material from the ,google ,print project47 ,,the ,,advanced ,,montessori ,,method ,,spontaneous ,,activity ,,in ,,education ,,by ,,maria ,,montessori ,,author ,,of ,,the ,,montessori ,,method1 ,,pedagogical ,,anthropology1 ,,etc4 ,,translated ,,from ,,the ,,italian ,,by ,,florence ,,simmonds ,illustration3 company logo ,,new ,,york ,,frederick ,a4 ,,stokes ,,company ,,publishers ,copyright1 #aiag1 by ,,frederick ,a4 ,,stokes ,,company ,all rights reserved1 including that of translation into foreign languages4 ,printed in the ,u4,s4,a4 ,,contents ,,chapter ,i ,a ,,survey ,,of ,,the ,,child',s ,,life ,laws of the child's psychical life paralleled by those of its physical4 ,current objections to a system of education based upon liberty ,hygiene has freed the infant from straps and swaddling clothes and left it free to develop ,education must leave the soul free to develop ,principle of liberty in education not a principle of abandonment ,the liberty accorded the child of to-day is purely physical4 ,civil rights of the child in the twentieth century4 ,removal of perils of disease a step toward physical liberation ,supplying the child's physical needs is not sufficient ,child's social rights overlooked in the administration of orphan asylums ,poor child's health and property confiscated in the custom of wet nursing ,we recognize justice only for those who can defend themselves ,how we receive the infants that come into the world4 ,home has no furnishings adapted to their small size ,society prepares a mockery for their reception in the shape of useless toys ,child not allowed to act for himself ,constant interruption of his activities prevents psychical growth ,bodily health suffers from spiritual neglect ,with man the life of the body depends on the life of the spirit4 ,reflex action of the emotions on the body functions ,child's body requires joy as much as food and air ,,chapter ,,ii ,a ,,survey ,,of ,,modern ,,education ,the precepts which govern moral education and instruction4 ,child expected to acquire virtues by imitation1 instead of development ,domination of the child's will the basis of education ,it is the teacher who forms the child's mind4 ,how he teaches4 ,teacher's path beset with difficulties under the present system ,advanced experts prepare the schemata of instruction ,some outlines of model lessons used in the schools ,comparison of a model lesson for sense development with the ,montessori method ,experimental psychology1 not speculative psychology1 the basis of ,montessori teaching ,false conceptions of the art of the teacher illustrated by model lessons ,positive science makes its appearance in the schools ,discoveries of medicine3 distortions and diseases ,science has not fulfilled its mission in its dealings with children4 ,diseases of school children treated1 causes left undisturbed ,discoveries of experimental psychology3 overwork2 nervous exhaustion ,science is confronted by a mass of unsolved problems4 ,laws governing fatigue still unknown ,toxines produced by fatigue and their antitoxins ,joy in work the only preventative of fatigue ,real experimental science1 which shall liberate the child1 not yet born ,,chapter ,,iii ,,my ,,contribution ,,to ,,experimental ,,science ,the organization of the psychical life begins with the characteristic phenomenon of attention4 ,incident which led ,dr4 ,montessori to define her method ,psychical development is organized by the aid of external stimuli1 which may be determined experimentally4 ,tendency to develop his latent powers exists in the child's nature ,environment should contain the means of auto-education ,external stimuli may be determined in quality and quantity4 ,educative material used should contain in itself the control of error ,quantity of material determined by the advent of abstraction in pupil ,relation of stimuli to the age of the pupil ,material of development is necessary only as a starting point4 ,corresponds to the terra firma from which the aeroplane takes flight and to which it returns to rest ,establishing of internal order1 or discipline ,psychical growth requires constantly new and more complex material ,difference between materials of auto-education and the didactic material of the schools ,psychical truths4 ,discipline the first external sign of a psychical reaction to the material ,initial disorder in ,montessori schools ,psychical progress not systematic but explosive in nature ,birth of individuality ,intellectual crises are accompanied by emotion ,older child beginning in system1 chooses materials in inverse order ,course of psychical phenomena explained by diagrams ,tests of ,binet and ,simon arbitrary and superficial ,problems of psychical measurement ,observing the child's moral nature ,transformation of a violent child and of a spying child in a ,montessori school ,polarization of the internal personality ,guide to psychological observation4 ,work ,conduct ,obedience ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,preparation ,,of ,,the ,,teacher ,the school is the laboratory of experimental psychology ,qualities the new type of teacher must possess ,,chapter ,v ,,environment ,physical hygiene in the school ,the requirements of psychical hygiene ,free movement4 ,misconceptions of physical freedom ,action without an aim fatigues ,work of preservation rather than production suitable to children ,,chapter ,,vi ,,attention ,awakens in answer to an impulse of spiritual hunger ,attention cannot be artificially maintained by teacher ,liberty the experimental condition necessary for studying phenomena of attention ,child's perception of an internal development makes the exercise pleasant and induces him to prolong it ,external stimuli powerless without an answering internal force ,a natural internal force directs psychical formation ,new pedagogy provides nourishment for internal needs ,organization of knowledge in the child's mind ,teacher directs1 but does not interrupt phenomena of attention ,material offered should correspond to psychical needs ,,chapter ,,vii ,,will ,its relation to attention ,manifested in action and inhibition ,opposite activities of the will must combine to form the personality ,powers of the will established by exercise1 not by subjection ,persistence in effort the true foundation of will ,decision the highest function of the will ,development of will depends on order and clarity of ideas ,power of choice1 which precedes decision1 should be strengthened ,need of exercise for the will paralleled with need of muscular exercise ,fallacy of educating the child's will by breaking it ,character the result of established will1 not of emulation ,,chapter ,,viii ,,intelligence ,liberating the child means leaving him to his own intelligence ,how the intelligence of the child differs from the instincts of animals ,intelligence the actual means of formation of the inner life ,hygiene of intelligence ,intelligence awakens and sets in motion the central nervous mechanisms ,in an age of speed1 man has not accelerated himself ,swift reactions an external manifestation of intelligence ,ability to distinguish and arrange the characteristic sign of intelligence ,montessori sensory exercises make it possible for the child to distinguish and classify ,the ,montessori child is sensitive to the objects of his environment ,educational methods in use do not help the child to distinguish ,power of association depends on ability to distinguish dominant characteristics ,individuality revealed in association by similarity ,by means of attention and internal will the intelligence accomplishes the work of association ,judgment and reasoning depend on ability to distinguish ,activities of association and selection lead to individual habits of thought ,importance of acquiring ability to reason for oneself ,genius the possession of maximum powers of association by similarity ,genius of errors in association and reasoning which have impeded science ,the consciousness can only accept truths for which it is expectant ,the intelligence has its peculiar perils1 from which it should be guarded ,,chapter ,,ix ,,imagination ,the creative imagination of science is based upon truth4 ,imagination based on reality differs from that based on speculation ,speculative imagination akin to original sin ,education should direct imagination into creative channels ,truth is also the basis of artistic imagination4 ,all imagination based on sense impressions ,non-seasonal impressions--spiritual truths ,education in sense perception strengthens imagination ,perfection in art dependent on approximation to truth ,exercise of the intelligence aids imagination ,imagination in children4 ,immature and therefore concerned with unrealities ,should be helped to overcome immaturity of thought ,false methods develop credulity1 akin to insanity ,period of credulity in the child prolonged for the amusement of the adult ,living among real possessions the cure for illusions ,fable and religion4 ,religion not the product of fantasy ,fable in schools does not prepare for religious teaching ,the education of the imagination in schools for older children4 ,environment and method oppressive ,composition introduced to foster imagination ,how composition is taught ,imagination cannot be forced ,the moral question4 ,contributions of positive science to morality ,science raises society to level of ,christian standards ,parents' failure to teach sex morality ,probable effects of experimental psychology in field of morals ,experimental psychology should be directed to the schools ,progress of medicine and its relation to new psychology ,childish naughtiness a parental misconception ,infant life different from the adult ,hindering the child's development a moral question for the adult ,need of the child to touch and to act ,how the adult prevents him from learning by doing ,conceptions of good and bad conduct in the school ,mutual aid a high crime in the school ,surveillance for vicious habits originating in the school ,developing the social sentiment in the school ,a moral with every lesson the teacher's aim ,injurious system of prizes and punishments the school's mainstay ,the fallacy of emulation ,necessity of reforming the school ,good conduct dependent on satisfaction of intellectual needs ,mere sensory education inadequate ,love1 the preservative force of life ,christianity teaches necessity of mutual love ,the education of the moral sense4 ,moral education must have basis of feeling ,adult the stimulus by which child's feeling is exercised ,how and when the adult should offer affection ,the essence of moral education4 ,importance of perfecting spiritual sensibility ,necessity of properly organized environment ,helping the child distinguish between right and wrong ,internal sense of right and wrong ,moral conscience capable of development ,our insensibility4 ,virtuous person and criminal not detected by contact ,the ,war as an example of moral insensibility ,insensibility distinguished from death of the soul ,spiritually1 man must either ascend or die ,morality and religion4 ,conversion1 the sudden establishing of moral order ,the spirit enslaved by sentiments hostile to love ,the religious sentiment in children4 ,crises of conscience and spontaneous religious feeling ,some original observations by ,dr4 ,montessori 99 99 99 99 99 ,,spontaneous ,,activity ,,in ,,education ,i ,a ,,survey ,,of ,,the ,,child',s ,,life ,the general laws which govern the child's psychical health have their parallel in those of its physical health4--,many persons who have asked me to continue my methods of education for very young children on lines that would make them suitable for those over seven years of age1 have expressed a doubt whether this would be possible4 ,the difficulties they put forward are mainly of a moral order4 ,should not the child now begin to respect the will of others rather than his own8 ,should he not some day brace himself to a real effort1 compelling him to carry out a necessary1 rather than a chosen1 task8 ,finally1 should he not learn self-sacrifice1 since man's life is not a life of ease and enjoyment8 ,some1 taking certain practical items of elementary education1 which present themselves even at the age of six1 and must be seriously envisaged at seven1 urge their objection in this form3 ,now we are face to face with the ugly specter of arithmetical tables1 the arid mental gymnastics exacted by grammar4 ,what do you propose8 ,would you abolish all this1 or do you admit that the child must inevitably bow to these necessities8 ,it is obvious that the whole of the argument revolves round the interpretation of that liberty which is the avowed basis of the system of education advocated by me4 ,perhaps in a short time all these objections will provoke a smile1 and ,i shall be asked to suppress them1 together with my commentary on them1 in future editions of this work4 ,but at the present time they have a right to exist1 and to be dealt with1 although indeed it is not very easy to give a direct1 clear and convincing answer to them1 because this entails the raising of questions on which everybody has firmly rooted convictions4 ,a parallel may perhaps serve to save us a good deal of the work4 ,indirectly1 these questions have been answered already by the progress made in the treatment of infants under the guidance of hygiene4 ,how were they treated formerly8 ,many1 no doubt1 can still remember certain practises that were regarded as indispensable by the masses4 ,an infant had to be strapped and swaddled1 or its legs would grow crooked2 the ligament under its tongue had to be slit1 to ensure its speaking eventually2 it was important that it should always wear a cap to keep its ears from protruding2 the position of a recumbent baby was so arranged as not to cause permanent deformity of the tender skull2 and good mothers stroked and pinched the little noses of their nurslings to make them grow long and sharp instead of round and snub1 and put little gold earrings through the lobes of their ears very soon after birth to improve their eyesight4 ,such practises may be already forgotten in some countries2 but in others they obtain to this day4 ,who does not remember the various devices for helping a baby to walk8 ,even in the first months after birth1 at a period of life when the nervous system is not completely developed1 and it is impossible for the infant to coordinate its movements1 mothers wasted several half-hours of the day teaching baby to walk4 ,holding the little creature by the body1 they watched the aimless movements of the tiny feet1 and deluded themselves with the belief that the child was already making an effort to walk2 and because it does actually by degrees begin to arch its feet and move its legs more boldly1 the mother attributed its progress to her instruction4 ,when finally the movement had been almost established--though not the equilibrium1 and the resulting power to stand on the feet--mothers made use of certain straps with which they held up the baby's body1 and thus made it walk on the ground with themselves2 or1 when they had no time to spare1 they put the baby into a kind of bell-shaped basket1 the broad base of which prevented it from turning over2 they tied the infant into this1 hanging its arms outside1 its body being supported by the upper edge of the basket2 thus the child1 though it could not rise on its feet1 advanced1 moving its legs1 and was said to be walking4 ,other relics of a very recent past are a species of convex crowns which were put round the heads of babies when they were considered capable of rising to their feet1 and were accordingly emancipated from the basket4 ,the child1 suddenly left to himself after being accustomed hitherto to supports comparable to the crutches of the cripple1 fell perpetually1 and the crown was a protection to the head1 which would otherwise have been injured4 ,what were the revelations of ,science1 when it entered upon the scene for the salvation of the child8 ,it certainly offered no perfected methods for straightening the noses and the ears1 nor did it enlighten mothers as to methods of teaching babies to walk immediately after birth4 ,no4 ,it proclaimed first of all that ,nature itself will determine the shape of heads1 noses1 and ears2 that man will speak without having the membrane of the tongue cut2 and further1 that legs will grow straight and that the function of walking will come naturally1 and requires no intervention4 ,hence it follows that we should leave as much as possible to ,nature2 and the more the babe is left free to develop1 the more rapidly and perfectly will he achieve his proper proportions and higher functions4 ,thus swaddling bands are abolished1 and the utmost tranquillity in a restful position is recommended4 ,the infant1 with its legs perfectly free1 will be left lying full length1 and not jogged up and down to amuse it1 as many persons imagine they are doing by this device4 ,it will not be forced to walk before it is time4 ,when this time comes1 it will raise itself and walk spontaneously4 ,in these days nearly all mothers are convinced of this1 and vendors of swaddling-bands1 straps1 and baskets have practically disappeared4 ,as a result1 babies have straighter legs and walk better and earlier than formerly4 ,this is an established fact1 and a most comforting one2 for what a constant anxiety it must have been to believe that the straightness of a child's legs1 and the shape of its nose1 ears1 and head were the direct results of our care6 ,what a responsibility1 to which every one must have felt unequal6 ,and what a relief to say3 ,nature will think of that4 ,i will leave my baby free1 and watch him grow in beauty2 ,i will be a quiescent spectator of the miracle4 ,something analogous has been happening with regard to the inner life of the child4 ,we are beset by such anxieties as these3 it is necessary to form character1 to develop the intelligence1 to aid the unfolding and ordering of the emotions4 ,and we ask ourselves how we are to do this4 ,here and there we touch the soul of the child1 or we constrain it by special restrictions1 much as mothers used to press the noses of their babies or strap down their ears4 ,and we conceal our anxiety beneath a certain mediocre success1 for it is a fact that men do grow up possessing character1 intelligence and feeling4 ,but when all these things are lacking1 we are vanquished4 ,what are we to do then8 ,who will give character to a degenerate1 intelligence to an idiot1 human emotions to a moral maniac8 ,if it were really true that men acquired all such qualities by these fitful manipulations of their souls1 it would suffice to apply a little more energy to the process when these souls are evidently feeble4 ,but this is not sufficient4 ,then we are no more the creators of spiritual than of physical forms4 ,it is ,nature1 creation1 which regulates all these things4 ,if we are convinced of this1 we must admit as a principle the necessity of not introducing obstacles to natural development2 and instead of having to deal with many separate problems--such as1 what are the best aids to the development of character1 intelligence and feeling8--one single problem will present itself as the basis of all education3 ,how are we to give the child freedom8 ,in according this freedom we must take account of principles analogous to those laid down by science for the forms and functions of the body during its period of growth2 it is a freedom in which the head1 the nose1 and the ears will attain the highest beauty1 and the gait the utmost perfection possible to the congenital powers of the individual4 ,thus here again liberty1 the sole means1 will lead to the maximum development of character1 intelligence and sentiment2 and will give to us1 the educators1 peace1 and the possibility of contemplating the miracle of growth4 ,this liberty will further deliver us from the painful weight of a fictitious responsibility and a dangerous illusion4 ,woe to us1 when we believe ourselves responsible for matters that do not concern us1 and delude ourselves with the idea that we are perfecting things that will perfect themselves quite independently of us6 ,for then we are like lunatics2 and the profound question arises3 ,what1 then1 is our true mission1 our true responsibility8 ,if we are deceiving ourselves1 what is indeed the truth8 ,and what sins of omission and of commission must be laid to our charge8 ,if1 like ,chanticleer1 we believe that the sun rises in the morning because the cock has crowed1 what duties shall we find when we come to our senses8 ,who has been left destitute1 because we ourselves have forgotten to eat our true bread8 ,the history of the physical redemption of the infant has a sequel for us which is highly instructive4 ,hygiene has not been confined to the task of anthropological demonstration1 such as that which not only made generally known1 but convinced every one1 that the body develops spontaneously2 because1 in reality1 the question of infant welfare was not concerned with the more or less perfect forms of the body4 ,the real infantile question which called for the intervention of science was the alarming mortality among infants4 ,it certainly seems strange in these days to consider this fact3 that1 at the period when infantile diseases made the greatest ravages1 people were not nearly so much concerned with infantile mortality as with the shape of the nose or the straightness of the legs1 while the real question--literally a question of life and death--passed unobserved4 ,there must be many persons who1 like myself1 have heard such dialogues as this3 ,i have had great experience in the care of children2 ,i have had nine4 ,and how many of them are living8 ,two4 ,and nevertheless this mother was looked upon as an authority6 ,statistics of mortality reveal figures so high that the phenomenon may justly be called the ,slaughter of the ,innocents4 ,the famous graph of ,lexis1 which is not confined to one country or another1 but deals with the general averages of human mortality1 reveals the fact that this terrible death-rate is of universal occurrence among all peoples4 ,this must be attributed to two different factors4 ,one is undoubtedly the characteristic feebleness of infancy2 the other the absence of protection for this feebleness1 an absence that had become general among all peoples4 ,good-will was not lacking1 nor parental affection2 the fault lay hidden in an unknown cause1 in a lack of protection against a dire peril of which men were quite unconscious4 ,it is now a matter of common knowledge that infectious diseases1 especially those of intestinal origin1 are those most destructive to infant life4 ,intestinal disorders which impede nutrition1 and produce toxins at an age when the delicate tissues are most sensitive to them1 were responsible for nearly the entire death-roll4 ,these were aggravated by the errors habitually committed by those in charge of infants4 ,these errors were a lack of cleanliness which would astound us nowadays1 and a complete absence of any sort of rule concerning infant diet4 ,the soiled napkins which were wrapped round the baby under its swaddling bands would be dried in the sun again and again1 and replaced on the infant without being washed4 ,no care was taken to wash the mother's breast or the baby's mouth1 in spite of fermentation so pronounced as to cause local disorder4 ,suckling of infants was carried out quite irregularly2 the cries of the child were the sole guide whereby its feeding times1 whether by night or day1 were determined2 and the more it suffered from indigestion and the resulting pains1 the more frequently was it fed1 to the constant aggravation of its sufferings4 ,who in those days might not have seen mothers carrying in their arms babies flushed with fever1 perpetually thrusting the nipple into the little howling mouth in the hope of quieting it8 ,and yet those mothers were full of self-sacrifice and of maternal anguish6 ,science laid down simple rules2 it enjoined the utmost possible cleanliness1 and formulated a principle so self-evident that it seems astounding people should not have recognized it for themselves3 that the smallest infant1 like ourselves1 should have regular meals1 and should only take fresh nourishment when it has digested what has been given before2 and hence that it should be suckled only at intervals of so many hours1 according to the months of its age and the modifications of physical function in its development4 ,no infant should ever be given crusts of bread to suck1 as is often done by mothers1 especially among the lower orders1 to still its crying1 because particles of bread might be swallowed1 which the child is yet incapable of digesting4 ,the mothers' anxiety then was3 what are we to do when the baby cries8 ,they found to their astonishment after a time that their babies cried a great deal less1 or indeed not at all2 they even saw infants only a week old spending the two hours' intervals between successive meals calm and rosy1 with wide-open eyes1 so silent that they gave no sign of life1 like ,nature in her moments of solemn immobility4 ,why indeed should they cry continually8 ,those cries were the sign of a state of things which must be translated by these words3 suffering and death4 ,and for these wailing little ones the world did nothing4 ,they were strapped up in swaddling clothes1 and very often handed over to a young child incapable of responsibility2 they had neither a room nor a bed of their own4 ,it was ,science which came to the rescue and created nurseries1 cradles1 rooms for babies1 suitable clothes for them1 alimentary substances specially prepared for them by great industries devoted to the hygienic sustenance of infants after weaning1 and medical specialists for their ailments2 in short1 an entirely new world1 clean1 intelligent1 and full of amenity4 ,the baby has become the new man who has conquered his own right to live1 and thus has caused a sphere to be created for him4 ,and in direct proportion to the diffusion of the laws of infantile hygiene1 infant mortality has decreased4 ,so then1 when we say that in like manner the baby should be left at liberty spiritually1 because creative ,nature can also fashion its spirit better than we can1 we do not mean that it should be neglected and abandoned4 ,perhaps1 looking around us1 we shall perceive that though we cannot directly mold its individual forms of character1 intelligence1 and feeling1 there is nevertheless a whole category of duties and solicitudes which we have neglected3 and that on these the life or death of the spirit depends4 ,the principle of liberty is not therefore a principle of abandonment1 but rather one which1 by leading us from illusions to reality1 will guide us to the most positive and efficacious care of the child4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the liberty accorded to the child of to-day is purely physical4 ,civil rights of the child in the twentieth century4--,hygiene has brought liberty into the physical life of the infant4 ,such material facts as the abolition of swaddling bands1 open-air life1 the prolongation of sleep till the infant wakes of its own accord1 etc41 are the most evident and tangible proof of this4 ,but these are merely means for the attainment of liberty4 ,a far more important measure of liberation has been the removal of the perils of disease and death which beset the child at the outset of life's journey4 ,not only did infants survive in very much greater numbers as soon as the obstacles of certain fundamental errors were swept away1 but it was at once apparent that there was an improvement in their development4 ,was it really hygiene which helped them to increase in weight1 stature1 and beauty1 and improved their material development8 ,hygiene did not accomplish quite all this4 ,who1 as the ,gospel says1 can by taking thought add one cubit to his stature8 ,hygiene merely delivered the child from the obstacles that impeded its growth4 ,external restraints checked material development and all the natural evolution of life2 hygiene burst these bonds4 ,and every one felt that a liberation had been effected2 every one repeated in view of the accomplished fact3 children should be free4 ,the direct correspondence between conditions of physical life fulfilled and liberty acquired is now universally and intuitively recognized4 ,thus the infant is treated like a young plant4 ,children to-day enjoy the rights which from time immemorial have been accorded to the vegetables of a well-kept garden4 ,good food1 oxygen1 suitable temperature1 the careful elimination of parasites that produce disease2 yes1 henceforth we may say that the son of a prince will be tended with as much care as the finest rose-tree of a villa4 ,the old comparison of a child to a flower is the reality to which we now aspire2 though even this is a privilege reserved for the more fortunate children4 ,but let us beware of so grave an error4 ,the babe is a man4 ,that which suffices for a plant cannot be sufficient for him4 ,consider the depth of misery into which a paralyzed man has sunk when we say of him3 ,he merely vegetates2 as a man1 he is dead1 and lament that there is nothing but his body left4 ,the infant as a man--such is the figure we ought to keep in view4 ,we must behold him amidst our tumultuous human society and see how with heroic vigor he aspires to life4 ,what are the rights of children8 ,let us consider them for a moment as a social class1 as a class of workers1 for as a fact they are laboring to produce men4 ,they are the future generation4 ,they work1 undergoing the fatigues of physical and spiritual growth4 ,they continue the work carried on for a few months by their mothers1 but their task is a more laborious1 complex1 and difficult one4 ,when they are born they possess nothing but potentialities2 they have to do everything in a world which1 as even adults admit1 is full of difficulties4 ,what is done to help these frail pilgrims in an unknown world8 ,they are born more fragile and helpless than an animal1 and in a few years they have to become men1 to be units in a highly complicated organized society1 built up by the secular effort of innumerable generations4 ,at a period in which civilization1 that is1 the possibility of right living1 is based upon rights energetically acquired and consecrated by laws1 what rights has he who comes among us without strength and without thought8 ,like the infant ,moses lying in the ark of bulrushes on the waters of the ,nile he represents the future of the chosen people2 but will some princess passing by perchance see him8 ,to chance1 to luck1 to affection1 to all these we entrust the child2 and it would seem that the ,biblical chastisement of the ,egyptian oppressor1 the death of the first-born1 is to be unceasingly renewed4 ,let us see how social justice receives the infant when he enters the world4 ,we are living in the twentieth century2 in many of the so-called civilized nations orphan asylums and wet nurses are still recognized institutions4 ,what is an orphan asylum8 ,it is a place of sequestration1 a dark and terrible prison1 where only too often the prisoner finds death1 as in those medieval dungeons whence the victim disappeared1 leaving no trace4 ,he never sees any who are dear to him4 ,his family name is cancelled1 his goods are confiscated4 ,the greatest criminal may retain memories of his mother1 knows that he has had a name1 and may derive some consolation from his recollections1 comparable to the soothing reflections of one who having become blind recalls the beauty of colors and the splendor of the sun2 but the foundling is as one born blind4 ,every malefactor has more rights than he2 and yet who could be more innocent8 ,even in the days of the most odious tyranny1 the spectacle of oppressed innocence kindled a flame of justice that sooner or later blazed up into revolution4 ,the persons imprisoned by tyrants because they had happened to be witnesses of their crimes1 and who were cast into dungeons where darkness and inaudible suffering were henceforth their unhappy portion1 at least roused the people to proclaim the principle of equal justice for all4 ,but who will lift up his voice for our foundlings8 ,society does not perceive that they too are men2 they are indeed only the flowers of humanity4 ,and to save honor and good name1 what society would not with one accord sacrifice more flowers8 ,the wet nurse is a social custom4 ,a luxurious custom1 on the one hand4 ,not very long ago1 a girl of the middle-and not even the upper middle-class1 who was about to marry1 boasted in the following terms of the domestic comfort promised her by her future husband3 ,i am to have a cook1 a housemaid1 and a wet nurse4 ,on the other hand1 the robust peasant girl who has given birth to a son1 looking complacently at her heavy breasts1 thinks3 ,i shall be able to get a good place as wet nurse4 ,it is only quite recently that hygiene has cried shame upon those mothers whose laziness makes them refuse to suckle their own children2 in our times queens and empresses who suckle their children are still cited admiringly as examples to other mothers4 ,the maternal duty of suckling her own children prescribed to mothers by hygienists is based on a physiological principle3 the mother's milk nourishes an infant more perfectly than any other4 ,in spite of this clear indication1 the duty is far from being universally accepted4 ,often in our walks we still see a robust mother accompanied by a wet nurse gorgeously attired in red or blue1 with gold and silver embroideries1 carrying a baby4 ,wealthy mothers have untidily dressed wet nurses who do not go out with them1 who always follow the modern nurse1 an expert in infantile hygiene1 who keeps the baby like a flower4 ,and what of the other child8444 ,for every infant who has a double supply of human milk at his disposal1 there is another child who has none4 ,the wealth in question is not an industrial product4 ,it is apportioned by ,nature with careful precision4 ,for each new life1 the ration of milk4 ,milk cannot be produced by any means other than the production of life4 ,cow-keepers know this well2 their good cows are hygienically reared1 and calves are sent to the butcher4 ,yet what distress is felt whenever the young of some animal is parted from its mother6 ,is it not so in the case of puppies and kittens8 ,when a pet dog has given birth to a litter so numerous that she cannot suckle them all1 and it is necessary to destroy some of the puppies1 what sincere grief is felt by the mistress of the house1 whose own baby is being suckled by a magnificent wet nurse6 ,well--the thing which excites her compassion above all is the eager1 whimpering mother1 who does not understand whether she has or has not the strength to suckle all the shapeless puppies she has borne1 but who cannot lose one of them without despair4 ,the wet nurse is quite another affair2 she came of her own accord to offer her milk for sale4 ,what the other--her own child--was to do1 no one cared4 ,only a clearly defined right1 a law1 could have protected him1 for society is based on rights4 ,these1 it is true1 are the rights of property1 which are absolute2 steal a loaf1 even if you are starving1 and you are a thief4 ,you will be punished by the law and outlawed by society4 ,the rights of property constitute one of the most formidable of the social bases4 ,an administrator of landed estate who should sell the property belonging to his master1 make money out of it for his own enjoyment1 and leave the rightful owner in the direst poverty1 is a criminal difficult to imagine4 ,for who would buy a property without the signature of the owner8 ,society is so constituted that certain crimes would not only be punished if committed1 but are almost impossible to commit4 ,yet in the case of young infants1 this crime is committed every day1 and is not regarded as a crime1 but as a luxury4 ,what can be a more sacred right than that of the baby to his mother's milk8 ,he might say of this in the words of the ,emperor ,napoleon3 ,god has given it to me4 ,there can be no doubt whatever as to the legitimacy of his claim2 his sole capital1 milk1 came into the world with and for him4 ,all his wealth is there3 strength to live1 to grow1 to acquire vigor are contained in that nourishment4 ,if the defrauded infant should become weak and rickety1 what would become of him1 condemned by poverty to a hard calling8 ,what a claim for damages1 what a question of accident during work with permanent injury resulting therefrom might be raised if some day the infant could present himself after the manner of a man before the tribunal of social justice6 ,in civilized countries rich mothers have been induced to suckle their children because hygienists have proved that this is beneficial to the baby's health1 but not because it has been recognized that the civil right of the adult extends to the infant4 ,these mothers consider countries where the wet nurse is still an institution as less highly developed1 but on the same plane of civilization as their own4 ,it may be asked3 what if the mother is ill and unable to suckle her child8 ,in such a case the child of the sick woman is the unfortunate one4 ,why should another have to suffer for his misfortune8 ,however poverty-stricken individuals may be1 we do not allow them to take from others the wealth that is so urgently needed by them4 ,if in these days an ,emperor could be cured of terrible sufferings by immersion in a bath of human blood1 he could not bleed healthy men for the purpose as a barbarian ,emperor would have done4 ,these are the things that make up our civilization4 ,this it is which differentiates us from pirates and cannibals4 ,the rights of the adult are recognized4 ,but not the rights of the infant4 #a ,what an implication of baseness the fact carries with it3 we recognize the rights of adults indeed1 but not those of the child6 ,we recognize justice1 but only for those who can protest and defend themselves2 and for the rest1 we remain barbarians4 ,because to-day there may be peoples more or less highly developed from the hygienic point of view1 but they all belong to the same civilization--a civilization based on the right of the strongest4 ,when we begin seriously to examine the problem of the moral education of the child1 we ought to look around us a little1 and survey the world we have prepared for him4 ,are we willing that he should become like us1 unscrupulous in our dealings with the weak8 that like us1 his consciousness should harbor ideas of a justice which stops short at those who make no protests8 ,are we willing to make him like ourselves half a civilized man in our dealings with our equals1 and half a wild beast when we encounter the innocent and oppressed8 ,footnote #a3 ,of course1 should the child of the wet nurse have died1 there can be no question of an infringement of its rights4 ,but such cases have no relation to those in which the rich mother requires a nurse for the child she is unable to suckle herself1 owing to pathological reasons4 ,i may draw attention to a precautionary measure which has become a law in ,germany3 this prohibits the acceptance of a post as wet nurse by a mother until six months after the birth of her own child4 ,this interval is considered sufficiently long to guarantee the health of the infant4 ,moreover1 the special care devoted to artificial feeding in ,germany provides a satisfactory substitute for wet nursing1 in the case of children who are deprived of maternal nourishment4 ,such laws and provisions are a first step towards the recognition of the civil rights of poor infants4 ,if not1 then before we offer moral education to the child1 let us imitate the priest who is about to ascend to the altar3 he bows his head in penitence and confesses his own sins before the whole congregation4 ,this outlawed child is like a dislocated arm4 ,humanity cannot work at the evolution of its morality until this arm has been put into its place2 and this will also end the pains and the paralysis of the injured muscles attached to it3 women4 ,the social question of the child is obviously the more complete and profound2 it is the question of our present and of our future4 ,if we can reconcile to our conscience deeds of such grave injustice1 not to say crimes1 without recognizing them as such1 what minor forms of oppression shall we not readily condone in our dealings with the child8 99 99 99 99 99 ,how we receive the infants that come into the world4--,let us look around4 ,only of late has any preparation been made to receive this sublime guest4 ,it is not very long ago that little beds for children were first made2 among all the innumerable tasteless1 superfluous1 and extravagant objects of commerce1 let us see what things are intended for the child4 ,no washstands1 no sofas1 no tables1 no brushes4 ,among all the many houses1 there is not one house for him and his like1 and only rich and fortunate children have even a room of their own1 more or less a place of exile4 ,let us imagine ourselves subjected for even a single day to the miseries to which he is condemned4 ,suppose that we should find ourselves among a race of giants1 with legs immensely long and bodies enormously large in comparison with ours1 and also with powers of rapid movement infinitely greater than ours1 people extraordinarily agile and intelligent compared with ourselves4 ,we should want to go into their houses2 the steps would be each as high as our knees1 and yet we should have to try to mount them with their owners2 we should want to sit down1 but the seats would be almost as high as our shoulders2 clambering painfully upon them1 we should at last succeed in perching upon them4 ,we should want to brush our clothes1 but all the clothes-brushes would be so huge that we could not lay hold of them nor sustain their weight2 and a clothes-brush would be handed to us if we wanted to brush our nails4 ,we should perhaps be glad to take a bath in one of the washstand basins2 but the weight of these would make it impossible for us to lift them4 ,if we knew that these giants had been expecting us1 we should be obliged to say3 they have made no preparations for receiving us1 or for making our lives among them agreeable4 ,the baby finds all that he himself needs in the form of playthings made for dolls2 rich1 varied and attractive surroundings have not been created for him1 but dolls have houses1 sitting-rooms1 kitchens and wardrobes2 for them all that the adult possesses is reproduced in miniature4 ,among all these things1 however1 the child cannot live2 he can only amuse himself4 ,the world has been given to him in jest1 because no one has yet recognized him as a living man4 ,he discovers that society has prepared a mockery for his reception4 ,that children break their toys is so well known that this act of destruction of the only things specially manufactured for them is taken to be a proof of their intelligence4 ,we say3 ,he destroys it because he wishes to understand how things are made2 in reality he is looking to see if there is anything interesting inside the toys1 because externally they have no interest whatever for him2 sometimes he breaks them up violently1 like an angry man4 ,then1 according to us1 he is destroying out of naughtiness4 ,it is the tendency of the child actually to live by means of the things around him2 he would like to use a washstand of his own1 to dress himself1 really to comb the hair on a living head1 to sweep the floor himself2 he too would like to have seats1 tables1 sofas1 clothes-pegs1 and cupboards4 ,what he desires is to work himself1 to aim at some intelligent object1 to have comfort in his own life4 ,he has not only to behave like a man1 but to construct a man2 such is the dominant tendency of his nature1 of his mission4 ,we have seen him in the ,case dei ,bambini happy and patient1 slow and precise like the most admirable workman1 and the most scrupulous conservator of things4 ,the smallest trifles suffice to make him happy2 it delights him to hang up his clothes on pegs fixed low down on the walls1 within reach of his hands2 to open a light door1 the handle of which is proportioned to the size of his hand2 to place a chair1 the weight of which is not too great for his arms1 quietly and gracefully4 ,we offer a very simple suggestion3 give the child an environment in which everything is constructed in proportion to himself1 and let him live therein4 ,then there will develop within the child that active life which has caused so many to marvel1 because they see in it not only a simple exercise performed with pleasure1 but the revelation of a spiritual life4 ,in such harmonious surroundings the young child is seen laying hold of the intellectual life like a seed which has thrown out a root into the soil1 and then growing and developing by one sole means3 long practice in each exercise4 ,when we see little children acting thus1 intent on their work1 slow in executing it1 because of the immaturity of their structure1 just as they walk slowly because their legs are still short1 we feel intuitively that life is being elaborated within them1 as a chrysalis slowly elaborates the butterfly within the cocoon4 ,to impede their activity would be to do violence to their lives4 ,but what is the usual method with young children8 ,we all interrupt them without compunction or consideration1 in the manner of masters to slaves who have no human rights4 ,to show consideration to young children as to adults would even seem ridiculous to many persons4 ,and yet with what severity do we enjoin children not to interrupt us6 ,if the little one is doing something1 eating by himself1 for instance1 some adult comes and feeds him2 if he is trying to fasten an overall1 some adult hastens to dress him2 every one substitutes an alien action to his1 brutally1 without the smallest consideration4 ,and yet we ourselves are very sensitive as to our rights in our own work2 it offends us if any one attempts to supplant us2 in the ,bible the sentence1 ,and his place shall another take is among the threats to the lost4 ,what should we do if we were to become the slaves of a people incapable of understanding our feelings1 a gigantic people1 very much stronger than ourselves8 ,when we were quietly eating our soup1 enjoying it at our leisure 7and we know that enjoyment depends upon being at liberty71 suppose a giant appeared and snatching the spoon from our hand1 made us swallow it in such haste that we were almost choked4 ,our protest3 ,for mercy's sake1 slowly1 would be accompanied by an oppression of the heart2 our digestion would suffer4 ,if again1 thinking of something pleasant1 we should be slowly putting on an overcoat with all the sense of well-being and liberty we enjoy in our own houses1 and some giant should suddenly throw it upon us1 and having dressed us1 should in the twinkling of an eye1 carry us out to some distance from the door1 we should feel our dignity so wounded1 that all the expected pleasure of the walk would be lost4 ,our nutrition does not depend solely on the soup we have swallowed1 nor our well-being upon the physical exercise of walking1 but also upon the liberty with which we do these things4 ,we should feel offended and rebellious1 not at all out of hatred of these giants1 but merely from our recognition of the innate tendency to free functions in all that pertains to life4 ,it is something within us which man does not recognize1 which ,god alone knows1 a something which manifests itself imperceptibly to us to the end that we may complete it4 ,it is this love of freedom which nourishes and gives well-being to our life1 even in its most minute acts4 ,of this it was said3 ,man does not live by bread alone4 ,how much greater this need must be in young children1 in whom creation is still in action6 ,with strife and rebellion they have to defend their own little conquests of their environment4 ,when they want to exercise their senses1 such as that of touch1 for instance1 every one condemns them3 ,do not touch6 ,if they attempt to take something from the kitchen1 some scraps to make a little dish1 they are driven away1 and mercilessly sent back to their toys4 ,how often one of those marvelous moments when their attention is fixed1 and that process of organization which is to develop them begins in their souls1 is roughly interrupted2 moments when the spontaneous efforts of the young child are groping blindly in its surroundings after sustenance for its intelligence4 ,do we not all retain an impression of something having been forever stifled in our lives8 ,without being able to give any definite reason1 we feel that something precious was lost on our life-journey1 that we were defrauded and depreciated4 ,perhaps at the very moments when we were about to create ourselves1 we were interrupted and persecuted1 and our spiritual organism was left rickety1 weak1 and inadequate4 ,let us imagine to ourselves certain adults1 not mature and stable like the majority of grown men1 but in a state of spiritual auto-creation1 as are men of genius4 ,let us take the case of a writer under the influence of poetic inspiration1 at the moment when his beneficent and inspiring work is about to take form for the help of other men4 ,or that of the mathematician who perceives the solution of a great problem1 from which will issue new principles beneficial to all humanity4 ,or again1 that of an artist1 whose mind has just conceived the ideal image which it is necessary to fix upon the canvas lest a masterpiece be lost to the world4 ,imagine these men at such psychological moments1 broken in upon by some brutal person shouting to them to follow him at once1 taking them by the hand1 or pushing them out by the shoulders4 ,and for what8 ,the chess-board is set out for a game4 ,ah6 such men would say1 ,you could not have done anything more atrocious6 ,our inspiration is lost2 humanity will be deprived of a poem1 an artistic masterpiece1 a useful discovery1 by your folly4 ,but the child in like case does not lose some single production2 he loses himself4 ,for his masterpiece1 which he is composing in the recesses of his creative genius1 is the new man4 ,the caprices1 the naughtinesses1 the mysterious vapors of little children are perhaps the occult cry of unhappiness uttered by the misunderstood soul4 ,but it is not only the soul that suffers2 the body suffers with it4 ,for the influence exercised by the spirit on the entire physical existence is a characteristic of man4 ,in an institution for deserted children1 there was one extremely ugly little creature1 who had nevertheless greatly endeared himself to a young woman who had the care of him4 ,this nurse one day told one of the patronesses that the child was growing very pretty4 ,the lady went to look at it1 but found it very ugly1 and thought to herself that daily habit soon accustoms us to the defects of others4 ,some time after this the nurse made the same remark as before1 and the lady good-naturedly paid another visit2 impressed by the warmth with which the young woman spoke of the child1 she was touched to think that love had made the speaker blind4 ,several months elapsed1 and finally the nurse1 with a triumphant air1 declared that henceforth no mistake would be possible1 for the child had undoubtedly become beautiful4 ,the lady1 astounded1 had to admit that this was true2 the body of the child had actually been transformed under the influence of a great affection4 ,when we delude ourselves with the idea that we are giving everything to children by giving them fresh air and food1 we are not even giving them this3 air and food are not sufficient for the body of man2 all the physiological functions are subject to a higher welfare1 wherein the sole key of all life is to be found4 ,the child's body lives also by joyousness of soul4 ,physiology itself teaches us these things4 ,a frugal meal taken in the open air will nourish the body far better than a sumptuous repast in a close room1 where the air is impure1 because all the functions of the body are more active in the open air1 and assimilation is more complete4 ,in like manner a frugal meal eaten in common with beloved and sympathetic persons is much more nutritious than the food a humble1 harassed secretary would partake at the lordly table of a capricious master4 ,liberty in this case is the cry that explains all4 ,parva domus sed mea 7a little house1 but my own71 has been quoted ever since the ,roman epoch to indicate which is the most healthful of houses4 ,where our lives are oppressed1 there can be no health for us1 even though we eat of princely banquets or in splendid buildings4 99 99 99 99 99 ,with man the life of the body depends on the life of the spirit4--,physiology gives an exhaustive explanation of the mechanism of such phenomena4 ,moral activities have such an exact correspondence with the functions of the body that it is possible to appreciate by means of these the various emotional states of grief1 anger1 weariness1 and pleasure4 ,in grief1 for instance1 the action of the heart becomes feebler1 as under a paralyzing influence2 all the blood-vessels contract1 and the blood circulates more slowly1 the glands no longer secrete their juices normally1 and these disturbances manifest themselves in a pallor of the face1 an appearance of weariness in the drooping body1 a mouth parched from lack of saliva1 indigestion caused by insufficiency of the gastric juice1 and cold hands4 ,if prolonged1 grief results in mal-nutrition and consequent wasting1 and predisposes the debilitated body to infectious diseases4 ,weariness is like a rapid paralysis of the heart2 it may induce fainting1 as expressed in the popular phrase dead tired2 but a reflex action will nearly always restore the sufferer1 like an automatic safety-valve2 thus a yawn1 that is to say1 a deep1 spasmodic inspiration1 which dilates the pulmonary alveoli1 causes the blood to flow to the heart like a suction pump1 and sets it in motion again4 ,in anger there is a kind of tetanic contraction of all the capillaries1 causing extreme pallor1 and the expulsion of an extra quantity of bile from the liver4 ,pleasure causes dilatation of the blood-vessels2 the circulation1 and consequently all the functions of secretion and assimilation are facilitated2 the face is suffused with color1 the gastric juice and the saliva are perceptible as that healthy appetite and that watering of the mouth which invite us to supply fresh nourishment to the body2 all the tissues work actively to expel their toxins1 and to assimilate fresh nourishment2 the enlarged lungs store up large quantities of oxygen1 which burn up all refuse1 leaving no trace of poisonous germs4 ,it is an injection of health4 ,in ,italy1 where after the abolition of the death penalty the punishment of solitary confinement was substituted1 we have a proof even more eloquent of the influence of the spirit upon the functions of the body4 ,with our modern measures of hygiene in prisons1 the prison cell cannot be called a place of torture for the body3 it is merely a place where all spiritual sustenance is withheld4 ,it consists of a cell with perfectly bare gray walls1 opening only into a narrow strip of ground enclosed by high walls1 where the criminal may walk in the fresh air1 because the open country is all around him1 though it is hidden from his sight4 ,what is lacking here for the body8 ,it is provided with food1 and a shelter from the weather1 it has a bed and a place where it can take in fresh stores of pure oxygen2 the body can rest1 nay more1 it can do nothing but rest4 ,the conditions seem almost ideal for any one who does not wish to do anything1 and desires simply to vegetate4 ,but no sound from without1 no human voice ever reaches the ear of the being here incarcerated2 he will never again see a color or a form4 ,no news from the outer world ever reaches him4 ,alone in dense spiritual darkness1 he will spend the interminable hours1 days1 seasons1 and years4 ,now1 experience has shown that these wretched persons cannot live4 ,they go mad and die4 ,not only their minds but their bodies perish after a few years4 ,what causes death8 ,if such a man were a plant1 he would lack nothing1 but he requires other nourishment4 ,emptiness of the soul is mortal even to the vilest criminal1 for this is a law of human nature4 ,his flesh1 his viscera1 his bones perish when deprived of spiritual food1 just as an oak-tree would perish without the nitrates of the earth and the oxygen of the air4 ,this slow death substituted for violent death was1 indeed1 denounced as very great cruelty4 ,to die of hunger in nine days like ,count ,ugolino is a more cruel fate than to be burnt to death in half an hour like ,giordano ,bruno2 but to die of starvation of the spirit in a term of years is the most cruel of all the punishments hitherto devised for the castigation of man4 ,if a robust and brutal criminal can perish from starvation of the soul1 what will be the fate of the infant if we take no account of his spiritual needs8 ,his body is fragile1 his bones are in process of growth1 his muscles1 overloaded with sugar1 cannot yet elaborate their powers2 they can only elaborate themselves2 the delicate structure of his organism requires1 it is true1 nutriment and oxygen2 but if its functions are to be satisfactorily performed1 it requires joy4 ,it is a joyous spirit which causes the bones of man to exult4 ,,ii ,a ,,survey ,,of ,,modern ,,education ,the precepts which govern moral education and instruction4--,although the adult relegates the child to an existence among toys1 and inexorably denies him those exercises which would promote his internal development1 he claims that the child should imitate him in the moral sphere4 ,the adult says to the child3 ,do as ,i do4 ,the child is to become a man1 not by training and development1 but by imitation4 ,it is as if a father were to say in the morning to his little one3 ,look at me1 see how tall ,i am2 when ,i return this evening1 ,i shall expect you to have grown a foot4 ,education is greatly simplified by this method4 ,if a tale of some heroic deed is read to the child1 and he is told to become a hero2 if some moral action is narrated and is concluded with the recommendation1 be thou virtuous2 if some instance of remarkable character is noted together with the exhortation1 you too must acquire a strong character1 the child has been put in the way of becoming a great man6 ,if children show themselves discontented and restless1 they are told that they want for nothing1 that they are fortunate to have a father and a mother1 and to conclude1 they are exhorted thus3 ,children1 be happy--a child should always be joyous2 and behold6 the mysterious yearnings of the child are supposed to be satisfied6 ,adults are quite content when they have acted thus4 ,they straighten out the character and the morals of their children as they formerly straightened their legs by bandaging them4 ,true1 rebellious children occasionally demonstrate the futility of such teachings4 ,in these cases a good instructor chooses appropriate stories showing the baseness of such ingratitude1 the dangers of disobedience1 the ugliness of bad temper1 to accentuate the defects of the pupil4 ,it would be just as edifying to discourse to a blind man on the dangers of blindness1 and to a cripple on the difficulties of walking4 ,the same thing happens in material matters2 a music-master says to a beginner3 ,hold your fingers properly2 if you do not1 you will never be able to play4 ,a mother will say to a son condemned to sit bent double all day on school benches1 and obliged by the usages of society to study continually3 ,hold yourself gracefully1 do not be so awkward in company1 you make me feel ashamed of you4 ,if the child were one day to exclaim3 ,but it is you who prevent me from developing will and character2 when ,i seem naughty1 it is because ,i am trying to save myself2 how can ,i help being awkward when ,i am sacrificed8 ,to many this would be a revelation2 to many others merely a want of respect4 ,there is a method by which the child may be brought to achieve the results which the adult has laid down as desirable2 it is a very simple method4 ,the child must be made to do whatever the adult wishes2 the adult will then be able to lead him to the heights of goodness1 self-sacrifice and strength1 and the moral child will be created4 ,to dominate the child1 to bring him into subjection1 to make him obedient--this is the basis of education4 ,if this can be done by any means whatever1 even by violence1 all the rest will follow2 and remember1 it is all for the good of the child4 ,the child could not be molded by any other means4 ,it is the first and principal step in what is called educating the will of the child1 one which will henceforth enable the adult to speak of himself as ,virgil speaks of ,god4 ,after this first step the adult will examine himself to see what are the things he finds most difficult1 and these he will exact from the child in time1 that the child may accustom himself to the necessary difficulties of man's life4 ,but very often the adult also imposes conditions which he himself has not the fortitude to accept even partially 444 as1 for instance1 the task of listening motionless for three or four hours every day1 during a course of years1 to a dull1 wearisome lecturer4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it is the teacher who forms the child's mind4 ,how he teaches4--,the same conception governs the school3 it is the teacher who must form the pupil2 the development of the child's intelligence and culture are in his hands4 ,he has a truly formidable task and a tremendous responsibility4 ,the problems that present themselves to him are innumerable and acute2 they form as it were a hedge of thorns separating him from his pupils4 ,what must first of all be devised1 to win the attention of his pupils1 so that he may be able to introduce into their minds all that seems to him necessary8 ,how is he to offer them an idea in such a manner that they will retain it in their memories8 ,to this end1 it is essential that he should have a knowledge of psychology1 the precise manner in which physical phenomena are produced1 the laws governing memory1 the psychical mechanism by means of which ideas are formed1 the laws governing the association of ideas1 by means of which very gradually ideas proceed to the most sublime activities1 impelling the child to reason4 ,it is he who1 knowing all these things1 must build up and enrich the mind4 ,and this is no easy matter1 because1 in addition to this difficult work1 there is always the difficulty of difficulties1 that of inducing the child to lend himself to all this endeavor1 and to second the master1 and not show himself recalcitrant to the efforts made on his behalf4 ,for this reason the moral education is the point of departure2 before all things1 it is necessary to discipline the class4 ,the pupils must be induced to second the master's efforts1 if not by love1 then by force4 ,failing this point of departure1 all education and instruction would be impossible1 and the school useless4 ,another difficulty is that of economizing the powers of the pupils1 that is to say1 utilizing them to the utmost without wasting them4 ,how much rest is necessary8 ,how long should any particular work be carried on8 ,perhaps ten minutes' rest may be necessary after the first three-quarters of an hour of occupation2 but after another three-quarters of an hour1 a pause of fifteen minutes may be required1 and so on throughout the day2 finally1 a quarter of an hour's rest may be needed after ten minutes' occupation4 ,but what instruction is best adapted to the powers of a child during the various hours of the day8 ,is it best to begin with mathematics or with dictation8 ,at what hours will the child be most inclined to exercise his powers of imagination1 at #i in the morning or at #aa8 ,other anxieties must assail a perfect teacher6 ,how should he write on the blackboard so that the children seated at a distance may see8 for if they do not see his work is of no avail4 ,and how much light shall fall upon the blackboard1 in order that all may see clearly the white characters on the black surface8 ,of what size should be the script specially chosen by the master to suit distant vision8 ,this is a serious matter1 because if the child1 obliged by discipline to look and learn from a distance1 should put too great a strain upon his powers of visual accommodation1 he may in time become short-sighted2 then the teacher would have manufactured a blind person4 ,a serious matter indeed6 99 99 99 99 99 ,what consideration has ever been given to the state of anxiety of such a teacher8 ,to get some idea of his anxiety we may think of a young wife about to become a mother1 who should set herself such problems as the following3 how can ,i create an infant1 if ,i know nothing of anatomy2 how can ,i form its skeleton8 ,i must study the structure of the bones carefully4 ,i must then learn how the muscles are attached2 but how will it be possible to put the brain into a closed box8 ,and must the little heart go on beating continually until death8 ,is it possible that it will not weary8 ,in like fashion1 she might ponder thus over her new-born babe3 it is evident that he will not be able to walk if he does not first of all understand the laws of equilibrium2 if he is left to himself1 he will not be able to understand these till he is twenty2 ,i must therefore prepare to teach him these laws prematurely in order that he may be able to walk as quickly as possible4 ,the schoolmaster is the person who builds up the intelligence of the pupil2 the intelligence of the pupil increases in direct proportion to the efforts of the teacher2 in other words1 he knows just what the master has made him know and understands neither more nor less than the master has made him understand4 ,when an inspector visits a school and questions the pupils he turns to the master1 and if he is satisfied says3 ,well done1 teacher6 ,for the result is indubitably the work of the master2 the discipline by which he has fixed the attention of his pupils1 even to the psychical mechanism which has guided him in his teaching1 all is due to him4 ,god enters the school as a symbol in the crucifix1 but the creator is the teacher4 ,a good deal of help is given to teachers in their superhuman task4 ,there is a kind of division of labor1 by virtue of which more advanced experts prepare the schemata of instruction2 basing them upon psychology1 if the teaching is on a scientific plan1 or on the principles laid down by one of the great pedagogists such as ,herbart1 for example2 moreover1 the sciences1 such as hygiene and experimental psychology1 are further invoked to overcome many practical difficulties and to help in the arrangement of schoolrooms1 the drawing up of the curriculum1 time-tables1 etc4 ,here1 for instance1 are notes for lessons on a psychological basis1 that is to say1 lessons which take account of the proper order of succession in which the psychical activities should develop in the mind of the child2 by exercises of this kind1 the pupil will not only learn1 but will develop his intelligence in accordance with the laws governing its formation4 #b ,footnote #b3 ,these two examples are taken from the well-known review1 ,i ,diritti della ,scuola1 ,year xiv4 ,,object ,,lesson ,a ,candle3 ,education of the sensory and perceptive faculties4 ,sight4--,white1 solid4 ,touch4--,greasy1 smooth4 ,nomenclature4--,parts of the candle3 wick1 surface1 extremity1 edges1 upper part1 lower part1 middle part4 ,the candles we use are made of wax mixed with stearine4 ,stearine is made of the fat of oxen and sheep and pigs4 ,hence they are called stearine candles4 ,there are also wax candles4 ,these are yellowish and less greasy4 ,wax is produced by bees4 ,there are also tallow candles2 these are very greasy and have a disgreeable smell when burning4 ,memory4--,have you ever seen a candle-factory8 ,have you ever seen a bee-hive8 ,of what are the cells of the honeycomb made8 ,when do you light a candle8 ,have you ever carried a lighted candle carelessly8 ,did not this cause a disaster8 ,imagination4--,draw the outline of a candle on the blackboard4 ,comparison1 association1 abstraction4--,similarity and difference in candles of stearine1 wax1 and tallow4 ,judgment and reasoning4--,are candles useful8 ,were they more useful formerly1 or now that we have gas and electric light8 ,sentiments4--,children are greatly pleased by a visit to a candle-factory4 ,it is indeed very agreeable to see how candles used by so many people are made4 ,when we can satisfy our desire for instruction we feel pleasure and contentment4 ,volition4--,what should we do with the fat of pigs if we did not know how to make it into stearine8 ,what should we do with wax if we did not know how to utilize it8 ,man is able to work and to transform many products into useful substances and objects4 ,work is our life4 ,blessed be the workers6 ,let us also love work and devote ourselves diligently thereto4 7,n4,b4--,the children are all to listen without moving47 ,any kind of lesson may be based on the same psychical plan1 even a moral lesson4 ,for instance3 ,moral education derived from the observation of actions4 7,n4,b4--,the actions are all invented and narrated47 ,agreeable manners4 ,incident4--,is it true1 ,miss1 that the village church is more than a kilometer from here8 ,my mother has ordered me to go there4 ,i thought ,i had arrived1 and ,i was so pleased4 ,i have come a long way1 and ,i am so very1 very tired4 ,indeed1 replied the girl1 who was standing at the gate of her home1 you are still a kilometer and a half from the church4 ,but come through my gate1 and take the short cut ,i will show you through my fields4 ,you will get to the church in five minutes4 ,what an amiable girl6 ,successive relations of cause and effect4--,the village girl showed amenity to the little traveler4 ,the latter reached the church quickly1 was saved much fatigue1 and felt great relief4 ,memory4--,have you always been pleasant to your companions8 ,have you always been ready to lend a comrade anything he has asked for8 ,have you always thanked those who have done you favors in an agreeable manner8 ,comparison1 association1 abstraction4--,comparison between an agreeable child and a boorish one4 ,judgment1 reasoning4--,why is it necessary to be courteous to all8 ,is it sufficient to give help solely to show oneself to be amiable8 ,sentiments4--,he who is amiable has a soul rich in sweetness and suavity4 ,what sympathy he evokes in all6 ,the disagreeable person is irritated by trifles4 ,he excites disgust and fear in others4 ,he who is affable shows love to his neighbor4 ,volition4--,children1 accustom yourselves to be pleasant to every one4 ,you should be pleasant when you are conferring some favor1 otherwise the favor will seem irksome4 ,when you want something1 do you ask for it arrogantly8 ,if so1 it will be easier to say no than yes to you4 ,on the other hand1 if you ask politely for something1 will it not be difficult to refuse you8 ,it will perhaps be more interesting to follow a lesson actually given1 and accepted as a model for teachers in general4 ,i therefore reproduce one of the lessons which gained a prize at a competition of teachers held in ,italy4 #c ,in this1 according to the subject or theme1 only one primary psychical activity was to be dealt with3 viz4 sensory perception4 7,the compositions were distinguished not by the names of the authors1 but by mottoes47 ,footnote #c3 ,this was published in the review1 ,la ,voce delle ,maestre d',asilo1 ,year viii4 ,motto4--,things are the first and best teachers4 ,i set myself the following limits3 ,to give an idea of icy cold in contrast to that of heat4 ,this would be amply sufficient in itself1 for these ideas are not grains to pick up one after the other1 but sublime psychical facts of great complexity1 and1 consequently1 very difficult to assimilate4 ,combine with the idea to be imparted1 the cultivation of a sense of compassion and pity for the very poor1 to whom winter brings such severe suffering2 a feeling ,i have already tried many times to arouse4 ,the above is for my own guidance2 what follows is for the children4 ,children1 how comfortable we are here6 ,everything is clean2 everything is in order2 ,i am so fond of you2 you are so fond of me4 ,isn't this true1 children8 ,children4--,i am1 ,i am4 ,me too 7correct74 ,tell me1 ,gino1 are you cold8 ,you said no at once4 ,well1 no1 you are right2 we are really very cozy here4 ,there1 in that corner 7,i point7 there is a thing which gives out much 444 ,children4--,heat4 ,it is the stove4 ,but outside1 where there is no stove1 over there1 towards the horizon 7the children are to a certain extent familiar with this word71 there is no warmth4 ,children4--,it's cold there 7an answer due to the clarity of the laws of contrast74 ,last night 444 while we were asleep1 while your mother perhaps was mending your clothes 444 dear mother1 how kind she is6444 well1 last night1 so many1 many white flakes fell softly from the sky6444 ,snow1 snow6 exclaim the children4 ,children6 let us say3 so many snowflakes fell4 ,how beautiful the snow is6 ,let us go and look at it closely4 ,children4--,yes1 yes1 yes1 yes4 ,it is so beautiful that ,i see you would all like to take a little4 ,but perhaps this is not allowed4 ,to whom does the snow belong8 7,no answer47 ,who bought it8 ,who made it8 ,you8 ,no4 ,i8 ,no4 ,your mother8 ,no4 ,then did your father buy it8 7,they look at me in astonishment2 these are really very strange questions47 ,no1 again4 ,well then1 the snow belongs to every one4 ,and if this is so1 we may take a little handful of it4 7,evident signs of joy47 ,i will hand round the boxes you made yesterday4 7,these children have not desks with lockers in which they may put their little works4 ,using the boxes will be a good way of demonstrating the utility of their work47 ,they will do very well to hold the beautiful snow4 7,i talk to them as ,i distribute the boxes1 that their attention may not flag47 ,i will take mine too1 the one ,i made with you4 ,it is larger than yours2 so which will hold more snow1 mine or yours8 ,children4--,yours4 ,come then1 children4 ,put a white handful into your boxes4 ,how delightful6 7,going47 ,just stop a moment2 how comfortable we are here6 ,put one hand over your face4 ,how warm your face is1 and how warm your hand is too6 ,we shall see whether your hands will still be so warm after you have touched the snow4 ,children4--,they will be cold4 ,yes1 indeed4 7,going out47 ,how beautiful it is6 ,it fell down from above4 ,the sky has given the earth a beautiful dress1 all 444 ,children4--,white4 ,at this juncture my children1 accustomed to that principle of healthful1 ordered liberty which is the main factor in the formation of character1 touch and gather up the snow2 some of them break the pure surface with little drawings4 ,i let them4 ,i wait a minute1 then ,i make as it were a sudden assault upon their attention3 ,children1 ,i too will take a little snow1 but together with all of you4 ,stop4 ,stand up4 ,look well at me4 ,let us take away a little strip of the great cloak4 ,let us put it in our boxes4 ,that's right4 7,re-entering the schoolroom47 ,oh6 how cold it is6 ,the children who are not well wrapped up are the coldest4 ,poor little things6 ,and those who haven't that thing full of burning coal in their houses6 ,children4--,the stove4 ,how cold they will be6 ,come now1 quickly2 all to your places4 ,put the boxes on the desk4 ,how cold the snow is6 ,did you notice how cold it made your hands1 which were quite warm8 ,children4--,my hand is cold6 ,mine too6 ,etc4 ,in the courtyard1 ,i saw ,caroline take a little snow1 and then suddenly let it fall2 she was not strong enough to bear such cold4 ,but then she tried again1 and the second time she did not drop it4 ,child4--,i didn't4 ,i putted it 7correct7 quickly into my box4 ,children1 when the cold is as great as the cold of the snow1 it is called frost4 ,say that1 ,guido4 ,what is the word8 ,now you1 ,giannina4 ,and the snow which is so cold is 444 what8 ,who can guess8 ,a child4--,frozen4 ,say3 the snow is frozen4 ,we came indoors1 because it is frosty outside1 and inside it is 444 ,children4--,warm4 ,but we brought with us a frozen thing which is called 444 ,children4--,snow4 ,what is it the stove gives us8 ,do you remember8 #d ,children4--,heat4 ,i want ,maria to tell me4 ,and now1 ,peppino4 ,footnote #d3 ,the children are expected to know that the stove gives out heat1 by an effort of memory4 ,do you know1 our mouths also give out heat4 ,open yours4 ,not too much6 ,hold up one hand in front of it1 the right hand4 ,breathe on it as ,i am doing4 ,let us breathe again2 now let us send our breath outwards1 as ,i am doing4 ,again 444 again 444 again4 ,that's right4 ,now feel4 ,you see your mouth too gives out a little 444 ,children4--,heat4 ,now let us try putting a little snow into it4 ,a little piece like this4 ,oh6 the heat of the mouth is escaping1 it has already gone at the icy touch of the snow4 ,children4--,our mouths are cold now4 ,yes1 that's right4 ,they