _m respects entirely inv]t$4 ,! =eign comm]ce ( "s ( _! cities has giv5 rise to _! f9] manufactures1 & manufactures & =eign comm]ce toge!r h giv5 bir? to ! pr9cipal improvem5ts ( agriculture4 ,! mann]s & cu/oms :i* ! nature ( _! orig9al gov]nm5t introduc$1 & :i* rema9$ aft] t gov]nm5t 0 greatly alt]$1 necess>ily =c$ !m into ?is unnatural & retrograde ord]4 ,9 ! anci5t /ate ( ,europe1 aft] ! fall ( ! ,roman ,empire1 agriculture 0 greatly disc\rag$ by sev]al causes4 ,! rap9e & viol5ce :i* ! b>b>ians ex]cis$ aga9/ ! anci5t inhabitants int]rupt$ ! comm]ce betwe5 ! t[ns & ! c\ntry2 ! t[ns 7 des]t$ & ! c\ntry 0 left uncultivat$4 ,! we/]n prov9ces ( ,europe sank into ! l[e/ /ate ( pov]ty1 & ! l&1 :i* 0 mo/ly uncultivat$1 0 engross$ by a few great proprietors4 ,^! l&s might 9 ! natural c\rse ( ev5ts h be5 soon divid$ aga91 & brok5 into small p>cels by succession or by ali5ation2 b ! law ( primog5iture h9d]$ _! division by succession1 & ! introduction ( entails prev5t$ _! be+ divid$ by ali5ation4 ,^! h9drances to ! division & consequ5tly to ! cultivation ( ! l& 7 due to ! fact t l& 0 consid]$ z ! means n ( subsi/5ce m]ely1 b ( p[] & protection4 ,9 ^? disord]ly times1 e great l&lord 0 a sort ( petty pr9ce4 ,un=tunately ^! laws ( primog5iture & entail h cont9u$ long aft] ! circum/ances :i* gave rise to !m h disappe>$4 ,un=tunately1 because x seldom happ5s t a great l&lord is a great improv]4 ,to improve l& ) pr(it requires an exact att5tion to small sav+s & small ga9s1 ( :i* a man born to a great =tune is seldom capable4 ,& if little improvem5t 0 to be expect$ f ! great proprietors1 /ill less 0 to be hop$ = f ^? :o occupi$ ! l& "u !m4 ,9 ! anci5t /ate ( ,europe1 ! occupi]s ( l& 7 all t5ants at w1 & practically slaves4 ,to ^! succe$$ a k9d ( f>m]s kn[n at pres5t 9 ,france by ! "n ( metay]s1 ^: produce 0 divid$ equally betwe5 ! proprietor & ! f>m]1 aft] sett+ aside :at 0 judg$ necess>y = keep+ up ! /ock1 :i* /ill belong$ to ! l&lord4 ,to ^!1 9 turn1 succe$$1 ?\gh by v sl[ degrees1 f>m]s prop]ly s call$1 :o cultivat$ ! l& ) _! own /ock1 pay+ a fix$ r5t to ! l&lord1 & enjoy+ a c]ta9 degree ( security ( t5ure4 ,& e improvem5t 9 ! position ( ! actual cultivation ( ! soil is att5d$ by a correspond+ improvem5t ( ! l& & ( its cultivation4 ,aft] ! fall ( ! ,roman empire ! inhabitants ( cities & t[ns 7 n m fav\r$ ?an ^? ( ! c\ntry4 ,! t[ns 7 inhabit$ *iefly by tradesm5 & me*anics1 :o 7 9 ^? days ( s]vile1 or ne>ly s]vile condition4 ,yet ! t[nsm5 arriv$ at lib]ty & indep5d5ce mu* e>li] ?an ! c\ntry population2 _! t[ns became free burghs1 & 7 erect$ into commonalities or corporations1 ) ! privilege ( hav+ magi/rates & a t[n c\ncil ( _! own1 ( mak+ by-laws = _! own gov]nm5t & ( build+ walls = _! own def5ce4 ,ord] & good gov]nm5t1 & ! lib]ty & security ( individuals1 7 ?us e/abli%$ 9 cities at a "t :5 ! occupi]s ( l& 9 ! c\ntry 7 expos$ to e sort ( viol5ce4 ,! increase & ri*es ( comm]cial & manufactur+ t[ns !nce=w>d contribut$ to ! improvem5t & cultivation ( ! c\ntries to :i* !y belong$1 9 ?ree diff]5t ways4 ,fir/1 by af=d+ a great & ready m>ket = ! rude produce ( ! c\ntry4 ,secondly1 ! weal? acquir$ by ! inhabitants ( cities 0 employ$ 9 pur*as+ uncultivat$ l&s & 9 br++ !m "u cultivation2 = m]*ants are ambiti\s ( becom+ c\ntry g5tlem51 & :5 !y d s1 are g5]ally ! be/ ( all improv]s4 ,& la/ly1 comm]ce & manufactures gradually introduc$ ord] & good gov]nm5t1 & ) !m ! lib]ty & security ( individuals1 among ! inhabitants ( ! c\ntry4 ,,iv4--,! ,m]cantile ,sy/em ,f ! mi/ak5 !ory t weal? consi/s 9 money1 or 9 gold & silv]1 !re has aris5 an errone\s & h>mful sy/em ( political economy & ( legislation 9 ! suppos$ int]e/s ( manufacture1 ( comm]ce1 & ( ! weal? ( nations4 ,a ri* c\ntry is suppos$ to be a c\ntry ab\nd+ 9 money2 & all ! nations ( ,europe h consequ5tly /udi$1 ?\gh to little purpose1 e possible means ( accumulat+ gold & silv] 9 _! respective c\ntries4 ,= example1 !y h at times =bidd51 or h9d]$ by heavy duties1 ! export ( ^! metals4 ,b all ^! attempts are va92 = on ! "o h&1 :5 ! quantity ( gold & silv] import$ into any c\ntry exce$s ! effectual dem&1 no vigilance c prev5t _! exportation2 & on ! o!r h&1 if gold & silv] %\ld fall %ort 9 a c\ntry1 !re are m exp$i5ts = supply+ _! place ?an t ( any o!r commodity4 ,! real inconv5i5ce :i* is commonly call$ sc>city ( money is n a %ortness 9 ! m$ium ( ex*ange1 b is a weak5+ & dim9ution ( cr$it1 due to ov]-trad+4 ,money is "p ( ! national capital1 b only a small "p & always ! mo/ unpr(itable "p ( x4 ,! pr9ciple ( ! comm]cial sy/em or m]cantile sy/em is1 t weal? consi/s 9 money1 or 9 gold & silv]4 ,x is an utt]ly untrue pr9ciple4 ,b once x _h be5 e/abli%$ 9 g5]al belief t weal? consi/s 9 gold & silv]1 & t ^! metals c be br\ght into a c\ntry :i* has no m9es only by ! balance ( trade1 t is to say1 by export+ to a great] value ?an x imports1 x necess>ily became ! great object ( political economy to dim9i% z mu* z possible ! importation ( =eign goods = home consumption1 & to increase z mu* z possible ! exportation ( ! produce ( dome/ic indu/ry4 ,its two great eng9es = enri*+ ! c\ntry1 !re=e1 7 re/ra9ts ^u importation & enc\ragem5ts to exportation4 ,! re/ra9ts ^u importation 7 ( two k9ds3 fir/1 re/ra9ts ^u ! importation ( su* =eign goods = home consumption z c\ld be produc$ at home1 f :atev] c\ntry !y 7 import$2 & secondly1 re/ra9ts ^u ! importation ( goods ( almo/ all k9ds f ^? p>ticul> c\ntries ) :i* ! balance ( trade 0 suppos$ to be disadvantage\s4 ,^! diff]5t re/ra9ts consi/$ sometimes 9 high duties1 & sometimes 9 absolute prohibitions4 ,exportation 0 enc\rag$ sometimes by drawbacks1 sometimes by b\nties1 sometimes by advantage\s treaties ( comm]ce ) sov]eign /ates1 & sometimes by ! e/abli%m5t ( colonies 9 di/ant c\ntries4 ,! above two re/ra9ts1 & ^! f\r enc\ragem5ts to exportation1 con/itute ! six pr9cipal means by :i* ! comm]cial or m]cantile sy/em proposes to increase ! quantity ( gold & silv] 9 any c\ntry by turn+ ! balance ( trade 9 its fav\r4 ,! entire sy/em1 9 all its developm5ts1 is a fallaci\s & an evil "o4 ,x is n difficult to det]m9e :o h be5 ! contriv]s ( ?is :ole m]cantile sy/em3 n ! consum]s1 ^: int]e/ has be5 entirely neglect$2 b ! produc]s1 & especially ! m]*ants & manufactur]s1 ^: int]e/ has be5 s c>efully att5d$ to4 ,x rema9s to be said1 also1 t ! agricultural sy/em1 :i* repres5ts ! produce ( l& z ! sole s\rce ( ! rev5ue & weal? ( e c\ntry1 & z !re=e ju/ify+ a special protection ( x1 is z fallaci\s & z h>mful z ! o!r4 ,v4--,! ,rev5ue ( ! ,sov]eign or ,commonweal? ,! fir/ duty ( ! sov]eign1 t ( protect+ ! society f ! viol5ce & invasion ( o!r indep5d5t societies1 c be p]=m$ only by means ( a milit>y =ce4 ,?is may be effect$ ei!r by oblig+ all ! citiz5s ( ! milit>y age1 or a c]ta9 numb] ( !m1 to jo9 9 "s measure ! trade ( a soldi] to :atev] o!r trade or pr(ession !y may happ5 to c>ry on2 or by ma9ta9+ a c]ta9 numb] ( citiz5s 9 ! con/ant practice ( milit>y ex]cises1 ?us r5d]+ ! trade ( a soldi] a p>ticul> trade1 sep>ate f all o!rs4 ,9 ! =m] case a militia is =m$1 9 ! latt] a /&+ army2 & ( ! two1 ! second is by f> ! m p[]ful1 z x is also ! m exp5sive4 ,! second duty ( ! sov]eign1 t ( protect+1 z f> z possible1 e memb] ( ! society f ! inju/ice or oppression ( e o!r memb] ( x1 or ! duty ( e/abli%+ an exact adm9i/ration ( ju/ice1 requires an increas+ exp5diture correspond+ to ! advance & developm5t ( ! society4 ,public works & public in/itutions are a ?ird cause ( exp5diture on ! "p ( sov]eign or commonweal?2 & h two pr9cipal objects--t ( facilitat+ ! comm]ce ( ! society & t ( promot+ ! in/ruction ( ! p4 ,roads1 bridges1 canals1 are examples ( ! =m]2 s*ools1 univ]sities1 e/abli%$ ,*ur*es are examples ( ! latt]4 ,& among o!r exp5ses ( ! sov]eign or commonweal? we mu/ include ! exp5ses ( support+ ! dignity ( ! sov]eign4 ,! funds or s\rces ( rev5ue :i* peculi>ly belong to ! sov]eign or commonweal? consi/ ei!r 9 /ock or 9 l&2 b be+ q insuffici5t to meet ! public exp5diture !y are supplem5t$ by taxation4 ,e tax is f9ally paid f r5t1 pr(it or wages1 or f all ( !m indiff]5tly2 & ! *ief pr9ciple to be obs]v$ 9 taxation is1 t ! subjects ( ! ,/ate ought to contribute t[>ds ! support ( ! gov]nm5t1 z ne>ly z possible1 9 proportion to _! respective abilities--t is1 9 proportion to ! rev5ue :i* !y respectively enjoy "u ! protection ( ! ,/ate4 ,! tax :i* ea* individual is b\nd to pay ought to be c]ta9 & n arbitr>y2 e tax ought to be levi$ at ! "t or 9 ! mann] 9 :i* x is mo/ likely to be conv5i5t = ! contributor to pay x2 & f9ally1 e tax ought to be s contriv$ z to take out & to keep out ( ! pockets ( ! p z little z possible ov] & above :at x br+s into ! public treasury ( ! ,/ate4