are very1 very cold1 so cold that they are what we call 444 ,children4--,freezing4 ,perhaps ,giuseppe doesn't know4 ,he didn't say it with the others4 ,say it again1 that he may say it with you4 ,again4 ,that will do4 ,bravo1 ,giuseppe4 ,so our mouths were 444 ,children4--,freezing4 ,let us eat another little piece of snow4 ,the snow turns to water in our mouths1 because it is made of water only4 ,now bread is made of water too1 but not only of water4 ,what does the baker want to make the dough for bread8444 ,children4--,flour4 ,and what else8 ,children4--,salt4 ,and what else8 ,children4--,yeast4 ,i see ,luigi is still eating snow1 and ,alfonso too1 and ,pierino4 ,do you like it8 ,children4--,yes1 ,signora4 ,do you like it8 ,children4--,yes1 ,signora4 ,me too1 me too 7correct74 ,well1 eat a little more1 but not much1 it might make you ill4 ,it is so freezing 7,i repeat this word very often1 because it expresses the idea ,i am trying to convey74 ,when it snows it is so very cold1 and just think that there are many children1 many people1 who are not warmly dressed and have no stoves2 they are very poor4 ,they suffer very much1 and some of them die2 poor people6 ,how fortunate we are1 on the other hand6 ,we have so many garments 7they have learned this word7 to cover ourselves with2 we have a stove at home and one at school1 to warm us4 ,how lucky we are6 ,a child4--,i have no stove at home4 ,i know you have not1 ,emilio1 and ,i am very sorry4 ,children1 you must be kind to ,emilio and ,giuseppina1 because they are very 444 ,children4--,poor4 ,have you eaten it all8 ,children4--,no1 ,signora4 ,now let us go into the courtyard and throw away the rest of the snow4 ,then we will put the boxes on this table to dry4 ,and to-morrow ,i will show you a pretty picture of country covered with snow4 ,come along2 bring your boxes1 and when you have emptied them put them back where ,i told you4 ,i intend to repeat this lesson in another form1 combining others with it1 and referring in it to other ideas1 which bear a relation to that here set forth4 ,as everything in the physical and moral world is one and indivisible1 bound together in closest union1 human development is gravely impeded by the presentment of isolated educational facts in a desultory manner1 because it is impossible to disconnect things united by a sacred and eternal law4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in the above model lesson1 it is claimed that only two perceptions are dealt with1 those of cold and heat1 and that the child has been allowed a good deal of liberty1 but of a judicious kind4 ,now it would be exceedingly difficult to limit the perceptions strictly to two1 especially when dealing with persons placed in an environment abounding in stimuli1 who have already stored up a whole chaos of images4 ,but such being the object in view1 it is necessary to eliminate as far as possible all other perceptions1 to arrest those two1 and so to polarize attention on them that all other images shall be obscured in the field of consciousness4 ,this would be the scientific method tending to isolate perceptions2 and it is in fact the practical method adopted by us in our education of the senses4 ,in the case of cold and heat1 the child is prepared by the isolation of the particular sense in question2 he is placed blindfolded in a silent place1 to the end that thermic stimuli alone may reach him4 ,in front of the child are placed two objects perfectly identical in all characteristics perceptible to the muscular tactile sense3 of the same dimensions1 the same shape1 the same degree of smoothness1 the same resistance to pressure2 for instance1 two india-rubber bags1 filled with the same quantity of water1 and perfectly dry on the outside4 ,the sole difference is the temperature of the water in the two bags2 in the hot one1 the water would be at a temperature of sixty degrees centigrade2 in the cold1 at ten degrees centigrade4 ,after directing the child's attention to the object1 his hand is drawn over the hot bag1 and then over the cold one2 while his hand is on the hot bag the teacher says3 ,it is hot6 ,while he feels the cold one he is told3 ,it is cold4 ,and the lesson is finished4 ,it has consisted merely of two words1 and of a long preparation designed to ensure that as far as possible1 the two sensations corresponding to these two words shall be the only ones that reach the child4 ,the other senses1 sight and hearing1 were protected against stimuli2 and there was no perceptible difference in the objects offered to the touch save that of temperature4 ,thus it becomes approximately probable that the child will achieve the perception of two sensations exclusively4 ,and what about the liberty of the child1 we shall be asked8 ,well1 we admit that every lesson infringes the liberty of the child1 and for this reason we allow it to last only for a few seconds3 just the time to pronounce the two words3 hot1 cold2 but this is effected under the influence of the preparation1 which by first isolating the sense makes1 as it were1 a darkness in the consciousness1 and then projects only two images into it4 ,as if from the screen before a magic lantern1 the child receives his psychical acquisitions1 or rather they are like seeds falling on a fertile soil2 and it is in the subsequent free choice1 and the repetition of the exercise1 as in the subsequent activity1 spontaneous1 associative1 and reproductive1 that the child will be left free4 ,he receives1 rather than a lesson1 a determinate impression of contact with the external world2 it is the clear1 scientific1 pre-determined character of this contact which distinguishes it from the mass of indeterminate contacts which the child is continually receiving from his surroundings4 ,the multiplicity of such indeterminate contacts will create chaos within the mind of the child2 pre-determined contacts will1 on the other hand1 initiate order therein1 because with the help of the technique of isolation1 they will begin to make him distinguish one thing from another4 ,the technique of our lessons is governed by experimental psychology4 ,and this trend1 without doubt1 is in contrast to that of the past1 which was governed by speculative psychology1 on which the whole of the educational methods commonly in use in schools has hitherto been based4 ,it was ,herbart who used the philosophical psychology of his day as a guiding principle to reduce pedagogic rules to a system4 ,from his individual experience he believed he could deduce a universal method of developing the mind1 and be made this the psychological basis of methods of teaching4 ,the ,german pedagogist1 whose methods are now1 thanks to ,credaro1 formerly ,professor of ,pedagogy at the ,university of ,rome1 and afterward ,minister of ,education1 adopted for elementary education throughout ,italy1 gave a unique type of lesson on the four well-known periods 7the formal steps73 clarity1 association1 system1 method4 ,these may be explained approximately as follows3 presentation of an object and its analytical examination 7clarity72 judgment and comparison with other surrounding objects or with mnemonic images 7association72 definition of the object deduced from preceding judgments 7system72 new principles derived from the idea which is thus deepened1 and which will lead to practical application of a moral order 7method74 ,the teacher must guide the child's mind on these lines in every kind of teaching2 he must1 however1 never substitute his own intelligence for that of the child1 but rather make the child himself think1 and induce him to exercise his own activity4 ,for instance1 in the association period1 the master must not say3 ,look at such and such an object1 and at such and such another2 see how much alike they are1 etc4444 ,he should ask the pupil3 ,what do you see when you look around8 ,is there not something which is like1 etc48 ,again1 in the definition period1 the master should not say3 ,a bird is a vertebrate animal covered with feathers2 it has two limbs which have been transformed into wings1 but by rapid questions1 corrections1 and analogies1 he should induce the child to find the precise definition for himself4 ,if the mental process of ,herbart's four periods is to come naturally1 it would be essential that great interest in the object should exist2 it is interest which would keep the mind amused1 or1 as the famous pedagogist would say1 plunged in the idea1 and would maintain it in a system nevertheless embracing multilateral ideas2 and hence it is necessary that interest should be awakened and should persist in all instruction4 ,it is well known that a pupil of ,herbart's must1 to this end1 supplement ,herbart's four periods by a prior period1 that of interest2 linking all new knowledge to the old1 going from the known to the unknown1 because what is absolutely new can awake no interest4 ,to make oneself interesting artificially1 that is1 interesting to those who have no interest in us1 is indeed a very difficult task2 and to arrest the attention hour after hour1 and year after year1 not of one1 but of a multitude of persons who have nothing in common with us1 not even years1 is indeed a superhuman undertaking4 ,yet this is the task of the teacher1 or1 as he would say1 his art3 to make this assembly of children whom he has reduced to immobility by discipline follow him with their minds1 understand what he says1 and learn2 an internal action1 which he cannot govern1 as he governs the position of their bodies1 but which he must win by making himself interesting1 and by maintaining this interest4 ,the art of tuition1 says ,ardigo1 consists mainly of this3 to know up to what point and in what manner one can maintain the interest of pupils4 ,the most skilful teachers are those who never fatigue one fraction of the pupil's brain1 but act in such a manner that his attention1 turning now here1 now there1 may rest itself and1 gaining strength1 return to the principal argument of the discourse with renewed vigor4 ,a much more laborious art is that which leads the child to find by means of its own mental processes1 not what it would naturally find1 but what the teacher desires1 although he does not say what he desires2 he urges on the child to associate his ideas spontaneously--as the teacher associates them--and even succeeds in making the child compose definitions with the exact words he himself has fixed upon1 without having revealed them4 ,such a thing would seem the result of some occult science1 a kind of conjuring trick4 ,nevertheless1 such methods have been and still are in use1 and in some cases they form the sole art of the teacher4 ,when in #ahfb ,tolstoy was making his tours of inspection in the schools of ,germany1 he was struck by this method of tuition1 and among the pedagogic writings describing his school1 ,iasnaja ,poliana1 he reproduces a lesson which deserves to be recorded1 although perhaps it would no longer be possible to find an example of such a lesson in any ,german school4 ,,iasnaja ,,poliana1 #ahfb4 ,calm and confident1 the professor is seated in the class-room2 the instruments are ready2 little tables with the letters1 a book with the picture of a fish4 ,the master looks at his pupils2 he knows beforehand all they are to understand2 he knows of what their souls consist1 and various other things he has learned in the seminary4 ,he opens the book and shows the fish4 ,dear children1 what is this8 ,the poor children are delighted to see the fish1 unless indeed they already know from other pupils with what sauce it is to be served up4 ,in any case1 they answer3 ,it is a fish4 ,no1 replies the professor 7all this is not an invention nor a satire1 but an exact account of what ,i have seen without exception in all the best schools in ,germany1 and in those ,english schools which have adopted this method of teaching74 ,no1 says the professor4 ,now what is it you do see8 ,the children are silent4 ,it must not be forgotten that they are obliged to remain seated and quiet1 each one in his place1 and that they are not to move4 ,well1 what do you see8 ,a book1 says the most stupid child in the class4 ,meanwhile1 the more intelligent children have been asking themselves over and over again what it is they do see2 they feel they cannot guess what the teacher wants1 and that they will have to answer that this fish is not a fish1 but something the name of which is unknown to them4 ,yes1 yes1 says the master1 eagerly1 very good indeed1 a book4 ,and what else8 ,the intelligent ones guess1 and say joyfully and proudly3 ,letters4 ,no1 no1 not at all6 says the teacher1 disappointed2 you must think before you speak4 ,again all the intelligent ones lapse into mournful silence2 they do not even try to guess2 they think of the teacher's spectacles1 and wonder why he does not take them off instead of looking over the top of them3 ,come then2 what is there in the book8 ,all are silent4 ,well1 what is this thing8 ,a fish1 says a bold spirit ,yes1 a fish4 ,but is it a live fish8 ,no1 it is not alive4 ,quite right4 ,then is it dead8 ,no4 ,right4 ,then what is this fish8 ,a picture4 ,just so4 ,very good6 ,all the children repeat3 ,it is a picture1 and they think that is all4 ,not at all4 ,they have to say that it is a picture which represents a fish4 ,by the same method the master induces the children to say that it is a picture which represents a fish4 ,he imagines that he is exercising the reasoning faculties of his pupils1 and it never seems to enter his head that if it is his duty to teach children to say in these exact words1 it is a book with a picture of a fish1 it would be much simpler to repeat this strange formula and make his pupils learn it by heart4 ,as a pendant to this old-fashioned lesson witnessed by ,tolstoy in an elementary school in ,germany1 we may cite the following lesson recently set forth by a distinguished ,french pedagogist and philosopher1 whose text-books are classics in the schools of his own country and in those of many foreign lands1 and are also in use in the teachers' training colleges in ,italy4 ,as the sub-title on the title-page informs us1 it is one of a series of lessons designed to mold teachers and citizens who shall be conscious of their duties1 and useful to families1 to their fatherland1 and to humanity4 #e ,we are therefore in the ambit of secondary schools4 ,the lesson we cite is a practical application of the principle of giving lessons by means of interrogation 7,socratic method71 and deals with a moral theme3 rights4 ,footnote #e3 ,f4 ,alengry1 ,education based upon ,psychology and ,morality4 ,you boys have never mistaken your companion ,paul for this table or this tree8--,oh1 no6--,why8--,because the table and the tree are inanimate and insensible1 whereas ,paul lives and feels4--,good4 ,if you strike the table it will feel nothing and you will not hurt it2 but have you any right to destroy it8--,no1 we should be destroying something belonging to others4--,then what is it you respect in the table8 the inanimate and insensible wood1 or the property of the person to whom it belongs8--,the property of the person to whom it belongs4--,have you any right to strike ,paul8--,no1 because we should hurt him and he would suffer4--,what is it you respect in him8 the property of another1 or ,paul himself8--,paul himself4--,then you cannot strike him1 nor shut him up1 nor deprive him of food8--,no4 ,the police would arrest us if we did4--,ah6 ah6 you are afraid of the police4 ,but is it only this which prevents you from hurting ,paul8--,oh6 no1 ,sir4 ,it is because we love ,paul and do not want to make him suffer1 and because we have no right to do so4--,you think then that you owe respect to ,paul in his life and his feelings1 because life and feeling are things to respect8--,yes1 sir4 ,are these all you have to respect in ,paul8 ,let us enquire2 think well4--,his books1 his clothes1 his satchel1 the luncheon in it4--,well4 ,what do you mean8--,we must not tear his books1 soil his clothes or his satchel1 or eat his luncheon4--,why8--,because these things are his and we have no right to take things belonging to others4--,what is the act of taking things that belong to others called8--,theft4--,why is theft forbidden8--,because if we steal we shall go to prison4--,fear of the police again6 ,but is this the chief reason why we must not steal8--,no1 ,sir1 but because we ought to respect the property as well as the persons of others4--,very good4 ,property is an extension of human personality and must be respected as such4 ,and is this all8 ,is there nothing more to respect in ,paul than his body1 his books and his copy-books8 ,do you not see anything else8 ,can you not think of anything more8 ,i will give you a hint3 ,paul is an industrious pupil1 an honest1 good-natured companion2 you are all fond of him1 and he deserves your affection4 ,what do we call the esteem we all feel for him1 the good opinion we have of him8--,honor 444 reputation4--,well1 this honor1 this reputation1 ,paul acquired by good conduct and good manners4 ,these are things which belong to him4--,yes1 ,sir2 we have no right to rob him of them4--,very good2 but what do we call this kind of theft1 that is1 the theft of honor and reputation8 ,and first of all1 how can we steal them8 ,can we take them and put them in our pockets8--,no1 but we can speak evil of him4--,how8--,we could say that he had done harm to one of his companions 444 that he had stolen apples from a neighboring orchard 444 that he had spoken ill of another4--,that is so4 ,but how could you rob him of honor and reputation by speaking thus8--,sir1 people would no longer believe him if they had a bad opinion of him2 he would be beaten1 scolded1 and left to himself4--,then if you speak evil of ,paul1 and what you say is false1 do you give him pleasure8--,no1 ,sir1 we should cause him pain1 and do him a wrong1 which would be very odious and wicked of us4--,yes1 boys1 this lying with intent to injure would be odious and wicked1 and it is called calumny4 ,i will explain later that evil speaking differs from calumny or slander in that what is said is not untrue1 and ,i will point out the terrible consequences of evil speaking and slander4 ,now let us sum up what we have said3 ,paul is a living and sensitive creature4 ,we ought not to cause him suffering1 to rob him1 or to slander him2 we ought to respect him4 ,the honorable things in ,paul constitute rights1 and make him a moral person4 ,the obligation laid upon us to respect these rights is called duty4 ,the obligation and the duty of respecting the rights of others is also called justice4 ,justice is derived from two ,latin words 7in jure stare71 meaning3 to keep oneself in the right4 ,the duties of justice enumerated by us are to be summed up thus3 ,not to kill 444 not to cause suffering 444 not to steal 444 not to slander4 ,always reflect upon the words you say in which ,not is followed by a verb in the imperative infinitive4 ,what does that mean8 ,an obligation1 a command1 a prohibition4--,go on1 explain4 ,the obligation of respect 444 the command to respect rights 444 the prohibition of stealing4 ,how may all these things be summed up8 ,in doing no evil4 99 99 99 99 99 ,positive science makes its appearance in the schools4--,positive science was invited to enter into schools as into a chaos where it was necessary to separate light from darkness1 a place of disaster where prompt succor was essential4 99 99 99 99 99 ,discoveries of medicine3 distortions and diseases4--,the first science1 indeed1 to penetrate into the school was medicine1 which organized a special hygiene for the occasion1 a kind of ,red ,cross service4 ,the most interesting part of the hygiene that penetrates into schools was that which diagnosed and described the diseases of school children1 that is to say1 the maladies contracted solely as a result of study in school4 ,the most prevalent of these maladies are spinal curvature and myopia4 ,the first is caused by excessive sitting1 and by the injurious position of the shoulders in writing4 ,the second arises from the fact that in the spot where the child has to remain seated1 there is not sufficient light for him to see clearly2 or this spot is too far from the blackboard1 or from the places where the child has to read1 and the prolonged effort of accommodation induces myopia4 ,other minor generalized maladies were also described3 an organic debility so widely diffused that hygiene prescribed as an ideal treatment a gratuitous distribution of cod-liver oil or of reconstituent remedies in general to all pupils4 ,anemia1 liver complaints1 and neurasthenia were also studied as school diseases4 ,thus a new field was opened to hygiene in connection with the most fertile source of professional disease1 and reading and writing were carefully studied in relation to pedagogical methods1 and in relation to spinal curvature and defective refraction of the eyes4 ,the figure of the child1 that victim of unsuitable and disproportionate work1 was not hereby brought into strong relief1 as might have been expected1 by the aid of medicine1 but a new branch of legal medicine came into being4 ,it was1 indeed1 medicine which drew attention to the diseases and deaths of the victims in orphan asylums1 victims of artificial or irrational feeding1 in conjunction with wet nursing2 it was medicine which passed in review one by one all those individual cases which proclaim this legal fact3 children have no civil rights4 ,medicine now entered into another sphere where the victims were not cases1 but the generality1 the child-population in its entirety2 and now it is the law itself which imposes duties upon them1 and condemns them en masse to labor for many years in a manner which entails physical torture4 ,if a branch of legal medicine has arisen in connection with criminals1 how is it that none should ever have arisen in connection with the innocent8 99 99 99 99 99 ,science has not fulfilled its mission in its dealings with children4--,medicine has confined itself to the treatment of diseases artificially produced4 ,it has diagnosed a cause of disease and left this cause undisturbed1 content merely to alleviate the resultant evils befalling a multitude of victims4 ,it has not taken up the attitude proper to its great and dignified rle of protector of life2 it has merely come forward1 like the ,red ,cross ,service during war1 to heal the wounded and alleviate the condition of the suffering2 it has not considered that the authority it enjoys as the guardian of health would enable it to utter the supreme cry of peace1 putting an end to a war so dangerous1 unjust1 and inhuman4 ,as1 in its struggle against microbes1 it was the standard-bearer in the most glorious of victories over death1 so1 fighting directly against the causes of the impoverishment of generations1 it might have aspired to bear the banner of protector of posterity4 ,instead of this1 it confined itself to the elaboration of a branch of study that mimics science3 school hygiene2 thus making itself the accomplice of a social wrong4 ,let us glance into a recent treatise of school hygiene1 which merely sums up the ideas and the work of the world at large3 ,we will briefly indicate the conditions favorable to the development of spinal curvature4 ,the age when the malady usually appears is that of second infancy1 hence its name of spinal curvature of the adolescent2 spinal curvature caused by rickets1 which appears in early childhood1 is rarer1 and is of less direct interest to us here4 ,the commonest cause1 and that on which our attention should be primarily concentrated1 is the vicious attitude adopted by the majority of our pupils during their school work2 this cause is so universal that we may call spinal curvature the professional disease of the pupil4 ,doctor ,legendre1 in a formula which may be judged over-severe1 though unhappily it is only too well-founded1 said of our schools that they are factories for the production of the deformed and the myopic4 ,the main cause of myopia is to be found in the very conditions under which children are gathered together in schools3 insufficiency of light1 the over-small type common in school-books1 the frequent use of the blackboard1 on which the teacher is not always careful to make the size of the characters he traces proportionate to the distance at which they have to be read1 are so many causes of ocular fatigue4 ,the visual keenness of a given eye1 says ,doctor ,leprince1 decreases rapidly when the intensity of the light falls below a certain limit4 ,the pupil1 working with insufficient light1 repairs the defective keenness of which this is the cause1 by increasing the visual angle under which the details of the object he is looking at appear to him2 in other words1 he brings that object inordinately close to him4 ,the time necessary to recognize a given letter increases greatly1 when the limit of visual acuteness has been reached4 ,therefore1 insufficient light would tend to make work slower1 unless the pupil increased acuteness by approaching the object more closely4 ,thus myopia constitutes a positive adaptation to the defective conditions of work1 enabling the pupil to work more rapidly4 #f ,footnote #f3 ,bronardet and ,mosny1 ,hygine ,scolaire4 ,boillire1 ,paris1 #aiad1 pp4 #adb1 #adc1 #dcj1 #dif4 ,it would seem therefore natural to say3 let the child find himself a better lighted place2 if the blackboard is at some distance from him1 let him come nearer to it2 if the insufficient light retards his work1 let him go more slowly2 if the questions at issue are such harmless things as changing a place1 advancing a step or two1 taking a few minutes longer over a task--what tyrant on earth would deny such a small favor1 and condemn the suppliant to blindness8 ,such a tyrant is the teacher1 who aspires to win the affection of his victims by means of moral exhortations4 ,it would be so simple to allow children1 when tired of sitting1 to rise1 and when tired of writing1 to desist1 and then their bones would not be twisted4 ,who can look on unmoved at the spectacle of children whose vertebral column is being deformed by using desks1 just as in the ,middle ,ages the instep was deformed by the torture of the boot4 ,and on what grounds is this odious torture judged to be necessary8 ,because a man has substituted himself for ,god1 desiring to form the minds of children in his own image and likeness2 and this cannot be done without subjecting a free creature to torture4 ,this is the only reason4 ,we will now quote the remedies by means of which a so-called science proposes to counteract spinal curvature in school-children4 ,it has determined the exact position in which a child may remain seated and at work for a long period of time without injury to the vertebrae4 ,the child1 seated at the table1 should have his feet planted flat upon the ground1 or upon a foot-rest4 ,the legs should be at right-angles to the thighs1 as should the thighs be to the trunk1 save for a slight inclination of the bench itself4 ,the trunk should be in such a position that there will be no lateral inclination of the vertebral column1 the arms should be parallel with the sides of the body1 the thorax should not be interfered with by the front edge of the table1 the pelvic basin should be symmetrically supported1 the head slightly bent forward at a distance of thirty centimeters from the level of the table2 the axis of the eyes1 remaining parallel with the front edge of the table1 should be horizontal2 the forearms1 two-thirds of which should be laid on the table1 should rest on it1 but without leaning upon it4 ,to realize all these conditions1 it is necessary that the desk should be exactly fitted to the proportions of the child2 its constituent parts should agree with those of the body and limbs of the scholar4 ,the following are the measurements which ,dufessel considered indispensable in the fashioning of a desk suitable for children3 #a4 ,height4 #b4 ,the length of the leg1 taken from below the knee1 when the child is seated with the legs at right-angles to the thighs1 and the feet flat on the ground4 ,this measurement gives the required height of the seat from the foot-rest4 #c4 ,the diameter of the body from front to back1 taken from the sternum2 this1 with five centimeters added to it1 gives the proper distance from the reading-desk to the back of the seat4 #d4 ,the length of the femur1 two-thirds of which represent the depth of the seat4 #e4 ,finally1 the height of the epigastric cavity above the seat1 augmented by a few centimeters1 indicates the height of the reading-desk4 ,we may add that in view of the rapid growth of the child1 these measurements should be taken twice in the course of the school year1 and children should be made to change places in accordance with these measurements4 ,there is a little crustacean which1 coming naked into the world1 chooses an empty shell and adapts itself thereto2 when it grows larger and the shell becomes too tight1 it sallies forth and takes up its abode in a larger one4 ,this the creature does of its own accord1 without a savant to measure it or a teacher to choose a new shell for it4 ,but to us and to scientists1 a child is inferior to this lowly invertebrate6 ,the difficulty of keeping forty or fifty children motionless for hours in the prescribed hygienic attitude1 and of finding desks exactly adapted to these growing bodies1 makes this remedy impracticable1 so hunchbacks continue among us4 ,the problem remains unsolved4 ,hence it has been deemed more practical to establish a kind of orthopaedic institution within the building itself in certain model schools in ,rome4 ,it consists of a costly and elaborate apparatus1 to which the pupils come in turn to be suspended by the head after the method adopted in medicine to combat spinal curvature in ,pott's disease 7tuberculosis of the vertebral column7 and rickets4 ,healthy children1 as well as the unsound1 suffer by these applications2 but on the other hand1 the results afford encouraging statistics4 ,if this hanging treatment be initiated regularly at the age of six years it strikes a perfect balance with the injury caused by prolonged deterioration induced by school desks1 and children are delivered from spinal disease4 99 99 99 99 99 ,discoveries of experimental psychology3 overwork2 nervous exhaustion4--,hygiene1 making its way into the school1 discovered scholar's spinal curvature and scholar's myopia2 experimental psychology discovered the exhaustion due to overwork1 and studied the fatigue of the scholar4 ,it followed in the beaten track of medicine--that is to say1 it sought to alleviate the ills it had diagnosed1 and instituted a branch of science the title of which is not very clearly defined as yet1 for some call it experimental psychology applied to the school1 others ,scientific ,pedagogy4 ,it is necessary to remember that experimental psychology was established in #ahfj by ,fechner1 who was a physicist accustomed to experiment on things1 not on living creatures1 and who merely adapted the methods employed in physics to psychical measurements1 thus founding psycho-physics4 ,the instruments specially invented for esthesiometric measurements were of extreme precision2 but the results obtained showed such variations that by mathematical law they could not be attributed to errors of measurement1 but were obviously due to errors of method4 ,indeed1 for the measurement of liquids it is necessary to have an instrument different from that which we use in measuring solids1 although we are still in the domain of physics2 we cannot measure a stuff by the quart1 nor wine by the yard2 how much more then must the methods of measuring physical substances and spiritual energy differ8 ,after psycho-physics1 psycho-physiology was introduced by ,wundt4 ,wundt1 being a physiologist1 applied the methods of study proper to physiological functions to psychical study4 ,he did not make the exact metrical instrument his aim2 but he measured nervous reactions exactly in time4 ,fechner's primitive researches made it possible to produce instruments so exact that they can measure the sound made by a drop of water falling from the height of a meter1 while ,wundt's researches have resulted in chronometers which can measure the thousandth part of a second4 ,but the spirit did not correspond to the exactness of research--the results showed by their oscillations that nothing was being measured--that the object to be measured escaped4 ,it will suffice to mention that in measuring the nervous currents in rate of transmission of impulse along the nerves and also in the ganglion cells of the spinal marrow1 ,exner arrived at a rapidity of eight meters1 and ,bloch at a rapidity of #aid meters1 in the same unit of time4 ,in spite of this startling contrast between the precision of the means of research and the huge variations in the results1 which were shown by mathematical law to be absurd1 experimental psychology carried on extensive studies1 under the illusion that it rested upon a mathematical basis4 ,it is from this science that a branch has been detached with which to penetrate into the school1 for the purpose of giving spiritual help to the scholar1 and fresh vigor to pedagogy4 ,methods of research are no longer merely those antiquated psycho-physical and psycho-physiological methods formerly in favor2 experimental psychology1 henceforth emancipated from its origins1 has developed independently4 ,it now relies on purely psychological tests for its researches1 and although it does not exclude the methods adopted in the laboratory1 and the use of such accurate and trustworthy instruments as the esthesiometer and the ergograph1 the school itself has become the chief field of experiment4 ,for example3 one of the most familiar tests of attention is to give a printed page to be read over1 with directions to strike out every a on the page2 the time taken to complete this task is measured by chronometer4 ,counting aloud from one to a hundred1 and at the same time carrying on arithmetical operations in writing1 is a measure of the distribution of the attention1 provided the time taken be calculated by the chronometer1 and all errors be noted4 ,to make several persons perform similar exercises at the same time enables us to study comparative individual activities4 ,in schools1 exercises in dictation which have been previously determined1 may be given to a group of scholars1 care being taken to note the time occupied in performing the exercise and to compare the errors4 ,this is also an easy and practical means of obtaining collective results4 ,these experiments all psychologists agree should be carried out without interrupting the usual routine of the school4 ,they are to be regarded as an addition1 an extra1 and may be summed up as a means of scientific research1 throwing light upon the regular psychical conditions of school studies4 ,the principal results of such experiments have been3 the multiplicity of mistakes made1 and the difficulty of fixing attention2 that is to say1 they reveal the weariness1 the degree of fatigue1 in children4 ,this gave the alarm6 ,old-fashioned pedagogy was concerned solely with what children ought to do4 ,the idea that their nervous energies might be impaired was first called into being by the warning note of science4 ,researches into the causes of fatigue became more and more frequent1 and coupled with such researches was the less immediate enquiry as to how fatigue could be combated or alleviated4 ,all the factors relating to the question were studied3 age1 sex1 the degree of intelligence1 the type of individual1 the influence of the seasons1 the influence of the various times of the day1 of the various days of the week1 of habit1 intervals of relaxation1 interest1 variety of work1 the position of the body1 and1 finally1 position in reference to the cardinal points4 99 99 99 99 99 ,science is confronted by a mass of unsolved problems4--,the outcome of all these researches is a growing mass of unsolved problems4 ,it has not been established whether males are more easily fatigued than females2 whether the intelligent are more subject to fatigue than the unintelligent4 ,with regard to the individual type1 ,tissi's conclusion seems to be the most noteworthy3 ,each individual becomes fatigued or not according to his degree of will4 ,in connection with the seasons it appears that fatigue increases from the first to the last day of school1 but it is uncertain whether this is due to the influence of the seasons1 or whether1 as ,schuyten affirms1 the scholar's gradual exhaustion is due to the scholastic system4 ,with regard to the time of day1 it is still a question whether the fatigue produced is less when the pupil works spontaneously1 but this problem is a difficult one to solve4 ,the days of the week when fatigue is least evident are ,monday and ,friday1 but researches made in this connection are not definitive2 as to habit1 intervals of rest1 interest3 in connection with these factors which are antagonistic to fatigue1 it has been questioned whether they actually diminish fatigue1 or merely cloak it1 but no decision has been reached4 ,a great variety of interesting researches have been made into the question of change of work with identical results--namely1 that frequent change of work causes greater fatigue than continuous work of one kind1 and that a sudden interruption is more fatiguing than persistence4 ,the following experiment 7quoted by ,claparde7 was made by ,schultze3 one day the girls were required to add up figures for twenty-five minutes1 and then to copy out passages for another twenty-five minutes4 ,another day they performed the same work1 but it was differently divided2 they had to add for fifty minutes and to copy for another fifty minutes4 ,now these last tests gave results infinitely superior to the first4 ,and yet it is well known that1 in spite of such results1 constant interruption and change of work are commonly practised in schools1 as part of a scientific plan for combating fatigue4 ,one of the researches directly relating to schools is that of the ponogenic co-efficient of the various subjects of instruction1 that is to say1 of the degrees of fatigue induced by these4 ,wagner is of opinion a priori that one hundred1 the maximum co-efficient1 must be assigned to mathematics2 in this case1 we should get the following ponogenic co-efficients in schools1 for each subject3 ,mathematics #ajj ,latin #ia ,greek #ij ,gymnastics #ij ,history and ,geography #he ,french and ,german #hb ,natural ,history #hj ,drawing1 ,religion #gg ,we may note the arbitrary and surprising manner in which such results are established2 nevertheless1 in the name of experimental science it is possible to make such deductions as the following3 ,it would be interesting to enquire if the order of the ponogenic co-efficients varies with the age of the children1 which would enable us to know on the one hand when the brain is best fitted for the study of any particular subject and when therefore it would be most judicious to make it predominate in the program2 on the other hand1 it would help us in the arrangement of the daily time-table2 we should take1 if possible1 the most fatiguing subjects at the beginning of the day 7,claparde1 op4 cit474 ,another order of recent researches is that made into the toxines produced by fatigue2 ,weichardt succeeded in isolating these toxines1 and in fabricating anti-toxines with which he experimented successfully on rats4 ,the experiments were also repeated in a clinic4 ,with regard to the appearance of the toxines1 it was found that they were abundantly produced during the performance of wearisome work1 whereas there were only traces of them to be found when the work was interesting4 ,throughout this science so packed with researches which give as their result unsolved problems1 we perceive that not one of the factors taken into consideration can alleviate fatigue2 interruption and change of work merely aggravate it4 ,the one means by which surmnage 7exhaustion due to overwork7 can be eliminated is to make work pleasant and interesting1 to give joy in work rather than pain4 ,the necessity of making education and instruction attractive has been propounded by all pedagogists worthy of the name1 such as ,fnelon1 ,rousseau1 ,pestalozzi1 ,herbart1 and ,spencer1 says ,claparde1 but it is still unrecognized in the everyday practise of the schools 7op4 cit474 ,by common consent1 the first duty of the educator is that of doing no harm3 first do no harm1 a precept also accepted in the practise of medicine4 ,to obey it to the letter is1 indeed1 impossible1 because every method of scholastic education is in some way prejudicial to the normal development of the child4 ,but the educator will seek to alleviate the injury which instruction necessarily entails 7op4 cit474 ,this is indeed cold comfort1 after all these studies and researches6 ,a confession that problems have arisen at every step1 and that not a single one has been solved6 ,indeed1 underlying all this is the problem of problems3 how to make that place attractive and joyous where hitherto the body has been tortured and contorted1 and the blood poisoned by weariness6 ,it is impossible to educate without doing harm2 but we must do harm that will give pleasure6 ,this is truly an embarrassing position6 ,and this is why an interminable string of notes of interrogation serves as the decorative motive of this new science1 which might be more appropriately styled3 ignorabimus4 ,and it is for this reason that the considerations indicated by hygiene and psychology now tend to do away altogether with the sum total of irreparable evils1 commuting the sentence1 that is to say1 abbreviating hours of study1 cutting down the curriculum1 avoiding written exercises4 ,thus a new specter1 that of ignorance1 and henceforth the abandonment of the child for the greater part of the day1 present themselves as a substitute for the specter of destruction4 ,meanwhile our epoch demands an intensive care of the new generation1 and the preparation of a culture ever vaster and more complex4 ,true1 it would appear that to-day a way of escape may be offered by the discovery of the anti-toxine for fatigue4 ,just think6 exclaims ,claparde1 a serum against fatigue4 ,how valuable this would be6 ,from this point of view1 ,i should say that the ponogenic co-efficients might find a more practical and rational application than that of the revelation of programs2 indeed these co-efficients indicating the production of toxines would appear destined to determine the dose of anti-toxine necessary to nullify the evil effects resulting from each different subject of instruction4 ,in the not far distant future1 when these auxiliary sciences of the school and pedagogy shall have made due progress1 we shall perhaps see1 side by side with the orthopaedic ward1 a physio-chemical clinic1 where every evening the pupils1 as they leave the beneficent suspensory apparatus which counteracts injury to their skeletons1 may enter with a kind of ponogenic prescription regulated by the teaching they have undergone1 and receive an injection which will deliver them from the poisonous effects of fatigue6 ,this reads like an irony of the worst kind1 perhaps2 but this is not the case4 ,where the orthopaedic institution is already an accomplished fact1 we may very soon see the chemical clinic established4 ,if a problem of liberty is to be solved with machines1 and if a problem of justice is to be regarded from the chemical point of view1 similar consequences will be the logical end of sciences developed upon such errors4 ,it is obvious that a real experimental science1 which shall guide education and deliver the child from slavery1 is not yet born2 when it appears1 it will be to the so-called sciences that have sprung up in connection with the diseases of martyred childhood as chemistry to alchemy1 and as positive medicine to the empirical medicine of bygone centuries4 ,i think it will be of interest here to record the impressions of a person who1 leaving the field of mathematics1 entered upon the study of biology and experimental psychology4 ,it is an account of a young ,english engineer1 who had evidently mistaken his vocation1 and who1 after studying my method for two years1 returned to the universities of his own great country as a student of biology4 ,this is his opinion of experimental psychology3 ,in psychology we are studying the most modern experimental researches4 ,at present we are engaged upon ,thought and ,imagination4 ,i must confess that ,i do not find this course very illuminating1 though ,i agree that it is necessary to know something of these researches4 ,in modern psychology there is nothing at all adequate to the subject of our method4 ,these investigators seem to me like persons looking at a tree1 and noting the most obvious of its external forms3 the shape of a leaf1 a stem1 etc41 doing all this with great gravity and using very precise language 7perhaps believing that this constitutes science71 but often confusing the function of definition with that of description4 ,in this manner descriptions of wonderful and fascinating things are reduced to arid definitions1 in order to be clothed in their science1 and thus are rendered powerless to inspire thought4 ,they never meditate2 they read a great deal2 they think in mental images which no more represent facts than a diagram on the blackboard represents a living organ2 and these images differ among different psychologists1 but their language is always the same4 ,they do all this believing they are making progress1 and instead of training their pupils to observe for themselves without prejudice1 they instil their own prejudices into the minds of the students1 cramming them with definitions and descriptions of the strangest and most amorphous kind1 which effectually prevent them from thinking for themselves4 ,but within the tree there is the fundamental structure which they have not begun to examine1 though the revelation of this would explain all the external data4 ,the details would diminish in importance2 all these details issuing from a single root might be classified in the simplest manner4 ,this science reminds me of that antiquated lore which dealt with the constellations1 when the laws of planetary motion were not yet known1 and the so-called science confined itself to descriptions of the ,great ,bear1 the ,crab1 the ,goat1 etc4 ,i detest those dryasdusts who1 unaware of their own ignorance1 write enormous arid tomes with an air of great majesty1 as if they were revealing absolute knowledge1 books that lie heavy on the minds of the students1 making them dry as their teachers4 ,but the students seem to me to care only about passing their examinations and to have no thought of discovering new knowledge2 and the professors serve them to this end4 ,thus we are all in a state of servitude due to a mistaken system of education1 which calls loudly for reform4 ,,iii ,,my ,,contribution ,,to ,,experimental ,,science ,the organization of psychical life begins with the characteristic phenomenon of attention4--,my experimental work with little children from three to six years old has been1 in fact1 a practical contribution to research which has for its aim the discovery of the treatment required by the soul of the child1 a treatment analogous to that which hygiene prescribes for its body4 ,i think1 therefore1 that it is essential to record the fundamental fact which led me to define my method4 ,i was making my first essays in applying the principles and part of the material ,i had used for many years previously in the education of deficient children1 to the normal children of the ,san ,lorenzo quarter in ,rome1 when ,i happened to notice a little girl of about three years old deeply absorbed in a set of solid insets1 removing the wooden cylinders from their respective holes and replacing them4 ,the expression on the child's face was one of such concentrated attention that it seemed to me an extraordinary manifestation2 up to this time none of the children had ever shown such fixity of interest in an object2 and my belief in the characteristic instability of attention in young children1 who flit incessantly from one thing to another1 made me peculiarly alive to the phenomenon4 ,i watched the child intently without disturbing her at first1 and began to count how many times she repeated the exercise2 then1 seeing that she was continuing for a long time1 ,i picked up the little armchair in which she was seated1 and placed chair and child upon the table2 the little creature hastily caught up her case of insets1 laid it across the arms of her chair1 and gathering the cylinders into her lap1 set to work again4 ,then ,i called upon all the children to sing2 they sang1 but the little girl continued undisturbed1 repeating her exercise even after the short song had come to an end4 ,i counted forty-four repetitions2 when at last she ceased1 it was quite independently of any surrounding stimuli which might have distracted her1 and she looked round with a satisfied air1 almost as if awaking from a refreshing nap4 ,i think my never-to-be-forgotten impression was that experienced by one who has made a discovery4 ,this phenomenon gradually became common among the children3 it may therefore be recorded as a constant reaction occurring in connection with certain external conditions1 which may be determined4 ,and each time that such a polarisation of attention took place1 the child began to be completely transformed1 to become calmer1 more intelligent1 and more expansive2 it showed extraordinary spiritual qualities1 recalling the phenomena of a higher consciousness1 such as those of conversion4 ,it was as if in a saturated solution1 a point of crystallization had formed1 round which the whole chaotic and fluctuating mass united1 producing a crystal of wonderful forms4 ,thus1 when the phenomenon of the polarisation of attention had taken place1 all that was disorderly and fluctuating in the consciousness of the child seemed to be organizing itself into a spiritual creation1 the surprising characteristics of which are reproduced in every individual4 ,it made one think of the life of man which may remain diffused among a multiplicity of things1 in an inferior state of chaos1 until some special thing attracts it intensely and fixes it2 and then man is revealed unto himself1 he feels that he has begun to live4 ,this spiritual phenomenon which may co-involve the entire consciousness of the adult1 is therefore only one of the constant elements of the phenomena of internal formation4 ,it occurs as the normal beginning of the inner life of children1 and accompanies its development in such a manner as to become accessible to research1 as an experimental fact4 ,it was thus that the soul of the child gave its revelations1 and under their guidance a method exemplifying spiritual liberty was evolved4 ,the story of this initiatory episode soon spread throughout the world1 and at first it seemed like the story of a miracle4 ,then by degrees1 as experiments were made among the most diverse races1 the simple and evident principles of this spiritual treatment were manifested4 99 99 99 99 99 ,psychical development is organized by the aid of external stimuli1 which may be determined experimentally4--,the contribution ,i have made to the education of young children tends1 in fact1 to specify by means of the revelations due to experiment1 the form of liberty in internal development4 ,it would not be possible to conceive liberty of development1 if by its very nature the child were not capable of a spontaneous organic development1 if the tendency to develop his energies 7expansion of latent powers71 the conquest of the means necessary to a harmonious innate development1 did not already exist4 ,in order to expand1 the child1 left at liberty to exercise his activities1 ought to find in his surroundings something organized in direct relation to his internal organization which is developing itself by natural laws1 just as the free insect finds in the form and qualities of flowers a direct correspondence between form and sustenance4 ,the insect is undoubtedly free when1 seeking the nectar which nourishes it1 it is in reality helping the reproduction of the plant4 ,there is nothing more marvelous in nature than the correspondence between the organs of these two orders of beings destined to such a providential cooperation4 ,the secret of the free development of the child consists1 therefore1 in organizing for him the means necessary for his internal nourishment1 means corresponding to a primitive impulse of the child1 comparable to that which makes the new-born infant capable of sucking milk from the breast1 which by its external form and elaborated sustenance1 corresponds perfectly to the requirements of the infant4 ,it is in the satisfaction of this primitive impulse1 this internal hunger1 that the child's personality begins to organize itself and reveal its characteristics2 just as the new-born infant1 in nourishing itself1 organizes its body and its natural movements4 ,we must not therefore set ourselves the educational problem of seeking means whereby to organize the internal personality of the child and develop his characteristics2 the sole problem is that of offering the child the necessary nourishment4 ,it is by this means that the child develops an organized and complex activity which1 while it responds to a primitive impulse1 exercises the intelligence and develops qualities we consider lofty1 and which we supposed were foreign to the nature of the young child1 such as patience and perseverance in work1 and in the moral order1 obedience1 gentleness1 affection1 politeness1 serenity2 qualities we are accustomed to divide into different categories1 and as to which1 hitherto1 we have cherished the illusion that it was our task to develop them gradually by our direct interposition1 although in practise we have never known by what means to do so successfully4 ,in order that the phenomenon should come to pass it is necessary that the spontaneous development of the child should be accorded perfect liberty2 that is to say1 that its calm and peaceful expansion should not be disturbed by the intervention of an untimely and disturbing influence2 just as the body of the new-born infant should be left in peace to assimilate its nourishment and grow properly4 ,in such an attitude ought we to await the miracles of the inner life1 its expansions and also its unforeseen and surprising explosions2 just as the intelligent mother1 only giving her baby nourishment and rest1 contemplates it1 seeing it grow1 and awaits the manifestations of nature3 the first tooth1 the first word1 and finally the action by which the baby will one day rise to his feet and walk4 ,but to ensure the psychical phenomena of growth1 we must prepare the environment in a definite manner1 and from this environment offer the child the external means directly necessary for him4 ,this is the positive fact which my experiment has rendered concrete4 ,hitherto the liberty of the child has been vaguely discussed2 no clearly defined limit has been established between liberty and abandonment4 ,we were told3 ,liberty has its limits1 ,liberty must be properly understood4 ,but a special method indicating how liberty should be interpreted1 and what is the intuitive quid which ought to co-exist with it1 had not been determined4 ,the establishment of such a method should open up a new path to all education4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it is therefore necessary that the environment should contain the means of auto-education4 ,these means cannot be taken at random2 they represent the result of an experimental study which cannot be undertaken by all1 because a scientific preparation is necessary for such delicate work2 besides1 like all experimental study1 it is laborious1 prolonged1 and exact4 ,many years of research are required1 before the means really necessary for psychical development can be set forth4 ,those educationalists who leave the great question of the liberty of the pupil to the good sense or to the preparation of the master are very far from solving the problem of liberty4 ,the greatest scientist1 or the person most fitted by nature to teach1 could never of himself discover such1 because1 to preparation and natural gifts1 the further factor of time must be added--the long period of preparatory experiment4 ,therefore a science which has already provided the means for self-education must exist beforehand4 ,to-day1 he who speaks of liberty in the schools ought at the same time to exhibit objects--approximating to a scientific apparatus--which will make such liberty possible4 ,the scientific instrument must be constructed upon a basis of exactitude4 ,just as the lenses of the physicist are constructed in accordance with the laws of the refraction of light1 so the pedagogic instrument should be based on the psychical manifestations of the child4 ,such an instrument may be compared to a systematized mental test4 ,it is not1 however1 established upon a basis of external measurement1 for the purpose of estimating the amount of instantaneous psychical reaction which it produces2 it is1 on the contrary1 a stimulus which is itself determined by the psychical reactions it is capable of producing and maintaining permanently4 ,it is the psychical reaction1 therefore1 that in this case determines and establishes the systematic mental test4 ,the psychical reaction which constitutes the sole basis of comparison in the determination of the tests1 is a polarization of the attention1 and the repetition of the actions related to it4 ,when a stimulus corresponds in this manner to the reflex personality1 it serves1 not to measure but to maintain a lively reaction2 it is therefore a stimulus to the internal formation4 ,indeed1 upon such activity1 awakened and maintained1 the accompanying organism initiates its internal elaborations in relation to the stimuli4 ,this does not penetrate into the ancient ambit of pedagogy as a science that measures the personality1 as the experimental psychology introduced in schools has hitherto done1 but as a science that transforms the personality1 and is therefore capable of taking its stand as a true and real pedagogy4 ,whereas the ancient pedagogy in all its various interpretations started from the conception of a receptive personality--one1 that is to say1 which was to receive instructions and to be passively formed1 this scientific departure starts from the conception of an active personality--reflex and associative--developing itself by a series of reactions induced by systematic stimuli which have been determined by experiment4 ,this new pedagogy accordingly belongs to the series of modern sciences1 and not to antique speculations1 although it is not directly based on the purely metric studies of positive psychology4 ,but the method1 which informs it--namely1 experiment1 observation1 evidence or proof1 the recognition of new phenomena1 their reproduction and utilization1 undoubtedly place it among the experimental sciences4 99 99 99 99 99 ,external stimuli may be determined in quality and quantity4--,nothing can be more interesting than such experiments4 ,by their means external stimuli may be determined with the greatest precision1 both as regards quality and quantity4 ,for instance1 very small objects of various geometric forms will only attract the fugitive attention of a child of three years old2 but by increasing the dimensions gradually1 we arrive at the limit of size when these objects will fix the attention2 then such objects excite an activity which becomes permanent1 and the resulting exercise becomes a factor of development4 ,the experiment is repeated with a number of children1 and thus the dimensions of a series of objects are established4 ,it is the same with colors and with every kind of quality4 ,in order that a quality should be felt to such a degree as to fix the attention1 a certain extension and a certain intensity of the stimulus are necessary1 which may be determined by the degree of psychical reaction shown by the child2 as1 for instance1 the minimum chromatic extension sufficient to attract the attention to the colored tablets1 etc4 ,quality1 therefore1 is determined by a psychical experiment demonstrating the activity it produces in a child1 who will continue the exercise with the same object for a long time1 thus elaborating a phenomenon of internal development1 of self-formation4 ,among the characteristics of the objects1 one must be pointed out1 which demands the highest degree of activity in the intelligence3 they contain in themselves control of error4 ,to make the process one of self-education1 it is not enough that the stimulus should call forth activity1 it must also direct it4 ,the child should not only persist for a long time in an exercise2 he must persist without making mistakes4 ,all the physical or intrinsic qualities of the objects should be determined1 not only by the immediate reaction of attention they provoke in the child1 but also by their possession of this fundamental characteristic1 the control of error1 that is to say the power of evoking the effective collaboration of the highest activities 7comparison1 judgment74 ,for instance1 one of the first objects which attract the attention of the child of three years old1 the solid insets 7a series of cylinders of various dimensions to be placed in or taken out of a block with corresponding holes7 contains the most mechanical control1 because if a single mistake be made in placing the cylinders1 one of these must be left out at the end of the exercise4 ,hence a mistake is an obstacle only to be overcome by correction1 for without it the exercise cannot be completed4 ,on the other hand1 the correction is so easy that the child makes it himself4 ,the little problem suddenly presenting itself to the child1 almost like the unexpected object of a jack-in-the-box1 has interested him4 ,it is1 however1 noteworthy that the problem thus presented is not in itself the stimulus to interest2 it is not that which incites to the repetition of the act--to the progress of the child4 ,what interests the child is the sensation1 not only of placing the objects but of acquiring a new power of perception1 enabling him to recognize the difference of dimension in the cylinders1 a difference which he did not at first notice4 ,the problem presents itself solely in connection with the error1 it does not accompany the normal process of development4 ,an interest stimulated merely by curiosity1 by a problem1 would not be that formative interest which wells up from the needs of life itself1 and therefore directs the building up of the spiritual personality4 ,if it were only the problem which should lead the soul to find itself1 order might be dissipated by it1 as by any other external cause which tends to seduce life into false paths4 ,i lay1 perhaps1 excessive stress upon this point1 in answer to very important objections and observations that have been made to me4 ,indeed in the second series of objects designed to educate the eye to appreciate dimensions1 the control of error is not mechanical1 but psychological2 the child himself1 whose eye has been educated to recognize differences of dimension1 will see the error1 provided the objects be of a certain size and attractively colored4 ,it is for this reason that the next objects contain1 so to say1 the control of error in their own size and in their bright colors4 ,a control of error of a totally different kind1 and of a much higher order1 is that offered by the material of the arithmetical frame1 in which the control will consist in the comparison of the child's own work with that of a model1 a comparison which denotes a remarkably intelligent effort of will on the part of the child1 and places him thenceforth in the true conditions of conscious auto-education4 ,but1 however slight the control of error may be1 and in spite of the fact that this diverges more and more from an external mechanism1 to rely upon the internal activities which are gradually developing1 it always depends1 like all the qualities of the objects1 upon the fundamental reaction of the child1 who accords it prolonged attention1 and repeats the exercises4 ,on the other hand1 the experimental criterion is different1 in determining the quantity of the objects4 ,when the instruments have been constructed with great precision1 they provoke a spontaneous exercise so coordinated and so harmonious with the facts of internal development1 that at a certain point a new psychical picture1 a species of higher plane in the complex development1 is revealed4 ,the child turns away spontaneously from the material1 not with any signs of fatigue1 but rather as if impelled by fresh energies1 and his mind is capable of abstractions4 ,at this stage of development1 the child turns his attention to the external world1 and observes it with an order which is the order formed in his mind during the period of the preceding development2 he begins spontaneously to make a series of careful and logical comparisons which represent a veritable spontaneous acquisition of knowledge4 ,this is the period henceforth to be known as the period of discoveries1 discoveries which evoke enthusiasm and joy in the child4 ,this more elevated level of development is extremely fruitful in its last ascent ,it is essential that the child's attention should not be directed to the objects when the delicate phenomenon of abstraction begins4 ,for instance1 the teacher who invites the child to continue his operations with the material at such a moment1 will retard his spontaneous development and place an obstacle in his way4 ,if the enthusiasm which leads the child to rise to greater heights and experience so many intellectual emotions be extinguished1 a path of progress has been closed4 ,now the same error may be committed by an excessive quantity of the educative material2 this may dissipate the attention1 render the exercises with the objects mechanical1 and cause the child to pass by his psychological moment of ascent without perceiving it and seizing it4 ,moreover1 such objects are then futile1 and1 by their futility1 the child may lose his soul4 ,the thing to be exactly determined is3 what is necessary and sufficient as a response to the internal needs of a life in process of development1 that is1 of upward progression1 of ascent8 ,now in determining the quantity we must be guided by the expression and at the same time by the active manifestations of the child4 ,those children who have long been occupied with these determined objects1 showing every sign of absorbed attention1 will1 all of a sudden1 begin to rise gradually and insensibly1 like an aeroplane when it completes its short journey upon the ground4 ,their apparent indifference to the objects is revealed in its true essence by the intense and radiant expression of the face1 which is animated by the liveliest joy4 ,the child may seem to be doing nothing1 but this will only be for a moment2 very soon he will speak1 and so will reveal what is happening within him1 and then his ebullient activity will carry him along in a series of explorations and discoveries4 ,he is saved4 ,now take the case of other children in whom the same primitive phenomenon is taking place1 but who are surrounded by too great a profusion of objects4 ,at the moment of maturity they are seen to be caught1 obstructed1 almost palpably entangled in the toils that bind them to earth4 ,a diminution of the absorbed attention bestowed upon the new objects1 instability1 and consequently fatigue1 manifest themselves in an obvious extinction of internal activity4 ,the child's bearing deteriorates1 he indulges in loud1 empty laughter1 rude actions1 and indolence4 ,he demands other objects1 and then again other objects1 because he has remained imprisoned in the vicious circle of vanities1 and is no longer sensible to anything but the desire to alleviate his weariness4 ,like the adult who during a chaotic life commits kindred errors1 he becomes undisciplined1 feeble1 and in peril of perdition4 ,if some one does not help him by wresting from him the futile objects1 and pointing out his heaven to him1 he will hardly have the energy to save himself4 ,these two extreme types will give an idea of the criteria by which we experimentally determine the quantity of the material necessary for development4 ,over-abundance debilitates and retards progress2 this has been proved again and again by my collaborators4 ,if1 on the other hand1 the material be insufficient1 and the primary auto-exercise incapable of leading the child on to that maturity which causes him to ascend1 there will be no explosion of that spontaneous phenomenon of abstraction which is the second stage of an auto-education advancing in infinite progression4 ,the same fundamental phenomenon of absorbed and prolonged attention which leads to repetition of the acts1 guides us in determining the stimuli suitable to the age of the child4 ,a stimulus which will cause a child of three years old to repeat an act forty times in succession1 may only be repeated ten times by a child of six2 the object which arouses the interest of a child of three no longer interests a child of six4 ,nevertheless the child of six is capable of fixing his attention for a much longer period than a child of three1 when the stimulus is suited to his activities2 if1 indeed1 a little child of three may achieve as his maximum the repetition of an act forty times in succession1 the child of six is capable of repeating two hundred times an act which interests him4 ,if the maximum period of continuous work on the same object may be half an hour for the child of three1 it may be over two hours for the child of six4 ,hence1 to establish systematic tests for a certain purpose1 such as that of preparing children to write1 without taking their ages into account1 is valueless4 ,for example1 my system of writing is based upon the direct preparation of the movements which physiologically concur to produce writing3 i4e4 manipulation of the instrument of writing and the tracing of the letters of the alphabet4 ,the children1 filling in the contours of the insets with innumerable parallel strokes in the one case1 and touching the sand-paper letters in the other1 fix the two muscular mechanisms so perfectly1 that the final result is an explosion of spontaneous writing extraordinarily uniform in all the children--because1 as if all molded to a common form1 they have fixed the necessary movements by touching the same alphabet1 and therefore reproduce its forms faithfully4 ,to bring this about1 to establish a real motor-mechanism1 it is essential that the exercise should be repeated over and over again4 ,now the children who take most interest in filling in the figures with parallel strokes1 and1 above all1 in touching the letters1 are1 at most1 between four and five years old4 ,if we offer the same material to a child of six he will not touch the letters often enough1 and he will always write imperfectly1 in comparison with the child who has begun the exercise at a suitable age4 ,this applies also to all the other details of the system4 ,it is therefore possible to determine experimentally1 with1 ,i believe1 a precision not hitherto attained1 what is the mental attitude of the child at various ages1 and hence1 if the fitting material for development be offered1 what will be the average level of intellectual development according to age4 ,here we have an indication of the possibility of determining the means of development so exactly as to establish a true correspondence between internal needs and external stimuli1 just as actual as the correspondence which exists between the insect and the flower4 ,he who has all this material ready to his hand has an easy task in bringing about the natural development of the psychic life of the child4 ,with such objects at his disposal1 every teacher may realize the ideal of liberty in the school4 ,this long1 occult experiment--suggested to me1 as ,i have already said1 by ,itard and ,sguin--is1 in fact1 my initial contribution to education4 ,all this preparatory work has served for the determination of the method now well known1 but it is also the key to its continuation4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the material of development is necessary only as a starting point4--,in the organization of the external means of development1 there remains a material impress of the internal development1 and of that which the soul needs in its progress1 during its course1 and in its flights4 ,the material part does not contain the impress of the whole soul1 any more than the impress of the foot is the impress of the whole body2 the aviation-ground is not the sphere of action proper to the aeroplane1 but it is the part of terra-firma necessary for flight1 and it is also the resting-place1 the refuge1 the hangar to which the aeroplane must always return4 ,thus in psychical formation there is a necessary material part from which the spirit rises1 and where it should find repose1 refuge1 and a point of support1 ,without this it could not grow and rise freely4 ,in order that it may be a true support it ought to reproduce its forms and contain them in the part corresponding to the peculiar functions of the material aid4 ,thus1 for instance1 in the first period of the psychical life1 the material corresponds to the primitive exercises of the senses--it is in quality and quantity determined by the sensory needs given by nature--and permits an exercise of the activities sufficient to mature a superior psychical state of observation and abstraction4 ,vice versa1 nothing corresponds in the material to the subsequent career which the childish spirit accomplishes with such delight and with so much acquisition of knowledge4 ,but we then see the spirit eager for higher kinds of exercise--and now we witness the same primitive phenomenon of attention1 which will exercise itself henceforth upon the alphabet and arithmetical material1 repeating in a more complex form methodical exercises of the intelligence by linking auditory images with the visible and motor images of the spoken and written word2 and in the positive study of quantities1 proportions1 and number4 ,the same concomitant phenomena of patience and perseverance then manifest themselves1 together with those of vivacity1 activity1 and joy1 characteristic of the spirit when the internal energies have found their keyboard1 the gymnasium in which they exercise themselves freely and tranquilly4 ,and the spirit1 organized in this manner under the guidance of an order which corresponds to its natural order1 becomes fortified1 grows vigorously1 and manifests itself in the equilibrium1 the serenity1 the self-control which produce the wonderful discipline characteristic of the behavior of our children4 ,the external material1 then1 should present itself to the psychical requirements of the child as a staircase which helps him to ascend1 step by step1 and on the steps of this staircase there will of necessity be disposed the means of culture1 and of the higher formation4 ,therefore the psychical exercises require new material1 and this1 if it is to fulfil its purpose1 must contain new and more complex forms of objects capable of fixing the attention1 of making the intelligence ripen in the continual exercise of its own energies1 and of producing those phenomena of persistence in application and of patience to which will be added elasticity1 psychical equilibrium1 and the capacity for abstraction and spontaneous creation4 ,thus1 in the subsequent development of the children1 we see them applying themselves to those exercises of the memory which seem to us most arid1 because a desire has been born in them1 not only to retain the images they encounter in the world1 but also to acquire knowledge rapidly by a determined effort4 ,an example of this is seen in the surprising yet common phenomenon of committing the multiplication table to memory1 whereas the memorizing of poems and prose extracts1 although this is sometimes a passion1 causes us no surprise4 ,very interesting again1 is the detachment the child shows at a certain point from the aids to arithmetical calculation2 at a certain stage of maturity he desires to reason in the abstract and make abstract calculations with numbers1 as if obeying an internal impulse which seeks to liberate the soul from every material bond and at the same time to effect an economy of time4 ,hereupon we see children of eight years old become eager and precocious calculators4 ,children thus launched upon the enterprises of self-education acquire a remarkable sensibility as to their own internal needs4 ,just as the new-born infant whose food is rationally regulated1 is silent and tranquil during the two hours of digestion and assimilation1 and cries out the moment the hour for a fresh meal has struck1 so do these children ask for help1 ask for new materials1 new forms of work1 as soon as they have accomplished their mysterious phenomena of internal maturation1 and ask for them determinately1 indicating their most immediate need1 just as one in physical want would be able to state distinctly whether he were hungry1 thirsty1 or sleepy4 ,a child1 in like manner1 asks for reading1 or grammatical exercises1 or means for observing ,nature4 ,his sensibility manifests itself in a lucid and intense desire1 to which the teacher has only to respond4 ,it is evident that some external basis is necessary in the progressive development of such phenomena1 and that the teacher1 who is to respond to the requests of the child in conscious evolution1 cannot do so adequately by haphazard means2 he must be guided by conditions previously determined by experience4 ,in other words1 those external means already alluded to several times1 that staircase1 the steps of which lead the soul upwards1 must have been already established by experience1 just as all the preceding means of the first development of the infant were established4 ,the construction of the ascending stairway1 of the external means of support for the soul in process of evolution1 is gradually amplified1 like an inverted cone1 the apex of which touches the very beginnings of psychical life1 resting upon that primitive impulse which attracts the child of two and a half to the sensory stimuli1 just as hunger leads the new-born infant to perform the wonderful complex action of sucking4 ,and as these external means multiply1 they are complicated more and more by the growing psychical needs of the child1 and comprise within themselves the principles of culture4 ,the highest external organization is not based solely upon psychological necessities1 but also upon those factors which take into account the cultural aspect itself4 ,each subject of study1 as1 for instance1 arithmetic1 grammar1 geometry1 natural science1 music1 literature1 should be presented by means of external objects upon a well-defined systematic plan4 ,the essentially psychological character of the preliminary work must now be supplemented by the collaboration of specialists in each subject1 in order to ensure the establishment of that aggregate of means necessary and sufficient to incite to auto-education4 ,this is the experimental preparatory work1 which establishes those means of development1 those external impressions1 necessary to unfold the inner life1 and an exact correspondence to the psychical needs of formation is essential in their construction4 ,up to a certain point1 they might correspond with the so-called didactic or objective material of the old methods4 ,their significance1 however1 is profoundly different4 ,the objective material of the old schools was an aid to the teacher1 in making his explanations comprehensible to a collective class listening passively to him4 ,the objects were related solely to the things to be explained1 and these were chosen at random1 that is to say1 without any scientific criterion of their relation to the psychical needs of the child4 ,here1 on the other hand1 the means of development are experimentally determined with reference to the psychical evolution of the child2 and their aim is not to give mere instruction2 they represent the means which induce a spontaneous interpretation of the internal energies4 ,the external material is then offered1 and left freely to the natural individual energies of the children4 ,they choose the objects they prefer2 and such preference is dictated by the internal needs of psychical growth4 ,each child occupies himself with each object chosen for as long as he wishes2 and this desire corresponds to the needs of the intimate maturation of the spirit1 a process which demands persevering and prolonged exercise4 ,no guide1 no teacher can divine the intimate need of each pupil1 and the time of maturation necessary to each2 but only leave the child free1 and all this will be revealed to us under the guidance of nature4 99 99 99 99 99 ,psychical truths4--,it is necessary to adopt a scientific point of view in order to interpret the facts that reveal themselves in children when they are developed upon this system1 and to divest oneself completely of the old scholastic conception according to which the progress of the child is assessed according to his proficiency in the various subjects of study4 ,here1 almost like the naturalist1 it is essential to observe the development of certain phenomena of life4 ,it is true that we prepare special external conditions2 but the psychical effects are directly bound up with the spontaneous development of the internal activity of the child4 ,hence there is no direct correspondence between teacher and child2 instruction is certainly not a cause of the effects observed4 ,it is the objects of the method which1 as re-agents1 provoke special psychical reactions2 these may be summed up as an awakening1 as an organization of the personality4 ,discipline1 as the first result of an order establishing itself within1 is the principal phenomenon to be looked for as the external sign of an internal process that has been initiated4 ,during the first days when a new school is opened1 we may consider a certain initial disorder as characteristic1 especially if the teacher is making her first experiment1 and consequently is handicapped by her over-sanguine expectations4 ,the immediate response of the child to the material does not take place2 the teacher is perhaps discomfited by the fact that the children do not throw themselves1 as she had hoped1 upon the objects1 choosing them according to their individual taste4 ,if1 indeed1 the pupils are very poor children1 this phenomenon does nearly always happen at once2 but if they are well-to-do children1 already sated by the variety of their possessions1 and by the most costly toys1 they are very rarely attracted at first by the stimuli presented to them4 ,this naturally leads to disorder when the mistress makes a kind of chain of that liberty she is to respect1 and a dogma of the correlation existing between the stimulus and the childish soul4 ,experienced teachers1 on the other hand1 understand better that liberty begins when the life that must be developed in the child is initiated1 and they possess a tact which greatly facilitates orientation in the initial period4 ,however1 an experience under the most difficult conditions1 as between a teacher making her first experiment1 and a class of wealthy children1 is more instructive1 and gives us a clearer picture of the fundamental psychical phenomenon1 which may be compared to the order which springs up out of chaos4 ,i quote1 in this connection1 various descriptions1 some of which already have been published1 among them that given by ,miss ,george1 of her first school in the ,united ,states1 and that of ,mlle4 ,dufresne in ,england4 ,the initial disorder is eloquently set forth by ,miss ,george3 ,they 7the children7 at first snatched the objects out of each other's hands2 if ,i tried to show an object to any particular pupil1 the others dropped what they themselves were holding and gathered aimlessly and noisily round us4 ,when ,i had finished explaining the nature of an object1 all the children snatched at it and quarreled for its possession4 ,the children showed no interest in the material3 they passed from one object to another without persevering in the use of any4444 ,one of the children was so incapable of keeping still that he could not remain seated long enough to run his fingers round one of the little circular objects we give the children4 ,in many cases1 the movements of the children were quite aimless1 they ran round the room without any apparent object4 ,during these movements1 they made no attempt to respect the objects about them2 indeed1 they stumbled against the table1 upset the chairs and stepped upon the material2 sometimes they began an occupation at one spot1 and then ran off in another direction2 they took up the objects and cast them aside capriciously4 ,miss ,dufresne describes the initial disorder of her first attempt as follows3 ,i must confess that the first four weeks were disheartening2 the children could not settle to a task for more than a few moments2 they showed no perseverance1 no initiative2 at times they followed one another like a flock of lambs2 when one child took up an object1 all the others wanted to imitate him1 sometimes they rolled on the floor and overturned the chairs4 ,from an experiment with rich children here in ,rome1 we get the following laconic description3 ,the greatest difficulty was the question of discipline4 ,the children showed a complete lack of attraction to their work1 and seemed disinclined to begin upon it4 ,these persons1 who were all working independently1 are all agreed later in their accounts of the initiation of order3 the phenomenon is identical2 at a given moment1 a child begins to show an intense interest in one of the exercises4 ,it is by no means necessary that it should be that exercise pertaining to the object determined as the first series2 it may be any other object that fixes the attention of the child so deeply2 the important factor is not the external object1 but the internal action of the soul1 responding to a stimulus1 and arrested by it4 ,now when a child once shows this deep interest in any one of the objects we present to him as something answering to his psychical needs1 he goes on to show a like interest in all the objects1 and begins to develop activities as by a natural phenomenon4 ,when once the initiation has taken place1 it leads to progression which goes on steadily1 and develops of its own accord4 ,moreover1 the phenomenon is not that of the slow and gradual progression that might be produced by a measured and systematic external action2 rather it has the explosive character of unsuspected facts that establish themselves suddenly1 and make us think of the crises of physiological life1 so characteristic in the period of growth4 ,thus it is from one day to another that the baby cuts a tooth1 from one day to another that he utters his first word1 from one day to another that he takes his first step2 and when the first tooth has been cut1 the whole set of teeth will come2 when the first word has been uttered1 language will be developed2 when the first step has been taken1 the power of walking has been established once for all4 ,similar crises occur in the first achievement of psychic order1 which is the beginning of progressive evolution in the inner life4 ,i quote the following sentences from ,miss ,george's description of the advent of discipline3 ,in a few days that nebulous mass of whirling particles--the disorderly children--began to take definite form4 ,the children seemed to begin to find their own way2 in many of the objects they had at first despised as silly playthings1 they began to discover a novel interest1 and1 as a result of this new interest1 they began to act as independent individuals4 ,miss ,george's subsequent expression is3 ,they became extremely individual4 ,thus it came to pass that an object of absorbing interest to one child had not the slightest attraction for another2 the children were strongly differentiated in their manifestations of attention4444 ,the battle is only definitively won1 when the child discovers some particular object which spontaneously excites great interest in him4 ,sometimes this enthusiasm awakens unexpectedly1 or with curious rapidity4 ,on one occasion ,i had tried a child with nearly all the objects of the series without exciting the smallest spark of interest2 then ,i casually showed him the two tablets of red and blue colors1 and called his attention to the difference of tint4 ,he seized them at once with a kind of thirstiness1 and learned five different colors in a single lesson2 during the following days he took nearly all the objects of the series which he had at first despised1 and little by little mastered them all4 ,a child who at first had very little power of concentrating his attention1 found an outlet from this state of chaos by means of one of the most complex objects of the material1 the so-called length-rods2 he played with these continually for a whole week and learned to count and make simple additions4 ,he then began to turn to the cylinders and the insets1 the simpler objects1 and showed interest in every part of the system4 ,directly the children find their objects interesting1 their disorderliness disappears at once2 their mental restlessness is at an end1 and they amuse themselves with the blocks1 the colors1 etc4 ,it is very interesting to follow ,miss ,george again in her description of the special qualities that develop after such a phenomenon4 ,she illustrates the birth of individuality by a pretty anecdote3 ,there were two sisters1 one of three years old1 the other of five4 ,the child of three could hardly be said to exist as an individual1 so minutely did she imitate her elder sister2 for example1 the elder child had a blue pencil and the little one was not happy till she too had a blue pencil2 when the elder sister ate bread and butter1 whatever the little one had of a different kind1 she would touch nothing but bread and butter1 and so on4 ,this child took no interest in anything in the school1 but merely followed her sister1 imitating everything she did4 ,one day the little one became interested in the pink cubes1 built up the tower with the liveliest interest1 repeated the exercise several times1 and completely forgot her sister4 ,the older girl was so astonished at this1 that she called her little sister and said to her3 ',how is it that while ,i am filling in a circle you are building the tower8' ,from that day the younger child became a personality2 she began to develop independently1 and was no longer merely the shadow or reflection of her sister4 ,these interesting facts concerning the spontaneous development of qualities which hitherto were non-existent in the individual1 and which exploded after the fundamental phenomenon--of intense and prolonged interest in a task--had manifested itself1 have been confirmed by repeated experiments in a great variety of places made by persons who had had no sort of communication one with another4 ,thus1 for instance1 ,miss ,dufresne speaks of a little girl of four years old1 who seemed quite incapable of carrying a glass of water even only half full1 without spilling it2 so much so that she turned away from such a task1 knowing she could not accomplish it4 ,one day she became absorbed in work with one or other of the objects1 and after this1 she began to carry glasses of water with the greatest ease2 and as some of her companions were now painting with water-colors1 it became her great delight to carry water to them all without spilling a single drop4 ,another most significant fact is related by ,miss ,barton1 an ,australian teacher4 ,among her pupils was a little girl who had not yet developed articulate speech1 and only gave utterance to inarticulate sounds2 her parents had had her examined by a doctor to find out if she were normal2 the doctor declared the child to be perfectly normal1 and considered that though she had not as yet developed speech1 she would do so in time4 ,this child became interested in the solid insets1 and amused herself for a long time taking the cylinders out of the cavities and putting them back in their places2 and after repeating the work with intense interest1 she ran to the teacher1 saying3 ,come and see6 ,a phenomenon of constant occurrence when the children begin to be interested in the work and to develop themselves is the lively joy which seems to possess them4 ,certain psychologists would say1 it is the sentimental note corresponding to the intellectual acquisition2 a physiologist1 making an exact comparison1 might affirm that joy is the indication of internal growth1 just as an increase in weight is the indication of bodily growth4 ,the children themselves seem to have the sensation of their spiritual growth1 a consciousness of the acquisitions they are making by thus amplifying their own personalities2 they demonstrate with joyous effusion the higher process which is beginning within them4 ,all the children1 says ,miss ,george1 show that pride we ourselves experience when we have really produced something novel4 ,they skip round me1 and throw their arms about my neck1 when they have learned to do some simple thing1 saying3 ',i did it all alone1 you did not think ,i could have done that2 ,i did it better to-day than yesterday1' ,it is after these manifestations that a true discipline is established1 the most obvious results of which are closely related to what we will call respect for the work of others and consideration for the rights of others4 ,henceforward a child no longer attempts to take away another's work2 even if he covet it1 he waits patiently until the object is free2 and very often a child becomes interested in watching a companion at work on some object he would like to use himself4 ,afterwards1 when discipline has been established by these internal processes1 it will happen all at once that a child will work quite independently of the others1 almost as if to develop his own personality2 but no moral isolation results from such work2 on the contrary1 there is a mutual respect and affection between the children1 a sentiment which unites instead of separating2 and hence is born that complex discipline which1 moreover1 contains within itself the sentiment that must accompany the order of a community4 ,miss ,dufresne says3 ,after the ,christmas holidays1 when school began again1 there was a great change in the class4 ,it seemed that discipline was establishing itself1 without any effort on my part4 ,the children appeared to be too much absorbed in their work to indulge in any of the disorderly actions which had marked their conduct in the beginning4 ,they went spontaneously to the cupboards to choose the objects which had bored them formerly4 ,they took the geometrical insets1 the graduated cylinders1 and began to touch the outlines of the wooden forms with their fingers2 the younger children showed a preference for the buttoning and lacing frames2 they took one after the other without any signs of fatigue1 and seemed delighted with the new objects4 ,an atmosphere of industry pervaded the schoolroom4 ,the children who had hitherto chosen objects on the impulse of the moment1 henceforth manifested a desire for some sort of rule1 a personal and internal rule2 they concentrated their efforts on their task1 working accurately and methodically1 and showing real satisfaction in surmounting difficulties4 ,this precision in work produced an immediate effect on their characters4 ,they became capable of controlling their nerves4 ,the instance which struck ,miss ,dufresne most was that of a little boy of four and a half1 who at first had seemed very nervous and excitable and had disturbed the whole class3 ,the imagination of this child had been developed in an extraordinary manner1 so that when an object was given to him1 he took no notice of the actual form of the object1 but personified it1 and further personified himself1 talking perpetually1 pretending to be some one else1 and seeming incapable of fixing his attention upon the objects4 ,while his mind was in this chaotic state he was unable to perform any precise action2 he could not1 for instance1 button a single button4444 ,all at once a miracle seemed to take place within him4 ,i noted the great change in him with astonishment4 ,he took one of the exercises as his favorite task1 then went on to choose all the others in succession1 and thus calmed his nerves4 ,i will choose from various individual studies made by two mistresses of a ,children's ,house at ,rome for well-to-do children1 those of two children of very different characters4 ,one of these children came to the school too late1 when he was too old1 and had already developed in another environment4 ,the other is a little creature of the normal age for entrance to the ,children's ,houses4 ,the older child 7a boy of five7 had already been to a ,froebelian ,kindergarten1 where he was considered very troublesome because of his restlessness4 ,for the first few days he was a torment to us1 because he wanted to work1 but could not settle to any occupation4 ,he said of everything3 ',this is a game1' and ran about the class-room1 or annoyed his companions4 ,at last he began to take an interest in drawing4 ,although normally drawing comes after the sensory exercises1 he was left at liberty to do what he wished2 the teachers rightly thought that it would be useless to insist that the child should apply himself to a different task4 ,indeed1 this child1 having passed the age when the primary materials answer to the psychical needs of childhood1 was for the first time attracted by an exercise of a higher order1 that of drawing4 ,whereas at first the child had passed from one occupation to another1 and had even taken up the letters of the alphabet1 but had never settled to work with any one of the objects1 now suddenly discipline was established4 ,we do not know exactly at what moment the change took place1 but discipline was maintained and perfected1 and reached a higher level in proportion to the growing interest of the child in every kind of occupation4 ,interest having been primarily aroused by drawing1 the child spontaneously went on to the rods used in the teaching of length1 then to placing the plane geometric insets1 and so gradually worked through all the earlier sensory stimuli which the teacher had passed over4 ,thus we see that the older child chooses the objects in inverse order1 proceeding almost methodically from the most difficult to the elementary4 ,the other child of three was also quite undisciplined4 ,the teachers were beginning to despair of producing order in this case1 when the child began to take an interest in the solid insets and in one of the frames4 ,thereupon he worked steadily and ceased to disturb his companions4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in our ,children's ,houses for poor children in ,rome1 directed by ,signorina ,maccheroni1 it was possible to make more methodical observations1 and these were represented by diagrams1 in order to demonstrate the course of the phenomena more clearly4 ,the transverse line ,a ,b represents the quiescent state2 the phenomena of order 7work7 are represented above2 those of disorder below4 ,when a child has become calm after the first strong attraction to a task1 a permanent state of order may be established in him4 ,at this stage the conditions most favorable to work may be studied4 ,,primitive ,,curve ,,of ,,ordered ,,work ,this is the manner in which it develops2 individual type of a morning of disciplined work4 ,illustration3 ,primitive ,curve of ,ordered ,work ,the child keeps still for a while1 and then chooses some task he finds easy1 such as arranging the colors in gradation2 he continues working at this for a time1 but not for very long2 he passes on to some more complicated task1 such as that of composing words with the movable letters1 and perseveres with this for a long time 7about half an hour74 ,at this stage he ceases working1 walks about the room1 and appears less calm2 to a superficial observer he would seem to show signs of fatigue4 ,but after a few minutes he undertakes some much more difficult work1 and becomes so deeply absorbed in this1 that he shows us he has reached the acme of his activity 7additions and writing down the results74 ,when this work is finished1 his activity comes to an end in all serenity2 he contemplates his handiwork for a long time1 then approaches the teacher1 and begins to confide in her4 ,the appearance of the child is that of a person who is rested1 satisfied1 and uplifted4 ,the apparent fatigue of the child between the first and second period of work is interesting2 at that moment the aspect of the child is not calm and happy as at the end of the curve2 indeed1 he shows signs of agitation1 moves about1 and walks1 but does not disturb the others4 ,it may be said that he is in search of the maximum satisfaction for his interest1 and is preparing for his great work4 ,but1 on the other hand1 when the cycle is completed1 the child detaches himself from his internal concentration2 refreshed and satisfied1 he experiences the higher social impulses1 such as desiring to make confidences and to hold intimate communion with other souls4 ,a similar process became in time the general process in a class of disciplined children4 ,signorina ,maccheroni sums up this complex phenomenon as follows3 ,illustration3 ,whole ,class at ,work ,in the first period of the morning1 up to about #aj a4m41 the occupation chosen is generally an easy and familiar task4 ,at #aj o'clock there is a great commotion2 the children are restless1 they neither work nor go in quest of materials4 ,the onlooker gets an impression of a tired class1 about to become disorderly4 ,after a few minutes the most perfect order reigns once more2 the children are promptly absorbed in work again2 they have chosen new and more difficult occupations4 ,when this work ceases1 the children are gentle1 calm1 and happy4 ,if in the period of false fatigue at #aj a4m4 an inexperienced teacher1 interpreting the phenomenon of suspension or preparation for the culminating work as disorder1 intervenes1 calling the children to her1 and making them rest1 etc41 their restlessness persists1 and the subsequent work is not undertaken4 ,the children do not become calm3 they remain in an abnormal state4 ,in other words1 if they are interrupted in their cycle1 they lose all the characteristics connected with an internal process regularly and completely carried out4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the single curve of individual orderly work is not general1 nor strictly constant in the type described4 ,but it may be considered as the average type of work in the level of order achieved4 ,it will be interesting1 first of all1 to consider the curve of children in whom order has not yet been established4 ,poor children hardly ever show themselves to be in such a state of utter confusion as rich ones2 they are always more or less attracted by the objects1 and respond to them with a certain interest from the very first moment4 ,such interest1 however1 is at first superficial4 ,they are attracted mainly by curiosity1 by a desire to handle pretty things4 ,they amuse themselves for some time1 it is true1 with single objects1 changing and selecting them1 but without developing any deep interest4 ,the characteristic of this period1 which may be altogether lacking in a class of well-to-do children1 is that of alternations of disorder4 ,the following diagram represents this period4 ,,individual ,,differences ,,stage ,,preceding ,,the ,,evolution ,,of ,,order ,illustration3 ,individual curve of a poor child ,the various curves of work are to be found below the line of quiescence1 in state of disorder4 ,it was only when the children were called to order collectively that this child was still1 unless it was rising towards work2 in this case1 however1 it did not persevere1 and the curve drops suddenly below4 ,it should be noted that in the irregular course of this diagram we may trace a period of easy work preceding a period of difficult work 7frame1 plane insets7 and between these two the maximum decline into disorder4 ,,curve ,,of ,,work ,,of ,a ,,very ,,poor ,,child1 ,,almost ,,entirely ,,neglected ,,by ,,its ,,parents1 ,,and ,,very ,,turbulent ,illustration3 ,period of ,disorder ,the child in question 7,o7 seemed to have a tendency to learn from others2 he ran away from work or was attracted by it only for a brief moment2 and seemed incapable of receiving direct teaching4 ,if any attempt was made to teach him something1 he grimaced and ran away4 ,he wandered about1 disturbing his companions1 and seemed quite intractable2 but he listened attentively to the lessons the teacher gave to the other children4 ,illustration3 ,advance towards ,order ,when he began to work1 after having learned how to do so1 he persevered1 and the normal process is apparent in the diagram2 that is to say1 preliminary work1 a pause 7during which the child relapsed slightly and momentarily into his habit of disturbing his companions71 then the curve of great application1 and of final repose 7during which1 however1 he again relapsed into his characteristic defect74 ,the summits of the diagram show not only interest in the work1 but a marked kindliness2 the child was not only calm1 but seemed full of beatitude and gentleness2 when at the height of his labors he frequently looked round at his companions1 and blew little kisses to them on his fingers1 but without relaxing his attention4 ,it seemed as if a fount of love were gushing up from the fulness of his internal satisfaction1 from the depths of a soul that had appeared at first so rough and uncouth4 ,illustration3 ,,curve ,,of ,,work ,,of ,a ,,weakly ,,child ,the diagram is made up of curves that fall upon the line of quiescence2 unity of curve is lacking1 hence unity of effort4 ,the culminating point of work is reached after a preliminary task of an easier kind2 and the supreme task 7color7 is briefly resumed1 after the great impetus has been exhausted4 ,the phase of rest is not clearly defined2 the child turns to a very easy task 7solid insets74 ,a certain feebleness of character seems to manifest itself in the half-hearted mental processes4 ,the child makes many successive efforts to rise2 but he can neither make the decisive1 vigorous effort1 nor come to a definite decision to cease working4 ,the child is calm1 but his state of calm has no variations2 he is neither lively1 nor serene1 nor does he show strong affectionate impulses4 ,,course ,,of ,,progress ,when the whole class is disciplined1 the course of development of the internal activities may be observed4 ,it must be remembered that the material of development affords graduated exercises passing from the most rudimentary sensory exercises to exercises in writing1 calculating1 and reading4 ,the children are free to choose the exercises they prefer2 but of course1 as the teacher initiates them in each exercise1 they only choose the objects they know how to use4 ,the teacher1 observing them1 sees when the child is sufficiently matured for more advanced exercises1 and introduces them to him1 or perhaps the child begins them for himself1 after watching other children more advanced4 ,we must bear such conditions in mind in order to follow progress in work4 ,illustration3 ,course of ,progress ,the two curves represent stages of greatest development as compared with the primary curve of orderly work4 ,the stage of unrest between the easy and the more difficult work tends to disappear2 the child seems more sure of himself2 he goes more directly and readily to the choice of his culminating exercise4 ,consequently1 two successive phases of uninterrupted work are left2 one may be called the phase of preparation1 the other the phase of serious work4 ,the phase of preparation lasts a very short time1 the serious work is of much longer duration2 it is noteworthy that the period of rest1 with its characteristic air of comfort and serenity1 sets in after the maximum effort has spontaneously spent itself4 ,on the other hand1 it happens invariably that any external interruption of the effort causes the child to show signs of fatigue 7restlessness71 or to become inattentive4 ,in the first curve1 the initial work consists of two easy tasks1 carried on for a short time1 and from these the child passes directly to the serious work4 ,the finale is a spell of rest full of thought2 the child ceases to work1 but contemplates his finished task for a long time in silence2 before preparing to put it away1 or1 after having contemplated his own work1 he goes quietly to watch that of the others4 ,in the second curve there is a very noticeable parallelism with the line of repose2 the child pursues his labors almost uniformly1 and the sole difference between the initial work and the serious work is in their different duration4 ,the contemplative period becomes henceforth an obvious period of internal work1 almost a period of assimilation or internal maturation4 ,observation of the work of others becomes increasingly frequent1 as if it were a spontaneous comparative study between the child himself and his companions2 or as if an active interest in the contemplation of the external surroundings were developing3 the period of discovery4 ,we may say that the child studies himself in his own productions and puts himself into communion with his companions and his environment4 ,at this stage the completion of an entire cycle will exercise an influence more and more far-reaching on the personality of the child4 ,not only is he spurred on to a work of intimate concentration immediately after his culminating effort2 he preserves a permanent attitude of thought1 of internal equilibrium1 of sustained interest in his environment4 ,he becomes a personality who has reached a higher degree of evolution4 ,this is the period when the child begins to be master of himself and enters upon that characteristic phenomenon ,i have called the phenomenon of obedience4 ,he can obey1 that is1 he can control his actions1 and therefore can direct them in accordance with the desires of another person4 ,he can break off a piece of work when interrupted1 without becoming disorderly or showing symptoms of fatigue4 ,moreover1 work has become his habitual attitude1 and the child can no longer bear to be idle4 ,when1 for instance1 we call some of the children who are in this stage to the lessons for teachers1 in which they are to serve as the subjects of study1 they lend themselves with ready docility to that which we ask of them1 they submit to the measurements of height1 heads1 etc41 and they perform the exercises we suggest1 responding always with interest1 and not merely with resignation1 as if they were conscious of collaborating with us4 ,but when they have to wait1 seated on one side till they are called forward1 they cannot sit idle2 they work at something4 ,inactivity has become intolerable to them4 ,very often1 while ,i am giving the lesson1 the children take the lacing or tying frames1 or cover the floor with words made with the movable letters2 and where this is feasible1 some of the children will draw or paint in these moments of waiting4 ,all these things have now become expressions of intelligent activity1 which form part of their psychical organism4 ,but to ensure the continuance of this attitude and of the development of personality it is essential that some real task should be performed each day2 for it is from the completed cycle of an activity1 from methodical concentration1 that the child develops equilibrium1 elasticity1 adaptability1 and the resulting power to perform the higher actions1 such as those which are termed acts of obedience4 ,this makes one think of the method prescribed by the ,catholic religion for the preservation of the forces of spiritual life3 that is1 a period of spiritual concentration1 which opens up the possibility of acquiring moral powers4 ,it is from methodical meditation that moral personality must draw its powers of solidification1 without which the inner man1 incoherent and unbalanced1 fails to possess itself and dispose of itself for noble ends4 ,children have always need of the period of concentration1 and serious work from which they derive the capacity for final development4 ,the following diagram represents a very lofty stage of childish development3 ,illustration3 ,,superior ,,stage ,average type ,even the preparatory work is now of a higher kind3 as soon as the child comes into school1 he will choose1 for instance1 the letters of the alphabet1 or will write1 then 7his strenuous work7 he will read4 ,for recreation he will choose an intelligent pastime1 such as looking at illustrated books4 ,all his intellectual occupations are of a higher order1 as are also his moral attributes 7obedience1 serenity1 perseverance74 ,taking the line of quiescence as a level of development1 it follows that the level has become higher4 ,illustration3 ,line of work ,in a superior stage1 the line of work tends to become straight1 parallel to the line of quiescence4 ,meanwhile it has been established that it is possible to determine degrees of development1 or averages of internal development1 by means of which individual variations may be studied4 ,in the primordial type the characteristics are disorderly conduct1 and incapacity to concentrate attention2 in such a case there is no real line of work1 and the main part of the diagram remains below the line of quiescence4 ,for the type in which the phenomenon of permanent concentration of attention on a task has manifested itself1 the average characteristic diagram of normal orderly work of the first degree is now established3 i4 e4 preliminary work followed by a period of restlessness1 and then strenuous work followed by a state of repose4 ,afterwards we distinguish a second degree1 where the average is characterized by the disappearance of the period of unrest1 and the strenuous work is brought to a close in contemplation2 this is the stage of discoveries1 of generalized observation1 of obedience2 work has become a habit4 ,this is followed by a general elevation1 to be recognized by the choice of higher preliminary work2 disciplined behavior has become a habit4 ,during this progression the diagram of work tends to become straight1 and parallel to the line of quiescence4 ,illustrations3 ,a ,,recapitulatory ,,table ,,of ,,development ,diagrams of average developments ,the rise in the level of the plane is related to the qualities of more advanced intellectual work2 and the straightening of the line is related to qualities of internal construction and of the organization of the personality2 qualities which would be considered of a moral order1 such as serenity1 discipline1 self-mastery as manifested in obedience and in the various activities of the child4 ,when work has become a habit1 the intellectual level rises rapidly1 and organized order causes good conduct to become a habit4 ,children then work with order1 perseverance1 and discipline1 persistently and naturally2 the permanent1 calm1 and vivifying work of the physical organism resembles the respiratory rhythm4 ,the pivot1 the medium of this construction of the personality1 is working in freedom1 in accordance with the natural wants of the inner life2 thus freedom in intellectual work is found to be the basis of internal discipline4 ,the great achievement of the ,children's ,houses 7,case dei ,bambini7 is to produce disciplined children4 ,it is this internal organization which gives them a special type1 or character1 the type or character required to continue the free exercise of activities for the conquests of culture in successive stages4 ,the elementary school period presents itself insensibly as a continuation of the ,children's ,houses4 ,in these1 behavior is a habit superposed on and fused with the earlier habit of work4 ,henceforth it will be sufficient to present the material of further culture1 and the child1 gradually exercising himself upon it1 will pass from one intellectual stage of culture to another4 ,the difference shown in the successive ages arises from an intellectual interest which is no longer merely the impulse to exercise oneself by repetition of the exercises1 but is a higher interest directed to the work itself1 and tending to complete an external work1 or to complete a branch of knowledge as a whole4 ,thus the child creates and seeks for things organized in themselves2 for instance1 he desires to compose a design by means of combinations of geometrical figures with the metal insets1 and devotes himself to this work with the greatest intensity until he has completed it4 ,again1 we see a child occupied for seven or eight consecutive days with the same work4 ,another child becomes interested in the potentialities of numbers or in the arithmetical frame1 and perseveres with the same work for days1 until his knowledge of it has matured4 ,upon a basis of interior order produced by internal organization1 the mind then builds up its castle with the same leisurely calm with which a living organism grows spontaneously after birth4 ,we can give but a primary idea at present of the practical possibility of determining average levels of interior development according to age4 ,we shall further require many perfect experiments1 in which homogeneous children1 completely suitable environment1 and trained teachers will afford adequate material for observation4 ,then students will be able to undertake a scientific work1 which will perhaps be characterized by a precision superior even to that with which it is at present possible to measure the body1 and give the mathematical averages of growth4 ,we must consider1 however1 that the indications available to-day represent a long1 systematic toil1 and that they rest upon the still greater labor of finding external material means for natural development4 ,this will give some idea of the difficulty of scientific researches1 which many still believe it possible to make by means of arbitrary and superficial tests such as those of ,binet and ,simon6 99 99 99 99 99 ,the study of the child cannot be accomplished by an instantaneous process2 his characteristics can only be illustrated cinematographically4 ,external means1 organized in accordance with the needs of psychical life1 are of fundamental importance2 for how is it possible to judge of individual differences in the acquisition of internal order1 in the ascent to abstraction1 in the progressive stages of intellectual development1 in the achievement of discipline1 without the existence of pre-determined and unvarying external means which1 like so many points of support1 lead the child in process of formation towards his goal8 ,in order to determine individual differences logically1 there must be a constant work or aim2 and this is the external means on which each personality builds itself up4 ,when the external support is the same1 and corresponds in general to the psychical needs of a given age1 a difference of internal construction is due to the individual himself4 ,on the other hand1 if the means were different1 the variations in reaction might be attributed to differences in the means4 ,finally1 it is obvious that in all scientific research1 the instrument of measurement must be fixed4 ,but each thing to be measured requires a special instrument1 and the constant instrument in psychical measurement should be the method of education4 ,a series of formulae1 such as the ,binet-,simon tests1 can neither measure anything1 nor give even an approximate idea of intellectual levels of intelligence according to age2 as to the children who respond1 whence is their response derived8 ,how far is this due to the intrinsic activity of the individual1 and how far to the action of environment8 ,and if the portion due to environment be ignored1 who can determine what intrinsic psychical value should be given to the response8 ,in each personality we must recognize two parts3 one is the individual1 natural1 spontaneous activity by means of which elements may be taken from the environment wherewith the personality may be elaborated internally1 constructed and augmented1 and hence characterized2 another part is the external instrument with which all this may be done4 ,for instance1 a child who at the age of four can recognize sixty-four colors1 shows that he possesses remarkable activity in the perception of colors1 and in the arrangement of them in gradation in his mind1 etc42 but he also shows that he has had the means to accomplish this achievement2 he has had1 for instance1 sixty-four color-tablets1 with which he has been able to practise at his leisure and undisturbed1 as long as was necessary for such assimilation4 ,the psychical factor ,p is the sum of two factors1 one internal1 the other external3 ,p ,i ,e of these the unknown1 non-directly measurable factor ,i may be indicated by ,x3 ,p ,x ,e ,if we were to compare two children1 one of whom has had at his disposal the sixty-four colors in the conditions described above1 and another who has been left to himself in poor surroundings1 where gray and brown tints prevail1 and who seems dull and unobservant1 etc41 we should find a very remarkable psychical difference4 ,such a difference is not1 however1 intrinsic2 it might well be that1 subjected to the same conditions as the first child1 the second would recognize the sixty-four colors4 ,the judgment we should give in such a case would be based upon an external factor1 not upon internal potentialities4 ,we should really be appraising two different environments1 not two different individuals4 ,to enable us to judge of individual differences1 it would be necessary for the two children to have had the same means of development4 ,in this case1 if at the same age they were not equally capable of distinguishing the sixty-four colors1 but if1 for instance1 one of the two could recognize only thirty of these1 a true individual psychical difference would be apparent4 ,one of the tests proposed by one of the greatest authorities on experimental psychology in ,italy1 to determine the intellectual level of sub-normal 7backward or deficient7 children1 was to make a child pick out the largest and the smallest cube in a series4 ,this choice1 in common with nearly all the tests proposed for the same purpose1 we considered quite independently of the influence of culture and education2 and it was appreciated as the expression of an intimate1 personal activity of the intelligence itself4 ,but if one of the deficient children ,i had educated on my method had been subjected to the test1 he would1 in virtue of a long sensory training1 have chosen the largest and the smallest cube very much more easily than the children selected by the psychologist from his special schools2 and my deficient child might even have been not only younger1 but even more backward intellectually than the other4 ,the test would therefore have measured the different methods of education1 whereas the psychical differences between the two children1 really existent by reason of age or of intellectual attainment1 would have remained absolutely obscure4 ,man is a fusion of personality and education1 and education includes the series of experiences he undergoes during his life4 ,the two things cannot be separated in the individual3 intelligence without acquirement is an abstraction4 ,that which holds good of all living beings3 that the individual cannot be divorced from his environment1 is more profoundly true in its application to psychical life1 because the content of environment1 constituting the means of auto-experience which evolves man1 is an essential part of him1 and1 indeed1 is the individual himself4 ,nevertheless1 we all know that the psychical individual is not his environment1 but a life in himself4 ,given the formula ,p ,x ,e in which ,x is the internal and intrinsic part peculiar to the individual life1 it may be said that every individual has his ,x4 ,but in order to approach to direct knowledge of ,x1 it is essential to know ,p and ,e4 ,he who carries out an examination1 or supposes himself to be performing a psychical measurement by dwelling on psychical results1 is in reality measuring a mixture of two unknown quantities1 one of which1 being external to the individual1 nullifies the results of research4 ,hence1 to study individual differences in isolated activities1 such as the perception of colors1 musical sounds1 the letters of the alphabet2 or the capacity for observation of surroundings and the detection of errors2 or coordination of movements1 language1 etc41 it is essential to have first determined a constant element3 the means of development offered by environment4 ,here a simple and clearly defined difference between pedagogy and psychology manifests itself3 pedagogy determines experimentally the means of development and the method of applying them while respecting the internal or personal liberty of the individual2 psychology studies average reactions or individual reactions in the species or the individual4 ,but the two things are two aspects of a single fact1 which is the development of man2 the individual and the environment are the two factors ,x and ,e of the same product3 the psychical entity4 ,isolated psychical researches of a moral order must also1 if they are to be of any real value1 be based upon prolonged observation1 after the internal activities have become orderly2 because it is easy to make errors of judgment in a chaos4 ,in clinical psychiatry or in criminal pathology1 when we speak of keeping a subject under observation for purposes of diagnosis1 we mean placing him in special surroundings1 under hygienic and disciplinary conditions1 etc41 and observing him for some time in such an environment4 ,such a process has a value still more extensive and profound in the case of normal individuals in process of evolution4 ,in such a case it is necessary not only to offer orderly external surroundings1 but to reduce the chaotic internal world of the child to order1 and1 after this1 to observe him for a considerable time4 ,we may offer as an illustration the following observations made upon two of the most interesting children who attended our schools4 ,they were admitted into the training school for teachers during my last ,international ,course in ,rome4 ,,aspects ,,of ,,the ,,two ,,children ,during the period they were retained as subjects for anthropological observation in the class-room for teachers ,there was a considerable clamor among the students2 some were talking1 some laughing4 ,in the center of the room stood a pedometer4 ,the behavior of the two children was almost identical4 ,they were sitting apart quietly1 working at the lacing frames which they had gone spontaneously to fetch from a neighboring room2 they did not look up at the noise1 nor join in the laughter4 ,their attitude was that of persons at work and anxious not to lose any time4 ,when invited by a single gesture to come and be measured1 they obeyed in a wonderful manner1 leaving off work at once1 and moving with smiles1 as if fascinated2 they evidently felt pleasure in obeying1 and an internal delight which came from the consciousness of being able to work1 and of being ready to leave something that they liked doing1 at a summons to something of a higher order4 ,they arranged themselves very carefully on the pedometer to be measured2 when any modification was necessary in the position of the body1 it sufficed to murmur a word in their ears and the almost imperceptible movement required was made with the utmost exactitude2 they could control their voluntary movements and direct them2 they were able to translate the words they heard into actions3 this enabled them to obey1 and this constituted for them a fascinating internal conquest4 ,when the measuring was over1 nothing was said2 they waited expectantly for a moment1 then gave an intelligent glance and a smile1 which was1 as it were1 their greeting2 they had understood1 and they returned voluntarily to their corner to take up their frames and resume their work4 ,presently they were wanted again1 and the same actions were repeated4 ,when we think that children of their age 7about four and a half71 when left to themselves1 will roam about1 upsetting objects almost unconsciously1 and requiring either some one to submit to their caprices1 or to call them roughly to order1 we shall recognize the internal perfection achieved in these two little ones1 who have arrived at that stage of development in which work has become a habit1 and obedience a fascinating acquisition4 ,the anthropometric measurements had shown that one of the children1 ,o1 was normal in measurement 7weight1 stature1 length of torso7 and the other1 ,a1 below the normal measurements4 ,here are some notes made by the teacher on the conduct of these two children when they were in the state of disorder1 or undisciplined3 ,o3 violent1 turbulent1 spiteful to his companions1 never applies to anything1 but looks on at what the others are doing and then interrupts them2 or listens to the individual lessons given by the teacher with a scornful and cynical expression4 ,the father of the child says that at home he is violent1 overbearing1 and intractable4 ,a3 is quiet4 ,but he has almost a mania for spying on his companions1 and pointing out to the teacher every little action that might be considered wrong or incorrect4 ,both of the children are very poor4 ,o is almost entirely neglected by his family4 99 99 99 99 99 ,later judgment the teacher was enabled to form of these two children after they had reduced themselves to order by means of work3 ,o3 all the turbulence shown by ,o in his home resolved itself into a struggle for bread2 the father1 who was very poor1 but also neglectful1 denied the child bread2 the child did not resign himself1 did not cry1 but struggled constantly1 with all the means at his disposal1 in order to obtain his portion of bread4 ,when the teacher asked the father why he denied the child bread1 he replied3 ,because1 when he has eaten it1 he asks for more4 ,in school1 this child ran from group to group1 from lesson to lesson1 disturbing the others and passing over everything1 because he was struggling to win his spiritual food after the same fashion4 ,he is a child who has an overpowering will to live3 self-preservation seems to be his most strongly developed tendency4 ,when his life was assured1 the child became not only gentle1 but remarkable for his sweetness and delicacy of feeling4 ,he was the child who1 in his joy when he had learned or completed some task1 looked round lovingly at his companions1 and blew little kisses to them from his fingers4 ,whereas for the other children who had entered into the phase of order or discipline1 the teacher's note is3 work1 for ,o the note is3 work and kindness4 ,before the daily hot meal was instituted1 the children used to bring their own luncheons1 which varied very much2 two or three of the children were very generously provided1 and had meat1 fruit1 etc4 ,o was seated next to one of these4 ,the table was set1 and ,o had nothing to put upon his plate but the piece of bread he had so strenuously acquired2 he glanced at his neighbor as if to regulate himself by the time the latter would take over his meal1 but with no trace of envy2 on the contrary1 with great dignity he tried to eat his piece of bread very slowly1 in order that he might not finish before the other1 and thus make it evident that he had nothing more to eat while the other was still busy4 ,he nibbled his bread slowly and seriously4 ,what a sense of his own dignity--subduing the desires of an appetite exposed to temptation--existed in this child1 together with his sense of the fundamental needs of his own life1 by which he was impelled to struggle and to conquer what was necessary4 ,and there was further that exquisite sensibility1 which manifested itself in the affectionate expression of his mobile face1 and in the effusion of a general tenderness which looked for no return4 ,a very remarkable thing was that this child1 whom we might have expected to find ill-nourished1 gave normal anthropological measurements and weight for his age4 ,born in poverty and neglect1 he had defended himself2 the normality of his body was due to an heroic effort4 ,a3 this child was always calm and quiet2 he very soon entered upon the phase of active1 ordered1 willing and thorough work4 ,he applied himself with intense earnestness and perseverance4 ,he would be the type of the clever1 well-behaved child of the ordinary school4 ,very often he came to school without any food4 ,his goodness had a positive character which became a mortal danger to himself2 he accepted mal-nutrition without revolt2 he profited greatly by the means of psychical life that were offered him1 but he would never have been able to conquer them for himself4 ,his goodness continued to be of the same type after as before the period of order2 he showed neither agitation nor expansion4 ,his anthropological measurements1 which were below the normal1 already indicated that he had started on life's pilgrimage with the gait of the victim2 he belonged to the company of those who must be saved by others4 ,the characteristic moral trait was espionage4 ,the teacher1 when observing him1 noticed that the child did not work simply like the others1 but came to her very frequently to know if what he was doing was well or ill done4 ,and this not only during his work with the materials1 but also in reference to every act of a moral nature he accomplished2 his great preoccupation seemed to be to know whether he was doing right or wrong4 ,then he endeavored to do right with the most scrupulous exactitude4 ,with regard to his spying tendencies1 the teacher noted the child never showed any animosity towards his companions2 he watched them attentively1 and then proceeded to say of them as he would say of himself3 ,so and so did this2 was it right or wrong8 ,the child was then careful to avoid what had been pronounced wrong in others4 ,what appeared to be his spying proclivities were1 in fact1 a manifestation of the problem that dominated his childish conscience3 the problem of right and wrong4 ,the limited experience of his own life did not suffice him2 he wanted to benefit by the experience of all the others in order to learn what things were right and what were wrong2 almost as if the one feeling that absorbed him was the desire to do right and avoid wrong1 and as if this were his sole aspiration4 ,the case of this child recalls a popular superstition expressed in such terms as too good to live4 ,the child ,a seemed destined for the fate thus suggested4 ,the needs of the body did not greatly concern him1 and he seemed equally indifferent to those of the mind2 goodness was the mainspring of his being4 ,if society does not note such dispositions1 and assume the special protection of such frail lives1 children of this type go forward to premature death like angels gazing heavenwards4 ,these two accounts1 due to ,signorina ,maccheroni's observation1 correct a superficial judgment which1 in an ordinary school1 would have become a permanent record of character3 the one child would have been branded as violent1 the other as a spy4 ,if we call that science which led to the translation of these words into hero and angel1 and touched so many hearts in the vicinity of these two children1 when they had been interpreted by their wonderful instructress1 we shall be able to assert that the judgment of love is the judgment of knowledge4 ,the mercy of ,christ in judging is here illustrated4 99 99 99 99 99 ,psychical action1 then1 starts from a principle which may be translated thus3 that the child lives4 ,all the rest comes as a consequence4 ,this action of fundamental life manifests itself as a polarization of the internal personality3 almost at a point of crystallization1 around which1 provided there be homogeneous material and an undisturbed environment1 the definitive form composes itself4 ,this initial action is a task repeated with a special intensity of attention4 ,in my biographical chart1 therefore1 ,i do not give a long formula of analytical studies1 but ,i give a guide to psychological observations1 founded upon the synthetical conception which ,i have sought to illustrate4 ,those who have not been initiated into this method of observation will gain no light from such a guide1 which lies entirely outside the conceptions of psychological study now obtaining in connection with the observation of pupils4 ,but those who have been initiated will understand it without the aid of illustration4 ,our teachers have also a terminology by means of which they understand each other1 without having recourse to the ordinary expressions1 which do not convey an exact idea of the action they see in process of development4 ,thus they never say3 ,the child is developing1 or progressing1 the child is good or naughty1 etc4 ,the only phraseology they use is3 ,the child is becoming disciplined or is not becoming disciplined4 ,it is internal order that they await2 and on this principle of being or not being1 all or nothing depends4 ,this evokes a much deeper conception than that of growth4 ,to say that a living creature grows is to make a very superficial statement1 seeing that he grows indeed1 but in virtue of the fact that1 within1 an orderly and regular disposition of substances is in progress4 ,when1 for instance1 the embryo of an animal is formed1 it grows2 but any one who has observed it internally must have been struck by a fact much more marvelous than that of the visible external growth4 ,a wonderful internal grouping of the cells takes place2 some form1 as it were1 a leaf which folds over and makes the intestines1 others separate to form the nervous system1 one group isolates and specializes itself to make the liver1 and thus an organization of parts1 more and more pronounced1 together with a minute differentiation of each individual arrangement of the cells1 is carried on4 ,the future functions of the body all depend upon the possibility of the cells so establishing themselves4 ,the important point is1 not that the embryo grows1 but that it coordinates4 ,growth comes through and by order1 which also makes life possible4 ,an embryo which grows without coordinating its internal organs is not vital4 ,here we have not only the impulse1 but the mystery of life4 ,the evolution of internal order is the essential condition for the realization of vital existence in a life which possesses the impulse to exist4 ,now the sum of the phenomena indicated in the guide to psychological observation actually represents the evolution of spiritual order in the child4 99 99 99 99 99 ,guide to psychological observation4 ,,work4--,note when a child begins to occupy himself for any length of time upon a task4 ,what the task is and how long he continues working at it 7slowness in completing it and repetition of the same exercise74 ,his individual peculiarities in applying himself to particular tasks4 ,to what tasks he applies himself during the same day1 and with how much perseverance4 ,if he has periods of spontaneous industry1 and for how many days these periods continue4 ,how he manifests a desire to progress4 ,what tasks he chooses in their sequence1 working at them steadily4 ,persistence in a task in spite of stimuli in his environment which would tend to distract his attention4 ,if after deliberate interruption he resumes the task from which his attention was distracted4 ,,conduct4--,note the state of order or disorder in the acts of the child4 ,his disorderly actions4 ,note if changes of behavior take place during the development of the phenomena of work4 ,note whether during the establishment of ordered actions there are3 crises of joy2 intervals of serenity2 manifestations of affection4 ,the part the child takes in the development of his companions4 ,,obedience4--,note if the child responds to the summons when he is called4 ,note if and when the child begins to take part in the work of others with an intelligent effort4 ,note when obedience to a summons becomes regular4 ,note when obedience to orders becomes established4 ,note when the child obeys eagerly and joyously4 ,note the relation of the various phenomena of obedience in their degrees 7a7 to the development of work2 7b7 to changes of conduct4 ,,iv ,,the ,,preparation ,,of ,,the ,,teacher ,the possibility of observing the developments of the psychical life of the child as natural phenomena and experimental reactions transforms the school itself in action into a kind of scientific laboratory for the psycho-genetic study of man4 ,it will become--perhaps in the near future--the experimental field par excellence of the psychologist4 ,to prepare such a school as perfectly as possible1 is therefore not only to prepare a better method for the education of children1 but also to prepare the materials for a renovated science4 ,every one now knows that students of natural science require in their laboratories an organization directed to the preparation of the material to be observed4 ,to observe a simple cell in movement1 it is necessary to have a hollow glass slide with cavity for the hanging drop2 to have ready fresh solutions in which the living cells may be immersed1 to ensure their continued vitality2 to have ready soils for cultures1 etc4 ,for all these ends there are special avocations1 those of the so-called preparers1 who are not the assistants or helpers of the professor1 but employs who were at one time upper servants1 and then become superior workmen4 ,at the present day they are1 however1 nearly always themselves scientific graduates4 ,for1 indeed1 their task is a most delicate one2 they must possess biological1 physical1 and chemical knowledge1 and the more thoroughly they are prepared by a culture analogous to that of the masters of research themselves1 the more rapid and secure is the march of science4 ,it is strange to think that among all these laboratories of natural science1 only that of experimental psychology has judged it possible to dispense with an organization for the preparation of the subjects to be observed4 ,if to-day a psychologist were told to arrange the work of his preparer1 he would take this to mean the preparation of his instruments1 thus adopting more or less the standard of laboratories of physics4 ,but the idea of preparing the living being which produces the phenomenon would not enter his mind2 and yet1 if merely to observe a cell1 a living microbe1 the scientist needs a preparer1 how much greater must be the necessity for such an assistant when the subject to be observed is man6 ,psychologists consider that they can prepare their subjects by arresting their attention with a word1 and explaining to them how they are to proceed in order to respond to the experiment2 any unknown person met by chance in the laboratory will serve their purpose4 ,in short1 the psychologist of to-day behaves somewhat like the child who catches a butterfly in flight1 observes it for a second and then lets it fly away again2 not like the biologist who takes care that his preparations are properly carried out in a scientific laboratory4 ,on the other hand1 the picture of psychological development1 even though it be incomplete1 which is shown to us in our experiments1 demonstrates the subtlety with which it is necessary to present to the child the means of his development and1 above all1 to respect his liberty2 conditions which are essential to ensure that psychical phenomena be revealed and may constitute a true material for observation2 all this demands a special environment1 and the preparation of a practical staff1 forming a whole infinitely superior in complexity and in organization to the ordinary natural science laboratories4 ,such a laboratory can only be the most perfect school1 organized according to scientific methods1 where the teacher is a person answering to the preparer graduate4 ,true1 all schools would not achieve this lofty scientific ideal4 ,but it is indisputable that schools and teachers should all be directing their efforts towards the domain of the experimental sciences4 ,the psychical salvation of children is based upon the means and the liberty to live1 and these should become another of the natural rights accorded to the new generations2 established as a social and philosophic conception1 it should supersede the present obligation to provide instruction1 which is a burden not only on ,state economy but also on the vigor of posterity4 ,if the psychical phenomena of the children in the national schools do not tend to enrich psychology1 they become ends in themselves1 just as the beauty of ,nature is an end in itself4 ,the new school1 indeed1 must not be created for the service of a science1 but for the service of living humanity2 and teachers will be able to rejoice in the contemplation of lives unfolding under their eyes1 without sharing the spectacle with science1 wrapped in a holy egoism which will exalt their spirits as does every intimate contact with living souls4 ,it is unquestionable that with this method of education the preparation of the teacher must be made ex novo1 and that the personality and social importance of the instructress will be transformed thereby4 ,even after the first desultory experiments hitherto made1 a new type of mistress has been evolved2 instead of facility in speech1 she has to acquire the power of silence2 instead of teaching1 she has to observe2 instead of the proud dignity of one who claims to be infallible1 she assumes the vesture of humility4 99 99 99 99 99 ,this transformation has a parallel in that undergone by the university professor1 when the positive sciences began to play their part in the world4 ,what a difference between the dignified old-world professor1 draped in a robe often ermine-trimmed1 seated on his high chair as on a throne1 and speaking so authoritatively that students were not only bound to believe all he said1 but to swear in verbo magistri1 and the professor of to-day1 who leaves the high places to the students that they may be able to see1 reserving for himself the lowest station1 on the bare floor2 while the students are all seated1 he alone stands1 often clad in a gray linen blouse like a workman4 ,the students know that they will be on the way to the highest degree of progress when they are capable of verifying the theses of the professor--nay1 more1 of giving a further impetus to science1 and inscribing their own names among those quoted as having contributed to its wealth or having discovered new truths4 ,dignity and hierarchy in these schools have been superseded by interest in the chemical or physical or natural phenomena to be produced2 and in presence of this all the rest disappears4 ,the whole arrangement of the laboratory is subject to the same purpose2 if the phenomenon requires light1 all the walls are of glass2 if darkness be necessary1 the laboratory is so constructed that it may be transformed into a camera obscura4 ,the one thing of importance is the production of the phenomenon1 be this a bad smell or a perfume1 an electric spark or the colors of ,geissler's tubes1 a resonance with ,helmholtz's reverberators1 or the geometrical arrangement of fine dust on a metallic plate in vibration2 the shape of a leaf or the contraction of a frog's muscle2 the study of the blind spot in the eye or the rhythm of cardiac pulsation2 all is equal and all is included2 the eager and absorbing quest is the quest of truth4 ,it is this which the new generation demands from science1 not the oratorical art of the professor1 the noble gesture1 the quip that lightens the weight of the discourse1 the lively peroration of the carefully elaborated harangue1 and all those expedients which were once developed by a special art for the express purpose of capturing the attention4 ,it is passion for knowledge rather than attention which now animates our young people1 who often come out of university halls remembering neither the voice nor the appearance of their professor4 ,but this does not connote the absence of love and respect for the master4 ,only1 the veneration a modern student feels in the depths of his heart for the great scientist and benefactor of humanity1 who stands before him unassumingly dressed in a linen blouse1 differs essentially from the fear tempered by ridicule which the gown and wig once inspired4 ,the transformation of schools and teachers must now proceed on the same lines4 ,when in a school everything revolves around a fundamental fact1 and this fact is a natural phenomenon1 the school will have entered the orbit of science4 ,then the teacher must assume those characteristics which are necessary in the presence of science4 ,among its devotees we find characteristics independent of the content of thought2 in short1 physicists1 chemists1 astronomers1 botanists1 and zoologists1 though their content of knowledge is entirely different1 are nevertheless all students of the positive sciences1 and have characteristics which differentiate them from the metaphysicians of the past4 ,these characteristics are related1 not to the content1 but to the method of the sciences4 ,if1 therefore1 pedagogy is to take its place among the sciences1 it must be characterized by its method2 and the teacher must prepare herself1 not by means of the content1 but by means of the method4 ,in short1 she should be distinguished by quality even more than by culture4 ,the fundamental quality is the capacity for observation2 a quality so important that the positive sciences were also called sciences of observation1 a term which was changed into experimental sciences for those in which observation is combined with experiment4 ,now it is obvious that the possession of senses and of knowledge is not sufficient to enable a person to observe2 it is a habit which must be developed by practise4 ,when an attempt is made to show untrained persons stellar phenomena by means of the telescope1 or the details of a cell under the microscope1 however much the demonstrator may try to explain by word of mouth what ought to be seen1 the layman cannot see it4 ,when persons who are convinced of the great discovery made by ,de ,vries go to his laboratory to observe the mutations in the varied minute plants of the ,aenothera1 he often explains in vain the infinitesimal yet essential differences1 denoting1 indeed1 a new species1 among seedlings which have hardly germinated4 ,it is well known that when a new discovery is to be explained to the public1 it is necessary to set forth the coarser details2 the uninitiated cannot take in those minute details which constituted the real essence of the discovery4 ,and this1 because they are unable to observe4 ,to observe it is necessary to be trained1 and this is the true way of approach to science4 ,for if phenomena cannot be seen it is as if they did not exist1 while1 on the other hand1 the soul of the scientist is entirely possessed by a passionate interest in what he sees4 ,he who has been trained to see1 begins to feel interest1 and such interest is the motive-power which creates the spirit of the scientist4 ,as in the little child internal coordination is the point of crystallization round which the entire psychical form will coalesce1 so in the teacher interest in the phenomenon observed will be the center round which her complete new personality will form spontaneously4 ,the quality of observation comprises various minor qualities1 such as patience4 ,in comparison with the scientist1 the untrained person not only appears to be a blind man who can see neither with the naked eye nor with the help of lenses2 he appears as an impatient person4 ,if the astronomer has not already got his telescope in focus1 the layman cannot wait until he has done so2 while the scientist would be performing this task without even perceiving that he was carrying out a long and patient process1 the layman would be fuming1 and thinking1 in great perturbation3 ,what am ,i doing here8 ,i cannot waste time like this4 ,when microscopists expect visits from a lay public1 they prepare a long row of microscopes already in focus1 because they know that their visitors will wish to see at once and quickly1 and that they will wish to see a great deal4 ,we can easily imagine a scientist whose contributions to the work of the laboratory are of the highest order1 who holds chairs and possesses civil dignities and honors of every sort1 amiably consenting to show a lady a cellular tissue under the microscope4 ,as if it were the most natural thing in the world1 he would proceed as follows1 with solemn and serene gravity4 ,he would cut off a minute portion of a piece of tissue preserved in spirit1 and would carefully clean the slide on which the subject was to be placed and the slide that was to cover it2 he would clean again the lenses of the microscope1 focus the preparation1 and make ready to explain4 ,but undoubtedly the lady all this time will have been on the point of saying a hundred times3 ,excuse me1 ,professor1 but really 444 ,i have an engagement 444 ,i have a great deal to do4444 ,when she has looked without seeing anything1 her lamentations are bitter3 ,what a lot of time ,i have wasted6 ,and yet she has nothing to do1 and fritters away all her time6 ,what she lacks is not time but patience4 ,he who is impatient cannot appraise things properly2 he can only appreciate his own impulses and his own satisfactions4 ,he reckons time solely by his own activity4 ,that which satisfies him may be absolutely empty1 valueless1 nugatory2 no matter1 its value lies in the satisfaction it gives him2 and if it gives him satisfaction1 it cannot be said to be a waste of time4 ,but what he cannot endure1 and what impresses him as a loss of time is a tension of the nerves1 a moment of self-control1 an interval of waiting without an immediate result ,there is1 indeed1 a popular ,italian proverb3 aspettare e non venire una cosa da morire 7to wait for what does not come is a killing business74 ,these impatient persons are like those busybodies who always make off when there is really work to be done4 ,a thorough education is indeed necessary to overcome this attitude2 we must master and control our own wills1 if we would bring ourselves into relation with the external world and appreciate its values4 ,without this preparation we cannot give due weight to the minute things from which science draws its conclusions4 ,the capacity for sustained and accurate application to a task the object of which is apparently of very small importance1 is indeed a most valuable asset to him who hopes to advance in science4 ,let us call to mind what a physicist does to place an instrument absolutely level2 how patiently he turns first one screw and then another1 tries again and again1 slowly and carefully3 and to what end8 to procure an absolutely horizontal direction for a surface4 ,when this measure of comparison is established in hard metal1 how carefully it must be preserved to ensure that the oscillations of temperature shall not modify the length even in the most infinitesimal degree2 for this would be fatal to the scientific use of the instrument in measuring horizontals4 ,and yet how slight a thing in itself is involved6 the preservation of a measure6 ,when the great chemist wishes to find out whether traces of a substance can give a reaction he seems to be playing with his phials like a little boy2 he takes a retort and fills it with the substance he wishes to study1 and then empties it2 afterwards he fills it with water1 and watches for the reaction2 the reaction takes place2 then again he empties the retort1 fills it anew with water1 and sees whether there is a further reaction4 ,thus he establishes the degree of dilution in which the substance will leave traces4 ,in this case the minimum is the important thing2 it was to find this imperceptible1 negligible minimum that the great man acted like a child4 ,this attitude of humility is an element of patience4 ,in all things the scientist is humble3 from the external action of descending from his professional throne to work standing at a little table1 from the taking off of his robes to don the workman's blouse1 from having laid aside the dignity of one who states an authoritative and indisputable truth to assume the position of one who is seeking the truth together with his pupils1 and inviting them to verify it1 to the end not that they should learn a doctrine but that they should be spurred to activity by the truth--from all this1 down to the tasks he carries out in his laboratory4 ,he considers nothing too small to absorb all his powers1 to claim his entire attention1 to occupy all his time4 ,even when social honors are heaped upon him1 he maintains the same attitude1 which is to him the only true honor1 the real source of his greatness4 ,a microbe1 an excretion1 anything1 may interest the man of science1 even though he be a senator or a ,minister of ,state4 ,the example of ,cincinnatus is not to be compared with that of the modern scientist1 for these workers surpass ,cincinnatus immeasurably1 in their power of bringing glory and salvation to humanity4 ,but the highest form of humility in men of science is their ready self-abnegation1 not only in externals1 but even in spiritual things1 such as a cherished ideal1 convictions that have germinated in their minds4 ,confronted with truth1 the man of science has no pre-conceptions2 he is ready to renounce all those cherished ideas of his own that may diverge therefrom4 ,thus1 gradually1 he purifies himself from error1 and keeps his mind always fresh1 always clear1 naked as the ,truth with which he desires to blend in a sublime union4 ,is not this1 perhaps1 the reason why the specialist in infantile diseases has at present a social dignity and authority far superior to those of a schoolmaster8 ,yet the specialist merely seeks for truth among the excretions of the child's diseased body2 but the master veils its soul with errors4 ,but how would it be if the master should seek the truth in the soul of the child8 ,what an incomparable dignity would be his6 ,to raise himself to this height1 however1 he would have to be initiated into the ways of humility1 of self-abnegation1 of patience2 and to destroy the pride which is built on the void of vanity4 ,after this he1 too1 might put on the spiritual vesture of the scientist1 saying to the people3 ,what did you see in the other true sciences8 ,reeds shaken by the wind8 ,men clothed in soft raiment8 ,no1 you saw prophets2 but ,i am more than a prophet2 ,i am he who crieth in the wilderness3 prepare ye the way of the ,lord1 make ,his paths straight4 99 99 99 99 99 ,more1 indeed1 than the other men of science2 for they must always remain extraneous to the object of their study3 electric energy1 chemical energy1 the life of microbes1 the stars1 are all things diverse and remote from the scientist4 ,but the object of the schoolmaster is man himself2 the psychical manifestations of children evoke something more in him than interest in the phenomenon2 he obtains from them the revelation of himself1 and his emotions vibrate at the contact of other souls like his own4 ,all life may be his portion1 not merely a part of life4 ,then those virtues1 such as humility and patience1 which spring up in the man of science within the limitations of the external aims he has fixed for himself1 may here enfold the entire soul4 ,then it will no longer be a question of the patience of the man of science1 or the humility of the man of science1 but of the virtues of man in all their plenitude4 ,that spiritual expansion of the man of science which is1 as it were1 compressed into a tube1 like rays of light passing through the cylinders of the telescope1 may here be diffused on the horizon like the dazzling splendor of the sun4 ,the so-called virtues are the necessary means1 the methods of existence by which we attain to truth2 but the delight of the scientist in his work must vary in proportion as this truth is manifested in a physical force1 a protozoan1 or the soul of man4 ,the one name seems scarcely suitable for the two forms4 ,we understand at once that1 in comparison with the schoolmaster1 the scientist must be to some extent a limited and arid being4 ,the nobility of his spirit is lofty as man1 but its dimensions are those of a brute force or an inferior life4 ,the spiritual life of man may blend with the virtues of the man of science only when the student and the subject of study can be fused together4 ,then science may become a wellspring of wisdom1 and true positive science may become one with the true knowledge of the saints4 ,there is a real mechanism of correspondence between the virtues of the man of science and the virtues of the saints2 it is by means of humility and patience that the scientist puts himself in contact with material nature2 and it is by means of humility and patience that the saint puts himself in contact with the spiritual nature of things1 and as a consequence1 mainly with man4 ,the scientist is virtuous only within the limits of his material contacts2 the saint is all compact of such virtue2 his sacrifices and his enjoyments are alike illimitable4 ,the scientist is a seer within the limits of his field of observation2 the saint is a spiritual seer1 but he also sees material things and their laws more clearly than other men1 and invests them with spirit4 ,the modern scientist knows that every living thing is marvelous1 and that the simplest and most primitive most readily reveal natural laws which help us to interpret the most complicated beings4 ,st4 ,francis indeed knew this3 ,come closer1 ,o my sister1 he said to the grasshopper chirping beneath the fig-tree near the window of his cell2 the smaller the creature the more perfectly does it reveal the power and goodness of the ,creator4 ,each tiny thing is worthy of the scientist's minute attention2 he counts the articulations which make up the claws of an insect1 and knows the veinings of its most delicate wings2 he finds interesting details where the ordinary eye would not linger for a moment4 ,st4 ,francis also observed these things1 but they awoke in him a feeling of spiritual joy and called forth a hymn of praise3 ,who1 who gave me these little fairy feet1 furnished with healthy and flexible little bones1 to enable me to spring swiftly from branch to branch1 from twig to twig8 ,who further gave me eyes1 crystal globes that revolve and see before and behind1 to spy out all my enemies1 the predatory kite1 the black crow1 the greedy goose8 ,and he gave me wings1 delicate tissues of gold and green and blue1 which reflect the color of the skies and of my trees4 ,the vision of the teacher should be at once precise like that of the scientist1 and spiritual like that of the saint4 ,the preparation for science and the preparation for sanctity should form a new soul1 for the attitude of the teacher should be at once positive1 scientific1 and spiritual4 ,positive and scientific1 because she has an exact task to perform1 and it is necessary that she should put herself into immediate relation with the truth1 by means of rigorous observation1 that she should strip off all illusions1 all the idle creations of the fancy1 that she should distinguish truth from falsehood unerringly1 that1 in fact1 she should follow the example of the scientist1 who takes account of every minute particle of matter1 every elementary and embryonic form of life1 but eliminates all optical delusions1 all the confusion which impurities and foreign substances might introduce into the search for truth4 ,to achieve such an attitude long practise is necessary1 and a wide observation of life under the guidance of the biological sciences4 ,spiritual1 because it is to man that his powers of observation are to be applied1 and because the characteristics of the creature who is to be his particular subject of observation are spiritual4 ,i would therefore initiate teachers into the observation of the most simple forms of living things1 with all those aids which science gives2 ,i would make them microscopists2 ,i would give them a knowledge of the cultivation of plants and train them to observe their physiology2 ,i would direct their observation to insects1 and would make them study the general laws of biology4 ,and ,i would not have them concerned with theory alone1 but would encourage them to work independently in laboratories and in the bosom of free ,nature4 ,this complex program of observation must not exclude the physical aspects of the child4 ,thus the direct and immediate preparation for a higher task should be the knowledge of the physical needs of the child1 from birth to the age when psychical life is beginning to develop in his organization and becomes susceptible to treatment4 ,by this ,i do not mean merely a theoretical course of anatomy1 physiology1 and hygiene2 but a practise among little children1 which aims at following their development closely1 and foresees all their physical needs4 ,the teacher1 in other words1 should prepare herself according to the methods of the biological sciences1 entering with simplicity and objectivity into the very domain in which students of the natural sciences and of medicine are initiated1 when they make their first experiments in the laboratory1 before penetrating into the more profound problems of life related to their special study4 ,in like manner those young men1 who in our universities are destined to study vast and complex sciences1 must in the beginning undertake the quiet and restful work of preparing an infusion1 or the section of a rose-stalk1 and thus experience1 as they observe through the microscope1 that emotion born of wonder1 which awakens the consciousness and attracts it to the mysteries of life with a passionate enthusiasm4 ,it was thus that we1 accustomed hitherto to read in school only ponderous and arid printed books1 felt that the book of ,nature was opening before our spirit1 infinite in its possibilities of creation and of miracle1 and responding to all our latent and uncomprehended aspirations4 ,this should also be the book of the new teacher1 the primer that should mold her for her mission of directing infant life4 ,such a preparation should generate in her consciousness a conception of life capable of transforming her1 of calling forth in her a special activity1 an aptitude which shall make her efficient for her task4 ,she should become a providential force1 a maternal force4 ,but all this is but a part of the preparation4 ,the teacher must not remain thus on the threshold of life1 like those scientists who are destined to observe plants and animals1 and who are accordingly satisfied with what morphology and physiology can offer4 ,nor is it her mission to remain intent upon derangements in the functions of the body1 like the medical specialist in infantile disease1 who is content with pathology4 ,she must recognize that the methods of those sciences are limited4 ,when she chants her introit and sets foot upon those steps which in the temple of life ascend to the spiritual tabernacle1 she should look upwards1 and feel that among the adoring host in the vast temple of science1 she is a priestess4 ,her sphere is to be vaster and more splendid2 she is about to observe the inner life of man4 ,the arid field which is limited to the marvels of organic matter will not suffice for her2 all the spiritual fruits of the history of humanity and of religion will be necessary for her nourishment4 ,the lofty manifestations of art1 of love1 of holiness1 are the characteristic manifestations of that life which she is not only about to observe but to serve1 and which is her own life2 not a thing strange to her1 and therefore cold and arid2 but the intimate life she has in common with all men1 the true and only real life of ,man4 ,the scientific laboratory1 the field of ,nature where the teacher will be initiated into the observation of the phenomena of the inner life should be the school in which free children develop with the help of material designed to bring about development4 ,when she feels herself1 aflame with interest1 seeing the spiritual phenomena of the child1 and experiences a serene joy and an insatiable eagerness in observing them1 then she will know that she is initiated4 ,then she will begin to become a teacher4 ,v ,,environment ,not only must the teacher be transformed1 but the school environment must be changed4 ,the introduction of the material of development into an ordinary school cannot constitute the entire external renovation4 ,the school should become the place where the child may live in freedom1 and this freedom must not be solely the intimate1 spiritual liberty of internal growth4 ,the entire organism of the child1 from his physiological1 vegetative part to his motor activity1 ought to find in school the best conditions for development4 ,this includes all that physical hygiene has already put forward as aids to the life of the child4 ,no place would be better adapted than these schools to establish and popularize reform in the clothing of children1 which should meet the requirements of cleanliness and of a simplicity facilitating freedom of movement1 while it should be so made as to enable children to dress themselves4 ,no better place could be found to carry out and popularize infant hygiene in its relation to nutrition4 ,it would be a work of social regeneration to convince the public of the economy they might effect by such practises1 to show them that elegance and propriety in themselves cost nothing--nay1 more1 that they demand simplicity and moderation1 and therefore exclude all that superfluity which is so expensive4 ,the above applies more especially to schools which1 like the original ,children's ,houses1 might be instituted in the very buildings inhabited by the parents of the pupils4 ,certain special requirements must be recognized in the rooms of a free school3 psychical hygiene must play its part here as physical hygiene has already done4 ,the great increase in the dimensions of modern class-rooms was dictated by physical hygiene2 the ambient air space is measured by cubature in relation to the physical needs of respiration2 and for the same reason1 lavatories were multiplied1 and bathrooms were installed2 physical hygiene further decreed the introduction of concrete floors and washable dadoes1 of central heating1 and in many cases of meals1 while gardens or broad terraces are already looked upon as essentials for the physical well-being of the child4 ,wide windows already admit the light freely1 and gymnasia with spacious halls and a variety of complex and costly apparatus were established4 ,finally1 the most complicated desks1 sometimes veritable machines of wood and iron1 with foot-rests1 seats1 and desks revolving automatically1 in order to preclude alike the movements of the child and the distortions arising from immobility1 are the economically disastrous contribution of a false principle of school-hygiene4 ,in the modern school1 the uniform whiteness and the washable quality of every object denote the triumph of an epoch in which the campaign against microbes would seem to be the sole key to human life4 ,psychical hygiene now presents itself on the threshold of the school with its new precepts1 precepts which economically are certainly no more onerous than those entailed by the first triumphant entry of physical hygiene4 ,they require1 however1 that schoolrooms be enlarged1 not in deference to the laws of respiration1 for central heating1 which makes it possible to keep windows open1 renders calculations based on cubic measure negligible2 but because space is necessary for the liberty of movement which should be allowed to the child4 ,however1 as the child's walking exercise will not be taken indoors1 this increase of space will be sufficient if it permits free movement among the furniture4 ,still1 if an ideal perfection is to be achieved1 we may say that the psychical class-room should be twice as large as the physical class-room4 ,we all know the sense of comfort of which we are conscious when a good half of the floor space in a room is unencumbered2 this seems to offer us the agreeable possibility of moving about freely4 ,this sensation of well-being is more intimate than the possibility of breathing offered to us in a room of medium size crowded with furniture4 ,scantiness of furniture is certainly a powerful factor in hygiene2 here physical and psychical hygiene are at one4 ,in our schools we recommend the use of light furniture1 which is correspondingly simple1 and economical in the extreme4 ,if it be washable1 so much the better1 especially as the children will then learn to wash it1 thus performing a pleasing and very instructive exercise4 ,but what is above all essential is1 that it should be artistically beautiful4 ,in this case beauty is not produced by superfluity or luxury1 but by grace and harmony of line and color1 combined with that absolute simplicity necessitated by the lightness of the furniture4 ,just as the modern dress of children is more elegant than that of the past1 and at the same time infinitely simpler and more economical1 so is this furniture4 ,in a ,children's ,house in the country1 at ,palidano1 built to commemorate the ,marchese ,carlo ,guerrieri ,gonzaga1 we initiated the study of artistic furnishing4 ,it is well known that every little corner of ,italy is a storehouse of local art1 and there is no province which in bygone times did not contain graceful and convenient objects1 due to a combination of practical sense and artistic instinct4 ,nearly all these treasures are now being dispersed1 and the very memory of them is dying out1 under the tyranny of the stupid and uniform hygienic fashions of our day4 ,it was therefore a delightful undertaking on the part of ,maria ,maraini to make careful inquiries into the rustic local art of the past1 and to give it new life by reproducing1 in the furniture of the ,children's ,houses1 the forms and colors of tables1 chairs1 sideboards1 and pottery1 the designs of textiles and the characteristic decorative motives to be met with in old country-houses4 ,this revival of rustic art will bring back into use objects used by the poor in ages less wealthy than ours1 and meanwhile may be a revelation in economy4 ,if1 instead of school benches1 such simple and graceful objects were manufactured1 even this school furniture would show how beauty may be evolved from ugliness by eliminating superfluous material2 for beauty is a question1 not of material1 but of inspiration4 ,hence we must not look to richness of material1 but to refinement of spirit for these practical reforms4 ,if similar studies should be made some day upon the rustic art of all the ,italian provinces1 each of which has its special artistic traditions1 types of furniture might arise which would in themselves do much to elevate the taste and refine the habits4 ,they would bring to the enlightenment of the world an educational mode1 because the time-honored artistic feeling of a people with a very ancient civilization would breathe new life into those moderns who seemed to be suffocating under the obsession of physical hygiene1 and to be actuated solely by a despairing effort to combat disease4 ,we should witness the humanization of art1 rising amidst the ugliness and darkness of those who have accustomed themselves to think only of death4 ,indeed1 the hygienic houses of to-day1 with their bare walls1 and white washable furniture1 look like hospitals2 while the schools seem veritable tombs1 with their desks ranged in rows like black catafalques--black1 merely because they have to be of the same color as ink to hide the stains which are looked upon as a necessity1 just as certain sins and certain crimes are still considered to be inevitable in the world2 the alternative of avoiding them has never occurred to any one4 ,class-rooms have black desks1 and bare1 gray walls1 more devoid of ornament than those of a mortuary chamber2 this is to the end that the starved and famishing spirit of the child may accept the indigestible intellectual food which the teacher bestows upon it4 ,in other words1 every distracting element has to be removed from the environment1 so that the teacher1 by his oratorical art1 and with the help of his laborious expedients1 may succeed in fixing the rebellious attention of his pupils on himself4 ,on the other hand1 the spiritual school puts no limits to the beauty of its environment1 save economical limits4 ,no ornament can distract a child really absorbed in his task2 on the contrary1 beauty both promotes concentration of thought and offers refreshment to the tired spirit4 ,indeed1 the churches1 which are par excellence places of meditation and of repose for the life of the soul1 have called upon the highest inspirations of genius to gather every beauty within their precincts4 ,such words may seem strange2 but if we wish to keep in touch with the principles of science1 we may say that the place best adapted to the life of man is an artistic environment2 and that1 therefore1 if we want the school to become a laboratory for the observation of human life1 we must gather within it things of beauty1 just as the laboratory of the bacteriologist must be furnished with stoves and soils for the culture of bacilli4 ,furniture for children1 their tables and chairs1 should be light1 not only that they may be easily carried about by childish arms1 but because their very fragility is of educational value4 ,the same consideration leads us to give children china plates and glass drinking-vessels1 for these objects become the denouncers of rough1 disorderly1 and undisciplined movements4 ,thus the child is led to correct himself1 and he accordingly trains himself not to knock against1 overturn1 and break things2 softening his movements more and more1 he gradually becomes their perfectly free and self-possessed director4 ,in the same way the child will accustom himself to do his utmost not to soil the gay and pretty things which enliven his surroundings4 ,thus he makes progress in his own perfection1 or1 in other words1 it is thus he achieves the perfect coordination of his voluntary movements4 ,it is the same process by which1 having enjoyed silence and music1 he will do all in his power to avoid discordant noises1 which have become unpleasant to his educated ear4 ,on the other hand1 when a child comes into collision a hundred times with an enormously heavy iron-bound desk1 which a porter would have difficulty in moving2 when he makes thousands of invisible ink-stains on a black bench2 when he lets a metal plate fall to the ground a hundred times without breaking it1 he remains immersed in his sea of defects without perceiving them2 his environment meanwhile is so constructed as to hide and therefore to encourage his errors1 with ,mephistophelean hypocrisy4 99 99 99 99 99 ,free movement4--,it is now a hygienic principle universally accepted that children require movement4 ,thus1 when we speak of free children1 we generally imply that they are free to move1 that is1 to run and jump4 ,no mother nowadays fails to agree with the children's doctor that her child should go into parks and meadows1 and move about freely in the open air4 ,when we talk of liberty for children in school1 some such conception of physical liberty as this rises at once in the mind4 ,we imagine the free child making perilous leaps over the desks1 or dashing madly against the walls2 his liberty of movement seems necessarily to imply the idea of a wide space1 and accordingly we suppose that1 if confined to the narrow limits of a room1 it would inevitably become a conflict between violence and obstacles1 a disorder incompatible with discipline and work4 ,but in the laws of psychical hygiene1 liberty of movement is not limited to a conception so primitive as that of merely animated bodily liberty4 ,we might1 indeed1 say of a puppy or a kitten what we say of children3 that they should be free to run and jump1 and that they should be able to do so1 as in fact they often do1 in a park or a field1 with and like the children4 ,if1 however1 we wish to apply the same conception of motor liberty to our treatment of a bird1 we should make certain arrangements for it2 we should place within its reach the branch of a tree1 or crossed sticks which would afford foothold for its claws1 since these are not designed to be spread out on the ground like the feet of creeping things1 but are adapted to gripping a stick4 ,we know that a bird left free to move over a vast1 illimitable plain would be miserable4 ,how then is it that we never think thus3 if it be necessary to prepare different environments for a bird and a reptile in order to ensure their liberty of movement1 must it not be a mistake to provide the same form of liberty for our children as that proper to cats and dogs8 ,children1 indeed1 when left to themselves to take exercise1 show impatience1 and are prone to quarrel and cry2 older children feel it necessary to invent something whereby they may conceal from themselves the intolerable boredom and humiliation of walking for walking's sake1 and running for running's sake4 ,they try to find some object for their exertions2 the younger children play pranks4 ,the activity of children thus left to themselves has rarely a good result2 it does not aid development1 save as regards the physical advantage of general nutrition1 that is1 of the vegetative life4 ,their movements become ungraceful2 they invent unseemly capers1 walk with a staggering gait1 fall easily1 and break things4 ,they are evidently quite unlike the free kitten1 so full of grace1 so fascinating in its movements1 tending to perfect its action by the light jumping and running which are natural to it4 ,in the motor instinct of the child there appears to be no grace1 no natural impulse towards perfection4 ,hence we must conclude that the movement which suffices for the cat does not suffice for the child1 and that if the nature of the child is different1 his path of liberty must also be different4 ,if the child has no intelligent aim in his movements1 he is without internal guidance1 thus movement tires him4 ,many men feel the dreadful emptiness of being compelled to move without an object4 ,one of the cruel punishments invented for the chastisement of slaves was to make them dig deep holes in the earth and fill them up again repeatedly1 in other words1 to make them work without an object4 ,experiments on fatigue have shown that work with an intelligent object is far less fatiguing than an equal quantity of aimless work4 ,so much so1 that the psychiatrists of to-day recommend1 not exercise in the open air1 but work in the open air1 to restore the individuality of the neurasthenic4 ,reconstructive work--work1 that is to say1 which is not the product of a mental effort1 but tends to the coordination of the psycho-muscular organism4 ,such are the activities which are not directed to the production of objects1 but to their preservation1 as1 for instance1 dusting or washing a little table1 sweeping the floor1 laying or clearing the table1 cleaning shoes1 spreading out a carpet4 ,these are the tasks performed by a servant to preserve the objects belonging to his master1 work of a very different order to that of the artificer1 who1 on the other hand1 produced those objects by an intelligent effort4 ,the two classes of work are profoundly different4 ,the one is simple2 it is a coordinated activity scarcely higher in degree than the activity required for walking or jumping2 for it merely gives purpose to those simple movements1 whereas productive work entails a preliminary intellectual work of preparation1 and comprises a series of very complicated motor movements1 together with an application of sensory exercises4 ,the first is the work suitable for little children1 who must exercise themselves in order to learn to coordinate their movements4 ,it consists of the so-called exercises of practical life which correspond to the psychical principle of liberty of movement4 ,for this it will be sufficient to prepare a suitable environment1 just as we should place the branch of a tree in an aviary1 and then to leave the children to follow their instincts of activity and imitation4 ,the surrounding objects should be proportioned to the size and strength of the child3 light furniture that he can carry about2 low dressers within reach of his arms2 locks that he can easily manipulate2 chests that run on castors2 light doors that he can open and shut readily2 clothes-pegs fixed on the walls at a height convenient for him2 brushes his little hand can grasp2 pieces of soap that can lie in the hollow of such a hand2 basins so small that the child is strong enough to empty them2 brooms with short1 smooth1 light handles2 clothes he can easily put on and take off himself2 these are surroundings which invite activity1 and among which the child will gradually perfect his movements without fatigue1 acquiring human grace and dexterity1 just as the little kitten acquires its graceful movement and feline dexterity solely under the guidance of instinct4 ,the field thus opened to the free activity of the child will enable him to exercise himself and to form himself as a man4 ,it is not movement for its own sake that he will derive from these exercises1 but a powerful co-efficient in the complex formation of his personality4 ,his social sentiments in the relations he forms with other free and active children1 his collaborators in a kind of household designed to protect and aid their development2 the sense of dignity acquired by the child who learns to satisfy himself in surroundings he himself preserves and dominates--these are the co-efficients of humanity which accompany liberty of movement4 ,from his consciousness of this development of his personality the child derives the impulse to persist in these tasks1 the industry to perform them1 the intelligent joy he shows in their completion4 ,in such an environment he undoubtedly works himself and fortifies his spiritual being1 just as when his body is bathed in fresh air and his limbs move freely in the meadows1 he works at the growth of his physical organism and strengthens it4 ,,vi ,,attention ,the phenomenon to be expected from the little child1 when he is placed in an environment favorable to his spiritual growth1 is this3 that suddenly the child will fix his attention upon an object1 will use it for the purpose for which it was constructed1 and will continue to repeat the same exercise indefinitely4 ,one will repeat an exercise twenty times1 another forty times1 and yet another two hundred times2 but this is the first phenomenon to be expected1 as initiatory to those acts with which spiritual growth is bound up4 ,that which moves the child to this manifestation of activity is evidently a primitive internal impulse1 almost a vague sense of spiritual hunger2 and it is the impulse to satisfy this hunger which then actually directs the consciousness of the child to the determined object and leads it gradually to a primordial1 but complex and repeated exercise of the intelligence in comparing1 judging1 deciding upon an act1 and correcting an error4 ,when the child1 occupied with the solid insets1 places and displaces the ten little cylinders in their respective places thirty or forty times consecutively2 and1 having made a mistake1 sets himself a problem and solves it1 he becomes more and more interested1 and tries the experiment again and again2 he prolongs a complex exercise of his psychical activities which makes way for an internal development4 ,it is probably the internal perception of this development which makes the exercise pleasing1 and induces prolonged application to the same task4 ,to quench thirst1 it is not sufficient to see or to sip water2 the thirsty man must drink his fill3 that is to say1 must take in the quantity his organism requires2 so1 to satisfy this kind of psychical hunger and thirst1 it is not sufficient to see things cursorily1 much less to hear them described2 it is necessary to possess them and to use them to the full for the satisfaction of the needs of the inner life4 ,this fact stands revealed as the basis of all psychical construction1 and the sole secret of education4 ,the external object is the gymnasium on which the spirit exercises itself1 and such internal exercises are primarily in themselves the end and aim of action4 ,hence the solid insets are not intended to give the child a knowledge of dimensions1 nor are the plane insets designed to give him a conception of forms2 the purpose of these1 as of all the other objects1 is to make the child exercise his activities4 ,the fact that the child really acquires by these means definite knowledge1 the recollection of which is vivid in proportion to the fixity and intensity of his attention1 is a necessary result2 and1 indeed1 it is precisely the sensory knowledge of dimensions1 forms and colors1 etc41 thus acquired1 which makes the continuation of such internal exercises in fields progressively vaster and higher1 a possible achievement4 ,hitherto1 all psychologists have agreed that instability of attention is the characteristic of little children of three or four years old2 attracted by everything they see1 they pass from object to object1 unable to concentrate on any2 and generally the difficulty of fixing the attention of children is the stumbling-block of their education1 ,william ,james speaks of that extreme mobility of the attention with which we are all familiar in children1 and which makes their first lessons such rough affairs4444 ,the reflex and passive character of the attention 444 which makes the child seem to belong less to himself than to every object which happens to catch his notice1 is the first thing which the teacher must overcome4444 ,the faculty of voluntarily bringing back a wandering attention1 over and over again is the very root of judgment1 character and will4444 ,an education which should improve this faculty would be the education par excellence4 ,thus man1 acting by himself alone1 never successfully arrests and fixes that inquiring attention which wanders from object to object4 ,in fact1 in our experiment the attention of the little child was not artificially maintained by a teacher2 it was an object which fixed that attention1 as if it corresponded to some internal impulse2 an impulse which evidently was directed solely to the things necessary for its development4 ,in the same manner1 those complex coordinated movements achieved by a new-born infant in the act of sucking1 are limited to the first and unconscious need of nutrition2 they are not a conscious acquisition directed to a purpose4 ,indeed1 the conscious acquisition directed to a definite purpose would be impossible in the movements of a new-born infant's mouth1 as also in the first movements of the child's spirit4 ,therefore it is essential that the external stimulus which first presents itself should be verily the breast and the milk of the spirit1 and then only shall we behold that surprising phenomenon of a little face concentrated in an intensity of attention4 ,behold a child of three years old capable of repeating the same exercise fifty times in succession2 many persons are moving about beside him2 some one is playing the piano2 children are singing in chorus2 but nothing distracts the little child from his profound concentration4 ,just so does the suckling keep hold of the mother's breast1 uninterrupted by external incidents1 and desists only when he is satisfied4 ,only ,nature accomplishes such miracles4 ,if1 then1 psychical manifestations have their root in ,nature1 it was necessary1 in order to understand and help ,nature1 to study it in its initial periods1 those which are the simplest1 and the only ones capable of revealing truths which would serve as guides for the interpretation of later and more complex manifestations4 ,this1 indeed1 many psychologists have done2 but1 applying the analytical methods of experimental psychology1 they did not start from that point whence the biological sciences derive their knowledge of life3 that is1 the liberty of the living creatures they desire to observe4 ,if ,fabre had not made use of insects1 while leaving them free to carry out their natural manifestations1 and observing them without allowing his presence to interfere in any way with their functions2 if he had caught insects1 had taken them into his study1 and subjected them to experiment1 he would not have been able to reveal the marvels of insect life4 ,if bacteriologists had not instituted1 as a method of research1 an environment similar to that which is natural to microbes1 both as regards nutritive substances and conditions of temperature1 etc41 to the end that they might live freely and thus manifest their characteristics2 if they had confined themselves to fixing the germs of a disease under the microscope1 the science which to-day saves the lives of innumerable men and protects whole nations from epidemics would not exist4 ,freedom to live is the true basis for every method of observation applied to living creatures4 ,liberty is the experimental condition for studying the phenomena of the child's attention4 ,it will be enough to remember that the stimuli of infant attention1 being mainly sensory1 have a powerful physiological concomitant of accommodation in the organs of sense2 an accommodation1 physiologically incomplete in the young child1 which requires to develop itself according to ,nature4 ,an object not adapted to become a useful stimulus to the powers of accommodation in process of development would not only be incapable of sustaining attention as a psychical fact1 but would also1 as a physiological fact1 weary or actually injure the organs of accommodation such as the eye and ear4 ,but the child who chooses the objects1 and perseveres in their use with the utmost intensity of attention1 as shown in the muscular contractions which give mimetic expression to his face1 evidently experiences pleasure1 and pleasure is an indication of healthy functional activity2 it always accompanies exercises which are useful to the organs of the body4 ,attention also requires a preparation of the ideative centers in relation to the external object for which it is to be demanded3 in other words1 an internal1 psychical adaptation4 ,the cerebral centers should be excited in their turn by an internal process1 when an external stimulus acts4 ,thus1 for instance1 any one who is expecting a person1 sees him arriving from a considerable distance2 not only because the person presents himself to the senses1 but because he was expected4 ,the distant figure claimed attention because the cerebral centers were already excited to that end4 ,by means of similar activities a hunter is conscious of the slightest sound made by game in woods4 ,in short1 two forces act upon the cerebral cell1 as upon a closed door3 the external sensory force which knocks1 and the internal force which says3 ,open4 ,if the internal force does not open1 it is in vain that the external stimulus knocks at the door4 ,and then the strongest stimuli may pass unheeded4 ,the absent-minded man may step into a chasm4 ,the man who is absorbed in a task may be deaf to a band playing in the street4 ,the central action that constitutes attention is the factor of the greatest psychological and philosophic value1 and the one which has always represented the maximum among the practical values in pedagogy4 ,the whole art of teachers has consisted1 in substance1 in preparing the attention of the child to make it expectant of their instruction1 and in securing the cooperation of those internal forces which should open the door when they knock4 ,and as the thing which is quite unknown1 or that which is inaccessible to the understanding1 can awaken no interest1 the fundamentals of the art of teaching were to go gradually from the known to the unknown1 from the easy to the difficult4 ,it is the preexistent known which excites expectation and opens the door to the novel unknown2 and it is the already present easy work which opens new ways for penetration1 and puts the attention into a state of expectation4 ,thus1 according to the conceptions of pedagogy1 it should be possible to prepare good offices for oneself1 the cooperation of the psychical concomitants of the attention4 ,everything would depend on skilful manipulation between the known and the unknown and similar things3 the clever teacher would be like the great military strategist1 who prepares the plan of a battle upon a table2 and man would be able to direct man1 leading him wheresoever he pleases4 ,this1 moreover1 has long been the materialistic principle which governs psychology4 ,according to ,herbert ,spencer1 the mind is at first1 as it were1 an indifferent day1 on which external impressions rain1 leaving traces more or less profound4 ,experiences are1 according to him and the ,english empiricists1 the constructive factors of the mind even in its highest activities4 ,man is what experience has made him2 hence1 in education1 by preparing a suitable structure of experiences1 it is possible to build up the man4 ,a conception not less materialistic than that which presented itself for a moment before the marvelous progress of organic chemistry1 when the series of syntheses succeeded that of analyses4 ,it was then believed that a species of albumen might be manufactured synthetically1 and as albumen is the organic basis of the cells1 and as the human ovum is nothing but a cell1 man himself might one day be manufactured on the chemist's table4 ,the conception of man as the creator of man was quickly discredited in the material domain2 but the psychical homunculus still persists among the practical conceptions of pedagogy4 ,no chemical synthesis could put into the cell1 apparently nothing more than a simple clot of nucleated protoplasm1 that activity sine matter1 that potential vital force1 that mysterious factor which causes a cell to develop into man4 ,and the elusive attention of children would seem to tell us that the psychical man is subject to analogous laws of auto-creation4 ,the most modern school of spiritualistic psychologists1 to which ,william ,james belonged1 recognized1 in the concomitant of attention1 a fact bound up with the nature of the subject1 a spiritual force1 one of the mysterious factors of life4 444 ,from whence his intellect ,deduced its primal notices of thought1 ,man therefore knows not2 or his appetites ,their first affection2 such ,in you as zeal ,in bees to gather honey4 7,carey's translation1 ,dante's ,purgatorio1 ,canto ,,xviii47 ,there is in man a special attitude to external things1 which forms part of his nature1 and determines its character4 ,the internal activities act as cause2 they do not react and exist as the effect of external factors4 ,our attention is not arrested by all things indifferently1 but by those which are congenial to our tastes4 ,the things which are useful to our inner life are those which arouse our interest4 ,our internal world is created upon a selection from the external world1 acquired for and in harmony with our internal activities4 ,the painter will see a preponderance of colors in the world1 the musician will be attracted by sounds4 ,it is the quality of our attention which reveals ourselves1 and we manifest ourselves externally by our aptitudes2 it is not our attention which creates us4 ,the individual character1 the internal form1 the difference between one man and another1 are also obvious among men who have lived in the same environment1 but who from that environment have taken only what was necessary for each4 ,the experiences with which each constructs his ego in relation to the external world do not form a chaos1 but are directed by his intimate individual aptitudes4 ,if there were any doubt as to the natural force which directs psychical formation1 our experiences with little children would furnish a decisive proof4 ,no teacher could procure such phenomena of attention by any artifices2 they have evidently an internal origin4 ,the power of concentration shown by little children from three to four years old have no counterpart save in the annals of genius4 ,these little ones seem to reproduce the infancy of men possessing an extraordinary power of attention1 such as ,archimedes1 who was slain while bending over his circles1 from which rumors of the taking of ,syracuse had failed to distract him2 or ,newton1 who1 absorbed in his studies1 forgot to eat2 or ,vittorio ,alfieri1 who1 when writing a poem1 heard nothing of the noisy wedding procession which was passing with shouts and clamor before his windows4 ,now1 these characteristics of the attention of genius could not be evoked by an interesting teacher1 however subtle his art2 nor could any accumulation of passive experiences become such an accumulator of psychical energies4 ,if there be a spiritual force working within the child1 by which he may open the door of his attention1 the problem which necessarily presents itself is a problem of liberty1 rather than a problem of pedagogic art effecting the construction of his mind4 ,the bestowal of the nourishment suitable to psychical needs1 by means of the external objects1 and readiness to respect liberty of development in the most perfect manner possible1 are the foundations which1 from a logical point of view1 should be laid down for the construction of a new pedagogy4 ,it is no longer a question of attempting to create the homunculus1 like the chemists of the nineteenth century2 but rather of taking the lantern of ,diogenes and going in search of the man4 ,a science should establish by means of experiments what is necessary to the primordial psychical requirements of the child2 and then we shall witness the development of complex vital phenomena1 in which the intelligence1 the will1 and the character develop together1 just as the brain1 the stomach1 and the muscles of the rationally nourished child develop together4 ,together with the first psychical exercises1 the first coordinated cognitions will be fixed in the child's mind1 and the known will begin to exist in him1 providing the first germs of an intellectual interest1 supplementing his instinctive interest4 ,when this takes place1 a state of things begins to establish itself which has some analogy with that mechanism of attention which the pedagogists of to-day take as the basis of the art of teaching4 ,the transition from the known to the unknown1 from the simple to the complex1 from the easy to the difficult1 is reproduced1 from a certain point of view2 but with special characteristics4 ,the progression from the known to the unknown does not proceed from object to object1 as would be assumed by the master who does not bring about the development of ideas from a center1 but merely unites them in a chain1 without any definite object1 allowing the mind to wander aimlessly1 though bound to himself4 ,here1 on the other hand1 the known establishes itself in the child as a complex system of ideas1 which system was actively constructed by the child himself during a series of psychical processes1 representing in themselves an internal formation1 a psychical growth4 ,to bring about such a progress we must offer the child a systematic1 complex material1 corresponding to his natural instincts4 ,thus1 for instance1 by means of our sensory apparatus we offer the child a series of objects capable of drawing his instinctive attention to colors1 forms1 and sounds1 to tactile and baric qualities1 etc41 and the child1 by means of the characteristically prolonged exercises with each object1 begins to organize his psychical personality1 but at the same time acquires a clear and orderly knowledge of things4 ,thenceforth all external objects1 for the reason that they have forms1 dimensions1 colors1 qualities of smoothness1 weight1 hardness1 etc41 are no longer foreign to the mind4 ,there is something in the consciousness of the child which prepares him to expect these things1 and invites him to receive them with interest4 ,when the child has added a cognition to the primitive impulse which directs his attention to external things1 he has acquired other relations with the world1 other forms of interest2 these are no longer merely those primitive ones which are bound up with a species of primordial instinct1 but have become a discerning interest1 based upon the conquests of the intelligence4 ,it is true that all these new conquests are fundamentally and profoundly based upon the psychical needs of the individual2 but the intellectual element has now been added1 transforming an impulse into a conscious and voluntary quest4 ,the old pedagogic conception1 which assumed that to call the attention of the child to the unknown it is necessary to connect it with the known1 because it is thus that his interest may be won for the new knowledge to be imparted1 grasped but a single detail of the complex phenomenon we now witness after our experiments4 ,if the known is to represent a new source of interest directed towards the unknown1 it is essential that it should itself have been acquired in accordance with the tendency of nature2 then preceding knowledge will lend interest to objects of ever-increasing complexity and of lofty significance4 ,the culture thus created ensures the possibility of an indefinite continuation in the successive evolution of such formative phenomena4 ,moreover1 this culture itself creates order in the mind3 when the teacher1 giving her plain and simple lesson1 says3 ,this is long1 this is short1 this is red1 this is yellow1 etc41 she fixes with a single word the clearly marked order of the sensations1 classifies1 and catalogues them4 ,and each impression is perfectly distinct from the other1 and has its own determined place in the mind1 which may be recalled by a word2 thenceforth1 new acquisitions will not be thrown aside or mixed together chaotically1 but will be duly deposited in their proper places1 side by side with previous acquisitions of the same kind1 like books in a well-arranged library4 ,thus the mind not only has within itself the propulsive force required to increase its knowledge1 but also an established order1 which will be steadily maintained throughout its successive and illimitable enrichment by new material2 and as it grows and gains strength1 it retains its equilibrium4 ,these continual exercises in comparison1 judgment1 and choice carried out among the objects1 further tend to place the internal acquisitions so logically into relation one with another1 that the results are a singular facility and accuracy of reasoning power1 and a remarkable quickness of comprehension3 the law of the minimum of effort is truly carried out as it is everywhere where order and activity reign4 ,the internal coordination1 like physiological adaptation1 establishes itself as a result of the spontaneity of the exercises2 the free development of a personality which grows and organizes itself is that which determines such an internal condition1 just as in the body of the embryo the heart1 in process of development1 makes a place for itself in the space of the diastinum between the lungs1 and the diaphragm assumes its arched form as a result of pulmonary dilation4 ,the teacher directs these phenomena2 but1 in so doing1 she is careful to avoid calling the child's attention to herself1 since the whole future depends upon his concentration4 ,her art consists in understanding and in avoiding interference with natural phenomena4 ,that which has been clearly demonstrated as regards the nutrition of the new-born infant and the first coordinated activities of the spirit will be repeated at every period of life1 with the necessary modifications induced by the increased complexity of the phenomena4 ,continuing the parallel with physical nutrition1 let us consider the growing infant which has cut its teeth1 developed its gastric juice1 and so gradually requires a more complicated diet1 until we come to the adult man1 nourishing himself by means of all the complications of modern kitchen and table2 to keep himself in health1 he should eat only the things which correspond to the intimate needs of his organism2 and if he introduces over-rich or unusual1 unsuitable or poisonous substances1 the result will be impoverishment1 self-poisoning1 a malady4 ,now it was the study of the child's nutrition during the period of suckling and during the first years of life which created alimentary hygiene1 not only for the child but for the adult1 and pointed out the perils to which all were alike exposed during the epoch when infantile hygiene was unknown4 ,there is a singular parallel in psychical life3 the man will have an infinitely more complex life than the child2 but for him1 too1 there should always be a correspondence between the needs of his nature and the manner in which his spirit is nourished4 ,a rule of internal life will always promote the health of the man4 ,turning to attention1 the primitive fact of correspondence between nature and stimulus which is the fundamental of life should prevail1 however modified1 when dealing with older children1 and should remain the basis of education4 ,i am prepared for the objections of experts4 ,children must be accustomed to pay attention to everything1 even to things which are distasteful to them1 because practical life demands such efforts4 ,the objection is based on a prejudice analogous to that which at one time made good fathers of families say3 ,children should be accustomed to eat everything4 ,in just the same way1 moral training is put outside its rightful sphere--a fatal confusion4 ,when ideas of this order1 now happily obsolete1 obtained1 fathers would allow their children to fast all day1 if they refused a dish they disliked at the mid-day meal1 forbidding them anything but the rejected portion1 which became ever colder and more disgusting1 until at last hunger weakened the child's will and destroyed his caprice1 and the plateful of cold food was swallowed4 ,thus1 argued such a father1 in the various circumstances in which he may be placed throughout his life1 my son will be ready to eat whatever comes to hand1 and will not be greedy and capricious4 ,in those days also1 sweets were forbidden to children 7whose organisms require sugar1 because the muscles consume a great deal of this during growth71 in order to teach them to overcome greediness1 and an easy and convenient method of correcting naughty children was to send them to bed without any supper4 ,very similar methods are now adopted by those who insist that children should pay attention to things they dislike1 in order to accustom them to the necessities of life4 ,but as in the case of psychical nourishment hunger is never brought to bear upon the cold and distasteful viands1 the indigestible and heavy food weakens and poisons the unwilling recipient4 ,not thus shall we prepare the robust spirit1 ready for all the difficult eventualities of life4 ,the boy who swallowed the cold soup and went fasting to bed was the one whose body developed badly1 who was too weak to resist infection when he encountered it1 and fell ill2 and morally it was he who1 having a store of unsatisfied appetites within him1 looked upon it as the greatest joy of his liberty1 when he became an adult1 to eat and drink to excess4 ,how unlike was he to the boy of to-day1 who1 rationally fed and made robust of body1 becomes the abstemious man1 who eats to live in health1 and combats alcoholism and excessive and injurious feeding2 the modern man1 who can defend himself by so many means against infectious diseases1 and who is so ready for effort that1 without any compulsion1 he braves the arduous exertion of sport1 and attempts and carries out great enterprises1 such as the discovery of the ,poles and the ascent of lofty mountains4 ,so1 too1 the man capable of braving the icy wastes of moral conflict1 of undertaking spiritual ascents1 will be he whose will is strong1 whose spirit is well balanced1 whose decisions are prompt and stedfast4 ,and the more a man's inner life shall have grown normally1 organizing itself in accordance with the provident laws of nature1 and forming an individuality1 the more richly will he be endowed with a strong will and a well-balanced mind4 ,to be ready for a struggle1 it is not necessary to have struggled from one's birth1 but it is necessary to be strong4 ,he who is strong is ready2 no hero was a hero before he had performed his heroic deed4 ,the trials life has in store for us are unforeseen1 unexpected2 no one can prepare us directly to meet them2 it is only a vigorous soul that can be prepared for everything4 ,when a living being is in process of evolution1 it is essential to provide for the special requirements of the moment1 in order to ensure its normal development4 ,the foetus must be nourished with blood2 the new-born infant with milk4 ,if during its intra-uterine life the foetus should lack blood rich in albuminous substances and oxygen1 or if poisonous substances should be introduced into its tissues1 the living being will not develop normally1 and no after-care will strengthen the man evolved from this impoverished source4 ,should the infant lack sufficient milk1 the mal-nutrition of the initial stage of life condemns him to a permanent state of inferiority4 ,the suckling prepares himself to walk by lying stretched out1 and spending long1 quiet hours in sleep4 ,it is by sucking that the babe begins his teething4 ,so1 too1 the fledgling in the nest does not prepare for flight by flying1 but remains motionless in the little warm shell where its food is provided4 ,the preparations for life are indirect4 ,the prelude to such phenomena of ,nature as the majestic flight of birds1 the ferocity of wild beasts1 the song of the nightingale1 the variegated beauty of the butterfly's wings1 is the preparation in the secret places of a nest or a den1 or in the motionless intimacy of the cocoon4 ,omnipotent ,nature asks only peace for the creature in process of formation4 ,all the rest she gives herself4 ,then the childish spirit should also find a warm nest where its nutrition is secure1 and after this we should await the revelations of its development4 ,it is essential1 therefore1 to offer objects which correspond to its formative tendencies1 in order to obtain the result which education makes its goal3 the development of the latent forces in man with the minimum of strain and all possible fulness4 ,,vii ,,will ,when the child chooses from among a considerable number of objects the one he prefers1 when he moves to go and take it from the sideboard1 and then replaces it1 or consents to give it up to a companion2 when he waits until one of the pieces of the apparatus he wishes to use is laid aside by the child who has it in his hand at the moment2 when he persists for a long time and with earnest attention in the same exercise1 correcting the mistakes which the didactic material reveals to him2 when1 in the silence-exercise1 he retains all his impulses1 all his movements1 and then1 rising when his name is called1 controls these movements carefully to avoid making a noise with his feet or knocking against the furniture1 he performs so many acts of the will4 ,it may be said that in him the exercise of the will is continuous2 nay1 that the factor which really acts and persists among his aptitudes is the will1 which is built up on the internal fundamental fact of a prolonged attention4 ,let us analyze some of the co-efficients of will4 ,the whole external expression of the will is contained in movement3 whatever action man performs1 whether he walks1 works1 speaks or writes1 opens his eyes to look1 or closes them to shut out a scene1 he acts by motion4 ,an act of the will may also be directed to the restriction of movement3 to restrain the disorderly movements of anger2 not to give way to the impulse which urges us to snatch a desirable object from the hand of another1 are voluntary actions4 ,therefore the will is not a simple impulse towards movement1 but the intelligent direction of movements4 ,there can be no manifestation of the will without completed action2 he who thinks of performing a good action1 but leaves it undone2 he who desires to atone for an offense1 but takes no step to do so2 he who proposes to go out1 to pay a call1 or to write a letter1 but goes no farther in the matter1 does not accomplish an exercise of the will4 ,to think and to wish is not enough4 ,it is action which counts4 ,the way to ,hell is paved with good intentions4 ,the life of volition is the life of action4 ,now all our actions represent a resultant of the forces of impulse and inhibition1 and by constant repetition of actions this resultant may become almost habitual and unconscious4 ,such is the case1 for instance1 with regard to all those customary actions1 the sum of which constitute the behavior of a well-bred person4 ,our impulse might be to pay a certain visit1 but we know that we might disturb our friend1 that it is not her day for receiving1 and we refrain2 we may be comfortably seated in a corner of the drawing-room1 but a venerable person enters1 and we rise to our feet2 we are not much attracted by this lady1 but nevertheless we also bow or shake her hand2 the sweetmeat to which our neighbor helps herself is just the one we desired1 but we are careful to give no sign of this4 ,all the movements of our body are not merely those dictated by impulse or weariness2 they are the correct expression of what we consider decorous4 ,without impulses we could take no part in social life2 on the other hand1 without inhibitions we could not correct1 direct1 and utilize our impulses4 ,this reciprocal equilibrium between opposite motor forces is the result of prolonged exercises1 of ancient habits within us2 we no longer have any sense of effort in performing these1 we no longer require the support of reason and knowledge to accomplish them2 these acts have almost become reflex4 ,and yet the acts in question are by no means reflex actions2 it is not ,nature but habit which produces all this4 ,we know well how the person who has not been brought up to observe certain rules1 but has been hastily instructed in the knowledge of them1 will too often be guilty of blunders and lapses1 because he is obliged to perform there and then all the necessary coordination of voluntary acts1 and there and then direct them under the vigilant and immediate control of the consciousness2 and such a perpetual effort cannot certainly compete with the habit of distinguished manners4 ,the will stores up its prolonged efforts outside the consciousness1 or at its extreme margin1 and leaves the consciousness itself unencumbered to make new acquisitions and further efforts4 ,thus we cease to consider as evidences of will those habits in which we nevertheless see the consciousness1 as it were1 hanging over and watchful of each act1 that it may accord with the perfect rule of an external code of manners4 ,an educated man who acts thus is merely a man in himself1 merely a man of healthy mind4 ,it is1 in fact1 only disease which can disintegrate the personality organized upon its adaptations1 and induce a man of society to cease to act in a becoming manner2 it is well known that a neurasthenic subject who begins to show the first symptoms of paranoia1 may at first seem to be merely one who fails in good breeding4 ,but he1 on the other hand1 who remains within the limits of good breeding1 is nothing more than a normal man4 ,we will not venture to call him a man of will2 the consciousness of such a man is always being put to the test1 and the mechanisms stored up in the margin of consciousness no longer possess a volitive value4 ,but the child is making his first trial of arms1 and his personality is a very different thing from that just described4 ,in comparison with the adult1 he is an unbalanced creature1 almost invariably the prey of his own impulses and sometimes subject to the most obstinate inhibitions4 ,the two opposite activities of the will have not yet combined to form the new personality4 ,the psychical embryo has still the two elements separate4 ,the great essential is that this combination1 this adaptation1 should take place and establish itself as a supporting girdle at the margin of consciousness4 ,hence it is necessary to induce active exercise as soon as possible1 since this is essential to such a degree of development4 ,the aim in view is not to make the child a little precocious gentleman1 but to induce him to exercise his powers of volition1 and to bring about as soon as possible the reciprocal contact of impulses with inhibitions4 ,it is this construction itself which is necessary1 not the result which may be achieved externally by means of this construction4 ,it is1 in fact1 merely a means to an end3 and the end is that the child should act together with other children1 and practise the gymnastics of the will in the daily habits of life4 ,the child who is absorbed in some task1 inhibits all movements which do not conduce to the accomplishment of this work2 he makes a selection among the muscular coordinations of which he is capable1 persists in them1 and thus begins to make such coordinations permanent4 ,this is a very different matter to the disorderly movements of a child giving way to uncoordinated impulses4 ,when he begins to respect the work of others2 when he waits patiently for the object he desires instead of snatching it from the hand of another2 when he can walk about without knocking against his companions1 without stamping on their feet1 without overturning the table--then he is organizing his powers of volition1 and bringing impulses and inhibitions into equilibrium4 ,such an attitude prepares the way for the habits of social life4 ,it would be impossible to bring about such a result by keeping children motionless1 seated side by side2 under such conditions relations between children cannot be established1 and infantile social life does not develop4 ,it is by means of free intercourse1 of real practise which obliges each one to adapt his own limits to the limits of others1 that social habits may be established4 ,dissertations on what ought to be done will never bring about the construction of the will2 to make a child acquire graceful movements1 it will not suffice to inculcate ideas of politeness and of rights and duties4 ,if this were so1 it would suffice to give a minute description of the movements of the hand necessary in playing the piano1 to enable an attentive pupil to execute a sonata by ,beethoven4 ,in all such matters the formation is the essential factor2 the powers of will are established by exercise4 ,in education1 it is of very great value to organize all the mechanism useful in the production of personality at an early stage4 ,just as movement1 the gymnastics of children1 is necessary1 because1 as is well known1 muscles which are not exercised become incapable of performing the variety of movements of which the muscular system is capable1 so an analogous system of gymnastics is necessary to maintain the activity of the psychical life4 ,the uneducated organism may be easily directed towards subsequent deficiencies2 he who is weak of muscle is inclined to remain motionless1 and so to perish1 when an action is necessary to overcome danger4 ,thus the child who is weak of will1 who is hypobulic or abulic1 will readily adapt himself to a school where all the children are kept seated and motionless1 listening1 or pretending to listen4 ,many children of this kind1 however1 end in the hospital for nervous disorders and have the following notes on their school reports3 ,conduct excellent2 no progress in studies4 ,of such children some teachers confine themselves to such a remark as3 ,they are so good1 and by this they tend to protect them from any intervention1 and leave them to sink undisturbed into the weakness which threatens to engulf them like a quicksand4 ,other children1 whose natural impulses are strong1 are noted merely as creators of disorder1 and are set down as naughty4 ,if we enquire into the nature of their naughtiness1 we shall be told almost invariably that they will never keep still4 ,these turbulent spirits are further stigmatized as aggressive to their companions1 and their aggressions are nearly always of this kind3 they try by every possible means to rouse their companions from their quiescence1 and draw them into an association4 ,there are also children in whom the inhibitory powers are dominant2 their timidity is extreme3 they sometimes seem as if they cannot make up their minds to answer a question2 they will do so after some external stimulus1 but in a very low voice1 and will then burst into tears4 ,the necessary gymnastic in all these three cases is free action4 ,the constant and interesting movement of others is the best of incitements to the abulic2 motion directed into the channel of orderly exercise develops the inhibitory powers of the too impulsive child1 and the child who is too much in subjection to his inhibitory powers1 when liberated from the bondage of surveillance1 and free to act privately on his own initiative--in other words1 when he is removed from all external inducements to exercise inhibition1 is able to find an equilibrium between the two opposite volitional forces4 ,this is indeed the way of salvation for all men3 that wherein the weak gain strength that wherein the strong attain perfection4 ,the want of balance as between impulse and inhibition is not only a familiar and interesting fact in pathology2 it is further met with1 though in a minor degree1 among normal persons1 just as frequently as deficiencies of education are to be met with in the external social sphere4 ,impulse leads criminals to commit evil actions against other men2 but how often normal persons have to regret thoughtless acts and nervous outbursts which have sad consequences to themselves6 ,for the most part the normal impulsive person harms himself only1 compromises his career1 and is unable to bring his talents to fruition2 he suffers from a conscious servitude1 as from a misfortune from which he might perhaps have been saved4 ,he who is pathologically the victim of his own powers of inhibition is certainly the more unhappy sufferer2 he remains immobile and silent2 but internally he longs to move4 ,a thousand impulses which can find no outlet torture the soul which aspires to art1 to work2 and eloquent speech on his own misfortunes would fain flow from his lips to implore help from a physician1 or comfort from some lofty soul2 but his lips are sealed4 ,he feels the horrible oppression of one buried alive4 ,but how many normal persons suffer from something of the same kind6 ,on some propitious occasion in their lives they ought to have come forward and shown their worth1 but they were unable to do so4 ,a thousand times they have thought that a sincere expression of feeling might have straightened out a difficult situation2 but the heart has closed and the lips have remained mute4 ,how passionately they have longed to speak to some noble soul who would have understood them1 illuminated and comforted them6 ,but when they have been face to face with this person1 they have been unable to speak a word4 ,the longed-for individual encouraged them1 questioned them1 urged them to express themselves1 but the sole response to the invitation was an internal anguish4 ,speak6 ,speak6 said impulse in the depths of their consciousness2 but inhibition was inexorable as a resistless material force4 ,it is in the education of the will by means of free exercises wherein the impulses balance the inhibitions that the cure of such subjects might be found1 provided such a cure could be undertaken at the age when the will is in process of formation4 99 99 99 99 99 ,such an equilibrium established as a mechanism at the margin of consciousness1 which makes a man of the world correct in his conduct1 is by no means that which constitutes the person of will4 ,it has been said above that the consciousness remains free for other voluntary requirements4 ,the most refined and aristocratic lady might nevertheless be a person without will and without character1 although she might have acquired the most rigorous mechanisms productive of a mechanical will directed solely to external objects4 ,there is a voluntary fundamental quality upon which not only are the superficial relations between man and man based1 but on which the very edifice of society is erected4 ,this quality is known as continuity4 ,the social structure is founded upon the fact that men can work steadily and produce within certain average limits on which the economic equilibrium of a people is constructed4 ,the social relations which are the basis of the reproduction of the species are founded upon the continuous union of parents in marriage4 ,the family and productive work3 these are the two pivots of society2 they rest upon the greatest volitive quality3 constancy1 or persistence4 ,this quality is really the exponent of the uninterrupted concord of the inner personality4 ,without it1 a life would be a series of episodes1 a chaos2 it would be like a body disintegrated into its cells1 rather than an organism which persists throughout the mutations of its own material4 ,this fundamental quality1 when it embraces the sentiment of the individual and the direction of his ideation1 that is to say1 his whole personality1 is what we have called character4 ,the man of character is the persistent man1 the man who is faithful to his own word1 his own convictions1 his own affections4 ,now the sum of these various manifestations of constancy has an exponent of immense social value3 persistence in work4 ,the degenerate1 even before he gave way to criminal impulse1 before he betrayed the inconstancy of his affections1 before he broke his word1 before he made havoc of all the convictions that ennoble the soul of man1 had a certain stigma which marked him as one lost and disintegrated3 this was laziness1 incapacity to persist in work4 ,directly an honest and well-behaved man begins to suffer from brain-disease1 before he shows any violent impulses1 disorder in conduct1 or signs of delirium1 he has a premonitory symptom3 he can no longer apply himself to work4 ,among the masses1 it is justly thought that a girl will make a good wife when she is industrious1 and a man is said to be an honest fellow and one who can offer good prospects to the girl who is to be his wife1 when he is a good workman4 ,this goodness is not a matter of ability2 it implies steadiness1 perseverance4 ,for instance1 a pseudo-artist of great skill in producing small artistic objects1 but lacking the will to work1 would not be considered a good match4 ,every one knows that he is not only incapable of economic production1 but that he is a suspicious and dangerous character1 that he might become a bad husband1 a bad father1 a bad citizen4 ,on the other hand1 the humblest artisan who works undoubtedly contains within himself all the elements which make for happiness and security in life4 ,this unquestionably was the meaning of the great ,roman encomium3 ,she stayed indoors and spun the wool1 that is to say1 she was a woman of character1 a worthy companion for the conquerors of the world4 ,now the little child who manifests perseverance in his work as the first constructive act of his psychical life1 and upon this act builds up internal order1 equilibrium1 and the growth of personality1 demonstrates1 almost as in a splendid revelation1 the true manner in which man renders himself valuable to the community4 ,the little child who persists in his exercises1 concentrated and absorbed1 is obviously elaborating the constant man1 the man of character1 the man who will find in himself all human values1 crowning that unique fundamental manifestation3 persistence in work4 ,whatever task the child may choose it will be all the same1 provided he persists in it4 ,for what is valuable is not the work itself1 but the work as a means for the construction of the psychic man4 ,he who interrupts the children in their occupations in order to make them learn some pre-determined thing2 he who makes them cease the study of arithmetic to pass on to that of geography and the like1 thinking it is important to direct their culture1 confuses the means with the end and destroys the man for a vanity4 ,that which it is necessary to direct is not the culture of man1 but the man himself4 99 99 99 99 99 ,if persistence be the true foundation of the will1 we nevertheless recognize decision as the act of the will par excellence4 ,in order to accomplish any conscious act whatever1 it is necessary that we should decide4 ,now a decision is always the result of a choice4 ,if we have several hats1 we must decide which one we will put on when we go out2 it may not in the least matter whether it be the brown hat or the gray1 but we must choose one of them4 ,for such a choice we must have our motives1 whether they be in favor of the gray or the brown2 but finally one of the motives will prevail and the choice will be made4 ,obviously1 the habit of taking a hat and going out will facilitate our choice2 we are almost unconscious which of the motives stirred and struggled within us4 ,it is the question of a minute and leaves no impression of effort4 ,our knowledge as to which hat will be suitable for the morning or the afternoon1 for the theater or for sport1 saves us from any mental conflict4 ,but this will not be the case if1 for instance1 we are about to spend a certain sum of money on a present4 ,what shall we buy among the various objects from which it will be possible to choose8 ,if we have no very definite knowledge of the things1 our task may become an anxiety4 ,we should like to choose something artistic1 but we do not know much about art1 and we fear to be deceived and so to cut a sorry figure2 we know not what is customary and have no idea whether a piece of lace or a silver bowl would be suitable4 ,we then feel the need of some one to enlighten us as to all these unknown details1 and we go to ask advice4 ,it does not1 however1 follow that we shall take the advice we receive4 ,to tell the truth1 the advice was to deal with our ignorance2 we required an aid to knowledge rather than an incitement to an effort of the will4 ,volition is something which we jealously reserve for ourselves1 and is a very different matter from the knowledge indispensable to a decision4 ,the choice which we make after the advice of one or more persons will bear our own impress1 it will be the decision of our ego4 ,the choice which the mistress of a house will make to prepare a dinner for guests is of the same nature2 but there she has a perfect knowledge of the subject1 and good taste1 and the decision will be made with pleasure and without any extraneous aid4 ,but who does not know that in every case this making a decision is an internal labor1 a genuine effort2 so much so that persons of feeble will try to avoid it1 as a thing irksome to them4 ,if possible1 the mistress of the house will leave the decisions to the cook1 and to a dressmaker all the arguments necessary to make one of the many motives that come into play in the choice of a gown prevail over the rest2 the dressmaker1 seeing that a decision will only be reached after long hesitation1 will say at a certain moment3 ,choose this which suits you so well1 and the lady will agree1 more to evade the effort of a decision than because the garment pleases her4 ,our entire life is a continual exercise of decisions4 ,when we go out of the house after having locked the door1 we have a clear consciousness of this act1 a certainty that the house is well protected1 and we decide to step out and walk away from it4 ,the stronger we are in such exercises1 the more independent we shall be of others4 ,clarity of ideas1 the mechanism of the habit of decision1 give us a sense of liberty4 ,the heaviest chain1 which may bind us in a humiliating form of slavery1 is an incapacity to make our own decisions1 and the consequent need to refer to others2 the fear of making a mistake1 the sense of groping in the dark1 of having to bear the consequences of an error we are not certain to recognize1 makes us run behind another person like a dog on a chain4 ,finally1 we shall fall into an extremity of dependence2 we shall no longer be able to despatch a letter or buy a pocket-handkerchief without asking advice4 ,but when an actual conflict arises in such a consciousness1 and the decision has to be instantaneous1 irresolution is the portion of one whose weakness has placed him in subjection to another stronger will1 and then we behold a subjection which has almost imperceptibly become an incubus3 the victim has taken the first step towards an abyss where the feeble in will run the risk of perdition4 ,thus the more the young are placed in subjection1 without power to exercise their own wills1 the more easily do they fall a prey to the perils of which the world is full4 ,that which gives strength to resist is not the moral vision1 it is the exercise of will-power2 and this exercise is to be found in the routine of life itself4 ,the mother of a family1 much occupied in her mission of domestic work1 and accustomed to decide in all matters pertaining to the daily round1 is more likely to gain the victory in the event of moral conflict than a childless woman who lives in an enervating atmosphere of domestic idleness1 and has accustomed herself to accept her husband's will as her own4 ,yet both of these women might have the same moral vision4 ,the first-mentioned1 if left a widow1 might make herself conversant with business and carry on the undertaking managed by her husband2 but the second in like circumstances would require tutelage1 and would run every risk of disaster4 ,to ensure moral salvation1 it is primarily necessary to depend on oneself1 because in the moment of peril we are alone4 ,and strength is not to be acquired instantaneously4 ,he who knows that he will have to fight1 prepares himself for boxing and dueling by strength and skill2 he does not sit still with folded hands1 because he knows that he will then either be lost or he will have to depend1 like the shadow of a body1 on some one to protect him step by step throughout his life1 which in practise is impossible4 ,one single moment served to conquer us1 says ,francesca1 in ,dante's ,inferno4 ,temptation1 if it is not to conquer1 must not fall like a bomb against another bomb of instantaneous moral explosions1 but against the strong walls of an impregnable fortress strongly built up1 stone by stone1 beginning at that distant day when the foundations were first laid4 ,persistent work1 clarity of ideas1 the habit of sifting conflicting motives in the consciousness1 even in the minutest actions of life1 decisions taken every moment on the smallest things1 the gradual master over one's actions1 the power of self-direction increasing by degrees in the sum of successively repeated acts1 these are the stout little stones on which the strong structure of personality is built up4 ,this may then be inhabited by morality1 as by a princess who lives among the embattled towers and moats of a medieval fortress that is in a perpetual state of defense1 always under arms1 but with every probability of remaining the lady1 the chtelaine4 ,if to build up the house which morality will inhabit1 some mastery of the body is also necessary1 such as abstinence from alcohol1 which is the chief example of poison taken from without and tending to weaken1 and movement in the open air1 which facilitates material recuperation by freeing us from the poisons which we ourselves manufacture and which weaken us1 how much more essential must be the continual exercise of the will as a vivifying means of psychical recuperation8 ,our little children are constructing their own wills when1 by a process of self-education1 they put in motion complex internal activities of comparison and judgment1 and in this wise make their intellectual acquisitions with order and clarity2 this is a kind of knowledge capable of preparing children to form their own decisions1 and one which makes them independent of the suggestions of others2 they can then decide in every act of their daily life2 they decide to take or not to take2 they decide to accompany the rhythm of a song with movement2 they decide to check every motor impulse when they desire silence4 ,the constant work which builds up their personality is all set in motion by decisions2 and this takes the place of the primitive state of chaos1 in which1 on the other hand1 actions were the outcome of impulses4 ,a voluntary life develops gradually within them2 and doubt and timidity disappear1 together with the darkness of the primitive mental confusion4 ,such a development of the will would be impossible if1 instead of allowing order and clarity to mature in the mind1 we should seek to encumber it with chaotic ideas1 or with stores of lessons learnt by heart1 and then prevent children from making decisions by deciding everything for them4 ,teachers who adopt these methods are justified in saying that a child ought not to have a will of his own1 and in teaching him that there is no such plant as ',i will4' ,indeed1 they prevent the infantine will from developing4 ,under such conditions children are conscious of a power which inhibits all their actions2 they become timid1 and have no courage to undertake anything without the help and consent of the person on whom they depend entirely4 ,what color are these cherries8 a lady once asked a child1 who knew quite well that they were red4 ,but the timid1 nervous child1 doubtful as to whether it would be right or wrong to answer1 murmured3 ,i will ask my teacher4 ,the volitive mechanism which prepares for decision is one of the most important mechanisms of the will2 it is valuable in itself1 and should be established and strengthened in itself4 ,pathology illustrates it for us apart from the other factor of the will1 and thus places it before our eyes as a pillar of the great vault which supports the human personality4 ,the so-called mania of doubt is one of the most frequent phases in the degenerative forms of psychopathy1 and sometimes precedes certain obsessions1 which urge the sufferer on irresistibly to the commission of immoral or harmful acts4 ,but there may also be a mania of doubt simple and genuine1 which is confined to the impossibility of taking a decision1 and which produces a serious state of distress1 though it induces no moral lapses1 and may even arise from a moral scruple4 ,in a hospital for nervous disorders ,i once encountered a characteristic case of the mania of doubt which had a moral basis4 ,the patient was a man whose business it was to go round to houses collecting refuse2 he was seized with misgivings lest some useful object should have accidentally fallen into the rubbish-baskets1 and that he would be suspected of appropriating it4 ,hereupon the unhappy man1 just when he was about to go off with his load1 climbed all the stairs again1 and knocked again at all the doors1 asking whether something valuable might not perhaps have chanced to be in the baskets4 ,going away after assurances to the contrary1 he would return and knock again1 and so on4 ,in vain he applied to the doctor for some means of strengthening his will4 ,we told him repeatedly that there was nothing of any value in the baskets1 that he might be quite easy on this point1 and carry on his business without any preoccupations4 ,then a gleam of hope shone in his eyes4 ,i may be quite easy6 he repeated1 going away4 ,in a minute he was back again4 ,then ,i may really be easy8 ,in vain we reassured him4 ,yes1 indeed1 quite easy4 ,his wife led him away1 but from the window we saw the man stop at a certain point in the street1 struggle with her1 and come back in great agitation4 ,once more he appeared at the door to ask3 ,i may be quite easy then8 ,but how often normal persons harbor in their minds the germs of such a mania6 ,here1 for instance1 is a person who is going out2 he locks the door and shakes it2 but when he has gone a few steps he is assailed by doubt3 did he fasten the door8 ,he knows that he did1 he perfectly remembers having shaken it1 but an irresistible impulse makes him go back to see if the door is really fastened4 ,there are children who1 before getting into bed at night1 always look under it to see if there are any animals there--cats1 for instance2 they see there are none1 and quite understand there are none4 ,nevertheless1 after a while they get out again to see if there is anything4 ,these germs are carried about enclosed like tubercular bacilli in some tiny lymphatic gland2 the whole organism is weak4 ,but the mischief is hidden and causes no uneasiness1 just as the pallor of the face may be concealed for a time by rouge4 ,if we consider that the will must manifest itself in actions which the body must carry out effectively1 we shall understand that a formative exercise is necessary to develop it by means of its mechanisms4 ,there is a perfect parallel between the formation of the will and the coordination of movement of its physiological structure1 the striated muscles4 ,it is evident that exercise is necessary to establish precision in our movements4 ,we know that we cannot learn to dance without preliminary exercises1 that we cannot play the piano without practising the movements of the hand2 but prior to this1 the fundamental coordination of movements1 that is to say1 ambulation and prehension1 must have already been established from infancy4 ,it is not yet so evident to us that similar gradual preparations are necessary to develop the will4 ,in the purely physiological functions of the muscular apparatus1 our voluntary muscles do not all act in the same manner1 but rather in two opposite senses2 some1 for instance1 serve to thrust the arm out from the body1 others to draw it near2 some serve to bend1 others to straighten the knee2 they are1 that is to say1 antagonistic in their action4 ,every movement of the body is the result of a combination between antagonistic muscles1 in which now one1 now the other prevails in a kind of collaboration by which the greatest diversity of movements is made possible to us3 movements energetic1 graceful1 elegant4 ,it is thus we are enabled to establish not only a noble attitude of the body1 but a delightful motor correspondence with musical rhythm4 ,to bring about this intimate combination between antagonistic forces1 all that is necessary is exercise in movement4 ,true1 we can educate movement2 but this only after the natural coordination has already taken place2 then we can provoke special movements as in sporting games1 dances1 etc41 which movements must1 however1 be repeatedly executed by the performer himself in order to produce in him the possibility of new combinations of movement4 ,not only in the case of movements of grace and agility1 but also in those of strength1 it is necessary that the performer himself should act repeatedly4 ,the will certainly comes into play here3 the performer wishes to devote himself to sport1 or to dancing1 or to the arts of self-defense1 to compete in matches1 etc4444 but in order to will this it is necessary that he should have practised continually1 thus making ready the apparatus on which the volitive act will finally depend1 and to which it will issue its commands4 ,movement is always voluntary1 both when the first movements established by muscular coordination take place1 and when exercises designed to produce fresh combinations of movements 7skill7 follow each other--as1 in short1 when the will acts like a commander whose orders are carried out by a well organized1 disciplined1 and highly skilled army4 ,voluntary action1 in respect of its powers1 increases in degree as its dependent muscles perfect themselves and so achieve the necessary conditions for seconding its efforts4 ,it would certainly never occur to any one that in order to educate the voluntary motility of a child1 it would be well first of all to keep it absolutely motionless1 covering its limbs with cement 7,i will not say fracturing them67 until the muscles become atrophied and almost paralyzed2 and then1 when this result had been attained1 that it would suffice to read to the child wonderful stories of clowns1 acrobats and champion boxers and wrestlers1 to fire him by such examples1 and to inspire in him an ardent desire to emulate them4 ,it is obvious that such a proceeding would be an inconceivable absurdity4 ,and yet we do something of the same kind when1 in order to educate the child's will1 we first of all attempt to annihilate it1 or1 as we say1 break it1 and thus hamper the development of every factor of the will1 substituting ourselves for the child in everything4 ,it is by our will that we keep him motionless1 or make him act2 it is we who choose and decide for him4 ,and after all this we are content to teach him that to will is to do 7volere potere74 ,and we present to his fancy1 in the guise of fabulous tales1 stories of heroic men1 giants of will1 under the illusion that by committing their deeds to memory a vigorous feeling of emulation will be aroused and will complete the miracle4 ,when ,i was a child1 attending the first classes of the elementary schools1 there was a kind teacher who was very fond of us4 ,of course1 she kept us captive and motionless on our seats1 and talked incessantly herself1 though she looked pale and exhausted4 ,her fixed idea was to make us learn by heart the lives of famous women1 and more especially heroines1 in order to incite us to imitate them2 she made us study an immense number of biographies2 in order to demonstrate to us all the possibilities of becoming illustrious and also to convince us that it was not beyond our powers to be heroines1 since these were so numerous4 ,the exhortation which accompanied these narratives was always the same3 ,you1 too1 should try to become famous2 would not you1 too1 like to be famous8 ,oh1 no6 ,i answered one day1 drily2 ,i shall never do so4 ,i care too much for the children of the future to add yet another biography to the list4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the unanimous reports of the educationists from all parts of the world who attended the last pedagogic and psychological international congresses lamented the lack of character in the young as constituting a great danger to the race4 ,but it is not that character is lacking in the race2 it is that school distorts the body and weakens the spirit4 ,all that is needed is an act of liberation2 and the latent forces of man will then develop4 ,the manner in which we are to make use of our strong will is a higher question1 which1 however1 can rest only upon one basis3 that the will exists--that is1 has been developed1 and has become strong4 ,one of the examples usually given to our children1 to teach them to admire strength of will1 is that of ,vittorio ,alfieri1 who began to educate himself late in life1 overcoming the drudgery of the rudiments by a great effort4 ,he1 who had hitherto been a man of the world1 set to work to study the ,latin grammar1 and persevered until he became a man of letters1 and1 in virtue of his ardent genius1 one of our greatest poets4 ,the phrase by which he explained his transformation is just the phrase every child in ,italy has heard quoted by his teachers3 ,i willed1 perpetually ,i willed1 with all my strength ,i willed4 ,now1 before he made the great decision1 ,vittorio ,alfieri was the victim of a capricious society lady whom he loved4 ,alfieri felt that he was ruining himself by remaining the slave of his passion2 an internal impulse urged him to raise himself2 he felt the great man latent within him1 full of powers not yet developed1 but potential and expansive2 he would fain have turned them to account1 responded to their inner call1 and dedicated himself to them2 but then a scented note from the lady would summon him to join her in her box at the play1 and the evening would be wasted4 ,the power this lady exercised over him overcame his own will1 which would gladly have resisted4 ,nevertheless1 the rage and weariness he endured as he sat through the silly performances at the theater caused him such acute suffering that at last he felt that he hated the fascinating lady4 ,his determination took a material form3 he resolved to create an insurmountable obstacle between himself and her2 he accordingly cut off the thick plait of hair which adorned his head1 the badge of gentle birth1 without which he would have been ashamed to leave the house2 then he had himself bound with ropes to his armchair1 where he spent several days in such agitation that he was unable even to read a line2 it was only the material impossibility of moving1 and the thought of cutting a ridiculous figure1 which kept him there1 in spite of the impulse to hasten to the beloved one4 ,it was thus that he willed1 willed perpetually1 with all his strength1 and so left the man within him free to expand2 it was thus he saved himself from futility and perdition and worked for his own immortality4 ,and it is something of the same sort that we desire to bring about in our children by the education of the will2 we wish them to learn to save themselves from the vanities that destroy man1 and concentrate on work which causes the inner life to expand1 and leads to great undertakings2 we wish them to work for their own immortality4 ,this loving and anxious desire inclines us to draw them along shielded by us4 ,but is there not within the child himself a power which enables him to save himself8 ,the child loves us with all his heart and follows us with all the devotion of which his little soul is capable2 nevertheless he has something within himself which governs his inner life3 it is the force of his own expansion4 ,it is this force1 for instance1 which leads him to touch things in order to become acquainted with them1 and we say to him1 ,do not touch2 he moves about to establish his equilibrium1 and we tell him to keep still2 he questions us to acquire knowledge1 and we reply1 ,do not be tiresome4 ,we relegate him to a place at our side1 vanquished and subdued1 with a few tiresome playthings1 like an ,alfieri in the box at the theater4 ,he might well think3 ,why does she1 whom ,i love so dearly1 want to annihilate me8 ,why does she wish to oppress me with her caprices8 ,it is caprice which makes her prevent me from developing the expansive forces within me1 and relegate me to a place among vain and wearisome things1 merely because ,i love her4 ,thus1 to save himself1 the child should be a strong spirit1 like ,vittorio ,alfieri2 but too often he cannot4 ,we do not perceive that the child is a victim and that we are annihilating him2 and then we demand everything from his nullity by a fiat1 by an act of our omnipotence4 ,we want the adult man1 but without allowing him to grow4 ,many will think1 when they read the story of ,vittorio ,alfieri1 that they would have wished something more in their sons2 they would have wished it to be unnecessary to set up material obstacles against temptation1 such as the cutting off of the hair and the binding to the armchair with ropes2 and would have hoped that a spiritual force would have sufficed to resist it4 ,like one of our great poets who1 singing of the ,roman ,lucrezia1 reproves her for having killed herself2 since she ought to have died of grief at the outrage1 had she been even more virtuous than she was4 ,now that father with the spiritual ideals would not1 in all probability1 ask himself what he himself had done to enable his son to become strong and rise to the level of spiritual aid4 ,very likely he is a father who did his utmost to break the will of his son and make him submissive to his own will4 ,no earthly father can make the spirit rise to such heights2 this can only be accomplished by the mysterious voice which speaks within the heart of the man in the silence4 ,a voice which is strident because it is raised against the laws of ,nature1 like the voice of the father who wishes to subdue another creature to himself1 disturbs that silence where1 in peace and liberty1 the divine works are being accomplished4 ,without the strong man all is vain4 ,it is recorded that a priest once presented to ,saint ,teresa a young girl who wished to become a ,carmelite nun1 and who1 according to him1 had angelic qualities4 ,saint ,teresa1 accepting the neophyte1 replied3 ,see1 my father1 our ,lord has given this maiden devotion1 but she has no judgment1 and never will have any2 and she will always be a burden to us4 ,one of the greatest of contemporary theologians1 who during the proceedings to obtain the canonisation of ,joan of ,arc had made a profound study of her personality1 says1 in reference to the suggestion that she was simply the instrument of divine inspiration3 ,let no one deceive himself4 ,joan of ,arc was no blind and passive instrument of a supernatural power4 ,the liberator of ,france had entire command of her personality2 she gave proof of this by her independent action1 both in decisions and in deeds4 ,i believe that the work of the educator consists primarily in protecting the powers and directing them without disturbing them in their expansion2 and in the bringing of man into contact with the spirit which is within him and which should operate through him4 ,,viii ,,intelligence ,let us pause a moment to consider what is the key by means of which we may bring about the realization of the liberty of the child2 that key which sets in motion the mechanisms essential to education4 ,the child who is free to move about1 and who perfects himself by so doing1 is he who has an intelligent object in his movements2 the child who is free to develop his inner personality1 who perseveres in a task for a considerable time1 and organizes himself upon such a fundamental phenomenon1 is sustained and guided by an intelligent purpose4 ,without this his persistence in work1 his inner formation1 and his progress would not be possible4 ,when we refrain from guiding the subjugated child step by step1 when1 liberating the child from our personal influence1 we place him in an environment suited to him and in contact with the means of development1 we leave him confidently to his own intelligence4 ,his motor activity will then direct itself to definite actions3 he will wash his hands and face1 sweep the room1 dust the furniture1 change his clothes1 spread the rugs1 lay the table1 cultivate plants1 and take care of animals4 ,he will choose the tasks conducive to his development and persist in them1 attracted and guided by his interest towards a sensory material which leads him to distinguish one thing from another1 to select1 to reason1 to correct himself2 and the acquirements thus made are not only a cause of internal growth but a strong propulsive force to further progress4 ,thus1 passing from simple objects to objects of ever increasing complexity1 he becomes possessed of a culture2 moreover1 he organizes his character by means of the internal order which forms itself within him1 and by the skill which he acquires4 ,therefore1 when we leave the child to himself1 we leave him to his intelligence1 not1 as is commonly supposed1 to his instincts1 meaning by the word instincts those designated as animal instincts4 ,we are so accustomed to2 treat children like dogs and other domestic animals1 that a free child makes us think of a dog1 barking1 jumping1 and stealing dainties4 ,and so accustomed are we to regard as manifestations of evil instincts the rebellions of the child treated as a beast1 his obscure protests and desperations1 or the protective devices he has to invent to save himself from such a humiliating situation1 that1 by way of elevating him1 we first compare him to plants and flowers1 and then actually try to keep him as far as possible in the state of physical immobility of vegetables1 subjecting him to the same sensations1 reducing him to slavery4 ,but he never becomes the plant with angelic perfume we would fain believe him to be2 rather do signs of corruption gradually manifest themselves as his human substance mortifies and dies4 ,but when we leave the child free as a man in the palestra of his own intelligence1 his type changes entirely4 ,it is of this type we must form new conceptions in discussing the question of liberty4 ,that of intelligence should also1 ,i believe1 be the key to the problem of the social liberty of man4 ,we have heard much talk of late years1 of a very superficial kind1 concerning liberty of thought4 ,the issue being obscured by prejudices akin to those prevalent concerning children1 it has been supposed that man would be liberated were he abandoned to his own thoughts4 ,but was he capable of thinking8 ,was not the epoch of such freedom also that of cerebral neurasthenia8 ,was it not also that epoch when laws for extending social rights to illiterates were under discussion8 ,now let us take an example3 if we told a sick person to choose between disease and health1 would this make him free to do so8 ,if we offer an uneducated peasant good and bad paper money1 leaving him free to choose which he will take1 and he chooses the bad notes1 he is not free1 he is cheated2 if he chooses the good1 he is not free1 he is lucky4 ,he will be free when he has sufficient knowledge not only to distinguish the good from the bad1 but to understand the social utility of each4 ,it is the giving of this internal formation which makes a man free1 irrespective of a social sanction which is merely an external conquest of liberty4 ,if the liberty of man were such a simple problem1 we should only need to pass a law1 enabling the blind to see and the deaf to hear1 in order to restore poor humanity to health4 ,our honesty ought to make us recognize one day that the fundamental rights of man are those of his own formation1 free from obstacles1 free from slavery1 and free to draw from his environment the means required for his development4 ,in short1 it is in education that we shall find the fundamental solution of the social problems connected with personality4 ,deeply instructive is the revelation made to us by the children1 that the intelligence is the key which reveals the secrets of their formation1 and is the actual means of their internal construction4 ,the hygiene of the intelligence thus assumes cardinal importance4 ,when intelligence is recognized as the means of formation1 the pivot of life itself1 it can no longer be exhausted for dubious ends1 or oppressed and suffocated without discernment4 ,at a not-far-distant day1 the intelligence of children must become the object of treatment much wiser and more elaborate than that which we now bestow on their bodies1 to adjuncts of which1 such as teeth1 nails1 and hair1 we devote costly and laborious processes4 ,when we reflect that a mother who is perfectly conscious of the dangers and remedies connected with the hair of her child1 can oppress and enslave his intelligence quite unknowingly1 we are at once obliged to admit that the new road leading to civilization must needs be a long one1 if such contrasts in our attitude to the superfluities and the essentials of life are still possible at the present day4 99 99 99 99 99 ,what is intelligence8 ,without rising to the heights of the definitions given by the philosophers1 we may1 for the moment1 consider the sum of those reflex and associative or reproductive activities which enable the mind to construct itself1 putting it into relation with the environment4 ,according to ,bain1 the consciousness of difference is the beginning of every intellectual exercise2 the first step of the mind is appreciation of distinction4 ,the bases of its perceptive functions towards the external world are the sensations4 ,to collect facts and distinguish between them is the initial process in intellectual construction4 ,let us try to infuse a little more precision and clarity into the analysis of intelligence4 ,the first characteristic which presents itself to us as an indication of intellectual development is related to time4 ,the masses are so much alive to this primitive characteristic1 that the popular expression quick is synonymous with intelligent4 ,to be rapid in reacting to a stimulus1 in the association of ideas1 in the capacity of formulating a judgment--this is the most obvious external manifestation of intelligence4 ,this quickness is certainly related to the capacity for receiving impressions from the environment1 elaborating images1 and externalizing the internal results4 ,all these activities may be developed by means of an exercise comparable to a system of mental gymnastics to collect numerous sensations1 to put them constantly in relation one with another1 to deduce judgments therefrom1 to acquire the habit of manifesting these freely1 all this ought1 as the psychologists would say1 to render the conductive channels and the associative channels more and more permeable1 and the period of reaction ever briefer4 ,as in intelligent muscular movement1 the repetition of the act not only renders it more perfect in itself1 but more rapid in execution4 ,an intelligent child at school is not only one who understands1 but one who understands quickly4 ,on the other hand1 one who learns the same things1 but who takes a longer time in so doing1 say two years instead of one1 is slow4 ,of a quick child1 the people say that nothing escapes him2 his attention is always on the alert1 and he is ready to receive every kind of stimulus3 as a sensitive scale will show the slightest variation in weight1 so the sensitive brain will respond to the slightest appeal4 ,it is ,equally rapid in its associative processes3 ,he understands in a flash is a familiar saying to indicate accurate conception4 ,now an exercise which puts in motion the intellectual mechanisms can only be an auto-exercise4 ,it is impossible that another person1 exercising himself in our stead1 should make us acquire skill4 ,the sensory exercises arouse and intensify the central activities in our children4 ,when1 sense and stimulus duly isolated1 the child has clear perceptions in his consciousness2 when sensations of heat1 cold1 roughness1 smoothness1 weight1 and lightness1 when a sound1 an isolated noise1 are perceived by him1 when1 in almost complete silence1 he closes his eyes and waits for a voice to murmur a word1 it is as if the external world had knocked at the door of his soul1 awakening its activities4 ,and further1 when the multitudinous sensations are all contained in the richness of the environment1 the two react harmoniously one upon the other1 intensifying the activities that have been awakened3 this is exemplified in the case of the child absorbed in coloring his designs1 who will choose the most beautiful tints while music is being played1 or in that of another who1 contemplating the gay and gracious environment of the school and the flowering plants1 will sing his song to perfection4 ,the first characteristic which manifests itself in our children1 after their process of auto-education has been initiated1 is that their reactions become ever more ready and more rapid3 a sensory stimulus which might before have passed unobserved or might have roused a languid interest1 is vividly perceived4 ,the relation between things is easily recognized1 and thus errors in their use are quickly detected1 judged1 and corrected4 ,by means of the sensory gymnastics the child carries out just this primordial and fundamental exercise of the intelligence1 which awakens and sets in motion the central nervous mechanisms4 ,when we see these external manifestations of our quick and active children--sensitive to the slightest call1 ready to run swiftly towards us without relaxing the attention they give to their own movements and to all the external objects they encounter--and compare them with the torpid children in the ordinary schools--clumsy in their movements1 indifferent to stimuli1 incapable of spontaneous association of ideas--we are led to think of the civilization of our own days as compared with that of olden times4 ,the civil environment of bygone years1 as compared with our own1 was more leisurely3 we have learnt how to save time4 ,the stage-coach was once the means of transport1 whereas now we travel in motor-cars and even in aeroplanes2 the voice was the medium of speech from a distance1 whereas now we speak through the telephone2 men killed each other one by one1 whereas now they kill each other en masse4 ,all this makes us realize that our civilization is not based upon respect for life and respect for the soul1 but rather is it based upon respect for time4 ,it is solely in an external sense that civilization has pursued its course4 ,it has become more rapid1 it has set in motion machinery4 ,but man has not had the same preparation to keep up with it3 individuals have not accelerated themselves methodically2 the children of this bewildering environment are not new men1 more active1 readier1 more intelligent4 ,the transformed human personality has not yet arisen ready to meet all eventualities and to utilize for his own benefit the external conquests of his environment4 ,torpid man saves time and money in this civilization2 but his soul remains defrauded and oppressed4 ,if he does not rise to the task of reforming himself in harmony with the new world he has created1 he runs the risk of being some day overthrown and crushed by it4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the swift reactions occurring among our children are not merely an external manifestation of the intelligence4 ,they are related not only to the exercise1 but also to the order which has been established within3 and it is this intimate work of rearrangement which is in itself a more exact indication of intellectual formation4 ,order is1 in short1 the true key to rapidity of reaction4 ,in a chaotic mind1 the recognition of a sensation is no less difficult than the elaboration of a reasoned discourse4 ,in all things1 social as well as others1 it is organization and order which make it possible to proceed rapidly4 ,to be able to distinguish is the characteristic sign of intelligence3 to distinguish is to arrange and also1 in life1 it is to prepare for creation4 ,creation finds its expansion in order4 ,we find this conception in the ,genesis of ,scripture4 ,god did not begin to create without preparation2 and this preparation was the introduction of order into chaos4 ,and ,god divided the light from the darkness4 ,and he said3 ,let the waters be gathered together into one place1 and let the dry land appear4 ,the consciousness may possess a rich and varied content2 but when there is mental confusion1 the intelligence does not appear4 ,its appearance is exactly like the kindling of a light which makes it possible to distinguish things clearly3 ,let there be light4 ,thus we may justly say that to help the development of the intelligence is to help to put the images of the consciousness in order4 ,we ought to think of the mental state of the little child of three years old1 who has already looked upon a world4 ,how often he has fallen asleep utterly weary from having seen so many things4 ,it has not occurred to any one that for him to walk is1 in fact1 to work2 that seeing and hearing1 when the organs are not as yet accommodated1 so that he is obliged to be perpetually correcting the errors of his senses1 and verifying with his hand what he cannot as yet appraise correctly with his eye1 is a great exertion4 ,hence the little one who is over-taxed by stimuli1 in places where these abound1 cries or falls asleep4 ,the little child of three years old carries within him a heavy chaos4 ,he is like a man who has accumulated an immense quantity of books1 piled up without any order1 and who asks himself ,what shall ,i do with them8 ,when will he be able to arrange them in such fashion as to enable him to say3 ,i possess a library8 ,by means of our so-called sensory exercises we make it possible for the child to distinguish and to classify4 ,our sensory material1 in fact1 analyses and represents the attributes of things3 dimensions1 forms1 colors1 smoothness or roughness of surface1 weight1 temperature1 flavor1 noise1 sounds4 ,it is the qualities of the objects1 not the objects themselves which are important2 although these qualities1 isolated one from the other1 are themselves represented by objects4 ,for the attributes long1 short1 thick1 thin1 large1 small1 red1 yellow1 green1 hot1 cold1 heavy1 light1 rough1 smooth1 scented1 noisy1 resonant1 we have a like number of corresponding objects arranged in graduated series4 ,this gradation is important for the establishment of order2 indeed1 the attributes of the objects differ not only in quality1 but also in quantity4 ,they may be more or less high or more or less low1 more or less thick or more or less thin2 the sounds have various tones2 the colors have various degrees of intensity2 the shapes may resemble each other in varying degrees2 the states of roughness and smoothness are by no means absolute4 ,the material for the education of the senses lends itself to the purpose of distinguishing between these things4 ,first of all it enables the child to ascertain the identity of two stimuli by means of numerous exercises in matching and fitting4 ,afterwards difference is appreciated when the lessons direct the child's attention to the external objects of a series3 light1 dark1 long1 short4 ,at last he begins to distinguish the degrees of the various attributes1 arranging a series of objects in gradation1 such as the tablets which show the various degrees of intensity of the same chromatic tone2 the bells which produce the notes of an octave1 the objects which represent length in decimal proportions1 or thickness in centimetric proportions1 etc4 ,these exercises1 which are so attractive to children1 are1 as we have seen1 repeated by them indefinitely4 ,the teacher puts the seal upon each acquisition with a word2 thus the classification is complete1 and finally has its schedule3 that is1 it becomes possible to recall the attribute and its image by a name4 ,now as we have no possible means of distinguishing things other than by their attributes1 the classification of these entails a fundamental order of arrangement comprehending everything4 ,henceforth the world is no longer a chaos for the child2 his mind bears some resemblance to the orderly shelves of a library or a rich museum2 each object is in its place1 in its proper category4 ,and each acquisition he makes will be no longer merely stored1 but duly allocated4 ,this primitive order will never be disturbed1 but only enriched by fresh material4 ,thus the child1 having acquired the power of distinguishing one thing from another1 has laid the foundations of the intelligence4 ,it is unnecessary to repeat what an internal impulse the acquired order contributes towards the seeking after objects in the environment2 henceforth the child recognizes the objects which surround him4 ,when he discovers with so much emotion that the sky is blue1 that his hand is smooth1 that the window is rectangular1 he does not in reality discover sky1 nor hand1 nor window1 but he discovers their position in the order of his mind by arrangement of his ideas4 ,and this determines a stable equilibrium in the internal personality1 which produces calm1 strength1 and the possibility of fresh conquests1 just as the muscles which have coordinated their functions enable the body to maintain its equilibrium1 and to acquire that stability and security which facilitate all movements4 ,this order conduces to an economy of time and strength2 like a well-arranged museum1 it saves the time and strength of inquirers4 ,the child can therefore perform a greater quantity of work without fatigue1 and can react to stimuli in a briefer space of time4 99 99 99 99 99 ,to be able to distinguish1 classify1 and catalogue external things on the basis of a secure order already established in the mind--this is at once intelligence and culture4 ,this is1 indeed1 the popular conception2 when an educated person can recognize an author by his style1 or the characteristics of the literary compositions of a period1 he is pronounced versed 7intelligente7 in literature4 ,in the same way we say of one who can recognize a painter by the manner in which he lays his colors on the canvas1 or fix the period of a sculptor from the fragment of a bas-relief1 that he is versed 7intelligente7 in art4 ,the scientist is of the same type4 ,he is able to observe things1 and to give due value even to their minutest details2 hence the differences between the characteristics of things are clearly perceived and classified4 ,the scientist distinguishes objects in accordance with the orderly content of his mind4 ,a seedling1 a microbe1 an animal or the remains of an animal1 are not enigmas to him1 though in themselves they may be strange to him4 ,we may say the same of the chemist1 the physicist1 the geologist1 the archaeologist4 ,it is not the accumulation of a direct knowledge of things which forms the man of letters1 the scientist1 and the connoisseur2 it is the prepared order established in the mind which is to receive such knowledge4 ,on the other hand1 the uncultivated person has only the direct knowledge of objects2 such a person may be a lady who spends a great part of the night reading books1 or a gardener who spends his life making material distinctions between the plants in his garden4 ,the knowledge of such uncultured minds is not only disorderly1 but it is confined to the objects with which it comes into direct contact1 whereas the knowledge of the scientist is infinite1 because1 possessing the power of classifying the attributes of things1 he can recognize them all1 and determine now the class1 now the relationships1 now the origins of each2 facts much more profound than the actual things could of themselves reveal4 ,now our children1 after the manner of the connoisseur of art and the man of science1 recognize objects in the external world by means of their attributes and classify them2 hence they are sensitive to all objects2 everything possesses a value for them4 ,uncultured children1 on the other hand1 pass blind and deaf close to things1 just as an ignorant man passes by a work of art or listens to a performance of classical music without recognition or enjoyment4 ,the educational methods now in use proceed on lines exactly the reverse of ours2 having first abolished spontaneous activity1 they present objects with their accumulation of attributes directly to the child1 calling attention to each attribute1 and hoping that from all this mass the mind of the child will be able to abstract the attributes themselves1 without any guidance or order4 ,thus they create in a passive being an artificial chaos1 more limited than that which the natural world would offer4 ,the objective method now in use1 which consists in presenting an object and noting all its attributes--that is1 describing it1 is nothing but a sensory variation on the customary mnemonic method2 instead of describing an absent object1 a present object is described2 instead of the imagination alone working to effect its reconstruction1 the senses intervene2 this is done so that the distinctive qualities of the object itself should be better remembered4 ,the passive mind receives images1 which are limited to the objects presented2 and which are stored up without any order4 ,as a fact1 every object may have infinite attributes2 and if1 as often happens in object-lessons1 the origins and ultimate ends of the object itself are included among these attributes1 the mind has literally to range throughout the universe4 ,if1 for instance1 in an object lesson on coffee1 which ,i heard given in a ,kindergarten school1 the object is described and the attention of the children directed to its size1 its color1 its shape1 its aroma1 its flavor1 its temperature2 and then if the teacher goes on to describe the plant and the manner in which the substance was brought to ,europe across the ocean1 and1 finally1 lighting a spirit-lamp1 boils the water1 grinds the berries and prepares the beverage1 the mind has been led to wander in infinite spaces1 but the subject has not been exhausted4 ,for it would be possible to go on to describe the exciting effects of coffee1 caffeine1 which is extracted from the berry1 and many other things4 ,such an analysis would spread like spilt oil until finally dispersed1 and the outcome would be of no use in any way4 ,if1 indeed1 we should ask a child so instructed3 ,what is coffee1 then8 he might well reply3 ,it is such a long story that ,i cannot remember it4 ,a notion so vague 7,i cannot certainly say so complete67 fatigues and encumbers the mind and can never transform itself into a dynamic excitation of similar associations4 ,the efforts the child makes will be1 at the most1 efforts of memory to recall the history of coffee4 ,if associations are formed in his mind1 they will be inferior associations of contiguity3 his mind will wander from the teacher who is speaking to the ocean that was traversed1 to the dining-table at home on which coffee appears in cups every day2 in other words1 it will stray aimlessly as does the idle mind when it allows itself to wander from the continuity of its passive associations4 ,in this kind of reverie to which the minds of children give themselves up1 there is no sign of internal activity1 far less of any individual difference4 ,children subjected to the object-lesson system always remain purely receptive beings2 or1 if we prefer to put it so1 storehouses in which new objects are continually deposited4 ,no activity is thus aroused and directed towards the object1 in order to recognize its qualities in such a manner that the child himself forms an idea of it2 nor can the possibility of connecting other objects with the first by their common characteristics arise in his mind4 ,for in what particular does any object resemble the others8 ,in its use8 ,when we associate the images of different objects by similarity1 we should extract from the whole the qualities which the objects themselves have in common4 ,if1 for instance1 we say that two rectangular tablets are alike1 we have first extracted from the numerous qualities of these tablets such facts as that they are of wood1 that they are polished1 smooth1 colored1 of the same temperature1 etc41 the quality relating to their shape4 ,they are alike in shape4 ,this may suggest a long series of objects3 the top of the table1 the window1 etc42 but before such a result as this can be achieved1 it is necessary that the mind should first be capable of abstracting from the numerous attributes of these objects the quality of rectangular shape4 ,the work of the mind in this quest must necessarily be active2 it analyzes the object1 extracts a determined attribute therefrom1 and under the guidance of this determined attribute makes a synthesis associating many objects by the same medium of connection4 ,if this capacity for the selecting of single attributes among all those proper to the object be not acquired1 association by means of similarity1 synthesis1 and all the higher work of the intelligence becomes impossible4 ,moreover1 this is intellectual work in reality1 because the essential quality of the intelligence is not to photograph objects1 and keep them one upon the other like the pages of an album1 or juxtaposed like the stones in a pavement4 ,such a labor of mere deposit is an outrage on the intellectual nature4 ,the intelligence1 with its characteristic orderliness and power of discrimination1 is capable of distinguishing and extracting the dominant characteristics of objects1 and it is upon these that it proceeds to build up its internal structures4 ,now our children1 whose minds are thus ordered in relation to the classification of attributes by the pedagogic aid they have received1 are led1 not only to observe objects according to all the attributes they have analyzed1 but also to distinguish identities1 differences1 and resemblances2 and this work renders the extraction of one of the qualities corresponding to one of the sensory groups which have been considered apart1 easy and spontaneous4 ,that is to say1 it will be easy for the child thus to recognize the various qualities of an object1 to note1 for instance1 that certain objects are alike in form1 or alike in color2 because forms and colors have already been grouped into very distinctive categories1 and they therefore recall series of objects by similarity4 ,this classification of attributes is a kind of loadstone2 it is an attractive force of a determined group of qualities2 and the objects which have this quality are attracted thereto and united one with another2 this is association by similitude1 almost of a mechanical kind4 ,books are of the shape of prisms1 one of our children might say2 and such a pronouncement would be the conclusion arrived at by a very complex mental process1 were it not that prismatic forms already existed as a well-defined series in his mind1 attracting to itself all the surrounding objects which possess the same character4 ,thus the whiteness of sheets of paper1 interrupted by dark signs1 may be attracted1 by the colors systematized in the mind1 into a synthetic whole1 which might make the child say3 ,books are sheets of white printed paper4 ,it is in this active work that individual differences may manifest themselves4 ,what will be the group of attributes which will attract similar objects8 ,and what will be the prevailing characteristic chosen for the purpose of association by similarity8 ,one child will note that a curtain is light green2 another that the same curtain is light in weight2 one will be struck by the whiteness of a hand1 another by the smoothness of its skin4 ,for one child the window will be a rectangle2 to another it is something through which the blue of the sky may be seen4 ,the choice of prevailing characteristics made by children becomes a natural selection harmonizing with their own innate tendencies4 ,in like manner1 a scientist will choose the characters most useful to his associations4 ,an anthropologist may choose the shape of the head to distinguish the human races1 and another might choose the cutaneous pigment--either will serve the purpose4 ,each anthropologist may have the most accurate knowledge of the external characteristics of men2 but the important matter consists in finding a characteristic which will serve as a basis for classification3 that is to say1 a characteristic on which it will be possible to group numerous characteristics in the order of similitude4 ,purely practical persons would consider man from the utilitarian rather than from the scientific point of view2 a maker of hats would single out the dimensions of the head from among other human characteristics2 an orator would consider man from the point of view of his susceptibility to the spoken word4 ,but selection is the fundamental necessity which enables us to realize things2 to emerge from the vague into the practical1 from aimless contemplation into the sphere of action4 ,every created thing in existence is characterized by the fact that it has limitations4 ,our own psycho-sensory organization is founded upon a selection4 ,what are the functions of the senses1 but to respond to a determined series of vibrations and to no others8 ,thus the eye limits light and the ear sounds4 ,in forming the contents of the mind the first step is1 therefore1 a selection1 necessarily and materially limited4 ,nevertheless1 the mind imposes still further limits on the selection possible to the senses1 fashioning it upon the activity of internal choice4 ,thus attention is fixed upon determined objects and not upon all objects2 and the volition chooses the actions which are really to be performed from among a multitude of possible actions4 ,it is in like fashion that the lofty work of the intelligence is accomplished2 by an analogous action of attention and internal will1 it abstracts the dominant characteristics of things1 and thus succeeds in associating their images1 and keeping them in the foreground of consciousness4 ,it ceases to consider an immense amount of ballast which would render its context formless and confused4 ,every superior mind distinguishes the essential form from the superfluous1 rejecting the latter1 and thus it is enabled to achieve its characteristic1 clear1 delicate1 and vital activities4 ,it is capable of extracting that which is useful to its creative life1 and thus finds in the cosmos the means of salvation4 ,without this characteristic activity1 the intelligence cannot construct itself2 it would be like an attention that wanders from thing to thing without ever fixing upon any one of them1 and like a will that can never decide upon any definite action4 ,it is possible to suppose1 says ,james1 that a ,god could1 without impairing his activity1 simultaneously behold all the minutest portions of the world4 ,but if our human attention should be thus dissipated1 we should merely contemplate all things vacuously1 without ever finding occasion to do any particular act4 ,it is one of the marvelous phenomena of life that it is impossible to realize anything1 without determining limits2 that mysterious law which ordains that every living being has its form and stature1 unlike the minerals1 which are indefinite in form and dimensions1 is repeated in the psychical life4 ,its development1 its auto-creation1 is nothing but a determination even more precise1 a progressive concentration2 it is thus that from the primitive chaos our internal characteristic form is gradually shaped and chiselled4 ,the capacity for forming a conception of a thing1 for judging and reasoning1 has always this foundation4 ,when1 after having noted the usual qualities of a column1 we abstract the general truth that the column is a support1 this synthetic idea is based upon a selected quality4 ,thus in the judgment we may pronounce3 columns are cylindrical1 we have abstracted one quality from among the many others we could have adduced1 as1 columns are cold1 they are hard1 they are a composition of carbonate of lime1 etc4 ,it is only the capacity for such a selection which makes reasoning possible4 ,when1 for example1 in the demonstration of the theorem of ,pythagoras1 children handle the various pieces of the metal insets1 they should start from the point at which they become aware that a rectangle is equal to the rhomb1 and a square is equal to the same rhomb4 ,it is the perception of this truth which makes it possible to go on to the following reasoning3 therefore the square and the rectangle are equal to each other4 ,if it had not been possible to determine this attribute1 the mind could not have arrived at any conclusion4 ,the mind has succeeded in discovering an attribute common to two dissimilar figures2 and it is this discovery which may lead to a series of conclusions by means of which the theorem of ,pythagoras will be finally demonstrated4 99 99 99 99 99 ,now1 as in the case of will1 decision presupposes a methodical exercise of the impulsive and inhibitory forces1 only to be performed by the individual himself1 until habits have been established1 so in case of the intelligence1 the individual must exercise himself in his activities of association and selection1 guided and aided by external means1 until he has developed1 by the definitive elimination of certain ideas and the choice of others1 mental habits characteristic of the individual1 characteristic of the type4 ,because1 underlying all the internal activities the mind can construct1 there is1 as the phenomena of attention show us1 the individual tendency1 the nature4 ,there is1 undoubtedly1 a fundamental difference between understanding and learning the reasoning of others1 and being able to reason1 between learning how an artist may see the external world according to his prevailing interest in color1 harmony1 and form1 and actually seeing the external world about a fulcrum which sustains one's own sthetical creation4 ,in the mind of one who learns the things of others we may find1 as in a sack of old clothes hanging over the shoulders of a hawker1 solutions of the problems of ,euclid1 together with the images of ,raphael's works1 ideas of history and geography1 and rules of style1 huddled together with a like indifference and a like sensation of weight4 ,while1 on the other hand1 he who uses all these things for his own life1 is like the person who is assisted in attaining his own welfare1 his own relief1 his own comfort by those same objects which are merely burdens when in the sack of the hawker4 ,such objects are1 however1 no longer huddled together without order and without purpose in a closed bag1 but set out in the spacious rooms of a well-ordered house4 ,the mind which constructs may contain a great deal more than that mind in which pieces of knowledge are heaped up as in the bag2 and in that mind1 as in the house1 the objects are clearly divided one from another1 harmoniously arranged1 and distinctive in their uses4 ,between understanding because another person seeks to impress upon us the explanation of a thing by speech1 and understanding the thing of ourselves1 there is an immeasurable distance2 the two are comparable to the impression made in soft wax1 which will subsequently be effaced and replaced by other impressions1 and the form chiselled in the marble by an artist1 as his creation4 ,he who understands of himself has an unforeseen impression2 he feels that his consciousness has been liberated1 and something luminous shines forth within him4 ,understanding1 then1 is not a matter of indifference2 it is the beginning of something2 sometimes it is the beginning of a life which renews itself within us4 ,perhaps no emotion is more fruitful for man than the intellectual emotion4 ,he who makes a discovery rich in results certainly enjoys the greatest of human felicities2 but even he who merely understands gets a lofty enjoyment which will rise superior to and overcome the most acute suffering4 ,indeed1 he who is oppressed by a misfortune1 if he can be brought to differentiate his own case from that of another1 or to see a reason for his affliction1 experiences relief1 and a sense of salvation4 ,amidst the confused darkness in which he was plunged1 a consoling ray of intellectual light has reached him4 ,the difficult matter1 indeed1 is to find the way of escape in the hour of darkness4 ,when we reflect that a dog may die of grief on the grave of his master1 and that a mother can survive on the grave of her only son1 we see at once that it is the light of reason which makes the difference between the two4 ,the dog cannot reason on the matter2 it may die because no light can penetrate the darkness of its intelligence to overcome the depression of its grief4 ,but the thought of a universal justice1 the living memory of the lost one which remains to us1 saves the human being4 ,and by degrees1 not forgetfulness1 which alone can save the animal1 but the connection which the intelligence establishes with the universe1 restores calm to the suffering soul4 ,such comfort could never be derived from the dry lesson of a professor1 from memorizing the theory of a savant who is not in sympathy with the state of our soul4 ,when we say1 to give ourselves a reason1 to derive strength from a principle1 we imply that the ever-inquiring intelligence should be left at liberty to perform its work of reconstruction and salvation4 ,now if intelligence in comprehending may actually prove our salvation when in danger of death1 what a source of enjoyment it should prove to man6 ,when we talk of the opening of the mind1 we mean a creative phenomenon1 which is not the weak result of an impression violently made from without4 ,the opening of the mind is the active comprehension which accompanies great emotions1 and which is therefore felt as a spiritual event4 ,i once knew a motherless girl1 who was so much depressed by the arid teaching of her school1 that she had become almost incapable of study and even of understanding the things which were taught her4 ,her life of solitude1 lacking in natural affection1 was a further aggravation of her mental fatigue4 ,her father decided that she should live for a year or two in the open country like a little savage2 he then brought her back to town1 and placed her under the private direction of a number of professors4 ,the girl studied and learned1 but remained passive and weary4 ,every now and then her father would say3 ,is your mind opening again8 and the girl always replied3 ,i do not know4 ,what do you mean8 ,owing to a curious coincidence in my life1 this girl was confided to my sole care2 and it was thus that ,i1 when ,i was still a medical student1 made my first pedagogic experiment1 upon which ,i cannot linger now1 though it would be worthy of interest4 ,one day we were together and when she was at work on organic chemistry1 she broke off1 and looking at me with beaming eyes1 said3 ,here it is now6 ,i do understand6 ,she then got up and went away1 calling out aloud3 ,father1 father6 ,my mind has opened6 ,i1 not then knowing the girl's history1 was astonished and agitated4 ,she had taken her father's hand1 and was saying3 ,now ,i can tell you1 yes1 yes2 ,i did not know what it meant before2 my mind has opened4 ,the joy of father and daughter and their union at that moment made me think of the joys and wellsprings of life which we destroy by enslaving the intelligence4 ,indeed1 every intellectual conquest is a wellspring of joy to our free children4 ,this is the pleasure to which they are now most susceptible1 and which makes them scorn lower pleasures2 it is after having tasted of this that2 our little ones despise sweetmeats1 toys1 and vanities4 ,it is this which makes them sublime to the eyes of those who contemplate them4 ,their pleasure is that lofty pleasure which distinguish man from the brute1 and can save us even from the desolation of grief and darkness4 ,when it is made a reproach to our method that it seeks to promote the pleasure of the child1 and that this is immoral1 it is the child and not the method which is insulted4 ,for the essence of this reproach is the calumny against the child1 who is considered by all as on a level with the beasts1 and whose pleasure is supposed to lie solely in gluttony and idleness1 and worse4 ,but none of these could keep the child's pleasure alive for hours and days and years4 ,it is only when he has laid hold on humane pleasure that he persists in it1 and lives with a joy which is comparable to that of the young girl who ran to her father to proclaim the end of the darkness in which she had languished for years4 ,may it not perhaps be that those crises1 which are to-day but the intellectual illuminations of genius when it discovers a truth1 represent a natural phenomenon of psychical life8 ,may not the manifestation of the genius be but the manifestation of a vigorous life1 saved from perils by its exceptional individuality1 and therefore itself alone capable of revealing the true nature of man8 ,his type would then be the common one1 and all men1 in a greater or less degree1 would seem to be of the same species4 ,the paths the child follows in the active construction of his individuality are indeed identical with those followed by the genius4 ,his characteristics are absorbed attention1 a profound concentration which isolates him from all the stimuli of his environment1 and corresponds in intensity and duration to the development of spiritual activities4 ,as in genius1 this concentration is not without results1 but is the source of intellectual crises1 of rapid internal developments1 and1 above all1 of an external activity which expresses itself in work4 ,we may say1 then1 that the genius is the man who has burst his bonds asunder1 who has maintained his liberty1 and who has upheld before the eyes of the multitude the standard of the humanity conquered by him4 ,nearly all the manifestations of those men who liberated themselves from the external bondage of their times are to be noted in our children4 ,such1 for instance1 is that sublime spiritual obedience1 at present still unknown to the majority of mankind1 with the exception of monks1 who1 however1 often recognize it only in theory1 and contemplate it only in the examples given by the saints2 such again are those means necessary to the construction of a strong internal life which form part of the preparation for the cloistered life in the methodical meditations of those about to enter upon it4 ,no persons1 with the exception of monks1 practise meditation4 ,we can hardly distinguish meditation from methods for learning intellectually4 ,we know1 for example1 that to read a great number of books consecutively1 dissipates our powers and our capacity for thought2 and that to learn a piece of poetry by heart means to repeat it until it is engraven on our minds3 and that all this is not meditation4 ,he who commits a verse of ,dante to memory and he who meditates upon a verse of the gospel1 performs a totally different task4 ,the canto will adorn the mind on which it is impressed for a certain time1 without leaving any lasting trace upon it4 ,the verse which has been the subject of meditation will have a transforming and edifying effect4 ,he who meditates clears his mind as far as possible of every other image1 and tries to concentrate upon the subject of meditation in such a manner that all the internal activities will be polarised thereby3 or1 as the monks say1 all the powers of the mind4 ,the expected result of the meditation is an internal fruit of strength2 the soul is strengthened and unified1 it becomes active2 it can then act upon the seed around which it has concentrated and cause it to become fruitful4 ,now the method chosen by our children in following their natural development is meditation1 for in no other way would they be led to linger so long over each individual task1 and so to derive a gradual internal maturation therefrom4 ,the aim of the children who persevere in their work with an object1 is certainly not to learn2 they are drawn to it by the needs of their inner life1 which must be organized and developed by its means4 ,in this manner they imitate and carry on their growth4 ,this is the habit by which they gradually coordinate and enrich their intelligence4 ,as they meditate1 they enter upon that path of progress which will continue without end4 ,it is after an exercise of meditation on the objects that our children become capable of enjoying the silence exercise2 and then1 having been rendered delicately susceptible to impressions1 they try to make no noise when they move1 to refrain from awkward actions1 because they are enjoying the fruit of the concentration of the spirit4 ,it is thus that their personality is unified and strengthened4 ,the exercise which serves as the means to this end is designed gradually to perfect the accuracy with which they perceive the external world1 observing1 reasoning1 and correcting the errors of the senses in a sustained and spontaneous activity4 ,it is they who act1 they who choose the objects1 they who persevere in their work1 they who seek to win from their environment the possibility of concentrating their minds upon it4 ,each one of them moves in obedience to the motor power within him4 ,they are not disturbed by a teacher1 by a being obviously superior to themselves1 who intimidates the shrinking poverty of those who are beginning life by her lofty intellectual riches1 who darkens rather than illuminates1 who wearies rather than refreshes2 but they live in peace with her who1 almost a priestess1 is yet a servant4 ,as in some ideal convent1 humility1 simplicity1 and work make up the environment where he who meditates will some day feel within himself the clearness of vision1 the intuition1 almost the sensibility1 which make one ready to receive the truth4 ,to a different end1 but by the same road1 amidst the silence1 the simplicity1 and the humility of the monastery1 the spirit prepares itself to receive the faith at the outset of life4 ,many years ago1 when ,i first received the impression that our children revealed general principles of life which in practise we are only privileged to encounter among the intellectual and spiritual lite of society1 and that for this reason they were at the same time the revealers of a form of unconscious oppression which weighed down humanity1 deforming the inner life1 ,i spoke at length upon the matter to an intellectual lady1 who was much interested in my theories1 and very anxious that ,i should make them the subject of an elaborate philosophical treatise2 but she could not bring herself to accept the idea that it was a question of an experimental process4 ,when ,i spoke of the children1 she showed some impatience3 ,oh1 yes1 ,i quite understand all about these children2 in intelligence they are so many geniuses1 and in goodness so many angels4 ,but when1 after some persuasion1 ,i succeeded in making her come and see for herself1 she took my hands and looked earnestly in my face3 ,have you never thought1 she asked1 that you may die at any moment8444 ,write at once1 anyhow1 in all haste1 as you would write a will1 a simple description of the facts1 that you may not carry away this secret with you to the grave4 ,nevertheless1 ,i was in excellent health4 99 99 99 99 99 ,if we examine the mental labors of men of genius to whom we owe discoveries which have opened new paths to thought1 and have given us new sources of well-being and social progress1 we shall have to admit that in themselves they cannot be described as extraordinary processes1 inaccessible to mediocrity4 ,genius coincides with the possession in a very high degree of the power of association by similarity4 ,this is the essential quality of genius1 says ,bain4 ,even at the central point of discovery1 it is only by accurate observation and a very simple process of reasoning1 of which most persons would consider themselves capable1 that the discovery is made4 ,at most it is due to a marshalling of evidences which1 however1 passed unnoticed by all but the discoverer4 ,we may say that genius has the faculty of isolating a fact in the consciousness1 and of so distinguishing it from all others that it is as if a single ray of light should fall upon a diamond in a dark room4 ,this single idea1 then1 causes a complete revolution in the consciousness1 and is capable of constructing something infinitely great and precious for all humanity4 ,but it is the intense significance of ordinary things1 and not the abnormal1 which is the main factor2 it is the isolation in a homogeneous field1 not the intrinsic value of the thing1 which determines the marvelous phenomenon4 ,perhaps within countless thousands of chaotic perceptions the gem had existed1 stored up amidst a multitude of useless and cumbrous objects1 and had never succeeded in arresting attention2 meanwhile inertia continued to allow new objects to penetrate continually within the distended and impotent walls4 ,after a discovery1 many will perceive that they themselves held the same truth within them2 but in this case it is not the truth itself that has value1 but the man who is capable of appreciating it and bringing it into relation with action4 ,but very often it is not the case that the newly discovered truth already exists in the chaos of obscure consciousness2 and then the new light1 simple though it be1 can find no way by which to penetrate into the mind4 ,it is rejected as something strange and fallacious2 and a certain lapse of time is necessary1 a certain coordination of the intelligence1 to enable the novelty to enter4 ,yet some day it will be considered clear as crystal4 ,it was not the nature of man which shrank from it1 but his errors4 ,these errors not only make man incapable of production1 but are in themselves hostile to receptivity4 ,thus it often happens that the pioneers of salvation are persecuted by a sort of unconscious ingratitude1 which is the fruit of spiritual darkness4 ,what was the argument of ,christopher ,columbus8 ,he thought3 ,if the earth is really round1 he who starts from a certain point and advances steadily1 will return to the point of departure4 ,this was the sum of the intellectual work which enriched mankind with a new world4 ,that a great continent should have lain in the track of ,columbus1 and that he should have encountered this and not death1 was the destiny due to the chance of environment4 ,the environment sometimes rewards small reasonings of this kind in a surprising manner4 ,it was certainly not a great labor of human intelligence which brought about these great results2 it was the triumph of this idea over the whole consciousness1 and the heroic courage of the man1 which gave it its value4 ,the great difficulty1 for the man who had conceived the idea1 was to persevere until he could persuade others to help him in his enterprise1 to give him ships and followers4 ,it was the faith and not the idea of ,columbus which triumphed4 ,that simple and logical reasoning kindled within him something infinitely more precious than intelligence1 and enabled a single man of humble origin1 and almost uneducated1 to present a world to a queen4 ,we are told that ,alessandro ,volta's wife was ill with fever1 and that he1 in accordance with the practise of his day1 was preparing the usual febrifuge1 a broth of skinned frogs2 it was a rainy day1 and when he hung up the dead frogs on the iron bar of the window1 he noticed that their legs contracted4 ,if dead muscles contract1 it must mean that some external force has penetrated them4 ,this was the simple argument of the genius1 the great discoverer4 ,and seeking this force1 ,volta1 by means of his piles1 was able to wrest from the earth electricity1 which is1 literally as well as figuratively1 the gleam of an immense progress4 ,laying due weight upon a little fact1 such as that of a dead being having moved1 considering it soberly without any fanciful additions1 and fixing the mind upon the resulting problem3 ,why does it move8--such was the lengthy process by which one of the greatest conquests of civilization was achieved4 ,akin to this was ,galileo's discovery1 when1 standing in ,pisa ,cathedral1 he watched the oscillations of a hanging lamp4 ,he observed that the oscillations were all completed in the same space of time1 and the isochronism of the pendulum was the beginning of the measurement of time for all men1 and of the measurement of worlds for the astronomer4 ,how simple1 too1 is the story of ,newton1 who felt an apple fall upon him as he lay under a tree1 and thought to himself3 ,why did that apple fall8 ,such was the simple origin of the theory of the gravity of bodies1 and that of universal gravitation4 ,when we study of the life of ,papin1 we marvel at the culture which placed him on a level with the most learned men of his times3 as physician1 physiologist1 and mathematician1 he was distinguished and honored by the universities of ,england and ,germany4 ,nevertheless1 what gave him his value to humanity1 and hence his greatness1 was the fact that his attention had been arrested by the sight of the lid of a saucepan of boiling water raised by the steam4 ,steam is a force which could lift a piston as it lifts the cover of a saucepan1 and become the motor power of a machine4 ,papin's famous saucepan is a kind of magic wand in the history of mankind1 which thenceforth began to work and travel without fatigue4 ,how wonderful are such stories of great discoveries arising from humble beginnings1 and working miracles throughout the world6 ,these1 in their origins1 resemble those living creatures1 born of two imperceptible microscopic cells1 the fusion of which inevitably tends to the creation of complex lives4 ,to perceive exactly and to connect the things perceived logically is the work of the highest intelligence4 ,but this work is characterized by a peculiar power of attention1 which causes the mind to dwell upon a subject in a species of meditation1 the characteristic mark of genius2 the outcome is an internal life rich in activities1 just as the germinative cells are the fruit of internal existences4 ,it would seem that such mentalities are distinguished from those of the ordinary type1 not by their form1 but by their force4 ,it is the vigorous life from which those two small intellectual sparks arise1 which makes them so marvelous4 ,if they had not sprung from strong1 independent personalities1 capable of persistent effort and heroic self-sacrifice1 those little intellectual works would have remained as things inert and negligible4 ,hence all that strengthens the spiritual man may lead him in the footsteps of the genius4 ,thus1 as regards the intelligence in itself1 the work it has to accomplish is a small matter1 but it is clearly defined1 and stripped of superfluous complications4 ,simplicity is the guide to discovery2 simplicity which1 like truth1 should be naked4 ,very little is necessary2 but this little must constitute a powerful unity2 the rest is vanity4 ,and the greater this vanity1 that is to say1 the futile encumbrance of the mind1 the more will the light of the spirit be darkened and its forces dissipated1 making it difficult or impossible not only to reason and act1 but even to perceive reality1 to see4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it would be interesting to make a rapid survey of those collective individual errors by which the progress of a new discovery of a simple kind1 offering relief to suffering humanity1 has been impeded2 errors which have even caused persistent denial of the existence of obvious facts1 merely because these were not generally known4 ,let us consider for a moment the discovery of the cause of malaria4 ,this discovery1 due to the ,englishman1 ,ross1 in connection with birds1 and to the ,italian1 ,grassi1 in connection with man1 consists in having found out that the plasmodium of malaria1 which produces the malady1 is inoculated in man and in the various animals subject to it1 by a special kind of mosquito4 ,let us inquire what was the state of science prior to this discovery4 ,in #ahhj ,laveran had described an animal micro-organism1 which preyed upon the red corpuscles of the blood1 producing an attack of fever with the cycle of its existence4 ,subsequent studies confirmed and elucidated this fact1 and the plasmodium malariae became a matter of common knowledge4 ,it was known that animal micro-organisms1 unlike vegetable micro-organisms1 after a cycle of life in which reproduction takes place by scission--that is1 by subdivision of a single body into several other bodies equal to the first1 give place to sexual forms1 masculine and feminine1 which are separate1 and incapable of scission1 but are designed for fusion into one another1 after which the organism recommences its cycle of scissions until it again reaches the sexual forms4 ,laveran had found that in the blood of sufferers who recover spontaneously from malarial fever there are a great number of corpuscles which have no longer the rounded forms of the plasmodia1 but are crescent-shaped and rayed4 ,he took these to be transformations of the plasmodia1 modified in form and incapable of producing disease1 and pronounced them to be degenerate organisms1 almost as if they had been deformed and exhausted by the excess of work they had previously performed4 ,these organisms were described as ,laveran's degenerative forms4 ,after the discovery of the transmission of malaria in #aijj1 ,laveran's degenerative forms were recognized as the sexual individuals of the reproductive cycle3 individuals which were incapable of conjugation in the blood of man1 and could only produce new organisms in the body of the mosquito4 ,we may well wonder3 ,why did not ,laveran simply recognize those sexual forms1 and why did he not seek for the period of conjugation in the plasmodia1 which were animal micro-organisms8 ,if he had borne in mind the complete cycle of the protozoa1 he would have recognized them4 ,but evidently ,morel's theories of the degeneration of man had made a much livelier impression on his imagination2 and his leap from these remote theories to his interpretation of the plasmodia seemed an achievement of genius4 ,it may be said that this feat of genius1 this visionary generalization1 prevented ,laveran from seeing the truth4 ,a form of arrogance and levity is apparent in such errors4 ,moreover1 we are astonished by something still more serious3 how came it that hundreds and thousands of students throughout the world accepted ,laveran's error with their eyes shut1 that not one among so many took into consideration on his own account the cycle of the protozoa1 and that not one was sufficiently independent to set about studying the phenomenon for himself8 ,what is this mental form of inertia8 and why does it produce itself in man8 ,all these disciples1 heedless of the problem presented to their minds by the sexual form of the plasmodium1 left it alone1 although it had not yet been solved1 and certainly had no intuition of the fame1 the progress in science1 and the benefit to humanity which would have been the outcome1 had the problem constituted an obstacle which had arrested their attention1 saying3 ,solve me4 ,they passed on indifferently1 commending ,laveran's effort of genius1 repeating with him3 ,they are degenerate forms4 ,a futile effort1 which only increased a crowd of persons who had resigned their own individuality all unconsciously4 ,another biological acquisition was the assurance that the circulatory system of the blood is a closed system of vessels1 and that the enclosing epithelium is not permeable by non-incisive solid bodies such as vegetable microbes1 and still less by rounded protozoa1 which are much larger than microbes and soft in substance4 ,this well-known and clearly demonstrated fact ought to have suggested a problem to the minds of students3 ,how do the protozoa of malaria enter the circulatory current of the blood8 ,but ever since the days of ,hippocrates1 ,pliny1 ,celsius and ,galen it had been held that this fever was caused by the poisonous atmosphere of marsh lands1 the bad air of the morning and the evening1 so much so that even a few years before the discovery of the real cause of malaria1 eucalyptus trees were planted in the belief that they would filter and disinfect the air4 ,how was it that no one asked himself how it was possible that the plasmodia could enter the current of the blood from the air8 ,what was the species of torpor which took possession of the intelligence of persons who had specialized in intellectual work8 ,here was a colossal sum of intelligence1 without any individuality4 ,until ,ross discovered that birds are inoculated with malaria by a particular kind of mosquito4 ,and then1 behold6 we have at last the fundamental argument from which the knowledge of the truth sprang forth3 ,if birds are inoculated with malaria by mosquitoes1 then the same thing must happen to man4 ,a simple argument1 which sped like an arrow to the final discovery4 ,nothing seemed more incredible than the fact that in the malarial regions good air and fertile soil were to be found1 that it was possible to breathe that air morning and evening and remain in perfect health1 so long as one was not bitten by mosquitoes1 and that the innumerable peasants who were wasted by malarial anemia would be saved and restored if they protected themselves by mosquito-netting4 ,but after the first stupefaction1 when men were convinced of the facts1 there was an outcry from all the intelligent3 ,how was it possible that we did not find it out before8 ,was not the cycle of the protozoa a well-known fact8 ,did not every one declare that the system of circulation was closed and impervious to micro-organisms8 ,was it not natural to think that only a blood-sucking insect could innoculate it8 ,how many students felt that glory had passed close to them1 and were amazed and saddened by the knowledge1 like the disciples of ,emmus1 who said to each other when the ,master disappeared before they recognized ,him3 ,did not our hearts burn within us when ,he spoke and expounded the ,scriptures to us8 ,many must have thought3 ,we worked so laboriously only to encumber our minds1 and yet but one thing was needful3 we should have been humble and simple1 but independent4 ,instead1 we filled our souls with darkness1 and the ray that would have made us see1 could not penetrate to us4 ,let us take some grosser errors4 ,as far back as the days of the ,greek civilization it was known empirically that stones can fall from the sky4 ,falls of arolites are recorded in the most ancient ,chinese chronicles4 ,in the ,middle ,ages and in modern times intimations of the fall of arolites have increased in frequency4 ,remarkable facts are indeed recorded in history in connection with similar phenomena3 the meteorite which fell in #adib served the ,emperor ,maximilian ,i of ,germany as a pretext to excite ,christendom to a war against the ,turks4 ,nevertheless1 the phenomenon was not admitted by men of science until the eighteenth century4 ,one of the largest meteorites on record was that which fell near ,agram in #agea2 it weighed about forty kilogrammes1 and was deposited and catalogued in the court mineralogical museum at ,vienna4 ,this is what ,sttz1 a ,german savant1 had to say on the subject in #agij3 ,those ignorant of natural history may believe that iron has fallen from the sky1 and even educated men in ,germany may have believed this in #agea1 taking into account the universal ignorance then prevalent as to natural history and physics2 but in our times it would be unpardonable to admit even the plausibility of such fables4 ,in the same year #agij1 an arolite weighing ten kilogrammes fell in ,gascony4 ,it was observed by a large number of persons1 and an official report1 signed by three hundred witnesses1 was sent to the ,academy of ,paris4 ,the reply was that it had been very amusing to receive a legal document dealing with such an absurdity4 #g ,footnote #g3 ,but a great physicist1 unable to share amusement1 wrote3 ,it is sad to see a municipality giving credence to the babble of the vulgar in a protocol1 and to see authentic testimonies to an occurrence which is obviously impossible4 ,when1 a few years later1 ,chladni of ,wittenberg1 the founder of scientific acoustics1 began to admit the phenomenon and to believe in the existence of arolites1 he was stigmatized as a man who was ignorant of every law and who did not consider the damage he was doing in the moral world2 and one savant declared that if he had himself seen iron fall from the sky at his own feet1 he would not have believed it4 ,this was incredulity greater than that of ,st ,thomas1 who said3 ,unless ,i can touch ,i will not believe4 ,here were pieces of iron weighing ten and forty kilogrammes1 which could be touched1 but the savant said3 ,even if ,i touch them1 ,i will not believe4 ,it is1 therefore1 not enough to see in order to believe2 we must believe in order to see4 ,it is faith which leads to sight1 not sight which produces faith4 ,when the blind man in the gospel uttered the anxious cry3 ,make me to see1 he asked for faith1 because he knew that it is possible to have eyes and not to see4 ,the fact of being insensible to evidence is little considered in psychology1 much less is it taken into account in pedagogic laws4 ,and yet many similar facts1 though of an inferior psychological order1 are notorious1 as1 for instance1 that stimuli will appeal in vain to the senses1 if the internal cooperation of attention be lacking4 ,a thousand experiences of this kind enter in to make up the sum of common knowledge4 ,it is not enough that an object should be before our eyes to make us see it2 it is necessary that we should fix our attention upon it2 an internal process1 preparing us to receive the impression of the stimulus1 is essential4 ,in a loftier and purely spiritual sphere something of the same kind takes place3 an idea cannot enter triumphantly into the consciousness1 if it is not accompanied by a preparation of faith4 ,lacking this1 it may knock violently and brutally1 with clamorous insistence1 without being able to penetrate4 ,it is necessary that the field of consciousness should be not only free1 but expectant4 ,he who is bewildered by a chaos of ideas cannot accept a truth which arrives unexpectedly in the unprepared field4 ,this fact is not only analogous to other psychical facts of less importance1 such as that of sensory perception in relation to attention2 it is also analogous to the spiritual facts which are so well known in the field of religion4 ,in vain will a fact1 however remarkable1 be explained or even demonstrated where there is no faith2 it is not evidence but faith which opens the mind to truth4 ,the very senses are useless as a medium if the internal activity does not open the doors to receive it4 ,when the most striking miracles of ,christ are related in the gospel1 the narrative always concludes with3 ,and many of those who saw1 believed4 ,the parable of the invitation to the feast1 to which those who were absorbed in their own affairs could not respond1 seems to indicate a fact similar to this intellectual fact1 that the preoccupations of complicated pre-existing ideas prevent the new and obvious truth that presents itself1 from entering in4 ,it is for this reason that we need the ,precursor to make ready for the ,messiah4 ,and for this reason the ,messiah1 and also new ideas1 are readily received by the simple1 by those who are not laden with heavy preoccupations1 but have preserved the natural characteristics of the spirit3 to be pure and always expectant4 ,when in #afbh ,harvey discovered the circulation of the blood1 physiology was almost unknown1 and medicine was in the full tide of empiricism4 ,it is well known that the ,faculty of ,medicine of ,paris refused to believe in circulation1 in spite of experiments1 and that it persecuted and calumniated ,harvey4 ,that which pleases me in my son1 said ,diafoirus1 and in which he follows my example1 is1 that he remains faithful to the opinions of our ancient teachers1 and that he has always refused either to understand or to listen to the arguments and experiments of the pretended discoveries of our century1 especially as regards the circulation of the blood4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the history of the discovery of germinative foliations in the embryonic development of vertebrates forms one of the most impressive of human documents4 ,in #agjj the theory of pre-formation was vigorously upheld amongst the many ideas relating to generation3 that is to say1 it was believed that the germs contained little organisms completely formed which would eventually unfold and increase the parts of infinitesimal dimensions which were packed one within the other4 ,this theory applied to every living creature1 animal1 vegetable1 and human4 ,it had led1 by its own logical development1 to the more far-reaching theory of mutual inclusion--that is1 the doctrine that1 as all living organisms are pre-formed1 they must of necessity all have existed from the ,creation1 the one included1 or wrapped up1 in the other4 ,all humanity must have lain in the ovaries of ,eve4 ,when in #afij ,leuwenhoek discovered spermatozoa by the aid of the microscope1 the idea was evolved that each male cell contained a complete microscopic man1 the homunculus2 and then it was announced that not ,eve1 but ,adam had contained all humanity within himself4 ,hence the two contradictory theories which in the eighteenth century kept their adherents sharply divided1 the theories of the ovulists and those of the animalculists1 and the dispute seemed to offer little hope of a possible decision4 ,the names of famous scientists and philosophers were associated with these dissensions1 those1 for instance1 of ,spallanzani and of ,liebnitz1 who applied the principles of generation even to the soul4 ,thus ,i should think1 said ,liebnitz1 that the souls which will one day become human souls1 were present in the germ2 that they have always existed as organized bodies in their progenitors from ,adam onwards--that is1 from the beginning of things4 #h ,haller1 the ovulist1 who had great authority as a physiologist1 in a famous work1 ,elementa physiologiae1 upheld the principle vigorously3 ,nulla est epigenesis4 ,nulla in corpore animale pars ante aliam facta est et omnes simul creatae existunt 7nothing is created anew1 no part of the human body is made before any other part1 all are created at the same time74 ,making a calculation based on ,biblical cosmogony of the number of human beings who were packed in the ovaries of ,eve1 he reckons them at two hundred thousand millions4 ,such was the state of thought when in #agei ,k4 ,f4 ,wolff published some of his studies in the work ,theoria generationis1 where he maintained1 on the strength of experiments and microscopic observations made on the embryos of fowls1 that new organisms are not pre-formed1 but that they create themselves entirely1 starting from nothing--that is1 from a microscopic cell1 simple as are all primitive cells4 ,he described the simple process by which the real evolution of individuals is brought about3 from a single cell1 by division1 two1 and then four and then eight1 are formed1 and so on4 ,and the cells thus germinated divide themselves into two or three tiny folds of primitive folioles from which all the organs are evolved1 beginning with the alimentary canal4 ,this assertion1 says ,wolff is not a fanciful theory2 it is a description of facts collected by means of the most trustworthy observations4 ,footnote #h3 ,from ,haeckel's ,anthropogenie4 ,all the scientists of his day knew and made use of the microscope2 all might have taken an egg1 that is1 the embryo of a fowl1 as a subject for observation2 they were not indifferent to the problem of individual genesis1 but in their case it had merely excited the most complex efforts of the imagination1 and had divided them into factions1 as adversaries in a battle of thought4 ,could any one of them attempt to experiment and observe save at the risk of destroying himself together with his adversaries1 as ,samson destroyed himself with the ,philistines8 ,the possibility that there might be some truth in what had been seen and described1 and that it might recur1 should indeed have induced some one to venture upon a road which1 if it proved to be the right one1 would have been a glorious path to a future of discoveries and distinctions4 ,but no4 ,a dense fog obscured all minds1 and the dazzling truth could not pierce it2 thus all progress in embryology was precluded4 ,fifty years had passed1 and ,wolff1 poor and persecuted1 had died at ,petrograd1 an exile from his native land1 when ,pander and ,ernest von ,baer grappled anew with the theory of blastodermic foliation4 ,then the scientific world perceived the truth and accepted the evidence1 inaugurating those studies in embryology which shed so much luster on the nineteenth century4 ,why was it necessary that fifty years should elapse before men could see what was evident8 ,what had happened in these fifty years8 ,the work of ,wolff1 dead and forgotten1 can have had no influence whatever4 ,the fact was merely that men saw subsequently what it had been previously impossible for them to see4 ,a kind of internal maturity must have come about in them1 by virtue of which their spiritual eyes were opened1 and they saw4 ,when those eyes were closed1 evidence was useless4 ,fifty years earlier1 a direct attack would have spent itself on insuperable obstacles2 but with the lapse of time the subject presented itself1 and was simply and universally accepted1 not only without a struggle1 but without any excitement4 ,this fact might be arguable in relation to the internal maturation of the masses2 but it is beyond question in its relation to the individual4 ,when an obvious truth cannot be seen1 we must retire1 and leave the individual to mature4 ,a struggle to bring about perception of evidence would be bitter and exhausting4 ,but when maturity comes1 we shall find the seer filled with enthusiasm1 and bearing fruit like the vines of the ,land of ,promise4 ,when in #ahei ,charles ,darwin expounded the theory of evolution in his book1 ,the ,origin of ,species1 he recognized the great influence it had had upon the thought of his day1 for he wrote in his note-book3 ,my theory will lead to a philosophy4 ,his conception of the struggle for life and of the natural selection of characteristics1 so widely adopted by the thinkers of his day1 popularized the principles of ,lamarck as to the casual formation of new characteristics in a species by adaptation to environment2 ,darwin's conception carried these principles along with it--and almost fused them in its own content4 ,these principles1 excluding both creation and its finalities1 implicitly denied the immortality of the soul4 ,the effect of such a revolution may be imagined2 for many centuries the soul had been the object of life1 and when the fundamental faith of existence was shaken1 the life of the conscience itself was convulsed4 ,it may be supposed that there was an anxious search for contradictions in the destructive theory1 if on no other grounds than that of the instinct to preserve ancient beliefs1 which lies deeply rooted in the human race4 ,but let us take into consideration the two revolutionary principles which so greatly impressed and fired the consciousness of the university students of several generations4 ,one principle was3 ,there can be no function without an organ4 ,the other principle which created much enthusiasm among studious youths was3 ,the function creates the organ4 ,what6 ,there is no function without an organ1 nor can the function even exist without the organ2 and yet1 on the other hand1 the function without the organ can exist so vigorously as to create8 ,no such glaring and tangible contradiction had ever existed in any theory4 ,and it cannot be said that ,darwinism and the principles of ,lamarck were hastily studied and confused in a varied series of philosophical theories1 for ,darwinism had isolated itself as a victorious idea which drives out all other ideas1 as the light of day disperses the darkness of night4 ,and students dwelt upon it1 anxious to construct a new morality and a new conscience2 therefore these two principles were not studied coldly and languidly4 ,moreover1 they penetrated together into the consciousness and excited enthusiasm each on its own account2 on such a triumphant contradiction it was proposed to destroy a world and create another4 ,the final conclusion of thought1 then1 was this3 ,we are mere beasts1 there is no substantial difference between the animals and ourselves2 we are apes1 but our more remote ancestors were earthworms4 ,with what ardor did professors from their chairs analyze the psychology of men1 to prove that1 try as we may1 we can find nothing in ourselves which we do not share with animals1 and with what enthusiasm did their pupils applaud them6 ,when professors of psychiatry removed the brains of pigeons and monkeys by vivisection1 and1 after curing the creatures1 exhibited them at international psychological congresses1 devoting the most sincere attention to the study of their psychical reactions1 observing the attitudes of their bodies1 their activity of perception1 and similar things--all really believed that an animal without a brain could throw light upon the psychology of man6 ,when we think that this was the epoch of positivism--that is to say1 of those who could not believe without touching1 we are profoundly impressed by this reflection3 ,the intelligence1 then1 is threatened by dangers1 like the spirit4 ,it may be obscured1 it may contain a contradiction1 an error1 without perceiving it1 and as a result of a single unnoticed error it may rush into a species of delirium1 a mortal aberration4 ,like the spirit1 then1 it has its way of salvation1 and it needs to be sustained lest it should perish4 ,the support it requires is not that of the senses4 ,like the spirit1 it needs a continual purification1 which1 like the fish of ,tobias1 heals the eyes of their blindness4 ,that self-care which the hygiene of to-day prescribes for the body1 and which makes us spend so much time even on cleaning and polishing our nails1 should be extended to the inner man1 that this may preserve its health and its integrity4 ,this should be the object of the education of the intelligence4 ,to educate the intelligence is to save it from its peculiar perils of disease and death2 it is to purge it of its offenses4 ,we shall not educate the intelligence if we weary it by making it learn things4 ,this is patent in these days of ours1 when the victims of nervous disorders and lunacy abound1 and when1 even among those who are considered healthy1 the material consequences of madness may explode1 threatening the whole of humanity with ruin4 ,our care of the child should be governed1 not by the desire to make him learn things1 but by the endeavor always to keep burning within him that light which is called the intelligence4 ,if to this end we must consecrate ourselves as did the vestals of old1 it will be a work worthy of so great a result4 ,,ix ,,imagination ,the creative imagination of science is based upon truth4--,if1 a century ago1 some one had told the men who were traveling in stage-coaches and using oil-lamps that some day ,new ,york would blaze with light at midnight2 that men would ask for succor in mid-ocean and that their message would be understood on land1 that their flight in the air would surpass that of the eagle--our good forefathers would have smiled incredulously4 ,their imaginations would never have been able to conceive these things4 ,to them1 modern men would have seemed almost like men of another species4 ,this is because the imagination of modern men is based upon the positive researches of science1 whereas the men of past ages allowed their minds to wander in the world of unreality4 ,this single fact has changed the face of the world4 ,when man loses himself in mere speculations1 his environment will remain unchanged1 but when imagination starts from contact with reality1 thought begins to construct works by means of which the external world becomes transformed2 almost as if the thought of man had assumed a marvelous power3 the power to create4 ,it is thus we imagine the thought of ,god2 all creation is the divine thought1 which has the property of realizing itself4 ,god thought3 and behold6 light1 the order of creation1 living things1 appeared4 ,modern man by the method of positive science seems to have found the secret trace of thought which puts him in the divine path1 which gives him the revelation of his true nature1 as indicated in the words of ,scripture3 ,let us make man in our image and likeness4 ,thus human intelligence said3 ,let there be light--and there was a magic effulgence which comes and goes at a touch4 ,let man fly in the air and rise far above all the birds of creation--and it was so4 ,let the voices of shipwrecked mariners travel mysteriously and without sound1 and reach distant places--and it was so4 ,let things multiply1 plants in their varieties1 so that all men may have the means of life more abundantly--and it was so4 ,the imagination has created when it has started from creation3 that is1 when it has first taken in existing truth4 ,only then has it accomplished marvelous things4 ,like the tiny bird which hid under the wing of an eagle about to soar1 and when it had been thus borne up to an immense height1 disengaged itself from the eagle and began to fly still higher by its own efforts--so too is man1 who at first holds fast to ,nature1 attaches himself to her by means of the most severe speculations1 and with her soars aloft in search of truth2 then he disengages himself from her1 and his imagination creates over and above ,nature herself4 ,in this manner man seems to reflect divine attributes2 the marvelous and miraculous issue from him in such grandiose form that the man of the past1 the wren without the eagle1 could not even have conceived it4 ,original sin is an allegory of this eternal story1 of the man who wished to act for himself1 to substitute himself for ,god1 to emancipate himself from ,him1 and to create4 ,whereupon he fell into impotence1 slavery and misery4 ,the mind that works by itself1 independently of truth1 works in a void4 ,its creative power is a means for working upon reality4 ,but it confuses the means with the end1 it is lost4 ,this kind of sin of the intelligence1 so akin to original sin1 the sin of confounding the means with the end1 recurs in every form as a force of inertia which pervades the psychical life4 ,thus man confounds the means1 which is simpler1 easier and more comprehensible1 with the end in many of his functions4 ,thus1 for example1 when nutrition is made a pretext for gluttony1 and the appetite an end in itself1 the body1 instead of renewing itself in health and purity1 is poisoned4 ,again1 when in the reproduction of species the sexual emotion becomes an end in itself rather than a means for the renewal of life1 degeneration and sterility result4 ,man is guilty of a like sin against the intelligence when he employs his creative activity of thought for its own sake1 without basing it upon truth2 by so doing he creates an unreal world1 full of error1 and destroys the possibility of creating in reality1 like a god1 producing external works4 ,thus positive science represents to us the redemption of thought2 its purification from original sin1 a return to the natural laws of psychical energy4 ,scientists are like those men of the ,bible story who1 after ,israel had come out of ,egypt1 were permitted to explore the ,land of ,promise1 and who came back with such a huge cluster of grapes that it took two men to carry it1 and the people saw it with amazement4 ,so have the scientists of to-day penetrated into the ,promised ,land of truth1 where lies the secret which enables man to scrutinize ,nature2 and they have come out therefrom1 bearing marvelous fruits for all men to see4 ,the secret is a simple one3 it consists of an exact method based on observation1 prudence1 and patience4 ,all men might be allowed to share the secret1 for indeed such virtues correspond to the occult1 intimate needs of their spiritual life4 ,it may be asked3 ,why should only explorers enter in1 while the people remain outside1 passively enjoying the fruits of their labors8 ,is it because the method of positive science1 which puts man in the way of knowing the truth1 of gathering up realities--and hence of building up his own imagination thereupon--is a monopoly1 the privilege of the chosen few8 ,that method which denotes the redemption of the intelligence ought to be the method by which all new humanity is molded--the formative method of the new generation4 ,in the ,bible story1 the explorers were the messengers1 and the witnesses to the existence of the ,promised ,land1 into which the whole people was to enter4 ,and so it is here3 all men should come under the influence of the scientific method2 and every child should be able to experiment at first hand1 to observe1 and to put himself in contact with reality4 ,thus the flights of the imagination will start from a higher plane henceforth1 and the intelligence will be directed into its natural channels of creation4 99 99 99 99 99 ,truth is also the basis of artistic imagination4--,the work of the intelligence is not limited to the exact observation and the simple1 logical reasoning upon which great scientific discoveries may be founded4 ,there is a more exalted work1 confronting which none can say1 as in the presence of certain scientific discoveries2 ,i also might have been able to do this4 ,dante1 ,milton1 ,goethe1 ,raphael1 ,wagner1 are mighty mysteries1 miracles of intelligence1 which cannot be classed with the simple processes of observation and reasoning4 ,nevertheless1 every man has his share of artistic imagination1 he has the instinct to create the beautiful with his mind2 and from this instinct duly developed come all the vast treasures of art1 scattered almost like crumbs of gold wherever there was an intensity of civil life1 wherever the intelligence had time to mature in peace4 ,in every province which has preserved traces of ancient peoples we find local artistic types of work1 of furniture1 of poetic songs and popular music4 ,this multiform creation of the inner man1 then1 enfolds him and protects his spirit in its intellectual needs1 just as the iridescent shell encloses the mollusc4 ,in addition to the work of observing material reality1 there is a creative work which lifts man up from earth and transports him into a higher world which every soul may attain1 within its individual limits4 ,yet no one can say that man creates artistic products out of nothing4 ,what is called creation is in reality a composition1 a construction raised upon a primitive material of the mind1 which must be collected from the environment by means of the senses4 ,this is the general principle summed up in the ancient axiom3 ,nihil est in intellectu quod prius non fuerit in sensa 7,there is nothing in the intellect which was not first in the senses74 ,we are unable to imagine things which do not actually present themselves to our senses2 even language would be lacking to us to explain things lying beyond those customary limits by which our consciousness is bounded4 ,the imagination of ,michelangelo was unable to picture ,god otherwise than as a venerable old man with a white beard4 ,when we try to imagine the eternal torments of hell1 we talk of fire2 we think of ,paradise as a place of light4 ,those born blind and deaf can form no definite idea of sensations they have never been able to perceive4 ,it is well known that persons blind from their birth imagine colors by comparing them to sounds3 for instance1 they imagine red as the sound of a trumpet1 blue as the sweet music of the violin4 ,the deaf1 when they read descriptions of delicious music1 imagine the classic beauty of a painted picture4 ,the temperaments of poets and artists are pre-eminently sensorial4 ,and all the senses do not contribute in equal measure to give a type to the individual imagination2 but certain senses are often predominant4 ,musicians are auditive1 and are inclined to describe the world from the sounds it conveys to them2 the warbling of the nightingale in the silence of a wood2 the patter of the rain in the solitude of the country-side1 may be as springs of inspiration for great musical composers2 and some of them1 describing a tract of country1 will dwell only on its silences and noises4 ,others again1 whose susceptibilities are predominantly visual1 are impressed by the forms and colors of things4 ,or it may be the motion1 the flexuosity1 the impetus of things2 the tactile impressions of softness and harshness1 which make up the descriptive content of imaginative types in whom the tactile and muscular sensations predominate4 ,there are persons who have had non-sensorial impressions1 and they are persons whose spiritual life was of very great intensity4 ,they have internal impressions which cannot be accounted fruits of the imagination1 but must be accepted as realities simply perceived4 ,that they are realities is affirmed not only by the introspection of normal subjects1 but by the effect upon their internal personality4 ,the revelations vouchsafed by ,god1 says ,saint ,teresa1 are distinguished by the great spiritual benefits with which they enrich the soul2 they are accompanied by light1 discernment1 and wisdom4 ,but if such persons wish to describe these impressions which do not penetrate by means of the senses1 they are obliged to borrow the language of sensorial impression4 ,i heard a voice1 says the ,blessed ,raymond of ,capua1 which was not in the air1 and which pronounced words that reached my spirit1 but not my ear2 nevertheless ,i understood it more distinctly than if it had come to me from an external voice4 ,i could not reproduce this voice1 if ,i can call that a voice which had no sound4 ,this voice formed words and presented them to my spirit4 ,the ,life of ,saint ,teresa abounds in similar descriptions1 in which she tries to convey1 by the inappropriate language of the senses1 what she saw1 not with her eyes1 but with her soul4 ,the difference between these internal impressions1 which occur in others as well as in saints 7and certainly do not constitute saintliness71 and the hallucinations of the insane1 is clearly marked4 ,in the madman1 an excitement of the cerebral cortex reproduces old images deposited by the sensorial memory1 which project themselves into the external world whence they were taken1 with external sensorial characteristics2 so that the sufferer really believes that he sees his phantasms with his actual eyes1 and that he hears the voices which persecute him2 he is the victim of a pathological condition2 the whole personality reveals signs of his organic decadence1 the concomitants of his psychical disintegration4 ,setting aside1 then1 direct spiritual impressions of very rare occurrence1 not to be looked upon even as aids to sanctity1 impressions which may form suitable subjects of study for specialists such as teleologists or the members of the ,english ,society of ,psychical ,research1 but which do not enter into educational conceptions1 there remains for our consideration but a single material of construction for intellectual activities3 that of the senses4 ,imagination can have only a sensory basis4 ,the sensory education which prepares for the accurate perception of all the differential details in the qualities of things1 is therefore the foundation of the observation of things and of phenomena which present themselves to our senses2 and with this it helps us to collect from the external world the material for the imagination4 ,imaginative creation has no mere vague sensory support2 that is to say1 it is not the unbridled divagation of the fancy among images of light1 color1 sounds and impressions2 but it is a construction firmly allied to reality2 and the more it holds fast to the forms of the external created world1 the loftier will the value of its internal creations be4 ,even in imagining an unreal and superhuman world1 the imagination must be contained within limits which recall those of reality4 ,man creates1 but on the model of that divine creation in which he is materially and spiritually immersed4 ,in literary works of the highest order1 such as the ,divina ,commedia1 we admire the continual recurrence to the mind of the supreme poet of material and tangible things which illustrate by comparison the things imagined3 ,as doves ,by fond desire invited1 on wide wings ,and firm to their sweet nest returning home1 ,cleave the air1 wafted by their will along2 ,thus issued from that troop where ,dido ranks1 ,they1 through the ill air speeding4 7,carey's translation of ,dante's ,inferno1 ,canto ,v47 ,and as a man with difficult short breath ,forespent with toiling1 'scaped from sea to shore1 ,turns to the perilous wide waste1 and stands ,at gaze2 e'en so my spirit1 that yet fail'd ,struggling with terror1 turn'd to view the straits ,that none hath passed and lived4 7,carey's translation of ,dante's ,inferno1 ,canto ,i47 ,as sheep that step from forth their fold by one ,or pairs1 or three at once2 meanwhile the rest ,stand fearfully1 bending the eye and nose ,to ground1 and what the foremost does1 that do4 ,the others1 gathering round her if she stops1 ,simple and quiet1 nor the cause discern2 ,so saw ,i moving to advance the first ,who of that fortunate crew were at the head1 ,of modest mien1 and graceful in their gait4 7,carey's translation of ,dante's ,purgatorio1 ,canto ,,iii47 ,as though translucent and smooth glass or wave ,clear and unmoved1 and flowing not so deep ,as that its bed is dark1 the shape returns ,so faint of our impictured lineaments ,that on white forehead set1 a pearl as strong ,comes to the eye2 such saw ,i many a face ,all stretch'd to speak4 7,carey's translation of ,dante's ,paradiso1 ,canto ,,iii47 ,dante's metaphors are profuse and marvelous1 but every lofty writer and every great orator perpetually links the fruits of the imagination with the observation of fact2 and then we say that he is a genius1 full of imagination and knowledge1 and that his thought is clear and vital4 ,as a pack of hounds1 after vainly pursuing a hare1 returns in mortification to the master with hanging heads and drooping tails1 so on that tumultuous night did the mercenaries return to ,don ,rodrigo's stronghold 7,manzoni1 ,i promessi ,sposi74 ,imagery is confined to actual figures2 and it is this measure and this form which give power to the creations of the mind4 ,the imaginative writer should possess a rich store of perceptive observations1 and the more accurate and perfect these are1 the more vigorous will be the form he creates4 ,the insane talk of fantastic things1 but we do not therefore say that they have a great deal of imagination2 there is a vast gulf between the delirious confusion of thought and the metaphorical eloquence of the imagination4 ,in the first case there is a total incapacity to perceive actual things correctly1 and also to construct organically with the intelligence2 in the second1 the two things are co-existent as forms closely bound up one with the other4 ,the value of imaginative speech is determined by these conditions3 that the images used should be original1 that their author should himself link together the actual and the created images1 his own skill making him susceptible to their just and harmonious association4 ,if he repeats or imitates the images of others1 he achieves nothing4 ,hence it is necessary that every artist should be an observer2 and so1 speaking of the generality of intelligences1 it may be said that in order to develop the imagination it is necessary for every one first of all to put himself in contact with reality4 ,the same thing holds good in art4 ,the artist imagines his figure2 he does not copy it1 he creates it4 ,but this creation is in fact the fruit of the mind which is rooted in the observation of reality4 ,the painter and the sculptor are1 par excellence1 types of visual susceptibility to the forms and colors of their environment1 capable of perceiving its harmonies and contrasts2 and it is by refining his powers of observation that the artist finally perfects himself and succeeds in creating a masterpiece4 ,the immortal art of ,greece was above all an art based on observation2 the scanty clothing which was the fashion of his day enabled the ,greek artist to contemplate the human form freely2 and the exquisite sensibility of his eye enabled him to distinguish the beautiful body from that which lacked harmony1 until under the impulse of genius1 he was able to create the ideal figure1 conceived by the fusion of individual beauties chosen from details in the sensorial storehouse of the mind4 ,the artist1 when he creates certainly does not compose by putting together the parts which are to form the whole as in a mosaic2 in the ardor of inspiration he sees the complete new figure1 born of his genius2 but details he has accumulated have served to nourish it1 as the blood nourishes the new man in the bosom of his mother4 ,raphael continually visited the ,trastevere1 a popular quarter where the most beautiful women in ,rome were to be found1 in order to seek the type of a ,madonna4 ,it was here he became acquainted with the ,fornarina and his models4 ,but when he painted the ,madonna he reproduced the image of his soul4 ,we are told that ,michelangelo would spend entire evenings gazing into space2 and when they asked him at what he was gazing1 he replied3 ,i see a dome4 ,it was after this form1 so marvelously created within him1 that the famous cupola of ,st4 ,peter's in ,rome was fashioned4 ,but it could never have been born1 even in the mind of ,michelangelo1 if his architectural studies had not prepared the material for it4 ,no genius has ever been able to create the absolutely new4 ,we have only to think of certain forms much used in art1 and heavy and grotesque as the human fancy which is incapable of rising above the earth4 ,it seems to me amazing that the figure of the winged angel should still persist1 and that no artist should have yet improved upon it4 ,to represent a being more diaphanous than man1 and without corporeal weight1 we have robust beings whose backs are furnished with colossal wings covered with heavy feathers4 ,strange indeed is this fusion in a single creature of such incompatible natural features as hair and feathers1 and this attribution to a human being of six limbs--arms1 legs and wings1 as to an insect4 ,this strange conception continues to be so materialized1 not certainly as an artistic idea1 but as the result of poverty of language4 ,indeed1 we talk of angels flying because our language is human and earthly1 and we cannot imagine the attributes of angels4 ,few indeed are the artists who in pictures of the ,annunciation represent the ,angel as a luminous1 delicate1 and evanescent figure4 ,the more perfect the approximation to truth1 the more perfect is art4 ,when1 for instance1 in a drawing-room1 some one pays us a compliment1 if this is founded upon one of our real qualities1 and touches it closely1 we feel legitimate satisfaction1 because what has been said is relevant1 and we may conclude that the person has observed us and feels a sincere admiration for us4 ,we accordingly think of such a person3 ,he is subtle and intellectual2 and we feel disposed to reciprocate his friendliness4 ,but if the compliment praises us for qualities we do not possess1 or distorts or exaggerates our true attributes1 we think with disgust3 ,what a coarse creature6 and feel even more coldly to him than before4 ,dante's sublime sonnet must certainly have touched the heart of ,beatrice profoundly3 ,my lady looks so gentle and so pure ,when yielding salutation by the way1 ,that the tongue trembles and has nought to say1 ,and the eyes1 which fain would see1 may not endure4 ,and still1 amid the praise she hears secure1 ,she walks with humbleness for her array2 ,seeming a creature sent from ,heaven1 to stay ,on earth1 and show a miracle made sure4 ,she is so pleasant in the eyes of men ,that through the sight the inmost heart doth gain ,a sweetness which needs proof to know it by2 ,and from between her lips there seems to move ,a soothing essence that is full of love1 ,saying for ever to the spirit3 ,sigh6 7,rossetti's translation1 ,dante's ,vita nuova1 section ,,xxvi47 ,a very different impression must have been made on the self-respect and delicate sensibility of a feminine soul by this other sonnet1 which is clumsy and bombastic because it is full of inappropriate and exaggerated metaphors3 ,your salutation and your glances bright ,deal death to him who greets you on your way2 ,love my assailant1 heedless of my plight1 ,cares nought if what he does shall heal or slay4 ,straight to the mark his arrow flew apace ,piercing my heart and cleaving it in twain2 ,i was as one who sees ,death face to face2 ,no word ,i spake--so great my burning pain4 ,as through the window of the lordly tower ,the missile hurtles1 shattering all within1 ,so did the arrow enter through my eye2 ,bereft of life and spirit in that hour ,i stood there1 to a man of brass akin1 ,that mocks with semblance of humanity4 7,guinizelli1 #acjj47 ,if1 then1 the true basis of the imagination is reality1 and its perception is related to exactness of observation1 it is necessary to prepare children to perceive the things in their environment exactly1 in order to secure for them the material required by the imagination4 ,further1 the exercise of the intelligence1 reasoning within sharply defined limits1 and distinguishing one thing from another1 prepares a cement for imaginative constructions2 because these are the more beautiful the more closely they are united to a form1 and the more logical they are in the association of individual images4 ,the fancy which exaggerates and invents coarsely does not put the child on the right road4 ,a true preparation digs the beds where the waters which well up from intellectual creation will flow in smiling or majestic rivers1 without overflowing and so destroying the beauty of internal order4 ,in the matter of causing the springing up of these rushing waters of internal creation we are powerless4 ,never to obstruct the spontaneous outburst of an activity1 even though it springs forth like the humble trickle of some almost invisible source1 and to wait--this is our task4 ,why should we delude ourselves with the idea that we can create an intelligence1 we who can do nothing but observe and await the blade of grass which is sprouting1 the microbe which is dividing itself8 ,we must consider that creative imagination must rise like an illuminated palace1 on dark foundations deeply imbedded in the rock1 if it is to be anything but a house of cards1 an illusion1 an error2 and the salvation of the intelligence is to be able to plant the feet on firm ground4 99 99 99 99 99 ,imagination in children4--,it is a very common belief that the young child is characterized by a vivid imagination1 and therefore a special education should be adopted to cultivate this special gift of nature4 ,his mentality differs from ours2 he escapes from our strongly marked and restricted limits1 and loves to wander in the fascinating worlds of unreality1 a tendency which is also characteristic of savage peoples4 ,this childish characteristic1 however1 gave rise to the generalization of a materialistic idea now discredited3 ,ontogenesis sums up philogenesis3 that is1 the life of the individual reproduces the life of the species2 just as the life of man reproduces the life of civilization1 so in young children we find the psychical characteristics of savages4 ,hence the child1 like the savage1 is attracted by the fantastic1 the supernatural1 and the unreal4 ,instead of indulging in such flights of scientific fancy as these1 it would be much simpler to declare that an organism as yet immature1 like that of the child1 has remote affinities with mentalities less mature than our own1 like those of savages4 ,but even if we refrain from interfering with the belief of those who interpret childish mentality as a savage state1 we may point out that as1 in any case1 this savage state is transient1 and must be superseded1 education should help the child to overcome it2 it should not develop the savage state1 nor keep the child therein4 ,all the forms of imperfect development we encounter in the child have some resemblance to corresponding characteristics in the savage2 for instance1 in language1 poverty of expression1 the existence only of concrete terms1 and the generalization of words1 by means of which a single word serves several purposes and indicates several objects1 the absence of inflections in verbs1 causing the child to use only the infinitive4 ,but no one would maintain that for this reason we ought to restrict the child artificially to such primitive language1 to enable him to pass through his prehistoric period easily4 ,and if some peoples remain permanently in a state of imagination in which unrealities predominate1 our child1 on the contrary1 belongs to a people for whom the delights of the mind are to be found in the great works of art1 and the civilizing constructions of science1 and in those products of the higher imagination which represent the environment in which the intelligence of our child is destined to form itself4 ,it is natural that in the hazy period of his mental development the child should be attracted by fantastic ideas2 but this must not make us forget that he is to be our continuator1 and for that reason should be superior to us2 and the least we ought to give him to this end is the maximum at our disposal4 ,a form of imagination supposed to be proper to childhood1 and almost universally recognized as creative imagination1 is that spontaneous work of the infant mind by which children attribute desirable characteristics to objects which do not possess them4 ,who has not seen a child riding upon and whipping his father's walking-stick1 as if he were mounted upon a real horse8 ,there we have a proof of imagination in the child6 ,what pleasure it gives to children to construct a splendid coach with chairs and armchairs2 and while some recline inside1 looking out with delight at an imaginary landscape1 or bowing to an applauding crowd1 other children1 perched on the backs of chairs1 beat the air as if they were whipping fiery horses4 ,here is another proof of imagination4 ,but if we observe rich children1 who own quiet ponies1 and drive out habitually in carriages and motor-cars1 we shall find that they look with a touch of contempt at the child who is running about whipping a stick in great excitement2 they would be astonished to see the delight of children who imagine themselves to be drawn along by stationary armchairs4 ,they would say of such children3 ,they are very poor2 they act thus because they have no horses or carriages4 ,an adult resigns himself to his lot2 a child creates an illusion4 ,but this is not a proof of imagination1 it is a proof of an unsatisfied desire2 it is not an activity bound up with gifts of nature2 it is a manifestation of conscious1 sensitive poverty4 ,no one1 we may be sure1 will say that in order to educate a rich child we should take away his pony and give him a stick4 ,nor is it necessary to prevent the poor child from being content with his stick4 ,if a poor man1 a beggar1 had nothing but dry bread to eat1 and if he placed himself by the grated window of a rich underground kitchen because when he smelt its savory odors he imagined himself to be eating excellent dishes together with his bread1 who could prevent him8 ,but no one would say that in order to develop the imaginative activity of the fortunate persons for whom the actual dishes were destined1 it would be well to take away their meat and give them bread and fragrance4 ,a poor mother who was devoted to her little child offered him the piece of bread which was all she had to give in this manner3 she divided it into two portions1 and gave them to him in succession1 saying3 ,this is the bread1 this is the meat4 ,the child was quite content4 ,but no mother would deprive her child of food in order to develop his imagination in this way4 ,and yet ,i was once seriously asked by some one if it would be injurious to give a piano to a child who was continually practising with his fingers upon the table1 as if he were playing the piano4 ,and why should it be injurious8 ,i asked4 ,because1 if ,i do so1 he will learn music1 it is true1 but his imagination will no longer be exercised1 and ,i do not know which would be best for him4 ,some of ,froebel's games are based upon similar beliefs4 ,a wooden brick is given to a child with the words3 ,this is a horse4 ,bricks are then arranged in a certain order1 and he is told3 ,this is the stable2 now let us put the horse into the stable4 ,then the bricks are differently arranged3 ,this is a tower1 this is the village church1 etc4 ,in such exercises the objects 7bricks7 lend themselves to illusion less readily than a stick used as a horse1 which the child can at least bestride and beat1 moving along the while4 ,the building of towers and churches with horses brings the mental confusion of the child to its culmination4 ,moreover1 in this case it is not the child who imagines spontaneously and works with his brains1 for at the moment he is required to see that which the teacher suggests4 ,and it is impossible to know whether the child really thinks that the stable has become a church1 or whether his attention has wandered elsewhere4 ,he would1 of course1 like to move1 but he cannot1 because he is obliged to contemplate the kind of cinematograph of which the teacher speaks in the series of images she suggests1 though they exist only in the shape of pieces of wood all of the same size4 ,what is it that is thus being cultivated in these immature minds8 ,what do we find akin to this in the adult world which will enable us to understand for what definitive forms we prepare the mind by such a method of education8 ,there are1 indeed1 men who really take a tree for a throne1 and issue royal commands3 some believe themselves to be ,god1 for false perceptions1 or the graver form1 illusions1 are the beginning of false reasoning1 and the concomitants of delirium4 ,the insane produce nothing1 nor can those children1 condemned to the immobility of an education which tends to develop their innocent manifestations of unsatisfied desires into mania1 produce anything either for themselves or others4 ,we1 however1 suppose that we are developing the imagination of children by making them accept fantastic things as realities4 ,thus1 for instance1 in ,latin countries1 ,christmas is personified by an ugly woman1 the ,befana1 who comes through the walls and down the chimneys1 bringing toys for the good children1 and leaving only lumps of coal for the naughty ones4 ,in ,anglo-,saxon countries1 on the other hand1 ,christmas is an old man covered with snow who carries a huge basket containing toys for children1 and who really enters their houses by night4 ,but how can the imagination of children be developed by what is1 on the contrary1 the fruit of our imagination8 ,it is we who imagine1 not they2 they believe1 they do not imagine4 ,credulity is1 indeed1 a characteristic of immature minds which lack experience and knowledge of realities1 and are as yet devoid of that intelligence which distinguishes the true from the false1 the beautiful from the ugly1 the possible from the impossible4 ,is it1 then1 credulity we wish to develop in our children1 merely because they show themselves to be credulous at an age when they are naturally ignorant and immature8 ,of course1 credulity may exist in adults2 but it exists in contrast with intelligence1 and is neither its foundation nor its fruit4 ,it is in periods of intellectual darkness that credulity germinates2 and we are proud to have outlived these epochs4 ,we speak of credulity as a mark of the uncivilized4 ,here is a piquant anecdote of the seventeenth century4 ,the ,pont ,neuf in ,paris was the main highway for foot-passengers1 and a meeting-place for loungers4 ,many mountebanks and charlatans mingled with the crowd4 ,there was one of these charlatans who was making a fortune2 he sold an ointment from ,china which enlarged the eyes1 decreased the size of the mouth1 lengthened noses that were too short1 and shortened those that were too long1 ,de ,sartine1 ,chief of the ,police1 called up this charlatan to have him imprisoned1 and said to him3 ,mariolo1 how do you manage to attract so many people and gain so much money8 ,sir1 replied the other1 how many persons1 do you suppose1 cross the bridge in one day8 ,from ten to twelve thousand1 replied de ,sartine4 ,well1 sir1 how many intelligent persons do you suppose there are among them8 ,a hundred1 replied the official4 ,that's a liberal allowance1 said the charlatan1 but let us leave it at that4 ,i will rely on the other nine thousand nine hundred for my living4 ,the situation has so far changed between those days and our own that there are now more intelligent and fewer credulous persons4 ,education1 therefore1 should not be directed to credulity but to intelligence4 ,he who bases education on credulity builds upon sand4 ,i know of an incident which is perhaps reproduced in our society thousands of times4 ,two girls of noble family had been educated in a convent1 where1 to safeguard them from the seductions and vanities of the life for which they were destined1 the nuns had persuaded them that the world is full of deceit1 and that if1 when people praise us1 we could conceal ourselves and listen to what they say when we have disappeared1 we should hear very chastening things4 ,when they were of an age to be presented in ,society1 the two youthful princesses made their first appearance at an evening reception1 to which their mother had invited a great many guests4 ,all lavished praises on the charming young girls4 ,in the drawing-room there was an alcove concealed by a large curtain4 ,curious to hear what would be said of them when they disappeared1 the two agreed to slip out and hide behind the curtain4 ,scarcely had the attractive objects of the general admiration vanished when the praises which had been kept within due bounds in their presence1 were redoubled4 ,the two girls told me that they experienced an indescribable revulsion of feeling at the moment2 they thought that everything the nuns had made them believe was false2 they renounced religion there and then1 and made up their minds to throw themselves into the pleasures of society4 ,we afterwards had to reconstruct our lives ourselves1 embrace the truths of religion afresh1 and understand for ourselves the emptiness of social brilliance4 ,credulity gradually disappears with experience1 and as the mind matures3 instruction helps towards this end4 ,in nations as in persons1 the evolution of civilization and of souls tends to diminish credulity2 knowledge1 as is commonly said1 dispels the darkness of ignorance4 ,in the void which is ignorance1 the fancy easily wanders1 just because it lacks the support which would enable it to rise to a higher level4 ,thus the ,pillars of ,hercules disappeared when the ,straits of ,gibraltar became the gates of the oceans2 and no ,columbus could now persuade the ,red ,indians1 whom the great ,american spirit of democracy receives into its civilizing schools1 that the heavens are obedient to him1 darkening the sun at his command2 for eclipses are phenomena as well known to them as to the white races4 ,is this illusory imagination1 based upon credulity1 a thing we ought to develop in children8 ,we certainly have no wish to see it persist2 in fact1 where we are told that a child no longer believes in fairy-tales1 we rejoice4 ,we say then3 ,he is no longer a baby4 ,this is what should happen and we await it3 the day will come when he will no longer believe these stories4 ,but if this maturation takes place1 we ought to ask ourselves3 ,what have we done to help it8 ,what support did we offer to this frail mind to enable it to grow straight and strong8 ,the child overcomes his difficulties in spite of our endeavor to keep him in ignorance and illusion4 ,the child overcomes himself and us4 ,he goes where his internal force of development and maturation lead him4 ,he might1 however1 say to us3 ,how much you have made us suffer6 ,the work of raising ourselves was hard enough already1 and you oppressed us4 ,would not such conduct be much as if we compressed the gums to prevent the teeth from coming1 because it is characteristic of babies to be toothless1 or prevented the little body from standing erect1 because at first the characteristic of the infant is that it does not rise to its feet8 ,indeed1 we do something of the same sort when we deliberately prolong the poverty and inaccuracy of childish speech2 instead of helping the child by making him listen intently to the distinct enunciation of speech sounds1 and watch the movements of the mouth1 we adopt his rudimentary language1 and repeat the primordial sounds he utters1 lisping and perverting the consonants in the manner habitual to those making first efforts to articulate words4 ,thus we prolong a formative period full of difficulty and exertion for the child1 thrusting him back into the fatiguing infant state4 ,and we are behaving in exactly the same manner to-day with regard to the so-called education of the imagination4 ,we are amused by the illusions1 the ignorance1 and the errors of the immature mind1 just as at no very remote date we were amused to see an infant laugh when it was tossed up and down1 a proceeding now condemned by infantile hygiene as wrong and dangerous in the extreme4 ,in short1 it is we who are amused by the ,christmas festivities and the credulity of the child4 ,if we confess the truth1 we must admit that we are somewhat like the fine lady who took a superficial interest in a hospital for poor children1 but who kept on declaring3 ,if there were to be no more sick children1 ,i should be quite unhappy4 ,we1 too1 might say3 ,if the credulity of children were to cease1 a great pleasure would be taken from our lives4 ,it is one of the careless errors of our day to arrest artificially a stage of development for our amusement2 as in the ancient courts the bodily growth of certain victims was arrested to make them dwarfs and the pastime of the king4 ,such a statement may seem severe1 but it rests on an actual fact4 ,we are unconscious of it1 it is true2 yet we speak of it continually when we say among ourselves with lofty scorn of the age of immaturity3 ,really1 we are not children4 ,if we would refrain from prolonging the child's immaturity in order to be able to contemplate his inferior state in immobility1 and would1 on the contrary1 allow free growth admiring the marvels of his progression ever on the road of higher conquests1 we should say of him1 with ,christ3 ,he who would be perfect must become as a little child4 ,if what is called infant imagination is the product of immaturity of the mind1 combined with the poverty in which we leave the child and the ignorance in which he finds himself1 the first thing to do is to enrich his life by an environment in which he will become the owner of something1 and to enrich his mind by knowledge and experience based on reality4 ,and having given him these1 we must allow him to mature in liberty4 ,it is from freedom of development that we may expect the manifestations of his imagination4 ,to enrich the child1 who is the poorest among us1 because he has nothing and is the slave of all--this is our first duty towards him4 ,it will be said3 ,must we1 then1 give horses1 carriages1 and pianos to all children8 ,by no means4 ,remedies are never direct when a complex life is in question4 ,the child who has nothing is the one who dreams of things the most impossible of attainment4 ,the destitute dream of millions1 the oppressed of a throne4 ,but he who possesses something attaches himself to that which he possesses to preserve and increase it reasonably4 ,a person without employment will dream of becoming a prince2 but a teacher in a school dreams of becoming a head master4 ,thus the child who has a house of his own1 who possesses brooms1 rubbers1 pottery1 soap1 dressing-tables and furniture1 is happy in the care of all these things4 ,his desires are moderated1 and the peace he derives from them opens up a life of expansion to his internal creative activities4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it is living among real possessions of his own which calms the child1 and assuages those desires which consume his precious powers in the vanity of illusion4 ,such a result is not to be achieved by imagining that he is living among possessions of his own4 ,some teachers in charge of a model orphanage once said to me3 ,we too make our children perform the exercises of practical life which you describe2 come and see4 ,i went4 ,some of the authorities were also present1 and a university professor of pedagogy4 ,some children seated at a little table with playthings were laying the table for a doll's meal2 their faces were quite without expression4 ,i looked in amazement at the persons who had invited me2 they seemed quite satisfied2 they evidently thought that there was no difference between laying a table in play and laying it for an actual meal2 for them imaginary life and real life were the same thing4 ,may not this subtle form of error be instilled in infancy and afterwards persist as a mental attitude8 ,it was perhaps this error which caused a famous ,italian pedagogist to say to me3 ,liberty a new thing8 ,pray read ,comenius--you will find that it was already discussed in his times4 ,i replied3 ,yes1 many talk of it1 but the liberty ,i mean is a form of liberty actually realized4 ,he seemed not to understand the difference4 ,i ought to have asked3 ,do you not believe that there is any difference between him who talks of millions and him who possesses them8 ,to be contented with the imaginary1 and to live as if what we imagine actually existed2 to run after illusion1 and not to recognize reality1 is a thing so common that scarcely is it apprehended1 and the cry of alarm raised3 ,awake to truth1 ,o man6 when the consciousness becomes aware of a kind of gnawing parasite which has wormed itself subtly into our intelligence4 ,the power to imagine always exists1 whether or not it has a solid basis on which to rest and materials with which to build2 but when it does not elaborate from reality and truth1 instead of raising a divine structure it forms incrustations which compress the intelligence and prevent the light from penetrating thereto4 ,how much time and strength man has lost and is losing by this error6 ,just as vice1 which is an exercise of function without purpose1 wastes the body until it becomes diseased1 so imagination unsustained by truth consumes the intelligence until it assumes characteristics akin to the mental characteristics of the insane4 99 99 99 99 99 ,fable and religion4--,i have frequently heard it said that the education of the imagination on a basis of fancy prepares the soul of the child for religious education2 and that an education based on reality1 as in this method we would adopt1 is too arid1 and tends to dry up the founts of spiritual life4 ,such reasoning1 however1 will not be accepted by religious persons4 ,they know well that faith and fable are as the poles apart1 since fable is in itself a thing without faith1 and faith is the very sentiment of truth1 which should accompany man even unto death4 ,religion is not a product of fantastic imagination1 it is the greatest of realities1 the one truth to the religious man4 ,it is the fount and basis of his life4 ,the man without religion is not1 certainly1 a person without imagination1 but rather one who lacks internal equilibrium2 compared with the religious man he is less calm1 less strong in adversity2 not only this1 but he is more unsettled in his own ideas4 ,he is weaker and more unhappy2 and it is in vain that he catches at imagination to create a world for himself outside reality4 ,something within him cries aloud in the words of ,david3 ,my soul is a-thirst for ,god4 ,and if he hopes to reach the goal of his real life by the help of imagination alone1 he may feel his feet giving way among quicksands at a supreme moment of effort4 ,when an apostle seeks to win a soul to religion1 where man may plant his faltering feet on a rock1 he appeals to understanding1 not to imagination1 for he knows that his task is not to create something1 but to call aloud to that which is slumbering in the depths of the heart4 ,he knows that he must shake off the torpor from a feeble life as he would shake the snow from a living body buried in a drift1 not build up a puppet of ice which will melt under the rays of the sun4 ,it is true that fantastic imagination penetrates religion1 but in the guise of error4 ,in the ,middle ,ages1 for instance1 epidemics were ascribed with great simplicity1 to a direct act of divine chastisement2 to-day they are attributed to the direct action of microbes4 ,papin's steam machines suggested diabolical intervention4 ,but these are precisely the kind of prejudices which1 like all fantasies1 swarm in the void of ignorance4 ,all religion is not thus constructed like a fantastic castle erected on a basis of ignorance4 ,otherwise we should see savage peoples religious and civilized peoples without religion2 whereas savages have a frail and fantastic religion1 mainly constructed upon the terror inspired by the mysterious activities of ,nature1 and civilized peoples have a positive religion1 which becomes stronger as it becomes purer1 while the science of truth1 penetrating into ,nature1 serves to exalt and illustrate its mysteries4 ,and1 above all1 to-day1 when there is a movement in favor of eliminating religion altogether from the school1 can we propose to introduce it by cultivating fable8 ,it is such a simple matter to open the door directly to religion itself and allow its radiance to penetrate1 warming and invigorating life4 ,but it should enter like the sun into creation1 not like the ,befana from the chimney-top4 ,fable could prepare to some extent for pagan religion1 which split up the divinity into innumerable minor gods1 symbolizing the external world2 this1 being apprehended by the senses1 may lend itself to illusion2 but fable could certainly never prepare for ,christianity1 which brings ,god into contact with the inner life of man1 one and indivisible1 and teaches the laws of a life which is felt by men4 ,if the positive sciences be extraneous to religion1 it cannot be said that it is the study of reality in itself which alienates us therefrom4 ,hitherto the positive sciences have studied the external world in its analytical details1 and if they could have made a sympathetic1 religion that religion might be the pagan creed4 ,indeed1 so far science has brought a very perceptive breath of paganism among us4 ,but when it shall have succeeded in penetrating the inner man1 and there making manifest the laws of life and the realities of existence1 a great ,christian light will surely shine upon men2 and maybe children1 like the angels over ,bethlehem1 will sing the hymn invoking peace between science and faith4 ,saint ,john in the desert made straight the way of the ,lord and purged men of the grossest errors4 ,and thus a method which gives internal equilibrium and disperses the grossest errors which suffocate the spiritual energies1 makes ready for the reception of truth and the recognition of the way of life4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the education of the imagination in schools for older children4--,what is the method adopted in the ordinary elementary schools for the education of the imagination8 ,the school is1 in most cases1 a bare1 naked place where the gray color of the walls and the white muslin curtains over the windows preclude any alleviation for the senses4 ,the object of this depressing environment is to prevent the distraction of the scholar's attention by stimuli1 and concentrate it upon the teacher who speaks4 ,the children1 seated1 listen motionless hour after hour4 ,when they draw1 they have to reproduce another drawing exactly4 ,when they move1 it is in obedience to an order given by another person4 ,their personalities are appraised solely by the standard of passive obedience2 the education of their wills consists of the methodical renunciation of volition4 ,our usual pedagogy1 said ,claparde1 oppresses children with a mass of information which can never help them to direct their conduct2 we make them listen when they have no desire to hear2 speak1 write1 narrate1 compose and discourse when they have nothing to say2 we make them observe when they have no curiosity1 reason when they have no desire to discover anything4 ,we incite them to efforts which are supposed to be voluntary without the preliminary acquiescence of their ego in the task imposed1 that inner consensus which alone gives moral value to submission to duty4 ,the children thus reduced to slavery use their eyes to read1 their hands to write1 their ears to hear what the teacher says4 ,their bodies1 indeed1 are stationary2 but their minds are unable to dwell upon anything4 ,they must be continually exerting themselves to run after the mind of the teacher1 who1 in his turn1 is urged on by a program drawn up at random1 and which is certainly regardless of childish tendencies4 ,the mind has to pass from thing to thing4 ,images fugitive and uncertain as dreams appear from time to time before the eyes of the child4 ,the teacher draws a triangle on the blackboard and then erases it2 it was a momentary vision represented as an abstraction2 those children have never held a concrete triangle in their hands2 they have to remember1 by an effort1 a contour around which abstract geometrical calculations will presently gather thickly2 such a figure will never achieve anything within them2 it will not be felt1 combined with others1 it will never be an inspiration4 ,it is the same with everything else4 ,the object would seem to be fatigue for its own sake1 that fatigue which has engrossed almost the sum of effort of experimental psychology4 ,in this environment1 where free exercise is prohibited1 as also the choice of work1 and meditation1 where every sentiment is oppressed1 and from which every external stimulus which might enrich the intelligence with spontaneous acquisitions is eliminated1 an attempt is made to excite the imagination by giving compositions to be written4 ,this means that the child has to produce without having the necessary material2 to give1 without possessing2 achieve internal activities which he is prevented from developing4 ,and production is to come from the exercise of production2 constant practise in composition is to develop the imagination2 from the sterility of the void the most complex products of the intelligence are to be evolved6 ,it is well known that composition represents the great difficulty of our schools4 ,all teachers have declared that children are poor in ideas1 that they have disorderly minds1 that they are absolutely without originality4 ,the examination in written composition has always been the most painful of all2 every one knows the expression of the child who hears the title of an obligatory theme dictated2 and who in a few hours must hand in a written composition1 a product of the imagination2 it is with anguish1 with oppression of the heart1 with cold hands and eyes anxiously interrogating the clock in terror of the fleeting hour1 under the distrustful surveillance of a teacher who for the occasion is transformed into a spy-warder like those in penal prisons1 that he undergoes his torture to the end4 ,woe to him if he does not hand in his composition6 ,he will be ruined1 for this is the principal test1 the one in which he is free to manifest his own worth1 to give the true individual fruit by which others will measure his intelligence4 ,it is in this way that our young generations often find neurasthenia and even suicide4 ,scholars cannot answer as did the greatest poet of our times1 ,carducci1 when he was requested to write an ode on the occasion of the death of a personage3 ,it is inspiration1 not an occasion1 which would make me write an ode4 ,it is interesting to study the methods by which1 in modern schools1 where some elements of psychical hygiene have penetrated1 attempts are made to help the pupils by diminishing their exhausting effort and leading them on gradually to composition4 ,composition 7we must pass over the contradiction in terms for the moment7 is taught4 ,the teacher gives collective lessons in composition1 just as she would explain arithmetic3 this is called collective oral composition4 ,we will allow specialists in this method to speak1 giving a passage containing a preparation of teachers for such lessons3 ,,method ,,to ,,be ,,followed ,,in ,,the ,,manner ,,of ,,indicating ,,the ,,theme ,let us take1 by way of illustration1 the following brief narrative1 which consists of three phases3 #a4 ,ernesto did not know his lesson2 #b4 ,the teacher scolded the child severely2 #c4 ,ernesto wept and promised to do better4 ,if we indicate the narrative by the words3 ',ernesto did not know his lesson' 7first fact1 cause71 the pupil will go on easily to the effect1 consisting of the two other phases which1 logically and in chronological order1 follow the cause4 ,if1 on the other hand1 we give as the theme the indication corresponding to the second phase3 ',the teacher scolded the child1' we oblige the pupil to go back to the cause and to make the third phase follow upon the second4 ,we place the pupil in a more difficult position if we give as the theme3 ',ernesto wept and promised to do better1' since he will then be obliged to go back to the second and thence to the first phase4 ,hence the first phase in every brief narrative ought to serve to indicate the theme4 ,method4 ,the teacher should write the theme on the blackboard1 and invite the pupils to think of 7not to say7 a possible consequence of the fact indicated in the theme4 ,the teacher must let it be understood that the pupils are to work independently1 without the help of suggestion4 ,let us see3 ,luisa threw a piece of wool into the fire 7theme74 ,think of a possible consequence1 say what happened in consequence4 ,the wool caused a bad smell4 ,very good4 ,you repeat the narrative3 ,luisa threw a piece of wool into the fire4 ,the wool caused a bad smell4 ,can any one add another little thought1 another possible consequence8 ,the teacher reproved ,luisa4 ,a pupil opened the window4 ,the teacher repeats the exercise using the themes ,a4 ,b4 ,c4 and causing the result arrived at with the collaboration of the scholars to be written in their copy-books4 ,a theme may be proposed and the pupils may be left free to develop it without any further explanations4 ,theme ,a4--,luisa threw a piece of wool into the fire4 7,the wool caused a bad smell4 ,the teacher reproved ,luisa4 ,a companion opened the window to allow the bad odor to escape47 ,theme ,b4--,ernesto upset the ink on the floor4 7,the floor was stained4 ,the teacher reproved the child4 ,ernesto promised to be more careful47 ,theme ,c4--,elisa read the story well4 7,the teacher praised her and gave her a good mark4 ,elisa was very much pleased47 ,theme ,d4--,mario made a blot on his copy-book4 7,the teacher did not correct his exercise2 she scolded him4 ,the boy went home crying47 ,after all this collective practise the teacher gives a free theme such as the following3 ',maria knew her lesson well4' ,in developing it1 the children are expected to follow the above examples3 that is to say1 they are to indicate in two sentences the logical effects of such a cause 7the teacher gave her ten marks and praised her2 then she told her to persevere in her industry74 99 99 99 99 99 ,sometimes the teaching has a psychological purport rather than a logical one4 ,in such a case the little thoughts are not linked together as cause and effect1 but by the display of psychical activities in three spheres3 knowing1 feeling1 and willing4 ,examples3 ,amelia made me smell some ammonia 7fact perceived74-- ,what a horrible smell6 7sentiment74--,i will not smell it again 7volition74 ,gigi pulled my hair 7fact perceived74--,it hurt me 7sentiment74 ,i pulled my companion's hand away quickly 7volition7 7,i ,diritti della ,scuola1 ,year xiv1 ,no4 #af1 p4 #bcb74 ,with methods such as these it is obvious that every possibility of inspiration and creation will be destroyed4 ,the child has to follow phrase by phrase what the teacher indicates2 thus every spark of aptitude for original composition is quenched4 ,not only does the child remain empty of material wherewith to create1 as in the past1 but the very capacity for creation disappears1 so that if1 to-morrow1 material should be formed in his mind1 he would no longer have the impulse to utilize it1 and his thought would be fettered by his school routine4 ,intellectual education carried on by the teacher on such a system makes one think of a chauffeur who should shut up the motor of an automobile and try to propel it by the strength of his arms4 ,he would in this case be a porter1 and the automobile a useless machine4 ,when1 on the other hand1 the motor is open1 the internal force moves the car and the chauffeur only has to guide it that it may go safely along the street1 not run into obstacles or rush into ditches1 and not injure any one upon its course4 ,this guidance is the only thing necessary2 but the real progression is due solely to the internal impulse1 which no one can create4 ,it was thus that the first ,italian literary ,renascence came about1 when the new sweet style arose with ,dante as the spontaneous expression of feeling3 ,count of me but as one ,who am the scribe of ,love1 that when he breathes ,take up my pen and as he dictates1 write4 7,carey's translation1 ,purgatorio1 ,canto ,,xxiv47 ,the child must create his interior life before he can express anything2 he must take spontaneously from the external world constructive material in order to compose2 he must exercise his intelligence freely before he can be ready to find the logical connection between things4 ,we ought to offer the child that which is necessary for his internal life1 and leave him free to produce4 ,perhaps it would not then be impossible to meet a child running with sparkling eyes to write a letter1 or walking and meditating as he cultivates a nascent inspiration4 ,we ought to tend and nourish the internal child1 and await his manifestations4 ,if imaginative creation comes late1 it will be because the intelligence is not sufficiently mature to create until late2 and we should no more force it with a fiction than we would put a false mustache on a child because otherwise he will not have one till he is twenty4 ,,the ,,moral ,,question ,when we said1 to begin with1 that positive science had only given the reform of physical life1 together with the modern rules of hygiene1 as its contribution to society1 we were unjust to positive science4 ,it has considered not only physical life1 but moral life4 ,it is enough to think of those studies in bacteriology which refer to the vehicles of infectious maladies in the environment1 in order to recognize therefrom a primary token of the important place which is assigned to the community of human interests1 and this is now affirmed with an emphasis never before displayed4 ,microbes multiply chiefly in damp and dirty places2 underfed people are more prone to illness than others1 and so are those who are overtired4 ,therefore illness and early death must be the heritage of the poor who1 underfed and overtired1 live in damp and dirty places8 ,no4 ,it is a question of vehicles4 ,microbes spread in all directions from the sources of infection1 by means of dust1 insects and all the usual objects of life1 in fact by all the means of transport4 ,they exist in inconceivable and fabulous numbers2 and every sick person is an almost incredible source of illness and death4 ,one single person would suffice to contaminate the whole of ,europe4 ,the means of transport allow microbes to cross oceans and continents in every sense4 ,we need only observe the transatlantic lines1 and those of the railways of the world1 in order to realize the lines of communication between the maladies which afflict humanity in all the places of the earth4 ,we need only study the industrial changes of matter in order to follow in detail the daily path of the microbes1 which put all classes of society into intimate communication4 ,the rich lady wears linen on her person which comes from the hands of the poor1 and is constantly in their keeping2 she cannot put food into her mouth unless it is offered to her by the poor who have handled it over and over again4 ,the air which is breathed by the rich may contain in its dust the desiccated germs which a consumptive workman has scattered on the ground4 ,there is no way of escape4 ,statistics prove this3 the death rate from infectious diseases is tremendously high in all countries1 among both rich and poor1 although the poor die in a double proportion to the rich4 ,how can we deliver ourselves from this scourge8 ,only on condition that there be no more sources of infection1 that is to say1 that there be no longer unhealthful places in the world1 and no underfed people constrained to work beyond their strength4 ,the only way by which the individual may escape is that by which all humanity may be saved4 ,this is a great principle1 which seems to ring like a trumpet call3 ,men1 help one another1 or you will die4 ,it is a fact that science has inaugurated works of sanitation as its practical contribution to the fight against mortality2 towns have been opened out1 water has been laid on1 houses have been built for the poor1 and labor has been protected4 ,all the environment tends to ameliorate the conditions of life of the population4 ,no works of charity1 no expression of love or of pity1 has ever been able to do so much4 ,science has shown us that those works which were called charitable1 and were looked upon merely as a moral virtue1 represented the first step1 although a restricted and insufficient one1 towards the real salvation of the health of humanity4 ,it was that which had to be done in order to fight against death4 ,but1 in order to reach the goal1 such work should be universal1 and should constitute a reformation of society4 ,then it becomes social progress1 when there will be no benefactors or benefited1 but merely humanity which has increased its own well-being4 ,this principle3 ,all men are brothers2 let them love and help one another1 and let not the right hand know what the left hand doeth1 will have been translated into practise4 ,in sentimental times1 poverty was a stimulus to which the rich man reacted4 ,the poor did not really tend to educate the rich man's feelings4 ,if1 in those times1 the poor man had said1 ,give me necessities1 or thou shalt die1 the rich man would have been indignant4 ,he was very far from realizing that the poor man was his brother1 with whom he shared his rights1 as well as the danger of death4 ,to-day science has put things on a different footing4 ,it has realized that charity benefits both rich and poor1 and has constituted a principle of civilization that which formerly was a moral principle entrusted to sentiment4 ,in the case of morals1 too1 hygiene has penetrated1 and has given individual rules of life4 ,it is through hygiene that debauchery has become less common1 that those epicurean feasts which were celebrated in ancient times are replaced to-day by hygienic meals1 the value of which consists in the wise proportion between the needs of the body and the food which is prepared4 ,wine and alcohol are rejected by the rich more than by the poor4 ,we eat in order to keep ourselves in good health1 and therefore without excess and without poison4 ,this is what the ancient morality preached when it fought against the vice of gluttony and proclaimed fasting and abstinence to be virtues4 ,no one in those times could have imagined that the day would come when millionaires would voluntarily substitute lemonade for wine1 and that great banquets would disappear entirely1 leaving only the accounts of them as a curiosity of the past4 ,nay1 more3 none of these modern ascetics are proud of their virtue1 they seem to respond with simplicity to the gospel precept3 ,when ye fast1 be not as the hypocrites1 of a sad countenance 444 but anoint thine head1 that thou appear not unto men to fast1 but unto thy ,father which seeth in secret4 ,if one of the ancient preachers could talk to these ascetics1 he would also be much edified by their conversation4 ,what has become of those pleasantries which formed life and delight and gaiety in the time of ,marguerite of ,valois8 ,the tales of ,boccaccio could not now be discussed in ,english society1 or in any modern aristocratic society even of much lower social rank than that which surrounded ,marguerite of ,valois4 ,nowadays people are afraid of uttering an incorrect word1 even of hinting at the most innocent functions of the body1 or of naming those parts of their clothing which come in contact with the skin4 ,they only talk about elevated things1 and only those people who instruct us are looked upon as brilliant conversationalists2 those who1 in speaking of their travels1 tell us about the customs of the people1 or who1 speaking of politics1 tell us of the current situation4 ,excessive laughter1 jokes1 and violent gestures are not permitted4 ,every one keeps his limbs quiet1 even avoiding those vivacious and inoffensive gestures which are the natural accompaniment of conversation2 the tone of voice is so modulated as to be scarcely audible4 ,the ancient preacher would say1 ,these people have carried out ,st4 ,paul's exhortation to an exaggerated degree3 ',but fornication and all uncleanness1 let it not once be named among you1 as becometh saints2 neither filthiness nor foolish talking nor jesting which are not convenient4' 99 99 99 99 99 ,and among these evolutions of manners we find that it is once more hygiene which1 making itself the guide of fashion1 has by degrees simplified clothes1 done away with pomatum and rouge1 abolished crinolines1 modified stays and shoes1 caused long-trained dresses to disappear from the streets1 and has introduced uniformity in clothing4 ,if a man who lived in ancient times were to appear among us1 he would ask3 ,why are the people doing penance8 ,i see men without any ornaments and with their hair cut short2 and women who1 with an edifying renunciation of vanity1 go along the street without wigs and without patches on their faces1 with their hair simply knotted up2 ,i see countesses dressed in inexpensive costumes1 in simple1 dark1 monastic dresses1 almost like those of the poor4 ,the carriages are dark1 like funeral cars1 and the servants wear mourning livery4 ,carnival no longer enlivens the streets4 ,every one goes about silently and gravely4 ,who could ever have persuaded the people of old times1 who used to preach against excessive vanity1 that such a picture as this does not represent a time of penance1 but ordinary daily life8 ,these modern people1 on their side1 are far from thinking that they are condemned to a life of suffering2 on the contrary1 they look back with horror on the society of the past2 they would never go back to those days when men were enslaved by grand dresses and by rouge1 poisoning themselves with debauchery and dying of infectious diseases4 ,they have freed themselves from a great many useless bonds and have realized a higher enjoyment of life4 ,all the comfort which makes life so delicious to-day would have been an incomprehensible secret to the nobility of past centuries4 ,it is the secret of life4 ,possibly1 at one time1 monks and those who were living in the world thought of each other in a similar way4 ,those who had renounced the bondage of the world and all its vanities possessed a secret of life which was full of hitherto unknown delights1 and they looked with horror upon the so-called pleasure of their century2 while those unconscious men who were slaves from the tops of their be-wigged heads to their feet compressed in narrow boots1 called the ways of death life and enjoyment4 ,positive science has made yet another contribution penetrating directly into the sphere of morality4 ,by statistic methods of sociology the social problems of immorality and crime have been opened up1 and external facts have been studied2 and criminal anthropology has revealed the inferior types who by hereditary taint are those who have a predisposition to all the moral infection of their surroundings4 ,morel's theories concerning degeneration and the resulting theories of ,lombroso concerning criminals have undoubtedly brought light into this chaos1 wherein opinion as to human goodness and wickedness was divided4 ,forms of degeneration are chiefly rooted in the nervous system1 and all the abnormal personalities produced thereby deviate from the ordinary type4 ,they have a different intelligence and different morality4 ,false perceptions1 false reasoning1 illusions1 anomalies of the will such as impulses1 irresolutions1 and crazes1 the deficient moral sense on which the abnormal intelligence builds up systematic delusions1 which are interpreted as philosophical principles1 place these persons in a category apart as extra-social beings4 ,the general nervous weakness and the wandering intelligence which preclude an interest in work make of these persons individuals incapable of production1 who therefore try to live upon the productions of others4 ,this fundamental fact1 which tends to unite a dislike of productive labor with impulses towards rapine1 causes them to make use of all those surrounding causes which prepare the external means for crime4 ,these men are bad4 ,but if we observe more closely we see that it is not wickedness with which we have to deal but morbid conditions and social errors4 ,if such be the case1 these bad men1 who from no fault of their own were born in these unhappy conditions1 and who are driven to perdition by society1 are really victims4 ,their whole history1 when closely investigated1 reveals this fact4 ,they are hunted and neglected from babyhood4 ,incapable of making themselves beloved owing to mental deficiency1 volitive disorders1 to the anomaly of the affections and also to lack of physical attraction1 they pass from maternal persecution to that of the school1 and finally to that of society1 bringing on themselves every kind of punishment4 ,the first picture which ,morel drew of these dead ones of the race was an impressive one4 ,according to his original theory1 containing a synthesis which1 if not very exact1 yet sums up the phenomenon with comprehensive clearness1 when a cause of degeneration acts upon a man1 he may have defective children1 whose deficiency increases in the two or three following generations1 until it is extinguished in the final sterility of exceedingly debased individuals4 ,according to ,morel1 madmen1 criminals1 epileptics and idiots form the sad series in this extinction of man4 ,the man who dies leaving strong descendants1 does not really die1 but is renewed in them1 youth succeeding to age4 ,it is only the degenerate who dies1 for his kind is extinguished1 the few miserable generations whom he produces represent a living agony4 ,this dying species1 which lives among the healthy1 exhibiting its weakness1 its delusions1 its convulsions1 irritability and egoism1 is finally driven into those tombs of the living1 lunatic asylums and prisons4 ,what a living picture1 and what a warning to man6 ,one fault may be a mortal one to him1 for1 like the ,biblical curse1 it transmits itself to generations1 and leads to eternal perdition4 ,how terrible it is to think of punishment falling on the innocent head of a child6 and how evident it is that our present life is not everything1 but that it has a continuation1 when we shall reap the true rewards or the true punishments of our existence4 ,the choice lies to a great extent in our own hands4 ,shall we have a beautiful1 healthy1 prolific son1 or a deformed1 unhealthy1 barren son1 incapable of loving and understanding us8 ,the hygiene of generation is the most important part of moral hygiene4 ,if the salvation of the individual life can only be obtained by caring for the hygienic life of the whole of humanity1 it is only by rigorously following the laws of health and the laws of life that the salvation of the species can be obtained4 ,alcoholism1 all poisons1 overwork1 constitutional maladies1 dissipation of nervous force1 vice1 and idleness1 are all causes of degeneration4 ,it was science which went on preaching these things for the salvation of mankind1 and by these means propagating virtue4 ,but above all1 it inculcated the great principle of pardon1 which hitherto had been one of the mysteries of religious morality4 ,a few years ago1 no one1 however pitiful and generous1 could have looked upon the delinquent with the same justice and pity as science has done4 ,it has pointed out that we are all responsible for this victim of social causes1 that we must all accuse ourselves of the sins committed by the inferior individual1 and exert ourselves for his regeneration by all the means in our power4 ,it was only the saints who had an intuition of this truth1 when they offered their merits for all men in common and accepted responsibility for the offenses of all4 ,you will hold yourselves accountable1 said ,st4 ,john ,chrysostom1 not only for your own salvation1 but for universal salvation2 he who prays must take upon himself the burden of the interests of the whole human race4 ,it is certain that if a ,tages had cleansed our whole race of its deformities1 and if an analogous morality had rendered us indifferent to the illnesses1 weaknesses1 and sufferings of humanity1 regenerative science would not have been able to arise4 ,it is only by recognizing the effects that we can go back to the unhealthy causes1 and save humanity from danger4 ,the causes of death are as invisible and intangible as microbes2 man may drink poison when he thinks he is drinking nectar4 ,woe to us if the diseased and degenerate did not exhibit themselves to us as an advance guard1 to testify to the unconscious errors which threaten us with perdition4 ,science does not exactly limit itself to tending the sick1 like the personnel of a hospital1 but it penetrated by that goodly door1 and made its way in a contrary direction towards a normal humanity1 unconscious of its danger4 ,the ultimate result of science is not the care of the sick but universal health4 ,we owe the hygienic comfort which ensures our health1 and diminishes general mortality to so great an extent1 to the fact that sick people were collected together and tended4 ,the promise of regeneration given us by eugenics1 which offers us the universal hope of a more flourishing and happier generation than that of the past has been made possible because we mercifully collect all the feeble-minded1 the epileptics and the unhealthy4 ,it was to this we had to look in order to find the roads which lead to health1 and arrive at the gates of a better world4 ,when ,christ showed the way of salvation to men ,he pointed to those who were rejected by society1 in whom the obvious effects of evil could be seen1 because the causes of evil are too subtle1 and are not always directly visible3 ,you hear with your ears and do not understand2 you behold with your eyes and do not see4 ,but1 on the other hand1 the extreme consequences are obvious1 and it is enough that the will of man should agree to gather them in charitably and without repugnance in order to obtain salvation4 ,st4 ,matthew says that at the ,last ,judgment those who are lost will be separated from those who are saved1 and that the ,king will call the latter to his right hand1 saying1 ,come1 ye blessed of my ,father1 inherit the kingdom prepared for you from the foundation of the world4 ,for ,i was an-hungered1 and ye gave me meat3 ,i was thirsty and ye gave me drink 444 ,i was naked and ye clothed me4444 ,i was in prison1 and ye came unto me4 ,and when1 replied the just1 saw we thee1 ,o ,lord1 an-hungered or thirsty or naked8 ,when saw we thee sick or in prison and came unto thee8 and the ,king shall answer and say unto them1 ,inasmuch as ye have done it unto the least of these my brethren1 ye have done it unto me4 ,then shall he say also unto them on the left hand1 ,depart from me1 ye cursed1 into everlasting fire 444 for ,i was an-hungered1 and ye gave me no meat3 ,i was thirsty1 and ye gave me no drink 444 sick and in prison and ye visited me not4 ,then shall they answer him1 saying1 ,when saw we thee an-hungered1 or a-thirst1 or a stranger1 or naked1 or sick1 or in prison1 and did not minister unto thee8 ,then shall he answer them1 saying1 ,inasmuch as ye did it not to one of the least of these1 ye did it not to me4 ,this is the fundamental difference between heathen and ,christian morality2 between intellectual ,greek philosophy and practical modern science2 between the sthetic ideal and the ideal of life4 99 99 99 99 99 ,positive science1 therefore1 has made us realize a part of ,christianity4 ,we might almost say that the monastic orders practically represented1 throughout the centuries and the different civilizations1 the only form of life which is really life--that which science has revealed to-day4 ,they alone1 at a period of disorderly excess1 had a dietary which begins to be generally recognized as hygienic2 they ate coarse bread1 fresh fruit1 milk fresh from the cow1 many vegetables1 little meat1 at frugal but regular repasts4 ,withdrawing from the polluted air of crowded cities1 they chose large1 spacious houses in the open country or1 at any rate1 rather isolated--if possible1 standing on a height4 ,their luxury was not heavy1 padded furniture but large grounds where it was possible to live in the open air4 ,loose clothing1 comfortable sandals1 or bare feet1 woolen gowns1 physical exercise1 agricultural work1 traveling1 made them almost the precursors of the modern life of sport4 ,every convent spread benefactions all around--received the poor1 tended the sick1 as if to show that this freer and more privileged life was but a phase1 which must necessarily be accompanied by help to humanity4 ,they represented the social and intellectual lite2 it was the ,benedictines who preserved manuscripts and treasured the arts2 it was the followers of ,saint ,bernard who practised agriculture1 and it was the sons of ,saint ,francis who preached peace4 ,or it might be said that modern society1 guided by positive study of the laws of life and of the means of saving it1 has encountered the religious laws which reveal the paths of life2 and realizes a form of civilization which recalls and1 in some ways1 reproduces the ancient oases of the spirit4 ,if1 however1 we were to risk a parallel between modern society and a convent1 what kind of convent would the former be8 ,here is a monastery where the brethren eat according to rule1 wear hygienic clothing1 are correct in their language1 never indulge in noisy quarrels1 have all their interests in life in common1 and dispense their charities coldly1 as if they were a custom or an obligation of their order2 they meditate on eternal life1 on salvation1 and rewards and punishments in a future life1 but without being touched by these thoughts4 ,the real truth is that they have lost their faith1 and that they do not love one another2 ambition1 anger1 envy and even hatred1 drive away internal peace2 and corruption begins to filter in under these other sins2 a sign of a deeper decadence now begins to show itself1 for chastity has been lost4 ,that which is1 par excellence1 the standard of ,christianity1 the sign of respect for life1 the consecration of the purity which leads to eternal life1 has been overthrown together with faith4 ,the love of man is not compatible with the excesses of the beast4 ,it is through purity that an ardent love to all mankind1 and comprehension of others1 and intuition of truth1 arise like a perfume4 ,it is that ardent fire called charity or love1 which keeps life kindled1 and gives value to all things4 ,though ,i bestow all my goods to feed the poor1 and though ,i give my body to be burned1 says ,st ,paul1 and have not charity1 it profiteth me nothing4 ,and though ,i have the gift of prophecy and understand all mysteries and all knowledge1 and have not charity1 ,i am nothing4 ,though ,i speak with the tongues of men and of angels and have not charity1 ,i am became as sounding brass or a tinkling cymbal 7#a ,cor4 xiii474 ,in degenerate convents the greatest and most elevated acquirements1 and the highest level of perfection reached1 are lost2 just as a person punished by degradation first loses the last and highest acquisitions1 and only keeps the lower4 ,in social convents1 on the other hand1 the ultimate attainment has not yet been reached2 that is the difference and the contrast4 ,the social elevation towards ,christianity is only on its first steps4 ,love is lacking1 and thence chastity2 and all this is absent owing to the arid void left by the absence of faith1 and the oppression of spiritual life4 ,positive science has not yet touched the inner man1 and the social environment does not therefore realize1 in its force of universal civilization1 the loftier human acquisitions4 ,when we occupy ourselves with the moral education of our children1 we ought to ask ourselves if we really love them and if we are sincere in our wishes for their morality4 ,let us be practical4 ,fathers and mothers1 what can you hope for from your children8 ,the ,european war is far less dangerous to their bodies than the spiritual risks which they run4 ,we must imagine a much greater war1 a universal one1 to which all young men are called1 and where the survivors are pointed out as absolutely exceptional4 ,therefore you are educating your sons for death4 ,what1 then1 is the use of troubling so much about them8 ,is it not useless to take care of their soft hair1 and their rosy nails1 and the fresh and bewitching beauty of their vigorous little bodies1 if they are to die before long8 ,ah6 all those who love children must fight in this deadly war1 and struggle for peace3 ,the creed which ,mme4 de ,hricourt sets forth in her book1 ,la ,femme ,affranchie1 about the time of the ,french ,revolution1 is very eloquent4 ,mothers1 you admonish your children1 saying1 ',do not tell lies1 because this is unworthy of a person who respects himself4 ,do not steal3 would you like it if people stole your things8 ,it is a dishonest thing to do4 ,do not oppress those of your companions who are weaker than yourself1 and do not be rude to them1 for that would be a cowardly act4' ,these are excellent principles4 ,but when the child has become a young man his mother says1 ',he must sow his wild oats4' ,and sowing his wild oats means that he must perforce be a seducer1 an adulterer1 and a frequenter of brothels4 ,what8 ,is this mother1 who told her boy not to tell lies1 the same person who permits him now that he is a man1 to betray a woman like herself8 ,and1 although she taught her child not to steal another child's toy1 she thinks it lawful for her son to rob a woman like herself of her life and her honor4 ,and she who advised him never to oppress the weak1 now permits him to range himself among the oppressors of a human being whom society has made into a slave4 99 99 99 99 99 ,these mothers acquiesce in the degrading fact which perverts all humanity4 ,there is a strong social movement to-day against the white slave traffic2 and at the same time the science of eugenics has arisen which tends to protect the health of posterity4 ,these are excellent things4 ,but the question which lies at the root of all these questions is a spiritual question4 ,it is not the white slaves who are the lost human beings2 they are the victims of a universal act of perdition and slavery4 ,if such a grave spiritual danger is hanging over us1 what external hygiene can save us1 unless it is preceded by a direct struggle against this danger8 ,the really lost are those who persist in a state of death1 without perceiving it4 ,if any one perceives the danger1 he may by this mere fact find himself in the way of salvation4 ,the so-called white slaves1 held in scorn by society and oppressed by punishment1 cry vengeance in the sight of the universe1 and cover mankind with shame2 but they are not the really lost--they are not the only slaves4 ,he who is lost is the innocent1 well-educated young man who1 without remorse1 unconscious of his own degradation1 takes advantage of a human being who is made a slave for him1 and1 moreover1 covers her with contempt1 without hearing the voice of conscience which admonishes him3 ,why beholdest thou the mote which is in thy brother's eye8 ,cast out the beam which is in thine own eye4 ,this man1 who seeks1 perhaps1 to protect his own body from disastrous consequences1 although very often it is not possible to escape them1 and therefore risks1 for nothing1 suicide of his own person and of his species2 and who only cares to seek a social position for himself and an honored family--this is the man who is really lost in darkness1 and reduced to slavery4 ,and his mother is also a slave1 for she cannot follow her son1 whom she brought up with so much care for his body1 and who cared for his moral good with all the passionate love of her heart2 she is a slave1 when her son is forced away from her1 to go perhaps to death or to the ruin of his physical health1 and to descend into moral degradation1 while she can do nothing but watch him1 silent and immovable4 ,she excuses herself sadly1 saying that her dignity and purity forbid her to follow her son in these paths4 ,it is as if she were to say1 ,there is my son1 wounded and bleeding2 but ,i cannot follow him1 because the road is muddy1 and ,i might dirty my boots4 ,where is the heart of a true mother8 ,how can maternal sentiment fall so low8 ,she only is dignified and pure1 cries ,madame de ,hricourt1 who is capable of bringing up her son in such a way that he will never have anything shameful to confess to his mother4 ,the mother who has lost all her authority is herself lost4 ,maternal dignity1 on the other hand1 is great and powerful4 ,behold in ancient times the ,roman matron1 ,veturia1 the mother of ,coriolanus6 ,having heard that her son1 a traitor to his country1 was coming to attack ,rome at the head of an alien army1 she went bravely out from the protecting walls of the city1 advanced towards the powerful leader through the hostile host1 and asked him1 ,art thou my son1 or art thou a traitor8 ,at those words ,coriolanus renounced his unworthy undertaking4 ,in the same way1 in these days1 the true mother should pass beyond the walls of prejudice and the frontiers of slavery1 and have sufficient dignity to be able to confront her son1 saying to him3 ,thou wilt not be a traitor to humanity6 ,what pressure can have been brought to bear on a woman to have made her lose the sacred right of saving her son8 and what can have so weakened affection as to lead a youth to despise the maternal authority in order to make himself a young man8 ,it is this death of the soul and not external facts which pronounce our sentence4 99 99 99 99 99 ,if positive science1 which has limited itself to the study of the external causes of maladies1 or the causes of degeneration1 and has confined itself to the inculcation of physical hygiene--that is to say1 the protection of material life--has contributed so largely to morality1 how much more may we hope for moral elevation from a positive science which concentrates upon the protection of the inner life of man8 ,and if the first part1 scrupulously following the truth by exact research1 has arrived at the social realization of ,christian principles1 we may presume that its continuation1 conducted with the same loyalty and exactitude of research1 will in like manner succeed in filling up the voids which still exist in modern civilization4 ,this is1 ,i believe1 the clearest and most direct reply to those who ask what can be hoped for in the morality and religion of the new generations1 from our pover-ositive method of education4 ,if experimental medicine1 by going back to the causes of diseases1 has succeeded in solving the problems which concern health1 an experimental science which concentrates upon the study of normal man's psychical activities should lead to the discovery of the superior laws of life and of the health of mankind4 ,this science has not yet been established1 and awaits its investigators2 but we may foresee that if universal hygiene1 which gives humanity a guide to physical life1 has come from medical research1 then this new science should produce a hygiene which will give to all men practical guidance in moral life4 ,and if positive medicine arose in the hospitals1 where sick people were collected by private and public generosity1 with charitable intentions and under the guidance of empiricism1 this science should1 above all1 concentrate and find its experiences in schools3 that is to say1 in the places where all children are gathered together for their social elevation1 and with the empirical guidance of education4 ,what was the elevated note of scientific medicine which gradually superseded the empirical method8 ,while empirical medicine believed in blood-letting and blistering1 scientific medicine elevated and illustrated the ancient principle which had been forgotten1 and which contained all the new wisdom in a synthesis3 the medicinal force of nature1 vis medicatrix naturae4 ,a natural power of fighting and conquering illness exists in the living organism1 and it is to this that we must look in order to construct rational medicine2 he who believes that the doctor and the medicine cure the sick is an empiricist2 but he who knows that it is only the organism that can produce the cure1 and that therefore we must protect and assist the force which nature gives for our salvation1 is a scientist4 ,now the sum of treatments necessary to protect the natural forces of defense and reorganization in positive medicine1 are much more minute and are diffused in much vaster fields than the old empiricism4 ,the great number of specialists who replace the single type of doctor of the last century1 is sufficient to emphasize the enormous difference in practise which the new tendency involves4 ,it is interesting also to give a glance at the progress which has been made in medicine2 it has begun to cure diseases2 and thence it has gone on to discover the laws of normal physical life1 and to show the healthy how to preserve their health4 ,when it reached this point it found that the same measures which are necessary for preserving health are the best for curing disease2 because it is the same source of life which gives health and the vis medicatrix naturae4 ,thus1 for example1 the rational diet of to-day is not only a hygienic measure which all should adopt in order to keep themselves in health1 but the most important factor in the cure of illness4 ,dietetics1 whether for the victims of gout1 pellagra1 fever1 tuberculosis1 or diabetes1 is of primary importance2 lithia salts1 caffeine1 and creosote are useless in comparison4 ,the modern tendency is to reject these poisonous remedies altogether1 and to substitute the natural remedies of rest1 medical gymnastics1 hydropathic treatment1 and1 above all1 climatic treatment4 ,psychiatry and neuropathology have introduced the treatment of work3 that is1 a course of orderly intelligent activity1 to give occupation to individuals who begin to show signs of mental failure4 ,by degrees1 as progress is made in this direction1 the conception of natural healing will triumph--the ever clearer conception1 that is to say1 of the forces which sustain life4 ,it is only ,nature which can do everything1 and if the doctor is to become useful he must follow in her footsteps and serve her with increasing fidelity4 ,it is natural that investigation should lead to attempts at interpreting these forces upon which health depends1 and these studies of immunity have been the most brilliant1 widely diffused and scientific of all medical studies4 ,when ,metchnikoff believed he had discovered that the leucocytes in the blood absorb and digest microbes and thus save man from infection1 it seemed as if a ray of clear and simple light had illuminated all the mystery4 ,but no sooner was his theory promulgated than it was demolished by the successive studies in which it was subjected to a destructive criticism1 because the leucocytes are not always able to absorb living microbes2 certain conditions of the organism are requisite in order that they may have this power1 and so the knotty point was merely shifted4 ,moreover1 it is not the actual microbes which cause disease1 but their toxines4 ,thus the theories of toxines seemed to be the true guide for researches2 but then we entered into a sea of complications1 and it is obvious that only aspects and attributes of immunity are accessible to us1 but that the substance1 the last word1 underlying all those aspects which research has revealed is3 mystery4 ,for this reason1 there is silence to-day as to questions of immunity2 that which was once familiar as a popular idea remains among the obscure studies which not even the students of the university should approach4 ,nevertheless1 it is impossible that the medical science founded upon natural forces should develop1 unless the imperative necessity be recognized of studying the mystery of life which conceals its source1 but continually expands its forces4 ,the invisible but real source of health and healing is always there1 at the climax of all efforts2 and the palpitating energy which springs inexhaustibly therefrom is the only reality which makes evident this revival of the living4 ,this medical science and this mystery cannot but form a unity4 ,it is probable that this will be brought about by that science which studies the health and the maladies of the soul4 ,if this should discover that the soul1 too1 is corruptible1 subject to disease and death1 that it has its laws of health and its vis medicatrix naturae1 treatments tending to respect and aid this precious force of life should multiply immeasurably2 and at the same time the mysterious source whence it gushes should impose itself on modern medicine1 as the question of immunity has done4 ,then life1 morality and religion will be indissolubly united4 99 99 99 99 99 ,let us now turn to children of two and a half and three years old1 who touch everything1 but especially those objects which they evidently prefer1 the most simple objects1 as1 for example1 a square block of paper1 a square inkstand1 or a round1 shiny bell4 ,all things which are not meant for them4 ,then the mother comes and takes them away2 half caressing1 and at the same time tapping the little hands1 she calls out1 ,don't touch6 naughty6 ,i once was present at one of these many family scenes1 which pass unnoticed4 ,the father1 who was a doctor1 was sitting at the writing-table2 the mother was holding in her arms a very small child1 who was stretching out its little hands to the various objects upon the table4 ,the doctor said1 ,that child is incorrigibly naughty1 although it is so young4 ,however much its mother and ,i try to cure it of this fault of touching my things1 we never succeed4 ,naughty6 naughty6 repeated the mother1 holding its little hands tightly1 while the child threw itself back1 howling1 and throwing its feet about as if it wished to kick4 ,when children are three or four years older1 the struggle becomes more severe3 they want to do things4 ,those who observe them carefully discover that they have some tendency4 ,they wish to imitate what their mother does1 if their mother is a housewife4 ,they willingly follow her into the kitchen1 they wish to share her work1 to touch her things1 and they try furtively to knead and cook and wash clothes1 and sweep the floor4 ,the mother feels wearied by them2 she keeps on repeating1 ,be quiet2 leave it alone4 ,don't tease me4 ,go away4 ,then the child makes a great noise1 throws himself on the ground1 and kicks2 but then he begins again to do as much as he can without being seen1 as quickly as possible2 and by trying to wash things in a hurry1 gives himself a bath2 trying to conceal some contraband ragout1 he makes the floor dirty4 ,the mother's anger1 cries1 and reproofs increase2 and the child reacts with naughtiness and tears2 but begins again almost at once4 ,where the mother does not do her own work1 the child1 if intelligent1 is still more unfortunate4 ,he looks for something which he cannot find1 and cries for no reason1 he flies into a passion for which no one can account2 some fathers lament this1 almost with despair4 ,my child is very intelligent1 but so naughty6 nothing will satisfy him4 ,it is no use to buy toys for him1 he is really overdone with them2 nothing is of any use4 ,the mother asks anxiously1 ,what do you advise me to do when the child is naughty8 and when he gets into passions8 ,he is so naughty1 he never keeps still2 ,i cannot contend with him any more4 ,it is rare to hear a mother say1 ,my baby is good--it is always asleep4 ,who has not heard some poor mother shout in a threatening voice to the crying babe in her arms1 ,be quiet1 be quiet1 ,i tell you6 and then1 naturally the child is frightened1 and redoubles its cries4 ,this is the first contest of the man who enters the world3 he has to struggle with his parents1 with those who have given him life4 ,and this occurs because his infant life is different from that of his parents2 the child has to form himself1 whereas his parents are already formed4 ,the child must move about a great deal1 to coordinate his movements1 which are not yet under control2 the parents1 on the other hand1 have their voluntary mobility organized1 and can control their movements2 perhaps also they are often tired after their work4 ,the child's senses are not yet fully developed2 his powers of accommodation are insufficient1 and need help from touching and feeling1 in order to take account of objects as well as of spaces2 and his eyes are rectified by the experience of his hands4 ,the parents1 on the contrary1 have developed senses1 and have already corrected the primitive illusions of these2 their powers of accommodation are perfect1 if they have not spoilt them by abuse2 in every way cerebral activity leads the senses to receive an exact impression2 they have no need to touch4 ,children are anxious to get knowledge of the external world2 their parents know it too well already4 ,therefore they do not understand each other4 ,parents want their children to do as they do1 and any diversity is called naughtiness4 ,think of the mother who drags her child along with her2 he has to run while she walks2 his legs are short1 while hers are long2 weak1 while hers are strong1 he has to bear the weight of his body and his disproportionately large head1 while the mother has a head and body which are proportionally lighter and smaller4 ,the child is tired and stands and cries1 and the mother exclaims1 ,come on1 you naughty little thing6 ,i won't have any nonsense4 ,do you want me to carry you1 lazybones8 ,no1 ,i won't give in to you4 ,or again1 we see mothers who1 when their children sit down on the ground--or lay themselves flat on their stomachs with their feet in the air1 and support themselves on their elbows1 while they look round them1 call out1 ,off the ground6 ,you are making yourself dirty1 naughty child4 ,all this may be translated in this way3 ,the child is different from the adult4 ,the formation of his body is such that his head and his body are enormously large in comparison with his small1 slender legs1 because they are the part which will grow most4 ,hence the child cannot endure walking1 and prefers to lie at full length1 which is the most healthy position for him4 ,he has a wonderful tendency towards development2 he gets his first ideas of external life and assists his senses of sight and hearing by touching1 in order to realize the forms of objects and distance4 ,he moves continually1 because he must coordinate and adapt his mobility4 ,hence he moves a great deal1 walks very little1 throws himself on the ground1 and touches everything1 and these are signs that he is alive1 and that he is growing4 ,no--all this is looked upon as naughtiness4 ,this is evidently not a moral question4 ,we do not seek for means to correct these depraved tendencies of the man who is but just born4 ,no1 it is not a moral question4 ,it is1 however1 a question of life4 ,the child seeks to live and we want to hinder him4 ,in that sense it does become a moral question1 as regards ourselves1 since we have begun to examine those errors on our part which do harm1 and infringe the rights of others4 ,moreover1 our own egotism is concealed beneath our errors of treatment2 what we really resent in the child is that he gives us trouble2 we struggle against him in order to protect our own comfort1 our own liberty4 ,how often at the bottom of our hearts we have felt that we have been unjust1 but have stifled this impression4 ,the little rebel does not accuse us or bear us malice4 ,on the contrary2 just as he persists in his naughtinesses which are forms of life1 so does he persist in loving us1 in forgiving us everything1 in forgetting our offenses1 in longing to be with us1 to embrace us1 to sit upon our knees1 to fall asleep on our bosom4 ,this1 too1 is a form of life4 ,and we1 if we are tired or satiated1 repulse him1 masking this excess of selfishness under a hypocritical pretense of concern for the child himself3 ,don't be so silly6 ,insult and calumny are always on our lips in the eternal refrain3 ,naughty1 naughty4 ,and yet the figure of the child might stand for that of perfect goodness1 which thinketh no evil1 delighteth not in iniquity1 beareth all things1 believeth all things1 hopeth all things4 ,as to us--no1 we cannot always say as much of ourselves4 ,if the struggle between the adult and the child could be brought to an end in peace1 and the adult1 accepting the conditions of infant life1 would seek to help the child1 the former would be able to advance towards one of the most sublime enjoyments which ,nature can bestow3 that of following the natural development of the child1 and seeing the man evolved4 ,if the opening rosebud has become a commonplace of poetry1 how much greater is the poetry of the infant soul in its manifestations8 ,now this ineffable gift which was placed beside us1 in order that the miracle might accompany us and comfort us1 we trample under foot in our wrath1 blaspheming as if demented4 99 99 99 99 99 ,when the child desires to touch and to act1 in spite of punishments of every kind1 he persists in exercises necessary to his development1 and displays a strength of will in the matter against which we are often powerless2 he shows the same persistence as in breathing1 in crying when he is hungry1 and in raising himself when he wants to walk4 ,thus the child turns to external objects which respond to his needs3 if he finds them1 he displays his powers in muscular or sensory exercises1 and then he is joyous2 and if he does not find them1 he is restless as when his desires are unsatisfied4 ,toys are too light to satisfy arms which require to make the efforts necessary in lifting and moving objects2 they are too complex to satisfy senses which need to analyze a single sensation4 ,they are vanity1 and in themselves they represent simulacra and parodies of actual life4 ,and yet they form the world of our children1 in which they are constrained to consume their potential powers in a continuous exasperation1 which incites them to destroy things4 ,happily1 children do not hear the pronouncement of the common formula1 that children have an instinct for destruction4 ,nor are they familiar with the other axiom which contradicts this3 ,that the instinct of property1 in other words1 selfishness1 is strongly developed in them4 ,on the contrary1 the child has merely the overpowering instinct to grow1 and therefore to raise and to perfect himself2 in every period of life he seeks instinctively to prepare himself for the next period4 ,this fact is very much more comprehensible than the strange instincts we calumniously attribute to him4 ,just try the experiment of allowing children to act for themselves2 they are at once transformed4 ,in the ,guerrieri ,gonzaga ,children's ,house1 it sufficed to provide a comb1 to transform the naughtiest1 most rebellious of the children1 the one whom the teacher designated as in need of taming1 into a lively and attractive little girl1 who combed the hair of her companions most carefully1 with evident delight4 ,we had only to say to an awkward1 lethargic child1 who came forward holding out her arms to have her sleeves pulled down for her3 ,do it yourself1 and there was a flash of intelligence in her eyes1 her weary face was lighted up by an expression of satisfied pride and amazement1 and she began to pull down her sleeves with positive delight4 ,when these children were given a little basin and a piece of soap1 how carefully they emptied and replaced the receptacle1 fearing to break it1 and how caressingly they handled the soap1 laying it down very gently6 ,it seemed as if the task had been confided to a mechanism of moving figures1 with an accompaniment of music3 the figures were the children1 the music was their own joy4 ,these children1 occupied in dressing1 cleaning1 washing1 combing1 cleansing1 and arranging their environment1 work themselves4 ,as a result1 they love useful objects so much that they will preserve a piece of paper for years1 and instead of knocking against furniture1 and breaking objects1 they perfect their movements4 ,but we place ourselves beside these lives which are hastening triumphantly to their salvation1 and seek to bind them to ourselves1 in spite of the struggle which has begun and the fear we have already provoked4 ,we approach them gently and seductively2 and because when a child breaks things he is obviously grieved1 and therefore would endeavor to correct and perfect his movements1 we spare him this grief1 which would be in the nature of an act of repentance on the part of the muscles which have transgressed1 and give him unbreakable objects3 plates1 basins1 and drinking vessels made of metal1 toys made of stuff1 woolly bears1 india-rubber dolls4 ,henceforth his errors will be concealed4 ,every error of the muscles will pass unnoticed by the child3 he will no longer feel the pain of evil-doing1 repentance1 an effort to perfect himself4 ,he will be able to sink into error2 behold him1 clumsy1 heavy1 without expression in his face1 a stuffed bear in his arms6 ,he is now bound fast to vanity and error1 and has lost all consciousness thereof4 ,the adult hems him in ever more closely3 he does everything for the child1 dresses him1 even feeds him4 ,but the child's desire is not to be dressed and materially nourished3 his deep desire is to do1 to exercise his own powers intelligently1 and thus to rise to his higher level4 ,with what subtle insinuations does the adult seek to confound him6 ,you are exerting yourself and why8 ,that you may be washed8 ,that you may put on your pinafore8 ,you can have all this done for you without any effort4 ,you will find it all done with greater perfection and ease4 ,without moving a finger you shall have a hundred times more done for you than you could accomplish for yourself1 even with all the exertion of which you are capable4 ,you need not even put the bread into your mouth1 you shall be spared even this trouble1 and you will take in nourishment all the more copiously4 ,the devil was less cruel when he tempted ,christ in the wilderness1 showing ,him all the kingdoms of the world and the glory of them4 ,all these things will ,i give ,thee if thou wilt fall down and worship me4 ,but the child has not the power to answer like ,christ3 ,get thee hence1 ,satan2 for it is written3 ,thou shalt worship the ,lord thy ,god1 and ,him only shalt thou serve4 ,the child ought to obey ,god1 who has prescribed that his nature shall demand action2 and that he should conquer his world as he has conquered life1 to the end that he may elevate himself and not to the end that he may acquire external splendor and comfort4 ,when tempted1 however1 he cannot resist4 ,he ends by possessing the objects1 the pretty1 ready-made things2 his soul makes no progress2 he loses sight of the goal4 ,behold the child clumsy1 unsteady1 inept1 enslaved6 ,those incapable muscles encase a captive soul4 ,he is oppressed far more by this fatal inertia than by the physical contests which initiated his relations with the adult4 ,often he has fits of rage like the sinner2 he bites the bear that he cannot break1 cries desperately when he is washed and has his hair combed1 rebels and struggles when he is dressed4 ,the only movements allowed by the devil are those of anger4 ,but gradually he sinks into the depression of impotence4 ,adults say3 ,children are ungrateful2 they have none of the higher feelings as yet2 they care only for their own pleasure4 ,who has not seen patient mothers and nurses1 bearing from morning till night the humors of four or five discontented children1 who are screaming and playing pranks with their metal plates and rag dolls8 ,they seem to say3 ,children are like this1 and a benevolent compassion takes the place of the natural reaction of impatience4 ,of such persons we say3 ,how good they are6 how patient they are6 ,but the devil1 too1 is patient after this fashion3 he too can contemplate the agonies and impotent rebellions of the souls which are in his power1 which are prostrate among vanities1 oppressed by a great quantity of means1 the ends of which they have lost1 souls in which the consciousness of sin is extinguished1 and which are gradually sinking into an abyss of mortal error4 ,he is patient in contemplating them1 in supporting their cries--and he too offers them bears and rubber dolls1 and feeds them1 stuffing them1 that is to say1 with new vanities which mask their errors1 and nourish their bodies4 ,he who1 seized with doubt1 should ask concerning these mothers and nurses3 ,are they really good8 might get an idea from the reply of ,christ3 ,none is good save ,god1 that is1 the ,creator4 ,goodness is the attribute of ,god4 ,he who creates is good1 only creation is good4 ,hence he only is good who helps creation to achieve its ends4 99 99 99 99 99 ,now we come to the school4 ,conceptions of goodness and naughtiness must be very definite here1 for when a teacher has to leave the class-room1 she calls one of the children1 who1 during her absence1 is charged to write the names of the ,good and the ,naughty in two columns on the blackboard under these headings4 ,the child1 however1 who is called out is quite capable of judging1 for nothing is easier than to distinguish between goodness and naughtiness in schools4 ,the good are those who are quiet and motionless2 the naughty are those who talk and move4 ,the results of the classification are not very serious4 ,the teacher gives good or bad conduct marks4 ,the consequences are not disastrous2 they are1 so to speak1 akin to the social judgments passed upon men whose conduct is appraised as good or bad4 ,this does not affect society1 and the judgment entails neither honors nor imprisonment4 ,it is merely a pronouncement4 ,but esteem and even honor depend upon it1 things which have a high moral value4 ,in school good conduct means inertia1 and bad conduct means activity4 ,the esteem of the head mistress1 of the teacher and of schoolfellows1 the whole moral part1 in fact1 of the system of rewards and punishments1 depend upon these appreciations4 ,as in society1 they require no judicial qualifications1 no authority in those who form them2 they are based on something that all can see and judge2 they are the true moral judgment of the environment2 indeed1 any one of the children themselves1 or even the class-room attendant1 may write the list on the blackboard4 ,there is1 in fact1 nothing mysterious or philosophical in conduct2 it is the sum of acts committed1 the facts of life itself1 accessible to all1 which determine it4 ,and all can see it and pronounce upon it4 ,on the other hand1 there are much more serious acts1 the consequences of which affect the community and touch those principles of justice on which all are entitled to rely2 they therefore require authoritative judgments against which there is no appeal2 a kind of ,supreme ,court hastily convoked4 ,when in an examination the children1 seated side by side1 have there and then to give samples of what they have learnt1 that is1 to hand in that veritable legal document1 an evidence visible and accessible to all judgments1 the written task1 be it dictation1 composition or problem2 if then one child helps another1 he is not merely naughty1 but wicked1 for he has not only displayed activity1 but activity for the benefit of another4 ,the punishment may be very serious3 the annulment of the examination1 which may sometimes mean the loss of a whole year's schooling1 the repetition of that year's course4 ,a child who can help another is kind2 well1 he may be punished by having to pass the examination again1 several months later1 or even by having to go back for a whole year of his life and begin over again4 ,there are many cases of this kind3 the family of this kind-hearted child may have been very poor1 and the child may have been making a great effort to come out well1 and so to be able soon to help his family by his own childish work2 who knows how his comprehension of this family condition may touch the heart of a child8 ,he may have seen in his bewildered schoolfellow another poor boy in like circumstances4 ,how often some quarrel in his home1 or insufficient food1 may have caused him to lie in bed1 sleepless and excited1 for hours8 ,in the morning his mind was confused4 ,perhaps his unfortunate schoolfellow had been in like case just on the eve of the examinations4 ,it is essential to understand certain situations3 the mother at home counts the days of each school year that passes1 because to her these are so many days sacrificed2 she is certainly following her boy at the examination with a heart full of anxiety2 her face at the window when the child comes in sight asks1 when he is yet afar3 ,how did it go8 ,this picture was perhaps present in the heart of the good-natured child when he helped his comrade4 ,he might1 of course1 keep all this to himself1 perfect his own work1 or hand it in first4 ,for justice decrees that the time spent on the work should be counted by the minute1 almost as by the chronometers of psychological experiment4 ,justice is rigorous4 ,on the paper handed in by the child the teacher writes the hour3 handed in at #aj4cb1 handed in at #aa4e4 ,if two papers are about equal in merit1 so that it can hardly be said from the contents which is the better of the two1 though both are superior to all the rest1 a difficult case arises3 it must be decided which is to be the first4 ,it is a matter of great weight1 because the prize is in question4 ,when there is a doubt1 the hour decides4 ,one paper was handed in at #aj4cj1 the other at #aj4ce4 ,the one handed in at #aj4cj is pronounced the first1 because the writer was able to do work of equal merit in five minutes less than his rival4 ,on what may not a prize sometimes depend6 ,hence a diligent child must be very careful in his preparations for an examination2 the two in question were equally clever and equally quick2 but one had taken care to have good pens and flowing ink1 and the other had not4 ,thus his negligence cost him the prize4 ,it is true that the parents and not the children provide the pens4 ,in strict justice all should have the same pens1 but here we enter into a sea of scruples which might obscure justice4 ,no1 justice must be rigorous1 but without scruples4 ,now the clever child who helped his companion lost time1 and so by this alone he lost part of his merit2 he therefore sacrificed himself for a comrade4 ,no considerations1 no extenuating circumstances will be allowed to mitigate the punishment4 ,family conditions1 the mother 444 nothing can avail against the canceling of an examination4 ,even in the case of great criminals extenuating circumstances are admitted in mitigation of punishment4 ,but school is another matter2 here we have to deal with definite facts3 there has been an infiltration of one mind into another1 and we are no longer able to judge the children individually by their work4 ,moreover1 the examination is the individual test4 ,if the canceling occurs at the final examination1 the culprit must go through the year again1 and when a year is repeated it is the entire year4 ,it is not as with convicts1 where months and weeks are taken into account4 ,here the unit of measurement is the school year4 ,and then there is another point to consider in the case of convicts3 their crimes may have been induced by irresistible forces and conditions1 driving them to do evil4444 ,but who is there who cannot refrain from doing good8 ,to do good is certainly not an irresistible impulse6 ,however1 to obviate such inconvenient impulses1 school educates children to refrain from mutual aid throughout the year4 ,it goes even farther3 it directly prevents the children from communicating one with another4 ,what a chase it is6 ,the clever1 practical teacher adopts regular strategic tactics1 and is familiar with all the child's devices in this covert and deceitful contest4 ,children are capable of anything to support one another and communicate one with another4 ,if prompting when one child is repeating a lesson might reach the teacher's ear1 we find a companion sitting in front of him with the open book fastened to his shoulders1 where the other is able to read it4 ,or if the wily teacher makes the patient come out from among the desks in order to prevent him from receiving any help1 his companions may make signs to him1 perhaps by means of the deaf-and-dumb alphabet4 ,then we find the teacher using the blackboard as a pretext for turning the pupil with his face to the wall1 the while she keeps her burning eyes fixed on the class4 ,thus the patient is isolated4 ,nothing escapes a clever teacher2 she is capable of surprising a rolled-up note slipped by one child under the desk of another2 and of confiscating a piece of blotting-paper which two children interchange on the pretext of using it1 when they have written upon it4 ,for this reason properly constructed desks should be open in front1 because otherwise it is so easy to pass things under them2 whereas with desks which are not only hygienic but moral1 such subterfuges would be difficult to carry out4 ,indeed1 these desks which are open in front also facilitate surveillance of the scholars from the moral point of view2 because1 always seated1 placed side by side without any possibility of spiritual communion1 their heads dazed by the continuous vociferation of the teacher1 these children very often contract vicious habits1 such as onanism1 which originate in the school itself4 ,these are less openly discussed than spinal curvature1 myopia1 and exhaustion from overwork1 but the evil has long been recognized1 even before science entered upon the scene to make a study of the maladies engendered by school conditions4 ,the sedentary habit impedes circulation in the pelvic basin1 and induces stagnation of the blood2 moreover1 what other outlet is provided for the nervous energies8 ,and the evil spreads in an alarming manner4 ,but open desks make subterfuges impossible4 ,all moral devices for combating abuses flourish in the school4 ,in the schools in ,rome1 for example1 order and surveillance are so perfect that children are not even allowed to go to the lavatory4 ,it is well known what disorder was caused by this 'question of the lavatory4' ,if a child became tired of sitting still or listening to the teacher1 he asked leave to go out3 he was capable of remaining shut up in the lavatory for a considerable time1 in order to raise his spirits a little in a place he preferred to that he had just left1 for pupils are not allowed to linger in the corridors2 the attendants are always on the watch4 ,but these visits to the lavatory had become such an abuse that it was decided to take remedial measures4 ,to-day the physiological time is reckoned more or less exactly1 and at a stated hour the whole of the pupils1 accompanied by the teacher1 marching in line two by two1 like soldiers drilling1 proceed to the lavatories4 ,the children of the first file enter in succession and the others halt1 but continue to mark time2 as by degrees the children come out of the lavatory1 they form in file again1 and begin once more to mark time together with their companions4 ,the movement seems1 indeed1 appropriate to the occasion4 ,we will say nothing of the state in which the last children in the file of forty or fifty 7who did not go in as a pretence1 since the 'physiological time' had been reckoned7 will find the lavatory2 nor will we ask what has become of hygiene4 ,let us look at the exterior of the lavatories2 they have little doors with a large space above and a large space below2 thus modesty1 and at the same time morality1 are safeguarded2 within1 nothing but the proper duty can be performed4 ,the more modern lavatories in schools1 however1 are made without seats2 with an aperture in the ground to obviate contact and ensure hygiene3 the uncomfortable position prevents a longer sojourn than is necessary4 ,it appears that this is the best practical method for installations of this kind in common lodging-houses1 casual wards1 and schools4 99 99 99 99 99 ,school is the place where the social sentiment is developed2 it is the child's society4 ,as a fact1 it is not the school in itself1 nor the intercourse of the scholars1 but the education given in the manner described above which is designed to develop this sentiment4 ,hence when my method became known1 although ,i had spoken therein of places where children live together agreeably and work1 ,i was asked in a critical tone3 ,and how will the social sentiment be developed if each child works independently8 ,we must therefore conclude that this system of regimentation in which the children do everything at the same moment1 even to visiting the lavatory1 is supposed to develop the social sentiment4 ,the society of the child is therefore the antithesis of adult society1 where sociability implies a free and well-bred interchange of courtesies and mutual aid1 although each individual attends to his own business2 in the society of the child it implies identity of physical attitudes and uniformity of collective actions1 together with a total disregard of all pleasant and courteous relations2 mutual help which is a virtue in adult society1 is here considered the gravest fault1 the worst offense against discipline4 ,modern methods of instruction recommend the teacher to conclude every lesson with a moral1 like the classic fables4 ,whether the lesson treats of birds1 butter1 or triangles1 it must always end by pointing a moral4 ,the teacher must miss no opportunity1 says the pedagogist2 moralization is the true aim of the school4 ,mutual aid is the burden of the pedagogistic refrain1 for the leitmotif of all moralities1 not excepting that of the school1 is to love one another4 ,to exhort children to help one another and show mutual affection the teacher perhaps adopts a psychological method in three periods distinguishing perception1 association1 and volition2 or she may adopt the method of cause in its relation to effect2 this is left to her discretion2 but she must always keep her class in a state of discipline and goodness1 for these are its essential constituents4 ,but the factor which affords the most substantial support to the educative organism of the school is the system of prizes and punishments4 ,pedagogists make this the main feature of their treatment4 ,all admit more or less the need of some external stimulus to induce school-children to study and behave well1 although some are of opinion that it would be well to instil into the child the love of good for its own sake1 and that a sense of duty rather than the fear of punishment should deter from evil4 ,this opinion is generally recognized as lofty1 but impracticable4 ,to imagine that the child could be stimulated to work merely by a desire to do his duty is a pedagogic absurdity2 nor is it credible that a child could persevere in the paths of industry and good conduct merely with a view to a distant end1 such as the fine social position he might some day win for himself in the world by means of study4 ,some direct stimulus1 some immediate token of approval1 is necessary4 ,true1 it has been deemed advisable to make punishments less rigorous and the bestowal of prizes less ostentatious1 and such modifications have now become general4 ,indeed1 those fustigations and corporal punishments which not very long ago were usual in prisons1 lunatic asylums1 and schools have been abandoned in schools2 the penalties of to-day are slight3 bad marks1 reproofs1 unfavorable reports to the family1 suspension of attendance4 ,the ceremonial prize-giving is also a thing of the past1 the solemn function at which the scholars mounted the platform as in triumph to receive their prizes from the hands of the noblest and most distinguished persons of the neighborhood1 who accompanied the presentation with amiable words of encouragement while the public1 consisting mainly of proud and agitated parents1 murmured their approval and admiration4 ,all these superfluities have been abolished2 the prize1 the object1 is simply handed to the winner in an ante-room of the school4 ,the important matter is that the child shall receive the object he has deserved4 ,the medals1 too1 with which pupils were formerly able to adorn their breasts1 are now abolished2 the prize is a book1 a useful object4 ,a sense of the practical has found its way even into our schools4 ,perhaps the good children will presently be rewarded by the presentation of a piece of soap1 or the material for an apron1 in a tte-a-tte between giver and recipient4 ,but a prize there must needs be4 ,however1 throughout all the discussions of the pedagogists and the evolutions of punishments and prizes1 no one has dreamt of asking himself what is the good which is rewarded1 and what the evil which is punished1 or whether1 before urging children on to an undertaking1 it would not be well to cast a glance at the undertaking itself1 and judge of its value4 ,at last positive studies on the school question have shed sufficient light to enable us to construct a new base for the old question4 ,is it well to allure children by a prize1 to incite them to exhaust their nervous systems and injure their eyesight8 ,and is it well to check them by means of punishments1 when1 urged by an overpowering instinct of self-preservation1 they seek to avoid these perils8 ,at last we all know that the prize-winners of the elementary schools are the mediocre pupils of the high school2 that the prize-winners of the high school are the exhausted students of the academies2 and that those who gain prizes throughout their school career are those who are most easily vanquished in the battle of life4 ,knowing this1 is it well to stimulate on the one hand and to repress on the other1 to the end that children may remain in this ruinous condition8 ,are not the perils of school life already serious enough1 without adding stimuli to induce them to throw themselves into these perils with all their energies8 ,a number of deeply interesting comparative studies have been made of late on clever and stupid school-children1 those who gain prizes and those who incur punishment4 ,certain anthropologists1 somewhat ingenious in matters of science1 have studied the question in such good faith that they have even proposed to inquire whether the more brilliant prize-winners show evidences of morphological superiority1 congenital marks of a natural privilege1 a brain more highly developed than that of mediocrity4 ,on the contrary1 anthropological notes reveal their physical inferiority1 i4e4 their low stature and their remarkably narrow chest measurements4 ,their heads are in no way distinguished from those of less clever scholars2 many of them wear spectacles4 ,thus we get a clearer picture of the life of a child who diligently performs all his tasks with a dread of making mistakes which may become positive anguish2 who learns all his lessons1 thus of necessity depriving himself of a walk1 a saunter1 an hour of rest4 ,obsessed by anxiety to be the first1 or even stimulated by illusions of a future more brilliant than that of his companions1 exhilarated by the praises and prizes which make him believe himself to be one of the hopes of his country1 and the solace of his parents1 he rushes forward to future impotence1 as if dazed by a fairy vision4 ,his careless companions1 on the other hand1 have well-developed chests1 and are the merriest boys in the class4 ,other types of clever pupils are those who are helped at home by tutors1 or educated mothers who devote themselves to their advancement2 while other types of dull pupils1 often punished1 are poor children who are not made welcome in their homes1 but are left to themselves1 sometimes in the streets2 or who are already working for their bread in the early hours of the morning1 before coming to school4 ,in an inquiry ,i made1 the children who were praised and passed without examination were in the category of those who brought a good luncheon with them2 the children at the bottom of the class1 who incurred punishments1 were those who brought no provisions1 or only a piece of bread4 ,it must not be supposed that the above is an exhaustive enumeration of the causes which contribute to the deceptive phenomenon connected with prizes and punishments2 but it is obvious that a clearly defined road has been marked out which should lead us to comprehension of the facts4 ,prizes and punishments are not merely final episodes1 they are exponents of the moral organization of the school4 ,just as the annulment of the examination of a pupil who has helped a companion is but the extreme instance of an education which tends to isolate the individual in his egotism2 so the prize and the punishment are the extreme incidents of the constant principle on which the organism of the school is based3 emulation4 ,the principle is that children1 seeing others cleverer than themselves1 who get high marks1 praises and prizes1 will be stimulated to imitate these1 to do better1 to overtake their companions4 ,thus what may be described as a kind of mechanism is evolved1 which uplifts the whole school1 not merely towards work1 but towards effort4 ,it is the moral purpose to accustom children to suffer4 ,let us take an example of such emulation4 ,when the observant doctor entered the school1 his attention was directed to the organs of sense1 and he found many slightly deaf children among the pupils4 ,hearing less than the others1 they appeared less intelligent1 and as a punishment they had been relegated to the desks at the very back of the schoolroom4 ,they were often set to repeat because they had never learnt to write from dictation1 and made incredible and unpardonable mistakes4 ,emulation and punishment had alike proved powerless2 not even when they were placed as far as possible from the teacher did these deaf children improve6 ,there were also lively children1 who were repeatedly punished to induce them to keep still1 and who were vainly exhorted to imitate companions whose conduct was exemplary4 ,a large number of children suffering from adenoids1 who consequently breathed through their mouths1 and were incapable of fixing their attention1 got bad marks and punishments because they were never attentive2 meanwhile this defect of the open mouth was vainly combated by the kind and careful teacher1 who multiplied moral tales concerning the ugliness of children who keep their mouths open1 and1 terrible to relate1 even sit with their fingers in their mouths6 ,many of the lazy children1 who would not do the gymnastic exercises like the rest1 who made pretexts for stopping and thus set a bad example1 were found to be suffering from heart affections1 anemia1 or liver complaints4 ,yet one of the most brilliant examples of emulation is that of the gymnastic competitions1 competitions in endurance and competitions in speed4 ,the children are encouraged to continue the exercise as long as possible2 or to cover the ground in the shortest possible time2 here effort is the basis of the exercise4 ,now anthropological study has revealed the fact that there are two principal types of constitution3 one in which the chest predominates1 the other in which the legs predominate4 ,when the chest is well developed and the lungs and heart strong1 endurance is more natural than agility2 the opposite holds good of the other type1 in which1 by reason of the length of the legs and the slightness of the chest1 agility prevails4 ,no emulation can change one type into the other4 ,morphological study of the child1 whose body is transformed in successive ages1 should be the basis for the organization of gymnastic exercises1 and not emulation4 ,that which has its origin in the body1 as constitution or disease1 should be considered in the body4 ,no miracle can be performed by the sentiment of emulation4 ,this prejudice in favor of emulation is so deeply rooted that when1 in #ahih1 ,i began my campaign in ,italy to procure the formation of separate classes for deficient children in connection with the elementary schools1 the principle of emulation was urged against me3 the deficient children would no longer be helped by the example of the clever1 industrious children2 and when these weaklings had been deprived of the stimulus of emulation1 they would accomplish absolutely nothing4 ,but emulation can only avail among equals4 ,when competitions take place1 champions are chosen4 ,to a deficient child1 the example of a clever companion is merely humiliating2 his inferiority1 his impotence are perpetually cast in his teeth by the victorious career of his comrade4 ,he becomes more and more discouraged as the zealous teacher scolds and punishes him for his weakness and points out the radiant example offered by the strong4 ,what would give him a ray of light1 a glimpse of hope1 would be for him to see the possibility of doing something within the limits of his own powers which might nevertheless have a value of its own2 to penetrate into some sphere where he too might compete with some one and be encouraged4 ,then he would be like others1 he would be exhilarated and comforted2 and the feeble flower within him might expand4 ,he has infinitely greater need of encouragement1 solace1 and external stimuli to excite him to activity than the normal child4 ,and what happens to the normal child1 the clever boy1 who serves as an example to his inferiors8 ,whom does he emulate8 ,who carries him along that he may ascend8 ,if all need to be drawn upwards in order to climb1 who is to draw him who stands above all8 ,this time the question is out of place4 ,in his case1 the impulse will be retrograde4 ,here we have the thrice happy type of him who competes with his inferiors6 ,this makes me think of a description given by ,voisin of a competition arranged by one of the idiots in his asylum4 ,this boy1 who was very tall1 selected all the shortest and youngest of the idiots1 and challenged them to a race2 he always came in first and was delighted4 ,such an example is not1 however1 peculiar to ,voisin's asylum2 it is the moral attitude of all who are ambitious1 but idle1 and are anxious to outshine others without too much fatigue1 without perfecting themselves1 counting much on the phenomena of contrast4 ,thus we find a fluent orator seeking to be preceded by an unskilful speaker2 and pretty girls who have not the means to adorn themselves and thus set off their beauty1 are fond of going about with their plainer friends4 ,i have read an amusing fable1 which was evidently a parody of this phenomenon4 ,there was once a king who had such a long nose that it was positively ridiculous4 ,when a neighboring king proposed to visit him1 he was much perturbed1 being ashamed to exhibit his defect to a neighboring people4 ,then the prime minister thought of an expedient1 and propounded this practical plan to the king3 ,your ,majesty1 on this occasion let your noble court retire2 ,i will search throughout the kingdom for the men with the most prominent noses1 and for the time they shall constitute your court4 ,this was done2 and such noses appeared on the scene that that of the king seemed quite normal in comparison4 ,thus the august colleague noticed that the court was remarkable for its noses1 but did not perceive that the king had a nose of abnormal length4 ,these stories of the competition between idiots and the court of noses make us smile2 but the normal competitions between our children are not matters for mirth4 ,the healthy children who1 when side by side with the deaf1 the sickly1 and the deficient are only conscious of their superiority2 the fortunate children who have the help of educated mothers and are brought into contact with poor1 unhappy1 neglected children1 merely feel that they are examples to these2 well-fed children refreshed by a long sleep in comfortable beds1 placed side by side with little busy workers who get up before sunrise to sell newspapers1 or deliver milk1 and arrive at school already tired1 imagine themselves to be superior to these1 and to serve as a stimulus to them to do better--all these normal children are on the wrong moral track4 ,they are being misled into an unconscious acceptance of injustice4 ,they are being deceived4 ,they are not better1 they are only more fortunate than their companions2 their kindly hearts should be led to recognize the truth2 to pity the1 sickly1 to console the unfortunate1 to admire the heroes4 ,it is not their fault if1 instead of all this1 vanity1 ambition1 and error spring up in their hearts4 ,it is true that the teacher makes an attempt to educate their hearts aright1 reminding them of ailing1 unfortunate1 and heroic children by means of moral stories which all learn without distinction in the same manner4 ,she lays stress upon incidents illustrating the good feeling of mankind4 ,yet no one ever considers that the ailing1 the unfortunate1 and the heroic are all there among them1 since all children go to school2 but they cannot communicate with each other and recognize each other2 and thus these subjects who are actually present are distinguished only as the ones who receive all the scoldings1 punishments1 and humiliations while their more fortunate companions lord it over them arrogantly as their examples1 gaining prizes and praise1 but losing their own souls in the process4 ,in this moral confusion1 where man loses sight of ,god1 as in hell1 what strong spirit is stimulated to develop all his precious activities and cultivate his own heart8 ,all are lost1 the strong as well as the weak2 few indeed are those who possess an individual instinct capable of saving them1 who do not succumb to the temptations of prizes1 threats of punishment1 to the continual suggestions of emulation and of fraudulent rivalry1 and who come out with their powers still intact and their hearts pure1 sensible of the great facts of humanity4 ,those who pass through the ordeal untouched by its empty glories and persecutions1 and set forth on the path of a productive life which attains to beauty and goodness by internal energy and is susceptible to truth--these are they whom we hail as men of genius1 as benefactors of the human race4 99 99 99 99 99 ,when we come to analyze good and evil positively1 we feel that in reality much of the evil we theoretically deplore in individuals may be resolved into external causes4 ,the depravity of the masses resolves itself into the combined effects of pauperism and drunkenness2 crime into degeneration2 the faults of children and scholars arise from the darkness of prejudice4 ,but as these causes are not absolute and immutable1 but are related to transitory states which may be altered1 the ancient philosophic conception of evil resolves itself partially into so many social questions and actions4 ,to give work and combat the drink habit--this it is which contributes largely to morality by removing so many causes of evil4 ,to undertake the regeneration and education of the degenerate1 is to combat crime1 and therefore to promote morality4 ,thus1 if in schools the dense darkness of prejudice is the cause of innumerable moral ills1 to reform the school by the help of natural principles will be the first step towards its moralization4 ,it is in this direction1 then1 that we must face the great question1 not by analytical examination of the system of prizes and punishments1 of the principle of emulation1 of the most opportune and practical manner of inculcating moral principles1 nor by the creation of new decalogues4 ,that which we have hitherto regarded so lightly as a didactic problem is1 on the contrary1 a great and veritable social question4 ,when a moral problem is limited to the effects of preventable causes1 it is merely apparent4 ,thus1 for instance1 let us imagine for a moment a populous quarter1 where pauperism is rampant and the poor will fight for a piece of bread2 where dirt1 drinking-shops and civic neglect degrade the inhabitants2 where all1 men and women alike1 give way readily to vice4 ,our sole impression of such people at the moment is3 ,what wicked people6 ,on the other hand1 let us take the modern quarter of an industrious city1 where the houses of the people are hygienic1 where the workpeople receive a fair remuneration for their labor1 where popular theaters1 conducted with a true sense of art1 have taken the place of public-houses1 and let us enter one of the restaurants where workpeople are enjoying their food in a quiet1 civilized fashion2 we should be inclined to say3 ,what good people6 ,but have they really become good8 ,those who ameliorated their social conditions were the good people4 ,but the individuals who have benefited by their exertions live better2 they are not1 strictly speaking1 more meritorious in the moral sense4 ,if they were1 we should only need to imagine a society in which the economic problem had been solved1 to behold men who have become moral solely in virtue of having been born in a different age4 ,it is obvious that the moral question is a very different one2 it is a question of life1 a question of nature1 and one which cannot be solved by external eventualities4 ,men may be more or less fortunate1 they may be born in more or less civilized surroundings1 but they will always be men confronted by a moral question1 which goes down deeper than fortune or civilization4 ,it is very easy to be convinced that the so-called naughtiness of children is the expression of a struggle for spiritual existence2 they want to make the men within them live1 and we try to hinder them2 we offer them the poisons of darkness and error4 ,they fight for their spiritual bread as the poor fight for material bread2 and degrade themselves by falling victims to our seductions just as the poor degrade themselves by succumbing to the fascination of alcohol2 and in this struggle and this degradation children have revealed themselves as the poor and needy1 neglected and destitute4 ,none has ever demonstrated more clearly than they that man does not live by bread alone1 and that the question of bread is not the real question of man4 ,all the suffering1 all the struggles1 all the claims of society in the past with regard to bodily needs are repeated here with amazing clarity in connection with spiritual needs4 ,children want to grow1 to perfect themselves1 to nourish their intelligence1 to develop their internal energies1 to form their characters and to these ends they need to be liberated from slavery1 and to conquer the means of life4 ,it is not enough to nourish their bodies3 they are hungry for intellectual food2 the clothes which protect their limbs from the cold are not enough for children3 they demand the garments of strength and the ornaments of grace to protect and adorn the spirit4 ,why have we adults stifled these wants till we have almost come to believe that the economic question is the true solution of the problem of human life8 ,and why have we never imagined that1 even after such a solution1 strife1 anger1 despair1 and degradation might reappear as a result of higher desires left unsatisfied8 ,such strife1 anger1 despair and degradation we encounter continually in the children of to-day1 who are nevertheless well fed1 well clothed and well warmed1 in accordance with the standards of perfected physical hygiene4 ,to respond to the intellectual needs of man in such a manner as to satisfy them is to make an important contribution to morality4 ,indeed our children1 when they have been able to occupy themselves freely with intelligent work1 and have also been free to respond to their internal wants1 to occupy themselves for a long time with chosen stimuli1 to perform abstract operations when they were sufficiently mature1 to concentrate their minds in meditation1 have shown that order and serenity have been evolved within them2 and after this1 grace of movement1 the capacity for enjoyment of the beautiful1 sensibility to music1 and finally1 amenity in their relations to each other1 have sprung up like a jet of water from an internal fount4 ,all this has been a work of liberation4 ,we have not made our children moral by any special means2 we have not taught them to overcome their caprices and to sit quietly at work2 we have not inculcated calm and order by exhorting them to follow the examples of others1 and explaining how necessary order is to man2 we have not lectured them on mutual courtesy1 to instil the respect due to the work of others1 and the patience with which they should wait in order not to infringe the rights of others4 ,there has been none of all this2 we have merely set the child free1 and helped him to live4 ,it is he who has taught us how the child lives1 and what other needs he has besides his material wants4 ,thereupon an activity formerly unknown among little children1 together with the virtues of industry1 perseverance and patience1 manifested themselves amidst crises of joy1 in an atmosphere of habitual serenity4 ,these children had entered upon the paths of peace4 ,an obstacle hitherto opposed to nature had been removed4 ,and just as men satisfied by nourishing food and removed from the dangers of poisons1 have grown calmer1 and have shown themselves capable of preferring the higher pleasures to base and degrading indulgence1 so the child1 his internal needs satisfied1 has entered the sphere of serenity and has shown his tendency to ascend4 ,all this1 however1 has not touched the roots of the moral question2 but it has stripped and purged it of all the dross that encumbered it4 ,the more fully a man's wants are satisfied1 the happier he is2 but he is not already full of merit1 as we divine that a man gifted with a lofty moral sense ought really to be4 ,rather have we deprived man of his merits2 goodness has disappeared as well as wickedness at the advent of social reform4 ,when we discovered that many forms of goodness were forms of good fortune1 and many forms of evil-doing were forms of misfortune1 we left man absolutely naked1 stripped bare by truth4 ,he must then take up his real life at its roots and acquire merit4 ,at this point he will begin to be born anew morally1 emerging from the pure and essential chrysalis of the hygienically living man4 99 99 99 99 99 ,if the whole structure of our educative method starts from an act of concentrated attention to a sensory stimulus1 and builds itself up on the education of the senses1 limiting itself to this1 it would evidently not take the whole man into consideration4 ,for if man does not live by material bread alone1 neither does he live solely by intellectual bread4 ,the stimuli of the environment are not only the objects1 but also the persons1 with whom our relations are not merely sensory4 ,in fact1 we are not content to admire in them that beauty to which the ,greeks were so sensitive1 or to listen to their speech or their song4 ,the true relations between man and man1 though they are initiated by means of the senses1 are established in sympathy4 ,the moral sense of which positive science speaks is to a great extent the sense of sympathy with our fellows1 the comprehension of their sorrows1 the sentiment of justice3 the lack of these sentiments convulses normal life4 ,we cannot become moral by committing codes and their applications to memory1 for memory might fail us a thousand times1 and the slightest passion might overcome us2 criminals1 in fact1 even when they are most astute and wary students of codes1 often violate them2 while normal persons1 although entirely ignorant of the laws1 never transgress them1 owing to an internal sense which guides them4 ,positive science includes in the term moral sense something complex which is1 at the same time1 sensibility to public opinion1 to law1 and to religion2 and multiplying it thus1 it does not clearly define in what moral sense consists4 ,we talk of it intuitively2 each one has within himself something that responds to the appellation2 and by this internal response he must understand and decide in what this moral sense consists4 ,but religion is simple and precise3 it calls this internal sense which lies at the root of life1 ,love4 ,social laws do not enter into this any more than does the entire universe4 ,love is the contact between the soul and ,god2 and when this exists1 all the rest is vanity4 ,good springs therefrom naturally1 as sunbeams radiate from the sun4 ,creation itself has been given in charge of this wellspring of love1 and it is love which maintains it1 as the contribution of the creature to the provident forces of nature4 ,those biological studies which seek to probe the secrets of nature have also recognized love as the key of life4 ,scientists have at last perceived1 after much research1 this most evident fact3 that it is love which preserves the animal species1 and not the struggle for existence4 ,in fact1 the struggle for existence tends to destroy2 and as regards survival1 this is not the exclusive privilege of the fittest1 as was at first supposed4 ,but existence is indeed bound up with love4 ,indeed1 the individuals who struggle and conquer are adults2 but who is it that protects the new-born creature and infant life in process of formation8 ,if a hard and horny covering is the natural protection of his species1 he does not possess it2 if it is strength of muscle1 he is weak2 if it is tusks1 he is without them2 if it is agility1 he cannot yet move2 if it is fecundity1 he is not yet mature4 ,therefore1 all species should have become extinct1 for there is none so strong but that he once was weak2 and there is no infancy which is not more feeble than any adult life4 ,it is love which protects all this weakness1 and explains survival4 ,maternal love1 indeed1 is studied to-day with the deepest attention by our scientists as a natural phenomenon4 ,if the struggle for existence presented to us a uniform picture of destruction1 the phenomena of maternal love are to-day revealed to us in the richest and most fascinating forms1 which almost represent the occult and sentimental aspect of the marvelous varieties of forms in nature4 ,it is seen at last to be one of the fundamental characteristics of the species1 which should be recognized by all students4 ,even insects1 which ,fabre has described with such a wealth of detail1 small and remote as they are from ourselves1 exhibit wonderful phenomena of maternal love4 ,one of the first articles published by a naturalist on these phenomena1 ,la ,psychologie d'une ,araigne 7,the ,psychology of a ,spider7 might serve as the motive of a drama4 ,the spider1 as is well known1 makes a bag of threads1 which she generally attaches to the backs of leaves1 and in it she deposits and preserves her eggs2 she gets into it herself together with the eggs1 to protect the treasure of the species4 ,if the bag should be broken at any point1 the spider promptly repairs it4 ,by way of experiment1 a spider was taken out of the bag1 and kept at a distance for twenty days4 ,what is a spider8 ,a few cubic millimetres of a dark1 flabby substance without brain or heart1 whose life is so short that twenty days constitute a very long interval for it2 but this small creature never relaxed her efforts to escape1 and her agitation never abated2 finally1 when she was liberated at the end of the twenty days1 she fled to the bag1 hid herself in it1 and repaired the walls4 ,where was all this love and memory concentrated8 ,this mother-spider was then removed from the nest1 and another spider was introduced1 which at once adopted the offspring1 acted the mother1 defended the nest from attack1 and repaired the walls if they were damaged4 ,there must therefore be a maternal instinct in the species1 independent of actual maternity4 ,but when the real mother approached the adopted bag1 not only did the foster-mother make no attempt to defend it1 but she fled and gave up her place4 ,by what phenomenon of telepathy did the visitor concealed in the bag feel the maternal power approaching8 ,the following was the end of the experiment3 the little spiders were hatched1 and remained in the bag together with their mother2 the experimenter tore the bag to see what would happen2 the little spiders fled in every direction1 but the mother remained crouching on the tattered fragments of the nest1 and died1 almost violently1 killed by the destruction of her offspring4 ,maternal love1 therefore1 does not require complicated organs2 it needs neither brain1 heart1 nor senses1 and seems almost to exist without matter2 it is the force which life assumes to protect and preserve itself1 a force which seems to exist before and to accompany creation1 like that wisdom of which ,solomon speaks3 ,the ,lord possessed me in the beginning of his way1 before his works of old4444 ,when there were no depths1 ,i was brought forth4444 ,then ,i was by him as a master workman1 and ,i was daily his delight1 rejoicing always before him4444 ,whoso findeth me findeth life4 99 99 99 99 99 ,but long before biologists perceived that love is the powerful force which protects the species1 and explains its survival1 religion had pointed to love as the force which preserves life4 ,in order to live1 it is not enough to be created2 the creature must also be loved4 ,this is the law of nature4 ,he who loveth not 444 abideth in death4 ,when ,moses gave the decalogue which was to guide the ,hebrews to salvation1 he preceded it by the law3 ,thou shalt love the ,lord thy ,god with all thy heart1 and thy neighbor as thyself4 ,when the ,pharisees came to ,christ1 asking ,him to declare the ,law1 ,he answered3 ,do you not know8 ,thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself2 as if to say3 the law is evident and unique1 it is the law of life1 and for this reason must always have existed1 from the very beginning of the world4 ,but to ,st4 ,peter1 who was to be the head of the new religion1 love the transition from the old to the new order was more fully explained3 ,love1 said ,christ1 even as ,i have loved you1 that is to say1 not as you are capable of loving1 but as ,i am capable of loving4 ,there is a deep gulf between the manner in which men are able to love themselves and that in which ,christ can love men4 ,men often rush headlong to their own perdition2 they are capable of confounding good with evil1 life with death1 food with poison4 ,little confidence can therefore be felt in the injunction3 ,love thy neighbor as thyself4 ,and it was in truth a new commandment that ,jesus gave1 when ,he said3 ,love even as ,i have loved you4 ,moses1 indeed1 had been obliged to supplement the law of love by a decalogue of practical injunctions3 ,honor thy father and mother1 ,thou shalt do no murder1 ,thou shalt not steal1 ,thou shalt not bear false witness1 ,thou shalt not covet4 ,christ1 on the other hand taught that it will be enough if we do not demand measure for measure in love1 and that there will no longer be any need of the support of rules4 ,we must let the measure overflow2 and behold6 this in itself opens to man the door of salvation4 ,if ye love them which love you1 what thank have ye8 for sinners also love those that love them4 ,and if ye do good to them which do good to you1 what thank have ye8 for sinners also do even the same4 ,and if ye lend to them of whom ye hope to receive1 what thank have ye8 for sinners also lend to sinners to receive as much again4 ,but love ye your enemies1 and do good1 and lend1 hoping for nothing again1 and ye shall be the children of the ,highest 7,st4 ,luke vi1 #cb-ce74 ,set yourselves free from all bonds and all measurements and lay hold of the one thing needful3 to be alive1 to feel2 this was the revelation made by ,christ when1 like ,moses1 ,he went up into the mountain1 but without hiding ,himself from the people1 calling the crowd indeed to follow ,him1 and openly expounding all the secrets of truth3 ,blessed are those who feel1 even if they suffer1 for to suffer is to feel1 to live4 ,blessed are those who weep1 blessed are those who hunger for righteousness1 blessed are the persecuted1 blessed are those whose hearts are pure and free from darkness4 ,for he who feels shall be satisfied2 but he who cannot feel is lost2 woe to those who lie down in comfort1 woe to those who are full1 woe to those who laugh--they have lost their sensibility4 ,and then all is vanity4 ,what is the use of knowing all the moral laws1 and even practising them1 if the heart be dead8 ,it is as if we should whiten the tomb of a corpse4 ,the moral1 self-satisfied man1 without a heart1 is a tomb4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the education of the moral sense4--,thus the conception of moral education1 like that of intellectual education1 must include a basis of feeling1 and be built up thereupon1 if we are not to lead the child towards illusion1 falsity and darkness4 ,the education of the senses1 and liberty to raise the intelligence according to its own laws on the one hand2 the education of feeling1 and spiritual liberty to raise oneself1 on the other--these are two analogous conceptions and two parallel roads4 ,consider our position in relation to children4 ,we are their stimuli1 by which their feeling1 which is developing so delicately1 should be exercised4 ,for the intellect1 we have the various objects1 colors1 forms1 etc42 but for the spirit1 the objects are ourselves4 ,the pure souls of children must derive nourishment from us2 they should fix themselves on us with their hearts1 as their attention is fixed upon some favorite stimulus2 and by loving us they should exalt themselves in their intimate spiritual creation4 ,when interest leads the child to take the box of colors1 and keeps him absorbed in them1 the objects lend themselves passively to his manipulation1 but the colors reflect the luminous rays of the sun1 which then strike the virgin retinae of eyes not as yet completely matured and adapted4 ,so1 too1 when the child's heart turns to us1 and fixes itself1 asking nourishment from our souls1 we ought to be always ready1 like passive objects1 inasmuch as we should never1 through our egotism1 fail to respond to the child's needs2 we should respond with all our intimate energies1 to reflect upon him the luminous rays required by his pure soul1 as yet unadapted to life4 ,we ought not to call him by name1 and offer him our affection1 inviting him to accept our help2 but1 like the material objects which attract him by their smoothness1 their luster1 and their varied and interesting forms1 and by ocular demonstration of the means of lofty intellectual exercise1 as in the colored alphabets and the rods which contain the first secrets of numeration--we1 too1 should wait2 not coldly1 but rather making the child feel that we contain a rich material which is at his disposal1 ready to be taken as soon as he stretches out his hand to grasp it4 ,our response to the child should be as full1 as prompt and as complete as that of the objects which he may manipulate1 but which at every touch give an upward impetus to the intellectual life of the child4 ,how many persons must have noted that on some occasion when they have caressed children1 the little ones have retreated1 as if repelled and offended2 and many must also have remarked that when the affectionate impulse of a child has been checked1 he shrinks into himself1 humiliated1 like the mimosa when touched4 ,now the respect we owe to the spiritual liberty of the child should manifest itself as follows3 we must never force our caresses on him1 greatly as we may be attracted by his fascinating graces2 nor must we ever repel his outbursts of affection1 even when we are not disposed to receive them1 but must respond with sincere and delicate devotion4 ,we are the objects of his love1 the objects by means of which he is organizing his life4 ,the most perfect teachers and mothers will be those who will take the didactic material for their model1 and imitate this by filling themselves in every sense with moral riches and being full of response in every detail2 passive in abnegation1 yet active as wellsprings of affection4 ,and if all the sensorial objects combine all possible vibrations accessible to man--the vibrations of light and color1 as also those of sound and heat1 so too should they combine in themselves all the vibrations of internal sensibility1 waiting for the thirsty soul to choose among them4 ,it may be asked3 ,and how shall we make the child love us2 how shall we make the child feel8 ,if a child could not see colors he would be blind2 and no one could give him sight4 ,and so if the child could not feel1 no one could give him sensibility2 but since ,nature has united mother and child not only by the flesh1 but even more closely by love1 it is indubitable that at birth the child brings with him not only flesh but love4 ,now he who loves1 even though it be only a single object1 has in himself a sense which is capable of receiving impressions ad infinitum2 he who sees an object possesses sight1 therefore he who sees an object will see4 ,he who loves a mother or a son1 loves2 that internal sense vibrates1 and certainly not only to the object present to it at the moment4 ,even that poor spider1 artificially deposited in the bag of another mother1 adopted and defended the alien eggs1 because the spider is capable of maternal love4 ,therefore the child whom his mother has loved and who was helped by that love1 has that internal sense by means of which he is capable of love4 ,the human objects which present themselves to that sense have reflections from it4 ,we should wait to be seen by him2 the day will come when1 among all the intellectual objects1 the child will perceive our spirit1 and will come to us to take his ease within us4 ,it will be to him a new birth1 akin to that other awakening1 when some one of the objects first attracted him and held him4 ,it is impossible that that day1 that moment1 should not arrive4 ,we have performed a delicate work of love towards the child1 presenting to him the means which satisfy his intellectual needs1 without making ourselves felt1 keeping ourselves in the background1 but always present and ready to help4 ,we have given great satisfaction to the child by succoring him2 when he needed to clarify the order of his mind still further by language1 we offered him the names of things1 but only these1 retiring at once without asking anything from him1 without putting forward anything from ourselves4 ,we have revealed to him the sounds of the alphabet1 the secret of numbers1 we have put him into relation with things but restricting ourselves to what was useful to him1 almost concealing our body1 our breathing1 our person4 ,when he felt a desire to choose1 he never found an obstacle in us2 when he occupied himself for a long time with an exercise1 we were careful to protect the tranquillity of his work1 as a mother protects the refreshing sleep of her babe4 ,when he made his first plunge into abstraction1 he felt nothing in us but the echo of his joy4 ,the child found us always indefatigable when he called upon us1 almost as if our mission to him were to offer him what he requires1 just as it is the mission of the flower to give perfume without limit or intermission4 ,he found with us a new life1 no less sweet than the milk he drew from his mother's breast1 with which his first love was born4 ,therefore he will one day become sensitive to this being who lives to make him live1 from whose self-sacrifice his freedom to live and expand is derived4 ,and undoubtedly the day will come when his spirit will become sensitive to our spirit2 and then he will begin to taste that supreme delight which lies in the intimate contact of soul with soul1 and our voice will no longer be heard by his ear alone4 ,the power to obey us1 to communicate his conquests to us1 to share his joys with us1 will be the new element in his life4 ,we shall see the child who suddenly becomes aware of his companions1 and is almost as deeply interested as we are in their progress and their work4 ,it will be delightful to witness such a scene as that of four or five children sitting with spoons arrested over the smoking bowl1 and no longer sensible to the stimulus of hunger because they are absorbed in contemplation of the efforts of a very little companion who is trying to tuck his napkin under his chin1 and finally succeeds in doing so2 and then we shall see these spectators assume an expression of relief and pride1 almost like that of a father who is present at the triumph of his son4 ,children will recompense us in the most amazing manner by their progress1 their spiritual effusions1 and their sweet obedience4 ,the fruit they will cause us to gather will be abundant beyond anything we can imagine4 ,thus it comes to pass when the secrets of life are interpreted4 ,give and it shall be given unto you3 good measure1 pressed down and shaken together1 and running over shall men give into your bosom4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the essence of moral education4--,to keep alive and to perfect psychical sensibility is the essence of moral education4 ,around it1 as in the intellectual education which proceeds from the exercise of the senses1 order establishes itself3 the distinction between right and wrong is perceived4 ,no one can teach this distinction in all its details to one who cannot see it4 ,but to see the difference and to know it are not the same thing4 ,but in order that the child may be helped it is essential that the environment should be rightly organized1 and that good and evil should be duly differentiated4 ,an environment where the two things are confused1 where good is confounded with apathy and evil with activity1 good with prosperity and evil with misfortune1 is not one adapted to assist the establishment of order in the moral consciousness1 much less is one where acts of flagrant injustice and persecutions occur4 ,under such conditions the childish consciousness will become like water which has been made turbid1 and more poisonous than is alcohol to the life of the foetus4 ,order may perhaps be banished for ever1 together with the clarity of the consciousness2 and we cannot tell what may be the consequences to the moral man4 ,whoever shall offend one of these little ones1 it were better for him 444 that he were drowned in the depth of the sea4 ,if thy hand or thy foot offend thee1 cut it off and cast it from thee4 ,however1 the properly organized environment is not everything4 ,even in intellectual education it was not the spontaneous exercise alone which refreshed the intelligence2 but further1 the lessons of the teacher which confirmed and illuminated the internal order in process of development4 ,on these occasions she said3 ,this is red1 this is green4 ,now she will say3 ,this is right1 this is wrong4 ,and it will not be unusual to find children like the one described above1 who make good and evil the center of consciousness1 and1 placing it above material bread and intellectual nourishment1 will propound the question more vital to them than any other3 ,what is good8 and what is evil8 ,but we must not forget that moral lessons should be brief2 and that ,moses1 the father of the sages1 in order to inculcate morality1 not in a child1 but in a race1 gave ten simple commandments1 which to ,christ seemed superfluous4 ,it is true1 however1 that at the head of these was the law of love2 and that ,christ substituted for the ,decalogue an amplification of that law1 which comprises within itself all legislations and moral codes4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it is possible that good and evil may be distinguished by means of an internal sense1 apart from cognitions of morality2 and in such a case1 of course1 the good and evil in question would be absolute2 that is to say1 they would be bound up with life itself and not with acquired social habits4 ,we always speak of a voice of conscience which teaches us from within to distinguish the two things3 good confers serenity1 which is order2 enthusiasm1 which is strength2 evil is signalized as an anguish which is at times unbearable3 remorse1 which is not only darkness and disorder1 but fever1 a malady of the soul4 ,it is certain that the laws of society1 public opinion1 material well-being1 and threats of peril would all be powerless to produce these various sensations4 ,often serenity is to be found among the unfortunate1 whereas the remorse of ,lady ,macbeth1 who saw the spot of blood upon her hand1 gnawed at the heart of one who had acquired a kingdom4 ,it is not surprising that there should be an internal sensation which warns us of perils1 and causes us to recognize the circumstances favorable to life4 ,if science in these days demonstrates that the means for preserving even material life correspond to the moral virtues1 we may conclude that we shall be able to divine what is necessary to life by means of the internal sensibility4 ,have not the biological sciences demonstrated an analogous fact8 ,the biometer applied to man has made it possible to reconstruct the absolutely average man1 that is to say1 the man whose body gives average measurements in every part2 and these average measurements have been found1 by means of the statistical and morphological studies of medicine1 to correspond to normality4 ,thus the average man would be a man so perfectly constructed that he has no morphological predisposition to disease of the organs4 ,when the figure of a man was reconstructed in accordance with average biometrical proportions1 it was found to correspond in a remarkable manner to the proportions of ,greek statues4 ,this fact helped to give a new interpretation to sthetic sentiment4 ,it was evidently by means of sthetic feeling that the eye of the ,greek artist was able to extract the average measurement of every organ1 and to construct a marvelous and exact whole therewith4 ,the enjoyment of the artist was his enjoyment of the beautiful2 but he felt even more profoundly that which contained the triumph of life1 and distinguished it from the errors of nature1 which predispose to illness4 ,the triumph of creation can give an intimate pleasure to him who can feel it2 errors1 even slight1 will then be perceived as discords4 ,aesthetic education is1 in short1 akin to the mathematical approximation towards the absolute average2 the more it is possible to approach to the true measure in its extreme limits1 and the closer we can get to this1 the more possible does it become to have an absolute means of comparison for the consideration of deviations4 ,the great artist is thus able to recognize the beautiful in a detail even in the midst of other discordant details2 and the more capable he is of possessing an absolute sense of the beautiful1 the more readily will he perceive any disproportion of form4 ,something of the same sort may happen in the conscience in relation to the distinction between good and evil2 the more so as the good stands for real utility in life far more directly than the beautiful1 and the evil may be roughly said to represent danger4 ,have not animals1 perhaps1 an acute instinct of self-preservation1 which dictates infinite details of conduct to them1 both for the maintenance of life and for its protection8 ,dogs1 horses1 and cats1 and generally speaking1 all domestic animals1 do not await the imminent earthquake quietly and unconsciously1 as does man1 but become agitated4 ,when the ice is about to crack1 the ,esquimaux dogs which draw the sleighs detach themselves one from the other1 as if to avoid falling in2 while man can only observe their amazing instinct with stupefaction4 ,man has not by nature these intense instincts2 it is by means of intelligence and the sensibility of his conscience to good and evil that he constructs his defenses and recognizes his perils4 ,and if this intelligence of his1 which is actually capable of transforming the world1 raises him to such a supreme height above animals1 to what a lofty eminence might he raise himself by developing his moral consciousness6 ,but on the contrary1 man to-day is reduced to the point of asking himself seriously whether animals are not better than he4 ,when man wishes to exalt himself1 he says3 ,i am faithful as a dog1 pure as a dove1 strong as a lion4 ,indeed1 animals have always that instinct which is admirable1 for it confers on them a mysterious power2 but if man lacks sensibility of conscience he is inferior to the animals2 nothing can then save him from excesses2 he may rush upon his own ruin1 upon havoc and destruction in a manner that might fill animals with stupefaction and terror2 and if it were in their power they might set themselves to teach man1 that he might become equal to themselves4 ,men without conscience are like animals without the instinct of self-preservation2 madmen rushing on destruction4 ,what shall it profit man to discover by means of science the law of physical self-preservation in its most minute details1 if he has no care for that which corresponds in man to the instinct of his own salvation8 ,if an individual has a perfect knowledge of hygienic feeding1 of the manner in which to weigh himself in order to follow the course of his own health1 of bathing and of massage1 but should lose the instinct of humanity and kill a fellow-creature1 or take his own life1 what would be the use of all his care8 ,and if he feels nothing more in his heart8 if the void draws him to it1 plunging him into melancholy1 what does his well-nourished and well washed body avail him8 ,good is life2 evil is death2 the real distinction is as clear as the words4 ,our moral conscience is1 like our intelligence1 capable of perfection1 of elevation2 this is one of the most fundamental of its differences from the instincts of animals4 ,the sensibility of the conscience may be perfected1 like the sthetic sense1 till it can recognize and at last enjoy good1 up to the very limits of the absolute1 and also until it becomes sensitive to the very slightest deviations towards evil4 ,he who feels thus is saved2 he who feels less must be more vigilant1 and do his utmost to preserve and develop that mysterious and precious sensibility which guides us in distinguishing good from evil4 ,it is one of the most important acts of life to examine our own consciences methodically1 having as our source of illumination not only a knowledge of moral codes1 but of love4 ,it is only through love that this sensibility can be perfected4 ,he whose sense has not been educated cannot judge himself4 ,a doctor1 for example1 may be perfectly informed as to the symptoms of a disease1 and may know exactly how cardiac sounds and the resistance of the pulse are affected in diseases of the heart2 but if his ear cannot perceive the sounds1 if his hand cannot appreciate the tactile sensations which give the pulse1 of what use is his science to him8 ,his power of understanding diseases is derived from his senses2 and if this power is lacking1 his knowledge in relation to the sick man is vanity4 ,the same holds good of the diagnosis of our own conscience2 if we are blind and deaf1 innumerable symptoms will pass unobserved1 and we shall not know on what to found our judgment4 ,the tedium of futile undertakings will oppress us from the first moment4 ,on the other hand1 it is feeling which spurs us on towards perfection4 ,there have been persons with an extraordinary power of recognizing good and evil1 just as the ,greek artists showed extraordinary powers of recognizing the normal forms of the body under the guidance of the sthetic sense4 ,saint ,teresa tells us that when some worldly person who was not good approached her1 she suffered as if she were inhaling a bad smell4 ,she explained that of course she did not smell anything at all1 in the material sense2 but that she actually suffered1 not merely in imagination2 her suffering was a real spiritual distress which she could not tolerate4 ,more interesting still is the following story which refers to the early ,fathers of the ,church1 who lived in the desert4 ,we were seated at the feet of our ,bishop1 says one of the monks1 listening to and admiring his holy and salutary teaching4 ,suddenly there appeared on the scene the leading 'mime1' the most beautiful of the public dancers of ,antioch1 covered with jewels2 her bare legs were almost concealed by pearls and gold2 her head and shoulders were uncovered4 ,a throng of persons accompanied her2 the men of the period never wearied of devouring her with their eyes4 ,an exquisite perfume which exhaled from her person scented the air we breathed4 ,when she had passed1 our ,father1 who had looked steadfastly at her1 said to us3 ',were you not fascinated by so much beauty8' ,we were all silent4 ',i1' continued the ,bishop1 'experienced great pleasure in looking at her1 for ,god has appointed that some day she shall judge us4 ,i see her1' he added1 'as a soiled and blackened dove2 but this dove shall be washed and shall fly heavenwards1 white as snow4' ,as a fact1 this woman returned and asked to be baptized4 ',my name is ,pelagia1' she said1 'or such is the name my parents gave me1 but the people of ,antioch call me ,the ,pearl1 because of the quantities of jewels with which my sins have adorned me4' ,two days later she gave all her goods to the poor1 put on a hair shirt1 and took up her abode in a cell on ,monte ,oliveto1 which she never left until her death4 7,montalembert1 ,les ,moines d',occident1 vol4 #a1 p4 #hf47 99 99 99 99 99 ,our insensibility4--,how remote are we from that delicate sensibility which responds to evil by suffering and to the good perceived in others as it were miraculously1 by a feeling of pleasure6 ,in our society it is possible for us to live for a long time with a criminal1 to esteem him1 press his hand1 etc41 until he is at last exposed by the scandalous discovery of his misdeeds4 ,then we say3 ,who would have thought it8 ,he always seemed an excellent person4 ,and yet it is impossible that the criminal showed no signs1 no perversities of feeling1 no heartlessness which should have revealed him to us from the outset4 ,no one will say that we ought all to become wonderful aesthetes like the ,greek sculptors1 or as sensitive as the saints2 but if we admit that it is a barbarous thing to pass by the beauties of art without perceiving them2 that it is the mark of defective civilization to confound horrible coarseness and monstrosity with ideal beauty1 to be unable to distinguish the strident noise of the tram-car wheels1 or the deafening crash of ill-tuned instruments from the harmonies of ,bellini or ,wagner2 that each of us would blush for such insensibility1 and would conceal it--how is it we do not perceive that such obtuseness is habitual to us in moral matters8 ,we see that we are capable of confusing virtuous persons and criminals1 without any foreboding4 ,how is it that so often in the case of judicial errors1 the voice of the innocent did not resound in our ears1 although his trial was a public one1 and we allowed him to languish in prison for years8 ,how is it that goodness should be so obscure a thing that we confound it with prosperity8 ,how is it that those rich men of whom the gospel says ,woe unto you1 rich men1 for ye have your reward1 can think of improving the morals of the poor1 without any examination of their own moral lives or the lives of those belonging to them8 almost as if they believed that the rich are essentially good and the poor essentially bad4 ,if such darkness as this reigned in the intellectual field1 we should be unable to conceive the form of madness which would present itself to our eyes4 ,there are confusions in the moral field which it is impossible to imagine in any other domain of life4 ,if some day the youth of the nations1 more clear-sighted than those of to-day1 hear that the ,christmas feast was kept on the battlefields of the ,european war1 they will understand the origins of the war itself4 ,in such a situation1 ,david 7to whom indeed it would have been inconceivable7 would have accepted the taunt of his enemies as well deserved1 when they asked him3 ,where is now thy ,god8 ,we have lost ,god would have been a fitting lamentation4 ,but to celebrate ,his festival indifferently under such conditions is to be unconscious of having lost ,him4 ,how long ago did the soul die1 and when did the building up on death begin8 ,what a terrible episode of madness is this monstrous slaughter1 upon which the tree of peace was planted in honor of the ,savior6 ,far indeed are we from the delicate sensibility to evil of ,santa ,teresa1 or the keenness of spiritual vision which enabled the man of ,god to see the white dove beneath the soiled feathers of the sinful woman4 ,the difference is not as that between the taste of a peasant and that of an artist1 but as that between a corpse and a living man4 ,it is evident that we have suffered death1 albeit we are unconscious of having died4 ,here1 then1 and not in hygiene1 must we find the secret of our life4 ,we have something more corruptible than our bodies1 a life more fragile than our physical life2 and the peril of darkness hangs over us4 ,this is the secret of man4 ,if man loses the light that leads him on towards a better world1 he falls into an abyss far below all created animals4 ,he who loves1 therefore1 will bestow all his care on these wellsprings of life2 how frail are the lungs of a new-born infant1 how easily can an unnatural mother deprive him of air and so suffocate him6 ,yet what is this easily accomplished act1 which nevertheless destroys a life1 in comparison with the infinitely easier and more deadly act by which we may procure the death of the soul8 ,the death of the soul1 like that of the body1 may be readily distinguished from a state of insensibility2 in vain do we apply a red-hot iron to a corpse2 there is no response4 ,he who is alive1 however1 is not only capable of reacting to a stimulus very much less intense than a red-hot iron2 he who lives and feels may perfect himself--and this is life4 ,it is enough that souls should feel4 ,how1 then1 could they live quietly amidst evil8 ,if under the windows of our house people were piling up refuse until we felt that the air was being vitiated1 could we bear this without protesting1 and insisting on the removal of that which was causing us to suffer8 ,if1 moreover1 we had a child1 we should clamor still more loudly1 and should even set to work to clear away the nuisance with our own hands1 in our solicitude for his health4 ,but if the bodies of mother and child lay dead1 they would no longer be conscious of the pestilential air4 ,it is characteristic of life to purge the environment and the soul of substances injurious to health4 ,christ was called the ,lamb that taketh away the sins of the world1 not the ,master who preaches1 but ,he who purifies4 ,and this is the morality that springs from sensibility3 the action of purifying the world1 of removing the obstacles that beset life1 of liberating the spirit from the darkness of death4 ,the merits of which every man feels he owes an account to his conscience are not such things as having enjoyed music or made a discovery2 he must be able to say what he has done to save and maintain life4 ,these purifying merits1 like progress1 have no limits4 ,leave all ties and follow ,me1 said ,christ to those who asked ,him what they should do4 ,for man can reinforce his own strength by other powers which will urge him on upwards towards the infinite2 before him who sleeps is the invisible ladder of ,jacob1 trodden by angels who call him heavenwards1 that is1 towards the supernatural life4 ,yes1 to be more than man4 ,this is a dream to him who lacks faith2 but it is the realizable goal1 the aim of life1 to him who has faith4 ,to ,friedrich ,nietzsche1 the superman was an idea without practical consequence1 strange and erroneous even when tested by the very theories of evolution which inspired him4 ,his conception offered no help in overcoming the ills of humanity2 rather was it as a chain binding man to earth1 there to seek means to create of himself the man superior to himself2 and thus leading him astray into egotism1 cruelty and folly4 ,but innumerable saints have felt and acted in accordance with their profession of faith3 ,i live2 yet not ,i1 but ,christ liveth in me4 ,if1 as our poet says1 man is the chrysalis destined to become the angelic butterfly1 there is no doubt as to the road he must take3 spiritually1 he must either ascend or die4 ,hence it is not the whole of life to obey the laws of hygiene1 physical and psychical2 but it is only life which can draw from its environment the means of its own purification and salvation2 that life1 however1 which is supernatural1 asks of love and divine light the strength necessary for its transformation4 ,of a truth1 it is not ecstasy which characterizes the saints2 it is the real and victorious struggle of the higher against the lower nature4 99 99 99 99 99 ,morality and religion4--,it is well known that in strong religious impressions1 such as the crises of what is called conversion1 the phenomenon is characterized by an inner light1 an order which suddenly establishes itself1 and by means of which that which was before unseen becomes manifest3 the distinction between good and evil1 and hence the revelation of oneself4 ,indeed1 the converted1 at the moment when the revelation takes place1 seem little concerned with divinity1 or dogmas1 or rites2 they are persons given over to a violent commotion1 who seem forgetful of all their physical and intellectual life1 and who are absorbed in contemplation of themselves in relation to a central point of their consciousness1 which seems to be illuminated by some prodigious radiance4 ,the cry of the convert in the majority of cases is3 ,i am a sinner6 ,it seems as if darkness had fallen away from him1 together with all the evil which was corroding1 weakening1 and suffocating him1 and which at length he saw1 when it was separated from him1 terrible1 obscure1 and full of hideous dangers4 ,it is this which agitates him1 and makes him weep2 it is this which urges him to seek some one who can understand1 comfort1 and help him4 ,the converted want help1 as do the newly born2 they weep and struggle like men who are born to a new life1 and who are restrained by no human respect1 by no restriction4 ,it is their own life they feel2 and the value of their own life seems to them greater than the riches and convenience of the whole world4 ,they feel an ecstasy of relief at having escaped from a great peril2 their chief anxiety is that they may be liberated from the evil that oppresses them4 ,before they can take another step forward they are obliged to reconsider the terrible time when evil was rooted within them1 and they felt nothing of it4 ,and as a man with difficult short breath ,forespent with toiling1 'scaped from sea to shore1 ,turns to the perilous wide waste1 and stands ,at gaze2 e'en so my spirit that yet fail'd ,struggling with terror1 turn'd to view the straits ,that none hath past and lived4 7,carey's translation of ,dante's ,inferno1 ,canto ,i47 ,this evil had held captive all the treasures of the spirit1 which1 set free at last1 seem to refresh and reanimate the whole world before their eyes3 ,and what ,i saw seemed even as a smile4 ,irradiating all the universe4444 7,dante's ,paradiso1 ,canto ,,xxvii47 ,one of the most singular cases of conversion ,i ever heard described was the following3 ,a monk1 famous for his oratorical gifts1 was preaching in a crowded church to a congregation which was listening to him with devout admiration4 ,suddenly he was interrupted by a loud sob1 and a man in the crowd cried aloud1 stretching out his hands towards the pulpit3 ,i am a great sinner6 ,the monk1 as is usual in such cases1 came to the help of the convert1 and received all the outpourings of that soul1 as it stripped itself of the evil which had been corroding it4 ,then1 curious to know what argument had touched the heart of this man1 he asked him what part of the sermon had specially borne upon the prodigy4 ,ah6 answered the convert1 ,i never heard a single word of what you were saying2 ,i entered the church without knowing why2 at that moment you pointed your finger at me emphatically4 ,yes1 it is true1 ,i cried1 ,i am a sinner1 and ,i felt as if a heavy cloak of lead which had been oppressing me had fallen from my shoulders2 then an uncontrollable flood of tears rose from my heart4 ,thus no intellectual element played any part in this conversion2 it was not a conviction1 nor even new knowledge1 which had acted2 what had happened was purely a spontaneous phenomenon of the conscience1 which1 perhaps after an unconscious preparation1 divided the light from the darkness and initiated the creation of the new man4 ,the convert feels more clearly than any other that evil is an obstacle to a form of enjoyment higher than the loftiest enjoyments man can taste4 ,he has not only been purified1 but his purification has transformed him4 ,he is like a diamond embedded in dross and mire which is suddenly separated from the overlying substances1 and brought to the surface1 clear and brilliant2 it is not only a purified and magnificent stone2 what really transforms it is the sun1 which can now be reflected in it and make it sparkle4 ,this is the unsuspected splendor which is added to it naturally1 and has nothing to do either with the dross that has been removed1 or with the intrinsic qualities of the gem4 ,the dross not only defiled it1 but prevented it from encountering the rays which should give it its characteristic beauty4 ,all devout persons know that evil is a chain for us1 holding us down beneath the earth as in a tomb1 and that sentiments hostile to love are so many obstacles which impede our expansion and our free contact with the divine essence which is within us4 ,the slightest alloy1 the most minute infiltration1 suffices to impair our brilliance and to cause our ejection from the casket of the elect3 a single glance which judges our brother instead of absolving him1 a feeling which hardens our heart against him1 or1 finally1 the envy which generates devouring hatred and fury4 ,the works of the flesh are manifest1 which are these3 444 hatred1 variance1 emulations1 wrath1 strife1 seditions1 heresies1 envyings1 witchcraft1 murders4 ,to approach the altar with a heart suffering1 be it ever so slightly1 from some seductive stimulus against charity is vain2 it is as if a wounded hare should rush to her form1 bearing the arrow that has pierced her through and through2 she goes1 not to save herself1 but to die in her form4 ,likewise thou1 if thou bring thy gift to the altar1 and there rememberest that thy brother hath aught against thee 444 go thy way2 first be reconciled to thy brother1 and then come and offer thy gift4 ,he who forgives an offense does not perform a logical act of justice1 nor does he benefit the person he forgives2 hence it is waste of time to consider whether the offense deserves pardon or not1 and whether the person who committed it needs absolution from us or not4 ,we must pardon1 not from a sense of justice nor for the benefit of the offender1 but for our own sakes2 he who forgives has divested himself of envy and resentment1 of all that oppressed and fettered the spirit1 making it powerless to rise4 ,this is why we must forgive3 that so we may burst the bonds which impede our free movement1 our ascent4 ,when we cut the cable of a balloon1 we do not consider whether this is just towards the earth1 and whether the cable deserves it2 we do it because it is necessary1 to enable the balloon to rise4 ,he who ascends1 moreover1 enjoys the marvels of a spectacle which cannot be enjoyed on earth4 ,who would strike a balance between this gain and the sacrifice of the cable8 ,forgive1 and you will feel universal absolution rising to you from the whole world1 in token of your ascent ,haec est vera fraternitas1 quae vicit mundi crimina4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the religious sentiment in children4--,but few researches have been made into the crises of conscience and the spontaneous religious sentiment of children4 ,it is true that of late years1 during the remarkable religious movement which took place in ,england1 most surprising instances of religiosity in children occurred2 it was after the little ,nelly1 aged five1 asked for the ,eucharist on her death-bed that ,pius ,x allowed it to be administered to children1 irrespective of their age4 ,but the subject forms a very inconsiderable part of the positive studies of to-day4 ,the solitary study of this kind which has been brought forward in public congresses on psychology was that which was considered during the ,premier ,congrs ,international de ,pdologie1 ,bruxelles1 aot1 #aiaa3 ,quelques observations sur le dveloppement de l'motion morale et religieuse chez un enfant1 ,ghidionescu1 ,doct4 en ,philosophie 7,bucharest74 ,the child who was the subject of observation had received no religious education whatever4 ,one day he was seen to burst into a sudden fit of weeping1 for no apparent reason4 ,when his mother asked why he was crying1 the child replied3 ,because ,i remember how ,i saw a puppy ill-treated two months ago1 and at this moment ,i feel it4 ,a year and a half later a similar crisis took place4 ,he was looking at the moon one evening from the window1 when he suddenly burst into tears4 ,do not scold me1 said the child in great agitation2 while ,i was looking at the moon ,i felt how often ,i had grieved you1 and ,i understood that ,i had offended ,god4 ,this interesting study reveals successive phases of a spontaneous phenomenon of moral consciousness3 the first was the revelation of the lively feeling which provoked a fit of weeping two months after the event which distressed the child3 he felt the sufferings of the cruelly treated puppy4 ,and a long time after this activity of the conscience had been initiated comes the establishment of order3 the child distinguishes between good and evil actions1 and recognizes the fact that he has incurred the displeasure of his parents2 this displeasure was probably not very serious1 indeed it was so slight that the child had been unconscious of it at the time2 but at the moment when he is purging himself of these trivial impurities he feels ,god3 ,i understood that ,i had offended ,god1 he said1 and he knew well that he had not offended his parents4 ,now1 no one had ever talked to him about ,god1 or trained him to examine his conscience4 ,during my experience ,i have had no opportunity of witnessing a similar cycle of spiritual development4 ,my experiences in religious education have necessarily been limited hitherto2 indeed1 in the ,children's ,house kept by the ,franciscan ,sisters of the ,via ,giusti the religious education was given by the ordinary methods1 and it was not possible to make original studies or observations4 ,on the other hand1 the dominant political party in the municipalities has abolished religion from the public schools with a sectarian rigor which causes the word ,god to be feared as bigots fear the word devil4 ,my experience has1 therefore1 been limited to some of the children ,i have received privately in my own house1 children belonging to non-religious families1 who had consequently undergone no religious influence4 #i ,one of my little pupils was just over seven years old1 when a friend of his family1 noticing his intelligence1 and knowing that he had been educated in freedom1 thought he would test him by describing to him briefly animal evolution according to the principles of ,lamarck and ,darwin4 ,the child followed his explanation very attentively and then asked3 ,well1 then1 man comes from the monkey1 and the monkey from some other animal1 and so on2 but from whom did the first creature come8 ,the first1 answered his friend1 was formed by chance4 ,the child laughed aloud1 and1 calling his mother1 said excitedly3 ,just listen2 what nonsense6 ,life was formed by chance6 ,that is impossible4 ,then how was life formed8 ,it is ,god1 replied the child1 with conviction4 ,footnote #i3 ,at present some very interesting experiments in religious education are being carried out in the ,escola ,montessori at ,barcelona1 under the direction of the ,provincial ,deputies of that city4 ,this same child was prepared1 with his mother's consent1 for ,holy ,communion1 together with his sister2 a highly educated young priest of much sthetic knowledge undertook the task4 ,i was curious to hear what objections the child had raised2 but ,i was not admitted to his lessons4 ,i was only present on one occasion1 when the course of instruction was almost at an end4 ,the priest spoke of the reservation of the wine and of the practical situations in which the celebrant may find himself during the holy office4 ,i thought such a dissertation entirely unsuitable for children1 and one which was likely to distract their attention from the end in view2 but ,i saw with amazement that their faces were turned intently to the altar2 they were evidently unfamiliar with such minute explanations1 but they were penetrated by a sentiment which attracted them2 the chalice with the divine blood appealed to these souls ready to receive it1 as it did to the innocent ,parsifal4 ,when they made their first ,communion1 ,i was convinced that their souls received the mysteries with the sweetest faith and with absolute simplicity1 as if all that is of ,god were comprehensible to them1 and only that which denies ,him an absurdity4 ,their spiritual conquest accompanied them in life4 ,a little cousin of these children1 who was prepared to receive the ,communion a long time after them1 and who had had no religious training in her own home1 said one day1 when she was working enthusiastically in class3 ,how beautiful the anatomy of a flower is6 ,i like arithmetic and geometry so much6 ,but religion is the most beautiful thing of all4 ,there was an older child in the school1 whose parents1 both father and mother1 were positively hostile to religion4 ,this child1 although she showed great interest in the school exercises1 was always restless4 ,later1 when some wonderful children's parties were given in the villa where she lived1 which were arranged with great skill and were veritable works of art1 she became still more restless and cynical1 almost as if she were suffering from some disillusionment4 ,one day she called an orphan child from ,messina1 who was one of our children who had come from the school in the ,via ,giusti1 and took her away into a quiet corner1 asking her to repeat the ,lord's ,prayer4 ,the orphan recited it1 while the rich child gazed at her eagerly4 ,then1 as if in obedience to an inspiration1 she went to the piano to play2 but her hands trembled2 she threw herself on one side1 with her elbow on the keyboard and her head hanging1 unable to conceal her agitation any longer4 ,her soul was seeking to satisfy its yearning2 nothing could give her peace but the one thing those who loved her wished to withhold from her4 ,her heart was still alive and eager3 ,like as the heart desireth the water brooks1 so longeth my soul after thee1 ,o ,god4 ,as yet the coarse scoria evolved from darkness1 which makes it so difficult for the adult to embrace the mysteries of the spirit like a little child1 had not formed around her4 ,later1 such mysteries become incomprehensible2 as to ,nicodemus1 who replied to ,christ3 ,how can a man be born again8 ,can he enter a second time into his mother's womb8 ,but this rapid survey will suffice to make us understand that the little child has other needs1 in addition to his intellectual wants1 and that long before his intelligence is developed and satisfied1 his pure and open spirit reflects the divine light4 ,he is perhaps the ,parsifal for whom we are waiting1 depressed and sick at heart1 while because of the impurity of our hands the dove can no longer descend in the ,holy ,grail towards the chalice filled with the blood of ,peace4 #aj ,footnote #aj3 ,the moral question is barely indicated and is not even comprehensively indicated4 ,such a work1 indeed1 represents an experimental contribution to the education of the intelligence4 ,at present an experimental study of the moral and religious education of children has only just been initiated at ,barcelona 7,spain74 ,a book on this subject should form a sequel to this volume4 ,i cannot foresee whether ,i and my colleagues will be able to bring such a heavy task to a successful conclusion4